,illustration3 ,,samuel ,,finley ,,breese ,,morse ,inventor of the ,telegraph ,,masters ,,of ,,space ,,morse and the ,telegraph ,,thompson and the ,cable ,,bell and the ,telephone ,,marconi and the ,wireless ,telegraph ,,carty and the ,wireless ,telephone ,,by ,,walter ,,kellogg ,,towers ,,illustrated #aiag ,,to ,,my ,,co-,,laborer ,,and ,,companion ,,berenice ,,laura ,,towers ,,whose ,,encouragement ,,and ,,assistance ,,were ,,constant ,,in ,,the ,,gathering ,,and ,,preparation ,,of ,,material ,,for ,,this ,,volume4 ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,preface ,i4 ,,communication ,,among ,,the ,,ancients ,,ii4 ,,signals ,,past ,,and ,,present ,,iii4 ,,forerunners ,,of ,,the ,,telegraph ,,iv4 ,,inventions ,,of ,,sir ,,charles ,,wheatstone ,v4 ,,the ,,achievement ,,of ,,morse ,,vi4 ,,what ,,hath ,,god ,,wrought8 ,,vii4 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,telegraph ,,system ,,viii4 ,,telegraphing ,,beneath ,,the ,,sea ,,ix4 ,,the ,,pioneer ,,atlantic ,,cable ,x4 ,a ,,successful ,,cable ,,attained ,,xi4 ,,alexander ,,graham ,,bell1 ,,the ,,youth ,,xii4 ,,the ,,birth ,,of ,,the ,,telephone ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,telephone ,,at ,,the ,,centennial ,,xiv4 ,,improvement ,,and ,,expansion ,,xv4 ,,telegraphing ,,without ,,wires ,,xvi4 ,,an ,,italian ,,boy',s ,,work ,,xvii4 ,,wireless ,,telegraphy ,,established ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,wireless ,,serves ,,the ,,world ,,xix4 ,,speaking ,,across ,,the ,,continent ,,xx4 ,,telephoning ,,through ,,space ,,appendix ,a ,,appendix ,b ,,index ,,illustrations ,,samuel ,,finley ,,breese ,,morse ,,morse',s ,,first ,,telegraph ,,instrument ,,cyrus ,w4 ,,field ,,william ,,thomson 7,,lord ,,kelvin7 ,,the ,,great ,,eastern ,,laying ,,the ,,atlantic ,,cable1 #ahff ,,alexander ,,graham ,,bell ,,thomas ,a4 ,,watson ,,professor ,,bell',s ,,vibrating ,,reed ,,professor ,,bell',s ,,first ,,telephone ,,the ,,first ,,telephone ,,switchboard ,,used ,,in ,,new ,,haven1 ,,conn41 ,,for ,,eight ,,subscribers ,,early ,,new ,,york ,,exchange ,,professor ,,bell ,,in ,,salem1 ,,mass41 ,,and ,,mr4 ,,watson ,,in ,,boston1 ,,demonstrating ,,the ,,telephone ,,before ,,audiences ,,in #ahgg ,,doctor ,,bell ,,at ,,the ,,telephone ,,opening ,,the ,,new ,,york-,,chicago ,,line1 ,,october #ah1 #ahib ,,guglielmo ,,marconi ,a ,,remarkable ,,photograph ,,taken ,,outside ,,of ,,the ,,clifden ,,station ,,while ,,messages ,,were ,,being ,,sent ,,across ,,to ,,cape ,,race ,,marconi ,,station ,,at ,,clifden1 ,,ireland ,,preface ,this is the story of talking at a distance1 of sending messages through space4 ,it is the story of great men--,morse1 ,thomson1 ,bell1 ,marconi1 and others--and how1 with the aid of men like ,field1 ,vail1 ,catty1 ,pupin1 the scientist1 and others in both the technical and commercial fields1 they succeeded in flashing both messages and speech around the world1 with wires and without wires4 ,it is the story of how the thought of the world has been linked together by those modern wonders of science and of industry--the telegraph1 the submarine cable1 the telephone1 the wireless telegraph1 and1 most recently1 the wireless telephone4 ,the story opens with the primitive methods of message-sending by fire or smoke or other signals4 ,the life and experiments of ,morse are then pictured and the dramatic story of the invention and development of the telegraph is set forth4 ,the submarine cable followed with the struggles of ,field1 the business executive1 and ,thomson1 the inventor and scientific expert1 which finally culminated in success when the ,great ,eastern landed a practical cable on the ,american coast4 ,the early life of ,alexander ,graham ,bell was full of color1 and ,i have told the story of his patient investigations of human speech and hearing1 which1 finally culminated in a practical telephone4 ,there follows the fascinating story of ,marconi and the wireless telegraph4 ,last comes the story of the wireless telephone1 that newest wonder which has come among us so recently that we can scarcely realize that it is here4 ,an inner view of the marvelous development of the telephone is added in an appendix4 ,the part played by the great business leaders who have developed and extended the new inventions1 placing them at the service of all1 has not been forgotten4 ,not only have means of communication been discovered1 but they have been improved and put to the widest practical use with remarkable efficiency and celerity4 ,the stories of these developments1 in both the personal and executive sides1 embody the true romance of the modern business world4 ,the great scientists and engineers who have wrought these wonders which have had so profound an influence upon the life of the world lived1 and are living1 lives filled with patient effort1 discouragement1 accomplishment1 and real romance4 ,they are interesting men who have done interesting things4 ,better still1 they have done important1 useful things4 ,this book relates their life stories in a connected form1 for they have all worked for a similar end4 ,the story of these men1 who1 starting in early youth in the pursuit of a great idea1 have achieved fame and success and have benefited civilization1 cannot but be inspiring4 ,they did not stumble upon their discoveries by any lucky accident4 ,they knew what they sought1 and they labored toward the goal with unflagging zeal4 ,had they been easily discouraged we might still be dependent upon the semaphore and the pony express for the transmission of news4 ,but they persevered until success was attained1 and in the account of their struggle to success every one may find encouragement in facing his own tasks4 ,one can scarce overestimate the value of modern methods of communication to the world4 ,so much of our development has been more or less directly dependent upon it that it is difficult to fancy our situation without the telegraph and telephone4 ,the diligence with which the ancients sought speedy methods for the sending of messages demonstrates the human need for them4 ,the solution of this great problem1 though long delayed1 came swiftly1 once it was begun4 ,even the simple facts regarding ,masters of ,space and their lives of struggle and accomplishment in sending messages between distant points form an inspiring story of great achievement4 ,w4,k4,t4 ,,masters ,,of ,,space ,i ,,communication ,,among ,,the ,,ancients ,signaling the ,fall of ,troy--,marine ,signaling among the ,argonauts--,couriers of the ,greeks1 ,romans1 and ,aztecs--,sound-signaling--,stentorophon ic ,tube--,the ,shouting ,sentinels--,the ,clepsydra--,signal ,columns--,indian ,fire and ,smoke ,signals4 ,it was very early in the history of the world that man began to feel the urgent need of communicating with man at a distance4 ,when village came into friendly contact with village1 when nations began to form and expand1 the necessity of sending intelligence rapidly and effectively was clearly realized4 ,and yet many centuries passed without the discovery of an effective system4 ,those discoveries were to be reserved for the thinkers of our age4 ,we can understand the difficulties that beset ,king ,agamemnon as he stood at the head of his armies before the walls of ,troy4 ,many were the messages he would want to send to his native kingdom in ,greece during the progress of the siege4 ,those at home would be eager for news of the great enterprise4 ,many contingencies might arise which would make the need for aid urgent4 ,certainly ,queen ,clytemnestra eagerly awaited word of the fall of the city4 ,yet the slow progress of couriers must be depended upon4 ,one device the king hit upon which was such as any boy might devise to meet the simplest need4 ,if ,i can go skating tonight1 says ,johnny ,jones to his chum1 ,i'll put a light in my window4 ,such is the simple device which has been used to bear the simplest message for ages4 ,so ,king ,agamemnon ordered beacon fires laid on the tops of ,mount ,ida1 ,mount ,athos1 ,mount ,cithron1 and on intervening eminences4 ,beside them he placed watchers who were always to have their faces toward ,troy4 ,when ,troy fell a near-by fire was kindled1 and beacon after beacon sprang into flame on the route toward ,greece4 ,thus was the message of the fall of ,troy quickly borne to the waiting queen by this preconceived arrangement4 ,yet neither ,king ,agamemnon nor his sagest counselors could devise an effective system for expediting their messages4 ,prearranged signals were used to convey news in even earlier times4 ,fire1 smoke1 and flags were used by the ,egyptians and the ,assyrians previous to the ,trojan ,war4 ,the towers along the ,chinese ,wall were more than watch-towers2 they were signal-towers4 ,a flag or a light exhibited from tower to tower would quickly convey a certain message agreed upon in advance4 ,human thought required a system which could convey more than one idea1 and yet skill in conveying news grew slowly4 ,perhaps the earliest example of marine signaling of which we know is recorded of the ,argonautic ,expedition4 ,theseus devised the use of colored sails to convey messages from ship to ship of the fleet1 and caused the death of his father by his failure to handle the signals properly4 ,theseus sailed into conflict with the enemy with black sails set1 a signal of battle and of death4 ,with the battle over and himself the victor1 he forgot to lower the black flag and set the red flag of victory4 ,his father1 the aged geus1 seeing the black flag1 believed it reported his son's death1 and1 flinging himself into the sea1 was drowned4 ,in time it occurred to the great monarchs as their domains extended to establish relays of couriers to bear the messages which must be carried4 ,such systems were established by the ,greeks1 the ,romans1 and the ,aztecs4 ,each courier would run the length of his own route and would then shout or pass the message to the next runner1 who would speed it away in turn4 ,such was the method employed by our own pony-express riders4 ,an ancient ,persian king thought of having the messages shouted from sentinel to sentinel1 instead of being carried more slowly by relays of couriers4 ,so he established sentinels at regular intervals within hearing of one another1 and messages were shouted from one to the other4 ,just fancy the number of sentinels required to establish a line between distant cities1 and the opportunities for misunderstanding and mistake6 ,the ancient ,gauls also employed this method of communication4 ,csar records that the news of the massacre of the ,romans at ,orleans was sent to ,auvergne1 a distance of nearly one hundred and fifty miles1 by the same evening4 ,though signaling by flashes of light occurred to the ancients1 we have no knowledge that they devised a way of using the light-flashes for any but the simplest prearranged messages4 ,the mirrors of the ,pharaohs were probably used to flash light for signal purposes4 ,we know that the ,persians applied them to signaling in time of war4 ,it is reported that flashes from the shields were used to convey news at the battle of ,marathon4 ,these seem to be the forerunners of the heliograph4 ,but the heliograph using the dot-and-dash system of the ,morse code can be used to transmit any message whatever4 ,the ancients had evolved systems by which any word could be spelled1 but they did not seem to be able to apply them practically to their primitive heliographs4 ,an application of sound-signaling was worked out for ,alexander the ,great1 which was considered one of the scientific wonders of antiquity4 ,this was called a stentorophonic tube1 and seems to have been a sort of gigantic megaphone or speaking-trumpet4 ,it is recorded that it sent the voice for a dozen miles4 ,a drawing of this strange instrument is preserved in the ,vatican4 ,another queer signaling device1 built and operated upon a novel principle1 was an even greater wonder among the early peoples4 ,this was known as a clepsydra4 ,fancy a tall glass tube with an opening at the bottom in which a sort of faucet was fixed4 ,at varying heights sentences were inscribed about the tube4 ,the tube1 being filled with water1 with1 a float at the top1 all was ready for signaling any of the messages inscribed on the tube to a station within sight and similarly equipped4 ,the other station could be located as far away as a light could be seen4 ,the station desiring to send a message to another exhibited its light4 ,when the receiving station showed its light in answer1 the tap was opened at the bottom of the tube in each station4 ,when the float dropped until it was opposite the sentence which it was desired to transmit1 the sending station withdrew its light and closed the tap4 ,this was a signal for the receiving station to stop the flow of water from its tube4 ,as the tubes were just alike1 and the water had flowed out during the same period at equal speed1 the float at the receiving station then rested opposite the message to be conveyed4 ,many crude systems of using lights for signaling were employed4 ,lines of watch-towers were arranged which served as signal-stations4 ,the ruins of the old ,roman and ,gallic towers may still be found ,in ,france4 ,hannibal erected them in ,africa and ,spain4 ,colored tunics and spears were also used for military signals in the daytime4 ,for instance1 a red tunic displayed meant prepare for battle2 while a red spear conveyed the order to sack and devastate4 ,an ancient system of camp signals from columns is especially interesting as showing a development away from the prearranged signals of limited application4 ,for these camp signals the alphabet was divided into five or six parts1 and a like number of columns erected at each signal-station4 ,each column represented one group of letters4 ,suppose that we should agree to get along without the ,q and the ,z and reduce our own alphabet to twenty-four letters for use in such a system4 ,with six columns we would then have four letters for each column4 ,the first column would be used to signal ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 and ,d4 ,one light or flag shown from column one would represent ,a1 two flags or lights ,b1 and so on4 ,thus any word could be spelled out and any message sent4 ,without doubt the system was slow and cumbersome1 but it was a step in the right direction4 ,the ,american ,indians developed methods of transmitting news which compare very favorably with the means employed by the ancients4 ,smoke-rings and puffs for the daytime1 and fire-arrows at night1 were used by them for the sending of messages4 ,smoke signals are obtained by building a fire of moist materials4 ,the ,indian obtains his smoke-puffs by placing a blanket or robe over the fire1 withdrawing it for an instant1 and then replacing it quickly4 ,in this way puffs of smoke may be sent aloft as frequently as desired4 ,a column of smoke-puffs was used as a warning signal1 its meaning being3 ,look out1 the enemy is near4 ,one smoke-puff was a signal for attention2 two puffs indicated that the sender would camp at that place4 ,three puffs showed that the sender was in danger1 as the enemy was near4 ,fire-arrows shot across the sky at night had a similar meaning4 ,the head of the arrow was dipped in some highly inflammable substance and then set on fire at the instant before it was discharged from the bow4 ,one fire-arrow shot into the sky meant that the enemy were near2 two signaled danger1 and three great danger4 ,when the ,indian shot many fire-arrows up in rapid succession he was signaling to his friends that his enemies were too many for him4 ,two arrows discharged into the air at the same time indicated that the party sending them was about to attack4 ,three indicated an immediate attack4 ,a fire-arrow discharged diagonally across the sky indicated the direction in which the sender would travel4 ,such were the methods which the ,indians used1 working out different meanings for the signals in the various tribes4 ,very slight progress was made in message-sending in medieval times1 and it was the middle of the seventeenth century before even signal systems were attained which were in any sense an improvement4 ,for many centuries the people of the world existed1 devising nothing better than the primitive methods outlined above4 ,,ii ,,signals ,,past ,,and ,,present ,marine and ,military ,signals--,code ,flags--,wig-wag--,semaphore ,telegraphs--,heliographs--,ardois ,signals--,submarine ,signals4 ,in naval affairs some kind of an effective signal system is imperative4 ,even in the ordinary evolutions of a fleet the commander needs some better way of communicating with the ship captains than despatching a messenger in a small boat4 ,the necessity of quick and sure signals in time of battle is obvious4 ,yet for many centuries naval signals were of the crudest4 ,the first distinct advance over the primitive methods by which the commander of one ,roman galley communicated with another came with the introduction of cannon as a naval arm4 ,the use of signal-guns was soon thought of1 and war-ships used their guns for signal purposes as early as the sixteenth century4 ,not long after came the square-rigged ship1 and it soon occurred to some one that signals could be made by dropping a sail from the yard-arm a certain number of times4 ,up to the middle of the seventeenth century the possibilities of the naval signal systems were limited indeed4 ,only a few prearranged orders and messages could be conveyed4 ,unlimited communication at a distance was still impossible1 and there were no means of sending a message to meet an unforeseen emergency4 ,so cumbersome were the signal systems in use that even though they would convey the intelligence desired1 the speaking-trumpet or a courier was employed wherever possible4 ,to the officers of the ,british navy of the seventeenth century belongs the credit for the first serious attempt to create a system of communication which would convey any and all messages4 ,it is not clear whether ,admiral ,sir ,william ,penn or ,james ,,ii4 established the code4 ,it was while he was ,duke of ,york and the commander of ,britain's navy1 that the ,james who was later to be king took this part in the advancement of means of communication4 ,messages were sent by varying the position of a single signal flag4 ,in #aghj ,admiral ,kempenfeldt thought of adding other signal flags instead of depending upon the varied positions of a single signal4 ,from his plan the flag signals now in use by the navies of the world were developed4 ,the basis of his system was the combining of distinct flags in pairs4 ,the work of ,admiral ,philip ,colomb marked another long step forward in signaling between ships4 ,while a young officer he developed a night-signal system of flashing lights1 still in use to some extent1 and which bears his name4 ,colomb's most important contribution to the art of signaling was his realization of the utility of the code which ,morse had developed in connection with the telegraph4 ,code flags1 which are largely used between ships1 have not been entirely displaced by the wireless4 ,the usual naval code set consists of a set of alphabet flags and pennants1 ten numeral flags1 and additional special flags4 ,this of course provides for spelling out any conceivable message by simply hoisting letter after letter4 ,so slow a method is seldom used1 however4 ,various combinations of letters and figures are used to indicate set terms or sentences set forth in the code-book4 ,thus the flags representing ,a and ,e1 hoisted together1 may be found on reference to the code-book to mean1 ,weigh anchor4 ,each navy has its own secret code1 which is carefully guarded lest it be discovered by a possible enemy4 ,naval code-books are bound with metal covers so that they may be thrown overboard in case a ship is forced to surrender4 ,the international code is used by ships of all nations4 ,it is the universal language of the sea1 and by it sailors of different tongues may communicate through this common medium4 ,any message may be conveyed by a very few of the flags in combination4 ,the wig-wag system1 a favorite and familiar method of communication with every ,boy ,scout troop1 is in use by both army and navy4 ,the various letters of the alphabet are indicated by the positions in which the signaler holds his arms4 ,keeping the arms always forty-five degrees apart1 it is possible to read the signals at a considerable distance4 ,navy signalers have become very efficient with this form of communication1 attaining a speed of over fifteen words a minute4 ,a semaphore is frequently substituted for the wig-wag flags both on land and on sea4 ,navy semaphores on big war-ships consist of arms ten or twelve feet long mounted at the masthead4 ,the semaphore as a means of communication was extensively used on land commercially as well as by the army4 ,a regular semaphore telegraph system1 working in relays over considerable distances was in operation in ,france a century ago4 ,other semaphore telegraphs were developed in ,england4 ,the introduction of the ,morse code and its adaptation to signaling by sight and sound did much to simplify these means of communication4 ,the development of signaling after the adoption of the ,morse code1 though it occurred subsequent to the introduction of the telegraph1 may properly be spoken of here1 since the systems dependent upon sight and sound grow from origins more primitive than those which depend upon electricity4 ,up to the middle of the nineteenth century armies had made slight progress in perfecting means of communication4 ,the ,british army had no regular signal service until after the recommendations of ,colomb proved their worth in naval affairs4 ,the ,german army1 whose systems of communication have now reached such perfection1 did not establish an army signal service until #aijb4 ,the simplicity of the dot and dash of the ,morse code makes it readily available for almost any form of signaling under all possible conditions4 ,two persons within sight of each other1 who understand the code1 may establish communication by waving the most conspicuous object at hand1 using a short swing for a dot and a long swing for a dash4 ,two different shapes may also be exhibited1 one representing a dot and the other a dash4 ,the dot-and-dash system is also admirably adapted for night signaling4 ,a search-light beam may be swung across the sky through short and long arcs1 a light may be exhibited and hidden for short and long periods1 and so on4 ,where the search-light may be played upon a cloud it may be seen for very considerable distances1 messages having been sent forty miles by this means4 ,fog-horns1 whistles1 etc41 may be similarly employed during fogs or amid thick smoke4 ,a short blast represents a dot1 and a long one a dash4 ,the heliograph1 which established communication by means of short and long light-flashes1 is another important means of signaling to which the ,morse code has been applied4 ,this instrument catches the rays of the sun upon a mirror1 and thence casts them to a distant receiving station4 ,a small key which throws the mirror out of alignment serves to obscure the flashes for a space at the will of the sender1 and so produces short or long flashes4 ,the ,british army has made wide use of the heliograph in ,india and ,africa4 ,during the ,british-,boer ,war ,it formed the sole means of communication between besieged garrisons and the relief forces4 ,where no mountain ranges intervene and a bright sun is available1 heliographic messages may be read at a distance of one hundred and fifty miles4 ,while the ,british navy used flashing lights for night signals1 the ,united ,states and most other navies adopted a system of fixed colored lights4 ,the system in use in the ,united ,states ,navy is known as the ,ardois system4 ,in this system the messages are sent by four lights1 usually electric1 which are suspended from a mast or yard-arm4 ,the lights are manipulated by a keyboard situated at a convenient point on the deck4 ,a red lamp is flashed to indicate a dot in the ,morse code1 while a white lamp indicates a dash4 ,the ,ardois system is also used by the ,army4 ,the perfection of wireless telegraphy has caused the ,ardois and other signal systems depending upon sight or sound to be discarded in all but exceptional cases4 ,the wig-wag and similar systems will probably never be entirely displaced by even such superior systems as wireless telegraphy4 ,the advantage of the wig-wag lies in the fact that no apparatus is necessary and communication may thus be established for short distances almost instantly4 ,its disadvantages are lack of speed1 impenetrability to dust1 smoke1 and fog1 and the short ranges over which it may be operated4 ,there is another form of sound-signaling which1 though it has been developed in recent years1 may properly be mentioned in connection with earlier signal systems of similar nature4 ,this is the submarine signal4 ,we have noted that much attention was paid to communication by sound-waves through the medium of the air from the earliest times4 ,it was not until the closing years of the past century1 however1 that the superior possibilities of water as a conveyer of sound were recognized4 ,arthur ,j4 ,mundy1 of ,boston1 happened to be on an ,american steamer on the ,mississippi ,river in the vicinity of ,new ,orleans4 ,it was rumored that a ,spanish torpedo-boat had evaded the ,united ,states war vessels and made its way up the great river4 ,the general alarm and the impossibility of detecting the approach of another vessel set ,mundy thinking4 ,it seemed to him that there should be some way of communicating through the water and of listening for sounds underwater4 ,he recalled his boyhood experiments in the old swimming-hole4 ,he remembered how distinctly the sound of stones cracked together carried to one whose ears were beneath the surface4 ,thus the idea of underwater signaling was born4 ,mundy communicated this idea to ,elisha ,gray1 and the two1 working together1 evolved a successful submarine signal system4 ,it was on the last day of the nineteenth century that they were able to put their experiments into practical working form4 ,through a well in the center of the ship they suspended an eight-hundred-pound bell twenty feet beneath the surface of the sea4 ,a receiving apparatus was located three miles distant1 which consisted simply of an ear-trumpet connected to a gas-pipe lowered into the sea4 ,the lower end of the pipe was sealed with a diaphragm of tin4 ,when submerged six feet beneath the surface the strokes of the bell could be heard4 ,then a special electrical receiver of extreme sensitiveness1 known as a microphone1 was substituted and connected at the receiving station with an ordinary telephone receiver4 ,with this receiving apparatus the strokes of the bell could be heard at a distance of over ten miles4 ,this system has had a wide practical application for communication both between ship and ship and between ship and shore4 ,most transatlantic ships are now equipped with such a system4 ,the transmitter consists of a large bell which is actuated either by compressed air or by an electro-magnetic system4 ,this is so arranged that it may be suspended over the side of the ship and lowered well beneath the surface of the water4 ,the receivers consist of microphones1 one on each side of the ship4 ,the telephone receivers connected to the two microphones are mounted close together on an instrument board on the bridge of the ship4 ,the two instruments are used when it is desired to determine the direction from which the signals come4 ,if the sound is stronger in the 'phone on the right-hand side of the ship the commander knows that the signals are coming from that direction4 ,if the signals are from a ship in distress he may proceed toward it by turning his vessel until the sound of the signal-bell is equal in the two receivers4 ,the ability to determine the direction from which the signal comes is especially valuable in navigating difficult channels in foggy weather4 ,signal-bells are located near lighthouses and dangerous reefs4 ,each calls its own number1 and the vessel's commander may thus avoid obstructions and guide the ship safely into the harbor4 ,the submarine signal is equally useful in enabling vessels to avoid collision in fogs4 ,because water conducts sound much better than air1 submarine signals are far better than the fog-horn or whistles4 ,the submarine signal system has also been applied to submarine war-ships4 ,by this means alone may a submarine communicate with another1 with a vessel on the surface1 or with a shore station4 ,an important and interesting adaptation of the marine signal was made to meet the submarine warfare of the great ,european conflict4 ,at first it seemed that battle-ship and merchantman could find no way to locate the approach of an enemy submarine4 ,but it was found that by means of the receiving apparatus of the submarine telephone an approaching submarine could be heard and located4 ,while the sounds of the submarine's machinery are not audible above the water1 the delicate microphone located beneath the water can detect them4 ,hearing a submarine approaching beneath the surface1 the merchantman may avoid her and the destroyers and patrol-boats may take means to effect her capture4 ,,iii ,,forerunners ,,of ,,the ,,telegraph ,from ,lodestone to ,leyden ,jar--,the ,mysterious ,c4,m4--,spark and ,frictional ,telegraphs--,the ,electro-magnet--,davy and the ,relay ,system4 ,the thought and effort directed toward improving the means of communication brought but small results until man discovered and harnessed for himself a new servant--electricity4 ,the story of the growth of modern means of communication is the story of the application of electricity to this particular one of man's needs4 ,the stories of the ,masters of ,space are the stories of the men who so applied electricity that man might communicate with man4 ,some manifestations of electricity had been known since long before the ,christian era4 ,a ,greek legend relates how a shepherd named ,magnes found that his crook was attracted by a strange rock4 ,thus was the lodestone1 the natural magnetic iron ore1 discovered1 and the legend would lead us to believe that the words magnet and magnetism were derived from the name of the shepherd who chanced upon this natural magnet and the strange property of magnetism4 ,the ability of amber1 when rubbed1 to attract straws1 was also known to the early peoples4 ,how early this property was found1 or how1 we do not know4 ,the name electricity is derived from elektron1 the ,greek name for amber4 ,the early ,chinese and ,persians knew of the lodestone1 and of the magnetic properties of amber after it has been rubbed briskly4 ,the ,romans were familiar with these and other electrical effects4 ,the ,romans had discovered that the lodestone would attract iron1 though a stone wall intervened4 ,they were fond of mounting a bit of iron on a cork floating in a basin of water and watch it follow the lodestone held in the hand4 ,it is related that the early magicians used it as a means of transmitting intelligence4 ,if a needle were placed upon a bit of cork and the whole floated in a circular vessel with the alphabet inscribed about the circle1 one outside the room could cause the needle to point toward any desired letters in turn by stepping to the proper position with the lodestone4 ,thus a message could be sent to the magician inside and various feats of magic performed4 ,our own modern magicians are reported as availing themselves of the more modern applications of electricity in somewhat similar fashion and using small1 easily concealed wireless telegraph or telephone sets for communication with their confederates off the stage4 ,the idea of encircling a floating needle with the alphabet was developed into the sympathetic telegraph of the sixteenth century1 which was based on a curious error4 ,it was supposed that needles which had been touched by the same lodestone were sympathetic1 and that if both were free to move one would imitate the movements of another1 though they were at a distance4 ,thus1 if one needle were attracted toward one letter after the other1 and the second similarly mounted should follow its movements1 a message might readily be spelled out4 ,of course the second needle would not follow the movements of the first1 and so the sympathetic telegraph never worked1 but much effort was expended upon it4 ,in the mean time others had learned that many substances besides amber1 on being rubbed1 possessed magnetic properties4 ,machines by which electricity could be produced in greater quantities by friction were produced and something was learned of conductors4 ,benjamin ,franklin sent aloft his historic kite and found that electricity came down the silken cord4 ,he demonstrated that frictional and atmospheric electricity are the same4 ,franklin and others sent the electric charge along a wire1 but it did not occur to them to endeavor to apply this to sending messages4 ,credit for the first suggestion of an electric telegraph must be given to an unknown writer of the middle eighteenth century4 ,in the ,scots ,magazine for ,february #ag1 #agee1 there appeared an article signed simply1 ,c4,m41 which suggested an electric telegraph4 ,the writer's idea was to lay an insulated wire for each letter of the alphabet4 ,the wires could be charged from an electrical machine in any desired order1 and at the receiving end would attract disks of paper marked with the letter which that wire represented1 and so any message could be spelled out4 ,the identity of ,c4,m4 has never been established1 but he was probably ,charles ,morrison1 a ,scotch surgeon with a reputation for electrical experimentation1 who later emigrated to ,virginia4 ,of course ,c4,m4's telegraph was not practical1 because of the many wires required1 but it proved to be a fertile suggestion which was followed by many other thinkers4 ,one experimenter after another added an improvement or devised a new application4 ,a ,french scientist devised a telegraph which it is suspected might have been practical1 but he kept his device secret1 and1 as ,napoleon refused to consider it1 it never was put to a test4 ,an ,englishman devised a frictional telegraph early in the last century and endeavored to interest the ,admiralty4 ,he was told that the semaphore was all that was required for communication4 ,another submitted a similar system to the same authorities in #ahaf1 and was told that telegraphs of any kind are now wholly unnecessary4 ,an ,american inventor fared no better1 for one ,harrison ,gray ,dyar1 of ,new ,york1 was compelled to abandon his experiments on ,long ,island and flee because he was accused of conspiracy to carry on secret communication1 which sounded very like witchcraft to our forefathers4 ,his telegraph sent signals by having the electric spark transmitted by the wire decompose nitric acid and so record the signals on moist litmus paper4 ,it seems altogether probable that had not the discovery of electro-magnetism offered improved facilities to those seeking a practical telegraph1 this very chemical telegraph might have been put to practical use4 ,in the early days of the nineteenth century the battery had come into being1 and thus a new source of electric current was available for the experimenters4 ,coupled with this important discovery in its effect upon the development of the telegraph was the discovery of electro-magnetism4 ,this was the work of ,hans ,christian ,oersted1 a native of ,denmark4 ,he first noticed that a current flowing through a wire would deflect a compass1 and thus discovered the magnetic properties of the electric current4 ,a ,frenchman named ,ampre1 experimenting further1 discovered that when the electric current is sent through coils of wire the magnetism is increased4 ,the possibility of using the deflection of a magnetic needle by an electric current passing through a wire as a means of conveying intelligence was quickly grasped by those who were striving for a telegraph4 ,experiments with spark and chemical telegraphs were superseded by efforts with this new discovery4 ,ampre1 acting upon the suggestion of ,la ,place1 an eminent mathematician1 published a plan for a feasible telegraph4 ,this was later improved upon by others1 and it was still early in the nineteenth century that a model telegraph was exhibited in ,london4 ,about this time two professors at the ,university of ,gttingen were experimenting with telegraphy4 ,they established an experimental line between their laboratories1 using at first a battery4 ,then ,faraday discovered that an electric current could be generated in a wire by the motion of a magnet1 thus laying the basis for the modern dynamo4 ,professors ,gauss and ,weber1 who were operating the telegraph line at ,gttingen1 adapted this new discovery to their needs4 ,they sent the message by moving a magnetic key4 ,a current was thus generated in the line1 and1 passing over the wire and through a coil at the farther end1 moved a magnet suspended there4 ,the magnet moved to the right or left1 depending on the direction of the current sent through the wire4 ,a tiny mirror was mounted on the receiving magnet to magnify its movement and so render it more readily visible4 ,one ,steinheil1 of ,munich1 simplified it and added a call-bell4 ,he also devised a recording telegraph in which the moving needle at the receiving station marked down its message in dots and dashes on a ribbon of paper4 ,he was the first to utilize the earth for the return circuit1 using a single wire for despatching the electric current used in signaling and allowing it to return through the ground4 ,in #ahcg1 the same year in which ,wheatstone and ,morse were busy perfecting their telegraphs1 as we shall see1 ,edward ,davy exhibited a needle telegraph in ,london4 ,davy also realized that the discoveries of ,arago could be used in improving the telegraph and making it practical4 ,arago discovered that the current passing through a coil of wire served to magnetize temporarily a piece of soft iron within it4 ,it was this principle upon which ,morse was working at this time4 ,davy did not carry his suggestions into effect1 however4 ,he emigrated to ,australia1 and the interruption in his experiments left the field open for those who were finally to bring the telegraph into usable form4 ,davy's greatest contribution to telegraphy was the relay system by which very weak currents could call into play strong currents from a local battery1 and so make the signals apparent at the receiving station4 ,,iv ,,inventions ,,of ,,sir ,,charles ,,wheatstone ,wheatstone and ,his ,enchanted ,lyre--,wheatstone and ,cooke--,first ,electric ,telegraph ,line ,installed--,the ,capture of the ,kwaker--,the ,automatic ,transmitter4 ,before we come to the story of ,samuel ,f4,b4 ,morse and the telegraph which actually proved a commercial success as the first practical carrier of intelligence which had been created for the service of man1 we should pause to consider the achievements of ,charles ,wheatstone4 ,together with ,william ,fothergill ,cooke1 another ,englishman1 he developed a telegraph line that1 while it did not attain commercial success1 was the first working telegraph placed at the service of the public4 ,charles ,wheatstone was born near ,gloucester in #ahjb4 ,having completed his primary schooling1 ,charles was apprenticed to his uncle1 who was a maker and seller of musical instruments4 ,he showed little aptitude either in the workshop or in the store1 and much preferred to continue the study of books4 ,his father eventually took him from his uncle's charge and allowed him to follow his bent4 ,he translated poetry from the ,french at the age of fifteen1 and wrote some verse of his own4 ,he spent all the money he could secure on books4 ,becoming interested in a book on ,volta's experiments with electricity1 he saved up his coppers until he could purchase it4 ,it was in ,french1 and he found the technical descriptions rather too difficult for his comprehension1 so that he was forced to save again to buy a ,french-,english dictionary4 ,with the aid of this he mastered the volume4 ,immediately his attention was turned toward the wonders of the infant science of electricity1 and he eagerly endeavored to perform the experiments described4 ,aided by his older brother1 he set to work on a battery as a source of current4 ,running short of funds with which to purchase copper plates1 he again began to save his pennies4 ,then the idea occurred to him to use the pennies themselves1 and his first battery was soon complete4 ,he continued his experiments in various fields until1 at the age of nineteen1 he first brought himself to public notice with his enchanted lyre4 ,this he placed on exhibition in music-shops in ,london4 ,it consisted of a small lyre suspended from the ceiling which gave forth1 in turn1 the sounds of various musical instruments4 ,really the lyre was merely a sounding-box1 and the vibrations of the music were conveyed from instruments1 played in the next room1 to the lyre through a steel rod4 ,the young man spent much time experimenting with the transmission of sound4 ,having conveyed music through the steel rod to his enchanted lyre1 much to the mystification of the ,londoners1 he proposed to transmit sounds over a considerable distance by this method4 ,he estimated that sound could be sent through steel rods at the rate of two hundred miles a second and suggested the use of such a rod as a telegraph between ,london and ,edinburgh4 ,he called his arrangement a telephone4 ,a scientific writer of the day1 commenting in a scientific journal on the enchanted lyre which ,wheatstone had devised1 suggested that it might be used to render musical concerts audible at a distance4 ,thus an opera performed in a theater might be conveyed through rods to other buildings in the vicinity and there reproduced4 ,this was never accomplished1 and it remained for our own times to accomplish this and even greater wonders4 ,wheatstone also devised an instrument for increasing feeble sound1 which he called a microphone4 ,this consisted of a pair of rods to convey the sound vibrations to the ears1 and does not at all resemble the modern electrical microphone4 ,other inventions in the transmission and reproduction of sound followed1 and he devoted no little attention to the construction of improved musical instruments4 ,he even made some efforts to produce a practical talking-machine1 and was convinced that one would be attained4 ,at thirty-two he was widely famed as a scientist and had been made a professor of experimental physics in ,king's ,college1 ,london4 ,his most notable work at this time was measuring the speed of the electric current1 which up to that time had been supposed to be instantaneous4 ,by #ahce ,wheatstone had abandoned his plans for transmitting sounds through long rods of metal and was studying the telegraph4 ,he experimented with instruments of his own and proposed a line across the ,thames4 ,it was in #ahcf that ,mr4 ,cooke1 an army officer home on leave1 became interested in the telegraph and devoted himself to putting it on a working basis4 ,he had already exhibited a crude set when he came to ,wheatstone1 realizing his own lack of scientific knowledge4 ,the two men finally entered into partnership1 ,wheatstone contributing the scientific and ,cooke the business ability to the new enterprise4 ,the partnership was arranged late in #ahcg1 and a patent taken out on ,wheatstone's five-needle telegraph4 ,in this telegraph a magnetic needle was located within a loop formed by the telegraph circuit at the receiving end4 ,when the circuit was closed the needle was deflected to one side or the other1 according to the direction of the current4 ,five separate circuits and needles were used1 and a variety of signals could thus be sent4 ,five wires1 with a sixth return wire1 were used in the first experimental line erected in ,london in #ahcg4 ,so in the year when ,morse was constructing his models ,wheatstone and ,cooke were operating an experimental line1 crude and impracticable though it was1 and enjoying the sensations of communicating with each other at a distance4 ,in #ahda the telegraph was placed on public exhibition at so much a head1 but it was viewed as an entertaining novelty without utility by the public at large4 ,after many disappointments the inventors secured the cooperation of the ,great ,western ,railroad1 and a line was erected for a distance of thirteen miles4 ,but the public would not patronise the line until its utility was strikingly demonstrated by the capture of the ,kwaker4 ,early one morning a woman was found dead in her home in the suburbs of ,london4 ,a man had been observed leaving the house1 and his appearance had been noted4 ,inquiries revealed that a man answering his description had left on the slow train for ,london4 ,without the telegraph he could not have been apprehended4 ,but the telegraph was available at this point1 and his description was telegraphed ahead and the police in ,london were instructed to arrest him upon his arrival4 ,he is dressed as a ,quaker1 ran the message4 ,there was no ,q in the alphabet of-the five-needle instrument1 and so the sender spelled ,quaker1 ,kwaker4 ,the clerk at the receiving end could not-understand the strange word1 and asked to have it repeated again and again4 ,finally some one suggested that the message be completed and the whole was then deciphered4 ,when the man dressed as a ,quaker stepped from the slow train on his arrival at ,london the police were awaiting him2 he was arrested and eventually confessed the murder4 ,the news of this capture and the part the telegraph played gave striking proof of the utility of the new invention1 and public skepticism and indifference were overcome4 ,by #ahde ,wheatstone had so improved his apparatus that but one wire was required4 ,the single-needle instrument pointed out the letters on the dial around it by successive deflections in which it was arranged to move1 step by step1 at the will of the sending station4 ,the single-needle instrument1 though generally displaced by ,morse's telegraph1 remained in use for a long time on some ,english lines4 ,wheatstone had also invented a type-printing telegraph1 which he patented in #ahda4 ,this required two circuits4 ,with a working telegraph attained1 the partners became involved in an altercation as to which deserved the honor of inventing the same4 ,the quarrel was finally submitted to two famous scientists for arbitration4 ,they reported that the telegraph was the result of their joint labors4 ,to ,wheatstone belongs the credit for devising the apparatus2 to ,cooke for introducing it and placing it before the public in working form4 ,here we see the combination of the man of science and the man of business1 each contributing needed talents for the establishment of a great invention on a working basis4 ,wheatstone's researches in the field of electricity were constant4 ,in #ahdj he devised a magnetic clock and proposed a plan by which many clocks1 located at different points1 could be set at regular intervals with the aid of electricity4 ,such a system was the forerunner of the electrically wound and regulated clocks with which we are now so familiar4 ,he also devised a method for measuring the resistance which wires offer to the passage of an electric current4 ,this is known as ,wheatstone's bridge and is still in use in every electrical and physical laboratory4 ,he also invented a sound telegraph by which signals were transmitted by the strokes of a bell operated by the current at the receiving end of the circuit4 ,the invention of ,wheatstone's which proved to be of greatest lasting importance in connection with the telegraph was the automatic transmitter4 ,by this system the message is first punched in a strip of paper which1 when passed through the sending instrument1 transmits the message4 ,by this means he was able to send messages at the rate of one hundred words a minute4 ,this automatic transmitter is much used for press telegrams where duplicate messages are to be sent to various points4 ,the automatic transmitter brought knighthood to its inventor1 ,wheatstone receiving this honor in #ahfh4 ,wheatstone took an active part in the development of the telegraph and the submarine cable up to the time of his death in #ahge4 ,wheatstone's telegraph would have served the purposes of humanity and probably have been universally adopted1 had not a better one been invented almost before it was established4 ,and it is because ,morse1 taking up the work where others had left off1 was able to invent an instrument which so fully satisfied the requirements of man for so long a period that he is known to all of us as the inventor of the telegraph4 ,and yet1 without belittling the part played by ,morse1 we must recognize the important work accomplished by ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone4 ,v ,,the ,,achievement ,,of ,,morse ,morse's ,early ,life--,artistic ,aspirations--,studies in ,paris--,his ,paintings--,beginnings of ,his ,invention--,the ,first ,instrument--,the ,morse ,code--,the ,first ,written ,message4 ,when we consider the youth and immaturity of ,america in the first half of the nineteenth century1 it seems the more remarkable that the honor of making the first great practical application of electricity should have been reserved for an ,american4 ,with the exception of the isolated work of ,franklin1 the development of the new science of electrical learning was the work of ,europeans4 ,this was natural1 for it was ,europe which was possessed of the accumulated wealth and learning which are usually attained only by older civilizations4 ,yet1 with all these advantages1 electricity remained largely a scientific plaything4 ,it was an ,american who fully recognized the possibilities of this new force as a servant of man1 and who was possessed of the practical genius and the business ability to devise and introduce a thoroughly workable system of rapid and certain communication4 ,we have seen that ,wheatstone was early trained as a musician4 ,samuel ,morse began life as an artist4 ,but while ,wheatstone early indicated his lack of interest in music and devoted himself to scientific studies while yet a youth1 ,morse's artistic career was of his own choosing1 and he devoted himself to it for many years4 ,this explains the fact that ,wheatstone attained much scientific success before ,morse1 though he was eleven years his junior4 ,it was in #agia that ,samuel ,morse was born4 ,samuel ,finley ,breese ,morse was the entire name with which he was endowed by his parents4 ,he came from the sturdiest of ,puritan stock1 his father being of ,english and his mother of ,scotch descent4 ,his father was an eminent divine1 and also notable as a geographer1 being the author of the first ,american geography of importance4 ,his mother also was possessed of unusual talent and force4 ,it is interesting to note that ,samuel ,morse first saw the light in ,charlestown1 ,massachusetts1 at the foot of ,breed's ,hill1 but little more than a mile from the birthplace of ,benjamin ,franklin4 ,he came into the world about a year after ,franklin died4 ,it is interesting to believe that some of the practical talent of ,america's first great electrician in some way descended to ,samuel ,morse4 ,he received an unusual education4 ,at the age of seven he was sent to a school at ,andover1 ,massachusetts1 to prepare him for ,phillips ,academy4 ,at the academy he was prepared for ,yale ,college1 which he entered when fifteen years of age4 ,with the knowledge of science so small at the time1 collegiate instruction in such subjects was naturally meager in the extreme4 ,jeremiah ,day was then professor of natural philosophy at ,yale1 and was probably ,america's ablest teacher of the subject4 ,his lectures upon electricity and the experiments with which he illustrated them aroused the interest of ,morse1 as we learn from the letters he wrote to his parents at this time4 ,one principle in particular impressed ,morse4 ,this was that if the electric circuit be interrupted at any place the fluid will become visible1 and when it passes it will leave an impression upon any intermediate body4 ,thus was it stated in the text-book in use at ,yale at that time4 ,more than a score of years after the telegraph had been achieved ,morse wrote3 ,the fact that the presence of electricity can be made visible in any desired part of the circuit was the crude seed which took root in my mind1 and grew into form1 and ripened into the invention of the telegraph4 ,we shall later hear of the occasion which recalled this bit of information to ,morse's mind4 ,but though ,yale ,college was at that time a center of scientific activity1 and ,morse showed more than a little interest in electricity and chemistry1 his major interest remained art4 ,he eagerly looked forward to graduation that he might devote his entire time to the study of painting4 ,it is significant of the tolerance and breadth of vision of his parents that they apparently put no bars in the path of this ambition1 though they had sacrificed to give him the best of collegiate trainings that he might fit himself for the ministry1 medicine1 or the law4 ,as a boy of fifteen ,samuel ,morse had painted water-colors that attracted attention1 and he was possessed of enough talent to paint miniatures while at ,yale which were salable at five dollars apiece1 and so aided in defraying his college expenses4 ,after his graduation from ,yale in #ahaj1 ,morse devoted himself entirely to the study of art1 still being dependent upon his parents for support4 ,he secured the friendship and became the pupil of ,washington ,allston1 then a foremost ,american painter4 ,in the summer of #ahaa ,allston sailed for ,england1 and ,morse accompanied him4 ,in ,london he came to the attention of ,benjamin ,west1 then at the height of his career1 and benefited by his advice and encouragement4 ,that he had no ambition other than his art at this period we may learn from a letter he wrote to his mother in #ahab4 ,my passion for my art he wrote is so firmly rooted that ,i am confident no human power could destroy it4 ,the more ,i study the greater ,i think is its claim to the appellation divine4 ,i am now going to begin a picture of the death of ,hercules1 the figure to be large as life4 ,when he had completed this picture to his own satisfaction1 he showed it to ,west4 ,go on and finish it1 was ,west's comment4 ,but it is finished1 said ,morse4 ,no1 no4 ,see here1 and here1 and here are places you can improve it4 ,morse went to work upon his painting again1 only to meet the same comment when he again showed it to ,west4 ,this happened again and again4 ,when the youth had finally brought it to a point where ,west was convinced it was the very best ,morse could do he had learned a lesson in thoroughness and painstaking attention to detail that he never forgot4 ,that he might have a model for his painting ,morse had molded a figure of ,hercules in clay4 ,at the advice of ,west he entered the cast in a competition for a prize in sculpture1 with the result that he received the prize and a gold medal for his work4 ,he then plunged into the competition for a prize and medal offered by the ,royal ,academy for the best historical painting4 ,his subject was1 ,the ,judgment of ,jupiter in the ,case of ,apollo1 ,marpessa1 and ,idas4 ,though he completed the picture to the satisfaction of ,west1 ,morse was not able to remain in ,london and enter it in the competition4 ,the rules required that the artist be present in person if he was to receive the prize1 but ,morse was forced to return to ,america4 ,he had been in ,england for four years--a year longer than had originally been planned for him--and he was out of funds1 and his parents could support him no longer4 ,morse lived in ,london during the ,war of #ahab1 but seems to have suffered no annoyance other than that of poverty1 which the war intensified by raising the prices of food as well as his necessary artist's materials to an almost prohibitive figure4 ,the last of the ,napoleonic wars was also in progress4 ,news of the battle of ,waterloo reached ,london but a short time before ,morse sailed for ,america4 ,it required two days for the news to reach the ,english capital4 ,the young ,american1 whose inability to sell his paintings was driving him from ,london1 was destined to devise a system which would have carried the great news to its destination within a few seconds4 ,but while he gained fame in ,america and secured praise and attention as he had in ,london1 he found art no more profitable4 ,he contrived to eke out an existence by painting an occasional portrait1 going from town to town in ,new ,england for this purpose4 ,he turned from art to invention for a time1 joining with his brother in devising a fire-engine pump of an improved pattern4 ,they secured a patent upon it1 but could not sell it4 ,he turned again to the life of a wandering painter of portraits4 ,in #ahah he went to ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina1 at the invitation of his uncle4 ,his portraits proved very popular and he was soon occupied with work at good prices4 ,this prosperity enabled him to take unto himself a wife1 and the same year he married ,lucretia ,walker1 of ,concord1 ,new ,hampshire4 ,after four years in the ,south ,morse returned to the ,north1 hoping that larger opportunities would now be ready for him4 ,the result was again failure4 ,he devoted his time to huge historical paintings1 and the public would neither buy them nor pay to see them when they were exhibited4 ,another blow fell upon him in #ahbe when his wife died4 ,at last he began to secure more sitters for his portraits1 though his larger works still failed4 ,he assisted in the organization of the ,national ,academy of ,design and became its first president4 ,in #ahbi he again sailed for ,europe to spend three years in study in the galleries of ,paris and ,rome4 ,still he failed to attain any real success in his chosen work4 ,he had made many friends and done much worthy work1 yet there is little probability that he would have attained lasting fame as an artist even though his energies had not been turned to other interests4 ,it was on the packet ship ,sully1 crossing the ,atlantic from ,france1 that ,morse conceived the telegraph which was to prove the first great practical application of electricity4 ,one noon as the passengers were gathered about the luncheon-table1 a ,dr4 ,charles ,t4 ,jackson1 of ,boston1 exhibited an electro-magnet he had secured in ,europe1 and described certain electrical experiments he had seen while in ,paris4 ,he was asked concerning the speed of electricity through a wire1 and replied that1 according to ,faraday1 it was practically instantaneous4 ,the discussion recalled to ,morse his own collegiate studies in electricity1 and he remarked that if the circuit were interrupted the current became visible1 and that it occurred to him that these flashes might be used as a means of communication4 ,the idea of using the current to carry messages became fixed in his mind1 and he pondered1 over it during the remaining weeks of the long1 slow voyage4 ,doctor ,jackson claimed1 after ,morse had perfected and established his telegraph1 that the idea had been his own1 and that ,morse had secured it from him on board the ,sully4 ,but ,doctor ,jackson was not a practical man who either could or did put any ideas he may have had to practical use4 ,at the most he seems to have simply started ,morse's mind along a new train of thought4 ,the idea of using the current as a carrier of messages1 though it was new to ,morse1 had occurred to others earlier1 as we have seen4 ,but at the very outset ,morse set himself to find a means by which he might make the current not only signal the message1 but actually record it4 ,before he landed from the ,sully he had worked out sketches of a printing telegraph4 ,in this the current actuated an electro-magnet on the end of which was a rod4 ,this rod was to mark down dots and dashes on a moving tape of paper4 ,thus was the idea born4 ,of course the telegraph was still far from an accomplished fact4 ,without the improved electro-magnets and the relay of ,professor ,henry1 ,morse had not yet even the basic ideas upon which a telegraph to operate over considerable distances could be constructed4 ,but ,morse was possessed of ,yankee imagination and practical ability4 ,he was possessed of a fair technical education for that day1 and he eagerly set himself to attaining the means to accomplish his end4 ,that he realized just what he sought is shown by his remark to the captain of the ,sully when he landed at ,new ,york4 ,well1 ,captain1 he remarked1 should you hear of the telegraph one of these days as the wonder of the world1 remember that the discovery was made on board the good ship ,sully4 ,with the notion of using an electro-magnet as a receiver1 an alphabet consisting of dots and dashes1 and a complete faith in the practical possibilities of the whole1 ,morse went to work in deadly earnest4 ,but poverty still beset him and it was necessary for him to devote most of his time to his paintings1 that he might have food1 shelter1 and the means to buy materials with which to experiment4 ,from #ahcb to #ahce he was able to make but small progress4 ,in the latter year he secured an appointment as professor of the literature of the arts of design in the newly established ,university of the ,city of ,new ,york4 ,he soon had his crude apparatus set up in a room at the college and in #ahce was able to transmit messages4 ,he now had a little more leisure and a little more money1 but his opportunities were still far from what he would have desired4 ,the principal aid which came to him at the university was from ,professor ,gale1 a teacher of chemistry4 ,gale became greatly interested in ,morse's apparatus1 and was able to give him much practical assistance1 becoming a partner in the enterprise4 ,morse knew little of the work of other experimenters in the field of electricity and ,gale was able to tell ,morse what had been learned by others4 ,particularly he brought to ,morse's attention the discoveries of another ,american1 ,prof4 ,joseph ,henry4 ,the electro-magnet which actuated the receiving instrument in the crude set in use by ,morse in #ahce had but a few turns of thick wire4 ,professor ,henry1 by his experiments five years earlier1 had demonstrated that many turns of small wire made the electro-magnet far more sensitive4 ,morse made this improvement in his own apparatus4 ,in #ahcb ,henry had devised a telegraph very similar to that of ,morse by which he signaled through a mile of wire4 ,his receiving apparatus was an electro-magnet1 the armature of which struck a bell4 ,thus the messages were read by sound1 instead of being recorded on a moving strip of paper as by ,morse's system4 ,while ,henry was possibly the ablest of ,american electricians at that time1 he devoted himself entirely to science and made no effort to put his devices to practical use4 ,neither did he endeavor to profit by his inventions1 for he secured no patents upon them4 ,professor ,henry realized1 in common with ,morse and others1 that if the current were to be conducted over long wires for considerable distances it would become so weak that it would not operate a receiver4 ,henry avoided this difficulty by the invention of what is known as the relay4 ,at a distance where the current has become weak because of the resistance of the wire and losses due to faulty insulation1 it will still operate a delicate electro-magnet with a very light armature so arranged as to open and close a local circuit provided with suitable batteries4 ,thus the recording instrument may be placed on the local circuit and as the local circuit an opened and closed in unison with the main circuit1 the receiver can be operated4 ,it was the relay which made it possible to extend telegraph lines to a considerable distance4 ,it is not altogether clear whether ,morse adopted ,henry's relay or devised it for himself4 ,it is believed1 however1 that ,professor ,henry explained the relay to ,professor ,gale1 who in turn placed it before his partner1 ,morse4 ,by #ahcg ,morse had completed a model1 had improved his apparatus1 had secured stronger batteries and longer wires1 and mastered the use of the relay4 ,it was in this year that the ,house of ,representatives ordered the ,secretary of the ,treasury to investigate the feasibility of establishing a system of telegraphs4 ,this action urged ,morse to complete his apparatus and place it before the ,government4 ,he was still handicapped by lack of money1 lack of scientific knowledge1 and the difficulty of securing necessary materials and devices4 ,to-day the experimenter may buy wire1 springs1 insulators1 batteries1 and almost anything that might be useful4 ,morse1 with scanty funds and limited time1 had to search for his materials and puzzle out the way to make each part for himself with such crude tools as he had available4 ,need we wonder that his progress was slow8 ,instead we should wonder that1 despite all discouragements and handicaps1 he clung to his great idea and labored on4 ,but assistance was to come to him in this same eventful year of #ahcg1 and that quite unexpectedly4 ,on a ,saturday in ,september a young man named ,alfred ,vail wandered into ,professor ,gale's laboratory4 ,morse was there engaged in exhibiting his model to an ,english professor then visiting in ,new ,york4 ,the youth was deeply impressed with what he saw4 ,he realized that here were possibilities of an instrument that would be of untold service to mankind4 ,asking ,professor ,morse whether he intended to experiment with a longer line1 he was informed that such was his intention as soon as he could secure the means4 ,young ,vail replied that he thought he could secure the money if ,morse would admit him as a partner4 ,to this ,morse assented4 ,vail plunged into the enterprise with all the enthusiasm of youth4 ,that very evening he studied over the commercial possibilities1 and before he retired had marked out on the maps in his atlas the routes for the most needed lines of communication4 ,the young man applied to his father for support4 ,the senior ,vail was the head of the ,speedwell ,iron ,works at ,morristown1 ,new ,jersey1 and was a man of unusual enterprise and ability4 ,he determined to back his son in the enterprise1 and ,morse was invited to come and exhibit his model4 ,two thousand dollars was needed to make the necessary instruments and secure the patents4 ,on ,september #bc1 #ahcg1 the agreement was drawn up by the terms of which ,alfred ,vail was1 at his own expense1 to construct apparatus suitable for exhibition to ,congress and to secure a patent4 ,in return he was to receive a one-fourth interest4 ,very shortly afterward they filed a caveat in the ,patent ,office1 which is a notice serving to protect an impending invention4 ,alfred ,vail immediately set to work on the apparatus1 his only helper being a fifteen-year-old apprentice boy named ,william ,baxter4 ,the two worked early and late for many months in a secret room in the iron-works1 being forced to fashion every part for themselves4 ,the first machine was a copy of ,morse's model1 but ,vail's native ability as a mechanic and his own ingenuity enabled him to make many improvements4 ,the pencil fastened to the armature which had marked zigzag lines on the moving paper was replaced by a fountain-pen which inscribed long and short lines1 and thus the dashes and dots of the ,morse code were put into their present form4 ,morse had worked out an elaborate telegraphic code or dictionary1 but a simpler code by which combinations of dots and dashes were used to represent letters instead of numbers in a code was now devised4 ,vail recognized the importance of having the simplest combinations of dots and dashes stand for the most used letters1 as this would increase the speed of sending4 ,he began to figure out for himself the frequency with which the various letters occur in the ,english language4 ,then he thought of the combination of types in a type-case1 and1 going to a local newspaper office1 found the result all worked out for him4 ,in each case of type such common letters as e and t have many more types than little used letters such as q and z4 ,by observing the number of types of each letter provided1 ,vail was enabled to arrange them in the order of their importance in assigning them symbols in the code4 ,thus the ,morse code was arranged as it stands to-day4 ,alfred ,vail played a very important part in the arrangement of the code as well as in the construction of the apparatus1 and there are many who believe that the code should have been called the ,vail code instead of the ,morse code4 ,illustration3 ,,morse',s ,,first ,,telegraph ,,instrument ,a pen was attached to the pendulum and drawn across the strip of paper by the action of the electro-magnet4 ,the lead type shown in the lower right-hand corner was used in making electrical contact when sending a message4 ,the modern instrument shown in the lower left-hand corner is the one that sent a message around the world in #ahif4 ,morse came down to ,speedwell when he could to assist ,vail with the work1 and yet it progressed slowly4 ,but at last1 early in ,january of #ahch they had the telegraph at work1 and ,william ,baxter1 the apprentice boy1 was sent to call the senior ,vail4 ,within a few moments he was in the work-room studying the apparatus4 ,alfred ,vail was at the sending key1 and ,morse was at the receiver4 ,the father wrote on a piece of paper these words3 ,a patient waiter is no loser4 ,handing it to his son1 he stated that if he could transmit the message to ,morse by the telegraph he would be convinced4 ,the message was sent and recorded and instantly read by ,morse4 ,the first test had been completed successfully4 ,,vi ,,what ,,hath ,,god ,,wrought8 ,congress ,becomes ,interested--,washington to ,baltimore ,line ,proposed--,failure to ,secure ,foreign ,patents--,later ,indifference of ,congress--,lean ,years--,success at ,last--,the ,line is ,built--,the ,first ,public ,message--,popularity4 ,morse and his associates now had a telegraph which they were confident would prove a genuine success4 ,but the great work of introducing this new wonder to the public1 of overcoming indifference and skepticism1 of securing financial support sufficient to erect a real line1 still remained to be done4 ,we shall see that this burden remained very largely upon ,morse himself4 ,had ,morse not been a forceful and able man of affairs as well as an inventor1 the introduction of the telegraph might have been even longer delayed4 ,the new telegraph was exhibited in ,new ,york and ,philadelphia without arousing popular appreciation4 ,it was viewed as a scientific toy2 few saw in it practical possibilities4 ,morse then took it to ,washington and set up his instruments in the room of the ,committee on ,commerce of the ,house of ,representatives in the ,capitol4 ,here1 as in earlier exhibitions1 a majority of those who saw the apparatus in operation remained unconvinced of its ability to serve mankind4 ,but ,morse finally made a convert of the ,hon4 ,francis ,o4,j4 ,smith1 chairman of the ,committee on ,commerce4 ,smith had previously been in correspondence with the inventor1 and ,morse had explained to him at length his belief that the ,government should own the telegraph and control and operate it for the public good4 ,he believed that the ,government should be sufficiently interested to provide funds for an experimental line a hundred miles long4 ,in return he was willing to promise the ,government the first rights to purchase the invention at a reasonable price4 ,later he changed his request to a line of fifty miles1 and estimated the cost of erection at #bf1jjj4 ,smith aided in educating the other members of his committee1 and one day in ,february of #ahch he secured the attendance of the entire body at a test of the telegraph over ten miles of wire4 ,the demonstration convinced them1 and many were their expressions of wonder and amazement4 ,one member remarked1 ,time and space are now annihilated4 ,as a result the committee reported a bill appropriating #cj1jjj for the erection of an experimental line between ,washington and ,baltimore4 ,smith's report was most enthusiastic in his praise of the invention4 ,in fact1 the ,congressman became so much interested that he sought a share in the enterprise1 and1 securing it1 resigned from ,congress that he might devote his efforts to securing the passage of the bill and to acting as legal adviser4 ,at this time the enterprise was divided into sixteen shares3 ,morse held nine2 ,smith1 four2 ,alfred ,vail1 two2 and ,professor ,gale1 one4 ,we see that ,morse was a good enough business man to retain the control4 ,wheatstone and others were developing their telegraphs in ,europe1 and ,morse felt that it was high time to endeavor to secure foreign patents on his invention4 ,accompanied by ,smith1 he sailed for ,england in ,may1 taking with him a new instrument provided by ,vail4 ,arriving in ,london1 they made application for a patent4 ,they were opposed by ,wheatstone and his associates1 and could not secure even a hearing from the patent authorities4 ,morse strenuously insisted that his telegraph was radically different from ,wheatstone's1 laying especial emphasis on the fact that his recording instrument printed the message in permanent form1 while ,wheatstone's did not4 ,morse always placed great emphasis on the recording features of his apparatus1 yet these features were destined to be discarded in ,america when his telegraph at last came into use4 ,with no recourse open to him but an appeal to ,parliament1 a long and expensive proceeding with little apparent possibility of success1 ,morse went to ,france1 hoping for a more favorable reception4 ,he found the ,french cordial and appreciative4 ,french experts watched his tests and examined his apparatus1 pronouncing his telegraph the best of all that had been devised4 ,he received a patent1 only to learn that to be effective the invention must be put in operation in ,france within two years1 under the ,french patent law4 ,morse sought to establish his line in connection with a railway1 as ,wheatstone had established his in ,england1 but was told that the telegraph must be a ,government monopoly1 and that no private parties could construct or operate4 ,the ,government would not act1 and ,morse found himself again defeated4 ,faring no better with other ,european governments1 ,morse decided to return to ,america to push the bill for an appropriation before ,congress4 ,while ,morse was in ,europe gaining publicity for the telegraph1 but no patents1 his former fellow-passenger on the ,sully1 ,dr4 ,charles ,jackson1 had laid claim to a share in the invention4 ,he insisted that the idea had been his and that he had given it to ,morse on the trip across the ,atlantic4 ,this ,morse indignantly denied4 ,congress would now take no action upon the invention4 ,a heated political campaign was in progress1 and no interest could be aroused in an invention1 no matter what were its possibilities in the advancement of the work and development of the nation4 ,smith was in politics1 the ,vails were suffering from a financial depression1 ,professor ,gale was a man of very limited means1 and so ,morse found himself without funds or support4 ,in ,paris he had met ,m4 ,daguerre1 who had just discovered photography4 ,morse had learned the process and1 in connection with ,doctor ,draper1 he fitted up a studio on the roof of the university4 ,here they took the first daguerreotypes made in ,america4 ,morse's work in art had been so much interrupted that he had but few pupils4 ,the fees that these brought to him were small and irregular1 and he was brought to the very verge of starvation4 ,we are told of the call ,morse made upon one pupil whose tuition was overdue because of a delay in the arrival of funds from his home4 ,well1 my boy1 said the professor1 how are we off for money8 ,the student explained the situation1 adding that he hoped to have the money the following week4 ,next week6 exclaimed ,morse4 ,i shall be dead by next week--dead of starvation4 ,would ten dollars be of any service8 asked the student1 astonished and distressed4 ,ten dollars would save my life1 was ,morse's reply4 ,the student paid the money--all he had--and they dined together1 ,morse remarking that it was his first meal for twenty-four hours4 ,morse's situation and feelings at this time are also illustrated by a letter he wrote to ,smith late in #ahda4 ,i find myself he wrote without sympathy or help from any who are associated with me1 whose interests1 one would think1 would impell them to at least inquire if they could render me some assistance4 ,for nearly two years past ,i have devoted all my time and scanty means1 living on a mere pittance1 denying myself all pleasures and even necessary food1 that ,i might have a sum1 to put my telegraph into such a position before ,congress as to insure success to the common enterprise4 ,i am crushed for want of means1 and means of so trifling a character1 too1 that they who know how to ask 7which ,i do not7 could obtain in a few hours4444 ,as it is1 although everything is favorable1 although ,i have no competition and no opposition--on the contrary1 although every member of ,congress1 so far as ,i can learn1 is favorable--yet ,i fear all will fail because ,i am too poor to risk the trifling expense which my journey and residence in ,washington will occasion me4 ,i will not run in debt1 if ,i lose the whole matter4 ,no one can tell the days and months of anxiety and labor ,i have had in perfecting my telegraphic apparatus4 ,for want of means ,i have been compelled to make with my own hands 7and to labor for weeks7 a piece of mechanism which could be made much better1 and in a tenth the time1 by a good mechanician1 thus wasting time--time which ,i cannot recall and which seems double-winged to me4 ,hope deferred maketh the heart sick4 ,it is true1 and ,i have known the full meaning of it4 ,nothing but the consciousness that ,i have an invention which is to mark an era in human civilization1 and which is to contribute to the happiness of millions1 would have sustained me through so many and such lengthened trials of patience in perfecting it4 ,a patent on the telegraph had been issued to ,morse in #ahdj4 ,the issuance had been delayed at ,morse's request1 as he desired to first secure foreign patents1 his own ,american rights being protected by the caveat he had filed4 ,although the commercial possibilities1 and hence the money value of the telegraph had not been established1 ,morse was already troubled with the rival claims of those who sought to secure a share in his invention4 ,while working and waiting and saving1 ,morse conceived the idea of laying telegraph wires beneath the water4 ,he prepared a wire by wrapping it in hemp soaked in tar1 and then covering the whole with rubber4 ,choosing a moonlight night in the fall of #ahdb1 he submerged his cable in ,new ,york ,harbor between ,castle ,garden and ,governors ,island4 ,a few signals were transmitted and then the wire was carried away by a dragging anchor4 ,truly1 misfortune seemed to dog ,morse's footsteps4 ,this seems to have been the first submarine cable1 and in writing of it not long after ,morse hazarded the then astonishing prediction that ,europe and ,america would be linked by telegraphic cable4 ,failing to secure effective aid from his associates1 ,morse hung on grimly1 fighting alone1 and putting all of his strength and energy into the task of establishing an experimental line4 ,it was during these years that he demonstrated his greatness to the full4 ,his letters to the members of the ,congressional ,committee on ,commerce show marked ability4 ,they outline the practical possibilities very clearly4 ,morse realized not only the financial possibilities of his invention1 but its benefit to humanity as well4 ,he also presented very practical estimates of the cost of establishing the line under consideration4 ,the committee again recommended that #cj1jjj be appropriated for the construction of a ,washington-,baltimore line4 ,the politicians had come to look upon ,morse as a crank1 and it was extremely difficult for his adherents to secure favorable action in the ,house4 ,many a ,congressman compared ,morse and his experiments to mesmerism and similar isms1 and insisted that if the ,government gave funds for this experiment it would be called upon to supply funds for senseless trials of weird schemes4 ,the bill finally passed the ,house by the narrow margin of six votes1 the vote being taken orally because so many ,congressmen feared to go on record as favoring an appropriation for such a purpose4 ,the bill had still to pass the ,senate1 and here there seemed little hope4 ,morse1 who had come to ,washington to press his plan1 anxiously waited in the galleries4 ,the bill came up for consideration late one evening just before the adjournment4 ,a ,senator who noticed ,morse went up to him and said3 ,there is no use in your staying here4 ,the ,senate is not in sympathy with your project4 ,i advise you to give it up1 return home1 and think no more about it4 ,the inventor went back to his room1 with how heavy a heart we may well imagine4 ,he paid his board bill1 and found himself with but thirty-seven cents in the world4 ,after many moments of earnest prayer he retired4 ,early next morning there came to him ,miss ,annie ,ellsworth1 daughter of his friend the ,commissioner of ,patents1 and said1 ,professor1 ,i have come to congratulate you4 ,congratulate me6 replied ,morse4 ,on what8 ,why1 she exclaimed1 on the passage of your bill by the ,senate6 ,the bill had been passed without debate in the closing moments of the session4 ,as ,morse afterward stated1 this was the turning-point in the history of the telegraph4 ,his resources were reduced to the minimum1 and there was little likelihood that he would have again been able to bring the matter to the attention of ,congress4 ,so pleased was ,morse over the news of the appropriation1 and so grateful to ,miss ,ellsworth for her interest in bringing him the good news1 that he promised her that she should send the first message when the line was complete4 ,with the ,government appropriation at his disposal1 ,morse immediately set to work upon the ,washington-,baltimore line4 ,professors ,gale and ,fisher served as his assistants1 and ,mr4 ,vail was in direct charge of the construction work4 ,another person active in the enterprise was ,ezra ,cornell1 who was later to found ,cornell ,university4 ,cornell had invented a machine for laying wires underground in a pipe4 ,it was originally planned to place the wires underground1 as this was thought necessary or their protection4 ,after running the line some five miles out from ,baltimore it was found that this method of installing the line was to be a failure4 ,the insulation was not adequate1 and the line could not be operated to the first relay station4 ,a large portion of the #cj1jjj voted by ,congress had been spent and the line was still far from completion4 ,disaster seemed imminent4 ,smith lost all faith in the enterprise1 demanded most of the remaining money under a contract he had taken to lay the line1 and a quarrel broke out between him and ,morse which further jeopardized the undertaking4 ,morse and such of his lieutenants as remained faithful in this hour of trial1 after a long consultation1 decided to string the wire on poles4 ,the method of attaching the wire to the poles was yet to be determined4 ,they finally decided to simply bore a hole through each pole near the top and push the wire through it4 ,stringing the wire in such fashion was no small task1 but it was finally accomplished4 ,it was later found necessary to insulate the wire with bottle necks where it passed through the poles4 ,on ,may #bc1 #ahdd1 the line was complete4 ,remembering his promise to ,miss ,ellsworth1 ,morse called upon her next morning to give him the first message4 ,she chose1 ,what hath ,god wrought8 and early on the morning of the #bdth ,morse sat at the transmitter in the ,supreme ,court room in the ,capitol and telegraphed these immortal words to ,vail at ,baltimore4 ,the message was received without difficulty and repeated back to ,morse at ,washington4 ,the magnetic telegraph was a reality4 ,still the general public remained unconvinced4 ,as in the case of ,wheatstone's needle telegraph a dramatic incident was needed to demonstrate the utility of this new servant4 ,fortunately for ,morse1 the telegraph's opportunity came quickly4 ,the ,democratic national convention was in session at ,baltimore4 ,after an exciting struggle they dropped ,van ,buren1 then ,president1 and nominated ,james ,k4 ,polk4 ,silas ,wright was named for the ,vice-,presidency4 ,at that time ,mr4 ,wright was in ,washington4 ,hearing of the nomination1 ,alfred ,vail telegraphed it to ,morse in ,washington4 ,morse communicated with ,wright1 who stated that he could not accept the honor4 ,the telegraph was ready to carry his message declining the nomination1 and within a very few minutes ,vail had presented it to the convention at ,baltimore1 to the intense surprise of the delegates there assembled4 ,they refused to believe that ,wright had been communicated with1 and sent a committee to ,washington to see ,wright and make inquiries4 ,they found that the message was genuine1 and the utility of the telegraph had been strikingly established4 ,,vii ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,telegraph ,,system ,the ,magnetic ,telegraph ,company--,the ,western ,union--,crossing the ,continent--,the ,improvements of ,alfred ,vail--,honors ,awarded to ,morse--,duplex ,telegraphy--,edison's ,improvements4 ,for some time the telegraph line between ,washington and ,baltimore remained on exhibition as a curiosity1 no charge being made for demonstrating it4 ,congress made an appropriation to keep the line in operation1 ,vail acting as operator at the ,washington end4 ,on ,april #a1 #ahde1 the line was put in operation on a commercial basis1 service being offered to the public at the rate of one cent for four characters4 ,it was operated as a branch of the ,post-office ,department4 ,on the #dth of ,april a visitor from ,virginia came into the ,washington office wishing to see a demonstration4 ,up to this time not a paid message had been sent4 ,the visitor1 having no permit from the ,postmaster-,general1 was told that he could only see the telegraph in operation by sending a message4 ,one cent being all the money he had other than twenty-dollar bills1 he asked for one cent's worth4 ,the ,washington operator asked of ,baltimore1 ,what time is it8 which in the code required but one character4 ,the reply came1 ,one o'clock1 another single character4 ,thus but two characters had been used1 or one-half cent's worth of telegraphy4 ,the visitor expressed himself as satisfied1 and waived the change4 ,this penny was the line's first earnings4 ,under the terms of the agreement by which ,congress had made the appropriation for the experimental line1 ,morse was bound to give the ,government the first right to purchase his invention4 ,he accordingly offered it to the ,united ,states for the sum of #ajj1jjj4 ,there followed a distressing example of official stupidity and lack of foresight4 ,with the opportunity to own and control the nation's telegraph lines before it the ,government declined the offer4 ,this action was taken at the recommendation of the ,hon4 ,cave ,johnson1 then ,postmaster-,general1 under whose direction the line had been operated4 ,he had been a member of ,congress at the time the original appropriation was voted1 and had ridiculed the project4 ,the nation was now so unfortunate as to have him as its ,postmaster-,general1 and he reported that the operation of the telegraph between ,washington and ,baltimore had not satisfied him that1 under any rate of postage that could be adopted1 its revenues could be made equal to its expenditures4 ,and yet the telegraph1 here offered to the ,government for #ajj1jjj1 was developed under private management until it paid a profit on a capitalization of #ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,morse seems to have had a really patriotic motive1 as well as a desire for immediate return and the freedom from further worries1 in his offer to the ,government4 ,he was greatly disappointed at its refusal to purchase1 a refusal that was destined to make ,morse a wealthy man4 ,amos ,kendall1 who had been ,postmaster-,general under ,jackson1 was now acting as ,morse's agent1 and they decided to depend upon private capital4 ,plans were made for a line between ,new ,york and ,philadelphia1 and to arouse interest and secure capital the apparatus was exhibited in ,new ,york ,city at a charge of twenty-five cents a head4 ,the public refused to patronize in sufficient numbers to even pay expenses1 and the entire exhibition was so shabby1 and the exhibitors so poverty-stricken1 that the sleek capitalists who came departed without investing4 ,some of the exhibitors slept on chairs or on the floor in the bare room1 and it is related that the man who was later to give his name and a share of his fortune to ,cornell ,university was overjoyed at finding a quarter on the sidewalk1 as it enabled him to buy a hearty breakfast4 ,though men of larger means refused to take shares1 some in humbler circumstances could recognize the great idea and the wonderful vision which ,morse had struggled so long to establish--a vision of a nation linked together by telegraphy4 ,the ,magnetic ,telegraph ,company was formed and work started on the line4 ,in ,august of #ahde ,morse sailed for ,europe in an endeavor to enlist foreign capital4 ,the investors of ,europe proved no keener than those of ,america1 and the inventor returned without funds1 but imbued with increased patriotism4 ,he had become convinced that the telegraph could and would succeed on ,american capital alone4 ,in the next year a line was constructed from ,philadelphia to ,washington1 thus extending the ,new ,york-,philadelphia line to the capital4 ,henry ,o',reilly1 of ,rochester1 ,new ,york1 took an active part in this construction work and now took the contract to construct a line from ,philadelphia to ,st4 ,louis4 ,this line was finished by ,december of #ahdg4 ,the path having been blazed1 others sought to establish lines of their own without regard to ,morse's patents4 ,one of these was ,o ,reilly1 who1 on the completion of the line to ,st4 ,louis1 began one to ,now ,orleans1 without authority from ,morse or his company4 ,o',reilly called his telegraph ,the ,people's ,line1 and when called to account in the courts insisted not only that his instruments were different from ,morse's1 and so no infringement of his patents1 but also that the ,morse system was a harmful monopoly and that ,the ,people's ,line should be encouraged4 ,it was further urged that ,wheatstone in ,england and ,steinheil in ,germany had invented telegraphs before ,morse1 and that ,professor ,henry had invented the relay which made it possible to operate the telegraph over long distances4 ,the suits resulted in a legal victory for ,morse1 and his patents were maintained4 ,but still other rival companies built lines1 using various forms of apparatus1 and though the courts repeatedly upheld ,morse's patent rights1 the pirating was not effectively checked4 ,the telegraph had come to be a necessity and the original company lacked the capital to construct lines with sufficient rapidity to meet the need4 ,within ten years after the first line had been put into operation the more thickly settled portions of the ,united ,states were served by scores of telegraph lines owned by a dozen different companies4 ,hardly any of these were making any money1 though the service was poor and the rates were high4 ,they were all operating on too small a scale and business uses of the telegraph had not yet developed sufficiently4 ,an amalgamation of the scattered1 competing lines was needed1 both to secure better service for the public and proper dividends for the investors4 ,this amalgamation was effected by ,mr4 ,hiram ,sibley1 who organized the ,western ,union in #ahef4 ,the plan was ridiculed at the time1 some one stating that ,the ,western ,union seems very like collecting all the paupers in the ,state and arranging them into a union so as to make rich men of them4 ,but these pauper companies did become rich once they were united under efficient management4 ,the nation was just then stretching herself across to the ,pacific4 ,the commercial importance of ,california was growing rapidly4 ,by #aheg stage-coaches were crossing the plains and the pony-express riders were carrying the mail4 ,the pioneers of the telegraph felt that a line should span the continent4 ,this was then a tremendous undertaking1 and when ,mr4 ,sibley proposed that the ,western ,union should undertake the construction of such a line he was met with the strongest opposition4 ,the explorations of ,frmont were not far in the past1 and the vast extent of country west of the ,mississippi was regarded as a wilderness peopled with savages and almost impossible of development4 ,but ,sibley had faith2 he was possessed of ,morse's vision and ,morse's courage4 ,the ,western ,union refusing to undertake the enterprise1 he began it himself4 ,the ,government1 realizing the military and administrative value of a telegraph line to ,california1 subsidized the work4 ,additional funds were raised and a route selected was through ,omaha and ,salt ,lake ,city to ,san ,francisco4 ,the undertaking proved less formidable than had been anticipated1 for1 instead of two years1 less than five months were occupied in completing the line4 ,sibley's tact and ability did much to avoid opposition by the ,indians4 ,he made the red men his friends and impressed upon them the wonder of the telegraph4 ,when the line was in operation between ,fort ,kearney and ,fort ,laramie he invited the chief of the ,arapahoes at ,fort ,kearney to communicate by telegraph with his friend the chief of the ,sioux at ,fort ,laramie4 ,the two chiefs exchanged telegrams and were deeply impressed4 ,they were told that the telegraph was the voice of the ,manitou or ,great ,spirit4 ,to convince them it was suggested that they meet half-way and compare their experiences4 ,though they were five hundred miles apart1 they started out on horseback1 and on meeting each other found that the line had carried their words truly4 ,the story spread among the tribes1 and so the telegraph line became almost sacred to the ,indians4 ,they might raid the stations and kill the operators1 but they seldom molested the wires4 ,among many ignorant peoples the establishment of the telegraph has been attained with no small difficulty4 ,the ,chinese showed a dread of the telegraph1 frequently breaking down the early lines because they believed that they would take away the good luck of their district4 ,the ,arabs1 on the other hand1 did not oppose the telegraph4 ,this is partly because the name is one which they can understand1 tel meaning wire to them1 and araph1 to know4 ,thus in ,arabic tele-agraph means to know by wire4 ,just as the ,indians of our own plains had difficulty in understanding the telegraph1 so the primitive peoples in other parts of the world could scarce believe it possible4 ,a story is told of the construction of an early line in ,british ,india4 ,the natives inquired the purpose of the wire from the head man4 ,the wire is to carry messages to ,calcutta1 he replied4 ,but how can words run along a wire8 they asked4 ,the head man puzzled for a moment4 ,if there were a dog1 he replied1 with a tail long enough to reach from here to ,calcutta1 and you pinched his tail here1 wouldn't he howl in ,calcutta8 ,once ,sibley and the other ,american telegraph pioneers had spanned the continent1 they began plans for spanning the globe4 ,their idea was to unite ,america and ,europe by a line stretched through ,british ,columbia1 ,alaska1 the ,aleutian ,islands1 and ,siberia4 ,siberia had been connected with ,european ,russia1 and thus practically the entire line could be stretched on land1 only short submarine cables being necessary4 ,it was then seriously doubted that cables long enough to cross the ,atlantic were practicable4 ,the expedition started in #ahfe1 a fleet of thirty vessels carrying the men and supplies4 ,tremendous difficulties had been overcome and a considerable part of the work accomplished when the successful completion of the ,atlantic cable made the work useless4 ,nearly three million dollars had been expended by the ,western ,union in this attempt4 ,yet1 despite this loss1 its affairs were so generally successful and the need for the telegraph so real that it continued to thrive until it reached its present remarkable development4 ,while the line-builders were busy stretching telegraph wires into almost every city and town in the nation1 others were perfecting the apparatus4 ,alfred ,vail was a leading figure in this work4 ,already he had played a large part in designing and constructing the apparatus to carry out ,morse's ideas1 and he continued to improve and perfect until practically nothing remained of ,morse's original apparatus4 ,the original ,morse transmitter had consisted of a porte-rule and movable type4 ,this was cumbersome1 and ,vail substituted a simple key to make and break the circuit4 ,vail had also constructed the apparatus to emboss the message upon the moving strip of paper1 but this he now improved upon4 ,the receiving apparatus was simplified and the pen was replaced by a disk smeared with ink which marked the dots and dashes upon the paper4 ,as we have noticed1 ,morse took particular pride in the fact that the receiving apparatus in his telegraph was self-recording1 and considered this as one of the most important parts of his system4 ,but when the telegraph began to come into commercial use the operators at the receiving end noticed that they could read the messages from the long and short periods between the clicks of the receiving mechanism4 ,thus they were taking the message by ear and the recording mechanism was superfluous4 ,rules and fines failed to break them of the habit1 and ,vail1 recognizing the utility of the development1 constructed a receiver which had no recording device1 but from which the messages were read by listening to the clicks as the armature struck against the frame in which it was set4 ,thus the telegraph returned in its elements to the form of ,professor ,henry's original bell telegraph4 ,with his bell telegraph and his relay ,henry had the elements of a successful system4 ,he failed1 however1 to develop them practically or to introduce them to the attention of the public4 ,he was the man of science rather than the practical inventor4 ,alfred ,vail1 joining with ,morse after the latter had conceived the telegraph1 but before his apparatus was in practical form1 was a tireless and invaluable mechanical assistant4 ,his inventions of apparatus were of the utmost practical value1 and he played a very large part in bringing the telegraph to a form where it could serve man effectively4 ,after success had been won ,morse did not extend to ,vail the credit which it seems was his due4 ,yet1 though ,morse made free use of the ideas and assistance of others1 he was richly deserving of a major portion of the fame and the rewards that came to him as inventor of the telegraph4 ,morse was the directing genius2 he contributed the idea and the leadership1 and bore the brunt of the burdens when all was most discouraging4 ,honors were heaped upon ,morse both at home and abroad as his telegraph established itself in all parts of the world4 ,orders of knighthood1 medals1 and decorations were conferred upon him4 ,though he had failed to secure foreign patents1 many of the foreign governments recognized the value of his invention1 and ,france1 ,austria1 ,belgium1 ,netherlands1 ,russia1 ,sweden1 ,turkey1 and some smaller nations joined in paying him a testimonial of four hundred thousand francs4 ,it is to be noticed that ,great ,britain did not join in this testimonial1 though ,morse's system had been adopted there in preference to the one developed by ,wheatstone4 ,in #ahga a statue of ,morse was erected in ,central ,park1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,it was in the spring of the next year that another statue was unveiled1 this time one of ,benjamin ,franklin1 and ,morse presided at the ceremonies4 ,the venerable man received a tremendous ovation on this occasion1 but the cold of the day proved too great a strain upon him4 ,he contracted a cold which eventually resulted in his death on ,april #b1 #ahgb4 ,while extended consideration cannot be given here to the telegraphic inventions of ,thomas ,a4 ,edison1 no discussion of the telegraph should close without at least some mention of his work in this field4 ,edison started his career as a telegrapher1 and his first inventions were improvements in the telegraph4 ,his more recent and more wonderful inventions have thrown his telegraphic inventions into the shadow4 ,on the telegraph as invented by ,morse but one message could be sent over a single wire at one time4 ,it was later discovered that two messages' could be sent over the single wire in opposite directions at the same time4 ,this was called duplex telegraphy4 ,edison invented duplex telegraphy by which two messages could be sent over the same wire in the same direction at the same time4 ,later he succeeded in combining the two1 which resulted in the quadruplex1 by which four messages may be sent over one wire at one time4 ,though ,edison received comparatively little for this invention1 its commercial value may be estimated from the statement by the president of the ,western ,union that it saved that company half a million dollars in a single year4 ,edison's quadruplex system was also adopted by the ,british lines4 ,before this he had perfected an automatic telegraph1 work on which had been begun by ,george ,little1 an ,englishman4 ,little could make the apparatus effective only over a short line and attained no very great speed4 ,edison improved the apparatus until it transmitted thirty-five hundred words a minute between ,new ,york and ,philadelphia4 ,such is the perfection to which ,morse's marvel has been brought in the hands of the most able of modern inventors4 ,,viii ,,telegraphing ,,beneath ,,the ,,sea ,early ,efforts at ,underwater ,telegraphy--,cable ,construction and ,experimentation--,the ,first ,cables--,the ,atlantic ,cable ,projected--,cyrus ,w4 ,field ,becomes ,interested--,organizes ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company--,professor ,thomson as ,scientific ,adviser--,his ,early ,life and ,attainments4 ,the idea of laying telegraph wires beneath the sea was discussed long before a practical telegraph for use on land had been attained4 ,it is recorded that a ,spaniard suggested submarine telegraphy in #agie4 ,experiments were conducted early in the nineteenth century with various materials in an effort to find a covering for the wires which would be both a non-conductor of electricity and impervious to water4 ,an employee of the ,east ,india ,company made an effort to lay a cable across the river ,hugli as early as #ahch4 ,his method was to coat the wire with pitch inclose it in split rattan1 and then wrap the whole with tarred yarn4 ,wheatstone discussed a ,calais-,dover cable in #ahdj1 but it remained for ,morse to actually lay an experimental cable4 ,we have already heard of his experiments in ,new ,york ,harbor in #ahdb4 ,his insulation was tarred hemp and ,india rubber4 ,wheatstone performed a similar experiment in the ,bay of ,swansea a few months later4 ,perhaps the first practical submarine cable was laid by ,ezra ,cornell1 one of ,morse's associates1 in #ahde4 ,he laid twelve miles of cable in the ,hudson ,river1 connecting ,fort ,lee with ,new ,york ,city4 ,the cable consisted of two cotton-covered wires inclosed in rubber1 and the whole incased in a lead pipe4 ,this cable was in use for several months until it was carried away by the ice in the winter of #ahdf4 ,these early experimenters found the greatest difficulty in incasing their wires in rubber1 practical methods of working that substance being then unknown4 ,the discovery of gutta-percha by a ,scotch surveyor of the ,east ,india ,company in #ahdb1 and the invention of a machine for applying it to a wire1 by ,dr4 ,werner ,siemens1 proved a great aid to the cable-makers4 ,these gutta-percha-covered wires were used for underground telegraphy both in ,england and on the ,continent4 ,tests were made with such a cable for submarine work off ,dover in #ahdi1 and1 proving successful1 the first cable across the ,english ,channel was laid the next year by ,john ,watkins ,brett4 ,the cable was weighted with pieces of lead fastened on every hundred yards4 ,a few incoherent signals were exchanged and the communication ceased4 ,a ,boulogne fisherman had caught the new cable in his trawl1 and1 raising it1 had cut a section away4 ,this he had borne to port as a great treasure1 believing the copper to be gold in some new form of deposit4 ,this experience taught the need of greater protection for a cable1 and the next year another was laid across the ,channel1 which was protected by hemp and wire wrappings4 ,this proved successful4 ,in #aheb ,england and ,ireland were joined by cable1 and the next year a cable was laid across the ,north ,sea to ,holland4 ,the success of these short cables might have promised success in an attempt to cross the ,atlantic had not failures in the deep water of the ,mediterranean made it seem an impossibility4 ,we have noted that ,morse suggested the possibility of uniting ,europe and ,america by cable4 ,the same thought had occurred to others1 but the undertaking was so vast and the problems so little understood that for many years none were bold enough to undertake the project4 ,a telegraph from ,new ,york to ,st4 ,john's1 ,newfoundland1 was planned1 however1 which was to lessen the time of communication between the continents4 ,news brought by boats from ,england could be landed at ,st4 ,john's and telegraphed to ,new ,york1 thus saving two days4 ,f4,n4 ,gisborne secured the concession for such a line in #aheb1 and began the construction4 ,cables were required to connect ,newfoundland with the continent1 and to cross the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 but the rest of the line was to be strung through the forests4 ,before much had been accomplished1 ,gisborne had run out of funds1 and work was suspended4 ,in #ahed ,gisborne met ,cyrus ,west ,field1 of ,new ,york1 a retired merchant of means4 ,field became interested in ,gisborne's project1 and as he examined the globe in his library the thought occurred to him that the line to ,st4 ,john's was but a start on the way to ,england4 ,the idea aroused his enthusiasm1 and he determined to embark upon the gigantic enterprise4 ,he knew nothing of telegraph cables or of the sea-bottom1 and so sought expert information on the subject4 ,one important question was as to the condition of the sea-bottom on which the cable must rest4 ,lieutenant ,berryman of the ,united ,states ,navy had taken a series of soundings and stated that the sea-bottom between ,newfoundland and ,ireland was a comparatively level plateau covered with soft ooze1 and at a depth of about two thousand fathoms4 ,this seemed to the investigators to have been provided for the especial purpose of receiving a submarine cable1 so admirably was it suited to this purpose4 ,morse was consulted1 and assured ,field that the project was entirely feasible1 and that a submarine cable once laid between the continents could be operated successfully4 ,field thereupon adopted the plans of ,gisborne as the first step in the larger undertaking4 ,in #ahee an attempt was made to lay a cable across the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 but a storm arose1 and the cable had to be cut to save the ship from which it was being laid4 ,another attempt was made the following summer with better equipment1 and the cable was successfully completed4 ,other parts of the line had been finished1 the telegraph now stretched a thousand miles toward ,england1 and ,new ,york was connected with ,st4 ,john's4 ,desiring more detailed information of the ocean-bed along the proposed route1 ,field secured the assistance of the ,united ,states and ,british governments4 ,lieutenant ,berryman1 ,u4,s4,n41 in the ,arctic1 and ,lieutenant ,dayman1 ,r4,n41 in the ,cyclops1 made a careful survey4 ,their soundings revealed a ridge near the ,irish coast1 but the slope was gradual and the general conditions seemed especially favorable4 ,the preliminary work had been done by an ,american company with ,field at the head and ,morse as electrician4 ,now ,field went to ,england to secure capital sufficient for the larger enterprise4 ,with the assistance of ,mr4 ,j4,w4 ,brett he organized the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company1 ,field himself supplying a quarter of the capital4 ,associated with ,field and ,brett in the leadership of the enterprise was ,charles ,tiltson ,bright1 a young ,englishman who became engineer for the new company4 ,besides the enormous engineering difficulties of producing a cable long enough and strong enough1 and laying it at the bottom of the ,atlantic1 there were electrical problems involved far greater than ,morse seems to have realized4 ,it had been discovered that the passage of a current through a submarine cable is seriously retarded4 ,the retarding of the current as it passes through the water is a difficulty that does not exist with the land telegraph stretched on poles4 ,faraday had demonstrated that this retarding was caused by induction between the electricity in the wire and the water about the cable4 ,the passage of the current through the wire induces currents in the water1 and these moving in the opposite direction act as a drag on the passage of the message through the wire4 ,what the effect of this phenomenon would be on a cable long enough to cross the ,atlantic wan a serious problem that required deep study by the company's engineers4 ,it seemed entirely possible that the messages would move so slowly that the operation of the cable1 once it was laid1 would not pay4 ,faraday failed to give any definite information on the subject1 but ,professor ,william ,thomson worked out the law of retardation accurately and furnished to the cable-builders the accurate information which was required4 ,doctor ,whitehouse1 electrician for the ,atlantic ,company1 conducted some experiments of his own and questioned the accuracy of ,thomson's statements4 ,thomson maintained his position so ably1 and proved himself so thoroughly a master of the subject that ,field and his associates decided to enlist him in the enterprise4 ,this addition to the forces was one of the utmost importance4 ,william ,thomson1 later to become ,lord ,kelvin1 was probably the ablest scientist of his generation1 and was destined to prove his great abilities in his early work with the ,atlantic cable4 ,william ,thomson was born in ,belfast1 ,ireland1 in #ahbd4 ,his father was a teacher and took an especially keen interest in the affairs of his boys because their mother had died while ,william was very young4 ,when ,william was eight years of age his father removed to ,glasgow1 ,scotland1 where he had secured the chair of mathematics in ,glasgow ,university4 ,his early education he secured from his father1 and this training1 coupled with his natural brilliancy1 enabled him to develop genuine precocity4 ,at the age of eight he attended his father's university lectures as a visitor1 and it is reported that on one occasion he answered his father's questions when all of the class had failed4 ,at the age of ten he entered the university1 together with his brother ,james1 who was but two years older4 ,the brothers displayed marked interest in science and invention1 eagerly pursued their studies in these branches1 and performed many electrical experiments together4 ,illustration3 ,,cyrus ,w4 ,,field ,illustration3 ,,william ,,thomson 7,,lord ,,kelvin7 ,james took the degrees ,b4,a4 and ,m4,a4 in successive years4 ,though ,william also passed the examinations1 he did not take the degrees1 because he had decided to go to ,cambridge1 and it was thought best that he take all his degrees from that great school4 ,in writing to his older brother at this time1 ,william was accustomed to sign himself ,b4,a4,t4,a4,i4,a4,p41 which signified ,b4,a4 to all intents and purposes4 ,after finishing their work at ,glasgow the boys traveled extensively on the ,continent4 ,at seventeen ,william entered ,st4 ,peter's ,college1 ,cambridge ,university1 taking courses in advanced mathematics and continuing to distinguish himself4 ,he took an active part in the life of the university1 making something of a record us an athlete1 winning the silver sculls1 and rowing on a 'varsity crew which took the measure of ,oxford in the great annual boat-race4 ,he also interested himself in literature and music1 but his real passion was science4 ,already he had written many learned essays on mathematical electricity and was accomplishing valuable research work4 ,on the completion of his work at ,cambridge he secured a fellowship which brought him an income of a thousand dollars a year and enabled him to pursue his studies in ,paris4 ,when he was but twenty-two years of age he was made professor of natural philosophy at the ,university of ,glasgow4 ,though young1 he proved entirely successful1 and wan immensely popular with his students4 ,at that time the university had no experimental laboratory1 and ,professor ,thomson and his pupils performed their experiments in the professor's room and in an abandoned coal-cellar1 slowly developing a laboratory for themselves4 ,his development continued until1 when at the age of thirty-three he was called upon to assist with the work of laying an ,atlantic cable1 he was possessed of scientific attainments which made him invaluable among the cable pioneers4 ,,ix ,,the ,,pioneer ,,atlantic ,,cable ,making the ,cable--,the ,first ,attempt at ,laying--,another ,effort ,checked by ,storm--,the ,cable ,laid at ,last--,messages ,cross the ,ocean--,the ,cable ,fails--,professor ,thomson's ,inventions and ,discoveries--,their ,part in ,designing and ,constructing an ,improved ,cable and ,apparatus4 ,field and his business associates were extremely anxious that the cable be laid with all possible speed1 and little time was allowed the engineers and electricians for experimentation4 ,the work of building the cable was begun early in #aheg by two ,english firms4 ,it consisted of seven copper wires covered with gutta-percha and wound with tarred hemp4 ,over this were wound heavy iron wires to give protection and added strength4 ,the whole weighed about a ton to the mile1 and was both strong and flexible4 ,the distance from the west coast of ,ireland to ,newfoundland being #a1fdj nautical miles1 it was decided to supply #b1ejj miles of cable1 an extra length being1 of course1 necessary to allow for the inequalities at the bottom of the sea1 and the possibility of accident4 ,the ,british and ,american governments had already provided subsidies1 and they now supplied war-ships for use in the work of laying the cable4 ,the ,agamemnon1 one of the largest of ,england's war-ships1 and the ,niagara1 giant of the ,united ,states ,navy1 were to do the actual work of cable-laying1 the cable being divided between them4 ,they were accompanied by the ,united ,states frigate ,susquehanna and the ,british war-ships ,leopard and ,cyclops4 ,in ,august of #aheg the fleet assembled on the ,irish coast for the start1 and the ,american sailors landed the end of the cable amid great ceremony4 ,the work of cable-laying was begun by the ,niagara1 which steamed slowly away1 accompanied by the fleet4 ,the great cable payed out smoothly as the ,irish coast was left behind and the frigate increased her speed4 ,the submarine hill with its dangerous slopes was safely passed1 and it was felt that the greatest danger was past4 ,the paying-out machinery seemed to be working perfectly4 ,telegraphic communication was constantly maintained with the shore end4 ,for six days all went well and nearly four hundred miles of cable had been laid4 ,with the cable dropping to the bottom two miles down it was found that it was flowing out at the rate of six miles an hour while the ,niagara was steaming but four4 ,it was evident that the cable was being wasted1 and to prevent its running out too fast at this great depth the brake controlling the flow of the cable was tightened4 ,the stern of the vessel rising suddenly on a wave1 the strain proved too great and the cable parted and was lost4 ,instant grief swept over the ship and squadron1 for the heart of every one was in the great enterprise4 ,it was felt that it would be useless to attempt to grapple the cable at this great depth1 and there seemed nothing to do but abandon it and return4 ,the loss of the cable and of a year's time--since another attempt could not be made until the next season--resulted in a total loss to the company of half a million dollars4 ,public realization of the magnitude of the task had been awakened by the failure of the first expedition and ,field found it far from easy to raise additional capital4 ,it was finally accomplished1 however1 and a new supply of cable was constructed4 ,professor ,thomson had been studying the problems of submarine telegraphy with growing enthusiasm1 and had now arrived at the conclusion that the conductivity of the cable depended very largely upon the purity of the copper employed4 ,he accordingly saw to it that in the construction of the new section all the wires were carefully tested and such as did not prove perfect were discarded4 ,in the mean time the engineers were busy improving the paying-out machinery4 ,they designed an automatic brake which would release the cable instantly upon the strain becoming too great4 ,it was thus hoped to avoid a recurrence of the former accident4 ,chief-,engineer ,bright also arranged a trial trip for the purpose of drilling the staff in their various duties4 ,the same vessels were provided to lay the cable on the second attempt and the fleet sailed in ,june of #aheh1 this time without celebration or public ceremony4 ,on this occasion the recommendation of ,chief-,engineer ,bright was followed1 and it was arranged that the ,niagara and ,agamemnon should meet in mid-ocean1 there splice the cable together and proceed in opposite directions1 laying the cable simultaneously4 ,on this expedition ,professor ,thomson was to assume the real scientific leadership1 ,professor ,morse1 though he retained his position with the company1 taking no active part4 ,the ships had not proceeded any great distance before they ran into a terrible gale4 ,the ,agamemnon had an especially difficult time of it1 her great load of cable overbalancing the ship and threatening to break loose again and again and carry the great vessel and her precious cargo to the bottom4 ,the storm continued for over a week1 and when at last it had blown itself out the ,agamemnon resembled a wreck and many of her crew had been seriously injured4 ,but the cable had been saved and the expedition was enabled to proceed to the rendezvous4 ,the ,niagara1 a larger ship1 had weathered the storm without mishap4 ,the splice was effected on ,saturday1 the #bfth1 but before three miles had been laid the cable caught in the paying-out machinery on the ,niagara and was broken off4 ,another splice was made that evening and the ships started again4 ,the two vessels kept in communication with each other by telegraph as they proceeded1 and anxious inquiries and many tests marked the progress of the work4 ,when fifty miles were out1 the cable parted again at some point between the vessels and they again sought the rendezvous in mid-,atlantic4 ,sufficient cable still remained and a third start was made4 ,for a few days all went well and some four hundred miles of cable had been laid with success as the messages passing from ship to ship clearly demonstrated4 ,field1 ,thomson1 and ,bright began to believe that their great enterprise was to be crowned with success when the cable broke again1 this time about twenty feet astern of the ,agamemnon4 ,this time there was no apparent reason for the mishap1 the cable having parted without warning when under no unusual strain4 ,the vessels returned to ,queenstown1 and ,field and ,thomson went to ,london1 where the directors of the company were assembled4 ,many were in favor of abandoning the enterprise1 selling the remaining cable for what it would bring1 and saving as much of their investment as possible4 ,but ,field and ,thomson were not of the sort who are easily discouraged1 and they managed to rouse fresh courage in their associates4 ,yet another attempt was decided upon1 and with replenished stores the ,agamemnon and ,niagara once again proceeded to the rendezvous4 ,the fourth start was made on the #bith of ,july4 ,on several occasions as the work progressed communication failed1 and ,professor ,thomson on the ,agamemnon and the other electricians on the ,niagara spent many anxious moments fearing that the line had again been severed4 ,on each occasion1 however1 the current resumed4 ,it was afterward determined that the difficulties were because of faulty batteries rather than leaks in the cable4 ,on both ships bad spots were found in the cable as it was uncoiled and some quick work was necessary to repair them before they dropped into the sea1 since it was practically impossible to stop the flow of the cable without breaking it4 ,the ,niagara had some narrow escapes from icebergs1 and the ,agamemnon had difficulties with ships which passed too close and a whale which swam close to the ship and grazed the precious cable4 ,but this time there was no break and the ships approached their respective destinations with the cable still carrying messages between them4 ,the ,niagara reached the ,newfoundland coast on ,august #dth1 and early the next morning landed the cable in the cable-house at ,trinity ,bay4 ,the ,agamemnon reached the ,irish coast but a few hours later1 and her end of the cable was landed on the afternoon of the same day4 ,the public1 because of the repeated failures1 had come to look upon the cable project as a sort of gigantic wild-goose chase4 ,the news that a cable had at last been laid across the ocean was received with incredulity4 ,becoming convinced at last1 there was great rejoicing in ,england and ,america4 ,queen ,victoria sent to ,president ,buchanan a congratulatory message in which she expressed the hope that the electric cable which now connects ,great ,britain with the ,united ,states will prove an additional link between the two nations1 whose friendship is founded upon their mutual interest and reciprocal esteem4 ,the ,president responded in similar vein1 and expressed the hope that the neutrality of the cable might be established4 ,honors were showered upon the leaders in the enterprise4 ,charles ,bright1 the chief engineer1 was knighted1 though he was then but twenty-six years of age4 ,banquet after banquet was held in ,england at which ,bright and ,thomson were the guests of honor4 ,new ,york celebrated in similar fashion4 ,a grand salute of one hundred guns was fired1 the streets were decorated1 and the city was illuminated at night4 ,the festivities rose to the highest pitch in ,september with ,field receiving the plaudits of all ,new ,york4 ,special services were held in ,trinity ,church1 and a great celebration was held in ,crystal ,palace4 ,the mayor presented to ,field a golden casket1 and the ceremony was followed by a torchlight parade4 ,that very day the last message went over the wire4 ,the shock to the public was tremendous4 ,many insisted that the cable had never been operated and that the entire affair was a hoax4 ,this was quickly disproved4 ,aside from the messages between ,queen and ,president many news messages had gone over the cable and it had proved of great value to the ,british ,government4 ,the ,indian mutiny had been in progress and regiments in ,canada had received orders by mail to sail for ,india4 ,news reached ,england that the mutiny was at an end1 and the cable enabled the ,government to countermand the orders1 thus saving a quarter of a million dollars that would have been expended in transporting the troops4 ,the engineers to whom the operations of the cable had been intrusted had decided that very high voltages were necessary to its successful operation4 ,they had accordingly installed huge induction coils and sent currents of two thousand volts over the line4 ,even this voltage had failed to operate the ,morse instruments1 the drag by induction proving too great4 ,the strain of this high voltage had a very serious effect upon the insulation4 ,abandoning the ,morse instruments and the high voltage1 recourse was then had to ,professor ,thomson's instruments1 which proved entirely effective with ordinary battery current4 ,because of the effect of induction the current is much delayed in traveling through a long submarine cable and arrives in waves4 ,professor ,thomson devised his mirror galvanometer to meet this difficulty4 ,this device consists of a large coil of very fine wire1 in the center of which1 in a small air-chamber1 is a tiny mirror4 ,mounted on the back of the mirror are very small magnets4 ,the mirror is suspended by a fiber of the finest silk4 ,thus the weakest of currents coming in over the wire serve to deflect the mirror1 and a beam of light being directed upon the mirror and reflected by it upon a screen1 the slightest movement of the mirror is made visible4 ,if the mirror swings too far its action is deadened by compressing the air in the chamber4 ,the instrument is one of the greatest delicacy4 ,such was the greatest contribution of ,professor ,thomson to submarine telegraphy4 ,without it the cable could not have been operated even for a short period4 ,had it been used from the first the line would not have been ruined and might have been used for a considerable period4 ,professor ,thomson together with ,engineer ,bright made a careful investigation of the causes of failure4 ,the professor pointed out that had the mirror galvanometer been used with a moderate current the cable could have been continued in successful operation4 ,ha continued to improve this apparatus and at the same time busied himself with a recording instrument to be used for cable work4 ,both ,thomson and ,bright had recommended a larger and stronger cable1 and other failures in cable-laying in the ,red ,sea and elsewhere in the next few years bore out their contentions4 ,but with each failure new experience was gained and methods were perfected4 ,professor ,thomson continued his work with the utmost diligence and continued to add to the fund of scientific knowledge on the subject4 ,so it was that he was prepared to take his place as scientific leader of the next great effort4 ,x ,a ,,successful ,,cable ,,attained ,field ,raises ,new ,capital--,the ,great ,eastern ,secured and ,equipped--,staff ,organized with ,professor ,thomson as ,scientific ,director--,cable ,parts and is ,lost--,field ,perseveres--,the ,cable ,recovered--,the ,continents ,linked at ,last--,a ,commercial ,success--,public ,jubilation--,modern ,cables4 ,the early 'sixties were trying years for the cable pioneers4 ,it required all of ,field's splendid genius and energy to keep the project alive4 ,in the face of repeated failures1 and doubt as to whether messages could be sent rapidly enough to make any cable a commercial success1 it was extremely difficult to raise fresh capital4 ,america continued to evince interest in the cable1 but with1 the ,civil ,war in progress it was not easy to raise funds4 ,but no discouragement could deter ,field4 ,though he suffered severely from seasickness1 he crossed the ,atlantic sixty-four times in behalf of the great enterprise which he had begun4 ,it was necessary to raise three million dollars to provide a cable of the improved type decided upon and to install it properly4 ,the ,english firm of ,glass1 ,eliot ,company1 which was to manufacture the cable1 took a very large part of the stock4 ,the new cable was designed in accordance with the principles enunciated by ,professor ,thomson4 ,the conductor consisted of seven wires of pure copper1 weighing three hundred pounds to the mile4 ,this copper core was covered with ,chatterton's compound1 which served as water-proofing4 ,this was surrounded by four layers of gutta-percha1 cemented together by the compound1 and about this hemp was wound4 ,the outer layer consisted of eighteen steel wires wound spirally1 each being covered with a wrapping of hemp impregnated with a preservative solution4 ,the new cable was twice as heavy as the old and more than twice as strong1 a great advance having been made in the methods of manufacturing steel wire4 ,it was decided that the cable should1 be laid by one vessel1 instead of endeavoring to work from two as in the past4 ,happily1 a boat was available which was fitted to carry this enormous burden4 ,this was the ,great ,eastern1 a mammoth vessel far in advance of her time4 ,this great ship of #bb1ejj tons had been completed in #aheg1 but had not proved a commercial success4 ,the docks of that day were not adequate1 the harbors were not deep enough1 and the cargoes were insufficient4 ,she had long lain idle when she was secured by the cable company and fitted out for the purpose of laying the cable1 which was the first useful work which had been found for the great ship4 ,the #b1cjj miles of heavy cable was coiled into the hull and paying-out machinery was installed upon the decks4 ,huge quantities of coal and other supplies were added4 ,capt4 ,james ,anderson of the ,cunard ,line was placed in command of the ship for the expedition1 with ,captain ,moriarty1 ,r4,n41 as navigating officer4 ,professor ,thomson and ,mr4 ,c4,f4 ,varley represented the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company as electricians and scientific advisers4 ,mr4 ,samuel ,canning was engineer in charge for the contractors4 ,mr4 ,field was also on board4 ,it was on ,july #bc1 #ahfe1 that the expedition started from the ,irish coast1 where the eastern end of the cable had been landed4 ,less than a hundred miles of cable had been laid when the electricians discovered a fault in the cable4 ,the ,great ,eastern was stopped1 the course was retraced1 and the cable picked up until the fault was reached4 ,it was found that a piece of iron wire had in some way pierced the cable so that the insulation was ruined4 ,this was repaired and the work of laying was again commenced4 ,five days later1 when some seven hundred miles of cable had been laid1 communication was again interrupted1 and once again they turned back1 laboriously lifting the heavy cable from the depths1 searching for the break4 ,again a wire was found thrust through the cable1 and this occasioned no little worry1 as it was feared that this was being done maliciously4 ,it was on ,august #b;d that the next fault was discovered4 ,nearly two-thirds of the cable was now in place and the depth was here over one mile4 ,raising the cable was particularly difficult1 and just at this juncture the ,great ,eastern's machinery broke down1 leaving her without power and at the mercy of the waves4 ,subjected to an enormous strain1 the precious cable parted and was lost4 ,despite the great depth1 efforts were made to grapple the lost cable4 ,twice the cable was hooked1 but on both occasions the rope parted and after days of tedious work the supply of rope was exhausted and it was necessary to return to ,england4 ,still another cable expedition had ended in failure4 ,field1 the indomitable1 began all over again1 raising additional funds for a new start4 ,the ,great ,eastern had proved entirely satisfactory1 and it was hoped that with improvements in the grappling-gear the cable might be recovered4 ,the old company gave way before a new organization known as the ,anglo-,american ,telegraph ,company4 ,it was decided to lay an entirely new cable1 and then to endeavor to complete the one partially laid in #ahfe4 ,with no services other than private prayers at the station on the ,irish shore1 the ,great ,eastern steamed away for the new effort on ,july #ac1 #ahff4 ,this time the principal difficulties arose within the ship4 ,twice the cable became tangled in the tanks and it was necessary to stop the ship while the mass was straightened out4 ,most of the time the coffee-mill1 as the seamen called the paying-out machinery1 ground steadily away and the cable sank into the sea4 ,as the work progressed ,field and ,thomson1 who had suffered so many failures in their great enterprise1 watched with increasing anxiety4 ,they were almost afraid to hope that the good fortune would continue4 ,just two weeks after the ,irish coast had been left behind the ,great ,eastern approached ,newfoundland just as the shadows of night were added to those of a thick fog4 ,on the next morning1 ,july #bhth1 she steamed into ,trinity ,bay1 where flags were flying in the little town in honor of the great accomplishment4 ,amid salutes and cheers the cable was landed and communication between the continents was established4 ,almost the first news that came over the wire was that of the signing of the treaty of peace which ended the war between ,prussia and ,austria4 ,early in ,august the ,great ,eastern again steamed away to search for the cable broken the year before4 ,arriving on the spot1 the grapples were thrown out and the tedious work of dragging the sea-bottom was begun4 ,after many efforts the cable was finally secured and raised to the surface4 ,a new section was spliced on and the ship again turned toward ,america4 ,on ,september #gth the second cable was successfully landed1 and two wires were now in operation between the continents4 ,thus was the great task doubly fulfilled4 ,once again there were public celebrations in ,england and ,america4 ,field received the deserved plaudits of his countrymen and ,thomson was knighted in recognition of his achievements4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,eastern ,,laying ,,the ,,atlantic ,,cable4 #ahff ,the new cables proved a success and were kept in operation for many years4 ,thomson's mirror receiver had been improved until it displayed remarkable sensitiveness4 ,using the current from a battery placed in a lady's thimble1 a message was sent across the ,atlantic through one cable and back through the other4 ,professor ,thomson was to give to submarine telegraphy an even more remarkable instrument4 ,the mirror instrument did not give a permanent record of the messages4 ,the problem of devising a means of recording the messages delicate enough so that it could be operated with rapidity by the faint currents coming over a long cable was extremely difficult4 ,but ,thomson solved it with his siphon recorder4 ,in this a small coil is suspended between the poles of a large magnet2 the coil being free to turn upon its axis4 ,when the current from the cable passes through the coil it moves1 and so varies the position of the ink-siphon which is attached to it4 ,the friction of a pen on paper would have proved too great a drag on so delicate an instrument1 and so a tiny jet of ink from the siphon was substituted4 ,the ink is made to pass through the siphon with sufficient force to mark down the message by a delightfully ingenious method4 ,thomson simply arranged to electrify the ink1 and it rushes through the tiny opening on to the paper just as lightning leaps from cloud to earth4 ,professor1 now ,sir1 ,thomson continued to take an active part in the work of designing and laying new cables4 ,not only did he contribute the apparatus and the scientific information which made cables possible1 but he attained renown as a physicist and a scientist in many other fields4 ,in #ahib he was given the title of ,lord ,kelvin1 and it was by this name that he was known as the leading physicist of his day4 ,he survived until #aijg4 ,to ,cyrus ,w4 ,field must be assigned a very large share of the credit for the establishment of telegraphic communication between the continents4 ,he gave his fortune and all of his tremendous energy and ability to the enterprise and kept it alive through failure after failure4 ,he was a promoter of the highest type1 the business man who recognized a great human need and a great opportunity for service4 ,without his efforts the scientific discoveries of ,thomson could scarcely have been put to practical use4 ,the success of the first cable inspired others4 ,in #ahfi a cable from ,france to the ,united ,states was laid from the ,great ,eastern4 ,in #ahge the ,direct ,united ,states ,cable ,company laid another cable to ,england1 which was followed by another cable to ,france4 ,one cable after another was laid until there are now a score4 ,this second great development in communication served to bring the two continents much closer together in business and in thought and has proved of untold benefit4 ,,xi ,,alexander ,,graham ,,bell1 ,,the ,,youth ,the ,family's ,interest in ,speech ,improvement--,early ,life-,influence of ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone--,he ,comes to ,america--,visible ,speech and the ,mohawks--,the ,boston ,school for ,deaf ,mutes--,the ,personality of ,bell4 ,the men of the ,bell family1 for three generations1 have interested themselves in human speech4 ,the grandfather1 the father1 and the uncle of ,alexander ,graham ,bell were all elocutionists of note4 ,the grandfather achieved fame in ,london2 the uncle1 in ,dublin2 and the father1 in ,edinburgh4 ,the father applied himself particularly to devising means of instructing the deaf in speech4 ,his book on ,visible ,speech explained his method of instructing deaf mutes in speech by the aid of their sight1 and of teaching them to understand the speech of others by watching their lips as the words are spoken4 ,alexander ,graham ,bell was born in ,edinburgh in #ahdg1 and received his early education in the schools of that city4 ,he later studied at ,warzburg1 ,germany1 where he received the degree of ,doctor of ,philosophy4 ,he followed very naturally in the footsteps of his father1 taking an early interest in the study of speech4 ,he was especially anxious to aid his mother1 who was deaf4 ,as a boy he exhibited a genius for invention1 as well as for acoustics4 ,much of this was duo to the wise encouragement of his father4 ,he himself has told of a boyhood invention4 ,my father once asked my brother ,melville and myself to try to make a speaking-machine1 ,i don't suppose he thought we could produce anything of value1 in itself4 ,but he knew we could not even experiment and manufacture anything which even tried to speak1 without learning something of the voice and the throat2 and the mouth--all that wonderful mechanism of sound production in which he was so interested4 ,so my brother and ,i went to work4 ,we divided the task--he was to make the lungs and the vocal cords1 ,i was to make the mouth and the tongue4 ,he made a bellows for the lungs and a very good vocal apparatus out of rubber4 ,i procured a skull and molded a tongue with rubber stuffed with cotton wool1 and supplied the soft parts of the throat with the same material ,then ,i arranged joints1 so the jaw and the tongue could move4 ,it was a great day for us when we fitted the two parts of the device together4 ,did it speak8 ,it squeaked and squawked a good deal1 but it made a very passable imitation of ,mam-ma--,mam-ma4 ,it sounded very much like a baby4 ,my father wanted us to go on and try to get other sounds1 but we were so interested in what we had done we wanted to try it out4 ,so we proceeded to use it to make people think there was a baby in the house1 and when we made it cry ,mam-ma1 and heard doors opening and people coming1 we were quite happy4 ,what has become of ,it8 ,well1 that was across the ocean1 in ,scotland1 but ,i believe the mouth and tongue part that ,i made is in ,georgetown somewhere2 ,i saw it not long ago4 ,the inventor tells of another boyhood invention that1 though it had no connection with sound or speech1 shows his native ingenuity4 ,again we will tell it in his own words4 ,i remember my first invention very well4 ,there were several of us boys1 and we were fond of playing around a mill where they ground wheat into flour4 ,the miller's son was one of the boys1 and ,i am afraid he showed us how to be a good deal of a nuisance to his father4 ,one day the miller called us into the mill and said1 ,why don't you do something useful instead of just playing all the time8 ,i wasn't afraid of the miller as much as his son was1 so ,i said1 ,well1 what can we do that is useful8 ,he took up a handful of wheat1 ran it over in his hand and said3 ,look at that6 ,if you could manage to get the husks off that wheat1 that would be doing something useful6 ,so ,i took some wheat home with me and experimented4 ,i found the husks came off without much difficulty4 ,i tried brushing them off and they came off beautifully4 ,then it occurred to me that brushing was nothing but applying friction to them4 ,if ,i could brush the husks off1 why couldn't the husks be rubbed off8 ,there was in the mill a machine--,i don't know what it was for--but it whirled its contents1 whatever it was1 around in a drum4 ,i thought1 ,why wouldn't the husks come off if the raw wheat was whirled around in that drum8 ,so back ,i went to the miller and suggested the idea to him4 ,why1 he said1 that's a good idea4 ,so he called his foreman and they tried it1 and the husks came off beautifully1 and they've been taking husks off that way ever since4 ,that was my very first invention1 and it led me to thinking for myself1 and really had quite an influence on my way and methods of thought4 ,up to his sixteenth year young ,bell's reading consisted largely of novels1 poetry1 and romantic tales of ,scotch heroes4 ,but in addition he was picking up some knowledge of anatomy1 music1 electricity1 and telegraphy4 ,when he was but sixteen years of age his father secured for him a position as teacher of elocution and this necessarily turned his thought into more serious channels4 ,he now spent his leisure studying sound4 ,during this period he made several discoveries in sound which were of some small importance4 ,when he was twenty-one years of age he went to ,london and there had the good fortune to come to the attention of ,charles ,wheatstone and ,alex ,j4 ,ellis4 ,ellis was at that time president of the ,london ,philological ,society1 and had translated ,helmholtz's ,the ,sensation of ,tone into ,english4 ,he had made no little progress with sound1 and demonstrated to ,bell the methods by which ,german scientists had caused tuning-forks to vibrate by means of electro-magnets and had combined the tones of several tuning-forks in an effort to reproduce the sound of the human voice4 ,helmholtz had performed this experiment simply to demonstrate the physical basis of sound1 and seems to have had no idea of its possible use in telephony4 ,that an electro-magnet could vibrate a tuning-fork and so produce sound was an entirely new and fascinating idea to the youth4 ,it appealed to his imagination1 quickened by his knowledge of speech4 ,why not an electrical telegraph8 he asked himself4 ,his idea seems to have been that the electric current could carry different notes over the wire and reproduce them by means of the electro-magnet4 ,although ,bell did not know it1 many others were struggling with the same problem1 the answer to which proved most elusive4 ,it gave ,bell a starting-point1 and the search for the telephone began4 ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone was then ,england's leading man of science1 and so ,bell sought his counsel4 ,wheatstone received the young man and listened to his statement of his ideas and ambitions and gave him every encouragement4 ,he showed him a talking-machine which had recently been invented by ,baron de ,kempelin1 and gave him the opportunity to study it closely4 ,thus ,bell1 the eager student1 the unknown youth of twenty-two1 came under the influence of ,wheatstone1 the famous scientist and inventor of sixty-seven4 ,this influence played a great part in shaping ,bell's career1 arousing as it did his passion for science4 ,this decided him to devote himself to the problem of reproducing sounds by mechanical means4 ,thus a new improvement in the means of human communication was being sought and another pioneer of science was at work4 ,the death of the two brothers of the young scientist from tuberculosis1 and the physician's report that he himself was threatened by the dread malady1 forced a change in his plans and withdrew him from an atmosphere which was so favorable to the development of his great ideas4 ,he was told that he must seek a new climate and lead a more vigorous life in the open4 ,accompanied by his father1 he removed to ,america and at the age of twenty-six took up the struggle for health in the little ,canadian town of ,brantford4 ,he occupied himself by teaching his father's system of visible speech among the ,mohawk ,indians4 ,in this work he met with no little success4 ,at the same time he was gaining in bodily vigor and throwing off the tendency to consumption which had threatened his life4 ,he did not forget the great idea which filled his imagination and eagerly sought the telephone with such crude means as were at hand4 ,he succeeded in designing a piano which1 with the aid of the electric current1 could transmit its music over a wire and reproduce it4 ,while lecturing in ,boston on his system of teaching visible speech1 the elder ,bell received a request to locate in that city and take up his work in its schools4 ,he declined the offer1 but recommended his son as one entirely competent for the position4 ,alexander ,graham ,bell received the offer1 which he accepted1 and he was soon at work teaching the deaf mutes in the school which ,boston had opened for those thus afflicted4 ,he met with the greatest success in his work1 and ere long achieved a national reputation4 ,during the first year of his work1 #ahga1 he was the sensation of the educational world4 ,boston ,university offered him a professorship1 in which position he taught others his system of teaching1 with increased success4 ,the demand for his services led him to open a ,school of ,vocal ,physiology4 ,he had made some improvements in his father's system for teaching the deaf and dumb to speak and to understand spoken words1 and displayed great ability as a teacher4 ,his experiments with telegraphy and telephony had been laid aside1 and there seemed little chance that he would turn from the work in which he was accomplishing so much for so many sufferers1 and which was bringing a comfortable financial return1 and again undertake the tedious work in search for a telephone4 ,fortunately1 ,bell was to establish close relationships with those who understood and appreciated his abilities and gave him encouragement in his search for a new means of communication4 ,thomas ,sanders1 a resident of ,salem1 had a five-year-old son named ,georgie who was a deaf mute4 ,mr4 ,sanders sought ,bell's tutelage for his son1 and it was agreed that ,bell should give ,georgie private lessons for the sum of three hundred and fifty dollars a year4 ,it was also arranged that ,bell was to reside at the ,sanders home in ,salem4 ,he made arrangements to conduct his future experiments there4 ,another pupil who came to him about this time was ,mabel ,hubbard1 a fifteen-year-old girl who had lost her hearing and consequently her powers of speech1 through an attack of scarlet fever when an infant4 ,she was a gentle and lovable girl1 and ,bell fell completely in love with his pupil4 ,four years later he was to marry her and she was to prove a large influence in helping him to success4 ,she took the liveliest interest in all of his experiments and encouraged him to new endeavor after each failure4 ,she kept his records and notes and wrote his letters4 ,through her ,bell secured the support of her father1 ,gardiner ,g4 ,hubbard1 who was widely known as one of ,boston's ablest lawyers4 ,he was destined to become ,bell's chief spokesman and defender4 ,hubbard first became aware of ,bell's inventive genius when the latter was calling one evening at the ,hubbard home in ,cambridge4 ,bell was illustrating some mysteries of acoustics with the aid of the piano4 ,do you know1 he remarked1 that if ,i sing the note ,g close to the strings of the piano1 the ,g string will answer me8 ,this did not impress the lawyer1 who asked its significance4 ,it is a fact of tremendous importance1 answered ,bell4 ,it is evidence that we may some day have a musical telegraph which will enable us to send as many messages simultaneously over one wire as there are notes on that piano4 ,from that time forward ,hubbard took every occasion to encourage ,bell to carry forward his experiments in musical telegraphy4 ,as a young man ,bell was tall and slender1 with jet-black eyes and hair1 the latter being pushed back into a curly tangle4 ,he was sensitive and high-strung1 very much the artist and the man of science4 ,his enthusiasms were intense1 and1 once his mind was filled with an idea1 he followed it devotedly4 ,he was very little the practical business man and paid scant attention to the small1 practical details of life4 ,he was so interested in visible speech1 and so keenly alert to the pathos of the lives of the deaf mutes1 that he many times seriously considered giving over all experiments with the musical telegraph and devoting his entire life and energies to the amelioration of their condition4 ,,xii ,,the ,,birth ,,of ,,the ,,telephone ,the ,cellar at ,sanderses'--,experimental ,beginnings--,magic ,revived in ,salem ,town--,the ,dead ,man's ,ear--,the ,right ,path--,trouble and ,discouragement--,the ,trip to ,washington--,professor ,joseph ,henry--,the ,boston ,workshop--,the ,first ,faint ,twang of the ,telephone--,early ,development4 ,alexander ,graham ,bell had not resided at the ,sanderses' home very long before he had fitted the basement up as a workshop4 ,for three years he haunted it1 spending all of his leisure time in his experiments4 ,here he had his apparatus1 and the basement was littered with a curious combination of electrical and acoustical devices--magnets1 batteries1 coils of wire1 tuning-forks1 speaking-trumpets1 etc4 ,bell had a great horror that his ideas might be stolen and was very nervous over any possible intrusion into his precious workshop4 ,only the members of the ,sanders family were allowed to enter the basement4 ,he was equally cautious in purchasing supplies and equipment lest his very purchases reveal the nature of his experiments4 ,he would go to a half-dozen different stores for as many articles4 ,he usually selected the night for his experiments1 and pounded and scraped away indefatigably1 oblivious of the fact that the family1 as well as himself1 was sorely in need of rest4 ,bell would often awaken me in the middle of the night1 says ,mr4 ,sanders1 his black eyes blazing with excitement4 ,leaving me to go down to the cellar1 he would rush wildly to the barn and begin to send me signals along his experimental wires4 ,if ,i noticed any improvement in his apparatus he would be delighted4 ,he would leap and whirl around in one of his 'war-dances1' and then go contentedly to bed4 ,but if the experiment was a failure he would go back to his work-bench to try some different plan4 ,in common with other experimenters who were searching for the telephone1 ,bell was experimenting with a sort of musical telegraph4 ,eagerly and persistently he sought the means that would replace the telegraph with its cumbersome signals by a new device which would enable the human voice itself to be transmitted4 ,the longer he worked the greater did the difficulties appear4 ,his work with the deaf and dumb was alluring1 and on many occasions he seriously considered giving over his other experiments and devoting himself entirely to the instruction of the deaf and dumb and to the development of his system of making speech visible by making the sound-vibrations visible to the eye4 ,but as he mused over the difficulties in enabling a deaf mute to achieve speech nothing else seemed impossible4 ,if ,i can make a deaf mute talk1 said ,bell1 ,i can make iron talk4 ,one of his early ideas was to install a harp at one end of the wire and a speaking-trumpet at the other4 ,his plan was to transmit the vibrations over the wire and have the voice reproduced by the vibrations of the strings of the harp4 ,by attaching a light pencil or marker to a cord or membrane and causing the latter to vibrate by talking against it1 he could secure tracings of the sound-vibrations4 ,different tracings were secured from different sounds4 ,he thus sought to teach the deaf to speak by sight4 ,at this time ,bell enjoyed the friendship of ,dr4 ,clarence ,j4 ,blake1 an eminent ,boston aurist1 who suggested that the experiments be conducted with a human ear instead of with a mechanical apparatus in imitation of the ear4 ,bell eagerly accepted the idea1 and ,doctor ,blake provided him with an ear and connecting organs cut from a dead man's head4 ,bell soon had the ghastly specimen set up in his workshop4 ,he moistened the drum with glycerine and water and1 substituting a stylus of hay for the stapes bone1 he obtained a wonderful series of curves which showed the vibrations of the human voice as recorded by the ear4 ,one can scarce imagine a stranger picture than ,bell must have presented in the conduct of those experiments4 ,we can almost see him with his face the paler in contrast with his black hair and flashing black eyes as he shouted and whispered by turns into the ghastly ear4 ,surely he must have looked the madman1 and it is perhaps fortunate that he was not observed by impressionable members of the public else they would have been convinced that the witches had again visited old ,salem town to ply their magic anew4 ,but it was a new and very real and practical sort of magic which was being worked there4 ,his experiments with the dead man's ear brought to ,bell at least one important idea4 ,he noted that1 though the ear-drum was thin and light1 it was capable of sending vibrations through the heavy bones that lay back of it4 ,and so he thought of using iron disks or membranes to serve the purpose of the drum in the ear and arrange them so that they would vibrate an iron rod4 ,he thought of connecting two such instruments with an electrified wire1 one of which would receive the sound-vibrations and the other of which would reproduce them after they had been transmitted along the wire4 ,at last the experimenter was on the right track1 with a conception of a practicable method of transmitting sound4 ,he now possessed a theoretical knowledge of what the telephone he sought should be1 but there yet remained before him the enormous task of devising and constructing the apparatus which would carry out the idea1 and find the best way of utilizing the electrical current for this work4 ,bell was now at a critical point in his career and was confronted by the same difficulty which assails so many inventors4 ,in his constant efforts to achieve a telephone he had entirely neglected his school of vocal physiology1 which was now abandoned4 ,georgie ,sanders and ,mabel ,hubbard were his only pupils4 ,though ,sanders and ,hubbard were genuinely interested in ,bell and his work1 they felt that he was impractical1 and were especially convinced that his experiments with the ear and its imitations were entirely useless4 ,they believed that the electrical telegraph alone presented possibilities1 and they told ,bell that unless he would devote himself entirely to the improvement of this instrument and cease wasting time and money over ear toys that had no commercial value they would no longer give him financial support4 ,hubbard went even further1 and insisted that if ,bell did not abandon his foolish notions he could not marry his daughter4 ,bell was almost without funds1 his closest friends now seemed to turn upon him1 and altogether he was in a sorry plight4 ,of course ,sanders and ,hubbard meant the best1 yet in reality they were seeking to drive their protg in exactly the wrong direction4 ,as far back as #ahfj a ,german scientist named ,philipp ,reis produced a musical telephone that even transmitted a few imperfect words4 ,but it would not talk successfully4 ,others had followed in his footsteps1 using the musical telephone to transmit messages with the ,morse code by means of long and short hums4 ,elisha ,gray1 of ,chicago1 also experimented with the musical telegraph4 ,at the transmitting end a vibrating steel tongue served to interrupt the electric current which passed over the wire in waves1 and1 passing through the coils of an electro-magnet at the receiving end1 caused another strip of steel located near the magnet to vibrate and so produce a tone which varied with the current4 ,all of these developments depended upon the interruption of the current by some kind of a vibrating contact4 ,the limitations which ,sanders and ,hubbard sought to impose upon ,bell1 had they been obeyed to the letter1 must have prevented his ultimate success4 ,in a letter to his mother at this time1 he said3 ,i am now beginning to realize the cares and anxieties of being an inventor4 ,i have had to put off all pupils and classes1 for flesh and blood could not stand much longer such a strain as ,i have had upon me4 ,but good fortune was destined to come to ,bell along with the bad4 ,on an enforced trip to ,washington to consult his patent attorney--a trip he could scarce raise funds to make--,bell met ,prof4 ,joseph ,henry4 ,we have seen the part which this eminent scientist had played in the development of the telegraph4 ,now he was destined to aid ,bell1 as he had aided ,morse a generation earlier4 ,the two men spent a day over the apparatus which ,bell had with him4 ,though ,professor ,henry was fifty years his senior and the leading scientist in ,america1 the youth was able to demonstrate that he had made a real discovery4 ,you are in possession of the germ of a great invention1 said ,henry1 and ,i would advise you to work at it until you have made it complete4 ,but1 replied ,bell1 ,i have not got the electrical knowledge that is necessary4 ,get it1 was ,henry's reply4 ,this proved just the stimulus ,bell needed1 and he returned to ,boston with a new determination to perfect his great idea4 ,bell was no longer experimenting in the ,sanderses' cellar1 having rented a room in ,boston in which to carry on his work4 ,he had also secured the services of an assistant1 one ,thomas ,watson1 who received nine dollars a week for his services in ,bell's behalf4 ,the funds for this work were supplied by ,sanders and ,hubbard jointly1 but they insisted that ,bell should continue his experiments with the musical telegraph4 ,though he was convinced that the opportunities lay in the field of telephony1 ,bell labored faithfully for regular periods with the devices in which his patrons were interested4 ,the remainder of his time and energy he put upon the telephone4 ,the basis of his telephone was still the disk or diaphragm which would vibrate when the sound-waves of the voice were thrown against it4 ,behind this were mounted various kinds of electro-magnets in series with the electrified wire over which the inventor hoped to send his messages4 ,for three years they labored with this apparatus1 trying every conceivable sort of disk4 ,it is easy to pass over those three years1 filled as they were with unceasing toil and patient effort1 because they were drab years when little of interest occurred4 ,but these were the years when ,bell and ,watson were going to school1 learning how to apply electricity to this new use1 striving to make their apparatus talk4 ,how dreary and trying these years must have been for the experimenters we may well imagine4 ,it requires no slight force of will to hold oneself to such a task in the face of failure after failure4 ,by ,june of #ahge ,bell had completed a new ,instrument4 ,in this the diaphragm was a piece of gold-beater's skin1 which ,bell had selected as most closely resembling the drum in the human ear4 ,this was stretched tight to form a sort of drum1 and an armature of magnetized iron was fastened to its middle4 ,thus the bit of iron was free to vibrate1 and opposite it was an electro-magnet through which flowed the current that passed over the line4 ,this acted as the receiver4 ,at the other end of the wire was a sort of crude harmonica with a clock spring1 reed1 and magnet4 ,bell and ,watson had been working upon their crude apparatus for months1 and finally1 on ,june #b;d1 sounds were actually transmitted4 ,bell was afire with enthusiasm2 the first great step had been taken4 ,the electric current had carried sound-vibrations along the wire and had reproduced them4 ,if this could be done a telephone which would reproduce whole words and sentences could be attained4 ,illustration3 ,,alexander ,,graham ,,bell ,illustration3 ,,thomas ,a4 ,,watson ,so great was ,bell's enthusiasm over this achievement that he succeeded in convincing ,sanders and ,hubbard that his idea was practical1 and they at last agreed to finance him in his further experiments with the telephone4 ,a second membrane receiver was constructed1 and for many more weeks the experiments continued4 ,it was found that sounds were carried from instrument to instrument1 but as a telephone they were still far from perfection4 ,it was not until ,march of #ahgf that ,bell1 speaking into the instrument in the workroom1 was heard and understood by ,watson at the other instrument in the basement4 ,the telephone had carried and delivered an intelligible message4 ,the telephone which ,bell had invented1 and on which he received a patent on his twenty-ninth birthday1 consisted of two instruments similar in principle to what we would now call receivers4 ,if you will experiment with the receiver of a modern telephone you will find that it will transmit as well as receive sound4 ,the heart of the transmitter was an electro-magnet in front of which was a drum-like membrane with a piece of iron cemented to its center opposite the magnet4 ,a mouthpiece was arranged to throw the sounds of the voice against the diaphragm1 and as the membrane vibrated the bit of iron upon it--acting as an armature--induced currents corresponding to the sound-waves1 in the coils of the electro-magnet4 ,passing over the line the current entered the coils of the tubular electro-magnet in the receiver4 ,a thin disk of soft iron was fastened at the end of this4 ,when the current-waves passed through the coils of the magnet the iron disk was thrown into vibration1 thus producing sound4 ,as it vibrated with the current produced by the iron on the vibrating membrane in the transmitter acting as an armature1 transmitter and receiver vibrated in unison and so the same sound was given off by the receiver and made audible to the human ear as was thrown against the membrane of the transmitter by the voice4 ,the patent issued to ,bell has been described as the most valuable single patent ever issued4 ,certainly it was destined to be of tremendous service to civilization4 ,it was so entirely new and original that ,bell found difficulty in finding terms in which to describe his invention to the patent officials4 ,he called it an improvement on the telegraph1 in order that it might be identified as an improvement in transmitting intelligence by electricity4 ,in reality the telephone was very far from being a telegraph or anything in the nature of a telegraph4 ,as ,bell himself stated1 his success was in large part due to the fact that he had approached the problem from the viewpoint of an expert in sound rather than as an electrician4 ,had ,i known more about electricity and less about sound1 he said1 ,i would never have invented the telephone4 ,as we have seen1 those electricians who worked from the viewpoint of the telegraph never got beyond the limitations of the instrument and found that with it they could transmit signals but not sounds4 ,bell1 with his knowledge of the laws of speech and sound1 started with the principles of the transmission of sound as a basis and set electricity to carrying the sound-vibrations4 ,,xiii ,,the ,,telephone ,,at ,,the ,,centennial ,boll's ,impromptu ,trip to the ,exposition--,the ,table ,under the ,stairs--,indifference of the ,judges--,enter ,don ,pedro1 ,emperor of ,brazil--,attention and ,amazement--,skepticism of the ,public--,the ,aid of ,gardiner ,hubbard--,publicity ,campaign4 ,the ,philadelphia ,centennial ,exposition--,america's first great exposition--opened within a month after the completion of the first telephone4 ,the public knew nothing of the telephone1 and before it could be made a commercial success and placed in general service the interest of investors and possible users had to be aroused4 ,the ,centennial seemed to offer an unusual opportunity to place the telephone before the public4 ,but ,bell1 like ,morse1 had no money with which to push his invention4 ,hubbard was one of the commissioners of the exposition1 and exerted his influence sufficiently so that a small table was placed in an odd corner in the ,department of ,education for the exhibition of the apparatus4 ,the space assigned was a narrow strip between the stairway and the wall4 ,but no provision was made to allow ,bell himself to be present4 ,the young inventor was almost entirely without funds4 ,sanders and ,hubbard had paid nothing but his room rent and the cost of his experiments4 ,he had devoted himself to his inventions so entirely that he had lost all of his professional income4 ,so it was that he was forced to face the prospect of staying in ,boston and allowing this opportunity of opportunities to pass unimproved4 ,his fiance1 ,miss ,hubbard1 expected to attend the exposition1 and had heard nothing of ,bell's inability to go4 ,he went with her to the station1 and as the train was leaving she learned for the first time that he was not to accompany her4 ,she burst into tears at the disappointment4 ,seeing this1 ,bell dashed madly after the train and succeeded in boarding it4 ,without money or baggage1 he nevertheless succeeded in arriving in ,philadelphia4 ,bell arrived at the exposition but a few days before the judges were to make their tour of inspection4 ,with considerable difficulty ,hubbard had secured their promise that they would stop and examine the telephone4 ,they seemed to regard it as a toy not worth their attention1 and the public generally had displayed no interest in the device4 ,when the day for the inspection arrived ,bell waited eagerly4 ,as the day passed his hope began to fall1 as there seemed little possibility that the judges would reach his exhibit4 ,the ,western ,union's exhibit of recording telegraphs1 the self-binding harvester1 the first electric light1 ,gray's musical telegraph1 and other prominently displayed wonders had occupied the attention of the scientists4 ,it was well past supper-time when they came to ,bell's table behind the stairs1 and most of the judges were tired out and loudly announced their intention of quitting then and there4 ,at this critical moment1 while they were fingering ,bell's apparatus indifferently and preparing for their departure1 a strange and fortunate thing occurred4 ,followed by a group of brilliantly attired courtiers1 the ,emperor of ,brazil appeared4 ,he rushed up to ,bell and greeted him with a warmth of affection that electrified the indifferent judges4 ,they watched the scene in astonishment1 wondering who this young ,bell was that he could attract the attention and the friendship of the ,emperor4 ,the ,emperor had attended ,bell's school for deaf mutes in ,boston when it was at the height of its success1 and had conceived a warm admiration for the young man and taken a deep interest in his work4 ,the ,emperor was ready to examine ,bell's invention1 though the judges were not4 ,bell showed him how to place his ear to the receiver1 and he then went to the transmitter which had been placed at the other end of the wire strung along the room4 ,the ,emperor waited expectantly1 the judges watched curiously4 ,bell1 at a distance1 spoke into the transmitter4 ,in utter wonderment the ,emperor raised his head from the receiver4 ,my ,god1 he cried1 it talks6 ,skepticism and indifference were at an end among the judges1 and they eagerly followed the example of the ,emperor4 ,joseph ,henry1 the most venerable savant of them all1 took his place at the receiver4 ,though his previous talk with ,bell1 when the telephone was no more than an idea1 should perhaps have prepared him1 he showed equal astonishment1 and instantly expressed his admiration4 ,next followed ,sir ,william ,thomson1 the hero of the cable and ,england's greatest scientist4 ,after his return to ,england ,thomson described his sensations4 ,i heard1 he said1 ',to be or not to be 444 there's the rub1' through an electric wire2 but1 scorning monosyllables1 the electric articulation rose to higher flights1 and gave me passages from the ,new ,york newspapers4 ,all this my own ears heard spoken to me with unmistakable distinctness by the then circular-disk armature of just such another little electro-magnet as this ,i hold in my hand4 ,thomson pronounced ,bell's telephone the most wonderful thing he had seen in ,america4 ,the judges had forgotten that they were hungry and tired1 and remained grouped about the telephone1 talking and listening in turn until far into the evening4 ,with the coming of the next morning ,bell's exhibit was moved from its obscure corner and given the most prominent place that could be found4 ,from that time forward it was the wonder of the ,centennial4 ,illustration3 ,,professor ,,bell',s ,,vibrating ,,reed ,illustration3 ,,professor ,,bell',s ,,first ,,telephone ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,telephone ,,switchboard ,,used ,,in ,,new ,,haven1 ,,conn1 ,,for ,,eight ,,subscribers ,illustration3 ,,early ,,new ,,york ,,exchange ,boys were employed as operators at first1 but they were not adapted to the work so well as girls4 ,illustration3 ,,professor ,,bell ,,in ,,salem1 ,,mass41 ,,and ,,mr4 ,,watson ,,in ,,boston1 ,,demonstrating ,,the ,,telephone ,,before ,,audiences ,,in #ahgg ,illustration3 ,,dr ,,bell ,,at ,,the ,,telephone ,,opening ,,the ,,new ,,york-,,chicago ,,line1 ,,october #ah1 #ahib ,yet but a small part of the public could attend the exposition and actually test the telephone for themselves4 ,many of these believed that it was a hoax1 and general skepticism still prevailed4 ,business men1 though they were convinced that the telephone would carry spoken messages1 nevertheless insisted that it presented no business possibilities4 ,hubbard1 however1 had faith in the invention1 and as ,bell was not a business man1 he took upon himself the work of promotion--the necessary1 valuable work which must be accomplished before any big idea or invention may be put at the service of the public4 ,hubbard's first move was to plan a publicity campaign which should bring the new invention favorably to the attention of all1 prove its claims1 and silence the skeptics4 ,they were too poor to set up an experimental line of their own1 and so telegraph lines were borrowed for short periods wherever possible1 demonstrations were given and tests made4 ,the assistance of the newspapers was invoked and news stories of the tests did much to popularize the new idea4 ,an opportunity then came to ,bell to lecture and demonstrate the telephone before a scientific body in ,essex4 ,he secured the use of a telegraph line and connected the hall with the laboratory in ,boston4 ,the equipment consisted of old-fashioned box 'phones over a foot long and eight inches square1 built about an immense horseshoe magnet4 ,watson was stationed in the ,boston laboratory4 ,bell started his lecture1 with ,watson constantly listening over the telephone4 ,bell would stop from time to time and ask that the ability of the telephone to transmit certain kinds of sounds be illustrated4 ,musical instruments were played in ,boston and heard in ,essex2 then ,watson talked1 and finally he was instructed to sing4 ,he insisted that he was not a singer1 but the voices of others less experienced in speaking over the crude instruments often failed to carry sufficiently well for demonstration purposes4 ,so ,watson sang1 as best he could1 ,yankee ,doodle1 ,auld ,lang ,syne1 and other favorites4 ,after the lecture had been completed members of the audience were invited to talk over the telephone4 ,a few of them mustered confidence to talk with ,watson in ,boston1 and the newspaper reporters carefully noted down all the details of the conversation4 ,the lecture aroused so much interest that others were arranged4 ,the first one had been free1 but admission was charged for the later lectures and this income was the first revenue ,bell had received for his invention4 ,the arrangements were generally the same for each of the lectures about ,boston4 ,the names of ,longfellow1 of ,holmes1 and of other famous ,american men of letters are found among the patrons of some of the lectures in ,boston4 ,bell desired to give lectures in ,new ,york ,city1 but was not certain that his apparatus would operate at that distance over the lines available4 ,the laboratory was on the third floor of a rooming-house1 and ,watson shouted so loud in his efforts to make his voice carry that the roomers complained4 ,so he took blankets and erected a sort of tent over the instruments to muffle the sound4 ,when the signal came from ,bell that he was ready for the test1 ,watson crawled into the tent and began his shoutings4 ,the day was a hot one1 and by the time that the test had been completed ,watson was completely wilted4 ,but the complaints of the roomers had been avoided4 ,for one of the ,new ,york demonstrations the services of a negro singer with a rich barytone voice had been secured4 ,watson had no little difficulty in rehearsing him for the part1 as he objected to placing his lips close to the transmitter4 ,when the time for the test arrived he persisted in backing away from the mouthpiece when he sang1 and1 though ,watson endeavored to hold the transmitter closer to him1 his efforts were of no avail4 ,finally ,bell told ,watson that as the negro could not be heard he would have to sing himself4 ,the girl operator in the laboratory had assembled a number of her girl friends to watch the test1 and ,watson1 who did not consider himself a vocalist1 did not fancy the prospect4 ,but there was no one else to sing1 the demonstration must proceed1 and finally ,watson struck up ,yankee ,doodle in a quavering voice4 ,the negro looked on in disgust4 ,is that what you wanted me to do1 boss8 ,yes1 replied the embarrassed ,watson4 ,well1 boss1 ,i couldn't sing like that4 ,the telegraph wires which were borrowed to demonstrate the utility of the telephone proved far from perfect for the work at hand4 ,many of the wires were rusted and the insulation was poor4 ,the stations along the line were likely to cut in their relays when the test was in progress1 and ,bell's instruments were not arranged to overcome this retardation4 ,however1 the lectures were a success from the popular viewpoint4 ,the public flocked to them and the fame of the telephone grew4 ,so many cities desired the lecture that it finally became necessary for ,bell to employ an assistant to give the lecture for him4 ,frederick ,gower1 a ,providence newspaper man1 was selected for this task1 and soon mastered ,bell's lecture4 ,it was then possible to give two lectures on the same evening1 ,bell delivering one1 ,gower the other1 and ,watson handling the laboratory end for both4 ,gower secured a contract for the exclusive use of the telephone in ,new ,england1 but failed to demonstrate much ability in establishing the new device on a business basis4 ,how little the possibilities of the telephone were then appreciated we may understand from the fact that ,gower exchanged his immensely valuable ,new ,england rights for the exclusive right to lecture on the telephone throughout the country4 ,the success of these lectures made it possible for ,bell to marry1 and he started for ,england on a wedding-trip4 ,the lectures also aroused the necessary interest and made it possible to secure capital for the establishment of telephone lines4 ,it also determined ,hubbard in his plan of leasing the telephones instead of selling them4 ,this was especially important1 as it made possible the uniformity of the efficient ,bell system of the present day4 ,,xiv ,,improvement ,,and ,,expansion ,the ,first ,telephone ,exchange--,the ,bell ,telephone ,association--,theodore ,n4 ,vail--,the ,fight with the ,western ,union--,edison and ,blake ,invent ,transmitters--,last ,effort of the ,western ,union--,mushroom ,companies and ,would-be ,inventors--,the ,controversy with ,gray--,dolbear's ,claims--,the ,drawbaugh ,case--,on a ,firm ,footing4 ,through public interest had been aroused in the telephone1 it was still very far from being at the service of the nation4 ,the telephone increases in usefulness just in proportion to the number of your acquaintances and business associates who have telephones in their homes or offices4 ,instruments had to be manufactured on a commercial scale1 telephone systems had to be built up4 ,while the struggles of the inventor who seeks to apply a new idea are often romantic1 the efforts of the business executives who place the invention1 once it is achieved1 at the service of people everywhere1 are not less praiseworthy and interesting4 ,a very few telephones had been leased to those who desired to establish private lines1 but it was not until ,may of #ahgg that the first telephone system was established with an exchange by means of which those having telephones might talk with one another4 ,there was a burglar-alarm system in ,boston which had wires running from six banks to a central station4 ,the owner of this suggested that telephones be installed in the banks using the burglar-alarm wires4 ,hubbard gladly loaned the instruments for the purpose4 ,instruments were installed in the banks without saying anything to the bankers1 or making any charge for the service4 ,one banker demanded that his telephone be removed1 insisting that it was a foolish toy4 ,but even with the crude little exchange the first system proved its worth4 ,others were established in ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 and other cities on a commercial basis4 ,a man from ,michigan appeared and secured the perpetual rights for his ,state1 and for his foresight and enterprise he was later to be rewarded by the sale of these rights for a quarter of a million dollars4 ,the free service to the ,boston bankers was withdrawn and a commercial system installed there4 ,but these exchanges served but a few people1 and were poorly equipped4 ,there was1 of course1 no provision for communication between cities4 ,with the telephone over a year old1 less than a thousand instruments were in use4 ,but ,hubbard1 who was directing the destinies of the enterprise during ,bell's absence in ,europe1 decided that the time had come to organize4 ,accordingly the ,bell ,telephone ,association was formed1 with ,bell1 ,hubbard1 ,sanders1 and ,watson as the shareholders4 ,sanders was the only one of the four with any considerable sum of money1 and his resources were limited4 ,he staked his entire credit in the enterprise1 and managed to furnish funds with which the fight for existence could be carried on4 ,but a business depression was upon the land and it was not easy to secure support for the telephone4 ,the entrance of the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company into the telephone field brought the affairs of the ,bell company to a crisis4 ,as we have seen1 the telegraph company had developed into a great and powerful corporation with wires stretching across the length and breadth of the land and agents and offices established in every city and town of importance4 ,once the telephone began to be used as a substitute for the telegraph in conveying messages1 the telegraph officials awoke to the fact that here1 possibly1 was a dangerous rival1 and dropped the viewpoint that ,bell's telephone was a mere plaything4 ,they acquired the inventions of ,edison1 ,gray1 and ,dolbear1 and entered the telephone field1 announcing that they were prepared to furnish the very best in telephonic communication4 ,this sudden assault by the most powerful corporation in ,america1 while it served to arouse public confidence in the telephone1 made it necessary for ,hubbard to reorganize his forces and find a general capable of doing battle against such a foe4 ,hubbard's political activities had brought to him a ,presidential appointment as head of a commission on mail transportation4 ,in the course of the work for the ,government he had come much in contact with a young man named ,theodore ,n4 ,vail1 who was head of the ,government mail service4 ,he had been impressed by ,vail's ability and had in turn introduced ,vail to the telephone and aroused his enthusiasm in its possibilities4 ,this ,vail was a cousin of the ,alfred ,vail who was ,morse's co-worker1 and who played so prominent a part in the development of the telegraph4 ,his experience in the ,post-office ,department had given him an understanding of the problems of communication in the ,united ,states1 and had developed his executive ability4 ,realizing the possibilities of the telephone1 he relinquished his governmental post and cast his fortunes with the telephone pioneers1 becoming general manager of the ,bell company4 ,the ,western ,union strengthened its position by the introduction of a new and improved transmitter4 ,this was the work of ,thomas ,edison1 and was so much better than ,bell's transmitter that it enabled the ,western ,union to offer much better telephonic equipment4 ,as we have seen1 ,bell's transmitter and receiver were very similar1 being about the same as the receiver now in common use4 ,in his transmitter ,edison placed tiny bits of carbon in contact with the diaphragm4 ,as the diaphragm vibrated under the sound-impulses the pressure upon the carbon granules was varied4 ,an electric current was passed through the carbon particles1 whose electrical resistance was varied by the changing pressure from the diaphragm4 ,thus the current was thrown into undulations corresponding to the sound-waves1 and passed over the line and produced corresponding sounds in the receiver4 ,much stronger currents could be utilized than those generated by ,bell's instrument1 and thus the transmitter was much more effective for longer distances4 ,bell returned from ,europe to find the affairs of his company in a sorry plight4 ,only the courage and generalship of ,vail kept it in the field at all4 ,bell was penniless1 having failed to establish the telephone abroad1 even as ,morse before him had failed to secure foreign revenue from his invention4 ,bell's health failed him1 and as he lay helpless in the hospital his affairs were indeed at a low ebb4 ,at this juncture ,francis ,blake1 of ,boston1 came forward with an improved transmitter which he offered to the ,bell company in exchange for stock4 ,the instrument proved a success and was gladly adopted1 proving just what was needed to make possible successful competition with the ,western ,union4 ,prolonged patent litigation followed1 and after a bitter legal struggle the ,western ,union officials became convinced of two things3 one1 that the ,bell company1 under ,vail's leadership1 would not surrender2 second1 that ,bell was the original inventor of the telephone and that his patent was valid4 ,the ,western ,union1 however1 seemed to have strong basis for its claim that the new transmitter of the ,bell people was an infringement of ,edison's patent4 ,a compromise was arranged between the contestants by which the two companies divided the business of furnishing communication by wire in the ,united ,states4 ,this agreement proved of the greatest benefit to both organizations1 and did much to make possible the present development and universal service of both the telephone and telegraph4 ,by the terms of the agreement the ,western ,union recognized ,bell's patent and agreed to withdraw from the telephone business4 ,the ,bell company agreed not to engage in the telegraph business and to take over the ,western ,union telephone system and apparatus1 paying a royalty on all telephone rentals4 ,experience has demonstrated that the two businesses are not competitive1 but supplement each other4 ,it is therefore proper that they should work side by side with mutual understanding4 ,success had come at last to the telephone pioneers4 ,other battles were still to be fought before their position was to be made secure1 but from the moment when the ,western ,union admitted defeat the ,bell company was the leader4 ,the stock of the company advanced to a point where ,bell1 ,hubbard1 ,sanders1 and ,watson found themselves in the possession of wealth as a reward for their pioneering4 ,the ,western ,union had no sooner withdrawn as a competitor of the ,bell organization than scores of small1 local companies sprang up1 all ready to pirate the ,bell patent and push the claims of some rival inventor4 ,a very few of them really tried to establish telephone systems1 but the majority were organized simply to sell stock to a gullible public4 ,they stirred up a continuous turmoil1 and made much trouble for the larger company1 though their patent claims were persistently defeated in the courts4 ,most of the rival claimants who sprang up1 once the telephone had become an established fact and had proved its value1 were men of neither prominence nor scientific attainments4 ,of a very different type was ,elisha ,gray1 whose work we have before noticed1 and who now came forward with the claim that he had invented a telephone in advance of ,bell4 ,gray was a practical man of real scientific attainments1 but1 as we have noticed1 his efforts in search of a telephone were from the viewpoint of a musical telegraph and so destined to failure4 ,it has frequently been stated that ,gray filed his application for a patent on a telephone of his invention but a few minutes after ,bell1 and so ,bell wrested the honor from him by the scantiest of margins4 ,a careful reading of the testimony brought out in ,gray's suit against ,bell does not support such a statement4 ,while ,bell filed an application for a patent on a completed1 invention1 ,gray filed1 a few moments later1 a caveat4 ,this was a document1 stating that he hoped to invent a telephone of a certain kind therein stated1 and would serve to protect his rights until he should have time to perfect it4 ,thus ,gray did not have a completed invention1 and he later failed to perfect a telephone along the lines described in his caveat4 ,the decision of the court supported ,bell's claims in full4 ,another of the ,western ,union's telephone experts1 ,professor ,dolbear1 of ,tufts ,college1 also sought to make capital of his knowledge of the telephone4 ,he based his claims upon an improvement of the ,reis musical telegraph1 which had formed the starting-point for so many experimenters4 ,the case fell flat1 however1 for when the apparatus was brought into court no one could make it talk4 ,none of the attacks upon ,bell's claim to be the original inventor of the telephone aroused more popular interest at the time than the famous ,drawbaugh case4 ,daniel ,drawbaugh was a country mechanic with a habit of reading of the new inventions in the scientific journals4 ,he would work out models of many of these for himself1 and1 showing them very proudly1 often claim them as his own devices4 ,drawbaugh was now put forward by the opponents of the ,bell organization as having invented a telephone before ,bell4 ,it was claimed that he had been too poor to secure a patent or to bring his invention to popular notice4 ,much sympathy was thus aroused for him and the legal battle was waged to interminable length1 with the usual result4 ,bell's patent was again sustained1 and ,drawbaugh's claims were pronounced without merit4 ,many other legal battles followed1 but the dominance of the ,bell organization1 resting upon the indisputable fact that ,bell was the first man to conceive and execute a practical telephone1 could not be shaken4 ,the telephone business was on a firm footing3 it had demonstrated its real service to the public2 it had become a necessity2 and1 under the able leadership of ,vail1 was fast extending its field of usefulness4 ,,xv ,,telegraphing ,,without ,,wires ,the ,first ,suggestion--,morse ,sends ,messages ,through the ,water--,trowbridge ,telegraphs ,through the ,earth--,experiments of ,preece and ,heaviside in ,england--,edison ,telegraphs from ,moving ,trains--,researches of ,hertz ,disclose the ,hertzian ,waves4 ,great as are the possibilities of the telegraph and the telephone in the service of man1 these instruments are still limited to the wires over which they must operate4 ,communication was not possible until wires had been strung2 where wires could not be strung communication was impossible4 ,much yet remained to be done before perfection in communication was attained1 and1 though the public generally considered the telegraph1 and the telephone the final achievement1 men of science were already searching for an even better way4 ,the first suggestion that electric currents carrying messages might some day travel without wires seems to have come from ,k4,a4 ,steinheil1 of ,munich4 ,in #ahch he discovered that if the two ends of a single wire carrying the electric current be connected with the ground a complete circuit is formed1 the earth acting as the return4 ,thus he was able to dispense with one wire1 and he suggested that some day it might be possible to eliminate the wire altogether4 ,the fact that the current bearing messages could be sent through the water was demonstrated by ,morse as early as #ahdb4 ,he placed plates at the termini of a circuit and submerged them in water some distance apart on one side of a canal4 ,other plates were placed on the opposite side of the waterway and were connected by a wire with a sensitive galvanometer in series to act as a receiver4 ,currents sent from the opposite side were recorded by the galvanometer and the possibility of communication through the water was established4 ,others carried these experiments further1 it being even suggested that messages might be sent across the ,atlantic by this method4 ,but ,bell's greatest contribution to the search for wireless telegraphy was not his direct work in this field1 but the telephone itself4 ,his telephone receiver provided the wireless experimenters with an instrument of extreme sensitiveness by which they were able to detect currents which the mirror galvanometer could not receive4 ,while experimenting with a telephone along a telegraph line a curious phenomenon was noticed4 ,the telephone experimenters heard music very clearly4 ,they investigated and found that another telegraph wire1 strung along the same poles1 but at the usual distance and with the usual insulation1 was being used for a test of ,edison's musical telephone4 ,many other similar tests were made and the effect was always noted4 ,in some way the message on one line had been conveyed across the air-gap and had been recorded by the telephones on the other line4 ,it was decided that this had been caused by induction4 ,prof4 ,john ,trowbridge1 of ,harvard ,university1 might well be termed the grandfather of wireless telegraphy4 ,he made the first extensive investigation of the subject1 and his experiments in sending messages without wires and his discoveries furnished information and inspiration for those who were to follow4 ,his early experiments tested the possibility of using the earth as a conductor4 ,he demonstrated that when an electric current is sent into the earth it spreads from that point in waves in all directions1 just as when a stone is cast into a pond the ripples widen out from that point1 becoming fainter and fainter until they reach the shore4 ,he further found that these currents could be detected by grounding the terminals of a telephone circuit4 ,telegraphy through the earth was thus possible4 ,however1 the farther the receiving station was from the sending station the wider must be the distance between the telephone terminals and the smaller the current received4 ,professor ,trowbridge did not find it possible to operate his system at a sufficient distance to make it of value1 but he did demonstrate that the currents do travel through the earth and that they can be set to carrying messages4 ,professor ,trowbridge also revived the idea of telegraphing across the ,atlantic by utilizing the conductivity of the sea-water to carry the currents4 ,in working out the plan theoretically he discovered that the terminals on the ,american side would have to be widely separated--one in ,nova ,scotia and the other in ,florida--and that they would have to be connected by an insulated cable4 ,two widely separated points on the coast of ,france were suggested for the other terminals4 ,he also calculated that very high voltages would be necessary1 and the practical difficulties involved made it seem certain that such a system would cost far too much to construct and to operate to be profitable4 ,trowbridge suggested the possibility of using such a system for establishing communication between ships at sea4 ,ship could communicate with ship1 over short distances1 during a fog4 ,a trailing wire was to be used to increase the sending and receiving power1 and ,trowbridge believed that with a dynamo capable of supplying current for a hundred lights1 communication could be established at a distance of half a mile4 ,not satisfied with the earth or the sea as a medium for carrying the current1 ,trowbridge essayed to use the air4 ,he believed that this was possible1 and that it would be accomplished at no distant date4 ,he believed1 however1 that such a system could not be operated over considerable distances because of the curvature of the earth4 ,he endeavored to establish communication through the air by induction4 ,he demonstrated that if one coil of wire be set up and a current sent through it1 a similar coil facing it will have like currents induced within it1 which may be detected with a telephone receiver4 ,he also determined that the currents were strongest in the receiving coil when it was placed in a plane parallel with the sending coil4 ,by turning the receiving coil about until the sound was strongest in the telephone receiver1 it was thus possible to determine the direction from which the messages were coming4 ,trowbridge recognized the great value of this feature to a ship at sea4 ,but these induced currents could only be detected at a distance by the use of enormous coils4 ,to receive at a half-mile a coil of eight hundred feet radius would have been necessary1 and this was obviously impossible for use on shipboard4 ,so these experiments also developed no practical improvement in the existing means of communication4 ,but ,professor ,trowbridge had demonstrated new possibilities1 and had set men thinking along new lines4 ,he was the pioneer who pointed the way to a great invention1 though he himself failed to attain it4 ,bell followed up ,trowbridge's suggestions of using the water as a medium of communication1 and in a series of experiments conducted on the ,potomac ,river established communication between moving ships4 ,professor ,dolbear also turned from telephone experimentation to the search for the wireless4 ,he grounded his wires and sent high currents into the earth1 but improved his system and took another step toward the final achievement by adding a large induction coil to his sending equipment4 ,he suggested that the spoken word might be sent as well as dots and dashes1 and so sought the wireless telephone as well as the wireless telegraph4 ,like his predecessors1 his experiments were successful only at short distances4 ,the next application of the induction telegraph was to establish communication with moving trains4 ,several experimenters had suggested it1 but it remained for ,thomas ,a4 ,edison to actually accomplish it4 ,he set up a plate of tin-foil on the engine or cars1 opposite the telegraph wires4 ,currents could be induced across the gap1 no matter what the speed of the train1 and1 traveling along the wires to the station1 communication was thus established4 ,had ,edison continued his investigation further1 instead of turning to other pursuits1 he might have achieved the means of communicating through the air at considerable distances4 ,these experiments by ,americans in the early 'eighties seemed to promise that ,america was to produce the wireless telegraph1 as it had produced the telegraph and the telephone4 ,but the greatest activity now shifted to ,europe and the ,american men of science failed to push their researches to a successful conclusion4 ,sir ,w4,h4 ,preece1 an ,englishman1 brought himself to public notice by establishing communication with the ,isle of ,wight by ,morse's method4 ,messages were sent and received during a period when the cable to the island was out of commission1 and thus telegraphing without wires was put to practical use4 ,preece carried his experiments much further4 ,in #ahhe he laid out two great squares of insulated wire1 a quarter of a mile to the side1 and at a distance of a quarter of a mile from each other4 ,telephonic communication was established between them1 and thus he had attained wireless telephony by induction4 ,in #ahhg1 another ,englishman1 ,a4,w4 ,heaviside1 laid circuits over two miles long on the surface and other circuits in the galleries of a coal-mine three hundred and fifty feet below1 and established communication between the circuits4 ,working together1 ,preece and ,heaviside extended the distances over which they could communicate4 ,preece finally decided that a combination of conduction and induction was the best means of wireless communication4 ,he grounded the wire of his circuit at two points and raised it to a considerable height between these points4 ,preece's work was to put the theories of ,professor ,trowbridge to practical use and thus bring the final achievement a step nearer4 ,but conduction and induction combined would not carry messages to a distance that would enable extensive communication4 ,a new medium had yet to be found1 and this was the work of ,heinrich ,hertz1 a young ,german scientist4 ,he was experimenting with two flat coils of wire1 as had many others before him1 but one of the coils had a small gap in it4 ,passing the discharge from a condenser into this coil1 ,hertz discovered that the spark caused when the current jumped the gap set up electrical vibrations that excited powerful currents in the other coil4 ,these currents were noticeable1 though the coils were a very considerable distance apart4 ,thus ,hertz had found out how to send out electrical waves that would travel to a considerable distance4 ,what was the medium that carried these waves8 ,this was the question that ,hertz asked himself1 and the answer was1 the ether4 ,we know that light will pass through a vacuum1 and these electric waves would do likewise4 ,it was evident that they did not pass through the air4 ,the answer1 as evolved by ,hertz and approved by other scientists1 is that they travel through the ether1 a strange substance which pervades all space4 ,hertz discovered that light and his electrical waves traveled at the same speed1 and so deduced that light consists of electrical vibrations in the ether4 ,with the knowledge that this all-pervading ether would carry electric waves at the speed of light1 that the waves could be set up by the discharge of a spark across a spark-gap in a coil1 and that they could be received in another coil in resonance with the first1 the establishment of a practical wireless telegraph was not far away4 ,,xvi ,,an ,,italian ,,boy',s ,,work ,the ,italian ,youth who ,dreamed ,wonderful ,dreams--,his ,studies--,early ,detectors--,marconi ,seeks an ,efficient ,detector--,devises ,new ,sending ,methods--,the ,wireless ,telegraph ,takes ,form--,experimental ,success4 ,with the nineteenth century approaching its close1 man had discovered that the electric waves would travel through the ether2 he had learned something of how to propagate those waves1 and something of how to receive them4 ,but no one had yet been able to combine these discoveries in practical form1 to apply them to the task of carrying messages1 to make the improvements necessary to make them available for use at considerable distances4 ,though many mature scientists had devoted themselves to the problem1 it remained for a youth to solve it4 ,the youth was ,guglielmo ,marconi1 an ,italian4 ,we have noticed that the telegraph1 the cable1 and the telephone were the work of those of the ,anglo-,saxon race--,englishmen or ,americans--so it came as a distinct surprise that an ,italian youth should make the next great application of electricity to communication4 ,but ,anglo-,saxon blood flows in ,marconi's veins4 ,though his father was an ,italian1 his mother was an ,irishwoman4 ,he was born at ,villa ,griffone near ,bologna1 ,italy1 on ,april #be1 #ahgd4 ,he studied in the schools of ,bologna and of ,florence1 and early showed his interest in scientific affairs4 ,from his mother he learned ,english1 which he speaks as fluently as he does his native tongue4 ,as a boy he was allowed to attend ,english schools for short periods1 spending some time at ,bedford and at ,rugby4 ,one of his ,italian teachers was ,professor ,righi1 who had made a close study of the ,hertzian waves1 and who was himself making no small contributions to the advancement of the science4 ,from him young ,marconi learned of the work which had been accomplished1 and of the apparatus which was then available4 ,marconi was a quiet boy--almost shy4 ,he did not display the aggressive energy so common with many promising youths4 ,but though he was quiet1 he was not slothful4 ,he entered into his studies with a determination and an application that brought to him great results4 ,he was a student and a thinker4 ,any scientific book or paper which came before him was eagerly devoured4 ,it was this habit of careful and persistent study that made it possible for ,marconi to accomplish such wonderful things at an early age4 ,marconi had learned of the ,hertzian waves4 ,it occurred to him that by their aid wireless telegraphy might be accomplished4 ,the boy saw the wonderful possibilities2 he dreamed dreams of how these waves might carry messages from city to city1 from ship to shore1 and from continent to continent without wires4 ,he realized his own youth and inexperience1 and it seemed certain to him that many able scientists had had the same vision and must be struggling toward its attainment4 ,for a year ,marconi dreamed those dreams1 studying the books and papers which would tell him more of these wonderful waves4 ,each week he expected the news that wireless telegraphy had been established1 but the news never came4 ,finally he concluded that others1 despite their greater opportunities1 had not been so far-seeing as he had thought4 ,marconi attacked the problem himself with the dogged persistence and the studious care so characteristic of him4 ,he began his experiments upon his father's farm1 the elder ,marconi encouraging the youth and providing him with funds with which to purchase apparatus4 ,he set up poles at the opposite sides of the garden and on them mounted the simple sending and receiving instruments which were then available1 using plates of tin for his aerials4 ,he set up a simple spark-gap1 as had ,hertz1 and used a receiving device little more elaborate4 ,a ,morse telegraph-key was placed in circuit with the spark-gap4 ,when the key was held down for a longer period a long spark passed between the brass knobs of the spark-gap and a dash was thus transmitted4 ,when the key was depressed for a shorter period a dot in the ,morse code was sent forth4 ,after much work and adjustment ,marconi was able to send a message across the garden4 ,others had accomplished this for similar distances1 but they lacked ,marconi's imagination and persistence1 and failed to carry their experiments further4 ,to the young ,irish-,italian this was but a starting-point4 ,illustration3 ,,guglielmo ,,marconi ,photographed in the uniform of an officer in the ,italian army ,marconi quickly found that the receiver was the least effective part of the existing apparatus4 ,the waves spread in all directions from the sending station and become feebler and feebler as the distance increases4 ,to make wireless telegraphy effective over any considerable distance a highly efficient and extremely sensitive receiving device is necessary4 ,some special means of detecting the feeble currents was necessary4 ,the coherer was the solution4 ,as early as #ahgj a ,mr4 ,s4,a4 ,varley1 an ,englishman1 had discovered that when he endeavored to send a current through a mass of carbon granules the tiny particles arranged themselves in order under the influence of the electric current1 and offered a free path for the passage of the current4 ,when shaken apart they again resisted the flow of current until it became powerful enough to cause them to again arrange themselves into a sort of bridge for its passage4 ,thus was the principle of the coherer discovered4 ,an ,italian scientist1 ,professor ,calzecchi-,onesti1 carried these experiments still further4 ,he used various substances in place of the carbon granules and showed that some of them will arrange themselves so as to allow the passage of a current under the influence of the spark setting up the ,hertzian waves4 ,professor ,e4 ,branly1 of the ,catholic ,university of ,paris1 took up this work in #ahij4 ,he arranged metal filings in a small glass tube six inches long and arranged a tapper to disarrange the filings after they had been brought together under the influence of the spark4 ,with the ,branly coherer as the basis ,marconi sought to make improvements which would result in the detector he was seeking4 ,for his powder he used nickel1 mixed with a small proportion of fine silver filings4 ,this he placed between silver plugs in a small glass tube4 ,platinum wires were connected to the silver plugs and brought out at the opposite ends of the tube4 ,it required long study to determine just how to adjust the plugs between which the powder was loosely arranged4 ,if the particles were pressed together too tightly they would not fall apart readily enough under the influence of the tapper4 ,if too much space was allowed they would not cohere readily enough4 ,marconi also discovered that a larger proportion of silver in the powder and a smaller amount between the plugs increased the sensitiveness of the receiver4 ,yet he found it well not to have it too sensitive lest it cohere for every stray current and so give false signals4 ,under the influence of the electric waves set up from the spark-gap those tiny particles so arranged themselves that they would readily carry a current between the plugs4 ,by placing these plugs with their platinum terminals in circuit with a local battery the current from this local battery was given a passage through the coherer by the action of the electric waves coming through the ether4 ,while these waves themselves were too feeble to operate a receiving mechanism1 they were strong enough to arrange the particles of the sensitive metal in the tube in order1 so that the current from the local battery could pass through them4 ,this current operated a telegraph relay which in turn operated a ,morse receiving instrument4 ,an electrical tapper was also arranged in this circuit so that it would strike the tube a light blow after each long or short wave representing a dot or a dash had been received4 ,thus the particles were disarranged1 ready to array themselves when the next wave came through the ether and so form the bridge over which the stronger local circuit could convey the signal4 ,marconi further discovered that the most effective arrangement was to run a wire from one terminal of the coherer into the ground1 and from the other to an elevated metal plate or wire4 ,the waves coming through the ether were received by the elevated wire and were conducted down to the coherer4 ,experimenting with his apparatus on the posts in the garden1 he discovered that an increase in the height of the wire greatly increased the receiving distance4 ,at his sending station he used the exciter of his teacher1 ,professor ,righi4 ,this1 too1 he modified and perfected for his practical purpose4 ,as he used the device it consisted of two brass spheres a millimeter apart4 ,an envelope was provided so that the sides of the spheres toward each other and the space between was occupied by vaseline oil which served to keep the faces of the spheres clean and produce a more uniform spark4 ,outside the two spheres1 but in line with them1 were placed two smaller spheres at a distance of about two-fifths of a centimeter4 ,the terminals of the sending circuit were attached to these4 ,the secondary coil of a large induction coil was placed in series with them1 and batteries were wired in series with the primary of the coil with a sending key to make and break the circuit4 ,when the key was closed a series of sparks sprang across the spark-gap1 and the waves were thus set up in the ether and carried the message to the receiving station4 ,as in the case of his receiving station1 ,marconi found that results were much improved when he wired his sending apparatus so that one terminal was grounded and the other connected with an elevated wire or aerial1 which is now called the antenna4 ,by #ahif ,marconi had brought this apparatus to a state of perfection where he could transmit messages to a distance of several miles4 ,this ,irish-,italian youth of twenty-two had mastered the problem which had baffled veteran scientists and was ready to place a new wonder at the service of the world4 ,the devices which ,marconi thus assembled and put to practical use had been1 in the hands of others1 little more than scientific toys4 ,others had studied the ,hertzian waves and the methods of sending and detecting them from a purely scientific viewpoint4 ,marconi had the vision to realize the practical possibilities1 and1 though little more than a boy1 had assembled the whole into a workable system of communication4 ,he richly deserves the laurels and the rewards as the inventor of the wireless telegraph4 ,,xvii ,,wireless ,,telegraphy ,,established ,marconi ,goes to ,england--he ,confounds the ,skeptics--,a ,message to ,france ,without ,wires--,the ,attempt to ,span the ,ocean--,marconi in ,america ,receives the ,first ,message from ,europe--,fame and ,recognition ,achieved4 ,the time had now come for ,marconi to introduce himself and his discoveries to the attention of the world4 ,he went to ,england1 and on ,june #b1 #ahif1 applied for a patent on his system of wireless telegraphy4 ,soon afterward his plans were submitted to the postal-telegraph authorities4 ,fortunately for ,marconi and for the world1 ,w4,h4 ,preece was then in authority in this department4 ,he himself had experimented with some little success with wireless messages4 ,he was able enough to see the merit in ,marconi's discoveries and generous enough to give him full recognition and every encouragement4 ,the apparatus was first set up in the ,general ,post-office in ,london1 another station being located on the roof but a hundred yards away4 ,though several walls intervened1 the ,hertzian waves traversed them without difficulty1 and messages were sent and received4 ,stations were then set up on ,salisbury ,plain1 some two miles apart1 and communication was established between them4 ,though the postal-telegraph authorities received ,marconi's statements of his discoveries with open mind and put his apparatus to fair tests1 the public at large was much less tolerant4 ,the skepticism which met ,morse and ,bell faced ,marconi4 ,men of science doubted his statements and scoffed at his claims4 ,the ,hertzian waves might be all right to operate scientific playthings1 they thought1 but they were far too uncertain to furnish a medium for carrying messages in any practical way4 ,then1 as progress was made and ,marconi began to prove his system1 the inevitable jealousies arose4 ,experimenters who might have invented the wireless telegraph1 but who did not1 came forward to contest ,marconi's claims and to seek to snatch his laurels from him4 ,the young inventor forged steadily ahead1 studying and experimenting1 devising improved apparatus1 meeting the difficulties one by one as they arose4 ,in most of his early experiments he had used a modification of the little tin boxes which had been set up in his father's garden as his original aerials4 ,having discovered that the height of the aerials increased the range of the stations1 he covered a large kite with tin-foil and1 sending it up with a wire1 used this as an aerial4 ,balloons were similarly employed4 ,he soon recognized1 however1 that a practical commercial system1 which should be capable of sending and receiving messages day and night1 regardless of the weather1 could not be operated with kites or balloons4 ,the height of masts was limited1 so he sought to increase the range by increasing the electrical power of the current sending forth the sparks from the sending station4 ,here he was on the right path1 and another long step forward had been taken4 ,in the fall of #ahig he set up a mast on the ,isle of ,wight1 one hundred and twenty feet high4 ,from the top of this was strung a single wire and a new series of experiments was begun4 ,marconi had spent the summer in ,italy demonstrating his apparatus1 and had established communication between a station on the shore and a war-ship of the ,italian ,navy equipped with his apparatus4 ,he now secured a small steamer for his experiments from his station on the ,isle of ,wight and equipped it with a sixty-foot mast4 ,communication was maintained with the boat day after day1 regardless of weather conditions4 ,the distance at which communication could be maintained was steadily increased until communication was established with the mainland4 ,in ,july of #ahih the wireless demonstrated its utility as a conveyer of news4 ,an enterprising ,dublin newspaper desired to cover the ,kingstown regatta with the aid of the wireless4 ,in order to do this a land station was erected at ,kingstown1 and another on board a steamer which followed the yachts4 ,a telephone wire connected the ,kingstown station with the newspaper office1 and as the messages came by wireless from the ship they were telephoned to ,dublin and published in successive editions of the evening papers4 ,this feat attracted so much attention that ,queen ,victoria sought the aid of the wireless for her own necessities4 ,her son1 the ,prince of ,wales1 lay ill on his yacht1 and the aged queen desired to keep in constant communication with him4 ,marconi accordingly placed one station on the prince's yacht and another at ,osborne ,house1 the queen's residence4 ,communication was readily maintained1 and one hundred and fifty messages passed by wireless between the prince and the royal mother4 ,while the electric waves bearing the messages were found to pass through wood1 stone1 or earth1 it was soon noticed in practical operation that when many buildings1 or a hill1 or any other solid object of size intervened between the stations the waves were greatly retarded and the messages seriously interfered with4 ,when the apparatus was placed on board steel vessels it was found that any part of the vessel coming between the stations checked the communication4 ,marconi sought to avoid these difficulties by erecting high aerials at every point1 so that the waves might pass through the clear air over solid obstructions4 ,marconi's next effort was to connect ,france with ,england4 ,he went to ,france to demonstrate his apparatus to the ,french ,government and set up a station near ,boulogne4 ,the aerial was raised to a height of one hundred and fifty feet4 ,another station was erected near ,folkestone on the ,english coast1 across the ,channel4 ,a group of ,french officials gathered in the little station near ,folkestone for the test1 which was made on the #bgth of ,march1 #ahii4 ,marconi sent the messages1 which were received by the station on the ,french shore without difficulty4 ,other messages were received from ,france1 and wireless communication between the nations was an accomplished fact4 ,the use of the wireless for ships and lighthouses sprang into favor1 and wireless stations were established all around the ,british coasts so that ships equipped with wireless might keep in communication with the land4 ,the ,british ,admiralty quickly recognized the value of wireless telegraphy to war vessels4 ,while field telegraphs and telephones had served the armies1 the navies were still dependent upon primitive signals1 since a wire cannot be strung from ship to ship nor from ship to shore4 ,so the ,british battle-ships were equipped with wireless apparatus and a thorough test was made4 ,a sham battle was held in which all of the orders were sent by wireless1 and communication was constantly maintained both between the flag-ships and the vessels of their fleets and between the flag-ships and the shore4 ,marconi's invention had again proved itself4 ,the wireless early demonstrated its great value as a means of saving life at sea4 ,lightships off the ,english coast were equipped with the wireless and were thus enabled to warn ships of impending storms1 and on several occasions the wireless was used to summon aid from the shore when ships were sinking because of accidents near the lightship4 ,following the establishment of communication with ,france1 ,marconi increased the range of his apparatus until he was able to cover most of eastern ,europe4 ,in one of his demonstrations he sent messages to ,italy4 ,his ambition1 however1 was to send messages across the ,atlantic1 and he now attacked this stupendous task4 ,on the coast of ,cornwall1 ,england1 he began the construction of a station which should have sufficient power to send a message to ,america4 ,instead of using a single wire for his aerial1 he erected many tall poles and strung a number of wires from pole to pole4 ,the comparatively feeble batteries which had furnished the currents used in the earlier efforts were replaced with great power-driven dynamos1 and converters were used instead of the induction coil4 ,thus was the great ,poldhu station established4 ,late in #aija ,marconi crossed to ,america to superintend the preparations there1 and that he himself might be ready to receive the first message1 should it prove possible to span the ocean4 ,signal ,hill1 near ,st4 ,john's1 ,newfoundland was selected as the place for the ,american station4 ,the expense of building a great aerial for the test was too great1 and so dependence was had upon kites to send the wires aloft4 ,for many days ,marconi's assistants struggled with the great kites in an effort to get them aloft4 ,at last they flew1 carrying the wire to a great height4 ,the wire was carried into a small ,government building near by in which ,marconi stationed himself4 ,at his ear was a telephone receiver1 this having been substituted for the relay and the ,morse instrument because of its far greater sensitiveness4 ,marconi had instructed his operator at ,poldhu to send simply the letter s at an hour corresponding to #ab4cj ,a4,m4 in ,newfoundland4 ,great was the excitement and suspense in ,cornwall when the hour for the test arrived4 ,forgetting that they were sleepy1 the staff crowded about the sending key1 and the little building at the foot of the ring of great masts supporting the aerial shook with the crash of the blinding sparks as the three1 dots which form the letter s were sent forth4 ,even greater was the tension on the ,newfoundland coast1 where ,marconi sat eagerly waiting for the signal4 ,finally it came1 three faint ticks in the telephone receiver4 ,the wireless had crossed the ,atlantic4 ,marconi had no sending apparatus1 so that it was not until the cable had carried the news that those in ,england knew that the message had been received4 ,because ,marconi had never made a statement or a claim he had not been able to prove1 he had attained a reputation for veracity which made his statement that he had received a signal across the ,atlantic carry weight with the scientists4 ,many1 of course1 were skeptical1 and insisted that the simple signal had come by chance from some ship not far away4 ,but the inventor pushed quietly and steadily ahead1 making arrangements to perfect the system and establish it so that it would be of commercial use4 ,marconi returned to ,england1 but two months later set out for ,america again on the liner ,philadelphia with improved apparatus4 ,he kept in constant communication with his station at ,poldhu until the ship was a hundred and fifty miles from shore4 ,beyond that point he could not send messages1 as the sending apparatus on the ship lacked sufficient power4 ,messages were received1 however1 until the sending station was over two thousand miles away4 ,this seemed miraculous to those on shipboard1 but ,marconi accepted it as a matter of course4 ,he had equipped the ,poldhu station to send twenty-one hundred miles1 and he knew that it should accomplish the feat4 ,a large station was set up at ,cape ,breton1 ,nova ,scotia1 and regular communication was established between there and ,poldhu4 ,with the establishment of regular transatlantic communication the utility of ,marconi's invention1 even for work at great distances1 was no longer open to question4 ,by quiet1 unassuming1 conscientious work he had put another great carrier of messages at the service of the world1 and he now reaped the fame and fortune which he so richly deserved4 ,,xviii ,,the ,,wireless ,,serves ,,the ,,world ,marconi ,organized ,wireless ,telegraphy ,commercially--,the ,new ,wonder at the ,service of the ,world--,marine ,disasters ,prevented--,the ,extension of the ,wireless on ,shipboard--,improved ,apparatus--,the ,wireless in the ,world ,war--,the ,boy and the ,wireless4 ,with his clear understanding of the possibilities of his invention1 ,marconi was not long in establishing the wireless upon a commercial basis4 ,he is a man of keen business judgment1 and as he brought his invention forward and clearly demonstrated its worth at a time when commercial enterprise was alert he found no great difficulty in establishing his company4 ,the first ,marconi company was organized as early as #ahig under the name of the ,wireless ,telegraph and ,signal ,company1 ,limited4 ,this was later displaced by the ,marconi ,telegraph ,company1 which operates a regular system of stations on a commercial basis1 carrying messages in competition with the cable and telegraph companies4 ,it also erects stations for other companies which are operated under the ,marconi patents4 ,with the telegraph and the telephone so well established and serving the needs of ordinary communication on land1 it was natural that the wireless should make headway but slowly as a commercial proposition between points on land4 ,for communication at sea1 however1 it had no competition1 and merchant-ships as well as war vessels were rapidly equipped with wireless apparatus4 ,when the great liner ,republic was sinking as a result of a collision off the port of ,new ,york in #aijc her wireless brought aid4 ,her passengers and crew were taken off in safety1 and what otherwise would have been a terrible disaster was avoided by the use of the wireless4 ,the utility of the wireless was again brought sharply to the attention of the world4 ,it was realized that a wireless set on a passenger-ship was necessary if the lives of the passengers were to be safeguarded4 ,the ,united ,states ,government by its laws now requires that passenger-ships shall be equipped with wireless apparatus in charge of a competent operator4 ,one of the early objections made to the wireless was its apparent lack of secrecy1 since any other receiving apparatus within range of the waves sent forth by the sending station can receive the signals4 ,it was also realized that as soon as any considerable number of stations were established about the world1 and began sending messages to and fro1 there would be a perfect jumble of waves flying about in all directions through the ether1 so that no messages could be sent or received4 ,marconi's answer to these difficulties was the tuning apparatus4 ,the electric waves carrying the messages may be sent out at widely varying lengths4 ,marconi found that it was possible to adjust a receiving station so that it would receive only waves of a certain length4 ,thus stations which desired to communicate could select a certain wave-length1 and they could send and receive messages without interfering with others using different wave-lengths1 or without the receiving station being confused by messages coming in from other stations using different wave-lengths4 ,you know that when a tuning-fork is set in vibration another of the same pitch near it will vibrate with it1 but others of different pitch will not be affected4 ,the operation of wireless stations in tune with each other is similar4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,remarkable ,,photograph ,,taken ,,outside ,,of ,,the ,,clifden ,,station ,,while ,,messages ,,were ,,being ,,sent ,,across ,,to ,,cape ,,race ,the camera was exposed for two hours1 and the white bars show the sparks leaving the wires for their journey through the air for seventeen hundred miles4 ,illustration3 ,,marconi ,,station ,,at ,,clifden1 ,,ireland ,these dynamos send a message straight across the ocean4 ,an example of the value of tuning is afforded by the manner in which press reports are sent from the great ,marconi station at ,poldhu4 ,each night at a certain hour this station sends out news reports of the events of the day1 using a certain set wave-length4 ,each ship on the ,atlantic and every land station within range which is to receive the reports at that hour adjusts its receiving set to receive waves of that length4 ,in this way they hear nothing but the ,poldhu news reports which they desire to receive1 and are not troubled by messages from other stations within range4 ,secrecy is also attained by the use of tuning4 ,it is possible that another station may discover the wave-length being used for a secret message and listen in1 but there are so many possible wave-lengths that this is difficult4 ,secrecy may also be secured by the use of code messages4 ,many of the advantages of tuning were lost by the international agreement which provided that but two wave-lengths should be used for commercial work4 ,this1 however1 enables ships to get in touch with other ships in time of need4 ,with his telephone receivers the operator can hear the passage of the waves as they are brought to him by his aerial and the dots and dashes sound as buzzes of greater or less length4 ,out of the confusion of currents passing through the air he can select the messages he wishes to read by sound4 ,you may wonder how one wireless operator gets into communication with another4 ,he first listens in to determine whether messages are coming through the ether within range in the wave-length he is to use4 ,hearing nothing1 he adjusts his sending apparatus to the desired wave-length and switches this in with the signal aerial which serves both his sending and his receiving set4 ,this at the same time disconnects his receiving set4 ,he sends out the call letters of the station to which he wishes to send a message1 following them with his own call letters1 as a signature to show who is calling4 ,after repeating these signals several times he switches out his sending set and listens in with his receiving set4 ,if he then gets an answer from the other station he can begin sending the message4 ,marconi was not allowed to hold the wireless field unmolested4 ,many others set up wireless stations1 some of them infringing upon ,marconi's patents4 ,others have devised wireless systems along more original lines4 ,particularly we should mention two ,american experimenters1 ,dr4 de ,forest and ,professor ,fessenden4 ,both have established wireless systems with no little promise4 ,the system of ,professor ,fessenden is especially unique and original and may be destined to work a revolution in the methods of wireless telegraphy4 ,with an increase in the number of wireless stations and varieties of apparatus came a wide increase in the uses to which wireless telegraphy was applied4 ,we have already noticed the press service from ,poldhu4 ,the ,british ,government makes use of this same station to furnish daily news to its representatives in all parts of the world4 ,the wireless is also used to transmit the time from the great observatories4 ,some of the railroads in the ,united ,states have equipped their trails as well as their stations with wireless sets4 ,it has proved its worth in communicating between stations1 taking the place in time of need of either the telegraph or the telephone4 ,in equipping the trains with sets a difficulty was met in arranging the aerials4 ,it is1 of course1 impossible to arrange the wires at any height above the cars1 since they would be swept away in passing under bridges4 ,even with very low aerials1 however1 communication has been successfully maintained at a distance of over a hundred miles4 ,the speed of the fastest train affects the sending and receiving of messages not at all4 ,it was also found that messages passed without hindrance1 even though the train was passing through a tunnel4 ,another interesting application of wireless telegraphy is to the needs of the fire-fighters4 ,fire stations in ,new ,york ,city have been equipped with wireless telegraph sets1 and they have proved so useful in spreading alarms and transmitting news of fires that they seem destined to come into universal use4 ,the outbreak of the world war gave a tremendous impetus to the development of wireless telegraphy4 ,the ,german cable to the ,united ,states was cut in the early days of the conflict4 ,the sending power of wireless stations had been sufficiently increased1 however1 so that the great ,german stations could communicate with those in the ,united ,states4 ,communication was readily maintained between the ,allies by means of wireless1 the great stations at ,poldhu and at the ,eiffel ,tower in ,paris being in constant communication with each other and with the stations in ,italy and in ,russia4 ,portable field sets had been used with some slight success even in the ,boer ,war1 and had definitely proved their worth in the ,balkans4 ,the outbreak of the greater war found all of the nations equipped with portable apparatus for the use of their armies4 ,these proved of great use4 ,the field sets of the ,united ,states ,army also proved their utility in the campaign into ,mexico in pursuit of ,villa4 ,by their means it was possible for ,general ,pershing's forces to keep in constant touch with the headquarters in the ,united ,states4 ,the wireless proved as valuable to the navies as had been anticipated4 ,the ,germans in particular made great improvements in light wireless sets designed for use on aircraft4 ,the problem of placing an aerial on an aeroplane is difficult1 but no little headway has been made in this direction4 ,it is the ,american boy who has done the most interesting work with the wireless in the ,united ,states4 ,while the commercial development has been comparatively slow1 the boys have set up stations by the thousands4 ,most of these stations were constructed by the boys themselves1 who have learned and are learning how best to apply this modern wonder to the service of man4 ,so many amateurs set up stations that the ,government found it necessary to regulate them by law4 ,the law now requires that amateur experimenters use only short wave-lengths in their sending1 which will not interfere with messages from ,government or commercial stations4 ,it also provides for the licensing of amateurs who prove competent4 ,the stations owned and operated by boys have already proved of great use4 ,in times of storm and flood when wire communication failed they have proved the only means of communicating with many districts4 ,in time of war these amateur stations1 scattered in all parts of the country1 might prove immensely valuable4 ,means have now been taken to so organize the amateurs that they can communicate with one another1 and by this means messages may be sent to any part of the country4 ,one young ,american1 ,john ,hays ,hammond1 ,jr41 has applied the wireless in novel and interesting ways4 ,by means of special apparatus mounted on a small boat he can by the means of a wireless station on shore start or stop the vessel1 or steer it in any direction by his wireless control4 ,he has applied the same system to the control of torpedoes4 ,by this means a torpedo may be controlled after it has left the shore and may be directed in any direction as long as it is within sight4 ,this invention may prove of incalculable benefit should ,america be attacked by a foreign power4 ,what startling developments of wireless telegraphy lie still in the future we do not know4 ,marconi has predicted that wireless messages will circle the globe4 ,i believe1 he has said1 that in the near future a wireless message will be sent from ,new ,york completely around the world without relaying1 and will be received by an instrument in the same office with the transmitter1 in perhaps less time than ,shakespeare's forty minutes4 ,not long ago the ,united ,states battle-ship ,wyoming1 lying off ,cape ,henry on the ,atlantic coast1 communicated with the ,san ,diego at ,guaymas1 on the ,pacific coast of ,mexico4 ,this distance1 twenty-five hundred miles across land1 shows that ,marconi's prediction may be realized in the not distant future4 ,,xix ,,speaking ,,across ,,the ,,continent ,a ,new ,hello ,boy in ,boston--,why the ,boy ,sought the ,job--,the ,useful ,things the ,boy ,found to ,do--,young ,carty and the ,multiple ,switchboard--,called to ,new ,york ,city--,he ,quiets the ,roaring ,wires--,carty ,made ,engineer-in-,chief--,extending the ,range of the ,human ,voice--,new ,york ,talks to ,san ,francisco ,over a ,wire4 ,it seemed to many that the wireless telegraph was to be the final word in the development of communication1 but two striking achievements coming in #aiae proved this to be far from the case4 ,while one group of scientists had given themselves to experimentation with the ,hertzian waves which led to wireless telegraphy1 other scientists and engineers were busily engaged in bringing the telephone to a perfection which would enable it to accomplish even more striking feats4 ,these electrical pioneers did not work as individuals1 but were grouped together as the engineering staff of the ,american ,telephone and ,telegraph ,company4 ,at their head was ,john ,j4 ,carty1 and it was under his guiding genius that the great work was accomplished4 ,john ,carty is the ,american son of ,irish parents4 ,he was born in ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts1 on ,april #ad1 #ahfa4 ,his father was a gun-maker and an expert mechanic of marked intelligence and ingenuity who numbered among his friends ,howe1 the creator of the sewing-machine4 ,as a boy ,john ,carty displayed the liveliest interest in things electrical4 ,when the time came for him to go to school1 physics was his favorite study4 ,he showed himself to be possessed of a keen mind and an infinite capacity for work4 ,to these advantages was added a good elementary education4 ,he was graduated from ,cambridge ,latin ,school1 where he prepared for ,harvard ,university4 ,before he could enter the university his eyesight failed1 and the doctor forbade continuance of study4 ,many a boy would have been discouraged by this physical handicap which denied him complete scholastic preparation4 ,but this boy was not the kind that gives up4 ,he had been supplementing his school work in physics with experimentations upon his own behalf4 ,let us let ,mr4 ,carty tell in his own words how he next occupied himself4 ,i had often visited the shop of ,thomas ,hall1 at #ai ,bromfield ,street1 and looked in the window4 ,i went in from time to time1 not to make large purchases1 but mostly to make inquiries and to buy some blue vitriol1 wire1 or something of the kind4 ,it was a store where apparatus was sold for experimentation in schools1 and on ,saturdays a number of ,harvard and ,institute of ,technology professors could be found there4 ,it was quite a rendezvous for the scientific men in those days1 just the same as the ,old ,corner ,bookstore at the corner of ,school and ,washington ,streets was a place where the literary men used to congregate4 ,don't think that ,i was an associate of these great scientists1 but ,i was very much attracted to the atmosphere of that store4 ,i wanted to get in and handle the apparatus4 ,finally it occurred to me that ,i would like to get into the business1 somehow4 ,but ,i did not have the courage to go in and ask them for a job4 ,one day ,i was going by and saw a sign hanging out1 ,boy ,wanted4 ,i was about nineteen1 and really thought ,i was something of a scientist1 not exactly a boy4 ,i was a boy1 however4 ,i walked by on one side of the street and then on the other1 looking in1 and finally the idea possessed me to go in and strike for that job4 ,so ,i took down the sign1 which was outside the window1 put it under my arm1 and went in and persuaded ,tom ,hall that ,i was the boy he wanted4 ,he said1 ,when can you begin8 ,i said1 ,now4 ,there was no talk of wages or duties4 ,he said1 ,take this package around to ,earle ,prew's express and hurry back1 as ,i have another errand for you to do4 ,so ,i had to take a great1 heavy box around to the express-office and get a receipt for it4 ,i found1 when ,saturday night came around1 that ,i had been engaged at the rate of fifty cents a day4 ,i would have been glad to work for nothing4 ,well1 ,i did not get near that apparatus in a hurry1 not until the time came for fixing up the window4 ,my first talk in regard to it had no reference to services in a scientific capacity on my part4 ,i had rather hoped that the boss would come around and consult with1 me as to how to adjust the apparatus4 ,but that was not it4 ,he said3 ,john1 clean out that window4 ,everything is full of dust1 and be careful and don't break anything6 ,so ,i cleaned it out4 ,i swept out the place1 cleaned about there1 did errands1 mixed battery solutions1 and got a great deal of experience there in one way or another4 ,i did whatever there was to do and got a good deal of fun out of it1 while becoming acquainted with the state of the art of that day4 ,i got to know intimately all the different sorts of philosophical apparatus there were1 and how to mix the various battery solutions4 ,in fact1 ,i became really quite experienced for those times in such matters4 ,it was not long before young ,carty lost his job4 ,being a regular boy1 he had been guilty of too much skylarking4 ,this experience steadied him1 and he forthwith sought a new job4 ,he had met some of the employees of the telephone company and was naturally interested in their work4 ,at that time hello boys held sway in the crude telephone exchanges1 the hello girl having not yet appeared4 ,so ,john ,carty at the age of nineteen went to work in the ,boston telephone exchange4 ,the switchboard at which they placed him had been good enough for the other boys who had been called upon to operate it1 and indeed it represented the best thought and effort of the leaders in the telephone world4 ,but it did not satisfy ,carty1 who1 not content with simply-operating the board1 studied its construction and began planning improvements4 ,as ,mr4 ,carty himself puts it3 ,the little switchboards of that day were a good deal like the automobiles of some years ago--one was likely to spend more time under the switchboard than1 sitting at it6 ,in that way ,i learned a great deal about the arrangement and construction of switchboards4 ,encountering the trouble first1 ,i had an advantage over others in being able to suggest a remedy4 ,so ,i have always thought it was a good thing to have troubles1 as long as they are not too serious or too numerous4 ,troubles are certainly a great advantage1 if we manage them correctly4 ,certainly ,carty made these switchboard troubles the first stepping-stone in his climb to the top in the field of telephone engineering4 ,the improvements which the youngster suggested were so valuable that they were soon being made under his direction1 and ere long he installed in the ,boston exchange the first multiple switchboard1 the fundamental features of which are in the switchboards of to-day4 ,in his work with the switchboards young ,carty early got in touch with ,charles ,e4 ,scribner1 another youngster who was doing notable work in this field4 ,the young men became fast friends and worked much together4 ,scribner devoted himself almost exclusively to switchboards and came to be known as the father of the modern switchboard4 ,boston had her peculiar problems and an express service was needed4 ,how to handle this in the exchange was another problem1 and this1 too1 ,carty solved4 ,for this purpose he designed and installed the first metallic circuit1 multiple switchboard to go into service4 ,the problems of the exchange were among the most serious of the many which troubled the early telephone companies4 ,of course every telephone-user desired to be able to converse with any other who had a telephone in his office or residence4 ,the development of the switchboards had been comparatively slow in the past1 and the service rendered by the boys proved far from satisfactory4 ,the average boy proved himself too little amenable to discipline1 too inclined to sass the telephone-users1 and too careless4 ,but the early use of hello boys was at least a success for the telephone in that it brought to its service ,john ,j4 ,carty4 ,this boy pointed the way to the great improvements that made it possible to handle the constantly growing volume of calls expeditiously and effectively4 ,the early telephones were operated with a single wire grounded at either end1 the earth return being used to complete the circuit as with the telegraph4 ,but while the currents used to operate the telegraph are fairly strong and so can dominate the earth currents1 the tiny currents which represented the vibrations of the human voice were all too often drowned by the earth currents which strayed on to the lines4 ,telephone engineers were not then agreed that this caused the difficulty2 but they did know there was difficulty4 ,many weird noises played over the lines and as often as not the spoken word was twisted into the strangest gibberish and rendered unintelligible4 ,if the telephone was to satisfy its patrons and prove of real service to the world1 the difficulty had to be overcome4 ,some of the more progressive engineers insisted that a double-wire system without a ground was necessary4 ,this1 of course1 involved tremendous expenses in rebuilding every line and duplicating every wire4 ,the more conservative hesitated1 but ,carty forged ahead4 ,in #ahhj he was engaged in operating a new line out of ,boston4 ,he was convinced that the double-wire system alone could be successful1 and he arranged to operate a line on this plan4 ,taking two single lines1 he instructed the operator at the other end to join them1 forming a two-wire circuit4 ,the results justified him4 ,at last a line had been attained which could be depended upon to carry the conversation4 ,no sooner was one problem solved than another presented itself4 ,what to do with the constantly increasing number of wires was a pressing difficulty4 ,all telephone circuits had been strung overhead1 and with the demand for telephones for office and residence rapidly increasing1 the streets of the great cities were becoming a perfect forest of telephone poles1 with the sky obscured by a maze of wires4 ,poles were constantly increased in height until a line was strung along ,wall ,street in ,new ,york ,city at a height of ninety feet4 ,from the poles the wires overflowed to the housetops1 increasing the difficulty of the engineers4 ,how to protect the wires so that they could be placed underground was the problem4 ,we have noticed that ,theodore ,vail had been brought to the head of the ,bell system in its infancy and had led the fight against the rival companies until it was thoroughly established4 ,now he was directing his genius and executive ability to so improving the telephone that it should serve every need of communication4 ,while the engineers discussed theories ,vail began actual tests4 ,a trench five miles long was dug beside a railway track by the simple expedient of hitching a plow to a locomotive4 ,in this trench were laid a number of wires1 each with a different covering4 ,the gutta-percha and the rubber coverings which had been used in cable construction predominated4 ,it was found that these wires would carry the telephone currents1 not as well as might be desired1 but well enough to assure ,vail that he was on the right track4 ,the companies began to place their wires underground1 and ,vail saw to it that the experiments with coverings for telephone wires were continued4 ,the result was the successful underground cables in use to-day4 ,at the same time ,vail and his engineers were seeking to improve the wires themselves4 ,iron and steel wires had been used1 but they proved unsatisfactory1 as they rusted and were poor conductors4 ,copper was an excellent conductor1 but the metal in the pure state is soft and no one then knew how to make a copper wire that would sustain its own weight4 ,but ,vail kept his men at the problem and the hard-drawn copper wire was at length evolved4 ,this proved just what was needed for the telephone circuits4 ,the copper wire was four times as expensive as the iron1 but as it was four times as good ,vail adopted it4 ,john ,carty had rather more than kept pace with these improvements4 ,he was but twenty-six years of age when ,union ,n4 ,bethell1 head of the ,new ,york company1 picked ,carty to take charge of the telephone engineering work in the metropolis4 ,bethell was ,vail's chief executive officer1 and under him ,carty received an invaluable training in executive work4 ,carty's largest task was putting the wires underground1 and here again he was a tremendous success4 ,he found ways to make cables cheaper and better1 and devised means of laying them at half the former cost4 ,having solved the most pressing problems in this field1 his employers1 who had come to recognize his marked genius1 set him to work again on the switchboard4 ,he was placed in charge of the switchboard department of the ,western ,electric ,company1 the concern which manufactures the apparatus for the telephone company4 ,the switchboard1 as we have seen1 was ,carty's first love1 and again he pointed the way to great improvements4 ,most of the large switchboards of that time were installed under his direction1 and they were better switchboards than had ever been known before4 ,up to this time it had been thought necessary to have individual batteries supplying current to each line4 ,these were a constant source of difficulty1 and ,carty directed his own attention1 and that of his associate engineers1 to finding a satisfactory solution4 ,he sought a method of utilizing one common battery at the central station and the way was found and the improvement accomplished4 ,though the telephone circuits were now protected from the earth1 telephone-users1 at times when the lines were busy1 were still troubled with roarings and strange cross-talk4 ,though busy with the many engineering problems which the telephone heads had assigned to him1 ,carty found time for some original research4 ,he showed that the roarings in the wires were largely caused by electro-static induction4 ,in #ahhi he read a paper before the ,electric ,club that startled the engineers of that day4 ,he demonstrated that in every telephone circuit there is a particular point at which1 if a telephone is inserted1 no cross-talk can be heard4 ,he had worked out the rules for determining this point4 ,thus he had at once discovered the trouble and prescribed the cure4 ,of course it could not be expected that the sage experts would all agree with young ,carty right away2 but they were forced to in the end1 for again he was proved right4 ,by #aija ,carty was ready with another invention which was to place the telephone in the homes of hundreds of thousands who1 without it1 could scarcely have afforded this modern necessity4 ,this was the bridging bell which made possible the party line4 ,by its use four telephones could be placed on a single line1 each with its own signal1 so that any one could be rung without ringing the others4 ,its introduction inaugurated a new boom in the use of the telephone4 ,theodore ,vail had resigned from his positions with the telephone companies in #ahij with the determination to retire from business4 ,but when the panic of #aijg came the directors of the company went to him on his ,vermont farm and pleaded with him to return and again resume the leadership4 ,other and younger men would not do in this business crisis4 ,they also pointed out that the nation's telephones had not yet been molded into the national system which had been his dream--a system of universal service in which any one at any point in the country might talk by telephone with any other4 ,so ,vail re-entered the telephone field and again took the presidency of the ,american ,telephone and ,telegraph ,company4 ,one of his first official acts was to appoint ,john ,j4 ,carty his chief engineer4 ,vail had selected the right man to make his dreams come true2 ,carty now had the executive who would make it possible for him to accomplish even larger things4 ,he set about building up the engineering organization which was to accomplish the work1 selecting the most brilliant graduates of ,american technical schools4 ,he set this organization to work upon the extension and development of the long-distance telephone lines4 ,as a hello boy ,carty had believed in the possibility of the long-distance telephone when others had scoffed4 ,he has told of an early experience while in the ,boston exchange3 ,one hot day an old lady toiled up the inevitable flights of stairs which led to the telephone-office of those times4 ,out of breath1 she sat down1 and when she had recovered sufficiently to speak she said she wanted to talk to ,chicago4 ,my colleagues of that time were all what the ethnologists would rank a little bit lower than the wild ,indian4 ,these youngsters set up a great laugh2 and1 indeed1 the absurdity of the old lady's project could hardly be overstated1 because at that time ,salem was a long-distance line1 ,lowell sometimes worked1 and ,worcester was the limit--that is1 in every sense of the word4 ,the ,lowell line was so unreliable that we had a telegraph operator there1 and when the talk was not possible1 he pushed the message through by ,morse4 ,it is no wonder that the absurdity of the old lady's proposal was the cause of poorly suppressed merriment4 ,but ,i can remember that ,i explained to her that our wires had not yet been extended to ,chicago1 and that1 after she had departed1 ,i turned to the other operators and said that the day would come when we could talk to ,chicago4 ,my prophecy was received with what might be called--putting it mildly--vociferous discourtesy4 ,nevertheless1 ,i remember very well the impression which that old lady's request made upon me2 and ,i really did believe that1 some day or other1 in some way1 we would be able to talk to ,chicago4 ,by #aiab it was possible to talk from ,new ,york to ,denver1 a distance of #b1ajj miles4 ,no ,european engineers had achieved any such results1 and this feat brought to ,carty and his wonderful staff the admiration of foreign experts4 ,but for the ,american engineers this was only a starting-point4 ,the next step was to link ,new ,york and ,california4 ,this was more than a matter of setting poles and stringing wires1 stupendous though this task was4 ,the line crosses thirteen ,states1 and is carried on #acj1jjj poles4 ,three thousand tons of wire are used in the line4 ,the ,panama ,canal took nine years to complete1 and cost over three hundred million dollars2 but within that time the telephone company spent twice that amount in engineering construction work alone1 extending the scope of the telephone4 ,the technical problems were even more difficult4 ,carty and his engineers had to find a way to send something three thousand miles with the breath as its motive power4 ,it was a problem of the conservation of the tiny electric current which carried the speech4 ,the power could not be augmented or speech would not result at the destination4 ,added to the efforts of these able engineers was the work of ,prof4 ,michael ,i4 ,pupin1 of ,columbia ,university1 whose brilliant invention of the loading coil some ten years before had startled the scientific world and had increased the range of telephonic transmission through underground cables and through overhead wires far beyond what had formerly been possible4 ,professor ,pupin applied his masterful knowledge of physics and his profound mathematical attainments so successfully to the practical problems of the transmission of telephone speech that he has been called the telephone scientist4 ,it is impossible to talk over long-distance lines anywhere in ,america without speaking through ,pupin coils1 which are distributed throughout the hundreds of thousands of miles of wire covering the ,north ,american continent4 ,in the transcontinental telephone line ,pupin coils play a most important part1 and they are distributed at eight-mile intervals throughout its entire length from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,in speaking at a dinner of eminent scientists1 ,mr4 ,carty once said that on account of his distinguished scientific attainments and wonderful telephonic inventions1 ,professor ,pupin would rank in history alongside of ,bell himself4 ,we have seen how ,alexander ,graham ,bell1 standing in the little room in ,boston1 spoke through the crude telephone he had constructed the first words ever carried over a wire1 and how these words were heard and understood by his associate1 ,thomas ,watson4 ,this was in #ahgf1 and it was in ,january of #aiae--less than forty years later--that these two men talked across the continent4 ,the transcontinental line was complete4 ,bell in the offices of the company in ,new ,york talked freely with ,watson in ,san ,francisco1 and all in the most conversational tone1 without a trace of the difficulty that had attended their first conversation over the short line4 ,thus1 within the span of a single life the telephone had been developed from a crude instrument which transmitted speech with difficulty over a wire a hundred feet long1 until one could be heard perfectly1 though over three thousand miles of wire intervened4 ,the spoken word travels across the continent almost instantaneously1 far faster than the speed of sound4 ,if it were possible for one to be heard in ,san ,francisco as he shouted from ,new ,york through the air1 four hours would be required before the sound would arrive4 ,thus the telephone has been brought to a point of perfection where it carries sound by electricity and reproduces it again far more rapidly and efficiently than sound can be transmitted through its natural medium4 ,,xx ,,telephoning ,,through ,,space ,the ,search for the ,wireless ,telephone--,early ,successes--,carty and ,his ,assistants ,seek the ,wireless ,telephone--,the ,task ,before ,them--,de ,forest's ,amplifier--,experimental ,success ,achieved--,the ,test--,honolulu and ,paris ,hear ,arlington--,the ,future4 ,no sooner had ,marconi placed the wireless telegraph at the service of the world than men of science of all nations began the search for the wireless telephone4 ,but the vibrations necessary to reproduce the sound of the human voice are so infinitely more complex than those which will suffice to carry signals representing the dots and dashes of the telegraph code that the problem long defied solution4 ,scientists attacked the problem with vigor1 and various means of wireless telephony were developed1 without any being produced which were effective over sufficient ranges to make them really useful4 ,probably the earliest medium chosen to carry wireless speech was light rays4 ,a microphone transmitter was arranged so that the vibrations of the voice would affect the stream of gas flowing in a sensitive burner4 ,the flame was thus thrown into vibrations corresponding to the vibrations of sound4 ,the rays from this flame were then directed by mirrors to a distant receiving station and there concentrated on a photo-electric selenium cell1 which has the strange property of varying its resistance according to the illumination4 ,thus a telephone receiver arranged in series with it was made to reproduce the sounds4 ,this strange1 wireless telephone was so arranged that a search-light beam could be used for the light path1 and distances up to three miles were covered4 ,even with this limited range the search-light telephone had certain advantages4 ,its message could be received only by those in the direct line of the light4 ,neither did it require aerial masts or wires and a trained telegrapher who could send and receive the telegraph code4 ,it was put to some use between battle-ships and smaller craft lying within a radius of a few miles4 ,the sensitive selenium cell proved unreliable1 however1 and this means of communication was destined to failure4 ,the experimenters realized that future success lay in making the ether carry telephonic currents as it carried telegraphic currents4 ,they succeeded in establishing communication without wires1 using the same antenna as in wireless telegraphy1 and the principles determined are those used in the wireless telephone of to-day4 ,the sending apparatus was so arranged that continuous oscillations are set up in the ether1 either by a high-frequency machine or from an electric arc4 ,where set up by spark discharges the spark frequency must be above twenty thousand per second4 ,this unbroken wave train does not affect the telephone and is not audible in a telephone receiver inserted in the radio receiving circuit4 ,but when a microphone transmitter is inserted in the sending circuit1 instead of the make-and-break key used for telegraphy1 the waves of the voice1 thrown against the transmitter in speaking1 break up the waves so that the telephone receiver in the receiving circuit will reproduce sound4 ,here was and is the wireless telephone4 ,marconi and many other scientists were able to operate it successfully over comparatively short distances1 and were busily engaged in extending its range and improving the apparatus4 ,one great difficulty involved was in increasing the power of the sending apparatus4 ,greater range has been secured in wireless telegraphy by using stronger sending currents4 ,but the delicate microphone would not carry these stronger currents4 ,increased sensitiveness in the receiving apparatus was also necessary4 ,not content with their accomplishments in increasing the scope of the wire telephone1 the engineers of the ,bell organization1 headed by ,john ,j4 ,carty1 turned their attention to the wireless transmission of speech4 ,determined that the existing telephone system should be extended and supplemented in every useful way1 they attacked the problem with vigor4 ,it was a problem that had long baffled the keenest of ,european scientists1 including ,marconi himself1 but that did not deter ,carty and his associates4 ,they were determined that the glory of spanning the ,atlantic by wireless telephone should come to ,america and ,american engineers4 ,they wanted history to record the wireless telephone as an ,american achievement along with the telegraph and the telephone4 ,the methods used in achieving the wireless telephone were widely different from those which brought forth the telegraph and the telephone4 ,times had changed4 ,men had found that it was more effective to work together through organizations than to struggle along as individuals4 ,the very physical scope of the undertakings made the old methods impracticable4 ,one cannot perfect a transcontinental telephone line nor a transatlantic wireless telephone in a garret4 ,and with a powerful organization behind them it was not necessary for ,carty and his associates to starve and skimp through interminable years1 handicapped by the inadequate equipment1 while they slowly achieved results4 ,this great organization1 working with modern methods1 produced the most wonderful results with startling rapidity4 ,important work had already been done by ,marconi1 ,fessenden1 ,de ,forest1 and others4 ,but their results were still incomplete2 they could not talk for any considerable distance4 ,carty organized his staff with care1 ,bancroft ,gerhardi1 ,doctor ,jewett1 ,h4,d4 ,arnold1 and ,colpitts being prominent among the group of brilliant ,american scientists who joined with ,carty in his great undertaking4 ,while much had been accomplished1 much still remained to be done1 and the various contributions had to be co-ordinated into a unified1 workable whole4 ,in large part it was ,carty's task to direct the work of this staff and to see that all moved smoothly and in the right direction4 ,just as the telephone was more complex than the telegraph1 and the wireless telegraph than the telephone1 so the apparatus used in wireless telephony is even more complex and technical4 ,working with the intricate mechanisms and delicate apparatus1 one part after another was improved and adapted to the task at hand4 ,to the devices of ,carty and his associates was added the extremely delicate detector that was needed4 ,this was the invention of ,dr4 ,lee de ,forest1 an ,american inventor and a graduate of the ,sheffield ,technical ,school of ,yale ,university4 ,de ,forest's contribution was a lamp instrument1 a three-step audion amplifier4 ,this is to the wireless telephone what the coherer is to the wireless telegraph4 ,it is so delicate that the faintest currents coming through the ether will stimulate it and serve to set in motion local sources of electrical energy so that the waves received are magnified to a point where they will produce sound4 ,by the spring of #aiae1 but a few months after the transcontinental telephone line had been put in operation1 ,carty had his wireless telephone apparatus ready for extended tests4 ,a small experimental tower was set up at ,montauk ,point1 ,long ,island1 and another was borrowed at ,wilmington1 ,delaware4 ,the tests were successful1 and the experimenters found that they could talk freely with each other4 ,soon they talked over a thousand miles1 from the tower at ,montauk ,point to another at ,st4 ,simon's ,island1 ,georgia4 ,this in itself was a great achievement1 but the world was not told of it4 ,do it first and then talk about it is the maxim with ,theodore ,vail and his telephone men4 ,this was but a beginning1 and ,carty had far more wonderful things in mind4 ,it was on the #bith of ,september1 #aiae1 that ,carty conducted the demonstrations which thrilled the world and showed that wireless telephony was an accomplished fact4 ,sitting in his office in ,new ,york1 ,president ,theodore ,vail spoke into his desk telephone of the familiar type4 ,the wires carried his words to the towers of the ,navy wireless station at ,arlington1 ,virginia1 where they were delivered to the sending apparatus of the wireless telephone4 ,leaping into space1 they traveled in every direction through the ether4 ,the antenna of the wireless station at ,mare ,island1 ,california1 caught part of the waves and they were amplified so that ,john ,carty1 sitting with his ear to the receiver1 could hear the voice of his chief4 ,carty and his associates had not only developed a system which made it possible to talk across the continent without wires1 but they had made it possible to combine wire and wireless telegraphy4 ,he and ,vail talked with each other freely and easily1 while the naval officers who verified the tests marveled4 ,but even more wonderful things were to come4 ,early in the morning of the next day other messages were sent from the ,arlington tower1 and these messages were heard by ,lloyd ,espenschied1 one of ,carty's engineers1 who was stationed at the wireless station at ,pearl ,harbor1 near ,honolulu1 ,hawaii4 ,the distance covered was nearly five thousand miles1 and half of it was across land1 which is the more remarkable as the wireless does not operate so readily over land as over water4 ,the distance covered in this test was greater than the distance from ,washington to ,london1 ,paris1 ,berlin1 ,vienna1 or ,petrograd4 ,the successful completion of this test meant that the capitals of the great nations of the world might communicate1 might talk with one another1 by wireless telephone4 ,only a receiving set had been installed at ,hawaii1 so that it was not possible for ,espenschied to reply to the message from ,arlington1 and it was not until his message came by cable that those at ,arlington knew that the words they had spoken had traveled five thousand miles4 ,other receiving sets had been located at ,san ,diego and at ,darien on the ,isthmus of ,panama1 and at these points also the words were distinctly heard4 ,by the latter part of ,october all was in readiness for a transatlantic test1 and on the #bjth of ,october ,american engineers1 with ,american apparatus installed at the great ,french station at the ,eiffel ,tower1 ,paris1 heard the words spoken at ,arlington1 ,virginia4 ,carty and his engineers had bridged the ,atlantic for the spoken word4 ,because of war-time conditions it was not possible to secure the use of the ,french station for an extended test1 but the fact was established that once the apparatus is in place telephonic communication between ,europe and ,america may he carried on regularly4 ,the apparatus used as developed by the engineers of the ,bell system was in a measure an outgrowth of their work with the long-distance telephone4 ,wireless telephony1 despite the wonders it has already accomplished1 is still in its infancy4 ,with more perfect apparatus and the knowledge that comes with experience we may expect that speech will girdle the earth4 ,it is natural that one should wonder whether the wireless telephone is destined to displace our present apparatus4 ,this does not seem at all probable4 ,in the first place1 wireless telephony is now1 and probably always will be1 very expensive4 ,where the wire will do it is the more economical4 ,there are many limitations to the use of the other for talking purposes1 and it cannot be drawn upon too strongly by the man of science4 ,it will accomplish miracles1 but must not be overtaxed4 ,millions of messages going in all directions1 crossing and recrossing one another1 as is done every day by wire1 are probably an impossibility by wireless telephony4 ,weird and little-understood conditions of the ether1 static electricity1 radio disturbances1 make wireless work uncertain1 and such a thing as twenty-four-hour service1 seven days in the week1 can probably never be guaranteed4 ,in radio communication all must use a common medium1 and as its use increases1 so also do the difficulties4 ,the privacy of the wire is also lacking with the wireless telephone4 ,but because a way was found to couple the wireless telephone with the wire telephone1 the new wonder has great possibilities as a supplement to our existing system4 ,before so very long it may be possible for an ,american business man sitting in his office to call up and converse with a friend on a liner crossing the ,atlantic4 ,the advantages of speaking between ship and ship as an improvement over wireless telegraphy in time of need are obvious4 ,a demonstration of the part this great national telephone system would play in the country's defense in case of attack was held in ,may of #aiaf4 ,the ,navy ,department at ,washington was placed in communication with every navy-yard and post in the ,united ,states1 so that the executive officers could instantly talk with those in charge of the posts throughout the country4 ,the wireless telephone was used in addition to the long distance1 and ,secretary of the ,navy ,daniels1 sitting at his desk at ,washington1 talked with ,captain ,chandler1 who was at his station on the bridge of the ,u4,s4,s4 ,new ,hampshire at ,hampton ,roads4 ,whatever the future limitations of wireless telephony1 there is no doubt as to the place it will take among the scientific accomplishments of the age4 ,merely as a scientific discovery or invention1 it ranks among the wonders of civilization4 ,much as the tremendous leap of human voice across the line from ,new ,york to ,san ,francisco appealed to the mind1 there is something infinitely more fascinating in this new triumph of the engineer4 ,the human mind can grasp the idea of the spoken word being carried along wires1 though that is difficult enough1 but when we try to understand its flight through space we are faced with something beyond the comprehension of the layman and almost past belief4 ,we have seen how communication has developed1 very slowly at first1 and then1 as electricity was discovered1 with great rapidity until man may converse with man at a distance of five thousand miles4 ,what the future will bring forth we do not know4 ,the ether may be made to accomplish even more wonderful things as a bearer of intelligence4 ,though we cannot now see how it would be possible1 the day may come when every automobile and aeroplane will be equipped with its wireless telephone1 and the motorist and aviator1 wherever they go1 may talk with anyone anywhere4 ,the transmission of power by wireless is confidently predicted4 ,pictures have been transmitted by telegraph4 ,it may be possible to transmit them by wireless4 ,then some one may find out how to transmit moving pictures through the ether4 ,then one might sit and see before him on a screen a representation of what was then happening thousands of miles away1 and1 listening through a telephone1 hear all the sounds at the same place4 ,wonders that we cannot even now imagine may lie before us4 ,,appendix ,a ,,new ,,developments ,,of ,,the ,,telegraph ,by ,f4,w4 ,lienan1 ,superintendent ,tariff ,bureau1 ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company ,the invention of ,samuel ,f4,b4 ,morse is unique in this1 that the methods and instruments of telegraph operation as he evolved them from his first experimental apparatus were so simple1 and yet so completely met the requirements1 that they have continued in use to the present day in practically their original form4 ,but this does not mean that there has not been the same constant striving for betterment in this as in every other art4 ,many minds have1 since the birth of the telegraph1 occupied themselves with the problem of devising improved means of telegraphic transmission4 ,the results have varied according to the point of view from which the subject was approached1 but all1 directly or indirectly1 sought the same goal 7the obvious one1 since speed is the essence of telegraphy71 to find the best means of sending more messages over the wire in a given time4 ,it will readily suggest itself that the solution of this problem lies either in an arrangement enabling the wire to carry more than one message at once1 or in some apparatus capable of transmitting messages over the wire more rapidly than can be done by hand1 or in a combination of both these principles4 ,duplex and quadruples operations are perhaps the most generally known methods by which increased utilization of the capacity of the line has been achieved4 ,duplex operation permits of the sending of two messages over one wire in opposite directions at the same time2 and quadruples1 the simultaneous transmission of four messages1 two going in each direction4 ,truly a remarkable accomplishment2 but1 like many other things that have found their permanent place in daily use1 become so familiar that we no longer pause to marvel at it4 ,these expedients constitute a direct and very effective attack on the problem how to get more work out of the wire with the existing means of operation1 and on account of their fundamental character and the important place which by reason thereof they have taken in the telegraphic art1 are entitled to first mention4 ,the problem of increasing the rapidity of transmission has been met by various automatic systems of telegraphy1 so called because they embody the idea of mechanical transmission with resulting gain in speed and other advantages4 ,the number of these which have from time to time been devised is considerable4 ,not all have proven to be practicable1 but those which have failed to prove in under actual operating conditions none the less display evidence of ingenuity which may well excite our admiration4 ,to mention one or two which may be interesting on account of the oddity of their method--there was1 for instance1 an early device1 similar in principle to the calling apparatus of the automatic telephone1 which involved the turning of a movable disk so that a projection on its circumference pointed successively to the letters to be transmitted4 ,experiments were made with ordinary metal type set up in a composing-stick1 a series of brushes passing over the type faces and producing similar characters on a tape at the other end of the line4 ,in another more recent ingenious device a pivoted mirror at the receiving end was so manipulated by the electrical impulses that a ray of light reflected from the surface of the mirror actually wrote the message upon sensitized paper1 like a pencil1 in a fair handwriting4 ,in another the receiving apparatus printed vertical1 horizontal1 and slanting lines in such manner that they combined to make letters1 rather angular1 it is true1 but legible4 ,these and other kindred devices are interesting as efforts to accomplish the direct production of legible messages4 ,in experimental tests they performed their function successfully1 and in some cases with considerable speed1 but some of them required more than one line wire1 some were too sensitive to disturbance by inductive currents and some developed other weaknesses which have prevented their incorporation in the actual operating machinery of to-day4 ,in the general development of the so-called automatic telegraph devices which have been or now are in practical operation1 two lines have been pursued4 ,one involves direct keyboard transmission2 the other1 the use at the sending end of a perforated tape capable of being run through a transmitting machine at high speed4 ,one type of the former is the so-called step-by-step process1 in which a revolving body in the transmitting apparatus1 as1 for instance1 a cylinder provided with pegs placed at intervals around its circumference in spiral fashion1 is arrested by the depression of the keys of the keyboard in such a way that a type wheel in the receiving apparatus at the distant end of the line prints the corresponding letter4 ,this method was employed in the ,house and ,phelps printing telegraphs operated by the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company in its earlier days1 and is to-day used in the operation of the familiar ticker4 ,in another type of direct keyboard operation the manipulation of the keys transmits the impulses directly to the line and the receiving apparatus translates them by electrically controlled mechanical devices into printed characters in message form4 ,the systems best adapted to rapid telegraph work are predicated on the use of a perforated tape on which1 by means of a suitable perforating apparatus1 little round holes are produced in various groupings1 each group1 when the tape is passed through the transmitter1 causing a certain combination of electrical impulses to pass over the wire4 ,the transmitter as a rule consists of a mechanically or motor driven mechanism which causes the telegraph impulses to be transmitted to the line1 and the combination and character of the impulses are determined by the tape perforations4 ,the rapidity with which the tape may be driven through the transmitter makes very high speed operation possible4 ,of course it is necessary that there should be at the other end of the wire apparatus capable of receiving and recording the signals as speedily as they are sent4 ,as early as #ahdh ,alexander ,bain perfected a system involving the use of the perforated transmitting tape2 at the receiving station the messages were recorded in dots and dashes upon a chemically prepared strip of paper by means of iron pens1 the metal of which was1 through the combined action of the electrical current and the chemical preparation1 decomposed1 producing black marks in the form of dots and dashes upon the paper4 ,the ,bain apparatus was in actual operation in the younger days of the telegraph4 ,various systems1 based on similar principles1 involving tape transmission and the production of dots and dashes on a receiving tape1 have from time to time been devised1 but have generally not succeeded in establishing any permanent usefulness in competition with more effective instrumentalities which have been perfected4 ,the hardiest survivor of them is the ,wheatstone apparatus1 which has been in successful operation for years4 ,originally the perforating--or1 to use the commonly current term1 the punching--of the ,wheatstone sending tape was accomplished by a mechanism equipped with three keys--one for the dot1 one for the dash1 and one for the space4 ,the keys were struck with rubber-tipped mallets held in the hands of the operator and brought down with considerable force4 ,later this rather primitive perforator was supplanted by one equipped with a full keyboard on the order of a typewriter keyboard4 ,at the receiving end of the line the messages are produced on a tape in dots and dashes of the ,morse alphabet1 and hence a further process of translation is necessary4 ,this system has proven very useful1 particularly in times of wire trouble and scarcity of facilities1 when it is essential to move as many messages as possible over the available lines4 ,the schemes devised for combining automatic transmission by the perforated-tape method with direct production of the message at its destination in ordinary letters and figures1 eliminating the intervening step of translation from ,morse characters1 have been many4 ,their individual enumeration is beyond the scope of the present discussion1 and would in any event involve a wearisome exposition of their distinguishing technical features4 ,several of these systems are at present in practical and very effective operation4 ,one of the forerunners of the printing telegraph systems now in use was the ,buckingham system1 for many years employed by the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company1 but now for some time obsolete4 ,the receiving mechanism of this system printed the messages on telegraph blanks placed upon a cylinder of just the right circumference to accommodate two telegraph blanks4 ,the blanks were arranged in pairs1 rolled into the form of a tube and placed around the cylinder4 ,when two messages had been written a new pair of blanks had to be substituted4 ,this was a rather awkward arrangement1 but at a time when more highly developed apparatus had not been perfected it served its purpose to good advantage4 ,the printing telegraphs of to-day produce their messages by the direct operation of typewriting machines or mechanisms operating substantially in the same manner as the ordinary typewriting machine4 ,the methods by which the electrical impulses coming over the line are transformed into mechanical operation of the typewriter keys1 or what corresponds to the typewriter keys1 vary4 ,it would be difficult to describe how this function is performed without entering upon much detail of a highly technical character4 ,suffice it to say that means have been devised by which each combination of electrical impulses coming over the line wire causes a channel to be opened for the motor operation of the typewriting key-bar operating the corresponding letter upon the typewriter apparatus4 ,these machines write the messages with proper arrangement of the date line1 address1 text1 and signature1 operating not only the type1 but also the carriage shift and the line spacing as required4 ,a further step in advance has been made by feeding the blanks into the receiving typewriter from a continuous roll1 an attendant tearing the messages off as they are completed4 ,the entire operation is automatic from beginning to end and capable of considerable speed4 ,there remained the problem of devising some means by which a number of automatic units could be operated over the same line at the same time4 ,this is not by any means a new proposition4 ,here again various solutions have been offered by the scientists both of ,europe and of this country1 and different systems designed to accomplish the desired object have been placed in operation4 ,one of the most recent1 and we believe the most efficient so far developed1 is the so-called multiplex printer system1 devised by the engineers of the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company and now being extensively used by that company4 ,perhaps the best picture of what is accomplished by this system can be given by an illustration4 ,let us assume a single wire between ,new ,york and ,chicago4 ,at the ,new ,york end there are connected with this wire four combined perforators and transmitters1 and four receiving machines operating on the typewriter principle4 ,at the ,chicago end the wire is connected with a like number of sending and receiving machines4 ,all these machines are in simultaneous operation2 that is to say1 four messages are being sent from ,new ,york to ,chicago1 and four messages are being sent from ,chicago to ,new ,york1 all at the same time and over a single wire1 and the entire process is automatic4 ,the method by which eight messages can be sent over a single wire at the same time without interfering with one another cannot readily be described in simple terms4 ,it may give some comprehension of the underlying principle to say that the heart of the mechanism is in two disks at each end of the line1 which are divided into groups of segments insulated from each other1 each group being connected to one of the sending or receiving machines1 respectively4 ,a rotating contact brush connected to the line wire passes over the disk1 so that1 as it comes into contact with each segment1 the line wire is connected in turn with the channel leading to the corresponding operating unit4 ,the brushes revolve in absolute unison of time and position4 ,to use the same illustration as before1 the brush on the ,chicago disk and the brush on the ,new ,york disk not only move at exactly the same speed1 but at any given moment the two brushes are in exactly the same position with regard to the respective group of segments of both disks4 ,if we now conceive of these brushes passing over the successive segments of the disks at a very great rate of speed1 it may be understood that the effect is that the electrical impulses are distributed1 each receiving machine receiving only those produced by the corresponding sending machine at the other end4 ,in other words1 each of the sets of receiving and sending apparatus really gets the use of the line for a fraction of the time during each revolution of the brushes of the distributer or disk mechanism4 ,the multiplex automatic circuits are being extended all over the country and are proving extremely valuable in handling the constantly growing volume of telegraph traffic4 ,what has thus been achieved in developing the technical side of telegraph operation must be attributed in part to that impulse toward improvement which is constantly at work everywhere and is the most potent factor in the progress of all industries1 but in large measure it is the reflex of the growing--and recently very rapidly growing--demands which are made upon the telegraph service4 ,emphasis is placed on the larger ratio of growth in this demand in recent years because it is peculiarly symptomatic of a noticeably wider realization of the advantages which the telegraph offers as an effective medium for business and social correspondence than has heretofore been in evidence4 ,it means that we have graduated from that state of mind which saw in the telegraph something to be resorted to only under the stress of emergency1 which caused many good people to associate a telegram with trouble and bad news and sudden calamity4 ,there are still some dear old ladies who1 on receipt of a telegram1 make a rapid mental survey of the entire roster of their near and distant relatives and wonder whose death or illness the message may announce before they open the fateful envelope1 only to find that up-to-date ,cousin ,mary1 who has learned that the telegraph is as readily used as the mail and many times more rapid and efficient1 wants to know whether they can come out for the week-end4 ,when ,cousin ,mary of to-day wants to know1 she wants to know right away--not only that she has her arrangements to make1 but also because she just does not propose to wait a day or two to get a simple answer to a simple question4 ,therein she embodies the spirit of the times4 ,our ancestors were content to jog along for days in a stuffy stage-coach2 we complain that the train which accomplishes the same distance in a few hours is too slow4 ,we act more quickly2 we think more quickly4 ,we have to if we want to keep within earshot of the band4 ,this speeding up makes itself quite obviously most apparent in our business processes4 ,no body of business men need be told how much keener competition is becoming daily1 how much narrower the margin by which success must be won4 ,familiar phrases1 these4 ,but behind them lies a wealth of tragedy4 ,how many have fallen by the way8 ,it is estimated that something less than ten per cent4 of those who engage in business on their own account succeed4 ,how terrible the percentage of those who fail6 ,the race has become too swift for them4 ,driven by the lash of competition1 business must perforce move faster and faster4 ,time is becoming ever more precious4 ,negotiations must be rapidly conducted1 decisions arrived at quickly1 transactions closed on the moment4 ,what wonder that all this makes for a vastly increased use of the quickest method of communication8 ,that is but one of the conditions which accounts for the growing use of the telegraph4 ,another is to be found in the recognition of the convenience of the night letter and day letter4 ,this has brought about a considerable increase in the volume of family and social correspondence by telegraph1 which will grow to very much greater proportions as experience demonstrates its value4 ,in business life the night letter and day letter have likewise established a distinct place for themselves4 ,here also the present development of this traffic can be regarded as only rudimentary in comparison with the possibilities of its future development1 indications of which are already apparent4 ,it has been discovered that the telegram1 on account of its peculiar attention-compelling quality1 is an effective medium not only for the individual appeal1 but for placing business propositions before a number of people at once1 the night letters and day letters being particularly adapted to this purpose by reason of the greater scope of expression which they offer4 ,again1 business men are developing the habit of using the telegram in keeping in touch with their field forces and their salesmen and encouraging their activities1 in cultivating closer contact with their customers1 in placing their orders1 in replenishing their stocks1 and in any number of other ways calculated to further the profitable conduct of their enterprises4 ,all this means that the telegraph is increasingly being utilized as a means of correspondence of every conceivable sort4 ,it means also that with the growing appreciation of its adaptability to the every-day needs of social and business communication a very much larger public demand upon it must be anticipated1 and it is to meet this demand with prompt and satisfactory service that the telegraph company has been bending its efforts to the perfection of a highly developed organization and of operating appliances of the most modern and efficient type4 ,,appendix ,b ,through the courtesy of ,j4,j4 ,carty1 ,esq41 ,chief ,engineer of the ,american ,telephone and ,telegraph ,company1 there follows the clean-cut survey of the evolution of the telephone presented in his address before the ,franklin ,institute in ,philadelphia1 ,may #ag1 #aiaf1 when he received the gold medal of the ,institute4 ,more than any other1 the telephone art is a product of ,american institutions and reflects the genius of our people4 ,the story of its wonderful development is a story of our own country4 ,it is a story exclusively of ,american enterprise and ,american progress1 for1 although the most powerful governments of ,europe have devoted their energies to the development and operation of telephone systems1 great contributions to the art have not been made by any of them4 ,with very few exceptions1 the best that is used in telephony everywhere in the world to-day has been contributed by workers here in ,america4 ,it is of peculiar interest to recall the fact that the first words ever transmitted by the electric telephone were spoken in a building at ,boston1 not far from where ,benjamin ,franklin first saw the light4 ,the telephone1 as well as ,franklin1 was born at ,boston1 and1 like ,franklin1 its first journey into the world brought it to ,philadelphia1 where it was exhibited by its inventor1 ,alexander ,graham ,bell1 at the ,centennial ,exhibition in #ahgf1 held here to commemorate the first hundred years of our existence as a free and independent nation4 ,it was a fitting contribution to ,american progress1 representing the highest product of ,american inventive genius1 and a worthy continuance of the labors of ,franklin1 one of the founders of the science of electricity as well as of the ,republic4 ,nothing could appeal more to the genius of ,franklin than the telephone1 for not only have his countrymen built upon it an electrical system of communication of transcendent magnitude and usefulness1 but they have made it into a powerful agency for the advancement of civilization1 eliminating barriers to speech1 binding together our people into one nation1 and now reaching out to the uttermost limits of the earth1 with the grand aim of some day bringing together the people of all the nations of the earth into one common brotherhood4 ,on the tenth day of ,march1 #ahgf1 the telephone art was born1 when1 over a wire extending between two rooms on the top floor of a building in ,boston1 ,alexander ,graham ,bell spoke to his associate1 ,thomas ,a4 ,watson1 saying3 ,mr4 ,watson1 please come here4 ,i want you4 ,these words1 then heard by ,mr4 ,watson in the instrument at his ear1 constitute the first sentence ever received by the electric telephone4 ,the instrument into which ,doctor ,bell spoke was a crude apparatus1 and the current which it generated was so feeble that1 although the line was about a hundred feet in length1 the voice heard in the receiver was so faint as to be audible only to such a trained and sensitive ear as that of the young ,mr4 ,watson1 and then only when all surrounding noises were excluded4 ,following the instructions given by ,doctor ,bell1 ,mr4 ,watson with his own hands had constructed the first telephone instruments and ran the first telephone wire4 ,at that time all the knowledge of the telephone art was possessed exclusively by those two men4 ,there was no experience to guide and no tradition to follow4 ,the founders of the telephone1 with remarkable foresight1 recognized that success depended upon the highest scientific knowledge and technical skill1 and at once organized an experimental and research department4 ,they also sought the aid of university professors eminent for their scientific attainments1 although at that time there was no university giving the degree of ,electrical ,engineer or teaching electrical engineering4 ,from this small beginning there has been developed the present engineering1 experimental and research department which is under my charge4 ,from only two men in #ahgf this staff has1 in #aiae1 grown to more than six hundred engineers and scientists1 including former professors1 post-graduate students1 and scientific investigators1 graduates of nearly a hundred ,american colleges and universities1 thus emphasizing in a special way the ,american character of the art4 ,the above number includes only those devoted to experimental and research work and engineering development and standardization1 and does not include the very much larger body of engineers engaged in manufacturing and in practical field work throughout the ,united ,states4 ,not even the largest and most powerful government telephone and telegraph administration of ,europe has a staff to be compared with this4 ,it is in our great universities that anything like it is to be found1 but even here we find that it exceeds in number the entire teaching staff of even our largest technical institutions4 ,a good idea may spring up in the mind of man anywhere1 but as applied to such a complex entity as a telephone system1 the countless parts of which cover a continent1 no individual unaided can bring the idea to a successful conclusion4 ,a comprehensive and effective engineering and scientific and development organization such as this is necessary1 and years of expensive work are required before the idea can be rendered useful to the public4 ,but1 vital as they are to its success1 the1 telephone art requires more than engineers and scientists4 ,so we find that in the building and operation and maintenance of that vast continental telephone system which bears the name of ,bell1 in honor of the great inventor1 there are at work each day more than #agj1jjj employees1 of which nearly #bj1jjj are engaged in the manufacture of telephones1 switchboards1 cables1 and all of the thousands and tens of thousands of parts required for the operation of the telephone system of ,america4 ,the remaining #aej1jjj are distributed throughout all of the ,states of the ,union4 ,about #hj1jjj of these are women1 largely telephone operators2 #ej1jjj are linemen1 installers1 cable splicers1 and the like1 engaged in the building and maintaining of the continental plant4 ,there are thousands of other employees in the accounting1 legal1 commercial and other departments4 ,there are #b1ajj engineers located in different parts of the country4 ,the majority of these engineers have received technical training in ,american technical schools1 colleges1 and universities4 ,this number does not include by any means all of those in the other departments who have received technical or college training4 ,in view of the technical and scientific nature of the telephone art1 an unusually high-grade personnel is required in all departments1 and the amount of unskilled labor employed is relatively very small4 ,no other art calls forth in a higher degree those qualities of initiative1 judgment1 skill1 enterprise1 and high character which have in all times distinguished the great achievements of ,america4 ,in #ahgf the telephone plant of the whole world could be carried away in the arms of one man4 ,it consisted of two crude telephones like the one now before you1 connected together by a wire of about one hundred feet in length4 ,a piece cut from this wire by ,mr4 ,watson himself is here in this little glass case4 ,at this time there was no practical telephone transmitter1 no hard-drawn copper wire1 no transposed and balanced metallic circuits1 no multiple telephone switchboard1 or telephone switchboard of any kind1 no telephone cable that would work satisfactorily2 in fact1 there were none of the multitude of parts which now constitute the telephone system4 ,the first practical telephone line was a copy of the best telegraph line of the day4 ,a line wire was strung on the poles and housetops1 using the ground for the return circuit4 ,electrical disturbances1 coming from no one knows where1 were picked up by this line4 ,frequently the disturbances were so loud in the telephone as to destroy conversation4 ,when a second telephone line was strung alongside the first1 even though perfectly insulated1 another surprise awaited the telephone pioneers4 ,conversation carried on over one of these wires could plainly be heard on the other4 ,another strange thing was discovered4 ,iron wire was not so good a conductor for the telephone current as it was for the telegraph current4 ,the talking distance1 therefore1 was limited by the imperfect carrying power of the conductor and by the confusing effect of all sorts of disturbing currents from the atmosphere and from neighboring telephone and telegraph wires4 ,these and a multitude of other difficulties1 constituting problems of the most intricate nature1 impeded the progress of the telephone art1 but ,american engineers1 by persistent study1 incessant experimentation1 and the expenditure of immense sums of money1 have overcome these difficulties4 ,they have created a new art1 inventing1 developing1 and perfecting1 making improvements great and small in telephone1 transmitter1 line1 cable1 switchboard1 and every other piece of apparatus and plant required for the transmission of speech4 ,as the result of nearly forty years of this unceasing1 organized effort1 on the #beth of ,january1 #aiae1 there was dedicated to the service of the ,american public a transcontinental telephone line1 #c1fjj miles long1 joining the ,atlantic and the ,pacific1 and carrying the human voice instantly and distinctly between ,san ,francisco and ,new ,york and ,philadelphia and ,boston4 ,on that day over this line ,doctor ,bell again talked to ,mr4 ,watson1 who was now #c1djj miles away4 ,it was a day of romantic triumph for these two men and for their associates and their thousands of successors who have built up the great ,american telephone art4 ,the #aath of ,february following was another day of triumph for the telephone art as a product of ,american institutions1 for1 in the presence of dignitaries of the city and ,state here at ,philadelphia and at ,san ,francisco1 the sound of the ,liberty ,bell1 which had not been heard since it tolled for the death of ,chief-,justice ,marshall1 was transmitted by telephone over the transcontinental line to ,san ,francisco1 where it was plainly heard by all those there assembled4 ,immediately after this the stirring tones of the ,star-spangled ,banner played on the bugle at ,san ,francisco were sent like lightning back across the continent to salute the old bell in ,philadelphia4 ,it had often been pointed out that the words of the tenth verse of the twenty-fifth chapter of ,leviticus1 added when the bell was recast in #agec1 were peculiarly applicable to the part played by the old bell in #aggf4 ,but the words were still more prophetic4 ,the old bell had been silent for nearly eighty years1 and it was thought forever1 but by the use of the telephone a gentle tap1 which could be heard through the air only a few feet away1 was enough to transmit the tones of the historic relic all the way across the continent from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,thus1 by the aid of the telephone art1 the ,liberty ,bell was enabled literally to fulfil its destiny and ,proclaim liberty throughout all the land1 unto all the inhabitants thereof4 ,the two telephone instruments of #ahgf had become many millions by #aiaf1 and the first telephone line1 a hundred feet long1 had grown to one of more than three thousand miles in length4 ,this line is but part of the ,american telephone system of twenty-one million miles of wire1 connecting more than nine million telephone stations located everywhere throughout the ,united ,states1 and giving telephone service to one hundred million people4 ,universal telephone service throughout the length and breadth of our land1 that grand objective of ,theodore ,n4 ,vail1 has been attained4 ,while ,alexander ,graham ,bell was the first to transmit the tones of the human voice over a wire by electricity1 he was also the first to transmit the tones of the human voice by the wireless telephone1 for in #ahhj he spoke along a beam of light to a point a considerable distance away4 ,while the method then used is different from that now in vogue1 the medium employed for the transmission is the same--the ether1 that mysterious1 invisible1 imponderable wave-conductor which permeates all creation4 ,while many great advances in the wireless art were made by ,marconi and many other scientists in ,america and elsewhere1 it remained for that distinguished group of ,american scientists and engineers working under my charge to be the first to transmit the tones of the human voice in the form of intelligible speech across the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,this great event and those immediately preceding it are so fresh in the public mind that ,i will make but a brief reference to them here4 ,on ,april #d1 #aiae1 we were successful in transmitting speech without the use of wires from our radio station at ,montauk ,point on ,long ,island to ,wilmington1 ,delaware4 ,on ,may #ahth we talked by radio telephone from our station on ,long ,island to ,st4 ,simon ,island in the ,atlantic ,ocean1 off the coast of ,georgia4 ,on the #bgth of ,august1 with our apparatus installed by permission of the ,navy ,department at the ,arlington1 ,virginia1 radio station1 speech was successfully transmitted from that station to the ,navy wireless station equipped with our receiving apparatus at the ,isthmus of ,panama4 ,on ,september #bith1 speech was successfully transmitted by wire from ,new ,york ,city to the radio station at ,arlington1 ,virginia1 and thence by wireless telephone across the continent to the radio station at ,mare ,island ,navy-yard1 ,california1 where ,i heard and understood the words of ,mr4 ,theodore ,n4 ,vail speaking to me from the telephone on his desk at ,new ,york4 ,on the next morning at about one o'clock1 ,washington time1 we established wireless telephone communication between ,arlington1 ,virginia1 and ,pearl ,harbor in the ,hawaiian ,islands1 where an engineer of our staff1 together with ,united ,states naval officers1 distinctly heard words spoken into the telephone at ,arlington1 ,virginia4 ,on ,october #bb;d1 from the ,arlington tower in ,virginia1 we successfully transmitted speech across the ,atlantic ,ocean to the ,eiffel ,tower at ,paris1 where two of our engineers1 in company with ,french military officers1 heard and understood the words spoken at ,arlington4 ,on the same day when speech was being transmitted by the apparatus at ,arlington to our engineers and to the ,french military officers at the ,eiffel ,tower in ,paris1 our telephone engineer at ,pearl ,harbor1 ,hawaii1 together with an officer of the ,united ,states ,navy1 heard the words spoken from ,arlington to ,paris and recognized the voice of the speaker4 ,as a result of exhaustive researches1 too extensive to describe here1 it has been ascertained that the function of the wireless telephone is not to do away with the use of wires1 but rather to be employed in situations where wires are not available or practicable1 such as between ship and ship1 and ship and shore1 and across large bodies of water4 ,the ether is a universal conductor for wireless telephone and telegraph impulses and must be used in common by all who wish to employ those agencies of communication4 ,in the case of the wireless telegraph the number of messages which may be sent simultaneously is much restricted4 ,in the case of the wireless telephone1 owing to the thousands of separate wave-lengths required for the transmission of speech1 the number of telephone conversations which may be carried on at the same time is still further restricted and is so small that all who can employ wires will find it necessary to do so1 leaving the ether available for those who have no other means of communication4 ,this quality of the ether which thus restricts its use is really a characteristic of the greatest value to mankind1 for it forms a universal party line1 so to speak1 connecting together all creation1 so that anybody anywhere1 who connects with it in the proper manner1 may be heard by every one else so connected4 ,thus1 a sinking ship or a human being anywhere can send forth a cry for help which may be heard and answered4 ,no one can tell how far away are the limits of the telephone art1 ,i am certain that they are not to be found here upon the earth1 for ,i firmly believe in the fulfilment of that prophetic aspiration expressed by ,theodore ,n4 ,vail at a great gathering in ,washington1 that some day we will build up a world telephone system1 making necessary to all peoples the use of a common language or a common understanding of languages which will join all of the people of the earth into one brotherhood4 ,i believe that the time will come when the historic bell which now rests in ,independence ,hall will again be sounded1 and that by means of the telephone art1 which to-day has received such distinguished recognition at your hands1 it will proclaim liberty once more1 but this time throughout the whole world unto all the inhabitants thereof4 ,and1 when this world is ready for the message1 ,i believe the telephone art will provide the means for transmitting to all mankind a great voice saying1 ,peace on earth1 good will toward men4 ,,index ,a ,ampere's telegraph1 #db4 ,anglo-,american ,telegraph ,co41 #acd4 ,ardois signal system1 #cj4 ,atlantic cable projected1 #aji2 attempted1 #aag1 #aba1 #abc1 #acc2 completed1 #abd1 #acf4 ,audion amplifier1 #bef4 ,automatic telegraphy1 #ec1 #aje1 #bff4 ,b ,baltimore-,washington ,telegraph ,line1 #hf4 ,bell1 ,alexander ,graham1 parentage1 #adj2 youth1 #ada2 teaches elocution1 #adf2 experiments with speech1 #aea1 #afa2 meets ,henry1 #aeh2 invents telephone1 #afb2 at ,centennial ,exposition1 #afe2 demonstrates telephone1 #agj2 ,bell ,telephone ,association1 #agh2 ,bell-,western ,union ,settlement2 ,bell and wireless telegraphy1 #ahi2 ,transcontinental telephone1 #bdh4 ,bethell1 ,union ,n41 #bda4 ,blake1 ,clarence ,j41 #aed4 ,blake1 ,francis1 invents telephone transmitter1 #ahb4 ,branly coherer1 #bjd4 ,brett1 ,j4,w41 #aab4 ,bright1 ,charles ,tiltson1 #aab1 #abj1 #abe1 #abh4 ,c ,cable laid across ,channel1 #ajh4 ,carty1 ,j4,j41 youth1 #bcb2 enters telephone field1 #bcd2 ,carty and the switchboard1 #bce1 #bdb2 uses metallic circuit1 #bch2 in ,new ,york ,city1 #bda2 invents bridging bell1 #bdc2 chief engineer1 #bdd2 extends long-distance telephone1 #bdf2 seeks wireless telephone1 #bec2 talks across continent by wireless1 #beg4 ,clepsydra1 #ah4 ,code flags at sea1 #bd4 ,coherer1 #bjc4 ,colomb's flashing lights1 #be4 ,congress votes funds for telegraph1 #hd4 ,cooke1 ,william ,p41 #di1 #eb4 ,cornell1 ,ezra1 #hf1 #ic1 #ajg4 ,d ,davy's needle telegraph1 #dd4 ,de ,forest1 ,dr4 ,lee1 #bbe1 #bef4 ,dolbear and telephone1 #ahe2 wireless telegraphy1 #aid4 ,drawbaugh case1 #ahf4 ,duplex telegraphy1 #ajd1 #bfe4 ,dyar1 ,harrison ,gray1 #da4 ,e ,edison1 and the telegraph1 #ajd2 telephone transmitter #ahj2 wireless telegraphy1 #aie4 ,ellsworth1 ,annie1 #he4 ,f ,field1 ,cyrus ,w41 plans ,transatlantic cable1 #aaj2 honors1 #abe1 #acf2 develops cable1 #acj1 #acd4 ,g ,gale1 ,professor1 #fg1 #hf4 ,gauss and ,weber's telegraph1 #dc4 ,gisborne1 ,f4,n41 #aji4 ,gray1 ,elisha1 #aeg1 #ahd4 ,great ,eastern1 #acb1 #ace1 #aci4 ,guns as marine signals1 #bc4 ,h ,hammond1 ,john ,hays1 #bbi4 ,heaviside1 ,a4,w41 #aif4 ,heliograph1 #bi4 ,henry1 ,joseph1 #fe1 #fg1 #aeh1 #afi4 ,hertz and the ,hertzian waves1 #aig4 ,hubbard1 ,gardiner ,g41 #adi1 #aei1 #agj1 #agh4 ,hubbard1 ,mabel1 #adh1 #aff4 ,i ,indian smoke signals1 #bj4 ,j ,jackson1 ,dr4 ,charles ,t41 #fd1 #gi4 ,k ,kelvin1 ,lord 7,see ,thomson71 #ach4 ,kwaker captured1 #ej4 ,l ,long-distance telephone1 #bde4 ,m ,magnetic ,telegraph ,co41 #ic4 ,marconi1 boyhood1 #aii2 accomplished wireless telegraphy1 #bjb2 demonstration in ,england1 #bji2 ,transatlantic telegraphy1 #bag2 ,marconi ,telegraph ,company1 #bbj4 ,marine signals on ,argonautic expedition1 #ae4 ,mirror galvanometer1 #abg4 ,mirrors of ,pharaoh1 #ag4 ,morse at ,university of ,new ,york1 #ff4 ,morse1 code in signals1 #bg2 parentage1 #ef2 at ,yale1 #eg2 art student1 #ei2 artist1 #fb2 conceives the telegraph1 #fc2 exhibits telegraph1 #ge2 offers telegraph to ,congress1 #gf1 #ia2 patents telegraph1 #hb2 submarine cable1 #hc1 #ajg2 erects first line1 #hf2 dies1 #ajd4 ,multiplex printer telegraph1 #bgd4 ,mundy1 ,arthur ,j41 #ca4 ,o ,o',reilly1 ,henry1 #id4 ,p ,preece1 ,w4,h41 #aif1 #bji4 ,printing telegraph1 #bga4 ,pupin1 ,michael ,i41 #bdg4 ,q ,quadruplex telegraphy1 #ajd1 #bfe4 ,r ,reis's musical telegraph1 #aeg4 ,s ,sanders1 ,thomas1 #adh1 #aei1 #agh4 ,scribner1 ,charles ,e41 #bcf4 ,searchlight telephone1 #bea4 ,semaphore signals1 #bg4 ,shouting sentinels1 #af4 ,sibley1 ,hiram1 #if1 #ii4 ,signal columns1 #ai4 ,siphon recorder1 #acg4 ,smith1 ,francis ,o4,j41 #gf4 ,stentorophonic tube1 #ah4 ,submarine signals1 #ca4 ,t ,telegraph1 first suggestion1 #ci2 patented1 #hb2 development1 #bfd4 ,telephone invented and patented1 #afb2 at ,centennial1 #afe2 exchange1 #agg4 ,thomson1 youth1 #add2 cable adviser1 #aba2 invents mirror galvanometer1 #abf2 knighted1 #acf2 invents siphon recorder1 #acg2 connection with telephone1 #afi4 ,transatlantic cable 7,see ,atlantic cable74 ,transatlantic wireless telegraphy1 #baf4 ,transatlantic wireless telephone1 #bei4 ,transcontinental telegraph1 #if4 ,transcontinental telephone1 #bdf4 ,transcontinental wireless telephone1 #beg4 ,trowbridge1 ,john1 #aij4 ,troy1 signaling fall of1 #ad4 ,tuning the wireless telegraph1 #bbb4 ,v ,vail1 ,alfred1 arranges ,morse code1 joins ,morse1 #gj2 makes telephone apparatus1 #gb2 operates first line1 #ij2 improves telegraph1 #ajj4 ,vail1 ,theodore1 joins telephone forces1 #ahj2 puts wires underground1 #bci2 adopts copper circuits1 #bdj2 resumes telephone leadership1 #bdd2 talks across continent without wires1 #beg4 ,w ,watson1 aids ,bell with telephone1 #aei2 telephone partner1 #age2 helps demonstrate telephone1 #age2 telephones across continent1 #bdh4 ,western ,union1 organized1 #if2 enters telephone field1 #agh4 ,wheatstone1 #a2 boyhood1 #de2 five-needle telegraph1 #di2 single-needle telegraph1 #eb2 ,wheatstone-,cooke controversy1 #eb2 automatic transmitter1 #ec2 bridge1 #ec2 opposes ,morse1 #gh2 encourages ,bell1 #ade4 ,wig-wag system1 #bf4 ,wireless telegraphy suggested1 #ahh2 invented1 #bjb2 on shipboard1 #bba2 in the future1 #bcj4 ,wireless telephone1 conceived1 #bej2 future1 #bfj2 in navy1 #bfa4