,,the ,,making ,,of ,,religion ,,by ,,andrew ,,lang ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 ,,st ,,andrews ,,honorary ,,fellow ,,of ,,merton ,,college ,,oxford ,,sometime ,,gifford ,,lecturer ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,st ,,andrews ,,second ,,edition #aijj ,,to ,,the ,,principal ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,st4 ,,andrews ,,dear ,,principal ,,donaldson1 ,i hope you will permit me to lay at the feet of the ,university of ,st4 ,andrews1 in acknowledgment of her life-long kindnesses to her old pupil1 these chapters on the early ,history of ,religion4 ,they may be taken as representing the ,gifford ,lectures delivered by me1 though in fact they contain very little that was spoken from ,lord ,gifford's chair4 ,i wish they were more worthy of an ,alma ,mater which fostered in the past the leaders of forlorn hopes that were destined to triumph2 and the friends of lost causes who fought bravely against ,fate--,patrick ,hamilton1 ,cargill1 and ,argyll1 ,beaton and ,montrose1 and ,dundee4 ,believe me ,very sincerely yours1 ,,andrew ,,lang4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,new ,,edition ,by the nature of things this book falls under two divisions4 ,the first eight chapters criticise the current anthropological theory of the origins of the belief in spirits4 ,chapters ix4-xvii41 again1 criticise the current anthropological theory as to how1 the notion of spirit once attained1 man arrived at the idea of a ,supreme ,being4 ,these two branches of the topic are treated in most modern works concerned with the ,origins of ,religion1 such as ,mr4 ,tyler's ,primitive ,culture1 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's ,principles of ,sociology1 ,mr4 ,jevons's ,introduction to the ,history of ,religion1 the late ,mr4 ,grant ,allen's ,evolution of the ,idea of ,god1 and many others4 ,yet ,i have been censured for combining1 in this work1 the two branches of my subject2 and the second part has been regarded as but faintly connected with the first4 ,the reason for this criticism seems to be1 that while one small set of students is interested in1 and familiar with the themes examined in the first part 7namely the psychological characteristics of certain mental states from which1 in part1 the doctrine of spirits is said to have arisen71 that set of students neither knows nor cares anything about the matter handled in the second part4 ,this group of students is busied with ,psychical ,research1 and the obscure human faculties implied in alleged cases of hallucination1 telepathy1 double personality1 human automatism1 clairvoyance1 and so on4 ,meanwhile anthropological readers are equally indifferent as to that branch of psychology which examines the conditions of hysteria1 hypnotic trance1 double personality1 and the like4 ,anthropologists have not hitherto applied to the savage mental conditions1 out of which1 in part1 the doctrine of spirits arose1 the recent researches of ,french1 ,german1 and ,english psychologists of the new school4 ,as to whether these researches into abnormal psychological conditions do1 or do not1 indicate the existence of a transcendental region of human faculty1 anthropologists appear to be unconcerned4 ,the only ,english exception known to me is ,mr4 ,tylor1 and his great work1 ,primitive ,culture1 was written thirty years ago1 before the modern psychological studies of ,professor ,william ,james1 ,dr4 ,romaine ,newbold1 ,m4 ,richet1 ,dr4 ,janet1 ,professor ,sidgwick1 ,mr4 ,myers1 ,mr4 ,gurney1 ,dr4 ,parish1 and many others had commenced4 ,anthropologists have gone on discussing the trances1 and visions1 and so-called demoniacal possession of savages1 as if no new researches into similar facts in the psychology of civilised mankind existed2 or1 if they existed1 threw any glimmer of light on the abnormal psychology of savages4 ,i have1 on the other hand1 thought it desirable to sketch out a study of savage psychology in the light of recent psychological research4 ,thanks to this daring novelty1 the book has been virtually taken as two books2 anthropologists have criticised the second part1 and one or two ,psychical ,researchers have criticised the first part2 each school leaving one part severely alone4 ,such are the natural results of a too restricted specialism4 ,even to ,psychical ,researchers the earlier division is of scant interest1 because witnesses to successful abnormal or supernormal faculty in savages cannot be brought into court and cross-examined4 ,but ,i do not give anecdotes of such savage successes as evidence to facts2 they are only illustrations1 and evidence to beliefs and methods 7as of crystal gazing and automatic utterances of secondary personality71 which1 among the savages1 correspond to the supposed facts examined by ,psychical ,research among the civilised4 ,i only point out1 as ,bastian had already pointed out1 the existence of a field that deserves closer study by anthropologists who can observe savages in their homes4 ,we need persons trained in the psychological laboratories of ,europe and ,america1 as members of anthropological expeditions4 ,it may be noted that1 in his ,letters from the ,south ,seas1 ,mr4 ,louis ,stevenson makes some curious observations1 especially on a singular form of hypnotism applied to himself with fortunate results4 ,the method1 used in native medicine1 was novel2 and the results were entirely inexplicable to ,mr4 ,stevenson1 who had not been amenable to ,european hypnotic practice4 ,but he was not a trained expert4 ,anthropology must remain incomplete while it neglects this field1 whether among wild or civilised men4 ,in the course of time this will come to be acknowledged4 ,it will be seen that we cannot really account for the origin of the belief in spirits while we neglect the scientific study of those psychical conditions1 as of hallucination and the hypnotic trance1 in which that belief must probably have had some1 at least1 of its origins4 ,as to the second part of the book1 ,i have argued that the first dim surmises as to a ,supreme ,being need not have arisen 7as on the current anthropological theory7 in the notion of spirits at all4 7,see chapter xi47 ,here ,i have been said to draw a mere verbal distinction but no distinction can be more essential4 ,if such a ,supreme ,being as many savages acknowledge is not envisaged by them as a spirit1 then the theories and processes by which he is derived from a ghost of a dead man are invalid1 and remote from the point4 ,as to the origin of a belief in a kind of germinal ,supreme ,being 7say the ,australian ,baiame71 ,i do not1 in this book1 offer any opinion4 ,i again and again decline to offer an opinion4 ,critics1 none the less1 have said that ,i attribute the belief to revelation6 ,i shall therefore here indicate what ,i think probable in so obscure a field4 ,as soon as man had the idea of making things1 he might conjecture as to a ,maker of things which he himself had not made1 and could not make4 ,he would regard this unknown ,maker as a magnified non-natural man4 ,these speculations appear to me to need less reflection than the long and complicated processes of thought by which ,mr4 ,tylor believes1 and probably believes with justice1 the theory of spirits to have been evolved4 7,see chapter iii47 ,this conception of a magnified non-natural man1 who is a ,maker1 being given2 his ,power would be recognised1 and fancy would clothe one who had made such useful things with certain other moral attributes1 as of ,fatherhood1 goodness1 and regard for the ethics of his children2 these ethics having been developed naturally in the evolution of social life4 ,in all this there is nothing mystical1 nor anything1 as far as ,i can see1 beyond the limited mental powers of any beings that deserve to be called human4 ,but ,i hasten to add that another theory may be entertained4 ,since this book was written there appeared ,the ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 by ,professor ,spencer and ,mr4 ,gillen1 a most valuable study4#a ,the authors1 closely scrutinising the esoteric rites of the ,arunta and other tribes in ,central ,australia1 found none of the moral precepts and attributes which 7according to ,mr4 ,howitt1 to whom their work is dedicated71 prevail in the mysteries of the natives of ,new ,south ,wales and ,victoria4 7,see chapter x47 ,what they found was a belief in 'the great spirit1 ,twanyirika1' who is believed 'by uninitiated boys and women' 7but1 apparently1 not by adults7 to preside over the cruel rites of tribal initiation4#b ,no more is said1 no myths about 'the great spirit' are given4 ,he is dismissed in a brief note4 ,now if these ten lines contain all the native lore of ,twanyirika1 he is a mere bugbear1 not believed in 7apparently7 by adults1 but invented by them to terrorise the women and boys4 ,next1 granting that the information of ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen is exhaustive1 and granting that 7as ,mr4 ,j4,g4 ,frazer holds1 in his essays in the ',fortnightly ,review1' ,april and ,may1 #ahii7 the ,arunta are the most primitive of mortals1 it will seem to follow that the moral attributes of ,baiame and other gods of other ,australian regions are later accretions round the form of an original and confessed bugbear1 as among the primitive ,arunta1 'a bogle of the nursery1' in the phrase repudiated by ,maitland of ,lethington4 ,though not otherwise conspicuously more civilised than the ,arunta 7except1 perhaps1 in marriage relations71 ,mr4 ,howitt's ,south ,eastern natives will have improved the ,arunta confessed 'bogle' into a beneficent and moral ,father and ,maker4 ,religion will have its origin in a tribal joke1 and will have become not 'diablement1' but 'divinement1' 'change en route4' ,readers of ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen will see that the ,arunta philosophy1 primitive or not1 is of a high ingenuity1 and so artfully composed that it contains no room either for a ,supreme ,being or for the doctrine of the survival of the soul1 with a future of rewards and punishments2 opinions declared to be extant among other ,australian tribes4 ,there is no creator1 and every soul1 after death1 is reincarnated in a new member of the tribe4 ,on the other hand 7granting that the brief note on ,twanyirika is exhaustive71 the ,arunta1 in their isolation1 may have degenerated in religion1 and may have dropped1 in the case of ,twanyirika1 the moral attributes of ,baiame4 ,it may be noticed that1 in ,south ,eastern ,australia1 the ,being who presides1 like ,twanyirika1 over initiations is not the supreme being1 but a son or deputy of his1 such as the ,kurnai ,tundun4 ,we do not know whether the ,arunta have1 or have had and lost1 or never possessed1 a being superior to ,twanyirika4 ,with regard1 to all such moral1 and1 in certain versions1 creative ,beings as ,baiame1 criticism has taken various lines4 ,there is the high a priori line that savage minds are incapable of originating the notion of a moral ,maker4 ,i have already said that the notion1 in an early form1 seems to be well within the range of any minds deserving to be called human4 ,next1 the facts are disputed4 ,i can only refer readers to the authorities cited4 ,they speak for tribes in many quarters of the world1 and the witnesses are laymen as well as missionaries4 ,i am accused1 again1 of using a misleading rhetoric1 and of thereby covertly introducing ,christian or philosophical ideas into my account of savages guiltless of ,christian teaching4 ,as to the latter point1 ,i am also accused of mistaking for native opinions the results of ,christian teaching4 ,one or other charge must fall to the ground4 ,as to my rhetoric1 in the use of such words as ',creator1' ',eternal1' and the like1 ,i shall later qualify and explain it4 ,for a long discussion between myself and ,mr4 ,sidney ,hartland1 involving minute detail1 ,i may refer the reader to ,folk-,lore1 the last number of #ahih and the first of #ahii1 and to the ,introduction to the new edition of my ',myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion' 7#ahii74 ,where relatively high moral attributes are assigned to a ,being1 ,i have called the result ',religion2' where the same ,being acts like ,zeus in ,greek fable1 plays silly or obscene tricks1 is lustful and false1 ,i have spoken of ',myth4'#c ,these distinctions of ,myth and ,religion may be1 and indeed are1 called arbitrary4 ,the whole complex set of statements about the ,being1 good or bad1 sublime or silly1 are equally ,myths1 it may be urged4 ,very well2 but one set1 the loftier set1 is fitter to survive1 and does survive1 in what we still commonly call ,religion2 while the other set1 the puerile set of statements1 is fairly near to extinction1 and is usually called ,mythology4 ,one set has been the root of a goodly tree3 the other set is being lopped off1 like the parasitic mistletoe4 ,i am arguing that the two classes of ideas arise from two separate human moods2 moods as different and distinct as lust and love4 ,i am arguing that1 as far as our information goes1 the nobler set of ideas is as ancient as the lower4 ,personally 7though we cannot have direct evidence7 ,i find it easy to believe that the loftier notions are the earlier4 ,if man began with the conception of a powerful and beneficent ,maker or ,father1 then ,i can see how the humorous savage fancy ran away with the idea of ,power1 and attributed to a potent being just such tricks as a waggish and libidinous savage would like to play if he could4 ,moreover1 ,i have actually traced 7in ',myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion'7 some plausible processes of mythical accretion4 ,the early mind was not only religious1 in its way1 but scientific1 in its way4 ,it embraced the idea of ,evolution as well as the idea of ,creation4 ,to one mood a ,maker seemed to exist4 ,but the institution of ,totemism 7whatever its origin7 suggested the idea of ,evolution2 for men1 it was held1 developed out of their ,totems-animals and plants4 ,but then1 on the other hand1 ,zeus1 or ,baiame1 or ,mungun-ngaur1 was regarded as their ,father4 ,how were these contradictions to be reconciled8 ,easily1 thus3 ,zeus was the ,father1 but1 in each case1 was the ,father by an amour in which he wore the form of the ,totem-snake1 swan1 bull1 ant1 dog1 or the like4 ,at once a degraded set of secondary erotic myths cluster around ,zeus4 ,again1 it is notoriously the nature of man to attribute every institution to a primal inventor or legislator4 ,men then1 find themselves performing certain rites1 often of a buffooning or scandalous character2 and1 in origin1 mainly magical1 intended for the increase of game1 edible plants1 or1 later1 for the benefit of the crops4 ,why do they perform these rites8 they ask3 and1 looking about1 as usual1 for a primal initiator1 they attribute what they do to a primal being1 the ,corn ,spirit1 ,demeter1 or to ,zeus1 or to ,baiame1 or ,manabozho1 or ,punjel4 ,this is man's usual way of going back to origins4 ,instantly1 then1 a new set of parasitic myths crystallises round a ,being who1 perhaps1 was originally moral4 ,the savage mind1 in short1 has not maintained itself on the high level1 any more than the facetious mediaeval myths maintained themselves1 say1 on the original level of the conception of the character of ,st4 ,peter1 the keeper of the keys of ,heaven4 ,all this appears perfectly natural and human1 and in this1 and in other ways1 what we call low ,myth may have invaded the higher realms of ,religion3 a lower invaded a higher element4 ,but reverse the hypothesis4 ,conceive that ,zeus1 or ,baiame1 was originally1 not a ,father and guardian1 but a lewd and tricky ghost of a medicine-man1 a dancer of indecent dances1 a wooer of other men's wives1 a shape-shifter1 a burlesque droll1 a more jocular bugbear1 like ,twanyirika4 ,by what means did he come to be accredited later with his loftiest attributes1 and with regard for the tribal ethics1 which1 in practice1 he daily broke and despised8 ,students who argue for the possible priority of the lowest1 or1 as ,i call them1 mythical attributes of the ,being1 must advance an hypothesis of the concretion of the nobler elements around the original wanton and mischievous ghost4 ,then let us suppose that the ,arunta ,twanyirika1 a confessed bugbear1 discredited by adults1 and only invented to keep women and children in order1 was the original germ of the moral and fatherly ,baiame1 of ,south ,eastern ,australian tribes4 ,how1 in that case1 did the adults of the tribe fall into their own trap1 come to believe seriously in their invented bugbear1 and credit him with the superintendence of such tribal ethics as generosity and unselfishness8 ,what were the processes of the conversion of ,twanyirika8 ,i do not deny that this theory may be correct1 but ,i wish to see an hypothesis of the process of elevation4 ,i fail to frame such an hypothesis4 ,grant that the adults merely chuckle over ,twanyirika1 whose 'voice' they themselves produce2 by whirling the wooden tundun1 or bull-roarer4 ,grant that1 on initiation1 the boys learn that 'the great spirit' is a mere bogle1 invented to mystify the women1 and keep them away from the initiatory rites4 ,how1 then1 did men come to believe in him as a terrible1 all-seeing1 all-knowing1 creative1 and potent moral being8 ,for this1 undeniably1 is the belief of many ,australian tribes1 where his 'voice' 7or rather that of his subordinate7 is produced by whirling the tundun4 ,that these higher beliefs are of ,european origin1 ,mr4 ,howitt denies4 ,how were they evolved out of the notion of a confessed artificial bogle8 ,i am unable to frame a theory4 ,from my point of view1 namely1 that the higher and simple ideas may well be the earlier1 ,i have1 at least1 offered a theory of the processes by which the lower attributes crystallised around a conception supposed 7argumenti gratia7 to be originally high4 ,other processes of degradation would come in1 as 7on my theory7 the creed and practice of ,animism1 or worship of human ghosts1 often of low character1 swamped and invaded the prior belief in a fairly moral and beneficent1 but not originally spiritual1 ,being4 ,my theory1 at least1 is a theory1 and1 rightly or wrongly1 accounts for the phenomenon1 the combination of the highest divine and the lowest animal qualities in the same ,being4 ,but ,i have yet to learn how1 if the lowest myths are the earliest1 the highest attributes came in time to be conferred on the hero of the lowest myths4 ,why1 or how1 did a silly buffoon1 or a confessed 'bogle' arrive at being regarded as a patron of such morality as had been evolved8 ,an hypothesis of the processes involved must be indicated4 ,it is not enough to reply1 in general1 that the rudimentary human mind is illogical and confused4 ,that is granted2 but there must have been a method in its madness4 ,what that method was 7from my point of view7 ,i have shown1 and it must be as easy for opponents to set forth what1 from their point of view1 the method was4 ,we are here concerned with what1 since the time of the earliest ,greek philosophers1 has been the crux of mythology3 why are infamous myths told about 'the ,father of gods and men'8 ,we can easily explain the nature of the myths4 ,they are the natural flowers of savage fancy and humour4 ,but wherefore do they crystallise round ,zeus8 ,i have1 at least1 shown some probable processes in the evolution4 ,where criticism has not disputed the facts of the moral attributes1 now attached to1 say1 an ,australian ,being1 it has accounted for them by a supposed process of borrowing from missionaries and other ,europeans4 ,in this book ,i deal with that hypothesis as urged by ,sir ,a4,b4 ,ellis1 in ,west ,africa 7chapter xiii474 ,i need not have taken the trouble1 as this distinguished writer had already1 in a work which ,i overlooked1 formally withdrawn1 as regards ,africa1 his theory of 'loan-gods4' ,miss ,kingsley1 too1 is no believer in the borrowing hypothesis for ,west ,africa1 in regard1 that is1 to the highest divine conception4 ,i was1 when ,i wrote1 unaware that1 especially as concerns ,america and ,australia1 ,mr4 ,tylor had recently advocated the theory of borrowing 7',journal of ,anthrop4 ,institute1' vol4 xxi474 ,to ,mr4 ,tylor's arguments1 when ,i read them1 ,i replied in the ',nineteenth ,century1' ,january #ahii3 ',are ,savage ,gods ,borrowed from ,missionaries8' ,i do not here repeat my arguments1 but await the publication of ,mr4 ,tylor's ',gifford ,lectures1' in which his hypothesis may be reinforced1 and may win my adhesion4 ,it may here be said1 however1 that if the ,australian higher religious ideas are of recent and missionary origin1 they would necessarily be known to the native women1 from whom1 in fact1 they are absolutely concealed by the men1 under penalty of death4 ,again1 if the ,son1 or ,sons1 of ,australian chief ,beings resemble part of the ,christian dogma1 they much more closely resemble the ,apollo and ,hermes of ,greece4#d ,but nobody will say that the ,australians borrowed them from ,greek mythology6 ,in chapter xiv41 owing to a bibliographical error of my own1 ,i have done injustice to ,mr4 ,tylor1 by supposing him to have overlooked ,strachey's account of the ,virginian god ,ahone4 ,he did not overlook ,ahone1 but mistrusted ,strachey4 ,in an excursus on ,ahone1 in the new edition of ',myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion1' ,i have tried my best to elucidate the bibliography and other aspects of ,strachey's account1 which ,i cannot regard as baseless4 ,mr4 ,tylor's opinion is1 doubtless1 different1 and may prove more persuasive4 ,as to ,australia1 ,mr4 ,howitt1 our best authority1 continues to disbelieve in the theory of borrowing4 ,i have to withdraw in chapters x4 xi4 the statement that ',darumulun never died at all4' ,mr4 ,hartland has corrected me1 and pointed out that1 among the ,wiraijuri1 a myth represents him as having been destroyed1 for his offences1 by ,baiame4 ,in that tribe1 however1 ,darumulun is not the highest1 but a subordinate ,being4 ,mr4 ,hartland has also collected a few myths in which ,australian ,supreme ,beings do 7contrary to my statement7 'set the example of sinning4' ,nothing can surprise me less1 and ,i only wonder that1 in so savage a race1 the examples1 hitherto collected1 are so rare1 and so easily to be accounted for on the theory of processes of crystallisation of myths already suggested4 ,as to a remark in ,appendix ,b1 ,mr4 ,podmore takes a distinction4 ,i quote his remark1 'the phenomena described are quite inexplicable by ordinary mechanical means1' and ,i contrast this1 as illogical1 with his opinion that a girl 'may have been directly responsible for all that took place4' ,mr4 ,podmore replies that what was 'described' is not necessarily identical with what occurred4 ,strictly speaking1 he is right2 but the evidence was copious1 was given by many witnesses1 and 7as offered by me7 was in part contemporary 7being derived from the local newspapers71 so that here ,mr4 ,podmore's theory of illusions of memory on a large scale1 developed in the five weeks which elapsed before he examined the spectators1 is out of court4 ,the evidence was of contemporary published record4 ,the handling of fire by ,home is accounted for by ,mr4 ,podmore1 in the same chapter1 as the result of ,home's use of a 'non-conducting substance4' ,asked1 'what substance8' he answered1 'asbestos4' ,sir ,william ,crookes1 again repeating his account of the performance which he witnessed1 says1 ',home took up a lump of red-hot charcoal about twice the size of an egg into his hand1 on which certainly no asbestos was visible4 ,he blew into his hands1 and the flames could be seen coming out between his fingers1 and he carried the charcoal round the room4'#e ,sir ,w4 ,crookes stood close beside ,home4 ,the light was that of the fire and of two candles4 ,probably ,sir ,william could see a piece of asbestos1 if it was covering ,home's hands1 which he was watching4 ,what ,i had to say1 by way of withdrawal1 qualification1 explanation1 or otherwise1 ,i inserted 7in order to seize the earliest opportunity7 in the ,introduction to the recent edition of my ',myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion' 7#ahii74 ,the reader will perhaps make his own kind deductions from my rhetoric when ,i talk1 for example1 about a ,creator in the creed of low savages4 ,they have no business1 anthropologists declare1 to entertain so large an idea4 ,but in ',the ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1' ,n4,s4 ,,ii41 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 p4 #he1 ,dr4 ,bennett gives an account of the religion of the cannibal ,fangs of the ,congo1 first described by ,du ,chaillu4 ',these anthropophagi have some idea of a ,god1 a superior being1 their ,tata 7,father71 a bo mam merere 7he made all things71 ,anyambi is their ,tata 7,father71 and ranks above all other ,fang gods1 because a'ne yap 7literally1 he lives in heaven74' ,this is inconsiderate in the ,fangs4 ,a set of native cannibals have no business with a creative ,father who is in heaven4 ,i say 'creative' because 'he made all things1' and 7as the bowler said about a ',yorker'7 'what else can you call him8' ,in all such cases1 where 'creator' and 'creative' are used by me1 readers will allow for the imperfections of the ,english language4 ,as anthropologists say1 the savages simply cannot have the corresponding ideas2 and ,i must throw the blame on people who1 knowing the savages and their language1 assure us that they have4 ,this ,fang ,father or ,tata 'is considered indifferent to the wants and sufferings of men1 women1 and children4' ,offerings and prayers are therefore made1 not to him1 but to the ghosts of parents1 who are more accessible4 ,this additional information precisely illustrates my general theory1 that the chief ,being was not evolved out of ghosts1 but came to be neglected as ghost-worship arose4 ,i am not aware that ,dr4 ,bennett is a missionary4 ,anthropologists distrust missionaries1 and most of my evidence is from laymen4 ,if the anthropological study of religion is to advance1 the high and usually indolent chief ,beings of savage religions must be carefully examined1 not consigned to a casual page or paragraph4 ,i have found them most potent1 and most moral1 where ghost-worship has not been evolved2 least potent1 or at all events most indifferent1 where ghost-worship is most in vogue4 ,the inferences 7granting the facts7 are fatal to the current anthropological theory4 ,the phrases ',creator1' 'creative1' as applied to ,anyambi1 or ,baiame1 have been described1 by critics1 as rhetorical1 covertly introducing conceptions of which savages are incapable4 ,i have already shown that ,i only follow my authorities1 and their translations of phrases in various savage tongues4 ,but the phrase 'eternal1' applied to ,anyambi or ,baiame1 may be misleading4 ,i do not wish to assert that1 if you talked to a savage about 'eternity1' he would understand what you intend4 ,i merely mean what ,mariner says that the ,tongans mean as to the god ,t-li-y ,tooboo4 ',of his origin they had no idea1 rather supposing him to be eternal4' ,the savage theologians assert no beginning for such beings 7as a rule71 and no end1 except where ,unkulunkulu is by some ,zulus thought to be dead1 and where the ,wiraijuris declare that their ,darumulun 7not supreme7 was 'destroyed' by ,baiame4 ,i do not wish to credit savages with thoughts more abstract than they possess4 ,but that their thought can be abstract is proved1 even in the case of the absolutely 'primitive ,arunta1' by their myth of the ,ungambikula1 'a word which means out of nothing1 or self-existing1' say ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen4#f ,once more1 ,i find that ,i have spoken of some savage ,beings as 'omnipresent' and 'omnipotent4' ,but ,i have pointed out that this is only a modern metaphysical rendering of the actual words attributed to the savage3 ',he can go everywhere1 and do everything4' ,as to the phrase1 also used1 that ,baiame1 for example1 'makes for righteousness1' ,i mean that he sanctions the morality of his people2 for instance1 sanctions veracity and unselfishness1 as ,mr4 ,howitt distinctly avers4 ,these are examples of 'righteousness' in conduct4 ,i do not mean that these virtues were impressed on savages in some supernatural way1 as a critic has daringly averred that ,i do4 ,the strong reaction of some early men against the cosmical process by which 'the weakest goes to the wall1' is1 indeed1 a curious moral phenomenon1 and deserves the attention of moralists4 ,but ,i never dreamed of supposing that this reaction 7which extends beyond the limit of the tribe or group7 had a 'supernatural' origin6 ,it has been argued that 'tribal morality' is only a set of regulations based on the convenience of the elders of the tribe3 is1 in fact1 as the ,platonic ,thrasymachus says1 'the interest of the strongest4' ,that does not appear to me to be demonstrated2 but this is no place for a discussion of the origin of morals4 ',the interest of the strongest1' and of the nomadic group1 would be to knock elderly invalids on the head4 ,but ,dampier says1 of the ,australians1 in #afhh1 ',be it little1 or be it much they get1 every one has his part1 as well the young and tender1 and the old and feeble1 who are not able to go abroad1 as the strong and lusty4' ,the origin of this fair and generous dealing may be obscure1 but it is precisely the kind of dealing on which1 according to ,mr4 ,howitt1 the religion of the ,kurnai insists 7chapter x474 ,thus the ,being concerned does 'make for righteousness4' ,with these explanations ,i trust that my rhetorical use of such phrases as 'eternal1' 'creative1' 'omniscient1' 'omnipotent1' 'omnipresent1' and 'moral1' may not be found to mislead1 or covertly to import modern or ,christian ideas into my account of the religious conceptions of savages4 ,as to the evidence throughout1 a learned historian has informed me that 'no anthropological evidence is of any value4' ,if so1 there can be no anthropology 7in the realm of institutions74 ,but the evidence that ,i adduce is from such sources as anthropologists1 at least1 accept1 and employ in the construction of theories from which1 in some points1 ,i venture to dissent4 ,a4,l4 ,footnote #a3 ,macmillans1 #ahii4 ,footnote #b3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #bdf1 note4 ,footnote #c3 ,see the new edition of ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion1 especially the new ,introduction4 ,footnote #d3 ,see ,introductions to my ,homeric ,hymns4 ,allen4 #ahii4 ,footnote #e3 ,journal ,s4,p4,r41 ,december #ahij1 p4 #adg4 ,footnote #f3 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #chh4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition ',the only begetter' of this work is ,monsieur ,lefbure1 author of ',les ,yeux d',horus1' and other studies in ,egyptology4 ,he suggested the writing of the book1 but is in no way responsible for the opinions expressed4 ,the author cannot omit the opportunity of thanking ,mr4 ,frederic ,myers for his kindness in reading the proof sheets of the earlier chapters and suggesting some corrections of statement4 ,mr4 ,myers1 however1 is probably not in agreement with the author on certain points2 for example1 in the chapter on ',possession4' ,as the second part of the book differs considerably from the opinions which have recommended themselves to most anthropological writers on early ,religion1 the author must say here1 as he says later1 that no harm can come of trying how facts look from a new point of view1 and that he certainly did not expect them to fall into the shape which he now presents for criticism4 ,,st4 ,,andrews3 ,april #c1 #ahih4 ,,contents ,i4 ,,introductory ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,science ,,and ',,miracles' ,,iii4 ,,anthropology ,,and ,,religion ,,iv4 ',,opening ,,the ,,gates ,,of ,,distance' ,v4 ,,crystal ,,visions1 ,,savage ,,and ,,civilised ,,vi4 ,,anthropology ,,and ,,hallucinations ,,vii4 ,,demoniacal ,,possession ,,viii4 ,,fetishism ,,and ,,spiritualism ,,ix4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,god ,x4 ,,high ,,gods ,,of ,,low ,,races ,,xi4 ,,supreme ,,gods ,,not ,,necessarily ,,developed ,,out ,,of ',,spirits' ,,xii4 ,,savage ,,supreme ,,beings ,,xiii4 ,,more ,,savage ,,supreme ,,beings ,,xiv4 ,,ahone4 ,,ti-,,ra-,w4 ,n-,,pi4 ,,pachacamac4 ,,tui ,,laga4 ,,taa-,,roa ,,xv4 ,,the ,,old ,,degeneration ,,theory ,,xvi4 ,,theories ,,of ,,jehovah ,,xvii4 ,,conclusion ,,appendices4 ,a4 ,,oppositions ,,of ,,science ,b4 ,,the ,,poltergeist ,,and ,,his ,,explainers ,c4 ,,crystal-,,gazing ,d4 ,,chiefs ,,in ,,australia ,,index 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,making ,,of ,,religion ,i ,,introductory ,,chapter ,the modern ,science of the ,history of ,religion has attained conclusions which already possess an air of being firmly established4 ,these conclusions may be briefly stated thus3 ,man derived the conception of 'spirit' or 'soul' from his reflections on the phenomena of sleep1 dreams1 death1 shadow1 and from the experiences of trance and hallucination4 ,worshipping first the departed souls of his kindred1 man later extended the doctrine of spiritual beings in many directions4 ,ghosts1 or other spiritual existences fashioned on the same lines1 prospered till they became gods4 ,finally1 as the result of a variety of processes1 one of these gods became supreme1 and1 at last1 was regarded as the one only ,god4 ,meanwhile man retained his belief in the existence of his own soul1 surviving after the death of the body1 and so reached the conception of immortality4 ,thus the ideas of ,god and of the soul are the result of early fallacious reasonings about misunderstood experiences4 ,it may seem almost wanton to suggest the desirableness of revising a system at once so simple1 so logical1 and apparently so well bottomed on facts4 ,but there can never be any real harm in studying masses of evidence from fresh points of view4 ,at worst1 the failure of adverse criticism must help to establish the doctrines assailed4 ,now1 as we shall show1 there are two points of view from which the evidence as to religion in its early stages has not been steadily contemplated4 ,therefore we intend to ask1 first1 what1 if anything1 can be ascertained as to the nature of the 'visions' and hallucinations which1 according to ,mr4 ,tylor in his celebrated work ',primitive ,culture1' lent their aid to the formation of the idea of 'spirit4' ,secondly1 we shall collect and compare the accounts which we possess of the ,high ,gods and creative beings worshipped or believed in1 by the most backward races4 ,we shall then ask whether these relatively ,supreme ,beings1 so conceived of by men in very rudimentary social conditions1 can be1 as anthropology declares1 mere developments from the belief in ghosts of the dead4 ,we shall end by venturing to suggest that the savage theory of the soul may be based1 at least in part1 on experiences which cannot1 at present1 be made to fit into any purely materialistic system of the universe4 ,we shall also bring evidence tending to prove that the idea of ,god1 in its earliest known shape1 need not logically be derived from the idea of spirit1 however that idea itself may have been attained or evolved4 ,the conception of ,god1 then1 need not be evolved out of reflections on dreams and 'ghosts4' ,if these two positions can be defended with any success1 it is obvious that the whole theory of the ,science of ,religion will need to be reconsidered4 ,but it is no less evident that our two positions do not depend on each other4 ,the first may be regarded as fantastic1 or improbable1 or may be 'masked' and left on one side4 ,but the strength of the second position1 derived from evidence of a different character1 will not1 therefore1 be in any way impaired4 ,our first position can only be argued for by dint of evidence highly unpopular in character1 and1 as a general rule1 condemned by modern science4 ,the evidence is obtained by what is1 at all events1 a legitimate anthropological proceeding4 ,we may follow ,mr4 ,tylor's example1 and collect savage beliefs about visions1 hallucinations1 'clairvoyance1' and the acquisition of knowledge apparently not attainable through the normal channels of sense4 ,we may then compare these savage beliefs with attested records of similar experiences among living and educated civilised men4 ,even if we attain to no conclusion1 or a negative conclusion1 as to the actuality and supernormal character of the alleged experiences1 still to compare data of savage and civilised psychology1 or even of savage and civilised illusions and fables1 is decidedly part1 though a neglected part1 of the function of anthropological science4 ,the results1 whether they do or do not strengthen our first position1 must be curious and instructive1 if only as a chapter in the history of human error4 ,that chapter1 too1 is concerned with no mean topic1 but with what we may call the ,x region of our nature4 ,out of that region1 out of miracle1 prophecy1 vision1 have certainly come forth the great religions1 ,christianity and ,islam2 and the great religious innovators and leaders1 our ,lord ,himself1 ,st4 ,francis1 ,john ,knox1 ,jeanne d',arc1 down to the founder of the new faith of the ,sioux and ,arapahoe4 ,it cannot1 then1 be unscientific to compare the barbaric with the civilised beliefs and experiences about a region so dimly understood1 and so fertile in potent influences4 ,here the topic will be examined rather by the method of anthropology than of psychology4 ,we may conceivably have something to learn 7as has been the case before7 from the rough observations and hasty inferences of the most backward races4 ,we may illustrate this by an anecdote3 ',the ,northern ,indians call the ,aurora ,borealis ,edthin1 that is ,deer4 ,their ideas in this respect are founded on a principle one would not imagine4 ,experience has shown them that when a hairy deer-skin is briskly stroked with the hand on a dark night1 it will emit many sparks of electrical fire4' ,so says ,hearne in his ',journey1' published in #agie 7p4 #cdf74 ,this observation of the ,red ,men is a kind of parable representing a part of the purport of the following treatise4 ,the ,indians1 making a hasty inference from a trivial phenomenon1 arrived unawares at a probably correct conclusion1 long unknown to civilised science4 ,they connected the ,aurora ,borealis with electricity1 supposing that multitudes of deer in the sky rubbed the sparks out of each other6 ,meanwhile1 even in the last century1 a puzzled populace spoke of the phenomenon as ',lord ,derwentwater's ,lights4' ,the cosmic pomp and splendour shone to welcome the loyal ,derwentwater into heaven1 when he had given his life for his exiled king4 ,now1 my purpose in the earlier portion of this essay is to suggest that certain phenomena of human nature1 apparently as trivial as the sparks rubbed out of a deer's hide in a dark night1 may indicate1 and may be allied to a force or forces1 which1 like the ,aurora ,borealis1 may shine from one end of the heavens to the other1 strangely illumining the darkness of our destiny4 ,such phenomena science has ignored1 as it so long ignored the sparks from the stroked deer-skin1 and the attractive power of rubbed amber4 ,these trivial things were not known to be allied to the lightning1 or to indicate a force which man could tame and use4 ,but just as the ,indians1 by a rapid careless inference1 attributed the ,aurora ,borealis to electric influences1 so 7as anthropology assures us7 savages everywhere have inferred the existence of soul or spirit1 intelligence that ',does not know the bond of ,time1 ,nor wear the manacles of ,space1' in part from certain apparently trivial phenomena of human faculty4 ,these phenomena1 as ,mr4 ,tylor says1 'the great intellectual movement of the last two centuries has simply thrown aside as worthless4'#a ,i refer to alleged experiences1 merely odd1 sporadic1 and1 for commercial purposes1 useless1 such as the transference of thought from one mind to another by no known channel of sense1 the occurrence of hallucinations which1 prima facie1 correspond coincidentally with unknown events at a distance1 all that is called 'second sight1' or 'clairvoyance1' and other things even more obscure4 ,reasoning on these real or alleged phenomena1 and on other quite normal and accepted facts of dream1 shadow1 sleep1 trance1 and death1 savages have inferred the existence of spirit or soul1 exactly as the ,indians arrived at the notion of electricity 7not so called by them1 of course7 as the cause of the ,aurora ,borealis4 ,but1 just as the ,indians thought that the cosmic lights were caused by the rubbing together of crowded deer in the heavens 7a theory quite childishly absurd71 so the savage has expressed1 in rude fantastic ways1 his conclusion as to the existence of spirit4 ,he believes in wandering separable souls of men1 surviving death1 and he has peopled with his dreams the whole inanimate universe4 ,my suggestion is that1 in spite of his fantasies1 the savage had possibly drawn from his premises an inference not wholly1 or not demonstrably erroneous4 ,as the sparks of the deer-skin indicated electricity1 so the strange lights in the night of human nature may indicate faculties which science1 till of late and in a few instances1 has laughed at1 ignored1 'thrown aside as worthless4' ,it should be observed that ,i am not speaking of 'spiritualism1' a word of the worst associations1 inextricably entangled with fraud1 bad logic1 and the blindest credulity4 ,some of the phenomena alluded to have1 however1 been claimed as their own province by 'spiritists1' and need to be rescued from them4 ,mr4 ,tylor writes3 ',the issue raised by the comparison of savage1 barbaric1 and civilised spiritualism is this3 ,do the ,red ,indian medicine-man1 the ,tatar necromancer1 the ,highland ghost-seer1 and the ,boston medium1 share the possession of belief and knowledge of the highest truth and import1 which1 nevertheless1 the great intellectual movement of the last two centuries has simply thrown aside as worthless8' ,distinguo6 ,that does not seem to me to be the issue4 ,in my opinion the issue is3 ',have the ,red ,indian1 the ,tatar1 the ,highland seer1 and the ,boston medium 7the least reputable of the menagerie7 observed1 and reasoned wildly from1 and counterfeited1 and darkened with imposture1 certain genuine by-products of human faculty1 which do not prima facie deserve to be thrown aside8' ,that1 ,i venture to think1 is the real issue4 ,that science may toss aside as worthless some valuable observations of savages is now universally admitted by people who know the facts4 ,among these observations is the whole topic of ,hypnotism1 with the use of suggestion for healing purposes1 and the phenomena1 no longer denied1 of 'alternating personalities4' ,for the truth of this statement we may appeal to one of the greatest of ,continental anthropologists1 ,adolf ,bastian4#b ,the missionaries1 like ,livingstone1 usually supposed that the savage seer's declared ignorance-- after his so-called fit of inspiration--of what occurred in that state1 was an imposture4 ,but nobody now doubts the similar oblivion of what has passed that sometimes follows the analogous hypnotic sleep4 ,of a remarkable cure1 which the school of the ,salptrire or ,nancy would ascribe1 with probable justice1 to 'suggestion1' a savage example will be given later4 ,savage hypnotism and 'suggestion1' among the ,sioux and ,arapahoe1 has been thought worthy of a whole volume in the ,reports of the ,ethnological ,bureau of the ,smithsonian ,institute 7,washington1 ,u4,s41 #ahib-ih74 ,republican ,governments publish scientific matter 'regardless of expense1' and the essential points might have been put more shortly4 ,they illustrate the fact that only certain persons can hypnotise others1 and throw light on some peculiarities of rapport4#c ,in brief1 savages anticipated us in the modern science of experimental psychology1 as is frankly acknowledged by the ,society for ,experimental ,psychology of ,berlin4 ',that many mystical phenomena are much more common and prominent among savages than among ourselves is familiar to everyone acquainted with the subject4 ,the ethnological side of our inquiry demands penetrative study4'#d ,that study ,i am about to try to sketch4 ,my object is to examine some 'superstitious practices' and beliefs of savages by aid of the comparative method4 ,i shall compare1 as ,i have already said1 the ethnological evidence for savage usages and beliefs analogous to thought-transference1 coincidental hallucinations1 alternating personality1 and so forth1 with the best attested modern examples1 experimental or spontaneous4 ,this raises the question of our evidence1 which is all-important4 ,we proceed to defend it4 ,the savage accounts are on the level of much anthropological evidence2 they may1 that is1 be dismissed by adversaries as 'travellers' tales4' ,but the best testimony for the truth of the reports as to actual belief in the facts is the undesigned coincidence of evidence from all ages and quarters4#e ,when the stories brought by travellers1 ancient and modern1 learned and unlearned1 pious or sceptical1 agree in the main1 we have all the certainty that anthropology can offer4 ,again1 when we find practically the same strange neglected sparks1 not only rumoured of in ,european popular superstition1 but attested in many hundreds of depositions made at first hand by respectable modern witnesses1 educated and responsible1 we cannot honestly or safely dismiss the coincidence of report as indicating a mere 'survival' of savage superstitious belief1 and nothing more4 ,we can no longer do so1 it is agreed1 in the case of hypnotic phenomena4 ,i hope to make it seem possible that we should not do so in the matter of the hallucinations provoked by gazing in a smooth deep1 usually styled 'crystal-gazing4' ,ethnologically1 this practice is at least as old as classical times1 and is of practically world-wide distribution4 ,i shall prove its existence in ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 ,north ,america1 ,south ,america1 ,asia1 ,africa1 ,polynesia1 and among the ,incas1 not to speak of the middle and recent ,european ages4 ,the universal idea is that such visions may be 'clairvoyant4' ,to take a ,polynesian case1 'resembling the ,hawaiian wai harru4' ,when anyone has been robbed1 the priest1 after praying1 has a hole dug in the floor of the house1 and filled with water4 ,then he gazes into the water1 'over which the god is supposed to place the spirit of the thief4444 ,the image of the thief was1 according to their account1 reflected in the water1 and being perceived by the priest1 he named the individual1 or the parties4'#f ,here the statement about the 'spirit' is a mere savage philosophical explanation4 ,but the fact that hallucinatory pictures can really be seen by a fair percentage of educated ,europeans1 in water1 glass balls1 and so forth1 is now confirmed by frequent experiment1 and accepted by opponents1 'non-mystical writers1' like ,dr4 ,parish of ,munich4#g ,i shall bring evidence to suggest that the visions may correctly reflect1 as it were1 persons and places absolutely unknown to the gazer1 and that they may even reveal details unknown to every one present4 ,such results among savages1 or among the superstitious1 would be1 and are1 explained by the theory of 'spirits4' ,modern science has still to find an explanation consistent with recognised laws of nature1 but 'spirits' we shall not invoke4 ,in the same way ,i mean to examine all or most of the 'so-called mystical phenomena of savage life4' ,i then compare them with the better vouched for modern examples4 ,to return to the question of evidence1 ,i confess that ,i do not see how the adverse anthropologist1 psychologist1 or popular agnostic is to evade the following dilemma3 ,to the anthropologist we say1 ',the evidence we adduce is your own evidence1 that of books of travel in all lands and countries4 ,if you may argue from it1 so may we4 ,some of it is evidence to unusual facts1 more of it is evidence to singular beliefs1 which we think not necessarily without foundation4 ,as raising a presumption in favour of that opinion1 we cite examples in which savage observations of abnormal and once rejected facts1 are now admitted by science to have a large residuum of truth1 we argue that what is admitted in some cases may come to be admitted in more4 ,no a priori line can here be drawn4' ,to the psychologist who objects that our modern instances are mere anecdotes1 we reply by asking1 ',dear sir1 what are your modern instances8 ,what do you know of ,mrs4 ,a41 whom you still persistently cite as an example of morbid recurrent hallucinations8 ,name the ,german servant girl who1 in a fever1 talked several learned languages1 which she had heard her former master1 a scholar1 declaim6 ,where did she live8 ,who vouches for her1 who heard her1 who understood her8 ,there is1 you know1 no evidence at all2 the anecdote is told by ,coleridge3 the phenomena are said by him to have been observed in a ,roman ,catholic town in ,germany1 a year or two before my arrival at ,gttingen4444 ,many eminent physiologists and psychologists visited the town4 ,why do you not name a few out of the distinguished crowd8'#h ,this anecdote1 a rumour of a rumour of a ,protestant explanation of a ,catholic marvel1 was told by ,coleridge at least twenty years after the possible date4 ,the psychologists copy it1#i one after the other1 as a flock of sheep jump where their leader has jumped4 ,an example by way of anecdote may be permitted4 ,according to the current anthropological theory1 the idea of soul or spirit was suggested to early men by their experiences in dreams4 ,they seemed1 in sleep1 to visit remote places2 therefore1 they argued1 something within them was capable of leaving the body and wandering about4 ,this something was the soul or spirit4 ,now it is obvious that this opinion of early men would be confirmed if they ever chanced to acquire1 in dreams1 knowledge of places which they had never visited1 and of facts as to which1 in their waking state1 they could have no information4 ,this experience1 indeed1 would suggest problems even ,to ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 if it occurred to him4 ,conversing on this topic with a friend of acknowledged philosophical eminence1 ,i illustrated my meaning by a story of a dream4 ,it was reported to me by the dreamer1 with whom ,i am well acquainted1 was of very recent occurrence1 and was corroborated by the evidence of another person1 to whom the dream was narrated1 before its fulfilment was discovered4 ,i am not at liberty to publish the details1 for good reasons1 but the essence of the matter was this3 ,a4 and ,b4 7the dreamer7 had common interests4 ,a4 had taken certain steps about which ,b4 had only a surmise1 and a vague one1 that steps had probably been taken4 ,a4 then died1 and ,b4 in an extremely vivid dream 7a thing unfamiliar to him7 seemed to read a mass of unknown facts1 culminating in two definite results1 capable of being stated in figures4 ,these results1 by the very nature of the case1 could not be known to ,a41 so that1 before he was placed out of ,b4's reach by death1 he could not have stated them to him1 and1 afterwards1 had assuredly no means of doing so4 ,the dream1 two days after its occurrence1 and after it had been told to ,c41 proved to be literally correct4 ,now ,i am not asking the reader's belief for this anecdote 7for that could only be yielded in virtue of knowledge of the veracity of ,b4 and ,c471 but ,i invite his attention to the psychological explanation4 ,my friend suggested that ,a4 had told ,b4 all about the affair1 that ,b4 had not listened 7though his interests were vitally concerned71 and that the crowd of curious details1 naturally unfamiliar to ,b41 had reposed in his subconscious memory1 and had been revived in the dream4 ,now ,b4's dream was a dream of reading a mass of minute details1 including names of places entirely unknown to him4 ,it may be admitted1 in accordance with the psychological theory1 that ,b4 might have received all this information from ,a41 but1 by dint of inattention--'the malady of not marking'--might never have been consciously aware of what he heard4 ,then ,b4's subconscious memory of what he did not consciously know might break upon him in his dream4 ,instances of similar mental phenomena are not uncommon4 ,but the general result of the combined details was one which could not possibly be known to ,a4 before his death2 nor to ,b4 could it be known at all4 ,yet ,b4's dream represented this general result with perfect accuracy1 which cannot be accounted for by the revival of subconscious memory in sleep4 ,neither asleep nor awake can a man remember what it is impossible for him to have known4 ,the dream contained no prediction for the results were now fixed2 but 7granting the good faith of the narrator7 the dream did contain information not normally accessible4 ,however1 by way of psychological explanation of the dream1 my friend cited ,coleridge's legend1 as to the ,german girl and her unconscious knowledge of certain learned languages4 ',and what is the evidence for the truth of ,coleridge's legend8' ,of course1 there is none1 or none known to all the psychologists who quote it from ,coleridge4 ,neither1 if true1 was the legend to the point4 ,however1 psychology will accept such unauthenticated narratives1 and yet will scoff at first baud1 duly corroborated testimony from living and honourable people1 about recent events4 ,only a great force of prejudice can explain this acceptance1 by psychologists1 of one kind of marvellous tale on no evidence1 and this rejection of another class of marvellous tale1 when supported by first hand1 signed and corroborated evidence1 of living witnesses4 ,i see only one escape for psychologists from this dilemma4 ,their marvellous tales are possible1 though unvouched for1 because they have always heard them and repeated them in lectures1 and read and repeated them in books4 ,our marvellous tales are impossible1 because the psychologists know that they are impossible1 which means that they have not been familiar with them1 from youth upwards1 in lectures and manuals4 ,but man has no right to have 'clear ideas of the possible and impossible1' like ,faraday1 a priori1 except in the exact sciences4 ,there are other instances of weak evidence which satisfies psychologists4 ,hamilton has an anecdote1 borrowed from ,monboddo1 who got it from ,mr4 ,hans ,stanley1 who1 'about twenty-six years ago1' heard it from the subject of the story1 ,madame de ,laval4 ',i have the memorandum somewhere in my papers1' says ,mr4 ,stanley1 vaguely4 ,then we have two ,american anecdotes by ,dr4 ,flint and ,mr4 ,rush2 and such is ,sir ,william ,hamilton's equipment of odd facts for discussing the unconscious or subconscious4 ,the least credible and worst attested of these narratives still appears in popular works on psychology4 ,moreover1 all psychology1 except experimental psychology1 is based on anecdotes which people tell about their own subjective experiences4 ,mr4 ,galton1 whose original researches are well known1 even offered rewards in money for such narratives about visualised rows of coloured figures1 and so on4 ,clearly the psychologist1 then1 has no prima facie right to object to our anecdotes of experiences1 which he regards as purely subjective4 ,as evidence1 we only accept them at first hand1 and1 when possible1 the witnesses have been cross-examined personally4 ,our evidence then1 where it consists of travellers' tales1 is on a level with that which satisfies the anthropologist4 ,where it consists of modern statements of personal experience1 our evidence is often infinitely better than much which is accepted by the nonexperimental psychologist4 ,as for the agnostic writer on the ,non-,religion of the ,future1 ,m4 ,guyau actually illustrates the ,resurrection of our ,lord by an ,american myth about a criminal1 of whom a hallucinatory phantasm appeared to each of his gaol companions1 separately and successively1 on a day after his execution6 ,for this prodigious fable no hint of reference to authority is given4#aj ,yet the evidence appears to satisfy ,m4 ,guyau1 and is used by him to reinforce his argument4 ,the anthropologist and psychologist1 then1 must either admit that their evidence is no better than ours1 if as good1 or must say that they only believe evidence as to 'possible' facts4 ,they thus constitute themselves judges of what is possible1 and practically regard themselves as omniscient4 ,science has had to accept so many things once scoffed at as 'impossible1' that this attitude of hers1 as we shall show in chapter ii41 ceases to command respect4 ,my suggestion is that the trivial1 rejected1 or unheeded phenomena vouched for by the evidence here defended may1 not inconceivably1 be of considerable importance4 ,but1 stating the case at the lowest1 if we are only concerned with illusions and fables1 it cannot but be curious to note their persistent uniformity in savage and civilised life4 ,to make the first of our two main positions clear1 and in part to justify ourselves in asking any attention for such matters1 we now offer an historical sketch of the relations between ,science and the so-called ',miraculous' in the past4 ,footnote #a3 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #aef4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,footnote #b3 ,ueber psychische ,beobachiungen bei ,naiurvlkern4 ,leipzig1 ,gunther1 #ahij4 ,footnote #c3 ,see especially pp4 #ibb-ibf4 ,the book is interesting in other ways1 and1 indeed1 touching1 as it describes the founding of a new ,red ,indian religion1 on a basis of ,hypnotism and ,christianity4 ,footnote #d3 ,programme of the ,society1 p4 iv4 ,footnote #e3 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i1 #i1 #aj4 ,footnote #f3 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 ii4 p4 #bdj4 ,footnote #g3 ,hallucinations and ,illusions1 ,english edition1 pp4 #fi-gj1 #big4 ,footnote #h3 ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,lectures1 i4 #cde4 ,footnote #i3 ,maudsley1 ,kerner1 ,carpentor1 ,du ,prel1 ,zangwill4 ,footnote #aj3 ,coleridge's mythical maid 7p4 #aj7 is set down by ,mr4 ,samuel ,laing to an experiment of ,braid's6 ,no references are given4--,laing3 ,problems of the ,future4 ,,ii ,,science ,,and ',,miracles' ,historical ,sketch ,research in the ,x region is not a new thing under the sun4 ,when ,saul disguised himself before his conference with the ,witch of ,endor1 he made an elementary attempt at a scientific test of the supernormal4 ,croesus1 the king1 went much further1 when he tested the clairvoyance of the oracles of ,greece1 by sending an embassy to ask what he was doing at a given hour on a given day1 and by then doing something very bizarre4 ,we do not know how the ,delphic oracle found out the right answer1 but various easy methods of fraud at once occur to the mind4 ,however1 the procedure of ,croesus1 if he took certain precautions1 was relatively scientific4 ,relatively scientific also was the inquiry of ,porphyry1 with whose position our own is not unlikely to be compared4 ,unable1 or reluctant1 to accept ,christianity1 ,porphyry 'sought after a sign' of an element of supernormal truth in ,paganism4 ,but he began at the wrong end1 namely at ,pagan spiritualistic sances1 with the usual accompaniments of darkness and fraud4 ,his perplexed letter to ,anebo1 with the reply attributed to ,iamblichus1 reveal ,porphyry wandering puzzled among mediums1 floating lights1 odd noises1 queer dubious 'physical phenomena4' ,he did not begin with accurate experiments as to the existence of rare1 and apparently supernormal human faculties1 and he seems to have attained no conclusion except that 'spirits' are 'deceitful4'#a ,something more akin to modern research began about the time of the ,reformation1 and lasted till about #afhj4 ,the fury for burning witches led men of sense1 learning1 and humanity to ask whether there was any reality in witchcraft1 and1 generally1 in the marvels of popular belief4 ,the inquiries of ,thyraeus1 ,lavaterus1 ,bodinus1 ,wierus1 ,le ,loyer1 ,reginald ,scot1 and many others1 tended on the whole to the negative side as regards the wilder fables about witches1 but left the problems of ghosts and haunted houses pretty much where they were before4 ,it may be observed that ,lavaterus 7circ4 #aehj7 already put forth a form of the hypothesis of telepathy 7that 'ghosts' are hallucinations produced by the direct action of one mind1 or brain1 upon another71 while ,thyraeus doubted whether the noises heard in 'haunted houses' were not mere hallucinations of the sense of hearing4 ,but all these early writers1 like ,cardan1 were very careless of first-hand evidence1 and1 indeed1 preferred ghosts vouched for by classical authority1 ,pliny1 ,plutarch1 or ,suetonius4 ,with the ,rev4 ,joseph ,glanvil1 ,f4,r4,s4 7circ4 #afff71 a more careful examination of evidence came into use4 ,among the marvels of ,glanvil's and other tracts usually published together in his ',sadducismus ,triumphatus' will be found letters which show that he and his friends1 like ,henry ,more and ,boyle1 laboured to collect first-hand evidence for second sight1 haunted houses1 ghosts1 and wraiths4 ,the confessed object was to procure a ',whip for the ,droll1' a reply to the laughing scepticism of the ,restoration4 ,the result was to bring on ,glanvil a throng of bores--he was 'worse haunted than ,mr4 ,mompesson's house1' he says-and ,mr4 ,pepys found his arguments 'not very convincing4' ,mr4 ,pepys1 however1 was alarmed by 'our young gib-cat1' which he mistook for a 'spright4' ,with ,henry ,more1 ,baxter1 and ,glanvil practically died1 for the time1 the attempt to investigate these topics scientifically1 though an impression of doubt was left on the mind of ,addison4 ,witchcraft ceased to win belief1 and was abolished1 as a crime1 in #agcf4 ,some of the ,scottish clergy1 and ,john ,wesley1 clung fondly to the old faith1 but ,wodrow1 and ,cotton ,mather 7about #agaj-agcj7 were singularly careless and unlucky in producing anything like evidence for their narratives4 ,ghost stories continued to be told1 but not to be investigated4 ,then one of the most acute of philosophers decided that investigation ought never to be attempted4 ,this scientific attitude towards ,x phenomena1 that of refusing to examine them1 and denying them without examination1 was fixed by ,david ,hume in his celebrated essay on ',miracles4' ,hume derided the observation and study of what he called ',miracles1' in the field of experience1 and he looked for an a priori argument which would for ever settle the question without examination of facts4 ,in an age of experimental philosophy1 which derided a priori methods1 this was ,hume's great contribution to knowledge4 ,his famous argument1 the joy of many an honest breast1 is a tissue of fallacies which might be given for exposure to beginners in logic1 as an elementary exercise4 ,in announcing his discovery1 ,hume amusingly displays the self-complacency and the want of humour with which we ,scots are commonly charged by our critics3 ',i flatter myself that ,i have discovered an argument which1 if just1 will1 with the wise and learned1 be an everlasting check to all kinds of superstitious delusions1 and consequently will be useful as long as the world endures4' ,he does not expect1 however1 to convince the multitude4 ,till the end of the world1 'accounts of miracles and prodigies1 ,i suppose1 will be found in all histories1 sacred and profane4' ,without saying here what he means by a miracle1 ,hume argues that 'experience is our only guide in reasoning4' ,he then defines a miracle as 'a violation of the laws of nature4' ,by a 'law of nature' he means a uniformity1 not of all experience1 but of each experience as he will deign to admit2 while he excludes1 without examination1 all evidence for experience of the absence of such uniformity4 ,that kind of experience cannot be considered4 ',there must be a uniform experience against every miraculous event1 otherwise the event would not merit that appellation4' ,if there be any experience in favour of the event1 that experience does not count4 ,a miracle is counter to universal experience1 no event is counter to universal experience1 therefore no event is a miracle4 ,if you produce evidence to what ,hume calls a miracle 7we shall see examples7 he replies that the evidence is not valid1 unless its falsehood would be more miraculous than the fact4 ,now no error of human evidence can be more miraculous than a 'miracle4' ,therefore there can be no valid evidence for 'miracles4' ,fortunately1 ,hume now gives an example of what he means by 'miracles4' ,he says3-- ',for1 first1 there is not to be found1 in all history1 any miracle attested by a sufficient number of men1 of such unquestioned good sense1 education1 and learning1 as to secure us against all delusion in themselves2 of such undoubted integrity1 as to place them beyond all suspicion of any design to deceive others2 of such credit and reputation in the eyes of mankind1 as to have a great deal to lose in case of their being detected in any falsehood2 and at the same time attesting facts performed in such a public manner1 and in so celebrated a part of the world1 as to render the detection unavoidable2 all which circumstances are requisite to give us a full assurance in the testimony of men4'#b ,hume added a note at the end of his book1 in which he contradicted every assertion which he had made in the passage just cited2 indeed1 be contradicted himself before he had written six pages4 ',there surely never was a greater number of miracles ascribed to one person than those which were lately said to have been wrought in ,france upon the tomb of ,abb ,paris1 the famous ,jansenist1 with whose sanctity the people were so long deluded4 ,the curing of the sick1 giving hearing to the deaf1 and sight to the blind1 were everywhere talked of as the usual effects of that holy sepulchre4 ,but what is more extraordinary1 many of the miracles were immediately proved upon the spot1 before judges of unquestioned integrity1 attested by witnesses of credit and distinction1 in a learned age1 and on the most eminent theatre that is now in the world4 ,nor is this all4 ,a relation of them was published and dispersed everywhere2 nor were the ,jesuits1 though a learned body1 supported by the civil magistrate1 and determined enemies to those opinions1 in whose favour the miracles were said to have been wrought1 ever able distinctly to refute or detect them4 ,where shall we find such a number of circumstances1 agreeing to the corroboration of one fact8 ,and what have we to oppose to such a cloud of witnesses1 but the absolute impossibility1 or miraculous nature of the events which they relate8 ,and this1 surely1 in the eyes of all reasonable people1 will alone be regarded as a sufficient refutation4' ,thus ,hume1 first denies the existence of such evidence1 given in such circumstances as he demands1 and then he produces an example of that very kind of evidence4 ,having done this1 he abandons 7as ,mr4 ,wallace observes7 his original assertion that the evidence does not exist1 and takes refuge in alleging 'the absolute impossibility' of the events which the evidence supports4 ,thus ,hume poses as a perfect judge of the possible1 in a kind of omniscience4 ,he takes his stand on the uniformity of all experience that is not hostile to his idea of the possible1 and dismisses all testimony to other experience1 even when it reaches his standard of evidence4 ,he is remote indeed from ,virchow's position 'that what we call the laws of nature must vary according to our frequent new experiences4'#c ,in his note1 ,hume buttresses and confirms his evidence for the ,jansenist miracles4 ,they have even a martyr1 ,m4 ,montgeron1 who wrote an account of the events1 and1 says ,hume lightly1 'is now said to be somewhere in a dungeon on account of his book4' ',many of the miracles of the ,abb ,paris were proved immediately by witnesses before the ,bishop's court at ,paris1 under the eye of ,cardinal ,noailles4444' ',his successor was an enemy to the ,jansenists1 yet twenty-two curs of ,paris 444 pressed him to examine these miracles 444 ,but he wisely forbore4' ,hume adds his testimony to the character of these curs4 ,thus it is wisdom1 according to ,hume1 to dismiss the most public and well-attested 'miracles' without examination4 ,this is experimental science of an odd kind4 ,the phenomena were cases of healing1 many of them surprising1 of cataleptic rigidity1 and of insensibility to pain1 among visitors to the tomb of the ,abb ,paris 7#agca74 ,had the cases been judicially examined 7all medical evidence was in their favour71 and had they been proved false1 the cause of ,hume would have profited enormously4 ,a strong presumption would have been raised against the miracles of ,christianity4 ,but ,hume applauds the wisdom of not giving his own theory this chance of a triumph4 ,the cataleptic seizures were of the sort now familiar to science4 ,these have1 therefore1 emerged from the miraculous4 ,in fact1 the phenomena which occurred at the tomb of the ,abb ,paris have emerged almost too far1 and now seem in danger of being too readily and too easily accepted4 ,in #ahhg ,,mm4 ,binet and ,fr1 of the school of the ,salptrire1 published in ,english a popular manual styled ',animal ,magnetism4' ,these authors write with great caution about such alleged phenomena as the reading1 by the hypnotised patient1 of the thoughts in the mind of the hypnotiser4 ,but as to the phenomena at the tomb of the ,abb ,paris1 they say that 'suggestion explains them4'#d ,that is1 in the opinion of ,,mm4 ,binet and ,fr the so-called 'miracles' really occurred1 and were worked by 'the imagination1' by 'self-suggestion4' ,the most famous case--that of ,mlle4 ,coirin--has been carefully examined by ,dr4 ,charcot4#e ,mlle4 ,coirin had a dangerous fall from her horse1 in ,september #agaf1 in her thirty-first year4 ,the medical details may be looked for in ,dr4 ,charcot's essay or in ,montgeron4#f ',her disease was diagnosed as cancer of the left breast1' the nipple 'fell off bodily4' ,amputation of the breast was proposed1 but ,madame ,coirin1 believing the disease to be radically incurable1 refused her consent4 ,paralysis of the left side set in 7#agah71 the left leg shrivelling up4 ,on ,august #i1 #agca1 ,mlle4 ,coirin 'tried the off chance' of a miracle1 put on a shift that had touched the tomb of ,paris1 and used some earth from the grave4 ,on ,august #aa1 ,mlle4 ,coirin could turn herself in bed2 on the #abth the horrible wound 'was staunched1 and began to close up and heal4' ,the paralysed side recovered life and its natural proportions4 ,by ,september #c1 ,mlle4 ,coirin could go out for a drive4 ,all her malady1 says ,dr4 ,charcot1 paralysis1 'cancer1' and all1 was 'hysterical2' 'hysterical oedema1' for which he quotes many ,french authorities and one ,american4 ',under the physical psychical8 influence brought to bear by the application of the shift 444 the oedema1 which was due to vaso-motor trouble1 disappeared almost instantaneously4 ,the breast regained its normal size4' ,dr4 ,charcot generously adds that shrines1 like ,lourdes1 have cured patients in whom he could not 'inspire the operation of the faith cure4' ,he certainly cannot explain everything which claims to be of supernatural origin in the faith cure4 ,we have to learn the lesson of patience4 ,i am among the first to recognise that ,shakespeare's words hold good to-day3 ',there are more things in heaven and earth1 ,horatio1 ,than are dreamt of in your philosophy4' ,if ,dr4 ,charcot had believed in what the ,french call suggestion mentale-- suggestion by thought-transference 7which ,i think he did not7--he could have explained the healing of the ,centurion's servant1 ',say the word1 ,lord1 and my servant shall be healed1' by suggestion distance 7telepathy71 and by premising that the servant's palsy was 'hysterical4' ,but what do we mean by 'hysterical'8 ,nobody knows4 ,the 'mind1' somehow1 causes gangrenes1 if not cancers1 paralysis1 shrinking of tissues2 the mind1 somehow1 cures them4 ,and what is the 'mind'8 ,as my object is to give savage parallels to modern instances better vouched for4 ,i quote a singular ,red ,indian cure by 'suggestion4' ,hearne1 travelling in ,canada1 in #aggj1 met a native who had 'dead palsy1' affecting the whole of one side4 ,he was dragged on a sledge1 'reduced to a mere skeleton1' and so was placed in the magic lodge4 ,the first step in his cure was the public swallowing by a conjurer of a board of wood1 'about the size of a barrel-stave1' twice as wide across as his mouth4 ,hearne stood beside the man1 'naked as he was born1' 'and1 notwithstanding ,i was all attention1 ,i could not detect the deceit4' ,of course1 ,hearne believes that this was mere legerdemain1 and 7p4 #baf7 mentions a most suspicious circumstance4 ,the account is amusing1 and deserves the attention of ,mr4 ,neville ,maskelyne4 ,the same conjurer had previously swallowed a cradle6 ,now bayonet swallowing1 which he also did1 is possible1 though ,hearne denies it 7p4 #bag74 ,the real object of these preliminary feats1 however performed1 is1 probably1 to inspire faith1 which ,dr4 ,charcot might have done by swallowing a cradle4 ,the ,indians explain that the barrel staves apparently swallowed are merely dematerialised by 'spirits1' leaving only the forked end sticking out of the conjurer's mouth4 ,in fact1 ,hearne caught the conjurer in the act of making a separate forked end4 ,faith being thus inspired1 the conjurer1 for three entire days1 blew1 sang1 and danced round 'the poor paralytic1 fasting4' ',and it is truly wonderful1 though the strictest truth1 that when the poor man was taken from the conjuring house 444 he was able to move all the fingers and toes of the side that had been so long dead4444 ,at the end of six weeks he went a-hunting for his family' 7p4 #bai74 ,hearne kept up his acquaintance1 and adds1 what is very curious1 that he developed almost a secondary personality4 ',before that dreadful paralytic stroke1 he had been distinguished for his good nature and benevolent disposition1 was entirely free from every appearance of avarice1444 but after this event he was the most fractious1 quarrelsome1 discontented1 and covetous wretch alive' 7p4 #bbj74 ,dr4 ,charcot1 if he had been acquainted with this case1 would probably have said that it 'is of the nature of those which ,professor ,russell ,reynolds has classified under the head of paralysis dependent on idea4'#g ,unluckily1 ,hearne does not tell us how his hunter1 an untutored ,indian1 became 'paralysed by idea4' ,dr4 ,charcot adds3 ',in every case1 science is a foe to systematic negation1 which the morrow may cause to melt away in the light of its new triumphs4' ,the present 'new triumph' is a mere coincidence with the dicta of our ,lord1 ',thy faith hath made thee whole4444 ,i have not found so great faith1 no1 not in ,israel4' ,there are cures1 as there are maladies1 caused 'by idea4' ,so1 in fact1 we had always understood4 ,but the point is that science1 wherever it agrees with ,david ,hume1 is not a foe1 but a friend to 'systematic negation4' ,a parallel case of a 'miracle1' the stigmata of ,st4 ,francis1 was1 of course1 regarded by science as a fable or a fraud4 ,but1 now that blisters and other lesions can be produced by suggestion1 the fable has become a probable fact1 and1 therefore1 not a miracle at all4#h ,mr4 ,james remarks3 ',as so often happens1 a fact is denied till a welcome interpretation comes with it4 ,then it is admitted readily enough1 and evidence quite insufficient to back a claim1 so long as the ,church had an interest in making it1 proves to be quite sufficient for modern scientific enlightenment the moment it appears that a reputed saint can thereby be claimed as a case of hystero-epilepsy4'#i ,but the ,church continues to have an interest in the matter4 ,as the class of facts which ,hume declined to examine begins to be gradually admitted by science1 the thing becomes clear4 ,the evidence which could safely convey these now admittedly possible facts1 say from the time of ,christ1 is so far proved to be not necessarily mythical--proved to be not incapable of carrying statements probably correct1 which once seemed absolutely false4 ,if so1 where1 precisely1 ends its power of carrying facts8 ,thus considered1 the kinds of marvellous events recorded in the ,gospels1 for example1 are no longer to be dismissed on a priori grounds as 'mythical4' ,we cannot now discard evidence as necessarily false because it clashes with our present ideas of the possible1 when we have to acknowledge that the very same evidence may safely convey to us facts which clashed with our fathers' notions of what is possible1 but which are now accepted4 ,our notions of the possible cease to be a criterion of truth or falsehood1 and our contempt for the ,gospels as myths must slowly die1 as 'miracle' after 'miracle' is brought within the realm of acknowledged law4 ,with each such admission the hypothesis that the ,gospel evidence is mythical must grow weaker1 and weaker must grow the negative certainty of popular science4 ,the occurrences which took place at and near the tomb of ,paris were attested1 as ,hume truly avers1 by a great body of excellent evidence4 ,but the wisdom which declined to make a judicial examination has deprived us of the best kind of record4 ,analogous if not exactly similar events now confessedly take place1 and are no longer looked upon as miraculous4 ,but as long as they were held to be miraculous1 not to examine the evidence1 said ,hume1 was the policy of 'all reasonable people4' ,the result was to deprive ,science of the best sort of record of facts which she welcomes as soon as she thinks she can explain them4#aj ,examples of the folly of a priori negation are common4 ,the ,british ,association refused to hear the essay which ,braid1 the inventor of the word 'hypnotism1' had written upon the subject4 ,braid1 ,elliotson1 and other ,english inquirers of the mid-century1 were subjected to such persecutions as official science could inflict4 ,we read of ,m4 ,deslon1 a disciple of ,mesmer1 about #aghc1 that he was 'condemned by the ,faculty of ,medicine1 without any examination of the facts4' ,the ,inquisition proceeded more fairly than these scientific obscurantists4 ,another curious example may be cited4 ,m4 ,guyau1 in his work ',the ,non-,religion of the ,future1' argues that ,religion is doomed4 ',poetic genius has withdrawn its services1' witness ,tennyson and ,browning6 ',among orthodox ,protestant nations miracles do not happen4'#aa ,but 'marvellous facts' do happen4#ab ,these 'marvellous facts1' accepted by ,m4 ,guyau1 are what ,hume called 'miracles1' and advised the 'wise and learned' to laugh at1 without examination4 ,they were not facts1 and could not be1 he said4 ,now to ,m4 ,guyau's mind they are facts1 and therefore are not miracles4 ,he includes 'mental suggestion taking place even at a distance4' ,a man 'can transmit an almost compulsive command1 it appears nowadays1 by a simple tension of his will4' ,if this be so1 if 'will' can affect matter from a distance1 obviously the relations of will and matter are not what popular science tells us that they are4 ,again1 if this truth is now established1 and won from that region which ,hume and popular science forbid us to investigate1 who knows what other facts may be redeemed from that limbo1 or how far they may affect our views of possibilities8 ,the admission of mental action1 operative distance1 is1 of course1 personal only to ,m4 ,guyau1 among friends of the new negative tradition4 ,we return to ,hume4 ,he next argues that the pleasures of wonder make all accounts of 'miracles' worthless4 ,he has just given an example of the equivalent pleasures of dogmatic disbelief4 ,then ,religion is a disturbing force2 but so1 manifestly1 is irreligion4 ',the wise and learned are content to deride the absurdity1 without informing themselves of the particular facts4' ,the wise and learned are applauded for their scientific attitude4 ,again1 miracles destroy each other1 for all religions have their miracles1 but all religions cannot be true4 ,this argument is no longer of force with people who look on 'miracles' as ',x phenomena1' not as divine evidences to the truth of this or that creed4 ',the gazing populace receives1 without examination1 whatever soothes superstition1' and ,hume's whole purpose is to make the wise and learned imitate the gazing populace by rejecting alleged facts 'without examination4' ,the populace investigated more than did the wise and learned4 ,hume has an alternative definition of a miracle--'a miracle is a transgression of a law of nature by a particular volition of the ,deity1 or by the interposition of some invisible agent4' ,we reply that what ,hume calls a 'miracle' may result from the operation of some as yet unascertained law of nature 7say self-suggestion71 and that our business1 at present1 is to examine such events1 not to account for them4 ,it may fairly be said that ,hume is arguing against men who wished to make so-called 'miracles' a test of the truth of ,jansenism1 for example1 and that he could not be expected to answer1 by anticipation1 ideas not current in his day4 ,but he remains guilty of denouncing the investigation of apparent facts4 ,no attitude can be less scientific than his1 or more common among many men of science4 ,according to the humorous wont of things in this world1 the whole question of the marvellous had no sooner been settled for ever by ,david ,hume than it was reopened by ,emanuel ,swedenborg4 ,now1 ,kant was familiar with certain of the works of ,hume1 whether he had read his ',essay on ,miracles' or not4 ,far from declining to examine the portentous 'visions' of ,swedenborg1 ,kant interested himself deeply in the topic4 ,as early as #ageh he wrote his first remarks on the seer1 containing some reports of stories or legends about ,swedenborg's 'clairvoyance4' ,in the true spirit of psychical research1 ,kant wrote a letter to ,swedenborg1 asking for information at first hand4 ,the seer got the letter1 but he never answered it4 ,kant1 however1 prints one or two examples of ,swedenborg's successes4 ,madame ,harteville1 widow of the ,dutch envoy in ,stockholm1 was dunned by a silversmith for a debt of her late husband's4 ,she believed that it had been paid1 but could not find the receipt4 ,she therefore asked ,swedenborg to use his renowned gifts4 ,he promised to see what he could do1 and1 three days later1 arrived at the lady's house while she was giving a tea1 or rather a coffee1 party4 ,to the assembled society ,swedenborg remarked1 'in a cold-blooded way1 that he had seen her man1 and spoken to him4' ,the late ,m4 ,harteville declared to ,swedenborg that he had paid the bill1 seven months before his decease3 the receipt was in a cupboard upstairs4 ,madame ,harteville replied that the cupboard had been thoroughly searched to no purpose4 ,swedenborg answered that1 as he learned from the ghost1 there was a secret drawer behind the side-plank within the cupboard4 ,the drawer contained diplomatic correspondence1 and the missing receipt4 ,the whole company then went upstairs1 found the secret drawer1 and the receipt among the other papers4 ,kant adds ,swedenborg's clairvoyant vision1 from ,gothenburg1 of a great fire at ,stockholm 7dated ,september #agef74 ,kant pined to see ,swedenborg himself1 and waited eagerly for his book1 ',arcana ,coelestia4' ,at last he obtained this work1 at the ransom1 ruinous to ,kant at that time1 of #g4 ,but he was disappointed with what he read1 and in ',trume eines ,geistersehers1' made a somewhat sarcastic attempt at a metaphysical theory of apparitions4 ',velut aegri somnia vanae ,finguntur species' is his motto4 ,kant's real position about all these matters is1 ,i venture to say1 almost identical with that of ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,a ,scot himself1 by descent1 ,kant may have heard tales of second-sight and bogles4 ,like ,scott1 he dearly loved a ghost-story2 like ,scott he was canny enough to laugh1 publicly1 at them and at himself for his interest in them4 ,yet both would take trouble to inquire4 ,as ,kant vainly wrote to ,swedenborg and others--as he vainly spent #g4 on ',arcana ,coelestia1' so ,sir ,walter was anxious to go to ,egypt to examine the facts of ink-gazing clairvoyance4 ,kant confesses that each individual ghost-story found him sceptical1 whereas the cumulative mass made a considerable impression4#ac ,the first seventy pages of the ',tribune' are devoted to a perfectly serious discussion of the metaphysics of ',spirits4' ,on page #gc he pleasantly remarks1 ',now we shall understand that all said hitherto is superfluous1' and he will not reproach the reader who regards seers not as citizens of two worlds 7,plotinus71 but as candidates for ,bedlam4 ,kant's irony is peculiarly ,scottish4 ,he does not himself know how far he is in earnest1 and1 to save his self-respect and character for canniness1 he 'jocks wi' deeficulty4' ,he amuses himself with trying how far he can carry speculations on metaphysics 7not yet reformed by himself7 into the realm of the ghostly4 ,he makes admissions about his own tendency to think that he has an immaterial soul1 and that these points are1 or may be1 or some day will be1 scientifically solved4 ,these admissions are eagerly welcomed by ,du ,prel in his ',philosophy of ,mysticism2' but they are only part of ,kant's joke1 and how far they are serious1 ,kant himself does not know4 ,if spiritualists knew their own business1 they would translate and publish ,kant's first seventy pages of ',trume4' ,something like telepathy1 action of spirit1 even discarnate1 on spirit1 is alluded to1 but the idea is as old as ,lavaterus at least 7p4 #eb74 ,kant has a good deal to say1 like ,scott in his ',demonology1' on the physics of ,hallucination1 but it is antiquated matter4 ,he thinks the whole topic of spiritual being only important as bearing on hopes of a future life4 ,as speculation1 all is 'in the air1' and as in such matters the learned and unlearned are on a level of ignorance1 science will not discuss them4 ,he then repeats the ,swedenborg stories1 and thinks it would be useful to posterity if some one would investigate them while witnesses are alive and memories are fresh4 ,in fact1 ,kant asks for psychical research4 ,as for ,swedenborg's so costly book1 ,kant laughs at it4 ,there is in it no evidence1 only assertion4 ,kant ends1 having pleased nobody1 he says1 and as ignorant as when he began1 by citing cultivons notre jardin4 ,kant returned to the theme in ',anthropologische ,didaktik4' ,he discusses the unconscious1 or sub-conscious1 which1 till ,sir ,william ,hamilton lectured1 seems to have been an absolutely unknown topic to ,british psychologists4 ',so ist das ,feld dunkler ,vorstellungen das grsste in ,menschen4' ,he has a chapter on ',the ,divining ,faculty' 7pp4 #hi-ic74 ,he will not hear of presentiments1 and1 unlike ,hegel1 he scouts the ,highland second-sight4 ,the 'possessed' of anthropology are epileptic patients4 ,mystics 7,swedenborg7 are victims of ,schwrmerei4 ,this reference to ,swedenborg is remarked upon by ,schubert in his preface to the essay of ,kant4 ,he points out that 'it is interesting to compare the circumspection1 the almost uncertainty of ,kant when he had to deliver a judgment on the phenomena described by himself and as to which he had made inquiry i4e4 in his letter re ,swedenborg to ,mlle4 de ,knobloch1 and the very decided opinions he expressed forty years later on ,swedenborg and his companions' in the work cited1 sections #ce-cg4 ,the opinion in paragraph #ce is a general one as to mystics4 ,there is no other mention of ,swedenborg4 ,on the whole ,kant is interested1 but despairing4 ,he wants facts1 and no facts are given to him but the book of the ,prophet ,emanuel4 ,but1 as it happened1 a new1 or a revived1 order of facts was just about to solicit scientific attention4 ,kant had 7#agff7 heard rumours of healing by magnetism1 and of the alleged effect of the magnet on the human frame4 ,the subject was in the air1 and had already won the attention of ,mesmer1 about whom ,kant had information4 ,it were superfluous to tell again the familiar story of ,mesmer's performances at ,paris4 ,while ,mesmer's theory of 'magnetism' was denounced by contemporary science1 the discovery of the hypnotic sleep was made by his pupil1 ,puysgur4 ,this gentleman was persuaded that instances of 'thought-transference' 7not through known channels of sense7 occurred between the patient and the magnetiser1 and he also believed that he had witnessed cases of 'clairvoyance1' 'lucidity1' vue distance1 in which the patient apparently beheld places and events remote in space4 ,these things would now be explained by 'unconscious suggestion' in the more sceptical schools of psychological science4 ,the ,revolution interrupted scientific study in ,france to a great degree1 but 'somnambulism' 7the hypnotic sleep7 and 'magnetism' were eagerly examined in ,germany4 ,modern manuals1 for some reason1 are apt to overlook these ,german researches and speculations4 7,compare ,mr4 ,vincent's ',elements of ,hypnotism1' p4 #cd47 ,the ,schellings were interested2 ,ritter thought he had detected a new force1 ',siderism4' ,mr4 ,wallace1 in his preface to ,hegel's ',philosophie des ,geistes1' speaks as if ,ritter had made experiments in telepathy4 ,he may have done so1 but his ',siderismus' 7,tbingen1 #ahjh7 is a ,report undertaken for the ,academy of ,munich1 on the doings of an ,italian water-finder1 or 'dowser4' ,ritter gives details of seventy-four experiments in 'dowsing' for water1 metals1 or coal4 ,he believes in the faculty1 but not in 'psychic' explanations1 or the ,devil4 ,he talks about 'electricity' 7pp4 #agj1 #aij74 ,he describes his precautions to avoid vulgar fraud1 but he took no precautions against unconscious thought-transference4 ,he reckoned the faculty 'temperamental' and useful4 ,amoretti1 at ,milan1 examined hundreds of cases of the so-called ,divining ,rod1 and ,jung ,stilling became an early spiritualist and 'full-welling fountain head' of ghost stories4 ,probably the most important philosophical result of the early ,german researches into the hypnotic slumber is to be found in the writings of ,hegel4 ,owing to his peculiar use of a terminology1 or scientific language1 all his own1 it is extremely difficult to make ,hegel's meaning even moderately clear4 ,perhaps we may partly elucidate it by a similitude of ,mr4 ,frederic ,myers4 ,suppose we compare the ordinary everyday consciousness of each of us to a spectrum1 whose ends towards each extremity fade out of our view4 ,beyond the range of sight there may be imagined a lower or physiological end3 for our ordinary consciousness1 of course1 is unaware of many physiological processes which are eternally going on within us4 ,digestion1 so long as it is healthy1 is an obvious example4 ,but hypnotic experiment makes it certain that a patient1 in the hypnotic condition1 can consciously1 or at least purposefully1 affect physiological processes to which the ordinary consciousness is blind--for example1 by raising a blister1 when it is suggested that a blister must be raised4 ,again 7granting the facts hypothetically and merely for the sake of argument71 at the upper end of the spectrum1 beyond the view of ordinary everyday consciousness1 knowledge may be acquired of things which are out of the view of the consciousness of every day4 ,for example 7for the sake of argument let us admit it71 unknown and remote people and places may be seen and described by clairvoyance1 or vue distance4 ,now ,hegel accepted as genuine the facts which we here adduce merely for the sake of argument1 and by way of illustrations4 ,but he did not regard the clairvoyant consciousness 7or whatever we call it7 which1 ex hypothesi1 is untrammelled by space1 or even by time1 as occupying what we style the upper end of the psychical spectrum4 ,on the contrary1 he placed it at the lower end4 ,hegel's upper end 'loses itself in light2' the lower end1 qui voit tant de choses1 as ,la ,fontaine's shepherd says1 is not 'a sublime mental phase1 and capable of conveying general truths4' ,time and space do not thwart the consciousness at ,hegel's lower end1 which springs from 'the great soul of nature4' ,but that lower end1 though it may see for ,jeanne d',arc at ,valcouleurs a battle at ,rouvray1 a hundred leagues away1 does not communicate any lofty philosophic truths4#ad ,the phenomena of clairvoyance1 in ,hegel's opinion1 merely indicate that the 'material' is really 'ideal1' which1 perhaps1 is as much as we can ask from them4 ',the somnambulist and clairvoyant see without eyes1 and carry their visions directly into regions where the waiting consciousness of orderly intelligence cannot enter' 7,wallace74 ,hegel admits1 however1 that 'in ordinary self-possessed conscious life' there are traces of the 'magic tie1' 'especially between female friends of delicate nerves1' to whom he adds husband and wife1 and members of the same family4 ,he gives 7without date or source7 a case of a girl in ,germany who saw her brother lying dead in a hospital at ,valladolid4 ,her brother was at the time in the hospital1 but it was another man in the nest bed who was dead4 ',it is thus impossible to make out whether what the clairvoyants really see preponderates over what they deceive themselves in4' ,as long as the facts which ,hegel accepted are not officially welcomed by science1 it may seem superfluous to dispute as to whether they are attained by the lower or the higher stratum of our consciousness4 ,but perhaps the question here at issue may be elucidated by some remarks of ,dr4 ,max ,dessoir4 ,psychology1 he says1 has proved that in every conception and idea an image or group of images must be present4 ,these mental images are the recrudescence or recurrence of perceptions4 ,we see a tree1 or a man1 or a dog1 and whenever we have before our minds the conception or idea of any of these things the original perception of them returns1 though of course more faintly4 ,but in ,dr4 ,dessoir's opinion these revived mental images would reach the height of actual hallucinations 7so that the man1 dog1 or tree would seem visibly present7 if other memories and new sensations did not compete with them and check their development4 ,suppose1 to use ,mlle4 ,ferrand's metaphor1 a human body1 living1 but with all its channels of sensation hitherto unopened4 ,open the sense of sight to receive a flash of green colour1 and close it again4 ,apparently1 whenever the mind informing this body had the conception of green 7and it could have no other7 it would also have an hallucination of green1 thus ',annihilating all that's made1 ,to a green thought in a green shade4' ,now1 in sleep or hypnotic trance the competition of new sensations and other memories is removed or diminished1 and therefore the idea of a man1 dog1 or tree once suggested to the hypnotised patient1 does become an actual hallucination4 ,the hypnotised patient sees the absent object which he is told to see1 the sleeper sees things not really present4 ,our primitive state1 before the enormous competition of other memories and new sensations set in1 would thus be a state of hallucination4 ,our normal present condition1 in which hallucination is checked by competing memories and new sensations1 is a suppression of our original1 primitive1 natural tendencies4 ,hallucination represents 'the main trunk of our psychical existence4'#ae ,in ,dr4 ,dessoir's theory this condition of hallucination is man's original and most primitive condition1 but it is not a higher1 rather a lower state of spiritual activity than the everyday practical unhallucinated consciousness4 ,this is also the opinion of ,hegel1 who supposes our primitive mental condition to be capable of descrying objects remote in space and time4 ,mr4 ,myers1 as we saw1 is of the opposite opinion1 as to the relative dignity and relative reality of the present everyday self1 and the old original fundamental ,self4 ,dr4 ,dessoir refrains from pronouncing a decided opinion as to whether the original1 primitive1 hallucinated self within us does 'preside over powers and actions at a distance1' such as clairvoyance2 but he believes in hypnotisation at a distance4 ,his theory1 like ,hegel's1 is that of 'atavism1' or 'throwing back' to some very remote ancestral condition4 ,this will prove of interest later4 ,hegel1 at all events1 believed in the fact of clairvoyance 7though deeming it of little practical use72 he accepted telepathy 7'the magic tie'72 he accepted interchange of sensations between the hypnotiser and the hypnotised2 he believed in the divining rod1 and1 unlike ,kant1 even in ',scottish second-sight4' ',the intuitive soul oversteps the conditions of time and space2 it beholds things remote1 things long past1 and things to come4'#af ,the pendulum of thought has swung back a long way from the point whither it was urged by ,david ,hume4 ,hegel remarks3 ',the facts1 it might seem1 first of all call for verification4 ,but such verification would be superfluous to those on whose account it was called for1 since they facilitate the inquiry for themselves by declaring the narratives1 infinitely numerous though they be1 and accredited by the education and character of the witnesses1 to be mere deception and imposture4 ,their a priori conceptions are so rooted that no testimony can avail against them1 and they have even denied what they have seen with their own eyes1' and reported under their own hands1 like ,sir ,david ,brewster4 ,hegel1 it will be observed1 takes the facts as given1 and works them into his general theory of the ,sensitive ,soul 7fhlende ,seele74 ,he does not try to establish the facts2 but to establish1 or at least to examine them1 is the first business of ,psychical ,research4 ,theorising comes later4 ,the years which have passed between the date of ,hegel's ',philosophy of ,mind' and our own time have witnessed the long dispute over the existence1 the nature1 and the causes of the hypnotic condition1 and over the reality and limitations of the phenomena4 ,thus the ,academy of ,medicine in ,paris appointed a ,committee to examine the subject in #ahbe4 ,the ,report on ',animal ,magnetism1' as it was then styled1 was presented in #ahca4 ,the ,academy lacked the courage to publish it1 for the ,report was favourable even to certain of the still disputed phenomena4 ,at that time1 in accordance with a survival of the theory of ,mesmer1 the agent in hypnotic cases was believed to be a kind of efflux of a cosmic fluid from the 'magnetiser' to the patient4 ,there was 'a magnetic connection4' ,though no distinction between mesmerism and hypnotism is taken in popular language1 'mesmerism' is a word implying this theory of 'magnetic' or other unknown personal influence4 ',hypnotism1' as will presently be seen1 implies no such theory4 ,the ,academy's ,report 7#ahca7 attested the development1 under 'magnetism1' of 'new faculties1' such as clairvoyance and intuition1 also the production of 'great changes in the physical economy1' such as insensibility1 and sudden increase of strength4 ,the ,report declared it to be 'demonstrated' that sleep could be produced 'without suggestion1' as we say now1 though the term was not then in use4 ',sleep has been produced in circumstances in which the persons could not see or were ignorant of the means employed to produce it4' ,the ,academy did its best to suppress this ,report1 which attests the phenomena that ,hegel accepted1 phenomena still disputed4 ,six years later 7#ahcg71 a ,committee reported against the pretensions of a certain ,berna1 a 'magnetiser4' ,no person acted on both ,committees1 and this ,report was accepted4 ,later1 a number of people tried to read a letter in a box1 and failed4 ',this1' says ,mr4 ,vincent1 'settled the question with regard to clairvoyance2' though it might be more logical to say that it settled the pretensions of the competitors on that occasion4 ,the ,academy now decided that1 because certain persons did not satisfy the expectations raised by their preliminary advertisements1 therefore the question of magnetism was definitely closed4 ,we have often to regret that scientific eminence is not always accompanied by scientific logic4 ,where science neglects a subject1 charlatans and dupes take it up4 ,in ,england 'animal magnetism' had been abandoned to this class of enthusiasts1 till ,thackeray's friend1 ,dr4 ,elliotson1 devoted himself to the topic4 ,he was persecuted as doctors know how to persecute2 but in #ahda1 ,braid1 of ,manchester1 discovered that the so-called 'magnetic sleep' could be produced without any 'magnetism1' ,he made his patients stare fixedly at an object1 and encouraged them to expect to go to sleep4 ,he called his method ',hypnotism1' a term which begs no question4 ,seeming to cease to be mysterious1 hypnotism became all but respectable1 and was being used in surgical operations1 till it was superseded by chloroform4 ,in ,england1 the study has been1 and remains1 rather suspect1 while on ,the ,continent hypnotism is used both for healing purposes and in the inquiries of experimental psychology4 ,wide differences of opinion still exist1 as to the nature of the hypnotic sleep1 as to its physiological concomitants1 and as to the limits of the faculties exercised in or out of the slumber4 ,it is not even absolutely certain that the exercise of the stranger faculties--for instance1 that the production of anaesthesia and rigidity--are the results merely of 'suggestion' and expectancy4 ,a hypnotised patient is told that the middle finger of his left hand will become rigid and incapable of sensation4 ,this occurs1 and is explained by 'suggestion1' though how 'suggestion' produces the astonishing effect is another problem4 ,the late ,mr4 ,gurney1 however1 made a number of experiments in which no suggestion was pronounced1 nor did the patients know which of their fingers was to become rigid and incapable of pain4 ,the patient's hands were thrust through a screen2 on the other side of which the hypnotist made passes above the finger which was to become rigid4 ,the lookers-on selected the finger1 and the insensibility was tested by a strong electric current4 ,the effect was also produced without passes1 the operator merely pointing at the selected finger1 and 'willing' the result4 ,if he did not 'will' it1 nothing occurred1 nor did anything occur if he willed without pointing4 ,the proximity of the operator's hand produced no effect if he did not 'will1' nor was his 'willing' successful if he did not bring his hand near that of the patient4 ,other people's hands1 similarly situated1 produced no effect4 ,experiments in transferring taste1 as of salt1 sugar1 cayenne pepper1 from operator to subject1 were also successful4 ,drs4 ,janet and ,gibert also produced sleep in a woman at a distance1 by 'willing' it1 at hours which were selected by a system of drawing lots4#ag ,these facts1 of course1 rather point to an element of truth in the old mesmeric hypothesis of some specific influence in the operator4 ,they cannot very well be explained by suggestion and expectancy4 ,but these facts and facts of clairvoyance and thought-transference will be rejected as superstitious delusions by people who have not met them in their own experience4 ,this need not prevent us from examining them1 because all the facts1 including those now universally accepted by ,continental and scarcely impeached by ,british science1 have been noisily rejected again and again on ,hume's principles4 ,the rarer facts1 as ,mr4 ,gurney remarks1 'still go through the hollow form of taking place4' ,here is an example of the mode in which these phenomena are treated by popular science4 ,mr4 ,vincent says that 'clairvoyance and phrenology were ,elliotson's constant stock in trade4' 7,phrenology was also ,braid's stock in trade47 ',it is a matter of congratulation to have been so soon delivered from what ,dr4 ,lloyd ,tuckey has well called a mass of superincumbent rubbish4'#ah ,clairvoyance is part of a mass of rubbish1 on page #eg4 ,on page #fg1 ,mr4 ,vincent says3 ',there are many interesting questions1 such as telepathy1 thought-reading1 clairvoyance1 upon which it would be perhaps rash to give any decided opinion4444 ,all these strange psychical conditions present problems of great interest1' and are only omitted because 'they have not a sufficient bearing on the normal states of hypnosis4444' ,thus what was 'rubbish' in one page 'presents problems of great interest' ten pages later1 and1 after offering a decided opinion that clairvoyance is rubbish1 ,mr4 ,vincent thinks it rash to give any decided opinion4 ,it is rather rash to give a decided opinion1 and then to say that it is rash to do so4#ai ,this brief sketch shows that science is confronted by certain facts1 which1 in his time1 ,hume dismissed as incredible miracles1 beneath the contempt of the wise and learned4 ,we also see that the stranger and rarer phenomena which ,hegel accepted as facts1 and interwove with his general philosophy1 are still matters of dispute4 ,admitted by some men of science1 they are doubted by others2 by others1 again1 are denied1 while most of the journalists and authors of cheap primers1 who inspire popular tradition1 regard the phenomena as frauds or fables of superstition4 ,but it is plain that these phenomena1 like the more ordinary facts of hypnotism1 may finally be admitted by science4 ,the scientific world laughed1 not so long ago1 at ,ogham inscriptions1 meteorites1 and at palaeolithic weapons as impostures1 or freaks of nature4 ,now nobody has any doubt on these matters1 and clairvoyance1 thought-transference1 and telepathy may1 not inconceivably1 be as fortunate in the long run as meteorites1 or as the more usual phenomena of hypnotism4 ,it is only ,lord ,kelvin who now maintains1 or lately maintained1 that in hypnotism there is nothing at all but fraud and malobservation4 ,in years to come it may be that only some similar belated voice will cry that in thought-transference there is nothing but malobservation and fraud4 ,at present the serious attention and careful experiment needed for the establishment of the facts are more common among ,french than among ,english men of science4 ,when published1 these experiments1 if they contain any affirmative instances1 are denounced as 'superstitious1' or criticized after what we must charitably deem to be a very hasty glance1 by the guides of popular opinion4 ,examples of this method will be later quoted4 ,meanwhile the disputes as to these alleged facts are noticed here1 because of their supposed relation to the ,origin of ,religion4 ,footnote #a3 ,see ,mr4 ,myers's paper on the ',ancient ,oracles1' in ,classical ,essays1 and the author's ',ancient ,spiritualism1' in ,cock ,lane and ,common ,sense4 ,footnote #b3 ,the italics here are those of ,mr4 ,alfred ,russell ,wallace1 in his ,miracles and ,modern ,science4 ,mr4 ,huxley1 in his exposure of ,hume's fallacies 7in his ,life of ,hume71 did not examine the ,jansenist 'miracles' which ,hume was criticising4 ,footnote #c3 ,moll1 ,hypnotism1 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #d3 ,animal ,magnetism1 p4 #cee4 ,footnote #e3 ,a translation of his work was published in the ,new ,review1 ,january #afic4 ,footnote #f3 ,la ,vrit des ,miracles1 ,cologne1 #agdg1 ,septimo ,dmonstration4 ,footnote #g3 ,see ,dr4 ,russell ,reynolds's paper in ,british ,medical ,journal1 ,november #ahfi4 ,footnote #h3 ,james1 ,principles of ,psychology1 ii4 #fab4 ,charcot1 op4 cit4 ,footnote #i3 ,i do not need to be told that ,dr4 ,maudsley denied the fact in #ahhf4 ,i am prepared with the evidence1 if it is asked for by some savant who happens not to know it4 ,footnote #aj3 ,i am not responsible1 of course1 for the scientific validity of ,dr4 ,charcot's theory of healing 'by idea4' ,my point merely is that certain experts of no slight experience or mean reputation do now admit1 as important certainties within their personal knowledge1 exactly the phenomena which ,hume asks the wise and learned to laugh at1 indeed1 but never to investigate4 ,footnote #aa3 ,pp4 #cec-cef4 ,footnote #ab3 ,p4 #ic4 ,footnote #ac3 ,trume1 p4 #gf4 ,footnote #ad3 ,hegel accepts the clairvoyance of the ,pucelle4 ,footnote #ae3 ,see ,dr4 ,dessoir1 in ,das ,doppel ,ich1 as quoted by ,mr4 ,myers1 ,proceedings1 vol4 vi4 #bac4 ,footnote #af3 ,philosophie des ,geistes1 ,werke1 vol4 vii4 #agi4 ,berlin4 #ahde4 ,the examples and much of the philosophising are in the ,zustze1 not translated in ,mr4 ,wallace's version1 ,oxford1 #ahid4 ,footnote #ag3 ,proceedings1 ,s4,p4,r41 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bja-bjg1 #cij-cib4 ,footnote #ah3 ,elements of ,hypnotism1 p4 #fg4 ,footnote #ai3 ,possibly ,mr4 ,vincent only means that ,elliotson's experiments1 'little more than sober footing' 7p4 #eg71 with the sisters ,okey1 were rubbish4 ,but whether the sisters ,okey were or were not honest is a question on which we cannot enter here4 ,,iii ,,anthropology ,,and ,,religion ,among the various forms of science which are reaching and affecting the new popular tradition1 we have reckoned ,anthropology4 ,pleasantly enough1 ,anthropology has herself but recently emerged from that limbo of the unrecognised in which ,psychical ,research is pining4 ,the ,british ,association used to reject anthropological papers as 'vain dreams based on travellers' tales4' ,no doubt the ,british ,association would reject a paper on clairvoyance as a vain dream based on old wives' fables1 or on hysterical imposture4 ,undeniably the study of such themes is hampered by fable and fraud1 just as anthropology has to be ceaselessly on its guard against 'travellers' tales1' against ,european misunderstandings of savage ideas1 and against civilised notions and scientific theories unconsciously read into barbaric customs1 rites1 traditions1 and usages4 ,man1 ondoyant et divers1 is the subject alike of anthropology and of psychical research4 ,man 7especially savage man7 cannot be secluded from disturbing influences1 and watched1 like the materials of a chemical experiment in a laboratory4 ,nor can man be caught in a 'primitive' state3 his intellectual beginnings lie very far behind the stage of culture in which we find the lowest known races4 ,consequently the matter on which anthropology works is fluctuating2 the evidence on which it rests needs the most sceptical criticism1 and many of its conclusions1 in the necessary absence of historical testimony as to times far behind the lowest known savages1 must be hypothetical4 ,for these sound reasons official science long looked askance on ,anthropology4 ,her followers were not regarded as genuine scholars1 and1 perhaps as a result of this contempt1 they were often 'broken men1' intellectual outlaws1 people of one wild idea4 ,to the scientific mind1 anthropologists or ethnologists were a horde who darkly muttered of serpent worship1 phallus worship1 ,arkite doctrines1 and the ,ten ,lost ,tribes that kept turning up in the most unexpected places4 ,anthropologists were said to gloat over dirty rites of dirty savages1 and to seek reason where there was none4 ,the exiled1 the outcast1 the pariah of ,science1 is1 indeed1 apt to find himself in odd company4 ,round the camp-fire of ,psychical ,research too1 in the unofficial1 unstaked waste of ,science1 hover odd1 menacing figures of ,esoteric ,buddhists1 ,satanistes1 ,occultists1 ,christian ,scientists1 ,spiritualists1 and ,astrologers1 as the ,arkites and ,lost ,tribesmen haunted the cradle of anthropology4 ,but there was found at last to be reason in the thing1 and method in the madness4 ,evolution was in it4 ,the acceptance1 after long ridicule1 of palaeolithic weapons as relics of human culture1 probably helped to bring ,anthropology within the sacred circle of permitted knowledge4 ,her topic was full of illustrations of the doctrine of ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,modern writers on the theme had been anticipated by the less systematic students of the eighteenth century--,goguet1 de ,brosses1 ,millar1 ,fontenelle1 ,lafitau1 ,boulanger1 or even ,hume and ,voltaire4 ,as pioneers these writers answer to the early mesmerists and magnetists1 ,puysgur1 ,amoretti1 ,ritter1 ,elliotson1 ,mayo1 ,gregory1 in the history of ,psychical ,research4 ,they were on the same track1 in each case1 as ,lubbock1 ,tylor1 ,spencer1 ,bastian1 and ,frazer1 or as ,gurney1 ,richet1 ,myers1 ,janet1 ,dessoir1 and ,von ,schrenck-,notzing4 ,but the earlier students were less careful of method and evidence4 ,evidence6 that was the stumbling block of anthropology4 ,we still hear1 in the later works of ,mr4 ,max ,mller1 the echo of the old complaints4 ,anything you please1 ,mr4 ,max ,mller says1 you may find among your useful savages1 and 7in regard to some anthropologists7 his criticism is just4 ,you have but to skim a few books of travel1 pencil in hand1 and pick out what suits your case4 ,suppose1 as regards our present theme1 your theory is that savages possess broken lights of the belief in a ,supreme ,being4 ,you can find evidence for that4 ,or suppose you want to show that they have no religious ideas at all2 you can find evidence for that also4 ,your testimony is often derived from observers ignorant of the language of the people whom they talk about1 or who are themselves prejudiced by one or other theory or bias4 ,how can you pretend to raise a science on such foundations1 especially as the savage informants wish to please or to mystify inquirers1 or they answer at random1 or deliberately conceal their most sacred institutions1 or have never paid any attention to the subject8 ,to all these perfectly natural objections ,mr4 ,tylor has replied4#a ,evidence must be collected1 sifted1 tested1 as in any other branch of inquiry4 ,a writer1 'of course1 is bound to use his best judgment as to the trustworthiness of all authors he quotes1 and1 if possible1 to obtain several accounts to certify each point in each locality4' ,mr4 ,tylor then adduces 'the test of recurrence1' of undesigned coincidence in testimony1 as ,millar had already argued in the last century4#b ,if a mediaeval ,mahommedan in ,tartary1 a ,jesuit in ,brazil1 a ,wesleyan in ,fiji1 one may add a police magistrate in ,australia1 a ,presbyterian in ,central ,africa1 a trapper in ,canada1 agree in describing some analogous rite or myth in these diverse lands and ages1 we cannot set down the coincidence to chance or fraud4 ',now1 the most important facts of ethnography are vouched for in this way4' ,we may add that even when the ideas of savages are obscure1 we can often detect them by analysis of the institutions in which they are expressed4#c ,thus anthropological1 like psychical or any other evidence1 must be submitted to conscientious processes of testing and sifting4 ,contradictory instances must be hunted for sedulously4 ,nothing can be less scientific than to snatch up any traveller's tale which makes for our theory1 and to ignore evidence1 perhaps earlier1 or later1 or better observed1 which makes against it4 ,yet this1 unfortunately1 in certain instances 7which will be adduced7 has been the occasional error of ,mr4 ,huxley and ,mr4 ,spencer4#d ,mr4 ,spencer opens his ',ecclesiastical ,institutions' by the remark that 'the implication from the reported absence of the ideas of belief in persons born deaf and dumb is that the religious ideas of civilised men are not innate' 7who says they are871 and this implication ,mr4 ,spencer supports by 'proofs that among various savages religious ideas do not exist4' ',sir ,john ,lubbock has given many of these4' ,but it would be well to advise the reader to consult ,roskoff's confutation of ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 and ,mr4 ,tylor's masterly statement4#e ,mr4 ,spencer cited ,sir ,samuel ,baker for savages without even 'a ray of superstition' or a trace of worship4 ,mr4 ,tylor1 twelve years before ,mr4 ,spencer wrote1 had demolished ,sir ,samuel ,baker's assertion1#f as regards many tribes1 and so shaken it as regards the ,latukas1 quoted by ,mr4 ,spencer4 ,the godless ,dinkas have 'a good deity and heaven-dwelling creator1' carefully recorded years before ,sir ,samuel's 'rash denial4' ,we show later that ,mr4 ,spencer1 relying on a single isolated sentence in ,brough ,smyth1 omits all his essential information about the ,australian ,supreme ,being2 while ,mr4 ,huxley--overlooking the copious and conclusive evidence as to their ethical religion--charges the ,australians with having merely a non-moral belief in casual spirits4 ,we have also to show that ,mr4 ,huxley1 under the dominance of his theory1 and inadvertently1 quotes a good authority as saying the precise reverse of what he really does say4 ,if the facts not fitting their theories are little observed by authorities so popular as ,mr4 ,huxley and ,mr4 ,spencer2 if instantiae contradictoriae are ignored by them1 or left vague2 if these things are done in the green tree1 we may easily imagine what shall be done in the dry4 ,but we need not war with hasty vulgarisateurs and headlong theorists4 ,enough has been said to show the position of anthropology as regards evidence1 and to prove that1 if he confines his observations to certain anthropologists1 the censures of ,mr4 ,max ,mller are justified4 ,it is mainly for this reason that the arguments presently to follow are strung on the thread of ,mr4 ,tylor's truly learned and accurate book1 ',primitive ,culture4' ,though but recently crept forth1 vix aut ne vix quidem1 from the chill shade of scientific disdain1 ,anthropology adopts the airs of her elder sisters among the sciences1 and is as severe as they to the ,cinderella of the family1 ,psychical ,research4 ,she must murmur of her fairies among the cinders of the hearth1 while they go forth to the ball1 and dance with provincial mayors at the festivities of the ,british ,association4 ,this is ungenerous1 and unfortunate1 as the records of anthropology are rich in unexamined materials of psychical research4 ,i am unacquainted with any work devoted by an anthropologist of renown to the hypnotic and kindred practices of the lower races1 except ,herr ,bastian's very meagre tract1 'ber psychische ,beobachtungen bei ,naturvlkern4'#g ,we possess1 none the less1 a mass of scattered information on this topic1 the savage side of psychical phenomena1 in works of travel1 and in ,mr4 ,tylor's monumental ',primitive ,culture4' ,mr4 ,tylor1 however1 as we shall see1 regards it as a matter of indifference1 or1 at least1 as a matter beyond the scope of his essay1 to decide whether the parallel supernormal phenomena believed in by savages1 and said to recur in civilisation1 are facts of actual experience1 or not4 ,now1 this question is not otiose4 ,mr4 ,tylor1 like other anthropologists1 ,mr4 ,huxley1 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 and their followers and popularisers1 constructs on anthropological grounds1 a theory of the ,origin of ,religion4 ,that origin anthropology explains as the result of early and fallacious reasonings on a number of biological and psychological phenomena1 both normal and 7as is alleged by savages7 supernormal4 ,these reasonings led to the belief in souls and spirits4 ,now1 first1 anthropology has taken for granted that the ,supreme ,deities of savages are envisaged by them as 'spirits4' ,this1 paradoxical as the statement may appear1 is just what does not seem to be proved1 as we shall show4 ,next1 if the supernormal phenomena 7clairvoyance1 thought-transference1 phantasms of the dead1 phantasms of the dying1 and others7 be real matters of experience1 the inferences drawn from them by early savage philosophy may be1 in some degree1 erroneous4 ,but the inferences drawn by materialists who reject the supernormal phenomena will also1 perhaps1 be1 let us say1 incomplete4 ,religion will have been1 in part1 developed out of facts1 perhaps inconsistent with materialism in its present dogmatic form4 ,to put it less trenchantly1 and perhaps more accurately1 the alleged facts 'are not merely dramatically strange1 they are not merely extraordinary and striking1 but they are odd in the sense that they will not easily fit in with the views which physicists and men of science generally give us of the universe in which we live' 7,mr4 ,a4,j4 ,balfour1 ,president's ,address1 ',proceedings1' ,s4,p4,r4 vol4 x4 p4 #h1 #ahid74 ,as this is the case1 it might seem to be the business of ,anthropology1 the ,science of ,man1 to examine1 among other things1 the evidence for the actual existence of those alleged unusual and supernormal phenomena1 belief in which is given as one of the origins of religion4 ,to make this examination1 in the ethnographic field1 is almost a new labour4 ,as we shall see1 anthropologists have not hitherto investigated such things as the ',fire-walk' of savages1 uninjured in the flames1 like the ,three ,holy ,children4 ,the world-wide savage practice of divining by hallucinations induced through gazing into a smooth deep 7crystal-gazing7 has been studied1 ,i think1 by no anthropologist4 ,the veracity of 'messages' uttered by savage seers when 7as they suppose7 'possessed' or 'inspired' has not been criticised1 and probably cannot be1 for lack of detailed information4 ,the 'physical phenomena' which answer among savages to the use of the 'divining rod1' and to 'spiritist' marvels in modern times1 have only been glanced at4 ,in short1 all the savage parallels to the so-called 'psychical phenomena' now under discussion in ,england1 ,america1 ,germany1 ,italy1 and ,france1 have escaped critical analysis and comparison with their civilised counterparts4 ,an exception among anthropologists is ,mr4 ,tylor4 ,he has not suppressed the existence of these barbaric parallels to our modern problems of this kind4 ,but his interest in them practically ends when he has shown that the phenomena helped to originate the savage belief in 'spirits1' and when he has displayed the 'survival' of that belief in later culture4 ,he does not ask ',are the phenomena real8' he is concerned only with the savage philosophy of the phenomena and with its relics in modern spiritism and religion4 ,my purpose is to do1 by way only of bauche1 what neither anthropology nor psychical research nor psychology has done3 to put the savage and modern phenomena side by side4 ,such evidence as we can give for the actuality of the modern experiences will1 so far as it goes1 raise a presumption that the savage beliefs1 however erroneous1 however darkened by fraud and fancy1 repose on a basis of real observation of actual phenomena4 ,anthropology is concerned with man and what is in man--humani nihil a se alienum putat4 ,these researches1 therefore1 are within the anthropological province1 especially as they bear on the prevalent anthropological theory of the ,origin of ,religion4 ,by 'religion' we mean1 for the purpose of this argument1 the belief in the existence of an ,intelligence1 or ,intelligences not human1 and not dependent on a material mechanism of brain and nerves1 which may1 or may not1 powerfully control men's fortunes and the nature of things4 ,we also mean the additional belief that there is1 in man1 an element so far kindred to these ,intelligences that it can transcend the knowledge obtained through the known bodily senses1 and may possibly survive the death of the body4 ,these two beliefs at present 7though not necessarily in their origin7 appear chiefly as the faith in ,god and in the ,immortality of the ,soul4 ,it is important1 then1 to trace1 if possible1 the origin of these two beliefs4 ,if they arose in actual communion with ,deity 7as the first at least did1 in the theory of the ,hebrew ,scriptures71 or if they could be proved to arise in an unanalysable sensus numinis1 or even in 'a perception of the ,infinite' 7,max ,mller71 religion would have a divine1 or at least a necessary source4 ,to the ,theist1 what is inevitable cannot but be divinely ordained1 therefore religion is divinely preordained1 therefore1 in essentials1 though not in accidental details1 religion is true4 ,the atheist1 or non-theist1 of course draws no such inferences4 ,but if religion1 as now understood among men1 be the latest evolutionary form of a series of mistakes1 fallacies1 and illusions1 if its germ be a blunder1 and its present form only the result of progressive but unessential refinements on that blunder1 the inference that religion is untrue--that nothing actual corresponds to its hypothesis--is very easily drawn4 ,the inference is not1 perhaps1 logical1 for all our science itself is the result of progressive refinements upon hypotheses originally erroneous1 fashioned to explain facts misconceived4 ,yet our science is true1 within its limits1 though very far from being exhaustive of the truth4 ,in the same way1 it might be argued1 our religion1 even granting that it arose out of primitive fallacies and false hypotheses1 may yet have been refined1 as science has been1 through a multitude of causes1 into an approximate truth4 ,frequently as ,i am compelled to differ from ,mr4 ,spencer both as to facts and their interpretation1 ,i am happy to find that he has anticipated me here4 ,opponents will urge1 he says1 that 'if the primitive belief' 7in ghosts7 'was absolutely false1 all derived beliefs from it must be absolutely false8' ,mr4 ,spencer replies3 ',a germ of truth was contained in the primitive conception--the truth1 namely1 that the power which manifests itself in consciousness is but a differently conditioned form of the power which manifests itself beyond consciousness4' ,in fact1 we find ,mr4 ,spencer1 like ,faust as described by ,marguerite1 saying much the same thing as the priests1 but not quite in the same way4 ,of course1 ,i allow for a much larger 'germ of truth' in the origin of the ghost theory than ,mr4 ,spencer does4 ,but we can both say 'the ultimate form of the religious consciousness is' 7will be87 'the final development of a consciousness which at the outset contained a germ of truth obscured by multitudinous errors4'#h ',one ,god1 one law1 one element1 ,and one far-off divine event1 ,to which the whole creation moves4' ,coming at last to ,mr4 ,tylor1 we find that he begins by dismissing the idea that any known race of men is devoid of religious conceptions4 ,he disproves1 out of their own mouths1 the allegations of several writers who have made this exploded assertion about 'godless tribes4' ,he says3 ',the thoughts and principles of modern ,christianity are attached to intellectual clues which run back through far pre-,christian ages to the very origin of human civilisation1 perhaps even of human existence4'#i ,so far we abound in ,mr4 ,tylor's sense4 ',as a minimum definition of religion' he gives 'the belief in spiritual beings1' which appears 'among all low races with whom we have attained to thoroughly intimate relations4' ,the existence of this belief at present does not prove that no races were ever1 at any time1 destitute of all belief4 ,but it prevents us from positing the existence of such creedless races1 in any age1 as a demonstrated fact4 ,we have thus1 in short1 no opportunity of observing1 historically1 man's development from blank unbelief into even the minimum or most rudimentary form of belief4 ,we can only theorise and make more or less plausible conjectures as to the first rudiments of human faith in ,god and in spiritual beings4 ,we find no race whose mind1 as to faith1 is a tabula rasa4 ,to the earliest faith ,mr4 ,tylor gives the name of ,animism1 a term not wholly free from objection1 though ',spiritualism' is still less desirable1 having been usurped by a form of modern superstitiousness4 ,this ,animism1 'in its full development1 includes the belief in souls and in a future state1 in controlling deities and subordinate spirits4' ,in ,mr4 ,tylor's opinion1 as in ,mr4 ,huxley's1 ,animism1 in its lower 7and earlier7 forms1 has scarcely any connection with ethics4 ,its 'spirits' do not 'make for righteousness4' ,this is a side issue to be examined later1 but we may provisionally observe1 in passing1 that the ethical ideas1 such as they are1 even of ,australian blacks are reported to be inculcated at the religious mysteries 7,bora7 of the tribes1 which were instituted by and are performed in honour of the gods of their native belief4 ,but this topic must be reserved for our closing chapters4 ,mr4 ,tylor1 however1 is chiefly concerned with ,animism as 'an ancient and world-wide philosophy1 of which belief is the theory1 and worship is the practice4' ,given ,animism1 then1 or the belief in spiritual beings1 as the earliest form and minimum of religious faith1 what is the origin of ,animism8 ,it will be seen that1 by ,animism1 ,mr4 ,tylor does not mean the alleged early theory1 implicitly if not explicitly and consciously held1 that all things whatsoever are animated and are personalities4#aj ,judging from the behaviour of little children1 and from the myths of savages1 early man may have half-consciously extended his own sense of personal and potent and animated existence to the whole of nature as known to him4 ,not only animals1 but vegetables and inorganic objects1 may have been looked on by him as persons1 like what he felt himself to be4 ,the child 7perhaps merely because taught to do so7 beats the naughty chair1 and all objects are persons in early mythology4 ,but this feeling1 rather than theory1 may conceivably have existed among early men1 before they developed the hypothesis of 'spirits1' 'ghosts1' or souls4 ,it is the origin of that hypothesis1 ',animism1' which ,mr4 ,tylor investigates4 ,what1 then1 is the origin of ,animism8 ,it arose in the earliest traceable speculations on 'two groups of biological problems3 7#a7 ',what is it that makes the difference between a living body and a dead one2 what causes waking1 sleep1 trance1 disease1 and death8' 7#b7 ',what are those human shapes which appear in dreams and visions8'#aa ,here it should be noted that ,mr4 ,tylor most properly takes a distinction between sleeping 'dreams' and waking 'visions1' or 'clear vision4' ,the distinction is made even by the blacks of ,australia4 ,thus one of the ,kurnai announced that his ,yambo1 or soul1 could 'go out' during sleep1 and see the distant and the dead4 ,but 'while any one might be able to communicate with the ghosts1 during sleep1 it was only the wizards who were able to do so in waking hours4' ,a wizard1 in fact1 is a person susceptible 7or feigning to be susceptible7 when awake to hallucinatory perceptions of phantasms of the dead4 ',among the ,kulin of ,wimmera ,river a man became a wizard who1 as a boy1 had seen his mother's ghost sitting at her grave4'#ab ,these facts prove that a race of savages at the bottom of the scale of culture do take a formal distinction between normal dreams in sleep and waking hallucinations--a thing apt to be denied4 ,thus ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer offers the massive generalisation that savages do not possess a language enabling a man to say ',i dreamed that ,i saw1' instead of ',i saw' 7',principles of ,sociology1' p4 #aej74 ,this could only be proved by giving examples of such highly deficient languages1 which ,mr4 ,spencer does not do4#ac ,in many savage speculations there occur ideas as subtly metaphysical as those of ,hegel4 ,moreover1 even the ,australian languages have the verb 'to see1' and the substantive 'sleep4' ,nothing1 then1 prevents a man from saying ',i saw in sleep' 7insomnium1 ,greek3 enupnion74 ,we have shown too1 that the ,australians take an essential distinction between waking hallucinations 7ghosts seen by a man when awake7 and the common hallucinations of slumber4 ,anybody can have these2 the man who sees ghosts when awake is marked out for a wizard4 ,at the same time the vividness of dreams among certain savages1 as recorded in ,mr4 ,im ,thurn's ',indians of ,guiana1' and the consequent confusion of dreaming and waking experiences1 are certain facts4 ,wilson says the same of some negroes1 and ,mr4 ,spencer illustrates from the confusion of mind in dreamy children4 ,they1 we know1 are much more addicted to somnambulism than grown-up people4 ,i am unaware that spontaneous somnambulism among savages has been studied as it ought to be4 ,i have demonstrated1 however1 that very low savages can and do draw an essential distinction between sleeping and waking hallucinations4 ,again1 the crystal-gazer1 whose apparently telepathic crystal pictures are discussed later 7chap4 v471 was introduced to a crystal just because she had previously been known to be susceptible to waking and occasionally veracious hallucinations4 ,it was not only on the dreams of sleep1 so easily forgotten as they are1 that the savage pondered1 in his early speculations about the life and the soul4 ,he included in his materials the much more striking and memorable experiences of waking hours1 as we and ,mr4 ,tylor agree in holding4 ,reflecting on these things1 the earliest savage reasoners would decide3 7#a7 that man has a 'life' 7which leaves him temporarily in sleep1 finally in death72 7#b7 that man also possesses a 'phantom' 7which appears to other people in their visions and dreams74 ,the savage philosopher would then 'combine his information1' like a celebrated writer on ,chinese metaphysics4 ,he would merely 'combine the life and the phantom1' as 'manifestations of one and the same soul4' ,the result would be 'an apparitional soul1' or 'ghost-soul4' ,this ghost-soul would be a highly accomplished creature1 'a vapour1 film1 or shadow1' yet conscious1 capable of leaving the body1 mostly invisible and impalpable1 'yet also manifesting physical power1' existing and appearing after the death of the body1 able to act on the bodies of other men1 beasts1 and things4#ad ,when the earliest reasoners1 in an age and in mental conditions of which we know nothing historically1 had evolved the hypothesis of this conscious1 powerful1 separable soul1 capable of surviving the death of the body1 it was not difficult for them to develop the rest of ,religion1 as ,mr4 ,tylor thinks4 ,a powerful ghost of a dead man might thrive till1 its original owner being long forgotten1 it became a ,god4 ,again 7souls once given7 it would not be a very difficult logical leap1 perhaps1 to conceive of souls1 or spirits1 that had never been human at all4 ,it is1 we may say1 only le premier pas qui cote1 the step to the belief in a surviving separable soul4 ,nevertheless1 when we remember that ,mr4 ,tylor is theorising about savages in the dim background of human evolution1 savages whom we know nothing of by experience1 savages far behind ,australians and ,bushmen 7who possess ,gods71 we must admit that he credits them with great ingenuity1 and strong powers of abstract reasoning4 ,he may be right in his opinion4 ,in the same way1 just as primitive men were keen reasoners1 so early bees1 more clever than modern bees1 may have evolved the system of hexagonal cells1 and only an early fish of genius could first have hit on the plan1 now hereditary of killing a fly by blowing water at it4 ,to this theory of metaphysical genius in very low savages ,i have no objection to offer4 ,we shall find1 later1 astonishing examples of savage abstract speculation1 certainly not derived from missionary sources1 because wholly out of the missionary's line of duty and reflection4 ,as early beasts had genius1 so the earliest reasoners appear to have been as logically gifted as the lowest savages now known to us1 or even as some ,biblical critics4 ,by ,mr4 ,tylor's hypothesis1 they first conceived the extremely abstract idea of ,life1 'that which makes the difference between a living body and a dead one4'#ae ,this highly abstract conception must have been1 however1 the more difficult to early man1 as1 to him1 all things1 universally1 are 'animated4'#af ,mr4 ,tylor illustrates this theory of early man by the little child's idea that 'chairs1 sticks1 and wooden horses are actuated by the same sort of personal will as nurses and children and kittens4444 ,in such matters the savage mind well represents the childish stage4'#ag ,now1 nothing can be more certain than that1 if children think sticks are animated1 they don't think so because they have heard1 or discovered1 that they possess souls1 and then transfer souls to sticks4 ,we may doubt1 then1 if primitive man came1 in this way1 by reasoning on souls1 to suppose that all things1 universally1 were animated4 ,but if he did think all things animated--a corpse1 to his mind1 was just as much animated as anything else4 ,did he reason3 ',all things are animated4 ,a corpse is not animated4 ,therefore a corpse is not a thing 7within the meaning of my ,general ,law7'8 ,how1 again1 did early man conceive of ,life1 before he identified ,life 7#a7 with 'that which makes the difference between a living body and a dead one' 7a difference which1 ex hypothesi1 he did not draw1 all things being animated to his mind7 and 7#b7 with 'those human shapes which appear in dreams and visions'8 ',the ancient savage philosophers probably reached the obvious inference that every man had two things belonging to him1 a life and a phantom4' ,but everything was supposed to have 'a life1' as far as one makes out1 before the idea of separable soul was developed1 at least if savages arrived at the theory of universal animation as children are said to do4 ,we are dealing here quite conjecturally with facts beyond our experience4 ,in any case1 early man excogitated 7by the hypothesis7 the abstract idea of ,life1 before he first 'envisaged' it in material terms as 'breath1' or 'shadow4' ,he next decided that mere breath or shadow was not only identical with the more abstract conception of ,life1 but could also take on forms as real and full-bodied as1 to him1 are the hallucinations of dream or waking vision4 ,his reasoning appears to have proceeded from the more abstract 7the idea of ,life7 to the more concrete1 to the life first shadowy and vaporous1 then clothed in the very aspect of the real man4 ,mr4 ,tylor has thus 7whether we follow his logic or not7 provided man with a theory of active1 intelligent1 separable souls1 which can survive the death of the body4 ,at this theory early man arrived by speculations on the nature of life1 and on the causes of phantasms of the dead or living beheld in 'dreams and visions4' ,but our author by no means leaves out of sight the effects of alleged supernormal phenomena believed in by savages1 with their parallels in modern civilisation4 ,these supernormal phenomena1 whether real or illusory1 are1 he conceives1 facts in that mass of experiences from which savages constructed their belief in separable1 enduring1 intelligent souls or ghosts1 the foundation of religion4 ,while we are1 perhaps owing to our own want of capacity1 puzzled by what seem to be two kinds of early philosophy--7#a7 a sort of instinctive or unreasoned belief in universal animation1 which ,mr4 ,spencer calls ',animism' and does not believe in1 7#b7 the reasoned belief in separable and surviving souls of men 7and in things71 which ,mr4 ,spencer believes in1 and ,mr4 ,tylor calls ',animism'--we must also note another difficulty4 ,mr4 ,tylor may seem to be taking it for granted that the earliest1 remote1 unknown thinkers on life and the soul were existing on the same psychical plane as we ourselves1 or1 at least1 as modern savages4 ,between modern savages and ourselves1 in this regard1 he takes certain differences1 but takes none between modern savages and the remote founders of religion4 ,thus ,mr4 ,tylor observes3 ',the condition of the modern ghost-seer1 whose imagination passes on such slight excitement into positive hallucination1 is rather the rule than the exception among uncultured and intensely imaginative tribes1 whose minds may be thrown off their balance by a touch1 a word1 a gesture1 an unaccustomed noise4'#ah ,i find evidence that low contemporary savages are not great ghost-seers1 and1 again1 ,i cannot quite accept ,mr4 ,tylor's psychology of the 'modern ghost-seer4' ,most such favoured persons whom ,i have known were steady1 unimaginative1 unexcitable people1 with just one odd experience4 ,lord ,tennyson1 too1 after sleeping in the bed of his recently lost father on purpose to see his ghost1 decided that ghosts 'are not seen by imaginative people4' ,we now examine1 at greater length1 the psychical conditions in which1 according to ,mr4 ,tylor1 contemporary savages differ from civilised men4 ,later we shall ask what may be said as to possible or presumable psychical differences between modern savages and the datelessly distant founders of the belief in souls4 ,mr4 ,tylor attributes to the lower races1 and even to races high above their level1 'morbid ecstasy1 brought on by meditation1 fasting1 narcotics1 excitement1 or disease4' ,now1 we may still 'meditate'--and how far the result is 'morbid' is a matter for psychologists and pathologists to determine4 ,fasting we do not practise voluntarily1 nor would we easily accept evidence from an ,englishman as to the veracity of voluntary fasting visions1 like those of ,cotton ,mather4 ,the visions of disease we should set aside1 as a rule1 with those of 'excitement1' produced1 for instance1 by 'devil-dances4' ,narcotic and alcoholic visions are not in question4#ai ,for our purpose the induced trances of savages 7in whatever way voluntarily brought on7 are analogous to the modern induced hypnotic trance4 ,any supernormal acquisitions of knowledge in these induced conditions1 among savages1 would be on a par with similar alleged experiences of persons under hypnotism4 ,we do not differ from known savages in being able to bring on non-normal psychological conditions1 but we produce these1 as a rule1 by other methods than theirs1 and such experiments are not made on all of us1 as they were on all ,red ,indian boys and girls in the 'medicine-fast1' at the age of puberty4 ,further1 in their normal state1 known savages1 or some of them1 are more 'suggestible' than educated ,europeans at least4#bj ,they can be more easily hallucinated in their normal waking state by suggestion4 ,once more1 their intervals of hunger1 followed by gorges of food1 and their lack of artificial light1 combine to make savages more apt to see what is not there than are comfortable educated white men4 ,but ,mr4 ,tylor goes too far when he says 'where the savage could see phantasms1 the civilised man has come to amuse himself with fancies4'#ba ,the civilised man1 beyond all doubt1 is capable of being enfantosm4 ,in all that he says on this point1 the point of psychical condition1 ,mr4 ,tylor is writing about known savages as they differ from ourselves4 ,but the savages who ex hypothesi evolved the doctrine of souls lie beyond our ken1 far behind the modern savages1 among whom we find belief not only in souls and ghosts1 but in moral gods4 ,about the psychical condition of the savages who worked out the theory of souls and founded religion we necessarily know nothing4 ,if there be such experiences as clairvoyance1 telepathy1 and so on1 these unknown ancestors of ours may 7for all that we can tell7 have been peculiarly open to them1 and therefore peculiarly apt to believe in separable souls4 ,in fact1 when we write about these far-off founders of religion1 we guess in the dark1 or by the flickering light of analogy4 ,the lower animals have faculties 7as in their power of finding their way home through new unknown regions1 and in the ants' modes of acquiring and communicating knowledge to each other7 which are mysteries to us4 ,the terror of dogs in 'haunted houses' and of horses in passing 'haunted' scenes has often been reported1 and is alluded to briefly by ,mr4 ,tylor4 ,balaam's ass1 and the dogs which crouched and whined before ,athene1 whom ,eumaeus could not see1 are 'classical' instances4 ,the weakness of the anthropological argument here is1 we must repeat1 that we know little more about the mental condition and experiences of the early thinkers who developed the doctrine of ,souls than we know about the mental condition and experiences of the lower animals4 ,and the more firmly a philosopher believes in the ,darwinian hypothesis1 the less1 he must admit1 can he suppose himself to know about the twilight ages1 between the lower animal and the fully evolved man4 ,what kind of creature was man when he first conceived the germs1 or received the light1 of ,religion8 ,all is guess-work here6 ,we may just allude to ,hegel's theory that clairvoyance and hypnotic phenomena are produced in a kind of temporary atavism1 or 'throwing hack' to a remotely ancient condition of the 'sensitive soul' 7fklende ,seele74 ,the 'sensitive' unconditioned1 clairvoyant faculty or 'soul' is 'a disease when it becomes a state of the self-conscious1 educated1 self-possessed human being of civilisation4'#bb ',second sight1' ,hegel thinks1 was a product of an earlier day and earlier mental condition than ours4 ,approaching this almost untouched subject--the early psychical condition of man--not from the side of metaphysical speculations like ,hegel1 but with the instruments of modern psychology and physiology1 ,dr4 ,max ,dessoir1 of ,berlin1 following1 indeed1 ,m4 ,taine1 has arrived1 as we saw1 at somewhat similar conclusions4 ',this fully conscious life of the spirit1' in which we moderns now live1 'seems to rest upon a substratum of reflex action of a hallucinatory type4' ,our actual modern condition is not 'fundamental1' and 'hallucination represents1 at least in its nascent condition1 the main trunk of our psychical existence4'#bc ,now1 suppose that the remote and unknown ancestors of ours who first developed the doctrine of souls had not yet spread far from 'the main trunk of our psychical existence1' far from constant hallucination4 ,in that case 7at least1 according to ,dr4 ,dessoir's theory7 their psychical experiences would be such as we cannot estimate1 yet cannot leave1 as a possibility influencing religion1 out of our calculations4 ,if early men were ever in a condition in which telepathy and clairvoyance 7granting their possibility7 were prevalent1 one might expect that faculties so useful would be developed in the struggle for existence4 ,that they are deliberately cultivated by modern savages we know4 ,the ,indian foster-mother of ,john ,tanner used1 when food was needed1 to suggest herself into an hypnotic condition1 so that she became clairvoyante as to the whereabouts of game4 ,tanner1 an ,english boy1 caught early by the ,indians1 was sceptical1 but came to practise the same art1 not unsuccessfully1 himself4#bd ,his reminiscences1 which he dictated on his return to civilisation1 were certainly not feigned in the interests of any theories4 ,but the most telepathic human stocks1 it may be said1 ought1 ceteris paribus1 to have been the most successful in the struggle for existence4 ,we may infer that the cetera were not paria1 the clairvoyant state not being precisely the best for the practical business of life4 ,but really we know nothing of the psychical state of the earliest men4 ,they may have had experiences tending towards a belief in 'spirits1' of which we can tell nothing4 ,we are obliged to guess1 in considerable ignorance of the actual conditions1 and this historical ignorance inevitably besets all anthropological speculation about the origin of religion4 ,the knowledge of our nescience as to the psychical condition of our first thinking ancestors may suggest hesitation as to taking it for granted that early man was on our own or on the modern savage level in 'psychical' experience4 ,even savage races1 as ,mr4 ,tylor justly says1 attribute superior psychical knowledge to neighbouring tribes on a yet lower level of culture than themselves4 ,the ,finn esteems the ,lapp sorcerers above his own2 the ,lapp yields to the superior pretensions of the ,samoyeds4 ,there may be more ways than one of explaining this relative humility3 there is ,hegel's way and there is ,mr4 ,tylor's way4 ,we cannot be certain1 a priori1 that the earliest man knew no more of supernormal or apparently supernormal experiences than we commonly do1 or that these did not influence his thoughts on animism4 ,it is an example of the chameleon-like changes of science 7even of 'science falsely so called' if you please7 that when he wrote his book1 in #ahga1 ,mr4 ,tylor could not possibly have anticipated this line of argument4 ',psychical planes' had not been invented2 hypnotism1 with its problems1 had not been much noticed in ,england4 ,but ',spiritualism' was flourishing4 ,mr4 ,tylor did not ignore this revival of savage philosophy4 ,he saw very well that the end of the century was beholding the partial rehabilitation of beliefs which were scouted from #affj to #ahej4 ,seventy years ago1 as ,mr4 ,tylor says1 ,dr4 ,macculloch1 in his ',description of the ,western ,islands of ,scotland1' wrote of 'the famous ,highland second sight' that 'ceasing to be believed it has ceased to exist4'#be ,dr4 ,macculloch was mistaken in his facts4 ',second sight' has never ceased to exist 7or to be believed to exist71 and it has recently been investigated in the ',journal' of the ,caledonian ,medical ,society4 ,mr4 ,tylor himself says that it has been 'reinstated in a far larger range of society1 and under far better circumstances of learning and prosperity4' ,this fact he ascribes generally to 'a direct revival from the regions of savage philosophy and peasant folklore1' a revival brought about in great part by the writings of ,swedenborg4 ,to-day things have altered4 ,the students now interested in this whole class of alleged supernormal phenomena are seldom believers in the philosophy of ,spiritualism in the ,american sense of the word4#bf ,mr4 ,tylor1 as we have seen1 attributes the revival of interest in this obscure class of subjects to the influence of ,swedenborg4 ,it is true1 as has been shown1 that ,swedenborg attracted the attention of ,kant4 ,but modern interest has chiefly been aroused and kept alive by the phenomena of hypnotism4 ,the interest is now1 among educated students1 really scientific4 ,thus ,mr4 ,william ,james1 ,professor of ,psychology in the ,university of ,harvard1 writes3 ',i was attracted to this subject 7,psychical ,research7 some years ago by my love of fair play in ,science4'#bg ,mr4 ,tylor is not incapable of appreciating this attitude4 ,even the so-called 'spirit manifestations1' he says1 'should be discussed on their merits1' and the investigation 'would seem apt to throw light on some most interesting psychological questions4' ,nothing can be more remote from the logic of ,hume4 ,the ideas of ,mr4 ,tylor on the causes of the origin of religion are now criticised1 not from the point of view of spiritualism1 but of experimental psychology4 ,we hold that very probably there exist human faculties of unknown scope2 that these conceivably were more powerful and prevalent among our very remote ancestors who founded religion2 that they may still exist in savage as in civilised races1 and that they may have confirmed1 if they did not originate1 the doctrine of separable souls4 ,if they do exist1 the circumstance is important1 in view of the fact that modern ideas rest on a denial of their existence4 ,mr4 ,tylor next examines the savage and other names for the ghost-soul1 such as shadow 7umbra71 breath 7spiritus71 and he gives cases in which the shadow of a man is regarded as equivalent to his life4 ,of course1 the shadow in the sunlight does not resemble the phantasm in a dream4 ,the two1 however1 were combined and identified by early thinkers1 while breath and heart were used as symbols of 'that in men which makes them live1' a phrase found among the natives of ,nicaragua in #aebh4 ,the confessedly symbolical character of the phrase1 'it is not precisely the heart1 but that in them which makes them live1' proves that to the speaker life was not 'heart' or 'breath1' but that these terms were known to be material word-counters for the conception of life4#a ,whether the earliest thinkers identified heart1 breath1 shadow1 with life1 or whether they consciously used words of material origin to denote an immaterial conception1 of course we do not know4 ,but the word in the latter case would react on the thought1 till the ,roman inhaled 7as his life87 the last breath of his dying kinsman1 he well knowing that the ,manes of the said kinsman were elsewhere1 and not to be inhaled4 ,subdivisions and distinctions were then recognised1 as of the ,egyptian ,ka1 the 'double1' the ,karen kelah1 or 'personal life-phantom' 7wraith71 on one side1 and the ,karen thah1 'the responsible moral soul1' on the other4 ,the ,roman umbra hovers about the grave1 the manes go to ,orcus1 the spiritus seeks the stars4 ,we are next presented with a crowd of cases in which sickness or lethargy is ascribed by savages to the absence of the patient's spirit1 or of one of his spirits4 ,this idea of migratory spirit is next used by savages to explain certain proceedings of the sorcerer1 priest1 or seer4 ,his soul1 or one of his souls is thought to go forth to distant places in quest of information1 while the seer1 perhaps1 remains lethargic4 ,probably1 in the struggle for existence1 he lost more by being lethargic than he gained by being clairvoyant6 ,now1 here we touch the first point in ,mr4 ,tylor's theory1 where a critic may ask1 ,was this belief in the wandering abroad of the seer's spirit a theory not only false in its form 7as probably it is71 but also wholly unbased on experiences which might raise a presumption in favour of the existence of phenomena really supernormal8 ,by 'supernormal' experiences ,i here mean such as the acquisition by a human mind of knowledge which could not be obtained by it through the recognised channels of sensation4 ,say1 for the sake of argument1 that a person1 savage or civilised1 obtains in trance information about distant places or events1 to him unknown1 and1 through channels of sense1 unknowable4 ,the savage will explain this by saying that the seer's soul1 shadow1 or spirit1 wandered out of the body to the distant scene4 ,this is1 at present1 an unverified theory4 ,but still1 for the sake of argument1 suppose that the seer did honestly obtain this information in trance1 lethargy1 or hypnotic sleep1 or any other condition4 ,if so1 the modern savage 7or his more gifted ancestors7 would have other grounds for his theory of the wandering soul than any ground presented by normal occurrences1 ordinary dreams1 shadows1 and so forth4 ,again1 in human nature there would be 7if such things occur7 a potentiality of experiences other and stranger than materialism will admit as possible4 ,it will 7granting the facts7 be impossible to aver that there is nihil in intellectu quod non prius in sensu4 ,the soul will be not ce qu'un vain peuple pense under the new popular tradition1 and the savage's theory of the spirit will be1 at least in part1 based on other than normal and every-day facts4 ,that condition in which the seer acquires information1 not otherwise accessible1 about events remote in space1 is what the mesmerists of the mid-century called 'travelling clairvoyance4' ,if such an experience be in rerum natura1 it will not1 of course1 justify the savage's theory that the soul is a separable entity1 capable of voyaging1 and also capable of existing after the death of the body4 ,but it will give the savage a better excuse for his theory than normal experiences provide2 and will even raise a presumption that reflection on mere ordinary experiences--death1 shadow1 trance--is not the sole origin of his theory4 ,for a savage so acute as ,mr4 ,tylor's hypothetical early reasoner might decline to believe that his own or a friend's soul had been absent on an expedition1 unless it brought back information not normally to be acquired4 ,however1 we cannot reason1 a priori1 as to how far the logic of a savage might or might not go on occasion4 ,in any case1 a scientific reasoner might be expected to ask3 ',is this alleged acquisition of knowledge1 not through the ordinary channels of sense1 a thing in rerum natura8' ,because1 if it is1 we must obviously increase our list of the savage's reasons for believing in a soul3 we must make his reasons include 'psychical' experiences1 and there must be an ,x region to investigate4 ,these considerations did not fail to present themselves to ,mr4 ,tylor4 ,but his manner of dealing with them is peculiar4 ,with his unequalled knowledge of the lower races1 it was easy for him to examine travellers' tales about savage seers who beheld distant events in vision1 and to allow them what weight he thought proper1 after discounting possibilities of falsehood and collusion4 ,he might then have examined modern narratives of similar performances among the civilised1 which are abundant4 ,it is obvious and undeniable that if the supernormal acquisition of knowledge in trance is a vera causa1 a real process1 however rare1 ,mr4 ,tylor's theory needs modifications2 while the character of the savage's reasoning becomes more creditable to the savage1 and appears as better bottomed than we had been asked to suppose4 ,but ,mr4 ,tylor does not examine this large body of evidence at all1 or1 at least1 does not offer us the details of his examination4 ,he merely writes in this place3 ',a typical spiritualistic instance may be quoted from ,jung-,stilling1 who says that examples have come to his knowledge of sick persons who1 longing to see absent friends1 have fallen into a swoon1 during which they have appeared to the distant objects of their affection4'#bi ,jung-,stilling 7though he wrote before modern ',spiritualism' came in7 is not a very valid authority2 there is plenty of better evidence than his1 but ,mr4 ,tylor passes it by1 merely remarking that 'modern ,europe has kept closely enough to the lines of early philosophy4' ,modern ,europe has indeed done so1 if it explains the supernormal acquisition of knowledge1 or the hallucinatory appearance of a distant person to his friend by a theory of wandering 'spirits4' ,but facts do not cease to be facts because wrong interpretations have been put upon them by savages1 by ,jung-,stilling1 or by anyone else4 ,the real question is1 ,do such events occur among lower and higher races1 beyond explanation by fraud and fortuitous coincidence8 ,we gladly grant that the belief in ,animism1 when it takes the form of a theory of 'wandering spirits1' is probably untenable1 as it is assuredly of savage origin4 ,but we are not absolutely so sure that in this aspect the theory is not based on actual experiences1 not of a normal and ordinary kind4 ,if so1 the savage philosophy and its supposed survivals in belief will appear in a new light4 ,and we are inclined to hold that an examination of the mass of evidence to which ,mr4 ,tylor offers here so slight an allusion will at least make it wise to suspend our judgment1 not only as to the origins of the savage theory of spirits1 but as to the materialistic hypothesis of the absence of a psychical element in man4 ,i may seem to have outrun already the limits of permissible hypothesis4 ,it may appear absurd to surmise that there can exist in man1 savage or civilised1 a faculty for acquiring information not accessible by the known channels of sense1 a faculty attributed by savage philosophers to the wandering soul4 ,but one may be permitted to quote the opinion of ,m4 ,charles ,richet1 ,professor of ,physiology in the ,faculty of ,medicine in ,paris4 ,it is not cited because ,m4 ,richet is a professor of physiology1 but because he reached his conclusion after six years of minute experiment4 ,he says3 ',there exists in certain persons1 at certain moments1 a faculty of acquiring knowledge which has no rapport with our normal faculties of that kind4'#cj ,instances tending to raise a presumption in favour of ,m4 ,richet's idea may now be sought in savage and civilised life4 ,footnote #a3 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #i1 #aj4 ,footnote #b3 ,origin of ,ranks4 ,footnote #c3 ,i may be permitted to refer to ',reply to ,objections' in the appendix to my ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion1 vol4 ii4 ,footnote #d3 ,spencer1 ,ecclesiastical ,institutions1 pp4 #fgb1 #fgc4 ,footnote #e3 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #dag-dbe4 ,cf4 however ,princip4 ,of ,sociol41 p4 #cjd4 ,footnote #f3 ,op4 cit4 i4 #dbc1 #dbd4 ,footnote #g3 ,published for the ,berlin ,society of ,experimental ,psychology1 ,gnther1 ,leipzig1 #ahij4 ,footnote #h3 ,ecclesiastical ,institutions1 #hcg-hci4 ,footnote #i3 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #dba1 chapter xi4 ,footnote #aj3 ,this theory is what ,mr4 ,spencer calls ',animism1' and does not believe in4 ,what ,mr4 ,tylor calls ',animism' ,mr4 ,spencer believes in1 but he calls it the ',ghost ,theory4' ,footnote #aa3 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #dbh4 ,footnote #ab3 ,howitt1 ,journal of ,anthropological ,institute1 xiii4 #aia-aie4 ,footnote #ac3 ,the curious may consult1 for savage words for 'dreams1' ,mr4 ,scott's ,dictionary of the ,mang'anja ,language1 s4v4 ',lots1' or any glossary of any savage language4 ,footnote #ad3 ,prim4 ,cult4 i4 #dbi4 ,footnote #ae3 ,prim4 ,cult4 i4 #dbh4 ,footnote #af3 ,ibid4 i4 #bhe4 ,footnote #ag3 ,ibid4 i4 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,footnote #ah3 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #ddf4 ,footnote #ai3 ,see1 however1 ,dr4 ,von ,schrenck-,notzing1 ,die ,beobachtung narcolischer ,mittel fr den ,hypnotismus1 and ,s4,p4,r4 ,proceedings1 x4 #bib-hii4 ,footnote #bj3 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #cjf-caf4 ,footnote #ba3 i4 #cae4 ,footnote #bb3 ,phil4 des ,geistes1 pp4 #djf1 #djh4 ,footnote #bc3 ,see also ,mr4 ,a4,j4 ,balfour's ,presidential ,address to the ,society for ,psychical ,research1 ,proceedings1 vol4 x4 ,see1 too1 ,taine1 ,de l',intelligence1 i4 #gh1 #ajf1 #aci4 ,footnote #bd3 ,tanner's ,narrative1 ,new ,york1 #ahcj4 ,footnote #be3 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #adc4 ,footnote #bf3 ,as 'spiritualism' is often used in opposition to 'materialism1' and with no reference to rapping 'spirits1' the modern belief in that class of intelligences may here be called spiritism4 ,footnote #bg3 ,the ,will to ,believe1 preface1 p4 xiv4 ,footnote #bh3 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #dcb1dcc4 ,citing ,oviedo1 ,hist4 ,de ,nicaragua1 pp4 #ba-ea4 ,footnote #bi3 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #ddj4 ,citing ,stilling after ,dale ,owen1 and quoting ,mr4 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace's ,scientific ,aspect of the ,supernatural1 p4 #dc4 ,mr4 ,tylor also adds folk-lore practices of ghost-seeing1 as on ,st4 ,john's ,eve4 ,st4 ,mark's ,eve1 too1 is in point1 as far as folk-lore goes4 ,footnote #cj3 ,proceedings1 ,s4,p4,r4 v4 #afg4 ,,iv ',,opening ,,the ,,gates ,,of ,,distance' ',to open the ,gates of ,distance' is the poetical ,zulu phrase for what is called clairvoyance1 or vue distance4 ,this1 if it exists1 is the result of a faculty of undetermined nature1 whereby knowledge of remote events may be acquired1 not through normal channels of sense4 ,as the ,zulus say3 ',isiyezi is a state in which a man becomes slightly insensible4 ,he is awake1 but still sees things which he would not see if he were not in a state of ecstasy 7nasiyesi74'#a ,the ,zulu description of isiyezi includes what is technically styled 'dissociation4' ,no psychologist or pathologist will deny that visions of an hallucinatory sort may occur in dissociated states1 say in the petit mal of epilepsy4 ,the question1 however1 is whether any such visions convey actual information not otherwise to be acquired1 beyond the reach of chance coincidence to explain4 ,a ,scottish example1 from the records of a court of law1 exactly illustrates the ,zulu theory4 ,at the moment when the husband of ,jonka ,dyneis was in danger six miles from her house in his boat1 ,jonka 'was found1 and seen standing at her own house wall in a trance1 and being taken1 she could not give answer1 but stood as bereft of her senses1 and when she was asked why she was so moved1 she answered1 ,if our boat be not lost1 she was in great hazard4' 7,october #b1 #afaf47b ,the belief in opening the ,gates of ,distance is1 of course1 very widely diffused4 ,the gift is attributed to ,apollonius of ,tyana1 to ,plotinus1 to many ,saints1 to ,catherine de' ,medici1 to the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,peden1#c and to ,jeanne d',arc1 while the faculty is the stock in trade of savage seers in all regions4#d ,the question1 however1 on which ,mr4 ,tylor does not touch1 is1 ,are any of the stories true8 ,if so1 of course they would confirm in the mind of the savage his theory of the wandering soul4 ,now1 to find anything like attested cases of successful clairvoyance among savages is a difficult task4 ,white men either scout the idea1 or are afraid of seeming superstitious if they give examples1 or1 if they do give examples1 are accused of having sunk to the degraded level of ,zulus or ,red ,indians4 ,even where travellers1 like ,scheffer1 have told about their own experiences1 the narratives are omitted by modern writers on savage divination4#e ,we must therefore make our own researches1 and it is to be noted that the stories of successful savage clairvoyance are given as illustrations merely1 not as evidence to facts1 for we cannot cross-examine the witnesses4 ,mr4 ,tylor dismisses the topic in a manner rather cavalier3 ',without discussing on their merits the accounts of what is called second sight1#f it may be pointed out that they are related among savage tribes1 as when ,captain ,jonathan ,carver obtained from a ,cree medicine-man a true prophecy of the arrival of a canoe with news next day at noon2 or when ,mr4 ,j4 ,mason ,brown1 travelling with two voyageurs on the ,copper ,mine ,river1 was met by ,indians of the very band he was seeking1 these having been sent by their medicine-man1 who1 on enquiry1 stated that he saw them coming1 and heard them talk on their journey4'#g ,now1 in our opinion1 the 'merits' of stories of second sight need discussion1 because they may1 if well attested1 raise a presumption that the savage's theory has a better foundation than ,mr4 ,tylor supposes4 ,oddly enough1 though ,mr4 ,tylor does not say so1 ,dr4 ,brinton 7from whom he borrows his two anecdotes7 is more or less of our opinion4 ',there are1' says ,dr4 ,brinton1 'statements supported by unquestionable testimony1 which ought not to be passed over in silence1 and yet ,i cannot but approach them with hesitation4 ,they are so revolting to the laws of exact science1 so alien1 ,i had almost said1 to the experience of our lives4 ,yet is this true1 or are such experiences only ignored and put aside without serious consideration8' ,that is exactly what we complain of2 the alleged facts are 'put aside without serious consideration4' ,we1 at least1 are not slaves to the idea that 'the laws of exact science' must be the only laws at work in the world4 ,science1 however exact1 does not pretend to have discovered all 'laws4' ,to return to actual examples of the alleged supernormal acquisition of knowledge by savages3 ,dr4 ,brinton gives an example from ,charlevoix and ,general ,mason ,brown's anecdote4#h ,in ,general ,mason ,brown's instance the medicine-man1 at a great distance1 bade his emissaries 'seek three whites1 whose horses1 arms1 attire1 and personal appearance he minutely described1 which description was repeated to ,general ,brown by the warriors before they saw his two companions4' ,general ,brown assured ,dr4 ,brinton of 'the accuracy of this in every particular4' ,mr4 ,tylor has certainly not improved the story in his condensed version4 ,dr4 ,brinton refers to 'many' tales such as these1 and some will be found in ',among the ,zulus1' by ,mr4 ,david ,leslie 7#ahge74 ,mr4 ,leslie was a ,scottish sportsman1 brought up from boyhood in familiarity with the ,zulus4 ,his knowledge of their language and customs was minute1 and his book1 privately printed1 contains much interesting matter4 ,he writes3 ',i was obliged to proceed to the ,zulu country to meet my ,kaffir elephant-hunters1 the time for their return having arrived4 ,they were hunting in a very unhealthy country1 and ,i had agreed to wait for them on the ,north-,east border1 the nearest point ,i could go to with safety4 ,i reached the appointed rendezvous1 but could not gain the slightest intelligence of my people at the kraal4 ',after waiting some time1 and becoming very uneasy about them1 one of my servants recommended me to go to the doctor1 and at last1 out of curiosity and pour passer le temps1 ,i did go4 ',i stated what ,i wanted--information about my hunters--and ,i was met by a stern refusal4 ,i cannot tell anything about white men1 said he1 and ,i know nothing of their ways4 ,however1 after some persuasion and promise of liberal payment1 impressing upon him the fact that it was not white men but ,kaffirs ,i wanted to know about1 he at last consented1 saying he would open the ,gate of ,distance1 and would travel through it1 even although his body should lie before me4 ',his first proceeding was to ask me the number and names of my hunters4 ,to this ,i demurred1 telling him that if he obtained that information from me he might easily substitute some news which he may have heard from others1 instead of the spiritual telegraphic news which ,i expected him to get from his familiar4 ',to this he answered3 ,i told you ,i did not understand white men's ways2 but if ,i am to do anything for you it must be done in my way--not yours4 ,on receiving this fillip ,i felt inclined to give it up1 as ,i thought ,i might receive some rambling statement with a considerable dash of truth1 it being easy for anyone who knew anything of hunting to give a tolerably correct idea of their motions4 ',however1 ,i conceded this point also1 and otherwise satisfied him4 ',the doctor then made eight little fires--that being the number of my hunters2 on each he cast some roots1#i which emitted a curious sickly odour and thick smoke2 into each he cast a small stone1 shouting1 as he did so1 the name to which the stone was dedicated2 then he ate some medicine1 and fell over in what appeared to be a trance for about ten minutes1 during all which time his limbs kept moving4 ,then he seemed to wake1 went to one of the fires1 raked the ashes about1 looked at the stone attentively1 described the man faithfully1 and said3 ,this man has died of the fever1 and your gun is lost4 ',to the next fire as before3 ,this man 7correctly described7 has killed four elephants1 and then he described the tusks4 ,the next3 ,this man 7again describing him7 has been killed by an elephant1 but your gun is coming home1 and so on through the whole1 the men being minutely and correctly described2 their success or non-success being equally so4 ,i was told where the survivors were1 and what they were doing1 and that in three months they would come out1 but as they would not expect to find me waiting on them there so long after the time appointed1 they would not pass that way4 ',i took a particular note of all this information at the time1 and to my utter amazement it turned out correct in every particular4 ',it was scarcely within the bounds of possibility that this man could have had ordinary intelligence of the hunters2 they were scattered about in a country two hundred miles away4' ,mr4 ,leslie could discover no explanation1 nor was any suggested by friends familiar with the country and the natives whom he consulted4 ,he gives another example1 which may be explained by 'suggestion4' ,a parallel case from ,central ,africa will be found in the ',journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1' ,november #ahig1 p4 #cbj1 where 'private information1' as usual1 would explain the singular facts4 ,the ,zulus themselves lay claim to a kind of clairvoyance which looks like the result of intense visualising power1 combined with the awakening of the subconscious memory4#aj ',there is among black men a something which is divination within them4 ,when anything valuable is lost1 they look for it at once2 when they cannot find it1 each one begins to practise this inner divination1 trying to feel where the thing is2 for1 not being able to see it1 he feels internally a pointing1 which tells him if he will go down to such a place it is there1 and he will find it4 ,at length it says he will find it2 at length he sees it1 and himself approaching it2 before he begins to move from where he is1 he sees it very clearly indeed1 and there is an end of doubt4 ,that sight is so clear that it is as though it was not an inner sight1 but as if he saw the very thing itself1 and the place where it is2 so he quickly arises and goes to the place4 ,if it is a hidden place he throws himself into it1 as though there was something that impelled him to go as swiftly as the wind2 and1 in fact1 he finds the thing1 if he has not acted by mere head-guessing4 ,if it has been done by real inner divination1 he really sees it4 ,but if it is done by mere head-guessing and knowledge that he has not gone to such a place and such a place1 and that therefore it must be in such another place1 he generally misses the mark4' ,other ,zulu instances will be given under the heads ',possession' and ',fetishism4' ,to take a ,northern people3 ,in his ',history of the ,lapps'#aa ,scheffer describes mechanical modes of divination practised by that race1 who use a drum and other objects for the purpose4 ,these modes depend on more traditional rules for interpreting the accidental combinations of lots4 ,but a ,lapp confessed to ,scheffer1 with tears1 that he could not help seeing visions1 as he proved by giving ,scheffer a minute relation 'of whatever particulars had happened to me in my journey to ,lapland4 ,and he further complained that he know not how to make use of his eyes1 since things altogether distant were presented to them4' ,this ,lapp was anxious to become a ,christian1 hence his regret at being a 'rare and valuable' example of clairvoyance4 ,torfaeus also was posed by the clairvoyance of a ,samoyed1 as was ,regnard by a ,lapp seer4#ab ,the next case is of old date1 and1 like the other savage examples1 is merely given for purposes of illustration4 '#be;e ,lettre4#ac ',suite des ,traditions des ,sauvages4 ',au ,fort de la ,rivire de ,st4 ,joseph1 ce #ad ,septembre #agba4 ',des ,jongleurs-- 444 ,vous ayez vu ,paris ,madame de ,marson1 elle y est encore2 voici ce que ,m4 le ,marquis de ,vaudreuil son ,gendre1 actuellement notre ,gouverneur ,gnral1 me raconta cet ,hyver1 qu'il a s de cette ,dame1 qui n'est rien mons qu'un esprit foible4 ,elle etoit un jour fort inquiette an sujet de ,m4 de ,marson1 son ,mari1 lequel commandoit dans un ,poste1 que nous avions en ,accadie2 et etoit absent1 le tems qu'il avoit marqu pour son retour1 etoit pass4 ',une ,femme ,sauvage1 qui vit ,madame de ,marson en peine1 lui en demanda la cause1 l'ayant apprise1 lui dit1 aprs y avoir un peu rv1 de ne plus se chagriner1 que son ,epoux reviendroit tel jour et telle heure1 qu'elle lui marqua1 avec un chapeau gris sur la tte4 ,comme elle s'apperut que la ,dame n'ajoutoit point foi sa prdiction1 au jour l'heure1 qu'elle avoit assigne1 elle rotourna chez elle1 lui demanda si elle ne vouloit pas venir voir arriver son ,mari1 la pressa de telle sorte de la suivre1 qu'elle l'entrana au bord de la ,rivire4 ',a peine y etoent-elles arrives1 que ,m4 de ,marson parut dans un ,canot1 un chapeau gris sur la tte2 ayant appris ce qui s'etoit pass1 assra qu'il ne pouvoit pas comprendre comment la ,sauvagesse avoit p savoir l'heure le jour de son arrive4' ,it is unusual for ,european travellers and missionaries to give anecdotes which might seem to 'confirm the delusions of benighted savages4' ,such anecdotes1 again1 are among the arcana of these wild philosophers1 and are not readily communicated to strangers4 ,when successful cases are reported1 it is natural to assert that they come through ,europeans who have sunk into barbarous superstition1 or that they may be explained by fraud and collusion4 ,it is certain1 however1 that savage proficients believe in their own powers1 though no less certainly they will eke them out by imposture4 ,seers are chosen in ,zululand1 as among ,eskimos and ,samoyeds1 from the class which in ,europe supplies the persons who used to be1 but are no longer the most favourite hypnotic subjects1 'abnormal children1' epileptic and hysterical4 ,these are subjected to 'a long and methodical course of training4'#ad ,stoll1 speaking of ,guatemala1 says that 'certainly most of the induced and spontaneous phenomena with which we are familiar occur among savages1' and appeals to travellers for observations4#ae ,information is likely to come in1 as educated travellers devote attention to the topic4 ,dr4 ,callaway translates some ,zulu communications which indicate the amount of belief in this very practical and sceptical people4 ,amusing illustrations of their scepticism will be quoted later1 under ',possession1' but they do accept as seers certain hysterical patients4 ,these are tested by their skill in finding objects which have been hidden without their knowledge4 ,they then behave much like ,mr4 ,stuart ,cumberland1 but have not the advantage of muscular contact with the person who knows where the hidden objects are concealed4 ,the neighbours even deny that they have hidden anything at all4 ',when they persist in their denial 444 he finds all the things that they have hidden4 ,they see that he is a great inyanga 7seer7 when he has found all the things they have concealed4' ,no doubt he is guided1 perhaps in a super-sensitive condition1 by the unconscious indications of the excited spectators4 ,the point is that1 while the savage conjurer will doubtless use fraud wherever he can1 still the experience of low races is in favour of employing as seers the class of people who in ,europe were1 till recently1 supposed to make the best hypnotic subjects4 ,thus1 in ,west ,africa1 'the presiding elders1 during your initiation to the secret society of your tribe1 discover this gift of ,ebumtupism1 or second sight1 and so select you as a witch doctor4'#ae ,among the ,karens1 the ',wees1' or prophets1 'are nervous excitable men1 such as would become mediums1'#af as mediums are diagnosed by ,mr4 ,tylor4 ,in short1 not to multiply examples1 there is an element of actual observation and of bona fides entangled in the trickery of savage practice4 ,though the subjects may be selected partly because of the physical phenomena of convulsions which they exhibit1 and which favourably impress their clients1 they are also such subjects as occasionally yield that evidence of supernormal faculty which is investigated by modern psychologists1 like ,richet1 ,janet1 and ,william ,james4 ,the following example1 by no means unique1 shows the view taken by savages of their own magic1 after they have become ,christians4 ,catherine ,wabose1 a converted ,red ,indian seeress1 described her preliminary fast1 at the age of puberty4 ,after six days of abstention from food she was rapt away to an unknown place1 where a radiant being welcomed her4 ,later a dark round object promised her the gift of prophecy4 ,she found her natural senses greatly sharpened by lack of food4 ,she first exercised her powers when her kinsfolk in large numbers were starving1 a medicine-lodge1 or 'tabernacle' as ,lufitau calls it1 was built for her1 and she crawled in4 ,as is well known1 these lodges are violently shaken during the magician's stay within them1 which the early ,jesuits at first attributed to muscular efforts by the seers4 ,in #afcg ,pre ,lejeune was astonished by the violent motions of a large lodge1 tenanted by a small man4 ,one sorcerer1 with an appearance of candour1 vowed that 'a great wind entered boisterously1' and the ,father was assured that1 if he went in himself1 he would become clairvoyant4 ,he did not make the experiment4 ,the ,methodist convert1 ,catherine1 gave the same description of her own experience3 ',the lodge began shaking violently by supernatural means4 ,i knew this by the compressed current of air above1 and the noise of motion4' ,she had been beating a small drum and singing1 now she lay quiet4 ,the radiant 'orbicular' spirit then informed her that they 'must go westwards for game2 how short-sighted you are6' ',the advice was taken and crowned by instant success4' ,this established her reputation4#ag ,catherine's conversion was led up to by a dream of her dying son1 who beheld a ,sacred ,figure1 and received from ,him white raiment4 ,her magical songs tell how unseen hands shake the magic lodge4 ,they invoke the ,great ,spirit that ',illumines earth ,illumines heaven6 ,ah1 say what ,spirit1 or ,body1 is this ,body1 ,that fills the world around1 ,speak1 man1 ah say ,what ,spirit1 or ,body1 is this ,body8' ,it is like a savage hymn to ,hegel's fhlende ,seele3 the all-pervading ,sensitive ,soul4 ,we are reminded1 too1 of 'the doctrine of the ,sanscrit ,upanishads3 ,there is no limit to the knowing of the ,self that knows4'#ah ,unluckily ,catherine was not asked to give other examples of what she considered her successes4 ,acosta1 who has not the best possible repute as an authority1 informs us that ,peruvian clairvoyants 'tell what hath passed in the furthest parts before news can come4 ,in the distance of two or three hundred leagues they would tell what the ,spaniards did or suffered in their civil wars4' ,to ,du ,pont1 in #afjf1 a sorcerer 'rendered a true oracle of the coming of ,poutrincourt1 saying his ,devil had told him so4'#ai ,we now give a modern case1 from a scientific laboratory1 of knowledge apparently acquired in no normal way1 by a person of the sort usually chosen to be a prophet1 or wizard1 by savages4 ,professor ,richet writes3#bj ',on ,monday1 ,july #b1 #ahhh1 after having passed all the day in my laboratory1 ,i hypnotised ,lonie at #h ,p4,m41 and while she tried to make out a diagram concealed in an envelope ,i said to her quite suddenly3 ,what has happened to ,m4 ,langlois8 ,lonie knows ,m4 ,langlois from having seen him two or three times some time ago in my physiological laboratory1 where he acts as my assistant4--,he has burnt himself1 ,lonie replied1--,good1 ,i said1 and where has he burnt himself8--,on the left hand4 ,it is not fire3 it is--,i don't know its name4 ,why does he not take care when he pours it out8--,of what colour1 ,i asked1 is the stuff which he pours out8--,it is not red1 it is brown2 he has hurt himself very much--the skin puffed up directly4 ',now1 this description is admirably exact4 ,at #d ,p4,m4 that day ,m4 ,langlois had wished to pour some bromine into a bottle4 ,he had done this clumsily1 so that some of the bromine flowed on to his left hand1 which held the funnel1 and at once burnt him severely4 ,although he at once put his hand into water1 wherever the bromine had touched it a blister was formed in a few seconds--a blister which one could not better describe than by saying1 the skin puffed up4 ,i need not say that ,lonie had not left my house1 nor seen anyone from my laboratory4 ,of this ,i am absolutely certain1 and ,i am certain that ,i had not mentioned the incident of the burn to anyone4 ,moreover1 this was the first time for nearly a year that ,m4 ,langlois had handled bromine1 and when ,lonie saw him six months before at the laboratory he was engaged in experiments of quite another kind4' ,here the savage reasoner would infer that ,lonie's spirit had visited ,m4 ,langlois4 ,the modern inquirer will probably say that ,lonie became aware of what was passing in the mind of ,m4 ,richet4 ,this supranormal way of acquiring knowledge was observed in the last century by ,m4 de ,puysgur in one of his earliest cases of somnambulism4 ,,mm4 ,binet and ,fr say3 ',it is not yet admitted that the subject is able to divine the thoughts of the magnetiser without any material communication2' while they grant1 as a minimum1 that 'research should be continued in this direction4'#ba ,they appear to think that ,lonie may have read 'involuntary signs' in the aspect of ,m4 ,richet4 ,this is a difficult hypothesis4 ,here follows a case recorded in his diary by ,mr4 ,dobbie1 of ,adelaide1 ,australia1 who has practised hypnotism for curative purposes4 ,he explains 7,june #aj1 #ahhd7 that he had mesmerised ,miss ---- on several occasions to relieve rheumatic pain and sore throat4 ,he found her to be clairvoyant4 ',the following is a verbatim account of the second time ,i tested her powers in this respect1 ,april #ab1 #ahhd4 ,there were four persons present during the sance4 ,one of the company wrote down the replies as they were spoken4 ',her father was at the time over fifty miles away1 but we did not know exactly where1 so ,i questioned her as follows3 ,can you find your father at the present moment8 ,at first she replied that she could not see him1 but in a minute or two she said1 ,oh1 yes2 now ,i can see him1 ,mr4 ,dobbie4 ,where is he8 ,sitting at a large table in a large room1 and there are a lot of people going in and out4 ,what is he doing8 ,writing a letter1 and there is a book in front of him4 ,whom is he writing to8 ,to the newspaper4 ,here she paused and laughingly said1 ,well1 ,i declare1 he is writing to the ,a ,b 7naming a newspaper74 ,you said there was a book there4 ,can you tell me what book it is8 ,it has gilt letters on it4 ,can you read them1 or tell me the name of the author8 ,she read1 or pronounced slowly1 ,w4,l4,w4 7giving the full surname of the author74 ,she answered several minor questions re the furniture in the room1 and ,i then said to her1 ,is it any effort or trouble to you to travel in this way8 ,yes1 a little2 ,i have to think4 ',i now stood behind her1 holding a half-crown in my hand1 and asked her if she could tell me what ,i had in my hand1 to which she replied1 ,it is a shilling4 ,it seemed as though she could see what was happening miles away easier than she could see what was going on in the room4 ',her father returned home nearly a week afterwards1 and was perfectly astounded when told by his wife and family what he had been doing on that particular evening2 and1 although previous to that date he was a thorough sceptic as to clairvoyance1 he frankly admitted that my clairvoyant was perfectly correct in every particular4 ,he also informed us that the book referred to was a new one1 which he had purchased after he had left his home1 so that there was no possibility of his daughter guessing that he had the book before him4 ,i may add that the letter in due course appeared in the paper2 and ,i saw and handled the book4' ,a number of cases of so-called 'clairvoyance' will be found in the ',proceedings of the ,society for ,psychical ,research4'#bb ,as the authors of these essays remark1 even after discounting1 in each case1 fraud1 malobservation1 and misreporting1 the residue of cases can seldom justify either the savage theory of the wandering soul 7which is not here seriously proposed7 or ,hegel's theory that the fhlende ,seele is unconditioned by space4 ,for1 if thought transference be a fact1 the apparent clairvoyant may only be reading the mind of a person at a distance4 ,the results1 however1 when successful1 would naturally suggest to the savage thinker the belief in the wandering soul1 or corroborate it if it had already been suggested by the common phenomena of dreaming4 ,to these instances of knowledge acquired otherwise than by the recognised channels of sense we might add the ,scottish tales of 'second sight4' ,that phrase is merely a local term covering examples of what is called 'clairvoyance'--views of things remote in space1 hallucinations of sight that coincide with some notable event1 premonitions of things future1 and so on4 ,the belief and hallucinatory experiences are still very common in the ,highlands1 where ,i have myself collected many recent instances4 ,mr4 ,tylor observes that the examples 'prove a little too much2 they vouch not only for human apparitions1 but for such phantoms as demon dogs1 and for still more fanciful symbolic omens4' ,this is perfectly true4 ,i have found no cases of demon dogs2 but wandering lights1 probably of meteoric or miasmatic origin1 are certainly regarded as tokens of death4 ,this is obviously a superstitious hypothesis1 the lights being real phenomena misconstrued4 ,again1 funerals are not uncommonly seen where no funeral is taking place2 it is then alleged that a real funeral1 similar and similarly situated1 soon afterwards occurred4 ,on the hypothesis of believers1 the percipients somehow behold ',such refraction of events ,as often rises ere they rise4' ,even the savage cannot account for this experience by the wandering of the soul in space2 nor do ,i suggest any explanation4 ,i give1 however1 one or two instances4 ,they are published in the ',journal of the ,caledonian ,medical ,society1' #ahig1 by ,dr4 ,alastair ,macgregor1 on the authority of the ,,mss4 of his father1 a minister in the island of ,skye4 ',he once told me that when he first went to ,skye he scoffed at the idea of such a power as second sight being genuine2 but he said that1 after having been there for some years as a clergyman1 he had been so often consulted beforehand by people who said they had seen visions of events which subsequently occurred1 to my father's knowledge1 in exact accordance with the form and details of the vision as foretold1 that he was compelled to confess that some folks had1 apparently at least1 the unfortunate faculty4 ',as my father expressed it1 this faculty was neither voluntary nor constant1 and was considered rather annoying than agreeable to the possessors of it4 ,the gift was possessed by individuals of both sexes1 and its fits came on within doors and without1 sitting and standing1 at night and by day1 and at whatever employment the votary might chance to be engaged4' ,here follows a typical example of the vision of a funeral3 ',the session clerk at ,dull1 a small village in ,perthshire1 was ill1 and my grandfather1 clergyman there at the time1 had to do duty for him4 ,one fine summer evening1 about #g o'clock1 a young man and woman came to get some papers filled up1 as they were going to be married4 ,my grandfather was with the couple in the session clerk's room1 no doubt attending to the papers1 when suddenly all three saw through the window a funeral procession passing along the road4 ,from their dress the bulk of the mourners seemed to be farm labourers--indeed the young woman recognised some of them as natives of ,dull1 who had gone to live and work near ,dunkeld4 ,remarks were naturally made by my grandfather and the young couple about the untimely hour for a funeral1 and1 hastily filling in the papers1 my grandfather went out to get the key of the churchyard1 which was kept in the manse1 as1 without the key1 the procession could not get into ,god's acre4 ,wondering how it was that he had received no intimation of the funeral1 he went to the manse by a short cut1 got the key1 and hurried down to the churchyard gate1 where1 of course1 he expected to find the cortge waiting4 ,not a soul was there except the young couple1 who were as amazed as my grandfather6 ',well1 at the same hour in the evening of the same day in the following week the funeral1 this time in reality1 arrived quite unexpectedly4 ,the facts were that a boy1 a native of ,dull1 had got gored by a bull at ,dunkeld1 and was so shockingly mangled that his remains were picked up and put into a coffin and taken without delay to ,dull4 ,a grave was dug as quickly as possible--the poor lad having no relatives--and the remains were interred4 ,my grandfather and the young couple recognised several of the mourners as being among those whom they had seen out of the session clerk's room1 exactly a week previously1 in the phantom cortge4 ,the young woman knew some of them personally1 and related to them what she had seen1 but they of course denied all knowledge of the affair1 having been then in ,dunkeld4' ,i give another example1 because the experience was auditory1 as well as visual1 and the prediction was announced before the event4 ',the parishioners in ,skye were evidently largely imbued with the ,romanist-like belief in the powers of intercession vested in their clergyman2 so when they had a warning or vision they usually consulted my father as to what they could do to prevent the coming disaster befalling their relatives or friends4 ,in this way my father had the opportunity of noting down the minutiae of the warning or vision directly it was told him4 ,having had the advantage of a medical1 previous to his theological1 training1 he was able to note down sound facts1 unembellished by superadded imagination4 ,entering into this method of case-taking with a mind perfectly open1 except for a slight touch of scepticism1 he was greatly surprised to discover how very frequently realisations occurred exactly in conformance with the minutiae of the vision as detailed in his note-book4 ,finally1 he was compelled to discard his scepticism1 and to admit that some people had undoubtedly the uncanny gift4 ,almost the first case he took 7,case ,x47 was that of a woman who had one day a vision of her son falling over a high rock at ,uig1 in ,skye1 with a sheep or lamb4 ',,case ,x4--,she heard her son exclaim in ,gaelic1 ,this is a fatal lamb for me4 ,as her son lived several miles from ,uig1 and was a fisherman1 realisation seemed to my father very unlikely1 but one month afterwards the realisation occurred only too true4 ,unknown to his mother1 who had warned him against having anything to do with sheep or lambs1 the son one day1 instead of going out in his boat1 thought he would take a holiday inland1 and went off to ,uig1 where a farmer enlisted his services in separating some lambs from the ewes4 ,one of the lambs ran away1 and the fisher lad ran headlong after it1 and not looking where he was going1 on catching the lamb was pulled by it to the edge of one of the very picturesque but exceedingly dangerous rocks at ,uig4 ,too late realizing his critical position1 he exclaimed1 ,this is a fatal lamb for me1 but going with such an impetus he was unable to bring himself up in time1 and1 along with the lamb1 fell over into the ravine below1 and was1 of course1 killed on the spot4 ,the farmer1 when he saw the lad's danger1 ran to his assistance1 but was only in time to hear him cry out in ,gaelic before disappearing over the brink of the precipice4 ,this was predicted by the mother a month before4 ,was this simply a coincidence8' ,dr4 ,macgregor's remarks on the involuntary and unwelcome nature of the visions is borne out by what ,scheffer1 as already quoted1 says concerning the ,lapps4 ,in addition to visions which thus come unsought1 contributing knowledge of things remote or even future1 we may glance at visions which are provoked by various methods4 ,drugs 7impepo7 are used1 seers whirl in a wild dance till they fall senseless1 or trance is induced by various kinds of self-suggestion or 'auto-hypnotism4' ,fasting is also practised4 ,in modern life the self-induced trance is common among 'mediums'--a subject to which we recur later4 ,so far1 it will be observed1 our evidence proves that precisely similar beliefs as to man's occasional power of opening the gates of distance have been entertained in a great variety of lands and ages1 and by races in every condition of culture4#bc ,the alleged experiences are still said to occur1 and have been investigated by physiologists of the eminence of ,m4 ,richet4 ,the question cannot but arise as to the residuum of fact in these narrations1 and it keeps on arising4 ,in the following chapter we discuss a mode of inducing hallucinations which has for anthropologists the interest of universal diffusion4 ,the width of its range in savage races has not1 we believe1 been previously observed4 ,we then add facts of modern experience1 about the authenticity of which we1 personally1 entertain no doubt2 and the provisional conclusion appears to be that savages have observed a psychological circumstance which has been ignored by professed psychologists1 and which1 certainly1 does not fit into the ordinary materialistic hypothesis4 ,footnote #a3 ,callaway1 ,religion of the ,zulus1 p4 #bcb4 ,footnote #b3 ,graham ,dalzell1 ,darker ,superstitions of ,scotland1 p4 #dha4 ,footnote #c3 ,see good evidence in ,ker of ,kersland's ,memoirs4 ,footnote #d3 ,autus ,gellius1 xv4 #ah1 ,dio ,cassius1 lxvii41 ,crespet1 ,de la ,haine du ,diable1 ,procs de ,jeanne d',arc4 ,footnote #e3 ,see ',shamanism in ,siberia1' ,j4,a4,i41 ,november #ahid1 pp4 #adg-adi1 and compare ,scheffer4 ,the article is very learned and interesting4 ,footnote #f3 ,williams mentions second sight in ,fiji1 but gives no examples4 ,footnote #g3 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #ddg4 ,mr4 ,tylor cites ,dr4 ,brinton's ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #bfi4 ,the reference in the recent edition is p4 #bhi4 ,carver's case is given under the head ',possession' later4 ,footnote #h3 ,journal ,historique p4 #cfb2 ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,july #ahff4 ,footnote #i3 ,probably impepo1 eaten by seers1 according to ,callaway4 ,footnote #aj3 ,callaway's ,religion of the ,amazulu1 p4 #ceh4 ,footnote #aa3 ,oxford1 #afgd4 ,footnote #ab3 ,voyages4 ,footnote #ac3 ,from ,charlevoix1 ,journal ,historique1 p4 #cfb4 ,footnote #ad3 ,bastian1 ,ueber psych4 ,beobacht4 p4#ba4 ,footnote #ad3 ,op4 cit4 p4#bf4 ,footnote #ae3 ,miss ,kingsley1 ,travels in ,west ,africa1 p4 #dfj4 ,footnote #af3 ,primitive ,culture1 ii1 #aha2 ,mason's ,burmah1 p4 #ajg4 ,footnote #ag3 ,schoolcraft1 i4 #cid4 ,footnote #ah3 ,brinton's ,religions of ,primitive ,peoples1 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #ai3 ,purchas1 p4 #fbi4 ,footnote #bj3 ,s4,p4,r4 ,proceedings1 vol4 vi4 #fi4 ,footnote #ba3 ,binet and ,fr1 ,animal ,magnetism1 p4 #fd4 ,footnote #bb3 ,vol4 vii4 ,mrs4 ,sidgwick1 pp4 #cj1 #cef2 vol4 vi4 p4 #ff1 ,professor ,richet1 p4 #djg1 ,drs4 ,dufay and ,azam4 ,footnote #bc3 ,the examples in the ,old ,testament1 and in the ,life of ,st4 ,columba by ,adamnan1 need only be alluded to as too familiar for quotation4 ,v ,,crystal ,,visions1 ,,savage ,,and ,,civilised ,among savage methods of provoking hallucinations whence knowledge may be supernormally obtained1 various forms of 'crystal-gazing' are the most curious4 ,we find the habit of looking into water1 usually in a vessel1 preferably a glass vessel1 among ,red ,indians 7,lejeune71 ,romans 7,varro1 cited in ,civitas ,dei1 iii4 #deg71 ,africans of ,fez 7,leo ,africanus72 while ,maoris use a drop of blood 7,taylor71 ,egyptians use ink 7,lane71 and ,australian savages employ a ball of polished stone1 into which the seer 'puts himself' to descry the results of an expedition4#a ,i have already given1 in the ,introduction1 ,ellis's record of the ,polynesian case4 ,a hole being dug in the door of his house1 and filled with water1 the priest looks for a vision of the thief who has carried off stolen goods4 ,the ,polynesian theory is that the god carries the spirit of the thief over the water1 in which it is reflected4 ,lejeune's ,red ,indians make their patients gaze into the water1 in which they will see the pictures of the things in the way of food or medicine that will do them good4 ,in modern language1 the instinctive knowledge existing implicitly in the patient's subconsciousness is thus brought into the range of his ordinary consciousness4 ,in #ahhg the late ,captain ,j4 ,t4 ,bourke1 of the ,u4,s4 ,cavalry1 an original and careful observer1 visited the ,apaches in the interests of the ,ethnological ,bureau4 ,he learned that one of the chief duties of the medicine-men was to find out the whereabouts of lost or stolen property4 ,na-a-cha1 one of these jossakeeds1 possessed a magic quartz crystal1 which he greatly valued4 ,captain ,bourke presented him with a still finer crystal4 ',he could not give me an explanation of its magical use1 except that by looking into it he could see everything he wanted to see1' ,captain ,bourke appears never to have heard of the modern experiments in crystal-gazing4 ,captain ,bourke also discovered that the ,apaches1 like the ,greeks1 ,australians1 ,africans1 ,maoris1 and many other1 races1 use the bull-roarer1 turndun1 or rhombos--a piece of wood which1 being whirled round1 causes a strange windy roar--in their mystic ceremonies4 ,the wide use of the rhombos was known to ,captain ,bourke2 that of the crystal was not4 ,for the ,iroquois1 ,mrs4 ,erminie ,smith supplies information about the crystal4 ',placed in a gourd of water1 it could render visible the apparition of a person who has bewitched another4' ,she gives a case in ,european times of a medicine-man who found the witch's habitat1 but got only an indistinct view of her face4 ,on a second trial he was successful4#b ,one may add that treasure-seekers among the ,huille-che 'look earnestly' for what they want to find 'into a smooth slab of black stone1 which ,i suppose to be basalt4'#c ,the kindness of ,monsieur ,lefbure enables me to give another example from ,madagascar4#d ,flacourt1 describing the ,malagasies1 says that they squillent 7a word not in ,littr71 that is1 divine by crystals1 which 'fall from heaven when it thunders1' ,of course the rain reveals the crystals1 as it does the flint instruments called 'thunderbolts' in many countries4 ',lorsqu'ils squillent1 ils ont une de ces pierres au coing de leurs tablettes1 disans qu'elle la vertu de faire faire operation leur figure de geomance4' ,probably they used the crystals as do the ,apaches4 ,on ,july #ae a ,malagasy woman viewed1 whether in her crystal or otherwise1 two ,french vessels which1 like the ,spanish fleet1 were 'not in sight1' also officers1 and doctors1 and others aboard1 whom she had seen1 before their return to ,france1 in ,madagascar4 ,the earliest of the ships did not arrive till ,august #aa4 ,dr4 ,callaway gives the ,zulu practice1 where the chief 'sees what will happen by looking into the vessel4'#e ,the ,shamans of ,siberia and ,eastern ,russia employ the same method4#f ,the case of the ,inca1 ,yupanqui1 is very curious4 ',as he came up to a fountain he saw a piece of crystal fall into it1 within which he beheld a figure of an ,indian in the following shape 444 ,the apparition then vanished1 while the crystal remained4 ,the ,inca took care of it1 and they say that he afterwards saw everything he wanted in it4'#g ,here1 then1 we find the belief that hallucinations can be induced by one or other form of crystal-gazing1 in ancient ,peru1 on the other side of the continent among the ,huille-che1 in ,fez1 in ,madagascar1 in ,siberia1 among ,apaches1 ,hurons1 ,iroquois1 ,australian black fellows1 ,maoris1 and in ,polynesia4 ,this is assuredly a wide range of geographical distribution4 ,we also find the practice in ,greece 7,pausanias1 ,,vii4 xxi4 #ab71 in ,rome 7,varro71 in ,egypt1 and in ,india4 ,though anthropologists have paid no attention to the subject1 it was of course familiar to later ,europe4 ',miss ,x' has traced it among early ,christians1 in early ,councils1 in episcopal condemnations of specularii1 and so to ,dr4 ,dee1 under ,james ,,vi42 ,aubrey2 the ,regent d',orlans in ,st4 ,simon's ,memoirs2 the modern mesmerists 7,gregory1 ,mayo7 and the mid-,victorian spiritualists1 who1 as usual1 explained the phenomena1 in their prehistoric way1 by 'spirits#h4' ,till this lady examined the subject1 nobody had thought of remarking that a belief so universal had probably some basis of facts1 or nobody if we except two professors of chemistry and physiology1 ,drs4 ,gregory and ,mayo4 ,miss ,x made experiments1 beginning by accident1 like ,george ,sand1 when a child4 ,the hallucinations which appear to her eyes in ink1 or crystal1 are3 #a4 ,revived memories 'arising thus1 and thus only1 from the subconscious strata2' '#b4 ,objectivation of ideas or images--7a7 consciously or 7b7 unconsciously--in the mind of the percipient2 '#c4 ,visions1 possibly telepathic or clairvoyant1 implying acquirement of knowledge by supernormal means4'#i ,the examples given of the last class1 the class which would be so useful to a priest or medicine-man asked to discover things lost1 are of very slight interest4#aj ,since ,miss ,x drew attention to this subject1 experiments have proved beyond doubt that a fair percentage of people1 sane and healthy1 can see vivid landscapes1 and figures of persons in motion1 in glass balls and other vehicles4 ,this faculty ,dr4 ,parish attributes to 'dissociation1' practically to drowsiness4 ,but he speaks by conjecture1 and without having witnessed experiments1 as will be shown later4 ,i now offer a series of experiments with a glass ball1 coming under my own observation1 in which knowledge was apparently acquired in no ordinary way4 ,of the absence of fraud ,i am personally convinced1 not only by the characters of all concerned1 but by the nature of the circumstances4 ,that adaptive memory did not later alter the narratives1 as originally told1 ,i feel certain1 because they were reported to me1 when ,i was not present1 within less than a week1 precisely as they are now given1 except in cases specially noted4 ,early in the present year 7#ahig7 ,i met a young lady who told me of three or four curious hallucinatory experiences of her own1 which were sufficiently corroborated4 ,she was innocent of psychical studies1 and personally was1 and is1 in perfect health2 the pale cast of thought being remote from her4 ,i got a glass ball1 and was present when she first looked into it4 ,she saw1 ,i remember1 the interior of a house1 with a full-length portrait of a person unknown4 ,there were1 ,i think1 one or two other fancy pictures of the familiar kind4 ,but she presently 7living as she was1 among strangers7 developed a power of 'seeing' persons and places unknown to her1 but familiar to them4 ,these experiences do seem to me to be good examples of what is called 'thought transference2' indeed1 ,i never before could get out of a level balance of doubt on that subject1 a balance which now leans considerably to the affirmative side4 ,there may be abundance of better evidence1 but1 knowing the persons and circumstances1 and being present once at what seemed to me a crucial example1 ,i was more inclined to be convinced4 ,this attitude appears1 to myself1 illogical1 but it is natural and usual4 ,we cannot tell what indications may be accidentally given in experiments in thought transference4 ,but1 in these cases of crystal-gazing1 the detail was too copious to be conveyed1 by a looker-on1 in a wink or a cough4 ,i do not mean to say that success was invariable4 ,i thought of ,dr4 ,w4,g4 ,grace1 and the scryer saw an old man crawling along with a stick4 ,but ,i doubt if ,dr4 ,grace is very deeply seated in that mystic entity1 my subconscious self4 ,the 'scries' which came right were sometimes1 but not always1 those of which the 'agent' 7or person scried for7 was consciously thinking4 ,but the examples will illustrate the various kinds of occurrences4 ,here one should first consider the arguments against accepting recognition of objects merely described by another person4 ,the crystal-gazer may know the inquirer so intimately as to have a very good guess at the subject of his meditation4 ,again1 a man is likely to be thinking of a woman1 and a woman of a man1 so the field of conjecture is limited4 ,in answer to the first objection ,i may say that the crystal-gazer was among strangers1 all of whom1 myself included1 she now saw for the first time4 ,nor could she have studied their histories beforehand1 for she could not know 7normally7 when she left home1 that she was about to be shown a glass ball1 or whom she would meet4 ,the second objection is met by the circumstance that ladies were not usually picked out for men1 nor men for women4 ,indeed1 these choices were the exceptions1 and in each case were marked by minutely particular details4 ,a third objection is that credulity1 or the love of strange novelties1 or desire to oblige1 biases the inquirers1 and makes them anxious to recognise something familiar in the scryer's descriptions4 ,in the same way we know how people recognise faces in the most blurred and vague of spiritist photographs1 or see family resemblances in the most rudimentary doughfaced babies4 ,take descriptions of persons in a passport1 or in a proclamation sketching the personal appearance of a criminal4 ,these fit the men or women intended1 but they also fit a crowd of other people4 ,the description given by the scryer then may come right by a fortuitous coincidence1 or may be too credulously recognised4 ,the complex of coincidences1 however1 could not be attributed to chance selection out of the whole possible field of conjecture4 ,we must remember1 too1 that a series of such hits increases1 at an enormous rate1 the odds against accidental conjecture4 ,of such mere luck ,i may give an example4 ,i was writing a story of which the hero was ,george ,kelly1 one of the ',seven ,men of ,moidart4' ,a year after composing my tale1 ,i found the ,government description of ,mr4 ,kelly 7#agcf74 ,it exactly tallied with my purely fanciful sketch1 down to eyes1 and teeth1 and face1 except that ,i made my hero 'about six feet1' whereas the ,government gave him five feet ten4 ,but ,i knew beforehand that ,mr4 ,kelly was a clergyman2 his curious career proved him to be a person of great activity and geniality--and he was of ,irish birth4 ,even a dozen such guesses1 equally correct1 could not suggest any powers of 'vision1' when so much was known beforehand about the person guessed at4 ,i now give cases in the experience of ,miss ,angus1 as one may call the crystal-gazer4 ,the first occurred the day after she got the glass ball for the first time4 ,she writes3 ',i4--,a lady one day asked me to scry out a friend of whom she would think4 ,almost immediately ,i exclaimed ,here is an old1 old lady looking at me with a triumphant smile on her face4 ,she has a prominent nose and nut-cracker chin4 ,her face is very much wrinkled1 especially at the sides of her eyes1 as if she were always smiling4 ,she is wearing a little white shawl with a black edge4 ,but6 444 she can't be old as her hair is quite brown6 although her face looks so very very old4 ,the picture then vanished1 and the lady said that ,i had accurately described her friend's mother instead of himself2 that it was a family joke that the mother must dye her hair1 it was so brown and she was eighty-two years old4 ,the lady asked me if the vision were distinct enough for me to recognise a likeness in the son's photograph2 next day she laid several photographs before me1 and in a moment1 without the slightest hesitation ,i picked him out from his wonderful likeness to my vision6' ,the inquirer verbally corroborated all the facts to me1 within a week1 but leaned to a theory of 'electricity4' ,she has read and confirms this account4 ',,ii4--,one afternoon ,i was sitting beside a young lady whom ,i had never seen or heard of before4 ,she asked if she might look into my crystal1 and while she did so ,i happened to look over her shoulder and saw a ship tossing on a very heavy choppy sea1 although land was still visible in the dim distance4 ,that vanished1 and1 as suddenly1 a little house appeared with five or six 7,i forget now the exact number ,i then counted7 steps leading up to the door4 ,on the second step stood an old man reading a newspaper4 ,in front of the house was a field of thick stubbly grass where some lambs1 ,i was going to say1 but they were more like very small sheep44 were grazing4 ',when the scene vanished1 the young lady told me ,i had vividly described a spot in ,shetland where she and her mother were soon going to spend a few weeks4' ,i heard of this case from ,miss ,angus within a day or two of its occurrence1 and it was then confirmed to me1 verbally1 by the other lady4 ,she again confirms it 7,december #ba1 #ahig74 ,both ladies had hitherto been perfect strangers to each other4 ,the old man was the schoolmaster1 apparently4 ,in her ,,ms41 ,miss ,angus writes ',skye1' but at the time both she and the other lady said ,shetland 7which ,i have restored74 ,in ,shetland the sheep1 like the ponies1 are small4 ,fortuitous coincidence1 of course1 may be invoked4 ,the next account is by another lady1 say ,miss ,rose4 ',,iii4--,writes ,miss ,rose--,my first experience of crystal gazing was not a pleasant one1 as will be seen from the following which ,i now relate as exactly as ,i can remember4 ,i asked my friend1 ,miss ,angus1 to allow me to look in her crystal1 and1 after doing so for a short time1 gave up1 saying it was very unsatisfactory1 as1 although ,i saw a room with a bright fire in it and a bed all curtained and people coming and going1 ,i could not make out who they were1 so ,i returned the crystal to ,miss ,angus1 with the request that she might look for me4 ,she said at once1 ,i see a bed with a man in it looking very ill and a lady in black beside it4 ,without saying any more ,miss ,angus still kept looking1 and1 after some time1 ,i asked to have one more look1 and on her passing the ball back to me1 ,i received quite a shock1 for there1 perfectly clearly in a bright light1 ,i saw stretched out in bed an old man apparently dead2 for a few minutes ,i could not look1 and on doing so once more there appeared a lady in black and out of dense darkness a long black object was being carried and it stopped before a dark opening overhung with rocks4 ,at the time ,i saw this ,i was staying with cousins1 and it was a ,friday evening4 ,on ,sunday we heard of the death of the father-in-law of one of my cousins2 of course ,i knew the old gentleman was very ill1 but my thoughts were not in the least about him when looking in the crystal4 ,i may also say ,i did not recognise in the features of the dead man those of the old gentleman whose death ,i mention4 ,on looking again on ,sunday1 ,i once more saw the curtained bed and some people4' ,i now give ,miss ,angus's version of this case1 as originally received from her 7,december #ahig74 ,i had previously received an oral version1 from a person present at the scrying4 ,it differed1 in one respect1 from what ,miss ,angus writes4 ,her version is offered because it is made independently1 without consultation1 or attempt to reconcile recollections4 ',at a recent experience of gazing1 for the first time ,i was able to make another see what ,i saw in the crystal4 ,miss ,rose called one afternoon1 and begged me to look in the ball for her4 ,i did so1 and immediately exclaimed1 ,oh6 here is a bed1 with a man in it looking very ill ,i saw he was dead1 but refrained from saying so1 and there is a lady dressed in black sitting beside the bed4 ,i did not recognise the man to be anyone ,i knew1 so ,i told her to look4 ,in a very short time she called out1 ,oh6 ,i see the bed too6 ,but1 oh6 take it away1 the man is dead6 ,she got quite a shock1 and said she would never look in it again4 ,soon1 however1 curiosity prompted her to have one more look1 and the scene at once came back again1 and slowly1 from a misty object at the side of the bed1 the lady in black became quite distinct4 ,then she described several people in the room1 and said they were carrying something all draped in black4 ,when she saw this1 she put the ball down and would not look at it again4 ,she called again on ,sunday 7this had been on ,friday7 with her cousin1 and we teased her about being afraid of the crystal1 so she said she would just look in it once more4 ,she took the ball1 but immediately laid it down again1 saying1 ,no1 ,i won't look1 as the bed with the awful man in it is there again6 ',when they went home1 they heard that the cousin's father-in-law had died that afternoon1#aa but to show he had never been in our thoughts1 although we all knew he had not been well1 no one suggested him2 his name was never mentioned in connection with the vision4' ',clairvoyance1' of course1 is not illustrated here1 the corpse being unrecognised1 and the coincidence1 doubtless1 accidental4 ,the next case is attested by a civilian1 a slight acquaintance of ,miss ,angus's1 who now saw him for the second time only1 but better known to her family4 ',,iv4--,on ,thursday1 ,march --8 #ahig1 ,i was lunching with my friends the ,anguses1 and during luncheon the conversation turned upon crystal balls and the visions that1 by some people1 can be seen in them4 ,the subject arose owing to ,miss ,angus having just been presented with a crystal ball by ,mr4 ,andrew ,lang4 ,i asked her to let me see it1 and then to try and see if she could conjure up a vision of any person of whom ,i might think4444 ,i fixed my mind upon a friend1 a young trooper in the regiment named1 as ,i thought his would be a striking and peculiar personality1 owing to his uniform1 and also because ,i felt sure that ,miss ,angus could not possibly know of his existence4 ,i fixed my mind steadily upon my friend1 and presently ,miss ,angus1 who had already seen two cloudy visions of faces and people1 called out1 ,now ,i see a man on a horse most distinctly2 he is dressed most queerly1 and glitters all over--why1 it's a soldier6 a soldier in uniform1 but it's not an officer4 ,my excitement on hearing this was so great that ,i ceased to concentrate my attention upon the thought of my friend1 and the vision faded away and could not afterwards be recalled4--,december #b1 #ahig4' ,the witness gives the name of the trooper1 whom he had befriended in a severe illness4 ,miss ,angus's own account follows3 she had told me the story in ,june #ahig4 ',shortly after ,i became the happy possessor of a crystal ,i managed to convert several very decided sceptics1 and ,i will here give a short account of my experiences with two or three of them4 ',one was with a ,mr4 ----1 who was so determined to baffle me1 he said he would think of a friend it would not be possible for me to describe6 ',i had only met ,mr4 ---- the day before1 and knew utmost nothing about him or his personal friends4 ',i took up the ball1 which immediately became misty1 and out of this mist gradually a crowd of people appeared1 but too indistinctly for me to recognise anyone1 until suddenly a man on horseback came galloping along4 ,i remember saying1 ,i can't describe what he is like1 but he is dressed in a very queer way--in something so bright that the sun shining on him quite dazzles me1 and ,i cannot make him out6 ,as he came nearer ,i exclaimed4 ,why1 it's a soldier in shining armour1 but it's not an officer1 only a soldier6 ,two friends who were in the room said ,mr4 ----'s excitement was intense1 and my attention was drawn from the ball by hearing him call out1 ,it's wonderful6 it's perfectly true6 ,i was thinking of a young boy1 a son of a crofter1 in whom ,i am deeply interested1 and who is a trooper in the ---- in ,london1 which would account for the crowd of people round him in the street6' ,the next case is given1 first in the version of the lady who was unconsciously scried for1 and next in that of ,miss ,angus4 ,the other lady writes3 ',v4--,i met ,miss ,a4 for the first time in a friend's house in the south of ,england1 and one evening mention was made of a crystal ball1 and our hostess asked ,miss ,a4 to look in it1 and1 if possible1 tell her what was happening to a friend of hers4 ,miss ,a4 took the crystal1 and our hostess put her hand on ,miss ,a4's forehead to will her4 ,i1 not believing in this1 took up a book and went to the other side of the room4 ,i was suddenly very much startled to hear ,miss ,a41 in quite an agitated way1 describe a scene that had most certainly been very often in my thoughts1 but of which ,i had never mentioned a word1 ,she accurately described a race-course in ,scotland1 and an accident which happened to a friend of mine only a week or two before1 and she was evidently going through the same doubt and anxiety that ,i did at the time as to whether he was actually killed or only very much hurt4 ,it really was a most wonderful revelation to me1 as it was the very first time ,i had seen a crystal4 ,our hostess1 of course1 was very much annoyed that she had not been able to influence ,miss ,a41 while ,i1 who had appeared so very indifferent1 should have affected her4--,november #bh1 #ahig4' ,miss ,angus herself writes3 ',another case was a rather interesting one1 as ,i somehow got inside the thoughts of one lady while another was doing her best to influence me6 ',miss ----1 a friend in ,brighton1 has strange magnetic powers1 and felt quite sure of success with me and the ball4 ',another lady1 ,miss ,h41 who was present1 laughed at the whole thing1 especially when ,miss ---- insisted on holding my hand and patting her other hand on my forehead6 ,miss ,h4 in a scornful manner took up a book1 and1 crossing to the other side of the room1 left us to our folly4 ',in a very short time ,i felt myself getting excited1 which had never happened before1 when ,i looked in the crystal4 ,i saw a crowd of people1 and in some strange way ,i felt ,i was in it1 and we all seemed to be waiting for something4 ,soon a rider came past1 young1 dressed for racing4 ,his horse ambled past1 and he smiled and nodded to those he knew in the crowd1 and then was lost to sight4 ',in a moment we all seemed to feel as if something had happened1 and ,i went through great agony of suspense trying to see what seemed just beyond my view4 ,soon1 however1 two or three men approached1 and carried him past before my eyes1 and again my anxiety was intense to discover if he were only very badly hurt or if life were really extinct4 ,all this happened in a few moments1 but long enough to have left me so agitated that ,i could not realise it had only been a vision in a glass ball4 ',by this time ,miss ,h4 had laid aside her book1 and came forward quite startled1 and told me that ,i had accurately described a scene on a race-course in ,scotland which she had witnessed just a week or two before--a scene that had very often been in her thoughts1 but1 as we were strangers to each other1 she had never mentioned4 ,she also said ,i had exactly described her own feelings at the time1 and had brought it all back in a most vivid manner4 ',the other lady was rather disappointed that1 after she had concentrated her thoughts so hard1 ,i should have been influenced instead by one who had jeered at the whole affair4' ,this anecdote was also told to me1 within a few days of the occurrence1 by ,miss ,angus4 ,her version was that she first saw a gentleman rider going to the post and nodding to his friends4 ,then she saw him carried on a stretcher through the crowd4 ,she seemed1 she said1 to be actually present1 and felt somewhat agitated4 ,the fact of the accident was1 later1 mentioned to me in ,scotland by another lady1 a stranger to all the persons4--,a4,l4 ,,vi4--,i may briefly add an experiment of ,december #ba1 #ahig4 ,a gentleman had recently come from ,england to the ,scottish town where ,miss ,angus lives4 ,he dined with her family1 and about #aj4ae to #aj4cj ,p4,m4 she proposed to look in the glass for a scene or person of whom he was to think4 ,he called up a mental picture of a ball at which he had recently been1 and of a young lady to whom he had there been introduced4 ,the lady's face1 however1 he could not clearly visualise1 and ,miss ,angus reported nothing but a view of an empty ball-room1 with polished floor and many lights4 ,the gentleman made another effort1 and remembered his partner with some distinctness4 ,miss ,angus then described another room1 not a ball-room1 comfortably furnished1 in which a girl with brown hair drawn back from her forehead1 and attired in a high-necked white blouse1 was reading1 or writing letters1 under a bright light in an unshaded glass globe4 ,the description of the features1 figure1 and height tallied with ,mr4 ----'s recollection2 but he had never seen this ,geraldine of an hour except in ball dress4 ,he and ,miss ,angus noted the time by their watches 7it was #aj4cj71 and ,mr4 ---- said that on the first opportunity he would ask the young lady how she had been dressed and how employed at that hour on ,december #ba4 ,on ,december #bb he met her at another dance1 and her reply corroborated the crystal picture4 ,she had been writing letters1 in a high-necked white blouse1 under an incandescent gas lamp with an unshaded glass globe4 ,she was entirely unknown to ,miss ,angus1 and had only been seen once by ,mr4 ----4 ,mr4 ---- and the lady of the crystal picture corroborated all this in writing4 ,i now suggested an experiment to ,miss ,angus1 which1 after all1 was clearly not of a nature to establish a 'test' for sceptics4 ,the inquirer was to write down1 and inclose in an envelope1 a statement of his thoughts2 ,miss ,angus was to do the same with her description of the picture seen by her2 and these documents were to be sent to me1 without communication between the inquirer and the crystal-gazer4 ,of course1 this could in no way prove absence of collusion1 as the two parties might arrange privately beforehand what the vision was to be4 ,indeed1 nobody is apt to be convinced1 or shaken1 unless he is himself the inquirer and a stranger to the seeress1 as the people in these experiments were4 ,evidence interesting to them--and1 in a secondary degree1 to others who know them--can thus be procured2 but strangers are left to the same choice of doubts as in all reports of psychological experiences1 'chromatic audition1' views of coloured numerals1 and the other topics illustrated by ,mr4 ,galton's interesting researches4 ,in this affair of the envelopes the inquirer was a ,mr4 ,pembroke1 who had just made ,miss ,angus's acquaintance1 and was but a sojourner in the land4 ,he wrote1 before knowing what ,miss ,angus had seen in the ball3 ',,vii4--,on ,sunday1 ,january #bc1 #ahih1 whilst ,miss ,angus was looking in the crystal ball1 ,i was thinking of my brother1 who was1 ,i believe1 at that time1 somewhere between ,sabathu 7,punjab1 ,india7 and ,egypt4 ,i was anxious to know what stage of his journey he had reached4' ,miss ,angus saw1 and wrote1 before telling ,mr4 ,pembroke3 ',a long and very white road1 with tall trees at one side2 on the other1 a river or lake of greyish water4 ,blue sky1 with a crimson sunset4 ,a great black ship is anchored near1 and on the deck ,i see a man lying1 apparently very ill4 ,he is a powerful-looking man1 fair1 and very much bronzed4 ,seven or eight ,englishmen1 in very light clothes1 are standing on the road beside the boat4 ',january #bh1 #ahih4' ',a great black ship1' anchored in 'a river or lake1' naturally suggests the ,suez ,canal1 where1 in fact1 ,mr4 ,pembroke's brother was just arriving1 as was proved by a letter received from him eight days after the experiment was recorded1 on ,january #ca4 ,at that date ,mr4 ,pembroke had not yet been told the nature of ,miss ,angus's crystal picture1 nor had she any knowledge of his brother's whereabouts4 ,in ,february #ahih1 ,miss ,angus again came to the place where ,i was residing4 ,we visited together the scene of an historical crime1 and ,miss ,angus looked into the glass ball4 ,it was easy for her to 'visualise' the incidents of the crime 7the murder of ,cardinal ,beaton71 for they are familiar enough to many people4 ,what she did see in the ball was a tall1 pale lady1 'about forty1 but looking thirty-five1' with hair drawn back from the brows1 standing beside a high chair1 dressed in a wide farthingale of stiff grey brocade1 without a ruff4 ,the costume corresponds well 7as we found7 with that of #aedf1 and ,i said1 ',i suppose it is ,mariotte ,ogilvy'--to whom ,miss ,angus's historical knowledge 7and perhaps that of the general public7 did not extend4 ,mariotte was the ,cardinal's lady-love1 and was in the ,castle on the night before the murder1 according to ,knox4 ,she had been in my mind1 whence 7on the theory of thought transference7 she may have passed to ,miss ,angus's mind2 but ,i had never speculated on ,mariotte's costume4 ,nothing but conjecture1 of course1 comes of these apparently 'retrospective' pictures2 though a most singular and picturesque coincidence occurred1 which may be told in a very different connection4 ,the next example was noted at the same town4 ,the lady who furnishes it is well known to me1 and it was verbally corroborated by ,miss ,angus1 to whom the lady1 her absent nephew1 and all about her1 were entirely strange4 ',,viii4--,i was very anxious to know whether my nephew would be sent to ,india this year1 so ,i told ,miss ,angus that ,i had thought of something1 and asked her to look in the glass ball4 ,she did so1 but almost immediately turned round and looked out of the window at the sea1 and said1 ,i saw a ship so distinctly ,i thought it must be a reflection4 ,she looked in the ball again1 and said1 ,it is a large ship1 and it is passing a huge rock with a lighthouse on it4 ,i can't see who are on the ship1 but the sky is very clear and blue4 ,now ,i see a large building1 something like a club1 and in front there are a great many people sitting and walking about4 ,i think it must be some place abroad1 for the people are all dressed in very light clothes1 and it seems to be very sunny and warm4 ,i see a young man sitting on a chair1 with his feet straight out before him4 ,he is not talking to anyone1 but seems to be listening to something4 ,he is dark and slight1 and not very tall2 and his eyebrows are dark and very distinctly marked4 ',i had not had the pleasure of meeting ,miss ,angus before1 and she knew nothing whatever about my nephew2 but the young man described was exactly like him1 both in his appearance and in the way he was sitting4' ,in this case thought transference may be appealed to4 ,the lady was thinking of her nephew in connection with ,india4 ,it is not maintained1 of course1 that the picture was of a prophetic character4 ,the following examples have some curious and unusual features4 ,on ,wednesday1 ,february #b1 #ahig1 ,miss ,angus was looking in the crystal1 to amuse six or seven people whose acquaintance she had that day made4 ,a gentleman1 ,mr4 ,bissett1 asked her 'what letter was in his pocket1' ,she then saw1 under a bright sky1 and1 as it were1 a long way off1 a large building1 in and out of which many men were coming and going4 ,her impression was that the scene must be abroad4 ,in the little company present1 it should be added1 was a lady1 ,mrs4 ,cockburn1 who had considerable reason to think of her young married daughter1 then at a place about fifty miles away4 ,after ,miss ,angus had described the large building and crowds of men1 some one asked1 ',is it an exchange8' ',it might be1' she said4 ',now comes a man in a great hurry4 ,he has a broad brow1 and short1 curly hair2#ab hat pressed low down on his eyes4 ,the face is very serious2 but he has a delightful smile4' ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,bissett now both recognised their friend and stockbroker1 whose letter was in ,mr4 ,bissett's pocket4 ,the vision1 which interested ,miss ,angus1 passed away1 and was interrupted by that of a hospital nurse1 and of a lady in a peignoir1 lying on a sofa1 with bare feet4#ac ,miss ,angus mentioned this vision as a bore1 she being more interested in the stockbroker1 who seems to have inherited what was once in the possession of another stockbroker--'the smile of ,charles ,lamb4' ,mrs4 ,cockburn1 for whom no pictures appeared1 was rather vexed1 and privately expressed with freedom a very sceptical opinion about the whole affair4 ,but1 on ,saturday1 ,february #e1 #ahig1 ,miss ,angus was again with ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,bissett4 ,when ,mrs4 ,bissett announced that she had 'thought of something1' ,miss ,angus saw a walk in a wood or garden1 beside a river1 under a brilliant blue sky4 ,here was a lady1 very well dressed1 twirling a white parasol on her shoulder as she walked1 in a curious 'stumpy' way1 beside a gentleman in light clothes1 such as are worn in ,india4 ,he was broad-shouldered1 had a short neck and a straight nose1 and seemed to listen1 laughing1 but indifferent1 to his obviously vivacious companion4 ,the lady had a 'drawn' face1 indicative of ill health4 ,then followed a scene in which the man1 without the lady1 was looking on at a number of ,orientals busy in the felling of trees4 ,mrs4 ,bissett recognised1 in the lady1 her sister1 ,mrs4 ,clifton1 in ,india--above all1 when ,miss ,angus gave a realistic imitation of ,mrs4 ,clifton's walk1 the peculiarity of which was caused by an illness some years ago4 ,mrs4 and ,mr4 ,bissett also recognised their brother-in-law in the gentleman seen in both pictures4 ,on being shown a portrait of ,mrs4 ,clifton as a girl1 ,miss ,angus said it was 'like1 but too pretty4' ,a photograph done recently1 however1 showed her 'the drawn face' of the crystal picture4#ad ,next day1 ,sunday1 ,february #f1 ,mrs4 ,bissett received1 what was not usual--a letter from her sister in ,india1 ,mrs4 ,clifton1 dated ,january #bj4 ,mrs4 ,clifton described a place in a native ,state1 where she had been at a great 'function1' in certain gardens beside a river4 ,she added that they were going to another place for a certain purpose1 'and then we go into camp till the end of ,february4' ,one of ,mr4 ,clifton's duties is to direct the clearing of wood preparatory to the formation of the camp1 as in ,miss ,angus's crystal picture4#ae ,the sceptical ,mrs4 ,cockburn heard of these coincidences1 and an idea occurred to her4 ,she wrote to her daughter1 who has been mentioned1 and asked whether1 on ,wednesday1 ,february #b1 she had been lying on a sofa in her bed-room1 with bare feet4 ,the young lady confessed that it was indeed so2#af and1 when she heard how the fact came to be known1 expressed herself with some warmth on the abuse of glass balls1 which tend to rob life of its privacy4 ,in this case the prima facie aspect of things is that a thought of ,mr4 ,bissett's about his stockbroker1 dulce ridentem1 somehow reflected itself into ,miss ,angus's mind by way of the glass ball1 and was interrupted by a thought of ,mrs4 ,cockburn's1 as to her daughter4 ,but how these thoughts came to display the unknown facts concerning the garden by the river1 the felling of trees for a camp1 and the bare feet1 is a question about which it is vain to theorise4#ag ,on the vanishing of the jungle scene there appeared a picture of a man in a dark undress uniform1 beside a great bay1 in which were ships of war4 ,wooden huts1 as in a plague district1 were on shore4 ,mr4 ,bissett asked1 ',what is the man's expression8' ',he looks as if he had been giving a lot of last orders4' ,then appeared 'a place like a hospital1 with five or six beds--no1 berths3 it is a ship4 ,here is the man again4' ,he was minutely described1 one peculiarity being the way in which his hair grew--or1 rather1 did not grow--on his temples4 ,miss ,angus now asked1 ',where is my little lady8'--meaning the lady of the twirling parasol and staccato walk4 ',oh1 ,i've left off thinking of her1' said ,mrs4 ,bissett1 who had been thinking of1 and recognised in the officer in undress uniform1 her brother1 the man with the singular hair1 whose face1 in fact1 had been scarred in that way by an encounter with a tiger4 ,he was expected to sail from ,bombay1 but news of his setting forth has not been received 7,february #aj7 at the moment when this is written4#ah ,in these ,indian cases1 'thought transference' may account for the correspondence between the figures seen by ,miss ,angus and the ideas in the mind of ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,bissett4 ,but the hypothesis of thought transference1 while it would cover the wooden huts at ,bombay 7,mrs4 ,bissett knowing that her brother was about to leave that place71 can scarcely explain the scene in the garden by the river and the scene with the trees4 ,the incident of the bare feet may be regarded as a fortuitous coincidence1 since ,miss ,angus saw the young lady foreshortened1 and could not describe her face4 ,in the ,introductory ,chapter it was observed that the phenomena which apparently point to some unaccountable supernormal faculty of acquiring knowledge are 'trivial4' ,these anecdotes illustrate the triviality2 but the facts certainly left a number of people1 wholly unfamiliar with such experiments1 under the impression that ,miss ,angus's glass ball was like ,prince ,ali's magical telescope in the ',arabian ,nights4'#ai ,these experiments1 however1 occasionally touch on intimate personal matters1 and cannot be reported in such instances4 ,it will be remarked that the faculty is freakish1 and does not always respond to conscious exertion of thought in the mind of the inquirer4 ,thus1 in ,case ,i4 a connection of the person thought of is discerned2 in another the mind of a stranger present seems to be read4 ,in another case 7not given here7 the inquirer tried to visualise a card for a person present to guess1 while ,miss ,angus was asked to describe an object which the inquirer was acquainted with1 but which he banished from his conscious thought4 ,the double experiment was a double-barrelled success4 ,it seems hardly necessary to point out that chance coincidence will not cover this set of cases1 where in each 'guess' the field of conjecture is boundless1 and is not even narrowed by the crystal-gazer's knowledge of the persons for whose diversion she makes the experiment4 ,as 'muscle-reading' is not in question 7in the one case of contact between inquirer and crystal-gazer the results were unexpected71 and as no unconsciously made signs could convey1 for example1 the idea of a cavalry soldier in uniform1 or an accident on a race-course in two tableaux1 ,i do not at present see any more plausible explanation than that of thought transference1 though how that is to account for some of the cases given ,i do not precisely understand4 ,any one who can accept the assurance of my personal belief in the good faith of all concerned will see how very useful this faculty of crystal-gazing must be to the ,apache or ,australian medicine-man or ,polynesian priest4 ,freakish as the faculty is1 a few real successes1 well exploited and eked out by fraud1 would set up a wizard's reputation4 ,that a faculty of being thus affected is genuine seems proved1 apart from modern evidence1 by the world-wide prevalence of crystal-gazing in the ethnographic region4 ,but the discovery of this prevalence had not been made1 to my knowledge1 before modern instances induced me to notice the circumstances1 sporadically recorded in books of travel4 ,the phenomena are certainly of a kind to encourage the savage theory of the wandering soul4 ,how else1 thinkers would say1 can the seer visit the distant place or person1 and correctly describe men and scenes which1 in the body1 he never saw8 ,or they would encourage the ,polynesian belief that the 'spirit' of the thing or person looked for is suspended by a god over the water1 crystal1 blood1 ink1 or whatever it may be4 ,thus1 to anthropologists1 the discovery of crystal-gazing as a thing widely diffused and still flourishing ought to be grateful1 however much they may blame my childish credulity4 ,i may add that ,i have no ground to suppose that crystal-gazing will ever be of practical service to the police or to persons who have lost articles of portable property4 ,but ,i have no objection to experiments being made at ,scotland ,yard4#bj ,footnote #a3 ,information1 with a photograph of the stones1 from a correspondent in ,west ,maitland1 ,australia4 ,footnote #b3 ,report ,ethnol4 ,bureau1 #ahhg-hh1 p4 #dfj2 vol4 ii4 p4 #fi4 ,captain ,bourke's volume on ,the ,medicine ,men of the ,apaches may also be consulted4 ,footnote #c3 ,fitzroy1 ,adventure1 vol4 ii4 p4 #chi4 ,footnote #d3 ,l',histoire de la grand ,ile ,madagascar1 par le ,sieur de ,flacourt4 ,paris1 #affa1 ch4 #gf4 ,veue de deux ,navires de ,france predite par les ,negres1 avant que l'on en peust savoir des ,nouvelles1 c4 ,footnote #e3 ,religion of the ,amazulu1 p4 #cda4 ,footnote #f3 ,j4,a4,i41 ,november #ahid1 p4 #aee4 ,ryckov is cited2 ,zhurnal1 p4 #hf4 ,footnote #g3 ,rites and ,laws of the ,yncas1 ,christoval de ,molina1 p4 #ab4 ,footnote #h3 ,see ,miss ,x's article1 ,s4,p4,r4 ,proceedings1 v4 #dhf4 ,footnote #i3 ,op4 cit4 v4 #eje4 ,footnote #aj3 ,if any reader wishes to make experiments1 he1 or she1 should not be astonished if the first crystal figure represents 'the sheeted dead1' or a person ill in bed4 ,for some reason1 or no reason1 this is rather a usual prelude1 signifying nothing4 ,footnote #aa3 ,sunday afternoon4 ,it is not implied that the pictures on ,friday were prophetic4 ,probably ,miss ,rose saw what ,miss ,angus had seen by aid of 'suggestion4' ,footnote #ab3 ,miss ,angus could not be sure of the colour of the hair4 ,footnote #ac3 ,the position was such that ,miss ,angus could not see the face of the lady4 ,footnote #ad3 ,i saw the photographs4 ,footnote #ae3 ,i have been shown the letter of ,january #bj1 which confirmed the evidence of the crystal pictures4 ,the camp was formed for official purposes in which ,mr4 ,clifton was concerned4 ,a letter of ,february #i unconsciously corroborates4 ,footnote #af3 ,the incident of the feet occurred at #d4cj to #g4cj ,p4,m4 ,the crystal picture was about #aj ,p4,m4 ,footnote #ag3 ,miss ,angus had only within the week made the acquaintance of ,mrs4 ,cockburn and the ,bissetts4 ,of these relations of theirs at a distance she had no knowledge4 ,footnote #ah3 ,i have seen a photograph of this gentleman1 ,major ,hamilton1 which tallies with the full description given by ,miss ,angus1 as reported by ,mrs4 ,bissett4 ,all the proper names here1 as throughout1 are altered4 ,this account ,i wrote from the verbal statement of ,mrs4 ,bissett4 ,it was then read and corroborated by herself1 ,mr4 ,bissett1 ,mr4 ,cockburn1 ,mrs4 ,cockburn1 and ,miss ,angus1 who added dates and signatures4 ,footnote #ai3 ,the letters attesting each of these experiments are in my possession4 ,the real names are in no case given in this account1 by my own desire1 but 7with permission of the persona concerned7 can be communicated privately4 ,footnote #bj3 ,the faculty of seeing 'fancy pictures' in the glass is far from uncommon4 ,i have only met with three other persons besides ,miss ,angus1 two of them men1 who had any success in 'telepathic' crystal-gazing4 ,in correcting 'revises' 7,march #af71 ,i leant that the brother of ,mr4 ,pembroke 7p4 #aje7 wrote from ,cairo on ,january #bg4 ,the 'scry' of ,january #bc represented his ship in the ,suez ,canal4 ,he was1 as his letter shows1 in quarantine at ,suez1 at ,moses's ,wells1 from ,january #be to ,january #bf4 ,major ,hamilton 7pp4 #aji1 #aaj71 on the other hand1 left ,bombay1 indeed1 but not by sea1 as in the crystal-picture4 ,see ,appendix ,c4 ,mr4 ,starr1 an ,american critic1 adds ,cherokees1 ,aztecs1 and ,tonkaways to the ranks of crystal gazers4 ,,vi ,,anthropology ,,and ,,hallucinations ,we have been examining cases1 savage or civilised1 in which knowledge is believed to be acquired through no known channel of sense4 ,all such instances among savages1 whether of the nature of clairvoyance simple1 or by aid of gazing in a smooth surface1 or in dreams1 or in trance1 or through second sight1 would confirm if they did not originate the belief in the separable soul4 ,the soul1 if it is to visit distant places and collect information1 must leave the body1 it would be argued1 and must so far be capable of leading an independent life4 ,perhaps we ought next to study cases of 'possession1' when knowledge is supposed to be conveyed by an alien soul1 ghost1 spirit1 or god1 taking up its abode in a man1 and speaking out of his lips4 ,but it seems better first to consider the alleged super-normal phenomena which may have led the savage reasoner to believe that he was not the only owner of a separable soul3 that other people were equally gifted4 ,the sense1 as of separation1 which a savage dreamer or seer would feel after a dream or vision in which he visited remote places1 would satisfy him that his soul1 at least1 was volatile4 ,but some experience of what he would take to be visits from the spirits of others1 would be needed before he recognised that other men1 as well as he1 had the faculty of sending their souls a journeying4 ,now1 ordinary dreams1 in which the dreamer seemed to see persons who were really remote2 would supply to the savage reasoner a certain amount of affirmative evidence4 ,it is part of ,mr4 ,tylor's contention that savages 7like some children7 are subject to the difficulty which most of us may have occasionally felt in deciding ',did this really happen1 or did ,i dream it8' ,thus1 ordinary dreams would offer to the early thinker some evidence that other men's souls could visit his1 as he believes that his can visit them4 ,but men1 we may assume1 were not1 at the assumed stage of thought1 so besotted as not to take a great practical distinction between sleeping and waking experience on the whole4 ,as has been shown1 the distinction is made by the lowest savages of our acquaintance4 ,one clear waking hallucination1 on the other hand1 of the presence of a person really absent1 could not but tell more with the early philosopher than a score of dreams1 for to be easily forgotten is of the essence of a dream4 ,savages1 indeed1 oddly enough1 have hit on our theory1 'dreams go by contraries4' ,dr4 ,callaway illustrates this for the ,zulus1 and ,mr4 ,scott for the ,mang'anza4 ,thus they do discriminate between sleeping and waking4 ,we must therefore examine waking hallucinations in the field of actual experience1 and on such recent evidence as may be accessible4 ,if these hallucinations agree1 in a certain ratio1 beyond what fortuitous coincidence can explain1 with real but unknown events1 then such hallucinations would greatly strengthen1 in the mind of an early thinker1 the savage theory that a man at a distance may1 voluntarily or involuntarily1 project his spirit on a journey1 and be seen where he is not present4 ,when ,mr4 ,tylor wrote his book1 the study of the occasional waking hallucinations of the sane and healthy was in its infancy4 ,much1 indeed1 had been written about hallucinations1 but these were mainly the chronic false perceptions of maniacs1 of drunkards1 and of persons in bad health such as ,nicolai and ,mrs4 ,a4 ,the hallucinations of persons of genius--,jeanne d',arc1 ,luther1 ,socrates1 ,pascal1 were by some attributed to lunacy in these famous people4 ,scarcely any writers before ,mr4 ,galton had recognised the occurrence of hallucinations once in a life1 perhaps1 among healthy1 sober1 and mentally sound people4 ,if these were known to occur1 they were dismissed as dreams of an unconscious sleep4 ,this is still practically the hypothesis of ,dr4 ,parish1 as we shall see later4 ,but in the last twenty years the infrequent hallucinations of the sane have been recognised by ,mr4 ,galton1 and discussed by ,professor ,james1 ,mr4 ,gurney1 ,dr4 ,parish1 and many other writers4 ,two results have followed4 ,first1 'ghosts' are shown to be1 when not illusions caused by mistaking one object for another1 then hallucinations4 ,as these most frequently represent a living person who is not present1 by parity of reason the appearance of a dead person is on the same level1 is not a space-filling 'ghost1' but merely an hallucination4 ,such an appearance can1 prima facie1 suggest no reasonable inference as to the continued existence of the dead4 ,on the other hand1 the new studies have raised the perhaps insoluble question1 ',do not hallucinations of the sane1 representing the living1 coincide more frequently than mere luck can account for1 with the death or other crisis of the person apparently seen8' ,if this could be proved1 then there would seem to be a causal nexus1 a relation of cause and effect between the hallucination and the coincident crisis4 ,that connection would be provisionally explained by some not understood action of the mind or brain of the person in the crisis1 on that of the person who has the hallucination4 ,this is no new idea2 only the name1 ,telepathy1 is modern4 ,of course1 if all this were accepted1 it would be the next step to ask whether hallucinations representing the dead show any signs of being caused by some action on the side of the departed4 ,that is a topic on which the little that we have to say must be said later4 ,in the meantime the reader who has persevered so far is apt to go no further4 ,the prejudice against 'wraiths' and 'ghosts' is very strong2 but1 then1 our innocent phantasms are neither 7as we understand their nature7 ghosts nor wraiths4 ,kant broke the edges of his metaphysical tools against1 not these phantasms1 but the logically inconceivable entities which were at once material and non-material1 at once 'spiritual' and 'space-filling4' ,there is no such difficulty about hallucinations1 which1 whatever else may be said about them1 are familiar facts of experience4 ,the only real objections are the statements that hallucinations are always morbid 7which is no longer the universal belief of physiologists and psychologists71 and that the alleged coincidences of a phantasm of a person with the unknown death of that person at a distance are 'pure flukes4' ,that is the question to which we recur later4 ,in the meantime1 the defenders of the theory1 that there is some not understood connection of cause and effect between the death or other crisis at one end and the perception representing the person affected by the crisis at the other end1 point out that such hallucinations1 or other effects on the percipient1 exist in a regular rising scale of potency and perceptibility4 ,suppose that ',a's' death in ,yorkshire is to affect the consciousness of ',b' in ,surrey before he knows anything about the fact 7suppose it for the sake of argument71 then the effect may take place 7#a7 on ',b's' emotions1 producing a vague malaise and gloom2 7#b7 on his motor nerves1 urging him to some act2 7#c7 or may translate itself into his senses1 as a touch felt1 a voice heard1 a figure seen2 or 7#d7 may render itself as a phrase or an idea4 ,of these1 7#a7 the emotional effect is1 of course1 the vaguest4 ,we may all have had a sudden fit of gloom which we could not explain4 ,people rarely act on such impressions1 and1 when they do1 are often wrong4 ,thus a friend of my own was suddenly so overwhelmed1 at golf1 with inexplicable misery 7though winning his match7 that he apologised to his opponent and walked home from the ninth hole4 ,nothing was wrong at home4 ,probably some real ground of apprehension had obscurely occurred to his mind and expressed itself in his emotion4 ,but one may illustrate what did look like a coincidence by the experience of the same friend4 ,he inhabited1 as a young married man1 a flat in a house belonging to an acquaintance4 ,the hall was covered by a kind of glass roof1 over part of its extent4 ,he was staying in the country with his wife1 and as they travelled home the lady was beset with an irresistible conviction that something terrible had occurred1 not to her children4 ,on reaching their house they found that one of their maids had fallen through the glass roof and killed herself4 ,they also learned that the girl's sister had arrived at the house1 immediately after the accident1 explaining that she was driven to come by a sense that something dreadful had happened4 ,the lawyer1 too1 who represented the owner of the house1 had appeared1 unsummoned1 from a conviction1 which he could not resist1 that for some reason unknown he was wanted there4#a ,here1 then1 was not an hallucination1 but an emotional effect simultaneously reaching the consciousness of three persons1 and coinciding with an unknown crisis4#b ,cases in which a person feels urged to an act 7#b7 are also recorded4 ,indeed1 the lawyer's in our anecdote is such an instance4 ,not to trouble ourselves 7#c7 with 'voices1' hallucinations of sight1 coinciding with a distant unknown crisis1 are traced from a mere feeling that somebody is in the room1 followed by a mental1 or mind's eye picture of a person dying at a distance1 up to a kind of 'vision' of a person or scene1 and so on to hallucinations appealing1 at once1 to touch1 sight1 and hearing4 ,as some hundreds of these narratives of coincidental hallucinations in every degree have been collected from witnesses at first hand1 often personally known1 and usually personally cross-questioned1 by the student1 it is difficult to deny that there is a prima facie case for inquiry4#c ,there is here no question of 'spirits1' with all their physical and metaphysical difficulties4 ,nor is there any desire to shirk the fact that many 'presentiments' and hallucinations of the sane coincide with no ascertainable fact4 ,we only provisionally posit the possibility of an influence1 in its nature unknown1 of one mind on another at a distance1 such influence translating itself into an hallucination4 ,an inquiry into this subject1 in the ethnographic and modern fields1 may be new but involves no 'superstition4' ,we now return to ,mr4 ,tylor1 who treats of hallucinations among other experiences which led early savage thinkers to believe in ghosts or separable souls1 the origin of religion4 ,as to the causes of hallucinations in general1 ,mr4 ,tylor has something to say1 but it is nothing systematic4 ',sickness1 exhaustion1 and excitement' cause savages to behold 'human spectres1' in 'the objective reality' of which they believe4 ,but if an educated modern1 not sick1 nor exhausted1 nor excited1 has an hallucination of a friend's presence1 he1 too1 believes that it is 'objective1' is his friend in flesh and blood1 till he finds out his mistake1 by examination or reflection4 ,as ,professor ,william ,james remarks1 in his ',principles of ,psychology1' such solitary hallucinations of the sane and healthy1 once in a life-time1 are difficult to account for1 and are by no means rare4 ',sometimes1' ,mr4 ,tylor observes1 'the phantom has the characteristic quality of not being visible to all of an assembled company1' and he adds 'to assert or imply that they are visible sometimes1 and to some persons1 but not always1 or to everyone1 is to lay down an explanation of facts which is not1 indeed1 our usual modern explanation1 but which is a perfectly rational and intelligible product of early science4' ,it is1 indeed1 nor has later science produced any rational and intelligible explanation of collective hallucinations1 shared by several persons at once1 and perhaps not perceived by others who are present4 ,mr4 ,tylor1 it is true1 asserts that 'in civilised countries a rumour of some one having seen a phantom is enough to bring a sight of it to others whose minds are in a properly receptive state4' ,but this is arguing in a circle2 ,what is 'a properly receptive state'8 ,if illness1 overwork1 'expectant attention1' make 'a properly receptive state1' ,i should have seen several phantoms in several 'haunted houses4' ,but the only thing of the sort ,i ever saw occurred when ,i was thinking of nothing less1 when ,i was in good health1 and when ,i did not know 7nor did ,i learn till long after7 that it was the right and usual phantom to see4 ,mr4 ,podmore remarks that various members of the ,psychical ,society have sojourned in various 'haunted houses1' 'some of them in a state of expectancy and nervous excitement1' which never caused them to see phantoms1 for they saw none4#d ,mr4 ,tylor treats of waking hallucinations in much the same manner as he deals with 'travelling clairvoyance4' ,he does not study them 'in the field of experience4' ,he is not concerned with the truth of the facts1 important as we think it would be1 but with his theory that hallucinations1 among other causes1 would naturally give rise to the belief in spirits1 and thus to the early philosophy of ,animism4 ,now1 certainly1 the hallucination of a person's presence1 say at the moment of his death at a distance1 would suggest to a savage that something of the dying man's1 something symbolised in the word 'shadow1' or 'breath' 7spiritus71 had come to say farewell4 ,the modern 'spiritualistic' theory1 again1 that the dead man's 'spirit' is actually present to the percipient1 in space1 corresponds to1 and is derived from1 the animistic philosophy of the savage4 ,but we may believe in such 'death-wraiths1' or hallucinatory appearances of the dying1 without being either savages or spiritualists4 ,we may believe without pretending to explain1 or we may advance the theory of ',telepathy1' ,hegel's 'magical tie1' according to which the distant mind somehow impresses itself1 in a more or less perfect hallucination1 on the mind of the person who perceives the wraith4 ,if this be so1 or even if no explanation be offered1 the truth of the stories of coincidental apparitions becomes important1 as pointing to a new region of psychical inquiry4 ,then the evidence of savages as to hallucinations of their own1 coincident with the death of their absent friends1 will confirm1 quantum valeat1 the evidence of many modern observers in all ranks of life1 and all degrees of culture1 from ,lord ,brougham to an old nurse4#e ,as to hallucinations coincident with the death of the person apparently seen1 ,mr4 ,tylor says3 ',narratives of this class ,i can here only specify without arguing on them1 they are abundantly in circulation4'#f ,now1 the modern hallucinations themselves can scarcely1 perhaps1 be called 'survivals from savagery1' though the opinion that an hallucination of a person must be his 'spirit' is really such a survival4 ,it is with that opinion1 with ,animism in its hallucinatory origins1 that ,mr4 ,tylor is concerned1 not with the hallucinations themselves or with the evidence for their veridical existence4 ,mr4 ,tylor gives three anecdotes1 narrated to him1 in two cases1 by the seers1 of phantasms of the living beheld by them 7and in one case by a companion also7 when the real person was dying at a distance4 ,he adds3 ',my own view is that nothing but dreams and visions could have ever put into men's minds such an idea as that of souls being ethereal images of bodies4'#g ,the idea may be perfectly erroneous2 but if the occurrence of such coincidental appearances as ,mr4 ,tylor tells us about could be shown to be too frequent for mere chance to produce1 then there would be a presumption in favour of some unknown faculties in our nature--a proper theme for anthropology4 ,the hallucinations of which we hear most are those in which a person sees the phantom of another person1 who1 unknown to him1 is in or near the hour of death4 ,mr4 ,tylor1 in addition to his three instances in civilised life1 alludes to one in savage life1 with references to other cases4#h ,we turn to his savage instance1 offering it at full length from the original4#i ',among the ,maoris' 7says ,mr4 ,shortland7 'it is always ominous to see the figure of an absent person4 ,if the figure is very shadowy1 and its face is not seen1 death1 although he may ere long be expected1 has not seized his prey4 ,if the face of the absent person is seen1 the omen forewarns the beholder that he is already dead4' ,the following statement is from the mouth of an eyewitness3 ',a party of natives left their village1 with the intention of being absent some time1 on a pig-hunting expedition4 ,one night1 while they were seated in the open air around a blazing fire1 the figure of a relative who had been left ill at home was seen to approach4 ,the apparition appeared to two of the party only1 and vanished immediately on their making an exclamation of surprise4 ,when they returned to the village they inquired for the sick man1 and then learnt that he had died about the time he was said to have been seen4' ,i now give ,maori cases1 communicated to me by ,mr4 ,tregear1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 author of a ',maori ,comparative ,dictionary4' ,a very intelligent ,maori chief said to me1 ',i have seen but two ghosts4 ,i was a boy at school in ,auckland1 and one morning was asleep in bed when ,i found myself aroused by some one shaking me by the shoulder4 ,i looked up1 and saw bending over me the well-known form of my uncle1 whom ,i supposed to be at the ,bay of ,islands4 ,i spoke to him1 but the form became dim and vanished4 ,the next mail brought me the news of his death4 ,years passed away1 and ,i saw no ghost or spirit--not even when my father and mother died1 and ,i was absent in each case4 ,then one day ,i was sitting reading1 when a dark shadow fell across my book4 ,i looked up1 and saw a man standing between me and the window4 ,his back was turned towards me4 ,i saw from his figure that he was a ,maori1 and ,i called out to him1 ,oh friend6 ,he turned round1 and ,i saw my other uncle1 ,ihaka4 ,the form faded away as the other had done4 ,i had not expected to hear of my uncle's death1 for ,i had seen him hale and strong a few hours before4 ,however1 he had gone into the house of a missionary1 and he 7with several white people7 was poisoned by eating of a pie made from tinned meat1 the tin having been opened and the meat left in it all night4 ,that is all ,i myself had seen of spirits4' ,one more ,maori example may be offered3#aj ,from ,mr4 ,francis ,dart ,fenton1 formerly in the ,native ,department of the ,government1 ,auckland1 ,new ,zealand4 ,he gave the account in writing to his friend1 ,captain ,j4,h4 ,crosse1 of ,monkstown1 ,cork1 from whom we received it4 ,in #aheb1 when the incident occurred1 ,mr4 ,fenton was 'engaged in forming a settlement on the banks of the ,waikato4' ',march #be1 #ahfj ',two sawyers1 ,frank ,philps and ,jack ,mulholland1 were engaged cutting timber for the ,rev4 ,r4 ,maunsell at the mouth of the ,awaroa creek--a very lonely place1 a vast swamp1 no people within miles of them4 ,as usual1 they had a ,maori with them to assist in felling trees4 ,he came from ,tihorewam1 a village on the other side of the river1 about six miles off4 ,as ,frank and the native were cross-cutting a tree1 the native stopped suddenly1 and said1 ,what are you come for8 looking in the direction of ,frank4 ,frank replied1 ,what do you mean8 ,he said1 ,i am not speaking to you2 ,i am speaking to my brother4 ,frank said1 ,where is he8 ,the native replied1 ,behind you4 ,what do you want8 7to the other ,maori71 ,frank looked round and saw nobody4 ,the native no longer saw anyone1 but bid down the saw and said1 ,i shall go across the river2 my brother is dead4 ',frank laughed at him1 and reminded him that be had left him quite well on ,sunday 7five days before71 and there had been no communication since4 ,the ,maori spoke no more1 but got into his canoe and pulled across4 ,when he arrived at the landing-place1 he met people coming to fetch him4 ,his brother had just died4 ,i knew him well4' ,in answer to inquiries as to his authority for this narrative1 ,mr4 ,fenton writes3 ',december #ah1 #ahhc4 ',i knew all the parties concerned well1 and it is quite true1 valeat quantum1 as the lawyers say4 ,incidents of this sort are not infrequent among the ,maoris4 ',f4,d4 ,,fenton1 ',late ,chief ,judge1 ,native ,law-,court of ,n4,z4' ,here is a somewhat analogous example from ,tierra del ,fuego3 ',jemmy ,button was very superstitious' 7says ,admiral ,fitzroy1 speaking of a ,fuegian brought to ,england74 ',while at sea1 on board the ,beagle1 he said one morning to ,mr4 ,bynoe that in the night some man came to the side of his hammock and whispered in his ear that his father was dead4 ,he fully believed that such was the case1' and he was perfectly right4444 ',he reminded ,bennett of the dream4'#aa ,mr4 ,darwin also mentions this case1 a coincidental auditory hallucination4 ,i have found no other savage cases quite to the point4 ,this is1 undeniably1 'a puir show for ,kirkintilloch1' a meagre collection of savage death-wraiths1 but it may be so meagre by reason of want of research1 or of lack of records1 travellers usually pooh-poohing the benighted superstitions of the heathen1 or fearing to seem superstitious if they chronicle instances4 ,however few the instances1 they are1 undeniably1 exact parallels to those recorded in civilised life4 ,in filling up the lacuna in ,mr4 ,tylor's anthropological work1 in asking questions as to the proportion between phantasms of the living which coincide with a crisis in the experience of the person seen1 and those which do not1 it is obviously necessary to reject all evidence of people who were ill1 or anxious1 or overworked1 or in poignant grief at the time of the hallucination4 ,it will be seen later that neither grief nor amatory passion 7dominating the association of our ideas as they do7 beget many phantasms4 ,our business1 however1 is with the false perceptions of persons trustworthy1 as far as we know1 sane1 healthy1 not usually visionary1 and in an unperturbed state of mind4 ,there remains a normal cause of subjective hallucinations1 expectancy4 ,this appears to be a real cause of hallucination or1 at least1 of illusion4 ,waiting for the sound of a carriage you may hear it often before it comes1 you taking other sounds for that which you desire4 ,again1 in an inquiry embracing #ag1jjj people1 the ,s4,p4,r4 collected thirteen cases of an hallucinatory appearance of one person to another who was expecting his arrival4 ,once more1 it is very conceivable that a trifle1 the accidental opening of a door1 a noise of a familiar kind in an unfamiliar place1 may touch the brain into originating an hallucination of a person passing through the door1 or of the place where the sound now heard used once to be familiar4 ,expectancy1 again1 and nervousness1 might doubtless cause an hallucination to a person who felt uncomfortable in a house with a name to be 'haunted1' though1 as we have seen1 the effect is far less common than the cause4 ,all these sorts of causes are undoubtedly more apt to be prevalent among superstitious savages than among educated ,europeans4 ,and it stands to reason that savages1 where one man 'thinks he sees something1' will be readier than we are to think they 'see something' too4 ,yet collective hallucinations1 which are shared by several persons at once1 are especially puzzling4 ,even if they occur when all are in a strained condition of expectancy1 it is odd that all see them in the same way4#ab ,examples will occur later4 ,when there is no excitement1 the mystery is increased4 ,we may note that1 among the expectant multitudes who looked on while ,bernadette was viewing the ,blessed ,virgin at ,lourdes1 not one person1 however superstitious or hysterical1 pretended to share the vision4 ,again1 only one person1 and he on doubtful evidence1 is asserted to have shared1 once1 the visions of ,jeanne d',arc4 ,in both cases all the conditions said to produce collective hallucination were present in the highest degree4 ,yet no collective hallucination occurred4 ,narratives about hallucinations coincident with a death1 narratives well attested1 are abundant in modern times1 so abundant that one need only refer the curious to ,messrs4 ,gurney and ,myers's two large volumes1 ',phantasms of the ,living1' and to the ,s4,p4,r ',report of ,census of ,hallucinations' 7#ahid74 ,mr4 ,tylor says3 ',the spiritualistic theory specially insists on cases of apparitions1 where the person's death corresponds more or less nearly with the time when some friend perceives his phantom4' ,but visionaries1 he remarks truly1 often see phantoms of living persons when nothing occurs4 ,that is the case1 and the question arises whether more such phantoms are viewed 7not by 'visionaries'7 in connection with the death or other crisis of the person whose hallucinatory appearance is perceived1 than ought to occur1 if there be no connection of some unknown cause between deaths and appearances4 ,as ,mr4 ,tylor observes1 ',man1 as yet in a low intellectual condition1 came to associate in thought those things which he found by experience to be connected in fact4'#ac ,did early man1 then1 find in experience that apparitions of his friends were 'connected in fact' with their deaths8 ,and1 if so1 was that discovered connection in fact the origin of his belief that an hallucinatory appearance of an absent person sometimes announced his death8 ,that the belief exists in ,new ,zealand we saw1 and find confirmed by this instance1 one of 'many such relations1' says the author4 ,a ,maori chief was long absent on the war-path4 ,one day he entered his wife's hut1 and sat mute by the hearth4 ,she ran to bring witnesses1 but on her return the phantasm was no longer visible4 ,the woman soon afterwards married again4 ,her husband then returned in perfect health1 and pardoned the lady1 as she had acted on what1 to a ,maori mind1 seemed good legal evidence of his decease4 ,of course1 even if she fabled1 the story is evidence to the existence of the belief4#ad ,what1 then1 is the cause of the belief that a phantom of a man is a token of his death8 ,on the theory of savage philosophy1 as explained by ,mr4 ,tylor himself1 a man's soul may leave his body and become visible to others1 not at death only1 but on many other occasions1 in dream1 trance1 lethargy4 ,all these are much more frequent conditions1 in every man's career1 than the fact of dying4 ,why1 then1 is the phantasm supposed by savages to announce death8 ,is it because1 in a sufficient ratio of cases to provoke remark1 early man has found the appearance and the death to be 'things connected in fact'8 ,i give an instance in which the philosophy of savages would lead them not to connect a phantasm of a living man with his death4 ,the ,woi ,worung1 an ,australian tribe1 hold that 'the ,murup wraith of an individual could be sent from him by magic1 as1 for instance1 when a hunter incautiously went to sleep when out hunting4'#ae ,in this case the hunter is exposed to the magic of his enemies4 ,but the ,murup1 or detached soul1 would be visible to people at a distance when its owner is only asleep--according to the savage philosophy4 ,why1 then1 when the wraith is seen1 is the owner believed to be dying8 ,are the things bound to be 'connected in fact'8 ,as is well known1 the ,society for ,psychical ,research has attempted a little census1 for the purpose of discovering whether hallucinations representing persons at a distance coincided1 within twelve hours1 with their deaths1 in a larger ratio than the laws of chance allow as possible4 ,if it be so1 the ,maori might have some ground for his theory that such hallucinations betoken a decease4 ,i do not believe that any such census can enable us to reach an affirmative conclusion which science will accept4 ,in spite of all precautions taken1 all warnings before1 and 'allowances' made later1 collectors of evidence will 'select' affirmative cases already known1 or 7which is equally fatal7 will be suspected of doing so4 ,again1 illusions of memory1 increasing the closeness of the coincidence1 will come in--or it will be easy to say that they came in4 ',allowances' for them will not be accepted4 ,once more1 #ag1jjj cases1 though a larger number than is usual in biological inquiries1 are decidedly not enough for a popular argument on probabilities2 a million1 it will be said1 would not be too many4 ,finally1 granting honesty1 accurate memory1 and non-selection 7none of which will be granted by opponents71 it is easy to say that odd things must occur1 and that the large proportion of affirmative answers as to coincidental hallucinations is just a specimen of these odd things4 ,other objections are put forward by teachers of popular science who have not examined--or1 having examined1 misreport--the results of the ,census in detail4 ,i may give an example of their method4 ,mr4 ,edward ,clodd is the author of several handbooks of science--',the ,story of ,creation1' ',a ,manual of ,evolution1' and others4 ,now1 in a signed review of a book1 a critique published in ',the ,sketch' 7,october #ac1 #ahig71 ,mr4 ,clodd wrote about the ,census3 ',thousands of persons were asked whether they had ever seen apparitions1 and out of these some hundreds1 mostly unintelligent foreigners1 replied in the affirmative4 ,some eight or ten of the number--envied mortals--had seen angels1 but the majority1 like the ,american in the mongoose story1 had seen only snakes4444 ,in weighing evidence we have to take into account the competency as well as the integrity of the witnesses4' ,mr4 ,clodd has most frankly and good-humouredly acknowledged the erroneousness of his remark4 ,otherwise we might ask3 ,does ,mr4 ,clodd prefer to be considered not 'competent' or not 'veracious'8 ,he cannot be both on this occasion1 for his signed and published remarks were absolutely inaccurate4 ,first1 thousands of persons were not asked 'whether they had seen apparitions4' ,they were asked3 ',have you ever1 when believing yourself to be perfectly awake1 had a vivid impression of seeing1 or being touched by a living being or inanimate object1 or of hearing a voice2 which impression1 so far as you could discover1 was not due to any external physical cause8' ,secondly1 it is not the fact that 'some hundreds1 mostly unintelligent foreigners1 replied in the affirmative4' ,of ,english-speaking men and women1 #a1dii answered the question quoted above in the affirmative4 ,of foreigners 7naturally 'unintelligent'71 #ahe returned affirmative answers4 ,thirdly1 when ,mr4 ,clodd says1 ',the majority had seen only snakes1' it is not easy to know what precise sense 'snakes' bears in the terminology of popular science4 ,if ,mr4 ,clodd means1 by 'snakes1' fantastic hallucinations of animals1 these amounted to #be1 as against #hcj representing human forms of persons recognised1 unrecognised1 living or dead4 ,but1 if by 'snakes' ,mr4 ,clodd means purely subjective hallucinations1 not known to coincide with any event--and this is his meaning--his statement agrees with that of the ,census4 ,his observations1 of course1 were purely accidental errors4 ,the number of hallucinations representing living or dying recognised persons in the answers received1 was #ceb4 ,of first-hand cases1 in which coincidence of the hallucination with the death of the person apparently seen was affirmed1 there were #hj1 of which #bf are given4 ,the non-coincidental hallucinations were multiplied by four1 to allow for forgetfulness of 'misses4' ,the results being compared1 it was decided that the hallucinations collected coincided with death #ddj more often than ought to be the case by the law of probabilities4 ,therefore there was proof1 or presumption1 in favour of some relation of cause and effect between ,a's death and ,b's hallucination4 ,if we were to attack the opinion of the ,committee on ,hallucinations1 that ',between deaths and apparitions of the dying a connection exists which is not due to chance alone1' the assault should be made not only on the method1 but on the details4 ,the events were never of very recent1 and often were of remote occurrence4 ,the remoteness was less than it seems1 however1 as the questions were often answered several years before the publication of the ,report 7#ahid74 ,there was scarcely any documentary evidence1 any note or letter written between the hallucination and the arrival of news of the death4 ,such letters1 the evidence alleged1 had in some cases existed1 but had been lost1 burnt1 eaten by white ants1 or written on a sheet of blotting paper or the whitewashed wall of a barrack room4 ,if ,i may judge by my own lifelong success in mislaying1 losing1 and casually destroying papers1 from cheques to notes made for literary purposes1 from interesting letters of friends to the manuscripts of novelists1 or if ,i may judge by ,sir ,walter ,scott's triumphs of the same kind1 ,i should not think much of the disappearance of documentary evidence to death-wraiths4 ,nobody supposed1 when these notes were written1 that ,science would ask for their production2 and even if people had guessed at this1 it is human to lose or destroy old papers4 ,the remoteness of the occurrences is more remarkable1 for1 if these things happen1 why were so few recent cases discovered8 ,again1 the seers were sometimes under anxiety1 though such cases were excluded from the final computation3 they frequently knew that the person seen was in bad health3 they were often very familiar with his personal aspect4 ,now what are called 'subjective hallucinations1' non-coincidental hallucinations1 usually represent persons very familiar to us1 persons much in our minds4 ,i know seven cases in which such hallucinations occurred4 #a1 #b1 of husband to wife2 #c1 son to mother2 #d1 brother to sister2 #e1 sister to sister2 #f1 cousin 7living in the same house7 to cousin2 #g1 friend 7living a mile away7 to two friends4 ,in no case was there a death-coincidence4 ,only in case #d was there any kind of coincidence1 the brother having intended to do 7unknown to the sister7 what he was seen doing--driving in a dog-cart with a lady4 ,but he had not driven4 ,we cannot1 of course1 prove that these seven cases were not telepathic1 but there is no proof that they were4 ,now most of the coincidental cases1 on which the ,committee relied as their choicest examples1 represented persons familiarly known to the seers4 ,this looks as if they were casual2 but1 of course1 if telepathy does exist1 it is most likely 7as ,hegel says7 to exist between kinsfolk and friends4#af ,the dates might be fresher6 ,in case #a1 percipient knew that his aunt in ,england 7he being in ,australia7 was not very well4 ,no anxiety4 #b4 ,casual acquaintance4 ,no anxiety4 ,case of accident or suicide4 #c4 ,acquaintance who feared to die in childbed1 and did4 ,percipient not much interested1 nor at all anxious4 #d4 ,father in ,england to son in ,india4 ,no anxiety4 #e4 ,uncle to niece4 ,sudden death4 ,no anxiety4 ,no knowledge of illness4 #f4 ,brother-in-law to sister-in-law1 and her maid4 ,no anxiety reported4 ,russian4 #g4 ,father to son4 ,no anxiety reported4 ,russian4 #h4 ,friend to friend4 ,no knowledge of illness or anxiety reported4 #i4 ,grandmother to grandson4 ,no anxiety4 ,no knowledge of illness4 #aj4 ,casual acquaintance1 to seven people1 and apparently to a dog4 ,illness known4 ,russian4 #aa4 ,step-brother to step-brother4 ,no anxiety4 ,no knowledge of illness4 #ab4 ,friend to friend4 ,no anxiety or knowledge of illness4 #ac4 ,casual acquaintance4 ,no anxiety4 #ad4 ,aunt to nephew and to his wife4 ,illness known4 ,no anxiety4 #ae4 ,sister to brother4 ,illness known4 ,no anxiety4 #af4 ,father to daughter4 ,no knowledge of illness4 ,no anxiety4 #ag4 ,father to son4 ,much anxiety4 7,uncounted47 #ah4 ,sister to sister4 ,illness known4 ',no immediate danger' surmised4 #ai4 ,father to son4 ,much anxiety4 ,russian4 7,uncounted47 #bj4 ,friend to friend4 ,illness known4 ,percipient had been nursing patient4 ,brazilian4 7,very bad case67 #ba ,friend to friend4 ,illness known4 ,no anxiety4 #bb4 ,brother to brother4 ,illness known4 ,no anxiety4 #bc4 ,grandfather to grand-daughter4 ,illness known4 ,no pressing anxiety4 #bd4 ,grandfather to grandson4 ,illness known4 ,no anxiety4 #be4 ,father's hand4 ,illness chronic4 ,no anxiety4 ,percipient a daughter4 ,russian4 #bj4 ,husband to wife4 ,anxiety in time of war4 #bg4 ,brother to sister4 ,slightly anxious from receiving no letter4 #bh4 ,friend to friend4 ,no anxiety4 ,anxiety is only reported1 or to be surmised1 in two or three cases4 ,in a dozen the existence of illness was known4 ,it may therefore be argued1 adversely1 that in the selected coincidental hallucinations1 the persons seen were in the class most usually beheld in non-coincidental and1 probably1 purely subjective hallucinations representing real persons2 also1 that knowledge of their illness1 even when no anxiety existed1 kept them in some cases before the mind2 also1 that several cases are foreign1 and that 'most foreigners are fools4' ,on the other hand1 affection1 familiarity1 and knowledge of illness had not produced hallucinations even in the case of these percipients1 till within the twelve hours 7often much less7 of the event of death4 ,it would have been desirable1 of course1 to publish all the non-coincidental cases1 and show how far1 in these not veridical cases1 the recognised phantasms were those of kindred1 dear friends1 known to be ill1 and subjects of anxiety#ag4 ,the ,census1 in fact1 does contain a chapter on ',mental and ,nervous ,conditions in connection with ,hallucinations1' such as anxiety1 grief1 and overwork4 ,do these produce1 or probably produce1 many empty hallucinations not coincident with death or any great crisis8 ,if they do1 then all cases in which a coincidental hallucination occurred to a person in anxiety1 or overstrained1 will seem to be1 probably1 fortuitous coincidences like the others4 ,all percipients1 of all sorts of hallucinations1 hits or misses1 were asked if they were in grief or anxiety4 ,now1 out of #a1fbb cases of hallucination of all known kinds 7coincidental or not71 mental strain was reported in #bbj instances2 of which #aca were cases of grief about known deaths or anxiety4 ,these mental conditions1 therefore1 occur only in twelve per cent4 of the instances4 ,on the whole1 it does not seem fair to argue that anxiety produces so much hallucination that it will account by itself for those which we have analysed as coincidental4 ,the impression left on my own mind by the ,census does pretty closely agree with that of its authors4 ,fairly well persuaded of the possibility of telepathy1 on other grounds1 and even inclined to believe that it does produce coincidental hallucinations1 the evidence of the ,census1 by itself1 would not convince me nor its authors4 ,we want better records2 we want documentary evidence recording cases before the arrival of news of the coincidence4 ,memories are very adaptive4 ,the authors1 however1 made a gallant effort1 at the cost of much labour1 and largely allowed for all conceivable drawbacks4 ,i am1 personally1 illogical enough to agree with ,kant1 and to be more convinced by the cumulative weight of the hundreds of cases in ',phantasms of the ,living1' in other sources1 in my own circle of acquaintance1 and even by the coincident traditions of ,european and savage peoples1 than by the statistics of the ,census4 ,the whole mass1 ,census and all1 is of very considerable weight1 and there exist individual cases which one feels unable to dispute4 ,thus while ,i would never regard the hallucinatory figure of a friend1 perceived by myself1 as proof of his death1 ,i would entertain some slight anxiety till ,i heard of his well-being4 ,on this topic ,i will offer1 in a ,kantian spirit1 an anecdote of the kind which1 occurring in great quantities1 disposes the mind to a sort of belief4 ,it is not given as evidence to go to a jury1 for ,i only received it from the lips of a very gallant and distinguished officer and ,v4,c41 whose own part in the affair will be described4 ,this gentleman was in command of a small ,british force in one of the remotest and least accessible of our dependencies1 not connected by telegraph1 at the time of the incident1 with the distant mainland4 ,in the force was a particularly folly young captain4 ,one night he went to a dance1 and1 as the sleeping accommodation was exhausted1 he passed the night1 like a ,homeric hero1 on a couch beneath the echoing loggia4 ,next day1 contrary to his wont1 he was in the worst of spirits1 and1 after moping for some time1 asked leave to go a three days' voyage to the nearest telegraph station4 ,his commanding officer1 my informant1 was good-natured1 and gave leave4 ,at the end of a week ,captain ---- returned1 in his usual high spirits4 ,he now admitted that1 while lying awake in the verandah1 after the ball1 he had seen a favourite brother of his1 then in1 say1 ,peru4 ,he could not shake off the impression2 he had made the long voyage to the nearest telegraph station1 and thence had telegraphed to another brother in1 let us say1 ,hong ,kong1 ',is all well with ,john8' ,he received a reply1 ',all well by last mail1' and so returned1 relieved in mind1 to his duties4 ,but the next mail bringing letters from ,peru brought news of his ,peruvian brother's death on the night of the vision in the verandah4 ,this1 of course1 is not offered as evidence4 ,for evidence we need ,captain ----'s account1 his ,hong ,kong brother's account1 date of the dance1 official date of the ,peruvian brother's death1 and so on4 ,but the character of my informant indisposes me to disbelief4 ,the names of places are intentionally changed1 but the places were as remote from each other as those given in the text4 ,we find ourselves able to understand the ,master of ,ravenswood's cogitations after he saw the best wraith in fiction3 ',she died expressing her eager desire to see me4 ,can it be1 then--can strong and earnest wishes1 formed during the last agony of nature1 survive its catastrophe1 surmount the awful bounds of the spiritual world1 and place before us its inhabitants in the hues and colouring of life8 ,and why was that manifested to the eye1 which could not unfold its tale to the ear8' 7',her withered lips moved fast1 although no sound issued from them4'7 ',and wherefore should a breach be made in the laws of nature1 yet its purpose remain unknown8' ,the ,master's reasonings are such as1 in hearing similar anecdotes1 must have occurred to ,scott4 ,they no longer represent our views4 ,the death and apparition were coincidental almost to the minute3 it would be impossible to prove that life was utterly extinct1 when ,alice seemed to die1 'as the clock in the distant village tolled one1 just before' ,ravenswood's experience4 ,we do not1 like him1 postulate 'a breach in the laws of nature1' only a possible example of a law4 ,the tale was not 'unfolded to the ear1' as the telepathic impact only affected the sense of sight4 ,here1 perhaps1 ought to follow a reply to certain scientific criticisms of the theory that telepathy1 or the action of one distant mind1 or brain1 upon another1 may be the cause of 'coincidental hallucinations1' whether among savage or civilised races4 ,but1 not to delay the argument by controversy1 the ,reply to ,objections has been relegated to the ,appendix#ah4 ,footnote #a3 ,the lady1 her husband1 and the lawyer1 all known to me1 gave me the story in writing2 the servant's sister has been lost sight of4 ,footnote #b3 ,see three other cases in ,proceedings1 ,s4,p4,r41 ii4 #abb1 #abc4 ,two others are offered by ,mr4 ,henry ,james and ,mr4 ,j4 ,neville ,maskelyne of the ,egyptian ,hall4 ,footnote #c3 ,see ',phantasms of the ,living' and ',a ,theory of ,apparitions1' ,proceedings1 ,s4,p4,r41 vol4 ii41 by ,messrs4 ,gurney and ,myers4 ,footnote #d3 ,studies in ,psychical ,research1 p4 #chh4 ,footnote #e3 ,this1 at least1 scorns to myself a not illogical argument4 ,mr4 ,leaf has argued on the other side1 that ',darwinism may have done something for ,totemism1 by proving the existence of a great monkey kinship4 ,but ,totemism can hardly be quoted as evidence for ,darwinism4' ,true1 but ,darwinism and ,totemism are matters of opinion1 not facts of personal experience4 ,to a believer in coincidental hallucinations1 at least1 the alleged parallel experiences of savages must yield some confirmation to his own4 ,his belief1 he thinks1 is warranted by human experience4 ,on what does he suppose that the belief of the savage is based8 ,do his experience and their belief coincide by pure chance8 ,footnote #f3 ,prim4 ,cult4 i4 #ddi4 ,footnote #g3 ,ibid4 i4 #dej4 ,footnote #h3 ,prim4 ,cult4 vol4 i4 p4 #dej4 ,footnote #i3 ,from ,shortland's ,traditions of ,new ,zealand1 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #aj3 ,gurney and ,myers1 ',phantasms of the ,living1' vol4 ii4 ch4 v4 p4 #eeg4 ,footnote #aa3 ,the ',adventure' and ',beagle1' iii4 #aha1 cf4 #bjd4 ,footnote #ab3 ,it will1 of course1 be said that they worked their stories into conformity4 ,footnote #ac3 ,prim4 ,cult4 i4 #aaf4 ,footnote #ad3 ,polack's ,manners of the ,new ,zealanders1 i4 #bfh4 ,footnote #ae3 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahf4 ,footnote #af3 ,on examining the cases1 we find1 in #ahid1 these dates of reported occurrences1 in twenty-eight cases3 #ahij1 #ahhb1 #ahgi1 #ahgj1 #ahfc1 #ahfa1 #ahhh1 #ahhe1 #ahha1 #ahhj1 #ahgh1 #ahgd1 #ahfi1 #ahfi1 #ahde1 #ahhg1 #ahha1 #ahgg1 #ahgd1 #ahgc1 #ahfj 7871 #ahfd 7871 #ahee1 #ahcj 78671 #ahfg1 #ahfb1 #ahhh1 #ahgj4 ,footnote #ag3 ,on this point see ,report1 p4 #bfj4 ,fifty phantasms out of the whole occurred during anxiety or presumable anxiety4 ,of these1 thirty-one coincided 7within twelve hours7 with the death of the person apparently seen4 ,in the remaining nineteen1 the person seen recovered in eight cases4 ,footnote #ah3 ,appendix ,a4 ,,vii ,,demoniacal ,,possession ,there is a kind of hallucinations--namely1 ,phantasms of the ,dead--about which it seems better to say nothing in this place4 ,if such phantasms are seen by savages when awake1 they will doubtless greatly corroborate that belief in the endurance of the soul after death1 which is undeniably suggested to the early reasoner by the phenomena of dreaming4 ,but1 while it is easy enough to produce evidence to recognised phantasms of the dead in civilised life1 it would be very difficult indeed to discover many good examples in what we know about savages4 ,some ,fijian instances are given by ,mr4 ,fison in his and ,mr4 ,howitt's ',kamilaroi and ,kurnai1' ,others occur in the narrative of ,john ,tanner1 a captive from childhood among the ,red ,indians4 ,but the circumstance1 already noted1 that an ,australian lad became a wizard on the strength of having seen a phantasm of his dead mother1 proves that such experiences are not common2 and ,australian black fellows have admitted that they1 for their part1 never did see a ghost1 but only heard of ghosts from their old men4 ,mr4 ,david ,leslie1 previously cited1 gives some first-hand ,zulu evidence about a haunted wood1 where the ,esemkofu1 or ghosts of persons killed by a tyrannical chief1 were heard and felt by his native informant2 the percipient was also pelted with stones1 as by the ,european ,poltergeist4 ,the ,zulu who dies commonly becomes an ,ihlozi1 and receives his share of sacrifice4 ,the ,esemkofu on the other hand1 are disturbed and haunting spirits#a4 ,as a rule1 so far as our information goes1 it is not recognised phantasms of the dead1 in waking vision1 which corroborate the savage belief in the persistence of the spirit of the departed4 ,the savage reasoner rather rests his faith on the alleged phenomena of noises and physical movements of objects apparently untouched1 which cause so many houses in civilised society to be shut up1 or shunned1 as 'haunted4' ,such disturbances the savage naturally ascribes to 'spirits4' ,our evidence1 therefore1 for recognised phantasms of the savage dead is very meagre1 so it is unnecessary to examine the much more copious civilised evidence4 ,the facts attested may1 of course1 be theoretically explained as the result of telepathy from a mind no longer incarnate2 and1 were the evidence as copious as that for coincidental hallucinations of the living1 or dying1 it would be of extreme importance4 ,but it is not so copious1 and1 granting even that it is accurate1 various explanations not involving anything so distasteful to science as the action of a discarnate intelligence may be1 and have been1 put forward4 ,we turn1 therefore1 from a theme in which civilised testimony is more bulky than that derived from savage life1 to a topic in which savage evidence is much more full than modern civilised records4 ,this topic is the so-called ,demoniacal ,possession4 ,in the philosophy of ,animism1 and in the belief of many peoples1 savage and civilised1 spirits of the dead1 or spirits at large1 can take up their homes in the bodies of living men4 ,such men1 or women1 are spoken of as 'inspired1' or 'possessed4' ,they speak in voices not their own1 they act in a manner alien to their natural character1 they are said to utter prophecies1 and to display knowledge which they could not have normally acquired1 and1 in fact1 do not consciously possess1 in their normal condition4 ,all these and similar phenomena the savage explains by the hypothesis that an alien spirit--perhaps a demon1 perhaps a ghost1 or a god--has taken possession of the patient4 ,the possessed1 being full of the spirit1 delivers sermons1 oracles1 prophecies1 and what the ,americans call 'inspirational addresses1' before he returns to his normal consciousness4 ,though many such prophets are conscious impostors1 others are sincere4 ,dr4 ,mason mentions a prophet who became converted to ,christianity4 ',he could not account for his former exercises1 but said that it certainly appeared to him as though a spirit spoke1 and he must tell what it communicated4' ,dr4 ,mason also gives the following anecdote3 '444,another individual had a familiar spirit that he consulted and with which he conversed2 but1 on hearing the ,gospel1 he professed to become converted1 and had no more communication with his spirit4 ,it had left him1 he said2 it spoke to him no more4 ,after a protracted trial ,i baptised him4 ,i watched his case with interest1 and for several years he led an unimpeachable ,christian life2 but1 on losing his religious zeal1 and disagreeing with some of the church members1 he removed to a distant village1 where he could not attend the services of the ,sabbath1 and it was soon after reported that he had communications with his familiar spirit again4 ,i sent a native preacher to visit him4 ,the man said he heard the voice which had conversed with him formerly1 but it spoke very differently4 ,its language was exceedingly pleasant to hear1 and produced great brokenness of heart4 ,it said1 ,love each other2 act righteously--act uprightly1 with other exhortations such us he had heard from the teachers4 ,an assistant was placed in the village near him1 when the spirit left him again2 and ever since he has maintained the character of a consistent ,christian4'#b ,this anecdote illustrates what is called by spiritists 'change of control4' ,after receiving1 and deserting1 ,christian doctrine1 the patient again spoke unconsciously1 but under the influence of the faith which he had abandoned4 ,in the same way we shall find that a modern ,american ',medium1' after being for a time constantly in the society of educated and psychological observers1 obtained new 'controls' of a character more urbane and civilised than her old 'familiar spirit4'#c ,it is admitted that the possessed sometimes display an eloquence which they are incapable of in their normal condition4#d ,in ,china1 possessed women1 who never composed a line of poetry in their normal lives1 utter their thoughts in verse1 and are said to give evidence of clairvoyant powers4#e ,the book--,demon ,possession in ,china--of ,dr4 ,nevius1 for forty years a missionary1 was violently attacked by the medical journals of his native country1 the ,united ,states4 ,the doctor had the audacity to declare that he could find no better explanation of the phenomena than the theory of the ,apostles--namely1 that the patients were possessed4 ,not having the fear of man before his eyes1 he also remarked that the current scientific explanations had the fault of not explaining anything4 ,for example1 ',mr4 ,tylor intimates that all cases of supposed demoniacal possession are identical with hysteria1 delirium1 and mania1 and suchlike bodily and mental derangements4' ,dr4 ,nevius1 however1 gave what he conceived to be the notes of possession1 and1 in his diagnosis1 distinguished them from hysteria 7whatever that may mean71 delirium1 and mania4 ,nor can it honestly be denied that1 if the special notes of possession actually exist1 they do mark quite a distinct species of mental affection4 ,dr4 ,nevius then observed that1 according to ,mr4 ,tylor1 'scientific physicians now explain the facts on a different principle1' but1 says ,dr4 ,nevius1 'we search in vain to discover what this principle is4'#f ,dr4 ,nevius1 who had the courage of his opinions1 then consulted a work styled ',nervous ,derangement1' by ,dr4 ,hammond1 a ,professor in the ,medical ,school of the ,university of ,new ,york4#g ,he found this scientific physician admitting that we know very little about the matter4 ,he knew1 what is very gratifying1 that 'mind is the result of nervous action1' and that so-called 'possession' is the result of 'material derangements of the organs or functions of the system4' ,dr4 ,nevius was ready to admit this latter doctrine in cases of idiocy1 insanity1 epilepsy1 and hysteria2 but then1 said he1 these are not what ,i call possession4 ,the ,chinese have names for all these maladies1 'which they ascribe to physical causes1' but for possession they have a different name4 ,he expected ,dr4 ,hammond to account for the abnormal conditions in so-called possession1 but 'he has hardly even attempted to do this4' ,dr4 ,nevius next perused the works of ,dr4 ,griesinger1 ,dr4 ,baelz1 ,professor ,william ,james1 ,m4 ,ribot1 and1 generally1 the literature of 'alternating personality4' ,he found ,mr4 ,james professing his conviction that the 'alternating personality' 7in popular phrase1 the demon1 or familiar spirit7 of ,mrs4 ,piper knew a great deal about things which ,mrs4 ,piper1 in her normal state1 did not1 and could not know4 ,thus1 after consulting many physicians1 ,dr4 ,nevius was none the better1 and came back to his faith in ,diabolical ,possession4 ,he was therefore informed that he had written 'one of the most extraordinarily perverted books of the present day' on the evidence of 'transparent ghost stories'--which do not occur in his book4 ,the attitude of ,dr4 ,nevius cannot be called strictly scientific4 ,because pathologists and psychologists are unable to explain1 or give the modus of a set of phenomena1 it does not follow that the devil1 or a god1 or a ghost1 is in it4 ,but this1 of course1 was precisely the natural inference of savages4 ,dr4 ,nevius catalogues the symptoms of possession thus3 #a4 ,the automatic1 persistent and consistent acting out of a new personality1 which calls himself shieng 7genius7 and calls the patient hiang to 7incense burner1 'medium'74 #b4 ,possession of knowledge and intellectual power not owned by the patient 7in his normal state71 nor explainable on the pathological hypothesis4 #c4 ,complete change of moral character in the patient4 ,of these notes1 the second would1 of course1 most confirm the savage belief that a new intelligence had entered into the patient4 ,if he displayed knowledge of the future1 or of the remote1 the inference that a novel and wiser intelligence had taken possession of the patient's body would be1 to the savage1 irresistible4 ,but the more cautious modern1 even if he accepted the facts1 would be reduced to no such extreme conclusion4 ,he would say that knowledge of the remote in space1 or in the past1 might be telepathically communicated to the brain of some living person2 while1 for knowledge of the future1 he could fly1 with ,hartmann1 to contact with the ,absolute4 ,but the question of evidence for the facts is1 of course1 the only real question4 ,now1 in ,dr4 ,nevius's book1 this evidence rests almost entirely on the written reports of native ,christian teachers1 for the ,chinese were strictly reticent when questioned by ,europeans4 ',my heathen brother1 you have a sister who is a demoniac8' asks the intelligent ,european4 ,the reply of the heathen brother is best left in the obscurity of a remarkably difficult and copious ,oriental language4 ,we are thus obliged to fall back on the reports of ,mr4 ,leng and other native ,christian teachers4 ,they are perfectly modest and rational in style4 ,we learn that ,mrs4 ,sen1 a lady in her normal state incapable of lyrical efforts1 lisped in numbers in her secondary personality1 and detected the circumstance that ,mr4 ,leng was on his way to see her1 when she could not have learned the fact in any normal way4#h ',they are now crossing the stream1 and will be here when the sun is about so high2' which was correct4 ,the other witnesses were examined1 and corroborated4#i ,dr4 ,nevius himself examined ,mrs4 ,kwo1 when possessed1 talking in verse1 and1 physically1 limp4#aj ,the narratives are of this type2 the patient1 on recovering consciousness1 knows nothing of what has occurred2 ,christian prayers are often efficacious1 and there are many anecdotes of movements of objects untouched4#aa ,by a happy accident1 as this chapter was passing through the press1 a scientific account of a demoniac and his cure was published by ,dr4 ,pierre ,janet4#ab ,dr4 ,janet has explained1 with complete success1 everything in the matter of possession1 except the facts which1 in the opinion of ,dr4 ,nevius1 were in need of explanation4 ,these facts did not occur in the case of the demoniac 'exorcised' by ,dr4 ,janet4 ,thus the learned essay of that eminent authority would not have satisfied ,dr4 ,nevius4 ,the facts in which he was interested did not present themselves in ,dr4 ,janet's patient1 and so ,dr4 ,janet does not explain them4 ,the simplest plan1 here1 is to deny that the facts in which ,dr4 ,nevius believes ever present themselves at all2 but1 if they ever do1 ,dr4 ,janet's explanation does not explain them4 #a4 ,his patient1 ,achille1 did not act out a new personality4 #b4 ,achille displayed no knowledge or intellectual power which he did not possess in his normal state4 #c4 ,his moral character was not completely changed2 he was only more hypochondriacal and hysterical than usual4 ,achille was a poor devil of a ,french tradesman who1 like ,captain ,booth1 had infringed the laws of strict chastity and virtue4 ,he brooded on this till he became deranged1 and thought that ,satan had him4 ,he was convulsed1 anaesthetic1 suicidal1 involuntarily blasphemous4 ,he was not 'exorcised' by a prayer or by a command1 but after a long course of mental and physical treatment4 ,his cure does not explain the cures in which ,dr4 ,nevius believed4 ,his case did not present the features of which ,dr4 ,nevius asked science for an explanation4 ,dr4 ,janet's essay is the dernier cri of science1 and leaves ,dr4 ,nevius just where it found him4 ,science1 therefore1 can1 and does1 tell ,dr4 ,nevius that his evidence for his facts is worthless1 through the lips of ,professor ,w4 ,romaine ,newbold1 in ',proceedings1 ,s4,p4,r41' ,february #ahih 7pp4 #fjb-fjd74 ,and the same number of the same periodical shows us ,dr4 ,hodgson accepting facts similar to those of ,dr4 ,nevius1 and explaining them by--possession6 7p4 #djf74 ,dr4 ,nevius's observations practically cover the whole field of 'possession' in non-,european peoples4 ,but other examples from other areas are here included4 ,a rather impressive example of possession may be selected from ,livingstone's ',missionary ,travels' 7p4 #hf74 ,the adventurous ,sebituane was harried by the ,matabele in a new land of his choice4 ,he thought of descending the ,zambesi till he was in touch with white men2 but ,tlapne1 'who held intercourse with gods1' turned his face west-wards4 ,tlapne used to retire1 'perhaps into some cave1 to remain in a hypnotic or mesmeric state' until the moon was full4 ,then he would return en prophte4 ',stamping1 leaping1 and shouting in a peculiarly violent manner1 or beating the ground with a club' 7to summon those under earth71 'they induce a kind of fit1 and while in it pretend that their utterances are unknown to themselves1' as they probably are1 when the condition is genuine4 ,tlapne1 after inducing the 'possessed' state1 pointed east3 ',there1 ,sebituane1 ,i behold a fire2 shun it1 it may scorch thee4 ,the gods say1 ,go not thither6' ,then1 pointing west1 he said1 ',i see a city and a nation of black men1 men of the water1 their cattle are red1 thine own tribe are perishing1 thou wilt govern black men1 spare thy future tribe4' ,so far1 mere advice2 then1 ',thou1 ,ramosinii1 thy village will perish utterly4 ,if ,mokari moves first from the village1 he will perish first2 and thou1 ,ramosinii1 wilt be the last to die4' ,then1 ',like some bold seer in a trance1 ,seeing all his own mischance1' ',the gods have given other men water to drink1 but to me they have given bitter water4 ,they call me away4 ,i go4'#ac ,tlapne died1 ,mokari died1 ,ramosinii died1 their village was destroyed soon after1 and so ,sebituane wandered westward1 not disobedient to the voice1 was attacked by the ,baloiana1 conquered1 and spared them4 ,such is 'possession' among savages4 ,it is superfluous to multiply instances of this world-wide belief1 so freely illustrated in the ,new ,testament1 and in trials for witchcraft4 ,the scientific study of the phenomena1 as ,littr complained1 'had hardly been sketched' forty years ago4 ,in the intervening years1 psychologists and hypnotists have devoted much attention to the theme of these 'secondary personalities1' which ,animism explains by the theory of possession4 ,the explanations of modern philosophers differ1 and it is not our business to discuss their physiological and pathological ideas4#ad ,our affair is to ask whether1 in the field of experience1 there is any evidence that persons thus 'possessed' really evince knowledge which they could not have acquired through normal channels8 ,if such evidence exists1 the facts would naturally strengthen the conviction that the possessed person was inspired by an intelligence not his own1 that is1 by a spirit4 ,now it is the firm conviction of several men of science that a certain ,mrs4 ,piper1 an ,american1 does display1 in her possessed condition1 knowledge which she could not normally acquire4 ,the case of this lady is precisely on a level with that of certain savage or barbaric seers4 ,thus3 ',the ,fijian priest sits looking steadily at a whale's tooth ornament1 amid dead silence4 ,in a few minutes he trembles1 slight twitchings of face and limbs come on1 which increase to strong convulsions4444 ,now the god has entered4'#ae ,in ,china1 'the professional woman sits at a table in contemplation1 till the soul of a deceased person from whom communication is desired enters her body and talks through her to the living4444'#af ,the latter account exactly describes ,mrs4 ,piper4 ,when consulted she passes through convulsions into a trance1 after which she talks in a new voice1 assumes a fresh personality1 and affects to be possessed by the spirit of a ,french doctor 7who does not know ,french7--,dr4 ,phinuit4 ,she then displays a varying amount of knowledge of dead and living people connected with her clients1 who are usually strangers1 often introduced under feigned names4 ,mrs4 ,piper and her husband have been watched by detectives1 and have not been discovered in any attempts to procure information4 ,she was for some months in ,england under the charge of the ,s4,p4,r4 ,other ghosts1 besides ,dr4 ,phinuit1 ghosts more civilised than he1 now influence her1 and her latest performances are said to exceed her former efforts4#ag ,volumes of evidence about ,mrs4 ,piper have been published by ,dr4 ,hodgson1 who unmasked ,madame ,blavatsky and ,eusapia ,paladino4#ah ,he was at first convinced that ,mrs4 ,piper1 in her condition of trance1 obtains knowledge not otherwise and normally accessible to her4 ,it was admitted that her familiar spirit guesses1 attempts to extract information from the people who sit with her1 and tries sophistically to conceal his failures4 ,here follow the statements of ,professor ,james of ,harvard4 ',the most convincing things said about my own immediate household were either very intimate or very trivial4 ,unfortunately the former things cannot well be published4 ,of the trivial things ,i have forgotten the greater number1 but the following1 rarae nantes1 may serve as samples of their class4 ,she said that we had lost recently a rug1 and ,i a waistcoat4 7,she wrongly accused a person of stealing the rug1 which was afterwards found in the house47 ,she told of my killing a grey-and-white cat with ether1 and described how it had spun round and round before dying4 ,she told how my ,new ,york aunt had written a letter to my wife1 warning her against all mediums1 and then went off on a most amusing criticism1 full of traits vifs1 of the excellent woman's character4 7,of course1 no one but my wife and ,i knew the existence of the letter in question47 ,she was strong on the events in our nursery1 and gave striking advice during our first visit to her about the way to deal with certain tantrums of our second child--little ,billy-boy1 as she called him1 reproducing his nursery name4 ,she told how the crib creaked at night1 how a certain rocking-chair creaked mysteriously1 how my wife had heard footsteps on a stair1 c4 c4 ,insignificant as these things sound when read1 the accumulation of them has an irresistible effect2 and ,i repeat again what ,i said before1 that1 taking everything that ,i know of ,mrs4 ,piper into account1 the result is to make me feel as absolutely certain as ,i am of any personal fact in the world that she knows things in her trances which she cannot possibly have heard in her waking state1 and that the definitive philosophy of her trances is yet to be found4 ,the limitations of her trance information1 its discontinuity and fitfulness1 and its apparent inability to develop beyond a certain point1 although they end by arousing one's moral and human impatience with the phenomenon1 yet are1 from a scientific point of view1 amongst its most interesting peculiarities1 since where there are limits there are conditions1 and the discovery of them is always the beginning of an explanation4 ',this is all ,i cam tell you of ,mrs4 ,piper4 ,i wish it were more scientific4 ,but valcat quantum6 it is the best ,i can do4' ,elsewhere ,mr4 ,james writes3 ',mr4 ,hodgson and others have made prolonged study of this lady's trances1 and are all convinced that supernormal powers of cognition are displayed therein4 ,they are1 prima facie1 due to spirit control4 ,but the conditions are so complex that a dogmatic decision either for or against the hypothesis must as yet be postponed4'#ai ,again-- ',in the trances of this medium ,i cannot resist the conviction that knowledge appears which she has never gained by the ordinary waking use of her eyes1 ears1 and wits4 ',the trances have broken down1 for my own mind1 the limits of the admitted order of nature4' ,m4 ,paul ,bourget 7who is not superstitious71 after consulting ,mrs4 ,piper1 concludes3 ',l'esprit a des procds de connatre non souponns par notre analyse4'#bj ,in this treatise ,i may have shown 'the will to believe' in an unusual degree2 but1 for me1 the interest of ,mrs4 ,piper is purely anthropological4 ,she exhibits a survival or recrudescence of savage phenomena1 real or feigned1 of convulsion and of secondary personality1 and entertains a survival of the animistic explanation4 ,mrs4 ,piper's honesty and excellent character1 in her normal condition1 are vouched for by her friends and observers in ,england and ,america2 nor do ,i impeach her normal character4 ,but 'secondary personalities' have often more of ,mr4 ,hyde than of ,dr4 ,jekyll in their composition4 ,it used to be admitted that1 when 'possessed1' ,mrs4 ,piper would cheat when she could--that is to say1 she would make guesses1 try to worm information out of her sitter1 describe a friend of his1 alive or dead1 as ',ed41' who may be ,edgar1 ,edmund1 ,edward1 ,edith1 or anybody4 ,she would shuffle1 and repeat what she had picked up in a former sitting with the same person2 and the vast majority of her answers started from vague references to probable facts 7as that an elderly man is an orphan71 and so worked on to more precise statements4 ,professor ,macalister wrote3 ',she is quite wide-awake enough all through to profit by suggestions4 ,i let her see a blotch of ink on my finger1 and she said that ,i was a writer4444 ,except the guess about my sister ,helen1 who is alive1 there was not a single guess which was nearly right4 ,mrs4 ,piper is not anaesthetic during the so-called trance1 and if you ask my private opinion1 it is that the whole thing is an imposture1 and a poor one4'#ba ,mr4 ,barkworth said that1 as far as his experience went1 ',mrs4 ,piper's powers are of the ordinary thought-reading i4e4 muscle-reading kind1 dependent on her hold of the visitor's hand4' ,each of these gentlemen had only one 'sitting4' ,m4 ,paul ,bourget also informed me1 in conversation1 that ,mrs4 ,piper held his hand while she told the melancholy tale connected with a key in his possession1 and that she did not tell the story promptly and fluently1 but very slowly and hesitatingly4 ,even so1 he declared that he did not feel able to account for her performance4 ,as these pages were passing through the press1 ,dr4 ,hodgson's last report on ,mrs4 ,piper was published4#bb ,it is quite impossible1 within the space allotted1 to criticise this work4 ,it would be necessary to examine minutely scores of statements1 in which many facts are suppressed as too intimate1 while others are remarkably incoherent4 ,dr4 ,hodgson deserves the praise of extraordinary patience and industry1 displayed in the very distasteful task of watching an unfortunate lady in the vagaries of 'trance4' ,his reasonings are perfectly calm1 perfectly unimpassioned1 and his bias has not hitherto seemed to make for credulity4 ,we must1 in fact1 regard him as an expert in this branch of psychology4 ,but he himself makes it clear that1 in his opinion1 no written reports can convey the impressions produced by several years of personal experience4 ,the results of that experience he sums up in these words3 ',at the present time ,i cannot profess to have any doubt but that the chief communicators to whom ,i have referred in the foregoing pages are veritably the personalities that they claim to be1 that they have survived the change we call death1 and that they have directly communicated with us1 whom we call living1 through ,mrs4 ,piper's entranced organism4'#bc ,this means that ,dr4 ,hodgson1 at present1 in this case1 accepts the hypothesis of 'possession' as understood by ,maoris and ,fijians1 ,chinese and ,karens4 ,the published reports do not produce on me any such impression4 ,as a personal matter of opinion1 ,i am convinced that those whom ,i have honoured in this life would no more avail themselves of ,mrs4 ,piper's 'entranced organism' 7if they had the chance7 than ,i would voluntarily find myself in a 'sitting' with that lady4 ,it is unnecessary to wax eloquent on this head2 and the curious can consult the writings of ,dr4 ,hodgson for themselves4 ,meanwhile we have only to notice that an ,american 'possessed' woman produces on a highly educated and sceptical modern intelligence the same impression as the ,zulu 'possessed' produce on some ,zulu intelligences4 ,the ,zulus admit 'possession' and divination1 but are not the most credulous of mankind4 ,the ordinary possessed person is usually consulted as to the disease of an absent patient4 ,the inquirers do not assist the diviner by holding his hand1 but are expected to smite the ground violently if the guess made by the diviner is right2 gently if it is wrong4 ,a sceptical ,zulu1 named ,john1 having a shilling to expend on psychical research1 smote violently at every guess4 ,the diviner was hopelessly puzzled2 ,john kept his shilling1 and laid it out on a much more meritorious exhibition of animated sticks4#bd ,uguise gave ,dr4 ,callaway an account of a female possessed person with whom ,mrs4 ,piper could not compete4 ,her spirit spoke1 not from her mouth1 but from high in the roof4 ,it gave forth a kind of questioning remarks which were always correct4 ,it then reported correctly a number of singular circumstances1 ordered some remedies for a diseased child1 and offered to return the fee1 if ample satisfaction was not given4#be ,in ,china and ,zululand1 as in ,mrs4 ,piper's case1 the spirits are fond of diagnosing and prescribing for absent patients4 ,a good example of savage possession is given in his travels by ,captain ,jonathan ,carver 7#agfc74 ,carver was waiting impatiently for the arrival of traders with provisions1 near the ,thousand ,lakes4 ,a priest1 or jossakeed1 offered to interview the ,great ,spirit1 and obtain information4 ,a large lodge was arranged1 and the covering drawn up 7which is unusual71 so that what went on within might be observed4 ,in the centre was a chest-shaped arrangement of stakes1 so far apart from each other 'that whatever lay within them was readily to be discerned4' ,the tent was illuminated 'by a great number of torches4' ,the priest came in1 and was first wrapped in an elk's skin1 as ,highland seers were wrapped in a black bull's hide4 ,forty yards of rope made of elk's hide were then coiled about him1 till he 'was wound up like an ,egyptian mummy4' ,i have elsewhere shown#bf that this custom of binding with bonds the seer who is to be inspired1 existed in ,graeco-,egyptian spiritualism1 among ,samoyeds1 ,eskimo1 ,canadian ,hareskin ,indians1 and among ,australian blacks4 ',the head1 body1 and limbs are wound round with stringy bark cords4'#bg ,this is an extraordinary range of diffusion of a ceremony apparently meaningless4 ,is the idea that1 by loosing the bonds1 the seer demonstrates the agency of spirits1 after the manner of the ,davenport ,brothers8#bh ,but the ,graeco-,egyptian medium did not undo the swathings of linen1 in which he was rolled1 like a mummy4 ,they had to be unswathed for him1 by others4#bi ,again1 a dead body1 among the ,australians1 is corded up tight1 as soon as the breath is out of it1 if it is to be buried1 or before being exposed on a platform1 if that is the custom4#cj ,again1 in the ,highlands second-sight was thus acquired3 the would-be seer 'must run a ,tedder 7tether7 of ,hair1 which bound a corpse to the ,bier1 about his ,middle from end to end1' and then look between his legs till he sees a funeral cross two marches4#ca ,the ,greenland seer is bound 'with his head between his legs4'#cb ,can it be possible1 judging from ,australia1 ,scotland1 ,egypt1 that the binding1 as of a corpse or mummy1 is a symbolical way of putting the seer on a level with the dead1 who will then communicate with him8 ,in three remote points1 we find seer-binding and corpse-binding2 but we need to prove that corpses are1 or have been1 bound at the other points where the seer is tied up--in a reindeer skin among the ,samoyeds1 an elk skin in ,north ,america1 a bull's hide in the ,highlands4 ,binding the seer is not a universal ,red ,indian custom2 it seems to cease in ,labrador1 and elsewhere1 southwards1 where the prophet enters a magic lodge1 unbound4 ,among the ,narquapees1 he sits cross-legged1 and the lodge begins to answer questions by leaping about4#cc ,the ,eskimo bounds1 though he is tied up4 ,it would be decisive1 if we could find that1 wherever the sorcerer is bound1 the dead are bound also4 ,i note the following examples1 but the ,creeks do not1 ,i think1 bind the magician4 ,among the ,creeks1 ',the corpse is placed in a hole1 with a blanket wrapped about it1 and the legs bent under it and tied together4'#cd ,the dead ,greenlanders were 'wrapped and sewed up in their best deer-skins4'#ce ,carver could only learn that1 among the ,indians he knew1 dead bodies were 'wrapped in skins2' that they were also swathed with cords he does not allege1 but he was not permitted to see all the ceremonies4 ,my theory is1 at least1 plausible1 for this manner of burying the dead1 tied tightly up1 with the head between the legs 7as in the practice of ,scottish and ,greenland seers71 is very old and widely diffused4 ,ellis says1 of the ,tahitians1 'the body of the dead man was 444 placed in a sitting posture1 with the knees elevated1 the face pressed down between the knees1444 and the whole body tied with cord or cinet1 wound repeatedly round4'#cf ,the binding may originally have been meant to keep the corpse1 or ghost1 from 'walking4' ,i do not know that ,tahitian prophets were ever tied up1 to await inspiration4 ,but ,i submit that the frequency of the savage form of burial with the corpse tied up1 or swathed1 sometimes with the head between the legs2 and the recurrence of the savage practice of similarly binding the sorcerer1 probably points to a purpose of introducing the seer to the society of the dead4 ,the custom1 as applied to prophets1 might survive1 even where the burial rite had altered1 or cannot be ascertained1 and might survive1 for corpses1 where it had gone out of use1 for seers4 ,the ,scotch used to justify their practice of putting the head between the knees when1 bound with a corpse's hair tether1 they learned to be second-sighted1 by what ,elijah did4 ,the prophet1 on the peak of ,carmel1 'cast himself down upon the earth1 and put his face between his knees4'#cg ,but the cases are not analogous4 ,elijah had been hearing a premonitory 'sound of abundance of rain' in a cloudless sky4 ,he was probably engaged in prayer1 not in prophecy4 ,kirk1 by the way1 notes that if the wind changes1 while the ,scottish seer is bound1 he is in peril of his life4 ,so children are told1 in ,scotland1 that1 if the wind changes while they are making faces1 the grimace will be permanent4 ,the seer will1 in the same way1 become what he pretends to be1 a corpse4 ,this desertion of ,carver's tale may be pardoned for the curiosity of the topic4 ,he goes on3 ',being thus bound up like an ,egyptian mummy' 7,carver unconsciously making my point71 'the seer was lifted into the chest-like enclosure4 ,i could now also discern him as plain as ,i had ever done1 and ,i took care not to turn my eyes away a moment'--in which effort he probably failed4 ,the priest now began to mutter1 and finally spoke in a mixed jargon of scarcely intelligible dialects4 ,he now yelled1 prayed1 and foamed at the mouth1 till in about three quarters of an hour he was exhausted and speechless4 ',but in an instant he sprang upon his feet1 notwithstanding at the time he was put in it appeared impossible for him to move either his legs or arms1 and shaking off his covering1 as quick as if the bands with which it had been bound were burst asunder1' he prophesied4 ,the ,great ,spirit did not say when the traders would arrive1 but1 just after high noon1 next day1 a canoe would arrive1 and the people in it would tell when the traders were to appear4 ,next day1 just after high noon1 a canoe came round a point of land about a league away1 and the men in it1 who had met the traders1 said they would come in two days1 which they did4 ,carver1 professing freedom from any tincture of credulity1 leaves us 'to draw what conclusions we please4' ,the natural inference is 'private information1' about which the only difficulty is that ,carver1 who knew the topography and the chances of a secret messenger arriving to prompt the ,jossakeed1 does not allude to this theory4#ch ,he seems to think such successes not uncommon4 ,all that psychology can teach anthropology1 on this whole topic of 'possession2' is that secondary or alternating personalities are facts in rerum natura1 that the man or woman in one personality may have no conscious memory of what was done or said in the other1 and that cases of knowledge said to be supernormally gained in the secondary state are worth inquiring about1 if there be a chance of getting good evidence4 ,a few fairly respectable savage instances are given in ,dr4 ,gibier's ',le ,fakirisme ,occidental' and in ,mr4 ,manning's ',old ,new ,zealand2' but1 while modern civilised parallels depend on the solitary case of ,mrs4 ,piper 7for no other case has been well observed71 no affirmative conclusion can be drawn from ,chinese1 ,maori1 ,zulu1 or ,red ,indian practice4 ,footnote #a3 ,among the ,zulus1 p4 #abj4 ,footnote #b3 ,burmah1 p4 #ajg4 ,footnote #c3 ,hodgson1 ,proceedings1 ,s4,p4,e41 vol4 xiii4 pt4 xxxiii4 ,dr4 ,hodgson by no means agrees with this view of the case--the case of ,mrs4 ,piper4 ,footnote #d3 ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 #ahd4 ,footnote #e3 ,nevius's ,demon ,possession in ,china1 a curious collection of examples by an ,american missionary4 ,the reports of ,catholic missionaries abound in cases4 ,footnote #f3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #afi4 ,footnote #g3 ,putnam1 #ahha4 ,footnote #h3 ,nevius1 p4 #cc4 ,footnote #i3 ,ibid4 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #aj3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #ch4 ,footnote #aa3 ,see ',fetishism and ,spiritualism4' ,footnote #ab3 ,ncroses et ,ides ,fixes4 ,alcan1 ,paris1 #ahih4 ,this is the first of a series of works connected with the ,laboratoire de ,psychologie1 at the ,salptritre1 in ,paris4 ,footnote #ac3 ',macleod shall return1 but ,macrimmon shall never6' ,footnote #ad3 ,see ,ribot1 ,les ,maladies de la ,personnalit12 ,bourru et ,burot1 ,variations de la ,personnalit2 ,janet1 ,l',automatisme ,psychologique2 ,james1 ,principles of ,psychology2 ,myers1 in ,proceedings of ,s4,p4,r41 ',the ,mechanism of ,genius1' ',the ,subliminal ,self4' ,footnote #ae3 ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 #acc4 ,footnote #af3 ,doolittle's ,chinese1 i4 #adc2 ii4 #aaj1 #cbj4 ,footnote #ag3 ,proceedings1 ,s4,p4,r41 pt4 xxxiii4 ,footnote #ah3 ,proceedings1 ,s4,p4,r41 vi4 #dcf-fej2 viii4 #a-afg2 xiii4 #bhd-ehb4 ,footnote #ai3 ,the ,will to ,believe1 p4 #had4 ,footnote #bj3 ,figaro1 ,january #ad1 #ahie4 ,footnote #ba3 ,proceedings1 vi4 #fje1 #fjf4 ,footnote #bb3 ,proceedings1 ,s4,p4,r1 part xxxiii4 vol4 xiii4 ,footnote #bc3 ,op4 cit4 part xxxiii4 p4 #djf4 ,footnote #bd3 ,see ',fetishism4' ,compare ,callaway1 p4 #cbh4 ,footnote #be3 ,callaway1 pp4 #cfa-cgd4 ,footnote #bf3 ,cock ,lane and ,common ,sense1 p4 #ff4 ,footnote #bg3 ,brough ,smyth1 i4 #dge4 ,this point is disputed1 but ,i did not invent it1 and a case appears in ,mr4 ,curr's work on the natives4 ,footnote #bh3 ,prim4 ,cult4 i4 #aeb4 ,footnote #bi3 ,eusebius1 ,prap4 ,evang4 v4 #i4 ,footnote #cj3 ,brough ,smyth1 i4 #ajj1 #aac4 ,footnote #ca3 ,kirk1 ,secret ,commonwealth #afia4 ,footnote #cb3 ,crantz1 p4 #bji4 ,footnote #cc3 ,pre ,arnaud1 in ,hind's ,labrador1 ii4 #ajb4 ,footnote #cd3 ,major ,swan1 #agia1 official letter on the ,creek ,indians1 ,schoolcraft1 v4 #bgj4 ,footnote #ce3 ,crantz1 p4 #bcg4 ,footnote #cf3 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #eai4 ,footnote #cg3 #a ,kings xviii4 #db4 ,footnote #ch3 ,carver1 pp4 #abc1 #ahd4 ,,viii ,,fetishism ,,and ,,spiritualism ,it has been shown how the doctrine of souls was developed according to the anthropological theory4 ,the hypothesis as to how souls of the dead were later elevated to the rank of gods1 or supplied models after which such gods might be inventively fashioned1 will be criticised in a later chapter4 ,here it must suffice to say that the conception of a separable surviving soul of a dead man was not only not essential to the savage's idea of his supreme god1 as it seems to me1 but would have been wholly inconsistent with that conception4 ,there exist1 however1 numerous forms of savage religion in addition to the creed in a ,supreme ,being1 and these contribute their streams to the ocean of faith4 ,thus among the kinds of belief which served in the development of ,polytheism1 was ,fetishism1 itself an adaptation and extension of the idea of separable souls4 ,in this regard1 like ancestor-worship1 it differs from the belief in a ,supreme ,being1 which1 as we shall try to demonstrate1 is not derived from the theory of ghosts or souls at all4 ,fetish 7ftiche7 seems to come from ,portuguese feitio1 a talisman or amulet1 applied by the ,portuguese to various material objects regarded by the negroes of the west coast with more or less of religious reverence4 ,these objects may be held sacred in some degree for a number of incongruous reasons4 ,they may be tokens1 or may be of value in sympathetic magic1 or merely odd1 and therefore probably endowed with unknown mystic qualities4 ,or they may have been pointed out in a dream1 or met in a lucky hour and associated with good fortune1 or they may 7like a tree with an unexplained stir in its branches1 as reported by ,kohl7 have seemed to show signs of life by spontaneous movements2 in fact1 a thing may be what ,europeans call a fetish for scores of reasons4 ,for our present purpose1 as ,mr4 ,tylor says1 'to class an object as a fetish demands explicit statement that a spirit is considered as embodied in it1 or acting through it1 or communicating by it1 or1 at least1 that the people it belongs to do habitually think this of such objects2 or it must be shown that the object is treated as having personal consciousness or power1 is talked with1 worshipped444' and so forth4 ,the in-dwelling spirit may be human1 as when a fetish is made out of a friend's skull1 the spirit in which may even be asked for oracles1 like the ,head of ,bran in ,welsh legend4 ,we have tried to show that the belief in human souls may be1 in part at least1 based on supernormal phenomena which ,materialism disregards4 ,we shall now endeavour to make it probable that ,fetishism 7the belief in the souls tenanting inanimate objects7 may also have sources which perhaps are not normal1 or which at all events seemed supernormal to savages4 ,we say 'perhaps not normal' because the phenomena now to be discussed are of the most puzzling character4 ,we may lean to the belief in a supernormal cause of certain hallucinations1 but the alleged movements of inanimate objects which probably supply one origin of ,fetishism1 one suggestion of the presence of a spirit in things dead1 leave the inquiring mind in perplexity4 ,in following ,mr4 ,tylor's discussion of the subject1 it is necessary to combine what he says about ,spiritualism in his fourth with what he says about ,fetishism in his fourteenth and later chapters4 ,for some reason his book is so arranged that he criticises ',spiritualism' long before he puts forward his doctrine of the origin and development of the belief in spirits4 ,we have seen a savage reason for supposing that human spirits inhabit certain lifeless things1 such as skulls and other relics of the dead4 ,but how did it come to be thought that a spirit dwelt in a lifeless and motionless piece of stone or stick8 ,mr4 ,tylor1 perhaps1 leads us to a plausible conjecture by writing3 ',mr4 ,darwin saw two ,malay women in ,keeling ,island1 who held a wooden spoon dressed in clothes like a doll3 this spoon had been carried to the grave of a dead man1 and becoming inspired at full moon1 in fact lunatic1 it danced about convulsively1 like a table or a hat at a modern spirit sance4'#a ,now ,m4 ,lefbure has pointed out 7in ',mlusine'7 that1 according to ,de ,brosses1 the ,african conjurers gave an appearance of independent motion to small objects1 which were then accepted as fetishes1 being visibly animated4 ,m4 ,lefbure next compares1 like ,mr4 ,tylor1 the alleged physical phenomena of spiritualism1 the flights and movements of inanimate objects apparently untouched4 ,the question thus arises1 ,is there any truth whatever in these world-wide and world-old stories of inanimate objects acting like animated things8 ,has fetishism one of its origins in the actual field of supernormal experience in the ,x region8 ,this question we do not propose to answer1 as the evidence1 though practically universal1 may be said to rest on imposture and illusion4 ,but we can1 at least1 give a sketch of the nature of the evidence1 beginning with that as to the apparently voluntary movements of objects1 not untouched4 ,mr4 ,tylor quotes from ,john ,bell's ',journey in ,asia' 7#agai7 an account of a ,mongol ,lama who wished to discover certain stolen pieces of damask4 ,his method was to sit on a bench1 when 'he carried it1 or1 as was commonly believed1 it carried him1 to the very tent' of the thief4 ,here the bench is innocently believed to be self-moving4 ,again1 ,mr4 ,rowley tells how in ,manganjah the sorcerer1 to find out a criminal1 placed1 with magical ceremonies1 two staffs of wood in the hands of some young men4 ',the sticks whirled and dragged the men round like mad1' and finally escaped and rolled to the feet of the wife of a chief1 who was then denounced as the guilty person4#b ,mr4 ,duff ,macdonald describes the same practice among the ,yaos3#c ',the sorcerer occasionally makes men take hold of a stick1 which1 after a time1 begins to move as if endowed with life1 and ultimately carries them off bodily and with great speed to the house of the thief4' ,the process is just that of ,jacques ,aymard in the celebrated story of the detection of the ,lyons murderer4#d ,in ,melanesia1 far enough away1 ,dr4 ,codrington found a similar practice1 and here the sticks are explicitly said by the natives to be moved by spirits4#e ,the wizard and a friend hold a bamboo stick by each end1 and ask what man's ghost is afflicting a patient4 ,at the mention of the right ghost 'the stick becomes violently agitated4' ,in the same way1 the bamboo 'would run about' with a man holding it only on the palms of his hands4 ,again1 a hut is built with a partition down the middle4 ,men sit there with their hands under one end of the bamboo1 while the other end is extended into the empty half of the hut4 ,they then call over the names of the recently dead1 till 'they feel the bamboo moving in their hands4' ,a bamboo placed on a sacred tree1 'when the name of a ghost is called1 moves of itself1 and will lift and drag people about4' ,put up into a tree1 it would lift them from the ground4 ,in other cases the holding of the sticks produces convulsions and trance4#f ,the divining sticks of the ,maori are also 'guided by spirits1'#g and those of the ,zulu sorcerers rise1 fall1 and jump about4#h ,these ,zulu performances must be really very curious4 ,in the last chapter we told how a ,zulu named ,john1 having a shilling to lay out in the interests of psychical research1 declined to pay a perplexed diviner1 and reserved his capital far a more meritorious performance4 ,he tried a medium named ,unomantshintshi1 who divined by ,umabakula1 or dancing sticks-- ',if they say no1 they fall suddenly2 if they say yes1 they arise and jump about very much1 and leap on the person who has come to inquire4 ,they fix themselves on the place where the sick man is affected2 444 if the head1 they leap on his head4444 ,many believe in ,umabakula more than in the diviner4 ,but there are not many who have the ,umabakula4' ,dr4 ,callaway's informant only knew two ,umabakulists1 ,john was quite satisfied1 paid his shilling1 and went home4#i ,the sticks are about a foot long4 ,it is not reported that they are moved by spirits1 nor do they seem to be regarded as fetishes4 ,mr4 ,tylor also cites a form of the familiar pendulum experiment4 ,among the ,karens a ring is suspended by a thread over a metal basin4 ,the relations of the dead strike the basin1 and when he who was dearest to the ghost touches it the spirit twists the thread till it breaks1 and the ring falls into the basin4 ,with us a ring is held by a thread over a tumbler1 and our unconscious movements swing it till it strikes the hour4 ,how the ,karens manage it is less obvious4 ,these savage devices with animated sticks clearly correspond to the more modern 'table-turning4' ,here1 when the players are honest1 the pushing is certainly unconscious4 ,i have tested this in two ways--first by trying the minimum of conscious muscular action that would stir a table at which ,i was alone1 and by comparing the absolute unconsciousness of muscular action when the table began to move in response to no voluntary push4 ,again1 ,i tried with a friend1 who said1 ',you are pushing1' when ,i gently removed my hands altogether1 though they seemed to rest on the table1 which still revolved4 ,my friend was himself unconsciously pushing4 ,it is undeniable that1 to a solitary experimenter1 the table seems to make little darts of its own will in a curious way4 ,thus1 the unconsciousness of muscular action on the part of savages engaged in the experiment with sticks would lead them to believe that spirits were animating the wood4 ,the same fallacy beset the table-turners of #ahee-fe1 and was1 to some extent1 exposed by ,faraday4 ,of course1 savages would be even more convinced by the dancing spoon of ,mr4 ,darwin's tale1 by the dancing sticks of the ,zulus1 and the rest1 whether the phenomena were supernormal or merely worked by unseen strings4 ,the same remark applies to modern experimenters1 when1 as they declare1 various objects move untouched1 without physical contact4 ,still more analogous than turning tables to the savage use of inspired sticks for directing the inquirer to a lost object or to a criminal1 is the modern employment of the divining-rod--a forked twig which1 held by the ends1 revolves in the hands of the performer when he reaches the object of his quest4 ,he1 like the savage cited1 is occasionally agitated in a convulsive manner2 and cases are quoted in which the twig writhes when held in a pair of tongs6 ,the best-known modern treatise on the divining-rod is that of ,m4 ,chevreul1 ',la ,baguette ,divinatoire' 7#ahed74 ,we have also ',l',histoire du ,merveilleux dans les ,temps ,modernes1' by ,m4 ,figuier 7#ahfj74 ,in #agha ,thouvenel published his #fjj experiments with ,bleton and others2 and ,hegel refers to ,amoretti's collection of hundreds of cases4 ,the case of ,jacques ,aymard1 who in the seventeenth century discovered a murderer by the use of the rod in true savage fashion1 is well known4 ,in modern ,england the rod is used in the interests of private individuals and public bodies 7such as ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge7 for the discovery of water4 ,professor ,barrett has lately published a book of #bhj pages1 in which evidence of failures and successes is collected4#aj ,professor ,barrett gives about one hundred and fifty cases1 in which he was only able to discover1 on good authority1 twelve failures4 ,he gives a variety of tests calculated to check frauds and chance coincidence1 and he publishes opinions1 hostile or agnostic1 by geologists4 ,the evidence1 as a general rule1 is what is called first-hand in other inquiries4 ,the actual spectators1 and often the owners of the land1 or the persons in whose interest water was wanted1 having been present1 give their testimony2 and it is certain that the 'diviner' is called in by people of sense and education1 commonly too practical to have a theory1 and content with getting what they want1 especially where scientific experts have failed4#aa ,in ,mr4 ,barrett's opinion1 the subconscious perception of indications of the presence of water produces an equally unconscious muscular 'spasm1' which twirls the rod till it often breaks4 ,yet 'it is almost impossible to imitate its characteristic movement by any voluntary effort4' ,i have myself held the hands of an amateur performer when the twig was moving1 and neither by sight nor touch could ,i detect any muscular movement on his part1 much less a spasm4 ,the person was bailiff on a large estate1 and1 having accidentally discovered that he possessed the gift1 used it when he wanted wells dug for the tenants on the property4 ,the whole topic is obscure2 nor am ,i concerned here with the successes or failures of the divining-rod4 ,but the movements of the twig have never1 to my knowledge1 been attributed by modern ,english performers to the operation of spirits4 ,they say 'electricity4' ,mr4 ,tylor merely writes3 ',the action of the famous divining-rod1 with its curiously versatile sensibility to water1 ore1 treasure1 and thieves1 seems to belong partly to trickery and partly to more or less conscious direction by honester operators4' ,as the divining-rod is the only instance in which automatism1 whatever its nature and causes1 has been found of practical value by practical men1 and as it is obviously associated with a number of analogous phenomena1 both in civilised and savage life1 it certainly deserves the attention of science4 ,but no advance will be made till scientifically trained inquirers themselves arrange and test a large number of experiments4 ,knowledge of the geological ignorance of the dowsers1 examples of fraud on their part1 and cases of failure or reported failure1 with a general hostile bias1 may prevent such experiments from being made by scientific experts on an adequate scale4 ,such experts ought1 of course1 to avoid working the dowsers into a state of irritation4 ,it is just worth while to notice cases in which the rod acts like those of the ,melanesians1 ,africans1 and other savages4 ,a ,mr4 ,thomas ,welton published an ,english translation of ',la ,verge de ,jacob' 7,lyon1 #afic74 ,in #afea he asked his servant to bring into the garden 'a stick that stood behind the parlour door4 ,in great terror she brought it to the garden1 her hand firmly clutched on it1 nor could she let it go4' ,when ,mrs4 ,welton took the stick1 'it drew her with very considerable velocity to nearly the centre of the garden1' where a well was found4 ,mr4 ,welton is not likely to have known of the lately published savage examples4 ,the coincidence with the ,african and ,melanesian cases is1 therefore1 probably undesigned4 ,again1 in #afid1 the rod was used by le ,pre ,menestrier and others1 just as it is by savages1 to indicate by its movements answers to all sorts of questions4 ,experiments of this kind have not been made by ,professor ,barrett1 and other modern inquirers1 except by ,m4 ,richet1 as a mode of detecting automatic action4 ,but it would be just as sensible to use the twig as to use planchette or any other 'autoscopic' apparatus4 ,if these elicit knowledge unconsciously present to the mind1 mere water-finding ought not to be the sole province of the rod4 ,in the same class as these rods is the forked twig which1 in ,china1 is held at each end by two persons1 and made to write in the sand4 ,the little apparatus called planchette1 or the other1 the ouija1 is of course1 consciously or unconsciously1 pushed by the performers4 ,in the case of the twig1 as held by water-seekers1 the difficulty of consciously moving it so as to escape close observation is considerable4 ,in the case of the ouija 7a little tripod1 which1 under the operators' hands1 runs about a table inscribed with letters at which it points71 ,i have known curious successes to be achieved by amateurs4 ,thus1 in the house of a lady who owned an old chteau in another county1 the ouija1 operated on by two ladies known to myself1 wrote a number of details about a visit paid to the chteau for a certain purpose by ,mary ,stuart4 ,that visit1 and its object1 a purely personal one1 are unknown to history1 and the chteau is not spoken of in ,mr4 ,hay ,fleming's careful1 but unavoidably incomplete1 itinerary of the ,queen's residence in ,scotland4 ,after the communication had been made1 the owner of the chteau explained that she was already acquainted with the circumstances described1 as she had recently read them in documents in her charter chest1 where they remain4 ,of course1 the belief we extend to such narratives is entirely conditioned by our knowledge of the personal character of the performers4 ,the point here is merely the civilised and savage practice of automatism1 the apparent eliciting of knowledge not otherwise accessible1 by the movements of a stick1 or a bit of wood4 ,these movements1 made without conscious exertion or direction1 seem1 to savage philosophy1 to be caused by in-dwelling spirits1 the sources of ,fetishism4 ,these examples1 then1 demonstrating unconscious movement of objects by the operators1 make it clear that movements even of touched objects1 may be attributed1 by some civilised and by savage amateurs1 to 'spirits4' ,the objects so moved may1 by savages1 be regarded in some cases as fetishes1 and their movements may have helped to originate the belief that spirits can inhabit inanimate objects4 ,when objects apparently quite untouched become volatile1 the mystery is deeper4 ,this apparent animation and frolicsome behaviour of inanimate objects is reported all through history1 and attested by immense quantities of evidence of every degree4 ,it would be tedious to give a full account of the antiquity and diffusion of reports about such occurrences4 ,we find them among ,neo-,platonists1 in the ,english and ,continental ,middle ,ages1 among ,eskimo1 ,hurons1 ,algonkins1 ,tartars1 ,zulus1 ,malays1 ,nasquapees1 ,maoris1 in witch trials1 in ancient ,peru 7immediately after the ,spanish ,conquest71 in ,china1 in modern ,russia1 in ,new ,england 7#afhj71 all through the career of modern spiritualism1 in ,hayti 7where they are attributed to ',obeah'71 and1 sporadically1 everywhere4#ab ,among all these cases1 we must dismiss whatever the modern paid medium does in the dark4 ,the only thing to be done with the ethnographic and modern accounts of such marvels is to 'file them for reference4' ,if a spontaneous example occurs1 under proper inspection1 we can then compare our old tales4 ,professor ,james says3 ',their mutual resemblances suggest a natural type1 and ,i confess that till these records1 or others like them1 are positively explained away1 ,i cannot feel 7in spite of such vast amounts of detected frauds7 as if the case of physical mediumship itself1 as a freak of nature1 were definitely closed4444 ,so long as the stories multiply in various lands1 and so few are positively explained away1 it is bad method to ignore them4'#ac ,here they are not ignored1 because1 whatever the cause or causes of the phenomena1 they would buttress1 if they did not originate1 the savage belief in spirits tenanting inanimate matter1 whence came ,fetishism4 ,as to facts1 we cannot1 of course1 'explain away' events of this kind1 which we know only through report4 ,a conjurer cannot explain a trick merely from a description1 especially a description by a non-conjurer4 ,but1 as a rule1 nothing so much leads to doubt on this theme as the 'explanation' given--except1 of course1 in the case of 'dark sances' got up and prepared by paid mediums4 ,we know1 sometimes1 how the 'explanation' arose4 ,thus1 the house of a certain ,m4 ,zoller1 a lawyer and member of the ,swiss ,federal ,council1 a house at ,stans1 in ,unterwalden1 was made simply uninhabitable in #ahfj-ahfb4 ,the disturbances1 including movements of objects1 were of a truly odious description1 and occurred in full daylight4 ,m4 ,zoller1 deeply attached to his home1 which had many interesting associations with the part his family played in the struggle against revolutionary ,france1 was obliged to abandon the place4 ,he had made every conceivable sort of research1 and had called in the local police and savants1 to no purpose4 ,but the affair was explained away thus3 ,while the phenomena could still be concealed from public curiosity1 a client called to see ,m4 ,zoller1 who was out4 ,the client1 therefore1 remained in the drawing-room4 ,loud and heavy blows resounded through the room4 ,the client1 as it chanced1 had once felt the effects of an electric battery1 for some medical reason1 apparently4 ,m4 ,zoller writes3 ',my eldest son was present at the time1 and1 when my client asked whether there was such a thing as an electrical machine in the house 7the family having been enjoined to keep the disturbances as secret as possible71 he allowed ,s4 to think that there was4' ,consequently1 the phenomena were set down to ,m4 ,zoller's singular idea of making his house untenantable with an 'electric machine'--which he did not possess4#ad ,a number of the most respected citizens1 including the ,superintendent of ,police1 and the chief magistrate for law1 published a statement that neither ,zoller1 nor any of his family1 nor any of themselves1 produced or could have produced the phenomena witnessed by them in ,august #ahfb4 ,this declaration they put forth in the ',schwytzer ,zeitung1' ,october #e1 #ahfc4ae ,no electric machine known to mortals could have produced the vast variety of alleged effects1 none was ever found2 and as ,m4 ,zoller changed his servants without escaping his tribulations1 they can hardly be blamed for what1 prima facie1 it seems that they could not possibly do4 ,however1 'electricity1' like ,mesopotamia1 is 'a blessed word4'#af ,my own position in this matter of 'physical phenomena' is1 ,i hope1 clear4 ,they interest me1 for my present purpose1 as being1 whatever their real nature and origin1 things which would suggest to a savage his theory of ,fetishism4 ',an inanimate object may be tenanted by a spirit1 as is proved by its extraordinary movements4' ,thus the early thinker might reason1 and go on to revere the object4 ,it is to be wished that competent observers would pay more attention to such savage practices as crystal-gazing and automatism as illustrated by the sticks of the ,melanesians1 ,zulus1 and ,yaos4 ,our scanty information we pick up out of stray allusions1 but it has the advantage of being uncontaminated by theory1 the ,european spectator not knowing the wide range of such practices and their value in experimental psychology4 ,we have now finished our study of the less normal and usual phenomena1 which gave rise to belief in separable1 self-existing1 conscious1 and powerful souls4 ,we have shown that the supernormal factors which1 when reflected on1 probably supported this belief1 are represented in civilised as well as in savage life1 while as to their existence among the founders of religion we can historically know nothing at all4 ,if we may infer from certain considerations1 the supernormal experiences were possibly more prevalent among the remote ancestors of known savage races than among their modern descendants4 ,we have suggested that clairvoyance1 thought transference1 and telepathy cannot be dismissed as mere fables1 by a cautious inquirer1 while even the far more obscure stories of 'physical manifestations' are but poorly explained away by those who cannot explain them4#ag ,again1 these faculties have presented--in the acquisition of otherwise unattainable knowledge1 in coincidental hallucinations1 and in other ways--just the kind of facts on which the savage doctrine of souls might be based1 or by which it might be buttressed4 ,thus1 while the actuality of the supernormal facts and faculties remains at least an open question1 the prevalent theory of ,materialism cannot be admitted as dogmatically certain in its present shape4 ,no more than any other theory1 nay1 less than some other theories1 can it account for the psychical facts which1 at the lowest1 we may not honestly leave out of the reckoning4 ,we have therefore no more to say about the supernormal aspects of the origins of religion4 ,we are henceforth concerned with matters of verifiable belief and practice4 ,we have to ask whether1 when once the doctrine of souls was conceived by early men1 it took precisely the course of development usually indicated by anthropological science4 ,footnote #a3 ,darwin1 ,journal1 p4 #deh2 ,tylor1 ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 #aeb4 ,the spoon was not untouched4 ,footnote #b3 ,rowley1 ,universities' ,mission1 p4 #bag4 ,footnote #c3 ,africana1 vol4 i4 p4 #afa4 ,footnote #d3 ,in the author's ,custom and ,myth1 ',the ,divining ,rod4' ,footnote #e3 ,codrington's ,melanesia1 p4 #baj4 ,footnote #f3 ,op4 cit4 pp4 #bbi-cbe4 ,footnote #g3 ,prim4 ,cult4 vol4 i4 p4 #abe4 ,footnote #h3 ,callaway1 ,amazulu1 p4 #ccj4 ,footnote #i3 ,callaway1 ,amazulu1 p4 #cfh4 ,footnote #aj3 ,the ,so-called ,divining-,rod1 ,s4,p4,r4 #ahig4 ,footnote #aa3 ,see especially ,the ,waterford ,experiments1 p4 #ajf4 ,footnote #ab3 ,authorities and examples are collected in the author's ,cock ,lane and ,common ,sense4 ,footnote #ac3 ,proceedings1 xii4 #g1 #h4 ,footnote #ad3 ,personal ,narrative1 by ,m4 ,zoller4 ,hanke1 ,zurich1 #ahfc4 ,footnote #ae3 ,daumer1 ,reich des ,wundersamen1 ,regensburg1 #ahgb1 pp4 #bfe1 #bff4 ,footnote #af3 ,a criticism of modern explanations of the phenomena here touched upon will be found in ,appendix ,b4 ,footnote #ag3 ,see ,appendix ,b4 ,,ix ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,god ,to the anthropological philosopher 'a plain man' would naturally put the question3 ',having got your idea of spirit or soul--your theory of ,animism--out of the idea of ghosts1 and having got your idea of ghosts out of dreams and visions1 how do you get at the ,idea of ,god8' ,now by ',god' the proverbial 'plain man' of controversy means a primal eternal ,being1 author of all things1 the father and friend of man1 the invisible1 omniscient guardian of morality4 ,the usual though not invariable reply of the anthropologist might be given in the words of ,mr4 ,im ,thurn1 author of a most interesting work on the ,indians of ,british ,guiana3 ',from the notion of ghosts1' says ,mr4 ,im ,thurn1 'a belief has arisen1 but very gradually1 in higher spirits1 and eventually in a ,highest ,spirit1 and1 keeping pace with the growth of these beliefs1 a habit of reverence for1 and worship of spirits4444 ,the ,indians of ,guiana know no ,god4'#a ,as another example of ,mr4 ,im ,thurn's hypothesis that ,god is a late development from the idea of spirit may be cited ,mr4 ,payne's learned ',history of the ,new ,world1' a work of much research3#b ',the lowest savages not only have no gods1 but do not even recognise those lower beings usually called spirits1 the conception of which has invariably preceded that of gods in the human mind4' ,mr4 ,payne here differs1 toto caelo1 from ,mr4 ,tylor1 who finds no sufficient proof for wholly non-religious savages1 and from ,roskoff1 who has disposed of the arguments of ,sir ,john ,lubbock4 ,mr4 ,payne1 then1 for ethnological purposes1 defines a god as 'a benevolent spirit1 permanently embodied in some tangible object1 usually an image1 and to whom food1 drink1' and so on1 'are regularly offered for the purpose of securing assistance in the affairs of life4' ,on this theory 'the lowest savages' are devoid of the idea of god or of spirit4 ,later they develop the idea of spirit1 and when they have secured the spirit1 as it were1 in a tangible object1 and kept it on board wages1 then the spirit has attained to the dignity and the savage to the conception of a god4 ,but while a god of this kind is1 in ,mr4 ,payne's opinion1 relatively a late flower of culture1 for the hunting races generally 7with some exceptions7 have no gods1 yet 'the conception of a creator or maker of all things 444 obviously a great spirit' is 'one of the earliest efforts of primitive logic4'#c ,mr4 ,payne's own logic is not very clear4 ,the 'primitive logic' of the savage leads him to seek for a cause or maker of things1 which he finds in a great creative spirit4 ,yet the lowest savages have no idea even of spirit1 and the hunting races1 as a rule1 have no god4 ,does ,mr4 ,payne mean that a great creative spirit is not a god1 while a spirit kept on board wages in a tangible object is a god8 ,we are unable1 by reason of evidence later to be given1 to agree with ,mr4 ,payne's view of the facts1 while his reasoning appears somewhat inconsistent1 the lowest savages having1 in his opinion1 no idea of spirit1 though the idea of a creative spirit is1 for all that1 one of the earliest efforts of primitive logic4 ,on any such theories as these the belief in a moral ,supreme ,being is a very late 7or a very early87 result of evolution1 due to the action of advancing thought upon the original conception of ghosts4 ,this opinion of ,mr4 ,im ,thurn's is1 roughly stated1 the usual theory of anthropologists4 ,we wish1 on the other hand1 to show that the idea of ,god1 as he is conceived of by our inquiring plain man1 is shadowed forth 7among contradictory fables7 in the lowest-known grades of savagery1 and therefore cannot arise from the later speculation of men1 comparatively civilised and advanced1 on the original datum of ghosts4 ,we shall demonstrate1 contrary to the opinion of ,mr4 ,spencer1 ,mr4 ,huxley1 and even ,mr4 ,tylor1 that the ,supreme ,being1 and1 in one case at least1 the casual sprites of savage faith1 are active moral influences4 ,what is even more important1 we shall make it undeniable that ,anthropology has simplified her problem by neglecting or ignoring her facts4 ,while the real problem is to account for the evolution out of ghosts of the eternal1 creative moral god of the 'plain man1' the germ of such a god or being in the creeds of the lowest savages is by anthropologists denied1 or left out of sight1 or accounted for by theories contradicted by facts1 or1 at best1 is explained away as a result of ,european or ,islamite influences4 ,now1 as the problem is to account for the evolution of the highest conception of ,god1 as far as that conception exists among the most backward races1 the problem can never be solved while that highest conception of ,god is practically ignored4 ,thus1 anthropologists1 as a rule1 in place of facing and solving their problem1 have merely evaded it--doubtless unwittingly4 ,this1 of course1 is not the practice of ,mr4 ,tylor1 though even his great work is professedly much more concerned with the development of the idea of spirit and with the lower forms of animism than with the real crux--the evolution of the idea 7always obscured by mythology7 of a moral1 uncreated1 undying ,god among the lowest savages4 ,this negligence of anthropologists has arisen from a single circumstance4 ,they take it for granted that ,god is always 7except where the word for ,god is applied to a living human being7 regarded as ,spirit4 ,thus1 having accounted for the development of the idea of spirit1 they regard ,god as that idea carried to its highest power1 and as the final step in its evolution4 ,but1 if we can show that the early idea of an undying1 moral1 creative being does not necessarily or logically imply the doctrine of spirit 7or ghost71 then this idea of an eternal1 moral1 creative being may have existed even before the doctrine of spirit was evolved4 ,we may admit that ,mr4 ,tylor's account of the process by which ,gods were evolved out of ghosts is a little touffu--rather buried in facts4 ,we 'can scarcely see the wood for the trees4' ,we want to know how ,gods1 makers of things 7or of most things71 fathers in heaven1 and friends1 guardians of morality1 seeing what is good or bad in the hearts of men1 were evolved1 as is supposed1 out of ghosts or surviving souls of the dead4 ,that such moral1 practically omniscient ,gods are known to the very lowest savages--,bushmen1 ,fuegians1 ,australians--we shall demonstrate4 ,here the inquirer must be careful not to adopt the common opinion that ,gods improve1 morally and otherwise1 in direct ratio to the rising grades in the evolution of culture and civilisation4 ,that is not necessarily the case2 usually the reverse occurs4 ,still less must we take it for granted1 following ,mr4 ,tylor and ,mr4 ,huxley1 that the 'alliance of religion and morality belongs almost1 or wholly1 to religions above the savage level--not to the earlier and lower creeds2' or that 'among the ,australian savages1' and 'in its simplest condition1' 'theology is wholly independent of ethics4'#d ,these statements can be proved 7by such evidence as anthropology is obliged to rely upon7 to be erroneous4 ,and1 just because these statements are put forward1 ,anthropology has an easier task in explaining the origin of religion2 while1 just because these statements are incorrect1 her conclusion1 being deduced from premises so far false1 is invalidated4 ,given souls1 acquired by thinking on the lines already described1 ,mr4 ,tylor develops ,gods out of them4 ,but he is not one of the writers who is certain about every detail4 ,he 'scarcely attempts to clear away the haze that covers great parts of the subject4'#e ,the human soul1 he says1 has been the model on which man 'framed his ideas of spiritual beings in general1 from the tiniest elf that sports in the grass up to the heavenly creator and ruler of the world1 the ,great ,spirit4' ,here it is taken for granted that the ,heavenly ,ruler was from the first envisaged as a 'spiritual being'--which is just the difficulty4 ,was ,he8#f ,the process of framing these ideas is rather obscure4 ,the savage 'lives in terror of the souls of the dead as harmful spirits4' ,this might yield a ,devil2 it would not yield a ,god who 'makes for righteousness4' ,happily1 'deified ancestors are regarded1 on the whole1 as kindly spirits4' ,the dead ancestor is 'now passed into a deity4'#g ,examples of ancestor-worship follow4 ,but we are no nearer home4 ,for among the ,zulus many ,amatongo 7ancestral spirits7 are sacred4 ',yet their father i4e4 the father of each actual family is far before all others when they worship the ,amatongo4444 ,they do not know the ancients who are dead1 nor their laud-giving names1 nor their names4'#h ,thus1 each new generation of ,zulus must have a new first worshipful object--its own father's ,itongo4 ,this father1 and his very name1 are1 in a generation or two1 forgotten4 ,the name of such a man1 therefore1 cannot survive as that of the ,god or ,supreme ,being from age to age2 and1 obviously1 such a real dead man1 while known at all1 is much too well known to be taken for the creator and ruler of the world1 despite some ,african flattering titles and superstitions about kings who control the weather4 ,the ,zulus1 about as 'godless' a people as possible1 have a mythical first ancestor1 ,unkulunkulu1 but he is 'beyond the reach of rites1' and is a centre of myths rather than of worship or of moral ideas4#i ,after other examples of ancestor-worship1 ,mr4 ,tylor branches off into a long discussion of the theory of 'possession' or inspiration1#aj which does not assist the argument at the present point4 ,thence he passes to fetishism 7already discussed by us71 and the transitions from the fetish--7#a7 to the idol2 7#b7 to the guardian angel 7'subliminal self'72 7#c7 to tree and river spirits1 and local spirits which cause volcanoes2 and 7#d7 to polytheism4 ,a fetish may inhabit a tree2 trees being generalised1 the fetish of one oak becomes the god of the forest4 ,or1 again1 fetishes rise into 'species gods2' the gods of all bees1 owls1 or rabbits are thus evolved4 ,next1#aa ',as chiefs and kings are among men1 so are the great gods among the lesser spirits4444 ,with little exception1 wherever a savage or barbaric system of religion is thoroughly described1 great gods make their appearance in the spiritual world as distinctly as chiefs in the human tribe4' ,very good2 but whence comes the great ,god among tribes which have neither chief nor king and probably never had1 as among the ,fuegians1 ,bushmen1 and ,australians8 ,the maker and ruler of the world known to these races cannot be the shadow of king or chief1 reflected and magnified on the mist of thought2 for chief or king these peoples have none4 ,this theory 7,hume's7 will not work where people have a great ,god but no king or chief2 nor where they have a king but no ,zeus or other supreme ,king-god1 as 7,i conceive7 among the ,aztecs4 ,we now reach1 in ,mr4 ,tylor's theory1 great fetish deities1 such as ,heaven and ,earth1 ,sun and ,moon1 and 'departmental deities1' gods of ,agriculture1 ,war1 and so forth1 unknown to low savages4 ,next ,mr4 ,tylor introduces an important personage4 ',the theory of family ,manes1 carried back to tribal ,gods1 leads to the recognition of superior deities of the nature of ,divine ,ancestor1 or ,first ,man1' who sometimes ranks as ,lord of the ,dead4 ,as an instance1 ,mr4 ,tylor gives the ,maori ,maui1 who1 like the ,indian ,yama1 trod first of men the path of death4 ,but whether ,maui and ,yama are the ,sun1 or not1 both ,maori and ,sanskrit religion regard these heroes as much later than the ,original ,gods4 ,in ,kamschatka the ,first ,man is the 'son' of the ,creator1 and it is about the origin of the idea of the ,creator1 not of the ,first ,man1 that we are inquiring4 ,adam is called 'the son of ,god' in a ,biblical genealogy1 but1 of course1 ,adam was made1 not begotten4 ,the case of the ,zulu belief will be analysed later4 ,on the whole1 we cannot explain away the conception of the ,creator as a form of the conception of an idealised divine ,first ,ancestor1 because the conception of a ,creator occurs where ancestor-worship does not occur2 and again1 because1 supposing that the idea of a ,creator came first1 and that ancestor-worship later grew more popular1 the popular idea of ,ancestor might be transferred to the waning idea of ,creator4 ,the ,creator might be recognised as the ,first ,ancestor1 aprs coup4 ,mr4 ,tylor next approaches ,dualism1 the idea of hostile ,good and ,bad ,beings4 ,we must1 as he says1 be careful to discount ,european teaching1 still1 he admits1 the savage has this dualistic belief in a 'primitive' form4 ,but the savage conception is not merely that of 'good friendly to me1' 'bad hostile to me4' ,ethics1 as we shall show1 already come into play in his theology4 ,mr4 ,tylor arrives1 at last1 at the ,supreme ,being of savage creeds4 ,his words1 well weighed1 must be cited textually-- ',to mark off the doctrines of monotheism1 closer definition is required than the bare idea of a ,supreme ,creator1 assigning the distinctive attributes of ,deity to none save the ,almighty ,creator4 ,it may be declared that1 in this strict sense1 no savage tribe of monotheists has been ever known4#ab ,nor are any fair representatives of the lower culture in a strict sense pantheists4 ,the doctrine which they do widely hold1 and which opens to them a course tending in one or other of these directions1 is polytheism culminating in the rule of one supreme divinity4 ,high above the doctrine of souls1 of divine ,manes1 of local nature gods1 of the great gods of class and element1 there are to be discerned in barbaric theology1 shadowings1 quaint or majestic1 of the conception of a ,supreme ,deity1 henceforth to be traced onward in expanding power and brightening glory along the history of ,religion4 ,it is no unimportant task1 partial as it is1 to select and group the typical data which show the nature and position of the doctrine of supremacy1 as it comes into view within the lower culture4#ac ,we shall show that certain low savages are as monotheistic as some ,christians4 ,they have a ,supreme ,being1 and the 'distinctive attributes of ,deity' are not by them assigned to other beings1 further than as ,christianity assigns them to ,angels1 ,saints1 the ,devil1 and1 strange as it appears1 among savages1 to mediating ',sons4' ,it is not known that1 among the ,andamanese and other tribes1 this last notion is due to missionary influence4 ,but1 in regard to the whole chapter of savage ,supreme ,beings1 we must1 as ,mr4 ,tylor advises1 keep watching for ,christian and ,islamite contamination4 ,the savage notions1 as ,mr4 ,tylor says1 even when thus contaminated1 may have 'to some extent1 a native substratum4' ,we shall select such savage examples of the idea of a ,supreme ,being as are attested by ancient native hymns1 or are inculcated in the most sacred and secret savage institutions1 the religious ,mysteries 7manifestly the last things to be touched by missionary influence71 or are found among low insular races defended from ,european contact by the jealous ferocity and poisonous jungles of people and soil4 ,we also note cases in which missionaries found such native names as ',father1' ',ancient of ,heaven1' ',maker of ,all1' ready-made to their hands4 ,it is to be remarked that1 while this branch of the inquiry is practically omitted by ,mr4 ,spencer1 ,mr4 ,tylor can spare for it but some twenty pages out of his large work4 ,he arranges the probable germs of the savage idea of a ,supreme ,being thus3 ,a god of the polytheistic crowd is simply raised to the primacy1 which1 of course1 cannot occur where there is no polytheism4 ,or the principle of ,manes worship may make a ,supreme ,deity out of 'a primeval ancestor' say ,unkulunkulu1 who is so far from being supreme1 that he is abject4 ,or1 again1 a great phenomenon or force in ,nature-worship1 say ,sun1 or ,heaven1 is raised to supremacy4 ,or speculative philosophy ascends from the ,many to the ,one by trying to discern through and beyond the universe a ,first ,cause4 ,animistic conceptions thus reach their utmost limit in the notion of the ,anima ,mundi4 ,he may accumulate all powers of all polytheistic gods1 or he may 'loom vast1 shadowy1 and calm 444 too benevolent to need human worship 444 too merely existent to concern himself with the petty race of men4'#ad ,but he is always animistic4 ,now1 in addition to the objections already noted in passing1 how can we tell that the ,supreme ,being of low savages was1 in original conception1 animistic at all8 ,how can we know that he was envisaged1 originally1 as ,spirit8 ,we shall show that he probably was not1 that the question 'spirit or not spirit' was not raised at all1 that the ,maker and ,father in ,heaven1 prior to ,death1 was merely regarded as a deathless ,being1 no question of 'spirit' being raised4 ,if so1 ,animism was not needed for the earliest idea of a moral ,eternal4 ,this hypothesis will be found to lead to some very singular conclusions4 ,it will be more fully stated and illustrated1 presently1 but ,i find that it had already occurred to ,dr4 ,brinton4#ae ,he is talking specially of a heaven-god2 he says 'it came to pass that the idea of ,god was linked to the heavens long ere man asked himself1 ,are the heavens material and ,god spiritual8' ,dr4 ,brinton1 however1 does not develop his idea1 nor am ,i aware that it has been developed previously4 ,the notion of a ,god about whose spirituality nobody has inquired is new to us4 ,to ourselves1 and doubtless or probably to barbarians on a certain level of culture1 such a ,divine ,being must be animistic1 must be a 'spirit4' ,to take only one case1 to which we shall return1 the ,banks ,islanders 7,melanesia7 believe in ghosts1 'and in the existence of ,beings who were not1 and never had been1 human4 ,all alike might be called spirits1' says ,dr4 ,codrington1 but1 ex hypothesi1 the ,beings 'who never were human' are only called 'spirits1' by us1 because our habits of thought do not enable us to envisage them except as 'spirits4' ,they never were men1 'the natives will always maintain that he 7the ,vui7 was something different1 and deny to him the fleshly body of a man1' while resolute that he was not a ghost4#af ,this point will be amply illustrated later1 as we study that strangely neglected chapter1 that essential chapter1 the ,higher beliefs of the ,lowest savages4 ,of the existence of a belief in a ,supreme ,being1 not as merely 'alleged1' there is as good evidence as we possess for any fact in the ethnographic region4 ,it is certain that savages1 when first approached by curious travellers1 and missionaries1 have again and again recognised our ,god in theirs4 ,the mythical details and fables about the savage ,god are1 indeed1 different2 the ethical1 benevolent1 admonishing1 rewarding1 and creative aspects of the ,gods are apt to be the same4#ag ',there is no necessity for beginning to tell even the most degraded of these people of the existence of ,god1 or of a future state1 'the facts being universally admitted4'#ah ',intelligent men among the ,bakwains have scouted the idea of any of them ever having been without a tolerably clear conception of good and evil1 ,god and the future state2 ,nothing we indicate as sin ever appeared to them as otherwise1' except polygamy1 says ,livingstone4 ,now we may agree with ,mr4 ,tylor that modern theologians1 familiar with savage creeds1 will scarcely argue that 'they are direct or nearly direct products of revelation' 7vol4 ii4 p4 #cef74 ,but we may argue that1 considering their nascent ethics 7denied or minimised by many anthropologists7 and the distance which separates the high gods of savagery from the ghosts out of which they are said to have sprung2 considering too1 that the relatively pure and lofty element which1 ex hypothesi1 is most recent in evolution1 is also1 not the most honoured1 but often just the reverse2 remembering1 above all1 that we know nothing historically of the mental condition of the founders of religion1 we may hesitate to accept the anthropological hypothesis en masse4 ,at best it is conjectural1 and the facts are such that opponents have more justification than is commonly admitted for regarding the bulk of savage religion as degenerate1 or corrupted1 from its own highest elements4 ,i am by no means1 as yet1 arguing positively in favour of that hypothesis1 but ,i see what its advocates mean1 or ought to mean1 and the strength of their position4 ,mr4 ,tylor1 with his unique fairness1 says 'the degeneration theory1 no doubt in some instances with justice1 may claim such beliefs as mutilated and perverted remains of higher religion' 7vol4 ii4 p4 #ccf74 ,i do not pretend to know how the lowest savages evolved the theory of a ,god who reads the heart and 'makes for righteousness1' ,it is as easy1 almost1 for me to believe that they 'were not left without a witness1' as to believe that this ,god of theirs was evolved out of the maleficent ghost of a dirty mischievous medicine-man4 ,here one may repeat that while the 'quaint or majestic foreshadowings' of a ,supreme ,being1 among very low savages1 are only sketched lightly by ,mr4 ,tylor2 in ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's system they seem to be almost omitted4 ,in his ',principles of ,sociology' and ',ecclesiastical ,institutions' one looks in vain for an adequate notice2 in vain for almost any notice1 of this part of his topic4 ,the watcher of conduct1 the friendly1 creative being of low savage faith1 whence was he evolved8 ,the circumstance of his existence1 as far as ,i can see2 the chastity1 the unselfishness1 the pitifulness1 the loyalty to plighted word1 the prohibition of even extra-tribal homicide1 enjoined in various places on his worshippers1 are problems that appear somehow to have escaped ,mr4 ,spencer's notice4 ,we are puzzled by endless difficulties in his system3 for example as to how savages can forget their great-grandfathers' very names1 and yet remember 'traditional persons from generation to generation1' so that 'in time any amount of expansion and idealisation can be reached1'#ai ,again1 ,mr4 ,spencer will argue that it is a strange thing if 'primitive men had1 as some think1 the consciousness of a ,universal ,power whence they and all other things proceeded1' and yet 'spontaneously performed to that ,power an act like that performed by them to the dead body of a fellow savage'--by offerings of food4#bj ,now1 first1 there would be nothing strange in the matter if the crude idea of ',universal ,power' came earliest1 and was superseded1 in part1 by a later propitiation of the dead and ghosts4 ,the new religious idea would soon refract back on1 and influence by its ritual1 the older conception4 ,and1 secondly1 it is precisely this ',universal ,power' that is not propitiated by offerings of food1 in ,tonga1 7despite ,mr4 ,huxley7 ,australia1 and ,africa1 for example4 ,we cannot escape the difficulty by saying that there the old ghost of ,universal ,power is regarded as dead1 decrepit1 or as a roi-fainant not worth propitiating1 for that is not true of the punisher of sin1 the teacher of generosity1 and the solitary sanction of faith between men and peoples4 ,it would appear then1 on the whole1 that the question of the plain man to the anthropologist1 ',having got your idea of spirit into the savage's mind1 how does he develop out of it what ,i call ,god8' has not been answered4 ,god cannot be a reflection from human kings where there have been no kings2 nor a president elected out of a polytheistic society of gods where there is as yet no polytheism2 nor an ideal first ancestor where men do not worship their ancestors2 while1 again1 the spirit of a man who died1 real or ideal1 does not answer to a common savage conception of the ,creator4 ,all this will become much more obvious as we study in detail the highest gods of the lowest races4 ,our study1 of course1 does not pretend to embrace the religion of all the savages in the world4 ,we are content with typical1 and1 as a rule1 well-observed examples4 ,we range from the creeds of the most backward and worst-equipped nomad races1 to those of peoples with an aristocracy1 hereditary kings1 houses and agriculture1 ending with the ,supreme ,being of the highly civilised ,incas1 and with the ,jehovah of the ,hebrews4 ,footnote #a3 ,journal ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xi4 #hgd4 ,we shall return to this passage4 ,footnote #b3 ,vol4 i4 p4 #chi1 #ahib4 ,footnote #c3 ,payne1 i4 #deh4 ,footnote #d3 ,prim4 ,cult4 vol4 ii4 p4 #cha2 ,science and ,hebrew ,tradition1 pp4 #cdf1 #cgb4 ,footnote #e3 ,prim4 ,cult4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aji4 ,footnote #f3 ,ibid4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aaj4 ,footnote #g3 ,ibid4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aac4 ,footnote #h3 ,prim4 ,cult4 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aae1 #aaf1 citing ,callaway and others4 ,footnote #i3 ,the ,zulu religion will be analysed later4 ,footnote #aj3 ,prim4 ,cult4 vol4 ii4 pp4 #acj-add4 ,footnote #aa3 ,ibid4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bdh4 ,footnote #ab3 ,and very few civilised populations1 if any1 are monotheistic in this sense4 ,footnote #ac3 ,prim4 ,cult4 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ccb1 #ccc4 ,footnote #ad3 ,prim4 ,cult4 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cce1 #ccf4 ,footnote #ae3 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 #ahfh1 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #af3 ,i observed this point in ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion1 while ,i did not see the implication1 that the idea of 'spirit' was not necessarily present in the savage conception of the primal ,beings1 ,creators1 or ,makers4 ,footnote #ag3 ,see one or two cases in ,prim4 ,cult4 vol4 ii4 p4 #cdj4 ,footnote #ah3 ,livingstone1 speaking of the ,bakwain1 ,missionary ,travels1 p4 #afh4 ,footnote #ai3 ,principles of ,sociology1 vol4 i4 p4 #dej4 ,footnote #bj3 ,op4 cit4 vol4 i4 p4 #cjb4 ,x ,,high ,,gods ,,of ,,low ,,races ,to avoid misconception we must repeat the necessary cautions about accepting evidence as to high gods of low races4 ,the missionary who does not see in every alien god a devil is apt to welcome traces of an original supernatural revelation1 darkened by all peoples but the ,jews4 ,we shall not1 however1 rely much on missionary evidence1 and1 when we do1 we must now be equally on our guard against the anthropological bias in the missionary himself4 ,having read ,mr4 ,spencer and ,mr4 ,tylor1 and finding himself among ancestor-worshippers 7as he sometimes does71 he is apt to think that ancestor-worship explains any traces of a belief in the ,supreme ,being4 ,against each and every bias of observers we must be watchful4 ,it may be needful1 too1 to point out once again another weak point in all reasoning about savage religion1 namely that we cannot always tell what may have been borrowed from ,europeans4 ,thus1 the ,fuegians1 in #ahcj-ahdj1 were far out of the way1 but one tribe1 near ,magellan's ,straits1 worshipped an image called ,cristo4 ,fitzroy attributes this obvious trace of ,catholicism to a ,captain ,pelippa1 who visited the district some time before his own expedition4 ,it is less probable that ,spaniards established a belief in a moral ,deity in regions where they left no material traces of their faith4 ,the ,fuegians are not easily proselytised4 ',when discovered by strangers1 the instant impulse of a ,fuegian family is to run off into the woods4' ,occasionally they will emerge to barter1 but 'sometimes nothing will induce a single individual of the family to appear4' ,fitzroy thought they had no idea of a future state1 because1 among other reasons not given1 'the evil spirit torments them in this world1 if they do wrong1 by storms1 hail1 snow1 c4' ,why the evil spirit should punish evil deeds is not evident4 ',a great black man is supposed to be always wandering about the woods and mountains1 who is certain of knowing every word and every action1 who cannot be escaped and who influences the weather according to men's conduct4'#a ,there are no traces of propitiation by food1 or sacrifice1 or anything but conduct4 ,to regard the ,deity as 'a magnified non-natural man' is not peculiar to ,fuegian theologians1 and does not imply ,animism1 but the reverse4 ,but the point is that this ethical judge of perhaps the lowest savages 'makes for righteousness' and searches the heart4 ,his morality is so much above the ordinary savage standard that he regards the slaying of a stranger and an enemy1 caught redhanded in robbery1 as a sin4 ,york's brother 7,york was a ,fuegian brought to ,england by ,fitzroy7 killed a 'wild man' who was stealing his birds4 ',rain come down1 snow come down1 hail come down1 wind blow1 blow1 very much blow4 ,very bad to kill man4 ,big man in woods no like it1 he very angry4' ,here be ethics in savage religion4 ,the ,sixth ,commandment is in force4 ,the ,being also prohibits the slaying of flappers before they can fly4 ',very bad to shoot little duck1 come wind1 come rain1 blow1 very much blow4'#b ,now this big man is not a deified chief1 for the ,fuegians 'have no superiority of one over another 444 but the doctor-wizard of each party has much influence4' ,mr4 ,spencer disposes of this moral 'big man' of the ,fuegians as 'evidently a deceased weather-doctor4'#c ,but1 first1 there is no evidence that the being is regarded as ever having died4 ,again1 it is not shown that ,fuegians are ancestor-worshippers4 ,next1 ,fitzroy did not think that the ,fuegians believed in a future life4 ,lastly1 when were medicine-men such notable moralists8 ,the worst spirits among the neighbouring ,patagonians are those of dead medicine-men4 ,as a rule everywhere the ghost of a 'doctor-wizard1' shaman1 or whatever he may be called1 is the worst and wickedest of all ghosts4 ,how1 then1 the ,fuegians1 who are not proved to be ancestor-worshippers1 evolved out of the malignant ghost of an ancestor a being whose strong point is morality1 one does not easily conceive4 ,the adjacent ,chonos 'have great faith in a good spirit1 whom they call ,yerri ,yuppon1 and consider to be the author of all good2 him they invoke in distress or danger4' ,however starved they do not touch food till a short prayer has been muttered over each portion1 'the praying man looking upward4'#d ,they have magicians1 but no details are given as to spirits or ghosts4 ,if ,fuegian and ,chono religion is on this level1 and if this be the earliest1 then the theology of many other higher savages 7as of the ,zulus7 is decidedly degenerate4 ',the ,bantu gives one accustomed to the negro the impression that he once had the same set of ideas1 but has forgotten half of them1' says ,miss ,kingsley4#e ,of all races now extant1 the ,australians are probably lowest in culture1 and1 like the fauna of the continent1 are nearest to the primitive model4 ,they have neither metals1 bows1 pottery1 agriculture1 nor fixed habitations2 and no traces of higher culture have anywhere been found above or in the soil of the continent4 ,this is important1 for in some respects their religious conceptions are so lofty that it would be natural to explain them as the result either of ,european influence1 or as relics of a higher civilisation in the past4 ,the former notion is discredited by the fact that their best religious ideas are imparted in connection with their ancient and secret mysteries1 while for the second idea1 that they are degenerate from a loftier civilisation1 there is absolutely no evidence4 ,it has been suggested1 indeed1 by ,mr4 ,spencer that the singularly complex marriage customs of the ,australian blacks point to a more polite condition in their past history4 ,of this stage1 as we said1 no material traces have ever been discovered1 nor can degeneration be recent4 ,our earliest account of the ,australians is that of ,dampier1 who visited ,new ,holland in the unhappy year #afhh4 ,he found the natives 'the miserablest people in the world4 ,the ,hodmadods1 of ,mononamatapa1 though a nasty people1 yet for wealth are gentlemen to these3 who have no houses1 sheep1 poultry1 and fruits of the earth4444 ,they have no houses1 but lie in the open air4' ,curiously enough1 ,dampier attests their unselfishness3 the main ethical feature in their religious teaching4 ',be it little or be it much they get1 every one has his part1 as well the young and tender as the old and feeble1 who are not able to go abroad1 as the strong and lusty4' ,dampier saw no metals used1 nor any bows1 merely boomerangs 7'wooden cutlasses'71 and lances with points hardened in the fire4 ',their place of dwelling was only a fire with a few boughs before it' 7the gunyeh74 ,this description remains accurate for most of the unsophisticated ,australian tribes1 but ,dampier appears only to have seen ichthyophagous coast blacks4 ,there is one more important point4 ,in the ,bora1 or ,australian mysteries1 at which knowledge of ',the ,maker' and of his commandments is imparted1 the front teeth of the initiated are still knocked out4 ,now1 ,dampier observed 'the two fore-teeth of their upper jaw are wanting in all of them1 men and women1 old and young4' ,if this is to be taken quite literally1 the ,bora rite1 in #afhh1 must have included the women1 at least locally4 ,dampier was on the north-west coast in latitude #af degrees1 longitude #abb-a_/d degrees east 7,dampier ,land1 ,west ,australia74 ,the natives had neither boats1 canoes1 nor bark logs2 but it seems that they had their religious mysteries and their unselfishness1 two hundred years ago4#f ,the ,australians have been very carefully studied by many observers1 and the results entirely overthrow ,mr4 ,huxley's bold statement that 'in its simplest condition1 such as may be met with among the ,australian savages1 theology is a mere belief in the existence1 powers1 and dispositions 7usually malignant7 of ghost-like entities who may be propitiated or scared away2 but no cult can properly be said to exist4 ,and in this stage theology is wholly independent of ethics4' ,remarks more crudely in defiance of known facts could not be made4 ,the ,australians1 assuredly1 believe in 'spirits1' often malicious1 and probably in most cases regarded as ghosts of men4 ,these aid the wizard1 and occasionally inspire him4 ,that these ghosts are worshipped does not appear1 and is denied by ,waitz4 ,again1 in the matter of cult1 'there is none' in the way of sacrifice to higher gods1 as there should be if these gods were hungry ghosts4 ,the cult among the ,australians is the keeping of certain 'laws1' expressed in moral teaching1 supposed to be in conformity with the institutes of their ,god4 ,worship takes the form1 as at ,eleusis1 of tribal mysteries1 originally instituted1 as at ,eleusis1 by the ,god4 ,the young men are initiated with many ceremonies1 some of which are cruel and farcical1 but the initiation includes ethical instruction1 in conformity with the supposed commands of a ,god who watches over conduct4 ,as among ourselves1 the ethical ideal1 with its theological sanction1 is probably rather above the moral standard of ordinary practice4 ,what conclusion we should draw from these facts is uncertain1 but the facts1 at least1 cannot be disputed1 and precisely contradict the statement of ,mr4 ,huxley4 ,he was wholly in the wrong when he said3 ',the moral code1 such as is implied by public opinion1 derives no sanction from theological dogmas1'#g ,it reposes1 for its origin and sanction1 on such dogmas4 ,the evidence as to ,australian religion is abundant1 and is being added to yearly4 ,i shall here content myself with ,mr4 ,howitt's accounts4#h ,as regards the possible evolution of the ,australian ,god from ancestor-worship1 it must be noted that ,mr4 ,howitt credits the groups with possessing 'headmen1' a kind of chiefs1 whereas some inquirers1 in ,brough ,smyth's collection1 disbelieve in regular chiefs4 ,mr4 ,howitt writes3-- ',the ,supreme ,spirit1 who is believed in by all the tribes ,i refer to here in ,south-,eastern ,australia1 either as a benevolent1 or more frequently as a malevolent being1 it seems to me represents the defunct headman4' ,now1 the traces of 'headmanship' among the tribes are extremely faint2 no such headman rules large areas of country1 none is known to be worshipped after death1 and the malevolence of the ,supreme ,spirit is not illustrated by the details of ,mr4 ,howitt's own statement1 but the reverse4 ,indeed1 he goes on at once to remark that ',darumulun was not1 it seems to me1 everywhere thought a malevolent being1 but he was dreaded as one who could severely punish the trespasses committed against these tribal ordinances and customs whose first institution is ascribed to him4' ,to punish transgressions of his law is not the essence of a malevolent being4 ,darumulun 'watched the youths from the sky1 prompt to punish1 by disease or death1 the breach of his ordinances1' moral or ritual4 ,his name is too sacred to be spoken except in whispers1 and the anthropologist will observe that the names of the human dead are also often tabooed4 ,but the divine name is not thus tabooed and sacred when the mere folklore about him is narrated4 ,the informants of ,mr4 ,howitt instinctively distinguished between the mythology and the religion of ,darumulun4#i ,this distinction-- the secrecy about the religion1 the candour about the mythology--is essential1 and accounts for our ignorance about the inner religious beliefs of early races4 ,mr4 ,howitt himself knew little till he was initiated4 ,the grandfather of ,mr4 ,howitt's friend1 before the white men came to ,melbourne1 took him out at night1 and1 pointing to a star1 said3 ',you will soon be a man2 you see ,bunjil ,supreme ,being of certain tribes up there1 and he can see you1 and all you do down here4' ,mr4 ,palmer1 speaking of the ,mysteries of ,northern ,australians 7mysteries under divine sanction71 mentions the nature of the moral instruction4 ,each lad is given1 'by one of the elders1 advice so kindly1 fatherly1 and impressive1 as often to soften the heart1 and draw tears from the youth4' ,he is to avoid adultery1 not to take advantage of a woman if he finds her alone1 he is not to be quarrelsome4#aj ,at the ,mysteries ,darumulun's real name may be uttered1 at other times he is ',master' 7,biamban7 or ',father' 7,papang71 exactly as we say ',lord' and ',father4' ,it is known that all these things are not due to missionaries1 whose instructions would certainly not be conveyed in the ,bora1 or tribal mysteries1 which1 again1 are partly described by ,collins as early as #agih1 and must have been practised in #afhh4 ,mr4 ,howitt mentions1 among moral lessons divinely sanctioned1 respect for old age1 abstinence from lawless love1 and avoidance of the sins so popular1 poetic1 and sanctioned by the example of ,gods1 in classical ,greece4#aa ,a representation is made of the ,master1 ,biamban2 and to make such idols1 except at the ,mysteries1 is forbidden 'under pain of death4' ,those which are made are destroyed as soon as the rites are ended4#ab ,the future life 7apparently7 is then illustrated by the burial of a living elder1 who rises from a grave4 ,this may1 however1 symbolise the 'new life' of the ,mystae1 ',worse have ,i fled2 better have ,i found1' as was sung in an ,athenian rite4 ,the whole result is1 by what ,mr4 ,howitt calls 'a quasi-religious element1' to 'impress upon the mind of the youth1 in an indelible manner1 those rules of conduct which form the moral law of the tribe4'#ac ,many other authorities could be adduced for the religious sanction of morals in ,australia4 ,a watchful being observes and rewards the conduct or men2 he is named with reverence1 if named at all2 his abode is the heavens2 he is the ,master and ,lord of things2 his lessons 'soften the heart1'#ad ',what wants this ,knave ,that a ,god should have8' ,i shall now demonstrate that the religion patronised by the ,australian ,supreme ,being1 and inculcated in his ,mysteries1 is actually used to counteract the immoral character which natives acquire by associating with ,anglo-,saxon ,christians4#ae ,mr4 ,howitt#af gives an account of the ,jeraeil1 or ,mysteries of the ,kurnai4 ,the old men deemed that through intercourse with whites 'the lads had become selfish and no longer inclined to share that which they obtained by their own exertions1 or had given them1 with their friends4' ,one need not say that selflessness is the very essence of goodness1 and the central moral doctrine of ,christianity4 ,so it is in the religious ,mysteries of the ,african ,yao2 a selfish man1 we shall see1 is spoken of as 'uninitiated4' ,so it is with the ,australian ,kurnai1 whose mysteries and ethical teaching are under the sanction of their ,supreme ,being4 ,so much for the anthropological dogma that early theology has no ethics4 ,the ,kurnai began by kneading the stomachs of the lads about to be initiated 7that is1 if they have been associating with ,christians71 to expel selfishness and greed4 ,the chief rite1 later1 is to blindfold every lad1 with a blanket closely drawn over his head1 to make whirring sounds with the tundun1 or ,greek rhombos1 then to pluck off the blankets1 and bid the initiate raise their faces to the sky4 ,the initiator points to it1 calling out1 ',look there1 look there1 look there6' ,they have seen in this solemn way the home of the ,supreme ,being1 ',our ,father1' ,mungan-ngaur 7,mungan ',father1' ngaur 'our'71 whose doctrine is then unfolded by the old initiator 7'headman'7 'in an impressive manner4'#ag ',long ago there was a great ,being1 ,mungan-ngaur1 who lived on the earth4' ,his son ,tundun is direct ancestor of the ,kurnai4 ,mungan initiated the rites1 and destroyed earth by water when they were impiously revealed4 ',mungan left the earth1 and ascended to the sky1 where he still remains4' ,here ,mungan-ngaur1 a ,being not defined as spirit1 but immortal1 and dwelling in heaven1 is ,father1 or rather grandfather1 not maker1 of the ,kurnai4 ,this may be interpreted as ancestor-worship1 but the opposite myth1 of making or creating1 is of frequent occurrence in many widely-severed ,australian districts1 and co-exists with evolutionary myths4 ,mungan-ngaur's precepts are3 #a4 ,to listen to and obey the old men4 #b4 ,to share everything they have with their friends4 #c4 ,to live peaceably with their friends4 #d4 ,not to interfere with girls or married women4 #e4 ,to obey the food restrictions until they are released from them by the old men4 ,mr4 ,howitt concludes3 ',i venture to assert that it can no longer be maintained that the ,australians have no belief which can be called religious1 that is1 in the sense of beliefs which govern tribal and individual morality under a supernatural sanction4' ,on this topic ,mr4 ,hewitt's opinion became more affirmative the more deeply he was initiated4#ah ,the ,australians are the lowest1 most primitive savages1 yet no propitiation by food is made to their moral ,ruler1 in heaven1 as if he were a ghost4 ,the laws of these ,australian divine beings apply to ritual as well as to ethics1 as might naturally be expected4 ,but the moral element is conspicuous1 the reverence is conspicuous3 we have here no mere ghost1 propitiated by food or sacrifice1 or by purely magical rites4 ,his very image 7modelled on a large scale in earth7 is no vulgar idol3 to make such a thing1 except on the rare sacred occasions1 is a capital offence4 ,meanwhile the mythology of the ,god has often1 in or out of the rites1 nothing rational about it4 ,on the whole it is evident that ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 for example1 underrates the nature of ,australian religion4 ,he cites a case of addressing the ghost of a man recently dead1 which is asked not to bring sickness1 'or make loud noises in the night1' and says3 ',here we may recognise the essential elements of a cult4' ,but ,mr4 ,spencer does not allude to the much more essentially religious elements which he might have found in the very authority whom he cites1 ,mr4 ,brough ,smyth4#ai ,this appears1 as far as my scrutiny goes1 to be ,mr4 ,spencer's solitary reference to ,australia in the work on ',ecclesiastical ,institutions4' ,yet the facts which he and ,mr4 ,huxley ignore throw a light very different from theirs on what they consider 'the simplest condition of theology4' ,among the causes of confusion in thought upon religion1 ,mr4 ,tylor mentions 'the partial and one-sided application of the historical method of inquiry into theological doctrines4'#bj ,here1 perhaps1 we have examples4 ,in its highest aspect that 'simplest theology' of ,australia is free from the faults of popular theology in ,greece4 ,the ,god discourages sin1 though1 in myth1 he is far from impeccable4 ,he is almost too revered to be named 7except in mythology7 and is not to be represented by idols4 ,he is not moved by sacrifice2 he has not the chance2 like ,death in ,greece1 'he only1 of all ,gods1 loves not gifts4' ,thus the status of theology does not correspond to what we look for in very low culture4 ,it would scarcely be a paradox to say that the popular ,zeus1 or ,ares1 is degenerate from ,mungan-ngaur1 or the ,fuegian being who forbids the slaying of an enemy1 and almost literally 'marks the sparrow's fall4' ,if we knew all the mythology of ,darumulun1 we should probably find it 7like much of the myth of ,pundjel or ,bunjil7 on a very different level from the theology4 ,there are two currents1 the religious and the mythical1 flowing together through religion4 ,the former current1 religious1 even among very low savages1 is pure from the magical ghost-propitiating habit4 ,the latter current1 mythological1 is full of magic1 mummery1 and scandalous legend4 ,sometimes the latter stream quite pollutes the former1 sometimes they flow side by side1 perfectly distinguishable1 as in ,aztec ethical piety1 compared with the bloody ,aztec ritualism4 ,anthropology has mainly kept her eyes fixed on the impure stream1 the lusts1 mummeries1 conjurings1 and frauds of priesthoods1 while relatively1 or altogether1 neglecting 7as we have shown7 what is honest and of good report4 ,the worse side of religion is the less sacred1 and therefore the more conspicuous4 ,both elements are found co-existing1 in almost all races1 and nobody1 in our total lack of historical information about the beginnings1 can say which1 if either1 element is the earlier1 or which1 if either1 is derived from the other4 ,to suppose that propitiation of corpses and then of ghosts came first is agreeable1 and seems logical1 to some writers who are not without a bias against all religion as an unscientific superstition4 ,but we know so little6 ,the first missionaries in ,greenland supposed that there was not1 there1 a trace of belief in a ,divine ,being4 ',but when they came to understand their language better1 they found quite the reverse to be true 444 and not only so1 but they could plainly gather from a free dialogue they had with some perfectly wild ,greenlanders 7at that time avoiding any direct application to their hearts7 that their ancestors must have believed in a ,supreme ,being1 and did render him some service1 which their posterity neglected little by little444'#ba ,mr4 ,tylor does not refer to this as a trace of ,christian ,scandinavian influence on the ,eskimo4#bb ,that line1 of course1 may be taken4 ,but an ,eskimo said to a missionary1 ',thou must not imagine that no ,greenlander thinks about these things' 7theology74 ,he then stated the argument from design4 ',certainly there must be some ,being who made all these things4 ,he must be very good too444 ,ah1 did ,i but know him1 how ,i would love and honour him4' ,as ,st4 ,paul writes3 ',that which may be known of ,god is manifest in them1 for ,god hath showed it unto them 444 being understood by the things which are made 444 but they became vain in their imaginations1 and their foolish heart was darkened4'#bc ,in fact1 mythology submerged religion4 ,st4 ,paul's theory of the origin of religion is not that of an 'innate idea1' nor of a direct revelation4 ,people1 he says1 reached the belief in a ,god from the ,argument for ,design4 ,science conceives herself to have annihilated teleological ideas4 ,but they are among the probable origins of religion1 and would lead to the belief in a ,creator1 whom the ,greenlander thought beneficent1 and after whom he yearned4 ,this is a very different initial step in religious development1 if initial it was1 from the feeding of a corpse1 or a ghost4 ,from all this evidence it does not appear how non-polytheistic1 non-monarchical1 non-,manes-worshipping savages evolved the idea of a relatively supreme1 moral1 and benevolent ,creator1 unborn1 undying1 watching men's lives4 ',he can go everywhere1 and do everything4'#bd ,footnote #a3 ,fitzroy1 ii4 #ahj4 ,darwin4 ,descent of ,man1 p4 #fg4 ,footnote #b3 ,ibid4 ,we seem to have little information about ,fuegian religion either before or after the cruise of the ,beagle4 ,footnote #c3 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #dbb4 ,footnote #d3 ,fitzroy1 ii4 #aij1 #aia ,footnote #e3 ,travels in ,west ,africa1 p4 #ddb4 ,footnote #f3 ,early ,voyages to ,australia1 #ajb-aaa 7,hakluyt ,society74 ,footnote #g3 ,science and ,hebrew ,tradition1 p4 #hdf4 ,footnote #h3 ,journal of the ,anthrop4 ,institute1 #ahhd4 ,see1 for less dignified accounts1 op4 cit4 xxiv4 xxv4 ,footnote #i3 ,journal1 xiii4 #aic4 ,footnote #aj3 ,journal1 xiii4 #bif4 ,footnote #aa3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #dej4 ,footnote #ab3 ,p4 #dec4 ,footnote #ac3 ,p4 #deg4 ,footnote #ad3 ,see ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines1 i4 #dbf2 ,taplin1 ,native ,races of ,australia4 ,according to ,taplin1 ,nurrumdere was a deified black fellow1 who died on earth4 ,this is not the case of ,baiame1 but is said1 rather vaguely1 to be true of ,daramulun4 ,j4,a4,i41 xiii4 #aid1 xxv4 #big4 ,footnote #ae3 ,from a brief account of the ,fire ,ceremony1 or ,engwurra of certain tribes in ,central ,australia1 it seems that religious ceremonies connected with ,totems are the most notable performances4 ,also 'certain mythical ancestors1' of the 'alcheringa1 or dream-times1' were celebrated2 these real or ideal human beings appear to 'sink their identity in that of the object with which they are associated1 and from which they are supposed to have originated4' ,there appear also to be places haunted by 'spirit individuals1' in some way mixed up with ,totems1 but nothing is said of sacrifice to these ,manes4 ,the brief account is by ,professor ,baldwin ,spencer and ,mr4 ,f4,j4 ,gillen1 ,proc4 ,royal ,soc4 ,victoria1 ,july #ahig4 ,this ,fire ,ceremony is not for lads--not a kind of confirmation in the savage church--but is intended for adults4 ,footnote #af3 ,j4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 #ahhf1 p4 #caj4 ,footnote #ag3 ,j4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 #ahhe1 p4 #cac4 ,footnote #ah3 ,j4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xiii4 p4 #dei4 ,footnote #ai3 ,ecclesiastical ,institutions1 p4 #fgd4 ,footnote #bj3 ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 #dej4 ,footnote #ba3 ,cranz1 pp4 #aih1 #aii4 ,footnote #bb3 ,journal ,anthrop4 ,inst4 xiii4 #cdh-cef4 ,footnote #bc3 ,rom4 i4 #ai4 ,cranz1 i4 #aii4 ,footnote #bd3 ,in ,mr4 ,carr's work1 ,the ,australian ,race1 reports of 'godless' natives are given1 for instance1 in the ,mary ,river country and in ,gippsland4 ,these reports are usually the result of the ignorance or contempt of white observers1 cf4 ,tylor1 i4 #dai4 ,the reader is referred to the ,introduction for additional information about ,australian beliefs1 and for replies to objections4 ,,xi ,,supreme ,,gods ,,not ,,necessarily ,,developed ,,out ,,of ',,spirits' ,before going on to examine the high gods of other low savages1 ,i must here again insist on and develop the theory1 not easily conceived by us1 that the ,supreme ,being of savages belongs to another branch of faith than ghosts1 or ghost-gods1 or fetishes1 or ,totems1 and need not be--probably is not--essentially derived from these4 ,we must try to get rid of our theory that a powerful1 moral1 eternal ,being was1 from the first1 ex officio1 conceived as 'spirit2' and so was necessarily derived from a ghost4 ,first1 what was the process of development8 ,we have examined ,mr4 ,tylor's theory4 ,but1 to take a practical case3 ,here are the ,australians1 roaming in small bands1 without more formal rulers than 'headmen' at most2 not ancestor worshippers2 not polytheists2 with no departmental deities to select and aggrandise2 not apt to speculate on the ,anima ,mundi4 ,how1 then1 did they bridge the gulf between the ghost of a soon-forgotten fighting man1 and that conception of a ,father above1 'all-seeing1' moral1 which1 under various names1 is found all over a huge continent8 ,i cannot see that this problem has been solved or frankly faced4 ,the distinction between the ,australian deity1 at his highest power1 unpropitiated by sacrifice1 and the ordinary1 waning1 easily forgotten1 cheaply propitiated ghost of a tribesman1 is essential4 ,it is not easy to show how1 in 'the dark backward' of ,australian life1 the notion of ,mungan-ngaur grew from the idea of the ghost of a warrior4 ,but there is no logical necessity for the belief in the evolution of this god out of that ghost4 ,these two factors in religion--ghost and god--seem to have perfectly different sources1 and it appears extraordinary that anthropologists have not 7as far as ,i am aware7 observed this circumstance before4 ,mr4 ,spencer1 indeed1 speaks frequently of living human beings adored as gods4 ,i do not know that these are found on the lowest levels of savagery1 and ,mr4 ,jevons has pointed out that1 before you can hail a man as a god1 you must have the idea of ,god4 ,the murder of ,captain ,cook notoriously resulted from a scientific experiment in theology4 ',if he is a god1 he cannot be killed4' ,so they tried with a dagger1 and found that the honest captain was but a mortal ,british mariner--no god at all4 ',there are degrees4' ,mr4 ,spencer's men-gods become real gods--after death4#a ,now the ,supreme ,being of savage faith1 as a rule1 never died at all4 ,he belonged to a world that knew not ,death4 ,one cause of our blindness to the point appears to be this3 ,we have from childhood been taught that ',god is a ,spirit4' ,we1 now1 can only conceive of an eternal being as a 'spirit4' ,we know that legions of savage gods are now regarded as spirits4 ,and therefore we have never remarked that there is no reason why we should take it for granted that the earliest deities of the earliest men were supposed by them to be 'spirits' at all4 ,these gods might most judiciously be spoken of1 not as 'spirits1' but as 'undefined eternal beings4' ,to us1 such a being is necessarily a spirit1 but he was by no means necessarily so to an early thinker1 who may not yet have reached the conception of a ghost4 ,a ghost is said1 by anthropologists1 to have developed into a god4 ,now1 the very idea of a ghost 7apart from a wraith or fetch7 implies the previous death of his proprietor4 ,a ghost is the phantasm of a dead man4 ,but anthropologists continually tell us1 with truth1 that the idea of death as a universal ordinance is unknown to the savage4 ,diseases and death are things that once did not exist1 and that1 normally1 ought not to occur1 the savage thinks4 ,they are1 in his opinion1 supernormally caused by magicians and spirits4 ,death came into the world by a blunder1 an accident1 an error in ritual1 a decision of a god who was before ,death was4 ,scores of myths are told everywhere on this subject4#b ,the savage ,supreme ,being1 with added power1 omniscience1 and morality1 is the idealisation of the savage1 as conceived of by himself1 minus fleshly body 7as a rule71 and minus ,death4 ,he is not necessarily a 'spirit1' though that term may now be applied to him4 ,he was not originally differentiated as 'spirit' or 'not spirit4' ,he is a ,being1 conceived of without the question of 'spirit1' or 'no spirit' being raised2 perhaps he was originally conceived of before that question could be raised by men4 ,when we call the ,supreme ,being of savages a 'spirit' we introduce our own animistic ideas into a conception where it may not have originally existed4 ,if the ,god is 'the savage himself raised to the nth power' so much the less of a spirit is he4 ,mr4 ,matthew ,arnold might as well have said3 ',the ,british ,philistine has no knowledge of ,god4 ,he believes that the ,creator is a magnified non-natural man1 living in the sky4' ,the ,gippsland or ,fuegian or ,blackfoot ,supreme ,being is just a ,being1 anthropomorphic1 not a mrart1 or 'spirit4' ,the ,supreme ,being is a wesen1 ,being1 ,vui2 we have hardly a term for an immortal existence so undefined4 ,if the being is an idealised first ancestor 7as among the ,kurnai71 he is not1 on that account1 either man or ghost of man4 ,in the original conception he is a powerful intelligence who was from the first3 who was already active long before1 by a breach of his laws1 an error in the delivery of a message1 a breach of ritual1 or what not1 death entered the world4 ,he was not affected by the entry of death1 he still exists4 ,modern minds need to become familiar with this indeterminate idea of the savage ,supreme ,being1 which1 logically1 may be prior to the evolution of the notion of ghost or spirit4 ,but how does it apply when1 as by the ,kurnai1 the ,supreme ,being is reckoned an ancestor8 ,it can very readily be shown that1 when the ,supreme ,being of a savage people is thus the idealised ,first ,ancestor1 he can never have been envisaged by his worshippers as at any time a ghost2 or1 at least1 cannot logically have been so envisaged where the nearly universal belief occurs that death came into the world by accident1 or needlessly4 ,adam is the mythical first ancestor of the ,hebrews1 but he died1 ,greek3 uper moron1 and was not worshipped4 ,yama1 the first of ,aryan men who died1 was worshipped by ,vedic ,aryans1 but confessedly as a ghost-god4 ,mr4 ,tylor gives a list of first ancestors deified4 ,the ,ancestor of the ,maudans did not die1 consequently is no ghost2 emigravit1 he 'moved west4' ,where the ,first ,ancestor is also the ,creator 7,dog-rib ,indians71 he can hardly be1 and is not1 regarded as a mortal4 ,tamoi1 of the ,guaranis1 was 'the ancient of heaven1' clearly no mortal man4 ,the ,maori ,maui was the first who died1 but he is not one of the original ,maori gods4 ,haetsh1 among the ,kamchadals1 precisely answers to ,yama4 ,unkulunkulu will be described later4#c ,this is the list3 ,where the ,first ,ancestor is equivalent to the ,creator1 and is supreme1 he is--from the first--deathless and immortal4 ,when he dies he is a confessed ghost-god4 ,now1 ghost-worship and dead ancestor-worship are impossible before the ancestor is dead and is a ghost4 ,but the essential idea of ,mungan-ngaur1 and ,baiame1 and most of the high gods of ,australia1 and of other low races1 is that they never died at all4 ,they belong to the period before death came into the world1 like ,qat among the ,melanesians4 ,they arise in an age that knew not death1 and had not reflected on phantasms nor evolved ghosts4 ,they could have been conceived of1 in the nature of the case1 by a race of immortals who never dreamed of such a thing as a ghost4 ,for these gods1 the ghost-theory is not required1 and is superfluous1 even contradictory4 ,the early thinkers who developed these beings did not need to know that men die 7though1 of course1 they did know it in practice71 still less did they need to have conceived by abstract speculation the hypothesis of ghosts4 ,baiame1 ,cagn1 ,bunjil1 in their adorers' belief1 were there2 death later intruded among men1 but did not affect these divine beings in any way4 ,the ghost-theory1 therefore1 by the evidence of anthropology itself1 is not needed for the evolution of the high gods of savages4 ,it is only needed for the evolution of ghost-propitiation and genuine dead-ancestor worship4 ,therefore1 the high gods described were not necessarily once ghosts--were not idealised mortal ancestors4 ,they were1 naturally1 from the beginning1 from before the coming in of death1 immortal ,fathers1 now dwelling on high4 ,between them and apotheosised mortal ancestors there is a great gulf fixed--the river of death4 ,the explicitly stated distinction that the high creative gods never were mortal men1 while other gods are spirits of mortal men1 is made in every quarter4 ',ancestors known to be human were not worshipped as original gods1 and ancestors worshipped as original gods were not believed to have been human4'#d ,both kinds may have a generic name1 such as kalou1 or wakan1 but the specific distinction is universally made by low savages4 ,on one hand1 original gods2 on the other1 non-original gods that were once ghosts4 ,now1 this distinction is often calmly ignored2 whereas1 when any race has developed 7like late ,scandinavians7 the ,euhemeristic hypothesis 7'all gods were once men'71 that hypothesis is accepted as an historical statement of fact by some writers4 ,it is part of my theory that the more popular ghost-worship of souls of people whom men have loved1 invaded the possibly older religion of the ,supreme ,father4 ,mighty beings1 whether originally conceived of as 'spirits' or not1 came1 later1 under the ,animistic theory1 to be reckoned as spirits4 ,they even 7but not among the lowest savages7 came to be propitiated by food and sacrifice4 ,the alternative1 for a ,supreme ,being1 when once ,animism prevailed1 was sacrifice 7as to more popular ghost deities7 or neglect4 ,we shall find examples of both alternatives4 ,but sacrifice does not prove that a ,god was1 in original conception1 a ghost1 or even a spirit4 ',the common doctrine of the ,old ,testament is not that ,god is spirit1 but that the spirit rah 'wind1' 'living breath' of ,jehovah1 going forth from him1 works in the world and among men4'#e ,to resume4 ,the high ,gods of savagery--moral1 all-seeing directors of things and of men--are not explicitly envisaged as spirits at all by their adorers4 ,the notion of soul or spirit is here out of place4 ,we can best describe ,pirnmeheal1 and ,npi and ,baiame as 'magnified non-natural men1' or undefined beings who were from the beginning and are undying4 ,they are1 like the easy ,epicurean ,gods1 nihil indiga nostri4 ,not being ghosts1 they crave no food from men1 and receive no sacrifice1 as do ghosts1 or gods developed out of ghosts1 or gods to whom the ghost-ritual has been transferred4 ,for this very reason1 apparently1 they seem to be spoken of by ,mr4 ,grant ,allen as 'gods to talk about1 not gods to adore2 mythological conceptions rather than religious beings4'#f ,all this is rather hard on the lowest savages4 ,if they sacrifice to a god1 then the god is a hungry ghost2 if they don't1 then the god is 'a god to talk about1 not to adore1' ,luckily1 the facts of the ,bora ritual and the instruction given there prove that ,mungan-nganr and other names are gods to adore1 by ethical conformity to their will and by solemn ceremony1 not merely gods to talk about4 ,thus1 the highest element in the religion of the lowest savages does not appear to be derived from their theory of ghosts4 ,as far as we can say1 in the inevitable absence of historical evidence1 the highest gods of savages may have been believed in1 as ,makers and ,fathers and ,lords of an indeterminate nature1 before the savage had developed the idea of souls out of dreams and phantasms4 ,it is logically conceivable that savages may have worshipped deities like ,baiame and ,darumulun before they had evolved the notion that ,tom1 ,dick1 or ,harry has a separable soul1 capable of surviving his bodily decease4 ,deities of the higher sort1 by the very nature of savage reflections on death and on its non-original casual character1 are prior1 or may be prior1 or cannot be shown not to be prior1 to the ghost theory--the alleged origin of religion4 ,for their evolution the ghost theory is not logically demanded2 they can do without it4 ,yet they1 and not the spirits1 bogles1 ,mrarts1 ,brewin1 and so forth1 are the high gods1 the gods who have most analogy--as makers1 moral guides1 rewarders1 and punishers of conduct 7though that duty is also occasionally assumed by ancestral spirits7--with our civilised conception of the divine4 ,our conception of ,god descends not from ghosts1 but from the ,supreme ,beings of non-ancestor-worshipping peoples4 ,as it seems impossible to point out any method by which low1 chiefless1 non-polytheistic1 non-metaphysical savages 7if any such there be7 evolved out of ghosts the eternal beings who made the world1 and watch over morality3 as the people themselves unanimously distinguish such beings from ghost-gods1 ,i take it that such beings never were ghosts4 ,in this case the ,animistic theory seems to me to break down completely4 ,yet these high gods of low savages preserve from dimmest ages of the meanest culture the sketch of a ,god which our highest religious thought can but fill up to its ideal4 ,come from what germ he may1 ,jehovah or ,allah does not come from a ghost4 ,it may be retorted that this makes no real difference4 ,if savages did not invent gods in consequence of a fallacious belief in spirit and soul1 still1 in some other equally illogical way they came to indulge the hypothesis that they had a ,judge and ,father in heaven4 ,but1 if the ghost theory of the high ,gods is wrong1 as it is conspicuously superfluous1 that does make some difference4 ,it proves that a widely preached scientific conclusion may be as spectral as ,bathybius4 ,on other more important points1 therefore1 we may differ from the newest scientific opinion without too much diffident apprehensiveness4 ,footnote #a3 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #dag1 #dba4 ',the medicine men are treated as gods4444 ,the medicine man becomes a god after death4' ,footnote #b3 ,i have published a chapter on ,myths on the ,origin of ,death in ,modern ,mythology4 ,footnote #c3 ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 #caa-caf4 ,footnote #d3 ,jevons1 ,introduction1 p4 #aig4 ,footnote #e3 ,robertson ,smith4 ,the ,prophets of ,israel1 p4 #fa4 ,footnote #f3 ,evolution of the ,idea of ,god1 p4 #agj4 ,,xii ,,savage ,,supreme ,,beings ,it is among 'the lowest savages' that the ,supreme ,beings are most regarded as eternal1 moral 7as the morality of the tribe goes1 or above its habitual practice71 and powerful4 ,i have elsewhere described the ,bushman god ,cagn1 as he was portrayed to ,mr4 ,orpen by ,qing1 who 'had never before seen a white man except fighting4' ,mr4 ,orpen got the facts from ,qing by inducing him to explain the natives' pictures on the walls of caves4 ',cagn made all things1 and we pray to him1' thus3 ',o ,cagn1 ,o ,cagn1 are we not thy children8 ,do you not see us hunger8 ,give us food4' ,as to ethics1 ',at first ,cagn was very good1 but he got spoilt through fighting so many things4' ',how came he into the world8' ',perhaps with those who brought the ,sun3 only the initiated know these things4' ,it appears that ,qing was not yet initiated in the dance 7answering to a high rite of the ,australian ,bora7 in which the most esoteric myths were unfolded4#a ,in ,mr4 ,spencer's ',descriptive ,sociology' the religion of the ,bushmen is thus disposed of4 ',pray to an insect of the caterpillar kind for success in the chase4' ,that is rather meagre4 ,they make arrow-poison out of caterpillars1#b though ,dr4 ,bleek1 perhaps correctly1 identifies ,cagn with i-kaggen1 the insect4 ,the case of the ,andaman ,islanders may be especially recommended to believers in the anthropological science of religion4 ,for long these natives were the joy of emancipated inquirers as the 'godless ,andamanese4' ,they only supply ,mr4 ,spencer's ',ecclesiastical ,institutions' with a few instances of the ghost-belief4#c ,yet when the ,andamanese are scientifically studied in situ by an educated ,englishman1 ,mr4 ,man1 who knows their language1 has lived with them for eleven years1 and presided over our benevolent efforts 'to reclaim them from their savage state1' the ,andamanese turn out to be quite embarrassingly rich in the higher elements of faith4 ,they have not only a profoundly philosophical religion1 but an excessively absurd mythology1 like the ,australian blacks1 the ,greeks1 and other peoples4 ,if1 on the whole1 the student of the ,andamanese despairs of the possibility of an ethnological theory of religion1 he is hardly to be blamed4 ,the people are probably ,negritos1 and probably 'the original inhabitants1 whose occupation dates from prehistoric times4'#d ,they use the bow1 they make pots1 and are considerably above the ,australian level4 ,they have second-sighted men1 who obtain status 'by relating an extraordinary dream1 the details of which are declared to have been borne out subsequently by some unforeseen event1 as1 for instance1 a sudden death or accident4' ,they have to produce fresh evidential dreams from time to time4 ,they see phantasms of the dead1 and coincidental hallucinations4#e ,all this is as we should expect it to be4 ,their religion is probably not due to missionaries1 as they always shot all foreigners1 and have no traditions of the presence of aliens on the islands before our recent arrival4#f ,their ,god1 ,puluga1 is 'like fire1' but invisible4 ,he was never born1 and is immortal4 ,by him were all things created1 except the powers of evil4 ,he knows even the thoughts of the heart4 ,he is angered by yubda sin1 or wrong-doing1 that is falsehood1 theft1 grave assault1 murder1 adultery1 bad carving of meat1 and 7as a crime of witchcraft7 by burning wax4#g ',to those in pain or distress he is pitiful1 and sometimes deigns to afford relief4' ,he is ,judge of ,souls1 and the dread of future punishment 'to some extent is said to affect their course of action in the present life4'#h ,this ,being could not be evolved out of the ordinary ghost of a second-sighted man1 for ,i do not find that ancestral ghosts are worshipped1 nor is there a trace of early missionary influence1 while ,mr4 ,man consulted elderly and1 in native religion1 well-instructed ,andamanese for his facts4 ,yet ,puluga lives in a large stone house 7clearly derived from ours at ,port ,blair71 eats and drinks1 foraging for himself1 and is married to a green shrimp4#i ,there is the usual story of a ,deluge caused by the moral wrath of ,puluga4 ,the whole theology was scrupulously collected from natives unacquainted with other races4 ,the account of ,andamanese religion does not tally with the anthropological hypothesis4 ,foreign influence seems to be more than usually excluded by insular conditions and the jealousy of the 'original inhabitants4' ,the evidence ought to make us reflect on the extreme obscurity of the whole problem4 ,anthropological study of religion has hitherto almost entirely overlooked the mysteries of various races1 except in so far as they confirm the entry of the young people into the ranks of the adult4 ,their esoteric moral and religious teaching is nearly unknown to us1 save in a few instances4 ,it is certain that the mysteries of ,greece were survivals of savage ceremonies1 because we know that they included specific savage rites1 such as the use of the rhombos to make a whirring noise1 and the custom of ritual daubing with dirt2 and the sacred ballets d'action1 in which1 as ,lucian and ,qing say1 mystic facts are 'danced out4'#aj ,but1 while ,greece retained these relics of savagery1 there was something taught at ,eleusis which filled minds like ,plato's and ,pindar's with a happy religious awe4 ,now1 similar 'softening of the heart' was the result of the teaching in the ,australian ,bora3 the ,yao mysteries inculcate the victory over self2 and1 till we are admitted to the secrets of all other savage mysteries throughout the world1 we cannot tell whether1 among mummeries1 frivolities1 and even license1 high ethical doctrines are not presented under the sanction of religion4 ,the ,new ,life1 and perhaps the future life1 are undeniably indicated in the ,australian mysteries by the simulated ,resurrection4 ,i would therefore no longer say1 as in #ahhg1 that the ,hellenic genius must have added to 'an old medicine dance' all that the ,eleusinian mysteries possessed of beauty1 counsel1 and consolation#aa4 ,these elements1 as well as the barbaric factors in the rites1 may have been developed out of such savage doctrine as softens the hearts of ,australians and ,yaos4 ,that this kind of doctrine receives religious sanction is certain1 where we know the secret of savage mysteries4 ,it is therefore quite incorrect1 and strangely presumptuous1 to deny1 with almost all anthropologists1 the alliance of ethics with religion among the most backward races4 ,we must always remember their secrecy about their inner religion1 their frankness about their mythological tales4 ,these we know3 the inner religion we ought to begin to recognise that we do not know4 ,the case of the ,andamanese has taught us how vague1 even now1 is our knowledge1 and how obscure is our problem4 ,the example of the ,melanesians enforces these lessons4 ,it is hard to bring the ,melanesians within any theory4 ,dr4 ,codrington has made them the subject of a careful study1 and reports that while the ,european inquirer can communicate pretty freely on common subjects 'the vocabulary of ordinary life in almost useless when the region of mysteries and superstitions is approached4'#ab ,the ,banks ,islanders are most free from an ,asiatic element of population on one side1 and a ,polynesian element on the other4 ,the ,banks ,islanders 'believe in two orders of intelligent beings different from living men4' 7#a7 ,ghosts of the dead1 7#b7 ',beings who were not1 and never had been1 human4' ,this1 as we have shown1 and will continue to show1 is the usual savage doctrine4 ,on the one hand are separable souls of men1 surviving the death of the body4 ,on the other are beings1 creators1 who were before men were1 and before death entered the world4 ,it is impossible1 logically1 to argue that these beings are only ghosts of real remote ancestors1 or of ideal ancestors4 ,these higher beings are not safely to be defined as 'spirits1' their essence is vague1 and1 we repeat1 the idea of their existence might have been evolved before the ghost theory was attained by men4 ,dr4 ,codrington says1 'the conception can hardly be that of a purely spiritual being1 yet1 by whatever name the natives call them1 they are such as in ,english must be called spirits4' ,that is our point4 ',god is a spirit1' these beings are ,gods1 therefore 'these are spirits4' ,but to their initial conception our idea of 'spirit' is lacking4 ,they are beings who existed before death1 and still exist4 ,the beings which never were human1 never died1 are ,vui1 the ghosts are ,tamate4 ,dr4 ,codrington uses 'ghosts' for ,tamate1 'spirits' for ,vui4 ,but as to render ,vui 'spirits' is to yield the essential point1 we shall call ,vui 'beings1' or1 simply1 ,vui4 ,a ,vui is not a spirit that has been a ghost2 the story may represent him as if a man1 'but the native will always maintain that he was something different1 and deny to him the fleshly body of a man4'#ac ,this distinction1 ghost on one side--original being1 not a man1 not a ghost of a man1 on the other--is radical and nearly universal in savage religion4 ,anthropology1 neglecting the essential distinction insisted on1 in this case1 by ,dr4 ,codrington1 confuses both kinds under the style of 'spirits1' and derives both from ghosts of the dead4 ,dr4 ,codrington1 it should be said1 does not generalise1 but confines himself to the savages of whom he has made a special study4 ,but1 from the other examples of the same distinction which we have offered1 and the rest which we shall offer1 we think ourselves justified in regarding the distinction between a primeval1 eternal1 being or beings1 on one hand1 and ghosts or spirits exalted from ghost's estate1 on the other1 as common1 if not universal4 ,there are corporeal and incorporeal ,vuis1 but the body of the corporeal ,vui is 'not a human body4'#ad ,the chief is ,qat1 'still at hand to help and invoked in prayers4' ',qat1 ,marawa1 look down upon me1 smooth the sea for us two1 that ,i may go safely over the sea6' ,qat 'created men and animals1' though1 in a certain district1 he is claimed as an ancestor 7p4 #bfh74 ,two strata of belief have here been confused4 ,the myth of ,qat is a jungle of facetiae and frolic1 with one or two serious incidents1 such as the beginning of ,death and the coming of ,night4 ,his mother was1 or became1 a stone2 stones playing a considerable part in the superstitions4 ,the incorporeal ,vuis1 'with nothing like a human life1 have a much higher place than ,qat and his brothers in the religious system4' ,they have neither names1 nor shapes1 nor legends1 they receive sacrifice1 and are in some uncertain way connected with stones2 these stones usually bear a fanciful resemblance to fruits or animals 7p4 #bge74 ,the only sacrifice1 in ,banks ,islands1 is that of shell-money4 ,the mischievous spirits are ,tamate1 ghosts of men4 ,there is a belief in mana 7magical rapport74 ,dr4 ,codrington cannot determine the connection of this belief with that in spirits4 ,mana is the uncanny1 is ,x1 the unknown4 ,a revived impression of sense is nunuai1 as when a tired fisher1 half asleep at night1 feels the 'draw' of a salmon1 and automatically strikes4#ae ,the common ghost is a bag of nunuai1 as living man1 in the opinion of some philosophers1 is a bag of 'sensations4' ,ghosts are only seen as spiritual lights1 which so commonly attend hallucinations among the civilised4 ,except in the prayers to ,qat and ,marawa1 prayer only invokes the dead 7p4 #bhe74 ',in the western islands the offerings are made to ghosts1 and consumed by fire2 in the eastern 7,banks7 isles they are made to spirits 7beings1 ,vui71 and there is no sacrificial fire4' ,now1 the worship of ghosts goes1 in these isles1 with the higher culture1 'a more considerable advance in the arts of life2' the worship of non-ghosts1 ,vui1 goes with the lower material culture4#af ,this is rather the reverse of what we should expect1 in accordance with the anthropological theory4 ,according1 however1 to our theory1 ,animism and ghost-worship may be of later development1 and belong to a higher level of culture1 than worship of a being1 or beings1 that never were ghosts4 ,in ,leper's ,isle1 'ghosts do not appear to have prayers or sacrifices offered to them1' but cause disease1 and work magic4#ag ,the belief in the soul1 in ,melanesia1 does not appear to proceed 'from their dreams or visions in which deceased or absent persons are presented to them1 for they do not appear to believe that the soul goes out from the dreamer1 or presents itself as an object in his dreams1' nor does belief in other spirits seem to be founded on 'the appearance of life or motion in inanimate things4'#ah ,to myself it rather looks as if all impressions had their nunuai1 real1 bodiless1 persistent1 after-images2 that the soul is the complex of all of these nunuai2 that there is in the universe a kind of magical other1 called mana1 possessed1 in different proportions1 by different men1 ,vui1 tamate1 and material objects1 and that the atai or ataro of a man dead1 his ghost1 retains its old1 and acquires new mana4#ai ,it is an odd kind of metaphysic to find among very backward and isolated savages4 ,but the lesson of ,melanesia teaches us how very little we really know of the religion of low races1 how complex it is1 how hardly it can be forced into our theories1 if we take it as given in our knowledge1 allow for our ignorance1 and are not content to select facts which suit our hypothesis1 while ignoring the rest4 ,on a higher level of material culture than the ,melanesians are the ,fijians4 ,fijian religion1 as far as we understand1 resembles the others in drawing an impassable line between ghosts and eternal gods4 ,the word ,kalou is applied to all supernal beings1 and mystic or magical things alike4 ,it seems to answer to mana in ,new ,zealand and ,melanesia1 to wakan in ,north ,america1 and to fe in old ,french1 as when ,perrault says1 about ,bluebeard's key1 'now the key was fe4' ,all ,gods are ,kalou1 but all things that are ,kalou are not ,gods4 ,gods are ,kalou vu2 deified ghosts are ,kalou yalo4 ,the former are eternal1 without beginning of days or end of years2 the latter are subject to infirmity and even to death4#bj ,the ,supreme ,being1 if we can apply the term to him1 is ,ndengei1 or ,degei1 'who seems to be an impersonation of the abstract idea of eternal existence4' ,this idea is not easily developed out of the conception of a human soul which has died into a ghost and may die again4 ,his myth represents him as a serpent1 emblem of eternity1 or a body of stone with a serpent's head4 ,his one manifestation is given by eating4 ,so neglected is he that a song exists about his lack of worshippers and gifts4 ',we made men1' says ,ndengei1 'placed them on earth1 and yet they share to us only the under shell4'#ba ,here is an extreme case of the self-existent creative ,eternal1 mythically lodged in a serpent's body1 and reduced to a jest4 ,it is not easy to see any explanation1 if we reject the hypothesis that this is an old1 fallen form of faith1 'with scarcely a temple4' ,the other unborn immortals are mythical warriors and adulterers1 like the popular deities of ,greece4 ,yet ,ndengei receives prayers through two sons of his1 mediating deities4 ,the priests are possessed1 or inspired1 by spirits and gods4 ,one is not quite clear as to whether ,ndengei is an inspiring god or not2 but that prayers are made to him is inconsistent with the belief in his eternal inaction4 ,a priest is represented as speaking for ,ndengei1 probably by inspiration4 ',my own mind departs from me1 and then1 when it is truly gone1 my god speaks by me1' is the account of this 'alternating personality' given by a priest4#bb ,after informing us that ,ndengei is starved1 ,mr4 ,williams next tells about offerings to him1 in earlier days1 of hundreds of hogs4#bc ,he sends rain on earth4 ,animals1 men1 stones1 may all be ,kalou4 ,there is a ,hades as fantastic as that in the ,egyptian ',book of the ,dead1' and second sight flourishes4 ,the mysteries include the sham raising of the dead1 and appear to be directed at propitiatory ghosts rather than at ,ndengei4 ,there are scenes of license2 'particulars of almost incredible indecency have been privately forwarded to ,dr4 ,tylor4'#bd ,suppose a religious reformer were to arise in one of the many savage tribes who1 as we shall show1 possess1 but neglect1 an ,eternal ,creator4 ,he would do what1 in the secular sphere1 was done by the ,mikado of ,japan4 ,the ,mikado was a political ,dendid or ,ndengei--an awful1 withdrawn1 impotent potentate4 ,power was wielded by the ,tycoon4 ,a ,mikado of genius asserted himself2 hence arose modern ,japan4 ,in the same way1 a religious reformer like ,khuen ,ahten in ,egypt would preach down minor gods1 ghosts and sacred beasts1 and proclaim the primal ,maker1 ,ndengei1 ,dendid1 ,mtanga4 ',the king shall hae his ain again4' ,had it not been for the ,prophets1 ,israel1 by the time that ,greece and ,rome knew ,israel1 would have been worshipping a horde of little gods1 and even beasts and ghosts1 while the ,eternal would have become a mere name--perhaps1 like ,ndengei and ,atahocan and ,unkulunkulu1 a jest4 ,the ,old ,testament is the story of the prolonged effort to keep ,jehovah in ,his supreme place4 ,to make and to succeed in that effort was the differentia1 of ,israel4 ,other peoples1 even the lowest1 had1 as we prove1 the germinal conception of a ,god--assuredly not demonstrated to be derived from the ghost theory1 logically in no need of the ghost theory1 everywhere explicitly contrasted with the ghost theory4 ',but their foolish heart was darkened4' ,it is impossible to prove1 historically1 which of the two main elements in belief--the idea of an ,eternal ,being or ,beings1 or the idea of surviving ghosts--came first into the minds of men4 ,the idea of primeval ,eternal ,beings1 as understood by savages1 does not depend on1 or require1 the ghost theory4 ,but1 as we almost always find ghosts and a ,supreme ,being together1 where we find either1 among the lowest savages1 we have no historical ground for asserting that either is prior to the other4 ,where we have no evidence to the belief in the ,maker1 we must not conclude that no such belief exists4 ,our knowledge is confused and scanty2 often it is derived from men who do not know the native language1 or the native sacred language1 or have not been trusted with what the savage treasures as his secret4 ,moreover1 if anywhere ghosts are found without gods1 it is an inference from the argument that an idea familiar to very low savage tribes1 like the ,australians1 and falling more and more into the background elsewhere1 though still extant and traceable1 might1 in certain cases1 be lost and forgotten altogether4 ,to take an example of half-forgotten deity4 ,mr4 ,im ,thurn1 a good observer1 has written on ',the ,animism of the ,indians of ,british ,guiana4' ,mr4 ,im ,thurn justly says3 ',the man who above all others has made this study possible is ,mr4 ,tylor4' ,but it is not unfair to remark that ,mr4 ,im ,thurn naturally sees most distinctly that which ,mr4 ,tylor has taught him to see--namely1 ,animism4 ,he has also been persuaded1 by ,mr4 ,dorman1 that the ,great ,spirit of ,north ,american tribes is 'almost certainly nothing more than a figure of ,european origin1 reflected and transmitted almost beyond recognition on the mirror of the ,indian mind1' ,that is not my opinion3 ,i conceive that the ,red ,indians had their native ,eternal1 like the ,australians1 ,fijians1 ,andamanese1 ,dinkas1 ,yao1 and so forth1 as will be shown later4 ,mr4 ,im ,thurn1 however1 dilates on the dream origin of the ghost theory1 giving examples from his own knowledge of the difficulty with which ,guiana ,indians discern the hallucinations of dreams from the facts of waking life4 ,their waking hallucinations are also so vivid as to be taken for realities4#be ,mr4 ,im ,thurn adopts the hypothesis that1 from ghosts1 'a belief has arisen1 but very gradually1 in higher spirits1 and1 eventually1 in a ,highest ,spirit2 and1 keeping pace with the growth of these beliefs1 a habit of reverence for and worship of spirits4' ,on this hypothesis1 the spirit latest evolved1 and most worshipful1 ought1 of course1 to be the ',highest ,spirit4' ,but the reverse1 as usual1 is the case4 ,the ,guiana ,indians believe in the continued1 but not in the everlasting1 existence of a man's ghost4#bf ,they believe in no spirits which were not once tenants of material bodies4#bg ,the belief in a ,supreme ,spirit is only attained 'in the highest form of religion'--,andamanese1 for instance--as ,mr4 ,im ,thurn uses 'spirit' where we should say 'being4' ',the ,indians of ,guiana know no god4'#bh ',but it is true that various words have been found in all1 or nearly all1 the languages of ,guiana which have been supposed to be names of a ,supreme ,being1 ,god1 a ,great ,spirit1 in the sense which those phrases bear in the language of the higher religions4' ,being interpreted1 these ,guiana names mean-- ,the ,ancient ,one1 ,the ,ancient ,one in ,sky-land1 ,our ,maker1 ,our ,father1 ,our ,great ,father4 ',none of those in any way involves the attributes of a god4' ,the ,ancient of ,days1 ,our ,father in ,sky-land1 ,our ,maker1 do rather convoy the sense of ,god to a ,european mind4 ,mr4 ,im ,thurn1 however1 decides that the beings thus designated were supposed ancestors who came into ,guiana from some other country1 'sometimes said to have been that entirely natural country 787 which is separated from ,guiana by the ocean of the air4'#bi ,mr4 ,im ,thurn casually observed 7having said nothing about morals in alliance with ,animism73 ',the fear of unwittingly offending the countless visible and invisible beings 444 kept the ,indians very strictly within their own rights and from offending against the rights of others4' ,this remark dropped out at a discussion of ,mr4 ,im ,thurn's paper1 and clearly demonstrated that even a very low creed 'makes for righteousness4'#cj ,probably few who have followed the facts given here will agree with ,mr4 ,im ,thurn's theory that ',our ,maker1' ',our ,father1' ',the ,ancient ,one of the ,heaven1' is merely an idealised human ancestor4 ,he falls naturally into his place with the other high gods of low savages4 ,but we need much more information on the subject than ,mr4 ,im ,thurn was able to give4 ,his evidence is all the better1 because he is a loyal follower of ,mr4 ,tylor4 ,and ,mr4 ,tylor says3 ',savage ,animism is almost devoid of that ethical element which to the educated modern mind is the very mainspring of practical religion4'#ca ',yet it keeps the ,indians very strictly within their own rights and from offending the rights of others4' ,our own religion is rarely so successful4#cb ,in the ,indians of ,guiana we have an alleged case of a people still deep in the animistic or ghost-worshipping case1 who1 by the hypothesis1 have not yet evolved the idea of a god at all4 ,when the familiar names for ,god1 such as ,maker1 ,father1 ,ancient of ,days1 occur in the ,indian language1 ,mr4 ,im ,thurn explains the neglected ,being who bears these titles as a remote deified ancestor4 ,of course1 when a ,being with similar titles occurs where ancestors are not worshipped1 as in ,australia and the ,andaman ,islands1 the explanation suggested by ,mr4 ,im ,thurn for the problem of religion in ,guiana1 will not fit the facts4 ,it is plain that1 a priori1 another explanation is conceivable4 ,if a people like the ,andamanese1 or the ,australian tribes whom we have studied1 had such a conception as that of ,puluga1 or ,baiame1 or ,mungan-ngaur and then1 later1 developed ancestor-worship with its propitiatory sacrifices and ceremonies1 ancestor-worship1 as the newest evolved and infinitely the most practical form of cult1 would gradually thrust the belief in a ,puluga1 or ,mungan-ngaur1 or ,cagn into the shade4 ,the ancestral spirit1 to speak quite plainly1 can be 'squared' by the people in whom he takes a special interest for family reasons4 ,the equal ,father of all men cannot be 'squared1' and declines 7till corrupted by the bad example of ancestral ghosts7 to make himself useful to one man rather than to another4 ,for these very intelligible1 simple1 and practical reasons1 if the belief in a ,mungan-ngaur came first in evolution1 and the belief in a practicable bribable family ghost came second1 the ghost-cult would inevitably crowd out the ,god-cult4#cc ,the name of the ,father and ,maker would become a mere survival1 nominis umbra1 worship and sacrifice going to the ancestral ghost4 ,that explanation would fit the state of religion which ,mr4 ,im ,thurn has found1 rightly or wrongly1 in ,british ,guiana4 ,but1 if the idea of a universal ,father and ,maker came last in evolution1 as a refinement1 then1 of course1 it ought to be the newest1 and therefore the most fashionable and potent of ,guianese cults4 ,precisely the reverse is said to be the case4 ,nor can the belief indicated in such names as ,father and ,maker be satisfactorily explained as a refinement of ancestor-worship1 because1 we repeat1 it occurs where ancestors are not worshipped4 ,these considerations1 however unpleasant to the devotees of ,animism1 or the ghost theory1 are not1 in themselves1 illogical1 nor contradictory of the theory of evolution1 which1 on the other hand1 fits them perfectly well4 ,that god thrives best who is most suited to his environment4 ,whether an easy-going1 hungry ghost-god with a liking for his family1 or a moral ,creator not to be bribed1 is better suited to an environment of not especially scrupulous savages1 any man can decide4 ,whether a set of not particularly scrupulous savages will readily evolve a moral unbribable ,creator1 when they have a serviceable family ghost-god eager to oblige1 is a question as easily resolved4 ,beyond all doubt1 savages who find themselves under the watchful eye of a moral deity whom they cannot 'square' will desert him as soon as they have evolved a practicable ghost-god1 useful for family purposes1 whom they can square4 ,no less manifestly1 savages1 who already possess a throng of serviceable ghost-gods1 will not enthusiastically evolve a moral ,being who despises gifts1 and only cares for obedience4 ',there is a great deal of human nature in man1' and1 if ,mr4 ,im ,thurn's description of the ,guianese be correct1 everything we know of human nature1 and of evolution1 assures us that the ,father1 or ,maker1 or ,ancient of ,days came first2 the ghost-gods1 last4 ,what has here been said about the ,indians of ,guiana 7namely1 that they are now more ghost and spirit worshippers1 with only a name surviving to attest a knowledge of a ,father and ,maker in ,heaven7 applies equally well to the ,zulus4 ,the ,zulus are the great standing type of an animistic or ghost-worshipping race without a ,god4 ,but1 had they a ,god 7on the ,australian pattern7 whom they have forgotten1 or have they not yet evolved a ,god out of ,animism8 ,the evidence1 collected by ,dr4 ,callaway1 is honest1 but confused4 ,one native1 among others1 put forward the very theory here proposed by us as an alternative to that of ,mr4 ,im ,thurn4 ',unkulunkulu' 7the idealised but despised ,first ,ancestor7 'was not worshipped by men4 ,for it is not worship when people see things1 as rain1 or food1 or corn1 and say1 ,yes1 these things were made by ,unkulunkulu4444 ,afterwards they men had power to change those things1 that they might become the ,amatongos might belong to the ancestral spirits4 ,they took them away from ,unkulunkulu4'#cd ,animism supplanted ,theism4 ,nothing could be more explicit4 ,but1 though we have found an authentic ,zulu text to suit our provisional theory1 the most eminent philosophical example must not reduce us into supposing that this text settles the question4 ,dr4 ,callaway collected great masses of ,zulu answers to his inquiries1 and it is plain that a respondent1 like the native theologian whom we have cited1 may have adapted his reply to what he had learned of ,christian doctrine4 ,having now the ,christian notion of a ,divine ,creator1 and knowing1 too1 that the unworshipped ,unkulunkulu is said to have 'made things1' while only ancestral spirits1 are worshipped1 the native may have inferred that worship 7by ,christians given to the ,creator7 was at some time transferred by the ,zulus from ,unkulunkulu to the ,amatongo4 ,the truth is that both the anthropological theory 7spirits first1 ,gods last71 and our theory 7,supreme ,being first1 spirits next7 can find warrant in ,dr4 ,callaway's valuable collections4 ,for that reason1 the problem must be solved after a survey of the whole field of savage and barbaric religion2 it cannot be settled by the ambiguous case of the ,zulus alone4 ,unkulunkulu is represented as 'the ,first ,man1 who broke off in the beginning4' ',they are ancestor-worshippers1' says ,dr4 ,callaway1 'and believe that their first ancestor1 the ,first ,man1 was the ,creator4'#ce ,but they may1 like many other peoples1 have had a different original tradition1 and have altered it1 just because they are now such fervent ancestor-worshippers4 ,unkulunkulu was prior to ,death1 which came among men in the usual mythical way4#cf ,whether ,unkulunkulu still exists1 is rather a moot question3 ,dr4 ,callaway thinks that he does not4#cg ,if not1 he is an exception to the rule in ,australia1 ,andaman1 among the ,bushmen1 the ,fuegians1 and savages in general1 who are less advanced in culture than the ,zulus4 ,the idea1 then1 of a ,maker of things who has ceased to exist occurs1 if at all1 not in a relatively primitive1 but in a relatively late religion4 ,on the analogy of pottery1 agriculture1 the use of iron1 villages1 hereditary kings1 and so on1 the notion of a dead ,maker is late1 not early4 ,it occurs where men have iron1 cattle1 agriculture1 kings1 houses1 a disciplined army1 not where men have none of these things4 ,the ,zulu godless ancestor-worship1 then1 by parity of reasoning1 is1 like their material culture1 not an early but a late development4 ,the ,zulus 'hear of a ,king which is above'--'the heavenly ,king4'#ch ',we did not hear of him first from white men4444 ,but he is not like ,unkulunkulu1 who1 we say1 made all things4' ,here may be dimly descried the ideas of a ,god1 and a subordinate demiurge4 ',the ,king is above1 ,unkulunkulu is beneath4' ,the ,king above punishes sin1 striking the sinner by lightning4 ,nor do the ,zulus know how they have sinned4 ',there remained only that word about the heaven1' 'which1' says ,dr4 ,callaway1 'implies that there might have been other words which are now lost4' ,there is great confusion of thought4 ,unkulunkulu made the heaven1 where the unknown ,king reigns1 a hard task for a ,first ,man4#ci ',in process of time we have come to worship the ,amadhlozi 7spirits7 only1 because we know not what to say about ,unkulunkulu4'#dj ',it is on that account1 then1 that we seek out for ourselves the ,amadhlozi 7spirits71 that we may not always be thinking about ,unkulunkulu4' ,all this attests a faint lingering shadow of a belief too ethereal1 too remote1 for a practical conquering race1 which prefers intelligible serviceable ghosts1 with a special regard for their own families4 ,ukoto1 a very old ,zulu1 said3 ',when we were children it was said ,the ,lord is in heaven4 444 ,they used to point to the ,lord on high2 we did not hear his name4' ,unkulunkulu was understood1 by this patriarch1 to refer to immediate ancestors1 whose mimes and genealogies he gave4#da ',we heard it said that the ,creator of the world was the ,lord who is above2 people used always1 when ,i was growing up1 to point towards heaven4' ,a very old woman was most reluctant to speak of ,unkulunkulu2 at last she said1 ',ah1 it is he in fact who is the ,creator1 who is in heaven1 of whom the ancients spoke4' ,then the old woman began to babble humorously of how the white men made all things4 ,again1 ,unkulunkulu is said to have been created by ,utilexo4 ,utilexo was invisible1 ,unkulunkulu was visible1 and so got credit not really his due4#db ,when the heaven is said to be the ,chief's 7the chief being a living ,zulu7 'they do not believe what they say1' the phrase is a mere hyperbolical compliment4#dc ,on this examination of the evidence1 it certainly seems as logical to conjecture that the ,zulus had once such an idea of a ,supreme ,being as lower races entertain1 and then nearly lost it2 as to say that ,zulus1 though a monarchical race1 have not yet developed a ,king-,god out of the throng of spirits 7,amatongo74 ,the ,zulus1 the ,norsemen of the ,south1 so to speak1 are a highly practical military race4 ,a ,deity at all abstract was not to their liking4 ,serviceable family spirits1 who continually provided an excuse for a dinner of roast beef1 were to their liking4 ,the less developed races do not kill their flocks commonly for food4 ,a sacrifice is needed as a pretext4 ,to the gods of ,andamanese1 ,bushmen1 ,australians1 no sacrifice is offered4 ,to the ,supreme ,being of most ,african peoples no sacrifice is offered4 ,there is no festivity in the worship of these ,supreme ,beings1 no feasting1 at all events4 ,they are not to be 'got at' by gifts or sacrifices4 ,the ,amatongo are to be 'got at1' are bribable1 supply an excuse for a good dinner1 and thus the practical ,amatongo are honoured1 while1 in the present generation of ,zulus1 ,unkulunkulu is a joke1 and the ,lord in ,heaven is the shadow of a name4 ,clearly this does not point to the recent but to the remote development of the higher ideas1 now superseded by spirit-worship4 ,we shall next see how this view1 the opposite of the anthropological theory1 works when applied to other races1 especially to other ,african races4 ,footnote #a3 ,when ,i wrote ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion 7ii4 #aa-ac7 ,i regarded ,cagn as 'only a successful and idealised medicine man4' ,but ,i now think that ,i confused in my mind the religious and the mythological aspects of ,cagn4 ,one of unknown origin1 existing before the sun1 a ,maker of all things1 prayed to1 but not in receipt of sacrifice1 is no medicine man1 except in his myth4 ,footnote #b3 ,the omissions in ,mr4 ,spencer's system may possibly be explained by the circumstance that1 as he tells us1 he collected his facts 'by proxy4' ,while we find ,waitz much interested in and amazed by the benevolent ,supreme ,being of many ,african tribes1 that personage is only alluded to as ',alleged ,benevolent ,supreme ,being' in ,mr4 ,spencer's ,descriptive ,sociology1 and is usually left out of sight altogether in his ,principles of ,sociology and ,ecclesiastical ,institutions4 ,yet we have precisely the same kind of evidence of observers for this 'alleged' benevolent ,supreme ,being as we have for the canaille of ghosts and fetishes4 ,if he is a deity of a rather lofty moral conception1 of course he need not be propitiated by human sacrifices or cold chickens4 ,that kind of material evidence to the faith in him must be absent by the nature of the case2 but the coincident testimony of travellers to belief in a ,supreme ,being cannot be dismissed as 'alleged4' ,footnote #c3 ,pp4 #fgf1 #fgg4 ,footnote #d3 ,man1 ,j4,a4,i4 xii4 #gj4 ,footnote #e3 ,man1 ,j4,a4,i4 xii4 #if-ih4 ,footnote #f3 xii4 #aef1 #aeg4 ,footnote #g3 xii4 #aab4 ,footnote #h3 xii4 #aeh4 ,footnote #i3 xii4 #aeh4 ,footnote #aj3 ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion1 i4 #bha-bhh4 ,footnote #aa3 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 #acc4 ,footnote #ab3 ,j4,a4,i4 x4 #bfc4 ,footnote #ac3 ,j4,a4,i4 #bfg4 ,footnote #ad3 ,j4,a4,i4 x4 #bfg4 ,footnote #ae3 ,p4 #bha4 ,this is a nunuai with which ,i am familiar4 ,flying fish1 in ,banks ,island1 take the rle of salmon4 ,the natives think it real1 but without form or substance4 ,footnote #af3 ,codrington1 ,melanesia1 p4 #abb4 ,footnote #ag3 ,j4,a4,i4 x4 #bid4 ,footnote #ah3 ,op4 cit4 x4 #cac4 ,footnote #ai3 ,j4,a4,i4 x4 #cjj4 ,footnote #bj3 ,williams's ,fiji1 p4 #bah4 ,see ,mr4 ,thomson's remarks cited later4 ,footnote #ba3 ,fiji1 p4 #bag4 ,footnote #bb3 ,ibid4 p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #bc3 ,ibid4 p4 #bcj4 ,footnote #bd3 ,j4,a4,i4 xiv4 #cj4 ,footnote #be3 ,j4,a4,i4 xi4 #cfa-cff4 ,footnote #bf3 ,ibid4 xi4 #cgd4 ,footnote #bg3 ,ibid4 xi4 #cgf4 ,footnote #bh3 ,ibid4 xi4 #cgf ,footnote #bi3 ,j4,a4,i4 xi4 #cgh4 ,footnote #cj3 ,ibid4 #chb4 ,footnote #ca3 ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 #cfj4 ,footnote #cb3 ,conceivably1 however1 the ,guiana spirits who have so much moral influence1 exert it by magical charms4 ',the belief in the power of charms for good or evil produces not only honesty1 but a great amount of gentle dealing1' says ,livingstone1 of the ,africans4 ,however they work1 the spirits work for righteousness4 ,footnote #cc3 ,obviously there could be no ,family ,god before there was the institution of the ,family4 ,footnote #cd3 ,callaway1 ,rel4 of ,amazulu1 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #ce3 ,callaway1 p4 #a4 ,footnote #cf3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #h4 ,footnote #cg3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #g4 ,footnote #ch3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #ai4 ,footnote #ci3 ,callaway1 pp4 #bj1 #ba4 ,footnote #dj3 ,pp4 #bf1 #bg4 ,footnote #da3 ,pp4 #di1 #ej4 ,footnote #db3 ,p4 #fg4 ,footnote #dc3 ,p4 #abb4 ,,xiii ,,more ,,savage ,,supreme ,,beings ,if many of the lowest savages known to us entertain ideas of a ,supreme ,being such as we find among ,fuegians1 ,australians1 ,bushmen1 and ,andamanese1 are there examples1 besides the ,zulus1 of tribes higher in material culture who seem to have had such notions1 but to have partly forgotten or neglected them8 ,miss ,kingsley1 a lively1 observant1 and unprejudiced1 though rambling writer1 gives this very account of the ,bantu races4 ,oblivion1 or neglect1 will show itself in leaving the ,supreme ,being alone1 as he needs no propitiation1 while devoting sacrifice and ritual to fetishes and ghosts4 ,that this should be done is perfectly natural if the ,supreme ,being 7who wants no sacrifice7 were the first evolved in thought1 while venal fetishes and spirits came in as a result of the ghost theory4 ,but if1 as a result of the ghost theory1 the ,supreme ,being came last in evolution1 he ought to be the most fashionable object of worship1 the latest developed1 the most powerful1 and most to be propitiated4 ,he is the reverse4 ,to take an example3 the ,dinkas of the ,upper ,nile 7'godless1' says ,sir ,samuel ,baker7 'pay a very theoretical kind of homage to the all-powerful ,being1 dwelling in heaven1 whence he sees all things4 ,he is called ,dendid 7great rain1 that is1 universal benediction874' ,he is omnipotent1 but1 being all beneficence1 can do no evil2 so1 not being feared1 he is not addressed in prayer4 ,the evil spirit1 on the other hand1 receives sacrifices4 ,the ,dinkas have a strange old chant3 ',at the beginning1 when ,dendid made all things1 ,he created the ,sun1 ,and the ,sun is born1 and dies1 and comes again6 ,he created the ,stars1 ,and the ,stars are born1 and die1 and come again6 ,he created ,man1 ,and ,man is born1 and dies1 and returns no more6' ,it is like the lament of ,moschus4#a ,russegger compares the ,dinkas1 and all the neighbouring peoples who hold the same beliefs1 to modern ,deists4#b ,they are remote from ,atheism and from cult6 ,suggestions about an ancient ,egyptian influence are made1 but popular ,egyptian religion was not monotheistic1 and priestly thought could scarcely influence the ancestors of the ,dinkas4 ,m4 ,lejean says these peoples are so practical and utilitarian that missionary religion takes no hold on them4 ,mr4 ,spencer does not give the ideas of the ,dinkas1 but it is not easy to see how the too beneficent ,dendid could be evolved out of ghost-propitiation1 'the origin of all religions4' ,rather the ,dinkas1 a practical people1 seem to have simply forgotten to be grateful to their ,maker2 or have decided1 more to the credit of the clearness of their heads than the warmth of their hearts1 that gratitude he does not want4 ,like the ,french philosopher they cultivate l'indpendance du coeur1 being in this matter strikingly unlike the ,pawnees4 ,let us now take a case in which ancestor-worship1 and no other form of religion 7beyond mere superstitions71 has been declared to be the practice of an ,african people4 ,mr4 ,spencer gives the example of natives of the south-eastern district of ,central ,africa described by ,mr4 ,macdonald in ',africana4'#c ,the dead man becomes a ghost-god1 receives prayer and sacrifice1 is called a ,mulungu 7 great ancestor or sky871 is preferred above older spirits1 now forgotten2 such old spirits may1 however1 have a mountain top for home1 a great chief being better remembered2 the mountain god is prayed to for rain2 higher gods were probably similar local gods in an older habitat of the ,yao4#d ,such is in the main ,mr4 ,spencer's rsum of ,mr4 ,duff ,macdonald's report4 ,he omits whatever ,mr4 ,macdonald says about a ,being among the ,yaos1 analogous to the ,dendid of the ,dinkas1 or the ,darumulun of ,australia1 or the ,huron ,ahone4 ,yet analysis detects1 in ,mr4 ,macdonald's report1 copious traces of such a ,being1 though ,mr4 ,macdonald himself believes in ancestor-worship as the ,source of the local religion4 ,thus1 ,mulungu1 or ,mlungu1 used as a proper name1 'is said to be the great spirit1 msimu1 of all men1 a spirit formed by adding all the departed spirits together4#e ,this is a singular stretch of savage philosophy1 and indicates 7says ,mr4 ,macdonald7 'a grasping after a ,being who is the totality of all individual existence4444 ,if it fell from the lips of civilised men instead of savages1 it would be regarded as philosophy4 ,expressions of this kind among the natives are partly traditional1 and partly dictated by the big thoughts of the moment4' ,philosophy it is1 but a philosophy dependent on the ghost theory4 ,i go on to show that the ,wayao have1 though ,mr4 ,spencer omits him1 a ,being who precisely answers to ,darumulun1 if stripped 7perhaps7 of his ethical aspect4 ,on this point we are left in uncertainty1 just because ,mr4 ,macdonald could not ascertain the secrets of his mysteries1 which1 in ,australia1 have been revealed to a few ,europeans4 ,where ,mulungu is used as a proper name1 it 'certainly points to a personal ,being1 by the ,wayao sometimes said to be the same as ,mtanga4 ,at other times he is a ,being that possesses many powerful servants1 but is himself kept a good deal beyond the scene of earthly affairs1 like the gods of ,epicurus4' ,this is1 of course1 precisely the feature in ,african theology which interests us4 ,the ,supreme ,being1 in spite of the potency which his supposed place as latest evolved out of the ghost-world should naturally give him1 is neglected1 either as half forgotten1 or for philosophical reasons4 ,for these reasons ,epicurus and ,lucretius make their gods otiosi1 unconcerned1 and the ,wayao1 with their universal collective spirit1 are no mean philosophers4 ',this ,mulungu' or ,mtanga1 'in the world beyond the grave1 is represented as assigning to spirits their proper places1' whether for ethical reasons or not we are not informed4#f ,santos 7#aehf7 says 'they acknowledge a ,god who1 both in this world and the next1 measures retribution for the good or evil done in this4' ',in the native hypothesis about creation the people of ,mulungu play a very important part4' ,these ministers of his who do his pleasure are1 therefore1 as is ,mulungu himself1 regarded as prior to the existing world4 ,therefore they cannot1 in ,wayao opinion1 be ghosts of the dead at all2 nor can we properly call them 'spirits4' ,they are beings1 original1 creative1 but undefined4 ,the word ,mulungu1 however1 is now applied to spirits of individuals1 but whether it means 'sky' 7,salt7 or whether it means 'ancestor' 7,bleek71 it cannot be made to prove that ,mulungu himself was originally envisaged as 'spirit4' ,for1 manifestly1 suppose that the idea of powerful beings1 undefined1 came first in evolution1 and was followed by the ghost idea1 that idea might then be applied to explaining the pre-existent creative powers4 ,mtanga is by 'some' localised as the god of ,mangochi1 an ,olympus left behind by the ,yao in their wanderings4 ,here1 some hold1 his voice is still audible4 ',others say that ,mtanga never was a man 444 he was concerned in the first introduction of men into the world4 ,he gets credit for 444 making mountains and rivers4 ,he is intimately associated with a year of plenty4 ,he is called ,mchimwene juene1 'a very chief4' ,he has a kind of evil opposite1 ,chitowe1 but this being1 the ,satan of the creed1 'is a child or subject of ,mtanga1' an evil angel1 in fact4#g ,the thunder god1 ,mpambe1 in ,yao1 ,njasi 7lightning7 is also a minister of the ,supreme ,being4 ',he is sent by ,mtanga with rain4' ,europeans are cleverer than natives1 because we 'stayed longer with the people of ,god 7,mulungu74' ,i do not gather that1 though associated with good crops1 ,mtanga or ,mulungu receives any sacrifice or propitiation4 ',the chief addresses his own god2'#h the chief 'will not trouble himself about his great-great-grand-father2 he will present his offering to his own immediate predecessor1 saying1 ',o father1 ,i do not know all your relatives2 you know them all3 invite them to feast with you4'#i ',all the offerings are supposed to point to some want of the spirit1' ,mtanga1 on the other hand1 is nihil indiga nostri4 ,a village god is given beer to drink1 as ,indra got ,soma4 ,a dead chief is propitiated by human sacrifices4 ,i find no trace of any gift to ,mtanga4 ,his mysteries are really unknown to ,mr4 ,macdonald3 they were laughed at by a travelled and 'emancipated' ,yao4#aj ',these rites are supposed to be inviolably concealed by the initiated1 who often say that they would die if they revealed them4'#aa ,how can we pretend to understand a religion if we do not know its secret8 ,that secret1 in ,australia1 yields the certainty of the ethical character of the ,supreme ,being4 ,mr4 ,macdonald says about the initiator 7a grotesque figure73-- ',he delivers lectures1 and is said to give much good advice 444 the lectures condemn selfishness1 and a selfish person is called mwisichana1 that is1 uninitiated4' ,there could not be better evidence of the presence of the ethical element in the religious mysteries4 ,among the ,yao1 as among the ,australian ,kurnai1 the central secret lesson of religion is the lesson of unselfishness4 ,it is not stated that ,mtanga instituted or presides over the mysteries4 ,judging from the analogy of ,eleusis1 the ,bora1 the ,red ,indian initiations1 and so on1 we may expect this to be the belief2 but ,mr4 ,macdonald knows very little about the matter4 ,the legendary tales say 'all things in this world were made by ,god4' ',at first there were not people1 but ,god and beasts4' ',god' here1 is ,mlungu4 ,the other statement is apparently derived from existing ancestor-worship1 people who died became ',god' 7,mlungu74 ,but ,god is prior to death1 for the ,yao have a form of the usual myth of the origin of death1 also of sleep3 'death and sleep are one word1 they are of one family4' ,god dwells on high1 while a malevolent 'great one1' who disturbed the mysteries and slew the initiated1 was turned into a mountain4#ab ,in spite of information confessedly defective1 ,i have extracted from ,mr4 ,spencer's chosen authority a mass of facts1 pointing to a ,yao belief in a primal being1 maker of mountains and rivers2 existent before men were2 not liable to death--which came late among them--beneficent2 not propitiated by sacrifice 7as far as the evidence goes72 moral 7if we may judge by the analogy of the mysteries71 and yet occupying the religious background1 while the foreground is held by the most recent ghosts4 ,to prove ,mr4 ,spencer's theory1 he ought to have given a full account of this being1 and to have shown how he was developed out of ghosts which are forgotten in inverse ratio to their distance from the actual generation4 ,i conceive that ,mr4 ,spencer would find a mid-point between a common ghost and ,mtanga1 in a ghost of a chief attached to a mountain1 the place and place-name preserving the ghost's name and memory4 ,but it is1 ,i think1 a far cry from such a chief's ghost to the pre-human1 angel-served ,mtanga4 ,of ancestor worship and ghost worship1 we have abundant evidence4 ,but the position of ,mtanga raises one of these delicate and crucial questions which cannot be solved by ignoring their existence4 ,is ,mtanga evolved out of an ancestral ghost8 ,if so1 why1 as greatest of divine beings1 ',very ,chief1' and having powerful ministers under him1 is he left unpropitiated1 unless it be by moral discourses at the mysteries8 ,as a much more advanced idea than that of a real father's ghost1 he ought to be much later in evolution1 fresher in conception1 and more adored4 ,how do we explain his lack of adoration8 ,was he originally envisaged as a ghost at all1 and1 if so1 by what curious but uniform freak of savage logic is he regarded as prior to men1 and though a ghost1 prior to death8 ,is it not certain that such a being could be conceived of by men who had never dreamed of ghosts8 ,is there any logical reason why ,mtanga should not be regarded as originally on the same footing as ,munganngaur1 but now half forgotten and neglected1 for practical or philosophical reasons8 ,on these problems light is thrown by a successor of ,mr4 ,spencer's authority1 ,mr4 ,duff ,macdonald1 in the ,blantyre ,mission4 ,this gentleman1 the ,rev4 ,david ,clement ,scott1 has published ',a ,cyclopaedic ,dictionary of the ,mang'anja ,language in ,british ,central ,africa4'#ac ,looking at ancestral spirits first1 we find ,mzimu1 'spirits of the departed1 supposed to come in dreams4' ,though abiding in the spirit world1 they also haunt thickets1 they inspire ,mlauli1 prophets1 and make them rave and utter predictions4 ,offerings are made to them4 ,here is a prayer3 ',watch over me1 my ancestor1 who died long ago2 tell the great spirit at the head of my race from whom my mother came4' ,there are little hut-temples1 and the chief directs the sacrifices of food1 or of animals4 ,there are religious pilgrimages1 with sacrifice1 to mountains4 ,god1 like men in this region1 has various names1 as ,chiuta1 ',god in space and the rainbow sign across2' ,mpambe1 ',god ,almighty' 7or rather 'pre-excellent'72 ,mlezi1 ',god the ,sustainer1' and ,mulungu1 ',god who is spirit4' ,mulungu ,god1 'not spirits or fetish4' ',you can't put the plural1 as ,god is ,one1' say the natives4 ',there are no idols called gods1 and spirits are spirits of people who have died1 not gods4' ,idols are ,zitunzi-zitunzi4 ',spirits are supposed to be with ,mulungu4' ,god made the world and man4 ,our author says 'when the chief or people sacrifice it is to ,god1' but he also says that they sacrifice to ancestral spirits4 ,there is some confusion of ideas here3 ,mr4 ,macdonald says nothing of sacrifice to ,mtanga4 ,mr4 ,scott does not seem to know more about the ,mysteries than ,mr4 ,macdonald1 and his article on ,mulungu does not much enlighten us4 ,does ,mulungu1 as ,creative ,god1 receive sacrifice1 or not8#ad ,mr4 ,scott gives no instance of this1 under ,nsembe 7sacrifice71 where ancestors1 or hill-dwelling ghosts of chiefs1 are offered food2 yet1 as we have seen1 under ,mulungu1 he avers that the chiefs and people do sacrifice to ,god4 ,he appears to be confusing the ,creator with spirits1 and no reliance can be placed on this part of his evidence4 ',at the back of all this' 7sacrifice to spirits7 'there is ,god4' ,if ,i understand ,mr4 ,scott1 sacrifices are really made only to spirits1 but he is trying to argue that1 after all1 the theistic conception is at the back of the animistic practice1 thus importing his theory into his facts4 ,his theory would1 really1 be in a better way1 if sacrifice is not offered to the ,creator1 but this had not occurred to ,mr4 ,scott4 ,it is plain1 in any case1 that the religion of the ,africans in the ,blantyre region has an element not easily to be derived from ancestral spirit-worship1 an element not observed by ,mr4 ,spencer4 ,nobody who has followed the examples already adduced will be amazed by what ,waitz calls the 'surprising result' of recent inquiries among the great negro race4 ,among the branches where foreign influence is least to be suspected1 we discover1 behind their more conspicuous fetishisms and superstitions1 something which we cannot exactly call ,monotheism1 yet which tends in that direction4#ae ,waitz quotes ,wilson for the fact that1 their fetishism apart1 they adore a ,supreme ,being as the ,creator3 and do not honour him with sacrifice4 ,the remarks of ,waitz may be cited in full3 ',the religion of the negro may be considered by some as a particularly rude form of polytheism and may be branded with the special name of fetishism4 ,it would follow1 from a minute examination of it1 that--apart from the extravagant and fantastic traits1 which are rooted in the character of the negro1 and which radiate therefrom over all his creations--in comparison with the religions of other savages it is neither very specially differentiated nor very specially crude in form4 ',but this opinion can be held to be quite true only while we look at the outside of the negro's religion1 or estimate its significance from arbitrary pre-suppositions1 as is specially the case with ,ad4 ,wuttke4 ',by a deeper insight1 which of late several scientific investigators have succeeded in attaining1 we reach1 rather1 the surprising conclusion that several of the negro races--on whom we cannot as yet prove1 and can hardly conjecture1 the influence of a more civilised people--in the embodying of their religious conceptions are further advanced than almost all other savages1 so far that1 even if we do not call them monotheists1 we may still think of them as standing on the boundary of monotheism1 seeing that their religion is also mixed with a great mass of rude superstition which1 in turn1 among other peoples1 seems to overrun completely the purer religious conceptions4' ,this conclusion as to an element of pure faith in negro religion would not have surprised ,waitz1 had recent evidence as to the same creed among lower savages lain before him as he worked4 ,this volume of his book was composed in #ahfj4 ,in #ahgb he had become well aware of the belief in a good ,maker among the ,australian natives1 and of the absence among them of ancestor worship4#af ,waitz's remarks on the ,supreme ,being of the ,negro are well worth noting1 from his unconcealed astonishment at the discovery4 ,wilson's observations on ,north and ,south ,guinea religion were published in #ahef4 ,after commenting on the delicate task of finding out what a savage religion really is1 he writes3 ',the belief in one great ,supreme ,being1 who made and upholds all things1 is universal4'#ag ,the names of the being are translated ',maker1' ',preserver1' ',benefactor1' ',great ,friend4' ,though compact of all good qualities1 the being has allowed the world to 'come under the control of evil spirits1' who1 alone1 receive religious worship4 ,though he leaves things uncontrolled1 yet the chief being 7as in ,homer7 ratifies the ,oath1 at a treaty1 and is invoked to punish criminals when ordeal water is to be drunk4 ,so far1 then1 he has an ethical influence4 ',grossly wicked people' are buried outside of the regular place4 ,fetishism prevails1 with spiritualism1 and ,wilson thinks that mediums might pick up some good tricks in ,guinea4 ,he gives no examples4 ,their inspired men do things 'that cannot be accounted for1' by the use of narcotics4 ,the ,south ,guinea ,creator1 ,anyambia 7 good spirit871 is good1 but capricious4 ,he has a good deputy1 ,ombwiri 7spelled ',mbuiri' by ,miss ,kingsley72 he alone has no priests1 but communicates directly with men4 ,the neighbouring ,shekuni have mysteries of the ,great ,spirit4 ,no details are given4 ,this great being1 ,mwetyi1 witnesses covenants and punishes perjury4 ,this people are ancestor-worshippers1 but their ,supreme ,being is not said to receive sacrifice1 as ghosts do1 while he is so far from being powerless1 like ,unkulunkulu1 that1 but for fear of his wrath1 'their national treaties would have little or no force4'#ah ,having no information about the mysteries1 of course1 we know nothing of other moral influences which are1 or may be exercised by these great1 powerful1 and not wholly otiose beings4 ,the celebrated traveller1 ,mungo ,park1 who visited ,africa in #ahje1 had good opportunities of understanding the natives4 ,he did not hurry through the land with a large armed force1 but alone1 or almost alone1 paid his way with his brass buttons4 ',i have conversed with all ranks and conditions upon the subject of their faith1' he says1 'and can pronounce1 without the smallest shadow of doubt1 that the belief in one ,god and in a future state of reward and punishment is entire and universal among them4' ,this cannot strictly be called monotheism1 as there are many subordinate spirits who may be influenced by 'magical ceremonies4' ,but if monotheism means belief in ,one ,spirit alone1 or religious regard paid to ,one ,spirit alone1 it exists nowhere--no1 not in ,islam4 ,park thinks it remarkable that 'the ,almighty' only receives prayers at the new moon 7of sacrifice to the ,almighty he says nothing71 and that1 being the creator and preserver of all things1 he is 'of so exalted a nature that it is idle to imagine the feeble supplications of wretched mortals can reverse the decrees and change the purpose of unerring ,wisdom4' ,the new moon prayers are mere matters of tradition2 'our fathers did it before us4' ',such is the blindness of unassisted nature1' says ,park1 who is not satirising1 in ,swift's manner1 the prayers of ,presbyterians at home on ,yarrow4 ,thus1 the ,african ,supreme ,being is unpropitiated1 while inferior spirits are constrained by magic or propitiated with food4 ,we meet our old problem3 ,how has this ,god1 in the conception of whom there is so much philosophy1 developed out of these hungry ghosts8 ,the influence of ,islam can scarcely be suspected1 ,allah being addressed1 of course1 in endless prayers1 while the ,african god receives none4 ,indeed1 it would be more plausible to say that ,mahomet borrowed ,allah from the widespread belief which we are studying1 than that the negro's ,supreme ,being was borrowed from ,allah4 ,park had1 as we saw1 many opportunities of familiar discussion with the people on whose mercies he threw himself4 ',but it is not often that the negroes make their religious opinions the subject of conversation2 when interrogated1 in particular1 concerning their ideas of a future state1 they express themselves with great reverence1 but endeavour to shorten the discussion by saying1 ,mo o mo inta allo 7,no man knows anything about it74'#ai ,park himself1 in extreme distress1 and almost in despair1 chanced to observe the delicate beauty of a small moss-plant1 and1 reflecting that the ,creator of so frail a thing could not be indifferent to any of ,his creatures1 plucked up courage and reached safety4#bj ,he was not of the negro philosophy1 and is the less likely to have invented it4 ,the new moon prayer1 said in a whisper1 was reported to ,park1 'by many different people1' to contain 'thanks to ,god for his kindness during the existence of the past moon1 and to solicit a continuation of his favour during the new one4' ,this1 of course1 may prove ,islamite influence1 and is at variance with the general tendency of the religious philosophy as described4 ,we now arrive at a theory of the ,supreme ,being among a certain ,african race which would be entirely fatal to my whole hypothesis on this topic1 if it could be demonstrated correct in fact1 and if it could be stretched so as to apply to the ,australians1 ,fuegians1 ,andamanese1 and other very backward peoples4 ,it is the hypothesis that the ,supreme ,being is a 'loan-god1' borrowed from ,europeans4 ,the theory is very lucidly set forth in ,major ,ellis's ',tshi-speaking ,peoples of the ,gold ,coast4'#ba ,major ,ellis's opinion coincides with that of ,waitz in his ',introduction to ,anthropology' 7an opinion to which ,waitz does not seem bigoted7--namely1 that 'the original form of all religion is a raw1 unsystematic polytheism1' nature being peopled by inimical powers or spirits1 and everyone worshipping what he thinks most dangerous or most serviceable4 ,there are few general1 many local or personal1 objects of veneration4#bb ,major ,ellis only met this passage when he had formed his own ideas by observation of the ,tshi race4 ,we do not pretend to guess what 'the original form of all religion' may have been2 but we have given1 and shall give1 abundant evidence for the existence of a loftier faith than this1 among peoples much lower in material culture than the ,tshi races1 who have metals and an organised priesthood4 ,they occupy1 in small villages 7except ,coomassie and ,djuabin71 the forests of the ,gold ,coast4 ,the mere mention of ,coomassie shows how vastly superior in civilisation the ,tshis 7,ashantis and ,fantis7 are to the naked1 houseless ,australians4 ,their inland communities1 however1 are 'mere specks in a vast tract of impenetrable forest4' ,the coast people have for centuries been in touch with ,europeans1 but the ',tshi-speaking races are now much in the same condition1 both socially and morally1 as they were at the time of the ,portuguese discovery4'#bc ,nevertheless1 ,major ,ellis explains their ,supreme ,being as the result of ,european influence6 ,a priori this appears highly improbable4 ,that a belief should sweep over all these specks in impenetrable forest1 from the coast-tribes in contact with ,europeans1 and that this belief should1 though the most recent1 be infinitely the least powerful1 cannot be regarded as a plausible hypothesis4 ,moreover1 on ,major ,ellis's theory the ,supreme ,beings of races which but recently came for the first time in contact with ,europeans1 ,supreme ,beings kept jealously apart from ,european ken1 and revered in the secrecy of ancient mysteries1 must also1 by parity of reason1 be the result of ,european influence4 ,unfortunately1 ,major ,ellis gives no evidence for his statements about the past history of ,tshi religion4 ,authorities he must have1 and references would be welcome4 ',with people in the condition in which the natives of the ,gold ,coast now are1 religion is not in any way allied with moral ideas4'#bd ,we have given abundant evidence that among much more backward tribes morals rest on a religious sanction4 ,if this be not so on the ,gold ,coast we cannot accept these relatively advanced ,fantis and ,ashantis as representing the 'original' state of ethics and religion1 any more than those people with cities1 a king1 a priesthood1 iron1 and gold1 represent the 'original' material condition of society4 ,major ,ellis also shows that the ,gods exact chastity from aspirants to the priesthood4#be ,the present beliefs of the ,gold ,coast are kept up by organised priesthoods as 'lucrative business4'#bf ,where there is no lucre and no priesthood1 as among more backward races1 this kind of business cannot be done4 ,on the ,gold ,coast men can only approach gods through priests4#bg ,this is degeneration4 ,obviously1 if religion began in a form relatively pure and moral1 it must degenerate1 as civilisation advances1 under priests who 'exploit' the lucrative1 and can see no money in the pure elements of belief and practice4 ,that the lucrative elements in ,christianity were exploited by the clergy1 to the neglect of ethics1 was precisely the complaint of the ,reformers4 ,from these lucrative elements the creed of the ,apostles was free1 and a similar freedom marks the religion of ,australia or of the ,pawnees4 ,we cannot possibly1 then1 expect to find the 'original' state of religion among a people subdued to a money-grubbing priesthood1 like the ,tshi races4 ,let religion begin as pure as snow1 it would be corrupted by priestly trafficking in its lucrative animistic aspect4 ,and priests are developed relatively late4 ,major ,ellis discriminates ,tshi gods as-- #a4 ,general1 worshipped by an entire tribe or more tribes4 #b4 ,local deities of river1 hill1 forest1 or sea4 #c4 ,deities of families or corporations4 #d4 ,tutelary deities of individuals4 ,the second class1 according to the natives1 were appointed by the first class1 who are 'too distant or indifferent to interfere ordinarily in human affairs4' ,thus1 the ,huron god1 ,ahone1 punishes nobody4 ,he is all sweetness and light1 but has a deputy god1 called ,okeus4 ,on our hypothesis this indifference of high gods suggests the crowding out of the great disinterested ,god by venal animistic competition4 ,all of class ,,ii4 'appear to have been originally malignant4' ,though1 in native belief1 class ,i4 was prior to1 and 'appointed' class ,,ii41 ,major ,ellis thinks that malignant spirits of class ,,ii4 were raised to class ,i4 as if to the peerage1 while classes ,,iii4 and ,,iv4 'are clearly the product of priesthood'--therefore late4 ,major ,ellis then avers that when ,europeans reached the ,gold ,coast1 in the fifteenth century1 they 'appear to have found' a ,northern ,god1 ,tando1 and a ,southern ,god1 ,bobowissi1 still adored4 ,bobowissi makes thunder and rain1 lives on a hill1 and receives1 or received1 human sacrifices4 ,but1 'after an intercourse of some years with ,europeans1' the villagers near ,european forts 'added to their system a new deity1 whom they termed ,nana ,nyankupon4 ,this was the ,god of the ,christians1 borrowed from them1 and adapted under a new designation1 meaning ',lord of the sky4' 7,this is conjectural4 ,nyankum rain4 ,nyansa has 'a later meaning1 craft4'7#bh ,now ,major ,ellis1 later1 has to contrast ,bosman's account of fetishism 7#agjj7 with his own observations4 ,according to ,bosman's native source of information1 men then selected their own fetishes4 ,these are now selected by priests4 ,bosman's authority was wrong--or priesthood has extended its field of business4 ,major ,ellis argues that the revolution from amateur to priestly selection of fetishes could not occur in #aij years1 'over a vast tract of country1 amongst peoples living in semi-isolated communities1 in the midst of pathless forests1 where there is but little opportunity for the exchange of ideas1 and where we know they have been uninfluenced by any higher race4' ,yet ,major ,ellis's theory is that this isolated people were influenced by a higher race1 to the extent of adopting a totally new ,supreme ,being1 from ,europeans1 a being whom they in no way sought to propitiate1 and who was of no practical use4 ,and this they did1 he says1 not under priestly influence1 but in the face of priestly opposition4#bi ,major ,ellis's logic does not appear to be consistent4 ,in any case we ask for evidence how1 in the 'impenetrable forests' did a new ,supreme ,deity become universally known8 ,are we certain that travellers 7unquoted7 did not discover a deity with no priests1 or ritual1 or 'money in the concern1' later than they discovered the blood-stained1 conspicuous1 lucrative ,bobowissi8 ,why was ,nyankupon1 the supposed new god of a new powerful set of strangers1 left wholly unpropitiated8 ,the reverse was to be expected4 ,major ,ellis writes3 ',almost certainly the addition of one more to an already numerous family' of gods1 'was strenuously resisted by the priesthood1' who1 confessedly1 are adding now lower gods every day6 ,yet ,nyankupon is universally known1 in spite of priestly resistance4 ,nyankupon1 ,i presume ,anzambi1 ,anyambi1 ,nyambi1 ,nzambi1 ,anzam1 ,nyam1 the ,nzam of the ,fans1 'and of all ,bantu coast races1 the creator of man1 plants1 animals1 and the earth2 he takes no further interest in the affair4'#cj ,the crowd of spirits take only too much interest2 and1 therefore1 are the lucrative element in religion4 ,it is not very easy to believe that ,nyam1 under all his names1 was picked up from the ,portuguese1 and passed apparently from negroes to ,bantu all over ,west ,africa1 despite the isolation of the groups1 and the resistance of the priesthood among tribes 'uninfluenced by any higher race4' ,nyam1 like ,major ,ellis's class ,i41 appoints a subordinate god to do his work3 he is truly good1 and governs the malevolent spirits4#ca ,the spread of ,nyankupon1 as described by ,major ,ellis1 is the more remarkable1 since 'five or six miles from the sea1 or even less1 the country was a terra incognita to ,europeans1'#cb ,nyankupon was1 it is alleged1 adopted1 because our superiority proved ,europeans to be 'protected by a deity of greater power than any of those to which they themselves' 7the ,tshi races7 'offered sacrifices4' ,then1 of course1 ,nyankupon would receive the best sacrifices of all1 as the most powerful deity8 ,far from that1 ,nyankupon received no sacrifice1 and had no priests4 ,no priest would have a traditional way of serving him4 ,as the unlucky man in ,voltaire says to his guardian angel1 ',it is well worth while to have a presiding genius1' so the ,tshis and ,bantu might ironically remark1 ',a useful thing1 a new ,supreme ,being6' ,a quarter of a continent or so adopts a new foreign god1 and leaves him plant l2 unserved1 unhonoured1 and unsung4 ,he therefore came to be thought too remote1 or too indifferent1 'to interfere directly in the affairs of the world4' ',this idea was probably caused by the fact that the natives had not experienced any material improvement in their condition 444 although they also had become followers of the god of the whites4'#cc ,but that was just what they had not done6 ,even at ,magellan's ,straits1 the ,fuegians picked up from a casual ,spanish sea-captain and adored an image of ,cristo4 ,name and effigy they accepted4 ,the ,tshi people took neither effigy nor name of a deity from the ,portuguese settled among them4 ,they neither imitated ,catholic rites nor adapted their own2 they prayed not1 nor sacrificed to the 'new' ,nyankupon4 ,only his name and the idea of his nature are universally diffused in ,west ,african belief4 ,he lives in no definite home1 or hill1 but 'in ,nyankupon's country4' ,nyankupon1 at the present day1 is 'ignored rather than worshipped1' while ,bobowissi has priests and offerings4 ,it is clear that ,major ,ellis is endeavouring to explain1 by a singular solution 7namely1 the borrowing of a ,god from ,europeans71 and that a solution improbable and inadequate1 a phenomenon of very wide distribution4 ,nyankupon cannot be explained apart from ,taaroa1 ,puluga1 ,ahone1 ,ndengei1 ,dendid1 and ,ta-li-y-,tochoo1 ,gods to be later described1 who cannot1 by any stretch of probabilities1 be regarded as of ,european origin4 ,all of these represent the primeval ,supreme ,being1 more or less or altogether stripped1 under advancing conditions of culture1 of his ethical influence1 and crowded out by the horde of useful greedy ghosts or ghost gods1 whose business is lucrative4 ,nyankupon has no pretensions to be1 or to have been a 'spirit4'#cd ,major ,ellis's theory is a natural result of his belief in a tangle of polytheism as 'the original state of religion4' ,if so1 there was not much room for the natural development of ,nyankupon1 in whom 'the missionaries find a parallel to the ,jahveh of the ,jews4'#ce ,on our theory ,nyankupon takes his place in the regular process of the corruption of theism by animism4 ,the parallel case of ,nzambi ,mpungu1 the ,creator among the ,fiorts 7a ,bantu stock71 is thus stated by ,miss ,kingsley3 ',i have no hesitation in saying ,i fully believe ,nzambi ,mpungu to be a purely native god1 and that he is a great god over all things1 but the study of him is even more difficult than the study of ,nzambi1 because the ,jesuit missionaries who gained so great an influence over the ,fiorts in the sixteenth century identified him with ,jehovah1 and worked on the native mind from that stand-point4 ,consequently semi-mythical traces of ,jesuit teaching linger1 even now1 in the religious ideas of the ,fiorts4'#cf ,nzambi ,mpungu lives 'behind the firmament4' ',he takes next to no interest in human affairs2' which is not a ,jesuit idea of ,god4 ,in all missionary accounts of savage religion1 we have to guard against two kinds of bias4 ,one is the bias which makes the observer deny any religion to the native race1 except devil-worship4 ,the other is the bias which lends him to look for traces of a pure primitive religious tradition4 ,yet we cannot but observe this reciprocal phenomenon3 missionaries often find a native name and idea which answer so nearly to their conception of ,god that they adopt the idea and the name1 in teaching4 ,again1 on the other side1 the savages1 when first they hear the missionaries' account of ,god1 recognise it1 as do the ,hurons and ,bakwain1 for what has always been familiar to them4 ,this is recorded in very early pre-missionary travels1 as in the book of ,william ,strachey on ,virginia 7#afab71 to which we now turn4 ,the ,god found by ,strachey in ,virginia cannot1 by any latitude of conjecture1 be regarded as the result of contact with ,europeans4 ,yet he almost exactly answers to the ,african ,nyankupon1 who is explained away as a 'loan-god4' ,for the belief in relatively pure creative beings1 whether they are morally adored1 without sacrifice1 or merely neglected1 is so widely diffused1 that ,anthropology must ignore them1 or account for them as 'loan-gods'--or give up her theory6 ,footnote #a3 ,lejean1 ,rev4 des ,deux ,mondes1 ,april #ahfb1 p4 #gfj4 ,citing for the chant1 ,beltrame1 ,dictionario della lingua denka1 ,,ms4 ,footnote #b3 ,waitz1 ii4 #gd4 ,footnote #c3 #ahhb4 ,footnote #d3 ,ecclesiastical ,institutions1 #fha4 ,footnote #e3 ,africana1 i4 #ff4 ,footnote #f3 ,africana1 i4 #fg4 ,footnote #g3 ,africana1 i4 #ga1 #gb ,footnote #h3 i #hh4 ,footnote #i3 i4 #fh4 ,footnote #aj3 i4 #acj4 ,footnote #aa3 ,ibid4 ,footnote #ab3 ,africana1 i #bgi-cja4 ,footnote #ac3 ,edinburgh1 #ahib4 ,footnote #ad3 ,incidentally ,mr4 ,macdonald shows that1 contrary to ,mr4 ,spencer's opinion1 these savages have words for dreams and dreaming4 ,they interpret dreams by a system of symbols1 'a canoe is ill luck1' and 'dreams go by contraries4' ,footnote #ae3 ,waitz1 ,anthropologie1 ii4 #afg4 ,footnote #af3 ,waitz and ,gerland1 ,anthropologie1 vi4 #gif-gii and #hji4 ,in #ahgd ,mr4 ,howitt's evidence on the moral element in the mysteries was not published4 ,waitz scouts the idea that the higher ,australian beliefs are of ,european origin4 ',wir schen vielmehr uralte ,trmmer hnlicher ,mythologenie in ihnen1' 7vi4 #gih7 flotsam from ideas of immemorial antiquity4 ,footnote #ag3 ,wilson1 p4 #bji4 ,footnote #ah3 ,wilson1 p4 #cib4 ,footnote #ai3 ,park's ,journey1 i4 #bgd1 #bge1 #ahae4 ,footnote #bj3 ,p4 #bde4 ,footnote #ba3 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,footnote #bb3 ,ellis1 pp4 #bj1 #ba4 ,footnote #bc3 ,p4 #d4 ,footnote #bd3 ,ellis1 p4 #aj4 ,footnote #be3 ,p4 #abj4 ,footnote #bf3 ,p4 #ae4 ,footnote #bg3 ,p4 #abe4 ,footnote #bh3 ,ellis1 pp4 #bd1 #be4 ,footnote #bi3 ,ellis1 p4 #ahi4 ,footnote #cj3 ,miss ,kingsley1 p4 #ddb4 ,footnote #ca3 ,ellis1 p4 #bbi4 ,footnote #cb3 ,ibid4 p4 #be4 ,footnote #cc3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #bg4 ,footnote #cd3 ,ellis1 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #ce3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #cf3 ',african ,religion and ,law1' ,national ,review1 ,september #ahig1 p4 #acb4 ,,xiv ,,ahone4 ,,ti-,,ra-,w4 ,n-,,pi4 ,,pachacamac4 ,,tui ,,laga4 ,,taa-,,roa ,in this chapter it is my object to set certain ,american ,creators beside the ,african beings whom we have been examining4 ,we shall range from ,hurons to ,pawnees and ,blackfeet1 and end with ,pachacamac1 the supreme being of the old ,inca civilisation1 with ,tui ,laga and ,taa-roa4 ,it will be seen that the ,hurons have been accidentally deprived of their benevolent ,creator by a bibliographical accident1 while that ,creator corresponds very well with the ,peruvian ,pachucamac1 often regarded as a mere philosophical abstraction4 ,the ,pawnees will show us a ,creator involved in a sacrificial ritual1 which is not common1 while the ,blackfeet present a ,creator who is not envisaged as a spirit at all1 and1 on our theory1 represents a very early stage of the theistic conception4 ,to continue the argument from analogy against ,major ,ellis's theory of the ,european origin of ,nyankupon1 it seems desirable first to produce a parallel to his case1 and to that of his blood-stained subordinate deity1 ,bobowissi1 from a quarter where ,european influence is absolutely out of the question4 ,virginia was first permanently colonised by ,englishmen in #afjg1 and the ',historie of ,travaile into ,virginia1' by ,william ,strachey1 ,gent41 first ,secretary of the ,colony1 dates from the earliest years 7#afab-afaf74 ,it will hardly be suggested1 then1 that the natives had already adopted our ,supreme ,being1 especially as ,strachey says that the native priests strenuously opposed the ,christian ,god4 ,strachey found a house-inhabiting1 agricultural1 and settled population1 under chiefs1 one of whom1 ,powhattan1 was a kind of ,bretwalda4 ,the temples contained the dried bodies of the weroances1 or aristocracy1 beside which was their ,okeus1 or ,oki1 an image 'ill favouredly carved1' all black dressed1 'who doth them all the harm they suffer4 ,he is propitiated by sacrifices of their own children' 7probably an error7 'and of strangers4' ,mr4 ,tylor quotes a description of this ,oki1 or ,okeus1 with his idol and bloody rites1 from ,smith's ',history of ,virginia' 7#afcb7a4 ,the two books1 ,strachey's and ,smith's1 are here slightly varying copies of one original4 ,but1 after censuring ,smith's 7and ,strachey's7 hasty theory that ,okeus is 'no other than a devil1' ,mr4 ,tylor did not find in ,smith what follows in ,strachey4 ,okeus has human sacrifices1 like ,bobowissi1 'whilst the great ,god 7the priests tell them7 who governes all the world1 and makes the son to shine1 creatyng the moone and starrs his companyons 444 they calling 7sic7 ,ahone4 ,the good and peaceable ,god requires no such dutyes1 nor needs to be sacrificed unto1 for he intendeth all good unto them1' ,okeus1 on the contrary1 'looking into all men's accions1 and examining the same according to the severe scheme of justice1 punisheth them4444 ,such is the misery and thraldome under which ,sathan hath bound these wretched miscreants4' ,as if1 in ,mr4 ,strachey's own creed1 ,satan does not punish1 in hell1 the offences of men against ,god6 ,here1 then1 in addition to a devil 7or rather a divine police magistrate71 and general fetishism and nature worship1 we find that the untutored ,virginian is equipped with a merciful ,creator1 without idol1 temple1 or sacrifice1 as needing nought of ours4 ,it is by the merest accident1 the use of ,smith's book 7#afcb7 instead of ,strachey's book 7#afab71 that ,mr4 ,tylor is unaware of these essential facts#b4 ,dr4 ,brinton1 like ,mr4 ,tylor1 cites ,smith for the nefarious or severe ,okeus1 and omits any mention of ,ahone1 the benevolent ,creator4#c ,now1 ,strachey's evidence is early 7#afab71 is that of a well-educated man1 fond of airing his ,greek1 and not prejudiced in favour of these worshippers of ',sathan4' ,in ,virginia he found the unpropitiated loving ,supreme ,being1 beside a subordinate1 like ,nyankupon beside ,bobowissi in ,africa4 ,each highest deity1 in ,virginia or on the ,gold ,coast1 is more or less eclipsed in popular esteem by nascent polytheism and nature worship4 ,this is precisely what we should expect to find1 if ,ahone1 the ,creator1 were earlier in evolution1 while ,okeus and the rest were of the usual greedy class of animistic corruptible deities1 useful to priests4 ,this could not be understood while ,ahone was left out of the statement4#d ,probably ,mr4 ,strachey's narrative justifies1 by analogy1 our suspicion of ,major ,ellis's theory that the ,african ,supreme ,being is of ,european origin4 ,the purpose in the ,ahone-,okeus creed is clear4 ,god 7,ahone7 is omnipotent and good1 yet calamities beset mankind4 ,how are these to be explained8 ,clearly as penalties for men's sins1 inflicted1 not by ,ahone1 but by his lieutenant1 ,okeus4 ,but that magistrate can be1 and is1 appeased by sacrifices1 which it would be impious1 or1 at all events1 useless1 to offer to the ,supreme ,being1 ,ahone4 ,it is a logical creed1 but how was the ,supreme ,being evolved out of the ghost of a 'people-devouring king' like ,powhattan8 ,the facts1 very fairly attested1 do not fit the anthropological theory4 ,it is to be remarked that ,strachey's ,ahone is a much less mythological conception than that which1 on very good evidence1 he attributes to the ,indians of the ,patowemeck ,river4 ,their ,creator is spoken of as 'a godly ,hare1' who receives their souls into ,paradise1 whence they are reborn on earth again1 as in ,plato's myth4 ,they also regard the four winds as four ,gods4 ,how the god took the mythological form of a hare is diversely explained4#e ,meanwhile the ,ahone-,okeus creed corresponds to the ,nyankupon-,bobowissi creed4 ,the ,american faith is certainly not borrowed from ,europe1 so it is less likely that the ,african creed is borrowed4 ,as illustrations of the general theory here presented1 we may now take two tribal religions among the ,north ,american ,indians4 ,the first is that of the equestrian ,pawnees1 who1 thirty years ago1 were dwelling on the ,loup ,fork in ,nebraska4 ,the buffaloes have since been destroyed1 the lands seized1 and the ,pawnees driven into a ',reservation1' where they are1 or lately were1 cheated and oppressed in the usual way4 ,they were originally known to ,europeans in four hordes1 the fourth being the ,skidi or ,wolf ,pawnees4 ,they seem to have come into ,kansas and ,nebraska1 at a date relatively remote1 from ,mexico1 and are allied with the ,lipans and ,tonkaways of that region4 ,the ,tonkaways are a tribe who1 in a sacred mystery1 are admonished to 'live like the wolves1' in exactly the same way as were the ,hirpi 7wolf tribe71 of ,mount ,soracte1 who practised the feat of walking unhurt through fire4#f ,the ,tonkaways regard the ,pawnees1 who also have a wolf tribe1 as a long-separated branch of their race4 ,if1 then1 they are of ,mexican origin1 we might expect to find traces of ,aztec ritual among the ,pawnees4 ,long after they obtained better weapons they used flint-headed arrows for slaying the only two beasts which it was lawful to sacrifice1 the deer and the buffalo4 ,they have long been a hunting and also an agricultural people4 ,the corn was given to them originally by the ,ruler3 their god1 ,ti-ra-w1 'the ,spirit ,father4' ,they offer the sacrifice of a deer with peculiar solemnity1 and are a very prayerful people4 ,the priest 'held a relation to the ,pawnees and their deity not unlike that occupied by ,moses to ,jehovah and the ,israelites4' ,a feature in ritual is the sacred bundles of unknown contents1 brought from the original home in ,mexico4 ,the ,pawnees were created by ,ti-ra-w4 ,they believe in a happy future life1 while the wicked die1 and there is an end of them4 ,they cite their dreams of the dead as an argument for a life beyond the tomb4 ',we see ourselves living with ,ti-ra-w6' ,an evil earlier race1 which knew not ,ti-ra-w1 was destroyed by him in the ,deluge2 evidence is found in large fossil bones1 and it would be an interesting inquiry whether such fossils are always found where the story of a 'sin-flood' occurs4 ,if so1 fossils must be universally diffused4 ,as is common1 the future life is attested1 not only by dreams1 but in the experience of men who 'have died' and come back to life1 like ,secret ,pipe ,chief1 who told the story to ,mr4 ,grinnell4 ,these visions in a state of apparent death are not peculiar to savages1 and1 no doubt1 have had much effect on beliefs about the next world4#g ,ghosts are rarely seen1 but auditory hallucinations1 as of a voice giving good advice in time of peril1 are regarded as the speech of ghosts4 ,the beasts are also friendly1 as fellow children with men of ,ti-ra-w4 ,to the ,morning ,star the ,skidi or ,wolf ,pawnees offered on rare occasions a captive man4 ,the ceremony was not unlike that of the ,aztecs1 though less cruel4 ,curiously enough1 the slayer of the captive had instantly to make a mock flight1 as in the ,attic ,bouphonia4 ,this1 however1 was a rite paid to the ,morning ,star1 not to ,ti-ra-w1 'the power above that moves the universe and controls all things4' ,sacrifice to ,ti-ra-w was made on rare and solemn occasions out of his two chief gifts1 deer and buffalo4 ',through corn1 deer1 buffalo1 and the sacred bundles1 we worship ,ti-ra-w4' ,the flesh was burned in the fire1 while prayers were made with great earnestness4 ,in the old ,skidi rite the women told the fattened captive what they desired to gain from the ,ruler4 ,it is occasionally said that the human sacrifice was made to ,ti-ra-w himself4 ,the sacrificer not only fled1 but fasted and mourned4 ,it is possible that1 as among the ,aztecs1 the victim was regarded as also an embodiment of the ,god1 but this is not certain1 the rite having long been disused4 ,mr4 ,grinnell got the description from a very old ,skidi4 ,there was also a festival of thanks to ,ti-ra-w for corn4 ,during a sacred dance and hymn the corn is held up to the ,ruler by a woman4 ,corn is ritually called ',the ,mother1' as in ,peru4#h ',we are like seed1 and we worship through the ,corn4' ,disease is caused by evil spirits1 and many ,american soldiers were healed by ,pawnee doctors1 though their hurts had refused to yield to the treatment of the ,united ,states ,army ,surgeons4#i ,the miracles wrought by ,pawnee medicine men1 under the eyes of ,major ,north1 far surpass what is told of ,indian jugglery4 ,but this was forty years ago1 and it is probably too late to learn anything of these astounding performances of naked men on the hard floor of a lodge4 ',major ,north told me' 7,mr4 ,grinnell7 'that he saw with his own eyes the doctors make the corn grow1' the doctor not manipulating the plant1 as in the ,mango trick1 but standing apart and singing4 ,mr4 ,grinnell says3 ',i have never found any one who could even suggest an explanation4' ,this art places great power in the hands of the doctors1 who exhibit many other prodigies4 ,it is notable that in this religion we hear nothing of ancestor-worship2 all that is stated as to ghosts has been reported4 ,we find the cult of an all-powerful being1 in whose ritual sacrifice is the only feature that suggests ghost-worship4 ,the popular tales and historical reminiscences of the last generation entirely bear out by their allusions ,mr4 ,grinnell's account of the ,pawnee faith1 in which the ethical element chiefly consists in a sense of dependence on and touching gratitude to ,ti-ra-w1 as shown in fervent prayer4 ,theft he abhors1 he applauds valour1 he punishes the wicked by annihilation1 the good dwell with him in his heavenly home4 ,he is addressed as ,a-ti-us ta-kaw-a1 ',our father in all places4' ,it is not so easy to see how this ,being was developed out of ancestor-worship1 of which we find no traces among ,pawnees4 ,for ancestor-worship among the ,sioux1 it is usual to quote a remark of one ,prescott1 an interpreter3 ',sometimes an ,indian will say1 ,wah negh on she wan da1 which means1 ,spirits of the dead have mercy on me4 ,then they will add what they want4 ,that is about the amount of an ,indian's prayer4'#aj ,obviously1 when we compare ,mr4 ,grinnell's account of ,pawnee religion1 based on his own observations1 and those of ,major ,north1 and ,mr4 ,dunbar1 who has written on the language of the tribe1 we are on much safer ground1 than when we follow a contemptuous1 half-educated ,european4 ,the religion of the ,blackfoot ,indians appears to be a ruder form of the ,pawnee faith4 ,whether the differences arise from tribal character1 or from decadence1 or because the ,blackfoot belief is in an earlier and more backward condition than that of the ,pawnees1 it is not easy to be certain4 ,as in ,china1 there exists a difficulty in deciding whether the ,supreme ,being is identical with the great nature-god2 in ,china the ,heaven1 among the ,blackfeet the ,sun2 or is prior to him in conception1 or has been1 later1 substituted for him1 or placed beside him4 ,the ,blackfoot mythology is low1 crude1 and1 except in tales of ,creation1 is derisive4 ,as in ,australia1 there is a specific difference of tone between mythology and religion4 ,the ,blackfoot country runs east from the summit of the ,rocky ,mountains1 to the mouth of the ,yellowstone river on the ,missouri1 then west to the ,yellowstone sources1 across the ,rocky ,mountains to the ,beaverhead1 thence to their summit4 ,as to spirits1 the ,blackfeet believe in1 or at least tell stories of1 ghosts1 which conduct themselves much as in our old-fashioned ghost stories4 ,they haunt people in a rather sportive and irresponsible way4 ,the souls or shadows of respectable persons go to the bleak country called the ,sand ,hills1 where they live in a dull1 monotonous kind of ,sheol4 ,the shades of the wicked are 'earth-bound' and mischievous1 especially ghosts of men slain in battle4 ,they cause paralysis and madness1 but dread interiors of lodges2 they only 'tap on the lodge-skins4' ,like many ,indian tribes1 the ,blackfeet have the ,eurydice legend4 ,a man grieving for his dead wife finds his way to ,hades1 is pitied by the dead1 and allowed to carry the woman back with him1 under certain ritual prohibitions1 one of which he unhappily infringes4 ,the range of this deeply touching story among the ,red ,men1 and its close resemblance to the tale of ,orpheus1 is one of the most curious facts in mythology4 ,mr4 ,grinnell's friend ,young ,bear1 when lost with his wife in a fog1 heard a ,voice1 ',it is well4 ,go on1 you are going right4' ',the top of my head seemed to lift up4 ,it seemed as if a lot of needles were running into it4444 ,this must have been a ghost4' ,as the wife also heard the ,voice it was probably human1 not hallucinatory4 ,animals receive the usual amount of friendly respect from the ,blackfeet4 ,they have also an inchoate polytheism1 ',above ,persons1 ,ground ,persons1 and ,under ,water ,persons4' ,of the first1 ,thunder is most important1 and is worshipped4 ,there is the ,cold ,maker1 a white figure on a white horse1 the ,wind1 and so on4 ,the ,creator is ,n-pi1 ,old ,man2 ,dr4 ,brinton thinks he is a personification of ,light1 but ,mr4 ,grinnell reckons it absurd to attribute so abstract a conception to the ,blackfeet4 ,n-pi is simply a primal ,being1 an ,immortal ,man1#aa who was before ,death came into the world1 concerning which one of the usual tales of the ,origin of ,death is told4 ',all things that he had made understood him when he spoke to them--birds1 animals1 and people1' as in the first chapters of ,genesis4 ,with ,n-pi1 ,creation worked on the lines of adaptation to environment4 ,he put the bighorn on the prairie4 ,there it was awkward1 so he set it on rocky places1 where it skipped about with ease4 ,the antelope fell on the rocks1 so he removed it to the level prairie4 ,n-pi created man and woman1 out of clay1 but the folly of the woman introduced ,death4 ,n-pi1 as a ,prometheus1 gave fire1 and taught the forest arts4 ,he inculcated the duty of prayer2 his will should be done by emissaries in the shape of animals4 ,then he went to other peoples4 ,the misfortunes of the ,indians arise from disobedience to his laws4 ,chiefs were elective1 for conduct1 courage1 and charity4 ,though weapons and utensils were buried with the dead1 or exposed on platforms1 and though great men were left to sleep in their lodges1 henceforth never to be entered by the living1 there is no trace known to me of continued ancestor-worship4 ,as many ,blackfeet change their names yearly1 ancestral names are not likely to become those of gods4 ,the ,sun is by many believed to have taken the previous place of ,n-pi in religion2 or perhaps ,n-pi is the ,sun4 ,however1 he is still separately addressed in prayer4 ,the ,sun receives presents of furs and so forth2 a finger1 when the prayer is for life1 has been offered to him4 ,fetishism probably shows itself in gifts to a great rock4 ,there is daily prayer1 both to the ,sun and to ,n-pi4 ,women institute ,medicine ,lodges1 praying1 ',pity me1 ,sun4 ,you have seen my life4 ,you know that ,i am pure4' ',we look on the ,medicine ,lodge woman as you white people do on the ,roman ,catholic ,sisters4' ,being 'virtuous in deed1 serious1 and clean-minded1' the ,medical ,lodge woman is in spiritual rapport with ,n-pi and the ,sun4 ,to this extent1 at least1 ,blackfoot religion is an ethical influence4 ,the creed seems to be a nascent polytheism1 subordinate to ,n-pi as supreme ,maker1 and to the personified ,sun4 ,as ,blackfoot ghosts are 'vaporous1 ineffectual' for good1 there seems to be nothing like ancestor worship4 ,these two cults and beliefs1 ,pawnee and ,blackfoot1 may be regarded as fairly well authenticated examples of un-,christianised ,american religion among races on the borderland of agriculture and the chase4 ,it would be difficult to maintain that ghost-worship or ancestor-worship is a potent factor in the evolution of the deathless ,ti-ra-w or the immortal ,creator ,n-pi1 who has nothing of the spirit about him1 especially as ghosts are not worshipped4#ab ,let us now look at the ,supreme ,being of a civilised ,american people4 ,there are few more interesting accounts of religion than ,garcilasso de la ,vega's description of faith in ,peru4 ,garcilasso was of ,inca parentage on the spindle side2 he was born in #aedj1 and his book1 taken from the traditions of an uncle1 and aided by the fragmentary collections of ,father ,blas ,valera1 was published in #afji4 ,in ,garcilasso's theory the original people of ,peru1 ,totemists and worshippers of hills and streams1 ,earth and ,sea1 were converted to ,sun worship by the first ,inca1 a child of the ,sun4 ,even the new religion included ancestor-worship and other superstitions4 ,but behind ,sun worship was the faith in a ,being who 'advanced the ,sun so far above all the stars of heaven4'#ac ,this ,being was ,pachacamac1 'the sustainer of the world4' ,the question then arises1 ,is ,pachacamac a form of the same creative being whom we find among the lowest savages2 or is he the result of philosophical reflection8 ,the latter was the opinion of ,garcilasso4 ',the ,incas and their ,amautas' 7learned class7 'were philosophers4'#ad ',pacha1' he says1 universe1 and 'cama' soul4 ,pachacamac1 then1 is ,anima ,mundi4 ',they did not even take the name of ,pachacamac into their mouths1' or but seldom and reverently1 as the ,australians will not1 in religious matters1 mention ,darumulun4 ,pachacamac had no temple1 'but they worshipped him in their hearts4' ,that he was the ,creator appears in an earlier writer1 cited by ,garcilasso1 ,agustin de ,zarate 7ii4 ch4 #e74 ,garcilasso1 after denying the existence of temples to ,pachacamac1 mentions one1 but only one4 ,he insists1 at length1 and with much logic1 that ,he whom1 as a ,christian1 he worships1 is in ,quichua styled ,pachacamac4 ,moreover1 the one temple to ,pachacamac was not built by an ,inca1 but by a race which1 having heard of the ,inca god1 borrowed his name1 without understanding his nature1 that of a ,being who dwells not in temples made with hands 7ii4 #ahf74 ,in the temple this people1 the ,yuncas1 offered even human sacrifices4 ,by the ,incas to ,pachacamac no sacrifice was offered 7ii4 #ahi74 ,this negative custom they also imposed upon the ,yuncas1 and they removed idols from the ,yunca temple of ,pachacamac 7ii4 #aij74 ,yunca superstitions1 however1 infested the temple1 and a ,voice gave oracles therein4#ae ,the ,yuncas also had a talking idol1 which the ,inca1 in accordance with a religious treaty1 occasionally consulted4 ,while ,pachacamac1 without temple or rite1 was reckoned the ,creator1 we must understand that ,sun-worship and ancestor-worship were the practical elements of the ,inca cult4 ,this appears to have been distasteful to the ,inca ,huayna ,ccapac1 for at a ,sun feast he gazed hard on the ,sun1 was remonstrated with by a priest1 and replied that the restless ,sun 'must have another ,lord more powerful than himself4'#af ,this remark could not have been necessary if ,pachacamac were really an article of living and universal belief4 ,perhaps we are to understand that this ,inca1 like his father1 who seems to have been the original author of the saying1 meant to sneer at the elaborate worship bestowed on the ,sun1 while ,pachacamac was neglected1 as far as ritual went4 ,in ,garcilasso's book we have to allow for his desire to justify the creed of his maternal ancestors4 ,his criticism of ,spanish versions is acute1 and he often appeals to his knowledge of ,quichua1 and to the direct traditions received by him from his uncle4 ,against his theory of ,pachacamac as a result of philosophical thought1 it may be urged that similar conceptions1 or nearly similar1 exist among races not civilised like the ,incas1 and not provided with colleges of learned priests4 ,in fact1 the position of ,pachacamac and the ,sun is very nearly that of the ,blackfoot ,creator ,n-pi1 and the ,sun1 or of ,shang-ti and the ,heaven1 in ,china4 ,we have the ,creative ,being whose creed is invaded by that of a worshipped aspect of nature1 and whose cult1 quite logically1 is nil1 or nearly nil4 ,there are also1 in different strata of the ,inca empire1 ancestor-worship1 or mummy-worship1 ,totemism and polytheism1 with a vague mass of huaca ,elohim1 kalou1 wakan4 ,perhaps it would not be too rash to conjecture that ,pachacamac is not a merely philosophical abstraction1 but a survival of a ,being like ,n-pi or ,ahone4 ,cieza de ,leon calls ,pachacamac 'a devil1' whose name means 'creator of the world'6#ag ,the name1 when it was uttered1 was spoken with genuflexions and signs of reverence4 ,so closely did ,pachacamac resemble the ,christian ,deity1 that ,cieza de ,leon declares the devil to have forged and insisted on the resemblance6#ah ,it was open to ,spanish missionaries to use ,pachacamac1 as to the ,jesuits among the ,bantu to use ,mpungu1 as a fulcrum for the introduction of ,christianity4 ,they preferred to regard ,pachacamac as a fraudulent fiend4 ,now ,nzambi ,mpungu1 among the ,bantu1 is assuredly not a creation of a learned priesthood1 for the ,bantu have no learned priests1 and ,mpungu would be useless to the greedy conjurers whom they do consult1 as he is not propitiated4 ,on grounds of analogy1 then1 ,pachacamac may be said to resemble a savage ,supreme ,being1 somewhat etherealised either by ,garcilasso or by the ,amautas1 the learned class among the subjects of the ,incas4 ,he does not seem1 even so1 much superior to the ,ahone of the ,virginians4 ,we possess1 however1 a different account of ,inca religion1 from which ,garcilasso strongly dissents4 ,the best version is that of ,christoval de ,molina1 who was chaplain of the hospital for natives1 and wrote between #aegj and #aehd4ai ,christoval assembled a number of old priests and other natives who had taken part in the ancient services1 and collected their evidence4 ,he calls the ,creator 7'not born of woman1 unchangeable and eternal'7 by the name ,pachayachachi4 ',teacher of the world' and ',tecsiviracocha1' which ,garcilasso dismisses as meaningless4#bj ,he also tells the tale of the ,inca ,yupanqui and the ,lord of the ,sun1 but says that the ,incas had already knowledge of the ,creator4 ,to ,yupanqui he attributes the erection of a gold image of the ,creator1 utterly denied by ,garcilasso4#ba ,christoval declares1 again contradicted by ,garcilasso1 that sacrifices were offered to the ,creator4 ,unlike the ,sun1 ,christoval says1 the ,creator had no woman assigned to him1 'because1 as he created them1 they all belonged to him' 7p4 #bf71 which1 of course1 is an idea that would also make sacrifice superfluous4 ,christoval gives prayers in ,quichua1 wherein the ,creator is addressed as ,uiracocha4 ,christoval assigns images1 sacrifice1 and even human sacrifice1 to the ,creator ,uiracocha4 ,garcilasso denies that the ,creator ,pachacamac had any of these things1 he denies that ,uiracocha was the name of the ,creator1 and he denies it1 knowing that the ,spaniards made the assertion4#bb ,who is right8 ,uiracocha1 says ,garcilasso1 is one thing1 with his sacrifices2 the ,creator1 ,pachacamac1 without sacrifices1 is another1 is ,,god4 ,mr4 ,markham thinks that ,garcilasso1 writing when he did1 and not consciously exaggerating1 was yet less trustworthy 7though 'wonderfully accurate'7 than ,christoval4 ,garcilasso1 however1 is 'scrupulously truthful4'#bc ',the excellence of his memory is perhaps best shown in his topographical details4444 ,he does not make a single mistake1' in the topography of three hundred and twenty places6 ,a scrupulously truthful gentleman1 endowed with an amazing memory1 and a master of his native language1 flatly contradicts the version of a ,spanish priest1 who also appears to have been careful and honourable4 ,i shall now show that ,christoval and ,garcilasso have different versions of the same historical events1 and that ,garcilasso bases his confutation of the ,spanish theory of the ,inca ,creator on his form of this historical tradition1 which follows3 ,the ,inca ,yahuarhuaccac1 like ,george ,,ii41 was at odds with his ,prince of ,wales4 ,he therefore banished the ,prince to ,chita1 and made him serve as shepherd of the llamas of the ,sun4 ,three years later the disgraced ,prince came to ,court1 with what the ,inca regarded as a cock-and-bull story of an apparition of the kind technically styled ',borderland4' ,asleep or awake1 he knew not1 he saw a bearded robed man holding a strange animal4 ,the appearance declared himself as ,uiracocha 7,christoval's name for the ,creator71 a ,child of the ,sun2 by no means as ,pachacamac1 the ,creator of the ,sun4 ,he announced a distant rebellion1 and promised his aid to the ,prince4 ,the ,inca1 hearing this narrative1 replied in the tones of ,charles ,,ii41 when he said about ,monmouth1 ',tell ,james to go to hell6'#bd ,the predicted rebellion1 however1 broke out1 the ,inca fled1 the ,prince saved the city1 dethroned his father1 and sent him into the country4 ,he then adopted1 from the apparition1 the throne-name ,uiracocha1 grew a beard1 and dressed like the apparition1 to whom he erected a temple1 roofless1 and unique in construction4 ,therein he had an image of the god1 for which he himself gave frequent sittings4 ,when the ,spaniards arrived1 bearded men1 the ,indians called them ,uiracochas 7as all the ,spanish historians say71 and1 to flatter them1 declared falsely that ,uiracocha was their word for the ,creator4 ,garcilasso explodes the ,spanish etymology of the name1 in the language of ,cuzco1 which he 'sucked in with his mother's milk4' ',the ,indians said that the chief ,spaniards were children of the ,sun1 to make gods of them1 just as they said they were children of the apparition1 ,uiracocha4'#be ,moreover1 ,garcilasso and ,cieza de ,leon agree in their descriptions of the image of ,uiracocha1 which1 both assert1 the ,spaniards conceived to represent a ,christian early missionary1 perhaps ,st4 ,bartholomew4#bf ,garcilasso had seen the mummy of the ,inca ,uiracocha1 and relates the whole tale from the oral version of his uncle1 adding many native comments on the ,court revolution described4 ,to ,garcilasso1 then1 the invocations of ,uiracocha1 in ,christoval's collection of prayers1 are a native adaptation to ,spanish prejudice3 even in them ,pachacamac occurs4#bg ,now1 ,christoval has got hold of a variant of ,garcilasso's narrative1 which1 in ,garcilasso1 has plenty of humour and human nature4 ,according to ,christoval it was not the ,prince1 later ,inca ,uiracocha1 who beheld the apparition1 but the ,inca ,uiracocha's son1 ,prince of ,wales1 as it were1 of the period1 later the ,inca ,yupanqui4 ,garcilasso corrects ,christoval4 ,uiracocha saw the apparition1 as ,pre ,acosta rightly says1 and ,yupanqui was not the son but the grandson of this ,inca ,uiracocha4#bh ,uiracocha's own son was ,pachacutec1 which simply means ',revolution1' 'they say1 by way of by-word ,pachamcutin1 which means the world changes4' ,christoval's form of the story is peculiarly gratifying in one way4 ,yupanqui saw the apparition in a piece of crystal1 'the apparition vanished1 while the piece of crystal remained4 ,the ,inca took care of it1 and they say that he afterwards saw everything he wanted in it4' ,the apparition1 in human form and in ,inca dress1 gave itself out for the ,sun2 and ,yupanqui1 when he came to the throne1 'ordered a statue of the ,sun to be made1 as nearly as possible resembling the figure he had seen in the crystal4' ,he bade his subjects to 'reverence the new deity1 as they had heretofore worshipped the ,creator1'#bi who1 therefore1 was prior to ,uiracocha4 ,interesting as a proof of ,inca crystal-gazing1 this legend of ,christoval's cannot compete as evidence with ,acosta and ,garcilasso4 ,the reader1 however1 must decide as to whether he prefers ,garcilasso's unpropitiated ,pachacamac1 or ,christoval's ,uiracocha1 human sacrifices1 and all4#cj ,mr4 ,tylor prefers the version of ,christoval1 making ,pachacamac a title of ,uiracocha4#ca ,he thinks that we have1 in ,inca religion1 an example of 'a subordinate god' 7the ,sun7 'usurping the place of the supreme deity1' 'the rivalry between the ,creator and the divine ,sun4' ,in ,china1 as we shall see1 ,mr4 ,tylor thinks1 on the other hand1 that ,heaven is the elder god1 and that ,shang-ti1 the ,supreme ,being1 is the usurper4 ,the truth in the ,uiracocha versus ,pachacamac controversy is difficult to ascertain4 ,i confess a leaning toward ,garcilasso1 so truthful and so wonderfully accurate1 rather than to the ,spanish priest4 ,christoval1 it will be remarked1 says that ',chanca-,uiracocha was a huaca 7sacred place7 in ,chuqui-chaca4'#cb ,now ,chuqui-chaca is the very place where1 according to ,garcilasso1 the ,inca ,uiracocha erected a temple to 'his ,uncle1 the ,apparition4'#cc ,uiracocha1 then1 the deity who receives human sacrifice1 would be a late1 royally introduced ancestral god1 no real rival of the ,creator1 who receives no sacrifice at all1 and1 as he was bearded1 his name would be easily transferred to the bearded ,spaniards1 whose arrival the ,inca ,uiracocha was said to have predicted4 ,but to call several or all ,spaniards by the name given to the ,creator would be absurd4 ,mr4 ,tylor and ,mr4 ,markham do not refer to the passage in which ,christoval obviously gets hold of a wrong version of the story of the apparition4 ,there is yet another version of this historical legend1 written forty years after ,christoval's date by ,don ,juan de ,santa ,cruz ,pachacuti-yamqui ,salcamayhua4 ,he ranks after ,garcilasso and ,christoval1 but before earlier ,spanish writers1 such as ,acosta1 who knew not ,quichua4 ,according to ,salcamayhuia1 the ,inca ,uiracocha was like ,james ,,iii41 fond of architecture and averse to war4 ,he gave the realm to his bastard1 ,urca1 who was defeated and killed by the ,chancas4 ,uiracocha meant to abandon the contest1 but his legitimate son1 ,yupanqui1 saw a fair youth on a rock1 who promised him success in the name of the ,creator1 and then vanished4 ,the ,prince was victorious1 and the ,inca ,uiracocha retired into private life4 ,this appears to be a mixture of the stories of ,garcilasso and ,christoval4#cd ,it is not1 in itself1 a point of much importance whether the ,creator was called ,uiracocha 7which1 if it means anything1 means 'sea of grease6'71 or whether he was called ,pachacamac1 maker of the world1 or by both names4 ,the important question is as to whether the ,creator received even human sacrifices 7,christoval7 or none at all 7,garcilasso74 ,as to ,pachacamac1 we must consult ,mr4 ,payne1 who has the advantage of being a ,quichua scholar4 ,he considers that ,pachacamac combines the conception of a general spirit of living things with that of a ,creator or maker of all things4 ',pachacamac and the ,creator are one and the same1' but the conception of ,pachayachacic1 'ruler of the world1' 'belongs to the later period of the ,incas4'#ce ,mr4 ,payne appears to prefer ,christoval's legend of the ,inca crystal-gazer1 to the rival version of ,garcilasso4 ,the ,yunca form of the worship of ,pachacamac ,mr4 ,payne regards as an example of degradation4#cf ,he disbelieves ,garcilasso's statement1 that human sacrifices were not made to the ,sun4 ,garcilasso must1 if ,mr4 ,payne is right1 have been a deliberate liar1 unless1 indeed1 he was deceived by his ,inca kinsfolk4 ,the reader can now estimate for himself the difficulty of knowing much about ,peruvian religion1 or1 indeed1 of any religion4 ,for1 if ,mr4 ,payne is right about the lowest savages having no conception of ,god1 or even of spirit1 though the idea of a great ,creator1 a spirit1 is one of the earliest efforts of 'primitive logic1' we1 of course1 have been merely fabling throughout4 ,garcilasso's evidence1 however1 seems untainted by ,christian attempts to find a primitive divine tradition4 ,garcilasso may possibly be refining on facts1 but he asks for no theory of divine primitive tradition in the case of ,pachacamac1 whom he attributes to philosophical reflection4 ,in the following chapter we discuss 'the old ,degeneration theory1' and contrast it with the scheme provisionally offered in this book4 ,we have already observed that the ,degeneration theory biasses the accounts of some missionaries who are obviously anxious to find traces of a ,primitive ,tradition1 originally revealed to all men1 but only preserved in a pure form by the ,jews4 ,to avoid deception by means of this bias we have chosen examples of savage creative beings from wide areas1 from diverse ages1 from non-missionary statements1 from the least contaminated backward peoples1 and from their secret mysteries and hymns4 ,thus1 still confining ourselves to the ,american continent1 we have the ancient hymns of the ,zuis1 in no way ,christianised1 and never chanted in the presence of the ,mexican ,spanish1 ,these hymns run thus3 ',before the beginning of the ,new ,making1 ,awonawilona1 the ,maker and container of ,all1 the ,all-,father1 solely had being4' ,he then evolved all things 'by thinking himself outward in space4' ,hegelian6 but so are the dateless hymns of the ,maoris1 despite the savage mythology which intrudes into both sets of traditions4 ,the old fable of ,ouranos and ,gaia recurs in ,zui as in ,maori4#cg ,i fail to see how ,awonawilona could be developed out of the ghost of chief or conjurer4 ,that in which all things potentially existed1 yet who was more than all1 is not the ghost of a conjurer or chief4 ,he certainly is not due to missionary influence4 ,no authority can be better than that of traditional sacred chants found among a populace which will not sing them before one of their ,mexican masters4 ,we have tried to escape from the bias of belief in a primitive divine tradition1 but bias of every kind exists1 and must exist4 ,at present the anthropological hypothesis of ancestor-worship as the basis1 perhaps 7as in ,mr4 ,spencer's theory7 the only basis of religion1 affects observers4 ,before treating the theory of ,degeneration let us examine a case of the anthropological bias4 ,the ,fijians1 as we learned from ,williams1 have ancestral gods1 and also a singular form of the creative being1 ,ndengei1 or1 as ,mr4 ,basil ,thomson calls him1 ,degei4 ,mr4 ,thomson writes3 ',it is clear that the ,fijians humanised their gods1 because they had once existed on earth in human form4444 ,like other primitive people1 the ,fijians deified their ancestors4' ,yet the ,fijians 'may have forgotten the names of their ancestors three generations back'6 ,how in the world can you deify a person whom you don't remember8 ,moreover1 only malevolent chiefs were deified1 so apparently a ,fijian god is really a well-born human scoundrel1 so considerable that he for one is not forgotten--just as if we worshipped the wicked ,lord ,lyttelton6 ,of course a god like ,ahone could not be made out of such materials as these1 and1 in fact1 we learn from ,mr4 ,thomson that there are other ,fijian gods of a different origin4 ',it is probable that there were here and there1 gods that were the creation of the priests that ministered to them1 and were not the spirits of dead chiefs4 ,such was the god of the ,bure ,tribe on the ,ra coast1 who was called ,tui ,laga or ,lord of ,heaven4 ,when the missionaries first went to convert this town they found the heathen priest their staunch ally4 ,he declared that they had come to preach the same god that he had been preaching1 the ,tui ,laga1 and that more had been revealed to them than to him of the mysteries of the god4' ,mr4 ,thomson is reminded of ,st4 ,paul at ,athens1 'whom then ye ignorantly worship1 him declare ,i unto you4'#ch ,mr4 ,thomson has clearly no bias in favour of a ,god like our own1 known to savages1 and not derived from ghost-worship4 ,he deduces this god1 ,tui ,laga1 from priestly reflection and speculation4 ,but we find such a ,god where we find no priests1 where a priesthood has not been developed4 ,such a ,god1 being usually unpropitiated by sacrifice and lucrative private practice1 is precisely the kind of deity who does not suit a priesthood4 ,for these reasons--that a priesthood 'sees no money in' a ,god of this kind1 and that ,gods of this kind1 ethical and creative1 are found where there are no priesthoods--we cannot look on the conception as a late one of priestly origin1 as ,mr4 ,thomson does1 though a learned caste1 like the ,peruvian ,amantas1 may refine on the idea4 ,least of all can such a ,god be 'the creation of the priests that minister to him1' when1 as in ,peru1 the ,andaman ,isles1 and much of ,africa1 this ,god is ministered to by no priests4 ,nor1 lastly1 can we regard the absence of sacrifice to the ,creative ,being as a mere proof that he is an ancestral ghost who 'had lived on earth at too remote a time2' for this absence of sacrifice occurs where ghosts are dreaded1 but are not propitiated by offerings of food 7as among ,australians1 ,andamanese1 and ,blackfoot ,indians71 while the ,creative ,being is not and never was a ghost1 according to his worshippers4 ,at this point criticism may naturally remark that whether the savage ,supreme ,being is fted1 as by the ,comanches1 who offer puffs of smoke3 or is apparently half forgotten1 as by the ,algonquins and ,zulus3 whether he is propitiated by sacrifice 7which is very rare indeed71 or only by conduct1 ,i equally claim him as the probable descendant in evolution of the primitive1 undifferentiated1 not necessarily 'spiritual' ,being of such creeds as the ,australian4 ,one must reply that this pedigree cannot1 indeed1 be historically traced1 but that it presents none of the logical difficulties inherent in the animistic pedigree--namely1 that the savage ,supreme ,being is the last and highest result of evolution on animistic lines out of ghosts4 ,it does not run counter to the evidence universally offered by savages1 that their ,supreme ,being never was mortal man4 ,it is consistent1 whereas the animistic hypothesis is1 in this case1 inconsistent1 with the universal savage theory of ,death4 ,finally1 as has been said before1 granting my opinion that there are two streams of religious thought1 one rising in the conception of an undifferentiated ,being1 eternal1 moral1 and creative1 the other rising in the ghost-doctrine1 it stands to reason that the latter1 as best adapted to everyday needs and experiences1 normal and supernormal1 may contaminate the former1 and introduce sacrifice and food-propitiation into the ritual of ,beings who1 by the original conception1 'need nothing of ours4' ,at the same time1 the conception of 'spirit1' once attained1 would inevitably come to be attached to the idea of the ,supreme ,being1 even though he was not at first conceived of as a spirit4 ,we know1 by our own experience1 how difficult it has become for us to think of an eternal1 powerful1 and immortal being1 except as a spirit4 ,yet this way of looking at the ,supreme ,being1 merely as being1 not as spirit1 must have existed1 granting that the idea of spirit has ghost for its first expression1 as1 by their very definition1 the high gods of savages are not ghosts1 and never were ghosts1 but are prior to death4 ,here let me introduce1 by way of example1 a ,supreme ,being not of the lowest savage level4 ,metaphysically he is improved on in statement1 morally he is stained with the worst crimes of the hungry ghost-god1 or god framed on the lines of animism4 ,this very interesting ,supreme ,being1 in a middle barbaric race1 is the ,polynesian ,taa-roa1 as described by ,ellis in that fascinating book ',polynesian ,researches4'#ci ',several of their taata-paari1 or wise men1 pretend that1 according to other traditions1 ,taa-roa was only a man who was deified after death4' ,euhemerism1 in fact1 is a natural theory of men acquainted with ancestor-worship1 but a ,euhemeristic hypothesis by a ,polynesian thinker is not a statement of national belief4 ,taa-roa was 'uncreated1 existing from the beginning1 or from the time he emerges from the po1 or world of darkness4' ,in the ,leeward ,isles ,taa-roa was ,toivi1 fatherless and motherless from all eternity4 ,in the highest heavens he dwells alone4 ,he created the gods of polytheism1 the gods of war1 of peace1 and so on4 ,says a native hymn1 ',he was3 he abode in the void4 ,no earth1 no sky1 no men6 ,he became the universe4' ,in the ,windward ,isles he has a wife1 ,papa the rock ,papa1 ,earth1 wife of ,rangi1 ,heaven1 in ,maori mythology4 ,thus it may be argued1 ,taa-roa is no 'primaeval theistic idea1' but merely the ,heaven-,god 7,ouranos in ,greece74 ,but we may distinguish3 in the ,zui hymn we have the myth of the marriage of ,heaven and ,earth1 but ,heaven is not the ,eternal1 ,awonawilona1 who 'thought himself out into the void1' before which1 as in the ,polynesian hymn1 'there was no sky4'#dj ,whence came the idea of ,taa-roa8 ,the ,euhemeristic theory that he was a ghost of a dead man is absurd4 ,but as we are now among polytheists it may be argued that1 given a crowd of gods on the animistic model1 an origin had to be found for them1 and that origin was ,taa-roa4 ,this would be more plausible if we did not find ,supreme ,beings where there is no departmental polytheism to develop them out of4 ,in ,tahiti1 ,atuas are gods1 ,oramutuas tiis are spirits2 the chief of the spirits were ghosts of warriors4 ,these were mischievous3 they1 their images1 and the skulls of the dead needed propitiation1 and these ideas 7perhaps7 were reflected on to ,taa-roa1 to whom human victims were sacrificed4#da ,now this kind of horror1 human sacrifice1 is unknown1 ,i think1 in early savage religions of ,supreme ,beings1 as in ,australia1 among the ,bushmen1 the ,andamanese1 and so on4 ,i therefore suggest that in an advanced polytheism1 such as that of ,polynesia1 the evil sacrificial rites unpractised by low savages come to be attached to the worship even of the ,supreme ,being4 ,ghosts and ghost-gods demanded food1 and food was therefore also offered to the ,supreme ,being4 ,it was found difficult1 or impossible1 to induce ,christian converts1 in ,polynesia1 to repeat the old prayers4 ,they began1 trembled1 and abstained4 ,they had a ritual 'for almost every act of their lives1' a thing unfamiliar to low savages4 ,in fact1 beyond all doubt1 religious criminal acts1 from human sacrifice to the burning of ,jeanne d',arc1 increase as religion and culture move away from the stage of ,bushmen and ,andamanese to the stage of ,aztec and ,polynesian culture4 ,the ,supreme ,being is succeeded in advancing civilisation1 and under the influences of animism1 by ruthless and insatiable ghost-gods1 full of the worst human qualities4 ,thus there is what we may really call degeneration1 moral and religious1 inevitably accompanying early progress4 ,that this is the case1 that the first advances in culture necessarily introduce religious degeneration1 we shall now try to demonstrate4 ,but we may observe1 in passing1 that our array of moral or august savage supreme beings 7the first who came to hand7 will1 for some reason1 not be found in anthropological treatises on the ,origin of ,religion4 ,they appear1 somehow1 to have been overlooked by philosophers4 ,yet the evidence for them is sufficiently good4 ,its excellence is proved by its very uniformity1 assuredly undesigned4 ,an old1 nay1 an obsolete theory--that of degeneration in religion--has facts at its basis1 which its very supporters have ignored1 which orthodoxy has overlooked4 ,thus the ,rev4 ,professor ,flint informs the audience in the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,giles's1 that1 in the religions 'at the bottom of the religious scale1' 'it is always easy to see how wretchedly the divine is conceived of2 how little conscious of his own true wants 444 is the poor worshipper4' ,the poor worshipper of ,baiame wishes to obey ,his ,law1 which makes1 to some extent1 for righteousness4#db ,footnote #a3 ,in ,pinkerton1 xiii4 pp4 #ac1 #ci2 ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 #cdb4 ,footnote #b3 ,see ,preface to this edition for corrected statement4 ,footnote #c3 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #d3 ,there is a description of ,virginia1 by ,w4 ,strachey1 including ,smith's remarks1 published in #afab4 ,strachey interwove some of this work with his own ,,ms4 in the ,british ,museum1 dedicated to ,bacon 7,verulam74 ,this ,,ms4 was edited by ,mr4 ,major1 for the ,hakluyt ,society1 in #ahdi1 with a glossary1 by ,strachey1 of the native language4 ,the remarks on religion are in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,the passage on ,ahone occurs in ,strachey 7#afab71 but not in ,smith 7#afhb71 in ,pinkerton4 ,i owe to the kindness of ,mr4 ,edmund ,gosse photographs of the drawings accompanying the ,,ms4 ,strachey's story of sacrifice of children 7pp4 #id1 #ie7 seems to refer to nothing worse than the initiation into the mysteries4 ,footnote #e3 ,see ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 for a philological theory4 ,footnote #f3 ,compare ',the ,fire ,walk' in ,modern ,mythology4 ,footnote #g3 ,compare ,st4 ,augustine's curious anecdote in ,de ,cura pro ,mortuis habenda about the dead and revived ,curio4 ,the founder of the new ,sioux religion1 based on hypnotism1 'died' and recovered4 ,footnote #h3 ,cf4 ,demeter4 ,footnote #i3 ,major ,north1 for long the ,u4,s4 ,superintendent of the ,pawnees4 ,footnote #aj3 ,schoolcraft1 iii4 #bcg4 ,footnote #aa3 ,as envisaged here1 ,n-pi is not a spirit4 ,the question of spirit or non-spirit has not arisen4 ,so far1 ,n-pi answers to ,marrangarrah1 the ,creative ,being of the ,larrakeah tribe of ,australians4 ',a very good ,man called ,marrangarrah lives in the sky2 he made all living creatures1 except black fellows4 ,he made everything4444 ,he never dies1 and likes all black fellows4' ,he has a demiurge1 ,dawed 7,mr4 ,foelsche1 apud ,dr4 ,stirling1 ,j4,a4,i41 ,nov4 #ahid1 p4 #aia74 ,it is curious to observe how savage creeds often shift the responsibility for evil from the ,supreme ,creator1 entirely beneficent1 on to a subordinate deity4 ,footnote #ab3 ,grinnell's ,blackfoot ,lodge-,tales and ,pawnee ,hero ,stories4 ,footnote #ac3 ,garcilasso1 i4 #aja4 ,footnote #ad3 ,op4 cit4 i4 #ajf4 ,footnote #ae3 ,from all this we might conjecture1 like ,mr4 ,prescott1 that the ,incas borrowed ,pachacamac from the ,yuncas1 and etherealised his religion4 ,but ,mr4 ,clements ,markham points out that ',pachacamac is a pure ,quichua word4' ,footnote #af3 ,garcilasso1 ii4 #ddf1 #ddg4 ,footnote #ag3 ,cieza de ,leon4 p4#bec ,footnote #ah3 ,markham's translation1 p4 #bec4 ,footnote #ai3 ,rites and ,laws of the ,yncas1 ,markham's translation1 p4 vii4 ,footnote #bj3 ,rites1 p4 #f4 ,garcilasso1 i4 #aji4 ,footnote #ba3 ,rites1 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #bb3 ,compare ,reports on ,discovery of ,peru1 ,introduction4 ,footnote #bc3 ,rites1 p4 xv4 ,footnote #bd3 ,lord ,ailesbury's ,memoirs4 ,footnote #be3 ,garcilasso1 ii4 #fh4 ,footnote #bf3 ,cieza de ,leon1 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #bg3 ,rites1 pp4 #bh1 #bi4 ,footnote #bh3 ,acosta1 lib4 vi4 ch4 #ba3 ,garcilasso4 ii4 #hh1 #hi4 ,footnote #bi3 ,rites1 p4 #ab4 ,footnote #cj3 ,ibid4 p4#ed4 ,footnote #ca3 ,prim4 ,cult4 ii1 #ccg1 #cch4 ,footnote #cb3 ,rites1 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #cc3 ,garcilasso1 ii4 #fi4 ,footnote #cd3 ,rites and ,laws1 p4 #ia et seq4 ,footnote #ce3 ,payne1 i4 #aci4 ,footnote #cf3 ,op4 cit4 i4 #dfh4 ,mr4 ,payne absolutely rejects ,ixtlilochitl's story of the monotheism of ,nezahualcoyotl2 ',torquemada knows nothing of it1' i4 #dij4 ,footnote #cg3 ,cushing1 ,report1 ,ethnol4 ,bureau1 #ahia-ib1 p4 #cgi4 ,footnote #ch3 ,j4,a4,i4 ,may #ahie1 pp4 #cda-cdd4 ,footnote #ci3 ii4 #aia1 #ahbi4 ,footnote #dj3 ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 #cde1 #cdf4 ,ellis1 ii4 #aic4 ,footnote #da3 ,ellis1 ii4 #bba4 ,footnote #db3 ,the ,faiths of ,the ,world1 p4 #dac4 ,,xv ,,the ,,old ,,degeneration ,,theory ,if any partisan of the anthropological theory has read so far into this argument1 he will often have murmured to himself1 ',the old degeneration theory6' ,on this ,dr4 ,brinton remarked in #ahfh3 ',the supposition that in ancient times and in very unenlightened conditions1 before mythology had grown1 a monotheism prevailed which afterwards1 at various times1 was revived by reformers1 is a belief that should have passed away when the delights of savage life and the praises of a state of nature ceased to be the theme of philosophers#a4' ',the old degeneration theory' practically1 and fallaciously1 resolved itself1 as ,mr4 ,tylor says1 into two assumptions--'first1 that the history of culture began with the appearance on earth of a semi-civilised race of men2 and second1 that from this stage culture has proceeded in two ways--backward to produce savages1 and forward to produce civilised men#b4' ,that hypothesis is false to all our knowledge of evolution4 ,the hypothesis here provisionally advocated makes no assumptions at all4 ,it is a positive fact that among some of the lowest savages there exists1 not a doctrinal and abstract ,monotheism1 but a belief in a moral1 powerful1 kindly1 creative ,being1 while this faith is found in juxtaposition with belief in unworshipped ghosts1 totems1 fetishes1 and so on4 ,the powerful creative ,being of savage belief sanctions truth1 unselfishness1 loyalty1 chastity1 and other virtues4 ,i have set forth the difficulties involved in the attempt to derive this ,being from ghosts and other lower forms of belief4 ,now1 it is mere matter of fact1 and not of assumption1 that the ,supreme ,being of many rather higher savages differs from the ,supreme ,being of certain lower savages by the neglect in which he is left1 by the epicurean repose with which he is credited1 and by his comparative lack of moral control over human conduct4 ,in his place a mob of ghosts and spirits1 supposed to be potent and helpful in everyday life1 attract men's regard and adoration1 and get paid by sacrifice--even by human sacrifice4 ,turning to races yet higher in material culture1 we find a crowd of hungry and cruel gods4 ,on this point ,mr4 ,jevons remarks1 in accordance with my own observation1 that 'human sacrifice appears at a much earlier period in the rites for the dead than it does in the ritual of the gods4'#c ,the dead chief needs servants and wives in ,hades1 who are offered to him4 ,the ,australians have some elements of cannibalism1 but do not1 as a general rule1 offer any human victims4 ,so far1 then1 ancestor-worship introduced a sadly 'degenerate' rite1 compared with the moral faith in unfed gods4 ,to gods the human sacrifice was probably extended 7in some cases7 either by a cannibal civilised race1 like the ,aztecs1 or by way of piacula1 the god being conciliated for man's sin by the offering of what man most prized1 the 'jealousy' of the god being appeased in a similar way4 ,but these are relatively advanced conceptions1 not to be found1 to my knowledge1 among the lowest and most backward races4 ,therefore1 advance to the idea of spirit at one point1 meant degeneration at another point1 to the extent of human sacrifice4 ,thus1 on looking at relatively advanced races1 we find them worshipping polytheistic deities and ghosts of the kings just dead1 who are often propitiated by terrible massacres of human victims1 while1 as in the case of ,taa-roa1 the blood spurts back even on the uncreated ,creator1 who was before earth was1 or sea1 sun1 or sky4 ,undeniably the hungry1 cruel gods are degenerate from the ,australian ,father in ,heaven1 who receives no sacrifice but that of men's lusts and selfishness2 who desires obedience1 not the fat of kangaroos2 who needs nothing of ours2 is unfed and unbribed4 ,thus1 in this particular respect the degeneration of religion from the ,australian or ,andamanese to the ,dinka standard--and infinitely more to the ,polynesian1 or ,aztec1 or popular ,greek standard--is as undeniable as any fact in human history4 ,anthropology has only escaped the knowledge of this circumstance by laying down the rule1 demonstrably unbased on facts1 that 'the divine sanction of ethical laws 444 belongs almost or wholly to religions above the savage level1 not to the earlier and lower creeds2' that 'savage ,animism is almost devoid of that ethical element which to the educated modern mind is the very mainspring of practical religion4'#d ,i have argued1 indeed1 that the ,god of low savages who imparts the divine sanction of ethical laws is not of animistic origin4 ,but even where ,mr4 ,im ,thurn finds1 in ,guiana1 nothing but ,animism of the lowest conceivable type1 he also finds in that ,animism the only or most potent moral restraint on the conduct of men4 ,while ,anthropology holds the certainly erroneous idea that the religion of the most backward races is always non-moral1 of course she cannot know that there has1 in fact1 been great degeneration in religion 7if religion began on the ,australian and ,andamanese level1 or even higher7 wherever religion is non-moral or immoral4 ,again1 ,anthropology1 while fixing her gaze on totems1 on worshipped mummies1 adored ghosts1 and treasured fetishes1 has not1 to my knowledge1 made a comparative study of the higher and purer religious ideas of savages4 ,these have been passed by1 with a word about credulous missionaries and ,christian influences1 except in the brief summary for which ,mr4 ,tylor found room4 ,in this work ,i only take a handful of cases of the higher religious opinions of savages1 and set them side by side for purposes of comparison4 ,much more remains to be done in this field4 ,but the area covered is wide1 the evidence is the best attainable1 and it seems proved beyond doubt that savages have 'felt after' a conception of a ,creator much higher than that for which they commonly get credit4 ,now1 if that conception is original1 or is very early 7and nothing in it suggests lateness of development71 then the other elements of their faith and practice are degenerate4 ',how1' it has been asked1 'could all mankind forget a pure religion8'#e ,that is what ,i now try to explain4 ,that degeneration ,i would account for by the attractions which animism1 when once developed1 possessed for the naughty natural man1 'the old ,adam4' ,a moral creator in need of no gifts1 and opposed to lust and mischief1 will not help a man with love-spells1 or with malevolent 'sendings' of disease by witchcraft2 will not favour one man above his neighbour1 or one tribe above its rivals1 as a reward for sacrifice which he does not accept1 or as constrained by charms which do not touch his omnipotence4 ,ghosts and ghost-gods1 on the other hand1 in need of food and blood1 afraid of spells and binding charms1#f are a corrupt1 but1 to man1 a useful constituency4 ,man being what he is1 man was certain to 'go a-whoring' after practically useful ghosts1 ghost-gods1 and fetishes which he could keep in his wallet or medicine bag4 ,for these he was sure1 in the long run1 first to neglect his idea of his ,creator2 next1 perhaps1 to reckon ,him as only one1 if the highest1 of the venal rabble of spirits or deities1 and to sacrifice to ,him1 as to them4 ,and this is exactly what happened6 ,if we are not to call it 'degeneration1' what are we to call it8 ,it may be an old theory1 but facts 'winna ding1' and are on the side of an old theory4 ,meanwhile1 on the material plane1 culture kept advancing1 the crafts and arts arose2 departments arose1 each needing a god2 thought grew clearer2 such admirable ethics as those of the ,aztecs were developed1 and while bleeding human hearts smoked on every altar1 ,nezahuatl conceived and erected a bloodless fane to ',the ,unknown ,god1 ,cause of ,causes1' without altar or idol2 and the ,inca1 ,yupanqui1 or another1 declared that ',our ,father and ,master1 the ,sun1 must have a ,lord4'#g ,but1 at this stage of culture1 the luck of the state1 and the interests of a rich and powerful clergy1 were involved in the maintenance of the old1 animistic1 relatively non-moral system1 as in ,cuzco1 ,greece1 and ,rome4 ,that popular and political regard for the luck of the state1 that priestly self-interest 7quite natural71 could only be swept away by the moral monotheism of ,christianity or of ,islam4 ,nothing else could do it4 ,in the case of ,christianity1 the central and most potent of many combined influences1 apart from the ,life and ,death of ,our ,lord1 was the moral ,monotheism of the ,hebrew religion of ,jehovah4 ,now1 it is undeniable that ,jehovah1 at a certain period of ,hebrew history1 had become degraded and anthropomorphized1 far below ,darumulun1 and ,puluga1 and ,pachacamac1 and ,ahone1 as conceived of in their purest form1 and in the high mood of savage mysteries which yet contain so much that is grotesque4 ,even the ,big ,black ,man of the ,fuegians is on a higher level 7as we reckon morals71 when he forbids the slaying of a robber enemy1 than certain examples of early ,hebrew conduct4 ,but our knowledge of the ,fuegians is lamentably scanty4 ,again1 traces of human sacrifice appear in the ritual of ,israel1 and it is only relatively late that the great prophets1 justly declaring ,jehovah to be indifferent to the blood of bulls and rams1 try to bring back his service to that of the unpropitiated1 unbought ,dendid1 or ,ahone1 or ,pundjel4 ,here is degeneration1 even in ,israel4 ,how the conception of ,jehovah arose in ,israel1 whether it was a revival of a half-obliterated idea1 such as we find among low savages2 or whether it was borrowed from some foreign creed2 or was the result of meditation on the philosophical ,supreme ,being of high ,egyptian theology1 is another question4 ,the ,biblical statement leans to the first alternative4 ,jehovah1 not by that name1 had been the ,god of ,israel's fathers4 ,the question will be discussed later2 but1 unless new facts are discovered1 we must accept the version of the ,pentateuch1 or take refuge in conjecture4 ,not only is there degeneration from the ,australian conception of ,mungan-gnaur1 at its best1 to the conception of the ,semitic gods in general1 but1 'humanly speaking1' if religion began in a pure form among low savages1 degeneration was inevitable4 ,advancing social conditions compelled men into degeneration4 ,mungan-ngaur is1 so far1 in line with our own ideas of divinity because he is not localised4 ,he dwelleth not in temples made with hands2 it is not likely that he should1 when his worshippers have neither house1 tent1 nor tabernacle4 ,as ,mr4 ,robertson ,smith says1 'where the ,god had a house or a temple1 we recognise the work of men who were no longer pure nomads1 but had begun to form fixed homes4' ,by the nature of ,australian society1 a deity could not be tied to a temple1 and temple-ritual1 and consequent myths to explain that ritual1 could not arise4 ,nor could ,darumulun be attached to a district1 just as 'the nomad ,arabs could not assimilate the conception of a god as a land-owner1 and apply it to their own tribal deities1 for the simple reason that in the desert private property in land was unknown4'#h ,darumulun is thus not capable of degenerating into 'a local god1 as ,baal1 or lord of the land1' because this 'involves a series of ideas unknown to the primitive life of the savage huntsman1' like the widely spread ,murring tribes4#i ,nor could ,darumulun be tied down to a place in ,semitic fashion1 first by manifesting himself there1 therefore by receiving an altar of sacrifice there1 and in the end a sanctuary1 for ,darumulun receives no sacrifice at all4 ,again1 the scene of the ,bora could not become a permanent home of ,darumulun1 because1 when the rites are over1 the effigy of the god is scrupulously destroyed4 ,thus ,darumulun1 in his own abode 'beyond the sky1' can 'go everywhere and do everything' 7is omnipresent and omnipotent71 dwells in no earthly places1 has no temple1 nor tabernacle1 nor sacred mount1 nor1 like ,jehovah1 any limit of land4#aj ,the early ,hebrew conception of ,jehovah1 then1 is infinitely more conditioned1 practically1 by space1 than the ,supreme ,being1 ',the ,master1' in the conception of some ,australian blacks4 ',by a prophet like ,isaiah the residence of ,jehovah in ,zion is almost wholly dematerialised4444 ,conceiving ,jehovah as the ,king of ,israel1 he necessarily conceives ,his kingly activity as going forth from the capital of the nation4'#aa ,but nomad hunter tribes1 with no ancestor-worship1 no king and no capital1 cannot lower their deity by the conditions1 or limit him by the limitations1 of an earthly monarchy4 ,in precisely the same way1 ,major ,ellis proves the degeneration of deity in ,africa1 so far as being localised in place of being the ,universal ,god1 implies degeneration1 as it certainly does to our minds4 ,by being attached to a given hill or river 'the gods1 instead of being regarded as being interested in the whole of mankind1 would eventually come to be regarded as being interested in separate tribes or nations alone4' ,to us ,milton seems nobly ,chauvinistic when he talks of what ,god has done by ',his ,english4' ,but this localised and essentially degenerate conception was inevitable1 as soon as1 in advancing civilisation1 the god who had been 'interested in the whole of known mankind' was settled on a hill1 river1 or lagoon1 amidst a nation of worshippers4 ,in the course of the education of mankind1 this form of degeneration 7abstractly so considered7 was to work1 as nothing else could have worked1 towards the lofty conception of universal ,deity4 ,for that conception was only brought into practical religion 7as apart from philosophic speculation7 by the union between ,israel and the ,god of ,sinai and ,zion4 ,the ,prophets1 recognising in the ,god of ,sinai1 their nation's ,god--,one to whom righteousness was infinitely dearer than even his ,chosen ,people--freed the conception of ,god from local ties1 and made it overspread the world4 ,mr4 ,robertson ,smith has pointed out1 again1 the manner in which the different political development of ,east and ,west affected the religion of ,greece and of the ,semites4 ,in ,greece1 monarchy fell1 at an early period1 before the aristocratic houses4 ,the result was 'a divine aristocracy of many gods1 only modified by a weak reminiscence of the old kingship in the not very effective sovereignty' 7or prytany7 'of ,zeus4 ,in the ,east the national god tended to acquire a really monarchic sway4'#ab ,australia escaped polytheistic degeneracy by having no aristocracy1 as in ,polynesia1 where aristocracy1 as in early ,greece1 had developed polytheism4 ,ghosts and spirits the ,australians knew1 but not polytheistic gods1 nor departmental deities1 as of war1 agriculture1 art4 ,the savage had no agriculture1 and his social condition was not departmental4 ,in yet another way1 political advance produces religious degeneration1 if polytheism be degeneration from the conception of one relatively supreme moral being4 ,to make a nation1 several tribes must unite4 ,each has its god1 and the nation is apt to receive them all1 equally1 into its ,pantheon4 ,thus1 if worshippers of ,baiame1 ,pundjel1 and ,darumulun coalesced into a nation1 we might find all three gods living together in a new polytheism4 ,in fact1 granting a relatively pure starting-point1 degeneration from it must accompany every step of civilisation1 to a certain distance4 ,unlike ,semitic gods1 ,darumulun receives no sacrifice4 ,as we have said1 he has no kin with ghosts1 and their sacrifices could not be carried on into his cult1 if ,waitz-,gerland 7vi4 #haa7 are right in saying that the ,australians have no ancestor-worship4 ,the ,kurnai ghosts 'were believed to live upon plants1'#ac which are not offered to them4 ,chill ghosts1 unfed by men1 would come to waning camp-fires and batten on the broken meats4 ,the ,ngarego and ,wolgal held1 more handsomely1 that ,tharamulun 7,darumulun7 met the just departed spirit 'and conducted it to its future home beyond the sky4'#ad ,ghosts might also accompany relics of the body1 such as the dead hand1 carried about by the family1 who would wave the black fragment at the dreaded ,aurora ,borealis1 crying1 ',send it away6' ,i am unacquainted with any sacrifices to ancestral ghosts among this people who cannot long remember their ancestors1 consequently the practice has not been refracted on their supreme ,master's cult4 ,in the cult of ,darumulun1 and of other highest gods of lowest savages1 nothing answers to the ,hebrew technical priestly word for sacrifice1 'food of the deity4'#ae ,nobody feeds ,puluga1 nobody fed ,ahone4 ,we hear of no ,fuegian sacrifices4 ,mr4 ,robertson ,smith says3 ',in all religions in which the gods have been developed out of totems worshipped animals and other things regarded as akin to human stocks the ritual act of laying food before the deity is perfectly intelligible4' ,pundjel1 an ,australian ,supreme ,being1 is mixed up with animals in some myths1 but it is not easy to see how such ,supreme ,beings as he could be 'developed out of totems'6 ,i am not aware1 again1 that any ,australian tribe feeds the animals who are its totems1 so ,darumulun could not1 and did not inherit sacrifice through them4 ,mr4 ,robertson ,smith had a celebrated theory that cereal sacrifice is a tribute to a god1 while sacrifice of a beast or man is an act of communion with the god4#af ,men and gods dined together4#ag ',the god himself was conceived of as a being of the same stock as his comrades4' ,beasts were also of the same stock1 one beast1 say a lobster1 was of the same blood as a lobster kin1 and its god4#ah ,occasionally the sacred beast of the kin1 usually not to be slain or tasted1 is 'eaten as a kind of mystic sacrament a most dubious fact4'#ai ,now1 there is1 ,i believe1 some evidence1 lately collected if not published1 which makes in favour of the eating of totems by ,australians1 at a certain very rare and solemn mystery4 ,it would not even surprise me 7'from information received'7 if a very deeply initiated person were occasionally slain1 as the highest degree of initiation1 on certain most unusual occasions4 ,this remains uncertain1 but ,i have at present no evidence that1 either by one road or another1 either from ghost-feeding or totem-feeding1 or feeding on totems1 any ,australian ,supreme ,being receives any sacrifice at all4 ,much less1 as among ,pawnees and ,semitic peoples 7to judge from certain traces71 is the ,australian ,supreme ,being a cause of and partaker in human sacrifice4#bj ,the horrible idea of the ,man who is the ,god1 and is eaten in the ,god's honour1 occurs among polytheistic ,aztecs1 on a high level of material culture1 not among ,australians1 ,andamanese1 ,bushmen1 or ,fuegians4#ba ,thus1 in religion1 the ,darumulun1 or other ,supreme ,being of the lowest known savages1 men roaming wild1 when originally met1 on a continent peopled by older kinds of animals than ours1 was 7as we regard purity7 on a higher plane by far than the gods of ,greeks and ,semites in their earliest known myths4 ,setting mythology aside and looking only at cult1 the ,god of the ,murring or the ,kurnai1 whose precepts soften the heart1 who knows the heart's secrets1 who inculcates chastity1 respect of age1 unselfishness1 who is not bound by conditions of space or place1 who receives no blood of slaughtered man or beast1 is a conception from which the ordinary polytheistic gods of infinitely more polite peoples are frankly degenerate4 ,the animistic superstitions wildly based on the belief in the soul have not soiled him1 and the social conditions of aristocracy1 agriculture1 architecture1 have not made him one in a polytheistic crowd of rapacious gods1 nor fettered him as a ,baal to his estate1 nor localised him in a temple built with hands4 ,he cannot appear as a ',god of ,battles2' no ,te ,deum can be sung to him for victory in a cause perhaps unjust1 for he is the ,supreme ,being of a certain group of allied local tribes4 ,one of these tribes has no more interest with him than another1 and the whole group do not1 as a body1 wage war on another alien group4 ,the social conditions of his worshippers1 then1 preserve ,darumulun from the patent blots on the escutcheon of gods among much more advanced races4 ,once more1 the idea of ,animism admits of endless expansion4 ,a spirit can be located anywhere1 in any stone1 stick1 bush1 person1 hill1 or river4 ,a god made on the animistic model can be assigned to any department of human activity1 down to sports1 or lusts1 or the province of ,cloacina4 ,thus religion becomes a mere haunted and pestilential jungle of beliefs4 ,but the theistic conception1 when not yet envisaged as spiritual1 cannot be subdivided and parpill4 ,thus1 from every point of view1 and on every side1 ,animism is full of the seeds of religious degeneration1 which do not and cannot exist in what ,i take to be the earliest known form of the theistic conception3 that of a ,being about whose metaphysical nature--spirit or not spirit--no questions were asked1 as ,dr4 ,brinton long ago remarked4 ,that conception alone could neither supply the moral motive of 'a soul to be saved1' nor satisfy the metaphysical instinct of advancing mankind4 ,to meet these wants1 to supply 'soul1' with its moral stimulus1 and to provide a phrase or idea under which the ,deity could be envisaged 7i4e4 as a spirit7 by advancing thought1 ,animism was necessary4 ,the blending of the theistic and the animistic beliefs was indispensable to religion4 ,but1 in the process of animistic development under advancing social conditions1 degeneration was necessarily implied4 ,degeneration of the theistic conception for a while1 therefore1 occurred4 ,the facts are the proofs2 and only contradictory facts1 in sufficient quantity1 can annihilate the old theory of ,degeneration when it is presented in this form4 ,it mast be repeated that on this theory an explanation is given of what the old ,degeneration hypothesis does not explain4 ,granting a primal religion relatively pure in its beginnings1 why did it degenerate8 ,mr4 ,max ,mullet1 looking on religion as the development of the sentiment of the ,infinite1 regards fetishism as a secondary and comparatively late form of belief4 ,we find it1 he observes1 in various forms of ,christianity2 ,christianity1 therefore1 is primary there1 relic worship is secondary4 ,religion beginning1 according to him1 in the sense of the infinite1 as awakened in man by tall trees1 high hills1 and so on1 it advances to the infinite of space and sky1 and so to the infinitely divine4 ,this is primary3 fetishism is secondary4 ,arguing elsewhere against this idea1 ,i have asked3 ,what was the modus of degeneration which produced similar results in ,christianity1 and in ,african and other religions8 ,how did it work8 ,i am not aware that ,mr4 ,max ,mller has answered this question4 ,but how degeneration worked--namely1 by ,animism supplanting ,theism--is conspicuously plain on our theory4 ,take the early chapters of ,genesis1 or any savage cosmogonic myth you please4 ,deathless man is face to face with the ,creator4 ,he cannot degenerate in religion4 ,he cannot offer sacrifice1 for the ,creator obviously needs nothing1 and again1 as there is no death1 he cannot slay animals for the ,creator4 ,but1 in one way or another1 usually by breach of a taboo1 ,death enters the world4 ,then comes1 by process of evolution1 belief in hungry spirits1 belief in spirits who may inhabit stones or sticks2 again there arise priests who know how to propitiate spirits and how to tempt them into sticks and stones4 ,these arts become lucrative and are backed by the cleverest men1 and by the apparent evidence of prophecies by convulsionaries4 ,thus every known kind of degeneration in religion is inevitably introduced as a result of the theory of ,animism4 ,we do not need an hypothesis of ,original ,sin as a cause of degeneration1 and1 if ,mr4 ,max ,mller's doctrine of the ,infinite were viable1 we have supplied1 in ,animism1 under advancing social conditions1 what he does not seem to provide1 a cause and modus of degeneration4 ,fetishism would thus be really 'secondary1' ex hypothesi1 but as we nowhere find ,fetishism alone1 without the other elements of religion1 we cannot say1 historically1 whether it is secondary or not4 ,fetishism logically needs1 in some of its aspects1 the doctrine of spirits1 and ,theism1 in what we take to be its earliest known form1 does not logically need the doctrine of spirits as given matter4 ,so far we can go1 but not farther1 as to the fact of priority in evolution4 ,nevertheless we meet1 among the most backward peoples known to us1 among men just emerged from the palaeolithic stage of culture1 men who are involved in dread of ghosts1 a religious ,idea which certainly is not born of ghost-worship1 for by these men1 ancestral ghosts are not worshipped4 ,in their hearts1 on their lips1 in their moral training we find 7however blended with barbarous absurdities1 and obscured by rites of another origin7 the faith in a ,being who created or constructed the world2 who was from time beyond memory or conjecture2 who is primal1 who makes for righteousness1 and who loves mankind4 ,this ,being has not the notes of degeneration2 his home is 'among the stars1' not in a hill or in a house4 ,to him no altar smokes1 and for him no blood is shed4 ',god1 that made the world and all things therein1 seeing that ,he is lord of heaven and earth1 dwelleth not in temples made with hands2 neither is worshipped with men's hands1 as though ,he needed any thing 444 and hath made of one blood all nations of men 444 that they should seek the ,lord1 if haply they might feel after ,him1 and find ,him1 though ,he be not far from every one of us3 for in ,him we live1 and move1 and have our being4' ,that the words of ,st4 ,paul are literally true1 as to the feeling after a ,god who needs not anything at man's hands1 the study of anthropology seems to us to demonstrate4 ,that in this ,god 'we have our being1' in so far as somewhat of ours may escape1 at moments1 from the bonds of ,time and the manacles of ,space1 the earlier part of this treatise is intended to suggest1 as a thing by no means necessarily beyond a reasonable man's power to conceive4 ,that these two beliefs1 however attained 7a point on which we possess no positive evidence71 have commonly been subject to degeneration in the religions of the world1 is only too obvious4 ,so far1 then1 the nature of things and of the reasoning faculty does not seem to give the lie to the old ,degeneration theory4 ,to these conclusions1 as far as they are matters of scientific opinion1 we have been led by nothing but the study of anthropology4 ,footnote #a3 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #dd4 ,footnote #b3 ,prim4 ,cult4 i4 #ce4 ,footnote #c3 ,introduction1 p4 #aii2 also p4 #afa4 ,footnote #d3 ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 #cfj1cfa4 ,footnote #e3 ,prof4 ,menzies1 ,history of ,religion1 p4 #bc4 ,footnote #f3 ,greek3 legomenai theion anagchai4 ,porphyry4 ,footnote #g3 ,ixtlilochitl4 ,balboa1 ,hist4 du ,prou1 p4 #fb4 ,footnote #h3 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1 pp4 #ajd1 #aje4 ,footnote #i3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #ajf4 ,footnote #aj3 ,on the ,glenelg some caves and mountain tops are haunted or holy4 ,waitz1 vi4 #hjd1 ,no authority cited4 ,footnote #aa3 ,religion of ,semites1 p4 #aaj4 ,footnote #ab3 ,rel4 ,sem4 p4 #ga4 ,footnote #ac3 ,howitt1 ,j4,a4,t4 #ahhd1 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #ad3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #ahh4 ,footnote #ae3 ,rel4 ,sem4 p4 #bjg4 ,footnote #af3 ,rel4 ,sem4 p4 #bbe4 ,footnote #ag3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #bdg4 ,footnote #ah3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #bfi4 ,footnote #ai3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #bgg4 ,footnote #bj3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #cdc4 ,citing ,gen4 xxii #b ,kings xxi4 #f1 ,micah vi4 #g1 #b ,kings iii4 #bg4 ,footnote #ba3 ,i mean1 does not occur to my knowledge4 ,new evidence is always upsetting anthropological theories4 ,,xvi ,,theories ,,of ,,jehovah ,all speculation on the curly history of religion is apt to end in the endeavour to see how far the conclusions can be made to illustrate the faith of ,israel4 ,thus1 the theorist who believes in ancestor-worship as the key of all the creeds will see in ,jehovah a developed ancestral ghost1 or a kind of fetish-god1 attached to a stone--perhaps an ancient sepulchral stele of some desert sheikh4 ,the exclusive admirer of the hypothesis of ,totemism will find evidence for his belief in worship of the golden calf and the bulls4 ,the partisan of nature-worship will insist on ,jehovah's connection with storm1 thunder1 and the fire of ,sinai4 ,on the other hand1 whoever accepts our suggestions will incline to see1 in the early forms of belief in ,jehovah1 a shape of the widely diffused conception of a ,moral ,supreme ,being1 at first 7or1 at least1 when our information begins7 envisaged in anthropomorphic form1 but gradually purged of all local traits by the unexampled and unique inspiration of the great ,prophets4 ,they1 as far as our knowledge extends1 were strangely indifferent to the animistic element in religion1 to the doctrine of surviving human souls1 and so1 of course1 to that element of ,animism which is priceless--the purification of the soul in the light of the hope of eternal life4 ,just as the hunger after righteousness of the ,prophets is intense1 so their hope of finally sating that hunger in an eternity of sinless bliss and enjoyment of ,god is confessedly inconspicuous4 ,in short1 they have carried ,theism to its austere extreme--'though ,he slay me1 yet will ,i trust in ,him'--while unconcerned about the rewards of ,animism4 ,this is certainly a strange result of a religion which1 according to the anthropological theory1 has ,animism for its basis4 ,we therefore examine certain forms of the animistic hypothesis as applied to account for the religion of ,israel4 ,the topic is one in which special knowledge of ,hebrew and other ,oriental languages seems absolutely indispensable2 but anthropological speculators have not been ,oriental scholars 7with rare exceptions71 while some ,oriental scholars have borrowed from popular anthropology without much critical discrimination4 ,these circumstances must be our excuse for venturing on to this difficult ground4 ,it is probably impossible for us to trace with accuracy the rise of the religion of ,jehovah4 ',the wise and learned' dispute endlessly over dates of documents1 over the amount of later doctrine interpolated into the earlier texts1 over the nature1 source1 and quantity of foreign influence--,chaldaean1 ,accadian1 ,egyptian1 or ,assyrian4 ,we know that ,israel had1 in an early age1 the conception of the moral ,eternal2 we know that1 at an early age1 that conception was contaminated and anthropomorphised2 and we know that it was rescued1 in a great degree1 from this corruption1 while always retaining its original ethical aspect and sanction4 ,why matters went thus in ,israel and not elsewhere we know not1 except that such was the will of ,god in the mysterious education of the world4 ,how mysterious that education has been is best known to all who have studied the political and social results of ,totemism4 ,on the face of it a perfectly crazy and degrading belief--on the face of it meant for nothing but to make the family a hell of internecine hatred--,totemism rendered possible--nay1 inevitable--the union of hostile groups into large and relatively peaceful tribal societies4 ,given the materials as we know them1 we never should have educated the world thus2 and we do not see why it should thus have been done4 ,but we are very anthropomorphic1 and totally ignorant of the conditions of the problem4 ,an example of anthropological theory concerning ,jehovah was put forth by ,mr4 ,huxley4#a ,mr4 ,huxley's general idea of religion as it is on the lowest known level of material culture--through which the ancestors of ,israel must have passed like other people--has already been criticised4 ,he denied to the most backward races both cult and religious sanction of ethics4 ,he was demonstrably1 though unconsciously1 in error as to the facts1 and therefore could not start from the idea that ,israel1 in the lowest historically known condition of savagery1 possessed1 or1 like other races1 might possess1 the belief in an ,eternal making for righteousness4 ',for my part1' he says1 ',i see no reason to doubt that1 like the rest of the world1 the ,israelites had passed through a period of mere ghost-worship1 and had advanced through ancestor-worship and ,fetishism and ,totemism to the theological level at which we find them in the ,books of ,judges and ,samuel4'#b ,but why does he think the ,israelites did all this8 ,the ,hebrew ghosts1 abiding1 according to ,mr4 ,huxley1 in a rather torpid condition in ,sheol1 would not be of much practical use to a worshipper4 ,a reference in ,deuteronomy xxvi4 #ad 7,deuteronomy being1 ex hypothesi1 a late pious imposture7 does not prove much4 ,the ,hebrew is there bidden to remind himself of the stay of his ancestors in ,egypt1 and to say1 ',of the hallowed things ,i have not given aught for the dead'--namely1 of the tithes dedicated to the ,levites and the poor4 ,a race which abode for centuries among the ,egyptians1 as ,israel did--among a people who elaborately fed the kas of the departed--might pick up a trace of a custom1 the giving of food for the dead1 still persevered in by ,st4 ,monica till ,st4 ,ambrose admonished her4 ,but ,mr4 ,huxley is hard put to it for evidence of ancestor-worship or ghost-worship in ,israel when he looks for indications of these rites in 'the singular weight attached to the veneration of parents in the ,fourth ,commandment4'#c ,the ,fourth ,commandment1 of course1 is a slip of the pen4 ,he adds3 ',the ,fifth ,commandment1 as it stands1 would be an excellent compromise between ancestor-worship and ,monotheism4' ,long may children practise this excellent compromise6 ,it is really too far-fetched to reason thus3 ',people were bidden to honour their parents1 as a compromise between ,monotheism and ghost-worship4' ,hard1 hard bestead is he who has to reason in that fashion6 ,this comes of 'training in the use of the weapons of precision of science4' ,mr4 ,huxley goes on3 ',the ,ark of the ,covenant may have been a relic of ancestor-worship2' 'there is a good deal to be said for that speculation4' ,possibly there is1 by way of the valuable hypothesis that ,jehovah was a fetish stone which had been a grave-stone1 or perhaps a lingam1 and was kept in the ,ark on the plausible pretext that it was the two ,tables of the ,law6 ,however1 ,mr4 ,huxley really finds it safer to suppose that references to ancestor-worship in the ,bible were obliterated by late monotheistic editors1 who1 none the less1 are so full and minute in their descriptions of the various heresies into which ,israel was eternally lapsing1 and must not be allowed to lapse again4 ,had ancestor-worship been a pch mignon of ,israel1 the ,prophets would have let ,israel hear their mind on it4 ,the ,hebrews' indifference to the departed soul is1 in fact1 a puzzle1 especially when we consider their ,egyptian education--so important an element in ,mr4 ,huxley's theory4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer is not more successful than ,mr4 ,huxley in finding ancestor-worship among the ,hebrews4 ,on the whole subject he writes3 ',where the levels of mental nature and social progress are lowest1 we usually find1 along with an absence of religious ideas generally1 an absence1 or very slight development1 of ancestor-worship4444 ,cook ,captain ,cook1 telling us what the ,fuegians were before contact with ,europeans had introduced foreign ideas1 said there were no appearances of religion among them2 and we are not told by him or others that they were ancestor-worshippers4'#d ,probably they are not2 but they do possess a ,being who reads their hearts1 and who certainly shows no traces of ,european ideas4 ,if the ,fuegians are not ancestor-worshippers1 this ,being was not developed out of ancestor-worship4 ,the evidence of ,captain ,cook1 no anthropologist1 but a mariner who saw and knew little of the ,fuegians1 is precisely of the sort against which ,major ,ellis warns us4#e ,the more a religion consists in fear of a moral guardian of conduct1 the less does it show itself1 by sacrifice or rite1 to the eyes of ,captain ,cook1 of his ,majesty's ship ,endeavour4 ,mr4 ,spencer places the ,andamanese on the same level as the ,fuegians1 'so far as the scanty evidence may be trusted4' ,we have shown that 7as known to ,mr4 ,spencer in #ahgf7 it may not be trusted at all2 the ,andamanese possessing a moral ,supreme ,being1 though they are not1 apparently1 ancestor-worshippers4 ,the ,australians 'show us not much persistence in ghost-propitiation1' which1 if it exists1 ceases when the corpses are tied up and buried1 or after they are burned1 or after the bones1 carried about for a while1 are exposed on platforms4 ,yet many ,australian tribes possess a moral ,supreme ,being4 ,in fact ghost-worship1 in ,mr4 ,spencer's scheme1 cannot be fairly well developed till society reaches the level of 'settled groups whose burial-places are in their midst4' ,hence the development of a moral ,supreme ,being among tribes not thus settled1 is inconceivable1 on ,mr4 ,spencer's hypothesis4#f ,by that hypothesis1 'worshipped ancestors1 according to their remoteness1 were regarded as divine1 semi-divine1 and human4'#g ,where we find1 then1 the ,divine ,being among nomads who do not remember their great-grandfathers1 the ,spencerian theory is refuted by facts4 ,we have the effect1 the ,divine ,being1 without the cause1 worship of ancestors4 ,coming to the ,hebrews1 ,mr4 ,spencer argues that 'the silence of their legends 7as to ancestor-worship7 is but a negative fact1 which may be as misleading as negative facts usually are4' ,they are1 indeed2 witness ,mr4 ,spencer's own silence about savage ,supreme ,beings4 ,but we may fairly argue that if ,israel had been given to ancestor-worship 7as might partly be surmised from the mystery about the grave of ,moses7 the ,prophets would not have spared them for their crying4 ,the ,prophets were unusually outspoken men1 and1 as they undeniably do scold ,israel for every other kind of conceivable heresy1 they were not likely to be silent about ancestor-worship1 if ancestor-worship existed4 ,mr4 ,spencer1 then1 rather heedlessly1 though correctly1 argues that 'nomadic habits are unfavourable to evolution of the ghost-theory4'#h ,alas1 this gives away the whole case6 ,for1 if all men began as nomads1 and nomadic habits are unfavourable even to the ordinary ghost1 how did the ,australian and other nomads develop the ,supreme ,being1 who1 ex hypothesi1 is the final fruit of the ghost-flower8 ,if you cannot have 'an established ancestor-worship' till you abandon nomadic habits1 how1 while still nomadic1 do you evolve a ,supreme ,being8 ,obviously not out of ancestor-worship4 ,mr4 ,spencer then assigns1 as evidence for ancestor-worship in ,israel1 mourning dresses1 fasting1 the law against self-bleeding and cutting off the hair for the dead1 and the text 7,deut4 xxvi4 #ad7 about ',i have not given aught thereof for the dead4' ',hence1 the conclusion must be that ancestor-worship had developed as far as nomadic habits allowed1 before it was repressed by a higher worship4'#i ,but whence came that higher worship which seems to have intervened immediately after the cessation of nomadic habits8 ,there are obvious traces of grief expressed in a primitive way among the ,hebrews4 ',ye shall not cut yourselves1 nor make any baldness between your eyes for the dead' 7,deut4 xiv4 #a74 ',neither shall men lament for them1 nor cut themselves1 nor make themselves bald for them2 neither shall men tear themselves for them in mourning1 to comfort them for the dead' 7by way of counter-irritant to grief72 'neither shall men give them the cup of consolation to drink for their father or their mother1' because the ,jews were to be removed from their homes4#aj ',ye shall not make any cuttings in your flesh for the dead1 nor print any marks upon you4'#aa ,it may be usual to regard inflictions1 such as cutting1 by mourners1 as sacrifices to the ghost of the dead4 ,but one has seen a man strike himself a heavy blow on receiving news of a loss not by death1 and ,i venture to fancy that cuttings and gashings at funerals are merely a more violent form of appeal to a counter-irritant of grief1 and1 again1 a token of recklessness caused by a sorrow which makes void the world4 ,one of ,john ,nicholson's native adorers killed himself on news of that warrior's death1 saying1 ',what is left worth living for8' ,this was not a sacrifice to the ,manes of ,nicholson4 ,the sacrifice of the mourner's hair1 as by ,achilles1 argues a similar indifference to personal charm4 ,once more1 the text in ,psalm cvi4 #bh1 ',they joined themselves unto ,baal-,peor1 and ate the sacrifices of the dead1' is usually taken by commentators as a reference to the ritual of gods who are no gods4 ,but it rather seems to indicate an acquiescence in foreign burial rites4 ,all this additional evidence does not do much to prove ancestor-worship in ,israel1 though the secrecy of the burial of ,moses1 'in a valley of the land of ,moab1 over against ,beth-peor2 but no man knoweth of his sepulchre to this day1' may indicate a dread of a nascent worship of the great leader4#ab ,the scene of the defection in ,psalm cvi41 ,beth-peor1 is indicated in ,numbers xxv41 where ,israel runs after the girls and the gods of ,moab3 ',and ,moab called the people unto the sacrifices of their gods2 and the people did eat1 and bowed down to their gods4 ,and ,israel joined himself unto ,baal-peor4' ,psalm cvi4 is obviously a later restatement of this addiction to the ,moabite gods1 and the ,psalm adds 'they ate the sacrifices of the dead4' ,it is plain that1 for whatever reason1 ancestor-worship among the ,hebrews was1 at the utmost1 rudimentary4 ,otherwise it must have been clearly denounced by the ,prophets among the other heresies of ,israel4 ,therefore1 as being at the most rudimentary1 ancestor-worship in ,israel could not be developed at once into the worship of ,jehovah4 ,though ancestor-worship among the ,hebrews could not be fully developed1 according to ,mr4 ,spencer1 because of their nomadic habits1 it was fully developed1 according to the ,rev4 ,a4,w4 ,oxford4 ',every family1 like every old ,roman and ,greek family1 was firmly held together by the worship of its ancestors1 the hearth was the altar1 the head of the family the priest4444 ,the bond which kept together the families of a tribe was its common religion1 the worship of its reputed ancestor4 ,the chief of the tribe was1 of course1 the priest of the cult4' ,of course2 but what a pity that ,mr4 ,huxley and ,mr4 ,spencer omitted facts so invaluable to their theory6 ,and how does the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,oxford know8 ,well1 'there is no direct proof1' oddly enough1 of so marked a feature in ,hebrew religion but we are referred to #a ,sam4 xx4 #bi and ,judges xviii4 #ai4 #a ,sam4 xx4 #bi makes ,jonathan say that ,david wants to go to a family sacrifice1 that is1 a family dinner party4 ,this hardly covers the large assertions made by ,mr4 ,oxford4 ,his second citation is so unlucky as to contradict his observation that 'of course' the chief of the tribe was the priest of the cult4 ,micah1 in ,judges xvii41 xviii41 is not the chief of his tribe 7,ephraim71 neither is he even the priest in his own house4 ,he 'consecrated one of his own sons who became his priest1' till he got hold of a casual young ,levite1 and said1 ',be unto me a father and a priest1' for ten shekels per annum1 a suit of clothes1 and board and lodging4 ,in place1 then1 of any remote reference to a chief's being priest of his ancestral ghosts1 we have here a man of one tribe who is paid rather handsomely to be family chaplain to a member of another tribe4 ,some moss-troopers of the tribe of ,dan then kidnapped this valuable young ,levite1 and seized a few idols which ,micah had permitted himself to make4 ,and all this1 according to our clerical authority1 is evidence for ancestor-worship6#ac ,all this appears to be derived from some incoherent speculations of ,stade4 ,for example1 that learned ,german cites the story of ,micah as a proof that the different tribes or clans had different religions4 ,this must be so1 because the ,danites asked the young ,levite whether it was not better to be priest to a clan than to an individual8 ,it is as if a patron offered a rich living to somebody's private chaplain1 saying that the new position was more creditable and lucrative4 ,this would hardly prove a difference of religion between the individual and the parish4#ad ,mr4 ,oxford next avers that 'the earliest form of the ,israelite religion was ,fetishism or ,totemism4' ,this is another example of ,stade's logic4 ,finding1 as he believes1 names suggestive of ,totemism in ,simeon1 ,levi1 ,rachel1 and so on1 ,stade leaps to the conclusion that ,totemism in ,israel was prior to anything resembling monotheism4 ,for monotheism1 he argues1 could not give the germs of the clan or tribal organisation1 while ,totemism could do so4 ,certainly it could1 but as1 in many regions 7,america1 ,australia71 we find ,totemism and the belief in a benevolent ,supreme ,being co-existing among savages1 when first observed by ,europeans1 we cannot possibly say dogmatically whether a rough monotheism or whether ,totemism came first in order of evolution4 ,this holds as good of ,israel 7if once totemistic7 as it does of ,pawnees or ,kurnai4 ,stade has overlooked these well-known facts1 and his opinion filters into a cheap hand-book1 and is set in examinations6#ae ,we also learn from ,mr4 ,oxford's popular manual of ,german ,biblical conjecture that ',jehovah was not represented as a loving ,father1 but as a ,being easily roused to wrath1' a thing most incident to loving fathers4 ,again1 ,mr4 ,oxford avers that 'the old ,israelites knew no distinction between physical and moral evil4444 ,the conception of ,jehovah's holiness had nothing moral in it' 7p4 #ij74 ,this rather contradicts ,wellhausen3 ',in all ancient primitive peoples 444 religion furnishes a motive for law and morals2 in the case of none did it become so with such purity and power as in that of the ,israelites4'#af ,we began by examining ,mr4 ,huxley's endeavours to find traces of ancestor-worship 7in his opinion the origin of ,jehovah-worship7 among the ,israelites4 ,we next criticised ,mr4 ,spencer's efforts in the same quest1 and the more dogmatic assertions of ,mr4 ,oxford and ,stade4 ,we now return to ,mr4 ,huxley's account of the evolution from ghost-cult to the cult of ,jehovah4 ,from the history of the ,witch of ,endor1 which ,mr4 ,huxley sees no reason to regard as other than a sincere statement of what really occurred1 he gathers that the ,witch cried out1 ',i see ,elohim4' ,these ,elohim proved to be the phantasm of the dead ,samuel4 ,moved by this hallucination the ,witch uttered a veridical premonition1 totally adverse to her own interests1 and uncommonly dangerous to her life4 ,this is1 psychically1 interesting4 ,the point1 however1 is that ,elohim is a term equivalent to ,red ,indian ,wakan1 ,fijian ,kahu1 ,maori or ,melanesian ,mana1 meaning the 'supernatural1' the vaguely powerful--in fact ,x4 ,this particular example of ,elohim was a phantasm of the dead1 but ,elohim is also used of the highest ,divine ,being1 therefore the highest ,divine ,being is of the same genus as a ghost--so ,mr4 ,huxley reasons4 ',the difference which was supposed to exist between the different ,elohim was one of degree1 not of kind4'#ag ',if ,jehovah was thus supposed to differ only in degree from the undoubtedly zoomorphic or anthropomorphic gods of the nations1 why is it to be assumed that he also was not thought to have a human shape8' ,he was thought to have a human shape1 at one time1 by some theorists3 no doubt exists on that head4 ,that1 however1 is not where we demur4 ,we demur when1 because an hallucination of the ,witch of ,endor 7probably still incompletely developed7 is called by her ,elohim1 therefore the highest ,elohim is said by ,mr4 ,huxley to differ from a ghost only in degree1 not in kind4 ,elohim1 or ,el1 the creative1 differs from a ghost in kind1 because he1 in ,hebrew belief1 never was a ghost1 he is immortal and without beginning4 ,mr4 ,huxley now enforces his theory by a parallel between the religion of ,tonga and the religion of ,israel under the ,judges4 ,he quotes ,mariner1#ah whose statement avers that there is a supreme ,tongan being3 'of his origin they had no idea1 rather supposing him to be eternal4 ,his name is ,t-li-y-,tooboo ,wait-there-,tooboo4' ',he is a great chief from the top of the sky down to the bottom of the earth4' ,he1 and other 'original gods' of his making1 are carefully and absolutely discriminated from the atua1 which are 'the human soul after its separation from the body4' ,all ,tongan gods are atua 7,elohim71 but all atua are not 'original gods1' unserved by priests1 and unpropitiated by food or libation1 like the highest ,god1 ,t-li-y-,tooboo1 the ,eternal of ,tonga4 ',he occasionally inspires the ,how' 7elective ,king71 but often a ,how is not inspired at all by ,t-li-y-,tooboo1 any more than ,saul1 at last1 was inspired by ,jehovah4 ,surely there is a difference in kind between an eternal1 immortal ,god1 and a ghost1 though both are atua1 or both are ,elohim--the unknown ,x4 ,many people call a ghost 'supernatural2' they also call ,god 'supernatural1' but the difference between a phantasm of a dead man and the ,deity they would admit1 ,i conceive1 to be a difference of kind4 ,we have shown1 or tried to show1 that the conceptions of 'ghost' and ',supreme ,being' are different1 not only in kind1 but in origin4 ,the ghost comes from1 and depends on1 the animistic theory2 the ,supreme ,being1 as originally thought of1 does not4 ,all ,gods are ,elohim1 kalou1 wakan2 all ,elohim1 kalou1 wakan are not ,gods4 ,a ghost-god should receive food or libation4 ,mr4 ,huxley says that ,t-li-y-,tooboo did so4 ',if the god1 like ,t-li-y-,tooboo1 had no priest1 then the chief place was left vacant1 and was supposed to be occupied by the god himself4 ,when the first cup of ,kava was filled1 the mataboole who acted as master of the ceremonies said1 ,give it to your god1 and it was offered1 though only as a matter of form4'#ai ,this is incorrect4 ,in the case of ,t-li-y-,tooboo 'there is no cup filled for the god4'#bj ',before any cup is filled the man by the side of the bowl says3 ,the ,kava is in the cup' 7which it is not71 'and the mataboole answers1 ,give it to your god2' but the ,kava is not in the cup1 and the ,tongan ,eternal receives no oblation4 ,the sacrifice1 says ,mr4 ,huxley1 meant 'that the god was either a deified ghost1 or1 at any rate1 a being of like nature to these4'#ba ,but as ,t-li-y-,tooboo had no sacrifice1 contrary to ,mr4 ,huxley's averment1 he was not 'a deified ghost1 or a being of like nature to these4' ,to the lower1 non-ghostly ,tongan gods the animistic habit of sacrifice had been extended1 but not yet to the ,supreme ,being4 ,ah1 if ,mr4 ,gladstone1 or the ,duke of ,argyll1 or some bishop had made a misstatement of this kind1 how ,mr4 ,huxley would have crushed him6 ,but it is a mere error of careless reading1 such as we all make daily4 ,it is manifest that we cannot prove ,jehovah to be a ghost by the parallel of a ,tongan god1 who1 by ritual and by definition1 was not a ghost4 ,the proof therefore rests on the anthropomorphised pre-prophetic accounts1 and on the ritual1 of ,jehovah4 ,but man naturally 'anthropises' his deities3 he does not thereby demonstrate that they were once ghosts4 ,as regards the sacrifices to ,jehovah1 the sweet savour which he was supposed to enjoy 7contrary to the opinion of the ,prophets71 these sacrifices afford the best presumption that ,jehovah was a ghost-god1 or a god constructed on ghostly lines4 ,but we have shown that among the lowest races neither are ghosts worshipped by sacrifice1 nor does the ,supreme ,being1 ,darumulun or ,puluga1 receive food offerings4 ,we have also instanced many ,supreme ,beings of more advanced races1 ,ahone1 and ,dendid1 and ,nyankupon1 who do not sniff the savour of any offerings4 ,if then 7as in the case of ,taa-roa71 a ,supreme ,being does receive sacrifice1 we may argue that a piece of animistic ritual1 not connected with the ,supreme ,being in ,australia or ,andaman1 not connected with his creed in ,virginia or ,africa 7where ghost-gods do receive sacrifice71 may in other regions be transferred from ghost-gods to the ,supreme ,being1 who never was a ghost4 ,there seems to be nothing incredible or illogical in the theory of such transference4 ,on a ,god who never was a ghost men may come to confer sacrifices 7which are not made to ,baiame and the rest7 because1 being in the habit of thus propitiating one set of bodiless powers1 men may not think it civil or safe to leave another set of powers out4 ,by his very nature1 man must clothe all gods with some human passions and attributes1 unless1 like a large number of savages1 he leaves his high ,god severely alone1 and is the slave of fetishes and spectres4 ,but that practice makes against the ghost-theory4 ,in the attempt to account thus1 namely by transference1 for the sacrifices to ,jehovah1 we are met by a difficulty of our own making4 ,if the ,israelites did not sacrifice to ancestors 7as we have shown that there is very scant reason for supposing that they did71 how could they transfer to ,jehovah the rite which1 by our hypothesis1 they are not proved to have offered to ancestors8 ,this is certainly a hard problem1 harder 7or perhaps easier7 because we know so very little of the early history of the ,hebrews4 ,according to their own traditions1 ,israel had been in touch with all manner of races much more advanced than themselves in material culture1 and steeped in highly developed polytheistic ,animism4 ,according to their history1 the ,israelites 'went a-whoring' incorrigibly after strange gods4 ,it is impossible1 perhaps1 to disentangle the foreign and the native elements4 ,it may therefore be tentatively suggested that early ,israel had its ,ahone in a ,being perhaps not yet named ,jehovah4 ,israel entertained1 however1 perhaps by reason of 'nomadic habits1' only the scantiest concern about ancestral ghosts4 ,we then find an historical tradition of secular contact between ,israel and ,egypt1 from which ,israel emerges with ,jehovah for ,god1 and a system of sacrifices4 ,regarding ,jehovah as a revived memory of the moral ,supreme ,being whom ,israel must have known in extremely remote ages 7unless ,israel was less favoured than ,australians1 ,bushmen1 or ,andamanese71 we might look on the sacrifices to him as an adaptation from the practices of religion among races more settled than ,israel1 and more civilised4#bb ,speculation on subjects so remote must be conjectural1 but our suggestion would1 perhaps1 account for sacrifices to ,jehovah1 paid by a race which1 by reason of 'nomadic habits1' was never much given to ancestor-worship1 but had been in contact with great sacrificing1 polytheistic civilisations4 ,mr4 ,huxley1 however1 while he seems to slur the essential distinction between ghost-gods and the ,eternal1 grants1 later1 that 'there are very few people7s87 without additional gods1 which cannot1 with certainty1 be accounted for as deified ancestors4' ,t-li-y-,tooboo1 of course1 is one of these gods1 as is ,jehovah4 ,mr4 ,huxley gives no theory of how these gods came into belief1 except the suggestion that 'the polytheistic theology has become modified by the selection of the cosmic or tribal god1 as the only god to whom worship is due on the part of that nation1' without prejudice to the right of other nations to worship other gods4#bc ,this is 'monolatry1' and 'the ethical code1 often of a very high order1 comes into closer relation with the theological creed1' why1 we are not informed4 ,nor do we learn out of what polytheistic deities ,jehovah was selected1 nor for what reason4 ,the hypothesis1 as usual1 breaks down on the close relation between the ethical code and the theological creed1 among low savages1 with a relatively ,supreme ,being1 but without ancestor-worship1 and without polytheistic gods from whom to select a heavenly chief4 ,whence came the moral element in the idea of ,jehovah8 ,mr4 ,huxley supposes that1 during their residence in the land of ,goshen 7and a fortiori before it71 the ,israelites 'knew nothing of ,jehovah4'#bd ,they were polytheistic idolaters4 ,this follows1 apparently1 from ,ezekiel xx4 #e3 ',in the day when ,i chose ,israel1 and lifted up mine hand unto the seed of the house of ,jacob1 and made myself known unto them in the land of ,egypt4' ,the ,biblical account is that the ,god of ,moses's fathers1 the ,god of ,abraham1 enlightened ,moses in ,sinai1 giving his name as ',i am that ,i am' 7,exodus iii4 #f1 #ad2 translation uncertain74 ,we are to understand that ,moses1 a religious reformer1 revived an old1 and1 in the ,egyptian bondage1 a half-obliterated creed of the ancient nomadic ,beni-,israel4 ,they were no longer to 'defile themselves with the idols of ,egypt1' as they had obviously done4 ,we really know no more about the matter4 ,wellhausen says that ,jehovah was 'originally a family or tribal god1 either of the family of ,moses or of the tribe of ,joseph4' ,how a family could develop a ,supreme ,being all to itself1 we are not informed1 and we know of no such analogous case in the ethnographic field4 ,again1 ,jehovah was 'only a special name of ,el1 current within a powerful circle4' ,and who was ,el8#be ',moses was not the first discoverer of the faith4' ,probably not1 but ,mr4 ,huxley seems to think that he was4 ,wellhausen's and other ,german ideas filter into popular traditions1 as we saw1 through ',a ,short ,introduction to the ,history of ,ancient ,israel' 7pp4 #ai1 #bj71 by the ,rev4 ,a4,w4 ,oxford1 ,m4,a41 ,vicar of ,st4 ,luke's1 ,soho4 ,here follows ,mr4 ,oxford's undeniably 'short way with ,jehovah4' ',moses was the founder of the ,israelite religion4 ,jehovah1 his family or tribal god1 perhaps originally the ,god of the ,kenites1 was taken as a tribal god by all the ,israelite tribes4444 ,that ,jehovah was not the original god of ,israel' 7as the ,bible impudently alleges7 'but was the god of the ,kenites1 we see mainly from ,deut4 xxxiii4 #b1 ,judges v4 #d1 #e1 and from the history of ,jethro1 who1 according to ,judges i4 #af1 was a ,kenite4' ,the first text says that1 according to ,moses1 'the ,lord came from ,sinai1' rose up from ,seir1 and shone from ,mount ,paran4 ,the second text mentions ,jehovah's going up out of ,seir and ,sinai4 ,the third text says that ,jethro1 ,moses's ,kenite 7or ,midianite7 father-in-law1 dwelt among the people of ,judah2 ,jethro being a priest of ,midian4 ,how all this proves that ',moses was a great impostor1' as the poet says1 and that ,jehovah was not 'the original ,god of ,israel1' but 7#a7 ,moses's family or tribal god1 or 7#b7 'the god of the ,kenites1' ,i profess my inability to comprehend4 ,wellhausen himself had explained ,jehovah as 'a family or tribal god1 either of the family of ,moses' 7tribe of ,levi7 'or of the tribe of ,joseph4' ,it seems to be all one to ,mr4 ,oxford whether ,jehovah was a god of ,moses's tribe or quite the reverse1 'a ,kenite god4' ,yet it really makes a good deal of difference6 ,for in a complex of tribes1 speaking one language1 it is to the last degree unexampled 7within my knowledge7 that one tribe1 or family1 possesses1 all to itself1 a family god who is also the ,creator and is later accepted as such by all the other tribes4 ,one may ask for instances of such a thing in any known race1 in any stage of culture4 ,peru will not help us--not the ,creator1 ,pachacamac1 but the ,sun1 is the god of the ,inca family4 ,if1 on the other hand1 ,jehovah was a ,kenite god1 the ,kenites were a half-,arab ,semitic people connected with ,israel1 and may very well have retained traditions of a ,supreme ,being which1 in ,egypt1 were likely to be dimmed1 as ,exodus asserts1 by foreign religions4 ,the learned ,stade1 to be sure1 may disbelieve in ,israel's sojourn in ,egypt1 but that revolutionary opinion is not necessarily binding on us and involves a few difficulties4 ,have critics and manual-makers no knowledge of the science of comparative religion8 ,are they unaware that peoples infinitely more backward than ,israel was at the date supposed have already moral ,supreme ,beings acknowledged over vast tracts of territory8 ,have they a tittle of positive evidence that early ,israel was benighted beyond the darkness of ,bushmen1 ,andamanese1 ,pawnees1 ,blackfeet1 ,hurons1 ,indians of ,british ,guiana1 ,dinkas1 ,negroes1 and so forth8 ,unless ,israel had this rare ill-luck 7which ,israel denies7 of course ,israel must have had a secular tradition1 however dim1 of a ,supreme ,being4 ,we must ask for a single instance of a family or tribe1 in a complex of semi-barbaric but not savage tribes of one speech1 owning a private deity who happened to be the ,maker and ,ruler of the world1 and1 as such1 was accepted by all the tribes4 ,jehovah came out from ,sinai1 because1 there having been a ,theophany at ,sinai1 that mountain was regarded as one of his seats4#bf ,we have seen that it seemed to make no difference to ,mr4 ,oxford whether ,jehovah was a god of ,moses's family or tribe or a ,kenite god4 ,the former 7with the alternative of ,joseph's family or tribal god7 is ,wellhausen's theory4 ,the latter is ,stade's4#bg ,each is inconsistent with the other2 ,wellhausen's fancy is inconsistent with all that we know of religious development3 ,stade's is hopelessly inconsistent with ,exodus iv4 #bd-bf1 where ,moses's ,kenite wife reproaches him for a ceremony of his1 not of her1 religion4 ,therefore the ,kenite differed from the ,hebrew sacra4 ,the passage is very extraordinary1 and is said by critics to be very archaic4 ,after the revelation of the ,burning ,bush1 ,jehovah met ,moses and his ,kenite wife1 ,zipporah1 and their child1 at a khan4 ,jehovah was anxious to slay ,moses1 nobody ever knew why1 so ,zipporah appeased ,jehovah's wrath by circumcising her boy with a flint4 ',a bloody husband art thou to me1' she said1 'because of the circumcision'--an ,egyptian1 but clearly not a ,kenite practice4 ,whatever all this may mean1 it does not look as if ,zipporah expected such rites as circumcision in the faith of a ,kenite husband1 nor does it favour the idea that the sacra of ,moses were of ,kenite origin4 ,without being a scholar1 or an expert in ,biblical criticism1 one may protest against the presentation to the manual-reading intellectual middle classes of a theory so vague1 contradictory1 and 7by all analogy7 so impossible as ,mr4 ,oxford collects from ,german writers4 ,of course1 the whole subject1 so dogmatically handled1 is mere matter of dissentient opinion among scholars4 ,thus ,m4 ,renan derives the name of ,jehovah from ,assyria1 from ',aramaised ,chaldaeanism4'#bh ,in that case the name was long anterior to the residence in ,egypt4 ,but again1 perhaps ,jehovah was a local god of ,sinai1 or a provincial deity in ,palestine4#bi ,he was known to very ancient sages1 who preferred such names as ,el ,shaddai and ,elohim4 ,in short1 we have no certainty on the subject4#cj ,i need hardly say1 perhaps1 that ,i have no antiquated prejudice against ,biblical criticism4 ,assuredly the ,bible must be studied like any other collection of documents1 linguistically1 historically1 and in the light of the comparative method4 ,the leading ideas of ,wellhausen1 for example1 are conspicuous for acumen3 the humblest layman can see that4 ,but one may protest against criticising the ,bible1 or ,homer1 by methods like those which prove ,shakspeare to have been ,bacon4 ,one must protest1 too1 against the presentation of inconsistent and probably baseless critical hypotheses in the dogmatic brevity of cheap handbooks4 ,yet again1 whence comes the moral element in ,jehovah8 ,mr4 ,huxley thinks that it possibly came from the ethical practice and theory of ,egypt4 ,in the ,egyptian ,book of the ,dead1 'a sort of ,guide to ,spirit ,land1' there are moral chapters2 the ghost tells his judges in ,amenti what sins he has not committed4 ,many of these sins are forbidden in the ,ten ,commandments4 ,they are just as much forbidden in the nascent morality of savage peoples4 ,moses did not need the ,book of the ,dead to teach him elementary morals4 ,from the mysteries of ,mtanga he might have learned1 also1 had he been present1 the virtue of unselfish generosity4 ,if the creed of ,jehovah1 or of ,el1 retained only as much of ethics as is under divine sanction among the ,kurnai1 adaptation from the ,book of the ,dead was superfluous4 ,the care for the departed1 the ritual of the ,ka1 the intense pre-occupation with the future life1 which1 far more than its morality1 are the essential characteristics of the ,book of the ,dead--,israel cared for none of these animistic things1 brought none of these1 or very little of these1 out of the land of ,egypt4 ,moses was certainly very eclectic2 he took only the morality of ,egypt4 ,but as ,mr4 ,huxley advances this opinion tentatively1 as having no secure historical authority about ,moses1 it hardly answers our question1 ,whence came the moral element in ,jehovah8 ,one may surmise that it was the survival of the primitive divinely sanctioned ethics of the ancient savage ancestors of the ,israelite1 known to them1 as to the ,kurnai1 before they had a pot1 or a bronze knife1 or seed to sow1 or sheep to herd1 or even a tent over their heads4 ,in the counsels of eternity ,israel was chosen to keep burning1 however obscured with smoke of sacrifice1 that flame which illumines the darkest places of the earth1 'a light to lighten the ,gentiles1 and the glory of thy people ,israel'--a flame how litten a light whence shining1 history cannot inform us1 and anthropology can but conjecture4 ,here scientific nescience is wiser than the cocksureness of popular science1 with her ghosts and fetish-stones1 and gods that sprang from ghosts1 which ghosts1 however1 could not be developed1 owing to nomadic habits4 ,it appears1 then1 if our general suggestion meets with any acceptance1 that what occurred in the development of ,hebrew religion was precisely what the ,bible tells us did occur4 ,this must necessarily seem highly paradoxical to our generation2 but the whole trend of our provisional system makes in favour of the paradox4 ,if savage nomadic ,israel had the higher religious conceptions proved to exist among several of the lowest known races1 these conceptions might be revived by a leader of genius4 ,they might1 in a crisis of tribal fortunes1 become the rallying point of a new national sentiment4 ,obscured1 in some degree1 by acquaintance with 'the idols of ,egypt1' and restricted and localised by the very national sentiment which they fostered1 these conceptions were purified and widened far beyond any local1 tribal1 or national restrictions--widened far as the flammantia moenia mundi--by the historically unique genius of the ,prophets4 ,blended with the doctrine of our ,lord1 and recommended by the addition of ,animism in its pure and priceless form--the reward of faith1 hope1 and charity in eternal life--the faith of ,israel enlightened the world4 ,all this is precisely what occurred1 according to the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,all this is just what1 on our hypothesis1 might be expected to occur if1 out of the many races which1 in their most backward culture1 had a rude conception of a ,moral ,creative ,being1 relatively supreme1 one race endured the education of ,israel1 showed the comparative indifference of ,israel to ,animism and ghost-gods1 listened to the ,prophets of ,israel1 and gave birth to a greater than ,moses and the ,prophets4 ,to this result the ,logos1 as ,socrates says1 has led us1 by the path of anthropology4 ,footnote #a3 ,science and ,hebrew ,tradition4 ,footnote #b3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #cfa4 ,footnote #c3 ,science and ,hebrew ,tradition4 p4 #cjh4 ,footnote #d3 ,prin4 ,soc4 p4 #cjf4 ,footnote #e3 ,the ,tshi-speaking ,races1 p4 #ahc4 ,footnote #f3 ,some ,australian tribes have cemeteries1 and ,i have found one native witness1 ,king ,billy1 to the celebration of the mysteries near one of these burying-places4 ,i have not discovered other evidence to this effect1 though ,i have looked for it4 ,the spot selected is usually 'near the camp1' and the place for so large a camp in chosen1 naturally1 where the supply of food is adequate4 ,footnote #g3 ,cf4 the ,aryans1 ,principles of ,sociology1 p4 #cad4 ,footnote #h3 ,principles1 p4 #caf4 ,footnote #i3 ,ibid4 p4 #cag4 ,footnote #aj3 ,jeremiah xvi4 #f1 #g4 ,footnote #aa3 ,leviticus xix4 #bh4 ,footnote #ab3 ,deuteronomy xxxiv4 #f4 ,footnote #ac3 ,short ,introduction to ,history of ,ancient ,israel1 pp4 #hc1 #hd4 ,footnote #ad3 ,stade i #djc4 ,footnote #ae3 ,stade1 i4 #djf4 ,footnote #af3 ,wellhausen1 ,history of ,israel1 p4 #dcg4 ,mr4 ,oxford's book is only noticed here because it is meant for a popular manual4 ,as ,mr4 ,henry ,foker says1 'it seems a pity that the clergy should interfere in these matters4' ,footnote #ag3 ,science and ,hebrew ,tradition1 p4 #bii4 ,footnote #ah3 ,,ii4 #abg4 ,footnote #ai3 ,science and ,hebrew ,tradition1 p4 #cca4 ,footnote #bj3 ,mariner1 ii4 #bje4 ,footnote #ba3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #cce4 ,footnote #bb3 ,of course1 it in understood that ,israel 7in the dark backward and abysm of time7 may also have been totemistic1 like the ,australians1 as texts pointed out by ,mr4 ,robertson ,smith seem to hint4 ,there was also worship of teraphim1 respect paid to stones and trees1 and so forth4 ,footnote #bc3 ,science and ,hebrew ,tradition1 p4 #cdi4 ,footnote #bd3 ,p4 #cea4 ,footnote #be3 ,history of ,israel1 p4 #ddc note4 ,footnote #bf3 ,religion of ,semites4 ,footnote #bg3 ,geschichte des ,volkes ,israel1 i4 #ahj4 ,footnote #bh3 ,histoire du ,peuple d',israel1 citing ,schrader1 p4 #bc4 ,footnote #bi3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #he ,footnote #cj3 ,see ,professor ,robertson's ,early ,religion of ,israel for a list of these conjectures1 and1 generally1 for criticisms of the occasional vagaries of critics4 ,,xvii ,,conclusion ,we may now glance backward at the path which we have tried to cut through the jungles of early religions4 ,it is not a highway1 but the track of a solitary explorer2 and this essay pretends to be no more than a sketch--not an exhaustive survey of creeds4 ,its limitations are obvious1 but may here be stated4 ,the higher and even the lower polytheisms are only alluded to in passing1 our object being to keep well in view the conception of a ,supreme1 or practically ,supreme1 ,being1 from the lowest stages of human culture up to ,christianity4 ,in polytheism that conception is necessarily obscured1 showing itself dimly either in the ,prytanis1 or ,president of the ,immortals1 such as ,zeus2 or in ,fate1 behind and above the ,immortals2 or in ,mr4 ,max ,mller's ,henotheism1 where the god addressed--,indra1 or ,soma1 or ,agni--is1 for the moment1 envisaged as supreme1 and is adored in something like a monotheistic spirit2 or1 finally1 in the etherealised deity of advanced philosophic speculation4 ,it has not been necessary1 for our purpose1 to dwell on these civilised religions4 ,granting our hypothesis of an early ,supreme ,being among savages1 obscured later by ancestor-worship and ghost-gods1 but not often absolutely lost to religious tradition1 the barbaric and the civilised polytheisms easily take their position in line1 and are easily intelligible4 ,space forbids a discussion of all known religions2 only typical specimens have been selected4 ,thus1 nothing has been said of the religion of the great ,chinese empire4 ,it appears to consist1 on its higher plane1 of the worship of ,heaven as a great fetish-god--a worship which may well have begun in days1 as ,dr4 ,brinton says1 'long ere man had asked himself1 ,are the heavens material and ,god spiritual8'--perhaps1 for all we know1 before the idea of 'spirit' had been evolved4 ,thus1 if it contains nothing more august1 the ,chinese religion is1 so far1 beneath that of the ,zuis1 or the creed in ,taa-roa1 in ,beings who are eternal1 who were before earth was or sky was4 ,the ,chinese religion of ,heaven is also coloured by ,chinese political conditions2 ,heaven 7,tien7 corresponds to the ,emperor1 and tends to be confounded with ,shang-ti1 the ,emperor above4 ',dr4 ,legge charges ,confucius1' says ,mr4 ,tylor1 'with an inclination to substitute1 in his religious teaching1 the name of ,tien1 ,heaven1 for that known to more ancient religion1 and used in more ancient books--,shang-ti1 the personal ruling deity4' ,if so1 ,china too has its ancient ,supreme ,being1 who is not a divinised aspect of nature4 ,but ,mr4 ,tylor's reading1 in harmony with his general theory1 is different3 ',it seems1 rather1 that the sage was1 in fact1 upholding the tradition of the ancient faith1 thus acting according to the character on which he prided himself--that of a transmitter1 not a maker1 a preserver of old knowledge1 not a new revealer4'#a ,this1 of course1 is purely a question of evidence1 to be settled by ,sinologists4 ,if the personal ,supreme ,being1 ,shang-ti1 occupies in older documents the situation held by ,tien 7,heaven7 in ,confucius's later system1 why are we to say that ,confucius1 by putting forward ,heaven in place of ,shang-ti1 was restoring an older conception8 ,mr4 ,tylor's affection for his theory leads him1 perhaps1 to that opinion2 while my affection for my theory leads me to prefer documentary evidence in its favour4 ,the question can only be settled by specialists4 ,as matters stand1 it seems to me probable that ancient ,china possessed a ,supreme ,personal ,being1 more remote and original than ,heaven1 just as the ,zuis do4 ,on the lower plane1 ,chinese religion is overrun1 as everyone knows1 by ,animism and ancestor-worship4 ,this is so powerful that it has given rise to a native theory of ,euhemerism4 ,the departmental deities of ,chinese polytheism are explained by the ,chinese on ,euhemeristic principles3 ',according to legend1 the ,war ,god1 or ,military ,sage1 was once1 in human life1 a distinguished soldier2 the ,swine ,god was a hog-breeder who lost his pigs and died of sorrow2 the ,god of ,gamblers was un dcav4'#b ,these are not statements of fact1 but of ,chinese ,euhemeristic theory4 ,on that hypothesis1 ,confucius should now be a god2 but of course he is not2 his spirit is merely localised in his temple1 where the ,emperor worships him twice a year as ancestral spirits are worshipped4 ,every theorist will force facts into harmony with his system1 but ,i do not see that the ,chinese facts are contrary to mine4 ,on the highest plane is either a personal ,supreme ,being1 ,shang-ti1 or there is ,tien1 ,heaven 7with ,earth1 parent of men71 neither of them necessarily owing1 in origin1 anything to ,animism4 ,then there is the political reflection of the ,emperor on ,religion 7which cannot exist where there is no ,emperor1 ,king1 or ,chief1 and therefore must be late71 there is the animistic rabble of spirits ancestral or not1 and there is departmental polytheism4 ,the spirits are1 of course1 fed and furnished by men in the usual symbolical way4 ,nothing shows or hints that ,shang-ti is merely an imaginary idealised first ancestor4 ,indeed1 about all such explanations of the ,supreme ,being 7say among the ,kurnai7 as an idealised imaginary first ancestor1 ,m4 ,rville justly observes as follows3 ',not only have we seen that1 in wide regions of the uncivilised world1 the worship of ancestors has invaded a domain previously occupied by ,naturism and ,animism properly so called1 that it is1 therefore1 posterior to these2 but1 farther1 we do not understand1 in ,mr4 ,spencer's system1 why1 in so many places1 the first ancestor is the ,maker1 if not the ,creator of the world1 ,master of life and death1 and possessor of divine powers1 not held by any of his descendants4 ,this proves that it was not the first ancestor who became ,god1 in the belief of his descendants1 but much rather the ,divine ,maker and ,beginner of all1 who1 in the creed of his adorers1 became the first ancestor4'#c ,our task has been limited1 in this way1 mainly to examination of the religion of some of the very lowest races1 and of the highest world-religions1 such as ,judaism4 ,the historical aspect of ,christianity1 as arising in the ,life1 ,death1 and ,resurrection of our ,lord1 would demand a separate treatise4 ,this would1 in part1 be concerned with the attempts to find in the narratives concerning our ,lord1 a large admixture of the mythology and ritual connected with the sacrificed ,rex ,nemorensis1 and whatever else survives in peasant folk-lore of spring and harvest4#d ,after these apologies for the limitations of this essay1 we may survey the backward track4 ,we began by showing that savages may stumble1 and have stumbled1 on theories not inconsistent with science1 but not till recently discovered by science4 ,the electric origin of the ,aurora ,borealis 7whether absolutely certain or not7 was an example2 another was the efficacy of 'suggestion1' especially for curative purposes4 ,it was1 therefore1 hinted that1 if savages blundered 7if you please7 into a belief in ,god and the ,soul1 however obscurely envisaged1 these beliefs were not therefore necessarily and essentially false4 ,we then stated our purpose of examining the alleged supernormal phenomena1 savage or civilised1 which1 on ,mr4 ,tylor's hypothesis1 help to originate the conception of 'spirits4' ,we defended the nature of our evidence1 as before anthropologists1 by showing that1 for the savage belief in the supernormal phenomena1 we have exactly the kind of evidence on which all anthropological science reposes4 ,the relative weakness of that evidence1 our need of more and better evidence1 we would be the very last to deny1 indeed it is part of our case4 ,our existing evidence will hardly support any theory of religion4 ,anyone who is in doubt on that head has only to read ,m4 ,rville's ',les ,religions des ,peuples ,non-,civiliss1' under the heads ',mlansiens1' ',mincopies1' ',les ,australiens' 7ii4 #aaf-adc71 when he will observe that this eminent ,french authority is ignorant of the facts about these races here produced4 ,in #ahhc they had not come within his ken4 ,such minute and careful inquiries by men closely intimate with the peoples concerned1 as ,dr4 ,codrington's1 ,mr4 ,hewitt's1 ,mr4 ,man's1 and the authorities compiled by ,mr4 ,brough ,smyth1 were unfamiliar to ,m4 ,rville1 ,thus1 in turn1 new facts1 or facts unknown to us1 may upset my theory4 ,this peril is of the essence of scientific theorising on the history of religion4 ,having thus justified our evidence for the savage belief in supernormal phenomena1 as before anthropologists1 we turned to a court of psychologists in defence of our evidence for the fact of exactly the same supernormal phenomena in civilised experience4 ,we pointed out that for subjective psychological experiences1 say of telepathy1 we had precisely the same evidence as all non-experimental psychology must and does rest upon4 ,nay1 we have even experimental evidence1 in experiments in thought-transference4 ,we have chiefly1 however1 statements of subjective experience4 ,for the coincidence of such experience with unknown events we have such evidence as1 in practical life1 is admitted by courts of law4 ,experimental psychology1 of course1 relies on experiments conducted under the eyes of the expert1 for example1 by hypnotism or otherwise1 under ,dr4 ,hack ,tuke1 ,professor ,james1 ,m4 ,richet1 ,m4 ,janet4 ,the evidence is the conduct rather than the statements of the subject4 ,there is also physiological experiment1 by vivisection 7,i regret to say7 and post-mortem dissection4 ,but non-experimental psychology reposes on the self-examination of the student1 and on the statements of psychological experiences made to him by persons whom he thinks he can trust4 ,the psychologist1 however1 if he be1 as ,mr4 ,galton says1 'unimaginative in the strict but unusual sense of that ambiguous word1' needs ,mr4 ,galton's 'word of warning4' ,he is asked 'to resist a too frequent tendency to assume that the minds of every other sane and healthy person must be like his own4 ,the psychologist should inquire into the minds of others as he should into those of animals of different races1 and be prepared to find much to which his own experience can afford little if any clue4'#e ,mr4 ,galton had to warn the unimaginative psychologist in this way1 because he was about to unfold his discovery of the faculty which presents numbers to some minds as visualised coloured numerals1 'so vivid as to be undistinguishable from reality1 except by the aid of accidental circumstances4' ,mr4 ,galton also found in his inquiries that occasional hallucinations of the sane are much more prevalent than he had supposed1 or than science had ever taken into account4 ,all this was entirely new to psychologists1 many of whom still 7at least many popular psychologists of the press7 appear to be unacquainted with the circumstances4 ,one of them informed me1 quite gravely1 that 'he never had an hallucination1' therefore--his mind being sane and healthy--the inference seemed to be that no sane and healthy mind was ever hallucinated4 ,mr4 ,galton has replied to that argument6 ,his reply covers1 logically1 the whole field of psychological faculties little regarded1 for example1 by ,mr4 ,sully1 who is not exactly an imaginative psychologist4 ,it covers the whole field of automatism 7as in automatic writing7 perhaps of the divining rod1 certainly of crystal visions and of occasional hallucinations1 as ,mr4 ,galton1 in this last case1 expressly declares4 ,psychologists at least need not be told that such faculties cannot1 any more than other human faculties1 be always evoked for study and experiment4 ,our evidence for these faculties and experiences1 then1 is usually of the class on which the psychologist relies4 ,but1 when the psychologist1 following ,leibnitz1 ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 and ,kant1 discusses the ,subconscious 7for example1 knowledge1 often complex and abundant1 unconsciously acquired7 we demonstrated by examples that the psychologist will contentedly repose on evidence which is not evidence at all4 ,he will swallow an undated1 unlocalised legend of ,coleridge1 reaching ,coleridge on the testimony of rumour1 and told at least twenty years after the unverified occurrences4 ,nay1 the psychologist will never dream of procuring contemporary evidence for such a monstrous statement as that an ignorant ,german wench unconsciously acquired and afterwards subconsciously reproduced huge cantles of dead languages1 by virtue of having casually heard a former master recite or read aloud from ,hebrew and ,greek books4 ,this legend do psychologists accept on no evidence at all1 because it illustrates a theory which is1 doubtless1 a very good theory1 though1 in this case1 carried to an extent 'imagination boggles at4' ,here the psychologist may reply that much less evidence will content him for a fact to which he possesses1 at least1 analogies in accredited experience1 than for a fact 7say telepathic crystal-gazing7 to which he knows1 in experience1 nothing analogous4 ,thus1 for the mythical ,german handmaid1 he has the analogy of languages learned in childhood1 or passages got up by rote1 being forgotten and brought back to ordinary conscious memory1 or delirious memory1 during an illness1 or shortly before death4 ,strong in these analogies1 the psychologist will venture to accept a case of language not learned1 but reproduced in delirious memory1 on no evidence at all4 ,but1 not possessing analogies for telepathic crystal-gazing1 he will probably decline to examine ours4 ,i would first draw his attention to the difference between revived memory of a language once known 7,breton and ,welsh in known examples71 or learned by rote 7as ,greek1 in an anecdote of ,goethe's71 and verbal reproduction of a language not known or learned by rote but overheard--each passage probably but once--as somebody recited fragments4 ,in this instance 7that of the mythical maid7 'the difficulty 444 is that the original impressions had not the strength--that is1 the distinctness--of the reproduction4 ,an unknown language overheard is a mere sound4444'#f ,the distinction here drawn is so great and obvious that for proof of the ,german girl's case we need better evidence than ,coleridge's rumour of a rumour1 cited1 as it is1 by ,hamilton1 ,maudsley1 ,carpenter1 ,du ,prel1 and the common run of manuals4 ,not that ,i deny1 a priori1 the possibility of ,coleridge's story4 ,as ,mr4 ,huxley says1 'strictly speaking1 ,i am unaware of anything that has a right to the title of an impossibility1 except a contradiction in terms4'#g ,to the horror of some of his admirers1 ,mr4 ,huxley would not call the existence of demons and demoniacal possession 'impossible4'#h ,mr4 ,huxley was no blind follower of ,hume4 ,i1 too1 do not call ,coleridge's tale 'impossible1' but1 unlike the psychologists1 ,i refuse to accept it on ',bardolph's security4' ,and ,i contrast their conduct1 in swallowing ,coleridge's legend1 with their refusal 7if they do refuse7 to accept the evidence for the automatic writing of not-consciously-known languages 7as of eleventh-century ,french poetry and prose by ,mr4 ,schiller71 or their refusal 7if they do refuse7 to look at the evidence for telepathic crystal-gazing1 or any other supernormal exhibitions of faculty1 attested by living and honourable persons4 ,i wish ,i saw a way for orthodox unimaginative psychology out of its dilemma4 ,after offering to anthropologists and psychologists these considerations1 which ,i purposely reiterate1 we examined historically the relations of science to 'the marvellous1' showing for example how ,hume1 following his a priori theory of the impossible1 would have declined to investigate1 because they were 'miraculous1' certain occurrences which1 to ,charcot1 were ordinary incidents in medical experience4 ,we next took up and criticised the anthropological theory of religion as expounded by ,mr4 ,tylor4 ,we then collected from his work a series of alleged supernormal phenomena in savage belief1 all making for the foundation of animistic religion4 ,through several chapters we pursued the study of these phenomena1 choosing savage instances1 and setting beside them civilised testimony to facts of experience4 ,our conclusion was that such civilised experiences1 if they occurred1 as they are universally said to do1 among savages1 would help to originate1 and would very strongly support the savage doctrine of souls1 the base of religion in the theory of ,english anthropologists4 ,but apart from the savage doctrine of 'spirits' 7whether they exist or not71 the evidence points to the existence of human faculties not allowed for in the current systems of materialism4 ,we next turned from the subject of supernormal experiences to the admitted facts about early religion4 ,granting the belief in souls and ghosts and spirits1 however attained1 how was the idea of a ,supreme ,being to be evolved out of that belief8 ,we showed that1 taking the creed as found in the lowest races1 the processes put forward by anthropologists could not account for its evolution4 ,the facts would not fit into1 but contradicted1 the anthropological theory4 ,the necessary social conditions postulated were not found in places where the belief is found4 ,nay1 the necessary social conditions for the evolution even of ancestor-worship were confessedly not found where the supposed ultimate result of ancestor-worship1 the belief in a ,supreme ,being1 flourished abundantly4 ,again1 the belief in a ,supreme ,being1 ex hypothesi the latest in evolution1 therefore the most potent1 was often shelved and half forgotten1 or neglected1 or ridiculed1 where the belief in ,animism 7ex hypothesi the earlier7 was in full vigour4 ,we demonstrated by facts that ,anthropology had simplified her task by ignoring that essential feature1 the prevalent alliance of ethics with religion1 in the creed of the lowest and least developed races4 ,here1 happily1 we have not only the evidence of an earnest animist1 ,mr4 ,im ,thurn1 on our side1 but that of a distinguished ,semitic scholar1 the late ,mr4 ,robertson ,smith4 ',we see that even in its rudest forms ,religion was a moral force1 the powers that man reveres were on the side of social order and moral law2 and the fear of the gods was a motive to enforce the laws of society1 which were also the laws of morality4'#i ,wellhausen has already been cited to the same effect4 ,however1 the facts proving that truth1 and unselfishness1 surely a large element of ,christian ethics1 are divinely sanctioned in savage religion are more potent than the most learned opinion on that side4 ,our next step was to examine in detail several religions of the most remote and backward races1 of races least contaminated with ,christian or ,islamite teaching4 ,our evidence1 when possible1 was derived from ancient and secret tribal mysteries1 and sacred native hymns4 ,we found a relatively ,supreme ,being1 a ,maker1 sanctioning morality1 and unpropitiated by sacrifice1 among peoples who go in dread of ghosts and wizards1 but do not always worship ancestors4 ,we showed that the anthropological theory of the evolution of ,god out of ghosts in no way explains the facts in the savage conception of a ,supreme ,being4 ,we then argued that the notion of 'spirit1' derived from ghost-belief1 was not logically needed for the conception of a ,supreme ,being in its earliest form1 was detrimental to the conception1 and1 by much evidence1 was denied to be part of the conception4 ,the ,supreme ,being1 thus regarded1 may be 7though he cannot historically be shown to be7 prior to the first notion of ghost and separable souls4 ,we then traced the idea of such a ,supreme ,being through the creeds of races rising in the scale of material culture1 demonstrating that he was thrust aside by the competition of ravenous but serviceable ghosts1 ghost-gods1 and shades of kingly ancestors1 with their magic and their bloody rites4 ,these rites and the animistic conception behind them were next1 in rare cases1 reflected or refracted back on the ,supreme ,eternal4 ,aristocratic institutions fostered polytheism with the old ,supreme ,being obscured1 or superseded1 or enthroned as ,emperor-,god1 or ,king-,god4 ,we saw how1 and in what sense1 the old degeneration theory could be defined and defended4 ,we observed traces of degeneration in certain archaic aspects of the faith in ,jehovah2 and we proved that 7given a tolerably pure low savage belief in a ,supreme ,being7 that belief must degenerate1 under social conditions1 as civilisation advanced4 ,next1 studying what we may call the restoration of ,jehovah1 under the great ,prophets of ,israel1 we noted that they1 and ,israel generally1 were strangely indifferent to that priceless aspect of ,animism1 the care for the future happiness1 as conditioned by the conduct of the individual soul4 ,that aspect had been neglected neither by the popular instinct nor the priestly and philosophic reflection of ,egypt1 ,greece1 and ,rome4 ,christianity1 last1 combined what was good in ,animism1 the care for the individual soul as an immortal spirit under eternal responsibilities1 with the ,one righteous ,eternal of prophetic ,israel1 and so ended the long1 intricate1 and mysterious theological education of humanity4 ,such is our theory1 which does not1 to us1 appear to lack evidence1 nor to be inconsistent 7as the anthropological theory is apparently inconsistent7 with the hypothesis of evolution4 ,all this1 it must be emphatically insisted on1 is propounded 'under all reserves4' ,while these four stages1 say 7#a7 the ,australian unpropitiated ,moral ,being1 7#b7 the ,african neglected ,being1 still somewhat moral1 7#c7 the relatively ,supreme ,being involved in human sacrifice1 as in ,polynesia1 and 7#d7 the ,moral ,being reinstated philosophically1 as in ,israel1 do suggest steps in evolution1 we desire to base no hard-and-fast system of ascending and descending degrees upon our present evidence4 ,the real object is to show that facts may be regarded in this light1 as well as in the light thrown by the anthropological theory1 in the hands whether of ,mr4 ,tylor1 ,mr4 ,spencer1 ,m4 ,rville1 or ,mr4 ,jevons1 whose interesting work comes nearest to our provisional hypothesis4 ,we only ask for suspense of judgment1 and for hesitation in accepting the dogmas of modern manual makers4 ,an exception to them certainly appears to be ,mr4 ,clodd1 if we may safely attribute to him a review 7signed ,c47 of ,mr4 ,grant ,allen's ',evolution of the ,idea of ,god4' ',we fear that all our speculations will remain summaries of probabilities4 ,no documents are extant to enlighten us2 we have only mobile1 complex and confused ideas1 incarnate in eccentric1 often contradictory theories4 ,that this character attaches to such ideas should keep us on guard against framing theories whose symmetry is sometimes their condemnation' 7',daily ,chronicle1' ,december #aj1 #ahig74 ,nothing excites my own suspicion of my provisional hypothesis more than its symmetry4 ,it really seems to fit the facts1 as they appear to me1 too neatly4 ,i would suggest1 however1 that ancient savage sacred hymns1 and practices in the mysteries1 are really rather of the nature of 'documents2' more so1 at least1 than the casual observations of some travellers1 or the gossip extracted from natives much in contact with ,europeans4 ,supposing that the arguments in this essay met with some acceptance1 what effect would they have1 if any1 on our thoughts about religion8 ,what is their practical tendency8 ,the least dubious effect would be1 ,i hope1 to prevent us from accepting the anthropological theory of religion1 or any other theory1 as a foregone conclusion1 ,i have tried to show how dim is our knowledge1 how weak1 often1 is our evidence1 and that1 finding among the lowest savages all the elements of all religions already developed in different degrees1 we cannot1 historically1 say that one is earlier than another4 ,this point of priority we can never historically settle4 ,if we met savages with ghosts and no gods1 we could not be sure but that they once possessed a ,god1 and forgot him4 ,if we met savages with a ,god and no ghosts1 we could not be historically certain that a higher had not obliterated a lower creed4 ,for these reasons dogmatic decisions about the origin of religion seem unworthy of science4 ,they will appear yet more futile to any student who goes so far with me as to doubt whether the highest gods of the lowest races could be developed1 or can be shown to have been developed1 by way of the ghost-theory4 ,to him who reaches this point the whole animistic doctrine of ghosts as the one germ of religion will appear to be imperilled4 ,the main practical result1 then1 will be hesitation about accepting the latest scientific opinion1 even when backed by great names1 and published in little primers4 ,on the hypothesis here offered to criticism there are two chief sources of ,religion1 7#a7 the belief1 how attained we know not1#aj in a powerful1 moral1 eternal1 omniscient ,father and ,judge of men2 7#b7 the belief 7probably developed out of experiences normal and supernormal7 in somewhat of man which may survive the grave4 ,this second belief is not1 logically1 needed as given material for the first1 in its apparently earliest form4 ,it may1 for all we know1 be the later of the two beliefs1 chronologically4 ,but this belief1 too1 was necessary to religion2 first1 as finally supplying a formula by which advancing intellects could conceive of the ,mighty ,being involved in the former creed2 next1 as elevating man's conception of his own nature4 ,by the second belief he becomes the child of the ,god in whom1 perhaps1 he already trusted1 and in whom he has his being1 a being not destined to perish with the death of the body4 ,man is thus not only the child but the heir of ,god1 a 'nurseling of immortality1' capable of entering into eternal life4 ,on the moral influence of this belief it is superfluous to dwell4 ,from the most backward races historically known to us1 to those of our own status1 all have been more or less washed by the waters of this double stream of religion4 ,the ,hebrews1 as far as our information goes1 were chiefly influenced by the first belief1 the faith in the ,eternal1 and had comparatively slight interest in whatever posthumous fortunes might await individual souls4 ,other civilised peoples1 say the ,greeks1 extended the second1 or animistic theory1 into forms of beautiful fantasy1 the material of art4 ,yet both in ,greece and ,rome1 as we learn from the ',republic' 7,books i4 iii47 of ,plato1 and from the whole scope of the poem of ,lucretius1 and from the ,painted ,porch at ,delphi1 answering to the frescoes of the ,pisan ,campo ,santo1 there existed1 among the people1 what was unknown to the ,hebrews1 an extreme anxiety about the posthumous fortunes and possible punishment of the individual soul4 ,a kind of pardoners and indulgence-sellers made a living out of that anxiety in ,greece4 ,for the ,greek pardoners1 who testify to an interest in the future happiness of the soul not found in ,israel1 ,mr4 ,jevons may be cited3 ',the agyrtes professed by means of his rites to purify men from the sins they had themselves committed 444 and so to secure to those whom he purified an exemption from the evil lot in the next world which awaited those who were not initiated4' ',a magic mirror' 7crystal-gazing7 'was among his properties4'#aa ,in ,egypt a moral life did not suffice to secure immortal reward4 ,there was also required knowledge of the spells that baffle the demons who1 in ,amenti1 as in the ,red ,indian and ,polynesian ,hades1 lie in wait for souls4 ,that knowledge was contained in copies of the ,book of the ,dead--the gagne-pain of priests and scribes4 ,early ,israel1 having1 as far as we know1 a singular lack of interest in the future of the soul1 was born to give himself up to developing1 undisturbed1 the theistic conception1 the belief in a righteous ,eternal4 ,polytheism everywhere--in ,greece especially--held of the animistic conception1 with its freakish1 corruptible deities4 ,greek philosophy could hardly restore that ,eternal for whom the ,prophets battled in ,israel2 whom some of the lowest savages know and fear2 whom the animistic theory or cult everywhere obscures with its crowd of hungry1 cruel1 interested1 food-propitiated ghost-gods4 ,in the religion of our ,lord and the ,apostles the two currents of faith in one righteous ,god and care for the individual soul were purified and combined4 ',god is a ,spirit1 and they who worship ,him must worship ,him in spirit and in truth4' ,man also is a spirit1 and1 as such1 is in the hands of a ,god not to be propitiated by man's sacrifice or monk's ritual4 ,we know how this doctrine was again disturbed by the ,animism1 in effect1 and by the sacrifice and ritual of the ,mediaeval ,church4 ,too eager 'to be all things to all men1' the august and beneficent ,mother of ,christendom readmitted the earlier ,animism in new forms of saint-worship1 pilgrimage1 and popular ceremonial--things apart from1 but commonly supposed to be substitutes for1 righteousness of life and the selflessness enjoined in savage mysteries4 ,for the softness1 no less than for the hardness of men's hearts1 these things were ordained3 such as masses for the beloved dead4 ,modern thought has deanthropomorphised what was left of anthropomorphic in religion1 and1 in the end1 has left us for ,god1 at most1 'a stream of tendency making for righteousness1' or an energy unknown and unknowable--the ghost of a ghost4 ,for the soul1 by virtue of his belief in which man raised himself in his own esteem1 and1 more or less1 in ethical standing1 is left to us a negation or a wistful doubt4 ,to this part of modern scientific teaching the earlier position of this essay suggests a demurrer4 ,by aid of the tradition of and belief in supernormal phenomena among the low races1 by attested phenomena of the same kinds of experience among the higher races1 ,i have ventured to try to suggest that 'we are not merely brain2' that man has his part1 we know not how1 in we know not what--has faculties and vision scarcely conditioned by the limits of his normal purview4 ,the evidence of all this deals with matters often trivial1 like the electric sparks rubbed from the deer's hide1 which yet are cognate with an illimitable1 essential potency of the universe4 ,not being able to explain away these facts1 or1 in this place1 to offer what would necessarily be a premature theory of them1 ,i regard them1 though they seem shadowy1 as grounds of hope1 or1 at least1 as tokens that men need not yet despair4 ,not now for the first time have weak things of the earth been chosen to confound things strong4 ,nor have men of this opinion been always the weakest2 not among the feeblest are ,socrates1 ,pascal1 ,napoleon1 ,cromwell1 ,charles ,gordon1 ,st4 ,theresa1 and ,jeanne d',arc4 ,i am perfectly aware that the 'superstitiousness' of the earlier part of this essay must injure any effect which the argument of the latter part might possibly produce on critical opinion4 ,yet that argument in no way depends on what we think about the phenomena--normal1 supernormal1 or illusory--on which the theory of ghost1 soul1 or spirit may have been based4 ,it exhibits religion as probably beginning in a kind of ,theism1 which is then superseded1 in some degree1 or even corrupted1 by ,animism in all its varieties4 ,finally1 the exclusive ,theism of ,israel receives its complement in a purified ,animism1 and emerges as ,christianity4 ,quite apart1 too1 from any favourable conclusion which may1 by some1 be drawn from the phenomena1 and quite apart from the more general opinion that all modern instances are compact of imposture1 malobservation1 mythopoeic memory1 and superstitious bias1 the systematic comparison of civilised and savage beliefs and alleged experiences of this kind cannot wisely be neglected by ,anthropology4 ,humani nihil a se alienum putat4 ,footnote #a3 ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 #ceb4 ,footnote #b3 ,abridged from ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 #aai4 ,footnote #c3 ,histoire des ,religions1 ii4 #bcg1 note4 ,m4 ,rville's system1 it will be observed1 differs from mine in that he finds the first essays of religion in worship of aspects of nature 7naturisme7 and in 'animism properly so called1' by which he understands the instinctive1 perhaps not explicitly formulated1 sense that all things whatever are animated and personal4 ,i have not remarked this aspect of belief as much prevalent in the most backward races1 and ,i do not try to look behind what we know historically about early religion4 ,i so far agree with ,m4 ,rville as to think the belief in ghosts and spirits 7,mr4 ,tylor's ',animism'7 not necessarily postulated in the original indeterminate conception of the ,supreme ,being1 or generally1 in ',original ,gods4' ,but ,m4 ,rville says1 ',l'objet de la religion humaine est ncessairement un esprit' 7,prolgomnes1 #ajg74 ,this does not seem consistent with his own theory4 ,footnote #d3 ,compare ,mr4 ,frazer's ,golden ,bough with ,mr4 ,grant ,allen's ,evolution of the ,idea of ,god4 ,footnote #e3 ,j4,a4,i4 x4 #he4 ,footnote #f3 ,massey4 ,note to ,du ,prel4 ,philosophy of mysticism1 ii #aj4 ,footnote #g3 ,science and ,christian ,tradition1 p4 #aig ,footnote #h3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #aie4 ,footnote #i3 ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #ec4 ,footnote #aj3 ,the hypothesis of ,st4 ,paul seems not the most unsatisfactory1 ,rom4 i4 #ai4 ,footnote #aa3 ,introd4 to ,hist4 of ,rel4 p4 #ccc2 ,aristoph4 ,frogs1 #aei4 ,,appendices ,,appendix ,a ,,oppositions ,,of ,,science ,the most elaborate reply to the arguments for telepathy1 based on ,the ,report of the ,census of ,hallucinations1 is that of ,herr ,parish1 in his ',hallucinations and ,illusions4'#a ,herr ,parish is1 at present1 opposed to the theory that the ,census establishes a telepathic cause in the so-called 'coincidental' stories1 'put forward1' as he says1 'with due reserve1 and based on an astonishing mass of materials1 to some extent critically handled4' ,he first demurs to an allowance of twelve hours for the coincidence of hallucination and death2 but1 if we reflect that twelve hours is little even in a year1 coincidences within twelve hours1 it may be admitted1 donnent penser1 even if we reject the theory that1 granted a real telepathic impact1 it may need time and quiet for its development into a complete hallucination4 ,we need not linger over the very queer cases from ,munich1 as these are not in the selected thirty of the ,report4 ,herr ,parish then dwells on that hallucination of memory1 in which we feel as if everything that is going on had happened before4 ,it may have occurred to most of us to be reminded by some association of ideas during the day1 of some dream of the previous night1 which we had forgotten4 ,for instance1 looking at a brook from a bridge1 and thinking of how ,i would fish it1 ,i remembered that ,i had dreamed1 on the previous night1 of casting a fly for practice1 on a lawn4 ,nobody would think of disputing the fact that ,i really had such a dream1 forgot it and remembered it when reminded of it by association of ideas4 ,but if the forgotten dream had been 'fulfilled1' and been recalled to memory only in the moment of fulfilment1 science would deny that ,i ever had such a dream at all4 ,the alleged dream would be described as an 'hallucination of memory4' ,something occurring1 it would be said1 ,i had the not very unusual sensation1 ',this has occurred to me before1' and the sensation would become a false memory that it had occurred--in a dream4 ,this theory will be advanced1 ,i think1 not when an ordinary dream is recalled by a waking experience1 but only when the dream coincides with and foreruns that experience1 which is a thing that dreams have no business to do4 ,such coincidental dreams are necessarily 'false memories1' scientifically speaking4 ,now1 how does this theory of false memory bear on coincidental hallucinations8 ,the insane1 it seems1 are apt to have the false memory ',this occurred before1' and then to say that the event was revealed to them in a vision4#b ,the insane may be recommended to make a note of the vision1 and have it properly attested1 before the event4 ,the same remark applies to the 'presentiments' of the sane4 ,but it does not apply if ,jones tells me ',i saw my great aunt last night1' and if news comes after this remark that ,jones's aunt died1 on that night1 in ,timbuctoo4 ,yet ,herr ,parish 7p4 #bhb7 seems to think that the argument of fallacious memory comes in part1 even when an hallucination has been reported to another person before its fulfilment4 ,of course all depends on the veracity of the narrator and the person to whom he told his tale4 ,to take a case given3#c ,brown1 say1 travelling with his wife1 dreams that a mad dog bit his boy at home on the elbow4 ,he tells his wife4 ,arriving at home ,brown finds that it was so4 ,herr ,parish appears to argue thus3 ,brown dreamed nothing at all1 but he gets excited when he hears the bad news at home2 he thinks1 by false memory1 that he has a recollection of it1 he says to his wife1 ',my dear1 didn't ,i tell you1 last night1 ,i had dreamed all this8' and his equally excited wife replies1 ',true1 my ,brown1 you did1 and ,i said it was only one of your dreams4' ,and both now believe that the dream occurred4 ,this is very plausible1 is it not8 only science would not say anything about it if the dream had not been fulfilled--if ,brown had remarked1 ',egad1 my dear1 seeing that horse reminds me that ,i was dreaming last night of driving in a dog-cart4' ,for then ,brown was not excited4 ,none of this exquisite reasoning as to dreams applies to waking hallucinations1 reported before the alleged coincidence1 unless we accept a collective hallucination of memory in seer or seers1 and also in the persons to whom their story was told4 ,but1 it is obvious1 memory is apt to become mythopoeic1 so far as to exaggerate closeness of coincidence1 and to add romantic details4 ,we do not need ,herr ,parish to tell us that2 we meet the circumstance in all narratives from memory1 whatever the topic1 even in ,herr ,parish's own writings4 ,we must admit that the public1 in ghostly1 as in all narratives on all topics1 is given to 'fanciful addenda4' ,therefore1 as ,herr ,parish justly remarks1 we should 'maintain a very sceptical attitude to all accounts' of veridical hallucinations4 ',not that we should dismiss them as old wives' fables--an all too common method--or even doubt the narrator's good faith4' ,we should treat them like tales of big fish that get away2 sometimes there is good corroborative evidence that they really were big fish1 sometimes not4 ,we shall return to these false memories4 ,was there a coincidence at all in the ,society's cases printed in the ,census8 ,herr ,parish thinks three of the selected twenty-six cases very dubious4 ,in one case is a possible margin of four days1 another 7wrongly numbered by the way7 does not occur at all among the twenty-six4 ,in the third1 ,herr ,parish is wrong in his statement4#d ,this is a lovely example of the sceptical slipshod1 and1 accompanied by the miscitation of the second case1 shows that inexactitude is not all on the side of the seers4 ,however the case is not very good1 the two percipients fancying that the date of the event was less remote than it really was4 ,unluckily ,herr ,parish only criticises these three cases1 how accurately we have remarked4 ,he had no room for more4 ,herr ,parish next censures the probable selection of good cases by collectors1 on which the editors of the ,census have already made observations1 as they have also made large allowances for this cause of error4 ,he then offers the astonishing statement that1 'in the view of the ,english authors1 a view which is1 of course1 assumed in all calculations of the kind1 an hallucination persists equally long in the memory and is equally readily recalled in reply to a question1 whether the experience made but a slight impression on the percipient1 or affected him deeply1 as would be the case1 for instance1 if the hallucination had been found to coincide with the death of a near relative or friend4'#e ,this assertion of ,herr ,parish's is so erroneous that the ,report expressly says 'as years recede into the distance1' the proportion of the hallucinations that are remembered in them to those which are forgotten1 or at least ignored1 'is very large4' ,again1 ',hallucinations of the most impressive class will not only be better remembered than others1 but will1 we may reasonably suppose1 be more often mentioned by the percipients to their friends4'#f ,yet ,herr ,parish avers that1 in all calculations1 it is assumed that hallucinations are equally readily recalled whether impressive or not6 ,once more1 the ,report says 7p4 #bdf71 ',it is not the case' that coincidental 7and impressive7 hallucinations are as easily subject to oblivion as non-coincidental1 and non-impressive ones4 ,the editors therefore multiply the non-coincidental cases by four1 arguing that no coincidental cases 7hits7 are forgotten1 while three out of four non-coincidentals 7misses7 are forgotten1 or may be supposed likely to be forgotten4 ,immediately after declaring that the ,english authors suppose all hallucinations to be equally well remembered 7which is the precise reverse of what they do say71 ,herr ,parish admits that the authors multiply the misses by four1 'influenced by other considerations' 7p4 #bhi74 ,by what other considerations8 ,they give their reason 7that very reason which they decline to entertain1 says ,herr ,parish71 namely1 that misses are four times as likely to be forgotten as hits4 ',to go into the reason for adopting this plan would lead us too far1' he writes4 ,why1 it is the very reason which1 he says1 does not find favour with the ,english authors6 ,how curiously remote from being 'coincidental' with plain facts1 or 'veridical' at all1 is this scientific criticism6 ,herr ,parish says that a 'view' 7which does not exist7 is 'of course assumed in all calculations2' and1 on the very same page1 he says that it is not assumed6 ',the witnesses of the report--influenced1 it is true1 by other considerations' 7which is not the case71 'have sought to turn the point of this objection by multiplying the whole number of 7non-coincidental7 cases by four4' ,then the 'view' is not 'assumed in all calculations1' as ,herr ,parish has just asserted4 ,what led ,herr ,parish1 an honourable and clearheaded critic1 into this maze of incorrect and contradictory assertions8 ,it is interesting to try to trace the causes of such non-veridical illusions1 to find the points de repre of these literary hallucinations4 ,one may suggest that when ,herr ,parish 'recast the chapters' of his ,german edition1 as he says in his preface to the ,english version1 he accidentally left in a passage based on an earlier paper by ,mr4 ,gurney1#g not observing that it was no longer accurate or appropriate4 ,after this odd passage1 ,herr ,parish argues that a 'veridical' hallucination is regarded by the ,english authors as 'coincidental1' even when external circumstances have made that very hallucination a probable occurrence by producing 'tension of the corresponding nerve element groups4' ,that is to say1 a person is in a condition--a nervous condition-- likely1 a priori1 to beget an hallucination4 ,an hallucination is begotten1 quite naturally2 and so1 if it happens to coincide with an event1 the coincidence should not count--it is purely fortuitous4#h ,here is an example4 ,a lady1 facing an old sideboard1 saw a friend1 with no coat on1 and in a waistcoat with a back of shiny material4 ,within an hour she was taken to where her friend lay dying1 without a coat1 and in a waistcoat with a shiny back4#i ,here is the scientific explanation of ,herr ,parish3 ',the shimmer of a reflecting surface the sideboard8 formed the occasion for the hallucinatory emergence of a subconsciously perceived shiny black waistcoat quotation incorrect1 of course1 and an individual subconsciously associated with that impression4#aj ,i ask any lady whether she1 consciously or subconsciously1 associates the men she knows with the backs of their waistcoats4 ,herr ,parish's would be a brilliantly satisfactory explanation if it were only true to the printed words that lay under his eyes when he wrote4 ,there was no 'shiny black waistcoat' in the case1 but a waistcoat with a shiny back4 ,gentlemen1 and especially old gentlemen who go about in bath-chairs 7like the man in this story71 don't habitually take off their coats and show the backs of their waistcoats to ladies of nineteen in ,england4 ,and1 if ,herr ,parish had cared to read his case1 he would have found it expressly stated that the lady 'had never seen the man without his coat' 7and so could not associate him with an impression of a shiny back to his waistcoat7 till after the hallucination1 when she saw him coatless on his death-bed4 ,in this instance ,herr ,parish had an hallucinatory memory1 all wrong1 of the page under his eyes4 ,the case is got rid of1 then1 by aid of the 'fanciful addenda1' to which ,herr ,parish justly objects4 ,he first gives the facts incorrectly1 and then explains an occurrence which1 as reported by him1 did not occur1 and was not asserted to occur4 ,i confess that1 if ,herr ,parish's version were as correct as it is essentially inaccurate1 his explanation would leave me doubtful4 ,for the circumstances were that the old gentleman of the story lunched daily with the young lady's mother4 ,suppose that she was familiar 7which she was not7 with the shiny back of his waistcoat1 still1 she saw him daily1 and daily1 too1 was in the way of seeing the 7hypothetically7 shiny surface of the sideboard4 ,that being the case1 she had1 every day1 the materials1 subjective and objective1 of the hallucination4 ,yet it only occurred once1 and then it precisely coincided with the death agony of the old gentleman1 and with his coatless condition4 ,why only that once8 ,c'est l le miracle6 ',how much for this little veskit8' as the man asked ,david ,copperfield4 ,herr ,parish next invents a cause for an hallucination1 which1 ,i myself think1 ought not to have been reckoned1 because the percipient had been sitting up with the sick man4 ,this he would class as a 'suspicious' case4 ,but1 even granting him his own way of handling the statistics1 he would still have far too large a proportion of coincidences for the laws of chance to allow1 if we are to go by these statistics at all4 ,his next argument practically is that hallucinations are always only a kind of dreams4#aa ,he proves this by the large number of coincidental hallucinations which occurred in sleepy circumstances4 ,one man went to bed early1 and woke up early2 another was 'roused from sleep2' two ladies were sitting up in bed1 giving their babies nourishment2 a man was reading a newspaper on a sofa2 a lady was lying awake at seven in the morning2 and there are eight other ,english cases of people 'awake' in bed during an hallucination4 ,now1 in ,dr4 ,parish's opinion1 we must argue that they were not awake1 or not much2 so the hallucinations were mere dreams4 ,dreams are so numerous that coincidences in dreams can be got rid of as pure flukes4 ,people may say1 to be sure1 ',i am used to dreams1 and don't regard them2 this was something solitary in my experience4' ,but we must not mind what people say4 ,yet ,i fear we must mind what they say4 ,at least1 we must remember that sleeping dreams are1 of all things1 most easily forgotten2 while a full-bodied hallucination1 when we1 at least1 believe ourselves awake1 seems to us on a perfectly different plane of impressiveness1 and 7experto crede7 is really very difficult to forget4 ,herr ,parish cannot be allowed1 therefore1 to use the regular eighteenth-century argument-- ',all dreams6' ,for the two sorts of dreams1 in sleep and in apparent wakefulness1 seem1 to the subject1 to differ in kind4 ,and they really do differ in kind4 ,it is the essence of the every night dream that we are unconscious of our actual surroundings and conscious of a fantastic environment4 ,it is the essence of wideawakeness to be conscious of our actual surroundings4 ,in the ordinary dream1 nothing actual competes with its visions4 ,when we are conscious of our surroundings1 everything actual does compete with any hallucination4 ,therefore1 an hallucination which1 when we are conscious of our material environment1 does compete with it in reality1 is different in kind from an ordinary dream4 ,science gains nothing by arbitrarily declaring that two experiences so radically different are identical4 ,anybody would see this if he were not arguing under a dominant idea4 ,herr ,parish next contends that people who see pictures in crystal balls1 and so on1 are not so wide awake as to be in their normal consciousness4 ,there is 'dissociation' 7practically drowsiness71 even if only a little4 ,herr ,moll also speaks of crystal-gazing pictures as 'hypnotic phenomena4'#ab ,possibly neither of these learned men has ever seen a person attempt crystal-gazing4 ,herr ,parish never asserts any such personal experience as the basis of his opinion about the non-normal state of the gazer4 ,he reaches this conclusion from an anecdote reported1 as a not unfamiliar phenomenon1 by a friend of ,miss ,x4 ,but the phenomenon occurred when ,miss ,x4 was not crystal-gazing at all6 ,she was looking out of a window in a brown study4 ,this is a noble example of logic4 ,some one says that ,miss ,x4 was not in her normal consciousness on a certain occasion when she was not crystal-gazing1 and that this condition is familiar to the observer4 ,therefore1 argues ,herr ,parish1 nobody is in his normal consciousness when he is crystal-gazing4 ,in vain may 'so good an observer as ,miss ,x4 think herself fully awake' 7as she does think herself7 when crystal-gazing1 because once1 when she happened to have 'her eyes fixed on the window1' her expression was 'associated' by a friend 'with something uncanny1' and she afterwards spoke 'in a dreamy1 far-away tone' 7p4 #big74 ,miss ,x41 though extremely 'wide awake1' may have looked dreamily at a window1 and may have seen mountains and marvels4 ,but the point is that she was not voluntarily gazing at a crystal for amusement or experiment--perhaps trying to see how a microscope affected the pictures--or to divert a friend4 ,i appeal to the shades of ,aristotle and ,bacon against scientific logic in the hands of ,herr ,parish4 ,here is his syllogism3 ,a4 is occasionally dreamy when not crystal-gazing4 ,a4 is human4 ,therefore every human being1 when crystal-gazing1 is more or less asleep4 ,he infers a general affirmative from a single affirmative which happens not to be to the point4 ,it is exactly as if ,herr ,parish argued3 ,mrs4 ,b4 spends hours in shopping4 ,mrs4 ,b4 is human4 ,therefore every human being is always late for dinner4 ,miss ,x41 ,i think1 uplifted her voice in some review1 and maintained that1 when crystal-gazing1 she was quite in her normal state1 dans son assiette4 ,yet ,herr ,parish would probably say to any crystal-gazer who argued thus1 ',oh1 no2 pardon me1 you were not wholly awake--you were a-dream4 ,i know better than you4' ,but1 as he has not seen crystal-gazers1 while ,i have1 many scores of times1 ,i prefer my own opinion4 ,and so1 as this assertion about the percipient's being 'dissociated1' or asleep1 or not awake1 is certainly untrue of all crystal-gazers in my considerable experience1 ,i cannot accept it on the authority of ,herr ,parish1 who makes no claim to any personal experience at all4 ,as to crystal-gazing1 when the gazer is talking1 laughing1 chatting1 making experiments in turning the ball1 changing the light1 using prisms and magnifying-glasses1 dropping matches into the water-jug1 and so on1 how can we possibly say that 'it is impossible to distinguish between waking hallucinations and those of sleep' 7p4 #cjj78 ,if so1 it is impossible to distinguish between sleeping and waking altogether4 ,we are all like the dormouse6 ,herr ,parish is reasoning here a priori1 without any personal knowledge of the facts2 and1 above all1 he is under the 'dominant idea' of his own theory--that of dissociation4 ,herr ,parish next crushes telepathy by an argument which--like one of the reasons why the bells were not rung for ,queen ,elizabeth1 namely1 that there were no bells to ring--might have come first1 and alone4 ,we are told 7in italics--very impressive to the popular mind73 ',no matter how great the number of coincidences1 they afford not even the shadow of a proof for telepathy' 7p4 #cja74 ,what1 not even if all hallucinations1 or ninety-nine per cent41 coincided with the death of the person seen8 ,in heaven's name1 why not8 ,why1 because the 'weightiest' cause of all has been omitted from our calculations1 namely1 our good old friend1 the association of ideas 7p4 #cjb74 ,our side cannot prove the absence 7italics7 of the association of ideas4 ,certainly we cannot2 but ideas in endless millions are being associated all day long4 ,a hundred thousand different1 unnoticed associations may bring ,jones to my mind1 or ,brown4 ,but ,i don't therefore see ,brown1 or ,jones1 who is not there4 ,still less do ,i see ,dr4 ,parish1 or ,nebuchadnezzar1 or a monkey1 or a salmon1 or a golf ball1 or ,arthur's ,seat 7all of which may be brought to my mind by association of ideas71 when they are not present4 ,suppose1 then1 that once in my life ,i see the absent ,jones1 who dies in that hour 7or within twelve hours74 ,i am puzzled4 ,why did ,association choose that day1 of all days in my life1 for her solitary freak8 ,and1 if this choice of freaks by ,association occurs among other people1 say two hundred times more often than chance allows1 the freak begins to suggest that it may have a cause4 ,not even the circumstance cited by ,herr ,parish1 that a drowsy tailor1 'sewing on in a dream1' poor fellow1 saw a client in his shop while the client was dying1 solves the problem4 ,the tailor is not said even once to have seen a customer who was not dying2 yet he writes1 ',i was accustomed to work all night frequently4' ,the tailor thinks he was asleep1 because he had been making irregular stitches1 and perhaps he was4 ,but1 out of all his vigils and all his customers1 association only formed one hallucination1 and that was of a dying client whom he supposed to be perfectly well4 ,why on earth is association so fond of dying people-- granting the statistics1 which are 'another story'8 ,the explanation explains nothing4 ,herr ,parish only moves the difficulty back a step1 and1 as we cannot live without association of ideas1 they are taken for granted by our side4 ,association of ideas does not cause hallucinations1 as ,mrs4 ,sidgwick remarks1 though it may determine their contents4 ,the difficult theme of coincidental collective hallucinations1 as when two or more people at once have1 or profess to have1 the same false perception of a person who is really absent and dying1 is next disposed of by ,herr ,parish4 ,the same points de repre1 the same sound1 or flicker of light1 or arrangement of shadow1 may beget the same or a similar false perception in two or more people at once4 ,thus two girls1 in different rooms1 are looking out on different parts of the hall in their house4 ',both heard1 at the same time1 an objective8 noise' 7p4 #cac74 ,then1 says ,herr ,parish1 'the one sister saw her father cross the hall after entering2 the other saw the dog 7the usual companion of his walks7 run past her door4' ,father and dog had not left the dining-room4 ,herr ,parish decides that the same point de repre 7the apparent noise of a key in the lock of the front door7 'acted by way of suggestion on both sisters1' producing1 however1 different hallucinations1 'in virtue of the difference of the connected associations4' ,one girl associated the sound with her honoured sire1 the other with his faithful hound2 so one saw a dog1 and the other saw an elderly gentleman4 ,now1 first1 if so1 this should always be occurring1 for we all have different associations of ideas4 ,thus1 we are in a haunted house2 there is a noise of a rattling window2 ,i associate it with a burglar1 ,brown with a milkman1 ,miss ,jones with a lady in green1 ,miss ,smith with a knight in armour4 ,that collection of phantasms should then be simultaneously on view1 like the dog and old gentleman2 all our reports should vary4 ,but this does not occur4 ,most unluckily for ,herr ,parish1 he illustrates his theory by telling a story which happens not to be correctly reported4 ,at first ,i thought that a fallacy of memory1 or an optical delusion1 had betrayed him again1 as in his legend of the waistcoat4 ,but ,i am now inclined to believe that what really occurred was this3 ,herr ,parish brought out his book in ,german1 before the ,report of the ,census of ,hallucinations was published4 ,in his ,german edition he probably quoted a story which precisely suited his theory of the origin of collective hallucinations4 ,this anecdote he had found in ,prof4 ,sidgwick's ,presidential ,address of ,july #ahij4ac ,as stated by ,prof4 ,sidgwick1 the case just fitted ,herr ,parish1 who refers to it on p4 #aij1 and again on p4 #cad4 ,he gives no reference1 but his version reads like a traditional variant of ,prof4 ,sidgwick's4 ,now ,prof4 ,sidgwick's version was erroneous1 as is proved by the elaborate account of the case in the ,report of the ,census1 which ,herr ,parish had before him1 but neglected when he prepared his ,english edition4 ,the story was wrong1 alas6 in the very point where1 for ,herr ,parish's purpose1 it ought to have been right4 ,the hallucination is believed not to have been collective1 yet ,herr ,parish uses it to explain collective hallucinations4 ,doubtless he overlooked the accurate version in the ,report4#ad ,the facts1 as there reported1 were not what he narrates1 but as follows3 ,miss ,c4,e4 was in the breakfast-room1 about #f3cj ,p4,m41 in ,january #ahhc1 and supposed her father to be taking a walk with his dog4 ,she heard noises1 which may have had any other cause1 but which she took to be the sounds of a key in the door lock1 a stick tapping the tiles of the hall1 and the patter of the dog's feet on the tiles4 ,she then saw the dog pass the door4 ,miss ,c4,e4 next entered the hall1 where she found nobody2 but in the pantry she met her sisters--,miss ,e41 ,miss ,h4,g4,e4--and a working-woman4 ,miss ,e4 and the working-woman had been in the hall1 and there had heard the sound1 which they1 like ,miss ,c4,e41 took for that of a key in the lock4 ,they were breaking a little household rule in the hall1 so they 'ran straightway into the pantry1 meeting ,miss ,h4,g4,e4 on the way4' ,miss ,c4,e4 and ,miss ,e4 and the working-woman all heard the noise as of a key in the lock1 but nobody is said to have 'seen the father cross the hall' 7as ,herr ,parish asserts74 ',miss ,h4,g4,e4 was of opinion that ,miss ,e4 7now dead7 saw nothing1 and ,miss ,c4,e4 was inclined to agree with her4' ,miss ,e4 and the work-woman 7now dead7 were 'emphatic as to the father having entered the house2' but this the two only inferred from hearing the noise1 after which they fled to the pantry4 ,now1 granting that some other noise was mistaken for that of the key in the lock1 we have here1 not 7as ,herr ,parish declares7 a collective yet discrepant hallucination--the discrepancy being caused 'by the difference of connected associations'-- but a solitary hallucination4 ,herr ,parish1 however1 inadvertently converts a solitary into a collective hallucination1 and then uses the example to explain collective hallucinations in general4 ,he asserts that ,miss ,e4 'saw her father cross the hall4' ,miss ,e4's sisters think that she saw no such matter4 ,now1 suppose that ,mr4 ,e4 had died at the moment1 and that the case was claimed on our part as a 'collective coincidental hallucination1' ,how righteously ,herr ,parish might exclaim that all the evidence was against its being collective6 ,the sound in the lock1 heard by three persons1 would be1 and probably was1 another noise misinterpreted4 ,and1 in any case1 there is no evidence for its having produced two hallucinations2 the evidence is in exactly the opposite direction4 ,here1 then1 ,herr ,parish1 with the printed story under his eyes1 once more illustrates want of attention4 ,in one way his errors improve his case4 ',if ,i1 a grave man of science1 go on telling distorted legends out of my own head1 while the facts are plain in print before me1' ,herr ,parish may reason1 'how much more are the popular tales about coincidental hallucinations likely to be distorted8' ,it is really a very strong argument1 but not exactly the argument which ,herr ,parish conceives himself to be presenting4#ae ,this unlucky inexactitude is chronic1 as we have shown1 in ,herr ,parish's work1 and is probably to be explained by inattention to facts1 by 'expectation' of suitable facts1 and by 'anxiety' to prove a theory4 ,he explains the similar or identical reports of witnesses to a collective hallucination by 'the case with which such appearances adapt themselves in recollection' 7p4 #cac71 especially1 of course1 after lapse of time4 ,and then he unconsciously illustrates his case by the case with which printed facts under his very eyes adapt themselves1 quite erroneously1 to his own memory and personal bias as he copies them on to his paper4 ,finally he argues that even if collective hallucinations are also 'with comparative frequency' coincidental1 that is to be explained thus3 ',the rarity and the degree of interest compelled by it' 7by such an hallucination7 'will naturally tend to connect itself with some other prominent event2 and1 conversely1 the occurrence of such an event as the death or mortal danger of a friend is most calculated to produce memory illusions of this kind4' ,in the second case1 the excitement caused by the death of a friend is likely1 it seems1 to make two or more sane people say1 and believe1 that they saw him somewhere else1 when he was really dying4 ,the only evidence for this fact is that such illusions occasionally occur1 not collectively1 in some lunatic asylums4 ',it is not1 however1 a form of mnemonic error often observed among the insane4' ',kraepelin gives two cases4' ',the process occurs sporadically in certain sane people1 under certain exciting conditions4' ,no examples are given6 ,what is rare as an individual folly among lunatics1 is supposed by ,herr ,parish to explain the theoretically 'false memory' whereby sane people persuade themselves that they had an hallucination1 and persuade others that they were told of it1 when no such thing occurred4 ,to return to our old example4 ,jones tells me that he has just seen his aunt1 whom he knows to be in ,timbuctoo4 ,news comes that the lady died when ,jones beheld her in his smoking-room4 ',oh1 nonsense1' ,herr ,parish would argue1 'you1 ,jones1 saw nothing of the kind1 nor did you tell ,mr4 ,lang1 who1 ,i am sorry to find1 agrees with you4 ,what happened was this3 ,when the awful news came to-day of your aunt's death1 you were naturally1 and even creditably1 excited1 especially as the poor lady was killed by being pegged down on an ant-heap4 ,this excitement1 rather praiseworthy than otherwise1 made you believe you had seen your aunt1 and believe you had told ,mr4 ,lang4 ,he also is a most excitable person1 though ,i admit he never saw your dear aunt in his life4 ,he1 therefore 7by virtue of his excitement71 now believes you told him about seeing your unhappy kinswoman4 ,this kind of false memory is very common4 ,two cases are recorded by ,kraepelin1 among the insane4 ,surely you quite understand my reasoning8' ,i quite understand it1 but ,i don't see how it comes to seem good logic to ,herr ,parish4 ,the other theory is funnier still4 ,jones never had an hallucination before4 ',the rarity and the degree of interest compelled by it' made ,jones 'connect it with some other prominent event1' say1 the death of his aunt1 which1 really1 occurred1 say1 nine months afterwards4 ,but this is a mere case of evidence1 which it is the affair of the ,s4,p4,r4 to criticise4 ,herr ,parish is in the happy position called in ,american speculative circles 'a straddle4' ,if a man has an hallucination when alone1 he was in circumstances conducive to the sleeping state4 ,so the hallucination is probably a dream4 ,but1 if the seer was in company1 who all had the same hallucination1 then they all had the same points de repre1 and the same adaptive memories4 ,so ,herr ,parish kills with both barrels4 ,if anything extraneous could encourage a belief in coincidental and veridical hallucinations1 it would be these ',oppositions of ,science4' ,if a learned and fair opponent can find no better proofs than logic and 7unconscious7 perversions of facts like the logic and the statements of ,herr ,parish1 the case for telepathic hallucinations may seem strong indeed4 ,but we must grant him the existence of the adaptive and mythopoeic powers of memory1 which he asserts1 and also illustrates4 ,i grant1 too1 that a census of #ag1jjj inquiries may only have 'skimmed the cream off' 7p4 #hg74 ,another dip of the net1 bringing up #ag1jjj fresh answers1 might alter the whole aspect of the case1 one way or the other4 ,moreover1 we cannot get scientific evidence in this way of inquiry4 ,if the public were interested in the question1 and understood its nature1 and if everybody who had an hallucination at once recorded it in black and white1 duly attested on oath before a magistrate1 by persons to whom he reported1 before the coincidence was known1 and if all such records1 coincidental or not1 were kept in the ,british ,museum for fifty years1 then an examination of them might teach us something4 ,but all this is quite impossible4 ,we may form a belief1 on this point of veridical hallucinations1 for ourselves1 but beyond that it is impossible to advance4 ,still1 ,science might read her brief6 ,footnote #a3 ,walter ,scott4 ,footnote #b3 ,parish1 p4 #bgh4 ,footnote #c3 ,ibid4 pp4 #bhb1 #bhc4 ,footnote #d3 ,p4 #bhg1 ,mr4 ,sims1 ,proceedings1 x4 #bcj4 ,footnote #e3 ,parish pp4 #bhh1 #bhi4 ,footnote #f3 ,report1 p4 #fh4 ,footnote #g3 ,p4 #bgd1 note #a4 ,footnote #h3 ,parish1 p4 #bij4 ,footnote #i3 ,report1 p4 #big4 ,footnote #aj3 ,parish1 p4 #bij4 ,footnote #aa3 ,pp4 #bia1 #bib4 ,footnote #ab3 ,moll1 ,hypnotism1 p4 #a4 ,footnote #ac ,proceedings1 vol4 vi4 p4 #dcc4 ,footnote #ad3 ,parish1 p4 #cac4 ,footnote #ae3 ,compare ,report1 pp4 #aha-hc1 with ,parish1 pp4 #aij and #cac1 #cad4 ,,appendix ,b ,,the ,,poltergeist ,,and ,,his ,,explainers4 ,in the chapter on ',fetishism and ,spiritualism' it was suggested that the movements of inanimate objects1 apparently without contact1 may have been one of the causes leading to fetishism1 to the opinion that a spirit may inhabit a stick1 stone1 or what not4 ,we added that1 whether such movements were caused by trickery or not1 was inessential as long as the savage did not discover the imposture4 ,the evidence for the genuine supernormal character of such phenomena was not discussed1 that we might preserve the continuity of the general argument4 ,the history of such phenomena is too long for statement here4 ,the same reports are found 'from ,china to ,peru1' from ,eskimo to the ,cape1 from ,egyptian magical papyri to yesterday's provincial newspaper4#a ,about #ahej-ahgj phenomena1 which had previously been reported as of sporadic and spontaneous occurrence1 were domesticated and organised by ,mediums1 generally ,american4 ,these were imitators of the enigmatic ,david ,dunglas ,home1 who was certainly a most oddly gifted man1 or a most successful impostor4 ,a good deal of scientific attention was given to the occurrences2 ,mr4 ,darwin1 ,mr4 ,tyndall1 ,dr4 ,carpenter1 ,mr4 ,huxley1 had all glanced at the phenomena1 and been present at sances4 ,in most cases the exhibitions1 in the dark1 or in a very bad light1 were impudent impostures1 and were so regarded by the savants who looked into them4 ,a series of exposures culminated in the recent detection of ,eusapia ,paladino by ,dr4 ,hodgson and other members of the ,s4,p4,r4 at ,cambridge4 ,there was1 however1 an apparent exception4 ,the arch mystagogue1 ,home1 though by no means a clever man1 was never detected in fraudulent productions of fetishistic phenomena4 ,this is asserted here because several third-hand stories of detected frauds by ,home are in circulation1 and it is hoped that a well-attested first-hand case of detection may be elicited4 ,of ,home's successes with ,sir ,william ,crookes1 ,lord ,crawford1 and others1 something remains to be said2 but first we shall look into attempted explanations of alleged physical phenomena occurring not in the presence of a paid or even of a recognised ',medium4' ,it will appear1 we think1 that the explanations of evidence so widely diffused1 so uniform1 so old1 and so new1 are far from satisfactory4 ,our inference would be no more than that our eyes should be kept on such phenomena1 if they are reported to recur4 ,mr4 ,tylor says1 ',i am well aware that the problem of these phenomena is one to be discussed on its merits1 in order to arrive at a distinct opinion how far it may be connected with facts insufficiently appreciated and explained by science1 and how far with superstition1 delusion1 and sheer knavery4 ,such investigation1 pursued by careful observation in a scientific spirit1 would seem apt to throw light on some interesting psychological questions4' ,acting on ,mr4 ,tylor's hint1 ,mr4 ,podmore puts forward as explanations 7#a7 fraud2 7#b7 hallucinations caused by excited expectation1 and by the ,schwrmerei consequent on sitting in hushed hope of marvels4 ,to take fraud first3 ,mr4 ,podmore has collected1 and analyses1 eleven recent sporadic cases of volatile objects4#b ,his first instance 7,worksop1 #ahhc7 yields no proof of fraud1 and can only be dismissed by reason of the bad character of the other cases1 and because ,mr4 ,podmore took the evidence five weeks after the events4 ,to this example we confine ourselves4 ,this case appears to have been first reported in the ',retford and ,gainsborough ,times' 'early in ,march1' #ahhc 7really ,march #i74 ,it does not seem to have struck ,mr4 ,podmore that he should publish these contemporary reports1 to show us how far they agree with evidence collected by him on the spot five weeks later4 ,to do this was the more necessary1 as he lays so much stress on failure of memory4 ,i have therefore secured the original newspaper report1 by the courtesy of the editor4 ,to be brief1 the phenomena began on ,february #bj or #ba1 by the table voluntarily tipping up1 and upsetting a candle1 while ,mrs4 ,white only saved the wash tub by alacrity and address4 ',the whole incident struck her as very extraordinary4' ,it is not in the newspaper report4 ,on ,february #bf1 ,mr4 ,white left his home1 and a girl1 ,eliza ,rose1 'child of a half-imbecile mother1' was admitted by the kindness of ,mrs4 ,white to share her bed4 ,the girl was eighteen years of age1 was looking for a place as servant1 and nothing is said in the newspaper about her mother4 ,mr4 ,white returned on ,wednesday night1 but left on ,thursday morning1 returning on ,friday afternoon4 ,on ,thursday1 in ,mr4 ,white's absence1 phenomena set in4 ,on ,thursday night1 in ,mr4 ,white's presence1 they increased in vigour4 ,a doctor was called in1 also a policeman4 ,on ,saturday1 at #h ,a4,m41 the row recommenced4 ,at #d ,p4,m4 ,mr4 ,white sent ,eliza ,rose away1 and peace returned4 ,we now offer the ,,statement ,,of ,,police ,,constable ,,higgs4 ,a man of good intelligence1 and believed to be entirely honest4444 ',on the night of ,friday1 ,march #bnd1 ,i heard of the disturbances at ,joe ,white's house from his young brother1 ,tom4 ,i went round to the house at #aa4ee ,p4,m41 as near as ,i can judge1 and found ,joe ,white in the kitchen of his house4 ,there was one candle lighted in the room1 and a good fire burning1 so that one could see things pretty clearly4 ,the cupboard doors were open1 and ,white went and shut them1 and then came and stood against the chest of drawers4 ,i stood near the outer door4 ,no one else was in the room at the time4 ,white had hardly shut the cupboard doors when they flew open1 and a large glass jar came out past me1 and pitched in the yard outside1 smashing itself4 ,i didn't see the jar leave the cupboard1 or fly through the air2 it went too quick4 ,but ,i am quite sure that it wasn't thrown by ,white or any one else4 ,white couldn't have done it without my seeing him4 ,the jar couldn't go in a straight line from the cupboard out of the door2 but it certainly did go4 ',then ,white asked me to come and see the things which had been smashed in the inner room4 ,he led the way and ,i followed4 ,as ,i passed the chest of drawers in the kitchen ,i noticed a tumbler standing on it4 ,just after ,i passed ,i heard a crash1 and looking round1 ,i saw that the tumbler had fallen on the ground in the direction of the fireplace1 and was broken4 ,i don't know how it happened4 ,there was no one else in the room4 ',i went into the inner room1 and saw the bits of pots and things on the floor1 and then ,i came back with ,white into the kitchen4 ,the girl ,rose had come into the kitchen during our absence4 ,she was standing with her back against the bin near the fire4 ,there was a cup standing on the bin1 rather nearer the door4 ,she said to me1 ,cup'll go soon2 it has been down three times already4 ,she then pushed it a little farther on the bin1 and turned round and stood talking to me by the fire4 ,she had hardly done so1 when the cup jumped up suddenly about four or five feet into the air1 and then fell on the floor and smashed itself4 ,white was sitting on the other side of the fire4 ',then ,mrs4 ,white came in with ,dr4 ,lloyd2 also ,tom ,white and ,solomon ,wass4 ,after they had been in two or three minutes1 something else happened4 ,tom ,white and ,wass were standing with their backs to the fire1 just in front of it4 ,eliza ,rose and ,dr4 ,lloyd were near them1 with their backs turned towards the bin1 the doctor nearer to the door4 ,i stood by the drawers1 and ,mrs4 ,white was by me near the inner door4 ,then suddenly a basin1 which stood on the end of the bin near the door1 got up into the air1 turning over and over as it went4 ,it went up not very quickly1 not as quickly as if it had been thrown4 ,when it reached the ceiling it fell plump and smashed4 ,i called ,dr4 ,lloyd's attention to it1 and we all saw it4 ,no one was near it1 and ,i don't know how it happened4 ,i stayed about ten minutes more1 but saw nothing else4 ,i don't know what to make of it all4 ,i don't think ,white or the girl could possibly have done the things which ,i saw4' ,this statement was made five weeks after date to ,mr4 ,podmore4 ,we compare it with the intelligent constable's statement made between ,march #c and ,march #h1 that is1 immediately after the events1 and reported in the local paper of ,march #i4 ,,statement ,,by ,,police ,,constable ,,higgs4--,during ,friday night1 ,police ,constable ,higgs visited the house1 and concerning the visit he makes the following statement4 ',about ten minutes past to8 twelve on ,friday night1 ,i was met in ,bridge ,street by ,buck ,ford1 and ,joe's brother1 ,tom ,white and ,dr4 ,lloyd4 ,tom said to me1 ,will you go with us to ,joe's1 and you will see something you have never seen before8 ,i went2 and when ,i got into the house ,joe went and shut the cupboard doors4 ,no sooner had he done so than the doors flew open again1 and an ordinary sized glass jar flew across the kitchen1 out of the door into the yard4 ,a sugar jar also flew out of the cupboard unseen4 ,in fact1 we saw nothing and heard nothing until we heard it smash4 ,the distance travelled by the articles was about seven yards4 ,i stood a minute or two1 and then the glass which ,i noticed on the drawers jumped off the drawers a yard away1 and broke in about a hundred bits4 ,the next thing was a cup1 which stood on the flour-bin just beyond the yard door4 ,it flew upwards1 and then fell to the ground and broke4 ,the girl said that this cup had been on the floor three times1 and that she had picked it up just before it went off the bench4 ,i said1 ,i suppose the cup will be the next4 ,the cup fell a distance of two yards away from the flour-bin4 ,dr4 ,lloyd had been in the next house lancing the back of a little boy who had been removed there4 ,he now came in1 and we began talking1 the doctor saying1 ,it is a most mysterious thing4 ,he turned with his back to the flour-bin1 on which stood a basin4 ,the basin flew up into the air obliquely1 went over the doctor's head1 and fell at his feet in pieces4 ,the doctor then went out4 ,i stood a short time longer1 but saw nothing farther4 ,there were six persons in the room while these things were going on1 and so far as ,i could see1 there was no human agency at work4 ,i had not the slightest belief in anything appertaining to the super-natural4 ,i left just before one o'clock1 having been in the house thirty minutes4' ,as the policeman says1 there was nothing 'super-natural1' but there was an appearance of something rather supernormal4 ,on the afternoon of ,saturday ,white sent the girl ,rose away1 and a number of people watched in his house till after midnight4 ,though the sceptical reporter thought that objects were placed where they might easily be upset1 none were upset4 ,the ghost was laid4 ',excited expectation' was so false to its function as to beget no phenomena4 ,the newspaper reports contain no theory that will account for ,white's breaking his furniture and crockery1 nor for ,rose's securing her own dismissal from a house where she was kindly received by wilfully destroying the property of her hostess4 ,an amateur published a theory of silken threads attached to light articles1 and thick cords to heavy articles1 whereof no trace was found by witnesses who examined the volatile objects4 ,an elaborate machinery of pulleys fixed in the ceiling1 the presence of a trickster in a locked pantry1 apparent errors in the account of the flight of the objects1 and a number of accomplices1 were all involved in this local explanation1 the explainer admitting that he could not imagine why the tricks were played4 ,six or eight pounds' worth of goods were destroyed1 nor is it singular that poor ,mrs4 ,white wept over her shattered penates4 ,the destruction began1 of course1 in the absence of ,white4 ,the girl ,rose gave to the newspaper the same account as the other witnesses1 but1 as ,white thought she was the agent1 so she suspected ,white1 though she admitted that he was not at home when the trouble arose4 ,mr4 ,podmore1 reviewing the case1 says1 ',the phenomena described are quite inexplicable by ordinary mechanical means4#c ,yet he elsewhere#d suggests that ,rose herself1 'as the instrument of mysterious agencies1 or simply as a half-witted girl1 gifted with abnormal cunning and love of mischief1 may have been directly responsible for all that took place4' ,that is to say1 a half-witted girl could do 7barring 'mysterious agencies'7 'what is quite inexplicable by ordinary mechanical means1' while1 according to the policeman1 she was not even present on some occasions4 ,but it is not easy to make out1 in the evidence of ,white1 the other witness1 whether this girl ,rose was present or not when the jar flew circuitously out of the cupboard1 a thing easily worked by a half-witted girl4 ,such discrepancies are common in all evidence to the most ordinary events4 ,in any case a half-witted girl1 in ,mr4 ,podmore's theory1 can do what 'is quite inexplicable by ordinary mechanical means4' ,there is not the shadow of evidence that the girl ,rose had the inestimable advantage of being 'half-witted2' she is described by ,mr4 ,podmore as 'the child of an imbecile mother4' ,the phenomena began1 in an isolated case 7the tilted table71 before ,rose entered the house4 ,she was admitted in kindness1 acted as a maid1 and her interest was not to break the crockery and upset furniture4 ,the troubles1 which began before the girl's arrival1 were apparently active when she was not present1 and1 if she was present1 she could not have caused them 'by ordinary mechanical means1' while of extraordinary mechanical means there was confessedly no trace4 ,the disturbances ceased after she was dismissed--nothing else connects her with them4 ,mr4 ,podmore's attempt at a normal explanation by fraud1 therefore1 is of no weight4 ,he has to exaggerate the value1 as disproof1 of such discrepancies as occur in all human evidence on all subjects4 ,he has to lay stress on the interval of five weeks between the events and the collection of testimony by himself4 ,but contemporary accounts appeared in the local newspapers1 and he does not compare the contemporary with the later evidence1 as we have done4 ,there is one discrepancy which looks as if a witness1 not here cited1 came to think he had seen what he heard talked about4 ,finally1 after abandoning the idea that mechanical means can possibly have produced the effect1 ,mr4 ,podmore falls back on the cunning of a half-witted girl whom nothing shows to have been half-witted4 ,the alternative is that the girl was 'the instrument of mysterious agencies4' ,so much for the hypothesis of a fraud1 which has been identical in results from ,china to ,peru and from ,greenland to the ,cape4 ,we now turn to the other1 and concomitantly active cause1 in ,mr4 ,podmore's theory1 hallucination4 ',many of the witnesses described the articles as moving slowly through the air1 or exhibiting some peculiarity of flight4' 7,see e4g4 the ,worksop case47 ,mr4 ,podmore adds another ,english case1 presently to be noted1 and a ,german one4 ',in default of any experimental evidence' 7how about ,mr4 ,william ,crookes's87 'that disturbances of this kind are ever due to abnormal agency1 ,i am disposed to explain the appearance of moving slowly or flying as a sensory illusion1 conditioned by the excited state of the percipient4' 7',studies1' #aeg1 #aeh47 ,before criticising this explanation1 let us give the ,english affair1 alluded to by ,mr4 ,podmore4 ,the most curious modern case known to me is not of recent date1 but it occurred in full daylight1 in the presence of many witnesses1 and the phenomena continued for weeks4 ,the events were of #ahdi1 and the record is expanded1 by ,mr4 ,bristow1 a spectator1 from an account written by him in #ahed4 ,the scene was ,swanland1 near ,hull1 in a carpenter's shop1 where ,mr4 ,bristow was employed with two fellow workmen4 ,to be brief1 they were pelted by odds and ends of wood1 about the size of a common matchbox4 ,each blamed the others1 till this explanation became untenable4 ,the workrooms and space above were searched to no purpose4 ,the bits of wood sometimes danced along the floor1 more commonly sailed gently along1 or moved as if borne on gently heaving waves4 ,this sort of thing was repeated during six weeks4 ,one piece of wood came from a distant corner of the room towards me1 describing what may be likened to a geometrical square1 or corkscrew of about eighteen inches diameter4444 ,never was a piece seen to come in at the doorway4 ,mr4 ,bristow deems this period 'the most remarkable episode in my life4' 7,june #bg1 #ahia47 ,the phenomena 'did not depend on the presence of any one person or number of persons4' ,going to ,swanland1 in #ahia1 ,mr4 ,sidgwick found one surviving witness of these occurrences1 who averred that the objects could not have been thrown because of the eccentricities of their course1 which he described in the same way as ,mr4 ,bristow4 ,the thrower must certainly have had a native genius for 'pitching' at base-ball4 ,this witness1 named ,andrews1 was mentioned by ,mr4 ,bristow in his report1 but not referred to by him for confirmation4 ,those to whom he referred were found to be dead1 or had emigrated4 ,the villagers had a superstitious theory about the phenomena being provoked by a dead man1 whose affairs had not been settled to his liking4 ,so ,mr4 ,darwin's spoon danced--on a grave4#e ,this case has a certain interest propos of ,mr4 ,podmore's surmise that all such phenomena arise in trickery1 which produces excitement in the spectators1 while excitement begets hallucination1 and hallucination takes the form of seeing the thrown objects move in a non-natural way4 ,thus1 ,i keep throwing things about4 ,you1 not detecting this stratagem1 get excited1 consequently hallucinated1 and you believe you see the things move in spirals1 or undulate as if on waves1 or hop1 or float1 or glide in an impossible way4 ,so close is the uniformity of hallucination that these phenomena are described1 in similar terms1 by witnesses 7hallucinated1 of course7 in times old and new1 as in cases cited by ,glanvil1 ,increase ,mather1 ,telfer 7of ,rerrick71 and1 generally1 in works of the seventeenth century4 ,nor is this uniform hallucination confined to ,england4 ,mr4 ,podmore quotes a ,german example1 and ,i received a similar testimony 7to the flight of an object round a corner7 from a gentleman who employed ,esther ,teed1 'the ,amherst ,mystery1' in his service4 ,he was not excited1 for he was normally engaged in his normal stable1 when the incident occurred unexpectedly as he was looking after his live stock4 ,one may add the case of ,cideville 7#ahea7 and ,sir ,w4 ,crookes's evidence1 and that of ,mr4 ,schhapoff4 ,mr4 ,podmore must1 therefore1 suppose that1 in states of excitement1 the same peculiar form of hallucination develops itself uniformly in ,america1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,england 7not to speak of ,russia71 and persists through different ages4 ,this is a novel and valuable psychological law4 ,moreover1 ,mr4 ,podmore must hold that 'excitement' lasted for six weeks among the carpenters in the shop at ,swanland1 one of whom writes like a man of much intelligence1 and has thriven to be a master in his craft4 ,it is difficult to believe that he was excited for six weeks1 and we still marvel that excitement produces the same uniformity of hallucination1 affecting policemen1 carpenters1 marquises1 and a ,f4,r4,s4 ,we allude to ,sir ,w4 ,crookes's case4 ,strictly scientific examination of these prodigies has been very rare4 ,the best examples are the experiments of ,sir ,william ,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s41 with ,home4#f ,he demonstrated1 by means of a machine constructed for the purpose1 and automatically registering1 that1 in ,home's presence1 a balance was affected to the extent of two pounds when ,home was not in contact with the table on which the machine was placed4 ,he also saw objects float in air1 with a motion like that of a piece of wood on small waves of the sea 7clearly excitement producing hallucination71 while ,home was at a distance1 other spectators holding his hands1 and his feet being visibly enclosed in a kind of cage4 ,all present held each other's hands1 and all witnessed the phenomena4 ,sir ,w4 ,crookes being1 professionally1 celebrated for the accuracy of his observations1 these circumstances are difficult to explain1 and these are but a few cases among multitudes4 ,i venture to conceive that1 on reflection1 ,mr4 ,podmore will doubt whether he has discovered an universal law of excited malperception1 or whether the remarkable1 and certainly undesigned1 coincidence of testimony to the singular flight of objects does not rather point to an 'abnormal agency' uniform in its effects4 ,contagious hallucination cannot affect witnesses ignorant of each other's existence in many lands and ages1 nor could they cook their reports to suit reports of which they never heard4 ,we now turn to peculiarities in the so-called ,medium1 such as floating in air1 change of bulk1 and escape from lesion when handling or treading in fire4 ,mr4 ,tylor says nothing of ,sir ,william ,crookes's cases 7#ahga71 but speaks of the alleged levitation1 or floating in air1 of savages and civilised men4 ,these are recorded in ,buddhist and ,neoplatonic writings1 and among ,red ,indians1 in ,tonquin 7where a ,jesuit saw and described the phenomena1 #agcj71 in the ',acta ,sanctorum1' and among modern spiritualists4 ,in #agfj1 ,lord ,elcho1 being at ,home1 was present at the procs for canonising a ,saint 7unnamed71 and heard witnesses swear to having seen the holy man levitated4 ,sir ,w4 ,crookes attests having seen ,home float in air on several occasions4 ,in #ahga1 the ,master of ,lindsay1 now ,lord ,crawford and ,balcarres1 ,f4,r4,s41 gave the following evidence1 which was corroborated by the two other spectators1 ,lord ,adare and ,captain ,wynne4 ',i was sitting with ,mr4 ,home and ,lord ,adare and a cousin of his4 ,during the sitting1 ,mr4 ,home went into a trance1 and in that state was carried out of the window in the room next to where we were1 and was brought in at our window4 ,the distance between the windows was about seven feet six inches1 and there was not the slightest foothold between them1 nor was there more than a twelve-inch projection to each window1 which served as a ledge to put flowers on4 ,we heard the window in the next room lifted up1 and almost immediately after we saw ,home floating in the air outside our window4 ,the moon was shining full into the room2 my back was to the light1 and ,i saw the shadow on the wall of the window sill1 and ,home's feet about six inches above it4 ,he remained in this position for a few seconds1 then raised the window and glided into the room feet foremost and sat down4 ',lord ,adare then went into the next room to look at the window from which he had been carried4 ,it was raised about eighteen inches1 and he expressed his wonder how ,mr4 ,home had been taken through so narrow an aperture4 ,home said1 still entranced1 ,i will show you1 and then with his back to the window he leaned back and was shot out of the aperture1 head first1 with the body rigid1 and then returned quite quietly4 ,the window is about seventy feet from the ground4' ,the hypothesis of a mechanical arrangement of ropes or supports outside has been suggested1 but does not cover the facts as described4 ,mr4 ,podmore1 who quotes this1 offers the explanation that the witnesses were excited1 and that ,home 'thrust his head and shoulders out of the window4' ,but1 if he did1 they could not see him do it1 for he was in the next room4 ,a brick wall was between them and him4 ,their first view of ,home was 'floating in the air outside our window4' ,it is not very easy to hold that a belief to which the collective evidence is so large and universal1 as the belief in levitation1 was caused by a series of saints1 sorcerers1 and others thrusting their heads and1 shoulders1 out of windows where the observers could not see them4 ,nor in ,lord ,crawford's case is it easy to suppose that three educated men1 if hallucinated1 would all be hallucinated in the same way4 ,the argument of excited expectation and consequent hallucination does not apply to ,mr4 ,hamilton ,ad and ,m4 ,alphonse ,karr1 neither of whom was a man of science4 ,both were extremely prejudiced against ,home1 and at ,nice went to see1 and1 if possible1 to expose him4 ,home was a guest at a large villa in ,nice1 ,m4 ,karr and ,mr4 ,ad were two of a party in a spacious brilliantly lighted salon1 where ,home received them4 ,a large heavy table1 remote from their group1 moved towards them4 ,m4 ,karr then got under a table which rose in air1 and carefully examined the space beneath1 while ,mr4 ,ad observed it from above4 ,neither of them could discover any explanation of the phenomenon1 and they walked away together1 disgusted1 disappointed1 and reviling ,home4#g ,in this case there was neither excitement nor desire to believe1 but a strong wish to disbelieve and to expose ,home4 ,if two such witnesses could be hallucinated1 we must greatly extend our notion of the limits of the capacity for entertaining hallucinations4 ,one singular phenomenon was reported in ,home's case1 which has1 however1 little to do with any conceivable theory of spirits4 ,he was said to become elongated in trance4#h ,mr4 ,podmore explains that 'perhaps he really stretched himself to his full height'--one of the easiest ways conceivable of working a miracle1 ,iamblichus reports the same phenomenon in his possessed men4#i ,iamblichus adds that they were sometimes broadened as well as lengthened4 ,now1 ,m4 ,fr observes that 'any part of the body of an hysterical patient may change in volume1 simply owing to the fact that the patient's attention is fixed on that part4'#aj ,conceivably the elongation of ,home and the ancient ,egyptian mediums may have been an extreme case of this 'change of volume4' ,could this be proved by examples1 ,home's elongation would cease to be a 'miracle4' ,but it would follow that in this case observers were not hallucinated1 and the presumption would be raised that they were not hallucinated in the other cases4 ,indeed1 this argument is of universal application4 ,there is another class of 'physical phenomena1' which has no direct bearing on our subject4 ,many persons1 in many ages1 are said to have handled or walked through fire1 not only without suffering pain1 but without lesion of the skin4 ,iamblichus mentions this as among the peculiarities of his 'possessed' men2 and in ',modern ,mythology' 7#ahig7 ,i have collected first-hand evidence for the feat in classical times1 and in ,india1 ,fiji1 ,bulgaria1 ,trinidad1 the ,straits ,settlements1 and many other places4 ,the evidence is that of travellers1 officials1 missionaries1 and others1 and is backed 7for what photographic testimony is worth7 by photographs of the performance4 ,to hold glowing coals in his hand1 and to communicate the power of doing so to others1 was in ,home's rpertoire4 ,lord ,crawford saw it done on eight occasions1 and himself received from ,home's hand the glowing coal unharmed4 ,a friend of my own1 however1 still bears the blister of the hurt received in the process4 ,sir ,w4 ,crookes's evidence follows3 ',at ,mr4 ,home's request1 whilst he was entranced1 ,i went with him to the fireplace in the back drawing-room4 ,he said1 ,we want you to notice particularly what ,dan is doing4 ,accordingly ,i stood close to the fire1 and stooped down to it when he put his hands in4444 ',mr4 ,home then waved the handkerchief about in the air two or three times1 held it above his head1 and then folded it up and laid it on his hand like a cushion4 ,putting his other hand into the fire1 he took out a large lump of cinder1 red-hot at the lower part1 and placed the red part on the handkerchief4 ,under ordinary circumstances it would have been in a blaze4 ,in about half a minute he took it off the handkerchief with his hand1 saying1 ,as the power is not strong1 if we leave the coal longer it will burn4 ,he then put it on his hand1 and brought it to the table in the front room1 where all but myself had remained seated4' ,mr4 ,podmore explains that only two candles and the fire gave light on one occasion1 and that 'possibly' ,home's hands were protected by some 'non-conducting substance4' ,he does not explain how this substance was put on ,lord ,crawford's hands1 nor tell us what this valuable substance may be4 ,none is known to science1 though it seems to be known to ,fijians1 ,tongans1 ,klings1 and ,bulgarians1 who walk through fire unhurt4 ,it is not necessary to believe ,sir ,w4 ,crookes's assertions that he saw ,home perform the fire-tricks1 for we can fall back on the lack of light 7only two candles and the fire-light71 as also on the law of hallucination caused by excitement4 ,but it is necessary to believe this distinguished authority's statement about his ignorance of 'some non-conducting substance3' ',schoolboys' books and mediaeval tales describe how this can be done with alum and other ingredients4 ,it is possible that the skin may be so hardened and thickened by such preparations that superficial charring might take place without the pain becoming great2 but the surface of the skin would certainly suffer severely4 ,after ,home had recovered from the trance1 ,i examined his hand with care to see if there were any signs of burning or of previous preparation4 ,i could detect no trace or injury to the skin1 which was soft and delicate1 like a woman's4 ,neither were there signs of any preparation having been previously applied4 ,i have often seen conjurers and others handle red-hot coals and iron1 but there were always palpable signs of burning4'#aa ,in ,september #ahig a crew of passengers went from ,new ,zealand to see the ,fijian rites1 which1 as reported in the ',fiji ,times1' corresponded exactly with the description published by ,mr4 ,basil ,thomson1 himself a witness4 ,the interesting point1 historically1 is the combination in ,home of all the rpertoire of the possessed men in ,iamblichus4 ,we certainly cannot get rid of the fire-trick by aid of a hypothetical 'non-conducting substance4' ,till the 'substance' is tested experimentally it is not a vera causa4 ,we might as well say 'spirits' at once4 ,both that 'substance' and those 'spirits' are equally 'in the air4' ,yet ,mr4 ,podmore's 'explanations' 7not satisfactory to himself7 are conceived so thoroughly in the spirit of popular science--one of them casually discovering a new psychological law1 a second contradicting the facts it seeks to account for1 a third generously inventing an unknown substance--that they ought to be welcomed by reviewers and lecturers4 ,it seems wiser to admit our ignorance and suspend our belief4 ,here closes the futile chapter of explanations4 ,fraud is a vera causa1 but an hypothesis difficult of application when it is admitted that the effects could not be caused by ordinary mechanical means4 ,hallucination1 through excitement1 is a vera causa1 but its remarkable uniformity1 as described by witnesses from different lands and ages1 knowing nothing of each other1 makes us hesitate to accept a sweeping hypothesis of hallucination4 ,the case for it is not confirmed1 when we have the same reports from witnesses certainly not excited4 ,this extraordinary bundle1 then1 of reports1 practically identical1 of facts paralysing to belief1 this bundle made up of statements from so many ages and countries1 can only be 'filed for reference4' ,but it is manifest that any savage who shared the experiences of ,sir ,w4 ,crookes1 ,lord ,crawford1 ,mr4 ,hamilton ,ad1 ,m4 ,robert de ,st4 ,victor at ,cideville1 and ,policeman ,higgs at ,worksop1 would believe that a spirit might tenant a stick or stone--so believing he would be a ,fetishist4 ,thus even of ,fetishism the probable origin is in a region of which we know nothing--the ,x region4 ,footnote #a3 ,a sketch of the history will be found in the author's ,cock ,lane and ,common ,sense4 ,footnote #b3 ,the best source is his article on ',poltergeists4' ,proceedings xi4 #de-aaf4 ,see1 too1 his ',poltergeists' in ,studies in ,psychical ,research4 ,footnote #c3 ,studies in ,psychical ,research1 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #d3 ,see ,preface to this edition for correction4 ,footnote #e3 ,proceedings1 ,s4,p4,r4 vii4 #chc-cid4 ,footnote #f3 ,see ,sir ,w4 ,crookes's ,researches in ,spiritualism4 ,footnote #g3 ,mr4 ,ad has given me this information4 ,he recorded the circumstances in his ,diary at the time4 ,footnote #h3 ,report of ,dialectical ,society1 p4 #bji4 ,footnote #i3 ,see ,porphyry1 in ,parthey's edition 7,berlin1 #aheg71 iii4 #d4 ,footnote #aj3 ,bulletin de la ,socit de ,biologie1 #ahhj1 p4 #cii4 ,footnote #aa3 ,crookes1 ,proceedings1 ix4 #cjh4 ,,appendix ,c ,,crystal-,,gazing ,since the chapter on crystal-gazing was in type1 a work by ,dr4 ,pierre ,janet has appeared1 styled ',les ,nvroses et les ,ides ,fixes4'#a ,it contains a chapter on crystal-gazing4 ,the opinion of ,dr4 ,janet1 as that of a savant familiar1 at the ,salptrire1 with 'neurotic' visionaries1 cannot but be interesting4 ,unluckily1 the essay must be regarded as seriously impaired in value by ,dr4 ,janet's singular treatment of his subject4 ,nothing is more necessary in these researches than accuracy of statement4 ,now1 ,dr4 ,janet has taken a set of experiences1 or experiments1 of ,miss ,x4's from that lady's interesting essay1 already cited2 has attributed them1 not to ,miss ,x41 but to various people--for example1 to une jeune fille1 une pauvre voyante1 une personne un peu mystique2 has altered the facts in the spirit of romance2 and has triumphantly given that explanation1 revival of memory1 which was assigned by ,miss ,x4 herself4 ,throughout his paper ,dr4 ,janet appears as the calm man of science pronouncing judgment on the visionary vagaries of 'haunted' young girls and disappointed seeresses4 ,no such persons were concerned2 no such hauntings1 supposed premonitions1 or 'disillusions' occurred2 the romantic and 'marvellous' circumstances are mythopoeic accretions due to ,dr4 ,janet's own memory or fancy2 his scientific explanation is that given by his trinity of jeune fille1 pauvre voyante1 and personne un peu mystique4 ,being much engaged in the study of 'neurotic' and hysterical patients1 ,dr4 ,janet thinks that they are most apt to see crystal visions4 ,perhaps they are2 and one doubts if their descriptions are more to be trusted than the romantic essay of their medical attendant4 ,in citing ,miss ,x4's paper 7as he did71 ,dr4 ,janet ought to have reported her experiments correctly1 ought to have attributed them to herself1 and should1 decidedly1 have remarked that the explanation he offered was her own hypothesis1 verified by her own exertions4 ,not having any acquaintances in neurotic circles1 ,i am unable to say whether such persons supply more cases of the faculty of crystal vision than ordinary people2 while their word1 one would think1 is much less to be trusted than that of men and women in excellent health4 ,the crystal visions which ,i have cited from my own knowledge 7and ,i could cite scores of others7 were beheld by men and women engaged in the ordinary duties of life4 ,students1 barristers1 novelists1 lawyers1 school-masters1 school-mistresses1 golfers--to all of whom the topic was perfectly new--have all exhibited the faculty4 ,it is curious that an ,arabian author of the thirteenth century1 ,ibn ,khaldoun1 cited by ,m4 ,lefbure1 offers the same account of how the visions appear as that given by ,miss ,angus in the ,journal of the ,s4,p4,r41 ,april #ahih4 ,m4 ,lefbure's citation was sent to me in a letter4 ,i append ,m4 ,lefbure's quotation from ,ibn ,khaldoun4 ,the original is translated in ',notices et ,extraits des ,,mss4 de la ,bibliothque ,impriale1' ,i4 xix4 p4 #fdc-fde4 ',ibn ,kaldoun admet que certains hommes ont la facult de deviner l'avenir4 ',ceux1 ajoute-t-il1 qui regardent dans les corps diaphanes1 tels que les miroirs1 les cuvettes remplies d'eau et les liquides2 ceux qui inspectent les coeurs1 les foies et les os des animaux1 444 tous ces gens-l appartiennent aussi la catgorie des devins1 mais1 cause de l'imperfection de leur nature1 ils y occupent un rang infrieur4 ,pour carter le voile des sens1 le vrai devin n'a pas besoin de grands efforts2 quant aux autres1 ils tchent d'arriver au but en essayant de concentrer en un seul sens toutes leurs perceptions4 ,comme la vue est le sens le plus noble1 ils lui donnent la prfrence2 fixant leur regard sur on objet superficie unie1 ils le considrent avec attention jusqu' ce qu'ils y aperoivent la chose qu'ils veulent annoncer4 ,quelques personnes croient que l'image aperue de cette manire se dessine sur la surface du miroir2 mais ils se trompent4 ,le devin regarde fixement cette surface jusqu' ce qu'elle disparaisse et qu'un rideau1 semblable un brouillard1 s'interpose entre lui et le miroir4 ,sur ce rideau se dessinent les choses qu'il dsira apercevoir1 et cela lui permet de donner des indications soit affirmatives1 soit ngatives1 sur ce que l'on dsire savoir4 ,il raconte alors les perceptions telles qu'il les reoit4 ,les devins1 pendant qu'ils sont dans cet tat1 n'aperoivent pas ce qui se voit rellement dans le miroir2 c'est un autre mode de perception qui nat chez eux et qui s'opre1 non pas au moyen de la vue1 mais de l'me4 ,il est vrai que1 pour eux1 les perceptions de l'me ressemblent celles des sens au point de les tromper2 fait qui1 du reste1 est bien connu4 ,la mme chose arrive ceux qui examinent les coeurs et les foies d'animaux4 ,nous avons vu quelques-uns de ces individus entraver l'opration des sens par l'emploi de simples fumigations1 puis se servir d'incantations#b afin de donner l'me la disposition requise2 ensuite ils racontent ce qu'ils ont aperu4 ,ces formes1 disent-ils1 se montrent dans l'air et reprsentent des personnages3 elles leur apprennent1 au moyen d'emblmes et de signes1 les choses qu'ils cherchent savoir4 ,les individus de cette classe se dtachent moins de l'influence des sens que ceux de la classe prcdente4' ,footnote #a3 ,lican1 ,paris1 #ahih4 ,footnote #b3 ,l'auteur arabe avait dj mentionn 7p4 #bji7 l'emploi des incantations et indiqu qu'elles tuient un simple adjuvant physique destin donner certains hommes une exaltation dont ils se servaient pour tcher de dcouvrir l'avenir4 ',pour arriver au plus haut degr d'inspiration dont il est capable1 le devin doit avoir recours l'emploi de certaines phrases qui se distinguent par une cadence et un parallelisme particuliers4 ,il essaye ce moyen afin de soustraire son me aux influences des sens et de lui donner assez de force pour se mettre dans un contact imparfait avec le monde spirituel4a ,cette agitation d'esprit1 jointe l'emploi des moyens intrinsques dont nous avons parl1 excite dans son coeur des ides que cet organe exprime par le ministre de la langne4 ,les paroles qu'il prononce sont tantt vraies1 tantt fausses4 ,en effet1 le devin1 voulant suppler l'imperfection de son naturel1 se sert de moyens tout fait trangers sa facult perceptive et qui ne s'accordent en aucune faon avec elle4 ,donc la vrit et l'erreur se prsentent lui en mme temps1 aussi ne doit on mettre aucune confiance en ses paroles4 ,quelquefois mme il a recours des suppositions et des conjectures dans l'espoir de rencontrer la vrit et de tromper ceux qui l'interrogent4' ,footnote a3 ,compare ,tennyson's way of attaining a state of trance by repeating to himself his own name4 ,,appendix ,d ,,chiefs ,,in ,,australia ,in the remarks on ,australian religion1 it is argued that chiefs in ,australia are1 at most1 very inconspicuous1 and that a dead chief cannot have thriven into a ,supreme ,being4 ,attention should be called1 however1 to ,mr4 ,howitt's remarks on ,australian ',head-men1' in his tract on ',the ,organisation of ,australian ,tribes' 7pp4 #ajc-aac74 ,he attaches more of the idea of power to ',head-men' than does ,mr4 ,curr in his work1 ',the ,australian ,race4' ,the ,head-men1 as a rule1 arrive at such influence as they possess by seniority1 if accompanied by courage1 wisdom1 and1 in some cases1 by magical acquirements4 ,there are traces of a tendency to keep the office 7if it may be called one7 in the same kinship4 ',but ,vich ,ian ,vohr or ,chingahgook are not to be found in ,australian tribes' 7p4 #aac74 ,i do not observe that the manes or ghost of a dead ,head-man receives any worship or service calculated to fix him in the tribal memory1 and so lead to the evolution of a deity1 though one ,head-man was potent through the whole ,dieyri tribe over three hundred miles of country4 ,such a person1 if propitiated after death1 might conceivably develop into a hero1 if not into a creative being4 ,but we must await evidence to the effect that any posthumous reverence was paid to this man1 ,ialina ,piramurane 7,new ,moon74 ,mr4 ,howitt's essay is in the ',transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,victoria for #ahhi4' ,,index ,academy of ,medicine1 ,paris1 inquiry into animal magnetism1 #cd ,achille1 the case of1 #acd ,acosta1 ,pre1 cited1 #gd1 #bdd1 #bdf ,adare1 ,lord1 cited1 #cce ,addison1 cited1 #af ,africans1 religious faiths of1 #bab1 #bah1 #bba1 #bbb4 ,see under separate tribal names4 ,ahone1 ,north-,american ,indian god1 #bca-bcc1 #bda1 #bdh1 #beh1 #bfb1 #bhj ,ad1 ,hamilton1 cited1 #ccf ,algonquins1 the1 #bej ,allen1 ,grant1 cited1 #aij ,american ,creators1 #bcj2 parallel with ,african gods1 #bcj2 savage gods of ,virginia1 #bca2 the ,ahone-,okeus creed1 #bca-bcc2 ,pawnee tribal religions1 #bcc-bcf2 ,ti-ra-w1 the ,spirit ,father1 #bcd1 #bce2 rite to the ,morning ,star1 #bcd2 religion of the ,blackfeet1 #bcf2 ,n-pi1 #bcg-bci2 one account of the ,inca religion1 #bci-bdb2 ,sun-worship1 #bci-bda2 cult of ,pachacamac1 the ,inca deity1 #bci-bdg2 another account of the ,inca religion1 #bdb-bdf2 hymns of the ,zuis1 #bdg2 ,awonawilona1 #bdg ,amoretti1 ,sig41 cited1 #cj1 #aeb ,ancestor1 worship1 #afd-aff1 #agh1 #bje1 #bab1 #bfh1 #bga-bgg ,andamanese1 the1 religious beliefs of1 #afg1 #aid-aig1 #bje1 #bjh1 #baa1 #bdi1 #beb1 #bef1 #bgb ',angus1 ,miss1' cases in her experience of crystal-gazing1 #hi-ajb1 #cda ,animal magnetism1 inquiry into1 #bi1 #cd1 #ce ,animism1 nature and influence of1 #dh1 #di1 #ec1 #eh1 #fc1 #abi1 #afh1 #aij1 #aia1 #bjf1 #bef1 #bfd1 #bff1 #bfh1 #bfi1 #cjc ,anthropology and hallucinations1 #aje2 sleeping and waking experience1 #aje1 #ajf2 hallucinations in mentally sound people1 #ajg2 ghosts1 #ajg2 coincidence of hallucinations of the sane with death or other crisis of person seen1 #ajg2 morbid hallucinations and coincidental 'flukes1' #ajh2 connection of cause and effect1 #ajh2 the emotional effect1 #ajh2 illustrative coincidence1 #ajh2 hallucinations of sight1 #aji2 causes of hallucinations1 #aaj2 collective hallucinations1 #aaj2 the properly receptive state1 #aaj2 telepathy1 #aaa2 phantasms of the living1 #aab2 ,maori cases1 #aac-aae2 evidence to be rejected1 #aaf2 subjective hallucination caused by expectancy1 #aaf2 puzzling nature of hallucinations shared by several people at once1 #aaf1 #aag2 hallucinations coincident with a death1 #aag2 apparitions and deaths connected in fact1 #aag2 ,census of the ,society for ,psychical ,research thereupon1 #aah2 number and character of the instances1 #aai2 weighing evidence1 #aai2 opinion of the ,committee on ,hallucinations1 #aba2 remoteness of occurrence of instances1 #aba2 want of documentary evidence1 #aba non-coincidental hallucinations1 #aba2 telepathy existing between kinsfolk and friends1 #abb2 influence of anxiety1 #abc2 existence of illness known1 #abc2 mental and nervous conditions in connection with hallucinations1 #acd2 value of the statistics of the ,census1 #abd2 anecdote of an ,english officer1 #abe ,anthropology and religion1 #cj2 early scientific prejudice against1 #dj2 evolution and evidence1 #dj2 testing of evidence1 #da-dc2 psychical research1 #dh2 origin of religion1 #dd2 inferences drawn from supernormal phenomena1 #da1 #ec2 savage parallels of psychical phenomena1 #de2 meanings of religion1 #de1 #dj2 disproof of godless tribes1 #dg2 ,animism1 #dh1 #di2 limits of savage tongues1 #di2 waking and sleeping hallucinations1 #fj2 crystal-gazing1 #ej2 the ghost-soul1 #ea2 savage abstract speculation1 #eb2 analogy of the ideas of children and primitive man1 #ec2 early man's conception of life1 #cb2 ghost-seers1 #ed2 psychical conditions in which savages differ from civilised men1 #ed2 power of producing non-normal psychological conditions1 #ee2 faculties of the lower animals1 #ef2 man's first conception of religion1 #ef2 the suggested hypnotic state1 #eg2 second-sight1 #fh2 savage names for the ghost-soul1 #fj2 the migratory spirit1 #fj-fd ,anynrabia1 ,south ,guinea ,creator1 #bbj ,apaches1 crystal-gazing by1 #hd1 #he ,apollonius of ,tyana1 #ff ,atua1 the ,tongan ,elohim1 #bgi ,aurora ,borealis1 savage ideas of the1 #d1 #bfb1 #bib ,australians1 religious beliefs of1 #ej1 #hc1 #aah1 #abh1 #afe1 #age-ahb1 #ahe1 #ahh1 #aij1 #bje1 #bjh1 #baa1 #bae1 #bai1 #bbd1 #bdj1 #bdi1 #bec1 #bff1 #bfa-bfc ,automatism1 #aee ,awonawilona1 ,zui deity1 #bdh1 #bea ,ayinard1 ,jacques1 case of1 #aej1 #ahb ,aztecs1 creed of1 #ajd note1 #ahc1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bee1 #beh1 #bfc ,bealz1 ,dr41 cited1 #acb ,baiame1 deity1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aia1 #bje1 #bfa1 #bhj ,baker1 ,sir ,samuel1 cited1 #db1 #baa ,bakwains1 the1 #afi ,balfour1 ,a4,j41 quoted1 #dd1 #eg note ,banks ,islanders1 their gods1 #afi1 #aig-aih ,bantus1 religious beliefs of1 #agf1 #baa1 #bbj1 #bdh ,barkworth1 ,mr41 his opinion of ,mrs4 ,piper1 #adj ,barrett1 ,professor1 on the divining-rod1 #afb-aed ,bostian1 ,adolf1 cited1 #f1 #dc ,baxter1 cited1 #ae ,beaton1 ,cardinal1 his mistress visualized1 #ig ,bell1 ,john1 cited1 #adi ,beni-,israel1 #bhb ,berna1 magnetiser1 #cd ,bernadette1 case of1 #aag ,big ,black ,man1 ,fuegian deity1 #beh ,binet and ,fr1 quoted1 #bj1 #gf ,bissett1 ,mr4 and ,mrs41 experiences of crystal-gazing1 #ii-ajb ,blackfeet1 beliefs of1 #bcj1 #bcf ,blantyre region1 religion in the1 #bag1 #bah ,bleck1 ,dr41 cited1 #aid ,bobowissi1 ,gold ,coast god1 #bbe-bbg1 #bcj-bcb ,bodinus1 cited1 #ae ,book of the ,dead1 #bhf1 #cjc ,bora1 ,australian mysteries1 #agf1 #agi1 #aij1 #aif1 #bfj ,bosman1 cited1 #bbe ,bourget1 ,paul1 his opinion of ,mrs4 ,piper1 #aci1 #adj ,bourke1 ,captain ,j4,g41 cited1 #hc ,boyle1 cited1 #ae ,braid1 inventor of the word 'hypnotism1' #bd1 #ce1 #cf ,brewster1 ,sir ,david1 cited1 #cc ,brinton1 ,dr41 cited1 #fg1 #afh1 #bcb1 #bcf1 #bed1 #bfd1 #bij ,bristow1 ,mr41 cited1 #ccb ,british ,association decline to hear ,braid's essay1 #bd rejection of anthropological papers1 #hi ,brasses1 de1 cited1 #adi ,brown1 ,general ,mason1 cited1 #fh1 #fg ,bunjil1 deity1 #ahi ,bushmen1 religious beliefs of1 #afe1 #aih1 #bjh1 #baa1 #beb ,button1 ,jemmy1 the ,faegian1 case of1 #aaf ,caon1 ,boshmon deity1 #ahi1 #aic1 #bje ,callawoy1 ,dr41 on ,zulu beliefs1 #gb1 #he1 #ajf1 #adb1 #aea #bjg1 #bjh ,cardan1 cited1 #ae ,carpenter1 ,dr41 cited1 #cbd ,carver1 ,captain ,jonathan1 his instance of savage possession1 #adb cited1 #fj1 #add1 #ade ,charcot1 ,dr41 on faith cures1 #bj-bc1 #bd note ,chevreul1 ,m41 cited1 #aeb ,chinese1 the1 demon possession in1 #aha1 #ahc divining-rod1 #aed religious beliefs1 #bcg1 #bij1 #bia ,chonos1 the1 #agf ,circumcision1 #bhf ,clairvoyance 7vue distance71 #fe 'opening the ,gates at ,distance4' #fe1 #ff attested cases among savages1 #ff conflict with the laws of exact science1 #fg instances1 #fg among the ,zulus1 #fh-gj among the ,lapps1 #gj the ,llarson case1 #ga seers1 #gb the element of trickery1 #gc a ,red ,indian seeress1 #gc ,peruvian clairvoyants1 #ge ,professor ,richet's case1 #ge ,mr4 ,dobbie's case1 #gf ,scottish tales of second-sight1 #gh-ha visions provoked by various methods1 #ha ,see ,crystal visions ,clodd1 ,edward1 cited1 #aai1 #abj1 #cjj ',cockburn1 ,mrs41' test of crystal-gazing1 #ii-aja ,codrington1 ,dr41 cited1 #aej1 #afi1 #aig-aii ,coirin1 ,mlle41 her miraculous cure1 #bj ,coleridge1 cited1 #i1 #aa1 #ab note1 #bie1 #bif ,collins1 cited1 #agi ,comanches1 the1 #bej ,confucius1 religious teaching of1 #bij1 #bia ,cook1 ,captain1 cited1 #bga ,corpse-binding1 #adc1 #add ,crawford1 ,lord1 cited1 #cbe1 #ccd1 #ccj1 #chg ,creeks1 the1 #adc ,croesus1 tests the ,delphic ,oracle1 #ad ,crookes1 ,sir ,william1 cited1 #cbe1 #cca1 #ccc1 #ccd1 #ccg1 #cch ,crystal visions1 #hc savage instances1 #hc-he in later ,europe1 #he nature of ',miss ,x's' experiments1 #he attributed to 'dissociation1' #hf examples of 'thought-transference1' #hg arguments against accepting recognition of objects described by another person1 #hg coincidence of fact and fiction1 #hh cases in the experience of ',miss ,angus1' #hi-ajb ',miss ,rose's' experience1 #ia1 #ib phenomena suggest the savage theory of the wandering soul1 #ajc cited1 #g1 #dd1 #ej1 #cad-caf1 #cdj ,cumberland1 ,stuart1 #gb ,cures by suggestion1 #bj1 #ba ,curr1 ,mr41 reports 'godless' savages1 #ahd note ,dampier1 cited1 #agf ,dancing sticks1 #adi-aca ,darumulun1 ,australian ,supreme ,being1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahc1 #ahf1 #aia1 #bac1 #bdj1 #beh-bfd1 #bhj ,darwin1 cited1 #aae1 #adi1 #agd note1 #cbd1 #ccb ,death1 savage ideas on1 #ahg ,degeneration theory1 the1 #bed the powerful creative ,being of lowest savages1 #bed differences between the ,supreme ,being of higher and lower savages1 #bee human sacrifice1 #bee hungry1 cruel gods degenerate from the ,australian ,father in ,heaven1 #bef savage ,animism1 #bef a pure religion forgotten1 #beg an inconvenient moral ,creator1 #beg hankering after useful ghost-gods1 #beg lowering of the ideal of a ,creator1 #beg maintenance of an immoral system in the interests of the ,state and the clergy1 #beh moral monotheism of the ,hebrew religion1 #beh degradation of ,jehovah1 #beh human sacrifice in ritual of ,israel1 #beh origin of conception of ,jehovah1 #beh ,semitic gods1 #bei status of ,darumulun1 #bei conception of ,jehovah conditioned by space1 #bfj degeneration of deity in ,africa1 #bfj political advance produces religious degeneration1 #bfa sacrificial ideas1 #bfb the savage ,supreme ,being on a higher plane than the ,semitic and ,greek gods1 #bfc ,animism full of the seeds of religions degeneration1 #bfd falling off in the theistic conception1 #bfe fetishism1 #bfe modus of degeneration by ,animism supplanting ,theism1 #bfe feeling after a ,god who needs not anything at man's hands1 #bfg ,demoniacal possession1 #abh the 'inspired' or 'possessed1' #abi 'change of control1' #acj gift of eloquence and poetry1 #aca instances in ,china1 #aca attempted explanations of the phenomena1 #acb 'alternating personality1' #acb symptoms of possession1 #acb evidence for1 #acc scientific account of a demoniac and his cure1 #acd inducing the 'possessed' state1 #ace exhibition of abnormal knowledge by the possessed1 #acf ,scientific study of the phenomena1 #acf details of the case of ,mrs4 ,piper1 #acf-ada diagnosing and prescribing for patients1 #adb ,carver's example of savage possession1 #adb1 #aeg custom of binding the seer with bonds1 #adb1 #ade corpse-binding1 #adc1 #add ,dendid1 ,dinka ,supreme ,being1 #baa1 #bab1 #beh1 #bhj ,deslon1 ,m41 disciple of ,mesmer1 #bd ,dessoir1 ,dr4 ,max1 quoted1 #cb1 #cc1 #eg ,dinkas1 beliefs of the1 #db1 #baa1 #bab1 #bef ,divining-rod1 use of the1 #cj1 #aeb-aee ,dobbie1 ,mr41 his case of clairvoyance1 #gf ,dorman1 ,mr41 cited1 #bjc ,dunbar1 ,mr41 cited1 #bcf ,du ,pont1 cited1 #ge ,du ,prel1 cited1 #bh ,dynois1 ,jonka1 trance of1 #fe ,ebumtupism1 second sight1 #gc ,egyptians1 beliefs of1 #hc1 #cjb ,elcho1 ,lord1 cited1 #ccd ,eleusinian mysteries1 #aif ,elliotson1 ,dr41 cited1 #bd1 #ce1 #cg1 #dj ,ellis1 ,major1 on ,polynesian and ,african religions ideas1 #hc1 #add1 #bbb-bbh1 #bcb1 #bea1 #bfj1 #bgb ,elohim1 savage equivalents to the term1 #bgg ,esemkofu1 ,zulu ghosts1 #abh1 #abi ,eskimo1 religious beliefs of1 #gb1 #aac1 #ahd ,faith-,cures1 #bj-bb ,fenton1 ,francis ,dart1 on ,maori ghost-seeing1 #aad ,ferrand1 ,mlle41 on hallucinations1 #cb ,fetishism and ,spiritualism1 #adg the fetish1 #adg sources super-normal to savages1 #adh independent motion in inanimate objects1 #adi comparison with physical phenomena of spiritualism1 #adi ,melanesian belief in sticks moved by spirits1 #aej a sceptical ,zulu1 #aej a form of the pendulum experiment1 #aea table-turning1 #aeb the divining-rod1 #aeb the civilised and savage practice of automatism1 #aef dark room manifestations1 #aef the disturbances in the house of ,m4 ,zoller1 #aef consideration of physical phenomena1 #aeh instanced1 #afe1 #bbe1 #bfe1 #bff1 #bgf1 #cbd-cci ,figuier1 ,m41 cited1 #aeb ,fijians1 religious beliefs of1 #abh1 #acf1 #bjj1 #bdh1 #cch ,finns1 the1 #eh ,fire ceremony1 the1 #ahj note ,fison1 ,mr41 cited1 #abh ,fitzroy1 ,admiral1 cited1 #aae1 #agc1 #agd ,flacourt1 ,sieur de1 on crystal-gazing in ,madagascar1 #hd ,flint1 ,professor1 cited1 #bec ,francis1 ,st41 stigmata of1 #bb ,fuegians1 beliefs and customs of1 #aae1 #afe1 #agc-age1 #ahc1 #ahg1 #bjh1 #baa1 #bbg1 #beh1 #bfb1 #bgb ,galton1 ,mr41 cited1 #ab1 #if1 #ajg1 #bid1 #bie ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 on ,inca beliefs1 #bci-bdd ',gates of ,distance1 ,opening the1' #fe1 #ff1 #fh ,ghost-seers1 #ed1 #fc ,ghost-soul1 the1 #ea names for the1 #fj ,gibert1 ,dr41 on 'willing' sleep1 #cf ,gibier1 ,dr41 cited1 #adf ,gippsland tribes1 #ahg ,glanvil1 ,rev4 ,joseph1 his scientific investigations1 #ae ,god1 evolution of the idea of1 #afj anthropological hypothesis1 #afj primitive logic of the savage1 #afa regarded as a spirit1 #afb idea of spiritual beings framed on the human soul1 #afd deified ancestors1 #afd the ,zulu first ancestor1 #afd fetishes1 #afe great gods in savage systems of religion1 #afe the ,lord of the ,dead1 #afe conception of an idealised divine ,first ,ancestor1 #ahh hostile ,good and ,bad ,beings1 #aff the ,supreme ,being of savage creeds1 #aff mediating ',sons1' #afg ,christian and ,islamite influence on savage conceptions1 #afg probable germs of the savage idea of a ,supreme ,being1 #afh animistic conceptions1 #afh ghosts1 and ,beings who never were human1 #afi recognition by savages of our ,god in theirs1 #afi the hypothesis of degeneracy1 #agj the moral1 friendly creative ,being of low savage faith1 #aga food offerings to a ,universal ,power1 #aga the ,high ,gods of low races1 #agc intrusion of ,european ideas into savage religions1 #agc the ,fuegian ,big ,man1 #agd ghosts of dead medicine man1 #age the ,bora1 or ,australian tribal mysteries1 #agf1 #agg1 #agi possible evolution of the ,australian god1 #agh mythology and theology of ,darumulun1 the highest ,australian god1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahc religious sanction of morals1 #agi selflessness the very essence of goodness1 #ahj precepts of ,darumulan1 #aha1 #ahb argument from design1 #ahd ,supreme ,gods not necessarily developed out of 'spirits1' #ahe distinction between deities and ghosts1 #ahe human beings adored as gods1 #ahf deathlessness of the ,supreme ,being of savage faith1 #ahf1 #ahh idealisation of the savage himself1 #ahg negation of the ghost-theory1 #ahh1 #ahi high creative gods never wore mortal men1 #ahi low savage distinction between gods1 #ahi propitiation by food and sacrifice1 #aij 'magnified non-natural men1' #aij gods to talk about1 not to adore1 #aij higher gods prior to the ghost theory1 #aia ,see ,supreme ,beings2 ,american ,creators2 ,jehovah ,greeks1 the1 beliefs of1 #cjb ,greenlanders1 the1 #add1 #ahb ,gregory1 ,dr41 cited1 #hf ,griesinger1 ,dr41 cited1 #acb ,grinnell1 ,mr41 on ,pawnee beliefs1 #bcd-bcg ,guiana ,indians1 religious beliefs of1 #bjb-bjf1 #bef ,guinea1 ,north and ,south1 religious beliefs in1 #bbj ,gurney1 ,mr41 his experiments in hypnotism1 #he1 #hf cited1 #ajg1 #aad1 #aag ,guyau1 ,m41 cited1 #ab1 #bd1 #be ,hallucinations4 ,see ,anthropology and ,hallucinations ,hamilton1 ,sir ,william1 cited1 #ab ,hammond1 ,dr41 on demoniacal possession1 #aca ,harteville1 ,madame1 case of1 #bf ,hearne1 on the ,aurora ,borealis1 #c on cure by suggestion1 #ba1 #bb ,hebrews4 ,see ,israelites ,hegel1 cited1 #cj-cd1 #ej1 #ef1 #eh1 #gh1 #aaa1 #aeb ,higgs1 ,police ,constable1 statement of1 on the disturbances at ,mr4 ,white's house1 #cbf-cbh ,highland second-sight1 #adc-ade ,hodgson1 ,dr41 report on ,mrs4 ,piper1 #acg1 #adj1 #ada cited1 #ace1 #cbe ,home1 ,david ,dunglas1 his powers as a medium1 #cbd1 #cbe1 #ccd-cci ,howitt1 ,mr41 cited1 #abh1 #agg-ahb ,hume1 ,david1 attitude towards miracles1 #af definition of a miracle1 #af self-contradictions1 #ag refuses to examine miracle of the ,abb ,paris1 #ah1 #ai1 #bb-be alternative definition of a miracle1 #be cited1 #big ,huxley1 ,professor1 on savage religious cults1 #db1 #dc1 #dh1 #afb1 #afc1 #aga1 #agf1 #agg1 #ahb on the evolution of ,jehovah1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgg1 #bgi1 #bhb1 #bhf cited1 #ag note1 #bif1 #cbd ,hypnotism1 #f1 #bd1 #bi1 #cb1 #cd1 #ce1 #cg1 #ge1 #gf ,iamblichus1 cited1 #ad1 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cci ,ibn ,khaldoun1 cited1 #cda ,im ,thurn1 on the religious ideas of the ,indians of ,guiana1 #ej1 #afj1 #bjb-bjg1 #bef1 #bih ,incas1 the1 #he1 #bdj-bdg1 #beh ,iroquois1 the1 #hd1 #he ,islam1 influence of1 on ,african beliefs1 #bba ,israelites1 development of their religious ideas1 #beh1 #bfj1 #bfh-bhd1 #cjb ,james1 ,professor ,william1 quoted1 #bc1 #ei1 #gc1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #acb1 #acg1 #aef1 #bid ,janet1 ,dr4 ,pierre1 on 'willing' sleep1 #cf on demoniacal possession1 #acd1 #ace cited1 #gc1 #bid1 #cdj1 #cda ,jeanne d',arc1 #cd1 #gc1 #aae1 #abh1 #bgf ,jehovah1 theories of1 #beh1 #bfj1 #bfh as a ,moral ,supreme ,being1 #bfh anthropological theory of the origin of ,jehovah-worship1 #bgj absence of ancestor-worship from the ,hebrew tradition1 #bgj-bgc alleged evidence for ancestor-worship in ,israel1 #bgc-bgg evolution from ghost-cult to the cult of ,jehovah1 #bgg the term ,elohim1 #bgg human shape assumed1 #bgh considered as a ghost-god1 #bgi sacrifices to1 #bhj suggestion of a ,being not yet named ,jehovah1 #bha traditional emergence of ,jehovah as the god of ,israel1 #bha as a deified ancestor1 #bhb moral element in the idea of ,jehovah1 #bhb1 #bhf a mere tribal god1 #bhc a ,kenite god1 #bhc1 #bhd inconsistencies of theorists concerning1 #bhe the moral element a survival of primitive ethics in the savage ancestors of the ,israelites1 #bhg verity of the ,biblical account1 #bhg cited1 #bii ,jeraeil1 mysteries of the ,kurnai1 #ahj ,jevons1 ,mr41 cited1 #ahf1 #bee1 #cjj1 #cjb ,jugglery1 ,pawnee1 #bce ,jung-,stilling1 cited1 #cj1 #fc ,kaloc1 ,fijian name for gods1 #bjj1 #bja ,kamschatkans1 #aff ,kant1 inquires into ,swedenborg's visions1 #bf1 #ei disappointed with ,swedenborg's ',arcana ,coelestia'1 #bf1 #bg on the metaphysics of 'spirits1' #bg discusses the subconscious1 #bh cited1 #abe ,karens1 beliefs of1 #fj1 #gc1 #aea ,karr1 ,alphonse1 cited1 #ccf ,kelvin1 ,lord1 on hypnotism1 #cg ,kenites1 the1 #bhd ,kingsley1 ,miss1 cited1 #age1 #baa1 #bbj1 #cbh ,kirk1 cited1 #add ,kohl1 cited1 #adh ,kulin1 ,australian tribe1 #di ,kurnai1 ,australian tribe1 their religious conceptions1 #di1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahg1 #bae1 #bfb1 #bfc1 #bhg1 #bia ,laing1 ,mr4 ,samuel1 cited1 #ab note ,langlois1 ,m41 the case of1 #ge1 #gf ,lapps1 beliefs of1 #eh1 #ga1 #ha ,latukas1 the1 #db ,laverterus1 telepathic hypothesis of1 #ae ,le ,loyer1 cited1 #ae ,leaf1 ,mr41 cited1 #aab note ,leeward ,isles1 ideas of a god in1 #bea ,lefbure1 ,m41 cited1 #hd1 #adi1 #cda ,legge1 ,dr41 on the teaching of ,confucius1 #bij ,lejean1 ,m41 on the ,dinkas1 #bab ,lejeaune1 ,pre1 cited1 #gd1 #hc ,leng1 ,mr41 cited1 #acc ,leon1 ,cieza de1 cited1 #bda1 #bdd ,lonie1 the case of her hypnotisation1 #ge1 #gf ,leslie1 ,david1 on ,zulu clairvoyance1 #fh on ghosts1 #abh ,levitation1 #ccd ,littr1 ,m41 cited1 #acf ,livingstone1 ,dr41 cited1 #f1 #ace1 #agj ,lloyd1 ,dr41 cited1 #cbg1 #cbh ,loan-god1 a1 ,tshi theory of1 #bbb-bbi ,lourdes1 cures at1 #ai ,lubbock1 ,sir ,john1 cited1 #db ,macalister1 ,professor1 his opinion of ,mrs4 ,piper1 #adj ,mac,culloch1 ,dr41 on second-sight1 #eh ,macdonald1 ,duff1 cited1 #aej1 #bac1 #bae1 #bah ,macgregor1 ,dr4 ,alastair1 gives instances of second-sight1 #gi-ha ,madagascar1 #hd ,magnetism1 #bi1 #cd1 #ce ,malagasies1 beliefs of1 #hd ,malays of ,keeling ,island1 fetishism in1 #ada ,man1 ,mr41 on ,andamanese religion and mythology1 #aid1 #aie ,mans1 magical rapport1 #aii1 #bjj ,mandans1 the1 #ahh ,manganjah1 practice of sorcery in1 #adi ,manning1 ,mr41 cited1 #adf ,maoris1 religious beliefs of1 #hc1 #aac-aae1 #aah1 #aai1 #aej1 #aff1 #ahh ,marawa1 ,banks ,islands deity1 #aih1 #aii ,mariner1 cited1 #bgh ,markham1 ,mr41 cited1 #bdc1 #bdf ,marson1 ,madame1 case of1 #ga ,mason1 ,dr41 on familiar spirits1 #acj ,mather1 ,cotton1 cited1 #af1 #ee ,maudsloy1 ,dr41 cited1 #bc note ,mani1 ,maori deity1 #aff1 #ahh ,mayo1 ,dr41 cited1 #hf ,medici1 ,catherine de'1 cited1 #ff ,medicine-men1 #hd ,mediums1 #cbd-cci ,melanesians1 religious beliefs of1 #aej1 #afi1 #ahi1 #aig1 #aii1 #bjj ,menestrier1 le ,pre1 uses the divining-rod1 #aed ,menzies1 ,professor1 cited1 #beg ,mesmer1 his theory of magnetism1 #bi1 #cd ,millar1 cited1 #dj1 #da ,miracles1 regarded from the standpoint of science1 #ad early tests1 #ad and more modern research1 #ae witchcraft1 #ae1 #af ,hume's essay on1 #af and his definitions of a miracle1 #af1 #be cures at the tomb of the ,abb ,paris1 #ah-bj1 #bc ,binet and ,fr's explanation of these cures1 #bj cures by suggestion1 #bj1 #ba ,dr4 ,charcot's views1 #bj faith cures1 #bj-bb science opposed to systematic negation1 #bb refusal to examine evidence1 #bc-be 'marvellous facts1' #bd suggestion distance1 #bd ,kant's researches1 #bf-bi ,swedenborg's clairvoyance1 #bf1 #bg thought-transference and hypnotic sleep1 #bi1 #cj1 #cb1 #ce water-finding1 #ci phenomena of clairvoyance1 #ca ,hegel's 'magic tie1' #ca ,dr4 ,max ,dessoir's views1 #ca1 #cb hallucinations1 #cb animal magnetism1 #cd hypnotism1 #ce 'willing1' #cf facts and phenomena confronting science1 #cg ',miss ,x1' on crystal-gazing1 #hg1 #cae1 #caf1 #cdj1 #cda ,mlungu1 ,central ,african deity1 #bac-bah ,molina1 ,christoval de1 on ,inca beliefs1 #bdb1 #bdc ,moll1 ,herr1 cited1 #cad ,montgeron1 ,m41 cited1 #ai1 #bj ,more1 ,henry1 cited1 #ae ,moses1 founder of the ,hebrew religion1 #bhc-bhf ,mtanga1 ,african deity1 #bac-bag ,mller1 ,max1 cited1 #da1 #dc1 #df1 #bfe1 #bff1 #bhi ,mungan-ngaur1 ,kurnai ,supreme ,being1 #aha1 #ahh1 #aij1 #bje1 #bag1 #bei ,mwetyi1 ,shekuni ,great ,spirit1 #bbj ,myers1 ,frederic1 on hypnotic slumber1 #cj1 #cc cited1 #ae note ,nana ,nyankupon1 ,gold ,coast ,supreme ,being1 #bbe-bbh1 #bcb1 #bhj ,n-pi1 ,american ,indian deity1 #bcg-bci1 #bda ,ndengei1 ,fijian ,supreme ,being1 #bjj-bjb1 #bbh1 #bdh ,nevius1 ,dr41 on demoniacal possession1 #aca-ace ,newbold1 ,professor ,w4 ,romaine1 #ace ,nezahuati1 erects a bloodless fane to the ,unknown ,god1 #beh ,nicaraguans1 the1 #fj ,north1 ,major1 on ,pawnee jugglery1 #bce1 #bcf ,nzambi ,mpungu1 ,bantu ,supreme ,being1 #bbf1 #bbh1 #bdb ,okeus 7,oki71 ,american ,indian deity1 #bca1 #bcb ,okey1 the sisters1 case of1 #cg note ,ombwiri1 ,south ,guinea god1 #bbj ,orpen1 ,mr41 cited1 #aic ,oxford1 ,rev4 ,a4,w41 on ancient ,israel1 #bge-bgg1 #bhc-bhe ,pachacamac1 ,inca1 ,supreme ,being1 #bcj1 #bci-bdg1 #beh ,pachayachachi1 ,inca god1 #bdb1 #bdf ,paladino1 ,eusapia1 case of1 #cbe ,palmer1 ,mr41 cited1 #agi ,paris1 ,abb miracles wrought at his tomb1 #ah-bj1 #bc ,parish1 ,herr1 criticism of his reply to the arguments for telepathy1 #cjg-cbc cited1 #h1 #hf1 #ajg ,park1 ,mungo1 on ,african beliefs1 #bba1 #bbc ,pawnees1 religious beliefs and practices of1 #bab1 #bbd1 #bcj1 #bcc-bcf1 #bfc ,payne1 ,mr41 cited1 #afj1 #afa1 #bdf ,peden1 ,rev4 ,mr41 cited1 #ff ,pelippa1 ,captain1 cited1 #agc ,pendulum experiment1 a form of the1 #aea ,pepys1 cited1 #ae ,peruvians1 religious ideas and practices of1 #ge1 #bci-bdg ,phantasms of the ,dead1 #abh ,phinuit1 ,dr4 ,see ,mrs4 ,piper ,piper1 ,mrs41 the case of1 #acb1 #acf-ada ,pliny1 cited1 #ae ,plotinus1 cited1 #ff ,plutarch1 cited1 #ae ,podmore1 ,mr41 on psychical research1 #aaa1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #cbh1 #ccj-ccf1 #cch1 #cci ,poltergeist1 the1 and his explainers1 #ccd-cci ,polynesians1 religious beliefs of1 #g1 #hc1 #bea1 #beb1 #bef ,polytheism1 #bhi1 #bia1 #cjc ,porphyry1 cited1 #ad ,powhattan1 ,virginian chief1 #bca1 #bcb ,puluga1 ,andamanese ,supreme ,being1 #aie1 #bje1 #bbh1 #beh1 #bfb ,pundjel1 ,australian god1 #beh1 #bfa1 #bfb ,puysgur1 de1 his discovery of hypnotic sleep1 #bi1 cited1 #gf ,qat1 ,banks ,islands deity1 #ahi1 #aih1 #aii ,qing1 ,bushman1 his ideas of the god ,cang1 #aic1 #aif ,ravenwood1 ,master of1 instanced1 #abf ,red ,indians1 beliefs and practices of1 #c1 #e1 #f1 #ba1 #bb1 #hc1 #ajd note1 #abh1 #adb1 #adc1 #bjc ,regnard1 ,m41 cited1 #ga ,renan1 ,m41 cited1 #bhe ,rvillo1 ,m41 cited1 #bia1 #bic ,reynolds1 ,dr4 ,russell1 cited1 #bb ,rhombos1 use of the1 #hd ,ribot1 ,m41 cited1 #acb ,richet1 ,professor ,charles1 hypnotises ,lonie1 #ge1 #gf cited1 #fd1 #gc1 #hb1 #aed1 #bid ,ritter1 ,dr41 believes in ,siderism1 #bi ,romans1 religious ideas of1 #cjb ',rose1 ,miss1' her experience of crystal-gazing1 #ij1ia ,rose1 ,eliza1 the case of1 #cbf-ccj ,roskoff1 cited1 #db ,rowley1 ,mr41 cited1 #adi ,russegger1 cited1 #bab ,salcamayhua1 cited1 #bdf ,samoyeds1 #eh1 #gb ,sand1 ,george1 cited1 #hf ,santos1 cited1 #bad ,saul and the ,witch of ,endor1 #ad ,scheffer1 cited1 #ff1 #gj1 #ga1 #ha ,schoolcraft1 ,mr41 cited1 #bcf ,schrenck-,notzing1 von1 cited1 #ee note ,scot1 ,reginald1 cited1 #ae ,scott1 ,rev4 ,david ,clement1 cited1 #di note1 #ajf1 #bag1 #bah ,scott1 ,sir ,walter1 his attitude towards clairvoyance1 #bg cited1 #aba1 #abf ,sebituane1 case of1 #ace1 #acf ,second-sight1 #ef1 #ff1 #gh-ha ,seer-binding1 #adc ,seers1 #gb ,shang-ti1 ,chinese ,supreme ,being1 #bde1 #bij1 #bia ,shortland1 ,mr41 quoted1 #aac ,sidgwick1 ,professor1 cited1 #cah1 #ccb ,sioux1 the1 #bcf ,skidi or ,wolf ,pawnees1 the1 #bcc1 #bcd ,smith1 ,mrs4 ,erminie1 on crystal-gazing1 #hd ,smith1 historian of ,virginia1 cited1 #bca1 #bcb ,smith1 ,robertson1 cited1 #bei1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bha note1 #bih ,smyth1 ,brough1 cited1 #db1 #agh1 #ahb1 #bic ,society for ,psychical ,research1 #aaf1 #aah ,spencer1 ,herbert1 on early religious ideas1 #db1 #dc ghosts1 #dg ,animism1 #dh note1 #ec1 #ed limits of savage language1 #di the ,fuegian ,big ,man1 #agd ,australian marriage customs1 #age ,australian religion1 #ahb men-gods1 #ahf religion of ,bushmen1 #aic ancestor-worship1 #bab1 #bac1 #bga-bgc cited1 #afb1 #afg1 #agj1 #baf1 #bah1 #bib ,spiritualism1 #cbd-cci4 ,see ,fetishism ,stade1 ,herr1 cited1 #bgf1 #bhd1 #bhe ,stanley1 ,hans1 cited1 #ab ,starr1 cited1 #ajd note ,stoll1 cited1 #gb ,strachey1 ,william1 cited1 #bbi-bcb ,suetonius1 cited1 #ae ,sully1 ,mr41 cited4 #bie ,sun-worship1 #bch-bde ,supreme ,beings of savages1 regarded as eternal1 moral1 and powerful1 #aic ,cagn1 the ,bushman god1 #aic ,puluga1 the ,andamanese god1 #aie savage mysteries and rites1 #aif alliance of ethics with religion1 #aif the ,banks ,islanders' belief in ,tamate 7ghosts7 and ,vui 7,beings who never had been human71 #aig corporeal and incorporeal ,vuis1 #aih sacrificial offerings to ghosts and spirits1 #aii the soul the complex of real bodiless after-images1 #bjj ,fijian belief1 #bjj ,ndengei1 the ,fijian chief god1 #bjj1 #bja the idea of primeval ,eternal ,beings1 #bjb the ,great ,spirit of ,north ,american tribes1 #bjc dream origin of the ghost theory1 #bjc ,guiana ,indian names indicating a belief in a ,great ,spirit1 #bjc-bjf the ,god-cult abandoned for the ,ghost-cult1 #bje ,unkulunkulu1 the ,zulu ,creator1 #bjg-baj the notion of a dead ,maker1 #bjh preference for serviceable family spirits1 #bji the ,dinka ,creator1 #baa ,african ancestor-worship1 #bab ,mlungu1 a deity formed by aggregation of departed spirits1 #bac ethical element in religious mysteries1 #bae the position of ,mtanga1 #baf religious beliefs in the ,blantyre region1 #bag1 #bah negro tendency to monotheism1 #bah beliefs in ,north and ,south ,guinea1 #bbj ,mungo ,park's observation of ,african beliefs1 #bba ,islamic influence1 #bba the ,tshi theory of a loan-god1' borrowed from ,europeans1 #bbb-bbh varieties of ,tshi gods1 #bbd1 #bbe fetishes1 #bbe ,nana ,nyankupon1 the ',god of the ,christians1' #bbe-bbi ,american ,creators 7see under71 #bcj-beb the ,polynesian cult1 #bea1 #beb ,chinese conceptions1 #bij-bib ,swedenborg1 ,emanuel1 visions of1 #bf recovers ,mme4 ,harteville's receipt1 #bf his ',arcana ,coelestia1' #bg noticed by ,kant1 #bh1 #bi1 #ei ,taa-,roa1 ,polynesian deity1 #bea1 #beb1 #bef1 #bhj1 #cjh ,table-turning1 #aea ,tahitians1 #bea ,taine1 ,m41 cited1 #eg ,ta-li-y-,tooboo1 ,tongan deity1 #bgh1 #bgi1 #bhb ,tamate1 ,banks ,islands ghosts1 #aig-aii ,tamoi1 the 'ancient of heaven1' #ahh ,tando1 ,gold ,coast god1 #bbe ,tanner1 ,john1 case of1 #eg1 #abh ,teed1 ,esther1 the ,amherst mystery1 #ccc ,telepathy1 oppositions of science to1 #cjg hallucination of memory1 #cjg presentiments1 #cjh dreams1 #cjh1 #cji1 #cab veridical hallucinations1 #cji1 #caa coincidence in ,s4,p4,r4's ,census cases1 #caj non-coincidental cases1 #caa condition to beget hallucination1 #cab hallucinations mere dreams1 #cab crystal-gazing1 #cad-caf number of coincidences no proof1 #caf association of ideas1 #caf coincidental collective hallucinations1 #cag-cbc ,see ,crystal visions ,thomson1 ,basil1 cited1 #bjj note1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #cci ,thought-transference1 #d1 #bi-cb1 #ce illustrative cases1 #hh-ajc ,thouvenel1 ,m41 cited1 #aeb ,thyraeus on ghosts1 #ae ,tien1 ,chinese heaven1 #bij1 #bia ,ti-ra-w1 ,american ,indian god1 #bcd-bcf1 #bci ,tlapan1 ,african wizard1 #ace ,tongans1 religious beliefs of1 #bgh-bhj ,tonkaways1 ,american tribe1 #bcc ,torfaeus1 cited1 #ga ,totemism1 #bci1 #bda1 #bfb1 #bfc1 #bfi1 #bgj1 #bgf ,tregear1 ,mr41 on ,maori ghost-seeing1 #aac ,tshi theory of a loan-god1 #bbc-bbg ,tuckey1 ,dr4 ,lloyd1 cited1 #cf ,tui ,laga1 ,fijian deity1 #bdi ,tundun1 ancestor of the ,kurnai1 #aha ,tylor1 ,mr41 his test of recurrence1 #da on anthropological origin of religion1 #dc on savage philosophy of super-normal phenomena1 #de1 #ec disproves the assertion about 'godless' tribes1 #dg his term ,animism1 #dh1 #di theory of metaphysical genius in low savages1 #ea ghost-seers1 #ed on psychical conditions of contemporary savages1 #ed-ef on the influence of ,swedenborg1 #ei savage names for the ghost-soul1 #fj second-sight1 #ff mediums1 #gc dreams1 #ajf hallucinations1 #aaj-aac1 #aag1 #aah demoniacal possession1 #aca fetishism1 #adh1 #adi1 #afe divining-rod1 #aec evolution of gods from ghosts1 #afc1 #afd fetish deities1 #afe dualistic idea1 #aff ,supreme ,being of savage creeds1 #aff1 #afg the degeneration theory1 #agj1 #bed confusion of thought upon religion1 #ahb list of first ancestors deified1 #ahh savage mysteries1 #bja savage ,animism1 #bjd ,okeus and his rites1 #bca ,pachacamac1 #bde ,confucius's teaching1 #bij the mystagogue ,home1 #cbe levitation1 #ccd cited1 #ej1 #eb1 #ec1 #eh1 #ei1 #fa-fc1 #gh1 #aea1 #afa1 #afb1 #agj1 #agc1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #bjc1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bdf1 #beg1 #bic1 #big ,tyndall1 ,professor1 cited1 #cbd ,uiracocha1 ,inca ,creator1 #bdb-bdf ,umabakulists1 diviners by sticks1 #aea ,unkulunkulu1 ,zulu mythical first ancestor1 #afd1 #afh1 #ahh1 #bjb1 #bjg1 #bbj ,vincent1 ,mr41 #bi on clairvoyance1 #cd1 #cf1 #cg ,virchow1 cited1 #ai ,vui1 non-ghost gods1 #afi1 #aig-bjj ,wabose1 ,catherine1 ,red ,indian seeress1 experience of1 #gc1 #gd ,waltz1 cited1 #agg1 #aid note1 #bah-bbj1 #bbb1 #bdc ,wallace1 ,alfred ,basset1 on ,hume's theory of 'miracles1' #ag1 #ah on ,ritter1 #bi on clairvoyance1 #ca ,wayao1 ,supreme ,being of the1 #bac1 #bad ,wellhausen1 cited1 #bgg1 #bhc1 #bhe1 #bhf1 #bih ,welton1 ,thomas1 on the divining-rod1 #aed ,wesley1 ,john1 cited1 #af ,white1 ,joseph1 spirit manifestations at his house1 #cbf-cca ,wierus1 cited1 #ae ,williams1 ,mr41 cited1 #bja1 #bdh ,wilson1 ,mr41 cited1 #ej1 #bai1 #bbj ,windward ,isles1 ideas of a ,god in1 #bea ,witch of ,endor1 the1 #ad1 #bgg1 #bgh ,witchcraft1 #ad-af ,wodrow1 ,mr41 cited1 #af ,wolf tribes1 #bcc ,wynne1 ,captain1 cited1 #cce ,yama1 ,vedic-,aryan ghost-god1 #ahh ,yaos1 religious beliefs of1 #aej1 #bac1 #bad-baf ,yerri ,yuppon1 good spirit of the ,chonos1 #age ,york1 a ,fuegian1 cited1 #agd ,yuncus1 a ,peruvian race1 worship of1 #bdj1 #bdf ,zarate1 ,augustin de1 cited1 #bdj ,zoller1 ,m41 disturbances in the house of1 #aef1 #aeg ,zulus1 religious beliefs and customs of1 #fe1 #ff1 #fh1 #gj1 #gb1 #he1 #abh1 #ada1 #adb1 #aej1 #aeb1 #bjg-baj ,zuis1 hymns of the1 #bdh1 #bea