,,how ,,to ,,teach    ,,by ,,george     
,,drayton ,,strayer ,,and ,,naomi       
,,norsworthy        ,february1 #aiag4   
,,preface      ,the art of teaching is  
based primarily upon the science of     
psychology4  ,in this book the authors  
have sought to make clear the principles
 of  psychology which are involved in   
teaching1 and to show definitely their  
application in the work of the          
classroom4 ,the book has been written in
  language as free from technical terms 
as is possible4    ,in a discussion of  
the methods of teaching it is necessary 
to consider  the ends or aims involved1 
as well as the process4 ,the authors    
have1 on  this account1 included a      
chapter on the work of the teacher1 in  
which is  discussed the aims of         
education4 ,the success or failure of   
the work of a  teacher is determined by 
the changes which are brought to pass in
 the  children who are being taught4    
,this book1 therefore1 includes a       
chapter  on the measurement of the      

achievements of children4 ,throughout   
the book  the discussion of the art of  
teaching is always modified by an       
acceptance upon the part of the writers 
of the social purpose of  education4    
,the treatment of each topic will be    
found to be based upon  investigations  
and researches in the fields of         
psychology and education  which involve 
the measurement of the achievements of  
children and of  adults under varying   
conditions4 ,wherever possible1 the     
relation between  the principle of      
teaching laid down and the scientific   
inquiry upon  which it is based is      
indicated4    ,any careful study of the 
mental life and development of children 
reveals  at the same time the unity and 
the diversity of the process involved4  
,for the sake of definiteness and       
clearness1 the authors have             
differentiated between types of mental  
activity and the corresponding  types of
 classroom exercises4 ,they have1 at the
 same time1 sought to  make clear the   

interdependence of the various aspects  
of teaching method  and the unity       
involved in mental development4         
,,george ,,drayton ,,strayer4           
,,naomi ,,norsworthy4      ,,november   
#ae1 #aiaf4           99       99       
99       99       99          ,,table   
,,of ,,contents        ,i4 ,,the ,,work 
,,of ,,the ,,teacher        ,,ii4       
,,original ,,nature1 ,,the ,,capital    
,,with ,,which ,,teachers ,,work        
,,iii4 ,,attention ,,and ,,interest ,,in
 ,,teaching        ,,iv4 ,,the          
,,formation ,,of ,,habits        ,v4    
,,how ,,to ,,memorize        ,,vi4 ,,the
 ,,teacher',s ,,use ,,of ,,the          
,,imagination        ,,vii4 ,,how       
,,thinking ,,may ,,be ,,stimulated      
,,viii4 ,,appreciation1 ,,an ,,important
 ,,element ,,in ,,education        ,,ix4
 ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,play ,,in       
,,education        ,x4 ,,the            
,,significance ,,of ,,individual        
,,differences ,,for ,,the ,,teacher     
,,xi4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,moral  

,,social ,,conduct        ,,xii4        
,,transfer ,,of ,,training              
,,xiii4 ,,types ,,of ,,classroom        
,,exercises        ,,xiv4 ,,how ,,to    
,,study        ,,xv4 ,,measuring ,,the  
,,achievements ,,of ,,children          
99       99       99       99       99  
,i4 ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,teacher   
,education is a group enterprise4 ,we   
establish schools in which we seek  to  
develop whatever capacities or abilities
 the individual may possess  in order   
that he may become intelligently active 
for the common good4  ,schools do not   
exist primarily for the individual1 but1
 rather1 for the  group of which he is a
 member4 ,individual growth and         
development are  significant in terms of
 their meaning for the welfare of the   
whole  group4 ,we believe that the      
greatest opportunity for the individual1
 as  well as his greatest satisfaction1 
are secured only when he works with     
others for the common welfare4 ,in the  
discussions which follow we are         

concerned not simply with the           
individual's development1 but also with 
the necessity for inhibitions4 ,there   
are traits or activities which  develop 
normally1 but which are from the social 
point of view  undesirable4 ,it is quite
 as much the work of the teacher to know
 how to  provide for the inhibition of  
the type of activity which is socially  
undesirable1 or how to substitute for   
such reactions other forms of           
expression which are worthy1 as it is to
 stimulate those types of  activity     
which promise a contribution to the     
common good4 ,it is assumed  that the   
aim of education can be expressed most  
satisfactorily in terms  of social      
efficiency4    ,an acceptance of the aim
 of education stated in terms of social 
efficiency leads us to discard other    
statements of aim which have been  more 
or less current4 ,chief among these     
aims1 or statements of aim1 are  the    
following3 7#a7 culture2 7#b7 the       
harmonious development of the           

capacities or abilities of the          
individual2 7#c7 preparing an individual
  to make a living2 7#d7 knowledge4 ,we 
will examine these aims briefly  before 
discussing at length the implications of
 the social aim4    ,those who declare  
that it is the aim of education to      
develop men and  women of culture vary  
in the content which they give to the   
term  culture4 ,it is conceivable that  
the person of culture is one who1 by    
virtue of his education1 has come to    
understand and appreciate the many      
aspects of the social environment in    
which he lives2 that he is a man of     
intelligence1 essentially reasonable2   
and that he is willing and able to      
devote himself to the common good4 ,it  
is to be feared1 however1 that the  term
 culture1 as commonly used1 is          
interpreted much more narrowly4 ,for    
many people culture is synonymous with  
knowledge or information1 and is  not   
interpreted to involve preparation for  
active participation in the  work of the

 world4 ,still others think of the      
person of culture as one  who has a type
 or kind of training which separates him
 from the ordinary  man4 ,a more or less
 popular notion of the man of culture   
pictures him as  one living apart from  
those who think through present-day     
problems and  who devote themselves to  
their solution4 ,it seems best1 on      
account of  this variation in           
interpretation1 as well as on account of
 the  unfortunate meaning sometimes     
attached to the term1 to discard this   
statement of the aim of education4      
,the difficulty with a statement of aim 
in terms of the harmonious  development 
of the abilities or capacities possessed
 by the individual  is found in the lack
 of any criterion by which we may       
determine the  desirability of any      
particular kind of development or       
action4 ,we may  well ask for what      
purpose are the capacities or abilities 
of the  individual to be developed4 ,it 
is possible to develop an ability or    

capacity for lying1 for stealing1 or for
 fighting without a just cause4  ,what  
society has a right to expect and to    
demand of our schools is that  they     
develop or nourish certain tendencies to
 behave1 and that they  strive earnestly
 to eliminate or to have inhibited other
 tendencies just  as marked4 ,another   
difficulty with the statement of aim in 
terms of the  harmonious development of 
the capacities is found in the          
difficulty of  interpreting what is     
meant by harmonious development4 ,do we 
mean equal  development of each and     
every capacity1 or do we seek to develop
 each  capacity to the maximum of the   
individual's possibility of training8   
,are  we to try to secure equal         
development in all directions8 ,of one  
thing we  can be certain4 ,we cannot    
secure equality in achievement among    
individuals who vary in capacity4 ,one  
boy may make a good mechanic1  another a
 successful business man1 and still     
another a musician4 ,it is  only as we  

read into the statement of harmonious   
development meanings  which do not      
appear upon the surface1 that we can    
accept this statement  as a satisfactory
 wording of the aim of education4       
,the narrow utilitarian statement of aim
 that asserts that the purpose of       
education is to enable people to make a 
living neglects to take account  of the 
necessity for social coperation4 ,the   
difficulty with this  statement of aim  
is that it is too narrow4 ,we do hope by
 means of  education to help people to  
make a living1 but we ought also to be  
concerned with the kind of a life they  
lead4 ,they ought not to make a  living 
by injuring or exploiting others4 ,they 
ought to be able to enjoy  the nobler   
pleasures as well as to make enough     
money to buy food1  clothing1 shelter1  
and the like4 ,the bread-and-butter aim 
breaks down as  does the all-around     
development aim because it fails to     
consider the  individual in relation to 
the social group of which he is a       

member4    ,to declare that knowledge is
 the aim of education is to ignore the  
issue  of the relative worth of that    
which we call knowledge4 ,no one may    
know  all4 ,what1 then1 from among all  
of the facts or principles which are    
available are we to select and what are 
we to reject8 ,the knowledge aim  gives 
us no satisfactory answer4 ,we are again
 thrown back upon the  question of      
purpose4 ,knowledge we must have1 but   
for the individual who  is to live in   
our modern1 industrial1 democratic      
society some knowledges  are more       
important than others4 ,society cannot  
afford to permit the  school to do      
anything less than provide that         
equipment in knowledge1 in  skill1 in   
ideal1 or in appreciation which promises
 to develop an  individual who will     
contribute to social progress1 one who  
will find his  own greatest satisfaction
 in working for the common good4    ,in 
seeking to relate the aim of education  
to the school activities of  boys and   

girls1 it is necessary to inquire       
concerning the ideals or  purposes which
 actuate them in their regular school   
work4 ,ideals of  service may be        
gradually developed1 and may eventually 
come to control  in some measure the    
activities of boys and girls1 but these 
ideals do  not normally develop in a    
school situation in which competition is
 the  dominating factor4 ,we may discuss
 at great length the desirability of    
working for others1 and we may teach    
many precepts which look in the         
direction of service1 and still fail to 
achieve the purpose for which  our      
schools exist4 ,an overemphasis upon    
marks and distinctions1 and a  lack of  
attention to the opportunities which the
 school offers for  helpfulness and     
coperation1 have often resulted in the  
development of  an individualistic      
attitude almost entirely opposed to the 
purpose or  aim of education as we      
commonly accept it4    ,there is need   
for much reorganization in our schools  

in the light of our  professed aim4     
,there are only two places in our whole 
school system  where children are       
commonly so seated that it is easy for  
them to work  in coperation with each   
other4 ,in the kindergarten1 in the     
circle1 or  at the tables1 children     
normally discuss the problems in which  
they are  interested1 and help each     
other in their work4 ,in the seminar    
room for  graduate students in a        
university1 it is not uncommon to find  
men  working together for the solution  
of problems in which they have a  common
 interest4 ,in most classrooms in       
elementary and in high schools1  and    
even in colleges1 boys and girls are    
seated in rows1 the one back of  the    
other1 with little or no opportunity for
 communication or  coperation4 ,indeed1 
helping one's neighbor has often been   
declared  against the rule by teachers4 
,it is true that pupils must in many    
cases  work as individuals for the sake 
of the attainment of skill1 the         

acquirement of knowledge1 or of methods 
of work1 but a school which  professes  
to develop ideals of service must       
provide on every possible  occasion     
situations in which children work in    
coperation with each  other1 and in     
which they measure their success in     
terms of the  contribution which they   
make toward the achievement of a common 
end4    ,the socially efficient         
individual must not only be actuated by 
ideals of  service1 but must in the     
responses which he makes to social      
demands be  governed by his own careful 
thinking1 or by his ability to          
distinguish  from among those who would 
influence him one whose solution of the 
problem presented is based upon careful 
investigation or inquiry4  ,especially  
is it true in a democratic society that 
the measure of the  success of our      
education is found in the degree to     
which we develop the  scientific        
attitude4 ,even those who are actuated  
by noble motives may1  if they trust to 

their emotions1 to their prejudices1 or 
to those  superstitions which are       
commonly accepted1 engage in activities 
which  are positively harmful to the    
social group of which they are members4 
,our schools should strive to encourage 
the spirit of inquiry and               
investigation4    ,a large part of the  
work in most elementary schools and high
 schools  consists in having boys and   
girls repeat what they have heard or    
read4  ,it is true that such            
accumulation of facts may1 in some      
cases1 either at  the time at which they
 are learned1 or later1 be used as the  
basis for  thinking2 but a teacher may  
feel satisfied that she has contributed 
largely toward the development of the   
scientific spirit upon the part of      
children only when this inquiring       
attitude is commonly found in her       
classroom4 ,the association of ideas    
which will result from an honest        
attempt upon the part of boys and girls 
to find the solution of a real  problem 

will furnish the very best possible     
basis for the recall of the  facts or   
information which may be involved4 ,the 
attempt to remember  pages of history or
 of geography1 or the facts of chemistry
 or of  physics1 however well they may  
be organized in the text-book1 is       
usually  successful only until the      
examination period is passed4 ,children 
who  have engaged in this type of       
activity quite commonly show an         
appalling  lack of knowledge of the     
subjects which they have studied a very 
short  time after they have satisfied   
the examination requirement4 ,the same  
amount of energy devoted to the solution
 of problems in which children  may be  
normally interested may be expected not 
only to develop some  appreciation of   
scientific method in the fields in which
 they have  worked1 but also to result  
in a control of knowledge or a memory of
  facts that will last over a longer    
period of time4    ,recitations should  
be places where children meet for the   

discussion of  problems which are vital 
to them4 ,the question by the pupil     
should be as  common as the question by 
the teacher4 ,laboratory periods should 
not  consist of following directions1   
but rather in undertaking1 in so far as 
it is possible1 real experiments4 ,we   
may not hope that an investigating  or  
inquiring turn of mind encouraged in    
school will always be found  operating  
in the solution of problems which occur 
outside of school1 but  the school which
 insists merely upon memory and upon    
following  instructions may scarcely    
claim to have made any considerable     
contribution to the equipment of        
citizens of a democracy who should      
solve their common problems in terms of 
the evidence presented4 ,the  unthinking
 acceptance of the words of the book or 
the statement of the  teacher prepares  
the way for the blind following of the  
boss1 for faith  in the demagogue1 or   
even for acceptance of the statements of
 the quack4    ,the ideal school        

situation is one in which the spirit of 
inquiry and  investigation is constantly
 encouraged and in which children are   
developing ideals of service by virtue  
of their activity4 ,a high  school class
 in ,english literature in which        
children are at work in  small groups1  
asking each other questions and helping 
each other in the  solution of their    
problems1 seems to the writer to afford 
unusual  opportunity for the realization
 of the social aim of education4 ,a     
first  grade class in beginning reading1
 in which the stronger children seek to 
help those who are less able1 involves  
something more significant in  education
 than merely the command of the tool we 
call reading4 ,a teacher  of a class in 
physics who suggested to his pupils that
 they find out  which was the more      
economical way to heat their            
homes1--with hot air1  with steam1 or   
with hot water1--evidently hoped to have
 them use  whatever power of            
investigation they possessed1 as well as

 to have them  come to understand and to
 remember the principles of physics     
which were  involved4 ,in many schools  
the coperation of children in the       
preparation  of school plays1 or school 
festivals1 in the writing and printing  
of  school papers1 in the participation 
in the school assembly1 in the  making  
of shelves1 tables1 or other school     
equipment1 in the working for  community
 betterment with respect to clean       
streets and the like1 may be  considered
 even more significant from the         
standpoint of the realization  of the   
social aim of education than are the    
recitations in which they  are commonly 
engaged4    ,we have emphasized thus far
 the meaning of the social aim of       
education  in terms of methods of work  
upon the part of pupils4 ,it is         
important to  call attention to the fact
 that the materials or content of       
education  are also determined by the   
same consideration of purposes4 ,if we  
really  accept the idea of participation

 upon the part of children in modern    
social life as the purpose of education1
 we must include in our courses  of     
study only such subject matter as may be
 judged to contribute toward  the       
realization of this aim4 ,we must1 of   
course1 provide children with  the tools
 of investigation or of inquiry2 but    
their importance should  not be         
overemphasized1 and in their acquirement
 significant experiences  with respect  
to life activities should dominate1     
rather than the mere  acquisition of the
 tool4 ,beginning reading1 for example1 
is important  not merely from the       
standpoint of learning to read4 ,the    
teaching of  beginning reading should   
involve the enlarging and enriching of  
experience4 ,thought getting is of      
primary importance for little children  
who are to learn to read1 and the       
recognition of symbols is important     
only in so far as they contribute to    
this end4 ,the best reading books no    
longer print meaningless sentences for  

children to decipher4 ,mother  ,goose   
rhymes1 popular stories and fables1     
language reading lessons1 in  which     
children relate their own experience for
 the teacher to print or  write on the  
board1 satisfy the demand for content   
and aid1 by virtue of  the interest     
which is advanced1 in the mastering of  
the symbols4    ,it is1 of course1      
necessary for one who would understand  
modern social  conditions or problems1  
to know of the past out of which our    
modern life  has developed4 ,it is also 
necessary for one who would understand  
the  problems of one community1 or of   
one nation1 to know1 in so far as it is 
possible1 of the experiences of other   
peoples4 ,history and geography  furnish
 a background1 without which our current
 problems could not be  reasonably      
attacked4 ,literature and science1 the  
study of the fine arts1  and of our     
social institutions1 all become         
significant in proportion as  they make 
possible contributions1 by the          

individual who has been  educated1 to   
the common good4    ,any proper         
interpretation of the social purpose of 
education leads  inevitably to the      
conclusion that much that we have taught
 is of very  little significance4       
,processes in arithmetic which are not  
used in  modern life have little or no  
worth for the great majority of boys and
  girls4 ,partnership settlements       
involving time1 exact interest1 the     
extraction of cube and of square roots1 
partial payments1 and many of  the      
problems in mensuration1 might well be  
omitted from all courses of  study in   
arithmetic4 ,many of the unimportant    
dates in history and much  of the       
locational geography should disappear in
 order that a better  appreciation of   
the larger social movements can be      
secured1 or in order  that the laws     
which control in nature may be taught4  
,in ,english1 any  attempt to realize   
the aim which we have in mind would lay 
greater  stress upon the accomplishment 

of children in speaking and writing our 
language1 and relatively less upon the  
rules of grammar4    ,it may well be    
asked how our conception of aim can be  
related to the  present tendency to     
offer a variety of courses of           
instruction1 or to  provide different   
types of schools4 ,the answer is found  
in an  understanding and appreciation of
 the fact that children vary            
tremendously in ability1 and that the   
largest contribution by each  individual
 to the welfare of the whole group can  
be made only when each  is trained in   
the field for which his capacity fits   
him4 ,the movement  for the development 
of vocational education means1 above all
 else1 an  attempt to train all members 
of the group to the highest possible    
degree  of efficiency1 instead of       
offering a common education which1      
though  liberal in its character1 is    
actually neglected or refused by a large
  part of our population4    ,our       
interest in the physical welfare of     

children is accounted for by the  fact  
that no individual may make the most    
significant contribution to  the common 
good who does not enjoy a maximum of    
physical efficiency4 ,the  current      
emphasis upon moral training can be     
understood when we accept  that         
conception of morality which measures   
the individual in terms of  his         
contribution to the welfare of others4  
,however important it may be  that      
individuals be restrained or that they  
inhibit those impulses which  might lead
 to anti-social activity1 of even       
greater importance must be  the part    
actually played by each member of the   
social group in the  development of the 
common welfare4    ,if we think of the  
problems of teaching in terms of habits 
to be fixed1  we must ask ourselves are 
these habits desirable or necessary for 
an  individual who is to work as a      
member of the social group4 ,if we      
consider the problem of teaching from   
the standpoint of development in        

intelligence1 we must constantly seek to
 present problems which are  worth      
while1 not simply from the standpoint of
 the curiosity which they  arouse1 but  
also on account of their relation to the
 life activities  with which our modern 
world is concerned4 ,we must seek to    
develop the  power of appreciating that 
which is noble and beautiful primarily  
because the highest efficiency can be   
secured only by those who use  their    
time in occupations which are truly     
recreative and not enervating4    ,as we
 seek to understand the problem of      
teaching as determined by the  normal   
mental development of boys and girls1 we
 must have in mind  constantly the use  
to which their capacities and abilities 
are to be  put4 ,any adequate           
recognition of the social purpose of    
education  suggests the necessity for   
eliminating1 as far as possible1 that   
type of  action which is socially       
undesirable1 while we strive for the    
development of those capacities which   

mean at least the possibility of        
contribution to the common good4 ,we    
study the principles of teaching in     
order that we may better adapt ourselves
 to the children's possibilities  of    
learning1 but we must keep in mind      
constantly that kind of learning  and   
those methods of work which look to the 
development of socially  efficient boys 
and girls4 ,we must seek to provide     
situations which are  in themselves     
significant in our modern social life as
 the subject  matter with which children
 may struggle in accomplishing their    
individual development4 ,we need        
constantly to have in mind the ideal of 
school work which will value most highly
 opportunities for coperation  and for  
contribution to the common good upon the
 part of children1 which  are in the    
last analysis entirely like the         
situations in which older  people       
contribute to social progress4 ,more and
 more we must seek to  develop the type 
of pupil who knows the meaning of duty  

and who gladly  recognizes his          
obligations to a social group which is  
growing larger  with each new experience
 and each new opportunity4              
,,questions      #a4 ,why would you not 
be satisfied with a statement of the aim
 of  education which was expressed in   
terms of the harmonious development of  
an individual's abilities and           
capacities8    #b4 ,suggest any part of 
the courses of study now in force in    
your school  system the omission of     
which would be in accordance with the   
social aim  of education4    #c4 ,name  
any subjects or parts of subjects which 
might be added for the  sake of         
realizing the aim of education4    #d4  
,how may a teacher who insists upon     
having children ask permission  before  
they move in the room interfere with the
 realization of the  social aim of      
education8    #e4 ,can you name any     
physical habits which may be considered 
socially  undesirable8 ,desirable8      
#f4 ,what is the significance of pupil  

participation in school government8     
#g4 ,how does the teacher who stands    
behind his desk at the front of the     
room interfere with the development of  
the right social attitude upon  the part
 of pupils8    #h4 ,why is the desire to
 excel one's own previous record        
preferable to  striving for the highest 
mark8    #i4 ,in one elementary school1 
products of the school garden were sold 
and  from the funds thus secured        
apparatus for the playground was bought4
 ,in  another school1 children sold the 
vegetables and kept the money4 ,which1  
in your judgment1 was the most worth    
while from the standpoint of the  social
 development of boys and girls8    #aj4 
,a teacher of ,latin had children       
collect words of ,latin origin1         
references to ,latin characters1 and    
even advertisements in which ,latin     
words or literary references were to be 
found4 ,the children in the class  were 
enthusiastic in making these            
collections1 and considerable interest  

was added to the work in ,latin4 ,are   
you able to discover in the exercise    
any other value8    #aa4 ,describe some 
teaching in which you have recently     
engaged1 or which  you have observed1 in
 which the methods of work employed by  
teacher and  pupils seemed to you to    
contribute to a realization of the      
social  purpose of education4    #ab4   
,how can a reading lesson in the sixth  
grade1 or a history lesson in  the high 
school1 be conducted to make children   
feel that they are doing  something for 
the whole group8    #ac4 ,in what       
activities may children engage outside  
of school which may  count toward the   
betterment of the community in which    
they live8           99       99        
99       99       99          ,,ii4     
,,original ,,nature1 ,,the ,,capital    
,,with ,,which ,,teachers ,,work        
,after deciding upon the aims of        
education1 the goals towards which all  
teaching must strive1 the fundamental   
question to be answered is1 ,what  have 

we to work with8 ,what is the makeup    
with which children start in  life8     
,given a certain nature1 certain        
definite results are possible2  but if  
the nature is different1 the results    
must of necessity differ4  ,the         
possibility of education or of teaching 
along any line depends upon  the        
presence of an original nature which    
possesses corresponding  abilities4 ,the
 development of intellect1 of character1
 of interest1 or  of any other trait    
depends absolutely upon the presence in 
human beings  of capacity for growth or 
development4 ,what the child inherits1  
his  original nature1 is the capital    
with which education must work2 beyond  
the limits which are determined by      
inheritance education cannot go4    ,all
 original nature is in terms of a       
nervous system4 ,what a child  inherits 
is not ideas1 or feelings1 or habits1 as
 such1 but a nervous  system whose      
correlate is human intelligence and     
emotion4 ,just what  relationship exists

 between the action of the nervous      
system and  consciousness or intellect  
or emotion is still an open question and
 need  not be discussed here4 ,one thing
 seems fairly certain1 that the original
  of any individual is bound up in some 
way with the kind of nervous  system he 
has inherited4 ,what we have in common1 
as a human race1 of  imagination1 or    
reason1 or tact1 or skill is correlated 
in some fashion  to the inheritance of a
 human nervous system4 ,what we have as 
individual  abilities1 which distinguish
 us from our fellows1 depends primarily 
upon  our family inheritance4 ,certain  
traits such as interest in people1 and  
accuracy in perception of details1 seem 
to be dependent upon the sex            
inheritance4 ,all traits1 whether       
racial1 or family1 or sex1 are          
inherited in terms of a plastic nervous 
system4    ,the racial inheritance1 the 
capital which all normal children bring 
into  the world1 is usually discussed   
under several heads3 reflexes1          

physiological actions1 impulsive        
actions1 instincts1 capacities1 etc41   
the particular heads chosen varying with
 the author4 ,they all depend for  their
 existence upon the fact that certain   
bonds of connection are  performed in   
the nervous system4 ,just what this     
connection is which is  found between   
the nerve cells is still open to        
question4 ,it may be  chemical or it may
 be electrical4 ,we know it is not a    
growing together  of the neurones1#a but
 further than that nothing is definitely
 known4  ,that there are very definite  
pathways of discharge developed by the  
laws  of inner growth and independent of
 individual learning1 there can be no   
doubt4 ,this of course means that in the
 early days of a child's life1  and     
later in so far as he is governed by    
these inborn tendencies1 his  conduct is
 machine-like and blind--with no purpose
 and no consciousness  controlling or   
initiating the responses4 ,only after   
experience and  learning have had an    

opportunity to influence these responses
 can the  child be held responsible for 
his conduct1 for only then does his     
conduct become conscious instead of     
merely physiological4    ,there are many
 facts concerning the psychology of     
these inborn  tendencies that are       
interesting and important from a purely 
theoretical  point of view1 but only    
those which are of primary importance in
  teaching will be considered here4 ,a  
fact that is often overlooked by        
teachers is that these inborn tendencies
 to connections of various kinds  exist 
in the intellectual and emotional fields
 just as truly as in the  field of      
action or motor response4 ,the capacity 
to think in terms of  words and of      
generals2 to understand relationships2  
to remember2 to  imagine2 to be         
satisfied with thinking1--all these1 as 
well as such  special abilities as skill
 in music1 in managing people or        
affairs1 in  tact1 or in sympathy1 are  
due to just the same factors as produce 

fear  or curiosity4 ,these former types 
of tendencies differ from the latter in 
complexity of situation and response1 in
 definiteness of response1 in           
variability amongst individuals of the  
same family1 and in  modifiability2 but 
in the essential element they do not    
differ from the  more evident inborn    
tendencies4    ,just what these original
 tendencies are and just what the       
situations are  to which they come as   
responses are both unknown except in a  
very few  instances4 ,the psychology of 
original nature has enumerated the      
so-called instincts and discussed a few 
of their characteristics1 but  has left 
almost untouched the inborn capacities  
that are more peculiarly  human4 ,even  
the treatment of instincts has been     
misleading4 ,for  instance1 instincts   
have been discussed under such heads as 
the  self-preservative instincts1 the   
social instincts1 just as if the  child 
had an inborn1 mystical something that  
told him how to preserve  his life1 or  

become a social king4 ,original nature  
does not work in that  way2 it is only  
as the experience of the individual     
modifies the blind  instinctive         
responses through learning that these   
results can just as  easily come about  
unless the care of parents provides the 
right sort of  surroundings4 ,there is  
nothing in the child's natural makeup   
that warns  him against eating pins and 
buttons and poisonous berries1 or       
encourages  him to eat milk and eggs and
 cereal instead of cake and sweets4 ,he 
will  do one sort of thing just as      
easily as the other4 ,all nature        
provides  him with is a blind tendency  
to put all objects that attract his     
attention into his mouth4 ,this response
 may preserve his life or destroy  it1  
depending on the conditions in which he 
lives4 ,the same thing is  true of the  
social instinct--the child may become   
the most selfish  egotist imaginable or 
the most self-sacrificing of men1       
according as his  surroundings and      

training influence the original         
tendencies towards  behavior to other   
people in one way or the other4 ,of     
course it is very  evident that no one  
has ever consistently lived up to the   
idea indicated  by such a treatment of  
original nature1 but certain tendencies 
in  education are traceable to such     
psychology4 ,what the child has by      
nature  is neither good nor bad1 right  
nor wrong--it may become either         
according  to the habits which grow out 
of these tendencies4 ,a child's inborn  
nature cannot determine the goal of his 
education4 ,his nature has  remained    
practically the same from the days of   
primitive man1 while the  goals of      
education have changed4 ,what nature    
does provide is an immense  number of   
definite responses to definite          
situations4 ,these provide the  capital 
which education and training may use as 
it will4    ,it is just because         
education does need to use these        
tendencies as  capital that the lack of 

knowledge of just what the responses are
 is  such a serious one4 ,and yet the   
difficulties of determining just what   
original nature gives are so tremendous 
that the task seems a hopeless  one to  
many investigators4 ,the fact that in   
the human being these  tendencies are so
 easily modified means that from the    
first they are  being influenced and    
changed by the experiences of the child4
 ,because of  the quality of our        
inheritance the response to a situation 
is not a  one-to-one affair1 like a key 
in a lock1 but all sorts of minor causes
  in the individual are operative in    
determining his response2 and1 on the   
other side1 situations are so complex in
 themselves that they contain  that     
which may call out several different    
instincts4 ,for example1 a  child's     
response to an animal will be influenced
 by his own physical  condition1        
emotional attitude1 and recent mental   
status and by the  conditions of size   
and nearness of the animal1 whether it  

is shaggy or  not1 moving or still1     
whether he is alone or with others1 on  
the floor  or in his chair1 and the     
like4 ,it will depend on just how these 
factors  combine as to whether the      
response is one of fear1 of curiosity1  
of  manipulation1 or of friendliness4   
,when to these facts are added the fact 
that the age and previous habits of the 
child also influence his  response1 the 
immense complexity of the problem of    
discovering just what  the situations   
are to which there are original         
tendencies to respond and  just how     
these tendencies show themselves is     
evident4 ,and yet this is  what         
psychologists must finally do if the use
 by teachers of these  tendencies is to 
be both economical and wise4 ,just as an
 illustration of  the possibilities of  
analysis1 ,thorndike in his ,original   
,nature of ,man  lists eleven different 
situations which call out an instinctive
  expression of fear and thirty-one     
different responses which may occur in  

that expression4 ,under fighting he     
says1 ,there seem1 indeed1 to be at     
least six separable sets of connections 
in the so-called 'fighting  instinct1'  
in each of which the situation and the  
response differ from  any other one4    
,very few of the instincts are present  
at birth2 most of them develop  later in
 the child's life4 ,pillsbury says1 ,one
 may recognize the  food-taking         
instincts1 the vocal protests at        
discomfort1 but relatively  few others4 
,this delay in the appearance of        
instincts and capacities is  dependent  
upon the development of the nervous     
system4 ,no one of them can  appear     
until the connections between nerve     
centers are ready1 making the  path of  
discharge perfect4 ,just when these     
various nervous connections  mature1 and
 therefore just when the respective     
tendencies should appear1  is largely   
unknown4 ,in only a few of the most     
prominent and  comparatively simple     
responses is it even approximately      

known4 ,holding  the head up is         
accomplished about the fourth month1    
walking and talking  somewhere near the 
twelfth1 but the more complex the       
tendency and the  more they involve     
intellectual factors1 the greater is the
 uncertainty  as to the time of         
development4 ,we are told that fear is  
most prominent  at about three or four  
years of age1 spontaneous imitation     
becomes  very prominent the latter part 
of the first year1 the gang instinct is 
characteristic of the preadolescent     
period1 desire for adventure shows      
itself in early adolescence1 altruism   
appears in the early teens1 and  the sex
 instinct after about a dozen years of  
life4 ,the child of from  four to six is
 largely sensory1 from seven to nine he 
is motor1 from  then to twelve the      
retentive powers are prominent4 ,in the 
adolescent  period he is capable of     
thinking logically and reasoning1 while 
maturity  finds him a man of            
responsibilities and affairs4 ,although 

there is some  truth in the belief that 
certain tendencies are more prominent at
  certain periods in the development of 
the child than at others1 still it  must
 be borne in mind that just when these  
optimum periods occur is not  known4    
,three of the most important reasons for
 this lack of knowledge  are3 first1 the
 fact that all inborn tendencies mature 
gradually and do  not burst into being2 
second1 we do not know how transitory   
they are2  and1 third1 the fact of the  
great influence of environment in       
stimulating or repressing such          
capacities4    ,although the tendency to
 make collections is most prominent at  
nine1 the  beginnings of it may be found
 before the child is five4 ,moll finds  
that  the sex instinct begins its       
development at about six years of age1  
despite the fact that it is always      
quoted as the adolescent instinct4      
,children in the kindergarten can think 
out their little problems  purposively1 
even though reasoning is supposed to    

mark the high school  pupil4 ,the       
elements of most tendencies show        
themselves early in crude1  almost      
unrecognizable1 beginnings1 and from    
these they grow gradually to  maturity4 
,in the second place how quickly do     
these tendencies fade8 ,how transitory  
are they8 ,it has always been stated in 
general psychology that instincts  are  
transitory1 that therefore it was the   
business of teachers to strike  while   
the iron was hot1 to seize the wave of  
interest or response at its  crest      
before the ebb had begun4 ,there was    
supposed to be a happy moment  for      
fixing in children skill in drawing1 for
 making collections in  natural history1
 for developing the appreciative        
emotions1 for training  the social      
instinct1 or the memory or the          
imagination4 ,children are  supposed to 
be interested and attracted by novelty1 
rhythm1 and  movement1--to be creatures 
of play and imagination and to become   
different merely as a matter of the     

transitoriness of these tendencies  due 
to growth4 ,when the activities of the  
adult and the child are  analyzed to see
 what tendencies have really passed1 are
 transitory1 it  is difficult to find   
any that have disappeared4 ,true1 they  
have changed  their form1 have been     
influenced by the third factor mentioned
 above1  but change the surroundings a  
little and the tendency appears4 ,free  
the  adult from the restraints of his   
ordinary life and turn him out for a    
holiday and the childish tendencies of  
interest in novelty and the  mysterious1
 in physical prowess and adventure and  
play1 all make their  appearance4 ,in   
how many adults does the collecting     
instinct still  persist1 and the        
instinct of personal rivalry8 ,in how   
many has the crude  desire for material 
ownership or the impulse to punish an   
affront by  physical attack died out8   
,experimental evidence is even proving  
that the  general plasticity of the     
nervous system1 which has always been   

considered to be transitory1 is of very1
 very much longer duration than  has    
been supposed4    ,in illustration of   
the third fact1 namely1 the effect of   
environment to  stimulate or repress1   
witness the little mothers of five and  
the wage  earners of twelve who have    
assumed all the responsibilities with   
all  that they entail of maturity4 ,on  
the other side of the picture is the    
indulged petted child of fortune who    
never grows up because he has had       
everything done for him all his life1   
and therefore the tendencies which      
normally might be expected to pass and  
give place to others remain and  those  
others never appear4 ,that inborn       
tendencies do wax1 reach a  maximum1 and
 wane is probably true1 but the onset is
 much more gradual  and the waning much 
less frequent than has been taken for   
granted4 ,our  ignorance concerning all 
these matters outweighs our knowledge2  
only  careful experimentation which     
allows for all the other factors        

involved  can give a reliable answer4   
,one reason why the facts of delayedness
 and transitoriness in instincts  have  
been so generally accepted without being
 thoroughly tested has been  the belief 
in the recapitulation or repeating by   
the individual of  racial development4  
,so long as this was accepted as        
explaining the  development of inborn   
tendencies and their order of           
appearance1  transitoriness and         
delayedness must necessarily be         
postulated4 ,this  theory is being      
seriously questioned by psychologists of
 note1 and even  its strongest advocate1
 ,president ,hall1 finds many questions 
concerning  it which cannot be answered4
    ,the chief reasons for its          
acceptance were first1 on logical       
grounds as  an outgrowth of the doctrine
 of evolution1 and second1 because of an
  analogy with the growth of the        
physical body which was pushed to an    
extreme4 ,on the physiological side1    
although there is some likeness  between

 the human embryo and that of the lower 
animals1 still the stages  passed       
through by the two are not the same1    
being alike only in rough  outline1 and 
only in the case of a few of the bodily 
organs is the  series of changes        
similar4 ,in the case of the physical   
structure which  should be recapitulated
 most closely1 if behavior is to follow 
the same  law1--namely1 in that of the  
brain and nervous system1--there is     
least  evidence of recapitulation4 ,the 
brain of man does not follow in its     
development at all the same course taken
 in the development of brains in  the   
lower animals4 ,and1 moreover1 it is    
perfectly possible to explain  any      
similarity or parallelism which does    
exist between the development  of man's 
embryo and that of lower animals by     
postulating a general order  of         
development followed by nature as the   
easiest or most economical1  traces of  
which must then be found in all animal  
life4 ,when it comes to  the actual test

 of the theory1 that of finding actual  
cases of  recapitulation in behavior1 it
 fails4 ,no one has been able to point  
out  just when a child passes through   
any stage of racial development1 and    
any attempt to do so has resulted in    
confusion4 ,there is no clear-cut       
marking off into stages1 but1 instead1  
overlapping and coexistence of          
tendencies characterize the development 
of the child4 ,the infant of a  few days
 old may show the swimming movements1   
but at the same time he  can support his
 own weight by clinging to a horizontal 
stick4 ,which  stage is he              
recapitulating1 that of the fishes or   
the monkeys8 ,the  nine-year-old boy    
loves to swim1 climb trees1 and hunt    
like a savage all  at the same period1  
and1 what is more1 some of these same   
tendencies  characterize the college    
man4 ,the late maturing of the sex      
instinct1 so  old and strong in the     
race1 and the early appearing of the    
tendencies  towards vocalization and    

grasping1 both of late date in the race1
 are  facts that are hard to explain on 
the basis of the theory of              
recapitulation4    ,as has been already 
suggested1 one of the most important    
characteristics  of all these tendencies
 is their modifiability4 ,the very ease 
with which  they can be modified        
suggests that this is what has most     
often to be  done with them4 ,on        
examination of the lists of original    
tendencies there  are none which can be 
kept and fixed in the form in which they
 first  appear4 ,even the best of them  
are crude and impossible from the       
standpoint of civilized society4 ,take  
as an illustration mother-love2  what   
are the original tendencies and         
behavior8 ,all women possess            
originally1 from early childhood to     
death1 some interest in human  babies1  
and a responsiveness to the instinctive 
looks1 calls1 gestures1  and cries of   
infancy and childhood1 being satisfied  
by childish  gurglings1 smiles1 and     

affectionate gestures1 and moved to     
instinctive  comforting acts of childish
 signs of pain1 grief1 and misery4 ,but 
the  mother has to learn not to cuddle  
the baby and talk to it all the time  it
 is awake and not to run to it and take 
it up at every cry1 to steel  her heart 
against the wheedling of the coaxing    
gurgles and even to allow  the baby to  
hurt himself1 all for his own good4     
,this comes about only as  original     
nature is modified in line with         
knowledge and ideals4 ,the same  need is
 evidenced by such a valuable tendency  
as curiosity4 ,so far as  original      
nature goes1 the tendency to attend to  
novel objects1 to human  behavior1 to   
explore with the eyes and manipulate    
with the hands1 to  enjoy having        
sensations of all kinds merely for their
 own sakes1 make up  what is known as   
the instinct of curiosity4 ,but what a  
tremendous amount  of modification is   
necessary before these crude responses  
result in the  valuable scientific      

curiosity4 ,not blind following where   
instinct leads1  but modification1 must 
be the watchword4    ,on the other hand1
 there are equally few tendencies that  
could be  spared1 could be absolutely   
voted out without loss to the individual
 or  the race4 ,bullying as an original 
tendency seems to add nothing to the    
possibilities of development1 but every 
other inborn tendency has its  value4   
,jealousy1 anger1 fighting1 rivalry1    
possessiveness1 fear1 each  has its     
quota to contribute to valuable manhood 
and womanhood4 ,again1  not suppression 
but a wise control must be the attitude 
of the educator4  ,inhibition of certain
 phases or elements of some of the      
tendencies is  necessary for the most   
valuable development of the individual1 
but the  entire loss of any save one or 
two would be disastrous to some form of 
adult usefulness or enjoyment4 ,the     
method by which valuable elements or    
phases of an original tendency are fixed
 and strengthened is the general  method

 of habit formation and will be taken up
 under that head in  ,chapter ,,iv4     
,when the modification involves definite
 inhibition1 there  are three possible  
methods1--punishment1 disuse1 and       
substitution4 ,as an  example of the use
 of the three methods take the case of a
 child who  develops a fear of the dark4
 ,in using the first method the child   
would  be punished every time he        
exhibited fear of the dark4 ,by using   
the  second method he would never be    
allowed to go into a dark room1 a light 
being left burning in his bedroom1 etc41
 until the tendency to fear the  dark   
had passed4 ,in the third method the    
emotion of fear would be  replaced by   
that of joy or satisfaction by making   
the bedtime the  occasion for telling a 
favorite story or for being allowed to  
have the  best-loved toy1 or for being  
played with or cuddled4 ,the situation  
of  darkness might be met in still      
another way4 ,if the child were old     
enough1 the emotion of courage might    

replace that of fear by having him  make
 believe he was a soldier or a          
policeman4    ,the method of punishment 
is the usual one1 the one most teachers 
and  parents use first4 ,it relies for  
its effectiveness on the general law of 
the nervous system that pain tends to   
weaken the connections with whose       
activity it is associated4 ,the method  
is weak in that pain is not a  strong   
enough weapon to break the fundamental  
connections2 it is not  known how much  
of it is necessary to break even weaker 
ones2 it is  negative in its            
results--breaking one connection but    
replacing it by  nothing else4 ,the     
second method of inhibition is that of  
disuse4 ,it is  possible to inhibit by  
this means1 because lack of use of      
connections in  the nervous system      
results in atrophy4 ,as a method it is  
valuable  because it does not arouse    
resistance or anger4 ,it is weak in that
 as  neither the delayedness nor the    
transitoriness of instincts is known1   

when to begin to keep the situation from
 the child1 and how long to keep  it    
away in order to provide for the dying  
out of the connections1 are  not known4 
,the method is negative and very unsure 
of results4 ,the method  of substitution
 depends for its use upon the presence  
in the individual  of opposing          
tendencies and of different levels of   
development in the  same tendency4      
,because of this fact a certain response
 to a situation  may be inhibited by    
forming the habit of meeting the        
situation in  another way or of         
replacing a lower phase of a tendency by
 a higher one4  ,this method is         
difficult to handle because of the need 
of knowledge of  the original tendencies
 of children in general which it implies
 as well  as the knowledge of the       
capacities and development of the       
individual  child with whom the work is 
being done4 ,the amount of time and     
individual attention necessary adds     
another difficulty4 ,however1 it is  by 

far the best method of the three1 for it
 is sure1 is economical1  using the     
energy that is provided by nature1 is   
educative1 and is  positive4 ,to replace
 what is poor or harmful by something   
better is one  of the greatest problems 
of human life--and this is the outcome  
of the  method of substitution4 ,all    
three methods have their place in a     
system  of education1 and certain of    
them are more in place at certain times 
than at others1 but at all times if the 
method of substitution can be  used it  
should be4    ,the instinct of physical 
activity is one of the most noticeable  
ones in  babyhood4 ,the young baby seems
 to be in constant movement4 ,even when 
asleep1 the twitchings and squirmings   
may continue4 ,this continued  muscular 
activity is necessary because the motor 
nerves offer the only  possible path of 
discharge at first4 ,as higher centers  
in the brain are  developed1 the ingoing
 currents1 aroused by all sense stimuli1
 find  other connections1 and ideas1    

images1 trains of thoughts1 are aroused1
  and so the energy is consumed2 but at 
first all that these currents can  do is
 to arouse physical activity4 ,the      
strength of this instinct is but  little
 diminished by the time the child comes 
to school4 ,his natural  inclination is 
to do things requiring movement of all  
the growing  muscles4 ,inhibition1      
sitting still1 being quiet1 takes real  
effort  on his part1 and is extremely   
fatiguing4 ,this instinct is extremely  
valuable in several ways3 it gives the  
exercise necessary to a growing  body1  
provides the experience of muscle       
movements necessary for control1  and   
stimulates mental growth through the    
increase and variety of  experiences it 
gives4    ,the tendency to enjoy mental 
activity1 to be satisfied with it for   
its  own sake1 is peculiarly a human    
trait4 ,this capacity shows itself in   
two  important ways--in the interest in 
sensory stimuli1 usually discussed      
under the head of curiosity1 and in the 

delight in being a cause or  mental     
control4 ,the interest in tastes1       
sounds1 sights1 touches1 etc41  merely  
for their own sake1 is very evident in a
 baby4 ,he spends most of  his waking   
time in just that enjoyment4 ,though    
more complex1 it is still  strong when  
the child enters school1 and for years  
any object of sense  which attracts his 
attention is material which arouses this
 instinct4  ,the second form in which   
the instinct for mental ability shows   
itself is  later in development and     
involves the secondary brain            
connections4 ,it is  the satisfaction   
aroused by results of which the         
individual is the  cause4 ,for example1 
the enjoyment of a child in seeing a    
ball swing or  hearing a whistle blown  
would be a manifestation of curiosity1  
while the  added interest which is      
always present when the child not only  
sees the  ball swing but swings it1 not 
only hears the whistle but blows it     
himself1 is a result of the second      

tendency1 that of joy in being a  cause4
 ,as the child grows older the same     
tendency shows itself on a  higher level
 when the materials dealt with1 instead 
of being sensations  or percepts1 are   
images or ideas4 ,the interest in       
following out a train  of ideas to a    
logical conclusion1 of building castles 
in the air1 of  making plans and getting
 results1 all find their taproot in this
  instinctive tendency towards mental   
activity4    ,in close connection with  
the general tendency towards physical   
activity  is the instinct of            
manipulation4 ,from this crude root     
grows  constructiveness and             
destructiveness4 ,as it shows itself at 
first it has  the elements of neither4  
,the child inherits the tendency to     
respond by  many different arm1 hand1   
and finger movements to many different  
objects--poking1 pulling1 handling1     
tearing1 piling1 digging1 and  dropping 
objects4 ,just what habits of using     
tools1 and the like1 will  grow out of  

this tendency will depend on the        
education and training it  gets4 ,the   
habits of constructiveness may be       
developed in different sorts  of media4 
,the order of their availability is     
roughly as follows3 first1  in the use  
of materials such as wood1 clay1 raffia1
 etc42 second1 in the  use of pencil and
 brush with color1 etc42 third1 in the  
use of words4 ,we  should therefore     
expect and provide for considerable     
development along  manual lines before  
demanding much in the way of literary   
expression4  ,indeed1 it may be argued  
that richness of experience in doing is 
prerequisite to verbal expression4      
,acquisitiveness and collecting are two 
closely allied tendencies of  great     
strength4 ,every child has a tendency to
 approach1 grasp1 and carry  off any    
object not too large which attracts his 
attention1 and to be  satisfied by its  
mere possession4 ,blind hoarding and    
collecting of  objects sometimes        
valueless in themselves results4 ,this  

instinct is very  much influenced in its
 manifestation by others which are      
present at the  same time1 such as the  
food-getting instinct1 rivalry1 love of 
approval1  etc4 ,the time at which the  
tendency to collect seems strongest is  
at  about nine years1 judged by the     
number of collections per child4        
,rivalry as an instinct shows itself in 
increased vigor1 in instinctive         
activity when others are engaged in the 
same activity1 and in  satisfaction when
 superiority is attained4 ,there is     
probably no inborn  tendency whereby    
these responses of increased vigor and  
satisfaction are  aroused in connection 
with any kind of activity4 ,we do not   
try to  surpass others in the way we    
talk or in our moral habits or in our   
intellectual attainments1 as a result of
 nature1 but rather as a result  of     
painstaking education4 ,as an instinct1 
rivalry is aroused only in  connection  
with other instinctive responses4 ,in   
getting food1 in  securing attention or 

approval1 in hunting and collecting1 the
 activity  would be increased by seeing 
another doing the same thing1 and       
satisfaction would be aroused at success
 or annoyance at failure4 ,the  use of  
rivalry in other activities and at other
 levels comes as a result  of           
experience4    ,the fighting responses  
are called out by a variety of          
situations4 ,these  situations are      
definite and the responses to them      
differ from each  other4 ,in each case  
the child tries by physical force of    
some kind1 by  scratching1 kicking1     
biting1 slapping1 throwing1 and the     
like1 to change  the situation into a   
more agreeable one4 ,this is true       
whether he be  trying to escape from the
 restraining arms of his mother or to   
compel  another child to recognize his  
mastery4 ,original nature endows us with
  the pugnacious instinct on the        
physical level and in connection with   
situations which for various reasons    
annoy us4 ,if this is to be raised  in  

its manner of response from the physical
 to the intellectual level1  if the     
occasions calling it out are to be      
changed from those that merely  annoy   
one to those which involve the rights of
 others and matters of  principle1 it   
must be as a result of education4       
,nature provides only  this crude root4 
,imitation has long been discussed as   
one of the most important and           
influential of human instincts4 ,it has 
been regarded as a big general  tendency
 to attempt to do whatever one saw any  
one else doing4 ,as such a  tendency it 
does not exist4 ,it is only in certain  
narrow lines that the  tendency to      
imitate shows itself1 such as smiling   
when smiled at1  yelling when others    
yell1 looking and listening1 running1   
crouching1  attacking1 etc41 when others
 do4 ,to this extent and in similar     
situations the tendency to imitate seems
 to be truly an instinct4  ,imitating in
 other lines1 such as writing as another
 writes1 talking1  dressing1 acting like

 a friend1 trying to use the methods    
used by  others1 etc41 are a result of  
experience and education4 ,the          
spontaneous1 dramatic1 and voluntary    
imitation discussed by some  authors are
 the stages of development of habits of 
imitation4    ,the desire to be with    
others of the same species1 the         
satisfaction at  company and the        
discomfort aroused by solitude1 is one  
of the strongest  roots of all social   
tendencies and customs4 ,it manifests   
itself in young  babies1 and continues a
 strong force throughout life4 ,as an   
instinct it  has nothing to do with     
either being interested in taking one's 
share in  the duties or pleasures of the
 group or with being interested in      
people  for their own sakes4 ,it is     
merely that company makes one           
comfortable and  solitude annoys one4   
,anything further must come as a result 
of  experience4    ,motherliness and    
kindliness have as their characteristic 
behavior  tendencies to respond by      

instinctive comforting acts to signs of 
pain1  grief1 or misery shown by living 
things1 especially1 by children1 and by 
the feeling of satisfaction and the     
sight of happiness in others4 ,of       
course very often these instinctive     
responses are interfered with by the    
presence of some other instinct1 such as
 fighting1 hunting1 ownership1  or      
scorn1 but that such tendencies to      
respond in such situations are a  part  
of the original equipment of man seems  
beyond dispute4 ,they are  possessed by 
both sexes and manifest themselves in   
very early childhood4    ,there are     
original tendencies to respond both in  
getting and in giving  approval and     
scorn4 ,by original nature1 smiles1     
pats1 admiration1 and  companionship    
from one to whom submission is given    
arouses intense  satisfaction2 and the  
withdrawal of such responses1 and the   
expression  of scorn or disapproval1    
excites great discomfort4 ,even the     
expression  of approval or scorn from   

any one--a stranger or a servant--brings
 with  it the responses of satisfaction 
or discomfort4 ,just as strongly marked 
are original tendencies which cause     
responses of approval and cause as a    
result of relief from hunger1 rescue    
from fear1 gorgeous display1            
instinctive acts of strength1 daring and
 victory1 and responses of  scorn to the
 observation of empty-handedness1       
deformity1 physical  meanness1          
pusillanimity1 and defect4 ,the desire  
for approval is never  outgrown--it is  
one of the governing forces in society4 
,if it is to be  shown or desired on any
 but this crude level of instinctive    
response1 it  can only come by          
education4    ,children come to school  
with both an original nature determined 
by their  human inheritance and by their
 more immediate family relationship1 and
  with an education more significant1   
perhaps1 than any which the school  can 
provide4 ,from earliest infancy up to   
the time of entering a  kindergarten or 

a first grade1 the original equipment in
 terms of  instincts1 capacities1 and   
abilities has been utilized by the child
 and  directed by his parents and       
associates in learning to walk and to   
talk1  to conform to certain social     
standards or requirements1 to accept    
certain rules or precepts1 or to act in 
accordance with certain beliefs  or     
superstitions4 ,the problem which the   
teacher faces is that of  directing and 
guiding an individual1 who is at the    
same time both  educated and in         
possession of tendencies and capacities 
which make  possible further            
development4    ,not infrequently the   
education which children have when they 
come to  school may in some measure     
handicap the teacher4 ,it is            
unfortunate1 but  true1 that in some    
homes instinctive tendencies which      
should have been  overcome have been    
magnified4 ,the control of children is  
sometimes  secured through the          
utilization of the instinct of fear4    

,the fighting  instinct may often have  
been overdeveloped in a home in which   
disagreement and nagging1 even to the   
extent of physical violence1 have  taken
 the place of reason4 ,pride and        
jealousy may have taken deep root  on   
account of the encouragement and        
approval which have been given by       
thoughtless adults4    ,the teacher does
 not attack the problem of education    
with a clean slate1  but rather it is   
his to discover what results have       
already been achieved  in the education 
of the child1 whether they be good or   
bad1 for it is in  the light of original
 nature or original tendencies to       
behave1 and in  the light of the        
education already secured1 that the     
teacher must work4    ,when one realizes
 the great variety or differences in    
ability or  capacity1 as determined by  
heredity1 and when there is added to    
this  difference in original nature the 
fact of variety in training which       
children have experienced prior to their

 school life1 he cannot fail to         
emphasize the necessity for             
individualizing children4 ,while it is  
true  that we may assume that all       
children will take delight in           
achievement1  it may be necessary with  
one child to stir as much as possible   
the  spirit of rivalry1 to give as far  
as one can the delight which comes  from
 success1 while for another child in the
 same class one may need to  minimize   
success on account of a spirit of       
arrogance which has been  developed     
before school life began4 ,it is        
possible to conceive of a  situation in 
which some children need to be          
encouraged to fight1 even to  the extent
 of engaging in physical combat1 in     
order to develop a kind of  courage     
which will accept physical discomfort   
rather than give up a  principle or     
ideal4 ,in the same group there may be  
children for whom the  teacher must work
 primarily in terms of developing1 in so
 far as he can1  the willingness to     

reason or discuss the issue which may   
have aroused  the fighting instinct4    
,for all children in elementary and in  
high schools the possibility of         
utilizing their original nature for the 
sake of that development which  will    
result in action which is socially      
desirable is still present4 ,the        
problem which the teacher faces will be 
more or less difficult in  proportion as
 the child's endowment by original      
nature is large or  small1 and as       
previous education has been successful  
or unsuccessful4  ,the skillful teacher 
is the one who will constantly seek to  
utilize to  the full those instincts or 
capacities which seem most potent4 ,this
  utilization1 as has already been      
pointed out1 does not mean a blind      
following of the instinctive tendencies1
 but often the substitution of a  higher
 form of action for a lower1 which may  
seem to be related to the  instinct in  
question4 ,it is probably wise to       
encourage collections of  stamps1 of    

pictures1 of different kinds of wood1   
and the like1 upon the  part of children
 in the elementary school1 provided     
always that the  teacher has in mind the
 possibility of leading these children1 
through  their interest in objects1 to  
desire to collect ideas4 ,indeed1 a     
teacher  might measure her success in   
utilizing the collecting instinct in    
proportion as children become relatively
 less interested in things  collected1  
and more interested in the ideas        
suggested by them1 or in the  mastery of
 fields of knowledge or investigation in
 which objects have  very little        
significance4 ,the desire for physical  
activity upon the part  of children is  
originally satisfied by very crude      
performances4  ,development is measured 
not simply in an increase in manual     
dexterity1  but also in terms of the    
higher satisfaction which may come from 
producing articles which have artistic  
merit1 or engaging in games of  skill   
which make for the highest physical     

efficiency4    ,during the whole period 
of childhood and adolescence we may     
never assume  that the results of       
previous education1 whether they be     
favorable or  unsatisfactory1 are       
permanent4 ,whether we succeed or not in
 achieving  the ends which we desire1   
the fact of modifiability1 of docility1 
and of  plasticity remains4 ,the teacher
 who seeks to understand the individuals
  with whom he works1 both in terms of  
their original nature and in terms  of  
their previous education1 and who at the
 same time seeks to  substitute for a   
lower phase of an instinctive tendency a
 higher one1 or  who tries to have his  
pupils respond to a situation by        
inhibiting a  particular tendency by    
forming the habit of meeting the        
situation in  another way1 need not     
despair of results which are socially   
desirable4      ,,questions      #a4    
,may a teacher ever expect the children 
in his class to be equal in             
achievement8 ,why8    #b4 ,why is it not

 possible to educate children           
satisfactorily by  following where      
instincts lead8    #c4 ,which of the    
instincts seem most strong in the       
children in your  class8    #d4 ,can you
 give any example of an instinctive     
tendency which you think  should have   
been outgrown but which seems to persist
 among your pupils8    #e4 ,give        
examples of the inhibition of           
undesirable actions based upon          
instinctive tendencies by means of 7#a7 
punishment1 7#b7 disuse1 7#c7           
substitution4    #f4 ,how can you use   
the tendency to enjoy mental activity8  
#g4 ,why does building a boat make a    
stronger appeal to a boy than  engaging 
in manual training exercises which might
 involve the same  amount of activity8  
#h4 ,cite examples of collections made  
by boys and girls in which the  ideas   
associated with the objects collected   
may be more important than  the objects 
themselves4    #i4 ,in what degree are  
we justified in speaking of the social  

instinct8  ,the instinct to imitate8    
#aj4 ,how can you use the fighting      
instinct in your work with children8    
#aa4 ,what can teachers do to influence 
the education which children have       
received or are getting outside of      
school8    #ab4 ,what differences in    
action among the children in your class 
do you  attribute to differences in     
original nature8 ,what to differences in
  education8           99       99      
99       99       99          ,,iii4    
,,attention ,,and ,,interest ,,in       
,,teaching      ,attention is a function
 of consciousness4 ,wherever            
consciousness is1  attention must       
perforce be present4 ,one cannot exist  
without the other4  ,according to most  
psychologists1 the term attention is    
used to describe  the form consciousness
 takes1 to refer to the fact that       
consciousness is  selective4 ,it simply 
means that consciousness is always focal
 and  marginal--that some ideas1 facts1 
or feelings stand out in greater        

prominence than do others1 and that the 
presence of this perspective  in        
consciousness is a matter of mechanical 
adjustment4 ,james describes            
consciousness by likening it to a series
 of waves1 each having a crest  and     
sides which correspond to the focus and 
margin of attention4 ,the  form of the  
wave changes from a high sharp crest    
with almost straight  sides in pointed1 
concentrated attention1 to a series of  
mere  undulations1 when crests are      
difficult to distinguish1 in so-called  
states of dispersed attention4 ,the     
latter states are rare in normal        
individuals1 although they may be rather
 frequent in certain types of  low-grade
 mental defectives4 ,this of course     
means that states of  inattention do not
 exist in normal people4 ,so long as    
consciousness is  present one must be   
attending to something4 ,the day dream  
is often  accompanied by concentrated   
attention4 ,only when we are truly      
thinking  of nothing1 and that can only 

be as unconsciousness approaches1 is    
attention absent4 ,what is true of      
attention is also true of interest1  for
 interest is coming more and more to be 
considered the feeling side  of         
attention1 or the affective             
accompaniment of attention4 ,the kind of
  interest may vary1 but some kind is   
always present4 ,the place the  interest
 occupies may also vary3 sometimes the  
affective state itself is  so strong    
that it forces itself into the focal    
point and becomes the  object of        
attention4 ,the chief fact of           
importance1 however1 is that  attention 
and interest are inseparable and both   
are coexistent with  consciousness4     
,this selective action of consciousness 
is mechanical1 due to the inborn        
tendencies toward attention possessed by
 human beings4 ,the situations  which by
 their very nature occupy the focal     
point in consciousness are  color and   
brightness1 novelty1 sudden changes and 
sharp contrasts1  rhythm and cadence1   

movement1 and all other situations to   
which there  are other instinctive      
responses1 such as hunting1 collecting1 
curiosity1  manipulation1 etc4 ,in other
 words1 children are born with          
tendencies to  attend to an enormous    
number of situations because of the     
number of  instinctive responses they   
possess4 ,so great is this number that  
psychologists used to talk about the    
omnivorousness of children's  attention1
 believing that they attended to        
everything4 ,such a general  attention  
seems not to be true4 ,however1 it is   
because so many  situations have the    
power to force consciousness to a crest 
that human  beings have developed the   
intellectual power that puts them so far
 above  other animals4 ,that these      
situations do attract attention is shown
 by  the fact that individuals respond  
by movements which enable them to be    
more deeply impressed or impressed for a
 longer time by the situations  in      
question4 ,for example1 a baby will     

focus his eyes upon a bright  object and
 then move eyes and head to follow it if
 it moves from his  field of vision4    
,just what the situations are1 then1    
which will arouse  responses of         
attention in any given individual will  
depend in the first  place upon his age1
 sex1 and maturity1 and in the second   
place upon his  experience4 ,the process
 of learning very quickly modifies the  
inborn  tendencies to attention by      
adding new situations which demand it4  
,it is  the things we learn to attend to
 that make us human rather than merely  
animal4    ,the fact of attention or    
selection must of necessity involve also
  inhibition or neglect4 ,the very fact 
of the selection of certain objects  and
 qualities means the neglect of others4 
,this fact of neglect is at  first just 
as mechanical as that of attention1 but 
experiences teach us  to neglect some   
situations which by original nature     
attracted attention4  ,from the         
standpoint of education what we neglect 

is quite as important  as what is       
selected for attention4    ,the breadth 
of a person's attention1 i4e41 the      
number of lines along  which attention  
is possible1 must vary with age and     
experience4 ,the  younger or the more   
immature an individual is1 the greater  
the number of  different lines to which 
attention is given4 ,it is the little   
child  whose attention seems omnivorous1
 and it is the old person for whom      
situations worthy of attention have     
narrowed down to a few lines4 ,this     
must of necessity be so1 due to the     
interrelation of attention and  neglect4
 ,the very fact of continuing to give   
attention along one line  means less and
 less ability and desire to attend along
 other lines4    ,the question as to how
 many things1 whether objects or ideas1 
can be  attended to at the same time1   
has aroused considerable discussion4    
,most  people think that they are       
attending to several things1 if not to  
many1  at the same second of            

consciousness4 ,experiments show that if
 four or  five unrelated objects1 words1
 or letters be shown to adults for less 
than one quarter of a second1 they can  
be apprehended1 but the  probability is 
that they are photographed1 so to speak1
 on the eye and  counted afterwards4 ,it
 is the general belief of psychologists 
at present  that the mind attends to    
only one thing at a time1 that only one 
idea or  object can occupy the focal    
point in consciousness4    ,the apparent
 contradiction between ordinary         
experience and psychological  experience
 along this line is due to three facts  
which are often  overlooked4 ,in the    
first place1 the complexity of the idea 
or thing that  can be attended to as a  
unit varies tremendously4 ,differences  
in people  account for part of this     
variation1 but training and experience  
account  for still more4 ,our ideas     
become more and more complex as         
experience and  familiarity build them  
up4 ,qualities which to a little child  

demand  separate acts of attention are  
with the adult merged into his          
perception  of the object4 ,just as     
simple words1 although composed of      
separate  letters1 are perceived as     
units1 so with training1 more complex   
units  may be found which can be        
attended to as wholes4 ,so 7to the      
ignorant or  the uninstructed7 what is  
apparently attending to more than one   
thing at  a time may be explained by the
 complexity of the unit which is        
receiving  the attention4    ,in the    
second place doing more than one thing  
at a time does not imply  attending to  
more than one thing at a time4 ,an      
activity which is  habitual or          
mechanical does not need attention1 but 
can be carried on by  the control       
exercised by the fringe of              
consciousness4 ,attention may be  needed
 to start the activity or if a          
difficulty of any kind should  arise1   
but that is all4 ,for the rest of the   
time it can be devoted to  anything     

else4 ,the great speed with which       
attention can flash from one  thing to  
another and back again must be taken    
into consideration in all  this         
discussion4 ,so far as attention goes1  
one can do as many things  at a time as 
he can make mechanical plus one         
unfamiliar one4 ,thus a  woman can rock 
the baby's cradle1 croon a lullaby1     
knit1 and at the same  time be thinking 
of illustrations for her paper at the   
,woman's ,club1  because only one of    
these activities needs attention4 ,when 
no one of the  activities is automatic  
and the individual must depend on the   
rapid  change of attention from one to  
the other to keep them going1 the       
results obtained are likely to be poor  
and the fatigue is great4 ,the  attempt 
to take notes while listening to a      
lecture is of this order1 and  hence the
 unsatisfactoriness of the results4     
,the third fact which helps to explain  
the apparent contradiction under        
discussion is closely related to this   

one4 ,it is possible when engaged  with 
one object to have several questions or 
topics close by in the  fringe of       
consciousness so that one or the other  
may flash to the focal  point as the    
development of the train of thought     
demands4 ,the individual  is apparently 
considering many questions at the same  
time1 when in  reality it is the        
readiness of these associations plus the
 oscillations  of attention that account
 for the activity4 ,the ability to do   
this sort  of thing depends partly on   
the individual1--some people will always
 be  people of one idea1--but training  
and experience increase the power4  ,the
 child who in the primary can be given  
only one thing to look for  when he goes
 on his excursion may grow into the     
youth who can carry half  a dozen       
different questions in his mind to which
 he is looking for  answers4    ,by     
concentration of attention is meant the 
depth of the attention1 and  this is    
measured by the ease with which a       

person's attention can be  called off   
the topic with which he is concerned4   
,the concentration may  be so great that
 the individual is oblivious to all that
 goes on about  him4 ,he may forget     
engagements and meals because of his    
absorption4  ,sometimes even physical   
pain is not strong enough to distract   
attention4  ,on the other hand1 the     
concentration may be so slight that     
every passing  sense impression1 every  
irrelevant association called up by the 
topic1  takes the attention away from   
the subject4 ,the depth of concentration
  depends upon four factors4 ,certain   
mental and physical conditions have a   
great deal to do with the concentration 
of attention1 and these will be         
discussed later4 ,individual differences
 also account for the presence or       
absence of power of concentration--some 
people concentrate naturally1  others   
never get very deeply into any topic4   
,maturity is another factor  that is    
influential4 ,a little child cannot have

 great concentration1  simply because he
 has not had experience enough to give  
him many  associations with which to    
work4 ,his attention is easily          
distracted4  ,although apparently       
absorbed in play1 he hears what goes on 
about him  and notices many things which
 adults suppose he does not see4 ,this  
same  lack of power shows itself in any 
one's attention when a new subject is   
taken up if he has few associations with
 it4 ,of course this means that  other  
things being equal the older one is1 up 
to maturity at least1 the  greater one's
 power of concentration4 ,little        
children have very little  power1       
adolescents a great deal1 but it is the 
adult who excels in  concentration4     
,although this is true1 the fourth      
factor1 that of  training in            
concentration1 does much toward         
increasing the power before  full       
maturity is reached4 ,one can learn to  
concentrate just as he can  learn to do 
anything else4 ,habits of concentration1

 of ignoring  distinctions and          
interruptions1 of putting all one's     
power into the work  in hand1 are just  
as possible as habits of neatness4 ,the 
laws of habit  formation apply in the   
field of attention just as truly as in  
every  other field of mental life4      
,laboratory experiments prove the large 
influence which training has on         
concentration and the great improvement 
that can be made4 ,it is true that few  
people do show much concentration  of   
attention when they wish4 ,this is true 
of adults as well as of  children4 ,they
 have formed habits of working at half  
speed1 with little  concentration and no
 real absorption in the topic4 ,this    
method of work  is both wasteful of time
 and energy and injurious to the mental 
stability and development of the        
individual4 ,half-speed work due to lack
  of concentration often means that a   
student will stay with a topic and  fuss
 over it for hours instead of working   
hard and then dropping it4  ,teachers   

often do this sort of thing with their  
school work4 ,not only  are the results 
less satisfactory1 because the          
individual never gets  deeply enough    
into the topic to really get what is    
there1 but the effect  on him is bad4   
,it is like constant dripping wears away
 the stone4  ,children must be taught to
 work when they work and play when they 
play1 if they are to have habits of     
concentration as adults4    ,the length 
of time which it is possible to attend  
to the same object or  idea may be      
reckoned in seconds4 ,it is impossible  
to hold the attention  on an object for 
any appreciable length of time4 ,in     
order to hold the  attention the object 
must change4 ,the simple experiment of  
trying to pay  attention to a blot of   
ink or the idea of bravery proves that  
change is  necessary if the attention is
 not to wander4 ,what happens is that   
either  the attention goes to something 
else1 or that you begin thinking about  
the thing in question4 ,of course1 the  

minute you begin thinking1 new          
associations1 images1 memories1 come    
flocking in1 and the attention  occupies
 itself with each in turn4 ,all may     
concern the idea with which  you started
 out1 but the very fact that these have 
been added to the  mental content of the
 instant makes the percept of ink blot  
or the  concept of bravery different    
from the bare thing with which the      
attention began4 ,if this change and    
fluctuation of the mental state does    
not take place1 the attention flits to  
something else4 ,the length of  time    
that the attention may be engaged with a
 topic will depend1 then1  upon the     
number of associations connected with   
it4 ,the more one knows  about a topic1 
the longer he can attend to it4 ,if it  
is a new topic1 the  more suggestive it 
is in calling up past experience or in  
offering  incentive for experiment or   
application1 the longer can attention   
stay  with it4 ,such a topic is usually 
called interesting1 but upon analysis   

it seems that this means that for one of
 the above reasons it develops  or      
changes and therefore holds the         
attention4 ,this duration of attention  
will vary in length from a few seconds  
to hours4 ,the child who is given  a    
problem which means almost nothing1     
which presents a blank wall when  he    
tries to attend to it1 which offers no  
suggestions for solution1 is  an        
illustration of the first4 ,attention to
 such a problem is impossible2  his     
attention must wander4 ,the genius who1 
working with his favorite  subject1     
finds a multitude of trains of thought  
called up by each idea1  and who        
therefore spends hours on one topic with
 no vacillation of  attention1 is an    
illustration of the second4             
,attention has been classified according
 to the kind of feeling which           
accompanies the activity4 ,sometimes    
attention comes spontaneously1  freely1 
and the emotional tone is that          
accompanying successful activity4  ,on  

the other hand1 sometimes it has to be  
forced and is accompanied by  feelings  
of strain and annoyance4 ,the first type
 is called ,free#b  attention2 the      
second is ,forced attention4    ,free   
attention is given when the object of   
attention satisfies a need2  when the   
situation attended to provides the      
necessary material for some             
self-activity4 ,the activity of the     
individual at that second needs         
something that the situation in question
 gives1 and hence free1  spontaneous    
attention results4 ,forced attention is 
given when there is a  lack of just such
 feeling of need in connection with the 
object of  attention4 ,it does not      
satisfy the individual--it is distinct  
from his  desires at the time4 ,he      
attends only because of fear of the     
results if  he does not1 and hence the  
condition is one of strain4 ,all play   
takes  free attention4 ,work which holds
 the worker because it is satisfying    
also takes free attention4 ,work which  

has in it the element of drudgery  needs
 forced attention4 ,the girl making     
clothes for her doll1 the boy  building 
his shack in the woods1 the inventor    
working over his machine1  the student  
absorbed in his history lesson1--all    
these are freely  attending to the thing
 in hand4 ,the girl running her seam and
 hating it1  the1 boy building the      
chicken coop while wishing to be at the 
ball game1  the inventor working over   
his machine when his thoughts and       
desires are  with his sick wife1 the    
student trying to study his history when
 the  debate in the civics club is      
filling his mind1--these are cases when 
forced attention would probably be      
necessary4    ,it is very evident that  
there is no one situation which will    
necessarily  take either free or forced 
attention because the determining factor
 is  not in the situation per se1 but in
 the relation it bears to the mind      
engaged with it4 ,sometimes the same    
object will call forth forced  attention

 from one person and free from another4 
,further1 the same  object may at one   
time demand free attention and at       
another time forced  attention from the 
same person1 depending on the operation 
of other  factors4 ,it is also true that
 attention which was at first forced may
  change into free as the activity is   
persevered in4    ,although these two   
types of attention are discussed as if  
they were  entirely separated from each 
other1 as if one occurred in this       
situation  and the other in that1 still 
as a matter of fact the actual          
conditions  involve an interplay between
 the two4 ,it is seldom true that free  
attention is given for any great length 
of time without flashes of  forced      
attention being scattered through it4   
,often the forced attention  may be     
needed for certain parts of the work1   
although as a whole it may  take free   
attention4 ,the same thing is true of   
occasions when forced  attention is     
used4 ,there are periods in the activity

 when free attention  will carry the    
worker on4 ,every activity1 then1 is    
likely to be complex  so far as the kind
 of attention used1 but it is also      
characterized by  the predominance of   
one or the other type4    ,the question 
as to the conditions which call out each
 type of attention  is an important one4
 ,as has already been said1 free        
attention is given  when the situation  
attended to satisfies a need4           
,physiologically stated1  free attention
 is given when a neurone series which is
 ready to act is  called into activity4 
,the situations which do this1 other    
things being  equal1 will be those which
 appeal to some instinctive tendency or 
capacity1 or to the self-activity or the
 personal experience of the  individual 
and which therefore are in accord with  
his stage of  development and his       
experience4 ,forced attention is        
necessary when the  neurone tracts used 
by the attention are for some reason    
unready to act4  ,situations to which   

attention is given through fear of      
punishment1 or  when the activity       
involves a choice of ideal ends as      
opposed to personal  desires1 or when   
some instinctive tendency must be       
inhibited or its free  activity is      
blocked or interfered with1 or when the 
laws of growth and  experience are      
violated1 take forced attention4 ,of    
course fatigue1  disease1 and monotony  
are frequent breeders of forced         
attention4    ,from the above discussion
 it must be evident that one of the     
chief  characteristics of free attention
 is its unity4 ,the mental activity of  
the person is all directed along one    
line1 that which leads to the           
satisfying of the need4 ,it is unified  
by the appeal the situation makes4  ,as 
a result of such a state the attention  
is likely to be concentrated1  and can  
be sustained over a long period4 ,of    
course this means that the  work        
accomplished under such conditions will 
be greater in amount1 more  thorough1   

and more accurate than could be true    
were there less unity in  the process4  
,the opposite in all respects is true of
 forced attention4  ,it is present when 
there is divided interest4 ,the topic   
does not appeal  to the need of the     
individual4 ,he attends to it because he
 must4 ,part of  his full power of      
attention is given to keeping himself to
 the work1  leaving only a part to be   
given to the work itself4 ,if there is  
any  other object in the field of       
attention which is particularly         
attractive1  as there usually is1 that  
claims its share1 and the attention is  
still  further divided4 ,divided        
attention cannot be concentrated2 it    
cannot  last long4 ,the very strain and 
effort involved makes it extremely      
fatiguing4 ,the results of work done    
under such conditions must be poor4     
,there can be but little thoroughness1  
for the worker will do just as  much as 
he must to pass muster1 and no more4    
,inaccuracy and  superficiality will    

characterize such work4 ,just as        
training in giving  concentrated        
attention results in power along that   
line1 so frequent  necessity for forced 
attention develops habits of divided    
attention  which in time will hinder the
 development of any concentration4      
,from a psychological viewpoint there   
can be no question but what free        
attention is the end to be sought by    
workers of all kinds4 ,it is an         
absolutely false notion that things are 
easy when free attention is  present4   
,it is only when free attention is      
present that results worth  mentioning  
are accomplished4 ,it is only under such
 conditions that the  worker is willing 
to try and try again1 and put up with   
disappointment  and failure1 to use his 
ingenuity and skill to the utmost1 to go
 out of  his way for material or        
suggestions2 in other words1 to put     
himself into  his work in such a way    
that it is truly educational4 ,on the   
other hand1  forced attention has its   

own value and could not be dispensed    
with in  the development of a human     
being4 ,its value is that of means to   
end--not  that of an end in itself4 ,it 
is only as it leads into free attention 
that forced attention is truly valuable4
 ,in that place the part it plays  is   
tremendous because things are as they   
are4 ,there will always be  materials   
which will not appeal to a need in some 
individual because of  lack of capacity 
or experience2 there will always be     
parts of various  activities and        
processes which seem unnecessary and a  
waste of time to  some worker2 there    
will always be choices to be made       
between instinctive  desires and ideal  
needs1 and in each case forced attention
 is the only  means1 perhaps1 by which  
the necessary conditions can be acquired
 that  make possible free attention4 ,it
 is evident1 therefore1 that forced     
attention should be called into play    
only when needed4 ,when needed1 it      
should be demanded rigorously1 but the  

sooner the individual in question  can  
pass from it to the other type1 the     
better4 ,this is true in all  fields    
whether intellectual or moral4    ,a    
second classification of attention has  
been suggested according to the  answer 
to the question as to why attention is  
given4 ,sometimes attention  is given   
simply because the material itself      
demands it2 sometimes for  some ulterior
 reason4 ,the former type is called     
immediate or intrinsic  attention2 the  
latter is called derived1 mediate1 or   
extrinsic  attention4 ,the former is    
given to the situation for its own sake2
 the  latter because of something       
attached to it4 ,forced attention is    
always  derived2 free attention may be  
either immediate or derived4 ,it is     
immediate and derived free attention    
that needs further discussion4    ,it   
should be borne in mind that there is no
 sharp line of division  between        
immediate and derived attention4        
,sometimes it is perfectly  evident that

 the attention is given for the sake of 
the material--at  other times there can 
be no doubt but that it is the something
 beyond  the material that holds the    
attention4 ,but in big1 complex         
situations it  is not so evident4 ,for  
instance1 the musician composing just   
for the  love of it is an example of    
immediate attention1 while the small boy
  working his arithmetic examples with  
great care in order to beat his         
seatmate is surely giving derived       
attention4 ,but under some conditions   
the motives are mixed and the attention 
may fluctuate from the value of  the    
material itself to the values to be     
derived from it4 ,however this  may be1 
at the two extremes there is a clear-cut
 difference between  these two types of 
attention4 ,the value of rewards and    
incentives  depends on the psychology of
 derived free attention1 while that of  
punishment and deterrents is wrapped up 
with derived forced attention4          
,immediate free attention is the more   

valuable of the two types because  it is
 the most highly unified and most       
strongly dynamic of all the  attention  
types4 ,the big accomplishments of human
 lives have been  brought to pass       
through this kind of attention4 ,it is  
the kind the  little child gives to his 
play--the activity itself is worth      
while4 ,so  with the artist1 the        
inventor1 the poet1 the teacher1 the    
physician1 the  architect1 the          
banker--to be engaged in that particular
 activity  satisfies4 ,but this is not  
true of all artists1 bankers1 etc41 nor 
with  the others all the time4 ,even for
 the child at play1 sometimes           
conditions arise when the particular    
part of the activity does not seem      
worth while in itself2 then if it is to 
be continued1 another kind of  attention
 must be brought in--derived attention4 
,this illustration shows  the place of  
derived attention as a means to an      
end--the same part  played by forced    
attention in its relation to free4      

,derived attention  must needs be       
characteristic of much of the activity  
of human beings4  ,people have few      
well-developed capacities1 and there are
 many kinds of  things they are required
 to do4 ,if these are to be done with   
free  attention1 heartily1 it will only 
be because of some value that is worth  
while that is attached to the necessary 
activity4 ,as activities grow  complex  
and as the results of activities grow   
remote1 the need for  something to carry
 over the attention to the parts of the 
activity that  are seen to be worth     
while in the first place1 or to the     
results in the  second1 grows           
imperative4 ,this need is filled by     
derived attention1 and  here it shows   
its value as means to an end1 but it is 
only when the need  for this carrier    
disappears1 and the activity as a whole 
for itself  seems worth while1 that the 
best results are obtained4    ,there is 
a very great difference between the     
kinds of motives or values  chosen for  

derived attention1 and their value      
varies in accordance with  the following
 principles4 ,incentives should be      
closely connected  naturally with the   
subject to which they are attached4     
,they should be  suited to the          
development of the child and be natural 
rather than  artificial4 ,their appeal  
should be permanent1 i4e41 should       
persist in  the same situation outside  
of school4 ,they should really stimulate
 those  to whom they are offered4 ,they 
should not be too attractive in         
themselves4 ,applying these principles  
it would seem that derived  interests   
that have their source in instincts1 in 
special capacities1 or  in correlation  
of subjects are of the best type1 while 
such extremely  artificial incentives as
 prizes1 half holidays1 etc41 are among 
the  poorest4    ,the value of derived  
attention is that it gets the work done 
or the  habit formed4 ,of course the    
hope is always there that it will pass  
over  into the immediate type1 but if it

 does not1 at least results are         
obtained4 ,it has already been shown    
that results may also be obtained by    
the use of forced attention1 which is   
also derived4 ,both derived free        
attention and forced attention are means
 to an end4 ,the question as to  the    
comparative value of the two must be    
answered in favor of the  derived free  
attention4 ,the chief reasons for this  
conclusion are as  follows4 ,first1     
derived free attention is likely to be  
more unified than  forced attention4    
,second1 it arouses greater             
self-activity on the part  of the       
worker4 ,third1 the emotional tone is   
that of being satisfied  instead of     
strain4 ,fourth1 it is more likely to   
lead to the immediate  attention which  
is its end4 ,despite these advantages of
 derived free  attention over forced    
attention1 it still has some of the same
  disadvantages that forced attention   
has4 ,the chief of these is that it     
also may result in division of energy4  

,if the means for gaining the  attention
 is nothing but sugar coating1 if it    
results in the mere  entertainment of   
the worker1 there is every likelihood   
that the  attention will be divided     
between the two4 ,the other disadvantage
 is  that because of the attractiveness 
of the means used to gain attention  it 
may be given just so long as the        
incentive remains1 and no longer4       
,these difficulties may be largely      
overcome1 however1 by the application   
of the principles governing good        
incentives4 ,this must mean that the    
choice of types of attention and        
therefore the provision of situations   
calling them out should be in this      
order3 immediate free attention1        
derived free attention1 forced          
attention4 ,all three are necessary in  
the  education of any child1 but each   
should be used in its proper place4     
,the conditions which insure the best   
attention of whatever type have to  do  
with both physical and mental           

adjustments4 ,on the physical side there
  is need for the adaptation of the     
sense organ and the body to the         
situation4 ,for this adaptation to be   
effective the environmental  conditions 
must be controlled by the laws of       
hygiene4 ,a certain amount  of bodily   
freedom yields better results than      
rigidity because the latter  draws      
energy from the task in hand for        
purposes of inhibition4 ,on the  mental 
side there is need for preparation in   
terms of readiness of the  nerve tracts 
to be used4 ,james calls this ideational
 preparation4 ,this  simply means that  
one can attend better if he knows       
something of what he  is to attend to4  
,experimental evidence proves without   
doubt that if the  subject knows that he
 is to see a color1 instead of a word1  
his  perception of it is much more rapid
 and accurate than if he does not  have 
this preparation4 ,this same result is  
obtained in much more complex  sensory  
situations1 and it also holds when the  

situation is  intellectual4 ,contrary to
 expectation1 great quietness is not the
 best  condition for the maximum of     
attention2 a certain amount of          
distraction  is beneficial4    ,the     
problem of interest and of attention1   
from the point of view of  teaching1 is 
not simply to secure attention1 but     
rather to have the  attention fixed upon
 those activities which are most        
desirable from the  standpoint of       
realizing the aim or purpose of         
education4 ,as has already  been        
suggested1 children are constantly      
attending to something4 ,they           
instinctively respond to the very great 
variety of stimuli with which  they come
 in contact4 ,our schools seek to       
provide experiences which are  valuable4
 ,in school work when we are successful 
children attend to those  stimuli which 
promise most for the formation of       
habits1 or the growth in  understanding 
and appreciation which will fit them for
 participation in  our social life4 ,we 

seek constantly in our work as teachers 
to secure  either free or forced        
attention to the particular part of our 
courses of  study or to the particular  
experiences which are allotted to the   
grade  or class which we teach4 ,one of 
the very greatest difficulties in       
securing attention upon the part of a   
class is found in the variety of        
experiences which they have already     
enjoyed1 and the differences in the     
strength of the appeal which the        
particular situation may make upon the  
several members of the group4 ,in class 
teaching we have constantly to  vary our
 appeal and to differentiate our work to
 suit the individual  differences       
represented in the class1 if we would   
succeed in holding the  attention of    
even the majority of the children4      
,boys and girls do their best work only 
when they concentrate their  attention  
upon the work to be done4 ,one of the   
greatest fallacies that  has ever crept 
into our educational thought is that    

which suggests that  there is great     
value in having people work in fields in
 which they are  not interested1 and in 
which they do not freely give their     
attention4  ,any one who is familiar    
with children1 or with grown-ups1 must  
know that  it is only when interest is  
at a maximum that the effort put forth  
approaches the limit of capacity set by 
the individual's ability4 ,boys         
concentrate their attention upon        
baseball or upon fishing to a degree    
which demands of them a maximum of      
effort4 ,a boy may spend hours at a     
time seeking to perfect himself in      
pitching1 batting1 or fielding4 ,he  may
 be uncomfortable a large part of the   
time1 he may suffer  considerable pain1 
and yet continue in his practice by     
virtue of his  great enthusiasm for     
perfecting himself in the game4         
,interest of a not  dissimilar sort     
leads a man who desires position1 or    
power1 or wealth1  to concentrate his   
attention upon the particular field of  

his endeavor  to the exclusion of almost
 everything else4 ,indeed1 men almost   
literally  kill themselves in the effort
 which they make to achieve these social
  distinctions or rewards4 ,we may not  
hope always to secure so high a  degree 
of concentration of attention or of     
effort1 but it is only as we  approach a
 situation in which children are        
interested1 and in which they  freely   
give their attention to the subject in  
hand1 that we can claim to  be most     
successful in our teaching4    ,the     
teacher who is able in beginning reading
 to discover to children the  tool which
 will enable them to get the familiar   
story or rhyme from the  book may hope  
to get a quality of attention which     
could never be brought  about by forcing
 them to attend to formal phonetic      
drill4 ,the teacher of  biology who has 
been able to awaken enthusiasm for the  
investigation of  plant and animal life1
 and who has allowed children to conduct
 their own  investigations and to carry 

out their own experiments1 may hope for 
a  type of attention which is never     
present in the carrying out of the      
directions of the laboratory manual or  
in naming or classifying plants  or     
animals merely as a matter of memory4   
,children who are at work  producing a  
school play will accomplish more in the 
study of the history  in which they seek
 to discover a dramatic situation1 by   
virtue of the  concentration of         
attention given1 than they would in     
reciting many  lessons in which they    
seek to remember the paragraphs or pages
 which  they have read4 ,the boy who    
gives his attention to the production of
 a  story for his school paper will work
 harder than one who is asked to  write 
a composition covering two pages4       
,children who are allowed to  prepare   
for the entertainment of the members of 
their class a story with  which they    
alone are familiar will give a quality  
of attention to the  work in hand which 
is never secured when all of the members

 of the class  are asked to reproduce a 
story which the teacher has read4    ,it
 is necessary at times to have children 
give forced attention4 ,there  are some 
things to be accomplished that must be  
done1 regardless of our  success in     
securing free attention4 ,it is entirely
 conceivable that some  boy or girl may 
not want to learn his multiplication    
tables1 or his  words in spelling1 or   
his conjugation or declension in        
,french1 and that  all that the teacher 
has done may fail to arouse any great   
amount of  interest or enthusiasm for   
the work in question4 ,in these cases1  
and in  many others which might be      
cited1 the necessity for the particular 
habit  may be so great as to demand that
 every pupil do the work or form the    
habit in question4 ,in these cases we   
may not infrequently hope that  after   
having given forced attention to the    
work of the school1 children  may in    
time come to understand the importance  
of the experiences which  they are      

having1 or even become interested in the
 work for its own sake4  ,it is not     
infrequently true that after a period of
 forced attention  there follows a time 
during which1 on account of the value   
which  children are able to understand  
as attached to or belonging to the      
particular exercise1 they give free     
derived attention4 ,many boys and  girls
 have worked through their courses in   
science or in modern  languages because 
they believed that these subjects would 
prove valuable  not only in preparing   
them for college1 but in giving them a  
wider  outlook on life4 ,their attention
 was of the free derived type4 ,later on
  some of these same pupils have become 
tremendously enthusiastic in their  work
 in the fields in question1 and have    
found such great satisfaction  in the   
work itself1 that their attention might 
properly be characterized  as free      
immediate attention4    ,the importance 
of making children conscious of their   
power of  concentrating their attention 

needs to be kept constantly in mind4    
,exercises in which children are asked  
to do as much as they can in a  period  
of five or ten minutes may be used to   
teach children what  concentration of   
attention is and of the economy involved
 in work done  under these conditions4  
,the trouble with a great many adults1  
as well as  with children1 is that they 
have never learned what it is to work up
 to  the maximum of their capacity4 ,all
 too frequently in our attempts to      
teach children in classes we neglect to 
provide even a sufficient amount  of    
work to demand of the more able members 
of the group any considerable  amount of
 continued1 concentrated attention4     
,we seek in our work as teachers not    
only to secure a maximum of  attention  
to the fields of work in which children 
are engaged1 but also  to arouse        
interests and enthusiasms which will    
last after school days  are over4 ,we   
think of interest often1 and properly   
too1 as the means  employed to secure a 

maximum of attention1 and1 in           
consequence1 a  maximum of              
accomplishment4 ,it is worth while to   
think often in our work  in terms of    
interest as the end to be secured4      
,children should become  sufficiently   
interested in some of the subjects that 
we teach to care to  be students in     
these fields1 or to find enjoyment in   
further work or  activity along these   
lines1 either as a matter of recreation 
or1 not  infrequently1 as a means of    
discovering their true vocation in life4
  ,that teacher who has aroused         
sufficient interest in music to enable  
the  student of musical ability to      
venture all of the hard work which may  
be  necessary in order to become a      
skillful musician1 has made possibly his
  greatest contribution by arousing     
interest or creating enthusiasm4 ,the   
teacher whose enthusiasm in science has 
led a boy to desire to continue  in this
 field1 even to the extent of           
influencing him to undertake work  in an

 engineering school1 may be satisfied1  
not so much in the  accomplishment of   
his pupil in the field of science1 as in
 the  enthusiasm which has carried him  
forward to more significant work4 ,even 
for children who go no farther than the 
elementary school1 interest in  history1
 or geography1 in nature study1 or in   
literature1 may mean  throughout the    
life of the individuals taught a better 
use of leisure  time and an enjoyment of
 the nobler pleasures4    ,successful   
teaching in any part of our school      
system demands an  adjustment in the    
amount of work to be done1 to the       
abilities1 and even  to the interest of 
individual children4 ,much may be       
accomplished by the  organization of    
special classes or groups in large      
school systems1 but  even under the most
 favorable conditions children cannot be
 expected to  work up to the maximum of 
their capacity except as teachers       
recognize  these differences in interest
 and in ability1 and make assignments   

and  conduct exercises which take       
account of these differences4           
,,questions      #a4 ,why do all        
children attend when the teacher raps on
 the desk1 when  she writes on the      
board1 when some one opens the door and 
comes into the  room8    #b4 ,some      
teachers are constantly rapping with    
their pencils and raising  their voices 
in order to attract attention4 ,what    
possible weakness is  indicated by this 
procedure8    #c4 ,why do adults attend 
to fewer things than do children8    #d4
 ,in what sense is it possible to attend
 to two things at the same  time8    #e4
 ,why are children less able to         
concentrate their attention than are    
most adults8    #f4 ,will a boy or girl 
in your class be more or less easily    
distracted as  he gives free attention  
or forced attention to the work in hand8
    #g4 ,what educational value is      
attached to an exercise which requires  
that  a boy sit at his desk and work1   
even upon something in which he is not  

very much interested1 for twenty        
minutes8    #h4 ,in what sense is it    
true that we form the habit of          
concentrating our  attention8    #i4    
,why is it wrong to extend a lesson     
beyond the period during which  children
 are able to concentrate their attention
 upon the work in hand1  or beyond the  
period during which they do concentrate 
their attention8    #aj4 ,how is it     
possible to extend the period devoted to
 a lesson in  reading1 or in geography1 
or in ,latin1 beyond the time required  
to read  a story or draw a map1 or      
translate a paragraph8    #aa4 ,why is  
it possible to have longer recitation   
periods in the upper  grades and in the 
high school than in the primary school8 
#ab4 ,give examples from your class work
 of free attention2 of forced           
attention2 of free derived attention4   
#ac4 ,in what sense is it true that we  
work hardest when we give free          
attention8    #ad4 ,in what sense is it 
true that we work hardest when we give  

forced  attention8    #ae4 ,can you give
 any example of superficiality or       
inaccuracy which has  resulted from     
divided attention1 upon the part of any 
member of one of  your classes8    #af4 
,does free attention imply lack of      
effort8    #ag4 ,name incidents which   
you think might properly be offered boys
 and  girls in order to secure free     
derived attention4    #ah4 ,can you cite
 any example in your teaching in which  
children have  progressed from forced to
 free attention8    #ai4 ,what interests
 have been developed in your classes    
which you think  may make possible the  
giving of free attention in the field in
 question1  even after school days are  
over8    #bj4 ,how can you teach        
children what it is to concentrate their
 attention  and the value of            
concentrated attention8           99    
99       99       99       99           
,,iv4 ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,habits   
,habit in its simplest form is the      
tendency to do1 think1 or act as one    

has done1 thought1 or acted in the past4
 ,it is the tendency to repeat          
activities of all kinds4 ,it is the     
tendency which makes one inclined to  do
 the familiar action rather than a new  
one4 ,in a broader sense1 habit         
formation means learning4 ,it is a      
statement of the fact that conduct  is  
modifiable and that such modifications  
may become permanent4    ,the fact of   
learning depends physiologically on the 
plasticity of the  nervous system4 ,the 
neurones1 particularly those concerned  
with  intellectual life1 are not only   
sensitive to nerve currents but are     
modified by them4 ,the point where the  
greatest change seems to take  place is 
at the synapses1 but what this          
modification is1 no one knows4  ,there  
are several theories offered as         
explanations of what happens1 but  no   
one of them has been generally accepted1
 although the theory of  chemical change
 seems to be receiving the strongest    
support at present4  ,there can be no   

disagreement1 however1 as to the effects
 of this change1  whatever it may be4   
,currents originally passing with       
difficulty over a  certain conduction   
unit later pass with greater and greater
 ease4 ,the  resistance which seems at  
first to be present gradually           
disappears1 and  to that extent is the  
conduct modified4 ,this same element of 
plasticity  accounts for the breaking of
 habits4 ,in this case the action is    
double1  for it implies the disuse of   
certain connections which have been made
  and the forming of others2 for the    
breaking of a bad habit means the       
beginning of a good one4    ,the        
plasticity of neurone groups seems to   
vary in two respects--as to             
modifiability and as to power to hold   
modifications4 ,the neurone groups      
controlling the reflex and physiological
 operations are least easily  modified1 
while those controlling the higher      
mental processes are most  easily       
modified4 ,the neurone groups           

controlling the instincts hold a  middle
 place4 ,so far as permanence goes1     
connections between  sensorimotor       
neurone groups seem to hold             
modifications longer than do            
connections between either              
associative-motor or                    
associative-association4    ,it is      
probably because of this fact that habit
 in the minds of so many  people refers 
to some physical activity4 ,of course   
this is a  misconception4 ,wherever the 
nervous system is employed1 habits are  
formed4 ,there are intellectual1 moral1 
emotional1 temperamental habits1  just  
as truly as physical habits4 ,in the    
intellectual field every  operation that
 involves association or memory also    
involves habits4 ,good  temper1 or the  
reverse1 truthfulness1 patriotism1      
thoughtfulness for  others1             
open-mindedness1 are as much matters of 
learning and of habit as  talking or    
skating or sewing4 ,habit is found in   
all three lines of  mental development3 

intellect1 character1 and skill4    ,not
 only does the law of habit operate in  
all fields of mental activity1  but the 
characteristics which mark its operation
 are the same4 ,two of  these are       
important4 ,in the first place1 habit   
formation results in a  lessening of    
attention to the process4 ,any process  
that is habitual can  be taken care of  
by a minimum of attention4 ,in other    
words1 it need no  longer be in the     
focal point1 but can be relegated to the
 fringe4 ,at the  beginning of the      
modification of the neurone tract focal 
attention is  often necessary1 but as it
 progresses less and less attention is  
needed  until the activity becomes      
automatic1 apparently running by itself4
 ,not  all habits reach this stage of   
perfection1 but this is the general     
tendency4 ,this lessening of the need   
for attention means that less  energy is
 used by the activity1 and the          
individual doing the work is  less      
likely to be fatigued4 ,in the second   

place1 habit tends to make the  process 
more and more sure in its results4 ,as  
the resistance is removed  from the     
synapses1 and the one particular series 
of units come to act  more and more as a
 unit1 the current shoots along the path
 with no  sidetracking1 and the act is  
performed or the thought reached        
unwaveringly with very little chance of 
error4 ,if the habit being formed  is   
that of writing1 the appropriate        
movements are made with no  hesitation1 
and the chances that certain ones will  
be made the first  time increase in     
probability4 ,this means a saving of    
time and an  increase in confidence as  
to the results4    ,a consideration of  
these characteristics of habits makes   
clear its  dangers as well as its       
values4 ,the fact that habit is based on
 actual  changes which take place in the
 nervous system1 that its foundation is 
physical1 emphasizes its binding power4 
,most people in talking and  thinking of
 habit regard it as something primarily 

mental in nature and  therefore believe 
all that is necessary to break any habit
 is the  sufficient exercise of will    
power4 ,but will power1 however strong1 
cannot break actual physical            
connections1 and it is such connections 
that bind us to a certain line of       
activity instead of any other1 when     
once the habit is formed4 ,it is just as
 logical to expect a car which is       
started on its own track to suddenly go 
off on to another track where  there is 
no switch1 as to expect a nerve current 
traveling along its  habitual conduction
 unit to run off on some other line of  
nervous  discharge4 ,habit once formed  
binds that particular line of thought to
  action1 either good or bad4 ,of course
 habits may be broken1 but it is a  work
 of time and must result from definite  
physical changes4 ,every habit  formed  
lessens the likelihood of any other     
response coming in that  particular     
situation4 ,every interest formed1 every
 act of skill  perfected1 every method  

of work adopted1 every principle or     
ideal  accepted1 limits the recognition 
of any other possible line of action in 
that situation4 ,habit binds to one     
particular response and at the same     
time blinds the individual to any other 
alternative4 ,the danger of this  is    
obvious4 ,if the habits formed are bad  
or wasteful ones1 the  individual is    
handicapped in his growth until new ones
 can be formed4 ,on  the other hand1    
habit makes for limitation4    ,despite 
these dangers1 habit is of inestimable  
value in the development  of both the   
individual and the human race4 ,it is   
through it that all  learning is        
possible4 ,it makes possible the        
preservation of our social  inheritance4
 ,as ,james says1 ,habit is the enormous
 fly-wheel of society1  its most        
precious conservative agent4 ,because of
 its power of  limitation it is         
sometimes considered the foe of         
independence and  originality1 but in   
reality it is the only road to progress4

 ,other  things being equal1 the more   
good habits a person has1 the greater   
the  probability of his doing original  
work4 ,the genius in science or in art  
or in statesmanship is the man who has  
made habitual many of the  activities   
demanded by his particular field and who
 therefore has time  and energy left for
 the kind of work that demands thinking4
 ,habit won't  make a genius1 but all   
men of exceptional ability excel others 
in the  number and quality of their     
habits in the field in which they show  
power4 ,as the little child differs from
 the adult in the number and  quality of
 his habits1 so the ordinary layman     
differs from the expert4  ,it is        
scarcity1 not abundance1 of habits that 
forces a man into a rut  and keeps him  
mediocre4 ,just as the three year old1  
having taken four or  five times as long
 as the adult to dress himself1 is tired
 out at the  end of the task1 so the    
amateur in literature or music or morals
 as  compared with the expert4 ,the more

 habits any one has in any line1 the    
better for him1 both from the standpoint
 of efficiency and productivity1        
provided that the habits are good and   
that among them is found the habit  of  
breaking habits4    ,the two great laws 
of habit formation are the laws of      
exercise and  effect4 ,these laws apply 
in all cases of habit formation1 whether
 they  be the purposeless habits of     
children or the purposive habits of     
maturity4 ,the law of exercise says that
 the oftener and the more  emphatically 
a certain response is connected with a  
certain situation1  the more likely is  
it to be made to that situation4 ,the   
two factors of  repetition and intensity
 are involved4 ,it is a common          
observance that  the oftener one does a 
thing1 other things being equal1 the    
better he  does it1 whether it be good  
or bad4 ,drill is the usual method      
adopted by  all classes of people for   
habit formation4 ,it is because of the  
recognition of the value of repetition  

that the old maxim of ,practice  makes  
,perfect has been so blindly adhered to4
 ,practice may make  perfect1 but it    
also may make imperfect4 ,all that      
practice can do is to  make more sure   
and automatic the activity1 whatever it 
is4 ,it cannot  alone make for          
improvement4 ,a child becomes more and  
more proficient in  bad writing or      
posture1 in incorrect work in arithmetic
 and spelling1  with practice just as   
truly as under other conditions he      
improves in the  same activities4       
,evidence from school experiments1 which
 shows that as  many as #dj per cent of 
the children examined did poorer work   
along such  lines in a second test than 
in the first which had been given       
several  months earlier1 bears witness  
to the inability of mere repetition to  
get  perfect results4 ,to get such      
results the repetition must be only of  
the improvements4 ,there must be a      
constant variation towards the ideal1   
and a selection of just those variations

 for practice1 if perfect as  well as   
invariable results are to be obtained4  
,the amount of repetition necessary in  
the formation of any given habit  is not
 known4 ,it will1 of course1 vary with  
the habit and with the  individual1 but 
experimental psychology will some day   
have something to  offer along this     
line4 ,we could make a great saving if  
we knew1 even  approximately1 the amount
 of practice necessary under the best   
conditions to form some of the more     
simple and elementary habits1 such  as  
learning the facts of multiplication4   
,one other fact in connection with      
repetition should be noted1 namely1     
that the exercise given any connection  
by the learner1 freely1 of his  own     
initiative counts more than that given  
under purposive learning4  ,this method 
of learning is valuable in that it is   
incidental and often  saves energy and  
possible imitation on the part of the   
child1 but it has  certain drawbacks4   
,habits formed this way are ingrained to

 such an  extent that they are very     
difficult to modify4 ,they were not     
consciously  attended to when they were 
formed1 and hence it is difficult later 
to  raise them to the focal point4      
,hence it is best whenever habits are   
partial and will need to be modified    
later1 or when the habits must  later be
 rationalized1 or when bad habits must  
be broken1 to have the  process         
focalized in attention4 ,the methods of 
gaining attention have  already been    
discussed4    ,in the second place1 if  
the habit being formed is connected with
 an  instinct1 the element of intensity 
is added4 ,this1 of course1 means that  
a connection already made and one which 
is strongly ready to act is made  to    
give its support to the new connection  
being formed4 ,of course the  instinct  
chosen for this purpose must be in      
accord with the particular  habit and   
with the nature of the learner4 ,they   
may vary from the purely  personal and  
physical up to those which have to do   

with groups and  intellectual reactions4
 ,the added impetus of the instinct     
hastens the  speed of the direction or  
supervision4 ,the psychology of the     
value of  self-activity is operative4   
,it should be borne in mind1 however1   
that  the two kinds of exercise must be 
of the same degree of accuracy if this  
better result in self-initiated practice
 is to be obtained4    ,not only is it  
true that repetition makes for          
automaticity1 but  intensity is also an 
aid4 ,connections which are made        
emphatically as  well as often tend to  
become permanent4 ,this is particularly 
true of  mental habits4 ,there are two  
factors of importance which make for    
intensity in habit formation4 ,first1   
the focalization of attention on  the   
connections being made adds intensity4  
,bagley in his discussion of  this topic
 makes focalization in attention a      
necessity in all habits4  ,although     
habits may be formed without such       
concentration1 still it is  true that if

 attention is given to the process1 time
 is saved2 for the  added intensity     
secured increases the speed of learning4
 ,in certain  types of habits1 however1 
when incidental learning plays a large  
part1  much skill may be acquired       
without focalization of attention in the
  process4 ,much of the learning of     
little children is of this type4 ,their 
habits of language1 ways of doing       
things1 mannerisms1 and emotional       
attitudes often come as a result of     
suggestion and imitation rather than  as
 a result of definite formation of the  
new habit4    ,the second great law of  
habit formation is the law of effect4   
,this law  says that any connection     
whose activity is accompanied by or     
followed by  satisfaction tends thereby 
to be strengthened4 ,if the accompanying
  emotional tone is annoyance1 the      
connection is weakened4 ,this law that  
satisfaction stamps connections in1 and 
annoyance inhibits connections1  is one 
of the greatest if not the greatest law 

of human life4 ,whatever  gives         
satisfaction1 that mankind continues to 
do4 ,he learns only that  which results 
in some kind of satisfaction4 ,because  
of the working of  this law animals     
learn to do their tricks1 the baby      
learns to talk1 the  child learns to    
tell the truth1 the adult learns to work
 with the fourth  dimension4 ,repetition
 by itself is a wasteful method of habit
 formation4  ,the law of effect must    
work as well as the law of exercise1 if 
the  results are to be satisfactory4 ,as
 has already been pointed out1 it is    
not the practice alone that makes       
perfect1 but the stressing of           
improvements1 and that fixing is made   
possible only by satisfaction4          
,pleasure1 in the broad sense1 must be  
the accompaniment or the result of  any 
connection that is to become habitual4  
,this satisfaction may be of  many      
different sorts1 physical1 emotional1 or
 intellectual4 ,it may be  occasioned by
 a reward or recognition from without or

 by appreciation  arising from          
self-criticism4 ,in some form or other  
it must be present4    ,two further     
suggestions in habit formation which    
grow out of the above  laws should be   
borne in mind4 ,the first is the effect 
of primacy4 ,in  everyday language1     
first impressions last longest4 ,the    
character of  the first responses made  
in any given situation have great       
influence on  all succeeding responses4 
,they make the strongest impression1    
they are  the hardest to eradicate4     
,from a physiological point of view the 
explanation is evident4 ,a connection   
untraversed or used but a few times  is 
much more plastic than later when it has
 been used often4 ,hence the  first time
 the connection is used gives a greater 
set or bent than any  equal subsequent  
activity4 ,this is true both of the     
nervous system as a  whole and of any   
particular conduction unit4 ,thus       
impressions made in  childhood count    
more than those of the same strength    

made later4 ,the  first few attempts in 
pronouncing foreign words fixes the     
pronunciation4  ,the first few weeks in 
a subject or in dealing with any person 
influences all subsequent responses to a
 marked degree4    ,the second          
suggestion has to do with the effect of 
exceptions4 ,james  says1 ,never allow  
an exception to occur in the course of  
forming a  habit4 ,not only will the    
occurrence of one exception make more   
likely  its recurrence1 but if the      
exception does not recur1 at least the  
response is less sure and less accurate 
than it otherwise would be4 ,it  tends  
to destroy self-confidence or confidence
 in the one who allowed  the exception4 
,sometimes even one exception leads to  
disastrous  consequences and undoes the 
work of weeks and months4 ,this is      
especially  true in breaking a bad habit
 or in forming a new one which has some 
instinctive response working against it4
    ,there has been a great deal of work
 done in experimental laboratories  and 

elsewhere in the study of the formation 
of particular habits4 ,the  process of  
habit formation has been shown by       
learning curves4 ,when these  learning  
curves are compared1 it becomes clear   
that they have certain  characteristics 
in common4 ,this is true whether the    
learning be directed  to such habits as 
the acquisition of vocabularies in a    
foreign language  or to skill in the use
 of a typewriter4 ,several of the most  
important  characteristics follow4      
,in the first place it is true of all   
learning that there is rapid            
improvement at first4 ,during the       
beginning of the formation of a habit   
more rapid advance is made than at any  
other time4 ,there are two  principal   
reasons for this fact4 ,the adjustments 
required at the  beginning are          
comparatively simple and easily made and
 the particular  learning is new and    
therefore is undertaken with zest and   
interest4  ,after a time the work       
becomes more difficult1 the novelty     

wears off1  therefore the progress      
becomes less marked and the curve shows 
fluctuations4    ,another characteristic
 of the learning curve is the presence  
of the  so-called plateaus4 ,plateaus   
show in the curve as flat1 level        
stretches during which there has        
apparently been no progress4 ,the       
meaning of these level stretches1 and   
whether or not they can be  entirely    
done away with in any curve1 is a matter
 of dispute4 ,these  pauses may be      
necessary for some of the habits to     
reach a certain degree  of perfection   
before further progress can be made4    
,however this may be1  there are several
 minor causes which tend to increase the
 number of  plateaus and to lengthen the
 time spent in any one4 ,in the first   
place  an insecure or an inaccurate     
foundation must result in an increase of
  plateaus4 ,if at the beginning1 during
 the initial spurt1 for instance1  the  
learner is allowed to go so fast that   
what he learns is not  thoroughly       

learned1 or if he is pushed at a pace   
that for him makes  thoroughness        
impossible1 plateaus must soon occur in 
his learning curve4  ,in the second     
place a fruitful cause of plateaus is   
loss of  interest1--monotony4 ,if the   
learner is not interested1 he will not  
put  forth the energy necessary for     
continued improvement1 and a time of no 
progress is the result4 ,the attitude of
 the learner toward the work is         
extremely important1 not only in the    
matter of interest1 but in the  further 
attitude of self-confidence4            
,discouragement usually results in      
hindering progress1 whereas confidence  
tends to increase it4 ,the              
psychological explanation of this is    
very evident4 ,both lack of interest  in
 the learning and the presence of       
discouragement are likely to result  in 
divided attention and that1 as has      
already been shown1 results in          
unsatisfactory work4 ,a third cause for 
plateaus is physiological4 ,not  only   

must the learner be in the right        
attitude towards the work1 but he  must 
feel physically fit4 ,there seem to be  
certain physiological  rhythms that may 
disturb the learning process whose cause
 cannot be  directly determined1 but    
generally the feeling of unfitness can  
be  traced to a simple cause1--such as  
physical illness1 loss of sleep1        
exercise1 or food1 or undue emotional   
strain4    ,the older psychology has    
left an impression that improvement in  
any  function is limited both as to     
amount and as to the period during which
  it must be attained4 ,the             
physiological limit of improvement has  
been  thought of as one which was rather
 easily reached4 ,the loss of           
plasticity of the nervous system has    
been supposed to be rather rapid1  so   
that marked improvement in a habit after
 one has passed well into the  twenties 
was considered improbable4 ,recent      
experiments1 however1 seem to  show that
 no such condition of affairs exists4   

,there is very great  probability that  
any function whatsoever is improvable   
with practice1  and in most cases to a  
very marked degree4 ,to find a function 
which has  reached the physiological    
limit has been very rare1 even in       
experimental  research1 and even with   
extended practice series it has been    
unusual to  reach a stage of zero       
improvement even with adults4 ,thorndike
 says1 ,let  the reader consider that if
 he should now spend seven hours1 well  
distributed1 in mental multiplication   
with three place numbers1 he would      
thereby much more than double his speed 
and also reduce his errors2 or  that1 by
 forty hours of practice1 he could come 
to typewrite 7supposing  him to now have
 had zero practice7 approximately as    
fast as he can write  by hand2 or that1 
starting from zero knowledge1 he could  
learn to copy  ,english into ,german    
script at a rate of fifty letters per   
minute1 in  three hours or a little     
more4#c ,it is probably true that the   

majority  of adults are much below their
 limit of efficiency in most of the     
habits  required by their profession1   
and that in school habits the same thing
  is true of children4 ,spurious levels 
of accomplishment have been held up  as 
worthy goals1 and efficiency accepted as
 ultimate which was only two  thirds1   
and often less than that1 of what was   
possible4 ,of course it may  not be     
worth the time and energy necessary to  
obtain improvement in  certain          
lines1--that must be determined by the  
particular case1--but the  point is1    
that improvement2 is possible with both 
children and adults in  almost every    
habit they possess with comparatively   
little practice4  ,neither the          
physiological limit of a function nor   
the age limit of the  individual is     
reached as easily or as soon as has been
 believed4    ,there are certain aids to
 improvement which must be used in order
 that  the best results may be obtained4
 ,some of them have already been        

discussed and others will be discussed  
at a later time1 so they need  only be  
listed here1 the right physiological    
conditions1 the proper  distribution of 
the practice periods1 interest in the   
work1 interest in  improvement1 problem 
attitude1 attention1 and absence of both
 excitement  and worry4    ,habits have 
been treated in psychology as wholes1   
just as if each habit  was a unit4 ,this
 has been true1 whether the habits being
 discussed were  moral habits1 such as  
sharing toys with a younger brother2    
intellectual  habits1 such as reading   
and understanding the meaning of the    
word and2  or motor habits1 such as     
sitting straight4 ,the slightest        
consideration  of these habits makes    
obvious that they differ tremendously in
  complexity4 ,the moral habit quoted   
involves both intellectual and motor    
habits--and not one1 but several4 ,from 
a physiological point of view1  this    
difference in the complexity of habits  
is made clear by an  examination of the 

number of neural bonds used in getting  
the habit  response to a given          
situation4 ,in some cases they are      
comparatively  few--in others the number
 necessary is astonishing4 ,in no case  
of habit  will the bonds used involve   
but a single connection4    ,just what  
bonds are needed in order that a child  
may learn to add1 or to  spell1 to      
appreciate music1 or to be industrious1 
is a question that  only experiment and 
investigation can answer4 ,at present   
but little is  known as to just what    
happens1 just what connections are      
formed1 when  from the original tendency
 towards vocalization the child just    
learns to  say the word milk1 later     
reads it1 and still later writes it4    
,one  thing is certain1 the process is  
not a unitary one1 nor is it a simple   
one4 ,just so long as habit is discussed
 in general terms1 without any          
recognition of the complexity of the    
process or to the specific bonds        
involved1 just so long will the process 

of habit formation be wasteful  and     
inefficient4    ,as a sample of the kind
 of work being done in connection with  
special  habits1 investigation seems to 
give evidence that in the habit of      
simple  column addition eight or nine   
distinct functions are involved1 each of
  which involves the use of several     
bonds4 ,besides these positive          
connections1 a child in learning must   
inhibit other connections which  are    
incorrect1 and these must often         
outnumber the correct ones4 ,and yet    
column addition has always been treated 
as a simple habit--with perhaps  one    
element of complexity1 when carrying was
 involved4 ,it is evident  that1 if the 
habit concerned does involve eight or   
nine different  functions1 a child might
 go astray in any one4 ,his difficulty  
in forming  the habit might be in       
connection with one or several of the   
processes  involved4 ,knowledge on the  
part of the teacher of these different  
steps  in the habit1 and appreciation by

 him of the possibilities of making     
errors1 are the prerequisites of        
efficient teaching of habits4    ,in    
each one of the subjects there is much  
need of definite experimental  work1 in 
order that the specific bonds necessary 
in forming the habits  peculiar to the  
subject be determined4 ,the psychology  
of arithmetic1 or  of physics1 or of    
spelling should involve such            
information4 ,meanwhile  every teacher  
can do much if she will carefully stop  
and think just what  she is requiring in
 the given response4 ,an analysis of the
 particular  situation and response will
 make clear at least some of the largest
  elements involved1 some of the most   
important connections to be made4 ,it   
is the specific nature of the           
connections to be made and the number of
  those connections that need emphasis  
in the teaching of habits4 ,not only    
must the specific nature of the bonds   
involved in individual habits be        
stressed1 but also the specific nature  

of the entire complex which is  called  
the habit4 ,there is no such thing as a 
general curve of learning  that will    
apply equally well1 no matter what the  
habit4 ,the kind of  curve1 the rate of 
improvement1 the possibilities of       
plateaus1 the  permanence of the        
improvement1 all these facts and others 
vary with the  particular habit4    ,in 
habit formation1 as is the case in other
 types of activity1 we get  the most    
satisfactory results only when we secure
 a maximum of interest  in the work to  
be done4 ,the teacher who thinks that   
she can get  satisfactory results merely
 by compelling children to repeat over  
and  over again the particular form to  
be mastered is doomed to                
disappointment4 ,indeed1 it is not      
infrequently true that the dislike      
which children get for the dreary       
exercises which have little or no       
meaning for them interferes to such a   
degree with the formation of the  habit 
we hope to secure as to develop a       

maximum of inaccuracies rather  than any
 considerable improvement4 ,the teacher 
who makes a game out of  her word drill 
in beginning reading may confidently    
expect to have  children recognize more 
words the next day than one who has used
 the  same amount of time1 without      
introducing the motive which has made   
children enjoy their work4 ,children who
 compare their handwriting with a       
scale1 which enables them to tell what  
degree of improvement they have  made   
over a given period1 are much more apt  
to improve than are children  who are   
merely asked to fill up sheets of paper 
with practice writing4 ,a  vocabulary in
 a modern language will be built up more
 certainly if  students seek to make a  
record in the mastery of some hundreds  
or  thousands of words during a given   
period1 rather than merely to do the    
work which is assigned from day to day4 
,a group of boys in a  continuation     
school have little difficulty in        
mastering the habits which  are required

 in order to handle the formal processes
 in arithmetic1 or  to apply the formula
 of algebra or trigonometry1 if the     
application of  these habitual responses
 to their everyday work has been made   
clear4  ,wherever we seek to secure an  
habitual response we should attempt to  
have children understand the use to     
which the given response is to be  put1 
or1 if this is not possible1 to         
introduce some extraneous motive  which 
will give satisfaction4    ,we cannot be
 too careful in the habits which we seek
 to have children  form to see to it    
that the first response is correct4 ,it 
is well on many  occasions1 if we have  
any doubt as to the knowledge of        
children1 to  anticipate the response   
which they should give1 and to make them
  acquainted with it1 rather than to    
allow them to engage in random          
guessing4 ,the boy who in writing his   
composition wishes to use a word  which 
he does not know how to spell1 should   
feel entirely free to ask  the teacher  

for the correct spelling1 unless there  
is a dictionary at  hand which he knows 
how to use4 ,it is very much better for 
a boy to ask  for a particular form in a
 foreign language1 or to refer to his   
grammar1  than it is for him to use in  
his oral or written composition a form  
concerning which he is not certain4 ,a  
mistake made in a formula in  algebra1  
or in physics1 may persist1 even after  
many repetitions might  seem to have    
rendered the correct form entirely      
automatic4    ,in matters of habit it   
does not pay to take it for granted that
 all have  mastered the particular forms
 which have supposedly been taught1 and 
it  never pays to attempt to present too
 much at any one time4 ,more            
satisfactory work in habit formation    
would commonly be done were we to  teach
 fewer words in any one spelling lesson1
 or attempt to fix fewer  combinations  
in any particular drill lesson in       
arithmetic1 or assign a  part of a      
declension or conjugation in a foreign  

language1 or to be  absolutely certain  
that one or two formulas were fixed in  
algebra or in  chemistry1 rather than in
 attempting to master several on the    
same day4  ,teachers ought constantly to
 ask themselves whether every member of 
the  class is absolutely sure and       
absolutely accurate in his response     
before  attempting new work4 ,it is of  
the utmost importance that particular   
difficulties be analyzed1 and that      
attention be fixed upon that which is   
new1 or that which presents some unusual
 difficulty4    ,as has already been    
implied1 it is important not simply to  
start with as  strong a motive as       
possible1 but it is also necessary to   
keep attention  concentrated during the 
exercises which are supposed to result  
in habit  formation4 ,however strong the
 motive for the particular work may have
  been at the beginning1 it is likely   
after a few minutes to lack power1  if  
the particular exercise is continued in 
exactly the same form4 ,much  is to be  

gained by varying the procedure4 ,oral  
work alternated with  written work1     
concert work alternated with individual 
testing1 the  setting of one group over 
against another1 the attempt to see how 
much  can be done in a given period of  
minutes1--indeed1 any device which will 
keep attention fixed is to be most      
eagerly sought for4 ,in all practice  it
 is important that the pupil strive to  
do his very best4 ,if the ideal  of     
accuracy or of perfection in form is    
once lost sight of1 the  responses given
 may result in an actual loss rather    
than in gain in  fixing the habit4 ,when
 a teacher is no longer able to secure  
attention  to the work in hand1 it is   
better to stop rather than to continue  
in  order to provide for a given number 
of repetitions4 ,drill periods of  from 
five to fifteen minutes two or three    
times a day may almost always  be found 
to produce better results than the same 
amount of time used  consecutively4     
,systematic reviews are most essential  

in the process of  habit formation4 ,the
 complaint of a fifth-grade teacher that
 the work in  long division was not     
properly taught in the fourth grade may 
be due in  considerable measure to the  
fact that she has neglected at the      
beginning  of the fifth grade's work to 
spend a week or two in careful or       
systematic review of the work covered in
 the previous year4 ,the  complaint of  
high school teachers that children are  
not properly taught  in the elementary  
school would often be obviated if in    
each of the  fields in question some    
systematic review were given from time  
to time1  especially at the beginning of
 the work undertaken1 in any particular 
subject which involves work previously  
done in the elementary school4  ,during 
any year's work that teacher will be    
most successful who reviews  each day   
the work of the day before1 who reviews 
each third or fourth  day the           
particularly difficult parts of the work
 done during the  previous periods1 who 

reviews each week and each month1 and   
even each  two or three months1 the work
 which has been covered up to that time4
  ,when teachers understand that the    
intervals between repetitions which     
seem to have fixed a habit may only be  
gradually lengthened1 then will  the    
formation of habits upon the part of    
boys and girls become more  certain1 and
 the difficulties arising from lapses   
and inaccuracies  become less frequent4 
,as has been suggested in previous      
discussions1 it will be necessary in    
habit formation to vary the requirements
 among the individuals who  compose a   
group4 ,the motive which we seek to     
utilize may make a greater  appeal to   
one child than to another4              
,physiological differences may  account 
for the fact that a small number of     
repetitions will serve to  fix the      
response for one individual as over     
against a very much larger  number of   
repetitions required for another4 ,it is
 of the utmost  importance that all     

children work up to the maximum of their
 capacity4  ,it is very much better1 for
 example1 to excuse a boy entirely from 
a  given drill exercise than to have him
 dawdle or loaf during the period4  ,in 
some fields a degree of efficiency may  
be reached which will permit  the most  
efficient children to be relieved       
entirely from certain  exercises in     
order that they may spend their time on 
other work4 ,on the  other hand1 those  
who are less capable may need to have   
special drill  exercises arranged which 
will help them to make up their         
deficiency4 ,the  teacher who is        
acquainted with the psychology of habit 
formation should  secure from the pupils
 in her class a degree of efficiency    
which is not  commonly found in our     
schools4      ,,questions      #a4 ,in  
what sense is it true that we have      
habits of thought8    #b4 ,what habits  
which may interfere with or aid in your 
school work are  formed before children 
enter school8    #c4 ,why is it hard to 

break a habit of speech8    #d4         
,distinguish among actions to which we  
attribute a moral significance  those   
which are based upon habit and those    
which are reasoned4    #e4 ,professor   
,james said1 ,habits are the stuff of   
which behavior  consists4 ,indicate the 
extent to which this is true for the    
children in  your classes4    #f4 ,in   
how far is it advantageous to become a  
creature of habit8    #g4 ,which of our 
actions should be the result of reason8 
#h4 ,should school children reason their
 responses in case of a fire  alarm1 in 
passing pencils1 in formal work in      
arithmetic8 ,name responses  which      
should be the result of reason2 others  
which should be habitual4    #i4 ,why do
 we sometimes become less efficient when
 we fix our attention  upon an action   
that is ordinarily habitual8    #aj4    
,why do children sometimes write more   
poorly1 or make more mistakes  in       
addition1 or in their conjugations or   
declensions1 at the end of the  period  

than they do at the beginning8    #aa4  
,how would you hope to correct habits of
 speech learned at home8 ,what          
particular difficulty is involved8      
#ab4 ,when1 are repetitions most helpful
 in habit formation8    #ac4 ,when may  
repetitions actually break down or      
eliminate habitual  responses8    #ad4  
,how may the keeping of a record of     
one's improvement add in the  formation 
of a habit8    #ae4 ,what motives have  
you found most usable in keeping        
attention  concentrated during the      
exercises in habit formation which you  
conduct8    #af4 ,the approval or       
disapproval of a group of boys and girls
 often  brings about a very rapid change
 in physical1 moral1 or mental habits on
  the part of individual children4 ,why8
    #ag4 ,why should drill work be      
discontinued when children grow tired   
and  cease to concentrate their         
attention8    #ah4 ,why should reviews  
be undertaken at the beginning of a     
year's work8  ,how can reviews be       

organized to best advantage during the  
year8    #ai4 ,what provision do you    
make in your work to guard against      
lapses8           99       99       99  
99       99          ,v4 ,,how ,,to     
,,memorize      ,there is no sharp      
distinction between habit and memory4   
,both are  governed by the general laws 
of association4 ,they shade off into    
each  other1 and what one might call    
habit another with equal reason might   
call memory4 ,their likenesses are      
greater than their differences4         
,however1 there is some reason for      
treating the topic of association  under
 these two heads4 ,the term memory has  
been used by different  writers to mean 
at least four different types of        
association4 ,it has  been used to refer
 to the presence of mental images2 to   
refer to the  consciousness of a feeling
 or event as belonging to one's own past
  experience2 to refer to the presence  
of connections between situation  and   
motor response2 and to refer to the     

ability to recall the  appropriate      
response to a particular situation4 ,the
 last meaning of the  term is the one   
which will be used here4 ,the mere flow 
of imagery is not  memory1 and it       
matters little whether the appropriate  
response be  accompanied by the time    
element and the personal element or not4
 ,in  fact1 most of the remembering     
which is done in daily life lacks these 
two elements4    ,memory then is the    
recall of the appropriate response in a 
given  situation4 ,it differs from habit
 in that the responses referred to are  
more often mental rather than motor2 in 
that it is less automatic1 more         
purposeful4 ,the fact that the elements 
involved are so largely mental  makes it
 true that the given fact is usually    
found to have several  connections and  
the given situation to be connected with
 many facts4  ,which particular one will
 be appropriate will depend on all sorts
 of  subtle factors1 hence the need of  
the control of the connection aeries  by

 a purpose and the diminishing of the   
element of automaticity4 ,as was  said  
before1 there is no hard and fast line  
of division between habit  and memory4  
,the recall of the sqrt7#fd7 or of how  
to spell home or of  the ,french for    
table might be called either or both4   
,all that was said  in the discussion of
 habit applies to memory4    ,this      
ability to recall appropriate facts in  
given situations is  dependent primarily
 on three factors3 power of retention1  
number of  associations1 organization of
 associations4 ,the first factor1 power 
of  retention1 is the most fundamental  
and to some extent limits the           
usefulness of the other two4 ,it is     
determined by the character of the      
neurones and varies with different      
brains4 ,neurones which are easily      
impressed and retain their impression   
simply because they are so made  are the
 gift of nature and the corner stone of 
a good memory4 ,this  retention power is
 but little1 if at all1 affected by     

practice4 ,it is a  primary quality of  
the nervous system1 present or absent to
 the degree  determined by each         
individual's original nature4 ,hence    
memory as a whole  cannot be unproved1  
although the absence of certain         
conditions may mean  that it is not     
being used up to its maximum capacity4  
,change in these  conditions1 then1 will
 enable a person to make use of all the 
native  retentiveness his nervous system
 has4 ,one of the most important of     
these  conditions is good health4 ,to   
the extent that good blood1 sleep1      
exercise1 etc41 put the nervous system  
in better tone1 to that extent  the     
retentive power present is put in better
 working order4 ,every one  knows how   
lack of sleep and illness is often      
accompanied by loss in  memory4         
,repetition1 attention1 interest1       
vividness of impression1 all  appeal    
primarily to this so-called brute       
memory1 or retentive power4             
,pleasurable results seem not to be     

quite so important1 and repetition to   
be more so when the connections are     
between mental states instead of        
between mental states and motor         
responses4 ,an emphasis on1 or an       
improvement in1 the use of any one of   
these factors may call into play  to a  
greater extent than before the native   
retentive power of a given  child4      
,the power to recall a fact or an event 
depends not only upon this  quality of  
retentiveness1 but also upon the number 
of other facts or  events connected with
 it4 ,each one of these connections     
serves as an  avenue of approach1 a clew
 by means of which the recall may       
operate4 ,any  single blockade therefore
 may not hinder the recall1 provided    
there are  many associates4 ,this is    
true1 no matter how strong the retentive
 power  may be4 ,it is doubly important 
if the retentive power is weak4 ,suppose
 a  given fact to be held rather weakly 
because of comparatively poor  retentive
 power1 then the operation of one chain 

of associates may not  be energetic     
enough to recall it4 ,but if this same  
fact may be  approached from several    
different angles by means of several    
chains of  associations1 the combined   
power of the activity in the several    
neurone  chains will likely be enough to
 lift it above the threshold of recall4 
,other things being equal1 the          
likelihood that a needed fact will be   
recalled is in proportion to the number 
of its associations4    ,the third      
factor upon which goodness in memory    
depends is the  organization of         
associates4 ,number of connections is an
 aid to  memory--but systematization    
among these connections is an added     
help4  ,logical arrangement of facts in 
memory1 classification according to     
various principles1 orderly grouping of 
things that belong together1  make the  
operation of memory more efficient and  
economical4 ,the  difference between    
mere number of associations and orderly 
arrangement  of those associations may  

be illustrated by the difference in     
efficiency  between the housekeeper who 
starts more or less blindly to look all 
over  the house for a lost article1 and 
the one who at least knows that it  must
 be in a certain room and probably in a 
certain bureau drawer4  ,although memory
 as a whole cannot be improved because  
of the limiting  power of native        
retentiveness1 memory for any fact or in
 any definite  field may be improved by 
emphasizing these two factors3 number of
  associations and organization among   
associations4    ,although all three    
factors are operative in securing the   
best type of  memory1 still the         
efficiency of a given memory may be due 
more to the  unusual power of one of    
them than to the combined effect of the 
three4  ,it is this difference in the   
functioning of these three factors which
 is  primarily responsible for certain  
types of memory which will be  discussed
 later4 ,it must also be borne in mind  
that the power of these  factors to     

operate in determining recall varies    
somewhat with age4  ,little children and
 old people are more dependent upon mere
  retentiveness than upon either of the 
others1 the former because of lack  of  
experience and lack of habits of        
thought1 the latter because of the  loss
 of both of these factors4 ,the adult   
depends more on the  organization of his
 material1 while in the years between   
the number of  the clews is probably the
 controlling factor4 ,here again there  
is no  sharp line of division2 all three
 are needed4 ,so in the primary grades  
we begin to require children to         
organize1 and as adults we do all we can
  to make the power of retention operate
 at its maximum4    ,many methods of    
memorizing have been used by both       
children and adults4  ,recently         
experimental psychology has been testing
 some of them4 ,so far  as the learner  
is concerned1 he may use repetition1 or 
concentration1 or  recall as a primary  
method4 ,repetition means simply the    

going over and  over again the material 
to be learned--the element depended upon
 being  the number of times the         
connection is made4 ,concentration means
 going  over the material with          
attention4 ,not the number of           
connections is  important1 but the      
intensity of those connections4 ,in     
recall the  emphasis is laid upon       
reinstating the desired connections from
 within4  ,in using this method1 for    
instance1 the learner goes over the     
material  as many times as he sees      
necessary1 then closes the book and     
recalls  from memory what he can of it4 
,the last of the three methods is by far
 the best1 whether the memory  desired  
be rote or logical1 for several reasons4
 ,in the first place it  involves both  
the other methods or goes beyond them4  
,second1 it is  economical1 for the     
learner knows when he knows the lesson4 
,third1 it is  sure1 for it establishes 
connections as they will be used--in    
other  words1 the learning provides for 

recall1 which is the thing desired1     
whereas the other two methods establish 
only connections of impression4         
,fourth1 it tends to establish habits   
that are of themselves worth while1     
such as assuming responsibility for     
getting results1 testing one's own      
power and others4 ,fifth1 it encourages 
the use of the two factors upon  which  
memory depends1 which are most capable  
of development1 i4e41  number and       
organization of associations4    ,in    
connection with the use of the material 
two methods have been  employed--the    
part method and the whole method4 ,the  
learner may break  the material up into 
sections1 and study just one1 then the  
next1 and so  on1 or he may take all the
 material and go through with it from   
the  beginning to the end and then back 
again4 ,experimental results show the   
whole method to be the better of the    
two4 ,however1 in actual practice1      
especially with school children1        
probably a combination of the two is    

still better1 because of certain        
difficulties arising from the exclusive 
use of the whole method4 ,the advantages
 of the whole method are that it  forms 
the right connections and emphasizes the
 complete thought and  therefore saves  
time and gives the right perspective4   
,its difficulties  are that the material
 is not all of equal difficulty and     
therefore it is  wasteful to put the    
same amount of time on all parts2 it is 
discouraging  to the learner1 as no part
 may be raised above the threshold of   
recall  at the first study period       
7particularly true if it is rote        
memory72 it  is difficult to use recall1
 if the whole method is rigidly adhered 
to4 ,a  combination of the two is       
therefore wise4 ,the learner should be  
encouraged to go over the material from 
beginning to end1 until the  difficult  
parts become apparent1 then to          
concentrate on these parts for  a time  
and again go over from the              
beginning--using recall whenever        

possible4    ,a consideration of the    
time element involved in memorizing has 
given use  to two other methods1 the    
so-called concentrated and distributive4
 ,given  a certain amount of time to    
spend on a certain subject1 the learner 
may  distribute it in almost an infinite
 number of ways1 varying not only the   
length of the period of practice1 but   
also the length of time elapsing        
between periods4 ,the experimental work 
done in connection with these  methods  
has not resulted in agreement4 ,no doubt
 there is an optimum  length of period  
for practice and an optimum interval1   
but too many  factors enter in to make  
any one statement4 ,the experimental    
results  justify in a rough way the     
avoidance of very long practice periods 
and  of very short intervals4 ,they seem
 to show1 on the other hand1 that much  
longer practice periods than are        
customary in the common schools are     
probably entirely allowable1 and that   
much shorter intervals are  allowable   

than those customary between the just   
learning and successive  'reviews' in   
schools4#d ,this statement leaves the   
terms very long and  very short to be   
defined1 but at present the experimental
 results are  too contradictory to      
permit of anything more specific4       
,however1 a few  suggestions do grow    
from these results4 ,the practice period
 should be  short in proportion as these
 factors are present3 first1 young or   
immature minds2 second1 mechanical      
mental processes as opposed to  thought 
material2 third1 a learner who warms up 
quickly2 the presence  of fatigue2 a    
function near its limit4 ,thus the      
length of the optimum  period must vary 
with the age of the learner1 the subject
 matter1 the  stage of proficiency in   
the subject1 and the particular learner4
 ,the  same facts must be taken into    
consideration in deciding on the optimum
  interval4 ,one fact seems pretty well 
established in connection with the      
interval1 and that is that a            

comparatively short period of practice  
with  a review after a night's rest     
counts more than a much longer period   
added to the time spent the evening     
before4    ,there are certain           
suggestions which if carried out help   
the learner in  his memorizing4 ,in the 
first place1 as the number of associates
 is one  factor determining recall1 the 
fact to be remembered should be         
presented  in many ways1 i4e41 appealing
 to as many senses as possible4 ,in     
carrying this out1 it has been the      
practice of many teachers to require    
the material to be remembered to be     
acted out or written4 ,this is all      
right in so far as the muscular         
reactions required are mechanical and   
take little attention4 ,if1 on the other
 hand1 the child has to give much       
attention to how he is to dramatize it1 
or if writing in itself is as  yet a    
partially learned process1 the attention
 must be divided between  the fact to be
 memorized and its expression1 and hence

 the desired  result is not             
accomplished4 ,colvin claims that       
writing is not an aid to  learning until
 the sixth or seventh grade in the      
schools4 ,this same  fact that an       
association only partly known is a      
hindrance rather than a  help in fixing 
another is often violated both in       
teaching spelling and  language4 ,if the
 spelling of two is unknown or only     
partly known1 it  is a hindrance instead
 of a help to teach it at the same time 
too is  being taught4 ,second1 the      
learner should be allowed to find his   
own  speed1 as it varies tremendously   
with the individual4 ,third1 rhythm is  
always an aid when it can be used1 such 
as learning the number of days  in each 
month in rhyme4 ,fourth1 after a period 
of hard mental work a few  minutes      
7,pillsbury thinks three to six7 should 
elapse before definitely  taking up a   
new line of work4 ,this allows for the  
so-called setting of  associations1 due 
to the action of the general law of     

inertia1 and tends  to diminish the     
possibility of interference from the    
bonds called into  play by the new work4
 ,fifth1 mnemonic devices of simple type
 are  sometimes an aid4 ,most of these  
devices are of questionable value1 as   
they themselves require more memory work
 than the facts they are  supposed to be
 fixing4 ,however1 if devised by the    
learner1 or if  suggested by some one   
else after failure on the part of the   
learner to  fix the material1 they are  
permissible4    ,memory has been        
classified in various ways1 according to
 the time  element1 as immediate and    
permanent4 ,immediate memory is the one 
which  holds for a short time1 whereas  
permanent memory holds for a long time4 
,people differ markedly in this respect4
 ,some can if tested after the  study   
period reproduce the material with a    
high degree of accuracy1 but  lose most 
of it in a comparatively short time4    
,others1 if tested in the  same way1    
reproduce less immediately1 but hold    

what they have over a  long period4     
,children as a whole differ from adults 
in having poorer  immediate memories1   
but in holding what is fixed through    
years4 ,of  course permanent memory is  
the more valuable of the two types for  
most  of life1 but on the other hand    
immediate memory has its own special    
value4 ,lawyers1 physicians1            
politicians1 ministers1 lecturers1 all  
need  great power of immediate memory in
 their particular professions4 ,they    
need to be able to hold a large amount  
of material for a short time1 but  then 
they may forget a great deal of it4     
,memory is also classified according to 
the arrangement of the material  as     
desultory1 rote1 and logical memory4 ,in
 desultory memory the facts  just stick 
because of the great retentive power of 
the brain1 there  are few connections1  
the material is disconnected and        
disjointed4 ,rote  memory depends on a  
special memory for words1 aided by      
serial  connections and often rhythm4   

,logical is primarily a memory for      
meanings  and depends upon arrangement  
and system for its power4 ,little       
children  as a class have good desultory
 memories and poor logical memories4    
,rote  memory is probably at its best in
 the pre-adolescent and early           
adolescent years4 ,logical memory is    
characteristic of mature1 adult  minds4 
,however1 some people excel in one      
rather than another type1 and  each     
renders its own peculiar service4 ,a    
genius in any line finds a good         
desultory memory of immense help1       
despite the fact that logical memory  is
 the one he finds most valuable4        
,teachers1 politicians1 linguists1      
clerks1 waiters1 and others need a      
well-developed desultory memory4 ,rote  
memory is1 of course1 necessary if an   
individual is to make a success as  an  
actor1 a singer1 or a musician4         
,according to the rate of acquisition   
memory has been classified into  quick  
and slow4 ,one learner gets his material

 so much more quickly than  another4 ,up
 to rather recent years the quick       
learner has been  commiserated1 for we  
believed1 quickly come1 quickly go4     
,experimental  results have proved this 
not to be true1 but in fact the reverse 
is more  true1 i4e41 quickly come1      
slowly go4 ,the one who learns quickly1 
provided he really learns it1 retains it
 just as long and on the average  longer
 than the one who learns much more      
slowly4 ,the danger1 from a  practical  
point of view1 is that the quick        
learner1 because of his  ability1 gets  
careless and learns the material only   
well enough to  reproduce at the time1  
whereas the slow learner1 because of his
 lack of  ability1 raises his efficiency
 to a higher level and therefore        
retains4  ,if the quick learner had     
spent five minutes more on the material1
 he  would have raised his work to the  
same level as that of the slow one and  
yet have finished in perhaps half the   
time4    ,all through the discussion of 

kinds of memory the term memory should  
have been used in the plural1 for after 
all we possess memories and  not a      
single faculty memory which may be      
quick1 or desultory1 or  permanent4 ,the
 actual condition of affairs is much    
more complex1 for  although it has been 
the individual who has been designated  
as quick or  logical1 it would be much  
more accurate to designate the          
particular  memory4 ,the same person may
 have a splendid desultory memory for   
gossip  and yet in science be of the    
logical type4 ,in learning ,french      
vocabularies he may have only a good    
immediate memory1 whereas his  memory   
for faces may be most lasting4 ,his     
ability to learn facts in  history may  
class him as a quick learner1 whereas   
his slowness in  learning music may be  
proverbial4 ,the degree to which        
quickness of  learning or permanence of 
memory in one line is correlated with   
that  same ability in others has not yet
 been ascertained4 ,that there is some  

correlation is probable1 but at present 
the safest way is to think in  terms of 
special memories and special            
acquisitions4 ,some experimental  work  
has been done to discover the order in  
which special memories  develop in      
children4 ,the results1 however1 are not
 in agreement and the  experiments      
themselves are unsatisfactory4 ,that    
there is some more or  less definite    
order of development1 paralleling to a  
certain extent the  growth of instincts1
 is probable1 but nothing more definite 
is known  than observation teaches4 ,for
 instance1 every observer of children   
knows  that memory for objects develops 
before memory for words2 that memory    
for gestures preceded memory for words2 
that memory for oral language  preceded 
memory for written language2 that memory
 for concrete objects  preceded memory  
for abstractions4 ,further knowledge of 
the development  of special memories    
should be accompanied by knowledge as to
 how far  this development is dependent 

on training and to what extent lack of  
memory involves lack of understanding   
before it can be of much practical      
value to the teacher4    ,just as       
repetition or exercise tends to fix a   
fact in memory1 so disuse  of a         
connection results in the fact fading   
from memory4 ,forgetting is  a matter of
 everyday experience for every one4 ,the
 rate of forgetting  has been the       
subject of experimental work4           
,ebbinghaus's investigation is  the     
historical one4 ,the results from this  
particular series of  experiments are as
 follows3 ,during the first hour after  
study over half  of what was learned had
 been forgotten2 at the end of the first
 day two  thirds1 and at the end of a   
month about four fifths4 ,these results 
have  been accepted as capable of rather
 general application until within the   
last few years4 ,recent experiments in  
learning poetry1 translation of  ,french
 into ,english1 practice in addition and
 multiplication1 learning  to toss balls

 and to typewrite1 and others1 make     
clear that there is no  general curve of
 forgetting4 ,the rate of forgetting is 
more rapid soon  after the practice     
period than later1 but the total amount 
forgotten and  the rate of deterioration
 depend upon the particular function    
tested4 ,no  one function can serve as a
 sample for others4 ,no one curve of    
forgetting exists for different         
functions at the same stage of          
advancement or for the same function at 
different stages of advancement  in the 
same individual1 much less for different
 functions1 at different  stages of     
advancement1 in different individuals4  
,much more experimental  work is needed 
before definite general results can be  
stated4    ,this experimental work1     
however1 is suggestive along several    
lines1 7#a7  ,it seems possible that    
habits of skill1 involving direct       
sensori-motor  bonds1 are more permanent
 than memories involving connections    
between  association bonds4 ,in other   

words1 that physical habits are more    
lasting  than memories of intellectual  
facts4 7#b7 ,overlearning seems a       
necessary  correlate of permanence of   
connection4 ,that is1 what seems to be  
overlearning at beginning stages is     
really only raising the material to  the
 necessary level above the threshold for
 retention4 ,how far  overlearning is   
necessary and when it becomes wasteful  
are yet to be  determined4 7#c7         
,deterioration is hastened by competing 
connections4 ,if  during the time a     
particular function is lying idle other 
bonds of  connection are being formed   
into some parts or elements of it1 the  
rate  of forgetting of the function in  
question is hastened and the            
possibility of recall made more         
problematic4 ,the less the interference1
  the greater will be the permanence of 
the particular bonds4    ,a belief      
maintained by some psychologists is in  
direct opposition to  this general law  
that disuse causes deterioration4 ,it is

 usually stated  something like this1   
that periods of incubation are necessary
 in  acquiring skill1 or that letting a 
function lie fallow results in  greater 
skill at the end of that period1 or     
briefly one learns to skate  in summer  
and swim in winter4 ,to some extent this
 is true1 but as stated  it is          
misleading4 ,the general law of the     
effect of disuse on a memory is  true1  
but under some circumstances its effect 
is mitigated by the  presence of other  
factors whose presence has been unnoted4
 ,sometimes  this improvement without   
practice is explained by the fact that  
at the  last practice period the actual 
improvement was masked by fatigue or    
boredom1 so that disuse involving rest  
and the disappearance of fatigue  and   
boredom produces apparent gain1 when in 
reality it but allows the  real         
improvement to become evident4          
,sometimes a particular practice  period
 was accompanied by certain undesirable 
elements such as worry1  excitement1    

misunderstandings1 and so on1 and       
therefore the improvement  hindered or  
masked1 whereas at the next period under
 different  conditions there would be   
less interference and therefore added   
gain4  ,all experimental evidence is    
against the opinion that mere disuse in 
and  of itself produces gain4 ,in fact1 
all results point to the fact that      
disuse brings deterioration4    ,in the 
case of memory1 as has already been     
described in habit formation1  reviews  
which are organized with the period     
between repetitions only  gradually     
lengthened may do much to insure        
permanence4 ,it is entirely  feasible to
 have children at the end of any school 
year able to repeat  the poems or prose 
selections which they have memorized1   
provided that  they have been recalled  
with sufficient frequency during the    
course of  the year4 ,in a subject like 
geography or history1 or in the study of
  mathematics or science1 in which      
logical memory is demanded1 systematic  

reviews1 rather than cramming for       
examinations1 will result in  permanence
 of command of the facts or principles  
involved1 especially  when these reviews
 have involved the right type of        
organization and as  many associations  
as is possible4    ,it is important in  
those subjects which involve a logical  
organization  of ideas to have ideas    
associated around some particular       
problem or  situation in which the      
individual is vitally interested4       
,children may  readily forget a large   
number of facts which they have learned 
about  cats in the first grade1 while   
the same children might remember1 very  
many of them1 had these facts been      
organized round the problem of taking   
care of cats1 and of how cats take care 
of themselves4 ,a group of  children in 
an upper grade may forget with great    
rapidity the facts of  climate1 soil1   
surface drainage1 industries1 and the   
like1 while they  may remember with     
little difficulty facts which belong    

under each of  these categories on      
account of the interest which they have 
taken in the  problem1 ,why is the      
western part of the ,united ,states much
 more  sparsely populated than the      
,mississippi ,valley8 ,boys and girls   
who  study physics in the high school   
may find it difficult to remember the   
principles involved in their study of   
heat if they are given only in  their   
logical order and are applied only in   
laboratory exercises which  have little 
or no meaning for them1 while the same  
group of high school  pupils may        
remember without difficulty these same  
laws or principles if  associated round 
the issue of the most economical way of 
heating their  houses1 or of the best   
way to build an icehouse4    ,there has 
been in our school system during the    
past few years more or  less of a       
reaction against verbatim memorization1 
which is certainly  justified when we   
are considering those subjects which    
involve primarily  an organization of   

ideas in terms of problems to be solved1
 rather than  memory for the particular 
form of expression of the ideas in      
question4  ,it is worth while1 however1 
at every stage of education to use      
whatever  power children may possess for
 verbatim memorization1 especially in   
the  field of literature1 and to some   
extent in other fields as well4 ,it     
seems to the writers to be worth while  
to indicate as clearly as  possible in  
the illustration which follows the      
method to be employed in  verbatim      
memorization4 ,as will be easily        
recognized1 the number and  organization
 of associations are an important       
consideration4 ,it is  especially       
important to call attention to the fact 
that any attempt at  verbatim           
memorization should follow a very       
careful thinking through of  the whole  
selection to be memorized4 ,an          
organization of the ideas in  terms of  
that which is most important1 and that  
which can be  subordinated to these     

larger thoughts1 a combination of method
 of  learning by wholes and by parts1 is
 involved4    ,it is not easy to        
indicate fully the method by which one  
would attempt  to teach to a group of   
sixth-grade boys or girls ,wordsworth's 
,daffodils4 ,the main outline of the    
method may1 however1 be indicated  as   
follows3 ,the first thing to be done is 
to arouse1 in so far as is  possible1   
some interest and enthusiasm for the    
poem in question4 ,one  might suggest to
 the class something of the beauty of   
the high1 rugged  hills1 and of the     
lakes nestling among them in the region 
which is  called the ,lake ,region in   
,england4 ,the ,wordsworth cottage near 
one of  the lakes1 and at the foot of   
one of the high hills1 together with the
  walk which is to this day called      
,wordsworth's ,walk1 can be brought to  
the mind1 especially by a teacher who   
has taken the trouble to know  something
 of ,wordsworth's home life4 ,the       
enthusiasm of the poet for the  beauties

 of nature and his enjoyment in walking 
over the hills and  around the lakes1 is
 suggested by the poem itself4 ,one     
might suggest to  the pupils that this  
is the story of a walk which he took one
 morning  early in the spring4    ,the  
attempt will be made from this point on 
to give the illustration as  the writer 
might have hoped to have it recorded as 
presented to a  particular class4 ,the  
poet tells us first of his loneliness   
and of the  surprise which was his when 
he caught sight for the first time of   
the  daffodils which had blossomed since
 the last time that he had taken this   
particular walk3        ,i wandered     
lonely as a cloud      ,that floats on  
high o'er vales and hills1      ,when   
all at once ,i saw a crowd1      ,a     
host1 of golden daffodils2      ,beside 
the lake1 beneath the trees1            
,fluttering and dancing in the breeze4  
,you see1 he was not expecting to meet  
any one or to have any unusual          
experience4 ,he wandered lonely as a    

cloud that floats on high o'er  vales   
and hills1 and his surprise was complete
 when he saw  suddenly1--all at once ,i 
saw a crowd1 a host of golden daffodils1
  beside the lake1 beneath the trees4   
,you might have said that they were     
waving in the wind1 but he saw them     
fluttering and dancing in the  breeze4  
,the daffodils as they waved and danced 
in the breeze suggested to him  the     
experience which he had had on other    
walks which he had taken when  the stars
 were shining1 and he compares the      
golden daffodils to the  shining1       
twinkling stars3        ,continuous as  
the stars that shine      ,and twinkle  
on the ,milky ,way1      ,they stretched
 in never-ending line      ,along the   
margin of a bay2      ,ten thousand saw 
,i at a glance1      ,tossing their     
heads in sprightly dance4    ,the       
daffodils were as continuous as the     
stars that shine and twinkle on  the    
,milky ,way4 ,there was no beginning and
 no end to the line1--,they  stretched  

in never-ending line along the margin of
 a bay4 ,he saw as  many daffodils as   
one might see stars1--,ten thousand saw 
,i at a glance1  tossing their heads in 
sprightly dance4    ,the poet has       
enjoyed the beauty of the little        
rippling waves in the  lake1 and he     
tells us that        ,the waves beside  
them danced2 but they      ,outdid the  
sparkling waves in glee3      ,a poet   
could not but be gay1      ,in such a   
jocund company3      ,i gazed--and      
gazed1--but little thought      ,what   
wealth the show to me had brought3      
,the daffodils have really left the poet
 with a great joy1--the waves  beside   
the daffodils are dancing1 but they     
outdid the sparkling waves  in glee1 and
 of course a poet could not but be gay  
in such a jocund  company4 ,had you ever
 thought of flowers as a jocund company8
 ,you  remember they fluttered and      
danced in the breeze1 they lifted their 
heads in sprightly dance4 ,do you wonder
 that the poet says of his  experience1 

,i gazed--and gazed1--but little thought
 what wealth the  show to me had        
brought8 ,i wonder if any of you have   
ever had a similar  experience4 ,i      
remember the days when ,i used to go    
fishing1 and there is  a great joy even 
now in recalling the twitter of the     
birds and the hum  of the bees as ,i lay
 on the bank and waited for the fish to 
bite4    ,and what is the great joy     
which is his1 and which may belong to   
us1 if  we really see the beautiful     
things in nature8 ,he tells us when he  
says        ,for oft1 when on my couch  
,i lie      ,in vacant or in pensive    
mood1      ,they flash upon that inward 
eye      ,which is the bliss of         
solitude2      ,and then my heart with  
pleasure fills1      ,and dances with   
the daffodils4    ,there are days when  
we cannot get out of doors1--,for oft1  
when on my  couch ,i lie in vacant or in
 pensive mood1--these are the days when 
we  recall the experiences which we have
 enjoyed in the days which are          

gone1--they flash upon that inward eye  
which is the bliss of solitude4  ,and   
then for the poet1 as well as for us1   
,and then my heart with  pleasure fills1
 and dances with the daffodils4    ,now 
let us get the main ideas in the story  
which the poet tells us of  his         
adventure4 ,i wandered lonely as a cloud
 that floats on high o'er  vales and    
hills1 ,i saw a crowd1 a host1 of golden
 daffodils1 they  were beside the lake1 
beneath the trees1 fluttering and       
dancing in the  breeze4 ,they reminded  
me as ,i saw the beautiful arched line  
of the  stars that shine and twinkle on 
the ,milky ,way1 because they stretched 
in never-ending line along the margin of
 a bay2 and as ,i watched ten  thousand 
,i saw1 tossing their heads in sprightly
 dance4 ,and then they  reminded me of  
the waves which sparkled near by1 but   
they outdid the  sparkling waves in     
glee1 and in the happiness which was    
mine1 ,i  gazed--and gazed1--but little 
thought what wealth the show to me had  

brought4 ,and that happiness ,i can     
depend upon when upon my couch ,i lie   
in vacant or in pensive mood1 for they  
flash upon that inward eye which  is the
 bliss of solitude1 and my heart will   
fill with pleasure and  dance with the  
daffodils4    ,these1 then1 are the big 
ideas which the poet has1--he wanders   
lonely as  a cloud1 he enjoys the great 
surprise of the daffodils1 the great    
crowd1  the host1 of golden daffodils1  
fluttering and dancing in the breeze2 he
  thinks of the stars that twinkle in   
the ,milky ,way1 because the line of    
daffodils seems to have no beginning and
 no end1--he sees ten thousand  of them 
at a glance1 tossing their heads in     
sprightly dance4 ,and as he  looks at   
them he thinks of the beauty of the     
sparkling waves1 and thinks  of them as 
they dance with glee1 and he gazes and  
gazes without thinking  of the wealth of
 the experience4 ,but later when he     
writes the poem1 he  tells us of the    
wealth of the experience which can last 

through all of  the days when he lies on
 his couch in vacant or in pensive mood1
 for it  is then that this experience   
flashes upon that inward eye which is   
the  bliss of solitude1 and his heart   
fills with pleasure and dances with the 
daffodils4    ,now let us say it all    
over again1 and see how nearly we are   
able to  recall the story of his        
experience in just the words that he    
used4 ,i  will read it for you first1   
and then you may all try to repeat it   
after  me4    ,the teacher then reads   
the whole poem through1 possibly more   
than once1  and then asks all of the    
children to recite it with him1         
repeating  possibly the first stanza    
twice or three times until they get it1 
and  then the second stanza two or three
 times1 then the third as often as  may 
be necessary1 and finally the fourth4   
,it may be well then to go back  and    
again analyze the thought1 and indicate1
 using as far as possible  the author's 
own words1 the development of ideas     

through the poem4 ,then  the poem should
 be recited as a whole by the teacher   
and children4 ,the  children may then be
 left to study it so that they may      
individually on  the next day recite it 
verbatim4 ,the writer has found it      
possible to  have a number of children  
in a sixth grade able to repeat the poem
  verbatim after the kind of treatment  
indicated above1 and at the end of  a   
period of fifteen minutes4              
,,questions      #a4 ,distinguish in so 
far as you can between habit and memory4
    #b4 ,name the factors which         
determine one's ability to recall4      
#c4 ,how can you hope to improve        
children's memories8 ,which of the      
factors  involved are subject to        
improvement8    #d4 ,in what way can you
 improve the organization of            
associations upon the  part of children 
in any one of the subjects which you    
teach8 ,how  increase the number of     
associations8    #e4 ,what advantage has
 the method of concentration over the   

method of  repetition in memorization8  
#f4 ,give the reasons why the method of 
recall is the best method of            
memorization4    #g4 ,if you were       
teaching a poem of four stanzas1 would  
you use the method  of memorization by  
wholes or by parts8 ,indicate clearly   
the degree to  which the one or the     
other method should be used or the      
nature of the  combination of methods   
for the particular selection which you  
use for  the purposes of illustration4  
#h4 ,how long do children in your       
classes seem to be able to work hard at 
verbatim memorization8    #i4 ,under    
what conditions may the writing of the  
material being memorized  actually      
interfere with the process8 ,when may it
 help8    #aj4 ,why may it not be wise  
to attempt to teach their and there at  
the same time8    #aa4 ,what is the type
 of memory employed by children who have
  considerable ability in cramming for  
examinations8 ,is this type of  memory  
ever useful in later life8    #ab4 ,what

 precaution do we need to take to insure
 permanence in memory  upon the part of 
those who learn quickly8    #ac4 ,what  
is meant by saying that we possess      
memories rather than a power  or        
capacity called memory8    #ad4 ,do we  
forget with equal rapidity in all fields
 in which we have  learned8 ,what       
factors determine the rate of           
forgetting8    #ae4 ,why should a boy   
think through a poem to be memorized    
rather than  beginning his work by      
trying to repeat the first two lines8   
99       99       99       99       99  
,,vi4 ,,the ,,teacher',s ,,use ,,of     
,,the ,,imagination      ,imagination is
 governed by the same general laws of   
association which  control habit and    
memory4 ,in these two former topics the 
emphasis was  upon getting a desired    
result without any attention to the form
 of that  result4 ,imagination1 on the  
other hand1 has to do with the way past 
experience is used and the form taken by
 the result4 ,it merges into  memory in 

one direction and into thinking in      
another4 ,no one definition  has been   
found acceptable--in fact1 in no field  
of psychology is there  more difference 
of opinion1 in no topic are terms used  
more loosely1  than in this one of      
imagination4 ,stated in very general    
terms1  imagination is the process of   
reproducing1 or reconstructing any form 
of  experience4 ,the result of such a   
process is a mental image4 ,when the    
fact that it is reproduction or         
reconstruction is lost sight of1 and the
  image reacted to as if it were        
present1 an illusion or hallucination   
results4    ,images may be classified   
according to the sense through which the
  original experience came1 into visual1
 auditory1 gustatory1 tactile1          
kinsthetic1 and so on4 ,in many         
discussions of imagery the term  picture
 has been used to describe it1 and hence
 in the thought of many  it is limited  
rather definitely to the visual field4  
,of course this is  entirely wrong4 ,the

 recall of a melody1 or of the touch of 
velvet1 or of  the fragrance of a rose1 
is just as much mental imagery as the   
recall of  the sight of a friend4       
,three points of dispute in connection  
with image types are worth while        
noting4 ,first1 the question is raised  
by some psychologists as to  whether    
kinsthetic or motor images really exist4
 ,an example of such an  image would be 
to imagine yourself as dancing1 or      
walking downstairs1 or  writing your    
name1 or saying the word bubble4 ,those 
who object to such  an image type claim 
that when one tries to get such an      
image1 the  attempt initiates slight    
muscle movements and the result is a    
sense  experience instead of an imaged  
one4 ,they believe this always happens  
and that therefore a motor image is an  
impossibility4 ,others agree that  this 
reinstatement of actual movements often 
happens1 but contend that  in such cases
 the image precedes the movement and    
that the resulting  movement does not   

always take place4 ,the question is     
still in dispute4    ,the second        
question in dispute is as to the        
possibility of classifying  people      
according to the predominant type of    
their imagery4 ,people used  to be      
classed as visualizers1 audiles4 etc41  
the supposition being  that their mental
 imagery was predominantly in terms of  
vision or  hearing4 ,this is being      
seriously questioned1 and experimental  
work seems  to show that such a         
classification1 at least with the       
majority of  people1 is impossible4 ,the
 results which are believed to warrant  
such a  conclusion are as follows3      
,first1 no one has ever been tested who 
always  used one type of image4 ,second1
 the type of image used changed with the
  following factors3 the material1 the  
purpose of the subject1 the  familiarity
 of the subject with the experience     
imagined4 ,for example1  the same person
 would1 perhaps1 visualize if he were   
imaging landscape1  but get an auditory 

image of a friend's voice instead of a  
visual image  of him4 ,he might1 when   
under experimental conditions with the  
controlling purpose1--that of examining 
his images1--get visual images1  but1   
when under ordinary conditions1 get a   
larger number of auditory and           
kinsthetic images4 ,he might when       
thought was flowing smoothly be using   
auditory and motor images1 but upon the 
appearance of some obstacle or          
difficulty in the process find himself  
flooded with visual images4  ,third1    
subjects who ranked high in one type of 
imagery ranked high in  others1 and     
subjects who ranked low in one type     
ranked low also in  others4 ,the ability
 seems to be that of getting clear image
 types1 or  the lack of it1 rather than 
the ability to get one type4 ,fourth1   
most of  the subjects reported that the 
first image was usually followed by     
others of different types4 ,the         
conclusions then1 that individuals1     
children as well as adults1 are rarely  

of one fixed type1 the mixed type  being
 the usual one1 is being generally      
accepted4 ,in fact1 it seems much  more 
probable that materials and outside     
conditions can more easily be           
classified as usually arousing a certain
 type of image1 than people can  be     
classified into types4    ,the third    
point of controversy grows out of the   
second4 ,some  psychologists are asking 
what is the value of such a             
classification8  ,suppose people could  
be put under types in imagery1 what     
would be the  practical advantage8 ,such
 an attempt at classification is futile 
and not  worth while1 for two reasons4  
,first1 the result of the mental        
processes--the goal arrived at is the   
important thing1 and the  particular    
type of image used is of little         
importance4 ,does it make any           
difference to the business man whether  
his clerk thinks in terms of the  visual
 images of words or in terms of motor   
images so long as he sells  the goods8  

,to the teacher of geography1 does it   
make any difference  whether ,john in   
his thinking of the value of trees is   
seeing them in his  mind's eye1 or      
hearing the wind rustle through the     
leaves1 or smelling  the moist earth1   
leaf-mold1 or having none of these      
images1 if he gets  the meaning1 and    
reaches a right conclusion8 ,second1 the
 sense which  gives the clearest1 most  
dependable impressions is not the one   
necessarily in terms of which the       
experience is recalled4 ,one of the     
chief values urged for a classification 
according to image type of  people1     
especially children1 has been that the  
appeal could then be made  through the  
corresponding sense organs4 ,for        
instance1 ,group ,a1 being  visualizers1
 will be asked to read the material     
silently2 ,group ,b1  audiles1 will have
 the material read to them2 ,group ,c1  
motiles1 will be  asked to read the     
material orally1 or asked to dramatize  
it4 ,for each  group the major appeal   

should be made in terms of the sense    
corresponding to their image type4 ,but 
such a correspondence as this  does not 
exist4 ,an individual may learn best by 
use of his eyes and yet  very seldom use
 visual images in recall4 ,this is true 
of most people in  reading4 ,most people
 grasp the meaning of a passage better  
when they  read it than when they hear  
it read1 and yet the predominant type of
  word image is auditory-motor4 ,hence  
if any classification of children is    
attempted it should be according to the 
sense by means of which they  learn     
best1 and not according to some supposed
 image type4 ,many methods  of appeal   
for all children is the safest practical
 suggestion4    ,images may also be     
classified according to the use made of 
past  experience4 ,past experience may  
be recalled in approximately the same   
form in which it occurred1 or it may be 
reconstructed4 ,in the former  case the 
image is called reproductive image or   
memory image2 in the  latter form it is 

called productive or creative image1 or 
image of the  imagination4 ,the         
reproductive image never duplicates     
experience1 but in  its major features  
it closely corresponds to it1 whereas   
the productive  image breaks up old     
experiences and from them makes new     
wholes which  correspond to no definite 
occurrence4 ,the elements found in both 
kinds  of imagery must come from        
experience4 ,one cannot imagine anything
 the  elements of which he has not      
experienced4 ,creative imagination      
transcends experience only in the sense 
that it remodels and remakes1  but the  
result of that activity produces new    
wholes as far removed from  the actual  
occurrences as ,alice in ,wonderland is 
from the humdrum life  of a tenement    
dweller4 ,just the same1 the fact that  
the elements used in  creative work must
 be drawn from experience is extremely  
suggestive from  a practical point of   
view4 ,it demonstrates the need of a    
rich sensory  life for every child4 ,it 

also explains the reason for the lack of
  appreciation on the part of immature  
children of certain types of  literature
 and certain moral questions4    ,no    
more need be said here of the           
reproductive image1 as it is synonymous 
with the memory image and was therefore 
treated fully under the topic of        
memory4 ,one fact should be borne in    
mind1 however1 and that is1 that the    
creative image is to some extent        
dependent on the reproductive image as  
it involves recall4 ,however1 as        
productive imagery involves the recall  
of elements or parts rather than wholes1
 an individual may have talent  in      
creative imagery without being above the
 average in exact  reproduction4        
,productive imagery may be classified as
 fanciful1 realistic1 and  idealistic   
according to the character of the       
material used4 ,fanciful  productive    
imagery is characterized by its         
spontaneity1 its disregard of  the      
probable and possible1 its vividness of 

detail4 ,it is its own  reward1 and does
 not look to any result beyond itself4  
,little children's  imaginations are of 
this type--it is their play world of    
make-believe4  ,the incongruity and     
absurdity of their images have been     
compared to the  dreams of adults4      
,lacking in experience1 without         
knowledge of natural  laws1 their       
imagination runs riot with the materials
 it has at its  command4 ,some adults   
still retain it to a high               
degree--witness the myths  and fairy    
stories1 ,alice in ,wonderland1 and the 
like4 ,all adults in  their             
castle-building indulge in this type of 
imagery to some extent4  ,realistic     
productive imagery1 as its name implies1
 adheres more strictly  to actual       
conditions1 it deals with the probable4 
,it usually is  constructed for a       
purpose1 being put to some end beyond   
itself4 ,it lacks  much of the emotional
 element possessed by the other two     
types4 ,this is  the kind most valuable 

in reasoning and thinking4 ,it deals    
with new  situations--constructs them1  
creates means of dealing with them1 and 
forecasts the results4 ,it is the type  
of productive imagery called into  play 
by inventors1 by craftsmen1 by          
physicians1 by teachers--in fact1 by    
any one who tries to bring about a      
change in conditions by the  functioning
 of a definite thought process4 ,this is
 the kind of imagery  which most        
interests grammar school pupils4 ,they  
demand facts1 not  fancies4 ,they are   
most active in making changes in a world
 of things4    ,idealistic productive   
imagery does not fly in the face of     
reality as  does the fanciful1 nor does 
it adhere so strictly to facts as does  
the  realistic4 ,it deals with the      
possible--with what may be1 but with    
what  is not yet4 ,it always looks to   
the future1 for if realized it is no    
longer idealistic4 ,it is enjoyed for   
its own sake but does not exist for     
that alone1 but looks towards some      

result4 ,it is concerned primarily  with
 human lives and has a strong emotional 
tone4 ,it is the heart of  ideals4 ,the 
adolescent revels in this type of       
productive imagery4 ,his  dreams        
concerning his own future1 his service  
to his fellow men1 his  success1 and the
 like involve much idealistic imagery4  
,hero worship  involves it4 ,it is one  
of the differences between the man with 
vision  and the man without4    ,the    
importance of productive imagery cannot 
be overemphasized4 ,this  power to      
create the new out of the old is one of 
the greatest  possessions of mankind4   
,all progress in every field1 whether   
individual  or racial1 depends upon it4 
,from the fertility and richness of     
man's  productive imagination must come 
all the suggestions which will make     
this world other than what it is4       
,therefore one of the greatest tasks of 
education at present is to cherish and  
cultivate this power4 ,one cannot  fail 
to recognize1 however1 that with the    

emphasis at present so largely  upon    
memory1 the cultivation of the          
imagination is being pushed into the    
background despite all our theories to  
the contrary4 ,not only is  productive  
imagery as a whole worth while1 but each
 type is valuable4 ,an  adult lacking   
power of fanciful imagination lacks     
power to enjoy certain  elements in life
 and lacks a very definite means of     
recreation4 ,lacking  in realistic      
imagination he is unable to deal        
successfully with new  situations1 but  
must forever remain in bondage to the   
past4 ,without  idealistic imagination  
he lacks the motive which makes men     
strive to be  better1 more              
efficient--other than what they are4 ,at
 certain times in  child development one
 type may need special encouragement1   
and at  another time some other4 ,all   
should1 however1 be borne in mind and   
developed along right and wholesome     
lines2 otherwise1 left to itself1  any  
one of these1 and especially the last1  

may be a source of danger to  the       
character4    ,images may be classified 
according to the material dealt with    
into  object images or concrete images  
and into word or abstract images4 ,no   
one of these terms is very good as a    
name of the image referred to4 ,the     
first group--object or concrete         
image--refers to an image in which the  
sensory qualities1 such as color1 size1 
rhythm1 sweetness1 harmony1  etc41 are  
present4 ,the images of a friend1 of a  
text-book1 of the  national anthem1 of  
an orange1 of the schoolroom1 and so on1
 would all  be object images4 ,a word or
 abstract image is one which is a       
symbol4 ,it  stands for and represents  
certain sensory experiences1 the quality
 of  which does not appear in the image4
 ,any word1 number1 mathematical or     
chemical symbol--in fact1 any abstract  
symbol will come under this type  of    
image4 ,if in the first list of         
illustrations1 instead of having  images
 of the real objects1 an individual had 

images of words in each  case1 the      
images would be abstract or verbal      
images4 ,abstract images  shade into    
concrete by gradual degrees--there is no
 sharp line of  division between the    
two2 however1 they do form two different
 kinds of  images1 two forms which may  
have the same meaning4    ,the question 
as to the respective use and value of   
these two kinds of  images is given     
different answers4 ,there is no question
 but that the  verbal image is more     
economical than the object image4 ,it   
saves energy  and time4 ,it brings with 
it less of irrelevant detail and is more
 stable  than the object image1 and     
therefore results in more accurate      
thinking4  ,it is abstract in nature and
 therefore has more general application4
 ,on  the other hand1 it has been       
claimed for the object image that it    
necessarily precedes the verbal         
image--is fundamental to it2 that it is 
essential in creative work dealing with 
materials and sounds and in the         

appreciation of certain types of        
descriptive literature1 and that in any 
part of the thinking process when1      
because of difficulty of some kind1 a   
percept would help1 an object image     
would be of the same assistance4 ,it  is
 concerning these supposed advantages of
 the object image that there  has been  
most dispute4 ,there is no proof that   
the line of growth is  necessarily from 
percept1 through object image1 to verbal
 image4 ,in  certain fields1 notably    
smell1 the object image is almost absent
 and yet  the verbal images in that     
field carry meaning4 ,it is also true   
that  people whose power of getting     
clear-cut1 vivid object images is almost
  nil seem to be in nowise hampered by  
that fact in their use of the  symbols4 
,knowing the unreliability of the object
 image1 it would seem  very unsafe to   
use it as the link between percept and  
symbol4 ,much  better to connect the    
symbol directly with the experience and 
let it  gain its meaning from that4 ,as 

to its value in constructive work in    
arts1 literature1 drama1 and invention1 
the testimony of some experts in  each  
field bears witness that it is not a    
necessary accompaniment of  success4    
,the musician need not hear1 mentally1  
all the harmonies1  changes1 intervals2 
he may think them in terms of notes1    
rests1 etc41 as  he composes4 ,the poet 
need not see the scene he is describing2
 verbal  images may bear his meanings4  
,of course this does not mean that      
object  images may not be present too1  
but the point is that the worker is not 
dependent on them4 ,the aid offered by  
object images in time of  difficulty is 
still more open to doubt4 ,as an        
illustration of what is  meant by this3 
,suppose a child to be given a carpeting
 example in  arithmetic which he finds  
himself unable to solve4 ,the claim is  
made  that if he will then call up a    
concrete image of the room1 he will see 
that the carpet is laid in strips and   
that suggestion may set him right4  ,but

 it has been proved experimentally over 
and over again that if he  doesn't know 
that carpets are laid that way1 he will 
never get it from  the image1 and if he 
does know it1 he doesn't need an object 
image4 ,it  seems to be a fact that     
object images do not function1 in the   
sense that  one cannot get a correct    
answer as to color1 or form1 or number  
from  them4 ,one can read off from a    
concrete image what he knows to be true 
of  it--or else it is just guessing4    
,knowing in each case involves          
observation and judgment1 and that means
 verbal images4 ,students whose  power  
of concrete imagery is low do1 on the   
average1 in situations where  a concrete
 image would supposedly help1 just as   
well as students whose  power in this   
field is high4 ,it does seem to be true 
that object images  give a vividness and
 color to mental life which may result  
in a keener  appreciation of certain    
types of literature4 ,this warmth and   
vividness  which object images add to   

the mental processes of those who have  
them  is a boon4    ,on the whole1 then1
 word images are the more valuable of   
the two types4  ,upon them depends1     
primarily1 the ability to handle new    
situations1 and  even in the            
constructive fields they are all        
sufficient4 ,these two  facts1 added to 
the fact that they are more accurate1   
speedy1 and  general in application1    
makes them a necessary part of the      
mental  equipment of an efficient       
worker1 and means that much more        
attention  must be given to the         
development of productive symbol images4
    ,two warnings should be borne in    
mind3 ,first1 although the object images
  are not necessary in general1 as      
discussed above1 to any given           
individual1 because of his particular   
habits of thought1 they may be          
necessary accompaniments to his mental  
processes4 ,second1 although  object    
images may not help in giving           
understanding or appreciation under  new

 conditions1 still the method of asking 
students to try to image  certain       
conditions is worth while because it    
makes them stop and think1  which is    
always a help4 ,whether they get object 
or word images in the  process makes no 
difference4    ,the discussion          
concerning the possibility of imageless 
thought1 while  an interesting one1     
cannot be entered into here4 ,whether   
meanings can  exist in the human mind   
apart from any carrier in the form of   
some  sensory or imaginal state is      
unsettled1 but the discussion has drawn 
attention to at least the very          
fragmentary nature of those carriers4 ,a
  few fragments of words1 a mental shrug
 of the shoulder1 a feeling of the      
direction in which a certain course is  
leading1 a consciousness of one's       
attitude towards a plan or person--and  
the conclusion is reached4 ,the         
thinking1 or it may even have been      
reasoning1 involved few clear-cut       
images of any kind4 ,the fragmentary1   

schematic nature of the carriers  and   
the large part played by feelings of    
direction and attitude are the  rather  
astonishing results of the introspective
 analysis resulting from  this          
discussion4 ,this sort of thinking is   
valuable for the same reasons  that     
thinking in terms of words is           
valuable--it only goes a step  further1 
but it needs direction and training4    
,images of all kinds have been discussed
 as if they stood out clearly           
differentiated from all other types of  
mental states4 ,this is necessary  in   
order that their peculiar               
characteristics and functions may be    
clear4  ,however1 they are not so       
clearly defined in actual mental life1  
but  shade into each other and into     
other mental states1 giving rise to     
confusion and error4 ,the two greatest  
sources of error are3 first1 the        
confusion of image with percept1 and    
second1 the confusion of memory  image  
with image of the imagination4 ,the     

chief difference between these  mental  
states as they exist is a difference in 
kind and amount of  associations4 ,these
 different associates usually give to   
the percept a  vividness and material   
reality which the other two lack4 ,they 
give to  the memory image a feeling of  
pastness and trueness which the image of
  imagination lacks4 ,therefore lack of 
certain associations1 due to lack  of   
experience or knowledge1 or presence of 
associations due to these  same causes  
and to the undue vividness of other     
connections1 could  easily result in one
 of these states being mistaken for     
another4 ,there  is no inherent         
difference between them4 ,the first type
 of confusion1  between percept and     
image1 has been recently made the       
subject of  investigation4 ,perky found 
that even with trained adults1 if the   
perceptual stimulus was slight1 it was  
mistaken for an image4 ,all  illusions  
would come under this head4 ,children's 
imaginary companions1  when really      

believed in1 are explained by this      
confusion4 ,however1 the  confusion is  
much more general than these            
illustrations would seem to  imply4 ,the
 fact that ,love is blind1 that ,we see 
what we look for are  but statements of 
this same confusion1 and these two facts
 enter into  multitudes of situations   
all through life4 ,the need to see life 
clearly  and see it whole is an         
imperative one4    ,the second type of  
confusion1 between reproductive and     
productive  memory1 is even more common4
 ,the white lies of children1 the       
embroidering of a story by the adult1   
the adding to and adding to the         
original experience until all sense of  
what really happened is lost1 are  but  
ordinary facts of everyday experiences4 
,the unreliability of witness  and      
testimony is due1 in part1 to this      
confusion4      ,,questions      #a4    
,how is the process of imagination like 
memory8    #b4 ,what is the relation of 
imagination to thinking8    #c4 ,what   

kind of images do you seek to have      
children use in their work in  the      
subjects which you teach8    #d4 ,can   
you classify the members of your class  
as visualizers1 audiles1  and the like8 
#e4 ,if one learns most readily by      
reading rather than hearing1 does it    
follow that his images will be largely  
visual8 ,why8    #f4 ,give examples from
 your own experience of memory images2  
of creative  images4    #g4 ,to what    
degree does creative imagination depend 
upon past  experiences8    #h4 ,what    
type of imagery is most important for   
the work of the inventor8  ,the farmer8 
,the social reformer8    #i4 ,of what   
significance in the life of an adult is 
fanciful imagery8    #aj4 ,what1 if any1
 is the danger involved in reveling in  
idealistic  productive imagery8    #aa4 
,what advantages do verbal images       
possess as over against object  images8 
#ab4 ,why would you ask children to try 
to image in teaching literature1        
geography1 history1 or any other subject

 for which you are responsible8    #ac4 
,how would you handle a boy who is hi   
the habit of confusing memory  images   
with images of imagination8    #ad4 ,in 
what sense is it true that all progress1
 is dependent upon  productive          
imagination8           99       99      
99       99       99          ,,vii4    
,,how ,,thinking ,,may ,,be ,,stimulated
      ,the term thinking has been used  
almost as loosely as the term           
imagination1 and used to mean almost as 
many different things4 ,even  now there 
is no consensus of opinion as to just   
what thinking is4 ,dewey  says1 ,active1
 persistent1 and careful consideration  
of any belief or  supposed form of      
knowledge in the light of the grounds   
that support it1  and the further       
conclusions to which it tends1          
constitutes reflective  thought4#e      
,miller says1 ,thinking is not so much a
 distinct conscious  process as it is an
 organisation of all the conscious      
processes which  are relevant in a      

problematic situation for the           
performance of the  function of         
consciously adjusting means to end4#f   
,thinking always  presupposes some lack 
in adjustment1 some doubt or            
uncertainty1 some  hesitation in        
response4 ,so long as the situation1    
because of its  simplicity or           
familiarity1 receives immediately a     
response which  satisfies1 there is no  
need for thinking4 ,only when the       
response is  inadequate or when no      
satisfactory response is forthcoming is 
thinking  aroused4 ,by far the majority 
of the daily adjustments made by people1
  both mental and physical1 require no  
thinking because instinct1 habit1  and  
memory suffice4 ,it is only when these  
do not serve to produce a  satisfactory 
response that thinking is needed--only  
when there is  something problematic in 
the situation4 ,even in new situations  
thinking  is not always used to bring   
about a satisfactory adjustment4        
,following  an instinctive prompting    

when confronted by a new situation2     
blindly  following another's lead2 using
 the trial and error method of response2
  reacting to the situation as to the   
old situation most like it2 or  response
 by analogy3 all are methods of dealing 
with new situations  which often result 
in correct adjustments1 and yet none of 
which need  involve thinking4 ,this does
 not mean that these methods1 save the  
first  mentioned1 may not be accompanied
 by thinking2 but that each of them may 
be used without the conscious adjustment
 of means to end demanded by  thinking4 
,that these methods1 and not thinking1  
are the ones most often  used1 even by  
adults1 in dealing with problems1 cannot
 be denied4 ,they  offer an easy means  
of escape from the more troublesome     
method of  thinking4 ,it is so much     
easier to accept what some one else     
says1 so  much easier to agree with a   
book's answer to a question than to     
think it  out for oneself4 ,following   
the first suggestion offered1 just going

 at  things in a hit-or-miss fashion1   
uncritical response by analogy1 saves   
much time and energy apparently1 and    
therefore these methods are adopted  and
 followed by the majority of people in  
most of the circumstances of  life4 ,it 
is human nature to think only when no   
other method of mental  activity brings 
the desired response4 ,we think only    
when we must4    ,not only is it true   
that problems are often solved correctly
 by other  methods than that of         
thinking1 but on the other hand much    
thinking may  take place and yet the    
result be an incorrect conclusion1 or   
perhaps no  solution at all be reached4 
,think of the years of work men have    
devoted  to a single problem1 and yet   
perhaps at the end of that time1 because
 of  a wrong premise or some incorrect  
data1 have arrived at a result that     
later years have proved to have been    
utterly false4 ,think of the            
investigations being carried on now in  
medicine1 in science1 in  invention1    

which because of the lack of knowledge  
are still incomplete1  and yet in each  
case thinking of the most technical and 
rigorous type  has been used4 ,thinking 
cannot be considered in terms of the    
result4  ,correct results may be        
obtained1 even in problematic           
situations1 with no  thinking1 and on   
the other hand much thinking may be done
 and yet the  results reached be        
entirely unsatisfactory4 ,thinking is a 
process  involving a certain definite   
procedure4 ,it is the organisation of   
all  mental states toward a certain     
definite end1 but is not any one mental 
state4 ,in certain types of situations  
this procedure is the one most  certain 
of reaching correct conclusions1 in some
 situations it is the  only possible    
one1 but the conclusion is not the      
thinking and its  correctness does not  
differentiate the process from others4  
,from the foregoing discussions it must 
not be deduced that because of  the     
specific nature and the difficulty of   

thinking that the power is  given only  
to adults4 ,on the contrary1 the power  
is rooted in the  original equipment of 
the human race and develops gradually1  
just as all  other original capacities  
do4 ,children under three years of age  
manifest  it4 ,true1 the situations     
calling it out are very simple1 and to  
the  adult seem often trivial1 as they  
most often occur in connection with  the
 child's play1 but they none the less   
call for the adjustment of  means to    
end1 which is thinking4 ,a lost toy1 the
 absence of a playmate1  the breaking of
 a cup1 a thunderstorm1 these and       
hundreds of other  events of daily life 
are occasions which may arouse thinking 
on the part  of a little child4 ,it is  
not the type of situation1 nor its      
dignity1  that is the important thing in
 thinking1 but the way in which it is   
dealt with4 ,the incorrectness of a     
child's data1 their incompleteness  and 
lack of organization1 often result in   
incorrect conclusions1 and  still his   

thinking may be absolutely sound4 ,the  
difference between the  child and the   
adult in this power is a difference in  
degree--both  possess the power4 ,as    
,dewey says1 ,only by making the most of
 the  thought-factor1 already active in 
the experience of childhood1 is there   
any promise or warrant for the emergence
 of superior reflective power at        
adolescence1 or at any later period4#g  
,thinking1 then1 is involved in any     
response which comes as a result of  the
 conscious adaptation of means to end in
 a problematic situation4  ,many of the 
processes of mental activity which have 
been given other  names may involve this
 process4 ,habit formation--when the    
learner  analyzes his progress or       
failure1 when he tries to find a short  
cut1 or  when he seeks for an incentive 
to insure greater improvement--may serve
  as a situation calling for thinking4  
,the process of apperceiving or of      
assimilation may involve it4 ,studying  
and trying to remember may involve  it4 

,constructive imagination often calls   
for it4 ,reasoning1 always  requires it4
 ,in the older psychology reasoning and 
thinking were often  used as synonyms1  
but more recently it has been accepted  
by most  psychologists that reasoning is
 simply one type of thinking1 the most  
advanced type1 and the most demanding   
type1 but not the only one4  ,thinking  
may go on 7as in the other processes    
just mentioned7 without  reasoning1 but 
all reasoning must involve thinking4 ,it
 is this lack of  differentiation       
between reasoning and thinking1 the     
attempt to make of  all thinking1       
reasoning1 that has limited teachers in 
their attempts to  develop thinking upon
 the part of their pupils4    ,the      
essentials of the thinking process are  
three3 7#a7 a state of doubt  or        
uncertainty1 resulting in suspended     
judgment2 7#b7 an organization and      
control of mental states in view of an  
end to be attained2 7#c7 a  critical    
attitude involving selection and        

rejection of suggestions  offered4 ,the 
recognition of some lack of adjustment1 
the feeling of need  for something one  
hasn't1 is the only stimulus toward     
thinking4 ,this  problematic situation1 
resulting in suspended judgment1 caused 
by the  inadequacy of present power or  
knowledge1 may arise in connection with 
any situation4 ,it is unfortunate that  
the terms problematic situation  and    
feeling of inadequacy have been         
discussed almost entirely in  connection
 with situations when the result has    
some pragmatic value4  ,there is no     
question but what the situation arousing
 thinking must be a  live one and a real
 one1 but it need not be one the answer 
to which will  be useful4 ,it is true   
that with the majority of people1 both  
children  and adults1 a problem of this 
type will be more often effective in    
arousing the thinking process than a    
problem of a more abstract nature1  but 
it is not always so1 nor necessarily so4
 ,most children sometimes1  and some    

children most of the time1 enjoy        
thinking simply for the sake  of the    
activity4 ,they do not need the         
concrete1 pragmatic                     
situation--anything1 no matter how      
abstract1 that arouses their  curiosity 
or appeals to their love of mastery     
offers enough of a  problem4 ,sometimes 
children are vitally interested in      
working  geometrical problems1          
translating difficult passages in       
,latin1 striving  to invent the         
perpetual motion machine1 even though   
there is no evident  and useful result4 
,it is not the particular type of       
situation that is  the thing to be      
considered1 but the attitude that it    
arouses in the  individual concerned4   
,educators in discussion of the         
situations that  make for thinking must 
allow for individual differences and    
must plan  for the intellectually minded
 as well as for others4    ,the thinker 
confronted by a situation for which his 
present knowledge is  not adequate1     

recognizes the difficulty and suspends  
judgment2 in other  words1 does not jump
 at a conclusion but undertakes to think
 it out4 ,to  do this control is        
continually necessary4 ,he must keep his
 problem  continually before him and    
work directly for its solution1 avoiding
  delays1 avoiding being side-tracked4  
,this means1 of course1 the critical    
attitude towards all suggestions        
offered4 ,each one as it comes must be  
inspected in the light of the end to be 
reached--if it does not seem to  help   
towards that goal1 it must be rejected4 
,criticism1 selection1 and  rejection of
 suggestions offered must continue as   
long as the thinking  process goes on4  
,to maintain the state of doubt and to  
carry on  systematic and protracted     
inquiry--these are the essentials of    
thinking4    ,in order to maintain this 
critical attitude to select and reject  
suggestions with reference to a goal1   
the suggestions as they come  cannot be 
accepted as units and followed4 ,such a 

procedure is possible  only when the    
mental process is not controlled by an  
end4 ,control by a  goal necessitates   
analysis of the suggestions and         
abstraction of what in  them is         
essential for the particular problem in 
hand4 ,it is because no  complete       
association at hand offers a            
satisfactory response to the  situation 
that the need for thinking arises4 ,each
 association as it  comes must be broken
 up1 certain parts or elements emerge1  
certain  relationships1 implications1 or
 functions are made conscious4 ,each of 
these is examined in turn2 as they seem 
to be valueless for the purpose  of the 
thinker1 they are rejected4 ,if one     
element or relationship seems           
significant for the problem1 it is      
seized upon1 abstracted from its        
fellows1 and becomes the center of the  
next series of suggestions4 ,a  part1   
element1 quality1 or what not1 of the   
situation is accepted as  significant of
 it for the time being4 ,the part stands

 for the  whole--this is characteristic 
of all thinking4 ,as a very simple      
illustration1 consider the following one
 reported by ,dewey3    ,projecting     
nearly horizontally from the upper deck 
of the ferryboat on  which ,i daily     
cross the river1 is a long white pole1  
bearing a gilded  ball at its tip4 ,it  
suggested a flag pole when ,i first saw 
it2 its  color1 shape1 and gilded ball  
agreed with this idea1 and these reasons
  seemed to justify me in this belief4  
,but soon difficulties presented        
themselves4 ,the pole was nearly        
horizontal1 an unusual position for a   
flag pole2 in the next place1 there was 
no pulley1 ring1 or cord by  which to   
attach a flag2 finally1 there were      
elsewhere two vertical  staffs from     
which flags were occasionally flown4 ,it
 seemed probable that  the pole was not 
there for flag-flying4    ,i then tried 
to imagine all possible purposes of such
 a pole1 and to  consider for which of  
these it was best suited3 7a7 ,possibly 

it was an  ornament4 ,but as all the    
ferryboats and even the tugboats carried
 like  poles1 this hypothesis was       
rejected4 7b7 ,possibly it was the      
terminal  of a wireless telegraph4 ,but 
the same considerations made this       
improbable4 ,besides1 the more natural  
place for such a terminal would be  the 
highest part of the boat1 on top of the 
pilot house1 7c7 ,its  purpose might be 
to point out the direction in which the 
boat is moving4    ,in support of this  
conclusion1 ,i discovered that the pole 
was lower  than the pilot house1 so that
 the steersman could easily see it4     
,moreover1 the tip was enough higher    
than the base1 so that1 from the        
pilot's position1 it must appear to     
project far out in front of the  boat4  
,moreover1 the pilot being near the     
front of the boat1 he would  need some  
such guide as to its direction4         
,tugboats would also need poles  for    
such a purpose4 ,this hypothesis was so 
much more probable than the  others that

 ,i accepted it4 ,i formed the          
conclusion that the pole was set  up for
 the purpose of showing the pilot the   
direction in which the boat  pointed1 to
 enable him to steer correctly4#h       
,the problem was to find out the use of 
the flag pole4 ,no adequate  explanation
 came as the problem presented itself2  
it therefore caused a  state of         
uncertainty1 of suspended judgment1 and 
a process of thinking  in order to get  
an answer4 ,each suggestion that came   
was analyzed1 its  requirements and     
possibilities checked up by the actual  
facts and the  goal4 ,the suggestions   
that the pole was simply to carry a     
flag1 was an  ornament1 was the terminal
 of a wireless telegraph1 were examined 
and  rejected4 ,the final one1 that the 
pole was to point out the direction in  
which the boat was moving1 upon analysis
 seemed most probable and was  accepted4
 ,the one characteristic of the pole1   
that it points direction1  and its      
position1 need to be accepted as the    

essential facts in the  situation1 for  
the particular problem4 ,without control
 of the process1  without the two steps 
of analysis and abstraction1 no         
conclusion could  have been reached4    
,analysis and abstraction may be        
facilitated in three ways4 ,first1 by   
attentive piecemeal examination4 ,the   
total situation is examined1  element by
 element1 attentively1 until the element
 needed is reached or  approximated4    
,this method of procedure helps to      
emphasize minor bonds of  association   
which the element possesses in the      
learner's experience but  which he needs
 to have brought to his attention4 ,it  
can only be used  when the element is   
known to some degree4 ,it is the method 
to use when  elements are known in a    
hazy1 incomplete1 or indefinite way and 
need  clearing up4 ,second1 by varying  
the concomitant4 ,an element associated 
with many situations1 which vary in     
other respects1 comes to be felt and    
recognized as independent4 ,this is the 

method to use when a new element  in a  
complex is to be taught4 ,third1 by     
contrast4 ,a new element is  brought    
into consciousness more quickly if it is
 set side by side with  its opposite4   
,of course1 this is only true provided  
the opposite has  already been learned4 
,to present opposites1 both of which are
 new or  only partially learned1        
confuses the analysis instead of        
facilitating  it4    ,reasoning1 as the 
highest type of thinking1 includes all  
that thinking  in general does1 and adds
 some particular requirement which      
differentiates it from the simpler      
forms4 ,further discussion of it1  then1
 should make clearer the essential in   
thinking as a process1 as  well as make 
clear its most difficult form4          
,reasoning is defined by  ,miller as    
controlled thinking1--thinking organized
 and systematized  according to laws and
 principles and carried on by use of    
superior  technique4#i ,reasoning1 then1
 is the kind of thinking that deals     

directly with laws and principles4 ,much
 thinking may be carried on  without any
 overt1 definite use of laws and        
principles1 as in  constructive         
imagination or in apperception1 but1 if 
this is so1 it  seems better to call the
 thinking by one of the other names4 ,of
 course  this classification is somewhat
 arbitrary1 but there can be no question
  that types of thinking do differ4 ,as 
has already been noted1 some            
psychologists have used the terms       
thinking and reasoning as synonyms1  but
 such usage has resulted in confusion   
and has not been of practical  value4   
,it is only as the mental process       
desired becomes clearly  conceived of1  
its connotations and denotation clearly 
defined1 that it  becomes a real goal   
towards ,which a teacher or learner may 
strive4 ,this1  then1 is the primary    
criterion of reasoning--that the thinker
 be dealing  consciously with laws and  
principles4 ,an acceptance of this first
  essential makes clear that the        

particular process of reasoning cannot  
be  carried on in subjects which lack   
laws and principles4 ,spelling1         
elementary reading1 vocabulary study1   
most of the early work in music  and    
art1 the acquisition of facts wherever  
found--these situations may  offer      
opportunity for thinking1 but little if 
any for reasoning4 ,because  a teacher  
is using the development method does not
 mean necessarily that  her students are
 reasoning4 ,the two terms are not in   
any way synonymous4    ,the second      
essential in reasoning is the presence  
of a definite  technique4 ,this         
technique consists of two factors3      
first1 certain  definite mental states1 
and second1 the use of the process of   
thinking  by either the inductive or the
 deductive method4    ,first as to the  
mental states involved4 ,the fact that  
the thinking deals  with laws and       
principles necessitates the presence1 in
 the thinking  process1 of constructive 
verbal or symbolic imagery1 logical     

relationships1 logical concepts1 and    
explicit judgments4 ,this does not  at  
all exclude other types of these mental 
states and entirely different  mental   
states4 ,the kind of analysis involved  
simply necessitates the  presence of    
these types1 whatever others may be     
present4 ,constructive  symbolic imagery
 has already been discussed4 ,logical   
relationships are  those that are       
independent of accidental conditions1   
are not dependent  on mere contiguity in
 time and space1 but are inherent in the
  association involved4 ,such           
relationships are those of likeness and 
difference1 cause and effect1 subject   
and object1 equality1 concession1  and  
the like4 ,logical concepts are those   
which are the result of  thinking1 whose
 definite meaning has been brought      
clearly into  consciousness so that a   
definition could be framed4 ,a child has
 some  notion of the meaning of tree1 or
 man1 or chemist1 and therefore         
possesses a concept of some kind1 but   

the exact meaning1 the particular       
qualities necessary1 are usually        
lacking1 and so it could not be called  
a logical concept4 ,explicit judgments  
are those which contain within          
themselves the reasons for the          
inference4 ,they1 too1 are the result of
  thinking4 ,one may say that cheating  
is wrong1 or that water will not  rise  
above its source level1 or that         
cleanliness is necessary to  health1 or 
that this is a ,rembrandt--as a matter  
of experience1  habit1 but without any  
reflection and with no reasons for such 
judgment4  ,if1 on the other hand1 the  
problems to which these judgments are   
answers  had been a matter of thinking1 
the reasons or the ground for such      
judgment would have become conscious and
 the judgment then become  explicit4 ,it
 must be evident that in any problems   
dealing with laws and  principles the   
mental states involved must be definite1
 clear cut1  logically sound1 and their 
implications thoroughly appreciated and 

understood4    ,the second element in   
the technique necessary in reasoning is 
the use of  either the inductive or the 
deductive method in the process4        
,induction  requires--a problem1 search 
for facts with which to solve it1       
comparison  and analysis of those facts1
 abstraction of the essential           
likenesses1  and conclusion4 ,deduction 
requires--a problem1 the analysis of the
  situation and abstraction of its      
essential elements1 search for generals 
under which to classify it1 comparison  
of it with each general found1  and     
conclusion4 ,it is unfortunate that in  
the discussions of induction  and       
deduction the differences have been so  
emphasized that they have  been regarded
 as different processes1 whereas the    
likenesses far  outweigh the            
differences4 ,an examination of the     
requirements of each as  stated above   
shows that the process in the two is the
 same4 ,not only do  both involve       
reasoning and therefore require the     

major steps of analysis  and abstraction
 present in all thinking1 but both also 
involve search  and comparison4 ,both1  
of course1 involve the same kind of     
mental states4  ,at times it is very    
difficult to distinguish between them4  
,although for  practical purposes it is 
necessary1 sometimes1 to stress the     
differences1 the inherent similarity    
should not be lost sight of4    ,the    
differences between these two methods of
 reasoning are1 first1 in  the locus of 
the problem2 second1 in the order of the
 steps of the  process2 third1 in the   
relative proportion of particulars and  
generals  used2 fourth1 in the devices  
used1 7#a7 ,in induction the problem is 
concerned with a general4 ,in some      
situation a concept1 law1 or principle  
has proven inadequate as a response4    
,the question is then raised as to  what
 is wrong with it and the inductive     
process is instigated4 ,the  problem is 
solved when the principle or concept is 
perfected or  enlarged--in other words1 

is made adequate4 ,in deduction the     
problem is  concerned with the          
individual situation4 ,some problem is  
raised by a  particular fact or         
experience and is answered when it is   
placed under  the law or concept to     
which it belongs4 ,deduction is1        
practically the  classification of      
particulars4 7#b7 ,the order of steps is
 different4 ,in  induction1 because     
present knowledge falls short1 the major
 step of  analysis necessary to         
abstraction of the essential is         
impossible1 and  therefore the search   
for new facts must come first1 whereas  
in  deduction1 the analysis of the      
particular situation results in a search
  for generals and a classification of  
the situation in question4 7#c7 ,in     
induction many particular facts may be  
necessary before one concept or         
principle is made adequate1 while in    
deduction many concepts or  principles  
may be examined before one particular is
 classified4 7#d7 ,in  induction the    

hypothesis is used as a device to make  
clear the possible  goal2 in deduction  
the syllogism is used as a device to    
make clear the  conclusion which has    
been reached1 to throw into relief the  
classification and the result coming    
from it4    ,in this discussion1        
induction and deduction have been       
treated1 for the  sake of clearness1 as 
if they acted independently of each     
other1 as if a  thinker might at one    
time use deduction and at another time  
induction4  ,they have been outlined in 
such a way that one might think that the
  movement of the mind in one process   
was such that it precluded the          
possibility of the other process4 ,this 
is not so--the two are  inextricably    
mingled in the actual process of        
reasoning1 and further1  induction as   
used in practical life always involves  
deduction at two  points1 as an initial 
starting point and as an end point4 ,the
 knowledge  that a certain principle is 
inadequate comes to consciousness       

through  the attempt to classify some   
particular experience under it4 ,failure
  results and the inductive process may 
then be initiated1 but this  initial    
attempt is deductive and if it had been 
successful there would  have been no    
need of induction4 ,after the inductive 
process is complete  and the general    
principle has been classified or        
perfected1 the final  step is testing it
 to see if it is adequate1 first by     
applying it to the  particular problem  
which caused the whole process1 and then
 to new  situations4 ,if it tests1 it is
 accepted1--if not1 further induction is
  necessary4 ,this again is deduction4  
,not only is induction not complete     
without deduction1 but each deduction   
influences the principle which is       
applied1 making it more sure and more   
flexible4 ,even in the process of       
induction1 there are attempts to        
classify these facts which are being    
gathered under suggested old principles1
 or half-formed new ones1 before  the   

process is completed4 ,this is a        
deductive movement1 even though it      
prove unsatisfactory or impossible4     
,dewey describes this interaction by    
saying1 ,there is thus a double movement
 in all reflection3 a movement  from the
 given partial and confused data to a   
suggested comprehension  7or inclusive7 
entire situation2 and back from this    
suggested  whole--which as suggested is 
a meaning1 an idea--to the particular   
facts1 so as to connect these with one  
another and with additional facts  to   
which the suggestion has directed       
attention4#aj ,however true this        
intermingling of induction and deduction
 may be1 the fact still remains  true   
that in any given case the major        
movement is in one direction or  the    
other1 and that therefore in order to   
insure effective thinking  measures must
 be taken accordingly4 ,as a child      
formulates his conception  of a verb1 or
 words the characteristic essentials of 
the lily-family1 or  frames the rule for

 addition of fractions or the action of 
a base on a  metal1 he is concerned     
primarily with the form of the reasoning
 process  known as induction4 ,when he  
classes a certain word as a conjunction1
 a  certain city as a trade center1 a   
certain problem as one in percentage1   
he is using deduction4 ,complexes and   
gradual shadings of one state into      
another1 not clearly defined and sharply
 differentiated processes and  states1  
are characteristic of all mental life4  
,another unfortunate statement with     
regard to induction and deduction is    
that the former proceeds from           
particulars to generals and the latter  
from generals to particulars4 ,both of  
these statements omit the  starting     
point and leave the thinker with no     
ground for either the  particulars or   
the generals with which he works4 ,the  
thinker is  supposed1 let us say1 to    
collect specimens of flowers in order to
 arrive  at a notion of the             
characteristics of a certain class--but 

why collect  these rather than any      
others8 ,true1 in the artificial        
situation of a  schoolroom or college1  
the learner often collects in a certain 
field  rather than another1 simply      
because he is told to4 ,but in daily    
life he  would not be told to---the     
incentive must come from some particular
  situation which presents a problem and
 therefore limits the field of  search4 
,the starting point must be a particular
 experience or situation4  ,the same    
thing is true in deduction1 although the
 syllogistic form has  often been       
misleading4 ,metals are hard2 iron is a 
metal1 therefore iron  is hard4 ,but why
 talk about metals at all--and if so why
 hardness  rather than color or effect  
on bases or some other characteristic8  
,of  course1 here again it is some      
particular problem that defines the     
search  for the general and directs     
attention to some class characteristics 
rather than to others4 ,not only is the 
starting point of all reasoning  some   

definite situation for which there is no
 adequate response1 but the  end point  
must naturally be the same4 ,a          
particular problem demanding  solution  
is the cause for reasoning1 and1 of     
course1 the end of the  process must be 
the solution of that problem4    ,from  
the foregoing it must not be concluded  
that the processes of  induction and    
deduction are manifested only in        
connection with  reasoning4 ,in fact1   
their use as a conscious tool of        
technique in  reasoning comes only after
 considerable experience of their use   
when  there was no conscious purpose and
 no control4 ,a little child's notion   
of dog1 or tree1 or city--in fact1 all  
his psychological concepts  necessitate 
the inductive movement1 but it has taken
 place in his  spontaneous thinking and 
the meanings have evolved after         
considerable  experience without any    
definite control on his part4 ,so with  
deduction4  ,as he recognizes this as a 
chestnut tree1 that as a rocking chair1 

as he  decides that this is wrong or    
that it is going to clear1 he is        
classifying things1 or conduct1 or      
conditions1 and so is following the     
deductive movement4 ,but the judgments  
may come as a result of past            
experience1 may be spontaneous and      
involve no protracted controlled        
activity which has been defined as      
thinking4 ,man's mind works             
spontaneously both inductively and      
deductively1 and hence the  possibility 
of control of these operations later4   
,thinking is an  outgrowth of           
spontaneous activity2 reasoning is but  
an application of  the natural laws of  
mental activity to certain situations4  
,the laws of readiness1 exercise1 and   
effect govern thinking just as they  do 
all other mental processes4 ,thinking is
 not independent of habit2 it  is not a 
mysterious force other than association 
which deals with novel  data4 ,thinking 
is merely an exhibition of the laws of  
habit under  certain definite           

situations4 ,at first sight this seems  
to be impossible1  because1 as has been 
emphasized throughout this chapter1     
thinking takes  place when no           
satisfactory response is at hand and    
when nothing is  offered by past        
experience which is adequate4 ,as a     
result of the  thinking1 responses are  
reached which never before have occurred
 as a  result of that situation4 ,just  
the same they are reached only because  
of  the operation of the laws of habit4 
,it must be borne in mind that the  laws
 of association do not work in such a   
way that only gross total  situations   
are bound to total responses4 ,in man   
particularly1 situations  are being     
continually broken up into elements1 and
 those elements  connected with         
responses4 ,responses are being         
continually disintegrated1  and         
elements1 instead of the whole response1
 being bound to situations4  ,analysis  
is continually taking place merely as a 
result of the working  of these laws4   

,if the nervous mechanism of man were   
not of this  hair-trigger variety1 if   
elements did not emerge from a total    
complex as  a result of bonds formed1 of
 readiness of certain tracts1 no        
willing1 no  attention on the part of   
the thinker1 would ever bring about     
analysis4  ,this is made very vivid when
 one is met by a problem he cannot      
solve4 ,if  the situation does not break
 up1 if the right element does not      
emerge1  if the right cue is not given1 
he is helpless4 ,all he can do is to    
hold  fast to his problem and wait4 ,as 
the associations are offered1 he can    
select and reject1 but that is all4 ,the
 marvelous power of the genius1  the    
inventor1 the reasoner in all fields1 is
 merely an exhibition of the  laws of   
association working with extremely      
subtle elements4 ,it seems to  transcend
 all experience because these elements  
and the bonds which  experience has     
formed cannot be observed4 ,a child     
fails in his thinking  often because he 

uses his past experience and responds by
 analogy--we  note that fact and        
criticize him for it4 ,but he succeeds  
for just the  same reason and by the use
 of just the same laws4 ,james long ago 
showed  conclusively that association by
 similarity1 which is one of the        
prominent types used in reasoning1 was  
only the law of habit working  with     
elements of novel data4    ,the fact    
that thinking is determined by its aim  
rather than by its  antecedents has also
 been given a mysterious place as apart 
from  association4 ,the thinker who     
chose the right associate1 the one that 
led  him towards his goal rather than   
some other1 was called sagacious4 ,but1 
after all1 this being governed by an aim
 is nothing more than the  operation of 
the law of readiness among intellectual 
bonds4 ,one  associate is chosen and    
another rejected because one is more    
satisfying  than another4 ,certain bonds
 are made more ready than others because
 of  the general set or attitude of the 

thinker1 and therefore any associate    
using those bonds brings satisfaction   
and is retained4 ,the power that  moves 
the man of science to solve problems    
correctly is the same that  moves him to
 eat1 sleep1 rest1 and play4 ,the       
efficient thinker is not  only more     
fertile in ideas and more often         
productive of the 'right'  ideas than   
the incompetent is2 he is also more     
satisfied by them when he  gets them1   
and more rebellious against the futile  
and misleading ones4  ,we trust to the  
laws of cerebral nature to present us   
spontaneously with  the appropriate     
idea1 and also to prefer that idea to   
others4#aa    ,the reasons for failure  
of teachers and educators of all kinds  
to train  people to think are numerous4 
7#a7 ,scarcity of brains which work     
primarily in terms of connections       
between subtle elements1  relationships1
 etc4 7#b7 ,lack of knowledge or        
incorrect knowledge1 due to  narrow     
experience or poor memory4 7#c7 ,lack of

 the necessary habits of  attention and 
criticism4 7#d7 ,lack of power of the   
more abstract and  intellectual         
operations to bring satisfaction1 due   
partly to original  equipment and partly
 to training4 7#e7 ,lack of power to do 
independent  work1 due to poor training4
 ,schools cannot in any way make good   
the  deficiency which is due to a lack  
of mental capacity4 ,they can1 and      
should1 do something to provide         
knowledge which is well organized around
  experiences which have proved vital to
 pupils4 ,something can undoubtedly  be 
done in the way of cultivating the habit
 of concentration of  attention1 and of 
making more or less habitual the        
critical attitude4  ,within the range of
 the ability which the individuals to be
 educated  possess1 the school may do   
much to give training which will make   
independent work or thinking more common
 in the experience of school  pupils1   
and therefore much more apt to be       
resorted to in the case of any          

problematic situation4    ,possibly the 
greatest weakness in our schools1 as    
they are at present  constituted1 is in 
the dependence of both teachers and     
children upon  text-books1 laboratory   
manuals1 lectures1 and the like4 ,in    
almost every  field of knowledge which  
is presented in our elementary and high 
schools1 more opportunity should be     
given for contact with life  activities4
 ,such contacts should1 in so far as it 
is possible1 involve  the organization  
of the observations which are made with 
relation to  problems and principles    
which the subject seeks to develop4 ,in 
nature  study or in geography in the    
elementary school many of the principles
  involved are never really mastered by 
children1 by virtue of the fact  that   
they merely memorize the words which are
 involved1 rather than  solve any of the
 problems which may occur1 either by    
virtue of their  intellectual interests1
 or on account of their meaning in      
everyday life4  ,the following of the   

instructions given in the laboratory    
manual does  not necessarily result in  
developing the spirit of inquiry or     
investigation1 nor even acquaint pupils 
with the method of the science  which is
 supposed to be studied4    ,possibly   
the greatest contribution which a       
teacher can make to the  development of 
thinking upon the part of children is in
 discovering to  them problems which    
challenge their attention1 the solution 
of which for  them is worth while4 ,as  
has already been indicated1 an essential
 element  in thinking is constantly to  
select from among the many associations 
which may be available that one which   
will contribute to the particular       
problem which we have in mind4 ,the mere
 grouping of ideas round some  topic    
does not satisfy this requirement1 for  
such a reciting of  paragraphs or       
chapters may amount simply to           
memorization and nothing  more4 ,if a   
teacher can in geography or in history  
send children to their  books to find   

such facts as are available for the     
solution of a  particular problem1 she  
is stimulating thought upon their part1 
and may  at the same time be giving them
 some command of the technique of       
inquiry  or of investigation4 ,the class
 that starts to work1 either in the     
discussion during the recitation period1
 or when they work at their  seats1 or  
at home1 with a clear statement of the  
aim or problem may be  expected to do   
much more in the way of thinking than   
will occur in the  experience of those  
who are merely told to read certain     
parts of a book4  ,in a well-conducted  
recitation which involves thinking1 the 
aim needs to  be restated a number of   
times in order that the selection of    
those  associations which are important1
 and the rejection of those which are   
not pertinent1 may continue over a      
considerable period4    ,in so far as it
 is possible1 children should be made to
 feel  responsibility for the progress  
which is made in the solution of their  

problems4 ,they should be critical of   
the contributions made by each  other4  
,they should be sincere in their        
expression of doubt1 and in  questioning
 whenever they do not understand4 ,above
 all1 if they are  really thinking1 they
 need to have an opportunity for free   
discussion4  ,in classrooms in which    
children are seated in rows looking at  
the backs  of each other's heads and    
reciting to the teacher1 the tendency is
  simply to satisfy what the pupils     
conceive to be the demands of the       
teacher1 rather than to think and to    
attempt to resolve one's doubts4 ,in    
classes in which teachers provide not   
only for a statement of the  problem    
which is to be solved during the study  
period1 but also for a  variety in      
assignments1 children may be expected to
 bring to class  differences in points  
of view and in the data which they have 
collected4  ,in such a situation        
discussion is a perfectly normal        
process1 and  thinking is stimulated4   

,as children pass through the several   
grades of the school system1 they  ought
 to become increasingly conscious of the
 process of reasoning4 ,they  should be 
asked to tell how they have arrived at  
their conclusions4 ,they  should give   
the reason for their judgments4 ,a great
 deal of loose  thinking would be       
avoided if we could in some measure     
establish the  habit upon the part of   
boys and girls of asking1 ,will it work 
in all  cases82 ,what was assumed as a  
basis for arriving at the conclusion    
which ,i have accepted82 ,are the data  
which have been brought together        
adequate82 ,to what degree have the     
fallacies which are more or less  common
 in reasoning entered into my thinking8 
,it is not that one would  hope to give 
a course in logic to elementary or to   
high school children1  but rather that  
they should learn1 out of the situations
 which demand  thought1 constantly to   
check up their conclusions and to verify
 them in  every possible way4 ,we may   

not expect by this method to create any 
unusual power of thought1 but we may in 
some degree provide for the  development
 of a critical attitude which will      
enable these same boys and  girls1 both 
now and as they grow older1 to          
discriminate between those  who merely  
dogmatize1 and those who present a sound
 basis for their  reasoning1 either in  
terms of a principle which can be       
accepted1 or in  terms of observations  
or experiments which establish the      
conclusions  which they are asked to    
accept4    ,in all of the work which    
involves thinking1 it is of the utmost  
importance that we preserve upon the    
part of pupils1 in so far as it is      
possible1 an open-minded attitude4 ,it  
is well to have children in the  habit  
of saying with respect to their         
conclusions that in so far as they  have
 the evidence1 this or that conclusion  
seems to be justified4 ,it may  even be 
well to have them reach the conclusion  
in some parts of their  work that there 

are not sufficient data available upon  
which to base a  generalization1 or that
 certain principles which are accepted  
as valid  by some thinkers are          
questioned by others1 and that the      
conclusions  which are based upon       
principles which are not commonly       
accepted must  always be stated by      
saying3 it follows1 if you accept a     
particular  principle1 that this        
particular conclusion will hold4    ,we 
need more and more to encourage the     
habit of independent work4 ,we  must    
hope as children pass through our school
 system that they will grow  more and   
more independent in their statement of  
conclusions and of  beliefs4 ,we can    
never expect that boys and girls1 or men
 and women1 will  reach conclusions on  
all of the questions which are of       
importance to  them1 but it ought to be 
possible1 especially for those of more  
than  usual capacity1 to distinguish    
between the conclusions of a scientific 
investigation and the statements of a   

demagogue4 ,the use of whatever         
capacity for independent thought which  
children possess should result in  the  
development of a group of open-minded1  
inquiring1 investigating boys  and      
girls1 eager and willing in confronting 
their common community  problems to do  
their own thinking1 or to be guided by  
those who present  conclusions which are
 recognized as valid4 ,they should learn
 to act in  accordance with             
well-established conclusions1 even      
though they may have  to break with the 
traditions or superstitions which have  
operated to  interfere with the         
development of the social welfare of the
 group with  which they are associated4 
,,questions      #a4 ,how do children   
7and adults7 most frequently solve their
 problems8    #b4 ,under what conditions
 do children think and yet reach wrong  
conclusions8 ,give examples4    #c4 ,can
 first-grade children think8 ,give      
examples which prove your  contention4  
#d4 ,what are the important elements to 

be found in all thinking8    #e4 ,show  
how these elements may be involved in a 
first-grade lesson in  nature study4 ,in
 an eighth-grade lesson in geography4   
,in the teaching of  any high school    
subject4    #f4 ,when may habit         
formation involve thinking8             
,memorization8    #g4 ,give five        
examples of problems which you believe  
will challenge the  brightest pupils in 
your class4 ,which would seem real and  
worth solving  to the duller members of 
the group8    #h4 ,how may the analysis 
of such ideas as come to mind1 and the  
abstraction of the part which is        
valuable for the solution of a          
particular problem1 be facilitated8     
#i4 ,how do you distinguish between     
thinking and reasoning8    #aj4 ,what   
are the essential elements in reasoning8
 ,give an example of  reasoning as      
carried on by one solving a problem in  
arithmetic or  geometry1 in geography1  
physics1 or chemistry4    #aa4 ,in what 
respects are the processes of induction 

and deduction alike8  ,in what do they  
differ8    #ab4 ,at what stage of the   
inductive process is deduction involved8
    #ac4 ,give examples of reasoning    
demanded in school work in which the    
process is predominantly inductive4     
,deductive4    #ad4 ,why are the        
statements ,induction proceeds from     
particulars to  generals and ,deduction 
from generals to particulars inadequate 
to  describe either process8    #ae4 ,in
 what sense is thinking dependent upon  
the operation of the laws  of habit8    
#af4 ,to what degree is it possible to  
teach your pupils to think8 ,under  what
 limitations do you work8           99  
99       99       99       99           
,,viii4 ,,appreciation1 ,,an ,,important
 ,,element ,,in ,,education             
,appreciation belongs to the general    
field of feeling rather than that of    
knowing4 ,the element which             
distinguishes appreciation from memory  
or  imagination or perception is an     
affective one4 ,any one of these mental 

states may be present without the state 
being an appreciative one4 ,but         
appreciation does not occur by itself as
 an elementary state1 it is  rather a   
complex--a feeling tone accompanying a  
mental state or process  and coloring   
it4 ,in other words1 appreciation       
involves the presence of  some          
intellectual states1 but its addition   
makes the total complex of an  emotional
 rather than a cognitive nature4 ,the   
difficulty found in  discussing emotions
 in general1 that of defining or        
describing them in  language1 which is a
 tool of the intellect1 is felt here4   
,the only way  to know what appreciation
 means is to appreciate4 ,no phase of   
feeling  can be adequately              
described--its essence is then lost--it 
must be felt4  ,nevertheless something  
may be done to differentiate this type  
of feeling  from others4                
,appreciation is an attitude of mind    
which is passive1 contemplative4 ,it    
may grow out of an active attitude or   

emotion1 or it may lead to one1  but in 
either case the state changes from one  
of appreciation to  something else4 ,in 
appreciation the individual is          
quiescent4  ,appreciation1 therefore1   
has no end outside of itself4 ,it is a  
sufficient cause for being4 ,the        
individual is satisfied with it4 ,this  
puts appreciation into the category of  
recreation4 ,appreciation then  always  
involves the pleasure tone1 otherwise it
 could not be enjoyed4 ,it  is always   
impersonal4 ,it takes the individual    
outside and beyond his own  affairs2 it 
is an other-regarding feeling4          
,possession1 achievement1 and  the like 
do not arouse appreciation1 but rather  
an egoistical emotion4    ,one of the   
salient characteristics of emotions is  
their unifying power4  ,it has aptly    
been said that in extreme emotional     
states one is the  emotion4 ,the        
individual and his emotional state      
become one--a very  different state of  
affairs from what is true in cognition4 

,this element  of unification is present
 to some extent in appreciation1        
although1  because of its complex       
nature1 to a lesser extent than in a    
simpler1  more primitive feeling state4 
,still1 in true appreciation one does   
become absorbed in the object of        
appreciation2 he1 for the time being1   
to some extent becomes identified with  
what he is appreciating4 ,in1  order to 
appreciate this submerging of one's     
self1 this identification  is necessary4
    ,appreciation is bound up with four 
different types of situations which  are
 of most importance to the teacher--7#a7
 appreciation of the  beautiful1 7#b7   
appreciation of human nature1 7#c7      
appreciation of the  humorous1 7#d7     
appreciation of intellectual powers4    
,the appreciation  found in these four  
types of situations must vary somewhat  
because of  the concomitants1 but the   
characteristics which mark appreciation 
as  such seem to be present in all four4
 ,true1 in certain of the situations    

occurring under these types the         
emotional element may be stronger than  
in others--in some the intellectual     
element may seem to almost outweigh  the
 affective1 but still the predominant   
characteristics will be found  to be    
those of an attitude which has the      
earmarks of appreciation4               
,appreciation of beauty has usually been
 discussed under the head of  aesthetic 
emotions4 ,as to what rightfully belongs
 under the head of  aesthetics is in    
dispute--writers on the subject varying 
tremendously in  their opinions4 ,most  
of the recent writers1 however1 agree   
that the  stimulus for aesthetic        
appreciation must be a sense percept or 
an image  of some sense object4 ,ideas1 
meanings1 in and of themselves1 are not 
then objects of aesthetic enjoyment4    
,the two senses which furnish the       
stimuli for this sort of appreciation   
are the eye and the ear--the  former    
combining sensations under space form   
and the latter under time  form to      

produce aesthetic feelings4 ,our senses 
may cause feelings of  pleasure1 but the
 enjoyment is sensuous rather than      
aesthetic4 ,nature1  in all its myriad  
forms1 art1 architecture1 music1        
literature1 and the  dance are the chief
 sources of aesthetic appreciation4     
,that there is a  definite connection   
between physiological processes and the 
feeling of  appreciation is without     
doubt true1 but just what physiological 
conditions in connection with visual and
 auditory perception are  fulfilled when
 some experience gives rise to aesthetic
 appreciation1 and  just what is        
violated when there is lack of such     
appreciation1 is not  known4 ,it is     
known that both harmony and rhythm must 
be considered in  music1 and that the   
structure and muscular control of the   
eye plus the  ease of mental            
apprehension play important parts in    
rousing aesthetic  feelings in          
connection with vision1 but further than
 that little is  known4    ,the chief   

danger met in developing the aesthetic  
appreciation is the  tendency to        
overestimate its dependence on1 in the  
first place1 skill in  creative work and
 the active emotions involved in        
achievement1 and in  the second place1  
the intellectual understanding of the   
situation4 ,it  has been largely taken  
for granted that the constructive work  
in the  arts or in music increased one's
 power of appreciation4 ,that1 if a     
child  used color and painted a little  
picture1 or composed a melody1 or       
modeled in clay1 he would therefore be  
able to appreciate better in  these     
fields4 ,and further that the very      
development of this power to do         
necessarily developed the power to      
appreciate4 ,these two beliefs are  true
 to some extent1 but only to a limited  
extent1 and not nearly so far  as       
practice has taken for granted4 ,it is  
true that some power to do  increases   
power to appreciate1 but they parallel  
each other only for a  short time and   

then diverge1 and either may be         
developed at the expense  of the other4 
,in most people the power to appreciate1
 the passive1  contemplative enjoyment1 
far surpasses the ability to create4 ,on
 the  other hand1 men of creative genius
 often lack power of aesthetic          
appreciation4 ,this result is natural if
 one thinks of the mental  processes    
involved in the two4 ,power to do is    
associated with muscular  skill1 with   
technique1 and with the personal        
emotions of active  achievement4 sthetic
 appreciation1 on the other hand1 is    
associated  with neither1 but with a    
mental attitude and feelings which are  
quite  different4 ,cultivating one set  
of processes will not develop the other 
to any great extent and may1 on the     
other hand1 be antagonistic to their    
development4 ,if the aesthetic emotions1
 if appreciations of the  beautiful1 are
 desired1 they must be trained and      
developed directly4    ,the second      
danger to be avoided in developing      

aesthetic appreciation is  that of      
magnifying its dependence on the        
intellectual factors4 ,to  understand1  
to be able to analyze1 to pick out the  
flaws in a musical  selection1 or a     
painting1 is not necessary to its       
appreciation4 ,true1  some understanding
 is necessary1 but1 as in the case of   
skill1 it is  much less than has been   
taken for granted4 ,appreciation can go 
far ahead  of understanding4 ,the       
intellectual factor and the feeling     
response are  not absolutely            
interdependent in degree4 ,not only so1 
but the prominence  of the intellectual 
factor precludes that of the feeling4   
,when one is  emphasized the other      
cannot be1 as they are different sorts  
of mental  stuff4 ,continuous and       
emphatic development of the intellectual
 may  result in the atrophy of the power
 of appreciation in any given field     
either temporarily or permanently4 ,many
 a boy's power to enjoy the  rhythm and 
melody of poetry has been destroyed by  

the overemphasis of  the critical       
facility during his high school course4 
,the fact that a  person can analyze the
 painting1 point out the plans in its   
composition1  and so on1 does not at all
 mean that he can aesthetically         
appreciate4  ,contemplative enjoyment   
may be impossible for him--it bores him4
  ,botanists are not noted for their    
power of aesthetic appreciation4 ,it is 
an acknowledged fact that some art and  
music critics have lost their  power of 
appreciation of the things they are     
continually criticizing4  ,this         
discussion is not intended to minimize  
the value of creative skill1  or of     
power of intellectual criticism4 ,both  
are talents that are well  worth while  
cultivating4 ,but it is necessary for   
one to decide which of  the three1      
aesthetic appreciation1 creative skill1 
or intellectual  criticism1 in the      
fields of art1 nature1 and music1 is    
most worth while  for the majority of   
people and then make plans accordingly4 

,no one of  the three can be best       
developed and brought to its highest    
perfection by  emphasizing any one of   
the others4    ,the second type of      
appreciation is appreciation of human   
nature3  appreciation of the value of   
human life1 appreciation of its virtues 
and  trials1 appreciation of great      
characters1 and so on4 ,some writers    
would  probably class this type of      
appreciation under moral feelings--but  
moral  feelings usually are thought of  
as active1 as accompaniments of conduct1
  whereas these appreciations are       
feelings aroused in the onlooker--they  
are passive and for the time being are  
an end in themselves4 ,these  feelings  
are stimulated by such studies as       
literature and history  particularly4   
,geography and civics offer some        
opportunity for their  development1 and1
 of course1 contact with people is the  
greatest  stimulus4 ,in this latter type
 of situation the feelings of           
appreciation  easily pass over into     

active emotions1 but so long as one     
remains an  onlooker1 they need not do  
so4 ,this appreciation1 sympathy with   
and  enjoyment and approval of human    
nature1 finds its source in the social  
instincts1 but it needs development and 
training if it is to be  perfected4     
,very much of the time this appreciation
 is inhibited by the  emphasis put on   
understanding4 ,the intellectual        
faculties of memory1  judgment1 and     
criticism are the ones called into play 
in the study of  history and often of   
literature4 ,these studies leave the    
learner cold4  ,he knows1 but it does   
not make any difference to him4 ,he can 
analyze the  period or the character1   
but he lacks any feeling response1 any  
appreciation of the qualities of        
endurance and loyalty portrayed1 lacks  
any sympathetic understanding of the    
difficulties met and conquered4  ,as was
 true of the aesthetic appreciation1 a  
certain amount of  understanding is     
necessary for true appreciation of any  

kind1 but  overemphasis of the          
intellectual element destroys the       
feeling element4    ,the third type of  
appreciation to be discussed is the     
appreciation of  humor4 ,perhaps this   
does not belong with the other type1 but
 it  certainly has many of the same     
characteristics4 ,calkins defines a     
sense  of humor as enjoyment of an      
unessential incongruity4444 ,this       
incongruity must be1 as has been said1  
an unessential one1 else the mood  of   
the observer changes from happiness to  
unhappiness1 and the comic  becomes the 
pathetic4 ,a fall on the ice which      
seemed to offer only a  ludicrous       
contrast between the dignity and grace  
of the man erect and  the ungainly      
attitude of the falling figure ceases   
utterly to be funny  when it is seen to 
entail some physical injury2 and wit    
which burns and  sears is not amusing to
 its victim4#ab ,the ability to         
appreciate the  humorous in life is a   
great gift and should be cultivated to a

 much  greater extent than it is at     
present4    ,a fourth type of           
appreciation has been called            
appreciation of  intellectual powers--a 
poor name perhaps1 but the feeling is a 
real one4  ,enjoyment of style1 of      
logical sequence1 of the harmony of the 
whole1 of  the clear-cut1 concise1      
telling sentences1 are illustrations of 
what is  meant4 ,enjoyment of a piece of
 literature1 of a debate1 of an         
argument1  of a piece of scientific     
research1 is not limited to the         
appreciation of  the meanings           
expressed--in fact1 in many cases the   
only factor that can  arouse the feeling
 element1 the appreciation1 is this     
element of form4  ,one may understand an
 argument or a debate as he hears it1   
but  appreciation1 enjoyment of it1     
comes only as a result of the           
consciousness of these elements of form4
    ,that one possesses these feelings  
of appreciation1 at least to some       
degree1 is a matter of human equipment1 

but what one appreciates in  art1       
literature1 human nature1 etc41 depends 
primarily on training4  ,there is almost
 no situation in life that with all     
people at all times  will arouse        
appreciative feelings4 ,although there  
are a few fundamental  conditions       
established by the physical make-up of  
the sense organs and  by the original   
capacities of the human race1 still they
 are few1 and at  present largely       
unknown1 and experience does much to    
modify even these4  ,what is crude1     
vulgar1 inharmonious1 in art and music  
to some people1  arouses extreme        
aesthetic appreciation in others4       
,literature that causes  one person to  
throw the book down in disgust will give
 greatest  enjoyment to another4 ,what  
is malice to one person is humorous to  
another4 ,what people enjoy and         
appreciate depends primarily on their   
experience for the development of these 
feelings1 depends upon the laws  of     
association1 readiness1 exercise1 and   

effect4 ,to raise power of  appreciation
 from low levels to high1 from almost   
nothing to a  controlling force1 needs  
but the application of these laws4 ,but 
no one  of them can be neglected with   
impunity4 ,it must be a gradual growth1 
beginning with tracks that are ready1   
because of the presence of certain      
instincts1 and working on to others     
through the law of association4 ,to     
expect a child of seven to appreciate a 
steel engraving1 or a piece of  classic 
music1 or moral qualities in another    
person is to violate the  law of        
readiness4 ,to expect any one in adult  
life to enjoy music1 or  art1 or nature1
 who has not had experience with each   
and enjoyed each  continually as a      
child1 is to violate the laws of        
exercise and effect4    ,two or three   
suggestions as to aids in the           
application of these laws may  be in    
place4 ,first1 a wealth of images is an 
aid to appreciation4  ,second1 the      
absence for the time of the critical    

attitude4 ,third1 an  encouragement of  
the passive contemplative attitude4     
,fourth1 the example  of others4        
,suggestion and association with other  
people who do  appreciate and enjoy are 
among the best means of securing it4    
,the value of feelings of appreciation  
are threefold3 ,first1 they serve  as   
recreation4 ,it is in enjoyment of this 
kind that most of the leisure  of       
civilized races is spent4 ,it serves on 
the mental level much the same  purpose 
that play does1 in fact1 much of it is  
mental play of a kind4  ,second1 they   
are impersonal4 ,they are valuable in   
that they take us out  of ourselves1    
away from self-interests1 and therefore 
make for mental  health and sanity as   
well as for a sympathetic character4    
,they are also  a means of broadening   
one's experience4 ,third1 they have a   
close  relationship with ideals and     
therefore have an active bearing on     
conduct4 ,it is not necessarily true    
that one will tend in himself or in  his

 surroundings to be like what he enjoys 
and appreciates1 but the  tendency will 
be strongly in that direction4 ,if an   
individual truly  appreciates1 enjoys1  
beautiful pictures1 good music and      
books1 he will  be likely1 so far as he 
can1 to surround himself with them4 ,if 
he  appreciates loyalty1 openmindedness1
 tolerance1 as he meets them in         
literature and history1 he may become   
more so himself4 ,at least1 the         
developing of appreciations is the first
 step towards conduct in those  lines4  
,in order to insure the conduct1 other  
means must be taken1 but  without the   
appreciation the conduct will be less   
sure4    ,one who would count most in   
developing power of appreciation upon   
the  part of children may well inquire  
concerning his own power of             
appreciation4 ,there is not very much   
possibility of the development of  joy  
in poetry1 in music1 or any other       
artistic form of expression  through    
association with the teacher who finds  

little satisfaction in  these artistic  
forms1 who has little power of aesthetic
 appreciation4 ,it  is only as teachers 
themselves are sincere in their         
appreciation of the  nobility of        
character possessed by the men and women
 whose lives are  portrayed in history1 
in literature1 or in contemporary social
 life that  one may expect that their   
influence will be important in          
developing such  appreciation upon the  
part of children4 ,those pupils are     
fortunate who  are taught by teachers   
who have a sense of humor1 who are able 
to grow  enthusiastic over the          
intellectual achievement of the leaders 
in the  field of study or investigation 
in which the children are at work4      
,children are1 indeed1 quick to discover
 sentimentalism or  pseudo-appreciation 
upon the part of teachers1 but even     
though they may  not give any certain   
expression to their enjoyment1 they are 
usually  largely influenced by the      
attitude and genuine power of           

appreciation  possessed by the teacher4 
,in our attempt to have children grow in
 the field of appreciation we  have     
often made the mistake of attempting to 
impose upon them adult  standards4 ,a   
great librarian in one of our eastern   
cities has said that  he would rather   
have children read dime novels than to  
have them read  nothing4 ,from his point
 of view it was more important to have  
children  appreciating and enjoying     
something which they read than to have  
their  lives barren in this respect4 ,in
 literature1 in music1 and in fine art  
the development in power of appreciation
 is undoubtedly from the simple1  cruder
 forms to those which we as adults      
consider the higher or nobler  forms of 
expression4 ,mother ,goose1 the rhymes  
of ,stevenson1 of ,field1 or  of ,riley1
 may be the beginning of the enjoyment  
of literature which  finds its final    
expression in the reading and in the    
possession of the  greatest literature  
of the ,english language4 ,the simple   

rote songs which  the children learn in 
the first grade1 or which they hear on  
the  phonograph1 may lead through       
various stages of development to the    
enjoyment of grand opera4 ,pictures in  
which bright color predominates  may be 
the beginning of power of appreciation  
which finds its fruition  in a home     
which is decorated with reproductions of
 the world's  masterpieces4    ,it is   
not only in the artistic field that this
 growth in power of  appreciation from  
the simpler to the more complex is to be
 found4  ,children instinctively admire 
the man who is brave rather than the man
  who endures4 ,achievement is for most 
boys and girls of greater  significance 
than self-sacrifice4 ,it is only as we  
adapt our material to  their present    
attainment1 or to an attempt to have    
them reach the next  higher stage of    
development1 that we may expect genuine 
growth4 ,all too  often instead of      
growth we secure the development of a   
hypocritical  attitude1 which accepts   

the judgment of others1 and which never 
really  indicates genuine enjoyment4    
,while it is best not to insist upon an 
analysis of the feelings that one  has  
in enjoying a picture or a poem or a    
great character1 it is worth  while to  
encourage choice4 ,of many stories which
 have been told1  children may very     
properly choose one which they would    
like to tell to  others4 ,of many poems 
which have been read in class1 a group  
of boys may  admire one and commit it to
 memory1 while the girls may care for   
another  and be allowed to memorize it4 
,wherever such coperation is possible1  
the picture which you enjoy most is the 
one that will mean most in power  of    
appreciation if placed in your room at  
home4 ,spontaneous approval1  rather    
than an agreement with an adult teacher 
who is considered an  authority1 is to  
be sought for4 ,there is more in the    
spontaneous  laughter which results as  
children read together their ,alice in  
,wonderland than could possibly result  

from an analysis of the quality  of     
humor which is involved4    ,we are     
coming to understand as a matter of     
education that we may hope to  develop  
relatively few men and women of great   
creative genius4 ,the  producers of work
 of great artistic worth are1 for the   
most part1 to be  determined by native  
capacity rather than by school          
exercises4 ,we must  think of the great 
majority of school children as possible 
consumers  rather than as producers4    
,schools which furnish a maximum of     
opportunity  to enjoy music and pictures
 may hope to develop in their community 
a  power of discrimination in these     
fields which will result in             
satisfaction with nothing less than the 
best4 ,the player-piano and the         
phonograph may mean more in the         
development of musical taste in a       
community than all of the lessons which 
are given in the reading of  music4 ,the
 art gallery in the high school1 the    
folk dances which have  been produced as

 a part of the school festivals1 the    
reading of the best  stories1 may       
prepare the way for the utilization of  
leisure time in the  pursuit of the     
nobler pleasures4 ,the teacher with a   
saving sense of  humor1 large in his    
power of appreciation of the great men  
and women of  his time1 and all of the  
time keen in his own enjoyment and in   
his  ability to interpret for others    
those things which are most worth while 
in literature and in art1 may count more
 largely in the life of the  community  
than the one who is a master in some    
field of investigation4      ,,questions
      #a4 ,what are the characteristics 
of the mental states which are involved 
in appreciation8    #b4 ,name the       
different types of situations in which  
appreciation may be  developed4 ,give   
examples4    #c4 ,does the power to     
criticize poetry or music necessarily   
involve  appreciation8    #d4 ,to what  
degree may skill in creative work result
 in power of  appreciation8    #e4 ,what

 are the elements involved in           
appreciating human nature8    #f4 ,give 
an example of appreciation of           
intellectual powers4    #g4 ,what is the
 essential element in the appreciation  
of humor8    #h4 ,explain how the power 
of appreciation is dependent upon       
training4    #i4 ,what values in the    
education of an individual are realized 
through  growth in power of             
appreciation8    #aj4 ,why is it        
important for a teacher to seek to      
cultivate his own power  of             
appreciation8    #aa4 ,what poems1 or   
pictures1 or music would you expect     
first-grade  children to enjoy8 ,why8   
#ab4 ,would you expect fifth-grade      
children to grow in appreciation of     
poetry by having them commit to memory  
selections from ,milton's ,paradise     
,lost8 ,why8    #ac4 ,why is it         
important to allow children to choose   
the poems that they  commit to memory1  
or the pictures which they hang on their
 walls8    #ad4 ,why would you accept   

spontaneous expression of approval of   
the  characters in literature or in     
history1 rather than seek to control the
  judgments of children in this respect8
    #ae4 ,how may teachers prove most   
effective in developing the power of    
appreciation upon the part of children8 
99       99       99       99       99  
,,ix4 ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,play ,,in  
,,education      ,all human activity    
might be classified under three         
heads1--play1 work1  and drudgery1--but 
just what activities belong under each  
head and just  what each of the terms   
means are questions of dispute4 ,that   
the  boundaries between the three are   
hazy and undefined1 and that they shade 
gradually into each other1 are without  
doubt true1 but after all play is       
different from work1 and work from      
drudgery4 ,much of the disagreement as  
to the value of play is due to this lack
 of definition4 ,even to-day when  the  
worth of play is so universally         
recognized1 we still hear the           

criticism's of soft pedagogy and sugar  
coating used in connection  with the    
application of the principle of play in 
education4    ,although what we call    
play has its roots in original          
equipment1 still  there is no such thing
 as the play instinct1 in the sense that
 there is  a hunting instinct or a      
fighting instinct4 ,instead of being a  
definite  instinct1 which means a       
definite response to a definite         
situation1 it is  rather a tendency     
characteristic of all instincts and     
capacities4 ,it is  an outgrowth of the 
general characteristic of all original  
nature  towards activity of some kind4  
,this tendency is so broad and so       
complex1  the machinery governing it is 
so delicate1 that it produces responses 
that vary tremendously with subtle      
changes in the individual1 and with     
slight modifications of the situation4  
,what we call play1 then1 is  nothing   
more than the manifestations of the     
various instincts and  capacities as    

they appear at times when they are not  
immediately useful4  ,the connections in
 the nervous system are ripe and all    
other factors  have operated to put them
 in a state of readiness3 a situation   
occurs  which stimulates these          
connections and the child plays4 ,these 
connections called into activity may    
result in responses which are  primarily
 physical1 intellectual1 or             
emotional--all are manifestations  of   
this tendency towards activity4 ,all    
habits of all kinds grow out of  this   
same activity3 habits which we call work
 and those which we call  play4 ,man has
 not two original natures1 one defined  
in terms of the play  instinct1 and the 
other in terms of work4 ,most of the    
original  tendencies involved in play   
are not peculiar to it1 but also are the
  source of work4 ,manifestation results
 in making mud pies and apple  pies2    
physical activity results in the        
kicking1 squirming1 and  wriggling of   
the infant and the monotonous wielding  

of the hammer of the  road mender4 ,the 
conditions under which an activity      
occurs1 its  concomitants1 and the      
attitude of the individual performing it
 determine  whether it is play or       
work--not its source or root4    ,much1 
then1 of what we call play is simply the
 manifestation of  instincts and        
capacities not immediately useful to the
 child4 ,if they  were immediately      
useful1 they would probably be put under
 the head of  work1 not play4 ,many of  
the activities which seem playful to us 
and not  of immediate service do so     
because of the conditions of civilized  
life4  ,were the infants living under   
primitive conditions1 in such a         
community  as a human settlement seems  
likely to have been twenty-five thousand
  years ago1 their restless examination 
of small objects would perhaps  seem as 
utilitarian as their fathers'           
hunting4#ac ,certainly the  tendency of 
little children to chase a small object 
going away from  them1 and to run from a

 large object approaching slowly1 their 
tendency  to collect and hoard1 their   
tendency to outdo another engaged in any
  instinctive pursuit1 would under      
primitive conditions have a distinct    
utilitarian value1 and yet all such     
tendencies are ranked as play when      
manifested by the civilized child4      
,other tendencies become playful rather 
than useful because of the  complexity  
of the environment and of the nervous   
system responding to  it4 ,in actual    
life we don't find activity following a 
neatly arranged  situation--response    
system4 ,on the contrary1 a situation   
seldom  stimulates one response1 and a  
response seldom occurs in the typical   
form required by theory4 ,it is this    
mingling of responses brought about  by 
varying elements in the situation that  
gives the playful effect4 ,in a  less   
complex environment this complexity     
would be lessened4 ,also  experience1   
habit1 tends to pin one type of response
 to a given  situation and the minor    

connections gradually become eliminated4
 ,for  example1 if a boy of nine1 alone 
in the woods1 was approached by another 
with threatening gestures and scowls1   
the fighting response would be  called  
out1 and we would not call it play1     
because it served as  protection4 ,if   
the same boy in his own garden1 with a  
group of  companions1 was approached by 
another with scowls1 a perfectly        
good-natured tussle might take place and
 we would call it play4 ,the  difference
 between the two would be in minor      
elements of the situation4  ,some of    
these differences are absence or        
presence of companions1 the  strangeness
 or familiarity of the surroundings1 the
 suddenness of the  appearance of the   
other boy1 and so on4    ,most of the   
older theories of play did not take into
 account these three  facts1 i4e41 the  
identity in original nature of the roots
 of play and  work2 the fact that man's 
original nature fits him for primitive  
not  civilized society2 the complexity  

of the situation--response connection   
and its necessary variation with minor  
elements in the external  situation and 
in the individual4 ,earlier writers1    
therefore1 felt the  need of special    
theories of play4 ,the best known of    
these theories are1  first1 the         
,schiller-,spencer surplus energy       
theory2 second1 the ,groos  preparation 
for life theory2 third1 the ,g4 ,stanley
 ,hall atavistic  theory2 fourth1 the   
,appleton biological theory4 ,each of   
the theories has  some element of truth 
in it1 for play is complex enough to    
include them  all1 but each1 save       
perhaps the last1 falls short of an     
adequate  explanation4    ,two facts    
growing out of the theory of play       
accepted by the last few  paragraphs    
need further discussion4 ,first1 the    
order of development in  play4 ,the play
 activities must follow along the line  
of the developing  instincts and        
capacities4 ,as the nerve tracts        
governing certain  responses become     

ready to act1 these responses become the
 controlling  ones in play4 ,so it is   
that for a time play is controlled      
largely by the  instinct of             
manipulation1 at another time physical  
activity combined  with competition is  
most prominent1 at another period       
imagination  controls1 still later the  
puzzle-solving tendency comes to the    
point  followed by all the games        
involving an intellectual factor4 ,this 
being  true1 it is not surprising to    
find certain types of play              
characterizing  certain ages and to find
 that though the particular games may   
vary1  there is a strong resemblance    
between plays of children of the same   
age  all over the world4 ,it must not be
 forgotten1 however1 that the  readiness
 of nerve tracts to function1 and       
therefore the play responses1  depends  
on other factors as well as maturity4   
,the readiness of other  tracts to      
function2 past experience and habits2   
the stimulus provided by  the present   

situation2 absence of competing stimuli2
 sex1 health1  fatigue1 tradition--all  
these and many more factors modify the  
order of  development of the play       
tendencies4 ,still1 having these facts  
in mind1  it is possible to indicate    
roughly the type of play most prominent 
at  different ages4    ,children from   
four to seven play primarily in terms of
 sensory  responses1 imagination1       
imitation1 and curiosity of the cruder  
sort4  ,love of rhythm also is strong at
 this period4 ,from seven to ten        
individual competition or rivalry       
becomes very strong and influences      
physical games1 the collecting tendency1
 and manipulation1 all of which         
tendencies are prominent at this time4  
,ten to twelve or thirteen is           
characterized by the gang spirit which  
shows itself in connection with  all    
outdoor games and adventures2 memory is 
a large factor in some of  the plays of 
this period1 and independent thinking in
 connection with  situations engendered 

by manipulation and the gang spirit     
becomes  stronger4 ,at this period the  
differences between girls and boys      
become  more marked4 ,the girls choose  
quieter indoor games1 chumming becomes  
prominent1 and interest in books1       
especially of the semi-religious and    
romantic type1 comes to the front4 ,in  
the early adolescent period the         
emotional factor is strong and          
characterizes many of the playful       
activities2 the intellectual element    
takes precedence over the physical2  the
 group interest widens1 although the    
interest in leadership and  independent 
action still remains strong2 teasing and
 bullying are also  present4 ,this      
summary is by no means complete1 but it 
indicates in a  very general way the    
prominent tendencies at the periods     
indicated4    ,the second fact needing  
further elaboration is that of the      
complexity of  the play activity4 ,take1
 for instance1 a four-year-old playing  
with a  doll4 ,she fondles1 cuddles1    

trundles it1 and takes it to bed with   
her4  ,it is jumped up and down and     
dragged about4 ,it is put through many  
of  the experiences that the child is   
having1 especially the unpleasant  ones4
 ,its eyes and hair1 its arms and legs1 
are examined4 ,questions are  asked such
 as1 ,where did it come from8 ,who made 
it8 ,has it a  stomach8 ,will it die8   
,in many instances it is personified4   
,the child  is often perfectly content  
to play with it alone1 without the      
presence  of other children4 ,this      
activity shows the presence of the      
nursing  instinct1 the tendency towards 
manipulation1 physical activity1        
imitation and curiosity of the empirical
 type4 ,the imagination is active  but  
still undifferentiated from perception4 
,the contentment in playing  alone1 or  
with an adult1 shows the stage of       
development of the  gregarious instinct4
 ,a girl of nine no longer cuddles or   
handles her  doll just for the pleasure 
she gets out of that1 nor is the doll   

put  through such violent physical      
exercises4 ,the child has passed beyond 
the  aimless manipulation and physical  
activity that characterized the  younger
 child4 ,instead she makes things for   
it1 clothes1 furniture1 or  jewelry1    
still manipulation1 and still the       
nursing instincts1 but  modified and    
directed towards more practical ends4   
,imitation now shows  itself in         
activities that are organized4 ,the     
child plays ,sunday1 or  calling1 or    
traveling1 or market day1 in which the  
doll takes her part  in a series of     
related activities4 ,but in these       
activities constructive  imagination    
appears as an element4 ,situations are  
not absolutely  duplicated1 occurrences 
are changed to suit the fancy of the    
player1 as  demanded by the dramatic    
interest4 ,a fairy prince1 or a         
godmother1 may  be participants1 but at 
this age the constructive imagination is
 likely  to work along more practical   
lines4 ,curiosity is also present1 but  

now  the questions asked are such as1   
,what makes her eyes work8 ,why can't   
she stand up8 or they often pertain to  
the things that are being made  for the 
doll4 ,they have to do with ,how or ,why
 instead of the ,what4  ,the doll may   
still be talked to and even be supposed 
to talk back1 but  the child knows it is
 all play2 it is no longer personified  
as in the  earlier period4 ,for the     
child fully to enjoy her play1 she must 
now have  companions of her own age1 the
 older person no longer suffices4       
,the outdoor games of boys show the same
 kind of complexity1--for  instance1    
take any of the running games4 ,with    
little boys they are  unorganized       
manifestations of mere physical         
activity4 ,the running is  more or less 
at random1 arms and vocal organs are    
used as much as the  legs and trunk4    
,imitation comes in-what one does others
 are likely to  do4 ,the mere follow    
instinct is strong1 and they run after  
each other4  ,the beginnings of the     

fighting instinct appear in the more or 
less  friendly tussles they have4 ,the  
stage of the gregarious instinct is     
shown by the fact that they all play    
together4 ,later with boys of nine  or  
ten the play has become a game1 with    
rules governing it4 ,the general        
physical activity has been replaced by a
 specialized form4 ,imitation is  less  
of a factor4 ,the hunting instinct often
 appears unexpectedly1 and  in the midst
 of the play the elements of the chase  
interfere with the  proper conduct of   
the game4 ,the fighting instinct is     
strong1 and is very  easily aroused4    
,the boys now play in gangs or groups1  
and the tendency  towards leadership    
manifests itself within the group4 ,the 
intellectual  element appears again and 
again1 in planning the game1 in judging 
of the  possibility of succeeding at    
different stages1 or in settling        
disputes  that are sure to arise4 ,so it
 is with all the plays of children3 they
  are complexes of the various          

tendencies present1 and the controlling 
elements change as the inner development
 continues4    ,all activities when     
indulged in playfully have certain      
common  characteristics4 ,first1 the    
activity is enjoyed for its own sake4   
,the  process is satisfying in itself4  
,results may come naturally1 but they   
are not separated from the process2 the 
reason for the enjoyment is not         
primarily the result1 but rather the    
whole activity4 ,second1 the  activity  
is indulged in by the player because it 
satisfies some inner  need1 and only by 
indulging in it can the need be         
satisfied4 ,it uses  neurone tracts that
 were ready4 ,growing out of these two  
major  characteristics are several      
others4 ,the attention is free and      
immediate2  much energy is used with    
comparatively little fatigue2           
self-activity and  initiative are freely
 displayed4    ,at the other extreme of 
activity is drudgery4 ,its              
characteristics are  just the opposite  

of these4 ,first1 the activity is       
engaged in merely for  the result--the  
process counting for nothing and the    
result being the  only thing of value4  
,second1 the process1 instead of        
satisfying some  need1 is rather felt to
 be in violation of the nature of the   
one  engaged4 ,it uses neurone tracts   
that are not ready and at the same  time
 prevents the action of tracts that are 
ready4 ,it becomes a task4  ,the        
attention necessarily must be of the    
forced1 derived type1 in which  fatigue 
comes quickly as a result of divided    
attention1 results are  poor1 and there 
is no chance for initiative4    ,between
 these two extremes lies work4 ,it      
differs from play in that the  results  
are usually of more value and in that   
the attention is therefore  often of the
 derived type4 ,it differs from drudgery
 in that there is not  the sharp        
distinction between the process and the 
result and in that the  attention may   
often be of the free spontaneous type4  

,it was emphasized  at the beginning of 
this chapter that the boundaries between
 the three  were hazy and ill defined4  
,this is especially true of work2 it may
 be  indistinguishable from play as it  
partakes of its characteristics1 or it  
may swing to the other extreme and be   
almost drudgery4 ,the difference        
between the three activities is a       
subjective matter--a difference  largely
 in mood1 in attitude of the person     
concerned1 due to the  readiness or     
unreadiness of the neurone tracts       
exercised4 ,the same  activity may be   
play for one person1 work for another1  
and drudgery for  still another4        
,further1 for the same person the same  
activity may be  play1 work1 or         
drudgery1 at different times1 even      
within the same day4    ,which of the   
three is the most valuable for          
educational purposes8  ,certainly not   
drudgery4 ,it is deadening1 uneducative1
 undevelopmental4  ,any phase of        
education1 though it may be a seemingly 

necessary one1 that  has the            
characteristics of drudgery is valueless
 in itself4 ,as a means  to an end it   
may serve--but with the antagonistic    
attitude1 the  annoyance aroused by     
drudgery1 it seems a very questionable  
means4  ,education that can obtain the  
results required by a civilized         
community  and yet use the play spirit  
is the ideal4    ,but to have children  
engaged in play1 in the sense of free   
play1 cannot  be the only measure4      
,there must be supervision and          
direction4 ,the spirit  that            
characterizes the activities which are  
not immediately useful must  be         
incorporated into those that are useful 
by means of the shifting of  association
 bonds4 ,nor can all parts of the       
process seem worth while to  the        
learner4 ,sometimes the process or parts
 of it must become a means to  an end1  
for the end is remote4 ,but all this is 
true to some extent in  free            
play--digging the worms in order to go  

fishing1 finding the  scissors and      
thread in order to make the doll's      
dress1 making  arrangements with the    
other team to play ball1 finding the    
right pieces  of wood for the hut1 and  
so on1 may not be satisfactory in and of
  themselves1 but may be almost         
drudgery4 ,they are not drudgery because
  they become fused in the whole        
process1 they take over and are lost in 
the joy of the undertaking as a whole2  
they become a legitimate means to  an   
end1 and in so far take over in derived 
form the interest that is  roused by the
 whole4 ,it is this fusion of work and  
play that is  desirable in education4   
,this is the great lesson of play--it   
shows the  value and encourages the     
logical combination of the two          
activities4  ,children learn to work as 
they play4 ,they learn the meaning and  
value of  work4 ,work becomes a means to
 an end1 and that end not something     
remote  and disconnected from the       
activity itself1 but as part and parcel 

of it4  ,thus the activity as a whole   
imbued with the play spirit becomes     
motivated4    ,the play spirit is the   
spirit of art4 ,no great result was     
achieved in  any line of human activity 
without much work1 and yet no great     
result  was ever gained unless the play 
spirit controlled4 ,it is to this       
interaction of work and play that each  
owes much of its value4 ,work in  and of
 itself apart from play lacks educative 
power2 it is only as it  leads to and   
increases the power of play that it is  
of greatest value4  ,its logical place  
in education is as a means to an end1   
not as an end in  itself4 ,play1 on the 
other hand1 that does not necessitate   
some work1  that does not need work in  
order that it may function more fully1  
has  lost most of its educational value4
 ,to work in play and to play while     
working is the ideal combination4       
,either by itself is dangerous4    ,two 
misconceptions should be mentioned4     
,first1 the play spirit advocated  as   

one of the greatest educational factors 
must not be limited to the  merely      
physical activities1 nor should it be   
considered synonymous with  what is     
easy4 ,this characterization of play as 
being the aimless trivial  physical     
activities of a little child is a       
misconception of the whole  play        
tendency4 ,it has already been pointed  
out that any activity which  in itself  
satisfies1 whether that be physical1    
emotional1 or  intellectual1 is play1   
and all these phases of human activity  
show  themselves in play first4 ,also   
the fact that play does not mean ease of
  accomplishment has been noted4 ,it is 
only in the play spirit that the  full  
resources of child or adult are tested4 
,it is only when the  activity fully    
satisfies some need that the individual 
throws himself  whole-souled into it4   
,it is only under the stimulus of the   
play spirit  that all one's energy is   
spent1 and great results1 clear1        
accurate1 and  far reaching1 are        

obtained4 ,ease of performance often    
results in  drudgery4 ,to be play1 the  
activity must be suited to the child's  
capacity1 but leave chance for          
initiative and change and development4  
,the second misconception is that       
because present-day educators advocate  
play in education1 they believe that the
 child should do nothing that he        
doesn't want to4 ,this is wrong on two  
accounts4 ,first1 it is part of the     
business of an environment to           
stimulate--readiness depends partly on  
stimulation4 ,the child may never play  
unless the stimulation is forcibly  and 
continually applied4 ,second1 after all 
it is the result we are most  anxious   
for in education1 and that result is an 
educated adult4 ,by all  means let us   
obtain this result by the most          
economical and effective  method1 and   
that is by use of the play spirit4 ,but 
if the result cannot  be obtained by    
this means because of the character of  
civilized ideals1  or the difficulties  

of group education1 or lack of capacity 
of the  individual--then surely other   
methods1 even that of drudgery1 must be 
resorted to4 ,the point is1 with the    
goal in mind1 adapt the material of     
education to the needs of the individual
 child2 in other words1 use the  play   
spirit so far as is possible--after that
 gain the rest by any means  whatsoever4
    ,so far the discussion has been     
concerned with the characteristics of   
the  play spirit and its use in         
connection with the more formal         
materials of  education4 ,however1 the  
free plays of children are valuable in  
two  ways--first1 as sources of         
information as to the particular        
tendencies  ready for exercise at       
different times1 and second1 as a means 
of  education in themselves4 ,a         
knowledge of just which tendencies are  
most  prominent in the plays of a group 
of children1 when they change from  play
 to games1 the increase in complexity   
and organization1 the  predominance of  

the intellectual factors1--all this     
could be of direct  service to a teacher
 in the schoolroom4 ,but it means1 to   
some extent1  the observation by the    
teacher of his particular group of      
children4 ,such  observation is         
extremely fruitful4 ,the more           
vigorously1 the more  wholeheartedly1   
the more completely a child plays1 other
 things being  equal1 the better4 ,a    
deprivation of opportunity to play1 or a
 loss of  any particular type of play1  
means a loss of the development of      
certain  traits or characteristics4 ,an 
all-round1 well-developed adult can grow
  only from a child developed in an     
all-round way because of many-sided     
play4 ,hence the value of public        
playgrounds and of time to play4 ,hence 
the danger of the isolated1 lonely      
child1 for many plays demand the  group4
 ,hence the opportunities and the       
dangers of supervision of play4         
,supervision of play is valuable in so  
far as it furnishes opportunities  and  

suggestions which develop the elements  
most worth while in play and  which keep
 play at its highest level1 and in so   
far as it concerns the  nature of the   
individual child1 protecting1           
admonishing1 or encouraging1  as the    
case may require4 ,it is dangerous to   
the child's best good1 in so  far as it 
results in domination2 for domination   
will mean1 usually1 the  introduction of
 plays beyond the child's stage of      
development and the  destruction of the 
independence and initiative which are   
two of the most  valuable               
characteristics of free play4 ,valuable 
supervision of play is  art that must be
 acquired4 ,to influence1 while effacing
 oneself1 to  guide1 while being one of 
the players1 to have an adult's         
understanding  of the needs of child    
nature and yet to be one with the       
children--these  are the essentials of  
the supervision of play4                
,,questions      #a4 ,distinguish       
between the fighting instinct and the   

instinctive basis  of play4    #b4      
,under what conditions may an activity  
which we classify as play for a         
civilized child be called work for a    
child living under primitive            
conditions8    #c4 ,what kinds of plays 
are characteristic of different age     
periods in  the life of children8    #d4
 ,trace the development of some game    
played by the older boys in your  school
 from its simpler beginnings in the play
 of little children to its  present     
complexity4    #e4 ,name the            
characteristics common to all playful   
activity4    #f4 ,distinguish between   
play and drudgery4    #g4 ,what is the  
difference between work and play8    #h4
 ,to what degree may the activities of  
the school be made play8    #i4 ,explain
 why the same activity may be play for  
one individual1 work  for another1 and  
drudgery for a third4    #aj4 ,why      
should we seek to make the play element 
prominent in school  activity8    #aa4  
,when is one most efficient in          

individual pursuits--when his activity  
is play1 when he works1 or when he is a 
drudge8    #ab4 ,under what conditions  
should we compel children to work1 or   
even to  engage in an activity which may
 involve drudgery8    #ac4 ,explain how 
play may involve the maximum of         
utilization of the  abilities possessed 
by the individual1 rather than a type of
 activity  easy of accomplishment4      
#ad4 ,in what does skill in the         
supervision of play consist8            
99       99       99       99       99  
,x4 ,,the ,,significance ,,of           
,,individual ,,differences ,,for ,,the  
,,teacher      ,it has been indicated   
here and there throughout the previous  
chapters  that1 despite the fact that   
there are certain laws governing the    
various  mental traits and processes1   
still there is variation in the working 
of  those laws4 ,it was pointed out that
 people differ in kind of memory or     
imagination in which they excel1 in     
their ability to appreciate1 in the     

speed with which they form habits1 and  
so on4 ,in other words1 that boys  and  
girls are not exact duplicates of each  
other1 but that they always  differ from
 each other4 ,now a knowledge of these  
differences1 their  amounts1            
interrelations1 and causes are very     
necessary for the planning  of a school 
system or for the planning of the       
education of a particular  child4 ,what 
we plan and how we plan educational     
undertakings must always  be influenced 
by our opinion as to inborn traits1 sex 
differences1  specialization of mental  
traits1 speed of development1 the       
respective  power of nature and of      
nurture4 ,the various plans of promotion
 and  grouping of children found in     
different cities are in operation       
because  of certain beliefs concerning  
differences in general mental ability4  
,coeducation is urged or deplored       
largely on the ground of belief in the  
differing abilities of the sexes4       
,exact knowledge of just what           

differences do exist between people and 
the  causes of these differences is     
important for two reasons4 ,first1 in   
order that the most efficient measures  
may be taken for the education of  the  
individual1 and second1 in order that   
the race as a whole may be  made better4
 ,education can only become efficient   
and economical when we  know which      
differences between people and which    
achievements of a given  person are due 
to training1 and which are due more     
largely to original  equipment or       
maturity4 ,it is a waste of time on the 
one hand for  education to concern      
itself with trying to make all children 
good  spellers--if spelling is a natural
 gift2 and on the other hand1 it is     
lack of efficiency for schools to be    
largely neglecting the moral            
development of the children1 if morality
 is dependent primarily on  education4  
,exact knowledge1 not opinions1 along   
all these lines is  necessary if        
progress is to be made4    ,the         

principal causes for individual         
differences are sex1 remote  ancestry1  
near ancestry1 maturity1 and training4  
,the question to be  answered in the    
discussion of each of these causes is   
how important a  factor is it in the    
production of differences and just what 
differences  is it responsible for4     
,that men differ from women has always  
been an  accepted fact1 but exact       
knowledge of how much and how they      
differ has1  until recent years1 been   
lacking4 ,recently quantitative         
measurement has  been made by a number  
of investigators4 ,in making these      
investigations  two serious difficulties
 have to be met4 ,first1 that the tests 
measure  only the differences brought   
about by differences in sex1 and not by 
any  other cause1 such as family or     
training4 ,this difficulty has been met 
by  taking people of all ages1 from all 
sorts of families1 with all kinds of    
training1 the constant factor being the 
difference in sex4 ,the second          

difficulty is that of finding groups in 
which the selection agencies  have been 
the same and equally operative4 ,it     
would be obviously unfair  to compare   
college men and women1 and expect to get
 a fair result as to  sex differences1  
because college women are a more highly 
selected group  intellectually than the 
college men4 ,it is the conventional and
 social  demands that are primarily     
responsible for sending boys to college1
  while the intellectual impulse is     
responsible to a greater extent for     
sending girls4 ,examination of children 
in the elementary schools1 then1  gives 
a fairer result than of the older men   
and women4 ,the general  results of all 
the studies made point to the fact that 
the differences  between the sexes are  
small4 ,sex is the cause of only a small
 fraction  of the differences between   
individuals4 ,the total difference of   
men from  men and women from women is   
almost as great as the difference       
between  men and women1 for the         

distribution curve of woman's ability in
 any  trait overlaps the men's curve to 
at least half its range4 ,in detail the 
exact measurements of intellectual      
abilities show a slight superiority  of 
the women in receptivity and memory1 and
 a slight superiority of the  men in    
control of movement and in thought about
 concrete mechanical  situations4 ,in   
interests which cannot be so definitely 
measured1 women  seem to be more        
interested in people and men in things4 
,in instinctive  equipment women excel  
in the nursing impulse and men in the   
fighting  impulse4 ,in physical         
equipment men are stronger and bigger   
than women4  ,they excel in muscular    
tests in ability to spurt1 whereas women
 do  better in endurance tests4 ,the    
male sex seems on the whole to be       
slightly more variable than the female1 
i4e41 its curve of distribution  is     
somewhat flatter and extends both lower 
and higher than does that of  the       
female2 or1 stated another way1 men     

furnish more than their  proportion of  
idiots and of geniuses4    ,slight      
though these differences are1 they are  
not to be disregarded1 for  sometimes   
the resulting habits are important4 ,for
 instance1 girls should  be better      
spellers than boys4 ,boys should excel  
in physics and  chemistry4 ,women should
 have more tact than men1 whereas men   
should be  more impartial in their      
judgments4 ,with the same intellectual  
equipment  as women1 men should be found
 more often in positions of prominence  
because of the strength of the fighting 
instinct4 ,the geniuses of the  world1  
the leaders in any field1 as well as the
 idiots1 should more  often be men than 
women4 ,that these differences do exist1
 observation as  well as experiment     
prove1 but that they are entirely due to
 essential  innate differences in sex is
 still open to question4 ,differences in
  treatment of the sexes in ideals and  
in training for generation after        
generation may account for some of the  

differences noted4    ,what these       
differences mean from the standpoint of 
practice is still  another question4    
,difference in equipment need not mean  
difference in  treatment1 nor need      
identity of equipment necessarily mean  
identity of  training4 ,the kind of     
education given will have to be         
determined not  only by the nature of   
the individual1 but also by the ideals  
held for  and the efficiency demanded   
from each sex4    ,another cause of the 
differences existing between individuals
 is  difference in race inheritance4 ,in
 causing differences in physical  traits
 this factor is prominent4 ,the         
,american ,indians have physical  traits
 in common which differentiate them from
 other races2 the same  thing is true of
 the ,negroes and the ,mongolians4 ,it  
has always been  taken for granted that 
the same kind of difference between the 
races  existed in mental traits4 ,to    
measure the mental differences caused by
  race is an extremely difficult        

problem4 ,training1 environment1        
tradition1 are such potent factors in   
confusing the issue4 ,the  difficulty is
 to measure inborn traits1 not          
achievement4 ,hence the  results from   
actual measurement are very few and are 
confined to the  sensory and            
sensorimotor traits4 ,woodworth1 in     
summing up the results of  these tests1 
says1 ,on the whole1 the keenness of the
 senses seems to be  about on a par in  
the various races of mankind4444 ,if the
 results could  be taken at their face  
value1 they would indicate differences  
in  intelligence between races1 giving  
such groups as the ,pygmy and ,negrito  
a low station as compared with most of  
mankind4 ,the fairness of the test  is  
not1 however1 beyond question4#ad ,the  
generality of this conclusion           
concerning the differences in           
intelligence reveals the lack of data4  
,no  tests of the higher intellectual   
processes1 such as the ability to       
analyze1 to associate in terms of       

elements1 to formulate new principles1  
and the like1 have1 been given4 ,some   
anthropologists are skeptical of  the   
existence of any great differences1     
while others believe that though  there 
is much overlapping1 still differences  
of considerable magnitude  do exist4 ,at
 present we do not know how much of the 
differences existing  between           
individuals is due to differences in    
remote ancestry4    ,maturity as a cause
 of differences between individuals     
gives quite as  unsatisfactory results  
as remote ancestry4 ,every thoughtful   
student of  children must realize that  
inner growth1 apart from training1 has  
something to do with the changes which  
take place in a child2 that he  differs 
from year to year because of a          
difference in maturity4 ,this same      
cause1 then1 must account to some extent
 for the differences between            
individuals of different ages4 ,but just
 how great a part it plays1 what  per   
cent of the difference it accounts for1 

and what particular traits  it affects  
much or little1 no one knows4 ,we say in
 general that  nine-year-old children   
are more suggestible than six-year-old1 
and than  fourteen-year-old2 that the   
point of view of the fifteen-year-old is
  different from that of the            
eleven-year-old2 that the power of sense
  discrimination gradually increases up 
to about sixteen1 and so on4 ,that      
these facts are true1 no one can        
question1 but how far they are due to   
mere change in maturity and how far to  
training or to the increase in  power of
 some particular capacity1 such as      
understanding directions1 or  power of  
forced attention1 is unknown4 ,the      
studies which have been  undertaken     
along this line have failed in two      
particulars3 first1 to  distribute the  
actual changes found from year to year  
among the three  possible causes1       
maturity1 general powers of             
comprehension and the like1  and        
training2 second1 to measure the same   

individuals from year to year4  ,this   
last error is very common in studies of 
human nature4 ,it is taken  for granted 
that to examine ten year olds and then  
eleven year olds and  then twelve year  
olds will give what ten year olds will  
become in one  and two years' time      
respectively4 ,to test a group of       
grammar grade  children and then a group
 of high school and then a group of     
college  students will not show the     
changes in maturity from grammar school 
to  college4 ,the method is quite wrong1
 for it tests only the ten year olds    
that stay in school long enough to      
become twelve year olds2 it measures    
only the very small per cent of the     
grammar school children who get to      
college4 ,in other words1 it is         
measuring a more highly selected group  
and accepting the result obtained from  
them as true of the entire group4       
,because of these two serious errors in 
the investigations our knowledge  of the
 influence of maturity as a cause of    

individual differences is no  better    
than opinion4 ,two facts1 however1 such 
studies do make clear4  ,first1 the     
supposition that the increases in       
ability due to a given  amount of       
progress toward maturity are closely    
alike for all children  save the        
so-called 'abnormally-precocious' or    
'retarded' is false4 ,the  same fraction
 of the total inner development1 from   
zero to adult  ability1 will produce    
very unequal results in different       
children4 ,inner  growth acts           
differently according to the original   
nature that is  growing4 ,the notion    
that maturity is the main factor in the 
differences  found amongst school       
children1 so that grading and methods of
 teaching  should be fitted closely to  
'stage of growth1' is also false4 ,it is
 by  no means very hard to find seven   
year olds who can do intellectual work  
in which one in twenty seventeen year   
olds would fail4#ae    ,the question as 
to how far immediate heredity is a cause

 of differences  found between          
individuals1 can only be answered by    
measuring how much  more alike members  
of the same family are in a given trait 
than people  picked at random1 and then 
making allowance for similarity in their
  training4 ,the greater the likenesses 
between members of the same family1  and
 the greater the differences between    
members of different families1  despite 
similarities in training1 the more can  
individual differences be  traced to    
differences in ancestry as a controlling
 cause4 ,the answer to  this question   
has been obtained along four different  
lines3 ,first1  likenesses in physical  
traits2 second1 likenesses in particular
  abilities2 third1 likenesses in       
achievement along intellectual and moral
  lines2 fourth1 greater likenesses     
between twins1 than ordinary siblings4  
,in physical traits1 such as eye color1 
hair color1 cephalic index1  height1    
family resemblance is very strong 7the  
coefficient of  correlation being about 

4#e71 and here training can certainly   
have had no  effect4 ,in particular     
abilities1 such as ability in spelling1 
the stage  reached by an individual is  
due primarily to his inheritance1 the   
ability being but little influenced by  
the differences in home or school       
training that commonly exist4 ,in       
general achievement1 ,galton's results  
show that eminence runs in families1    
that one has more than three  hundred   
times the chance of being eminent if one
 has a brother1 father1  or son eminent1
 than the individual picked at random4  
,wood's  investigation in royal families
 points to the same influence of        
ancestry  in determining achievement4   
,the studies of the ,edwards family on  
one  hand and the so-called ,kallikak   
family on the other1 point to the same  
conclusion4 ,twins are found to be twice
 as much alike in the traits  tested as 
other brothers and sisters4 ,though the 
difficulty of  discounting the effect of
 training in all these studies has been 

great1  yet in every case the           
investigators have taken pains to do so4
 ,the fact  that the investigations     
along such different lines all bear out 
the same  conclusion1 namely1 that      
intellectual differences are largely due
 to  differences in family inheritance1 
weighs heavily in favor of its being  a 
correct one4    ,the fifth factor that  
might account for individual differences
 is  environment4 ,by environment we    
mean any influence brought to bear on   
the  individual4 ,the same difficulty   
has been met in attempting to measure   
the effect of environment that was met  
in trying to measure the effect  of     
inner nature--namely1 that of testing   
one without interference from  the      
other4 ,the attempts to measure         
accurately the effect of any one        
element in the environment have not been
 successful4 ,no adequate way of        
avoiding the complications involved by  
different natures has been found4  ,one 
of the greatest errors in the method of 

working with this problem  has been     
found just here4 ,it has been customary 
when the effect of a  certain element in
 the environment is to be ascertained to
 investigate  people who have been      
subject to that training or who are in  
the process  of training1 thus ignoring 
the selective influence of the factor   
itself  in original nature4 ,for        
instance1 to study the value of high    
school  training we compare those in    
training with those who have never had  
any2  if the question is the value of   
manual training or ,latin1 again the    
comparison is made between those who    
have had it and those who haven't4  ,to 
find out the influence of squalor and   
misery1 people living in the  slums are 
compared with those from a better       
district4 ,in each case the  fact is    
ignored that the original natures of the
 two groups examined are  different     
before the influence of the element in  
question was brought to  bear4 ,why do  
some children go to high school and     

others not8 ,why do some  choose        
classical courses and some manual       
training courses8 ,why are some  people 
found in the slums for generations8 ,the
 answer in each case is  the same--the  
original natures are different4 ,it     
isn't the slums make  the people nearly 
so often as it is the people make the   
slums4 ,it isn't  training in ,latin    
that makes the more capable man1 but the
 more  intellectual students1 because of
 tradition and possibly enjoyment of    
language study1 choose the ,latin4 ,it  
is unfair to measure a factor in  the   
environment and give it credit or       
discredit for results1 when those       
results are also due to original nature 
as well1 which has not been  allowed    
for4 ,it must be recognized by all those
 working in this field  that1 after all1
 man to some extent selects his own     
environment4 ,in the  second place1 it  
must be remembered that the environment 
will influence  folks differently       
according as their natures are          

different4 ,there can be  no doubt that 
environment is accountable for some     
individual  differences1 but just which 
ones and to what extent are questions to
  which at present the answers are      
unsatisfactory4    ,the investigations  
which have been carried on agree that   
environment is  not so influential a    
cause for individual differences in     
intellect as is  near ancestry4 ,one    
rather interesting line of evidence can 
be quoted as  an illustration4 ,if      
individual differences in achievement   
are due  largely to lack of training or 
to poor training1 then to give the same 
amount and kind of training to all the  
individuals in a group should  reduce   
the differences4 ,if such practice does 
not reduce the  differences1 then it is 
not reasonable to suppose that the      
differences  were caused in the first   
place by differences in training4 ,as a 
matter  of fact1 equalizing training    
increases the differences4 ,the superior
  man becomes more superior1 the        

inferior is left further behind than    
ever4 ,a common occurrence in school    
administration bears out this           
conclusion reached by experimental      
means4 ,the child who skips a grade is  
ready at the end of three years to skip 
again1 and the child who fails a  grade 
is likely at the end of three years to  
fail again4 ,though  environment seems  
of little influence as compared with    
near ancestry in  determining           
intellectual ability per se1 yet it has 
considerable  influence in determining  
the line along which this ability is to 
manifest itself4 ,the fact that between 
#ahdj-dd1 #i4d per cent of the  college 
men went into teaching as a profession  
and #cg4e per cent into  the ministry1  
while between #ahij-id1 #be4d per cent  
chose the former and  only #ad per cent 
the latter1 can be accounted for only on
 the basis of  environmental influence  
of some kind4#af    ,another fact       
concerning the influence of environment 
is that it is very  much more effective 

in influencing morality than intellect4 
,morality is  the outcome of the proper 
direction of capacities and tendencies  
possessed by the individual1 and        
therefore is extremely susceptible to   
environmental influences4 ,we are all   
familiar with the differences in  moral 
standards of different social groups4   
,one boy may become a bully  and another
 considerate of the rights of others1   
one learns to steal and  another to be  
honest1 one to lie and another to be    
truthful1 because of  the influence of  
their environments rather than on       
account of  differences in their        
original natures4 ,we are beginning to  
recognize the  importance of environment
 in moral training in the provisions    
made to  protect children from immoral  
influences1 in the opportunities        
afforded  for the right sort of         
recreation1 and even in the removal of  
children  from the custody of their     
parents when the environment is         
extremely  unfavorable4    ,though      

changes in method and ideals cannot     
reduce the differences  between         
individuals in the intellectual field to
 any marked extent1 such  changes can   
raise the level of achievement of the   
whole group4 ,for  instance1 more       
emphasis on silent reading may make the 
reading ability  of a whole school #bj  
per cent better1 while leaving the      
distance between  the best and worst    
reader in the school the same4 ,granting
 that  heredity1 original nature1 is the
 primary cause of individual            
differences in intellect 7aside from    
those sex differences mentioned7  there 
remains for environment1 education in   
all its forms1 the  tremendous task of3 
,first1 providing conditions favorable  
for nervous  health and growth2 second1 
providing conditions which stimulate    
useful  capacities and inhibit futile or
 harmful capacities2 third1 providing   
conditions which continually raise the  
absolute achievement of the group  and  
of the race2 fourth1 providing          

conditions that will meet the varying   
original equipments2 fifth1 assuming    
primary responsibility for  development 
along moral and social lines4           
,concerning those individual differences
 of which heredity is the  controlling  
cause1 two facts are worthy of note4    
,first1 that human  nature is very      
highly specialized and that inheritance 
may be in terms  of special abilities or
 capacities4 ,for instance1 artistic1   
musical1 or  linguistic ability1        
statesmanship1 power in the field of    
poetry1 may be  handed down from one    
generation to the next4 ,this also means
 that two  brothers may be extremely    
alike along some lines and extremely    
different  along others4 ,second1 that  
there seems to be positive combinations 
between certain mental traits1 whereby  
the presence of one insures the         
presence of the other to a greater      
degree than chance would explain4 ,for  
instance1 the quick learner is slow in  
forgetting1 imagery in one field        

implies power to image in others1 a high
 degree of concentration goes  with     
superior breadth1 efficiency in artistic
 lines is more often  correlated with   
superiority in politics or generalship  
or science than  the reverse1 ability to
 deal with abstract data implies unusual
 power to  deal with the concrete       
situation4 ,in fact1 as far as exact    
measures go1  negative correlations     
between capacities1 powers1             
efficiencies1 are  extremely rare1 and1 
when they occur1 can be traced to the   
influence of  some environmental factor4
    ,individuals differ from each other 
to a much greater degree than has  been 
allowed for in our public education4    
,the common school system is            
constructed on the theory that children 
are closely similar in their  abilities1
 type of mental make-up1 and capacities 
in any given line4  ,experimentation    
shows each one of these presuppositions 
to be false4 ,so  far as general ability
 goes1 children vary from the genius to 

the  feeble-minded with all the grades  
between1 even in the same school  class4
 ,this gradation is a continuous        
one--there are no breaks in the  human  
race4 ,children cannot be grouped into  
the very bright1 bright1  mediocre1     
poor1 very poor1 failures--each group   
being distinct from any  other4 ,the    
shading from one to the other of these  
classes is gradual1  there is no sharp  
break4 ,not only is this true1 but a    
child may be  considered very bright    
along one line and mediocre along       
another4  ,brilliancy or poverty in     
intellect does not act as a unit and    
apply to  all lives equally4 ,the high  
specialization of mental powers makes   
unevenness in achievement the common    
occurrence4 ,within any school grade    
that has been tested1 even when the     
gradings are as close as those  secured 
by term promotions1 it has been found in
 any subject there are  children who do 
from two to five times as well as       
others1 and from two  to five times as  

much as others4 ,of course this great   
variation means an  overlapping of      
grades on each side4 ,in ,dr4 ,bonser's 
test of #geg children  in reasoning he  
found that #ij per cent of the #f;,a    
pupils were below the  best pupils of   
#d;,a grade and that #d per cent of     
#f;,a pupils were below the  mid-pupils 
of the #d;,a1 and that the best of the  
#d;,a pupils made a score  three times  
as high as the worst pupils of #f;,a4   
,not only is this  tremendous difference
 in ability found among children of the 
same class1  but the same difference    
exists in rate of development4 ,some    
children can  cover the same ground in  
one half or one third the time as others
 and do  it better4 ,witness the        
children already quoted who1 skipping a 
grade1  were ready at the end of three  
years to skip again4 ,variability1 not  
uniformity1 is what characterizes the   
abilities and rate of intellectual      
growth of children in the schools1 and  
these differences1 as has already  been 

pointed out1 are caused primarily by a  
difference in original  nature4         
,there is also great difference between 
the general mental make-up of           
children--a difference in type4 ,there  
is the child who excels in dealing  with
 abstract ideas4 ,he usually has power  
also in dealing with the  concrete1 but 
his chief interest is in the abstract4  
,he is the one who  does splendid work  
in mathematics1 formal grammar1 the     
abstract phases  of the sciences4 ,then 
there is the child who is a thinker too1
 but his  best work is done when he is  
dealing with a concrete situation4      
,unusual  or involved applications of   
principles disturb him4 ,so long as his 
work  is couched in terms of the        
concrete1 he can succeed1 but if that is
  replaced by the x1 y1 z elements1 he  
is prone to fail4 ,there is  another    
type of child--the one who has the      
executive ability1 the child  of action4
 ,true1 he thinks1 too1 but his forte is
 in control of people  and of things4   

,he is the one who manages the athletic 
team1 runs the  school paper1 takes     
charge of the elections1 and so on4 ,for
 principles  to be grasped he must be   
able to put them into practice4 ,the    
fourth type  is the feeling type1 the   
child who excels in appreciative power4 
,as has  been urged so many times       
before1 these types have boundaries that
 are  hazy and ill defined2 they overlap
 in many cases4 ,some children are of a 
well-defined mixed type1 and most       
children have something of each of the  
four abilities characteristic of the    
types4 ,still it is true that in        
looking over a class of children these  
types emerge1 not pure1 but  controlled 
by the dominant characteristics         
mentioned4    ,the same variation is    
found among any group of children if    
they are  tested along one line1 such as
 memory4 ,some have desultory1 some     
rote1  some logical memories2 some have 
immediate memories1 others the          
permanent type4 ,in imagery1 some have  

principally productive  imagination1    
others the matter-of-fact reproductive2 
some deal largely  with object images   
that are vivid and clear-cut1 others    
fail almost  entirely with this type1   
but use word images with great facility4
 ,in  conduct1 some are hesitating and  
uncertain1 others just the reverse2     
some very open to suggestions1 others   
scarcely touched at all by it2  some can
 act in accordance with principle1      
others only in terms of  particular     
associations with a definite situation4 
,so one might run the  whole gamut of   
human traits1 and in each one any group 
of individuals  will vary3 in attention1
 in thinking1 in ideals1 in habits1 in  
interests1 in sense discrimination1 in  
emotions1 and so on4 ,this is one  of   
the greatest contributions of           
experimental psychology of the past ten 
years1 the tremendous differences       
between people along all lines1         
physical as well as mental4    ,it is   
lack of recognition of such differences 

that makes possible such a  list of     
histories of misfits as ,swift quotes in
 his chapter on ,standards  of ,human   
,power in ,mind in the ,making4         
,individual differences exist1          
education cannot eliminate them1 they   
are innate1 due to original  nature4    
,education that does not recognize them 
and plan for them is  wasteful and1 what
 is worse1 is criminal4    ,the range of
 ability possessed by children of the   
same grade in the  subjects commonly    
taught seems not always to be clear in  
the minds of  teachers4 ,it will be     
discussed at greater length in another  
chapter1 but  it is important for the   
consideration of individual differences 
to  present some data at this time4 ,if 
we rate the quality of work done in     
,english composition from #aj to #ajj   
per cent1 being careful to evaluate  as 
accurately as possible the merit of the 
composition written1 we will  find for a
 seventh and an eighth grade a condition
 indicated by the  following table3     

,,quality ,,of ,,composition            
,,grades                                
#g    #h                                
----------------------------------------
--                              ,no4 of 
,pupils      ,rated at #aj              
#b    #a      ,rated at #bj             
#f    #f      ,rated at #cj             
#h    #h      ,rated at #dj             
#g    #h      ,rated at #ej             
#b    #d      ,rated at #fj             
#a    #a      ,rated at #gj             
#a    #a      ,rated at #hj             
#a    #a      ,rated at #ij             
#a    #a          ,the table reads as   
follows3 two pupils in the seventh grade
 and one in  the eighth wrote           
compositions rated at #aj2 six          
seventh-grade and six  eighth-grade     
pupils wrote compositions rated at #bj1 
and so on for the  whole table4    ,a   
similar condition of affairs is         
indicated if we ask how many of a  given
 type of addition problems are solved   
correctly in eight minutes by  a fifth- 

and a sixth-grade class4                
,,number ,,of                           
,,grades      ,,problems                
#e    #f                                
----------------------------------------
-----                              ,no4 
of ,pupils      #j                      
#b    #c      #a                        
#f    #f      #b                        
#f    #f      #c                        
#f    #f      #d                        
#d    #e      #e                        
#d    #e      #f                        
#c    #d      #g                        
#a    #b      #h                        
#a    #a      #i                        
#a    #a          ,in like manner1 if we
 measure the quality of work done in    
penmanship for  a fifth and sixth grade1
 with a system of scoring that ranks the
  penmanship in equal steps from a      
quality which1 is ranked four up to a   
quality which is ranked eighteen1 we    
find the following results3             
,,quality ,,of ,,penmanship             

,,grades                                
#e    #f                                
----------------------------------------
-------                                 
,no4 of ,pupils      ,rated at   #d     
#e    #f      ,rated at   #e            
#a    #a      ,rated at   #f            
#j    #j      ,rated at   #g            
#b    #d      ,rated at   #h            
#aj    #d      ,rated at   #i           
#ab    #a      ,rated at  #aj           
#c    #f      ,rated at  #aa            
#c    #h      ,rated at  #ab            
#c    #c      ,rated at  #ac            
#a    #b      ,rated at  #ad            
#a    #a      ,rated at  #ae            
#j    #a      ,rated at  #af            
#a    #a      ,rated at  #ag            
#j    #j      ,rated at  #ah            
#j    #j          ,results similar to   
those recorded above will be found if   
any accurate  measurement is made of the
 knowledge possessed by children in     
history or  in geography1 or of the     
ability to apply or derive principles in

 physics  or in chemistry1 or of the    
knowledge of vocabulary in ,latin or in 
,german1 and the like4    ,all such     
facts indicate clearly the necessity for
 differentiating our  work for the group
 of children who are classified as      
belonging to one  grade4 ,under the     
older and simpler form of school        
organization1 the  one-room rural       
school1 it was not uncommon for children
 to recite in one  class in arithmetic1 
in another in geography or history1 and 
in possibly  still another in ,english4 
,in our more highly organized school    
systems1  with the attempt to have      
children pass regularly from grade to   
grade at  each promotion period1 we have
 in some measure provided for individual
  differences through allowing children 
to skip a grade1 or not  infrequently by
 having them repeat the work of a grade4
 ,in still other  cases an attempt has  
been made to adapt the work of the class
 to the  needs and capacities of the    
children by dividing any class group    

into  two or more groups1 especially in 
those subjects in which children seem   
to have greatest difficulty4 ,teachers  
who are alive to the problem  presented 
have striven to adjust their work to    
different members of the  class by      
varying the assignments1 and in some    
cases by excusing from the  exercises in
 which they are already proficient the  
abler pupils4    ,whatever adjustment   
the school may be able to make in terms 
of providing  special classes for those 
who are mentally or physically          
deficient1 or  for those who are        
especially capable1 there will always be
 found in any  given group a wide       
variation in achievement and in         
capacity4 ,group  teaching and          
individual instruction will always be   
required of teachers  who would adapt   
their work to the varying capacities of 
children4 ,a  period devoted to         
supervised study during which those     
children who are  less able may receive 
special help1 and those who are of      

exceptional  ability be expected to make
 unusual preparation both in extent and 
in  quality of work done1 may contribute
 much to the efficiency of the  school4 
,as paradoxical as the statement may    
seem1 it is true that the  most retarded
 children in our school systems are the 
brightest4  ,expressed in another way1  
it can be proved that the more capable  
children have already achieved in the   
subjects in which they are taught  more 
than those who are tow or three grades  
farther advanced4 ,possibly  the        
greatest contribution which teachers can
 make to the development of  efficiency 
upon the part of the children with whom 
they work is to be  found in special    
attention which is given to capable     
children with  respect to both the      
quantity and quality of work demanded of
 them1  together with provision for     
having them segregated in special       
classes or  passed through the school   
system with greater rapidity than is now
  common4 ,in an elementary school with 

which the writer is acquainted1 and  in 
which there were four fifth grades1 it  
was discovered during the past  year    
that in one of these fifth grades in    
which the brighter children  had been   
put they had achieved more in terms of  
ability to solve  problems in           
arithmetic1 in their knowledge of       
history and geography1 in  the quality  
of ,english composition they wrote1 and 
the like1 than did  the children in any 
one of the sixth grades4 ,in this school
 this  particular fifth grade was       
promoted to the seventh grade for the   
following year4 ,many such examples     
could be found in schools organized     
with more than one grade at work on the 
same part of the school course1  if care
 were taken to segregate children in    
terms of their capacity4 ,and  even     
where there is only one teacher per     
grade1 or where one teacher  teaches two
 or three grades1 it should be found    
possible constantly to  accelerate the  
progress of children of more than       

ordinary ability4    ,the movement      
throughout the ,united ,states for the  
organization of junior  high schools    
7these schools commonly include the     
seventh1 eighth1 and  ninth school      
years7 is to be looked upon primarily as
 an attempt to  adjust the work of our  
schools to the individual capacities of 
boys and  girls and to their varying    
vocational outlook4 ,such a school1 if  
it is  to meet this demand for          
adjustment to individual differences1   
must offer  a variety of courses4 ,among
 the courses offered in a typical junior
 high  school is one which leads        
directly to the high school4 ,in this   
course  provision is made for the       
beginning of a foreign language1 of     
algebra1  and1 in some cases1 of some   
other high school subject during the    
seventh  and eighth years4 ,in another  
course emphasis is placed upon work in  
industrial or household arts in the     
expectation that work in these  fields  
may lead to a higher degree of          

efficiency in later vocational          
training1 and possibly to the retention 
of children during this period  who     
might otherwise see little or no meaning
 in the traditional school  course4 ,the
 best junior high schools are offering  
in the industrial  course a variety of  
shop work4 ,in some cases machine shop  
practice1  sheet metal working1         
woodworking1 forging1 printing1         
painting1  electrical wiring1 and the   
like are offered for boys2 and cooking1 
sewing1 including dressmaking and       
designing1 millinery1 drawing1 with     
emphasis upon design and interior       
decoration1 music1 machine operating1   
pasting1 and the like are provided for  
girls4 ,another type of course has      
provided for training which looks toward
 commercial work1 even though it  is    
recognized that the most adequate       
commercial training may require a       
longer period of preparation4 ,in some  
schools special work in  agriculture is 
offered4    ,our schools cannot be      

considered as satisfactorily organized  
until we  make provision for every boy  
or girl to work up to the maximum of his
  capacity4 ,the one thing that a       
teacher cannot do is to make all of his 
pupils equal in achievement4 ,whatever  
adjustment may have been made in  terms 
of special classes or segregation in    
terms of ability1 the teacher  must     
always face the problem of varying the  
assignment to meet the  capacities of   
individual children1 and she ought1     
wherever it is  possible1 especially to 
encourage the abler children to do work 
commensurate with their ability1 and to 
provide1 as far as is possible1  for the
 rapid advancement of these children    
through the various stages  of the      
school system4      ,,questions      #a4
 ,what are the principal causes of      
differences in abilities or in          
achievement among school children8      
#b4 ,what1 if any1 of the differences   
noticed among children may be           
attributed to sex8    #c4 ,are any of   

the sex differences noticeable in the   
achievements of the  school children    
with whom you are acquainted8    #d4 ,to
 what extent is maturity a cause of     
individual differences8    #e4 ,what    
evidence is available to show the       
fallacy of the common idea  that        
children of the same age are equal in   
ability8    #f4 ,how important is       
heredity in determining the achievement 
of men and  women8    #g4 ,to what      
extent1 if any1 would you be interested 
in the immediate  heredity of the       
children in your class8 ,why8    #h4 ,to
 what extent is the environment in which
 children live responsible  for their   
achievements in school studies8    #i4  
,what may be expected in the way of     
achievement from two children of  widely
 different heredity but of equal        
training8    #aj4 ,for what factor in   
education is the environment most       
responsible8  ,why8    #aa4 ,if you     
grant that original nature is the       
primary cause of individual  differences

 in intellectual achievements1 how would
 you define the work  of the school8    
#ab4 ,why are you not justified in      
grouping children as bright1 ordinary1  
and stupid8    #ac4 ,will a boy who has 
unusual ability in music certainly be   
superior in  all other subjects8    #ad4
 ,why are children who skip a grade apt 
to be able to skip again at  the end of 
two or three years8    #ae4 ,are you    
able to distinguish differences in type 
of mind 7or general  mental make-up7    
among the children in your classes8     
,give illustrations4    #af4 ,what      
changes in school organization would you
 advocate for the sake  of adjusting the
 teaching done to the varying capacities
 of children8    #ag4 ,how should a     
teacher adjust his work to the          
individual differences  in capacity or  
in achievement represented by the usual 
class group8           99       99      
99       99       99          ,,xi4     
,,the ,,development ,,of ,,moral        
,,social ,,conduct      ,morality has   

been defined in many ways4 ,it has been 
called a regulation  and control of     
immediate promptings of impulses in     
conformity with some  prescribed        
conduct2 as the organization of activity
 with reference to  a system of         
fundamental values4 ,dewey says1        
,interest in community  welfare1 an     
interest that is intellectual and       
practical1 as well as  emotional--an    
interest1 that is to say1 in perceiving 
whatever makes for  social order and    
progress1 and in carrying these         
principles into  execution--is the moral
 habit4#ag ,palmer defines it as the    
choice by  the individual of habits of  
conduct that are for the good of the    
race4  ,all these definitions point to  
control on the part of the individual as
  one essential of morality4            
,morality is not1 then1 a matter        
primarily of mere conduct4 ,it involves 
conduct1 but the essence of morality    
lies deeper than the act itself2        
motive1 choice1 are involved as well4   

,mere law-abiding is not morality  in   
the strict sense of the word4 ,one may  
keep the laws merely as a  matter of    
blind habit4 ,a prisoner in jail keeps  
the laws4 ,a baby of four  keeps the    
laws1 but in neither case could such    
conduct be called moral4  ,in neither of
 these cases do we find control by the  
individual of  impulses1 nor conscious  
choice of conduct4 ,in the former       
compulsion  was the controlling force1  
and in the second blind habit based on  
personal satisfaction4 ,conduct which   
outwardly conforms to social law  and   
social progress is unmoral rather than  
moral4 ,a moment's  consideration will  
suffice to convince any one that the    
major part of  conduct is of this       
non-moral type4 ,this is true of adults 
and  necessarily true of children4 ,as  
,hall says1 most of the supposedly moral
  conduct of the majority of men is     
blind habit1 not thoughtful choosing4   
,in so far as we are ruled by custom1 by
 tradition1 in so far as we do as  the  

books or the preacher says1 or do as we 
see others do1 without  principles to   
guide us1 without thinking1 to that     
extent the conduct is  likely to be     
non-moral4 ,this is the characteristic  
reaction of the  majority of people4 ,we
 believe as our fathers believed1 we    
vote the same  ticket1 hold in horror   
the same practices1 look askance on the 
same  doctrines1 cling to the same      
traditions4 ,morality1 on the other     
hand1 is  rationalized conduct4 ,now    
this non-moral conduct is valuable so   
far as  it goes4 ,it is a conservative  
force1 making for stability1 but it has 
its dangers4 ,it is antagonistic to     
progress4 ,so long as the conditions    
surrounding the non-moral individual    
remain unchanged1 he will be  successful
 in dealing with them1 but if conditions
 change1 if he is  confronted by a new  
situation1 if strong temptation comes1  
he has  nothing with which to meet it1  
for his conduct was blind4 ,it is the   
person whose conduct is non-moral that  

suffers collapse on the one hand1  or   
becomes a bigot on the other1 when      
criticism attacks what he held as  true 
or right4 ,morality requires that men   
have a reason for the faith  that is in 
them4    ,in the second place1 morality 
is conduct4 ,ideals1 ideas1 wishes1     
desires1 all may lead to morality1 but  
in so far as they are not  expressed in 
conduct1 to that extent they do not come
 under the head of  morality4 ,one may  
express the sublimest idea1 may claim   
the highest  ideals1 and be immoral4    
,conduct is the only test of morality1  
just as it  is the ultimate test of     
character4 ,not only is morality judged 
in terms  of conduct1 but it is judged  
according as the conduct is consistent4 
,habits of conduct make for morality or 
immorality4 ,it is not the  isolated act
 of heroism that makes a man moral1 or  
the single unsocial  act that makes a   
man immoral4 ,the particular act may be 
moral or  immoral1 and the person be    
just the reverse4 ,it is the            

organization of  activity1 it is the    
habits a man has that places him in one 
category or  the other4    ,in the third
 place1 morality is a matter of         
individual responsibility4  ,it is      
choice by the individual1 the perceiving
 whatever makes for  social order and   
progress4 ,no one can choose for        
another1 no one can  perceive for       
another4 ,the burden of choosing for the
 good of the group  rests on the        
individual1 it cannot be shifted to     
society or the ,church1  or any other   
institution4 ,each individual is moral  
or not according as  he lives up to the 
light that he has1 according as he      
carries into  execution principles that 
are for the good of his race4 ,a        
particular  act1 then1 may be moral for 
one individual and immoral for another1 
and  non-moral for still another4    ,in
 the third place1 morality is a matter  
of individual responsibility4  ,it is   
choice be the individual1 the perceiving
 whatever makes for  social order and   

progress4 ,no one can choose for        
another1 no one can  perceive for       
another4 ,the burden of ,choosing for   
the good of the group  rests on the     
individual1 it cannot be shifted to     
society or the ,church1  or any other   
institution4 ,each individual is moral  
or not according as  he lives up to the 
light that he has1 according as he      
carries into  execution principles that 
are for the good of his race4 ,a        
particular  act1 then1 may be moral for 
one individual and immoral for another1 
and  non-moral for still another4    ,to
 go off into the forest to die if one is
 diseased may be a moral act  for a     
savage in central ,africa2 but for a    
civilized man to do so would  probably  
be immoral because of his greater       
knowledge4 ,to give liquor to  babies to
 quiet them may be a non-moral act on   
the part of ignorant  immigrants from   
,russia2 but for a trained physician to 
do so would be  immoral4 ,morality1     
then1 is a personal matter1 and the     

responsibility  for it rests on the     
individual4    ,of course this makes    
possible the setting up of individual   
opinion as to  what is for the good of  
the group in opposition to tradition and
 custom4  ,this is1 of course1 dangerous
 if it is mere opinion or if it is      
carried  to an extreme4 ,few men have   
the gift of seeing what makes for social
  well-being beyond that of the society 
of thoughtful people of their  time4    
,and yet if a man has the insight1 if   
his investigations point to a  greater  
good for the group from doing something 
which is different from  the standards  
held by his peers1 then morality        
requires that he do his  utmost to bring
 about such changes4 ,if it is borne in 
mind that every  man is the product of  
his age and that it is evolution1 not   
revolution1  that is constructive1 this 
essential of true morality will not seem
 so  dangerous4 ,all the reformers the  
world has ever seen1 all the pioneers   
in social service1 have been men who1   

living up to their individual           
responsibility1 have acted as they      
believed for society's best good in     
ways that were not in accord with the   
beliefs of the majority of their  time4 
,shirking responsibility1 not living up 
to what one believes is  right1 is      
immoral just as truly as stealing from  
one's neighbor4    ,the fourth essential
 in moral conduct is that it be for the 
social good4  ,it is the governing of   
impulses1 the inhibition of desires that
 violate  the good of the group1 and the
 choice of conduct that forwards its    
interests4 ,this does not mean that the 
group and the individual are set  over  
against each other1 and the individual  
must give way4 ,it means1  rather1 that 
certain impulses1 tendencies1 motives1  
of the individual  are chosen instead of
 others2 it means that the individual   
only becomes  his fullest self as he    
becomes a social being2 it means that   
what is for  the good of the group in   
the long run is for the good of the     

units that  make up that group4         
,morality1 then1 is a relative term4    
,what is of  highest moral value in one 
age may be immoral in another because of
  change in social conditions4 ,as      
society progresses1 as different        
elements come to the front because of   
the march of civilization1 so the  acts 
that are detrimental to the good of the 
whole must change4 ,to-day  slander and 
stealing a man's good name are quite as 
immoral as stealing  his property4 ,acts
 that injure the mental and spiritual   
development of  the group are even more 
immoral than those which interfere with 
the  physical well-being4    ,a strong  
will is not necessarily indicative of a 
good character4 ,a  strong will may be  
directed towards getting what gives     
pleasure to  oneself1 irrespective of   
the effect on other people4 ,it is the  
goal1 the  purpose with which it is     
exercised1 that makes a man with a      
strong will  a moral man or an immoral  
man4 ,only when one's will is used to   

put into  execution those principles    
that will bring about social progress is
 it  productive of a good character4    
,thus it is seen that morality can be   
discussed only in connection with  group
 activity4 ,it is the individual as a   
part of a group1 acting in  connection  
with it1 that makes the situation a     
moral one4 ,individual  morality is     
discussed by some authors1 but common   
opinion limits the  term to the use that
 has been discussed in the preceding    
paragraphs4    ,if social well-being is 
taken in its broadest sense1 then all   
moral  behavior is social1 and all      
social behavior comes under one of the  
three  types of morality4 ,training for 
citizenship1 for social efficiency1 for 
earning a livelihood1 all have a moral  
aspect4 ,it is only as the  individual  
is trained to live a complete life as   
one of a group that he  can be trained  
to be fully moral1 and training for     
complete social  living must include    
training in morality4 ,hence for the    

remainder of  this discussion the two   
terms will be considered as synonymous4 
,we hear  it sometimes said1 training in
 morals and manners1 as if the two were 
distinct1 and yet a full1 realization of
 what is for social betterment  along   
emotional and intellectual lines must   
include a realization of the  need of   
manners4 ,of course there are degrees of
 morality or immorality  according as   
the act influences society much or      
little--all crimes are  not equally     
odious1 nor all virtues equally         
commendable1 but any act  that touches  
the well-being of the group must come   
under this category4    ,from the       
foregoing paragraph1 the logical        
conclusion would be that there  is no   
instinct or inborn tendency that is     
primarily and distinctly moral  as over 
against those that are social4 ,that is 
the commonly accepted  belief to-day4   
,there is no moral instinct4 ,morality  
finds its root in  the original nature  
of man1 but not in a single moral       

instinct4 ,it is1  on the other hand1   
the outgrowth of a number of instincts  
all of which  have been listed under the
 head of the social instinct4 ,man has  
in his  original equipment tendencies   
that will make him a moral individual if
  they are developed1 but they are      
complex1 not simple4 ,some of these     
social tendencies which are at the root 
of moral conduct are  gregariousness1   
desire for approval1 dislike of scorn1  
kindliness1  attention to human beings1 
imitation1 and others4 ,now1 although   
man  possesses these tendencies as a    
matter of original equipment1 he also   
possesses tendencies which are opposed  
to these1 tendencies which lead  to the 
advancement of self1 rather than the    
well-being of the group4  ,some of these
 are fighting1 mastery1 rivalry1        
jealousy1 ownership4 ,which  of these   
sets of tendencies is developed and     
controls the life of the  individual is 
a matter of training and environment4   
,in the last chapter  it was pointed out

 that morality was much more susceptible
 to  environmental influences than      
intellectual achievement1 because it was
  much more a direction and guidance of 
capacities and tendencies  possessed by 
every one4 ,one's character is largely a
 product of one's  environment4 ,in     
proof of this1 read the reports of      
reform schools1 and  the like4 ,children
 of criminal parents1 removed from the  
environment of  crime1 grow up into     
moral persons4 ,the pair of ,jukes who  
left the ,juke  clan lost their criminal
 habits and brought up a family of      
children who  were not immoral4         
,education cannot produce geniuses1 but 
it can produce  men and women whose     
chief concern is the well-being of the  
group4    ,from a psychological point of
 view the choice by the individual of   
habits of conduct that are for the good 
of the group involves three             
considerations3 ,first1 the elements    
implied in such conduct2 second1 the    
stages of development2 third1 the laws  

governing this development4  ,first1    
moral conduct involves the use of       
habits1 but these must be  rational     
habits1 so it involves the power to     
think and judge in order to  choose4    
,but thinking that shall result in the  
choice of habits that are  for the      
well-being of the group must use        
knowledge4 ,the individual must  have   
facts and standards at his disposal by  
means of which he may  evaluate the     
possible lines of action presented4     
,further1 an individual  may know       
intellectually what is right and moral  
and yet not care4 ,the  interest1 the   
emotional appeal1 may be lacking1 hence 
he must have  ideals to which he has    
given his allegiance1 which will force  
him to put  into practice what his      
knowledge tells him is right4 ,and then1
 having  decided what is for the social 
good and having the desire to carry it  
out1 the moral man must be able to put  
it into execution4 ,he must have  the   
will power4 ,morality1 then1 is an      

extremely complex matter1  involving all
 the powers of the human being1         
intellectual1 emotional1  and           
volitional--involving the coperation of 
heredity and environment4  ,it is       
evident that conduct that is at so high 
a level1 involving  experience1 powers  
of judgment1 and control1 cannot be     
characteristic of  the immature         
individual1 but must come after years of
 growth1 if at all4  ,therefore we find 
stages of development towards moral     
conduct4    ,the first stage of         
development1 which lasts up into the    
pre-adolescent  years1 is the non-moral 
stage4 ,the time when a child may       
conform  outwardly to moral law1 but    
only as a result of blind habit--not as 
a  result of rational choice4 ,it is    
then that the little child conforms to  
his environment1 reflecting the         
characters of the people by whom he is  
surrounded4 ,right to him means what    
those about him approve and what  brings
 him satisfaction4 ,if stealing and     

lying meet with approval from  the      
people about him1 they are right to him4
 ,to steal and be caught is  wrong to   
the average child of the streets1       
because that brings  punishment and     
annoyance4 ,he has no standards of      
judging other than the  example of      
others and his own satisfaction and     
annoyance4 ,the non-moral  period1 then1
 is characterized by the formation of   
habits--which  outwardly conform to     
moral law1 or are contrary to it1       
according as his  environment directs4  
,the need to form habits that do        
conform1 that are for the social good1  
is evident4 ,by having many habits of   
this kind formed in early  childhood1   
truthfulness1 consideration for others1 
respect for poverty1  promptness1       
regularity1 taking responsibility1 and  
so on1 the dice are  weighted in favor  
of the continuation of such conduct when
 reason  controls4 ,the child has then  
only to enlarge his view1 build up his  
principles in accord with conduct       

already in operation--he needs only to  
rationalize what he already possesses4  
,on the other hand1 if during  early    
years his conduct violates moral law1 he
 is in the grip of habits  of great     
strength which will result in two       
dangers4 ,he may be blind to  the other 
side1 he may not realize how his conduct
 violates the laws of  social progress2 
or1 knowing1 he may not care enough to  
put forth the  tremendous effort        
necessary to break these habits and     
build up the  opposite4 ,from the       
standpoint of conduct this non-moral    
period is the  most important one in the
 life of the child4 ,in it the twig is  
bent4 ,to  urge that a child cannot     
understand and therefore should be      
excused for  all sorts of conduct simply
 evades the issue4 ,he is forming       
habits--that  cannot be prevented2 the  
question is1 ,are those habits in line  
with the  demands of social efficiency  
or are they in violation of it8    ,but 
character depends primarily on          

deliberate choice4 ,we dare not rely  on
 blind habit alone to carry us through  
the crises of social and  spiritual     
adjustment4 ,there will arise the       
insistent question as to  whether the   
habitual presupposition is right4       
,occasions will occur when  several     
possible lines of conduct suggest       
themselves2 what kind of  success will  
one choose1 what kind of pleasure8      
,choice1 personal choice1  will be      
forced upon the individual4 ,this       
problem does not usually grow  acute    
until early adolescence1 although it may
 along some lines present  itself       
earlier4 ,when it appears will depend to
 a large extent on the  environment4    
,for some people in some directions it  
never comes4 ,it  should come gradually 
and spontaneously4 ,this period is the  
period of  transition1 when old habits  
are being scrutinized1 when standards   
are  being formulated and personal      
responsibility is being realized1 when  
ideals are made vital and controlling4  

,it may be a period of storm and  stress
 when the youth is in emotional unrest2 
when conduct is erratic  and not to be  
depended on2 when there is reaction     
against authority of  all kinds4 ,these 
characteristics are unfortunate and are 
usually the  result of unwise treatment 
during the first period4 ,if1 on the    
other  hand1 the period of transition is
 prepared for during the preadolescent  
years by giving knowledge1 opportunities
 for self-direction and choice1  the    
change should come normally and quietly4
 ,the transition period  should be      
characterized by emphasis upon personal 
responsibility for  conduct1 by the     
development of social ideals1 and by the
 cementing of  theory and practice4     
,this period is an ever recurring one4  
,the transition period is followed by   
the period of true morality during      
which the conduct chosen becomes habit4 
,the habits characteristic of  this     
final period are different from the     
habits of the non-moral period1  in that

 they have their source in reason1      
whereas those of the early  period grew 
out of instincts4 ,this is the period of
 most value1 the  period of steady      
living in accordance with standards and 
ideals which  have been tested by reason
 and found to be right4 ,the transition 
period  is wasteful and uncertain4 ,true
 morality is the opposite4 ,but so long 
as  growth in moral matters goes on     
there is a continuous change from       
transition period to truly moral conduct
 and back again to a fresh  transition  
period and again a change to morality of
 a still higher  order4 ,each           
rationalized habit but paves the way for
 one still higher4  ,morality1 then1    
should be a continual evolution from    
level to level4  ,only so is progress in
 the individual life maintained4        
,morality1 then1 requires the inhibition
 of some instincts and the  perpetuation
 of others1 the formation of habits and 
ideals1 the  development of the power to
 think and judge1 the power to react to 

certain abstractions such as ought1     
right1 duty1 and so on1 the power to    
carry into execution values accepted4   
,the general laws of instinct1 of       
habit1 the response by piecemeal        
association1 the laws of attention and  
appreciation1 are active in securing    
these responses that we call moral1     
just as they are operative in securing  
other responses that do not come  under 
this category4 ,it is only as these     
general psychological laws are  carried 
out sufficiently that stable moral      
conduct is secured4 ,any  violation of  
these laws invalidates the result in the
 moral field just  as it would in any   
other4 ,there is not one set of         
principles governing  moral conduct and 
another set governing all other types of
 conduct4 ,the  same general laws govern
 both4 ,this being true1 there is no    
need of  discussing in detail the       
operation of laws controlling moral     
conduct--that has all been covered in   
the previous chapters4 ,however1  there 

are some suggestions which should be    
borne in mind in the  application of    
these laws to this field4    ,first1 it 
is a general principle that habits1 to  
be fixed and stable1  must be followed  
by satisfactory results and that working
 along the  opposite line1 that of      
having annoyance follow a lapse in the  
conduct1  is uneconomical and           
unreliable4 ,this principle applies     
particularly to  moral habits4 ,truth   
telling1 bravery1 obedience1 generosity1
 thought for  others1 church going1 and 
so on must be followed by positive      
satisfaction1 if they are to be part of 
the warp and woof of life4  ,punishing  
falsehood1 selfishness1 cowardice1 and  
so on is not enough1  for freedom from  
supervision will usually mean rejection 
of such forced  habits4 ,a child must   
find that it pays to be generous2 that  
he is  happier when he coperates with   
others than when he does not4 ,positive 
satisfaction should follow moral        
conduct4 ,of course this satisfaction   

must vary in type with the age and      
development of the child1 from  physical
 pleasure occasioned by an apple as a   
reward for self-control at  table to the
 satisfaction which the consciousness of
 duty well done  brings to the          
adolescent4    ,second1 the part played 
by suggestion in bringing about moral   
habits and  ideals must be recognized4  
,the human personalities surrounding the
 child  are his most influential        
teachers in this line4 ,this influence  
of  personalities begins when the child 
is yet a baby4 ,reflex imitation  first1
 and later conscious imitation plus the 
feeling of dependence  which a little   
child has for the adults in his         
environment1 results in  the child      
reflecting to a large extent the        
characters of those about  him4 ,good   
temper1 stability1 care for others1     
self-control1 and many  other habits2   
respect for truth1 for the opinion of   
others1 and many  other ideals1 are     
unconsciously absorbed by the child in  

his early  years4 ,example not precept1 
actions not words1 are the controlling  
forces in moral education4 ,hence the   
great importance of the characters  of a
 child's companions1 friends1 and       
teachers1 to say nothing of his         
parents4 ,next to personalities1        
theaters1 moving pictures1 and books1   
all have great suggestive power4        
,third1 there is always a danger that   
theory become divorced from  practice1  
and this is particularly true here      
because morality is  conduct4 ,knowing  
what is right is one thing1 doing it is 
another1 and  knowing does not result in
 doing unless definite connections are  
made  between the two4 ,instruction in  
morals may have but little effect on    
conduct4 ,it is only as the knowledge of
 what is right and good comes in        
connection with social situations when  
there is the call for action that  true 
morality can be gained4 ,mere classroom 
instruction cannot insure  conduct4 ,it 
is only as the family and the school    

become more truly  social institutions1 
where group activity such as one finds  
in life is  the dominant note1 that we  
can hope to have morality and not       
ethics1  ideals and not passive         
appreciation1 as a result of our        
teaching4    ,fourth1 it is without     
question true that in so far as the     
habits fixed  are school habits or      
,sunday habits1 or any other special    
type of  habits1 formed only in         
connection with special situations1 to  
that  extent we have no reason to expect
 moral conduct in the broader life      
situations4 ,the habits formed are those
 that will be put into practice1  and   
they are the only ones we are sure of4  
,because a child is truthful  in school1
 prompt in attendance1 polite to his    
teacher1 and so on is no  warrant that  
he will be the same on the playground or
 on the street4  ,because a child can   
think out a problem in history or       
mathematics is no  warrant that he will 
therefore think out moral problems4 ,the

 only sure  way is to see to it that he 
forms many useful habits out of school  
as  well as in1 that he has opportunity 
to think out moral problems as well  as 
problems in school subjects4#ah         
,fifth1 individual differences must not 
be forgotten in moral training4         
,individual differences in              
suggestibility will influence the use of
 this  factor in habit formation4       
,individual differences in power of     
appreciation will influence the         
formation of ideals4 ,differences in    
interest in books will result in        
differing degrees of knowledge4         
,differences in maturity will mean that 
certain children in a class are  ready  
for facts concerning sex1 labor and     
capital1 crime1 and so on1  long before 
other children in the same class should 
have such knowledge4  ,differences in   
thinking power will determine efficiency
 in moral  situations just as in others4
    ,the more carefully we consider the 
problem of moral social conduct1 the    

more apparent it becomes that the work  
of the school can be modified so  as to 
produce more significant results than   
are commonly now secured4  ,indeed1 it  
may be contended that in some respects  
the activities of the  school operate to
 develop an attitude which is largely   
individualistic1  competitive1 and1 if  
not anti-social1 at least non-social4   
,although we  may not expect that the   
habits and attitudes which are developed
 in the  school will entirely determine 
the life led outside1 yet one may not   
forget that a large part of the life of 
children is spent under school          
supervision4 ,as children work in an    
atmosphere of coperation1 and as  they  
form habits of helpfulness and          
openmindedness1 we may expect that  in  
some degree these types of activity will
 persist1 especially in their           
association with each other4 ,in a      
school which is organized to bring      
about the right sort of moral social    
conduct we ought to expect that         

children would grow in their power to   
accept responsibility for each  other4  
,the writer knows of a fourth grade in  
which during the past year  a boy was   
absent from the room after recess4 ,the 
teacher1 instead of  sending the        
janitor1 or she herself going to find   
the boy1 asked the  class what they were
 going to do about it1 and suggested to 
them their  responsibility for          
maintaining the good name which they had
 always borne  as a group4 ,two of the  
more mature boys volunteered to go and  
find the  boy who was absent4 ,when they
 brought him into the room a little     
while  later1 they remarked to the      
teacher in a most matter-of-fact way1   
,we do  not think that he will stay out 
after recess again4 ,in the corridor of 
an elementary school the writer saw     
during the past year two boys  sitting  
on a table before school hours in the   
morning4 ,the one was  teaching the     
multiplication tables to the other4     
,they were both  sixth-grade            

pupils1--the one a boy who had for some 
reason or other  never quite thoroughly 
learned his tables4 ,the teacher had    
suggested  that somebody might help him1
 and a boy had volunteered to come early
 to  school in order that he might teach
 the boy who was backward4 ,a great     
many teachers have discovered that the  
strongest motive which they can  find   
for good work in the field of ,english  
is to be found in providing  an         
audience1 both for the reading or       
story-telling1 and for the ,english     
composition4 ,the idea which prevails is
 that if one is to read1 he ought  to   
read well enough to entertain others4   
,if one has enjoyed a story1 he  may1 if
 he prepares himself sufficiently well1 
tell it to the class or  to some other  
group4    ,much more emphasis on the    
undertakings in the attempt to have     
children  accept responsibility1 and to 
engage in a type of activity which has a
  definite moral social value1 is to be 
found in the schools in which  children 

are responsible for the morning         
exercises1 or for publishing a  school  
paper1 or for preparing a school        
festival4 ,one of the most  notable     
achievements in this type of activity   
which the writer has ever  known        
occurred in a school in which a group of
 seventh-grade children  were thought to
 be particularly incompetent4 ,the      
teachers had almost  despaired of having
 them show normal development1 either   
intellectually  or socially4 ,after a   
conference of all of the teachers who   
knew the  members of this group1 it was 
decided to allow them to prepare a      
patriot's day festival4 ,the idea among 
those teachers who had failed  with this
 group was that if the children had a   
large responsibility1  they would show a
 correspondingly significant            
development4 ,the children  responded to
 the motive which was provided1 became  
earnest students of  history in order   
that they might find a dramatic         
situation1 and worked  at their         

composition when they came to write     
their play1 some of them  exercising a  
critical as well as a creative faculty  
which no one had  known that they       
possessed4 ,but possibly the best thing 
about the whole  situation was that     
every member of the class found         
something to do in  their coperative    
enterprise4 ,some members of the class  
were engaged in  building and in        
decorating the stage scenery2 others    
were responsible  for costumes2 those   
who were strong in music devoted        
themselves to this  field4 ,the search  
for a proper dramatic situation in      
history and the  writing of the play    
have already been suggested4 ,the       
staging of the play  and its            
presentation to a large group of parents
 and other interested  patrons of the   
school required still further           
specialization and ability4  ,out of it 
all came a realization of the           
possibility of accomplishing  great     
things when all worked together for the 

success of a common  enterprise4 ,when  
the festival day came1 the most common  
statement heard  in the room on the part
 of the parents and others interested in
 the work  of the children was expressed
 by one who said3 ,this is the most     
wonderful group of seventh-grade        
children that ,i have ever seen4 ,they  
are as capable as most high school boys 
and girls4 ,it is to be recalled  that  
this was the group in whom the teachers 
originally had little  faith1 and who   
had sometimes been called in their      
school a group of  misfits4    ,some    
schools have found1 especially in the   
upper grades1 an opportunity  for a type
 of social activity which is entirely   
comparable with the  demand made upon   
the older members of our communities4   
,this work for  social improvement or   
betterment is carried on frequently in  
connection  with a course in civics4 ,in
 some schools there is organized what is
  known as the junior police4 ,this     
organization has been in some cases     

coordinated with the police department4 
,the boys who belong pledge  themselves 
to maintain1 in so far as they are able1
 proper conditions on  the streets with 
respect to play1 to abstain from the    
illegal use of  tobacco or other        
narcotics1 and to be responsible for the
 correct  handling of garbage1          
especially to see that paper1 ashes1 and
 other  refuse are placed in separate   
receptacles1 and that these receptacles 
are removed from the street promptly    
after they are emptied by the           
department concerned4 ,in one city with 
which the writer is acquainted1  the    
children in the upper grades1 according 
to the common testimony of  the citizens
 of their community1 have been          
responsible for the cleaning  up of the 
street cars4 ,in other cities they have 
become interested1 and  have interested 
their parents1 in the question of milk  
and water supply4  ,in some cases they  
have studied many different departments 
of the city  government1 and have1 in so

 far as it was possible1 lent their     
coperation4 ,in one case a group of     
children became very much excited       
concerning a dead horse that was allowed
 to remain on a street near the  school1
 and they learned before they were      
through just whose  responsibility it   
was1 and how to secure the action that  
should have  been taken earlier4        
,still another type of activity which   
may have significance for the moral     
social development of children is found 
in the study of the life  activities in 
the communities in which they live4     
,there is no reason why  children1      
especially in the upper grades or in the
 high school1 should  not think about   
working conditions1 especially as they  
involve  sweat-shops or work under      
unsanitary conditions4 ,they may very   
properly  become interested in the      
problems of relief1 and of the measures 
taken  to eliminate crime4 ,indeed1 from
 the standpoint of the development of   
socially efficient children1 it would   

seem to be more important that  some    
elementary treatment of industrial and  
social conditions might be  found to be 
more important in the upper grades and  
in the high school  than any single     
subject which we now teach4    ,another 
attempt to develop a reasonable attitude
 concerning moral  situations is found  
in the schools which have organized     
pupils for the  participation in school 
government4 ,there is no particular     
value to be  attached to any such form  
of organization4 ,it may be true that   
there is  considerable advantage in     
dramatizing the form of government in   
which  the children live1 and for that  
purpose policemen1 councilmen or        
aldermen1 mayors1 and other officials1  
together with their election1 may  help 
in the understanding of the social      
obligations which they will have  to    
meet later on4 ,but the main thing is to
 have these children come to  accept    
responsibility for each other1 and to   
seek to make the school a  place where  

each respects the rights of others and  
where every one is  working together for
 the common good4 ,in this connection it
 is important  to suggest that schemes  
of self-government have succeeded only  
where  there has been a leader in the   
position of principal or other          
supervisory officer concerned4          
,children's judgments are apt to be too 
severe when they are allowed to         
discipline members of their group4      
,there  will always be need1 whatever   
attempt we may make to have them accept 
responsibility1 for the guidance and    
direction of the more mature mind4      
,we seek in all of these activities1 as 
has already been suggested1 to  have    
children come to take1 in so far as they
 are able1 the rational  attitude toward
 the problems of conduct which they have
 to face4 ,it is  important for teachers
 to realize the fallacy of making a set 
of rules  by which all children are to  
be controlled4 ,it is only with respect 
to  those types of activity in which the

 response1 in order to further the  good
 of the group1 must be invariable that  
we should expect to have  pupils become 
automatic4 ,it is important in the case 
of a fire drill1 or  in the passing of  
materials1 and the like1 that the       
response1 although  it does involve     
social obligation1 should be reduced to 
the level of  mechanized routine4 ,most 
school situations involve1 or may       
involve1  judgment1 and it is only as   
pupils grow in power of self-control and
 in  their willingness to think through 
a situation before acting1 that we  may 
expect significant moral development4   
,in the case of offenses which  seem to 
demand punishment1 that teacher is wise 
who is able to place  responsibility    
with the pupil who has offended4 ,the   
question ought to be  common1 ,what can 
,i do to help you8 ,the question which  
the teacher  should ask herself is not1 
,what can ,i do to punish the pupil8 but
  rather1 ,how can ,i have him realize  
the significance of his action and      

place upon him the responsibility of    
reinstating himself with the social     
group8 ,the high school principal who   
solved the problem of a teacher  who    
said that she would not teach unless a  
particular pupil were removed  from her 
class1 and of the pupil who said that   
she would not stay in  school if she had
 to go to that teacher1 by telling them 
both to take  time to think it through  
and decide how they would reconcile     
their  differences1 is a case in point4 
,what we need is not the punishment     
which follows rapidly upon our feeling  
of resentment1 but rather the  wisdom of
 waiting and accepting the mistake or   
offense of the pupil as  an opportunity 
for careful consideration upon his part 
and as a possible  means of growth for  
him4    ,there has been considerable    
discussion during recent years          
concerning  the obligation of the school
 to teach children concerning matters of
  sex4 ,traditionally1 our policy has   
been one of almost entire neglect4  ,the

 consequence has been1 on the whole1 the
 acquisition upon the part of  boys and 
girls of a large body of misinformation1
 which has for the most  part been      
vicious4 ,it is not probable that we can
 ever expect most  teachers to have the 
training necessary to give adequate     
instruction in  this field4 ,for        
children in the upper grades1 during the
 preadolescent  period especially1 some 
such instruction given by the men and   
women  trained in biology1 or possibly  
by men and women doctors who have made a
  specialty of this field1 promises a   
large contribution to the  development  
of the right attitudes with respect to  
the sex life and the  elimination of    
much of the immorality which has been   
due to ignorance or  to the vicious     
misinformation which has commonly been  
spread among  children4 ,the policy of  
secrecy and ignorance cannot well be    
maintained  if we accept the idea of    
responsibility and the exercise of      
judgment as  the basis of moral social  

activity4 ,in no other field are the    
results of  a lack of training or a lack
 of morality more certain to be         
disastrous  both for the individual and 
for the social group4      ,,questions  
#a4 ,how satisfactory is the morality of
 the man who claims that he does  no    
wrong8    #b4 ,how is it possible for a 
child to be unmoral and not immoral8    
#c4 ,are children who observe school    
rules and regulations necessarily       
growing in morality8    #d4 ,why is it  
important1 from the standpoint of growth
 in morality1 to  have children form    
socially desirable habits1 even though  
we may not  speak of this kind of       
activity as moral conduct8    #e4 ,what 
constitutes growth in morality for the  
adult8    #f4 ,in what sense is it      
possible for the same act to be immoral1
 unmoral1  and moral for individuals    
living under differing circumstances and
 in  different social groups8 ,give an  
example4    #g4 ,why have moral         
reformers sometimes been considered     

immoral by their  associates8    #h4    
,what is the moral significance of      
earning a living8 ,of being prompt8  ,of
 being courteous8    #i4 ,what are the  
instincts upon which we may hope to     
build in moral  training8 ,what         
instinctive basis is there for immoral  
conduct8    #aj4 ,to what extent is     
intellectual activity involved in moral 
conduct8  ,what is the significance of  
one's emotional response8    #aa4 ,what 
stages of development are               
distinguishable in the moral            
development of children8 ,is it possible
 to classify children as  belonging to  
one stage or the other by their ages8   
#ab4 ,why is it true that one's         
character depends upon the deliberate   
choices which he makes among several    
possible modes or types of action8      
#ac4 ,why is it important to have       
positive satisfaction follow moral      
conduct8    #ad4 ,how may the conduct of
 parents and teachers influence conduct 
of  children8    #ae4 ,what is the      

weakness of direct moral instruction1   
e4g4 the telling  of stories of         
truthfulness1 the teaching of moral     
precepts1 and the  like8    #af4 ,what  
opportunities can you provide in your   
class for moral social  conduct8    #ag4
 ,children will do what is right because
 of their desire to please1  their      
respect for authority1 their fear of    
unpleasant consequences1  their careful1
 thoughtful analysis of the situation   
and choice of that  form of action which
 they consider right4 ,arrange these    
motives in order  of their desirability4
 ,would you be satisfied to utilize the 
motive  which brings results most       
quickly and most surely8    #ah4 ,in    
what sense is it true that lapses from  
moral conduct are the  teacher's best   
opportunity for moral teaching8    #ai4 
,how may children contribute to the     
social welfare of the school  community8
 ,of the larger social group outside of 
the school8    #bj4 ,how may pupil      
participation in school government be   

made significant  in the development of 
social moral conduct8           99      
99       99       99       99           
,,xii4 ,,transfer ,,of ,,training       
,formal discipline or transfer of       
training concerns itself with the       
question as to how far training in one  
subject1 along one line1  influences    
other lines4 ,how far1 for instance1    
training in reasoning in  mathematics   
helps a child to reason in history1 in  
morals1 in household  administration2   
how far memorizing gems of poetry or    
dates in history  aids memory when it is
 applied to learning stenography or     
botany2 how  far giving attention to the
 gymnasium will insure attention to     
sermons  and one's social engagements4  
,the question is1 ,how far does the     
special  training one gets in home and  
school fit him to react to the          
environment  of life with its new and   
complex situations8 ,put in another way1
 the  question is what effect upon other
 bonds does forming this particular     

situation response series of bonds have4
 ,the practical import of the  question 
and its answer is tremendous4 ,most of  
our present school  system1 both in     
subject matter and method1 is built upon
 the assumption  that one answer is     
correct--if it is false1 much work      
remains to be done  by the present-day  
education4    ,the point of view which  
was held until recent years is best made
 clear  by a series of quotations4      
,since the mind is a unit and the       
faculties are simply phases       or    
manifestations of its activity1 whatever
 strengthens one       faculty          
indirectly strengthens all the others4  
,the verbal       memory seems to be an 
exception to this statement1 however1   
for it may be abnormally cultivated     
without involving to any                
profitable extent the other faculties4  
,but only things that       are rightly 
perceived and rightly understood can be 
rightly       remembered4 ,hence        
whatever develops the acquisitive and   

assimilative powers will also strengthen
 memory2 and1       conversely1 rightly 
strengthening the memory necessitates   
the       developing and training of the
 other powers4 7,r4,n4 ,roark1          
,method in ,education1 p4 #bg47         
,it is as a means of training the       
faculties of perception and             
generalization that the study of such a 
language as ,latin in       comparison  
with ,english is so valuable4 7,c4,l4   
,morgan1       ,psychology for          
,teachers1 p4 #ahf47                    
,arithmetic1 if judiciously taught1     
forms in the pupil habits       of      
mental attention1 argumentative         
sequence1 absolute       accuracy1 and  
satisfaction in truth as a result1 that 
do not       seem to spring equally from
 the study of any other subject         
suitable to this elementary stage of    
instruction4 7,joseph       ,payne1     
,lectures on ,education1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4   
#bfj47         ,by means of experimental
 and observational work in science1     

not only will his attention be excited1 
the power of       observation1         
previously awakened1 much strengthened1 
and the       senses exercised and      
disciplined1 but the very important     
habit       of doing homage to the      
authority of facts rather than to the   
authority of men1 be initiated4 7,ibid41
 p4 #bfa47    ,the view maintained by   
these writers is that the mind is made  
up of  certain elemental powers such as 
attention1 reasoning1 observation1      
imagination1 and the like1 each of which
 acts as a unit4 ,training any  one of  
these powers means simply its exercise  
irrespective of the  material used4 ,the
 facility gained through this exercise  
may then be  transferred to other       
subjects or situations1 which are quite 
different4  ,the present point of view  
with regard to this question is very    
different1 as is shown by the following 
quotations3         ,we may conclude1   
then1 that there is something which may 
be       called formal discipline1 and  

that it may be more or less             
general in character4 ,it consists in   
the establishment of       habitual     
reactions that correspond to the form of
 situations4       ,these reactions     
foster adjustments1 attitudes1 and ideas
 that       favor the successful dealing
 with the emergencies that arouse       
them4 ,on the other hand1 both the form 
that we can learn to       deal with    
more effectively1 and the reactions that
 we       associate with it1 are        
definite4 ,there is no general training 
of the powers or faculties1 so far as we
 can determine4       7,henderson1 #aj1 
p4 #cjg f47         ,one mental function
 or activity improves others in so far  
as       and because they are in part   
identical with it1 because it           
contains elements common to them4       
,addition improves       multiplication 
because multiplication is largely       
addition2       knowledge of ,latin     
gives increased ability to learn ,french
       because many of the facts learned

 in the one case are needed       in the
 other4 ,the study of geometry may lead 
a pupil to be       more logical in all 
respects1 for one element of being      
logical       in all respects is to     
realize that facts can be absolutely    
proven and to admire and desire this    
certain and       unquestionable sort of
 demonstration4444 7,thorndike1 '#jf1   
pp4       #bdc-bde1 passim47            
,mental discipline is the most important
 thing in education1       but it is    
specific1 not general4 ,the ability     
developed by       means of one subject 
can be transferred to another subject   
only in so far as the latter has        
elements in common with the             
former4 ,abilities should be developed  
in school only by means       of those  
elements of subject-matter and of method
 that are       common to the most      
valuable phases of the outside          
environment4       ,in the high school  
there should also be an effort to work  
out       general concepts of method    

from the specific methods used4         
7,heck1 '#ji1 ,edition of '#aa1 p4      
#aih47         444 ,no study should have
 a place in the curriculum for which    
this general disciplinary characteristic
 is the chief       recommendation4     
,such advantage can probably be gotten  
in some       degree from every study1  
and the intrinsic values of each        
study afford at present a far safer     
criterion of educational       work than
 any which we can derive from the theory
 of formal       discipline4 7,angell1  
'#jh1 p4 #ad47    ,these writers also   
believe in transfer of training1 but    
they believe the  transfer to be never  
complete1 to be in general a very small 
percentage  of the special improvement  
gained and at times to be negative and  
to  interfere with responses in other   
fields instead of being a help4 ,they   
also emphasize the belief that when the 
transfer does occur1 it is for  some    
perfectly valid reason and under certain
 very definite conditions4  ,they reject

 utterly the machine-like idea of the   
mind and its elemental  faculties held  
by the writers first quoted4 ,they hold 
the view of mental  activity which has  
been emphasized in the discussion of    
original  tendencies and inheritance    
from near ancestry1 i4e41 that the      
physical  correlate of all types of     
mental activity is a definite forming of
  connections between particular        
bonds-these connections1 of course1     
according to the laws of readiness      
exercise1 and effect1 would be          
determined by the situation acting as a 
stimulus and would1 therefore1  vary as 
the total situation varied4 ,they       
believe in a highly specialized  human  
brain1 which reacts in small groups of  
nerve tracts--not in gross  wholes4     
,they would express each of the         
elemental powers in the plural  and not 
in the singular4    ,the basis of this  
change of view within the last fifteen  
or twenty years  is to be found in      
experimental work4 ,the question has    

definitely been  put to the test as to  
how far training in one line did        
influence others4  ,for a full          
description of the various types of     
experiments performed the  reader is    
referred to ,thorndike's ,psychology of 
,learning1 ,chapter #ab4  ,only an      
indication of the type of work done and 
the general character of  the results   
can be given here4 ,experiments in the  
effect of cross  education1 in          
memorizing1 in observing and judging    
sensory and  perceptual data1 and in    
forming sensori-motor association habits
 have  been conducted in considerable   
numbers4 ,a few experiments in special  
school functions have also been carried 
out4 ,investigations in the  correlation
 between various parts of the same      
subject and between  different subjects 
supposed to be closely allied also throw
 light upon  this subject4 ,the results 
from these different lines of           
experiment1  although confusing and     
sometimes contradictory1 seem to warrant

 the  belief stated above4 ,they have   
made it very clear that the question of 
transfer is not a simple one1 but1 on   
the contrary1 that it is extremely      
complex4 ,they make plain that in some  
cases where large transfer was          
confidently expected1 that little       
resulted1 while1 on the other hand1 in  
some cases when little was expected1    
much more occurred4 ,it is evident  that
 the old idea of a large transfer in    
some subtle and unexplained way  of     
special improvements to a general       
faculty is false4 ,but1 on the other    
hand1 it would be equally false to say  
that no transfer occurred4 ,the  general
 principle seems to be that transfer    
occurs when the same bonds  are used in 
the second situation to the extent that 
the alteration in  these particular     
connections affects the second response4
 ,both the  knowledge of what bonds are 
used in various responses and to what   
extent  alteration in them will affect  
different total responses is lacking4   

,therefore1 all that is at present      
possible is a statement of conditions   
under which transfer is probable4    ,in
 general1 then1 transfer of training    
will occur to the extent that the  two  
responses use the same bonds--to the    
extent1 then1 that there is  identity of
 some sort4 ,this identity which makes  
transfer possible may  be of all degrees
 of generality and of several different 
types4 ,first1  there may be identity of
 content4 ,for instance1 forming useful 
connections with six1 island1 and1 red1 
habit1 ,africa1 square root1  triangle1 
gender1 percentage1 and so on1 in this  
or that particular  context should be of
 use in other contexts and therefore    
allow of  transfer of training4 ,the    
more common the particular responses are
 to  all sorts of life situations1 the  
greater the possibility of transfer4    
,second1 the identity may be that of    
method or procedure4 ,to be able to     
add1 to carry1 to know the method of    
classifying an unknown flower1 to  have 

a definite method of meeting a new      
situation in hand-work1 to know  how to 
use source material in history1 to have 
gained the technique of  laboratory     
skill in chemistry1 to know how to study
 in geography1 should  be useful in     
other departments where the same method 
would serve4 ,some  of these methods    
are1 of course1 of much more general    
service than  others4 ,in establishing  
skill in the use of these various       
procedures1  two types of responses are 
needed4 ,the learner must form          
connections of  a positive nature1 such 
as analyzing1 collecting material1      
criticizing  according to standard1     
picking out the essential and so on1 and
 he must  also form connections of a    
negative character which will cause him 
to  neglect certain tendencies4 ,he must
 learn not to accept the first idea     
offered1 to neglect suggestions1 to     
hurry or to leave half finished1 to     
ignore interruptions1 to prevent        
personal bias to influence criticism1   

and so on4 ,these connections which     
result in neglecting certain elements   
are quite as important as the positive  
element1 both in the production  of the 
particular procedure and in the transfer
 to other fields4 ,third1  the identity 
may be of still more general character  
and be in terms of  attitude or ideal4  
,to learn to be thorough in connection  
with history1  accurate in handwork1    
open-minded in science1 persistent in   
,latin1  critical in geometry1 thorough 
in class and school activities2 to form 
habits of allegiance to ideals of truth1
 coperation1 fair play1  tolerance1     
courage1 and so on1 may help the learner
 to exhibit these  same attitudes in    
other situations in life4 ,here again   
the connections  of neglect are         
important4 ,to neglect selfish          
suggestions1 to ignore the  escape from 
consequences that falsehood might make  
possible1 to be dead  to fear1 to ignore
 bodily aches and pains1 are quite as   
necessary in  producing conduct that is 

generous1 truthful1 and courageous as   
are the  positive connections made in   
building up the ideal4    ,in the       
discussion of transfer because of       
identity1 it was emphasised  that the   
presence of identity of various types   
explained cases of  transfer that exist 
and made transfer possible4 ,in no case 
must it be  understood1 however1 that   
the presence of these identical elements
 is a  warrant of transfer4 ,transfer   
may take place under such conditions1   
but it need not do so4 ,transfer is most
 sure to occur in cases of  identity of 
substance and least likely in cases of  
identity of attitude  or ideals4 ,to    
have useful responses to six1 above1    
city1 quart1 and so  on1 in one         
situation will very likely mean         
responses of a useful nature  in almost 
all situations which have such elements 
present4 ,it is very  different with the
 ideals4 ,a child may be very accurate  
in handwork1 and  yet almost nothing of 
it show elsewhere2 he may be truthful to

 his  teacher and lie to his parents2 he
 may be generous to his classmates and  
the reverse to his brothers and sisters4
 ,persistence in ,latin may not         
influence his work in the shop1 and the 
critical attitude of geometry be        
lacking in his science4 ,transfer in    
methods holds a middle ground4 ,it      
seems that the more complex and the more
 subtle the connections  involved1 the  
less is the amount and the surety of the
 transfer4    ,in order to increase the 
probability of transfer when connections
 of  method or attitudes are being      
formed1 first1 it should be made        
conscious1 and second1 it should be put 
into practice in several types  of      
situations4 ,there is grave danger that 
the method will not be  differentiated  
from the subject1 the ideal from the    
context of the  situation4 ,to many     
children learning how to study in       
connection with  history1 or to be      
critical in geometry1 or to be          
scientific in the  laboratory1 has never

 been separated from the particular     
situation4 ,the  method or the ideal and
 the situation in which they have been  
acquired  are one--one response4 ,the   
general elements of method or attitude  
have  never been made conscious1 they   
are submerged in the particular subject 
or situation1 and therefore the         
probability of transfer is lessened4    
,if1  on the other hand1 the question of
 method1 as an idea by itself1 apart    
from any particular subject1 is brought 
to the child's attention2 if  truth as  
an ideal1 independent of context1 is    
made conscious1 it is much  more likely 
to be reacted to in a different         
situation1 for it has become  a free    
idea and therefore crystallized4 ,then  
having freed the general  somewhat from 
its particular setting1 the learner     
should be given  opportunity to put it  
in practice in other settings4 ,to      
simply form the  method connections or  
the attitude responses in ,latin and    
then blindly  trust that they will be of

 general use is unsafe4 ,it is the      
business of  the educator to make as    
sure as he can of the transfer1 and that
 can  only be done by practicing in     
several fields4 ,these two procedures   
which  make transfer more sure1 i4e41   
making the element conscious and giving 
practice in several fields1 are not     
sharply divided1 but interact4          
,practice makes the idea clearer and    
freer1 and this in turn makes fresh     
practice profitable4 ,it is simply the  
application of the law of analysis  by  
varying concomitants4    ,in all this   
matter of transfer it must be borne in  
mind that a very  slight amount of      
transfer of some of these more general  
responses may be  of tremendous value   
educationally1 provided it is over a    
very wide  field4 ,if a boy's study of  
high school science made him at all more
  scientific in his attitude towards    
such life situations as politics1       
morals1 city sanitation1 and the like1  
it would be of much more value  than the

 particular habit formed4 ,if a girl's  
work in home economics  resulted in but 
a slight transfer of vital interest to  
the actual  problems of home-making1 it 
would mean much to the homes of         
,america4 ,if  a boy's training in      
connection with the athletics of his    
school fosters  in him an ideal of fair 
play which influences him at all in his 
dealings  with men in business1 with his
 family1 with himself1 the training     
would  have been worth while4 ,to       
discount training simply because the    
transfer  is slight is manifestly       
unfair4 ,the kind of responses which    
transfer are  quite as important as the 
amount of the transfer4    ,the idea    
that every subject will furnish the same
 amount of discipline  provided they are
 equally well taught is evidently false4
 ,every school  subject must now be     
weighed from two points of view1--first1
 as to the  worth of the particular     
facts1 responses1 habits1 which it      
forms1 and  second1 as to the           

opportunity it offers for the formation 
of connections  which are of general    
application4 ,the training which        
educators are sure  of is the particular
 training offered by the subject2 the   
general  training is more problematic4  
,hence no subject should be retained in 
our  present curriculum whose only value
 is a claim to disciplinary training4   
,such general training as the subject   
affords could probably be gained  from  
some other subject whose content is also
 valuable4 ,just because a  subject is  
difficult1 or is distasteful1 is no sign
 that its pursuit  will result in       
disciplinary training4 ,in fact1 the    
psychology of play  and drudgery make it
 apparent that the presence of          
annoyance1 of  distaste1 will lessen the
 disciplinary value4 ,only those        
subjects and  activities which are      
characterized by the play spirit can    
offer true  educational development4    
,the more the play spirit enters in1 the
 greater  the possibility of securing   

not only special training1 but general  
discipline as well4 ,thorndike sums up  
the present attitude towards  special   
subjects by saying1 ,an impartial       
inventory of the facts in the  ordinary 
pupil of ten to eighteen would find the 
general training from  ,english         
composition greater than that from      
formal logic1 the training  from physics
 and chemistry greater than that from   
geometry1 and the  training from a      
year's study of the laws and            
institutions of the ,romans  greater    
than that from equal study of their     
language4 ,the grammatical  studies     
which have been considered the chief    
depositories of  disciplinary magic     
would be found in general inferior to   
scientific  treatments of human nature  
as a whole4 ,the superiority for        
discipline of  pure overapplied science 
would be referred in large measure to   
the fact  that pure science could be so 
widely applied4 ,the disciplinary value 
of  geometry would appear to be due1 not

 to the simplicity of its  conditions1  
but to the rigor of its proofs2 the     
greatest disciplinary  value of ,latin  
would appear in the case1 not of those  
who disliked it  and found it hard1 but 
of those to whom it was a charming game4
      ,,questions      #a4 ,it has been 
experimentally determined that the ease 
with which one  memorizes one set of    
facts may be very greatly improved      
without a  corresponding improvement in 
ability to memorize in some other field4
  ,how would you use this fact to refute
 the argument that we possess a  general
 faculty of memory8    #b4 ,how is it   
possible for a man to reason accurately 
in the field of  engineering and yet    
make very grave mistakes in his         
reasoning about  government or          
education8    #c4 ,what assurance have  
we that skill or capacity for successful
 work  developed in one situation will  
be transferred to another situation     
involving the same mental processes of  
habit formation1 reasoning1             

imagination1 and the like8    #d4 ,what 
are the different types of identity     
which make possible transfer  of        
training8    #e4 ,how can we make the   
identity of methods of work most        
significant for  transfer of training   
and for the education of the individual8
    #f4 ,why do ideals which seem to    
control in one situation fail to affect 
other activities in which the same ideal
 is called for8    #g4 ,under what      
conditions may a very slight amount of  
transfer of  training become of the very
 greatest importance for education8     
#h4 ,why may we not hope for the largest
 results in training by compelling      
children to study that which is         
distasteful8 ,do children 7or adults7   
work hardest when they are forced to    
attend to that from which they  derive  
little or no satisfaction8    #i4 ,which
 student gets the most significant      
training from his algebra1  the boy who 
enjoys work in this field or the boy who
 worries through it  because algebra is 

required for graduation from the high   
school8    #aj4 ,why may we hope to     
secure more significant training in     
junior high  schools which offer a great
 variety of courses than was            
accomplished by  the seventh and eighth 
grades in which all pupils were         
compelled to  study the same subjects8  
#aa4 ,why is ,latin a good subject from 
the standpoint of training for one      
student and a very poor subject with    
which to seek to educate another        
student8           99       99       99 
99       99          ,,xiii4 ,,types    
,,of ,,classroom ,,exercises      ,the  
exercises which teachers conduct in     
their classrooms do not commonly        
involve a single type of mental         
activity4 ,it is true1 however1 that    
certain lessons tend to involve one type
 of activity predominantly4  ,there are 
lessons which seek primarily to fix     
habits1 others in which  thinking of the
 inductive type is primarily involved1  
and still others  in which deductive    

thinking or appreciation are the ends   
sought4 ,as has  already been indicated 
in the discussion of habit1 thinking1   
and  appreciation in the previous       
chapters1 these types of mental activity
  are not to be thought of as separate  
and distinct4 ,habit formation may      
involve thinking4 ,in a lesson          
predominantly inductive or deductive1   
some  element of drill may enter1 or    
appreciation may be sought with respect 
to some particular part of the situation
 presented4 ,these different  kinds of  
exercises1 drills1 thinking 7inductive  
or deductive71 and  appreciation are    
fairly distinct psychological types4    
,in addition to the psychological types 
of exercises mentioned above1  exercises
 are conducted in the classroom which   
may be designated under  the following  
heads3 lecturing1 the recitation lesson1
 examination and  review lessons4 ,in   
any one of these the mental process     
involved may be  any of those mentioned 
above as belonging to the purely        

psychological  types of lessons or a    
combination of any two or more of them4 
,it has  seemed worth while to treat    
briefly of both sorts of lesson types1  
and  to discuss at some length1         
lecturing1 about which there is         
considerable  disagreement1 and the     
additional topic of questioning1 which  
is the  means employed in all of these  
different types of classroom exercises4 
,the ,inductive ,lesson4 ,it has been   
common in the discussion of the         
inductive development lesson to classify
 the stages through which one  passes   
from his recognition of a problem to his
 conclusion in five  steps4 ,these      
divisions have commonly been spoken of  
as 7#a7 preparation2  7#b7 presentation2
 7#c7;comparison and abstraction2 7#d7  
generalization2 and  7#e7 application4  
,it has even been suggested that all    
lessons should  conform to this order of
 procedure4 ,from the discussions in the
 previous  chapters1 the reader will    
understand that such a formal method of 

procedure would not conform to what we  
know about mental activity and  its     
normal exercise and development4 ,there 
is some advantage1 however1  in thinking
 of the general order of procedure in   
the inductive lesson as  outlined by    
these steps4    ,the step of preparation
 has to do with making clear to the     
pupil the aim  or purpose of the problem
 with which he is to deal4 ,it is not   
always  possible in the classroom to    
have children at work upon just such    
problems as may occur to them4 ,the     
orderly development of a subject to  be 
taught requires that the teacher        
discover to children problems or        
purposes which may result in thinking4  
,the skill of the teacher depends  upon 
his knowledge of the previous           
experiences of the children in the      
class and his skill in having them word 
the problem which remains  unsolved in  
their experience in such a way as to    
make it attractive to  them4 ,indeed1 it
 may be said that children never have a 

worthy aim  unless it is one which is   
intellectually stimulating4 ,a problem  
exists  only when we desire to find the 
answer4    ,the term presentation       
suggests a method of procedure which we 
would  not want to follow too           
frequently2 that is1 we may hope not    
simply to  present facts for acceptance 
or rejection1 but1 rather1 we want      
children  to search for the data which  
they may need in solving their problem4 
,from the very beginning of their school
 career children need1 in the  light of 
a problem stated1 to learn to utilize   
all of the possible  sources of         
information available4 ,their own       
experience1 the questions  which they   
may put to other people1 observations   
which they may  undertake with          
considerable care1 books or other       
sources of information  which they may  
consult1 all are to be thought of as    
tools to be used or  sources of         
information available for the solution  
of problems4 ,it cannot  be too often   

reiterated that it is not simply getting
 facts1 reading  books1 performing      
experiments1 which is significant1 but1 
rather1 which  of these operations is   
conducted in the light of a problem     
clearly  conceived by children4    ,the 
step of presentation1 as above          
described1 is not one that may be  begun
 and completed before other parts of the
 inductive lesson are  carried on4 ,as  
soon as any facts are available they are
 either accepted  or rejected1 as they  
may help in the solution of the problem2
  comparisons are instituted1 the       
essential elements of likeness are      
noticed1 and even a partial solution of 
the problem may be suggested in  terms  
of a new generalization4 ,the student   
may then begin to gather  further facts1
 to pass through further steps of       
comparison1 and to make  still further  
modifications of his generalization as  
he proceeds in his  work4 ,at any stage 
of the process the student may stop to  
apply or test  the validity of a        

generalization which has been formed4   
,it is even true  that the statement of 
the problem with which one starts may be
 modified  in the light of new facts    
found1 or new analyses instituted1 or   
new  elements of likeness which have    
been discovered4    ,in the conduct of  
an inductive lesson it is of primary    
importance that  the teacher discover to
 children problems1 the solutions of    
which are  important for them1 that he  
guide them in so far as it is possible  
for  them to find all of the facts      
necessary in their search for data1 that
  he encourage them to discuss with each
 other1 even to the extent of           
disagreeing1 with respect to comparisons
 which are instituted or                
generalizations which are premature1 and
 above all1 that he develop1 in  so far 
as it is possible1 the habit of         
verifying conclusions4    ,the          
,deductive ,lesson4 ,the interdependence
 of induction and deduction  has been   
discussed in the chapter devoted to     

thinking4 ,the procedure in  a deductive
 lesson is from a clear recognition of  
the problem involved1  through the      
analysis of the situation and           
abstraction of the essential  elements1 
to a search for the laws or principles  
in which to classify  the particular    
element or individual with which we are 
dealing1 to a  careful comparison of    
this particular with the general that we
 have  found1 to our conclusion1 which  
is established by a process of          
verification4 ,briefly stated1 the      
normal order of procedure might be      
indicated as follows3 7#a7 finding the  
problem2 7#b7 finding the               
generalization or principles2 7#c7      
inference2 7#d7 verification4 ,it is    
important in this type of exercise1 as  
has been indicated in the  discussion of
 the inductive lesson1 that the problem 
be made clear4 ,so  long as children    
indulge in random guesses as to the     
process which is  involved in the       
solution of a problem in arithmetic1 or 

the principle  which is to be invoked in
 science1 or the rule which is to be    
called to  mind in explaining a         
grammatical construction1 we may take it
 for  granted that they have no very    
clear conception of the process through 
which they must pass1 nor of the issues 
which are involved4 ,in the  search for 
the generalization or principle which   
will explain the  problem1 a process of 
acceptance and rejection is involved4   
,it helps  children to state definitely1
 with respect to a problem in           
arithmetic1  that they know that this   
particular principle is not the one     
which they  need4 ,it is often by a     
process of elimination that a child can 
best  explain a grammatical             
construction1 either in ,english or in a
 foreign  language4 ,of course the      
elimination of the principle or law     
which is not  the right one means simply
 that we are reducing the number of     
chances of  making a mistake4 ,if out of
 four possibilities we can immediately  

eliminate two of them1 there are only   
two left to be considered4 ,after       
children have discovered the            
generalization or principle involved1 it
 is  well to have them state definitely 
the inference which they make4 ,just  as
 in the inductive process we pass almost
 immediately from the step of           
comparison and abstraction to the       
statement of generalization1 so in the  
deductive lesson1 when once we have     
related the particular case under       
consideration to the principle which    
explains it1 we are ready to state  our 
inference4 ,verification involves the   
trying out of our inference to  see that
 it certainly will hold4 ,this may be   
done by proposing some  other inference 
which we find to be invalid1 or by      
seeking to find any  other law or       
principle which will explain our        
particular situation4 ,here  again1 as  
in the inductive lesson1 the skillful   
teacher makes his  greatest contribution
 by having children become increasingly 

careful in  this step of verification4  
,almost any one can pass through the    
several  stages involved in deductive   
thinking and arrive at a wrong          
conclusion4  ,that which distinguishes  
the careful thinker from the careless   
student  is the sincerity of the former 
in his unwillingness to accept his      
conclusions until they are verified4    
,the ,drill ,lesson4 ,the drill lesson  
is so clearly a matter of fixing  habits
 that little needs to be added to the   
chapter dealing with this  subject4 ,if 
one were to attempt to give in order the
 steps of the  process involved1 they   
might be stated as follows3 7#a7        
establishing a  motive for forming the  
habit2 7#b7 knowing exactly what we wish
 to do1 or  the habit or skill to be    
acquired2 7#c7 recognition of the       
importance of  the focusing of attention
 during the period devoted to           
repetitions2 7#d7  variation in practice
 in order to lessen fatigue and to help 
to fix  attention2 7#e7 a recognition of

 the danger of making mistakes1 with    
consequent provision against lapses2    
7#f7 the principle of review1 which  may
 be stated best by suggesting that the  
period between practice  exercises may  
only gradually be lengthened4           
,possibly the greatest deficiency in    
drill work1 as commonly conducted1  is  
found in the tendency upon the part of  
some teachers to depend upon  repetition
 involving many mistakes4 ,this is due  
quite frequently to the  assignment of  
too much to be accomplished4            
,twenty-five words in  spelling1 a whole
 multiplication table1 a complete       
conjugation in ,latin1  all suggest the 
danger of mistakes which will be        
difficult to eliminate  later on4 ,the  
wise teacher is the one who provides    
very carefully  against mistakes upon   
the part of pupils4 ,he assigns a       
minimum number of  words1 or a number of
 combinations1 or a part of a           
conjugation1 and  takes care to discover
 that children are sure of themselves   

before  indulging in that practice which
 is to fix the habit4    ,in much of the
 drill work there is1 of course1 the    
desirability of  gaining in speed4 ,in  
this field successful teachers have     
discovered that  much is gained by more 
or less artificial stimuli which seem to
 be  altogether outside of the work     
required to form a habit4 ,in drill on  
column addition successful work is done 
by placing the problem on the  board and
 following through the combinations by  
pointing the pointer and  making a tap  
on the board as one proceeds through the
 column4 ,concert  work of this sort    
seems to have the effect of speeding up 
those who  would ordinarily lag1 even   
though they might get the right result4 
,the  most skillful teachers of         
typewriting count or clap their hands or
 use  the phonograph for the sake of    
speeding up their students4 ,they have  
discovered that the same amount of time 
devoted to typewriting practice  will   
produce anywhere from twenty-five to one

 hundred per cent more  speed under such
 artificial stimulation as they were in 
the habit of  getting merely by asking  
the students to practice4 ,these        
experiences1 of  course1 suggest that   
drill work will require an expenditure  
of energy  and an alertness upon the    
part of teachers1 and not merely an     
assignment  of work to be done by       
pupils4    ,appreciation ,lesson4 ,the  
work which the teacher does in securing 
appreciation has been suggested in a    
previous chapter4 ,it will suffice  here
 briefly to state what may be thought of
 as the order of procedure  in securing 
appreciation4 ,it is not as easy in this
 case to state the  development in terms
 of particular steps or processes1      
since1 as has  already been indicated in
 the chapter on appreciation1 the       
student is  passive rather than active1 
is contemplating and enjoying1 rather   
than  attacking and working to secure a 
particular result4 ,the work of the     
teacher may1 however1 be organized      

around the following heads3 7#a7 it is  
of primary importance that the teacher  
bring to the class an enthusiasm  and   
joy for the picture1 music1 poetry1     
person1 or achievement which he  wishes 
to present2 7#b7 children must not be   
forced to accept nor even  encouraged to
 repeat the evaluation determined by    
teachers2 7#c7  spontaneous and sincere 
response upon the part of children      
should be  accepted1 even though it may 
not conform to the teacher's estimate2  
7#d7  children should be encouraged to  
choose from among many of the forms or  
situations presented for their approval 
those which they like best2 7#e7  the   
technique involved in the creation of   
the artistic form should be             
subordinated to enjoyment in the field  
of the fine arts2 7#f7 throughout1  the 
play spirit should be predominant1 for  
if the element of drudgery  enters1     
appreciation disappears4    ,teachers   
who get good results in appreciation    
secure them mainly by  virtue of the    

fact that they have large capacity for  
enjoyment in the  fields which they     
present to children4 ,a teacher who is  
enthusiastic1  and who really finds     
great joy in music1 will awaken and     
develop power  of appreciation upon the 
part of his pupils4 ,the teacher who can
 enter  into the spirit of the child    
poetry1 or of the fairy tale1 will get a
  type of appreciation not enjoyed by   
the teacher who finds delight only  in  
adult literature4 ,it is of the utmost  
importance to recognize the  fact that  
children only gradually grow from an    
appreciation or joy in  that which is   
crude to that which represents the      
highest type of  artistic production4   
,it is important to have children try   
themselves out  in creative work2 but   
the influence of a teacher may be far   
greater than  that of the attempts of   
the children to produce in these fields4
    ,lecturing4 ,among the various types
 of methods used in teaching there  is  
probably no one which has received such 

severe criticism as the  so-called      
lecture method4 ,the result of this     
criticism has been1  theoretically at   
least1 to abolish lecturing from the    
elementary school  and to diminish the  
use of this method in the high school1  
although in  the colleges and           
universities it is still the most       
popular method4  ,although it is true   
that the lecture method is not the best 
one for  continual use in elementary and
 high school1 still its entire disuse is
  unfortunate4 ,so is its blind use by  
those who still adhere to the old  ways 
of doing things4    ,the chief          
criticisms of the method are1 first1    
that it makes of the  learner a mere    
recipient instead of a thinker2 second1 
that the material  so gained does not   
become part of the mental life of the   
hearers and so  is not so well          
remembered nor so easily applied as     
material gained in  other ways2 third1  
that the instructor has no means of     
determining  whether his class is       

getting the right ideas or wholly false 
ones2  fourth1 the method lacks interest
 in the majority of cases4 ,despite the 
truth of these criticisms1 there are    
occasions when the lecture or  telling  
method is the best one--in fact the only
 one that can accomplish  the desired   
result4    ,first1 the lecture method   
may sometimes take the place of books4  
,often1  even in the elementary school1 
there is need for the children to get   
facts1--information in history or       
geography or literature1--and the       
getting of these facts from books would 
be too difficult or too  wasteful4 ,in  
such a case telling the facts is        
certainly the best way to  give them4 ,a
 teacher in half a period can give      
material that it might  take the        
children hours to find4 ,by telling them
 the facts1 he not only  saves waste of 
time1 but also retains the interest4    
,very often  discouragement and even    
dislike results from a prolonged search 
for a  few facts4 ,of course in the     

higher schools1 when the material to be 
given is not in print1 when the         
professor is the source of certain      
theories1 methods1 and explanations1    
lecturing is the only way for  students 
to get the material4 ,it must be borne  
in mind that human beings  are naturally
 a source of interest1 particularly to  
children1 and  therefore having the     
teacher tell1 other things being equal1 
will make a  greater impression than    
reading it in a book4    ,second1 the   
lecture method is valuable as a means of
 explanation4  ,despite the fact that   
the material given may be adapted to the
 child's  level of development1 still it
 often happens that it is not clear4    
,then1  instead of sending the child to 
the same material again1 an explanation 
by teacher or fellow pupil is much      
better4 ,it may be just the inflection  
used1 or the choice of different words1 
that will clear up the  difficulty4     
,third1 the telling method should be    
used for illustration4 ,very often  when

 illustration is necessary the lecture  
method is supplemented by  illustrative 
material of various types--objects1     
experiments1 pictures1  models1         
diagrams1 and so on4 ,none of this      
material1 however1 is used to  its best 
advantage unless it is accompanied by   
the telling method4 ,it is  through the 
telling that the essentials of the      
illustrative material  gain the proper  
perspective4 ,without such explanation  
some unimportant  detail may focus the  
attention and the value of the material 
be lost4 ,it  has been customary to     
emphasize the need for and the value of 
this  concrete illustrative material4   
,teachers have felt that if it was      
possible to have the actual object1 it  
should be obtained2 if that was  not    
possible1 why then have pictures1 but   
diagrams and words should only  be used 
as a last resort4 ,there can be no doubt
 as to the value of the  concrete       
material1 especially with little        
children--but its use has been  carried 

to an extreme because it has been used  
blindly4 ,for instance1  sometimes the  
concrete material because of its general
 inherent  interest1 or because of its  
special appeal to some instinct1        
attracts  the attention of the child in 
such a way that the point which was to  
be  illustrated is lost sight of4       
,witness work in nature study in the    
lower  grades1 and in chemistry in the  
high school4 ,the concrete material may 
be so complex that again the essential  
point is lost in the  mass of detail4   
,no perspective can be obtained because 
of the  complexity--witness work with   
principles of machines in physics and   
the  circulation of the blood in        
biology4 ,sometimes the diagram or word 
explanation with nothing of the more    
concrete material is the best type  of  
illustration4 ,a fresh application of   
the principle or lesson by the  teacher 
is another means of illustration and one
 of the best1 for it not  only broadens 
the student's point of view and gives   

another cue to the  material1 but it may
 also make direct connection with his   
own  experience4 ,illustrations in the  
book often fail to do this1 but the     
teacher knowing his particular class can
 make the application that will  mean   
most4 ,telling a story or incident is   
another way of illustration4  ,the      
personal element is nearly always       
present in this means1 and is a         
valuable spur to interest4              
,illustrations of all kinds1 from the   
concrete to the story form1 have  been  
grossly misused in teaching1 so that    
to-day teachers are almost  afraid to   
use any4 ,the difficulty has been that  
illustrations have been  used as a means
 of regaining wandering attention4 ,it  
has been the  sugar-coating4 ,the       
illustration1 then1 has become the      
important thing  and the material       
nonimportant4 ,the class has watched the
 experiment or  listened to the story1  
but when that was over the attention was
 gone  again4 ,illustrations should not 

be the means of holding the attention2  
that is the function of the material    
itself4 ,if the lesson cannot hold  the 
interest1 illustrations are worse than  
useless4 ,illustrations1 then1  of all  
kinds must be subordinated to the       
material--they are only a means  to an  
end1 and that end is a better           
understanding of the material4          
,illustrations1 further1 should have a  
vital1 necessary connection with  the   
point they are used to make clearer4    
,illustrations that are dragged  in1    
that are not vitally connected with the 
point1 are entirely out of  place4 ,if  
illustrations always truly illustrated1 
then children would  not remember the   
illustration and forget the point1 for  
remembering the  illustration they would
 be led directly to the point because of
 the  closeness of the connection4      
,fourth1 telling or lecturing is the    
best way to get appreciation4 ,this  was
 discussed in the chapter on            
appreciation1 so need only be mentioned 

here4 ,the interpretation by the teacher
 of the character1 the picture1  the    
poem1 the policy1 or what not1 not only 
increases the understanding  of the     
listener1 but also calls up feeling     
responses4 ,it is in this  telling that 
the personality of the teacher1 his     
experiences1 his  ideals1 make          
themselves felt4 ,one can often win     
appreciation of and  allegiance to the  
best in life by the use of the telling  
method in the  appropriate situations4  
,fifth1 the lecture method should       
sometimes be used as a means of getting 
the desired mental attitude4 ,the       
general laws of learning emphasize the  
importance of the mind's set as a       
condition to readiness of neurone       
tracts4 ,five or ten minutes spent at   
the beginning of a subject1 or a  new   
section of work1 in introducing the     
class to it1 may give the  keynote for  
the whole course4 ,a whole period may be
 profitably be spent  this way4 ,not    
only will the telling method used on    

such occasions give  the right emotional
 attitude towards a subject1 but also   
the right  intellectual set as well4    
,it is evident then that the lecture or 
telling method has its place in  all    
parts of the educational system1 but its
 place should be clearly and  definitely
 recognized4 ,the danger is not in using
 it1 but in using it at  the wrong time1
 and in overusing it4 ,bearing in mind  
the dangers that  adhere to its use1 it 
is always well1 whether the method is   
used in  grades or in college1 to mix it
 with other methods or to follow it by  
another method that will do the things  
that the lecture method may have  left  
undone4    ,the ,recitation ,lesson4 ,as
 has been suggested in the opening of   
this  chapter1 the recitation lesson is 
not a type involving any particular     
psychological process4 ,it is1 rather1 a
 method of procedure which may  involve 
any of the other types of work already  
discussed4 ,when the  recitation lesson 
means merely reciting paragraphs from   

the book with  little or no reference to
 problems to be solved or skill to be   
developed1 it has no place in a         
schoolroom4 ,when1 however1 the teacher 
uses the recitation lesson as an        
exercise in which he assures himself    
that facts needed for further progress  
in thinking have been secured1 or  that 
habits have been established1 or        
verbatim memorization  accomplished1    
this type of exercise is justified4 ,it 
is well to remember  that the thought   
process involved in the development of a
 subject1 or  the solution even of a    
single problem1 may extend over many    
class  periods4 ,the recitation lesson  
may be important in organizing the      
material which is to be used in the     
larger thought whole4 ,again1 this  type
 of exercise may involve the            
presentation of material which is to be 
used as a basis for appreciation in     
literature1 in music1 in art1 in        
history1 and the like4 ,the organization
 of experiences of children1  whether   

secured through observations1           
discussions1 or from books1 around      
certain topics may furnish a most       
satisfactory basis for the development  
of problems or of the gathering of the  
material essential for their  solution4 
,a better understanding of the          
conditions which make for  success in   
habit formation1 in thinking1 and the   
development of  appreciation1 will tend 
to eliminate from our schools that type 
of  exercise in which teachers ask      
merely that children recite to them what
  they have been able to remember from  
the books which they have read or  the  
lectures which they have heard4    ,the 
,examination and ,review ,lessons4 ,in  
the establishment of habits1  the       
development of appreciation1 or the     
growth in understanding which we  seek  
to secure through thinking1 there will  
be many occasions for  checking up our  
work4 ,successful teaching requires that
 the habit that  we think we have       
established be called for and additional

 practice given  from time to time in   
order to be certain that it is fixed4   
,in like  manner1 the development of our
 thought in any field is not something  
which is accomplished without respect to
 later neglect4 ,we1 rather1  build a   
system of thought with reference to a   
particular field or  subject as a result
 of thinking1 and rethinking through the
 many  different situations which are   
involved4 ,in like manner1 in the field 
of  appreciation the very essence of our
 enjoyment is to be found in the  fact  
that that which we have enjoyed we      
recall1 and strengthen our  appreciation
 through the revival of the experience4 
,the review is1 of  course1 most        
successful when it is not simply going  
over the whole  material in exactly the 
same way4 ,in habit formation it is     
often  advisable to arrange in a        
different order the stimuli which are to
 bring  the desired responses1 for the  
very essence of habit formation is found
  in the fact that the particular       

response can be secured regardless of   
the order in which they are called for4 
,in thinking1 as a subject is           
developed1 our control is measured by   
the better perspective which we  secure4
 ,this means1 of course1 that in review 
we will not be concerned  with reviving 
all of the processes through which we   
have passed1 but1  rather1 in a         
reorganization quite different from that
 which was  originally provided4    ,the
 examination lesson is classified here  
as of the same type as the  review      
because a good examination involves all 
that has been suggested  by review4 ,the
 writer has no sympathy with those who  
argue against  examinations4 ,the only  
proof that we can get of the success or 
failure  of our work is to be found in  
the achievement of pupils4 ,it is not   
desirable to set aside a particular     
period of a week devoted entirely to    
examinations1 because examinations in   
all subjects cannot to best  advantage  
be given during the same period4 ,there 

are stages in the  development of our   
thinking1 or in the acquiring of skill1 
or in our  understanding and            
appreciation which occur at irregular   
intervals and  which call for a summing 
up of what has gone before1 in order    
that we  may be sure of success in the  
work which is to follow4 ,it is1 of     
course1  undesirable to devote a whole  
week to examinations on account of the  
strain and excitement under which       
children labor4 ,it is entirely         
possible to know of the achievements of 
children through examinations  which    
have been given at irregular intervals  
throughout the term4 ,it  would be best1
 probably1 never to give more than one  
examination on any  one day1 and1 as a  
rule1 to devote only the regular class  
period to such  work4 ,in another       
chapter the discussion of more exact    
methods of  measuring the achievements  
of children will be discussed at some   
length4    ,in all of the lesson types  
mentioned above1 one of the most        

important  means employed by teachers   
for the stimulation of pupils is the    
question4 ,it seems wise1 therefore1 to 
devote some paragraphs to a             
consideration of questioning as         
determining skill in teaching4          
,questioning4 ,the purpose of a question
 is to serve as a situation  which shall
 arouse to activity certain nerve       
connections and thus bring  a response4 
,questions1 oral or written1 are the    
chief tools used in  schools to gain    
responses4 ,in some situations it is the
 only means a  teacher may have of      
arousing the response4 ,psychologically1
 then1 the  value of the question must  
be judged by the response4    ,questions
 may be considered from the point of    
view of the kind of  response they call 
for4 ,probably the most common kind of  
question is the  one that calls for     
facts as answers4 ,it involves          
memory--but memory of a  rote type4 ,it 
does not require thinking4 ,all drill   
questions are of this  type4 ,the       

connections aroused are definitely final
 in a certain order1  and the question  
simply sets off the train of bonds that 
leads directly  to the answer4 ,another 
type of question involving the memory   
process is  the one which initiates     
recall1 but here thought is active4 ,the
 answer  cannot be gained in a          
mechanical way1 but selection and       
rejection are  involved4 ,the answer is 
to be found by examining past           
experience1 but  only in a thoughtful   
way4 ,questions which call for          
comparison form  another type4 ,these   
may vary from those which involve the   
comparison of  sense material to those  
which involve the comparison of policies
  or epochs4 ,words1 characters1 plots1 
definitions1 plans1                     
subjects--everything with which         
intellectual life deals is open to      
comparison4 ,comparison is one of the   
steps in the process of reasoning1  and 
hence questions of this type are        
extremely important4 ,then there are    

the questions which arouse the response 
of analysis4 ,these questions  vary     
among themselves according to the type  
of analysis needed1 whether  piecemeal  
attention or analysis due to varying    
concomitants4 ,the former  drives the   
thinker through gradual recognition and 
elimination of the  known elements to a 
consciousness of the only partly known4 
,the latter1  by attracting the         
attention to unvarying factors in the   
changing  situations1 forces out the new
 and until then unknown element4 ,some  
questions require judgment as a         
response4 ,the judgment may be one      
concerning relationships1 or concerning 
worth or value1 or be merely a  matter  
of definition--all questions calling for
 criticism are of this  type4 ,in any   
case this type of question involves the 
thought element at  its best4 ,the      
question requiring organization forms   
another type4 ,there  is no sharp line  
of division between these types of      
questions4 ,no one of  them should be   

used exclusively4 ,some of them imply   
operations of a  simple type as well as 
the particular response demanded by that
 form4  ,for instance1 some of the      
questions involving analysis imply      
comparison  and recalling4 ,a judgment  
question might call for all the simple  
processes noted above and others as     
well4 ,the responses then vary in       
complexity and difficulty4 ,the order of
 advance in both complexity and         
difficulty of the response is from the  
mere drill question to the  judgment    
question4    ,another type of question  
is the one which desires appreciation as
 a  response4 ,this question is one of  
the most difficult to frame1 for it     
must tend to inhibit the critical       
attitude and by means of the            
associations it arouses or its own      
suggestive power get the appreciative   
response4 ,questions of this type often 
call for constructive imagery as  a     
means to the desired end4 ,some         
questions are directive in their        

tendency4 ,they require as response an  
attitude or set of the mind4 ,they  set 
the child thinking in this direction    
rather than that4 ,in a sense  they are 
suggestive1 but they suggest the line of
 search rather than the  response4 ,a   
final type of question is akin to the   
one just  discussed--the question whose 
response is further questions4 ,here    
again  the response desired is an       
attitude1 but in this case it is more   
than an  attitude1 it is also a definite
 response that shall come in the form of
  questions4 ,the questions of a good   
teacher should result in students       
asking questions both of people and of  
books4 ,these last three types of       
questions are perhaps the most difficult
 of all4 ,because of their  complexity  
and subtlety they often miss fire and   
fail of their purpose4  ,properly       
handled they are among the most powerful
 tools a teacher has4  ,the type of     
question used must vary1 not only with  
the particular group  of children1 and  

the type of lesson1 but also with the   
subject4  ,questions that would be the  
best type in mathematics might not be so
  good for an art lesson4 ,the kinds of 
questions used must be adapted to  the  
particular situation4                   
,psychologically a question is valuable 
not only in accordance with the  kind of
 response it gets1 but also in          
proportion to the readiness of the      
response4 ,a question that is of such a 
character that the response is  hazy1   
stumbling1 hesitating--a question that  
brings no clear-cut  response because   
the child does not understand what is   
wanted1 is a poor  question4 ,this does 
not at all mean that the right response 
must always  come immediately4 ,some of 
the best questions are put with the     
intention  of forcing the child to      
realize that he can't answer--that he   
doesn't  know4 ,if that type of response
 comes to that question1 it is the best 
possible answer4 ,nor need the whole    
answer come immediately4 ,for  instance1

 in many of the judgment questions the  
thinking process aroused  may take some 
time before the judgment is reached1 and
 meanwhile several  partial answers may 
be given4 ,but if the question asked    
started the  process1 without waste of  
time in trying to find out what it      
meant1 the  question is good4 ,with     
these explanations1 then1 the second    
qualification of a good question is that
 it secures the appropriate  response   
readily4 ,in order to do this1 these    
factors must be considered3  ,first1 the
 principle of apperception must be      
recognized4 ,every question  must deal  
with material that is on a level with   
the stage of development  of the one    
questioned4 ,not only so1 but the       
question must connect  somewhere with   
the learner's experience4 ,this means a 
recognition also  of individual         
differences4 ,the question must also be 
couched in language  that can be        
understood easily by the one questioned4
 ,to have to try to  understand the     

language of the question as well as the 
question1 results  in divided attention 
and delayed responses4 ,second1 the     
question should  be clear and definite4 
,a question that has these              
characteristics will  challenge the     
attention of the class4 ,it is directed 
straight at the  point at issue1 and no 
time will be lost in wondering what the 
question  means1 or in trying two or    
three tentative answers4 ,third1 the    
younger  the child1 the simpler the     
question must be4 ,with little children1
 to be  good a question may involve only
 one idea1 or relationship4 ,the amount 
involved in the question1 its scope and 
content1 must be adapted to the  mental 
development of the learner4 ,it is only 
a mature thinker who can  carry         
simultaneously two or three points of   
issue1 or possibilities4  ,fourth1 the  
question to gain a ready response must  
be interesting4 ,not  only must the     
lesson as a whole be interesting1 but   
the questions  themselves must have the 

same quality4 ,dull questions can kill  
an  otherwise good lesson4 ,the form of 
the question is thus a big factor in    
gaining a ready response4 ,all the      
qualities which gain involuntary        
attention can be used in framing an     
interesting question--novelty1          
exaggeration1 contrast1 life1 color1 and
 so on4    ,the third point to be       
considered in determining a good        
question is  whether or not it satisfies
 the demands of economy4 ,this demand is
 a  fair one both from the standpoint of
 the best use of the time at the        
disposal of the learner1 and also from  
the standpoint of the best means  of    
gaining the greatest development on the 
part of the learner in a  given time4   
,the number of questions asked thus     
enters in as a factor4  ,when a teacher 
asks four or five questions when one    
would serve the same  purpose1 she is   
not only wasting time1 but the child is 
not getting the  opportunity to do any  
thinking and therefore is not           

developing4 ,recent  studies on the     
actual number of questions asked in a   
recitation point to  the conclusion that
 economy both of time and in development
 is being  seriously overlooked4        
,economy in response may also be        
brightened by  preserving a logical     
sequence between questions4 ,it is a    
matter of fact  in psychology that      
associations are systematized about     
central ideas2 it  is also a fact that  
the set of the mind1 in this direction  
rather than  that1 is characteristic of 
all work4 ,logical sequence1 then1 makes
 use  of both these facts--both of the  
systematization of ideas and of the     
mental attitude4    ,the fourth test of 
good questioning is the universality of 
its appeal4  ,some questions which are  
otherwise good appeal but to            
comparatively few  in the class4 ,this1 
of course1 means that responses are     
being gained but  from few4 ,the best   
questioning stimulates most of the      
class2 all members  of the class are    

working4 ,in order to secure this result
 the questions  must be properly        
distributed over the class4 ,the bright 
pupils must not  be allowed to do all   
the work2 or1 on the other hand1 all the
 attention  of the teachers must not be 
given to the dull pupils4 ,not only     
should  the questions be well           
distributed1 but they must vary         
according to the  individual ability of 
the particular child4 ,this has already 
been  emphasized in dealing with        
readiness of response4 ,many a lesson   
has been  unsuccessful because the      
teacher gave too difficult a question to
 a dull  child1 and while she was       
struggling with him1 she lost the rest  
of the  class4 ,the reverse is also     
true1 to give a bright child a question 
that  requires almost no thinking means 
that a mechanical answer will be given  
and no further activity stimulated4 ,the
 extent to which all the class  are     
mentally active is one measure of a good
 question4      ,,questions      #a4    

,give an example of a lesson which you  
have taught which was  predominantly    
inductive4 ,show how you proceeded from 
the discovery of  the problem to your   
pupils to the solution attained4    #b4 
,what is involved in the step of        
presentation8    #c4 ,why may we not    
consider the several steps of the       
inductive lesson  as occurring in a     
definite and mutually exclusive         
sequence8    #d4 ,in what respect is the
 procedure in a deductive lesson like   
that  which you follow in an inductive  
lesson8    #e4 ,show how verification is
 an important element in both inductive 
and  deductive lessons4    #f4 ,give    
illustrations of successful drill       
lessons and make clear the  reason for  
the degree of success achieved4    #g4  
,what measures have you found most      
advantageous in securing speed in  drill
 work8    #h4 ,what are the elements    
which make for success in an            
appreciation  lesson8    #i4 ,upon what 
grounds and to what extent can lecturing

 be defended as a  method of            
instruction8    #aj4 ,what may be the   
relation between a good recitation      
lesson and the  solution of a problem8  
,growth in power of appreciation8       
#aa4 ,for what purposes should          
examinations be given8 ,when should     
examinations be given8    #ab4 ,when are
 questions which call for facts         
justified8    #ac4 ,why are questions   
which call for comparisons to be        
considered  important8    #ad4 ,why is  
it important to phrase questions        
carefully8    #ae4 ,why should a teacher
 ask some questions which cannot be     
answered  immediately8    #af4 ,what    
criteria would you apply in testing the 
questions which you put  to your class8 
#ag4 ,write five questions which in your
 judgment will demand thinking  upon    
some topic which you plan to teach to   
your class4           99       99       
99       99       99          ,,xiv4    
,,how ,,to ,,study      ,the term study 
has been used very loosely by both      

teachers and children4  ,as used by     
teachers it frequently meant something  
very different from  what children had  
in mind when they used it4 ,further1    
teachers  themselves have often used the
 term in connection with mental         
activities  which1 technically speaking1
 could not possibly come under that     
head4  ,much confusion and lack of      
efficient work has been the result4     
,recently  various attempts have been   
made to give the term study a more exact
  meaning4 ,mc,murry defines it as the  
work that is necessary in the           
assimilation of ideas--the vigorous     
application of the mind to a  subject   
for the satisfaction of a felt need4 ,in
 other words1 study is  thinking4       
,psychologically1 what makes for good   
thinking makes for good  study4 ,study  
is controlled mental activity working   
towards the  realization of a goal4 ,it 
is the adaptation of means to end1 in   
the  attempt to satisfy a felt need4 ,it
 involves a definite purpose or goal1   

which is problematic1 the selection and 
rejection of suggestions1  tentative    
judgments1 and conclusion4 ,the mind of 
the one who studies is  active1         
vigorously active1 not in an aimless    
fashion1 but along sharply  defined     
lines4 ,this is the essential           
characteristic of all study4    ,there  
are1 however1 various types of study    
which differ materially from  each other
 according to the subject matter or to  
the type of response  required4 ,some   
study involves comparatively little     
thinking4 ,the  directed activity must  
be present1 but the choice1 the         
judgment1 may  need to be exercised only
 in the beginning when methods of       
procedure  need to be selected1 and     
later on1 perhaps1 when successes or    
failures  need to be noted and changes  
made in the methods accordingly4        
,another  type of study needs continual 
thinking of the most active sort all the
  way through the period4 ,just the     
proportion of the various factors       

involved in thinking which is present at
 any given study period must be         
determined by the response4 ,a type of  
study which would be completely         
satisfactory for one subject needing one
 response1 would be entirely  inadequate
 for another subject needing another    
response4 ,to illustrate1  in some cases
 the study must deal with habit         
formation4 ,the need felt is  to learn a
 mechanical response of a very definite 
nature to this  situation2 the problem  
is to get that response4 ,the thinking  
would come  in in deciding upon the     
method1 in watching for successes1 in   
criticizing progress1 and in judging    
when the end was obtained4 ,a large     
part of the time spent in study would1  
however1 need to be spent in            
repetition1 in drill4 ,of such character
 is study of spelling1 of  vocabularies1
 of dates2 study in order to gain skill 
in adding1 or speed  in reading1 or to  
improve in writing or sewing4 ,much of  
habit formation  goes on without        

study--in fact1 to some it may seem to  
be ludicrous to  use the word study in  
connection with the formation of habits4
 ,it is  just because the study elements
 in connection with responses of this   
type have been omitted that there has   
been such a tremendous waste of  time in
 teaching children to form right habits4
 ,this omission also  explains the poor 
results1 for the process has been       
mechanical and blind  on the part of the
 student4 ,at the other extreme in types
 of study is  that which can be used in 
science and mathematics1 in geography   
and  history1 when the major part of the
 time is given to selecting and         
rejecting suggestions and seems required
 by the goal4 ,in this type the         
habituation1 the fixing of the material1
 comes largely as a by-product  of the  
factors used in the thinking4    ,study 
may1 then1 be classified according as   
the response required is  physical      
habit1 memory1 appreciation1 or         
judgment4 ,these types overlap1  no one 

of them can exist absolutely alone1 but 
it is possible to name  them according  
to the response4 ,study may also be     
classified into  supervised study1 or   
unsupervised study1 into individual or  
group study4  ,we might also classify   
study as it has to do with books1 with  
people1 or  with materials4 ,the term   
has been rather arbitrarily applied to  
activities that dealt with books1 but   
surely much study is accomplished  when 
people are consulted instead of books1  
and also when the sources of            
information or the standards are        
flowers1 or rocks1 or textiles4         
,study1 then1 is a big term1 including  
many different varieties of  activities1
 of varying degrees of difficulty and   
responsibility4 ,it  cannot possibly be 
taught all at once1 according to one    
method1 at one  spot in the school      
curriculum4 ,power to study is of very  
gradual growth4  ,it must proceed       
slowly1 from simple to complex types4   
,from easy to  difficult problems1 from 

situations where there is close         
supervision and  direction to situations
 where the student assumes full         
responsibility4  ,knowing how to study  
is not an inborn gift--it does not come 
as a matter  of intuition1 nor does it  
come in some mysterious way when the    
child is  of high school age4 ,it is    
governed by the laws of learning1 or    
readiness1 exercise1 and effect1 just as
 truly as any other ability is4  ,if    
adults are to know how to study1 if they
 are to use the technique of  the       
various kinds of study efficiently1     
children must be taught how4 ,nor  can  
we expect the upper grammar grade or the
 high school teachers to do  this4      
,habits of study must be formed just as 
soon as the responses to  which it leads
 are needed4 ,beginning down in the     
kindergarten with study  in connection  
with physical and mental habits1 the    
child should be  taught how to study4   
,the type must gradually become more    
complex2 he  must pass from group to    

individual study1 from supervised to    
unsupervised1 but it must all come      
logically1 from step to step4 ,true1  it
 is not easy to teach how to study4 ,a  
careful analysis of the various  types  
with their peculiar elements should be a
 help4 ,first1 however1  there are some 
general principles that underlie all    
study which must be  discussed4         
,study must have1 as has already been   
stated1 a purpose4 ,the individual1  in 
order to exercise his mind in a         
controlled way1 must have an aim4 ,the  
clearer and more definite the aim1      
whether it be little or big1 the  better
 the study will be4 ,from the beginning1
 then1 children must be  taught to make 
sure they know what they are going to do
 before beginning  to study4 ,it may be 
necessary to teach them in the early    
grades to say  to themselves or to the  
class just what they are going to       
accomplish in  the study4 ,teach them   
when the lesson is assigned to write    
down in their  books just what the      

problem for study is4 ,warn them never  
to begin study  without definitely      
knowing the aim--if they don't know it1 
make them  realize that the first thing 
to do is to find out the purpose by     
asking  some one else4 ,better no study 
at all than aimless or misdirected      
activity1 because of lack of purpose4   
,no study worthy of the name can be     
carried on without interest4 ,the  child
 who studies well must be brought to    
realize this4 ,the value of  interest   
can be brought home to him by having him
 compare the work he  does1 the time he 
spends1 and how he feels when studying  
something in  which he has a vital      
interest with the results when the topic
 is  uninteresting4 ,of course1 as will 
be pointed out later1 much of the       
gaining of interest lies in the hands of
 the teacher necessarily1 but if  the   
child realizes the need of it in        
efficient study1 some  responsibility   
will rest on him to find an interest if 
it is not already  there4 ,no matter how

 expert the teacher may be1 because of  
individual  differences no problem will 
be equally interesting to all pupils in 
itself1 and no incentive will have an   
equal appeal to all children4           
,therefore children should be taught to 
find interest for themselves4  ,certain 
devices can be suggested1 such as       
working with another child and          
competing with him1 making believe in   
study1 and finding some  connection with
 something in which he is interested1   
working against his  own score1 and the 
like4    ,not only do the demands of    
economy require that the topic of study 
receive concentrated attention1 but the 
results themselves are better  when such
 is the case4 ,half an hour of          
concentrated work gives much  better    
results than an hour of study with      
scattered attention4 ,an hour  spent    
when half an hour would do is thus not  
only wasteful of time1 but  is          
productive of poorer results and bad    
habits of study as well4  ,children need

 to be taught this from the beginning4  
,much time is wasted  even by mature    
university students when they suppose   
themselves to be  studying4 ,children   
can be taught to ignore distractions--to
 train  themselves to keep their eyes on
 the book1 despite the fact that the    
door is opened1 or a seat mate is       
looking for a book4 ,they should be     
encouraged to set themselves time limits
 in various subjects and adhere  to     
them4 ,it is economical to follow a     
regular schedule in study--either  in   
the school or at home4 ,let each child  
make out his study schedule and  keep to
 it4 ,teach children that the best work 
is done when they are calm  and steady4 
,that either excitement or worry is a   
hindrance4 ,therefore  they should avoid
 doing their studying under those       
conditions1 and  should do all they can 
to remove such conditions4 ,training    
children to  do their best and then not 
to worry would not only improve the     
health of  many upper grammar grade and 

high school children1 but would also    
improve their work4    ,study requires a
 certain critical attitude1 a checking  
up of results  against the problem set4 
,in order to be efficient in study a    
child  should know when he has reached  
the solution1 when the means have been  
adapted to the end1 when he has reached 
the goal4 ,this checking up1 of  course1
 means habits of self-criticism and     
standards4 ,sometimes all that  is      
necessary is for the child to be made   
conscious of this fact so that  he can  
test himself1 for instance1 in memory   
work1 or in solving a  problem in       
mathematics4 ,on the other hand1        
sometimes he will have to  compare his  
work with definite standards1 such as   
the ,thorndike  ,handwriting ,scale1 or 
the ,hillegas ,composition ,scale4#ai   
,in other  instances1 he will have to   
search for standards4 ,he will need to  
know  what his classmates have          
accomplished1 what other people think1  
what  other text-books say1 and so on4  

,gradually he must be made conscious    
that study is a controlled activity1 and
 unless it reaches the goal1 and  the   
correct one1 it is useless4 ,he must be 
made to feel that the  responsibility to
 see that such results are reached rests
 on him4    ,these1 then1 are the       
general factors involved in all types of
 study1 and  therefore are fundamental  
to good habits of study3 a clear        
purpose2  vital interest of some kind2  
concentrated attention1 and a critical  
attitude4 ,there are further additional 
suggestions which are peculiar to  the  
special type of study4    ,in study     
which is directed to habit formation1   
the student should be  taught the danger
 of allowing exceptions4 ,he should know
 the possibility  of undoing much good  
work through a little carelessness4     
,preaching won't  bring this home to    
him--it must come through having his    
attention  attracted to such an         
occurrence in his own work or in that of
 his mates4  ,after that knowledge of   

the actual experiences of others1       
athletes1  musicians1 and others will   
help to intensify the impression4 ,the  
value  of repetition as one of the chief
 factors in habit formation must be     
emphasized4 ,the child should be        
encouraged to make opportunities for    
practice both in free minutes during the
 school program1 and outside of  school4
 ,he must be taught in habit formation  
to practice the new habit  in the way it
 is to be used3 practicing the sounds of
 letters in words1  the writing         
movements in writing words1 swimming    
movements in the water1  and so on4     
,practicing the whole movements1 not    
trying to gain perfection  in parts of  
it and then putting it together4 ,it is 
important also that  the learner be     
taught to keep his attention on the     
result to be  obtained1 instead of the  
movements4 ,he should attend to the     
swing of the  club1 the lightness of the
 song1 the cut the saw is making1 the   
words he  is writing1 instead of the    

muscle movements involved4 ,in breaking 
up bad  habits it is sometimes necessary
 to concentrate on a part or a movement1
  when that is the crux of the error1   
but in general it is a bad practice     
when forming a new habit4 ,the child    
must also learn to watch the habit  of  
skill he is forming for signs of        
improvement and then to try to find  out
 the reason for it4 ,it has been proved 
experimentally that much of  the        
improvement in habits of skill comes    
unconsciously to the learner1  and      
necessarily so1 but that in order for   
the improvement to continue  and be     
effective1 it must become conscious4 ,of
 course1 at the beginning  and for a    
long time it must be the teacher's duty 
to point out the  improvement and to    
help the child to think out the reasons 
for it1 but  if he is to learn to study 
by himself the child must finally come  
to  habits of self-criticism which will 
enable him to recognize success or      
failure in his own work4 ,in all this   

discussion of teaching children to      
study it must be constantly borne in    
mind that it is a gradual  process--and 
only very slowly does the child become  
conscious of the  technique4 ,which     
elements can be made conscious1 how much
 he can be left  to himself1 must depend
 on his maturity and previous training4 
,in time1  however1 he should be able to
 apply them all--for only by so doing   
will  he become capable of independent  
study4    ,when the study is primarily  
concerned with memory responses1 all the
  elements which have just been         
discussed in connection with habit      
apply1  for1 after all1 memory is but   
mental habit4 ,there are other factors  
which enter into and which should be    
used in this type of study4 ,first1  the
 child should realize the need for      
understanding the material that is  to  
be learned1 before beginning to memorize
 it4 ,he will then be taught  to read   
the entire assignment through--look up  
difficult words and  references1 master 

the content1 whether prose or poetry1   
whether the  learning is to be verbatim 
or not1 before doing anything further4  
,second1 he will need to know the value 
of the modified whole method of         
learning1 as well as its difficulties4  
,if in the supervised periods of  study 
and in class work1 this method has been 
followed1 it is very easy  to make him  
conscious of it and willing to adopt it 
when he comes to do  independent study4 
,third1 he must be taught to distribute 
his time so  that he does not devote too
 long a stretch to one subject4 ,the    
value of  going over work in the        
morning1 after having studied the night 
or two  nights before1 should be        
emphasized4 ,also the value of beginning
 on  assignments some time ahead1 even  
if there is not time to finish them4    
,fourth1 the child should be taught not 
to stop his work the minute he  can give
 it perfectly4 ,the need for            
overlearning1 for permanent  retention1 
must be made clear4 ,how much           

overlearning is necessary1 each  child  
should find out for himself4 ,fifth1 the
 value of outlining  material as a means
 of aiding memory must be stressed4     
,sixth1 the child  should be taught to  
search for associations1 connections of 
all types1  in order to help himself    
remember facts4 ,he might even be       
encouraged to  make up some mnemonic    
device as an aid if these measures fail4
 ,if  instead of simply trying to hammer
 material in by mere repetition         
children had been taught in their study 
to consciously make use of the  other   
elements in a good memory1 much time    
would be saved4 ,but the  responsibility
 should rest finally on the child to    
make use of these  helps4 ,the teacher  
must make him conscious of them1        
sometimes from their  value by          
experiment1 and then teach him to use   
them himself4    ,much less can be done 
as a matter of conscious technique when 
the  occasion of study is to further    
appreciation4 ,a few suggestions might  

be  offered4 ,first1 the child should be
 taught the value of associating with   
those who do appreciate in the line in  
which he is striving for  improvement4  
,he should be encouraged to consciously 
associate with them  when opportunities 
for appreciation come4 ,second1 he      
should know the  need for coming in     
contact with the objects of appreciation
 if true  feeling is to be developed4   
,it is only by mingling with people1    
reading  books1 listening to music1 that
 appreciation in those fields can be    
developed4 ,third1 the value of concrete
 imagery and of connections with        
personal experience in arousing         
emotional tone should be emphasized4    
,the  child might be encouraged to      
consciously call up images and make     
connections with his own experience     
during study4    ,study1 when the object
 is to arrive at responses of judgment1 
is the  type which has received most    
attention4 ,this type of study includes 
within itself several possibilities4    

,although judgment is the only  response
 that can solve the problem1 still the  
problem may be one of  giving the best  
expression in art or music or drama4 ,it
 may be the  analysis of a course of    
action or of a chemical compound4 ,it   
may be the  comparison of various       
opinions4 ,it may be the arriving at a  
new law or  principle4 ,it is to one of 
these types of thinking that the term   
study  is usually applied4 ,important as
 it is1 the other three types already   
discussed cannot be neglected4 ,if      
children are taught to study in         
connection with the simpler situations  
provided by the first two types1  they  
will be the better prepared to deal with
 this complex type1 for  this highest   
type of study involves habit formation  
often and memory  work always4    ,in   
the type of study involving reasoning1  
because of its complexity1 and  because 
the individual must work more           
independently1 the child must  learn the
 danger of following the first          

suggestion which offers itself4  ,he    
must learn to weigh each suggestion     
offered with reference to the  goal     
aimed at4 ,each step in the process must
 be tested and weighed in  this manner4 
,to go blindly ahead1 following out a   
line of suggestions  until the end is   
reached1 which is then found to be the  
wrong one1  wastes much time and is     
extremely discouraging4 ,no suggestion  
of the way  to adapt means to end should
 be accepted without careful criticism4 
,the  pupil should gradually be made    
conscious of the technique of reasoning1
  analysis1 comparison1 and abstraction4
 ,he must know that the first thing  to 
do is to analyze the problem and see    
just what it requires4 ,he must  know   
that the abstraction depends upon the   
goal4 ,the learner should be  taught the
 sources of some of the commonest       
mistakes in judgment4 ,for  instance1 if
 he knows of the tendency to respond in 
terms of analogy1  and sees some of the 
errors to which accepting a minor       

likeness between  two situations as     
identity lead1 he will be much more apt 
to avoid such  mistakes than would      
otherwise be true4 ,if he knows how     
unsafe it is to  form a judgment on     
limited data1--if from his own and his  
classmates'  thinking first1 and later  
from the history of science1            
illustrations are  drawn of the         
disastrous effect of such thinking1 he  
will see the value  of seeking sources  
of information and several points of    
view before  forming his own judgment4  
,in his study the child should be taught
 not to  be satisfied until he has      
tested the correctness of his judgment  
by  verifying the result4 ,this is a    
very necessary part of studying4 ,he    
should check up his own thinking by     
finding out through appeal to facts  if 
it is so2 by putting the judgment into  
execution2 by consulting the  opinion of
 others1 and so on4    ,study may be    
considered from the point of view of the
 type of material  which is used in the 

process4 ,the student may be engaged on 
a problem  which involves the use of    
apparatus or specimens of various kinds1
 or he  may need to consult people1 or  
he may have to use books4 ,so far as the
  first type is concerned1 it is        
obviously unwise to have a student at   
work on a problem which involves the use
 of material1 unless the  technique of  
method of use is well known4 ,until he  
can handle the  material with some      
degree of facility it is waste of time  
for him to be  struggling with problems 
which necessitate such use4 ,such       
practice  results in divided attention1 
poor results from the study1 and often  
bad  habits in technique as well4       
,gaining the technique must be in itself
 a  problem for separate study4         
,children should be taught to ask       
questions which bear directly on the    
point they wish to know4 ,if they in    
working out some problem are  dependent 
on getting some information from the    
janitor1 or the postman1  or a mason1   

they must be able to ask questions which
 will bring them  what they want to     
know4 ,much practice in framing         
questions1 having them  criticized1     
having them answered just as they are   
asked1 is necessary4  ,children should  
be aware of the question as a tool in   
their study and  therefore they must    
know how to handle it4 ,in connection   
with this  second type of material1 the 
problem of the best source of           
information  will arise4 ,children must 
then be made conscious of the relative  
values  of various persons as sources of
 a particular piece of information4     
,training in choice of the source of    
information is very important both  when
 that source is people and also when it 
is books4    ,teaching children to use  
books in their study is one of the big  
tasks of  the teacher4 ,they must learn 
that books are written in answer to     
questions4 ,in order to thoroughly      
understand a book1 students must seek   
to frame the questions which it answers4

 ,they must also know how to use  books 
to answer their own questions4 ,this    
means they must know how to  turn from  
part to part1 gleaning here or there    
what they need4 ,it means  training in  
the ability to skim1 omitting           
unessentials and picking out            
essentials4 ,it means the ability to    
recognize major points1 minor  points1  
and illustrative material4 ,children    
must be taught to use the  table of     
contents1 the index1 and paragraph      
headings4 ,they must1 in  their search  
for fuller information or criticism1 be 
able to interpret  different authors1   
use different language1 and attack from 
different  angles1 even when treating   
the same object4 ,children must in their
  studying be taught to use books as a  
means to an end--not an infallible      
means1 but one which needs continual    
criticism1 modification1 and            
amplification4    ,study may be         
supervised study1 or unsupervised study4
 ,to some people the  requirements in   

learning to study may seem too difficult
 to be possible1  but it should be      
remembered that the process is          
gradual--that one by one  these elements
 in study are taught to the children in 
their supervised  study periods4 ,these 
periods should begin in the primary     
grades1 and  require from the teacher   
quite as much preparation as any other  
period4  ,many teachers have taught     
subjects1 but not how to study subjects4
 ,the  latter is the more important4    
,the matter of distributed learning     
periods1 of search for motive1 of asking
 questions1 of criticizing  achievement1
 of use of books2 each element is a     
topic for class  discussion before it is
 accepted as an element in study4 ,even 
after it  is accepted1 it may be raised 
by some child as a source of particular 
difficulty and fresh suggestions added4 
,very often with little children  it is 
necessary for the teacher to study the  
lesson with them4 ,teachers  need much  
more practice in doing this1 for one of 

the best ways to teach  a child to study
 is to study with him4 ,not to tell him1
 and do the work  for him1 but to really
 study with him4 ,later on the          
supervised study  period is one in which
 each child is silently engaged upon his
 own work  and the teacher passes from  
one to the other4 ,in order to do this  
well1  the teacher needs to be able to  
do two things4 ,first1 to find out when 
the child is in difficulty and to locate
 it1 and second1 to help him  over the  
trouble without giving too much         
assistance4 ,adequate  questioning is   
needed in both cases4 ,it is probably   
true that  comparatively little new work
 should be given for unsupervised study4
  ,there is too much danger of error as 
well as lack of interest unless a  start
 is given under supervision4            
,studying1 especially unsupervised1 may 
be done in groups or  individually4 ,the
 former is a stepping-stone to the      
latter4 ,there is a  greater chance for 
suggestions1 for getting the problem    

worded1 for  arousing interest and      
checking results1 when a group of       
children are  working together than when
 a child is by himself4 ,two things must
 be  looked after4 ,first1 that the     
children in the group be taught not to  
waste time1 and second1 that the        
personnel of the group be right4 ,it is 
not very helpful if one child does all  
the work1 nor if one is so far  below   
the level of the group that he is always
 tagging along behind4  ,more           
opportunities for group study in the    
grammar grades would be  advantageous4  
,when it comes to individual study1 the 
student then assumes all  responsibility
 for his methods of study4 ,he should be
 taught the  influence of physical      
conditions or mental reactions4 ,he will
 therefore  be responsible for choosing 
in the home and in the school the best  
possible conditions for his study4 ,he  
will see to it that1 in so far as       
possible1 the air and light are good1   
that there are no unnecessary           

distractions1 and that he is as         
comfortable bodily as can be4 ,he must  
think not only in terms of the goal to  
be reached1 but also with respect  to   
the methods to be employed4 ,he should  
be asked by the teacher to  report his  
methods of work as well as his results4 
,,questions      #a4 ,are children      
always primarily engaged in thinking    
when they study8    #b4 ,what type of   
study is involved in learning a         
multiplication table1 a  list of words  
in spelling1 a conjugation in ,french8  
#c4 ,how would you teach a pupil to     
study his spelling lesson8    #d4 ,in   
what sense may one study in learning to 
write8 ,in acquiring skill  in swimming8
    #e4 ,how would you teach your pupils
 to memorize8    #f4 ,show how ability  
to study may be developed over a period 
of years in  some subject with which you
 are familiar4 ,reading8 ,geography8    
,history8  ,latin translation8    #g4   
,is the boy who reads over and over     
again his lesson necessarily  studying8 

#h4 ,can one study a subject even though
 he may dislike it8 ,can one study      
without interest8    #i4 ,how can you   
teach children what is meant by         
concentration of  attention8    #aj4    
,how have you found it possible to      
develop a critical attitude toward      
their work upon the part of children8   
#aa4 ,of what factors in habit formation
 must children become conscious1  if    
they are to study to best advantage in  
this field8    #ab4 ,how may we hope to 
have children learn to study in the     
fields  requiring judgment8 ,why will   
not consciousness of the technique of   
study  make pupils equally able in      
studying8    #ac4 ,what exercises can   
you conduct which will help children to 
learn how  to use books8    #ad4 ,how   
can a teacher study with a pupil and yet
 help him to develop  independence in   
this field8    #ae4 ,how may small      
groups of children work together        
advantageously in  studying8            
99       99       99       99       99  

,,xv4 ,,measuring ,,the ,,achievements  
,,of ,,children      ,the success or    
failure of the teacher in applying the  
principles which  have been discussed in
 the preceding chapters is measured by  
the  achievements of the children4 ,of  
course1 it is also possible that the    
validity of the principle which we have 
sought to establish may be  called in   
question by the same sort of            
measurement4 ,we cannot be sure  that   
our methods of work are sound1 or that  
we are making the best use  of the time 
during which we work with children1     
except as we discover  the results of   
our instruction4 ,teaching is after all 
the adaptation of  our methods to the   
normal development of boys and girls1   
and their  education can be measured    
only in terms of the changes which we   
are able  to bring about in knowledge1  
skill1 appreciation1 reasoning1 and the 
like4    ,any attempt to measure the    
achievements of children should result  
in a  discovery of the progress which is

 being made from week to week1 or  month
 to month1 or year to year4 ,it would   
often be found quite  advantageous to   
note the deficiencies as well as the    
achievements at one  period as compared 
with the work done two or three months  
later4 ,it will  always be profitable to
 get as clearly in mind as is possible  
the  variation among members of the same
 class1 and for those who are           
interested in the supervision of        
schools1 the variation from class to    
class1 from school to school1 or from   
school system to school system4  ,for   
the teacher a study of the variability  
in achievement among the  members of his
 own class ought to result in special   
attention to those  who need special    
help1 especially a kind of teaching     
which will remove  particular           
difficulties4 ,there should also be     
offered unusual  opportunity and more   
than the ordinary demand be made of     
those who show  themselves to be more   
capable than the ordinary pupils4       

,the type of measurement which we wish  
to discuss is something more than  the  
ordinary examination4 ,the difficulties 
with examinations1 as we have  commonly 
organized them1 has99 been their        
unreliability1 either from the          
standpoint of discovering to us the     
deficiencies of children1 or their      
achievements4 ,of ten problems in       
arithmetic or of twenty words in        
spelling given in the ordinary          
examination1 there are very great       
differences in difficulty4 ,we do not   
have an adequate measure of the         
achievements of children when we assign 
to each of the problems or words  a     
value of ten or of five per cent and    
proceed to determine the mark to  be    
given on the examination paper4 ,if we  
are wise in setting our  examinations1  
we usually give one problem or one word 
which we expect  practically everybody  
to be able to get right4 ,on the other  
hand1 if we  really measure the         
achievements of children1 we must give  

some problems  or some words that are   
too hard for any one to get right4      
,otherwise1 we  do not know the limit or
 extent of ability possessed by the     
abler  pupils4 ,it is safe to say that  
in many examinations one question may   
actually be four or five times as hard  
as some other to which an equal  value  
is assigned4    ,another difficulty that
 we have to meet in the ordinary        
examination is  the variability among   
teachers in marking papers4 ,we do not  
commonly  assign the same values to the 
same result4 ,indeed1 if a set of papers
 is  given to a group of capable        
teachers and marked as conscientiously  
as  may be by each of them1 it is not   
uncommon to find a variation among the  
marks assigned to the same paper which  
may be as great as twenty-five  per cent
 of the highest mark given4 ,even more  
interesting is the fact  that upon      
re-marking these same papers individual 
teachers will vary  from their own first
 mark by almost as great an amount4     

,still another difficulty with the      
ordinary examination is the tendency    
among teachers to derive their standards
 of achievement from the group  itself1 
rather than from any objective standard 
by which all are  measured4 ,it is      
possible1 for example1 for children in  
,english  composition to write very     
poorly for their grade and still to find
 the  teacher giving relatively high    
marks to those who happen to belong to  
the upper group in the class4 ,as a     
result of the establishment of such a   
standard1 the teacher may not be        
conscious of the fact that children     
should be spurred to greater effort1 and
 that possibly he himself should  seek  
to improve his methods of work4    ,out 
of the situation described above1 which 
includes on the one hand the  necessity 
for measurement as a means of testing   
the success of our  theories and of our 
practice1 and on the other hand of      
having objective  standards1 has grown  
the movement for measurement by means of

 standard  tests and scales4 ,a standard
 test which has been given to some      
thousands  of children classified by    
grades or by ages1 if given to another  
group  of children of the same grade or 
age group will enable the teacher to    
compare the achievement of his children 
with that which is found  elsewhere4    
,for example1 the ,courtis tests in     
arithmetic1 which consist  of series of 
problems of equal difficulty in         
addition1 subtraction1  multiplication1 
and division may be used to discover how
 far facility in  these fields has been 
accomplished by children of any         
particular group  as compared with the  
achievements of children in other school
 systems  throughout the country4 ,in   
these tests each of the problems is of  
equal  difficulty4 ,the measure is made 
by discovering how many of these        
separate problems can be solved in a    
given number of minutes4#bj    ,a scale 
for measuring the achievements of       
children in the fundamental  operations 

of addition1 subtraction1               
multiplication1 and division has  been  
derived by ,dr4 ,clifford ,woody1#ba    
which differs from the ,courtis  tests  
in that it affords opportunity to       
discover what children can  achieve from
 the simplest problem in each of these  
fields to a problem  which is in each   
case approximately twice as difficult as
 the problems  appearing on the ,courtis
 tests4 ,the great value of this type of
 test is  in discovering to teachers and
 to pupils1 as well1 their particular   
difficulties4 ,a pupil must be able to  
do fairly acceptable work in  addition  
before he can solve one problem on the  
,courtis tests4  ,considerable facility 
can be measured on the ,woody tests     
before an  ability sufficient to be     
registered on the ,courtis tests has    
been  acquired4 ,in his monograph on the
 derivation of these tests ,mr4 ,woody  
gives results which will enable the     
teacher to compare his class with       
children already tested in other school 

systems4 ,in the case of all of  these  
standard tests1 school surveys and      
superintendents' reports are  available 
which will make it possible to institute
 comparisons among  different classes   
and different school systems4 ,one form 
of the ,woody  tests is as follows3     
99       99       99       99       99  
,,series ,a                             
,,addition ,,scale                      
,,by ,,clifford ,,woody                 
,name4444444444444444444444      ,when  
is your next birthday8444444   ,how old 
will you be844444      ,are you a boy or
 girl84444444    ,in what grade are     
you8444444        7#a7  7#c7  7#e7      
7#g7     7#i7 7#aj7 7#aa7 7#ab7 7#ac7   
7#ae7 7#af7       #b   #ag   #gb   #ca  
#bj   #ba   #cb   #dc   #bc   #ajj    #i
       #c    #b   #bf            #aj    
#cc   #ei    #a   #be    #cc   #bd      
--   --   --             #b   #ce   #ag 
#b   #af    #de   #ab                   
#cj   --   --   #ac   --   #bja   #ae   
7#b7  7#d7  7#f7   7#h7     #be         

--         #df   #ai       #b   #ec     
#fj   #bea   --                         
---   --       #d   #de   #cg           
7#ad7       #c   --   --                
#bedb      --        7#ag7  7#ai7       
7#ba7   7#bb7     7#bc7        7#bf7    
7#bi7      #aii   4#ge   #h4jj    #edg  
#a_/ca_/c      #aba_/b      #d #c_/d    
#aid   #a4be    #e4ge    #aig           
#fba_/b      #b #a_/d      #bie    4#di 
#b4cc    #fhe     7#bd7        #aba_/b  
#e #a_/d      #aef  -----    #d4af      
#fgh    #d4jabe       #cga_/b      -----
      ---            4#id    #def       
#a4eijg       ---                       
#f4cb    #cic    #d4aj                  
7#cj7      7#ah7   7#bj7  -----    #ebe 
#h4fgc       7#bg7       #b #a_/b       
#befc  #ab4ej          #bdj    ------   
#a_/ha_/da_/b   #f #c_/h      #achg     
#af4ge          #aeb                    
#c #c_/d      #died   #ae4ge            
---                           -----     
#bjfe  ------                    7#be7  
7#bh7      ----                         

#c_/he_/hg_/ha_/h      #c_/da_/d        
7#ca7        7#cc7      7#cd7     7#ce7 
7#cf7      7#cg7      #aac4df           
4#di   #a_/fc_/h  #b;ft4 #f;in4  #byr4  
#emo4  #af #a_/c       #di4fjig         
4#bh             #c;ft4 #e;in4  #cyr4   
#fmo4  #ab #a_/h       #ai4i            
4#fc             #d;ft4 #i;in4  #dyr4   
#imo4  #ba #a_/b        #i4hg           
4#ie             ---------  #eyr4 #bmo4 
#cb #c_/d         4#jjhf      #a4fi     
#fyr4 #gmo4  ------       #ah4bec       
4#bb                        ---------   
#f4jd         4#cc      --------        
4#cf                 7#ch7              
#a4ja     #be4jiaajj4dbeih4bhai4cfad    
7#cb7           4#ef      #c_/da_/ba_/d 
4#hh                     4#ge           
4#ef                    #a4aj           
4#ah                     4#ef           
----           99       99       99     
99       99        ,,series ,a          
,,subtraction ,,scale      ,,by         
,,clifford ,,woody                      
,name4444444444444444444444      ,when  

is your next birthday8444444,how old    
will you be844444      ,are you a boy or
 girl84444444,in what grade are         
you84444444        7#a7  7#b7  7#c7     
7#d7  7#e7  7#f7  7#g7  7#h7  7#i7      
7#aj7   7#aa7       #h    #f    #b    #i
    #d   #aa   #ac   #ei   #gh    #g-d  
#gf       #e    #j    #a    #c    #d    
#g    #h   #ab   #cg            #fj     
--   --   --   --   --   --   --   --   
--            --        7#ab7 7#ac7     
7#ad7 7#ae7 7#af7 7#ag7  7#ah7   7#ai7  
7#bj7       #bg   #af   #ej   #ba  #bgj 
#cic   #ajjj  #efgdhb   #b #c_/d-a      
#c    #i   #be    #i  #aij  #agh    #ecg
  #ajfdic       --   --   --   --  ---  
---   ----  ------         7#ba7        
7#bb7       7#bc7     7#bd7   7#be7     
7#bf7      #aj4jj  #c #a_/b-a_/b        
#hjhcfdfe  #h #g_/h  #bg      #dyd4     
#a;ft4 #f;in4       #c4di               
#diaghjcf  #e #c_/d  #ab #e_/h  #byd4   
#b;ft4 #c;in4      -----                
--------  -----  ------  -------------- 
7#bg7           7#bh7       7#bi7       

7#cj7      #eyd4 #a;ft4 #d;in4          
#aj-f4be    #ge #c_/d    #i4hjfc-i4jai  
#byd4 #b;ft4 #h;in4               #eb   
#a_/d      --------------               
------            7#ca7            7#cb7
           7#cc7      7#cd7      7#ce7  
#g4c-c4jjjha   #aiab #fmo4  #h;da4      
#e_/ab-b_/aj  #f #a_/h  #c #g_/h-a #e_/h
                     #aiaj #gmo4 #ae;da4
              #b #g_/h                  
---------------              -----      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,series ,a                             
,,division ,,scale                      
,,by ,,clifford ,,woody                 
,name4444444444444444444444444444444    
,when is your next birthday84444444 ,how
 old will you be8444444      ,are you a 
boy or girl84444444444 ,in what grade   
are you8444444        7#a7     7#b7     
7#c7        7#d7         7#e7    7#f7   
#c7f    #i7bg    #d7bh        #a7e      
#i7cf    #c7ci         7#g7      7#h7   
7#i7      7#aj7        7#aa7      7#ab7 
#d  #b             #f    #cj          #b

  #b                 #i7j   #a7a        
#b7ac             7#ac7         7#ad7   
7#ae7       7#af7      7#ag7            
#a_/d of #abh      #ej  #g       #d7bd  
lbs4 #h oz4  #h7ehef                    
#fh7bajh           7#ah7      7#ai7     
7#bj7      7#ba7      7#bb7             
#bdh  #g                      #ac7fejfe 
#b4a7be4b   #be7igej   #b7ac4ej         
7#bc7         7#bd7          7#be7      
7#bf7                                   
#bc7dfi     #ge7bbejcjj     #bdjj7ejdjjj
     #ab7b4gf            7#bg7          
7#bh7        7#bi7         7#cj7        
#g_/h of #fbd           #c #a_/b  #i    
#c_/d  #e                               
4#jjc74jicf           7#ca7             
7#cb7                7#cc7      #e_/d   
#c_/e         #i #e_/h  #c #c_/d        
#eb7cgef             7#cd7              
7#ce7               7#cf7      #fb4ej   
#a #a_/d                                
#eca7cggbb       #i7fi lbs4 #i oz4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,series ,a                             

,,multiplication ,,scale                
,,by ,,clifford ,,woody                 
,name4444444444444444444444      ,when  
is your next birthday8444444 ,how old   
will you be844444      ,are you a boy or
 girl84444444 ,in what grade are        
you84444444          7#a7       7#b7    
7#c7       7#d7      7#e7   7#f7    7#g7
      #c  #g    #e  #a    #b  #c    #d  
#h     #bc   #caj   #g  #i              
#c     #d                               
--   ---      7#h7   7#i7   7#aj7       
7#aa7    7#ab7    7#ac7    7#ad7   7#ae7
      #ej    #bed    #fbc    #ajcf      
#ejif    #hged    #afe    #bce       #c 
#f      #g       #h       #f       #h   
#dj     #bc      --    ---    ---       
----    ----    ----    ---    ---      
7#af7    7#ag7    7#ah7    7#ai7        
7#bj7    7#ba7     7#bb7      #ghih     
#ade      #bd     #i4f     #bhg     #bd 
#h  #ec_/d         #i    #bjf     #bcd  
#d     4#je     #ba_/b      ----    --- 
---     ---     ---     --              
7#bc7     7#bd7      7#be7      7#bf7   

7#bg7   7#bh7  7#bi7      #aa_/d  #h    
#af      #g_/h  #c_/d   #igdb  #f4be    
4#jabc  #a_/h  #b                 #b    
#e_/h                 #ei   #c4b    #i4h
               ------                   
----  ----  -----      7#cj7   7#ca7    
7#cb7         7#cc7  7#cd7      #b4di   
#ab   #ae  #f dollars #di cents  #b-a_/b
  #c-a_/b   #a_/b  #a_/b         #cf  --
  --          #h      ----  #be   #cb   
------------------        7#ce7    7#cf7
         7#cg7          7#ch7      7#ci7
      #ihgc_/d  #c;ft4 #e;in4  #ba_/d   
#da_/b  #aa_/b   4#jifc #a_/h  #h;ft4   
#ia_/b;in4       #be      #e            
4#jhd         #i      ----  ---------   
---------  ----------           99      
99       99       99       99    ,a     
series of problems in reasoning in      
arithmetic which were given in          
twenty-six school systems by ,dr4 ,c4,w4
 ,stone furnish a valuable test in  this
 field1 as well as an opportunity for   
comparison with other schools  in which 
these problems have been used4#bb ,a    

list of problems follows4         ,solve
 as many of the following problems as   
you have time for2       work them in   
order as numbered3         #a4 ,if you  
buy #b tablets at #g cents each and a   
book for #fe       cents1 how much      
change should you receive from a        
two-dollar       bill8         #b4 ,john
 sold #d ,saturday ,evening ,posts at #e
 cents each4 ,he kept       #a_/b the   
money and with the other #a_/b he bought
 ,sunday papers       at #b cents each4 
,how many did he buy8         #c4 ,if   
,james had #d times as much money as    
,george1 he would have       #af4 ,how  
much money has ,george8         #d4 ,how
 many pencils can you buy for #ej cents 
at the rate of #b       for #e cents8   
#e4 ,the uniforms for a baseball nine   
cost #b4ej each4 ,the shoes       cost  
#b a pair4 ,what was the total cost of  
uniforms and shoes       for the nine8  
#f4 ,in the schools of a certain city   
there are #bbjj pupils2 #a_/b       are 
in the primary grades1 #a_/d in the     

grammar grades1 #a_/h in       the ,high
 ,school1 and the rest in the night     
school4 ,how many       pupils are there
 in the night school8         #g4 ,if   
#c-a_/b tons of coal cost #ba1 what will
 #e-a_/b tons cost8         #h4 ,a news 
dealer bought some magazines for #a4 ,he
 sold them       for #a4bj1 gaining #e  
cents on each magazine4 ,how many       
magazines were there8         #i4 ,a    
girl spent #a_/h of her money for car   
fare1 and three times       as much for 
clothes4 ,half of what she had left was 
#hj cents4       ,how much money did she
 have at first8         #aj4 ,two girls 
receive #b4aj for making buttonholes4   
,one makes       #db1 the other #bh4    
,how shall they divide the money8       
#aa4 ,mr4 ,brown paid one third of the  
cost of a building2 ,mr4       ,johnson 
paid #a_/b the cost4 ,mr4 ,johnson      
received #ejj more       annual rent    
than ,mr4 ,brown4 ,how much did each    
receive8         #ab4 ,a freight train  
left ,albany for ,new ,york at #f       

o'clock4 ,an       express left on the  
same track at #h o'clock4 ,it went at   
the       rate of #dj miles an hour4 ,at
 what time of day will it overtake      
the freight train if the freight train  
stops after it has gone       #ef miles8
    ,a different type of measurement is 
accomplished by using ,thorndike's      
scale for measuring the quality of      
handwriting4#bc ,a typical  distribution
 of the scores which children receive on
 the handwriting  scale reads as        
follows3 ,for a fourth grade one child  
writes quality  four1 two quality six1  
five quality seven1 seven quality eight1
 eight  quality nine1 three quality ten1
 two quality eleven1 two quality twelve1
  one quality thirteen1 one quality     
fourteen4 ,in a table the distributions 
of scores in penmanship for a large     
number of papers selected at random     
show the following results3             
,,grades      ,,scores                  
----------------------------------------
-                     #b     #c     #d  

#e     #f     #g     #h                 
----------------------------------------
--------------      #j             --   
--    --    --    --    --    --      #a
             --    --    --    --    -- 
--    --      #b             --    --   
--    --    --    --    --      #c      
--    --    --    --    --    --    --  
#d              #e     #b    --    --   
--    --    --      #e             #bb  
#b     #c     #c    --     #a    --     
#f             #ba    #ba    #af     #c 
#b    --     #a      #g             #bi 
#dd    #bd    #ab     #a     #c     #c  
#h             #bh    #hf    #db    #ef 
#bj    #ae     #g      #i               
#db    #da    #ee    #fa    #be    #bi  
#aa      #aj             #g     #h      
#bj    #af     #i    #aa     #a      #aa
            #bi    #ac    #ba    #ag    
#cb    #be    #bc      #ab              
#e     #b    #ae    #ae    #dd    #ab   
#ba      #ac             #g     #b      
#b     #f    #ag    #ai     #i      #ad 
--    --     #c     #d    #aj    #af    

#i      #ae            --    --     #a  
--     #i     #f    #ae      #af        
#a    --    --     #a    #aj    #ab     
#ag      #ag            --    --    --  
--     #f     #b     #c      #ah        
--    --    --    --     #c     #a    --
                                        
----------------------------------------
-------------      ,total papers  #aif  
#bba   #bjb   #aid   #ahh   #aeb   #abd 
99       99       99       99       99  
,a ,,scale ,,for ,,handwriting ,,of     
,,children ,,in ,,grades #e-h    ,the   
,unit of the ,scale ,equals             
approximately ,one-,tenth of the        
,difference  between the ,best and      
,worst of the ,formal ,writings of      
#a1jjj ,children in  ,grades #e-h4 ,the 
,differences #af-ae1 #ae-ad1 #ad-ac1    
etc41 represent ,equal  ,fractions of   
the ,combined ,mental ,scale of ,merit  
of from #bc-ee ,competent  ,judges4     
,sample #adj1 representing zero merit in
 handwriting4 ,zero merit is            
arbitrarily defined as that of a        

handwriting1 recognizable as such1 but  
yet not legible at all and possessed of 
no beauty4      ,illustration3          
qual#j4png3     ,quality #d4            
,illustration3 qual#d4png3     ,quality 
#e4    ,illustration3 qual#e4png3       
,quality #f4    ,illustration3          
qual#f4png3     ,quality #g4            
,illustration3 qual#g4png3     ,quality 
#h4    ,illustration3 qual#h;a4png3     
,illustration3 qual#h;b4png3            
,quality #i4    ,illustration3          
qual#i;a4png3       ,illustration3      
qual#i;b4png3       ,illustration3      
qual#i;c4png3     ,quality #aj4         
,illustration3 qual#aj4png3     ,quality
 #aa4    ,illustration3 qual#aa;a4png3  
,illustration3 qual#aa;b4png3           
,illustration3 qual#aa;c4png3           
,quality #ab4    ,illustration3         
qual#ab;a4png3       ,illustration3     
qual#ab;b4png3       ,illustration3     
qual#ab;c4png3     ,quality #ac4        
,illustration3 qual#ac;a4png3           
,illustration3 qual#ac;b4png3           

,illustration3 qual#ac;c4png3           
,illustration3 qual#ac;d4png3           
,quality #ad4    ,illustration3         
qual#ad;a4png3       ,illustration3     
qual#ad;b4png3     ,quality #ae4        
,illustration3 qual#ae;a4png3           
,illustration3 qual#ae;b4png3           
,illustration3 qual#ae;c4png3           
,illustration3 qual#ae;d4png3           
,quality #af4    ,illustration3         
qual#af;a4png3     ,quality #ag4        
,illustration3 qual#ag4png3     ,quality
 #ah4    ,illustration3 qual#ah4png3    
99       99       99       99       99  
,this table reads as follows3 ,quality  
four was written by five children  in   
the second grade and two in the third   
grade1 quality five was written  by     
twenty-two children in the second grade1
 two children in the third  grade1 three
 in the fourth grade1 three in the fifth
 grade1 none in the  sixth grade1 one in
 the seventh grade1 and none in the     
eighth grade1 and  so on for the whole  
table4#bd    ,a scale for measuring     

ability in spelling prepared by ,dr4    
,leonard ,p4  ,ayres arranges the       
thousand words most commonly used in the
 order of  their difficulty4 ,from this 
sheet it is possible to discover words  
of  approximately the same difficulty   
for each grade4 ,a test could therefore 
be derived from this scale for each of  
the grades with the expectation  that   
they would all do about equally well4   
,there would also be the  possibility of
 determining how well the spelling was  
done in the  particular school system in
 which these words were given as        
compared  with the ability of children  
as measured by an aggregate of more than
 a  million spellings by seventy        
thousand children in eighty-four cities 
throughout the ,united ,states4 ,such a 
list could be taken from the scale  for 
the second grade1 which includes words  
which have proved to be of a  difficulty
 represented by a seventy-three percent 
correct spelling for  the class4 ,such a
 list might be composed of the following

 words3 north1  white1 spent1 block1    
river1 winter1 ,sunday1 letter1 thank1  
and best4 ,a  similar list could be     
taken from the scale for a third1       
fourth1 fifth1  sixth1 seventh1 or      
eighth grade4 ,for example1 the words   
which have  approximately the same      
difficulty1--seventy-three percent to be
 spelled  correctly by the class for the
 sixth grade1--read as follows3 often1  
stopped1 motion1 theater1 improvement1  
century1 total1 mansion1 arrive1        
supply4 ,the great value of such a      
measuring scale1 including as it does   
the thousand words most commonly used1  
is to be found not only in the          
opportunity for comparing the           
achievements of children in one class or
  school with another1 but also in the  
focusing of the attention of  teachers  
and pupils upon the words most commonly 
used4#be    ,one of the fields in which 
there is greatest need for measurement  
is  ,english composition4 ,teachers have
 too often thought of ,english          

composition as consisting of spelling1  
punctuation1 capitalization1 and  the   
like1 and have ignored the quality of   
the composition itself in  their        
attention to these formal elements4 ,a  
scale for measuring ,english            
composition derived by ,dr4 ,m4,b4      
,hillegas1#bf consisting of sample      
compositions of values ranging from #j  
to #i4cg1 will enable the teacher  to   
tell just how many pupils in the class  
are writing each different  quality of  
composition4 ,the use of such a scale   
will tend to make both  teacher and     
pupil critical of the work which is     
being done not only with  respect to the
 formal elements1 but also with respect 
to the style or  adequacy of the        
expression of the ideas which the writer
 seeks to  convey4 ,probably in no other
 field has the teacher been so apt to   
derive  his standard from the           
performance of the class as in work in  
composition4 ,even though some teachers 
find it difficult to evaluate the  work 

of their pupils in terms of the sample  
compositions given on the  scale1 much  
good must come1 it seems to the writer1 
from the attempt to  grade compositions 
by such an objective scale4 ,if such    
measurements are  made two or three     
times during the year1 the performance  
of individual  pupils and of the class  
will be indicated much more certainly   
than is  the case when teachers feel    
that they are getting along well without
 any  definite assurance of the amount  
of their improvement4    ,in one large  
school system in which the writer was   
permitted to have the  principals       
measure compositions collected from the 
sixth and the eighth  grades1 it was    
discovered that almost no progress in   
the quality of  composition had been    
accomplished during these two years4    
,this lack of  achievement upon the part
 of children was not1 in the opinion of 
the  writer1 due to any lack of         
conscientious work upon the part of     
teachers1  but1 rather1 developed out of

 a situation in which the whole of      
composition was thought of in terms of  
the formal elements mentioned  above4   
,the ,hillegas scale1 together with the 
values assigned to each of  the samples1
 is given below4         ,a ,,scale     
,,for ,,the ,,measurement ,,of ,,the    
,,quality ,,of ,,english                
,,composition         ,,by ,,milo ,b4   
,,hillegas         ,,value #j4          
,artificial sample         ,letter      
,dear ,sir3 ,i write to say that it aint
 a square deal ,schools is       ,i say 
they is ,i went to a school4 red and    
gree green and brown       aint it hito 
bit ,i say he don't know his business   
not today       nor yeaterday and you   
know it and ,i want ,jennie to get me   
out4         ,,value #ahc4 ,artificial  
sample         ,my ,favorite ,book      
the book ,i refer to read is ,ichabod   
,crane1 it is an grate book       and ,i
 like to rede it4 ,ichabod ,crame was a 
man and a man wrote       a book and it 
is called ,ichabod ,crane i like it     

because the       man called it ichabod 
crane when ,i read it for it is such a  
great book4         ,,value #bfj4       
,artificial sample         ,the         
,advantage of ,tyranny                  
,advantage evils are things of tyranny  
and there are many       advantage      
evils4 ,one thing is that when they     
opress the people       they suffer     
awful ,i think it is a terrible thing   
when they say       that you can be     
hanged down or trodden down without     
mercy and       the tyranny does what   
they want there was tyrans in the       
revolutionary war and so they throwed   
off the yok4         ,,value #cfi4      
,written by a boy in the second year of 
the high       school1 aged #ad years   
,sulla as a ,tyrant         ,when ,sulla
 came back from his conquest ,marius had
 put himself       consul so sulla with 
the army he had with him in his conquest
       siezed the government from       
,marius and put himself in consul       
and had a list of his enemys printy and 

the men whoes names       were on this  
list we beheaded4           ,,value     
#dgd4 ,written by a girl in the third   
year of the high       school1 aged #ag 
years         ,de ,quincy               
,first3 ,de ,quincys mother was a       
beautiful women and through her         
,de ,quincy inhereted much of his       
genius4         ,his running away from  
school enfluenced him much as he roamed 
through the woods1 valleys and his mind 
became very       meditative4           
,the greatest enfluence of ,de ,quincy's
 life was the opium       habit4 ,if it 
was not for this habit it is doubtful   
whether we       would now be reading   
his writings4         ,his companions   
during his college course and even      
before that       time were great       
enfluences4 ,the surroundings of ,de    
,quincy were       enfluences4 ,not only
 ,de ,quincy's habit of opium but other 
habits which were peculiar to his life4 
,his marriage to the woman which he did 
not especially care       for4          

,the many well educated and noteworthy  
friends of ,de ,quincy4                 
,,value #ehe4 ,written by a boy in the  
fourth year of the high       school1   
aged #af years         ,fluellen        
,the passages given show the following  
characteristic of       ,fluellen3 his  
inclination to brag1 his professed      
knowledge of       ,history1 his        
complaining character1 his great        
patriotism1       pride of his leader1  
admired honesty1 revengeful1 love of fun
       and punishment of those who      
deserve it4           ,,value #fge4     
,written by a girl in the first year of 
the high       school1 aged #ah years   
,ichabod ,crane         ,ichabod ,crane 
was a schoolmaster in a place called    
,sleepy       ,hollow4 ,he was tall and 
slim with broad shoulders1 long arms    
that dangled far below his coat sleeves4
 ,his feet looked as if       they might
 easily have been used for shovels4 ,his
 nose was       long and his entire     
frame was most loosely hung to-gether4  

,,value #ggb4 ,written by a boy in the  
third year of the high       school1    
aged #af years         ,going ,down with
 ,victory         ,as we road down      
,lombard ,street1 we saw flags waving   
from       nearly every window4 ,i      
surely felt proud that day to be the    
driver of the gaily decorated coach4    
,again and again we were       cheered  
as we drove slowly to the postmasters1  
to await the       coming of his        
majestie's mail4 ,there wasn't one of   
the gaily       bedecked coaches that   
could have compared with ours1 in my    
estimation4 ,so with waving flags and   
fluttering hearts we       waited for   
the coming of the mail and the expected 
tidings of       victory4         ,when 
at last it did arrive the postmaster    
began to quickly       sort the bundles1
 we waited anxiously4 ,immediately upon 
receiving our bundles1 ,i lashed the    
horses and they responded       with a  
jump4 ,out into the country we drove at 
reckless       speed--everywhere        

spreading like wildfire the news1       
,victory6       ,the exileration that we
 all felt was shared with the horses4   
,up and down grade and over bridges1 we 
drove at breakneck       speed and      
spreading the news at every hamlet with 
that one cry       ,victory6 ,when at   
last we were back home again1 it was    
with       the hope that we should have 
another ride some day with              
,victory4           ,,value #hch4       
,written by a boy in the ,freshman class
 in college         ,venus of ,melos    
,in looking at this statue we think1 not
 of wisdom1 or power1       or force1   
but just of beauty4 ,she stands resting 
the weight of       her body on one     
foot1 and advancing the other 7left7    
with knee       bent4 ,the posture      
causes the figure to sway slightly to   
one       side1 describing a fine curved
 line4 ,the lower limbs are       draped
 but the upper part of the body is      
uncovered4 7,the       unfortunate loss 
of the statue's arms prevents a positive

       knowledge of its original        
attitude47 ,the eyes are partly         
closed1 having something of a dreamy    
langour4 ,the nose is       perfectly   
cut1 the mouth and chin are moulded in  
adorable       curves4 ,yet to say that 
every feature is of faultless           
perfection is but cold praise4 ,no      
analysis can convey the       sense of  
her peerless beauty4           ,,value  
#icg4 ,written by a boy in the ,freshman
 class in college         ,a            
,foreigner's ,tribute to ,joan of ,arc  
,joan of ,arc1 worn out by the suffering
 that was thrust upon       her1        
nevertheless appeared with a brave mien 
before the ,bishop       of ,beauvais4  
,she knew1 had always known that she    
must die when       her mission was     
fulfilled and death held no terrors for 
her4       ,to all the bishop's         
questions she answered firmly and       
without       hesitation4 ,the bishop   
failed to confuse her and at last       
condemned her to death for heresy1      

bidding her recant if she       would   
live4 ,she refused and was lead to      
prison1 from there to       death4      
,while the flames were writhing around  
her she bade the old       bishop who   
stood by her to move away or he would be
 injured4       ,her last thought was of
 others and ,de ,quincy says1 that      
recant       was no more in her mind    
than on her lips4 ,she died as she      
lived1 with a prayer on her lips and    
listening to the voices       that had  
whispered to her so often4         ,the 
heroism of ,joan of ,arc was wonderful4 
,we do not know what       form her     
great patriotism took or how far it     
really led her4       ,she spoke of     
hearing voices and of seeing visions4   
,we only       know that she resolved to
 save her country1 knowing though she   
did so1 it would cost her her life4 ,yet
 she never hesitated4       ,she was    
uneducated save for the lessons taught  
her by nature4       ,yet she led armies
 and crowned the dauphin1 king of       

,france4       ,she was only a girl1 yet
 she could silence a great bishop by    
words that came from her heart and from 
her faith4 ,she was       only a woman1 
yet she could die as bravely as any     
martyr who       had gone before4       
,the following compositions have been   
evaluated by ,professor ,thorndike1  and
 may be used to supplement the scale    
given above4         ,,value #ac        
,last ,monday the house on the corner of
 ,jay street was burned       down to   
the ground and right down by ,mrs4 brons
 house there is       a little child all
 alone and there is a bad man sleeping  
in       the seller1 but we have a wise 
old monkey in the coal ben so       the 
parents are thankful that they don't    
have to pay any       reward4           
,,value #bj         ,some of the house  
burned and the children were in bed and 
there were four children and the lady   
next store broke the       door in and  
went up stars and woke the peple up and 
whent out       of the house when they  

moved and and the girl was skard to     
look out of the window and all the time 
thouhth that she saw a       flame4     
,and the wise monkey reward from going  
to the firehouse and       jumping all  
round and was thankful from his reward  
and was       thankful for what he got4 
#ae4 was his reward4         ,,value #cj
         ,a long time ago1 ,i do not    
know1 how long but a man and a woman    
and a little boy lived together also a  
monkey a pet for the       little boy it
 happened that the man and the woman    
were out1       and the monkey and      
little boy1 and the house started to    
burn1       and the monkey took the     
little boys hand1 and1 went out4        
,the father had come home and was glad  
that the monkey had       saved his     
little boy4         ,and that1 monkey   
got a reward4         ,,value #dj       
,once upon a time a woman went into a   
dark room and lit a       match4 ,she   
dropped it on the floor and it of course
 set the       house afire4         ,she

 jumped out of the window and called her
 husband to come       out too4         
,they both forgot all about the baby4   
,all of a sudden he       appeared in   
the window calling his mother4          
,his father had gone next door to tel   
afone to the fire house4         ,they  
had a monkey in the house at the time   
and he heard the       child calling his
 mother4         ,he had a plan to save 
the baby4         ,he ran to the window 
where he was standing4 ,he put his tail 
about his waist and jumped off the      
window sill with the baby       in his  
tail4         ,when the people were     
settled again they gave him a silver    
collar as a reward4         ,,value #ej 
,a ,university out west1 ,i cannot      
remember the name1 is noted       for   
its hazing1 and this is what the story  
is about4 ,it is the       hazing of a  
freshman4 ,there was a freshman there   
who had been       acting as if he      
didn't respect his upper class men so   
they       decided to teach him a       

lesson4 ,the student brought before the 
,black ,avenger's which is a society in 
all college to keep the       freshman  
under there rules so they desided to    
take him to the       rail-rode track   
and tie him to the rails about two hours
       before a train was suspected and 
leave him there for about an       hour1
 which was a hour before the #i4bj train
 was expected4 ,the       date came that
 they planned this hazing for so the    
captured       the fellow blindfolded   
him and lead him to the rail rode       
tracks1 where they tied him4            
,,value #fj         ,i should like to   
see a picture1 illustrating a part of   
,l'allegro4 ,where the godesses of      
,mirth and ,liberty trip along          
hand in hand4 ,two beautiful girls      
dressed in flowing garments1            
dancing along a flower-strewn path1     
through a pretty garden4       ,their   
hair flowing down in long curls4 ,their 
countenances       showing their perfect
 freedom and happiness4 ,their arms     

extended gracefully smelling some sweet 
flower4 ,in my mind       this would    
make a beautiful picture4               
,,value #gj         ,it was between the 
dark and the daylight when far away     
could       be seen the treacherous     
wolves skulking over the hills4 ,we sat 
beside our campfires and watched them   
for awhile4 ,sometimes a       few of   
them would howl as if they wanted to get
 in our camp4       ,then1 half         
discouraged1 they would walk away and   
soon there       would be others doing  
the same thing4 ,they were afraid to    
come       near because of the fires1   
which were burning brightly4 ,i         
noticed that they howled more between   
the dark and the       daylight than at 
any time of the night4         ,,value  
#hj         ,the sun was setting1 giving
 a rosy glow to all the trees           
standing tall black against the faintly 
tinted sky4 ,blue1       pink1 green1   
yellow1 like a conglomeration of paints 
dropped       carelessly onto a pale    

blue background4 ,the trees were in such
       great number that they looked    
like a mass of black crepe1 each        
with its individual1 graceful form in   
view4 ,the lake lay       smooth and    
unruffled1 dimly reflecting the         
beautiful coloring       of the sky4    
,the wind started madly up and blew over
 the lake's       glassy surface making 
mysterious murmurings blending in with  
the chirping songs of the birds blew    
through the tree tops       setting the 
leaves rustling and whispering to one   
another4 ,a       squirrel ran from his 
perch chattering1 to the lofty          
branches--a far and distant hoot echoed 
in the silence1 and       soon night1   
over all came stealing1 blotting out the
 scenery       and wrapping all in      
restful1 mysterious darkness4           
,,value #ij         ,oh that ,i had     
never heard of ,niagara till ,i beheld  
it6 ,blessed       were the wanderers of
 old1 who heard its deep roar1 sounding 
through the woods1 as the summons to an 

unknown wonder1 and       approached its
 awful brink1 in all the freshness of   
native       feeling4 ,had its own      
mysterious voice been the first to warn 
me of its existence1 then1 indeed1 ,i   
might have knelt down and               
worshipped4 ,but ,i had come thither1   
haunted with a vision of       foam and 
fury1 and dizzy cliffs1 and an ocean    
tumbling down       out of the sky--a   
scene1 in short1 which nature had too   
much       good taste and calm          
simplicity to realize4 ,my mind had     
struggled to adapt these false          
conceptions to the reality1 and         
finding the effort vain1 a wretched     
sense of disappointment       weighed me
 down4 ,i climbed the precipice1 and    
threw myself on       the earth feeling 
that ,i was unworthy to look at the     
,great       ,falls1 and careless about 
beholding them again4    ,a scale for   
measuring ,english composition in the   
eighth grade1 which  takes account of   
different types of composition1 such as 

narration1  description1 and the like1  
has been developed by ,dr4 ,frank ,w4   
,ballou1 of  ,boston4#bg ,for those     
interested in the following up of the   
problem of  ,english composition this   
scale will prove interesting and        
valuable4    ,several scales have been  
developed for the measurement of the    
ability of  children in reading4 ,among 
them may be mentioned the scale derived 
by  ,professor ,thorndike for measuring 
the understanding of sentences4#bh      
,this scale calls attention to that     
element in reading which is possibly    
the most important of them all1 that is1
 the attempt to get meanings4 ,we  are  
all of us1 for the most part1 concerned 
not primarily with giving  expression   
through oral reading1 but1 rather1 in   
getting ideas from the  printed page4 ,a
 sample of this scale is given on the   
following page4           99        99  
99       99       99    ,,scale ,,alpha4
 ,,for ,,measuring ,,the ,,understanding
 ,,of ,,sentences        ,write your    

name here4444444444444444444444444444444
      ,write your                       
age4444444444444years444444444444months4
    ,,set a    ,read this and then write
 the answers4 ,read it again as often as
 you need  to4    ,john had two brothers
 who were both tall4 ,their names were  
,will and  ,fred4 ,john's sister1 who   
was short1 was named ,mary4 ,john liked 
,fred  better than either of the others4
 ,all of these children except ,will had
  red hair4 ,he had brown hair4         
#a4 ,was ,john's sister tall or         
short8444444444444444444444      #b4    
,how many brothers had                  
,john844444444444444444444444444        
#c4 ,what was his sister's              
name844444444444444444444444444    ,,set
 b    ,read this and then write the     
answers4 ,read it again as often as you 
need  to4    ,long after the sun had    
set1 ,tom was still waiting for ,jim and
 ,dick to  come4 ,if they do not come   
before nine o'clock1 he said to himself1
 ,i  will go on to ,boston alone4 ,at   

half past eight they came bringing two  
other boys with them4 ,tom was very glad
 to see them and gave each of  them one 
of the apples he had kept4 ,they ate    
these and he ate one too4  ,then all    
went on down the road4        #a4 ,when 
did ,jim and ,dick                      
come844444444444444444444444444444444444
      #b4 ,what did they do after eating
 the apples8444444444444444444444       
#c4 ,who else came besides ,jim and     
,dick8444444444444444444444444444       
#d4 ,how long did ,tom say he would wait
 for them8444444444444444444      #e4   
,what happened after the boys ate the   
apples8444444444444444444      ,,set c  
,read this and then write the answers4  
,read it again as often as you need  to4
    ,it may seem at first thought that  
every boy and girl who goes to school   
ought to do all the work that the       
teacher wishes done4 ,but sometimes     
other duties prevent even the best boy  
or girl from doing so4 ,if a boy's  or  
girl's father died and he had to work   

afternoons and evenings to earn  money  
to help his mother1 such might be the   
case4 ,a good girl might let  her       
lessons go undone in order to help her  
mother by taking care of the  baby4     
#a4 ,what are some conditions that might
 make even the best boy leave           
school work                             
unfinished844444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444                         
4444444444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444444444444444      #b4    
,what might a boy do in the evenings to 
help his family8444444444      #c4 ,how 
could a girl be of use to her           
mother844444444444444444444444      #d4 
,look at these words3 idle1 tribe1 inch1
 it1 ice1 ivy1 tide1 true1      tip1    
top1 tit1      tat1 toe4    ,cross out  
every one of them that has an i and has 
not any t 7,t7 in  it4    ,,set d       
,read this and then write the answers4  
,read it again as often as you need  to4
    ,it may seem at first thought that  
every boy and girl who goes to school   

ought to do all the work that the       
teacher wishes done4 ,but sometimes     
other duties prevent even the best boy  
or girl from doing so4 ,if a boy's  or  
girl's father died and he had to work   
afternoons and evenings to earn  money  
to help his mother1 such might be the   
case4 ,a good girl might let  her       
lessons go undone in order to help her  
mother by taking care of the  baby4     
#a4 ,what is it that might seem at first
 thought to be true1 but really is      
false8                                  
4444444444444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444444444444444444444         
#b4 ,what might be the effect of his    
father's death upon the way a boy       
spent      his                          
time844444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444444444444444444      #c4 
,who is mentioned in the paragraph as   
the person who desires to have      all 
lessons completely                      
done844444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444                             

4444444444444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444444444444444444444         
#d4 ,in these two lines draw a line     
under every #e that comes just after a  
#b1      unless the #b comes just after 
a #i4 ,if that is the case1 draw a line 
under      the next figure after the #e3
        #e #c #f #b #e #d #a #g #d #b #e
 #g #f #e #d #i #b #e #c #h #f #a #b #e 
#d #g #c #e #b #c #i #b #e #h #d #g     
#i #b #e #f      #a #b #e #g #d #h #e #f
           99       99        99        
99       99    ,many tests have been    
devised which have been thought to have 
more  general application than those    
which have been mentioned above for the 
particular subjects4 ,one of the most   
valuable of these tests1 called         
technically a completion test1 is that  
derived by ,dr4 ,m4,r4 ,trabue4#bi  ,in 
these tests the pupil is asked to supply
 words which are omitted from  the      
printed sentences4 ,it is really a test 
of his ability to complete  the thought 
when only part of it is given4 ,dr4     

,trabue calls his scales  language      
scales4 ,it has been found1 however1    
that ability of this sort  is closely   
related to many of the traits which we  
consider desirable in  school children4 
,it would therefore be valuable1        
provided always that  children have some
 ability in reading1 to test them on the
 language  scale as one of the means of 
differentiating among those who have    
more  or less ability4 ,the scores which
 may be expected from different grades  
appear in ,dr4 ,trabue's monograph4     
,three separate scales follow4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,write only one word on each blank      
,time ,limit3 ,seven minutes  ,,name    
44444444444444444444444444              
,,trabue      ,,language ,,scale ,b     
#a4 ,we like good                       
boys4444444444444444girls4       #f4    
,the4444444444444444is barking at the   
cat4       #h4 ,the stars and           
the4444444444444444will shine tonight4  
#bb4 ,time4444444444444444often more    

valuable4444444444444444money4      #bc4
 ,the poor baby4444444444444444as if    
it444444444444444444444sick4      #ca4  
,she4444444444444444if she will4        
#ce4 ,brothers and sisters              
4444444444444444 always 4444444444444444
 to      help44444444444444other and    
should4444444444444444quarrel4      #ch4
 4444444444444444 weather               
usually4444444444444444 a good effect   
4444444444444444 one's spirits4         
#dh4 ,it is very annoying               
to44444444444444444444444444444444tooth-
ache1      4444444444444444often comes  
at the most4444444444444444time         
imaginable4      #ed4                   
,to4444444444444444friends is           
always4444444444444444the44444444       
it takes4        ,write only one word on
 each blank      ,time ,limit3 ,seven   
minutes ,,name44444444444444444444444444
        ,,trabue      ,,language ,,scale
 ,d        #d4 ,we are                  
going4444444444444444school4      #gf4  
,i4444444444444444to school each day4   

#aa4                                    
,the4444444444444444plays444444444444444
4her dolls all day4      #ba4 ,the rude 
child does not4444444444444444many      
friends4      #fc4                      
,hard4444444444444444makes44444444444444
44tired4      #bg4 ,it is good to       
hear4444444444444444voice444444444444444
44444444      4444444444friend4         
#ga4 ,the happiest                      
and4444444444444444contented man is the 
one44444444      44444444lives a busy   
and useful44444444444444444      #db4   
,the best                               
advice4444444444444444usually44444444444
44444obtained      4444444444444444one's
 parents4                               
#ea44444444444444444things              
are4444444444444444 satisfying to an    
ordinary      4444444444444444than      
congenial friends4                      
#hd44444444444444444;a rule             
one4444444444444444association4444444444
      friends4          ,write only one 
word on each blank      ,time ,limit3   

,five minutes ,,name                    
4444444444444444444444444444            
,,trabue      ,,language ,,scale ,j     
#bj4 ,boys and4444444444444444soon      
become4444444444444444and women4        
#fa4 ,the4444444444444444are often more 
contented44444444444444 the      rich4  
#fd4 ,the rose is a                     
favorite4444444444444444 because        
of4444444444444444      fragrance       
and44444444444444444      #da4 ,it is   
very4444444444444444 to                 
become4444444444444444acquainted        
4444444444444444persons                 
who4444444444444444timid4      #ic4     
,extremely                              
old444444444444444444sometimes4444444444
44444444almost as                       
444444444444444444 care as              
4444444444444444444      #hg4           
,one's4444444444444444in                
life4444444444444444upon so444444444444 
factors 4444444444444444 it is not      
4444444444444444 to state any           
single4444444444444444for444444444444444

4 failure4      #hi4 ,the               
future4444444444444444of the stars and  
the facts of444444444444      history   
are4444444444444444now once for         
all14444444444444444,i      like        
them4444444444444444not4           99   
99       99       99       99    ,other 
standard tests and scales of measurement
 have been derived and are  being       
developed4 ,the examples given above    
will1 however1 suffice to make  clear   
the distinction between the ordinary    
type of examination and the  more       
careful study of the achievements of    
children which may be  accomplished by  
using these measuring sticks4 ,it is    
important for any  one who would attempt
 to apply these tests to know something 
of the  technique of recording results4 
,in the first place1 the measurement of 
a group is not expressed  satisfactorily
 by giving the average score or rate of 
achievement of the  class4 ,it is true  
that this is one measure1 but it is not 
one which  tells enough1 and it is not  

the one which is most significant for   
the  teacher4 ,it is important whenever 
we measure children to get as clear a   
view as we can of the whole situation4  
,for this purpose we want not  primarily
 to know what the average performance   
is1 but1 rather1 how many  children     
there are at each level of achievement4 
,in arithmetic1 for  example1 we want to
 know how many there are who can do none
 of the  ,courtis problems in addition1 
or how many there are who can do the    
first  six on the ,woody test1 how many 
can do seven1 eight1 and so on4 ,in     
penmanship we want to know how many     
children there are who write quality    
eight1 or nine1 or ten1 or sixteen1 or  
seventeen1 as the case may be4  ,the    
work of the teacher can never be        
accomplished economically except as  he 
gives more attention to those who are   
less proficient1 and provides  more and 
harder work for those who are capable1  
or else relieves the  able members of   
the class from further work in the      

field4 ,it will be  well1 therefore1 to 
prepare1 for the sake of comparing      
grades within the  same school or school
 system1 or for the sake of preparing   
the work of a  class at two different   
times during the year1 a table which    
shows just  how many children there are 
in the group who have reached each level
 of  achievement4 ,such tables for work 
in composition for a class at two       
different times1 six months apart1      
appear as follows3      ,,distribution  
,,of ,,composition ,,scores ,,for ,a    
,,seventh ,,grade                       
,,number ,,of ,,children                
-----------------------                 
,,november   ,,february                 
------------------------------------    
,rated at #j          #j          #j    
#a4hc       #a          #a              
#b4fj       #f          #d              
#c4fi      #ab          #f              
#d4gd       #h         #aa              
#e4he       #c          #d              
#f4ge       #a          #c              

#g4gb       #a          #b              
#h4ch       #j          #a              
#i4cg       #j          #j          ,a  
study of such a distribution would show 
not only that the average  performance  
of the class has been raised1 but also  
that those in the  lower levels have1 in
 considerable measure1 been brought up2 
that is1  that the teacher has been     
working with those who showed less      
ability1  and not simply pushing ahead a
 few who had more than ordinary         
capacity4  ,it would be possible to     
increase the average performance by     
working  wholly with the upper half of  
the class while neglecting those who    
showed less ability4 ,from a complete   
distribution1 as has been given  above1 
it has become evident that this has not 
been the method of the  teacher4 ,he has
 sought apparently to do everything that
 he could to  improve the quality of    
work upon the part of all of the        
children in the  class4    ,it is very  
interesting to note1 when such complete 

distributions are  given1 how the       
achievement of children in various      
classes overlaps4 ,for  example1 the    
distribution of the number of examples  
on the ,courtis  tests1 correctly       
finished in a given time by pupils in   
the seventh  grades1 makes it clear that
 there are children in the fifth grade  
who do  better than many in the eighth4 
,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,number
 ,,of ,,examples ,,correctly ,,finished 
,,in ,,the ,,given ,,time ,,by ,,pupils 
,,in ,,the ,,several ,,grades           
,,addition                              
,,subtraction  ,no4 ,,of                
---------------------- ,no4 ,,of        
------------------------  ,,examples    
,,grades         ,,examples             
,,grades  ,,finished #e    #f    #g     
#h   ,,finished  #e     #f   #g    #h   
----------------------------------------
------------------  #j        #ab   #ae 
#e    #d    #j        #f    #b    #b    
--  #a        #bf   #bc   #ad   #i    #a
        #e    #f    #b    #a  #b        

#bg   #ca   #h    #f    #b        #g    
#h    #a    --  #c        #ca   #bg     
#bg   #i    #c        #ac   #ba   #c    
#a  #d        #be   #bh   #ai   #af   #d
        #ba   #ah   #ac   #b  #e        
#af   #bc   #af   #ae   #e        #bf   
#cj   #ab   #g  #f        #ae   #bb     
#ab   #ab   #f        #ag   #bg   #ae   
#i  #g        #a    #aa   #h    #i    #g
        #ae   #bg   #ah   #i  #h        
#c    #d    #f    #aa   #h        #ae   
#bj   #ab   #ab  #i        #a    #b     
#c    #h    #i        #aj   #ac   #i    
#ab  #aj       --   --   --   #f    #aj 
#h    #f    #ac   #aa  #aa       --   --
   #a    --   #aa       #f    #b    #c  
#ab  #ab       --   --   #a    #b    #ab
       #c    #a    #g    #i  #ac        
--   --   --   --   #ac       #b    #b  
#c    #e  #ad       --   --   --   --   
#ad       #a    #a    #c    #g  #ae     
--   --   --   #b    #ae       --   --  
#b    #c  #af       --   --   --   #a   
#af       --   --   #a    #b  #ag       
--   --   --   --   #ag       --   #a   

--   #a  #ah       --   --   --   --    
#ah       --   --   --   #a  #ai        
--   --   --   --   #ai       --   --   
--   #d  #bj       --   --   --   --    
#bj       --   --   --   #b  #ba        
--   --   --   --   #ba       --   --   
--   #a  #bb       --   --   --   --    
#bb       --   --   --   --             
----------------------------------------
------------------  ,total              
papers  #aeg   #hf  #aai  #aaa          
#aee  #ahe  #aai  #aaa          ,,the   
,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,number ,,of 
,,examples ,,correctly ,,finished       
,,in ,,the ,,given ,,time ,,by ,,pupils 
,,in ,,the ,,several ,,grades           
,,multiplication                        
,,division                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------------  ,no4 of 
,,grades           ,no4 of              
,,grades                                
,examples---------------------------,exa
mples-------------------------          
,finished    #e    #f    #g    #h       

,finished    #e    #f    #g    #h       
----------------------------------------
----------------------   #j 4 4 4   #aj 
#d   --   --     #j 4 4 4   #ag    #g   
#a   --   #a 4 4 4   #aj    #d    #c    
--     #a 4 4 4   #ai   #ag    #b    #a 
#b 4 4 4   #ai   #bj    #e    #a     #b 
4 4 4   #ah   #bb    #h    #d   #c 4 4 4
   #ba   #ag   #aa    #e     #c 4 4 4   
#ba   #bf    #f    #b   #d 4 4 4   #bh  
#ca   #af    #c     #d 4 4 4   #be   #bg
    #h    #f   #e 4 4 4   #bf   #cd     
#ab   #ac     #e 4 4 4   #ba   #bg   #aa
    #g   #f 4 4 4   #bd   #bg   #ac     
#ac     #f 4 4 4    #i   #ae   #ab    #d
   #g 4 4 4    #i   #bj   #af   #aj     
#g 4 4 4   #aj   #ae   #af   #ah   #h 4 
4 4    #e   #ad   #ba   #ai     #h 4 4 4
    #f    #g   #bj    #i   #i 4 4 4     
#c    #i   #aa   #ac     #i 4 4 4    #d 
#g   #aa    #f  #aj 4 4 4   --    #d    
#f   #aj    #aj 4 4 4    #d    #i    #g 
#ac  #aa 4 4 4    #a   --    #b    #i   
#aa 4 4 4    #a    #c    #c    #g  #ab 4
 4 4   --   --    #b    #f    #ab 4 4 4 

--    #b   #aj   #aj  #ac 4 4 4   --    
--    #a    #c    #ac 4 4 4   --    #b  
--   #aj  #ad 4 4 4   --   --   --    #c
    #ad 4 4 4    #a   --    #a    #d    
#ae 4 4 4   --   --   --   --    #ae 4 4
 4   --    #a    #b    #i  #af 4 4 4    
--   --   --    #a    #af 4 4 4   --    
--   --    #b  #ag 4 4 4   --   --   -- 
--    #ag 4 4 4   --   --   --    #d    
#ah 4 4 4   --   --   --    #a    #ah 4 
4 4   --   --   --    #b  #ai 4 4 4   --
   --   --    #a    #ai 4 4 4   --   -- 
--    #a  #bj 4 4 4   --   --   --   -- 
#bj 4 4 4   --   --   --    #a  #ba 4 4 
4   --   --   --   --    #ba 4 4 4   -- 
--   --    #a  #bb 4 4 4   --   --   -- 
--    #bb 4 4 4   --   --   --   --     
----------------------------------------
-----------------------  ,total         
,papers    #aef  #ahd  #aai  #aaa       
#aef  #ahg  #aah  #aaa      ,if the     
tests had been given in the fourth or   
the third grade1 it would  have been    
found that there were children1 even as 
low as the third  grade1 who could do as

 well or better than some of the        
children in the  eighth grade4 ,such    
comparisons of achievements among       
children in various  subjects ought to  
lead at times to reorganizations of     
classes1 to the  grouping of children   
for special instruction1 and to the     
rapid promotion  of the more capable    
pupils4    ,in many of these            
measurements it will be found helpful to
 describe the  group by naming the point
 above and below which half of the cases
 fall4  ,this is called the median4     
,because of the very common use of this 
measure in the current literature of    
education1 it may be worth while to     
discuss carefully the method of its     
derivation4#cj    #ca,the median point  
of any distribution of measures is that 
point on  the scale which divides the   
distribution into two exactly equal     
parts1  one half of the measures being  
greater than this point on the scale1   
and  the other half being smaller4 ,when
 the scales are very crude1 or when     

small numbers of measurements are being 
considered1 it is not worth  while to   
locate this median point any more       
accurately than by indicating  on what  
step of the scale it falls4 ,if the     
measuring instrument has been  carefully
 derived and accurately scaled1 however1
 it is often desirable1  especially     
where the group being considered is     
reasonably large1 to  locate the exact  
point within the step on which the      
median falls4 ,if the  unit of the scale
 is some measure of the variability of a
 defined group1  as it is in the        
majority of our present educational     
scales1 this median  point may well be  
calculated to the nearest tenth of a    
unit1 or1 if  there are two hundred or  
more individual measurements in the     
distribution1 it may be found           
interesting to calculate the median     
point  to the nearest hundredth of a    
scale unit4 ,very seldom will anything  
be  gained by carrying the calculation  
beyond the second decimal place4    ,the

 best rule for locating the median point
 of a distribution is to  take as the   
median that point on the scale which is 
reached by counting  out one half of the
 measures1 the measures being taken in  
the order of  their magnitude4 ,if we   
let n stand for the number of measures  
in the  distribution1 we may express the
 rule as follows3 ,count into the       
distribution1 from either end of the    
scale1 a distance covered by 99n_/#b    
measures4 ,for example1 if the          
distribution contains #bj measures1 the 
median is that point on the scale which 
marks the end of the #ajth and  the     
beginning of the #aath measure4 ,if     
there are #ci measures in the           
distribution1 the median point is       
reached by counting out #ai-a_/b of the 
measures2 in other words1 the median of 
such a distribution is at the  mid-point
 of that fraction of the scale assigned 
to the #bjth measure4    ,the median    
step of a distribution is the step which
 contains within it  the median point4  

,similarly1 the median measure in any   
distribution is  the measure which      
contains the median point4 ,in a        
distribution  containing #be measures1  
the #acth measure is the median measure1
 because  #ab measures are greater and  
#ab are less than the #acth1 while the  
#acth  measure is itself divided into   
halves by the median point4 ,where a    
distribution contains an even number of 
measures1 there is in reality no  median
 measure but only a median point between
 the two halves of the  distribution4   
,where a distribution contains an uneven
 number of  measures1 the median measure
 is the 7n#a7_/b measurement1 at the    
mid-point of which measure is the median
 point of the distribution4    ,much    
inaccurate calculation has resulted from
 misguided attempts to  secure a median 
point with the formula just given1 which
 is applicable  only to the location of 
the median measure4 ,it will be found   
much more  advantageous in dealing with 
educational statistics to consider only 

the  median point1 and to use only the  
n_/#b formula given in a previous       
paragraph1 for practically all          
educational scales are or may be thought
  of as continuous scales rather than   
scales composed of discrete steps4      
,the greatest danger to be guarded      
against in considering all scales as    
continuous rather than discrete1 is that
 careless thinkers may refine  their    
calculations far beyond the accuracy    
which their original  measurements would
 warrant4 ,one should be very careful   
not to make such  unjustifiable         
refinements in his statement of results 
as are often made  by young pupils when 
they multiply the diameter of a circle1 
which has  been measured only to the    
nearest inch1 by #c4adaf in order to    
find the  circumference4 ,even in the   
ordinary calculation of the average     
point of  a series of measures of       
length1 the amateur is sometimes        
tempted1 when  the number of measures in
 the series is not contained an even    

number of  times in the sum of their    
values1 to carry the quotient out to a  
larger  number of decimal places than   
the original measures would justify4    
,final  results should usually not be   
refined far beyond the accuracy of the  
original measures4    ,it is of utmost  
importance in calculating medians and   
other measures of  a distribution to    
keep constantly in mind the significance
 of each step  on the scale4 ,if the    
scale consists of tasks to be done or   
problems to  be solved1 then doing #a   
task correctly means1 when considered as
 part  of a continuous scale1 anywhere  
from doing #a4j up to doing #b4j tasks4 
,a  child receives credit for #b        
problems correct whether he has just    
barely solved #b4j problems or has just 
barely fallen short of solving  #c4j    
problems4 ,if1 however1 the scale       
consists of a series of productions     
graduated in quality from very poor to  
very good1 with which series  other     
productions of the same sort are to be  

compared1 then each sample  on the scale
 stands at the middle of its step rather
 than at the  beginning4    ,the second 
kind of scale described in the foregoing
 paragraph may be  designated as scales 
for the quality of products1 while the  
other  variety may be called scales for 
magnitude of achievement4 ,in the  one  
case1 the child makes the best          
production he can and measures its      
quality by comparing it with similar    
products of known quality on the  scale4
 ,composition1 handwriting1 and drawing 
scales are good examples of  scales for 
quality of products4 ,in the other case1
 the scales are placed  in the hands of 
the child at the very beginning1 and the
 magnitude of  his achievement is       
measured by the difficulty or number of 
tasks  accomplished successfully in a   
given time4 ,spelling1 arithmetic1      
reading1 language1 geography1 and       
history tests are examples of scales    
for quantity of achievement4    ,scores 
tend to be more accurate on the scales  

for magnitude of  achievement1 because  
the judgment of the examiner is likely  
to be more  accurate in deciding whether
 a response is correct or incorrect than
 it  is in deciding how much quality a  
given product contains4 ,this does not  
furnish an excuse for failing to employ 
the quality-of-products scales1         
however1 for the qualities they measure 
are not measurable in terms of  the     
magnitude of tasks performed4 ,the fact 
appears1 however1 that the  method of   
employing the quality-of-products scales
 is by comparison  7of child's          
production with samples reproduced on   
the scale71 while the  method of        
employing the magnitude-of-achievement  
scales is by  performance 7of child on  
tasks of known difficulty74    ,in this 
connection it may be well to take one of
 the scales for quality  of products and
 outline the steps to be followed in    
assigning scores1  making tabulations1  
and finding the medians of distributions
 of scores4    ,when the ,hillegas scale

 is employed in measuring the quality of
 ,english  composition1 it will be      
advisable to assign to each composition 
the  score of that sample on the scale  
to which it is nearest in merit or      
quality4 ,while some individuals may    
feel able to assign values  intermediate
 to those appearing on the ,hillegas    
scale1 the majority of  those persons   
who use this scale will not thereby     
obtain a more accurate  result1 and the 
assignment of such intermediate values  
will make it  extremely difficult for   
any other person to make accurate use of
 the  results4 ,to be exactly           
comparable1 values should be assigned in
 exactly  the same manner4    ,the best 
result will probably be obtained by     
having each composition  rated several  
times1 and if possible1 by a number of  
different judges1  the paper being given
 each time that value on the ,hillegas  
scale to  which it seems nearest in     
quality4 ,the final mark for the paper  
should  be the median score or step 7not

 the median point or the average point7 
of all the scores assigned4 ,for        
example1 if a paper is rated five times1
  once as in step number five 7#e4he71  
twice as in step number six 7#f4ge71    
and twice as in step number seven       
7#g4gb71 it should be given a final     
mark indicating that it is a number six 
7#f4ge7 paper4    ,after each           
composition has been assigned a final   
mark indicating to what  sample on the  
,hillegas scale it is most nearly equal 
in quality1 proceed  as follows3        
,make a distribution of the final marks 
given to the individual papers1  showing
 how many papers were assigned to the   
zero step on the scale1 how  many to    
step number one1 how many to step number
 two1 and so on for each  step of the   
scale4 ,we may take as an example the   
distribution of scores  made by the     
pupils of the eighth grade at ,butte1   
,montana1 in ,may1 #aiad4        ,no4 of
 papers   #a   #i  #cb  #ci  #dc  #bb   
#f   #b      ,rated at        #j   #a   

#b   #c   #d   #e   #f   #g   #h   #i   
,all together there were #aed papers    
from the eighth grade1 so that if  they 
were arranged in order according to     
their merit we might begin at  the      
poorest and count through #gg of them   
7n_/#b  #aed_/b  #gg7 to find the       
median point1 which would lie between   
the #ggth and the #ghth in quality4  ,if
 we begin with the #a composition rated 
at #j and count up through the #i  rated
 at #a and the #cb rated at #b in the   
above distribution1 we shall  have      
counted #db4 ,in order to count out #gg 
cases1 then1 it will be  necessary to   
count out #ce of the #ci cases rated at 
#c4    ,now we know 7if the instructions
 given above have been followed7 that   
the compositions rated at #c were so    
rated by virtue of the fact that the    
judges considered them nearer in quality
 to the sample valued at #c4fi  than to 
any other sample on the scale4 ,we      
should expect1 then1 to find  that some 
of those rated at #c were only slightly 

nearer to the sample  valued at #c4fi   
than they were to the sample valued at  
#b4fj1 while others  were only slightly 
nearer to #c4fi than they were to #d4gd4
 ,just how the  #ci compositions rated  
on #c were distributed between these two
 extremes  we do not know1 but the best 
single assumption to make is that they  
are  distributed at equal intervals on  
step #c4 ,assuming1 then1 that the      
papers rated at #c are distributed      
evenly over that step1 we shall have    
covered 4#ij 7#ce_/ci  4#hig  4#ij7 of  
the entire step #c by the time we  have 
counted out #ce of the #ci papers       
falling on this step4    ,it now becomes
 necessary to examine more closely just 
what are the  limits of step #c4 ,it is 
evident from what has been said above   
that #c4fi  is the middle step #c and   
that step #c extends downward from #c4fi
 halfway  to #b4fj1 and upward from     
#c4fi halfway to #d4gd4 ,the table given
 below  shows the range and the length  
of each step in the ,hillegas ,scale for

  ,english ,composition4        ,,the   
,,hillegas ,,scale ,,for ,,english      
,,composition              ,,step       
,no4,,value or ,,sample,,range ,,of     
,,step ,,length ,,of ,,step             
----------------------------------------
-----------      #j4 4 4 4    #j        
#j- 4#iacb     4#ia      #a4 4 4 4      
#a4hc          4#ib-b4ba        #a4cj   
#b4 4 4 4  #b4fj         #b4bb-c4ad     
4#ic      #c4 4 4 4  #c4fi              
#c4ae-d4ba        #a4jg      #d4 4 4 4  
#d4gd         #d4bb-e4bi        #a4jh   
#e4 4 4 4  #e4he         #e4cj-f4cj     
#a4jj      #f4 4 4 4  #f4ge             
#f4cj-g4bc         4#ic      #g4 4 4 4  
#g4gb         #g4bd-h4je         4#ha   
#h4 4 4 4  #h4ch         #h4je-h4hg     
4#hb      #i4 4 4 4  #i4cg              
#h4hh-                   ,from the above
 table we find that step #c has a length
 of #a4jg units4 ,if  we count out #ce  
of the #ci papers1 or1 in other words1  
if we pass upward  into the step 4#ij of
 the total distance 7#a4jg units71 we   

shall arrive at  a point 4#if units     
74#ij  #a4jg  4#if7 above the lower     
limit of step #c1  which we find from   
the table is #c4ae4 ,adding 4#if to     
#c4ae gives #d4aa as  the median point  
of this eighth grade distribution4      
,the median and the percentiles of any  
distribution of scores on the  ,hillegas
 scale may be determined in a manner    
similar to that illustrated  above1 if  
the scores are assigned to the          
individual papers according to  the     
directions outlined above4    ,a similar
 method of calculation is employed in   
discovering the limits  within which the
 middle fifty per cent of the cases     
fall4 ,it often seems  fairer to ask1   
after the upper twenty-five per cent of 
the children who  would probably do     
successful work even without very       
adequate teaching  have been eliminated1
 and the lower twenty-five per cent who 
are  possibly so lacking in capacity    
that teaching may not be thought to     
affect them very largely have been left 

out of consideration1 what is  the      
achievement of the middle fifty per     
cent4 ,to measure this  achievement it  
is necessary to have the whole          
distribution and to count  off          
twenty-five per cent1 counting in from  
the upper end1 and then  twenty-five per
 cent1 counting in from the lower end of
 the  distribution4 ,the points found   
can then be used in a statement in which
  the limits within which the middle    
fifty per cent of the cases fall4       
,using the same figures that are given  
above for scores in ,english            
composition1 the lower limit is #b4fd   
and the limit which marks the point     
above which the upper twenty-five per   
cent of the cases are to be found  is   
#e4jh4 ,the limits1 therefore1 within   
which the middle fifty per cent  of the 
cases fall are from #b4fd to #e4jh4     
,it is desirable to measure the         
relationship existing between the       
achievements 7or other traits7 of       
groups4 ,in order to express such       

relationship in a single figure the     
coefficient or correlation is used4     
,this measure appears frequently in the 
literature of education and will  be    
briefly explained4 ,the formula for     
finding the coefficient of  correlation 
can be understood from examples of its  
application4    ,let us suppose a group 
of seven individuals whose scores in    
terms of  problems solved correctly and 
of words spelled correctly are as       
follows3#cc      ,,individuals,no4 ,,of 
,no4 ,,of ,,words  ,,measured           
,,problems,,spelled ,,correctly         
,,correctly                             
------------------------------------    
,a           #a           #b    ,b      
#b           #d    ,c           #c      
#f    ,d           #d           #h    ,e
           #e          #aj    ,f        
#f          #ab    ,g           #g      
#ad        ,from such distributions it  
would appear that as individuals        
increase in  achievement in one field   
they increase correspondingly in the    

other4 ,if  one is below or above the   
average in achievement in one field1 he 
is  below or above and in the same      
degree in the other field4 ,this sort of
  positive relationship 7going together7
 is expressed by a coefficient of  #a4  
,the formula is expressed as follows3   
7,sum x  y7      r                      
------------------------------          
7sqrt7,sum x#b777sqrt7,sum y#b77        
,here r  coefficient of correlation4    
x  deviations from average score in     
arithmetic 7or difference between  score
 made and average score74    y          
deviations from average score in        
spelling4    ,sum  is the sign commonly 
used to indicate the algebraic sum 7i4e4
  the difference between the sum of the 
minus quantities and the plus           
quantities74    x  y  products of       
deviation in one trait multiplied by    
deviation in  the other trait with      
appropriate sign4      ,applying the    
formula we find3              ,,arith-  
,,spel-                                 

,,metic  x        x#b   ,,ling   y   y#b
           xy                           
----------------------------------------
-------------------      ,a      #a-c   
#i      #b-f            #cf          #ah
      ,b      #b-b            #d        
#d-d            #af           #h      ,c
      #c-a            #a      #f-b      
#d           #b      ,d      #d #j      
#j      #h #j                           
,e      #ea            #a     #ajb      
#d           #b      ,f      #fb        
#d     #abd            #af           #h 
,g      #gc            #i     #adf      
#cf          #ah                        
#g #bh   ,sum x#b  #bh #g  #ef   ,sum   
y#b  #aab,sum xy  #ef        ,av4 #d    
,av4 #h                                 
,sum x  y                     #ef       
#ef      r  ----------------------------
  ---------------------  ----  #a       
7sqrt7,sum x#b77sqrt7,sum y#b7          
7sqrt7#bh777sqrt7#aab77    #ef      ,if 
instead of achievement in one field     
being positively related 7going         

together7 in the highest possible       
degree1 these individuals show the      
opposite type of relationship1 i4e41 the
 maximum negative relationship  7this   
might be expressed as opposition--a     
place above the average in one          
achievement going with a correspondingly
 great deviation below the  average in  
the other achievement71 then our        
coefficient becomes -#a4  ,applying the 
formula3                ,,arith-        
,,spel-                                 
,,metic  x         x#b  ,,ling   y      
y#b          x99y                       
----------------------------------------
-------------------      ,a      #a-c   
#i     #adf            #cf          -#ah
      ,b      #b-b            #d        
#abd            #af           -#h       
,c      #c-a            #b     #ajb     
#d           -#b      ,d      #d #j     
#h #j                                 ,e
      #ea            #b      #f-b       
#d           -#b      ,f      #fb       
#d      #d-d            #af             

-#h      ,g      #gc            #i      
#b-f            #cf          -#ah       
#g #bh   ,sum x#b  #bh #g  #ef   ,sum   
y#b  #aab,sum xy  -#ef        ,av4 #d   
,av4 #h                                 
,it will be observed that in this case  
each plus deviation in one  achievement 
is accompanied by a minus deviation for 
the other trait2  hence1 all of the     
products of x and y are minus           
quantities4 7,a plus  quantity          
multiplied by a plus quantity or a minus
 quantity multiplied by  a minus        
quantity gives us a plus quantity as the
 product1 while a plus  quantity        
multiplied by a minus quantity gives us 
a minus quantity as the  product47      
7,sum xy7               -#ef            
-#ef      r                             
------------------------------          
-------------------  ----  -#a4         
7sqrt7,sum x#b777sqrt7,sum y#b77        
7sqrt7#bh7sqrt7#aab77   #ef    ,if there
 is no relationship indicated by the    
measures of achievements  which we have 

found1 then the coefficient of          
correlation becomes #j4 ,a  distribution
 of scores which suggests no            
relationship is as follows3             
,,arith-                                
,,metic    x       x#b  ,spelling   y   
y#b       x4y                           
----------------------------------------
------------------                      
-       ,a      #b  -#b          #d     
#ab  #d           #af  -#h #f      ,b   
#a  -#c          #i        #h   #j      
#j #d      ,c      #d   #j              
#b  -#f           #cf   #j #d      ,d   
#e  #a          #a       #ad  #f        
#cf  -#f      ,e      #c  -#a           
#a        #d  -#d           #af  -#ad   
#ad      ,f      #g  #c          #i     
#f  -#b            #d       ,g      #f  
#b          #d       #aj  #b            
#d                                      
#bh     ,sum x#bbh     #gef      ,sum   
y#baab  xy#j         ,,av4#d            
,,av4#h                                 
7,sum xy7                       #j      

r  ----------------------------         
-------------------  #j4                
7sqrt7,sum x#b7sqrt7,sum y#b77          
7sqrt7#bh7sqrt7#aab77    ,in a similar  
manner1 when the relationship is largely
 positive as would  be indicated by a   
displacement of each score in the series
 by one step  from the arrangement which
 gives a #a coefficient1 the coefficient
 will  approach unity in value4         
,,arithmetic x    x#b      ,,spelling y 
y#b                                     
----------------------------------------
----------------       ,a #a      -#c #i
          #d        -#d  #af            
#ab       ,b #b      -#b #d          #b 
-#f  #cf          #ab       ,c #c       
-#a #a          #h         #j           
#d       ,d #d       #j            #f   
-#b   #d          #d       ,e #e      #a
 #a          #ab       #d  #af          
#ah       ,f #f      #b #d          #aj 
#b   #d         ,sxy#ej       ,g #g     
#c #i          #ad       #f  #cf        
,av4 #d    ,sum x#b #bh;,av4  #h        

,sum y#b #aab                       ,sum
 xy                 #ej      r          
--------------------------   ----  4#hi4
         sqrt7,sum x#b7sqrt7,sum y#b7   
#ef    ,other illustrations might be    
given to show how the coefficient varies
  from  #a1 the measure of the highest  
positive relationship 7going  together7 
through #j to -#a1 the measure of the   
largest negative  relationship          
7opposition74 ,a relationship between   
traits which we  measure as high as 4#ej
 is to be thought of as quite           
significant4 ,it is  seldom that we get 
a positive relationship as large as 4#ej
 when we  correlate the achievements of 
children in school work4 ,a relationship
  measured by a coefficient of 4#ae may 
not be considered to indicate  any      
considerable positive or negative       
relationship4 ,the fact that            
relationships among the achievements of 
children in school subjects vary  from  
4#bj to 4#fj is a clear indication of   
the fact that abilities of  children are

 variable1 or1 in other words1          
achievement in one subject  does not    
carry with it an exactly corresponding  
great or little  achievement in another 
subject4 ,that there is some positive   
relationship1 i4e41 that able pupils    
tend on the whole to show  all-round    
ability and the less able or weak in one
 subject tend to  show similar lack of  
strength in other subjects1 is also     
indicated by  these positive            
coefficients4      ,,questions    #a4   
,calculate the median point in the      
following distribution of  eighth-grade 
composition scores on the ,hillegas     
scale4        ,quality   #j  #ah  #bf   
#cg  #dg  #eh  #fg      ,frequency      
#b  #fh  #gc   #c    #b4 ,calculate the 
median point in the following           
distribution of  third-grade scores on  
the ,woody subtraction scale4           
,no4 problems #j #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h
 #i #aj #aa #ab #ac #ad #ae #af #ag #ah 
#ai #bj #ba      ,frequency        #b #b
 #b   #c #c #e #d  #e  #h #af #af #af   

#bc #bj #ba #aa #bb #aa  #b        #bb  
#bc #bd        #a    #c4 ,compare       
statistically the achievements of the   
children in two  eighth-grade classes   
whose scores on the ,courtis addition   
tests were as  follows3        ,class   
,a--#f1 #e1 #h1 #i1 #g1 #aj1 #ac1 #d1   
#h1 #g1 #h1 #g1 #f1 #h1 #ae1 #f1 #g1 #j1
 #f1 #i1      #e1 #h1 #g1 #aj1 #h1 #d1  
#g1 #h1 #f1 #i1 #e1 #g1 #b1 #f1 #h1 #e1 
#g1 #h1 #g1 #h1 #e1 #h1 #aj1      #f1   
#c1 #f1 #h1 #ag1 #e1 #g4        ,class  
,b--#aj1 #d1 #h1 #ac1 #aa1 #i1 #h1 #aj1 
#g1 #i1 #aa1 #aj1 #ah1 #g1 #ab1 #i1 #aj1
 #h1      #aa1 #aj1 #ab1      #i1 #b1   
#aa1 #h1 #aj1 #i1 #ad1 #aa1 #g1 #aj1    
#ab1 #aj1 #f1 #aa1 #h1 #aj1 #i1 #aj1    
#ag1 #h1      #aa1      #i1 #g1 #i1 #aa1
 #h1 #ab1 #i1 #ac4    #d4 ,if the marks 
received in algebra and in geometry by a
 group of high  school pupils were as   
given below1 what relationship is       
indicated by the  coefficient of        
correlation8             ,,geometry     
,,algebra           ,,marks    ,,marks  

#a4   #hj       #fj      #b4   #fh      
#gc      #c4   #fe       #hj      #d4   
#if       #hj      #e4   #ei       #fb  
#f4   #ge       #fe      #g4   #ij      
#ge      #h4   #hf       #ij      #i4   
#eb       #fc      #aj4  #gj       #ee  
#aa4  #fc       #ed      #ab4  #he      
#ie      #ac4  #ic       #ij      #ad4  
#hg       #gj      #ae4  #hb       #fh  
#af4  #gi       #ge      #ag4  #gh      
#hf      #ah4  #gi       #ge      #ai4  
#hb       #fj      #bj4  #gj       #hb  
#ba4  #eb       #hf      #bb4  #id      
#he      #bc4  #gb       #gc      #bd4  
#ec       #fb      #be4  #id       #he  
#e4 ,compare the abilities of the       
#aj-year-old pupils in the sixth grade  
with the abilities of the #ad-year-old  
pupils in the same grade1 in so  far as 
these abilities are measured by the     
completion of incomplete  sentences4    
7,note3 #e  #e4j-e4iii47                
,,no4 ,,sentences                       
,,completed    #aj-,,year-,,olds        
#ad-,,year-,,olds                       

----------------------------------------
--------      #bd            --         
--      #bc            --            -- 
#bb            --            --      #ba
            #a             --      #bj  
--            --      #ai            -- 
--      #ah            --            -- 
#ag            --            #a      #af
            #c             --      #ae  
--            #b      #ad            #g 
#d      #ac            #aj            #c
      #ab            #ah            #g  
#aa            #i             #aj       
#aj            #g             #i      #i
             #h             #aj      #h 
#b             #aj      #g              
#c             #aj      #f              
--            #b      #e             #b 
#c      #d             --            #b 
#c             --            --      #b 
--            #a      #a             -- 
--      #j             --            -- 
#f4 ,from the scores given here1        
calculate the relationship between      
ability to spell and ability to         

multiply4 ,use the average as the       
central  tendency4                      
,,pupil,,spelling,,multiplication       
----------------------------      ,a    
#i       #bb      ,b    #aj      #af    
,c    #b       #ai      ,d    #f        
#ad      ,e    #ac      #bd      ,f     
#h       #bb      ,g    #aj      #ag    
,h    #g       #bj      ,i    #c        
#ba      ,j    #b       #ba      ,k     
#ad      #bj      ,l    #h       #ah    
,m    #g       #bc      ,n    #aa       
#be      ,o    #h       #be      ,p     
#ag      #bd      ,q    #aj      #ba    
,r    #d       #af      ,s    #i        
#ae      ,t    #f       #ai      ,u     
#ab      #bb      ,v    #ad      #ai    
,w    #h       #ag      ,x    #c        
#bj      ,y    #aa      #ah             
99       99       99       99       99  
,,index        ,achievements of         
children1 measuring the1        and     
examinations1        in ,english        
composition1        in arithmetic1      
arithmetic scale1        reasoning      

problems in arithmetic1                 
distribution of hand-writing scores1    
handwriting scale1        spelling      
scale1        scale for ,english        
composition4      sthetic emotions1     
appreciation and skill1                 
appreciation1 intellectual factors in4  
,aim of education1 ,i      ,analysis and
 abstraction1 ,,iii4      ,angell1      
,j4,r4      ,appreciation1        types 
of1        passive attitude in1         
development in1        value of1        
lesson4      ,associations1 organization
 of1        number of4      ,attention1 
situations arousing response of1        
and inhibition1        breadth of1      
to more than one thing1                 
concentration of1        span of1       
free1        forced1        immediate   
free1        immediate and derived1     
derived1        forced1        and habit
 formation1        focalization of1     
divided4      ,ayres1 ,l4,p4            
,ballou1 ,f4,w4      ,bread-and-butter  
aim4        ,classroom exercises1 types 

of4      ,coefficient of correlation1   
calculation of1        values of4       
,comparison and abstraction1 step of4   
,concentration1 of attention4           
habits of4      ,conduct1 moral social4 
,consciousness1 fringe of4              
,correlation1 coefficient of4           
,courtis1 ,s4,a4      ,culture as aim of
 education4      ,curriculum1 omissions 
from4        ,deduction lesson1 the1    
steps in4      ,deduction1 process of4  
,dewey1 ,john4      ,differences1       
individual1        sex4      ,disuse1   
method of4      ,drill1        lesson1  
the1        work1 deficiency in4        
,education1 before school age4          
,effect1 law of4      ,emotions1        
aesthetic4      ,environment and        
individual differences4                 
,examinations1        limitations of4   
,exceptions1 danger of4        ,fatigue 
and habits4      ,formal discipline4    
,gray1 ,w4,s4        ,habit formation1  
and attention1        laws of1          
and instinct1        complexity of1     

and interest1        and mistakes4      
,habits1 of concentration1              
modification of the nervous system      
involved1        and fatigue1        and
 will power1        and original work4  
,harmonious development of aim4         
,heck1 ,w4,h4      ,henderson1 ,e4,n4   
,heredity and individual differences4   
,hillegas1 ,m4,b4        ,illustrations1
 use of4      ,imagery1 type of1        
and learning1        productive1 types  
of4      ,images1        classified1    
object and concrete4      ,imagination4 
,individual differences1        causes  
of1        and race inheritance1        
and maturity1        and heredity1      
and environment1        and organization
 of        public education        in   
composition        in arithmetic        
in penmanship      ,induction and       
deduction        differences in         
relationship of      ,induction1 process
 of      ,inductive lesson1 the         
,inquiry in school work                 
,instinctive tendencies                 

modifiability of        inhibition of   
,instincts        transitoriness of     
delayedness of        of physical       
activity        to enjoy mental activity
        of manipulation        of       
collecting        of rivalry        of  
fighting        of imitation        of  
gregariousness        of motherliness   
,interest        an end        ,judd1   
,c4,h4      ,junior high school1 the    
,kelly1 ,f4,j4      ,knowledge aim      
,learning        incidental        and  
imagery        curves      ,lecturing   
and appreciation      ,lesson        the
 inductive        ,mc,murry1 ,f4,m4     
,maturity and individual differences    
,measurement of group        comparison 
of seventh-grade scores in composition  
comparison of scores in arithmetic      
,measuring results in education         
,median        calculation of           
point        step        measure        
,memorization        verbatim           
whole-part method illustrated           
,memory        factors in        and    

native retentiveness        and recall  
part and whole methods        practice  
periods        immediate                
desultory        rote        logical    
and forgetting        permanence of     
,miller1 ,i4,e4      ,moral conduct     
development of      ,morality           
defined        and conduct        and   
habit        and choice        and      
individual opinion        social nature 
of        and training for citizenship  
and original nature        and          
environment        stages of development
 in        and habit formation          
transition period in        direct      
teaching of        and classroom work   
and service by pupils        and social 
responsibility        and school rules  
,morgan1 ,c4,l4        ,openmindedness  
,original nature        of children     
and racial inheritance        and aim of
 education        utilization of        
and morality      ,original work and    
habits        ,payne1 ,joseph           
,physical welfare of children      ,play

        theories of        types of     
complexity of        characteristics of 
and drudgery        and work        and 
ease of accomplishment        and social
 demands        supervision of          
,preparation        steps of            
,presentation        steps of           
,problems as stimulus to thinking       
,punishment        ,questioning         
,questions        types of              
responses to        number of           
appeal of        ,reasoning and thinking
        technique of                    
,recapitulation theory      ,recitation 
social purpose of      ,recitation      
lesson1 the      ,repetition            
,retention        power of      ,review 
,review lesson1 the      ,roark1 ,r4,n4 
,satisfaction        result of          
,scales of measurement      ,school     
government        participation in      
,sex differences        education       
,social aim of education        and     
curriculum        and special types of  
schools      ,stone1 ,c4,w4      ,study 

how to        types of        and habit 
formation        and memorization       
and interest        necessity for aim in
        and concentrated attention      
involves critical attitude              
general factors in        for           
appreciation        involving thinking  
use of books in        supervised       
,substitution        method of          
,thinking defined      ,thinking        
stimulation of        and problematic   
situations        by little children    
and habit formation        essentials in
 process of        for its own sake     
and critical attitude        laws       
governing        and association        
failure in        and classroom         
exercises      ,thorndike1 ,e4,l4       
,thought        imageless      ,trabue1 
,m4,r4      ,training        transfer of
        identity of response            
probability of        amount of         
,transfer of training        ,will power
 and habits      ,woody1 ,clifford      
,work1 independent      ,work and play  

,footnote #a3 ,the nervous system is    
composed of units of structure called   
neurones or nerve cells4 ,if we could   
see exactly the structure of the  brain 
itself1 we should find it to consist of 
millions of similar  neurones each      
resembling a bit of string frayed out at
 both ends and  here and there along its
 course4 ,so also the nerves going out  
to the  muscles are simply bundles of   
such neurones1 each of which by itself  
is  a thread-like connection between the
 cells of the spinal cord or brain  and 
some muscle4 ,the nervous system is     
simply the sum total of all these       
neurones1 which form an almost          
infinitely complex system of connections
  between the sense organs and the      
muscles4    ,the word synapses1 meaning 
clasping together1 is used as a         
descriptive  term for the connections   
that exist between neurone and neurone4 
,footnote #b3 ,this is synonymous with  
,james's ,involuntary ,attention1       
,angell's ,non-,voluntary ,attention1   

and ,titchener's ,secondary-,passive    
,attention4    ,footnote #c3            
,educational ,psychology1 ,briefer      
,course1 pp4 #aid-e4    ,footnote #d3   
,thorndike1 ,psychology of ,learning1 p4
 #aid4    ,footnote #e3 ,how ,we ,think1
 p4 #f4    ,footnote #f3 ,the           
,psychology of ,thinking1 p4 #ih4       
,footnote #g3 ,how ,we ,think1 p4 #ff4  
,footnote #h3 ,how ,we ,think1 pp4      
#fi-gj4    ,footnote #i3 ,psychology of 
,thinking1 p4 #bia4    ,footnote #aj3   
,how ,we ,think1 p4 #gi4    ,footnote   
#aa3 ,thorndike1 ,educational           
,psychology1 ,briefer ,course1 p4 #agb4 
,footnote #ab3 ,introduction to         
,psychology1 p4 #bhd4    ,footnote #ac3 
,thorndike1 ,origin of ,man1 p4 #adf4   
,footnote #ad3 ,racial ,differences in  
,mental ,traits1 pp4 #agg and #aha4     
,footnote #ae3 ,thorndike1 ,educational 
,psychology1 ,briefer ,course1 p4 #cgd4 
,footnote #af3 ,thorndike1 ,educational 
,psychology1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cjd4      
,footnote #ag3 ,moral ,principles in    

,education1 p4 #ag4    ,footnote #ah3   
,for a fuller discussion of this topic  
see next chapter4    ,footnote #ai3 ,for
 a discussion of these scales see       
,chapter ,,xv4    ,footnote #bj3 ,the   
,courtis ,tests1 ,series ,b1 for        
,measuring the ,achievements  of        
,children in the ,fundamentals of       
,arithmetic1 can be secured from ,mr4   
,s4,a4 ,curtis1 #hb ,eliot ,street1     
,detroit1 ,mich4    ,footnote #ba3      
,measurements of ,some ,achievements in 
,arithmetic1 by  ,clifford ,woody1      
published by the ,teachers ,college     
,bureau of  ,publications1 ,columbia    
,university1 #aiaf4    ,footnote #bb3   
,reasoning ,test in ,arithmetic1 by     
,c4,w4 ,stone1 published by  the ,bureau
 of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college1  
,columbia ,university1 #aiaf4           
,footnote #bc3 ,a ,scale for            
,handwriting of ,children1 by ,e4,l4    
,thorndike1  published by the ,bureau of
 ,publications1 ,teachers ,college1     
,columbia  ,university4    ,footnote    

#bd3 ,a scale derived by ,dr4 ,leonard  
,p4 ,ayres of the ,russell ,sage        
,foundation is also valuable for        
measuring penmanship1 and can be        
purchased from the ,russell ,sage       
,foundation4    ,footnote #be3 ,copies  
of the ,spelling ,scale can be secured  
from the  ,russell ,sage ,foundation1   
,new ,york1 for five cents a copy4      
,footnote #bf3 ,a ,scale for the        
,measurement of ,quality in ,english    
,composition1 by ,milo ,b4 ,hillegas1   
published by the ,bureau of             
,publications1 ,teachers ,college1      
,columbia ,university4    ,footnote #bg3
 ,the ,harvard-,newton ,scale for the   
,measurement of ,english  ,composition1 
published by the ,harvard ,university   
,press1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4    ,footnote 
#bh3 ,scale ,alpha4 ,for ,measuring the 
,understanding of ,sentences1  by ,e4,l4
 ,thorndike1 published by the ,bureau of
 ,publications1 ,teachers  ,college1    
,columbia ,university4    ,scales for   
measuring the rate of silent reading and

 oral reading have  been derived by ,dr4
 ,w4,s4 ,gray1 of the ,university of    
,chicago1 and by ,dr4  ,f4,j4 ,kelly1 of
 the ,university of ,kansas4 ,reference 
to the use of ,dr4  ,gray's scale will  
be found in ,judd's ,measuring ,work of 
the ,schools1 one  of the volumes of the
 ,cleveland survey1 published by the    
,russell ,sage  ,foundation4 ,dr4       
,kelly's test1 called ,the ,kansas      
,silent ,reading ,test1 can  be had from
 the ,emporia1 ,kansas1 ,state ,normal  
,school4    ,footnote #bi3 ,completion  
,test ,language ,scales1 by ,m4,r4      
,trabue1 published  by the ,bureau of   
,publications1 ,teachers ,college1      
,columbia ,university4    ,footnote #cj3
 ,the student who is not interested in  
the statistical  methods involved in    
measuring with precision the            
achievements of pupils  may omit the    
remainder of this chapter4    ,footnote 
#ca3 ,this explanation of the method of 
finding the median was  prepared for one
 of the classes in ,teachers ,college by

 ,dr4 ,m4,r4 ,trabue4    ,footnote #cb3 
,the third decimal place is omitted in  
this table4    ,footnote #cc3 ,in order 
to discover the relationship which      
exists between  two traits which we have
 measured we would use many more than   
seven  cases4 ,the illustrations given  
are made short in order to make it easy 
to follow through the application of the
 formula4