,,! ,,/ory ,,( ,a ,,piece ,,( ,,coal ,,:at ,,x ,,is1 ,,:5ce ,,x ,,comes1 ,,& ,,:i!r ,,x ,,goes ,,by ,,edw>d ,a4 ,,m>t91 ,f4,g4,s4 #ahif ,,preface4 ,! k ( ! m>vels :i* a piece ( coal possesses )9 itself1 & :i* 9 ob$i5ce to processes ( man's inv5tion x is always will+ to exhibit to an obs]vant enquir]1 is n s widespread1 p]haps1 z x %\ld be1 & ! aim ( ?is little book1 ?is record ( "o page ( geological hi/ory1 has be5 to br+ toge!r ! pr9cipal facts & wond]s connect$ ) x into ! focus ( a few pages1 :]e1 side by side1 w\ld be f\nd ! record ( its vegetable & m9]al hi/ory1 its discov]y & e>ly use1 its be>+s on ! great fog-problem1 its useful illum9at+ gas & oils1 ! "q ( ! possible exhau/ion ( ,briti% supplies1 & o!r important & int]e/+ be>+s ( coal or its products4 ,9 ! :ole realm ( natural hi/ory1 9 ! wide/ s5se ( ! t]m1 !re is no?+ :i* c\ld be cit$ :i* has s b5efit$1 s int]e/$1 ,i might almo/ say1 s excit$ mank9d1 z h ! wond]ful discov]ies ( ! v>i\s products di/ill$ f gas-t>1 itself a di/illate ( coal4 ,coal t\*es ! int]e/s ( ! botani/1 ! geologi/1 & ! physici/2 ! *emi/1 ! sanit>ian1 & ! m]*ant4 ,9 ! little "w n[ be=e ! read] ,i h endeav\r$ to rec\nt1 )\t go+ into unnecess>y detail1 ! wond]ful /ory ( a piece ( coal4 ,e4,a4,m4 ,,?ornton ,,hea?1 ,febru>y1 #ahif4 ,,cont5ts4 ,i4 ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,coal ,,& ,,! ,,plants ,,( ,,:i* ,,x ,,is ,,compos$ ,,ii4 ,a ,,g5]al ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,coal-,,be>+ ,,/rata ,,iii4 ,,v>i\s ,,=ms ,,( ,,coal ,,& ,,c>bon ,,iv4 ,,! ,,coal-,,m9e ,,& ,,its ,,dang]s ,v4 ,,e>ly ,,hi/ory--,,its ,,use ,,& ,,its ,,abuse ,,vi4 ,,h[ ,,gas ,,is ,,made--,,illum9at+ ,,oils ,,& ,,bye-,,products ,,vii4 ,,! ,,coal ,,supplies ,,( ,,! ,,_w ,,viii4 ,,! ,,coal-,,t> ,,col\rs ,,*>t ,,%ew+ ,,! ,,products ,,( ,,coal ,,g5]al ,,index ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,/igm>ia #b4 ,annul>ia radiata #c4 ,rhacopt]is inaequilat]a #d4 ,frond ( ,pecopt]is #e4 ,pecopt]is ,s]lii #f4 ,sph5opt]is aff9is #g4 ,catamites ,suck[ii #h4 ,calamocladus gr&is #i4 ,a/]ophyllites foliosa #aj4 ,sp5ophyllum cuneifolium #aa4 ,ca/ ( ,lepidod5dron #ab4 ,lepidod5dron longifolium #ac4 ,lepidod5dron aculeatum #ad4 ,lepido/robus #ae4 ,lycopodites #af4 ,/igm>ia ficoides #ag4 ,section ( ,/igm>ia #ah4 ,sigill>ian trunks 9 s&/one #ai4 ,productus #bj4 ,encr9ite #ba4 ,encr9ital lime/one #bb4 ,v>i\s encr9ites #bc4 ,cya?ophyllum #bd4 ,ar*egosaurus m9or #be4 ,psammodus porosus #bf4 ,or?oc]as #bg4 ,f5e/ella retepora #bh4 ,goniatites #bi4 ,aviculopect5 papyraceus #cj4 ,fragm5t ( ,lepidod5dron #ca4 ,eng9e-h\se at head ( a ,coal-,pit #cb4 ,gas ,jet & ,davy ,lamp #cc4 ,"p ( a ,sigill>ian trunk #cd4 ,inside a ,gas-hold] #ce4 ,fill+ ,retorts by ,ma*9]y #cf4 ,cond5s]s #cg4 ,wa%]s #ch4 ,purifi]s ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,coal ,,& ,,! ,,plants ,,( ,,:i* ,,x ,,is ,,compos$4 ,f ! homely scuttle ( coal at ! side ( ! he>? to ! gorge\sly v]dant vegetation ( a =e/ ( mammo? trees1 might h appe>$ a some:at f> cry 9 ! eyes ( ^? :o liv$ "s fifty ye>s ago4 ,b !re are few n[ :o d n "k :at 0 ! orig9 ( ! coal :i* !y use s freely1 & :i* 9 ob$i5ce to _! dem& has be5 br\ght up m ?an a ?\s& feet f ! b[els ( ! e>?2 &1 al?\gh famili>ity has 9 a s5se br$ contempt = t :i* a few %ill+s w always pur*ase1 9 all probability a /ray ?\ght does occasionally cross "o's m9d1 giv+ bir? to feel+s ( a m or less ?ankful nature t su* a /ore ( heat & light 0 long ago laid up 9 ?is e>? ( ours = our use1 :5 z yet man 0 n de/9$ to put 9 an appe>ance = _m1 _m ages to come4 ,we c sc>cely imag9e ! indu/rial condition ( our c\ntry 9 ! abs5ce ( s =tunate a supply ( coal2 & ! _m good ?+s :i* are obta9$ f x1 & ! uses to :i*1 z we %all see1 x c be put1 d inde$ dem& recognition4 ,7 our pres5t =e/s uproot$ & ov]?r[n1 to be cov]$ by s$im5t>y deposits su* z ^? :i* cov] our coal-seams1 ! am\nt ( coal :i* w\ld be !reby =m$ = use 9 "s future age1 w\ld am\nt to a ?ickness ( p]haps two or ?ree in*es at mo/1 & yet1 9 "o coal-field alone1 t ( ,we/phalia1 ! #aag mo/ important seams1 if plac$ "o above ! o!r 9 imm$iate succession1 w\ld am\nt to no less ?an #bid feet ( coal4 ,f ?is x is possible to =m a fa9t idea ( ! enorm\s gr[?s ( vegetation requir$ to =m "s ( our repres5tative coal b$s4 ,b ! coal is n f\nd 9 "o cont9u\s b$4 ,^! num]\s seams ( coal are int]sp]s$ betwe5 _m ?\s&s ( feet ( s$im5t>y deposits1 ! :ole ( :i* =m ! coal-measures4 ,n[1 ea* ( ^! seams repres5ts ! gr[? ( a =e/1 & to expla9 ! :ole s]ies x is necess>y to suppose t betwe5 ea* deposit ! l& became ov]:elm$ by ! wat]s ( ! sea or lake1 & aft] a long subaque\s p]iod1 0 aga9 rais$ into dry l&1 ready to become ! bir?-place ( ano!r =e/1 :i* w\ld aga9 beget1 "u simil>ly repeat$ conditions1 ano!r seam ( coal4 ,( ! conditions necess>y to br+ ^! *anges ab\t we w speak lat] on1 b ?is in/ance is suffici5t to %[ h[ inadequate ! quantity ( fuel w\ld be1 7 we dep5d5t entirely on our own exi/+ =e/ gr[?s4 ,h[ev]1 we w leave = ! pres5t ! fasc9at+ pursuit ( !oris+ z to ! h[ & :]e=e ( ^! va/ b$s ( coal1 relegat+ ! geological "p ( ! /udy ( ! c>bonif]\s sy/em to a future *apt]1 :]e w be f\nd "s m detail$ acc\nt ( ! position ( ! coal-seams 9 ! /rata :i* conta9 !m4 ,at pres5t ! actual details ( ! coal itself w dem& our att5tion4 ,coal is ! m9]al :i* has result$1 aft] ! lapse ( ?\s&s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s1 f ! accumulations ( vegetable mat]ial1 caus$ by ! /eady ye>ly %$d+ ( leaves1 fronds & spores1 f =e/s :i* exi/$ 9 an e>ly age2 ^! accumulat$ :]e ! trees grew t bore !m1 & =m$ 9 ! fir/ place1 p]haps1 b$s ( peat2 ! b$s h s9ce be5 subject$ to an ev]-increas+ pressure ( accumulat+ /rata above !m1 compress+ ! %$d+s ( a :ole =e/ into a ?ickness 9 "s cases ( a few in*es ( coal1 & h be5 act$ ^u by ! int]nal heat ( ! e>?1 :i* has caus$ !m to "p1 to a v>y+ degree1 ) "s ( _! compon5t gases4 ,if we reason f analogy1 we are compell$ to admit t ! orig9 ( coal is due to ! accumulation ( vegetation1 ( :i* m scatt]$1 b m di/9ct1 repres5tative specim5s occur 9 ! %ales & clays above & bel[ ! coal-seams4 ,b we are also able to exam9e ! texture itself ( ! v>i\s coals by submitt+ extremely ?9 slices to a /rong light "u ! microscope1 & are ?us enabl$ to decide :e!r ! p>ticul> coal we are exam9+ is =m$ ( conif]s1 horse-tails1 club-mosses1 or f]ns1 or :e!r x consi/s simply ( ! accumulat$ %$d+s ( all1 or p]haps1 z 9 "s in/ances1 ( innum]able spores4 ,9 ?is way ! /ructure ( coal c be accurately det]m9$4 ,7 we artificially to prep>e a mass ( vegetable sub/ance1 & cov]+ x up entirely1 subject x to great pressure1 s t b little ( ! volatile gases :i* w\ld be =m$ c\ld escape1 we might 9 ! c\rse ( "t produce some?+ approa*+ coal1 b :e!r we obta9$ lignite1 jet1 common bitum9\s coal1 or an?racite1 w\ld dep5d ^u ! possibilities ( escape = ! gases conta9$ 9 ! mass4 ,ev]ybody has d\btless notic$ t1 :5 a /agnant pool :i* conta9s a good deal ( decay+ vegetation is /irr$1 bubbles ( gas rise to ! surface f ! mud bel[4 ,?is gas is kn[n z m>%-gas1 or light c>burett$ hydrog51 & gives rise to ! ignis fatuus :i* hov]s ab\t m>%y l&1 & :i* is said to lure ! we>y travell] to 8 doom4 ,! vegetable mud is "h und]go+ rapid decomposition1 z !re is no?+ to /ay its progress1 & no sup]pos$ load ( /rata conf9+ its result+ products )9 itself4 ,! gases !re=e escape1 & ! break+-up ( ! tissues ( ! vegetation goes on rapidly4 ,! *emical *anges :i* h tak5 place 9 ! b$s ( vegetation ( ! c>bonif]\s epo*1 & :i* h trans=m$ x into coal1 are ev5 n[ b imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,all we "k is t1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 "o k9d ( coal is =m$1 :il/ "u o!r conditions1 o!r k9ds h result$2 :il/ 9 "s cases ! processes h result$ 9 ! prep>ation ( l>ge quantities ( m9]al oils1 su* z naph?a & petroleum4 ,oils are also artificially produc$ f ! s-call$ wa/e-products ( ! gas-works1 b 9 "s p>ts ( ! _w ! process ( _! manufacture has gone on naturally1 & a ye>ly increas+ quantity is be+ utilis$4 ,9 ,engl& oil has be5 pump$ up f ! c>bonif]\s /rata ( ,coalbrook ,dale1 :il/ 9 ,sussex x has be5 f\nd 9 small] quantities1 :]e1 9 all probability1 x has _h its orig9 9 ! lignitic b$s ( ! ,weald5 /rata4 ,imm5se quantities are us$ = fuel by ! ,russian /eam]s on ! ,caspian ,sea1 ! ,baku petroleum wells be+ a mo/ valuable possession4 ,9 ,sicily1 ,p]sia1 &1 f> m important1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 m9]al oils are f\nd 9 great quantity4 ,9 all probability conif]\s trees1 simil> to ! liv+ firs1 p9es1 l>*es1 c41 gave rise = ! mo/ "p to ! m9]al oils4 ,! class ( liv+ conif]ae is well kn[n = ! v>i\s oils :i* x furni%es naturally1 & = o!rs :i* its repres5tatives yield on be+ subject$ to di/illation4 ,! gradually increas+ am\nt ( heat :i* we meet ! deep] we g b5ea? ! surface1 has be5 ! cause ( a sl[ & cont9u\s di/illation1 :il/ ! oil s di/ill$ has f\nd its way to ! surface 9 ! %ape ( m9]al-oil spr+s1 or has accumulat$ 9 tr\ghs 9 ! /rata1 ready = use1 to be drawn up :5 a well has be5 sunk into x4 ,! plants :i* h gone to make up ! coal are n at once app>5t to ! nak$ eye4 ,we h to se>* among ! %ales & clays & s&/ones :i* enclose ! coal-seams1 & 9 ^! we f9d petrifi$ specim5s :i* enable u to build up 9 our m9d pictures ( ! vegetable creation :i* =m$ ! jungles & =e/s ( ^! imm5sely remote ages1 & :i*1 d5sely pack$ toge!r on ! old =e/ floor ( ^? days1 is n[ app>5t to u z coal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,annul>ia radiata4 ,c>bonif]\s s&/one4 ,a v l>ge proportion ( ! plants :i* h be5 f\nd 9 ! coal-be>+ /rata consi/s ( num]\s species ( f]ns1 ! numb] ( actual species :i* h be5 pres]v$ = u 9 our ,engli% coal1 be+ d\ble ! numb] n[ exi/+ 9 ,europe4 ,! great] "p ( ^! d n seem to h be5 v mu* l>g] ?an our own liv+ f]ns1 &1 inde$1 _m ( !m be> a close resemblance to "s ( our own liv+ species4 ,! impressions !y h left on ! %ales ( ! coal-measures are mo/ /rik+1 & po9t to a "t :5 ! s&y clay :i* imb$d$ !m 0 borne by wat] 9 a v tranquil mann]1 to be deposit$ :]e ! f]ns _h gr[n1 envelop+ !m gradually1 & consolidat+ !m into _! mass ( future %ale4 ,9 "o species kn[n z ! neuropt]is1 ! n]ves ( ! leaves are z cle> & z app>5t z 9 a newly-gr[n f]n1 ! "n be+ d]iv$ f two ,greek words mean+ n]ve-f]n4 ,x is int]e/+ to consid] ! hi/ory ( su* a leaf1 ?r\gh\t ! ages t h elaps$ s9ce x 0 "p ( a liv+ f]n4 ,fir/ x grew up z a new frond1 !n gradually unfold$ itself1 & develop$ into ! p]fect f]n4 ,!n x became cut (f by ! ris+ wat]s1 & buri$ b5ea? an accumulation ( s$im5t1 & :ile mom5t\s *anges h gone on 9 connection ) ! surface ( ! e>?1 x has la9 dormant 9 its hid+-place exactly z we see x1 until n[ excavat$1 ) its contemporane\s vegetation1 to =m fuel = our w9t] fires4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,rhacopt]is inaequilat]a4 ,c>bonif]\s lime/one4 ,al?\gh _m ( ! f]ns greatly resembl$ exi/+ species1 yet !re 7 o!rs 9 ^! anci5t days utt]ly unlike any?+ indig5\s to ,engl& n[4 ,!re 7 und\bt$ tree-f]ns1 simil> to ^? :i* ?rive n[ s luxuri\sly 9 ! tropics1 & :i* ?r[ out _! graceful cr[ns ( f]ns at ! head ( a nak$ /em1 :il/ on ! b>k are ! m>ks at diff]5t levels ( ! po9ts ( atta*m5t ( =m] leaves4 ,^! h left 9 _! places cicatrices or sc>s1 %[+ ! places f :i* !y =m]ly grew4 ,among/ ! tree-f]ns f\nd are megaphyton1 paloeopt]is1 & caulopt]is1 all ( :i* h ^! m>ks ^u !m1 ?us prov+ t at "o "t ev5 tree-f]ns _h a habitat 9 ,engl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,frond ( ,pecopt]is4 ,coal-%ale4 ,"o =m ( tree-f]n is kn[n by ! "n ( ,ps>onius1 & ?is 0 peculi> 9 ! possession ( masses ( a]ial roots gr\p$ r\nd ! /em4 ,"s ( ! small] species exhibit =ms ( leaves :i* are utt]ly unkn[n 9 ! nom5clature ( liv+ f]ns4 ,mo/ h _h names assign$ to !m 9 accordance ) c]ta9 *>act]i/ics :i* !y possess4 ,?is 0 ! m possible s9ce ! fossilis$ impressions _h be5 reta9$ 9 s di/9ct a mann]4 ,"h be=e u is a specim5 9 a %ale ( pecopt]is1 z x is call$1 7pekos1 a comb74 ,! leaf 9 "s species is n altoge!r unlike ! well-kn[n liv+ f]n osmunda4 ,! position ( ! p9nules on bo? sides ( ! c5tral /alk are se5 9 ! fossil to be %ap$ some?+ l a comb1 or a saw1 :il/ up ! c5tre ( ea* p9nule ! ve9 is z prom95t & noticeable z if ! f]n 7 b ye/]day wav+ gracefully 9 ! air1 & b to-day imb$d$ 9 its %aly b$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,pecopt]is ,s]lii4 ,coal-%ale4 ,sph5opt]is1 or w$ge-f]n1 is ! "n appli$ to ano!r coal-f]n2 glossopt]is1 or tongue-leaf2 cyclopt]is1 or r\nd-leaf2 odonlopt]is1 or too?-leaf1 & _m o!rs1 %[ _! *ief *>act]i/ics 9 ! names :i* !y individually be>4 ,ale?opt]is appe>s to h be5 ! common brake ( ! coal-p]iod1 & 9 "s respects resembles pecopt]is4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4--,sph5opt]is ,aff9is4 ,coal-%ale4 ,9 "s species ( f]ns s exact are ! repres5tations :i* !y h impress$ on ! %ale :i* conta9s !m1 t n only are ! ve9s & n]ves di/9ctly visible1 b ev5 ! fructification /ill rema9s 9 ! %ape ( ! m>ks left by ! s-call$ se$s on ! backs ( ! leaves4 ,some?+ m ?an a pass+ look at ! coal specim5s 9 a good museum w well repay ! "t s sp5t4 ,:at are kn[n z sept>ian nodules1 or snake-/ones1 are1 at c]ta9 places1 common 9 ! c>bonif]\s /rata4 ,!y are compos$ ( lay]s ( iron/one & s&/one :i* h segregat$ ar\nd "s c5tral object1 su* z a f]n-leaf or a %ell4 ,:5 ! leaf ( a f]n has be5 f\nd to be ! c5tral object1 x has be5 notic$ t ! leaf c sometimes be sep>at$ f ! /one 9 ! =m ( a c>bonace\s film4 ,exp]im5ts 7 made _m ye>s ago by ,m4 ,gopp]t to illu/rate ! process ( fossilisation ( f]ns4 ,hav+ plac$ "s liv+ f]ns 9 a mass ( clay & dri$ !m1 he expos$ !m to a r$ heat1 & obta9$ !reby /rik+ resemblances to fossil plants4 ,accord+ to ! degree ( heat to :i* !y 7 subject$1 ! plants 7 f\nd to be ei!r br[n1 a %9+ black1 or entirely lo/4 ,9 ! la/ m5tion$ case1 only ! impression rema9$1 b ! c>bonace\s matt] _h gone to /a9 ! surr\nd+ clay black1 ?us indicat+ t ! d>k col\r ( ! coal-%ales is due to ! c>bon d]iv$ f ! plants :i* !y includ$4 ,ano!r v prom95t memb] ( ! vegetation ( ! coal p]iod1 0 t ord] ( plants kn[n z ! ,calamites4 ,! g5]ic di/9ctions betwe5 fossil & liv+ f]ns 7 s slight 9 _m cases z to be almo/ indi/+ui%able4 ,?is resemblance betwe5 ! anci5t & ! mod]n is n f\nd s app>5t 9 o!r plants4 ,! ,calamites ( ! coal-measures bore inde$ a v /rik+ resemblance1 & 7 closely relat$1 to our mod]n horse-tails1 z ! equiseta are popul>ly call$2 b 9 "s respects !y diff]$ consid]ably4 ,mo/ p are acqua9t$ ) ! horse-tail 7equisetum fluviatile7 ( our m>%es & dit*es4 ,x is a some:at graceful plant1 & /&s erect ) a jo9t$ /em4 ,! foliage is arrang$ 9 :orls ar\nd ! jo9ts1 &1 unlike its fossil repres5tatives1 its jo9ts are protect$ by /riat$ %ea?s4 ,! /em ( ! l>ge/ liv+ species r>ely exce$s half-an-in* 9 diamet]1 :il/ t ( ! calamite atta9$ a ?ickness ( five in*es4 ,b ! great po9t :i* is noticeable 9 ! fossil calamites & equisetites is t !y grew to a f> great] height ?an any simil> plant n[ liv+1 sometimes be+ z mu* z eight feet high4 ,9 ! nature ( _! /ems1 too1 !y exhibit$ a m highly organis$ arrangem5t ?an _! liv+ repres5tatives1 hav+1 accord+ to ,dr ,williamson1 a fi/ul> pi?1 an exog5\s woody /em1 & a ?ick smoo? b>k4 ,! b>k hav+ almo/ al ways disappe>$ has left ! flut$ /em kn[n to u z ! calamite4 ,! foliage consi/$ ( :orls ( long n>r[ leaves1 :i* diff]$ only f ! f]n a/]ophyllites 9 ! fact t !y 7 s+le-n]v$4 ,sir ,william ,dawson assigns ! calamites to f\r sub-types3 calamite prop]1 calamopitus1 calamod5dron1 & eucalamod5dron4 ,image3 ,,fig4 #g4--,root ( ,catamites ,suck[ii4 ,coal-%ale4 ,image3 ,,fig #h4--;,calamocladus gr&is4 ,c>bonif]\s s&/one4 ,hav+ us$ ! ^w exog5\s1 x might be z well to pay a little att5tion1 9 pass+1 to ! nom5clature & broad classification ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( plants4 ,we %all !n d\btless f9d x f> easi] ?or\ghly to und]/& ! position 9 ! scale ( organisation to :i* ! coal plants are ref]able4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,a/]ophyllites foliosa4 ,coal-measures4 ,! plants :i* are l[e/ 9 organisation are kn[n z ,cellul>4 ,!y are almo/ entirely compos$ ( num]\s cells built up "o above ! o!r1 & possess none ( ! high] =ms ( tissue & organisation :i* are met ) else:]e4 ,?is division includes ! li*5s1 sea-we$s1 conf]vae 7gre5 aquatic scum71 fungi 7mu%rooms1 dry-rot71 c4 ,! division ( ,vascul> plants includes ! f> l>g] proportion ( vegetation1 bo? liv+ & fossil1 & ^! plants are built up ( vessels & tissues ( v>i\s %apes & "*4 ,all plants are divid$ into 7#a7 ,cryptogams1 or ,fl[]less1 su* z mosses1 f]ns1 equisetums1 & 7#b7 ,phan]ogams1 or ,fl[]+4 ,fl[]+ plants are aga9 divid$ into ^? ) nak$ se$s1 z ! conif]s & cycads 7gymnosp]ms71 & ^? ^: se$s are enclos$ 9 vessels1 or ov>ies 7angiosp]ms74 ,angiosp]ms are aga9 divid$ into ! monocotyl$ons1 z ! palms1 & dicotyl$ons1 :i* include mo/ ,european trees4 ,?us3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- 7,m4,a4 ,brongni>t74 7,l9dley74 ,,cellul> ,cryptogams 7,fl[]less7 ,fungi1 seawe$s1 ,?allog5s li*5s ,,vascul> ,cryptogams 7,fl[]less7 ,f]ns1 equisetums1 ,acrog5s mosses1 lycopodiums ,phan]ogams 7,fl[]+7 ,gymnosp]ms 7hav+ ,conif]s & ,gymnog5s nak$ se$s7 cycads ,two or m ,cotyl$ons ,angiosp]ms 7hav+ enclos$ se$s7 ,monocotyl$ons ,palms1 lilies1 ,endog5s grasses ,dicotyl$ons ,mo/ ,european ,exog5s trees & %rubs ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,adolphe ,brongni>t t]m$ ! coal era ! ,age ( ,acrog5s1 because1 z we %all see1 ( ! great pr$om9ance 9 ^? times ( vascul> cryptogamic plants1 kn[n 9 ,dr ,l9dley's nom5clature z ,acrog5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,sp5ophyllum cuneifolium4 ,coal-%ale4 ,two ( ^! families h already be5 dealt )1 viz41 ! f]ns 7felices71 & ! equisetums1 7calamites & equisetites71 & we n[ h to pass on to ano!r family4 ,?is is t :i* includes ! fossil repres5tatives ( ! ,lycopodiums1 or ,club-mosses1 & :i* goes to make up 9 "s coals z mu* z two-?irds ( ! :ole mass4 ,ev]yone is m or less famili> ) "s ( ! liv+ ,lycopodiums1 ^? delicate little f]n-l mosses :i* are to be f\nd 9 _m a home4 ,!y are b l[ly memb]s ( our ,briti% flora1 & x may seem some:at a/\nd+ at fir/ sight t _! remote ance/ors occupi$ s important a position 9 ! =e/s ( ! anci5t p]iod ( :i* we are speak+4 ,"s two hundr$ liv+ species are kn[n1 mo/ ( !m be+ conf9$ to tropical climates4 ,!y are z a rule1 l[ creep+ plants1 al?\gh "s few /& erect4 ,!re is room = a/oni%m5t :5 we consid] ! fact t ! fossil repres5tatives ( ! family1 kn[n z ,lepidod5dra1 atta9$ a height ( no less ?an fifty feet1 &1 !re is good gr\nd = believ+1 9 _m cases1 a f> great] magnitude4 ,!y consi/ ( long /raight /ems1 or trunks :i* bran* consid]ably ne> ! top4 ,^! /ems are cov]$ ) sc>s or scales1 :i* h be5 caus$ by ! sep>ation ( ! petioles or leaf-/alks1 & ?is gives rise to ! "n :i* ! g5us be>s4 ,! sc>s are arrang$ 9 a spiral mann] ! :ole ( ! way up ! /em1 & ! /ems (t5 rema9 p]fectly upright 9 ! coal-m9es1 & rea* into ! /rata :i* h accumulat$ above ! coal-seam4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,ca/ ( lepidod5dron 9 s&/one4 ,c\nt ,/]nb]g rem>k$ t we are unacqua9t$ ) any exi/+ species ( plant1 :i* l ! ,lepidod5dron1 pres]ves at all ages1 & ?r\gh\t ! :ole ext5t ( ! trunk1 ! sc>s =m$ by ! atta*m5t ( ! petioles1 or leaf-/alks1 or ! m>k+s ( ! leaves !mselves4 ,! yucca1 draca5a1 & palm1 entirely %$ _! scales :5 !y are dri$ up1 & !re only rema9 circles1 or r+s1 arrang$ r\nd ! trunk 9 diff]5t directions4 ,! flabelli=m palms pres]ve _! scales at ! inf]ior extremity ( ! trunk only1 b lose !m z !y increase 9 age2 & ! /em is entirely b>e1 f ! middle to ! sup]ior extremity4 ,9 ! anci5t ,lepidod5dron1 on ! o!r h&1 ! m anci5t ! scale ( ! leaf-/alk1 ! m app>5t x /ill rema9s4 ,portions ( /ems h be5 discov]$ :i* conta9 leaf-sc>s f> l>g] ?an ^? ref]r$ to above1 & we d$uce f ^! fragm5ts ! fact t ^? individuals :i* h be5 f\nd :ole1 are n by any means ! l>ge/ ( ^? :i* w5t to =m s l>ge a proportion ( ! anci5t coal-=e/s4 ,! lepidod5dra bore l9e> "o-n]v$ leaves1 & ! /ems always bran*$ di*otom\sly & possess$ a c5tral pi?4 ,specim5s v>i\sly nam$ knorria1 lepidophloios1 halonia1 & ulod5dron are all ref]able to ?is family4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,lepidod5dron longifolium4 ,coal-%ale4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,lepidod5dron aculeatum 9 s&/one4 ,9 "s /rata1 z = in/ance t ( ! ,%rop%ire coalfield1 quantities ( elongat$ cyl9drical bodies kn[n z lepido/robi h be5 f\nd1 :i*1 x 0 e>ly conjectur$1 7 ! fruit ( ! giant club-mosses ab\t :i* we h j be5 speak+4 ,_! appe>ance c be call$ to m9d by imag9+ ! cyl9drical fruit ( ! maize or ,indian corn to be r$uc$ to "s ?ree or f\r in*es 9 l5g?4 ,! sporangia or cases :i* conta9$ ! microscopic spores or se$s 7 arrang$ ar\nd a c5tral axis 9 a some:at simil> mann] to t 9 :i* maize is f\nd4 ,^! bodies h s9ce be5 f\nd actually situat$ at ! end ( bran*es ( lepidod5dron1 ?us plac+ _! true nature beyond a d\bt4 ,! fossil se$s 7spores7 d n appe> to h exce$$ 9 volume ^? ( rec5t club-mosses1 & ?is al?\gh ! actual trees !mselves grew to a size v _m times great] ?an ! liv+ species4 ,?is m9ut5ess ( ! se$-g]ms goes to expla9 ! reason :y1 z ,sir ,*>les ,lyell rem>k$1 ! same species ( lepidod5dra are s widely di/ribut$ 9 ! coal measures ( ,europe & ,am]ica1 _! spores be+ capable ( an easy transportation by ! w9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,lepido/robus4 ,coal-%ale4 ,"o /rik+ feature 9 connection ) ! fruit ( ! lepidod5dron & o!r anci5t repres5tatives ( ! club-moss tribe1 is t ! bitum9\s coals 9 _m1 if n 9 mo/1 in/ances1 are made up almo/ entirely ( _! spores & spore-cases4 ,"u a microscope1 a piece ( su* coal is se5 to be ?rong$ ) ! m9ute r\nd$ bodies ( ! spores int]lac+ "o ano!r & =m+ almo/ ! :ole mass1 :il/ l>g] ?an ^!1 & (t5 inde$ enclos+ !m1 are flatt5$ bag-l bodies :i* are none o!r ?an ! compress$ sporangia :i* conta9$ ! =m]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,lycopodites4 ,coal s&/one4 ,n[1 ! little ,scotti% or ,alp9e club-moss :i* is s famili>1 produces its own little cones1 ea* ) its s]ies ( outside scales or leaves2 ^! are atta*$ to ! bags or spore-cases1 :i* are cr[d$ ) spores4 ,al?\gh 9 m9iature1 yet x produces its fruit 9 j ! same way1 at ! t]m9ations ( its little bran*es1 & ! spores1 ! actual g]ms ( life1 :5 exam9$ microscopically1 are sc>cely di/+ui%able f ^? :i* are conta9$ 9 c]ta9 bitum9\s coals4 ,&1 al?\gh anci5t club-mosses h be5 f\nd 9 a fossilis$ condition at lea/ =ty-n9e feet high1 ! spores are no l>g] ?an ^? ( our m9iature club-mosses ( ! pres5t day4 ,! spores are m or less compos$ ( pure bitum51 & ! bitum9\s nature ( ! coal dep5ds l>gely on ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ^! microscopic bodies 9 x4 ,! spores ( ! liv+ club-mosses conta9 s mu* res9\s matt] t !y are n[ l>gely us$ 9 ! mak+ ( fireworks1 & ^u ! pres5ce ( ?is alt]$ res9\s matt] 9 coal dep5ds its capability ( provid+ a good blaz+ coal4 ,at fir/ sight x seems almo/ impossible t su* a m9ute cause %\ld result 9 ! =mation ( huge masses ( coal1 su* an inconceivable numb] ( spores be+ necess>y to make ev5 ! smalle/ fragm5t ( coal4 ,b if we look at ! cl\d ( spores t c be %ak5 f a s+le spike ( a club-moss1 !n imag9e ?is to be repeat$ a ?\s& times f ea* bran* ( a fairly tall tree1 & !n f9ally picture a :ole =e/ ( su* trees %$d+ 9 due season _! copi\s %[]s ( spores to e>?1 we %all p]haps be less amaz$ ?an we 7 at fir/ ?\ght1 at ! /up5d\s result wr\ght out by s m9ute an object4 ,ano!r well-kn[n =m ( c>bonif]\s vegetation is t kn[n z ! ,sigill>ia1 &1 connect$ ) ?is =m is "o1 :i* 0 long famili> "u ! "n ( ,/igm>ia1 b :i* has s9ce be5 satisfactorily prov$ to h =m$ ! bran*+ root ( ! sigill>ia4 ,! old] geologi/s 7 9 ! habit ( plac+ ^! plants among ! tree-f]ns1 pr9cipally on acc\nt ( ! cicatrices :i* 7 left at ! junctions ( ! leaf-/alks ) ! /em1 aft] ! =m] _h fall5 (f4 ,no foliage _h1 h[ev]1 be5 met ) :i* 0 actually atta*$ to ! plants1 & h5ce1 :5 x 0 discov]$ t "s ( !m _h long att5uat$ leaves n at all l ^? possess$ by f]ns1 geologi/s 7 compell$ to ab&on ?is classification ( !m1 & ev5 n[ no satisfactory ref]5ce to exi/+ ord]s ( !m has be5 made1 ow+ to _! anomal\s /ructure4 ,! /ems are flut$ f base to /em1 al?\gh ?is is n s app>5t ne> ! base1 :il/ ! rais$ prom95ces :i* n[ =m ! cicatrices1 are arrang$ at regul> di/ances )9 ! v]tical grooves4 ,:5 !y h rema9$ /&+ = "s l5g? ( "t1 & ! /rata h be5 all[$ quietly to accumulate ar\nd ! trunks1 !y h escap$ compression4 ,!y 7 evid5tly1 to a great ext5t1 holl[ l a re$1 s t 9 ^? trees :i* /ill rema9 v]tical1 ! int]ior has become fill$ up by a coat ( s&/one1 :il/ ! b>k has become trans=m$ into an envelope ( an in*1 or half an in* ( coal4 ,b _m are f\nd ly+ 9 ! /rata 9 a horizontal plane4 ,^! h be5 ca/ d[n & cov]$ up by an ev]-increas+ load ( /rata1 s t ! weight has1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 compress$ ! tree into simply ! ?ickness ( ! d\ble b>k1 t is1 ( ! two opposite sides ( ! envelope :i* cov]$ x :5 liv+4 ,sigill>ae grew to a v great height )\t bran*+1 "s specim5s hav+ measur$ f #fj to #gj feet long4 ,9 accordance ) _! outside m>k+s1 c]ta9 types are kn[n z syr+od5dron1 favul>ia1 & cla?r>ia4 ,diploxylon is a t]m appli$ to an int]ior /em ref]able to ?is family4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,/igm>ia ficoides4 ,coal-%ale4 ,b ! mo/ int]e/+ po9t ab\t ! sigill>iae is ! root4 ,?is 0 = a long "t reg>d$ z an entirely di/9ct individual1 & ! old] geologi/s expla9$ x 9 _! writ+s z a species ( succul5t aquatic plant1 giv+ x ! "n ( /igm>ia4 ,!y realiz$ ! fact t x 0 almo/ univ]sally f\nd 9 ^? b$s :i* occur imm$iately b5ea? ! coal seams1 b = a long "t x did n /rike !m t x might possibly be ! root ( a tree4 ,9 an old edition ( ,lyell's ,elem5ts ( ,geology1 utt]ly unlike exi/+ editions 9 quality1 quantity1 or compreh5siv5ess1 aft] describ+ x z an ext9ct species ( wat]-plant1 ! au?or haz>d$ ! conjecture t x might ultimately be f\nd to h a connection ) "s o!r well-kn[n plant or tree4 ,x 0 notic$ t above ! coal1 9 ! ro(1 /igm>iae 7 abs5t1 & t ! /ems ( trees :i* occurr$ !re1 _h become flatt5$ by ! weight ( ! ov]ly+ /rata4 ,! /igm>iae on ! o!r h&1 ab\nd$ 9 ! und]clay1 z x is call$1 & 7 n 9 any way compress$ b reta9$ :at appe>$ to be _! natural %ape & position4 ,h5ce to expla9 _! appe>ance1 x 0 ?\ght t !y 7 wat]-plants1 ramify+ ! mud 9 e direction1 & f9ally becom+ ov]:elm$ & cov]$ by ! mud itself4 ,on botanical gr\nds1 ,brongni>t & ,lyell conjectur$ t !y =m$ ! roots ( o!r trees1 & ?is became ! m app>5t z x came to be ackn[l$g$ t ! und]clays 7 really anci5t soils4 ,all d\bt 01 h[ev]1 f9ally dispell$ by ! discov]y by ,mr ,b9ney1 ( a sigill>ia & a /igm>ia 9 actual connection ) ea* o!r1 9 ! ,lanca%ire coal-field4 ,/igm>iae h s9ce be5 f\nd 9 ! ,cape ,breton coal-field1 atta*$ to ,lepidod5dra1 ab\t :i* we h already spok51 & a simil> discov]y has s9ce be5 made 9 ! ,briti% coal-fields4 ,?is1 !re=e1 w\ld seem to %ew ! aff9ity ( ! sigill>ia to ! lepidod5dron1 & ?r\gh x to ! liv+ lycopods1 or club-mosses4 ,"s few species ( /igm>ian roots _h be5 discov]$1 & v>i\s specific names _h be5 giv5 to !m be=e _! actual nature 0 made out4 ,:at = "s "t 7 ?\ght to be long cyl9drical leaves1 h n[ be5 f\nd to be simply rootlets1 & 9 specim5s :]e ^! h be5 remov$1 ! surface ( ! /igm>ia has be5 notic$ to be cov]$ ) l>ge numb]s ( protub]ant tub]cles1 :i* h =m$ ! bases ( ! rootlets4 ,!re appe>s to h also be5 "s special k9d ( arrangem5t 9 _! gr[?1 s9ce1 unlike ! roots ( mo/ liv+ plants1 ! tub]cles to :i* ^! rootlets 7 atta*$1 7 arrang$ spirally ar\nd ! ma9 root4 ,ea* ( ^! tub]cles 0 pitt$ 9 ! c5tre1 & into ^! ! almo/ po9t$ ends ( ! rootlets fitt$1 z by a ball & socket jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag--,section ( /igm>ia4 ,a s+le trunk ( sigill>ia 9 an erect =e/ pres5ts an epitome ( a coal-seam4 ,its roots repres5t ! /igm>ia und]clay2 its b>k ! compact coal2 its woody axis1 ! m9]al *>coal2 its fall5 leaves & fruits1 ) rema9s ( h]bace\s plants gr[+ 9 its %ade1 mix$ ) a little e>?y matt]1 ! lay]s ( co>se coal4 ,! condition ( ! durable out] b>k ( erect trees1 concurs ) ! *emical !ory ( coal1 9 %[+ ! especial suitabl5ess ( ?is k9d ( tissue = ! production ( ! pur] compact coals4--7,dawson1 ,/ructures 9 ,coal47 ,!re is yet "o o!r family ( plants :i* mu/ be m5tion$1 & :i* =ms a v important portion ( ! con/itu5t flora ( ! coal p]iod4 ,?is is ! great family ( ! conif]ae1 :i* al?\gh diff]+ 9 _m respects f ! highly organis$ dicotyl$ons ( ! pres5t day1 yet resembl$ !m 9 "s respects1 especially 9 ! =mation ( an annual r+ ( woody gr[?4 ,! conif]s are ^? trees :i*1 z ! "n w\ld imply1 be> _! fruit 9 ! =m ( cones1 su* z ! fir1 l>*1 c$>1 & o!rs4 ,! ord] is "o :i* is famili> to all1 n only on acc\nt ( ! cones !y be>1 & _! %$d+s1 :i* 9 ! autumn /rew ! gr\nd ) a s(t c>pet ( long ne$le-l leaves1 b also because ( ! gum-l secretion ( res9 :i* is conta9$ 9 _! tissues4 ,only a few species h be5 f\nd 9 ! coal-b$s1 & ^!1 on exam9ation "u ! microscope1 h be5 discov]$ to be closely relat$ to ! arauc>ian division ( p9es1 r ?an to any ( our common firs4 ,! liv+ species ( ?is tree is a native ( ,norfolk ,isl&1 9 ! ,pacific1 & "h x atta9s a height ( #bjj feet1 ) a gir? ( #cj feet4 ,f ! peculi> arrangem5t ( ! ducts 9 ! elongat$ cellul> tissue ( ! tree1 z se5 "u ! microscope1 ! fossil conif]s1 :i* exhibit ?is /ructure1 h be5 plac$ 9 ! same division4 ,! famili> fossil kn[n to geologi/s z ,/]nb]gia has n[ be5 %[n to be ! ca/ ( ! c5tral pi? ( ^! conif]s1 among/ :i* may be m5tion$ cordaites1 arauc>ites1 & dadoxylon44 ,! c5tral cores _h become replac$ ) inorganic matt] aft] ! pi? _h %runk & left ! space empty4 ,?is %r9kage ( ! pi? is a process :i* takes place 9 _m plants ev5 :5 liv+1 & in/ances w at once occur1 9 :i* ! /ems ( v>i\s species ( %rubs :5 brok5 op5 exhibit ! rema9s ( ! %runk5 pi?1 9 ! %ape ( ?9 discs across ! int]val cavity4 ,we might reasonably expect t :]e we f9d ! rema9s ( fossil conif]\s trees1 we %\ld also meet ) ! cones or fruit :i* !y be>4 ,& su* is ! case4 ,9 "s coal-di/ricts fossil fruits1 nam$ c>dioc>pum & trigonoc>pum1 h be5 f\nd 9 great quantities1 & ^! h n[ be5 decid$ by botani/s to be ! fruits ( c]ta9 conif]s1 alli$1 n to ^? :i* be> h>d cones1 b to ^? :i* be> solit>y fle%y fruits4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell ref]r$ !m to a ,*9ese g5us ( ! yew tribe call$ salisburia4 ,dawson /ates t !y are v simil> to bo? taxus & salisburia44 ,!y are abundant 9 "s coal-measures1 & are conta9$1 n only 9 ! coal itself1 b also 9 ! s&/ones & %ales4 ,! "u-clays appe> to be devoid ( !m1 & ?is is1 ( c\rse1 exactly :at might h be5 expect$1 s9ce ! se$s w\ld rema9 ^u ! soil until cov]$ up by vegetable matt]1 b w\ld nev] =m "p ( ! clay soil itself4 ,9 connection ) ! v>ieties :i* h be5 di/+ui%$ 9 ! families ( ! conif]s1 calamites1 & sigill>iae1 ,sir ,william ,dawson makes ! foll[+ obs]vations3 ,i believe t !re 0 a consid]ably wide range ( organisation 9 cordait9ae z well z 9 calamites & sigill>iae1 & t x w ev5tually be f\nd t !re 7 ?ree l9es ( connection betwe5 ! high] cryptogams 7fl[]less7 & ! pha5ogams 7fl[]+71 "o lead+ f ! lycopodes by ! sigill>iae1 ano!r lead+ by ! cordaites1 & ! ?ird lead+ f ! equisetums by ! calamites4 ,/ill fur!r back ! *>act]s1 aft]w>ds sep>at$ 9 ! club-mosses1 m>e's-tails1 & f]ns1 7 unit$ 9 ! rhizoc>ps1 or1 z "s pref] to call !m1 ! het]ospor\s filic9ae4 ,9 conclud+ ?is *apt] deal+ ) ! v>i\s k9ds ( plants :i* h be5 discov]$ z contribut+ to ! =mation ( coal-measures1 x w\ld be z well to say a ^w or two conc]n+ ! climate :i* mu/ h be5 necess>y to p]mit ( ! gr[? ( su* an abundance ( vegetation4 ,x is at once admitt$ by all botani/s t a moi/1 humid1 & w>m atmosph]e 0 necess>y to acc\nt = ! exi/5ce ( su* an abundance ( f]ns4 ,! gorge\s wav+ tree-f]ns :i* 7 d\btless an important feature ( ! l&scape1 w\ld h requir$ a moi/ heat su* z does n n[ exi/ 9 ?is c\ntry1 al?\gh n necess>ily a tropical heat4 ,! magnific5t giant lycopodiums ca/ into ! %ade all our liv+ memb]s ( t class1 ! l>ge/ ( :i* p]haps are ^? t fl\ri% 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,9 ,new ,zeal&1 too1 are f\nd _m species ( f]ns1 bo? ^? :i* are arboresc5t & ^? :i* are ( m humble /ature4 ,add to ^! ! num]\s conif]s :i* are !re f\nd1 & we %all f9d t a =e/ 9 t c\ntry may repres5t to a c]ta9 ext5t ! appe>ance pres5t$ by a =e/ ( c>bonif]\s vegetation4 ,! f]ns1 lycopods1 & p9es1 h[ev]1 :i* appe> !re1 x is b fair to add1 are mix$ ) o!r types alli$ to m rec5t =ms ( vegetation4 ,!re are _m reasons = believ+ t ! am\nt ( c>bonic acid gas !n exi/+ 9 ! atmosph]e 0 l>g] ?an ! quantity :i* we n[ f9d1 & ,pr(essor ,tyndall has %[n t ! effect ( ?is w\ld be to prev5t radiation ( heat f ! e>?4 ,! result+ =ms ( vegetation w\ld be su* z w\ld be comp>able ) ^? :i* are n[ re>$ 9 ! gre5-h\se or cons]vatory 9 ^! latitudes4 ,! gas w\ld1 9 fact1 act z a glass ro(1 ext5d+ ov] ! :ole _w4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,a ,,g5]al ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,coal-,,be>+ ,,/rata4 ,9 consid]+ ! s\rce :5ce coal is d]iv$1 we mu/ be c>eful to rememb] t coal itself is b a m9or portion ( ! :ole =mation 9 :i* x occurs4 ,! pres5ce ( coal has inde$ giv5 ! "n to ! =mation1 ! ^w c>bonif]\s mean+ coal-be>+1 b 9 tak+ a compreh5sive view ( ! position :i* x occupies 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?1 x w be necess>y to take into consid]ation ! /rata 9 :i* x is f\nd1 & ! conditions1 s f> z are kn[n1 "u :i* ^! 7 deposit$4 ,geologically speak+1 ! ,c>bonif]\s =mation occurs ne> ! close ( t gr\p ( sy/ems :i* h be5 class$ z palaeozoic1 y\ng] 9 po9t ( age ?an ! well kn[n ,devonian & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one /rata1 b old] by f> ?an ! ,oolites1 ! ,weald51 or ! ,cretace\s /rata4 ,9 ,s\? ,wales ! coal-be>+ /rata h be5 e/imat$ at betwe5 #aa1jjj & #ab1jjj feet1 yet among/ ?is enorm\s ?ickness ( /rata1 ! :ole ( ! v>i\s coal-seams1 if tak5 toge!r1 probably does n am\nt to m ?an #abj feet4 ,?is great disproportion betwe5 ! total ?ickness & ! ?ickness ( coal itself %[s itself 9 e coal-field t has be5 work$1 & :5 a s+le seam ( coal is discov]$ atta9+ a ?ickness ( #i or #aj feet1 x is s unusual a ?+ 9 ,great ,brita9 z to cause x to be kn[n z ! n9e or t5-foot seam1 z ! case may be4 ,al?\gh abroad _m seams are f\nd :i* are ( great] ?icknesses1 yet simil>ly ! o!r portions ( ! =mation are proportionately great]4 ,x is n possible !re=e to realise completely ! significance ( ! coal-b$s !mselves unless !re is also a k ( ! rema9+ con/itu5ts ( ! :ole =mation4 ,! /rata f\nd 9 ! v>i\s coal-fields diff] consid]ably among/ !mselves 9 "*4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 well-def9$ *>act]i/ics :i* f9d repres5tation 9 mo/ ( ! pr9cipal coal-fields1 :e!r ,briti% or ,european4 ,pr(essor ,hull classifies ^! c>bonif]\s b$s z foll[s3-- ,,upp] ,,c>bonif]\s4 ,upp] coal-measures4 ,r$di% & purple s&/ones1 r$ & grey clays & %ales1 ?9 b&s ( coal1 iron/one & lime/one1 ) spirorbis & fi%4 ,middle coal-measures4 ,yell[ & gray s&/ones1 blue & black clays & %ales1 b&s ( coal & iron/one1 fossil plants1 bivalves & fi%1 occasional m>9e b&s4 ,,middle ,,c>bonif]\s4 ,ganni/] b$s or ,l[] coal-measures4 ,mill/one grit4 ,flag/one s]ies 9 ,irel&4 ,yor$ale b$s4 ,upp] %ale s]ies ( ,irel&4 ,,l[] ,,c>bonif]\s4 ,m\nta9 lime/one4 ,lime/one %ale4 ,ea* ( ! ?ree pr9cipal divisions has its repres5tative 9 ,scotl&1 ,belgium1 & ,irel&1 b1 un=tunately = ! la/-nam$ c\ntry1 ! :ole ( ! upp] coal-measures are !re abs5t4 ,x is f ^! measures t almo/ all our comm]cial coals are obta9$4 ,?is li/ ( b$s might be fur!r curtail$ = all practical purposes ( ! geologi/1 & ! ?ree great divisions ( ! sy/em w\ld ?us /&3-- ,upp] ,c>bonif]\s1 or ,coal-measures prop]4 ,mill/one grit4 ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s1 or ,m\nta9 lime/one4 ,9 %ort1 ! =mation consi/s ( masses ( s&/one1 %ale1 lime/one & coal1 ^! also enclos+ clays & iron/ones1 &1 9 ! lime/one1 m>bles & ve9s ( ! ores ( lead1 z9c1 & antimony1 & occasionally silv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,sigill>ian trunks 9 curr5t-b$d$ s&/one4 ,/ ,eti5ne4 ,z ! mo/ app>5t ( ! rocks ( ! sy/em are s&/one1 %ale1 lime/one1 & coal1 x w be necess>y to consid] h[ ^! 7 deposit$ 9 ! wat]s ( ! c>bonif]\s ages1 & ?is we c be/ d by consid]+ ! laws "u :i* /rata ( a simil> nature are n[ be+ deposit$ z s$im5t>y b$s4 ,a great proportion consi/s ( s&/one4 ,n[ s&/one is ! result ( s& :i* has be5 deposit$ 9 l>ge quantities1 hav+ become indurat$ or h>d5$ by v>i\s processes br\ght to be> ^u x4 ,x is necess>y1 !re=e1 fir/ to asc]ta9 :5ce came ! s&1 & :e!r !re are any peculi>ities 9 its me?od ( deposition :i* w expla9 its /ratification4 ,x w be notic$ at once t x be>s a consid]able am\nt ( evid5ce ( :at is call$ curr5t-b$d+1 t is to say1 t ! /rata1 in/ead ( be+ regul>ly deposit$1 exhibit s]ies ( w$ge-%ap$ masses1 :i* are con/antly ?9n+ out4 ,s& & qu>tz are ( ! same *emical composition1 & 9 all probability ! s& ( :i* e s&/one 9 exi/5ce is compos$1 appe>$ on ?is e>? 9 its fir/ solid =m 9 ! %ape ( qu>tz4 ,n[ qu>tz is a comp>atively heavy m9]al1 s also1 !re=e1 w s& be4 ,x is also v h>d1 & 9 ^! two respects x diff]s entirely f ano!r product ( s$im5t>y deposition1 namely1 mud or clay1 ) :i* we %all h pres5tly to deal :5 com+ to ! %ales4 ,s9ce qu>tz is a h>d m9]al x necess>ily foll[s t x w suff]1 )\t be+ greatly affect$1 a f> great] am\nt ( we>+ & knock+ ab\t :5 be+ transport$ by ! ag5cy ( curr5ts & riv]s1 ?an w a s(t] sub/ance1 su* z clay4 ,an equal am\nt ( ?is we>+ action ^u clay w r$uce x to a f9e impalpable silt4 ,! gra9s ( s&1 h[ev]1 w /ill rema9 ( an appreciable av]age size1 & :]e bo? s& & clay are be+ transport$ to ! sea 9 "o & ! same /ream1 ! clay w be transport$ to long di/ances1 :il/ ! s&1 be+ heavi]1 bulk = bulk1 & also consi/+ ( gra9s l>g] 9 size ?an gra9s ( clay1 w be rapidly deposit$1 & =m b$s ( s&4 ,( c\rse1 if ! curr5t be a viol5t "o1 ! s& is transport$1 n by be+ held 9 susp5sion1 b r by be+ pu%$ along ! b$ ( ! riv]2 su* an action w !n t5d to cause ! s& to become p[d]$ into /ill f9] s&4 ,:5 a riv] ent]s ! sea x soon loses its individuality2 x becomes m]g$ 9 ! body ( ! ocean1 :]e x loses its curr5t1 & :]e !re=e x has no p[] to keep 9 susp5sion ! s$im5t :i* x _h br\ght d[n f ! high] l&s4 ,:5 ?is is ! case1 ! s& borne 9 susp5sion is ! fir/ to be deposit$1 & ?is accumulates 9 banks ne> ! entrance ( ! riv] into ! sea4 ,we w suppose1 = illu/ration1 t a small riv] has become *>g$ ) a supply ( s&4 ,z x gradually approa*es ! sea1 & ! curr5t loses its =ce1 ! s& is ! m sluggi%ly c>ri$ along1 until f9ally x falls to ! bottom1 & =ms a lay] ( s& !re4 ,?is lay] increases 9 ?ickness until x causes ! dep? ( wat] above x to become comp>atively %all[4 ,on ! %all[+ process tak+ place1 ! curr5t w /ill h a c]ta91 ?\gh slight]1 hold on ! s& 9 susp5sion1 & w transport x yet a little fur!r seaw>d1 :5 x w be ?r[n d[n1 at ! edge ( ! bank or lay] already =m$1 ?us t5d+ to ext5d ! bank1 & to %all[ a wid] space ( riv]-b$4 ,z a result ( ?is action1 /rata w\ld be =m$1 %ew+ /ratification diagonally z well z horizontally1 repres5t$ 9 section z a numb] ( banks :i* _h seem+ly be5 ?r[n d[n "o above ! o!r1 end+ 9 ?9 w$ge-%ap$ t]m9ations :]e ! p>ticul> supply ( s$im5t to :i* ea* ow$ its =mation _h fail$4 ,! masses ( s&/one :i* are f\nd 9 ! c>bonif]\s =mation1 exhibit 9 a l>ge degree ^! w$ge-%ap$ /rata1 & we h !re=e a clue at once1 bo? z to _! prop9quity to sea & l&1 & also z to ! mann] 9 :i* !y 7 =m$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,productus4 ,coal-measures4 ,!re is "o ?+ m1 too1 ab\t !m4 ,j z1 9 ! case we 7 consid]+1 we c\ld obs]ve t ! w$ge-%ap$ /rata always po9t$ away f ! s\rce ( ! mat]ial :i* =m$ !m1 s we c simil>ly judge t 9 ! c>bonif]\s /rata ! same d$uction holds good1 t ! diagonally-po9t+ /rata 7 =m$ 9 ! same way1 & t _! ?9n+ out 0 simply ow+ to tempor>y failure ( s$im5t1 made good1 h[ev]1 by a fur!r deposition ( /rata :5 ! next supply 0 borne d[n4 ,x is sc>cely likely1 h[ev]1 t s& 9 a pure /ate 0 always c>ri$ d[n by ! curr5ts to ! sea4 ,sometimes !re w\ld be "s silt mix$ ) x4 ,j z 9 _m p>ts l>ge masses ( almo/ pure s&/one h be5 =m$1 s 9 o!r places %ales1 or1 z !y are popul>ly kn[n by m9]s1 b9d1 h be5 =m$4 ,%ales are =m$ f ! clays :i* h be5 c>ri$ d[n by ! riv]s 9 ! %ape ( silt1 b :i* h s9ce become h>d5$1 & n[ split up easily into ?9 p>allel lay]s4 ,! read] has no d\bt (t5 h&l$ a piece ( h>d clay :5 fre% f ! qu>ry1 & has rememb]$ h[ t1 :5 he has be5 break+ x up1 9 ord]1 p]haps1 to excavate a p>tially-hidd5 fossil1 x has readily split up 9 ?9 flakes or lay]s ( %aly sub/ance4 ,?is exhibits1 on a small scale1 ! *ief peculi>ity ( ! coal %ales4 ,! =mation ( %ales w n[ dem& our att5tion4 ,:5 a riv] is c>ry+ d[n ) x a quantity ( mud or clay1 x is transport$ z a f9e1 du/y silt1 & :5 pres5t 9 quantities1 gives ! muddy t9t to ! wat] :i* is s noticeable4 ,we c v well see h[ t silt w be c>ri$ d[n 9 great] quantities ?an s&1 s9ce ne>ly all riv]s 9 "s "p ( _! c\rse w travel ?r\gh a clayey di/rict1 & f9ely-divid$ clay1 be+ ( a v light nature1 w be c>ri$ =w>d :5ev] a riv] passes ov] su* a di/rict4 ,& a v slight curr5t be+ suffici5t to c>ry x 9 a /ate ( susp5sion1 x foll[s t x w h little opportunity ( fall+ to ! bottom1 until1 by "s means or o!r1 ! curr5t1 :i* is ! means ( its conveyance1 becomes /opp$ or h9d]$ consid]ably 9 its fl[4 ,:5 ! riv] ent]s a l>ge body ( wat]1 su* z ! ocean or a lake1 9 los+ its individuality1 x loses also ! velocity ( its curr5t1 & ! silt t5ds to s9k d[n to ! bottom4 ,b be+ less heavy ?an ! s&1 ab\t :i* we h previ\sly spok51 x does n s9k all at once1 b p>tly ) ! impetus x has ga9$1 & p>tly on acc\nt ( ! v slight velocity :i* ! curr5t /ill reta9s1 ev5 aft] hav+ ent]$ ! sea1 x w be c>ri$ out "s di/ance1 & w ! m gradually s9k to ! bottom4 ,! deep] ! wat] 9 :i* x falls ! great] ! possibility ( its drift+ f>!r /ill1 s9ce 9 s9k+1 x w\ld fall1 n v]tically1 b r z ! drops ( ra9 9 a %[] :5 be+ driv5 be=e a gale ( w9d4 ,?us we %\ld notice t clays & %ales w\ld exhibit a regul>ity & uni=mity ( deposition ov] a wide area4 ,curr5ts & tides 9 ! sea or lake w\ld t5d /ill fur!r to ret>d deposition1 :il/ any /oppages 9 ! supply ( silt :i* took place w\ld give ! =m] lay] "t to consolidate & h>d51 & ?is w\ld assi/ 9 giv+ x t b$d$ /ructure :i* is s noticeable 9 ! %ales1 & :i* causes x to split up into f9e lam9ae4 ,?is uni=mity ( /ructure 9 ! %ales ov] wide areas is a well asc]ta9$ *>act]i/ic ( ! coal-%ales1 & we may !re=e reg>d ! me?od ( _! deposition z giv5 "h ) a degree ( c]ta9ty4 ,!re is a class ( deposit f\nd among ! coal-b$s1 :i* is kn[n z ! und]clay1 & ?is is ! mo/ regul> ( all z to ! position 9 :i* x is f\nd4 ,! und]clays are f\nd b5ea? e b$ ( coal4 ,w>rant1 spav91 & ganni/] are local names :i* are sometimes appli$ to x1 ! la/ be+ a t]m us$ :5 ! clay conta9s su* a l>ge proportion ( silici\s matt] z to become almo/ l a h>d fl9ty rock4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 x is a s(t clay1 at o!rs x is mix$ ) s&1 b :atev] ! composition ( ! und]clays may be1 !y always agree 9 be+ un/ratifi$4 ,!y also agree 9 ?is respect t ! peculi> fossils kn[n z /igm>iae ab\nd 9 !m1 & 9 "s cases to su* an ext5t t ! clay is "o ?ickly-matt$ mass ( ! filam5t\s rootlets ( ^! fossils4 ,we h se5 h[ ^! gradually came to be recognis$ z ! roots ( trees :i* grew 9 ?is age1 & ^: rema9s h subsequ5tly become metamorphos$ into coal1 & x is b "o /ep f>!r to come to ! conclusion t ^! und]clays are ! anci5t soils 9 :i* ! plants grew4 ,no sket* ( ! v>i\s b$s :i* g to =m ! coal-measures w\ld be complete :i* did n take into acc\nt ! enorm\s b$s ( m\nta9 lime/one :i* =m ! basis ( ! :ole sy/em1 & :i* 9 ?9n] b&s are int]calat$ among/ ! upp] portion ( ! sy/em1 or ! true coal-measures4 ,n[1 lime/ones are n =m$ 9 ! same way 9 :i* we h se5 t s&/ones & %ales are =m$4 ,! la/ two m5tion$ owe _! orig9 to _! deposition z s$im5t 9 seas1 e/u>ies or lakes1 b ! masses ( lime/one :i* are f\nd 9 ! v>i\s geological =mations owe _! orig9 to causes o!r ?an t ( s$im5t>y deposition4 ,9 c>bonif]\s times !re liv$ numb]less creatures :i* we "k n[adays z encr9ites4 ,^!1 :5 gr[+1 7 fix$ to ! b$ ( ! ocean1 & ext5d$ upw>d 9 ! %ape ( pliant /ems compos$ ( lime/one jo9ts or plates2 ! /em ( ea* encr9ite !n exp&$ at ! top 9 ! %ape ( a gorge\s & graceful />fi%1 possess$ ( numb]less & l5g?y arms4 ,^! encr9ites grew 9 su* pr(usion t aft] dea?1 :5 ! plates ( :i* _! /ems consi/$1 became loos5$ & scatt]$ ov] ! b$ ( ! sea1 !y accumulat$ & =m$ solid b$s ( lime/one4 ,besides ! encr9ites1 !re 7 ( c\rse o!r creatures :i* 7 able to create ! h>d p>ts ( _! /ructures by )draw+ lime f ! sea1 su* z =am9if]a1 %ell-fi%1 & especially corals1 s t all ^! assi/$ aft] dea? 9 ! accumulation ( b$s ( lime/one :]e !y _h gr[n & liv$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,encr9ite4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,encr9ital lime/one4 ,!re is "o peculi>ity 9 connection ) ! habitats ( ! encr9ites & corals :i* goes "s di/ance 9 supply+ u ) a useful clue z to ! conditions "u :i* ?is portion ( ! c>bonif]\s =mation 0 =m$4 ,^! creatures f9d x a difficult matt]1 z a rule1 to live & secrete _! calc>e\s skeleton 9 any wat] b t :i* is cle>1 & free f muddy or s&y s$im5t4 ,!y are !re=e n f\nd1 g5]ally speak+1 :]e ! o!r deposits :i* we h consid]$1 are =m+1 &1 z ^! are always f\nd ne> ! coa/s1 x foll[s t ! habitats ( ! creatures ref]r$ to mu/ be f> out at sea :]e no muddy s$im5ts1 borne by riv]s1 c rea* !m4 ,we c !re=e safely come to ! conclusion t ! l>ge masses ( encr9ital lime/one1 :i* atta9 su* an enorm\s ?ickness 9 "s places1 especially 9 ,irel&1 h be5 =m$ f> away f ! l& ( ! p]iod2 we c at ! same "t draw ! conclusion t if we f9d ! encr9ites brok5 & snapp$ asund]1 & ! lime/one deposits becom+ impure ?r\gh be+ m+l$ ) a proportion ( clayey or s&y deposits1 t we are approa*+ a coa/-l9e :]e p]haps a riv] op5$ out1 & :]e x de/roy$ ! gr[? ( encr9ites1 mix+ ) _! dead rema9s ! s$im5t>y dbris ( ! l&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,encr9ites3 v>i\s4 ,m\nta9 lime/one4 ,we h lightly glanc$ at ! circum/ances att5d+ ! deposition ( ea* ( ! pr9cipal rocks :i* =m ! b$s among/ :i* coal is f\nd1 & h n[ to deal ) ! =mation ( ! coal itself4 ,we h already consid]$ ! v>i\s k9ds ( plants & trees :i* h be5 discov]$ z contribut+ _! rema9s to ! =mation ( coal1 & h n[ to attempt an explanation ( h[ x came to be =m$ 9 s regul> a mann] ov] s wide an area4 ,ea* ( ! ,briti% coal-fields is fairly ext5sive4 ,! ,york%ire & ,d]by%ire coal-fields1 toge!r ) ! ,lanca%ire coal-field1 ) :i* !y 7 at "o "t 9 geological connection1 give u an area ( ne>ly #ajjj squ>e miles1 & o!r ,briti% coal-fields %[ at lea/ "s hundr$s ( squ>e miles4 ,& yet1 spread ov] !m1 we f9d a s]ies ( b$s ( coal :i* 9 _m cases ext5d ?r\gh\t ! :ole area ) app>5t regul>ity4 ,if we take x1 z !re seems e reason to believe 0 ! case1 t almo/ all ^! coal-fields 7 n only be+ =m$ at ! same "t1 b 7 9 mo/ in/ances 9 cont9uation ) "o ano!r1 ?is regul>ity ( deposition ( comp>atively n>r[ b$s ( coal1 appe>s all ! m rem>kable4 ,! "q at once sugge/s itself1 ,:i* ( two ?+s is probable8 ,are we to believe t all ?is vegetable matt] 0 br\ght d[n by "s mighty riv] & deposit$ 9 its delta1 or t ! coal-plants grew j :]e we n[ f9d ! coal8 ,=m]ly x 0 suppos$ t coal 0 =m$ out ( dead leaves & trees1 ! refuse ( ! vegetation ( ! l&1 :i* _h be5 c>ri$ d[n by riv]s into ! sea & deposit$ at _! m\?s1 9 ! same way t s& & mud1 z we h se51 are swept d[n & deposit$4 ,if ?is 7 s1 ! ext5t ( ! deposits w\ld require a riv] ) an enorm\s emb\*ure1 & we %\ld be sc>cely w>rant$ 9 believ+ t su* peaceful conditions w\ld !re prevail z to all[ ( ! lay]s ( coal to be laid d[n ) s little di/urbance & ) su* regul>ity ov] ^! wide areas4 ,b ! great objection to ?is !ory is1 t n only d ! rema9s /ill reta9 _! p]fection ( /ructure1 b !y are comp>atively pure1--i4e41 unmix$ ) s$im5t>y depositions ( clay or s&4 ,n[1 riv]s w\ld n br+ d[n ! dead vegetation alone2 _! usual burd5 ( s$im5t w\ld also be deposit$ at _! m\?s1 & ?us dead plants1 s&1 & clay w\ld be mix$ up toge!r 9 "o black %aly or s&y mass1 a mixture :i* w\ld be useless = purposes ( combu/ion4 ,! only !ory :i* expla9$ all ! recognis$ ph5om5a ( ! coal-measures 0 t ! plants =m+ ! coal actually grew :]e ! coal 0 =m$1 & :]e1 inde$1 we n[ f9d x4 ,:5 ! plants & trees di$1 _! rema9s fell to ! gr\nd ( ! =e/1 & ^! soon turn$ to a black1 pa/y1 vegetable mass1 ! lay] ?us =m$ be+ regul>ly increas$ ye> by ye> by ! cont9ual accumulation ( fre% c>bonace\s matt]4 ,by ?is means a b$ w\ld be =m$ ) regul>ity ov] a wide area2 ! coal w\ld be almo/ free f an admixture ( s&y or clayey s$im5t1 & probably ! rate ( =mation w\ld be no m rapid 9 "o "p ( ! =e/ ?an ano!r4 ,?us !re w\ld be ev]y:]e uni=mity ( ?ickness4 ,! w>m & humid atmosph]e1 :i* x is probable !n exi/$1 w\ld n only h t5d$ t[>ds ! production ( an abnormal vegetation1 b w\ld h assi/$ 9 ! decay+ & dis9tegrat+ processes :i* w5t on among/ ! %$ leaves & trees4 ,:5 at la/ x 0 ann\nc$ z a pat5t fact t e b$ ( coal possess$ its und]clay1 & t trees _h be5 discov]$ actually /&+ ^u _! own roots 9 ! clay1 !re 0 no room at all = d\bt t ! correct !ory _h be5 hit ^u--viz41 t coal is n[ f\nd j :]e ! trees compos+ x _h gr[n 9 ! pa/4 ,b we h m ?an "o coal-seam to acc\nt =4 ,we h to expla9 ! exi/5ce ( sev]al lay]s ( coal :i* h be5 =m$ ov] "o ano!r on ! same spot at successive p]iods1 divid$ by o!r p]iods :5 %ale & s&/ones only h be5 =m$4 ,a c>eful e/imate ( ! ,lanca%ire coal-field has be5 made by ,pr(essor ,hull = ! ,geological ,survey4 ,( ! #gjjj feet ( c>bonif]\s /rata "h f\nd1 spread out ov] an area ( #bag squ>e miles1 !re are on ! av]age eighte5 seams ( coal4 ,?is is only an in/ance ( :at is to be f\nd else:]e4 ,eighte5 coal-seams6 :at does ?is mean8 ,x means t1 dur+ c>bonif]\s times1 on no less ?an eighte5 occasions1 sep>ate & di/9ct =e/s h gr[n on ?is self-same spot1 & t betwe5 ea* ( ^! occasions *anges h tak5 place :i* h br\ght x b5ea? ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 :]e ! s&/ones & %ales h be5 =m$ :i* divide ! coal-seams f ea* o!r4 ,we are met "h by a wond]ful demon/ration ( ! in/ability ( ! surface ( ! e>?1 & we h to d our be/ to %[ h[ ! *anges ( level h be5 br\ght ab\t1 :i* h all[$ ( ?is game ( geological see-saw to take place betwe5 sea & l&4 ,*anges ( level6 ,_m a h>d geological nut has only be5 ov]come by ! application ( ! pr9ciple ( *anges ( level 9 ! surface ( ! e>?1 & 9 ?is we %all f9d a sure explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( ! coal-measures4 ,great *anges ( ! level ( ! l& are und\bt$ly tak+ place ev5 n[ on ! e>?'s surface1 & 9 assum+ t simil> *anges took place 9 c>bonif]\s times1 we %all n be assum+ ! =m] exi/5ce ( an ag5t ) :i* we are n[ unfamili>4 ,& :5 we consid] ! ?icknesses ( s&/one & %ale :i* int]v5e b5ea? ! coal-seams1 we c realise to a c]ta9 ext5t ! va/ lapses ( ye>s :i* mu/ h tak5 place betwe5 ! exi/5ce ( ea* =e/2 s t al?\gh n[ an individual pass+ up a coal-m9e %aft may rapidly pass ?r\gh ! rema9s ( "o =e/ aft] ano!r1 ! rise ( ! /rata above ea* =e/-b$ !n 0 trem5d\sly sl[1 & ! p]iod betwe5 ! gr[? ( ea* =e/ mu/ repres5t ! pass+ away ( c\ntless ages4 ,p]haps x w\ld n be too mu* to say t ! /rata betwe5 "s ( ! coal-seams w\ld repres5t a p]iod n less ?an t betwe5 ! =mation ( ! few t]ti>y coals ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 & a "t :i* is /ill to u 9 ! f>-away future4 ,! actual seams ( coal !mselves w n yield mu* in=mation1 f :i* x w be possible to judge ( ! cont\r ( ! l&masses at ?is anci5t p]iod4 ,( "o ?+ we are sure1 namely1 t at ! "t ea* seam 0 =m$1 ! spot :]e x accumulat$ 0 dry l&4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! seams :i* appe> "o above ! o!r co9cide fairly well z to _! sup]ficial ext5t1 we c conclude t ea* "t ! l& 0 rais$ above ! sea & ! =e/ aga9 grew1 ! cont\r ( ! l& 0 v simil>4 ,?is conclusion w be v useful to g ^u1 s9ce :atev] decision may be come to z an explanation ( "o successive l&-p]iod & sea-p]iod on ! same spot1 w be applicable to ! eighte5 or m p]iods necess>y = ! completion ( "s ( ! coal-fields4 ,we w !re=e look at "o ( ! s&/one masses :i* occur betwe5 ! coal-seams1 & le>n :at lessons ^! h to tea* u4 ,9 consid]+ ! =mation ( /rata ( s& 9 ! seas ar\nd our riv]-m\?s1 x 0 se5 t1 ow+ to ! great] weight ( ! p>ticles ( ! s& ov] ^? ( clay1 ! =m] ! m readily sank to ! bottom1 & =m$ banks n v f> away f ! l&4 ,x 0 se51 too1 t ea* successive deposition ( s& =m$ a w$ge-%ap$ lay]1 ) ! po9t ( ! w$ge po9t+ away f ! s\rce ( orig9 ( ! s$im5t1 & !re=e ( ! curr5t :i* convey$ ! s$im5t4 ,!re=e1 if 9 ! coal-measure s&/ones ! lay]s 7 f\nd ) _! w$ges all po9t+ 9 "o direction1 we %\ld be able to judge t ! curr5ts 7 all f "o direction1 & t1 !re=e1 !y 7 =m$ by a s+le riv]4 ,b ?is is j :at we d n f9d1 = in/ead ( x ! direction ( ! w$ge-%ap$ /rata v>ies 9 almo/ e lay]1 & ! curr5t-b$d+ has be5 br\ght ab\t by curr5ts travell+ 9 e direction4 ,su* div]se curr5t-b$d+ c\ld only result f ! fact t ! spot :]e ! s& 0 laid d[n 0 subject to curr5ts f e direction1 & ! inf]5ce is t x 0 well )9 ! sph]e ( influ5ce ( num]\s /reams & riv]s1 :i* fl[$ f e direction4 ,! only condition ( ?+s :i* w\ld expla9 ?is is t ! s&/one 0 orig9ally =m$ 9 a clos$ sea or l>ge lake1 into :i* num]\s riv]s fl[+ f e direction p\r$ _! cont5ts4 ,n[1 9 ! s&/ones1 ! rema9s ( num]\s plants h be5 f\nd1 b !y d n pres5t ! p]fect appe>ance t !y d :5 f\nd 9 ! %ales2 9 fact !y appe> to h suff]$ a c]ta9 am\nt ( damage ?r\gh hav+ drift$ "s di/ance4 ,?is1 toge!r ) ! fact t s&/ones are n =m$ f> out at sea1 ju/ify ! safe conclusion t ! l& c\ld n h be5 f> (f4 ,:]ev] ! curr5t-b$d+ %[s itself 9 ?is mann] we may be sure we are exam9+ a spot f :i* ! l& 9 e direction c\ld n h be5 at a v great di/ance1 & also t1 s9ce ! heavy mat]ials ( :i* s&/one is compos$ c\ld only be transport$ by be+ impell$ along by curr5ts at ! b$ ( ! sea1 & t 9 deep wat] su* curr5ts c\ld n exi/1 !re=e we may safely decide t ! sea into :i* ! riv]s fell 0 a comp>atively %all[ "o4 ,al?\gh ! pres5t coal-fields ( ,engl& are divid$ f "o ano!r by pat*es ( o!r b$s1 x is probable t "s ( !m 7 =m]ly connect$ ) o!rs1 & a v wide %eet ( coal on ea* occasion 0 laid d[n4 ,! "q arises z to :at 0 ! ext5t ( ! inl& sea or lake1 & did x include ! area cov]$ by ! coal bas9s ( ,scotl& & ,irel&1 ( ,france & ,belgium8 ,& if ^!1 :y n ^? ( ,am]ica & o!r p>ts8 ,! deposition ( ! coal1 accord+ to ! !ory "h advanc$1 may z well h be5 br\ght ab\t 9 a s]ies ( l>ge inl& seas & lakes1 z by "o l>ge compreh5sive sea1 & probably ! =m] is ! m satisfactory explanation ( ! two4 ,b ! a/oni%+ "p ( x is t ! *anges 9 ! level ( ! l& mu/ h be5 tak+ place simultane\sly ov] ^! l>ge areas1 al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 :ile "o qu>t] may h be5 depress$ b5ea? ! sea1 ano!r may h be5 rais$ above x4 ,9 connection ) ! "q ( ! cont\r ( ! l& dur+ ! exi/5ce ( ! l>ge lakes or inl& seas1 ,pr(essor ,hull has prep>$1 9 8 s]ies ( maps illu/rative ( ! ,palaeo-,geography ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 a map %[+ on inconte/ible gr\nds ! exi/5ce dur+ ! coal-ages ( a great c5tral b>ri] or ridge ( high l& /ret*+ across f ,anglesea1 s\? ( ,fl9t1 ,/af=d%ire1 & ,%rop%ire coal-fields1 to ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,norfolk4 ,he reg>ds ! ,briti% coal-measures z hav+ be5 laid d[n 9 two1 or at mo/ ?ree1 areas ( deposition--"o s\? ( ?is ridge1 ! rema9d] to ! nor? ( x4 ,9 reg>d to ! ext5t ( ! =m] deposits ( coal 9 ,irel&1 !re is e probability t ! si/] isl& 0 j z fav\rably treat$ 9 ?is respect z ,great ,brita94 ,mo/ un=tunately1 ,irel& has s9ce suff]$ extreme d5udation1 notably f ! great convulsions ( nature at ! close ( ! v p]iod ( _! deposition1 z well z 9 m rec5t times1 result+ 9 ! removal ( ne>ly all ! valuable upp] c>bonif]\s b$s1 & leav+ only ! few unimportant coal-b$s to :i* ref]5ce has be5 made4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,cya?ophyllum4 ,coral 9 encr9ital lime/one4 ,we are unable to believe 9 ! cont9uity ( our coal-b$s ) ^? ( ,am]ica1 = ! great s\rce ( s$im5t 9 ^? times 0 a cont95t situat$ on ! site ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 & x is ow+ to ?is ext5sive cont95t t ! =ms ( flora f\nd 9 ! coal-b$s 9 ea* c\ntry be> s close a resemblance to "o ano!r1 & also t ! encr9ital lime/one :i* 0 =m$ 9 ! pur] dep?s ( ! ocean on ! ea/1 became mix$ ) silt1 & =m$ masses ( %aly impure lime/one 9 ! s\?-we/]n p>ts ( ,irel&4 ,x mu/ be not$ t1 al?\gh we may attribute to upheaval f b5ea? ! fact t ! b$ ( ! sea became tempor>ily rais$ at ea* p]iod into dry l&1 ! deposits ( s& or %ale w\ld at ! same "t be t5d+ to %all[ ! b$1 & ?is alone w\ld assi/ ! process ( upheaval by br++ ! l& at lea/ v ne> to ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,ea* upheaval1 h[ev]1 c\ld h be5 b a tempor>y arre/ ( ! great movem5t ( cru/ subsid5ce :i* 0 go+ on ?r\gh\t ! coal p]iod1 s t1 at its close1 :5 ! la/ coal =e/ grew ^u ! surface ( ! l&1 !re _h disappe>$1 9 ! case ( ,s\? ,wales1 a ?ickness ( #aa1jjj feet ( mat]ial4 ,( ! _m rem>kable ?+s 9 connection ) coal-b$s1 n ! lea/ is ! /ate ( purity 9 :i* coal is f\nd4 ,on ! floor ( ea* =e/ !re w\ld be _m a /reamlet or ev5 small riv] :i* w\ld w5d its way to meet ! n v di/ant sea1 & x is surpris+ at fir/ t s little s$im5t f\nd its way into ! coal itself4 ,b ?is 0 clev]ly expla9$ by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 :o notic$1 on "o ( 8 visits to ,am]ica1 t ! wat] ( ! ,mississippi1 ar\nd ! rank gr[?s ( cypress :i* =m ! cypress swamps at ! m\?s ( t riv]1 0 highly *>g$ ) s$im5t1 b t1 hav+ pass$ ?r\gh ! close und]gr[? ( ! swamps1 x issu$ 9 almo/ a pure /ate1 ! s$im5t :i* x bore hav+ be5 filt]$ out ( x & precipitat$4 ,?is v satisfactorily expla9$ h[ 9 "s places c>bonace\s matt] might be deposit$ 9 a p]fectly pure /ate1 :il/ 9 o!rs1 :]e s&/one or %ale 0 actually =m+1 x might be impregnat$ by coaly matt] 9 su* a way z to cause x to be /a9$ black4 ,9 times ( flood s$im5t w\ld be br\ght 91 ev5 :]e pure coal _h be5 =m+1 & !n we %\ld h a ?9 p>t+ ( s&/one or %ale1 :i* 0 =m$ :5 ! flood 0 at its height4 ,or a slight s9k+ ( ! l& might occur1 9 :i* case also ! =mation ( coal w\ld tempor>ily cease1 & a p>t+ ( =eign matt] w\ld be =m$1 :i*1 on fur!r upheaval tak+ place1 w\ld aga9 give way to ano!r =e/ gr[?4 ,"s ( ! ?ick] b$s h be5 f\nd pres5t+ ?is aspect1 su* z ! ,s\? ,/af=d%ire t5-y>d coal1 :i* 9 "s p>ts splits up into a doz5 or s small] b$s1 ) p>t+s ( s$im5t betwe5 !m4 ,9 ! face ( ! /up5d\s movem5ts :i* mu/ h happ5$ 9 ord] to br+ ab\t ! successive gr[? ( =e/s "o above ano!r on ! same spot1 ! "q at once arises z to h[ ^! movem5ts ( ! solid e>? came ab\t1 & :at 0 ! cause :i* op]at$ 9 su* a mann]4 ,we c only judge t1 9 "s way or o!r1 heat1 or ! )drawal ( heat1 has be5 ! prime motive p[]4 ,we c p]ceive1 f :at is n[ go+ on 9 "s p>ts ( ! e>?1 h[ great an influ5ce x has _h 9 %ap+ ! l&1 = volcanoes owe _! activity to ! hidd5 heat 9 ! e>?'s int]ior1 & af=d u an idea ( ! p[] ( :i* heat is capable 9 ! matt] ( build+ up & de/roy+ cont95ts4 ,no less c]ta9 is x t heat is ! prime factor 9 ^? m gradual v]tical movem5ts ( ! l& to :i* we h ref]r$ else:]e1 b 9 reg>d to ! exact mann] 9 :i* x acts we are v mu* 9 ! d>k4 ,ev]ybody kn[s t1 9 ! majority ( in/ances1 mat]ial sub/ances ( all k9ds exp& "u ! influ5ce ( heat1 & contract :5 ! s\rce ( heat is )drawn4 ,if we c imag9e movem5ts 9 ! quantity ( heat conta9$ 9 ! solid cru/1 ! explanation is easy1 = if a c]ta9 tract ( l& receive an accession ( heat b5ea? x1 x is c]ta9 t ! pr9cipal effect w be an elevation ( ! l&1 consequ5t on ! expansion ( its mat]ials1 ) a subsequ5t depression :5 ! heat b5ea? ! tract 9 "q becomes gradually less5$4 ,%\ld ! heat be reta9$ = a long p]iod1 ! /rata w\ld be s uplift$ z to =m an anticl9al1 or saddle-back1 & !n1 %\ld subsequ5t d5udation take place1 m anci5t /rata w\ld be br\ght to view4 ,x 0 ?us 9 ! in/ance ( ! tract b\nd$ by ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,d[ns1 :i* 7 =m]ly entirely cov]$ by *alk1 & 9 ! in/ance ( ! upris+ ( ! c>bonif]\s lime/one betwe5 ! coal-fields ( ,lanca%ire1 ,/af=d%ire1 & ,d]by%ire4 ,h[ ! heat-waves act1 & ! laws1 if any1 :i* !y obey 9 _! subt]ranean movem5ts1 we are unable to judge4 ,f ! prop]ties :i* heat possesses we "k t its pres5ce or abs5ce produces m>k$ diff]5ces 9 ! positions ( ! /rata ( ! e>?1 & f obs]vations made 9 connection ) ! clos+ ( "s volcanoes1 & ! op5+ up ( fre% e>?-v5ts1 we h gone a long way t[>ds e/abli%+ ! probability t !re are ev5 n[ sl[ & pond]\s movem5ts tak+ place 9 ! heat /or$ 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 ^: effects are appreciably communicat$ to ! outside ( ! ?9 r9d ( solid e>? ^u :i* we live4 ,ow+ to ! great igne\s & volcanic activity at ! close ( ! deposition ( ! c>bonif]\s sy/em ( /rata1 ! coal-measures exhibit :at are kn[n z faults 9 abundance4 ,! m\nta9 lime/one1 :]e x outcrops at ! surface1 is obs]v$ to be mu* jo9t$1 s mu* s t ! "w ( qu>ry+ ! lime/one is greatly assi/$ by ! jo9t$ /ructure ( ! rock4 ,faults diff] f jo9ts 9 t1 :il/ ! /rata 9 ! latt] are /ill 9 relative position on ea* side ( ! jo9t1 !y h 9 ! =m] slipp$ out ( place4 ,9 su* a case ! cont9uation ( a /ratum on ! opposite side ( a fault w be f\nd to be depress$1 p]haps a ?\s& feet or m4 ,x w be se5 at once h[ t1 9 s9k+ a new %aft into a coal-seam1 ! possibility ( an unkn[n fault has to be br\ght into consid]ation1 s9ce ! position ( ! seam may prove to h be5 depress$ to su* an ext5t z to cause x to be beyond workable dep?4 ,_m seams1 on ! o!r h&1 :i* w\ld h rema9$ altoge!r out ( rea* ( m9+ op]ations1 h be5 br\ght )9 workable dep? by a s]ies ( /ep-faults1 ?is be+ a t]m appli$ to a s]ies ( p>allel faults1 9 none ( :i* ! am\nt ( d[n-?r[ is great4 ,! am\nt ( ! d[n-?r[1 or ! slipp+-d[n ( ! b$s1 is measur$1 v]tically1 f ! po9t ( disappe>ance ( a lay] to an imag9>y cont9uation ( ! same lay] f :]e x aga9 appe>s beyond ! fault4 ,! plane ( a fault is usually m or less incl9$1 ! am\nt ( ! incl9ation be+ kn[n z ! hade ( ! fault1 & x is a rem>kable *>act]i/ic ( faults t1 z a g5]al rule1 !y hade to ! d[n-?r[4 ,?is w be m cle>ly und]/ood :5 x is expla9$ t1 by its action1 a seam ( coal1 :i* is subject to num]\s faults1 c nev] be pi]c$ m ?an once by "o & ! same bor+4 ,9 m\nta9\s di/ricts1 h[ev]1 !re are occasions :5 ! hade is to ! up-?r[1 & ?is k9d ( fault is kn[n z an inv]t$ fault4 ,l9es ( faults ext5d sometimes = hundr$s ( miles4 ,! great ,p5n9e ,fault ( ,engl& is #acj miles long1 & o!rs ext5d = mu* great] di/ances4 ,! surfaces on bo? sides ( a fault are (t5 smoo? & highly poli%$ by ! movem5t :i* has tak5 place 9 ! /rata4 ,!y !n %[ ! ph5om5on kn[n z slick5-sides4 ,_m faults h become fill$ ) cry/all9e m9]als 9 ! =m ( ve9s ( ore1 deposit$ by infiltrat+ wat]s p]colat+ ?r\gh ! natural fissures4 ,9 consid]+ ! =mation & /ructure ( ! bett]-kn[n coal-be>+ b$s ( ! c>bonif]\s age1 we mu/ n lose sight ( ! fact t important b$s ( coal also occur 9 /rata ( mu* m rec5t date4 ,!re are important coal-b$s 9 ,india ( ,p]mian age4 ,!re are coal-b$s ( ,liassic age 9 ,s\? ,hung>y & 9 ,texas1 & ( ,jurassic age 9 ,virg9ia1 z well z at ,brora 9 ,su!rl&%ire2 !re are coals ( ,cretace\s age 9 ,moravia1 & valuable ,mioc5e ,t]ti>y coals 9 ,hung>y & ! ,au/rian ,alps4 ,aga91 old] ?an ! true c>bonif]\s age1 are ! ,silurian an?racites ( ,co4 ,cavan1 & c]ta9 ,norwegian coals1 :il/ 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales we are confront$ ) an assemblage ( coal-be>+ /rata :i* ext5d app>5tly f ! ,devonian into ,mesozoic times4 ,/ill1 ! age we h consid]$ m closely has an unrivall$ "r to ! title1 coal appe>+ !re n m]ely z an occasional b$1 b z a m>k$ *>act]i/ic ( ! =mation4 ,! types ( animal life :i* are f\nd 9 ?is =mation are v>i$1 & al?\gh naturally en\gh !y d n excel 9 numb]1 !re are yet suffici5t v>ieties to %[ probabilities ( ! exi/5ce ( _m ) :i* we are unfamili>4 ,! highe/ =ms yet f\nd1 %[ an advance z comp>$ ) ^? f e>li] =mations1 & exhibit amphibian *>act]i/ics int]m$iate betwe5 ! two great classes ( fi%es & reptiles4 ,num]\s specim5s prop] to ! ext9ct ord] ( labyr9?odontia h be5 arrang$ into at lea/ a score ( g5]a1 ^! hav+ be5 drawn f ! coal-measures ( ,newca/le1 ,ed9burgh1 ,kilk5ny1 ,sarbruck1 ,bav>ia1 ,p5nsylvania1 & else:]e4 ,! ,ar*egosaurus1 :i* we h figur$1 & ! ,an?racosaurus1 are =ms :i* appe> to h exi/$ 9 great numb]s 9 ! swamps & lakes ( ! age4 ,! fi% ( ! p]iod belong almo/ entirely to ! anci5t ord]s ( ! ganoids & placoids4 ,( ! ganoids1 ! great megali*?ys ,hibb]ti ranges ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ! sy/em4 ,wond]ful accumulations ( fi% rema9s are f\nd at ! base ( ! sy/em1 9 ! bone-b$ ( ! ,bri/ol coal-field1 z well z 9 a simil> b$ at ,armagh4 ,_m fi%es 7 arm$ ) p[]ful conical tee?1 b ! majority1 l ! exi/+ ,port ,jackson %>k1 7 possess$ ( massive palates1 suit$ 9 "s cases = cru%+1 & 9 o!rs = cutt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,ar*egosaurus m9or4 ,coal-measures4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,psammodus porosus4 ,cru%+ palate ( a fi%4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,or?oc]as4 ,m\nta9 lime/one4 ,9 ! m\nta9 lime/one we see1 ( c\rse1 ! pr$om9ance ( m>9e types1 encr9ital rema9s =m+ ! great] proportion ( ! mass4 ,!re are occasional plant rema9s :i* be> evid5ce ( hav+ drift$ = "s di/ance f ! %ore4 ,b next to ! encr9ites1 ! corals are ! mo/ important & p]si/5t4 ,corals ( mo/ beautiful =ms & capable ( giv+ poli%$ m>ble-l sections1 are 9 abundance4 ,polyzoa are well repres5t$1 ( :i* ! lace-coral 7f5e/ella7 & screw-coral 7ar*im$opora7 are in/ances4 ,cephalopoda are repres5t$ by ! or?oc]as1 sometimes five or six feet long1 & goniatites1 ! =]unn] ( ! famili> ammonite4 ,_m species ( bra*iopods & lammellibran*s are met )4 ,l+ula1 mo/ p]si/5t ?r\gh\t all geological "t1 is abundant 9 ! coal-%ales1 b n 9 ! lime/ones4 ,aviculopect5 is !re abundant also4 ,9 ! m\nta9 lime/one ! la/ ( ! trilobites 7,phillipsia7 is f\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,f5e/ella retipora4 ,m\nta9 lime/one4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,goniatites4 ,m\nta9 lime/one4 ,we h evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce 9 ! =e/s ( a v>iety ( c5tip$e1 specim5s hav+ be5 f\nd 9 ! erect /ump ( a holl[ tree1 al?\gh ! fossil is an extremely r>e "o4 ,! same may be said ( ! only two species ( l&-snail :i* h be5 f\nd connect$ ) ! coal =e/s1 viz41 pupa vetu/a & zonites priscus1 bo? discov]$ 9 ! cliffs ( ,nova ,scotia4 ,^! are suffici5t to demon/rate t ! fauna ( ! p]iod _h already rea*$ a high /age ( developm5t4 ,9 ! e/u>ies ( ! day1 masses ( a species ( fre%wat] mussel 7an?racosia7 7 9 exi/5ce1 & ^! h left _! rema9s 9 ! %ape ( ext5sive b$s ( %ells4 ,!y are famili> to ! m9] z mussel-b9ds1 & are z noticeable a feature ( ?is long ago p]iod1 z are ! aggregations ( mussels on e coa/ at ! pres5t day4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,aviculopect5 papyraceus4 ,coal-%ale4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,v>i\s ,,=ms ,,( ,,coal ,,& ,,c>bon4 ,9 consid]+ ! v>i\s =ms & comb9ations into :i* coal ent]s1 x is necess>y t we %\ld obta9 a cle> conception ( :at ! sub/ance call$ c>bon is1 & its nature & prop]ties g5]ally1 s9ce ?is x is :i* =ms su* a l>ge p]c5tage ( all k9ds ( coal1 & :i* inde$ =ms ! actual basis ( x4 ,9 ! %ape ( coke1 ( c\rse1 we h a fairly pure =m ( c>bon1 & ?is be+ produc$1 z we %all see pres5tly1 by ! driv+ (f ( ! volatile or vapor\s con/itu5ts ( coal1 we are able to p]ceive by ! residue h[ great a proportion ( coal consi/s ( c>bon4 ,9 fact1 ! two h almo/ an id5tical mean+ 9 ! popul> m9d1 & ! fact t ! great masses ( /rata1 9 :i* are conta9$ our pr9cipal & mo/ valuable seams ( coal1 are t]m$ c>bonif]\s1 f ! ,lat9 c>bo1 coal1 & f]o1 ,i be>1 t5ds to p]petuate ! exi/5ce ( ! idea4 ,!re is always a c]ta91 ?\gh slight1 quantity ( c>bon 9 ! air1 & ?is rema9s fairly con/ant 9 ! op5 c\ntry4 ,small ?\gh x may be 9 proportion to ! quantity ( pure air 9 :i* x is f\nd1 x is yet suffici5t to provide ! c>bon :i* is necess>y to ! gr[? ( vegetable life4 ,j z "s ( ! animals kn[n popul>ly z ! zoophytes1 :i* are atta*$ dur+ life to rocks b5ea? ! sea1 are f$ by means ( curr5ts ( wat] :i* br+ _! food to !m1 s ! leaves1 :i* inhale c>bon-food dur+ ! day ?r\gh _! "u-surfaces1 are provid$ ) x by means ( ! curr5ts ( air :i* are always circulat+ ar\nd !m2 & :ile ! fuel is be+ tak5 9 b5ea?1 ! heat & light are be+ receiv$ f above1 & ! sun supplies ! motive p[] to dige/ion4 ,x is assum$ t x is1 )9 ! k ( all t1 = ! orig9 ( ! v>i\s seams & b$s ( coaly comb9ations :i* exi/ 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 we mu/ look to ! vegetable _w4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we c\ld g s f> back 9 ! _w's hi/ory z ! p]iod :5 our inc&esc5t orb _h only j sev]$ connection ) a gradually-dim9i%+ sun1 we %\ld probably f9d ! c>bon !re1 b lock$ up 9 ! bonds ( *emical aff9ities ) o!r elem5ts1 & exi/+ !re) 9 a gase\s condition4 ,b1 z ! solidify+ process w5t on1 & z ! vegetable _w aft]w>ds made its appe>ance1 ! c>bon became1 s to speak1 wr5*$ f its comb9ations1 & be+ absorb$ by trees & plants1 f9ally became deposit$ among/ ! ru9s ( a =m] vegetable _w1 & is n[ pres5t$ to u 9 ! =m ( coal4 ,we are able to trace ! gradual *anges ?r\gh :i* ! pa/y mass ( decay+ vegetation pass$1 9 consequ5ce ( ! fact t we h ?is mat]ial lock$ up 9 v>i\s /ages ( c>bonisation1 9 ! /rata b5ea? our feet4 ,^! we propose to deal ) individually1 9 z unsci5tific & unte*nical a mann] z possible4 ,fir/ ( all1 :5 a mass ( vegetable matt] comm5ces to decay1 x soon loses its col\r4 ,!re is no m noticeable pro( ( ?is1 ?an t :5 vitality is )drawn f ! leaves ( autumn1 !y at once comm5ce to assume a ru/y or an a%5 col\r4 ,let ! leaves b fall to ! gr\nd1 & be expos$ to ! e>ly fro/s ( ,octob]1 ! damp mi/s & ra9s ( ,novemb]1 & ! rapid *ange ( col\r is at once app>5t4 ,trodd5 "u foot1 !y soon assume a dirty blacki% hue1 & ev5 :5 remov$ !y leave a c>bonace\s trace ( !mselves beh9d !m1 :]e !y _h re/$4 ,ano!r pro( ( ! rapid acquisition ( _! coaly hue is noticeable 9 ! spr+ ( ! ye>4 ,:5 ! trees h bur/ =? & ! buds are rapidly op5+1 ! cases 9 :i* ! buds ( su* trees z ! horse-*e/nut h be5 enclos$ w be f\nd ca/ (f1 & /rew+ ! pa? b5ea?4 ,moi/5$ by ! ra9s & ! damp night-mi/s1 & trodd5 "u foot1 ^! cases assume a jet black hue1 & are to all appe>ance l coal 9 ! v fir/ /ages ( =mation4 ,b ( c\rse coal is n made up :olly & only ( leaves4 ,! bran*es ( trees1 twigs ( all sizes1 & sometimes :ole trunks ( trees are f\nd1 ! la/ (t5 rema9+ 9 _! upright position1 & pi]c+ ! /rata :i* h be5 =m$ above !m4 ,at o!r times !y lie horizontally on ! b$ ( coal1 hav+ be5 ?r[n d[n previ\sly to ! =mation ( ! %ale or s&/one1 :i* n[ re/s ^u !m4 ,!y are (t5 petrifi$ into solid s&/one !mselves1 :il/ leav+ a r9d ( coal :]e =m]ly 0 ! b>k4 ,al?\gh ! trunk ( a tree looks s v diff]5t to ! leaves :i* x be>s ^u its bran*es1 x is only naturally to be suppos$ t1 z !y are bo? built up aft] ! same mann] f ! juices ( ! e>? & ! n\ri%m5t 9 ! atmosph]e1 !y w\ld h a simil> *emical composition4 ,"o v palpable pro( ( ! c>bonace\s "* ( tree-trunks sugge/s itself4 ,take 9 y\r h& a few dead twigs or /icks f :i* ! leaves h long s9ce dropp$2 pull away ! dead p>ts ( ! ivy :i* has be5 creep+ ov] ! summ]-h\se2 or clasp a gn>l$ old mon/] ( ! =e/ 9 y\r arms1 & y w quickly f9d y\r h& cov]$ ) a black smut1 :i* is no?+ b ! result ( ! fir/ /age :i* ! liv+ plant has made1 9 its progress t[>ds its condition z dead coal4 ,b an easy1 ?\gh r\gh1 *emical pro( ( ! con/itu5ts ( wood1 c be made by plac+ a few pieces ( wood 9 a m$ium-siz$ te/-tube1 & hold+ x ov] a flame4 ,9 a %ort "t a c]ta9 quantity ( /eam w be driv5 (f1 next ! gase\s con/itu5ts ( wood1 & f9ally no?+ w be left b a few pieces ( black brittle *>coal4 ,! process is ( c\rse ! same 9 a fire-grate1 only t "h m complete combu/ion ( ! wood takes place1 ow+ to its be+ intimately expos$ to ! action ( ! flames4 ,if we adopt ! same exp]im5t ) "s pieces ( coal1 ! action is simil>1 only t 9 ?is case ! quantity ( gases giv5 (f is n s great1 coal conta9+ a great] proportion ( c>bon ?an wood1 ow+ to ! fact t1 dur+ its long burial 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?1 x has be5 act$ ^u 9 su* a way z to lose a great "p ( its volatile con/itu5ts4 ,f processes1 !re=e1 :i* are to be se5 go+ on ar\nd u1 x is easily possible to satisfy ourselves t vegetation w 9 ! long run und]go su* *anges z w result 9 ! =mation ( coal4 ,!re are c]ta9 p>ts 9 mo/ c\ntries1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ,irel&1 :]e masses ( vegetation h und]gone a /ill fur!r /age 9 metamorphism1 namely1 9 ! well-kn[n & fam\s peat-bogs4 ,irel& is p> excell5ce ! l& ( bogs1 "s ?ree millions ( acres be+ said to be cov]$ by !m1 & !y yield an almo/ inexhau/ible supply ( peat4 ,"o ( ! peat-bogs ne> ! ,%annon is betwe5 two & ?ree miles 9 bread? & no less ?an fifty 9 l5g?1 :il/ its dep? v>ies f #ac feet to z mu* z #dg feet4 ,peat-bogs h 9 no way ceas$ to be =m$1 = at _! surfaces ! peat-moss gr[s afre% e ye>2 & ru%es1 horse-tails1 & re$s ( all descriptions gr[ & ?rive ea* ye> ^u ! ru9s ( _! ance/ors4 ,! =mation ( su* accumulations ( decay+ vegetation w\ld only be possible :]e ! physical conditions ( ! c\ntry all[$ ( an abundant ra9fall1 & depressions 9 ! surface ( ! l& to reta9 ! moi/ure4 ,:]e ext5sive de=e/+ op]ations h tak5 place1 peat-bogs h (t5 be5 =m$1 & _m ( ^? 9 exi/5ce 9 ,europe und\bt$ly owe _! =mation to t de/ruction ( =e/s :i* w5t on "u ! sway ( ! ,romans4 ,natural dra9age w\ld soon be ob/ruct$ by fall5 trees1 & ! =mation ( m>%-l& w\ld foll[2 !n ) ! gr[? ( m>%-plants & _! successive annual decay1 a peaty mass w\ld collect1 :i* w\ld quickly gr[ 9 ?ickness )\t let or h9drance4 ,9 consid]+ ! exi/5ce ( inl& peat-bogs1 we mu/ n lose sight ( ! fact t !re are subt]ranean =e/-b$s on v>i\s p>ts ( our coa/s1 :i* also re/ ^u _! own b$s ( peaty matt]1 & v possibly1 :5 9 ! future !y are cov]$ up by m>9e deposits1 !y w h fairly />t$ on _! way t[>ds becom+ coal4 ,peat-bogs d n :olly consi/ ( peat1 & no?+ else4 ,! trunks ( su* trees z ! oak1 yew1 & fir1 are (t5 f\nd m+l$ ) ! rema9s ( mosses & re$s1 & ^! (t5 assume a decid$ly coaly aspect4 ,f ! fam\s ,bog ( ,all5 9 ,irel&1 pieces ( oak1 g5]ally kn[n z bog-oak1 :i* h be5 buri$ = g5]ations 9 peat1 h be5 excavat$4 ,^! are z black z any coal c well be1 & are suffici5tly h>d to all[ ( _! be+ us$ 9 ! manufacture ( broo*es & o!r ornam5tal objects4 ,ano!r use to :i* peat ( "s k9ds has be5 put is 9 ! manufacture ( y>n1 ! result be+ a mat]ial :i* is said to resemble br[n wor/$4 ,on digg+ a dit* to dra9 a "p ( a bog 9 ,ma9e1 ,u4,s41 9 :i* peat to a dep? ( tw5ty feet _h accumulat$1 a sub/ance simil> to cannel coal itself 0 f\nd4 ,z we %all see pres5tly1 cannel coal is "o ( ! e>lie/ /ages ( true coal1 & ! discov]y prov$ t "u c]ta9 conditions z to heat & pressure1 :i* 9 ?is case happ5$ to be pres5t1 ! mat]ials :i* =m peat may also be metamorphos$ into true coal4 ,d>w91 9 8 well-kn[n ,voyage 9 ! ,beagle gives a peculi>ly int]e/+ description ( ! condition ( ! peat-b$s 9 ! ,*onos ,ar*ipelago1 (f ! ,*ilian coa/1 & ( _! mode ( =mation4 ,9 ^! isl&s1 he says1 cryptogamic plants f9d a mo/ cong5ial climate1 & )9 ! =e/ ! numb] ( species & great abundance ( mosses1 li*5s1 & small f]ns1 is q extraord9>y4 ,9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego e level piece ( l& is inv>iably cov]$ by a ?ick b$ ( peat4 ,9 ! ,*onos ,ar*ipelago :]e ! nature ( ! climate m closely approa*es t ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 e pat* ( level gr\nd is cov]$ by two species ( plants 7,a/elia pumila & ,donatia megellanica71 :i* by _! jo9t decay compose a ?ick b$ ( ela/ic peat4 ,9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 above ! region ( wood-l&1 ! =m] ( ^! em95tly sociable plants is ! *ief ag5t 9 ! production ( peat4 ,fre% leaves are always succe$+ "o to ! o!r r\nd ! c5tral tap-root2 ! l[] ones soon decay1 & 9 trac+ a root d[nw>ds 9 ! peat1 ! leaves1 yet hold+ _! places1 c be obs]v$ pass+ ?r\gh e /age ( decomposition1 till ! :ole becomes bl5d$ 9 "o confus$ mass4 ,! ,a/elia is assi/$ by a few o!r plants1--"h & !re a small creep+ ,myrtus 7,m4 nummul>ia71 ) a woody /em l our cranb]ry & ) a sweet b]ry1--an ,empetrum 7,e4 rubrum71 l our hea?1--a ru% 7,juncus gr&iflorus71 are ne>ly ! only ones t gr[ on ! swampy surface4 ,^! plants1 ?\gh possess+ a v close g5]al resemblance to ! ,engli% species ( ! same g5]a1 are diff]5t4 ,9 ! m level p>ts ( ! c\ntry ! surface ( ! peat is brok5 up into little pools ( wat]1 :i* /& at diff]5t heights1 & appe> z if artificially excavat$4 ,small /reams ( wat]1 fl[+ und]gr\nd1 complete ! disorganisation ( ! vegetable matt]1 & consolidate ! :ole4 ,! climate ( ! s\!rn "p ( ,am]ica appe>s p>ticul>ly fav\rable to ! production ( peat4 ,9 ! ,falkl& ,isl&s almo/ e k9d ( plant1 ev5 ! co>se grass :i* cov]s ! :ole surface ( ! l&1 becomes conv]t$ into ?is sub/ance3 sc>cely any situation *ecks its gr[?2 "s ( ! b$s are z mu* z twelve feet ?ick1 & ! l[] "p becomes s solid :5 dry t x w h>dly burn4 ,al?\gh e plant l5ds its aid1 yet 9 mo/ p>ts ! ,a/elia is ! mo/ effici5t4 ,x is r a s+ul> circum/ance1 z be+ s v diff]5t f :at occurs 9 ,europe1 t ,i n[h]e saw moss =m+ by its decay any portion ( ! peat 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,) respect to ! nor!rn limit at :i* ! climate all[s ( t peculi> k9d ( sl[ decomposition :i* is necess>y = its production1 ,i believe t 9 ,*iloe 7lat4 #da to #db71 al?\gh !re is mu* swampy gr\nd1 no well *>act]is$ peat occurs2 b 9 ! ,*onos ,isl&s1 ?ree degrees f>!r s\?w>d1 we h se5 t x is abundant4 ,on ! ea/]n coa/ 9 ,la ,plata 7lat4 #ce7 ,i 0 told by a ,spani% resid5t1 :o _h visit$ ,irel&1 t he _h (t5 s\ght = ?is sub/ance1 b _h nev] be5 able to f9d any4 ,he %[$ me1 z ! ne>e/ approa* to x :i* he _h discov]$1 a black peaty soil1 s p5etrat$ ) roots z to all[ ( an extremely sl[ & imp]fect combu/ion4 ,! next /age 9 ! mak+ ( coal is "o 9 :i* ! *ange has proce$$ a long way f ! />t+-po9t4 ,lignite is ! "n :i* has be5 appli$ to a =m ( impure coal1 :i* sometimes goes "u ! "n ( br[n coal4 ,x is n a true coal1 & is a v long way f t f9al /age to :i* x mu/ atta9 ere x takes rank ) ! mo/ valuable ( e>?'s products4 ,f ! v comm5cem5t1 an action has be+ go+ on :i* has caus$ ! am\nt ( ! gase\s con/itu5ts to become less & less1 & :i* has consequ5tly caus$ ! c>bon rema9+ beh9d to occupy an increas+ly l>ge proportion ( ! :ole mass4 ,s1 :5 we arrive at ! lignite /age1 we f9d t a consid]able quantity ( volatile matt] has already be5 p>t$ )1 & t ! c>bon1 :i* 9 ord9>y liv+ wood is ab\t #ej p] c5t4 ( ! :ole1 has already increas$ to ab\t #fg p] c5t4 ,9 mo/ lignites !re is1 z a rule1 a comp>atively l>ge proportion ( sulphur1 & 9 su* cases x is r5d]$ useless z a dome/ic fuel4 ,x has be5 us$ z a fuel 9 v>i\s processes ( manufacture1 & ! lignite ( ! well-kn[n ,bovey ,tracey b$s has be5 utilis$ 9 ?is way at ! neighb\r+ pott]ies4 ,z comp>$ ) true coal1 x is di/+ui%$ by ! abundance ( smoke :i* x produces & ! *ok+ sulphur\s fumes :i* also accompany its combu/ion1 b x is l>gely us$ 9 ,g]many z a useful s\rce ( p>aff9 & illum9at+ oils4 ,9 ,silesia1 ,saxony1 & 9 ! di/rict ab\t ,bonn1 l>ge quantities ( lignite are m9$1 & us$ z fuel4 ,l>ge /ores ( lignite are kn[n to exi/ 9 ! ,weald ( ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl&1 & al?\gh ! m9+ op]ations :i* 7 c>ri$ on at "o "t at ,hea?field1 ,bexhill1 & o!r places1 7 failures s f> z ! actual discov]y ( true coal 0 conc]n$1 yet !re c be no d\bt z to ! future value ( ! lignite 9 ^! p>ts1 :5 ,engl&'s supplies ( coal approa* exhau/ion1 & att5tion is turn$ to o!r directions = ! future s\rce ( h] gas & p>aff9 oils4 ,beside ! ,bovey ,tracey lignitic b$s to :i* we h above ref]r$1 o!r t]ti>y clays are f\nd to conta9 ?is e>ly promise ( coal4 ,! eoc5e b$s ( ,brighton are an important in/ance ( a t]ti>y lignite1 ! seam ( surturbr&1 z x is locally call$1 be+ a some:at ext5sive deposit4 ,we h n[ closely approa*$ to true coal1 & ! next /ep :i* we %all take w be to consid] ! v>ieties 9 :i* ! black m9]al itself is f\nd4 ,! pr9cipal ( ^! v>ieties are z foll[s1 aga9/ ea* be+ plac$ ! av]age proportion ( pure c>bon :i* x conta9s3-- ,spl9t or ,h>d ,coal1 #hc p] c5t42 ,cannel1 ,c&le or ,p>rott ,coal1 #hd p] c5t42 ,*]ry or ,s(t ,coal1 #he p] c5t42 ,common ,bitum9\s1 or ,cak+ ,coal1 #hh p] c5t42 ,an?racite1 ,bl9d ,coal1 ,culm1 ,glance1 or ,/one ,coal1 f ,s\? ,wales1 #ic p] c5t4 ,z f> z ! gas-mak+ prop]ties ( ! fir/ ?ree are conc]n$1 ! relative proportions ( c>bon & volatile products are mu* ! same4 ,ev]ybody kn[s a piece ( cannel coal :5 x is se51 h[ x appe>s almo/ to h be5 once 9 a molt5 condition1 & h[ x breaks ) a con*oidal fracture1 z oppos$ to ! cleavage ( bitum9\s coal into ?9 lay]s2 &1 mo/ app>5t & mo/ noticeable ( all1 h[ x does n soil ! h&s aft] ! mann] ( ord9>y coal4 ,x is at times s d5se & compact t x has be5 fa%ion$ into ornam5ts1 & is capable ( receiv+ a poli% l jet4 ,f ! l>ge p]c5tage ( volatile products :i* x conta9s1 x is greatly us$ 9 gasworks4 ,cak+ coal & ! v>ieties ( coal :i* exi/ betwe5 x & an?racite1 are famili> to e h\sehold]2 ! m x approa*es ! composition ( ! latt] ! m difficult x is to get x to burn1 b :5 at la/ fairly alight x gives out great heat1 & :at is m important1 a less quantity ( volatile con/itu5ts 9 ! %ape ( gas1 smoke1 ammonia1 a% & sulphur\s acid4 ,= ?is reason x has be5 propos$ to compel consum]s to adopt an?racite z ! dome/ic coal by ,act ( ,p>liam5t4 ,c]ta9ly by ?is means ! am\nt ( impurities 9 ! air might be appreciably less5$1 b z x w\ld involve ! recon/ruction ( "s millions ( fire-places1 & an increase 9 price 9 consequ5ce ( ! g5]al dem& = x1 x is n likely t a gov]nm5t w\ld be s ra% z to attempt to pass su* a measure2 ev5 if pass$1 x w\ld probably soon become z dead & obsolete & impot5t z ^? _m laws ) :i* our ance/ors attempt$1 fir/ to arre/1 & !n to curb ! gr[? 9 ! use ( coal ( any sort4 ,an?racite is n a homely coal4 ,if we use x alone x w n give u t bright & *e]ful blaze :i* ,engli%-speak+ p l to obta9 f _! fires4 ,x is a significant fact1 & "o :i* proves t ! v>i\s k9ds ( coal :i* are f\nd are no?+ b /ages begott5 by diff]5t degrees ( dis5tanglem5t ( ! conta9$ gases1 t :]e1 z 9 "s p>ts1 a mass ( basalt has come into contact ) ord9>y bitum9\s coal1 ! coal has assum$ ! "* ( an?racite1 :il/ ! *ange has 9 "s in/ances gone s f> z to conv]t ! an?racite into graphite4 ,! basalt1 :i* is "o ( ! igne\s rocks1 has be5 erupt$ into ! coal-seam 9 a /ate ( fusion1 & ! heat conta9$ 9 x has be5 suffici5t to cause ! dis5tanglem5t ( ! gases1 ! extraction ( :i* f ! coal br+s ab\t ! condition ( an?racite & graphite4 ,! m5tion ( graphite br+s u to ! next /age4 ,graphite1 plumbago1 or1 z x is m commonly call$1 black-lead1 :i*1 we may say 9 pass+1 has no?+ ( lead ab\t x at all1 is be/ kn[n 9 ! %ape ( t v useful & cosmopolitan article1 ! black-lead p5cil4 ,?is is ev5 pur] c>bon ?an an?racite1 n m ?an #e p] c5t4 ( a% & o!r impurities be+ pres5t4 ,x is well-kn[n by its grey metallic lu/re2 ! *emi/ uses x mix$ ) fire-clay to make 8 crucibles2 ! eng9e] uses x1 f9ely p[d]$1 to lubricate 8 ma*9]y2 ! h\se-keep] uses x to black-lead h] /oves to prev5t !m f ru/+4 ,an imp]fect graphite is f\nd inside "s ( ! hotte/ retorts f :i* gas is di/ill$1 & ?is is us$ z ! negative elem5t 9 z9c & c>bon electricity-mak+ cells1 :il/ its use z ! electrodes or c>bons ( ! arc-lamp is becom+ m & m widely adopt$1 z in/allations ( electric light become m g5]al4 ,"o great s\rce ( true graphite = _m ye>s 0 ! fam\s m9e at ,borr[dale1 9 ,cumb]l&1 b ?is is n[ almo/ exhau/$4 ,! ve9 lay betwe5 /rata ( slate1 & 0 f eight to n9e feet ?ick4 ,z mu* z #ajj1jjj is said to h be5 realis$ f x 9 "o ye>4 ,ext5sive supplies ( graphite are f\nd 9 rocks ( ! ,laur5tian age 9 ,canada4 ,9 ?is =mation no?+ :i* c und\bt$ly be class$ z organic has yet be5 discov]$4 ,life at ?is e>ly p]iod mu/ h f\nd its home 9 l[ & humble =ms1 & if ! eozon ( ,dawson1 :i* has be5 ?\ght to repres5t ! e>lie/ type ( life1 turns out aft] all n to be organic1 b only a deceptive appe>ance assum$ by c]ta9 ( ! /rata1 we at lea/ "k t x mu/ h be5 9 simil>ly humble =ms t life1 if x exi/$ at all1 did !n exi/4 ,we c sc>cely1 !re=e1 expect t ! vegetable _w _h made any great advance 9 complexity ( organism at ?is "t1 o!rwise ! supplies ( graphite or plumbago :i* are f\nd 9 ! =mation1 w\ld be attribut$ to d5se =e/ gr[?s1 act$ ^u1 aft] dea?1 9 a simil> mann] to t :i* await$ ! vegetation :i*1 ages aft]1 w5t to =m b$s ( coal4 ,at pres5t we "k ( no s\rce ( c>bon except ?r\gh ! int]v5tion & ! *emical action ( plants4 ,l iron1 c>bon is seldom f\nd on ! e>? except 9 comb9ation4 ,if !re 7 no gr[? ( vegetation at ?is f>-away p]iod to give rise to ^! deposits ( graphite1 we are compell$ to ask ourselves :e!r1 p]*ance1 !re did n !n exi/ conditions ( :i* we are n n[ cognisant on ! e>?1 & :i* all[$ graphite to be =m$ )\t assi/ance f ! vegetable k+dom4 ,at pres5t1 h[ev]1 sci5ce is 9 ! d>k z to any o!r process ( its =mation1 & we are left to assume t ! vegetable gr[? ( ! "t 0 enorm\s 9 quantity1 al?\gh !re is no?+ to %[ ! k9d ( vegetation1 :e!r humble mosses or tall =e/ trees1 :i* w5t to con/itute ! masses ( graphite4 ,geologi/s w agree t ?is is no small assumption to make1 s9ce1 if true1 x may %[ t !re 0 an abundance ( vegetation at a "t :5 animal life 0 hidd5 9 "o or m v obscure =ms1 "o only ( :i* has s f> be5 detect$1 & ^: v id5tity is /rongly d\bt$ by ne>ly all compet5t judges4 ,at ! same "t !re may h be5 an abundance ( bo? animal & vegetable life at ! "t4 ,we mu/ n =get t x is a well-asc]ta9$ fact t 9 lat] ages1 ! m9ute se$-spores ( =e/ trees 7 9 su* abundance z to =m important seams ( coal 9 ! true c>bonif]\s era1 ! trees :i* gave bir? to !m be+ n[ class$ among/ ! humble cryptogams1 ! f]ns1 & club-mosses1 c4 ,! graphite ( ,laur5tian age may n improbably h be5 caus$ by deposits ( m9ute portions ( simil> l[ly specim5s ( vegetable life1 & if ! eozon ! dawn-animalcule1 does repres5t ! animal life ( ! "t1 life ^: types 7 too m9ute to leave und\bt$ traces ( _! exi/5ce1 bo? animal life & vegetable life may be look$ ^u z exi/+ side by side 9 extremely humble =ms1 nei!r z yet hav+ tak5 an und\bt$ /ep =w>d 9 advance ( ! o!r 9 respect to complexity ( organism4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig #cj4--,lepidod5dron4 ,portion ( ,s&/one /em aft] removal ( b>k ( a giant club-moss ,!re is b "o m =m ( c>bon ) :i* we h to deal 9 runn+ ?r\gh ! s]ies4 ,we h se5 t coal is n ! summum bonum ( ! s]ies4 ,o!r trans=mations take place aft] ! /age ( coal is rea*$1 :i*1 by ! cont9u$ dis5tanglem5t ( gases1 f9ally br+ ab\t ! plumbago /age4 ,:at ! action is :i* trans=ms plumbago or "s o!r =m ( c>bon into ! condition ( a diamond _c be /at$4 ,diamond is ! pure/ =m ( c>bon f\nd 9 nature4 ,x is a beautiful object1 alike f ! results ( its p[]s ( refraction1 z also f ! =m into :i* its c>bon has be5 cry/allis$4 ,h[ ,nature1 9 h] wond]ful laboratory1 has precipitat$ ! diamond1 ) its wond]ful p[]s ( spectrum analysis1 we _c say ) c]ta9ty4 ,c]ta9 *emi/s h1 at a great exp5se1 produc$ cry/als :i*1 9 e respect1 /& ! te/s ( true diamonds2 b ! process ( _! production at a great exp5se has 9 no way dim9i%$ ! value ( ! natural product4 ,! process by :i* artificial diamonds h be5 produc$ is s int]e/+1 & ! subject may prove to be ( s great importance1 t a few rem>ks ^u ! process may n be unacceptable4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ! great ,fr5* *emi/1 ,dumas1 & o!rs1 satisfactorily prov$ ! fact1 :i* has ev] s9ce be5 consid]$ ?or\ghly e/abli%$1 t ! diamond is no?+ b c>bon cry/allis$ 9 ne>ly a pure /ate1 & _m *emi/s h s9ce be5 engag$ 9 ! hi!rto futile endeav\r to turn ord9>y c>bon into ! true diamond4 ,despretz at "o "t consid]$ t he _h discov]$ ! process1 :i* consi/$ 9 8 case ( submitt+ a piece ( *>coal to ! action ( an electric batt]y1 hav+ 9 8 m9d ! simil> process ( electrolysis1 by :i* wat] is divid$ up into ! two gases1 hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,he obta9$ a microscopic deposit on ! poles ( ! batt]y1 :i* he pron\nc$ to be diamond du/1 b :i*1 a long "t aft]1 0 prov$ to be no?+ b graphite 9 a cry/allis$ /ate4 ,?is 01 h[ev]1 c]ta9ly a /ep 9 ! "r direction4 ,! hon\r ( fir/ accompli%+ ! task fell to ,mr ,hannay1 ( ,glasg[1 :o succe$$ 9 produc+ v small b comp>atively s(t diamonds1 by heat+ lampblack "u great pressure1 9 company ) "o or two o!r +r$i5ts4 ,! process 0 a co/ly "o1 & beyond be+ a great sci5tific feat1 ! discov]y l$ to little result4 ,a "y ,fr5* *emi/1 ,m4 ,h5ri ,moissau1 has s9ce come to ! front1 & ! diamonds :i* he has produc$ h /ood e te/ = ! true diamond to :i* !y c\ld be subject$2 above all1 ! d5sity ( ! product is #c4e1 i4e41 t ( ! diamond1 t ( graphite rea*+ #b only4 ,he recognis$ t 9 all diamonds :i* he _h consum$--& he consum$ "s #aej wor? 9 ord] to assure himself ( ! fact--!re 7 always traces ( iron 9 _! composition4 ,he saw t iron 9 fusion1 l o!r metals1 always dissolves a c]ta9 quantity ( c>bon4 ,might x n be t molt5 iron1 cool+ 9 ! pres5ce ( c>bon1 deep 9 volcanic dep?s :]e !re 0 little scope = ! iron to exp& 9 assum+ ! solid =m1 w\ld ex]t su* trem5d\s pressure ^u ! p>ticles ( c>bon :i* x absorb$1 t ^! w\ld assume ! cry/all9e /ate8 ,he pack$ a cyl9d] ( s(t iron ) ! c>bon ( sug>1 & plac$ ! :ole 9 a crucible fill$ ) molt5 iron1 :i* 0 rais$ to a temp]ature ( #cjjj by means ( an electric furnace4 ,! s(t cyl9d] melt$1 & dissolv$ a l>ge portion ( ! c>bon4 ,! crucible 0 ?r[n into wat]1 & a mass ( solid iron 0 =m$4 ,x 0 all[$ fur!r to cool 9 ! op5 air1 b ! expansion :i* ! iron w\ld h und]gone on cool+1 0 *eck$ by ! crucible :i* conta9$ x4 ,! result 0 a trem5d\s pressure1 dur+ :i* ! c>bon1 :i* 0 /ill dissolv$1 0 cry/allis$ into m9ute diamonds4 ,^! %[$ !mselves z m9ute po9ts :i* 7 easily sep>able f ! mass by ! action ( acids4 ,?us ! wond]ful trans=mation f sug> to ! diamond 0 accompli%$4 ,x %\ld be m5tion$ t iron1 silv]1 & wat]1 alone possess ! peculi> prop]ty ( exp&+ :5 pass+ f ! liquid to ! solid /ate4 ,! diamonds s obta9$ 7 ( bo? k9ds4 ,! p>ticles ( :ite diamond resembl$ 9 e respect ! true brilliant4 ,b !re 0 also an appreciable quantity ( ! v>iety kn[n z ! black diamond4 ,^! diamonds seem to approximate m closely to c>bon z we are mo/ famili> ) x4 ,!y are n consid]$ z ( su* value z ! transp>5t =m1 b !y are /ill ( consid]able comm]cial value4 ,! c>bonado1 z ?is k9d is call$1 possesses s great a degree ( h>dness t by means ( x x is possible to bore ?r\gh ! h>de/ rocks4 ,! diamond drill1 us$ = bor+ purposes1 is furni%$ ar\nd ! out] edge ( ! cyl9d] ( ! bor+ bit1 z x is call$1 ) p]haps a doz5 black diamonds1 toge!r ) ano!r r[ ( ,brazilian diamonds on ! inside4 ,by ! rotation ( ! bor+ tool ! %>p edges ( ! diamonds cut _! way ?r\gh rocks ( all degrees ( h>dness1 leav+ a core ( ! rock cut ?r\gh1 9 ! c5tre ( ! cyl9drical drill4 ,x is f\nd t ! durability ( ! natural edge ( ! diamond is f> great] ?an t ( ! edge caus$ by artificial cutt+ & trimm+4 ,! cutt+ ( a pane ( glass by means ( a r+ set ) an artificially-cut diamond1 _c !re=e be done )\t injur+ to a slight ext5t ! edge ( ! /one4 ,! diamond is ! h>de/ ( all kn[n sub/ances1 leav+ a scrat* on any sub/ance across :i* x may be drawn4 ,yet x is "o ^: =m c be *ang$1 & ^: h>dness c be completely de/roy$1 by ! simple process ( combu/ion4 ,x c be depriv$ ( its high lu/re1 & ( its p[] ( break+ up by refraction ! light ( ! sun into ! v>i\s t9ts ( ! sol> spectrum1 simply by heat+ x to a r$ heat1 & !n plung+ x into a j> ( oxyg5 gas4 ,x imm$iately exp&s1 *anges into a coky mass1 & burns away4 ,! product left beh9d is a mixture ( c>bon & oxyg51 9 ! proportions 9 :i* x is met ) 9 c>bonic-anhydride1 or1 c>bonic acid gas depriv$ ( its wat]4 ,?is is inde$ a /range trans=mation1 f ! mo/ valuable ( all our preci\s /ones to a comp\nd :i* is ! same 9 *emical con/itu5ts z ! poison\s gas :i* we & all animals exhale4 ,b !re is ?is to be said4 ,probably 9 ! f>-away days :5 ! diamond began to be =m$1 ! tree or o!r vegetable product :i* 0 its f>-remov$ ance/or ab/ract$ c>bonic acid gas f ! atmosph]e1 j z d our plants 9 ! pres5t day4 ,by ?is means x obta9$ ! c>bon :]e) to build up its tissues4 ,?us ! combu/ion ( ! diamond into c>bonic-anhydride n[ is1 aft] all1 only a return to ! same comp\nd out ( :i* x 0 orig9ally =m$4 ,h[ x 0 =m$ is a secret3 probably ! "t occupi$ 9 ! =mation ( ! diamond may be c\nt$ by c5turies1 b ! "t ( its re-trans=mation into a mass ( coky matt] is b ! "w ( seconds6 ,!re is ano!r =m ( c>bon :i* 0 =m]ly ( mu* great] importance ?an x is n[1 & :i*1 al?\gh n a natural product1 is yet des]v+ ( "s notice "h4 ,*>coal is ! sub/ance ref]r$ to4 ,9 e>ly days ! ^w coal1 or1 z x 0 also spelt1 cole1 0 appli$ to any sub/ance :i* 0 us$ z fuel2 h5ce we h a ref]5ce 9 ! ,bible to a fire ( coals1 s translat$ :5 ! mean+ to be convey$ 0 probably n coal z we "k x4 ,wood 0 =m]ly kn[n z coal1 :il/ *>r$ wood receiv$ ! "n ( *>r$-coal1 :i* 0 soon corrupt$ into *>coal4 ,! *>coal-burn]s ( ye>s gone by 7 a f> m fl\ri%+ community ?an !y are n[4 ,:5 ! old b>onial halls & c\ntry-seats dep5d$ on !m = ! basis ( _! fuel1 & ! log 0 a m frequ5t occupant ( ! fire-grate ?an n[1 ^! occupi]s ( mid=e/ 7 a p ( "s importance4 ,we mu/ n ov]look ! fact t !re is ano!r =m ( *>coal1 namely1 animal *>coal or bone-black4 ,?is c be obta9$ by heat+ bones to r$ness 9 clos$ iron vessels4 ,9 ! ref9+ ( raw sug> ! discoloration ( ! syrup is br\ght ab\t by filt]+ x ?r\gh animal-*>coal2 by ?is means ! syrup is r5d]$ col\rless4 ,:5 prop]ly prep>$1 *>coal exhibits v di/9ctly ! r+s ( annual gr[? :i* may h *>act]is$ ! wood f :i* x 0 =m$4 ,x is v light 9 consequ5ce ( its por\s nature1 & x is wond]fully inde/ructible4 ,b its greate/1 because x is its mo/ useful prop]ty1 is und\bt$ly ! p[] :i* x has ( absorb+ great quantities ( gas into itself4 ,x is 9 fact :at may be t]m$ an all-r\nd purifi]4 ,x is a deodoris]1 a dis9fectant1 & a decoloris]4 ,x is an absorb5t ( bad od\rs1 & p>tially removes ! smell f ta9t$ meat4 ,x has be5 us$ :5 (f5sive manures h be5 spread ov] soils1 ) ! same object 9 view1 & its use = ! purification ( wat] is well kn[n to all us]s ( filt]s4 ,"s idea ( its p[] z a dis9fectant may be ga9$ by ! fact t "o volume ( wood-*>coal w absorb no less ?an #ij volumes ( ammonia1 #ce volumes ( c>bonic anhydride1 & #fe volumes ( sulphur\s anhydride4 ,o!r =ms ( c>bon :i* are well-kn[n are 7#a7 coke1 ! residue left :5 coal has be5 subject$ to a great heat 9 a clos$ retort1 b f :i* all ! bye-products ( coal h be5 all[$ to escape2 7#b7 soot & lamp-black1 ! =m] ( :i* is useful z a manure 9 consequ5ce ( ammonia be+ pres5t 9 x1 :il/ ! latt] is a specially prep>$ soot1 & is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( ,indian ink & pr9t]s' ink4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,coal-,,m9e ,,& ,,its ,,dang]s4 ,x is some:at /range to ?9k t :]e once exi/$ ! solitudes ( an anci5t c>bonif]\s =e/ n[ is ! site ( a busy und]gr\nd t[n4 ,= a t[n x really is4 ,! v>i\s roads & passages :i* are cut ?r\gh ! solid coal z excavation ( a coal-m9e proce$s1 repres5t to a /rang] all ! intricacies ( a well-plann$ t[n4 ,nor is ! ext5t ( ^! und]gr\nd t[ns a ?+ to be despis$4 ,!re is an old pit ne> ,newca/le :i* conta9s n less ?an fifty miles ( passages4 ,o!r pits !re are ^: ma9 ?or\ghf>es 9 a direct l9e are n less ?an f\r or five miles 9 l5g?1 & ?is1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d1 is ! result ( excavation wr\ght by human h&s & human lab\r4 ,s great an ext5t ( passages necess>ily requires "s special means ( keep+ ! air )9 x 9 a pure /ate1 su* z w r5d] x fit = ! work]s to brea!4 ,! fur!r "o w\ld g f ! ma9 ?or\ghf>e 9 su* a m9e1 ! less likely "o w\ld be to f9d air ( suffici5t purity = ! purpose4 ,x is z a consequ5ce necess>y to take "s special /eps to provide an effici5t sy/em ( v5tilation ?r\gh\t ! m9e4 ,?is is effectually done by two %afts1 call$ respectively ! d[nca/ & ! upca/ %aft4 ,a %aft is 9 reality a v deep well1 & may be circul>1 rectangul> or oval 9 =m4 ,9 ord] to keep out wat] :i* may be /ruck 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! v>i\s /rata1 x is protect$ by plank or wood tubb+1 or ! %aft is brick$ ov]1 or sometimes ev5 ca/-iron segm5ts are sunk4 ,9 _m %afts :i*1 ow+ to _! great dep?1 pass ?r\gh /rata ( e degree ( loos5ess or viscosity1 all ?ree me?ods are utilis$ 9 turn4 ,9 ,we/phalia1 :]e coal is work$ b5ea? /rata ( m rec5t geological age1 n>r[ %afts h be51 9 _m cases1 sunk by means ( bor+ app>atus1 9 pref]5ce to ! usual process ( excavation1 & ! practice has s9ce be5 adopt$ 9 ,s\? ,wales4 ,9 ,engl& ! usual =m ( ! pit is circul>1 b elliptical & rectangul> pits are also 9 use4 ,on ! ,cont95t polygonal-%ap$ %afts are n uncommon1 all ( !m1 ( :atev] %ape1 be+ con/ruct$ ) a view to resi/ ! great pressure ex]t$ by ! rock ar\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,eng9e-,h\se & ,build+s at head ( a ,coal-,pit4 ,if !re be "o ( ^! %afts at "o end ( ! m9e1 & ano!r at a remote di/ance f x1 a movem5t ( ! air w at once beg91 & a r\gh k9d ( v5tilation w ensue4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 q insuffici5t to provide ! necess>y quantity ( air = inhalation by ! army ( work]s 9 ! coal-m9e1 = ! curr5t ?us set up does n ev5 provide suffici5t =ce to remove ! effete air & impurities :i* accumulate f hundr$s ( p]spir+ human bodies4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to introduce "s artificial means1 by :i* a /rong & regul> curr5t %all pass d[n "o %aft1 ?r\gh ! m9e 9 all its work+s1 & out at ! o!r %aft4 ,?is is accompli%$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,x took _m ye>s be=e ^? int]e/$ 9 m9es came ?or\ghly to und]/& h[ prop]ly to secure v5tilation1 & 9 bygone days ! sy/em 0 s ?or\ghly bad t a trem5d\s am\nt ( sickness prevail$ among/ ! m9]s1 ow+ to ! poison\s effects ( brea?+ ! same air ov] & ov] aga91 *>g$1 z x 01 ) m or less ( ! gases giv5 (f by ! coal itself4 ,n[1 ^? m9]s :o d s great a "p 9 furni%+ ! means ( w>m+ our h\ses 9 w9t]1 h ! be/ contrivances :i* c be devis$ to furni% !m ) an ev]-fl[+ curr5t ( fre% air4 ,among/ ! v>i\s me*anical appliances :i* h be5 us$ to ensure v5tilation may be m5tion$ pumps1 fans1 & pneumatic screws4 ,!re is1 z we h said1 a c]ta91 ?\gh slight1 movem5t ( ! air 9 ! two columns :i* con/itute ! upca/ & ! d[nca/ %afts1 b 9 ord] t a curr5t may fl[ :i* %all be equal to ! necessities ( ! m9]s1 "s means are necess>y1 by :i* ?is condition ( almo/ equilibrium %all be consid]ably di/urb$1 & a curr5t creat$ :i* %all sweep all f\l gases be=e x4 ,"o plan 0 to =ce fre% air into ! d[nca/1 :i* %\ld 9 a s5se pu% ! foetid air away by ! upca/4 ,ano!r 0 to exhau/ ! upca/1 & s draw ! gases 9 ! tra9 ( ! exhau/$ air4 ,9 o!r cases ! plan 0 adopt$ ( provid+ a cont9ual fall+ ( wat] d[n ! d[nca/ %aft4 ,^! v>i\s plans h almo/ all giv5 way to t :i* is ! mo/ s]viceable ( all1 namely1 ! plan ( hav+ an imm5se furnace con/antly burn+ 9 a specially-con/ruct$ *amb] at ! bottom ( ! upca/4 ,by ?is means ! column ( air above x becomes r>efi$ "u ! heat1 & asc5ds1 :il/ ! cool] air f ! d[nca/ ru%es 9 & spreads itself 9 all directions :5ce ! bad air has already be5 drawn4 ,on ! o!r h&1 to s great a /ate ( p]fection h v5tilat+ fans be5 br\ght1 t "o 0 rec5tly erect$ :i* w\ld be capable ( *ang+ ! air ( ,we/m9/] ,hall ?irty times 9 "o h\r4 ,hav+ procur$ a curr5t ( suffici5t p[]1 x w be at once und]/ood t1 if left to its own w1 x w\ld take ! ne>e/ pa? :i* might lie betwe5 its entrance & its exit1 &1 9 ?is way1 v5tilat+ ! pr9cipal /reet only1 w\ld leave all ! _m (f-%oots f x undi/urb$4 ,x is consequ5tly manipulat$ by means ( b>ri]s & tight-fitt+ doors1 9 su* a way t ! curr5t is b\nd 9 turn to trav]se e portion ( ! m9e4 ,a l>ge numb] ( boys1 kn[n z trapp]s1 are employ$ 9 op5+ ! doors to all com]s1 & 9 c>efully clos+ ! doors imm$iately aft] !y h pass$1 9 ord] t ! curr5t may n circulate ?r\gh passages along :i* x is n int5d$ t x %\ld pass4 ,! greate/ dang]s :i* await ! m9]s are ^? :i* result1 9 ! =m ( t]rible explosions1 f ! pres5ce ( inflammable gases 9 ! m9es4 ,! great walls ( coal :i* b\nd ! passages 9 m9es are con/antly exud+ supplies ( gas into ! air4 ,:5 a bank ( coal is br\ght d[n by an artificial explosion1 by dynamite1 by lime c>tridges1 or by "s o!r ag5cy1 l>ge quantities ( gas are sometimes dis5gag$1 & n only is ?is highly detrim5tal to ! heal? ( ! m9]s1 if n c>ri$ away by prop] v5tilation1 b x con/itutes a con/ant dang] :i* may at any "t cause an explosion :5 a nak$ light is br\ght into contact ) x4 ,fire-damp may be sometimes he>d issu+ f fi]y seams ) a peculi> hiss+ s\nd4 ,if ! volume be great1 ! gas =ms :at is call$ a bl[]1 & ?is (t5 happ5s 9 ! neighb\rhood ( a fault4 ,:5 coal is br\ght d[n 9 any l>ge volume1 ! bl[]s :i* comm5ce may be exhau/$ 9 a few mom5ts4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 h be5 kn[n to la/ = ye>s1 ?is be+ ! case at ,walls5d1 :]e ! bl[] gave (f #abj feet ( gas p] m9ute4 ,9 su* cases ! gas is usually convey$ 9 pipes to a place :]e x c be burn$ 9 safety4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( coal-m9+ ! explosions caus$ by ?is gas soon receiv$ ! s]i\s att5tion ( ! sci5tific m5 ( ! age4 ,9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society we f9d a record ( a gas explosion 9 #afgg4 ,! amus+ "p ( su* records 0 t ! explosions 7 ascrib$ by ! m9]s to sup]natural ag5cies4 ,little att5tion seem$ to h be5 paid to ! fact1 :i* has s9ce s ?or\ghly be5 e/abli%$1 t ! explosions 7 caus$ by accumulations ( gas1 mix$ 9 c]ta9 proportions ) air4 ,z a consequ5ce1 tall[ c&les ) an expos$ flame 7 freely us$1 especially 9 ,brita94 ,^! 7 plac$ 9 ni*es 9 ! work+s1 :]e !y w\ld give to ! pitman ! greate/ am\nt ( light4 ,previ\s to ! introduction ( ! safety-lamp1 work+s 7 te/$ be=e ! m5 ent]$ !m1 by try+ ! c&le4 ,ow+ to ! specific gravity ( fire-damp 74#eee7 be+ less ?an t ( air1 x always f9ds a lodgem5t at ! ro(s ( ! work+s1 s t1 to te/ ! condition ( ! air1 x 0 necess>y to /eadily raise ! c&le to ! ro( at c]ta9 places 9 ! passages1 & wat* c>efully ! action ( ! flame4 ,! pres5ce ( fire-damp w\ld be %[n by ! flame assum+ a blue col\r1 & by its elongation2 ! pres5ce ( o!r gases c\ld be detect$ by an exp]i5c$ man by c]ta9 peculi>ities 9 ! t9t ( ! flame4 ,?is te/+ ) ! op5 flame has almo/ entirely ceas$ s9ce ! introduction ( ! p]fect$ ,davy lamp4 ,! use ( c&les = illum9ation soon gave place 9 mo/ ( ! l>ge colli]ies to ! introduction ( small oil-lamps4 ,9 ! less fi]y m9es on ! ,cont95t1 oil-lamps ( ! well-kn[n ,etruscan patt]n are /ill 9 use1 :il/ small metal lamps1 :i* c conv5i5tly be atta*$ to ! cap ( ! work]1 occasionally f9d fav\r 9 ! %all[] ,scot* m9es4 ,^! lamps are v useful 9 gett+ ! coal f ! ?9n] seams1 :]e progress has to be made on ! h&s & feet4 ,at ! close ( ! la/ c5tury1 z work+s began to be c>ri$ deep]1 & coal 0 obta9$ f places m & m infe/$ ) fire-damp1 x soon came to be realis$ t ! old me?ods ( illum9ation w\ld h to be replac$ by o!rs ( a saf] nature4 ,x is notewor?y t m]e r$ heat is insuffici5t 9 itself to ignite fire-damp1 actual contact ) flame be+ necess>y = ?is purpose4 ,be>+ ?is 9 m9d1 ,sp$d+1 ! discov]] ( ! fact1 inv5t$ :at is kn[n z ! /eel-mill = illum9at+ purposes4 ,9 ?is a too!d :eel 0 made to play ^u a piece ( /eel1 ! sp>ks ?us caus$ be+ suffici5t to give a mod]ate am\nt ( illum9ation4 ,x 0 f\nd1 h[ev]1 t ?is me?od 0 n always tru/wor?y1 & lamps 7 introduc$ by ,humboldt 9 #agif1 & by ,clanny 9 #ahjf4 ,9 ^! lamps ! air :i* f$ ! flame 0 isolat$ f ! air ( ! m9e by hav+ to bubble ?r\gh a liquid4 ,_m m9]s 7 n1 h[ev]1 provid$ ) ^! lamps1 & ! risks att5d+ nak$ lights w5t on z m]rily z ev]4 ,9 ord] to avoid explosions 9 m9es :i* 7 kn[n to give (f l>ge quantities ( gas1 fi]y pits z !y are call$1 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy 9 #ahae inv5t$ 8 safety lamp1 ! pr9ciple ( :i* c be /at$ 9 a few words4 ,if a piece ( f9e wire gauze be held ov] a gas-jet be=e x is lit1 & ! gas be !n turn$ on1 x c be lit above ! gauze1 b ! flame w n pass d[nw>ds t[>ds ! s\rce ( ! gas2 at lea/1 n until ! gauze has become ov]-heat$4 ,! metallic gauze s rapidly conducts away ! heat1 t ! temp]ature ( ! gas b5ea? ! gauze is unable to arrive at ! po9t ( ignition4 ,9 ! safety-lamp ! little oil-lamp is plac$ 9 a circul> funnel ( f9e gauze1 :i* prev5ts ! flame f pass+ ?r\gh x to any explosive gas t may be float+ ab\t outside1 b at ! same "t all[s ! rays ( light to pass ?r\gh readily4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 9 introduc+ 8 lamp1 caution$ ! m9]s aga9/ expos+ x to a rapid curr5t ( air1 :i* w\ld op]ate 9 su* a way z to =ce ! flame ?r\gh ! gauze1 & also aga9/ all[+ ! gauze to become r$-hot4 ,9 ord] to m9imise1 z f> z possible1 ! necessity ( su* caution ! lamp has be5 consid]ably modifi$ s9ce fir/ inv5t$1 ! spe$ ( ! v5tilat+ curr5ts n n[ all[+ ( ! use ( ! simple ,davy lamp1 b ! pr9ciple is ! same4 ,dur+ ! progress ( ,sir ,humphrey ,davy's exp]im5ts1 he f\nd t :5 fire-damp 0 dilut$ ) #he p] c5t4 ( air1 & any less proportion1 x simply ignit$ )\t explosion4 ,) betwe5 #he p] c5t4 & #hi p] c5t4 ( air1 fire-damp assum$ its mo/ explosive =m1 b aft]w>ds decreas$ 9 explosiv5ess1 until ) #id-a_/d p] c5t4 ( air x aga9 simply ignit$ )\t explosion4 ,) betwe5 #aa & #ab p] c5t4 ( fire-damp ! mixture 0 mo/ dang]\s4 ,pure fire-damp itself1 !re=e1 is n dang]\s1 s t :5 a small quantity ent]s ! gauze :i* surr\nds ! ,davy lamp1 x simply burns ) its *>act]i/ic blue flame1 b at ! same "t gives ! m9] due notice ( ! dang] :i* he 0 runn+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,gas ,jet & ,davy ,lamp4 ,) ! complicat$ improvem5ts :i* h s9ce be5 made 9 ! ,davy lamp1 a /ate ( almo/ absolute safety c be gu>ante$1 b /ill f "t to "t explosions are report$4 ,( ! cause ( _m we are absolutely ignorant1 b occasionally a light is ?r[n ^u _! orig9 by a p>agraph appe>+ 9 a daily pap]4 ,two m5 are *>g$ be=e ! magi/rates ) be+ 9 ! possession ( keys us$ exclusively = unlock+ _! m9]s' safety-lamps4 ,!re is no def5ce4 ,^! m5 "k t !y c>ry _! lives 9 _! h&s1 yet w risk _! own & ^? ( hundr$s ( o!rs1 9 ord] t !y may be able to light _! pipes by means ( _! safety-lamps4 ,sometimes 9 an unexpect$ mom5t !re is a great dislodgem5t ( coal1 & a trem5d\s quantity ( gas is set free1 :i* may be suffici5t to f\l ! passages = "s di/ance ar\nd4 ,! introduction or exposure ( a nak$ light = ev5 s mu* z a second is suffici5t to cause explosion ( ! mass2 doors are bl[n d[n1 props & tubb+ are *>r$ up1 & ! volume ( smoke1 ru%+ up by ! ne>e/ %aft & ov]?r[+ ! eng9e-h\se & o!r /ructures at ! m\?1 conveys its own sad message to ^? at ! surface1 ( ! dreadful cata/rophe t has happ5$ bel[4 ,p]haps all t rema9s ( "s ( ! work]s consi/s ( *>r$ & scor*$ bodies1 sc>cely recognisable z human be+s4 ,o!rs escape ) scor*$ arms or legs1 & s+$ hair1 to tell ! t]rible tale to ^? :o 7 m =tunately abs5t2 to speak ( _! own suff]+s :51 aft] hav+ escap$ ! wor/ effects ( ! explosion1 !y enc\nt]$ ! asphyxiat+ ru% ( ! aft]-damp or *oke-damp1 :i* _h be5 caus$ by ! combu/ion ( ! fire-damp4 ,*oke-damp 9 v tru? x is1 = x is pr9cipally compos$ ( our old acqua9tance c>bonic acid gas 7c>bon dioxide71 :i* is well kn[n z a non-support] ( combu/ion & z an asphyxiator ( animal life4 ,x seems a t]rible ?+ t on occasions ! work+s & walls !mselves ( a coal-m9e cat* fire & burn incessantly4 ,yet su* is ! case4 ,ye>s ago ?is happ5$ 9 ! case ( an old colli]y ne> ,dudley1 at ! surface ( :i*1 by means ( ! heat & /eam ?us af=d$1 e>ly potatoes = ! ,london m>ket1 we are told1 7 gr[n2 & x 0 no unusual ?+ to see ! smoke em]g+ f cracks & crevices 9 ! rocks 9 ! vic9ity ( ! t[n4 ,f fire on ! "o h&1 we pass1 on ! o!r1 to ! dang] :i* awaits m9]s f a sudd5 inru% ( wat]4 ,dur+ ! great coal /rike ( #ahic1 c]ta9 m9es became unworkable 9 consequ5ce ( ! quantity ( wat] :i* flood$ ! m9es1 & :i*1 cont9ually pass+ along ! natural fractures 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 is always ready to f9d a /orage res]voir 9 ! work+s ( a coal-m9e4 ,?is is a difficulty :i* is always exp]i5c$ 9 ! s9k+ ( %afts1 & ! %utt+ (f ( wat] engages ! be/ ef=ts ( m9+ eng9e]s4 ,add$ to ^! v>i\s dang]s :i* exi/ 9 ! coal-m9e1 we mu/ n omit to notice ^? accid5ts t are cont9ually be+ caus$ by ! fall+-9 ( ro(s or ( walls1 f ! fall+ ( insecure timb]1 or ( :at are kn[n z coal-pipes or bell-m\lds4 ,!n1 aga91 e man t ent]s ! m9e tru/s 8 life to ! cage by :i* he desc5ds to 8 lab\r1 & %aft accid5ts are n infrequ5t4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! numb] ( dea?s f colli]y accid5ts = a p]iod ( t5 ye>s1 compil$ by a ,gov]nm5t inspector1 & f ?is x w be se5 t ^? result+ f fall+ ro(s numb] consid]ably m ?an "o-?ird ( ! :ole4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,causes ( ,dea?4 ,no4 ( ,proportion ,dea?s4 p] c5t4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,dea?s result+ f fire-damp explosions #bjai #bj4cf ,dea?s result+ f fall+ ro(s & coals #ciec #ci4hg ,dea?s result+ f %aft accid5ts #agaj #ag4bd ,dea?s result+ f miscellane\s causes & above gr\nd #bbcd #bb4ec ------------------------ #iiaf #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,e read] ( ! daily pap]s is famili> ) ! h>r[+ acc\nts :i* are !re giv5 ( coal-m9e explosions4 ,?is k9d ( accid5t is "o1 :i* is1 above all1 associat$ 9 ! public m9d ) ! dang]s ( ! coal-pit4 ,yet ! accid5ts aris+ f ?is cause numb] b #bj p] c5t4 ( ^? record$1 & grant$ !re be prop] inspection1 & ! use ( nak$ lights be absolutely aboli%$1 ?is l[ p]c5tage might /ill be consid]ably r$uc$4 ,a t]rific explosion occurr$ at ,:itwick ,colli]y1 ,leice/]%ire1 9 #ahic1 :5 two lads 7 kill$1 :il/ a ?ird 0 rescu$ aft] a v n>r[ escape4 ,! lads1 x is /at$1 7 work+ ) nak$ lights1 :5 a sudd5 fall ( coal releas$ a quantity ( gas1 & an imm$iate explosion 0 ! natural result4 ,accid5ts _h be5 s r>e at ?is pit t x 0 reg>d$ z p>ticul>ly safe1 & x 0 alleg$ t ! use ( nak$ lights 0 n uncommon4 ,?is is an in/ance ( t l>ge numb] ( accid5ts :i* are und\bt$ly prev5table4 ,an int]e/+ comm5t>y on ! c>eless mann] 9 :i* m9]s risk _! lives 0 %[n 9 ! discov]ies made aft] an explosion at a colli]y ne> ,wrexham 9 #ahhi4 ,ne> ! sc5e ( ! explosion an unsecur$ safety lamp 0 f\nd1 & ! g5]al op9ion at ! "t 0 t ! disa/] 0 caus$ by ! inexcusable c>elessness ( "o ( ! tw5ty victims4 ,besides ?is1 :5 ! clo?+ ( ! bodies recov]$ 0 se>*$1 ! cont5ts1 tak51 x %\ld be not$1 ) ! pitm5 into ! m9es1 consi/$ ( pipes1 tobacco1 mat*es1 & ev5 keys = unlock+ ! lamps4 ,x is a /range reflection on ! mann] 9 :i* ?is m9e _h be5 exam9$ previ\s to ! m5 ent]+ ^u _! "w1 t ! "u-look]1 b half an h\r previ\sly1 _h report$ ! pit to be free f gas4 ,ano!r in/ance ( ! same foolh>d9ess on ! "p ( ! m9]s is conta9$ 9 ! report issu$ 9 reg>d to an explosion :i* occurr$ at ,d5ny1 9 ,/irl+%ire1 on ,april #bf?1 #ahie4 ,by ?is accid5t ?irte5 m5 lo/ _! lives1 & ^u ! bodies ( eight ( ! numb] ! foll[+ articles 7 f\nd2 ^u ,patrick ,c>r1 t9 mat*box half full ( mat*es & a contrivance = op5+ lamps2 ,john ,comrie1 split nail = op5+ lamps2 ,pet] ,conway1 sev5 mat*es & split key = op5+ lamps2 ,patrick ,dunton1 split nail = op5+ lamps2 ,john ,h]ron1 clay pipe & piece ( tobacco2 ,h5ry ,m',gov]n1 t9 mat*box half full ( mat*es2 ,rob]t ,mit*ell1 clay pipe & piece ( tobacco2 ,john ,nicol1 wood5 pipe1 piece ( tobacco1 "o mat*1 & box half full ( mat*es4 ,! report /at$ t ! imm$iate cause ( ! disa/] 0 ! ignition ( fire-damp by nak$ light1 ! conditions ( temp]ature be+ su* z to exclude ! possibility ( spontane\s combu/ion4 ,h5ry ,m',gov]n _h previ\sly be5 convict$ ( hav+ a pipe 9 ! m9e4 ,) reg>d to ! "q ( suffici5t v5tilation x cont9u$3--,& we are !re=e l$1 on a consid]ation ( ! :ole evid5ce1 to ! conclusion t ! accid5t _c be attribut$ to ! abs5ce ( v5tilation1 :i* ! m9e own]s 7 b\nd "u ! ,m9es ,regulation ,act & ! special rules to provide4 ,! report conclud$ z foll[s3-- ,on ! :ole matt] we h to report t1 9 our op9ion1 ! explosion at ,qu>t] ,pit on ,april #bf?1 #ahie1 result+ 9 ! loss ( ?irte5 lives1 0 caus$ by ! ignition ( an accumulation or an outbur/ ( gas com+ 9 contact ) a nak$ light1 'o!r ?an an op5 safety-lamp1' :i* _h be5 unlawfully k9dl$ by "o ( ! m9]s :o 7 kill$4 ,9 our op9ion1 ! int5sity ( ! explosion 0 aggravat$1 & its area ext5d$1 by ! ignition ( coal-du/4 ,we h m5tion$ t accid5ts h frequ5tly occurr$ f ! fall+ ( coal-pipes1 or1 z !y are also call$1 bell-m\lds4 ,we mu/ expla9 :at is meant by ?is t]m4 ,!y are simply :at appe> to be solid trunks ( trees metamorphos$ into coal4 ,if we g into a tropical =e/ we f9d t ! woody fibre ( dead trees almo/ inv>iably decays fa/] ?an ! b>k4 ,! result is t :at may appe> to be a s\nd tree is no?+ b an empty cyl9d] ( b>k4 ,?is appe>s to h be5 ! case ) _m ( ! trees 9 coal-m9es1 :]e !y are se5 to pi]ce ! /rata1 & ar\nd :i* ! m9]s are excavat+ ! coal4 ,z ! coaly mass collect$ ar\nd ! trunk :5 ! coal 0 be+ =m$1 ! int]ior 0 und]go+ a process ( decomposition1 :ile ! b>k assum$ ! =m ( coal4 ,! holl[ int]ior !n became fill$ ) ! %ale or s&/one :i* =ms ! ro( ( ! coal1 & its sole support :5 ! coal is remov$ f ar\nd x1 is ! ?9 r9d ( c>bonis$ b>k4 ,:5 ?is falls to pieces1 or loses its cohesion1 ! s&/one trunk falls ( its own weight1 (t5 caus+ ! dea? ( ! man t works b5ea? x4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell m5tions t 9 a colli]y ne> ,newca/le1 no less ?an ?irty sigill>ia trees 7 /&+ 9 _! natural position 9 an area ( fifty y>ds squ>e1 ! int]ior 9 ea* case be+ s&/one1 :i* 0 surr\nd$ by a b>k ( friable coal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc--,"p ( a trunk ( ,sigill>ia1 %[+ ! ?9 out] c>bonis$ b>k1 ) leaf-sc>s1 & ! seal-l impressions :]e ! b>k is remov$4 ,! la/ great dang] to :i* we h "h to make ref]5ce1 is ! explosive action ( a quantity ( coal-du/ 9 a dry condition4 ,x is only n[ comm5c+ to be fully recognis$ t ?is is really a mo/ dang]\s explosive4 ,z we h se51 l>ge quantities ( coal are =m$ almo/ exclusively ( lepidod5dron spores1 & su* coal is productive ( a great quantity ( du/4 ,explosions :i* are always m or less attributable to ! effects ( coal-du/ are g5]ally consid]$1 9 ! (ficial /ati/ics1 to h be5 caus$ by fire-damp4 ,! ,act regulat+ m9es 9 ,great ,brita9 is sc>cely up to date 9 ?is respect4 ,!re is a regulation :i* provides = ! wat]+ ( all dry & du/y places )9 tw5ty y>ds f ! spot :]e a %ot is fir$1 b ! en=cem5t ( ?is regulation 9 ea* & e pit necess>ily devolves on ! manag]s1 _m ( :om 9 ! abs5ce ( an inspector leave ! requirem5t a dead lett]4 ,e improvem5t :i* results 9 ! bett] v5tilation ( a coal-m9e t5ds to leave ! du/ 9 a m dang]\s condition4 ,! air1 z x desc5ds ! %aft & p]meates ! work+s1 becomes m & m heat$1 & licks up e p>ticle ( moi/ure x c t\*4 ,?or\gh v5tilation results 9 m greatly free+ a m9e ( ! dang]\s fire-damp1 b ! rem$y br+s ab\t ano!r disease1 viz41 ! dry+-up ( all moi/ure4 ,! du/ is ?us left 9 a dang]\sly inflammable condition1 act+ l a tra9 ( gunp[d]1 to be />t$1 x may be1 by ! slighte/ brea? ( an explosion4 ,!re is app>5tly little d\bt t ! pres5ce ( coal-du/ 9 a dry /ate 9 a m9e appreciably increases ! liability ( explosion 9 t m9e4 ,s f> z ,great ,brita9 is conc]n$1 a ,royal ,commission 0 appo9t$ by ,"l ,roseb]y's ,gov]nm5t to inquire into & inve/igate ! facts ref]r+ to coal-du/4 ,g5]ally speak+1 ! conclusion arriv$ at 0 t f9e coal-du/ 0 inflammable "u c]ta9 conditions4 ,!re 0 consid]able diff]5ce ( op9ion z to :at ^! conditions 74 ,"s 7 ( op9ion t coal-du/ & air alone 7 ( an explosive nature1 :il/ o!rs ?\ght t alone !y 7 n1 b t ! addition ( a small quantity ( fire-damp r5d]$ ! mixture explosive4 ,an important conclusion 0 come to1 t1 ) ! combu/ion ( coal-du/ alone1 !re 0 little or no concussion1 & t ! flame 0 n ( an explosive "*4 ,coal-du/ 01 h[ev]1 admitt$ly dang]\s1 especially if 9 a dry condition4 ,! effects ( an explosion ( gas might be consid]ably ext5d$ by its pres5ce1 & !re seems e reason to believe t1 ) a suitable admixture ( air & a v small proportion ( gas1 x =ms a dang]\s explosive4 ,legislation 9 ! direction ( ! report ( ! ,commission is urg5tly ne$$4 ,we h se5 else:]e :at x is 9 ! du/ :i* makes x dang]\s1 h[ t1 = ! mo/ "p1 x consi/s ( ! du/-l spores ( ! lepidod5dron tree1 f9e & impalpable z ! spores on ! backs ( "s ( our liv+ f]ns1 & ! fact t ?is consi/s ( a l>ge proportion ( res9 makes x ! easily inflammable sub/ance x is4 ,no?+ b an incessant wat]+ ( ! work+s 9 su* cases w r5d] ! du/ innocu\s4 ,! du/ is extremely f9e1 & is easily c>ri$ into e nook & crevice1 & :51 z at ,bridg5d 9 #ahib1 x explodes1 x is driv5 up & out ( ! %aft1 envelop+ ev]y?+ tempor>ily 9 du/ & d>kness4 ,9 "s ( ! pits 9 ,s\? ,wales a sy/em ( f9e sprays ( wat] is 9 use1 by :i* ! wat] is eject$ f p9-holes prick$ 9 a s]ies ( pipes :i* are c>ri$ ?r\gh ! work+s4 ,a f9e mi/ is ?us caus$ :]e necess>y1 :i* is c>ri$ =w>d by ! =ce ( ! v5tilat+ curr5t4 ,a ?or\gh sy/em ( inspection 9 coal-m9es ?r\gh\t ! _w is und\bt$ly urg5tly call$ =1 9 ord] to ensure ! prop] c>ry+ out ( ! v>i\s regulations fram$ = _! safety4 ,x is extremely un=tunate t s _m ( ! accid5ts :i* happ5 are prev5table1 if only m5 ( k & ( sci5tific atta9m5ts fill$ ! responsible positions ( ! ov]look]s4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,e>ly ,,hi/ory--,,its ,,use ,,& ,,its ,,abuse4 ,! ext5sive use ( coal ?r\gh\t ! civilis$ _w = purposes ( heat+ & illum9ation1 & = ! c>ry+ on ( manufactures & indu/ries1 may be reg>d$ z a well-m>k$ *>act]i/ic ( ! age 9 :i* we live4 ,coal mu/ h be5 9 c5turies pa/ a famili> object to _m g5]ations4 ,p mu/ h long be5 liv+ 9 close proximity to its outcrops at ! sides ( ! m\nta9s & at ! surface ( ! l&1 yet )\t be+ acqua9t$ ) its practical value1 & x seems /range t s little use 0 made ( x until ab\t ?ree c5turies ago1 & t its use did n spread e>li] & m quickly ?r\gh\t civilis$ c\ntries4 ,a m9]al fuel is m5tion$ by ,!ophra/us ab\t #cjj ,b4,c41 f :i* x is inf]r$ t ?us e>ly x 0 dug f "s ( ! m %all[ dep?s4 ,! ,britons be=e ! "t ( ! ,roman invasion are cr$it$ ) "s slight k ( its indu/rial value4 ,prehi/oric excavations h be5 f\nd 9 ,monm\?%ire1 & at ,/anley1 9 ,d]by%ire1 & ! fl9t axes !re actually f\nd imb$d$ 9 ! lay] ( coal are reasonably held to indicate its excavation by neoli?ic or palaeoli?ic 7/one-age7 workm54 ,! fact t coal c9d]s h be5 f\nd on old ,roman walls 9 conjunction ) ,roman tools & implem5ts1 goes to prove t its use1 at lea/ = heat+ purposes1 0 kn[n 9 ,engl& prior to ! ,saxon invasion1 :il/ "s polygonal *amb]s 9 ! six-foot seam ne> ! riv] ,d\glas1 9 ,lanca%ire1 are suppos$ also to be ,roman4 ,! ,*9ese 7 e>ly acqua9t$ ) ! exi/5ce ( coal1 & knew ( its indu/rial value to ! ext5t ( us+ x = ! bak+ ( porcela94 ,! fact ( its ext5sive exi/5ce 9 ,great ,brita91 & ! valuable uses to :i* x might be put1 did n1 h[ev]1 meet ) mu* notice until ! n9? c5tury1 :51 ow+ to ! decrease ( ! =e/-area1 & consequ5tly ( ! supply ( wood-*>coal !refrom1 x began to attract att5tion z af=d+ an excell5t sub/itute = *>coal4 ,! coal-m9] 01 h[ev]1 /ill a creation ( ! future1 & ev5 z peat is collect$ 9 ,irel& at ! pres5t day = fuel1 )\t ! labori\s process ( m9+ = x1 s ^? p liv+ 9 coal-be>+ di/ricts f\nd _! ne$s satisfi$ by ! quantity ( coal1 small z x 01 :i* appe>$ ready to h& on ! sides ( ! c>bonif]\s m\nta9s4 ,till !n1 & = a long "t aft]w>ds1 ! pr9cipal s\rce ( fuel consi/$ ( va/ =e/s1 amid/ :i* ! *>coal-burn]s1 or colli]s z !y 7 ev5 !n call$1 liv$ out _! lonely exi/5ce 9 prep>+ *>coal & hew+ wood1 = ! fires ( ! b>onial halls & /ately ca/les !n sw>m+ ?r\gh\t ! l&4 ,z ! =e/s became us$ up1 rec\rse 0 _h m & m to coal1 & 9 #abci ! fir/ *>t] deal+ ) & recognis+ ! importance ( ! supplies 0 grant$ to ! freem5 ( ,newca/le1 accord+ !m p]mission to dig = coals 9 ! ,ca/le fields4 ,ab\t ! same "t a coal-pit at ,pre/on1 ,hadd+ton%ire1 0 grant$ to ! monks ( ,newbattle4 ,specim5s ( ,newca/le coal 7 s5t to ,london1 b ! city 0 lo? to adopt its use1 object+ to ! innovation z "o prejudicial to ! heal? ( its citiz5s4 ,by ! end ( ! #af? c5tury1 two %ips only 7 f\nd suffici5t to satisfy ! dem& = /one-coal 9 ,london4 ,?is sl[ progress may1 p]haps1 h be5 p>tially ow+ to ! difficulties :i* 7 plac$ 9 ! way ( its univ]sal use4 ,great opposition 0 exp]i5c$ by ^? :o import$ x into ! metropolis1 & ! increas+ am\nt :i* 0 us$ by brew]s & o!rs ab\t ! ye> #acjj1 caus$ s]i\s compla9ts to be made1 ! effect ( :i* 0 to induce ,p>liam5t to obta9 a proclamation f ! ,k+ prohibit+ its use1 & emp[]+ ! ju/ices to inflict a f9e on ^? :o p]si/$ 9 burn+ x4 ,! nuisance :i* coal has s9ce prov$ itself1 9 ! pollution ( ! atmosph]e & 9 ! d5ud+ ( wide tracts ( c\ntry ( all vegetation1 0 ev5 ?us e>ly recognis$1 & _h ! ef=ts :i* 7 !n made to /amp out its use1 prov$ successful1 ^? :o live n[ 9 ! great cities might nev] h become acqua9t$ ) t species ( black w9t] fog :i* at times hangs l a pall ov] !m1 & trans=ms ! brightness ( day into a d>kness little remov$ f t ( night4 ,at ! same "t1 we mu/ be> 9 m9d t x is univ]sally ackn[l$g$ t ,engl& owes h] prosp]ity1 & h] pre-em95ce 9 comm]ce1 9 great "p1 to h] happy possession ( wide & valuable coal-fields1 & _m au?orities h n hesitat$ to say1 t1 9 _! op9ion1 ! l5g? ( "t dur+ :i* ,engl& w cont9ue to hold h] prom95t position z an indu/rial nation is limit$ by ! "t dur+ :i* h] coal w la/4 ,! attempt to prohibit ! burn+ ( coal 0 n1 h[ev]1 v successful1 = 9 ! reign ( ,edw>d ,,iii4 a lic5se 0 aga9 grant$ to ! freem5 ( ,newca/le to dig = coals4 ,newca/le 0 ?us ! fir/ t[n to become fam\s z ! home ( ! coal-m9]1 & ! fame :i* x e>ly acquir$1 x has held unceas+ly ev] s9ce4 ,o!r attempts at prohibition ( ! article 7 made at v>i\s times subsequ5tly1 among/ !m be+ "o :i* 0 made 9 ,elizabe?'s reign4 ,x 0 suppos$ t ! heal? ( ! c\ntry squires1 :o came to t[n to att5d ! session ( ,p>liam5t1 suff]$ consid]ably dur+ _! soj\rn 9 ,london1 &1 to rem$y ?is s]i\s /ate ( affairs1 ! use ( /one-coal dur+ ! "t ,p>liam5t 0 sitt+ 0 once m prohibit$4 ,coal 01 h[ev]1 by ?is "t beg9n+ to be recognis$ z a mo/ valuable & useful article ( fuel1 & _h tak5 a position 9 ! indu/rial life ( ! c\ntry f :i* x 0 difficult to remove x4 ,r ?an attempt to h arre/$ ! gr[+ use ( coal1 ,p>liam5t w\ld h be5 bett] employ$ _h x fram$ laws compell+ ! manufactur]s & o!r l>ge burn]s to consume _! own smoke1 & in/ead ( aim+ at total prohibition1 h enc\rag$ an intellig5t & m economical use ( x4 ,9 spite ( all prohibition its use rapidly spread1 & x 0 soon appli$ to ! smelt+ ( iron & to o!r purposes4 ,iron _h be5 l>gely produc$ 9 ! s\? ( ,engl& f /rata ( ! ,weald5 =mation1 dur+ ! exi/5ce ( ! great =e/ :i* at "o "t ext5d$ = miles ?r\gh\t ,surrey & ,sussex4 ,! discov]y ( coal1 h[ev]1 & ! op5+ up ( _m m9es 9 ! nor?1 gave an important impetus to ! smelt+ ( iron 9 ^? c\nties1 & z ! =e/s ( ! ,weald became exhau/$1 ! iron trade gradually decl9$4 ,furnace aft] furnace became ext+ui%$1 until 9 #ahji t at ,a%burnham1 :i* _h l+]$ on = "s ye>s1 0 compell$ to b[ to ! inevitable fate :i* _h ov]tak5 ! re/ ( ! iron bla/-furnaces4 ,9 ref]r+ to ?is subject1 ,sir ,james ,picton says3--,iron/one ( excell5t quality is f\nd 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! c\nty1 & 0 v e>ly made use (4 ,ev5 be=e ! adv5t ( ! ,romans1 ! ,=e/ ( ,dean 9 ! we/1 & ! ,=e/ ( ,&]ida1 9 ,sussex1 9 ! ea/1 7 ! two pr9cipal s\rces f :i* ! metal 0 d]iv$1 & all ?r\gh ! m$iaeval ages ! manufacture 0 cont9u$4 ,aft] ! discov]y ( ! art ( smelt+ & ca/+ iron 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 ! manufacture 9 ,sussex receiv$ a great impulse f ! abundance ( wood = fuel1 & f t "t d[n to ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury x cont9u$ to fl\ri%4 ,"o ( ! l>ge/ furnaces 0 at ,lamb]hur/1 on ! bord]s ( ,k5t1 :]e ! noble balu/rade surr\nd+ ,/ ,paul's ,ca!dral 0 ca/ at a co/ ( ab\t #aa1jjj4 ,x is /at$ by ! hi/orian ,hol9%$ t ! fir/ ca/-iron ordnance 0 manufactur$ at ,buxt$4 ,two specialities 9 ! iron trade belong$ to ,sussex1 ! manufacture ( *imney-backs1 & ca/-iron plates = grave-/ones4 ,at ! "t :5 wood con/itut$ ! fuel ! backs ( fire-places 7 frequ5tly ornam5t$ ) neat designs4 ,specim5s1 bo? ( ! *imney-backs & ( ! monum5ts1 are occasionally met )4 ,^! articles 7 export$ f ,rye4 ,! iron manufacture1 ( c\rse1 met ) consid]able disc\ragem5t on ! discov]y ( smelt+ ) pit-coal1 & ! rapid progress ( iron works 9 ,/af=d%ire & ! ,nor?1 b x l+]$ on until ! great =e/ 0 cut d[n & ! fuel exhau/$4 ,9 8 int]e/+ "w1 ,sylvia1 publi%$ 9 #affa1 ,evelyn1 9 speak+ ( ! noxi\s vap\rs p\r$ out into ! air by ! increas+ numb] ( coal fires1 writes1 ,?is is t p]nici\s smoke :i* sullies all h] glory1 sup]9duc+ a sooty cru/ or furr ^u all t x lights1 spoil+ movables1 t>ni%+ ! plate1 gild+s & furniture1 & corrod+ ! v iron b>s & h>de/ /ones ) ^? pi]c+ & acrimoni\s spirits :i* accompany its sulphur1 & execut+ m 9 "o ye> ?an ! pure air ( ! c\ntry c\ld effect 9 "s hundr$s4 ,! evils "h m5tion$ are ^? :i* h gr[n & h become int5sifi$ a hundr$-fold dur+ ! two c5turies & a half :i* h s9ce elaps$4 ,:5 ! _m ef=ts :i* 7 made to limit its use 9 ! ye>s prior to #afjj are rememb]$2 at :i* "t1 we are in=m$1 two %ips only 7 engag$ 9 br++ coal to ,london1 x at once appe>s h[ paltry are ! ef=ts made n[ to mod]ate ^! same baneful influ5ces on our atmosph]e1 at a "t :5 ! annual consumption ( coal 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom has rea*$ ! enorm\s total ( #aij millions ( tons4 ,! v>i\s smoke-abatem5t associations :i* h />t$ into exi/5ce dur+ ! la/ few ye>s are do+ a little1 al?\gh v little1 t[>ds direct+ popul> att5tion to ! subject2 b !re is an enorm\s task be=e !m1 t ( awak5+ e individual to an appreciation ( ! p]sonal int]e/ :i* he has 9 _! success1 & to realise h[ mu* might at once be done if ea* 7 to d 8 %>e1 m9ute ?\gh x might be1 t[>ds mitigat+ ! evils ( ! pres5t mode ( coal-consumption4 ,probably v few h\sehold]s ev] realise :at important factories _! *imneys con/itute1 9 br++ ab\t air pollution1 & ! m !y d away ) ! use ( bitum9\s coal = fuel1 ! ne>] we %all be to ! "t :5 yell[ fog w be a ?+ ( ! pa/4 ,a l>ge proportion ( smoke consi/s ( p>ticles ( pure unconsum$ c>bon1 & ?is is accompani$ 9 its passage up our *imneys by sulphur\s acid1 begott5 by ! sulphur :i* is conta9$ 9 ! coal to ! am\nt ( ab\t eight p\nds 9 e ?\s&2 by sulphurett$ hydrog51 by hydro-c>bons1 & by vap\rs ( v>i\s k9ds ( oils1 small quantities ( ammonia1 & o!r bodies n by any means contribut+ to a heal?y condition ( ! atmosph]e4 ,a good deal ( ! heavi] c>bon is deposit$ along ! walls ( *imneys 9 ! =m ( soot1 toge!r ) a small p]c5tage ( sulphate ( ammonia2 ?is is z a consequ5ce v g5]ally us$ = manure4 ,! rema9d] is p\r$ out into ! atmosph]e1 !re to und]go fre% *anges1 & to become a fruitful cause ( ^? ?ick black fogs ) :i* t[n-dwell]s are s famili>4 ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 7,h#b,s7 is a gas well kn[n to /ud5ts ( *emi/ry z a mo/ p[]ful reag5t1 its mo/ *>act]i/ic ext]nal prop]ty be+ ! extremely (f5sive od\r :i* x possesses1 & :i* be>s a /rong resemblance to t ( rott5 eggs or decompos+ fi%4 ,x t>ni%es silv] "w & picture frames v rapidly4 ,on combu/ion x *anges to sulphur\s acid 7,,s#b71 & ?is 9 turn has ! p[] ( tak+ up f ! air ano!r atom ( oxyg51 =m+ sulphuric acid 7,,s#c wat]71 or1 z we m famili>ly "k x1 oil ( vitriol4 ,yet ! smoke itself1 includ+ z x does all ! _m impurities :i* exi/ 9 coal1 is n only evil 9 itself1 b is evil 9 its influ5ces4 ,dr ,siem5s has said3--,x has be5 %[n t ! f9e du/ result+ f ! imp]fect combu/ion ( coal 0 ma9ly in/rum5tal 9 ! =mation ( fog2 ea* p>ticle ( solid matt] attract+ to itself aque\s vap\r4 ,^! globules ( fog 7 r5d]$ p>ticul>ly t5aci\s & disagreeable by ! pres5ce ( t> vap\r1 ano!r result ( imp]fect combu/ion ( raw fuel1 :i* might be turn$ to bett] acc\nt at ! dyeworks4 ,! hurtful influ5ce ( smoke ^u public heal?1 ! great p]sonal discom=t to :i* x gave rise1 & ! va/ exp5se x indirectly caus$ ?r\gh ! de/ruction ( our monum5ts1 pictures1 furniture1 & app>el1 7 n[ be+ recognis$4 ,! mo/ effectual rem$y w\ld result f a g5]al recognition ( ! fact t :]ev] smoke 0 produc$1 fuel 0 be+ consum$ wa/efully1 & t all our calorific effects1 f ! l>ge/ furnace to ! dome/ic fire1 c\ld be realis$ z completely1 & m economically1 )\t all[+ any ( ! fuel employ$ to rea* ! atmosph]e unburnt4 ,?is mo/ desirable result might be effect$ by ! use ( gas = all heat+ purposes1 ) or )\t ! additional use ( coke or an?racite4 ,! success ( ! s-call$ smoke-consum+ /oves is greatly op5 to "q1 :il/ "s ( !m h be5 report$ ^u by ^? appo9t$ to inspect !m z actually acc5tuat+ ! incomplete combu/ion1 ! abolition ( :i* !y 7 inv5t$ to br+ ab\t4 ,! smoke nuisance is "o :i* cuts at ! v basis ( our bus9ess life4 ,! cl\d :i*1 "u c]ta9 atmosph]ic conditions1 re/s l a pall ov] our great cities1 w n ev5 p]mit at times ( a s+le ray ( sun%9e p]meat+ x4 ,no "o kn[s :5ce x rises1 nor at :at h\r to expect x4 ,x is l a giant spectre :i*1 hav+ la9 dormant s9ce ! c>bonif]\s age1 has be5 rais$ into life & be+ at ! call ( re/less humanity2 x is n[ puni%+ u = our prodigal use ( ! weal? x left u1 by clasp+ u 9 its deadly arms1 cutt+ (f our brilliant sun%9e1 & necessitat+ ! use 9 ! daytime ( artificial light2 induc+ all k9ds ( bron*ial & ?roat affections1 corrod+ telegraph & telephone wires1 & wea!r+ away ! masonry ( public build+s4 ,! imm5se value to u ( ! coal-deposits :i* lie buri$ 9 su* pr(usion 9 ! e>? b5ea? u1 c only be appreciat$ :5 we consid] ! _m uses to :i* coal has be5 put4 ,we mu/ rememb]1 z we wat* ! ev]-ext5d+ railway ramify+ ! c\ntry 9 e direction1 t ! fir/ railway & ! fir/ locomotive ev] built1 7 ^? :i* 7 br\ght into be+ 9 #ahad by ,george ,/eph5son1 = ! purpose ( ! c>riage ( coals f ! ,kill+wor? ,colli]y4 ,to ! importance ( coal 9 our manufactures1 !re=e1 we owe ! subsequ5t developm5t ( /eam locomotive p[] z ! means ( ! introduction ( pass5g] traffic1 & by ! use ( coal we are enabl$ to travel f "o end ( ! c\ntry to ! o!r 9 a space ( "t inconceivably small z comp>$ ) t occupi$ on ! same j\rney 9 ! old coa*+ days4 ,! increas$ rapidity ) :i* our vessels cross ! wide ocean we owe to ! use ( coal2 our m9es are c>ri$ to great] dep?s ow+ to ! p[] our pump+-eng9es obta9 f coal 9 cle>+ ! m9es ( wat] & 9 ensur+ v5tilation2 ! enorm\s developm5t ( ! iron trade only became possible ) ! increas$ bla/ p[] obta9$ f ! consumption ( coal1 & ! v hulls & eng9es ( our /eam%ips are made ( ?is iron2 our railroads & eng9es are mo/ly ( iron1 & :5 we ?9k ( ! ext5sive use ( iron ut5sils 9 e walk 9 life1 we see h[ important becomes ! p[] we possess ( obta9+ ! necess>y fuel to fe$ ! smelt+ furnaces4 ,evaporation by ! sun 0 at "o "t ! sole means ( obta9+ salt f seawat]2 n[ coal is us$ to boil ! salt pans & to purify ! br9e f ! salt-m9es 9 ! triassic /rata ( ,*e%ire4 ,! ext5t to :i* gas is us$ = illum9at+ purposes rem9ds u ( ano!r important product obta9$ f coal4 ,p>aff9 oil & petroleum we obta9 f coal1 :il/ c&les1 oils1 dyes1 lubricants1 & _m o!r useful articles g to atte/ ! importance ( ! und]gr\nd /ores ( t m9]al :i* has well & des]v$ly be5 t]m$ ! black diamond4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,h[ ,,gas ,,is ,,made--,,illum9at+ ,,oils ,,& ,,bye-,,products4 ,accu/om$ z we are at ! pres5t day to see /reet aft] /reet ( well-light$ ?or\ghf>es1 brilliantly illum9at$ by gas-lamps ma9ta9$ by public au?ority1 we c sc>cely appreciate ! fact t ! use ( gas is1 comp>atively speak+1 ( b rec5t gr[?1 & t1 l ! use ( coal itself1 x has n yet exi/$ a c5tury 9 public fav\r4 ,valuable z coal is 9 v _m diff]5t ways1 p]haps next 9 value to its actual use z fuel1 ranks ! use ( ! imm$iate product ( its di/illation--viz41 gas2 & al?\gh gas is 9 "s respects wan+ be=e ! m>* ( ! electric light 9 our day1 yet1 ev5 z gas at no "t has altoge!r sup]s$$ old-fa%ion$ oil1 s we ne$ n anticipate a "t :5 gas 9 turn w be likely to be sup]s$$ by ! electric light1 !re be+ _m uses to :i* ! "o may be put1 to :i* ! latt] w\ld be altoge!r inapplicable2 =1 9 ! words ( ,dr ,siem5s1 assum+ ! co/ ( electric light to be practically ! same z gas1 ! pref]5ce = "o or o!r w\ld 9 ea* application be decid$ ^u gr\nds ( relative conv5i5ce1 b gas-light+ w\ld hold its own z ! poor man's fri5d4 ,gas is an in/itution ( ! utmo/ value to ! artisan2 x requires h>dly any att5tion1 is suppli$ ^u regulat$ t]ms1 & gives1 ) :at %\ld be a *e]ful light1 a g5ial w>m?1 :i* (t5 saves ! light+ ( a fire4 ,! revolution :i* gas has made 9 ! appe>ance ( ! /reets1 :]e =m]ly ! only illum9ation 0 t provid$ by ea* h\sehold]1 :o1 accord+ to 8 means1 hung out a m or less effici5t lant]n1 & consequ5tly a m or less smoky "o1 _c fail also to h br\ght ab\t a revolution 9 ! social aspects ( ! /reets1 & !re=e is wor?y to be rank$ z a social re=m+ ag5t2 & "s slight k ( ! process ( its manufacture1 su* z x is "h propos$ to give1 %\ld be 9 ! possession ( e educat$ individual4 ,yet ! subjects :i* mu/ be dealt ) 9 ?is *apt] are s num]\s & ( su* g5]al int]e/1 t we %all be unable to ent] m ?an sup]ficially into any "o "p ( ! :ole1 b %all /rive to give a cle> & compreh5sive view1 :i* %all satisfy ! inquir] :o is n a speciali/4 ,! cr$it ( ! fir/ attempt at utilis+ ! gase\s product ( coal = illum9ation appe>s to be due to ,murdock1 an eng9e] at ,r$ru?1 :o1 9 #agib1 introduc$ x into 8 h\se & (fices1 & :o1 t5 ye>s aft]w>ds1 z ! result ( num]\s exp]im5ts :i* he made ) a view to its utilisation1 made a public display at ,birm+ham on ! occasion ( ! ,peace ( ,ami5s1 9 #ahjb4 ,m ?an a c5tury be=e1 h[ev]1 ! gas obta9$ f coal _h be5 exp]im5t$ ^u by a ,dr ,clayton1 :o1 ab\t #afij1 conceiv$ ! idea ( heat+ coal until its gase\s con/itu5ts 7 =c$ out ( x4 ,he describ$ h[ he obta9$ /eam fir/ ( all1 !n a black oil1 & f9ally a _s1 z our ance/ors 7 wont to t]m ! gas4 ,?is1 to 8 surprise1 ignit$ on a light be+ appli$ to x1 & he consid]ably amus$ 8 fri5ds ) ! wond]s ( ?is inflammatory _s4 ,= a c5tury aft]w>ds x rema9$ 9 its e>ly condition1 a *emical wond]1 a ?+ to be amus$ )2 b x requir$ ! true g5ius & en]gy ( ,murdock to %[ ! great ?+s ( :i* x 0 capable4 ,london receiv$ its fir/ in/alm5t ( gas 9 #ahjg1 & dur+ ! next few ye>s its use became m & m ext5d$1 h\ses & /reets rapidly receiv+ supplies 9 quick succession4 ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 till ab\t ! ye> #ahbj t its use ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry became at all g5]al1 ,/ ,james' ,p>k be+ gas-lit 9 ! succe$+ ye>4 ,?is is n yet eighty ye>s ago1 & among/ ! _m wond]ful ?+s :i* h sprung up dur+ ! pres5t c5tury1 p]haps we may place 9 ! =emo/ rank = actual utility1 ! gas extract$ f coal1 convey$ z x is ?r\gh miles ^u miles ( und]gr\nd pipes into ! v homes ( ! p1 & con/itut+ n[ almo/ z mu* a necessity ( a com=table exi/5ce z wat] itself4 ,! use ( gas ?us rapidly ext5d$ = illum9at+ purposes1 & to a v great ext5t sup]s$$ ! old-fa%ion$ means ( illum9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,inside a ,gas-,hold]4 ,! gas companies :i* sprang up 7 n sl[ to notice t1 see+ ! gas 0 suppli$ by met]1 x 0 to _! pecuni>y advantage to give m]ely ! prescrib$ illum9at+ p[]1 & to disc\rage ! inv5tion ( economical burn]s1 9 ord] t ! consumption might rea* a maximum4 ,! application ( gas = heat+ purposes _h n be5 enc\rag$1 & 0 /ill made difficult 9 consequ5ce ( ! objectionable practice ( r$uc+ ! pressure 9 ! ma9s dur+ daytime to ! l[e/ possible po9t consi/5t ) prev5tion ( atmosph]ic indraught4 ,! introduction ( an important rival into ! field 9 ! %ape ( ! electric light has n[ giv5 a p[]ful impetus to ! inv5tion & introduction ( effective gas-lamps1 & among/ inv5tors ( rec5t ye>s no "n is1 p]haps1 9 ?is respect s well kn[n z ! "n ( ,sugg4 ,z long z gas reta9$ almo/ ! monopoly1 !re 0 no inc5tive to ! gas companies to produce an effective light *eaply2 b n[ t ! "q ( ! relative *eapness ( gas & electricity is be+ actively discuss$1 ! gas companies1 true to ! in/9ct ( self-pres]vation1 seem det]m9$ to %[ :at c be done :5 gas is consum$ 9 a sci5tific mann]4 ,9 ord] to und]/& h[ be/ a burn] %\ld be con/ruct$ 9 ord] t ! gas t is burnt %\ld give ! greate/ possible am\nt ( illum9ation1 let u consid] = a mom5t ! composition ( ! gas flame4 ,x consi/s ( ?ree p>ts1 7#a7 an int]ior d>k space1 9 :i* ! elem5ts ( ! gas are 9 an unconsum$ /ate2 7#b7 an inn] r+ ar\nd ! =m]1 :5ce ! greate/ am\nt ( light is obta9$1 & 9 :i* are num]\s p>ticles ( c>bon at a :ite heat1 ea* await+ a supply ( oxyg5 9 ord] to br+ ab\t combu/ion2 & 7#c7 an out] r+ ( blue flame 9 :i* complete combu/ion has tak5 place1 & f :i* ! l>ge/ am\nt ( heat is evolv$4 ,! second ( ^! portions ( ! flame corresponds ) ! r$uc+ flame ( ! bl[-pipe1 s9ce ?is "p1 if turn$ ^u an oxide1 w r$uce x1 i4e41 ab/ract its oxyg5 f x4 ,?is "p also corresponds ) ! jet ( ! ,buns5 burn]1 :5 ! holes are clos$ by :i* o!rwise air w\ld m+le ) ! gas1 or ) ! flame f a gas-/ove :5 ! gas ignites b5ea? ! prop] ignit+-jets1 & :i* gives consequ5tly a :ite or yell[ flame4 ,! ?ird portion1 on ! o!r h&1 corresponds ) ! oxidis+ flame ( ! bl[-pipe1 s9ce x gives up oxyg5 to bodies t are ?ir/+ = x4 ,?is also corresponds ) ! ord9>y blue flame ( ! ,buns5 burn]1 & ) ! blue flame ( gas-/oves :]e heat1 & n light1 is requir$1 ! blue flame 9 bo? cases be+ caus$ by ! admixture ( air ) ! gas4 ,?us1 9 ord] t gas may give ! be/ illum9ation1 we mu/ increase ! yell[ or :ite space ( c>bon p>ticles at a :ite heat1 & a burn] t w d ?is1 & at ! same "t hold ! balance s t unconsum$ p>ticles ( c>bon %all n escape 9 ! way ( smoke1 w give ! mo/ successful illum9at+ results4 ,) ?is end 9 view ! addition ( albo-c>bon to a bulb 9 ! gas-pipe has prov$ v successful1 & ! inc&esc5t gas-jet is con/ruct$ on exactly ! same *emical pr9ciple4 ,! inv5tion ( burn]s :i* br\ght ab\t ?is desirable end has d\btless n be5 )\t effect 9 act+ z a p[]ful ob/acle to ! widespread introduction ( ! electric light4 ,)\t ent]+ into details ( ! manufacture ( gas1 x w be z well j to glance at ! pr9cipal p>ts ( ! app>atus us$4 ,! gasomet]1 z x has errone\sly be5 call$1 is a famili> object to mo/ p1 n only to sight b un=tunately also to ! organs ( smell4 ,x is 9 reality ( c\rse only ! gas-hold]1 9 :i* ! f9al product ( di/illation ( ! coal is /or$1 & f :i* ! gas imm$iately passes into ! di/ribut+ ma9s4 ,! fir/1 & p]haps1 mo/ important portion ( ! app>atus us$ 9 gas-mak+ is ! s]ies ( retorts into :i* ! coal is plac$1 & f :i*1 by ! application ( heat1 ! v>i\s volatile products di/il ov]4 ,^! retorts are huge ca/-iron vessels1 encas$ 9 /rong brick-"w1 usually five 9 a gr\p1 & b5ea? :i* a l>ge furnace is kept go+ until ! process is complete4 ,ea* retort has an iron exit pipe affix$ to x1 ?r\gh :i* ! gases g5]at$ by ! furnace are c>ri$ (f4 ,! exit pipes all empty !mselves into :at is kn[n z ! hydraulic ma91 a long horizontal cyl9d]1 & 9 ?is ! gas beg9s to deposit a portion ( its impurities4 ,! imm$iate products ( di/illation are1 aft] /eam & air1 gas1 t>1 ammoniacal liquor1 sulphur 9 v>i\s =ms1 & coke1 ! la/ be+ left beh9d 9 ! retort4 ,9 ! hydraulic ma9 "s ( ! t> & ammoniacal liquor already beg9 to be deposit$4 ,! gas passes on to ! cond5s]1 :i* consi/s ( a numb] ( ,u-%ap$ pipes4 ,"h ! impurities are /ill fur!r cond5s$ out1 & are collect$ 9 ! t>-pit :il/ ! gas proce$s1 /ill fur!r light5$ ( its impurities4 ,x may be m5tion$ t ! temp]ature ( ! gas 9 ! cond5s] is r$uc$ to ab\t #fj ,f41 b bel[ ?is "s ( ! mo/ valuable ( ! illum9ants ( coal-gas w\ld comm5ce to be deposit$ 9 liquid =m1 & c>e has to be tak5 to prev5t a great] l[]+ ( temp]ature4 ,a me*anical contrivance kn[n z ! exhau/] is next us$1 by :i* ! gas is1 among/ o!r ?+s1 help$ =w>d 9 its onw>d movem5t ?r\gh ! app>atus4 ,! gas !n passes to ! wa%]s or scrubb]s1 a s]ies ( tall t[]s1 f :i* wat] is all[$ to fall z a f9e spray1 & by means ( :i* l>ge quantities ( ammonia1 sulphurett$ hydrog51 c>bonic acid & oxide1 & cyanog5 comp\nds1 are remov$4 ,9 ! scrubb] ! wat] us$ 9 keep+ ! coke1 ) :i* x is fill$1 damp1 absorbs ^! comp\nds1 & ! union ( ! ammonia ) c]ta9 ( !m takes place1 result+ 9 ! =mation ( c>bonate ( ammonia 7smell+ salts71 sulphide & sulphocyanide ( ammonia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,fill+ ,retorts by ,ma*9]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,,cond5s]s4 ,hi!rto ! purification ( ! gas has be5 br\ght ab\t by me*anical means1 b ! gas n[ ent]s ! purifi]1 9 :i* x und]goes a fur!r cleans+1 b ?is "t by *emical means4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,! ag5t us$ is ei!r lime or hydrat$ oxide ( iron1 & by _! means ! gas is robb$ ( its c>bonic acid & ! great] "p ( its sulphur comp\nds4 ,! process is !n consid]$ complete1 & ! gas passes on into ! wat] *amb] ov] :i* ! gas-hold] is re>$1 & 9 :i* x rises ?r\gh ! wat]1 =c+ ! huge cyl9d] upw>d accord+ to ! pressure x ex]ts4 ,! gas-hold] is pois$ betwe5 a numb] ( upright pill>s by a s]ies ( *a9s & pulleys1 :i* all[ ( its easy asc5t or desc5t accord+ z ! supply is great] or less ?an t drawn f x by ! gas ma9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,:5 we see ! process :i* is necess>y 9 ord] to obta9 pure gas1 we beg9 to appreciate to :at an ext5t ! atmosph]e is f\l$ :5 _m ( ! products ( di/illation1 :i*1 z f> z ! production ( gas is conc]n$1 may be call$ impurities1 are all[$ to escape free )\t let or h9drance4 ,9 ^! days ( /rict sanit>y inspection x seems /range t ! air 9 ! neighb\rhood ( gas-works is /ill all[$ to become contam9at$ by ! escape ( impure comp\nds f ! v>i\s portions ( ! gas-mak+ app>atus4 ,g :]e "o may1 ! pres5ce ( ^! comp\nds is at once app>5t to ! no/rils )9 a none too limit$ area ar\nd !m1 & yet _! delet]i\s effects c be almo/ r$uc$ to a m9imum by ! use ( prop] purify+ ag5ts1 & by a sci5tific ov]sight ( ! :ole app>atus4 ,x c]ta9ly behoves all sanit>y au?orities to look well aft] any gas-works situat$ )9 _! di/ricts4 ,n[ let u see :at ^! fir/ five products ( di/illation actually are4 ,fir/ly1 h\se-gas4 ,ev]ybody kn[s :at h\se-gas is4 ,x _c1 h[ev]1 be /at$ to be any "o gas 9 p>ticul>1 s9ce x is a me*anical mixture ( at lea/ ?ree diff]5t gases1 & (t5 conta9s small quantities ( o!rs4 ,a v l>ge proportion consi/s ( :at is kn[n z m>%-gas1 or light c>burett$ hydrog54 ,?is occurs occlud$ or lock$ up 9 ! pores ( ! coal1 & (t5 oozes out into ! gall]ies ( coal-m9es1 :]e x is kn[n z fir$amp 7,g]man dampf1 vap\r74 ,x is dis5gag$ :]ev] vegetable matt] has fall5 & has become decay$4 ,if x 7 !nce collect$1 toge!r ) an admixture ( t5 times its volume ( air1 a m9iature coal-m9e explosion c\ld be produc$ by ! introduction ( a mat* into ! mixture4 ,alone1 h[ev]1 x burns ) a feebly lum9\s flame1 al?\gh to its pres5ce our h\se-gas owes a great portion ( its heat+ p[]4 ,m>%-gas is ! fir/ ( ! s]ies ( hydro-c>bons kn[n *emically z ! p>aff9s1 & is an extremely light sub/ance1 be+ little m ?an half ! weight ( an equal bulk ( air4 ,x is compos$ ( f\r atoms ( hydrog5 to "o ( c>bon 7,,*#d74 ,m>%-gas1 toge!r ) hydrog5 & ! monoxide ( c>bon1 ! la/ ( :i* burns ) ! dull blue flame (t5 se5 at ! surface ( fires1 p>ticul>ly coke & *>coal fires1 =m ab\t #hg p] c5t4 ( ! :ole volume ( h\se-gas1 & are none ( !m any?+ b poor illum9ants4 ,! illum9at+ p[] ( h\se-gas dep5ds on ! pres5ce !re9 ( olefiant gas 7e?yl5e71 or1 z x is sometimes t]m$1 heavy c>burett$ hydrog54 ,?is is ! fir/ ( ! s]ies ( hydro-c>bons kn[n z ! olef9es1 & is compos$ ( two atoms ( c>bon to e f\r atoms ( hydrog5 7,c#b;,h#d74 ,o!rs ( ! olef9es are pres5t 9 m9ute quantities4 ,^! assi/ 9 increas+ ! illum9osity1 :i* is sometimes greatly enhanc$1 too1 by ! pres5ce ( a small quantity ( b5z5e vap\r4 ,^! illum9ants1 h[ev]1 con/itute b ab\t #f p] c5t4 ( ! :ole4 ,add$ to ^!1 !re are f\r o!r usual con/itu5ts :i* 9 no way increase ! value ( gas1 b :i* r detract f x4 ,!y are consequ5tly z f> z possible remov$ z impurities 9 ! process ( gas-mak+4 ,^! are nitrog51 c>bonic acid gas1 & ! de/ructive sulphur comp\nds1 sulphurett$ hydrog5 & c>bon bisulphide vap\r4 ,x is to ! la/ two to :i* are to be attribut$ ! injuri\s effects :i* ! burn+ ( gas has ^u pictures1 books1 & also ! t>ni%+ :i* metal fitt+s suff] :]e gas is burnt1 s9ce !y give rise to ! =mation ( oil ( vitriol 7sulphuric acid71 :i* is be+ incessantly p\r$ into ! air4 ,( c\rse ! am\nt s giv5 (f is little z comp>$ ) t :i* escapes f a coal fire1 b1 =tunately = ! inmates ( ! room1 9 ?is case ! great] quantity goes up ! *imney2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is b a me?od ( po/pon+ ! evil day1 until ! atmosph]e becomes s lad5 ) impurities t :at proce$s at fir/ up ! *imney w f9ally aga9 make its way back ?r\gh ! doors & w9d[s4 ,a rec5t (ficial report tells u t1 9 ! t[n1 ( ,/ ,hel5's alone1 suffici5t sulphur escapes annually into ! atmosph]e to f9ally produce #aaj1ehj tons ( sulphuric acid1 & a computation has be5 made t e squ>e mile ( l& 9 ,london is delug$ annually ) #ahj tons ( ! same vegetation-d5ud+ acid4 ,x is a matt] = wond] t any gre5 ?+ cont9ues to exi/ 9 su* places at all4 ,! *ief con/itu5ts ( coal-gas are1 !re=e1 briefly z foll[s3-- _/ 7#a7 ,hydrog51 7#b7 ,m>%-gas 7c>burett$ hydrog5 or fire-damp71 7#c7 ,c>bon monoxide1 7#d7 ,olefiant gas 7e?yl5e1 or heavy c>burett$ hydrog571 ) o!r olef9es1 _/ 7#e7 ,nitrog51 7#f7 ,c>bonic acid gas1 7#g7 ,sulphurett$ hydrog51 7#h7 ,c>bon bisulphide 7vap\r71 ! la/ f\r be+ reg>d$ z impurities1 :i* are remov$ z f> z possible 9 ! manufacture4 ,9 ! process ( di/illation ( ! coal1 we h se5 t v>i\s o!r important sub/ances are br\ght into exi/5ce4 ,! f9al residue ( coke1 :i* is impregnat$ ) ! sulphur :i* has n be5 volatilis$ 9 ! =m ( sulphur\s gases1 we ne$ sc>cely m ?an m5tion "h4 ,b ! gas-t> & ! ammoniacal liquor are two important products :i* dem& some?+ m ?an our casual att5tion4 ,at "o "t reg>d$ by gas eng9e]s z un=tunately necess>y nuisances 9 ! manufacture ( gas1 !y h bo? become s valuable on acc\nt ( mat]ials :i* c be obta9$ f !m1 t !y enable gas itself to be sold n[ at less ?an half its orig9al price4 ,! wa/e ( =m] g5]ations is be+ utilis$ 9 ?is1 & an in/ance is record$ 9 :i* t>1 :i* 0 kn[n to h be5 ly+ useless at ! bottom ( a canal = ye>s1 has be5 pur*as$ by a gas eng9e] = di/ill+ purposes4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t ab\t #eij1jjj tons ( coal-t> are di/ill$ annually4 ,t> 9 its primitive condition has be5 us$1 z e "o is aw>e1 = pa9t+ or t>r+ a v>iety ( objects1 su* z b>ges & pal+s1 9 fact1 z a k9d ( protection to ! object cov]$ f ! ravages ( insects or worms1 or to prev5t corrosion :5 appli$ to metal pi]s4 ,b x is wor?y ( a bett] purpose1 & is capable ( yield+ f> m useful & int]e/+ sub/ances ?an ev5 ! mo/ imag9ative individual c\ld h dream$ ( fifty ye>s ago4 ,9 ! process ( di/illation1 ! t>1 aft] /&+ 9 tanks = "s "t1 9 ord] t any ammoniacal liquor :i* may be pres5t may rise to ! surface & be drawn (f1 is pump$ into l>ge /ills1 :]e a mod]ate am\nt ( heat is appli$ to x4 ,! result is t "s ( ! m volatile products pass ov] & are collect$ 9 a receiv]4 ,^! fir/ products are kn[n z fir/ light oils1 or crude coal-naph?a1 & to ?is naph?a all ! num]\s natural naph?as :i* h be5 discov]$ 9 v>i\s portions ( ! _w1 & to :i* h be5 appli$ num]\s local names1 be> a v close resemblance4 ,su* an "o1 = in/ance1 0 t small b fam\s spr+ at ,bidd+s1 9 ,d]by%ire1 f :i* ! late ,mr ,"y--,p>aff9 ,"y--obta9$ 8 well-kn[n p>aff9 oil1 :i* gave ! initial impetus to :at has s9ce develop$ into a trade ( imm5se proportions 9 e qu>t] ( ! globe4 ,aft] a "t ! crude coal-naph?a ceases to fl[ ov]1 & ! heat is increas$4 ,! result is t a fre% s]ies ( products1 kn[n z m$ium oils1 passes ov]1 & ^! oils are aga9 collect$ & kept sep>ate f ! previ\s s]ies4 ,^! 9 turn cease to fl[1 :51 by a fur!r increase ( heat1 :at are kn[n z ! heavy oils f9ally pass ov]1 & :5 ! la/ ( ^!1 gre5 grease1 z x is call$1 di/ils ov]1 pit* alone is left 9 ! /ill4 ,pit* is us$ to a l>ge ext5t 9 ! prep>ation ( artificial asphalte1 & also ( a fuel kn[n z briquettes4 ,! products ?us obta9$ at ! v>i\s /ages ( ! process are !mselves subject$ to fur!r di/illation1 & by ! ex]cise ( great c>e1 requir+ ! mo/ delicate & accurate treatm5t1 a l>ge v>iety ( oils is obta9$1 & ^! are retail$ "u _m & v>i\s fanciful names4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important & be/ kn[n products ( ! fractional di/illation ( crude coal-naph?a is t kn[n z b5z5e1 or b5zole1 7,c#f;,h#f74 ,?is1 9 its unref9$ condition1 is a light _s :i* di/ils ov] at a po9t some:at bel[ ! boil+ po9t ( wat]1 b a delicate process ( rectification is necess>y to produce ! pure _s4 ,o!r products ( ! same light oils are tolu5e & xyl5e4 ,b5z5e ( a c]ta9 quality is ( c\rse a v famili> & useful h\sehold supplem5t4 ,x is sometimes kn[n & sold z b5z5e collas1 & is us$ = remov+ grease f clo?+1 clean+ kid gloves1 c4 ,if pure x is 9 reality a mo/ dang]\s _s1 be+ v inflammable2 x is also extremely volatile1 s mu* s t1 if an uncork$ bottle be left 9 a w>m room :]e !re is a fire or o!r light ne>1 its vap\r w probably ignite4 ,%\ld ! vap\r become mix$ ) air be=e ignition1 x becomes a mo/ dang]\s explosive1 & x w ?us be se5 h[ necess>y x is to h&le ! article 9 h\sehold use 9 a mo/ cauti\s mann]4 ,be+ highly volatile1 a consid]able degree ( cold is exp]i5c$ if a drop be plac$ on ! h& & all[$ to evaporate4 ,b5z5e1 :i* is only a comp\nd ( c>bon & hydrog51 0 fir/ discov]$ by ,f>aday 9 #ahbe2 x is n[ obta9$ 9 l>ge quantities f coal-t>1 n s mu* = use z b5z5e2 is = its conv]sion1 9 ! fir/ place1 by ! action ( nitric acid1 into nitro-b5zole1 a liquid hav+ an od\r l ! oil ( bitt] almonds1 & :i* is mu* us$ by p]fum]s "u ! "n ( ess5ce de mirbane2 &1 9 ! second place1 = ! production f ?is nitro-b5zole ( ! f>-fam$ anil9e4 ,aft] ! di/illation ( b5z5e f ! crude coal-naph?a is complet$1 ! *ief impurities 9 ! residue are *>r$ & deposit$ by ! action ( /rong sulphuric acid4 ,by fur!r di/illation a light] oil is giv5 (f1 (t5 kn[n z artificial turp5t9e oil1 :i* is us$ z a solv5t = v>ni%es & lack]s4 ,?is is v famili> to ! co/]mong] frat]nity z ! oil :i* is burn$ 9 ! fl>+ lamps :i* illum9ate ! ,new ,cut or ! ,elephant & ,ca/le on ,saturday & o!r m>ket nights4 ,by di/illation ( ! heavy oils1 c>bolic acid & comm]cial an?rac5e are produc$1 & by a treatm5t ( ! residue1 a :ite & cry/all9e sub/ance kn[n z naph?al9 7,c#aj;,h#h7 is f9ally obta9$4 ,?us1 by ! cont9u$ op]ation ( ! *emical process kn[n z fractional di/illation ( ! imm$iate products ( coal-t>1 ^! v>i\s s]ies ( useful oils are prep>$4 ,! treatm5t is mu* ! same :i* has result$ 9 ! production ( p>aff9 oil1 to :i* we h previ\sly ref]r$1 & an acc\nt ( ! production ( coal-oils w\ld be v f> f satisfactory1 :i* made no m5tion ( ! production ( simil> commodities by ! direct di/illation ( %ale4 ,oil-%ales1 or bitum9\s %ales1 exi/ 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 & may be reg>d$ z m9]al matt] l>gely impregnat$ by ! products ( decay+ vegetation4 ,!y !re=e greatly resemble "s coals1 & really only diff] !refrom 9 degree1 9 ! quantity ( vegetable matt] :i* !y conta94 ,into ! subject ( ! v>i\s native petroleums :i* h be5 f\nd--= ^! rock-oils are bett] kn[n z petroleums--9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 9 ,burmah 7,rangoon ,oil71 at ,baku1 & ! %ores ( ! ,caspian1 or 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 we ne$ n ent]1 except to note t 9 all probability ! action ( heat on und]gr\nd bitum9\s /rata ( enorm\s ext5t has be5 ! cause ( _! production1 j z on a small] scale ! action ( artificial heat has =c$ ! reluctant %ale to give up its own burd5 ( m9]al oil4 ,h[ev]1 previ\s to #ahdg1 al?\gh native m9]al oil _h be5 = "s ye>s a recognis$ article ( comm]ce1 ! causes :i* gave rise to ! oil-wells1 & ! s\rce1 probably a deep-seat$ "o1 ( ! supply ( oil1 does n appe> to h be5 well kn[n1 or at lea/ 0 n enquir$ aft]4 ,b 9 t ye> ,mr ,"y1 a *emi/ at ,man*e/]1 discov]$ t by di/ill+ "s petroleum1 :i* he obta9$ f a spr+ at ,ridd+s 9 ,d]by%ire1 he 0 able to procure a light oil1 :i* he us$ = burn+ 9 lamps1 :il/ ! heavi] product :i* he also obta9$ prov$ a mo/ useful lubricant = ma*9]y4 ,?is naturally di/ill$ oil 0 soon f\nd to be simil> to t oil :i* 0 notic$ dripp+ f ! ro( ( a coal-m9e4 ,judg+ t ! coal1 be+ "u ! influ5ce ( heat1 0 ! cause ( ! production ( ! oil1 ,mr ,"y te/$ ?is conclusion by di/ill+ ! coal itself4 ,success att5d$ 8 endeav\r ?us to procure ! oil1 & indelibly ,"y /amp$ 8 "n ^u ! roll ( fam\s m51 ^: indu/rial inv5tions h done s mu* t[>ds ! accompli%m5t ( ! m>vell\s progress ( ! pres5t c5tury4 ,f ! di/illation he obta9$ ! well-kn[n ,"y's ,p>aff9 ,oil1 & ! a/oni%+ developm5ts ( ! process :i* h tak5 place s9ce he obta9$ 8 pat5t 9 #ahej1 = ! manufacture ( oils & solid p>aff91 mu/ h be5 a s\rce ( great satisfaction to him be=e 8 dea?1 :i* occurr$ 9 #ahhc4 ,cannel coal1 ,boghead or ,ba?gate coal1 & bitum9\s %ales ( v>i\s qualities1 h all be5 requisition$ = ! production ( oils1 & f ^! v>i\s s\rces ! crude naph?as1 :i* be> a v>iety ( names accord+ to "s peculi>ity 9 _! orig91 or place ( occurr5ce1 are obta9$4 ,boghead coal1 also kn[n z ,torebanehill m9]al1 gives ,boghead naph?a1 :ile ! crude naph?a obta9$ f %ales is (t5 quot$ z %ale-oil4 ,9 *emical composition ^! naph?as are closely relat$ to "o ano!r1 & by fractional di/illation ( !m simil> s]ies ( products are obta9$ z ^? we h already se5 z obta9$ f ! crude coal-naph?a ( coal-t>4 ,9 ! direct di/illation ( cannel-coal = ! production ( p>aff91 x is necess>y t ! p]p5dicul> tubes or retorts into :i* ! coal is plac$ be heat$ only to a c]ta9 temp]ature1 :i* is consid]ably l[] ?an t appli$ :5 ! object is ! production ( coal-gas4 ,by ?is means ne>ly all ! volatile matt]s pass ov] 9 ! =m ( cond5sible vap\rs1 & ! crude oils are at once =m$1 f :5ce are obta9$ at diff]5t temp]atures v>i\s volatile e!rs1 b5z5e1 & artificial turp5t9e oil or petroleum _s4 ,aft] ^!1 ! well-kn[n safety-burn+ p>aff9 oil foll[s1 b x is ess5tial t ! previ\s ?ree volatile products be completely cle>$ fir/1 s9ce1 mix$ ) air1 !y =m highly dang]\s explosives4 ,to ! fact t ! op]ation is c>ri$ on 9 ! manufactories ) great c>e & accuracy c only be attribut$ ! comp>ative r>5ess ( explosions ( ! oil us$ 9 h\seholds4 ,aft] p>aff91 ! heavy lubricat+ oils are next giv5 (f1 /ill increas+ ! temp]ature1 &1 ! residue be+ 9 turn subject$ to a v l[ temp]ature1 ! :ite solid sub/ance kn[n z p>aff91 s mu* us$ = mak+ c&les1 is ! result4 ,by a diff]5t treatm5t ( ! same residue is produc$ t wond]ful salve = t5d] sk9s1 cuts1 & burns1 kn[n popul>ly z vasel9e4 ,probably no su* widely-adv]tis$ rem$ial sub/ance has s des]v$ its success z ?is univ]sally-us$ wa/e product ( petroleum4 ,we h notic$ ! fact t 9 ord] to procure safety-burn+ oils1 x is absolutely necess>y t ! m volatile portions be completely di/ill$ ov] fir/4 ,by ,act ( ,p>liam5t a te/ is appli$ to all oils :i* are int5d$ = purposes ( illum9ation1 & ! te/ us$ consi/s ( :at is kn[n z ! fla%+-po9t4 ,_m ( ! m volatile e!rs1 :i* are highly inflammable1 are giv5 (f ev5 at ord9>y temp]atures1 & ! application ( a light to ! oil w cause ! volatile portion to fla%1 z x is call$4 ,a safety-burn+ oil1 accord+ to ! ,act1 mu/ n fla% "u #ajj ,fahr5heit op5 te/1 & all ^? portions :i* fla% at a less temp]ature mu/ be volatilis$ (f be=e ! residue c be deem$ a safe oil4 ,x seems probable t ! fla%+-po9t w soon] or lat] be rais$4 ,"o in/ance may be cit$ to %[ h[ necess>y x is t ! native m9]al oils :i* h be5 discov]$ %\ld h ?is effectual te/ appli$ to !m4 ,:5 ! oil-wells 7 fir/ discov]$ 9 ,am]ica1 ! oil 0 obta9$ simply by a process ( bor+1 & ! f\nta9 ( oil :i* 0 bor$ into at times 0 s prolific1 t x ru%$ out ) a =ce :i* c>ri$ all ob/acles be=e x1 & defi$ all control4 ,9 "o in/ance a column ( oil %ot into ! air to a height ( =ty feet1 & defi$ all attempts to keep x "u4 ,9 ord] to prev5t fur!r accid5t1 all lights 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood 7 ext+ui%$1 ! ne>e/ rema9+ be+ at a di/ance ( f\r hundr$ feet4 ,b 9 ?is crude naph?a !re 01 z usual1 a quantity ( volatile _s :i* 0 be+ giv5 (f ev5 at ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e4 ,?is soon became ignit$1 & ) an explosion ! column ( oil 0 sudd5ly conv]t$ into a ro>+ column ( fire4 ,! own] ( ! prop]ty 0 ?r[n a di/ance ( tw5ty feet by ! explosion1 & soon aft]w>ds di$ f ! burns :i* he _h receiv$ f x4 ,su* an accid5t c\ld n n[1 h[ev]1 happ54 ,! tapp+1 /opp+1 & regulat+ ( gu%+ wells c n[ be m effectually dealt )1 & 9 ! process ( ref9+2 ! mo/ inflammable portions are sep>at$1 ) a result t1 z no oil is us$ 9 ! c\ntry :i* fla%es "u #ajj ,f4 op5 te/1 & z our normal temp]ature is consid]ably less ?an ?is1 !re is little to be fe>$ 9 ! way ( explosion if ! ,act be compli$ )4 ,:5 ! results ( ,mr ,"y's lab\rs became publicly kn[n1 a numb] ( companies 7 />t$ ) ! object ( work+ on ! l9es laid d[n 9 8 pat5t1 & ^! n only 9 ,great ,brita9 b also 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i!r quantities ( cannel coal 7 %ipp$ f ,engl& & o!r p>ts to fe$ ! retorts4 ,9 #ahfj1 accord+ to ! /ati/ics furni%$1 "s sev5ty factories 7 e/abli%$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates alone ) ! object ( extract+ oil f coal & o!r m9]al s\rces1 su* z bitum9\s %ale1 etc4 ,:5 ,"y's pat5t f9ally expir$1 a /ill great] impetus 0 giv5 to its production1 & ! manufacture w\ld probably h cont9u$ to develop 7 x n t att5tion _h1 two ye>s previ\sly1 be5 =cibly turn$ to ^? discov]ies ( great /ores ( natural oil 9 exi/5ce b5ea? a comp>atively ?9 cru/ ( e>?1 & :i*1 :5 bor$ into1 sp\t$ out to trem5d\s heights4 ,! discov]y ( ^! oil-f\nta9s *eck$ = a "t ! developm5t ( ! indu/ry1 b ) ! great production !re has app>5tly be5 a greatly increas$ dem& = x1 & ! ,briti% indu/ry once aga9 appe>s to ?rive1 until ev5 bitum9\s %ales h be5 br\ght "u requisition = _! contribution to ! national weal?4 ,7 x n = ! nuisance & difficulty exp]i5c$ 9 ! prop] clean+ & trimm+ ( lamps1 !re seems no o!r reason :y m9]al oil %\ld n 9 turn h sup]s$$ ! use ( gas1 ev5 z gas _h1 ye>s be=e1 sup]s$$ ! exp5sive animal & vegetable oils :i* _h =m]ly be5 9 use4 ,al?\gh ?is great developm5t 9 ! use ( m9]al oils has tak5 place only )9 ! la/ ?irty ye>s1 x mu/ n be ?\ght t _! use is altoge!r ( mod]n inv5tion4 ,t !y 7 n altoge!r unkn[n 9 ! fif? c5tury be=e ,*ri/ is a matt] ( c]ta9ty1 & at ! "t :5 ! ,p]sian ,empire 0 at ! z5i? ( its glory1 ! fires 9 ! temples ( ! fire-wor%ipp]s 7 und\bt$ly kept f$ by ! natural petroleum :i* ! di/ricts ar\nd af=d$4 ,x is ?\ght by "s t ! leg5d :i* speaks ( ! fire :i* came d[n f heav51 & :i* lit ! alt>s ( ! ,zoroa/rians1 may h _h its orig9 9 ! discov]y ( a hi!rto unkn[n petroleum spr+4 ,m rec5tly1 ! rem>ks ( ,m>co ,polo 9 8 acc\nt ( 8 travels 9 ,a4,d4 #abfj & foll[+ ye>s1 are p>ticul>ly int]e/+ z %[+ t1 ev5 !n1 ! use ( m9]al oil = v>i\s purposes 0 n altoge!r unkn[n4 ,he says t on ! nor? ( ,arm5ia ! ,great] is ,zorzania1 9 ! conf9es ( :i* a f\nta9 is f\nd1 f :i* a liquor l oil fl[s1 & ?\gh unpr(itable = ! season+ ( meat1 yet is v fit = ! supply+ ( lamps1 & to ano9t o!r ?+s2 & ?is natural oil fl[s con/antly1 & t 9 pl5ty en\gh to lade camels4 ,f ?is we c inf] t ! nature ( ! oil 0 entirely unkn[n1 = x 0 a liquor l oil1 & 0 also1 /range to say1 unpr(itable = ! season+ ( meat6 ,9 ano!r place 9 ,arm5ia1 ,m>co ,polo /ates t !re 0 a f\nta9 :5ce rises oil 9 su* abundance t a hundr$ %ips might be at once load$ ) x4 ,x is n good = eat+1 b v fit = fuel1 = ano9t+ ! camels 9 maladies ( ! sk91 & = o!r purposes2 = :i* reason p come f a great di/ance = x1 & no?+ else is burn$ 9 all ?is c\ntry4 ,! rem$ial effects ( ! oil1 :5 us$ z an o9tm5t1 7 ?us e>ly recognis$1 & ! f>-fam$ vasel9e ( ! pres5t day may be reg>d$ z ! l9eal desc5d5t1 s to speak1 ( ! crude m$ic9al ag5t to :i* ,m>co ,polo ref]s4 ,! t]m asphalt has be5 appli$ to s _m & v>i\s mixtures1 t "o sc>cely associates x ) natural m9]al pit* :i* is f\nd 9 "s p>ts ( ! _w4 ,f "t immemorial ?is compact1 bitum9\s1 res9\s m9]al has be5 discov]$ 9 masses on ! %ores ( ! ,dead ,sea1 :i* has 9 consequ5ce receiv$ ! well-kn[n title ( ,lake ,asphaltites4 ,l ! naph?as & petroleums :i* h be5 notic$1 ?is has _h its orig9 9 ! decomposition ( vegetable matt]1 & appe>s to be ?r[n up 9 a liquid =m by ! volcanic en]gies :i*1 are /ill believ$ to be active 9 ! c5tre ( ! lake1 & :i* may be exi/5t b5ea? a /ratum1 or b$1 ( oil-produc+ bitum54 ,9 connection ) ! =mation ( ?is sub/ance1 ! rem>ks ( ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 ! great geologi/1 may well be quot$1 z %[+ ! trans=mation ( vegetable matt] into petroleum1 & aft]w>ds into solid-look+ asphalt4 ,at ,tr9idad is a lake ( bitum5 :i* is a mile & a half 9 circumf]5ce4 ,! ,or9oco has = ages be5 roll+ d[n great quantities ( woody & vegetable bodies into ! surr\nd+ sea1 :]e1 by ! influ5ce ( curr5ts & eddies1 !y may be arre/$1 & accumulat$ 9 p>ticul> places4 ,! frequ5t occurr5ce ( e>?quakes & o!r indications ( volcanic action 9 ^? p>ts1 l5d c\nt5ance to ! op9ion t ^! vegetable sub/ances may h und]gone1 by ! ag5cy ( subt]ranean fire1 ^? trans=mations or *emical *anges :i* produce petroleum2 & ?is may1 by ! same causes1 be =c$ up to ! surface1 :]e1 by exposure to ! air1 x becomes inspissat$1 & =ms ^? diff]5t v>ieties ( e>?-pit* or asphaltum s abundant 9 ! isl&4 ,x is int]e/+ to note also t x 0 obta9$1 at an anci5t p]iod1 f ! oil-f\nta9s ( ,is1 & t x 0 put to consid]able use 9 ! embalm+ ( ! bodies ( ! ,egyptians4 ,x appe>s1 too1 to h be5 employ$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! walls ( ,babylon1 & ?us f v e>ly times ^! wond]ful products & results ( decay$ vegetation h be5 br\ght into use = ! s]vice ( man4 ,anil9e has be5 previ\sly ref]r$ 7p4 #ace7 to z hav+ be5 prep>$ f nitro-b5zole1 or ess5ce de mirbane1 & its prep>ation1 by treat+ ?is sub/ance ) iron-fil+s & acetic acid1 0 "o ( ! e>ly triumphs ( ! *emi/s :o und]took ! se>* aft] ! unkn[n conta9$ 9 gas-t>4 ,x _h previ\sly be5 obta9$ f oils di/ill$ f bones4 ,! importance ( ! sub/ance lies 9 ! fact t1 by ! action ( v>i\s *emical reag5ts1 a s]ies ( col\r+ matt]s ( v great ri*ness are =m$1 & ^! are ! well-kn[n anil9e dyes4 ,z e>ly z #ahcf1 x 0 discov]$ t anil9e1 :5 heat$ ) *loride ( lime1 acquir$ a beautiful blue t9t4 ,?is discov]y l$ to no imm$iate practical result1 & x 0 n until tw5ty-"o ye>s aft] t a fur!r discov]y 0 made1 :i* may inde$ be said to h a*iev$ a _w-wide reputation4 ,x 0 f\nd t1 by add+ bi*romate ( pota% to a solution ( anil9e & sulphuric acid1 a p[d] 0 obta9$ f :i* ! dye 0 aft]w>ds extract$1 :i* is kn[n z mauve4 ,s9ce t "t dyes 9 all %ades & col\rs h be5 obta9$ f ! same s\rce4 ,mag5ta 0 ! next dye to make its appe>ance1 & 9 ! fickle hi/ory ( fa%ion1 probably no col\rs h _h su* extraord9>y runs ( popul>ity z ^? ( mauve & mag5ta4 ,e conceivable col\r 0 obta9$ 9 due c\rse f ! same s\rce1 & *emi/s began to suspect t1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 ! col\r+ matt] ( dy]'s madd]1 :i* 0 kn[n z aliz>91 w\ld also be obta9$ !refrom4 ,hi!rto ?is _h be5 obta9$ f ! root ( ! madd]-plant1 b by d9t ( c>eful & well-reason$ rese>*1 x 0 obta9$ by ,dr ,groebe1 f a solid cry/all9e coal-t> product1 kn[n z an?rac5e1 7,c#ab;,h#ad74 ,?is artificial aliz>9 yields col\rs :i* are pur] ?an ^? ( natural madd]1 & be+ d]iv$ f :at 0 orig9ally reg>d$ z a wa/e product1 its co/ ( production is consid]ably *eap]4 ,we h endeav\r$ ?us f> to deal ) 7#a7 gas1 & 7#b7 t>1 ! two pr9cipal products 9 ! di/illation ( coal4 ,we h yet to say a few words conc]n+ ! useful ammoniacal liquor1 & ! f9al residue 9 ! retorts1 i4e41 coke4 ,! ammoniacal liquor :i* has be5 pass+ ov] dur+ di/illation ( ! coal1 & :i* has be5 collect+ 9 ! hydraulic ma9 & 9 o!r p>ts ( ! gas-mak+ app>atus1 is set aside to be treat$ to a v>iety ( *emical reactions1 9 ord] to wr5* f x its useful con/itu5ts4 ,among/ ^!1 ( c\rse1 ammonia /&s 9 ! fir/ rank1 ! o!rs be+ comp>atively unimportant4 ,9 ord] to obta9 ?is1 ! liquor is fir/ ( all neutralis$ by be+ treat$ ) a quantity ( acid1 :i* conv]ts ! pr9cipal con/itu5t ( ! liquor1 viz41 c>bonate ( ammonia 7smell+ salts71 into ei!r sulphate ( ammonia1 or *loride ( ammonia1 famili>ly kn[n z sal-ammoniac1 accord+ z sulphuric acid or hydro*loric acid is ! acid us$4 ,?us c>bonate ( ammonia ) sulphuric acid w give sulphate ( ammonia1 b c>bonate ( ammonia ) hydro*loric acid w give sal-ammoniac 7*loride ( ammonia74 ,by a fur!r treatm5t ( ^! ) lime1 or1 z x is *emically kn[n1 oxide ( calcium1 ammonia is set free1 :il/ *loride ( lime 7! well-kn[n dis9fectant71 or sulphate ( lime 7gypsum1 or pla/] ( ,p>is 71 is ! result4 ,?us3 ,sulphate ( ammonia lime pla/] ( ,p>is ammonia4 or1 ,sal-ammoniac lime *loride ( lime ammonia4 ,ammonia itself is a mo/ p[]ful gas1 & acts rapidly ^u ! eyes4 ,x has a /imulat+ effect ^u ! n]ves4 ,x is n a *emical elem5t1 be+ compos$ ( ?ree p>ts ( hydrog5 by weight to "o ( nitrog51 bo? ( :i* elem5ts alone are v h>mless1 &1 ! latt] inde$1 v necess>y to human life4 ,ammonia is fatal to life1 produc+ great irritation ( ! lungs4 ,x has also be5 call$ h>t%orn1 be+ obta9$ by de/ructive di/illation ( horn & bone4 ,! "n ammonia is said to h be5 d]iv$ f ! fact t x 0 fir/ obta9$ by ! ,arabs ne> ! temple ( ,jupit] ,ammon1 9 ,lybia1 ,nor? ,africa1 f ! excrem5t ( camels1 9 ! =m ( sal-ammoniac4 ,!re are always traces ( x 9 ! atmosph]e1 especially 9 ! vic9ity ( l>ge t[ns & manufactories :]e l>ge quantities ( coal are burn$4 ,coke1 if prop]ly prep>$1 %\ld consi/ ( pure c>bon4 ,good coal %\ld yield z mu* z #hj p] c5t4 ( coke1 b ow+ to ! unsatisfactory mann] ( its production1 ?is proportion is seldom yield$1 :il/ ! coke :i* is famili> to h\sehold]s1 be+ ! residue left 9 ! retorts aft] gas-mak+1 usually conta9s s l>ge a proportion ( sulphur z to make its combu/ion almo/ (f5sive4 ,no d\bt ! result ( its unsatisfactory prep>ation has be5 t x has fail$ to make its way into h\seholds z x %\ld h done1 b !re is also ano!r objection to its use1 namely1 ! fact t1 ow+ to ! quantity ( oxyg5 requir$ 9 its combu/ion1 x gives rise to feel+s ( suffocation :]e insuffici5t v5tilation ( ! room is provid$4 ,l>ge quantities ( coke are1 h[ev]1 consum$ 9 ! fe$+ ( furnace fires1 & 9 ! heat+ ( boil]s ( locomotives1 z well z 9 metallurgical op]ations2 & 9 ord] to supply ! dem&1 l>ge quantities ( coal are cok$1 a process by :i* ! volatile products are completely combu/$1 pure coke rema9+ beh9d4 ,?is process is !re=e ! direct opposite to t ( di/illation1 by :i* ! volatile products are c>efully collect$ & re-di/ill$4 ,! sulphur\s impurities :i* are always pres5t 9 ! coal1 & :i* are1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 reta9$ 9 coke made at ! gas-works1 !mselves h a value1 :i* 9 ^! utilit>ian days is n long likely to escape ! att5tion ( capitali/s4 ,9 coal1 b&s ( bright %9+ iron pyrites are con/antly se51 ev5 9 ! homely scuttle1 & :5 coal is wa%$1 z x is 9 "s places1 ! removal ( ! pyrites increases ! value ( ! coal1 :il/ x has a value ( its own4 ,! conv]sion ( ! sulphur :i* escapes f our *imneys into sulphurett$ hydrog51 & !n into sulphuric acid1 or oil ( vitriol1 has already be5 ref]r$ to1 & we c only hope t 9 ^! days :5 e available s\rce ( weal? is be+ look$ up1 & :5 !re ?reat5s to rema9 no?+ :i* %all 9 ! future be kn[n z wa/e1 t ! atmosph]e w be sp>$ be+ long] ! receptacle = ! un[n$ & execrat$ brim/one ( millions ( fires & furnaces4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,! ,,coal ,,supplies ,,( ,,! ,,_w4 ,z comp>$ ) "s ( ! ,am]ican coal-fields1 ^? ( ,brita9 are b small1 bo? 9 ext5t & ?ickness4 ,!y c be reg>d$ z fall+ naturally into ?ree pr9cipal areas4 ,! nor!rn coal-field1 includ+ ^? ( ,fife1 ,/irl+1 & ,ayr 9 ,scotl&2 ,cumb]l&1 ,newca/le1 & ,durham 9 ,engl&2 ,tyrone 9 ,irel&4 ,! middle coal-field1 all geologically 9 union1 includ+ ^? ( ,york%ire1 ,d]by%ire1 ,%rop%ire1 ,/af=d%ire1 ,fl9t1 & ,d5bigh4 ,! s\!rn coal-field1 includ+ ,s\? ,wales1 ,=e/ ( ,dean1 ,bri/ol1 ,dov]1 ) an (f%oot at ,le9/]1 c41 & ,mill/reet1 ,cork4 ,?us x w be se5 t :ile ,engl& & ,scotl& are1 9 comp>ison ) _! ext5t ( surface1 b\ntifully suppli$ ) coal-areas1 9 ! si/] isl& ( ,irel& coal-produc+ areas are almo/ abs5t4 ,! isolat$ b$s 9 ,cork & ,tipp]>y1 9 ,tyrone & ,antrim1 are b ! remnants left ( :at 7 =m]ly b$s ( coal ext5d+ ! :ole bread? & l5g? ( ,irel&4 ,su* b$s z !re rema9 und\bt$ly belong to ! base ( ! coal-measures1 & obs]vations all g to %[ t ! surface suff]$ su* extreme d5udation subsequ5t to ! gr[? ( ! coal-=e/s1 t ! weal? :i* once lay !re1 has be5 swept away f ! surface :i* =m]ly boa/$ ( x4 ,on ! cont95t ( ,europe ! coal-fields1 ?\gh n occupy+ s l>ge a proportion ( ! surface ( ! c\ntry z 9 ,engl&1 are v f> f be+ slight or to be disreg>d$4 ,! ext5t ( =e/-l&s /ill rema9+ 9 ,g]many & ,au/ria are suffic+ = ! imm$iate ne$s ( ! di/ricts :]e "s ( ! be/ seams occur4 ,x is only :]e !re is a de>? ( h&y fuel1 ready to be _h1 p]haps1 by ! simple fell+ ( a few trees1 t man comm5ces to dig into ! e>? = 8 fuel4 ,b al?\gh on ! cont95t n yet occupy+ s prom95t a position 9 public e/imation z d coal-fields 9 ,great ,brita91 ^? ( ! =m] h "o conspicu\s *>act]i/ic1 viz41 ! great ?ickness ( "s ( ! individual seams4 ,9 ! coal-field ( ,midlo?ian ! seams ( coal v>y f #b feet to #e feet 9 ?ickness4 ,"o ( !m is kn[n z ! great seam1 & 9 spite ( its "n atta9s a ?ickness only ( f #h to #aj feet ?ick4 ,!re are altoge!r ab\t ?irty seams ( coal4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we pass to ! cont95t1 we f9d _m in/ances1 su* z t ( ! coal-field ( ,c5tral ,france1 9 :i* ! seams atta9 va/ ?icknesses1 _m ( !m actually rea*+ #dj & #fj feet1 & sometimes ev5 #hj feet4 ,"o ( ! seams 9 ! di/rict ( ,/4 ,eti5ne v>ies f #cj to #gj feet ?ick1 :il/ ! fifte5 to eighte5 workable seams give a ?ickness ( #aab feet1 al?\gh ! total area ( ! field is n great4 ,aga91 9 ! rem>kable bas9 ( ! ,sane-et-,loire1 al?\gh !re are b t5 b$s ( coal1 two ( !m run f #cj to #fj feet ea*1 :il/ at ,creusot ! ma9 seam actually runs locally to a ?ickness v>y+ betwe5 #dj & #acj feet4 ,! ,belgian coal-field /ret*es 9 ! =m ( a n>r[ /rip f #g to #i miles wide by ab\t #ajj miles long1 & is divid$ into ?ree pr9cipal bas9s4 ,9 t /ret*+ f ,lige to ,v]vi]s !re are eighty-?ree seams ( coal1 none ( :i* are less ?an #c feet ?ick4 ,9 ! bas9 ( ! ,sambre1 /ret*+ f ,namur to ,*>l]oi1 !re are sev5ty-?ree seams :i* are workable1 :il/ 9 t betwe5 ,mons & ,?ul9 !re are no less ?an "o hundr$ & fifty-sev5 seams4 ,! measures "h are s fold$ 9 zigzag fa%ion1 t 9 bor+ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,mons to a dep? ( #cej y>ds v]tical1 a s+le seam 0 pass$ ?r\gh no less ?an six times4 ,g]many1 on ! we/ side ( ! ,rh9e1 is exceptionally =tunate 9 ! possession ( ! fam\s ,pfalz-,sa>brck5 coal-field1 measur+ ab\t #fj miles long by #bj miles wide1 & cov]+ ab\t #age squ>e miles4 ,mu* ( ! coal :i* lies deep 9 ^! coal-measures w always rema9 unatta9able1 ow+ to ! enorm\s ?ickness ( ! /rata1 b a c>eful computation made ( ! coal :i* c be work$1 gives an e/imate ( no less ?an #bgej millions ( tons4 ,!re is a gr& total ( two hundr$ & =ty-f\r seams1 al?\gh ab\t half ( !m are unworkable4 ,beside o!r small] coal-produc+ areas 9 ,g]many1 ! coal-fields ( ,silesia 9 ! s\!a/]n corn] ( ,prussia are a possession unrivall$ bo? on acc\nt ( _! ext5t & ?ickness4 ,x is /at$ t !re exi/ #ccc feet ( coal1 all ! seams ( :i* exce$ #b-a_/b feet1 & t 9 ! aggregate !re is "h1 )9 a workable dep?1 ! sc>cely conceivable quantity ( #ej1jjj million tons ( coal4 ,! coal-field ( ,upp] ,silesia1 occupy+ an area ab\t #bj miles long by #ae miles broad1 is e/imat$ to conta9 "s #aj1jjj feet ( /rata1 ) #ccc feet ( good coal4 ,?is is ab\t ?ree times ! ?ickness conta9$ 9 ! ,s\? ,wales coal-field1 9 a simil> ?ickness ( coal-measures4 ,!re are s+le seams up to #fj feet ?ick1 b mu* ( ! coal is cov]$ by m rec5t rocks ( ,new ,r$ & ,cretace\s age4 ,9 ,l[] ,silesia !re are num]\s seams #c-a_/b feet to #e feet ?ick1 b ow+ to _! liability to *ange 9 "* ev5 9 ! same seam1 _! value is inf]ior to ! coals ( ,upp] ,silesia4 ,:5 ,briti% supplies are at l5g? exhau/$1 we may anticipate t "s ( ! e>lie/ coals to be import$1 %\ld coal !n be ne$$1 w rea* ,brita9 f ! upp] wat]s ( ! ,od]4 ,! coal-field ( ,we/phalia has lately come into prom95ce 9 connection ) ! se>* :i* has be5 made = coal 9 ,k5t & ,surrey1 ! /rata :i* are m9$ at ,dortmund be+ ?\ght to be cont9u\s f ! ,bri/ol coal-field4 ,bor+s h be5 made ?r\gh ! *alk ( ! di/rict nor? ( ! ,we/phalian coal-field1 & ^! h %[n ! exi/5ce ( fur!r coal-measures4 ,! coal-field ext5ds betwe5 ,ess5 & ,dortmund a di/ance ( #cj miles ea/ & we/1 & exhibits a s]ies ( ab\t "o hundr$ & ?irty seams1 ) an aggregate ( #cjj feet ( coal4 ,x is e/imat$ t ?is coal-field alone conta9s no less ?an #ci1bjj millions ( tons ( coal4 ,russia possesses supplies ( coal ^: influ5ce has sc>cely yet be5 felt1 ow+ to ! sp>s5ess ( ! population & ! abundance ( =e/4 ,c>bonif]\s rocks abut aga9/ ! flanks ( ! ,ural ,m\nta9s1 along ! sides ( :i* !y ext5d = a l5g? ( ab\t a ?\s& miles1 ) int]-/ratifications ( coal4 ,_! actual cont5ts h n yet be5 gaug$1 b !re is e reason to believe t ^? coal-b$s :i* h be5 se5 are b samples ( _m o!rs :i* w1 :5 prop]ly work$1 satisfy ! ne$s ( a mu* l>g] population ?an ! c\ntry n[ possesses4 ,l ! l[] coals ( ,scotl&1 ! ,russian coals are f\nd 9 ! c>bonif]\s lime/one4 ,?is may also be said ( ! coal-fields 9 ! gov]nm5ts ( ,tula & ,kaluga1 & ( ^? important coal-be>+ /rata ne> ! riv] ,donetz1 /ret*+ to ! nor!rn corn] ( ! ,sea ( ,azov4 ,9 ! la/-nam$1 ! seams are spread ov] an area ( #aa1jjj squ>e miles1 9 :i* !re are =ty-f\r workable seams conta9+ #aad feet ( coal4 ,! ?icke/ ( kn[n ,russian coals occur at ,li?w9sk1 :]e ?ree seams are work$1 ea* measur+ #cj feet to #dj feet ?ick4 ,an ext5sion ( ! ,upp] ,silesian coal-field appe>s 9 ,russian ,pol&4 ,?is is ( upp] ,c>bonif]\s age1 & conta9s an aggregate ( #fj feet ( coal4 ,at ,o/rau1 9 ,upp] ,silesia 7,au/ria71 !re is a rem>kable coal-field4 ,( its #cgj seams !re are no less ?an #aag workable ones1 & ^! conta9 #cej feet ( coal4 ,! coals "h are v full ( gas1 :i* ev5 p]colates to ! cell>s ( h\ses 9 ! t[n4 ,a bore hole :i* 0 sunk 9 #aheb to a dep? ( #aej feet1 gave (f a /ream ( gas1 :i* ignit$1 & burnt = _m ye>s ) a flame "s feet long4 ,! ,zwickau coal-field 9 ,saxony is "o ( ! mo/ important 9 ,europe4 ,x conta9s a rem>kable seam ( coal1 kn[n z ,russokohle or soot-coal1 runn+ at times #be feet ?ick4 ,x 0 sep>at$ by ,ge9itz & o!rs into f\r zones1 accord+ to _! vegetable cont5ts1 viz43-- #a4 ,zone ( ,f]ns4 #b4 ,zone ( ,annul>ia & ,calamites4 #c4 ,zone ( ,sigill>ia4 #d4 ,zone ( ,sag5>ia 79 ,silesia71 equival5t to ! culm-measures ( ,devon%ire4 ,coals belong+ to o!r ?an true ,c>bonif]\s age are f\nd 9 ,europe at ,/ey]dorf on ! ,danube1 :]e !re are a few seams ( good coal 9 /rata ( ,liassic age1 & 9 ,hung>y & ,/yria1 :]e !re are t]ti>y coals :i* approa* closely to ^? ( true ,c>bonif]\s age 9 composition & quality4 ,9 ,spa9 !re are a few small scatt]$ bas9s4 ,coal is f\nd ov]ly+ ! c>bonif]\s lime/one ( ! ,cantabrian *a91 ! seams be+ f #e feet to #h feet ?ick4 ,9 ! ,sat]o valley1 ne> ,sotillo1 is a s+le seam measur+ f #fj feet to #ajj feet ?ick4 ,coal ( ,neocomian age appe>s at ,montalban4 ,:5 we look outside ! cont95t ( ,europe1 we may well be a/oni%$ at ! b\ntiful mann] 9 :i* nature has laid out b$s ( coal ^u ^! anci5t surfaces ( our globe4 ,pr(essor ,rog]s e/imat$ t1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 ! coal-fields occupy an area ( no less ?an #aif1hej squ>e miles4 ,"h1 aga91 x is extremely probable t ! coal-fields :i* rema91 9 spite ( _! gigantic exi/+ areas1 are b ! remnants ( "o trem5d\s area ( deposit1 b\nd$ only on ! ea/ by ! ,atlantic1 & on ! we/ by a l9e runn+ f ! great lakes to ! fronti]s ( ,mexico4 ,! :ole area has be5 subject$ to =ces :i* h produc$ fold+s & flexures 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s /rata aft] deposition4 ,^! undulations are greate/ ne> ! ,alleghanies1 & betwe5 ^! m\nta9s & ! ,atlantic1 :il/ ! flexures gradually dy+ out we/w>d1 cause ! /rata !re to rema9 fairly horizontal4 ,9 ! tr\ghs ( ! fold+s ?us =m$ ! coal-measures re/1 ^? portions :i* _h be5 ?r[n up z anticl9es hav+ suff]$ loss by d5udation4 ,:]e ! fold+s are greate/ !re ! coal has be5 naturally mo/ alt]$2 bitum9\s & cak+-coals are *>act]i/ic ( ! broad flat areas we/ ( ! m\nta9s1 :il/1 :]e ! contortions are greate/1 ! coal becomes a pure an?racite4 ,x mu/ n be ?\ght t 9 ?is huge area ! coal is all uni=mly good4 ,x v>ies greatly 9 quality1 & 9 "s di/ricts x occurs 9 su* ?9 seams z to be wor?less1 except z fuel = consumption by ! actual coal-gett]s4 ,!re are1 too1 areas ( _m squ>e miles 9 ext5t1 :]e !re are n[ no coals at all1 ! =mation hav+ be5 d5ud$ "r d[n to ! palaeozoic back-bone ( ! c\ntry4 ,among/ ! actual coal-fields1 t ( ,p5nsylvania /&s pre-em95t4 ,! an?racite "h is 9 inexhau/ible quantity1 its output exce$+ t ( ! ord9>y bitum9\s coal4 ,! great field ( :i* ?is is a portion1 ext5ds 9 an unbrok5 l5g? = #hge miles ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w41 & includes ! bas9s ( ,ohio1 ,m>yl&1 ,virg9ia1 ,k5tucky1 & ,t5nessee4 ,! workable seams ( an?racite ab\t ,pottsville measure 9 ! aggregate f #gj to #bjg feet4 ,"s ( ! l[] seams individually atta9 an exceptional ?ickness1 t at ,lehigh ,summit m9e conta9+ a seam1 or r a b$1 ( #cj feet ( good coal4 ,a rem>kable seam ( coal has giv5 ! t[n ( ,pittsburg its "n4 ,?is is #h feet ?ick at its outcrop ne> ! t[n1 & al?\gh its ?ickness v>ies consid]ably1 ,pr(essor ,rog]s e/imates t ! %eet ( coal measures sup]ficially ab\t #ad1jjj squ>e miles4 ,:at a =e/ !re mu/ h exi/$ to produce s widespread a b$6 ,ev5 z x is1 x has at a =m] epo* suff]$ great d5udation1 if c]ta9 deta*$ bas9s %\ld be consid]$ z indicat+ its =m] ext5t4 ,! pr9cipal seam 9 ! an?racite di/rict ( c5tral ,p5nsylvania1 :i* ext5ds = ab\t #fej miles along ! left bank ( ! ,susquehanna1 is kn[n z ! ,mammo? ve91 & is #bi-a_/b feet ?ick at ,wilkesb>re1 :il/ at o!r places x atta9s to1 & ev5 exce$s1 #fj feet4 ,on ! we/ ( ! *a9 ( m\nta9s ! fold+s become g5tl]1 & ! coal assumes an almo/ horizontal position4 ,9 pass+ ?r\gh ,ohio we f9d a saddle-back ridge or anticl9e ( m anci5t /rata ?an ! coal1 & 9 consequ5ce ( ?is1 we h a physical b\nd>y plac$ ^u ! coal-fields on ea* side4 ,pass+ across ?is old] ridge ( d5ud$ ,silurian & o!r rocks1 we rea* ! fam\s ,ill9ois & ,indiana coal-field1 ^: coal-measures lie 9 a broad tr\gh1 b\nd$ on ! we/ by ! upris+ ( ! c>bonif]\s lime/one ( ! upp] ,mississippi4 ,?is lime/one =mation appe>s "h = ! fir/ "t1 hav+ be5 abs5t on ! ea/]n side ( ! ,ohio anticl9e4 ,! area ( ! coal-field is e/imat$ at #ea1jjj squ>e miles4 ,9 connection ) ! coal-fields ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 x is int]e/+ to notice t a wide area 9 ,texas1 e/imat$ at #cjjj squ>e miles1 produces a l>ge am\nt ( coal annually f /rata ( ! ,liassic age4 ,ano!r important area ( production 9 ea/]n ,virg9ia conta9s coal ref]able to ! ,jurassic age1 & is simil> 9 fossil cont5ts to ! ,jurassic ( ,:itby & ,brora4 ,! ma9 seam 9 ea/]n ,virg9ia boa/s a ?ickness ( f #cj to #dj feet ( good coal4 ,v s]viceable lignites ( ,cretace\s age are f\nd on ! ,pacific slope1 to :i* age ^? ( ,vanc\v]'s ,isl& & ,saskat*ewan ,riv] are ref]able4 ,o!r coal-fields ( less importance are f\nd betwe5 ,lakes ,huron & ,erie1 :]e ! measures cov] an area ( #ejjj squ>e miles1 & also 9 ,rhode ,isl&4 ,9 ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica we f9d ext5sive deposits ( valuable coal-measures4 ,l>ge developm5ts occur 9 ,new ,brunswick & ,nova ,scotia4 ,at ,s\? ,jogg9s !re is a ?ickness ( #ad1gej feet ( /rata1 9 :i* are f\nd sev5ty-six coal-seams ( #de feet 9 total ?ickness4 ,at ,picton !re are six seams ) a total ( #hj feet ( coal4 ,9 ! l[] c>bonif]\s gr\p is f\nd ! peculi> asphaltic coal ( ! ,alb]t m9e 9 ,new ,brunswick4 ,ext5sive deposits ( lignite are met ) bo? 9 ! ,dom9ion & 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :il/ true coal-measures flank bo? sides ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,coal-seams are (t5 enc\nt]$ 9 ! ,arctic ar*ipelago4 ,! pr9cipal areas ( deposit 9 ,s\? ,am]ica are 9 ,brazil1 ,uruguay1 & ,p]u4 ,! l>ge/ is ! ,c&iota coal-field1 9 ,brazil1 :]e sections 9 ! valley ( ! ,c&iota ,riv] %[ five good seams ) a total ( #fe feet ( coal4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 work$ b little1 ! pr9cipal work+s be+ at ,san ,j]onimo on ! ,jacahahay ,riv]4 ,9 ,p]u ! true c>bonif]\s coal-seams are f\nd on ! high] gr\nd ( ! ,&es1 :il/ coal ( second>y age is f\nd 9 consid]able quantities on ! rise t[>ds ! m\nta9s4 ,at ,porton1 ea/ ( ,truxillo1 ! same metamorphism :i* has *ang$ ! ridge ( s&/one to a h>d qu>tzite has also *ang$ ! ord9>y bitum9\s coal into an an?racite1 :i* is "h v]tical 9 position4 ,! coals ( ,p]u usually rise to m ?an #aj1jjj feet above ! sea1 & !y are practically inaccessible4 ,cretace\s coals h be5 f\nd at ,lota 9 ,*ili1 & at ,s&y ,po9t1 ,/raits ( ,magellan4 ,turn+ to ,asia1 we f9d t coal has be5 work$ f "t to "t at ,h]aclea 9 ,asia ,m9or4 ,lignites are met ) at ,smyrna & ,lebanon4 ,! coal-fields ( ,h9doo/an are small b num]\s1 be+ f\nd 9 all p>ts ( ! p59sula4 ,!re is an important coal-field at ,raniganj1 ne> ! ,hooghly1 #adj miles nor? ( ,calcutta4 ,x has an area ( #ejj squ>e miles4 ,9 ! ,raniganj di/rict !re are occasional seams #bj feet to #hj feet 9 ?ickness1 b ! coals are ( some:at inf]ior quality4 ,! be/ quality among/ ,indian coals has come f a small coal-field ( ab\t #aa squ>e miles 9 ext5t1 situat$ at ,kurhurbali on ! ,ea/ ,indian ,railway4 ,o!r coal-fields are f\nd at ,jh]ria & on ! ,sone ,riv]1 9 ,b5gal1 & at ,mopani on ! ,n]budda4 ,mu* is expect$ 9 future f ! l>ge coal-field ( ! ,w>dha & ,*&a di/ricts1 9 ! ,c5tral ,prov9ces1 ! coal ( :i* may ev5tually prove to be ( ,p]mian age4 ,! coal-deposits ( ,*9a are und\bt$ly ( trem5d\s ext5t1 al?\gh f want ( exploration x is difficult to =m any satisfactory e/imate ( !m4 ,ne> ,pek9 !re are b$s ( coal #ie feet ?ick1 :i* af=d ample provision = ! ne$s ( ! city4 ,9 ! m\nta9\s di/ricts ( we/]n ,*9a ! area ov] :i* c>bonif]\s /rata are expos$ has be5 e/imat$ at #ajj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,! coal-measures ext5d we/w>d to ! ,mongolian fronti]1 :]e coal-seams #cj feet ?ick are kn[n to lie 9 horizontal plane = #bjj miles4 ,mo/ ( ! ,*9ese coal-deposits are r5d]$ ( small value1 ei!r ow+ to ! m\nta9\s nature ( ! valleys 9 :i* !y outcrop1 or to _! inaccessibility f ! sea4 ,japan is n lack+ 9 good supplies ( coal4 ,a colli]y is work$ by ! gov]nm5t on ! isl& ( ,takasima1 ne> ,nagasaki1 = ! supply ( coals = ! use ( ! navy4 ,! ,briti% possession ( ,labuan1 (f ! isl& ( ,borneo1 is ri* 9 a coal ( t]ti>y age1 rem>kable = ! quantity ( fossil res9 :i*1 x conta9s4 ,coal is also f\nd 9 ,sumatra1 & 9 ! ,malayan ,ar*ipelago4 ,9 ,cape ,colony & ,natal ! coal-be>+ ,k>oo b$s are probably ( ,new ,r$ age4 ,! coal is report$ to be excell5t 9 quantity4 ,9 ,abyss9ia lignites are frequ5tly met ) 9 ! high l&s ( ! int]ior4 ,coal is v ext5sively develop$ ?r\gh\t ,au/ralasia4 ,9 ,new ,s\? ,wales1 coal-measures occur 9 l>ge deta*$ portions betwe5 #bi & #ce ,s4 latitude4 ,! ,newca/le di/rict1 at ! m\? ( ! ,hunt] riv]1 is ! *ief seat ( ! coal trade1 & ! seams are "h f\nd up to #cj feet ?ick4 ,coal-be>+ /rata are f\nd at ,b[5 ,riv]1 9 ,que5sl&1 cov]+ an area ( #bd1jjj squ>e miles1 :il/ important m9es ( ,cretace\s age are work$ at ,ipswi*1 ne> ,brisbane4 ,9 ,new ,zeal& quantities ( lignite1 describ$ z a hydr\s coal1 are f\nd & utilis$2 also an anhydr\s coal :i* may prove to be ei!r ( ,cretace\s or ,jurassic age4 ,we h ?us briefly sket*$ ! supplies ( coal1 s f> z !y are kn[n1 :i* are to be f\nd 9 v>i\s c\ntries4 ,b ,engl& has ( late ye>s be5 conc]n$ z to ! possible failure ( h] home supplies 9 ! n v di/ant future1 & ! effects :i* su* failure w\ld be likely to produce on ! comm]cial prosp]ity ( ! c\ntry4 ,great ,brita9 has long be5 ! c5tre ( ! univ]se 9 ! supply ( ! _w's coal1 & z a matt] ( fact1 has be5 = _m ye>s rais+ consid]ably m ?an "o half ( ! total am\nt ( coal rais$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole _w4 ,!re is1 z we h se51 an abundance ( coal else:]e1 :i* w1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 compete ) h] :5 prop]ly work$1 b ,brita9 seems to h e>ly tak5 ! lead 9 ! production ( coal1 & to h become ! great univ]sal coal di/ributor4 ,^? :o h misgiv+s z to :at w happ5 :5 h] coal is exhau/$1 receive little com=t f ! fact t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 ,prussia1 9 ,*9a & else:]e1 !re are trem5d\s supplies ( coal z yet unt\*$1 al?\gh a c]ta9 s5se ( relief is exp]i5c$ :5 t fact becomes g5]ally kn[n4 ,if by ! "t ( exhau/ion ( ! home m9es ,brita9 is /ill dep5d5t ^u coal = fuel1 :i*1 9 ?is age ( electricity1 sc>cely seems probable1 h] trade & comm]ce w feel ) trem5d\s effect ! bl[ :i* h] pre/ige w exp]i5ce :5 ! fir/ vessel1 lad5 ) =eign coal1 weighs an*or 9 a ,briti% h>b\r4 ,9 ! great coal lock-out ( #ahic1 :51 = ! great] "p ( sixte5 weeks sc>cely a ton ( coal rea*$ ! surface 9 "s ( h] pr9cipal coal-fields1 x 0 rum\r$1 falsely z x appe>$1 t a colli] f ,am]ica _h inde$ rea*$ ^? %ores1 & ! importance :i* atta*$ to ! suppos$ ev5t 0 %[n by ! anxi\s ref]5ces to x 9 ! public press1 :]e ! tru? or o!rwise ( ! al>m 0 actively discuss$4 ,%\ld su* a ?+ at any "t actually come to pass1 x w inde$ be a retribution to ^? :o h = ye>s be5 squ&]+ _! inh]itance 9 _m a wa/eful mann] ( coal-consumption4 ,?irty ye>s ago1 :5 s mu* small coal 0 wa/$ & wantonly consum$ 9 ord] to dispose ( x 9 ! easie/ mann] possible at ! pitm\?s1 & :5 only ! be/ & l>ge/ coal 0 deem$ to be ( any value1 l\d] & l\d] did sci5tific m5 speak 9 prote/ aga9/ ?is great & increas+ prodigality4 ,wild e/imates 7 set on foot %[+ h[ t1 soon] or lat]1 !re w\ld be 9 ,brita9 no native supply ( coal at all1 & f9ally a ,royal ,commission 0 appo9t$ 9 #ahff1 to collect evid5ce & report ^u ! probable "t dur+ :i* ! supplies ( ,great ,brita9 w\ld la/4 ,?is ,commission report$ 9 #ahga1 & ! outcome ( x 0 t a p]iod ( twelve hundr$ & sev5ty-?ree ye>s 0 assign$ z ! p]iod dur+ :i* ! coal w\ld la/1 at ! !n-exi/+ rate ( consumption4 ,! quantity ( workable coal )9 a dep? ( #djjj feet 0 e/imat$ to be #ij1bjg millions ( tons1 or1 includ+ t at great] dep?s1 #adf1dhj millions ( tons4 ,s9ce t date1 h[ev]1 !re has be5 a /eady annual increase 9 ! am\nt ( coal consum$1 & subsequ5t e/imates g to %[ t ! supplies _c la/ = m ?an #bej ye>s1 or1 tak+ into consid]ation a possible decrease 9 consumption1 #cej ye>s4 ,mo/ ( ! coal-m9es w1 inde$1 h be5 work$ out 9 less ?an a hundr$ ye>s h5ce1 & !n1 p]haps1 ! competition br\ght ab\t by ! dem& =1 & ! sc>city (1 coal f ! rema9+ m9es1 w h result$ 9 ! dread$ importation ( coal f abroad4 ,9 ref]r+ to ! outcome ( ! ,royal ,commission ( #ahff1 al?\gh ! ,commission]s fix$ s comp>atively %ort a p]iod z ! probable duration ( ! coal supplies1 x is b fair t x %\ld be /at$ t o!r e/imates h be5 made :i* h mat]ially diff]$ f _! e/imate4 ,:]eas "o e/imate m ?an d\bl$ t ( ! ,royal ,commission1 t ( ,sir ,william ,arm/rong 9 #ahfc gave x z #bab ye>s1 & ,pr(essor ,jevons1 speak+ 9 #ahge conc]n+ ,arm/rong's e/imate1 obs]v$ t ! annual increase 9 ! am\nt us$1 :i* 0 all[$ = 9 ! e/imate1 _h s greatly itself increas$1 t ! #bab ye>s mu/ be consid]ably r$uc$4 ,"o c sc>cely ?or\ghly appreciate ! enorm\s quantity ( coal t is br\ght to ! surface annually1 & ! only wond] is t !re are any supplies left at all4 ,! ,great ,pyramid :i* is said by ,h]odotus to h be5 tw5ty ye>s 9 build+1 & :i* took #ajj1jjj m5 to build1 conta9s #c1cid1cjg cubic y>ds ( /one4 ,! coal rais$ 9 #ahib w\ld make a pyramid :i* w\ld conta9 #aha1ejj1jjj cubic y>ds1 at ! l[ e/imate t "o ton c\ld be squeez$ into "o cubic y>d4 ,! increase 9 ! quantity ( coal :i* has be5 rais$ 9 succe$+ ye>s c well be se5 f ! foll[+ facts4 ,9 #ahbj !re 7 rais$ 9 ,great ,brita9 ab\t #bj millions ( tons4 ,by #ahee ?is am\nt _h increas$ to #fd-a_/b millions4 ,9 #ahfe ?is aga9 _h increas$ to #ih millions1 :il/ tw5ty ye>s aft]1 viz41 9 #ahhe1 ?is _h increas$ to no less ?an #aei millions1 su* 7 ! giant /rides :i* ! increase 9 consumption made4 ,9 ! return = #ahib1 ?is am\nt _h f>!r increas$ to #aha-a_/b millions ( tons1 an advance 9 eight ye>s ( a quantity m ?an equal to ! total rais$ 9 #ahbj1 & 9 #ahid ! total rea*$ #aii-a_/b millions2 ?is 0 produc$ by #gie1bdj p]sons1 employ$ 9 & ab\t ! m9es4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,coal-,,t> ,,col\rs4 ,9 a =m] *apt] "s slight ref]5ce has be5 made to ^? bye-products ( coal-t> :i* h prov$ s valuable 9 ! production ( ! anil9e dyes4 ,x is ?\ght t ! subject is ( s int]e/+ a nature z to des]ve m notice ?an x 0 possible to be/[ ^u x 9 t place4 ,) ab/ruse *emical =mulae & complex *emical equations x is propos$ to h z little z possible to d1 b ev5 ! mo/ unsci5tific treatm5t ( ! subject mu/ occasionally necessitate a sci5tific me?od ( elucidation4 ,! dye+ indu/ry has be5 radically *ang$ dur+ ! la/ half c5tury by ! introduction ( :at are kn[n z ! artificial dyes1 :il/ ! natural col\r+ matt]s :i* _h previ\sly be5 ! sole basis ( ! indu/ry1 & :i* _h be5 obta9$ by v simple *emical me?ods f "s ( ! con/itu5ts ( ! animal k+dom1 or :i* 7 f\nd 9 a natural /ate 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 h v l>gely giv5 place to ^? :i* h be5 obta9$ f coal-t>1 a product ( ! m9]alis$ vegetation ( ! c>bonif]\s age4 ,! developm5t & discov]y ( ! anil9e col\r+ matt]s 7 n1 ( c\rse1 possible until aft] ! ext5sive adoption ( h\se-gas = illum9at+ purposes1 & ev5 !n x 0 _m ye>s be=e ! wa/e products f ! gas-works came to h an appreciable value ( _! own4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 came ) ! increas$ utilit>ianism ( ! comm]ce ( ! pres5t c5tury1 b al?\gh anil9e 0 fir/ discov]$ 9 #ahbf by ,unv]dorb51 9 ! mat]ials produc$ by ! dry di/illation ( indigo 7,portuguese1 anil1 indigo71 x 0 n until ?irty ye>s aft]w>ds1 namely1 9 #ahef1 t ! discov]y ( ! me?od ( manufacture ( ! fir/ anil9e dye1 mauve9e1 0 ann\nc$1 ! discov]y be+ due to ! p]si/5t ef=ts ( ,p]k91 to :om1 toge!r ) o!r *emi/s work+ 9 ! same field1 is due ! great advance :i* has be5 made 9 ! *emical k ( ! c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg5 comp\nds4 ,sci5ti/s appe>$ to "w along two planes2 !re 7 ^? :o discov]$ c]ta9 *emical comp\nds 9 ! result+ products ( reactions 9 ! treatm5t ( exi/+ vegetation1 & !re 7 ^? :o1 /udy+ ! wond]ful con/itu5ts 9 coal-t>1 ! product ( a pa/ age1 imm$iately set to "w to f9d !re9 ^? comp\nds :i* _! contempor>ies _h already discov]$4 ,g5]ally1 too1 ) signal success4 ,! discov]y ( b5z5e 9 #ahbe by ,f>aday 0 foll[$ 9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s by its discov]y 9 coal-t> by ,h(mann4 ,tolu5e1 :i* 0 discov]$ 9 #ahcg by ,pelleti]1 0 recognis$ 9 ! fractional di/illation ( crude naph?a by ,mansfield 9 #ahdh4 ,al?\gh ! me?od ( production ( mauve9e on a l>ge scale 0 n accompli%$ until #ahef1 yet x _h be5 notic$ 9 #ahcd1 ! actual ye> ( its recognition z a con/itu5t ( coal-t>1 t1 :5 br\ght into contact ) *loride ( lime1 x gave brilliant col\rs1 b x requir$ a consid]able *eap5+ ( ! process ( anil9e manufacture be=e ! dyes comm5c$ to ent] into competition ) ! old natural dyes4 ,! isolation ( anil9e f coal-t> is exp5sive1 9 consequ5ce ( ! small quantities 9 :i* x is !re f\nd1 b x 0 discov]$ by ,mits*]li* t by act+ ^u b5z5e1 "o ( ! e>ly di/illates ( coal-t>1 = ! production ( nitro-b5zole1 a comp\nd 0 produc$ f :i* anil9e c\ld be obta9$ 9 l>ge quantities4 ,!re 7 ?us two me?ods ( obta9+ anil9e f t>1 ! exp]im5tal & ! practical4 ,9 produc+ nitrob5zole 7nitrob5z5e71 *emically repres5t$ z 7,c#f;,h#e,,no#b71 ! nitric acid us$ z ! reag5t ) b5z5e1 is mix$ ) a quantity ( sulphuric acid1 ) ! object ( absorb+ wat] :i* is =m$ dur+ ! reaction1 z ?is w\ld t5d to dilute ! effici5cy ( ! nitric acid4 ,! proportions are #ajj p>ts ( purifi$ b5z5e1 ) a mixture ( #aae p>ts ( conc5trat$ nitric acid 7,,hno#c7 & #afj p>ts ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid4 ,! mixture is gradually introduc$ into ! l>ge ca/-iron cyl9d] into :i* ! b5z5e has be5 p\r$4 ,! outside ( ! cyl9d] is suppli$ ) an arrangem5t by :i* f9e jets ( wat] c be made to play ^u x 9 ! e>ly /ages ( ! reaction :i* foll[s1 & at ! end ( f eight to t5 h\rs ! cont5ts are all[$ to run (f into a /orage res]voir4 ,"h !y arrange !mselves into two lay]s1 ! top ( :i* consi/s ( ! nitrob5z5e :i* has be5 produc$1 toge!r ) "s b5z5e :i* is /ill unact$ ^u4 ,! mixture is !n fre$ f ! latt] by treatm5t ) a curr5t ( /eam4 ,nitrob5z5e pres5ts itself z a yell[i% oily liquid1 ) a peculi> ta/e z ( bitt] almonds4 ,x 0 =m]ly 9 great dem& by p]fum]s1 b its poison\s prop]ties r5d] x a dang]\s sub/ance to deal )4 ,9 practice a giv5 quantity ( b5z5e w yield ab\t #aej p] c5t ( nitrob5z5e4 ,/at$ *emically1 ! reaction is %[n by ! foll[+ equation3-- ,c#f;,h#f ,,hno#c ,c#f;,h#e,,no#b1 ,h#b,o 7,b5z5e7 7,nitric acid7 7,nitrob5z5e7 7,wat]74 ,! wat] :i* is ?us =m$ 9 ! process1 by ! free+ ( "o ( ! atoms ( hydrog5 9 ! b5z5e1 is absorb$ by ! sulphuric acid pres5t1 al?\gh ! latt] takes no actual "p 9 ! reaction4 ,f ! nitrob5z5e ?us obta9$1 ! anil9e :i* is n[ us$ s ext5sively is prep>$4 ,! compon5t atoms ( a molecule ( anil9e are %[n 9 ! =mula ,c#f;,h#e,,nh#b4 ,x is also kn[n z ph5ylam9e or amido-b5zole1 or comm]cially z anil9e oil4 ,!re are v>i\s me?ods ( r$uc+ nitrob5z5e = anil9e1 ! object be+ to replace ! oxyg5 ( ! =m] by an equival5t numb] ( atoms ( hydrog54 ,! process g5]ally us$ is t kn[n z ,b*amp's1 ) slight modifications4 ,equal volumes ( nitrob5z5e & acetic acid1 toge!r ) a quantity ( iron-fil+s r 9 excess ( ! weight ( ! nitrob5z5e1 are plac$ 9 a capaci\s retort4 ,a brisk eff]vesc5ce ensues1 & to mod]ate ! increase ( temp]ature :i* is caus$ by ! reaction1 x is f\nd necess>y to cool ! retort4 ,in/ead ( acetic acid hydro*loric acid has be5 a good deal us$1 )1 x is said1 c]ta9 advantage\s results4 ,f #fj to #fe p] c5t4 ( anil9e on ! quantity ( nitrob5z5e us$1 is yield$ by ,b*amp's process4 ,/at$ 9 a few words1 ! above is ! process adopt$ on all h&s = ! production ( comm]cial anil9e1 or anil9e oil4 ,! details ( ! di/illation & rectification ( ! oil are1 h[ev]1 z v>i$ z !y c well be1 no two manufactur]s adopt+ ! same process4 ,_m ( ! anil9e dyes dep5d entirely = _! sup]iority1 on ! quality ( ! oil us$1 & = ?is reason x is subject to "o or m processes ( rectification4 ,?is is p]=m$ by di/ill+1 ! di/illates at ! v>i\s temp]atures be+ sep>ately collect$4 ,:5 pure1 anil9e is a col\rless oily liquid1 b on exposure rapidly turns br[n4 ,x has /rong refract+ p[]s & an agreeable aromatic smell4 ,x is v poison\s :5 tak5 int]nally2 its sulphate is1 h[ev]1 sometimes us$ m$ic9ally4 ,x is by ! action ^u anil9e ( c]ta9 oxidis+ ag5ts1 t ! v>i\s col\r+ matt]s s well kn[n z anil9e dyes are obta9$4 ,comm]cial anil9e oil is n1 z we h se51 ! pure/ =m ( rectifi$ anil9e4 ,! anil9e oils ( comm]ce are v v>iable 9 "*1 ! pr9cipal con/itu5ts be+ pure anil9e1 p>a- & meta-toluid9e1 xylid9es1 & cumid9es4 ,!y are be/ kn[n to ! col\r manufactur] 9 f\r qualities-- 7a7 ,anil9e oil = blue & black4 7b7 ,anil9e oil = mag5ta4 7c7 ,anil9e oil = safran9e4 7d7 ,liquid toluid9e4 ,f ! fir/ ( ^!1 :i* is almo/ pure anil9e1 anil9e black is d]iv$1 & a numb] ( organic comp\nds :i* are fur!r us$ = ! production ( dyes4 ,! hydro*loride ( anil9e is important & is kn[n comm]cially z anil9e salt4 ,! di/illation & rectification ( anil9e oil is practis$ on a simil> pr9ciple to ! fractional di/illation :i* we h notic$ z be+ us$ = ! di/illation ( ! naph?as4 ,fir/1 light anil9e oils pass ov]1 foll[$ by o!rs1 & f9ally by ! heavy oils1 or anil9e-tail+s4 ,x is a matt] ( great necessity to ^? engag$ 9 col\r manufacture to apply t quality oil :i* is be/ = ! production ( ! col\r requir$4 ,?is is n always an easy matt]1 & !re is great div]g5ce ( op9ion & 9 practice on ^! po9ts4 ,! s-call$ anil9e col\rs are n all d]iv$ f anil9e1 su* col\r+ matt]s be+ 9 "s cases d]iv$ f o!r coal-t> products1 su* z b5z5e & tolu5e1 ph5ol1 naph?al5e1 & an?rac5e1 & x is rem>kable t al?\gh ! e>li] dyes 7 produc$ f ! light] & m easily di/ill$ products ( coal-t>1 yet n[ "s ( ! heavie/ & mo/ /ubborn ( ! di/illates are br\ght "u requisition = col\r+ matt]s1 ^? :i* n _m ye>s ago 7 reg>d$ z fit only to be us$ z lubricants or to be reg>d$ z wa/e4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y or advisable 9 a "w ( ?is k9d to pursue ! _m *emical reactions1 :i*1 f ! v>i\s acids & bases1 result ultimately 9 ! _m %ades & gradations ( col\r :i* are to be se5 9 dress & o!r fabrics4 ,_m ( !m1 beautiful 9 ! extreme1 are ! outcome ( mu* c>eful & well-plann$ /udy1 & to pr9t "h ! complicat$ *emical =mulae :i* %[ ! great *anges tak+ place 9 comp\nds ( complex molecules1 or to m5tion ev5 ! names ( ^! _m-syllabl$ comp\nds1 w\ld be to de/roy ! purpose ( ?is little book4 ,! ,rosanil9es1 ! ,indul9es1 & ,safran9es2 ! ,oxaz9es1 ! ,?ion9es3 ! ,ph5ol & ,azo dyes are all sub/ances :i* are ( great] int]e/ to ! *emical /ud5ts & to ! col\r manufactur] ?an to ! ord9>y read]4 ,_m ( ! names ( ! bases ( v>i\s dyes are unkn[n outside ! *emical dyeworks1 al?\gh ea* & all h complicat$2 reactions ( _! own4 ,9 ! r$s are rosanil9es1 toluid9e xylid9e1 c42 9 ! blues--ph5yl-rosanil9es1 diph5ylam9e1 toluid9e1 aldehyde1 c42 violets--rosanil9e1 mauve1 ph5yl1 e?yl1 me?yl1 c42 gre5s--iod9e1 anil9e1 leucanil9e1 *rysotoluid9e1 aldehyde1 toluid9e1 me?yl-anil99e1 c42 yell[s & orange--leucanil9e1 ph5ylam9e1 c42 br[ns--*rysotoluid9e1 c42 blacks--anil9e1 toluid9e1 c4 ,to take ! rosanil9es z an in/ance ( ! re/4 ,anil9e r$1 mag5ta1 azale9e1 rub9e1 solf]9o1 fu*s9e1 *ryal9e1 rose9e1 ery?rob5z9e1 & o!rs1 are col\r+ matt]s 9 ?is gr\p :i* are salts ( rosanil9e1 & :i* are all recognis$ 9 comm]ce4 ,! base rosanil9e is kn[n *emically by ! =mula ,c#bj;,hl#i,n#c1 & is prep>$ by heat+ a mixture ( mag5ta anil9e1 toluid9e1 & pseudotoluid9e1 ) ars5ic acid & o!r oxidis+ ag5ts4 ,x is important t wat] %\ld be us$ 9 su* quantities z to prev5t ! solution ( ars5ic acid f deposit+ cry/als on cool+4 ,unless c>efully cry/allis$ rosanil9e w conta9 a slight proportion ( ! ars5iate1 & :5 articles ( clo?+ are dy$ ) ! salt1 x is likely to produce an inflammatory condition ( sk91 :5 worn4 ,"s ye>s ago !re 0 a great outcry aga9/ hose & o!r articles dy$ ) anil9e dyes1 ow+ to ! bad effects :i* 7 produc$1 & ?is has no d\bt prov$ v prejudicial to anil9e dyes z a :ole4 ,aga91 ! base kn[n z mauve1 or mauve9e1 has a composition %[n by ! =mula ,c#bg;,h#bd,n#d4 ,x is produc$ f ! sulphate ( anil9e by mix+ x ) a cold saturat$ solution ( bi*romate ( pota%1 & all[+ ! mixture to /& = t5 or twelve h\rs4 ,a blue-black precipitate is !n =m$1 :i*1 aft] und]go+ a process ( purification1 is dissolv$ 9 alcohol & evaporat$ to dryness4 ,a metallic-look+ p[d] is !n obta9$1 :i* con/itutes ?is all-important base4 ,mauve =ms ) acids a s]ies ( well-def9$ salts & is capable ( expell+ ammonia f its comb9ations4 ,mauve 0 ! fir/ anil9e dye :i* 0 produc$ on a l>ge scale1 ?is be+ accompli%$ by ,p]k9 9 #ahef4 ,! sub/ance kn[n z c>bolic acid is s useful a product ( a piece ( coal t a description ( ! me?od ( its production mu/ necess>ily h a place "h4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful antiseptic ag5ts ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 & has /rong anae/hetic qualities4 ,"s useful dyes are also obta9$ f x4 ,x is obta9$ 9 quantities f coal-t>1 t portion ( ! di/illate kn[n z ! light oils be+ its imm$iate s\rce4 ,! t> oil is mix$ ) a solution ( cau/ic soda1 & ! mixture is viol5tly agitat$4 ,?is results 9 ! cau/ic soda dissolv+ out ! c>bolic acid1 :il/ ! undissolv$ oils collect ^u ! surface1 all[+ ! alkal9e solution to be drawn f b5ea?4 ,! soda 9 ! solution is !n neutralis$ by ! addition ( a suitable quantity ( sulphuric acid1 & ! salt s =m$ s9ks :ile ! c>bolic acid rises to ! surface4 ,purification ( ! product is aft]w>ds c>ri$ out by a process ( fractional di/illation4 ,!re are v>i\s o!r me?ods ( prep>+ c>bolic acid4 ,c>bolic acid is kn[n *emically z ,c#f;,h#e7;,,ho74 ,:5 pure x appe>s z col\rless ne$le-l cry/als1 & is exce$+ly poison\s4 ,x has be5 us$ ) m>k$ success 9 /ay+ ! c\rse ( disease1 su* z *ol]a & cattle plague4 ,x is ( a v volatile nature1 & its efficacy lies 9 its p[] ( de/roy+ g]ms z !y float 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,mod]n sci5ce tells u t all diseases h _! orig9 9 c]ta9 g]ms :i* are ev]y:]e pres5t & :i* seek only a suitable nidus 9 :i* to propagate & fl\ri%4 ,unlike m]e deodoris]s :i* simply remove noxi\s gases or od\rs2 unlike dis9fectants :i* prev5t ! spread ( infection1 c>bolic acid /rikes at ! v root & orig9 ( disease by oxidis+ & consum+ ! g]ms :i* bre$ x4 ,s p[]ful is x t "o "p 9 five ?\s& p>ts ( fl\r pa/e1 blood1 c41 w = mon?s prev5t f]m5tation & putrefaction1 :il/ a little ( its vap\r 9 ! atmosph]e w pres]ve meat1 z well z prev5t x f becom+ fly-bl[n4 ,al?\gh x has1 9 c]ta9 impure /ates1 a slightly disagreeable od\r1 ?is is nev] su* z to be 9 any way h>mful1 :il/ on ! o!r h& x is said to act z a tonic to ^? connect$ ) its prep>ation & use4 ,! new artificial col\r+ matt]s :i* are cont9ually be+ br\ght into ! m>ket1 te/ify to ! fact t1 ev5 ) ! _m beautiful t9ts & hues :i* h be5 discov]$1 f9ality & p]fection h n yet be5 rea*$4 ,a good deal ( popul> prejudice has aris5 aga9/ c]ta9 anil9e dyes on acc\nt ( _! inf]iority to _m ( ! old dye-/uffs 9 respect to _! fa/ness1 b 9 rec5t ye>s ! manufacture ( _m :i* 7 "u ?is disadvantage ( loos5ess ( dye1 has entirely ceas$1 :il/ o!rs h be5 introduc$ :i* are q z fa/1 & sometimes ev5 fa/] ?an ! natural dyes4 ,x is conv5i5t to express ! con/itu5ts ( coal-t>1 & ! di/illates ( ^? con/itu5ts1 9 ! =m ( a g5ealogical *>t1 & ?us1 by way ( conclusion1 summ>ise ! results :i* we h notic$4 ,,coal4 4--------------------------------------- -----------------4 ,wat] ,h\se-gas ,coal-t> ,ammoniacal ,coke liquor 4----------------------------------4 ,sulphur 7sulphurret$ ,fir/ ,second ,heavy ,an?rac5e ,pit* hydrog53 light light oils 7gre5 sulphur\s oils oils 7creosote oils7 acid3 oil 7crude oils7 ( vitriol7 4--------4 naph?a7 ,an?rac5e ,ammoniacal ,b5z5e ,aliz>9 or liquor tolu5e1 dy]'s madd] c4 ,sulphuric acid,c>bonate (,hydro*loric ammonia acid 7smell+ salts7 ,lime,sulphate ( ,lime,*loride ( ammonia ammonia 7sal ammoniac7 4--------4 4--------4 ,ammonia ,sulphate ,ammonia ,*loride ( lime ( lime4 7,pla/] ( ,p>is7 4-----------------4 ,crude ,c>bolic ,naph?al9 ,creosote acid 4--------------------------------------- ------4 ,b5z5e,nitric ,acid ,tolu5e ,nyl5e ,artificial ,burn+ turp5t9e oils ,nitrob5z5e ,iron fil+s oil 7solv5t 7,ess5ce de & acetic acid naph?a7 mirbane7 ,anil9e,v>i\s reag5ts ,anil9e dyes ,,index4 ,a4 ,accid5ts1 causes ( m9+ ,age ( ,acrog5s ,ale?opt]is ,aliz>9 ,am]ican coal-fields ,ammoniacal liquor ,anil9e ,anil9e dyes ,anil9e oil1 comm]cial ,anil9e salt ,anil9e tail+s ,an?rac5e ,an?racite ,artificial turp5t9e oil ,asphalt ,au/ralian coals ,aviculopect5 ,b4 ,b*amp's process ,b5z5e ,b9d ,bitum5 9 ,tr9idad ,bl[] a ,boghead coal ,bog-oak ,bor+ diamonds ,borr[dale graphite m9e ,bovey ,tracey lignite ,briti% coal-fields ,briti% ,nor?-,am]ican coal-measures ,briquettes ,c4 ,calamites1 ext9ct horsetails ,c>bolic acid ,c>bonif]\s =mation1 ! ,c>dioc>pum1 fossil fruit ,c>elessness ( m9]s ,causes ( e>?-movem5ts ,*anges ( level ,*>coal z a dis9fectant ,*emi/ry ( a gas-flame ,*9ese coals ,clanny's safety-lamp ,clayton's exp]im5ts ) gas ,clay1 regul>ity 9 deposition ( ,club-mosses1 great height ( fossil ,coal-du/1 dang] f ,coal =m$ 9 l>ge lakes or clos$ seas ,coal =mation1 geological position ( ,coal =m$ by escape ( gases ,coal-m9e1 ! ,coal n ! result ( drift$ vegetation ,coal-p]iod1 climate ( ,coal-pipes ,coal-plants1 classification ( ,coal-seam1 ea*1 a =e/ gr[? ,coals ( non-c>bonif]\s age ,coal1 vegetable orig9 ( ,coke ,cole ,cond5s]s ,cones ( ,lepidod5dra ,conif]s 9 coal-measures ,curr5t-b$d+ 9 s&/one ,d4 ,davy-lamp ,dang]s ( b5z5e ,d>w9 on ! ,*onos ,ar*ipelago ,diamonds1 h[ made artificially ,dis9tegration ( vegetable sub/ances ,disproportion 9 relative ?ickness ( coal & coal-measures ,e4 ,e>ly use ( coal ,effects ( an explosion ,encr9ital lime/one ,equiseta ,ess5ce de mirbane ,european coal-fields ,evelyn on ! use ( coal ,exp]im5ts illu/rat+ fossilisation ,f4 ,fill+ retorts by ma*9]y ,fir$amp ,fire1 m9es on ,fir/ light oils ,fir/ record ( an explosion ,fla%+-po9t ( oil ,flood+ ( pits ,fog & smoke ,=am9if]a ,fossil f]ns ,fructification on fossil-f]ns ,furnace1 v5tilat+ ,g4 ,gas1 coal ,ga%old]1 ! ,gas1 h\se1 con/itu5ts ( ,glossopt]is ,graphite ,gre5 ,grease ,h4 ,hannay1 ( ,glasg[ ,heavy oils ,humboldt's safety-lamp ,hydraulic ,ma9 ,i4 ,impurities 9 h\se-gas ,indian coals ,ins]tion ( rootlets ( /igm>ia ,insuffici5cy ( mod]n =e/ gr[?s ,irel& d5ud$ ( coal-b$s ,iron1 supplies ( ,l4 ,lepidod5dra ,lepido/robi ,lignite ,london lit by gas ,m4 ,mammo? trees ,m>co ,polo ,m>% gas ,m$ium oils ,metamorphism ( coal by igne\s ag5cy ,me?ods ( v5tilation ,m\nta9 lime/one ,murdock's use ( gas ,mussel b$s ,n4 ,nap?al9 ,neuropt]is ,newca/le1 *>t]s to ,nitro-b5zole ,o4 ,objections to use ( coal ,oils f coal & lignite ,oil-wells ( ,am]ica ,olefiant gas ,or?oc]as ,p4 ,p>aff9s ,peat ,pecopt]is ,p5nsylvanian an?racite ,p]sian fire-wor%ipp]s ,pit* ,plumbago ,polyzoa ,prejudice aga9/ anil9e dyes ,prohibitions ( ! use ( coal ,proportions ( explosive mixtures ,ps>onius ,purifi]s ,pyrites 9 coal ,q4 ,quantity ( coal rais$ 9 ,great ,brita9 ,r4 ,reptiles ( ! coal-era ,resemblance ( ,am]ican & ,briti% coal-flora ,retorts ,roman use ( coal ,rosanil9es1 ! ,royal ,commission ( #ahff ,s4 ,s&/one1 h[ =m$ ,%ales ,sigill>ia ,s\? ,am]ican coals ,spores ( lepidodr5dron ,spores1 res9\s matt] 9 ,spores1 inflammability ( ,/eel-mill ,/]nb]gia ,/igm>ia ,subsid5ce ?r\gh\t coal-era ,surturbr& at ,brighton ,sussex iron-works ,t4 ,t> ,te/+ pits by ! c&le ,texas coal ,tolu5e1 discov]y ( ,torbanehill m9]al ,trapp]s ,u4 ,und]clays ,uses to :i* coal is put ,v4 ,vasel9e ,vegetation ( ! coal age ,v5tilation ( coal-pits ,w4 ,wa%]s ,wa/e ( fuel ,weald5 lignite ,we/phalian coal-field ,y4 ,"y's ,p>aff9 ,oil ,z4 ,zoroa/rians