,,critiques ,,and ,,addresses4 ,,by ,,thomas ,,henry ,,huxley1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 #ahgc4 ,,preface4 ,the ,critiques and ,addresses gathered together in this volume1 like the ,lay ,sermons1 ,addresses1 and ,reviews1 published three years ago1 deal chiefly with educational1 scientific1 and philosophical subjects2 and1 in fact1 indicate the high-water mark of the various tides of occupation by which ,i have been carried along since the beginning of the year #ahgj4 ,in the end of that year1 a confidence in my powers of work1 which1 unfortunately1 has not been justified by events1 led me to allow myself to be brought forward as a candidate for a seat on the ,london ,school ,board4 ,thanks to the energy of my supporters ,i was elected1 and took my share in the work of that body during the critical first year of its existence4 ,then my health gave way1 and ,i was obliged to resign my place among colleagues whose large practical knowledge of the business of primary education1 and whose self-sacrificing zeal in the discharge of the onerous and thankless duties thrown upon them by the ,legislature1 made it a pleasure to work with them1 even though my position was usually that of a member of the minority4 ,i mention these circumstances in order to account for 7,i had almost said to apologize for7 the existence of the two papers which head the present series1 and which are more or less political1 both in the lower and in the higher senses of that word4 ,the question of the expediency of any form of ,state ,education is1 in fact1 a question of those higher politics which lie above the region in which ,tories1 ,whigs1 and ,radicals delight to bark and bite4 ,in discussing it in my address on ,administrative ,nihilism1 ,i found myself1 to my profound regret1 led to diverge very widely 7though even more perhaps in seeming than in reality7 from the opinions of a man of genius to whom ,i am bound by the twofold tie of the respect due to a profound philosopher and the affection given to a very old friend4 ,but had ,i no other means of knowing the fact1 the kindly geniality of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's reply#a assures me that the tie to which ,i refer will bear a much heavier strain than ,i have put1 or ever intend to put1 upon it1 and ,i rather rejoice that ,i have been the means of calling forth so vigorous a piece of argumentative writing4 ,nor is this disinterested joy at an attack upon myself diminished by the circumstance1 that1 in all humility1 but in all sincerity1 ,i think it may be repulsed4 ,footnote #a3 ,specialized ,administration2 ,fortnightly ,review1 ,december #ahga4 ,mr4 ,spencer complains that ,i have first misinterpreted1 and then miscalled1 the doctrine of which he is so able an expositor4 ,it would grieve me very much if ,i were really open to this charge4 ,but what are the facts8 ,i define this doctrine as follows3-- ,those who hold these views support them by two lines of argument4 ,they enforce them deductively by arguing from an assumed axiom1 that the ,state has no right to do anything but protect its subjects from aggression4 ,the ,state is simply a policeman1 and its duty1 neither more nor less than to prevent robbery and murder and enforce contracts4 ,it is not to promote good1 nor even to do anything to prevent evil1 except by the enforcement of penalties upon those who have been guilty of obvious and tangible assaults upon purse or person4 ,and1 according to this view1 the proper form of government is neither a monarchy1 an aristocracy1 nor a democracy1 but an astynomocracy1 or police government4 ,on the other hand1 these views are supported posteriori by an induction from observation1 which professes to show that whatever is done by a ,government beyond these negative limits1 is not only sure to be done badly1 but to be done much worse than private enterprise would have done the same thing4 ,i was filled with surprised regret when ,i learned from the conclusion of the article on ,specialized ,administration1 that this statement is held by ,mr4 ,spencer to be a misinterpretation of his views4 ,perhaps ,i ought to be still more sorry to be obliged to declare myself1 even now1 unable to discover where my misinterpretation lies1 or in what respect my presentation of ,mr4 ,spencer's views differs from his own most recent version of them4 ,as the passage cited above shows ,i have carefully defined the sense in which ,i use the terms which ,i employ1 and1 therefore1 ,i am not greatly concerned to defend the abstract appropriateness of the terms themselves4 ,and when ,mr4 ,spencer maintains the only proper functions of ,government to be those which are comprehensible under the description of ,negatively regulative control1 ,i may suggest that the difference between such ,negative ,administration and ,administrative ,nihilism1 in the sense defined by me1 is not easily discernible4 ,having1 as ,i hope1 relieved myself from the suspicion of having misunderstood or misrepresented ,mr4 ,spencer's views1 ,i might1 if ,i could forget that ,i am writing a preface1 proceed to the discussion of the parallel which he elaborates1 with much knowledge and power1 between the physiological and the social organisms4 ,but this is not the place for a controversy involving so many technicalities1 and ,i content myself with one remark1 namely1 that the whole course of modern physiological discovery tends to show1 with more and more clearness1 that the vascular system1 or apparatus for distributing commodities in the animal organism1 is eminently under the control of the cerebro-spinal nervous centres--a fact which1 unless ,i am again mistaken1 is contrary to one of ,mr4 ,spencer's fundamental assumptions4 ,in the animal organism1 ,government does meddle with trade1 and even goes so far as to tamper a good deal with the currency4 ,in the same number of the ,fortnightly ,review as that which contains ,mr4 ,spencer's essay1 ,miss ,helen ,taylor assails me--though1 ,i am bound to admit1 more in sorrow than in anger--for what she terms1 my ,new ,attack on ,toleration4 ,it is ,i1 this time1 who may complain of misinterpretation1 if the greater part of ,miss ,taylor's article 7with which ,i entirely sympathise7 is supposed to be applicable to my intolerance4 ,let us have full-toleration1 by all means1 upon all questions in which there is room for doubt1 or which cannot be distinctly proved to affect the welfare of mankind4 ,but when ,miss ,taylor has shown what basis exists for criminal legislation1 except the clear right of mankind not to tolerate that which is demonstrably contrary to the welfare of society1 ,i will admit that such demonstration ought only to be believed in by the curates and old women to whom she refers4 ,recent events have not weakened the conviction ,i expressed in a much-abused speech at the ,london ,school ,board1 that ,ultramontanism is demonstrably the enemy of society2 and must be met with resistance1 merely passive if possible1 but active if necessary1 by the whole power of the ,state4 ,next in order1 it seems proper that ,i should briefly refer to my friend ,mr4 ,mivart's onslaught upon my criticism of ,mr4 ,darwin's critics1 himself among the number1 which will be found in this volume4 ,in ,evolution and its ,consequences#a ,i am accused of misrepresentation1 misquotation1 misunderstanding1 and numerous other negative and positive literary and scientific sins2 and much subtle ingenuity is expended by ,mr4 ,mivart in attempting to extricate himself from the position in which my exposition of the real opinions of ,father ,suarez has placed him4 ,so much more1 in fact1 has ,mr4 ,mivart's ingenuity impressed me than any other feature of his reply1 that ,i shall take the liberty of re-stating the main issue between us2 and1 for the present1 leaving that issue alone to the judgment of the public4 ,footnote #a3 ,contemporary ,review1 ,january #ahgb4 ,in his book on the ,genesis of ,species ,mr4 ,mivart1 after discussing the opinions of sundry ,catholic writers of authority1 among whom he especially includes ,st4 ,augustin1 ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 and the ,jesuit ,suarez1 proceeds to say3 ,it is then evident that ancient and most venerable theological authorities distinctly assert derivative creation1 and thus their teachings harmonize with all that modern science can possibly require4#a ,by the derivative creation of organic forms1 ,mr4 ,mivart understands1 that ,god created them by conferring on the material world the power to evolve them under suitable conditions4 ,footnote #a3 ,bunsen's ,outlines of the ,philosophy of ,universal ,history1 vol4 i4p4 #cdi4 #ahed4 ,on the contrary1 ,i proved by evidence1 which ,mr4 ,mivart does not venture to impugn1 that ,suarez1 in his ,tractatus de ,opere sex ,dierum1 expressly rejects ,st4 ,augustin's and ,st4 ,thomas' views2 that he vehemently advocates the literal interpretation of the account of the creation given in the ,book of ,genesis2 and that he treats with utter scorn the notion that the ,almighty could have used the language of that ,book1 unless ,he meant it to be taken literally4 ,mr4 ,mivart1 therefore1 either has read ,suarez and has totally misrepresented him--a hypothesis which1 ,i hope ,i need hardly say1 ,i do not for a moment entertain3 or1 he has got his information at second hand1 and has himself been deceived4 ,but in that case1 it is surely an imprudence on his part1 to reproach me with having read ,suarez ad hoc1 and evidently without the guidance of anyone familiar with that author4 ,no doubt1 in the matter of guidance1 ,mr4 ,mivart has the advantage of me4 ,nevertheless1 the guides who supplied him with his references to ,suarez' ,metaphysica1 while they left him in ignorance of the existence of the ,tractatus1 are guides with whose services it might be better to dispense2 leaders who wilfully shut their eyes1 being even more liable to lodge one in a ditch1 than blind leaders4 ,at the time when the essay on ,methods and ,results of ,ethnology was written1 ,i had not met with a passage in ,professor ,max ,mller's ,last ,results of ,turanian ,researches#a which shows so appositely1 that the profoundest study of philology leads to conclusions respecting the relation of ,ethnology with ,philology1 similar to those at which ,i had arrived in approaching the question from the ,anatomist's side1 that ,i cannot refrain from quoting it3 ,footnote #a3 ,,london1 ,april #ahgc4 ,nor should we1 in our phonological studies1 either expect or desire more than general hints from physical ethnology4 ,the proper and rational connection between the two sciences is that of mutual advice and suggestion1 but nothing more4 ,much of the confusion of terms and indistinctness of principles1 both in ,ethnology and ,phonology1 are due to the combined study of these heterogeneous sciences4 ,ethnological race and phonological race are not commensurate1 except in ante-historical times1 or perhaps at the very dawn of history4 ,with the migration of tribes1 their wars1 their colonies1 their conquests and alliances1 which1 if we may judge from their effects1 must have been much more violent in the ethnic1 than even in the political1 period of history1 it is impossible to imagine that race and language should continue to run parallel4 ,the physiologist should pursue his own science unconcerned about language4 ,it is further desirable to remark that the statements in this ,essay respecting the forms of ,native ,american crania need rectification4 ,on this point1 ,i refer the reader who is interested in the subject to my paper ,on the ,form of the ,cranium among the ,patagonians and the ,fuegians published in the ,journal of ,anatomy and ,physiology for #ahfh4 ,if the problem discussed in my address to the ,british ,association in #ahgj has not yet received its solution1 it is not because the champions of ,abiogenesis have been idle1 or wanting in confidence4 ,but every new assertion on their side has been met by a counter assertion2 and though the public may have been led to believe that so much noise must indicate rapid progress1 one way or the other1 an impartial critic will admit1 with sorrow1 that the question has been marking time rather than marching4 ,in mere sound1 these two processes are not so very different4 ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,administrative ,,nihilism4 7,an ,address delivered to the ,members of the ,midland ,institute1 on the #ith of ,october1 #ahga1 and subsequently published in the ,fortnightly ,review7 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,school ,,boards3 ,,what ,,they ,,can ,,do1 ,,and ,,what ,,they ,,may ,,do4 7,the ,contemporary ,review1 #ahgj7 ,,iii4 ,,on ,,medical ,,education4 7,an ,address to the ,students of the ,faculty of ,medicine in ,university ,college1 ,london1 #ahgj7 ,,iv4 ,,yeast4 7,the ,contemporary ,review1 #ahga7 ,v4 ,,on ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,coal4 7,a ,lecture delivered before the ,members of the ,bradford ,philosophical ,institution1 and subsequently published in the ,contemporary ,review7 ,,vi4 ,,on ,,coral ,,and ,,coral ,,reefs4 7,good ,words1 #ahgj7 ,,vii4 ,,on ,,the ,,methods ,,and ,,results ,,of ,,ethnology4 7,the ,fortnightly ,review1 #ahfe7 ,,viii4 ,,on ,,some ,,fixed ,,points ,,in ,,british ,,ethnology4 7,the ,contemporary ,review1 #ahga7 ,,ix4 ,,palaeontology ,,and ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,evolution4 7,the ,presidential ,address to the ,geological ,society1 #ahgj7 ,x4 ,,mr4 ,,darwin',s ,,critics4 7,the ,contemporary ,review1 #ahga7 ,,xi4 ,,the ,,genealogy ,,of ,,animals4 7,a ,review of ,haeckel's ,natrliche ,schpfungs-,geschichte4 ,the ,academy1 #ahfi7 ,,xii4 ,,bishop ,,berkeley ,,on ,,the ,,metaphysics ,,of ,,sensation4 7,macmillan's ,magazine1 #ahga7 ,,critiques ,,and ,,addresses4 ,i4 ,,administrative ,,nihilism4 7,,an ,,address ,,to ,,the ,,members ,,of ,,the ,,midland ,,institute1 ,,october #i,,th1 #ahga47 ,to me1 and1 as ,i trust1 to the great majority of those whom ,i address1 the great attempt to educate the people of ,england which has just been set afoot1 is one of the most satisfactory and hopeful events in our modern history4 ,but it is impossible1 even if it were desirable1 to shut our eyes to the fact1 that there is a minority1 not inconsiderable in numbers1 nor deficient in supporters of weight and authority1 in whose judgment all this legislation is a step in the wrong direction1 false in principle1 and consequently sure to produce evil in practice4 ,the arguments employed by these objectors are of two kinds4 ,the first is what ,i will venture to term the caste argument2 for1 if logically carried out1 it would end in the separation of the people of this country into castes1 as permanent and as sharply defined1 if not as numerous1 as those of ,india4 ,it is maintained that the whole fabric of society will be destroyed if the poor1 as well as the rich1 are educated2 that anything like sound and good education will only make them discontented with their station and raise hopes which1 in the great majority of cases1 will be bitterly disappointed4 ,it is said3 ,there must be hewers of wood and drawers of water1 scavengers and coalheavers1 day labourers and domestic servants1 or the work of society will come to a standstill4 ,but1 if you educate and refine everybody1 nobody will be content to assume these functions1 and all the world will want to be gentlemen and ladies4 ,one hears this argument most frequently from the representatives of the well-to-do middle class2 and1 coming from them1 it strikes me as peculiarly inconsistent1 as the one thing they admire1 strive after1 and advise their own children to do1 is to get on in the world1 and1 if possible1 rise out of the class in which they were born into that above them4 ,society needs grocers and merchants as much as it needs coalheavers2 but if a merchant accumulates wealth and works his way to a baronetcy1 or if the son of a greengrocer becomes a lord chancellor1 or an archbishop1 or1 as a successful soldier1 wins a peerage1 all the world admires them2 and looks with pride upon the social system which renders such achievements possible4 ,nobody suggests that there is anything wrong in their being discontented with their station2 or that1 in their cases society suffers by men of ability reaching the positions for which nature has fitted them4 ,but there are better replies than those of the tu quoque sort to the caste argument4 ,in the first place1 it is not true that education1 as such1 unfits men for rough and laborious1 or even disgusting1 occupations4 ,the life of a sailor is rougher and harder than that of nine landsmen out of ten1 and yet1 as every ship's captain knows1 no sailor was ever the worse for possessing a trained intelligence4 ,the life of a medical practitioner1 especially in the country1 is harder and more laborious than that of most artisans1 and he is constantly obliged to do things which1 in point of pleasantness1 cannot be ranked above scavengering--yet he always ought to be1 and he frequently is1 a highly educated man4 ,in the second place1 though it may be granted that the words of the catechism1 which require a man to do his duty in the station to which it has pleased ,god to call him1 give an admirable definition of our obligation to ourselves and to society2 yet the question remains1 how is any given person to find out what is the particular station to which it has pleased ,god to call him8 ,a new-born infant does not come into the world labelled scavenger1 shopkeeper1 bishop1 or duke4 ,one mass of red pulp is just like another to all outward appearance4 ,and it is only by finding out what his faculties are good for1 and seeking1 not for the sake of gratifying a paltry vanity1 but as the highest duty to himself and to his fellow-men1 to put himself into the position in which they can attain their full development1 that the man discovers his true station4 ,that which is to be lamented1 ,i fancy1 is not that society should do its utmost to help capacity to ascend from the lower strata to the higher1 but that it has no machinery by which to facilitate the descent of incapacity from the higher strata to the lower4 ,in that noble romance1 the ,republic 7which is now1 thanks to the ,master of ,balliol1 as intelligible to us all1 as if it had been written in our mother tongue71 ,plato makes ,socrates say that he should like to inculcate upon the citizens of his ideal state just one royal lie4 ',citizens1' we shall say to them in our tale--',you are brothers1 yet ,god has framed you differently4 ,some of you have the power of command1 and these he has composed of gold1 wherefore also they have the greatest honour2 others of silver1 to be auxiliaries2 others again1 who are to be husbandmen and craftsmen1 he has made of brass and iron2 and the species will generally be preserved in the children4 ,but as you are of the same original family1 a golden parent will sometimes have a silver son1 or a silver parent a golden son4 ,and ,god proclaims to the rulers1 as a first principle1 that before all they should watch over their offspring1 and see what elements mingle with their nature2 for if the son of a golden or silver parent has an admixture of brass and iron1 then nature orders a transposition of ranks1 and the eye of the ruler must not be pitiful towards his child because he has to descend in the scale and become a husbandman or artisan2 just as there may be others sprung from the artisan class1 who are raised to honour1 and become guardians and auxiliaries4 ,for an oracle says that when a man of brass or iron guards the ,state1 it will then be destroyed4'#a ,footnote #a3 ,the ,dialogues of ,plato4 ,translated into ,english1 with ,analysis and ,introduction1 by ,b4 ,jowett1 ,m4,a4 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #bdc4 ,time1 whose tooth gnaws away everything else1 is powerless against truth2 and the lapse of more than two thousand years has not weakened the force of these wise words4 ,nor is it necessary that1 as ,plato suggests1 society should provide functionaries expressly charged with the performance of the difficult duty of picking out the men of brass from those of silver and gold4 ,educate1 and the latter will certainly rise to the top2 remove all those artificial props by which the brass and iron folk are kept at the top1 and1 by a law as sure as that of gravitation1 they will gradually sink to the bottom4 ,we have all known noble lords who would have been coachmen1 or gamekeepers1 or billiard-markers1 if they had not been kept afloat by our social corks2 we have all known men among the lowest ranks1 of whom everyone has said1 ,what might not that man have become1 if he had only had a little education8 ,and who that attends1 even in the most superficial way1 to the conditions upon which the stability of modern society--and especially of a society like ours1 in which recent legislation has placed sovereign authority in the hands of the masses1 whenever they are united enough to wield their power--can doubt that every man of high natural ability1 who is both ignorant and miserable1 is as great a danger to society as a rocket without a stick is to the people who fire it8 ,misery is a match that never goes out2 genius1 as an explosive power1 beats gunpowder hollow2 and if knowledge1 which should give that power guidance1 is wanting1 the chances are not small that the rocket will simply run a-muck among friends and foes4 ,what gives force to the socialistic movement which is now stirring ,european society to its depths1 but a determination on the part of the naturally able men among the proletariat1 to put an end1 somehow or other1 to the misery and degradation in which a large proportion of their fellows are steeped8 ,the question1 whether the means by which they purpose to achieve this end are adequate or not1 is at this moment the most important of all political questions--and it is beside my present purpose to discuss it4 ,all ,i desire to point out is1 that if the chance of the controversy being decided calmly and rationally1 and not by passion and force1 looks miserably small to an impartial bystander1 the reason is that not one in ten thousand of those who constitute the ultimate court of appeal1 by which questions of the utmost difficulty1 as well as of the most momentous gravity1 will have to be decided1 is prepared by education to comprehend the real nature of the suit brought before their tribunal4 ,finally1 as to the ladies and gentlemen question1 all ,i can say is1 would that every woman-child born into this world were trained to be a lady1 and every man-child a gentleman6 ,but then ,i do not use those much-abused words by way of distinguishing people who wear fine clothes1 and live in fine houses1 and talk aristocratic slang1 from those who go about in fustian1 and live in back slums1 and talk gutter slang4 ,some inborn plebeian blindness1 in fact1 prevents me from understanding what advantage the former have over the latter4 ,i have never even been able to understand why pigeon-shooting at ,hurlingham should be refined and polite1 while a rat-killing match in ,whitechapel is low2 or why ,what a lark should be coarse1 when one hears ,how awfully jolly drop from the most refined lips twenty times in an evening4 ,thoughtfulness for others1 generosity1 modesty1 and self-respect1 are the qualities which make a real gentleman1 or lady1 as distinguished from the veneered article which commonly goes by that name4 ,i by no means wish to express any sentimental preference for ,lazarus against ,dives1 but1 on the face of the matter1 one does not see why the practice of these virtues should be more difficult in one state of life than another2 and any one who has had a wide experience among all sorts and conditions of men1 will1 ,i think1 agree with me that they are as common in the lower ranks of life as in the higher4 ,leaving the caste argument aside then1 as inconsistent with the practice of those who employ it1 as devoid of any justification in theory1 and as utterly mischievous if its logical consequences were carried out1 let us turn to the other class of objectors4 ,to these opponents1 the ,education ,act is only one of a number of pieces of legislation to which they object on principle2 and they include under like condemnation the ,vaccination ,act1 the ,contagious ,diseases ,act1 and all other sanitary ,acts2 all attempts on the part of the ,state to prevent adulteration1 or to regulate injurious trades2 all legislative interference with anything that bears directly or indirectly on commerce1 such as shipping1 harbours1 railways1 roads1 cab-fares1 and the carriage of letters2 and all attempts to promote the spread of knowledge by the establishment of teaching bodies1 examining bodies1 libraries1 or museums1 or by the sending out of scientific expeditions2 all endeavours to advance art by the establishment of schools of design1 or picture galleries2 or by spending money upon an architectural public building when a brick box would answer the purpose4 ,according to their views1 not a shilling of public money must be bestowed upon a public park or pleasure-ground2 not sixpence upon the relief of starvation1 or the cure of disease4 ,those who hold these views support them by two lines of argument4 ,they enforce them deductively by arguing from an assumed axiom1 that the ,state has no right to do anything but protect its subjects from aggression4 ,the ,state is simply a policeman1 and its duty is neither more nor less than to prevent robbery and murder and enforce contracts4 ,it is not to promote good1 nor even to do anything to prevent evil1 except by the enforcement of penalties upon those who have been guilty of obvious and tangible assaults upon purses or persons4 ,and1 according to this view1 the proper form of government is neither a monarchy1 an aristocracy1 nor a democracy1 but an astynomocracy1 or police government4 ,on the other hand1 these views are supported posteriori1 by an induction from observation1 which professes to show that whatever is done by a ,government beyond these negative limits1 is not only sure to be done badly1 but to be done much worse than private enterprise would have done the same thing4 ,i am by no means clear as to the truth of the latter proposition4 ,it is generally supported by statements which prove clearly enough that the ,state does a great many things very badly4 ,but this is really beside the question4 ,the ,state lives in a glass house2 we see what it tries to do1 and all its failures1 partial or total1 are made the most of4 ,but private enterprise is sheltered under good opaque bricks and mortar4 ,the public rarely knows what it tries to do1 and only hears of failures when they are gross and patent to all the world4 ,who is to say how private enterprise would come out if it tried its hand at ,state work8 ,those who have had most experience of joint-stock companies and their management1 will probably be least inclined to believe in the innate superiority of private enterprise over ,state management4 ,if continental bureaucracy and centralization be fraught with multitudinous evils1 surely ,english beadleocracy and parochial obstruction are not altogether lovely4 ,if it be said that1 as a matter of political experience1 it is found to be for the best interests1 including the healthy and free development1 of a people1 that the ,state should restrict itself to what is absolutely necessary1 and should leave to the voluntary efforts of individuals as much as voluntary effort can be got to do1 nothing can be more just4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it seems to me that nothing can be less justifiable than the dogmatic assertion that ,state interference1 beyond the limits of home and foreign police1 must1 under all circumstances1 do harm4 ,suppose1 however1 for the sake of argument1 that we accept the proposition that the functions of the ,state may be properly summed up in the one great negative commandment1--,thou shalt not allow any man to interfere with the liberty of any other man1--,i am unable to see that the logical consequence is any such restriction of the power of ,government1 as its supporters imply4 ,if my next-door neighbour chooses to have his drains in such a state as to create a poisonous atmosphere1 which ,i breathe at the risk of typhus and diphtheria1 he restricts my just freedom to live just as much as if he went about with a pistol1 threatening my life2 if he is to be allowed to let his children go unvaccinated1 he might as well be allowed to leave strychnine lozenges about in the way of mine2 and if he brings them up untaught and untrained1 to earn their living1 he is doing his best to restrict my freedom1 by increasing the burden of taxation for the support of gaols and workhouses1 which ,i have to pay4 ,the higher the state of civilization1 the more completely do the actions of one member of the social body influence all the rest1 and the less possible is it for any one man to do a wrong thing without interfering1 more or less1 with the freedom of all his fellow-citizens4 ,so that1 even upon the narrowest view of the functions of the ,state1 it must be admitted to have wider powers than the advocates of the police theory are disposed to admit4 ,it is urged1 ,i am aware1 that if the right of the ,state to step beyond the assigned limits is admitted at all1 there is no stopping2 and that the principle which justifies the ,state in enforcing vaccination or education1 will also justify it in prescribing my religious belief1 or my mode of carrying on my trade or profession2 in determining the number of courses ,i have for dinner1 or the pattern of my waistcoat4 ,but surely the answer is obvious that1 on similar grounds1 the right of a man to eat when he is hungry might be disputed1 because if you once allow that he may eat at all1 there is no stopping him until he gorges himself1 and suffers all the ills of a surfeit4 ,in practice1 the man leaves off when reason tells him he has had enough2 and1 in a properly organized ,state1 the ,government1 being nothing but the corporate reason of the community1 will soon find out when ,state interference has been carried far enough4 ,and1 so far as my acquaintance with those who carry on the business of ,government goes1 ,i must say that ,i find them far less eager to interfere with the people1 than the people are to be interfered with4 ,and the reason is obvious4 ,the people are keenly sensible of particular evils1 and1 like a man suffering from pain1 desire an immediate remedy4 ,the statesman1 on the other hand1 is like the physician1 who knows that he can stop the pain at once by an opiate2 but who also knows that the opiate may do more harm than good in the long run4 ,in three cases out of four the wisest thing he can do is to wait1 and leave the case to nature4 ,but in the fourth case1 in which the symptoms are unmistakable1 and the cause of the disease distinctly known1 prompt remedy saves a life4 ,is the fact that a wise physician will give as little medicine as possible any argument for his abstaining from giving any at all8 ,but the argument may be met directly4 ,it may be granted that the ,state1 or corporate authority of the people1 might with perfect propriety order my religion1 or my waistcoat1 if as good grounds could be assigned for such an order as for the command to educate my children4 ,and this leads us to the question which lies at the root of the whole discussion--the question1 namely1 upon what foundation does the authority of the ,state rest1 and how are the limits of that authority to be determined8 ,one of the oldest and profoundest of ,english philosophers1 ,hobbes of ,malmesbury1 writes thus3-- ,the office of the sovereign1 be it monarch or an assembly1 consisteth in the end for which he was entrusted with the sovereign power1 namely1 the procuration of the safety of the people3 to which he is obliged by the law of nature1 and to render an account thereof to ,god1 the author of that law1 and to none but ,him4 ,but by safety1 here1 is not meant a bare preservation1 but also all other contentments of life1 which every man by lawful industry1 without danger or hurt to the commonwealth1 shall acquire to himself4 ,at first sight this may appear to be a statement of the police-theory of government1 pure and simple2 but it is not so4 ,for ,hobbes goes on to say3-- ,and this is intended should be done1 not by care applied to individuals1 further than their protection from injuries1 when they shall complain2 but by a general providence contained in public instruction both of doctrine and example2 and in the making and executing of good laws to which individual persons may apply their own cases4#a ,footnote #a3 ,leviathan1 ,molesworth's ed4 p4 #cbb4 ,to a witness of the civil war between ,charles ,i4 and the ,parliament1 it is not wonderful that the dissolution of the bonds of society which is involved in such strife should appear to be the greatest evil that can happen in this life2 and all who have read the ,leviathan know to what length ,hobbes's anxiety for the preservation of the authority of the representative of the sovereign power1 whatever its shape1 leads him4 ,but the justice of his conception of the duties of the sovereign power does not seem to me to be invalidated by his monstrous doctrines respecting the sacredness of that power4 ,to ,hobbes1 who lived during the break-up of the sovereign power by popular force1 society appeared to be threatened by everything which weakened that power3 but1 to ,john ,locke1 who witnessed the evils which flow from the attempt of the sovereign power to destroy the rights of the people by fraud and violence1 the danger lay in the other direction4 ,the safety of the representative of the sovereign power itself is to ,locke a matter of very small moment1 and he contemplates its abolition when it ceases to do its duty1 and its replacement by another1 as a matter of course4 ,the great champion of the revolution of #afhh could do no less4 ,nor is it otherwise than natural that he should seek to limit1 rather than to enlarge1 the powers of the ,state1 though in substance he entirely agrees with ,hobbes's view of its duties3-- ,but though men1 says he1 when they enter into society1 give up the equality1 liberty1 and executive power they had in the state of nature1 into the hands of the society1 to be so far disposed of by the ,legislature as the good of society shall require2 yet it being only with an intention in every one the better to preserve himself1 his liberty and property 7for no rational creature can be supposed to change his condition with an intention to be worse71 the power of the society1 or legislation1 constituted by them can never be supposed to extend further than the common good1 but is obliged to secure every one's property by providing against those three defects above mentioned1 that made the state of nature so unsafe and uneasy4 ,and so1 whoever has the legislative or supreme power of any commonwealth1 is bound to govern by established standing laws1 promulgated and known to the people1 and not by extemporary decrees2 by indifferent and upright judges1 who are to decide controversies by those laws3 and to employ the force of the community at home only in the execution of such laws2 or abroad1 to prevent or redress foreign injuries1 and secure the community from inroads and invasion4 ,and all this to be directed to no other end than the peace1 safety1 and public good of the people4#a ,footnote #a3 ,locke's ,essay1 ,of ,civil ,government1 #aca4 ,just as in the case of ,hobbes1 so in that of ,locke1 it may at first sight appear from this passage that the latter philosopher's views of the functions of ,government incline to the negative1 rather than the positive1 side4 ,but a further study of ,locke's writings will at once remove this misconception4 ,in the famous ,letter concerning ,toleration1 ,locke says3-- ,the commonwealth seems to me to be a society of men constituted only for the procuring1 preserving1 and advancing their own civil interests4 ,civil interests ,i call life1 liberty1 health1 and indolency of body2 and the possession of outward things1 such as money1 lands1 houses1 furniture1 and the like4 ,it is the duty of the civil magistrate1 by the impartial execution of equal laws1 to secure unto all the people in general1 and to every one of his subjects in particular1 the just possession of those things belonging to this life4 444 ,the whole jurisdiction of the magistrate reaches only to these civil concernments4444 ,all civil power1 right1 and dominion1 is bounded and confined to the only care of promoting these things4 ,elsewhere in the same ,letter1 ,locke lays down the proposition that if the magistrate understand washing a child to be profitable to the curing or preventing any disease that children are subject unto1 and esteem the matter weighty enough to be taken care of by a law1 in that case he may order it to be done4 ,locke seems to differ most widely from ,hobbes by his strong advocacy of a certain measure of toleration in religious matters4 ,but the reason why the civil magistrate ought to leave religion alone is1 according to ,locke1 simply this1 that true and saving religion consists in the inward persuasion of the mind4 ,and since such is the nature of the understanding that it cannot be compelled to the belief of anything by outward force1 it is absurd to attempt to make men religious by compulsion4 ,i cannot discover that ,locke fathers the pet doctrine of modern ,liberalism1 that the toleration of error is a good thing in itself1 and to be reckoned among the cardinal virtues2 on the contrary1 in this very ,letter on ,toleration he states in the clearest language that ,no opinion contrary to human society1 or to those moral rules which are necessary to the preservation of civil society1 are to be tolerated by the magistrate4 ,and the practical corollary which he draws from this proposition is that there ought to be no toleration for either ,papists or ,atheists4 ,after ,locke's time the negative view of the functions of ,government gradually grew in strength1 until it obtained systematic and able expression in ,wilhelm von ,humboldt's ,ideen1#a the essence of which is the denial that the ,state has a right to be anything more than chief policeman4 ,and1 of late years1 the belief in the efficacy of doing nothing1 thus formulated1 has acquired considerable popularity for several reasons4 ,in the first place1 men's speculative convictions have become less and less real2 their tolerance is large because their belief is small2 they know that the ,state had better leave things alone unless it has a clear knowledge about them2 and1 with reason1 they suspect that the knowledge of the governing power may stand no higher than the very low watermark of their own4 ,footnote #a3 ,an ,english translation has been published under the title of ,essay on the ,sphere and ,duties of ,government4 ,in the second place1 men have become largely absorbed in the mere accumulation of wealth2 and as this is a matter in which the plainest and strongest form of self-interest is intensely concerned1 science 7in the shape of ,political ,economy7 has readily demonstrated that self-interest may be safely left to find the best way of attaining its ends4 ,rapidity and certainty of intercourse between different countries1 the enormous development of the powers of machinery1 and general peace 7however interrupted by brief periods of warfare71 have changed the face of commerce as completely as modern artillery has changed that of war4 ,the merchant found himself as much burdened by ancient protective measures as the soldier by his armour--and negative legislation has been of as much use to the one as the stripping off of breast-plates1 greaves1 and buff-coat to the other4 ,but because the soldier is better without his armour it does not exactly follow that it is desirable that our defenders should strip themselves stark naked2 and it is not more apparent why laissez-faire--great and beneficial as it may be in all that relates to the accumulation of wealth--should be the one great commandment which the ,state is to obey in all other matters2 and especially in those in which the justification of laissez-faire1 namely1 the keen insight given by the strong stimulus of direct personal interest1 in matters clearly understood1 is entirely absent4 ,thirdly1 to the indifference generated by the absence of fixed beliefs1 and to the confidence in the efficacy of laissez-faire1 apparently justified by experience of the value of that principle when applied to the pursuit of wealth1 there must be added that nobler and better reason for a profound distrust of legislative interference1 which animates ,von ,humboldt and shines forth in the pages of ,mr4 ,mill's famous ,essay on ,liberty--,i mean the just fear lest the end should be sacrificed to the means2 lest freedom and variety should be drilled and disciplined out of human life in order that the great mill of the ,state should grind smoothly4 ,one of the profoundest of living ,english philosophers1 who is at the same time the most thoroughgoing and consistent of the champions of astynomocracy1 has devoted a very able and ingenious essay#a to the drawing out of a comparison between the process by which men have advanced from the savage state to the highest civilization1 and that by which an animal passes from the condition of an almost shapeless and structureless germ1 to that in which it exhibits a highly complicated structure and a corresponding diversity of powers4 ,mr4 ,spencer says with great justice-- ,footnote #a3 ,the ,social ,organism3 ,essays4 ,second ,series4 ,that they gradually increase in mass2 that they become1 little by little1 more complex2 that1 at the same time1 their parts grow more mutually dependent2 and that they continue to live and grow as wholes1 while successive generations of their units appear and disappear1--are broad peculiarities which bodies politic display1 in common with all living bodies1 and in which they and living bodies differ from everything else4 ,in a very striking passage of this essay ,mr4 ,spencer shows with what singular closeness a parallel between the development of a nervous system1 which is the governing power of the body in the series of animal organisms1 and that of government1 in the series of social organisms1 can be drawn3-- ,strange as the assertion1 will be thought1 says ,mr4 ,spencer1 our ,houses of ,parliament discharge in the social economy functions that are1 in sundry respects1 comparable to those discharged by the cerebral masses in a vertebrate animal4444 ,the cerebrum co-ordinates the countless heterogeneous considerations which affect the present and future welfare of the individual as a whole2 and the ,legislature co-ordinates the countless heterogeneous considerations which affect the immediate and remote welfare of the whole community4 ,we may describe the office of the brain as that of averaging the interests of life1 physical1 intellectual1 moral1 social2 and a good brain is one in which the desires answering to their respective interests are so balanced1 that the conduct they jointly dictate sacrifice none of them4 ,similarly we may describe the office of ,parliament as that of averaging the interests of the various classes in a community2 and a good ,parliament is one in which the parties answering to these respective interests are so balanced1 that their united legislation concedes to each class as much as consists with the claims of the rest4 ,all this appears to be very just4 ,but if the resemblances between the body physiological and the body politic are any indication1 not only of what the latter is1 and how it has become what it is1 but of what it ought to be1 and what it is tending to become1 ,i cannot but think that the real force of the analogy is totally opposed to the negative view of ,state function4 ,suppose that1 in accordance with this view1 each muscle were to maintain that the nervous system had no right to interfere with its contraction1 except to prevent it from hindering the contraction of another muscle2 or each gland1 that it had a right to secrete1 so long as its secretion interfered with no other2 suppose every separate cell left free to follow its own interests1 and laissez-faire lord of all1 what would become of the body physiological8 ,the fact is that the sovereign power of the body thinks for the physiological organism1 acts for it1 and rules the individual components with a rod of iron4 ,even the blood-corpuscles can't hold a public meeting without being accused of congestion--and the brain1 like other despots whom we have known1 calls out at once for the use of sharp steel against them4 ,as in ,hobbes's ,leviathan1 the representative of the sovereign authority in the living organism1 though he derives all his powers from the mass which he rules1 is above the law4 ,the questioning of his authority involves death1 or that partial death which we call paralysis4 ,hence1 if the analogy of the body politic with the body physiological counts for anything1 it seems to me to be in favour of a much larger amount of governmental interference than exists at present1 or than ,i1 for one1 at all desire to see4 ,but1 tempting as the opportunity is1 ,i am not disposed to build up any argument in favour of my own case upon this analogy1 curious1 interesting1 and in many respects close1 as it is1 for it takes no cognizance of certain profound and essential differences between the physiological and the political bodies4 ,much as the notion of a social contract has been ridiculed1 it nevertheless seems to be clear enough1 that all social organization whatever depends upon what is substantially a contract1 whether expressed or implied1 between the members of the society4 ,no society ever was1 or ever can be1 really held together by force4 ,it may seem a paradox to say that a slaveholder does not make his slaves work by force1 but by agreement4 ,and yet it is true4 ,there is a contract between the two which1 if it were written out1 would run in these terms3--,i undertake to feed1 clothe1 house1 and not to kill1 flog1 or otherwise maltreat you1 ,quashie1 if you perform a certain amount of work4 ,quashie1 seeing no better terms to be had1 accepts the bargain1 and goes to work accordingly4 ,a highwayman who garottes me1 and then clears out my pockets1 robs me by force in the strict sense of the words2 but if he puts a pistol to my head and demands my money or my life1 and ,i1 preferring the latter1 hand over my purse1 we have virtually made a contract1 and ,i perform one of the terms of that contract4 ,if1 nevertheless1 the highwayman subsequently shoots me1 everybody will see that1 in addition to the crimes of murder and theft1 he has been guilty of a breach of contract4 ,a despotic ,government1 therefore1 though often a mere combination of slaveholding and highway robbery1 nevertheless implies a contract between governor and governed1 with voluntary submission on the part of the latter2 and fortiori1 all other forms of government are in like case4 ,now a contract between any two men implies a restriction of the freedom of each in certain particulars4 ,the highwayman gives up his freedom to shoot me1 on condition of my giving up my freedom to do as ,i like with my money3 ,i give up my freedom to kill ,quashie1 on condition of ,quashie's giving up his freedom to be idle4 ,and the essence and foundation of every social organization1 whether simple or complex1 is the fact that each member of the society voluntarily renounces his freedom in certain directions1 in return for the advantages which he expects from association with the other members of that society4 ,nor are constitutions1 laws1 or manners1 in ultimate analysis1 anything but so many expressed or implied contracts between the members of a society to do this1 or abstain from that4 ,it appears to me that this feature constitutes the difference between the social and the physiological organism4 ,among the higher physiological organisms1 there is none which is developed by the conjunction of a number of primitively independent existences into a complex whole4 ,the process of social organization appears to be comparable1 not so much to the process of organic development1 as to the synthesis of the chemist1 by which independent elements are gradually built up into complex aggregations--in which each element retains an independent individuality1 though held in subordination to the whole4 ,the atoms of carbon and hydrogen1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 which enter into a complex molecule1 do not lose the powers originally inherent in them1 when they unite to form that molecule1 the properties of which express those forces of the whole aggregation which are not neutralized and balanced by one another4 ,each atom has given up something1 in order that the atomic society1 or molecule1 may subsist4 ,and as soon as any one or more of the atoms thus associated resumes the freedom which it has renounced1 and follows some external attraction1 the molecule is broken up1 and all the peculiar properties which depended upon its constitution vanish4 ,every society1 great or small1 resembles such a complex molecule1 in which the atoms are represented by men1 possessed of all those multifarious attractions and repulsions which are manifested in their desires and volitions1 the unlimited power of satisfying which1 we call freedom4 ,the social molecule exists in virtue of the renunciation of more or less of this freedom by every individual4 ,it is decomposed1 when the attraction of desire leads to the resumption of that freedom1 the suppression of which is essential to the existence of the social molecule4 ,and the great problem of that social chemistry we call politics1 is to discover what desires of mankind may be gratified1 and what must be suppressed1 if the highly complex compound1 society1 is to avoid decomposition4 ,that the gratification of some of men's desires shall be renounced is essential to order2 that the satisfaction of others shall be permitted is no less essential to progress2 and the business of the sovereign authority--which is1 or ought-to be1 simply a delegation of the people appointed to act for its good--appears to me to be1 not only to enforce the renunciation of the anti-social desires1 but1 wherever it may be necessary1 to promote the satisfaction of those which are conducive to progress4 ,the great metaphysician1 ,immanuel ,kant1 who is at his greatest when he discusses questions which are not metaphysical1 wrote1 nearly a century ago1 a wonderfully instructive essay entitled ,a ,conception of ,universal ,history in relation to ,universal ,citizenship1#a from which ,i will borrow a few pregnant sentences3-- ,footnote #a3 ,idee zu einer allgemeinen ,geschichte in weltbrgerlichen ,absicht1 #aghd4 ,this paper has been translated by ,de ,quincey1 and attention has been recently drawn to its signal merits by the ,editor of the ,fortnightly ,review in his ,essay on ,condorcet4 7,fortnightly ,review1 ,no4 xxxviii4 ,n4,s4 pp4 #acf1 #acg47 ,the means of which ,nature has availed herself1 in order to bring about the development of all the capacities of man1 is the antagonism of those capacities to social organization1 so far as the latter does in the long run necessitate their definite correlation4 ,by antagonism1 ,i here mean the unsocial sociability of mankind--that is1 the combination in them of an impulse to enter into society1 with a thorough spirit of opposition which constantly threatens to break up this society4 ,the ground of this lies in human nature4 ,man has an inclination to enter into society1 because in that state he feels that he becomes more a man1 or1 in other words1 that his natural faculties develop4 ,but he has also a great tendency to isolate himself1 because he is1 at the same time1 aware of the unsocial peculiarity of desiring to have everything his own way2 and thus1 being conscious of an inclination to oppose others1 he is naturally led to expect opposition from them4 ,now it is this opposition which awakens all the dormant powers of men1 stimulates them to overcome their inclination to be idle1 and1 spurred by the love of honour1 or power1 or wealth1 to make themselves a place among their fellows1 whom they can neither do with1 nor do without4 ,thus they make the first steps from brutishness towards culture1 of which the social value of man is the measure4 ,thus all talents become gradually developed1 taste is formed1 and by continual enlightenment the foundations of a way of thinking are laid1 which gradually changes the mere rude capacity of moral perception into determinate practical principles2 and thus society1 which is originated by a sort of pathological compulsion1 becomes metamorphosed into a moral unity4 7,loc4 cit4 p4 #adg47 ,all the culture and art which adorn humanity1 the most refined social order1 are produced by that unsociability which is compelled by its own existence to discipline itself1 and so by enforced art to bring the seeds implanted by nature into full flower4 7,loc4 cit4 p4 #adh47 ,in these passages1 as in others of this remarkable tract1 ,kant anticipates the application of the struggle for existence to politics1 and indicates the manner in which the evolution of society has resulted from the constant attempt of individuals to strain its bonds4 ,if individuality has no play1 society does not advance2 if individuality breaks out of all bounds1 society perishes4 ,but when men living in society once become aware that their welfare depends upon1 two opposing tendencies of equal importance--the one restraining1 the other encouraging1 individual freedom--the question ,what are the functions of ,government8 is translated into another--namely1 ,what ought we men1 in our corporate capacity1 to do1 not only in the way of restraining that free individuality which is inconsistent with the existence of society1 but in encouraging that free individuality which is essential to the evolution of the social organization8 ,the formula which truly defines the function of ,government must contain the solution of both the problems involved1 and not merely of one of them4 ,locke has furnished us with such a formula1 in the noblest1 and at the same time briefest1 statement of the purpose of ,government known to me3-- ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,government ,,is ,,the ,,good ,,of ,,mankind4#a ,footnote #a3 ,of ,civil ,government1 #bbi4 ,but the good of mankind is not a something which is absolute and fixed for all men1 whatever their capacities or state of civilization4 ,doubtless it is possible to imagine a true ,civitas ,dei1 in which every man's moral faculty shall be such as leads him to control all those desires which run counter to the good of mankind1 and to cherish only those which conduce to the welfare of society2 and in which every man's native intellect shall be sufficiently strong1 and his culture sufficiently extensive1 to enable him to know what he ought to do and to seek after4 ,and1 in that blessed ,state1 police will be as much a superfluity as every other kind of government4 ,but the eye of man has not beheld that ,state1 and is not likely to behold it for some time to come4 ,what we do see1 in fact1 is that ,states are made up of a considerable number of the ignorant and foolish1 a small proportion of genuine knaves1 and a sprinkling of capable and honest men1 by whose efforts the former are kept in a reasonable state of guidance1 and the latter of repression4 ,and1 such being the case1 ,i do not see how any limit whatever can be laid down as to the extent to which1 under some circumstances1 the action of ,government may be rightfully carried4 ,was our own ,government wrong in suppressing ,thuggee in ,india8 ,if not1 would it be wrong in putting down any enthusiast who attempted to set up the worship of ,astarte in the ,haymarket8 ,has the ,state no right to put a stop to gross and open violations of common decency8 ,and if the ,state has1 as ,i believe it has1 a perfect right to do all these things1 are we not bound to admit1 with ,locke1 that it may have a right to interfere with ,popery and ,atheism1 if it be really true that the practical consequences of such beliefs con be proved to be injurious to civil society8 ,the question where to draw the line between those things with which the ,state ought1 and those with which it ought not1 to interfere1 then1 is one which must be left to be decided separately for each individual case4 ,the difficulty which meets the statesman is the same as that which meets us all in individual life1 in which our abstract rights are generally clear enough1 though it is frequently extremely hard to say at what point it is wise to cease our attempts to enforce them4 ,the notion that the social body should be organized in such a manner as to advance the welfare of its members1 is as old as political thought2 and the schemes of ,plato1 ,more1 ,robert ,owen1 ,st4 ,simon1 ,comte1 and the modern socialists1 bear witness that1 in every age1 men whose capacity is of no mean order1 and whose desire to benefit their fellows has rarely been excelled1 have been strongly1 nay1 enthusiastically1 convinced that ,government may attain its end--the good of the people--by some more effectual process than the very simple and easy one of putting its hands in its pockets1 and letting them alone4 ,it may be1 that all the schemes of social organization which have hitherto been propounded are impracticable follies4 ,but if this be so1 the fact proves1 not that the idea which underlies them is worthless1 but only that the science of politics is in a very rudimentary and imperfect state4 ,politics1 as a science1 is not older than astronomy2 but though the subject-matter of the latter is vastly less complex than that of the former1 the theory of the moon's motions is not quite settled yet4 ,perhaps it may help us a little way towards getting clearer notions of what the ,state may and what it may not do1 if1 assuming the truth of ,locke's maxim that the end of ,government is the good of mankind1 we consider a little what the good1 of mankind is4 ,i take it that the good of mankind means the attainment1 by every man1 of all the happiness which he can enjoy without diminishing the happiness of his fellow-men4#a ,footnote #a3 ,hie est itaque finis ad quem tendo1 talem scilicet ,naturam acquirere1 et ut multi mecum eam acquirant1 conari hoc est de mea felicitate etiam operam dare1 ut alii multi idem atque ego intelligant1 ut eorum intellectus et cupiditas prorsus cum meo intellectu et cupiditate convenient3 atque hoc fiat1 necesse est tantum de ,natura intelligere1 quantum sufficit ad talem naturam acquirendam2 deinde formare talem societatem qualis est desideranda1 ut quam plurimi quam facillime et secure eo perveniant4--,b4 ,,spinoza1 ,de ,intellectus ,emendatione ,tractatus4 ,if we inquire what kinds of happiness come under this definition1 we find those derived from the sense of security or peace2 from wealth1 or commodity1 obtained by commerce2 from ,art--whether it be architecture1 sculpture1 painting1 music1 or literature2 from knowledge1 or science2 and1 finally1 from sympathy or friendship4 ,no man is injured1 but the contrary1 by peace4 ,no man is any the worse off because another acquires wealth by trade1 or by the exercise of a profession2 on the contrary1 he cannot have acquired his wealth1 except by benefiting others to the full extent of what they considered to be its value2 and his wealth is no more than fairy gold if he does not go on benefiting others in the same way4 ,a thousand men may enjoy the pleasure derived from a picture1 a symphony1 or a poem1 without lessening the happiness of the most devoted connoisseur4 ,the investigation of nature is an infinite pasture-ground1 where all may graze1 and where the more bite1 the longer the grass grows1 the sweeter is its flavour1 and the more it nourishes4 ,if ,i love a friend1 it is no damage to me1 but rather a pleasure1 if all the world also love him and think of him as highly as ,i do4 ,it appears to be universally agreed1 for the reasons already mentioned1 that it is unnecessary and undesirable for the ,state to attempt to promote the acquisition of wealth by any direct interference with commerce4 ,but there is no such agreement as to the further question whether the ,state may not promote the acquisition of wealth by indirect means4 ,for example1 may the ,state make a road1 or build a harbour1 when it is quite clear that by so doing it will open up a productive district1 and thereby add enormously to the total wealth of the community8 ,and if so1 may the ,state1 acting for the general good1 take charge of the means of communication between its members1 or of the postal and telegraph services8 ,i have not yet met with any valid1 argument against the propriety of the ,state doing what our ,government does in this matter2 except the assumption1 which remains to be proved1 that ,government will manage these things worse than private enterprise would do4 ,nor is there any agreement upon the still more important question whether the ,state ought1 or ought not1 to regulate the distribution of wealth4 ,if it ought not1 then all legislation which regulates inheritance--the statute of ,mortmain1 and the like--is wrong in principle2 and1 when a rich man dies1 we ought to return to the state of nature1 and have a scramble for his property4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the authority of the ,state is legitimately employed in regulating these matters1 then it is an open question1 to be decided entirely by evidence as to what tends to the highest good of the people1 whether we keep our present laws1 or whether we modify them4 ,at present the ,state protects men in the possession and enjoyment of their property1 and defines what that property is4 ,the justification for its so doing is that its action promotes the good of the people4 ,if it can be clearly proved that the abolition of property would tend still1 more to promote the good of the people1 the ,state will have the same justification for abolishing property that it now has for maintaining it4 ,again1 ,i suppose it is universally agreed that it would be useless and absurd for the ,state to attempt to promote friendship and sympathy between man and man directly4 ,but ,i see no reason why1 if it be otherwise expedient1 the ,state may not do something towards that end indirectly4 ,for example1 ,i can conceive the existence of an ,established ,church which should be a blessing to the community4 ,a ,church in which1 week by week1 services should be devoted1 not to the iteration of abstract propositions in theology1 but to the setting before men's minds of an ideal of true1 just1 and pure living2 a place in which those who are weary of the burden of daily cares1 should find a moment's rest in the contemplation of the higher life which is possible for all1 though attained by so few2 a place in which the man of strife and of business should have time to think how small1 after all1 are the rewards he covets compared with peace and charity4 ,depend upon it1 if such a ,church existed1 no one would seek to disestablish it4 ,whatever the ,state may not do1 however1 it is universally agreed that it may take charge of the maintenance of internal and external peace4 ,even the strongest advocate of administrative nihilism admits that ,government may prevent aggression of one man on another4 ,but this implies the maintenance of an army and navy1 as much as of a body of police2 it implies a diplomatic as well as a detective force2 and it implies1 further1 that the ,state1 as a corporate whole1 shall have distinct and definite views as to its wants1 powers1 and obligations4 ,for independent ,states stand in the same relation to one another as men in a state of nature1 or unlimited freedom4 ,each endeavours to get all it can1 until the inconvenience of the state of war suggests either the formation of those express contracts we call treaties1 or mutual consent to those implied contracts which are expressed by international law4 ,the moral rights of a ,state rest upon the same basis as those of an individual4 ,if any number of ,states agree to observe a common set of international laws1 they have1 in fact1 set up a sovereign authority or supra-national government1 the end of which1 like that of all governments1 is the good of mankind2 and the possession of as much freedom by each ,state1 as is consistent with the attainment of that end4 ,but there is this difference3 that the government thus set up over nations is ideal1 and has no concrete representative of the sovereign power2 whence the only way of settling any dispute finally is to fight it out4 ,thus the supra-national society is continually in danger of returning to the state of nature1 in which contracts are void2 and the possibility of this contingency justifies a government in restricting the liberty of its subjects in many ways that would otherwise be unjustifiable4 ,finally1 with respect to the advancement of science and art4 ,i have never yet had the good fortune to hear any valid reason alleged why that corporation of individuals we call the ,state may not do what voluntary effort fails in doing1 either from want of intelligence or lack of will4 ,and here it cannot be alleged that the action of the ,state is always hurtful4 ,on the contrary1 in every country in ,europe1 universities1 public libraries1 picture galleries1 museums1 and laboratories1 have been established by the ,state1 and have done infinite service to the intellectual and moral progress and the refinement of mankind4 ,a few days ago ,i received from one of the most eminent members of the ,institut of ,france a pamphlet entitled ,pourquoi la ,france n'a pas trouv d'hommes suprieurs au moment du pril4 ,the writer1 ,m4 ,pasteur1 has no doubt that the cause of the astounding collapse of his countrymen is to be sought in the miserable neglect of the higher branches of culture1 which has been one of the many disgraces of the ,second ,empire1 if not of its predecessors4 ,au point o nous sommes arrivs de ce qu'on appelle la civilisation moderne1 la culture des sciences dans leur expression la plus leve est peut-tre plus ncessaire encore l'tat moral d'une nation qu' sa prosprit materielle4 ,les grandes dcouvertes1 les mditations de la pense dans les arts1 dans les sciences et dans les lettres1 en un mot les travaux dsintresses de l'esprit dans tous les genres1 les centres d'enseignement propres les faire connatre1 introduisent dans le corps social tout entier l'esprit philosophique ou scientifique1 cet esprit de discernement qui soumet tout une raison svre1 condamne l'ignorance1 dissipe les prjugs et les erreurs4 ,ils lvent le niveau intellectuel1 le sentiment moral2 par eux1 l'ide divine elle-mme se rpand et s'exalte4444 ,si1 au moment du pril suprme1 la ,france n'a pas trouv des hommes suprieurs pour mettre en oeuvre ses ressources et le courage de ses enfants1 il faut l'attribuer1 j'en ai la conviction1 ce que la ,france ,,est dsintresse1 depuis un demi-sicle1 des grands travaux de la pense1 particulirement dans les sciences exactes4 ,individually1 ,i have no love for academies on the continental model1 and still less for the system of decorating men of distinction in science1 letters1 or art1 with orders and titles1 or enriching them with sinecures4 ,what men of science want is only a fair day's wages for more than a fair day's work2 and most of us1 ,i suspect1 would be well content if1 for our days and nights of unremitting toil1 we could secure the pay which a first-class ,treasury clerk earns without any obviously trying strain upon his faculties4 ,the sole order of nobility which1 in my judgment1 becomes a philosopher1 is that rank which he holds in the estimation of his fellow-workers1 who are the only competent judges in such matters4 ,newton and ,cuvier lowered themselves when the one accepted an idle knighthood1 and the other became a baron of the empire4 ,the great men who went to their graves as ,michael ,faraday and ,george ,grote seem to me to have understood the dignity of knowledge better when they declined all such meretricious trappings4 ,but it is one thing for the ,state to appeal to the vanity and ambition which are to be found in philosophical as in other breasts1 and another to offer men who desire to do the hardest of work for the most modest of tangible rewards1 the means of making themselves useful to their age and generation4 ,and this is just what the ,state does when it founds a public library or museum1 or provides the means of scientific research by such grants of money as that administered by the ,royal ,society4 ,it is one thing1 again1 for the ,state to take all the higher education of the nation into its own hands2 it is another to stimulate and to aid1 while they are yet young and weak1 local efforts to the same end4 ,the ,midland ,institute1 ,owens ,college in ,manchester1 the newly instituted ,science ,college in ,newcastle1 are all noble products of local energy and munificence4 ,but the good they are doing is not local--the commonwealth1 to its uttermost limits1 shares in the benefits they confer2 and ,i am at a loss to understand upon what principle of equity the ,state1 which admits the principle of payment on results1 refuses to give a fair equivalent for these benefits2 or on what principle of justice the ,state1 which admits the obligation of sharing the duty of primary education with a locality1 denies the existence of that obligation when the higher education is in question4 ,to sum up3 ,if the positive advancement of the peace1 wealth1 and the intellectual and moral development of its members1 are objects which the ,government1 as the representative of the corporate authority of society1 may justly strive after1 in fulfilment of its end--the good of mankind2 then it is clear that the ,government may undertake to educate the people4 ,for education promotes peace by teaching men the realities of life and the obligations which are involved in the very existence of society2 it promotes intellectual development1 not only by training the individual intellect1 but by sifting out from the masses of ordinary or inferior capacities1 those who are competent to increase the general welfare by occupying higher positions2 and1 lastly1 it promotes morality and refinement1 by teaching men to discipline themselves1 and by leading them to see that the highest1 as it is the only permanent1 content is to be attained1 not by grovelling in the rank and steaming valleys of sense1 but by continual striving towards those high peaks1 where1 resting in eternal calm1 reason discerns the undefined but bright ideal of the highest ,good--a cloud by day1 a pillar of fire by night4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,school ,,boards3 ,,what ,,they ,,can ,,do1 ,,and ,,what ,,they ,,may ,,do4 ,an electioneering manifesto would be out of place in the pages of this ,review2 but any suspicion that may arise in the mind of the reader that the following pages partake of that nature1 will be dispelled1 if he reflect that they cannot be published#a until after the day on which the ratepayers of the metropolis will have decided which candidates for seats upon the ,metropolitan ,school ,board they will take1 and which they will leave4 ,footnote #a3 ,notwithstanding ,mr4 ,huxley's intentions1 the ,editor took upon himself1 in what seemed to him to be the public interest1 to send an extract from this article to the newspapers--before the day of the election of the ,school ,board4--,,editor of the ,contemporary ,review4 ,as one of those candidates1 ,i may be permitted to say1 that ,i feel much in the frame of mind of the ,irish bricklayer's labourer1 who bet another that he could not carry him to the top of the ladder in his hod4 ,the challenged hodman won his wager1 but as the stakes were handed over1 the challenger wistfully remarked1 ,i'd great hopes of falling at the third round from the top4 ,and1 in view of the work and the worry which awaits the members of the ,school ,boards1 ,i must confess to an occasional ungrateful hope that the friends who are toiling upwards with me in their hod1 may1 when they reach the third round from the top1 let me fall back into peace and quietness4 ,but whether fortune befriend me in this rough method1 or not1 ,i should like to submit to those of whom ,i am a potential1 but of whom ,i may not be an actual1 colleague1 and to others who may be interested in this most important problem--how to get the ,education ,act to work efficiently--some considerations as to what are the duties of the members of the ,school ,boards1 and what are the limits of their power4 ,i suppose no one will be disposed to dispute the proposition1 that the prime duty of every member of such a ,board is to endeavour to administer the ,act honestly2 or in accordance1 not only with its letter1 but with its spirit4 ,and if so1 it would seem that the first step towards this very desirable end is1 to obtain a clear notion of what that letter signifies1 and what that spirit implies2 or1 in other words1 what the clauses of the ,act are intended to enjoin and to forbid4 ,so that it is really not admissible1 except for factious and abusive purposes1 to assume that any one who endeavours to get at this clear meaning is desirous only of raising quibbles and making difficulties4 ,reading the ,act with this desire to understand it1 ,i find that its provisions may be classified1 as might naturally be expected1 under two heads3 the one set relating to the subject-matter of education2 the other to the establishment1 maintenance1 and administration of the schools in which that education is to be conducted4 ,now it is a most important circumstance1 that all the sections of the ,act1 except four1 belong to the latter division2 that is1 they refer to mere matters of administration4 ,the four sections in question are the seventh1 the fourteenth1 the sixteenth1 and the ninety-seventh4 ,of these1 the seventh1 the fourteenth1 and the ninety-seventh deal with the subject-matter of education1 while the sixteenth defines the nature of the relations which are to exist between the ,education ,department 7an euphemism for the future ,minister of ,education7 and the ,school ,boards4 ,it is the sixteenth clause which is the most important1 and1 in some respects1 the most remarkable of all4 ,it runs thus3-- ,if the ,school ,board do1 or permit1 any act in contravention of1 or fail to comply with1 the regulations1 according to which a school provided by them is required by this ,act to be conducted1 the ,education ,department may declare the ,school ,board to be1 and such ,board shall accordingly be deemed to be1 a ,board in default1 and the ,education ,department may proceed accordingly2 and every act1 or omission1 of any member of the ,school ,board1 or manager appointed by them1 or any person under the control of the ,board1 shall be deemed to be permitted by the ,board1 unless the contrary be proved4 ,if any dispute arises as to whether the ,school ,board have done1 or permitted1 any act in contravention of1 or have failed to comply with1 the said regulations1 the matter shall be referred to the ,education ,department1 whose decision thereon shall be final4 ,it will be observed that this clause gives the ,minister of ,education absolute power over the doings of the ,school ,boards4 ,he is not only the administrator of the ,act1 but he is its interpreter4 ,i had imagined that on the occurrence of a dispute1 not as regards a question of pure administration1 but as to the meaning of a clause of the ,act1 a case might be taken and referred to a court of justice4 ,but ,i am led to believe that the ,legislature has1 in the present instance1 deliberately taken this power out of the hands of the judges and lodged it in those of the ,minister of ,education1 who1 in accordance with our method of making ,ministers1 will necessarily be a political partisan1 and who may be a strong theological sectary into the bargain4 ,and ,i am informed by members of ,parliament who watched the progress of the ,act1 that the responsibility for this unusual state of things rests1 not with the ,government1 but with the ,legislature1 which exhibited a singular disposition to accumulate power in the hands of the future ,minister of ,education1 and to evade the more troublesome difficulties of the education question by leaving them to be settled between that ,minister and the ,school ,boards4 ,i express no opinion whether it is1 or is not1 desirable that such powers of controlling all the ,school ,boards in the country should be possessed by a person who may be1 like ,mr4 ,forster1 eminently likely to use these powers justly and wisely1 but who also may be quite the reverse4 ,i merely wish to draw attention to the fact that such powers are given to the ,minister1 whether he be fit or unfit4 ,the extent of these powers becomes apparent when the other sections of the ,act referred to are considered4 ,the fourth clause of the seventh section says3-- ,the school shall be conducted in accordance with the conditions required to be fulfilled by an elementary school in order to obtain an annual ,parliamentary grant4 ,what these conditions are appears from the following clauses of the ninety-seventh section3-- ,the conditions required to be fulfilled by an elementary school in order to obtain an annual ,parliamentary grant shall be those contained in the minutes of the ,education ,department in force for the time being4444 ,provided that no such minute of the ,education ,department1 not in force at the time of the passing of this ,act1 shall be deemed to be in force until it has lain for not less than one month on the table of both ,houses of ,parliament4 ,let us consider how this will work in practice4 ,a school established by a ,school ,board may receive support from three sources--from the rates1 the school fees1 and the ,parliamentary grant4 ,the latter may be as great as the two former taken together2 and as it may be assumed1 without much risk of error1 that a constant pressure will be exerted by the ratepayers on the members who represent them1 to get as much out of the ,government1 and as little out of the rates1 as possible1 the ,school ,boards will have a very strong motive for shaping the education they give1 as nearly as may be1 on the model which the ,education ,minister offers for their imitation1 and for the copying of which he is prepared to pay4 ,the ,revised ,code did not compel any schoolmaster to leave off teaching anything2 but1 by the very simple process of refusing to pay for many kinds of teaching1 it has practically put an end to them4 ,mr4 ,forster is said to be engaged in revising the ,revised ,code2 a successor of his may re-revise it--and there will be no sort of check upon these revisions and counter-revisions1 except the possibility of a ,parliamentary debate1 when the revised1 or added1 minutes are laid upon the table4 ,what chance is there that any such debate will take place on a matter of detail relating to elementary education--a subject with which members of the ,legislature1 having been1 for the most part1 sent to our public schools thirty years ago1 have not the least practical acquaintance1 and for which they care nothing1 unless it derives a political value from its connection with sectarian politics8 ,i cannot but think1 then1 that the ,school ,boards will have the appearance1 but not the reality1 of freedom of action1 in regard to the subject-matter of what is commonly called secular education4 ,as respects what is commonly called religious education1 the power of the ,minister of ,education is even more despotic4 ,an interest1 almost amounting to pathos1 attaches itself1 in my mind1 to the frantic exertions which are at present going on in almost every school division1 to elect certain candidates whose names have never before been heard of in connection with education1 and who are either sectarian partisans1 or nothing4 ,in my own particular division1 a body organized ad hoc is moving heaven and earth to get the seven seats filled by seven gentlemen1 four of whom are good ,churchmen1 and three no less good ,dissenters4 ,but why should this seven times heated fiery furnace of theological zeal be so desirous to shed its genial warmth over the ,london ,school ,board8 ,can it be that these zealous sectaries mean to evade the solemn pledge given in the ,act8 ,no religious catechism or religious formulary which is distinctive of any particular denomination shall be taught in the school4 ,i confess ,i should have thought it my duty to reject any such suggestion1 as dishonouring to a number of worthy persons1 if it had not been for a leading article and some correspondence which appeared in the ,guardian of ,november #ith1 #ahgj4 ,the ,guardian is1 as everybody knows1 one of the best of the religious newspapers2 and1 personally4 ,i have every reason to speak highly of the fairness1 and indeed kindness1 with which the editor is good enough to deal with a writer who must1 in many ways1 be so objectionable to him as myself4 ,i quote the following passages from a leading article on a letter of mine1 therefore1 with all respect1 and with a genuine conviction that the course of conduct advocated by the writer must appear to him in a very different light from that under which ,i see it3-- ,the first of these points is the interpretation which ,professor ,huxley puts on the ',cowper-,temple clause4' ,it is1 in fact1 that which we foretold some time ago as likely to be forced upon it by those who think with him4 ,the clause itself was one of those compromises which it is very difficult to define or to maintain logically4 ,on the one side was the simple freedom to ,school ,boards to establish what schools they pleased1 which ,mr4 ,forster originally gave1 but against which the ,nonconformists lifted up their voices1 because they conceived it likely to give too much power to the ,church4 ,on the other side there was the proposition to make the schools secular--intelligible enough1 but in the consideration of public opinion simply impossible--and there was the vague impracticable idea1 which ,mr4 ,gladstone thoroughly tore to pieces1 of enacting that the teaching of all schoolmasters in the new schools should be strictly 'undenominational4' ,the ,cowper-,temple clause was1 we repeat1 proposed simply to tide over the difficulty4 ,it was to satisfy the ,nonconformists and the 'unsectarian1' as distinct from the secular party of the ,league1 by forbidding all distinctive 'catechisms and formularies1' which might have the effect of openly assigning the schools to this or that religious body4 ,it refused1 at the same time1 to attempt the impossible task of defining what was undenominational2 and its author even contended1 if we understood him correctly1 that it would in no way1 even indirectly1 interfere with the substantial teaching of any master in any school4 ,this assertion we always believed to be untenable2 we could not see how1 in the face of this clause1 a distinctly denominational tone could be honestly given to schools nominally general4 ,but beyond this mere suggestion of an attempt at a general tone of comprehensiveness in religious teaching it was not intended to go1 and only because such was its limitation was it accepted by the ,government and by the ,house4 ,but now we are told that it is to be construed as doing precisely that which it refused to do4 ,a 'formulary1' it seems1 is a collection of formulas1 and formulas are simply propositions of whatever kind touching religious faith4 ,all such propositions1 if they cannot be accepted by all ,christian denominations1 are to be proscribed2 and it is added significantly that the ,jews also are a denomination1 and so that any teaching distinctively ,christian is perhaps to be excluded1 lest it should interfere with their freedom and rights4 ,are we then to fall back on the simple reading of the letter of the ,bible8 ,no6 this1 it is granted1 would be an 'unworthy pretence4' ,the teacher is to give 'grammatical1 geographical1 or historical explanations2' but he is to keep clear of 'theology proper1' because1 as ,professor ,huxley takes great pains to prove1 there is no theological teaching which is not opposed by some sect or other1 from ,roman ,catholicism on the one hand to ,unitarianism on the other4 ,it was not1 perhaps1 hard to see that this difficulty would be started2 and to those who1 like ,professor ,huxley1 look at it theoretically1 without much practical experience of schools1 it may appear serious or unanswerable4 ,but there is very little in it practically2 when it is faced determinately and handled firmly1 it will soon shrink into its true dimensions4 ,the class who are least frightened at it are the school-teachers1 simply because they know most about it4 ,it is quite clear that the school-managers must be cautioned against allowing their schools to be made places of proselytism3 but when this is done1 the case is simple enough4 ,leave the masters under this general understanding to teach freely2 if there is ground of complaint1 let it be made1 but leave the onus pro-bandi on the objectors4 ,for extreme peculiarities of belief or unbelief there is the ,conscience ,clause2 as to the mass of parents1 they will be more anxious to have religion taught than afraid of its assuming this or that particular shade4 ,they will trust the school-managers and teachers till they have reason to distrust them1 and experience has shown that they may trust them safely enough4 ,any attempt to throw the burden of making the teaching undenominational upon the managers must be sternly resisted3 it is simply evading the intentions of the ,act in an elaborate attempt to carry them out4 ,we thank ,professor ,huxley for the warning4 ,to be forewarned is to be forearmed4 ,a good deal of light seems to me to be thrown on the practical significance of the opinions expressed in the foregoing extract by the following interesting letter1 which appeared in the same paper3-- ,sir1--,i venture to send to you the substance of a correspondence with the ,education ,department upon the question of the lawfulness of religious teaching in rate schools under section #ad 7#b7 of the ,act4 ,i asked whether the words 'which is distinctive1' c41 taken grammatically as limiting the prohibition of any religious formulary1 might be construed as allowing 7subject1 however1 to the other provisions of the ,act7 any religious formulary common to any two denominations anywhere in ,england to be taught in such schools2 and if practically the limit could not be so extended1 but would have to be fixed according to the special circumstances of each district1 then what degree of general acceptance in a district would exempt such a formulary from the prohibition8 ,the answer to this was as follows3--',it was understood1 when clause #ad of the ,education ,act was discussed in the ,house of ,commons1 that1 according to a well-known rule of interpreting ,acts of ,parliament1 denomination must be held to include denominations4 ,when any dispute is referred to the ,education ,department under the last paragraph of section #af1 it will be dealt with according to the circumstances of the case4' ,upon my asking further if ,i might hence infer that the lawfulness of teaching any religious formulary in a rate school would thus depend exclusively on local circumstances1 and would accordingly be so decided by the ,education ,department in case of dispute1 ,i was informed in explanation that 'their lordships'' letter was intended to convey to me that no general rule1 beyond that stated in the first paragraph of their letter1 could at present be laid down by them2 and that their decision in each particular case must depend on the special circumstances accompanying it4 ,i think it would appear from this that it may yet be in many cases both lawful and expedient to teach religious formularies in rate schools4 ,h4,i4 ,steyning1 ,november #e1 #ahgj4 ,of course ,i do not mean to suggest that the editor of the ,guardian is bound by the opinions of his correspondent2 but ,i cannot help thinking that ,i do not misrepresent him1 when ,i say that he also thinks that it may yet be1 in many cases1 both lawful and expedient to teach religious formularies in rate schools under these circumstances4 ,it is not uncharitable1 therefore1 to assume that1 the express words of the ,act of ,parliament notwithstanding1 all the sectaries who are toiling so hard for seats in the ,london ,school ,board have the lively hope of the gentleman from ,steyning1 that it may be both lawful and expedient to teach religious formularies in rate schools2 and that they mean to do their utmost to bring this happy consummation about4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a passage in an article on the ,working of the ,education ,act1 in the ,saturday ,review for ,nov4 #ai1 #ahgj1 completely justifies this anticipation of the line of action which the sectaries mean to take4 ,after commending the ,liverpool compromise1 the writer goes on to say3-- ,if this plan is fairly adopted in ,liverpool1 the fourteenth clause of the ,act will in effect be restored to its original form1 and the majority of the ratepayers in each district be permitted to decide to what denomination the school shall belong4 ,in a previous paragraph the writer speaks of a possible mistrust of one another by the members of the ,board1 and seems to anticipate accusations of dishonesty4 ,if any of the members of the ,board adopt his views1 ,i think it highly probable that he may turn out to be a true prophet4 ,now the pathetic emotion to which ,i have referred1 as accompanying my contemplations of the violent struggles of so many excellent persons1 is caused by the circumstance that1 so far as ,i can judge1 their labour is in vain4 ,supposing that the ,london ,school ,board contains1 as it probably will do1 a majority of sectaries2 and that they carry over the heads of a minority1 a resolution that certain theological formulas1 about which they all happen to agree1--say1 for example1 the doctrine of the ,trinity1--shall be taught in the schools4 ,do they fondly imagine that the minority will not at once dispute their interpretation of the ,act1 and appeal to the ,education ,department to settle that dispute8 ,and if so1 do they suppose that any ,minister of ,education1 who wants to keep his place1 will tighten boundaries which the ,legislature has left loose2 and will give a final decision which shall be offensive to every ,unitarian and to every ,jew in the ,house of ,commons1 besides creating a precedent which will afterwards be used to the injury of every ,nonconformist8 ,the editor of the ,guardian tells his friends sternly to resist every attempt to throw the burden of making the teaching undenominational on the managers1 and thanks me for the warning ,i have given him4 ,i return the thanks1 with interest1 for his warning1 as to the course the party he represents intends to pursue1 and for enabling me thus to draw public attention to a perfectly constitutional and effectual mode of checkmating them4 ,and1 in truth1 it is wonderful to note the surprising entanglement into which our able editor gets himself in the struggle between his native honesty and judgment and the necessities of his party4 ,we could not see1 says he1 in the face of this clause how a distinct denominational tone could be honestly given to schools nominally general4 ,there speaks the honest and clearheaded man4 ,any attempt to throw the burden of making the teaching undenominational must be sternly resisted4 ,there speaks the advocate holding a brief for his party4 ,verily1 as ,trinculo says1 the monster hath two mouths3 the one1 the forward mouth1 tells us very justly that the teaching cannot honestly be distinctly denominational2 but the other1 the backward mouth1 asserts that it must by no manner of means be undenominational4 ,putting the two utterances together1 ,i can only interpret them to mean that the teaching is to be indistinctly denominational4 ,if the editor of the ,guardian had not shown signs of anger at my use of the term theological fog1 ,i should have been tempted to suppose it must have been what he had in his mind1 under the name of indistinct denominationalism4 ,but this reading being plainly inadmissible1 ,i can only imagine that he inculcates the teaching of formulas common to a number of denominations4 ,but the ,education ,department has already told the gentleman from ,steyning that any such proceeding will be illegal4 ,according to a well-known rule of interpreting ,acts of ,parliament1 'denomination' would be held to include 'denominations4' ,in other words1 we must read the ,act thus3-- ,no religious catechism or religious formulary which is distinctive of any particular denominations shall be taught4 ,thus we are really very much indebted to the editor of the ,guardian and his correspondent4 ,the one has shown us that the sectaries mean to try to get as much denominational teaching as they can agree upon among themselves1 forced into the elementary schools2 while the other has obtained a formal declaration from the ,education ,department that any such attempt will contravene the ,act of ,parliament1 and that1 therefore1 the unsectarian1 law-abiding members of the ,school ,boards may safely reckon upon1 bringing down upon their opponents the heavy hand of the ,minister of ,education4#a ,footnote #a3 ,since this paragraph was written1 ,mr4 ,forster1 in speaking at the ,birkbeck ,institution1 has removed all doubt as to what his final decision will be in the case of such disputes being referred to him3--,i have the fullest confidence that in the reading and explaining of the ,bible1 what the children will be taught will be the great truths of ,christian life and conduct1 which all of us desire they should know1 and that no effort will be made to cram into their poor little minds1 theological dogmas which their tender age prevents them from understanding4 ,so much for the powers of the ,school ,boards4 ,limited as they seem to be1 it by no means follows that such ,boards1 if they are composed of intelligent and practical men1 really more in earnest about education than about sectarian squabbles1 may not exert a very great amount of influence4 ,and1 from many circumstances1 this is especially likely to be the case with the ,london ,school ,board1 which1 if it conducts itself wisely1 may become a true educational parliament1 as subordinate in authority to the ,minister of ,education1 theoretically1 as the ,legislature is to the ,crown1 and yet1 like the ,legislature1 possessed of great practical authority4 ,and ,i suppose that no ,minister of ,education would be other than glad to have the aid of the deliberations of such a body1 or fail to pay careful attention to its recommendations4 ,what1 then1 ought to be the nature and scope of the education which a ,school ,board should endeavour to give to every child under its influence1 and for which it should try to obtain the aid of the ,parliamentary grants8 ,in my judgment it should include at least the following kinds of instruction and of discipline3-- #a4 ,physical training and drill1 as part of the regular business of the school4 ,it is impossible to insist too much on the importance of this part of education for the children of the poor of great towns4 ,all the conditions of their lives are unfavourable to their physical well-being4 ,they are badly lodged1 badly housed1 badly fed1 and live from one year's end to another in bad air1 without chance of a change4 ,they have no play-grounds2 they amuse themselves with marbles and chuck-farthing1 instead of cricket or hare-and-hounds2 and if it were not for the wonderful instinct which leads all poor children of tender years to run under the feet of cab-horses whenever they can1 ,i know not how they would learn to use their limbs with agility4 ,now there is no real difficulty about teaching drill and the simpler kinds of gymnastics4 ,it is done admirably well1 for example1 in the ,north ,surrey ,union schools2 and a year or two ago1 when ,i had an opportunity of inspecting these schools1 ,i was greatly struck with the effect of such training upon the poor little waifs and strays of humanity1 mostly picked out of the gutter1 who are being made into cleanly1 healthy1 and useful members of society in that excellent institution4 ,whatever doubts people may entertain about the efficacy of natural selection1 there can be none about artificial selection2 and the breeder who should attempt to make1 or keep up1 a fine stock of pigs1 or sheep1 under the conditions to which the children of the poor are exposed1 would be the laughing-stock even of the bucolic mind4 ,parliament has already done something in this direction1 by declining to be an accomplice in the asphyxiation of school children4 ,it refuses to make any grant to a school in which the cubical contents of the school-room are inadequate to allow of proper respiration4 ,i should like to see it make another step in the same direction1 and either refuse to give a grant to a school in which physical training is not a part of the programme1 or1 at any rate1 offer to pay upon such training4 ,if something of the kind is not done1 the ,english physique1 which has been1 and is still1 on the whole1 a grand one1 will become as extinct as the dodo1 in the great towns4 ,and then the moral and intellectual effect of drill1 as an introduction to1 and aid of1 all other sorts of training1 must not be overlooked4 ,if you want to break in a colt1 surely the first thing to do is to catch him and get him quietly to face his trainer2 to know his voice and bear his hand2 to learn that colts have something else to do with their heels than to kick them up whenever they feel so inclined2 and to discover that the dreadful human figure has no desire to devour1 or even to beat him1 but that1 in case of attention and obedience1 he may hope for patting and even a sieve of oats4 ,but1 your street ,arabs1 and other neglected poor children1 are rather worse and wilder than colts2 for the reason that the horse-colt has only his animal instincts in him1 and his mother1 the mare1 has been always tender over him1 and never came home drunk and kicked him in her life2 while the man-colt is inspired by that very real devil1 perverted manhood1 and his mother may have done all that and more4 ,so1 on the whole1 it may probably be even more expedient to begin your attempt to get at the higher nature of the child1 than at that of the colt1 from the physical side4 #b4 ,next in order to physical training ,i put the instruction of children1 and especially of girls1 in the elements of household work and of domestic economy2 in the first place for their own sakes1 and in the second for that of their future employers4 ,everyone who knows anything of the life of the ,english poor is aware of the misery and waste caused by their want of knowledge of domestic economy1 and by their lack of habits of frugality and method4 ,i suppose it is no exaggeration to say that a poor ,frenchwoman would make the money which the wife of a poor ,englishman spends in food go twice as far1 and at the same time turn out twice as palatable a dinner4 ,why ,englishmen1 who are so notoriously fond of good living1 should be so helplessly incompetent in the art of cookery1 is one of the great mysteries of nature2 but from the varied abominations of the railway refreshment-rooms to the monotonous dinners of the poor1 ,english feeding is either wasteful or nasty1 or both4 ,and as to domestic service1 the groans of the housewives of ,england ascend to heaven6 ,in five cases out of six1 the girl who takes a place has to be trained by her mistress in the first rudiments of decency and order2 and it is a mercy if she does not turn up her nose at anything like the mention of an honest and proper economy4 ,thousands of young girls are said to starve1 or worse1 yearly in ,london2 and at the same time thousands of mistresses of households are ready to pay high wages for a decent housemaid1 or cook1 or a fair workwoman2 and can by no means get what they want4 ,surely1 if the elementary schools are worth anything1 they may put an end to a state of things which is demoralizing the poor1 while it is wasting the lives of those better off in small worries and annoyances4 #c4 ,but the boys and girls for whose education the ,school ,boards have to provide1 have not merely to discharge domestic duties1 but each of them is a member of a social and political organization of great complexity1 and has1 in future life1 to fit himself into that organization1 or be crushed by it4 ,to this end it is surely needful1 not only that they should be made acquainted with the elementary laws of conduct1 but that their affections should be trained1 so as to love with all their hearts that conduct which tends to the attainment of the highest good for themselves and their fellow-men1 and to hate with all their hearts that opposite course of action which is fraught with evil4 ,so far as the laws of conduct are determined by the intellect1 ,i apprehend that they belong to science1 and to that part of science which is called morality4 ,but the engagement of the affections in favour of that particular kind of conduct which we call good1 seems to me to be something quite beyond mere science4 ,and ,i cannot but think that it1 together with the awe and reverence1 which have no kinship with base fear1 but arise whenever one tries to pierce below the surface of things1 whether they be material or spiritual1 constitutes all that has any unchangeable reality in religion4 ,and just as ,i think it would1 be a mistake to confound the science1 morality1 with the affection1 religion2 so do ,i conceive it to be a most lamentable and mischievous error1 that the science1 theology1 is so confounded in the minds of many--indeed1 ,i might say1 of the majority of men4 ,i do not express any opinion as to whether theology is a true science1 or whether it does not come under the apostolic definition of science falsely so called2 though ,i may be permitted to express the belief that if the ,apostle to whom that much misapplied phrase is due could make the acquaintance of much of modern theology1 he would not hesitate a moment in declaring that it is exactly what he meant the words to denote4 ,but it is at any rate conceivable1 that the nature of the ,deity1 and ,his relations to the universe1 and more especially to mankind1 are capable of being ascertained1 either inductively or deductively1 or by both processes4 ,and1 if they have been ascertained1 then a body of science has been formed which is very properly called theology4 ,further1 there can be no doubt that affection for the ,being thus defined and described by theologic science would be properly termed religion2 but it would not be the whole of religion4 ,the affection for the ethical ideal defined by moral science would claim equal if not superior rights4 ,for suppose theology established the existence of an evil deity--and some theologies1 even ,christian ones1 have come very near this1--is the religious affection to be transferred from the ethical ideal to any such omnipotent demon8 ,i trow not4 ,better a thousand times that the human race should perish under his thunderbolts than it should say1 ,evil1 be thou my good4 ,there is nothing new1 that ,i know of1 in this statement of the relations of religion with the science of morality on the one hand and that of theology on the other4 ,but ,i believe it to be altogether true1 and very needful1 at this time1 to be clearly and emphatically recognized as such1 by those who have to deal with the education question4 ,we are divided into two parties--the advocates of so-called religious teaching on the one hand1 and those of so-called secular teaching on the other4 ,and both parties seem to me to be not only hopelessly wrong1 but in such a position that if either succeeded completely1 it would discover1 before many years were over1 that it had made a great mistake and done serious evil to the cause of education4 ,for1 leaving aside the more far-seeing minority on each side1 what the religious party is crying for is mere theology1 under the name of religion2 while the secularists have unwisely and wrongfully admitted the assumption of their opponents1 and demand the abolition of all religious teaching1 when they only want to be free of theology--,burning your ship to get rid of the cockroaches6 ,but my belief is1 that no human being1 and no society composed of human beings1 ever did1 or ever will1 come to much1 unless their conduct was governed and guided by the love of some ethical ideal4 ,undoubtedly1 your gutter child may be converted by mere intellectual drill into the subtlest of all the beasts of the field2 but we know what has become of the original of that description1 and there is no need to increase the number of those who imitate him successfully without being aided by the rates4 ,and if ,i were compelled to choose for one of my own children1 between a school in which real religious instruction is given1 and one without it1 ,i should prefer the former1 even though the child might have to take a good deal of theology with it4 ,nine-tenths of a dose of bark is mere half-rotten wood2 but one swallows it for the sake of the particles of quinine1 the beneficial effect of which may be weakened1 but is not destroyed1 by the wooden dilution1 unless in a few cases of exceptionally tender stomachs4 ,hence1 when the great mass of the ,english people declare that they want to have the children in the elementary schools taught the ,bible1 and when it is plain from the terms of the ,act1 the debates in and out of ,parliament1 and especially the emphatic declarations of the ,vice-,president of the ,council1 that it was intended that such ,bible-reading should be permitted1 unless good cause for prohibiting it could be shown1 ,i do not see what reason there is for opposing that wish4 ,certainly1 ,i1 individually1 could with no shadow of consistency oppose the teaching of the children of other people to do that which my own children are taught to do4 ,and1 even if the reading the ,bible were not1 as ,i think it is1 consonant with political reason and justice1 and with a desire to act in the spirit of the education measure1 ,i am disposed to think it might still be well to read that book in the elementary schools4 ,i have always been strongly in favour of secular education1 in the sense of education without theology2 but ,i must confess ,i have been no less seriously perplexed to know by what practical measures the religious feeling1 which is the essential basis of conduct1 was to be kept up1 in the present utterly chaotic state of opinion on these matters1 without the use of the ,bible4 ,the ,pagan moralists lack life and colour1 and even the noble ,stoic1 ,marcus ,antoninus1 is too high and refined for an ordinary child4 ,take the ,bible as a whole2 make the severest deductions which fair criticism can dictate for shortcomings and positive errors2 eliminate1 as a sensible lay-teacher would do1 if left to himself1 all that it is not desirable for children to occupy themselves with2 and there still remains in this old literature a vast residuum of moral beauty and grandeur4 ,and then consider the great historical fact that1 for three centuries1 this book has been woven into the life of all that is best and noblest in ,english history2 that it has become the national epic of ,britain1 and is as familiar to noble and simple1 from ,john-o'-,groat's ,house to ,land's ,end1 as ,dante and ,tasso once were to the ,italians2 that it is written in the noblest and purest ,english1 and abounds in exquisite beauties of mere literary form2 and1 finally1 that it forbids the veriest hind who never left his village to be ignorant of the existence of other countries and other civilizations1 and of a great past1 stretching back to the furthest limits of the oldest nations in the world4 ,by the study of what other book could children be so much humanized and made to feel that each figure in that vast historical procession fills1 like themselves1 but a momentary space in the interval between two eternities2 and earns the blessings or the curses of all time1 according to its effort to do good and hate evil1 even as they also are earning their payment for their work8 ,on the whole1 then1 ,i am in favour of reading the ,bible1 with such grammatical1 geographical1 and historical explanations by a lay-teacher as may be needful1 with rigid exclusion of any further theological teaching than that contained in the ,bible itself4 ,and in stating what this is1 the teacher would do well not to go beyond the precise words of the ,bible2 for if he does1 he will1 in the first place1 undertake a task beyond his strength1 seeing that all the ,jewish and ,christian sects have been at work upon that subject for more than two thousand years1 and have not yet arrived1 and are not in the least likely to arrive1 at an agreement2 and1 in the second place1 he will certainly begin to teach something distinctively denominational1 and thereby come into violent collision with the ,act of ,parliament4 #d4 ,the intellectual training to be given in the elementary schools must of course1 in the first place1 consist in learning to use the means of acquiring knowledge1 or reading1 writing1 and arithmetic2 and it will be a great matter to teach reading so completely that the act shall have become easy and pleasant4 ,if reading remains hard1 that accomplishment will not be much resorted to for instruction1 and still less for amusement--which last is one of its most valuable uses to hard-worked people4 ,but along with a due proficiency in the use of the means of learning1 a certain amount of knowledge1 of intellectual discipline1 and of artistic training should be conveyed in the elementary schools2 and in this direction--for reasons which ,i am afraid to repeat1 having urged them so often--,i can conceive no subject-matter of education so appropriate and so important as the rudiments of physical science1 with drawing1 modelling1 and singing4 ,not only would such teaching afford the best possible preparation for the technical schools about which so much is now said1 but the organization for carrying it into effect already exists4 ,the ,science and ,art ,department1 the operations of which have already attained considerable magnitude1 not only offers to examine and pay the results of such examination in elementary science and art1 but it provides what is still more important1 viz4 a means of giving children of high natural ability1 who are just as abundant among the poor as among the rich1 a helping hand4 ,a good old proverb tells us that ,one should not take a razor to cut a block3 the razor is soon spoiled1 and the block is not so well cut as it would be with a hatchet4 ,but it is worse economy to prevent a possible ,watt from being anything but a stoker1 or to give a possible ,faraday no chance of doing anything but to bind books4 ,indeed1 the loss in such cases of mistaken vocation has no measure2 it is absolutely infinite and irreparable4 ,and among the arguments in favour of the interference of the ,state in education1 none seems to be stronger than this--that it is the interest of every one that ability should be neither wasted1 nor misapplied1 by any one2 and1 therefore1 that every one's representative1 the ,state1 is necessarily fulfilling the wishes of its constituents when it is helping the capacities to reach their proper places4 ,it may be said that the scheme of education here sketched is too large to be effected in the time during which the children will remain at school2 and1 secondly1 that even if this objection did not exist1 it would cost too much4 ,i attach no importance whatever to the first objection until the experiment has been fairly tried4 ,considering how much catechism1 lists of the kings of ,israel1 geography of ,palestine1 and the like1 children are made to swallow now1 ,i cannot believe there will be any difficulty in inducing them to go through the physical training1 which is more than half play2 or the instruction in household work1 or in those duties to one another and to themselves1 which have a daily and hourly practical interest4 ,that children take kindly to elementary science and art no one can doubt who has tried the experiment properly4 ,and if ,bible-reading is not accompanied by constraint and solemnity1 as if it were a sacramental operation1 ,i do not believe there is anything in which children take more pleasure4 ,at least ,i know that some of the pleasantest recollections of my childhood are connected with the voluntary study of an ancient ,bible which belonged to my grandmother4 ,there were splendid pictures in it1 to be sure2 but ,i recollect little or nothing about them save a portrait of the high priest in his vestments4 ,what come vividly back on my mind are remembrances of my delight in the histories of ,joseph and of ,david2 and of my keen appreciation of the chivalrous kindness of ,abraham in his dealings with ,lot4 ,like a sudden flash there returns back upon me1 my utter scorn of the pettifogging meanness of ,jacob1 and my sympathetic grief over the heartbreaking lamentation of the cheated ,esau1 ,hast thou not a blessing for me also1 ,o my father8 ,and ,i see1 as in a cloud1 pictures of the grand phantasmagoria of the ,book of ,revelation4 ,i enumerate1 as they issue1 the childish impressions which come crowding out of the pigeon-holes in my brain1 in which they have lain almost undisturbed for forty years4 ,i prize them as an evidence that a child of five or six years old1 left to his own devices1 may be deeply interested in the ,bible1 and draw sound moral sustenance from it4 ,and ,i rejoice that ,i was left to deal with the ,bible alone2 for if ,i had had some theological explainer at my side1 he might have tried1 as such do1 to lessen my indignation against ,jacob1 and thereby have warped my moral sense for ever2 while the great apocalyptic spectacle of the ultimate triumph of right and justice might have been turned to the base purposes of a pious lampooner of the ,papacy4 ,and as to the second objection--costliness--the reply is1 first1 that the rate and the ,parliamentary grant together ought to be enough1 considering that science and art teaching is already provided for2 and1 secondly1 that if they are not1 it may be well for the educational parliament to consider what has become of those endowments which were originally intended to be devoted1 more or less largely1 to the education of the poor4 ,when the monasteries were spoiled1 some of their endowments were applied to the foundation of cathedrals2 and in all such cases it was ordered that a certain portion of the endowment should be applied to the purposes of education4 ,how much is so applied8 ,is that which may be so applied given to help the poor1 who cannot pay for education1 or does it virtually subsidize the comparatively rich1 who can8 ,how are ,christ's ,hospital and ,alleyn's foundation securing their right purposes1 or how far are they perverted into contrivances for affording relief to the classes who can afford to pay for education8 ,how--,but this paper is already too long1 and1 if ,i begin1 ,i may find it hard to stop asking questions of this kind1 which after all are worthy only of the lowest of ,radicals4 ,,iii4 ,,on ,,medical ,,education4 7,,an ,,address ,,to ,,the ,,students ,,of ,,the ,,faculty ,,of ,,medicine ,,in ,,university ,,college1 ,,london1 ,,may #ah1 #ahgj1 ,,on ,,the ,,occasion ,,of ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,prizes ,,for ,,the ,,session47 ,it has given me sincere pleasure to be here to-day1 at the desire of your highly respected ,president and the ,council of the ,college4 ,in looking back upon my own past1 ,i am sorry to say that ,i have found that it is a quarter of a century since ,i took part in those hopes and in those fears by which you have all recently been agitated1 and which now are at an end4 ,but1 although so long a time has elapsed since ,i was moved by the same feelings1 ,i beg leave to assure you that my sympathy with both victors and vanquished remains fresh--so fresh1 indeed1 that ,i could almost try to persuade myself that1 after all1 it cannot be so very long ago4 ,my business during the last hour1 however1 has been to show that sympathy with one side only1 and ,i assure you ,i have done my best to play my part heartily1 and to rejoice in the success of those who have succeeded4 ,still1 ,i should like to remind you at the end of it all1 that success on an occasion of this kind1 valuable and important as it is1 is in reality only putting the foot upon one rung of the ladder which leads upwards2 and that the rung of a ladder was never meant to rest upon1 but only to hold a man's foot long enough to enable him to put the other somewhat higher4 ,i trust that you will all regard these successes as simply reminders that your next business is1 having enjoyed the success of the day1 no longer to look at that success1 but to look forward to the next difficulty that is to be conquered4 ,and now1 having had so much to say to the successful candidates1 you must forgive me if ,i add that a sort of undercurrent of sympathy has been going on in my mind all the time for those who have not been successful1 for those valiant knights who have been overthrown in your tourney1 and have not made their appearance in public4 ,i trust that1 in accordance with old custom1 they1 wounded and bleeding1 have been carried off to their tents1 to be carefully tended by the fairest of maidens2 and in these days1 when the chances are that every one of such maidens will be a qualified practitioner1 ,i have no doubt that all the splinters will have been carefully extracted1 and that they are now physically healed4 ,but there may remain some little fragment of moral or intellectual discouragement1 and therefore ,i will take the liberty to remark that your chairman to-day1 if he occupied his proper place1 would be among them4 ,your chairman1 in virtue of his position1 and for the brief hour that he occupies that position1 is a person of importance2 and it may be some consolation to those who have failed if ,i say1 that the quarter of a century which ,i have been speaking of1 takes me back to the time when ,i was up at the ,university of ,london1 a candidate for honours in anatomy and physiology1 and when ,i was exceedingly well beaten by my excellent friend ,dr4 ,ransom1 of ,nottingham4 ,there is a person here who recollects that circumstance very well4 ,i refer to your venerated teacher and mine1 ,dr4 ,sharpey4 ,he was at that time one of the examiners in anatomy and physiology1 and you may be quite sure that1 as he was one of the examiners1 there remained not the smallest doubt in my mind of the propriety of his judgment1 and ,i accepted my defeat with the most comfortable assurance that ,i had thoroughly well earned it4 ,but1 gentlemen1 the competitor having been a worthy one1 and the examination1 a fair one1 ,i cannot say that ,i found in that circumstance anything very discouraging4 ,i said to myself1 ,never mind2 what's the next thing to be done8 ,and ,i found that policy of never minding and going on to the next thing to be done1 to be the most important of all policies in the conduct of practical life4 ,it does not matter how many tumbles you have in this life1 so long as you do not get dirty when you tumble2 it is only the people who have to stop to be washed and made clean1 who must necessarily lose the race4 ,and ,i can assure you that there is the greatest practical benefit in making a few failures early in life4 ,you learn that which is of inestimable importance--that there are a great many people in the world who are just as clever as you are4 ,you learn to put your trust1 by and by1 in an economy and frugality of the exercise of your powers1 both moral and intellectual2 and you very soon find out1 if you have not found it out before1 that patience and tenacity of purpose are worth more than twice their weight of cleverness4 ,in fact1 if ,i were to go on discoursing on this subject1 ,i should become almost eloquent in praise of non-success2 but1 lest so doing should seem1 in any way1 to wither well-earned laurels1 ,i will turn from that topic1 and ask you to accompany me in some considerations touching another subject which has a very profound interest for me1 and which ,i think ought to have an equally profound interest for you4 ,i presume that the great majority of those whom ,i address propose to devote themselves to the profession of medicine2 and ,i do not doubt1 from the evidences of ability which have been given to-day1 that ,i have before me a number of men who will rise to eminence in that profession1 and who will exert a great and deserved influence upon its future4 ,that in which ,i am interested1 and about which ,i wish to speak1 is the subject of medical education1 and ,i venture to speak about it for the purpose1 if ,i can1 of influencing you1 who may have the power of influencing the medical education of the future4 ,you may ask1 by what authority do ,i venture1 being a person not concerned in the practice of medicine1 to meddle with that subject8 ,i can only tell you it is a fact1 of which a number of you ,i dare say are aware by experience 7and ,i trust the experience has no painful associations71 that ,i have been for a considerable number of years 7twelve or thirteen years to the best of my recollection7 one of the examiners in the ,university of ,london4 ,you are further aware that the men who come up to the ,university of ,london are the picked men of the medical schools of ,london1 and therefore such observations as ,i may have to make upon the state of knowledge of these gentlemen1 if they be justified1 in regard to any faults ,i may have to find1 cannot be held to indicate defects in the capacity1 or in the power of application of those gentlemen1 but must be laid1 more or less1 to the account of the prevalent system of medical education4 ,i will tell you what has struck me--but in speaking in this frank way1 as one always does about the defects of one's friends1 ,i must beg you to disabuse your minds of the notion that ,i am alluding to any particular school1 or to any particular college1 or to any particular person2 and to believe that if ,i am silent when ,i should be glad to speak with high praise1 it is because that praise would come too close to this locality4 ,what has struck me1 then1 in this long experience of the men best instructed in physiology from the medical schools of ,london1 is 7with the many and brilliant exceptions to which ,i have referred71 taking it as a whole1 and broadly1 the singular unreality of their knowledge of physiology4 ,now1 ,i use that word unreality advisedly3 ,i do not say scanty2 on the contrary1 there is plenty of it--a great deal too much of it--but it is the quality1 the nature of the knowledge1 which ,i quarrel with4 ,i know ,i used to have--,i don't know whether ,i have now1 but ,i had once upon a time--a bad reputation among students for setting up a very high standard of acquirement1 and ,i dare say you may think that the standard of this old examiner1 who happily is now very nearly an extinct examiner1 has been pitched too high4 ,nothing of the kind1 ,i assure you4 ,the defects ,i have noticed1 and the faults ,i have to find1 arise entirely from the circumstance that my standard is pitched too low4 ,this is no paradox1 gentlemen1 but quite simply the fact4 ,the knowledge ,i have looked for was a real1 precise1 thorough1 and practical knowledge of fundamentals2 whereas that which the best of the candidates1 in a large proportion of cases1 have had to give me was a large1 extensive1 and inaccurate knowledge of superstructure2 and that is what ,i mean by saying that my demands went too low1 and not too high4 ,what ,i have had to complain of is1 that a large proportion of the gentlemen who come up for physiology to the ,university of ,london do not know it as they know their anatomy1 and have not been taught it as they have been taught their anatomy4 ,now1 ,i should not wonder at all if ,i heard a great many ,no1 noes here2 but ,i am not talking about ,university ,college2 as ,i have told you before1 ,i am talking about the average education of medical schools4 ,what ,i have found1 and found so much reason to lament1 is1 that while anatomy has been taught as a science ought to be taught1 as a matter of autopsy1 and observation1 and strict discipline2 in a very large number of cases1 physiology has been taught as if it were a mere matter of books and of hearsay4 ,i declare to you1 gentlemen1 that ,i have often expected to be told1 when ,i have been asked a question about the circulation of the blood1 that ,professor ,breitkopf is of opinion that it circulates1 but that the whole thing is an open question4 ,i assure you that ,i am hardly exaggerating the state of mind on matters of fundamental importance which ,i have found over and over again to obtain1 among gentlemen coming up to that picked examination of the ,university of ,london4 ,now1 ,i do not think that is a desirable state of things4 ,i cannot understand why physiology should not be taught--in fact1 you have here abundant evidence that it can be taught--with the same definiteness and the same precision as anatomy is taught4 ,and you may depend upon this1 that the only physiology which is to be of any good whatever in medical practice1 or in its application to the study of medicine1 is that physiology which a man knows of his own knowledge2 just as the only anatomy which would be of any good to the surgeon is the anatomy which he knows of his own knowledge4 ,another peculiarity ,i have found in the physiology which has been current1 and that is1 that in the minds of a great many gentlemen it has been supplanted by histology4 ,they have learnt a great deal of histology1 and they have fancied that histology and physiology are the same things4 ,i have asked for some knowledge of the physics and the mechanics and the chemistry of the human body1 and ,i have been met by talk about cells4 ,i declare to you ,i believe it will take me two years1 at least1 of absolute rest from the business of an examiner to hear the word cell1 germinal matter1 or carmine1 without a sort of inward shudder4 ,well1 now1 gentlemen1 ,i am sure my colleagues in this examination will bear me out in saying that ,i have not been exaggerating the evils and defects which are current--have been current--in a large quantity of the physiological teaching1 the results of which come before examiners4 ,and it becomes a very interesting question to know how all this comes about1 and in what way it can be remedied4 ,how it comes about will be perfectly obvious to any one who has considered the growth of medicine4 ,i suppose that medicine and surgery first began by some savage1 more intelligent than the rest1 discovering that a certain herb was good for a certain pain1 and that a certain pull1 somehow or other1 set a dislocated joint right4 ,i suppose all things had their humble beginnings1 and medicine and surgery were in the same condition4 ,people who wear watches know nothing about watchmaking4 ,a watch goes wrong and it stops2 you see the owner giving it a shake1 or1 if he is very bold1 he opens the case1 and gives the balance-wheel a turn4 ,gentlemen1 that is empirical practice1 and you know what are the results upon the watch4 ,i should think you can divine what are the results of analogous operations upon the human body4 ,and because men of sense very soon found that such were the effects of meddling with very complicated machinery they did not understand1 ,i suppose the first thing1 as being the easiest1 was to study the nature of the works of the human watch1 and the next thing was to study the way the parts worked together1 and the way the watch worked4 ,thus1 by degrees1 we have had growing up our body of anatomists1 or knowers of the construction of the human watch1 and our physiologists1 who know how the machine works4 ,and just as any sensible man1 who has a valuable watch1 does not meddle with it himself1 but goes to some one who has studied watchmaking1 and understands what the effect of doing this or that may be2 so1 ,i suppose1 the man who1 having charge of that valuable machine1 his own body1 wants to have it kept in good order1 comes to a professor of the medical art for the purpose of having it set right1 believing that1 by deduction from the facts of structure and from the facts of function1 the physician will divine what may be the matter with his bodily watch at that particular time1 and what may be the best means of setting it right4 ,if that may be taken as a just representation of the relation of the theoretical branches of medicine--what we may call the institutes of medicine1 to use an old term--to the practical branches1 ,i think it will be obvious to you that they are of prime and fundamental importance4 ,whatever tends to affect the teaching of them injuriously must tend to destroy and to disorganize the whole fabric of the medical art4 ,i think every sensible man has seen this long ago2 but the difficulties in the way of attaining good teaching in the different branches of the theory1 or institutes1 of medicine are very serious4 ,it is a comparatively easy matter--pray mark that ,i use the word comparatively--it is a comparatively easy matter to learn anatomy and to teach it2 it is a very difficult matter to learn physiology and to teach it4 ,it is a very difficult matter to know and to teach those branches of physics and those branches of chemistry which bear directly upon physiology2 and hence it is that1 as a matter of fact1 the teaching of physiology1 and the teaching of the physics and the chemistry which bear upon it1 must necessarily be in a state of relative imperfection2 and there is nothing to be grumbled at in the fact that this relative imperfection exists4 ,but is the relative imperfection which exists only such as is necessary1 or is it made worse by our practical arrangements8 ,i believe--and if ,i did not so believe ,i should not have troubled you with these observations--,i believe it is made infinitely worse by our practical arrangements1 or rather1 ,i ought to say1 our very unpractical arrangements4 ,some very wise man long ago affirmed that every question1 in the long run1 was a question of finance2 and there is a good deal to be said for that view4 ,most assuredly the question of medical teaching is1 in a very large and broad sense1 a question of finance4 ,what ,i mean is this3 that in ,london the arrangements of the medical schools1 and the number of them1 are such as to render it almost impossible that men who confine themselves to the teaching of the theoretical branches of the profession should be able to make their bread by that operation2 and1 you know1 if a man cannot make his bread1 he cannot teach--at least his teaching comes to a speedy end4 ,that is a matter of physiology4 ,anatomy is fairly well taught1 because it lies in the direction of practice1 and a man is all the better surgeon for being a good anatomist4 ,it does not absolutely interfere with the pursuits of a practical surgeon if he should hold a ,chair of ,anatomy--though ,i do not for one moment say that he would not be a better teacher if he did not devote himself to practice4 7,applause47 ,yes1 ,i know exactly what that cheer means1 but ,i am keeping as carefully as possible from any sort of allusion to ,professor ,ellis4 ,but the fact is1 that even human anatomy has now grown to be so large a matter1 that it takes the whole devotion of a man's life to put the great mass of knowledge upon that subject into such a shape that it can be teachable to the mind of the ordinary student4 ,what the student wants in a professor is a man who shall stand between him and the infinite diversity and variety of human knowledge1 and who shall gather all that together1 and extract from it that which is capable of being assimilated by the mind4 ,that function is a vast and an important one1 and unless1 in such subjects as anatomy1 a man is wholly free from other cares1 it is almost impossible that he can perform it thoroughly and well4 ,but if it be hardly possible for a man to pursue anatomy without actually breaking with his profession1 how is it possible for him to pursue physiology8 ,i get every year those very elaborate reports of ,henle and ,meissner--volumes of1 ,i suppose1 #djj pages altogether--and they consist merely of abstracts of the memoirs and works which have been written on ,anatomy and ,physiology--only abstracts of them6 ,how is a man to keep up his acquaintance with all that is doing in the physiological world--in a world advancing with enormous strides every day and every hour--if he has to be distracted with the cares of practice8 ,you know very well it must be impracticable to do so4 ,our men of ability join our medical schools with an eye to the future4 ,they take the ,chairs of ,anatomy or of ,physiology2 and by and by they leave those ,chairs for the more profitable pursuits into which they have drifted by professional success1 and so they become clothed1 and physiology is bare4 ,the result is1 that in those schools in which physiology is thus left to the benevolence1 so to speak1 of those who have no time to look to it1 the effect of such teaching comes out obviously1 and is made manifest in what ,i spoke of just now--the unreality1 the bookishness of the knowledge of the taught4 ,and if this is the case in physiology1 still more must it be the case in those branches of physics which are the foundation of physiology2 although it may be less the case in chemistry1 because for an able chemist a certain honourable and independent career lies in the direction of his work1 and he is able1 like the anatomist1 to look upon what he may teach to the student as not absolutely taking him away from his bread-winning pursuits4 ,but it is of no use to grumble about this state of things unless one is prepared to indicate some sort of practical remedy4 ,and ,i believe--and ,i venture to make the statement because ,i am wholly independent of all sorts of medical schools1 and may1 therefore1 say what ,i believe without being supposed to be affected by any personal interest--but ,i say ,i believe that the remedy for this state of things1 for that imperfection of our theoretical knowledge which keeps down the ability of ,england at the present time in medical matters1 is a mere affair of mechanical arrangement2 that so long as you have a dozen medical schools scattered about in different parts of the metropolis1 and dividing the students among them1 so long1 in all the smaller schools at any rate1 it is impossible that any other state of things than that which ,i have been depicting should obtain4 ,professors must live2 to live they must occupy themselves with practice1 and if they occupy themselves with practice1 the pursuit of the abstract branches of science must go to the wall4 ,all this is a plain and obvious matter of common-sense reasoning4 ,i believe you will never alter this state of things until1 either by consent or by force majeure--and ,i should be very sorry to see the latter applied--but until there is some new arrangement1 and until all the theoretical branches of the profession1 the institutes of medicine1 are taught in ,london in not more than one or two1 or at the outside three1 central institutions1 no good will be effected4 ,if that large body of men1 the medical students of ,london1 were obliged in the first place to get a knowledge of the theoretical branches of their profession in two or three central schools1 there would be abundant means for maintaining able professors--not1 indeed1 for enriching them1 as they would be able to enrich themselves by practice--but for enabling them to make that choice which such men are so willing to make2 namely1 the choice between wealth and a modest competency1 when that modest competency is to be combined with a scientific career1 and the means of advancing knowledge4 ,i do not believe that all the talking about1 and tinkering of1 medical education will do the slightest good until the fact is clearly recognized1 that men must be thoroughly grounded in the theoretical branches of their profession1 and that to this end the teaching of those theoretical branches must be confined to two or three centres4 ,now let me add one other word1 and that is1 that if ,i were a despot1 ,i would cut down these branches to a very considerable extent4 ,the next thing to be done beyond that which ,i mentioned just now1 is to go back to primary education4 ,the great step towards a thorough medical education is to insist upon the teaching of the elements of the physical sciences in all schools1 so that medical students shall not go up to the medical colleges utterly ignorant of that with which they have to deal2 to insist on the elements of chemistry1 the elements of botany1 and the elements of physics being taught in our ordinary and common schools1 so that there shall be some preparation for the discipline of medical colleges4 ,and1 if this reform were once effected1 you might confine the ,institutes of ,medicine to physics as applied to physiology--to chemistry as applied to physiology--to physiology itself1 and to anatomy4 ,afterwards1 the student1 thoroughly grounded in these matters1 might go to any hospital he pleased for the purpose of studying the practical branches of his profession4 ,the practical teaching might be made as local as you like2 and you might use to advantage the opportunities afforded by all these local institutions for acquiring a knowledge of the practice of the profession4 ,but you may say3 ,this is abolishing a great deal2 you are getting rid of botany and zoology to begin with4 ,i have not a doubt that they ought to be got rid of1 as branches of special medical education2 they ought to be put back to an earlier stage1 and made branches of general education4 ,let me say1 by way of self-denying ordinance1 for which you will1 ,i am sure1 give me credit1 that ,i believe that comparative anatomy ought to be absolutely abolished4 ,i say so1 not without a certain fear of the ,vice-,chancellor of the ,university of ,london who sits upon my left4 ,but ,i do not think the charter gives him very much power over me2 moreover1 ,i shall soon come to an end of my examinership1 and therefore ,i am not afraid1 but shall go on to say what ,i was going to say1 and that is1 that in my belief it is a downright cruelty--,i have no other word for it--to require from gentlemen who are engaged in medical studies1 the pretence--for it is nothing else1 and can be nothing else1 than a pretence--of a knowledge of comparative anatomy as part of their medical curriculum4 ,make it part of their ,arts teaching if you like1 make it part of their general education if you like1 make it part of their qualification for the scientific degree by all means--that is its proper place2 but to require that gentlemen whose whole faculties should be bent upon the acquirement of a real knowledge of human physiology should worry themselves with getting up hearsay about the alternation of generations in the ,salpae is really monstrous4 ,i cannot characterize it in any other way4 ,and having sacrificed my own pursuit1 ,i am sure ,i may sacrifice other people's2 and ,i make this remark with all the more willingness because ,i discovered1 on reading the name-of your ,professors just now1 that the ,professor of ,materia ,medica is not present4 ,i must confess1 if ,i had my way ,i should abolish ,materia ,medica#a altogether4 ,i recollect1 when ,i was first under examination at the ,university of ,london1 ,dr4 ,pereira was the examiner1 and you know that ,pereira's ,materia ,medica was a book de omnibus rebus4 ,i recollect my struggles with that book late at night and early in the morning 7,i worked very hard in those days71 and ,i do believe that ,i got that book into my head somehow or other1 but then ,i will undertake to say that ,i forgot it all a week afterwards4 ,not one trace of a knowledge of drugs has remained in my memory from that time to this2 and really1 as a matter of common sense1 ,i cannot understand the arguments for obliging a medical man to know all about drugs and where they come from4 ,why not make him belong to the ,iron and ,steel ,institute1 and learn something about cutlery1 because he uses knives8 ,footnote #a3 ,it will1 ,i hope1 be understood that ,i do not include ,therapeutics under this head4 ,but do not suppose that1 after all these deductions1 there would not be ample room for your activity4 ,let us count up what we have left4 ,i suppose all the time for medical education that can be hoped for is1 at the outside1 about four years4 ,well1 what have you to master in those four years upon my supposition8 ,physics applied to physiology2 chemistry applied to physiology2 physiology2 anatomy2 surgery2 medicine 7including therapeutics72 obstetrics2 hygiene2 and medical jurisprudence--nine subjects for four years6 ,and when you consider what those subjects are1 and that the acquisition of anything beyond the rudiments of any one of them may tax the energies of a lifetime1 ,i think that even those energies which you young gentlemen have been displaying for the last hour or two might be taxed to keep you thoroughly up to what is wanted for your medical career4 ,i entertain a very strong conviction that any one who adds to medical education one iota or tittle beyond what is absolutely necessary1 is guilty of a very grave offence4 ,gentlemen1 it will depend upon the knowledge that you happen to possess1--upon your means of applying it within your own field of action1--whether the bills of mortality of your district are increased or diminished2 and that1 gentlemen1 is a very serious consideration indeed4 ,and1 under those circumstances1 the subjects with which you have to deal being so difficult1 their extent so enormous1 and the time at your disposal so limited1 ,i could not feel my conscience easy if ,i did not1 on such an occasion as this1 raise a protest against employing your energies upon the acquisition of any knowledge which may not be absolutely needed in your future career4 ,,iv4 ,,yeast4 ,,it has been known1 from time immemorial1 that the sweet liquids which may be obtained by expressing the juices of the fruits and stems of various plants1 or by steeping malted barley in hot water1 or by mixing honey with water--are liable to undergo a series of very singular changes1 if freely exposed to the air and left to themselves1 in warm weather4 ,however clear and pellucid the liquid may have been when first prepared1 however carefully it may have been freed1 by straining and filtration1 from even the finest visible impurities1 it will not remain clear4 ,after a time it will become cloudy and turbid2 little bubbles will be seen rising to the surface1 and their abundance will increase until the liquid hisses as if it were simmering on the fire4 ,by degrees1 some of the solid particles which produce the turbidity of the liquid collect at its surface into a scum1 which is blown up by the emerging air-bubbles into a thick1 foamy froth4 ,another moiety sinks to the bottom1 and accumulates as a muddy sediment1 or lees4 ,when this action has continued1 with more or less violence1 for a certain time1 it gradually moderates4 ,the evolution of bubbles slackens1 and finally comes to an end2 scum and lees alike settle at the bottom1 and the fluid is once more clear and transparent4 ,but it has acquired properties of which no trace existed in the original liquid4 ,instead of being a mere sweet fluid1 mainly composed of sugar and water1 the sugar has more or less completely disappeared1 and it has acquired that peculiar smell and taste which we call spirituous4 ,instead of being devoid of any obvious effect upon the animal economy1 it has become possessed of a very wonderful influence on the nervous system2 so that in small doses it exhilarates1 while in larger it stupefies1 and may even destroy life4 ,moreover1 if the original fluid is put into a still1 and heated for a while1 the first and last product of its distillation is simple water2 while1 when the altered fluid is subjected to the same process1 the matter which is first condensed in the receiver is found to be a clear1 volatile substance1 which is lighter than water1 has a pungent taste and smell1 possesses the intoxicating powers of the fluid in an eminent degree1 and takes fire the moment it is brought in contact with a flame4 ,the alchemists called this volatile liquid1 which they obtained from wine1 spirits of wine1 just as they called hydrochloric acid spirits of salt1 and as we1 to this day1 call refined turpentine spirits of turpentine4 ,as the spiritus1 or breath1 of a man was thought to be the most refined and subtle part of him1 the intelligent essence of man was also conceived as a sort of breath1 or spirit2 and1 by analogy1 the most refined essence of anything was called its spirit4 ,and thus it has come about that we use the same word for the soul of man and for a glass of gin4 ,at the present day1 however1 we even more commonly use another name for this peculiar liquid--namely1 alcohol1 and its origin is not less singular4 ,the ,dutch physician1 ,van ,helmont1 lived in the latter part of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century--in the transition period between alchemy and chemistry--and was rather more alchemist than chemist4 ,appended to his ,opera ,omnia1 published in #agjg1 there is a very needful ,clavis ad obscuriorum sensum referandum1 in which the following passage occurs3-- ,,alcohol4--,chymicis est liquor aut pulvis summ subtilisatus1 vocabulo ,orientalibus quoque1 cum primis ,habessinis1 familiari1 quibus cohol speciatim pulverem impalpabilem ex antimonio pro oculis tin-gendis denotat 444 ,hodie autem1 ob analogiam1 quivis pulvis teuerior1 ut pulvis oculorum cancri summe subtilisatus alcohol audit1 hand aliter ac spiritus rectificatissimi alcolisati dicuntur4 ,similarly1 ,robert ,boyle speaks of a fine powder as alcohol2 and1 so late as the middle of the last century1 the ,english lexicographer1 ,nathan ,bailey1 defines alcohol as the pure substance of anything separated from the more gross1 a very fine and impalpable powder1 or a very pure1 well-rectified spirit4 ,but1 by the time of the publication of ,lavoisier's ,trait lmentaire de ,chimie1 in #aghi1 the term alcohol1 alkohol1 or alkool 7for it is spelt in all three ways71 which ,van ,helmont had applied primarily to a fine powder1 and only secondarily to spirits of wine1 had lost its primary meaning altogether2 and1 from the end of the last century until now1 it has1 ,i believe1 been used exclusively as the denotation of spirits of wine1 and bodies chemically allied to that substance4 ,the process which gives rise to alcohol in a saccharine fluid is known to us as fermentation2 a term based upon the apparent boiling up or effervescence of the fermenting liquid1 and of ,latin origin4 ,our ,teutonic cousins call the same process ghren1 gsen1 gschen1 and gischen2 but1 oddly enough1 we do not seem to have retained their verb or their substantive denoting the action itself1 though we do use names identical with1 or plainly derived from1 theirs for the scum and lees4 ,these are called1 in ,low ,german1 gscht and gischt2 in ,anglo-,saxon1 gest1 gist1 and yst1 whence our yeast4 ,again1 in ,low ,german and in ,anglo-,saxon1 there is another name for yeast1 having the form barm1 or beorm2 and1 in the ,midland ,counties1 barm is the name by which yeast is still best known4 ,in ,high ,german1 there is a third name for yeast1 hefe1 which is not represented in ,english1 so far as ,i know4 ,all these words are said by philologers to be derived from roots expressive of the intestine motion of a fermenting substance4 ,thus hefe is derived from heben1 to raise2 barm from beren or bren1 to bear up2 yeast1 yst1 and gist1 have all to do with seething and foam1 with yeasty waves1 and gusty breezes4 ,the same reference to the swelling up of the fermenting substance is seen in the ,gallo-,latin terms levure and leaven4 ,it is highly creditable to the ingenuity of our ancestors that the peculiar property of fermented liquids1 in virtue of which they make glad the heart of man1 seems to have been known in the remotest periods of which we have any record4 ,all savages take to alcoholic fluids as if they were to the manner born4 ,our ,vedic forefathers intoxicated themselves with the juice of the soma2 ,noah1 by a not unnatural reaction against a superfluity of water1 appears to have taken the earliest practicable opportunity of qualifying that which he was obliged to drink2 and the ghosts of the ancient ,egyptians were solaced by pictures of banquets in which the winecup passes round1 graven on the walls of their tombs4 ,a knowledge of the process of fermentation1 therefore1 was in all probability possessed by the prehistoric populations of the globe2 and it must have become a matter of great interest even to primaeval wine-bibbers to study the methods by which fermented liquids could be surely manufactured4 ,no doubt1 therefore1 it was soon discovered that the most certain1 as well as the most expeditious1 way of making a sweet juice ferment was to add to it a little of the scum1 or lees1 of another fermenting juice4 ,and it can hardly be questioned that this singular excitation of fermentation in one fluid1 by a sort of infection1 or inoculation1 of a little ferment taken from some other fluid1 together with the strange swelling1 foaming1 and hissing of the fermented substance1 must have always attracted attention from the more thoughtful4 ,nevertheless1 the commencement of the scientific analysis of the phenomena dates from a period not earlier than the first half of the seventeenth century4 ,at this time1 ,van ,helmont made a first step1 by pointing out that the peculiar hissing and bubbling of a fermented liquid is due1 not to the evolution of common air 7which he1 as the inventor of the term gas1 calls gas ventosum71 but to that of a peculiar kind of air such as is occasionally met with in caves1 mines1 and wells1 and which he calls gas sylvestre4 ,but a century elapsed before the nature of this gas sylvestre1 or1 as it was afterwards called1 fixed air1 was clearly determined1 and it was found to be identical with that deadly choke-damp by which the lives of those who descend into old wells1 or mines1 or brewers' vats1 are sometimes suddenly ended2 and with the poisonous ariform fluid which is produced by the combustion of charcoal1 and now goes by the name of carbonic acid gas4 ,during the same time it gradually became clear that the presence of sugar was essential to the production of alcohol and the evolution of carbonic acid gas1 which are the two great and conspicuous products of fermentation4 ,and finally1 in #aghg1 the ,italian chemist1 ,fabroni1 made the capital discovery that the yeast ferment1 the presence of which is necessary to fermentation1 is what he termed a vegeto-animal substance--or is a body which gives off ammoniacal salts when it is burned1 and is1 in other ways1 similar to the gluten of plants and the albumen and casein of animals4 ,these discoveries prepared the way for the illustrious ,frenchman1 ,lavoisier1 who first approached the problem of fermentation with a complete conception of the nature of the work to be done4 ,the words in which he expresses this conception1 in the treatise on elementary chemistry to which reference has already been made1 mark the year #aghi as the commencement of a revolution of not less moment in the world of science than that which simultaneously burst over the political world1 and soon engulfed ,lavoisier himself in one of its mad eddies4 ,we may lay it down as an incontestable axiom that1 in all the operations of art and nature1 nothing is created2 an equal quantity of matter exists both before and after the experiment3 the quality and quantity of the elements remain precisely the same1 and nothing takes place beyond changes and modifications in the combinations of these elements4 ,upon this principle1 the whole art of performing chemical experiments depends2 we must always suppose an exact equality between the elements of the body examined and those of the products of its analysis4 ,hence1 since from must of grapes we procure alcohol and carbonic acid1 ,i have an undoubted right to suppose that must consists of carbonic acid and alcohol4 ,from these premisses we have two modes of ascertaining what passes during vinous fermentation3 either by determining the nature of1 and the elements which compose1 the fermentable substances2 or by accurately examining the products resulting from fermentation2 and it is evident that the knowledge of either of these must lead to accurate conclusions concerning the nature and composition of the other4 ,from these considerations it became necessary accurately to determine the constituent elements of the fermentable substances2 and for this purpose ,i did not make use of the compound juices of fruits1 the rigorous analysis of which is perhaps impossible1 but made choice of sugar1 which is easily analysed1 and the nature of which ,i have already explained4 ,this substance is a true vegetable oxyd1 with two bases1 composed of hydrogen and carbon1 brought to the state of an oxyd by means of a certain proportion of oxygen2 and these three elements are combined in such a way that a very slight force is sufficient to destroy the equilibrium of their connection4 ,after giving the details of his analysis of sugar and of the products of fermentation1 ,lavoisier continues3-- ,the effect of the vinous fermentation upon sugar is thus reduced to the mere separation of its elements into two portions2 one part is oxygenated at the expense of the other1 so as to form carbonic acid2 while the other part1 being disoxygenated in favour of the latter1 is converted into the combustible substance called alkohol2 therefore1 if it were possible to re-unite alkohol and carbonic acid together1 we ought to form sugar4#a ,footnote #a3 ,elements of ,chemistry4 ,by ,m4 ,lavoisier4 ,translated by ,robert ,kerr4 ,second ,edition1 #agic 7pp4 #ahf--aif74 ,thus ,lavoisier thought he had demonstrated that the carbonic acid and the alcohol which are produced by the process of fermentation1 are equal in weight to the sugar which disappears2 but the application of the more refined methods of modern chemistry to the investigation of the products of fermentation by ,pasteur1 in #ahfj1 proved that this is not exactly true1 and that there is a deficit of from #e to #g per cent4 of the sugar which is not covered by the alcohol and carbonic acid evolved4 ,the greater part of this deficit is accounted for by the discovery of two substances1 glycerine and succinic acid1 of the existence of which ,lavoisier was unaware1 in the fermented liquid4 ,but about #a-a_/b per cent4 still remains to be made good4 ,according to ,pasteur1 it has been appropriated by the yeast1 but the fact that such appropriation takes place cannot be said to be actually proved4 ,however this may be1 there can be no doubt that the constituent elements of fully #ih per cent4 of the sugar which has vanished during fermentation have simply undergone rearrangement2 like the soldiers of a brigade1 who at the word of command divide themselves into the independent regiments to which they belong4 ,the brigade is sugar1 the regiments are carbonic acid1 succinic acid1 alcohol1 and glycerine4 ,from the time of ,fabroni1 onwards1 it has been admitted that the agent by which this surprising rearrangement of the particles of the sugar is effected is the yeast4 ,but the first thoroughly conclusive evidence of the necessity of yeast for the fermentation of sugar was furnished by ,appert1 whose method of preserving perishable articles of food excited so much attention in ,france at the beginning of this century4 ,gay-,lussac1 in his ,mmoire sur la ,fermentation1#a alludes to ,appert's method of preserving beer-wort unfermented for an indefinite time1 by simply boiling the wort and closing the vessel in which the boiling fluid is contained1 in such a way as thoroughly to exclude air2 and he shows that1 if a little yeast be introduced into such wort1 after it has cooled1 the wort at once begins to ferment1 even though every precaution be taken to exclude air4 ,and this statement has since received full confirmation from ,pasteur4 ,footnote #a3 ,annales de ,chimie1 #ahaj4 ,on the other hand1 ,schwann1 ,schroeder and ,dusch1 and ,pasteur1 have amply proved that air may be allowed to have free access to beer-wort1 without exciting fermentation1 if only efficient precautions are taken to prevent the entry of particles of yeast along with the air4 ,thus1 the truth that the fermentation of a simple solution of sugar in water depends upon the presence of yeast1 rests upon an unassailable foundation2 and the inquiry into the exact nature of the substance which possesses such a wonderful chemical influence becomes profoundly interesting4 ,the first step towards the solution of this problem was made two centuries ago by the patient and painstaking ,dutch naturalist1 ,leeuwenhoek1 who in the year #afhj wrote thus3-- ,saepissimo examinavi fermentum cerevisiae1 semperque hoc ex globulis per materiam pellucidam fluitantibus1 quam cerevisiam esse censui1 constare observavi3 vidi etiam evidentissime1 unumquemque hujus fermenti globulum denuo ex sex distinctis globullis constare1 accurate eidem quantitate et formae1 cui globulis sanguinis nostri1 respondentibus4 ,verum talis mini de horum origine et formatione conceptus formabam2 globulis nempe ex quibus farina ,tritici1 ,hordei1 ,avenae1 ,fagotritici1 se constat aquae calore dissolvi et aquae commisceri2 hac1 vero aqua1 quam cerevisiam vocare licet1 refrigescente1 multos ex minimis particulis in cerevisia coadunari1 et hoc pacto efficere particulam sive globulum1 quae sexta pars est globuli faecis1 et iterum sex ex hisce globulis conjungi4#a ,footnote #a3 ,leeuwenhoek1 ,arcana ,naturae ,detecta4 ,ed4 ,nov41 #agba4 ,thus ,leeuwenhoek discovered that yeast consists of globules floating in a fluid2 but he thought that they were merely the starchy particles of the grain from which the wort was made1 re-arranged4 ,he discovered the fact that yeast had a definite structure1 but not the meaning of the fact4 ,a century and a half elapsed1 and the investigation of yeast was recommenced almost simultaneously by ,cagniard de la ,tour in ,france1 and by ,schwann and ,ktzing in ,germany4 ,the ,french observer was the first to publish his results2 and the subject received at his hands and at those of his colleague1 the botanist ,turpin1 full and satisfactory investigation4 ,the main conclusions at which they arrived are these4 ,the globular1 or oval1 corpuscles which float so thickly in the yeast as to make it muddy1 though the largest are not more than one two-thousandth of an inch in diameter1 and the smallest may measure less than one seven-thousandth of an inch1 are living organisms4 ,they multiply with great rapidity1 by giving off minute buds1 which soon attain the size of their parent1 and then either become detached or remain united1 forming the compound globules of which ,leeuwenhoek speaks1 though the constancy of their arrangement in sixes existed only in the worthy ,dutchman's imagination4 ,it was very soon made out that these yeast organisms1 to which ,turpin gave the name of ,torula cerevisiae1 were more nearly allied to the lower ,fungi than to anything else4 ,indeed ,turpin1 and subsequently ,berkeley and ,hoffmann1 believed that they had traced the development of the ,torula into the well-known and very common mould--the ,penicillium glaucum4 ,other observers have not succeeded in verifying these statements2 and my own observations lead me to believe1 that while the connection between ,torula and the moulds is a very close one1 it is of a different nature from that which has been supposed4 ,i have never been able to trace the development of ,torula into a true mould2 but it is quite easy to prove that species of true mould1 such as ,penicillium1 when sown in an appropriate nidus1 such as a solution of tartrate of ammonia and yeast-ash1 in water1 with or without sugar1 give rise to ,torulae1 similar in all respects to ,t4 cerevisiae1 except that they are1 on the average1 smaller4 ,moreover1 ,bail has observed the development of a ,torula larger than ,t4 cerevisiae1 from a ,mucor1 a mould allied to ,penicillium4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that the ,torulae1 or organisms of yeast1 are veritable plants2 and conclusive experiments have proved that the power which causes the rearrangement of the molecules of the sugar is intimately connected with the life and growth of the plant4 ,in fact1 whatever arrests the vital activity of the plant also prevents it from exciting fermentation4 ,such being the facts with regard to the nature of yeast1 and the changes which it effects in sugar1 how are they to be accounted for8 ,before modern chemistry had come into existence1 ,stahl1 stumbling1 with the stride of genius1 upon the conception which lies at the bottom of all modern views of the process1 put forward the notion that the ferment1 being in a state of internal motion1 communicated that motion to the sugar1 and thus caused its resolution into new substances4 ,and ,lavoisier1 as we have seen1 adopts substantially the same view1 7,but ,fabroni1 full of the then novel conception of acids and bases and double decompositions1 propounded the hypothesis that sugar is an oxide with two bases1 and the ferment a carbonate with two bases2 that the carbon of the ferment unites with the oxygen of the sugar1 and gives rise to carbonic acid2 while the sugar1 uniting with the nitrogen of the ferment1 produces a new substance analogous to opium4 ,this is decomposed by distillation1 and gives rise to alcohol47 ,next1 in #ahjc1 ,thnard propounded a hypothesis which partakes somewhat of the nature of both ,stahl's and ,fabroni's views4 ,i do not believe with ,lavoisier1 he says1 that all the carbonic acid formed proceeds from the sugar4 ,how1 in that case1 could we conceive the action of the ferment on it8 ,i think that the first portions of the acid are due to a combination of the carbon of the ferment with the oxygen of the sugar1 and that it is by carrying off a portion of oxygen from the last that the ferment causes the fermentation to commence--the equilibrium between the principles of the sugar being disturbed1 they combine afresh to form carbonic acid and alcohol4 ,the three views here before us may be familiarly exemplified by supposing the sugar to be a card-house4 ,according to ,stahl1 the ferment is somebody who knocks the table1 and shakes the card-house down2 according to ,fabroni1 the ferment takes out some cards1 but puts others in their places2 according to ,thnard1 the ferment simply takes a card out of the bottom story1 the result of which is that all the others fall4 ,as chemistry advanced1 facts came to light which put a new face upon ,stahl's hypothesis1 and gave it a safer foundation than it previously possessed4 ,the general nature of these phenomena may be thus stated3--,a body1 ,a1 without giving to1 or taking from1 another body1 ,b1 any material particles1 causes ,b to decompose into other substances1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 the sum of the weights of which is equal to the weight of ,b1 which decomposes4 ,thus1 bitter almonds contain two substances1 amygdalin and synaptase1 which can be extracted1 in a separate state1 from the bitter almonds4 ,the amygdalin thus obtained1 if dissolved in water1 undergoes no change2 but if a little synaptase be added to the solution1 the amygdalin splits up into bitter almond oil1 prussic acid1 and a kind of sugar4 ,a short time after ,cagniard de la ,tour discovered the yeast plant1 ,liebig1 struck with the similarity between this and other such processes and the fermentation of sugar1 put forward the hypothesis that yeast contains a substance which acts upon sugar1 as synaptase acts upon amygdalin4 ,and as the synaptase is certainly neither organized nor alive1 but a mere chemical substance1 ,liebig treated ,cagniard de la ,tour's discovery with no small contempt1 and1 from that time to the present1 has steadily repudiated the notion that the decomposition of the sugar is1 in any sense1 the result of the vital activity of the ,torula4 ,but1 though the notion that the ,torula is a creature which eats sugar and excretes carbonic acid and alcohol1 which is not unjustly ridiculed in the most surprising paper that ever made its appearance in a grave scientific journal#a1 may be untenable1 the fact that the ,torulae are alive1 and that yeast does not excite fermentation unless it contains living ,torulae1 stands fast4 ,moreover1 of late years1 the essential participation of living organisms in fermentation other than the alcoholic1 has been clearly made out by ,pasteur and other chemists4 ,footnote #a3 ,das entrthselte ,geheimniss der geistigen ,ghrung 7,vorlufige briefliche ,mittheilung7 is the title of an anonymous contribution1 to ,whler and ,liebig's ,annalen der ,pharmacie for #ahci1 in which a somewhat ,rabelaisian imaginary description of the organization of the yeast animals and of the manner in which their functions are performed1 is given with a circumstantiality worthy of the author of ,gulliver's ,travels4 ,as a specimen of the writer's humour1 his account of what happens when fermentation comes to an end may suffice4 ,sobald nmlich die ,thiere keinen ,zucker mehr vorfinden1 so fressen sie sich gegenseitig selbst auf1 was durch eine eigene ,manipulation geschicht2 alles wird verdaut bis auf die ,eier1 welche unverndert durch den ,darmkanal hineingehen2 man hat zuletzt wieder ghrungsfhige ,hefe1 nmlich den ,saamen der ,thiere1 der brig bleibt4 ,however1 it may be asked1 is there any necessary opposition between the so-called vital and the strictly physico-chemical views of fermentation8 ,it is quite possible that the living ,torula may excite fermentation in sugar1 because it constantly produces1 as an essential part of its vital manifestations1 some substance which acts upon the sugar1 just as the synaptase acts upon the amygdalin4 ,or it may be1 that1 without the formation of any such special substance1 the physical condition of the living tissue of the yeast plant is sufficient to effect that small disturbance of the equilibrium of the particles of the sugar1 which ,lavoisier thought sufficient to effect its decomposition4 ,platinum in a very fine state of division--known as platinum black1 or noir de platine--has the very singular property of causing alcohol to change into acetic acid with great rapidity4 ,the vinegar plant1 which is closely allied to the yeast plant1 has a similar effect upon dilute alcohol1 causing it to absorb the oxygen of the air1 and become converted into vinegar2 and ,liebig's eminent opponent1 ,pasteur1 who has done so much for the theory and the practice of vinegar-making1 himself suggests that in this case-- ,la cause du phnomne physique qui accompagne la vie de la plante rside dans un tat physique propre1 analogue celui du noir de platine4 ,mais il est essentiel de remarquer que cet tat physique de la plante est troitement li avec la vie de cette plante4#a ,footnote #a3 ,etudes sur les ,mycodermes1 ,comptes-,rendus1 liv41 #ahfb4 ,now1 if the vinegar plant gives rise to the oxidation of alcohol1 on account of its merely physical constitution1 it is at any rate possible that the physical constitution of the yeast plant may exert a decomposing influence on sugar4 ,but1 without presuming to discuss a question which leads us into the very arcana of chemistry1 the present state of speculation upon the modus operandi of the yeast plant in producing fermentation is represented1 on the one hand1 by the ,stahlian doctrine1 supported by ,liebig1 according to which the atoms of the sugar are shaken into new combinations1 either directly by the ,torulae1 or indirectly1 by some substance formed by them2 and1 on the other hand1 by the ,thnardian doctrine1 supported by ,pasteur1 according to which the yeast plant assimilates part of the sugar1 and1 in so doing1 disturbs the rest1 and determines its resolution into the products of fermentation4 ,perhaps the two views are not so much opposed as they seem at first sight to be4 ,but the interest which attaches to the influence of the yeast plants upon the medium in which they live and grow does not arise solely from its bearing upon the theory of fermentation4 ,so long ago as #ahch1 ,turpin compared the ,torulae to the ultimate elements of the tissues of animals and plants--,les organes lmentaires de leurs tissus1 comparables aux petits vgtaux des levures ordinaires1 sont aussi les dcompositeurs des substances qui les environnent4 ,almost at the same time1 and1 probably1 equally guided by his study of yeast1 ,schwann was engaged in those remarkable investigations into the form and development of the ultimate structural elements of the tissues of animals1 which led him to recognize their fundamental identity with the ultimate structural elements of vegetable organisms4 ,the yeast plant is a mere sac1 or cell1 containing a semi-fluid matter1 and ,schwann's microscopic analysis resolved all living organisms1 in the long run1 into an aggregation of such sacs or cells1 variously modified2 and tended to show1 that all1 whatever their ultimate complication1 begin their existence in the condition of such simple cells4 ,in his famous ,mikroskopische ,untersuchungen1 ,schwann speaks of ,torula as a cell2 and1 in a remarkable note to the passage in which he refers to the yeast plant1 ,schwann says3-- ,i have been unable to avoid mentioning fermentation1 because it is the most fully and exactly known operation of cells1 and represents1 in the simplest fashion1 the process which is repeated by every cell of the living body4 ,in other words1 ,schwann conceives that every cell of the living body exerts an influence on the matter which surrounds and permeates it1 analogous to that which a ,torula exerts on the saccharine solution by which it is bathed4 ,a wonderfully suggestive thought1 opening up views of the nature of the chemical processes of the living body1 which have hardly yet received all the development of which they are capable4 ,kant defined the special peculiarity of the living body to be that the parts exist for the sake of the whole and the whole for the sake of the parts4 ,but when ,turpin and ,schwann resolved the living body into an aggregation of quasi-independent cells1 each1 like a ,torula1 leading its own life and having its own laws of growth and development1 the aggregation being dominated and kept working towards a definite end only by a certain harmony among these units1 or by the superaddition of a controlling apparatus1 such as a nervous system1 this conception ceased to be tenable4 ,the cell lives for its own sake1 as well as for the sake of the whole organism2 and the cells1 which float in the blood1 live at its expense1 and profoundly modify it1 are almost as much independent organisms as the ,torulae which float in beer-wort4 ,schwann burdened his enunciation of the cell theory with two false suppositions2 the one1 that the structures he called nucleus and cell-wall are essential to a cell2 the other1 that cells are usually formed independently of other cells2 but1 in #ahci1 it was a vast and clear gain to arrive at the conception1 that the vital functions of all the higher animals and plants are the resultant of the forces inherent in the innumerable minute cells of which they are composed1 and that each of them is1 itself1 an equivalent of one of the lowest and simplest of independent living beings--the ,torula4 ,from purely morphological investigations1 ,turpin and ,schwann1 as we have seen1 arrived at the notion of the fundamental unity of structure of living beings4 ,and1 before long1 the researches of chemists gradually led up to the conception of the fundamental unity of their composition4 ,so far back as #ahjc1 ,thnard pointed out1 in most distinct terms1 the important fact that yeast contains a nitrogenous animal substance2 and that such a substance is contained in all ferments4 ,before him1 ,fabroni and ,fourcroy speak of the vegeto-animal matter of yeast4 ,in #ahdd ,mulder endeavoured to demonstrate that a peculiar substance1 which he called protein1 was essentially characteristic of living matter4 ,in #ahdf1 ,payen writes3-- ,enfin1 une loi sans exception me semble apparatre dans les faits nombreux que j'ai observs et conduire envisager sous un nouveau jour la vie vgtale2 si je ne m'abuse1 tout ce que dans les tissus vgtaux la vue directe o amplifie nous permet de discerner sous la forme de cellules et de vaisseaux1 ne reprsente autre chose que les enveloppes protectrices1 les rservoirs et les conduits1 l'aide desquels les corps anims qui les secrtent et les faonnent1 se logent1 puisent et charriant leurs aliments1 dposent et isolent les matires excrtes4 ,and again3-- ,a fin de complter aujourd'hui l'nonc du fait gnral1 je rappellerai que les corps1 dou des fonctions accomplies dans les tissus des plantes1 sont forms des lments qui constituent1 en proportion peu variable1 les organismes animaux2 qu'ainsi l'on est conduit reconnatre une immense unit de composition lmentaire dans tous les corps vivants de la nature4#a ,footnote #a3 ,mm4 sur les ,dveloppements des ,vgtaux1 c4--,mm4 ,prsentes4 ix4 #ahdf4 ,in the year 7#ahdf7 in which these remarkable passages were published1 the eminent ,german botanist1 ,von ,mohl1 invented the word protoplasm1 as a name for one portion of those nitrogenous contents of the cells of living plants1 the close chemical resemblance of which to the essential constituents of living animals is so strongly indicated by ,payen4 ,and through the twenty-five years that have passed1 since the matter of life was first called protoplasm1 a host of investigators1 among whom ,cohn1 ,max ,schulze1 and ,khne must be named as leaders1 have accumulated evidence1 morphological1 physiological1 and chemical1 in favour of that immense unit de composition lmentaire dans tous les corps vivants de la nature1 into which ,payen had1 so early1 a clear insight4 ,as far back as #ahej1 ,cohn wrote1 apparently without any knowledge of what ,payen had said before him3-- ,the protoplasm of the botanist1 and the contractile substance and sarcode of the zoologist1 must be1 if not identical1 yet in a high degree analogous substances4 ,hence1 from this point of view1 the difference between animals and plants consists in this2 that1 in the latter1 the contractile substance1 as a primordial utricle1 is enclosed within an inert cellulose membrane1 which permits it only to exhibit an internal motion1 expressed by the phenomena of rotation and circulation1 while1 in the former1 it is not so enclosed4 ,the protoplasm in the form of the primordial utricle is1 as it were1 the animal element in the plant1 but which is imprisoned1 and only becomes free in the animal2 or1 to strip off the metaphor which obscures simple thought1 the energy of organic vitality which is manifested in movement is especially exhibited by a nitrogenous contractile substance1 which in plants is limited and fettered by an inert membrane1 in animals not so4#a ,footnote #a3 ,cohn1 ,ueber ,protococcus pluvialis1 in the ,nova ,acta for #ahej4 ,in #ahfh1 thinking that an untechnical statement of the views current among the leaders of biological science might be interesting to the general public1 ,i gave a lecture embodying them in ,edinburgh4 ,those who have not made the mistake of attempting to approach biology1 either by the high priori road of mere philosophical speculation1 or by the mere low posteriori lane offered by the tube of a microscope1 but have taken the trouble to become acquainted with well-ascertained facts and with their history1 will not need to be told that in what ,i had to say as regards protoplasm in my lecture ,on the ,physical ,basis of ,life1 there was nothing new2 and1 as ,i hope1 nothing that the present state of knowledge does not justify us in believing to be true4 ,under these circumstances1 my surprise may be imagined1 when ,i found1 that the mere statement of facts and of views1 long familiar to me as part of the common scientific property of continental workers1 raised a sort of storm in this country1 not only by exciting the wrath of unscientific persons whose pet prejudices they seemed to touch1 but by giving rise to quite superfluous explosions on the part of some who should have been better informed4 ,dr4 ,stirling1 for example1 made my essay the subject of a special critical lecture#a1 which ,i have read with much interest1 though1 ,i confess1 the meaning of much of it remains as dark to me as does the ,secret of ,hegel after ,dr4 ,stirling's elaborate revelation of it4 ,dr4 ,stirling's method of dealing with the subject is peculiar4 ,protoplasm is a question of history1 so far as it is a name2 of fact1 so far as it is a thing4 ,dr4 ,stirling has not taken the trouble to refer to the original authorities for his history1 which is consequently a travesty2 and still less has he concerned himself with looking at the facts1 but contents himself with taking them also at secondhand4 ,a most amusing example of this fashion of dealing with scientific statements is furnished by ,dr4 ,stirling's remarks upon my account of the protoplasm of the nettle hair4 ,that account was drawn up from careful and often-repeated observation of the facts4 ,dr4 ,stirling thinks he is offering a valid criticism1 when he says that my valued friend ,professor ,stricker gives a somewhat different statement about protoplasm4 ,but why in the world did not this distinguished ,hegelian look at a nettle hair for himself1 before venturing to speak about the matter at all8 ,why trouble himself about what either ,stricker or ,i say1 when any tyro can see the facts for himself1 if he is provided with those not rare articles1 a nettle and a microscope8 ,but ,i suppose this would have been ,aufklrung--a recurrence to the base common-sense philosophy of the eighteenth century1 which liked to see before it believed1 and to understand before it criticised4 ,dr4 ,stirling winds up his paper with the following paragraph3-- ,footnote #a3 ,subsequently published under the title of ,as regards ,protoplasm4 ,in short1 the whole position of ,mr4 ,huxley1 7#a7 that all organisms consist alike of the same life-matter1 7#b7 which life-matter is1 for its part1 due only to chemistry1 must be pronounced untenable--nor less untenable 7#c7 the materialism he would found on it4 ,the paragraph contains three distinct assertions concerning my views1 and just the same number of utter misrepresentations of them4 ,that which ,i have numbered 7#a7 turns on the ambiguity of the word same1 for a discussion of which ,i would refer ,dr4 ,stirling to a great hero of ,aufklrung1 ,archbishop ,whately2 statement number 7#b7 is1 in my judgment1 absurd1 and certainly ,i have never said anything resembling it2 while1 as to number 7#c71 one great object of my essay was to show that what is called materialism1 has no sound philosophical basis6 ,as we have seen1 the study of yeast has led investigators face to face with problems of immense interest in pure chemistry1 and in animal and vegetable morphology4 ,its physiology is not less rich in subjects for inquiry4 ,take1 for example1 the singular fact that yeast will increase indefinitely when grown in the dark1 in water containing only tartrate of ammonia1 a small percentage of mineral salts1 and sugar4 ,out of these materials the ,torulae will manufacture nitrogenous protoplasm1 cellulose1 and fatty matters1 in any quantity1 although they are wholly deprived of those rays of the sun1 the influence of which is essential to the growth of ordinary plants4 ,there has been a great deal of speculation lately1 as to how the living organisms buried beneath two or three thousand fathoms of water1 and therefore in all probability almost deprived of light1 live4 ,if any of them possess the same powers as yeast 7and the same capacity for living without light is exhibited by some other fungi7 there would seem to be no difficulty about the matter4 ,of the pathological bearings of the study of yeast1 and other such organisms1 ,i have spoken elsewhere4 ,it is certain that1 in some animals1 devastating epidemics are caused by fungi of low order--similar to those of which ,torula is a sort of offshoot4 ,it is certain that such diseases are propagated by contagion and infection1 in just the same way as ordinary contagious and infectious diseases are propagated4 ,of course1 it does not follow from this1 that all contagious and infectious diseases are caused by organisms of as definite and independent a character as the ,torula2 but1 ,i think1 it does follow that it is prudent and wise to satisfy oneself in each particular case1 that the germ theory cannot and will not explain the facts1 before having recourse to hypotheses which have no equal support from analogy4 ,v4 ,,on ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,coal4 ,the lumps of coal in a coal-scuttle very often have a roughly cubical form4 ,if one of them be picked out and examined with a little care1 it will be found that its six sides are not exactly alike4 ,two opposite sides are comparatively smooth and shining1 while the other four are much rougher1 and are marked by lines which run parallel with the smooth sides4 ,the coal readily splits along these lines1 and the split surfaces thus formed are parallel with the smooth faces4 ,in other words1 there is a sort of rough and incomplete stratification in the lump of coal1 as if it were a book1 the leaves of which had stuck together very closely4 ,sometimes the faces along which the coal splits are not smooth1 but exhibit a thin layer of dull1 charred-looking substance1 which is known as mineral charcoal4 ,occasionally one of the faces of a lump of coal will present impressions1 which are obviously those of the stem1 or leaves1 of a plant2 but though hard mineral masses of pyrites1 and even fine mud1 may occur here and there1 neither sand nor pebbles are met with4 ,when the coal burns1 the chief ultimate products of its combustion are carbonic acid1 water1 and ammoniacal products1 which escape up the chimney2 and a greater or less amount of residual earthy salts1 which take the form of ash4 ,these products are1 to a great extent1 such as would result from the burning of so much wood4 ,these properties of coal may be made out without any very refined appliances1 but the microscope reveals something more4 ,black and opaque as ordinary coal is1 slices of it become transparent if they are cemented in ,canada balsam1 and rubbed down very thin1 in the ordinary way of making thin sections of non-transparent bodies4 ,but as the thin slices1 made in this way1 are very apt to crack and break into fragments1 it is better to employ marine glue as the cementing material4 ,by the use of this substance1 slices of considerable size and of extreme thinness and transparency may be obtained4#a ,footnote #a3 ,my assistant in the ,museum of ,practical ,geology1 ,mr4 ,newton1 invented this excellent method of obtaining thin slices of coal4 ,now let us suppose two such slices to be prepared from our lump of coal--one parallel with the bedding1 the other perpendicular to it2 and let us call the one the horizontal1 and the other the vertical1 section4 ,the horizontal section will present more or less rounded yellow patches and streaks1 scattered irregularly through the dark brown1 or blackish1 ground substance2 while the vertical section will exhibit more elongated bars and granules of the same yellow materials1 disposed in lines which correspond1 roughly1 with the general direction of the bedding of the coal4 ,this is the microscopic structure of an ordinary piece of coal4 ,but if a great series of coals1 from different localities and seams1 or even from different parts of the same seam1 be examined1 this structure will be found to vary in two directions4 ,in the anthracitic1 or stone-coals1 which burn like coke1 the yellow matter diminishes1 and the ground substance becomes more predominant1 and blacker1 and more opaque1 until it becomes impossible to grind a section thin enough to be translucent2 while1 on the other hand1 in such as the ,better-,bed coal of the neighbourhood of ,bradford1 which burns with much flame1 the coal is of a far lighter colour1 and transparent sections are very easily obtained4 ,in the browner parts of this coal1 sharp eyes will readily detect multitudes of curious little coin-shaped bodies1 of a yellowish brown colour1 embedded in the dark brown ground substance4 ,on the average1 these little brown bodies may have a diameter of about one-twentieth of an inch4 ,they lie with their flat surfaces nearly parallel with the two smooth faces of the block in which they are contained2 and1 on one side of each1 there may be discerned a figure1 consisting of three straight linear marks1 which radiate from the centre of the disk1 but do not quite reach its circumference4 ,in the horizontal section these disks are often converted into more or less complete rings2 while in the vertical sections they appear like thick hoops1 the sides of which have been pressed together4 ,the disks are1 therefore1 flattened bags2 and favourable sections show that the three-rayed marking is the expression of three clefts1 which penetrate one wall of the bag4 ,the sides of the bags are sometimes closely approximated2 but1 when the bags are less flattened1 their cavities are1 usually1 filled with numerous1 irregularly rounded1 hollow bodies1 having the same kind of wall as the large ones1 but not more than one seven-hundredth of an inch in diameter4 ,in favourable specimens1 again1 almost the whole ground substance appears to be made up of similar bodies--more or less carbonized or blackened--and1 in these1 there can be no doubt that1 with the exception of patches of mineral charcoal1 here and there1 the whole mass of the coal is made up of an accumulation of the larger and of the smaller sacs4 ,but1 in one and the same slice1 every transition can be observed from this structure to that which has been described as characteristic of ordinary coal4 ,the latter appears to rise out of the former1 by the breaking-up and increasing carbonization of the larger and the smaller sacs4 ,and1 in the anthracitic coals1 this process appears to have gone to such a length1 as to destroy the original structure altogether1 and to replace it by a completely carbonized substance4 ,thus coal may be said1 speaking broadly1 to be composed of two constituents3 firstly1 mineral charcoal2 and1 secondly1 coal proper4 ,the nature of the mineral charcoal has long since been determined4 ,its structure shows it to consist of the remains of the stems and leaves of plants1 reduced to little more than their carbon4 ,again1 some of the coal is made up of the crushed and flattened bark1 or outer coat1 of the stems of plants1 the inner wood of which has completely decayed away4 ,but what ,i may term the saccular matter of the coal1 which1 either in its primary or in its degraded form1 constitutes by far the greater part of all the bituminous coals ,i have examined1 is certainly not mineral charcoal2 nor is its structure that of any stem or leaf4 ,hence its real nature is1 at first1 by no means apparent1 and has been the subject of much discussion4 ,the first person who threw any light upon the problem1 as far as ,i have been able to discover1 was the well-known geologist1 ,professor ,morris4 ,it is now thirty-four years since he carefully described and figured the coin-shaped bodies1 or larger sacs1 as ,i have called them1 in a note appended to the famous paper ,on the ,coal-brookdale ,coal-,field1 published at that time1 by the present ,president of the ,geological ,society1 ,mr4 ,prestwich4 ,with much sagacity1 ,professor ,morris divined the real nature of these bodies1 and boldly affirmed them to be the spore-cases of a plant allied to the living club-mosses4 ,but discovery sometimes makes a long halt2 and it is only a few years since ,mr4 ,carruthers determined the plant 7or rather one of the plants7 which produces these spore-cases1 by finding the discoidal sacs still adherent to the leaves of the fossilized cone which produced them4 ,he gave the name of ,flemingites gracilis to the plant of which the cones form a part4 ,the branches and stem of this plant are not yet certainly known1 but there is no sort of doubt that it was closely allied to the ,lepidodendron1 the remains of which abound in the coal formation4 ,the ,lepidodendra were shrubs and trees which put one more in mind of an ,araucaria than of any other familiar plant2 and the ends of the fruiting branches were terminated by cones1 or catkins1 somewhat like the bodies so named in a fir1 or a willow4 ,these conical fruits1 however1 did not produce seeds2 but the leaves of which they were composed bore upon their surfaces sacs full of spores or sporangia1 such as those one sees on the under surface of a bracken leaf4 ,now1 it is these sporangia of the ,lepidodendroid plant ,flemingites which were identified by ,mr4 ,carruthers with the free sporangia described by ,professor ,morris1 which are the same as the large sacs of which ,i have spoken4 ,and1 more than this1 there is no doubt that the small sacs are the spores1 which were originally contained in the sporangia4 ,the living club-mosses are1 for the most part1 insignificant and creeping herbs1 which1 superficially1 very closely resemble true mosses1 and none of them reach more than two or three feet in height4 ,but1 in their essential structure1 they very closely resemble the earliest ,lepidodendroid trees of the coal3 their stems and leaves are similar2 so are their cones2 and no less like are the sporangia and spores2 while even in their size1 the spores of the ,lepidodendron and those of the existing ,lycopodium1 or club-moss1 very closely approach one another4 ,thus1 the singular conclusion is forced upon us1 that the greater and the smaller sacs of the ,better-,bed and other coals1 in which the primitive structure is well preserved1 are simply the sporangia and spores of certain plants1 many of which were closely allied to the existing club-mosses4 ,and if1 as ,i believe1 it can be demonstrated that ordinary coal is nothing but saccular coal which has undergone a certain amount of that alteration which1 if continued1 would convert it into anthracite2 then1 the conclusion is obvious1 that the great mass of the coal we burn is the result of the accumulation of the spores and spore-cases of plants1 other parts of which have furnished the carbonized stems and the mineral charcoal1 or have left their impressions on the surfaces of the layer4 ,of the multitudinous speculations which1 at various times1 have been entertained respecting the origin and mode of formation of coal1 several appear to be negatived1 and put out of court1 by the structural facts the significance of which ,i have endeavoured to explain4 ,these facts1 for example1 do not permit us to suppose that coal is an accumulation of peaty matter1 as some have held4 ,again1 the late ,professor ,quekett was one of the first observers who gave a correct description of what ,i have termed the saccular structure of coal2 and1 rightly perceiving that this structure was something quite different from that of any known plant1 he imagined that it proceeded from some extinct vegetable organism which was peculiarly abundant amongst the coal-forming plants4 ,but this explanation is at once shown to be untenable when the smaller and the larger sacs are proved to be spores or sporangia4 ,some1 once more1 have imagined that coal was of submarine origin2 and though the notion is amply and easily refuted by other considerations1 it may be worth while to remark1 that it is impossible to comprehend how a mass of light and resinous spores should have reached the bottom of the sea1 or should have stopped in that position if they had got there4 ,at the same time1 it is proper to remark that ,i do not presume to suggest that all coal must needs have the same structure2 or that there may not be coals in which the proportions of wood and spores1 or spore-cases1 are very different from those which ,i have examined4 ,all ,i repeat is1 that none of the coals which have come under my notice have enabled me to observe such a difference4 ,but1 according to ,principal ,dawson1 who has so sedulously examined the fossil remains of plants in ,north ,america1 it is otherwise with the vast accumulations of coal in that country4 ,the true coal1 says ,dr4 ,dawson1 consists principally of the flattened bark of ,sigillarioid and other trees1 intermixed with leaves of ,ferns and ,cordaites1 and other herbaceous dbris1 and with fragments of decayed wood1 constituting 'mineral charcoal1' all these materials having manifestly alike grown and accumulated where we find them4#a ,footnote #a3 ,acadian ,geology1 #bnd edition1 p4 #ach4 ,when ,i had the pleasure of seeing ,principal ,dawson in ,london last summer1 ,i showed him my sections of coal1 and begged him to re-examine some of the ,american coals on his return to ,canada1 with an eye to the presence of spores and sporangia1 such as ,i was able to show him in our ,english and ,scotch coals4 ,he has been good enough to do so2 and in a letter dated ,september #bfth1 #ahgj1 he informs me that-- ,indications of spore-cases are rare1 except in certain coarse shaly coals and portions of coals1 and in the roofs of the seams4 ,the most marked case ,i have yet met with is the shaly coal referred to as containing ,sporangites in my paper on the conditions of accumulation of coal 7,journal of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 xxii4 pp4 #aae1 #aci1 and #afe74 ,the purer coals certainly consist principally of cubical tissues with some true woody matter1 and the spore-cases1 c41 are chiefly in the coarse and shaly layers4 ,this is my old doctrine in my two papers in the ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 and ,i see nothing to modify it4 ,your observations1 however1 make it probable that the frequent clear spots in the cannels are spore-cases4 ,dr4 ,dawson's results are the more remarkable1 as the numerous specimens of ,british coal1 from various localities1 which ,i have examined1 tell one tale as to the predominance of the spore and sporangium element in their composition2 and as it is exactly in the finest and purest coals1 such as the ,better-,bed coal of ,lowmoor1 that the spores and sporangia obviously constitute almost the entire mass of the deposit4 ,coal1 such as that which has been described1 is always found in sheets1 or seams1 varying from a fraction of an inch to many feet in thickness1 enclosed in the substance of the earth at very various depths1 between beds of rock of different kinds4 ,as a rule1 every seam of coal rests upon a thicker1 or thinner1 bed of clay1 which is known as under-clay4 ,these alternations of beds of coal1 clay1 and rock may be repeated many times1 and are known as the coal-measures2 and in some regions1 as in ,south ,wales and in ,nova ,scotia1 the coal-measures attain a thickness of twelve or fourteen thousand feet1 and enclose eighty or a hundred seams of coal1 each with its under-clay1 and separated from those above and below by beds of sandstone and shale4 ,the position of the beds which constitute the coal-measures is infinitely diverse4 ,sometimes they are tilted up vertically1 sometimes they are horizontal1 sometimes curved into great basins2 sometimes they come to the surface1 sometimes they are covered up by thousands of feet of rock4 ,but1 whatever their present position1 there is abundant and conclusive evidence that every under-clay was once a surface soil4 ,not only do carbonized root-fibres frequently abound in these under-clays2 but the stools of trees1 the trunks of which are broken off and confounded with the bed of coal1 have been repeatedly found passing into radiating roots1 still embedded in the under-clay4 ,on many parts of the coast of ,england1 what are commonly known as submarine forests are to be seen at low water4 ,they consist1 for the most part1 of short stools of oak1 beech1 and fir trees1 still fixed by their long roots in the bed of blue clay in which they originally grew4 ,if one of these submarine forest beds should be gradually depressed and covered up by new deposits1 it would present just the same characters as an under-clay of the coal1 if the ,sigillaria and ,lepidodendron of the ancient world were substituted for the oak1 or the beech1 of our own times4 ,in a tropical forest1 at the present day1 the trunks of fallen trees1 and the stools of such trees as may have been broken by the violence of storms1 remain entire for but a short time4 ,contrary to what might be expected1 the dense wood of the tree decays1 and suffers from the ravages of insects1 more swiftly than the bark4 ,and the traveller1 setting his foot on a prostrate trunk1 finds that it is a mere shell1 which breaks under his weight1 and lands his foot amidst the insects1 or the reptiles1 which have sought food or refuge within4 ,the trees of the coal forests present parallel conditions4 ,when the fallen trunks which have entered into the composition of the bed of coal are identifiable1 they are mere double shells of bark1 flattened together in consequence of the destruction of the woody core2 and ,sir ,charles ,lyell and ,principal ,dawson discovered1 in the hollow stools of coal trees of ,nova ,scotia1 the remains of snails1 millipedes1 and salamander-like creatures1 embedded in a deposit of a different character from that which surrounded the exterior of the trees4 ,thus1 in endeavouring to comprehend the formation of a seam of coal1 we must try to picture to ourselves a thick forest1 formed for the most part of trees like gigantic club-mosses1 mares-tails1 and tree ferns1 with here and there some that had more resemblance to our existing yews and fir-trees4 ,we must suppose that1 as the seasons rolled by1 the plants grew and developed their spores and seeds2 that they shed these in enormous quantities1 which accumulated on the ground beneath2 and that1 every now and then1 they added a dead frond or leaf2 or1 at longer intervals1 a rotten branch1 or a dead trunk1 to the mass4 ,a certain proportion of the spores and seeds no doubt fulfilled their obvious function1 and1 carried by the wind to unoccupied regions1 extended the limits of the forest2 many might be washed away by rain into streams1 and be lost2 but a large portion must have remained1 to accumulate like beech-mast1 or acorns1 beneath the trees of a modern forest4 ,but1 in this case1 it may be asked1 why does not our ,english coal consist of stems and leaves to a much greater extent than it does8 ,what is the reason of the predominance of the spores and spore-cases in it8 ,a ready answer to this question is afforded by the study of a living full-grown club-moss4 ,shake it upon a piece of paper1 and it emits a cloud of fine dust1 which falls over the paper1 and is the well-known ,lycopodium powder4 ,now this powder used to be1 and ,i believe still is1 employed for two objects1 which seem at first sight to have no particular connection with one another4 ,it is1 or was1 employed in making lightning1 and in making pills4 ,the coats of the spores contain so much resinous matter1 that a pinch of ,lycopodium powder1 thrown through the flame of a candle1 burns with an instantaneous flash1 which has long done duty for lightning on the stage4 ,and the same character makes it a capital coating for pills2 for the resinous powder prevents the drug from being wetted by the saliva1 and thus bars the nauseous flavour from the sensitive papillae of the tongue4 ,but this resinous matter1 which lies in the walls of the spores and sporangia1 is a substance not easily altered by air and water1 and hence tends to preserve these bodies1 just as the bituminized cerecloth preserves an ,egyptian mummy2 while1 on the other hand1 the merely woody stem and leaves tend to rot1 as fast as the wood of the mummy's coffin has rotted4 ,thus the mixed heap of spores1 leaves1 and stems in the coal-forest would be persistently searched by the long-continued action of air and rain2 the leaves and stems would gradually be reduced to little but their carbon1 or1 in other words1 to the condition of mineral charcoal in which we find them2 while the spores and sporangia remained as a comparatively unaltered and compact residuum4 ,there is1 indeed1 tolerably clear evidence that the coal must1 under some circumstances1 have been converted into a substance hard enough to be rolled into pebbles1 while it yet lay at the surface of the earth2 for in some seams of coal1 the courses of rivulets1 which must have been living water1 while the stratum in which their remains are found was still at the surface1 have been observed to contain rolled pebbles of the very coal through which the stream has cut its way4 ,the structural facts are such as to leave no alternative but to adopt the view of the origin of such coal as ,i have described1 which has just been stated2 but1 happily1 the process is not without analogy at the present day4 ,i possess a specimen of what is called white coal from ,australia4 ,it is an inflammable material1 burning with a bright flame1 and having much the consistence and appearance of oat-cake1 which1 ,i am informed1 covers a considerable area4 ,it consists1 almost entirely1 of a compacted mass of spores and spore-cases4 ,but the fine particles of blown sand which are scattered through it1 show that it must have accumulated1 subarially1 upon the surface of a soil covered by a forest of cryptogamous plants1 probably tree-ferns4 ,as regards this important point of the subarial region of coal1 ,i am glad to find myself in entire accordance with ,principal ,dawson1 who bases his conclusions upon other1 but no less forcible1 considerations4 ,in a passage1 which is the continuation of that already cited1 he writes3-- 7#c7 ,the microscopical structure and chemical composition of the beds of cannel coal and earthy bitumen1 and of the more highly bituminous and carbonaeceous shale1 show them to have been of the nature of the fine vegetable mud which accumulates in the ponds and shallow lakes of modern swamps4 ,when such fine vegetable sediment is mixed1 as is often the case1 with clay1 it becomes similar to the bituminous limestone and calcareo-bituminous shales of the coal-measures4 7#d7 ,a few of the under-clays1 which support beds of coal1 are of the nature of the vegetable mud above referred to2 but the greater part are argillo-arenaceous in composition1 with little vegetable matter1 and bleached by the drainage from them of water containing the products of vegetable decay4 ,they are1 in short1 loamy or clay soils1 and must have been sufficiently above water to admit of drainage4 ,the absence of sulphurets1 and the occurrence of carbonate of iron in connection with them1 prove that1 when they existed as soils1 rain-water1 and not sea-water1 percolated them4 7#e7 ,the coal and the fossil forests present many evidences of subarial conditions4 ,most of the erect and prostrate trees had become hollow shells of bark before they were finally embedded1 and their wood had broken into cubical pieces of mineral charcoal4 ,land-snails and galley-worms ,xylobius crept into them1 and they became dens1 or traps1 for reptiles4 ,large quantities of mineral charcoal occur on the surface of all the large beds of coal4 ,none of these appearances could have been produced by subaqueous action4 7#f7 ,though the roots of the ,sigillaria bear more resemblance to the rhizomes of certain aquatic plants2 yet1 structurally1 they are absolutely identical with the roots of ,cycads1 which the stems also resemble4 ,further1 the ,sigillariae grew on the same soils which supported ,conifers1 ,lepidodendra1 ,cordaites1 and ,ferns--plants which could not have grown in water4 ,again1 with the exception perhaps of some ,pinnulariae and ,asterophyllites1 there is a remarkable absence from the coal measures of any form of properly aquatic vegetation4 7#g7 ,the occurrence of marine1 or brackish-water animals1 in the roofs of coal-beds1 or even in the coal itself1 affords no evidence of subaqueous accumulation1 since the same thing occurs in the case of modern submarine forests4 ,for these and other reasons1 some of which are more fully stated in the papers already referred to1 while ,i admit that the areas of coal accumulation were frequently submerged1 ,i must maintain that the true coal is a subarial accumulation by vegetable growth on soils1 wet and swampy it is true1 but not submerged4 ,i am almost disposed to doubt whether it is necessary to make the concession of wet and swampy2 otherwise1 there is nothing that ,i know of to be said against this excellent conspectus of the reasons for believing in the subarial origin of coal4 ,but the coal accumulated upon the area covered by one of the great forests of the carboniferous epoch would1 in course of time1 have been wasted away by the small1 but constant1 wear and tear of rain and streams1 had the land which supported it remained at the same level1 or been gradually raised to a greater elevation4 ,and1 no doubt1 as much coal as now exists has been destroyed1 after its formation1 in this way4 ,what are now known as coal districts owe their importance to the fact that they were areas of slow depression1 during a greater or less portion of the carboniferous epoch2 and that1 in virtue of this circumstance1 ,mother ,earth was enabled to cover up her vegetable treasures1 and preserve them from destruction4 ,wherever a coal-field now exists1 there must formerly have been free access for a great river1 or for a shallow sea1 bearing sediment in the shape of sand and mud4 ,when the coal-forest area became slowly depressed1 the waters must have spread over it1 and have deposited their burden upon the surface of the bed of coal1 in the form of layers1 which are now converted into shale1 or sandstone4 ,then followed a period of rest1 in which the superincumbent shallow waters became completely filled up1 and finally replaced1 by fine mud1 which settled down into a new under-clay1 and furnished the soil for a fresh forest growth4 ,this flourished1 and heaped up its spores and wood into coal1 until the stage of slow depression recommenced4 ,and1 in some localities1 as ,i have mentioned1 the process was repeated until the first of the alternating beds had sunk to near three miles below its original level at the surface of the earth4 ,in reflecting on the statement1 thus briefly made1 of the main facts connected with the origin of the coal formed during the carboniferous epoch1 two or three considerations suggest themselves4 ,in the first place1 the great phantom of geological time rises before the student of this1 as of all other1 fragments of the history of our earth--springing irrepressibly out of the facts1 like the ,djin from the jar which the fisherman so incautiously opened2 and like the ,djin again1 being vaporous1 shifting1 and indefinable1 but unmistakably gigantic4 ,however modest the bases of one's calculation may be1 the minimum of time assignable to the coal period remains something stupendous4 ,principal ,dawson is the last person likely to be guilty of exaggeration in this matter1 and it will be well to consider what he has to say about it3-- ,the rate of accumulation of coal was very slow4 ,the climate of the period1 in the northern temperate zone1 was of such a character that the true conifers show rings of growth1 not larger1 nor much less distinct1 than those of many of their modern congeners4 ,the ,sigillariae and ,calamites were not1 as often supposed1 composed wholly1 or even principally1 of lax and soft tissues1 or necessarily short-lived4 ,the former had1 it is true1 a very thick inner bark2 but their dense woody axis1 their thick and nearly imperishable outer bark1 and their scanty and rigid foliage1 would indicate no very rapid growth or decay4 ,in the case of the ,sigillariae1 the variations in the leaf-scars in different parts of the trunk1 the intercalation of new ridges at the surface representing that of new woody wedges in the axis1 the transverse marks left by the stages of upward growth1 all indicate that several years must have been required for the growth of stems of moderate size4 ,the enormous roots of these trees1 and the condition of the coal-swamps1 must have exempted them from the danger of being overthrown by violence4 ,they probably fell in successive generations from natural decay2 and making every allowance for other materials1 we may safely assert that every foot of thickness of pure bituminous coal implies the quiet growth and fall of at least fifty generations of ,sigillariae1 and therefore an undisturbed condition of forest growth enduring through many centuries4 ,further1 there is evidence that an immense amount of loose parenchymatous tissue1 and even of wood1 perished by decay1 and we do not know to what extent even the most durable tissues may have disappeared in this way2 so that1 in many coal-seams1 we may have only a very small part of the vegetable matter produced4 ,undoubtedly the force of these reflections is not diminished when the bituminous coal1 as in ,britain1 consists of accumulated spores and spore-cases1 rather than of stems4 ,but1 suppose we adopt ,principal ,dawson's assumption1 that one foot of coal represents fifty generations of coal plants2 and1 further1 make the moderate supposition that each generation of coal plants took ten years to come to maturity--then1 each foot-thickness of coal represents five hundred years4 ,the superimposed beds of coal in one coal-field may amount to a thickness of fifty or sixty feet1 and therefore the coal alone1 in that field1 represents #ejj x #ej #be1jjj years4 ,but the actual coal is but an insignificant portion of the total deposit1 which1 as has been seen1 may amount to between two and three miles of vertical thickness4 ,suppose it be #ab1jjj feet--which is #bdj times the thickness of the actual coal--is there any reason why we should believe it may not have taken #bdj times as long to form8 ,i know of none4 ,but1 in this case1 the time which the coal-field represents would be #be1jjj x #bdj #f1jjj1jjj years4 ,as affording a definite chronology1 of course such calculations as these are of no value2 but they have much use in fixing one's attention upon a possible minimum4 ,a man may be puzzled if he is asked how long ,rome took a-building2 but he is proverbially safe if he affirms it not to have been built in a day2 and our geological calculations are all1 at present1 pretty much on that footing4 ,a second consideration which the study of the coal brings prominently before the mind of anyone who is familiar with palaeontology is1 that the coal ,flora1 viewed in relation to the enormous period of time which it lasted1 and to the still vaster period which has elapsed since it flourished1 underwent little change while it endured1 and in its peculiar characters1 differs strangely little from that which at present exists4 ,the same species of plants are to be met with throughout the whole thickness of a coal-field1 and the youngest are not sensibly different from the oldest4 ,but more than this4 ,notwithstanding that the carboniferous period is separated from us by more than the whole time represented by the secondary and tertiary formations1 the great types of vegetation were as distinct then as now4 ,the structure of the modern club-moss furnishes a complete explanation of the fossil remains of the ,lepidodendra1 and the fronds of some of the ancient ferns are hard to distinguish from existing ones4 ,at the same time1 it must be remembered1 that there is nowhere in the world1 at present1 any forest which bears more than a rough analogy with a coal-forest4 ,the types may remain1 but the details of their form1 their relative proportions1 their associates1 are all altered4 ,and the tree-fern forest of ,tasmania1 or ,new ,zealand1 gives one only a faint and remote image of the vegetation of the ancient world4 ,once more1 an invariably-recurring lesson of geological history1 at whatever point its study is taken up3 the lesson of the almost infinite slowness of the modification of living forms4 ,the lines of the pedigrees of living things break off almost before they begin to converge4 ,finally1 yet another curious consideration4 ,let us suppose that one of the stupid1 salamander-like ,labyrinthodonts1 which pottered1 with much belly and little leg1 like ,falstaff in his old age1 among the coal-forests1 could have had thinking power enough in his small brain to reflect upon the showers of spores which kept on falling through years and centuries1 while perhaps not one in ten million fulfilled its apparent purpose1 and reproduced the organism which gave it birth3 surely he might have been excused for moralizing upon the thoughtless and wanton extravagance which ,nature displayed in her operations4 ,but we have the advantage over our shovel-headed predecessor--or possibly ancestor--and can perceive that a certain vein of thrift runs through this apparent prodigality4 ,nature is never in a hurry1 and seems to have had always before her eyes the adage1 ,keep a thing long enough1 and you will find a use for it4 ,she has kept her beds of coal many millions of years without being able to find much use for them2 she has sent them down beneath the sea1 and the sea-beasts could make nothing of them2 she has raised them up into dry land1 and laid the black veins bare1 and still1 for ages and ages1 there was no living thing on the face of the earth that could see any sort of value in them2 and it was only the other day1 so to speak1 that she turned a new creature out of her workshop1 who by degrees acquired sufficient wits to make a fire1 and then to discover that the black rock would burn4 ,i suppose that nineteen hundred years ago1 when ,julius ,caesar was good enough to deal with ,britain as we have dealt with ,new ,zealand1 the primaeval ,briton1 blue with cold and woad1 may have known that the strange black stone1 of which he found lumps here and there in his wanderings1 would burn1 and so help to warm his body and cook his food4 ,saxon1 ,dane1 and ,norman swarmed into the land4 ,the ,english people grew into a powerful nation1 and ,nature still waited for a full return of the capital she had invested in the ancient club-mosses4 ,the eighteenth century arrived1 and with it ,james ,watt4 ,the brain of that man was the spore out of which was developed the steam-engine1 and all the prodigious trees and branches of modern industry which have grown out of this4 ,but coal is as much an essential condition of this growth and development as carbonic acid is for that of a club-moss4 ,wanting coal1 we could not have smelted the iron needed to make our engines1 nor have worked our engines when we had got them4 ,but take away the engines1 and the great towns of ,yorkshire and ,lancashire vanish like a dream4 ,manufactures give place to agriculture and pasture1 and not ten men can live where now ten thousand are amply supported4 ,thus1 all this abundant wealth of money and of vivid life is ,nature's interest upon her investment in club-mosses1 and the like1 so long ago4 ,but what becomes of the coal which is burnt in yielding this interest8 ,heat comes out of it1 light comes out of it1 and if we could gather together all that goes up the chimney2 and all that remains in the grate of a thoroughly-burnt coal-fire1 we should find ourselves in possession of a quantity of carbonic acid1 water1 ammonia1 and mineral matters1 exactly equal in weight to the coal4 ,but these are the very matters with which ,nature supplied the club-mosses which made the coal4 ,she is paid back principal and interest at the same time2 and she straightway invests the carbonic acid1 the water1 and the ammonia in new forms of life1 feeding with them the plants that now live4 ,thrifty ,nature6 ,surely no prodigal1 but most notable of housekeepers6 ,,vi4 ,,on ,,coral ,,and ,,coral ,,reefs4 ,the marine productions which are commonly known by the names of ,corals and ,corallines1 were thought by the ancients to be sea-weeds1 which had the singular property of becoming hard and solid1 when they were fished up from their native depths and came into contact with the air4 ,sic et curalium1 quo primum contigit auras ,tempore durescit3 mollis fuit herba sub undis1 says ,ovid 7,metam4 xv472 and it was not until the seventeenth century that ,boccone was emboldened1 by personal experience of the facts1 to declare that the holders of this belief were no better than idiots1 who had been misled by the softness of the outer coat of the living red coral to imagine that it was soft all through4 ,messer ,boccone's strong epithet is probably undeserved1 as the notion he controverts1 in all likelihood1 arose merely from the misinterpretation of the strictly true statement which any coral fisherman would make to a curious inquirer2 namely1 that the outside coat of the red coral is quite soft when it is taken out of the sea4 ,at any rate1 he did good service by eliminating this much error from the current notions about coral4 ,but the belief that corals are plants remained1 not only in the popular1 but in the scientific mind2 and it received what appeared to be a striking confirmation from the researches of ,marsigli in #agjf4 ,for this naturalist1 having the opportunity of observing freshly-taken red coral1 saw that its branches were beset with what looked like delicate and beautiful flowers1 each having eight petals4 ,it was true that these flowers could protrude and retract themselves1 but their motions were hardly more extensive1 or more varied1 than those of the leaves of the sensitive plant2 and therefore they could not be held to militate against the conclusion so strongly suggested by their form and their grouping upon the branches of a tree-like structure4 ,twenty years later1 a pupil of ,marsigli1 the young ,marseilles physician1 ,peyssonel1 conceived the desire to study these singular sea-plants1 and was sent by the ,french ,government on a mission to the ,mediterranean for that purpose4 ,the pupil undertook the investigation full of confidence in the ideas of his master1 but being able to see and think for himself1 he soon discovered that those ideas by no means altogether corresponded with reality4 ,in an essay entitled ,trait du ,corail1 which was communicated to the ,french ,academy of ,science1 but which has never been published1 ,peyssonel writes3-- ,je fis fleurir le corail dans des vases pleins d'eau de mer1 et j'observai que ce que nous croyons tre la fleur de cette prtendue plante n'tait au vrai1 qu'un insecte semblable une petite ,ortie ou ,poulpe4 ,j'avais le plaisir de voir remuer les pattes1 ou pieds1 de cette ,ortie1 et ayant mis le vase plein d'eau o le corail tait une douce chaleur auprs du feu1 tous les petites insectes s'panouirent 444 ,l',ortie sortie tend les pieds1 et forme ce que ,m4 de ,marsigli et moi avions pris pour les ptales de la fleur4 ,le calice de cette prtendue fleur est le corps mme de l'animal avanc et sorti hors de la cellule4#a ,footnote #a3 ,this extract from ,peysonnel's manuscript is given by ,m4 ,lacaze ,duthiers in his valuable ,histoire ,naturelle du ,corail 7#ahff74 ,the comparison of the flowers of the coral to a petite ortie or little nettle is perfectly just1 but needs explanation4 ,ortie de mer1 or sea-nettle1 is1 in fact1 the ,french appellation for our sea-anemone1 a creature with which everybody1 since the great aquarium mania1 must have become familiar1 even to the limits of boredom4 ,in #agaj1 the great naturalist1 ,raumur1 had written a memoir for the express purpose of demonstrating that these orties are animals2 and with this important paper ,peyssonel must necessarily have been familiar4 ,therefore1 when he declared the flowers of the red coral to be little orties1 it was the same thing as saying that they were animals of the same general nature as sea-anemones4 ,but to ,peyssonel's contemporaries this was an extremely startling announcement4 ,it was hard to imagine the existence of such a thing as an association of animals into a structure with stem and branches altogether like a plant1 and fixed to the soil as a plant is fixed2 and the naturalists of that day preferred not to imagine it4 ,even ,raumur could not bring himself to accept the notion1 and ,france being blessed with ,academicians1 whose great function 7as the late ,bishop ,wilson and an eminent modern writer have so well shown7 is to cause sweetness and light to prevail1 and to prevent such unmannerly fellows as ,peyssonel from blurting out unedifying truths1 they suppressed him2 and1 as aforesaid1 his great work remained in manuscript1 and may at this day be consulted by the curious in that state1 in the ,bibliothque du ,musum d',histoire ,naturelle4 ,peyssonel1 who evidently was a person of savage and untameable disposition1 so far from appreciating the kindness of the ,academicians in giving him time to reflect upon the unreasonableness1 not to say rudeness1 of making public statements in opposition to the views of some of the most distinguished of their body1 seems bitterly to have resented the treatment he met with4 ,for he sent all further communications to the ,royal ,society of ,london1 which never had1 and it is to be hoped never will have1 anything of an academic constitution2 and finally took himself off to ,guadaloupe1 and became lost to science altogether4 ,fifteen or sixteen years after the date of ,peyssonel's suppressed paper1 the ,abb ,trembley published his wonderful researches upon the fresh-water ,hydra4 ,bernard de ,jussieu and ,guettard followed them up by like inquiries upon the marine sea-anemones and corallines2 ,raumur1 convinced against his will of the entire justice of ,peyssonel's views1 adopted them1 and made him a half-and-half apology in the preface to the next published volume of the ,mmoires pour servir l',histoire des ,insectes2 and1 from this time forth1 ,peyssonel's doctrine that corals are the work of animal organisms has been part of the body of established scientific truth4 ,peyssonel1 in the extract from his memoir already cited1 compares the flower-like animal of the coral to a poulpe1 which is the ,french form of the name polypus1--the many-footed1--which the ancient naturalists gave to the soft-bodied cuttle-fishes1 which1 like the coral animal1 have eight arms1 or tentacles1 disposed around a central mouth4 ,raumur1 admitting the analogy indicated by ,peyssonel1 gave the name of polypes1 not only to the sea-anemone1 the coral animal1 and the fresh-water ,hydra1 but to what are now known as the ,polyzoa1 and he termed the skeleton which they fabricate a polypier or polypidom4 ,the progress of discovery1 since ,raumur's time1 has made us very completely acquainted with the structure and habits of all these polypes4 ,we know that1 among the sea-anemones and coral-forming animals1 each polype has a mouth leading to a stomach1 which is open at its inner end1 and thus communicates freely with the general cavity of the body2 that the tentacles placed round the mouth are hollow1 and that they perform the part of arms in seizing and capturing prey4 ,it is known that many of these creatures are capable of being multiplied by artificial division1 the divided halves growing1 after a time1 into complete and separate animals2 and that many are able to perform a very similar process naturally1 in such a manner that one polype may1 by repeated incomplete divisions1 give rise to a sort of sheet1 or turf1 formed by innumerable connected1 and yet independent1 descendants4 ,or1 what is still more common1 a polype may throw out buds1 which are converted into polypes1 or branches bearing polypes1 until a tree-like mass1 sometimes of very considerable size1 is formed4 ,this is what happens in the case of the red coral of commerce4 ,a minute polype1 fixed to the rocky bottom of the deep sea1 grows up into a branched trunk4 ,the end of every branch and twig is terminated by a polype2 and all the polypes are connected together by a fleshy substance1 traversed by innumerable canals which place each polype in communication with every other1 and carry nourishment to the substance of the supporting stem4 ,it is a sort of natural co-operative store1 every polype helping the whole1 at the same time as it helps itself4 ,the interior of the stem1 like that of the branches1 is solidified by the deposition of carbonate of lime in its tissue1 somewhat in the same fashion as our own bones are formed of animal matter impregnated with lime salts2 and it is this dense skeleton 7usually turned deep red by a peculiar colouring matter7 cleared of the soft animal investment1 as the heart-wood of a tree might be stripped of its bark1 which is the red coral4 ,in the case of the red coral1 the hard skeleton belongs to the interior of the stem and branches only2 but in the commoner white corals1 each polype has a complete skeleton of its own4 ,these polypes ate sometimes solitary1 in which case the whole skeleton is represented by a single cup1 with partitions radiating from its centre to its circumference4 ,when the polypes formed by budding or division remain associated1 the polypidom is sometimes made up of nothing but an aggregation of these cups1 while at other times the cups are at once separated and held together1 by an intermediate substance1 which represents the branches of the red coral4 ,the red coral polype again is a comparatively rare animal1 inhabiting a limited area1 the skeleton of which has but a very insignificant mass2 while the white corals are very common1 occur in almost all seas1 and form skeletons which are sometimes extremely massive4 ,with a very few exceptions1 both the red and the white coral polypes are1 in their adult state1 firmly adherent to the sea-bottom2 nor do their buds naturally become detached and locomotive4 ,but1 in addition to budding and division1 these creatures possess the more ordinary methods of multiplication2 and1 at particular seasons1 they give rise to numerous eggs of minute size4 ,within these eggs the young are formed1 and they leave the egg in a condition which has no sort of resemblance to the perfect animal4 ,it is1 in fact1 a minute oval body1 many hundred times smaller than the full-grown creature1 and it swims about with great activity by the help of multitudes of little hair-like filaments1 called cilia1 with which its body is covered4 ,these cilia all lash the water in one direction1 and so drive the little body along as if it were propelled by thousands of extremely minute paddles4 ,after enjoying its freedom for a longer or shorter time1 and being carried either by the force of its own cilia1 or by currents which bear it along1 the embryo coral settles down to the bottom1 loses its cilia1 and becomes fixed to the rock1 gradually assuming the polype form and growing up to the size of its parent4 ,as the infant polypes of the coral may retain this free and active condition for many hours1 or even days1 and as a tidal or other current in the sea may easily flow at the speed of two or even more miles in an hour1 it is clear that the embryo must often be transported to very considerable distances from the parent4 ,and it is easily understood how a single polype1 which may give rise to hundreds1 or perhaps thousands1 of embryos1 may1 by this process of partly active and partly passive migration1 cover an immense surface with its offspring4 ,the masses of coral which may be formed by the assemblages of polypes which spring by budding1 or by dividing1 from a single polype1 occasionally attain very considerable dimensions4 ,such skeletons are sometimes great plates1 many feet long and several feet in thickness2 or they may form huge half globes1 like the brainstone corals1 or may reach the magnitude of stout shrubs1 or even small trees4 ,there is reason to believe that such masses as these take a long time to form1 and hence that the age a polype tree1 or polype turf1 may attain1 may be considerable4 ,but1 sooner or later1 the coral polypes1 like all other things1 die2 the soft flesh decays1 while the skeleton is left as a stony mass at the bottom of the sea1 where it retains its integrity for a longer or a shorter time1 according as its position affords it more or less protection from the wear and tear of the waves4 ,the polypes which give rise to the white coral are found1 as has been said1 in the seas of all parts of the world2 but in the temperate and cold oceans they are scattered and comparatively small in size1 so that the skeletons of those which die do not accumulate in any considerable quantity4 ,but it is otherwise in the greater part of the ocean which lies in the warmer parts of the world1 comprised within a distance of about #a1hjj miles on each side of the equator4 ,within the zone thus bounded1 by far the greater part of the ocean is inhabited by coral polypes1 which not only form very strong and large skeletons1 but associate together into great masses1 like the thickets and the meadow turf1 or1 better still1 the accumulations of peat1 to which plants give rise on the dry land4 ,these masses of stony matter1 heaped up beneath the waters of the ocean1 become as dangerous to mariners as so much ordinary rock1 and to these1 as to common rock ridges1 the seaman gives the name of reefs4 ,such coral reefs cover many thousand square miles in the ,pacific and in the ,indian ,oceans4 ,there is one reef1 or rather great series of reefs1 called the ,barrier ,reef1 which stretches1 almost continuously1 for more than #a1ajj miles off the east coast of ,australia4 ,multitudes of the island in the ,pacific are either reefs themselves1 or are surrounded by reefs4 ,the ,red ,sea is in many parts almost a maze of such reefs2 and they abound no less in the ,west ,indies1 along the coast of ,florida1 and even as far north as the ,bahama ,islands4 ,but it is a very remarkable circumstance that1 within the area of what we may call the coral zone1 there are no coral reefs upon the west coast of ,america1 nor upon the west coast of ,africa2 and it is a general fact that the reefs are interrupted1 or absent1 opposite the mouths of great rivers4 ,the causes of this apparent caprice in the distribution of coral reefs are not far to seek4 ,the polypes which fabricate them require for their vigorous growth a temperature which must not fall below #fh degrees ,fahrenheit all the year round1 and this temperature is only to be found within the distance on each side of the equator which has been mentioned1 or thereabouts4 ,but even within the coral zone this degree of warmth is not everywhere to be had4 ,on the west coast of ,america1 and on the corresponding coast of ,africa1 currents of cold water from the icy regions which surround the ,south ,pole set northward1 and it appears to be due to their cooling influence that the sea in these regions is free from the reef builders4 ,again1 the coral polypes cannot live in water which is rendered brackish by floods from the land1 or which is perturbed by mud from the same source1 and hence it is that they cease to exist opposite the mouths of rivers1 which damage them in both these ways4 ,such is the general distribution of the reef-building corals1 but there are some very interesting and singular circumstances to be observed in the conformation of the reefs1 when we consider them individually4 ,the reefs1 in fact1 are of three different kinds2 some of them stretch out from the shore1 almost like a prolongation of the beach1 covered only by shallow water1 and in the case of an island1 surrounding it like a fringe of no considerable breadth4 ,these are termed fringing reefs4 ,others are separated by a channel which may attain a width of many miles1 and a depth of twenty or thirty fathoms or more1 from the nearest land2 and when this land is an island1 the reef surrounds it like a low wall1 and the sea between the reef and the land is1 as it were1 a moat inside this wall4 ,such reefs as these are called encircling when they surround an island2 and barrier reefs1 when they stretch parallel with the coast of a continent4 ,in both these cases there is ordinary dry land inside the reef1 and separated from it only by a narrower or a wider1 a shallower or a deeper1 space of sea1 which is called a lagoon1 or inner passage4 ,but there is a third kind of reef1 of very common occurrence in the ,pacific and ,indian ,oceans1 which goes by the name of an ,atoll4 ,this is1 to all intents and purposes1 an encircling reef1 without anything to encircle2 or1 in other words1 without an island in the middle of its lagoon4 ,the atoll has exactly the appearance of a vast1 irregularly oval1 or circular1 breakwater1 enclosing smooth water in its midst4 ,the depth of the water in the lagoon rarely exceeds twenty or thirty fathoms1 but1 outside the reef1 it deepens with great rapidity to #bjj or #cjj fathoms4 ,the depth immediately outside the barrier1 or encircling1 reefs1 may also be very considerable2 but1 at the outer edge of a fringing reef1 it does not amount usually to more than twenty or twenty-five fathoms2 in other words1 from #abj to #aej feet4 ,thus1 if the water of the ocean could be suddenly drained away1 we should see the atolls rising from the sea-bed like vast truncated cones1 and resembling so many volcanic craters1 except that their sides would be steeper than those of an ordinary volcano4 ,in the case of the encircling reefs1 the cone1 with the enclosed island1 would look like ,vesuvius with ,monte ,nuovo within the old crater of ,somma2 while1 finally1 the island with a fringing reef would have the appearance of an ordinary hill1 or mountain1 girded by a vast parapet1 within which would lie a shallow moat4 ,and the dry bed of the ,pacific might afford grounds for an inhabitant of the moon to speculate upon the extraordinary subterranean activity to which these vast and numerous craters bore witness6 ,when the structure of a fringing reef is investigated1 the bottom of the lagoon is found to be covered with fine whitish mud1 which results from the breaking up of the dead corals4 ,upon this muddy floor there lie1 here and there1 growing corals1 or occasionally great blocks of dead coral1 which have been torn by storms from the outer edge of the reef1 and washed into the lagoon4 ,shell-fish and worms of various kinds abound2 and fish1 some of which prey upon the coral1 sport in the deeper pools4 ,but the corals which are to be seen growing in the shallow waters of the lagoon are of a different kind from those which abound on the outer edge of the reef1 and of which the reef is built up4 ,close to the seaward edge of the reef1 over which1 even in calm weather1 a surf almost always breaks1 the coral rock is encrusted with a thick coat of a singular vegetable organism1 which contains a great deal of lime--the so-called ,nullipora4 ,beyond this1 in the part of the edge of the reef which is always covered by the breaking waves1 the living1 true1 reef--polypes make their appearance2 and1 in different forms1 coat the steep seaward face of the reef to a depth of #ajj or even #aej feet4 ,beyond this depth the sounding-lead rests1 not upon the wall-like face of the reef1 but on the ordinary shelving sea-bottom4 ,and the distance to which a fringing reef extends from the land corresponds with that at which the sea has a depth of twenty or five-and-twenty fathoms4 ,if1 as we have supposed1 the sea could be suddenly withdrawn from around an island provided with a fringing reef1 such as the ,mauritius1 the reef would present the aspect of a terrace1 its seaward face1 #ajj feet or more high1 blooming with the animal flowers of the coral1 while its surface would be hollowed out into a shallow and irregular moat-like excavation4 ,the coral mud1 which occupies the bottom of the lagoon1 and with which all the interstices of the coral skeletons which accumulate to form the reef are filled up1 does not proceed from the washing action of the waves alone2 innumerable fishes1 and other creatures which prey upon the coral1 add a very important contribution of finely-triturated calcareous matter2 and the corals and mud becoming incorporated together1 gradually harden and give rise to a sort of limestone rock1 which may vary a good deal in texture4 ,sometimes it remains friable and chalky1 but1 more often1 the infiltration of water1 charged with carbonic acid1 dissolves some of the calcareous matter1 and deposits it elsewhere in the interstices of the nascent rock1 thus glueing and cementing the particles together into a hard mass2 or it may even dissolve the carbonate of lime more extensively1 and re-deposit it in a crystalline form4 ,on the beach of the lagoon1 where the coral sand is washed into layers by the action of the waves1 its grains become thus fused together into strata of a limestone1 so hard that they ring when struck with a hammer1 and inclined at a gentle angle1 corresponding with that of the surface of the beach4 ,the hard parts of the many animals which live upon the reef become imbedded in this coral limestone1 so that a block may be full of shells of bivalves and univalves1 or of sea-urchins2 and even sometimes encloses the eggs of turtles in a state of petrifaction4 ,the active and vigorous growth of the reef goes on only at the seaward margins1 where the polypes are exposed to the wash of the surf1 and are thereby provided with an abundant supply of air and of food4 ,the interior portion of the reef may be regarded as almost wholly an accumulation of dead skeletons4 ,where a river comes down from the land there is a break in the reef1 for the reasons which have been already mentioned4 ,the origin and mode of formation of a fringing reef1 such as that just described1 are plain enough4 ,the embryos of the coral polypes have fixed themselves upon the submerged shore of the island1 as far out as they could live1 namely1 to a depth of twenty or twenty-five fathoms4 ,one generation has succeeded another1 building itself up upon the dead skeletons of its predecessor4 ,the mass has been consolidated by the infiltration of coral mud1 and hardened by partial solution and redeposition1 until a great rampart of coral rock #ajj or #aej feet high on its seaward face has been formed all round the island1 with only such gaps as result from the outflow of rivers1 in the place of sally-ports4 ,the structure of the rocky accumulation in the encircling reefs and in the atolls is essentially the same as in the fringing reef4 ,but1 in addition to the differences of depth inside and out1 they present some other peculiarities4 ,these reefs1 and especially the atolls1 are usually interrupted at one part of their circumference1 and this part is always situated on the leeward side of the reef1 or that which is the more sheltered side4 ,now1 as all these reefs are situated within the region in which the trade-winds prevail1 it follows that1 on the north side of the equator1 where the trade-wind is a north-easterly wind1 the opening of the reef is on the south-west side3 while in the southern hemisphere1 where the trade-winds blow from the south-east1 the opening lies to the north-west4 ,the curious practical result follows from this structure1 that the lagoons of these reefs really form admirable harbours1 if a ship can only get inside them4 ,but the main difference between the encircling reefs and the atolls1 on the one hand1 and the fringing reefs on the other1 lies in the fact of the much greater depth of water on the seaward faces of the former4 ,as a consequence of this fact1 the whole of this face is not1 as it is in the case of the fringing reef1 covered with living coral polypes4 ,for1 as we have seen1 these polypes cannot live at a greater depth than about twenty-five fathoms2 and actual observation has shown that while1 down to this depth1 the sounding-lead will bring up branches of live coral from the outer wall of such a reef1 at a greater depth it fetches to the surface nothing but dead coral and coral sand4 ,we must1 therefore1 picture to ourselves an atoll1 or an encircling reef1 as fringed for #ajj feet1 or more1 from its summit1 with coral polypes busily engaged in fabricating coral2 while1 below this comparatively narrow belt1 its surface is a bare and smooth expanse of coral sand1 supported upon and within a core of coral limestone4 ,thus1 if the bed of the ,pacific were suddenly laid bare1 as was just now supposed1 the appearance of the reef-mountains would be exactly the reverse of that presented by many high mountains on land4 ,for these are white with snow at the top1 while their bases are clothed with an abundant and gaudily-coloured vegetation4 ,but the coral cones would look grey and barren below1 while their summits would be gay with a richly-coloured parterre of flower-like coral polypes4 ,the practical difficulties of sounding upon1 and of bringing up portions of1 the seaward face of an atoll or of an encircling reef1 are so great1 in consequence of the constant and dangerous swell which sets towards it1 that no exact information concerning the depth to which the reefs are composed of coral has yet been obtained4 ,there is no reason to doubt1 however1 that the reef-cone has the same structure from its summit to its base1 and that its sea-wall is throughout mainly composed of dead coral4 ,and now arises a serious difficulty4 ,if the coral polypes cannot live at a greater depth than #ajj or #aej feet1 how can they have built up the base of the reef-cone1 which may be #b1jjj feet1 or more1 below the surface of the sea8 ,in order to get over this objection1 it was at one time supposed that the reef-building polypes had settled upon the summits of a chain of submarine mountains4 ,but what is there in physical geography to justify the assumption of the existence of a chain of mountains stretching for #a1jjj miles or more1 and so nearly of the same height1 that none should rise above the level of the sea1 nor fall #aej feet below that level8 ,how again1 on this hypothesis1 are atolls to be accounted for1 unless1 as some have done1 we take refuge in the wild supposition that every atoll corresponds with the crater of a submarine volcano8 ,and what explanation does it afford of the fact that1 in some parts of the ocean1 only atolls and encircling reefs occur1 while others present none but fringing reefs8 ,these and other puzzling facts remained insoluble until the publication1 in the year #ahdj1 of ,mr4 ,darwin's famous work on coral reefs2 in which a key was given to all the difficult problems connected with the subject1 and every difficulty was shown to be capable of solution by deductive reasoning from a happy combination of certain well-established geological and biological truths4 ,mr4 ,darwin1 in fact1 showed1 that so long as the level of the sea remains unaltered in any area in which coral reefs are being formed1 or if the level of the sea relatively to that of the land is falling1 the only reefs which can be formed are fringing reefs4 ,while if1 on the contrary1 the level of the sea is rising relatively to that of the land1 at a rate not faster than that at which the upward growth of the coral can keep pace with it1 the reef will gradually pass from the condition of a fringing1 into that of an encircling or barrier reef4 ,and1 finally1 that if the relative level of the sea rise so much that the encircled land is completely submerged1 the reef must necessarily pass into the condition of an atoll4 ,for1 suppose the relative level of the sea to remain stationary1 after a fringing reef has reached that distance from the land at which the depth of water amounts to #aej feet4 ,then the reef cannot extend seaward by the migration of coral germs1 because these coral germs would find the bottom of the sea to be too deep for them to live in4 ,and the only manner in which the reef could extend outwards1 would be by the gradual accumulation1 at the foot of its seaward face1 of a talus of coral fragments torn off by the violence of the waves1 which talus might1 in course of time1 become high enough to bring its upper surface within the limits of coral growth1 and in that manner provide a sort of factitious sea-bottom upon which the coral embryos might perch4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the level of the sea were slowly and gradually lowered1 it is clear that the parts of its bottom originally beyond the limit of coral growth1 would gradually be brought within the required distance of the surface1 and thus the reef might be indefinitely extended4 ,but this process would give rise neither to an encircling reef nor to an atoll1 but to a broad belt of upheaved coral rock1 increasing the dimensions of the dry land1 and continuous seawards with the fresh fringing reef4 ,suppose1 however1 that the sea-level rose instead of falling1 at the same slow and gradual rate at which we know it to be rising in some parts of the world--not more1 in fact1 than a few inches1 or1 at most1 a foot or two1 in a hundred years4 ,then1 while the reef would be unable to extend itself seaward1 the sea-bottom outside it being gradually more and more removed from the depth at which the life of the coral polypes is possible1 it would be able to grow upwards as fast as the sea rose4 ,but the growth would take place almost exclusively around the circumference of the reef1 this being the only region in which the coral polypes would find the conditions favourable for their existence4 ,the bottom of the lagoon would be raised1 in the main1 only by the coral dbris and coral mud1 formed in the manner already described2 consequently1 the margins of the reef would rise faster than the bottom1 or1 in other words1 the lagoon would constantly become deeper4 ,and1 at the same time1 it would gradually increase in breadth2 as the rising sea1 covering more and more of the land1 would occupy a wider space between the edge of the reef and what remained of the land4 ,thus the rising sea would eventually convert a large island with a fringing reef1 into a small island surrounded by an encircling reef4 ,and it will be obvious that when the rising of the sea has gone so far as completely to cover the highest points of the island1 the reef will have passed into the condition of an atoll4 ,but how is it possible that the relative level of the land and sea should be altered to this extent8 ,clearly1 only in one of two ways3 either the sea must have risen over those areas which are now covered by atolls and encircling reefs2 or1 the land upon which the sea rests must have been depressed to a corresponding extent4 ,if the sea has risen1 its rise must have taken place over the whole world simultaneously1 and it must have risen to the same height over all parts of the coral zone4 ,grounds have been shown for the belief that the general level of the sea may have been different at different times2 it has been suggested1 for example1 that the accumulation of ice about the poles during one of the cold periods of the earth's history1 necessarily implies a diminution in the volume of the sea proportioned to the amount of its water thus permanently locked up in the ,arctic and ,antarctic ice-cellars2 while1 in the warm periods1 the greater or less disappearance of the polar ice-cap implies a corresponding addition of water to the ocean4 ,and no doubt this reasoning must be admitted to be sound in principle2 though it is very hard to say what practical effect the additions and subtractions thus made have had on the level of the ocean2 inasmuch as such additions and subtractions might be either intensified or nullified1 by contemporaneous changes in the level of the land4 ,and no one has yet shown that any such great melting of polar ice1 and consequent raising of the level of the water of the ocean1 has taken place since the existing atolls began to be formed4 ,in the absence of any evidence that the sea has ever risen to the extent required to give rise to the encircling reefs and the atolls1 ,mr4 ,darwin adopted the opposite hypothesis1 viz4 that the land has undergone extensive and slow depression in those localities in which these structures exist4 ,it seems1 at first1 a startling paradox1 to suppose that the land is less fixed than the sea2 but that such is the case is the uniform testimony of geology4 ,beds of sandstone or limestone1 thousands of feet thick1 and all full of marine remains1 occur in various parts of the earth's surface1 and prove1 beyond a doubt1 that when these beds were formed1 that portion of the sea-bottom which they then occupied underwent a slow and gradual depression to a distance which cannot have been less than the thickness of those beds1 and may have been very much greater4 ,in supposing1 therefore1 that the great areas of the ,pacific and of the ,indian ,ocean1 over which atolls and encircling reefs are found scattered1 have undergone a depression of some hundreds1 or1 it may be1 thousands of feet1 ,mr4 ,darwin made a supposition which had nothing forced or improbable1 but was entirely in accordance with what we know to have taken place over similarly extensive areas1 in other periods of the world's history4 ,but ,mr4 ,darwin subjected his hypothesis to an ingenious indirect test4 ,if his view be correct1 it is clear that neither atolls1 nor encircling reefs1 should be found in those portions of the ocean in which we have reason to believe1 on independent grounds1 that the sea-bottom has long been either stationary1 or slowly rising4 ,now it is known that1 as a general rule1 the level of the land is either stationary1 or is undergoing a slow upheaval1 in the neighbourhood of active volcanoes2 and1 therefore1 neither atolls nor encircling reefs ought to be found in regions in which volcanoes are numerous and active4 ,and this turns out to be the case4 ,appended to ,mr4 ,darwin's great work on coral reefs1 there is a map on which atolls and encircling reefs are indicated by one colour1 fringing reefs by another1 and active volcanoes by a third4 ,and it is at once obvious that the lines of active volcanoes lie around the margins of the areas occupied by the atolls and the encircling reefs4 ,it is exactly as if the upheaving volcanic agencies had lifted up the edges of these great areas1 while their centres had undergone a corresponding depression4 ,an atoll area may1 in short1 be pictured as a kind of basin1 the margins of which have been pushed up by the subterranean forces1 to which the craters of the volcanoes have1 at intervals1 given vent4 ,thus we must imagine the area of the ,pacific now covered by the ,polynesian ,archipelago1 as having been1 at some former time1 occupied by large islands1 or1 may be1 by a great continent1 with the ordinarily diversified surface of plain1 and hill1 and mountain chain4 ,the shores of this great land were doubtless fringed by coral reefs2 and1 as it slowly underwent depression1 the hilly regions1 converted into islands1 became1 at first1 surrounded by fringing reefs1 and then1 as depression went on1 these became converted into encircling reefs1 and these1 finally1 into atolls1 until a maze of reefs and coral-girdled islets took the place of the original land masses4 ,thus the atolls and the encircling reefs furnish us with clear1 though indirect1 evidence of changes in the physical geography of large parts of the earth's surface2 and even1 as my lamented friend1 the late ,professor ,jukes1 has suggested1 give us indications of the manner in which some of the most puzzling facts connected with the distribution of animals have been brought about4 ,for example1 ,australia and ,new ,guinea are separated by ,torres ,straits1 a broad belt of sea #ajj or #abj miles wide4 ,nevertheless1 there is in many respects a curious resemblance between the land animals which inhabit ,new ,guinea and the land animals which inhabit ,australia4 ,but1 at the same time1 the marine shell-fish which are found in the shallow waters of the shores of ,new ,guinea1 are quite different from those which are met with upon the coasts of ,australia4 ,now1 the eastern end of ,torres ,straits is full of atolls1 which1 in fact1 form the northern termination of the ,great ,barrier ,reef which skirts the eastern coast of ,australia4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that the eastern end of ,torres ,straits is an area of depression1 and it is very possible1 and on many grounds highly probable1 that1 in former times1 ,australia and ,new ,guinea were directly connected together1 and that ,torres ,straits did not exist4 ,if this were the case1 the existence of cassowaries and of marsupial quadrupeds1 both in ,new ,guinea and in ,australia1 becomes intelligible2 while the difference between the littoral molluscs of the north and the south shores of ,torres ,straits is readily explained by the great probability that1 when the depression in question took place1 and what was1 at first1 an arm of the sea became converted into a strait separating ,australia from ,new ,guinea1 the northern shore of this new sea became tenanted with marine animals from the north1 while the southern shore was peopled by immigrants from the already existing marine ,australian fauna4 ,inasmuch as the growth of the reef depends upon that of successive generations of coral polypes1 and as each generation takes a certain time to grow to its full size1 and can only separate its calcareous skeleton from the water in which it lives at a certain rate1 it is clear that the reefs are records not only of changes in physical geography1 but of the lapse of time4 ,it is by no means easy1 however1 to estimate the exact value of reef-chronology1 and the attempts which have been made to determine the rate at which a reef grows vertically1 have yielded anything but precise results4 ,a cautious writer1 ,mr4 ,dana1 whose extensive study of corals and coral reefs makes him an eminently competent judge1 states his conclusion in the following terms3-- ,the rate of growth of the common branching madrepore is not over one and a half inches a year4 ,as the branches are open1 this would not be equivalent to more than half an inch in height of solid coral for the whole surface covered by the madrepore2 and1 as they are also porous1 to not over three-eighths of an inch of solid limestone4 ,but a coral plantation has large bare patches without corals1 and the coral sands are widely distributed by currents1 part of them to depths over one hundred feet where there are no living corals2 not more than one-sixth of the surface of a reef region is1 in fact1 covered with growing species4 ,this reduces the three-eighths to one-sixteenth4 ,shells and other organic relics may contribute one-fourth as much as corals4 ,at the outside1 the average upward increase of the whole reef-ground per year would not exceed one-eighth of an inch4 ,now some reefs are at least two thousand feet thick1 which at one-eighth of an inch a year1 corresponds to one hundred and ninety-two thousand years4#a ,footnote #a3 ,dana1 ,manual of ,geology1 p4 #eia4 ,halve1 or quarter1 this estimate if you will1 in order to be certain of erring upon the right side1 and still there remains a prodigious period during which the ancestors of the existing coral polypes have been undisturbedly at work2 and during which1 therefore1 the climatal conditions over the coral area must have been much what they are now4 ,and all this lapse of time has occurred within the most recent period of the history of the earth4 ,the remains of reefs formed by coral polypes of different kinds from those which exist now1 enter largely into the composition of the limestones of the ,jurassic period2 and still more widely different coral polypes have contributed their quota to the vast thickness of the carboniferous and ,devonian strata4 ,then as regards the latter group of rocks in ,america1 the high authority already quoted tells us3-- ,the ,upper ,helderberg period is eminently the coral reef period of the palaeozoic ages4 ,many of the rocks abound in coral1 and are as truly coral reefs as the modern reefs of the ,pacific4 ,the corals are sometimes standing on the rocks in the position they had when growing3 others are lying in fragments1 as they were broken and heaped by the waves2 and others were reduced to a compact limestone by the finer trituration before consolidation into rock4 ,this compact variety is the most common kind among the coral reef rocks of the present seas2 and it often contains but few distinct fossils1 although formed in water that abounded in life4 ,at the fall of the ,ohio1 near ,louisville1 there is a magnificent display of the old reef4 ,hemispherical ,favosites1 five or six feet in diameter1 lie there nearly as perfect as when they were covered by their flower-like polypes2 and besides these1 there are various branching corals1 and a profusion of ,cyathophiyllia1 or cup-corals4#a ,footnote #a3 ,dana1 ,manual of ,geology1 p4 #bgb4 ,thus1 in all the great periods of the earth's history of which we know anything1 a part of the then living matter has had the form of polypes1 competent to separate from the water of the sea the carbonate of lime necessary for their own skeletons4 ,grain by grain1 and particle by particle1 they have built up vast masses of rock1 the thickness of which is measured by hundreds of feet1 and their area by thousands of square miles4 ,the slow oscillations of the crust of the earth1 producing great changes in the distribution of land and water1 have often obliged the living matter of the coral-builders to shift the locality of its operations2 and1 by variation and adaptation to these modifications of condition1 its forms have as often changed4 ,the work it has done in the past is1 for the most part1 swept away1 but fragments remain2 and1 if there were no other evidence1 suffice to prove the general constancy of the operations of ,nature in this world1 through periods of almost inconceivable duration4 ,,vii4 ,,on ,,the ,,methods ,,and ,,results ,,of ,,ethnology4 ,ethonology is the science which determines the distinctive characters of the persistent modifications of mankind2 which ascertains the distribution of those modifications in present and past times1 and seeks to discover the causes1 or conditions of existence1 both of the modifications and of their distribution4 ,i say persistent modifications1 because1 unless incidentally1 ethnology has nothing to do with chance and transitory peculiarities of human structure4 ,and ,i speak of persistent modifications or stocks rather than of varieties1 or races1 or species1 because each of these last well-known terms implies1 on the part of its employer1 a preconceived opinion touching one of those problems1 the solution of which is the ultimate object of the science2 and in regard to which1 therefore1 ethnologists are especially bound to keep their minds open and their judgments freely balanced4 ,ethnology1 as thus defined1 is a branch of anthropology1 the great science which unravels the complexities of human structure2 traces out the relations of man to other animals2 studies all that is especially human in the mode in which man's complex functions are performed2 and searches after the conditions which have determined his presence in the world4 ,and anthropology is a section of zoology1 which again is the animal half of biology--the science of life and living things4 ,such is the position of ethnology1 such are the objects of the ethnologist4 ,the paths or methods1 by following which he may hope to reach his goal1 are diverse4 ,he may work at man from the point of view of the pure zoologist1 and investigate the anatomical and physiological peculiarities of ,negroes1 ,australians1 or ,mongolians1 just as he would inquire into those of pointers1 terriers1 and turnspits1--persistent modifications of man's almost universal companion4 ,or he may seek aid from researches into the most human manifestation of humanity--language2 and assuming that what is true of speech is true of the speaker--a hypothesis as questionable in science as it is in ordinary life--he may apply to mankind themselves the conclusions drawn from a searching analysis of their words and grammatical forms4 ,or1 the ethnologist may turn to the study of the practical life of men2 and relying upon the inherent conservatism and small inventiveness of untutored mankind1 he may hope to discover in manners and customs1 or in weapons1 dwellings1 and other handiwork1 a clue to the origin of the resemblances and differences of nations4 ,or1 he may resort to that kind of evidence which is yielded by history proper1 and consists of the beliefs of men concerning past events1 embodied in traditional1 or in written1 testimony4 ,or1 when that thread breaks1 archaeology1 which is the interpretation of the unrecorded remains of man's works1 belonging to the epoch since the world has reached its present condition1 may still guide him4 ,and1 when even the dim light of archaeology fades1 there yet remains paleontology1 which1 in these latter years1 has brought to daylight once more the exuvia of ancient populations1 whose world was not our world1 who have been buried in river beds immemorially dry1 or carried by the rush of waters into caves1 inaccessible to inundation since the dawn of tradition4 ,along each1 or all1 of these paths the ethnologist may press towards his goal2 but they are not equally straight1 or sure1 or easy to tread4 ,the way of palaeontology has but just been laid open to us4 ,archaeological and historical investigations are of great value for all those peoples whose ancient state has differed widely from their present condition1 and who have the good or evil fortune to possess a history4 ,but on taking a broad survey of the world1 it is astonishing how few nations present either condition4 ,respecting five-sixths of the persistent modifications of mankind1 history and archaeology are absolutely silent4 ,for half the rest1 they might as well be silent for anything that is to be made of their testimony4 ,and1 finally1 when the question arises as to what was the condition of mankind more than a paltry two or three thousand years ago1 history and archaeology are1 for the most part1 mere dumb dogs4 ,what light does either of these branches of knowledge throw on the past of the man of the ,new ,world1 if we except the ,central ,americans and the ,peruvians2 on that of the ,africans1 save those of the valley of the ,nile and a fringe of the ,mediterranean2 on that of all the ,polynesian1 ,australian1 and central ,asiatic peoples1 the former of whom probably1 and the last certainly1 were1 at the dawn of history1 substantially what they are now8 ,while thankfully accepting what history has to give him1 therefore1 the ethnologist must not look for too much from her4 ,is more to be expected from inquiries into the customs and handicrafts of men8 ,it is to be feared not4 ,in reasoning from identity of custom to identity of stock the difficulty always obtrudes itself1 that the minds of men being everywhere similar1 differing in quality and quantity but not in kind of faculty1 like circumstances must tend to produce like contrivances2 at any rate1 so long as the need to be met and conquered is of a very simple kind4 ,that two nations use calabashes or shells for drinking-vessels1 or that they employ spears1 or clubs1 or swords and axes of stone and metal as weapons and implements1 cannot be regarded as evidence that these two nations had a common origin1 or even that intercommunication ever took place between them2 seeing that the convenience of using calabashes or shells for such purposes1 and the advantage of poking an enemy with a sharp stick1 or hitting him with a heavy one1 must be early forced by nature upon the mind of even the stupidest savage4 ,and when he had found out the use of a stick1 he would need no prompting to discover the value of a chipped or wetted stone1 or an angular piece of native metal1 for the same object4 ,on the other hand1 it may be doubted whether the chances are not greatly against independent peoples arriving at the manufacture of a boomerang1 or of a bow2 which last1 if one comes to think of it1 is a rather complicated apparatus2 and the tracing of the distribution of inventions as complex as these1 and of such strange customs as betel-chewing and tobacco-smoking1 may afford valuable ethnological hints4 ,since the time of ,leibnitz1 and guided by such men as ,humboldt1 ,abel ,remusat1 and ,klaproth1 ,philology has taken far higher ground4 ,thus ,prichard affirms that the history of nations1 termed ,ethnology1 must be mainly founded on the relations of their languages4 ,an eminent living philologer1 ,august ,schleicher1 in a recent essay1 puts forward the claims of his science still more forcibly3-- ,if1 however1 language is the human ,greek3 kat ezochhn1 the suggestion arises whether it should not form the basis of any scientific systematic arrangement of mankind2 whether the foundation of the natural classification of the genus ,homo has not been discovered in it4 ,how little constant are cranial peculiarities and other so-called race characters6 ,language1 on the other hand1 is always a perfectly constant diagnostic4 ,a ,german may occasionally compete in hair and prognathism with a negro1 but a negro language will never be his mother tongue4 ,of how little importance for mankind the so-called race characters are1 is shown by the fact that speakers of languages belonging to one and the same linguistic family may exhibit the peculiarities of various races4 ,thus the settled ,osmanli ,turk exhibits ,caucasian characters1 while other so-called ,tartaric ,turks exemplify the ,mongol type4 ,on the other hand1 the ,magyar and the ,basque do not depart in any essential physical peculiarity from the ,indo-,germans1 whilst the ,magyar1 ,basque1 and ,indo-,germanic tongues are widely different4 ,apart from their inconstancy1 again1 the so-called race characters can hardly yield a scientifically natural system4 ,languages1 on the other hand1 readily fall into a natural arrangement1 like that of which other vital products are susceptible1 especially when viewed from their morphological side4444 ,the externally visible structure of the cerebral and facial skeletons1 and of the body generally1 is less important than that no less material but infinitely more delicate corporeal structure1 the function of which is speech4 ,i conceive1 therefore1 that the natural classification of languages is also the natural classification of mankind4 ,with language1 moreover1 all the higher manifestations of man's vital activity are closely interwoven1 so that these receive due recognition in and by that of speech4#a ,footnote #a3 ,august ,schleicher4 ,ueber die ,bedeutung der ,sprache fr die ,naturgeschichte des ,menschen1 pp4 #af-ah4 ,weimar1 #aheh4 ,without the least desire to depreciate the value of philology as an adjuvant to ethnology1 ,i must venture to doubt1 with ,rudolphi1 ,desmoulins1 ,crawfurd1 and others1 its title to the leading position claimed for it by the writers whom ,i have just quoted4 ,on the contrary1 it seems to me obvious that1 though1 in the absence of any evidence to the contrary1 unity of languages may afford a certain presumption in favour of the unity of stock of the peoples speaking those languages1 it cannot be held to prove that unity of stock1 unless philologers are prepared to demonstrate1 that no nation can lose its language and acquire that of a distinct nation1 without a change of blood corresponding with the change of language4 ,desmoulins long ago put this argument exceedingly well3-- ,let us imagine the recurrence of one of those slow1 or sudden1 political revolutions1 or say of those secular changes which among different people and at different epochs have annihilated historical monuments and even extinguished tradition4 ,in that case1 the evidence1 now so clear1 that the negroes of ,hayti were slaves imported by a ,french colony1 who1 by the very effect of the subordination involved in slavery1 lost their own diverse languages and adopted that of their masters1 would vanish4 ,and metaphysical philosophers1 observing the identity of ,haytian ,french with that spoken on the shores of the ,seine and the ,loire1 would argue that the men of ,st4 ,domingo with woolly heads1 black and oily skins1 small calves1 and slightly bent knees1 are of the same race1 descended from the same parental stock1 as the ,frenchmen with silky brown1 chestnut1 or fair hair1 and white skins4 ,for they would say1 their languages are more similar than ,french is to ,german or ,spanish4#a ,footnote #a3 ,desmoulins1 ,histoire ,naturelle des ,races ,humaines1 p4 #cde4 #ahbf4 ,it must not be imagined that the case put by ,desmoulins is a merely hypothetical one4 ,events precisely similar to the transport of a body of ,africans to the ,west ,india ,islands1 indeed1 cannot have happened among uncivilized races1 but similar results have followed the importation of bodies of conquerors among an enslaved people over and over again4 ,there is hardly a country in ,europe in which two or more nations speaking widely different tongues have not become intermixed2 and there is hardly a language of ,europe of which we have any right to think that its structure affords a just indication of the amount of that intermixture4 ,as ,dr4 ,latham has well said3-- ,it is certain that the language of ,england is of ,anglo-,saxon origin1 and that the remains of the original ,keltic are unimportant4 ,it is by no means so certain that the blood of ,englishmen is equally ,germanic4 ,a vast amount of ,kelticism1 not found in our tongue1 very probably exists in our pedigrees4 ,the ethnology of ,france is still more complicated4 ,many writers make the ,parisian a ,roman on the strength of his language2 whilst others make him a ,kelt on the strength of certain moral characteristics1 combined with the previous ,kelticism of the original ,gauls4 ,spanish and ,portuguese1 as languages1 are derivations from the ,latin2 ,spain and ,portugal1 as countries1 are ,iberic1 ,latin1 ,gothic1 and ,arab1 in different proportions4 ,italian is modern ,latin all the world over2 yet surely there must be much ,keltic blood in ,lombardy1 and much ,etruscan intermixture in ,tuscany4 ,in the ninth century every man between the ,elbe and the ,niemen spoke some ,slavonic dialect2 they now nearly all speak ,german4 ,surely the blood is less exclusively ,gothic than the speech4#a ,footnote #a3 ,latham1 ,man and his ,migrations1 p4 #aga4 ,in other words1 what philologer1 if he had nothing but the vocabulary and grammar of the ,french and ,english languages to guide him1 would dream of the real causes of the unlikeness of a ,norman to a ,provenal1 of an ,orcadian to a ,cornishman8 ,how readily might he be led to suppose that the different climatal conditions to which these speakers of one tongue have so long been exposed1 have caused their physical differences2 and how little would he suspect that these are due 7as we happen to know they are7 to wide differences of blood4 ,few take duly into account the evidence which exists as to the ease with which unlettered savages gain or lose a language4 ,captain ,erskine1 in his interesting ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific1 especially remarks upon the avidity with which the inhabitants of the polyglot islands of ,melanesia1 from ,new ,caledonia to the ,solomon ,islands1 adopt the improvements of a more perfect language than their own1 which different causes and accidental communication still continue to bring to them2 and he adds that among the ,melanesian islands scarcely one was found by us which did not possess1 in some cases still imperfectly1 the decimal system of numeration in addition to their own1 in which they reckon only to five4 ,yet how much philological reasoning in favour of the affinity or diversity of two distinct peoples has been based on the mere comparison of numerals6 ,but the most instructive example of the fallacy which may attach to merely philological reasonings1 is that afforded by the ,feejeans1 who are1 physically1 so intimately connected with the adjacent ,negritos of ,new ,caledonia1 c41 that no one can doubt to what stock they belong1 and who yet1 in the form and substance of their language1 are ,polynesian4 ,the case is as remarkable as if the ,canary ,islands should have been found to be inhabited by negroes speaking ,arabic1 or some other clearly ,semitic dialect1 as their mother tongue4 ,as it happens1 the physical peculiarities of the ,feejeans are so striking1 and the conditions under which they live are so similar to those of the ,polynesians1 that no one has ventured to suggest that they are merely modified ,polynesians--a suggestion which could otherwise certainly have been made4 ,but if languages may be thus transferred from one stock to another1 without any corresponding intermixture of blood1 what ethnological value has philology8--what security does unity of language afford us that the speakers of that language may not have sprung from two1 or three1 or a dozen1 distinct sources8 ,thus we come1 at last1 to the purely zoological method1 from which it is not unnatural to expect more than from any other1 seeing that1 after all1 the problems of ethnology are simply those which are presented to the zoologist by every widely distributed animal he studies4 ,the father of modern zoology seems to have had no doubt upon this point4 ,at the twenty-eighth page of the standard twelfth edition of the ,systema ,naturae1 in fact1 we find3-- ,i4 ,,primates4 ,dentes primores incisores3 superiores ,,iv4 paralleli1 mammae pectorales ,,ii4 #a4 ,,homo4 ,nosce te ipsum4 ,sapiens4 #a4 ,h4 diurnus3 varians cultura1 loco4 ,ferus4 ,tetrapus1 mutus1 hirsutus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,americanus ,greek3 a4 ,rufus1 cholericus1 rectus--,pilis nigris1 rectis1 crassis--,naribus patulis--,facie ephelitica3 ,mento subimberbi4 ,pertinax1 contentus1 liber4 ,pingit se lineis daedaleis rubris4 ,regitur ,consuetudine4 ,europaeus ,greek3 b4 ,albus sauguineus torosus4 ,pilis flavescentibus1 prolixis4 ,oculis caeruleis4 ,levis1 argutus1 inventor4 ,tegitur ,vestimentis arctis4 ,regitur ,ritibus4 ,asiaticus ,greek3 g4 ,luridus1 melancholicus1 rigidus4 ,pilis nigricantibus4 ,oculis fuscis4 ,severus1 fastuosus1 avarus4 ,tegitur ,indumentis laxis4 ,regitur ,opinionibus4 ,afer ,greek3 d4 ,niger1 phlegmaticus1 laxus4 ,pilis atris1 contortuplicatis4 ,cute holosericea4 ,naso simo4 ,labiis tumidis4 ,feminis sinus pudoris4 ,mammae lactantes prolixae4 ,vafer1 segnis1 negligens4 ,ungit se pingui4 ,regitur ,arbitrio4 ,monstrosus ,greek3 e4 ,solo 7a7 et arte 7b c7 variat43 a4 ,alpini parvi1 agiles1 timidi4 ,patagonici magni1 segnes4 b4 ,monorchides ut minus fertiles3 ,hottentotti4 ,junceae puellae1 abdomine attenuato3 ,europoeae4 c4 ,macrocephali capiti conico3 ,chinenses4 ,plagiocephali capite antice compresso3 ,canadenses4 ,turn a few pages further on in the same volume1 and there appears1 with a fine impartiality in the distribution of capitals and sub-divisional headings3-- ,,iii4 ,,ferae4 ,dentes primores superiores sex1 acutiusculi4 ,canini solitarii4 99 99 99 99 99 #ab4 ,,canis4 ,dentes primores superiores ,,vi43 laterales longiores distantes3 intermedii lobati4 ,inferiores ,,vi43 laterales lobati4 ,laniarii solitarii1 incurvati4 ,molares ,,vi4 s4 ,,vii4 7pluresve quam in reliquis74 familiaris ,greek3 i4 ,c4 cauda 7sinistrorsum7 recurvata4444 domesticus ,greek3 a4 auriculis erectis1 cauda subtus lanata4 sagax ,greek3 b4 auriculis pendulis1 digito spurio ad tibias posticas4 grajus ,greek3 g4 magnitudine lupi1 trunco curvato1 rostro attenuato1 c4 c4 ,linnaeus' definition of what he considers to be mere varieties of the species ,man are1 it will be observed1 as completely free from any allusion to linguistic peculiarities as those brief and pregnant sentences in which he sketches the characters of the varieties of the species ,dog4 ,pilis nigris1 naribus patulis may be set against auriculis erectis1 cauda subtus lanata2 while the remarks on the morals and manners of the human subject seem as if they were thrown in merely by way of makeweight4 ,buffon1 ,blumenbach 7the founder of ethnology as a special science71 ,rudolphi1 ,bory de ,st4 ,vincent1 ,desmoulins1 ,cuvier1 ,retzius1 indeed ,i may say all the naturalists proper1 have dealt with man from a no less completely zoological point of view2 while1 as might have been expected1 those who have been least naturalists1 and most linguists1 have most neglected the zoological method1 the neglect culminating in those who have been altogether devoid of acquaintance with anatomy4 ,prichard's proposition1 that language is more persistent than physical characters1 is one which has never been proved1 and indeed admits of no proof1 seeing that the records of language do not extend so far as those of physical characters4 ,but1 until the superior tenacity of linguistic over physical peculiarities is shown1 and until the abundant evidence which exists1 that the language of a people may change without corresponding physical change in that people1 is shown to be valueless1 it is plain that the zoological court of appeal is the highest for the ethnologist1 and that no evidence can be set against that derived from physical characters4 ,what1 then1 will a new survey of mankind from the ,linnaean point of view teach us8 ,the great antipodal block of land we call ,australia has1 speaking roughly1 the form of a vast quadrangle1 #b1jjj miles on the side1 and extends from the hottest tropical1 to the middle of the temperate1 zone4 ,setting aside the foreign colonists introduced within the last century1 it is inhabited by people no less remarkable for the uniformity1 than for the singularity1 of their physical characters and social state4 ,for the most part of fair stature1 erect and well built1 except for an unusual slenderness of the lower limbs1 the ,,australians have dark1 usually chocolate-coloured skins2 fine dark wavy hair2 dark eyes1 overhung by beetle brows2 coarse1 projecting jaws2 broad and dilated1 but not especially flattened1 noses2 and lips which1 though prominent1 are eminently flexible4 ,the skulls of these people are always long and narrow1 with a smaller development of the frontal sinuses than usually corresponds with such largely developed brow ridges4 ,an ,australian skull of a round form1 or one the transverse diameter of which exceeds eight-tenths of its length1 has never been seen4 ,these people1 in a word1 are eminently dolichocephalic1 or long-headed2 but1 with this one limitation1 their crania present considerable variations1 some being comparatively high and arched1 while others are more remarkably depressed than almost any other human skulls4 ,the female pelvis differs comparatively little from the ,european2 but in the pelves of male ,australians which ,i have examined1 the antero-posterior and transverse diameters approach equality more nearly than is the case in ,europeans4 ,no ,australian tribe has ever been known to cultivate the ground1 to use metals1 pottery1 or any kind of textile fabric4 ,they rarely construct huts4 ,their means of navigation are limited to rafts or canoes1 made of sheets of bark4 ,clothing1 except skin cloaks for protection from cold1 is a superfluity with which they dispense2 and though they have some singular weapons1 almost peculiar to themselves1 they are wholly unacquainted with bows and arrows4 ,it is but a step1 as it were1 across ,bass's ,straits to ,tasmania4 ,neither climate nor the characteristic forms of vegetable or animal life change largely on the south side of the ,straits1 but the early voyagers found ,man singularly different from him on the north side4 ,the skin of the ,tasmanian was dark1 though he lived between parallels of latitude corresponding with those of middle ,europe in our own hemisphere2 his jaws projected1 his head was long and narrow2 his civilization was about on a footing with that of the ,australian1 if not lower1 for ,i cannot discover that the ,tasmanian understood the use of the throwing-stick4 ,but he differed from the ,australian in his woolly1 negro-like hair1 whence the name of ,,negrito1 which has been applied to him and his congeners4 ,such ,negritos--differing more or less from the ,tasmanian1 but agreeing with him in dark skin and woolly hair--occupy ,new ,caledonia1 the ,new ,hebrides1 the ,louisiade ,archipelago2 and stretching to the ,papuan ,islands1 and for a doubtful extent beyond them to the north and west1 form a sort of belt1 or zone1 of ,negrito population1 interposed between the ,australians on the west and the inhabitants of the great majority of the ,pacific islands on the east4 ,the cranial characters of the ,negritos vary considerably more than those of their skin and hair1 the most notable circumstance being the strong ,australian aspect which distinguishes many ,negrito skulls1 while others tend rather towards forms common in the ,polynesian islands4 ,in civilization1 ,new ,caledonia exhibits an advance upon ,tasmania1 and1 farther north1 there is a still greater improvement4 ,but the bows and arrows1 the perched houses1 the outrigger canoes1 the habits of betel-chewing and of kawa-drinking1 which abound more or less among the northern ,negritos1 are probably to be regarded not as the products of an indigenous civilization1 but merely as indications of the extent to which foreign influences have modified the primitive social state of these people4 ,from ,tasmania or ,new ,caledonia1 to ,new ,zealand or ,tongataboo1 is again but a brief voyage2 but it brings about a still more notable change in the aspect of the indigenous population than that effected by the passage of ,bass's ,straits4 ,instead of being chocolate-coloured people1 the ,maories and ,tongans are light brown2 instead of woolly1 they have straight1 or wavy1 black hair4 ,and if from ,new ,zealand1 we travel some #e1jjj miles east to ,easter ,island2 and from ,easter ,island1 for as great a distance north-west1 to the ,sandwich ,islands2 and thence #g1jjj miles1 westward and southward1 to ,sumatra2 and even across the ,indian ,ocean1 into the interior of ,madagascar1 we shall everywhere meet with people whose hair is straight or wavy1 and whose skins exhibit various shades of brown4 ,these are the ,polynesians1 ,micronesians1 ,indonesians1 whom ,latham has grouped together under the common title of ,,amphinesians4 ,the cranial characters of these people1 as of the ,negritos1 are less constant than those of their skin and hair4 ,the ,maori has a long skull2 the ,sandwich ,islander a broad skull4 ,some1 like these1 have strong brow ridges2 others1 like the ,dayaks and many ,polynesians1 have hardly any nasal indentation4 ,it is only in the westernmost parts of their area that the ,amphinesian nations know anything about bows and arrows as weapons1 or are acquainted with the use of metals or with pottery4 ,everywhere they cultivate the ground1 construct houses1 and skilfully build and manage outrigger1 or double1 canoes2 while1 almost everywhere1 they use some kind of fabric for clothing4 ,between ,easter ,island1 or the ,sandwich ,islands1 and any part of the ,american coast is a much wider interval than that between ,tasmania and ,new ,zealand1 but the ethnological interval between the ,american and the ,polynesian is less than that between either of the previously named stocks4 ,the typical ,,american has straight black hair and dark eyes1 his skin exhibiting various shades of reddish or yellowish brown1 sometimes inclining to olive4 ,the face is broad and scantily bearded2 the skull wide and high4 ,such people extend from ,patagonia to ,mexico1 and much farther north along the west coast4 ,in the main a race of hunters1 they had nevertheless1 at the time of the discovery of the ,americas1 attained a remarkable degree of civilization in some localities4 ,they had domesticated ruminants1 and not only practised agriculture1 but had learned the value of irrigation4 ,they manufactured textile fabrics1 were masters of the potter's art1 and knew how to erect massive buildings of stone4 ,they understood the working of the precious1 though not of the useful1 metals2 and had even attained to a rude kind of hieroglyphic1 or picture1 writing4 ,the ,americans not only employ the bow and arrow1 but1 like some ,amphinesians1 the blow-pipe1 as offensive weapons3 but ,i am not aware that the outrigger canoe has ever been observed among them4 ,i have reason to suspect that some of the ,fuegian tribes differ cranially from the typical ,americans2 and the ,northern and ,eastern ,american tribes have longer skulls than their ,southern compatriots4 ,but the ,,esquimaux1 who roam on the desolate and ice-bound coasts of ,arctic ,america1 certainly present us with a new stock4 ,the ,esquimaux 7among whom the ,greenlanders are included71 in fact1 though they share the straight black hair of the proper ,americans1 are a duller complexioned1 shorter1 and more squat people1 and they have still more prominent cheek-bones4 ,but the circumstance which most completely separates them from the typical ,americans1 is the form of their skulls1 which instead of being broad1 high1 and truncated behind1 are eminently long1 usually low1 and prolonged backwards4 ,these ,hyperborean people clothe themselves in skins1 know nothing of pottery1 and hardly anything of metals4 ,dependent for existence upon the produce of the chase1 the seal and the whale are to them what the cocoa-nut tree and the plantain are to the savages of more genial climates4 ,not only are those animals meat and raiment1 but they are canoes1 sledges1 weapons1 tools1 windows1 and fire2 while they support the dog1 who is the indispensable ally and beast of burden of the ,esquimaux4 ,it is admitted that the ,tchuktchi1 on the eastern side of ,behring's ,straits1 are1 in all essential respects1 ,esquimaux2 and ,i do not know that there is any satisfactory evidence to show that the ,tunguses and ,samoiedes do not essentially share the physical characters of the same people4 ,southward1 there are indications of ,esquimaux characters among the ,japanese1 and it is possible that their influence may be traced yet further4 ,however this may be1 ,eastern ,asia1 from ,mantchouria to ,siam1 ,thibet1 and ,northern ,hindostan1 is continuously inhabited by men1 usually of short stature1 with skins varying in colour from yellow to olive2 with broad cheek-bones and faces that1 owing to the insignificance of the nose1 are exceedingly flat2 and with small1 obliquely-set1 black eyes and straight black hair1 which sometimes attains a very great length upon the scalp1 but is always scanty upon the face and body4 ,the skull is never much elongated1 and is1 generally1 remarkably broad and rounded1 with hardly any nasal depression1 and but slight1 if any1 projection of the jaws4 ,many of these people1 for whom the old name of ,,mongolians may be retained1 are nomades2 others1 as the ,chinese1 have attained a remarkable and apparently indigenous civilization1 only surpassed by that of ,europe4 ,at the north-western extremity of ,europe the ,lapps repeat the characters of the ,eastern ,asiatics4 ,between these extreme points1 the ,mongolian stock is not continuous1 but is represented by a chain of more or less isolated tribes1 who pass under the name of ,calmucks and ,tartars1 and form ,mongolian islands1 as it were1 in the midst of an ocean of other people4 ,the waves of this ocean are the nations for whom1 in order to avoid the endless confusion produced by our present half-physical1 half-philological classification1 ,i shall use a new name--,,xanthochroi--indicating that they are yellow haired and pale in complexion4 ,the ,chinese historians of the ,han dynasty1 writing in the third century before our era1 describe1 with much minuteness1 certain numerous and powerful barbarians with yellow hair1 green eyes1 and prominent noses1 who1 the black-haired1 skew-eyed1 and flat-nosed annalists remark in passing1 are just like the apes from whom they are descended4 ,these people held1 in force1 the upper waters of the ,yenisei1 and thence under various names stretched southward to ,thibet and ,kashgar4 ,fair-haired and blue-eyed northern enemies were no less known to the ancient ,hindoos1 to the ,persians1 and to the ,egyptians1 on the south of the great central ,asiatic area2 while the testimony of all ,european antiquity is to the effect that1 before and since the period in question1 there lay beyond the ,danube1 the ,rhine1 and the ,seine1 a vast and dangerous yellow or red haired1 fair-skinned1 blue-eyed population4 ,whether the disturbers of the marches of the ,roman ,empire were called ,gauls or ,germans1 ,goths1 ,alans1 or ,scythians1 one thing seems certain1 that until the invasion of the ,huns1 they were tall1 fair1 blue-eyed men4 ,if any one should think fit to assume that in the year #ajj ,b4,c41 there was one continuous ,xanthochroic population from the ,rhine to the ,yenisei1 and from the ,ural mountains to the ,hindoo ,koosh1 ,i know not that any evidence exists by which that position could be upset1 while the existing state of things is rather in its favour than otherwise4 ,for the ,scandinavians1 wholly1 the ,germans to a great extent1 the ,slavonian and the ,finnish tribes1 some of the inhabitants of ,greece1 many ,turks1 some ,kirghis1 and some ,mantchous1 the ,ossetes in the ,caucasus1 the ,siahposh1 the ,rohillas1 are at the present day fair1 yellow or red haired1 and blue-eyed2 and the interpolation of tribes of ,mongolian hair and complexion1 as far west as the ,caspian ,steppes and the ,crimea1 might justly be accounted for by those subsequent westward irruptions of the ,mongolian stock1 of which history furnishes abundant testimony4 ,the furthermost limit of the ,xanthochroi north-westward is ,iceland and the ,british ,isles2 south-westward1 they are traceable at intervals through the ,berber country1 and end in the ,canary ,islands4 ,the cranial characters of the ,xanthochroi are not1 at present1 strictly definable4 ,the ,scandinavians are certainly long-headed2 but many ,germans1 the ,swiss so far as they are ,germanized1 the ,slavonians1 the ,fins1 and the ,turks1 are short-headed4 ,what were the cranial characters of the ancient ,u-suns and ,ting-lings of the valley of the ,yenisei is unknown4 ,west of the area occupied by the chief mass of the ,xanthochroi1 and north of the ,sahara1 is a broad belt of land1 shaped like a ,y4 ,between the forks of the ,y lies the ,mediterranean2 the stem of it is ,arabia4 ,the stem is bathed by the ,indian ,ocean1 the western ends of the forks by the ,atlantic4 ,the people inhabiting the area thus roughly sketched have1 like the ,xanthochroi1 prominent noses1 pale skins and wavy hair1 with abundant beards2 but1 unlike them1 the hair is black or dark1 and the eyes usually so4 ,they may thence be called the ,,melanochroi4 ,such people are found in the ,british ,islands1 in ,western and ,southern ,gaul1 in ,spain1 in ,italy south of the ,po1 in parts of ,greece1 in ,syria and ,arabia1 stretching as far northward and eastward as the ,caucasus and ,persia4 ,they are the chief inhabitants of ,africa north of the ,sahara1 and1 like the ,xanthochroi1 they end in the ,canary ,islands4 ,they are known as ,kelts1 ,iberians1 ,etruscans1 ,romans1 ,pelasgians1 ,berbers1 ,semites4 ,the majority of them are long-headed1 and of smaller stature than the ,xanthochroi4 ,it is needless to remark upon the civilization of these two great stocks4 ,with them has originated everything that is highest in science1 in art1 in law1 in politics1 and in mechanical inventions4 ,in their hands1 at the present moment1 lies the order of the social world1 and to them its progress is committed4 ,south of the ,atlas1 and of the ,great ,desert1 ,middle ,africa exhibits a new type of humanity in the ,,negro1 with his dark skin1 woolly hair1 projecting jaws1 and thick lips4 ,as a rule1 the skull of the ,negro is remarkably long2 it rarely approaches the broad type1 and never exhibits the roundness of the ,mongolian4 ,a cultivator of the ground1 and dwelling in villages2 a maker of pottery1 and a worker in the useful as well as the ornamental metals2 employing the bow and arrow as well as the spear1 the typical negro stands high in point of civilization above the ,australian4 ,resembling the ,negroes in cranial characters1 the ,,bushmen of ,south ,africa differ from them in their yellowish brown skins1 their tufted hair1 their remarkably small stature1 and their tendency to fatty and other integumentary outgrowths2 nor is the wonderful click with which their speech is interspersed to be overlooked in enumerating the physical characteristics of this strange people4 ,the so-called ,drawidian populations of ,southern ,hindostan lead us back1 physically as well as geographically1 towards the ,australians2 while the diminutive ,,mincopies of the ,andaman ,islands lie midway between the ,negro and ,negrito races1 and1 as ,mr4 ,busk has pointed out1 occasionally present the rare combination of ,brachycephaly1 or short-headedness1 with woolly hair4 ,in the preceding progress along the outskirts of the habitable world1 eleven readily distinguishable stocks1 or persistent modifications1 of mankind1 have been recognized4 ,i have purposely omitted such people as the ,abyssinians and the ,hindoos1 who there is every reason to believe result from the intermixture of distinct stocks4 ,perhaps ,i ought1 for like reasons1 to have ignored the ,mincopies4 ,but ,i do not pretend that my enumeration is complete or1 in any sense1 perfect4 ,it is enough for my purpose if it be admitted 7and ,i think it cannot be denied7 that those which ,i have mentioned exist1 are well marked1 and occupy the greater part of the habitable globe4 ,in attempting to classify these persistent modifications after the manner of naturalists1 the first circumstance that attracts one's attention is the broad contrast between the people with straight and wavy hair1 and those with crisp1 woolly1 or tufted hair4 ,bory de ,st4 ,vincent1 noting this fundamental distinction1 divided mankind accordingly into the two primary groups of ,leiotrichi and ,ulotrichi1--terms which are open to criticism1 but which ,i adopt in the accompanying table1 because they have been used4 ,it is better for science to accept a faulty name which has the merit of existence1 than to burthen it with a faultless newly invented one4 ,under each of these divisions are two columns1 one for the ,brachycephali1 or short heads1 and one for the ,dolichocephali#a1 or long heads4 ,again1 each column is subdivided transversely into four compartments1 one for the leucous1 people with fair complexions and yellow or red hair2 one for the leucomelanous1 with dark hair and pale skins2 one for the xanthomelanous1 with black hair and yellow1 brown1 or olive skins2 and one for the melanous1 with black hair and dark brown or blackish skins4 ,footnote #a3 ,skulls1 the transverse diameter of which is more than eight-tenths the long diameter1 are short2 those which have the transverse diameter less than eight-tenths the longitudinal1 are long4 ,,leiotrichi4 ,,ulotrichi4 _/ _/ ,dolichocephali4 ,brachycephali4 ,dolichocephali4 ,brachycephali4 ,leucous4 4444 ,xanthochroi 4444 ,leucomelanous4 4444 ,melanochroi 4444 ,xanthomelanous4 ,esquimaux4 ,mongolians4 ,bushmen4 ,amphinesians4 ,americans4 ,melanous4 ,australians4 ,negroes4 ,mincopies787 ,negritos ,,note3 ,the names of the stocks known only since the fifteenth century are put into italics4 ,if the ,skrlings of the ,norse discoverers of ,america were ,esquimaux1 ,europeans became acquainted with the latter six or seven centuries earlier4 ,it is curious to observe that almost all the woolly-headed people are also long-headed2 while among the straight-haired nations broad heads preponderate1 and only two stocks1 the ,esquimaux and the ,australians1 are exclusively long-headed4 ,one of the acutest and most original of ethnologists1 ,desmoulins1 originated the idea1 which has subsequently been fully developed by ,agassiz1 that the distribution of the persistent modifications of man is governed by the same laws as that of other animals1 and that both fall into the same great distributional provinces4 ,thus1 ,australia2 ,america1 south of ,mexico2 the ,arctic regions2 ,europe1 ,syria1 ,arabia1 and ,north ,africa1 taken together1 are each regions eminently characterized by the nature of their animal and vegetable populations1 and each1 as we have seen1 has its peculiar and characteristic form of man4 ,but it may be doubted whether the parallel thus drawn will hold good strictly1 and in all cases4 ,the ,tasmanian ,fauna and ,flora are essentially ,australian1 and the like is true to a less extent of many1 if not of all1 the ,papuan islands2 but the ,negritos who inhabit these islands are strikingly different from the ,australians4 ,again1 the differences between the ,mongolians and the ,xanthochroi are out of all proportion greater than those between the ,faunae and ,florae of ,central and ,eastern ,asia4 ,but whatever the difficulties in the way of the detailed application of this comparison of the distribution of men with that of animals1 it is well worthy of being borne in mind1 and carried as far as it will go4 ,apart from all speculation1 a very curious fact regarding the distribution of the persistent modifications of mankind becomes apparent on inspecting an ,ethnological chart1 projected in such a manner that the ,pacific ,ocean occupies its centre4 ,such a chart exhibits an ,australian area occupied by dark smooth-haired people1 separated by an incomplete inner zone of dark woolly-haired ,negritos and ,negroes1 from an outer zone of comparatively pale and smooth-haired men1 occupying the ,americas1 and nearly all ,asia and ,north ,africa4 ,such is a brief sketch of the characters and distribution of the persistent modifications1 or stocks1 of mankind at the present day4 ,if we seek for direct evidence of how long this state of things has lasted1 we shall find little enough1 and that little far from satisfactory4 ,of the eleven different stocks enumerated1 seven have been known to us for less than #djj years2 and of these seven not one possessed a fragment of written history at the time it came into contact with ,european civilization4 ,the other four--the ,negroes1 ,mongolians1 ,xanthochroi1 and ,melanochroi--have always existed in some of the localities in which they are now found1 nor do the negroes ever seem to have voluntarily travelled beyond the limits of their present area4 ,but ancient history is in a great measure the record of the mutual encroachments of the other three stocks4 ,on the whole1 however1 it is wonderful how little change has been effected by these mutual invasions and intermixtures4 ,as at the present time1 so at the dawn of history1 the ,melanochroi fringed the ,atlantic and the ,mediterranean2 the ,xanthochroi occupied most of ,central and ,eastern ,europe1 and much of ,western and ,central ,asia2 while ,mongolians held the extreme east of the ,old ,world4 ,so far as history teaches us1 the populations of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa were1 twenty centuries ago1 just what they are now1 in their broad features and general distribution4 ,the evidence yielded by ,archaeology is not very definite1 but1 so far as it goes1 it is to much the same effect4 ,the mound builders of ,central ,america seem to have had the characteristic short and broad head of the modern inhabitants of that continent4 ,the tumuli and tombs of ,ancient ,scandinavia1 of pre-,roman ,britain1 of ,gaul1 of ,switzerland1 reveal two types of skull--a broad and a long--of which1 in ,scandinavia1 the broad seems to have belonged to the older stock1 while the reverse was probably the case in ,britain1 and certainly in ,switzerland4 ,it has been assumed that the broad-skulled people of ancient ,scandinavia were ,lapps2 but there is no proof of the fact1 and they may have been1 like the broad-skulled ,swiss and ,germans1 ,xanthochroi4 ,one of the greatest of ethnological difficulties is to know where the modern ,swedes1 ,norsemen1 and ,saxons got their long heads1 as all their neighbours1 ,fins1 ,lapps1 ,slavonians1 and ,south ,germans1 are broad-headed4 ,again1 who were the small-handed1 long-headed people of the bronze epoch1 and what has become of the infusion of their blood among the ,xanthochroi8 ,at present ,palaeontology yields no safe data to the ethnologist4 ,we know absolutely nothing of the ethnological characters of the men of ,abbeville and ,hoxne2 but must be content with the demonstration1 in itself of immense value1 that ,man existed in ,western ,europe when its physical condition was widely different from what it is now1 and when animals existed1 which1 though they belong to what is1 properly speaking1 the present order of things1 have long been extinct4 ,beyond the limits of a fraction of ,europe1 ,palaeontology tells us nothing of man or of his works4 ,to sum up our knowledge of the ethnological past of man3 so far as the light is bright1 it shows him substantially as he is now2 and1 when it grows dim1 it permits us to see no sign that he was other than he is now4 ,it is a general belief that men of different stocks differ as much physiologically as they do morphologically2 but it is very hard to prove1 in any particular case1 how much of a supposed national characteristic is due to inherent physiological peculiarities1 and how much to the influence of circumstances4 ,there is much evidence to show1 however1 that some stocks enjoy a partial or complete immunity from diseases which destroy1 or decimate1 others4 ,thus there seems good ground for the belief that ,negroes are remarkably exempt from yellow fever2 and that1 among ,europeans1 the melanochrous people are less obnoxious to its ravages than the xanthochrous4 ,but many writers1 not content with physiological differences of this kind1 undertake to prove the existence of others of far greater moment2 and1 indeed1 to show that certain stocks of mankind exhibit1 more or less distinctly1 the physiological characters of true species4 ,unions between these stocks1 and still more between the half-breeds arising from their mixture1 are affirmed to be either infertile1 or less fertile than those which take place between males and females of either stock under the same circumstances4 ,some go so far as to assert that no mixed breeds of mankind can maintain themselves without the assistance of one or other of the parent stocks1 and that1 consequently1 they must inevitably be obliterated in the long run4 ,here1 again1 it is exceedingly difficult to obtain trustworthy evidence1 and to free the effects of the pure physiological experiment from adventitious influences4 ,the only trial which1 by a strange chance1 was kept clear of all such influences--the only instance in which two distinct stocks of mankind were crossed1 and their progeny intermarried without any admixture from without--is the famous case of the ,pitcairn ,islanders1 who were the progeny of ,bligh's ,english sailors by ,tahitian women4 ,the results of this experiment1 as everybody knows1 are dead against those who maintain the doctrine of human hybridity1 seeing that the ,pitcairn ,islanders1 even though they necessarily contracted consanguineous marriages1 throve and multiplied exceedingly4 ,but those who are disposed to believe in this doctrine should study the evidence brought forward in its support by ,m4 ,broca1 its latest and ablest advocate1 and compare this evidence with that which the botanists1 as represented by a ,gaertner1 or by a ,darwin1 think it indispensable to obtain before they will admit the infertility of crosses between two allied kinds of plants4 ,they will then1 ,i think1 be satisfied that the doctrine in question rests upon a very unsafe foundation2 that the facts adduced in its support are capable of many other interpretations2 and1 indeed1 that from the very nature of the case1 demonstrative evidence one way or the other is almost unattainable4 ,a priori1 ,i should be disposed to expect a certain amount of infertility between some of the extreme modifications of mankind2 and still more between the offsprings of their intermixture4 ,a posteriori1 ,i cannot discover any satisfactory proof that such infertility exists4 ,from the facts of ethnology ,i now turn to the theories and speculations of ethnologists1 which have been devised to explain these facts1 and to furnish satisfactory answers to the inquiry--what conditions have determined the existence of the persistent modifications of mankind1 and have caused their distribution to be what it is8 ,these speculations may be grouped under three heads3 firstly1 the ,monogenist hypotheses2 secondly1 those of the ,polygenists2 and thirdly1 that which would result from a simple application of ,darwinian principles to mankind4 ,according to the ,monogenists1 all mankind have sprung from a single pair1 whose multitudinous progeny spread themselves over the world1 such as it now is1 and became modified into the forms we meet with in the various regions of the earth1 by the effect of the climatal and other conditions to which they were subjected4 ,the advocates of this hypothesis are divisible into several schools4 ,there are those who represent the most numerous1 respectable1 and would-be orthodox of the public1 and are what may be called ,adamites1 pure and simple4 ,they believe that ,adam was made out of earth somewhere in ,asia1 about six thousand years ago2 that ,eve was modelled from one of his ribs2 and that the progeny of these two having been reduced to the eight persons who were landed on the summit of ,mount ,ararat after an universal deluge1 all the nations of the earth have proceeded from these last1 have migrated to their present localities1 and have become converted into ,negroes1 ,australians1 ,mongolians1 c41 within that time4 ,five-sixths of the public are taught this ,adamitic ,monogenism1 as if it were an established truth1 and believe it4 ,i do not2 and ,i am not acquainted with any man of science1 or duly instructed person1 who does4 ,a second school of monogenists1 not worthy of much attention1 attempts to hold a place midway between the ,adamites and a third division1 who take up a purely scientific position1 and require to be dealt with accordingly4 ,this third division1 in fact1 numbers in its ranks ,linnaeus1 ,buffon1 ,blumenbach1 ,cuvier1 ,prichard1 and many distinguished living ethnologists4 ,these ,rational ,monogenists1 or1 at any rate1 the more modern among them1 hold1 firstly1 that the present condition of the earth has existed for untold ages2 secondly1 that1 at a remote period1 beyond the ken of ,archbishop ,usher1 man was created1 somewhere between the ,caucasus and the ,hindoo ,koosh2 thirdly1 that he might have migrated thence to all parts of the inhabited world1 seeing that none of them are unattainable from some other inhabited part1 by men provided with only such means of transport as savages are known to possess and must have invented2 fourthly1 that the operation of the existing diversities of climate and other conditions upon people so migrating1 is sufficient to account for all the diversities of mankind4 ,of the truth of the first of these propositions no competent judge now entertains any doubt4 ,the second is more open to discussion1 for in these latter days many question the special creation of man3 and even if his special creation be granted1 there is not a shadow of a reason why he should have been created in ,asia rather than anywhere else4 ,of all the odd myths that have arisen in the scientific world1 the ,caucasian mystery1 invented quite innocently by ,blumenbach1 is the oddest4 ,a ,georgian woman's skull was the handsomest in his collection4 ,hence it became his model exemplar of human skulls1 from which all others might be regarded as deviations2 and out of this1 by some strange intellectual hocus-pocus1 grew up the notion that the ,caucasian man is the prototypic ,adamic man1 and his country the primitive centre of our kind4 ,perhaps the most curious thing of all is1 that the said ,georgian skull1 after all1 is not a skull of average form1 but distinctly belongs to the brachycephalic group4 ,with the third proposition ,i am quite disposed to agree1 though it must be recollected that it is one thing to allow that a given migration is possible1 and another to admit there is good reason to believe it has really taken place4 ,but ,i can find no sufficient ground for accepting the fourth proposition2 and ,i doubt if it would ever have obtained its general currency except for the circumstance that fair ,europeans are very readily tanned and embrowned by the sun4 ,but ,i am not aware that there is a particle of proof that the cutaneous change thus effected can become hereditary1 any more than that the enlarged livers1 which plague our countrymen in ,india1 can be transmitted2--while there is very strong evidence to the contrary4 ,not only1 in fact1 are there such cases as those of the ,english families in ,barbadoes1 who have remained for six generations unaltered in complexion1 but which are open to the objection that they may have received infusions of fresh ,european blood2 but there is the broad fact1 that not a single indigenous ,negro exists either in the great alluvial plains of tropical ,south ,america1 or in the exposed islands of the ,polynesian ,archipelago1 or among the populations of equatorial ,borneo or ,sumatra4 ,no satisfactory explanation of these obvious difficulties has been offered by the advocates of the direct influence of conditions4 ,and as for the more important modifications observed in the structure of the brain1 and in the form of the skull1 no one has ever pretended to show in what way they can be effected directly by climate4 ,it is here1 in fact1 that the strength of the ,polygenists1 or those who maintain that men primitively arose1 not from one1 but from many stocks1 lies4 ,show us1 they say to the ,monogenists1 a single case in which the characters of a human stock have been essentially modified without its being demonstrable1 or1 at least1 highly probable1 that there has been intermixture of blood with some foreign stock4 ,bring forward any instance in which a part of the world1 formerly inhabited by one stock1 is now the dwelling-place of another1 and we will prove the change to be the result of migration1 or of intermixture1 and not of modification of character by climatic influences4 ,finally1 prove to us that the evidence in favour of the specific distinctness of many animals1 admitted to be distinct species by all zoologists1 is a whit better than that upon which we maintain the specific distinctness of men4 ,if presenting unanswerable objections to your adversary were the same thing as proving your own case1 the ,polygenists would be in a fair way towards victory2 but1 unfortunately1 as ,i have already observed1 they have as yet completely failed to adduce satisfactory positive proof of the specific diversity of mankind4 ,like the ,monogenists1 the ,polygenists are of several sects2 some imagine that their assumed species of mankind were created where we find them--the ,african in ,africa1 and the ,australian in ,australia1 along with the other animals of their distributional province2 others conceive that each species of man has resulted from the modification of some antecedent species of ape--the ,american from the broad-nosed ,simians of the ,new ,world1 the ,african from the ,troglodytic stock1 the ,mongolian from the ,orangs4 ,the first hypothesis is hardly likely to win much favour4 ,the whole tendency of modern science is to thrust the origination of things further and further into the background2 and the chief philosophical objection to ,adam being1 not his oneness1 but the hypothesis of his special creation2 the multiplication of that objection tenfold is1 whatever it may look1 an increase1 instead of a diminution1 of the difficulties of the case4 ,and1 as to the second alternative1 it may safely be affirmed that1 even if the differences between men are specific1 they are so small1 that the assumption of more than one primitive stock for all is altogether superfluous4 ,surely no one can now be found to assert that any two stocks of mankind differ as much as a chimpanzee and an orang do2 still less that they are as unlike as either of these is to any ,new ,world ,simian6 ,lastly1 the granting of the ,polygenist premises does not1 in the slightest degree1 necessitate the ,polygenist conclusion4 ,admit that ,negroes and ,australians1 ,negritos and ,mongols are distinct species1 or distinct genera1 if you will1 and you may yet1 with perfect consistency1 be the strictest of ,monogenists1 and even believe in ,adam and ,eve as the primaeval parents of all mankind4 ,it is to ,mr4 ,darwin we owe this discovery3 it is he who1 coming forward in the guise of an eclectic philosopher1 presents his doctrine as the key to ethnology1 and as reconciling and combining all that is good in the ,monogenistic and ,polygenistic schools4 ,it is true that ,mr4 ,darwin has not1 in so many words1 applied his views to ethnology2 but even he who runs and reads the ,origin of ,species can hardly fail to do so2 and1 furthermore1 ,mr4 ,wallace and ,m4 ,pouchet have recently treated of ethnological questions from this point of view4 ,let me1 in conclusion1 add my own contribution to the same store4 ,i assume ,man to have arisen in the manner which ,i have discussed elsewhere1 and probably1 though by no means necessarily1 in one locality4 ,whether he arose singly1 or a number of examples appeared contemporaneously1 is also an open question for the believer in the production of species by the gradual modification of pre-existing ones4 ,at what epoch of the world's history this took place1 again1 we have no evidence whatever4 ,it may have been in the older tertiary1 or earlier1 but what is most important to remember is1 that the discoveries of late years have proved that man inhabited ,western ,europe1 at any rate1 before the occurrence of those great physical changes which have given ,europe its present aspect4 ,and as the same evidence shows that man was the contemporary of animals which are now extinct1 it is not too much to assume that his existence dates back at least as far as that of our present ,fauna and ,flora1 or before the epoch of the drift4 ,but if this be true1 it is somewhat startling to reflect upon the prodigious changes which have taken place in the physical geography of this planet since man has been an occupant of it4 ,during that period the greater part of the ,british islands1 of ,central ,europe1 of ,northern ,asia1 have been submerged beneath the sea and raised up again4 ,so has the great desert of ,sahara1 which occupies the major part of ,northern ,africa4 ,the ,caspian and the ,aral seas have been one1 and their united waters have probably communicated with both the ,arctic and the ,mediterranean oceans4 ,the greater part of ,north ,america has been under water1 and has emerged4 ,it is highly probable that a large part of the ,malayan ,archipelago has sunk1 and its primitive continuity with ,asia has been destroyed4 ,over the great ,polynesian area subsidence has taken place to the extent of many thousands of feet--subsidence of so vast a character1 in fact1 that if a continent like ,asia had once occupied the area of the ,pacific1 the peaks of its mountains would now show not more numerous than the islands of the ,polynesian ,archipelago4 ,what lands may have been thickly populated for untold ages1 and subsequently have disappeared and left no sign above the waters1 it is of course impossible for us to say2 but unless we are to make the wholly unjustifiable assumption that no dry land rose elsewhere when our present dry land sank1 there must be half-a-dozen ,atlantises beneath the waves of the various oceans of the world4 ,but if the regions which have undergone these slow and gradual1 but immense alterations1 were wholly or in part inhabited before the changes ,i have indicated began--and it is more probable that they were1 than that they were not--what a wonderfully efficient ,emigration ,board must have been at work all over the world long before canoes1 or even rafts1 were invented2 and before men were impelled to wander by any desire nobler or stronger than hunger4 ,and as these rude and primitive families were thrust1 in the course of long series of generations1 from land to land1 impelled by encroachments of sea or of marsh1 or by severity of summer heat or winter cold1 to change their positions1 what opportunities must have been offered for the play of natural selection1 in preserving one family variation and destroying another6 ,suppose1 for example1 that some families of a horde which had reached a land charged with the seeds of yellow fever1 varied in the direction of woolliness of hair and darkness of skin4 ,then1 if it be true that these physical characters are accompanied by comparative or absolute exemptions from that scourge1 the inevitable tendency would be to the preservation and multiplication of the darker and woollier families1 and the elimination of the whiter and smoother-haired4 ,in fact1 by the operation of causes precisely similar to those which1 in the famous instance cited by ,mr4 ,darwin1 have given rise to a race of black pigs in the forests of ,louisiana1 a negro stock would eventually people the region4 ,again1 how often1 by such physical changes1 must a stock have been isolated from all others for innumerable generations1 and have found ample time for the hereditary hardening of its special peculiarities into the enduring characters of a persistent modification4 ,nor1 if it be true that the physiological difference of species may be produced by variation and natural selection1 as ,mr4 ,darwin supposes1 would it be at all astonishing if1 in some of these separated stocks1 the process of differentiation should have gone so far as to give rise to the phenomena of hybridity4 ,in the face of the overwhelming evidence in favour of the unity of the origin of mankind afforded by anatomical considerations1 satisfactory proof of the existence of any degree of sterility in the unions of members of two of the persistent modifications of mankind1 might well be appealed to by ,mr4 ,darwin as crucial evidence of the truth of his views regarding the origin of species in general4 ,,viii4 ,,on ,,some ,,fixed ,,points ,,in ,,british ,,ethnology4 ,in view of the many discussions to which the complicated problems offered by the ethnology of the ,british ,islands have given rise1 it may be useful to attempt to pick out1 from amidst the confused masses of assertion and of inference1 those propositions which appear to rest upon a secure foundation1 and to state the evidence by which they are supported4 ,such is the purpose of the present paper4 ,some of these well-based propositions relate to the physical characters of the people of ,britain and their neighbours2 while others concern the languages which they spoke4 ,i shall deal1 in the first place1 with the physical questions4 ,i4 ,eighteen hundred years ago the population of ,britain comprised people of two types of complexion--the one fair1 and the other dark4 ,the dark people resembled the ,aquitani and the ,iberians2 the fair people were like the ,belgic ,gauls4 ,the chief direct evidence of the truth of this proposition is the well-known passage of ,tacitus3-- ,ceterum ,britanniam qui mortales initio coluerint1 indigenae an advecti1 ut inter barbaros1 parum compertum4 ,habitus corporum varii3 atque ex eo argumenta3 nam rutilae ,caledoniam habitantium comae1 magni artus ,germanicam originem asseverant4 ,silurum colorati vultus et torti plerumque crines1 et posita contra ,hispaniam1 ,iberos veteres trajecisse1 easque sedes occupasse1 fidem faciunt4 ,proximi ,gallis et similes sunt2 seu durante originis vi1 seu procurrentibus in diversa terris1 positio coeli corporibus habitum dedit4 ,in universum tamen aestimanti1 ,gallos vicinum solum occupasse1 credibile est2 eorum sacra deprehendas1 superstitionum persuasione2 sermo haud multum diversus4#a ,footnote #a3 ,taciti ,agricola1 c4 #aa4 ,this passage1 it will be observed1 contains statements as to facts1 and certain conclusions deduced from these facts4 ,the matters of fact asserted are3 firstly1 that the inhabitants of ,britain exhibit much diversity in their physical characters2 secondly1 that the ,caledonians are red-haired and large-limbed1 like the ,germans2 thirdly1 that the ,silures have curly hair and dark complexions1 like the people of ,spain2 fourthly1 that the ,british people nearest ,gaul resemble the ,galli4 ,tacitus1 therefore1 states positively what the ,caledonians and ,silures were like2 but the interpretation of what he says about the other ,britons must depend upon what we learn from other sources as to the characters of these ,galli4 ,here the testimony of divus ,julius comes in with great force and appropriateness4 ,caesar writes3-- ,britanniae pars interior ab iis incolitur1 quos natos in insula ipsi memoria proditum dicunt3 marituma pars ab iis1 qui predae ac belli inferendi causa ex ,belgio transierant2 qui omnes fere iis nominibus civitatum appellantur quibus orti ex civitatibus eo pervenerunt1 et bello inlato ibi permanserunt atque agros colere coeperunt4#a ,footnote #a3 ,de ,bello ,gallico1 v4 #ab4 ,from these passages it is obvious that in the opinion of ,caesar and ,tacitus1 the southern ,britons resembled the northern ,gauls1 and especially the ,belgae2 and the evidence of ,strabo is decisive as to the characters in which the two people resembled one another3 ,the men 7of ,britain7 are taller than the ,kelts1 with hair less yellow2 they are slighter in their persons4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the ,geography of ,strabo4 ,translated by ,hamilton and ,falconer2 v4 #e4 ,the evidence adduced appears to leave no reasonable ground for doubting that1 at the time of the ,roman conquest1 ,britain contained people of two types1 the one dark and the other fair complexioned1 and that there was a certain difference between the latter in the north and in the south of ,britain3 the northern folk being1 in the judgment of ,tacitus1 or1 more properly1 according to the information he had received from ,agricola and others1 more similar to the ,germans than the latter4 ,as to the distribution of these stocks1 all that is clear is1 that the dark people were predominant in certain parts of the west of the southern half of ,britain1 while the fair stock appears to have furnished the chief elements of the population elsewhere4 ,no ancient writer troubled himself with measuring skulls1 and therefore there is no direct evidence as to the cranial characters of the fair and the dark stocks4 ,the indirect evidence is not very satisfactory4 ,the tumuli of ,britain of pre-,roman date have yielded two extremely different forms of skull1 the one broad and the other long2 and the same variety has been observed in the skulls of the ancient ,gauls#a4 ,the suggestion is obvious that the one form of skull may have been associated with the fair1 and the other with the dark1 complexion4 ,but any conclusion of this kind is at once checked by the reflection that the extremes of long and short-headedness are to be met with among the fair inhabitants of ,germany and of ,scandinavia at the present day--the south-western ,germans and the ,swiss being markedly broad-headed1 while the ,scandinavians are as predominantly long-headed4 ,footnote #a3 ,see ,dr4 ,thurnam ,on the ,two principal ,forms of ,ancient ,british and ,gaulish ,skulls4 ,what the natives of ,ireland were like at the time of the ,roman conquest of ,britain1 and for centuries afterwards1 we have no certain knowledge2 but the earliest trustworthy records prove the existence1 side by side with one another1 of a fair and a dark stock1 in ,ireland as in ,britain4 ,the long form of skull is predominant among the ancient1 as among modern1 ,irish4 ,,ii4 ,the people termed ,gauls1 and those called ,germans1 by the ,romans1 did not differ in any important physical character4 ,the terms in which the ancient writers describe both ,gauls and ,germans are identical4 ,they are always tall people1 with massive limbs1 fair skins1 fierce blue eyes1 and hair the colour of which ranges from red to yellow4 ,zeuss1 the great authority on these matters1 affirms broadly that no distinction in bodily feature is to be found between the ,gauls1 the ,germans1 and the ,wends1 so far as their characters are recorded by the old historians2 and he proves his case by citations from a cloud of witnesses4 ,an attempt has been made to show that the colour of the hair of the ,gauls must have differed very much from that which obtained among the ,germans1 on the strength of the story told by ,suetonius 7,caligula1 #d71 that ,caligula tried to pass off ,gauls for ,germans by picking out the tallest1 and making them rutilare et summittere comam4 ,the ,baron de ,belloguet remarks upon this passage3-- ,it was in the very north of ,gaul1 and near the sea1 that ,caligula got up this military comedy4 ,and the fact proves that the ,belgae were already sensibly different from their ancestors1 whom ,strabo had found almost identical with their brothers on the other side of the ,rhine4 ,but the fact recorded by ,suetonius1 if fact it be1 proves nothing2 for the ,germans themselves were in the habit of reddening their hair4 ,ammianus ,marcellinus#a tells how1 in the year #cfg ,a4,d41 the ,roman commander1 ,jovinus1 surprised a body of ,alemanni near the town now called ,charpeigne1 in the valley of the ,moselle2 and how the ,roman soldiers1 as1 concealed by the thick wood1 they stole upon their unsuspecting enemies1 saw that some were bathing and others comas rutilantes ex more4 ,more than two centuries earlier ,pliny gives indirect evidence to the same effect when he says of soap3-- ,footnote #a3 ,res ,gestae1 xxvii4 ,galliarum hoc inventum rutilandis capillis 444 apud ,germanos majore in usu viris quam foeminis4#a ,footnote #a3 ,historia ,naturalis1 xxviii4 #ea4 ,here we have a writer who flourished only a short time after the date of the ,caligula story1 telling us that the ,gauls invented soap for the purpose of doing that which1 according to ,suetonius1 ,caligula forced them to do4 ,and1 further1 the combined and independent testimony of ,pliny and ,ammianus assures us that the ,germans were as much in the habit of reddening their hair as the ,gauls4 ,as to ,de ,belloguet's supposition that1 even in ,caligula's time1 the ,gauls had become darker than their ancestors were1 it is directly contradicted by ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 who knew the ,gauls well4 ,celsioris staturae et candidi poene ,galli sunt onions1 et rutili1 luminumque torvitate terribiles1 is his description2 and it would fit the ,gauls who sacked ,rome4 ,,iii4 ,in none of the invasions of ,britain which have taken place since the ,roman dominion1 has any other type of man been introduced than one or other of the two which existed during that dominion4 ,the ,north ,germans1 who effected what is commonly called the ,saxon conquest of ,britain1 were1 most assuredly1 a fair1 yellow1 or red-haired1 blue eyed1 long-skulled people4 ,so were the ,danes and the ,norsemen who followed them2 though it is very possible that the active slave trade which went on1 and the intercourse with ,ireland1 may have introduced a certain admixture of the dark stock into both ,denmark and ,norway4 ,the ,norman conquest brought in new ethnological elements1 the precise value of which cannot be estimated with exactness2 but as to their quality1 there can be no question1 inasmuch as even the wide area from which ,william drew his followers could yield him nothing but the fair and the dark types of men1 already present in ,britain4 ,but whether the ,norman settlers1 on the whole1 strengthened the fair or the dark element1 is a problem1 the elements of the solution of which are not attainable4 ,i am unable to discover any grounds for believing that a ,lapp element has ever entered into the population of these islands4 ,so far as the physical evidence goes1 it is perfectly consistent with the hypothesis that the only constituent stocks of that population1 now1 or at any other period about which we have evidence1 are the dark whites1 whom ,i have proposed to call ,melanochroi and the fair whites1 or ,xanthochroi4 ,,iv4 ,the ,xanthochroi and the ,melanochroi of ,britain are1 speaking broadly1 distributed1 at present1 as they were in the time of ,tacitus2 and their representatives on the continent of ,europe have the same general distribution as at the earliest period of which we have any record4 ,at the present day1 and notwithstanding the extensive intermixture effected by the movements consequent on civilization and on political changes1 there is a predominance of dark men in the west1 and of fair men in the east and north1 of ,britain4 ,at the present day1 as from the earliest times1 the predominant constituents of the riverain population of the ,north ,sea and the eastern half of the ,british ,channel1 are fair men4 ,the fair stock continues in force through ,central ,europe1 until it is lost in ,central ,asia4 ,offshoots of this stock extend into ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,northern ,india1 and by way of ,syria and ,north ,africa1 to the ,canary ,islands4 ,they were known in very early times to the ,chinese1 and in still earlier to the ancient ,egyptians1 as frontier tribes4 ,the ,thracians were notorious for their fair hair and blue eyes many centuries before our era4 ,on the other hand1 the dark stock predominates in ,southern and ,western ,france1 in ,spain1 along the ,ligurian shore1 and in ,western and ,southern ,italy2 in ,greece1 ,asia1 ,syria1 and ,north ,africa2 in ,arabia1 ,persia1 ,afghanistan1 and ,hindostan1 shading gradually1 through all stages of darkening1 into the type of the modern ,egyptian1 or of the wild ,hill-man of the ,dekkan4 ,nor is there any record of the existence of a different population in all these countries4 ,the extreme north of ,europe1 and the northern part of ,western ,asia1 are at present occupied by a ,mongoloid stock1 and1 in the absence of evidence to the contrary1 may be assumed to have been so peopled from a very remote epoch4 ,but1 as ,i have said1 ,i can find no evidence that this stock ever took part in peopling ,britain4 ,of the three great stocks of mankind which extend from the western coast of the great ,eurasiatic continent to its southern and eastern shores1 the ,mongoloids occupy a vast triangle1 the base of which is the whole of ,eastern ,asia1 while its apex lies in ,lapland4 ,the ,melanochroi1 on the other hand1 may be represented as a broad band stretching from ,ireland to ,hindostan2 while the ,xanthochroic area lies between the two1 thins out1 so to speak1 at either end1 and mingles1 at its margins1 with both its neighbours4 ,such is a brief and summary statement of what ,i believe to be the chief facts relating to the physical ethnology of the people of ,britain4 ,the conclusions which ,i draw from these and other facts are 7#a7 ,that the ,melanochroi and the ,xanthochroi are two separate races in the biological sense of the word race2 7#b7 ,that they have had the same general distribution as at present from the earliest times of which any record exists on the continent of ,europe2 7#c7 ,that the population of the ,british ,islands is derived from them1 and from them only4 ,the people of ,europe1 however1 owe their national names1 not to their physical characteristics1 but to their languages1 or to their political relations2 which1 it is plain1 need not have the slightest relation to these characteristics4 ,thus1 it is quite certain that1 in ,caesar's time1 ,gaul was divided politically into three nationalities--the ,belgae1 the ,celtae1 and the ,aquitani2 and that the last were very widely different1 both in language and in physical characteristics1 from the two former4 ,the ,belgae and the ,celtae1 on the other hand1 differed comparatively little either in physique or in language4 ,on the former point there is the distinct testimony of ,strabo2 as to the latter1 ,st4 ,jerome states that the ,galatians had almost the same language as the ,treviri4 ,now1 the ,galatians were emigrant ,volcae ,tectosages1 and therefore ,celtae2 while the ,treviri were ,belgae4 ,at the present day1 the physical characters of the people of ,belgic ,gaul remain distinct from those of the people of ,aquitaine1 notwithstanding the immense changes which have taken place since ,caesar's time2 but ,belgae1 ,celtae1 and ,aquitani 7all but a mere fraction of the last two1 represented by the ,basques and the ,britons7 are fused into one nationality1 le peuple ,franais4 ,but they have adopted the language of one set of invaders1 and the name of another2 their original names and languages having almost disappeared4 ,suppose that the ,french language remained as the sole evidence of the existence of the population of ,gaul1 would the keenest philologer arrive at any other conclusion than that this population was essentially and fundamentally a ,latin race1 which had had some communication with ,celts and ,teutons8 ,would he so much as suspect the former existence of the ,aquitani8 ,community of language testifies to close contact between the people who speak the language1 but to nothing else2 philology has absolutely nothing to do with ethnology1 except so far as it suggests the existence or the absence of such contact4 ,the contrary assumption1 that language is a test of race1 has introduced the utmost confusion into ethnological speculation1 and has nowhere worked greater scientific and practical mischief than in the ethnology of the ,british ,islands4 ,what is known1 for certain1 about the languages spoken in these islands and their affinities may1 ,i believe1 be summed up as follows3-- ,i4 ,at the time of the ,roman conquest1 one language1 the ,celtic1 under two principal dialectical divisions1 the ,cymric and the ,gaelic1 was spoken throughout the ,british ,islands4 ,cymric was spoken in ,britain1 ,gaelic in ,ireland4 ,if a language allied to ,basque had in earlier times been spoken in the ,british ,islands1 there is no evidence that any ,euskarian-speaking people remained at the time of the ,roman conquest4 ,the dark and the fair population of ,britain alike spoke ,celtic tongues1 and therefore the name ,celt is as applicable to the one as to the other4 ,what was spoken in ,ireland can only be surmised by reasoning from the knowledge of later times2 but there seems to be no doubt that it was ,gaelic2 and that the ,gaelic dialect was introduced into the ,western ,highlands by ,irish invaders4 ,,ii4 ,the ,belgae and the ,celtae1 with the offshoots of the latter in ,asia ,minor1 spoke dialects of the ,cymric division of ,celtic4 ,the evidence of this proposition lies in the statement of ,st4 ,jerome before cited2 in the similarity of the names of places in ,belgic ,gaul and in ,britain2 and in the direct comparison of sundry ancient ,gaulish and ,belgic words which have been preserved1 with the existing ,cymric dialects1 for which ,i must refer to the learned work of ,brandes4 ,formerly1 as at the present day1 the ,cymric dialects of ,celtic were spoken by both the fair and the dark stocks4 ,,iii4 ,there is no record of ,gaelic being spoken anywhere save in ,ireland1 ,scotland1 and the ,isle of ,man4 ,this appears to be the final result of the long discussions which have taken place on this much-debated question4 ,as is the case with the ,cymric dialects1 ,gaelic is now spoken by both dark and fair stocks4 ,,iv4 ,when the ,teutonic languages first became known1 they were spoken only ,xanthochroi1 that is to say1 by the ,germans1 the ,scandinavians1 and ,goths4 ,and they were imported by ,xanthochroi into ,gaul and into ,britain4 ,in ,gaul the imported ,teutonic dialect has been completely overpowered by the more or less modified ,latin1 which it found already in possession2 and what ,teutonic blood there may be in modern ,frenchmen is not adequately represented in their language4 ,in ,britain1 on the contrary1 the ,teutonic dialects have overpowered the pre-existing forms of speech1 and the people are vastly less ,teutonic than their language4 ,whatever may have been the extent to which the ,celtic-speaking population of the eastern half of ,britain was trodden out and supplanted by the ,teutonic-speaking ,saxons and ,danes1 it is quite certain that no considerable displacement of the ,celtic-speaking people occurred in ,cornwall1 ,wales1 or the ,highlands of ,scotland2 and that nothing approaching to the extinction of that people took place in ,devonshire1 ,somerset1 or the western moiety of ,britain generally4 ,nevertheless1 the fundamentally ,teutonic ,english language is now spoken throughout ,britain1 except by an insignificant fraction of the population in ,wales and the ,western ,highlands4 ,but it is obvious that this fact affords not the slightest justification for the common practice of speaking of the present inhabitants of ,britain as an ,anglo-,saxon people4 ,it is1 in fact1 just as absurd as the habit of talking of the ,french people as a ,latin race1 because they speak a language which is1 in the main1 derived from ,latin4 ,and the absurdity becomes the more patent when those who have no hesitation in calling a ,devonshire man1 or a ,cornish man1 an ,anglo-,saxon1 would think it ridiculous to call a ,tipperary man by the same title1 though he and his forefathers may have spoken ,english for as long a time as the ,cornish man4 ,ireland1 at the earliest period of which we have any knowledge1 contained like ,britain1 a dark and a fair stock1 which1 there is every reason to believe1 were identical with the dark and the fair stocks of ,britain4 ,when the ,irish first became known they spoke a ,gaelic dialect1 and though1 for many centuries1 ,scandinavians made continual incursions upon1 and settlements among them1 the ,teutonic languages made no more way among the ,irish than they did among the ,french4 ,how much ,scandinavian blood was introduced there is no evidence to show4 ,but after the conquest of ,ireland by ,henry ,,ii41 the ,english people1 consisting in part of the descendants of ,cymric speakers1 and in part of the descendants of ,teutonic speakers1 made good their footing in the eastern half of the island1 as the ,saxons and ,danes made good theirs in ,england2 and did their best to complete the parallel by attempting the extirpation of the ,gaelic-speaking ,irish4 ,and they succeeded to a considerable extent2 a large part of ,eastern ,ireland is now peopled by men who are substantially ,english by descent1 and the ,english language has spread over the land far beyond the limits of ,english blood4 ,ethnologically1 the ,irish people were originally1 like the people of ,britain1 a mixture of ,melanochroi and ,xanthochroi4 ,they resembled the ,britons in speaking a ,celtic tongue2 but it was a ,gaelic and not a ,cymric form of the ,celtic language4 ,ireland was untouched by the ,roman conquest1 nor do the ,saxons seem to have had any influence upon her destinies1 but the ,danes and ,norsemen poured in a contingent of ,teutonism1 which has been largely supplemented by ,english and ,scotch efforts4 ,what1 then1 is the value of the ethnological difference between the ,englishman of the western half of ,england and the ,irishman of the eastern half of ,ireland8 ,for what reason does the one deserve the name of a ,celt1 and not the other8 ,and further1 if we turn to the inhabitants of the western half of ,ireland1 why should the term ,celts be applied to them more than to the inhabitants of ,cornwall8 ,and if the name is applicable to the one as justly as to the other1 why should not intelligence1 perseverance1 thrift1 industry1 sobriety1 respect for law1 be admitted to be ,celtic virtues8 ,and why should we not seek for the cause of their absence in something else than the idle pretext of ,celtic blood8 ,i have been unable to meet with any answers to these questions4 ,v4 ,the ,celtic and the ,teutonic dialects are members of the same great ,aryan family of languages2 but there is evidence to show that a non-,aryan language was at one time spoken over a large extent of the area occupied by ,melanochroi in ,europe4 ,the non-,aryan language here referred to is the ,euskarian1 now spoken only by the ,basques1 but which seems in earlier times to have been the language of the ,aquitanians and ,spaniards1 and may possibly have extended much further to the ,east4 ,whether it has any connection with the ,ligurian and ,oscan dialects are questions upon which1 of course1 ,i do not presume to offer any opinion4 ,but it is important to remark that it is a language the area of which has gradually diminished without any corresponding extirpation of the people who primitively spoke it2 so that the people of ,spain and of ,aquitaine at the present day must be largely ,euskarian by descent in just the same sense as the ,cornish men are ,celtic by descent4 ,such seem to me to be the main facts respecting the ethnology of the ,british islands and of ,western ,europe1 which may be said to be fairly established4 ,the hypothesis by which ,i think 7with ,de ,belloguet and ,thurnam7 the facts may best be explained is this3 ,in very remote times ,western ,europe and the ,british islands were inhabited by the dark stock1 or the ,melanochroi1 alone1 and these ,melanochroi spoke dialects allied to the ,euskarian4 ,the ,xanthochroi1 spreading over the great ,eurasiatic plains westward1 and speaking ,aryan dialects1 gradually invaded the territories of the ,melanochroi4 ,the ,xanthochroi1 who thus came into contact with the ,western ,melanochroi1 spoke a ,celtic language2 and that ,celtic language1 whether ,cymric or ,gaelic1 spread over the ,melanochroi far beyond the limits of intermixture of blood1 supplanting ,euskarian1 just as ,english and ,french1 have supplanted ,celtic4 ,even as early as ,caesar's time1 ,i suppose that the ,euskarian was everywhere1 except in ,spain and in ,aquitaine1 replaced by ,celtic1 and thus the ,celtic speakers were no longer of one ethnological stock1 but of two4 ,both in ,western ,europe and in ,england a third wave of language--in the one case ,latin1 in the other ,teutonic--has spread over the same area4 ,in ,western ,europe1 it has left a fragment of the primary ,euskarian in one corner of the country1 and a fragment of the secondary ,celtic in another4 ,in the ,british islands1 only outlying pools of the secondary linguistic wave remain in ,wales1 the ,highlands1 ,ireland1 and the ,isle of ,man4 ,if this hypothesis is a sound one1 it follows that the name of ,celtic is not properly applicable to the ,melanochroic or dark stock of ,europe4 ,they are merely1 so to speak1 secondary ,celts4 ,the primary and aboriginal ,celtic-speaking people are ,xanthochroi--the typical ,gauls of the ancient writers1 and the close allies by blood1 customs1 and language1 of the ,germans4 ,,ix4 ,,palaeontology ,,and ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,evolution4 7,,the ,,anniversary ,,address ,,to ,,the ,,geological ,,society1 ,,for #ahgj47 ,it is now eight years since1 in the absence of the late ,mr4 ,leonard ,homer1 who then presided over us1 it fell to my lot1 as one of the ,secretaries of this ,society1 to draw up the customary ,annual ,address4 ,i availed myself of the opportunity to endeavour to take stock of that portion of the science of biology which is commonly called palaeontology1 as it then existed2 and1 discussing one after another the doctrines held by palaeontologists1 ,i put before you the results of my attempts to sift the well-established from the hypothetical or the doubtful4 ,permit me briefly to recall to your minds what those results were3-- #a4 ,the living population of all parts of the earth's surface which have yet been examined has undergone a succession of changes which1 upon the whole1 have been of a slow and gradual character4 #b4 ,when the fossil remains which are the evidences of these successive changes1 as they have occurred in any two more or less distant parts of the surface of the earth1 are compared1 they exhibit a certain broad and general parallelism4 ,in other words1 certain forms of life in one locality occur in the same general order of succession as1 or are homotaxial with1 similar forms in the other locality4 #c4 ,homotaxis is not to be held identical with synchronism without independent evidence4 ,it is possible that similar1 or even identical1 faunae and florae in two different localities may be of extremely different ages1 if the term age is used in its proper chronological sense4 ,i stated that geographical provinces1 or zones1 may have been as distinctly marked in the ,palaeozoic epoch as at present2 and those seemingly sudden appearances of new genera and species1 which we ascribe to new creation1 may be simple results of migration4 #d4 ,the opinion that the oldest known fossils are the earliest forms of life has no solid foundation4 #e4 ,if we confine ourselves to positively ascertained facts1 the total amount of change in the forms of animal and vegetable life1 since the existence of such forms is recorded1 is small4 ,when compared with the lapse of time since the first appearance of these forms1 the amount of change is wonderfully small4 ,moreover1 in each great group of the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 there are certain forms which ,i termed ,,persistent ,,types1 which have remained1 with but very little apparent change1 from their first appearance to the present time4 #f4 ,in answer to the question ,what1 then1 does an impartial survey of the positively ascertained truths of palaeontology testify in relation to the common doctrines of progressive modification1 which suppose that modification to have taken place by a necessary progress from more to less embryonic forms1 from more to less generalized types1 within1 the limits of the period represented by the fossiliferous rocks8 ,i reply1 ,it negatives these doctrines2 for it either shows us no evidence of such modification1 or demonstrates such modification as has occurred to have been very slight2 and1 as to the nature of that modification1 it yields no evidence whatsoever that the earlier members of any long-continued group were more generalized in structure than the later ones4 ,i think that ,i cannot employ my last opportunity of addressing you1 officially1 more properly--,i may say more dutifully--than in revising these old judgments with such help as further knowledge and reflection1 and an extreme desire to get at the truth1 may afford me4 #a4 ,with respect to the first proposition1 ,i may remark that whatever may be the case among the physical geologists1 catastrophic palaeontologists are practically extinct4 ,it is now no part of recognized geological doctrine that the species of one formation all died out and were replaced by a brand-new set in the next formation4 ,on the contrary1 it is generally1 if not universally1 agreed that the succession of life has been1 the result of a slow and gradual replacement of species by species2 and that all appearances of abruptness of change are due to breaks in the series of deposits1 or other changes in physical conditions4 ,the continuity of living forms has been unbroken from the earliest times to the present day4 #b1 #c4 ,the use of the word homotaxis instead of synchronism has not1 so far as ,i know1 found much favour in the eyes of geologists4 ,i hope1 therefore1 that it is a love for scientific caution1 and not mere personal affection for a bantling of my own1 which leads me still to think that the change of phrase is of importance1 and that the sooner it is made1 the sooner shall we get rid of a number of pitfalls which beset the reasoner upon the facts and theories of geology4 ,one of the latest pieces of foreign intelligence which has reached us is the information that the ,austrian geologists have1 at last1 succumbed to the weighty evidence which ,m4 ,barrande has accumulated1 and have admitted the doctrine of colonies4 ,but the admission of the doctrine of colonies implies the further admission that even identity of organic remains is no proof of the synchronism of the deposits which contain them4 #d4 ,the discussions touching the ,eozoon1 which commenced in #ahfd1 have abundantly justified the fourth proposition4 ,in #ahfb1 the oldest record of life was in the ,cambrian rocks2 but if the ,eozoon be1 as ,principal ,dawson and ,dr4 ,carpenter have shown so much reason for believing1 the remains of a living being1 the discovery of its true nature carried life back to a period which1 as ,sir ,william ,logan has observed1 is as remote from that during which the ,cambrian rocks were deposited1 as the ,cambrian epoch itself is from the tertiaries4 ,in other words1 the ascertained duration of life upon the globe was nearly doubled at a stroke4 #e4 ,the significance of persistent types1 and of the small amount of change which has taken place even in those forms which can be shown to have been modified1 becomes greater and greater in my eyes1 the longer ,i occupy myself with the biology of the past4 ,consider how long a time has elapsed since the ,miocene epoch4 ,yet1 at that time1 there is reason to believe that every important group in every order of the ,mammalia was represented4 ,even the comparatively scanty ,eocene fauna yields examples of the orders ,cheiroptera1 ,insectivora1 ,rodentia1 and ,perissodactyla2 of ,artiodactyla under both the ,ruminant and the ,porcine modifications2 of ,carnivora1 ,cetacea1 and ,marsupialia4 ,or1 if we go back to the older half of the ,mesozoic epoch1 how truly surprising it is to find every order of the ,reptilia1 except the ,ophidia1 represented2 while some groups1 such as the ,ornithoscelida and the ,pterosauria1 more specialized than any which now exist1 abounded4 ,there is one division of the ,amphibia which offers especially important evidence upon this point1 inasmuch as it bridges over the gap between the ,mesozoic and the ,palaeozoic formations 7often supposed to be of such prodigious magnitude71 extending1 as it does1 from the bottom of the ,carboniferous series to the top of the ,trias1 if not into the ,lias4 ,i refer to the ,labyrinthodonts4 ,as the address of #ahfb was passing through the press1 ,i was able to mention1 in a note1 the discovery of a large ,labyrinthodont1 with well-ossified vertebrae1 in the ,edinburgh coal-field4 ,since that time eight or ten distinct genera of ,labyrinthodonts have been discovered in the ,carboniferous rocks of ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland1 not to mention the ,american forms described by ,principal ,dawson and ,professor ,cope4 ,so that1 at the present time1 the ,labyrinthodont ,fauna of the ,carboniferous rocks is more extensive and diversified than that of the ,trias1 while its chief types1 so far as osteology enables us to judge1 are quite as highly organized4 ,thus it is certain that a comparatively highly organized vertebrate type1 such as that of the ,labyrinthodonts1 is capable of persisting1 with no considerable change1 through the period represented by the vast deposits which constitute the ,carboniferous1 the ,permian1 and the ,triassic formations4 ,the very remarkable results which have been brought to light by the sounding and dredging operations1 which have been carried on with such remarkable success by the expeditions sent out by our own1 the ,american1 and the ,swedish ,governments1 under the supervision of able naturalists1 have a bearing in the same direction4 ,these investigations have demonstrated the existence1 at great depths in the ocean1 of living animals in some cases identical with1 in others very similar to1 those which are found fossilized in the white chalk4 ,the ,globigerinae1 ,cyatholiths1 ,coccospheres1 ,discoliths in the one are absolutely identical with those in the other2 there are identical1 or closely analogous1 species of ,sponges1 ,echinoderms1 and ,brachiopods4 ,off the coast of ,portugal1 there now lives a species of ,beryx1 which1 doubtless1 leaves its bones and scales here and there in the ,atlantic ooze1 as its predecessor left its spoils in the mud of the sea of the ,cretaceous epoch4 ,many years ago#a ,i ventured to speak of the ,atlantic mud as modern chalk1 and ,i know of no fact inconsistent with the view which ,professor ,wyville ,thomson has advocated1 that the modern chalk is not only the lineal descendant of the ancient chalk1 but that it remains1 so to speak1 in the possession of the ancestral estate2 and that from the ,cretaceous period 7if not much earlier7 to the present day1 the deep sea has covered a large part of what is now the area of the ,atlantic4 ,but if ,globigerinae1 and ,terebratula caput-serpentis and ,beryx1 not to mention other forms of animals and of plants1 thus bridge over the interval between the present and the ,mesozoic periods1 is it possible that the majority of other living things underwent a sea-change into something new and strange all at once8 ,footnote #a3 ,see an article in the ,saturday ,review1 for #aheh1 on ,chalk1 ,ancient and ,modern4 #f4 ,thus far ,i have endeavoured to expand and to enforce by fresh arguments1 but not to modify in any important respect1 the ideas submitted to you on a former occasion4 ,but when ,i come to the propositions touching progressive modification1 it appears to me1 with the help of the new light which has broken from various quarters1 that there is much ground for softening the somewhat ,brutus-like severity with which1 in #ahfb1 ,i dealt with a doctrine1 for the truth of which ,i should have been glad enough to be able to find a good foundation4 ,so far1 indeed1 as the ,invertebrata1 and the lower ,vertebrata are concerned1 the facts and the conclusions which are to be drawn from them appear to me to remain what they were4 ,for anything that1 as yet1 appears to the contrary1 the earliest known ,marsupials may have been as highly organized as their living congeners2 the ,permian lizards show no signs of inferiority to those of the present day2 the ,labyrinthodonts cannot be placed below the living ,salamander and ,triton2 the ,devonian ,ganoids are closely related to ,polypterus and to ,lepidosiren4 ,but when we turn to the higher ,vertebrata1 the results of recent investigations1 however we may sift and criticise them1 seem to me to leave a clear balance in favour of the doctrine of the evolution of living forms one from another4 ,nevertheless1 in discussing this question1 it is very necessary to discriminate carefully between the different kinds of evidence from fossil remains which are brought forward in favour of evolution4 ,every fossil which takes an intermediate place between forms of life already known1 may be said1 so far as it is intermediate1 to be evidence in favour of evolution1 inasmuch as it shows a possible road by which evolution may have taken place4 ,but the mere discovery of such a form does not1 in itself1 prove that evolution took place by and through it1 nor does it constitute more than presumptive evidence in favour of evolution in general4 ,suppose ,a1 ,b1 ,c to be three forms1 while ,b is intermediate in structure between ,a and ,c4 ,then the doctrine of evolution offers four possible alternatives4 ,a may have become ,c by way of ,b2 or ,c may have become ,a by way of ,b2 or ,a and ,c may be independent modifications of ,b2 or ,a1 ,b1 and ,c may be independent modifications of some unknown ,d4 ,take the case of the ,pigs1 the ,anoplotheridae1 and the ,ruminants4 ,the ,anoplotheridae are intermediate between the first and the last2 but this does not tell us whether the ,ruminants have come from the ,pigs1 or the ,pigs from ,ruminants1 or both from ,anoplotheridae1 or whether ,pigs1 ,ruminants1 and ,anoplotheridae alike may not have diverged from some common stock4 ,but if it can be shown that ,a1 ,b1 and ,c exhibit successive stages in the degree of modification1 or specialization1 of the same type2 and if1 further1 it can be proved that they occur in successively newer deposits4 ,a being in the oldest and ,c in the newest1 then the intermediate character of ,b has quite another importance1 and ,i should accept it1 without hesitation1 as a link in the genealogy of ,c4 ,i should consider the burden of proof to be thrown upon anyone who denied ,c to have been derived from ,a by way of ,b1 or in some closely analogous fashion2 for it is always probable that one may not hit upon the exact line of filiation1 and1 in dealing with fossils1 may mistake uncles and nephews for fathers and sons4 ,i think it necessary to distinguish between the former and the latter classes of intermediate forms1 as intercalary types and linear types4 ,when ,i apply the former term1 ,i merely mean to say that as a matter of fact1 the form ,b1 so named1 is intermediate between the others1 in the sense in which the ,anoplotherium is intermediate between the ,pigs and the ,ruminants--without either affirming1 or denying1 any direct genetic relation between the three forms involved4 ,when ,i apply the latter term1 on the other hand1 ,i mean to express the opinion that the forms ,a1 ,b1 and ,c constitute a line of descent1 and that ,b is thus part of the lineage of ,c4 ,from the time when ,cuvier's wonderful researches upon the extinct ,mammals of the ,paris gypsum first made intercalary types known1 and caused them to be recognized as such1 the number of such forms has steadily increased among the higher ,mammalia4 ,not only do we now know numerous intercalary forms of ,ungulata1 but ,m4 ,gaudry's great monograph upon the fossils of ,pikermi 7which strikes me as one of the most perfect pieces of palaeontological work ,i have seen for a long time7 shows us1 among the ,primates1 ,mesopithecus as an intercalary form between the ,semnopitheci and the ,macaci2 and among the ,carnivora1 ,hyaenictis and ,ictitherium as intercalary1 or1 perhaps1 linear types between the ,viverridae and the ,hyaenidae4 ,hardly any order of the higher ,mammalia stands so apparently separate and isolated from the rest as that of the ,cetacea2 though a careful consideration of the structure of the pinnipede ,carnivora1 or ,seals1 shows1 in them1 many an approximation towards the still more completely marine mammals4 ,the extinct ,zeuglodon1 however1 presents us with an intercalary form between the type of the ,seals and that of the ,whales4 ,the skull of this great ,eocene sea-monster1 in fact1 shows by the narrow and prolonged interorbital region2 the extensive union of the parietal bones in a sagittal suture2 the well-developed nasal bones2 the distinct and large incisors implanted in premaxillary bones1 which take a full share in bounding the fore part of the gape2 the two-fanged molar teeth with triangular and serrated crowns1 not exceeding five on each side in each jaw2 and the existence of a deciduous dentition--its close relation with the ,seals4 ,while1 on the other hand1 the produced rostral form of the snout1 the long symphysis1 and the low coronary process of the mandible are approximations to the cetacean form of those parts4 ,the scapula resembles that of the cetacean ,hyperoodon1 but the supra-spinous fossa is larger and more seal-like2 as is the humerus1 which differs from that of the ,cetacea in presenting true articular surfaces for the free jointing of the bones of the fore-arm4 ,in the apparently complete absence of hinder limbs1 and in the characters of the vertebral column1 the ,zeuglodon lies on the cetacean side of the boundary line2 so that1 upon the whole1 the ,zeuglodonts1 transitional as they are1 are conveniently retained in the cetacean order4 ,and the publication1 in #ahfd1 of ,m4 ,van ,beneden's memoir on the ,miocene and ,pliocene ,squalodon1 furnished much better means than anatomists previously possessed of fitting in another link of the chain which connects the existing ,cetacea with ,zeuglodon4 ,the teeth are much more numerous1 although the molars exhibit the zeuglodont double fang2 the nasal bones are very short1 and the upper surface of the rostrum presents the groove1 filled up during life by the prolongation of the ethmoidal cartilage1 which is so characteristic of the majority of the ,cetacea4 ,it appears to me that1 just as among the existing ,carnivora1 the walruses and the eared seals are intercalary forms between the fissipede ,carnivora and the ordinary seals1 so the ,zeuglodonts are intercalary between the ,carnivora1 as a whole1 and the ,cetacea4 ,whether the ,zeuglodonts are also linear types in their relation to these two groups cannot be ascertained1 until we have more definite knowledge than we possess at present1 respecting the relations in time of the ,carnivora and ,cetacea4 ,thus far we have been concerned with the intercalary types which occupy the intervals between ,families or ,orders of the same class2 but the investigations which have been carried on by ,professor ,gegenbaur1 ,professor ,cope1 and myself into the structure and relations of the extinct reptilian forms of the ,ornithoscelida 7or ,dinosauria and ,compsognatha7 have brought to light the existence of intercalary forms between what have hitherto been always regarded as very distinct classes of the vertebrate sub-kingdom1 namely ,reptilia and ,aves4 ,whatever inferences may1 or may not1 be drawn from the fact1 it is now an established truth that1 in many of these ,ornithoscelida1 the hind limbs and the pelvis are much more similar to those of ,birds than they are to those of ,reptiles1 and that these ,bird-reptiles1 or ,reptile-birds1 were more or less completely bipedal4 ,when ,i addressed you in #ahfb1 ,i should have been bold indeed had ,i suggested that palaeontology would before long show us the possibility of a direct transition from the type of the lizard to that of the ostrich4 ,at the present moment we have1 in the ,ornithoscelida1 the intercalary type1 which proves that transition to be something more than a possibility2 but it is very doubtful whether any of the genera of ,ornithoscelida with which we are at present acquainted are the actual linear types by which the transition from the lizard to the bird was effected4 ,these1 very probably1 are still hidden from us in the older formations4 ,let us now endeavour to find some cases of true linear types1 or forms which are intermediate between others because they stand in a direct genetic relation to them4 ,it is no easy matter to find clear and unmistakable evidence of filiation among fossil animals2 for1 in order that such evidence should be quite satisfactory1 it is necessary that we should be acquainted with all the most important features of the organization of the animals which are supposed to be thus related1 and not merely with the fragments upon which the genera and species of the palaeontologist are so often based4 ,m4 ,gaudry has arranged the species of ,hyaenidae1 ,proboscidea1 ,rhinocerotidae1 and ,equidae in their order of filiation from their earliest appearance in the ,miocene epoch to the present time1 and ,professor ,rtimeyer has drawn up similar schemes for the ,oxen and other ,ungulata--with what1 ,i am disposed to think1 is a fair and probable approximation to the order of nature4 ,but1 as no one is better aware than these two learned1 acute1 and philosophical biologists1 all such arrangements must be regarded as provisional1 except in those cases in which1 by a fortunate accident1 large series of remains are obtainable from a thick and wide-spread series of deposits4 ,it is easy to accumulate probabilities--hard to make out some particular case in such a way that it will stand rigorous criticism4 ,after much search1 however1 ,i think that such a case is to be made out in favour of the pedigree of the ,horses4 ,the genus ,equus is represented as far back as the latter part of the ,miocene epoch2 but in deposits belonging to the middle of that epoch its place is taken by two other genera1 ,hipparion and ,anchitherium#a2 and1 in the lowest ,miocene and upper ,eocene1 only the last genus occurs4 ,a species of ,anchitherium was referred by ,cuvier to the ,palaeotheria under the name of ,p4 aurelianense4 ,the grinding-teeth are in fact very similar in shape and in pattern1 and in the absence of any thick layer of cement1 to those of some species of ,palaeotherium1 especially ,cuvier's ,palaeotherium minus1 which has been formed into a separate genus1 ,plagiolophus1 by ,pomel4 ,but in the fact that there are only six full-sized grinders in the lower jaw1 the first premolar being very small2 that the anterior grinders are as large as1 or rather larger than1 the posterior ones2 that the second premolar has an anterior prolongation2 and that the posterior molar of the lower jaw has1 as ,cuvier pointed out1 a posterior lobe of much smaller size and different form1 the dentition of ,anchitherium departs from the type of the ,palaeotherium1 and approaches that of the ,horse4 ,footnote #a3 ,hermann von ,meyer gave the name of ,anchitherium to ,a4 ,ezguerrae2 and in his paper on the subject he takes great pains to distinguish the latter as the type of a new genus1 from ,cuvier's ,palaeotherium d',orlans4 ,but it is precisely the ,palaeotherium d',orlans which is the type of ,christol's genus ,hipparitherium2 and thus1 though ,hipparitherium is of later date than ,anchitherium1 it seemed to me to have a sort of equitable right to recognition when this address was written4 ,on the whole1 however1 it seems most convenient to adopt ,anchitherium4 ,again1 the skeleton of ,anchitherium is extremely equine4 ,m4 ,christol goes so far as to say that the description of the bones of the horse1 or the ass1 current in veterinary works1 would fit those of ,anchitherium4 ,and1 in a general way1 this may be true enough2 but there are some most important differences1 which1 indeed1 are justly indicated by the same careful observer4 ,thus the ulna is complete throughout1 and its shaft is not a mere rudiment1 fused into one bone with the radius4 ,there are three toes1 one large in the middle and one small on each side4 ,the femur is quite like that of a horse1 and has the characteristic fossa above the external condyle4 ,in the ,british ,museum there is a most instructive specimen of the leg-bones1 showing that the fibula was represented by the external malleolus and by a flat tongue of bone1 which extends up from it on the outer side of the tibia1 and is closely ankylosed with the latter bone4#a ,the hind toes are three1 like those of the fore leg2 and the middle metatarsal bone is much less compressed from side to side than that of the horse4 ,footnote #a3 ,i am indebted to ,m4 ,gervais for a specimen which indicates that the fibula was complete1 at any rate1 in some cases2 and for a very interesting ramus of a mandible1 which shows that1 as in the ,palaeotheria1 the hindermost milk-molar of the lower jaw was devoid of the posterior lobe which exists in the hindermost true molar4 ,in the ,hipparion the teeth nearly resemble those of the ,horses1 though the crowns of the grinders are not so long2 like those of the ,horses1 they are abundantly coated with cement4 ,the shaft of the ulna is reduced to a mere style ankylosed throughout nearly its whole length with the radius1 and appearing to be little more than a ridge on the surface of the latter bone until it is carefully examined4 ,the front toes are still three1 but the outer ones are more slender than in ,anchitherium1 and their hoofs smaller in proportion to that of the middle toe3 they are1 in fact1 reduced to mere dew-claws1 and do not touch the ground4 ,in the leg1 the distal end of the fibula is so completely united with the tibia that it appears to be a mere process of the latter bone1 as in the ,horses4 ,in ,equus1 finally1 the crowns of the grinding-teeth become longer1 and their patterns are slightly modified2 the middle of the shaft of the ulna usually vanishes1 and its proximal and distal ends ankylose with the radius4 ,the phalanges of the two outer toes in each foot disappear1 their metacarpal and metatarsal bones being left as the splints4 ,the ,hipparion has large depressions on the face in front of the orbits1 like those for the larmiers of many ruminants2 but traces of these are to be seen in some of the fossil horses from the ,sewalik ,hills2 and1 as ,leidy's recent researches show1 they are preserved in ,anchitherium4 ,when we consider these facts1 and the further circumstance that the ,hipparions1 the remains of which have been collected in immense numbers1 were subject1 as ,m4 ,gaudry and others have pointed out1 to a great range of variation1 it appears to me impossible to resist the conclusion that the types of the ,anchitherium1 of the ,hipparion1 and of the ancient ,horses constitute the lineage of the modern ,horses1 the ,hipparion being the intermediate stage between the other two1 and answering2 to ,b in my former illustration4 ,the process by which the ,anchitherium has been converted into ,equus is one of specialization1 or of more and more complete deviation from what might be called the average form of an ungulate mammal4 ,in the ,horses1 the reduction of some parts of the limbs1 together with the special modification of those which are left1 is carried to a greater extent than in any other hoofed mammals4 ,the reduction is less and the specialization is less in the ,hipparion1 and still less in the ,anchitherium2 but yet1 as compared with other mammals1 the reduction and specialization of parts in the ,anchitherium remain great4 ,is it not probable then1 that1 just as in the ,miocene epoch1 we find an ancestral equine form less modified than ,equus1 so1 if we go back to the ,eocene epoch1 we shall find some quadruped related to the ,anchitherium1 as ,hipparion is related to ,equus1 and consequently departing less from the average form8 ,i think that this desideratum is very nearly1 if not quite1 supplied by ,plagiolophus1 remains of which occur abundantly in some parts of the ,upper and ,middle ,eocene formations4 ,the patterns of the grinding-teeth of ,plagiolophus are similar to those of ,anchitherium1 and their crowns are as thinly covered with cement2 but the grinders diminish in size forwards1 and the last lower molar has a large hind lobe1 convex outwards and concave inwards1 as in ,palceotherium4 ,the ulna is complete and much larger than in any of the ,equidae1 while it is more slender than in most of the true ,palaeotheria2 it is fixedly united1 but not ankylosed1 with the radius4 ,there are three toes in the fore limb1 the outer ones being slender1 but less attenuated than in the ,equidae4 ,the femur is more like that of the ,palaeotheria than that of the horse1 and has only a small depression above its outer condyle in the place of the great fossa which is so obvious in the ,equidae4 ,the fibula is distinct1 but very slender1 and its distal end is ankylosed with the tibia4 ,there are three toes on the hind foot having similar proportions to those on the fore foot4 ,the principal metacarpal and metatarsal bones are flatter than they are in any of the ,equidae2 and the metacarpal bones are longer than the metatarsals1 as in the ,palaeotheria4 ,in its general form1 ,plagiolophus resembles a very small and slender horse#a1 and is totally unlike the reluctant1 pig-like creature depicted in ,cuvier's restoration of his ,palaeotherium minus in the ,os semens ,fossils4 ,footnote #a3 ,such1 at least1 is the conclusion suggested by the proportions of the skeleton figured by ,cuvier and ,de ,blainville2 but perhaps something between a ,horse and an ,agouti would be nearest the mark4 ,it would be hazardous to say that ,plagiolophus is the exact radical form of the ,equine quadrupeds2 but ,i do not think there can be any reasonable doubt that the latter animals have resulted from the modification of some quadruped similar to ,plagiolophus4 ,we have thus arrived at the ,middle ,eocene formation1 and yet have traced back the ,horses only to a three-toed stock2 but these three-toed forms1 no less than the ,equine quadrupeds themselves1 present rudiments of the two other toes which appertain to what ,i have termed the average quadruped4 ,if the expectation raised by the splints of the ,horses that1 in some ancestor of the ,horses1 these splints would be found to be complete digits1 has been verified1 we are furnished with very strong reasons for looking for a no less complete verification of the expectation that the three-toed4 ,plagiolophus-like avus of the horse must have had a five-toed atavus at some earlier period4 ,no such five-toed atavus1 however1 has yet made its appearance among the few middle and older ,eocene ,mammalia which are known4 ,another series of closely affiliated forms1 though the evidence they afford is perhaps less complete than that of the ,equine series1 is presented to us by the ,dichobune of the ,eocene epoch1 the ,cainotherium of the ,miocene1 and the ,tragulidae1 or so-called ,musk-deer1 of the present day4 ,the ,tragulidae have no incisors in the upper jaw1 and only six grinding-teeth on each side of each jaw2 while the canine is moved up to the outer incisor1 and there is a diastema1 in the lower jaw4 ,there are four complete toes on the hind foot1 but the middle metatarsals usually become1 sooner or later1 ankylosed into a cannon bone4 ,the navicular and the cuboid unite1 and the distal end of the fibula is ankylosed with the tibia4 ,in ,cainotherium and ,dichobune the upper incisors are fully developed4 ,there are seven grinders2 the teeth form a continuous series without a diastema4 ,the metatarsals1 the navicular and cuboid1 and the distal end of the fibula1 remain free4 ,in the ,cainotherium1 also1 the second metacarpal is developed1 but is much shorter than the third1 while the fifth is absent or rudimentary4 ,in this respect it resembles ,anoplotherium secundarium4 ,this circumstance1 and the peculiar pattern of the upper molars in ,cainotherium1 lead me to hesitate in considering it as the actual ancestor of the modern ,tragulidae4 ,if ,dichobune has a four-toed fore foot 7though ,i am inclined to suspect that it resembles ,cainotherium71 it will be a better representative of the oldest forms of the ,traguline series2 but ,dichobune occurs in the ,middle-,eocene1 and is1 in fact1 the oldest known artiodactyle mammal4 ,where1 then1 must we look for its five-toed ancestor8 ,if we follow down other lines of recent and tertiary ,ungulata1 the same question presents itself4 ,the ,pigs are traceable back through the ,miocene epoch to the ,upper ,eocene1 where they appear in the two well-marked forms of ,hyopotamus and ,chaeropotamus2 but ,hyopotamus appears to have had only two toes4 ,again1 all the great groups of the ,ruminants1 the ,bovidae1 ,antilopidae1 ,camelopardalidae1 and ,cervidae1 are represented in the ,miocene epoch1 and so are the ,camels4 ,the ,upper ,eocene ,anoplotherium1 which is intercalary between the ,pigs and the ,tragulidae1 has only two or1 at most1 three toes4 ,among the scanty mammals of the ,lower ,eocene formation we have the perissodactyle ,ungulata represented by ,coryphodon1 ,hyra-cotherium1 and ,pliolophus4 ,suppose for a moment1 for the sake of following out the argument1 that ,pliolophus represents the primary stock of the ,perissodactyles1 and ,dichobune that of the ,artiodactyles 7though ,i am far from saying that such is the case71 then we find1 in the earliest fauna of the ,eocene epoch to which our investigations carry us1 the two divisions of the ,ungulata completely differentiated1 and no trace of any common stock of both1 or of five-toed predecessors to either4 ,with the case of the ,horses before us1 justifying a belief in the production of new animal forms by modification of old ones1 ,i see no escape from the necessity of seeking for these ancestors of the ,ungulata beyond the limits of the ,tertiary formations4 ,i could as soon admit special creation1 at once1 as suppose that the ,perissodactyles and ,artiodactyles had no five-toed ancestors4 ,and when we consider how large a portion of the ,tertiary period elapsed before ,anchitherium was converted into ,equus1 it is difficult to escape the conclusion that a large proportion of time anterior to the ,tertiary period must have been expended in converting the common stock of the ,ungulata into ,perissodactyles and ,artiodactyles4 ,the same moral is inculcated by the study of every other order of ,tertiary monodelphous ,mammalia4 ,each of these orders is represented in the ,miocene epoch3 the ,eocene formation1 as ,i have already said1 contains ,cheiroptera1 ,insectivora1 ,rodentia1 ,ungulata1 ,carnivora1 and ,cetacea4 ,but the ,cheiroptera are extreme modifications of the ,insectivora1 just as the ,cetacea are extreme modifications of the ,carnivorous type2 and therefore it is to my mind incredible that monodelphous ,insectivora and ,carnivora should not have been abundantly developed1 along with ,ungulata1 in the ,mesozoic epoch4 ,but if this be the case1 how much further back must we go to find the common stock of the monodelphous ,mammalia8 ,as to the ,didelphia1 if we may trust the evidence which seems to be afforded by their very scanty remains1 a ,hypsiprymnoid form existed at the epoch of the ,trias1 contemporaneously with a ,carnivorous form4 ,at the epoch of the ,trias1 therefore1 the ,marsupialia must have1 already existed long enough to have become differentiated into carnivorous and herbivorous forms4 ,but the ,monotremata are lower forms than the ,didelphia1 which last are intercalary between the ,ornithodelphia and the ,monodelphia4 ,to what point of the ,palaeozoic epoch1 then1 must we1 upon any rational estimate1 relegate the origin of the ,monotremata8 ,the investigation of the occurrence of the classes and of the orders of the ,sauropsida in time points in exactly the same direction4 ,if1 as there is great reason to believe1 true ,birds existed in the ,triassic epoch1 the ornithoscelidous forms by which ,reptiles passed into ,birds must have preceded them4 ,in fact there is1 even at present1 considerable ground for suspecting the existence of ,dinosauria in the ,permian formations2 but1 in that case1 lizards must be of still earlier date4 ,and if the very small differences which are observable between the ,crocodilia of the older ,mesozoic formations and those of the present day furnish any sort of approximation towards an estimate of the average rate of change among the ,sauropsida1 it is almost appalling to reflect how far back in ,palaeozoic times we must go1 before we can hope to arrive at that common stock from which the ,crocodilia1 ,lacertilia1 ,ornithoscelida1 and ,plesiosauria1 which had attained so great a development in the ,triassic epoch1 must have been derived4 ,the ,amphibia and ,pisces tell the same story4 ,there is not a single class of vertebrated animals which1 when it first appears1 is represented by analogues of the lowest known members of the same class4 ,therefore1 if there is any truth in the doctrine of evolution1 every class must be vastly older than the first record of its appearance upon the surface of the globe4 ,but if considerations of this kind compel us to place the origin of vertebrated animals at a period sufficiently distant from the ,upper ,silurian1 in which the first ,elasmobranchs and ,ganoids occur1 to allow of the evolution of such fishes as these from a ,vertebrate as simple as the ,amphioxus1 ,i can only repeat that it is appalling to speculate upon the extent to which that origin must have preceded the epoch of the first recorded appearance of vertebrate life4 ,such is the further commentary which ,i have to offer upon the statement of the chief results of palaeontology which ,i formerly ventured to lay before you4 ,but the growth of knowledge in the interval makes me conscious of an omission of considerable moment in that statement1 inasmuch as it contains no reference to the bearings of palaeontology upon the theory of the distribution of life2 nor takes note of the remarkable manner in which the facts of distribution1 in present and past times1 accord with the doctrine of evolution1 especially in regard to land animals4 ,that connection between palaeontology and geology and the present distribution of terrestrial animals1 which so strikingly impressed ,mr4 ,darwin1 thirty years ago1 as to lead him to speak of a law of succession of types1 and of the wonderful relationship on the same continent between the dead and the living1 has recently received much elucidation from the researches of ,gaudry1 of ,rtimeyer1 of ,leidy1 and of ,alphonse ,milne-,edwards1 taken in connection with the earlier labours of our lamented colleague ,falconer2 and it has been instructively discussed in the thoughtful and ingenious work of ,mr4 ,andrew ,murray ,on the ,geographical ,distribution of ,mammals4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the paper ,on the ,form and ,distribution of the ,land-tracts during the ,secondary and ,tertiary ,periods respectively2 and on the ,effect upon ,animal ,life which great ,changes in ,geographical ,configuration have probably produced1 by ,mr4 ,searles ,v4 ,wood1 jun41 which was published in the ,philosophical ,magazine1 in #ahfb1 was unknown to me when this ,address was written4 ,it is well worthy of the most careful study4 ,i propose to lay before you1 as briefly as ,i can1 the ideas to which a long consideration of the subject has given rise in my own mind4 ,if the doctrine of evolution is sound1 one of its immediate consequences clearly is1 that the present distribution of life upon the globe is the product of two factors1 the one being the distribution which obtained in the immediately preceding epoch1 and the other the character and the extent of the changes which have taken place in physical geography between the one epoch and the other2 or1 to put the matter in another way1 the ,fauna and ,flora of any given area1 in any given epoch1 can consist only of such forms of life as are directly descended from those which constituted the ,fauna and ,flora of the same area in the immediately preceding epoch1 unless the physical geography 7under which ,i include climatal conditions7 of the area has been so altered as to give rise to immigration of living forms from some other area4 ,the evolutionist1 therefore1 is bound to grapple with the following problem whenever it is clearly put before him3--,here are the ,faunae of the same area during successive epochs4 ,show good cause for believing either that these ,faunae have been derived from one another by gradual modification1 or that the ,faunae have reached the area in question by migration from some area in which they have undergone their development4 ,i propose to attempt to deal with this problem1 so far as it is exemplified by the distribution of the terrestrial ,vertebrata1 and ,i shall endeavour to show you that it is capable of solution in a sense entirely favourable to the doctrine of evolution4 ,i have elsewhere#a stated at length the reasons which lead me to recognize four primary distributional provinces for the terrestrial ,vertebrata in the present world1 namely1--first1 the ,novozelanian1 or ,new-,zealand province2 secondly1 the ,australian province1 including ,australia1 ,tasmania1 and the ,negrito ,islands2 thirdly1 ,austro-,columbia1 or ,south ,america plus ,north ,america as far as ,mexico2 and fourthly1 the rest of the world1 or ,arctogaea1 in which province ,america north of ,mexico constitutes one sub-province1 ,africa south of the ,sahara a second1 ,hindostan a third1 and the remainder of the ,old ,world1 a fourth4 ,footnote #a3 ,on the ,classification and ,distribution of the ,alectoromorphae2 ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society1 #ahfh4 ,now the truth which ,mr4 ,darwin perceived and promulgated as the law of the succession of types is1 that1 in all these provinces1 the animals found in ,pliocene or later deposits are closely affined to those which now inhabit the same provinces2 and that1 conversely1 the forms characteristic of other provinces are absent4 ,north and ,south ,america1 perhaps1 present one or two exceptions to the last rule1 but they are readily susceptible of explanation4 ,thus1 in ,australia1 the later ,tertiary mammals are marsupials 7possibly with exception of the ,dog and a ,rodent or two1 as at present74 ,in ,austro-,columbia the later ,tertiary fauna exhibits numerous and varied forms of ,platyrrhine ,apes1 ,rodents1 ,cats1 ,dogs1 ,stags1 ,edentata1 and ,opossums2 but1 as at present1 no ,catarrhine ,apes1 no ,lemurs1 no ,insectivora1 ,oxen1 ,antelopes1 ,rhinoceroses1 nor ,didelphia other than ,opossums4 ,and in the wide-spread ,arctogaeal province1 the ,pliocene and later mammals belong to the same groups as those which now exist in the province4 ,the law of succession of types1 therefore1 holds good for the present epoch as compared with its predecessor4 ,does it equally well apply to the ,pliocene fauna when we compare it with that of the ,miocene epoch8 ,by great good fortune1 an extensive mammalian fauna of the latter epoch has now become known1 in four very distant portions of the ,arctogaeal province which do not differ greatly in latitude4 ,thus ,falconer and ,cautley have made known the fauna of the sub-,himalayas and the ,perim ,islands2 ,gaudry that of ,attica2 many observers that of ,central ,europe and ,france2 and ,leidy that of ,nebraska1 on the eastern flank of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the results are very striking4 ,the total ,miocene fauna comprises many genera1 and species of ,catarrhine ,apes1 of ,bats1 of ,insectivora2 of ,arctogaeal types of ,rodentia2 of ,proboscidea2 of equine1 rhinocerotic1 and tapirine quadrupeds2 of cameline1 bovine1 antilopine1 cervine1 and traguline ,ruminants2 of ,pigs and ,hippopotamuses2 of ,viverridae and ,hyaenidae among other ,carnivora2 with ,edentata allied to the ,arctogaeal ,orycteropus and ,manis1 and not to the ,austro-,columbian ,edentates4 ,the only type present in the ,miocene1 but absent in the existing1 fauna of ,eastern ,arctogaea1 is that of the ,didelphidae1 which1 however1 remains in ,north ,america4 ,but it is very remarkable that while the ,miocene fauna of the ,arctogaeal province1 as a whole1 is of the same character as the existing fauna of the same province1 as a whole1 the component elements of the fauna were differently associated4 ,in the ,miocene epoch1 ,north ,america possessed ,elephants1 ,horses1 ,rhinoceroses1 and a great number and variety of ,ruminants and ,pigs1 which are absent in the present indigenous fauna2 ,europe had its ,apes1 ,elephants1 ,rhinoceroses1 ,tapirs1 ,musk-deer1 ,giraffes1 ,hyaenas1 great ,cats1 ,edentates1 and ,opossum-like ,marsupials1 which have equally vanished from its present fauna2 and in ,northern ,india1 the ,african types of ,hippopotamuses1 ,giraffes1 and ,elephants were mixed up with what are now the ,asiatic types of the latter1 and with ,camels1 and ,semnopithecine and ,pithecine ,apes of no less distinctly ,asiatic forms4 ,in fact the ,miocene mammalian fauna of ,europe and the ,himalayan regions contains1 associated together1 the types which are at present separately located in the ,south-,african and ,indian sub-provinces of ,arctogaea4 ,now there is every reason to believe1 on other grounds1 that both ,hindostan1 south of the ,ganges1 and ,africa1 south of the ,sahara1 were separated by a wide sea from ,europe and ,north ,asia during the ,middle and ,upper ,eocene epochs4 ,hence it becomes highly probable that the well-known similarities1 and no less remarkable differences1 between the present ,faunae of ,india and ,south ,africa have arisen in some such fashion as the following4 ,some time during the ,miocene epoch1 possibly when the ,himalayan chain was elevated1 the bottom of the nummulitic sea was upheaved and converted into dry land1 in the direction of a line extending from ,abyssinia to the mouth of the ,ganges4 ,by this means1 the ,dekhan on the one hand1 and ,south ,africa on the other1 became connected with the ,miocene dry land and with one another4 ,the ,miocene mammals spread gradually over this intermediate dry land2 and if the condition of its eastern and western ends offered as wide contrasts as the valleys of the ,ganges and ,arabia do now1 many forms which made their way into ,africa must have been different from those which reached the ,dekhan1 while others might pass into both these sub-provinces4 ,that there was a continuity of dry land between ,europe and ,north ,america during the ,miocene epoch1 appears to me to be a necessary consequence of the fact that many genera of terrestrial mammals1 such as ,castor1 ,hystrix1 ,elephas1 ,mastodon1 ,equus1 ,hipparion1 ,anchitherium1 ,rhinoceros1 ,cervus1 ,amphicyon1 ,hyaenarctos1 and ,machairodus1 are common to the ,miocene formations of the two areas1 and have as yet been found 7except perhaps ,anchitherium7 in no deposit of earlier age4 ,whether this connection took place by the east1 or by the west1 or by both sides of the ,old ,world1 there is at present no certain evidence1 and the question is immaterial to the present argument2 but1 as there are good grounds for the belief that the ,australian province and the ,indian and ,south-,african sub-provinces were separated by sea from the rest of ,arctogaea before the ,miocene epoch1 so it has been rendered no less probable1 by the investigations of ,mr4 ,carrick ,moore and ,professor ,duncan1 that ,austro-,columbia was separated by sea from ,north ,america during a large part of the ,miocene epoch4 ,it is unfortunate that we have no knowledge of the ,miocene mammalian fauna of the ,australian and ,austro-,columbian provinces2 but1 seeing that not a trace of a ,platyrrhine ,ape1 of a ,procyonine ,carnivore1 of a characteristically ,south-,american ,rodent1 of a ,sloth1 an ,armadillo1 or an ,ant-eater has yet been found in ,miocene deposits of ,arctogaea1 ,i cannot doubt that they already existed in the ,miocene ,austro-,columbian province4 ,nor is it less probable that the characteristic types of ,australian ,mammalia were already developed in that region in ,miocene times4 ,but ,austro-,columbia presents difficulties from which ,australia is free2 ,camelidae and ,tapiridae are now indigenous in ,south ,america as they are in ,arctogaea2 and1 among the ,pliocene ,austro-,columbian mammals1 the ,austro-,columbian genera ,equus1 ,mastodon1 and ,machairodus are numbered4 ,are these ,postmiocene immigrants1 or ,praemiocene natives8 ,still more perplexing are the strange and interesting forms ,toxodon1 ,macrauchenia1 ,typotherium1 and a new ,anoplotherioid mammal 7,homalodotherium7 which ,dr4 ,cunningham sent over to me some time ago from ,patagonia4 ,i confess ,i am strongly inclined to surmise that these last1 at any rate1 are remnants of the population of ,austro-,columbia before the ,miocene epoch1 and were not derived from ,arctogaea by way of the north and east4 ,the fact that this immense fauna of ,miocene ,arctogaea is now fully and richly represented only in ,india and in ,south ,africa1 while it is shrunk and depauperized in ,north ,asia1 ,europe1 and ,north ,america1 becomes at once intelligible1 if we suppose that ,india and ,south ,africa had but a scanty mammalian population before the ,miocene immigration1 while the conditions were highly favourable to the new comers4 ,it is to be supposed that these new regions offered themselves to the ,miocene ,ungulates1 as ,south ,america and ,australia offered themselves to the cattle1 sheep1 and horses of modern colonists4 ,but1 after these great areas were thus peopled1 came the ,glacial epoch1 during which the excessive cold1 to say nothing of depression and ice-covering1 must have almost depopulated all the northern parts of ,arctogaea1 destroying all the higher mammalian forms1 except those which1 like the ,elephant and ,rhinoceros1 could adjust their coats to the altered conditions4 ,even these must have been driven away from the greater part of the area2 only those ,miocene mammals which had passed into ,hindostan and into ,south ,africa would escape decimation by such changes in the physical geography of ,arctogaea4 ,and when the northern hemisphere passed into its present condition1 these lost tribes of the ,miocene ,fauna were hemmed by the ,himalayas1 the ,sahara1 the ,red ,sea1 and the ,arabian deserts1 within their present boundaries4 ,now1 on the hypothesis of evolution1 there is no sort of difficulty in admitting that the differences between the ,miocene forms of the mammalian ,fauna and those which exist at present are the results of gradual modification2 and1 since such differences in distribution as obtain are readily explained by the changes which have taken place in the physical geography of the world since the ,miocene epoch1 it is clear that the result of the comparison of the ,miocene and present ,fauna is distinctly in favour of evolution4 ,indeed ,i may go further4 ,i may say that the hypothesis of evolution explains the facts of ,miocene1 ,pliocene1 and ,recent distribution1 and that no other supposition even pretends to account for them4 ,it is1 indeed1 a conceivable supposition that every species of ,rhinoceros and every species of ,hyaena1 in the long succession of forms between the ,miocene and the present species1 was separately constructed out of dust1 or out of nothing1 by supernatural power2 but until ,i receive distinct evidence of the fact1 ,i refuse to run the risk of insulting any sane man by supposing that he seriously holds such a notion4 ,let us now take a step further back in time1 and inquire into the relations between the ,miocene ,fauna and its predecessor of the ,upper ,eocene formation4 ,here it is to be regretted that our materials for forming a judgment are nothing to be compared in point of extent or variety with those which are yielded by the ,miocene strata4 ,however1 what we do know of this ,upper ,eocene ,fauna of ,europe gives sufficient positive information to enable us to draw some tolerably safe inferences4 ,it has yielded representatives of ,insectivora1 of ,cheiroptera1 of ,rodentia1 of ,carnivora1 of artiodactyle and perissodactyle ,ungulata1 and of opossum-like ,marsupials4 ,no ,australian type of ,marsupial has been discovered in the ,upper ,eocene strata1 nor any ,edentate mammal4 ,the genera 7except perhaps in the case of some of the ,insectivora1 ,cheiroptera1 and ,rodentia7 are different from those of the ,miocene epoch1 but present a remarkable general similarity to the ,miocene and recent genera4 ,in several cases1 as ,i have already shown1 it has now been clearly made out that the relation between the ,eocene and ,miocene forms is such that the ,eocene form is the less specialized2 while its ,miocene ally is more so1 and the specialization reaches its maximum in the recent forms of the same type4 ,so far as the ,upper ,eocene and the ,miocene ,mammalian ,faunae are comparable1 their relations are such as in no way to oppose the hypothesis that the older are the progenitors of the more recent forms1 while1 in some cases1 they distinctly favour that hypothesis4 ,the period in time and the changes in physical geography represented by the nummulitic deposits are undoubtedly very great1 while the remains of ,middle ,eocene and ,older ,eocene ,mammals are comparatively few4 ,the general facies of the ,middle ,eocene ,fauna1 however1 is quite that of the ,upper4 ,the ,older ,eocene pre-nummulitic mammalian ,fauna contains ,bats1 two genera of ,carnivora1 three genera of ,ungulata 7probably all perissodactyle71 and a didelphid ,marsupial2 all these forms1 except perhaps the ,bat and the ,opossum1 belong to genera which are not known to occur out of the ,lower ,eocene formation4 ,the ,coryphodon appears to have been allied to the ,miocene and later ,tapirs1 while ,pliolophus1 in its skull and dentition1 curiously partakes of both artiodactyle and perissodactyle characters2 the third trochanter upon its femur1 and its three-toed hind foot1 however1 appear definitely to fix its position in the latter division4 ,there is nothing1 then1 in what is known of the older ,eocene mammals of the ,arctogaeal province to forbid the supposition that they stood in an ancestral relation to those of the ,calcaire ,grossier and the ,gypsum of the ,paris basin1 and that our present fauna1 therefore1 is directly derived from that which already existed in ,arctogaea at the commencement of the ,tertiary period4 ,but if we now cross the frontier between the ,cainozoic and the ,mesozoic faunae1 as they are preserved within the ,arctogaeal area1 we meet with an astounding change1 and what appears to be a complete and unmistakable break in the line of biological continuity4 ,among the twelve or fourteen species of ,mammalia which are said to have been found in the ,purbecks1 not one is a member of the orders ,cheiroptera1 ,rodentia1 ,ungulata1 or ,carnivora1 which are so well represented in the ,tertiaries4 ,no ,insectivora are certainly known1 nor any opossum-like ,marsupials4 ,thus there is a vast negative difference between the ,cainozoic and the ,mesozoic mammalian faunae of ,europe4 ,but there is a still more important positive difference1 inasmuch as all these ,mammalia appear to be ,marsupials belonging to ,australian groups1 and thus appertaining to a different distributional province from the ,eocene and ,miocene marsupials1 which are ,austro-,columbian4 ,so far as the imperfect materials which exist enable a judgment to be formed1 the same law appears to have held good for all the earlier ,mesozoic ,mammalia4 ,of the ,stonesfield slate mammals1 one1 ,amphitherium1 has a definitely ,australian character2 one1 ,phascolotherium1 may be either ,dasyurid or ,didelphine2 of a third1 ,stereognathus1 nothing can at present be said4 ,the two mammals of the ,trias1 also1 appear to belong to ,australian groups4 ,every one is aware of the many curious points of resemblance between the marine fauna of the ,european ,mesozoic rocks and that which now exists in ,australia4 ,but if there was this ,australian facies about both the terrestrial and the marine faunae of ,mesozoic ,europe1 and if there is this unaccountable and immense break between the fauna of ,mesozoic and that of ,tertiary ,europe1 is it not a very obvious suggestion that1 in the ,mesozoic epoch1 the ,australian province included ,europe1 and that the ,arctogaeal province was contained within other limits8 ,the ,arctogaeal province is at present enormous1 while the ,australian is relatively small4 ,why should not these proportions have been different during the ,mesozoic epoch8 ,thus ,i am led to think that by far the simplest and most rational mode of accounting for the great change which took place in the living inhabitants of the ,european area at the end of the ,mesozoic epoch1 is the supposition that it arose from a vast alteration of the physical geography of the globe2 whereby an area long tenanted by ,cainozoic forms was brought into such relations with the ,european area that migration from the one to the other became possible1 and took place on a great scale4 ,this supposition relieves us1 at once1 from the difficulty in which we were left1 some time ago1 by the arguments which ,i used to demonstrate the necessity of the existence of all the great types of the ,eocene epoch in some antecedent period4 ,it is this ,mesozoic continent 7which may well have lain in the neighbourhood of what are now the shores of the ,north ,pacific ,ocean7 which ,i suppose to have been occupied by the ,mesozoic ,monodelphia2 and it is in this region that ,i conceive they must have gone through the long series of changes by which they were specialized into the forms which we refer to different orders4 ,i think it very probable that what is now ,south ,america may have received the characteristic elements of its mammalian fauna during the ,mesozoic epoch2 and there can be little doubt that the general nature of the change which took place at the end of the ,mesozoic epoch in ,europe was the upheaval of the eastern and northern regions of the ,mesozoic sea-bottom into a westward extension of the ,mesozoic continent1 over which the mammalian fauna1 by which it was already peopled1 gradually spread4 ,this invasion of the land was prefaced by a previous invasion of the ,cretaceous sea by modern forms of mollusca and fish4 ,it is easy to imagine how an analogous change might come about in the existing world4 ,there is1 at present1 a great difference between the fauna of the ,polynesian ,islands and that of the west coast of ,america4 ,the animals which are leaving their spoils in the deposits now forming in these localities are widely different4 ,hence1 if a gradual shifting of the deep sea1 which at present bars migration between the easternmost of these islands and ,america1 took place to the westward1 while the ,american side of the sea-bottom was gradually upheaved1 the palaeontologist of the future would find1 over the ,pacific area1 exactly such a change as ,i am supposing to have occurred in the ,north-,atlantic area at the close of the ,mesozoic period4 ,an ,australian fauna would be found underlying an ,american fauna1 and the transition from the one to the other would be as abrupt as that between the ,chalk and lower ,tertiaries2 and as the drainage-area of the newly formed extension of the ,american continent gave rise to rivers and lakes1 the mammals mired in their mud would differ from those of like deposits on the ,australian side1 just as the ,eocene mammals differ from those of the ,purbecks4 ,how do similar reasonings apply to the other great change of life--that which took place at the end of the ,palaeozoic period8 ,in the ,triassic epoch1 the distribution of the dry land and of terrestrial vertebrate life appears to have been1 generally1 similar to that which existed in the ,mesozoic epoch2 so that the ,triassic continents and their faunae seem to be related to the ,mesozoic lands and their faunae1 just as those of the ,miocene epoch are related to those of the present day4 ,in fact1 as ,i have recently endeavoured to prove to the ,society1 there was an ,arctogaeal continent and an ,arctogaeal province of distribution in ,triassic times as there is now2 and the ,sauropsida and ,marsupialia which constituted that fauna were1 ,i doubt not1 the progenitors of the ,sauropsida and ,marsupialia of the whole ,mesozoic epoch4 ,looking at the present terrestrial fauna of ,australia1 it appears to me to be very probable that it is essentially a remnant of the fauna of the ,triassic1 or even of an earlier1 age#a2 in which case ,australia must at that time have been in continuity with the ,arctogaeal continent4 ,footnote #a3 ,since this ,address was read1 ,mr4 ,krefft has sent us news of the discovery in ,australia of a fresh-water fish of strangely ,palaeozoic aspect1 and apparently a ,ganoid intermediate between ,dipterus and ,lepidosiren4 ,but now comes the further inquiry4 ,where was the highly differentiated ,sauropsidan fauna of the ,trias in ,palaeozoic times8 ,the supposition that the ,dinosaurian1 ,crocodilian1 ,dicynodontian1 and ,plesiosaurian types were suddenly created at the end of the ,permian epoch may be dismissed1 without further consideration1 as a monstrous and unwarranted assumption4 ,the supposition that all these types were rapidly differentiated out of ,lacertilia1 in the time represented by the passage from the ,palaeozoic to the ,mesozoic formation1 appears to me to be hardly more credible1 to say nothing of the indications of the existence of ,dinosaurian forms in the ,permian rocks which have already been obtained4 ,for my part1 ,i entertain no sort of doubt that the ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,mammals of the ,trias are the direct descendants of ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,mammals which existed in the latter part of the ,palaeozoic epoch1 but not in any area of the present dry land which has yet been explored by the geologist4 ,this may seem a bold assumption1 but it will not appear unwarrantable to those who reflect upon the very small extent of the earth's surface which has hitherto exhibited the remains of the great ,mammalian fauna of the ,eocene times4 ,in this respect1 the ,permian land ,vertebrate fauna appears to me to be related to the ,triassic much as the ,eocene is to the ,miocene4 ,terrestrial reptiles have been found in ,permian rocks only in three localities2 in some spots of ,france1 and recently of ,england1 and over a more extensive area in ,germany4 ,who can suppose that the few fossils yet found in these regions give any sufficient representation of the ,permian fauna8 ,it may be said that the ,carboniferous formations demonstrate the existence of a vast extent of dry land in the present dry-land area1 and that the supposed terrestrial ,palaeozoic ,vertebrate ,fauna ought to have left its remains in the ,coal-measures1 especially as there is now reason to believe that much of the coal was formed by the accumulation of spores and sporangia on dry land4 ,but if we consider the matter more closely1 ,i think that this apparent objection loses its force4 ,it is clear that1 during the ,carboniferous epoch1 the vast area of land which is now covered by ,coal-measures must have been undergoing a gradual depression4 ,the dry land thus depressed must1 therefore1 have existed1 as such1 before the ,carboniferous epoch--in other words1 in ,devonian times--and its terrestrial population may never have been other than such as existed during the ,devonian1 or some previous epoch1 although much higher forms may have been developed elsewhere4 ,again1 let me say that ,i am making no gratuitous assumption of inconceivable changes4 ,it is clear that the enormous area of ,polynesia is1 on the whole1 an area over which depression has taken place to an immense extent2 consequently a great continent1 or assemblage of subcontinental masses of land1 must have existed at some former time1 and that at a recent period1 geologically speaking1 in the area of the ,pacific4 ,but if that continent had contained ,mammals1 some of them must have remained to tell the tale2 and as it is well known that these islands have no indigenous ,mammalia1 it is safe to assume that none existed4 ,thus1 midway between ,australia and ,south ,america1 each of which possesses an abundant and diversified mammalian fauna1 a mass of land1 which may have been as large as both put together1 must have existed without a mammalian inhabitant4 ,suppose that the shores of this great land were fringed1 as those of tropical ,australia are now1 with belts of mangroves1 which would extend landwards on the one side1 and be buried beneath littoral deposits on the other side1 as depression went on2 and great beds of mangrove lignite might accumulate over the sinking land4 ,let upheaval of the whole now take place1 in such a manner as to bring the emerging land into continuity with the ,south-,american or ,australian continent1 and1 in course of time1 it would be peopled by an extension of the fauna of one of these two regions--just as ,i imagine the ,european ,permian dry land to have been peopled4 ,i see nothing whatever against the supposition that distributional provinces of terrestrial life existed in the ,devonian epoch1 inasmuch as ,m4 ,barrande has proved that they existed much earlier4 ,i am aware of no reason for doubting that1 as regards the grades of terrestrial life contained in them1 one of these may have been related to another as ,new ,zealand is to ,australia1 or as ,australia is to ,india1 at the present day4 ,analogy seems to me to be rather in favour of1 than against1 the supposition that while only ,ganoid fishes inhabited the fresh waters of our ,devonian land1 ,amphibia and ,reptilia1 or even higher forms1 may have existed1 though we have not yet found them4 ,the earliest ,carboniferous ,amphibia now known1 such as ,anthracosaurus1 are so highly specialized that ,i can by no means conceive that they have been developed out of piscine forms in the interval between the ,devonian and the ,carboniferous periods1 considerable as that is4 ,and ,i take refuge in one of two alternatives3 either they existed in our own area during the ,devonian epoch and we have simply not yet found them2 or they formed part of the population of some other distributional province of that day1 and only entered our area by migration at the end of the ,devonian epoch4 ,whether ,reptilia and ,mammalia existed along with them is to me1 at present1 a perfectly open question1 which is just as likely to receive an affirmative as a negative answer from future inquirers4 ,let me now gather together the threads of my argumentation into the form of a connected hypothetical view of the manner in which the distribution of living and extinct animals has been brought about4 ,i conceive that distinct provinces of the distribution of terrestrial life have existed since the earliest period at which that life is recorded1 and possibly much earlier2 and ,i suppose1 with ,mr4 ,darwin1 that the progress of modification of terrestrial forms is more rapid in areas of elevation than in areas of depression4 ,i take it to be certain that ,labyrinthodont ,amphibia existed in the distributional province which included the dry land depressed during the ,carboniferous epoch2 and ,i conceive that1 in some other distributional provinces of that day1 which remained in the condition of stationary or of increasing dry land1 the various types of the terrestrial ,sauropsida and of the ,mammalia were gradually developing4 ,the ,permian epoch marks the commencement of a new movement of upheaval in our area1 which attained its maximum in the ,triassic epoch1 when dry land existed in ,north ,america1 ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 as it does now4 ,into this great new continental area the ,mammals1 ,birds1 and ,reptiles developed during the ,palaeozoic epoch spread1 and formed the great ,triassic ,arctogaeal province4 ,but1 at the end of the ,triassic period1 the movement of depression recommenced in our area1 though it was doubtless balanced by elevation elsewhere2 modification and development1 checked in the one province1 went on in that elsewhere2 and the chief forms of ,mammals1 ,birds1 and ,reptiles1 as we know them1 were evolved and peopled the ,mesozoic continent4 ,i conceive ,australia to have become separated from the continent as early as the end of the ,triassic epoch1 or not much later4 ,the ,mesozoic continent must1 ,i conceive1 have lain to the east1 about the shores of the ,north ,pacific and ,indian ,oceans2 and ,i am inclined to believe that it continued along the eastern side of the ,pacific area to what is now the province of ,austro-,columbia1 the characteristic fauna of which is probably a remnant of the population of the latter part of this period4 ,towards the latter part of the ,mesozoic period the movement of upheaval around the shores of the ,atlantic once more recommenced1 and was very probably accompanied by a depression around those of the ,pacific4 ,the ,vertebrate fauna elaborated in the ,mesozoic continent moved westward and took possession of the new lands1 which gradually increased in extent up to1 and in some directions after1 the ,miocene epoch4 ,it is in favour of this hypothesis1 ,i think1 that it is consistent with the persistence of a general uniformity in the positions of the great masses of land and water4 ,from the ,devonian period1 or earlier1 to the present day1 the four great oceans1 ,atlantic1 ,pacific1 ,arctic1 and ,antarctic1 may have occupied their present positions1 and only their coasts and channels of communication have undergone an incessant alteration4 ,and1 finally1 the hypothesis ,i have put before you requires no supposition that the rate of change in organic life has been either greater or less in ancient times than it is now2 nor any assumption1 either physical or biological1 which has not its justification in analogous phenomena of existing nature4 ,i have now only to discharge the last duty of my office1 which is to thank you1 not only for the patient attention with which you have listened to me so long to-day1 but also for the uniform kindness with which1 for the past two years1 you have rendered my endeavours to perform the important1 and often laborious1 functions of your ,president a pleasure instead of a burden4 ,x4 ,,mr4 ,,darwin',s ,,critics4#a ,the gradual lapse of time has now separated us by more than a decade from the date of the publication of the ,origin of ,species--and whatever may be thought or said about ,mr4 ,darwin's doctrines1 or the manner in which he has propounded them1 this much is certain1 that1 in a dozen years1 the ,origin of ,species has worked as complete a revolution in biological science as the ,principia did in astronomy--and it has done so1 because1 in the words of ,helmholtz1 it contains an essentially new creative thought4#b ,footnote #a3 #a4 ,contributions to the ,theory of ,natural ,selection4 ,by ,a4,r4 ,wallace4 #ahgj4--b4 ,the ,genesis of ,species4 ,by ,st4 ,george ,mivart1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,second ,edition4 #ahga4--c4 ,darwin's ,descent of ,man4 ,quarterly ,review1 ,july #ahga4 ,footnote #b3 ,helmholtz3 ,ueber das ,ziel und die ,fortschritte der ,naturwissenschaft4 ,erffnungsrede fr die ,naturforscherversammlung zu ,innsbruck4 #ahfi4 ,and as time has slipped by1 a happy change has come over ,mr4 ,darwin's critics4 ,the mixture of ignorance and insolence which1 at first1 characterized a large proportion of the attacks with which he was assailed1 is no longer the sad distinction of anti-,darwinian criticism4 ,instead of abusive nonsense1 which merely discredited its writers1 we read essays1 which are1 at worst1 more or less intelligent and appreciative2 while1 sometimes1 like that which appeared in the ,north ,british ,review for #ahfg1 they have a real and permanent value4 ,the several publications of ,mr4 ,wallace and ,mr4 ,mivart contain discussions of some of ,mr4 ,darwin's views1 which are worthy of particular attention1 not only on account of the acknowledged scientific competence of these writers1 but because they exhibit an attention to those philosophical questions which underlie all physical science1 which is as rare as it is needful4 ,and the same may be said of an article in the ,quarterly ,review for ,july #ahga1 the comparison of which with an article in the same ,review for ,july #ahfj1 is perhaps the best evidence which can be brought forward of the change which has taken place in public opinion on ,darwinism4 ,the ,quarterly ,reviewer admits the certainty of the action of natural selection 7p4 #di72 and further allows that there is an priori probability in favour of the evolution of man from some lower animal form1 if these lower animal forms themselves have arisen by evolution4 ,mr4 ,wallace and ,mr4 ,mivart go much further than this4 ,they are as stout believers in evolution as ,mr4 ,darwin himself2 but ,mr4 ,wallace denies that man can have been evolved from a lower animal by that process of natural selection which he1 with ,mr4 ,darwin1 holds to have been sufficient for the evolution of all animals below man2 while ,mr4 ,mivart1 admitting that natural selection has been one of the conditions of the evolution of the animals below man1 maintains that natural selection must1 even in their case1 have been supplemented by some other cause--of the nature of which1 unfortunately1 he does not give us any idea4 ,thus ,mr4 ,mivart is less of a ,darwinian than ,mr4 ,wallace1 for he has less faith in the power of natural selection4 ,but he is more of an evolutionist than ,mr4 ,wallace1 because ,mr4 ,wallace thinks it necessary to call in an intelligent agent--a sort of supernatural ,sir ,john ,sebright--to produce even the animal frame of man2 while ,mr4 ,mivart requires no ,divine assistance till he comes to man's soul4 ,thus there is a considerable divergence between ,mr4 ,wallace and ,mr4 ,mivart4 ,on the other hand1 there are some curious similarities between ,mr4 ,mivart and the ,quarterly ,reviewer1 and these are sometimes so close1 that1 if ,mr4 ,mivart thought it worth while1 ,i think he might make out a good case of plagiarism against the ,reviewer1 who studiously abstains from quoting him4 ,both the ,reviewer and ,mr4 ,mivart reproach ,mr4 ,darwin with being1 like so many other physicists1 entangled in a radically false metaphysical system1 and with setting at nought the first principles of both philosophy and religion4 ,both enlarge upon the necessity of a sound philosophical basis1 and both1 ,i venture to add1 make a conspicuous exhibition of its absence4 ,the ,quarterly ,reviewer believes that man differs more from an elephant or a gorilla than do these from the dust of the earth on which they tread1 and ,mr4 ,mivart has expressed the opinion that there is more difference between man and an ape than there is between an ape and a piece of granite4#a ,footnote #a3 ,see the ,tablet for ,march #aa1 #ahga4 ,and even when ,mr4 ,mivart 7p4 #hf7 trips in a matter of anatomy1 and creates a difficulty for ,mr4 ,darwin out of a supposed close similarity between the eyes of fishes and cephalopods1 which 7as ,gegenbaur and others have clearly shown7 does not exist1 the ,quarterly ,reviewer adopts the argument without hesitation 7p4 #ff74 ,there is another important point1 however1 in which it is hard to say whether ,mr4 ,mivart diverges from the ,quarterly ,reviewer or not4 ,the ,reviewer declares that ,mr4 ,darwin has1 with needless opposition1 set at nought the first principles of both philosophy and religion 7p4 #ij74 ,it looks1 at first1 as if this meant1 that ,mr4 ,darwin's views being false1 the opposition to religion which flows from them must be needless4 ,but ,i suspect this is not the right view of the meaning of the passage1 as ,mr4 ,mivart1 from whom the ,quarterly ,reviewer plainly draws so much inspiration1 tells us that the consequences which have been drawn from evolution1 whether exclusively ,darwinian or not1 to the prejudice of religion1 by no means follow from it1 and are in fact illegitimate 7p4 #e74 ,i may assume1 then1 that the ,quarterly ,reviewer and ,mr4 ,mivart admit that there is no necessary opposition between evolution1 whether exclusively ,darwinian or not1 and religion4 ,but then1 what do they mean by this last much-abused term8 ,on this point the ,quarterly ,reviewer is silent4 ,mr4 ,mivart1 on the contrary1 is perfectly explicit1 and the whole tenor of his remarks leaves no doubt that by religion he means theology2 and by theology1 that particular variety of the great ,proteus1 which is expounded by the doctors of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 and held by the members of that religious community to be the sole form of absolute truth and of saving faith4 ,according to ,mr4 ,mivart1 the greatest and most orthodox authorities upon matters of ,catholic doctrine agree in distinctly asserting derivative creation or evolution2 and thus their teachings harmonize with all that modern science can possibly require 7p4 #cje74 ,i confess that this bold assertion interested me more than anything else in ,mr4 ,mivart's book4 ,what little knowledge ,i possessed of ,catholic doctrine1 and of the influence exerted by ,catholic authority in former times1 had not led me to expect that modern science was likely to find a warm welcome within the pale of the greatest and most consistent of theological organizations4 ,and my astonishment reached its climax when ,i found ,mr4 ,mivart citing ,father ,suarez as his chief witness in favour of the scientific freedom enjoyed by ,catholics--the popular repute of that learned theologian and subtle casuist not being such as to make his works a likely place of refuge for liberality of thought4 ,but in these days1 when ,judas ,iscariot and ,robespierre1 ,henry ,,viii4 and ,catiline1 have all been shown to be men of admirable virtue1 far in advance of their age1 and consequently the victims of vulgar prejudice1 it was obviously possible that ,jesuit ,suarez might be in like case4 ,and1 spurred by ,mr4 ,mivart's unhesitating declaration1 ,i hastened to acquaint myself with such of the works of the great ,catholic divine as bore upon the question1 hoping1 not merely to acquaint myself with the true teachings of the infallible ,church1 and free myself of an unjust prejudice2 but1 haply1 to enable myself1 at a pinch1 to put some ,protestant bibliolater to shame1 by the bright example of ,catholic freedom from the trammels of verbal inspiration4 ,i regret to say that my anticipations have been cruelly disappointed4 ,but the extent to which my hopes have been crushed can only be fully appreciated by citing1 in the first place1 those passages of ,mr4 ,mivart's work by which they were excited4 ,in his introductory chapter ,i find the following passages3-- ,the prevalence of this theory of evolution need alarm no one1 for it is1 without any doubt1 perfectly consistent with the strictest and most orthodox ,christian#a theology 7p4 #e74 ,footnote #a3 ,it should be observed that ,mr4 ,mivart employs the term ,christian as if it were the equivalent of ,catholic4 ,mr4 ,darwin and others may perhaps be excused if they have not devoted much time to the study of ,christian philosophy2 but they have no right to assume or accept without careful examination1 as an unquestioned fact1 that in that philosophy there is a necessary antagonism between the two ideas 'creation' and 'evolution1' as applied to organic forms4 ,it is notorious and patent to all who choose to seek1 that many distinguished ,christian thinkers have accepted1 and do accept1 both ideas1 i4e4 both 'creation' and 'evolution4' ,as much as ten years ago an eminently ,christian writer observed3 ',the creationist theory does not necessitate the perpetual search after manifestations of miraculous power and perpetual catastrophes4 ,creation is not a miraculous interference with the laws of nature1 but the very institution of those laws4 ,law and regularity1 not arbitrary intervention1 was the patristic ideal of creation4 ,with this notion they admitted1 without difficulty1 the most surprising origin of living creatures1 provided it took place by law4 ,they held that when ,god said1 ,let the waters produce1 ,let the earth produce1 ,he conferred forces on the elements of earth and water1 which enabled them naturally to produce the various species of organic beings4 ,this power1 they thought1 remains attached to the elements throughout all time4' ,the same writer quotes ,st4 ,augustin and ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 to the effect that1 'in the institution of nature1 we do not look for miracles1 but for the laws of nature1' ,and1 again1 ,st4 ,basil speaks of the continued operation of natural laws in the production of all organisms4 ,so much for the writers of early and mediaeval times4 ,as to the present day1 the author can confidently affirm that there are many as well versed in theology as ,mr4 ,darwin is in his own department of natural knowledge1 who would not be disturbed by the thorough demonstration of his theory4 ,nay1 they would not even be in the least painfully affected at witnessing the generation of animals of complex organization by the skilful artificial arrangement of natural forces1 and the production1 in the future1 of a fish by means analogous to those by which we now produce urea4 ,and this because they know that the possibility of such phenomena1 though by no means actually foreseen1 has yet been fully provided for in the old philosophy centuries before ,darwin1 or even centuries before ,bacon1 and that their place in the system can be at once assigned them without even disturbing its order or marring its harmony4 ,moreover1 the old tradition in this respect has never been abandoned1 however much it may have been ignored or neglected by some modern writers4 ,in proof of this1 it may be observed that perhaps no post-mediaeval theologian has a wider reception amongst ,christians throughout the world than ,suarez1 who has a separate section#a in opposition to those who maintain the distinct creation of the various kinds--or substantial forms--of organic life 7pp4 #ai-ba74 ,footnote #a3 ,suarez2 ,metaphysica4 ,edition ,vivs4 ,paris1 #ahfh1 vol4 i4 ,disput4 xv4 #b4 ,still more distinctly does ,mr4 ,mivart express himself1 in the same sense1 in his last chapter1 entitled ,theology and ,evolution 7pp4 #cjb-e74 ,it appears1 then1 that ,christian thinkers are perfectly free to accept the general evolution theory4 ,but are there any theological authorities to justify this view of the matter8 ,now1 considering how extremely recent are these biological speculations1 it might hardly be expected priori that writers of earlier ages should have given expression to doctrines harmonizing in any degree with such very modern views2 nevertheless1 this is certainly the case1 and it would be easy to give numerous examples4 ,it will be better1 however1 to cite one or two authorities of weight4 ,perhaps no writer of the earlier ,christian ages could be quoted whose authority is more generally recognized than that of ,st4 ,augustin4 ,the same may be said of the mediaeval period for ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas3 and since the movement of ,luther1 ,suarez may be taken as an authority1 widely venerated1 and one whose orthodoxy has never been questioned4 ,it must be borne in mind that for a considerable time even after the last of these writers no one had disputed the generally received belief as to the small age of the world1 or at least of the kinds of animals and plants inhabiting it4 ,it becomes1 therefore1 much more striking if views formed under such a condition of opinion are found to harmonize with modern ideas concerning ',creation' and organic ,life4 ,now ,st4 ,augustin insists in a very remarkable manner on the merely derivative sense in which ,god's creation of organic forms is to be understood2 that is1 that ,god created them by conferring on the material world the power to evolve them under suitable conditions4 ,mr4 ,mivart then cites certain passages from ,st4 ,augustin1 ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 and ,cornelius ,lapide1 and finally adds3-- ,as to ,suarez1 it will be enough to refer to ,disp4 xv4 sec4 #b1 ,no4 #i1 p4 #ejh1 t4i4 edition ,vivs1 ,paris2 also ,nos4 #ac--ae4 ,many other references to the same effect could easily be given1 but these may suffice4 ,it is then evident that ancient and most venerable theological authorities distinctly assert derivative creation1 and thus their teachings harmonize with all that modern science can possibly require4 ,it will be observed that ,mr4 ,mivart refers solely to ,suarez's fifteenth ,disputation1 though he adds1 ,many other references to the same effect could easily be given4 ,i shall look anxiously for these references in the third edition of the ,genesis of ,species4 ,for the present1 all ,i can say is1 that ,i have sought in vain1 either in the fifteenth ,disputation1 or elsewhere1 for any passage in ,suarez's writings which1 in the slightest degree1 bears out ,mr4 ,mivart's views as to his opinions4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the edition of ,suarez's ,disputationes from which the following citations are given1 is ,birckmann's1 in two volumes folio1 and is dated #afcj4 ,the title of this fifteenth ,disputation is ,de causa formali substantiali1 and the second section of that ,disputation 7to which ,mr4 ,mivart refers7 is headed1 ,quomodo possit forma substantialis fieri in materia et ex materia8 ,the problem which ,suarez discusses in this place may be popularly stated thus3 ,according to the scholastic philosophy every natural body has two components--the one its matter 7materia prima71 the other its substantial form 7forma substantialis74 ,of these the matter is everywhere the same1 the matter of one body being indistinguishable from the matter of any other body4 ,that which differentiates any one natural body from all others is its substantial form1 which inheres in the matter of that body1 as the human soul inheres in the matter of the frame of man1 and is the source of all the activities and other properties of the body4 ,thus1 says ,suarez1 if water is heated1 and the source of heat is then removed1 it cools again4 ,the reason of this is that there is a certain intimius principium in the water1 which brings it back to the cool condition when the external impediment to the existence of that condition is removed4 ,this intimius principium1 is the substantial form of the water4 ,and the substantial form of the water is not only the cause 7radix7 of the coolness of the water1 but also of its moisture1 of its density1 and of all its other properties4 ,it will thus be seen that substantial forms play nearly the same part in the scholastic philosophy as forces do in modern science2 the general tendency of modern thought being to conceive all bodies as resolvable into material particles and forces1 in virtue of which last these particles assume those dispositions and exercise those powers which are characteristic of each particular kind of matter4 ,but the ,schoolmen distinguished two kinds of substantial forms1 the one spiritual and the other material4 ,the former division is represented by the human soul1 the anima rationalis2 and they affirm as a matter1 not merely of reason1 but of faith1 that every human soul is created out of nothing1 and by this act of creation is endowed with the power of existing for all eternity1 apart from the materia prima of which the corporeal frame of man is composed4 ,and the anima rationalis1 once united with the materia prima of the body1 becomes its substantial form1 and is the source of all the powers and faculties of man--of all the vital and sensitive phenomena which he exhibits--just as the substantial form of water is the source of all its qualities4 ,the material substantial forms are those which inform all other natural bodies except that of man2 and the object of ,suarez in the present ,disputation1 is to show that the axiom ex nihilo nihil fit1 though not true of the substantial form of man1 is true of the substantial forms of all other bodies1 the endless mutations of which constitute the ordinary course of nature4 ,the origin of the difficulty which he discusses is easily comprehensible4 ,suppose a piece of bright iron to be exposed to the air4 ,the existence of the iron depends on the presence within it of a substantial form1 which is the cause of its properties1 e4g4 brightness1 hardness1 weight4 ,but1 by degrees1 the iron becomes converted into a mass of rust1 which is dull1 and soft1 and light1 and1 in all other respects1 is quite different from the iron4 ,as1 in the scholastic view1 this difference is due to the rust being informed by a new substantial form1 the grave problem arises1 how did this new substantial form come into being8 ,has it been created8 or has it arisen by the power of natural causation8 ,if the former hypothesis is correct1 then the axiom1 ex nihilo nihil fit1 is false1 even in relation to the ordinary course of nature1 seeing that such mutations of matter as imply the continual origin of new substantial forms are occurring every moment4 ,but the harmonization of ,aristotle with theology was as dear to the ,schoolmen1 as the smoothing down the differences between ,moses and science is to our ,broad ,churchmen1 and they were proportionably unwilling to contradict one of ,aristotle's fundamental propositions4 ,nor was their objection to flying in the face of the ,stagirite likely to be lessened by the fact that such flight landed them in flat ,pantheism4 ,so ,father ,suarez fights stoutly for the second hypothesis2 and ,i quote the principal part of his argumentation as an exquisite specimen of that speech which is a darkening of counsel4 #ac4 ,secundo de omnibus aliis formis substantialibus 7sc4 materialibus7 dicendum est non fieri proprie ex nihilo1 sed ex potentia praejacentis materiae educi3 ideoque in effectione harum formarum nil fieri contra illud axioma1 ,ex nihila nihil fit1 si recte intelligatur4 ,haec assertio sumitur ex ,aristotele #a4 ,physicorum per totum et libro #g4 ,metaphyss4 et ex aliis authoribus1 quos statim referam4 ,et declaratur breviter1 nam fieri ex nihilo duo dicit1 unum est fieri absolute et simpliciter1 aliud est quod talis effectio fit ex nihilo4 ,primum propri dicitur de re subsistente1 quia ejus est fieri1 cujus est esse3 id autem proprie quod subsistit et habet esse2 nam quod alteri adjacet1 potius est quo aliud est4 ,ex hac ergo parte1 formae substantiales materiales non fiunt ex nihilo1 quia proprie non fiunt4 ,atque hanc rationem reddit ,divus ,thomas ,i parte1 quaestione #de1 articulo #h1 et quaestione #ij1 articulo #b1 et ex dicendis magis explicabitur4 ,sumendo ergo ipsum fieri in hac proprietate et rigore1 sic fieri ex nihilo est fieri secundum se totum1 id est nulla sui parte praesupposita1 ex quo fiat4 ,et hac ratione res naturales dum de novo fiunt1 non fiunt ex nihilo1 quia fiunt ex praesupposita materia1 ex qua componuntur1 et ita non fiunt1 secundum se totae1 sed secundum aliquid sui4 ,formae autem harum rerum1 quamvis revera totam suam entitatem de novo accipiant1 quam antea non habebant1 quia vero ipsae non fiunt1 ut dictum est1 ideo neque ex nihilo fiunt4 ,attamen1 quia latiori modo sumendo verbum illud fieri negari non potest3 quia forma facta sit1 eo modo quo nunc est1 et antea non erat1 ut etiam probat ratio dubitandi posita in principio sectionis1 ideo addendum est1 sumpto fieri in hac amplitudine1 fieri ex nihilo non tamen negare habitudinem materialis causea intrinsec componentis id quod fit1 sed etiam habitudinem causae materialis per se causantis et sustentantis formam quae fit1 seu confit4 ,diximus enim in superioribus materiam et esse causam compositi et formae dependentis ab ilia3 ut res ergo dicatur ex nihilo fieri uterque modus causalitatis negari debet2 et eodem sensu accipiendum est illud axioma1 ut sit verum3 ,ex nihilo nihil fit1 scilicet virtute agentis naturalis et finiti nihil fieri1 nisi ex praesupposito subjecto per se concurrente1 et ad compositum et ad formam1 si utrumque suo modo ab eodem agente fiat4 ,ex his ergo rect concluditur1 formas substantiales materiales non fieri ex nihilo1 quia fiunt ex materia1 quae in suo genere per se concurrit1 et influit ad esse1 et fieri talium formarum2 quia1 sicut esse non possunt nisi affixae materiae1 a qua sustententur in esse3 ita nec fieri possunt1 nisi earum effectio et penetratio in eadem materia sustentetur4 ,et haec est propria et per se differentia inter effectionem ex nihilo1 et ex aliquo1 propter quam1 ut infra ostendemus1 prior modus effciendi superat vim finitam naturaliam agentium1 non vero posterior4 #ad4 ,ex his etiam constat1 proprie de his formis dici non creari1 sed educi de potentia materiae4#a ,footnote #a3 ,suarez1 loc4 cit4 ,disput4 xv4 ii4 ,if ,i may venture to interpret these hard sayings1 ,suarez conceives that the evolution of substantial forms in the ordinary course of nature1 is conditioned not only by the existence of the materia prima1 but also by a certain concurrence and influence which that materia exerts2 and every new substantial form being thus conditioned1 and in part1 at any rate1 caused1 by a pre-existing something1 cannot be said to be created out of nothing4 ,but as the whole tenor of the context shows1 ,suarez applies this argumentation merely to the evolution of material substantial forms in the ordinary course of nature4 ,how the substantial forms of animals and plants primarily originated1 is a question to which1 so far as ,i am able to discover1 he does not so much as allude in his ,metaphysical ,disputations4 ,nor was there any necessity that he should do so1 inasmuch as he has devoted a separate treatise of considerable bulk to the discussion of all the problems which arise out of the account of the ,creation which is given in the ,book of ,genesis4 ,and it is a matter of wonderment to me that ,mr4 ,mivart1 who somewhat sharply reproves ,mr4 ,darwin and others for not acquainting themselves with the true teachings of his ,church1 should allow himself to be indebted to a heretic like myself for a knowledge of the existence of that ,tractatus de opere sex ,dierum1 ,i in which the learned ,father1 of whom he justly speaks1 as an authority widely venerated1 and whose orthodoxy has never been questioned1 directly opposes all those opinions1 for which ,mr4 ,mivart claims the shelter of his authority4 ,in the tenth and eleventh chapters of the first book of this treatise1 ,suarez inquires in what sense the word day1 as employed in the first chapter of ,genesis1 is to be taken4 ,he discusses the views of ,philo and of ,augustin on this question1 and rejects them4 ,he suggests that the approval of their allegorizing interpretations by ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 merely arose out of ,st4 ,thomas's modesty1 and his desire not to seem openly to controvert ,st4 ,augustin--voluisse ,divus ,thomas pro sua modestia subterfugere vim argumenti potius quam aperte ,augustinum inconstantiae arguere4 ,finally1 ,suarez decides that the writer of ,genesis meant that the term day should be taken in its natural sense2 and he winds up the discussion with the very just and natural remark that it is not probable that ,god1 in inspiring ,moses to write a history of the ,creation which was to be believed by ordinary people1 would have made him use language1 the true meaning of which it is hard to discover1 and still harder to believe4#a ,footnote #a3 ,tractatus de opere sex ,dierum1 seu de ,universi ,creatione1 quatenus sex diebus perfecta esse1 in libro ,genesis cap4 i4 refertur1 et praesertim de productioue hominis in statu innocentiae4 ,ed4 ,birckmann1 #afbb4 ,and in chapter xii4 #c1 ,suarez further observes3-- ,ratio enim retinendi veram significationem diei naturalis est illa communis1 quod verba ,scripturae non sunt ad metaphoras transferenda1 nisi vel necessitas cogit1 vel ex ipsa scriptura constet1 et maxim in historica narratione et ad instructionem fidei pertinente3 sed haec ratio non minus cogit ad intelligendum propri dierum numerum1 quam diei qualitatem1 ,,quia ,,non ,,minus ,,uno ,,modo ,,quam ,,alio ,,destruitur ,,sinceritas1 ,,imo ,,et ,,veritas ,,historiae4 ,secundo hoc valde confirmant alia ,scripturae loca1 in quibus hi sex dies tanquam veri1 et inter se distincti commemorantur1 ut ,exod4 #bj dicitur1 ,sex diebus operabis et facies omnia opera tua1 septimo autem die ,sabbatum ,domini ,dei tui est4 ,et infra3 ,sex enim diebus fecit ,dominus caelum et terram et mare et omnia quae in eis sunt1 et idem repetitur in cap4 #ca4 ,in quibus locis sermonis proprietas colligi potest tum ex aequiparatione1 nam cum dicitur3 sex diebus operabis1 propriissim intelligitur3 tum quia non est verisimile1 potuisse populum intelligere verba illa in alio sensu1 et contrario incredibile est1 ,deum in suis praeceptis tradendis illis verbis ad populum fuisse loquutum1 quibus deciperetur1 falsum sensum concipiendo1 si ,deus non per sex veros dies opera sua fecisset4 ,these passages leave no doubt that this great doctor of the ,catholic ,church1 of unchallenged authority and unspotted orthodoxy1 not only declares it to be ,catholic doctrine that the work of creation took place in the space of six natural days2 but that he warmly repudiates1 as inconsistent with our knowledge of the ,divine attributes1 the supposition that the language which ,catholic faith requires the believer to hold that ,god inspired1 was used in any other sense than that which ,he knew it would convey to the minds of those to whom it was addressed4 ,and ,i think that in this repudiation ,father ,suarez will have the sympathy of every man of common uprightness1 to whom it is certainly incredible that the ,almighty should have acted in a manner which ,he would esteem dishonest and base in a man4 ,but the belief that the universe was created in six natural days is hopelessly inconsistent with the doctrine of evolution1 in so far as it applies to the stars and planetary bodies2 and it can be made to agree with a belief in the evolution of living beings only by the supposition that the plants and animals1 which are said to have been created on the third1 fifth1 and six days1 were merely the primordial forms1 or rudiments1 out of which existing plants and animals have been evolved2 so that1 on these days1 plants and animals were not created actually1 but only potentially4 ,the latter view is that held by ,mr4 ,mivart1 who follows ,st4 ,augustin1 and implies that he has the sanction of ,suarez4 ,but1 in point of fact1 the latter great light of orthodoxy takes no small pains to give the most explicit and direct contradiction to all such imaginations1 as the following passages prove4 ,in the first place1 as regards plants1 ,suarez discusses the problem3-- ,quomodo herba virens et caetera vegetabilia hoc tertio die fuerint producta4#a ,footnote #a3 ,propter haec ergo sententia illa ,augustini et propter nimiam obscuritatem et subtilitatem ejus difficilis creditu est3 quia verisimile non est ,deum inspirasse ,moysi1 ut historiam de creatione mundi ad fidem totius populi adeo necessariam per nomina dierum explicaret1 quorum significatio vix inveniri et difficillime ab aliquo credi posset4 7,loc4 cit4 ,lib4 ,i4 cap4 xi4 #db47 ,praecipua enim difficultas hc est1 quam attingit ,div4 ,thomas ,i1 par4 qu4 #fi1 art4 #b1 an haec productio plantarum hoc die facta intelligenda sit de productione ipsarum in proprio esse actuali et formali 7ut sic rem explicerem7 vel de productione tantum in semine et in potentia4 ,nam ,divus ,augustinus libro quinto ,genes1 ad liter1 cap4 #d et #e et libro #h1 cap4 #c1 posteriorem partem tradit1 dicens1 terram in hoc die accepisse virtutem germinandi omnia vegetabilia quasi concepto omnium illorum semine1 non tamen statim vegetabilia omnia produxisse4 ,quod primo suadet verbis illis capitis secundi4 ,in die quo fecit ,deus coelum et terram et omne virgultum agri priusquam1 germinaret4 ,quomodo enim potuerunt virgulta fieri antequam terra germinaret nisi quia causaliter prius et quasi in radice1 seu in semine facta sunt1 et postea in actu producta8 ,secundo confirmari potest1 quia verbum illud germinet terra optim exponitur potestativ ut sic dicam1 id est1 accipiat terra vim germinandi4 ,sicut in eodem capite dicitur crescite et multiplicamini4 ,tertio potest confirmari1 quia actualis productio vegetabilium non tarn ad opus creationis1 quam ad opus propagationis pertinet1 quod postea factum est4 ,et hanc sententiam sequitur ,eucherius lib4 #a1 in ,gen4 cap4 #aa1 et illi faveat ,glossa1 interli4 ,hugo4 et ,lyran4 dum verbum germinet dicto modo exponunt4 ,,nihilominus ,,contraria ,,sententia ,,tenenda ,,est3 ,,scilicet1 ,,produxisse ,,deum ,,hoc ,,die ,,herbam1 ,,arbores1 ,,et ,,alia ,,vegetabilia ,,actu ,,in ,,propria ,,specie ,,et ,,natura4 ,haec est communis sententia ,patrum4--,basil1 homil4 #e2 ,exaemer4 ,ambros4 lib4 #c2 ,exaemer4 cap4 #h1aa1 et #af2 ,chrysost1 homil4 #e in ,gen4 ,damascene1 lib4 #b de ,fid4 cap4 #aj2 ,theodor4 ,cyrilli4 ,bedae1 ,glossae ordinariae et aliorum in ,gen4 ,et idem sentit ,divus ,thomas1 supra1 solvens argumenta ,augustini1 quamvis propter reverentiam ejus quasi problematic semper procedat4 ,denique idem sentiunt omnes qui in his operibus veram successionem et temporalem distinctionem agnoscant4 ,secondly1 with respect to animals1 ,suarez is no less decided3-- ,de animalium ratione carentium productione quinto et sexto die facta4#a #cb4 ,primo ergo nobis certum sit haec animantia non in virtute tantum aut in semine1 sed actu1 et in seipsis1 facta fuisse his diebus in quibus facta narrantur4 ,quanquam ,augustinus lib4 #c1 ,gen4 ad liter1 cap4 #e in sua persistens sententia contrarium sentire videatur4 ,footnote #a3 ,loc4 cit4 ,lib4 ,,ii4 cap4 vii4 et viii4 #a1 #cb1 #ce4 ,but ,suarez proceeds to refute ,augustin's opinions at great length1 and his final judgment may be gathered from the following passage3-- #ce4 ,tertio dicendum est1 haec animalia omnia his diebus producta esse1 ,,in ,,perfecto ,,statu1 ,,in ,,singulis ,,individuis1 ,,seu ,,speciebus ,,suis1 ,,juxta ,,uniuscujusque ,,naturam4444 ,,itaque ,,fuerunt ,,omnia ,,creata ,,integra ,,et ,,omnibus ,,suis ,,membris ,,perfecta4 ,as regards the creation of animals and plants1 therefore1 it is clear that ,suarez1 so far from distinctly asserting derivative creation1 denies it as distinctly and positively as he can2 that he is at much pains to refute ,st4 ,augustin's opinions2 that he does not hesitate to regard the faint acquiescence of ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas in the views of his brother saint as a kindly subterfuge on the part of ,divus ,thomas2 and that he affirms his own view to be that which is supported by the authority of the ,fathers of the ,church4 ,so that1 when ,mr4 ,mivart tells us that ,catholic theology is in harmony with all that modern science can possibly require2 that to the general theory of evolution1 and to the special ,darwinian form of it1 no exception 444 need be taken on the ground of orthodoxy2 and that law and regularity1 not arbitrary intervention1 was the ,patristic ideal of creation1 we have to choose between his dictum1 as a theologian1 and that of a great light of his ,church1 whom he himself declares to be widely venerated as an authority1 and whose orthodoxy has never been questioned4 ,but ,mr4 ,mivart does not hesitate to push his attempt to harmonize science with ,catholic orthodoxy to its utmost limit2 and1 while assuming that the soul of man arises from immediate and direct creation1 he supposes that his body was formed at first 7as now in each separate individual7 by derivative1 or secondary creation1 through natural laws 7p4 #cca74 ,this means1 ,i presume1 that an animal1 having the corporeal form and bodily powers of man1 may have been developed out of some lower form of life by a process of evolution2 and that1 after this anthropoid animal had existed for a longer or shorter time1 ,god made a soul by direct creation1 and put it into the manlike body1 which1 heretofore1 had been devoid of that anima rationalis1 which is supposed to be man's distinctive character4 ,this hypothesis is incapable of either proof or disproof1 and therefore may be true2 but if ,suarez is any authority1 it is not ,catholic doctrine4 ,nulla est in homine forma educta de potentia materiae1#a is a dictum which is absolutely inconsistent with the doctrine of the natural evolution of any vital manifestation of the human body4 ,footnote #a3 ,disput4 xv4 x4 ,no4 #bg4 ,moreover1 if man existed as an animal before he was provided with a rational soul1 he must1 in accordance with the elementary requirements of the philosophy in which ,mr4 ,mivart delights1 have possessed a distinct sensitive and vegetative soul1 or souls4 ,hence1 when the breath of life was breathed into the manlike animal's nostrils1 he must have already been a living and feeling creature4 ,but ,suarez particularly discusses this point1 and not only rejects ,mr4 ,mivart's view1 but adopts language of very theological strength regarding it4 ,possent praeterea his adjungi argumenta theologica1 ut est illud quod sumitur ex illis verbis ,genes4 #b4 ,formavit ,deus hominem ex limo terrae et inspiravit in faciem ejus spiraculum vitae et factus est homo in animam viventem3 ille enim spiritus1 quam ,deus spiravit1 anima rationalis fuit1 et ,,per ,,eadem ,,factus ,,est ,,homo ,,vivens1 ,,et ,,consequenter1 ,,etiam ,,sentiens4 ,aliud est ex ,,viii4 ,synodo ,generali quae est ,constantinopolitana ,,iv4 can4 #aa1 qui sic habet4 ,apparet quosdam in tantum impietatis venisse ut homines duas animas habere dogmatizent3 talis igitur impietatis inventores et similes sapientes1 cum ,vetus et ,novum ,testamentum omnesque ,ecclesiae patres unam animam rationalem hominem habere asseverent1 ,sancta et universalis ,synodus anathematizat4#a ,footnote #a3 ,disput4 xv4 ,de causa formali substantiali1 x4 ,no4 #bd4 ,moreover1 if the animal nature of man was the result of evolution1 so must that of woman have been4 ,but the ,catholic doctrine1 according to ,suarez1 is that woman was1 in the strictest and most literal sense of the words1 made out of the rib of man4 ,nihilominus sententia ,catholica est1 verba illa ,scripturae esse ad literam intelligenda4 ,,ac ,,proinde ,,vere1 ,,ac ,,realiter1 ,,tulisse ,,deum ,,costam ,,adae1 ,,et1 ,,ex ,,illa1 ,,corpus ,,evae ,,formasse4#a ,footnote #a3 ,tractatus de ,opere1 ,lib4 ,,iii4 ,de hominis creatione1 cap4 ii4 ,no4 #c4 ,nor is there any escape in the supposition that some woman existed before ,eve1 after the fashion of the ,lilith of the rabbis2 since ,suarez qualifies that notion1 along with some other ,judaic imaginations1 as simply damnabilis4#a ,footnote #a3 ,ibid4 ,lib4 ,,iii4 cap4 iv4 ,nos4 #h and #i4 ,after the perusal of the ,tractatus de ,opere it is1 in fact1 impossible to admit that ,suarez held any opinion respecting the origin of species1 except such as is consistent with the strictest and most literal interpretation of the words of ,genesis4 ,for ,suarez1 it is ,catholic doctrine1 that the world was made in six natural days4 ,on the first of these days the materia prima was made out of nothing1 to receive afterwards those substantial forms which moulded it into the universe of things2 on the third day1 the ancestors of all living plants suddenly came into being1 full-grown1 perfect1 and possessed of all the properties which now distinguish them2 while1 on the fifth and sixth days1 the ancestors of all existing animals were similarly caused to exist in their complete and perfect state1 by the infusion of their appropriate material substantial forms into the matter which had already been created4 ,finally on the sixth day1 the anima rationalis--that rational and immortal substantial form which is peculiar to man--was created out of nothing1 and breathed into a mass of matter which1 till then1 was mere dust of the earth1 and so man arose4 ,but the species man was represented by a solitary male individual1 until the ,creator took out one of his ribs and fashioned it into a female4 ,this is the view of the ,genesis of ,species1 held by ,suarez to be the only one consistent with ,catholic faith3 it is because he holds this view to be ,catholic that he does not hesitate to declare ,st4 ,augustin unsound1 and ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas guilty of weakness1 when the one swerved from this view and the other tolerated the deviation4 ,and1 until responsible ,catholic authority--say1 for example1 the ,archbishop of ,westminster--formally declares that ,suarez was wrong1 and that ,catholic priests are free to teach their flocks that the world was not made in six natural days1 and that plants and animals were not created in their perfect and complete state1 but have been evolved by natural processes through long ages from certain germs in which they were potentially contained1 ,i1 for one1 shall feel bound to believe that the doctrines of ,suarez are the only ones which are sanctioned by ,infallible ,authority1 as represented by the ,holy ,father and the ,catholic ,church4 ,i need hardly add that they are as absolutely denied and repudiated by ,scientific ,authority1 as represented by ,reason and ,fact4 ,the question whether the earth and the immediate progenitors of its present living population were made in six natural days or not1 is no longer one upon which two opinions can be held4 ,the fact that it did not so come into being stands upon as sound a basis as any fact of history whatever4 ,it is not true that existing plants and animals came into being within three days of the creation of the earth out of nothing1 for it is certain that innumerable generations of other plants and animals lived upon the earth before its present population4 ,and when1 ,sunday after ,sunday1 men who profess to be our instructors in righteousness read out the statement1 ,in six days the ,lord made heaven and earth1 the sea1 and all that in them is1 in innumerable churches1 they are either propagating what they may easily know1 and1 therefore1 are bound to know1 to be falsities2 or1 if they use the words in some non-natural sense1 they fall below the moral standard of the much-abused ,jesuit4 ,thus far the contradiction between ,catholic verity and ,scientific verity is complete and absolute1 quite independently of the truth or falsehood of the doctrine of evolution4 ,but1 for those who hold the doctrine of evolution1 all the ,catholic verities about the creation of living beings must be no less false4 ,for them1 the assertion that the progenitors of all existing plants were made on the third day1 of animals on the fifth and sixth days1 in the forms they now present1 is simply false4 ,nor can they admit that man was made suddenly out of the dust of the earth2 while it would be an insult to ask an evolutionist whether he credits the preposterous fable respecting the fabrication of woman to which ,suarez pins his faith4 ,if ,suarez has rightly stated ,catholic doctrine1 then is evolution utter heresy4 ,and such ,i believe it to be4 ,in addition to the truth of the doctrine of evolution1 indeed1 one of its greatest merits in my eyes1 is the fact that it occupies a position of complete and irreconcilable antagonism to that vigorous and consistent enemy of the highest intellectual1 moral1 and social life of mankind--the ,catholic ,church4 ,no doubt1 ,mr4 ,mivart1 like other putters of new wine into old bottles1 is actuated by motives which are worthy of respect1 and even of sympathy2 but his attempt has met with the fate which the ,scripture prophesies for all such4 ,catholic theology1 like all theologies which are based upon the assumption of the truth of the account of the origin of things given in the ,book of ,genesis1 being utterly irreconcilable with the doctrine of evolution1 the student of science1 who is satisfied that the evidence upon which the doctrine of evolution rests1 is incomparably stronger and better than that upon which the supposed authority of the ,book of ,genesis rests1 will not trouble himself further with these theologies1 but will confine his attention to such arguments against the view he holds as are based upon purely scientific data--and by scientific data ,i do not merely mean the truths of physical1 mathematical1 or logical science1 but those of moral and metaphysical science4 ,for1 by science1 ,i understand all knowledge which rests upon evidence and reasoning of a like character to that which claims our assent to ordinary scientific propositions4 ,and if any one is able to make good the assertion that his theology rests upon valid evidence and sound reasoning1 then it appears to me that such theology will take its place as a part of science4 ,the present antagonism between theology and science does not arise from any assumption by the men of science that all theology must necessarily be excluded from science2 but simply because they are unable to allow that reason and morality have two weights and two measures2 and that the belief in a proposition1 because authority tells you it is true1 or because you wish to believe it1 which is a high crime and misdemeanour when the subject matter of reasoning is of one kind1 becomes under the alias of faith the greatest of all virtues1 when the subject matter of reasoning is of another kind4 ,the ,bishop of ,brechin said well the other day3--,liberality in religion--,i do not mean tender and generous allowances for the mistakes of others--is only unfaithfulness to truth4#a ,and1 with the same qualification1 ,i venture to paraphrase the ,bishop's dictum3 ,ecclesiasticism in science is only unfaithfulness to truth4 ,footnote #a3 ,charge at the ,diocesan ,synod of ,brechin4 ,scotsman1 ,sept4 #ad1 #ahga4 ,elijah's great question1 ,will you serve ,god or ,baal8 ,choose ye1 is uttered audibly enough in the ears of every one of us as we come to manhood4 ,let every man who tries to answer it seriously1 ask himself whether he can be satisfied with the ,baal of authority1 and with all the good things his worshippers are promised in this world and the next4 ,if he can1 let him1 if he be so inclined1 amuse himself with such scientific implements as authority tells him are safe and will not cut his fingers2 but let him not imagine he is1 or can be1 both a true son of the ,church and a loyal soldier of science4 ,and1 on the other hand1 if the blind acceptance of authority appears to him in its true colours1 as mere private judgment in excelsis1 and if he have the courage to stand alone1 face to face with the abyss of the ,eternal and ,unknowable1 let him be content1 once for all1 not only to renounce the good things promised by ,infallibility1 but even to bear the bad things which it prophesies2 content to follow reason and fact in singleness and honesty of purpose1 wherever they may lead1 in the sure faith that a hell of honest men will1 to him1 be more endurable than a paradise full of angelic shams4 ,mr4 ,mivart asserts that without a belief in a personal ,god1 there is no religion worthy of the name4 ,this is a matter of opinion4 ,but it may be asserted1 with less reason to fear contradiction1 that the worship of a personal ,god1 who1 on ,mr4 ,mivart's hypothesis1 must have used language studiously calculated to deceive ,his creatures and worshippers1 is no religion worthy of the name4 ,incredibile est1 ,deum illis verbis ad populum fuisse locutum quibus deciperetur1 is a verdict in which1 for once1 ,jesuit casuistry concurs with the healthy moral sense of all mankind4 ,having happily got quit of the theological aspect of evolution1 the supporter of that great truth who turns to the scientific objections which are brought against it by recent criticism1 finds1 to his relief1 that the work before him is greatly lightened by the spontaneous retreat of the enemy from nine-tenths of the territory which he occupied ten years ago4 ,even the ,quarterly ,reviewer not only abstains from venturing to deny that evolution has taken place1 but he openly admits that ,mr4 ,darwin has forced on men's minds a recognition of the probability1 if not more1 of evolution1 and of the certainty of the action of natural selection 7p4 #di74 ,i do not quite see1 myself1 how1 if the action of natural selection is certain1 the occurrence of evolution is only probable2 inasmuch as the development of a new species by natural selection is1 so far as it goes1 evolution4 ,however1 it is not worth while to quarrel with the precise terms of a sentence which shows that the high watermark of intelligence among those most respectable of ,britons1 the readers of the ,quarterly ,review1 has now reached such a level that the next tide may lift them easily and pleasantly on the once-dreaded shore of evolution4 ,nor1 having got there1 do they seem likely to stop1 until they have reached the inmost heart of that great region1 and accepted the ape ancestry of1 at any rate1 the body of man4 ,for the ,reviewer admits that ,mr4 ,darwin can be said to have established3 ,that if the various kinds of lower animals have been evolved one from the other by a process of natural generation or evolution1 then it becomes highly probable1 priori1 that man's body has been similarly evolved2 but this1 in such a case1 becomes equally probable from the admitted fact that he is an animal at all 7p4 #fe74 ,from the principles laid down in the last sentence1 it would follow that if man were constructed upon a plan as different from that of any other animal as that of a sea-urchin is from that of a whale1 it would be equally probable that he had been developed from some other animal as it is now1 when we know that for every bone1 muscle1 tooth1 and even pattern of tooth1 in man1 there is a corresponding bone1 muscle1 tooth1 and pattern of tooth1 in an ape4 ,and this shows one of two things--either that the ,quarterly ,reviewer's notions of probability are peculiar to himself2 or1 that he has such an overpowering faith in the truth of evolution1 that no extent of structural break between one animal and another is sufficient to destroy his conviction that evolution has taken place4 ,but this by the way4 ,the importance of the admission that there is nothing in man's physical structure to interfere with his having been evolved from an ape1 is not lessened because it is grudgingly made and inconsistently qualified4 ,and instead of jubilating over the extent of the enemy's retreat1 it will be more worth while to lay siege to his last stronghold--the position that there is a distinction in kind between the mental faculties of man and those of brutes2 and that1 in consequence of this distinction in kind1 no gradual progress from the mental faculties of the one to those of the other can have taken place4 ,the ,quarterly ,reviewer entrenches himself within formidable-looking psychological outworks1 and there is no getting at him without attacking them one by one4 ,he begins by laying down the following proposition3 ',sensation' is not 'thought1' and no amount of the former would constitute the most rudimentary condition of the latter1 though sensations supply the conditions for the existence of 'thought' or 'knowledge' 7p4 #fg74 ,this proposition is true1 or not1 according to the sense in which the word thought is employed4 ,thought is not uncommonly used in a sense co-extensive with consciousness1 and1 especially1 with those states of consciousness we call memory4 ,if ,i recall the impression made by a colour or an odour1 and distinctly remember blueness or muskiness1 ,i may say with perfect propriety that ,i think of blue or musk2 and1 so long as the thought lasts1 it is simply a faint reproduction of the state of consciousness to which ,i gave the name in question1 when it first became known to me as a sensation4 ,now1 if that faint reproduction of a sensation1 which we call the memory of it1 is properly termed a thought1 it seems to me to be a somewhat forced1 proceeding to draw a hard and fast line of demarcation between thoughts and sensations4 ,if sensations are not rudimentary thoughts1 it may be said that some thoughts are rudimentary sensations4 ,no amount of sound constitutes an echo1 but for all that no one would pretend that an echo is something of totally different nature from a sound4 ,again1 nothing can be looser1 or more inaccurate1 than the assertion that sensations supply the conditions for the existence of thought or knowledge4 ,if this implies that sensations supply the conditions for the existence of our memory of sensations or of our thoughts about sensations1 it is a truism which it is hardly worth while to state so solemnly4 ,if it implies that sensations supply anything else1 it is obviously erroneous4 ,and if it means1 as the context would seem to show it does1 that sensations are the subject-matter of all thought or knowledge1 then it is no less contrary to fact1 inasmuch as our emotions1 which constitute a large part of the subject-matter of thought or of knowledge1 are not sensations4 ,more eccentric still is the ,quarterly ,reviewer's next piece of psychology4 ,altogether1 we may clearly distinguish at least six kinds of action to which the nervous system ministers3-- ,i4 ,that in which impressions received result in appropriate movements without the intervention of sensation or thought1 as in the cases of injury above given4--,this is the reflex action of the nervous system4 ,,ii4 ,that in which stimuli from without result in sensations through the agency of which their due effects are wrought out--,sensation4 ,,iii4 ,that in which impressions received result in sensations which give rise to the observation of sensible objects4--,sensible perception4 ,,iv4 ,that in which sensations and perceptions continue to coalesce1 agglutinate1 and combine in more or less complex aggregations1 according to the laws of the association of sensible perceptions4--,association4 ,the above four groups contain only indeliberate operations1 consisting1 as they do at the best1 but of mere presentative sensible ideas in no way implying any reflective or representative faculty4 ,such actions minister to and form ,instinct4 ,besides these1 we may distinguish two other kinds of mental action1 namely3-- ,v4 ,that in which sensations and sensible perceptions are reflected on by thought1 and recognized as our own1 and we ourselves recognized by ourselves as affected and perceiving4--,self-consciousness4 ,,vi4 ,that in which we reflect upon our sensations or perceptions1 and ask what they are1 and why they are4--,reason4 ,these two latter kinds of action are deliberate operations1 performed1 as they are1 by means of representative ideas implying the use of a reflective representative faculty4 ,such actions distinguish the intellect or rational faculty4 ,now1 we assert that possession in perfection of all the first four 7presentative7 kinds of action by no means implies the possession of the last two 7representative7 kinds4 ,all persons1 we think1 must admit the truth of the following proposition3-- ,two faculties are distinct1 not in degree but in kind1 if we may possess the one in perfection without that fact implying that we possess the other also4 ,still more will this be the case if the two faculties tend to increase in an inverse ratio4 ,yet this is the distinction between the instinctive and the intellectual parts of man's nature4 ,as to animals1 we fully admit that they may possess all the first four groups of actions--that they may have1 so to speak1 mental images of sensible objects combined in all degrees of complexity1 as governed by the laws of association4 ,we deny to them1 on the other hand1 the possession of the last two kinds of mental action4 ,we deny them1 that is1 the power of reflecting on their own existence1 or of inquiring into the nature of objects and their causes4 ,we deny that they know that they know or know themselves in knowing4 ,in other words1 we deny them reason4 ,the possession of the presentative faculty1 as above explained1 in no way implies that of the reflective faculty2 nor does any amount of direct operation imply the power of asking the reflective question before mentioned1 as to 'what' and 'why4' 7,loc4 cit4 pp4 #fg1 #fh47 ,sundry points are worthy of notice in this remarkable account of the intellectual powers4 ,in the first place the ,reviewer ignores emotion and volition1 though they are no inconsiderable kinds of action to which the nervous system ministers1 and memory has a place in his classification only by implication4 ,secondly1 we are told that the second kind of action to which the nervous system ministers is that in which stimuli from without result in sensations through the agency of which their due effects are wrought out4--,sensation4 ,does this really mean that1 in the writer's opinion1 sensation is the agent by which the due effect of the stimulus1 which gives rise to sensation1 is wrought out8 ,suppose somebody runs a pin into me4 ,the due effect of that particular stimulus will probably be threefold2 namely1 a sensation of pain1 a start1 and an interjectional expletive4 ,does the ,quarterly ,reviewer really think that the sensation is the agent by which the other two phenomena are wrought out8 ,but these matters are of little moment to anyone but the ,reviewer and those persons who may incautiously take their physiology1 or psychology1 from him4 ,the really interesting point is this1 that when he fully admits that animals may possess all the first four groups of actions1 he grants all that is necessary for the purposes of the evolutionist4 ,for he hereby admits that in animals impressions received result in sensations which give rise to the observation of sensible objects1 and that they have what he calls sensible perception4 ,nor was it possible to help the admission2 for we have as much reason to ascribe to animals1 as we have to attribute to our fellow-men1 the power1 not only of perceiving external objects as external1 and thus practically recognizing the difference between the self and the not-self2 but that of distinguishing between like and unlike1 and between simultaneous and successive things4 ,when a gamekeeper goes out coursing with a greyhound in leash1 and a hare crosses the field of vision1 he becomes the subject of those states of consciousness we call visual sensation1 and that is all he receives from without4 ,sensation1 as such1 tells him nothing whatever about the cause of these states of consciousness2 but the thinking faculty instantly goes to work upon the raw material of sensation furnished to it through the eye1 and gives rise to a train of thoughts4 ,first comes the thought that there is an object at a certain distance2 then arises another thought--the perception of the likeness between the states of consciousness awakened by this object to those presented by memory1 as1 on some former occasion1 called up by a hare2 this is succeeded by another thought of the nature of an emotion--namely1 the desire to possess the hare2 then follows a longer or shorter train of other thoughts1 which end in a volition and an act--the loosing of the greyhound from the leash4 ,these several thoughts are the concomitants of a process which goes on in the nervous system of the man4 ,unless the nerve-elements of the retina1 of the optic nerve1 of the brain1 of the spinal chord1 and of the nerves of the arms went through certain physical changes in due order and correlation1 the various states of consciousness which have been enumerated would not make their appearance4 ,so that in this1 as in all other intellectual operations1 we have to distinguish two sets of successive changes--one in the physical basis of consciousness1 and the other in consciousness itself2 one set which may1 and doubtless will1 in course of time1 be followed through all their complexities by the anatomist and the physicist1 and one of which only the man himself can have immediate knowledge4 ,as it is very necessary to keep up a clear distinction between these two processes1 let the one be called neurosis1 and the other psychosis4 ,when the gamekeeper was first trained to his work1 every step in the process of neurosis was accompanied by a corresponding step in that of psychosis1 or nearly so4 ,he was conscious of seeing something1 conscious of making sure it was a hare1 conscious of desiring to catch it1 and therefore to loose the greyhound at the right time1 conscious of the acts by which he let the dog out of the leash4 ,but with practice1 though the various steps of the neurosis remain--for otherwise the impression on the retina would not result in the loosing of the dog--the great majority of the steps of the psychosis vanish1 and the loosing of the dog follows unconsciously1 or as we say1 without thinking about it1 upon the sight of the hare4 ,no one will deny that the series of acts which originally intervened between the sensation and the letting go of the dog were1 in the strictest sense1 intellectual and rational operations4 ,do they cease to be so when the man ceases to be conscious of them8 ,that depends upon what is the essence and what the accident of those operations1 which1 taken together1 constitute ratiocination4 ,now ratiocination is resolvable into predication1 and predication consists in marking1 in some way1 the existence1 the co-existence1 the succession1 the likeness and unlikeness1 of things or their ideas4 ,whatever does this1 reasons2 and if a machine produces the effects of reason1 ,i see no more ground for denying to it the reasoning power1 because it is unconscious1 than ,i see for refusing to ,mr4 ,babbage's engine the title of a calculating machine on the same grounds4 ,thus it seems to me that a gamekeeper reasons1 whether he is conscious or unconscious1 whether his reasoning is carried on by neurosis alone1 or whether it involves more or less psychosis4 ,and if this is true of the gamekeeper1 it is also true of the greyhound4 ,the essential resemblances in all points of structure and function1 so far as they can be studied1 between the nervous system of the man and that of the dog1 leave no reasonable doubt that the processes which go on in the one are just like those which take place in the other4 ,in the dog1 there can be no doubt that the nervous matter which lies between the retina and the muscles undergoes a series of changes1 precisely analogous to those which1 in the man1 give rise to sensation1 a train of thought1 and volition4 ,whether this neurosis is accompanied by such psychosis as ours1 it is impossible to say2 but those who deny that the nervous changes1 which1 in the dog1 correspond with those which underlie thought in a man1 are accompanied by consciousness1 are equally bound to maintain that those nervous changes in the dog1 which correspond with those which underlie sensation in a man1 are also unaccompanied by consciousness4 ,in other words1 if there is no ground for believing that a dog thinks1 neither is there any for believing that he feels4 ,as is well known1 ,descartes boldly faced this dilemma1 and maintained that all animals were mere machines and entirely devoid of consciousness4 ,but he did not deny1 nor can anyone deny1 that in this case they are reasoning machines1 capable of performing all those operations which are performed by the nervous system of man when he reasons4 ,for even supposing that in man1 and in man only1 psychosis is superadded to neurosis--the neurosis which is common to both man and animal gives their reasoning processes a fundamental unity4 ,but ,descartes's position is open to very serious objections1 if the evidence that animals feel is insufficient to prove that they really do so4 ,what is the value of the evidence which leads one to believe that one's fellow-man feels8 ,the only evidence in this argument of analogy1 is the similarity of his structure and of his actions to one's own4 ,and if that is good enough to prove that one's fellow-man feels1 surely it is good enough to prove that an ape feels4 ,for the differences of structure and function between men and apes are utterly insufficient to warrant the assumption1 that while men have those states of consciousness we call sensations1 apes have nothing of the kind4 ,moreover1 we have as good evidence that apes are capable of emotion and volition as we have that men other than ourselves are4 ,but if apes possess three out of the four kinds of states of consciousness which we discover in ourselves1 what possible reason is there for denying them the fourth8 ,if they are capable of sensation1 emotion1 and volition1 why are they to be denied thought 7in the sense of predication78 ,no answer has ever been given to these questions4 ,and as the law of continuity is as much opposed1 as is the common sense of mankind1 to the notion that all animals are unconscious machines1 it may safely be assumed that no sufficient answer ever will be given to them4 ,there is every reason to believe that consciousness is a function of nervous matter1 when1 that nervous matter has attained a certain degree of organization1 just as we know the other actions to which the nervous system ministers1 such as reflex action and the like1 to be4 ,as ,i have ventured to state my view of the matter elsewhere1 our thoughts are the expression of molecular changes in that matter of life which is the source of our other vital phenomena4 ,mr4 ,wallace objects to this statement in the following terms3-- ,not having been able to find any clue in ,professor ,huxley's writings to the steps by which he passes from those vital phenomena1 which consist only1 in their last analysis1 of movements by particles of matter1 to those other phenomena which we term thought1 sensation1 or consciousness2 but1 knowing that so positive an expression of opinion from him will have great weight with many persons1 ,i shall endeavour to show1 with as much brevity as is compatible with clearness1 that this theory is not only incapable of proof1 but is also1 as it appears to me1 inconsistent with accurate conceptions of molecular physics4 ,with all respect for ,mr4 ,wallace1 it appears to me that his remarks are entirely beside the question4 ,i really know nothing whatever1 and never hope to know anything1 of the steps by which the passage from molecular movement to states of consciousness is effected2 and ,i entirely agree with the sense of the passage which he quotes from ,professor ,tyndall1 apparently imagining that it is in opposition to the view ,i hold4 ,all that ,i have to say is1 that1 in my belief1 consciousness and molecular action are capable of being expressed by one another1 just as heat and mechanical action are capable of being expressed in terms of one another4 ,whether we shall ever be able to express consciousness in foot-pounds1 or not1 is more than ,i will venture to say2 but that there is evidence of the existence of some correlation between mechanical motion and consciousness1 is as plain as anything can be4 ,suppose the poles of an electric battery to be connected by a platinum wire4 ,a certain intensity of the current gives rise in the mind of a bystander to that state of consciousness we call a dull red light--a little greater intensity to another which we call a bright red light2 increase the intensity1 and the light becomes white2 and1 finally1 it dazzles1 and a new state of consciousness arises1 which we term pain4 ,given the same wire and the same nervous apparatus1 and the amount of electric force required to give rise to these several states of consciousness will be the same1 however often the experiment is repeated4 ,and as the electric force1 the light-waves1 and the nerve-vibrations caused by the impact of the light-waves on the retina1 are all expressions of the molecular changes which are taking place in the elements of the battery2 so consciousness is1 in the same sense1 an expression of the molecular changes which take place in that nervous matter1 which is the organ of consciousness4 ,and1 since this1 and any number of similar examples that may be required1 prove that one form of consciousness1 at any rate1 is1 in the strictest sense1 the expression of molecular change1 it really is not worth while to pursue the inquiry1 whether a fact so easily established is consistent with any particular system of molecular physics or not4 ,mr4 ,wallace1 in fact1 appears to me to have mixed up two very distinct propositions3 the one1 the indisputable truth that consciousness is correlated with molecular changes in the organ of consciousness2 the other1 that the nature of that correlation is known1 or can be conceived1 which is quite another matter4 ,mr4 ,wallace1 presumably1 believes in that correlation of phenomena which we call cause and effect as firmly as ,i do4 ,but if he has ever been able to form the faintest notion how a cause gives rise to its effect1 all ,i can say is that ,i envy him4 ,take the simplest case imaginable--suppose a ball in motion to impinge upon another ball at rest4 ,i know very well1 as a matter of fact1 that the ball in motion will communicate some of its motion to the ball at rest1 and that the motion of the two balls after collision is precisely correlated with the masses of both balls and the amount of motion of the first4 ,but how does this come about8 ,in what manner can we conceive that the vis viva of the first ball passes into the second8 ,i confess ,i can no more form any conception of what happens in this case1 than ,i can of what takes place when the motion of particles of my nervous matter1 caused by the impact of a similar ball1 gives rise to the state of consciousness ,i call pain4 ,in ultimate analysis everything is incomprehensible1 and the whole object of science is simply to reduce the fundamental incomprehensibilities to the smallest possible number4 ,but to return to the ,quarterly ,reviewer4 ,he admits that animals have mental images of sensible objects1 combined in all degrees of complexity1 as governed by the laws of association4 ,presumably1 by this confused and imperfect statement the ,reviewer means to admit more than the words imply4 ,for mental images of sensible objects1 even though combined in all degrees of complexity1 are1 and can be1 nothing more than mental images of sensible objects4 ,but judgments1 emotions1 and volitions cannot by any possibility be included under the head of mental images of sensible objects4 ,if the greyhound had no better mental endowment than the ,reviewer allows him1 he might have the mental image of the sensible object--the hare--and that might be combined with the mental images of other sensible objects1 to any degree of complexity1 but he would have no power of judging it to be at a certain distance from him2 no power of perceiving its similarity to his memory of a hare2 and no desire to get at it4 ,consequently he would stand stock still1 and the noble art of coursing would have no existence4 ,on the other hand1 as that art is largely practised1 it follows that greyhounds alone possess a number of mental powers1 the existence of which1 in any animal1 is absolutely denied by the ,quarterly ,reviewer4 ,finally1 what are the mental powers which he reserves as the especial prerogative of man8 ,they are two4 ,first1 the recognition of ourselves by ourselves as affected and perceiving4--,self-consciousness4 ,secondly4 ,the reflection upon our sensations and perceptions1 and asking what they are and why they are4--,reason4 ,to the faculty defined in the last sentence1 the ,reviewer1 without assigning the least ground for thus departing from both common usage and technical propriety1 applies the name of reason4 ,but if man is not to be considered a reasoning being1 unless he asks what his sensations and perceptions are1 and why they are1 what is a ,hottentot1 or an ,australian black fellow2 or what the swinked hedger of an ordinary agricultural district8 ,nay1 what becomes of an average country squire or parson8 ,how many of these worthy persons who1 as their wont is1 read the ,quarterly ,review1 would do other than stand agape1 if you asked them whether they had ever reflected what their sensations and perceptions are1 and why they are8 ,so that if the ,reviewer's new definition of reason be correct1 the majority of men1 even among the most civilized nations1 are devoid of that supreme characteristic of manhood4 ,and if it be as absurd as ,i believe it to be1 then1 as reason is certainly not self-consciousness1 and as it1 as certainly1 is one of the actions to which the nervous system ministers1 we must1 if the ,reviewer's classification is to be adopted1 seek it among those four faculties which he allows animals to possess4 ,and thus1 for the second time1 he really surrenders1 while seeming to defend1 his position4 ,the ,quarterly ,reviewer1 as we have seen1 lectures the evolutionists upon their want of knowledge of philosophy altogether4 ,mr4 ,mivart is not less pained at ,mr4 ,darwin's ignorance of moral science4 ,it is grievous to him that ,mr4 ,darwin 7and nous autres7 should not have grasped the elementary distinction between material and formal morality2 and he lays down as an axiom1 of which no tyro ought to be ignorant1 the position that acts1 unaccompanied by mental acts of conscious will directed towards the fulfilment of duty1 are absolutely destitute of the most incipient degree of real or formal goodness4 ,now this may be ,mr4 ,mivart's opinion1 but it is a proposition which1 really1 does not stand on the footing of an undisputed axiom4 ,mr4 ,mill denies it in his work on ,utilitarianism4 ,the most influential writer of a totally opposed school1 ,mr4 ,carlyle1 is never weary of denying it1 and upholding the merit of that virtue which is unconscious2 nay1 it is1 to my understanding1 extremely hard to reconcile ,mr4 ,mivart's dictum with that noble summary of the whole duty of man--,thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thy heart1 and with all thy soul1 and with all thy strength2 and thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself4 ,according to ,mr4 ,mivart's definition1 the man who loves ,god and his neighbour1 and1 out of sheer love and affection for both1 does all he can to please them1 is1 nevertheless1 destitute of a particle of real goodness4 ,and it further happens that ,mr4 ,darwin1 who is charged by ,mr4 ,mivart with being ignorant of the distinction between material and formal goodness1 discusses the very question at issue1 in a passage which is well worth reading 7vol4 i4p4 #hg71 and also comes to a conclusion opposed to ,mr4 ,mivart's axiom4 ,a proposition which has been so much disputed and repudiated1 should1 under no circumstances1 have been thus confidently assumed to be true4 ,for myself1 ,i utterly reject it1 inasmuch as the logical consequence of the adoption of any such principle is the denial of all moral value to sympathy and affection4 ,according to ,mr4 ,mivart's axiom1 the man who1 seeing another struggling in the water1 leaps in at the risk of his own life to save him1 does that which is destitute of the most incipient degree of real goodness1 unless1 as he strips off his coat1 he says to himself1 ,now mind1 ,i am going to do this because it is my duty and for no other reason2 and the most beautiful character to which humanity can attain1 that of the man who does good without thinking about it1 because he loves justice and mercy and is repelled by evil1 has no claim on our moral approbation4 ,the denial that a man acts morally because he does not think whether he does so or not1 may be put upon the same footing as the denial of the title of an arithmetician to the calculating boy1 because he did not know how he worked his sums4 ,if mankind ever generally accept and act upon ,mr4 ,mivart's axiom1 they will simply become a set of most unendurable prigs2 but they never have accepted it1 and ,i venture to hope that evolution has nothing so terrible in store for the human race4 ,but1 if an action1 the motive of which is nothing out affection or sympathy1 may be deserving of moral approbation and really good1 who that has ever had a dog of his own will deny that animals are capable of such actions8 ,mr4 ,mivart indeed says3--,it may be safely affirmed1 however1 that there is no trace in brutes of any actions simulating morality which are not explicable by the fear of punishment1 by the hope of pleasure1 or by personal affection 7p4 #bba74 ,but it may be affirmed1 with equal truth1 that there is no trace in men of any actions which are not traceable to the same motives4 ,if a man does anything1 he does it either because he fears to be punished if he does not do it1 or because he hopes to obtain pleasure by doing it1 or because he gratifies his affections#a by doing it4 ,footnote #a3 ,in separating pleasure and the gratification of affection1 ,i simply follow ,mr4 ,mivart without admitting the justice of the separation4 ,assuming the position of the absolute moralists1 let it be granted that there is a perception of right and wrong innate in every man4 ,this means1 simply1 that when certain ideas are presented to his mind1 the feeling of approbation arises2 and when certain others1 the feeling of disapprobation4 ,to do your duty is to earn the approbation of your conscience1 or moral sense2 to fail in your duty is to feel its disapprobation1 as we all say4 ,now1 is approbation a pleasure or a pain8 ,surely a pleasure4 ,and is disapprobation a pleasure or a pain8 ,surely a pain4 ,consequently all that is really meant by the absolute moralists is that there is1 in the very nature of man1 something which enables him to be conscious of these particular pleasures and pains4 ,and when they talk of immutable and eternal principles of morality1 the only intelligible sense which ,i can put upon the words1 is that the nature of man being what it is1 he always has been1 and always will be1 capable of feeling these particular pleasures and pains4 ,a priori1 ,i have nothing to say against this proposition4 ,admitting its truth1 ,i do not see how the moral faculty is on a different footing from any of the other faculties of man4 ,if ,i choose to say that it is an immutable and eternal law of human nature that ginger is hot in the mouth1 the assertion has as much foundation of truth as the other1 though ,i think it would be expressed in needlessly pompous language4 ,i must confess that ,i have never been able to understand why there should be such a bitter quarrel between the intuitionists and the utilitarians4 ,the intuitionist is1 after all1 only a utilitarian who believes that a particular class of pleasures and pains has an especial importance1 by reason of its foundation in the nature of man1 and its inseparable connection with his very existence as a thinking being4 ,and as regards the motive of personal affection3 ,love1 as ,spinoza profoundly says1 is the association of pleasure with that which is loved4#a ,or1 to put it to the common sense of mankind1 is the gratification of affection a pleasure or a pain8 ,surely a pleasure4 ,so that whether the motive which leads us to perform an action is the love of our neighbour1 or the love of ,god1 it is undeniable that pleasure enters into that motive4 ,footnote #a3 ,nempe1 ,amor nihil aliud est1 quam ,laetitia1 concomitante idea causae externae4--,ethices ,,iii4 xiii4 ,thus much in reply to ,mr4 ,mivart's arguments4 ,i cannot but think that it is to be regretted that he ekes them out by ascribing to the doctrines of the philosophers with whom he does not agree1 logical consequences which have been over and over again proved not to flow from them3 and when reason fails him1 tries the effect of an injurious nickname4 ,according to the views of ,mr4 ,spencer1 ,mr4 ,mill1 and ,mr4 ,darwin1 ,mr4 ,mivart tells us1 virtue is a mere kind of retrieving2 and1 that we may not miss the point of the joke1 he puts it in italics4 ,but what if it is8 ,does that make it less virtue8 ,suppose ,i say that sculpture is a mere way of stone-cutting1 and painting a mere way of daubing canvas1 and music a mere way of making a noise1 the statements are quite true2 but they only show that ,i see no other method of depreciating some of the noblest aspects of humanity1 than that of using language in an inadequate and misleading sense about them4 ,and the peculiar in appropriateness of this particular nickname to the views in question1 arises from the circumstance which ,mr4 ,mivart would doubtless have recollected1 if his wish to ridicule had not for the moment obscured his judgment--that whether the law of evolution applies to man or not1 that of hereditary transmission certainly does4 ,mr4 ,mivart will hardly deny that a man owes a large share of the moral tendencies which he exhibits to his ancestors2 and the man who inherits a desire to steal from a kleptomaniac1 or a tendency to benevolence from a ,howard1 is1 so far as he illustrates hereditary transmission1 comparable to the dog who inherits the desire to fetch a duck out of the water from his retrieving sire4 ,so that1 evolution1 or no evolution1 moral qualities are comparable to a kind of retrieving2 though the comparison1 if meant for the purposes of casting obloquy on evolution1 does not say much for the fairness of those who make it4 ,the ,quarterly ,reviewer and ,mr4 ,mivart base their objections to the evolution of the mental faculties of man from those of some lower animal form1 upon what they maintain to be a difference in kind between the mental and moral faculties of men and brutes2 and ,i have endeavoured to show1 by exposing the utter unsoundness of their philosophical basis1 that these objections are devoid of importance4 ,the objections which ,mr4 ,wallace brings forward to the doctrine of the evolution of the mental faculties of man from those of brutes by natural causes1 are of a different order1 and require separate consideration4 ,if ,i understand him rightly1 he by no means doubts that both the bodily and the mental faculties of man have been evolved from those of some lower animal2 but he is of opinion1 that some agency beyond that which has been concerned in the evolution of ordinary animals1 has been operative in the case of man4 ,a superior intelligence has guided the development of man in a definite direction and for a special purpose1 just as man guides the development of many animal and vegetable forms4#a ,i understand this to mean that1 just as the rock-pigeon has been produced by natural causes1 while the evolution of the tumbler from the blue rock has required the special intervention of the intelligence of man1 so some anthropoid form may have been evolved by variation and natural selection2 but it could never have given rise to man1 unless some superior intelligence had played the part of the pigeon-fancier4 ,footnote #a3 ,the limits of ,natural ,selection as applied to ,man 7loc4 cit4 p4 #cei74 ,according to ,mr4 ,wallace1 whether we compare the savage with the higher developments of man1 or with the brutes around him1 we are alike driven to the conclusion1 that1 in his large and well-developed brain1 he possesses an organ quite disproportioned to his requirements 7p4 #cdc72 and he asks1 ,what is there in the life of the savage but the satisfying of the cravings of appetite in the simplest and easiest way8 ,what thoughts1 idea1 or actions are there that raise him many grades above the elephant or the ape8 7p4 #cdb74 ,i answer ,mr4 ,wallace by citing a remarkable passage which occurs in his instructive paper on ,instinct in ,man and ,animals4 ,savages make long journeys in many directions1 and1 their whole faculties being directed to the subject1 they gain a wide and accurate knowledge of the topography1 not only of their own district1 but of all the regions round about4 ,everyone who has travelled in a new direction communicates his knowledge to those who have travelled less1 and descriptions of routes and localities1 and minute incidents of travel1 form one of the main staples of conversation around the evening fire4 ,every wanderer or captive from another tribe adds to the store of information1 and1 as the very existence of individuals and of whole families and tribes depends upon the completeness of this knowledge1 all the acute perceptive faculties of the adult savage are directed to acquiring and perfecting it4 ,the good hunter or warrior thus comes to know the bearing of every hill and mountain range1 the directions and junctions of all the streams1 the situation of each tract characterized by peculiar vegetation1 not only within the area he has himself traversed1 but perhaps for a hundred miles around it4 ,his acute observation enables him to detect the slightest undulations of the surface1 the various changes of subsoil and alterations in the character of the vegetation that would be quite imperceptible to a stranger4 ,his eye is always open to the direction in which he is going2 the mossy side of trees1 the presence of certain plants under the shade of rocks1 the morning and evening flight of birds1 are to him indications of direction almost as sure as the sun in the heavens 7pp4 #bjg-h74 ,i have seen enough of savages to be able to declare that nothing can be more admirable than this description of what a savage has to learn4 ,but it is incomplete4 ,add to all this the knowledge which a savage is obliged to gain of the properties of plants1 of the characters and habits of animals1 and of the minute indications by which their course is discoverable3 consider that even an ,australian can make excellent baskets and nets1 and neatly fitted and beautifully balanced spears2 that he learns to use these so as to be able to transfix a quartern loaf at sixty yards2 and that very often1 as in the case of the ,american ,indians1 the language of a savage exhibits complexities which a well-trained ,european finds it difficult to master3 consider that every time a savage tracks his game1 he employs a minuteness of observation1 and an accuracy of inductive and deductive reasoning which1 applied to other matters1 would assure some reputation to a man of science1 and ,i think we need ask no further why he possesses such a fair supply of brains4 ,in complexity and difficulty1 ,i should say that the intellectual labour of a good hunter or warrior considerably exceeds that of an ordinary ,englishman4 ,the ,civil ,service ,examiners are held in great terror by young ,englishmen2 but even their ferocity never tempted them to require a candidate to possess such a knowledge of a parish1 as ,mr4 ,wallace justly points out savages may possess of an area a hundred miles1 or more1 in diameter4 ,but suppose1 for the sake of argument1 that a savage has more brains than seems proportioned to his wants1 all that can be said is that the objection to natural selection1 if it be one1 applies quite as strongly to the lower animals4 ,the brain of a porpoise is quite wonderful for its mass1 and for the development of the cerebral convolutions4 ,and yet since we have ceased to credit the story of ,arion1 it is hard to believe that porpoises are much troubled with intellect3 and still more difficult is it to imagine that their big brains are only a preparation for the advent of some accomplished cetacean of the future4 ,surely1 again1 a wolf must have too much brains1 or else how is it that a dog1 with only the same quantity and form of brain1 is able to develop such singular intelligence8 ,the wolf stands to the dog in the same relation as the savage to the man2 and1 therefore1 if ,mr4 ,wallace's doctrine holds good1 a higher power must have superintended the breeding up of wolves from some inferior stock1 in order to prepare them to become dogs4 ,mr4 ,wallace further maintains that the origin of some of man's mental faculties by the preservation of useful variations is not possible4 ,such1 for example1 are the capacity to form ideal conceptions of space and time1 of eternity and infinity2 the capacity for intense artistic feelings of pleasure in form1 colour1 and composition2 and for those abstract notions of form and number which render geometry and arithmetic possible4 ,how1 he asks1 were all or any of these faculties first developed1 when they could have been of no possible use to man in his early stages of barbarism8 ,surely the answer is not far to seek4 ,the lowest savages are as devoid of any such conceptions as the brutes themselves4 ,what sort of conceptions of space and time1 of form and number1 can be possessed by a savage who has not got so far as to be able to count beyond five or six1 who does not know how to draw a triangle or a circle1 and has not the remotest notion of separating the particular quality we call form1 from the other qualities of bodies8 ,none of these capacities are exhibited by men1 unless they form part of a tolerably advanced society4 ,and1 in such a society1 there are abundant conditions by which a selective influence is exerted in favour of those persons who exhibit an approximation towards the possession of these capacities4 ,the savage who can amuse his fellows by telling a good story over the nightly fire1 is held by them in esteem and rewarded1 in one way or another1 for so doing in other words1 it is an advantage to him to possess this power4 ,he who can carve a paddle1 or the figure-head of a canoe better1 similarly profits beyond his duller neighbour4 ,he who counts a little better than others1 gets most yams when barter is going on1 and forms the shrewdest estimate of the numbers of an opposing tribe4 ,the experience of daily life shows that the conditions of our present social existence exercise the most extraordinarily powerful selective influence in favour of novelists1 artists1 and strong intellects of all kinds2 and it seems unquestionable that all forms of social existence must have had the same tendency1 if we consider the indisputable facts that even animals possess the power of distinguishing form and number1 and that they are capable of deriving pleasure from particular forms and sounds4 ,if we admit1 as ,mr4 ,wallace does1 that the lowest savages are not raised many grades above the elephant and the ape2 and if we further admit1 as ,i contend must be admitted1 that the conditions of social life tend1 powerfully1 to give an advantage to those individuals who vary in the direction of intellectual or aesthetic excellence1 what is there to interfere with the belief that these higher faculties1 like the rest1 owe their development to natural selection8 ,finally1 with respect to the development of the moral sense out of the simple feelings of pleasure and pain1 liking and disliking1 with which the lower animals are provided1 ,i can find nothing in ,mr4 ,wallace's reasonings which has not already been met by ,mr4 ,mill1 ,mr4 ,spencer1 or ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,i do not propose to follow the ,quarterly ,reviewer and ,mr4 ,mivart through the long string of objections in matters of detail which they bring against ,mr4 ,darwin's views4 ,everyone who has considered the matter carefully will be able to ferret out as many more difficulties2 but he will also1 ,i believe1 fail as completely as they appear to me to have done1 in bringing forward any fact which is really contradictory of ,mr4 ,darwin's views4 ,occasionally1 too1 their objections and criticisms are based upon errors of their own4 ,as1 for example1 when ,mr4 ,mivart and the ,quarterly ,reviewer insist upon the resemblances between the eyes of ,cephalopoda and ,vertebrata1 quite forgetting that there are striking and altogether fundamental differences between them2 or when the ,quarterly ,reviewer corrects ,mr4 ,darwin for saying that the gibbons1 without having been taught1 can walk or run upright with tolerable quickness1 though they move awkwardly1 and much less securely than man4 ,the ,quarterly ,reviewer says1 ,this is a little misleading1 inasmuch as it is not stated that this upright progression is effected by placing the enormously long arms behind the head1 or holding them out backwards as a balance in progression4 ,now1 before carping at a small statement like this1 the ,quarterly ,reviewer should have made sure that he was quite right4 ,but he happens to be quite wrong4 ,i suspect he got his notion of the manner in which a gibbon walks from a citation in ,man's ,place in ,nature4 ,but at that time ,i had not seen a gibbon walk4 ,since then ,i have1 and ,i can testify that nothing can be more precise than ,mr4 ,darwin's statement4 ,the gibbon ,i saw walked without either putting his arms behind his head or holding them out backwards4 ,all he did was to touch the ground with the outstretched fingers of his long arms now and then1 just as one sees a man who carries a stick1 but does not need one1 touch the ground with it as he walks along4 ,again1 a large number of the objections brought forward by ,mr4 ,mivart and the ,quarterly ,reviewer apply to evolution in general1 quite as much as to the particular form of that doctrine advocated by ,mr4 ,darwin2 or1 to their notions of ,mr4 ,darwin's views and not to what they really are4 ,an excellent example of this class of difficulties is to be found in ,mr4 ,mivart's chapter on ,independent ,similarities of ,structure4 ,mr4 ,mivart says that these cannot be explained by an absolute and pure ,darwinian1 but that an innate power and evolutionary law1 aided by the corrective action of natural selection1 should have furnished like needs with like aids1 is not at all improbable 7p4 #hb74 ,i do not exactly know what ,mr4 ,mivart means by an absolute and pure ,darwinian2 indeed ,mr4 ,mivart makes that creature hold so many singular opinions that ,i doubt if ,i can ever have seen one alive4 ,but ,i find nothing in his statement of the view which he imagines to be originated by himself1 which is really inconsistent with what ,i understand to be ,mr4 ,darwin's views4 ,i apprehend that the foundation of the theory of natural selection is the fact that living bodies tend incessantly to vary4 ,this variation is neither indefinite1 nor fortuitous1 nor does it take place in all directions1 in the strict sense of these words4 ,accurately speaking1 it is not indefinite1 nor does it take place in all directions1 because it is limited by the general characters of the type to which the organism exhibiting the variation belongs4 ,a whale does not tend to vary in the direction of producing feathers1 nor a bird in the direction of developing whalebone4 ,in popular language there is no harm in saying that the waves which break upon the sea-shore are indefinite1 fortuitous1 and break in all directions4 ,in scientific language1 on the contrary1 such a statement would be a gross error1 inasmuch as every particle of foam is the result of perfectly definite forces1 operating according to no less definite laws4 ,in like manner1 every variation of a living form1 however minute1 however apparently accidental1 is inconceivable except as the expression of the operation of molecular forces or powers resident within the organism4 ,and1 as these forces certainly operate according to definite laws1 their general result is1 doubtless1 in accordance with some general law which subsumes them all4 ,and there appears to be no objection to call this an evolutionary law4 ,but nobody is the wiser for doing so1 or has thereby contributed1 in the least degree1 to the advance of the doctrine of evolution1 the great need of which is a theory of variation4 ,when ,mr4 ,mivart tells us that his aim has been to support the doctrine that these species have been evolved by ordinary natural laws 7for the most part unknown71 aided by the subordinate action of 'natural selection' 7pp4 #ccb-c71 he seems to be of opinion that his enterprise has the merit of novelty4 ,all ,i can say is that ,i have never had the slightest notion that ,mr4 ,darwin's aim is in any way different from this4 ,if ,i affirm that species have been evolved by variation#a 7a natural process1 the laws of which are for the most part unknown71 aided by the subordinate action of natural selection1 it seems to me that ,i enunciate a proposition which constitutes the very pith and marrow of the first edition of the ,origin of ,species4 ,and what the evolutionist stands in need of just now1 is not an iteration of the fundamental principle of ,darwinism1 but some light upon the questions1 ,what are the limits of variation8 and1 ,if a variety has arisen1 can that variety be perpetuated1 or even intensified1 when selective conditions are indifferent1 or perhaps unfavourable1 to its existence8 ,i cannot find that ,mr4 ,darwin has ever been very dogmatic in answering these questions4 ,formerly1 he seems to have inclined to reply to them in the negative1 while now his inclination is the other way4 ,leaving aside those broad questions of theology1 philosophy1 and ethics1 by the discussion of which neither the ,quarterly ,reviewer nor ,mr4 ,mivart can be said to have damaged ,darwinism--whatever else they have injured--this is what their criticisms come to4 ,they confound a struggle for some rifle-pits with an assault on the fortress4 ,footnote #a3 ,including under this head hereditary transmission4 ,in some respects1 finally1 ,i can only characterize the ,quarterly ,reviewer's treatment of ,mr4 ,darwin as alike unjust and unbecoming4 ,language of this strength requires justification1 and on that ground ,i add the remarks which follow4 ,the ,quarterly ,reviewer opens his essay by a careful enumeration of all those points upon which1 during the course of thirteen years of incessant labour1 ,mr4 ,darwin has modified his opinions4 ,it has often and justly been remarked1 that what strikes a candid student of ,mr4 ,darwin's works is not so much his industry1 his knowledge1 or even the surprising fertility of his inventive genius2 but that unswerving truthfulness and honesty which never permit him to hide a weak place1 or gloss over a difficulty1 but lead him1 on all occasions1 to point out the weak places in his own armour1 and even sometimes1 it appears to me1 to make admissions against himself which are quite unnecessary4 ,a critic who desires to attack ,mr4 ,darwin has only to read his works with a desire to observe1 not their merits1 but their defects1 and he will find1 ready to hand1 more adverse suggestions than are likely ever to have suggested themselves to his own sharpness1 without ,mr4 ,darwin's self-denying aid4 ,now this quality of scientific candour is not so common that it needs to be discouraged2 and it appears to me to deserve other treatment than that adopted by the ,quarterly ,reviewer1 who deals with ,mr4 ,darwin as an ,old ,bailey barrister deals with a man against whom he wishes to obtain a conviction1 per fas aut nefas1 and opens his case by endeavouring to create a prejudice against the prisoner in the minds of the jury4 ,in his eagerness to carry out this laudable design1 the ,quarterly ,reviewer cannot even state the history of the doctrine of natural selection without an oblique and entirely unjustifiable attempt to depreciate ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,to ,mr4 ,darwin1 says he1 and 7through ,mr4 ,wallace's reticence7 to ,mr4 ,darwin alone1 is due the credit of having first brought it prominently forward and demonstrated its truth4 ,no one can less desire than ,i do1 to throw a doubt upon ,mr4 ,wallace's originality1 or to question his claim to the honour of being one of the originators of the doctrine of natural selection2 but the statement that ,mr4 ,darwin has the sole credit of originating the doctrine because of ,mr4 ,wallace's reticence is simply ridiculous4 ,the proof of this is1 in the first place1 afforded by ,mr4 ,wallace himself1 whose noble freedom from petty jealousy in this matter1 smaller folk would do well to imitate2 and who writes thus3--,i have felt all my life1 and ,i still feel1 the most sincere satisfaction that ,mr4 ,darwin had been at work long before me1 and that it was not left for me to attempt to write the ',origin of ,species4' ,i have long since measured my own strength1 and know well that it would be quite unequal to that task4 ,so that if there was any reticence at all in the matter1 it was ,mr4 ,darwin's reticence during the long twenty years of study which intervened between the conception and the publication of his theory1 which gave ,mr4 ,wallace the chance of being an independent discoverer of the importance of natural selection4 ,and1 finally1 if it be recollected that ,mr4 ,darwin's and ,mr4 ,wallace's essays were published simultaneously in the ,journal of the ,linnaean ,society for #aheh1 it follows that the ,reviewer1 while obliquely depreciating ,mr4 ,darwin's deserts1 has in reality awarded to him a priority which1 in legal strictness1 does not exist4 ,mr4 ,mivart1 whose opinions so often concur with those of the ,quarterly ,reviewer1 puts the case in a way1 which ,i much regret to be obliged to say1 is1 in my judgment1 quite as incorrect2 though the injustice may be less glaring4 ,he says that the theory of natural selection is1 in general1 exclusively associated with the name of ,mr4 ,darwin1 on account of the noble self-abnegation of ,mr4 ,wallace4 ,as ,i have said1 no one can honour ,mr4 ,wallace more than ,i do1 both for what he has done and for what he has not done1 in his relation to ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,and perhaps nothing is more creditable to him than his frank declaration that he could not have written such a work as the ,origin of ,species4 ,but1 by this declaration1 the person most directly interested in the matter repudiates1 by anticipation1 ,mr4 ,mivart's suggestion that ,mr4 ,darwin's eminence is more or less due to ,mr4 ,wallace's modesty4 ,,xi4 ,,the ,,genealogy ,,of ,,animals4#a ,considering that ,germany now takes the lead of the world in scientific investigation1 and particularly in biology1 ,mr4 ,darwin must be well pleased at the rapid spread of his views among some of the ablest and most laborious of ,german naturalists4 ,footnote #a3 ,the ,natural ,history of ,creation4 ,by ,dr4 ,ernst ,haeckel 7,natrliche ,schpfungs-,geschichte4--,von ,dr4 ,ernst ,haeckel1 ,professor an der ,universitt ,jena47 ,berlin1 #ahfh4 ,among those1 ,professor ,haeckel1 of ,jena1 is the ,coryphaeus4 ,i know of no more solid and important contributions to biology in the past seven years than ,haeckel's work on the ,radiolaria1 and the researches of his distinguished colleague ,gegenbaur1 in vertebrate anatomy2 while in ,haeckel's ,generelle ,morphologie there is all the force1 suggestiveness1 and1 what ,i may term the systematizing power1 of ,oken1 without his extravagance4 ,the ,generelle ,morphologie is1 in fact1 an attempt to put the doctrine of ,evolution1 so far as it applies to the living world1 into a logical form2 and to work out its practical applications to their final results4 ,the work before us1 again1 may be said to be an exposition of the ,generelle ,morphologie for an educated public1 consisting1 as it does1 of the substance of a series of lectures delivered before a mixed audience at ,jena1 in the session #ahfg-h4 ,the ,natural ,history of ,creation1--or1 as ,professor ,haeckel admits it would have been better to call his work1 ,the ,history of the ,development or ,evolution of ,nature1--deals1 in the first six lectures1 with the general and historical aspects of the question1 and contains a very interesting and lucid account of the views of ,linnaeus1 ,cuvier1 ,agassiz1 ,goethe1 ,oken1 ,kant1 ,lamarck1 ,lyell1 and ,darwin1 and of the historical filiation of these philosophers4 ,the next six lectures are occupied by a well-digested statement of ,mr4 ,darwin's views4 ,the thirteenth lecture discusses two topics which are not touched by ,mr4 ,darwin1 namely1 the origin of the present form of the solar system1 and that of living matter4 ,full justice is done to ,kant1 as the originator of that cosmic gas theory1 as the ,germans somewhat quaintly call it1 which is commonly ascribed to ,laplace4 ,with respect to spontaneous generation1 while admitting that there is no experimental evidence in its favour1 ,professor ,haeckel denies the possibility of disproving it1 and points out that the assumption that it has occurred is a necessary part of the doctrine of ,evolution4 ,the fourteenth lecture1 on ,schpfungs-,perioden und ,schpfungs-,urkunden1 answers pretty much to the famous disquisition on the ,imperfection of the ,geological ,record in the ,origin of ,species4 ,the following five lectures contain the most original matter of any1 being devoted to ,phylogeny1 or the working out of the details of the process of ,evolution in the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 so as to prove the line of descent of each group of living beings1 and to furnish it with its proper genealogical tree1 or phylum4 ,the last lecture considers objections and sums up the evidence in favour of biological ,evolution4 ,i shall best testify to my sense of the value of the work thus briefly analysed if ,i now proceed to note down some of the more important criticisms which have been suggested to me by its perusal4 ,i4 ,in more than one place1 ,professor ,haeckel enlarges upon the service which the ,origin of ,species has done1 in favouring what he terms the causal or mechanical view of living nature as opposed to the teleological or vitalistic view4 ,and no doubt it is quite true that the doctrine of ,evolution is the most formidable opponent of all the commoner and coarser forms of ,teleology4 ,but perhaps the most remarkable service to the philosophy of ,biology rendered by ,mr4 ,darwin is the reconciliation of ,teleology and ,morphology1 and the explanation of the facts of both which his views offer4 ,the ,teleology which supposes that the eye1 such as we see it in man or one of the higher ,vertebrata1 was made with the precise structure which it exhibits1 for the purpose of enabling the animal which possesses it to see1 has undoubtedly received its death-blow4 ,nevertheless it is necessary to remember that there is a wider ,teleology1 which is not touched by the doctrine of ,evolution1 but is actually based upon the fundamental proposition of ,evolution4 ,that proposition is1 that the whole world1 living and not living1 is the result of the mutual interaction1 according to definite laws1 of the forces possessed by the molecules of which the primitive nebulosity of the universe was composed4 ,if this be true1 it is no less certain that the existing world lay1 potentially1 in the cosmic vapour2 and that a sufficient intelligence could1 from a knowledge of the properties of the molecules of that vapour1 have predicted1 say the state of the ,fauna of ,britain in #ahfi1 with as much certainty as one can say what will happen to the vapour of the breath in a cold winter's day4 ,consider a kitchen clock1 which ticks loudly1 shows the hours1 minutes1 and seconds1 strikes1 cries cuckoo6 and perhaps shows the phases of the moon4 ,when the clock is wound up1 all the phenomena which it exhibits are potentially contained in its mechanism1 and a clever clockmaker could predict all it will do after an examination of its structure4 ,if the evolution theory is correct1 the molecular structure of the cosmic gas stands in the same relation to the phenomena of the world as the structure of the clock to its phenomena4 ,now let us suppose a death-watch1 living in the clock-case1 to be a learned and intelligent student of its works4 ,he might say1 ,i find here nothing but matter and force and pure mechanism from beginning to end1 and he would be quite right4 ,but if he drew the conclusion that the clock was not contrived for a purpose1 he would be quite wrong4 ,on the other hand1 imagine another death-watch of a different turn of mind4 ,he1 listening to the monotonous tick6 tick6 so exactly like his own1 might arrive at the conclusion that the clock was itself a monstrous sort of death-watch1 and that its final cause and purpose was to tick4 ,how easy to point to the clear relation of the whole mechanism to the pendulum1 to the fact that the one thing the clock did always and without intermission was to tick1 and that all the rest of its phenomena were intermittent and subordinate to ticking6 ,for all this1 it is certain that kitchen clocks are not contrived for the purpose of making a ticking noise4 ,thus the teleological theorist would be as wrong as the mechanical theorist1 among our death-watches2 and1 probably1 the only death-watch who would be right would be the one who should maintain that the sole thing death-watches could be sure about was the nature of the clock-works and the way they move2 and that the purpose of the clock lay wholly beyond the purview of beetle faculties4 ,substitute cosmic vapour for clock1 and molecules for works1 and the application of the argument is obvious4 ,the teleological and the mechanical views of nature are not1 necessarily1 mutually exclusive4 ,on the contrary1 the more purely a mechanist the speculator is1 the more firmly does he assume a primordial molecular arrangement1 of which all the phenomena of the universe are the consequences2 and the more completely is he thereby at the mercy of the teleologist1 who can always defy him to disprove that this primordial molecular arrangement was not intended to evolve the phenomena of the universe4 ,on the other hand1 if the teleologist assert that this1 that1 or the other result of the working of any part of the mechanism of the universe is its purpose and final cause1 the mechanist can always inquire how he knows that it is more than an unessential incident--the mere ticking of the clock1 which he mistakes for its function4 ,and there seems to be no reply to this inquiry1 any more than to the further1 not irrational1 question1 why trouble oneself about matters which are out of reach1 when the working of the mechanism itself1 which is of infinite practical importance1 affords scope for all our energies8 ,professor ,haeckel has invented a new and convenient name1 ,dysteleology1 for the study of the purposelessnesses which are observable in living organisms--such as the multitudinous cases of rudimentary and apparently useless structures4 ,i confess1 however1 that it has often appeared to me that the facts of ,dysteleology cut two ways4 ,if we are to assume1 as evolutionists in general do1 that useless organs atrophy1 such cases as the existence of lateral rudiments of toes1 in the foot of a horse1 place us in a dilemma4 ,for1 either these rudiments are of no use to the animal1 in which case1 considering that the horse has existed in its present form since the ,pliocene epoch1 they surely ought to have disappeared2 or they are of some use to the animal1 in which case they are of no use as arguments against ,teleology4 ,a similar1 but still stronger1 argument may be based upon the existence of teats1 and even functional mammary glands1 in male mammals4 ,numerous cases of ,gynaecomasty1 or functionally active breasts in men1 are on record1 though there is no mammalian species whatever in which the male normally suckles the young4 ,thus1 there can be little doubt that the mammary gland was as apparently useless in the remotest male mammalian ancestor of man as in living men1 and yet it has not disappeared4 ,is it then still profitable to the male organism to retain it8 ,possibly2 but in that case its dysteleological value is gone4 ,,ii4 ,professor ,haeckel looks upon the causes which have led to the present diversity of living nature as twofold4 ,living matter1 he tells us1 is urged by two impulses3 a centripetal1 which tends to preserve and transmit the specific form1 and which he identifies with heredity2 and a centrifugal1 which results from the tendency of external conditions to modify the organism and effect its adaptation to themselves4 ,the internal impulse is conservative1 and tends to the preservation of specific1 or individual1 form2 the external impulse is metamorphic1 and tends to the modification of specific1 or individual1 form4 ,in developing his views upon this subject1 ,professor ,haeckel introduces qualifications which disarm some of the criticisms ,i should have been disposed to offer2 but ,i think that his method of stating the case has the inconvenience of tending to leave out of sight the important fact--which is a cardinal point in the ,darwinian hypothesis--that the tendency to vary1 in a given organism1 may have nothing to do with the external conditions to which that individual organism is exposed1 but may depend wholly upon internal conditions4 ,no one1 ,i imagine1 would dream of seeking in the direct influence of the external conditions of his life for the cause of the development of the sixth finger and toe in the famous ,maltese4 ,i conceive that both hereditary transmission and adaptation need to be analysed into their constituent conditions by the further application of the doctrine of the ,struggle for ,existence4 ,it is a probable hypothesis1 that what the world is to organisms in general1 each organism is to the molecules of which it is composed4 ,multitudes of these1 having diverse tendencies1 are competing with one another for opportunity to exist and multiply2 and the organism1 as a whole1 is as much the product of the molecules which are victorious as the ,fauna1 or ,flora1 of a country is the product of the victorious organic beings in it4 ,on this hypothesis1 hereditary transmission is the result of the victory of particular molecules contained in the impregnated germ4 ,adaptation to conditions is the result of the favouring of the multiplication of those molecules whose organizing tendencies are most in harmony with such conditions4 ,in this view of the matter1 conditions are not actively productive1 but are passively permissive2 they do not cause variation in any given direction1 but they permit and favour a tendency in that direction which already exists4 ,it is true that1 in the long run1 the origin of the organic molecules themselves1 and of their tendencies1 is to be sought in the external world2 but if we carry our inquiries as far back as this1 the distinction between internal and external impulses vanishes4 ,on the other hand1 if we confine ourselves to the consideration of a single organism1 ,i think it must be admitted that the existence of an internal metamorphic tendency must be as distinctly recognized as that of an internal conservative tendency2 and that the influence of conditions is mainly1 if not wholly1 the result of the extent to which they favour the one1 or the other1 of these tendencies4 ,,iii4 ,there is only one point upon which ,i fundamentally and entirely disagree with ,professor ,haeckel1 but that is the very important one of his conception of geological time1 and of the meaning of the stratified rocks as records and indications of that time4 ,conceiving that the stratified rocks of an epoch indicate a period of depression1 and that the intervals between the epochs correspond with periods of elevation of which we have no record1 he intercalates between the different epochs1 or periods1 intervals which he terms ,ante-periods4 ,thus1 instead of considering the ,triassic1 ,jurassic1 ,cretaceous1 and ,eocene periods1 as continuously successive1 he interposes a period before each1 as an ,antetrias-zeit1 ,antejura-zeit1 ,antecreta-zeit1 ,antecocen-zeit1 c4 ,and he conceives that the abrupt changes between the ,faunae of the different formations are due to the lapse of time1 of which we have no organic record1 during their ,ante-periods4 ,the frequent occurrence of strata containing assemblages of organic forms which are intermediate between those of adjacent formations1 is1 to my mind1 fatal to this view4 ,in the well-known ,st4 ,cassian beds1 for example1 ,palaeozoic and ,mesozoic forms are commingled1 and1 between the ,cretaceous and the ,eocene formations1 there are similar transitional beds4 ,on the other hand1 in the middle of the ,silurian series1 extensive unconformity of the strata indicates the lapse of vast intervals of time between the deposit of successive beds1 without any corresponding change in the ,fauna4 ,professor ,haeckel will1 ,i fear1 think me unreasonable1 if ,i say that he seems to be still overshadowed by geological superstitions2 and that he will have to believe in the completeness of the geological record far less than he does at present4 ,he assumes1 for example1 that there was no dry land1 nor any terrestrial life1 before the end of the ,silurian epoch1 simply because1 up to the present time1 no indications of fresh water1 or terrestrial organisms1 have been found in rocks of older date4 ,and1 in speculating upon the origin of a given group1 he rarely goes further back than the ,ante-period1 which precedes that in which the remains of animals belonging to that group are found4 ,thus1 as fossil remains of the majority of the groups of ,reptilia are first found in the ,trias1 they are assumed to have originated in the ,antetriassic period1 or between the ,permian and ,triassic epochs4 ,i confess this is wholly incredible to me4 ,the ,permian and the ,triassic deposits pass completely into one another2 there is no sort of discontinuity answering to an unrecorded ,antetrias2 and1 what is more1 we have evidence of immensely extensive dry land during the formation of these deposits4 ,we know that the dry land of the ,trias absolutely teemed with reptiles of all groups except ,pterodactyles1 ,snakes1 and perhaps ,tortoises2 there is every probability that true ,birds existed1 and ,mammalia certainly did4 ,of the inhabitants of the ,permian dry land1 on the contrary1 all that have left a record are a few lizards4 ,is it conceivable that these last should really represent the whole terrestrial population of that time1 and that the development of ,mammals1 of ,birds1 and of the highest forms of ,reptiles1 should have been crowded into the time during which the ,permian conditions quietly passed away1 and the ,triassic conditions began8 ,does not any such supposition become in the highest degree improbable1 when1 in the terrestrial or fresh-water ,labyrinthodonts1 which lived on the land of the ,carboniferous epoch1 as well as on that of the ,trias1 we have evidence that one form1 of terrestrial life persisted1 throughout all these ages1 with no important modification8 ,for my part1 having regard to the small amount of modification 7except in the way of extinction7 which the ,crocodilian1 ,lacertilian1 and ,chelonian ,reptilia have undergone1 from the older ,mesozoic times to the present day1 ,i cannot but put the existence of the common stock from which they sprang far back in the ,palaeozoic epoch2 and ,i should apply a similar argumentation to all other groups of animals4 ,,iv4 ,professor ,haeckel proposes a number of modifications in ,taxonomy1 all of which are well worthy of consideration4 ,thus he establishes a third primary division of the living world1 distinct from both animals and plants1 under the name of the ,protista1 to include the ,myxomycetes1 the ,diatomaceae1 and the ,labyrinthulae1 which are commonly regarded as plants1 with the ,noctilucae1 the ,flagellata1 the ,rhizopoda1 the ,protoplasta1 and the ,monera1 which are most generally included within the animal world4 ,a like attempt has been made1 by other writers1 to escape the inconvenience of calling these dubious organisms by the name of plant or animal2 but ,i confess1 it appears to me1 that the inconvenience which is eluded in one direction1 by this step1 is met in two others4 ,professor ,haeckel himself doubts whether the ,fungi ought not to be removed into his ,protista4 ,if they are not1 indeed1 the ,myxomycetes render the drawing of every line of demarcation between ,protista and ,plants impossible4 ,but if they are1 who is to define the ,fungi from the ,algae8 ,yet the sea-weeds are surely1 in every respect1 plants4 ,on the other hand1 ,professor ,haeckel puts the sponges among the ,coelenterata 7or polypes and corals71 with the double inconvenience1 as it appears to me1 of separating the sponges from their immediate kindred1 the ,protoplasta1 and destroying the definition of the ,coelenterata4 ,so again1 the ,infusoria possess all the characters of animality1 but it can hardly be said that they are as clearly allied to the worms as they are to the ,noctilucae4 ,on the whole1 it appears to me to be most convenient to adhere to the old plan of calling such of these low forms as are more animal in habit1 ,protozoa1 and such as are more vegetal1 ,protophyta4 ,another considerable innovation is the proposition to divide the class ,pisces into the four groups of ,leptocardia1 ,cyclostomata1 ,pisces1 and ,dipneusta4 ,as regards the establishment of a separate class for the ,lancelet 7,amphioxus71 ,i think there can be little doubt of the propriety of so doing1 inasmuch as it is far more different from all other fishes than they are from one another4 ,and there is much to be said in favour of the same promotion of the ,cyclostomata1 or ,lampreys and ,hags4 ,but considering the close relation of the ,mudfish with the ,ganoidei1 and the wide differences between the ,elasmobranchii and the ,teleostei1 ,i greatly doubt the propriety of separating the ,dipneusta1 as a class1 from the other ,pisces4 ,professor ,haeckel proposes to break up the vertebrate sub-kingdom1 first1 into the two provinces of ,leptocardia and ,pachycardia2 ,amphioxus being in the former1 and all other vertebrates in the latter division4 ,the ,pachycardia are then divided into ,monorhina1 which contains the ,cyclostome fishes1 distinguished by their single nasal aperture2 and ,amphirhina1 comprising the other ,vertebrata1 which have two nasal apertures4 ,these are further subdivided into ,anamnia 7,pisces1 ,dipneusta1 ,amphibia7 and ,amniota 7,reptilia1 ,aves1 ,mammalia74 ,this classification undoubtedly expresses many of the most important facts in vertebrate structure in a clear and compendious way2 whether it is the best that can he adopted remains to be seen4 ,with much reason the ,lemurs are removed altogether from the ,primates1 under the name of ,prosimiae4 ,but ,i am surprised to find the ,sirenia left in one group with the ,cetacea1 and the ,plesiosauria with the ,ichthyosauria2 the ordinal distinctness of these having1 to my mind1 been long since fully established4 ,v4 ,in ,professor ,haeckel's speculations on ,phylogeny1 or the genealogy of animal forms1 there is much that is profoundly interesting1 and his suggestions are always supported by sound knowledge and great ingenuity4 ,whether one agrees or disagrees with him1 one feels that he has forced the mind into lines of thought in which it is more profitable to go wrong than to stand still4 ,to put his views into a few words1 he conceives that all forms of life originally commenced as ,monera1 or simple particles of protoplasm2 and that these ,monera originated from not-living matter4 ,some of the ,monera acquired tendencies towards the ,protistic1 others towards the ,vegetal1 and others towards the ,animal modes of life4 ,the last became animal ,monera4 ,some of the animal ,monera acquired a nucleus1 and became amoeba-like creatures2 and1 out of certain of these1 ciliated infusorium-like animals were developed4 ,these became modified into two stirpes3 ,a1 that of the worms2 and ,b1 that of the sponges4 ,the latter by progressive modification gave rise to all the ,coelenterata2 the former to all other animals4 ,but ,a soon broke up into two principal stirpes1 of which one1 a1 became the root of the ,annelida1 ,echinodermata1 and ,arthropoda1 while the other1 b1 gave rise to the ,polyzoa and ,ascidioida1 and produced the two remaining stirpes of the ,vertebrata and the ,mollusca4 ,perhaps the most startling proposition of all those which ,professor ,haeckel puts before us is that which he bases upon ,kowalewsky's researches into the development of ,amphioxus and of the ,ascidioida1 that the origin of the ,vertebrata is to be sought in an ,ascidioid form4 ,goodsir long ago insisted upon the resemblance between ,amphioxus and the ,ascidians2 but the notion of a genetic connection between the two1 and especially the identification of the notochord of the ,vertebrate with the axis of the caudal appendage of the larva of the ,ascidian1 is a novelty which1 at first1 takes one's breath away4 ,i must confess1 however1 that the more ,i have pondered over it1 the more grounds appear in its favour1 though ,i am not convinced that there is any real parallelism between the mode of development of the ganglion of the ,ascidian and that of the ,vertebrate cerebro-spinal axis4 ,the hardly less startling hypothesis that the ,echinoderms are coalesced worms1 on the other hand1 appears to be open to serious objection4 ,as a matter of anatomy1 it does not seem to me to correspond with fact2 for there is no worm with a calcareous skeleton1 nor any which has a band-like ventral nerve1 superficial to which lies an ambulacral vessel4 ,and1 as a question of development1 the formation of the radiate ,echinoderm within its vermiform larva seems to me to be analogous to the formation of a radiate ,medusa upon a ,hydrozoic stock4 ,but a ,medusa is surely not the result of the coalescence of as many organisms as it presents morphological segments4 ,professor ,haeckel adduces the fossil ,crossopodia and ,phyllodocites as examples of the ,annelidan forms1 by the coalescence of which the ,echinoderms may have been produced2 but1 even supposing the resemblance of these worms to detached starfish arms to be perfect1 it is possible that they may be the extreme term1 and not the commencement1 of ,echinoderm development4 ,a pentacrinoid ,echinoderm1 with a complete jointed stalk1 is developed within the larva of ,antedon4 ,is it not possible that the larva of ,crossopodia may have developed a vermiform ,echinoderm8 ,with respect to the ,phylogeny of the ,arthropoda1 ,i find myself disposed to take a somewhat different view from that of ,professor ,haeckel4 ,he assumes that the primary stock of the whole group was a crustacean1 having that ,nauplius form in which ,fritz ,mller has shown that so many ,crustacea commence their lives4 ,all the ,entomostraca arose by the modification of some one or other of these ,naupliform ,archicarida4 ,other ,archicarida underwent a further metamorphosis into a ,zoaea-form4 ,from some of these ,zoeopoda arose all the remaining ,malacostracous ,crustacea2 while1 from others1 was developed some form analogous to the existing ,galeodes1 out of which proceeded1 by gradual differentiation1 all the ,myriapoda1 ,arachnida1 and ,insecta4 ,i should1 be disposed to interpret the facts of the embryological history and of the anatomy of the ,arthropoda in a different manner4 ,the ,copepoda1 the ,ostracoda1 and the ,branchiopoda are the ,crustacea which have departed least from the embryonic or ,nauplius-forms2 and1 of these1 ,i imagine that the ,copepoda represent the hypothetical ,archicarida most closely4 ,apus and ,sapphirina indicate the relations of these ,archaeocarids with the ,trilobita1 and the ,eurypterida connect the ,trilobita and the ,copepoda with the ,xiphosura4 ,but the ,xiphosura have such close morphological relations with the ,arachnida1 and especially with the oldest known ,arachnidan1 ,scorpio1 that ,i cannot doubt the existence of a genetic connection between the two groups4 ,on the other hand1 the ,branchiopoda do1 even at the present day1 almost pass into the true ,podophthalmia1 by ,nebalia4 ,by the ,trilobita1 again1 the ,archicarida are connected with such ,edriophthalmia as ,serolis4 ,the ,stomapoda are extremely modified ,edriophthalmia of the amphipod type4 ,on the other side1 the ,isopoda lead to the ,myriapoda1 and the latter to the ,insecta4 ,thus the ,arthropod phylum1 which suggests itself to me1 is that the branches of the ,podophthalmia1 of the ,insecta 7with the ,myriapoda71 and of the ,arachnida1 spring separately and distinctly from the ,archaeocarid root--and that the ,zoaea-forms occur only at the origin of the ,podophthalmous branch4 ,the phylum of the ,vertebrata is the most interesting of all1 and is admirably discussed by ,professor ,haeckel4 ,i can note only a few points which seem to me to be open to discussion4 ,the ,monorhina1 having been developed out of the ,leptocardia1 gave rise1 according to ,professor ,haeckel1 to a shark-like form1 which was the common stock of all the ,amphirhina4 ,from this ,protamphirhine were developed1 in divergent lines1 the true ,sharks1 ,rays1 and ,chimaerae2 the ,ganoids1 and the ,dipneusta4 ,the ,teleostei are modified ,ganoidei4 ,the ,dipneusta gave rise to the ,amphibia1 which are the root of all other ,vertebrata1 inasmuch as out of them were developed the first ,vertebrata provided with an amnion1 or the ,protamniota4 ,the ,protamniota split up into two stems1 one that of the ,mammalia1 the other common to ,reptilia and ,aves4 ,the only modification which it occurs to me to suggest in this general view of the ,phylogeny of the ,vertebrata is1 that the ,protamphirhine was possibly more ganoid than shark-like4 ,so far as our present information goes the ,ganoids are as old as the ,sharks2 and it is very interesting to observe that the remains of the oldest ,ganoids1 ,cephalaspis and ,pteraspis1 have as yet displayed no trace of jaws4 ,it is just possible that they may connect the ,monorhina1 with the ,sturgeons among the ,amphirhina4 ,on the other hand1 the ,crossopterygian ,ganoids exhibit the closest connection with ,lepidosiren1 and thereby with the ,amphibia4 ,it should not be forgotten that the development of the ,lampreys exhibits curious points of resemblance with that of the ,amphibia1 which are absent in the ,sharks and ,rays4 ,of the development of the ,ganoidei we have unfortunately no knowledge1 but their brains and their reproductive organs are more amphibian than are those of the ,sharks4 ,on the whole1 ,i am disposed to think that the direct stem of ascent from the ,monorhina to the ,amphibia is formed by the ,ganoids and the ,mudfishes2 while the ,osseous fishes and the ,sharks are branches in different directions from this stem4 ,what the ,protamniota were like1 ,i do not suppose any one is in a position to say1 but ,i cannot think that the thoroughly ,lacertian ,protorosaurus had anything to do with them4 ,the reptiles which are most amphibian in their characters1 and therefore1 probably1 most nearly approach the ,protamniota1 are the ,ichthyosauria and the ,chelonia4 ,that the ,didelphia were developed out of some ornithodelphous form1 as ,professor ,haeckel supposes1 seems to be unquestionable2 but the existing ,opossums and ,kangaroos are certainly extremely modified and remote from their ancestors the ,prodidelphia1 of which we have not1 at present the slightest knowledge4 ,the mode of origin of the ,monodelphia from these is a very difficult problem1 for the most part left open by ,professor ,haeckel4 ,he considers the ,prosimiae1 or ,lemurs1 to be the common stock of the ,deciduata1 and the ,cetacea 7with which he includes the ,sirenia7 to be modified ,ungulata4 ,as regards the latter question1 ,i have little doubt that the ,sirenia connect the ,ungulata with the ,proboscidea2 and none1 that the ,cetacea are extremely modified ,carnivora4 ,the passage between the ,seals and the ,cetacea by ,zeuglodon is complete4 ,i also think that there is much to be said for the opinion1 that the ,insectivora represent the common stock of the ,primates 7which passed into them by the ,prosimiae71 the ,cheiroptera1 the ,rodentia1 and the ,carnivora4 ,and ,i am greatly disposed to look for the common root of all the ,ungulata1 as well1 in some ancient non-deciduate ,mammals which were more like ,insectivora than anything else4 ,on the other hand1 the ,edentata appear to form a series by themselves4 ,the latter part of this notice of the ,natrliche ,schpfungs-,geschichte1 brings so strongly into prominence the points of difference between its able author and myself1 that ,i do not like to conclude without reminding the reader of my entire concurrence with the general tenor and spirit of the work1 and of my high estimate of its value4 ,,xii4 ,,bishop ,,berkeley ,,on ,,the ,,metaphysics ,,of ,,sensation4#a ,professor ,fraser has earned the thanks of all students of philosophy for the conscientious labour which he has bestowed upon his new edition of the works of ,berkeley2 in which1 for the first time1 we find collected together every thought which can be traced to the subtle and penetrating mind of the famous ,bishop of ,cloyne2 while the ,life and ,letters will rejoice those who care less for the idealist and the prophet of tar-water1 than for the man who stands out as one of the noblest and purest figures of his time3 that ,berkeley from whom the jealousy of ,pope did not withhold a single one of all the virtues under heaven2 nor the cynicism of ,swift1 the dignity of one of the first men of the kingdom for learning and virtue2 the man whom the pious ,atterbury could compare to nothing less than an angel2 and whose personal influence and eloquence filled the ,scriblerus ,club and the ,house of ,commons with enthusiasm for the evangelization of the ,north ,american ,indians2 and even led ,sir ,robert ,walpole to assent to the appropriation of public money to a scheme which was neither business nor bribery4#b ,footnote #a3 ,the ,works of ,george ,berkeley1 ,d4,d41 formerly ,bishop of ,cloyne1 including many of his ,works hitherto unpublished1 with ,preface1 ,annotations1 his ,life and ,letters1 and an ,account of his ,philosophy4 ,by ,a4,c4 ,fraser4 ,four vols4 ,oxford3 ,clarendon ,press4 #ahga4 ,footnote #b3 ,in justice to ,sir ,robert1 however1 it is proper to remark that he declared afterwards1 that he gave his assent to ,berkeley's scheme for the ,bermuda ,university only because he thought the ,house of ,commons was sure to throw it out4 ,hardly any epoch in the intellectual history of ,england is more remarkable in itself1 or possesses a greater interest for us in these latter days1 than that which coincides broadly with the conclusion of the seventeenth and the opening of the eighteenth century4 ,the political fermentation of the preceding age was gradually working itself out2 domestic peace gave men time to think2 and the toleration won by the party of which ,locke was the spokesman1 permitted a freedom of speech and of writing such as has rarely been exceeded in later times4 ,fostered by these circumstances1 the great faculty for physical and metaphysical inquiry1 with which the people of our race are naturally endowed1 developed itself vigorously2 and at least two of its products have had a profound and a permanent influence upon the subsequent course of thought in the world4 ,the one of these was ,english ,freethinking2 the other1 the ,theory of ,gravitation4 ,looking back to the origin of the intellectual impulses of which these were the results1 we are led to ,herbert1 to ,hobbes1 to ,bacon2 and to one who stands in advance of all these1 as the most typical man of his time--,descartes4 ,it is the ,cartesian doubt--the maxim that assent may properly be given to no propositions but such as are perfectly clear and distinct--which1 becoming incarnate1 so to speak1 in the ,englishmen1 ,anthony ,collins1 ,toland1 ,tindal1 ,woolston1 and in the wonderful ,frenchman1 ,pierre ,bayle1 reached its final term in ,hume4 ,and1 on the other hand1 although the theory of ,gravitation set aside the ,cartesian vortices--yet the spirit of the ,principes de ,philosophie attained its apotheosis when ,newton demonstrated all the host of heaven to be but the elements of a vast mechanism1 regulated by the same laws as those which govern the falling of a stone to the ground4 ,there is a passage in the preface to the first edition of the ,principia which shows that ,newton was penetrated1 as completely as ,descartes1 with the belief that all the phenomena of nature are expressible in terms of matter and motion4 ,would that the rest of the phenomena of nature could be deduced by a like kind of reasoning from mechanical principles4 ,for many circumstances lead me to suspect that all these phenomena may depend upon certain forces1 in virtue of which the particles of bodies1 by causes not yet known1 are either mutually impelled against one another and cohere into regular figures1 or repel and recede from one another2 which forces being unknown1 philosophers have as yet explored nature in vain4 ,but ,i hope that1 either by this method of philosophizing1 or by some other and better1 the principles here laid down may throw some light upon the matter4#a ,footnote #a3 ,utinam caetera naturae phaenomena ex principiis mechanicis1 eodem argumentandi genere1 derivare licet4 ,nam multa me movent1 ut nonnihil suspicer ca omnia ex viribus quibusdam pendere posse1 quibus corporum particulae1 per causas nondum cognitas1 vel in se mutuo impelluntur et secundum figuras regulares cohaerent vel ab invicem fugantur et reced ent3 quibus viribus ignotis1 ,philosophi hactenus ,naturam frustra tentarunt4 ,spero autem quod vel huic philosophandi modo1 vel veriori1 alicui1 principia hic posita lucem aliquam praebebunt4--,preface to ,first ,edition of ,principia1 ,may #h1 #afhf4 ,but the doctrine that all the phenomena of nature are resolvable into mechanism is what people have agreed to call materialism2 and when ,locke and ,collins maintained that matter may possibly be able to think1 and ,newton himself could compare infinite space to the sensorium of the ,deity1 it was not wonderful that the ,english philosophers should be attacked as they were by ,leibnitz in the famous letter to the ,princess of ,wales1 which gave rise to his correspondence with ,clarke4#a ,footnote #a3 ,collection of ,papers which passed between the late learned ,mr4 ,leibnitz and ,dr4 ,clarke4--#agag4 #a4 ,natural religion itself seems to decay in ,england very much4 ,many will have human souls to be material2 others make ,god ,himself a corporeal ,being4 #b4 ,mr4 ,locke and his followers are uncertain1 at least1 whether the soul be not material and naturally perishable4 #c4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton says that space is an organ which ,god makes use of to perceive things by4 ,but if ,god stands in need of any organ to perceive things by1 it will follow that they do not depend altogether upon ,him1 nor were produced by ,him4 #d4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton and his followers have also a very odd opinion concerning the work of ,god4 ,according to their doctrine1 ,god ,almighty wants to wind up ,his watch from time to time2 otherwise it would cease to move4#a ,he had not1 it seems1 sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion4 ,nay1 the machine of ,god's making is so imperfect1 according to these gentlemen1 that ,he is obliged to clean it now and then by an extraordinary concourse1 and even to mend it as a clockmaker mends his work4 ,footnote #a3 ,goethe seems to have had this saying of ,leibnitz in his mind when he wrote his famous lines-- ,was wr' ein ,gott der nur von aussen stiesse ,im ,kreis das ,all am ,finger laufen liesse4 ,it is beside the mark1 at present1 to inquire how far ,leibnitz paints a true picture1 and how far he is guilty of a spiteful caricature of ,newton's views in these passages2 and whether the beliefs which ,locke is known to have entertained are consistent with the conclusions which may logically be drawn from some parts of his works4 ,it is undeniable that ,english philosophy in ,leibnitz's time had the general character which he ascribes to it4 ,the phenomena of nature were held to be resolvable into the attractions and the repulsions of particles of matter2 all knowledge was attained through the senses2 the mind antecedent to experience was a tabula rasa4 ,in other words1 at the commencement of the eighteenth century1 the character of speculative thought in ,england was essentially sceptical1 critical1 and materialistic4 ,why materialism should be more inconsistent with the existence of a ,deity1 the freedom of the will1 or the immortality of the soul1 or with any actual or possible system of theology1 than idealism1 ,i must declare myself at a loss to divine4 ,but in the year #agjj all the world appears to have been agreed1 ,tertullian notwithstanding1 that materialism necessarily leads to very dreadful consequences4 ,and it was thought that it conduced to the interests of religion and morality to attack the materialists with all the weapons that came to hand4 ,perhaps the most interesting controversy which arose out of these questions is the wonderful triangular duel between ,dodwell1 ,clarke1 and ,anthony ,collins1 concerning the materiality of the soul1 and--what all the disputants considered to be the necessary consequence of its materiality--its natural mortality4 ,i do not think that anyone can read the letters which passed between ,clarke and ,collins1 without admitting that ,collins1 who writes with wonderful power and closeness of reasoning1 has by far the best of the argument1 so far as the possible materiality of the soul goes2 and that1 in this battle1 the ,goliath of ,freethinking overcame the champion of what was considered ,orthodoxy4 ,but in ,dublin1 all this while1 there was a little ,david practising his youthful strength upon the intellectual lions and bears of ,trinity ,college4 ,this was ,george ,berkeley1 who was destined to give the same kind of development to the idealistic side of ,descartes' philosophy1 that the ,freethinkers had given to its sceptical side1 and the ,newtonians to its mechanical side4 ,berkeley faced the problem boldly4 ,he said to the materialists3 ,you tell me that all the phenomena of nature are resolvable into matter and its affections4 ,i assent to your statement1 and now ,i put to you the further question1 ',what is matter8' ,in answering this question you shall be bound by your own conditions2 and ,i demand1 in the terms of the ,cartesian axiom1 that in turn you give your assent only to such conclusions as are perfectly clear and obvious4 ,it is this great argument which is worked out in the ,treatise concerning the ,principles of ,human ,knowledge1 and in those ,dialogues between ,hylas and ,philonous1 which rank among the most exquisite examples of ,english style1 as well as among the subtlest of metaphysical writings2 and the final conclusion of which is summed up in a passage remarkable alike for literary beauty and for calm audacity of statement4 ,some truths there are so near and obvious to the mind that a man need only open his eyes to see them4 ,such ,i take this important one to be1 viz41 that all the choir of heaven and furniture of the earth--in a word1 all those bodies which compose the mighty frame of the world--have not any substance without a mind2 that their being is to be perceived or known2 that consequently1 so long as they are not actually perceived by me1 or do not exist in my mind or that of any other created spirit1 they must either have no existence at all or else subsist in the mind of some eternal spirit2 it being perfectly unintelligible1 and involving all the absurdity of abstraction1 to attribute to any single part of them an existence independent of a spirit4#a ,footnote #a3 ,treatise concerning the ,principles of ,human ,knowledge1 ,part ,i4 #f4 ,doubtless this passage sounds like the acme of metaphysical paradox1 and we all know that coxcombs vanquished ,berkeley with a grin2 while common-sense folk refuted him by stamping on the ground1 or some such other irrelevant proceeding4 ,but the key to all philosophy lies in the clear apprehension of ,berkeley's problem--which is neither more nor less than one of the shapes of the greatest of all questions1 ,what are the limits of our faculties8 ,and it is worth any amount of trouble to comprehend the exact nature of the argument by which ,berkeley arrived at his results1 and to know by one's own knowledge the great truth which he discovered--that the honest and rigorous following up of the argument which leads us to materialism1 inevitably carries us beyond it4 ,suppose that ,i accidentally prick my finger with a pin4 ,i immediately become aware of a condition of my consciousness--a feeling which ,i term pain4 ,i have no doubt whatever that the feeling is in myself alone2 and if anyone were to say that the pain ,i feel is something which inheres in the needle1 as one of the qualities of the substance of the needle1 we should all laugh at the absurdity of the phraseology4 ,in fact1 it is utterly impossible to conceive pain except as a state of consciousness4 ,hence1 so far as pain is concerned1 it is sufficiently obvious that ,berkeley's phraseology is strictly applicable to our power of conceiving its existence--its being is to be perceived or known1 and so long as it is not actually perceived by me1 or does not exist in my mind1 or that of any other created spirit1 it must either have no existence at all1 or else subsist in the mind of some eternal spirit4 ,so much for pain4 ,now let us consider an ordinary sensation4 ,let the point of the pin be gently rested upon the skin1 and ,i become aware of a feeling or condition of consciousness quite different from the former--the sensation of what ,i call touch4 ,nevertheless this touch is plainly just as much in myself as the pain was4 ,i cannot for a moment conceive this something which ,i call touch as existing apart from myself1 or a being capable of the same feelings as myself4 ,and the same reasoning applies to all the other simple sensations4 ,a moment's reflection is sufficient to convince one that the smell1 and the taste1 and the yellowness1 of which we become aware when an orange is smelt1 tasted1 and seen1 are as completely states of our consciousness as is the pain which arises if the orange happens to be too sour4 ,nor is it less clear that every sound is a state of the consciousness of him who hears it4 ,if the universe contained only blind and deaf beings1 it is impossible for us to imagine but that darkness and silence should reign everywhere4 ,it is undoubtedly true1 then1 of all the simple sensations that1 as ,berkeley says1 their esse is percipi--their being is to be perceived or known4 ,but that which perceives1 or knows1 is mind or spirit2 and therefore that knowledge which the senses give us is1 after all1 a knowledge of spiritual phenomena4 ,all this was explicitly or implicitly admitted1 and1 indeed1 insisted upon1 by ,berkeley's contemporaries1 and by no one more strongly than by ,locke1 who terms smells1 tastes1 colours1 sounds1 and the like1 secondary qualities1 and observes1 with respect to these secondary qualities1 that whatever reality we by mistake attribute to them they are in truth nothing in the objects themselves4 ,and again3 ,flame is denominated hot and light2 snow1 white and cold2 and manna1 white and sweet1 from the ideas they produce in us2 which qualities are commonly thought to be the same in these bodies2 that those ideas are in us1 the one the perfect resemblance of the other as they are in a mirror2 and it would by most men be judged very extravagant if one should say otherwise4 ,and yet he that will consider that the same fire that at one distance produces in us the sensation of warmth1 does at a nearer approach produce in us the far different sensation of pain1 ought to bethink himself what reason he has to say that his idea of warmth1 which was produced in him by the fire1 is actually in the fire2 and his idea of pain which the same fire produced in him in the same way1 is not in the fire4 ,why are whiteness and coldness in snow1 and pain not1 when it produces the one and the other idea in us2 and can do neither but by the bulk1 figure1 number1 and motion of its solid parts8#a ,footnote #a3 ,locke1 ,human ,understanding1 ,book ,,ii4 chap4 viii4 #ad1 #ae4 ,thus far then materialists and idealists are agreed4 ,locke and ,berkeley1 and all logical thinkers who have succeeded them1 are of one mind about secondary qualities--their being is to be perceived or known--their materiality is1 in strictness1 a spirituality4 ,but ,locke draws a great distinction between the secondary qualities of matter1 and certain others which he terms primary qualities4 ,these are extension1 figure1 solidity1 motion and rest1 and number2 and he is as clear that these primary qualities exist independently of the mind1 as he is that the secondary qualities have no such existence4 ,the particular bulk1 number1 figure1 and motion of the parts of fire and snow are really in them1 whether anyone's senses perceive them or not1 and therefore they may be called real qualities1 because they really exist in those bodies2 but light1 heat1 whiteness1 or coldness1 are no more really in them1 than sickness1 or pain1 is in manna4 ,take away the sensation of them2 let not the eyes see light or colours1 nor the ears hear sounds2 let the palate not taste1 nor the nose smell2 and all colours1 tastes1 odours and sounds1 as they are such particular ideas1 vanish and cease1 and are reduced to their causes1 i4e4 bulk1 figure1 and motion of parts4 #ah4 ,a piece of manna of sensible bulk is able to produce in us the idea of a round or square figure2 and1 by being removed from one place to another1 the idea of motion4 ,this idea of motion represents it as it really is in the manna moving2 a circle and square are the same1 whether in idea or existence1 in the mind or in the manna2 and thus both motion and figure are really in the manna1 whether we take notice of them or no3 this everybody is ready to agree to4 ,so far as primary qualities are concerned1 then1 ,locke is as thoroughgoing a realist as ,st4 ,anselm4 ,in ,berkeley1 on the other hand1 we have as complete a representative of the nominalists and conceptualists--an intellectual descendant of ,roscellinus and of ,abelard4 ,and by a curious irony of fate1 it is the nominalist who is1 this time1 the champion of orthodoxy1 and the realist that of heresy4 ,once more let us try to work out ,berkeley's principles for ourselves1 and inquire what foundation there is for the assertion that extension1 form1 solidity1 and the other primary qualities1 have an existence apart from mind4 ,and for this purpose let us recur to our experiment with the pin4 ,it has been seen that when the finger is pricked with a pin1 a state of consciousness arises which we call pain2 and it is admitted that this pain is not a something which inheres in the pin1 but a something which exists only in the mind1 and has no similitude elsewhere4 ,but a little attention will show that this state of consciousness is accompanied by another1 which can by no effort be got rid of4 ,i not only have the feeling1 but the feeling is localized4 ,i am just as certain that the pain is in my finger1 as ,i am that ,i have it at all4 ,nor will any effort of the imagination enable me to believe that the pain is not in my finger4 ,and yet nothing is more certain than that it is not1 and cannot be1 in the spot in which ,i feel it1 nor within a couple of feet of that spot4 ,for the skin of the finger is connected by a bundle of fine nervous fibres1 which run up the whole length of the arm1 with the spinal marrow and brain1 and we know that the feeling of pain caused by the prick of a pin is dependent on the integrity of those fibres4 ,after they have been cut through close to the spinal cord1 no pain will be felt1 whatever injury is done to the finger2 and if the ends which remain in connection with the cord be pricked1 the pain which arises will appear to have its seat in the finger just as distinctly as before4 ,nay1 if the whole arm be cut off1 the pain which arises from pricking the nerve stump will appear to be seated in the fingers1 just as if they were still connected with the body4 ,it is perfectly obvious1 therefore1 that the localization of the pain at the surface of the body is an act of the mind4 ,it is an extradition of that consciousness1 which has its seat in the brain1 to a definite point of the body--which takes place without our volition1 and may give rise to ideas which are contrary to fact4 ,we might call this extradition of consciousness a reflex feeling1 just as we speak of a movement which is excited apart from1 or contrary to1 our volition1 as a reflex motion4 ,locality is no more in the pin than pain is2 of the former1 as of the latter1 it is true that its being is to be perceived1 and that its existence apart from a thinking mind is not conceivable4 ,the foregoing reasoning will be in no way affected1 if1 instead of pricking the finger1 the point of the pin rests gently against it1 so as to give rise merely to a tactile sensation4 ,the tactile sensation is referred outwards to the point touched1 and seems to exist there4 ,but it is certain that it is not and cannot be there really1 because the brain is the sole seat of consciousness2 and1 further1 because evidence1 as strong as that in favour of the sensation being in the finger1 can be brought forward in support of propositions which are manifestly absurd4 ,for example1 the hairs and nails are utterly devoid of sensibility1 as everyone knows4 ,nevertheless1 if the ends of the nails or hairs are touched1 ever so lightly1 we feel that they are touched1 and the sensation seems to be situated in the nails or hairs4 ,nay more1 if a walking-stick a yard long is held firmly by the handle and the other end is touched1 the tactile sensation1 which is a state of our own consciousness1 is unhesitatingly referred to the end of the stick2 and yet no one will say that it is there4 ,let us now suppose that1 instead of one pin's point resting against the end of my finger1 there are two4 ,each of these can be known to me1 as we have seen1 only as a state of a thinking mind1 referred outwards1 or localized4 ,but the existence of these two states1 somehow or other1 generates in my mind a host of new ideas1 which did not make their appearance when only one state was present4 ,for example1 ,i get the ideas of co-existence1 of number1 of distance1 and of relative place or direction4 ,but all these ideas are ideas of relations1 and imply the existence of something which perceives those relations4 ,if a tactile sensation is a state of the mind1 and if the localization of that sensation is an act of the mind1 how is it conceivable that a relation between two localized sensations should exist apart from the mind8 ,it is1 ,i confess1 quite as easy for me to imagine that redness may exist apart from a visual sense1 as it is to suppose that co-existence1 number1 and distance can have any existence apart from the mind of which they are ideas4 ,thus it seems clear that the existence of some1 at any rate1 of ,locke's primary qualities of matter1 such as number and extension1 apart from mind1 is as utterly unthinkable as the existence of colour and sound under like circumstances4 ,will the others--namely1 figure1 motion and rest1 and solidity--withstand a similar criticism8 ,i think not4 ,for all these1 like the foregoing1 are perceptions by the mind of the relations of two or more sensations to one another4 ,if distance and place are inconceivable1 in the absence of the mind1 of which they are ideas1 the independent existence of figure1 which is the limitation of distance1 and of motion1 which is change of place1 must be equally inconceivable4 ,solidity requires more particular consideration1 as it is a term applied to two very different things1 the one of which is solidity of form1 or geometrical solidity2 while the other is solidity of substance1 or mechanical solidity4 ,if those motor nerves of a man by which volitions are converted into motion were all paralysed1 and if sensation remained only in the palm of his hand 7which is a conceivable case71 he would still be able to attain to clear notions of extension1 figure1 number1 and motion1 by attending to the states of consciousness which might be aroused by the contact of bodies with the sensory surface of the palm4 ,but it does not appear that such a person could arrive at any conception of geometrical solidity4 ,for that which does not come in contact with the sensory surface is non-existent for the sense of touch2 and a solid body1 impressed upon the palm of the hand1 gives rise only to the notion of the extension of that particular part of the solid which is in contact with the skin4 ,nor is it possible that the idea of outness 7in the sense of discontinuity with the sentient body7 could be attained by such a person2 for1 as we have seen1 every tactile sensation is referred to a point either of the natural sensory surface itself1 or of some solid in continuity with that surface4 ,hence it would appear that the conception of the difference between the ,ego and the non-,ego could not be attained by a man thus situated4 ,his feelings would be his universe1 and his tactile sensations his moenia mundi4 ,time would exist for him as for us1 but space would have only two dimensions4 ,but now remove the paralysis from the motor apparatus1 and give the palm of the hand of our imaginary man perfect freedom to move1 so as to be able to glide in all directions over the bodies with which it is in contact4 ,then with the consciousness of that mobility1 the notion of space of three dimensions--which is ,raum or room to move with perfect freedom--is at once given4 ,but the notion that the tactile surface itself moves1 cannot be given by touch alone1 which is competent to testify only to the fact of change of place1 not to its cause4 ,the idea of the motion of the tactile surface could not1 in fact1 be attained1 unless the idea of change of place were accompanied by some state of consciousness1 which does not exist when the tactile surface is immoveable4 ,this state of consciousness is what is termed the muscular sense1 and its existence is very easily demonstrable4 ,suppose the back of my hand to rest upon a table1 and a sovereign to rest upon the upturned palm1 ,i at once acquire a notion of extension1 and of the limit of that extension4 ,the impression made by the circular piece of gold is quite different from that which would be made by a triangular1 or a square1 piece of the same size1 and thereby ,i arrive at the notion of figure4 ,moreover1 if the sovereign slides over the palm1 ,i acquire a distinct conception of change of place or motion1 and of the direction of that motion4 ,for as the sovereign slides1 it affects new nerve-endings1 and gives rise to new states of consciousness4 ,each of them is definitely and separately localized by a reflex act of the mind1 which1 at the same time1 becomes aware of the difference between two successive localizations2 and therefore of change of place1 which is motion4 ,if1 while the sovereign lies on the hand1 the latter being kept quite steady1 the fore-arm is gradually and slowly raised2 the tactile sensations1 with all their accompaniments1 remain exactly as they were4 ,but1 at the same time1 something new is introduced2 namely1 the sense of effort4 ,if ,i try to discover where this sense of effort seems to be1 ,i find myself somewhat perplexed at first2 but1 if ,i hold the fore-arm in position long enough1 ,i become aware of an obscure sense of fatigue1 which is apparently seated either in the muscles of the arm1 or in the integument directly over them4 ,the fatigue seems to be related to the sense of effort1 in much the same way as the pain which supervenes upon the original sense of contact1 when a pin is slowly pressed against the skin1 is related to touch4 ,a little attention will show that this sense of effort accompanies every muscular contraction by which the limbs1 or other parts of the body1 are moved4 ,by its agency the fact of their movement is known2 while the direction of the motion is given by the accompanying tactile sensations4 ,and1 in consequence of the incessant association of the muscular and the tactile sensations1 they become so fused together that they are often confounded tinder the same name4 ,if freedom to move in all directions is the very essence of that conception of space of three dimensions which we obtain by the sense of touch2 and if that freedom to move is really another name for the feeling of unopposed effort1 accompanied by that of change of place1 it is surely impossible to conceive of such space as having existence apart from that which is conscious of effort4 ,but it may be said that we derive our conception of space of three dimensions not only from touch1 but from vision2 that if we do not feel things actually outside us1 at any rate we see them4 ,and it was exactly this difficulty which presented itself to ,berkeley at the outset of his speculations4 ,he met it1 with characteristic boldness1 by denying that we do see things outside us2 and1 with no less characteristic ingenuity1 by devising that ,new ,theory of ,vision which has met with wider acceptance than any of his views1 though it has been the subject of continual controversies4#a ,footnote #a3 ,i have not specifically alluded to the writings of ,bailey1 ,mill1 ,abbott1 and others1 on this vexed question1 not because ,i have failed to study them carefully1 but because this is not a convenient occasion for controversial discussion4 ,those who are acquainted with the subject1 however1 will observe that the view ,i have taken agrees substantially with that of ,mr4 ,barley4 ,in the ,principles of ,human ,knowledge1 ,berkeley himself tells us how he was led to those views which he published in the ,essay towards the ,new ,theory of ,vision4 ,it will be objected that we see things actually without1 or at a distance from us1 and which consequently do not exist in the mind2 it being absurd that those things which are seen at the distance of several miles1 should be as near to us as our own thoughts4 ,in answer to this1 ,i desire it may be considered that in a dream we do oft perceive things as existing at a great distance off1 and yet1 for all that1 those things are acknowledged to have their existence only in the mind4 ,but for the fuller clearing of this point1 it may be worth while to consider how it is that we perceive distance and things placed at a distance by sight4 ,for that we should in truth see external space and bodies actually existing in it1 some nearer1 others further off1 seems to carry with it some opposition to what hath been said of their existing nowhere without the mind4 ,the consideration of this difficulty it was that gave birth to my ',essay towards the ,new ,theory of ,vision1' which was published not long since1 wherein it is shown that distance1 or outness1 is neither immediately of itself perceived by sight1 nor yet apprehended1 or judged of1 by lines and angles or anything that hath any necessary connection with it2 but that it is only suggested to our thoughts by certain visible ideas and sensations attending vision1 which1 in their own nature1 have no manner of similitude or relation either with distance1 or with things placed at a distance2 but by a connection taught us by experience1 they come to signify and suggest them to us1 after the same manner that words of any language suggest the ideas they are made to stand for2 insomuch that a man born blind and afterwards made to see1 would not1 at first sight1 think the things he saw to be without his mind or at any distance from him4 ,the key-note of the ,essay to which ,berkeley refers in this passage is to be found in an italicized paragraph of section #abg3-- ,the extensions2 figures1 and motions perceived by sight are specifically distinct from the ideas of touch called by the same names2 nor is there any such thing as an idea1 or kind of idea1 common to both senses4 ,it will be observed that this proposition expressly declares that extension1 figure1 and motion1 and consequently distance1 are immediately perceived by sight as well as by touch2 but that visual distance1 extension1 figure1 and motion1 are totally different in quality from the ideas of the same name obtained through the sense of touch4 ,and other passages leave no doubt that such was ,berkeley's meaning4 ,thus in the #aabth section of the same ,essay1 he carefully defines the two kinds of distance1 one visual1 the other tangible3-- ,by the distance between any two points nothing more is meant than the number of intermediate points4 ,if the given points are visible1 the distance between them is marked out by the number of interjacent visible points2 if they are tangible1 the distance between1 them is a line consisting of tangible points4 ,again1 there are two sorts of magnitude or extension3-- ,it has been shown that there are two sorts of objects apprehended by sight1 each whereof has its distinct magnitude or extension3 the one properly tangible1 i4e4 to be perceived and measured by touch1 and not immediately falling under the sense of seeing2 the other properly and immediately visible1 by mediation of which the former is brought into view4-- #ee4 ,but how are we to reconcile these passages with others which will be perfectly familiar to every reader of the ,new ,theory of ,vision 8 ,as1 for example3-- ,it is1 ,i think1 agreed by all1 that distance of itself1 and immediately1 cannot be seen4-- #b4 ,space or distance1 we have shown1 is no otherwise the object of sight than of hearing4-- #acj4 ,distance is in its own nature imperceptible1 and yet it is perceived by sight4 ,it remains1 therefore1 that it is brought into view by means of some other idea1 that is itself immediately perceived in the act of vision4-- #aa4 ,distance or external space4-- #aee4 ,the explanation is quite simple1 and lies in the fact that ,berkeley uses the word distance in three senses4 ,sometimes he employs it to denote visible distance1 and then he restricts it to distance in two dimensions1 or simple extension4 ,sometimes he means tangible distance in two dimensions2 but most commonly he intends to signify tangible distance in the third dimension4 ,and it is in this sense that he employs distance as the equivalent of space4 ,distance in two dimensions is1 for ,berkeley1 not space1 but extension4 ,by taking a pencil and interpolating the words visible and tangible before distance wherever the context renders them necessary1 ,berkeley's statements may be made perfectly consistent2 though he has not always extricated himself from the entanglement caused by his own loose phraseology1 which rises to a climax in the last ten sections of the ,theory of ,vision1 in which he endeavours to prove that a pure intelligence able to see1 but devoid of the sense of touch1 could have no idea of a plane figure4 ,thus he says in section #aef3-- ,all that is properly perceived by the visual faculty amounts to no more than colours with their variations and different proportions of light and shade2 but the perpetual mutability and fleetingness of those immediate objects of sight render them incapable of being managed after the manner of geometrical figures1 nor is it in any degree useful that they should4 ,it is true there be divers of them perceived at once1 and more of some and less of others2 but accurately to compute their magnitude1 and assign precise determinate proportions between things so variable and inconstant1 if we suppose it possible to be done1 must yet be a very trifling and insignificant labour4 ,if1 by this1 ,berkeley means that by vision alone1 a straight line cannot be distinguished from a curved one1 a circle from a square1 a long line from a short one1 a large angle from a small one1 his position is surely absurd in itself and contradictory to his own previously cited admissions2 if he only means1 on the other hand1 that his pure spirit could not get very far on in his geometry1 it may be true or not2 but it is in contradiction with his previous assertion1 that such a pure spirit could never attain to know as much as the first elements of plane geometry4 ,another source of confusion1 which arises out of ,berkeley's insufficient exactness in the use of language1 is to be found in what he says about solidity1 in discussing ,molyneux's problem1 whether a man born blind and having learned to distinguish between a cube and a sphere1 could1 on receiving his sight1 tell the one from the other by vision4 ,berkeley agrees with ,locke that he could not1 and adds the following reflection3-- ,cube1 sphere1 table1 are words he has known applied to things perceivable by touch1 but to things perfectly intangible he never knew them applied4 ,those words in their wonted application always marked out to his mind bodies or solid things which were perceived by the resistance they gave4 ,but there is no solidity1 no resistance or protrusion perceived by sight4 ,here solidity means resistance to pressure1 which is apprehended by the muscular sense2 but when in section #aed ,berkeley says of his pure intelligence-- ,it is certain that the aforesaid intelligence could have no idea of a solid or quantity of three dimensions1 which follows from its not having any idea of distance -- he refers to that notion of solidity which may be obtained by the tactile sense1 without the addition of any notion of resistance in the solid object2 as1 for example1 when the finger passes lightly over the surface of a billiard ball4 ,yet another source of difficulty in clearly understanding ,berkeley arises out of his use of the word outness4 ,in speaking of touch he seems to employ it indifferently1 both for the localization of a tactile sensation in the sensory surface1 which we really obtain through touch2 and for the notion of corporeal separation1 which is attained by the association of muscular and tactile sensations4 ,in speaking of sight1 on the other hand1 ,berkeley employs outness to denote corporeal separation4 ,when due allowance is made for the occasional looseness and ambiguity of ,berkeley's terminology1 and the accessories are weeded out of the essential parts of his famous ,essay1 his views may1 ,i believe1 be fairly and accurately summed up in the following propositions3-- #a4 ,the sense of touch gives rise to ideas of extension1 figure1 magnitude1 and motion4 #b4 ,the sense of touch gives rise to the idea of outness1 in the sense of localization4 #c4 ,the sense of touch gives rise to the idea of resistance1 and thence to that of solidity1 in the sense of impenetrability4 #d4 ,the sense of touch gives rise to the idea of outness1 in the sense of distance in the third dimension1 and thence to that of space1 or geometrical solidity4 #e4 ,the sense of sight gives rise to ideas of extension1 of figure1 magnitude1 and motion4 #f4 ,the sense of sight does not give rise to the idea of outness1 in the sense of distance in the third dimension1 nor to that of geometrical solidity1 no visual idea appearing to be without the mind1 or at any distance off 7 #dc1 #ej74 #g4 ,the sense of sight does not give rise to the idea of mechanical solidity4 #h4 ,there is no likeness whatever between the tactile ideas called extension1 figure1 magnitude1 and motion1 and the visual ideas which go by the same names2 nor are any ideas common to the two senses4 #i4 ,when we think we see objects at a distance1 what really happens is that the visual picture suggests that the object seen has tangible distance2 we confound the strong belief in the tangible distance of the object with actual sight of its distance4 #aj4 ,visual ideas1 therefore1 constitute a kind of language1 by which we are informed of the tactile ideas which will1 or may1 arise in us4 ,taking these propositions into consideration seriatim1 it may be assumed that everyone will assent to the first and second2 and that for the third and fourth we have only to include the muscular sense tinder the name of sense of touch1 as ,berkeley did1 in order to make it quite accurate4 ,nor is it intelligible to me that anyone should explicitly deny the truth of the fifth proposition1 though some of ,berkeley's supporters1 less careful than himself1 have done so4 ,indeed1 it must be confessed that it is only grudgingly1 and as it were against his will1 that ,berkeley admits that we obtain ideas of extension1 figure1 and magnitude by pure vision1 and that he more than half retracts the admission2 while he absolutely denies that sight gives us any notion of outness in either sense of the word1 and even declares that no proper visual idea appears to be without the mind1 or at any distance off4 ,by proper visual ideas1 ,berkeley denotes colours1 and light1 and shade2 and1 therefore1 he affirms that colours do not appear to be at any distance from us4 ,i confess that this assertion appears to me to be utterly unaccountable4 ,i have made endless experiments on this point1 and by no effort of the imagination can ,i persuade myself1 when looking at a colour1 that the colour is in my mind1 and not at a distance off1 though of course ,i know perfectly well1 as a matter of reason1 that colour is subjective4 ,it is like looking at the sun setting1 and trying to persuade oneself that the earth appears to move and not the sun1 a feat ,i have never been able to accomplish4 ,even when the eyes are shut1 the darkness of which one is conscious1 carries with it the notion of outness4 ,one looks1 so to speak1 into a dark space4 ,common language expresses the common experience of mankind in this matter4 ,a man will say that a smell is in his nose1 a taste in his mouth1 a singing in his ears1 a creeping or a warmth in his skin2 but if he is jaundiced1 he does not say that he has yellow in his eyes1 but that everything looks yellow2 and if he is troubled with muscae volitantes1 he says1 not that he has specks in his eyes1 but that he sees specks dancing before his eyes4 ,in fact1 it appears to me that it is the special peculiarity of visual sensations1 that they invariably give rise to the idea of remoteness1 and that ,berkeley's dictum ought to be reversed4 ,for ,i think that anyone who interrogates his consciousness carefully will find that every proper visual idea appears to be without the mind and at a distance off4 ,not only does every visibile appear to be remote1 but it has a position in external space1 just as a tangibile appears to be superficial and to have a determinate position on the surface of the body4 ,every visibile1 in fact1 appears 7approximately7 to be situated upon a line drawn from it to the point of the retina on which its image falls4 ,it is referred outwards1 in the general direction of the pencil of light by which it is rendered visible1 just as1 in the experiment with the stick1 the tangibile is referred outwards to the end of the stick4 ,it is for this reason that an object1 viewed with both eyes1 is seen single and not double4 ,two distinct images are formed1 but each image is referred to that point at which the two optic axes intersect2 consequently1 the two images exactly cover one another1 and appear as completely one as any other two exactly similar superimposed images would be4 ,and it is for the same reason1 that1 if the ball of the eye is pressed upon at any point1 a spot of light appears apparently outside the eye1 and in a region exactly opposite to that in which the pressure is made4 ,but while it seems to me that there is no reason to doubt that the extradition of sensation is more complete in the case of the eye than in that of the skin1 and that corporeal distinctness1 and hence space1 are directly suggested by vision1 it is another1 and a much more difficult question1 whether the notion of geometrical solidity is attainable by pure vision2 that is to say1 by a single eye1 all the parts of which are immoveable4 ,however this may be1 for an absolutely fixed eye1 ,i conceive there can be no doubt in the case of an eye that is moveable and capable of adjustment4 ,for1 with the moveable eye1 the muscular sense comes into play in exactly the same way as with the moveable hand2 and the notion of change of place1 plus the sense of effort1 gives rise to a conception of visual space1 which runs exactly parallel with that of tangible space4 ,when two moveable eyes are present1 the notion of space of three dimensions is obtained in the same way as it is by the two hands1 but with1 much greater precision4 ,and if1 to take a case similar to one already assumed1 we suppose a man deprived of every sense except vision1 and of all motion except that of his eyes1 it surely cannot be doubted that he would have a perfect conception of space2 and indeed a much more perfect conception than he who possessed touch alone without vision4 ,but of course our touchless man would be devoid of any notion of resistance2 and hence space1 for him1 would be altogether geometrical and devoid of body4 ,and here another curious consideration arises1 what likeness1 if any1 would there be between the visual space of the one man1 and the tangible space of the other8 ,berkeley1 as we have seen 7in the eighth proposition71 declares that there is no likeness between the ideas given by sight and those given by touch2 and one cannot but agree with him1 so long as the term ideas is restricted to mere sensations4 ,obviously1 there is no more likeness between the feel of a surface and the colour of it1 than there is between its colour and its smell4 ,all simple sensations1 derived from different senses1 are incommensurable with one another1 and only gradations of their own intensity are comparable4 ,and thus so far as the primary facts of sensation go1 visual figure and tactile figure1 visual magnitude and tactile magnitude1 visual motion and tactile motion1 are truly unlike1 and have no common term4 ,but when ,berkeley goes further than this1 and declares that there are no ideas common to the ideas of touch and those of sight1 it appears to me that he has fallen into a great error1 and one which is the chief source of his paradoxes about geometry4 ,berkeley in fact employs the word idea in this instance to denote two totally different classes of feelings1 or states of consciousness4 ,for these may be divided into two groups3 the primary feelings1 which exist in themselves and without relation to any other1 such as pleasure and pain1 desire1 and the simple sensations obtained through the sensory organs2 and the secondary feelings1 which express those relations of primary feelings which are perceived by the mind2 and the existence of which1 therefore1 implies the pre-existence of at least two of the primary feelings4 ,such are likeness and unlikeness in quality1 quantity1 or form2 succession and contemporaneity2 contiguity and distance2 cause and effect2 motion and rest4 ,now it is quite true that there is no likeness between the primary feelings which are grouped under sight and touch2 but it appears to me wholly untrue1 and indeed absurd1 to affirm that there is no likeness between the secondary feelings which express the relations of the primary ones4 ,the relation of succession perceived between the visible taps of a hammer1 is1 to my mind1 exactly like the relation of succession between the tangible taps2 the unlikeness between red and blue is a mental phenomenon of the same order as the unlikeness between rough and smooth4 ,two points visibly distant are so1 because one or more units of visible length 7minima visibilia7 are interposed between them2 and as two points tangibly distant are so1 because one or more units of tangible length 7minima tangibilia7 are interposed between them1 it is clear that the notion of interposition of units of sensibility1 or minima sensibilia1 is an idea common to the two4 ,and whether ,i see a point move across the field of vision towards another point1 or feel the like motion1 the idea of the gradual diminution of the number of sensible units between the two points appears to me to be common to both kinds of motion4 ,hence1 ,i conceive1 that though it be true that there is no likeness between the primary feelings given by sight and those given by touch1 yet there is a complete likeness between the secondary feelings aroused by each sense4 ,indeed1 if it were not so1 how could ,logic1 which deals with those forms of thought which are applicable to every kind of subject-matter1 be possible8 ,how could numerical proportion be as true of visibilia1 as of tangibilia1 unless there were some ideas common to the two8 ,and to come directly to the heart of the matter1 is there any more difference between the relations between tangible sensations which we call place and direction1 and those between visible sensations which go by the same name1 than there is between those relations of tangible and visible sensations which we call succession8 ,and if there be none1 why is ,geometry not just as much a matter of visibilia as of tangibilia8 ,moreover1 as a matter of fact1 it is certain that the muscular sense is so closely connected with both the visual and the tactile senses1 that1 by the ordinary laws of association1 the ideas which it suggests must needs be common to both4 ,from what has been said it will follow that the ninth proposition falls to the ground2 and that vision1 combined with the muscular sensations produced by the movement of the eyes1 gives us as complete a notion of corporeal separation and of distance in the third dimension of space1 as touch1 combined with the muscular sensations produced by the movements of the hand1 does4 ,the tenth proposition seems to contain a perfectly true statement1 but it is only half the truth4 ,it is no doubt true that our visual ideas are a kind of language by which we are informed of the tactile ideas which may or will arise in us2 but this is true1 more or less1 of every sense in regard to every other4 ,if ,i put my hand in my pocket1 the tactile ideas which ,i receive prophesy quite accurately what ,i shall see--whether a bunch of keys or half-a-crown--when ,i pull it out again2 and the tactile ideas are1 in this case1 the language which informs me of the visual ideas which will arise4 ,so with the other senses3 olfactory ideas tell me ,i shall find the tactile and visual phenomena called violets1 if ,i look for them2 taste tells me that what ,i am tasting will1 if ,i look at it1 have the form of a clove2 and hearing warns me of what ,i shall1 or may1 see and touch every minute of my life4 ,but while the ,new ,theory of ,vision cannot be considered to possess much value in relation to the immediate object its author had in view1 it had a vastly important influence in directing attention to the real complexity of many of those phenomena of sensation1 which appear at first to be simple4 ,and even if ,berkeley was1 as ,i imagine he was1 quite wrong in supposing that we do not see space1 the contrary doctrine makes quite as strongly for his general view1 that space can be conceived only as something thought by a mind4 ,the last of ,locke's primary qualities which remain to be considered is mechanical solidity1 or impenetrability4 ,but our conception of this is derived from the sense of resistance to our own effort1 or active force1 which we meet with in association with sundry tactile or visual phenomena2 and1 undoubtedly1 active force is inconceivable except as a state of consciousness4 ,this may sound paradoxical2 but let anyone try to realize what he means by the mutual attraction of two particles1 and ,i think he will find1 either1 that he conceives them simply as moving towards one another at a certain rate1 in which case he only pictures motion to himself1 and leaves force aside2 or1 that he conceives each particle to be animated by something like his own volition1 and to be pulling as he would pull4 ,and ,i suppose that this difficulty of thinking of force except as something comparable to volition1 lies at the bottom of ,leibnitz's doctrine of monads1 to say nothing of ,schopenhauer's ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung2 while the opposite difficulty of conceiving force to be anything like volition1 drives another school of thinkers into the denial of any connection1 save that of succession1 between cause and effect4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to sum up4 ,if the materialist affirms that the universe and all its phenomena are resolvable into matter and motion1 ,berkeley replies1 ,true2 but what you call matter and motion are known to us only as forms of consciousness2 their being is to be conceived or known2 and the existence of a state of consciousness1 apart from a thinking mind1 is a contradiction in terms4 ,i conceive that this reasoning is irrefragable4 ,and therefore1 if ,i were obliged to choose between absolute materialism and absolute idealism1 ,i should feel compelled to accept the latter alternative4 ,indeed1 upon this point ,locke does1 practically1 go as far in the direction of idealism1 as ,berkeley1 when he admits that the simple ideas we receive from sensation and reflection are the boundaries of our thoughts1 beyond which the mind1 whatever efforts it would make1 is not able to advance one jot4--,book ,,ii4 chap1 xxiii4 #bi4 ,but ,locke adds1 ,nor can it make any discoveries when it would pry into the nature and hidden causes of these ideas4 ,now1 from this proposition1 the thorough materialists dissent as much1 on the one hand1 as ,berkeley does1 upon the other hand4 ,the thorough materialist asserts that there is a something which he calls the substance of matter2 that this something is the cause of all phenomena1 whether material or mental2 that it is self-existent and eternal1 and so forth4 ,berkeley1 on the contrary1 asserts with equal confidence that there is no substance of matter1 but only a substance of mind1 which he terms spirit2 that there are two kinds of spiritual substance1 the one eternal and uncreated1 the substance of the ,deity1 the other created1 and1 once created1 naturally eternal2 that the universe1 as known to created spirits1 has no being in itself1 but is the result of the action of the substance of the ,deity on the substance of those spirits4 ,in contradiction to which bold assertion1 ,locke affirms that we simply know nothing about substance of any kind4#a ,footnote #a3 ,berkeley virtually makes the same confession of ignorance1 when he admits that we can have no idea or notion of a spirit 7,principles of ,human ,knowledge1 #ach72 and the way in which he tries to escape the consequences of this admission1 is a splendid example of the floundering of a mired logician4 ,so that if anyone will examine himself concerning his notion of pure substance in general1 he will find he has no other idea of it at all1 but only a supposition of he knows not what support of such qualities1 which are capable of producing simple ideas in us1 which qualities are commonly called accidents4 ,if anyone should be asked1 what is the subject wherein colour or weight inheres8 he would have nothing to say but the solid extended parts2 and if he were demanded what is it that solidity and extension inhere in8 he would not be in much better case than the ,indian before mentioned1 who1 urging that the world was supported by a great elephant1 was asked what the elephant rested on8 to which his answer was1 a great tortoise4 ,but being again pressed to know what gave support to the broad-backed tortoise ,i replied1 something1 he knew not what4 ,and thus here1 as in all other cases when we use words without having clear and distinct ideas1 we talk like children1 who1 being questioned what such a thing is1 readily give this satisfactory answer1 that it is something2 which in truth signifies no more when so used1 either by children or men1 but that they know not what1 and that the thing they pretend to talk and know of is what they have no distinct idea of at all1 and are1 so1 perfectly ignorant of it and in the dark4 ,the idea1 then1 we have1 to which we give the general name substance1 being nothing but the supposed but unknown support of those qualities we find existing1 which we imagine cannot exist sine re substante1 without something to support them1 we call that support substantia1 which1 according to the true import of the word1 is1 in plain ,english1 standing under or upholding4#a ,footnote #a3 ,locke1 ,human ,understanding1 ,book ,,ii4 chap1 xiii4 #b4 ,i cannot but believe that the judgment of ,locke is that which ,philosophy will accept as her final decision4 ,suppose that a piano were conscious of sound1 and of nothing else4 ,it would become acquainted with a system of nature entirely composed of sounds1 and the laws of nature would be the laws of melody and of harmony4 ,it might acquire endless ideas of likeness and unlikeness1 of succession1 of similarity and dissimilarity1 but it could attain to no conception of space1 of distance1 or of resistance2 or of figure1 or of motion4 ,the piano might then reason thus3 ,all my knowledge consists of sounds and the perception of the relations of sounds2 now the being of sound is to be heard2 and it is inconceivable that the existence of the sounds ,i know1 should depend upon any other existence than that of the mind of a hearing being4 ,this would be quite as good reasoning as ,berkeley's1 and very sound and useful1 so far as it defines the limits of the piano's faculties4 ,but for all that1 pianos have an existence quite apart from sounds1 and the auditory consciousness of our speculative piano would be dependent1 in the first place1 on the existence of a substance of brass1 wood1 and iron1 and1 in the second1 on that of a musician4 ,but of neither of these conditions of the existence of his consciousness would the phenomena of that consciousness afford him the slightest hint4 ,so that while it is the summit of human wisdom to learn the limit of our faculties1 it may be wise to recollect that we have no more right to make denials1 than to put forth affirmatives1 about what lies beyond that limit4 ,whether either mind1 or matter1 has a substance or not1 is a problem which we are incompetent to discuss2 and it is just as likely that the common notions upon the subject should be correct as any others4 ,indeed1 ,berkeley himself makes ,philonous wind up his discussions with ,hylas1 in a couple of sentences which aptly express this conclusion3-- ,you see1 ,hylas1 the water of yonder fountain1 how it is forced upwards in a round column to a certain height1 at which it breaks and falls back into the basin from whence it rose2 its ascent as well as its descent proceeding from the same uniform law or principle of gravitation4 ,just so1 the same principles which1 at first view1 lead to scepticism1 pursued to a certain point1 bring men back to common sense4 ,,the ,,end4