,,rec5t ,,t5d5cies ,,9 ,,e?ics    ,?ree 
,lectures to ,cl]gy ,giv5 at ,cambridge 
,,by    ,w4 ,r4 ,,sorley1 ,m4,a4 ,,hon4 
,,ll4,d4 ,,ed94    ,knightbridge        
,pr(essor ( ,moral ,philosophy          
,,mcmiv            ,,preface      ,^!   
lectures 7 giv5 to a summ] meet+ (      
cl]gy1 held at  ,cambridge 9 ! mon? (   
,july la/4 ,"s passages h be5 add$ z  !y
 7 writt5 out = ! press1 & ! crudities (
 ! spok5  ^w h1 ,i hope1 be5 prun$ away2
 b1 9 o!r respects1 !  orig9al plan ( ! 
lectures has be5 reta9$4 ,!y are n[     
publi%$ 9 ! hope t !y may prove ( int]e/
 to ^? :o  he>d !m1 & to o!rs :o may    
desire an acc\nt1 9 %ort compass  & 9   
popul> =m1 ( "s lead+ features ( !      
e?ical ?\ght  ( ! pres5t day4    ,x is  
inevitable = su* an acc\nt to be        
controv]sial3 o!rwise x  c\ld n give a  
true picture ( contempor>y op9ion4      
,intellectual  & social causes h        
conspir$ to acc5tuate traditional       
diff]5ces  9 e?ics1 & to make ! que/ions
 9 dispute p5etrate to ! v  he>t (      

morality4 ,x has be5 my aim to trace !  
new influ5ces  :i* are at "w1 & to      
e/imate ! value ( ! e?ical doctr9es  to 
:i* !y h seem$ to lead4 ,! e/imate has  
tak5 ! =m (  a criticism1 b ! criticism 
is 9 ! int]e/s ( con/ruction4    ,w4,r4 
,,sorley4    ,,cambridge1 #g? ,m>*1     
#aijd4          ,,cont5ts4      ,i4     
,,*>act]i/ics   ,,ii4 ,,e?ics ,,&       
,,evolution  ,,iii4 ,,e?ics ,,&         
,,idealism    ,,index              ,i4  
,,*>act]i/ics4      ,a survey ( e?ical  
?\ght1 especially ,engli% e?ical ?\ght1 
dur+ ! la/ c5tury w\ld h to lay /ress ^u
 "o  *>act]i/ic feature4 ,x 0 limit$ 9  
range1--limit$1 "o may  say1 by its     
reg>d = ! importance ( ! facts ) :i* x  
_h to deal4 ,! ?\ght ( ! p]iod 0 c]ta9ly
 n )\t  controv]sy2 x 0 inde$           
controv]sial almo/ to a fault4 ,b  !    
controv]sies ( ! "t c5tr$ almo/         
exclusively r\nd two  que/ions3 ! "q ( !
 orig9 ( moral ideas1 & ! "q  ( !       
crit]ion ( moral value4 ,^! que/ions 7 (
 c\rse  traditional 9 ! s*ools (        

philosophy2 & = m ?an a c5tury  ,engli% 
morali/s 7 ma9ly occupi$ ) inh]it$      
topics (  debate4 ,!y gave precision to 
! que/ions "u discussion2 &  _!         
controv]sies def9$ ! traditional        
opposition ( e?ical  op9ion1 & sep>at$  
morali/s into two ho/ile s*ools kn[n z  
,utilit>ian & ,intuitioni/4    ,z reg>ds
 ! =m] "q--t ( ! orig9 ( moral ideas--! 
,utilit>ian ,s*ool held t !y c\ld be    
trac$ to exp]i5ce2 &  by 'exp]i5ce' !y  
meant 9 ! la/ resort s5se-p]ceptions  & 
! feel+s ( pleasure & ( pa9 :i*         
accompany or foll[  s5se-p]ception4 ,all
 ! facts ( our moral consci\sness1      
!re=e1--! k ( "r & wrong1 ! judgm5ts (  
consci5ce1 ! recognition ( duty &       
responsibility1 ! feel+s  ( rev]5ce1    
remorse1 & moral indignation1--all ^!   
c\ld be  trac$1 !y ?\ght1 to an orig9 9 
exp]i5ce1 to an orig9 :i*  9 ! la/      
resort 0 s5su\s1 t is1 due to !         
p]ceptions (  ! s5ses & ! feel+s (      
pleasure & pa9 :i* accompany or  foll[  
!m4    ,) reg>d to ! crit]ion or /&>d ( 

morality1--! second  "q to :i* ,i h to  
call att5tion1--!y held t !  di/9ction  
betwe5 "r & wrong dep5d$ ^u !           
consequ5ces (  an action 9 ! way (      
pleasure & pa94 ,t action 0 "r :i*  on !
 :ole & 9 ! long run w\ld br+ pleasure  
or happ9ess to  ^? :om x affect$3 t     
action 0 wrong :i* on ! :ole &  9 ! long
 run w\ld br+ pa9 r ?an pleasure to ^?  
:om x  affect$4    ,f _! view z to !    
orig9 ( moral ideas1 ! s*ool might m    
prop]ly be call$ ! ,empirical ,s*ool4 ,x
 is f _! views on !  "q ( ! /&>d (      
value1 or ! crit]ion ( morality1 t  x   
claim$1 & t x receiv$1 ! "n             
,utilit>ian#a4 ,on bo?  ^! po9ts !      
,utilit>ian ,s*ool 0 oppos$ by an       
en]getic b  less compact body ( writ]s1 
kn[n z ,intuitioni/s4    ,footnote #a3  
,x seems to h be5 ?r\gh ,j4,s4 ,mill's  
influ5ce  t ! t]m obta9$ curr5cy4 ,x 0  
us$ by him z ! "n ( a  little society to
 be compos$ ( "y m5 agree+ 9 fundam5tal 
pr9ciples :i* he =m$ 9 ! w9t] (         
#ahbb-bc4 ,he did n  inv5t ! ^w1 b f\nd 

9 "o ( ,galt's novels1 ! ',annals ( !   
,p>i%4' ,) a boy's fondness = a "n & a  
bann] ,i seiz$  on ! ^w1 & = "s ye>s    
call$ myself & o!rs by x z  a sect>ian  
appellation 7',autobiography1' pp4 #gi1 
#hj2 cf4  ',utilit>ianism1' p4 #i n47 ,a
 c\ple ( s5t5ces f ,galt may be  quot$3 
,z !re 0 at ! "t a bruit & a s\nd ab\t  
univ]sal  b5evol5ce1 philan?ropy1       
utility1 & all ! o!r disguises )  :i* an
 infidel philosophy appropriat$ to      
itself ! *>ity1  bro!rly love1 &        
well-do+ inculcat$ by our holy religion1
 ,i set  myself to task ^u ^! heads4444 
,) well-do+1 h[ev]1 ,i w5t  m r\ndly to 
"w4 ,i told my p t ,i ?\ght !y _h m     
s5se ?an to sec$e f ,*ri/ianity to      
become ,utilit>ians1 =  t x w\ld be a   
confession ( ignorance ( ! fai? !y      
des]t$1  see+ t x 0 ! ma9 duty inculcat$
 by our religion to d all  9 morals &   
mann]s to :i* ! new-fangl$ doctr9e (    
utility  pret5d$4 ,mill is wrong 9      
suppos+ t 8 use ( ! t]m 0  ! fir/ "t t  
any "o _h tak5 ! title ( ,utilit>ian2 & 

,galt1 :o repres5ts 8 annali/ z writ+ ( 
! ye> #agid1  is hi/orically ju/ifi$4   
,writ+ 9 #agha ,b5?am uses ! ^w         
'utilit>ian1' & aga9 9 #ahjb he         
def9itely ass]ts t x is !  only "n ( 8  
cre$ 7',works1' x4 #ib1 #cib74 ,m4      
,halvy 7',l'volution  de la doctr9e     
utilitaire1' p4 #cjj7 draws att5tion to 
! pres5ce (  ! ^w 9 ,jane ,au/5's ',s5se
 & ,s5sibility1' publi%$ 9 #ahaa4    ,! 
,intuitioni/s ma9ta9$--to put ! matt]   
briefly--t !  moral consci\sness ( man  
c\ld n be entirely acc\nt$ = by         
exp]i5ces ( ! k9d laid /ress on by !    
,utilit>ians4 ,!y  ma9ta9$ t moral ideas
 7 9 _! orig9 spiritual1 al?\gh  !y     
might be call$ into def9ite consci\sness
 by ! exp]i5ce (  ! facts to :i* !y c\ld
 be appli$4 ,exp]i5ce might call !m  =? 
into ! light ( day2 b x 0 held t !y     
belong$1 9  nature & orig91 to !        
con/itution ( man's m9d4 ,on ?is gr\nd1 
!re=e1 ! s*ool 0 prop]ly call$          
,intuitional3 !y held t  moral ideas 7  
receiv$ by direct vision or intuition1 z

 x 71  n by a process ( induction f     
p>ticul> facts4    ,&1 9 ! second place1
 ) reg>d to ! crit]ion ( morality1  t   
also 7!y held7 0 n dep5d5t on !         
consequ5ces 9 !  way ( happ9ess & mis]y 
:i* ! ,utilit>ians emphasis$4 ,on !     
contr>y1 moral ideas !mselves _h an     
indep5d5t validity2 !y _h  a wor? &     
au?ority = conduct :i* c\ld n be acc\nt$
 = by  any consequ5ces 9 :i* action     
result$3 belong+ z !y did to  ! ess5ce (
 ! human _s1 !y also _h au?ority ov] !  
conduct ( man's life4    ,n[ ! e?ical   
controv]sies ( la/ c5tury 7 almo/       
entirely  ab\t ^! two po9ts & betwe5 ^! 
two oppos$ s*ools4 ,no d\bt  ! two      
que/ions ?us discuss$ did g v ne> to !  
root ( !  :ole matt]4 ,!y po9t$ to !    
consid]ation ( ! "q (  man's place 9 !  
univ]se & 8 spiritual nature z det]m9+  
! "p :i* x 0 8 to play 9 ! _w4 ,!y      
sugge/$1 if  !y did n always raise1 ! "q
 :e!r man is entirely a  product (      
nature or :e!r he has a spiritual ess5ce
 to :i*  nature may be subdu$4 ,b ! l>g]

 issues sugge/$ 7 n  foll[$ out4 ,common
 cons5t seem$ to limit ! discussion to !
 two  que/ions describ$2 & ?is          
limitation ( ! controv]sy t5d$ to  a    
precision & cle>ness 9 me?od1 :i* is (t5
 want+ 9 !  e?ical ?\ght ( ! pres5t day1
 di/urb$ z x is by new & m  f>-rea*+    
problems4    ,?is limitation ( scope1   
:i* ,i v5ture to select z ! lead+       
*>act]i/ic ( la/ c5tury's e?ical        
enquiries1 may be fur!r  se5 9 ! l>ge   
am\nt ( agreem5t betwe5 ! two s*ools    
reg>d+ ! cont5t ( morality4 ,!          
,utilit>ians no m ?an  ! ,intuitioni/s 7
 oppon5ts ( ! traditional--z we may call
  x--! ,*ri/ian morality ( mod]n        
civilisation4 ,!y bo? adopt$  & def5d$ !
 well-recognis$ virtues ( tru? & ju/ice1
 (  temp]ance & b5evol5ce1 :i* h be5    
accept$ by ! common  tradition ( ages z 
! expression ( man's moral consci\sness4
 ,!  ,intuitioni/s no d\bt 7 sometimes  
reg>d$--!y may inde$ h  sometimes reg>d$
 !mselves--z 9 a peculi> way ! gu>dians 
(  ! traditional morality1 & z int]e/$ m

 ?an _! oppon5ts  9 def5d+ a view 9     
h>mony ) man's spiritual ess5ce &       
inh]itance4 ,b we d n f9d any attack ^u 
! ma9 cont5t  ( morality by !           
,utilit>ian writ]s4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y 7 
int]e/$ 9 v9dicat+ _! own full          
acceptance ( ! traditional  morality4   
,?is is1 9 p>ticul>1 ! case ) ,john     
,/u>t ,mill1 !  high-m9d$ repres5tative 
( ! ,utilit>ian philosophy 9 ! middle  (
 la/ c5tury4 ,9 ! gold5 rule ( ,jesus ( 
,naz>e?1 he says1  we read ! complete _s
 ( ! e?ics ( utility4 ,to d z "o  w\ld  
be done by1 & to love "o's neighb\r z   
oneself1 con/itute  ! ideal p]fection ( 
utilit>ian morality4#a    ,footnote #a3 
,utilit>ianism1 #i? ed41 pp4 #bd1 #be4  
,no d\bt ,mill 0 a practical re=m] z    
well z a philosophical  ?9k]1 & he wi%$ 
on c]ta9 special po9ts to revise !      
accept$ code4 ,he says t ! receiv$ code 
( e?ics is by no  means ( div9e "r1 t   
mank9d has /ill mu* to le>n z to !      
effects ( actions on ! g5]al happ9ess4#a
 ,he w\ld ev5 take  ?is po9t--!         

modifiability ( ! ord9>y moral code--z a
 sort  ( te/ "q di/+ui%+ 8 own sy/em f t
 ( !  intuitional morali/s2 & 9 "o place
 he says t ! conte/  betwe5 ! morality  
:i* appeals to an ext]nal /&>d1 &  t :i*
 gr\nds itself on int]nal conviction1 is
 ! conte/  ( progressive morality aga9/ 
/ation>y--( reason & argum5t  aga9/ !   
deification ( m]e op9ion & habit4 ,!    
doctr9e t  ! exi/+ ord] ( ?+s is !      
natural ord]1 & t1 be+  natural1 all    
innovation ^u x is crim9al1 is z vici\s 
9 morals  z x is n[ at la/ admitt$ to be
 9 physics & 9 society &  gov]nm5t4#b   
,footnote #a3 ,ibid41 p4 #ce4           
,footnote #b3 ,diss]tations1 ii4 #dgb4  
,a passage su* z ?is leads u to ask1    
,:at exactly is ! ext5t (  !            
modifications :i* ,mill seeks to make 9 
! ord9>y scale (  values8 ,does he1 =   
in/ance1 wi% to inv]t any ord9>y moral  
rules8 ,w\ld he d away )1 or 9 any      
important respect modify1 !  duties (   
tru? or ju/ice1 temp]ance or b5evol5ce8 
,f> f x ,he  only sugge/s1 z _m morali/s

 ( bo? p>ties h sugge/$1 t  9 !         
application ( moral law to ! details (  
exp]i5ce c]ta9  modifications are       
requir$4 ,h[ f> he goes 9 ?is direction 
may be  se5 f 8 own in/ance1 t ( tru?4  
,he w\ld admit c]ta9  exceptions to !   
law ( tru?2 he w\ld give ! less rigor\s 
answ]s to ! "t-hon\r$ que/ions z to :e!r
 "o %\ld tell  ! tru? to an invalid 9 a 
dang]\s illness or to a w\ld-be         
crim9al4 ,b ,mill always ass]ts !       
sanctity ( ! g5]al  pr9ciple2 &1 on ?is 
acc\nt1 he holds t 9 ord] t !  exception
 may n ext5d itself beyond ! ne$1 & may 
h !  lea/ possible effect 9 weak5+      
reliance on v]acity1 x ought  to be     
recognis$ &1 if possible1 its limits    
def9$2 & if !  pr9ciple ( utility is    
good = any?+1 x mu/ be good =  weigh+ ^!
 conflict+ utilities aga9/ "o ano!r1 &  
m>k+  out ! region )9 :i* "o or ! o!r   
prepond]ates#a4 ,he  holds t !re are su*
 limits to v]acity4 ,he ev5 ?9ks--?\gh  
"h he is n q correct--t su* limits h be5
 ackn[l$g$  by all morali/s#b4 ,he w\ld 

h be5 correct if he _h said t  !y _h be5
 ackn[l$g$ by morali/s ( all s*ools3 !  
admission  ( ^! limits is n peculi> to  
,utilit>ians4 ,b he vigor\sly  def5ds ! 
validity ( ! g5]al rule1 & ma9ta9s t1 9 
consid]+ any possible exception1 we h to
 take acc\nt n m]ely  ( ! pres5t utility
 ( ! falsehood1 b ( its effect ^u !     
sanctity ( ! g5]al pr9ciple 9 ! m9ds (  
m54 ,! ,utilit>ian  doctr9e is expressly
 us$ by him to confirm ! ord9>y g5]al   
laws  ( ! moral consci\sness4 ,nay1 ^!  
rules--su* z ! duties (  be+ temp]ate & 
j & b5evol5t--71 accord+ to ,mill1      
!mselves ! result ( exp]i5ces ( utility 
on ! "p ( our  pr$ecessors1 & f !m h&$  
d[n to u by ! tradition ( !  race4 ,no  
d\bt 9 ?is ,mill is apply+ a !oretical  
view too easily  to a "q ( hi/ory4 ,x is
 "o ?+ to ma9ta91 z he does1  t utility 
is ! correct te/ ( morality2 x is ano!r 
?+  altoge!r to say t our ord9>y moral  
rules are ! records or  expressions (   
e>li] judgm5ts ( utility4 ,! =m] /atem5t
  is made z a controv]sial /atem5t :i*  

is admitt$ to be s  f> d\btful t mo/ m5 
ne$ to be conv9c$ ( x4 ,! latt]  /atem5t
 c\ld only be true if nobody _h ev]     
d\bt$ ! =m]--if  ev]ybody 9 pa/ ages _h 
accept$ utility z ! /&>d (  morality4   
,b1 = our pres5t purpose1 8 attitude to 
?is "q  is ( int]e/ only z br++ out !   
po9t t ! diff]5t  s*ools ( e?ical ?\ght 
dur+ la/ c5tury _h a l>ge basis (       
common agreem5t1 & t ?is basis ( common 
agreem5t 0 _!  ackn[l$gm5t ( ! validity 
( ! moral rules recognis$ by !  ord9>y  
consci5ce4    ,footnote #a3             
,utilit>ianism1 p4 #cd4    ,footnote #b3
 ,ibid41 p4 #cc4    ,! ,utilit>ians no m
 ?an ! ,intuitioni/s s\ght to make  any 
fundam5tal *ange 9 ! cont5t ( "r & (    
wrong z  ackn[l$g$ by mod]n society4 ,_!
 controv]sies 7 almo/  entirely ( :at   
may be call$ an academic k9d1 &1 h[ev]  
decid$1  w\ld h little effect ^u a man's
 practical attitude4 ,b x w\ld  n be    
possible to make any su* confid5t       
ass]tion reg>d+ !  e?ical controv]sies (
 ! pres5t day4 ,we h no long] ! same    

common basis ( agreem5t to rely ^u t our
 pr$ecessors _h a  g5]ation ago4 ,!re   
are _m indications 9 rec5t lit]ature t  
! sugge/ion is n[ made m readily ?an x 0
 tw5ty or ?irty  ye>s ago t ! scale (   
moral values may h to be revis$2 &  x   
seems to me t ! e?ical controv]sies ( ! 
com+ g5]ation  w n be re/rict$ to       
academic oppon5ts ^: disputes conc]n    
no?+ m ?an ! orig9 ( moral ideas & _!   
ultimate  crit]ion4 ,mod]n controv]sy w 
involve ^! que/ions1 b x  w g deep] & x 
w spread its results wid]3 x appe>s z   
if x w\ld n hesitate to call 9 "q !     
receiv$ code (  morality1 & to revise   
our /&>d ( "r & wrong4 ,"o s*ool at  any
 rate has already made a claim ( ?is    
sort1 & ! extravagance  ( its tea*+ has 
n prev5t$ x f attract+ adh]5ts4    ,x is
 on ?is gr\nd1 !re=e1--because ,i       
believe t ! e?ical  "q is no long] s    
purely an academic "q z x 0 "s  ye>s    
ago1 because x affects n only !         
philosophic ?9k] b !  practical man :o  
is conc]n$ ) ! problems ( 8 day1--t ,i  

h select$ ! topic = ^! lectures4 ,x is n
 m]ely t _m  mod]n writ]s ass]t "s g5]al
 doctr9e z to ! relativity (  "r &      
wrong4 ,s mu* 0 impli$1 ?\gh x 0 n mu*  
laid  /ress ^u1 9 ! utilit>ian doctr9e4 
,= ! utilit>ian conduct  is "r accord+  
to ! am\nt ( happ9ess x produces3       
goodness  is relative to its t5d5cy to  
produce happ9ess4 ,b a mu* great]       
importance may atta* to ! ass]tion ( !  
relativity ( morals  :5 "o c\ples t     
doctr9e ) ! idea n[ preval5t ( !        
indef9itely great *anges :i* ! progress 
( ! race br+s  ab\t1 n only 9 ! social  
ord] b also 9 ! /ructure &  faculties ( 
man himself4    ,h5ce x is n surpris+ to
 f9d t !re are at ! pres5t day  "s      
writ]s :o ask = no?+ less ?an a revision
 ( ! :ole  traditional morality1 & 9 ^: 
m9ds t dem& is connect$ )  ! dom9ant    
doctr9e ( progress z x is express$ 9 !  
!ory (  evolution4    ,p]haps we might  
trace ! beg9n+s ( ?is controv]sy z to ! 
cont5t ( :at is "r & :at is wrong to an 
old] opposition  9 e?ical ?\ght1 an     

opposition :i* especially affects !     
utilit>ian doctr9e--! controv]sy (      
,egoism & ,altruism4 ,if  we look at ^! 
two conceptions ( egoism & altruism z ! 
,utilit>ians did1 if we reg>d !         
conception ( egoism z hav+  to d ) "o's 
own p]sonal happ9ess1 & t ( altruism z  
describ+ ! g5]al happ9ess1 ! happ9ess ( 
o!rs r ?an  ( oneself1 !n obvi\sly !    
que/ions arise :e!r ! conduct  :i*      
produces ! greate/ happ9ess ( o!rs w or 
w n also  produce ! greate/ happ9ess ( !
 individual ag5t1 & :i*  %\ld be *os5 9 
! ev5t ( _! disagreem5t4 ,is my happ9ess
  & t :i* w t5d to x always to be got on
 ! same l9es (  conduct z ^? :i* w br+  
ab\t ! greate/ happ9ess ( !  greate/    
numb]8    ,! ,utilit>ian writ]s ( la/   
c5tury 7 ( c\rse consci\s (  ?is        
problem1 consci\s t !re 0 a possible    
discrepancy betwe5  egoi/ic conduct &   
altrui/ic conduct2 b !y agre$ to lay    
/ress  ^u altrui/ic results z det]m9+   
moral quality4 ,_! t5d5cy  0 to m9imise 
! diff]5ce betwe5 ! egoi/ic & !         

altrui/ic  effects ( action1 & 9 s f> z 
a diff]5ce _h to be all[$ to  emphasise 
! importance ( ! claims ( ! community at
 l>ge1 t  is1 r\ghly speak+1 to take !  
altrui/ic /&po9t4 ,rec5t &  m c>eful    
inve/igators h br\ght out m exactly !   
ext5t  & significance ( ! div]g5ce4 ,9  
p>ticul> ?is 0 done )  p]fect cle>ness &
 precision by ! late ,pr(essor          
,sidgwick4  ,he %[$ t ! diff]5ce--al?\gh
 x might be easily  exagg]at$--0 yet    
real & important1 t ! two sy/ems did n  
mean ! same ?+1 t we c\ld n rely ^u     
altrui/ic conduct  always be+ =         
individual b5efit1 t !re 0 no 'natural  
id5tity' betwe5 egoism & altruism4 ,he  
held t morality1 to  save x f an unsolv$
 dualism1 requir$ a pr9ciple capable (  
reconcil+ ! discrepancy betwe5 ! conduct
 9 accordance ) !  axiom ( ,b5evol5ce & 
! conduct 9 accordance ) ! equally      
rational axiom ( ,self-love4#a          
,footnote #a3 ,pr(essor ,sidgwick's la/ 
words on ! "q are z  foll[s3 ,if !n !   
reconciliation ( duty & self-int]e/ is  

to  be reg>d$ z a hypo!sis logically    
necess>y to avoid a fundam5tal          
contradiction 9 "o *ief dep>tm5t ( our  
?\ght1 x rema9s  to ask h[ f> ?is       
necessity con/itutes a suffici5t reason 
=  accept+ ?is hypo!sis4444 ,^? :o hold 
t ! edifice (  physical sci5ce is really
 con/ruct$ ( conclusions logically      
inf]r$ f self-evid5t premises1 may      
reasonably dem& t any  practical        
judgm5ts claim+ philosophic c]ta9ty %\ld
 be bas$ on  an equally firm f\ndation4 
,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we f9d t 9 our        
suppos$ k ( ! _w ( nature propositions  
are commonly  tak5 to be univ]sally     
true1 :i* yet seem to re/ on no o!r     
gr\nds ?an t we h a /rong disposition to
 accept !m1 &  t !y are indisp5sable to 
! sy/ematic coh]5ce ( our  beliefs1--x w
 be m difficult to reject a simil>ly    
support$  assumption 9 e?ics1 )\t op5+ !
 door to univ]sal  scepticism 7',me?ods 
( ,e?ics1' #f? ed41 pp4 #ejf1 #ejg74    
,b :ile ?is "q ( egoism & altruism has  
?us be5  recognis$ z a possible s\rce ( 

p]plexity1 affect+ ! e?ical  /&>d       
itself1 bo? egoi/s & or?odox utilit>ians
 h commonly  agre$--?\gh = diff]5t      
reasons--to insi/ t morality means  !   
same = !m bo?1 & to hold ) ,epicurus t  
we _c lead  a life ( pleasure :i* is n  
also a life ( prud5ce1 hon\r1 &  ju/ice4
 ,x is only 9 q rec5t days t a ?or\ghgo+
 attempt  has be5 made to revalue all ! 
old /&>ds ( morality4 ,&  ! attempt is  
made f a po9t ( view :i* is c]ta9ly n   
altrui/ic4 ,! ,utilit>ian writ]s ( la/  
g5]ation1 if !y  admitt$ ! conflict (   
egoism & altruism1 weight$ e            
consid]ation on ! side ( altruism4 ,!y  
emphasis$ !re=e !  agreem5t betwe5 _!   
own utilit>ian doctr9e & ! ,*ri/ian     
morality 9 :i* altruism is fundam5tal4  
,on ! o!r h&1 ! m  rec5t t5d5cy to :i*  
,i ref] emphasises & exalts ! egoi/ic   
side1 & ?us acc5tuates ! diff]5ce betwe5
 ! new moral  code--if we may call x    
moral--& ! ,*ri/ian morality4    ,!     
bolde/ & mo/ brilliant expon5t ( ?is    
t5d5cy is ,fri$ri*  ,nietzs*e#a1 already

 ! object ( a cult 9 ,g]many1 & an au?or
  to be reckon$ ) z "o ( ! new =ces 9   
,european ?\ght4 ,x  is true t "s ( !   
mo/ *>act]i/ic products ( 8 g5ius  are  
closely ak9 to ! insanity :i* cl\d$ 8   
lat] ye>s4 ,yet x  is impossible to read
 8 writ+s )\t recognis+ 8 p5etrat+      
insight z well z 8 abundance ( virile   
passion4 ,besides1 9  spite ( all 8     
extravagances--or1 p]haps1 because (    
!m--he is  symptomatic ( c]ta9 t5d5cies 
( ! age4 ,nietzs*e's dem&  is = no?+    
less ?an a revision ( ! :ole moral code 
& a  rev]sal ( its mo/ *>act]i/ic       
provisions4 ,& he has ! r>e  di/9ction (
 be+ a writ] on morality :o disclaims ! 
title (  'morali/4'    ,footnote #a3    
,fri$ri* ,nietzs*e1 ! son ( a cl]gyman1 
0 born 9  ,saxony 9 #ahdd4 ,9 #ahfi he  
became ,pr(essor ( ,classical ,philology
  9 ,basel1 & held ?is po/ = t5 ye>s1   
?\gh 8 "w 0  int]rupt$ by ill-heal? = a 
long p]iod4 ,8 fir/ book 0  publi%$ 9   
#ahga2 ! preface to ! la/ 0 dat$ on !   
#cj? (  ,septemb] #ahhh1 ! day on :i* ! 

fir/ book ( ! ,transvaluation  ( all    
,values 0 complet$4 ,he became          
hopelessly insane 9 #ahhi1 &  di$ 9     
#aijj4 ,! read] w f9d a lum9\s e/imate (
 8 "w  9 ! essay on ,! ,life & ,op9ions 
( ,fri$ri* ,nietzs*e 9                  
,pr+le-,pattison's ',man's ,place 9 !   
,cosmos1' #bnd ed41 #aijb4    ,! ideas  
:i* ,nietzs*e expresses g to ! root ( ! 
matt]4 ,9  ! fir/ place1 he drew a      
di/9ction betwe5 :at he reg>d$ z two    
diff]5t types ( morality4 ,"o ( ^! he   
call$ ! morality (  ma/]s or nobles1 &  
he call$ ! o!r ! morality ( slaves4     
,self-reliance & c\rage may be cit$ z ! 
qualities typical ( !  noble morality1 =
 !y are ! qualities :i* t5d to make !   
man  :o possesses !m a ma/] ov] o!rs1 to
 give him a prom95t &  p[]ful place 9 ! 
_w1 & to help him to subjugate to 8 w   
bo? nature & 8 fell[-m54 ,on ! o!r h&1  
!re are !  qualities :i* =m ! *>act]i/ic
 features ( ,*ri/ian  morality--su* z   
b5evol5ce or love ( "o's neighb\r1 !    
fundam5tal precept ( ! ,gospels1 & !    

humility & ob$i5ce  :i* h be5 p]haps    
unduly emphasis$ 9 ecclesia/ical e?ics4 
,^! are ! qualities :i* he means :5 he  
speaks ( ! morality  ( ! slave4    ,9 ! 
second place1 !re=e1 :at is di/9ctive ( 
,nietzs*e is  ?is3 t he explicitly      
rejects ! ,*ri/ian morality1 9 p>ticul> 
! virtues ( b5evol5ce1 ( ob$i5ce1 (     
humility3 ^! are  reg>d$ by him z       
belong+ to a type ( morality :i* is to  
be  ov]come & :i* he calls ! s]vile     
morality4 ,he delib]ately sets  9       
anti!sis to "o ano!r :at he calls       
,*ri/ian & :at he calls  noble virtues3 
mean+ by ! latt] ! qualities alli$ to   
c\rage1  =ce ( w1 & /r5g? ( arm1 su* z 7
 manife/$ 9 c]ta9  ,pagan races1 b above
 all 9 ! h]oes ( ! ,roman ,republic4 ,he
  w\ld1 !re=e1 delib]ately pref] ! old] 
,pagan valuation (  conduct to !        
,*ri/ian valuation4    ,9 ! ?ird place1 
he attempts :at he calls a              
transvaluation (  all values4 ,e moral  
idea ne$s revision1 e moral idea1 e     
sugge/ion ( value or wor? 9 conduct1 mu/

 be tri$ & te/$  afre%1 & a new morality
 sub/itut$ = ! old4 ,& ) ?is  claim =   
revision is connect$ 8 idea t ! egoi/ic 
pr9ciple  :i* und]lies ! ,pagan virtues 
pref]r$ to ! ,*ri/ian1 & !  high]       
developm5t ( ! self-capacities to :i* x 
w lead1 w  evolve a sup]ior k9d (       
m5--,ov]-m5 or ,ueb]m5s*5--to :om1      
!re=e1 we may look z sett+ ! tone & giv+
 ! rule =  subsequ5t conduct4           
,nietzs*e is an unsy/ematic writ]1 ?\gh 
none ! less p[]ful on  t acc\nt4 ,he is 
apt to be p]plex+ to ! read] :o looks = 
sy/em or a def9ite & reason$ /atem5t (  
doctr9e2 b 8  aphorisms are all ! m     
fitt$ to impress read]s :o are n  incl9$
 to criticism1 & might %irk an elaborate
 argum5t4 ,x is  difficult1 accord+ly1  
to select f him a s]ies ( propositions  
t w\ld give a g5]al idea ( ! complete   
transmutation (  morality :i* he dem&s4 
,s f> z ,i c make out1 !re is only "o   
po9t 9 :i* he /ill agrees ) ! old       
traditional morality1 &  t po9t seems to
 cause him no little difficulty4 ,no    

?9k] c  af=d to "q ! b9d+ nature ( ! law
 ( ,tru?1 lea/ (  all a ?9k] s obvi\sly 
9 e>ne/ ab\t 8 own prophetic message  z 
,nietzs*e 04 ,all 8 inve/igations       
presuppose ! validity (  ?is law = 8 own
 ?\ght2 all 8 utt]ances imply an appeal 
to  x2 & 8 influ5ce dep5ds on !         
confid5ce :i* o!rs h 9  8 v]acity4 ,& on
 ?is "o po9t only ,nietzs*e has to      
confess  himself a *ild ( ! old]        
morality4 ,?is book1 he says 9 !        
preface to "o ( ! lea/ p>adoxical ( 8   
works1 ',dawn ( ,day1'  ,?is book 444   
implies a contradiction & is n afraid ( 
x3 9 x  we break ) ! fai? 9 morals--:y8 
,9 ob$i5ce to morality6 ,or  :at "n %all
 we give to t :i* passes !re98 ,we %\ld 
pref]  m mode/ names4 ,b x is pa/ all   
d\bt t ev5 to u a '?\  %alt' is /ill    
speak+1 ev5 we /ill obey a /]n law above
 u--&  ?is is ! la/ moral precept :i*   
impresses itself ev5 ^u  u1 :i* ev5 we  
obey3 9 ?is respect1 if 9 any1 we are   
/ill  consci5ti\s p--viz41 we d n wi% to
 return to t :i* we  consid] outliv$ &  

decay$1 to some?+ 'n wor?y ( belief1' be
  x call$ ,god1 virtue1 tru?1 ju/ice1   
*>ity2 we d n approve (  any deceptive  
bridges to old ideals1 we are radically 
ho/ile to all  t wants to m$iate & to   
amalgamate ) u2 ho/ile to any actual    
religion & ,*ri/ianity2 ho/ile to all ! 
vague1 romantic1 &  patriotic feel+s2   
ho/ile also to ! love ( pleasure & want 
(  pr9ciple ( ! arti/s :o w\ld fa9      
p]suade u to wor%ip :5 we  no long]     
believe--= we are arti/s2 ho/ile1 9     
%ort1 to ! :ole  ,european ,fem99ism 7or
 ,idealism1 if y pref] ?is "n71 :i*  is 
ev] 'elevat+' & consequ5tly 'degrad+4'  
,yet1 z su*  consci5ti\s p1 we          
immorali/s & a!i/s ( ?is day /ill  feel 
subject to ! ,g]man hone/y & piety (    
?\s&s ( ye>s'  /&+1 ?\gh z _! mo/       
d\btful & la/ desc5dants2 nay1 9  a     
c]ta9 s5se1 z _! heirs1 z executors ( _!
 inmo/ w1 a  pessimi/ w1 z a=esaid1 :i* 
is n afraid ( d5y+ itself1  because x   
delights 9 tak+ a negative position4 ,we
 ourselves  are--suppose y want a       

=mula--! consummate self-dissolution (  
morals4 #a    ,footnote #a3 ,nietzs*e1  
',w]ke1' iv4 pp4 #h1 #i 7#ahii74 ,!     
translation  is tak5 7) corrections7 f !
 ,engli% v]sion by ,johanna ,volz       
7#aijc74 ,nietzs*e has s %ock$ & confus$
 ! ,engli% pr9t] t  :5 ! au?or writes   
himself an 'immorali/' ! compositor has 
made him call himself an 'immortali/4'  
,& errors ( ! sort d n  affect ! pr9t]  
only4 ,nietzs*e's sne] at ',fem99ism' is
 deftly  turn$ aside by ,miss ,volz1 by 
! simple device ( sub/itut+ =  x ! ^w   
,pessimism4 ,& ,dr ,tille1 ! translator 
( 8 be/-kn[n  "w1 ',?us spake ,z>a?u/ra'
 7#ahif1 p4 xix71 has be5 bemus$ 9  an  
ev5 m wond]ful mann]4 ,he enum]ates !   
be/ kn[n  repres5tatives ( ,an>*ic      
t5d5cies 9 political ?\ght z  ,humboldt1
 ,dunoy]1 ,/irn]1 ,bak\n9e1 & ,aub]on   
,sp5c]6 ,!  vision ( ,mr ,aub]on ,h]b]t 
& ,mr ,h]b]t ,sp5c] d\bl$ up into a     
s+le individual is 'a ?+ imag9ation     
boggles at4' ,p]haps x is  !            
translator's idea ( ! ,ueb]m5s*4        

,p]haps x is impossible to und]/&       
,nietzs*e unless "o admits  t 8 writ+s  
%[ traces ( ! disease :i* v soon prev5t$
  8 writ+ at all4 ,b at ! same "t1 :ile 
t is true1 !re is  mu* m 9 8 "w ?an !   
rav+s ( a di/emp]$ m9d4 ,!re  may h be5 
little me?od1 b !re 0 a great deal (    
g5ius1 9  8 madness4 ,:ile he always    
ov]/ates 8 case1--8 colossal egoism     
leads him to exagg]ate any doctr9e1--&  
:ile ,i d n ?9k t  ! actual doctr9es (  
,nietzs*e 9 ! way he puts !m w ev]  ga9 
any g5]al acceptance1 :ile 8 sy/em (    
morality may n h  any *ance ( be+ !     
moral code ( ! next g5]ation or ev5 (   
be+ reg>d$ z ! s]i\s alt]native to      
,*ri/ian morality1 yet  x is n too mu*  
to say t he is symptomatic ( a new      
t5d5cy 9  e?ical ?\ght1 a t5d5cy ( :i*  
he is ! greate/1 if also !  mo/         
extravagant expon5t1 b :i* has its roots
 9 c]ta9 new  influ5ces :i* h come to   
?is g5]ation ) ! ideas & !  triumphs1   
sci5tific & mat]ial1 ( ! prec$+         
g5]ation4    ,!re are two q diff]5t k9ds

 ( influ5ce to :i* !  =mation ( an      
e?ical doctr9e may be due4 ,9 ! fir/    
place1 !re  are ! moral s5tim5ts &      
op9ions ( ! community & ( !  morali/    
himself2 &1 9 ! second place1 !re are ! 
sci5tific  & philosophical doctr9es     
accept$ by ! writ] or inspir+ :at  is   
loosely call$ ! _s ( ! "t4 ,9 mo/ e?ical
 movem5ts  ! two k9ds ( influ5ce w be   
f\nd co-op]at+1 ?\gh !  latt] is almo/  
entirely abs5t 9 "s cases4 ,! incoh]5ce 
(  popul> op9ions ab\t morality is a    
pot5t /imulus to reflexion1 &  may (    
itself give rise to sy/ematic e?ical    
enquiry4 ,?is is m  p>ticul>ly ! case :5
 a *ange ( social conditions1 or contact
  ) ali5 modes ( life1 =ce into light ! 
inadequacy ( !  conv5tional morality4 ,9
 su* a case ! new e?ical reflexion may  
h a dis9tegrat+ effect ^u ! traditional 
code1 & give  to ! movem5t ! "* &       
importance ( a revolution4 ,!           
reflective activity ( ! ,sophi/s 9      
anci5t ,greece--a movem5t (  ! deepe/   
e?ical significance--0 9 ! ma9 ( ?is    

nature4  ,x consi/$ 9 a radical sift+ & 
criticism ( curr5t moral  /&>ds1 & 0 due
 almo/ entirely to ! fir/ class (       
influ5ces1 be+ affect$ only 9 ! slighte/
 degree by sci5tific  or philosophical  
ideas4    ,influ5ces ( ! same k9d comb9e
 ) sci5ce & philosophy 9  m\ld+ ! e?ical
 ?\ght ( ! pres5t day4 ,contempor>y     
e?ical  speculation is by no means      
exclusively due to ! ?9k]s :o attempt   
to arrive at a consi/5t int]pretation ( 
! nature ( reality2 &  x has features   
:i* con/antly rem9d u h[ closely moral  
reflexion  is connect$ ) ! ord] & *anges
 ( social conditions4    ,e age is no   
d\bt apt to exagg]ate its own claims to 
m>k an  epo*4 ,b1 aft] a c5tury (       
a*ievem5ts 9 appli$ sci5ce1 !re  seems  
little risk ( error 9 ass]t+ t ! _w is  
n[ becom+  consci\s z x nev] 0 be=e ( ! 
va/ p[] giv5 by mat]ial  res\rces :5 "u 
! control ( a cool intellig5ce4 ,& 9 !  
competition ( nations x is n surpris+ t 
!re %\ld be an  imp]i\s dem& = ! mo/    
al]t & well-tra9$ m9ds to utilise  ^!   

res\rces 9 w> & 9 indu/ry4 ,x is n      
surpris+2 nor  w\ld x be a fit subject =
 regret1 did n ! conc5tration ( !       
outlook ^u mat]ial success t5d to !     
neglect ( '?+s :i*  are m excell5t4'    
,writ+ _m ye>s ago ,j4,s4 ,mill rem>k$ t
  hi!rto x is que/ionable if all !      
me*anical inv5tions yet made  h light5$ 
! day's toil ( any human be+4 #a        
,footnote #a3 ,political ,economy1 ,book
 iv4 *ap4 vi4  #b4    ,!re is a fur!r "q
 :i* ought to be ask$ ( e new  advance 9
 mat]ial civilisation1 ,does x fo/]1 or 
at lea/ does  x leave unimp$$1 !        
developm5t ( man's spiritual inh]itance8
  ,c]ta9ly1 ! control ( nature by m9d is
 n necess>ily ho/ile  to ! ideals :i*   
give dignity to ! arts & sci5ces & to   
man  himself4 ,& yet x does n always    
fav\r _! pres5ce4 ,! weak  nations ( !  
_w 9 arms & comm]ce h contribut$ _! full
  %>e to ! high] life ( ! race2 & !     
triumphs ( a c\ntry on  ! battlefield or
 9 bus9ess give no security = ! pres5ce 
among  its p ( ! ideals :i* illum9e or (

 ! righte\sness :i*  exalts4 ,! hi/ory (
 ,g]many h]self might po9t ! moral4 ,a  
c5tury ago1 :5 %e lay cru%$ b5ea? ! heel
 ( ,napoleon1 h]  poets & philosoph]s 7 
! prophets ( ideals :i* help$ to  b9d h]
 scatt]$ /ates into a p[]ful nation1 &  
:i* enri*$  ! m9d ( man4 ,to-day we are 
=c$ to ask :e!r milit>y &  indu/rial    
success h *ang$ ! national b5t3 = poetry
 seems  to h des]t$ h]1 & h] philosophy 
betrays ! dom9ance (  mat]ial int]e/s4  
,mat]ial success & ! /ruggle = x are apt
 to monopolise !  att5tion2 & p]haps !  
greate/ dang] ( ! new social ord]  is ! 
gr[+ mat]ialisation ( ! m5tal outlook4  
,x w\ld  be ne$less to po9t to !        
evid5ce1 among/ all classes 9 !         
m]cantile nations1 ( ! fev]i% ha/e to be
 ri* & to enjoy4 ,=  to po9t to ?is has 
be5 common ) ! morali/s ( all ages4 ,?is
  age l o!rs--p]haps m ?an mo/--is /rewn
 ) ! victims (  ! /ruggle4 ,b x c also  
boa/ a product l>gely its own--! new    
race ( victors :o h em]g$ triumphant1 ) 
weal? beyond !  dreams ( av>ice ( ! pa/ 

g5]ation4 ,_! int]e/s make !m           
cosmopolitan2 !y are unre/ra9$ by !     
traditional obligations (  anci5t       
l9eage2 & ! _w seems to lie be=e !m z   
some?+  to be b\ght & sold4 ,nei!r !y   
nor o!rs h q realis$ z  yet ! p[] :i*   
colossal weal? gives 9 mod]n conditions4
 ,& x  rema9s to be se5 :e!r !          
multimillionaire w claim to figure  z   
,nietzs*e's 'ov]-man1' spurn+ ord9>y    
moral conv5tions1 &  w play ! rle1 9    
future moral disc\rses1 :i* ! e?ical    
dialogues ( ,plato assign to ! 'tyrant1'
    ,g5]al lit]ature1 ev5 9 its highe/  
=ms1 seems to reflect a  correspond+    
*ange ( view z to :at is ( mo/ wor? 9   
life4  ,already ! /rong hold on duty & !
 spiritual _w :i* ,t5nyson  unfalt]+ly  
display$1 ev5 ! deep] insight into      
motive & !  fai? 9 goodness :i* are %[n 
by ,br[n+1 are read by u z  utt]ances ( 
a pa/ age4 ,we h gr[n us$ to a pres5tm5t
 ( human  life su* z ,ibs5's 9 :i* !    
cu/om>y morality is reg>d$ z  a ?9 v5e] 
( conv5tion :i* h>dly cov]s ! selfi%ness

 9  gra91 or to ! description ( life z a
 tangl$ mass ( animal  passions1--a     
description :i*1 9 spite ( ! g5ius (    
,zola1 does  n fail to we>y &           
disgu/1--or p]haps z only a spectacle 9 
:i* :at m5 call good & evil are ! light 
& %ade ( a picture  :i* may s]ve to     
produce "s arti/ic emotion4 ,an attitude
 ak9  to ^! becomes an e?ical po9t (    
view 9 ,nietzs*e1 ! enfant  t]rible (   
mod]n ?\ght1 :o ma9ta9s t man's life mu/
 be  int]pret$ physiologically only & n 
spiritually1 & :o w\ld  replace         
philan?ropy by a b\ndless egoism4       
,influ5ces ( ! second k9d are usually m 
prom95t ?an !  prec$+ 9 ! case ( !      
philosophical morali/1 & !y are  n      
always avoid$ by ! morali/ :o boa/s 8   
indep5d5ce (  philosophy4 ,! =m]        
influ5ces are m con/antly at "w3 !y     
supply ! facts = all e?ical reflexion4  
,e?ical ?\ght is n  s uni=mly influ5c$  
by ! conceptions arriv$ at 9 sci5ce  or 
philosophy4 ,b !re are c]ta9 p]iods (   
hi/ory 9 :i*  conceptions reg>d+ ! tru? 

( ?+s--:e!r arriv$ at by  sci5tific     
me?ods or n--h _h a pr(\nd influ5ce ^u  
m5's  views ( good & evil4 ,at ! beg9n+ 
( our era1 = in/ance1 !  view ( ,god &  
man introduc$ by ,*ri/ianity1 result$ 9 
a deep5$  &1 to "s ext5t1 9 a di/9ctive 
morality4 ,aga91 at ! "t (  !           
,r5aissance1 ! new k & new int]e/s      
comb9$ ) !  weak5+ ( ! ,*ur*'s & ( !    
,empire's au?ority to br+ ab\t  ! dem& =
 a revision ( ! ecclesia/ical morality1 
& l$ to  "s n v successful attempts to  
f9d a firm] basis = conduct4    ,at !   
pres5t day also x is ! case t           
philosoph]s ( diff]5t  s*ools are = !   
mo/ "p agre$ 9 claim+ e?ical importance 
= _! conceptions ab\t reality4 ,9       
p>ticul>1 ! sci5tific  ?\ght ( ! la/    
g5]ation has be5 re=m$ "u !1 influ5ce  (
 ! gr\p ( ideas :i* con/itute ! !ory (  
evolution4 ,!re  is h>dly a dep>tm5t (  
?\ght :i* ?is new doctr9e has n  t\*$2 &
 ^u morality its influ5ce may seem to be
 peculi>ly  important & direct4 ,! !ory 
( evolution1 z put =w>d by  ,d>w91 has  

e/abli%$ c]ta9 positions :i* h be5      
reg>d$ z  ( special significance =      
e?ics4    ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is an      
ass]tion ( ! unity ( life4 ,& we  mu/ n 
limit ! g5]ality ( ?is proposition4 ,x  
is n m]ely  a d5ial ( ! fixity (        
species1 an ass]tion t !re are no       
natural k9ds s insep>able f "o ano!r t  
ea* mu/ be !  result ( a di/9ct creative
 act4 ,x is also an ass]tion t human    
life mu/ be treat$ z a "p 9 ! l>g] :ole 
( organic be+1  t ! m9d ( man is        
cont9u\s ) animal p]ception1 t moral    
activity is cont9u\s ) non-moral        
impulse4 ,& ! ass]tion (  ! unity ( life
 is at ! same "t an ass]tion ( !        
progress (  life4 ,:at we call ! high]  
=ms are 9 all cases developm5ts f       
simpl] & l[] =ms4    ,fur!r1 ! me?od (  
?is progress has be5 describ$4 ,h]e9    
inde$  lay ,d>w9's mo/ important        
a*ievem5t4 ,he detect$ & demon/rat$  !  
op]ation ( a factor hi!rto unsuspect$4  
,?is new factor to  :i* he drew att5tion
 z ! *ief ag5t 9 organic developm5t 0   

call$ by him 'natural selection1' ,! "n 
has a positive s\nd &  sugge/s a process
 ( active *oice4 ,b ,d>w9 0 fully aw>e t
  ! process to :i* he gave ?is "n 0 a   
negative & n a  positive op]ation2 & z  
su* x 0 cle>ly recognis$ by him4 ,!  "n 
01 no d\bt1 *os5 simply to br+ out !    
fact t !  same k9d ( results z ^? :i*   
man produces by consci\s &  artificial  
selection may be arriv$ at )\t consci\s 
purpose by  ! op]ation ( m]ely natural  
=ces4 ,in/ead ( ! 'fit' be+  directly   
*os5 or enc\rag$1 :at happ5s is simply t
 ! 'unfit'  die out or are ext]m9at$1 s 
t room to live & means ( life  are left 
= ! survivors4    ,:at may be meant by  
?is idea ( 'fitness'--:i* meets u 9 !   
fam\s phrase t ! 'survival ( ! fitte/' 9
 ! /ruggle =  life is ! goal (          
evolution--is a "q :i* br+s u at once   
to ! consid]ation ( ! e?ical            
significance ( ! !ory4 ,=  x seems to   
lay claim to give bo? an explanation (  
progress & an  int]pretation ( :at      
con/itutes wor? 9 conduct4              

,,ii4    ,,e?ics ,,& ,,evolution4       
,!re are two ?+s :i* are n always kept  
di/9ct1--:at may be  call$ ! 'evolution 
( e?ics' & ! 'e?ics ( evolution1' ,!    
=m] might m correctly be call$ !        
evolution ( morality1--!  acc\nt ( ! way
 9 :i* moral cu/oms1 moral in/itutions1 
&  moral ideas h be5 develop$ & h come  
to take _! place 9  ! life ( mank9d4    
,cle>ly ^! are all features ( human     
life2  &1 if ! !ory ( evolution applies 
to human life1 we mu/ expect  x also to 
h "s contribution to make to ?is portion
 ( man's  developm5t1--to ! gr[? ( !    
cu/oms1 in/itutions1 & ideas  :i* ent]  
into & make up 8 morality4    ,b by !   
'e?ics ( evolution' is meant some?+ m   
?an !  'evolution ( e?ics' or developm5t
 ( morality4 ,x signifies a  !ory :i*   
turns ! facts ( evolution to acc\nt 9   
det]m9+  ! value = man ( diff]5t k9ds ( 
conduct & feel+ & idea4  ,:5 "o speaks (
 ! e?ics ( evolution "o mu/ be und]/ood 
to  mean t ! evolution !ory does some?+ 
m ?an trace !  hi/ory ( ?+s1 t x gives u

 someh[ or o!r a /&>d or  crit]ion (    
moral wor? or value4 ,?is additional    
po9t may be  express$ by ! te*nical     
di/9ction betwe5 orig9 & validity4      
,cle>ly !re is a v great diff]5ce betwe5
 %[+ h[ some?+  has come to be :at x is 
& assign+ to x wor? or validity =  !    
guidance ( life or ?\ght ,x may be t !  
=m] enquiry has  "s be>+ ^u ! latt]2 b  
only confusion w result if !  two       
problems are n cle>ly di/+ui%$ at !     
outset1--z !y  v seldom are di/+ui%$ by 
writ]s on ! !ory ( evolution 9  its     
application to e?ics4    ,x may be said 
t ! evolutioni/ writ]s on e?ics seek to 
base an  e?ics ( evolution ^u !         
evolution ( e?ics1 b t !y are  n always 
aw>e ( ! real nature & difficulties ( _!
 task4  ,sometimes !y seem to ?9k t 9   
trac+ ! evolution ( e?ics  !y are also &
 at ! same "t det]m9+ & e/abli%+ a  !ory
 ( ! e?ics ( evolution4 ,we mu/ avoid   
?is error1 & keep  ! two problems di/9ct
 9 our m9ds4 ,yet f ! nature ( !  case x
 holds true t x is only ?r\gh ! facts   

:i* ! !ory  ( evolution e/abli%es or c  
e/abli% z to ! developm5t (  morality t 
x is able to make any contribution to ! 
solution (  ! fur!r "q z to ! crit]ion (
 morality--! "q1  t is to say1 ( moral  
wor? or value4    ,we _c1 !re=e1 avoid  
deal+ ) ! evolution ( e?ics4 ,b  9 :at  
foll[s ,i am n consid]+ x = its own     
sake--?\gh x  is an int]e/+ & important 
"q4 ,9 ord] to simplify  ! argum5t1 we  
may all[ :at is claim$ = x1 & give !    
evolutioni/ cr$it = ev5 great] success  
on ! field (  hi/orical                 
inve/igation--:i* is 8 own field--?an he
 w\ld1 if  fair-m9d$1 claim = himself4  
,! problem ,i h 9 view lies beyond  ?is 
hi/orical "q4 ,x is ! problem h[ f> !   
kn[n facts  & probable !ories reg>d+ !  
developm5t ( morality c make  any       
contribution t[>ds det]m9+ ! /&>d ( wor?
 = our  ideas1 our s5tim5ts1 & our      
conduct4 ,n[ if we read ! accr$it$      
expon5ts ( ! doctr9e ( evolution we %all
 f9d among/ !m a  consid]able v>iety (  
view reg>d+ ! be>+ ( ! !ory (  evolution

 ^u ?is prop]ly e?ical problem--!       
problem ( !  crit]ion or /&>d (         
goodness4    ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is      
desirable to *>act]ise briefly ,d>w9's  
own contribution to ?is matt]4 ,!       
sugge/ion made by him deals  almo/      
entirely ) :at ,i h call$ ! developm5t (
 morality1  n ) ! e?ics ( evolution2 &  
p]haps x may seem to u n[  a r obvi\s   
sugge/ion4 ,b he 0 ! fir/ to make ?is   
sugge/ion2 & x comes f him z a direct   
application ( !  !ory he _h e/abli%$ )  
reg>d to animal developm5t4 ,8          
sugge/ion is simply ?is--t moral        
qualities are select$ 9 !  /ruggle =    
exi/5ce 9 mu* ! same way z purely       
physical or  animal excell5ces are      
select$1 t is1 by _! contribut+ to !    
cont9u$ & m effici5t life ( ! organism4 
,b ,d>w9 saw v  cle>ly t ! qualities :i*
 are recognis$ z moral are n  by any    
means 9 all cases contributory to       
individual success &  effici5cy4 ,!y are
 n all ( !m qualities t contribute to ! 
success ( "o individual 9 8 /ruggle )   

o!r individuals  = ! means ( subsi/5ce4 
,we may say t c\rage1 prud5ce1          
self-reliance1 w h t effect1 & t        
consequ5tly 9 !  /ruggle = life !       
individuals :o %[ su* qualities w h  a  
bett] *ance ( survival ?an ^? )\t !m4 ,b
 :at ab\t  qualities su* z sympa?y1     
will+ness to help ano!r1 ob$i5ce1  &    
fai?fulness to a community or to a      
cause8 ,cle>ly1 ^! are n  qualities :i* 
are ( special assi/ance to ! individual4
 ,b !y  are qualities :i* are or may be 
( v great importance to !  tribe or     
community ( individuals4 ,suppos+ su*   
qualities ( mutual  help1 ( will+ness   
ev5 to sacrifice oneself = o!rs--!      
qualities :i* are commonly gr\p$ z      
expressions ( ! social  in/9ct1--suppos+
 ^! to h be5 someh[ develop$ 9 !  memb]s
 ( a tribe1 t tribe w\ld1 o!r ?+s be+   
equal1 h  an advantage 9 a /ruggle )    
ano!r tribe ^: memb]s did n  possess ^! 
qualities4 ,n[ ! advantage ?us ga9$ 9 ! 
/ruggle  w\ld be a case ( ! op]ation (  
natural selection3 x w\ld  ext]m9ate or 

weak5 ! tribe )\t ^! social qualities1 &
 x  w\ld ?us give opportunity = ! gr[+  
effici5cy ( ! tribe  t possess$ !m4     
,put 9 ! briefe/ way1 ?is is !          
explanation :i* ,d>w9 gave  ( ! gr[? ( !
 social qualities 9 mank9d2 & ! social  
qualities make up1 to a l>ge ext5t at   
any rate1 :at we call moral  qualities4 
,d>w91 h[ev]1 saw fur!r ?an ?is3 he saw 
t1 :ile  ?is might acc\nt = ! developm5t
 ( :at we may call savage &  b>b>ian    
virtues1 !re 0 9 civilis$ mank9d a      
developm5t (  sympa?y :i* w5t f> beyond 
?is1 & :i* "o c\ld n ) good  reason     
acc\nt = by ass]t+ t x r5d]$ assi/ance  
to !  community 9 its /ruggle = exi/5ce 
) o!r communities4    ,?us1 ) reg>d to !
 =m] "q1 he says3 ,a tribe includ+  _m  
memb]s :o1 f possess+ 9 a high degree ! 
_s (  patriotism1 fidelity1 ob$i5ce1    
c\rage1 & sympa?y1 7 always  ready to   
aid "o ano!r1 & to sacrifice !mselves = 
! common  good1 w\ld be victori\s ov]   
mo/ o!r tribes2 & ?is w\ld be  natural  
selection#a4    ,footnote #a3 ,desc5t ( 

,man1 ,"p ,i4 *ap4 v4 p4 #bjc 7new ed41 
#aija74    ,b :5 he comes to ! case (   
civilis$ m5 he f9ds a difficulty4  ,)   
savages1 he says1 ! weak 9 body or m9d  
are soon  elim9at$2 & ^? t survive      
commonly exhibit a vigor\s /ate  (      
heal?4 ,we civilis$ m51 on ! o!r h&1 d  
our utmo/ to *eck  ! process (          
elim9ation2 we build asylums = !        
imbecile1 !  maim$1 & ! sick2 we        
in/itute poor-laws2 & our m$ical m5     
ex]t _! utmo/ skill to save ! life ( e  
"o to ! la/  mom5t4444 ,! aid :i* we    
feel impell$ to give to ! helpless is   
ma9ly an incid5tal result ( ! in/9ct (  
sympa?y1 :i* 0  orig9ally acquir$ z "p (
 ! social in/9cts4444 ,nor c\ld  we *eck
 our sympa?y1 ev5 at ! urg+ ( h>d       
reason1 )\t  det]ioration 9 ! noble/ "p 
( our nature#a4 ,?is sympa?y1  :i*      
natural selection _c pres]ve or v9dicate
 ev5 9 !  /ruggle ( communities1 is     
nev]!less recognis$ by ,d>w9 z  hav+ a  
moral value outside ( & above natural   
selection & !  /ruggle = exi/5ce1--a    

value ( :i* ^! h no "r to  judge4 ,he   
?9ks t if we foll[$ h>d reason--& by    
'h>d reason'  he obvi\sly means an      
imitation on our "p ( ! action ( natural
  selection--we %\ld be l$ to sweep away
 all ^? in/itutions by  :i* civilis$    
mank9d gu>ds its weak] memb]s4 ,b ?is1  
he says1  w\ld be only to det]iorate !  
noble/ "p ( our nature4 ,:at is  noble/ 
9 our nature1 !n1 is n t :i* natural    
selection has  fav\r$ or ma9ta9$4 ,!re  
is1 !re=e1 impli$ 9 8 view a  limitation
 ( ! e?ical significance ( ! pr9ciple ( 
natural  selection4 ,=1 :5 we come to   
?is crucial "q ( conduct1  x is n all[$ 
to give any crit]ion ( moral validity4  
,m  compreh5sive attempts on ! same l9es
 z ,d>w9's h be5 made  subsequ5tly2 &   
v>i\s writ]s h tri$ to %[ h[ ! moral    
crit]ion may be resolv$ into social     
effici5cy1 or h[ x may be  d]iv$ f a    
problematic future /ate ( ! human race  
on ?is  e>? :5 ! ne$ = /ruggle has      
disappe>$ & all ?+s  g smoo?ly4 ,! =m]  
view may be f\nd 9 ,sir ,leslie ,/eph5's

  ',sci5ce ( ,e?ics'2 ! latt] is !      
peculi> prop]ty ( ,mr ,h]b]t  ,sp5c]4   
,some:at unwill+ly ,i mu/ = ! pres5t    
leave ^!  special views )\t             
consid]ation1#b because ,i wi% to br+   
out  /ill m pla9ly ! v>i\s attitudes ( !
 evolutioni/s to  morality1 & especially
 to draw att5tion to a view v diff]5t  f
 ^? j m5tion$1 ?\gh n altoge!r )\t      
support 9  ,d>w91 :i*1 z put =w>d "s    
ye>s ago by ! late ,pr(essor  ,huxley#c1
 produc$ no little flutt] 9 sci5tific   
dovecots4    ,footnote #a3 ,desc5t (    
,man1 pp4 #bje1 #bjf4    ,footnote #b3  
,= a discussion ( ^! views ,i may be    
all[$ to  ref] to my' ,e?ics (          
,naturalism1' *ap4 viii4 7*ap4 ix4 9 !  
new  edition74 ,! same volume conta9s a 
m exhau/ive exam9ation ?an  is possible 
9 ?is lecture ( ! :ole subject (        
evolutioni/  e?ics4    ,footnote #c3 ,! 
,romanes ,lecture1 #ahic1 ,evolution &  
,e?ics4 ,9  #ahid ?is 0 republi%$1 )    
prolegom5a1 9 vol4 ix4 ( ',collect$     
,essays1' ) ! title1 ,evolution &       

,e?ics1 & o!r ,essays4    ,pr(essor     
,huxley review$ :at he call$ ! cosmic   
process z x 0  guid$ by ! law (         
evolution4 ,he %[$ h[ at ea* /ep ( t    
process new results 7 only atta9$ by    
enorm\s wa/e & pa9 on  ! "p ( ^? liv+   
creatures :i* 7 ?ru/ aside z unfit  = _!
 surr\nd+s1 & he held consequ5tly t !   
:ole cosmic  process is ( an entirely   
diff]5t "* f :at we mu/ mean  :5 we use 
! t]m 'moral4' ,accord+ to him morality 
is oppos$  to ! me?od ( evolution1 & _c 
be bas$ ^u ! !ory (  evolution4 ,x is ( 
indep5d5t wor?2 b ,pr(essor ,huxley1    
p]haps  wisely1 refra9$ f inve/igat+ its
 ju/ification1 :ile  en=c+ ! app>5t     
p>adox t e?ical nature1 :ile born (     
cosmic nature1 is necess>ily at enmity )
 its p>5t    ,! practice ( t :i* is     
e?ically be/--:at we call goodness  or  
virtue--involves a c\rse ( conduct :i*1 
9 all respects1 is  oppos$ to t :i*     
leads to success 9 ! cosmic /ruggle  =  
exi/5ce4 ,9 place ( ru?less             
self-ass]tion x dem&s  self-re/ra9t2 9  

place ( ?ru/+ aside1 or tread+ d[n1 all 
competitors1 x requires t ! individual  
%all n m]ely respect1  b %all help1 8   
fell[s2 its influ5ce is direct$1 n s mu*
 to  ! survival ( ! fitte/1 z to ! fitt+
 ( z _m z possible  to survive4 ,x      
repudiates ! gladiatorial !ory (        
exi/5ce4444  ,let u und]/& once = all t 
! e?ical progress ( society  dep5ds1 n  
on imitat+ ! cosmic process1 /ill less 9
 runn+  away f x1 b 9 combat+ x4#a      
,footnote #a3 ,evolution & ,e?ics1 pp4  
#ha-hc4    ,"h1 !n1 is a view v diff]5t 
f ! easy optimism ( ,mr  ,h]b]t ,sp5c]4 
,! cosmic ord] has no?+ to say to !     
moral  ord]1 except t1 someh[ or o!r1 x 
has giv5 x bir?2 !  moral ord] has no?+ 
to say to ! cosmic ord]1 except t x  is 
c]ta9ly bad4 ,morality is occupi$ 9     
oppos+ ! me?ods (  evolution4    ,/ill  
ano!r view is possible4 ,x may be held t
 ! morality (  self-re/ra9t &           
self-sacrifice are oppos$--z ,huxley    
says !y are  oppos$--to ! me?ods (      
cosmic evolution2 & yet ! gladiatorial  

!ory ( exi/5ce may n be repudiat$2 b    
morality may be  modifi$ to suit !      
claims ( evolution4 ,?is is ! position  
adopt$  by ! philosoph] ,nietzs*e1 ^:   
:ole ?\ght is p]meat$ by !  idea (      
evolution4 ,l ,pr(essor ,huxley1        
,nietzs*e might say t  morality is      
oppos$ to ! cosmic process4 ,b by       
morality he w\ld  mean some?+ t is n to 
be enc\rag$1 b t is to be %$  f human   
life1 or at lea/ fundam5tally trans=m$1 
j because  x is 9 opposition to ! laws (
 cosmic progress4 ,on ! o!r h&1  !      
morality--if we may use ! t]m--:i* !    
cosmic process tea*es  u w be a         
developm5t ( ! conceptions (            
self-ass]tion &  self-reliance1         
qualities :i*1 accord+ to ord9>y        
morality--!  morality1 = in/ance1 (     
,pr(essor ,huxley--require to be p]meat$
  & ev5 sup]s$$ by self-re/ra9t &       
possibly self-sacrifice 9  ord] t !     
moral law may be satisfi$4 ,n ob$i5ce1 n
 mutual  help1 n b5evol5ce1 b ! w to    
rule or desire ( p[]1 is  ) ,nietzs*e   

fundam5tal1 ! prim>y impulse 9 ! hi/ory 
( !  :ole progress ( ! _w1 & /ill ( fir/
 importance = !  fur!r developm5t (     
mank9d4    ,?is view is at ! opposite   
extreme f ,huxley's1 = x ov]looks  !    
advantages mank9d has ga9$ by means ( ! 
social in/9ct &  ! social solid>ity :i* 
x secures4 ,b !re is a fur!r  po9t 9    
,nietzs*e's reflexions :i* is sugge/$ by
 ! !ory  ( developm5t4 ,natural         
selection is n ! sole ag5t 9 !          
developm5t ( organic life3 x _c be too  
(t5 en=c$ t  natural selection produces 
no?+1 t its op]ation is purely          
negative4 ,x does n prop]ly select at   
all1 x only excludes4 ,:at  x does is to
 cut (f ! unfit specim5s ( liv+ be+s :i*
  nature supplies4 ,x w\ld h no field ( 
op]ation 7 x n  = ! v>iety ( nature4    
,:ile individuals t5d to repeat !       
*>act]i/ics ( _! p>5ts1 !y d n repeat !m
 )\t  *ange3 ! pr9ciple ( h]$ity is     
c\nt]balanc$ by a pr9ciple  ( v>iety    
equally h>d to expla94 ,all organic life
 exhibits ?is  t5d5cy to v>iation2 & "o 

v>iation proves bett] adapt$ ?an  ano!r 
to ! environm5t4 ,x is ?is :i* makes    
possible !  op]ation ( 'natural         
selection4' ,unfit v>ieties are         
ext]m9at$ by  natural selection1 & room 
is ?us left = v>ieties :i* are fit  to  
p]petuate !mselves & to increase 9      
effici5cy4    ,n[1 if we apply ?is      
conception to human conduct1 %\ld we n  
enc\rage all v>ieties to c>ry on _!     
exp]im5ts 9 liv+ &  9 morality s t we   
may see :e!r success w ju/ify !m8 ,an   
affirmative answ] to ?is "q is sometimes
 vaguely h9t$ at2 by  ,nietzs*e x is    
proclaim$ f ! h\setops4    ,!re is no   
monopoly ( morals1 & e morality :i*     
exclusively  ass]ts itself de/roys too  
mu* good /r5g?1 & is too de>ly  b\ght by
 mank9d4 ,! /ray+ ones1 :o s (t5 are !  
inv5tive  & productive ones1 %all no    
long] be sacrific$2 x %all n ev5  be    
deem$ a disgrace to /ray f morals ei!r 9
 de$s or ?\ghts2  num]\s new exp]im5ts  
%all be made 9 matt]s ( life & society2 
an enorm\s incubus ( bad consci5ce %all 

be remov$ f !  _w--^! are ! g5]al aims  
:i* ought to be recognis$ &  fur!r$ by  
all hone/ & tru?-seek+ p4#a    ,footnote
 #a3 ,nietzs*e1 ,w]ke1 iv4 #afa1 #afb2  
,dawn ( ,day1  #afd4    ,reflect+ = a   
mom5t on :at prec$es1 we may obs]ve t1 f
  ! m\?s ( ! evolutioni/s !mselves1 we h
 enc\nt]$ ?ree  diff]5t views reg>d+ !  
e?ical significance ( evolution4 ,9  !  
fir/ place1 !re is ! view ( ,d>w9 t     
natural selection is  a crit]ion ( moral
 fitness only up to a c]ta9 /age1 & t ! 
noble/ "p ( man's morality is indep5d5t 
( ?is te/2 9 !  second place1 !re is !  
view ( ,huxley t morality is entirely   
oppos$ to ! cosmic process z rul$ by    
natural selection2 &1 9  ! ?ird place1  
!re is ! view ( ,nietzs*e t ! pr9ciples 
( biological developm5t 7v>iation1 t is 
to say1 & natural  selection7 %\ld be   
all[$ free play s t1 9 ! future z  9 !  
pa/1 successful v>iations may be /ruck  
out by triumphant  egoism4 ,nei!r ^!    
views1 nor ! /ill m elaborate treatm5t (
  ,sp5c]1 d ,i propose to exam9e 9      

detail4 ,b ,i wi% to (f] "s  reflexions 
^u ! fundam5tal conception und]ly+ !m   
all1  acc\nt+ 9 ?is way1 p]haps1 = !    
diff]5ces ( op9ion  betwe5 ,d>w9 &      
,sp5c]1 ,huxley & ,nietzs*e4 ,!         
conception (  natural selection & (     
evolution by natural selection is appli$
 by  m5 ( sci5ce & by philosoph]s 9 ?ree
 v diff]5t sph]es1 to  ?ree v diff]5t   
k9ds ( /ruggle or competition4 ,!re may 
be  _m diff]5t k9ds ( competition3 x w  
be suffici5t "h to  consid] ! ?ree      
foll[+3--    ,fir/1 !re is ! competition
 betwe5 individuals = individual  life &
 success4 ,n[1 s f> z we are deal+ ) ?is
 competition1  ! only qualities :i*     
natural selection w fav\r are ( c\rse  !
 qualities :i* lead to ! cont9uance &   
effici5cy ( !  individual organism4 ,!  
qualities 'select$' 9 ?is process are   
!re=e only ! self-ass]tive qualities1--!
 qualities (  /r5g?1 ( c\rage1 (        
prud5ce1 & also ( temp]ance4    ,b 9 !  
second place !re is also1 z ,i h already
 indicat$ &  z 0 se5 by ,d>w9 7?\gh he  

did n draw ?is di/9ction71 a  second k9d
 ( competition1 ! competition betwe5    
gr\ps4 ,n[ !  gr\p competition has z its
 end ! cont9uance & effici5cy (  ! gr\p1
 be x horde or tribe or nation1 or be x 
"o ( ^?  subsidi>y gr\ps :i* ent] into  
national life4 ,9 ?is competition       
betwe5 gr\ps x is cle> t ^? qualities w 
be fav\r$ by  natural selection :i*     
contribute to ! effici5cy ( ! gr\p2 &  !
 qualities :i* contribute to ! effici5cy
 ( ! gr\p are n  ^? only :i* contribute 
to ! effici5cy ( ! individual1 b  also  
qualities imply+ self-re/ra9t & ev5     
self-sacrifice on !  "p ( "o memb] ( !  
gr\p = ! sake ( o!r memb]s ( !  gr\p or 
( ! gr\p z a :ole4 ,! habit ( ob$i5ce1 =
 example1  ob$i5ce to ! au?ority ( !    
gr\p or its repres5tative1 may be  (    
fundam5tal importance 9 ma9ta9+ !       
exi/5ce ( ! gr\p  z a gr\p1 al?\gh t    
habit ( ob$i5ce has no place at all 9   
promot+ ! int]e/s ( ! individual :5 he  
is compet+ )  o!r individuals4          
,?irdly1 !re is /ill ano!r k9d (        

competition :i* is a little  m difficult
 to make q cle>1 because x is n on !    
plane (  individual life & x is n to be 
id5tifi$ ) ! life (  ! community4 ,x is 
a competition on ! intellectual level1 !
  competition betwe5 ideas1 & ) ?is "o  
may also c\ple 7s f>  z x does n        
directly conc]n ! /ruggle = social      
exi/5ce &  ?us belong to ! second class7
 ! competition betwe5 in/itutions1      
includ+ !re9 also habits & cu/oms4 ,!   
v>i\s in/itutions 9  our national life1 
& ! v>i\s habits ( our life1 may be said
 to  be =ms :i* h to ma9ta9 !mselves (t5
 9 competition )  o!r & antagoni/ic =ms 
( in/itution4 ,! same holds ( our  v>i\s
 ideas or g5]al conceptions1 :e!r ab\t  
morality1 :i* we  h n[ specially 9 view1
 or ab\t matt]s m purely intellectual4  
,= in/ance1 =ty or fifty ye>s ago1 !re 0
 a fi]ce controv]sy  among/ biologi/s   
betwe5 ! gr\p ( ideas repres5t$ by      
,d>w9's  !ory & ! gr\p ( ideas repres5t$
 by ! traditional view (  ! fixity (    
species4 ,!re 0 a long conflict betwe5  

^! two  gr\ps ( ideas1 & we may n[ say t
 ! ,d>w9ian gr\p ( ideas  has em]g$ f ! 
conflict victori\s4    ,n[1 :5 ! phrase 
'natural selection 9 morals' is us$1 !  
ref]5ce is commonly to a conflict ( ?is 
la/ k9d4 ,! sugge/ion  is t diff]5t     
ideas & also diff]5t /&>ds ( action are 
manife/$ at ! same "t )9 ! same         
community1 t !y  compete ) "o ano!r =   
exi/5ce1 & t gradually ^? :i*  are bett]
 adapt$ to ! life ( ! community survive1
 :ile !  o!rs gr[ weak] & 9 ! end       
disappe>4 ,9 ?is way ! law (  natural   
selection is made to apply to moral     
ideas & moral /&>ds1  & also to         
intellectual /&>ds & to ! in/itutions & 
cu/oms  9 :i* our ideas are express$4   
,^!1 !n1 are ! ?ree ways 9 :i* !        
competition 9 man's life  & ! selection 
betwe5 ! compet+ factors is c>ri$ out4  
,&  sometimes ,i ?9k "o sees a t5d5cy to
 sugge/ t ?is ne$s  only to be /at$1 & t
 ! :ole "q ( ! application (  evolution 
to e?ics is !n settl$4 ,y may say t su* 
& su*  moral qualities1 z = in/ance !   

quality ( sympa?y1 d n aid  ! individual
 9 competition ) o!r individuals4 ,!    
reply might  be ,no1 b !y aid ! gr\p 9  
competition ) o!r gr\ps4 ,or y  may say1
 z ,d>w9 said1 t ev5 ?is competition w n
 acc\nt  = ! civilis$ developm5t (      
sympa?y4 ,b ev5 s we are n at  ! end (  
our te!r2 & we c fall back on ! conflict
 ( ideas4  ,! idea ( sympa?y or (       
altruism1 = in/ance1 may conflict )  "s 
o!r idea1 su* z t ( egoism4 ,at fir/ !  
competition is a  gr\p-competition1 9   
:i* ! gr\p ) altrui/ic memb]s succe$s   
at ! exp5se ( ! egoi/ic gr\p4 ,by !     
victory ( ! =m] our  society becomes m &
 m a society ^: basis is sympa?y &  all 
t sympa?y implies1 :ile conflict+ ideas 
lose ! lead4 ,s  9 g5]al ) ! competition
 ( ideas3 ! idea :i* fails to  adapt    
itself to its conditions w disappe>1 & !
 idea :i* is  ?us adapt$ w p]si/2 & ?is 
also 7x is said7 is j natural           
selection4 ,n[ ,i v5ture to ask ! "q1   
,is x8 ,i w put !  "q :e!r all ^! ?ree  
processes are really =ms ( !  same      

process1 or1 9 o!r words & to put !     
matt] m simply1 ,is  x simply natural   
selection t is op]ative 9 all ^! diff]5t
  =ms ( competition8    ,= ! sake (     
cle>ness ,i w take fir/ ?is la/-m5tion$ 
=m  ( competition1 ! process by :i* "o  
idea drives ano!r out (  ! intellectual 
or moral curr5cy ( a community4 ,!      
competition  betwe5 ! idea ( fixity (   
species & ,d>w9's idea ( ! unity  ( life
 has be5 already cit$ z an in/ance2 & x 
0 po9t$  out t1 gradually & aft] a      
controv]sy ( "s =ty ye>s1 !  =m] idea   
almo/ disappe>$1 & 9 ! m9ds at any rate 
( ^?  :o "k1 ! ,d>w9ian !ory became     
victori\s4 ,0 x natural  selection t    
br\ght ab\t ! result8 ,to te/ ! matt]   
let u ask  once m h[ natural selection  
op]ates4 ,its mode ( op]ation is  always
 simply negative4 ,& if1 9 ! /ruggle (  
life1 x selects  ! c\rage\s man r ?an ! 
c[>d1 ! temp]ate man r  ?an !           
intemp]ate1 ! me?od by :i* ?is result is
 rea*$ is  simple3 :5 x comes to a      
conflict ! c\rage\s man kills !  c[>d or

 r$uces him to subjection2 ! intemp]ate 
man has less  vitality ?an ! temp]ate3  
he too disappe>s1 al?\gh p]haps         
gradually4    ,take aga9 !              
gr\p-competition s f> z x is influ5c$ by
  natural selection4 ,! tribe :i*       
manife/s ! qualities ( social  solid>ity
 is select$ simply 9 ?is way1 t :5 x    
comes into  conflict ) a tribe :i* has n
 ?is solid>ity ! latt]  is beat51 & is  
?us unable to obta9 ! pa/ures or !      
hunt+-gr\nd :i* x desires1 & !re=e      
gradually or swiftly x  is ext]m9at$ or 
left beh9d 9 ! race = life4 ,n[1 ,i ask1
 ,did  ?is process take place :5        
,d>w9ism supplant$ ! traditional  !ory (
 ! fixity ( species8 ,surely x is cle> t
 x is only 9  ! r>e/ cases t false or   
inadequate ideas on su* subjects h  any 
t5d5cy to %ort5 life or weak5 heal?4    
,bi%op ,wilb]=ce 0  kill$ by a fall f 8 
horse1 n by ! triumphant dialectic (    
,pr(essor ,huxley4 ,sir ,ri*>d ,ow5 liv$
 to a patri>*al old age1 &  did n       
disappe> f ! face ( ! e>? because he    

/ill clung to  an idea :i* ! be/        
intellect ( 8 "t _h rel9qui%$4 ,!re  is 
no?+ 9 ! doctr9e ( ! fixity (           
species--if y hold  x--:i* w 9 ! lea/   
degree t5d to dim9i% vitality4 ,natural 
selection has practically no effect at  
all 9 ext]m9at+ ^? :o  adh]e to ?is     
idea4 ,!re is no means ( livelihood f   
:i* x  w\ld exclude !m except inde$ t x 
might prev5t !m f  occupy+ ,*airs (     
,biology4 ,ap>t f t ,i d n ?9k x w  h9d]
 !m 9 any ( ! v>i\s modes ( activity 9  
:i* !  /ruggle = life is manife/$4      
,:at 0 x !n t l$ to ! victory ( ! "o    
idea ov] !  o!r8 ,! cause 0             
intellectual4 ,) ! exp]ts1 x 0 logical  
conviction3 "o set ( ideas 0 f\nd to fit
 ! facts some:at  bett] ?an ! o!r set ( 
ideas4 ,) m5 9 g5]al !  intellectual    
*ange came m sl[ly & 9 a diff]5t way3 !y
  adopt$ or imitat$ ! ideas ( ^? :o     
knew4 ,x 0 !re=e n  natural selection at
 all :i* l$ to ! pres5ce & p[] ( !  "o  
idea r ?an ! o!r 9 ! m9ds ( ?\ghtful m54
 ,"o  idea 0 delib]ately accept$ & ! o!r

 delib]ately reject$4  ,! =m] 0 accept$ 
on gr\nds ( :i* ! mo/ g5]al acc\nt  w\ld
 be1 if we may use ! t]m1 to call !m    
subjective4 ,b natural  selection is a  
physical1 ext]nal1 objective process4 ,x
 is c>ri$  out )\t ! individual's       
volition3 he is n aim+ at ! end4  ,x is 
simply natural law :i*1 ) _m v>ieties ( 
liv+ be+s  be=e x1 ext]m9ates ! unfit   
individuals4 ,?us nature 9 its own  bl9d
 way produces a result ( ! same k9d z t 
:i* ! w (  man w\ld br+ ab\t by         
subjective selection4    ,! orig9 ( ?is 
t]m 'natural selection' is ov]look$ :5 p
  talk glibly ab\t 'natural selection' (
 ideas4 ,d>w9 us$ ! t]m  'natural       
selection' because he ?\ght he saw an   
analogy betwe5 !  t5d5cy ( nature & !   
selective purposes ( intellig5t be+s4   
,x 0 because nature1 work+ )\t          
intellig5ce1 produc$ ! same  k9d (      
result z man does by intellig5t         
selection1 t he v5tur$  to use ?is t]m  
'selection' ( ! process ( nature4       
,p]haps he 0  h>dly ju/ifi$ 9 adopt+ !  

t]m1 z nature does n select2 %e  only   
passes by4 ,at ! same "t1 artificial    
selection also includes1  al?\gh x is n 
limit$ to1 ?is negative or we$+-out     
process4  ,:5 y select a c]ta9 plant =  
gr[? 9 y\r g>d5 y we$ out  ! neighb\r+  
plants :i* encroa* ^u x1 s z to give x a
  *ance to gr[ & ?rive4 ,by remov+ its  
competitors1 y let air  & light surr\nd 
! plant1 & x spreads its leaves to !    
sun4  ,! heal?y gr[? :i* results is due 
to ! removal ( ob/acles  by an ext]nal  
p[]2 & x is 9 ?is way--by ! removal (   
ob/acles--t natural selection works4    
,intellig5t or artificial selection is n
 re/rict$ to ?is negative  me?od (      
work+2 & its op]ation1 positive z well z
 negative1  0 c]ta9ly well kn[n long    
be=e ,d>w9's day4 ,/>t+ ) !  famili>    
facts ( artificial or purposive         
selection1 ,d>w9 %[$ h[  results simil> 
to ^? aim$ at & rea*$ 9 ?is way might be
  br\ght ab\t by ! op]ation ( c]ta9     
natural laws1 work+  )\t purpose or     
design4 ,purposive selection pursues its

 ends m  directly & 9 g5]al atta9s !m f>
 m quickly ?an does  natural selection4 
,a /ill m /rik+ *>act]i/ic is ! fact  t 
x does n entail ! wa/e & pa9 :i* m>k !  
c\rse (  natural selection4 ,witness !  
records ( natural selection 9 !         
vegetable & animal k+doms1 :]e ?\s&s are
 call$ into  fruitless be+ t "o alone   
may survive & prosp]4 ,wa/efulness  is !
 mo/ /rik+ feature ( its me?od1 & its   
pa? is /rewn  ) wreckage4 ,9 all ^!     
respects ! conflict ( ideas belongs  to 
! level ( purposive & n ( natural       
selection4 ,x involves  consci\sness ( !
 end1 :i* natural selection nev] does2 x
 is  comp>atively rapid 9 rea*+ its goal
 & comp>atively direct 9  ! r\te x      
takes2 & ! victory ( an idea does n take
 effect  ?r\gh any g5]al ext]m9ation ( !
 individuals :o *]i% ideas  'unfit' =   
survival4    ,i d n d5y t !re may be a  
c]ta9 natural selection 9 !  case (     
human be+s2 b t process is always clumsy
 & sl[ &  wa/eful1 & ! purposive        
intellig5t selection :i* takes its      

place is "o ( ! greate/ possible ga9s to
 liv+ be+s3  its pres5ce di/+ui%es m5 f 
animals2 its pr$om9ance  di/+ui%es      
civilis$ m5 f savages2 ! high] ! /age  (
 civilisation1 ! m m>k$ is ! developm5t 
( selective  intellig5ce4 ,& 9 !        
conflict ( ideas1 :e!r moral or         
intellectual1 ! issue is det]m9$ by a   
selection :i* is  pr$om9antly purposive1
 & only 9 ! slighte/ degree natural4    
,if we return to ! conflict ( gr\ps we  
%all see t ev5 !re  purposive selection 
ent]s4 ,h[ 7we may ask7 d ^? qualities (
  ob$i5ce1 will+ness to help ano!r1 & ! 
l1 arise 9 a  community & ?us enable x  
to w9 ! victory ov] a less organis$  or 
m savage enemy8 ,surely x is n a        
suffici5t answ] to say t  ^! qualities h
 be5 someh[ develop$1 & !n h contribut$ 
to ! victory ( ! community possess+ !m4 
,all ?r\gh civilis$  life1 & probably   
?r\gh\t a great "p ( savage life1 !re is
  ! ke5e/ enquiry into & p]ception ( !  
qualities :i*  w make = success4 ,^!    
qualities are c>efully select$ &        

positively fo/]$4 ,y drill y\r armies--t
 is1 y cultivate  ! habit ( discipl9e & 
all t discipl9e implies--s t !  victory 
may be ga9$2 9 o!r words1 ! quality is n
 produc$ by  natural selection at all4  
,! issue may resemble ! result ( natural
  selection1 = x leads to conflict &    
defeat ( ! unfit2 b !  conqu]or is he :o
 has =ese5 ! conditions ( ! /ruggle3    
has delib]ately equipp$ 8 =ces = !      
fight1 & be5 !  intellig5t organis] (   
victory4    ,ev5 9 ! case ( competition 
betwe5 individuals1 at lea/ among       
civilis$ m51 x is cle> t natural        
selection is v f> f  be+ ! only factor4 
,a man tra9s himself = a pr(ession4 ,x  
does  n j someh[ come ab\t t a numb] ( p
 accid5tally  develop c]ta9 v>ieties (  
occupation1 & t natural selection  makes
 play ) ?is result1 cutt+ (f ! unfit &  
leav+ only  ^? :o are fairly well adapt$
 to _! positions4 ,some?+ (  ?is sort no
 d\bt takes place to a limit$ ext5t2 b1 
s f> z x  does take place1 our me?ods   
are d5\nc$ z defective &1 p]haps1  z    

old-fa%ion$4 ',haphaz>d' is a wa/eful   
pr9ciple1 & %\ld be  sup]s$$ by         
intellig5t initiative & delib]ate       
prep>ation4 ,&  ?is inde$ is ! usual    
process4 ,"o adapts oneself c>efully & (
  set purpose to ! conditions ( "o's    
life1 in/ead ( simply wait+  = natural  
selection to cut "o (f %\ld "o happ5 to 
be unfit4    ,ev5 among animals !re are 
c]ta9 processes :i* _c be br\ght  "u    
natural selection4 ,!re are ! fir/      
ef=ts1 slight z !y  may be1 t[>ds le>n+ 
by exp]i5ce4 ,!re are also all ^? facts 
:i* ,d>w9 classes "u sexual selection1  
:]e !re is a positive  *oos+1 due no    
d\bt n to intellig5t purpose b nev]!less
 to  a subjective impulse4 ,?is m>ks !  
beg9n+ ( ! end ( !  reign ( natural     
selection1 because 9 x = ! purely       
objective or  ext]nal factor !re is     
sub/itut$ an int]nal1 subjective factor2
  in/ead ( ! process ( cutt+ (f         
unsuitable individuals among  *ance     
v>ieties !re appe>s ! process ( select+ 
t v>iety  :i* pleases or attracts4    ,!

 result ( ?is :ole inve/igation is t    
natural selection  _c be prop]ly appli$ 
s z to expla9 ! conflict ( moral  ideas4
 ,x is n able to acc\nt = all ! ph5om5a 
( !  competition betwe5 gr\ps4 ,ev5 9   
sub-human life !re are  indications ( ! 
processes :i* sup]s$e natural selection4
 ,f  ?is result ! e?ical consequ5ce may 
be drawn1 t !re is no  good gr\nd = tak+
 ! l[]1 ! less develop$1 me?od (        
selection z our guide 9 pref]5ce to !   
high] & m develop$4  ,surely we are n to
 take natural selection z ! sole factor 
(  e?ical import because we see x at !  
crude beg9n+s ( life on  ?is e>?1 :ile !
 process ( life itself 9 its high]      
ranges  passes beyond natural selection4
 ,! physiological int]pretation  ( life 
& conduct put =w>d by ,nietzs*e1 & by a 
good _m  biological philosoph]s1 w\ld   
take natural selection1 & its be>+  ^u !
 animal nature ( man1 z ! sole te/ (    
effici5cy &  e?ical value4 ,b ?is       
int]pretation ( man's life disreg>ds !  
a*ievem5ts ( evolution itself = ! sake (

 p9n+ its fai? to  ! humble beg9n+s ( ! 
organic process4    ,aft] ?is long      
enquiry into ! nature & scope ( natural 
selection1 we %\ld be bett] prep>$ to   
und]/& ! degree &  k9d ( e?ical         
significance :i* c be rightly assign$ to
 !  !ory ( evolution4 ,9 ! fir/ place   
let u consid] ! n[  famili> claim t man 
mu/ be tak5 z "p ( ! cosmos1 & t  man's 
conduct mu/ be reg>d$ & /udi$ 9 its     
place 9 ! cosmic  process4 ,at ! "t :5 x
 0 fir/ made ?is claim may h seem$  a   
/>tl+ "o2 b ,i ?9k t we mu/ admit t1    
keep+ to _!  own gr\nd & us+ ! in/rum5ts
 t are !irs by "r1 !  evolutioni/ writ]s
 h succe$$ 9 %[+ man's connexion )  !   
animal k+dom & ) organic life g5]ally1 &
 ?us 8 place  9 ! :ole cosmic process4  
,! claim mu/ !re=e be admitt$4    ,b if 
man is "p ( ! univ]se1 !n ! univ]se is n
  intelligible ap>t f man1 & ! cosmic   
process is n fully  und]/ood unless we  
also h an und]/&+ ( human activity4     
,?is1 !re=e1 is ! c\nt]-claim t ,i w\ld 
sugge/4 ,! c\rse  & me?od ( evolution1  

or ( ! 'cosmic process'--to use         
,huxley's  t]m--is imp]fectly describ$  
if ! me?ods & pr9ciples ( human  action 
are left out ( acc\nt4    ,no d\bt !    
reply may be made1 z ! reply has be5    
made1 t aft]  all man occupies b a m9ute
 space 9 ! cosmos1 t he is b an         
insignificant speck on an unimportant   
planet4 ,b1 if ?is is at all  meant to  
imply t we may safely leave !           
peculi>ities ( human  activity out (    
acc\nt1 !n ,i say t ! sugge/ion h>dly   
des]ves consid]ation4 ,surely !         
assumption is too gross &  unw>rantable 
t mat]ial magnitude is ! /&>d (         
importance1  or t ! significance ( man's
 life c be measur$ by ! size (  8       
mat]ial organism4 ,we mu/ !re=e nev]    
delude ourselves )  ! idea t we h a full
 acc\nt ( ! cosmos or ! cosmic  process 
unless we h tak5 acc\nt ( ! peculi>ities
 ( man's  nature & man's activity4    ,9
 ! second place1 ! discussion ( !       
pr9ciple ( natural  selection sugge/s a 
fur!r reflexion4 ,! process ( natural   

selection is a process :i* always t5ds  
to "s end1 because by x  "s organisms   
are select$1 & !y are ! organisms :i*   
are  fitte/ to live4 ,by 'fitte/' is (  
c\rse meant t :i* is  be/ adapt$ to !   
environm5t1 or1 z x is simply a "q (    
survival1 t :i* s fits ! conditions ( ! 
environm5t t x  is able to survive4 ,!  
canon ( ! pr9ciple ( natural selection  
is  on ! face ( x relative4 ,no "o w\ld 
say t ! pr9ciple c be  int]pret$ z an   
absolute law = conduct1 aft] ! fa%ion ( 
!  absolute laws laid d[n by !          
rationali/ morali/s2 :at is involv$  is 
simply a gelation to "o's surr\nd+s4 ,"o
 mu/ keep 9 t\*  ) !m1 "o mu/ adapt     
oneself to !m1 9 ord] to live4    ,b ,i 
wi% to po9t out t ! pr9ciple is n only  
relative1 b  t its relation is limit$ to
 c]ta9 features ( ! environm5t  :i*     
surr\nds mank9d1 namely1 to ^? features 
& ^? features  only :i* prev5t organisms
 unsuit$ to ! conditions ( life f       
surviv+ at all4 ,! only way 9 :i*       
natural selection works is by  kill+ (f 

rapidly or gradually ! organisms :i* are
 n fitt$ to  obta9 f ! environm5t !     
means ( life--t is to say1 x  has to d )
 life only1 ) ! cont9uance ( life z a   
possible  mat]ial ph5om5on4 ,giv5 t !   
organisms are fit en\gh to  survive1    
giv5 t _! animal vitality is n dim9i%$1 
a  "q rema9s3 :at is ! /&>d ( wor?y     
survival8 & to t  "q ! process &        
pr9ciple ( natural selection c give no  
answ]4 ,to use ! old di/9ction3 ev5 if x
 is able to acc\nt =  be+1 x c give no  
/&>d = wellbe+4    ,n[ ! environm5t (   
civilis$ man is a great deal l>g] 9     
range  ?an ^? mat]ial ph5om5a :i*       
contribute to 8 n\ri%m5t &  ?us to 8    
exi/5ce z an animal organism4 ,no d\bt 8
 fir/ ef=t  is to ma9ta9 himself z an   
animal--t is ! condition ( all  8       
subsequ5t activity--b he seeks also to  
suit himself to an  environm5t :i* is   
wid] & subtl] ?an m]ely animal          
conditions  ( life2 to adapt himself to 
society1 p]haps only z a memb] ( x1     
p]haps also z a lead] or re=m]2 to adapt

 himself to ! dom9ant  ideas ( 8 "t1    
absorb+ !m1 p]haps also modify+ !m2 to  
adapt himself to a :ole region ( int]e/s
 :i* may 9 our life be  built ^u an     
animal basis1 b ( :i* ! animal basis    
gives no  explanation--int]e/s social1  
arti/ic1 intellectual1 spiritual4    ,x 
is correct1 !re=e1 to say ( man t 8     
environm5t is mu*  l>g] ?an ! mat]ial   
univ]se2 x is :atev] he conceives !     
univ]se z be+1 & :atev] x c be = him3   
:e!r he seeks  f x m]ely intellectual   
und]/&+1 :e!r he reg>ds x z  a vehicle =
 arti/ic production1 or :e!r he may see 
9 x an  opportunity = realis+ 8 own be+ 
by fulfill+ ! w (  ,god--p]haps by      
subm]g+ 8 own individuality 9 deity4 ,! 
objects ( philosophy1 art1 &            
religion1--all ^! are p>ts ( !          
environm5t ( civilis$ man1 & yet 8      
self-adaptation to !m has  no direct    
effect :atev] ^u 8 cont9uance on ! e>? z
 an  animal organism4 ,9 o!r words1 !   
process ( natural selection  c give u no
 canon at all = putt+ a value ^u ^!     

v>i\s  activities1 or ^u ! way 9 :i* man
 adapts himself to ^! p>ts  ( 8         
environm5t4    ,x is said by ,mr ,h]b]t 
,sp5c] t we mu/ int]pret ! m  develop$  
by ! less develop$2#a & ! inf]5ce w\ld  
seem to  be t1 z animal exi/5ce is !    
basis ( all high] activities1 we  mu/   
int]pret ^! by x4 ,b if ?is claim c be  
admitt$ at all1  x c only be if our aim 
goes no fur!r ?an to trace a hi/orical  
process4 ,if we desire to und]/&        
capacity or function--/ill m  if we     
speak ( wor? or goodness--!n x is mu* m 
correct to say  t we mu/ int]pret ! less
 develop$ by ! m develop$4  ,if y wi% to
 trace ! gr[? ( ! oak-tree f its e>lie/ 
beg9n+s to maturity1 !n /udy ! acorn & !
 soil2 b if y  wi% to "k :at ! capacity 
& ! function ( ! acorn are1 !n  y mu/   
int]pret ! less develop$ by ! m         
develop$1 y  mu/ see :at an oak is l :5 
x spreads its bran*es "u !  heav5s4     
,footnote #a3 ,pr9ciples ( ,e?ics1 i4   
#g4    ,9 ! ?ird place1 ! way 9 :i* !   
action ( natural selection  diff]s      

accord+ to circum/ances affects its     
e?ical significance4  ,x op]ates z      
betwe5 individuals1 & x op]ates z betwe5
  gr\ps1--al?\gh 9 ! latt] op]ation     
especially x is always  mix$ ) o!r =ces 
?an natural selection4 ,! competition   
betwe5 individuals fav\rs egoi/ic       
qualities1 ! competition  betwe5 gr\ps  
fav\rs qualities :i* may be call$       
altrui/ic4    ,n[ no pr9ciple :atev] c  
be got out ( ! !ory ( natural           
selection1 or out ( ! evolution !ory 9  
g5]al1 :i* w  decide betwe5 ^! div]g5t  
op]ations4 ,! "q may be put1  ,are we to
 cultivate ! qualities :i* w give u     
success 9 !  battle ( individual )      
individual1 or are we to cultivate 9    
ourselves qualities :i* w contribute to 
! success ( !  community8 ,all ! answ] t
 ! evolution !ory c give to ?is  "q is1 
t :5 individual fights ) individual1 !  
man )  /rong] egoi/ic qualities w       
succe$1 & t :5 gr\p fights  gr\p1 ^?    
gr\ps t possess /rong] altrui/ic        
qualities w  t5d to success4 ,b :i* set 

( qualities we are to cultivate1 or     
:e!r we are to manife/ a sort ( balance 
( ! two1 is a "q  ^u :i* we c get no    
light f ! !ory ( evolution consid]$  by 
itself4 ,& consequ5tly we f9d a v       
preval5t1 ?\gh p]haps  h>dly ev]        
def9itely express$1 code ( conduct      
accord+ to :i*  ! individual takes z !  
guide = 8 own action ! egoi/ic          
qualities :i* give success 9 ! /ruggle  
betwe5 diff]5t  individuals1 b recomm5ds
 to all 8 fell[s 9 ! same community  t  
!y %\ld cultivate ^? altrui/ic qualities
 :i* w lead  to ! advantage ( society4  
,! !ory ( evolution makes no            
contribution at all to ^!  que/ions (   
wor? or validity or moral value :i* we h
 be5  discuss+4 ,all "o c get out ( x is
 c]ta9 canons = liv+1  b none = good    
liv+4 ,x may draw "o's att5tion to ?is  
fact1 if  anybody's att5tion ne$s to be 
drawn to x1 t exi/5ce is prior  to      
wellbe+2 b :at ! nature ( wellbe+ is--^u
 t x ?r[s  no light4    ,we h be5 met by
 ! sugge/ion t we %\ld int]pret by means

  ( ! l[] or less develop$1 & aga9 t we 
%\ld set up a  purely physiological     
/&>d4 ,b ! sugge/ion ov]looks two  ?+s3 
fir/ ( all1 ! difficulties 9 !          
application ( natural  selection itself 
) its div]g5t t5d5cies2 &1 secondly1 !  
fact t ?is process ( evolution has      
itself result$ 9 !  developm5t ( c]ta9  
high] activities & high] t5d5cies1 &  t 
!re is no good gr\nd = hold+ t _! wor?  
is to be  te/$ by means ( ! l[]         
qualities out ( :i* !y h gr[n4    ,n[ a 
good _m evolutioni/ morali/s seem to see
 ?is1 &  accord+ly re/rict !mselves     
almo/ entirely to :at we may call  !    
hi/orical po9t ( view4 ,!y %[ h[ moral  
cu/oms & moral  ideas adapt$ to !m h    
aris51 & h[ ^! ideas & cu/oms  h        
correspond$ ) ! in/itutions ( ! "t to   
:i* !y  belong$4 ,_! t5d5cy1 accord+ly1 
is to re/rict e?ics to  ! "q ( orig9 &  
hi/ory & description1 to deprive x      
altoge!r ( :at is sometimes call$ its   
normative "*--t  is to say1 its "* z a  
sci5ce :i* lays d[n rules or sets up    

ideals = conduct4 ,!y w\ld take away f x
 altoge!r ! p[]  ( det]m9+ & e/abli%+ a 
crit]ion betwe5 "r & wrong4  ,9 o!r     
words1 ! fundam5tal e?ical "q w\ld be   
entirely  exclud$ f ! scope ( ! sci5ce (
 e?ics4#a    ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,gre51  
',prolegom5a to ,e?ics1' p4 #g3 ,a      
philosoph]  :o w\ld recon/ruct our      
e?ical sy/ems 9 con=mity ) !  doctr9es (
 evolution & desc5t1 if he w\ld be      
consi/5t1 mu/  deal less scrupul\sly )  
!m ?an p]haps any "o has yet be5  f\nd  
to d4 ,if he has ! c\rage ( 8 pr9ciples1
 hav+ r$uc$  ! speculative "p ( !m to a 
natural sci5ce1 he mu/ aboli% !         
practical or preceptive "p altoge!r4    
,t1 s f> z ,i c see1 is ! t5d5cy ( a    
good deal ( q  rec5t writ+ f ! po9t (   
view ( ! evolution s*ool3 9 !  face (   
controv]sy & 9 ! face ( difficulties to 
give up !  attempt :i* !y />t$ on s     
confid5tly ?irty ye>s ago1--!  attempt  
to %[ t evolution af=ds a means ( decid+
 betwe5  "r & wrong & ( e/abli%+ an     
ideal = human conduct4  ,fail+ 9 ?is    

attempt1 !y seem to turn r\nd & say t   
e?ics  %\ld cont5t itself ) describ+    
facts in/ead ( lay+ d[n a  law or sett+ 
up an ideal4    ,n[1 :atev] tru? !re may
 be 9 ! ass]tion ( ! difficulty  (      
det]m9+ an ideal = conduct1 !re is "o ?+
 c]ta93 t  :e!r or n ! ideal c be       
philosophically or sci5tifically  def9$ 
& e/abli%$1 "s ideal is always be+ set  
up4 ,human  action implies *oice1       
implies ! selection ( "o c\rse r  ?an   
ano!r2 & ! c\rse t is *os5 is always    
*os5 = "s  reason1 because x seems bett]
 ?an ! c\rse :i* is pass$ by4  ,*oice   
always foll[s "s k9d ( pr9ciple4 ,we may
 use diff]5t  pr9ciples at diff]5t      
times1 we may use badly e/abli%$        
pr9ciples1 we may use uncriticis$       
pr9ciples1 b pr9ciples we d  use1 & we  
_c act volunt>ily )\t us+ !m1 ev5 :5 we 
are n def9itely consci\s ( !m4    ,x is 
n possible1 !re=e1 to ent]ta9 !         
sugge/ion t ^!  pr9ciples %\ld be       
exclud$ f e?ics4 ,e?ics mu/ consid] !m1 
ev5 if x %\ld fail 9 rea*+ a correct    

acc\nt ( !m4 ,we are  b\nd to ask1 =    
in/ance1 :at pr9ciples c decide betwe5  
^?  div]g5t t5d5cies br\ght to light by 
natural selection1 betwe5  ! conditions 
( success = ! gr\p & ! conditions (     
success  = ! individual8 ,! conflict    
betwe5 individual developm5t &  gr\p    
developm5t is cont9ually press+ to !    
front ,! individual  _c rea* a high /age
 ( developm5t except 9 & ?r\gh a  highly
 develop$ society4 ,b ! effici5cy :i* a 
highly develop$  society requires ( its 
memb]s is n ! same z individual         
developm5t2 x m commonly implies a      
specialisation :i* t5ds to  w>p or cramp
 individual capacity4 ,?is is a long    
famili> opposition4  ,& ! !ory (        
evolution c d no?+ to reconcile x ,all x
 c  say is t 9 c]ta9 cases natural      
selection po9ts "o way1 &  t 9 c]ta9    
cases x po9ts ! o!r way4 ,if e?ical     
significance  be claim$ = x1 x mu/ be   
said t natural selection is divid$      
aga9/ itself1 & t x is )\t any pr9ciple 
= reconcil+  its own div]g5ces4    ,x is

 because biological evolution is        
ess5tially an hi/orical  doctr9e t its  
vot>ies %\ld n be too eag] to apply x   
directly to e?ics4 ,x has accompli%$ mu*
 if able to tell u h[  ?+s h happ5$ 9 ! 
pa/1 )\t also dictat+ h[ !y  ought to   
take place n[4 ,x is specially absurd to
 say t e>li]  me?ods mu/ gov]n lat]     
developm5ts4 ,t is :at is done :5 we    
are ask$ to take z our guide 9 volunt>y 
*oice a pr9ciple :i*  ignores volition4 
,! :ole progress f animal to man & f    
savage to civilis$ man %[s a gradual    
sup]session ( ! pr9ciple  ( natural     
selection by a pr9ciple ( subjective    
selection :i*  /eadily gr[s 9           
purposiv5ess & 9 intellig5ce4 ,to say t 
intellig5ce %\ld take nature z its guide
 is to ask civilis$ man  to put (f bo? 8
 civilisation & 8 manhood4    ,! c\rse (
 evolution may describe ! work+ (       
diff]5t  pr9ciples2 b x _c ( itself     
supply a te/ ( _! value4 ,h[  !n is su* 
a te/ to be got8 ,c ,metaphysics help u8
 ,i h po9t$  out t ! evolutioni/ e?ics  

is relative--imply+ always a  relation  
betwe5 organism & environm5t--b ?is     
relativity is  qualifi$ by its objective
 "*4 ,x does d some?+ = morals3  x br+s 
man's conduct into relation ) ! _w z a  
:ole4  ,no d\bt ! environm5t :i* m      
imm$iately surr\nds man is a  succession
 ( *ang+ ph5om5a1 s t al?\gh ! basis we 
get is  objective1 nev]!less x is unable
 to give u a p]man5t /&>d  ( ref]5ce4   
,at ! same "t we may trace 9 ?is !ory "s
  advance on ! old] types ( e?ical ?9k+ 
spok5 ( 9 la/  lecture4 ,subjectivity   
adh]$ ev5 to ! ,utilit>ian type ( ?\ght3
  = :at c be m subjective ?an ! pleasant
 feel+ ^u  :i* morality is made by x to 
dep5d8 ,!re 0 also a c]ta9  subjectivity
 atta*+ to ! ,intuitional type ( ?\ght1 
because !  ,intuitioni/s simply ref]r$  
_! judgm5ts to consci5ce1 ! law  9 man1 
& did n connect consci5ce ) a wid] or m 
objective  view ( ! univ]se4    ,!      
sugge/ion rema9s t we may get a basis = 
morality :i*  is bo? objective & p]man5t
 f t m complete view ( !  univ]se :i* is

 giv5 or :i* is s\ght by metaphysics4   
,metaphysics  aims at complet5ess4 ,t   
is1 inde$1 its pr$om9ant *>act]i/ic  z a
 body ( k4 ,x may beg9 ) ! "p1 if y l1 )
  ! 'fl[] 9 ! cranni$ wall'2 b :5 t is  
se5 9 all its  relations to ! re/ ( !   
_w1 !n y w '"k :at ,god &  man is1' ,if 
! univ]se is a :ole1 !n1 beg9n+ at any  
po9t1  ) any detail1 if y only pu% !    
enquiry f> en\gh1 y are  b\nd to become 
metaphysical3 = y are attempt+ to und]/&
  reality z a :ole4    ,9 ?is           
,metaphysics resembles ,religion4 ,bo?  
seek ! ultimate1 !  f9al1 ! :ole4 ,b    
,metaphysics is di/+ui%$ f ,religion 9  
seek+ ! :ole only by way ( k4 ,s f> x is
 l  any o!r sci5ce4 ,x is a process or !
 result ( a process (  k4 ,x seeks to "k
 reality z a :ole1 & 9 kn[+ a "p  to "k 
x 9 its relations to ! :ole4 ,religion  
also consid]s  ev]y?+ 9 its relation to 
! :ole4 ,b 9 religion k is  n !         
fundam5tal ?+3 its object is to relate  
man to ,god1 9 8  consci\sness1 & 9 8   
life z a :ole4    ,! !ory ( evolution   

itself v (t5 t5ds to become a           
metaphysical !ory4 ,x does s :5 x holds 
! c\rse (  developm5t :i* x traces to be
 ei!r itself ! ultimate reality  or !   
mo/ adequate appe>ance ( t reality4 ,?is
 !ory is n[  commonly kn[n by ! "n (    
,naturalism2 accord+ to x ! facts  dealt
 ) by ! natural sci5ces are ! only      
reality :i* is  kn[able2 man's nature is
 "p ( ^! & has to be adapt$ to  !m1 &   
!re is no?+ fur!r ) :i* x c be br\ght   
into  relation4 ,?is !ory is n ! same z 
! sci5tific !ory (  evolution1 nor is x 
a necess>y consequ5ce ( x2 b 9 !  m9ds (
 _m ! two g toge!r4 ,! conclusion ( !   
prec$+  argum5t--t ! e?ical significance
 ( evolution is n deep  en\gh to give   
any answ] to ! fundam5tal "q (          
morals--is  n a criticism ( ! !ory (    
evolution s f> z re/rict$ to  ! doma9 ( 
sci5ce1 b x is a criticism ( !          
,naturalism :i*  pr(esses to be a f9al  
philosophy4          ,,iii4    ,,e?ics  
,,& ,,idealism4      ,!re has be5 no    
movem5t ( metaphysical ?\ght 9 our "t   

:i*  c be comp>$ = its widespread       
influ5ce or = its g5]al  acceptance ) ! 
!ory ( evolution 9 biological sci5ce4   
,intimate z is its connexion ) !        
progress ( sci5ce1 metaphysics  does n  
keep /ep ) x1--any m ?an x simply m>ks  
"t z !  =m] advances4 ,x reflects !     
influ5ce ( ea* new g5]alisation  (      
sci5ce2 b if & s f> z x reflects ?is    
influ5ce only1 x  _c be an adequate     
metaphysics4 ,metaphysics mu/ re-?9k ea*
 new  fact br\ght to light1 ea* new     
g5]alisation e/abli%$ by sci5ce4  ,x mu/
 ?9k !m 9 _! relation to ! :ole1 &      
attempt to  und]/& !m by sett+ !m 9 _!  
place 9 ! complete sy/em  ( k & reality4
 ,?is complete sy/em is inde$ an  ideal1
 nev] adequately compreh5d$ by ! human  
m9d2 b x is  nev]!less ! ideal :i*      
det]m9es all ef=ts ( con/ructive        
philosophy--includ+ ^? ef=ts :i* take ! 
g5]alisation (  "s special sci5ce z _!  
all-compreh5d+ pr9ciple4 ,an attempt  ( 
?is k9d to make a philosophy out ( a    
sci5tific g5]alisation  has 9 our own "t

 be5 ! obvi\s result ( ! !ory (         
evolution1 & has giv5 new vogue to !    
philosophical sy/em call$  ,naturalism4 
,t sy/em draws its /r5g? f ! sci5tific  
doctr9e ( evolution2 b z a philosophy x 
gives an ext5d$  application to !       
g5]alisation e/abli%$ by a gr\p (       
sci5ces1  & valid = ! facts )9 _! range4
 ,x int]prets ! law  ( developm5t :i*   
rules ! sequ5ces ( nature z ! highe/    
atta9able pr9ciple = expla9+ ! sy/em (  
?+s4 ,"s ( !  que/ions :i* x leaves     
unansw]$1 & "s ( ! facts :i*  x         
ov]looks1 h be5 po9t$ out 9 la/ lecture4
 ,( ?is !ory  p]haps en\gh has already  
be5 said4    ,9 spite ( ! increas$ vogue
 :i* naturalism has obta9$ f its        
alliance ) triumphant evolutionism1 x _c
 be said to repres5t  ! prevail+ type ( 
?\ght among/ ! ,engli% metaphysicians  (
 ! la/ g5]ation4 ,t g5]ation 0 rem>kable
 = !  reappe>ance 9 ?is c\ntry ( a      
reason$ ,idealism2 & all =ms (          
,idealism h at lea/ ?is 9 common1 t !y  
refuse to look ^u  ! mat]ial process z !

 ultimate "* ( reality--s f> z  reality 
is kn[n or kn[able4    ,x may also be   
said--& ?is is a *>act]i/ic :i* is n    
m]ely  negative--t all =ms ( ,idealism  
agree 9 ascrib+ special  significance to
 ! moral & religi\s aspects ( life4 ,?is
 holds  true ( ! great ideali/s1 diff]5t
 z _! types ( ?\ght may  be--( ,plato & 
,ari/otle1 ( ,sp9oza & ,leibniz1 (      
,kant1 ,fi*te1  & ,hegel4 ,x holds true 
also ( ! lead+ repres5tatives ( rec5t   
,engli% idealism4 ,b ! e?ical tone ( a  
treatise & ! e?ical  int]e/ ( its au?or 
are n always a gu>antee t e?ical        
conceptions h a secure position 9 8     
sy/em ( ?\ght4 ,?is is  ! case1 ,i ?9k1 
) ,sp9oza2 & x seems to me to hold also 
(  "s writ]s ( ! pres5t day4 ,mr        
,bradley1 = in/ance1 is p]haps  ! mo/   
influ5tial1 z he is )\t d\bt n ! lea/   
brilliant1  ( contempor>y               
metaphysicians2 he c>ries on ! tradition
 ( a  s*ool ( ?\ght pr$om9antly e?ical2 
8 fir/ book 0 a def5ce  ( ! e?ical      
positions ( t s*ool2 b1 if we turn to ! 

elaborate metaphysical treatise :i* has 
result$ f 8 mature  reflexion1 its mo/  
impressive feature w be f\nd to be !    
almo/  complete bankruptcy ( ! sy/em 9 !
 region ( e?ics4    ,n only _h ?is      
ideali/ movem5t 9 its beg9n+s a         
pr$om9antly  e?ical tone4 ,x 0 really   
/>t$ 9 ! int]e/ ( moral ideals z  well z
 ( intellectual ?or\ghness2 & its       
contribution ( greate/  value to ,engli%
 ?\ght 0 a "w on e?ics4 ,! ',prolegom5a 
to ,e?ics' ( ,t4,h4 ,gre5 0 a fitt+     
result ( 8 unwe>i$  controv]sies 9      
def5ce ( ! spiritual nature ( man & !   
univ]se4 ,no "o is m wor?y ?an he to be 
call$ by ! ,platonic  "n a 'fri5d (     
ideas1' ,& he 0 a fri5d ( ideas because 
he saw  _! necessity = ma9ta9+ & realis+
 ! high] capacities  ( human life4      
,gre5's ',prolegom5a' 0 publi%$ 9 #ahhc1
 ! ye>  aft] 8 dea?4 ,&1 _h ,i be5      
speak+ tw5ty ye>s ago1 ,i %\ld  h _h to 
emphasise ! e?ical "* ( ! metaphysics ( 
!  day4 ,8 metaphysical ?9k+1 ?r\gh all 
its subtleties1 nev]  /ray$ f> f ! moral

 ideal4 ,ow+ to 8 tea*+ t ideal1  & !   
g5]al "* ( ! philosophy ) :i* x 0       
associat$1 h p]meat$ a great "p ( !     
bett] ?\ght ( !  pres5t day1 & h        
influ5c$ its practical activities 9     
v>i\s  directions1--social1 political1 &
 religi\s4 ,b ! magnetism (  8          
p]sonality has be5 remov$2 & ^? ^:      
bus9ess x is to  te/ intellectual       
notions h be5 impress$ by ! difficulties
  involv$ 9 ,gre5's metaphysical        
positions & 9 8 connexion (  !m )       
morality4    ,! s+le ^w                 
'self-realisation' has be5 tak5 to      
express ! view  ( ! moral ideal en=c$ by
 ,gre54 ,& x is z suitable z any  s+le  
^w c\ld be4 ,b x is cle> t1 9 e action  
:atev]  ( a consci\s be+1               
self-realisation may be said to be !    
end3 "s  capacity is be+ develop$1      
satisfaction is be+ s\ght = "s  desire4 
,a man may develop 8 capacities1 seek & 
to "s ext5t  atta9 satisfaction--9 a    
mann]1 realise himself--n only 9        
devotion to a sci5tific or arti/ic ideal

 or 9 lab\rs = !  common good1 b also 9 
selfi% pursuit ( p[] or ev5 9 s5sual    
enjoym5t4 ,s f> z ! ^w                  
'self-realisation' c be made to cov]    
su* diff]5t activities1 x is void (     
moral cont5t & _c  express ! nature ( ! 
moral ideal4 ,gre5 is p]fectly alive to 
!  ne$ ( a di/9ction--& to ! difficulty 
( draw+ x4 ,accord+  to 8 own /atem5t x 
is true n only ( moral activity b (  e  
act ( will+ t 9 x a self-consci\s       
individual directs  himself to !        
realisation ( "s idea1 z to an object 9 
:i* =  ! "t he seeks                    
self-satisfaction4#a ,& he proce$s to   
ask !  "q1 ,h[ c !re be any su* intr9sic
 diff]5ce betwe5 !  objects will$ z     
ju/ifies ! di/9ction :i* 'moral s5se'   
seems  to draw betwe5 good & bad action1
 betwe5 virtue & vice8 ,& if  !re is su*
 a diff]5ce1 9 :at does x consi/8#b ,n[ 
we may  def9e a good action z ! sort (  
action :i* proce$s f a good  man2 or we 
may def9e a good man z a man :o p]=ms   
good actions4  ,& = ea* me?od (         

def9ition some?+ may be said4 ,b if we  
adopt bo? me?ods toge!r & say 9 "o brea?
 t good is :at  ! good man does & t !   
good man is he :o does good1 is our     
logic any bett] ?an t ( !               
ord9ation-c&idate :o def9$ !  functions 
( an ar*deacon z ar*diaconal functions8 
,& yet ,gre5  comes v ne> to describ+   
?is logical circle4 ,! moral good1  he  
says1 is t :i* satisfies ! desire (     
amoral ag5t2 b  ! "q1 444 ,:at d we mean
 by call+ ourselves moral ag5ts8  is "o 
to :i* a f9al answ] _c be giv5 )\t an   
answ] to  ! "q1 ,:at is moral good8#c   
,footnote #a3 ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1    
#aed1 p4 #afj4    ,footnote #b3 ,ibid41 
#aef1 p4 #afc4    ,footnote #c3         
,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1  #aga1 #agb1 p4  
#agi4    ,:5 ,gre5 really grapples ) !  
difficulty ( di/+ui%+ !  moral f !      
immoral 9 "* or 9 conduct1 x is possible
  to di/+ui% diff]5t ways 9 :i* he      
attempts to draw !  di/9ction--^!       
diff]5t ways be+1 h[ev]1 n indep5d5t b  
complem5t>y to "o ano!r 9 8 ?\ght4 ,!   

fir/ sugge/ion is  t good is di/+ui%$ f 
evil1 or ! true good f a good  :i* is   
m]ely app>5t1 by its p]man5ce4 ,x gives 
a la/+  satisfaction in/ead ( a m]ely   
transi5t satisfaction3 ! true  good 444 
is an end 9 :i* ! ef=t ( a moral ag5t c 
really  f9d re/4#a ,9 ?is /atem5t two   
po9ts seem to be involv$ :i*  ! use ( ! 
r metaphorical t]m 'f9d+ re/' t5ds to   
confuse4 ,if we are look+ = ! di/9ction 
simply ( a good action  or motive f a   
bad "o we may po9t to ! approval (      
consci5ce 9  ! =m] case3 ?is has a      
p]man5ce--or r an indep5d5ce (  "t--:i* 
di/+ui%es x f ! satisfaction ( "s       
tempor>y  desire4 ,b ,i d n ?9k t ?is is
 :at ,gre5 means4 ,he wi%$  to avoid    
fall+ back ^u m]e disconnect$ judgm5ts (
 consci5ce  aft] ! mann] ( ! intuitional
 morali/s4 ,! 'true good' = him  seems  
to mean ! atta9m5t1 ! complete          
realisation1 ( ! moral  ideal4 ,7 ?is   
rea*$ we %\ld inde$ 'f9d re/1' = moral  
activity z we "k x w\ld be at an end4 ,b
 ! moral ideal  is nev] ?us atta9$2 its 

realisation1 z ,gre5 holds1 is only     
progressive & nev] complet$4            
,consequ5tly 're/' is nev] 'f\nd4'  ,x  
is ( ! nature ( ! moral life to press   
onw>d con/antly  t[>ds a goal :i* x _c  
atta92 ea* a*ievem5t leads to a  fur!r  
ef=t & a high] rea*4    ,footnote #a3   
,ibid41  #aga1 p4 #agi4    ,by itself1  
!re=e1 ! ass]tion t ! moral ag5t 'f9ds  
re/'  9 ! 'true good' does n enable u to
 di/+ui% ! moral ag5t  or ! moral action
 f ! immoral4 ,= we are unable to def9e 
!  'true good4' ,x is n a "p ( exp]i5ce2
 x is an ideal3 & ,gre5  all[s t we c   
give no complete acc\nt ( x2 he ev5 says
  t we c give no positive acc\nt ( x4   
,at ! same "t ?is  consid]ation leads to
 ano!r & connect$ me?od = di/+ui%+  good
 f evil4    ,( a life ( complet$        
developm5t1 ,gre5 holds1 ( activity )  !
 end atta9$1 we c only speak or ?9k 9   
negatives1 & ?us  only c we speak or ?9k
 ( t /ate ( be+ 9 :i*1 accord+  to our  
!ory1 ! ultimate moral good mu/         
consi/4#a ,b !  developm5t is a real    

process :i* manife/s itself 9 habits &  
social in/itutions2 & f ^! its actual   
a*ievem5ts we c to  a c]ta9 ext5t see   
:at ! moral capability ( man has 9 x to 
become1 & ?us "k en\gh ( ultimate moral 
good to guide our  conduct4 ,"o ( ! mo/ 
valuable portions ( ,gre5's own "w is 8 
description ( ! gradual wid5+ & purify+ 
( human conceptions  reg>d+ goodness 9  
"* & conduct4 ,b all ?is implies "s     
/&>d ( discrim9ation & selection betwe5 
:at is good &  :at is evil 9 human      
a*ievem5t4 ,:i* developm5ts are truly   
realisations ( ! moral capability ( man1
 & s t5d to !  atta9m5t ( ultimate good1
 & :i* developm5ts are expressions  ( ^?
 capacities :i* seek an app>5t good only
 & are to be  class$ z evil1 z imp$im5ts
 to ! realisation ( ! good1--^!  h to be
 discrim9at$2 & is x s cle> t f ! m]e   
record  ( human de$s we are able to draw
 ! di/9ction8 ,d we n ne$  "s crit]ion (
 goodness to guide our judgm5t8 & does n
 ,gre5  himself use su* a crit]ion :5 he
 appeals to ! t5d5cy (  c]ta9           

in/itutions & habits to make ! welf>e ( 
all !  welf>e ( ea*1 & ( c]ta9 arts to  
make nature ! fri5d (  man8#b ,common   
welf>e & ! utilisation ( nature 9 !     
s]vice  ( man seem to be tak5 z te/s ( !
 true developm5t ( moral  capabilities4 
,! crit]ia !mselves may be excell5t2 b  
!y  are n got out ( ! m]e record3 !y are
 br\ght by u to its  contemplation4 ,to 
?is special "q ,i c f9d no answ] 9      
,gre54  ,he is inde$ aw>e t !re is a    
difficulty2 or r he admits  t some?+ has
 be5 tak5 = grant$4 ,he has assum$ t    
!re is "s be/ /ate ( be+ = man2 t ?is   
be/ /ate is  et]nally pres5t to a div9e 
consci\sness2 & fur!r1 t ?is  et]nal m9d
 is reproduc+ itself z ! self ( man4#c  
,on ?is  supposition only1 he says1 c   
our moral activity be expla9$2 &  he    
holds t ! supposition c be ju/ifi$      
metaphysically & has  be5 s ju/ifi$ by  
himself 9 ! e>li] "p ( 8 treatise4      
,footnote #a3 ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1    
#agb1 p4 #ahj4    ,footnote #b3         
,prolegom5a1  #agb1 p4 #ahj4            

,footnote #c3 ,ibid41  #agc1 #agd1 p4   
#aha4    ,n[ ,i am will+ to admit t     
,gre5 %[$ a correct in/9ct 9  exam9+ !  
nature ( man be=e ent]+ ^u 8 prop]ly    
e?ical  enquiry4 ,"o mu/ "k :at man is  
be=e "o c say :at 8  'good' or 8 duty   
is2 & x is only because man's nature _c 
be  acc\nt$ = z a m]ely natural or      
animal product t ! way is  op5 = an     
ideali/ e?ics su* z ,gre5's4 ,b p]haps  
,gre5 laid  too mu* /ress on ! problem (
 hi/orical causation4 ,:at matt]s  x h[ 
we came by our k1 provid$ x is ! case t 
we c  "k ourselves & ! _w8 ,if we c n[  
di/+ui% "r &  wrong1 c ally ourselves ) 
! good1 & foll[ a moral ideal1 (  :at   
great importance are ! /eps by :i* !    
moral consci\sness  0 atta9$8 ,& ! "q "h
 is :e!r ! special results  rea*$ by    
,gre5 9 8 metaphysical enquiry into     
human nature h  br\ght u any ne>] to a  
solution ( ! pres5t e?ical difficulty4  
,z we h se51 ! metaphysical view :i*    
,gre5 arrives at is t  ! consci\sness   
:i* is 9 man & :i* raises him above     

nature  is ! manife/ation (--!          
reproduction ( itself by--an et]nal     
self-consci\sness4 ,man's own           
self-consci\sness 9 k &  volition is    
simply ,god's self--consci\sness        
reproduc$ 7to use  ,gre5's t]m7 9 man's 
animal nature3 s t ! animal body &  its 
temporal activities become 9 "s         
unexpla9$ 7& no d\bt  inexplicable7 way 
organic 7to use ,gre5's t]m9ology once  
m1  :]e no t]m9ology seems adequate7 to 
a spiritual reality :i* is  et]nal &    
inf9ite4    ,i am f> f d5y+ ! greatness 
( ?is conception or its  practical      
value4 ,!re is no /rong] support to     
moral endeav\r ?an  ! conviction t !    
moral life is a realisation ( ! div9e   
purpose1 t 9 all goodness ! _s ( ,god is
 manife/1 t !  good man is ! s]vant (   
,god or ev5 ,8 fell[-work]4 ,by :atev]  
metaphor ?is may be express$--& ,gre5's 
/atem5t t ! div9e  self--consci\sness   
'reproduces' itself 9 human morality is 
also  a metaphor--x betrays ! assurance 
t moral a*ievem5t is  p]man5t1 & t 79   

spite ( all app>5t failures7 goodness w 
prevail4 ,he :o fights = ! good may be  
confid5t ( victory4    ,?is is !        
practical value ( ! conception2 b 9 ord]
 t x  may h ?is practical value1 !      
di/9ction ( good f evil  mu/ be fir/ (  
all made cle>4 ,gre5's appeal to an     
et]nal  self-consci\sness does no?+ (   
itself to elucidate ?is  di/9ction4     
,t5d5cies to exalt selfi% int]e/ ov]    
common welf>e1  & to pref] s5sual to :at
 are call$ high] gratifications1 ent]   
into ! nature ( man1 & h fa%ion$ 8      
hi/ory4 ,gre5 does  n ev5 ask ! "q :e!r 
^! also are n to be consid]$            
manife/ations or 'reproductions' ( !    
et]nal self-consci\sness4  ,b 8         
metaphysical view does n exclude !m2 &  
if !y are  includ$1 morality disappe>s =
 lack ( any crit]ion betwe5 good  &     
evil4 ,if good is to be discrim9at$ f   
evil1 x mu/ be by "s  o!r means ?an by  
describ+ ! :ole consci\s activity ( man 
z  a reproduction ( ! div9e4 ,in/ead (  
do+ any?+ to solve !  problem ( ! mean+ 

( goodness1 ,gre5 simply br+s =w>d a new
  difficulty--t ( und]/&+ h[ ! temporal 
process 9 :i*  human morality is        
develop$ c be relat$ to a reality :i* is
  def9$ z out ( "t or et]nal4 ,?is      
difficulty _c be avoid$  9 a            
metaphysical !ory ( morality4 ,& x does 
n /& alone4  ,gre5's own dialectics 7   
direct$ aga9/ ! ,s5sationali/ &  ,h$oni/
 !ories :i* us$ to be reg>d$ z typical (
 ,engli%  ?\ght2 & on !m !y act$ z a    
p[]ful solv5t4 ,8 own views  ( !        
spiritual nature ( man & its relation to
 ! et]nal  self-consci\sness 7 work$ out
 ) ! confid5ce & en?usiasm  ( a re=m] r 
?an ) ! caution ( a critic4 ,b criticism
  has foll[$1 & n only f !              
repres5tatives ( oppos$  s*ools4 ,writ]s
 ^: intellectual aff9ities are on ! :ole
 !  same z 8 h let _! dialectic play    
ar\nd 8 fundam5tal  conceptions ) a     
result v diff]5t f t :i* he             
contemplat$4 ,mr ,bradley1 l ,gre51 has 
fai? 9 an et]nal ,reality1  :i* might be
 call$ spiritual1 inasmu* z x is n      

mat]ial2 l  ,gre51 he looks ^u man's    
moral activity z an appe>ance--:at ,gre5
  calls a reproduction--( ?is et]nal    
reality4 ,b "u ?is g5]al  agreem5t !re  
lies a _w ( diff]5ce4 ,he refuses1 by ! 
use (  ! t]m self-consci\sness1 to lik5 
8 ,absolute to ! p]sonality  ( man1 & he
 br+s out ! consequ5ce1 :i* 9 ,gre5 is m
 or  less conceal$1 t ! evil equally ) !
 good 9 man & 9 !  _w are appe>ances ( !
 ,absolute4    ,mr ,bradley's :ole "w is
 rul$ by ! di/9ction betwe5  ,appe>ance 
& ,reality1 :i* gives 8 book a title4   
,on !  "o h& !re is ! ,absolute         
,reality1 spok5 ( z p]fect1 &  describ$ 
z all--compreh5sive & h>moni\s ?r\gh\t4 
,nei!r  *ange nor "t nor any relation c 
belong to x4 ,b intellig5ce  works by   
discrim9ation & comp>ison2 k implies    
relations2  x is1 !re=e1 exclud$ f      
reality4 ,tru? is m]e appe>ance4 ,!     
same judgm5t mu/ be pass$ on our moral  
activity4 ,we /rive aft]  & p]haps rea* 
an ideal1 or1 z ,mr ,bradley says1 we   
aim at  satisfy+ a desire2 & ?is1 too1  

is a process f> remov$ f  reality4#a    
,goodness1 l tru?1 is m]e appe>ance4    
,footnote #a3 ,appe>ance & ,reality1 pp4
 #djb1 #daj4    ,?is ne$s no            
elaboration4 ,if all pr$ication involves
 relation1 &  relation is exclud$ f     
reality1#a !n no pr$icate--n ev5  tru?  
or goodness--c be ass]t$ ( ! real4 ,nay 
m1 to be  consi/5t1 we ought n ev5 to   
say t reality or ! ,absolute  7= ! two  
t]ms are "h int]*angeable7 is p]fect1 or
 "o1 or  all-compreh5sive1 or h>moni\s3 
= all ^! are pr$icates4 ,ens            
realissimum is ! only ens reale2 all    
else is m]e appe>ance4    ,footnote #a3 
,ibid41 pp4 #cb-cd4    ,j "h1 h[ev]1    
lies an indication ( ano!r l9e ( ?\ght4 
,=  :at is an appe>ance1 & :at is x t   
appe>s8 ,x c only be  reality t ?us     
appe>s2 ! 'm]e' appe>ance is yet an     
'appe>ance  ( reality4' ,x might seem t 
?is is to cat*1 n at a /raw1 b  at !    
%ad[ ( a /raw4 ,= if we say t 'reality  
appe>s1' are  we n !reby pr$icat+ some?+
 ( reality1 mak+ x ent] into  relation8 

,b let t pass4 ,among ^! appe>ances we  
may be able to  di/+ui% degrees (       
significance or ( adequacy1 nay--/range 
z  x may seem to ! read] :o has foll[$  
,mr ,bradley's fir/ l9e (               
?\ght--degrees ( reality4 ,relations are
 exclud$ f reality2  & degree is a      
relation2 b reality has degrees4 ,!     
logic is  unsatisfactory1 b ! conclusion
 may p]haps h a value ( its  own4       
,"h1 !n1 is ano!r view ( ! univ]se--n an
 un*ang+1  relationless1 et]nal reality1
 b v>y+ degrees ( reality  manife/$ 9 t 
complex process :i* we call sometimes ! 
_w  & sometimes 'exp]i5ce1' ,b ! two    
views are connect$4 ,= x is  assum$ t ! 
,absolute ,reality is h>moni\s &        
all-compreh5sive2  & x is fur!r ass]t$ t
 ^! two *>act]i/ics ( h>mony  &         
compreh5siv5ess may be tak5 z crit]ia ( 
! degree (  reality possess$ by any     
appe>ance4 ,! m h>moni\s any?+  is--!   
few] its int]nal discrepancies or       
contradictions--! high]  is its degree (
 reality2 & ! great] its                

compreh5siv5ess--!  few] pr$icates left 
outside x--! high] also is its degree ( 
reality4 ,no attempt is made at a       
measur$ scale ( degrees ( reality1  su*1
 = example1 z is (f]$ by ! ,hegelian    
dialectic2 b a sort  ( r\gh             
classification ( v>i\s 'appe>ances' is  
(f]$4 ,9 ?is  classification a place is 
giv5 to goodness :i* is comp>atively    
high1 & yet subord9ate &                
self-contradictory4 #a    ,footnote #a3 
,appe>ance & ,reality1 p4 #dbj4    ,mr  
,bradley's ,absolute1 we may say1 has   
two faces1 "o ( :i* is  describ$ z good1
 :ile ! o!r is inscrutable4 ,obvi\sly1  
he says1  ! good is n ! ,:ole1 & !      
,:ole1 z su*1 is n good4 ,&1  view$ ?us 
9 relation to ! ,absolute1 !re is no?+  
ei!r bad or  good1 !re is n any?+ bett] 
or worse4 ,= ! ,absolute is n  its      
appe>ances4 ,?is is ! inscrutable side4 
,b yet ! ,absolute  appe>s 9 its ph5om5a
 & is real n[h]e outside !m2444 x is all
  ( !m 9 unity4 ,& s1 reg>d$ f ?is o!r  
side1 ! ,absolute  is good1 & x manife/s

 itself ?r\gh\t 9 v>i\s degrees (       
goodness & badness4#a ,:at w\ld be      
contradiction 9 ano!r writ]  is only    
two-sid$ness 9 ,mr ,bradley4 ,& x is ?is
 second side :i*  int]e/s u1 = "h !     
,absolute is good1 & yet1 good z x is1  
manife/s itself 9 badness z well z      
goodness1 & t 9 v>i\s  degrees4 ,if we  
are to foll[ ano!r /atem5t ( ! doctr9e1 
h[ev]1  we %all h to all[ t ! badness is
 also good1 & t !  v>i\s degrees are all
 equal4 ,= ! ,absolute is p]fect 9 all  
its  detail1 x is equally true & good   
?r\gh\t4#b ,:e!r or n !  good is        
contradictory1 z ,mr ,bradley ma9ta9s1#c
 we mu/ all[ t he  succe$s 9 mak+ 8     
acc\nt ( x contradictory4    ,footnote  
#a3 ,appe>ance & ,reality1 p4 #daa4     
,footnote #b3 ,ibid41 p4 #dja4          
,footnote #c3 ,ibid41 p4 #dji4    ,i w  
try to put ! gi/ ( ! matt] 9 my own     
words4 ,mr ,bradley's  ,absolute is     
et]nal1 relationless1 ineffable4 ,to x  
goodness _c be  ascrib$2 inde$ no       
pr$icate c be prop]ly appli$ to x1 = any

  pr$ication implies relation3 9 e>li]  
language ?an ,mr ,bradley's x  involves 
det]m9ation & !re=e negation4 ,ev5 to   
say t !  ,absolute appe>s or manife/s   
itself is to pr$icate some?+1 to  imply 
relation1 & ?us is an (f5ce aga9/ !     
absolut5ess ( !  ,absolute4 ,b nev]!less
 !re is a _w ( ph5om5a1 :i* !  mo/      
my/ical ( philosoph]s mu/ recognise1 if 
only z a _w  ( illusion4 ,! sum-total ( 
^! ph5om5a may be call$ !  appe>ances ( 
! ,absolute2 & ! ,absolute1 accord+ to  
,mr  ,bradley1 is real n[h]e outside !m4
 ,9 ?is s5se ( reality we  may make     
pr$icates ab\t x4 ,inde$ all our        
pr$icates1 ,mr ,bradley  tea*es 9 8     
',logic1' h reality--! univ]se (        
reality--=  _! ultimate subject4    ,9  
?is s5se x may be possible to speak (   
reality z good 7?\gh  x is a            
misapplication ( ! t]m ,absolute to call
 x good74 ,b  ! "q rema9s :at we mean by
 good 9 ?is connexion1 &  :at           
ju/ification we h = us+ ! pr$icate4 ,& !
 answ]  mu/ be t ,mr ,bradley means v   

little1 s9ce ! goodness is  manife/$ 9  
v>i\s degrees ( goodness & badness1 & t 
!  ju/ification = us+ ! t]m is n made   
cle>4 ,x seems to  be us$ ( reality 9 a 
some:at vague s5se1 z x 7 jure          
dignitatis & to h z little e?ical       
significance z "r  hon\rable :5 appli$  
to a politician or rev]5d to a cl]gyman3
  cases 9 :i* x might be consi/5t to say
 t "r hon\rable  g5tlem5 manife/ v>i\s  
degrees ( hon\r & di%on\r1 or t  rev]5d 
g5tlem5 are wor?y ( v>i\s degrees (     
rev]5ce & !  opposite4 ,all ! details ( 
! ph5om5al _w are b\nd toge!r  by *a9s (
 necessity2 ea* is an ess5tial "p ( !   
sum-total4#a  ,h[ c ! di/9ction ( good &
 evil apply z betwe5 ^! p>ts8           
,footnote #a3 ,appe>ance &              
,reality-,appe>ance & ,reality1 p4 #dja4
    ,we may speak ( p>ts z high] or l[]2
 & ,mr ,bradley def9es !  l[] z t :i*1  
to be made complete1 w\ld h to und]go a 
m total trans=mation ( its nature4#a ,! 
mean+ ( ?is is  n cle>4 ,! ref]5ce may  
be to ! complete /ate :i* a ?+  may rea*

 9 process ( gr[?4 ,?us an e>ly /age ( a
 rose-bud  may be said to be l[] ?an its
 lat] /age because x requires a  great] 
trans=mation be=e x produces ! bloom4 ,b
 "h 'l[]'  does n mean e?ically l[]1    
unless immaturity be confus$ )  evil4   
,or ! complete /ate may be reg>d$ z !   
type ( "s ord]  or class1 f :i* diff]5t 
individuals diff] 9 great] or less      
degree4 ,?is mean+ is n sugge/$ by !    
au?or2 & x c\ld h  e?ical implication   
only if ! type _h be5 fir/ ( all %[n to 
h an e?ical value4 ,or aga91 !          
complet5ess ref]r$ to may be  t :i* is  
alone complete 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! ^w1   
namely1  ! univ]se4 ,& we might say t a 
rose-leaf w\ld require great]           
trans=mation 9 ord] to become complete 9
 ?is s5se ?an a  rose-bu%1 or t ! act ( 
giv+ a cup ( cold wat] 0 less  complete 
?an ! f>-rea*+ activity say ( ! fir/    
,napoleon4  ,b ?is diff]5ce 9           
complet5ess w\ld n entail a correspond+ 
diff]5ce 9 moral wor? or goodness4      
,footnote #a3 ,appe>ance & ,reality1 p4 

#dja4    ,:]e all /ages are ess5tial1 x 
is n possible to say t "o  is good &    
ano!r evil4 ,is n ! good some?+ t ought 
to be  /riv5 =1 atta9$1 & pres]v$8 & is 
n evil some?+ t  ought n to be at all8  
,& h[ c we say t any "p ought n to  be  
:5 e "p is ess5tial8    ,f ! moni/ic    
view ( reality1 z set =? by ,mr         
,bradley1 !re  is no direct r\te to !   
di/9ction betwe5 good & evil4 ,if !     
di/9ction is rea*$ at all1 x w be f\nd  
to be psy*ological  r ?an cosmical1 to  
be relative to ! attitude ( ! human m9d 
:i* contemplates ! facts1 & 9 ?is /rict 
s5se to be1 :at ,mr  ,bradley calls x1  
appe>ance4    ,& ?is is ! view :i* ,mr  
,bradley takes :5 he proce$s to describe
  :at he means by ! 'good4' ,x is1 he   
says1 t :i* satisfies  desire4 ,x is t  
:i* we approve (1 & 9 :i* we c re/ ) a  
feel+ ( cont5tm5t4#a                    
,desire--approval--feel+--to ^!  m5tal  
attitudes ! good is relative3 !y are    
express$ 9 its  def9ition4 ,mr ,bradley1
 x w be se51 re-/ates ,gre5's doctr9e ) 

a diff]5ce :i* makes x at once m logical
 & less e?ical4 ,gre5  _h said t ! moral
 good is t :i* satisfies ! desire ( a   
moral ag5t2 & 9 s say+ _h simply walk$  
r\nd ! difficulty1  = he 0 unable to say
 :]e9 consi/$ ! peculi>ity ( ! moral    
ag5t )\t ref]5ce to ! conception ( moral
 good :i* he _h  />t$ out to def9e4 ,b  
,mr ,bradley disp5ses ) ! qualification1
  & says simply t ! good satisfies      
desire4 ,& 9 s f> 8  def9ition is m     
logical4 ,! "q is :e!r x di/+ui%es  good
 f evil4 ,bo? ! practical importance & !
 !oretical  difficulty ( ! problem arise
 f ! fact t evil is sometimes  desir$1 &
 t ! evil desire may be satisfi$4 ,!    
desire ( a  malevol5t man may be        
satisfi$ by ano!r's d[nfall1 & 8 m9d may
  ev5 re/ ) a feel+ ( cont5tm5t 9 t     
result1 mu* 9 !  same way z ! b5evol5t  
man is satisfi$ & cont5t ) ano!r's      
happ9ess4 ,=tunately1 ! case is n s     
common3 ! dom9ant lean+s  ( mo/ m5 are 9
 sympa?y ) good r ?an ) evil3 b x is    
common en\gh to make ! emotional        

*>act]i/ics ( ! individual an  unc]ta9  
basis on :i* to re/ ! di/9ction ( good f
 evil4    ,footnote #a3 ,appe>ance &    
,reality1 p4 #djb4    ,!re is also ano!r
 way ( putt+ ! matt]3 ! good is         
coext5sive ) approbation4#a ,if by      
'approbation' we mean simply  'hold+ =  
good1' !n ! s5t5ce w mean t ! good is   
:at  we hold = good--t is to say1 t our 
judgm5ts ab\t good  are always true     
judgm5ts1--a proposition :i* ei!r       
ignores !  div]g5ce betwe5 diff]5t      
individual judgm5ts ab\t good1 or else  
implies a complete relativity su* t t is
 good to ea* man at  any "t :i* he at t 
"t approves or holds to be good2 & ?is  
latt] view w\ld make all discussion     
impossible4 ,b ?is is n :at  ,mr        
,bradley means4 ,approbation is to be   
tak5 9 its wide/ s5se2  9 :i* s5se to   
approve is to h an idea 9 :i* we feel   
satisfaction1 & to h or imag9e ! pres5ce
 ( ?is idea 9  exi/5ce4#b ,& "h !       
crit]ion is ! same z be=e1 &  equally   
subjective4 ,9 desire idea & exi/5ce are

 sep>at$2 !y  are unit$ 9 ! satisfaction
 ( desire2 & approbation is said to  be 
j ! feel+ ( satisfaction 9 an idea :i*  
is also pres5t  7or imag9$ z pres5t7 9  
exi/5ce4 ,n only actual satisfaction (  
! desire b also imag9$ satisfaction is  
cov]$ by approbation2  b ?is approval is
 /ill simply a feel+ ( "s individual    
p]son4    ,footnote #a3 ,appe>ance &    
,reality1 p4 #djg    ,footnote #b3      
,appe>ance & ,reality1 p4 #dah4    ,we  
ne$ n conc]n ourselves at pres5t ) !    
adequacy ( ?is  /atem5t z an acc\nt ( ! 
way 9 :i* we come to 'approve' or  hold 
some?+ z good4 ,! po9t is1 t x does n   
advance u at  all t[>ds det]m9+ !       
validity ( ?is approval1 or t[>ds an    
objective crit]ion = di/+ui%+ 'good' f  
evil4    ,mr ,bradley draws a di/9ction 
betwe5 a g5]al & a m special  or        
re/rict$ mean+ ( goodness4 ,= ! =m] x is
 en\gh t  exi/5ce be f\nd to be 9       
accordance ) ! idea2 = !  latt]1 x is   
necess>y t ! idea itself produce !      
fact4#a  ,9 ! =m] s5se beauty1 tru?1    

pleasure1 & s5sation are all  ?+s t are 
good1#b q irrespective ( _! orig92 9 !  
latt] s5se1 only t is good :i* ! idea   
has produc$1 or 9  :i* x has realis$    
itself1 :i* is ! "w1 !re=e1 ( "s  f9ite 
s\l4 ,9 ?is n>r[] mean+ goodness is !   
result ( w3  ! good1 9 %ort1 w become ! 
realis$ end or complet$ w4  ,x is n[ an 
idea :i* n only has an answ]+ cont5t 9  
fact1  b1 9 addition also1 has made1 &  
has br\ght ab\t1 t  correspond5ce4444   
,goodness ?us w be conf9$ to ! realm (  
ends1 or ( self-realisation4 ,x w be    
re/rict$1 9 o!r words1  to :at is       
commonly call$ ! sph]e ( morality1#c    
,ev5 9 its  m g5]al mean+1 z we h se51  
,mr ,bradley has n succe$$ 9  giv+ an   
objective acc\nt ( good4 ,= !           
correspond5ce ( idea  & exi/5ce 9 :i* x 
is said to consi/ is def9$ 9 relation   
to desire1 & to "s k9d ( feel+ on ! "p (
 ! consci\s  subject4 ,nor 0 8 acc\nt   
successful 9 di/+ui%+ good f  evil3 to t
 di/9ction feel+ is a bl9d guide4 ,:5 he
 goes on  to discuss goodness 9 ! n>r[] 

s5se1 9 :i* x belongs to !  results (   
f9ite volition1 he adopts1 z express+ ! 
nature (  goodness1 t conception (      
'self-realisation' :i*1 z put =w>d  by  
,gre51 has be5 f\nd inadequate4 ,! same 
conception 0 us$ by  ,mr ,bradley1 9 8  
fir/ "w1 z ! mo/ g5]al expression = !   
end 9 itself1 ,may we n say1 he ask$1 t 
to realise self is  always to realise a 
:ole1 & t ! "q 9 morals is to f9d  !    
true :ole1 realis+ :i* w practically    
realise ! true  self8#d ,x is easy to   
make ! di/9ction betwe5 good & evil     
dep5d ^u ?is1 t 9 ! =m] ! true self is  
realis$1 &  t :at is realis$ 9 ! latt]  
is only a false self4 ,b x is  equally  
easy to see t ?is is only to sub/itute  
"o unexpla9$  di/9ction = ano!r4 ,?is   
%ort & easy me?od is n t :i*  ,mr       
,bradley adopts 9 8 lat] "w4 ,he has    
some?+ ( mu* great]  int]e/ to say      
reg>d+ ! nature ( ! self-realisation 9  
:i*  goodness is made to consi/2 & ^u x 
he lays /ress1 solely )  a view to br+  
out ! radical vice ( all goodness4#e    

,goodness1  x is said1 is               
self-realisation2 & ,reality--x 0 assum$
 at !  outset--is h>moni\s &            
all-compreh5sive4 ,^! la/ *>act]s are   
also crit]ia ( degrees ( reality1 &     
consequ5tly ( degrees  (                
self-realisation4 ,!re are1 !re=e1 two  
m>ks (  self-realisation--h>mony &      
ext5t2 & ^! two may & d  div]ge4 ,no    
d\bt 9 ! end1 !y w come toge!r2 b 9 t   
end goodness1 z su*1 w h p]i%$4#f ,we   
mu/ admit1 says  ,mr ,bradley1 t two    
great div]g5t =ms ( moral goodness exi/4
  ,9 ord] to realise ! idea ( a p]fect  
self a man may h to  *oose betwe5 two   
p>tially conflict+ me?ods4 ,morality1 9 
%ort1  may dictate ei!r self--sacrifice 
or self--ass]tion1#g ,!  consci\s       
duplicity ( ! hypocrite1 accord+ to an  
outspok5  adh]5t ( ,mr ,bradley's1 is b 
! natural exagg]ation ( !  unconsci\s   
duplicity :i* resides 9 ! v he>t (      
morality4#h    ,footnote #a3 ,appe>ance 
& ,reality1 p4 #dab4    ,footnote #b3   
,ibid41 p4 #daj4    ,footnote #c3       

,appe>ance & ,reality1 pp4 #dab1 #dac4  
,footnote #d3 ,e?ical ,/udies 7#ahgf71  
pp4 #ei1 #fc4    ,footnote #e3          
,appe>ance & ,reality1 p4 #dad4         
,footnote #f3 ,appe>ance & ,reality1 p4 
#dad4    ,footnote #g3 ,ibid41 p4 #dae4 
,footnote #h3 ,a4,e4 ,taylor1 ,problem (
 ,conduct 7#aija71 p4 #fe4    ,x is wor?
 :ile consid]+ ?is view ( !             
contradictions inh]5t  9 morality4 ,to  
/>t )1 goodness 0 def9$ by relation to  
desire3 ! good 0 said to be :at         
satisfies desire4 ,desire is  pla9ly a  
m5tal /ate 9 :i* idea & exi/5ce are     
sep>at$4 ,z  su* x _c be attribut$ to ! 
,absolute ,reality4 ,x w involve  a     
contradiction1 !re=e1 if we id5tify     
goodness ) ,absolute  ,reality2 =       
goodness implies a di/9ction 7betwe5    
idea &  exi/5ce7 :i* _c f9d place 9 !   
,absolute4 ,b if degrees  ( reality be  
ass]t$1 we mu/ admit /ages %ort ( !     
,absolute1  & goodness may belong to su*
 a /age 9 :i* process or  developm5t is 
all[$ z a fact4 ,b ,mr ,bradley w h x n 

only  t x is a contradiction to id5tify 
?is process ) ! ,absolute1  b also t !  
conception ( goodness is itself         
contradictory4 ,a  satisfi$ desire1 he  
says1 is1 9 %ort1 inconsi/5t ) itself4  
,=1 s f> z x is q satisfi$1 x is n a    
desire2 &1 s f>  z x is a desire1 x mu/ 
rema9 at lea/ p>tly unsatisfi$4#a ,(    
c\rse1 if ! desire is satisfi$1 x       
ceases4 ,x 0 & x is n4  ,b !re is no m  
contradiction "h ?an 9 any o!r case (   
temporal succession4 ,a satisfi$ desire 
is1 x is true1 no long] a  desire4 ,b ! 
phrase is contradictory only 9          
appe>ance2 = x  means t ! desire has be5
 satisfi$ & 9 its satisfaction has      
ceas$ to exi/ z a desire4 ,a mu* m      
important discrepancy is  ass]t$ :5 x is
 said t two great div]g5t =ms ( moral   
goodness exi/4 ,! fight = moral goodness
 is '"u two  flags'--self-ass]tion &    
self-sacrifice4 ,& ! allies seem  ho/ile
 to "o ano!r1 at lea/ 9 "s respects & ) 
"s  p]sons4#b ,we h "h ! "t-hon\r$      
opposition ( egoism &  altruism1 ) a    

diff]5ce4 ,mr ,bradley's mo/ notable    
adh]5t 9 !  region ( e?ical enquiry     
pref]s to ov]look ! diff]5ce &  to      
return to ! old] opposition ( conflict+ 
ideals4#c ,b ,mr  ,bradley himself      
decl9es to rate ! social factor 9       
conduct s  high4 ,x is n altruism or    
social activity :i* is ! oppon5t (      
self-ass]tion or egoism1 b              
self-sacrifice2 & bo? self-ass]tion  &  
self-sacrifice are k9ds (               
self-realisation3 9 ! =m] !  self seeks 
its realisation by p]fect+ its h>mony2 9
 ! latt]1  by increas+ its ext5t4 ,x is 
n 9 cont5t t ! two modes (              
self-realisation diff]3 social factors1 
= in/ance1 may ent] into  bo?2 x is 9 ! 
div]se uses made ( ! cont5ts3#d 'sy/em' 
is  aim$ at 9 ! "o2 'wid?' 9 ! o!r4#e ,!
 h>mony ( ^! two  me?ods is atta9$ only 
:5 bo? morality & ! individual self  are
 transc5d$ & subm]g$4#f    ,footnote #a3
 ,appe>ance & ,reality1 p4 #daj4        
,footnote #b3 ,appe>ance & ,reality1 p4 
#dae4    ,footnote #c3 ,taylor1 ,problem

 ( ,conduct1 p4 #agi ff4    ,footnote   
#d3 ,appe>ance & ,reality1 p4 #daf4     
,footnote #e3 ,ibid41 p4 #dad4          
,footnote #f3 ,ibid41 p4 #dai4    ,?is  
discrepancy ( aim1 & !n com+ toge!r ( ! 
ho/ile  factors only 9 ! annull+ &      
disappe>ance ( bo?1 is a process  q 9   
accordance ) ! g5]al dialectic ( ,mr    
,bradley4 ,b two  ?+s may be not$ )     
reg>d to x4 ,9 ! fir/ place ! ef=t  aft]
 sy/em is call$ self-ass]tion1 & ! ef=t 
aft] wid? or  expansion is call$        
self-sacrifice4 ,p]haps ! au?or may     
claim a  "r to give :at names he likes  
to ! processes he describes4 ,b  9 ?is  
case ! names h a recognis$ mean+ 9 !    
lit]ature (  morals1 & no h9t is giv5 t 
!y are us$ "h 9 any mean+  o!r ?an !    
ord9>y4 ,& surely ! t]m 'self-sacrifice'
 is an  inappropriate t]m = describ+ !  
conduct :i* seeks expansion by          
multiply+ ! objects ( desire--by !      
pursuit ( :atev] (f]s a  *ance ( wid5$  
int]e/s1 :e!r social or intellectual1   
ae/hetic  or s5sual1--ev5 al?\gh my     

individuality suff]s loss !reby1  & !   
heal? & h>mony ( my self is injur$4#a   
,loss may be !  result2 b aggr&isem5t is
 :at is s\ght1 ?\gh ! ef=t fails  ?r\gh 
lack ( organisation or sy/em4 ,& aga9   
'self' is n !  only possible c5tre = !  
sy/ematisation ( conduct4 ,sy/em 9      
conduct may be realis$ 9 o!r ways ?an z 
self-ass]tion4 ,x is  s\ght z truly by !
 man ( sci5ce :o gives up ev]y?+ =  !   
pursuit ( tru? or by ! philan?ropi/ :o  
=gets himself 9  promot+ ! social       
welf>e4 ,su* modes ( life z ^!--& n     
m]ely self-ass]tive conduct--may become 
c5tres ( a moral activity  :i* aims at  
sy/em4    ,footnote #a3 ,appe>ance &    
,reality1 p1 #dag4    ,! second rem>k   
:i* has to be made on ?is f9al po9t is1 
t  nei!r on ! me?od ( sy/em &           
self-ass]tion nor on ! me?od  (         
expansion & self-sacrifice has ! au?or  
giv5 or sugge/$ any  crit]ion = !       
di/9ction ( good & evil4 ,he has ca/ 8  
net  s wide z to include all conduct )9 
x )\t discrim9ation (  moral wor?4 ,8   

own result is t ! good is1 z su*1       
transc5d$  & subm]g$4#a ,b ?is result   
loses all significance if x is !  case1 
z our enquiry seems to prove1 t ! good z
 su* has  nev] be5 rea*$ at all1 nor any
 t5able sugge/ion (f]$ =  di/+ui%+ x f  
evil4    ,footnote #a3 ,appe>ance &     
,reality1 p4 #dai4    ,?is is !         
fundam5tal "q = any philosophy ( e?ics2 
b x  receives no answ] at all f !       
prevail+ s*ool ( metaphysical  ?\ght4   
,?is s*ool (f]s no solution ( ! problem 
:i* 0 f\nd  insoluble by ! type (       
philosophy ^: aim is to co-ord9ate !    
results ( sci5ce4 ,a comp>ison ( !      
purposes & results ( !  two s*ools may  
be in/ructive4    ,mr ,h]b]t ,sp5c] has 
told u t s9ce ! "t ( 8 fir/ essay1      
writt5 z f> back z #ahdb1 8 ultimate    
purpose1 ly+ beh9d all  proximate       
purposes1 has be5 t ( f9d+ = ! pr9ciples
 ( "r  & wrong 9 conduct at l>ge a      
sci5tific basis4444 ,n[ t moral         
injunctions are los+ ! au?ority giv5 by 
_! suppos$ sacr$  orig91 ! secul>isation

 ( morals is becom+ imp]ative4 ,few ?+s 
c happ5 m disa/r\s ?an ! decay & dea? ( 
a regulative  sy/em no long] fit1 be=e  
ano!r & fitt] regulative sy/em has  gr[n
 up to replace x4444 ,^? :o believe t ! 
vacuum c be  fill$1 & t x mu/ be fill$1 
are call$ on to d some?+ 9  pursuance ( 
_! belief4#a ,b m ?an fifty ye>s aft] ! 
publication ( ?is fir/ essay1 z1 ) !    
completion ( !  ',pr9ciples ( ,e?ics1' 8
 :ole sy/em ( philosophy lay unroll$    
be=e him1 he made ! significant & pa!tic
 confession t !  doctr9e ( evolution has
 n furni%$ guidance to ! ext5t ,i _h    
hop$4444 ,"r regulation ( ! actions ( s 
complex a be+ z man1  liv+ "u conditions
 s complex z ^? pres5t$ by a society1   
evid5tly =ms a subject-matt] unlikely to
 admit ( def9ite  conclusions ?r\gh\t   
its entire range4#b ,& ! lack (         
confid5ce  :i* ! au?or himself felt 9 ^!
 p>ts1 !re is good reason to  ext5d to !
 :ole /ructure ( evolution>y e?ics4     
,footnote #a3 ,preface to ,data (       
,e?ics1 #ahgi4    ,footnote #b3 ,preface

 to ,pr9ciples ( ,e?ics1 vol4 ii41      
#ahic4    ,nei!r ! purpose ( _! /ructure
 nor its collapse is s  explicitly      
proclaim$ by ! metaphysicians ) :om ?is 
lecture has  dealt4 ,b we h>dly ne$ to  
read betwe5 ! l9es 9 ord] to see  !     
prom95ce ( ! moral int]e/ 9 all t ,gre5 
wrote2 & x  0 aft] he _h %[n !          
inadequacy ( ! empirical me?od 9 !  h&s 
( ,hume to give any crit]ion or ideal = 
conduct t he made  8 significant appeal 
to ,engli%m5 "u five-&-tw5ty to leave  !
 ana*roni/ic sy/ems hi!rto preval5t     
among/ u & take up  ! /udy ( ,kant &    
,hegel4#a ,8 call to speculation has be5
  widely respond$ to2 b1 if we turn to !
 mo/ important product (  ?is           
speculative movem5t1 we h to extract :at
 enlight5m5t we  c f ! dictum t1 9 !    
only s5se 9 :i* ! ,absolute  is good1 x 
manife/s itself 9 v>i\s degrees (       
goodness &  badness4#b    ,footnote #a3 
,gre51 ,introduction to ,hume's         
,treatise 7#ahgd71 ii4 #ga4    ,footnote
 #b3 ,bradley1 ,appe>ance & ,reality1 p4

 #daa4    ,! mo/ notable rec5t sy/ems ( 
philosophy1 ideali/ z well z  naturali/1
 are ?us pres5t$ to u1 almo/ confess$ly1
 z void (  application to conduct4 ,?is 
result1 & =esight ( ?is result1  h l$ to
 a widespread suspicion ( any attempt at
 e?ical  con/ruction :i* is bas$ ^u a   
!ory ( reality4 ,9 consequ5ce1  rec\rse 
is sometimes _h to a purely empirical   
treatm5t ( morality  su* z t indicat$ at
 ! close ( ! second lecture4 ,su* an    
acc\nt1 h[ev]1 c nev] rise f !          
description ( conduct to  sett+ up an   
ideal = life4 ,& accord+ly "s ?9k]s h   
rema9$ conv9c$ ( ! necessity ( ideals = 
! moral life1  al?\gh unable to f9d an  
adequate gr\nd = ^! ideals 9 _!  sy/em (
 reality4    ,?is attitude 0 adopt$ by  
,f4,a4 ,lange1 :o1 at ! close ( 8       
,hi/ory ( ,mat]ialism1 decl>$ t !re 0   
ne$ = an ,ideal (  ,wor? to supplem5t ! 
defici5cies ( ! facts ( be+4 ,"o ?+  is 
c]ta91 he said1 t man ne$s to supplem5t 
reality by an  ,ideal ,_w ( 8 own       
creation1 & t 9 su* creations !  highe/ 

& noble/ functions ( 8 m9d co-op]ate4 ,b
 mu/ ?is  free act ( ! m9d be> ev] & ev]
 aga9 ! deceptive =m (  demon/rative    
sci5ce8 ,if x does s1 mat]ialism w      
always reappe>  & de/roy ! ov]-bold     
speculations4#a ,x w\ld ?us seem t      
moral life po/ulates an ideal :i* ! m9d 
is able to frame1 b  = :i* x c e/abli%  
no connexion ) ! _w ( reality4          
,footnote #a3 ,ges*i*te des             
,mat]ialismus1 #crd ed41 p4 #ede f4     
,m rec5tly a brilliant ,fr5* writ]1 :o  
has attempt$ to  e/abli% a sy/em (      
morality )\t obligation or sanction1 has
  sugge/$ t ! place ( ! categorical law 
( duty may be tak5  by a speculative    
hypo!sis1 & t hope may s]ve :]e !re is  
no  gr\nd = belief4 ,! speculative      
hypo!sis is a risk tak5 9 !  sph]e (    
?\ght2 action 9 accordance ) ?is        
hypo!sis is a  risk tak5 9 ! sph]e ( w2 
& t be+ is high] :o w  und]take & risk !
 m :e!r 9 ?\ght or action4#a ,?us1  =   
example1 if ,i w\ld p]=m an act ( *>ity 
pure & simple1  & wi% to ju/ify ?is act 

rationally1 ,i mu/ imag9e an et]nal     
,*>ity at ! gr\nd ( ?+s & ( myself1 ,i  
mu/ objectify !  s5tim5t :i* leads to my
 action2 & "h ! moral ag5t plays  ! same
 rle z ! arti/4444 ,9 e human action !re
 is  an elem5t ( error1 ( illusion3 & x 
is conjectur$ t ?is  elem5t increases z 
! action rises above ! commonplace3 !   
mo/  lov+ he>ts are ! mo/ (t5 deceiv$1 9
 ! highe/ g5iuses !  greate/ incoh]5ces 
are (t5 f\nd4#b    ,footnote #a3 ,guyau1
 ,esquisse d'une morale sans obligation 
ni sanction  7#ahhe7 p4 #bej4           
,footnote #b3 ,ibid41 pp4 #bbf1 #bbg4   
,?is solution c h>dly be reg>d$ z o!r   
?an a c\nsel (  despair4 ,its e?ical    
value is m]ely app>5t4 ,:at is (        
importance  = e?ics is n s mu* ! pres5ce
 ( "s ideal3 x is ! k9d  ( ideal t      
matt]s4 ,x is possible to h an ideal (  
selfi%ness  z well z an ideal ( love1 a 
s5sual ideal z well z a spiritual4      
,nietzs*e's ov]-man is an ideal2 !      
,mohamm$an p>adise is an ideal2  &      
conduct c be modell$ on !m4 ,b x is n   

en\gh to h  sy/em 9 conduct1            
irrespective ( ! wor? ( ! ideal :i*     
det]m9es ! sy/em4 ,"s crit]ion is ne$$ =
 decid+ betwe5  compet+ ideals4 ,z long 
z !y are look$ ^u z m]e illusions1  z   
expressions ( d\bt1 or z a haz>d /ak$ on
 ! unkn[able1  caprice takes ! place (  
law2 :]e all is equally unc]ta9 !re  is 
no security = ! wor? ( ! ideal itself4  
,unsatisfactory z !y are 9 ?is =m1 !    
op9ions ref]r$ to are  e*oes ( a        
pregnant doctr9e ( ,kant's--! doctr9e t 
! moral  consci\sness br+s u into clos] 
t\* ) reality ?an ! m]ely  !oretical    
reason c rea*4 ,v>i\s l9es ( rec5t ?\ght
 may  be said to h be5 sugge/$ by ?is   
view4 ,almo/ e ideali/  metaphysician   
has t5d$ to look ^u ?\ght itself z      
con/itut+  ! inmo/ reality ( ! univ]se  
:i* x conceives or und]/&s2  & ,kant's  
doctr9e may make u pause & ask :e!r ?is 
t5d5cy is  n simply an assumption )\t   
w>rant4    ,aga91 ! psy*ological        
analysis ( k has br\ght out !  fact (   
its con/ant dep5d5ce ^u practical       

int]e/s4 ,x is !  ne$ to p]=m or atta9  
some?+1 :i* is ! motive t leads  to !   
und]/&+ ( ?+s2 & ! und]/&+ ( ?+s )  :i* 
alone we are satisfi$ is commonly t :i* 
helps u s to  describe our exp]i5ce z to
 be able to control "s practical        
result4 ',k is p[]'2 & n only s1 b 9 its
 e>ly /ages  & 9 mo/ ( its lat]         
developm5ts1 k is = p[]3 x is  =        
purposes ( 8 own t man becomes !        
'int]pret] ( nature4'    ,x is to m5 (  
sci5ce r ?an to philosoph]s t we owe !  
'descriptive !ory' ( sci5tific concepts 
:i*1 )9 ! la/  few ye>s1 has gone f> to 
revolutionise ! prevail+ attitude (     
philosophy to sci5ce4 ,concepts1 su* z  
'mass1' 'en]gy1' & !  l1 are no long]   
held to express realities ! d5ial ( :i* 
w\ld be treason to sci5ce2 !y are simply
 descriptive notions ^:  tru? consi/s 9 
_! utility3 t is to say1 9 _! ability to
  compreh5d all ! relevant facts 9 a    
simple description4 ,&1 9 !  same way1  
sci5tific pr9ciples are ( ! nature (    
po/ulates1 ^:  ju/ification is no       

necess>y law ( ?\ght1 b mu/ r be  s\ght 
9 ! results ( sci5tific inve/igation4   
,^! ?ree doctr9es--! descriptive !ory ( 
sci5ce1 !  practical nature ( k z x is  
br\ght out by psy*ological  analysis1 & 
! special claims ( ! moral              
consci\sness--h  comb9$ to br+ ab\t a   
t5d5cy /rongly oppos$ to ! old]  ideali/
 tradition1 ! t5d5cy to reg>d practical 
results z !  sole te/ ( tru?4    ,?is   
conception is put =w>d n[ 9             
philosophical lit]ature z  a new &      
indep5d5t po9t ( view4 ,! po9t ( view is
 only 9  process ( be+ h>d5$ into a     
!ory2 b1 "u ! "n  ( ,pragmatism1 x has  
already become ! subject ( a vigor\s    
propag&a4 ,) ! value ( ?is doctr9e z a  
g5]al !ory (  reality we ne$ n at pres5t
 conc]n ourselves4 ,9 spite ( ! high    
claims x makes = ! !oretical            
significance ( moral ideas1 its  adh]5ts
 h n z yet devot$ mu* att5tion to ! "q (
  ! wor? ( ^! moral ideas & ! crit]ia by
 :i* t wor?  may be det]m9$4 ,yet ?is   
surely is ! fundam5tal "q =  e?ical     

!ory4 ,on ! o!r h&1 z aga9/ a m]ely     
!oretical  int]pretation ( ! univ]se1   
into :i* ! moral elem5t ent]s  only z a 
sort ( loosely-connect$ app5dix1 !      
pragmati/s are  amply ju/ifi$4          
,practical ends are prior to !oretical  
explanations  ( :at happ5s4 ,b practical
 ends v>y1 & "s measure ( _!  relative  
values is ne$$4    ,!re is "o ?+ :i* all
 reason+ ab\t morality assumes &  mu/   
assume2 & t is morality itself4 ,! moral
 concept--:e!r  describ$ z wor? or z    
duty or z goodness--_c be di/ill$ out  (
 any k ab\t ! laws ( exi/5ce or (       
occurr5ce4 ,nor  w speculation ab\t !   
real conditions ( exp]i5ce yield x1     
unless adequate recognition be fir/ (   
all giv5 to ! fact t !  exp]i5ce :i* is 
! subject-matt] ( philosophy is n m]ely 
a  s5su\s & ?9k+1 b also a moral1       
exp]i5ce4 ,! approval  ( ! good1 !      
disapproval ( ! evil1 & ! pref]5ce (  ! 
bett]3 ^! w\ld seem to be basal facts = 
an adequate  philosophical !ory3 & !y   
imply ! /riv+ = a be/--h[ev]  imp]fect !

 appreh5sion ( t be/ may always rema94  
,only  :5 ^! facts--! *>act]i/ic facts (
 moral exp]i5ce--are  recognis$ z       
con/itu5ts ( ! exp]i5ce :i* is our      
subject-matt]1 are we 9 a position      
pr(itably to enquire :at is  good & :at 
evil1 & h[ ! be/ is to be conceiv$4     
,! recognition ( ^! facts w\ld only be a
 beg9n+2 b x w\ld  be a beg9n+ :i* w\ld 
avoid ! c>d9al error fall5 into n  only 
by ! lead+ expon5ts ( evolutioni/       
morality1 b also to be  f\nd 9 mu* ( !  
e?ical "w ( ideali/ metaphysicians4 ,x  
seems  to h be5 assum$ t moral pr9ciples
 c be rea*$ by !  application (         
sci5tific g5]alisations or ( ! results (
 a  metaphysical analysis :i* has />t$  
by ov]look+ ! facts  ( ! moral          
consci\sness4 ,ev5 z a metaphysic ?is   
proc$ure is  inadequate2 & !            
int]pretations ( reality to :i* x has l$
  h err$ by ov]-intellectuality4    ,!  
sy/ems ( naturalism & ( idealism1 ^:    
e?ical consequ5ces  h be5 pass$ 9       
review1 h "o feature 9 common2 & x is  a

 feature :i* f ( old has be5 reg>d$ z a 
m>k ( g5u9e  philosophy4 ,!y bo? seek ! 
,"o 9 ! _m2 b !y seek x on  diff]5t     
roads4 ,= ! naturali/ ! mo/ compreh5sive
 description  ( ?+s may be ! conception 
( mass-po9ts 9 motion2 or x may be  "s m
 recondite conception to :i* physical   
analysis po9ts4 ,9  ei!r case ! unity   
rea*$ w be me*anical4 ,= ! ideali/1  on 
! o!r h&1 reason may be said to be !    
c5tral pr9ciple (  ?+s3 ! unity (       
reality is a rational unity4 ,i h       
cont5d$ 9  ^! lectures t nei!r !        
me*anical unity ( ! naturali/s  nor !   
rational unity ( ! ideali/s has succe$$ 
9 compreh5d+  )9 its unify+ pr9ciple !  
ess5tial nature ( morality )  its       
deep-go+ dualism ( good & evil4 ,b :ile 
,i h ma9ta9$  t ev5 ! conception (      
reality z ! reproduction ( itself by  an
 et]nal self-consci\sness is an         
inadequate conception1 x is /ill        
possible to hold t reality is a connect$
 :ole1 & t its true  pr9ciple ( unity is
 an e?ical pr9ciple4    ,if ,i 7 ask$   

:at is meant by an e?ical unity1 ,i %\ld
 answ]1 9  ! fir/ place1 t x implies    
purpose4 ,! unity ( reality is n        
exhibit$ by a description ( its pres5t  
or pa/ conditions or ev5  by an acc\nt (
 its causal connexions4 ,^! modes (     
description are  all affect$ by !       
fragm5t>9ess :i* always belongs to      
temporal  appreh5sion4 ,b1 :5 ?+s are   
se5 9 ! light ( a purpose1 a  view ( !m 
z a :ole becomes possible1 & !          
fragm5t>9ess (  "t is transc5d$4 ,&1 9 !
 second place1 ,i %\ld say t an  e?ical 
unity implies ! pres5ce )9 itself (     
diff]5t f9ite  c5tres ( consci\s        
activity1 ^: fre$om is n inconsi/5t )   
_! relation to "o ano!r & to ! ,:ole4   
,9 8 own life1 s f> z x is a moral life1
 ea* individual seeks  sy/em or unity4  
,& ?is unity is realis$ on ?ree diff]5t 
levels--z we may call !m--:i* may be    
di/+ui%$ = cle>ness'  sake1 ?\gh x is n 
possible actually to sep>ate !m4 ,on ea*
  level morality is realis$ ?r\gh sy/em1
 & sy/em is br\ght ab\t  by ! rule ( !  

morally high] & ! submission ( ! morally
  l[]3 9 ?is goodness lies1 9 ! opposite
 evil4 ,if we isolate !  individual &   
consid] him ap>t1 he may be said to     
atta9 goodness  by ! due ord]+ & control
 ( 8 s5su\s & passional  nature by      
rational or spiritual ends4 ,! result   
may be describ$1  negatively1 z !       
suppression ( s5sualism4 ,b ! positive  
description rema9s imp]fect until we c  
say :at ! rational  or spiritual        
pr9ciple is :i* is to weld all man's    
'p>ticul>  impulses' into an organic    
:ole4    ,& ?is _c be done s long z we  
contemplate ! m]e individual  9         
isolation4 ,we _c rema9 at ! level ( b>e
 individuality4  ,p]sonality itself is n
 a m]ely individual product3 nei!r !  k 
nor ! activity ( ! individual c be      
expla9$ )\t  ref]5ce to 8 position z a  
memb] ( society2 8 inh]itance is a      
social inh]itance4 ,nor c ! individual  
e/abli% a claim to deal  ) 8 own        
p]sonality z a m]ely individual end4 ,x 
is a factor 9  social life2 &1 9        

sy/ematis+ 8 own life1 he mu/ h reg>d   
to ! social factor4 ,9 ?is respect he   
atta9s goodness only  :5 8 individual   
life seeks a unity high] ?an t ( 8 own  
individuality1 & n c5tr$ 9 8 selfi%     
int]e/s4 ,f ?is  po9t ( view we may say1
 aga9 negatively1 t goodness consi/s 9  
! suppression ( selfi%ness4 ,b once aga9
 !re is a difficulty  ab\t ! positive   
description4 ,_m morali/s1 und\bt$ly1   
are  cont5t to re/ ) ! social aspect3 to
 reg>d ! 'heal?' or  'vitality' (       
society z ! f9al expression ( morality4 
,b a life  :i* is simply absorb$ by     
society _c be said to be a p]fect       
unity4 ,society itself is a process2 &  
its *anges are det]m9$ 9  l>ge measure  
by ! moral ideals ( its memb]s4 ,= its  
unity we  mu/ look to an end--an        
ideal--( :i* its actual =ms c (f]       
indications only4 ,bo? man & society are
 factors 9 a univ]sal  ord]2 & _!       
p]fection _c be indep5d5t ( ! purpose ( 
?is ord]4 ,:5 ! consci\sness ( x fills  
man's life1 morality is  m]g$ 9         

religion4          ,,index4             
,absolute1 !1 #aja ff4    z good1 #aje4 
z n good1 #ajd4  ,altruism1 #ae ff41 #gd
 f41 #aah4  ,appe>ance1 #aja ff4        
,approbation1 #aaa ff4  ,ari/otle1 #hg4 
,artificial selection1 #fa ff4  ,au/51  
,jane1 #d n4    ,b5evol5ce1 #af4        
,b5?am1 ,j41 #d n4  ,bradley1 ,f4,h41   
#hh1 #ajj ff4  ,br[n+1 ,r41 #ca4        
,*>act]i/ics ( goodness1 #aac4          
reality1 #ajc4  ,competition betwe5     
gr\ps1 #eb f41 #eh1 #gd1 #gi4    ideas1 
#ec ff4    individuals1 #eb1 #gd1 #gi4  
,cont5t ( morality1 agreem5t z to1 #g4  
,*ri/ian morality1 #g1 #ah1 #bj4        
,cosmic process & moral ord]1 #df ff4   
,d>w91 ,c41 #ce ff41 #ci ff41 #eg1 #fj1 
#fb4  ,degrees ( reality1 #ajc ff4      
,descriptive e?ics1 #gf ff4    !ory (   
sci5ce1 #abi4  ,desire & goodness1 #ij  
ff41 #ajb1 #aaj ff4  ,di/9ction ( good &
 evil1 #ic ff41 #aac4    ,egoism1 #ae   
ff41 #gd f41 #aah4  ,empiricism1 #c4    
,ens reale1 #ajb4    realissimum1 #ajb4 
,environm5t1 moral1 #gj ff4  ,epicurus1 

#ag4  ,et]nal m9d1 !1 #if ff4  ,e?ical  
controv]sies at pres5t day1 #ac ff4    9
 n9ete5? c5tury1 #a ff4  ,e?ical unity (
 ?+s1 #acc ff4  ,e?ics ( evolution1 #cf 
ff4  ,evolution1 e?ical significance (1 
#ea1 #fg ff4  ,evolution ( e?ics1 #cf   
ff4  ,evolution1 !ory (1 #cc ff41 #cf   
ff4  ,exceptional cases1 #aa4           
,exp]im5ts 9 morality1 #ej4    ,fi*te1  
,j4,g41 #hg4  ,fitte/1 survival ( !1    
#ce1 #fi ff4    ,galt1 ,j41 #d n4       
,good1 ! true1 #ib ff4  ,goodness z     
appe>ance1 #ajb ff4  ,goodness z        
contradictory1 #aag4  ,gre51 ,t4,h41 #gg
 n41 #hi ff41 #abc4  ,guyau1 #abe f4    
,halvy1 ,e41 #d n4  ,h$onism1 #ajj4     
,hegel1 #hg1 #ajd1 #abc4  ,high] & l[]1 
#ajg ff4  ,huxley1 ,t4,h41 #de ff41 #fh4
    ,ibs51 #ca4  ,idealism1 #hg ff4     
,ideals1 ne$ (1 #abe4  ,illusions z     
ideals1 #abg4  ,immorali/1 #bd4         
,individual & gr\p1 #dj ff4  ,influ5ces 
=m+ e?ical ?\ght3    curr5t morality1   
#bf ff4    sci5ce & philosophy1 #cb ff4 
,intellig5t selection1 #fa ff41 #hj4    

,intuitionism1 #b ff41 #ha4    ,kant1   
#hg1 #abc1 #abg f4    ,lange1 ,f4,a41   
#abe4  ,leibniz1 #hg4    ,mat]ial &     
moral progress1 #bi f4  ,me*anical      
unity1 #acc4  ,metaphysics1 #hb1 #he ff4
  ,mill1 ,j4,s41 #c n41 #h ff41 #bh4    
,modifications ( g5]al rules1 #i4       
,monism & e?ics1 #aji4  ,moral          
consci\sness & reality1 #abh4           
environm5t1 #gj ff4    exp]i5ce1 #aca4  
ideas1 orig9 (1 #a ff4    ord] & cosmic 
process1 #df ff4    value1 crit]ion (1  
#a ff41 #ge4    ,natural selection1 #ce1
 #dc ff41 #di4    9 morals1 #ee4        
,naturalism1 #hc f41 #hf f4  ,nietzs*e1 
,f41 #ah ff41 #ca f41    #dg ff41 #fg41 
#abg4  ,nobles1 morality (1 #bj4        
,orig9 & validity1 #cg1 #ig4  ,ov]-man1 
!1 #bb1 #ca4  ,ow51 ,sir ,r41 #ei4      
,physiological int]pretation    ( life1 
#fg1 #gf4  ,plato1 #ca1 #hg4  ,practical
 nature ( k1 #abh4  ,pragmatism1 #acj4  
,progress ( life1 #cd4  ,progressive    
morality1 #i4  ,psy*ological e?ics1 #aji
 ff4  ,purposive selection1 #fa ff41    

#hj4    ,rational unity1 #acc4          
,religion1 #hb f41 #acf4  ,r5aissance1  
#cc4    ,sci5ce & metaphysics1 #he4     
,self-ass]tion1 #aaf ff4  ,self-love1   
#ag4  ,self-realisation1 #ij ff41 #aac  
ff4  ,self-sacrifice1 #aaf ff4          
,selfi%ness1 suppression (1 #acf4       
,s5sationalism1 #ajj4  ,s5sualism1      
suppression (1 #ace4  ,s]vile morality1 
#bj4  ,sexual selection1 #ff4           
,sidgwick1 ,h41 #af f4  ,social         
qualities1 #dj ff4  ,sophi/s1 !1 #bg4   
,sp5c]1 ,h41 #dd1 #dg1 #ea1 #gc1 #abb4  
,sp9oza1 #hg f4  ,/eph51 ,sir ,l41 #dd4 
,subjective selection1 #fj1 #ff1 #hj4   
,subjectivity 9 e?ics1 #ha4    ,taylor1 
,a4,e41 #aaf1 #aah4  ,t5nyson1 #ca4     
,tille1 ,a41 #be n4  ,transvaluation1   
#ba4  ,tru? z appe>ance1 #aja4    z     
moral law1 #i ff41 #bb f4    ,ueb]m5s*1 
!1 #bb1 #be n4  ,unity ( life1 #cd4     
,utilit>ianism1 ! t]m1 #c n4    ! !ory1 
#b ff41 #ha4    ,v>iation1 #di4  ,volz1 
,j41 #bd n4    ,wellbe+1 #ga1 #ge4      
,wilb]=ce1 ,s41 #ei4    ,zola1 #ca4