,,bygone ,,beliefs ,,being ,a ,,series ,,of ,,excursions ,,in ,,the ,,byways ,,of ,,thought ,by ,h4 ,stanley ,redgrove ,alle ,erfahrung ist ,magic1 und nur magisch erklarbar4 ,,novalis 7,friedrich von ,hardenberg74 ,everything possible to be believ'd is an image of truth4 ,,william ,,blake4 ,,to ,,my ,,wife ,transcriber's ,note3 4 coordinate covalent bond4 s subscripted 4 ,s superscripted 4 mark non-ascii characters4 ,emphasis italics have a 99 mark4 marks a reference to internal page numbers4 ,comments and guessed at characters in braces need stripped_/fixed4 ,footnotes have not been re-numbered1 however1 77 are moved to ,e,o,paragraph4 ,the footnotes that have duplicate numbers across #b pages are a and b4 ,protected indentations have a space before the ,tab4 ,,eol - have been converted to 7,soft ,hyphen74 ,greek letters are encoded in gr brackets1 and the letters are based on ,adobe's ,symbol font4 ,hebrew letters are encoded in hb brackets4 ,,preface ,,these ,excursions in the ,byways of ,thought were undertaken at different times and on different occasions2 consequently1 the reader may be able to detect in them inequalities of treatment4 ,he may feel that ,i have lingered too long in some byways and hurried too rapidly through others1 taking1 as it were1 but a general view of the road in the latter case1 whilst examining everything that could be seen in the former with1 perhaps1 undue care4 ,as a matter of fact1 how ever1 all these excursions have been undertaken with one and the same object in view1 that1 namely1 of understanding aright and appreciating at their true worth some of the more curious byways along which human thought has travelled4 ,it is easy for the superficial thinker to dismiss much of the thought of the past 7and1 indeed1 of the present7 as mere superstition1 not worth the trouble of investigation3 but it is not scientific4 ,there is a reason for every belief1 even the most fantastic1 and it should be our object to discover this reason4 ,how far1 if at all1 the reason in any case justifies us in holding a similar belief is1 of course1 another question4 ,some of the beliefs ,i have dealt with ,i have treated at greater length than others1 because it seems to me that the truths of which they are the images--vague and distorted in many cases though they be--are truths which we have either forgotten nowadays1 or are in danger of forgetting4 ,we moderns may1 indeed1 learn something from the thought of the past1 even in its most fantastic aspects4 ,in one excursion at least1 namely1 the essay on ,the ,cambridge ,platonists1 ,i have ventured to deal with a higher phase--perhaps ,i should say the highest phase--of the thought of a bygone age1 to which the modern world may be completely debtor4 ,some ,characteristics of ,mediaeval ,thought1 and the two essays on ,alchemy1 have appeared in ,the ,journal of the ,alchemical ,society4 ,in others ,i have utilised material ,i have contributed to ,the ,occult ,review1 to the editor of which journal my thanks are due for permission so to do4 ,i have also to express my gratitude to the ,rev4 ,a4 ,h4 ,,collins1 and others to be referred to in due course1 for permission here to reproduce illustrations of which they are the copyright holders4 ,i have further to offer my hearty thanks to ,mr ,b4 ,r4 ,,rowbottom and my wife for valuable assistance in reading the proofs4 ,h4 ,s4 ,r4 ,,bletchley1 ,,bucks1 ,december #aiai4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface444444444444444444444444444 ix ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations44444444444444444444 xiii #a4 ,,some ,,characteristics ,,of ,,mediaeval ,,thought444444444 #a #b4 ,,pythagoras ,,and ,,his ,,philosophy444444444444444 #h #c4 ,,medicine ,,and ,,magic444444444444444444444 #be #d4 ,,superstitions ,,concerning ,,birds 44444444444444 #cd #e4 ,,the ,,powder ,,of ,,sympathy3 ,a ,,curious ,,medical ,,superstition44 #dg #f4 ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,talismans444444444444444444 #eg #g4 ,,ceremonial ,,magic ,,in ,,theory ,,and ,,practice4444444444 #hg #h4 ,,architectural ,,symbolism444444444444444444#aaa #i4 ,,the ,,quest ,,of ,,the ,,philosopher',s ,,stone444444444444#aba #aj4 ,,the ,,phallic ,,element ,,in ,,alchemical ,,doctrine444444444#adi #aa4 ,,roger ,,bacon3 ,,an ,,appreciation444444444444444#ahc #ab4 ,,the ,,cambridge ,,platonists444444444444444444#aic the ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations are incomplete and raw ,,ocr output6 ,,page #df4 ,symbolic ,alchemical ,design from ,mutus ,liber 7#afgg74 ,,plate3 #be1 to face p4#agf #dg4 ,symbolic ,alchemical ,design illustrating the ,work of ,woman1 from ,,maier's ,atalanta ,fugiens44411 #bf111 #agh #dh4 ,symbolic ,alchemica ,design1 ,hermaphrodite1 from ,,maier's ,atalanta ,fugiens4411 #bg111 #ahj #di4 ,,roger ,,bacon presenting a ,book to a ,king1 from a ,fifteenth ,century ,miniature in the ,bodleian ,library1 ,oxford44411 #bh111 #ahd #ej4 ,,roger ,,bacon1 from a ,portrait in ,knole ,castle4411 #bi111 #ahh #ea4 ,,benjamin ,,whichcote1 from an engraved ,portrait by ,,robert ,,white4444#cj444aid #eb4 ,,henry ,,more1 from a ,portrait by ,,david ,,loggan1 engraved ad vivum1 #afgi 44411 #ca111 #aih #ec4 ,,ralph ,,cudworth1 from an engraved ,portrait by ,,vertue1 after ,,loggan1 forming the ,frontispiece to ,,cudworth's ,treatise ,concerning ,morality 7#agca7 11 #cb111 #c ,,bygone ,,beliefs ,i4 ,,some ,,characteristics ,,of ,,medaeval ,,thought ,,in the earliest days of his upward evolution man was satisfied with a very crude explanation of natural phenomena--that to which the name animism has been given4 ,in this stage of mental development all the various forces of ,nature are personified3 the rushing torrent1 the devastating fire1 the wind rustling the forest leaves--in the mind of the animistic savage all these are personalities1 spirits1 like himself1 but animated by motives more or less antagonistic to him4 ,i suppose that no possible exception could be taken to the statement that modern science renders animism impossible4 ,but let us inquire in exactly what sense this is true4 ,it is not true that science robs natural phenomena of their spiritual significance4 ,the mistake is often made of supposing that science explains1 or endeavours to explain1 phenomena4 ,but that is the business of philosophy4 ,the task science attempts is the simpler one of the correlation of natural phenomena1 and in this effort leaves the ultimate problems of metaphysics untouched4 ,a universe1 however1 whose phenomena are not only capable of some degree of correlation1 but present the extraordinary degree of harmony and unity which science makes manifest in ,nature1 cannot be1 as in animism1 the product of a vast number of inco-ordinated and antagonistic wills1 but must either be the product of one ,will1 or not the product of will at all4 ,the latter alternative means that the ,cosmos is inexplicable1 which not only man's growing experience1 but the fact that man and the universe form essentially a unity1 forbid us to believe4 ,the term anthropomorphic is too easily applied to philosophical systems1 as if it constituted a criticism of their validity4 ,for if it be true1 as all must admit1 that the unknown can only be explained in terms of the known1 then the universe must either be explained in terms of man--i4e4 in terms of will or desire--or remain incomprehensible4 ,that is to say1 a philosophy must either be anthropomorphic1 or no philosophy at all4 ,thus a metaphysical scrutiny of the results of modern science leads us to a belief in ,god4 ,but man felt the need of unity1 and crude animism1 though a step in the right direction1 failed to satisfy his thought1 long before the days of modern science4 ,the spirits of animism1 however1 were not discarded1 but were modified1 co-ordinated1 and worked into a system as servants of the ,most ,high4 ,polytheism may mark a stage in this process2 or1 perhaps1 it was a result of mental degeneracy4 ,what ,i may term systematised as distinguished from crude animism persisted throughout the ,middle ,ages4 ,the work of systematisation had already been accomplished1 to a large extent1 by the ,neo-,platonists and whoever were responsible for the ,kabala4 ,it is true that these main sources of magical or animistic philosophy remained hidden during the greater part of the ,middle ,ages2 but at about their close the youthful and enthusiastic ,,cornelius ,,agrippa 7#adhf-aece77a7 slaked his thirst thereat and produced his own attempt at the systematisation of magical belief in the famous ,three ,books of ,occult ,philosophy4 ,but the waters of magical philosophy reached the mediaeval mind through various devious channels1 traditional on the one hand and literary on the other4 ,and of the latter1 the works of pseudo-,,dionysius17#b7 whose immense influence upon mediaeval thought has sometimes been neglected1 must certainly be noted4 7#a7 ,the story of his life has been admirably told by ,,henry ,,morley 7#b vols41 #ahef74 7#b7 ,these writings were first heard of in the early part of the sixth century1 and were probably the work of a ,syrian monk of that date1 who fathered them on to ,,dionysius the ,areopagite as a pious fraud4 ,see ,dean ,,inge',s ,christian ,mysticism 7#ahii71 pp4 #ajd--abb1 and ,,vaughan',s ,hours with the ,mystics 7#gth ed41 #ahie71 vol4 i4 pp4 #aaa-abd4 ,the books have been translated into ,english by the ,rev4 ,,john ,,parker 7#b vols4#ahig-ahii71 who believes in the genuineness of their alleged authorship4 ,the most obvious example of a mediaeval animistic belief is that in elementals--the spirits which personify the primordial forces of ,nature1 and are symbolised by the four elements1 immanent in which they were supposed to exist1 and through which they were held to manifest their powers4 ,and astrology1 it must be remembered1 is essentially a systematised animism4 ,the stars1 to the ancients1 were not material bodies like the earth1 but spiritual beings4 ,,plato 7#dbg-cdg ,b4,c47 speaks of them as gods4 ,mediaeval thought did not regard them in quite this way4 ,but for those who believed in astrology1 and few1 ,i think1 did not1 the stars were still symbols of spiritual forces operative on man4 ,evidences of the wide extent of astrological belief in those days are abundant1 many instances of which we shall doubtless encounter in our excursions4 ,it has been said that the theological and philosophical atmosphere of the ,middle ,ages was scholastic1 not mystical4 ,no doubt mysticism1 as a mode of life aiming at the realisation of the presence of ,god1 is as distinct from scholasticism as empiricism is from rationalism1 or tough-minded philosophy 7to use ,,james' happy phrase7 is from tender-minded4 ,but no philosophy can be absolutely and purely deductive4 ,it must start from certain empirically determined facts4 ,a man might be an extreme empiricist in religion 7i4e4 a mystic71 and yet might attempt to deduce all other forms of knowledge from the results of his religious experiences1 never caring to gather experience in any other realm4 ,hence the breach between mysticism and scholasticism is not really so wide as may appear at first sight4 ,indeed1 scholasticism officially recognised three branches of theology1 of which the ,,mystical was one4 ,i think that mysticism and scholasticism both had a profound influence on the mediaeval mind1 sometimes acting as opposing forces1 sometimes operating harmoniously with one another4 ,as ,professor ,,windelband puts it3 ,we no longer onesidedly characterise the philosophy of the middle ages as scholasticism1 but rather place mysticism beside it as of equal rank1 and even as being the more fruitful and promising movement47#a7 7#a7 ,professor ,,wilhelm ,,windelband1 ,ph4,d43 ,present-,day ,mysticism1 ,the ,quest1 vol4 iv4 7#aiac71 ,p4 #bje4 ,alchemy1 with its four ,aristotelian or scholastic elements and its three mystical principles--sulphur1 mercury1 salt1--must be cited as the outstanding product of the combined influence of mysticism and scholasticism3 of mysticism1 which postulated the unity of the ,cosmos1 and hence taught that everything natural is the expressive image and type of some supernatural reality2 of scholasticism1 which taught men to rely upon deduction and to restrict experimentation to the smallest possible limits4 ,the mind naturally proceeds from the known1 or from what is supposed to be known1 to the unknown4 ,indeed1 as ,i have already indicated1 it must so proceed if truth is to be gained4 ,now what did the men of the ,middle ,ages regard as falling into the category of the known8 ,why1 surely1 the truths of revealed religion1 whether accepted upon authority or upon the evidence of their own experience4 ,the realm of spiritual and moral reality3 there1 they felt1 they were on firm ground4 ,nature was a realm unknown2 but they had analogy to guide1 or1 rather1 misguide them4 ,nevertheless if1 as we know1 it misguided1 this was not1 ,i think1 because the mystical doctrine of the correspondence between the spiritual and the natural is unsound1 but because these ancient seekers into ,nature's secrets knew so little1 and so frequently misapplied what they did know4 ,so alchemical philosophy arose and became systematised1 with its wonderful endeavour to perfect the base metals by the ,philosopher's ,stone--the concentrated ,essence of ,nature1--as man's soul is perfected through the life-giving power of ,,jesus ,,christ4 ,i want1 in conclusion to these brief introductory remarks1 to say a few words concerning phallicism in connection with my topic4 ,for some tender-minded7#a7 and1 to my thought1 obscure1 reason the subject is tabooed4 ,even the ,british ,museum does not include works on phallicism in its catalogue1 and special permission has to be obtained to consult them4 ,yet the subject is of vast importance as concerns the origin and development of religion and philosophy1 and the extent of phallic worship may be gathered from the widespread occurrence of obelisks and similar objects amongst ancient relics4 ,our own maypole dances may be instanced as one survival of the ancient worship of the male generative principle4 7#a7 ,i here use the term with the extended meaning ,mr ,h4 ,g4 ,,wells has given to it4 ,see ,the ,new ,machiavelli4 ,what could be more easy to understand than that1 when man first questioned as to the creation of the earth1 he should suppose it to have been generated by some process analogous to that which he saw held in the case of man8 ,how else could he account for its origin1 if knowledge must proceed from the known to the unknown8 ,no one questions at all that the worship of the human generative organs as symbols of the dual generative principle of ,nature degenerated into orgies of the most frightful character1 but the view of ,nature which thus degenerated is not1 ,i think1 an altogether unsound one1 and very interesting remnants of it are to be found in mediaeval philosophy4 ,these remnants are very marked in alchemy4 ,the metals1 as ,i have suggested1 are there regarded as types of man2 hence they are produced from seed1 through the combination of male and female principles--mercury and sulphur1 which on the spiritual plane are intelligence and love4 ,the same is true of that ,stone which is perfect ,man4 ,as ,,bernard of ,,trevisan 7#adjf-adij7 wrote in the fifteenth century3 ,this ,stone then is compounded of a ,body and ,spirit1 or of a volatile and fixed ,substance1 and that is therefore done1 because nothing in the ,world can be generated and brought to light without these two ,substances1 to wit1 a ,male and ,female3 ,from whence it appeareth1 that although these two ,substances are not of one and the same species1 yet one ,stone doth thence arise1 and although they appear and are said to be two ,substances1 yet in truth it is but one1 to wit1 ,argent-vive47#a7 ,no doubt this sounds fantastic2 but with all their seeming intellectual follies these old thinkers were no fools4 ,the fact of sex is the most fundamental fact of the universe1 and is a spiritual and physical as well as a physiological fact4 ,i shall deal with the subject as concerns the speculations of the alchemists in some detail in a later excursion4 7#a7 ,,bernard1 ,earl of ,,trevisan3 ,a ,treatise of the ,philosopher's ,stone1 #afhc4 7,see ,collectanea ,chymica3 ,a ,collection of ,ten ,several ,treatises in ,chemistry1 #afhd1 p4 #ia47 ,,ii4 ,,pythagoras ,,and ,,his ,,philosophy ,,it is a matter for enduring regret that so little is known to us concerning ,,pythagoras4 ,what little we do know serves but to enhance for us the interest of the man and his philosophy1 to make him1 in many ways1 the most attractive of ,greek thinkers2 and1 basing our estimate on the extent of his influence on the thought of succeeding ages1 we recognise in him one of the world's master-minds4 ,,pythagoras was born about #ehb ,b4,c4 at ,samos1 one of the ,grecian isles4 ,in his youth he came in contact with ,,thales--the ,father of ,geometry1 as he is well called1--and though he did not become a member of ,,thales' school1 his contact with the latter no doubt helped to turn his mind towards the study of geometry4 ,this interest found the right ground for its development in ,egypt1 which he visited when still young4 ,egypt is generally regarded as the birthplace of geometry1 the subject having1 it is supposed1 been forced on the minds of the ,egyptians by the necessity of fixing the boundaries of lands against the annual overflowing of the ,nile4 ,but the ,egyptians were what is called an essentially practical people1 and their geometrical knowledge did not extend beyond a few empirical rules useful for fixing these boundaries and in constructing their temples4 ,striking evidence of this fact is supplied by the ,,ahmes papyrus1 compiled some little time before #agjj ,b4,c4 from an older work dating from about #cdjj ,b4,c417#a7 a papyrus which almost certainly represents the highest mathematical knowledge reached by the ,egyptians of that day4 ,geometry is treated very superficially and as of subsidiary interest to arithmetic2 there is no ordered series of reasoned geometrical propositions given--nothing1 indeed1 beyond isolated rules1 and of these some are wanting in accuracy4 7#a7 ,see ,,august ,,eisenlohr3 ,ein mathematisches ,handbuch der alten ,aegypter 7#ahgg72 ,j4 ,gow3 ,a ,short ,history of ,greek ,mathematics 7#ahhd72 and ,v4 ,e4 ,,johnson3 ,egyptian ,science from the ,monuments and ,ancient ,books 7#ahia74 ,one geometrical fact known to the ,egyptians was that if a triangle be constructed having its sides #c1 #d1 and #e units long respectively1 then the angle opposite the longest side is exactly a right angle2 and the ,egyptian builders used this rule for constructing walls perpendicular to each other1 employing a cord graduated in the required manner4 ,the ,greek mind was not1 however1 satisfied with the bald statement of mere facts--it cared little for practical applications1 but sought above all for the underlying ,,reason of everything4 ,nowadays we are beginning to realise that the results achieved by this type of mind1 the general laws of ,nature's behaviour formulated by its endeavours1 are frequently of immense practical importance--of far more importance than the mere rules-of-thumb beyond which so-called practical minds never advance4 ,the classic example of the utility of seemingly useless knowledge is afforded by ,sir ,,william ,,hamilton',s discovery1 or1 rather1 invention of ,quarternions1 but no better example of the utilitarian triumph of the theoretical over the so-called practical mind can be adduced than that afforded by ,,pythagoras4 ,given this rule for constructing a right angle1 about whose reason the ,egyptian who used it never bothered himself1 and the mind of ,,pythagoras1 searching for its full significance1 made that gigantic geometrical discovery which is to this day known as the ,theorem of ,,pythagoras--the law that in every right-angled triangle the square on the side opposite the right angle is equal in area to the sum of the squares on the other two sides47#a7 ,the importance of this discovery can hardly be overestimated4 ,it is of fundamental importance in most branches of geometry1 and the basis of the whole of trigonometry--the special branch of geometry that deals with the practical mensuration of triangles4 ,,euclid devoted the whole of the first book of his ,elements of ,geometry to establishing the truth of this theorem2 how ,,pythagoras demonstrated it we unfortunately do not know4 7#a7 ,fig4 #c affords an interesting practical demonstration of the truth of this theorem4 ,if the reader will copy this figure1 cut out the squares on the two shorter sides of the triangle and divide them along the lines ,,ad1 ,,be1 ,,ef1 he will find that the five pieces so obtained can be made exactly to fit the square on the longest side as shown by the dotted lines4 ,the size and shape of the triangle ,,abc1 so long as it has a right angle at ,c1 is immaterial4 ,the lines ,,ad1 ,,be are obtained by continuing the sides of the square on the side ,,ab1 i4e4 the side opposite the right angle1 and ,,ef is drawn at right angles to ,,be4 ,after absorbing what knowledge was to be gained in ,egypt1 ,,pythagoras journeyed to ,babylon1 where he probably came into contact with even greater traditions and more potent influences and sources of knowledge than in ,egypt1 for there is reason for believing that the ancient ,chaldeans were the builders of the ,pyramids and in many ways the intellectual superiors of the ,egyptians4 ,at last1 after having travelled still further ,east1 probably as far as ,india1 ,,pythagoras returned to his birthplace to teach the men of his native land the knowledge he had gained4 ,but ,,croesus was tyrant over ,samos1 and so oppressive was his rule that none had leisure in which to learn4 ,not a student came to ,,pythagoras1 until1 in despair1 so the story runs1 he offered to pay an artisan if he would but learn geometry4 ,the man accepted1 and later1 when ,,pythagoras pretended inability any longer to continue the payments1 he offered1 so fascinating did he find the subject1 to pay his teacher instead if the lessons might only be continued4 ,,pythagoras no doubt was much gratified at this2 and the motto he adopted for his great ,brotherhood1 of which we shall make the acquaintance in a moment1 was in all likelihood based on this event4 ,it ran1 ,honour a figure and a step before a figure and a tribolus2 or1 as a freer translation renders it3-- ,a figure and a step onward ,not a figure and a florin4 ,at all events1 as ,mr ,,frankland remarks1 the motto is a lasting witness to a very singular devotion to knowledge for its own sake47#a7 7#a7 ,w4 ,b4 ,,frankland1 ,m4,a43 ,the ,story of ,euclid 7#aijb71 p4 #cc ,but ,,pythagoras needed a greater audience than one man1 however enthusiastic a pupil he might be1 and he left ,samos for ,southern ,italy1 the rich inhabitants of whose cities had both the leisure and inclination to study4 ,delphi1 far-famed for its ,oracles1 was visited en route1 and ,,pythagoras1 after a sojourn at ,tarentum1 settled at ,croton1 where he gathered about him a great band of pupils1 mainly young people of the aristocratic class4 ,by consent of the ,senate of ,croton1 he formed out of these a great philosophical brotherhood1 whose members lived apart from the ordinary people1 forming1 as it were1 a separate community4 ,they were bound to ,,pythagoras by the closest ties of admiration and reverence1 and1 for years after his death1 discoveries made by ,pythagoreans were invariably attributed to the ,master1 a fact which makes it very difficult exactly to gauge the extent of ,,pythagoras' own knowledge and achievements4 ,the regime of the ,brotherhood1 or ,pythagorean ,order1 was a strict one1 entailing high thinking and low living at all times4 ,a restricted diet1 the exact nature of which is in dispute1 was observed by all members1 and long periods of silence1 as conducive to deep thinking1 were imposed on novices4 ,women were admitted to the ,order1 and ,,pythagoras' asceticism did not prohibit romance1 for we read that one of his fair pupils won her way to his heart1 and1 declaring her affection for him1 found it reciprocated and became his wife4 ,,schure writes3 ,by his marriage with ,theano1 ,pythagoras affixed the seal of realization to his work4 ,the union and fusion of the two lives was complete4 ,one day when the master's wife was asked what length of time elapsed before a woman could become pure after intercourse with a man1 she replied3 ',if it is with her husband1 she is pure all the time2 if with another man1 she is never pure4' ,many women1 adds the writer1 would smilingly remark that to give such a reply one must be the wife of ,pythagoras1 and love him as ,theano did4 ,and they would be in the right1 for it is not marriage that sanctifies love1 it is love which justifies marriage47#a7 7#a7 ,,edouard ,,schure3 ,pythagoras and the ,delphic ,mysteries1 trans4 by ,f4 ,,rothwell1 ,b4,a4 7#aijf71 pp4 #afd and #afe4 ,,pythagoras was not merely a mathematician1 he was first and foremost a philosopher1 whose philosophy found in number the basis of all things1 because number1 for him1 alone possessed stability of relationship4 ,as ,i have remarked on a former occasion1 ,the theory that the ,cosmos has its origin and explanation in ,number444 is one for which it is not difficult to account if we take into consideration the nature of the times in which it was formulated4 ,the ,greek of the period1 looking upon ,nature1 beheld no picture of harmony1 uniformity and fundamental unity4 ,the outer world appeared to him rather as a discordant chaos1 the mere sport and plaything of the gods4 ,the theory of the uniformity of ,nature--that ,nature is ever like to herself--the very essence of the modern scientific spirit1 had yet to be born of years of unwearied labour and unceasing delving into ,nature's innermost secrets4 ,only in ,mathematics--in the properties of geometrical figures1 and of numbers--was the reign of law1 the principle of harmony1 perceivable4 ,even at this present day when the marvellous has become commonplace1 that property of right-angled triangles444 already discussed444 comes to the mind as a remarkable and notable fact3 it must have seemed a stupendous marvel to its discoverer1 to whom1 it appears1 the regular alternation of the odd and even numbers1 a fact so obvious to us that we are inclined to attach no importance to it1 seemed1 itself1 to be something wonderful4 ,here in ,geometry and ,arithmetic1 here was order and harmony unsurpassed and unsurpassable4 ,what wonder then that ,pythagoras concluded that the solution of the mighty riddle of the ,universe was contained in the mysteries of ,geometry8 ,what wonder that he read mystic meanings into the laws of ,arithmetic1 and believed ,number to be the explanation and origin of all that is87#a7 7#a7 ,a ,mathematical ,theory of ,spirit 7#aiab71 pp4 #fd-fe4 ,no doubt the ,pythagorean theory suffers from a defect similar to that of the ,kabalistic doctrine1 which1 starting from the fact that all words are composed of letters1 representing the primary sounds of language1 maintained that all the things represented by these words were created by ,god by means of the twenty-two letters of the ,hebrew alphabet4 ,but at the same time the ,pythagorean theory certainly embodies a considerable element of truth4 ,modern science demonstrates nothing more clearly than the importance of numerical relationships4 ,indeed1 the history of science shows us the gradual transformation of crude facts of experience into increasingly exact generalisations by the application to them of mathematics4 ,the enormous advances that have been made in recent years in physics and chemistry are very largely due to mathematical methods of interpreting and co-ordinating facts experimentally revealed1 whereby further experiments have been suggested1 the results of which have themselves been mathematically interpreted4 ,both physics and chemistry1 especially the former1 are now highly mathematical4 ,in the biological sciences and especially in psychology it is true that mathematical methods are1 as yet1 not so largely employed4 ,but these sciences are far less highly developed1 far less exact and systematic1 that is to say1 far less scientific1 at present1 than is either physics or chemistry4 ,however1 the application of statistical methods promises good results1 and there are not wanting generalisations already arrived at which are expressible mathematically2 ,weber's ,law in psychology1 and the law concerning the arrangement of the leaves about the stems of plants in biology1 may be instanced as cases in point47#a7 7#a7 ,quoted from a lecture by the present writer on ,the ,law of ,correspondences ,mathematically ,considered1 delivered before ,the ,theological and ,philosophical ,society on #bfth ,april #aiab1 and published in ,morning ,light1 vol4 xxxv 7#aiab71 p4 #dcd et seq4 ,the ,pythagorean doctrine of the ,cosmos1 in its most reasonable form1 however1 is confronted with one great difficulty which it seems incapable of overcoming1 namely1 that of continuity4 ,modern science1 with its atomic theories of matter and electricity1 does1 indeed1 show us that the apparent continuity of material things is spurious1 that all material things consist of discrete particles1 and are hence measurable in numerical terms4 ,but modern science is also obliged to postulate an ether behind these atoms1 an ether which is wholly continuous1 and hence transcends the domain of number47#a7 ,it is true that1 in quite recent times1 a certain school of thought has argued that the ether is also atomic in constitution--that all things1 indeed1 have a grained structure1 even forces being made up of a large number of quantums or indivisible units of force4 ,but this view has not gained general acceptance1 and it seems to necessitate the postulation of an ether beyond the ether1 filling the interspaces between its atoms1 to obviate the difficulty of conceiving of action at a distance4 7#a7 ,cf4 chap4 iii41 ,on ,nature as the ,embodiment of ,number1 of my ,a ,mathematical ,theory of ,spirit1 to which reference has already been made4 ,according to ,,bergson1 life--the reality that can only be lived1 not understood--is absolutely continuous 7i4e4 not amenable to numerical treatment74 ,it is because life is absolutely continuous that we cannot1 he says1 understand it2 for reason acts discontinuously1 grasping only1 so to speak1 a cinematographic view of life1 made up of an immense number of instantaneous glimpses4 ,all that passes between the glimpses is lost1 and so the true whole1 reason can never synthesise from that which it possesses4 ,on the other hand1 one might also argue--extending1 in a way1 the teaching of the physical sciences of the period between the postulation of ,,dalton',s atomic theory and the discovery of the significance of the ether of space--that reality is essentially discontinuous1 our idea that it is continuous being a mere illusion arising from the coarseness of our senses4 ,that might provide a complete vindication of the ,pythagorean view2 but a better vindication1 if not of that theory1 at any rate of ,,pythagoras' philosophical attitude1 is forthcoming1 ,i think1 in the fact that modern mathematics has transcended the shackles of number1 and has enlarged her kingdom1 so as to include quantities other than numerical4 ,,pythagoras1 had he been born in these latter centuries1 would surely have rejoiced in this1 enlargement1 whereby the continuous as well as the discontinuous is brought1 if not under the rule of number1 under the rule of mathematics indeed4 ,,pythagoras' foremost achievement in mathematics ,i have already mentioned4 ,another notable piece of work in the same department was the discovery of a method of constructing a parallelogram having a side equal to a given line1 an angle equal to a given angle1 and its area equal to that of a given triangle4 ,,pythagoras is said to have celebrated this discovery by the sacrifice of a whole ox4 ,the problem appears in the first book of ,,euclid',s ,elements of ,geometry as proposition #dd4 ,in fact1 many of the propositions of ,,euclid',s first1 second1 fourth1 and sixth books were worked out by ,,pythagoras and the ,pythagoreans2 but1 curiously enough1 they seem greatly to have neglected the geometry of the circle4 ,the symmetrical solids were regarded by ,,pythagoras1 and by the ,greek thinkers after him1 as of the greatest importance4 ,to be perfectly symmetrical or regular1 a solid must have an equal number of faces meeting at each of its angles1 and these faces must be equal regular polygons1 i4e4 figures whose sides and angles are all equal4 ,,pythagoras1 perhaps1 may be credited with the great discovery that there are only five such solids4 ,these are as follows3-- ,the ,tetrahedron1 having four equilateral triangles as faces4 ,the ,cube1 having six squares as faces4 ,the ,octahedron1 having eight equilateral triangles as faces4 ,the ,dodecahedron1 having twelve regular pentagons 7or five-sided figures7 as faces4 ,the ,icosahedron1 having twenty equilateral triangles as faces47#a7 7#a7 ,if the reader will copy figs4 #d to #h on cardboard or stiff paper1 bend each along the dotted lines so as to form a solid1 fastening together the free edges with gummed paper1 he will be in possession of models of the five solids in question4 ,now1 the ,greeks believed the world to be composed of four elements--earth1 air1 fire1 water1--and to the ,greek mind the conclusion was inevitable7#b;a7 that the shapes of the particles of the elements were those of the regular solids4 ,earth-particles were cubical1 the cube being the regular solid possessed of greatest stability2 fire-particles were tetrahedral1 the tetrahedron being the simplest and1 hence1 lightest solid4 ,water-particles were icosahedral for exactly the reverse reason1 whilst air-particles1 as intermediate between the two latter1 were octahedral4 ,the dodecahedron was1 to these ancient mathematicians1 the most mysterious of the solids3 it was by far the most difficult to construct1 the accurate drawing of the regular pentagon necessitating a rather elaborate application of ,,pythagoras' great theorem47#a7 ,hence the conclusion1 as ,,plato put it1 that this 7the regular dodecahedron7 the ,deity employed in tracing the plan of the ,universe47#b;b7 ,hence also the high esteem in which the pentagon was held by the ,pythagoreans4 ,by producing each side of this latter figure the five-pointed star 7fig4 #i71 known as the pentagram1 is obtained4 ,this was adopted by the ,pythagoreans as the badge of their ,society1 and for many ages was held as a symbol possessed of magic powers4 ,the mediaeval magicians made use of it in their evocations1 and as a talisman it was held in the highest esteem4 7#b;a7 ,cf4 ,,plato3 ,the ,timaeus1 ,,sese xxviii--xxx4 7#a7 ,in reference to this matter ,,frankland remarks3 ,in those early days the innermost secrets of nature lay in the lap of geometry1 and the extraordinary inference follows that ,euclid's ,elements1 which are devoted to the investigation of the regular solids1 are therefore in reality and at bottom an attempt to 'solve the universe4' ,euclid1 in fact1 made this goal of the ,pythagoreans the aim of his ,elements4--,op4 cit41 p4 #ce4 7#b;b7 ,op4 cit41 ,,se xxix4 ,music played an important part in the curriculum of the ,pythagorean ,brotherhood1 and the important discovery that the relations between the notes of musical scales can be expressed by means of numbers is a ,pythagorean one4 ,it must have seemed to its discoverer--as1 in a sense1 it indeed is--a striking confirmation of the numerical theory of the ,cosmos4 ,the ,pythagoreans held that the positions of the heavenly bodies were governed by similar numerical relations1 and that in consequence their motion was productive of celestial music4 ,this concept of the harmony of the spheres is among the most celebrated of the ,pythagorean doctrines1 and has found ready acceptance in many mystically-speculative minds4 ,look how the floor of heaven1 says ,lorenzo in ,,shakespeare',s ,the ,merchant of ,venice-- 444 ,look how the floor of heaven ,is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold3 ,there's not the smallest orb which thou behold's ,but in his motion like an angel sings1 ,still quiring to the young-eyed cherubins2 ,such harmony is in immortal souls2 ,but whilst this muddy vesture of decay ,doth grossly close it in1 we cannot hear it47#a7 7#a7 ,act v4 scene i4 ,or1 as ,,kingsley writes in one of his letters1 ,when ,i walk the fields ,i am oppressed every now and then with an innate feeling that everything ,i see has a meaning1 if ,i could but understand it4 ,and this feeling of being surrounded with truths which ,i cannot grasp1 amounts to an indescribable awe sometimes6 ,everything seems to be full of ,god's reflex1 if we could but see it4 ,oh6 how ,i have prayed to have the mystery unfolded1 at least hereafter4 ,to see1 if but for a moment1 the whole harmony of the great system6 ,to hear once the music which the whole universe makes as it performs ,his bidding67#a7 ,in this connection may be mentioned the very significant fact that the ,pythagoreans did not consider the earth1 in accordance with current opinion1 to be a stationary body1 but believed that it and the other planets revolved about a central point1 or fire1 as they called it4 7#a7 ,,charles ,,kingsley3 ,his ,letters and ,memories of ,his ,life1 edited by his wife 7#ahhc71 p4 #bh4 ,as concerns ,,pythagoras' ethical teaching1 judging from the so-called ,golden ,verses attributed to him1 and no doubt written by one of his disciples17#b7 this would appear to be in some respects similar to that of the ,stoics who came later1 but free from the materialism of the ,stoic doctrines4 ,due regard for oneself is blended with regard for the gods and for other men1 the atmosphere of the whole being at once rational and austere4 ,one verse--,thou shalt likewise know1 according to ,justice1 that the nature of this ,universe is in all things alike7#c7--;is of particular interest1 as showing ,,pythagoras' belief in that principle of analogy--that ,what is below is as that which is above1 what is above is as that which is below--which held so dominant a sway over the minds of ancient and mediaeval philosophers1 leading them--in spite1 ,i suggest1 of its fundamental truth--into so many fantastic errors1 as we shall see in future excursions4 ,metempsychosis was another of the ,pythagorean tenets1 a fact which is interesting in view of the modern revival of this doctrine4 ,,pythagoras1 no doubt1 derived it from the ,east1 apparently introducing it for the first time to ,western thought4 7#b7 ,it seems probable1 though not certain1 that ,,pythagoras wrote nothing himself1 but taught always by the oral method4 7#c7 ,cf4 the remarks of ,,hierocles on this verse in his ,commentary4 ,such1 in brief1 were the outstanding doctrines of the ,pythagorean ,brotherhood4 ,their teachings included1 as we have seen1 what may justly be called scientific discoveries of the first importance1 as well as doctrines which1 though we may feel compelled--perhaps rightly--to regard them as fantastic now1 had an immense influence on the thought of succeeding ages1 especially on ,greek philosophy as represented by ,,plato and the ,neo-,platonists1 and the more speculative minds--the occult philosophers1 shall ,i say8--of the latter mediaeval period and succeeding centuries4 ,the ,brotherhood1 however1 was not destined to continue its days in peace4 ,as ,i have indicated1 it was a philosophical1 not a political1 association2 but naturally ,,pythagoras' philosophy included political doctrines4 ,at any rate1 the ,brotherhood acquired a considerable share in the government of ,croton1 a fact which was greatly resented by the members of the democratic party1 who feared the loss of their rights2 and1 urged thereto1 it is said1 by a rejected applicant for membership of the ,order1 the mob made an onslaught on the ,brotherhood's place of assembly and burnt it to the ground4 ,one account has it that ,,pythagoras himself died in the conflagration1 a sacrifice to the mad fury of the mob4 ,according to another account--and we like to believe that this is the true one--he escaped to ,tarentum1 from which he was banished1 to find an asylum in ,metapontum1 where he lived his last years in peace4 ,the ,pythagorean ,order was broken up1 but the bonds of brotherhood still existed between its members4 ,one of them who had fallen upon sickness and poverty was kindly taken in by an innkeeper4 ,before dying he traced a few mysterious signs 7the pentagram1 no doubt7 on the door of the inn and said to the host3 ',do not be uneasy1 one of my brothers will pay my debts4' ,a year afterwards1 as a stranger was passing by this inn he saw the signs and said to the host3 ',i am a ,pythagorean2 one of my brothers died here2 tell me what ,i owe you on his account4'7#a7 7#a7 ,,edouard ,,schure3 ,op4 cit41 p4 #agd4 ,in endeavouring to estimate the worth of ,,pythagoras' discoveries and teaching1 ,mr ,,frankland writes1 with reference to his achievements in geometry3 ,even after making a considerable allowance for his pupils' share1 the ,master's geometrical work calls for much admiration2 and1 444 it cannot be far wrong to suppose that it was ,pythagoras' wont to insist upon proofs1 and so to secure that rigour which gives to mathematics its honourable position amongst the sciences4 ,and of his work in arithmetic1 music1 and astronomy1 the same author writes3 444 everywhere he appears to have inaugurated genuinely scientific methods1 and to have laid the foundations of a high and liberal education2 adding1 ,for nearly a score of centuries1 to the very close of the ,middle ,ages1 the four ,pythagorean subjects of study--arithmetic1 geometry1 astronomy1 music--were the staple educational course1 and were bound together into a fourfold way of knowledge--the ,quadrivium47#a7 ,with these words of due praise1 our present excursion may fittingly close4 7#a7 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #ce1 #cg1 and #ch4 ,,iii4 ,,medicine ,,and ,,magic ,,there are few tasks at once so instructive and so fascinating as the tracing of the development of the human mind as manifested in the evolution of scientific and philosophical theories4 ,and this is1 perhaps1 especially true when1 as in the case of medicine1 this evolution has followed paths so tortuous1 intersected by so many fantastic byways1 that one is not infrequently doubtful as to the true road4 ,the history of medicine is at once the history of human wisdom and the history of human credulity and folly1 and the romantic element 7to use the expression in its popular acceptation7 thus introduced1 whilst making the subject more entertaining1 by no means detracts from its importance considered psychologically4 ,to whom the honour of having first invented medicines is due is unknown1 the origins of pharmacy being lost in the twilight of myth4 ,,osiris and ,,isis1 ,,bacchus1 ,,apollo father of the famous physician ,,aesculapius1 and ,,chiron the ,centaur1 tutor of the latter1 are among the many mythological personages who have been accredited with the invention of physic4 ,it is certain that the art of compounding medicines is extraordinarily ancient4 ,there is a papyrus in the ,british ,museum containing medical prescriptions which was written about #abjj ,b4,c42 and the famous ,,ebers papyrus1 which is devoted to medical matters1 is reckoned to date from about the year #aeej ,b4,c4 ,it is interesting to note that in the prescriptions given in this latter papyrus1 as seems to have been the case throughout the history of medicine1 the principle that the efficacy of a medicine is in proportion to its nastiness appears to have been the main idea4 ,indeed1 many old medicines contained ingredients of the most disgusting nature imaginable3 a mediaeval remedy known as oil of puppies1 made by cutting up two newly-born puppies and boiling them with one pound of live earthworms1 may be cited as a comparatively pleasant example of the remedies 787 used in the days when all sorts of excreta were prescribed as medicines47#a7 7#a7 ,see the late ,mr ,a4 ,c4 ,,wootton',s excellent work1 ,chronicles of ,pharmacy 7#b vols1 #aiaj71 to which ,i gladly acknowledge my indebtedness4 ,presumably the oldest theory concerning the causation of disease is that which attributes all the ills of mankind to the malignant operations of evil spirits1 a theory which someone has rather fancifully suggested is not so erroneous after all1 if we may be allowed to apply the term evil spirits to the microbes of modern bacteriology4 ,remnants of this theory 7which does--shall ,i say8--conceal a transcendental truth71 that is1 in its original form1 still survive to the present day in various superstitious customs1 whose absurdity does not need emphasising3 for example1 the use of red flannel by old-fashioned folk with which to tie up sore throats--red having once been supposed to be a colour very angatonistic to evil spirits2 so much so that at one time red cloth hung in the patient's room was much employed as a cure for smallpox6 ,medicine and magic have always been closely associated4 ,indeed1 the greatest name in the history of pharmacy is also what is probably the greatest name in the history of magic--the reference1 of course1 being to ,,paracelsus 7#adic-aeda74 ,until ,,paracelsus1 partly by his vigorous invective and partly by his remarkable cures of various diseases1 demolished the old school of medicine1 no one dared contest the authority of ,,galen 7#acj-;circa #bje7 and ,,avicenna 7#ihj--ajcg74 ,,galen',s theory of disease was largely based upon that of the four humours in man--bile1 blood1 phlegm1 and black bile1--which were regarded as related to 7but not identical with7 the four elements--fire1 air1 water1 and earth1--being supposed to have characters similar to these4 ,thus1 to bile1 as to fire1 were attributed the properties of hotness and dryness2 to blood and air those of hotness and moistness2 to phlegm and water those of coldness and moistness2 and1 finally1 black bile1 like earth1 was said to be cold and dry4 ,,galen supposed that an alteration in the due proportion of these humours gives rise to disease1 though he did not consider this to be its only cause2 thus1 cancer1 it was thought1 might result from an excess of black bile1 and rheumatism from an excess of phlegm4 ,drugs1 ,,galen argued1 are of efficiency in the curing of disease1 according as they possess one or more of these so-called fundamental properties1 hotness1 dryness1 coldness1 and moistness1 whereby it was considered that an excess of any humour might be counteracted2 moreover1 it was further assumed that four degrees of each property exist1 and that only those drugs are of use in curing a disease which contain the necessary property or properties in the degree proportionate to that in which the opposite humour or humours are in excess in the patient's system4 ,,paracelsus' views were based upon his theory 7undoubtedly true in a sense7 that man is a microcosm1 a world in miniature47#a7 ,now1 all things material1 taught ,,paracelsus1 contain the three principles termed in alchemistic phraseology salt1 sulphur1 and mercury4 ,this is true1 therefore1 of man3 the healthy body1 he argued1 is a sort of chemical compound in which these three principles are harmoniously blended 7as in the ,macrocosm7 in due proportion1 whilst disease is due to a preponderance of one principle1 fevers1 for example1 being the result of an excess of sulphur 7i4e4 the fiery principle71 etc4 ,,paracelsus1 although his theory was not so different from that of ,,galen1 whose views he denounced1 was thus led to seek for ,,chemical remedies1 containing these principles in varying proportions2 he was not content with medicinal herbs and minerals in their crude state1 but attempted to extract their effective essences2 indeed1 he maintained that the preparation of new and better drugs is the chief business of chemistry4 7#a7 ,see the ,note on the ,paracelsian ,doctrine of the ,microcosm below4 ,this theory of disease and of the efficacy of drugs was complicated by many fantastic additions27#a7 thus there is the ,archaeus1 a sort of benevolent demon1 supposed by ,,paracelsus to look after all the unconscious functions of the bodily organism1 who has to be taken into account4 ,,paracelsus also held the ,doctrine of ,signatures1 according to which the medicinal value of plants and minerals is indicated by their external form1 or by some sign impressed upon them by the operation of the stars4 ,a very old example of this belief is to be found in the use of mandrake 7whose roots resemble the human form7 by the ,hebrews and ,greeks as a cure for sterility2 or1 to give an instance which is still accredited by some1 the use of eye-bright 7,euphrasia officinalis1 ,l41 a plant with a black pupil-like spot in its corolla7 for complaints of the eyes47#b7 ,allied to this doctrine are such beliefs1 once held1 as that the lungs of foxes are good for bronchial troubles1 or that the heart of a lion will endow one with courage2 as ,,cornelius ,,agrippa put it1 ,it is well known amongst physicians that brain helps the brain1 and lungs the lungs47#c7 7#a7 ,the question of ,,paracelsus' pharmacy is further complicated by the fact that this eccentric genius coined many new words 7without regard to the principles of etymology7 as names for his medicines1 and often used the same term to stand for quite different bodies4 ,some of his disciples maintained that he must not always be understood in a literal sense1 in which probably there is an element of truth4 ,see1 for instance1 ,a ,golden and ,blessed ,casket of ,nature's ,marvels1 by ,,benedictus ,,figulus 7trans4 by ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite1 #ahic74 7#b7 ,see ,dr ,,alfred ,c4 ,,haddon',s ,magic and ,fetishism 7#aijf71 p4 #ae4 7#c7 ,,henry ,,cornelius ,,agrippa3 ,occult ,philosophy1 bk4 i4 chap4 xv4 7,,whitehead',s edition1 ,chicago1 #ahih1 ,p4 #gb74 ,in modern times homoeopathy--according to which a drug is a cure1 if administered in small doses1 for that disease whose symptoms it produces1 if given in large doses to a healthy person---seems to bear some resemblance to these old medical theories concerning the curing of like by like4 ,that the system of ,,hahnemann 7#agee--ahdc71 the founder of homoeopathy1 is free from error could be scarcely maintained1 but certain recent discoveries in connection with serum-therapy appear to indicate that the last word has not yet been said on the subject1 and the formula like cures like may still have another lease of life to run4 ,to return to ,,paracelsus1 however4 ,it may be thought that his views were not so great an advance on those of ,,galen2 but whether or not this be the case1 his union of chemistry and medicine was of immense benefit to each science1 and marked a new era in pharmacy4 ,even if his theories were highly fantastic1 it was he who freed medicine from the shackles of traditionalism1 and rendered progress in medical science possible4 ,i must not conclude these brief notes without some reference to the medical theory of the medicinal efficacy of words4 ,the ,,ebers papyrus already mentioned gives various formulas which must be pronounced when preparing and when administering a drug2 and there is a draught used by the ,eastern ,jews as a cure for bronchial complaints prepared by writing certain words on a plate1 washing them off with wine1 and adding three grains of a citron which has been used at the ,tabernacle festival4 ,but enough for our present excursion2 we must hie us back to the modern world1 with its alkaloids1 serums1 and anti-toxins--another day we will1 perhaps1 wander again down the by-paths of ,medicinal ,magic4 ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,paracelsian ,,doctrine ,,of ,,the ,,microcosm ,man's nature1 writes ,,cornelius ,,agrippa1 is the most complete ,image of the whole ,universe47#a7 ,this theory1 especially connected with the name of ,,paracelsus1 is worthy of more than passing reference2 but as the consideration of it leads us from medicine to metaphysics1 ,i have thought it preferable to deal with the subject in a note4 7#a7 ,h4 ,c4 ,,agrippa3 ,occult ,philosophy1 bk4 i4 chap4 xxxiii4 7,,whitehead',s edition1 p4 #aaa74 ,man1 taught the old mystical philosophers1 is threefold in nature1 consisting of spirit1 soul1 and body4 ,the ,paracelsian mercury1 sulphur1 and salt were the mineral analogues of these4 ,as to the ,spirit1 writes ,,valentine ,,weigel 7#aecc--aehh71 a disciple of ,,paracelsus1 we are of ,god1 move in ,god1 and live in ,god1 and are nourished of ,god4 ,hence ,god is in us and we are in ,god2 ,god hath put and placed ,himself in us1 and we are put and placed in ,god4 ,as to the ,soul1 we are from the ,firmament and ,stars1 we live and move therein1 and are nourished thereof4 ,hence the ,firmament with its astralic virtues and operations is in us1 and we in it4 ,the ,firmament is put and placed in us1 and we are put and placed in the ,firmament4 ,as to the ,body1 we are of the elements1 we move and live therein1 and are nourished of them3--hence the elements are in us1 and we in them4 ,the elements1 by the slime1 are put and placed in us1 and we are put and placed in them47#a7 ,or1 to quote from ,,paracelsus himself1 in his ,hermetic ,astronomy he writes3 ,god took the body out of which ,he built up man from those things which ,he created from nothingness into something444 ,hence man is now a microcosm1 or a little world1 because he is an extract from all the stars and planets of the whole firmament1 from the earth and the elements1 and so he is their quintessence4444 ,but between the macrocosm and the microcosm this difference occurs1 that the form1 image1 species1 and substance of man are diverse therefrom4 ,in man the earth is flesh1 the water is blood1 fire is the heat thereof1 and air is the balsam4 ,these properties have not been changed but only the substance of the body4 ,so man is man1 not a world1 yet made from the world1 made in the likeness1 not of the world1 but of ,god4 ,yet man comprises in himself all the qualities of the world4444 ,his body is from the world1 and therefore must be fed and nourished by that world from which he has sprung4444 ,he has been taken from the earth and from the elements1 and therefore1 must be nourished by these4444 ,now1 man is not only flesh and blood1 but there is within the intellect which does not1 like the complexion1 come from the elements1 but from the stars4 ,and the condition of the stars is this1 that all the wisdom1 intelligence1 industry of the animal1 and all the arts peculiar to man are contained in them4 ,from the stars man has these same things1 and that is called the light of ,nature2 in fact1 it is whatever man has found by the light of ,nature4444 ,such1 then1 is the condition of man1 that1 out of the great universe he needs both elements and stars1 seeing that he himself is constituted in that way47#a;b7 7#a7 ,,valentine ,,weigel3 ,astrology ,theologised3 ,the ,spiritual ,hermeneutics of ,astrology and ,holy ,writ1 ed4 by ,,anna ,,bonus ,,kingsford 7#ahhf71 p4 #ei4 7#a;b7 ,the ,hermetic and ,alchemical ,writings of ,,paracelsus1 ed4 by ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite 7#ahid71 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bhi-bia4 ,it is not difficult to discern a certain truth in all this1 making allowances for modes of thought which are not those of the present day4 ,the ,swedish philosopher ,,swedenborg 7#afhh-aggb7 reaffirmed the theory in later years2 but1 as he points out17#b7 the reason that man is a microcosm lies deeper than in the facts that his body is of the elements of this earth and is nourished thereby4 ,according to this profound thinker1 ,,form1 spiritually understood1 is the expression of ,,use1 the uses of things being indicated by their forms4 ,now1 the human form is the highest of all forms1 because it subserves the highest of all uses4 ,hence1 both the world of matter and the world of spirit are in the human form1 because there is a correspondence in use between man and the ,cosmos4 ,we may1 therefore1 call man as to his body a microcosm1 or little world2 as to his soul a micro-uranos1 or little heaven4 ,or we may speak of the macrocosm1 or great world1 as the ,grand ,man1 and we may say that the ,soul of this ,grand ,man1 the self-existent1 substantial1 and efficient cause of all things1 at once immanent within yet transcending all things1 is ,god4 7#b7 ,see especially his ,divine ,love and ,wisdom1 ,,sese #bea and #cai4 ,,iv4 ,,superstitions ,,concerning ,,birds ,,amongst the most remarkable of natural occurrences must be included many of the phenomena connected with the behaviour of birds4 ,undoubtedly numerous species of birds are susceptible to atmospheric changes 7of an electrical and barometric nature7 too slight to be observed by man's unaided senses2 thus only is to be explained the phenomenon of migration and also the many other peculiarities in the behaviour of birds whereby approaching changes in the weather may be foretold4 ,probably1 also1 this fact has much to do with the extraordinary homing instinct of pigeons4 ,but1 of course1 in the days when meteorological science had yet to be born1 no such explanation as this could be known4 ,the ancients observed that birds by their migrations or by other peculiarities in their behaviour prognosticated coming changes in the seasons of the year and other changes connected with the weather 7such as storms1 etc472 they saw1 too1 in the homing instincts of pigeons an apparent exhibition of intelligence exceeding that of man4 ,what more natural1 then1 for them to attribute foresight to birds1 and to suppose that all sorts of coming events 7other than those of an atmospheric nature7 might be foretold by careful observation of their flight and song8 ,augury--that is1 the art of divination by observing the behaviour of birds--was extensively cultivated by the ,etrurians and ,romans47#a7 ,it is still used1 ,i believe1 by the natives of ,samoa4 ,the ,romans had an official college of augurs1 the members of which were originally three patricians4 ,about #cjj ,b4,c4 the number of patrician augurs was increased by one1 and five plebeian augurs were added4 ,later the number was again increased to fifteen4 ,the object of augury was not so much to foretell the future as to indicate what line of action should be followed1 in any given circumstances1 by the nation4 ,the augurs were consulted on all matters of importance1 and the position of augur was thus one of great consequence4 ,in what appears to be the oldest method1 the augur1 arrayed in a special costume1 and carrying a staff with which to mark out the visible heavens into houses1 proceeded to an elevated piece of ground1 where a sacrifice was made and a prayer repeated4 ,then1 gazing towards the sky1 he waited until a bird appeared4 ,the point in the heavens where it first made its appearance was carefully noted1 also the manner and direction of its flight1 and the point where it was lost sight of4 ,from these particulars an augury was derived1 but1 in order to be of effect1 it had to be confirmed by a further one4 7#a7 ,this is not quite an accurate definition1 as auguries were also obtained from other animals and from celestial phenomena 7e4g4 lightning71 etc4 ,auguries were also drawn from the notes of birds1 birds being divided by the augurs into two classes3 7i7 oscines1 those which give omens by their note1 and 7ii7 alites1 those which afford presages by their flight47#a7 ,another method of augury was performed by the feeding of chickens specially kept for this purpose4 ,this was done just before sunrise by the pullarius or feeder1 strict silence being observed4 ,if the birds manifested no desire for their food1 the omen was of a most direful nature4 ,on the other hand1 if from the greediness of the chickens the grain fell from their beaks and rebounded from the ground1 the augury was most favourable4 ,this latter augury was known as tripudium solistimum4 ,any fraud practiced by the 'pullarius'1 writes the ,rev4 ,,edward ,,smedley1 reverted to his own head4 ,of this we have a memorable instance in the great battle between ,papirius ,cursor and the ,samnites in the year of ,rome #dei4 ,so anxious were the troops for battle1 that the 'pullarius' dared to announce to the consul a 'tripudium solistimum1' although the chickens refused to eat4 ,papirius unhesitatingly gave the signal for fight1 when his son1 having discovered the false augury1 hastened to communicate it to his father4 ',do thy part well1' was his reply1 'and let the deceit of the augur fall on himself4 ,the tripudium has been announced to me1 and no omen could be better for the ,roman army and people6' ,as the troops advanced1 a javelin thrown at random struck the 'pullatius' dead4 ',the hand of heaven is in the battle1' cried ,papirius2 'the guilty is punished6' and he advanced and conquered47#a;b7 ,a coincidence of this sort1 if it really occurred1 would very greatly strengthen the popular belief in auguries4 7#a7 ,,pliny3 ,natural ,history1 bk4 x4 chap4 xxii4 7,,bostock and ,,riley',s trans41 vol4 ii41 #ahee1 p4 #die74 7#a;b7 ,rev4 ,,edward ,,smedley1 ,m4,a43 ,the ,occult ,sciences 7,encyclopaedia ,metropolitana71 ed4 by ,,elihu ,,rich 7#ahee71 p4 #add4 ,the cock has always been reckoned a bird possessed of magic power4 ,at its crowing1 we are told1 all unquiet spirits who roam the earth depart to their dismal abodes1 and the orgies of the ,witches' ,sabbath terminate4 ,a cock is the favourite sacrifice offered to evil spirits in ,ceylon and elsewhere4 ,alectromancy7#b7 was an ancient and peculiarly senseless method of divination 7so called7 in which a cock was employed4 ,the bird had to be young and quite white4 ,its feet were cut off and crammed down its throat with a piece of parchment on which were written certain ,hebrew words4 ,the cock1 after the repetition of a prayer by the operator1 was placed in a circle divided into parts corresponding to the letters of the alphabet1 in each of which a grain of wheat was placed4 ,a certain psalm was recited1 and then the letters were noted from which the cock picked up the grains1 a fresh grain being put down for each one picked up4 ,these letters1 properly arranged1 were said to give the answer to the inquiry for which divination was made4 ,i am not sure what one was supposed to do if1 as seems likely1 the cock refused to act in the required manner4 7#b7 ,cf4 ,,arthur ,,edward ,,waite3 ,the ,occult ,sciences 7#ahia71 pp4 #abd and #abe4 ,the owl was reckoned a bird of evil omen with the ,romans1 who derived this opinion from the ,etrurians1 along with much else of their so-called science of augury4 ,it was particularly dreaded if seen in a city1 or1 indeed1 anywhere by day4 ,,pliny 7,caius ,plinius ,secundus1 ,a4,d4 #fa-;before #aae7 informs us that on one occasion a horned owl entered the very sanctuary of the ,capitol2444 in consequence of which1 ,rome was purified on the nones of ,march in that year47#a7 7#a7 ,,pliny3 ,natural ,history1 bk4 x4 chap4 xvi4 7,,bostock and ,,riley',s trans41 vol4 ii41 #ahee1 p4 #dib74 ,the folk-lore of the ,british ,isles abounds with quaint beliefs and stories concerning birds4 ,there is a charming ,welsh legend concerning the robin1 which the ,rev4 ,t4 ,f4 ,t4 ,,dyer quotes from ,notes and ,queries3--,far1 far away1 is a land of woe1 darkness1 spirits of evil1 and fire4 ,day by day does this little bird bear in his bill a drop of water to quench the flame4 ,so near the burning stream does he fly1 that his dear little feathers are ,,scorched2 and hence he is named ,brou-rhuddyn 7,breast-burnt74 ,to serve little children1 the robin dares approach the infernal pit4 ,no good child will hurt the devoted benefactor of man4 ,the robin returns from the land of fire1 and therefore he feels the cold of winter far more than his brother birds4 ,he shivers in the brumal blast2 hungry1 he chirps before your door47#b7 7#b7 ,t4 ,f4 ,,thiselton ,,dyer1 ,m4,a43 ,english ,folk-,lore 7#ahgh71 pp4 #fe and #ff4 ,another legend accounts for the robin's red breast by supposing this bird to have tried to pluck a thorn from the crown encircling the brow of the crucified ,,christ1 in order to alleviate ,his sufferings4 ,no doubt it is on account of these legends that it is considered a crime1 which will be punished with great misfortune1 to kill a robin4 ,in some places the same prohibition extends to the wren1 which is popularly believed to be the wife of the robin4 ,in other parts1 however1 the wren is 7or at least was7 cruelly hunted on certain days4 ,in the ,isle of ,man the wren-hunt took place on ,christmas ,eve and ,st ,stephen's ,day1 and is accounted for by a legend concerning an evil fairy who lured many men to destruction1 but had to assume the form of a wren to escape punishment at the hands of an ingenious knight-errant4 ,for several centuries there was prevalent over the whole of civilised ,europe a most extraordinary superstition concerning the small ,arctic bird resembling1 but not so large as1 the common wild goose1 known as the barnacle or bernicle goose4 ,,max ,,mueller7#a7 has suggested that this word was really derived from ,hibernicula1 the name thus referring to ,ireland1 where the birds were caught2 but common opinion associated the barnacle goose with the shell-fish known as the barnacle 7which is found on timber exposed to the sea71 supposing that the former was generated out of the latter4 ,thus in one old medical writer we find3 ,there are founde in the north parts of ,scotland1 and the ,ilands adjacent1 called ,orchades 7,orkney ,islands71 certain trees1 whereon doe growe certaine shell fishes1 of a white colour tending to russet2 wherein are conteined little liuing creatures3 which shells in time of maturitie doe open1 and out of them grow those little living things2 which falling into the water1 doe become foules1 whom we call ,barnakles444 but the other that do fall vpon the land1 perish and come to nothing3 this much by the writings of others1 and also from the mouths of the people of those parts44447#a;b7 7#a7 ,see ,f4 ,,max ,,mueller',s ,lectures on the ,science of ,language 7#ahhe71 where a very full account of the tradition concerning the origin of the barnacle goose will be found4 7#a;b7 ,,john ,,gerarde3 ,the ,herball2 or1 ,generall ,historie of ,plantes 7#aeig74 #acia4 ,the writer1 however1 who was a well-known surgeon and botanist of his day1 adds that he had personally examined certain shell-fish from ,lancashire1 and on opening the shells had observed within birds in various stages of development4 ,no doubt he was deceived by some purely superficial resemblances--for example1 the feet of the barnacle fish resemble somewhat the feathers of a bird4 ,he gives an imaginative illustration of the barnacle fowl escaping from its shell1 which is reproduced in fig4 #ab4 ,turning now from superstitions concerning actual birds to legends of those that are purely mythical1 passing reference must be made to the roc1 a bird existing in ,arabian legend1 which we meet in the ,arabian ,nights1 and which is chiefly remarkable for its size and strength4 ,the phoenix1 perhaps1 is of more interest4 ,of that famous bird of ,arabia1 ,,pliny writes as follows1 prefixing his description of it with the cautious remark1 ,i am not quite sure that its existence is not all a fable4 ,it is said that there is only one in existence in the whole world1 and that that one has not been seen very often4 ,we are told that this bird is of the size of an eagle1 and has a brilliant golden plumage around the neck1 while the rest of the body is of a purple colour2 except the tail1 which is azure1 with long feathers intermingled of a roseate hue2 the throat is adorned with a crest1 and the head with a tuft of feathers4 ,the first ,roman who described this bird444 was the senator ,manilius4444 ,he tells us that no person has ever seen this bird eat1 that in ,arabia it is looked upon as sacred to the sun1 that it lives five hundred and forty years1 that when it becomes old it builds a nest of cassia and sprigs of incense1 which it fills with perfumes1 and then lays its body down upon them to die2 that from its bones and marrow there springs at first a sort of small worm1 which in time changes into a little bird2 that the first thing that it does is to perform the obsequies of its predecessor1 and to carry the nest entire to the city of the ,sun near ,panchaia1 and there deposit it upon the altar of that divinity4 ,the same ,manilius states also1 that the revolution of the great year is completed with the life of this bird1 and that then a new cycle comes round again with the same characteristics as the former one1 in the seasons and the appearance of the stars4 444 ,this bird was brought to ,rome in the censorship of the ,emperor ,claudius444 and was exposed to public view4444 ,this fact is attested by the public ,annals1 but there is no one that doubts that it was a fictitious phoenix only47#a7 7#a7 ,,pliny3 ,natural ,history1 bk4 x4 chap4 ii4 7,,bostock and ,,riley',s trans41 vol4 ii41 #ahee1 ,,pp4 #dgi-dha74 ,the description of the plumage1 etc41 of this bird applies fairly well1 as ,,cuvier has pointed out17#b7 to the golden pheasant1 and a specimen of the latter may have been the fictitious phoenix referred to above4 ,that this bird should have been credited with the extraordinary and wholly fabulous properties related by ,,pliny and others is not1 however1 easy to understand4 ,the phoenix was frequently used to illustrate the doctrine of the immortality of the soul 7e4g4 in ,,clement',s ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians71 and it is not impossible that originally it was nothing more than a symbol of immortality which in time became to be believed in as a really existing bird4 ,the fact1 however1 that there was supposed to be only one phoenix1 and also that the length of each of its lives coincided with what the ancients termed a great year1 may indicate that the phoenix was a symbol of cosmological periodicity4 ,on the other hand1 some ancient writers 7e4g4 ,,tacitus1 ,a4,d4 #ee-abj7 explicitly refer to the phoenix as a symbol of the sun1 and in the minds of the ancients the sun was closely connected with the idea of immortality4 ,certainly the accounts of the gorgeous colours of the plumage of the phoenix might well be descriptions of the rising sun4 ,it appears1 moreover1 that the ,egyptian hieroglyphic benu1 glyph1 which is a figure of a heron or crane 7and thus akin to the phoenix71 was employed to designate the rising sun4 7#b7 ,see ,,cuvier',s ,the ,animal ,kingdom1 ,,griffith',s trans41 vol4 viii4 7#ahbi71 p4 #bc4 ,there are some curious ,jewish legends to account for the supposed immortality of the phoenix4 ,according to one1 it was the sole animal that refused to eat of the forbidden tree when tempted by ,,eve4 ,according to another1 its immortality was conferred on it by ,,noah because of its considerate behaviour in the ,ark1 the phoenix not clamouring for food like the other animals47#a7 7#a7 ,the existence of such fables as these shows how grossly the real meanings of the ,sacred ,writings have been misunderstood4 ,there is a celebrated bird in ,chinese tradition1 the ,fung ,hwang1 which some sinologues identify with the phoenix of the ,west47#b7 ,according to a commentator on the ',rh ,ya1 this felicitous and perfect bird has a cock's head1 a snake's neck1 a swallow's beak1 a tortoise's back1 is of five different colours and more than six feet high4 7#b7 ,mr ,,chas4 ,,gould1 ,b4,a41 to whose book ,mythical ,monsters 7#ahhf7 ,i am very largely indebted for my account of this bird1 and from which ,i have culled extracts from the ,chinese1 is not of this opinion4 ,certainly the fact that we read of ,fung ,hwangs in the plural1 whilst tradition asserts that there is only one phoenix1 seems to point to a difference in origin4 ,another account 7that in the ,lun ,yu ,tseh ,shwai ,shing7 tells us that its head resembles heaven1 its eye the sun1 its back the moon1 its wings the wind1 its foot the ground1 and its tail the woof4 ,furthermore1 its mouth contains commands1 its heart is conformable to regulations1 its ear is thoroughly acute in hearing1 its tongue utters sincerity1 its colour is luminous1 its comb resembles uprightness1 its spur is sharp and curved1 its voice is sonorous1 and its belly is the treasure of literature4 ,like the dragon1 tortoise1 and unicorn1 it was considered to be a spiritual creature2 but1 unlike the ,western phoenix1 more than one ,fung ,hwang was1 as ,i have pointed out1 believed to exist4 ,the birds were not always to be seen1 but1 according to ,chinese records1 they made their appearance during the reigns of certain sovereigns4 ,the ,fung ,hwang is regarded by the ,chinese as an omen of great happiness and prosperity1 and its likeness is embroidered on the robes of empresses to ensure success4 ,probably1 if the bird is not to be regarded as purely mythological and symbolic in origin1 we have in the stories of it no more than exaggerated accounts of some species of pheasant4 ,japanese literature contains similar stories4 ,of other fabulous bird-forms mention may be made of the griffin and the harpy4 ,the former was a creature half eagle1 half lion1 popularly supposed to be the progeny of the union of these two latter4 ,it is described in the so-called ,voiage and ,travaile of ,sir ,,john ,,maundeville in the following terms7#a73 ,sum men seyn1 that thei ben the ,body upward1 as an ,egle1 and benethe as a ,lyoun3 and treuly thei seyn sothe1 that thei ben of that schapp4 ,but o ,griffoun hathe the body more gret and is more strong thanne #h ,lyouns1 of suche ,lyouns as ben o this half2 and more gret and strongere1 than an #ajj ,egles1 suche as we ben amonges us4 ,for o ,griffoun there will bere1 fleynge to his ,nest1 a gret ,hors1 or #b ,oxen zoked to gidere1 as thei gon at the ,plowghe4 ,for he hathe his ,talouns so longe and so large and grete1 upon his ,feet1 as thoughe thei weren ,hornes of grete ,oxen or of ,bugles or of ,kyzn2 so that men maken ,cuppes of hem1 to drynken of3 and of hire ,ribbes and of the ,pennes of hire ,wenges1 men maken ,bowes fulle strong1 to schote with ,arwes and ,quarelle4 ,the special characteristic of the griffin was its watchfulness1 its chief function being thought to be that of guarding secret treasure4 ,this characteristic1 no doubt1 accounts for its frequent use in heraldry as a supporter to the arms4 ,it was sacred to ,,apollo1 the sun-god1 whose chariot was1 according to early sculptures1 drawn by griffins4 ,,pliny1 who speaks of it as a bird having long ears and a hooked beak1 regarded it as fabulous4 7#a7 ,the ,voiage and ,travaile of ,sir ,,john ,,maundeville1 ,kt4 ,which treateth of the ,way to ,hierusalem2 and of ,marvayles of ,inde1 with other ,ilands and ,countryes4 ,now ,publish'd entire from an ,original ,,ms4 in ,the ,cotton ,library 7,london1 #agbg71 cap4 xxvi4 pp4 #cbe and #cbf4 ,this work is mainly a compilation from the writings of ,william of ,boldensele1 ,friar ,odoric of ,pordenone1 ,hetoum of ,armenia1 ,vincent de ,beauvais1 and other geographers4 ,it is probable that the name ,john de ,mandeville should be regarded as a pseudonym concealing the identity of ,jean de ,bourgogne1 a physician at ,liege1 mentioned under the name of ,joannes ad ,barbam in the vulgate ,latin version of the ,travels4 7,note in ,british ,museum ,catalogue74 ,the work1 which was first published in ,french during the latter part of the fourteenth century1 achieved an immense popularity1 the marvels that it relates being readily received by the credulous folk of that and many a succeeding day4 ,the harpies 7i4e4 snatchers7 in ,greek mythology are creatures like vultures as to their bodies1 but with the faces of women1 and armed with sharp claws4 ,of ,monsters all1 most ,monstrous this2 no greater ,wrath ,god sends 'mongst ,men2 it comes from depth of pitchy ,hell3 ,and ,virgin's ,face1 but ,womb like ,gulf unsatiate hath1 ,her ,hands are griping ,claws1 her ,colour pale and fell47#a7 7#a7 ,quoted from ,,vergil by ,,john ,,guillim in his ,a ,display of ,heraldry 7sixth edition1 #agbd71 p4 #bga4 ,we meet with the harpies in the story of ,,phineus1 a son of ,,agenor1 ,king of ,thrace4 ,at the bidding of his jealous wife1 ,,idaea1 daughter of ,,dardanus1 ,,phineus put out the sight of his children by his former wife1 ,,cleopatra1 daughter of ,,boreas4 ,to punish this cruelty1 the gods caused him to become blind1 and the harpies were sent continually to harass and affright him1 and to snatch away his food or defile it by their presence4 ,they were afterwards driven away by his brothers-in-law1 ,,zetes and ,,calais4 ,it has been suggested that originally the harpies were nothing more than personifications of the swift storm-winds2 and few of the old naturalists1 credulous as they were1 regarded them as real creatures1 though this cannot be said of all4 ,some other fabulous bird-forms are to be met with in ,greek and ,arabian mythologies1 etc41 but they are not of any particular interest4 ,and it is time for us to conclude our present excursion1 and to seek for other byways4 ,v4 ,,the ,,powder ,,of ,,sympathy3 ,a ,,curious ,,medical ,,superstition ,,out of the superstitions of the past the science of the present has gradually evolved4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 what by courtesy we may term medical science was1 as we have seen1 little better than a heterogeneous collection of superstitions1 and although various reforms were instituted with the passing of time1 superstition still continued for long to play a prominent part in medical practice4 ,one of the most curious of these old medical 7or perhaps ,i should say surgical7 superstitions was that relating to the ,powder of ,sympathy1 a remedy 787 chiefly remembered in connection with the name of ,sir ,,kenelm ,,digby 7#afjc-affe71 though he was probably not the first to employ it4 ,the ,powder itself1 which was used as a cure for wounds1 was1 in fact1 nothing else than common vitriol17#a7 though an improved and more elegant form 7if one may so describe it7 was composed of vitriol desiccated by the sun's rays1 mixed with gum tragacanth4 ,it was in the application of the ,powder that the remedy was peculiar4 ,it was not1 as one might expect1 applied to the wound itself1 but any article that might have blood from the wound upon it was either sprinkled with the ,powder or else placed in a basin of water in which the ,powder had been dissolved1 and maintained at a temperate heat4 ,meanwhile1 the wound was kept clean and cool4 7#a7 ,green vitriol1 ferrous sulphate heptahydrate1 a compound of iron1 sulphur1 and oxygen1 crystallised with seven molecules of water1 represented by the formula ,fe,s,o#d4g;,h#b,o4 ,on exposure to the air it loses water1 and is gradually converted into basic ferric sulphate4 ,for long1 green vitriol was confused with blue vitriol1 which generally occurs as an impurity in crude green vitriol4 ,blue vitriol is copper sulphate pentahydrate1 ,cu,s,o#d4e;,h#b,o4 ,sir ,,kenelm ,,digby appears to have delivered a discourse dealing with the famous ,powder before a learned assembly at ,montpellier in ,france2 at least a work purporting to be a translation of such a discourse was published in #afeh17a7 and further editions appeared in #affj and #affd4 ,,kenelm was a son of the ,sir ,,everard ,,digby 7#aegh-afjf7 who was executed for his share in the ,gunpowder ,plot4 ,in spite of this fact1 however1 ,,james ,i4 appears to have regarded him with favour4 ,he was a man of romantic temperament1 possessed of charming manners1 considerable learning1 and even greater credulity4 ,his contemporaries seem to have differed in their opinions concerning him4 ,,evelyn 7#afbj-agjf71 the diarist1 after inspecting his chemical laboratory1 rather harshly speaks of him as an errant mountebank4 ,elsewhere he well refers to him as a teller of strange things--this was on the occasion of ,,digby',s relating a story of a lady who had such an aversion to roses that one laid on her cheek produced a blister6 7#a7 ,a late ,discourse444 by ,sir ,,kenelm ,,digby1 ,kt4c4 ,touching the ,cure of ,wounds by the ,powder of ,sympathy444rendered444 out of ,french into ,english by ,r4 ,,white1 ,gent4 7#afeh74 ,this is entitled the second edition1 but appears to have been the first4 ,to return to the ,late ,discourse3 after some preliminary remarks1 ,sir ,,kenelm records a cure which he claims to have effected by means of the ,powder4 ,it appears that ,,james ,,howell 7#aeid-afff1 afterwards historiographer royal to ,,charles ,,ii471 had1 in the attempt to separate two friends engaged in a duel1 received two serious wounds in the hand4 ,to proceed in the writer's own words3--,it was my chance to be lodged hard by him2 and four or five days after1 as ,i was making myself ready1 he 7,mr ,howell7 came to my ,house1 and prayed me to view his wounds2 for ,i understand1 said he1 that you have extraordinary remedies upon such occasions1 and my ,surgeons apprehend some fear1 that it may grow to a ,gangrene1 and so the hand must be cut off4444 ,i asked him then for any thing that had the blood upon it1 so he presently sent for his ,garter1 wherewith his hand was first bound3 and having called for a ,bason of water1 as if ,i would wash my hands2 ,i took an handfull of ,powder of ,vitrol1 which ,i had in my study1 and presently dissolved it4 ,as soon as the bloody garter was brought me1 ,i put it within the ,bason1 observing in the interim what ,mr ,howel did1 who stood talking with a ,gentleman in the corner of my ,chamber1 not regarding at all what ,i was doing3 but he started suddenly1 as if he had found some strange alteration in himself2 ,i asked him what he ailed8 ,i know not what ailes me1 but ,i find that ,i feel no more pain1 methinks that a pleasing kind of freshnesse1 as it were a wet cold ,napkin did spread over my hand1 which hath taken away the inflammation that tormented me before2 ,i replied1 since that you feel already so good an effect of my medicament1 ,i advise you to cast away all your ,plaisters1 onely keep the wound clean1 and in a moderate temper 'twixt heat and cold4 ,this was presently reported to the ,duke of ,buckingham1 and a little after to the ,king 7,james ,i471 who were both very curious to know the issue of the businesse1 which was1 that after dinner ,i took the garter out of the water1 and put it to dry before a great fire2 it was scarce dry1 but ,mr ,howels servant came running 7and told me71 that his ,master felt as much burning as ever he had done1 if not more1 for the heat was such1 as if his hand were betwixt coales of fire3 ,i answered1 that although that had happened at present1 yet he should find ease in a short time2 for ,i knew the reason of this new accident1 and ,i would provide accordingly1 for his ,master should be free from that inflammation1 it may be1 before he could possibly return unto him3 but in case he found no ease1 ,i wished him to come presently back again1 if not he might forbear coming4 ,thereupon he went1 and at the instant ,i did put again the garter into the water2 thereupon he found his ,master without any pain at all4 ,to be brief1 there was no sense of pain afterward3 but within five or six dayes the wounds were cicatrized1 and entirely healed47#a7 7#a7 ,ibid41 pp4 #g-aa4 ,sir ,,kenelm proceeds1 in this discourse1 to relate that he obtained the secret of the ,powder from a ,carmelite who had learnt it in the ,east4 ,sir ,,kenelm says that he told it only to ,king ,,james and his celebrated physician1 ,sir ,,theodore ,,mayerne 7#aegc-afee74 ,the latter disclosed it to the ,duke of ,,mayerne1 whose surgeon sold the secret to various persons1 until ultimately1 as ,sir ,,kenelm remarks1 it became known to every country barber4 ,however1 ,,digby',s real connection with the ,powder has been questioned4 ,in an ,appendix to ,dr ,,nathanael ,,highmore',s 7#afac-afhe7 ,the ,history of ,generation1 published in #afea1 entitled ,a ,discourse of the ,cure of ,wounds by ,sympathy1 the ,powder is referred to as ,sir ,,gilbert ,,talbot',s ,powder2 nor does it appear to have been ,,digby who brought the claims of the ,sympathetic ,powder before the notice of the then recently-formed ,royal ,society1 although he was a by no means inactive member of the ,society4 ,,highmore1 however1 in the ,appendix to the work referred to above1 does refer to ,,digby',s reputed cure of ,,howell',s wounds already mentioned2 and after the publication of ,,digby',s ,discourse the ,powder became generally known as ,sir ,,kenelm ,,digby',s ,sympathetic ,powder4 ,as such it is referred to in an advertisement appended to ,wit and ,drollery 7#affa7 by the bookseller1 ,,nathanael ,,brook47#a7 7#a7 ,this advertisement is as follows3 ,these are to give notice1 that ,sir ,kenelme ,digbies ,sympathetical ,powder prepar'd by ,promethean fire1 curing all green wounds that come within the compass of a ,remedy2 and likewise the ,tooth-ache infallibly in a very short time3 ,is to be had at ,mr ,nathanael ,brook's at the ,angel in ,cornhil4 ,the belief in cure by sympathy1 however1 is much older than ,,digby',s or ,,talbot',s ,sympathetic ,powder4 ,,paracelsus described an ointment consisting essentially of the moss on the skull of a man who had died a violent death1 combined with boar's and bear's fat1 burnt worms1 dried boar's brain1 red sandal-wood and mummy1 which was used to cure 787 wounds in a similar manner1 being applied to the weapon with which the hurt had been inflicted4 ,with reference to this ointment1 readers will probably recall the passage in ,,scott',s ,lay of the ,last ,minstrel 7canto #c1 stanza #bc71 respecting the magical cure of ,,william of ,,deloraine',s wound by the ,ladye of ,branksome3-- ,she drew the splinter from the wound ,and with a charm she stanch'd the blood2 ,she bade the gash be cleans'd and bound3 ,no longer by his couch she stood2 ,but she had ta'en the broken lance1 ,and washed it from the clotted gore ,and salved the splinter o'er and o'er4 ,william of ,deloraine1 in trance1 ,whene'er she turned it round and round1 ,twisted as if she gall'd his wound4 ,then to her maidens she did say ,that he should be whole man and sound ,within the course of a night and day4 ,full long she toil'd2 for she did rue ,mishap to friend so stout and true4 ,,francis ,,bacon 7#aefa-afbf7 writes of sympathetic cures as follows3--,it is constantly ,received1 and ,avouched1 that the ,anointing of the ,weapon1 that maketh the ,wound1 wil heale the ,wound it selfe4 ,in this ,experiment1 upon the ,relation of ,men of ,credit1 7though my selfe1 as yet1 am not fully inclined to beleeve it17 you shal note the ,points following2 ,first1 the ,ointment444 is made of ,divers ingredients2 whereof the ,strangest and ,hardest to come by1 are the ,mosse upon the ,skull of a dead ,man1 ,vnburied2 ,and the ,fats of a ,boare1 and a ,beare1 killed in the ,act of ,generation4 ,these ,two last ,i could easily suspect to be prescribed as a ,starting ,hole2 ,that if the ,experiment proved not1 it mought be pretended1 that the ,beasts were not killed in due ,time2 ,for as for the ,mosse1 it is certain there is great ,quantity of it in ,ireland1 upon ,slain ,bodies1 laid on ,heaps1 ,vnburied4 ,the other ,ingredients are1 the ,bloud-,stone in ,powder1 and some other ,things1 which seeme to have a ,vertue to ,stanch ,bloud2 ,as also the ,mosse hath4444 ,secondly1 the same kind of ,ointment1 applied to the ,hurt it selfe1 worketh not the ,effect2 but onely applied to the ,weapon44444 ,fourthly1 it may be applied to the ,weapon1 though the ,party ,hurt be at a great ,distance4 ,fifthly1 it seemeth the ,imagination of the ,party1 to be ,cured1 is not needfull to ,concurre2 ,for it may be done without the knowledge of the ,party ,wounded2 ,and thus much hath been tried1 that the ,ointment 7for ,experiments sake17 hath been wiped off the ,weapon1 without the knowledge of the ,party ,hurt1 and presently the ,party ,hurt1 hath been in great ,rage of ,paine1 till the ,weapon was ,reannointed4 ,sixthly1 it is affirmed1 that if you cannot get the ,weapon1 yet if you put an ,instrument of ,iron1 or ,wood1 resembling the ,weapon1 into the ,wound1 whereby it bleedeth1 the ,annointing of that ,instrument will serve1 and work the ,effect4 ,this ,i doubt should be a ,device1 to keep this strange ,forme of ,cure1 in ,request1 and ,use2 ,because many times you cannot come by the ,weapon it selve4 ,seventhly1 the ,wound be at first ,washed clean with ,white ,wine or the ,parties own ,water2 ,and then bound up close in ,fine ,linen and no more ,dressing renewed1 till it be whole47#a7 7#a7 ,,francis ,,bacon3 ,sylva ,sylvarum3 or1 ,a ,natural ,history444 ,published after the ,authors death444 ,the sixt ,edition 44 7#afea71 p4 #bag4 ,owing to the demand for making this ointment1 quite a considerable trade was done in skulls from ,ireland upon which moss had grown owing to their exposure to the atmosphere1 high prices being obtained for fine specimens4 ,the idea underlying the belief in the efficacy of sympathetic remedies1 namely1 that by acting on part of a thing or on a symbol of it1 one thereby acts magically on the whole or the thing symbolised1 is the root-idea of all magic1 and is of extreme antiquity4 ,,digby and others1 however1 tried to give a natural explanation to the supposed efficacy of the ,powder4 ,they argued that particles of the blood would ascend from the bloody cloth or weapon1 only coming to rest when they had reached their natural home in the wound from which they had originally issued4 ,these particles would carry with them the more volatile part of the vitriol1 which would effect a cure more readily than when combined with the grosser part of the vitriol4 ,in the days when there was hardly any knowledge of chemistry and physics1 this theory no doubt bore every semblance of truth4 ,in passing1 however1 it is interesting to note that ,,digby',s ,discourse called forth a reply from ,j4 ,f4 ,,helvetius 7or ,,schwettzer1 #afbe-agji71 physician to the ,prince of ,orange1 who afterwards became celebrated as an alchemist who had achieved the magnum opus47#a7 7#a7 ,see my ,alchemy3 ,ancient and ,modern 7#aiaa71 ,,sese #fc-fg4 ,writing of the ,sympathetic ,powder1 ,professor ,,de ,,morgan wittily argues that it must have been quite efficacious4 ,he says3 ,the directions were to keep the wound clean and cool1 and to take care of diet1 rubbing the salve on the knife or sword4 ,if we remember the dreadful notions upon drugs which prevailed1 both as to quantity and quality1 we shall readily see that any way of ,,not dressing the wound would have been useful4 ,if the physicians had taken the hint1 had been careful of diet1 etc41 and had poured the little barrels of medicine down the throat of a practicable doll1 ,,they would have had their magical cures as well as the surgeons47#b7 ,as ,dr ,,pettigrew has pointed out17#c7 ,nature exhibits very remarkable powers in effecting the healing of wounds by adhesion1 when her processes are not impeded4 ,in fact1 many cases have been recorded in which noses1 ears1 and fingers severed from the body have been rejoined thereto1 merely by washing the parts1 placing them in close continuity1 and allowing the natural powers of the body to effect the healing4 ,moreover1 in spite of ,,bacon',s remarks on this point1 the effect of the imagination of the patient1 who was usually not ignorant that a sympathetic cure was to be attempted1 must be taken into account2 for1 without going to the excesses of ,christian ,science in this respect1 the fact must be recognised that the state of the mind exercises a powerful effect on the natural forces of the body1 and a firm faith is undoubtedly helpful in effecting the cure of any sort of ill4 7#b7 ,professor ,,augustus ,,de ,,morgan3 ,a ,budget of ,paradoxes 7#ahgb71 p #ff4 7#c7 ,,thomas ,,joseph ,,pettigrew1 ,f4,r4,s43 ,on ,superstitions connected with the ,history and ,practice of ,medicine and ,surgery 7#ahdd71 pp4 #afd-afg4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,talismans ,,the word talisman is derived from the ,arabic tilsam1 a magical image1 through the plural form tilsamen4 ,this ,arabic word is itself probably derived from the ,greek telesma in its late meaning of a religious mystery or consecrated object4 ,the term is often employed to designate amulets in general1 but1 correctly speaking1 it has a more restricted and special significance4 ,a talisman may be defined briefly as an astrological or other symbol expressive of the influence and power of one of the planets1 engraved on a sympathetic stone or metal 7or inscribed on specially prepared parchment7 under the auspices of this planet4 ,before proceeding to an account of the preparation of talismans proper1 it will not be out of place to notice some of the more interesting and curious of other amulets4 ,all sorts of substances have been employed as charms1 sometimes of a very unpleasant nature1 such as dried toads4 ,generally1 however1 amulets consist of stones1 herbs1 or passages from ,sacred ,writings written on paper4 ,this latter class are sometimes called characts1 as an example of which may be mentioned the ,jewish phylacteries4 ,every precious stone was supposed to exercise its own peculiar virtue2 for instance1 amber was regarded as a good remedy for throat troubles1 and agate was thought to preserve from snake-bites4 ,,elihu ,,rich7#a7 gives a very full list of stones and their supposed virtues4 ,each sign of the zodiac was supposed to have its own particular stone7#b7 7as shown in the annexed table71 and hence the superstitious though not inartistic custom of wearing one's birth- ,month 7com- ,astrological mencing #bast ,sign of the ,zodiac4 of preceding ,symbol4 month74 ,stone4 ,aries1 the ,ram 4 ,april ,sardonyx4 ,taurus the ,bull 4 ,may ,cornelian4 ,gemini the ,twins 4 ,june ,topaz4 ,cancer1 the ,crab 4 ,july ,chalcedony4 ,leo1 the ,lion 4 4 ,august ,jasper4 ,virgo1 the ,virgin 4 ,september ,emerald4 ,libra1 the ,balance 4 ,october ,beryl4 ,scorpio1 the ,scorpion ,november ,amethyst4 ,sagittarius1 the ,archer ,december ,hyacinth 7,sapphire74 ,capricorn1 the ,goat 4 ,january ,chrysoprase4 ,aquarius1 the ,water- ,february ,crystal4 bearer ,pisces1 the ,fishes 4 ,march ,sapphire47,lapis lazuli74 stone for luck4 ,the belief in the occult powers of certain stones is by no means non-existent at the present day2 for even in these enlightened times there are not wanting those who fear the beautiful opal1 and put their faith in the virtues of ,new ,zealand green-stone4 7#a7 ,,elihu ,,rich3 ,the ,occult ,sciences 7,encyclopaedia ,metropolitana1 #ahee71 pp4 #cdh et seq4 7#b7 ,with regard to these stones1 however1 there is much confusion and difference of opinion4 ,the arrangement adopted in the table here given is that of ,,cornelius ,,agrippa 7,occult ,philosophy1 bk4 ii474 ,a comparatively recent work1 esteemed by modern occultists1 namely1 ,the ,light of ,egypt1 or the ,science of the ,soul and the ,stars 7#ahhi71 gives the following scheme3-- ,amethyst4 ,emerald4 ,diamond4 ,onyx 7,chalcedony74 ,agate4 ,ruby4 ,topaz4 ,sapphire 7skyblue74 ,beryl4 ,jasper4 ,carbuncle4 ,chrysolite4 ,common superstitious opinion regarding birth-stones1 as reflected1 for example1 in the lucky birth charms exhibited in the windows of the jewellers' shops1 considerably diverges in this matter from the views of both these authorities4 ,the usual scheme is as follows3-- ,jan4,garnet4 ,may ,emerald4 ,sept4,sapphire1 ,feb4,amethyst4 ,june,agate4 ,oct4 ,opal4 ,mar4,bloodstone4 ,july,ruby4 ,nov4 ,topaz4 ,apr4,diamond4 ,aug4,sardonyx4 ,dec4 ,turquoise4 ,the bloodstone is frequently assigned either to ,aries or ,scorpio1 owing to its symbolical connection with ,mars2 and the opal to ,cancer1 which in astrology is the constellation of the moon4 ,confusion is rendered still worse by the fact that the ancients whilst in some cases using the same names as ourselves1 applied them to different stones2 thus their hyacinth is our sapphire1 whilst their sapphire is our lapis lazuli4 ,certain herbs1 culled at favourable conjunctions of the planets and worn as amulets1 were held to be very efficacious against various diseases4 ,precious stones and metals were also taken internally for the same purpose--remedies which in certain cases must have proved exceedingly harmful4 ,one theory put forward for the supposed medical value of amulets was the ,doctrine of ,effluvia4 ,this theory supposes the amulets to give off vapours or effluvia which penetrate into the body and effect a cure4 ,it is1 of course1 true that certain herbs1 etc41 might1 under the heat of the body1 give off such effluvia1 but the theory on the whole is manifestly absurd4 ,the ,doctrine of ,signatures1 which we have already encountered in our excursions17#a7 may also be mentioned in this connection as a complementary and equally untenable hypothesis4 ,according to ,,elihu ,,rich17#b7 the following were the commonest ,egyptian amulets3-- #a4 ,those inscribed with the figure of ,serapis1 used to preserve against evils inflicted by earth4 #b4 ,figure of ,canopus1 against evil by water4 #c4 ,figure of a hawk1 against evil from the air4 #d4 ,figure of an asp1 against evil by fire4 ,,paracelsus believed there to be much occult virtue in an alloy of the seven chief metals1 which he called ,electrum4 ,certain definite proportions of these metals had to be taken1 and each was to be added during a favourable conjunction of the planets4 ,from this electrum he supposed that valuable amulets and magic mirrors could be prepared4 7#a7 ,see ,medicine and ,magic4 7#b7 ,op4 ,cit41 p4 #cdc ,a curious and ancient amulet for the cure of various diseases1 particularly the ague1 was a triangle formed of the letters of the word ,abracadabra4 ,the usual form was that shown in fig4 #ai1 and that shown in fig4 #bj was also known4 ,the origin of this magical word is lost in obscurity4 ,the belief in the horn as a powerful amulet1 especially prevalent in ,italy1 where is it the custom of the common people to make the sign of the mano cornuto to avoid the consequence of the dreaded jettatore or evil eye1 can be traced to the fact that the horn was the symbol of the ,goddess of the ,moon4 ,probably the belief in the powers of the horse-shoe had a similar origin4 ,indeed1 it seems likely that not only this1 but most other amulets1 like talismans proper--as will appear below1--were originally designed as appeals to gods and other powerful spiritual beings4 ,,abracadabra _/ ,,abracadabra ,,abracadabr _/ ,,bracadabra ,,abracadab _/ ,,racadabra ,,abracada _/ ,,acadabra ,,abracad _/ ,,cadabra ,,abraca _/ ,,adabra ,,abrac _/ ,,dabra ,,abra _/ ,,abra ,,abr _/ ,,bra ,,ab _/ ,,ra ,a_/ ,a _/ 7#a7 ,see ,,frederick ,t4 ,,elworthy',s ,horns of ,honour 7#aijj71 especially pp4 #ef et seq4 ,to turn our attention1 however1 to the art of preparing talismans proper3 ,i may remark at the outset that it was necessary for the talisman to be prepared by one's own self--a task by no means easy as a rule4 ,indeed1 the right mental attitude of the occultist was insisted upon as essential to the operation4 ,as to the various signs to be engraver on the talismans1 various authorities differ1 though there are certain points connected with the art of talismanic magic on which they all agree4 ,it so happened that the ancients were acquainted with seven metals and seven planets 7including the sun and moon as planets71 and the days of the week are also seven4 ,it was concluded1 therefore1 that there was some occult connection between the planets1 metals1 and days of the week4 ,each of the seven days of the week was supposed to be under the auspices of the spirits of one of the planets2 so also was the generation in the womb of ,nature of each of the seven chief metals4 ,in the following table are shown these particulars in detail3-- ,planet4 ,symbol4 ,day of ,metal4 ,colour4 ,sun4 ,sunday ,gold ,gold or yellow4 ,moon4 ,monday ,silver ,silver or white4 ,mars4 ,tuesday ,iron ,red4 ,mercury ,wednesday 7#a7,mercury ,mixed colours or purple4 ,jupiter ,thursday ,tin ,violet or blue4 ,venus ,friday ,copper ,turquoise or green4 ,saturn4 ,saturday ,lead ,black4 7#a7 ,used in the form of a solid amalgam for talismans4 ,consequently1 the metal of which a talisman was to be made1 and also the time of its preparation1 had to be chosen with due regard to the planet under which it was to be prepared47#a7 ,the power of such a talisman was thought to be due to the genie of this planet--a talisman1 was1 in fact1 a silent evocation of an astral spirit4 ,examples of the belief that a genie can be bound up in an amulet in some way are afforded by the story of ,,aladdin',s lamp and ring and other stories in the ,thousand and ,one ,nights4 ,sometimes the talismanic signs were engraved on precious stones1 sometimes they were inscribed on parchment2 in both cases the same principle held good1 the nature of the stone chosen1 or the colour of the ink employed1 being that in correspondence with the planet under whose auspices the talisman was prepared4 7#a7 ,in this connection a rather surprising discovery made by ,mr ,w4 ,,gornold 7see his ,a ,manual of ,occultism1 #aiaa1 pp4 #g and #h7 must be mentioned4 ,the ancient ,chaldeans appear invariably to have enumerated the planets in the following order3 ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 ,mars1 ,sun1 ,venus1 ,mercury1 ,moon--which order was adopted by the mediaeval astrologers4 ,let us commence with the ,sun in the above sequence1 and write down every third planet2 we then have-- ,sun 4 4 4 4 ,sunday4 ,moon4 4 4 4 ,monday4 ,mars4 4 4 4 ,tuesday4 ,mercury4 4 4 4 ,wednesday4 ,jupiter44 4 4 ,thursday4 ,venus4 4 4 4 ,friday4 ,saturn4 4 4 4 ,saturday4 ,that is to say1 we have the planets in the order in which they were supposed to rule over the days of the week4 ,this is perhaps1 not so surprising1 because it seems probable that1 each day being first divided into twenty-four hours1 it was assumed that the planets ruled for one hour in turn1 in the order first mentioned above4 ,each day was then named after the planet which ruled during its first hour4 ,it will be found that if we start with the ,sun and write down every twenty-fourth planet1 the result is exactly the same as if we write down every third4 ,but ,mr ,,old points out further1 doing so by means of a diagram which seems to be rather cumbersome that if we start with ,saturn in the first place1 and write down every fifth planet1 and then for each planet substitute the metal over which it was supposed to rule1 we then have these metals arranged in descending order of atomic weights1 thus3-- ,saturn 4 4 4 ,lead 7#bjg74 ,mercury 4 4 4 ,mercury 7#bjj74 ,sun4 4 4 4 ,gold 7#aig74 ,jupiter 4 4 4 ,tin 7#aai74 ,moon4 4 4 4 ,silver 7#ajh74 ,venus 4 4 ,copper 7#fd74 ,mars4 4 4 4 ,iron 7#ef74 ,similarly we can1 starting from any one of these orders1 pass to the other two4 ,the fact is a very surprising one1 because the ancients could not possibly have been acquainted with the atomic weights of the metals1 and1 it is important to note1 the order of the densities of these metals1 which might possibly have been known to them1 is by no means the same as the order of their atomic weights4 ,whether the fact indicates a real relationship between the planets and the metals1 or whether there is some other explanation1 ,i am not prepared to say4 ,certainly some explanation is needed3 to say that the fact is mere coincidence is unsatisfactory1 seeing that the odds against1 not merely this1 but any such regularity occurring by chance--as calculated by the mathematical theory of probability--are #aai to #a4 ,all the instruments employed in the art had to be specially prepared and consecrated4 ,special robes had to be worn1 perfumes and incense burnt1 and invocations1 conjurations1 etc41 recited1 all of which depended on the planet ruling the operation4 ,a description of a few typical talismans in detail will not here be out of place4 ,in ,the ,key of ,solomon the ,king 7translated by ,s4 ,l4 ,m4 ,,mathers1 #ahhi77a7 are described five1 six1 or seven talismans for each planet4 ,each of these was supposed to have its own peculiar virtues1 and many of them are stated to be of use in the evocation of spirits4 ,the majority of them consist of a central design encircled by a verse of ,hebrew ,scripture4 ,the central designs are of a varied character1 generally geometrical figures and ,hebrew letters or words1 or magical characters4 ,five of these talismans are here portrayed1 the first three described differing from the above4 ,the translations of the ,hebrew verses1 etc41 given below are due to ,mr ,,mathers4 7#a7 ,the ,clavicula ,salomonis1 or ,key of ,solomon the ,king1 consists mainly of an elaborate ritual for the evocation of the various planetary spirits1 in which process the use of talismans or pentacles plays a prominent part4 ,it is claimed to be a work of white magic1 but1 inasmuch as it1 like other old books making the same claim1 gives descriptions of a pentacle for causing ruin1 destruction1 and death1 and another for causing earthquakes--to give only two examples1--the distinction between black and white magic1 which we shall no doubt encounter again in later excursions1 appears to be somewhat arbitrary4 ,regarding the authorship of the work1 ,mr ,,mathers1 translator and editor of the first printed copy of the book1 says1 ,i see no reason to doubt the tradition which assigns the authorship of the ',key' to ,king ,solomon4 ,if this view be accepted1 however1 it is abundantly evident that the ,key as it stands at present 7in which we find ,s4 ,,john quoted1 and mention made of ,,ss4 ,,peter and ,,paul7 must have received some considerable alterations and additions at the hands of later editors4 ,but even if we are compelled to assign the ,clavicula ,salomonis in its present form to the fourteenth or fifteenth century1 we must1 ,i think1 allow that it was based upon traditions of the past1 and1 of course1 the possibility remains that it might have been based upon some earlier work4 ,with regard to the antiquity of the planetary sigils1 ,mr ,,mathers notes that1 among the ,gnostic talismans in the ,british ,museum1 there is a ring of copper with the sigils of ,venus1 which are exactly the same as those given by mediaeval writers on magic4 ,in spite of the absurdity of its claims1 viewed in the light of modern knowledge1 the ,clavicula ,salomonis exercised a considerable influence in the past1 and is to be regarded as one of the chief sources of mediaeval ceremonial magic4 ,historically speaking1 therefore1 it is a book of no little importance4 ,the ,first ,pentacle of the ,sun4--,the ,countenance of ,shaddai the ,almighty1 at ,whose aspect all creatures obey1 and the ,angelic ,spirits do reverence on bended knees4 ,about the face is the name ,el ,shaddai4 ,around is written in ,latin3 ,behold ,his face and form by ,whom all things were made1 and ,whom all creatures obey 7see fig4 #ba74 ,the ,fifth ,pentacle of ,mars4--,write thou this ,pentacle upon virgin parchment or paper because it is terrible unto the ,demons1 and at its sight and aspect they will obey thee1 for they cannot resist its presence4 ,the design is a ,scorpion17#a7 around which the word ,hvl is repeated4 ,the ,hebrew versicle is from ,psalm xci4 #ac3 ,thou shalt go upon the lion and adder1 the young lion and the dragon shalt thou tread under thy feet 7see fig4 #bb74 7#a7 ,in astrology the zodiacal sign of the scorpion is the night house of the planet ,mars4 ,the ,third ,pentacle of the ,moon4--,this being duly borne with thee when upon a journey1 if it be properly made1 serveth against all attacks by night1 and against every kind of danger and peril by ,water4 ,the design consists of a hand and sleeved forearm 7this occurs on three other moon talismans71 together with the ,hebrew names ,aub and ,vevaphel4 ,the versicle is from ,psalm xl4 #ac3 ,be pleased ,o ,,ihvh to deliver me1 ,o ,,ihvh make haste to help me 7see fig #bc7 ,the ,third ,pentacle of ,venus4--,this1 if it be only shown unto any person1 serveth to attract love4 ,its ,angel ,monachiel should be invoked in the day and hour of ,venus1 at one o'clock or at eight4 ,the design consists of two triangles joined at their apices1 with the following names--,,ihvh1 ,adonai1 ,ruach1 ,achides1 ,a,egalmiel1 ,monachiel1 and ,degaliel4 ,the versicle is from ,genesis i4 #bh3 ,and the ,elohim blessed them1 and the ,elohim said unto them1 ,be ye fruitful1 and multiply1 and replenish the earth1 and subdue it 7see fig4 #bd74 ,the ,third ,pentacle of ,mercury4--,this serves to invoke the ,spirits subject unto ,mercury2 and especially those who are written in this ,pentacle4 ,the design consists of crossed lines and magical characters of ,mercury4 ,around are the names of the angels1 ,kokaviel1 ,ghedoriah1 ,savaniah1 and ,chokmahiel 7see fig4 #be74 ,,cornelius ,,agrippa1 in his ,three ,books of ,occult ,philosophy1 describes another interesting system of talismans4 ,,francis ,,barrett',s ,magus1 or ,celestial ,intelligencer1 a well-known occult work published in the first year of the nineteenth century1 ,i may mention1 copies ,,agrippa',s system of talismans1 without acknowledgment1 almost word for word4 ,to each of the planets is assigned a magic square or table1 i4e4 a square composed of numbers so arranged that the sum of each row or column is always the same4 ,for example1 the table for ,mars is as follows3-- #aa #bd #g #bj #c #d #ab #be #h #af #ag #e #ac #ba #i #aj #ah #a #ad #bb #bc #f #ai #b #ae ,it will be noticed that every number from #a up to the highest possible occurs once1 and that no number occurs twice4 ,it will also be seen that the sum of each row and of each column is always #fe4 ,similar squares can be constructed containing any square number of figures1 and it is1 indeed1 by no means surprising that the remarkable properties of such magic squares1 before these were explained mathematically1 gave rise to the belief that they had some occult significance and virtue4 ,from the magic squares can be obtained certain numbers which are said to be the numbers of the planets2 their orderliness1 we are told1 reflects the order of the heavens1 and from a consideration of them the magical properties of the planets which they represent can be arrived at4 ,for example1 in the above table the number of rows of numbers is #e4 ,the total number of numbers in the table is the square of this number1 namely1 #be1 which is also the greatest number in the table4 ,the sum of any row or column is #fe4 ,and1 finally1 the sum of all the numbers is the product of the number of rows 7namely1 #e7 and the sum of any row 7namely1 #fe71 i4e4 #cbe4 ,these numbers1 namely1 #e1 #be1 #fe1 and #cbe1 are the numbers of ,mars4 ,sets of numbers for the other planets are obtained in exactly the same manner47#a7 7#a7 ,readers acquainted with mathematics will notice that if n is the number of rows in such a magic square1 the other numbers derived as above will be n#b,s1 #a_/bn7n#b,s #a71 and #a_/bn#b,s7n#b,s #a74 ,this can readily be proved by the laws of arithmetical progressions4 ,rather similar but more complicated and less uniform magic squares are attributed to ,,paracelsus4 ,now to each planet is assigned an ,intelligence or good spirit1 and an ,evil ,spirit or demon2 and the names of these spirits are related to certain of the numbers of the planets4 ,the other numbers are also connected with holy and magical ,hebrew names4 ,,agrippa1 and ,,barrett copying him1 gives the following table of names answering to the numbers of ,mars3-- #e4 ,he1 the letter of the holy name4 hb #be4 hb #fe4 ,adonai4 hb #cbe4 ,graphiel1 the ,intelligence of ,mars4 hb #cbe4 ,barzabel1 the ,spirit of ,mars4 hb ,similar tables are given for the other planets4 ,the numbers can be derived from the names by regarding the ,hebrew letters of which they are composed as numbers1 in which case hb 7,aleph7 to hb 7,teth7 represent the units #a to #i in order1 hb 7,jod7 to hb 7,tzade7 the tens #aj to #ij in order1 hb 7,koph7 to hb 7,tau7 the hundreds #ajj to #djj1 whilst the hundreds #ejj to #ijj are represented by special terminal forms of certain of the ,hebrew letters47#b7 ,it is evident that no little wasted ingenuity must have been employed in working all this out4 7#b7 ,it may be noticed that this makes hb equal to #cbf1 one unit too much4 ,possibly an ,alelph should be omitted4 ,each planet has its own seal or signature1 as well as the signature of its intelligence and the signature of its demon4 ,these signatures were supposed to represent the characters of the planets' intelligences and demons respectively4 ,the signature of ,mars is shown in fig4 #bf1 that of its intelligence in fig4 #bg1 and that of its demon in fig4 #bh4 ,these various details were inscribed on the talismans each of which was supposed to confer its own peculiar benefits--as follows3 ,on one side must be engraved the proper magic table and the astrological sign of the planet1 together with the highest planetary number1 the sacred names corresponding to the planet1 and the name of the intelligence of the planet1 but not the name of its demon4 ,on the other side must be engraved the seals of the planet and of its intelligence1 and also the astrological sign4 ,,barrett says1 regarding the demons37#a7 ,it is to be understood that the intelligences are the presiding good angels that are set over the planets2 but that the spirits or daemons1 with their names1 seals1 or characters1 are never inscribed upon any ,talisman1 except to execute any evil effect1 and that they are subject to the intelligences1 or good spirits2 and again1 when the spirits and their characters are used1 it will be more conducive to the effect to add some divine name appropriate to that effect which we desire4 ,evil talismans can also be prepared1 we are informed1 by using a metal antagonistic to the signs engraved thereon4 ,the complete talisman of ,mars is shown in fig4 #bi4 7#a7 ,,francis ,,barrett3 ,the ,magus1 or ,celestial ,intelligencer 7#ahja71 bk4 i4 p4 #adf4 ,,alphonse ,,louis ,,constant17#a7 a famous ,french occultist of the nineteenth century1 who wrote under the name of ,,eliphas ,,levi1 describes yet another system of talismans4 ,he says3 ,the ,pentagram must be always engraved on one side of the talisman1 with a circle for the ,sun1 a crescent for the ,moon1 a winged caduceus for ,mercury1 a sword for ,mars1 a ,g for ,venus1 a crown for ,jupiter1 and a scythe for ,saturn4 ,the other side of the talisman should bear the sign of ,solomon1 that is1 the six-pointed star formed by two interlaced triangles2 in the centre there should be placed a human figure for the sun talismans1 a cup for those of the ,moon1 a dog's head for those of ,jupiter1 a lion for those of ,mars1 a dove's for those of ,venus1 a bull's or goat's for those of ,saturn4 ,the names of the seven angels should be added either in ,hebrew1 ,arabic1 or magic characters similar to those of the alphabets of ,trimethius4 ,the two triangles of ,solomon may be replaced by the double cross of ,ezekiel's wheels1 this being found on a great number of ancient pentacles4 ,all objects of this nature1 whether in metals or in precious stones1 should be carefully wrapped in silk satchels of a colour analogous to the spirit of the planet1 perfumed with the perfumes of the corresponding day1 and preserved from all impure looks and touches47#b7 7#a7 ,for a biographical and critical account of this extraordinary personage and his views1 see ,mr ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite',s ,the ,mysteries of ,magic3 a ,digest of the writings of ,,eliphas ,,levi 7#ahig74 7#b7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #bja4 ,,eliphas ,,levi1 following ,,pythagoras and many of the mediaeval magicians1 regarded the pentagram1 or five-pointed star1 as an extremely powerful pentacle4 ,according to him1 if with one horn in the ascendant it is the sign of the microcosm--,man4 ,with two horns in the ascendant1 however1 it is the sign of the ,devil1 the accursed ,goat of ,mendes1 and an instrument of black magic4 ,we can1 indeed1 trace some faint likeness between the pentagram and the outline form of a man1 or of a goat's head1 according to whether it has one or two horns in the ascendant respectively1 which resemblances may account for this idea4 ,fig4 #cj shows the pentagram embellished with other symbols according to ,,eliphas ,,levi1 whilst fig4 #ca shows his embellished form of the six-pointed star1 or ,seal of ,,solomon4 ,this1 he says1 is the sign of the ,macrocosmos1 but is less powerful than the ,pentagram1 the microcosmic sign1 thus contradicting ,,pythagoras1 who1 as we have seen1 regarded the pentagram as the sign of the ,macrocosm4 ,,eliphas ,,levi asserts that he attempted the evocation of the spirit of ,,apollonius of ,tyana in ,london on #bdth ,july #ahed1 by the aid of a pentagram and other magical apparatus and ritual1 apparently with success1 if we may believe his word4 ,but he sensibly suggests that probably the apparition which appeared was due to the effect of the ceremonies on his own imagination1 and comes to the conclusion that such magical experiments are injurious to health47#a7 7#a7 ,op cit4 pp4 #ddf-dej4 ,magical rings were prepared on the same principle as were talismans4 ,says ,,cornelius ,,agrippa3 ,the manner of making these kinds of ,magical ,rings is this1 viz43 ,when any ,star ascends fortunately1 with the fortunate aspect or conjunction of the ,moon1 we must take a stone and herb that is under that ,star1 and make a ring of the metal that is suitable to this ,star1 and in it fasten the stone1 putting the herb or root under it--not omitting the inscriptions of images1 names1 and characters1 as also the proper suffumigations44447#a7 ,,solomon',s ring was supposed to have been possessed of remarkable occult virtue4 ,says ,,josephus 7c4 ,a4,d4 #cg-ajj73 ,god also enabled him 7,,solomon7 to learn that skill which expels demons1 which is a science useful and sanative to men4 ,he composed such incantations also by which distempers are alleviated4 ,and he left behind him the manner of using exorcisms1 by which they drive away demons1 so that they never return2 and this method of cure is of great force unto this day2 for ,i have seen a certain man of my own country1 whose name was ,eleazar1 releasing people that were demoniacal in the presence of ,vespasian1 and his sons1 and his captains1 and the whole multitude of his soldiers4 ,the manner of the cure was this2 he put a ring that had under the seal a root of one of those sorts mentioned by ,solomon1 to the nostrils of the demoniac1 after which he drew out the demon through his nostrils3 and when the man fell down immediately1 he abjured him to return unto him no more1 making still mention of ,solomon1 and reciting the incantations which he composed47#b7 7#a7 ,h4 ,c4 ,,agrippa3 ,occult ,philosophy1 bk4 i4 chap4 xlvii4 7,,whitehead',s edition1 pp4 #ada and #adb74 7#b7 ,,flavius ,,josephus3 ,the ,antiquities of the ,jews 7trans4 by ,w4 ,,whiston71 bk4 viii4 chap4 ii41 ,,se #e 7#de7 to 7#dg74 ,enough has been said already to indicate the general nature of talismanic magic4 ,no one could maintain otherwise than that much of it is pure nonsense2 but the subject should not1 therefore1 be dismissed as valueless1 or lacking significance4 ,it is past belief that amulets and talismans should have been believed in for so long unless they ,,appeared to be productive of some of the desired results1 though these may have been due to forces quite other than those which were supposed to be operative4 ,indeed1 it may be said that there has been no widely held superstition which does not embody some truth1 like some small specks of gold hidden in an uninviting mass of quartz4 ,as the poet ,,blake put it3 ,everything possible to be believ'd is an image of truth27#a7 and the attempt may here be made to extract the gold of truth from the quartz of superstition concerning talismanic magic4 ,for this purpose the various theories regarding the supposed efficacy of talismans must be examined4 7#a7 ,proverbs of ,hell 7,the ,marriage of ,heaven and ,hell74 ,two of these theories have already been noted1 but the doctrine of effluvia admittedly applied only to a certain class of amulets1 and1 ,i think1 need not be seriously considered4 ,the astral-spirit theory 7as it may be called71 in its ancient form at any rate1 is equally untenable to-day4 ,the discoveries of new planets and new metals seem destructive of the belief that there can be any occult connection between planets1 metals1 and the days of the week1 although the curious fact discovered by ,mr ,,old1 to which ,i have referred 7footnote1 p4 #fc71 assuredly demands an explanation1 and a certain validity may1 perhaps1 be allowed to astrological symbolism4 ,as concerns the belief in the existence of what may be called 7although the term is not a very happy one7 discarnate spirits1 however1 the matter1 in view of the modern investigation of spiritistic and other abnormal psychical phenomena1 stands in a different position4 ,there can1 indeed1 be little doubt that very many of the phenomena observed at spiritistic seances come under the category of deliberate fraud1 and an even larger number1 perhaps1 can be explained on the theory of the subconscious self4 ,i think1 however1 that the evidence goes to show that there is a residuum of phenomena which can only be explained by the operation1 in some way1 of discarnate intelligences47#a7 ,psychical research may be said to have supplied the modern world with the evidence of the existence of discarnate personalities1 and of their operation on the material plane1 which the ancient world lacked4 ,but so far as our present subject is concerned1 all the evidence obtainable goes to show that the phenomena in question only take place in the presence of what is called a medium--a person of peculiar nervous or psychical organisation4 ,that this is the case1 moreover1 appears to be the general belief of spiritists on the subject4 ,in the sense1 then1 in which a talisman connotes a material object of such a nature that by its aid the powers of discarnate intelligences may become operative on material things1 we might apply the term talisman to the nervous system of a medium3 but then that would be the only talisman4 ,consequently1 even if one is prepared to admit the whole of modern spiritistic theory1 nothing is thereby gained towards a belief in talismans1 and no light is shed upon the subject4 7#a7 ,the publications of ,the ,society for ,psychical ,research1 and ,,frederick ,,myers' monumental work on ,human ,personality and its ,survival of ,bodily ,death1 should be specially consulted4 ,i have attempted a brief discussion of modern spiritualism and psychical research in my ,matter1 ,spirit1 and the ,cosmos 7#aiaj71 chap4 ii4 ,another theory concerning talismans which commended itself to many of the old occult philosophers1 ,,paracelsus for instance1 is what may be called the occult force theory4 ,this theory assumes the existence of an occult mental force1 a force capable of being exerted by the human will1 apart from its usual mode of operation by means of the body4 ,it was believed to be possible to concentrate this mental energy and infuse it into some suitable medium1 with the production of a talisman1 which was thus regarded as a sort of accumulator for mental energy4 ,the theory seems a fantastic one to modern thought1 though1 in view of the many startling phenomena brought to light by psychical research1 it is not advisable to be too positive regarding the limitations of the powers of the human mind4 ,however1 ,i think we shall find the element of truth in the otherwise absurd belief in talismans by means of what may be called1 not altogether fancifully perhaps1 a transcendental interpretation of this occult force theory4 ,i suggest1 that is1 that when a believer makes a talisman1 the transference of the occult energy is ideal1 not actual2 that the power1 believed to reside in the talisman itself1 is the power due to the reflex action of the believer's mind4 ,the power of what transcendentalists call the imagination cannot be denied2 for example1 no one can deny that a man with a firm conviction that such a success will be achieved by him1 or such a danger avoided1 will be far more likely to gain his desire1 other conditions being equal1 than one of a pessimistic turn of mind4 ,the mere conviction itself is a factor in success1 or a factor in failure1 according to its nature2 and it seems likely that herein will be found a true explanation of the effects believed to be due to the power of the talisman4 ,on the other hand1 however1 we must beware of the exaggerations into which certain schools of thought have fallen in their estimates of the powers of the imagination4 ,these exaggerations are particularly marked in the views which are held by many nowadays with regard to faith-healing1 although the ,christian ,scientists get out of the difficulty--at least to their own satisfaction--by ascribing their alleged cures to the ,power of the ,divine ,mind1 and not to the power of the individual mind4 ,of course the real question involved in this transcendental theory of talismans as ,i may1 perhaps1 call it1 is that of the operation of incarnate spirit on the plane of matter4 ,this operation takes place only through the medium of the nervous system1 and it has been suggested17#a7 to avoid any violation of the law of the conservation of energy1 that it is effected1 not by the transference1 as is sometimes supposed1 of energy from the spiritual to the material plane1 but merely by means of directive control over the expenditure of energy derived by the body from purely physical sources1 e4g4 the latent chemical energy bound up in the food eaten and the oxygen breathed4 7#a7 ,cf ,sir ,,oliver ,,lodge3 ,life and ,matter 7#aijg71 especially chap4 ix42 and ,w4 ,,hibbert1 ,f4,i4,c43 ,life and ,energy 7#aijd74 ,i am not sure that this theory really avoids the difficulty which it is intended to obviate27#a7 but it is at least an interesting one1 and at any rate there may be modes in which the body1 under the directive control of the spirit1 may expend energy derived from the material plane1 of which we know little or nothing4 ,we have the testimony of many eminent authorities7#b7 to the phenomenon of the movement of physical objects without contact at spiritistic seances4 ,it seems to me that the introduction of discarnate intelligences to explain this phenomenon is somewhat gratuitous--the psychic phenomena which yield evidence of the survival of human personality after bodily death are of a different character4 ,for if we suppose this particular phenomenon to be due to discarnate spirits1 we must1 in view of what has been said concerning mediums1 conclude that the movements in question are not produced by these spirits ,,directly1 but through and by means of the nervous system of the medium present4 ,evidently1 therefore1 the means for the production of the phenomenon reside in the human nervous system 7or1 at any rate1 in the peculiar nervous system of mediums71 and all that is lacking is intelligence or initiative to use these means4 ,this intelligence or initiative can surely be as well supplied by the sub-consciousness as by a discarnate intelligence4 ,consequently1 it does not seem unreasonable to suppose that equally remarkable phenomena may have been produced by the aid of talismans in the days when these were believed in1 and may be produced to-day1 if one has sufficient faith--that is to say1 produced by man when in the peculiar condition of mind brought about by the intense belief in the power of a talisman4 ,and here it should be noted that the term talisman may be applied to any object 7or doctrine7 that is believed to possess peculiar power or efficacy4 ,in this fact1 ,i think1 is to be found the peculiar danger of erroneous doctrines which promise extraordinary benefits1 here and now on the material plane1 to such as believe in them4 ,remarkable results may follow an intense belief in such doctrines1 which1 whilst having no connection whatever with their accuracy1 being proportional only to the intensity with which they are held1 cannot do otherwise than confirm the believer in the validity of his beliefs1 though these may be in every way highly fantastic and erroneous4 ,both the ,roman ,catholic1 therefore1 and the ,buddhist may admit many of the marvels attributed to the relics of each other's saints2 though1 in denying that these marvels prove the accuracy of each other's religious doctrines1 each should remember that the same is true of his own4 7#a7 ,the subject is rather too technical to deal with here4 ,i have discussed it elsewhere2 see ,thermo-,dynamical ,objections to the ,mechanical ,theory of ,life1 ,the ,chemical ,news1 vol4 cxii4 pp4 #bga et seq4 7#crd ,december #aiae74 7#b7 ,for instance1 the well-known physicist1 ,sir ,w4 ,f4 ,,barrett1 ,f4,r4,s4 7late ,professor of ,experimental ,physics in ,the ,royal ,college of ,science for ,ireland74 ,see his ,on the ,threshold of a ,new ,world of ,thought 7#aijh71 ,,se #aj4 ,in illustration of the real power of the imagination1 ,i may instance the ,maori superstition of the ,taboo4 ,according to the ,maories1 anyone who touches a tabooed object will assuredly die1 the tabooed object being a sort of anti-talisman4 ,professor ,,frazer7#a7 says3 ,cases have been known of ,maories dying of sheer fright on learning that they had unwittingly eaten the remains of a chief's dinner or handled something that belonged to him1 since such objects were1 ipso facto1 tabooed4 ,he gives the following case on good authority3 ,a woman1 having partaken of some fine peaches from a basket1 was told that they had come from a tabooed place4 ,immediately the basket dropped from her hands and she cried out in agony that the atua or godhead of the chief1 whose divinity had been thus profaned1 would kill her4 ,that happened in the afternoon1 and next day by twelve o'clock she was dead4 ,for us the power of the taboo does not exist2 for the ,maori1 who implicitly believes in it1 it is a very potent reality1 but this power of the taboo resides not in external objects but in his own mind4 7#a7 ,professor ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer1 ,d4,c4,l43 ,psyche's ,task 7#aiji71 p4 #g4 ,dr ,,haddon7#b7 quotes a similar but still more remarkable story of a young ,congo negro which very strikingly shows the power of the imagination4 ,the young negro1 being on a journey1 lodged at a friend's house2 the latter got a wild hen for his breakfast1 and the young man asked if it were a wild hen4 ,his host answered ',no4' ,then he fell on heartily1 and afterwards proceeded on his journey4 ,after four years these two met together again1 and his old friend asked him 'if he would eat a wild hen1' to which he answered that it was tabooed to him4 ,hereat the host began immediately to laugh1 inquiring of him1 ',what made him refuse it now1 when he had eaten one at his table about four years ago8' ,at the hearing of this the negro immediately fell a-trembling1 and suffered himself to be so far possessed with the effects of imagination that he died in less than twenty-four hours after4 7#b7 ,,alfred ,c4 ,,haddon1 ,,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s43 ,magic and ,fetishism 7#aijf71 p4 #ef4 ,there are1 of course1 many stories about amulets1 etc41 which cannot be thus explained4 ,for example1 ,,elihu ,,rich gives the following3-- ,in #aefh1 we are told 7,transl4 of ,salverte1 p4 #aif7 that the ,prince of ,orange condemned a ,spanish prisoner to be shot at ,juliers4 ,the soldiers tied him to a tree and fired1 but he was invulnerable4 ,they then stripped him to see what armour he wore1 but they found only an amulet bearing the figure of a lamb 7the ,agnus ,dei1 we presume74 ,this was taken from him1 and he was then killed by the first shot4 ,de ,baros relates that the ,portuguese in like manner vainly attempted to destroy a ,malay1 so long as he wore a bracelet containing a bone set in gold1 which rendered him proof against their swords4 ,a similar marvel is related in the travels of the veracious ,marco ,polo4 ',in an attempt of ,kublai ,khan to make a conquest of the island of ,zipangu1 a jealousy arose between the two commanders of the expedition1 which led to an order for putting the whole garrison to the sword4 ,in obedience to this order1 the heads of all were cut off excepting of eight persons1 who by the efficacy of a diabolical charm1 consisting of a jewel or amulet introduced into the right arm1 between the skin and the flesh1 were rendered secure from the effects of iron1 either to kill or wound4 ,upon this discovery being made1 they were beaten with a heavy wooden club1 and presently died4' 7#a7 ,i think1 however1 that these1 and many similar stories1 must be taken cum grano salis4 ,in conclusion1 mention must be made of a very interesting and suggestive philosophical doctrine--the ,law of ,correspondences1--due in its explicit form to the ,swedish philosopher1 who was both scientist and mystic1 ,,emanuel ,,swedenborg4 ,to deal in any way adequately with this important topic is totally impossible within the confines of the present discussion47#b7 ,but1 to put the matter as briefly as possible1 it may be said that ,,swedenborg maintains 7and the conclusion1 ,i think1 is valid7 that all causation is from the spiritual world1 physical causation being but secondary1 or apparent--that is to say1 a mere reflection1 as it were1 of the true process4 ,he argues from this1 thereby supplying a philosophical basis for the unanimous belief of the nature-mystics1 that every natural object is the symbol 7because the creation7 of an idea or spiritual verity in its widest sense4 ,thus1 there are symbols which are inherent in the nature of things1 and symbols which are not4 ,the former are genuine1 the latter merely artificial4 ,writing from the transcendental point of view1 ,,eliphas ,,levi says3 ,ceremonies1 vestments1 perfumes1 characters and figures being444necessary to enlist the imagination in the education of the will1 the success of magical works depends upon the faithful observance of all the rites1 which are in no sense fantastic or arbitrary1 having been transmitted to us by antiquity1 and permanently subsisting by the essential laws of analogical realisation and of the correspondence which inevitably connects ideas and forms47#a;b7 ,some scepticism1 perhaps1 may be permitted as to the validity of the latter part of this statement1 and the former may be qualified by the proviso that such things are only of value in the right education of the will1 if they are1 indeed1 genuine1 and not merely artificial1 symbols4 ,but the writer1 as ,i think will be admitted1 has grasped the essential point1 and1 to conclude our excursion1 as we began it1 with a definition1 ,i will say that the power of the talisman is the power of the mind 7or imagination7 brought into activity by means of a suitable symbol4 7#a7 ,,elihu ,,rich3 ,the ,occult ,sciences1 p4 #cdf4 7#b7 ,i may refer the reader to my ,a ,mathematical ,theory of ,spirit 7#aiab71 chap4 i41 for a more adequate statement4 7#a;b7 ,,eliphas ,,levi3 ,transcendental ,magic3 its ,doctrine and ,ritual 7trans4 by ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite1 #ahif71 p4 #bcd4 ,,vii4 ,,ceremonial ,,magic ,,in ,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,,the word magic1 if one may be permitted to say so1 is itself almost magical--magical in its power to conjure up visions in the human mind4 ,for some these are of bloody rites1 pacts with the powers of darkness1 and the lascivious orgies of the ,saturnalia or ,witches' ,sabbath2 in other minds it has pleasanter associations1 serving to transport them from the world of fact to the fairyland of fancy1 where the purse of ,,fortunatus1 the lamp and ring of ,,aladdin1 fairies1 gnomes1 jinn1 and innumerable other strange beings flit across the scene in a marvellous kaleidoscope of ever-changing wonders4 ,to the study of the magical beliefs of the past cannot be denied the interest and fascination which the marvellous and wonderful ever has for so many minds1 many of whom1 perhaps1 cannot resist the temptation of thinking that there may be some element of truth in these wonderful stories4 ,but the study has a greater claim to our attention2 for1 as ,i have intimated already1 magic represents a phase in the development of human thought1 and the magic of the past was the womb from which sprang the science of the present1 unlike its parent though it be4 ,what then is magic8 ,according to the dictionary definition--and this will serve us for the present--it is the 7pretended7 art of producing marvellous results by the aid of spiritual beings or arcane spiritual forces4 ,magic1 therefore1 is the practical complement of animism4 ,wherever man has really believed in the existence of a spiritual world1 there do we find attempts to enter into communication with that world's inhabitants and to utilise its forces4,professor ,,leuba7#a7 and others distinguish between propitiative behaviour towards the beings of the spiritual world1 as marking the religious attitude1 and coercive behaviour towards these beings as characteristic of the magical attitude2 but one form of behaviour merges by insensible degrees into the other1 and the distinction 7though a useful one7 may1 for our present purpose1 be neglected4 7#a7 ,,james ,h4 ,,leuba3 ,the ,psychological ,origin and the ,nature of ,religion 7#aiji71 chap4 ii4 ,animism1 the ,conception of ,spirit everywhere as ,mr ,,edward ,,clodd7#b7 neatly calls it1 and perhaps man's earliest view of natural phenomena1 persisted in a modified form1 as ,i have pointed out in ,some ,characteristics of ,mediaeval ,thought1 throughout the ,middle ,ages4 ,a belief in magic persisted likewise4 ,in the writings of the ,greek philosophers of the ,neo-,platonic school1 in that curious body of esoteric ,jewish lore known as the ,kabala1 and in the works of later occult philosophers such as ,,agrippa and ,,paracelsus1 we find magic1 or rather the theory upon which magic as an art was based1 presented in its most philosophical form4 ,if there is anything of value for modern thought in the theory of magic1 here is it to be found2 and it is1 ,i think1 indeed to be found1 absurd and fantastic though the practices based upon this philosophy1 or which this philosophy was thought to substantiate1 most certainly are4 ,i shall here endeavour to give a sketch of certain of the outstanding doctrines of magical philosophy1 some details concerning the art of magic1 more especially as practiced in the ,middle ,ages in ,europe1 and1 finally1 an attempt to extract from the former what ,i consider to be of real worth4 ,we have already wandered down many of the byways of magical belief1 and1 indeed1 the word magic may be made to cover almost every superstition of the past3 ,to what we have already gained on previous excursions the present1 ,i hope1 will add what we need in order to take a synthetic view of the whole subject4 7#b7 ,,edward ,,clodd3 ,animism the ,seed of ,religion 7#aije71 p4 #bf4 ,in the first place1 something must be said concerning what is called the ,doctrine of ,emanations1 a theory of prime importance in ,neo-,platonic and ,kabalistic ontology4 ,according to this theory1 everything in the universe owes its existence and virtue to an emanation from ,god1 which divine emanation is supposed to descend1 step by step 7so to speak71 through the hierarchies of angels and the stars1 down to the things of earth1 that which is nearer to the ,source containing more of the divine nature than that which is relatively distant4 ,as ,,cornelius ,,agrippa expresses it3 ,for ,god1 in the first place is the end and beginning of all ,virtues2 he gives the seal of the ,ideas to his servants1 the ,intelligences2 who as faithful officers1 sign all things intrusted to them with an ,ideal ,virtue2 the ,heavens and ,stars1 as instruments1 disposing the matter in the mean while for the receiving of those forms which reside in ,divine ,majesty 7as saith ,plato in ,timeus7 and to be conveyed by ,stars2 and the ,giver of ,forms distributes them by the ministry of his ,intelligences1 which he hath set as ,rulers and ,controllers over his ,works1 to whom such a power is intrusted to things committed to them that so all ,virtues of ,stones1 ,herbs1 ,metals1 and all other things may come from the ,intelligences1 the ,governors4 ,the ,form1 therefore1 and ,virtue of things comes first from the ,ideas1 then from the ruling and governing ,intelligences1 then from the aspects of the ,heavens disposing1 and lastly from the tempers of the ,elements disposed1 answering the influences of the ,heavens1 by which the ,elements themselves are ordered1 or disposed4 ,these kinds of operations1 therefore1 are performed in these inferior things by express forms1 and in the ,heavens by disposing virtues1 in ,intelligences by mediating rules1 in the ,original ,cause by ,ideas and exemplary forms1 all which must of necessity agree in the execution of the effect and virtue of every thing4 ,there is1 therefore1 a wonderful virtue and operation in every ,herb and ,stone1 but greater in a ,star1 beyond which1 even from the governing ,intelligences everything receiveth and obtains many things for itself1 especially from the ,supreme ,cause1 with whom all things do mutually and exactly correspond1 agreeing in an harmonious consent1 as it were in hymns always praising the highest ,maker of all things4444 ,there is1 therefore1 no other cause of the necessity of effects than the connection of all things with the ,first ,cause1 and their correspondency with those ,divine patterns and eternal ,ideas whence every thing hath its determinate and particular place in the exemplary world1 from whence it lives and receives its original being3 ,and every virtue of herbs1 stones1 metals1 animals1 words and speeches1 and all things that are of ,god1 is placed there47#a7 ,as compared with the ex nihilo creationism of orthodox theology1 this theory is as light is to darkness4 ,of course1 there is much in ,,cornelius ,,agrippa',s statement of it which is inacceptable to modern thought2 but these are matters of form merely1 and do not affect the doctrine fundamentally4 ,for instance1 as a nexus between spirit and matter ,,agrippa places the stars3 modern thought prefers the ether4 ,the theory of emanations may be1 and was1 as a matter of fact1 made the justification of superstitious practices of the grossest absurdity1 but on the other hand it may be made the basis of a lofty system of transcendental philosophy1 as1 for instance1 that of ,,emanuel ,,swedenborg1 whose ontology resembles in some respects that of the ,neo-,platonists4 ,,agrippa uses the theory to explain all the marvels which his age accredited1 marvels which we know had for the most part no existence outside of man's imagination4 ,i suggest1 on the contrary1 that the theory is really needed to explain the commonplace1 since1 in the last analysis1 every bit of experience1 every phenomenon1 be it ever so ordinary--indeed the very fact of experience itself1--is most truly marvellous and magical1 explicable only in terms of spirit4 ,as ,,eliphas ,,levi well says in one of his flashes of insight3 ,the supernatural is only the natural in an extraordinary grade1 or it is the exalted natural2 a miracle is a phenomenon which strikes the multitude because it is unexpected2 the astonishing is that which astonishes2 miracles are effects which surprise those who are ignorant of their causes1 or assign them causes w hich are not in proportion to such effects47#a;b7 ,but ,i am anticipating the sequel4 7#a7 ,h4 ,c4 ,,agrippa3 ,occult ,philosophy1 bk4 i41 chap4 xiii4 7,,whitehead',s edition1 pp4 #fg-fh74 7#a;b7 ,,eliphas ,,levi3 ,transcendental ,magic1 its ,doctrine and ,ritual 7trans4 by ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite1 #ahif71 p4 #aib4 ,the doctrine of emanations makes the universe one vast harmonious whole1 between whose various parts there is an exact analogy1 correspondence1 or sympathetic relation4 ,nature 7the productive principle71 says ,,iamblichos 7#crd-#dth century71 the ,neo-,platonist1 in her peculiar way1 makes a likeness of invisible principles through symbols in visible forms47#b7 ,the belief that seemingly similar things sympathetically affect one another1 and that a similar relation holds good between different things which have been intimately connected with one another as parts within a whole1 is a very ancient one4 ,most primitive peoples are very careful to destroy all their nail-cuttings and hair-clippings1 since they believe that a witch gaining possession of these might work them harm4 ,for a similar reason they refuse to reveal their ,,real names1 which they regard as part of themselves1 and adopt nicknames for common use4 ,the belief that a witch can torment an enemy by making an image of his person in clay or wax1 correctly naming it1 and mutilating it with pins1 or1 in the case of a waxen image1 melting it by fire1 is a very ancient one1 and was held throughout and beyond the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,sympathetic ,powder of ,sir ,,kenelm ,,digby we have already noticed1 as well as other instances of the belief in sympathy1 and examples of similar superstitions might be multiplied almost indefinitely4 ,such are generally grouped under the term sympathetic magic2 but inasmuch as all magical practices assume that by acting on part of a thing1 or a symbolic representation of it1 one acts magically on the whole1 or on the thing symbolised1 the expression may in its broadest sense be said to involve the whole of magic4 7#b7 ,,iamblichos3 ,theurgia1 or the ,egyptian ,mysteries 7trans4 by ,dr ,,alex4 ,,wilder1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa71 p4 #bci4 ,the names of the ,divine ,being1 angels and devils1 the planets of the solar system 7including sun and moon7 and the days of the week1 birds and beasts1 colours1 herbs1 and precious stones--all1 according to old-time occult philosophy1 are connected by the sympathetic relation believed to run through all creation1 the knowledge of which was essential to the magician2 as well1 also1 the chief portions of the human body1 for man1 as we have seen1 was believed to be a microcosm--a universe in miniature4 ,i have dealt with this matter and exhibited some of the supposed correspondences in ,the ,belief in ,talismans4 ,some further particulars are shown in the annexed table1 for which ,i am mainly indebted to ,,agrippa4 ,but1 as in the case of the zodiacal gems already dealt with1 the old authorities by no means agree as to the majority of the planetary correspondences4 ,,table ,,of ,,occult ,,correspondences ,arch- ,part of ,precious angel4 ,angel4 ,planet4 ,human ,animal4 ,bird4 stone4 ,body4 ,raphael ,michael ,sun ,heart ,lion ,swan ,carbuncle ,gabriel ,gabriel ,moon ,left foot ,cat ,owl ,crystal ,camael ,zamael ,mars ,right hand ,wolf ,vulture ,diamond ,michael ,raphael ,mercury ,left hand ,ape ,stork ,agate ,zadikel ,sachiel ,jupiter ,head ,hart ,eagle ,sapphire 7,lapis lazuli7 ,haniel ,anael ,venus ,generative ,goat ,dove ,emerald organs ,zaphhiel ,cassiel ,saturn ,right foot ,mole ,hoopoe ,onyx ,the names of the angels are from ,mr ,mather's translation of ,clavicula ,salomonis2 the other correspondences are from the second book of ,agrippa's ,occult ,philosophy1 chap4 x4 ,in many cases these supposed correspondences are based1 as will be obvious to the reader1 upon purely trivial resemblances1 and1 in any case1 whatever may be said--and ,i think a great deal may be said--in favour of the theory of symbology1 there is little that may be adduced to support the old occultists' application of it4 ,so essential a part does the use of symbols play in all magical operations that we may1 ,i think1 modify the definition of magic adopted at the outset1 and define magic as an attempt to employ the powers of the spiritual world for the production of marvellous results1 ,,by ,,the ,,aid ,,of ,,symbols4 ,it has1 on the other hand1 been questioned whether the appeal to the spirit-world is an essential element in magic4 ,but a close examination of magical practices always reveals at the root a belief in spiritual powers as the operating causes4 ,the belief in talismans at first sight seems to have little to do with that in a supernatural realm2 but1 as we have seen1 the talisman was always a silent invocation of the powers of some spiritual being with which it was symbolically connected1 and whose sign was engraved thereon4 ,and1 as ,dr ,t4 ,,witton ,,davies well remarks with regard to sympathetic magic3 ,even this could not1 at the start1 be anything other than a symbolic prayer to the spirit or spirits having authority in these matters4 ,in so far as no spirit is thought of1 it is a mere survival1 and not magic at all44447#a7 7#a7 ,dr ,t4 ,,witton ,,davies3 ,magic1 ,divination1 and ,demonology among the ,hebrews and their ,neighbours 7#ahih71 p4 #ag4 ,what ,i regard as the two essentials of magical practices1 namely1 the use of symbols and the appeal to the supernatural realm1 are most obvious in what is called ceremonial magic4 ,mediaeval ceremonial magic was subdivided into three chief branches--,white ,magic1 ,black ,magic1 and ,necromancy4 ,white magic was concerned with the evocations of angels1 spiritual beings supposed to be essentially superior to mankind1 concerning which ,i shall give some further details later--and the spirits of the elements1--which were1 as ,i have mentioned in ,some ,characteristics of ,mediaeval ,thought1 personifications of the primeval forces of ,nature4 ,as there were supposed to be four elements1 fire1 air1 water1 and earth1 so there were supposed to be four classes of elementals or spirits of the elements1 namely1 ,salamanders1 ,sylphs1 ,undines1 and ,gnomes1 inhabiting these elements respectively1 and deriving their characters therefrom4 ,concerning these curious beings1 the inquisitive reader may gain some information from a quaint little book1 by the ,abbe de ,,montfaucon ,,de ,,villars1 entitled ,the ,count of ,gabalis1 or ,conferences about ,secret ,sciences 7#afgj71 translated into ,english and published in #afhj1 which has recently been reprinted4 ,the elementals1 we learn therefrom1 were1 unlike other supernatural beings1 thought to be mortal4 ,they could1 however1 be rendered immortal by means of sexual intercourse with men or women1 as the case might be2 and it was1 we are told1 to the noble end of endowing them with this great gift1 that the sages devoted themselves4 ,goety1 or black magic1 was concerned with the evocation of demons and devils--spirits supposed to be superior to man in certain powers1 but utterly depraved4 ,sorcery may be distinguished from witchcraft1 inasmuch as the sorcerer attempted to command evil spirits by the aid of charms1 etc41 whereas the witch or wizard was supposed to have made a pact with the ,evil ,one2 though both terms have been rather loosely used1 sorcery being sometimes employed as a synonym for necromancy4 ,necromancy was concerned with the evocation of the spirits of the dead3 etymologically1 the term stands for the art of foretelling events by means of such evocations1 though it is frequently employed in the wider sense4 ,it would be unnecessary and tedious to give any detailed account of the methods employed in these magical arts beyond some general remarks4 ,mr ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite gives full particulars of the various rituals in his ,book of ,ceremonial ,magic 7#aiaa71 to which the curious reader may be referred4 ,the following will1 in brief terms1 convey a general idea of a magical evocation3-- ,choosing a time when there is a favourable conjunction of the planets1 the magician1 armed with the implements of magical art1 after much prayer and fasting1 betakes himself to a suitable spot1 alone1 or perhaps accompanied by two trusty companions4 ,all the articles he intends to employ1 the vestments1 the magic sword and lamp1 the talismans1 the book of spirits1 etc41 have been specially prepared and consecrated4 ,if he is about to invoke a martial spirit1 the magician's vestment will be of a red colour1 the talismans in virtue of which he may have power over the spirit will be of iron1 the day chosen a ,tuesday1 and the incense and perfumes employed of a nature analogous to ,mars4 ,in a similar manner all the articles employed and the rites performed must in some way be symbolical of the spirit with which converse is desired4 ,having arrived at the spot1 the magician first of all traces the magic circle within which1 we are told1 no evil spirit can enter2 he then commences the magic rite1 involving various prayers and conjurations1 a medley of meaningless words1 and1 in the case of the black art1 a sacrifice4 ,the spirit summoned then appears 7at least1 so we are told71 and1 after granting the magician's request1 is licensed to depart--a matter1 we are admonished1 of great importance4 ,the question naturally arises1 ,what were the results obtained by these magical arts8 ,how far1 if at all1 was the magician rewarded by the attainment of his desires8 ,we have asked a similar question regarding the belief in talismans1 and the reply which we there gained undoubtedly applies in the present case as well4 ,modern psychical research1 as ,i have already pointed out1 is supplying us with further evidence for the survival of human personality after bodily death than the innate conviction humanity in general seems to have in this belief1 and the many reasons which idealistic philosophy advances in favour of it4 ,the question of the reality of the phenomenon of materialisation1 that is1 the bodily appearance of a discarnate spirit1 such as is vouched for by spiritists1 and which is what1 it appears1 was aimed at in necromancy 7though why the discarnate should be better informed as to the future than the incarnate1 ,i cannot suppose71 must be regarded as sub judice47#a7 ,many cases of fraud in connection with the alleged production of this phenomenon have been detected in recent times2 but1 inasmuch as the last word has not yet been said on the subject1 we must allow the possibility that necromancy in the past may have been sometimes successful4 ,but as to the existence of the angels and devils of magical belief--as well1 one might add1 of those of orthodox faith1--nothing can be adduced in evidence of this either from the results of psychical research or on a priori grounds4 7#a7 ,the late ,sir ,,william ,,crookes' ,experimental ,researches in the ,phenomena of ,spiritualism contains evidence in favour of the reality of this phenomenon very difficult to gainsay4 ,pseudo-,,dionysius classified the angels into three hierarchies1 each subdivided into three orders1 as under3-- ,first ,hierarchy4--,seraphim1 ,cherubim1 and ,thrones2 ,second ,hierarchy4--,dominions1 ,powers1 and ,authorities 7or ,virtues72 ,third ,hierarchy4--,principalities1 ,archangels1 and ,angels1-- and this classification was adopted by ,,agrippa and others4 ,pseudo-,,dionysius explains the names of these orders as follows3 444 the holy designation of the ,seraphim denotes either that they are kindling or burning2 and that of the ,cherubim1 a fulness of knowledge or stream of wisdom4444 ,the appellation of the most exalted and pre-eminent ,thrones denotes their manifest exaltation above every grovelling inferiority1 and their super-mundane tendency towards higher things2444 and their invariable and firmly-fixed settlement around the veritable ,highest1 with the whole force of their powers4444 ,the explanatory name of the ,holy ,lordships 7,dominions7 denotes a certain unslavish elevation444 superior to every kind of cringing slavery1 indomitable to every subserviency1 and elevated above every dissimularity1 ever aspiring to the true ,lordship and source of ,lordship4444 ,the appellation of the ,holy ,powers denotes a certain courageous and unflinching virility444 vigorously conducted to the ,divine imitation1 not forsaking the ,godlike movement through its own unmanliness1 but unflinchingly looking to the super-essential and powerful-making power1 and becoming a powerlike image of this1 as far as is attainable4444,the appellation of the ,holy ,authorities444 denotes the beautiful and unconfused good order1 with regard to ,divine receptions1 and the discipline of the super-mundane and intellectual authority444 conducted indomitably1 with good order towards ,divine things4444 7,and the appellation7 of the ,heavenly ,principalities manifests their princely and leading function1 after the ,divine example44447#a7 ,there is a certain grandeur in these views1 and if we may be permitted to understand by the orders of the hierarchy1 discrete degrees 7to use ,,swedenborg',s term7 of spiritual reality--stages in spiritual involution1--we may see in them a certain truth as well4 ,as ,i said1 all virtue1 power1 and knowledge which man has from ,god was believed to descend to him by way of these angelical hierarchies1 step by step2 and thus it was thought that those of the lowest hierarchy alone were sent from heaven to man4 ,it was such beings that white magic pretended to evoke4 ,but the practical occultists1 when they did not make them altogether fatuous1 attributed to these angels characters not distinguishable from those of the devils4 ,the description of the angels in the ,heptemeron1 or ,magical ,elements17#b7 falsely at may be taken as fairly characteristic4 ,of ,,michael and the other spirits of ,sunday he writes3 ,their nature is to procure ,gold1 ,gemmes1 ,carbuncles1 ,riches2 to cause one to obtain favour and benevolence2 to dissolve the enmities of men2 to raise men to honors2 to carry or take away infirmities4 ,of ,,gabriel and the other spirits of ,monday1 he says3 ,their nature is to give silver2 to convey things from place to place2 to make horses swift1 and to disclose the secrets of persons both present and future4 ,of ,,samael and the other spirits of ,tuesday he says3 ,their nature is to cause wars1 mortality1 death and combustions2 and to give two thousand ,souldiers at a time2 to bring death1 infirmities or health1 and so on for ,,raphael1 ,,sachiel1 ,,anael1 ,,cassiel1 and their colleagues47#a;b7 7#a7 ,on the ,heavenly ,hierarchy4 ,see the ,rev4 ,,john ,,parker',s translation of ,the ,works of ,,dionysius the ,areopagite1 vol4 ii4 7#ahhi71 pp4 #bd1 #be1 #ca1 #cb1 and #cf4 7#b7 ,the book1 which first saw the light three centuries after its alleged author's death1 was translated into ,english by ,,robert ,,turner1 and published in #afee in a volume containing the spurious ,fourth ,book of ,occult ,philosophy1 attributed to ,,cornelius ,,agrippa1 and other magical works4 ,it is from this edition that ,i quote4 7#a;b7 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #ij1 #ib1 and #id4 ,concerning the evil planetary spirits1 the spurious ,fourth ,book of ,occult ,philosophy1 attributed to ,,cornelius ,,agrippa1 informs us that the spirits of ,saturn appear for the most part with a tall1 lean1 and slender body1 with an angry countenance1 having four faces2 one in the hinder part of the head1 one on the former part of the head1 and on each side nosed or beaked3 there likewise appeareth a face on each knee1 of a black shining colour3 their motion is the moving of the wince1 with a kinde of earthquake3 their signe is white earth1 whiter than any ,snow4 ,the writer adds that their particular forms are1-- ,a ,king having a beard1 riding on a ,dragon4 ,an ,old man with a beard4 ,an ,old woman leaning on a staffe4 ,a ,hog4 ,a ,dragon4 ,an ,owl4 ,a black ,garment4 ,a ,hooke or ,sickle4 ,a ,juniper-tree4 ,concerning the spirits of ,jupiter1 he says that they appear with a body sanguine and cholerick1 of a middle stature1 with a horrible fearful motion2 but with a milde countenance1 a gentle speech1 and of the colour of ,iron4 ,the motion of them is flashings of ,lightning and ,thunder2 their signe is1 there will appear men about the circle1 who shall seem to be devoured of ,lions1 their particular forms being-- ,a ,king with a ,sword drawn1 riding on a ,stag4 ,a ,man wearing a ,mitre in long rayment4 ,a ,maid with a ,laurel-,crown adorned with ,flowers4 ,a ,bull4 ,a ,stag4 ,a ,peacock4 ,an azure ,garment4 ,a ,sword4 ,a ,box-tree4 ,as to the ,martian spirits1 we learn that they appear in a tall body1 cholerick1 a filthy countenance1 of colour brown1 swarthy or red1 having horns like ,harts horns1 and ,griphins claws1 bellowing like wilde ,bulls4 ,their ,motion is like fire burning2 their signe ,thunder and ,lightning about the ,circle4 ,their particular shapes are1-- ,a ,king armed riding upon a ,wolf4 ,a ,man armed4 ,a ,woman holding a buckler on her thigh4 ,a ,hee-goat4 ,a ,horse4 ,a ,stag4 ,a red ,garment4 ,wool4 ,a ,cheeslip47#a7 7#a7 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #dc-de4 ,the rest are described in equally fantastic terms4 ,i do not think ,i shall be accused of being unduly sceptical if ,i say that such beings as these could not have been evoked by any magical rites1 because such beings do not and did not exist1 save in the magician's own imagination4 ,the proviso1 however1 is important1 for1 inasmuch as these fantastic beings did exist in the imagination of the credulous1 therein they may1 indeed1 have been evoked4 ,the whole of magic ritual was well devised to produce hallucination4 ,a firm faith in the ritual employed1 and a strong effort of will to bring about the desired result1 were usually insisted upon as essential to the success of the operation47#b7 ,a period of fasting prior to the experiment was also frequently prescribed as necessary1 which1 by weakening the body1 must have been conducive to hallucination4 ,furthermore1 abstention from the gratification of the sexual appetite was stipulated in certain cases1 and this1 no doubt1 had a similar effect1 especially as concerns magical evocations directed to the satisfaction of the sexual impulse4 ,add to these factors the details of the ritual itself1 the nocturnal conditions under which it was carried out1 and particularly the suffumigations employed1 which1 most frequently1 were of a narcotic nature1 and it is not difficult to believe that almost any type of hallucination may have occurred4 ,such1 as we have seen1 was ,,eliphas ,,levi',s view of ceremonial magic2 and whatever may be said as concerns his own experiment therein 7for one would have thought that the essential element of faith was lacking in this case71 it is undoubtedly the true view as concerns the ceremonial magic of the past4 ,as this author well says3 ,witchcraft1 properly so-called1 that is ceremonial operation with intent to bewitch1 acts only on the operator1 and serves to fix and confirm his will1 by formulating it with persistence and labour1 the two conditions which make volition efficacious47#a;b7 7#b7 ,,magical ,,axiom4 ,in the circle of its action1 every word creates that which it affirms4 ,,direct ,,consequence4 ,he who affirms the devil1 creates or makes the devil4 ,conditions of ,success in ,infernal ,evocations4 #a1 ,invincible obstinacy2 #b1 a conscience at once hardened to crime and most subject to remorse and fear2 #c1 affected or natural ignorance2 #d1 blind faith in all that is incredible1 #e1 a completely false idea of ,god4 7,,eliphas ,,levi3 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #big and #bih47 7#a;b7 ,,eliphas ,,levi3 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #acj and #aca4 ,,emanuel ,,swedenborg in one place writes3 ,magic is nothing but the perversion of order2 it is especially the abuse of correspondences47#b7 ,a study of the ceremonial magic of the ,middle ,ages and the following century or two certainly justifies ,,swedenborg in writing of magic as something evil4 ,the distinction1 rigid enough in theory1 between white and black1 legitimate and illegitimate1 magic1 was1 as ,i have indicated1 extremely indefinite in practice4 ,as ,mr ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite justly remarks3 ,much that passed current in the west as ,white 7i4e4 permissible7 ,magic was only a disguised goeticism1 and many of the resplendent angels invoked with divine rites reveal their cloven hoofs4 ,it is not too much to say that a large majority of past psychological experiments were conducted to establish communication with demons1 and that for unlawful purposes4 ,the popular conceptions concerning the diabolical spheres1 which have been all accredited by magic1 may have been gross exaggerations of fact concerning rudimentary and perverse intelligences1 but the wilful viciousness of the communicants is substantially untouched thereby47#a;b7 7#b7 ,,emanuel ,,swedenborg3 ,arcana ,caelestia1 ,,se #ffib4 7#a;b7 ,,arthur ,,edward ,,waite3 ,the ,occult ,sciences 7#ahia71 p4 #ea4 ,these psychological experiments were not1 save1 perhaps1 in rare cases1 carried out in the spirit of modern psychical research1 with the high aim of the man of science4 ,it was1 indeed1 far otherwise2 selfish motives were at the root of most of them2 and1 apart from what may be termed medicinal magic1 it was for the satisfaction of greed1 lust1 revenge1 that men and women had recourse to magical arts4 ,the history of goeticism and witchcraft is one of the most horrible of all histories4 ,the ,grimoires1 witnesses to the superstitious folly of the past1 are full of disgusting1 absurd1 and even criminal rites for the satisfaction of unlawful desires and passions4 ,the ,church was certainly justified in attempting to put down the practice of magic1 but the means adopted in this design and the results to which they led were even more abominable than witchcraft itself4 ,the methods of detecting witches and the tortures to which suspected persons were subjected to force them to confess to imaginary crimes1 employed in so-called civilised ,england and ,scotland and also in ,america1 to say nothing of countries in which the ,holy ,inquisition held undisputed sway1 are almost too horrible to describe4 ,for details the reader may be referred to ,sir ,,walter ,,scott',s ,letters on ,demonology and ,witchcraft 7#ahcj71 and 7as concerns ,america7 ,,cotton ,,mather',s ,the ,wonders of the ,invisible ,world 7#afib74 ,the credulous ,church and the credulous people were terribly afraid of the power of witchcraft1 and1 as always1 fear destroyed their mental balance and made them totally disregard the demands of justice4 ,the result may be well illustrated by what almost inevitably happens when a country goes to war2 for war1 as the ,hon4 ,,bertrand ,,russell has well shown1 is fear's offspring4 ,fear of the enemy causes the military party to persecute in an insensate manner1 without the least regard to justice1 all those of their fellow-men whom they consider are not heart and soul with them in their cause2 similarly the ,church relentlessly persecuted its supposed enemies1 of whom it was so afraid4 ,no doubt some of the poor wretches that were tortured and killed on the charge of witchcraft really believed themselves to have made a pact with the devil1 and were thus morally depraved1 though1 generally speaking1 they were no more responsible for their actions than any other madmen4 ,but the majority of the persons persecuted as witches and wizards were innocent even of this4 ,however1 it would1 ,i think1 be unwise to disregard the existence of another side to the question of the validity and ethical value of magic1 and to use the word only to stand for something essentially evil4 ,,swedenborg1 we may note1 in the course of a long passage from the work from which ,i have already quoted1 says that by magic is signified the science of spiritual things7#a7 ,his position appears to be that there is a genuine magic1 or science of spiritual things1 and a false magic1 that science perverted3 a view of the matter which ,i propose here to adopt4 ,the word magic itself is derived from the ,greek magos1 the wise man of the ,east1 and hence the strict etymological meaning of the term is the wisdom or science of the magi2 and it is1 ,i think1 significant that we are told 7and ,i see no reason to doubt the truth of it7 that the magi were among the first to worship the new-born ,,christ47#b7 7#a7 ,op4 cit41 ,,se #ebbc4 7#b7 ,see ,the ,gospel according to ,,matthew1 chap4 ii41 verses #a to #ab4 ,if there be an abuse of correspondences1 or symbols1 there surely must also be a use1 to which the word magic is not inapplicable4 ,as such1 religious ritual1 and especially the sacraments of the ,christian ,church1 will1 no doubt1 occur to the minds of those who regard these symbols as efficacious1 though they would probably hesitate to apply the term magical to them4 ,but in using this term as applying thereto1 ,i do not wish to suggest that any such rites or ceremonies possess1 or can possess1 any ,,causal efficacy in the moral evolution of the soul4 ,the will alone1 in virtue of the power vouchsafed to it by the ,source of all power1 can achieve this2 but ,i do think that the soul may be assisted by ritual1 harmoniously related to the states of mind which it is desired to induce4 ,no doubt there is a danger of religious ritual1 especially when its meaning is lost1 being engaged in for its own sake4 ,it is then mere superstition27#a7 and1 in view of the danger of this degeneracy1 many robust minds1 such as the members of the ,society of ,friends1 prefer to dispense with its aid altogether4 ,when ritual is associated with erroneous doctrines1 the results are even more disastrous1 as ,i have indicated in ,the ,belief in ,talismans4 ,but when ritual is allied with1 and based upon1 as adequately symbolising1 the high teaching of genuine religion1 it may be1 and1 in fact1 is1 found very helpful by many people4 ,as such its efficacy seems to me to be altogether magical1 in the best sense of that word4 7#a7 ,as ,,eliphas ,,levi well says3 ,superstition444 is the sign surviving the thought2 it is the dead body of a religious rite4 7,op cit41 p4 #aej47 ,but1 indeed1 ,i think a still wider application of the word magic is possible4 ,all experience is magic1 says ,,novalis 7#aggb-ahja71 and only magically explicable27#b;a7 and again3 ,it is only because of the feebleness of our perceptions and activity that we do not perceive ourselves to be in a fairy world4 ,no doubt it will be objected that the common experiences of daily life are natural1 whereas magic postulates the supernatural4 ,if1 as is frequently done1 we use the term natural1 as relating exclusively to the physical realm1 then1 indeed1 we may well speak of magic as supernatural1 because its aims are psychical4 ,on the other hand1 the term natural is sometimes employed as referring to the whole realm of order1 and in this sense one can use the word magic as descriptive of ,nature herself when viewed in the light of an idealistic philosophy1 such as that of ,,swedenborg1 in which all causation is seen to be essentially spiritual1 the things of this world being envisaged as symbols of ideas or spiritual verities1 and thus physical causation regarded as an appearance produced in virtue of the magical1 non-causal efficacy of symbols47#a7 ,says ,,cornelius ,,agrippa3 444 every day some natural thing is drawn by art and some divine thing is drawn by ,nature which1 the ,egyptians1 seeing1 called ,nature a ,magicianess 7i4e47 the very ,magical power itself1 in the attracting of like by like1 and of suitable things by suitable47#b7 7#b;a7 ,,novalis3 ,schriften 7ed4 by ,,ludwig ,,tieck and ,,fr4 ,,schlegel1 #ahje71 vol4 ii4 p4 #aie 7#a7 ,for a discussion of the essentially magical character of inductive reasoning1 see my ,the ,magic of ,experience 7#aiae7 7#b7 ,op4 cit41 bk4 i4 chap4 xxxvii4 p4 #aai4 ,i would suggest1 in conclusion1 that there is nothing really opposed to the spirit of modern science in the thesis that all experience is magic1 and only magically explicable4 ,science does not pretend to reveal the fundamental or underlying cause of phenomena1 does not pretend to answer the final ,why8 ,this is rather the business of philosophy1 though1 in thus distinguishing between science and philosophy1 ,i am far from insinuating that philosophy should be otherwise than scientific4 ,we often hear religious but non-scientific men complain because scientific and perhaps equally as religious men do not in their books ascribe the production of natural phenomena to the ,divine ,power4 ,but if they were so to do they would be transcending their business as scientists4 ,in every science certain simple facts of experience are taken for granted3 it is the business of the scientist to reduce other and more complex facts of experience to terms of these data1 not to explain these data themselves4 ,thus the physicist attempts to reduce other related phenomena of greater complexity to terms of simple force and motion2 but1 ,what are force and motion8 ,why does force produce or result in motion8 are questions which lie beyond the scope of physics4 ,in order to answer these questions1 if1 indeed1 this be possible1 we must first inquire1 ,how and why do these ideas of force and motion arise in our minds8 ,these problems land us in the psychical or spiritual world1 and the term magic at once becomes significant4 ,if1 says ,,thomas ,,carlyle1444 we444 have led thee into the true ,land of ,dreams2 and444 thou lookest1 even for moments1 into the region of the ,wonderful1 and seest and feelest that thy daily life is girt with ,wonder1 and based on ,wonder1 and thy very blankets and breeches are ,miracles1--then art thou profited beyond money's worth44447#a7 7#a7 ,,thomas ,,carlyle3 ,sartor ,resartus1 bk4 iii4 chap4 ix4 ,,viii4 ,,architectural ,,symbolism ,i ,,was once rash enough to suggest in an essay ,on ,symbolism in ,art7#a7 that a true work of art is at once realistic1 imaginative1 and symbolical1 and that its aim is to make manifest the spiritual significance of the natural objects dealt with4 ,i trust that those artists 7no doubt many7 who disagree with me will forgive me--a man of science--for having ventured to express any opinion whatever on the subject4 ,but1 at any rate1 if the suggestions in question are accepted1 then a criterion for distinguishing between art and craft is at once available2 for we may say that1 whilst craft aims at producing works which are physically useful1 art aims at producing works which are spiritually useful4 ,architecture1 from this point of view1 is a combination of craft and art4 ,it may1 indeed1 be said that the modern architecture which creates our dwelling-houses1 factories1 and even to a large extent our places of worship1 is pure craft unmixed with art ,on the other hand1 it might be argued that such works of architecture are not always devoid of decoration1 and that decorative art1 even though the decorative artist is unconscious of this fact1 is based upon rules and employs symbols which have a deep significance4 ,the truly artistic element in architecture1 however1 is more clearly manifest if we turn our gaze to the past4 ,one thinks at once1 of course1 of the pyramids and sphinx of ,egypt1 and the rich and varied symbolism of design and decoration of antique structures to be found in ,persia and elsewhere in the ,east4 ,it is highly probable that the ,egyptian pyramids were employed for astronomical purposes1 and thus subserved physical utility1 but it seems no less likely that their shape was suggested by a belief in some system of geometrical symbolism1 and was intended to embody certain of their philosophical or religious doctrines4 7#a7 ,published in ,the ,occult ,review for ,august #aiab1 vol4 xvi4 pp4 #ih to #ajb4 ,the mediaeval cathedrals and churches of ,europe admirably exhibit this combination of art with craft4 ,craft was needed to design and construct permanent buildings to protect worshippers from the inclemency of the weather2 art was employed not only to decorate such buildings1 but it dictated to craft many points in connection with their design4 ,the builders of the mediaeval churches endeavoured so to construct their works that these might1 as a whole and in their various parts1 embody the truths1 as they believed them1 of the ,christian religion3 thus the cruciform shape of churches1 their orientation1 etc4 ,the practical value of symbolism in church architecture is obvious4 ,as ,mr ,f4 ,e4 ,,hulme remarks1 ,the sculptured fonts or stained-glass windows in the churches of the ,middle ,ages were full of teaching to a congregation of whom the greater part could not read1 to whom therefore one great avenue of knowledge was closed4 ,the ignorant are especially impressed by pictorial teaching1 and grasp its meaning far more readily than they can follow a written description or a spoken discourse47#a7 7#a7 ,f4 ,,edward ,,hulme1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,s4,a43 ,the ,history1 ,principles1 and ,practice of ,symbolism in ,christian ,art 7#aiji71 p4 #b4 ,the subject of symbolism in church architecture is an extensive one1 involving many side issues4 ,in these excursions we shall consider only one aspect of it1 namely1 the symbolic use of animal forms in ,english church architecture4 ,as ,mr ,,collins1 who has written1 in recent years1 an interesting work on this topic of much use to archaeologists as a book of data17#b;a7 points out1 the great sources of animal symbolism were the famous ,physiologus and other natural history books of the ,middle ,ages 7generally called ,bestiaries71 and the ,bible1 mystically understood4 ,the modern tendency is somewhat unsympathetic towards any attempt to interpret the ,bible symbolically1 and certainly some of the interpretations that have been forced upon it in the name of symbolism are crude and fantastic enough4 ,but in the belief of the mystics1 culminating in the elaborate system of correspondences of ,,swedenborg1 that every natural object1 every event in the history of the human race1 and every word of the ,bible1 has a symbolic and spiritual significance1 there is1 ,i think1 a fundamental truth4 ,we must1 however1 as ,i have suggested already1 distinguish between true and forced symbolism4 ,the early ,christians employed the fish as a symbol of ,christ1 because the ,greek word for fish1 icqus1 is obtained by notariqon7#a7 from the phrase gr ',ihsous ,cristos ,qeou ,uios1 ,swthr--,,jesus ,,christ1 the ,son of ,god1 the ,saviour4 ,of course1 the obvious use of such a symbol was its entire unintelligibility to those who had not yet been instructed in the mysteries of the ,christian faith1 since in the days of persecution some degree of secrecy was necessary4 ,but the symbol has significance only in the ,greek language1 and that of an entirely arbitrary nature4 ,there is nothing in the nature of the fish1 apart from its name in ,greek1 which renders it suitable to be used as a symbol of ,,christ4 ,contrast this pseudo-symbol1 however1 with that of the ,good ,shepherd1 the ,lamb of ,god 7fig4 #cd71 or the ,lion of ,judah4 ,here we have what may be regarded as true symbols1 something of whose meanings are clear to the smallest degree of spiritual sight1 even though the second of them has frequently been badly misinterpreted4 7#b;a7 ,,arthur ,h4 ,,collins1 ,m4,a43 ,symbolism of ,animals and ,birds represented in ,english ,church ,architecture 7#aiac74 7#a7 ,a ,kabalistic process by which a word is formed by taking the initial letters of a sentence or phrase4 ,it was a belief in the spiritual or moral significance of nature similar to that of the mystical expositors of the ,bible1 that inspired the mediaeval naturalists4 ,the ,bestiaries almost invariably conclude the account of each animal with the moral that might be drawn from its behaviour4 ,the interpretations are frequently very far-fetched1 and as the writers were more interested in the morals than in the facts of natural history themselves1 the supposed facts from which they drew their morals were frequently very far from being of the nature of facts4 ,sometimes the product of this inaccuracy is grotesque1 as shown by the following quotation3 ,the elephants are in an absurd way typical of ,adam and ,eve1 who ate of the forbidden fruit1 and also have the dragon for their enemy4 ,it was supposed that the elephant444 used to sleep by leaning against a tree4 ,the hunters would come by night1 and cut the trunk through4 ,down he would come1 roaring helplessly4 ,none of his friends would be able to help him1 until a small elephant should come and lever him up with his trunk4 ,this small elephant was symbolic of ,jesus ,christ1 ,who came in great humility to rescue the human race which had fallen 'through a tree4' 7#a7 7#a7 ,a4 ,h4 ,,collins3 ,symbolism of ,animals1 etc41 pp4 #da and #db4 ,in some cases1 though the symbolism is based upon quite erroneous notions concerning natural history1 and is so far fantastic1 it is not devoid of charm4 ,the use of the pelican to symbolise the ,saviour is a case in point4 ,legend tells us that when other food is unobtainable1 the pelican thrusts its bill into its breast 7whence the red colour of the bill7 and feeds its young with its life-blood4 ,were this only a fact1 the symbol would be most appropriate4 ,there is another and far less charming form of the legend1 though more in accord with current perversions of ,christian doctrine1 according to which the pelican uses its blood to revive its young1 after having slain them through anger aroused by the great provocation which they are supposed to give it4 ,for an example of the use of the pelican in church architecture see fig4 #cf4 ,mention must also be made of the purely fabulous animals of the ,bestiaries1 such as the basilisk1 centaur1 dragon1 griffin1 hydra1 mantichora1 unicorn1 phoenix1 etc4 ,the centaur 7fig4 #ci7 was a beast1 half man1 half horse4 ,it typified the flesh or carnal mind of man1 and the legend of the perpetual war between the centaur and a certain tribe of simple savages who were said to live in trees in ,india1 symbolised the combat between the flesh and the spirit47#a7 7#a7 ,a ,h4 ,,collins3 ,symbolism of ,animals1 etc41 pp4 #aej and #aec4 ,with bow and arrow in its hands the centaur forms the astrological sign ,sagittarius 7or the ,archer74 ,an interesting example of this sign occurring in church architecture is to be found on the western doorway of ,portchester ,church--a most beautiful piece of ,norman architecture4 ,this sign of the ,zodiac1 writes the ,rev4 ,canon ,,vaughan1 ,m4,a41 a former ,vicar of ,portchester1 was the badge of ,king ,stephen1 and its presence on the west front 7of ,portchester ,church7 seems to indicate1 what was often the case elsewhere1 that the elaborate ,norman carving was not carried out until after the completion of the building47#b7 ,the facts1 however1 that this ,sagittarius is accompanied on the other side of the doorway by a couple of fishes1 which form the astrological sign ,pisces 7or the ,fishes71 and that these two signs are what are termed1 in astrological phraseology1 the houses of the planet ,jupiter1 the ,major ,fortune1 suggest that the architect responsible for the design1 influenced by the astrological notions of his day1 may have put the signs there in order to attract ,jupiter's beneficent influence4 ,or he may have had the ,sagittarius carved for the reason ,canon ,,vaughan suggests1 and then1 remembering how good a sign it was astrologically1 had the ,pisces added to complete the effect47#a;b7 7#b7 ,rev4 ,canon ,,vaughan1 ,m4,a43 ,a ,short ,history of ,portchester ,castle1 p4 #ad4 7#a;b7 ,two other possible explanations of the ,pisces have been suggested by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,,headley4 ,in his ,,ms4 book written in #ahhh1 when he was ,vicar of ,portchester1 he writes3 ,i have discovered an interesting proof that it 7the ,church7 was finished in ,stephen's reign1 namely1 the figure of ,sagittarius in the ,western ,doorway4 ,stephen adopted this as his badge for the double reason that it formed part of the arms of the city of ,blois1 and that the sun was in ,sagittarius in ,december when he came to the throne4 ,i1 therefore1 conclude that this badge was placed where it is to mark the completion of the church4 ,there is another sign of the ,zodiac in the archway1 apparently ,pisces4 ,this may have been chosen to mark the month in which the church was finished1 or simply on account of its nearness to the sea4 ,at one time ,i fancied it might refer to ,march1 the month in which ,lady ,day occurred1 thus referring to the ,patron ,saint1 ,st ,mary4 ,as the sun leaves ,pisces just before ,lady ,day this does not explain it4 ,possibly in the old calendar it might do so4 ,this is a matter for further research4 7,i have to thank the ,rev4 ,h4 ,,lawrence ,,fry1 present ,vicar of ,portchester1 for this quotation1 and the ,rev4 ,a4 ,,headley for permission to utilise it47 ,the phoenix and griffin we have encountered already in our excursions4 ,the latter1 we are told1 inhabits desert places in ,india1 where it can find nothing for its young to eat4 ,it flies away to other regions to seek food1 and is sufficiently strong to carry off an ox4 ,thus it symbolises the devil1 who is ever anxious to carry away our souls to the deserts of hell4 ,fig4 #cg illustrates an example of the use of this symbolic beast in church architecture4 ,the mantichora is described by ,,pliny 7whose statements were unquestioningly accepted by the mediaeval naturalists71 on the authority of ,,ctesias 7fl4 #djj ,b4,c471 as having ,a triple row of teeth1 which fit into each other like those of a comb1 the face and ears of a man1 and azure eyes1 is the colour of blood1 has the body of the lion1 and a tail ending in a sting1 like that of the scorpion4 ,its voice resembles the union of the sound of the flute and the trumpet2 it is of excessive swiftness1 and is particularly fond of human flesh47#a7 7#a7 ,,pliny3 ,natural ,history1 bk4 viii4 chap4 xxx4 7,,bostock and ,,riley',s trans41 vol4 ii41 #ahee1 p4 #bhj47 ,concerning the unicorn1 in an eighteenth-century work on natural history we read that this is a ,beast1 which though doubted of by many ,writers1 yet is by others thus described3 ,he has but one ,horn1 and that an exceedingly rich one1 growing out of the middle of his ,forehead4 ,his ,head resembles an ,hart's1 his ,feet an ,elephant's1 his tail a ,boar's1 and the rest of his ,body an ,horse's4 ,the ,horn is about a ,foot and half in length4 ,his ,voice is like the ,lowing of an ,ox4 ,his ,mane and ,hair are of a yellowish ,colour4 ,his ,horn is as hard as ,iron1 and as rough as any ,file1 twisted or curled1 like a flaming ,sword2 very straight1 sharp1 and every where black1 excepting the ,point4 ,great ,virtues are attributed to it1 in expelling of ,poison and curing of several ,diseases4 ,he is not a ,beast of prey47#b7 ,the method of capturing the animal believed in by mediaeval writers was a curious one4 ,the following is a literal translation from the ,bestiary of ,,philippe ,,de ,,thaun 7#abth century73-- 7#b7 7,,thomas ,,boreman73 ,a ,description of ,three ,hundred ,animals 7#agcj71 p4 #f4 ,monosceros is an animal which has one horn on its head1 ,therefore it is so named2 it has the form of a goat1 ,it is caught by means of a virgin1 now hear in what manner4 ,when a man intends to hunt it and to take and ensnare it ,he goes to the forest where is its repair2 ,there he places a virgin1 with her breast uncovered1 ,and by its smell the monosceros perceives it2 ,then it comes to the virgin1 and kisses her breast1 ,falls asleep on her lap1 and so comes to its death2 ,the man arrives immediately1 and kills it in its sleep1 ,or takes it alive and does as he likes with it4 ,it signifies much1 ,i will not omit to tell it you4 ,monosceros is ,greek1 it means one horn in ,french3 ,a beast of such a description signifies ,jesus ,christ2 ,one ,god he is and shall be1 and was and will continue so2 ,he placed himself in the virgin1 and took flesh for man's sake1 ,and for virginity to show chastity2 ,to a virgin he ,,appeared and a virgin conceived him1 ,a virgin she is1 and will be1 and will remain always4 ,now hear briefly the signification4 ,this animal in truth signifies ,god2 ,know that the virgin signifies ,st ,mary2 ,by her breast we understand similarly ,holy ,church2 ,and then by the kiss it ought to signify1 ,that a man when he sleeps is in semblance of death2 ,god slept as man1 who suffered death on the cross1 ,and his destruction was our redemption1 ,and his labour our repose1 ,thus ,god deceived the ,devil by a proper semblance2 ,soul and body were one1 so was ,god and man1 ,and this is the signification of an animal of that description47#a7 7#a7 ,popular ,treatises on ,science written during the ,middle ,ages in ,anglo-,saxon1 ,anglo-,norman1 and ,english1 ed4 by ,,thomas ,,wright 7,historical ,society of ,science1 #ahda71 pp4 #ha-hb4 ,this being the current belief concerning the symbolism of the unicorn in the ,middle ,ages1 it is not surprising to find this animal utilised in church architecture2 for an example see fig4 #ce4 ,the belief in the existence of these fabulous beasts may very probably have been due to the materialising of what were originally nothing more than mere arbitrary symbols1 as ,i have already suggested of the phoenix47#a7 ,thus the account of the mantichora may1 as ,,bostock has suggested1 very well be a description of certain hieroglyphic figures1 examples of which are still to be found in the ruins of ,assyrian and ,persian cities4 ,this explanation seems1 on the whole1 more likely than the alternative hypothesis that such beliefs were due to mal-observation2 though that1 no doubt1 helped in their formation4 7#a7 ,superstitions concerning ,birds4 ,it may be questioned1 however1 whether the architects and preachers of the ,middle ,ages altogether believed in the strange fables of the ,bestiaries4 ,as ,mr ,,collins says in reply to this question3 ,probably they were credulous enough4 ,but1 on the whole1 we may say that the truth of the story was just what they did not trouble about1 any more than some clergymen are particular about the absolute truth of the stories they tell children from the pulpit4 ,the application1 the lesson1 is the thing6 ,with their desire to interpret ,nature spiritually1 we ought1 ,i think1 to sympathise4 ,but there was one truth they had yet to learn1 namely1 that in order to interpret ,nature spiritually1 it is necessary first to understand her aright in her literal sense4 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,quest ,,of ,,the ,,philosopher',s ,,stone ,,the need of unity is a primary need of human thought4 ,behind the varied multiplicity of the world of phenomena1 primitive man1 as ,i have indicated on a preceding excursion1 begins to seek1 more or less consciously1 for that ,unity which alone is ,real4 ,and this statement not only applies to the first dim gropings of the primitive human mind1 but sums up almost the whole of science and philosophy2 for almost all science and philosophy is explicitly or implicitly a search for unity1 for one law or one love1 one matter or one spirit4 ,that which is the aim of the search may1 indeed1 be expressed under widely different terms1 but it is always conceived to be the unity in which all multiplicity is resolved1 whether it be thought of as one final law of necessity1 which all things obey1 and of which all the various other laws of nature are so many special and limited applications2 or as one final love for which all things are created1 and to which all things aspire2 as one matter of which all bodies are but varying forms2 or as one spirit1 which is the life of all things1 and of which all things are so many manifestations4 ,every scientist and philosopher is a merchant seeking for goodly pearls1 willing to sell every pearl that he has1 if he may secure the ,one ,pearl beyond price1 because he knows that in that ,one ,pearl all others are included4 ,this search for unity in multiplicity1 however1 is not confined to the acknowledged scientist and philosopher4 ,more or less unconsciously everyone is engaged in this quest4 ,harmony and unity are the very fundamental laws of the human mind itself1 and1 in a sense1 all mental activity is the endeavour to bring about a state of harmony and unity in the mind4 ,no two ideas that are contradictory of one another1 and are perceived to be of this nature1 can permanently exist in any sane man's mind4 ,it is true that many people try to keep certain portions of their mental life in water-tight compartments2 thus some try to keep their religious convictions and their business ideas1 or their religious faith and their scientific knowledge1 separate from another one--and1 it seems1 often succeed remarkably well in so doing4 ,but1 ultimately1 the arbitrary mental walls they have erected will break down by the force of their own ideas4 ,contradictory ideas from different compartments will then present themselves to consciousness at the same moment of time1 and the result of the perception of their contradictory nature will be mental anguish and turmoil1 persisting until one set of ideas is conquered and overcome by the other1 and harmony and unity are restored4 ,it is true of all of us1 then1 that we seek for ,unity--unity in mind and life4 ,some seek it in science and a life of knowledge2 some seek it in religion and a life of faith2 some seek it in human love and find it in the life of service to their fellows2 some seek it in pleasure and the gratification of the senses' demands2 some seek it in the harmonious development of all the facets of their being4 ,many the methods1 right and wrong2 many the terms under which the ,one is conceived1 true and false--in a sense1 to use the phraseology of a bygone system of philosophy1 we are all1 consciously or unconsciously1 following paths that lead thither or paths that lead away1 seekers in the quest of the ,philosopher's ,stone4 ,let us1 in these excursions in the byways of thought1 consider for a while the form that the quest of fundamental unity took in the hands of those curious mediaeval philosophers1 half mystics1 half experimentalists in natural things--that are known by the name of alchemists4 ,the common opinion concerning alchemy is that it was a pseudo-science or pseudo-art flourishing during the ,dark ,ages1 and having for its aim the conversion of common metals into silver and gold by means of a most marvellous and wholly fabulous agent called the ,philosopher's ,stone1 that its devotees were half knaves1 half fools1 whose views concerning ,nature were entirely erroneous1 and whose objects were entirely mercenary4 ,this opinion is not absolutely destitute of truth2 as a science alchemy involved many fantastic errors2 and in the course of its history it certainly proved attractive to both knaves and fools4 ,but if this opinion involves some element of truth1 it involves a far greater proportion of error4 ,amongst the alchemists are numbered some of the greatest intellects of the ,middle ,ages--,,roger ,,bacon 7c4 #abad-abid71 for example1 who might almost be called the father of experimental science4 ,and whether or not the desire for material wealth was a secondary object1 the true aim of the genuine alchemist was a much nobler one than this as one of them exclaims with true scientific fervour3 ,would to ,god444 all men might become adepts in our ,art--for then gold1 the great idol of mankind1 would lose its value1 and we should prize it only for its scientific teaching47#a7 ,moreover1 recent developments in physical and chemical science seem to indicate that the alchemists were not so utterly wrong in their concept of ,nature as has formerly been supposed--that1 whilst they certainly erred in both their methods and their interpretations of individual phenomena1 they did intuitively grasp certain fundamental facts concerning the universe ofthe very greatest importance4 7#a7 ,,eirenaeus ,,philalethes3 ,an ,open ,entrance to the ,closed ,palace of the ,king4 7,see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 ,restored and ,enlarged1 ed4 by ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite1 #ahic1 vol4 ii4 p4 #agh47 ,suppose1 however1 that the theories of the alchemists are entirely erroneous from beginning to end1 and are nowhere relieved by the merest glimmer of truth4 ,still they were believed to be true1 and this belief had an important influence upon human thought4 ,many men of science have1 ,i am afraid1 been too prone to regard the mystical views of the alchemists as unintelligible2 but1 whatever their theories may be to us1 these theories were certainly very real to them3 it is preposterous to maintain that the writings of the alchemists are without meaning1 even though their views are altogether false4 ,and the more false their views are believed to be1 the more necessary does it become to explain why they should have gained such universal credit4 ,here we have problems into which scientific inquiry is not only legitimate1 but1 ,i think1 very desirable1--apart altogether from the question of the truth or falsity of alchemy as a science1 or its utility as an art4 ,what exactly was the system of beliefs grouped under the term alchemy1 and what was its aim8 ,why were the beliefs held8 ,what was their precise influence upon human thought and culture8 ,it was in order to elucidate problems of this sort1 as well as to determine what elements of truth1 if any1 there are in the theories of the alchemists1 that ,the ,alchemical ,society was founded in #aiab1 mainly through my own efforts and those of my confreres1 and for the first time something like justice was being done to the memory of the alchemists when the ,society's activities were stayed by that greatest calamity of history1 the ,european ,war4 ,some students of the writings of the alchemists have advanced a very curious and interesting theory as to the aims of the alchemists1 which may be termed the transcendental theory4 ,according to this theory1 the alchemists were concerned only with the mystical processes affecting the soul of man1 and their chemical references are only to be understood symbolically4 ,in my opinion1 however1 this view of the subject is rendered untenable by the lives of the alchemists themselves2 for1 as ,mr ,,waite has very fully pointed out in his ,lives of ,alchemystical ,philosophers 7#ahhh71 the lives of the alchemists show them to have been mainly concerned with chemical and physical processes2 and1 indeed1 to their labours we owe many valuable discoveries of a chemical nature4 ,but the fact that such a theory should ever have been formulated1 and should not be altogether lacking in consistency1 may serve to direct our attention to the close connection between alchemy and mysticism4 ,if we wish to understand the origin and aims of alchemy we must endeavour to recreate the atmosphere of the ,middle ,ages1 and to look at the subject from the point of view of the alchemists themselves4 ,now1 this atmosphere was1 as ,i have indicated in a previous essay1 surcharged with mystical theology and mystical philosophy4 ,alchemy1 so to speak1 was generated and throve in a dim religious light4 ,we cannot open a book by any one of the better sort of alchemists without noticing how closely their theology and their chemistry are interwoven1 and what a remarkably religious view they take of their subject4 ,thus one alchemist writes3 ,in the first place1 let every devout and ,god-fearing chemist and student of this ,art consider that this arcanum should be regarded1 not only as a truly great1 but as a most holy ,art 7seeing that it typifies and shadows out the highest heavenly good74 ,therefore1 if any man desire to reach this great and unspeakable ,mystery1 he must remember that it is obtained not by the might of man1 but by the grace of ,god1 and that not our will or desire1 but only the mercy of the ,most ,high1 can bestow it upon us4 ,for this reason you must first of all cleanse your heart1 lift it up to ,him alone1 and ask of ,him this gift in true1 earnest and undoubting prayer4 ,he alone can give and bestow it47#a7 ,whilst another alchemist declares3 ,i am firmly persuaded that any unbeliever who got truly to know this ,art1 would straightway confess the truth of our ,blessed ,religion1 and believe in the ,trinity and in our ,lord ,,jesus ,,christ47#b7 7#a7 ,the ,sophic ,hydrolith2 or1 ,water ,stone of the ,wise4 7,see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 i4 pp4 #gd and #ge47 7#b7 ,,peter ,,bonus3 ,the ,new ,pearl of ,great ,price 7trans4 by ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite1 #ahid71 p4 #bge4 ,now1 what ,i suggest is that the alchemists constructed their chemical theories for the main part by means of a priori reasoning1 and that the premises from which they started were 7i47 the truth of mystical theology1 especially the doctrine of the soul's regeneration1 and 7ii47 the truth of mystical philosophy1 which asserts that the objects of ,nature are symbols of spiritual verities4 ,there is1 ,i think1 abundant evidence to show that alchemy was a more or less deliberate attempt to apply1 according to the principles of analogy1 the doctrines of religious mysticism to chemical and physical phenomena4 ,some of this evidence ,i shall attempt to put forward in this essay4 ,in the first place1 however1 ,i propose to say a few words more in description of the theological and philosophical doctrines which so greatly influenced the alchemists1 and which1 ,i believe1 they borrowed for their attempted explanations of chemical and physical phenomena4 ,this system of doctrine ,i have termed mysticism--a word which is unfortunately equivocal1 and has been used to denote various systems of religious and philosophical thought1 from the noblest to the most degraded4 ,i have1 therefore1 further to define my usage of the term4 ,by mystical theology ,i mean that system of religious thought which emphasises the unity between ,creator and creature1 though not necessarily to the extent of becoming pantheistic4 ,man1 mystical theology asserts1 has sprung from ,god1 but has fallen away from ,him through self-love4 ,within man1 however1 is the seed of divine grace1 whereby1 if he will follow the narrow road of self-renunciation1 he may be regenerated1 born anew1 becoming transformed into the likeness of ,god and ultimately indissolubly united to ,god in love4 ,god is at once the ,creator and the ,restorer of man's soul1 ,he is the ,origin as well as the ,end of all existence2 and ,he is also the ,way to that ,end4 ,in ,christian mysticism1 ,,christ is the ,pattern1 towards which the mystic strives2 ,,christ also is the means towards the attainment of this end4 ,by mystical philosophy ,i mean that system of philosophical thought which emphasises the unity of the ,cosmos1 asserting that ,god and the spiritual may be perceived immanent in the things of this world1 because all things natural are symbols and emblems of spiritual verities4 ,as one of the ,golden ,verses attributed to ,,pythagoras1 which ,i have quoted in a previous essay1 puts it3 ,the ,nature of this ,universe is in all things alike2 commenting upon which1 ,,hierocles1 writing in the fifth or sixth century1 remarks that ,nature1 in forming this ,universe after the ,divine ,measure and ,proportion1 made it in all things conformable and like to itself1 analogically in different manners4 ,of all the different species1 diffused throughout the whole1 it made1 as it were1 an ,image of the ,divine ,beauty1 imparting variously to the copy the perfections of the ,original47#a7 ,we have1 however1 already encountered so many instances of this belief1 that no more need be said here concerning it4 7#a7 ,commentary of ,,hierocles on the ,golden ,verses of ,,pythagoras 7trans4 by ,n4 ,,rowe1 #aijf71 pp4 #aja and #ajb4 ,in fine1 as ,dean ,,inge well says3 ,religious ,mysticism may be defined as the attempt to realise the presence of the living ,god in the soul and in nature1 or1 more generally1 as the attempt to realise1 in thought and feeling1 the immanence of the temporal in the eternal1 and of the eternal in the temporal47#b7 7#b7 ,,william ,,ralph ,,inge1 ,m4,a43 ,christian ,mysticism 7the ,bampton ,lectures1 #ahii71 p4 #e4 ,now1 doctrines such as these were not only very prevalent during the ,middle ,ages1 when alchemy so greatly flourished1 but are of great antiquity1 and were undoubtedly believed in by the learned class in ,egypt and elsewhere in the ,east in those remote days when1 as some think1 alchemy originated1 though the evidence1 as will1 ,i hope1 become plain as we proceed1 points to a later and post-,christian origin for the central theorem of alchemy4 ,so far as we can judge from their writings1 the more important alchemists were convinced of the truth of these doctrines1 and it was with such beliefs in mind that they commenced their investigations of physical and chemical phenomena4 ,indeed1 if we may judge by the esteem in which the ,hermetic maxim1 ,what is above is as that which is below1 what is below is as that which is above1 to accomplish the miracles of the ,one ,thing1 was held by every alchemist1 we are justified in asserting that the mystical theory of the spiritual significance of ,nature--a theory with which1 as we have seen1 is closely connected the ,neoplatonic and ,kabalistic doctrine that all things emanate in series from the ,divine ,source of all ,being--was at the very heart of alchemy4 ,as writes one alchemist3 444 the ,sages have been taught of ,god that this natural world is only an image and material copy of a heavenly and spiritual pattern2 that the very existence of this world is based upon the reality of its celestial archetype2 and that ,god has created it in imitation of the spiritual and invisible universe1 in order that men might be the better enabled to comprehend ,his heavenly teaching1 and the wonders of ,his absolute and ineffable power and wisdom4 ,thus the sage sees heaven reflected in ,nature as in a mirror2 and he pursues this ,art1 not for the sake of gold or silver1 but for the love of the knowledge which it reveals2 he jealously conceals it from the sinner and the scornful1 lest the mysteries of heaven should be laid bare to the vulgar gaze47#a7 7#a7 ,,michael ,,sendivogius 7873 ,the ,new ,chemical ,light1 ,pt4 ,,ii41 ,concerning ,sulphur4 7,see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ach47 ,the alchemists1 ,i hold1 convinced of the truth of this view of ,nature1 i4e4 that principles true of one plane of being are true also of all other planes1 adopted analogy as their guide in dealing with the facts of chemistry and physics known to them4 ,they endeavoured to explain these facts by an application to them of the principles of mystical theology1 their chief aim being to prove the truth of these principles as applied to the facts of the natural realm1 and by studying natural phenomena to become instructed in spiritual truth4 ,they did not proceed by the sure1 but slow1 method of modern science1 i4e4 the method of induction1 which questions experience at every step in the construction of a theory2 but they boldly allowed their imaginations to leap ahead and to formulate a complete theory of the ,cosmos on the strength of but few facts4 ,this led them into many fantastic errors1 but ,i would not venture to deny them an intuitive perception of certain fundamental truths concerning the constitution of the ,cosmos1 even if they distorted these truths and dressed them in a fantastic garb4 ,now1 as ,i hope to make plain in the course of this excursion1 the alchemists regarded the discovery of the ,philosopher's ,stone and the transmutation of base metals into gold as the consummation of the proof of the doctrines of mystical theology as applied to chemical phenomena1 and it was as such that they so ardently sought to achieve the magnum opus1 as this transmutation was called4 ,of course1 it would be useless to deny that many1 accepting the truth of the great alchemical theorem1 sought for the ,philosopher's ,stone because of what was claimed for it in the way of material benefits4 ,but1 as ,i have already indicated1 with the nobler alchemists this was not the case1 and the desire for wealth1 if present at all1 was merely a secondary object4 ,the idea expressed in ,,dalton',s atomic hypothesis 7#ahjb71 and universally held during the nineteenth century1 that the material world is made up of a certain limited number of elements unalterable in quantity1 subject in themselves to no change or development1 and inconvertible one into another1 is quite alien to the views of the alchemists4 ,the alchemists conceived the universe to be a unity2 they believed that all material bodies had been developed from one seed2 their elements are merely different forms of one matter and1 therefore1 convertible one into another4 ,they were thoroughgoing evolutionists with regard to the things of the material world1 and their theory concerning the evolution of the metals was1 ,i believe1 the direct outcome of a metallurgical application of the mystical doctrine of the soul's development and regeneration4 ,the metals1 they taught1 all spring from the same seed in ,nature's womb1 but are not all equally matured and perfect2 for1 as they say1 although ,nature always intends to produce only gold1 various impurities impede the process4 ,in the metals the alchemists saw symbols of man in the various stages of his spiritual development4 ,gold1 the most beautiful as well as the most untarnishable metal1 keeping its beauty permanently1 unaffected by sulphur1 most acids1 and fire--indeed1 purified by such treatment1--gold1 to the alchemist1 was the symbol of regenerate man1 and therefore he called it a noble metal4 ,silver was also termed noble2 but it was regarded as less mature than gold1 for1 although it is undoubtedly beautiful and withstands the action of fire1 it is corroded by nitric acid and is blackened by sulphur2 it was1 therefore1 considered to be analogous to the regenerate man at a lower stage of his development4 ,possibly we shall not be far wrong in using ,,swedenborg',s terms1 celestial to describe the man of gold1 spiritual to designate him of silver4 ,lead1 on the other hand1 the alchemists regarded as a very immature and impure metal3 heavy and dull1 corroded by sulphur and nitric acid1 and converted into a calx by the action of fire1--lead1 to the alchemists1 was a symbol of man in a sinful and unregenerate condition4 ,the alchemists assumed the existence of three principles in the metals1 their obvious reason for so doing being the mystical threefold division of man into body1 soul 7i4e4 affections and will71 and spirit 7i4e4 intelligence71 though the principle corresponding to body was a comparatively late introduction in alchemical philosophy4 ,this latter fact1 however1 is no argument against my thesis2 because1 of course1 ,i do not maintain that the alchemists started out with their chemical philosophy ready made1 but gradually worked it out1 by incorporating in it further doctrines drawn from mystical theology4 ,the three principles just referred to were called mercury1 sulphur1 and salt2 and they must be distinguished from the common bodies so designated 7though the alchemists themselves seem often guilty of confusing them74 ,mercury is the metallic principle par excellence1 conferring on metals their brightness and fusibility1 and corresponding to the spirit or intelligence in man47#a7 ,sulphur1 the principle of combustion and colour1 is the analogue of the soul4 ,many alchemists postulated two sulphurs in the metals1 an inward and an outward47#a;b7 ,the outward sulphur was thought to be the chief cause of metallic impurity1 and the reason why all 7known7 metals1 save gold and silver1 were acted on by fire4 ,the inward sulphur1 on the other hand1 was regarded as essential to the development of the metals3 pure mercury1 we are told1 matured by a pure inward sulphur yields pure gold4 ,here again it is evident that the alchemists borrowed their theories from mystical theology2 for1 clearly1 inward sulphur is nothing else than the equivalent to love of ,god2 outward sulphur to love of self4 ,intelligence 7mercury7 matured by love to ,god 7inward sulphur7 exactly expresses the spiritual state of the regenerate man according to mystical theology4 ,there is no reason1 other than their belief in analogy1 why the alchemists should have held such views concerning the metals4 ,salt1 the principle of solidity and resistance to fire1 corresponding to the body in man1 plays a comparatively unimportant part in alchemical theory1 as does its prototype in mystical theology4 7#a7 ,the identification of the god ,,mercury with ,,thoth1 the ,egyptian god of learning1 is worth noticing in this connection4 7#a;b7 ,pseudo-,,geber1 whose writings were highly esteemed1 for instance4 ,see ,r4 ,,russel',s translation of his works 7#afgh71 p4 #afj4 ,now1 as ,i have pointed out already1 the central theorem of mystical theology is1 in ,christian terminology1 that of the regeneration of the soul by the ,spirit of ,,christ4 ,the corresponding process in alchemy is that of the transmutation of the base metals into silver and gold by the agency of the ,philosopher's ,stone4 ,merely to remove the evil sulphur of the base metals1 thought the alchemists1 though necessary1 is not sufficient to transmute them into noble metals2 a maturing process is essential1 similar to that which they supposed was effected in ,nature's womb4 ,mystical theology teaches that the powers and life of the soul are not inherent in it1 but are given by the free grace of ,god4 ,neither1 according to the alchemists1 are the powers and life of nature in herself1 but in that immanent spirit1 the ,soul of the ,world1 that animates her4 ,as writes the famous alchemist who adopted the pleasing pseudonym of ,,basil ,,valentine 7c4 #afjj71 the power of growth444 is imparted not by the earth1 but by the life-giving spirit that is in it4 ,if the earth were deserted by this spirit1 it would be dead1 and no longer able to afford nourishment to anything4 ,for its sulphur or richness would lack the quickening spirit without which there can be neither life nor growth47#a;a7 ,to perfect the metals1 therefore1 the alchemists argued1 from analogy with mystical theology1 which teaches that men can be regenerated only by the power of ,,christ within the soul1 that it is necessary to subject them to the action of this world-spirit1 this one essence underlying all the varied powers of nature1 this ,one ,thing from which all things were produced444 by adaption1 and which is the cause of all perfection throughout the whole world47#b;a7 ,this1 writes one alchemist1 is the ,spirit of ,truth1 which the world cannot comprehend without the interposition of the ,holy ,ghost1 or without the instruction of those who know it4 ,the same is of a mysterious nature1 wondrous strength1 boundless power4444 ,by ,avicenna this ,spirit is named the ,soul of the ,world4 ,for1 as the ,soul moves all the limbs of the ,body1 so also does this ,spirit move all bodies4 ,and as the ,soul is in all the limbs of the ,body1 so also is this ,spirit in all elementary created things4 ,it is sought by many and found by few4 ,it is beheld from afar and found near2 for it exists in every thing1 in every place1 and at all times4 ,it has the powers of all creatures2 its action is found in all elements1 and the qualities of all things are therein1 even in the highest perfection444 it heals all dead and living bodies without other medicine444 converts all metallic bodies into gold1 and there is nothing like unto it under ,heaven47#a;b7 ,it was this ,spirit1 concentrated in all its potency in a suitable material form1 which the alchemists sought under the name of the ,philosopher's ,stone4 ,now1 mystical theology teaches that the ,spirit of ,,christ1 by which alone the soul of man can be tinctured and transmuted into the likeness of ,god1 is ,goodness itself2 consequently1 the alchemists argued that the ,philosopher's ,stone must be1 so to speak1 ,gold itself1 or the very essence of ,gold3 it was to them1 as ,,christ is of the soul's perfection1 at once the pattern and the means of metallic perfection4 ,the ,philosopher's ,stone1 declares ,,eirenaeus ,,philalethes 7nat4 c4 #afbc71 is a certain heavenly1 spiritual1 penetrative1 and fixed substance1 which brings all metals to the perfection of gold or silver 7according to the quality of the ,medicine71 and that by natural methods1 which yet in their effects transcend ,nature4444 ,know1 then1 that it is called a stone1 not because it is like a stone1 but only because1 by virtue of its fixed nature1 it resists the action of fire as successfully as any stone4 ,in species it is gold1 more pure than the purest2 it is fixed and incombustible like a stone 7i4e4 it contains no outward sulphur1 but only inward1 fixed sulphur71 but its appearance is that of a very fine powder1 impalpable to the touch1 sweet to the taste1 fragrant to the smell1 in potency a most penetrative spirit1 apparently dry and yet unctuous1 and easily capable of tingeing a plate of metal4444 ,if we say that its nature is spiritual1 it would be no more than the truth2 if we described it as corporeal the expression would be equally correct2 for it is subtle1 penetrative1 glorified1 spiritual gold4 ,it is the noblest of all created things after the rational soul1 and has virtue to repair all defects both in animal and metallic bodies1 by restoring them to the most exact and perfect temper2 wherefore is it a spirit or 'quintessence4'7#a;c7 7#a;a7 ,,basil ,,valentine3 ,the ,twelve ,keys4 7,see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ccc and #ccd47 7#b;a7 ,from the ,smaragdine ,table1 attributed to ,,hermes ,,trismegistos 7ie4 ,,mercury or ,,thoth74 7#a;b7 ,the ,book of the ,revelation of ,,hermes1 interpreted by ,,theophrastus ,,paracelsus1 concerning the ,supreme ,secret of the ,world4 7,see ,,benedictus ,,figulus1 ,a ,golden and ,blessed ,casket of ,nature's ,marvels1 trans4 by ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite1 #ahic1 pp4 #cf1 #cg1 and #da47 7#a;c7 ,,eirenaeus ,,philalethes3 ,a ,brief ,guide to the ,celestial ,ruby4 7,see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bdf and #bdi47 ,in other accounts the ,philosopher's ,stone1 or at least the materia prima of which it is compounded1 is spoken of as a despised substance1 reckoned to be of no value4 ,thus1 according to one curious alchemistic work1 ,this matter1 so precious by the excellent ,gifts1 wherewith ,nature has enriched it1 is truly mean1 with regard to the ,substances from whence it derives its ,original4 ,their price is not above the ,ability of the ,poor4 ,ten ,pence is more than sufficient to purchase the ,matter of the ,stone4444 ,the matter therefore is mean1 considering the ,foundation of the ,art because it costs very little2 it is no less mean1 if one considers exteriourly that which gives it ,perfection1 since in that regard it costs nothing at all1 in as much as all the ,world has it in its ,power444 so that444 it is a constant ,truth1 that the ,stone is a ,thing mean in one ,sense1 but that in another it is most precious1 and that there are none but ,fools that despise it1 by a just ,judgment of ,god47#a7 ,and ,,jacob ,,boehme 7#aege--afbd7 writes3 ,the philosopher's stone is a very dark1 disesteemed stone1 of a grey colour1 but therein lieth the highest tincture47#b7 ,in these passages there is probably some reference to the ubiquity of the ,spirit of the ,world1 already referred to in a former quotation4 ,but this fact is not1 in itself1 sufficient to account for them4 ,i suggest that their origin is to be found in the religious doctrine that ,god's ,grace1 the ,spirit of ,,christ that is the means of the transmutation of man's soul into spiritual gold1 is free to all2 that it is1 at once1 the meanest and the most precious thing in the whole ,universe4 ,indeed1 ,i think it quite probable that the alchemists who penned the above-quoted passages had in mind the words of ,,isaiah1 ,he was despised and we esteemed him not4 ,and if further evidence is required that the alchemists believed in a correspondence between ,,christ--the ,stone which the builders rejected--and the ,philosopher's ,stone1 reference may be made to the alchemical work called ,the ,sophic ,hydrolith3 or ,water ,stone of the ,wise1 a tract included in ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 in which this supposed correspondence is explicitly asserted and dealt with in some detail4 7#a7 ,a ,discourse between ,eudoxus and ,pyrophilus1 upon the ,ancient ,war of the ,knights4 ,see ,the ,hermetical ,triumph3 or1 the ,victorious ,philosophical ,stone 7#agbc71 pp4 #aja and #ajb4 7#b7 ,,jacob ,,boehme3 ,epistles 7trans4 by ,j4 ,e41 #afdi1 reprinted #ahhf71 ,ep4 iv41 ,,se ,,iii4 ,apart from the alchemists' belief in the analogy between natural and spiritual things1 it is1 ,i think1 incredible that any such theories of the metals and the possibility of their transmutation or regeneration by such an extraordinary agent as the ,philosopher's ,stone would have occurred to the ancient investigators of ,nature's secrets4 ,when they had started to formulate these theories1 facts7#a7 were discovered which appeared to support them2 but it is1 ,i suggest1 practically impossible to suppose that any or all of these facts would1 in themselves1 have been sufficient to give rise to such wonderfully fantastic theories as these3 it is only from the standpoint of the theory that alchemy was a direct offspring of mysticism that its origin seems to be capable of explanation4 7#a7 ,one of those facts1 amongst many others1 that appeared to confirm the alchemical doctrines1 was the ease with which iron could apparently be transmuted into copper4 ,it was early observed that iron vessels placed in contact with a solution of blue vitriol became converted 7at least1 so far as their surfaces were concerned7 into copper4 ,this we now know to be due to the fact that the copper originally contained in the vitriol is thrown out of solution1 whilst the iron takes its place4 ,and we know1 also1 that no more copper can be obtained in this way from the blue vitriol than is actually used up in preparing it2 and1 further1 that all the iron which is apparently converted into copper can be got out of the residual solution by appropriate methods1 if such be desired2 so that the facts really support ,,dalton',s theory rather than the alchemical doctrines4 ,but to the alchemist it looked like a real transmutation of iron into copper1 confirmation of his fond belief that iron and other base metals could be transmuted into silver and gold by the aid of the ,great ,arcanum of ,nature4 ,in all the alchemical doctrines mystical connections are evident1 and mystical origins can generally be traced4 ,i shall content myself here with giving a couple of further examples4 ,consider1 in the first place1 the alchemical doctrine of purification by putrefaction1 that the metals must die before they can be resurrected and truly live1 that through death alone are they purified--in the more prosaic language of modern chemistry1 death becomes oxidation1 and rebirth becomes reduction4 ,in many alchemical books there are to be found pictorial symbols of the putrefaction and death of metals and their new birth in the state of silver or gold1 or as the ,stone itself1 together with descriptions of these processes4 ,the alchemists sought to kill or destroy the body or outward form of the metals1 in the hope that they might get at and utilise the living essence they believed to be immanent within4 ,as ,,paracelsus put it3 ,nothing of true value is located in the body of a substance1 but in the virtue444 the less there is of body1 the more in proportion is the virtue4 ,it seems to me quite obvious that in such ideas as these we have the application to metallurgy of the mystic doctrine of self-renunciation--that the soul must die to self before it can live to ,god2 that the body must be sacrificed to the spirit1 and the individual will bowed down utterly to the ,one ,divine ,will1 before it can become one therewith4 ,in the second place1 consider the directions as to the colours that must be obtained in the preparation of the ,philosopher's ,stone1 if a successful issue to the ,great ,work is desired4 ,such directions are frequently given in considerable detail in alchemical works2 and1 without asserting any exact uniformity1 ,i think that ,i may state that practically all the alchemists agree that three great colour-stages are necessary--7i47 an inky blackness1 which is termed the ,crow's ,head and is indicative of putrefaction2 7ii47 a white colour indicating that the ,stone is now capable of converting base metals into silver2 this passes through orange into 7iii47 a red colour1 which shows that the ,stone is now perfect1 and will transmute base metals into gold4 ,now1 what was the reason for the belief in these three colour-stages1 and for their occurrence in the above order8 ,i suggest that no alchemist actually obtained these colours in this order in his chemical experiments1 and that we must look for a speculative origin for the belief in them4 ,we have1 ,i think1 only to turn to religious mysticism for this origin4 ,for the exponents of religious mysticism unanimously agree to a threefold division of the life of the mystic4 ,the first stage is called the dark night of the soul1 wherein it seems as if the soul were deserted by ,god1 although ,he is very near4 ,it is the time of trial1 when self is sacrificed as a duty and not as a delight4 ,afterwards1 however1 comes the morning light of a new intelligence1 which marks the commencement of that stage of the soul's upward progress that is called the illuminative life4 ,all the mental powers are now concentrated on ,god1 and the struggle is transferred from without to the inner man1 good works being now done1 as it were1 spontaneously4 ,the disciple1 in this stage1 not only does unselfish deeds1 but does them from unselfish motives1 being guided by the light of ,divine ,truth4 ,the third stage1 which is the consummation of the process1 is termed the contemplative life4 ,it is barely describable4 ,the disciple is wrapped about with the ,divine ,love1 and is united thereby with his ,divine ,source4 ,it is the life of love1 as the illuminative life is that of wisdom4 ,i suggest that the alchemists1 believing in this threefold division of the regenerative process1 argued that there must be three similar stages in the preparation of the ,stone1 which was the pattern of all metallic perfection2 and that they derived their beliefs concerning the colours1 and other peculiarities of each stage in the supposed chemical process1 from the characteristics of each stage in the psychological process according to mystical theology4 ,moreover1 in the course of the latter process many flitting thoughts and affections arise and deeds are half-wittingly done which are not of the soul's true character2 and in entire agreement with this1 we read of the alchemical process1 in the highly esteemed ,canons of ,d',,espagnet3 ,besides these decretory signs 7i4e4 the black1 white1 orange1 and red colours7 which firmly inhere in the matter1 and shew its essential mutations1 almost infinite colours appear1 and shew themselves in vapours1 as the ,rainbow in the clouds1 which quickly pass away and are expelled by those that succeed1 more affecting the air than the earth3 the operator must have a gentle care of them1 because they are not permanent1 and proceed not from the intrinsic disposition of the matter1 but from the fire painting and fashioning everything after its pleasure1 or casually by heat in slight moisture47#a7 ,that ,d',,espagnet is arguing1 not so much from actual chemical experiments1 as from analogy with psychological processes in man1 is1 ,i think1 evident4 7#a7 ,,jean ,d',,espagnet3 ,hermetic ,arcanum1 canon #fe4 7,see ,collectanea ,hermetica1 ed4 by ,w4 ,,wynn ,,westcott1 vol4 i41 #ahic1 pp4 #bh and #bi47 ,as well as a metallic1 the alchemists believed in a physiological1 application of the fundamental doctrines of mysticism3 their physiology was analogically connected with their metallurgy1 the same principles holding good in each case4 ,,paracelsus1 as we have seen1 taught that man is a microcosm1 a world in miniature2 his spirit1 the ,divine ,spark within1 is from ,god2 his soul is from the ,stars1 extracted from the ,spirit of the ,world2 and his body is from the earth1 extracted from the elements of which all things material are made4 ,this view of man was shared by many other alchemists4 ,the ,philosopher's ,stone1 therefore 7or1 rather1 a solution of it in alcohol7 was also regarded as the ,elixir of ,life2 which1 thought the alchemists1 would not endow man with physical immortality1 as is sometimes supposed1 but restore him again to the flower of youth1 regenerating him physiologically4 ,failing this1 of course1 they regarded gold in a potable form as the next most powerful medicine--a belief which probably led to injurious effects in some cases4 ,such are the facts from which ,i think we are justified in concluding1 as ,i have said1 that the alchemists constructed their chemical theories for the main part by means of a priori reasoning1 and that the premises from which they started were 7i47 the truth of mystical theology1 especially the doctrine of the soul's regeneration1 and 7ii47 the truth of mystical philosophy1 which asserts that the objects of nature are symbols of spiritual verities47#a7 7#a7 ,in the following excursion we will wander again in the alchemical bypaths of thought1 and certain objections to this view of the origin and nature of alchemy will be dealt with and1 ,i hope1 satisfactorily answered4 ,it seems to follow1 ex hypothesi1 that every alchemical work ought to permit of two interpretations1 one physical1 the other transcendental4 ,but ,i would not venture to assert this1 because1 as ,i think1 many of the lesser alchemists knew little of the origin of their theories1 nor realised their significance4 ,they were concerned merely with these theories in their strictly metallurgical applications1 and any transcendental meaning we can extract from their works was not intended by the writers themselves4 ,however1 many alchemists1 ,i conceive1 especially the better sort1 realised more or less clearly the dual nature of their subject1 and their books are to some extent intended to permit of a double interpretation1 although the emphasis is laid upon the physical and chemical application of mystical doctrine4 ,and there are a few writers who adopted alchemical terminology on the principle that1 if the language of theology is competent to describe chemical processes1 then1 conversely1 the language of alchemy must be competent to describe psychological processes3 this is certainly and entirely true of ,,jacob ,,boehme1 and1 to some extent also1 ,i think1 of ,,henry ,,khunrath 7#aefj-afje7 and ,,thomas ,,vaughan 7#afbb-afff74 ,as may be easily understood1 many of the alchemists led most romantic lives1 often running the risk of torture and death at the hands of avaricious princes who believed them to be in possession of the ,philosopher's ,stone1 and adopted such pleasant methods of extorting 7or1 at least1 of trying to extort7 their secrets4 ,a brief sketch1 which ,i quote from my ,alchemy3 ,ancient and ,modern 7#aiaa71 ,,se #ed1 of the lives of ,,alexander ,,sethon and ,,michael ,,sendivogius1 will serve as an example3-- ,the date and birthplace of ,,alexander ,,sethon1 a ,scottish alchemist1 do not appear to have been recorded1 but ,,michael ,,sendivogius was probably born in ,moravia about #aeff4 ,sethon1 we are told1 was in possession of the arch-secrets of ,alchemy4 ,he visited ,holland in #afjb1 proceeded after a time to ,italy1 and passed through ,basle to ,germany2 meanwhile he is said to have performed many transmutations4 ,ultimately arriving at ,dresden1 however1 he fell into the clutches of the young ,elector1 ,christian ,,ii41 who1 in order to extort his secret1 cast him into prison and put him to the torture1 but without avail4 ,now it so happened that ,sendivogius1 who was in quest of the ,philosopher's ,stone1 was staying at ,dresden1 and hearing of ,sethon's imprisonment obtained permission to visit him4 ,sendivogius offered to effect ,sethon's escape in return for assistance in his alchemistic pursuits1 to which arrangement the ,scottish alchemist willingly agreed4 ,after some considerable outlay of money in bribery1 ,sendivogius's plan of escape was successfully carried out1 and ,sethon found himself a free man2 but he refused to betray the high secrets of ,hermetic philosophy to his rescuer4 ,however1 before his death1 which occurred shortly afterwards1 he presented him with an ounce of the transmutative powder4 ,sendivogius soon used up this powder1 we are told1 in effecting transmutations and cures1 and1 being fond of expensive living1 he married ,sethon's widow1 in the hope that she was in the possession of the transmutative secret4 ,in this1 however1 he was disappointed2 she knew nothing of the matter1 but she had the manuscript of an alchemistic work written by her late husband4 ,shortly afterwards ,sendivogius printed at ,prague a book entitled ,the ,new ,chemical ,light under the name of ',cosmopolita1' which is said to have been this work of ,sethon's1 but which ,sendivogius claimed for his own by the insertion of his name on the title page1 in the form of an anagram4 ,the tract ,on ,sulphur which was printed at the end of the book in later editions1 however1 is said to have been the genuine work of the ,moravian4 ,whilst his powder lasted1 ,sendivogius travelled about1 performing1 we are told1 many transmutations4 ,he was twice imprisoned in order to extort the secrets of alchemy from him1 on one occasion escaping1 and on the other occasion obtaining his release from the ,emperor ,rudolph4 ,afterwards1 he appears to have degenerated into an impostor1 but this is said to have been a finesse to hide his true character as an alchemistic adept4 ,he died in #afdf4 ,however1 all the alchemists were not of the apparent character of ,,sendivogius--many of them leading holy and serviceable lives4 ,the alchemist-physician ,j4 ,b4 ,,van ,,helmont 7#aegg-afdd71 who was a man of extraordinary benevolence1 going about treating the sick poor freely1 may be particularly mentioned4 ,he1 too1 claimed to have performed the transmutation of base metal into gold1 as did also ,,helvetius 7whom we have already met71 physician to the ,prince of ,orange1 with a wonderful preparation given to him by a stranger4 ,the testimony of these two latter men is very difficult either to explain or to explain away1 but ,i cannot deal with this question here1 but must refer the reader to a paper on the subject by ,mr ,,gaston ,,de ,,mengel1 and the discussion thereon1 published in vol4 i4 of ,the ,journal of the ,alchemical ,society4 ,in conclusion1 ,i will venture one remark dealing with a matter outside of the present inquiry4 ,alchemy ended its days in failure and fraud2 charlatans and fools were attracted to it by purely mercenary objects1 who knew nothing of the high aims of the genuine alchemists1 and scientific men looked elsewhere for solutions of ,nature's problems4 ,why did alchemy fail8 ,was it because its fundamental theorems were erroneous8 ,i think not4 ,i consider the failure of the alchemical theory of ,nature to be due rather to the misapplication of these fundamental concepts1 to the erroneous use of a priori methods of reasoning1 to a lack of a sufficiently wide knowledge of natural phenomena to which to apply these concepts1 to a lack of adequate apparatus with which to investigate such phenomena experimentally1 and to a lack of mathematical organons of thought with which to interpret such experimental results had they been obtained4 ,as for the basic concepts of alchemy themselves1 such as the fundamental unity of the ,cosmos and the evolution of the elements1 in a word1 the applicability of the principles of mysticism to natural phenomena3 these seem to me to contain a very valuable element of truth--a statement which1 ,i think1 modern scientific research justifies me in making1--though the alchemists distorted this truth and expressed it in a fantastic form4 ,i think1 indeed1 that in the modern theories of energy and the all-pervading ether1 the etheric and electrical origin and nature of matter and the evolution of the elements1 we may witness the triumphs of mysticism as applied to the interpretation of ,nature4 ,whether or not we shall ever transmute lead into gold1 ,i believe there is a very true sense in which we may say that alchemy1 purified by its death1 has been proved true1 whilst the materialistic view of ,nature has been proved false4 ,x4 ,,the ,,phallic ,,element ,,in ,,alchemical ,,doctrine ,,the problem of alchemy presents many aspects to our view1 but1 to my mind1 the most fundamental of these is psychological1 or1 perhaps ,i should say1 epistemological4 ,it has been said that the proper study of mankind is man2 and to study man we must study the beliefs of man4 ,now so long as we neglect great tracts of such beliefs1 because they have been1 or appear to have been1 superseded1 so long will our study be incomplete and ineffectual4 ,and this1 let me add1 is no mere excuse for the study of alchemy1 no mere afterthought put forward in justification of a predilection1 but a plain statement of fact that renders this study an imperative need4 ,there are other questions of interest--of very great interest--concerning alchemy3 questions1 for instance1 as to the scope and validity of its doctrines2 but we ought not to allow their fascination and promise to distract our attention from the fundamental problem1 whose solution is essential to their elucidation4 ,in the preceding essay on ,the ,quest of the ,philosopher's ,stone1 which was written from the standpoint ,i have sketched in the foregoing words1 my thesis was that the alchemists constructed their chemical theories for the main part by means of a priori reasoning1 and that the premises from which they started were 7i47 the truth of mystical theology1 especially the doctrine of the soul's regeneration1 and 7ii47 the truth of mystical philosophy1 which asserts that the objects of nature are symbols of spiritual verities4 ,now1 ,i wish to treat my present thesis1 which is concerned with a further source from which the alchemists derived certain of their views and modes of expression by means of a priori reasoning1 in connection with1 and1 in a sense1 as complementary to1 my former thesis4 ,i propose in the first place1 therefore1 briefly to deal with certain possible objections to this view of alchemy4 ,it has1 for instance1 been maintained7#a7 that the assimilation of alchemical doctrines concerning the metals to those of mysticism concerning the soul was an event late in the history of alchemy1 and was undertaken in the interests of the latter doctrines4 ,now we know that certain mystics of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries did borrow from the alchemists much of their terminology with which to discourse of spiritual mysteries--,,jacob ,,boehme1 ,,henry ,,khunrath1 and perhaps ,,thomas ,,vaughan1 may be mentioned as the most prominent cases in point4 ,but how was this possible if it were not1 as ,i have suggested1 the repayment1 in a sense1 of a sort of philological debt8 ,transmutation was an admirable vehicle of language for describing the soul's regeneration1 just because the doctrine of transmutation was the result of an attempt to apply the doctrine of regeneration in the sphere of metallurgy2 and similar remarks hold of the other prominent doctrines of alchemy4 7#a7 ,see1 for example1 ,mr ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite',s paper1 ,the ,canon of ,criticism in respect of ,alchemical ,literature1 ,the ,journal of the ,alchemical ,society1 vol4 i4 7#aiac71 pp4 #ag-cj4 ,the wonderful fabric of alchemical doctrine was not woven in a day1 and as it passed from loom to loom1 from ,byzantium to ,syria1 from ,syria to ,arabia1 from ,arabia to ,spain and ,latin ,europe1 so its pattern changed2 but it was always woven a priori1 in the belief that that which is below is as that which is above4 ,in its final form1 ,i think1 it is distinctly ,christian4 ,in the ,turba ,philosophorum1 the oldest known work of ,latin alchemy--a work which1 claiming to be of ,greek origin1 whilst not that1 is certainly ,greek in spirit1--we frequently come across statements of a decidedly mystical character4 ,the regimen1 we read1 is greater than is perceived by reason1 except through divine inspiration47#a7 ,copper1 it is insisted upon again and again1 has a soul as well as a body2 and the ,art1 we are told1 is to be defined as the liquefaction of the body and the separation of the soul from the body1 seeing that copper1 like a man1 has a soul and a body47#b7 ,moreover1 other doctrines are here propounded which1 although not so obviously of a mystical character1 have been traced to mystical sources in the preceding excursion4 ,there is1 for instance1 the doctrine of purification by means of putrefaction1 this process being likened to that of the resurrection of man4 ,these things being done1 we read1 ,god will restore unto it 7the matter operated on7 both the soul and the spirit thereof1 and the weakness being taken away1 that matter will be made strong1 and after corruption will be improved1 even as a man becomes stronger after resurrection and younger than he was in this world47#a;b7 ,the three stages in the alchemical work--black1 white1 and red--corresponding to1 and1 as ,i maintain1 based on the three stages in the life of the mystic1 are also more than once mentioned4 ,cook them 7the king and his wife71 therefore1 until they become black1 then white1 afterwards red1 and finally until a tingeing venom is produced47#b;b7 7#a7 ,the ,turba ,philosophorum1 or ,assembly of the ,sages 7trans4 by ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite1 #ahif71 p4 #abh4 7#b7 ,ibid41 p4 #aic1 cf4 pp4 #ajb and #aeb4 7#a;b7 ,the ,turba ,philosophorum1 or ,assembly of the ,sages 7trans4 by ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite71 p4 #aja1 cf4 pp4 #bg and #aig4 7#b;b7 ,ibid41 p4 #ih1 cf4 p4 #bi4 ,in view of these quotations1 the alliance 7shall ,i say87 between alchemy and mysticism cannot be asserted to be of late origin4 ,and we shall find similar statements if we go further back in time4 ,to give but one example3 ,among the earliest authorities1 writes ,mr ,,waite1 the ,book of ,crates says that copper1 like man1 has a spirit1 soul1 and body1 the term copper being symbolical and applying to a stage in the alchemical work4 ,but nowhere in the ,turba do we meet with the concept of the ,philosopher's ,stone as the medicine of the metals1 a concept characteristic of ,latin alchemy1 and1 to quote ,mr ,,waite again1 it does not appear that the conception of the ,philosopher's ,stone as a medicine of metals and of men was familiar to ,greek alchemy27#c7 7#c7 ,ibid41 p4 #ga4 ,all this seems to me very strongly to support my view of the origin of alchemy1 which requires a specifically ,christian mysticism only for this specific concept of the ,philosopher's ,stone in its fully-fledged form4 ,at any rate1 the development of alchemical doctrine can be seen to have proceeded concomitantly with the development of mystical philosophy and theology4 ,those who are not prepared here to see effect and cause may be asked not only to formulate some other hypothesis in explanation of the origin of alchemy1 but also to explain this fact of concomitant development4 ,from the standpoint of the transcendental theory of alchemy it has been urged that the language of mystical theology seemed to be hardly so suitable to the exposition 7as ,i maintain7 or concealment of chemical theories1 as the language of a definite and generally credited branch of science was suited to the expression of a veiled and symbolical process such as the regeneration of man47#a7 ,but such a statement is only possible with respect to the latest days of alchemy1 when there ,,was a science of chemistry1 definite and generally credited4 ,the science of chemistry1 it must be remembered1 had no growth separate from alchemy1 but evolved therefrom4 ,of the days before this evolution had been accomplished1 it would be in closer accord with the facts to say that theology1 including the doctrine of man's regeneration1 was in the position of a definite and generally credited branch of science1 whereas chemical phenomena were veiled in deepest mystery and tinged with the dangers appertaining to magic4 ,as concerns the origin of alchemy1 therefore1 the argument as to suitability of language appears to support my own theory2 it being open to assume that after formulation--that is1 in alchemy's latter days--chemical nomenclature and theories were employed by certain writers to veil heterodox religious doctrine4 7#a7 ,,philip ,s4 ,,wellby1 ,m4,a41 in ,the ,journal of the ,alchemical ,society1 vol4 ii4 7#aiad71 p4 #ajd4 ,another recent writer on the subject1 my friend the late ,mr ,,abdul-,,ali1 has remarked that he thought that1 in the mind of the alchemist at least1 there was something more than analogy between metallic and psychic transformations1 and that the whole subject might well be assigned to the doctrinal category of ineffable and transcendent ,oneness4 ,this ,oneness comprehended all--soul and body1 spirit and matter1 mystic visions and waking life--and the sharp metaphysical distinction between the mental and the non-mental realms1 so prominent during the history of philosophy1 was not regarded by these early investigators in the sphere of nature4 ,there was the sentiment1 perhaps only dimly experienced1 that not only the law1 but the substance of the ,universe1 was one2 that mind was everywhere in contact with its own kindred2 and that metallic transmutation would1 somehow1 so to speak1 signalise and seal a hidden transmutation of the soul47#a7 7#a7 ,,sijil ,,abdul-,,ali1 in ,the ,journal of the ,alchemical ,society1 vol4 ii4 7#aiad71 p4 #ajb4 ,i am to a large extent in agreement with this view4 ,mr ,,abdul-,,ali quarrels with the term analogy1 and1 if it is held to imply any merely superficial resemblance1 it certainly is not adequate to my own needs1 though ,i know not what other word to use4 ,,swedenborg',s term correspondence would be better for my purpose1 as standing for an essential connection between spirit and matter1 arising out of the causal relationship of the one to the other4 ,but if ,,swedenborg believed that matter and spirit were most intimately related1 he nevertheless had a very precise idea of their distinctness1 which he formulated in his ,doctrine of ,degrees--a very exact metaphysical doctrine indeed4 ,the alchemists1 on the other hand1 had no such clear ideas on the subject4 ,it would be even more absurd to attribute to them a ,cartesian dualism4 ,to their ways of thinking1 it was by no means impossible to grasp the spiritual essences of things by what we should now call chemical manipulations4 ,for them a gas was still a ghost and air a spirit4 ,one could quote pages in support of this1 but ,i will content myself with a few words from the ,turba--the antiquity of the book makes it of value1 and anyway it is near at hand4 ,permanent water1 whatever that may be1 being pounded with the body1 we are told1 by the will of ,god it turns that body into spirit4 ,and in another place we read that the ,philosophers have said3 ,except ye turn bodies into not-bodies1 and incorporeal things into bodies1 ye have not yet discovered the rule of operation47#a;a7 ,no one who could write like this1 and believe it1 could hold matter and spirit as altogether distinct4 ,but it is equally obvious that the injunction to convert body into spirit is meaningless if spirit and body are held to be identical4 ,i have been criticised for crediting the alchemists with the philosophic acumen of ,hegel17#a;b7 but that is just what ,i think one ought to avoid doing4 ,at the same time1 however1 it is extremely difficult to give a precise account of views which are very far from being precise themselves4 ,but ,i think it may be said1 without fear of error1 that the alchemist who could say1 ,as above1 so below1 ipso facto recognised both a very close connection between spirit and matter1 and a distinction between them4 ,moreover1 the division thus implied corresponded1 on the whole1 to that between the realms of the known 7or what was thought to be known7 and the unknown4 ,the ,church1 whether ,christian or pre-,christian1 had very precise 7comparatively speaking7 doctrine concerning the soul's origin1 duties1 and destiny1 backed up by tremendous authority1 and speculative philosophy had advanced very far by the time ,,plato began to concern himself with its problems4 ,nature1 on the other hand1 was a mysterious world of magical happenings1 and there was nothing deserving of the name of natural science until alchemy was becoming decadent4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the alchemists--these men who wished to probe ,nature's hidden mysteries--should reason from above to below2 indeed1 unless they had started de novo--as babes knowing nothing1--there was no other course open to them4 ,and that they did adopt the obvious course is all that my former thesis amounts to4 ,in passing1 it is interesting to note that a sixteenth-century alchemist1 who had exceptional opportunities and leisure to study the works of the old masters of alchemy1 seems to have come to a similar conclusion as to the nature of their reasoning4 ,he writes3 ,the ,sages444 after having conceived in their minds a ,divine idea of the relations of the whole universe444 selected from among the rest a certain substance1 from which they sought to elicit the elements1 to separate and purify them1 and then again put them together in a manner suggested by a keen and profound observation of ,nature47#a;c7 7#a;a7 op cit41 pp14 #fe and #aaj1 cf4 p4 #aed4 7#a;b7 ,vide a rather frivolous review of my ,alchemy3 ,ancient and ,modern in ,the ,outlook for #adth ,january #aiaa4 7#a;c7 ,,edward ,,kelly3 ,the ,humid ,path4 7,see ,the ,alchemical ,writings of ,,edward ,,kelly1 edited by ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite1 #ahic1 pp4 #ei-fj47 ,in describing the realm of spirit as ex hypothesi known1 that of ,nature unknown1 to the alchemists1 ,i have made one important omission1 and that1 if ,i may use the name of a science to denominate a complex of crude facts1 is the realm of physiology1 which1 falling within that of ,nature1 must yet be classed as ex hypothesi known4 ,but to elucidate this point some further considerations are necessary touching the general nature of knowledge4 ,now1 facts may be roughly classed1 according to their obviousness and frequency of occurrence1 into four groups4 ,there are1 first of all1 facts which are so obvious1 to put it paradoxically1 that they escape notice2 and these facts are the commonest and most frequent in their occurrence4 ,i think it is ,mr ,,chesterton who has said that1 looking at a forest one cannot see the trees because of the forest2 and1 in ,the ,innocence of ,father ,brown1 he has a good story 7,the ,invisible ,man7 illustrating the point1 in which a man renders himself invisible by dressing up in a postman's uniform4 ,at any rate1 we know that when a phenomenon becomes persistent it tends to escape observation2 thus1 continuous motion can only be appreciated with reference to a stationary body1 and a noise1 continually repeated1 becomes at last inaudible4 ,the tendency of often-repeated actions to become habitual1 and at last automatic1 that is to say1 carried out without consciousness1 is a closely related phenomenon4 ,we can understand1 therefore1 why a knowledge of the existence of the atmosphere1 as distinct from the wind1 came late in the history of primitive man1 as1 also1 many other curious gaps in his knowledge4 ,in the second group we may put those facts which are common1 that is1 of frequent occurrence1 and are classed as obvious4 ,such facts are accepted at face-value by the primitive mind1 and are used as the basis of explanation of facts in the two remaining groups1 namely1 those facts which1 though common1 are apt to escape the attention owing to their inconspicuousness1 and those which are of infrequent occurrence4 ,when the mind takes the trouble to observe a fact of the third group1 or is confronted by one of the fourth1 it feels a sense of surprise4 ,such facts wear an air of strangeness1 and the mind can only rest satisfied when it has shown them to itself as in some way cases of the second group of facts1 or1 at least1 brought them into relation therewith4 ,that is what the mind--at least the primitive mind--means by explanation4 ,it is obvious1 we say1 commencing an argument1 thereby proclaiming our intention to bring that which is at first in the category of the not-obvious1 into the category of the obvious4 ,it remains for a more sceptical type of mind--a later product of human evolution--to question obvious facts1 to explain them1 either1 as in science1 by establishing deeper and more far-reaching correlations between phenomena1 or in philosophy1 by seeking for the source and purpose of such facts1 or1 better still1 by both methods4 ,of the second class of facts--those common and obvious facts which the primitive mind accepts at face-value and uses as the basis of its explanations of such things as seem to it to stand in need of explanation--one could hardly find a better instance than sex4 ,the universality of sex1 and the intermittent character of its phenomena1 are both responsible for this4 ,indeed1 the attitude of mind ,i have referred to is not restricted to primitive man2 how many people to-day1 for instance1 just accept sex as a fact1 pleasant or unpleasant according to their predilections1 never querying1 or feeling the need to query1 its why and wherefore8 ,it is by no means surprising1 that when man first felt the need of satisfying himself as to the origin of the universe1 he should have done so by a theory founded on what he knew of his own generation4 ,indeed1 as ,i queried on a former occasion1 what other source of explanation was open to him8 ,of what other form of origin was he aware8 ,seeing ,nature springing to life at the kiss of the sun1 what more natural than that she should be regarded as the divine ,mother1 who bears fruits because impregnated by the ,sun-,god8 ,it is not difficult to understand1 therefore1 why primitive man paid divine honours to the organs of sex in man and woman1 or to such things as he considered symbolical of them--that is to say1 to understand the extensiveness of those religions which are grouped under the term phallicism4 ,nor1 to my mind1 is the symbol of sex a wholly inadequate one under which to conceive of the origin of things4 ,and1 as ,i have said before1 that phallicism usually appears to have degenerated into immorality of a very pronounced type is to be deplored1 but an immoral view of human relations is by no means a necessary corollary to a sexual theory of the universe47#a7 7#a7 ,the reverence as well as the worship paid to the phallus1 in early and primitive days1 had nothing in it which partook of indecency2 all ideas connected with it were of a reverential and religious kind4444 ,the indecent ideas attached to the representation of the phallus were1 though it seems a paradox to say so1 the results of a more advanced civilization verging towards its decline1 as we have evidence at ,rome and ,pompeii4444 ,to the primitive man 7the reproductive force which pervades all nature7 was the most mysterious of all manifestations4 ,the visible physical powers of nature--the sun1 the sky1 the storm--naturally claimed his reverence1 but to him the generative power was the most mysterious of all powers4 ,in the vegetable world1 the live seed placed in the ground1 and hence germinating1 sprouting up1 and becoming a beautiful and umbrageous tree1 was a mystery4 ,in the animal world1 as the cause of all life1 by which all beings came into existence1 this power was a mystery4 ,in the view of primitive man generation was the action of the ,deity itself4 ,it was the mode in which ,he brought all things into existence1 the sun1 the moon1 the stars1 the world1 man were generated by ,him4 ,to the productive power man was deeply indebted1 for to it he owed the harvests and the flocks which supported his life2 hence it naturally became an object of reverence and worship4 ,primitive man wants some object to worship1 for an abstract idea is beyond his comprehension1 hence a visible representation of the generative ,deity was made1 with the organs contributing to generation most prominent1 and hence the organ itself became a symbol of the power4--,h1 ,m4 ,,westropp3 ,primitive ,symbolism as ,illustrated in ,phallic ,worship1 or the ,reproductive ,principle 7#ahhe71 pp4 #dg1 #dh1 and #eg4 ,end of long footnote ,the ,aruntas of ,australia1 ,i believe1 when discovered by ,europeans1 had not yet observed the connection between sexual intercourse and birth4 ,they believed that conception was occasioned by the woman passing near a churinga--a peculiarly shaped piece of wood or stone1 in which a spirit-child was concealed1 which entered into her4 ,but archaeological research having established the fact that phallicism has1 at one time or another1 been common to nearly all races1 it seems probable that the ,arunta tribe represents a deviation from the normal line of mental evolution4 ,at any rate1 an isolated phenomenon1 such as this1 cannot be held to controvert the view that regards phallicism as in this normal line4 ,nor was the attitude of mind that not only accepts sex at face-value as an obvious fact1 but uses the concept of it to explain other facts1 a merely transitory one4 ,we may1 indeed1 not difficultly trace it throughout the history of alchemy1 giving rise to what ,i may term ,the ,phallic ,element in ,alchemical ,doctrine4 ,in aiming to establish this1 ,i may be thought to be endeavouring to establish a counter-thesis to that of the preceding essay on alchemy1 but1 in virtue of the alchemists' belief in the mystical unity of all things1 in the analogical or correspondential relationship of all parts of the universe to each other1 the mystical and the phallic views of the origin of alchemy are complementary1 not antagonistic4 ,indeed1 the assumption that the metals are the symbols of man almost necessitates the working out of physiological as well as mystical analogies1 and these two series of analogies are themselves connected1 because the principle ,as above1 so below was held to be true of man himself4 ,we might1 therefore1 expect to find a more or less complete harmony between the two series of symbols1 though1 as a matter of fact1 contradictions will be encountered when we come to consider points of detail4 ,the undoubtable antiquity of the phallic element in alchemical doctrine precludes the idea that this element was an adventitious one1 that it was in any sense an afterthought2 notwithstanding1 however1 the evidence1 as will1 ,i hope1 become apparent as we proceed1 indicates that mystical ideas played a much more fundamental part in the genesis of alchemical doctrine than purely phallic ones--mystical interpretations fit alchemical processes and theories far better than do sexual interpretations2 in fact1 sex has to be interpreted somewhat mystically in order to work out the analogies fully and satisfactorily4 ,as concerns ,greek alchemy1 ,i shall content myself with a passage from a work ,on the ,sacred ,art1 attributed to ,,olympiodorus 7sixth century ,a4,d471 followed by some quotations from and references to the ,turba4 ,in the former work it is stated on the authority of ,,horus that ,the proper end of the whole art is to obtain the semen of the male secretly1 seeing that all things are male and female4 ,hence 7we read further7 ,horus says in a certain place3 ,join the male and the female1 and you will find that which is sought2 as a fact1 without this process of re-union1 nothing can succeed1 for ,nature charms ,nature1 etc4 ,the ,turba insistently commands those who would succeed in the ,art1 to conjoin the male with the female17#a7 and1 in one place1 the male is said to be lead and the female orpiment47#b7 ,we also find the alchemical work symbolised by the growth of the embryo in the womb4 ,know1 we are told1 444 that out of the elect things nothing becomes useful without conjunction and regimen1 because sperma is generated out of blood and desire4 ,for the man mingling with the woman1 the sperm is nourished by the humour of the womb1 and by the moistening blood1 and by heat1 and when forty nights have elapsed the sperm is formed4444 ,god has constituted that heat and blood for the nourishment of the sperm until the foetus is brought forth4 ,so long as it is little1 it is nourished with milk1 and in proportion as the vital heat is maintained1 the bones are strengthened4 ,thus it behoves you also to act in this ,art47#c7 7#a7 ,vide pp4 #fj #ib1 #if #ig1 #acd1 #ace and elsewhere in ,mr ,,waite',s translation4 7#b7 ,ibid41 p4 #eg 7#c7 ,ibid41 pp4 #agi-aha 7second recension72 cf4 pp4 #ajc-ajd4 ,the use of the mystical symbols of death 7putrefaction7 and resurrection or rebirth to represent the consummation of the alchemical work1 and that of the phallic symbols of the conjunction of the sexes and the development of the foetus1 both of which we have found in the ,turba1 are current throughout the course of ,latin alchemy4 ,in ,the ,chymical ,marriage of ,christian ,rosencreutz1 that extraordinary document of what is called ,rosicrucianism--a symbolic romance of considerable ability1 whoever its author was17#a7--;an attempt is made to weld the two sets of symbols--the one of marriage1 the other of death and resurrection unto glory--into one allegorical narrative2 and it is to this fusion of seemingly disparate concepts that much of its fantasticality is due4 ,yet the concepts are not really disparate2 for not only is the second birth like unto the first1 and not only is the resurrection unto glory described as the ,bridal ,feast of the ,lamb1 but marriage is1 in a manner1 a form of death and rebirth4 ,to justify this in a crude sense1 ,i might say that1 from the male standpoint at least1 it is a giving of the life-substance to the beloved that life may be born anew and increase4 ,but in a deeper sense it is1 or rather should be1 as an ideal1 a mutual sacrifice of self for each other's good--a death of the self that it may arise with an enriched personality4 7#a7 ,see ,mr ,,waite',s ,the ,real ,history of the ,rosicrucians 7#ahhg7 for translation and discussion as to origin and significance4 ,the work was first published 7in ,german7 at ,strassburg in #afaf4 ,it is when we come to an examination of the ideas at the root of1 and associated with1 the alchemical concept of principles1 that we find some difficulty in harmonising the two series of symbols--the mystical and the phallic4 ,in one place in the ,turba we are directed to take quicksilver1 in which is the male potency or strength27#b;a7 and this concept of mercury as male is quite in accord with the mystical origin ,i have assigned in the preceding excursion to the doctrine of the alchemical principles4 ,i have shown1 ,i think1 that salt1 sulphur1 and mercury are the analogues ex hypothesi of the body1 soul 7affection and volition71 and spirit 7intelligence or understanding7 in man2 and the affections are invariably regarded as especially feminine1 the understanding as especially masculine4 ,but it seems that the more common opinion1 amongst ,latin alchemists at any rate1 was that sulphur was male and mercury female4 ,writes ,,bernard of ,,trevisan3 ,for the ,matter suffereth1 and the ,form acteth assimulating the ,matter to itself1 and according to this manner the ,matter naturally thirsteth after a ,form1 as a ,woman desireth an ,husband1 and a ,vile thing a precious one1 and an impure a pure one1 so also ,argent-vive coveteth a ,sulphur1 as that which should make perfect which is imperfect3 ,so also a ,body freely desireth a ,spirit1 whereby it may at length arrive at its perfection47#a;b7 ,at the same time1 however1 ,mercury was regarded as containing in itself both male and female potencies--it was the product of male and female1 and1 thus1 the seed of all the metals4 ,nothing in the ,world can be generated1 to repeat a quotation from ,,bernard1 without these two ,substances1 to wit a ,male and ,female3 ,from whence it appeareth1 that although these two substances are not of one and the same species1 yet one ,stone doth thence arise1 and although they appear and are said to be two ,substances1 yet in truth it is but one1 to wit1 ,argent-vive4 ,but of this ,argent-vive a certain part is fixed and digested1 ,masculine1 hot1 dry and secretly informing4 ,but the other1 which is the ,female1 is volatile1 crude1 cold1 and moyst47#b;b7 ,,edward ,,kelly 7#aeee-aeie71 who is valuable because he summarises authoritative opinion1 says somewhat the same thing1 though in clearer words3 ,the active elements444 these are water and fire444 may be called male1 while the passive elements444 earth and air444 represent the female principle4444 ,only two elements1 water and earth1 are visible1 and earth is called the hiding-place of fire1 water the abode of air4 ,in these two elements we have the broad law of limitation which divides the male from the female4 444 ,the first matter of minerals is a kind of viscous water1 mingled with pure and impure earth444 ,of this viscous water and fusible earth1 or sulphur1 is composed that which is called quicksilver1 the first matter of the metals4 ,metals are nothing but ,mercury digested by different degrees of heat47#a;c7 ,there is one difference1 however1 between these two writers1 inasmuch as ,,bernard says that the ,male and ,female abide together in closed ,natures2 the ,female truly as it were ,earth and ,water1 the ,male as ,air and ,fire4 ,mercury for him arises from the two former elements1 sulphur from the two latter47#b;c7 ,and the difference is important as showing beyond question the a priori nature of alchemical reasoning4 ,the idea at the back of the alchemists' minds was undoubtedly that of the ardour of the male in the act of coition and the alleged1 or perhaps ,i should say apparent1 passivity of the female4 ,consequently1 sulphur1 the fiery principle of combustion1 and such elements as were reckoned to be active1 were denominated male1 whilst mercury1 the principle acted on by sulphur1 and such elements as were reckoned to be passive1 were denominated female4 ,as to the question of origin1 ,i do not think that the palm can be denied to the mystical as distinguished from the phallic theory4 ,and in its final form the doctrine of principles is incapable of a sexual interpretation4 ,mystically understood1 man is capable of analysis into two principles--since body may be neglected as unimportant 7a false view1 ,i think1 by the way7 or soul and spirit may be united under one head--,,or into three2 whereas the postulation of ,,three principles on a sexual basis is impossible4 ,,joannes ,,isaacus ,,hollandus 7fifteenth century7 is the earliest author in whose works ,i have observed explicit mention of ,,three principles1 though he refers to them in a manner seeming to indicate that the doctrine was no new one in his day4 ,i have only read one little tract of his2 there is nothing sexual in it1 and the author's mental character may be judged from his remarks concerning the three flying spirits--taste1 smell1 and colour4 ,these1 he writes1 are the life1 soule1 and quintessence of every thing1 neither can these three spirits be one without the other1 as the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost are one1 yet three ,persons1 and one is not without the other47#a;d7 7#b;a7 ,mr ,,waite's translation1 p4 #gi4 7#a;b7 ,,bernard1 ,earl of ,,trevisan3 ,a ,treatise of the ,philosopher's ,stone1 #afhc4 7,see ,collectanea ,chymica3 ,a ,collection of ,ten ,several ,treatises in ,chymistry1 #afhd1 p4 #ib47 7#b;b7 ,ibid41 p4 #ia4 7#a;c7 ,,edward ,,kelly3 ,the ,stone of the ,philosophers4 7,see ,the ,alchemical ,writings of ,,edward ,,kelly1 edited by ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite1 #ahic1 pp4 #i and #aa to #ac47 7#b;c7 ,the ,answer of ,,bernardus ,,trevisanus1 to the ,epistle of ,thomas of ,bononira1 ,physician to ,k4 ,charles the #hth4 7,see ,,john ,,frederick ,,houpreght3 ,aurifontina ,chymica1 #afhj1 p4 #bjh47 7#a;d7 ,one ,hundred and ,fourteen ,experiments and ,cures of the ,famous ,physitian ,,theophrastus ,,paracelsus4 ,whereunto is added444 certain ,secrets of ,,isaac ,,hollandus1 concerning the ,vegetall and ,animall ,work 7#afeb71 pp4 #bi and #cj4 ,when the alchemists described an element or principle as male or female1 they meant what they said1 as ,i have already intimated1 to the extent1 at least1 of firmly believing that seed was produced by the two metallic sexes4 ,by their union metals were thought to be produced in the womb of the earth2 and mines were shut in order that by the birth and growth of new metal the impoverished veins might be replenished4 ,in this way1 too1 was the magnum opus1 the generation of the ,philosopher's ,stone--in species gold1 but purer than the purest--to be accomplished4 ,to conjoin that which ,nature supplied1 to foster the growth and development of that which was thereby produced2 such was the task of the alchemist4 ,for there are ,vegetables1 says ,,bernard of ,,trevisan in his ,answer to ,thomas of ,bononia1 but ,sensitives more especially1 which for the most part beget their like1 by the ,seeds of the ,male and ,female for the most part concurring and conmixt by copulation2 which work of ,nature the ,philosophick ,art imitates in the generation of gold47#a7 7#a7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #baf4 ,mercury1 as ,i have said1 was commonly regarded as the seed of the metals1 or as especially the female seed1 there being two seeds1 one the male1 according to ,,bernard1 more ripe1 perfect and active1 the other the female4 more immature and in a sort passive7#b7 444 our ,philosophick ,art1 he says in another place1 following a description of the generation of man1 444 is like this procreation of ,man2 for as in ,mercury 7of which ,gold is by ,nature generated in ,mineral ,vessels7 a natural conjunction 7#b7 ,ibid41 p4 #bag2 cf4 p4 #bcf is made of both the ,seeds1 ,male and ,female1 so by our artifice1 an artificial and like conjunction is made of ,agents and ,patients47#a7 ,all teaching1 says ,,kelly1 that changes ,mercury is false and vain1 for this is the original sperm of metals1 and its moisture must not be dried up1 for otherwise it will not dissolve17#b7 and quotes ,,arnold 7ob4 c4 #acaj7 to a similar effect47#c7 ,one wonders how far the fact that human and animal seed is fluid influenced the alchemists in their choice of mercury1 the only metal liquid at ordinary temperatures1 as the seed of the metals4 ,there are1 indeed1 other good reasons for this choice1 but that this idea played some part in it1 and1 at least1 was present at the back of the alchemists' minds1 ,i have little doubt4 ,the most philosophic account of metallic seed is that1 perhaps1 of the mysterious adept ,,eirenaeus ,,philalethes1 who distinguishes between it and mercury in a rather interesting manner4 ,he writes3 ,seed is the means of generic propagation given to all perfect things here below2 it is the perfection of each body2 and anybody that has no seed must be regarded as imperfect4 ,hence there can be no doubt that there is such a thing as metallic seed4444 ,all metallic seed is the seed of gold2 for gold is the intention of ,nature in regard to all metals4 ,if the base metals are not gold1 it is only through some accidental hindrance2 they are-all potentially gold4 ,but1 of course1 this seed of gold is most easily obtainable from well-matured gold itself4444 ,remember that ,i am now speaking of metallic seed1 and not of ,mercury4444 ,the seed of metals is hidden out of sight still more completely than that of animals2 nevertheless1 it is within the compass of our ,art to extract it4 ,the seed of animals and vegetables is something separate1 and may be cut out1 or otherwise separately exhibited2 but metallic seed is diffused throughout the metal1 and contained in all its smallest parts2 neither can it be discerned from its body3 its extraction is therefore a task which may well tax the ingenuity of the most experienced philosopher2 the virtues of the whole metal have to be intensified1 so as to convert it into the sperm of our seed1 which1 by circulation1 receives the virtues of superiors and inferiors1 then next becomes wholly form1 or heavenly virtue1 which can communicate this to others related to it by homogeneity of matter4 444 ,the place in which the seed resides is--approximately speaking--water2 for1 to speak properly and exactly1 the seed is the smallest part of the metal1 and is invisible2 but as this invisible presence is diffused throughout the water of its kind1 and exerts its virtue therein1 nothing being visible to the eye but water1 we are left to conclude from rational induction that this inward agent 7which is1 properly speaking1 the seed7 is really there4 ,hence we call the whole of the water seed1 just as we call the whole of the grain seed1 though the germ of life is only a smallest particle of the grain47#a;b7 7#a7 ,the ,answer of ,,bernardus ,,trevisanus1 etc4 ,op4 cit4 p4 #bah4 7#b7 op4 cit41 p4 #bb4 7#c7 ,ibid41 p4 #af4 7#a;b7 ,,eirenaeus ,,philalethes3 ,the ,metamorphosis of ,metals4 7,see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bch-bdj47 ,to say that ,,philalethes' seed resembles the modern electron is1 perhaps1 to draw a rather fanciful analogy1 since the electron is a very precise idea1 the result of the mathematical interpretation of the results of exact experimentation4 ,but though it would be absurd to speak of this concept of the one seed of all metals as an anticipation of the electron1 to apply the expression metallic seed to the electron1 now that the concept of it has been reached1 does not seem so absurd4 ,according to ,,philalethes1 the extraction of the seed is a very difficult process1 accomplishable1 however1 by the aid of mercury--the water homogeneous therewith4 ,mercury1 again1 is the form of the seed thereby obtained4 ,he writes3 ,when the sperm hidden in the body of gold is brought out by means of our ,art1 it appears under the form of ,mercury1 whence it is exalted into the quintessence which is first white1 and then1 by means of continuous coction1 becomes red4 ,and again3 ,there is a womb into which the gold 7if placed therein7 will1 of its own accord1 emit its seed1 until it is debilitated and dies1 and by its death is renewed into a most glorious ,king1 who thenceforward receives power to deliver all his brethren from the fear of death47#a7 7#a7 ,,eirenaeus ,,philalethes3 ,the ,metamorphosis of ,metals4 7,see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bda and #bdd47 ,the fifteenth-century alchemist ,,thomas ,,norton was peculiar in his views1 inasmuch as he denied that metals have seed4 ,he writes3 ,nature never multiplies anything1 except in either one or the other of these two ways3 either by decay1 which we call putrefaction1 or1 in the case of animate creatures1 by propagation4 ,in the case of metals there can be no propagation1 though our ,stone exhibits something like it4444 ,nothing can be multiplied by inward action unless it belong to the vegetable kingdom1 or the family of sensitive creatures4 ,but the metals are elementary objects1 and possess neither seed nor sensation47#a7 7#a7 ,,thomas ,,norton3 ,the ,ordinal of ,alchemy4 7,see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ae and #af47 ,his theory of the origin of the metals is astral rather than phallic4 ,the only efficient cause of metals1 he says1 is the mineral virtue1 which is not found in every kind of earth1 but only in certain places and chosen mines1 into which the celestial sphere pours its rays in a straight direction year by year1 and according to the arrangement of the metallic substance in these places1 this or that metal is gradually formed47#b7 7#b7 ,ibid41 pp4 #ae and #af4 ,in view of the astrological symbolism of these metals1 that gold should be masculine1 silver feminine1 does not surprise us1 because the idea of the masculinity of the sun and the femininity of the moon is a bit of phallicism that still remains with us4 ,it was by the marriage of gold and silver that very many alchemists considered that the magnum opus was to be achieved4 ,writes ,,bernard of ,,trevisan3 ,the subject of this admired ,science 7alchemy7 is ,sol and ,luna1 or rather ,male and ,female1 the ,male is hot and dry1 the ,female cold and moyst4 ,the aim of the work1 he tells us1 is the extraction of the spirit of gold1 which alone can enter into bodies and tinge them4 ,both ,sol and ,luna are absolutely necessary1 and whoever444shall think that a ,tincture can be made without these two ,bodyes1444 he proceedeth to the ,practice like one that is blind47#a7 7#a7 ,,bernard1 ,earl of ,,trevisan3 ,a ,treatise1 etc41 ,op4 cit4 pp4 #hc and #hg4 ,,kelly has teaching to the same effect1 the ,mercury of the ,philosophers being for him the menstruum or medium wherein the copulation of ,gold with ,silver is to be accomplished4 ,mercury1 in fact1 seems to have been everything and to have been capable of effecting everything in the eyes of the alchemists4 ,concerning gold and silver1 ,,kelly writes3 ,only one metal1 viz4 gold1 is absolutely perfect and mature4 ,hence it is called the perfect male body444 ,silver is less bounded by aqueous immaturity than the rest of the metals1 though it may indeed be regarded as to a certain extent impure1 still its water is already covered with the congealing vesture of its earth1 and it thus tends to perfection4 ,this condition is the reason why silver is everywhere called by the ,sages the perfect female body4 ,and later he writes3 ,in short1 our whole ,magistery consists in the union of the male and female1 or active and passive1 elements through the mediation of our metallic water and a proper degree of heat4 ,now1 the male and female are two metallic bodies1 and this ,i will again prove by irrefragable quotations from the ,sages4 ,some of the quotations will be given3 ,avicenna3 ',purify husband and wife separately1 in order that they may unite more intimately2 for if you do not purify them1 they cannot love each other4 ,by conjunction of the two natures you get a clear and lucid nature1 which1 when it ascends1 becomes bright and serviceable4'444 ,senior3 ',i1 the ,sun1 am hot and dry1 and thou1 the ,moon1 are cold and moist2 when we are wedded together in a closed chamber1 ,i will gently steal away thy soul4'444 ,rosinus3 ',when the ,sun1 my brother1 for the love of me 7silver7 pours his sperm 7i4e4 his solar fatness7 into the chamber 7i4e4 my ,lunar body71 namely1 when we become one in a strong and complete complexion and union1 the child of our wedded love will be born4444 ',rosary'3 ',the ferment of the ,sun is the sperm of the man1 the ferment of the ,moon1 the sperm of the woman4 ,of both we get a chaste union and a true generation4'444 ,aristotle3 ',take your beloved son1 and wed him to his sister1 his white sister1 in equal marriage1 and give them the cup of love1 for it is a food which prompts to union4' 7#a;a7 ,,kelly1 of course1 accepts the traditional authorship of the works from which he quotes1 though in many cases such authorship is doubtful1 to say the least4 ,the alchemical works ascribed to ,,aristotle 7#chd-cbb ,b4,c471 for instance1 are beyond question forgeries4 ,indeed1 the symbol of a union between brother and sister1 here quoted1 could hardly be held as acceptable to ,greek thought1 to which incest was the most abominable and unforgiveable sin4 ,it seems likelier that it originated with the ,egyptians1 to whom such unions were tolerable in fact4 ,the symbol is often met with in ,latin alchemy4 ,,michael ,,maier 7#aefh-afbb7 also says3 conjunge fratrem cum sorore et propina illis poculum amoris1 the words forming a motto to a picture of a man and woman clasped in each other's arms1 to whom an older man offers a goblet4 ,this symbolic picture occurs in his ,atalanta ,fugiens1 hoc est1 ,emblemata nova de ,secretis ,naturae ,chymica1 etc4 7,oppenheim1 #afag74 ,this work is an exceedingly curious one4 ,it consists of a number of carefully executed pictures1 each accompanied by a motto1 a verse of poetry set to music1 with a prose text4 ,many of the pictures are phallic in conception1 and practically all of them are anthropomorphic4 ,not only the primary function of sex1 but especially its secondary one of lactation1 is made use of4 ,the most curious of these emblematic pictures1 perhaps1 is one symbolising the conjunction of gold and silver4 ,it shows on the right a man and woman1 representing the sun and moon1 in the act of coition1 standing up to the thighs in a lake4 ,on the left1 on a hill above the lake1 a woman 7with the moon as halo7 gives birth to a child4 ,a boy is coming out of the water towards her4 ,the verse informs us that3 ,the bath glows red at the conception of the boy1 the air at his birth4 ,we learn also that there is a stone1 and yet there is not1 which is the noble gift of ,god4 ,if ,god grants it1 fortunate will be he who shall receive it47#a7 7#a;a7 ,,edward ,,kelly3 ,the ,stone of the ,philosophers1 ,op4 cit41 pp #ac1 #ad1 #cc1 #ce1 #cf1 #ch-dj1 and #dg4 7#a7 ,op4 ,cit41 p4 #ade ,concerning the nature of gold1 there is a discussion in ,the ,answer of ,,bernardus ,,trevisanus to the ,epistle of ,thomas of ,bononia1 with which ,i shall close my consideration of the present aspect of the subject4 ,its interest for us lies in the arguments which are used and held to be valid4 ,besides1 you say that ,gold1 as most think1 is nothing else than ,quick-silver coagulated naturally by the force of ,sulphur2 yet so1 that nothing of the ,sulphur which generated the ,gold1 doth remain in the substance of the ,gold3 as in an humane ,embryo1 when it is conceived in the ,womb1 there remains nothing of the ,father's ,seed1 according to ,aristotle's opinion1 but the ,seed of the ,man doth only coagulate the menstrual blood of the ,woman3 in the same manner you say1 that after ,quick-silver is so coagulated1 the form of ,gold is perfected in it1 by virtue of the ,heavenly ,bodies1 and especially of the ,sun47#a7 ,,bernard1 however1 decides against this view1 holding that gold contains both mercury and sulphur1 for we must not imagine1 according to their mistake who say1 that the ,male ,agent himself approaches the ,female in the coagulation1 and departs afterwards2 because1 as is known in every generation1 the conception is active and passive3 ,both the active and the passive1 that is1 all the four ,elements1 must always abide together1 otherwise there would be no mixture1 and the hope of generating an off-spring would be extinguished47#b7 7#a7 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #bjf and #bjg4 7#b7 ,ibid41 pp4 #bab and #bac4 ,in conclusion1 ,i wish to say something of the role of sex in spiritual alchemy4 ,but in doing this ,i am venturing outside the original field of inquiry of this essay and making a by no means necessary addition to my thesis2 and ,i am anxious that what follows should be understood as such1 so that no confusion as to the issues may arise4 ,in the great alchemical collection of ,j4 ,j4 ,,manget1 there is a curious work 7originally published in #afgg71 entitled ,mutus ,liber1 which consists entirely of plates1 without letterpress4 ,its interest for us in our present concern is that the alchemist1 from the commencement of the work until its achievement1 is shown working in conjunction with a woman4 ,we are reminded of ,,nicolas ,,flamel 7#accj-adah71 who is reputed to have achieved the magnum opus together with his wife ,,pernelle1 as well as of the many other women workers in the ,art of whom we read4 ,it would be of interest in this connection to know exactly what association of ideas was present in the mind of ,,michael ,,maier when he commanded the alchemist3 ,perform a work of women on the molten white lead1 that is1 cook17#a;a7 and illustrated his behest with a picture of a pregnant woman watching a fire over which is suspended a cauldron and on which are three jars4 ,there is a cat in the background1 and a tub containing two fish in the foreground1 the whole forming a very curious collection of emblems4 ,mr ,,waite1 who has dealt with some of these matters1 luminously1 though briefly1 says3 ,the evidences with which we have been dealing concern solely the physical work of alchemy and there is nothing of its mystical aspects4 ,the ,mutus ,liber is undoubtedly on the literal side of metallic transmutation2 the memorials of ,nicholas ,flamel are also on that side1 etc4 ,he adds1 however1 that ,it is on record that an unknown master testified to his possession of the mystery1 but he added that he had not proceeded to the work because he had failed to meet with an elect woman who was necessary thereto2 and proceeds to say3 ,i suppose that the statement will awaken in most minds only a vague sense of wonder1 and ,i can merely indicate in a few general words that which ,i see behind it4 ,those ,hermetic texts which bear a spiritual interpretation and are as if a record of spiritual experience present1 like the literature of physical alchemy1 the following aspects of symbolism3 7a7 the marriage of sun and moon2 7b7 of a mystical king and queen2 7c7 an union between natures which are one at the root but diverse in manifestation2 7d7 a transmutation which follows this union and an abiding glory therein4 ,it is ever a conjunction between male and female in a mystical sense2 it is ever the bringing together by art of things separated by an imperfect order of things2 it is ever the perfection of natures by means of this conjunction4 ,but if the mystical work of alchemy is an inward work in consciousness1 then the union between male and female is an union in consciousness2 and if we remember the traditions of a state when male and female had not as yet been divided1 it may dawn upon us that the higher alchemy was a practice for the return into this ineffable mode of being4 ,the traditional doctrine is set forth in the ,zohar and it is found in writers like ,jacob ,boehme2 it is intimated in the early chapters of ,genesis and1 according to an apocryphal saying of ,christ1 the kingdom of heaven will be manifested when two shall be as one1 or when that state has been once again attained4 ,in the light of this construction we can understand why the mystical adept went in search of a wise woman with whom the work could be performed2 but few there be that find her1 and he confessed to his own failure4 ,the part of woman in the physical practice of alchemy is like a reflection at a distance of this more exalted process1 and there is evidence that those who worked in metals and sought for a material elixir knew that there were other and greater aspects of the ,hermetic mystery47#a;b7 7#a;a7 ,,michael ,,mater3 ,atalanta ,fugiens 7#afag71 p4 #ig4 7#a;b7 ,a ,e4 ,,waite3 ,woman and the ,hermetic ,mystery1 ,the ,occult ,review 7,june #aiab71 vol4 xv4 pp4 #cbe and #cbf4 ,so far ,mr ,,waite1 whose impressive words ,i have quoted at some length2 and he has given us a fuller account of the theory as found in the ,zohar in his valuable work on ,the ,secret ,doctrine in ,israel 7#aiac74 ,the ,zohar regards marriage and the performance of the sexual function in marriage as of supreme importance1 and this not merely because marriage symbolises a divine union1 unless that expression is held to include all that logically follows from the fact1 but because1 as it seems1 the sexual act in marriage may1 in fact1 become a ritual of transcendental magic4 ,at least three varieties of opinion can be traced from the view of sex we have under consideration1 as to the nature of the perfect man1 and hence of the most adequate symbol for transmutation4 ,according to one1 and this appears to have been ,,jacob ,,boehme',s view1 the perfect man is conceived of as non-sexual1 the male and female elements united in him having1 as it were1 neutralised each other4 ,according to another1 he is pictured as a hermaphroditic being1 a concept we frequently come across in alchemical literature4 ,it plays a prominent part in ,,maier',s book ,atalanta ,fugiens1 to which reference has already been made4 ,,maier',s hermaphrodite has two heads1 one male1 one female1 but only one body1 one pair of arms1 and one pair of legs4 ,the two sexual organs1 which are placed side by side1 are delineated in the illustrations with considerable care1 showing the importance ,,maier attached to the idea4 ,this concept seems to me not only crude1 but unnatural and repellent4 ,but it may be said of both the opinions ,i have mentioned1 that they confuse between union and identity4 ,it is the old mistake1 with respect to a lesser goal1 of those who hope for absorption in the ,divine ,nature and consequent loss of personality4 ,it seems to be forgotten that a certain degree of distinction is necessary to the joy of union4 ,distinction and separation1 it should be remembered1 have different connotations4 ,if the supreme joy is that of self-sacrifice1 then the self must be such that it can be continually sacrificed1 else the joy is a purely transitory one1 or rather1 is destroyed at the moment of its consummation4 ,hence1 though sacrificed1 the self must still remain itself4 ,the third view of perfection1 to which these remarks naturally lead1 is that which sees it typified in marriage4 ,the mystic-philosopher ,,swedenborg has some exceedingly suggestive things to say on the matter in his extraordinary work on ,conjugial ,love1 which1 curiously enough1 seem largely to have escaped the notice of students of these high mysteries4 ,,swedenborg',s heaven is a sexual heaven1 because for him sex is primarily a spiritual fact1 and only secondarily1 and because of what it is primarily1 a physical fact2 and salvation is hardly possible1 according to him1 apart from a genuine marriage 7whether achieved here or hereafter74 ,man and woman are considered as complementary beings1 and it is only through the union of one man with one woman that the perfect angel results4 ,the altruistic tendency of such a theory as contrasted with the egotism of one in which perfection is regarded as obtainable by each personality of itself alone1 is a point worth emphasising4 ,as to the nature of this union1 it is1 to use ,,swedenborg',s own terms1 a conjunction of the will of the wife with the understanding of the man1 and reciprocally of the understanding of the man with the will of the wife4 ,it is thus a manifestation of that fundamental marriage between the good and the true which is at the root of all existence2 and it is because of this fundamental marriage that all men and women are born into the desire to complete themselves by conjunction4 ,the symbol of sexual intercourse is a legitimate one to use in speaking of this heavenly union2 indeed1 we may describe the highest bliss attainable by the soul1 or conceivable by the mind1 as a spiritual orgasm4 ,into conjugal love are collected1 says ,,swedenborg1 all the blessednesses1 blissfulnesses1 delightsomenesses1 pleasantnesses1 and pleasures1 which could possibly be conferred upon man by the ,lord the ,creator47#a7 ,in another place he writes3 ,married partners 7in heaven7 enjoy similar intercourse with each other as in the world1 but more delightful and blessed2 yet without prolification1 for which1 or in place of which1 they have spiritual prolification1 which is that of love and wisdom4 ,the reason1 he adds1 why the intercourse then is more delightful and blessed is1 that when conjugial love becomes of the spirit1 it becomes more interior and pure1 and consequently more perceptible2 and every delightsomeness grows according to the perception1 and grows even until its blessedness is discernible in its delightsomeness47#a;b7 ,such love1 however1 he says1 is rarely to be found on earth4 7#a7 ,,emanuel ,,swedenborg3 ,the ,delights of ,wisdom relating to ,conjugial ,love 7trans4 by ,a4 ,h4 ,,searle1 #ahia71 ,,se #fh4 7#a;b7 ,,emanuel ,,swedenborg3 ,op4 cit41 ,,se #ea4 ,a learned ,japanese speaks with approval of ,idealism as a dream where sensuousness and spirituality find themselves to be blood brothers or sisters47#b7 ,it is a statement which involves either the grossest and most dangerous error1 or the profoundest truth1 according to the understanding of it4 ,woman is a road whereby man travels either to ,god or the devil4 ,the problem of sex is a far deeper problem than appears at first sight1 involving mysteries both the direst and most holy4 ,it is by no means a fantastic hypothesis that the inmost mystery of what a certain school of mystics calls the ,secret ,tradition was a sexual one4 ,at any rate1 the fact that some of those1 at least1 to whom alchemy connoted a mystical process1 were alive to the profound spiritual significance of sex1 renders of double interest what they have to intimate of the achievement of the ,magnum ,opus in man4 7#b7 ,,yone ,,noguchi3 ,the ,spirit of ,japanese ,art 7#aiae71 p4 #cg4 ,,xi4 ,,roger ,,bacon3 ,,an ,,appreciation ,,it has been said that a prophet is not without honour1 save in his own country4 ,thereto might be added1 and in his own time2 for1 whilst there is continuity in time1 there is also evolution1 and ,england of to-day1 for instance1 is not the same country as ,england of the ,middle ,ages4 ,in his own day ,,roger ,,bacon was accounted a magician1 whose heretical views called for suppression by the ,church4 ,and for many a long day afterwards was he mainly remembered as a co-worker in the black art with ,friar ,,bungay1 who together with him constructed1 by the aid of the devil and diabolical rites1 a brazen head which should possess the power of speech--the experiment only failing through the negligence of an assistant47#a7 ,such was ,,roger ,,bacon in the memory of the later ,middle ,ages and many succeeding years2 he was the typical alchemist1 where that term carries with it the depth of disrepute1 though indeed alchemy was for him but one1 and that not the greatest1 of many interests4 7#a7 ,the story1 of course1 is entirely fictitious4 ,for further particulars see ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,,sandys' essay on ,roger ,bacon in ,english ,literature1 in ,roger ,bacon ,essays 7#aiad71 referred to below4 ,ilchester1 in ,somerset1 claims the honour of being the place of ,,roger ,,bacon',s birth1 which interesting and important event occurred1 probably1 in #abad4 ,young ,,bacon studied theology1 philosophy1 and what then passed under the name of science1 first at ,oxford1 then the centre of liberal thought1 and afterwards at ,paris1 in the rigid orthodoxy of whose professors he found more to criticise than to admire4 ,whilst at ,oxford he joined the ,franciscan ,order1 and at ,paris he is said1 though this is probably an error1 to have graduated as ,doctor of ,theology4 ,during #abej-abef we find him back in ,england1 no doubt engaged in study and teaching4 ,about the latter year1 however1 he is said to have been banished--on a charge of holding heterodox views and indulging in magical practices--to ,paris1 where he was kept in close confinement and forbidden to write4 ,mr ,,little17#a7 however1 believes this to be an error1 based on a misreading of a passage in one of ,,bacon',s works1 and that ,,roger was not imprisoned1 but stricken with sickness4 ,at any rate it is not improbable that some restrictions as to his writing were placed on him by his superiors of the ,franciscan ,order4 ,in #abff ,,bacon received a letter from ,pope ,,clement asking him to send ,his ,holiness his works in writing without delay4 ,this letter came as a most pleasant surprise to ,,bacon2 but he had nothing of importance written1 and in great haste and excitement1 therefore1 he composed three works explicating his philosophy1 the ,opus ,majus1 the ,opus ,minus1 and the ,opus ,tertium1 which were completed and dispatched to the ,pope by the end of the following year4 ,this1 as ,mr ,,rowbottom remarks1 is surely one of the literary feats of history1 perhaps only surpassed by ,swedenborg when he wrote six theological and philosophical treatises in one year47#a;b7 7#a7 ,see his contribution1 ,on ,roger ,bacon's ,life and ,works1 to ,roger ,bacon ,essays4 7#a;b7 ,b4 ,r4 ,,rowbottom3 ,roger ,bacon1 ,the ,journal of the ,alchemical ,society1 vol4 ii4 7#aiad71 p4 #gg4 ,the works appear to have been well received4 ,we next find ,,bacon at ,oxford writing his ,compendium ,studii ,philosophiae1 in which work he indulged in some by no means unjust criticisms of the clergy1 for which he fell under the condemnation of his order1 and was imprisoned in #abgg on a charge of teaching suspected novelties4 ,in those days any knowledge of natural phenomena beyond that of the quasi-science of the times was regarded as magic1 and no doubt some of ,,roger ,,bacon',s suspected novelties were of this nature2 his recognition of the value of the writings of non-,christian moralists was1 no doubt1 another suspected novelty4 ,appeals for his release directed to the ,pope proved fruitless1 being frustrated by ,,jerome ,d',,ascoli1 ,general of the ,franciscan ,order1 who shortly afterwards succeeded to the ,holy ,see under the title of ,,nicholas ,,iv4 ,the latter died in #abib1 whereupon ,,raymond ,,gaufredi1 who had been elected ,general of the ,franciscan ,order1 and who1 it is thought1 was well disposed towards ,,bacon1 because of certain alchemical secrets the latter had revealed to him1 ordered his release4 ,,bacon returned to ,oxford1 where he wrote his last work1 the ,compendium ,studii ,theologiae4 ,he died either in this year or in #abid47a7 7#a7 ,for further details concerning ,,bacon',s life1 ,,emile ,,charles3 ,roger ,bacon1 sa ,vie1 ses ,ouvrages1 ses ,doctrines 7#ahfa72 ,j4 ,h4 ,,bridges3 ,the ,life ,work of ,roger ,bacon1 an ,introduction to the ,opus ,majus 7edited by ,h4 ,g4 ,,jones1 #aiad72 and ,mr ,a4 ,g4 ,,little',s essay in ,roger ,bacon ,essays1 may be consulted4 ,it was not until the publication by ,dr ,,samuel ,,jebb1 in #agcc1 of the greater part of ,,bacon',s ,opus ,majus1 nearly four and a half centuries after his death1 that anything like his rightful position in the history of philosophy began to be assigned to him4 ,but let his spirit be no longer troubled1 if it were ever troubled by neglect or slander1 for the world1 and first and foremost his own country1 has paid him due honour4 ,his septcentenary was duly celebrated in #aiad at his alma mater1 ,oxford1 his statue has there been raised as a memorial to his greatness1 and savants have meted out praise to him in no grudging tones47#b7 ,indeed1 a voice has here and there been heard depreciating his better-known namesake ,,francis17#c7 so that the later luminary should not1 standing in the way1 obscure the light of the earlier2 though1 for my part1 ,i would suggest that one need not be so one-eyed as to fail to see both lights at once4 7#b7 ,see ,roger ,bacon1 ,essays contributed by various ,writers on the ,occasion of the ,commemoration of the ,seventh ,centenary of his ,birth4 ,collected and edited by ,a4 ,g4 ,,little 7#aiad72 also ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,,sandys' ,roger ,bacon 7from ,the ,proceedings of the ,british ,association1 vol4 vi41 #aiad74 7#c7 ,for example1 that of ,,ernst ,,duhring4 ,see an article entitled ,the ,two ,bacons1 translated from his ,kritische ,geschichte der ,philosophie in ,the ,open ,court for ,august #aiad4 ,to those who like to observe coincidences1 it may be of interest that the septcentenary of the discoverer of gunpowder should have coincided with the outbreak of the greatest war under which the world has yet groaned1 even though gunpowder is no longer employed as a military propellant4 ,,bacon',s reference to gunpowder occurs in his ,epistola de ,secretis ,operibus ,artis et ,naturae1 et de ,nullitate ,magiae 7,hamburg1 #afah7 a little tract written against magic1 in which he endeavours to show1 and succeeds very well in the first eight chapters1 that ,nature and art can perform far more extraordinary feats than are claimed by the workers in the black art4 ,the last three chapters are written in an alchemical jargon of which even one versed in the symbolic language of alchemy can make no sense4 ,they are evidently cryptogramic1 and probably deal with the preparation and purification of saltpetre1 which had only recently been discovered as a distinct body47#a7 ,in chapter xi4 there is reference to an explosive body1 which can only be gunpowder2 by means of it1 says ,,bacon1 you may1 if you know the trick1 produce a bright flash and a thundering noise4 ,he mentions two of the ingredients1 saltpetre and sulphur1 but conceals the third 7i4e4 charcoal7 under an anagram4 ,claims have1 indeed1 been put forth for the ,greek1 ,arab1 ,hindu1 and ,chinese origins of gunpowder1 but a close examination of the original ancient accounts purporting to contain references to gunpowder1 shows that only incendiary and not explosive bodies are really dealt with4 ,but whilst ,,roger ,,bacon knew of the explosive property of a mixture in right proportions of sulphur1 charcoal1 and pure saltpetre 7which he no doubt accidentally hit upon whilst experimenting with the last-named body71 he was unaware of its projective power4 ,that discovery1 so detrimental to the happiness of man ever since1 was1 in all probability1 due to ,,berthold ,,schwarz about #accj4 7#a7 ,for an attempted explanation of this cryptogram1 and evidence that ,,bacon was the discoverer of gunpowder1 see ,lieut4-,col4 ,h4 ,w4 ,l4 ,,hime',s ,gunpowder and ,ammunition3 their ,origin and ,progress 7#aijd74 ,,roger ,,bacon has been credited7#a7 with many other discoveries4 ,in the work already referred to he allows his imagination freely to speculate as to the wonders that might be accomplished by a scientific utilisation of ,nature's forces--marvellous things with lenses1 in bringing distant objects near and so forth1 carriages propelled by mechanical means1 flying machines444--but in no case is the word discovery in any sense applicable1 for not even in the case of the telescope does ,,bacon describe means by which his speculations might be realised4 7#a7 ,for instance by ,mr ,m4 ,m4 ,p4 ,,muir4 ,see his contribution1 on ,roger ,bacon3 ,his ,relations to ,alchemy and ,chemistry1 to ,roger ,bacon ,essays4 ,on the other hand1 ,,roger ,,bacon has often been maligned for his beliefs in astrology and alchemy1 but1 as the late ,dr ,,bridges 7who was quite sceptical of the claims of both7 pointed out1 not to have believed in them in ,,bacon',s day would have been rather an evidence of mental weakness than otherwise4 ,what relevant facts were known supported alchemical and astrological hypotheses4 ,astrology1 ,dr ,,bridges writes1 conformed to the first law of ,comte's philosophia prima1 as being the best hypothesis of which ascertained phenomena admitted47#a7 ,and in his alchemical speculations ,,bacon was much in advance of his contemporaries1 and stated problems which are amongst those of modern chemistry4 7#a7 ,op4 cit41 p4#hd4 ,,roger ,,bacon',s greatness does not lie in the fact that he discovered gunpowder1 nor in the further fact that his speculations have been validated by other men4 ,his greatness lies in his secure grip of scientific method as a combination of mathematical reasoning and experiment4 ,men before him had experimented1 but none seemed to have realised the importance of the experimental method4 ,nor was he1 of course1 by any means the first mathematician--there was a long line of ,greek and ,arabian mathematicians behind him1 men whose knowledge of the science was in many cases much greater than his--or the most learned mathematician of his day2 but none realised the importance of mathematics as an organon of scientific research as he did2 and he was assuredly the priest who joined mathematics to experiment in the bonds of sacred matrimony4 ,we must not1 indeed1 look for precise rules of inductive reasoning in the works of this pioneer writer on scientific method4 ,nor do we find really satisfactory rules of induction even in the works of ,,francis ,,bacon4 ,moreover1 the latter despised mathematics1 and it was not until in quite recent years that the scientific world came to realise that ,,roger',s method is the more fruitful--witness the modern revolution in chemistry produced by the adoption of mathematical methods4 ,,roger ,,bacon1 it may be said1 was many centuries in advance of his time2 but it is equally true that he was the child of his time2 this may account for his defects judged by modern standards4 ,he owed not a little to his contemporaries3 for his knowledge and high estimate of philosophy he was largely indebted to his ,oxford master ,,grosseteste 7c4 #aage-abec71 whilst ,,peter ,,peregrinus1 his friend at ,paris1 fostered his love of experiment1 and the ,arab mathematicians1 whose works he knew1 inclined his mind to mathematical studies4 ,he was violently opposed to the scholastic views current in ,paris at his time1 and attacked great thinkers like ,,thomas ,,aquinas 7c4 #abbe-abgd7 and ,,albertus ,,magnus 7#aaic-abhj71 as well as obscurantists1 such as ,,alexander of ,,hales 7ob4 #abde74 ,but he himself was a scholastic philosopher1 though of no servile type1 taking part in scholastic arguments4 ,if he declared that he would have all the works of ,,aristotle burned1 it was not because he hated the ,peripatetic's philosophy--though he could criticise as well as appreciate at times1--but because of the rottenness of the translations that were then used4 ,it seems commonplace now1 but it was a truly wonderful thing then3 ,,roger ,,bacon believed in accuracy1 and was by no means destitute of literary ethics4 ,he believed in correct translation1 correct quotation1 and the acknowledgment of the sources of one's quotations--unheard-of things1 almost1 in those days4 ,but even he was not free from all the vices of his age3 in spite of his insistence upon experimental verification of the conclusions of deductive reasoning1 in one place1 at least1 he adopts a view concerning lenses from another writer1 of which the simplest attempt at such verification would have revealed the falsity4 ,for such lapses1 however1 we can make allowances4 ,another and undeniable claim to greatness rests on ,,roger ,,bacon',s broad-mindedness4 ,he could actually value at their true worth the moral philosophies of non-,christian writers--,,seneca 7c4 #e ,b4,c4-,a4,d4 #fe7 and ,,al ,,ghazzali 7#ajeh-aaaa71 for instance4 ,but if he was catholic in the original meaning of that term1 he was also catholic in its restricted sense4 ,he was no heretic3 the ,pope for him was the ,vicar of ,,christ1 whom he wished to see reign over the whole world1 not by force of arms1 but by the assimilation of all that was worthy in that world4 ,to his mind--and here he was certainly a child of his age1 in its best sense1 perhaps--all other sciences were handmaidens to theology1 queen of them all4 ,all were to be subservient to her aims3 the ,church he called ,catholic was to embrace in her arms all that was worthy in the works of profane writers--true prophets of ,god1 he held1 in so far as writing worthily they unconsciously bore testimony to the truth of ,christianity1--and all that ,nature might yield by patient experiment and speculation guided by mathematics4 ,some minds see in this a defect in his system1 which limited his aims and outlook2 others see it as the unifying principle giving coherence to the whole4 ,at any rate1 the ,church1 as we have seen1 regarded his views as dangerous1 and restrained his pen for at least a considerable portion of his life4 ,,roger ,,bacon may seem egotistic in argument1 but his mind was humble to learn4 ,he was not superstitious1 but he would listen to common folk who worked with their hands1 to astrologers1 and even magicians1 denying nothing which seemed to him to have some evidence in experience3 if he denied much of magical belief1 it was because he found it lacking in such evidence4 ,he often went astray in his views2 he sometimes failed to apply his own method1 and that method was1 in any case1 primitive and crude4 ,but it was the ,,right method1 in embryo at least1 and ,,roger ,,bacon1 in spite of tremendous opposition1 greater than that under which any man of science may now suffer1 persisted in that method to the end1 calling upon his contemporaries to adopt it as the only one which results in right knowledge4 ,across the centuries--or1 rather1 across the gulf that divides this world from the next--let us salute this great and noble spirit4 ,,xii4 ,,the ,,cambridge ,,platonists ,,there is an opinion1 unfortunately very common1 that religious mysticism is a product of the emotional temperament1 and is diametrically opposed to the spirit of rationalism4 ,no doubt this opinion is not without some element of justification1 and one could quote the works of not a few religious mystics to the effect that self-surrender to ,god implies1 not merely a giving up of will1 but also of reason4 ,but that this teaching is not an essential element in mysticism1 that it is1 indeed1 rather its perversion1 there is adequate evidence to demonstrate4 ,,swedenborg is1 ,i suppose1 the outstanding instance of an intellectual mystic2 but the essential unity of mysticism and rationalism is almost as forcibly made evident in the case of the ,cambridge ,platonists4 ,that little band of ,latitude men1 as their contemporaries called them1 constitutes one of the finest schools of philosophy that ,england has produced2 yet their works are rarely read1 ,i am afraid1 save by specialists4 ,possibly1 however1 if it were more commonly known what a wealth of sound philosophy and true spiritual teaching they contain1 the case would be otherwise4 ,the ,cambridge ,platonists--,,benjamin ,,whichcote1 ,,john ,,smith1 ,,nathanael ,,culverwel1 ,,ralph ,,cudworth1 and ,,henry ,,more are the more outstanding names--were educated as ,puritans2 but they clearly realised the fundamental error of ,puritanism1 which tended to make a man's eternal salvation depend upon the accuracy and extent of his beliefs2 nor could they approve of the exaggerated import given by the ,high ,church party to matters of ,church polity4 ,the term ,cambridge ,platonists is1 perhaps1 less appropriate than that of ,latitudinarians1 which latter name emphasises their broad-mindedness 7even if it carries with it something of disapproval74 ,for although they owed much to ,,ptato1 and1 perhaps1 more to ,,plotinus 7c4 ,a4,d4 #bjc-bfb71 they were ,christians first and ,platonists afterwards1 and1 with the exception1 perhaps1 of ,,more1 they took nothing from these philosophers which was not conformable to the ,scriptures4 ,,benjamin ,,whichcote was born in #afji1 at ,whichcote ,hall1 in the parish of ,stoke1 ,shropshire4 ,in #afbf he entered ,emmanuel ,college1 ,cambridge1 then regarded as the chief ,puritan college of the ,university4 ,here his college tutor was ,,anthony ,,tuckney 7#aeii-afgj71 a man of rare character1 combining learning1 wit1 and piety4 ,between ,,whichcote and ,,tuckney there grew up a firm friendship1 founded on mutual affection and esteem4 ,but ,,tuckney was unable to agree with all ,,whichcote',s broad-minded views concerning reason and authority2 and in later years this gave rise to a controversy between them1 in which ,,tuckney sought to controvert ,,whichcote',s opinions3 it was1 however1 carried on without acrimony1 and did not destroy their friendship4 ,,whichcote became ,m4,a41 and was elected a fellow of his college1 in #afcc1 having obtained his ,b4,a4 four years previously4 ,he was ordained by ,,john ,,williams in #afcf1 and received the important appointment of ,sunday afternoon lecturer at ,trinity ,church4 ,his lectures1 which he gave with the object of turning men's minds from polemics to the great moral and spiritual realities at the basis of the ,christian religion1 from mere formal discussions to a true searching into the reason of things1 were well attended and highly appreciated2 and he held the appointment for twenty years4 ,in #afcd he became college tutor at ,emmanuel4 ,he possessed all the characteristics that go to make up an efficient and well-beloved tutor1 and his personal influence was such as to inspire all his pupils1 amongst whom were both ,,john ,,smith and ,,nathanael ,,culverwel1 who considerably amplified his philosophical and religious doctrines4 ,in #afdj he became ,b4,d41 and nine years after was created ,d4,d4 ,the college living of ,north ,cadbury1 in ,somerset1 was presented to him in #afdc1 and shortly afterwards he married4 ,in the next year1 however1 he was recalled to ,cambridge1 and installed as ,provost of ,king's ,college in place of the ejected ,dr ,,samuel ,,collins4 ,but it was greatly against his wish that he received the appointment1 and he only consented to do so on the condition that part of his stipend should be paid to ,,collins--an act which gives us a good insight into the character of the man4 ,in #afej he resigned ,north ,cadbury1 and the living was presented to ,,cudworth 7see below71 and towards the end of this year he was elected ,vice-,chancellor of the ,university in succession to ,,tuckney4 ,it was during his ,vice-,chancellorship that he preached the sermon that gave rise to the controversy with the latter4 ,about this time also he was presented with the living of ,milton1 in ,cambridgeshire4 ,at the ,restoration he was ejected from the ,provostship1 but1 having complied with the ,act of ,uniformity1 he was1 in #affb1 appointed to the cure of ,st ,anne's1 ,blackfriars4 ,this church being destroyed in the ,great ,fire1 ,,whichcote retired to ,milton1 where he showed great kindness to the poor4 ,but some years later he returned to ,london1 having received the vicarage of ,st ,lawrence1 ,jewry4 ,his friends at ,cambridge1 however1 still saw him on occasional visits1 and it was on one such visit to ,,cudworth1 in #afhc1 that he caught the cold which caused his death4 ,,john ,,smith was born at ,achurch1 near ,oundle1 in #afah4 ,he entered ,emmanuel ,college in #afcf1 became ,b4,a4 in #afdj1 and proceeded to ,m4,a4 in #afdd1 in which year he was appointed a fellow of ,queen's ,college4 ,here he lectured on arithmetic with considerable success4 ,he was noted for his great learning1 especially in theology and ,oriental languages1 as well as for his justness1 uprightness1 and humility4 ,he died of consumption in #afeb4 ,,nathanael ,,culverwel was probably born about the same year as ,,smith4 ,he entered ,emmanuel ,college in #afcc1 gained his ,b4,a4 in #afcf1 and became ,m4,a4 in #afdj4 ,soon afterwards he was elected a fellow of his college4 ,he died about #afea4 ,beyond these scant details1 nothing is known of his life4 ,he was a man of very great erudition1 as his posthumous treatise on ,the ,light of ,nature makes evident4 ,,henry ,,more was born at ,grantham in #afad4 ,from his earliest days he was interested in theological problems1 and his precociousness in this respect appears to have brought down on him the wrath of an uncle4 ,his early education was conducted at ,eton4 ,in #afca he entered ,christ's ,college1 ,cambridge1 graduated ,b4,a4 in #afce1 and received his ,m4,a4 in #afci4 ,in the latter year he was elected a fellow of ,christ's and received ,holy ,orders4 ,he lived a very retired life1 refusing all preferment1 though many valuable and honourable appointments were offered to him4 ,indeed1 he rarely left ,christ's1 except to visit his heroine pupil1 ,lady ,,conway1 whose country seat1 ,ragley1 was in ,warwickshire4 ,lady ,,conway 7ob4 #afgi7 appears to be remembered only for the fact that1 dying whilst her husband was away1 her physician1 ,f4 ,m4 ,,van ,,helmont 7#afah-afii7 7son of the famous alchemist1 ,j4 ,b4 ,,van ,,helmont1 whom we have met already on these excursions71 preserved her body in spirits of wine1 so that he could have the pleasure of beholding it on his return4 ,she seems to have been a woman of considerable learning1 though not free from fantastic ideas4 ,her ultimate conversion to ,quakerism was a severe blow to ,,more1 who1 whilst admiring the holy lives of the ,friends1 regarded them as enthusiasts4 ,,more died in #afhg4 ,,more',s earliest works were in verse1 and exhibit fine feeling4 ,the following lines1 quoted from a poem on ,charitie and ,humilitie1 are full of charm1 and well exhibit ,,more',s character3-- ,farre have ,i clambred in my mind ,but nought so great as love ,i find3 ,deep-searching wit1 mount-moving might1 ,are nought compar'd to that great spright4 ,life of ,delight and soul of blisse6 ,sure source of lasting happinesse6 ,higher than ,heaven6 lower than hell6 ,what is thy tent8 ,where maist thou dwell8 ,my mansion highs humilitie1 ,heaven's vastest capabilitie ,the further it doth downward tend ,the higher up it doth ascend2 ,if it go down to utmost nought ,it shall return with that it sought47#a7 7#a7 ,see ,the ,life of the ,learned and ,pious ,dr ,henry ,more444 by ,,richard ,,ward1 ,a4,m41 to which are annexed ,divers ,philosophical ,poems and ,hymns4 ,edited by ,m4 ,f4 ,,howard 7#aiaa71 pp4 #bej and #bea4 ,later he took to prose1 and it must be confessed that he wrote too much and frequently descended to polemics 7for example1 his controversy with the alchemist ,,thomas ,,vaughan1 in which both combatants freely used abuse74 ,although in his main views ,,more is thoroughly characteristic of the school to which he belonged1 many of his less important opinions are more or less peculiar to himself4 ,the relation between ,,more's and ,,descartes' 7#aeif-afej7 theories as to the nature of spirit is interesting4 ,when ,,more first read ,,descartes' works he was favourably impressed with his views1 though without entirely agreeing with him on all points2 but later the difference became accentuated4 ,,descartes regarded extension as the chief characteristic of matter1 and asserted that spirit was extra-spatial4 ,to ,,more this seemed like denying the existence of spirit1 which he regarded as extended1 and he postulated divisibility and impenetrability as the chief characteristics of matter4 ,in order1 however1 to get over some of the inherent difficulties of this view1 he put forward the suggestion that spirit is extended in four dimensions3 thus1 its apparent 7i4e4 three-dimensional7 extension can change1 whilst its true 7i4e4 four-dimensional7 extension remains constant2 just as the surface of a piece of metal can be increased by hammering it out1 without increasing the volume of the metal4 ,here1 ,i think1 we have a not wholly inadequate symbol of the truth2 but it remained for ,,berkeley 7#afhe-agec7 to show position1 by demonstrating that1 since space and extension are perceptions of the mind1 and thus exist only in the mind as ideas1 space exists in spirit3 not spirit in space4 ,,more was a keen believer in witchcraft1 and eagerly investigated all cases of these and like marvels that came under his notice4 ,in this he was largely influenced by ,,joseph ,,glanvil 7#afcf-afhj71 whose book on witchcraft1 the well-known ,saducismus ,triumphatus1 ,,more largely contributed to1 and probably edited4 ,,more was wholly unsuited for psychical research2 free from guile himself1 he was too inclined to judge others to be of this nature also4 ,but his common sense and critical attitude towards enthusiasm saved him1 no doubt1 from many falls into the mire of fantasy4 ,as ,principal ,,tulloch has pointed out1 whilst ,,more is the most interesting personality amongst the ,cambridge ,platonists1 his works are the least interesting of those of his school4 ,they are dull and scholastic1 and ,,more',s retired existence prevented him from grasping in their fulness some of the more acute problems of life4 ,his attempt to harmonise catastrophes with ,providence1 on the ground that the evil of certain parts may be necessary for the good of the whole1 just as dark colours1 as well as bright1 are essential to the beauty of a picture--a theory which is practically the same as that of modern ,absolutism17#a7--;is a case in point4 ,no doubt this harmony may be accomplished1 but in another key4 7#a7 ,cf4 ,,bernard ,,bosanquet1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l43 ,the ,principle of ,individuality and ,value 7#aiab74 ,,ralph ,,cudworth was born at ,aller1 in ,somersetshire1 in #afag4 ,he entered ,emmanuel ,college in #afcb1 three years afterwards gained his ,b4,a41 and became ,m4,a4 in #afci4 ,in the latter year he was elected a fellow of his college4 ,later he obtained the ,b4,d4 degree4 ,in #afde he was appointed ,master of ,clare ,hall1 in place of the ejected ,dr ,,pashe1 and was elected ,regius ,professor of ,hebrew4 ,on #cast ,march #afdg he preached a sermon of remarkable eloquence and power before the ,house of ,commons1 which admirably expresses the attitude of his school as concerns the nature of true religion4 ,i shall refer to it again later4 ,in #afej ,,cudworth was presented with the college living of ,north ,cadbury1 which ,,whichcote had resigned1 and was made ,d4,d4 in the following year4 ,in #afed he was elected ,master of ,christ's ,college1 with an improvement in his financial position1 there having been some difficulty in obtaining his stipend at ,clare ,hall4 ,in this year he married4 ,in #affb ,bishop ,,sheldon presented him with the rectory of ,ashwell1 in ,hertfordshire4 ,he died in #afhh4 ,he was a pious man of fine intellect2 but his character was marred by a certain suspiciousness which caused him wrongfully to accuse ,,more1 in #affe1 of attempting to forestall him in writing a work on ethics1 which should demonstrate that the principles of ,christian morality are not based on any arbitrary decrees of ,god1 but are inherent in the nature and reason of things4 ,,cudworth',s great work--or1 at least1 the first part1 which alone was completed1--,the ,intellectual ,system of the ,world1 appeared in #afgh4 ,in it ,,cudworth deals with atheism on the ground of reason1 demonstrating its irrationality4 ,the book is remarkable for the fairness and fulness with which ,,cudworth states the arguments in favour of atheism4 ,so much for the lives and individual characteristics of the ,cambridge ,platonists3 what were the great principles that animated both their lives and their philosophy8 ,these1 ,i think1 were two3 first1 the essential unity of religion and morality2 second1 the essential unity of revelation and reason4 ,with clearer perception of ethical truth than either ,puritan or ,high ,churchman1 the ,cambridge ,platonists saw that true ,christianity is neither a matter of mere belief1 nor consists in the mere performance of good works2 but is rather a matter of character4 ,to them ,christianity connoted regeneration4 ,religion1 says ,,whichcote1 is the ,frame and ,,temper of our ,minds1 and the ,,rule of our ,lives2 and again1 ,heaven is ,,first a ,temper1 and ,,then a ,place47#a7 ,to the man of heavenly temper1 they taught1 the performance of good works would be no irksome matter imposed merely by a sense of duty1 but would be done spontaneously as a delight4 ,to drudge in religion may very well be necessary as an initial stage1 but it is not its perfection4 7#a7 ,my quotations from ,,whichcote and ,,smith are taken from the selection of their discourses edited by ,e4 ,t4 ,,campagnac1 ,m4,a4 7#aija74 ,in his sermon before the ,house of ,commons1 ,,cudworth well exposes the error of those who made the mere holding of certain beliefs the essential element in ,christianity4 ,there are many passages ,i should like to quote from this eloquent discourse1 but the following must suffice3 ,we must not judge of our knowing of ,christ1 by our skill in ,books and ,papers1 but by our keeping of his ,commandments444 ,he is the best ,christian1 whose heart beats with the truest pulse towards heaven2 not he whose head spinneth out the finest cobwebs4 ,he that endeavours really to mortifie his lusts1 and to comply with that truth in his life1 which his ,conscience is convinced of2 is neerer a ,christian1 though he never heard of ,christ2 then he that believes all the vulgar ,articles of the ,christian faith1 and plainly denyeth ,christ in his life4444 ,the great ,mysterie of the ,gospel1 it doth not lie only in ,,christ ,,without ,,us1 7though we must know also what he hath done for us7 but the very ,pith and ,kernel of it1 consists in 99,christ inwardly formed in our hearts4 ,nothing is truly ,ours1 but what lives in our ,spirits4 ,,salvation it self cannot ,,save us1 as long as it is onely without us2 no more then ,,health can cure us1 and make us sound1 when it is not within us1 but somewhere at distance from us2 no more than ,arts and ,sciences1 whilst they lie onely in ,books and ,papers without us2 can make us learned47#a7 7#a7 ,,ralph ,,cudworth1 ,b4,d43 ,a ,sermon ,preached before the ,honourable ,house of ,commons at ,westminster1 ,mar4 #ca1 #afdg 7#ast edn471 pp4 #c1 #ad1 #db1 and #dc4 ,the ,cambridge ,platonists were not ascetics2 their moral doctrine was one of temperance4 ,their sound wisdom on this point is well evident in the following passage from ,,whichcote3 ,what can be alledged for ,intemperance2 since ,nature is content with very few things8 ,why should any one over-do in this kind8 ,a ,man is better in ,health and ,strength1 if he be temperate4 ,we enjoy ourselves more in a sober and temperate ,use of ourselves47#b7 7#b7 ,,benjamin ,,whichcote3 ,the ,venerable ,nature and ,transcendant ,benefit of ,christian ,religion4 ,op4 cit41 p4 #dj4 ,the other great principle animating their philosophy was1 as ,i have said1 the essential unity of reason and revelation4 ,to those who argued that self-surrender implied a giving up of reason1 they replied that ,to go against ,,reason1 is to go against ,,god3 it is the self same thing1 to do that which the ,reason of the ,case doth require2 and that which ,god ,himself doth appoint3 ,reason is the ,,divine ,governor of ,man's ,life2 it is the very ,voice of ,god47#c7 ,reason1 ,conscience1 and the ,scriptures1 these1 taught the ,cambridge ,platonists1 testify of one another and are the true guides which alone a man should follow4 ,all other authority they repudiated4 ,but true reason is not merely sensuous1 and the only way whereby it may be gained is by the purification of the self from the desires that draw it away from the ,source of all ,reason4 ,god1 writes ,,more1 reserves ,his choicest secrets for the purest ,minds1 adding his conviction that true ,holiness 7is7 the only safe ,entrance into ,divine ,knowledge4 ,or as ,,smith1 who speaks of a ,,good ,,life as the ,,prolepsis and ,fundamental principle of ,,divine ,,science1 puts it1 444 if444 ,,knowledge be not attended with ,,humility and a deep sense of ,,self-,,penury and 99,self-emptiness1 we may easily fall short of that ,true ,knowledge of ,god which we seem to aspire after47#a;b7 ,right ,reason1 however1 they taught1 is the product of the sight of the soul1 the true mystic vision4 7#c7 ,,benjamin ,,whichcote3 ,moral and ,religious ,aphorisms ,,op4 cit41 p4 #fg4 7#a;b7 ,,john ,,smith3 ,a ,discourse concerning the true ,way or ,method of attaining to ,divine ,knowledge4 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #hj and #if4 ,in what respects1 it may be asked in conclusion1 is the philosophy of the ,cambridge ,platonists open to criticism8 ,they lacked1 perhaps1 a sufficiently clear concept of the ,church as a unity1 and although they clearly realised that ,nature is a symbol which it is the function of reason to interpret spiritually1 they failed1 ,i think1 to appreciate the value of symbols4 ,thus they have little to teach with respect to the ,sacraments of the ,church1 though1 indeed1 the highest view1 perhaps1 is that which regards every act as potentially a sacrament2 and1 whilst admiring his morality1 they criticised ,,boehme as an enthusiast4 ,but1 although he spoke in a very different language1 spiritually he had much in common with them4 ,compared with what is of positive value in their philosophy1 however1 the defects of the ,cambridge ,platonists are but comparatively slight4 ,i commend their works to lovers of spiritual wisdom4