,advertisement #a3 ,david ,bridge ,co41 ,,ltd4 ,advertisement #b3 ,chas4 ,parker1 ,sons ,co4 ,advertisement #c3 ,fairbairn1 ,lawson ,combe ,barbour1 ,,ltd4 ,advertisement #d3 ,robert ,hall ,sons ,advertisement #e3 ,a4 ,f4 ,craig ,co41 ,,ltd4 ,advertisement #f3 ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,co41 ,,ltd4 ,advertisement #g3 ,h4 ,smethurst ,sons1 ,,ltd4 ,advertisement #h3 ,white1 ,milne ,co4 ,advertisement #i3 ,thomas ,c4 ,keay1 ,,ltd4 ,advertisement #aj3 ,robert ,stiven ,co4 ,,the ,,jute ,,industry ,advertisement #aa3 ,pitman's ,commodities and ,industries ,series 7,book ,list7 ,,pitman',s ,,common ,,commodities ,,and ,,industries ,,series ,,the ,,jute ,,industry ,,from ,,seed ,,to ,,finished ,,cloth ,,by ,t4 ,,woodhouse ,,head ,,of ,,the ,,weaving ,,and ,,designing ,,department1 ,,dundee ,,technical ,,college ,,and ,,school ,,of ,,art ,,formerly ,,manager ,,messrs4 ,,walton ,,co41 ,,linen ,,manufacturers1 ,,bleachers ,,and ,,finishers1 ,,knaresborough4 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,finishing ,,of ,,jute ,,and ,,linen ,,fabrics1 ,,healds ,,and ,,reeds ,,for ,,weaving3 ,,setts ,,and ,,porters1 ,,joint ,,author ,,of ,,jute ,,and ,,linen ,,weaving ,,mechanism1 ,,textile ,,design3 ,,pure ,,and ,,applied1 ,,jute ,,and ,,jute ,,spinning1 ,,cordage ,,and ,,cordage ,,hemp ,,and ,,fibres1 ,,textile ,,mathematics1 ,,textile ,,drawing1 ,,etc41 ,,and ,p4 ,,kilgour ,,head ,,of ,,the ,,spinning ,,department1 ,,dundee ,,technical ,,college ,,and ,,school ,,of ,,art ,,formerly ,,manager ,,belfast ,,rope ,,works4 ,,joint ,,author ,,of ,,jute ,,and ,,jute ,,spinning1 ,,cordage ,,and ,,cordage ,,hemp ,,and ,,fibres1 ,,etc4 #aiba ,advertisement #ab3 ,george ,hattersley ,sons1 ,,ltd41 ,,preface ,the sub-title of this little volume indicates that practically all the processes involved in the cultivation of jute plants1 the extraction of the fibre1 and the transformation of the fibre into useful commodities1 have been considered4 ,in addition1 every important branch of this wide industry is liberally illustrated1 and the description1 although not severely technical1 is sufficiently so to enable students1 or those with no previous knowledge of the subject1 to follow the operations intelligently1 and to become more or less acquainted with the general routine of jute manufacture4 ,as a matter of fact1 the work forms a medium of study for textile students1 and a suitable introduction to the more detailed literature by the authors on these textile subjects4 ,t4 ,,woodhouse4 ,p4 ,,kilgour4 ,march1 #aiba4 ,advertisement #ac3 ,j4 ,m4 ,adam ,co4 ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,preface ,i4 ,,introductory ,,ii4 ,,cultivation ,,iii4 ,,retting ,,iv4 ,,assorting ,,and ,,baling ,,jute ,,fibre4 ,v4 ,,mill ,,operations ,,vi4 ,,batching ,,vii4 ,,carding ,,viii4 ,,drawing ,,and ,,drawing ,,frames ,,ix4 ,,the ,,roving ,,frame ,x4 ,,spinning ,,xi4 ,,twisting ,,and ,,reeling4 ,,xii4 ,,winding3 ,,rolls ,,and ,,cops ,,xiii4 ,,warping1 ,,beaming ,,and ,,dressing4 ,,xiv4 ,,tying-,,on1 ,,drawing-,,in ,,and ,,weaving ,,xv4 ,,finishing ,,index ,advertisement #ad3 ,james ,f4 ,low ,co41 ,,ltd4 ,,illustrations ,,fig4 #a4 ,,natives ,,ploughing ,,the ,,ground #b4 ,,breaking ,,up ,,the ,,soil ,,or ,,laddering #c4 ,,photomicrographs ,,of ,,cross-,,sections ,,of ,a ,,jute ,,plant #d4 ,,natives ,,carrying ,,small ,,bales ,,of ,,jute ,,fibre ,,from ,,boat ,,to ,,press-,,house #e4 ,,natives ,,bailing ,,jute ,,fibre ,,in ,a ,,watson-,,fawcett ,,cyclone ,,press #f4 ,,vessel ,,laden ,,with ,,jute ,,at ,,quay-,,side ,,adjoining ,,jute ,,seeds ,,in ,,dundee ,,harbour #g4 ,,harbour ,,porters ,,removing ,,bales ,,of ,,jute ,,from ,,vessel ,,shown ,,in ,,fig4 #f #h4 ,,bale ,,opener 7,,messrs4 ,,urquhart1 ,,lindsay ,,co41 ,,ltd47 #i4 ,,bale ,,opener 7,,messrs4 ,,charles ,,parker1 ,,sons ,,co41 ,,ltd7 #aj4 ,,hand-,,batching ,,department ,,with ,,unprepared ,,and ,,prepared ,,fibre #aa4 ,,softening ,,machine ,,without ,,batching ,,apparatus #ab4 ,,batching ,,apparatus #ac4 ,,softening ,,machine ,,with ,,batching ,,apparatus #ad4 ,,modern ,,breaker ,,card #ae4 ,,finisher ,,card ,,with ,,drawing ,,head #af4 ,,waste ,,teazer #ag4 ,,push-,,bar ,,drawing ,,frame #ah4 ,,roving ,,frame #ai4 ,,fairbairn',s ,,roving ,,frame ,,in ,,work #bj4 ,,an ,,indian ,,spinning ,,flat #ba4 ,a ,,line ,,of ,,spinning ,,frames #bb4 ,,bobbin ,,winding ,,machine 7,,from ,,hanks7 #bc4 ,,roll ,,winder ,,for ,,large ,,rolls #bd4 ,,roll ,,winding ,,machine 7,,from ,,hanks7 #be4 ,,cop ,,winding ,,machine 7,,messrs4 ,,douglas ,,fraser ,,sons1 ,,ltd47 #bf4 ,,cop ,,winding ,,machine 7,,messrs ,,urquhart1 ,,lindsay ,,co41 ,,ltd47 #bg4 ,a ,,row ,,of ,,modern ,,warping ,,mills4 #bh4 ,,power ,,chain ,,or ,,warp ,,linking ,,machine #bi4 ,,winding-,,on ,,or ,,dry ,,beaming ,,machine #cj4 ,a ,,modern ,,yarn--,,dressing ,,machine ,,with ,,six ,,steam-,,heated ,,cylinders #ca4 ,,dressing ,,machine ,,for ,,preparing ,,two ,,warps ,,simultaneously #cb1 ,,six ,,distinct ,,kinds ,,of ,,typical ,,jute ,,fabrics #cc4 ,,point-,,paper ,,designs ,,showing ,,weaves ,,for ,,various ,,cloths4 #cd4 ,,diagrammatic ,,views ,,of ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,plain ,,cloth #ce4 ,,weaving ,,shed ,,with ,,belt-,,driven ,,looms4 #cf4 ,,looms ,,driven ,,with ,,individual ,,motors #cg4 ,,bobby ,,loom #ch4 ,,brussels ,,and ,,wilton ,,carpet ,,loom #ci4 ,,the ,,old ,,way #dj4 ,,the ,,new ,,way #da4 ,,cropping ,,machine ,,at ,,work #db4 ,,double ,,cropping ,,machine #dc4 ,,damping ,,machine #dd4 ,,calender #de4 ,,hydraulic ,,mangle #df4 ,,folding1 ,,lapping ,,or ,,pleating ,,machine #dg4 ,,crisping1 ,,creasing ,,or ,,rigging ,,machine #dh1 ,,semi-,,mechanical ,,bag ,,or ,,sack ,,cutting ,,machine #di4 ,,overhead 7,,laing7 ,,sack ,,sewing ,,machine4 #ej4 ,,sack ,,printing ,,machine4 ,,the ,,jute ,,industry ,,from ,,seed ,,to ,,finished ,,cloth ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory ,the five main fibres used for ordinary textile purposes are cotton1 flax1 jute1 silk and wool2 in this group jute has been considered in general as being of the least value1 not only in regard to price1 but also in regard to utility4 ,it is only under phenomenal conditions which arise from a great upheaval such as that which took place during the world's great war from #aiad onwards that1 from a commercial point of view1 the extreme importance of the jute fibre and its products are fully realized4 ,millions of sand bags were made from the year #aiad to the year #aiah solely for military purposes1 while huge quantities of jute cloth were utilized as the covering material for food stuffs of various kinds1 thus liberating the other textile fibres and cloth for equally important purposes4 ,it is on record that in one short period of fourteen days1 #aej1jjj1jjj sand-bags were collected1 packed and despatched from ,dundee to be used as protective elements in various ways and seats of conflict4 ,a glance into the records of the textile industries will reveal the fact that the jute fibre was practically unknown in these islands a hundred years ago4 ,unsuccessful attempts were certainly made to import the fibre into ,great ,britain in the latter part of the #ahth century1 and it has been used in ,india for centuries in the making of cord1 twine and coarse fabrics1 because the fibre is indigenous to that country4 ,and since all the manufacturing methods there1 for a considerable time were manual ones1 the industry--if such it could be called--moved along slowly1 providing employment only for the needs of a small section of the community on the ,eastern shores4 ,the first small imports of jute fibre were due to the instigation of ,dr4 ,roxburgh and the ,east ,india ,company1 but it was only after repeated requests that any attempt was made to utilize the samples of jute for practical experiments ,the fibre was so unlike any of the existing staples that those interested in textiles were not anxious to experiment with it1 but ultimately they were persuaded to do so2 these persistent requests for trials1 and the interest which was finally aroused1 formed the nucleus of the existing important jute industry4 ,apart from the above-mentioned efforts1 the introduction of the jute fibre into ,great ,britain was delayed until #ahbb1 when the first small consignment reached ,dundee--now the ,western home of the jute industry4 ,this quantity was imported into this country with the special object of having it treated by mechanical means1 much in the same way as flax fibre was being treated4 ,at this period ,dundee was a comparatively important textile centre in regard to the spinning and weaving of flax and hemp2 it was1 in consequence1 only natural that the longer1 but otherwise apparently similar and coarser1 jute fibre should be submitted to the machinery in vogue for the preparation and spinning of flax and hemp4 ,when we say similar1 we mean in general appearance2 it is now well-known that there is a considerable difference between jute fibre and those of hemp and flax1 and hence the modifications in preparation which had ultimately to be introduced to enable the jute fibre to be successfully treated4 ,these modifications shall be discussed at a later stage4 ,it might be stated that while only #cfh cwt4 of jute fibre was reported as being shipped from ,calcutta to this country in #ahbh1 the imports gradually increased as time passed on4 ,the yarns which were made from the fibre were heavier or thicker than those in demand for the usual types of cloth1 and it was desirable that other types of cloth should be introduced so that these yarns could be utilized4 ,about the year #ahch1 representatives of the ,dutch ,government placed comparatively large orders with the manufacturers for jute bags to be used for carrying the crop of coffee beans from their ,west ,indian possessions4 ,the subsequent rapid growth of the industry1 and the demand for newer types of cloth1 are perhaps due more to the above fortunate experiment than to any other circumstance4 ,by the year or season #ahej-ea1 the ,british imports of jute fibre had increased to over #bh1jjj tons1 and they reached #df1jjj tons in the season #ahfj-fa4 ,attention meanwhile had been directed to the possibility of manufacturing jute goods by machinery in ,india--the seat of the cultivation and growth of the fibre4 ,at least such a probability was anticipated1 for in the year #aheh a small consignment of machinery was despatched to ,calcutta1 and an attempt made to produce the gunny bags which were typical of the ,indian native industry4 ,the great difference between the more or less unorganized hand labour and the essential organization of modern mills and factories soon became apparent1 for in the first place it was difficult to induce the natives to remain inside the works during the period of training1 and equally difficult to keep the trained operatives constantly employed4 ,monetary affairs induced them to leave the mills and factories for their more usual mode of living in the country4 ,in the face of these difficulties1 however1 the industry grew in ,india as well as in ,dundee4 ,for several years before the war1 the quantity of raw jute fibre brought to ,dundee and other ,british ports amounted to #bjj1jjj tons4 ,during the same period preceding the war1 nearly #a1jjj1jjj tons were exported to various countries1 while the ,indian annual consumption--due jointly to the home industry and the mills in the vicinity of ,calcutta--reached the same huge total of one million tons4 ,the growth of the jute industry in several parts of the world1 and consequently its gradually increasing importance in regard to the production of yarns and cloth for various purposes1 enables it to be ranked as one of the important industries in the textile group1 and one which may perhaps attain a much more important position in the near future amongst our national manufacturing processes4 ,as a matter of fact1 at the present time1 huge extensions are contemplated and actually taking place in ,india4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,cultivation ,botanical and ,physical ,features of the ,plant4 ,jute fibre is obtained from two varieties of plants which appear to differ only in the shape of the fruit or seed vessel4 ,thus1 the fruit of the variety ,corchorus ,capsularis is enclosed in a capsule of approximately circular section1 whereas the fruit of the variety ,corchorus ,olitorius is contained in a pod4 ,both belong to the order ,tiliacea1 and are annuals cultivated mostly in ,bengal and ,assam4 ,other varieties are recorded1 e4g4 the ,corchorus ,japonicus of ,japan1 and the ,corchorus ,mompoxensis used in ,panama for making a kind of tea1 while one variety of jute plant is referred to in the book of job as the ,jew's ,mallow2 this variety ,c4 ,olitorius1 has been used in the ,east from time immemorial as a pot herb4 ,the two main varieties ,c4 ,capsularis and ,c4 ,olilorius are cultivated in ,bengal for the production of fibre1 while for seed purposes1 large tracts of land are cultivated in ,assam1 and the seeds exported for use principally in ,mymensingh and ,dacca4 ,the above two varieties of the jute plant vary in height from #e to #ae feet1 and1 in a normal season1 reach maturity in about four months from the time of sowing4 ,in some districts the stems of jute plants are sometimes rather dark in colour1 but1 in general1 they are green or pink1 and straight with a tendency to branch4 ,the leaves are alternate on the stems1 #d to #e inches in length1 and about #a-a_/b inches in breadth with serrated edges4 ,pale yellow flowers spring from the axil 7axilla7 of the leaves1 and there is an abundance of small seeds in the fruit which1 as mentioned1 is characteristic of the variety4 ,while many attempts have been made to cultivate jute plants in various parts of the world1 the results seem to indicate that the necessary conditions for the successful cultivation of them are completely fulfilled only in the ,bengal area1 and the geographical position of this province is mainly responsible for these conditions4 ,on referring to a map of ,india1 it will be seen that ,bengal is directly north of the bay of that name1 and is bounded on the north by the great ,himalayan mountains4 ,during the winter period when the prevailing winds are from the north1 large areas of the mountainous regions are covered with snow1 but when the winds change and come from the south1 and particularly during the warmer weather1 the moist warm air raises the general temperature and also melts much of the snow on the mountain tracts4 ,the rain and melted snow swell the two great rivers on the east and west of ,bengal--the ,patna and the ,brahmaputra--and the tremendous volume of water carries down decayed vegetable and animal matter which is ultimately spread on the flat areas of ,bengal as alluvial deposits1 and thus provides an ideal layer of soil for the propagation of the jute plants4 ,the cultivation of land for the growing of jute plants is most extensively conducted in the centres bordering on the courses of the rivers1 and particularly in ,mymensingh1 ,dacca1 ,hooghly and ,pabna1 and while #ij per cent4 of the fibre is produced in ,bengal1 ,orissa and ,bihar1 there is #aj per cent4 produced outside these areas4 ,the ,corchorus ,capsularis variety is usually cultivated in the higher and richer soils1 while the ,corchorus ,olitorius variety is most suited for the lower-lying alluvial soils1 and to the districts where the rainfall is irregular2 indeed1 the ,c4 ,olitorius may be grown in certain other districts of ,india which appear quite unsuitable for the ,c4 ,capsularis4 ,the farming operations in ,india are rather simple when compared with the corresponding operations in this country2 there is evidently not the same necessity for extensive working of the ,indian soil as there is for the heavier lands2 another reason for the primitive ,eastern methods may be the absence of horses4 ,the ploughs are made of wood and faced with iron4 ,bullocks1 in teams of two or more1 are harnessed to the plough as shown in ,fig4 #a where a field is being ploughed as a preliminary process in jute cultivation4 ,the bullocks draw the plough in much the same way as horses do in this country4 ,the operation of ploughing breaks up the soil1 while the rough clods may be broken by hand mallets or by the use of the hengha--a piece of tree boll harnessed at the ends to a pair of bullocks4 ,the breaking up of the land prepares it for the cleaning process which is performed by what are termed ladders2 these ladders are made of a few bamboos fixed cross-wise and provided with projecting pins to scratch or open the soil1 and to collect the roots of the previous crop2 they are the equivalent of our harrows1 and may be used repeatedly during the winter and spring seasons so that a fine tilth may be produced4 ,when manure is essential1 it is applied in the later ploughings1 but other large areas have artificial or chemical manures added at similar stages in the process4 ,farm-yard manure is preferred1 but castor-cake and the water hyacinth--a weed--constitute good substitutes4 ,after the soil has been satisfactorily prepared1 the seed is sown by hand at the period which appears most suitable for the particular district4 ,the usual sowing time is from ,february to the end of ,may1 and even in ,june in some districts where late crops can be obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,,natives ,,ploughing ,,the ,,ground ,there are early and late varieties of the plants1 and a carefully judged distribution of the varieties of seed over the districts for the growing period will not only yield a succession of crops for easy harvesting1 but will also help the farmer in the selection of seeds for other areas where atmospheric conditions differ4 ,it is a good practice1 where possible1 to sow the seed in two directions at right angles to each other1 and thus secure as uniform a distribution as possible4 ,the amount of seed used depends partly upon the district1 and in general from #aj lbs4 to #cj lbs4 per acre are sown4 ,the seed may cost about #h annas or more per ser 7about #b lbs474 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,,breaking ,,up ,,the ,,soil1 ,,or ,,laddering ,plants should be specially cultivated for the production of seed in order to obtain the best results from these seeds for fibre plants4 ,many of the ryots 7farmers7 use seed which has been collected from plants grown from inferior seed1 or from odd and often poor plants2 they also grow plants year after year on the same soil4 ,the fibres obtained1 as a rule1 and as a result of this method of obtaining seeds1 gradually deteriorate2 much better results accrue when succession of crops and change of seed are carefully attended to4 ,if the weather conditions are favourable1 the seeds will germinate in #h to #aj days1 after which the plants grow rapidly4 ,the heat and showers of rain combined soon form a crust on the soil which should be broken2 this is done by means of another ladder provided with long pins1 and ,fig4 #b illustrates the operation in process4 ,this second laddering process opens up the soil and allows the moisture and heat to enter4 ,the young plants are now thinned1 and the ground weeded periodically1 until the plants reach a sufficient height or strength to prevent the words from spreading4 ,the space between the growing plants will vary according to the region2 if there is a tendency to slow growth1 there is an abundance of plants2 whereas1 the thinning is most severe where the plants show prospects of growing thick and tall4 ,in a normal season the plants will reach maturity in about #c #a_/b to #d months from the time of sowing4 ,although different opinions are held as to the best time for harvesting1 that when the fruits are setting appears to be most in favour2 plants harvested at this stage usually yield a large quantity of good fibre which can be perfectly cleaned1 and which is of good spinning quality4 ,the plants are cut down by hand and with home-made knives2 in general1 these knives are of crude manufacture1 but they appear to be quite suitable for the purpose4 ,a field of jute plants ready for cutting will certainly form a delightful picture1 but the prospect of the operation of cutting indicates a formidable piece of work since it requires about #aj to #ad tons of the green crop to produce about #aj to #ae cwt4 of clean dry fibre4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,retting ,the method of separating the bast layer 7in which the fibres are embedded7 from the stem of the plant requires a large supply of water1 since the plants must be completely submerged in the water for a period varying from #h to #cj days2 such time is dependent upon the period of the year and upon the district in which the operation is performed4 ,the above operation of detaching the bast layer from the stem is technically known as retting1 and a good type of retting or steeping place is an off-set of a run1 branch1 or stream where the water moves slowly1 or even remains at rest1 during the time the plants are under treatment4 ,the disintegration of the structural part of the plant is due to a bacterial action1 and gas is given off during the operation4 ,the farmer1 or ryot1 and his men know what progress the action is making by the presence of the air bells which rise to the surface2 when the formation of air bells ceases1 the men examine the plants daily to see that the operation does not go too far1 otherwise the fibrous layer would be injured1 and the resulting fibre weak4 ,the stems are tested in these examinations to see if the fibrous layer1 or bast layer1 will strip off clean from the wood or stem4 ,when the ryot considers that the layers are separated from the core sufficiently easy1 the work of steeping ceases1 and the process of stripping is commenced immediately4 ,this latter process is conducted in various ways depending upon the practice in vogue in the district4 ,in one area the men work amongst the water breaking up the woody structure of the retted plants by means of mallets and cross rails fixed to uprights in the water2 others break the stems by hand2 while in other cases the stems are handed out of the water to women who strip off the fibrous layer and preserve intact the central core or straw to be used ultimately for thatching4 ,the strips of fibre are all cleaned and rubbed in the water to remove all the vegetable impurities1 and finally the fibre is dried1 usually by hanging it over poles and protecting it from the direct rays of the sun4 ,if the water supply is deficient in the vicinity where the plants are grown1 it may be advantageous to convey the fibrous layers to some other place provided with a better supply of water for the final washing and drying2 imperfect retting and cleaning are apt to create defects in the fibre1 and to cause considerable trouble or difficulties in subsequent branches of the industry4 ,fig4 #c illustrates photomicrographs of cross sections of a jute plant4 ,the lower illustration represents approximately one quarter of a complete cross section4 ,the central part of the stem or pith is lettered ,a2 the next wide ring ,b is the woody matter2 the outer covering or cuticle is marked ,c2 while the actual fibrous layer appears between the parts ,b and ,c1 and some of the fibres are indicated by ,d4 ,the arrows show the corresponding parts in the three distinct views4 ,the middle illustration shows an enlarged view of a small part of the lowest view1 while the upper illustration is a further enlarged view of a small section of the middle view4 ,it will be seen that each group of fibres is surrounded by vegetable matter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c ,,photomicrographs ,,of ,,cross ,,sections ,,of ,a ,,jute ,,plant ,another method of stripping the fibrous layer off the stems or stalks1 and one which is practised in certain districts with the object of preserving the straws1 consists in breaking off a small portion1 say one foot1 at the top end of the stem2 the operative then grasps the tops by the hand and shakes the plants to and fro in the water1 thus loosening the parts1 after which the straws float out1 leaving the fibrous layer free4 ,the straws are collected for future use1 while the fibre is cleaned and washed in the usual way4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,assorting ,,and ,,baling ,,jute ,,fibre ,the ,indian raw jute trade is conducted under various conditions4 ,the method of marketing may be of such a nature that the farmers in some districts may have to make a rough assortment of the fibre into a number of qualities or grades1 and these grades are well known in the particular areas2 on the other hand1 the farmers may prefer to sell the total yield of fibre at an overhead price per maund4 ,a maund is approximately equal to #h lbs41 and this quantity forms a comparatively small bundle4 ,in other cases1 the fibre is made up into what is known as a drum2 this is a hand-packed bale of from #a #a_/b to #c or #c #a_/b maunds2 it is a very convenient size for transit in ,india4 ,practically one half of the total jute crop1 of #i to #aj million bales of #djj lbs4 each1 is used in ,india1 and the remaining half is baled for export to the various parts of the world2 a little over one million bales are exported annually to ,great ,britain1 the bulk of this fibre comes to ,dundee4 ,it is practically impossible for foreign purchasers to see the material at the assorting stations1 but the standardized method of assorting and grading enables a purchaser to form a very good idea of the quality of the fibre1 and its suitability or otherwise for special types of yarn and cloth4 ,thus1 a form of selecting and grading has been established on a basis that provides a very large amount of jute each year of a quality which is known as a first mark4 ,a mark1 in general1 in reference to fibre1 is simply some symbol1 name1 letter1 monogram or the like1 or a combination of two or more1 oft-times with reference to some colour1 to distinguish the origin of the fibre1 the baler1 or the merchant4 ,in normal years there is also a large quantity of fibre of a better quality than what is known as first mark1 and this better quality is termed fine jute2 while there is yet a further lot1 the quality of which is below these good ones4 ,since there are hundreds of different marks which are of value only to those connected directly with the trade1 it is unnecessary to dwell on the subject4 ,the following list1 however1 shows quotations of various kinds1 and is taken from the ,market ,report of the ,dundee ,advertiser of ,march1 #aibj4 ,the price of jute1 like almost everything else1 was at this date very high1 so in order to make comparisons with the #aibj and normal prices1 we introduce the prices for the corresponding grade1 first marks1 for the same month in the years #aiae onwards4 ,,jute ,,prices1 ,,in ,,march ,first ,marks ,year4 ,price per ton4 4 s4 d4 4 s4 d4 #aiae #bg to #ce #ae #aiaf #dd #aiag #db #aj #aiah #ea #aiai #di #aibj #gj 7spot7 ,it is necessary to state that the assorting and balings are generally so uniform that the trade can be conducted quite satisfactorily with the aid of the usual safeguards under contract1 and guarantees regarding the properties of the fibre4 ,after these assorting operations are completed1 the jute fibre is made up into bundles or bojahs of #bjj lbs4 each1 and two of these #bjj lb4 bundles are subsequently made up into a standard bale1 the weight of which is #djj lbs4 ,this weight includes a permitted quantity of binding rope1 up to #f lbs4 in weight1 while the dimensions in the baling press of the #djj lb4 bale are #d'a ,x #a'f ,x #a' #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d ,,natives ,,carrying ,,small ,,bales ,,of ,,jute ,,fibre ,,from ,,boat ,,to ,,press ,,house ,large quantities of the smaller and loosely-packed bales are conveyed from the various places by boats to the baling houses or press houses as they are termed4 ,these are very large establishments1 and huge staffs of operatives are necessary to deal rapidly and efficiently with the large number of bales4 ,in ,fig4 #d scores of natives1 superintended by a ,european1 are seen carrying the smaller bales on their heads from the river boat to the press house4 ,it is1 of course1 unnecessary to make the solid #djj lb4 bales for ,indian consumption2 this practice is usually observed only for jute which is to be exported1 and all such bales are weighed and measured at the baling station by a ,chamber of ,commerce expert4 ,most of the baling presses used in the press houses in the ,calcutta district are made in ,liverpool1 and are provided with the most efficient type of pumps and mechanical parts4 ,fig4 #e illustrates one of these huge presses with a number of natives in close proximity4 ,two or three distinct operations are conducted simultaneously by different groups of operatives1 and ingenious mechanism is essential for the successful prosecution of the work4 ,two such presses as that illustrated in ,fig4 #e are capable1 under efficient administration1 of turning out #acj bales of #djj lbs4 each in one hour4 ,the fibre is compressed into comparatively small bulk by hydraulic pressure equal to #f1jjj lbs4 per square inch1 and no packed bale must exceed in cubical capacity #aa cubic feet after it leaves the press2 it is usual for freight purposes to reckon #e bales or #ee cubic feet per ton4 7,now changed to #ej cubic feet47 ,the jute bales are loaded either at the wharf or in the river from barges into large steamers1 many of which carry from #cj1jjj to #df1jjj bales in one cargo to the ,european ports4 ,one vessel brought #gj1jjj bales4 ,as already mentioned1 jute is sold under guarantees as to quality1 and all disputes must be settled by arbitration4 ,although this is the usual method of sale1 it is not uncommon for quantities of jute to be shipped unsold1 and such quantities may be disposed of on the ,spot4 ,it is a common practice to sell a number of bales to sample1 such number depending generally upon the extent of the quantity1 or parcel1 as it is often called4 ,the contract forms are very complete1 and enable the business to be conducted to the satisfaction of all concerned in the trade4 ,,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e ,,natives ,,bailing ,,jute ,,fibre ,,in ,a ,,watson-,,fawcett ,,cyclone ,,press ,it will be understood that1 in the yearly production of such a large quantity of jute fibre from various districts1 and obtained from plants which have been grown under variable climatic and agricultural conditions1 in some cases the fibre will be of the finest type procurable1 while in other cases it will be of a very indifferent type and unsuitable for use in the production of the ordinary classes of yarns and fabrics4 ,on the other hand1 it should be stated that there is such a wide range of goods manufactured1 and additional varieties occasionally introduced1 that it appears possible to utilize all the kinds of fibre in any year2 indeed1 it seems as if the available types of fibre each season create demands for a corresponding type of manufactured product4 ,the crops produced will1 obviously1 vary in amount and value annually1 but a few figures will help the reader to estimate in some degree the extent of the industry and its development in various parts of the world4 ,,exports ,,of ,,jute ,,from ,,india ,year4 ,tons4 ,bales4 #ahbh #ah #cjj lbs_/bale #ahcb #ahb #cjj lbs_/bale #ahcc #cjj #cjj lbs_/bale #ahcd #hbh #cjj lbs_/bale #ahce #a1bbb #cjj lbs_/bale #ahcf #af #cjj lbs_/bale #ahcg #aga #cjj lbs_/bale ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f ,,vessel ,,laden ,,with ,,jute ,,at ,,quay-,,side ,,adjoining ,,jute ,,sheds ,,in ,,dundee ,,harbour ,,jute ,,production ,,in ,,india ,season4 ,tons4 ,bales 7#djj lbs474 #ahej-ea4 #bh1bdg #aeh1ahc #ahfj-fa4 #df1ahb #beh1fai #ahfb-fc4 #ajh1ggf #fji1adf #ahfc-fd4 #abe1ijc #gjg1jef #ahgb-gc4 #djf1cce #b1bge1dgf #ahhj-ha4 #cdc1eif #a1ibd1acg #ahhf-hg4 #dac1ffd #b1caf1eah #ahib-ic4 #ehf1beh #c1jhc1jbc #ahif-ig4 #ehh1ada #c1bic1eia #aijb-jc4 #ehj1ifg #c1bec1dad #aijf-jg4 #hbi1bgc #d1fdc1ibi #aijg-jh4 #a1gfa1ihb #i1hfg1ajj #aijh-ji4 #a1ace1hef #f1cfj1hjj #aiji-aj4 #a1cjb1ghb #g1bie1ehj #aiaj-aa #a1dcd1bhf #h1jcb1jjj #aiaa-ab4 #a1dhh1cci #h1ccd1gjj #aiab-ac4 #a1gah1ahj #i1fba1hbi #aiac-ad4 #a1ehj1fgd #h1hea1gge #aiad-ae4 #a1hih1dhc #aj1fca1eje #aiae-af4 #a1cdd1dag #g1ebh1gcc #aiaf-ag4 #a1dic1igf #h1cff1bff #aiag-ah4 #a1fjg1ibb #i1jjd1cfd #aiah-ai4 #a1bgh1dbe #g1aei1ahj #aiai-bj4 #a1edb1agh #h1fcf1bjj ,a large vessel containing bales of jute is berthed on the quay-side adjoining the jute sheds in ,fig4 #f4 ,the bales are raised quickly from the hold by means of a hydraulic-engine1 scarcely visible in ,fig4 #f since it is at the far end of the vessel1 but seen clearly in ,fig4 #g4 ,when the bales are raised sufficiently high1 they are guided to the comparatively steep part of a chute from which they descend to the more horizontal part as exemplified in ,fig4 #g4 ,they are then removed by means of hand-carts as shown1 taken into the shed1 and piled or stored in some suitable arrangement with or without the aid of a crane4 ,motor and other lorries are then used to convey the bales to the various mills where the first actual process in what is termed spinning takes place4 ,it will be understood that the bales are stored in the spinner's own stores after having been delivered as stated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,harbour ,,porters ,,removing ,,bales ,,of ,,jute ,,from ,,the ,,vessel ,,shown ,,in ,,fig4 #f ,,chapter ,v4 ,,mill ,,operations ,bale ,opening4 ,each spinner1 as already indicated1 stores his bales of jute of various marks1 i4e4 qualities1 in a convenient manner1 and in a store or warehouse from which any required number of bales of each mark can be quickly removed to the preparing department of the mill4 ,in the woollen industry1 the term blending is used to indicate the mixing of different varieties of material 7as well as different kinds of fibres7 for the purpose of obtaining a mixture suitable for the preparing and spinning of a definite quality and colour of material4 ,in much the same way1 the term batching is used in the jute industry1 although it will be seen shortly that a more extensive use is made of the word4 ,a batch1 in its simplest definition1 therefore indicates a number of bales which is suitable for subsequent handling in the ,batching ,department4 ,this number may include #e1 #f1 #g or more bales of jute according to the amount of accommodation in the preparing department4 ,all the above bales of a batch may be composed of the same standard quality of jute1 although the marks may be different4 ,it must be remembered that although the marks have a distinct reference to quality and colour1 they actually represent some particular firm or firms of balers or merchants4 ,at other times1 the batch of #e to #aj bales may be composed of different qualities of jute1 the number of each kind depending partly upon the finished price of the yarn1 partly upon the colour1 and partly upon the spinning properties of the combination4 ,it will be understood that the purpose for which the finished yarn is to be used will determine largely the choice of the bales for any particular batch4 ,for example1 to refer to a simple differentiation1 the yarn which is to be used for the warp threads in the weaving of cloth must1 in nearly every case1 have properties which differ in some respects from the yarn which is to be used as weft for the same cloth4 ,on the whole1 it will be found advantageous1 when the same grade of jute is required1 to select a batch from different balers' marks so that throughout the various seasons an average quality may be produced4 ,the same class of yarn is expected at all times of the year1 but it is well known that the properties of any one mark may vary from time to time owing to the slight variations in the manipulation of the fibre at the farms1 and to the variations of the weather during the time of growth1 and during the season generally4 ,a list of the bales for the batch is sent to the batching department1 this list being known as a batch-ticket4 ,the bales are1 of course1 defined by their marks1 and those mentioned on the batch-ticket must be rigidly adhered to for one particular class of yarn2 if there is any chance of one kind running short1 the condition should be notified in time so that a suitable mark may be selected to take its place without effecting any great change in the character or quality of the yarn4 ,when the number and kind of bales have been selected and removed from the groups or parcels in the store or warehouse1 they are conveyed to the batching department1 and placed in a suitable position near the first machine in the series4 ,it need hardly be mentioned that since the fibre1 during the operation of baling1 is subjected to such a high hydraulic pressure1 the bale presents a very solid and hard appearance1 see ,fig4 #g1 for the various so-called heads of fibre have been squeezed together and forced into a very small bulk4 ,in such a state1 the heads are quite unfitted for the actual batching operation2 they require to be opened out somewhat so that the fibres will be more or less separated from each other4 ,this operation is termed opening and the process is conducted in what is known as a bale opener1 one type of which is illustrated in ,fig4 #h1 and made by ,messrs4 ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,co41 ,ltd41 ,dundee4 ,the various bales of the batch are arranged in a suitable manner near the feed side of the machine1 on the left in the view1 so that they can be handled to the best advantage4 ,the bands or ropes1 see ,fig4 #g1 are removed from the bale in order that the heads or large pieces of jute can be separated4 ,if any irregularity in the selection of the heads from the different bales of the batch takes place in this first selection of the heads of jute1 the faulty handling may affect subsequent operations in such a way that no chance of correcting the defect can occur2 it should be noted at this stage that if there are slight variations of any kind in the fibres1 it is advisable to make special efforts to obtain a good average mixture2 as a matter of fact1 it is wise to insist upon a judicious selection in every case4 ,the usual variations are--the colour of the fibre1 its strength1 and the presence of certain impurities such as stick1 root1 bark or specks2 if the pieces of jute1 which are affected adversely by any of the above1 are carefully mixed with the otherwise perfect fibre1 most of the faults may disappear as the fibre proceeds on its way through the different machines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h ,,bale ,,opener ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,co41 ,ltd4 ,the layers of heads are often beaten with a heavy sledge hammer in hand batching1 but for machine batching a bale opener is used1 and this operation constitutes the preliminary opening4 ,as already indicated1 the heads of jute are fed into the machine from the left in ,fig4 #h1 each head being laid on a travelling feed cloth which carries the heads of jute successively between a pair of feed rollers from which they are delivered to two pairs of very deeply-fluted crushing rollers or breakers4 ,the last pair of deep-fluted rollers is seen clearly on the right in the figure4 ,these two pairs of heavy rollers crush and bend the compressed heads of jute and deliver them in a much softer condition to the delivery sheet on the right4 ,the delivery sheet is an endless cloth which has a continuous motion1 and thus the softened heads are carried to the extreme right1 at which position they are taken from the sheet by the operatives4 ,the upper rollers in the machine may rise in their bearings against the downward pressure of the volute springs on the bearings2 this provision is essential because of the thick and thin places of the heads4 ,a different type of bale opener1 made by ,messrs4 ,charles ,parker1 ,sons1 ,co41 ,dundee1 and designed from the ,butchart patent is illustrated in ,fig4 #i4 ,it differs mainly from the machine illustrated in ,fig4 #h in the shape of the crushing or opening rollers4 ,it will be seen on referring to the illustration that there are three crushing rollers1 one large central roller on the top and situated between two lower but smaller rollers4 ,each roller has a series of knobs projecting from a number of parallel rings4 ,the knobs are so arranged that they force themselves into the hard layers of jute1 and1 in addition to this action1 the heads of jute have to bend partially round the larger roller as they are passing between the rollers4 ,this double action naturally aids in opening up the material1 and the machine1 which is both novel and effective1 gives excellent results in practice4 ,the degree of pressure provided for the top roller may be varied to suit different conditions of heads of jute by the number of weights which are shown clearly in the highest part of the machine in the form of two sets of heavy discs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i ,,bale ,,opener ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,charles ,parker1 ,sons1 ,co4 ,the driving side1 the feed cloth1 and the delivery cloth in this machine are placed similarly to the corresponding parts of the machine illustrated in ,fig4 #h1 a machine which also gives good results in practice4 ,in both cases the large heads are delivered in such a condition that the operatives can split them up into pieces of a suitable size quite freely4 ,the men who bring in the bales from the store take up a position near the end of the delivery cloth2 they remove the heads of jute as the latter approach the end of the table1 and then pass them to the batchers1 who split them4 ,the most suitable size of pieces are #b-a_/b to #c lbs4 for a piece of #g feet to #h feet in length1 but the size of the pieces is regulated somewhat by the system of feeding which is to be adopted at the breaker-card1 as well as by the manager's opinion of what will give the best overall result4 ,after the heads of jute have been split up into suitable smaller pieces1 they are placed in any convenient position for the batcher or striker-up to deal with4 ,if the reader could watch the above operation of separating the heads of jute into suitable sizes1 it would perhaps be much easier to understand the process of unravelling an apparently matted and crossed mass of fibre4 ,as the loosened head emerges from the bale-opener1 ,figs4 #h or #i1 it is placed over the operative's arm with the ends of the head hanging1 and by a sort of intuition acquired by great experience1 she or he grips the correct amount of fibre between the fingers1 and by a dexterous movement1 and a simultaneous shake of the whole piece1 the handful just comes clear of the bulk and in much less time than it takes to describe the operation4 ,as the pieces are thus detached from the bulk1 they are laid on stools or tables1 or in stalls or carts1 according to the method by means of which the necessary amount of oil and water is to be added for the essential process of lubrication2 this lubrication enables the fibre to work freely in the various machines4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,batching ,softening and ,softening ,machines4 ,two distinct courses are followed in the preparation of the jute fibre after it leaves the bale opener1 and before it is carded by the breaker card4 ,these courses are designated as-- #a4 ,hand ,batching4 #b4 ,machine ,batching4 ,in the former process1 which is not largely practised1 the pieces of jute are neatly doubled1 while imparting a slight twist1 to facilitate subsequent handling1 and laid in layers in large carts which can be wheeled from place to place2 if this method is not convenient1 the pieces are doubled similarly and deposited in large stalls such as those illustrated in ,fig4 #aj4 ,on the completion of each layer1 or sometimes two layers1 the necessary measured amount of oil is evenly sprayed by hand over the pieces from cans provided with suitable perforated outlets--usually long tubes4 ,after the oil has been added1 water1 from a similar sprayer attached by tubing to a water tap1 is added until the attendant has applied what he or she considers is the proper quantity4 ,the ratio between a measured amount of oil and an unmeasured amount of water is thus somewhat varied1 and for this reason the above method is not to be commended4 ,a conscientious worker can1 however1 with judgment1 introduce satisfactory proportions which are1 of course1 supplied by the person in charge4 ,in ,fig4 #aj1 the tank on the right is where the oil is stored1 while the oil can1 and the spray-pipe and tube for water1 are shown near the second post or partition on the right4 ,,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj ,,hand-,,batching ,,department ,,with ,,unprepared ,,and ,,prepared ,,fibre ,the first stall--that next to the oil tank--in ,fig4 #aj is filled with the prepared pieces1 and the contents are allowed to remain there for some time1 say #bd hours1 in order that the material may be more or less uniformly lubricated or conditioned4 ,at the end of this time1 the pieces are ready to be conveyed to and fed into the softening machines where the fibres undergo a further process of bending and crushing4 ,all softening machines for jute1 or softeners as they are often called1 are similar in construction1 but the number of pairs of rollers varies according to circumstances and to the opinions of managers4 ,thus1 the softener illustrated in ,fig4 #aa1 which1 in the form shown1 is intended to treat jute from the above-mentioned stalls1 is made with #dg1 #ee1 #fc or #ga pairs of rollers or any other number which1 minus #a1 is a measure of #h4 ,the sections are made in #h's4 ,the illustration shows only #ca pairs4 ,the first pair of rollers--that next to the feed sheet in the foreground of ,fig4 #aa--;is provided with straight flutes as clearly shown4 ,all the other rollers1 however1 are provided with oblique flutes1 such flutes making a small angle with the horizontal4 ,what is often considered as a standard softening machine contains #fc pairs of fluted rollers besides the usual feed and delivery rollers4 ,as mentioned above1 this number is varied according to circumstances4 ,the lubricated pieces of jute are fed on to the feed roller sheet1 and hence undergo a considerable amount of bending in different ways before they emerge from the delivery rollers at the other end of the machine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa ,softening machine without batching apparatus ,machine batching is preferred by many firms because the application of oil and water1 and the proportion of each1 are much more uniform than they are by the above mentioned process of hand batching4 ,on the other hand1 there is no time for conditioning the fibre because the lubrication and the softening are proceeding simultaneously1 although conditioning may proceed while the fibre remains in the cart after it has left the softener4 ,the mechanical apparatus as made by ,messrs4 ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,co41 ,ltd41 ,dundee1 for depositing the oil and water on the pieces or stricks of jute is illustrated in ,fig4 #ab4 ,the actual lubricating equipment is situated on the top of the rectangular frame in the centre of the illustration4 ,this frame is bolted to the side frames of the softening machine proper1 say that shown in ,fig4 #aa4 ,its exact position1 with respect to its distance from the feed1 is a matter of choice1 but the liquid is often arranged to fall on to the material at any point between the second and twelfth rollers4 ,in ,fig4 #ab the ends of #ac rollers of the upper set are seen clearly1 and these upper rollers are kept hard in contact with the stricks or pieces of jute by means of the powerful springs shown immediately above the roller bearings and partially enclosed in bell-jars4 ,outside the rectangular frame in ,fig4 #ab are two rods1 one vertical and the other inclined4 ,the straight or vertical rod is attached by suitable levers and rods to the set-on handles at each end of the machine and to the valve of the water pipe near the top of the frame1 while the upper end of the inclined or oblique rod is fulcrumed on a rod projecting from the frame4 ,the lower or curved end of the oblique rod rests against the boss of one of the upper rollers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab ,the water valve is opened and closed with the starting and stopping of the machine1 but the oblique rod is moved only when irregular feeding takes place4 ,thus1 the upper rollers rise slightly against the pressure of the springs when thick stricks appear2 hence1 when a thick place passes under the roller which is in contact with the curved end of the oblique rod1 the end moves slightly clockwise1 and thus rotates the fulcrum rod2 this results in an increased quantity of oil being liberated from the source of supply1 and the mechanism is so arranged that the oil reaches the thick part of the strick4 ,when the above-mentioned upper roller descends1 due to a decrease in the thickness of the strick1 the oblique rod and its fulcrum is moved slightly counter-clockwise1 and less oil is liberated for the thin part of the strick4 ,it will be understood that all makers of softening machines supply the automatic lubricating or batching apparatus when desired4 ,a view of a softener at work appears in ,fig4 #ac4 ,the bevel wheels at the end of the rollers are naturally covered as a protection against accidents4 ,in many machines safety appliances are fitted at the feed end so that the machine may be automatically stopped if the operative is in danger4 ,the batching apparatus for this machine is of a different kind from that illustrated in ,fig4 #ab2 moreover1 it is placed nearer the feed rollers than the twelfth pair4 ,the feed pipes for the oil and the water are shown coming from a high plane1 and the supply is under the influence of chain gearing as shown on the right near the large driving belt from the drum on the shafting4 ,the feed roller in this machine is a spirally fluted one1 and the nature of the flutes is clearly emphasized in the view4 ,the barrow of jute at the far end of the machine is built up from stricks which have passed through the machine1 and these stricks are now ready for conditioning1 and will be stored in a convenient position for future treatment4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac ,softening machine with batching apparatus ,while the jute as assorted and baled for export from ,india is graded in such a way that it may be used for certain classes of yarn without any further selection or treatment1 it may be possible to utilize the material to better advantage by a judicious selection and treatment after it has undergone the operation of batching4 ,what are known as cuttings are often treated by a special machine known as a root-opener4 ,the jute cuttings are fed into the machines and the fibre rubbed between fixed and rotating pins in order to loosen the matted ends of stricks4 ,foreign matter drops through the openings of a grid to the floor1 and the fibre is delivered on to a table1 or1 if desired1 on to the feed sheet of the softener4 ,the root ends of stricks are sometimes treated by a special machine termed a root-comber with the object of loosening the comparatively hard end of the strick4 ,a snipping machine or a teazer may also be used for somewhat similar purposes1 and for opening out ropes and similar close textures4 ,the cuttings may be partially loosened by means of blows from a heavy iron bar2 boiling water is then poured on the fibre1 and then the material is built up with room left for expansion1 and allowed to remain in this condition for a few days4 ,a certain quantity of this material may then be used along with other marks of jute to form a batch suitable for the intended yarn4 ,a very common practice is to cut the hard root ends off by means of a large stationary knife4 ,at other times1 the thin ends of the stricks are also cut off by the same instrument4 ,these two parts are severed when it is desired to utilize only the best part of the strick4 ,the root ends are usually darker in colour than the remainder1 and hence the above process is one of selection with the object of securing a yarn which will be uniform in colour and in strength4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,carding ,breaker and ,finisher ,cards4 ,after the fibre from the softening machine has been conditioned for the desired time1 it is ready for one of the most important processes in the cycle of jute manufacture2 this process is termed carding1 and is conducted in two distinct types of machines-- #a4 ,the breaker card4 #b4 ,the finisher card4 ,the functions of the two machines are almost identical2 indeed1 one might say that the work of carding should be looked upon as one continuous operation4 ,the main difference between the two types of machines is in the method of feeding1 and the degree of fineness or setting of the small tools or pins which perform the work4 ,in both cases the action on the stricks of jute is equivalent to a combined combing and splitting movement1 and the pins in the various rollers move relatively to each other so that while the pins of a slowly-moving roller allow the strick or stricks 7because there are several side by side7 to pass slowly and gradually from end to end1 the pins of another but quickly-moving roller perform the splitting and the combing of the fibre4 ,the pins of the slowly-moving roller hold1 so to speak1 the strick1 while the pins of the quickly-moving roller comb out the fibres and split adhering parts asunder so as to make a comparatively fine division4 ,the conditioned stricks from the softening machine are first arranged in some suitable receptacle and within easy reach of the operative at the back or feed side of the breaker card4 ,a receptacle1 very similar to that used at the breaker card1 appears near the far end of the softening machine in ,fig4 #ac4 ,a modern breaker card is illustrated in ,fig4 #ad4 ,the feed or back of the card is on the extreme right1 the delivery or front of the card on the extreme left1 while the gear side of the card is facing the observer4 ,the protecting cages were removed so that the wheels would be seen as clearly as possible4 ,some of the stricks of fibre are seen distinctly on the feed side of the figure2 they are accommodated1 as mentioned1 in a channel-shaped stand on the far side of the inclined feed sheet1 or feed cloth1 which leads up to and conveys the stricks into the grip of the feeding apparatus4 ,this particular type is termed a shell feed because the upper contour of the guiding feed bracket is shaped somewhat like a shell4 ,there is a gradually decreasing and suitably-sized gap between the upper part of the shell and the pins of the feed roller4 ,the root ends of the pins in this roller lead1 and the stricks of fibre are gripped between the pins and the shell1 and simultaneously carried into the machine where they come into contact with the points of the pins in the rapidly-revolving large roller1 termed a cylinder4 ,the above-mentioned combing and splitting action takes place at this point as well as for a distance of1 say1 #bd inches to #cj inches below4 ,the fibres which are separated at this stage are carried a little further round until they come into contact with the points of the pins in the above-mentioned slowly-moving roller1 termed a worker1 and while the fibres are moving slowly forward under the restraining influence of the worker1 they are further combed and split4 ,a portion of the fibres is carried round by the pins of the worker from which such fibres are removed by the quicker moving pins of the second roller of the pair1 termed a stripper1 and in turn these fibres are removed from the pins of the stripper by the much quicker moving pins of the cylinder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad ,,modern ,,breaker ,,card ,the above operations conducted by the first pair of rollers 7worker and stripper7 in conjunction with the cylinder1 are repeated by a second and similar pair of rollers 7worker and stripper71 and ultimately the thin sheet of combed and split fibres comes into contact with the pins of the doffer from which it is removed by the drawing and pressing rollers4 ,the sheet of fibres finally emerges from these rollers into the broad and upper part of the conductor4 ,this conductor1 made mostly of tin and ,v-shaped1 is shown clearly on the left of the machine in ,fig4 #ad4 ,immediately the thin film or sheet of fibres enters the conductor1 it is caused as a body gradually to contract in width and1 of course1 to increase in thickness1 and is simultaneously guided and delivered to the delivery rollers1 and from these to the sliver can1 distinctly seen immediately below the delivery rollers4 ,the sliver is seen emerging from the above rollers and entering the sliver can4 ,the fibres in this machine are thus combed1 split and drawn forward relatively to each other1 in addition to being arranged more or less parallel to each other4 ,the technical term draft is used to indicate the operation of causing the fibres to slip on each other1 and in future we shall speak about this attenuation or drawing out of the fibres by this special term draft4 ,it will be evident that1 since the sliver is delivered into the can at the rate of about #ej yards per minute1 this constant flow will soon provide a sufficient length of sliver to fill a sliver can1 although the latter may hold approximately #bj lbs4 ,the machine must1 of course1 deliver its quota to enable succeeding machines to be kept in practically constant work4 ,as a matter of fact1 the machines are arranged in what are termed systems1 so that this desirable condition of a constant and sufficient feed to all may be satisfactorily fulfilled4 ,the driving or pulley side of the breaker card is very similar to that shown in ,fig4 #ae which1 however1 actually represents the pulley side of one type of finisher card as made by ,messrs4 ,douglas ,fraser ,sons1 ,ltd41 ,arbroath4 ,all finisher cards are fed by slivers which have been made as explained in connection with the breaker card1 but there are two distinct methods of feeding the slivers1 or rather of arranging the slivers at the feed side4 ,in both cases1 however1 the full width of the card is fed by slivers laid side by side1 with1 however1 a thin guide plate between each pair1 and one at each extreme end4 ,one very common method of feeding is to place #aj or #ab full sliver cans--which have been prepared at the breaker card--on the floor and to the right of the machine illustrated in ,fig4 #ae4 ,the sliver from each can is then placed into the corresponding sliver guide1 and thus the full width of the machine is occupied4 ,the slivers are guided by the sliver guides on to an endless cloth or feed sheet which1 in turn1 conveys them continuously between the feed rollers4 ,the feed apparatus in such machines is invariably of the roller type1 and sometimes it involves what is known as a porcupine roller4 ,it will be understood that the feeding of level slivers is a different problem from that which necessitates the feeding of comparatively uneven stricks4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,douglas ,fraser ,sons1 ,ltd4 ,,fig4 #ae ,,finisher ,,card ,,with ,,drawing-,,head ,the slivers travel horizontally with the feed-sheet and enter the machine at a height of about #d feet from the floor4 ,they thus form1 as it were1 a sheet of fibrous material at the entrance1 and this sheet of fibres comes in contact with the pins of the various pairs of rollers1 the cylinder1 and the doffer1 in much the same way as already described in connection with the breaker card4 ,there are1 however1 more pairs of rollers in the finisher card than there are in the breaker card1 for while the latter is provided with two pairs of rollers1 the former may be arranged with #c1 #d1 #e or even #f pairs of rollers 7#f workers and #f strippers74 ,the number of pairs of rollers depends upon the degree of work required1 and upon the opinions of the various managers4 ,there are two distinct types of finisher cards1 viz-- #a4 ,half-circular finisher cards4 #b4 ,full-circular finisher cards4 ,the machine illustrated in ,fig4 #ae is of the latter type1 and such machines are so-called because the various pairs of rollers are so disposed around the cylinder that they occupy almost a complete circle1 and the fibre under treatment must move from pair to pair to undergo the combing and splitting action before coming into contact with the doffer4 ,there are five pairs of rollers in the machine in ,fig4 #ae1 and all the rollers are securely boxed in1 and the wheels fenced4 ,the arrangement of the wheels on the gear side is very similar to that shown in connection with the breaker card in ,fig4 #ad1 and therefore requires no further mention4 ,outside the boxing comes the covers1 shown clearly at the back of the machine in ,fig4 #ae1 and adapted to be easily and quickly opened when it is desired to examine the rollers and other parts4 ,the slivers1 after having passed amongst the pins of the various rollers1 and been subjected to the required degree of draft1 are ultimately doffed as a thin film of fibres from the pins of the cylinder and pass between the drawing rollers to the conductor4 ,the conductor of a finisher card is made in two widths1 so that half the width of the film enters one section and the other half enters the other section4 ,these two parallel sheets1 split from one common sheet1 traverse the two conductors and are ultimately delivered as two slivers about #f inches above the point or plane in which the #aj or #ab slivers entered1 and on to what is termed a sliver plate4 ,the two slivers are then guided by horns projecting from the upper surface of the sliver plate1 made to travel at right angles to the direction of delivery from the mouths of the conductors1 and then united to pass as a single sliver between a pair of delivery rollers on the left of the feed and delivery side and finally into a sliver can4 ,in special types of finishing cards1 an extra piece of mechanism--termed a draw-head--is employed4 ,the machine illustrated in ,fig4 #ae is provided with this extra mechanism which is supported by the small supplementary frame on the extreme right4 ,this special mechanism is termed a ,patent ,push ,bar ,drawing ,head1 and the function which it performs will be described shortly2 in the meantime it is sufficient to say that it is used only when the slivers from the finisher card require extra or special treatment4 ,a very desirable condition in connection with the combination of a finisher card and a draw-head is that the two distinct parts should work in unison4 ,in the machine under consideration1 the feed and delivery rollers of the card stop simultaneously with the stoppage of the draw-head mechanism4 ,one of the chief aims in spinning is that of producing a uniform thread2 uniform not only in section1 but in all other respects4 ,a so-called level thread refers1 in general1 to a uniform diameter1 but there are other equally1 if not more1 important phases connected with the full sense of the word uniform4 ,it has already been stated that in the batching department various qualities of jute are mixed as judiciously as possible in order to obtain a satisfactory mixture4 ,fibres of different grades and marks vary in strength1 colour1 cleanness1 diameter1 length and suppleness2 it is of the utmost importance that these fibres of diverse qualities should be distributed as early as possible in the process so as to facilitate the subsequent operations4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,james ,f4 ,low ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,fig4 #af ,,waste ,,teazer ,however skilfully the work of mixing the stricks is performed in the batching department1 the degree of uniformity leaves something to be desired2 further improvement is still desirable and indeed necessary4 ,it need hardly be said1 however1 that the extent of the improvement1 and the general final result1 are influenced greatly by the care which is exercised in the preliminary processes4 ,the very fact of uniting #aj or #ab slivers at the feed of the finisher card mixes #aj or #ab distinct lengths into another new length1 and1 in addition1 separates in some measure the fibres of each individual sliver4 ,it must not be taken for granted that the new length of sliver is identical with each of the individual lengths and ten or twelve times as bulky4 ,a process of drafting takes place in the finisher card1 so that the fibres which compose the combined #aj or #ab slivers shall be drawn out to a draft of #h to #af or even more2 this means that for every yard of the group of slivers which passes into the machine there is drawn out a length of #h to #af yards or whatever the draft happens to be4 ,the resulting sliver will therefore be approximately two-thirds the bulk of each of the original individual slivers4 ,the actual ratio between them will obviously depend upon the actual draft which is imparted to the material by the relative velocities of the feed and delivery rollers4 ,it is only natural to expect that a certain amount of the fibrous material will escape from the rollers2 this forms what is known as card waste4 ,and in all subsequent machines there is produced1 in spite of all care1 a percentage of the amount fed into the machine which is not delivered as perfect material4 ,all this waste from various sources1 e4g4 thread waste1 rove waste1 card waste1 ropes1 dust-shaker waste1 etc41 is ultimately utilized to produce sliver for heavy sacking weft4 ,the dust-shaker1 as its name implies1 separates the dust from the valuable fibrous material1 and finally all the waste products are passed through a waste teazer such as that made by ,messrs4 ,j4 ,f4 ,low ,co41 ,ltd41 ,monifieth1 and illustrated in ,fig4 #af4 ,the resulting mass is then re-carded1 perhaps along with other more valuable material1 and made into a sliver which is used1 as stated above1 in the production of a cheap and comparatively thick weft such as that used for sacking4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,drawing ,,and ,,drawing ,,frames ,the operations of combing and splitting as performed in both the breaker and finisher card are obviously due to the circular movement of the pins since all these 7with the single exception of those in the draw-head mechanism of certain finisher cards7 are carried on the peripheries of rotating rollers4 ,in the draw-head mechanism1 the pins move1 while in contact with the fibres1 in a rectilinear or straight path4 ,in the machines which fall to be discussed in this chapter1 viz41 the drawing frames1 the action of the pins on the slivers from the finisher card is also in a straight path2 as a matter of fact1 the draw-head of a finisher card is really a small drawing frame1 as its name implies4 ,moreover1 each row or rather double row1 of pins is carried separately by what is termed a faller4 ,the faller as a whole consists of three parts3 #a4 ,a long iron or steel rod with provision for being moved in a closed circuit4 #b4 ,pour or six brass plates1 termed gills or stocks1 fixed to the rod4 #c4 ,a series of short pins 7one row sometimes about #a_/h in4 shorter than the second row71 termed gill or hackle pins1 and set perpendicularly in the above gills4 ,the numbers of fallers used is determined partly by the particular method of operating the fallers1 but mostly by the length of the fibre4 ,the gill pins in the fallers are used to restrain the movements of the fibres between two important pairs of rollers4 ,there are actually about four sets of rollers from front to back of a drawing frame2 one set of three rollers constitute the retaining rollers2 then comes the drawing roller and its large pressing roller2 immediately after this pair is the slicking rollers1 and the last pair is the delivery rollers4 ,the delivery rollers of one type of drawing frame1 called the push-bar drawing frame1 and made by ,messsrs4 ,douglas ,fraser ,sons1 ,ltd41 ,arbroath1 are seen distinctly in ,fig4 #ag1 and the can or cans into which the slivers are ultimately delivered are placed immediately below one or more sections of these rollers and in the foreground of the illustration4 ,the large pressing rollers1 which are in contact with the drawing roller1 occupy the highest position in the machine and near the centre of same4 ,between these rollers and the retaining rollers are situated the above-mentioned fallers with their complements of gill pins1 forming1 so to speak1 a field of pins4 ,each sliver1 and there maybe from four to eight or more in a set1 is led from its sliver can at the far side of the machine to the sliver guide and between the retaining rollers4 ,immediately the slivers leave the retaining rollers they are penetrated by the gill pins of a faller which is rising from the lower part of its circuit to the upper and active position4 ,each short length of slivers is penetrated by the pins of a rising faller1 these coming up successively as the preceding one moves along at approximately the same surface speed as that of the retaining rollers4 ,the sheet of pins and their fallers are thus continuously moving towards the drawing rollers and supporting the slivers at the same time4 ,as each faller in succession approaches close to the drawing rollers1 it is made to descend so that the pins may leave the fibres1 and from this point the faller moves backwards towards the retaining roller until it reaches the other end ready to rise again in contact with the fibres and to repeat the cycle as just described4 ,it will thus be seen that the upper set of fallers occupy the full stretch between the retaining rollers and the drawing rollers1 but there is always one faller leaving the upper set at the front and another joining the set at the back4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag ,push-bar drawing frame ,the actual distance between the retaining rollers and the drawing rollers is determined by the length of the fibre1 and must in all cases be a little greater than the longest fibre4 ,this condition is necessary because the surface speed of the drawing roller is much greater than that of the retaining rollers2 indeed1 the difference between the surface speeds of the two pairs of rollers is the actual draft4 ,between the retaining and drawing rollers the slivers are embedded in the gill pins of the fallers1 and these move forward1 as mentioned1 to support the stretch of slivers and to carry the latter to the nip of the drawing rollers4 ,immediately the forward ends of the fibres are nipped between the quickly-moving drawing rollers1 the fibres affected slide on those which have not yet reached the drawing rollers1 and1 incidentally1 help to parallelize the fibres4 ,it will be clear that if any fibre happened to be in the grip of the two pairs of rollers having different surface speeds1 such fibre would be snapped4 ,it is to avoid this rupture of fibres that the distance between the two sets of rollers is greater than the longest fibres under treatment4 ,the technical word for this distance is reach4 ,on emerging from the drawing rollers1 the combed slivers pass between slicking rollers1 and then approach the sliver plate which bridges the gap between the slicking rollers and the delivery rollers1 and by means of which plate two or more individual slivers are diverted at right angles1 first to join each other1 and then again diverted at right angles to join another sliver which passes straight from the drawing rollers and over the sliver plate to the guide of the delivery rollers4 ,it will thus be seen that a number of slivers1 each having been drawn out according to the degree of draft1 are ultimately joined to pass through a common sliver guide or conductor to the nip of the delivery rollers1 and thence into a sliver can4 ,the push-bar drawing illustrated in ,fig4 #ag1 or some other of the same type1 is often used as the first drawing frame in a set4 ,with the exception of the driving pulleys1 all the gear wheels are at the far end of the frame1 and totally enclosed in dust-proof casing4 ,the set-on handles1 for moving the belt from the loose pulley to the fast pulley1 or vice versa1 are conveniently situated1 as shown1 and in a place which is calculated to offer the least obstruction to the operative4 ,the machines are made with what are known as two heads or three heads4 ,it will be seen from the large pressing rollers that there are two pairs2 hence the machine is a two-head drawing frame4 ,the slivers from the first drawing frame are now subjected to a further process of doubling and drafting in a very similar machine termed the second drawing frame4 ,the pins in the gills for this frame are rather finer and more closely set than those in the first drawing frame1 but otherwise the active parts of the machines1 and the operations conducted therein1 are practically identical1 and therefore need no further description4 ,it should be mentioned1 however1 that there are different types of drawing frames1 and their designation is invariably due to the particular manner in which the fallers are operated while traversing the closed circuit4 ,the names of other drawing frames appear below4 ,spiral or screw gill2 ,open link chain2 ,rotary2 ,ring ,carrier ,circular4 ,for the preparation of slivers for some classes of yarn it is considered desirable to extend the drawing and doubling operation in a third drawing frame2 as a rule1 however1 two frames are considered sufficient for most classes of ordinary yarn4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,roving ,,frame ,the process of doubling ends with the last drawing frame1 but there still remains a process by means of which the drafting of the slivers and the parallelization of the fibres are continued4 ,and1 in addition to these important functions1 two other equally important operations are conducted simultaneously1 viz41 that of imparting to the drawn out sliver a slight twist to form what is known as a rove or roving1 and that of winding the rove on to a large rove bobbin ready for the actual spinning frame4 ,the machine in which this multiple process is performed is termed a roving frame4 ,such machines are made in various sizes1 and with different types of faller mechanism1 but each machine is provided for the manipulation of two rows of bobbins1 and1 of course1 with two rows of spindles and flyers4 ,these two rows of spindles1 flyers1 and rove bobbin supports are shown clearly in ,fig4 #ah1 which represents a spiral roving frame made by ,messrs4 ,douglas ,fraser ,sons1 ,ltd41 ,arbroath4 ,each circular bobbin support is provided with pins rising from the upper face of the disc1 and these pins serve to enter holes in the flange of the bobbin and thus to drive the bobbin4 ,the discs or bobbin supports are situated in holes in the lifter rail or builder rail or simply the builder2 the vertical spindles pass through the centre of the discs1 each spindle being provided with a flyer1 and finally a number of plates rest upon the tops of the spindles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah ,,roving ,,frame ,by ,permission of ,messrs4 ,douglas ,fraser ,sons1 ,ltd4 ,a roving machine at work is shown in ,fig4 #ai1 and it will be seen that the twisted sliver or rove on emerging from the drawing rollers passes obliquely to the top of the spindle1 through a guide eye1 then between the channel-shaped bend at the upper part of the flyer1 round the flyer arm1 through an eye at the extreme end of either of the flyer arms1 and finally on to the bobbin4 ,each bobbin has its own sliver can 7occasionally two71 and the sliver passes from this can between the sides of the sliver guide1 between the retaining rollers1 then amongst the gill pins of the fallers and between the drawing 7also the delivery7 rollers4 ,here the sliver terminates because the rotary action of the flyer imparts a little twist and causes the material to assume a somewhat circular sectional form4 ,from this point1 the path followed to the bobbin is that described above4 ,as in all the preceding machines1 the delivery speed of the sliver is constant and is represented by the surface speed of the periphery of the delivery rollers1 this speed approximates to about #bj yards per minute4 ,the spindles and their flyers are also driven at a constant speed1 because in all cases we have-- spindle speed delivery x twist4 ,there is thus a constant length of yarn to be wound on the rove bobbin per minute1 and the speed of the bobbin1 which is driven independently of the spindle and flyer1 is constant for any one series of rove coils on the bobbin4 ,the speed of the bobbin differs1 however1 for each complete layer of rove1 simply because the effective diameter of the material on the bobbin changes with the beginning of each new layer4 ,the eyes of the flyers always rotate in the same horizontal plane1 and hence the rove always passes to the bobbins at the same height from any fixed point4 ,the bobbins1 however1 are raised gradually by the builder during the formation of each layer from the top of the bobbin to the bottom1 and lowered gradually by the builder during the formation of each layer from bottom to top4 ,in other words1 the travel of the builder is represented by the distance between the inner faces of the flanges of the rove bobbin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai ,,roving ,,frame ,,fairbairn',s ,,roving ,,frame ,,in ,,work ,since every complete layer of rove is wound on the bobbin in virtue of the joint action of the spindle and flyer1 the rotating bobbin1 and the builder1 each complete traverse of the latter increases the combined diameter of the rove and bobbin shaft by two diameters of the rove4 ,it is therefore necessary to impart an intermittent and variable speed to the bobbin4 ,the mechanism by means of which this desirable and necessary speed is given to the bobbin constitutes one of the most elegant groups of mechanical parts which obtains in textile machinery4 ,some idea of the intricacy of the mechanism1 as well as its value and importance to the industry1 may be gathered from the fact that a considerable number of textile and mechanical experts struggled with the problem for years2 indeed #ej years elapsed before an efficient and suitable group of mechanical parts was evolved for performing the function4 ,the above group of mechanical parts is known as the differential motion1 and the difficulties in constructing its suitable gearing arose from the fact that the speed of the rove passing on to the various diameters must be maintained throughout1 and must coincide with the delivery of yarn from the rollers1 so that the attenuated but slightly twisted sliver can be wound on to the bobbin without strain or stretch4 ,the varying motion is regulated and obtained by a drive1 either from friction plates or from cones1 and the whole gear is interesting1 instructive--and sometimes bewildering--two distinct motions1 a constant one and a variable one1 are conveyed to the bobbins from the driving shaft of the machine4 ,the machine illustrated in ,fig4 #ah is of special design1 and the whole train of gear1 with the exception of a small train of wheels to the retaining roller1 is placed at the pulley end--that nearest the observer4 ,the gear wheels are1 as shown1 efficiently guarded1 and provision is made to start or stop the machine from any position on both sides4 ,the machine is adapted for building #aj in4 ,x #e in4 bobbins1 i4e4 #aj in4 between the flanges and #e in4 outside diameter1 and provided with either #ef or #fd spindles1 the illustration showing part of a machine and approximately #dh spindles4 ,the machines for rove 7roving frames7 are designated by the size of the bobbin upon which the rove is wound1 e4g4 #aj in4 x #e in4 frame1 and so on2 this means that the flanges of the bobbin are #aj in4 apart and #e in4 in diameter1 and hence the traverse of the builder would be #aj in4 ,the #aj in4 x #e in4 bobbin is the standard size for the ordinary run of yarns1 but #i in4 x #d-a_/b in4 bobbins are used for the roves from which finer yarns are spun4 ,when the finished yarn appears in the form of rove 7often termed spinning direct71 as is the case for heavier sizes or thick yarns1 #h in4 x #d in4 bobbins are largely used4 ,provision is made on each roving frame for changing the size of rove so as to accommodate it for the subsequent process of spinning and according to the count of the required yarn2 the parts involved in these changes are those which affect the draft gearing1 the twist gearing1 and the builder gearing in conjunction with the automatic index wheel which acts on the whole of the regulating motion4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,spinning ,the final machine used in the conversion of rove to the size of yarn required is termed the spinning frame4 ,the actual process of spinning is performed in this machine1 and1 although the whole routine of the conversion of fibre into yarn often goes under the name of spinning1 it is obvious that a considerable number of processes are involved1 and an immense amount of work has to be done before the actual process of spinning is attempted4 ,the nomenclature is due to custom dating back to prehistoric times when the conversion of fibre to yarn was conducted by much simpler apparatus than it is at present2 the established name to denote this conversion of fibre to yarn now refers only to one of a large number of important processes1 each one of which is as important and necessary as the actual operation of spinning4 ,a photographical reproduction of a large spinning flat in one of the ,indian jute mills appears in ,fig4 #bj1 showing particularly the wide pass between two long rows of spinning frames1 and the method adopted of driving all the frames from a long line shaft4 ,spinning frames are usually double-sided1 and each side may contain any practicable number of spindles2 #fd to #hj spindles per side are common numbers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #bj4 ,,an ,,indian ,,spinning ,,flat ,the rove bobbins1 several of which are clearly seen in ,fig4 #bj1 are brought from the roving frame and placed on the iron pegs of a creel 7often called a hake7 near the top of the spinning frame-actually above all moving parts of the machine4 ,each rove bobbin is free to rotate on its own peg as the rove from it is drawn downwards by the retaining rollers4 ,the final drafting of the material takes place in this frame1 and a considerable amount of twist is imparted to the drawn out material2 the latter1 now in the desired form and size of yarn1 is wound simultaneously on to a suitable size and form of spinning bobbin4 ,when the rove emerges from the retaining rollers it is passed over a breast-plate1 and then is entered into the wide part of the conductor2 it then leaves by the narrow part of the conductor by means of which part the rove is guided to the nip of the drawing rollers1 ,the rove is1 of course1 drafted or drawn out between the retaining and drawing rollers according to the draft required1 and the fibrous material1 now in thread size is placed in a slot of the thread-plate1 then round the top of the flyer1 round one of the arms of the flyer1 through the eye or palm at the end of the flyer arm and on to the spinning bobbin4 ,the latter is raised and lowered as in the roving frame by a builder motion1 so that the yarn may be distributed over the full range between the ends or flanges4 ,each spindle is driven separately by means of a tape or band which passes partially round the driving cylinder and the driven whorl of the spindle1 and a constant relation obtains between the delivery of the yarn and the speed of the spindle during the operation of spinning any fixed count or type of yarn4 ,in this connection1 the parts resemble those in the roving frame1 but from this point the functions of the two frames differ4 ,the yarn has certainly to be wound upon the bobbin and at the same rate as it is delivered from the drawing or delivery rollers1 but in the spinning frame the bobbin1 which rotates on the spindle1 is not driven positively1 as in the roving frame1 by wheel gearing2 each spinning bobbin is actually driven by the yarn being pulled round by the arm of the flyer and just sufficient resistance is offered by the pressure or tension of the temper band and weight4 ,the temper band is simply a piece of leather or hemp twine to which is attached a weight1 and the other end of the leather or twine is attached to the builder rail4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba ,a ,,line ,,of ,,spinning ,,frames ,the front part of the builder rail is provided with grooves into one of which the temper-band is placed so that the band itself is in contact with a groove near the base of the bobbin flange4 ,a varying amount of resistance or tension on the bobbin is required in virtue of the varying size of the partially-filled bobbin1 and this is obtained by placing the temper-band successively in different groves in the builder so that it will embrace a gradually increasing arc of the spinning bobbin1 and thus impart a heavier drag or tension4 ,the spinning frames in ,fig4 #bj are arranged with the ends of the frame parallel to the pass1 whereas the end frames in ,fig4 #ba are at right angles to the pass1 and hence an excellent view of the chief parts is presented4 ,the full rove bobbins are seen distinctly on the pegs of the creel in the upper part of the figure1 and the rove yarns from these bobbins pass downwards1 as already described1 until they ultimately enter the eyes of the flyer arms to be directed to and wound upon the spinning bobbins4 ,the flyers--at one time termed throstles--are clearly visible a little above the row of temper weights4 ,the chief parts for raising the builder--cam lever1 adjustable rod1 chain and wheel--are illustrated at the end of the frame nearest the observer4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,twisting ,,and ,,reeling ,in regard to cloth manufacture1 most yarns are utilized in the form they leave the spinning frame1 that is1 as single yarns4 ,on the other hand1 for certain branches of the trade1 weaving included1 it is necessary to take two1 three1 or more of these single yarns and to combine them by a process technically termed twisting1 and sometimes doubling when two single yarns only are combined4 ,although the commonest method1 so far as weaving requirements go1 is to twist two single yarns together to make a compound yarn1 it is not uncommon to combine a much higher number1 indeed1 sixteen or more single yarns are often united for special purposes1 but1 when this number is exceeded1 the operation comes under the heading of twines1 ropes and the like4 ,the twist or twine thus formed will have the number of yarns regulated by the levelness and strength required for the finished product4 ,the same operation is conducted in the making of strands for cordage1 but when a number of these twines are laid-up or twisted together1 the name cord or rope is used to distinguish them4#a ,footnote #a3 ,see ,cordage and ,cordage ,hemp and ,fibres1 by ,t4 ,woodhouse and ,p4 ,kilgour4 ,when two or three threads are united by twisting1 the operation can be conducted in a twisting frame which differs little from a ordinary spinning frame1 and hence need not be described4 ,there may be1 however1 appliances embodying some system of automatic stop motion to bring the individual spindles to rest if one thread out of any group which are being combined happens to break4 ,when several threads have to be twisted together1 special types of twisting frames are employed2 these special machines are termed tube twisters1 and the individual threads pass through holes suitably placed in a plate or disc before they reach the tube4 ,more or less elaborate methods of combining yarns are occasionally adopted1 but the reader is advised to consult the above-mentioned work on ,cordage and similar literature for detailed information4 ,when the yarn leaves the spinning frame1 or the twisting frame1 it is made up according to requirements1 and the general operations which follow spinning and twisting are1--reeling1 cop-winding1 roll or spool winding1 mill warping or link warping4 ,the type or class of yarn1 the purpose for which the yarn is to be used1 or the equipment of the manufacturer1 determines which of these methods should be used previous to despatching the yarn4 ,reeling4 ,reeling is a comparatively simple operation1 consisting solely of winding the yarns from the spinning or twisting bobbins on to a wide swift or reel of a suitable width and of a fixed diameter1 or rather circumference4 ,indeed1 the circumference of the reel was fixed by an ,act of ,convention of ,estates1 dating as far back as #affe and as under3 ,that no linen yarn be exported under the pain of confiscation1 half to the ,king and half to the attacher4 ,that linen yarn be sold by weight and that no reel be shorter than ten quarters4 ,the same size of reel has been adopted for all jute yarns4 ,all such yarns which are to be dyed1 bleached1 or otherwise treated must be reeled in order that the liquor may easily penetrate the threads which are obviously in a loose state4 ,there are systems of dyeing and bleaching yarns in cop1 roll or beam form1 but these are not employed much in the jute industry4 ,large quantities of jute yarns intended for export are reeled1 partly because bundles form suitable bales for transport1 and partly because of the varied operations and sizes of apparatus which obtain in foreign countries4 ,,yarn ,,table ,,for ,,jute ,,yarns #ij inches1 or #b-a_/b yards #a thread1 or the circumference of the reel #abj threads or #cjj yards #a cut 7or lea7 #b cuts or #fjj yards #a heer #ab cuts or #c1fjj yards #a standard hank #dh cuts or #ad1djj yards #a spyndle ,since jute yarns are comparatively thick1 it is only the very finest yarns which contain #ab cuts per hank4 ,the bulk of the yarn is made up into #f-;cut hanks4 ,if the yarn should be extra thick1 even #f cuts are too many to be combined1 and one finds groups of #d cuts1 #c cuts1 #b cuts1 and even #a cut4 ,a convenient name for any group less than #ab cuts is a mill-hank1 because the number used is simply one of convenience to enable the mill-hank to be satisfactorily placed on the swift in the winding frame4 ,the reeling operation is useful in that it enables one to measure the length of the yarn2 indeed1 the operation of reeling1 or forming the yarn into cuts and hanks1 has always been used as the method of designating the count1 grist or number of the yarn4 ,we have already seen that the count of jute yarn is determined by the weight in lbs4 of one spyndle 7#ad1djj yds474 ,for #h lb4 per spyndle yarn1 and for other yarns of about the same count1 it is usual to have provision for #bd spinning bobbins on the reel4 ,as the reel rotates1 the yarn from these #bd bobbins is wound round1 say1 #f in4 apart1 and when the reel has made #abj revolutions1 or #abj threads at each place from each bobbin1 there will be #bd separate cuts of yarn on the reel4 ,when #abj threads have been reeled as mentioned1 a bell rings to warn the attendant that the cuts are complete2 the reel is then stopped1 and a lease-band is tied round each group of #abj threads4 ,a guide rod moves the thread guide laterally and slowly as the reeling operation is proceeding so that each thread or round may be in close proximity to its neighbour without riding on it1 and this movement of the thread extends to approximately #f in41 to accommodate the #f cuts which are to form the mill-hank4 ,each time the reel has made #abj revolutions and the bell rings1 the reeler ties up the several cuts in the width1 so that when the mill-hank is complete1 each individual cut will be distinct4 ,in some case1 the two threads of the lease-band instead of being tied1 are simply crossed and recrossed at each cut1 without of course breaking the yarn which is being reeled1 although effectively separating the cuts4 ,at the end of the operation 7when the quantity of cuts for the mill-hank has been reeled7 the ends of the lease-band are tied4 ,the object of the lease-band is for facilitating the operation of winding1 and for enabling the length to be checked with approximate correctness4 ,when the reel has been filled with1 say1 twenty-four #f-;cut hanks1 there will evidently be #c spyndles of yarn on the reel4 ,the #bd mill-hanks are then slipped off the end of the reel1 and the hanks taken to the bundling stool or frame4 ,here they1 along with others of the same count1 are made up into bundles which weigh from #ed lb4 to #fj lb4 according to the count of the yarn4 ,each bundle contains a number of complete hanks1 and it is unusual to split a hank for the purpose of maintaining an absolutely standard weight bundle4 ,indeed1 the bundles contain an even number of hanks1 so that while there would be exactly #ef lb4 per bundle of #g lb4 yarn1 or #h lb4 yarn1 there would be #fj lb in a bundle of #g-a_/b lb4 yarn1 and #ed lb4 in a bundle of #i lb4 yarn4 ,the chief point in reeling is to ensure that the correct number of threads is in each cut1 i4e4 to obtain a correct tell2 this ideal condition may be impracticable in actual work1 but it is wise to approach it as closely as possible4 ,careless workers allow the reel to run on after one or more spinning bobbins are empty1 and this yields what is known as short tell4 ,it is not uncommon to introduce a bell wheel with1 say1 #abc or #abd teeth1 instead of the nominal #abj teeth1 to compensate for this defect in reeling4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,winding3 ,,rolls ,,and ,,cops ,the actual spinning and twisting operations being thus completed1 the yarns are ready to be combined either for more elaborate types of twist1 or for the processes of cloth manufacture4 ,in its simplest definition1 a fabric consists of two series of threads interlaced in such way as to form a more or less solid and compact structure4 ,the two series of threads which are interlaced receive the technical terms of warp and weft--in poetical language1 warp and woof4 ,the threads which form the length of the cloth constitute the warp1 while the transverse threads are the weft4 ,the warp threads have ultimately to be wound or beamed on to a large roller1 termed a weaver's beam1 while the weft yarn has to be prepared in suitable shape for the shuttle4 ,these two distinct conditions necessitate two general types of winding3 7a7 ,spool winding or bobbin winding for the warp yarns4 7b7 ,cop winding or pirn winding for the weft yarns4 ,for the jute trade1 the bulk of the warp yarn is wound from the spinning bobbin on to large rolls or spools which contain from #g to #h lb4 of yarn2 the weft is wound from the spinning bobbin into cops which weigh approximately #d to #h ounces4 ,originally all jute yarns for warp were wound on to flanged bobbins very similar to1 but larger than1 those which are at present used for the linen trade4 ,the advent of the roll-winding machine marked a great advance in the method of winding warp yarns as compared with the bobbin winding method2 indeed1 in the jute trade1 the latter are used only for winding from hank those yarns which have been bleached1 dyed or similarly treated4 ,fig4 #bb illustrates one of the modern bobbin winding machines for jute made by ,messrs4 ,charles ,parker1 ,sons ,co41 ,dundee4 ,the finished product is illustrated by two full bobbins on the stand and close to a single empty bobbin4 ,there are also two full bobbins in the winding position1 and several hanks of yarn on the swifts4 ,each bobbin is driven by means of two discs1 and since the drive is by surface contact between the discs and the bobbin1 an almost constant speed is imparted to the yarn throughout the process4 ,an automatic stop motion is provided for each bobbin2 this apparatus lifts the bobbin clear of the discs when the bobbin is filled as exemplified in the illustration4 ,the distance between the flanges of the bobbin is1 obviously1 a fixed one in any one machine1 and the diameter over the yarn is limited4 ,on the other hand1 rolls may be made of varying widths and any suitable diameter4 ,and while a bobbin holds about #b lb4 of yarn1 a common size of roll weighs1 as already stated1 from #g to #h lb4 ,such a roll measures1 about #i in4 long and #h in4 diameter2 hence for #h lb4 yarn1 the roll capacity is #ad1djj yards4 ,rolls very much larger than the above are made on special machines adopted to wind about six rolls as shown in ,fig4 #bc4 ,it is built specially for winding heavy or thick yarns into rolls of #ae in4 diameter and #ad in4 length1 and this particular machine is used mostly by rope makers and carpet manufacturers4 ,one roll only is shown in the illustration1 and it is winding the material from a #aj in4 x #e in4 rove bobbin4 ,the rove is drawn forward by surface or frictional contact between the roll itself and a rapidly rotating drum4 ,the yarn guide is moved rapidly from side to side by means of the grooved cam on the left1 the upright lever fulcrumed near the floor1 and the horizontal rod which passes in front of the rolls and upon which are fixed the actual yarn guides4 ,this rapid traverse1 combined with the rotation of the rolls1 enables the yarn to be securely built upon a paper or wooden tube2 no flanges are required1 and hence the initial cost as well as the upkeep of the foundations for rolls is much below that for bobbins4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,charles ,parker1 ,sons ,co4 ,,fig4 #bb ,,bobbin ,,winding ,,machine ,,with ,,hanks ,precisely the same principles are adopted for winding the ordinary #i in4 x #h in4 or #h in4 x #g in4 rolls for the warping and dressing departments4 ,these rolls are made direct from the yarn on spinning bobbins1 but the machines are usually double-sided1 each side having two tiers2 a common number of spools for one machine is #hj4 ,the double tier on each side is practicable because of the small space required for the spinning bobbins4 ,when1 however1 rolls are wound from hank1 as is illustrated in ,fig4 #bd1 and as practised in several foreign countries even for grey yarn1 one row only at each side is possible4 ,both types are made by each machine maker1 the one illustrated in ,fig4 #bd being the product of ,messrs4 ,charles ,parker1 ,sons ,co41 ,dundee4 ,in all cases1 the yarns are built upon tubes as mentioned1 the wooden ones weighing only a few ounces and being practically indestructible1 besides being very convenient for transit2 indeed it looks highly probable that the use of these articles will still further reduce the amount of yarn exported in bundle form4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc ,,roll ,,winder ,,for ,,large ,,rolls ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,douglas ,fraser ,sons1 ,ltd4 ,the machine illustrated in ,fig4 #bd1 as well as those by other makers1 is very compact1 easily adjustable to wind different sizes of rolls1 can be run at a high speed1 and possesses automatic stop motions1 one for each roll4 ,a full roll and a partially-filled roll are clearly seen4 ,a recent improvement in the shape of a new yarn drag device1 and an automatic stop when the yarn breaks or the yarn on the bobbin is exhausted1 has just been introduced on to the ,combe-,barbour frame4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd ,,roll ,,winding ,,machine 7,,from ,,hanks7 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,charles ,parker1 ,sons ,co4 ,weft ,winding4 ,a few firms wind jute weft yarn from the spinning bobbins on to pirns 7wooden centres74 ,the great majority of manufacturers1 however1 use cops for the loom shuttles4 ,the cops are almost invariably wound direct from the spinning bobbins1 the exception being coloured yarn which is wound from hank4 ,there are different types of machines used for cop winding1 but in every case the yarn is wound upon a bare spindle1 and the yarn guide has a rapid traverse in order to obtain the well-known cross-wind so necessary for making a stable cop4 ,the disposition of the cops in the winding operation is vertical1 but while in some machines the tapered nose of the cop is in the high position and the spinning bobbin from which the yarn is being drawn is in the low position1 in other machines these conditions are opposite4 ,thus1 in the cop winding frame made by ,messrs4 ,douglas ,fraser ,sons1 ,ltd41 ,arbroath1 and illustrated in ,fig4 #be1 the spinning bobbins are below the cops1 the tapered noses of the latter are upwards in their cones or shapers1 and the yarn guides are near the top of the machine4 ,this view shows about three-fourths of the full width of a #if-spindle machine1 #dh spindles on each side1 two practically full-length cops and one partially built4 ,the illustration in ,fig4 #bf is the above-mentioned opposite type1 and the one most generally adopted1 with the spinning bobbins as shown near the top of the frame1 the yarn guides in the low position1 and the point or tapered nose of the cop pointing downwards4 ,six spindles only appear in this view1 which represents the machine made by ,messrs4 ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,co41 ,ltd41 ,dundee1 but it will be understood that all machines are made as long as desired within practicable and economic limits4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,douglas ,fraser ,sons1 ,ltd4 ,,fig4 #be ,,cop ,,winding ,,machine ,the spindles of cop machines are gear driven as shown clearly in ,fig4 #bf2 the large skew bevel wheels are keyed to the main shaft1 while the small skew bevel wheels are loose on their respective spindles4 ,the upper face of each small skew bevel wheel forms one part of a clutch2 the other part of the clutch is slidably mounted on the spindle4 ,when the two parts of the clutch are separated1 as they are when the yarn breaks or runs slack1 when it is exhausted1 or when the cop reaches a predetermined length1 the spindle stops2 but when the two parts of the clutch are in contact1 the small skew bevel wheel drives the clutch1 the latter rotates the spindle1 and the spindle in turn draws forward the yarn from the bobbin1 and in conjunction with the rapidly moving yarn guide and the inner surface of the cone imparts in rapid succession new layers on the nose of the cop1 and thus the formed layers of the latter increase the length proportionately to the amount of yarn drawn on1 and the partially completed cop moves slowly away from its cup or cone until the desired length is obtained when the spindle is automatically stopped and the winding for that particular spindle ceases4 ,cops may be made of any length and any suitable diameter2 a common size for jute shuttle is #aj in4 long1 and #a-e_/h in4 diameter1 and the angle formed by the two sides of the cone is approximately #cj degrees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #bf ,,cop ,,winding ,,machine ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,warping1 ,,beaming ,,and ,,dressing ,there are a few distinct methods of preparing warp threads on the weaver's beam4 ,stated briefly1 the chief methods are-- #a4 ,the warp is made in the form of a chain on a warping mill1 and when the completed chain is removed from the mill it is transferred on to the weaver's beam4 #b4 ,the warp is made in the form of a chain on a linking machine1 and then beamed on to a weaver's beam4 #c4 ,the warp yarns are wound or beamed direct from the large cylindrical rolls or spools on to a weaver's beam4 #d4 ,the warp yarns are starched1 dried and beamed simultaneously on to a weaver's beam4 ,the last method is the most extensively adapted2 but we shall describe the four processes briefly1 and in the order mentioned4 ,for mill warping1 as in ,no4 #a method1 from #ej to #gb full spinning bobbins are placed in the bank or creel as illustrated to the right of each large circular warping mill in ,fig4 #bg4 ,the ends of the threads from these bobbins are drawn through the eyes of two leaves of the heck1 and all the ends tied together4 ,the heck1 or apparatus for forming what is known as the weaver's lease1 drawer's lease1 or thread-by-thread lease1 is shown clearly between the bobbin bank and the female warper in the foreground of the illustration4 ,the heck is suspended by means of cords1 or chains1 and so ranged that when the warping mill is rotated in one direction the heck is lowered gradually between suitable slides1 while when the mill is rotated in the opposite direction the heck is raised gradually between the same slides4 ,these movements are necessary in order that the threads from the bobbins may be arranged spirally round the mill and as illustrated clearly on all the mills in the figure4 ,the particular method of arranging the ropes1 or the gearing if chains are used1 determines the distance between each pair of spirals2 a common distance is about #a-a_/b in4 ,there are about #db spirals or rounds on the nearest mill in ,fig4 #bg1 and this number multiplied by the circumference of the mill represents the length of the warp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg ,a ,,row ,,of ,,modern ,,warping ,,mills ,at the commencement1 the heck is at the top1 and when the weaver's lease has been formed on the three pins near the top of the mill with the #ej to #gb threads 7often #ef71 the mill is rotated by means of the handle and its connections shown near the bottom of the mill4 ,as the mill rotates1 the heck with the threads descends gradually and thus the group of threads is disposed spirally on the vertical spokes of the mill until the desired length of the warp is reached4 ,a beamer's lease or pin lease is now made on the two lower pegs2 there may be two1 three1 four or more threads in each group of the pin lease2 a common number is #g to #i4 ,when this pin lease has been formed1 one section of the warp has been made1 the proportion finished being 7#ej to #gb7_/x where x is the total number of threads required for the cloth4 ,the same kind of lease must again be made on the same two pins at the bottom for the beginning of the next section of #ej to #gb threads1 and the mill rotated in the opposite direction in order to draw up the heck1 and to cause the second group of #ej to #gb threads to be arranged spirally and in close touch with the threads of the first group4 ,when the heck reaches the top of the mill1 the single-thread lease is again made1 all the threads passed round the end pin1 and then all is ready for repeating the same two operations until the requisite number of threads has been introduced on to the mill4 ,if it is impossible to accommodate all the threads for the cloth on the mill1 the warp is made in two or more parts or chains4 ,it will be noticed that the heck for the nearest mill is opposite about the #abth round of threads from the bobbin1 whereas the heck for the second mill is about the same distance from the top4 ,a completed warp or chain is being bundled up opposite the third mill4 ,when the warp is completed it is pulled off the mill and simultaneously linked into a chain4 ,a very similar kind of warp can be made more quickly1 and often better1 on what is termed the linking machine mentioned in ,no4 #b method4 ,such a machine is illustrated in ,fig4 #bh1 and the full equipment demands the following four distinct kinds of apparatus--a bank capable of holding approximately #cjj spools1 a frame for forming the weaver's lease and the beamer's lease1 machine for drawing the threads from the spools in the bank and for measuring the length and marking the warp at predetermined intervals1 and finally the actual machine which links the group of threads in the form of a chain4 ,in ,fig4 #bh part of the large bank1 with a few rows of spools1 is shown in the extreme background4 ,the two sets of threads1 from the two wings of the bank1 are seen distinctly1 and the machine or frame immediately in front of the bank is where the two kinds of lease are made when desired1 i4e4 at the beginning and at the end of the warp4 ,between this leasing frame and the linking machine proper1 shown in the foreground1 is the drawing1 measuring and marking machine4 ,only part of this machine is seen--the driving pulleys and part of the frame adjoining them4 ,all these frames and machines are necessary1 but the movements embodied in them1 or the functions which they perform1 are really subsidiary to those of the linker shown in the foreground of ,fig4 #bh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh ,,power ,,chain ,,of ,,warp ,,linking ,,machine ,although the linking machine is composed of only a few parts1 it is a highly-ingenious combination of mechanical parts2 these parts convert the straight running group of #cjj threads into a linked chain1 and the latter is shown distinctly descending from the chute on to the floor in the figure4 ,precisely the same kind of link is made by the hand wrappers when the warps indicated in ,fig4 #bg are being withdrawn from the mills4 ,two completed chains are shown tied up in ,fig4 #bh1 and a stock of rolls or spools appear against the wall near the bank4 ,the completed chain from the warping mill or the linking machine is now taken to the beaming frame1 and after the threads1 or rather the small groups of threads1 in the pin lease have been disposed in a kind of coarse comb or reed1 termed an veneer or radial1 and arranged to occupy the desired width in the veneer1 they are attached in some suitable way to the weaver's beam4 ,the chain is held taut1 and weights applied to the presser on the beam while the latter is rotated4 ,in this way a solid compact beam of yarn is obtained4 ,the end of the warp--that one that goes on to the beam last--contains the weaver's lease1 and when the completed beam is removed from the beaming or winding-on frame1 this single-thread lease enables the next operative to select the threads individually and to draw the threads1 usually single1 but sometimes in pairs1 in which case the lease would be in pairs1 through the eyes of the camas or ,,healds1 or to select them for the purpose of tying them to the ends of the warp in the loom1 that is to the thrum of a cloth which has been completed4 ,instead of first making a warp or chain on the warping mill1 or on the linking machine1 and then beaming such warp on to the weaver's beam or loom beam as already described1 two otherwise distinct processes of warping and beaming may be conducted simultaneously4 ,thus1 the total number of threads required for the manufacture of any particular kind of cloth--unless the number of threads happens to be very high--may be wound on to the loom beam direct from the spools4 ,say1 for example1 a warp was required to be #fjj yards long1 and that there should be #ejj threads in all4 ,five hundred spools of warp yarn would be placed in the two wings of a ,v-shaped bank1 and the threads from these spools taken in regular order1 and threaded through the splits or openings of a reed which is placed in a suitable position in regard to the winding-on mechanism4 ,some of the machines which perform the winding-on of the yarn are comparatively simple1 while others are more or less complicated4 ,in some the loom beam rotates at a fixed number of revolutions per minute1 while in others the beam rotates at a gradually decreasing number of revolutions per minute4 ,one of the latter types made by ,,messrs ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,co41 ,ltd41 ,dundee1 is illustrated in ,fig4 #bi1 and the mechanism displayed is identical with that employed for ,no4 #d method of preparing warps4 ,the ,v-shaped bank with its complement of spools 7#ejj in our example7 would occupy a position immediately to the left of ,fig4 #bi4 ,the threads would pass through a reed and then in a straight wide sheet between the pair of rollers1 these parts being contained in the supplementary frame on the left4 ,a similar frame appears on the extreme right of the figure1 and this would be used in conjunction with another ,v-shaped bank1 not shown1 but which would occupy a position further to the right1 i4e4 if one bank was not large enough to hold the required number of spools4 ,the part on the extreme right can be ignored at present4 ,the threads are arranged in exactly the same way as indicated in ,fig4 #bh from the bank to the reed in front of the rollers in ,fig4 #bi1 and on emerging from the pair of rollers are taken across the stretch between the supplementary frame and the main central frame1 and attached to the weavers beam just below the pressing rollers4 ,it may be advisable to have another reed just before the beam1 so that the width occupied by the threads in the beam may be exactly the same as the width between the two flanges of the loom beam4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi ,,winding-,,on ,,or ,,dry ,,beaming ,,machine ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,co4 ,ltd4 ,the speed of the threads is determined by the surface speed of the two rollers in the supplementary frame1 the bottom roller being positively driven from the central part through the long horizontal shaft and a train of wheels caged in as shown4 ,the loom beam1 which is seen clearly immediately below the pressing rollers1 is driven by friction because the surface speed of the yarn must be constant2 hence1 as the diameter over the yarn on the beam increases1 the revolutions per minute of the beam must decrease1 and a varying amount of slip takes place between the friction-discs and their flannels4 ,as the loom beam rotates1 the threads are arranged in layers between the flanges of the loom beam4 ,thus1 the #ejj threads would be arranged side by side1 perhaps for a width of #de to #df in41 and bridging the gap between the flanges of the beam2 the latter is thus1 to all intents and purposes1 a very large bobbin upon which #ejj threads are wound at the same time1 instead of one thread as in the ordinary but smaller bobbin or reel4 ,it will be understood that in the latter case the same thread moves from side to side in order to bridge the gap1 whereas in the former case each thread maintains a fixed position in the width4 ,the last and most important method of making a warp1 ,no4 #d method1 for the weaver is that where1 in addition to the simultaneous processes of warping and beaming as exemplified in the last example1 all the threads are coated with some suitable kind of starch or size immediately they reach the two rollers shown in the supplementary frame in ,fig4 #bi4 ,the moistened threads must1 however1 be dried before they reach the loom beam4 ,when a warp is starched1 dried and beamed simultaneously1 it is said to be dressed4 ,in the modern dressing machine1 such as that illustrated in ,fig4 #cj1 there are six steam-heated cylinders to dry the starched yarns before the latter reach the loom beams4 ,both banks1 or rather part of both1 can be seen in this view1 from which some idea will be formed of the great length occupied4 ,several of the threads from the spools in the left bank are seen converging towards the back reed1 then they pass between the two rollers--the bottom one of which is partially immersed in the starch trough--and forward to the second reed4 ,after the sheet of threads leaves the second reed1 it passes partially round a small guide roller1 then almost wholly round each of three cylinders arranged o1 and finally on to the loom beam4 ,each cylinder is #d feet diameter1 and three of them occupy a position between the left supplementary frame1 and the central frame in ,fig4 #bi1 while the remaining three cylinders are similarly disposed between the central frame and the supplementary frame of the right in the same illustration4 ,the number of steam-heated cylinders1 and their diameter1 depend somewhat upon the type of yarn to be dressed1 and upon the speed which it is desired to run the yarn4 ,a common speed for ordinary-sized jute is from #ah to #bb yards per minute4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj ,a ,,modern ,,yarn ,,dressing ,,machine ,,with ,,six ,,steam-,,heated ,,cylinders ,a different way of arranging the cylinders is exemplified in ,fig4 #ca4 ,this view1 which illustrates a machine made by ,messrs4 ,charles ,parker1 ,sons ,co41 ,dundee1 has been introduced to show that if the warps under preparation contain a comparatively few threads1 or if the banks are made larger than usual1 two warps may be dressed at the same time4 ,in such a case1 three cylinders only would be used for each warp1 and the arrangement would be equivalent to two single dressing machines4 ,the two weaver's beams1 with their pressing rollers1 are shown plainly in the centre of the illustration4 ,some machines have four cylinders1 others have six1 while a few have eight4 ,a very similar machine to that illustrated in ,fig4 #ca is made so that all the six cylinders may be used to dry yarns from two banks1 and all the yarns wound on to one weaver's beam1 or all the yarns may be wound on to one of the beams in the machine in ,fig4 #ca if the number of threads is too many for one bank4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca ,,dressing ,,machine ,,for ,,preparing ,,two ,,warps ,,simultaneously ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,charles ,parker1 ,sons ,co4 ,suppose it is desired to make a warp of #gjj threads instead of #ejj1 as in the above example2 then #cej spools would be placed in each of the two banks1 the threads disposed as already described to use as much of the heating surface of the cylinder as possible1 and one sheet of threads passed partially round what is known as a measuring roller4 ,both sheets of threads unite into one sheet at the centre of the machine in ,fig4 #ca1 and pass in this form on to one of the loom beams4 ,it has already been stated that the lower roller in the starch box is positively driven by suitable mechanism from the central part of the machine1 ,fig4 #bi1 while the upper roller1 see ,fig4 #cj1 is a pressing roller and is covered with cloth1 usually of a flannel type4 ,between the two rollers the sheet of #cej threads passes1 becomes impregnated with the starch which is drawn up by the surface of the lower roller1 and the superfluous quantity is squeezed out and returns to the trough1 or joins that which is already moving upwards towards the nip of the rollers4 ,the yarn emerges from the rollers and over the cylinders at a constant speed1 which may be chosen to suit existing conditions1 and it must also be wound on to the loom beam at the same rate4 ,but since the diameter of the beam increases each revolution by approximately twice the diameter of the thread1 it is necessary to drive the beam by some kind of differential motion4 ,the usual way in machines for dressing jute yarns is to drive the beam support and the beam by means of friction plates4 ,a certain amount of slip is always taking place--the drive is designed for this purpose--and the friction plates are adjusted by the yarn dresser during the operation of dressing to enable them to draw forward the beam1 and to slip in infinitesimal sections1 so that the yarn is drawn forward continuously and at uniform speed4 ,during the operation1 the measuring roller and its subsequent train of wheels and shafts indicates the length of yarn which has passed over1 also the number of cuts or pieces of any desired length2 in addition1 part of the measuring and marking mechanism uses an ink-pad to mark the yarn at the end of each cut1 such mark to act as a guide for the weaver1 and to indicate the length of warp which has been woven4 ,thus if the above warp were intended to be five cuts1 each #abj yards1 or #fjj yards in all1 the above apparatus would measure and indicate the yards and cuts1 and would introduce a mark at intervals of #abj yards on some of the threads4 ,and all this is done without stopping the machine4 ,at the time of marking1 or immediately before or after1 just as desired1 a bell is made to ring automatically so that the attendant is warned when the mark on the warp is about to approach the loom beam4 ,this bell is shown in ,fig4 #bi1 near the right-hand curved outer surface of the central frame4 ,as in hand warping or in linking1 a single-thread lease is made at the end of the desired length of warp1 or else what is known as a pair of clasp-rods is arranged to grip the sheet of warp threads4 ,after the loom beam1 with its length of warp1 has been removed from the machine1 the threads are either drawn through the eyes or mails of the cambs 7termed gears1 healds or heddles in other districts7 and through the weaving reed1 or else they are tied to the ends of the threads of the previous warp which1 with the weft1 has been woven into cloth4 ,these latter threads are still intact in the cambs and reed in the loom4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,tying-,,on1 ,,drawing-,,in1 ,,and ,,weaving ,if all the threads of the newly-dressed warp can be tied on to the ends of the warp which has been woven1 it is only necessary1 when the tying-on process is completed1 to rotate the loom beam slowly1 and simultaneously to draw forward the threads until all the knots have passed through the cambs and the reed1 and sufficiently far forward to be clear of the latter when it approaches its full forward1 or beating up1 position during the operation of weaving4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the threads of the newly-dressed1 or newly-beamed1 warp had to be drawn-in and reeded1 these operations would be performed in the drawing-in and reeding department1 and1 when completed1 the loom beam with its attached warp threads1 cambs and reed1 would be taken bodily to the loom where the tenter1 tackler or tuner adjusts all the parts preparatory to the actual operation of weaving4 ,the latter work is often termed gaiting a web4 ,there is a great similarity in many of the operations of weaving the simpler types of cloth1 although there may be a considerable difference in the appearance of the cloths themselves4 ,in nearly all the various branches of the textile industry the bulk of the work in the weaving departments of such branches consists of the manufacture of comparatively simple fabrics4 ,thus1 in the jute industry1 there are four distinct types of cloth which predominate over all others2 these types are known respectively as hessian1 bagging1 tarpauling and sacking4 ,in addition to these main types1 there are several other simple types the structure of which is identical with one or other of the above four2 while finally there are the more elaborate types of cloth which are embodied in the various structures of carpets and the like4 ,it is obviously impossible to discuss the various makes in a work of this kind2 the commoner types are described in ,jute and ,linen ,weaving ,calculations and ,structure of ,fabrics2 and the more elaborate ones1 as well as several types of simple ones1 appear in ,textile ,design3 ,pure and ,applied1 both by ,t4 ,woodhouse and ,t4 ,milne4 ,six distinct types of jute fabrics are illustrated in ,fig4 #cb4 ,the technical characteristics of each are as follows-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb ,,six ,,distinct ,,kinds ,,of ,,typical ,,jute ,,fabrics ,h4--,an ordinary ,,hessian cloth made from comparatively fine single warp and single weft1 and the threads interlaced in the simplest order1 termed plain weave4 ,a wide range of cloths is made from the scrims or net-like fabrics to others more closely woven than that illustrated4 ,b4--,a ,,bagging made from comparatively fine single warp arranged in pairs and then termed double warp4 ,the weft is thick1 and the weave is also plain4 ,t4--,a ,,tarpauling made from yarns similar to those in bagging1 although there is a much wider range in the thickness of the weft4 ,it is a much finer cloth than the typical bagging1 but otherwise the structures are identical4 ,s4--,a striped ,,sacking made from comparatively fine warp yarns1 usually double as in bagging1 but occasionally single1 with medium or thick weft interwoven in #c-leaf or #d-leaf twill order4 ,the weaves are shown in ,fig4 #cc4 ,c4--,one type of ,,carpet cloth made exclusively from two-ply or two-fold coloured warp yarns1 and thick black single weft yarns4 ,the threads and picks are interwoven in two up1 two down twill1 directed to right and then to left1 and thus forming a herring-bone pattern1 or arrow-head pattern4 ,p4-,an uncut pile fabric known as ,,brussellette4 ,the figuring warp is composed of dyed and printed yarns mixed to form an indefinite pattern1 and works in conjunction with a ground warp and weft4 ,the weave is again plain1 although the structure of the fabric is quite different from the other plain cloths illustrated4 ,the cloth is reversible1 the two sides being similar structure but differing slightly in colour ornamentation4 ,as already indicated1 there are several degrees of fineness or coarseness in all the groups1 particularly in the types marked ,h1 ,b1 ,t and ,s4 ,the structure or weave in all varieties of any one group is constant and as stated4 ,all the weaves are illustrated in the usual technical manner in ,fig4 #cc1 and the relation between the simplest of these weaves and the yarns of the cloth is illustrated in ,fig4 #cd4 ,in ,fig4 #cc1 the unit weaves in ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e and ,f are shown in solid squares1 while the repetitions of the units in each case are represented by the dots4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc ,,point-,,paper ,,designs ,,showing ,,weavers ,,for ,,various ,,cloths ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd ,,diagrammatic ,,views ,,of ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,plain ,,cloth ,a is the plain weave1 #af units shown1 and used for fabrics ,h and ,p1 ,fig4 #cb4 ,b is the double warp plain wave1 #h units shown1 and shows the method of interlacing the yarns h patterns ,b and ,t1 ,fig4 #cb4 ,when the warp is made double as indicated in weave ,b1 the effect in the cloth can be produced by using the mechanical arrangements employed for weave ,a4 ,hence1 the cloths ,h1 ,b and ,t can be woven without any mechanical alteration in the loom4 ,c is the #c-leaf double warp sacking weave and shows #d units2 since each pair of vertical rows of small squares consists of two identical single rows1 they may be represented as at ,d4 ,the actual structure of the cloth ,s in ,fig4 #cb is represented on design paper at ,c1 ,fig4 #cc4 ,d is the single warp #c-leaf sacking weave1 #d units shown1 but the mechanical parts for weaving both ,c and ,d remain constant4 ,e is the double warp #d-leaf sacking1 #b units shown1 while ,f is the single warp #d-leaf sacking1 #d units shown4 ,the patterns or cloths for ,e and ,f are not illustrated4 ,g is a herring-bone design on #bd threads and #d picks1 two units shown4 ,it is typical of the pattern represented at ,c1 ,fig4 #cb1 and involves the use of #d leaves in the loom4 ,the solid squares in weave ,a1 ,fig4 #cc1 are reproduced in the left-hand bottom corner of ,fig4 #cd4 ,a diagrammatic plan of a plain cloth produced by this simple order of interlacing is exhibited in the upper part by four shaded threads of warp and four black picks of weft 7the difference is for distinction only74 ,the left-hand intersection shows one thread interweaving with all the four picks1 while the bottom intersection shows all the four threads interweaving with one pick4 ,the two arrows from the weave or design to the thread and pick respectively show the connection1 and it will be seen that a mark 7solid7 on the design represents a warp thread on the surface of the cloth1 while a blank square represents a weft shot on the surface1 and vice versa4 ,a weaving shed full of various types of looms1 and all driven by belts from an overhead shaft1 is illustrated in ,fig4 #ce4 ,the loom in the foreground is weaving a #c-leaf sacking similar to that illustrated at ,s1 ,fig4 #cb4 while the appearance of a full weaver's warp beam is shown distinctly in the second loom in ,fig4 #ce4 ,there are hundreds of looms in this modern weaving shed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce ,,weaving ,,shed ,,with ,,belt-,,driven ,,looms ,during the operation of weaving1 the shuttle1 in which is placed a cop of weft1 similar to that on the cop winding machine in ,fig4 #be1 and with the end of the weft threaded through the eye of the shuttle1 is driven alternately from side to side of the cloth through the opening or shed formed by two layers of the warp4 ,the positions of the threads in these two layers are represented by the designs1 see ,fig4 #cc1 and while one layer occupies a high position in the loom the other layer occupies a low position4 ,the threads of the warp are placed in these two positions by the leaves of the camb 7termed healds and also gears in other districts7 and it is between these two layers that the shuttle passes1 forms a selvage at the edge each time it makes a journey across1 and leaves a trail or length of weft each journey4 ,the support or lay upon which the shuttle travels moves back to provide room for the shuttle to pass between the two layers of threads1 and after the shuttle reaches the end of each journey1 the lay with the reed comes forward again1 and thus pushes successively the shots of weft into close proximity with the ones which preceded4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf ,,looms ,,driven ,,with ,,individual ,,motors ,by permission of ,the ,english ,electric ,co41 ,ltd4 ,the order of lifting and depressing the threads of the warp is1 as already stated1 demonstrated on the design paper in ,fig4 #cc1 and the selected order determines1 in the simplest cases1 the pattern on the surface of the cloth when the warp and weft yarns are of the same colour4 ,a great diversity of pattern can be obtained by the method of interlacing the two sets of yarn1 and a still greater variety of pattern is possible when differently-coloured threads are added to the mode of interlacing4 ,to illustrate the contrast in the general appearance of a weaving shed in which all the looms are driven by belts from overhead shafting as in ,fig4 #ce1 and in a similar shed in which all the looms are individually driven by small motors made by the ,english ,electric ,co41 ,ltd4 we introduce ,fig4 #cf4 ,this particular illustration shows cotton weaving shed1 but precisely the same principle of driving is being adopted in many jute factories4 ,a great variety of carpet patterns of a similar nature to that illustrated at ,c1 ,fig4 #cb1 can be woven in looms such as those illustrated in ,fig4 #ce2 indeed1 far more elaborate patterns than that mentioned and illustrated are capable of being produced in these comparatively simple looms4 ,when1 however1 more than #d leaves are required for the weaving of a pattern1 a dobby loom1 of the nature of that shown in ,fig4 #cg1 is employed2 this machine is made by ,messrs4 ,charles ,parker1 ,sons ,co41 ,ltd41 ,dundee4 ,the dobby itself1 or the apparatus which lifts the leaves according to the requirements of the design1 is fixed on the upper part of the frame-work1 and is designed to control #ab leaves1 that is1 it operates #ab leaves1 each of which lifts differently from the others4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,charles ,parker1 ,sons ,co4 ,,fig4 #cg ,,dobby ,,loom ,a considerable quantity of ,wilton and ,brussels carpets is made from jute yarns1 and ,fig4 #ch illustrates a loom at work on this particular branch of the trade4 ,the different colours of warp for forming the pattern me from small bobbins in the five frames at the back of the loom 7hence the term #e-;frame ,brussels or ,wilton carpet7 and the ends passed through mail eyes and then through the reed4 ,the design is cut on the three sets of cards suspended in the cradles in the front of the loom1 and these cards operate on the needles of the jacquard machine to raise those colours of yarn which e necessary to produce the colour effect in the cloth t correspond with the colour effect on the design paper made by the designer4 ,this machine weaves the actual ,brussels and ,wilton fabrics1 and these cloths are quite different from that illustrated at ,p1 ,fig4 #cb4 ,in both fabrics1 however1 ground or foundation warps are required4 ,it need hardly be said that there is a considerable difference between the two types of cloth1 as well as between the designs and the looms in which they are woven4#b ,footnote #b3 ,for structure of carpets1 see pp4 #cid-aad1 ,textile ,design3 ,pure and ,applied1 by ,t4 ,woodhouse and ,t4 ,milne4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch ,,brussels ,,carpet ,,jacquard ,,loom ,in the weaving department there are heavy warp beams to be placed in the looms1 and in the finishing department there are often heavy rolls of cloth to be conveyed from the machines to the despatch room4 ,accidents often happen when these heavy packages1 especially the warp beams1 are being placed in position4 ,in order to minimize the danger to workpeople and to execute the work more quickly and with fewer hands1 some firms have installed ,overhead ,runway ,systems1 with suitable ,lifting ,gear1 by means of which the warp beams are run from the dressing and drawing-in departments direct to the looms1 and then lowered quickly and safely into the bearings4 ,such means of transport are exceedingly valuable where the looms are set close to each other and where wide beams are employed2 indeed1 they are valuable for all conditions1 and are used for conveying cloth direct from the looms as well as warp beams to the looms4 ,fig4 #ci shows the old wasteful and slow method of transferring warp beams from place to place1 while ,fig4 #dj illustrates the modern and efficient method4 ,the latter figure illustrates one kind of apparatus1 supplied by ,messrs4 ,herbert ,morris1 ,ltd41 ,loughborough1 for this important branch of the industry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,,the ,,old ,,way ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,,the ,,new ,,way ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,herbert ,morris1 ,ltd4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,finishing ,the finishing touches are added to the cloth after the latter leaves the loom4 ,the first operation is that of inspecting the cloth1 removing the lumps and other undesirables1 as well as repairing any damaged or imperfect parts4 ,after this1 the cloth is passed through a cropping machine the function of which is to remove all projecting fibres from the surface of the cloth1 and so impart a clean1 smart appearance4 ,it is usual to crop both sides of the cloth1 although there are some cloths which require only one side to be treated1 while others again miss this operation entirely4 ,a cropping machine is shown in the foreground of ,fig4 #da1 and in this particular case there are two fabrics being cropped or cut at the same time2 these happen to be figured fabrics which have been woven in a jacquard loom similar to that illustrated in ,fig4 #ch4 ,the fabrics are1 indeed1 typical examples of jute ,wilton carpets4 ,the illustration shows one of the spiral croppers in the upper part of the machine in ,fig4 #da4 ,machines are made usually with either two or four of such spirals with their corresponding fixed blades4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da ,,cropping ,,machine ,,at ,,work ,the cloth is tensioned either by threading it over and under a series of stout rails1 or else between two in a specially adjustable arrangement by means of which the tension may be varied by rotating slightly the two rails so as to alter the angle formed by the cloth in contact with them4 ,this is1 of course1 at the feed side2 the cloth is pulled through the machine by three rollers shown distinctly on the right in ,fig4 #db4 ,this view illustrates a double cropper in which both the spirals are controlled by one belt4 ,as the cloth is pulled through1 both sides of it are cropped by the two spirals4#c ,when four spirals are required1 the frame is much wider1 and the second set of spirals is identical with those in the machines illustrated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #db ,,double ,,cropping ,,machine ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,charles ,parker1 ,sons ,co41 ,ltd4 ,footnote #c3 ,for a full description of all finishing processes1 see ,the ,finishing of ,jute and ,linen ,fabrics1 by ,t4 ,woodhouse4 7,published by ,messrs4 ,emmott ,co41 ,ltd41 ,manchester47 ,the cropped cloth is now taken to the clamping machine1 and placed on the floor on the left of the machine illustrated in ,fig4 #dc1 which represents the type made by ,messrs4 ,charles ,parker1 ,sons 1 ,co41 ,dundee4 ,the cloth is passed below a roller near to the floor1 then upwards and over the middle roller1 backwards to be passed under and over the roller on the left1 and then forwards to the nip of the pulling rollers1 the bottom one of which is driven positively by means of a belt on the pulleys shown4 ,while the cloth is pulled rapidly through this machine1 two lines of fine jets spray water on to the two sides of the fabric to prepare it for subsequent processes in which heat is generated by the nature of the finishing process4 ,at other times1 or rather in other machines1 the water is distributed on the two sides of the cloth by means of two rapidly rotating brushes which flick the water from two rollers rotating in a tank of water at a fixed level4 ,in both cases1 both sides of the fabric are damped1 as it is termed1 simultaneously4 ,the damped fabric is then allowed to lie for several hours to condition1 that is1 to enable the moisture to spread1 and then it is taken to the calender4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,charles ,parker1 ,sons ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,fig4 #dc ,,damping ,,machine ,the calenders for jute almost invariably contain five different rollers1 or bowls1 as they are usually termed2 one of these bowls1 the smallest diameter one1 is often heated with steam4 ,a five-bowl calender is shown on the extreme right in ,fig4 #da1 and in the background1 while a complete illustration of a modern #e-;bowl calender1 with full equipment1 and made by ,messrs4 ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,co41 ,ltd41 ,dundee1 appears in ,fig4 #dd4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,fig4 #dd ,,calendar ,the cloth is placed on the floor between the two distinct parts of the calender1 threaded amongst the tension rails near the bottom roller or bowl1 and then passed over two or more of the bowls according to the type of finish desired4 ,for calender finish1 the bowls flatten the cloth by pressing out the threads and picks1 so that all the interstices which appear in most cloths as they leave the loom1 and which are exaggerated in the plan view in ,fig4 #cd1 are eliminated by this calendering action4 ,the cloth is then delivered at the far side of the machine in ,fig4 #dd4 ,if necessary1 the surface speed of the middle or steam-heated roller may differ from the others so that a glazed effect--somewhat resembling that obtained by ordinary ironing--is imparted to the surface of the fabric4 ,the faster moving roller is the steam-heated one4 ,for ordinary calender finish1 the surface speed of all the rollers is the same4 ,another finish obtained on the calender is known as chest finish or round-thread finish4 ,in this case1 the whole length of cloth is wound either on to the top roller1 or the second top one1 ,fig4 #dd1 and while there is subjected to the degree of pressure required2 the amount of pressure can be regulated by the number of weights and the way in which the tension belt is attached to its pulley4 ,the two sets of weights are seen clearly on the left in ,fig4 #dd1 and these act on the long horizontal levers1 usually to add pressure to the dead weight of the top roller1 but occasionally1 for very light finishes1 to decrease the effective weight of the top bowl4 ,after the cloth has been chested on one or other of the two top bowls1 it is stripped from the bowl on to a light roller shown clearly with its belt pulley in ,fig4 #da4 ,there are two belt pulleys shown on the machine in ,fig4 #dd2 one is driven by an open belt1 and the other by a crossed belt4 ,provision is thus made for driving the calender in both directions4 ,the pulleys are driven by two friction clutches1 both of which are inoperative when the set-on handle is vertical as in the figure4 ,either pulley may be rotated1 however1 by moving the handle to a oblique position4 ,the compound leverage imparted to the bearings of the top bowl1 and the weights of the bowls themselves1 result in the necessary pressure1 and this pressure may be varied according to the number of small weights used4 ,the heaviest finish on the calender1 i4e4 the chest-finish on the second top roller1 imitates more or less the mangle finish4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,fig4 #de ,,hydraulic ,,mangle ,a heavy hydraulic mangle with its accumulator and made by ,messrs4 ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,co41 ,ltd41 ,dundee1 is illustrated in ,fig4 #de4 ,the cloth is wound or beamed by the mechanism in the front on to what is termed a mangle pin2 it is reality a thick iron bowl2 when the piece is beamed1 it is automatically moved between two huge rollers1 and hydraulic pressure applied4 ,four narrow pieces are shown in ,fig4 #de on the pin1 and between the two rollers4 ,there are other four narrow pieces1 already beamed on another pin1 in the beaming position1 and there is still another pin at the delivery side with a similar number of cloths ready for being stripped4 ,the three pins are arranged thus oo1 and since all three are moved simultaneously1 when the mangling operation is finished1 each roller or pin is moved through #abj4 ,thus1 the stripped pin will be placed in the beaming position1 the beamed pin carried into the mangling position1 and the pin with the mangled cloth taken to the stripping position4 ,while the operation of mangling is proceeding1 the rollers move first in one direction and then in the other direction1 and this change of direction is accomplished automatically by mechanism situated between the accumulator and the helical-toothed gearing seen at the far end of the mangle4 ,and while this mangling is taking place1 the operatives are beaming a fresh set1 while the previously mangles pieces are being stripped by the plaiting-down apparatus which deposits the cloth in folds4 ,this operation is also known as cuttling or faking4 ,it will be1 understood that a wide mangle1 such as that illustrated in ,fig4 #de4 is constructed specially for treating wide fabrics1 and narrow fabrics are mangled on it simply because circumstances and change of trade from time to time demand it4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,charles ,parker1 ,sons ,co4 ,ltd4 ,fig #df ,,folding1 ,,lapping ,,or ,,pleating ,,machine ,the high structure on the left is the accumulator1 the manipulation of this and the number of wide weights which are ingeniously brought into action to act on the plunger determine the pressure which is applied to the fabrics between the bowls or rollers4 ,cloths both from the calender and the mangle now pass through a measuring machine1 the clock of which records the length passed through4 ,there are usually two hands and two circles of numbers on the clock face2 one hand registers the units up to #aj on one circle of numbers1 while the slower-moving hand registers #aj1 #bj1 #cj1 up to #ajj4 ,the measuring roller in these machines is usually one yard in circumference4 ,if the cloth in process of being finished is for use as the backing or foundation of linoleum1 it is invariably wound on to a wooden centre as it emerges from the bowls of the calender1 measured as well1 and the winding-on mechanism is of a friction drive somewhat similar to that mentioned in connection with the dressing machine4 ,cloths for this purpose are often made up to #fjj yards in length2 indeed1 special looms1 with winding appliances1 have been constructed to weave cloths up to #b1jjj yards in length4 ,special dressing machines and loom beams have to be made for the latter kind4 ,when the linoleum backing is finished at the calender1 both cloth and centre are forwarded direct to the linoleum works4 ,the empty centres are returned periodically4 ,narrow-width cloths are often made up into a roll by means of a simple machine termed a calenderoy1 while somewhat similar cloth1 and several types of cloths of much wider width1 are lapped or folded by special machines such as that illustrated in ,fig4 #df4 ,the cloth passes over the oblique board1 being guided by the discs shown1 to the upper part of the carrier where it passes between the two bars4 ,as the carrier is oscillated from side to side 7it is the right hand side in the illustration7 the cloth is piled neatly in folds on the convex table4 ,the carriers may be adjusted to move through different distances1 so that any width or length of fold1 between limits1 may be made4 ,comparatively wide pieces can be folded on the above machine1 but some merchants prefer to have wide pieces doubled lengthwise1 and this is done by machines of different kinds4 ,in all cases1 however1 the operation is termed crisping in regard to jute fabrics4 ,thus1 ,fig4 #dg1 illustrates one type of machine used for this purpose1 and made by ,messrs4 ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,ca41 ,ltd41 ,dundee4 ,the full-width cloth on the right has obviously two prominent stripes--one near each side4 ,the full width cloth passes upwards obliquely a triangular board1 and when the cloth reaches the apex it is doubled and passed between two bars also set obliquely on the left4 ,the doubled piece now passes between a pair of positively driven drawing rollers1 and is then faked1 cuttled1 or pleated as indicated4 ,the machine thus automatically1 doubles the piece1 and delivers it as exemplified in folds of half width4 ,in other industries1 this operation is termed creasing and1 rigging4 ,some of the later types of crisping or creasing machines double the cloth lengthwise as illustrated in ,fig4 #dg1 and1 in addition1 roll it at the same time instead of delivering it in loose folds4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,urquhart ,lindsay ,co4 ,ltd4 ,,fig4 #dg ,,crisping1 ,,creasing ,,or ,,rigging ,,machine ,if the cloth is intended to be cut up into lengths1 say for the making of bags of various kinds1 and millions of such bags are made annually1 it is cut up into the desired lengths1 either by hand1 semi-mechanically1 or wholly mechanically1 and then the lengths are sewn at desired places by sewing machines1 and in various ways according to requirements4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,co4 ,ltd ,,fig #dh ,,semi-,,mechanical ,,bag ,,or ,,sack ,,cutting ,,machine ,fig4 #dh illustrates one of the semi-mechanical machines for this purpose2 this particular type being made by ,messrs4 ,urquhart1 ,lindsay ,co41 ,ltd41 ,dundee4 ,about eight or nine different cloths are arranged in frames behind the cutting machine1 and the ends of these cloths passed between the horizontal bars at the back of the machine4 ,they are then led between the rollers1 under the cutting knife1 and on to the table4 ,the length of cloth is measured as it passes between the rollers1 and different change pinions are supplied so that practically any length may be cut4 ,eight or nine lengths are thus passed under the knife frame simultaneously1 and when the required length has been delivered1 the operative inserts the knife in the slot of the knife frame1 and pushes it forward by means of the long handle shown distinctly above the frame and table4 ,he thus cuts eight or nine at a time1 after which a further length is drawn forward1 and the cycle repeated4 ,means are provided for registering the number passed through2 from #cf1jjj yards to #dj1jjj yards can be treated per day4 ,the bags may be made of different materials1 e4g4 the first four in ,fig4 #cb4 ,when hessian cloth1 ,,ii1 ,fig4 #cb1 is used1 the sewing is usually done by quick-running small machines1 such as the ,yankee or ,union2 each of these machines is capable of sewing more than #b1jjj bags per day4 ,for the heavier types of cloth1 such as sacking1 ,s1 ,fig4 #cb1 the sewing is almost invariably done by the ,laing or overhead sewing machine1 the general type of which is illustrated in ,fig4 #di1 and made by ,mr4 ,d4 ,j4 ,macdonald1 ,south ,st4 ,roque's ,works1 ,dundee4 ,this is an absolutely fast stitch1 and approximately #a1jjj bags can be sewn in one day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di ,,overhead 7,,laing7 ,,sack ,,sewing ,,machine ,by permission of ,mr4 ,d4 ,j4 ,macdonald ,the distinctive marks in bags for identification often take the form of coloured stripes woven in the cloth1 and as illustrated at ,s1 ,fig4 #cb4 ,it is obvious that a considerable variety can be made by altering the number of the stripes1 their position1 and their width1 while if different coloured threads appear in the same cloth1 the variety is still further increased4 ,many firms1 however1 prefer to have their names1 trade marks1 and other distinctive features printed on the bags2 in these cases1 the necessary particulars are printed on the otherwise completed bag by a sack-printing machine of the flat-bed or circular roller type4 ,the latter type1 which is most largely used1 is illustrated in ,fig4 #ej4 ,it is termed a two-colour machine1 and is made by ,mr4 ,d4 ,j4 ,macdonald1 ,dundee2 it will be observed that there are two rollers for the two distinct colours1 say red and black4 ,occasionally three and four-colour machines are used1 but the one-colour type is probably the most common4 ,illustration3 ,by ,permission of ,mr4 ,d4 ,j4 ,macdonald4 ,,fig #ej ,,sack ,,printing ,,machine ,the ownership of the bags can thus be shown distinctly by one of the many methods of colour printing1 and if any firm desires to number their bags consecutively in order to provide a record of their stock1 or for any other purpose1 the bags may be so numbered by means of a special numbering machine1 also made by ,mr4 ,d4 ,j4 ,macdonald4 ,the last operation1 excluding the actual delivery of the goods1 is that of packing the pieces or bags in small compass by means of a hydraulic press4 ,the goods are placed on the lower moving table upon a suitable wrapping of some kind of jute cloth2 when the requisite quantity has been placed thereon1 the top and side wrappers are placed in position1 and the pumps started in order to raise the bottom table and to squeeze the content between it and the top fixed table4 ,from #a #a_/b ton to #b tons per square inch is applied according to the nature of the goods and their destination4 ,while the goods are thus held securely in position between the two plates1 the wrappers a sewn together4 ,then specially prepared hoops or metal bands are placed round the bale1 and an ingenious and simple system1 involving a buckle and two pins1 adopted for fastening the bale4 ,the ends of the hoop or band are bent in a small press1 and these bent ends are passed through a rectangular hole in the buckle and the pins inserted in the loops4 ,as soon as the hydraulic pressure is removed1 the bale expands slightly1 and the buckled hoop grips the bale securely4 ,such is in brief the routine followed in the production of the fibre1 the transformation of this fibre1 first into yarn1 and then into cloth1 and the use of the latter in performing the function of the world's common carrier4 ,,index ,,accumulator ,assorting jute fibre4 ,,bag-,,making ,bale opener opening ,baling cloth house press station ,bast layer 7see also ,fibrous layer7 ,batch ,batchers ,batching apparatus carts or stalls ,batch-ticket ,beamer's lease ,beaming 7dry7 direct from bank1 ,blending ,bobbin winding ,bojah ,botanical features of jute plants ,breaker card ,brussels carpet ,bundle of jute4 ,,calcutta1 jute machinery introduced into ,calender finish ,calenderoy ,carding ,card waste ,cargoes of jute ,chest finish ,clasp-rods ,conditioning fibre ,cops ,cop winding ,corchorus capsularis clitorius ,crisping and crisping machines ,cropping machine ,cultivation of jute ,cutting knife for jute fibre ,cuttings4 ,,damping machine ,defects in fibre and in handling ,designs or weaves ,differential motion ,dobby loom ,draft ,drafting ,drawing frames different kinds of ,drawing-in ,dressing and dressing machine ,drum ,drying jute fibre ,dust shaker4 ,,east ,india ,co4 ,exports of jute from ,india4 ,,fabrics ,faller ,farming operations ,fibres1 the five main imports of jute4 ,fibrous layer ,finisher card ,finishing folding machine4 ,gaiting ,glazed finish ,grading jute fibre ,gunny bags4 ,hand batching ,harvesting the plants ,height of jute plants ,hydraulic mangle press4 ,identification marks on bags ,imports of jute4 ,jacquard loom ,jute crop exports from ,india fabrics fibre1 imports of industry knife plants1 botanical and physical features of cultivation of height of marks4 ,laddering ,ladders ,lapping machine ,linking machine ,linoleum ,looms ,lubrication of fibre4 ,machine batching ,machinery for jute manufacture introduced into ,calcutta ,mangle finish 7hydraulic7 ,marks of jute 7see jute marks7 ,maund ,measuring and marking machine machine for cloth the warp ,methods of preparing warps ,multiple-colour printing machines4 ,numbering machine for bags4 ,opening jute heads ,overhead runway systems sewing machine 7,laing's74 ,packing goods ,physical features of jute plants ,pin-lease ,plaiting machine ,plants1 thinning of weeding of ,ploughs for jute cultivation ,point-paper designs ,porcupine feed ,printing machine4 ,reach ,reeling ,retting ,roller-feed ,rolls ,root-comber opener ,round-thread finish ,rove ,roving frame ,roxburgh1 ,dr4 ,sack-cutting frame1 semi-mechanical ,sack making printing machine ,sand bags ,seed per acre1 amount of sowing of ,sewing machines ,shell-feed ,short-tell ,snipping machine ,softening machines ,spinning ,spool or roll winding ,spools 7see ,rolls7 ,standard bale ,starching 7see ,dressing7 ,steeping 7see ,retting7 ,striker-up 7see ,batcher7 ,stripping ,systems4 ,teazer ,tell 7of yarn7 ,thinning of plants ,thrum ,time for harvesting the plants ,tube-twisters ,twist ,twisting ,two-colour printing machine ,tying-on ,typical jute fabrics4 ,union ,or ,yankee sewing machine ,unloading bales of jute from ship4 ,variations in jute ,varieties of jute fibre plants4 ,warp ,warp dressing 7see ,dressing7 ,warping1 beaming and dressing mill ,washing ,waste teazer ,weaves or designs ,weaving ,weaver's lease ,weeding of plants ,weft winding ,wilton carpet ,winding 7bobbin7 machine from hank 7large roll7 machine 7ordinary size from hanks7 machine rolls and cops ,world's great war4 ,yankee or ,union sewing machine ,yarn table ,yield of fibre4 ,printed by ,sir ,isaac ,pitman ,sons1 ,ltd41 ,bath1 ,england ,advertisement #ad3 ,thomas ,hart1 ,,ltd42 ,,david ,,keay ,,leslie ,advertisement #ae3 ,,royles ,,limited4 ,advertisement #af3 ,d4 ,j4 ,,macdonald ,c4,e41 ,m4 ,i4,m4 ,,ech4,e4 ,advertisement #ag3 ,,robertson ,,orchar1 ,,ltd4 ,advertisement #ah3 ,,white1 ,,child ,,beney1 ,,limited ,advertisement #ai3 ,,the ,,british ,,northrop ,,loom ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,advertisement #bj3 ,,frederick ,,smith ,,co4 ,advertisement #ba3 ,,the ,,skefko ,,ball ,,bearing ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,advertisement #bb3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,arithmetic ,advertisement #bc3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,book-,,keeping ,,accountancy ,advertisement #bd3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,business ,,training ,advertisement #be3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,civil ,,service ,advertisement #bf3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,english1 ,,history ,advertisement #bf3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,economics1 ,,banking ,advertisement #bg3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,insurance1 ,,shipping1 ,,income ,,tax ,advertisement #bh3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,administration1 ,,advertising ,advertisement #bi3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,handbooks1 ,,reference ,advertisement #cj3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,commodities1 ,,law ,advertisement #ca3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,french ,advertisement #cb3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,german1 ,,spanish ,advertisement #cc3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,italian1 ,,shorthand ,advertisement #cd3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,shorthand ,,dictionaries1 ,,phrases ,advertisement #ce3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,shorthand ,,speed ,,practice1 ,,reading ,advertisement #cf3 ,,pitman ,,handbooks3 ,,teaching1 ,,typewriting1 ,,periodicals ,advertisement #cf3 ,,henry ,,taylor ,,sons1 ,,ltd41 ,,pitman',s ,,books ,advertisement #cg3 ,,thos4 ,,broadbent ,,sons1 ,,ltd4