,,! ,,me*anical ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,wood ,illu/ration3 ,frontispiece4 ,photo by ! au?or4 ,photomicrograph ( a small block ( we/]n hemlock4 ,at ! top is ! cross section %[+ to ! "r ! late wood ( "o season's gr[?1 to ! left ! e>ly wood ( ! next season4 ,! o!r two sections are longitud9al & %[ ! fibr\s "* ( ! wood4 ,to ! left is ! radial section ) ?ree rays cross+ x4 ,to ! "r is ! tang5tial section ^u :i* ! rays appe> z v]tical r[s ( beads4 ,x #ce4 ,,! ,,me*anical ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,wood ,includ+ a ,discussion ( ! ,factors ,affect+ ! ,me*anical ,prop]ties1 & ,me?ods ( ,timb] ,te/+ ,,by ,,samuel ,j4 ,,record1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,f4 ,,assi/ant ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,=e/ ,,products1 ,,yale ,,univ]sity ,,fir/ ,,edition ,,fir/ ,,?\s& #aiad ,,by ,,! ,,same ,,au?or ,id5tification ( ! ,economic ,woods ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #hvo1 vi #aag pages1 #ae figures4 ,clo?1 #a4be net4 ,,to ,,! ,,/aff ,,( ,,! ,,=e/ ,,products ,,laboratory1 ,,at ,,madison1 ,,wiscons9 ,,9 ,,appreciation ,,( ,,! ,,_m ,,opportunities ,,af=d$ ,,& ,,c\rtesies ,,ext5d$ ,,! ,,au?or ,,preface ,?is book 0 writt5 prim>ily = /ud5ts ( =e/ry to :om a k ( ! te*nical prop]ties ( wood is ess5tial4 ,! me*anics involv$ is r$uc$ to ! simple/ t]ms & )\t ref]5ce to high] ma!matics1 ) :i* ! /ud5ts r>ely are famili>4 ,! int5tion ?r\gh\t has be5 to avoid all unnecess>ily te*nical language & descriptions1 !reby mak+ ! subject-matt] readily available to e "o int]e/$ 9 wood4 ,"p ,i is devot$ to a discussion ( ! me*anical prop]ties ( wood--! relation ( wood mat]ial to /resses & /ra9s4 ,mu* ( ! subject-matt] is m]ely elem5t>y me*anics ( mat]ials 9 g5]al1 ?\gh writt5 ) ref]5ce to wood 9 p>ticul>4 ,num]\s tables are includ$1 %[+ ! v>i\s /r5g? values ( _m ( ! m important ,am]ican woods4 ,"p ,,ii deals ) ! factors affect+ ! me*anical prop]ties ( wood4 ,?is is a subject ( int]e/ to all :o are conc]n$ 9 ! rational use ( wood1 & to ! =e/] x also1 by retrospection1 sugge/s ways & means ( regulat+ 8 =e/ product ?r\gh control ( ! conditions ( production4 ,attempt has be5 made1 9 ! light ( all data at h&1 to answ] _m moot que/ions1 su* z ! effect on ! quality ( wood ( rate ( gr[?1 season ( cutt+1 he>twood & sapwood1 locality ( gr[?1 weight1 wat] cont5t1 /eam+1 & defects4 ,"p ,,iii describes me?ods ( timb] te/+4 ,!y are = ! mo/ "p ^? foll[$ by ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4 ,9 s*ools equipp$ ) ! necess>y ma*9]y ! in/ructions w s]ve to direct ! te/s2 9 o!rs a /udy ( ! text ) ref]5ce to ! illu/rations %\ld give an adequate conception ( ! me?ods employ$ 9 ?is mo/ important l9e ( rese>*4 ,! app5dix conta9s a copy ( ! work+ plan foll[$ by ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice 9 ! ext5sive inve/igations cov]+ ! me*anical prop]ties ( ! woods gr[n 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x conta9s _m valuable sugge/ions = ! indep5d5t inve/igator4 ,9 addition f\r tables ( /r5g? values = /ructural timb]s1 bo? gre5 & air-season$1 are includ$4 ,! relation ( ! /resses develop$ 9 diff]5t /ructural =ms to ^? develop$ 9 ! small cle> specim5s is giv54 ,9 ! bibliography attempt 0 made to li/ all ( ! important publications & articles on ! me*anical prop]ties ( wood1 & timb] te/+4 ,:ile admitt$ly incomplete1 x %\ld prove ( assi/ance to ! /ud5t :o desires a full] k ( ! subject ?an is pres5t$ "h4 ,! writ] is indebt$ to ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice = ne>ly all ( 8 tables & photographs z well z _m ( ! data ^u :i* ! book is bas$1 s9ce only ! ,gov]nm5t is able to conduct ! ext5sive inve/igations ess5tial to a ?or\gh und]/&+ ( ! subject4 ,m ?an eighty ?\s& te/s h be5 made at ! ,madison laboratory alone1 & ! "w is f> f completion4 ,! writ] also ackn[l$ges 8 indebt$ness to ,mr4 ,emanuel ,fritz1 ,m4,e41 ,m4,f41 = _m helpful sugge/ions 9 ! prep>ation ( ,"p ,i2 & especially to ,mr4 ,h>ry ,donald ,tiemann1 ,m4,e41 ,m4,f41 eng9e] 9 *>ge ( ,timb] ,physics at ! ,gov]nm5t ,=e/ ,products ,laboratory1 ,madison1 ,wiscons91 = c>eful revision ( ! entire manuscript4 ,,samuel ,j4 ,,record4 ,,yale ,,=e/ ,,s*ool1 ,july #a1 #aiad4 ,,cont5ts ,,preface ,,"p ,i ,,! ,,me*anical ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,wood ,introduction ,fundam5tal consid]ations & def9itions ,t5sile /r5g? ,compressive or cru%+ /r5g? ,%e>+ /r5g? ,transv]se or b5d+ /r5g?3 ,beams ,t\ghness3 ,torsion ,h>dness ,cleavability ,,"p ,,ii ,,factors ,,affect+ ,,! ,,me*anical ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,wood ,introduction ,rate ( gr[? ,he>twood & sapwood ,weight1 d5sity1 & specific gravity ,color ,cross gra9 ,knots ,fro/ splits ,%akes1 galls1 pit* pockets ,insect injuries ,m>9e wood-bor] injuries ,fung\s injuries ,p>asitic plant injuries ,locality ( gr[? ,season ( cutt+ ,wat] cont5t ,temp]ature ,pres]vatives ,,"p ,,iii ,,timb] ,,te/+ ,work+ plan ,=ms ( mat]ial te/$ ,size ( te/ specim5s ,moi/ure det]m9ation ,ma*9e = /atic te/s ,spe$ ( te/+ ma*9e ,b5d+ l>ge beams ,b5d+ small beams ,endwise compression ,compression across ! gra9 ,%e> along ! gra9 ,impact te/ ,h>dness te/3 ,abrasion & ind5tation ,cleavage te/ ,t5sion te/ p>allel to ! gra9 ,t5sion te/ at "r angles to ! gra9 ,torsion te/ ,special te/s ,spike pull+ te/ ,pack+ boxes ,vehicle & implem5t woods ,cross-arms ,o!r te/s ,,app5dix ,sample work+ plan ( ,unit$ ,/ates ,=e/ ,s]vice ,/r5g? values = /ructural timb]s ,,bibliography ,"p ,i3 ,"s g5]al works on me*anics1 mat]ials ( con/ruction1 & te/+ ( mat]ials ,"p ,,ii3 ,publications & articles on ! me*anical prop]ties ( wood1 & timb] te/+ ,"p ,,iii3 ,publications ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t on ! me*anical prop]ties ( wood1 & timb] te/+ ,,illu/rations ,frontispiece ,photomicrograph ( a small block ( we/]n hemlock #a4 ,/ress-/ra9 diagrams ( two longleaf p9e beams #b4 ,compression across ! gra9 #c4 ,side view ( failures 9 compression across ! gra9 #d4 ,end view ( failures 9 compression across ! gra9 #e4 ,te/+ a buggy-spoke 9 endwise compression #f4 ,unequal di/ribution ( /ress 9 a long column due to lat]al b5d+ #g4 ,endwise compression ( a %ort column #h4 ,failures ( a %ort column ( gre5 spruce #i4 ,failures ( %ort columns ( dry *e/nut #aj4 ,example ( %e> along ! gra9 #aa4 ,failures ( te/ specim5s 9 %e> along ! gra9 #ab4 ,horizontal %e> 9 a beam #ac4 ,oblique %e> 9 a %ort column #ad4 ,failure ( a %ort column by oblique %e> #ae4 ,diagram ( a simple beam #af4 ,?ree common =ms ( beams--7#a7 simple1 7#b7 cantilev]1 7#c7 cont9u\s #ag4 ,*>act]i/ic failures ( simple beams #ah4 ,failure ( a l>ge beam by horizontal %e> #ai4 ,torsion ( a %aft #bj4 ,effect ( torsion on diff]5t grades ( hickory #ba4 ,cleavage ( highly ela/ic wood #bb4 ,cross-sections ( :ite a%1 r$ gum1 & ea/]n hemlock #bc4 ,cross-section ( longleaf p9e #bd4 ,relation ( ! moi/ure cont5t to ! v>i\s /r5g? values ( spruce #be4 ,cross-section ( ! wood ( we/]n l>* %[+ fissures 9 ! ?ick-wall$ cells ( ! late wood #bf4 ,progress ( dry+ ?r\gh\t ! l5g? ( a *e/nut beam #bg4 ,excessive season *eck+ #bh4 ,control ( season *eck+ by ! use ( ,s-irons #bi4 ,/atic b5d+ te/ on a l>ge beam #cj4 ,two me?ods ( load+ a beam #ca4 ,/atic b5d+ te/ on a small beam #cb4 ,sample log %eet1 giv+ full details ( a transv]se b5d+ te/ on a small p9e beam #cc4 ,endwise compression te/ #cd4 ,sample log %eet ( an endwise compression te/ on a %ort p9e column #ce4 ,compression across ! gra9 #cf4 ,v]tical section ( %e>+ tool #cg4 ,front view ( %e>+ tool #ch4 ,two =ms ( %e> te/ specim5s #ci4 ,mak+ a %e>+ te/ #dj4 ,impact te/+ ma*9e #da4 ,drum record ( impact b5d+ te/ #db4 ,abrasion ma*9e = te/+ ! we>+ qualities ( woods #dc4 ,design ( tool = te/+ ! h>dness ( woods by ind5tation #dd4 ,design ( tool = cleavage te/ #de4 ,design ( cleavage te/ specim5 #df4 ,designs ( t5sion te/ specim5s us$ 9 ,unit$ ,/ates #dg4 ,design ( t5sion te/ specim5 us$ 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales #dh4 ,design ( tool & specim5 = te/+ t5sion at "r angles to ! gra9 #di4 ,mak+ a torsion te/ on hickory #ej4 ,me?od ( cutt+ & m>k+ te/ specim5s #ea4 ,diagram ( specific gravity app>atus ,,tables ,i4 ,comp>ative /r5g? ( iron1 /eel1 & wood ,,ii4 ,ratio ( /r5g? ( wood 9 t5sion & 9 compression ,,iii4 ,"r-angl$ t5sile /r5g? ( small cle> pieces ( #be woods 9 gre5 condition ,,iv4 ,results ( compression te/s across ! gra9 on #ea woods 9 gre5 condition1 & comp>ison ) :ite oak ,v4 ,relation ( fibre /ress at ela/ic limit 9 b5d+ to ! cru%+ /r5g? ( blocks cut !refrom 9 p\nds p] squ>e in* ,,vi4 ,results ( endwise compression te/s on small cle> pieces ( #dj woods 9 gre5 condition ,,vii4 ,%e>+ /r5g? along ! gra9 ( small cle> pieces ( #da woods 9 gre5 condition ,,viii4 ,%e>+ /r5g? across ! gra9 ( v>i\s ,am]ican woods ,,ix4 ,results ( /atic b5d+ te/s on small cle> beams ( #di woods 9 gre5 condition ,x4 ,results ( impact b5d+ te/s on small cle> beams ( #cd woods 9 gre5 condition ,,xi4 ,mann] ( fir/ failure ( l>ge beams ,,xii4 ,h>dness ( #cb woods 9 gre5 condition1 z indicat$ by ! load requir$ to imb$ a #j4ddd-;in* /eel ball to "o-half its diamet] ,,xiii4 ,cleavage /r5g? ( small cle> pieces ( #cb woods 9 gre5 condition ,,xiv4 ,specific gravity1 & %r9kage ( #ea ,am]ican woods ,,xv4 ,effect ( dry+ on ! me*anical prop]ties ( wood1 %[n 9 ratio ( increase due to r$uc+ moi/ure cont5t f ! gre5 condition to kiln-dry ,,xvi4 ,effect ( /eam+ on ! /r5g? ( gre5 loblolly p9e ,,xvii4 ,spe$-/r5g? moduli1 & relative increase 9 /r5g? at rates ( fibre /ra9 increas+ 9 geometric ratio ,,xviii4 ,results ( b5d+ te/s on gre5 /ructural timb]s ,,xix4 ,results ( compression & %e> te/s on gre5 /ructural timb]s ,,xx4 ,results ( b5d+ te/s on air-season$ /ructural timb]s ,,xxi4 ,results ( compression & %e> te/s on air-season$ /ructural timb]s ,,xxii4 ,work+ unit /resses = /ructural timb] express$ 9 p\nds p] squ>e in* ,,"p ,i ,,! ,,me*anical ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,wood ,,introduction ,! me*anical prop]ties ( wood are its fitness & ability to resi/ appli$ or ext]nal =ces4 ,by ext]nal =ce is meant any =ce outside ( a giv5 piece ( mat]ial :i* t5ds to de=m x 9 any mann]4 ,x is l>gely su* prop]ties t det]m9e ! use ( wood = /ructural & build+ purposes & innum]able o!r uses ( :i* furniture1 vehicles1 implem5ts1 & tool h&les are a few common examples4 ,k ( ^! prop]ties is obta9$ ?r\gh exp]im5tation ei!r 9 ! employm5t ( ! wood 9 practice or by means ( special te/+ app>atus 9 ! laboratory4 ,ow+ to ! wide range ( v>iation 9 wood x is necess>y t a great numb] ( te/s be made & t s f> z possible all di/urb+ factors be elim9at$4 ,= comp>ison ( diff]5t k9ds or sizes a /&>d me?od ( te/+ is necess>y & ! values mu/ be express$ 9 "s def9$ units4 ,= ^! reasons laboratory exp]im5ts if prop]ly conduct$ h _m advantages ov] any o!r me?od4 ,"o object ( su* inve/igation is to f9d unit values = /r5g? & /iffness1 etc4 ,^!1 because ( ! complex /ructure ( wood1 _c h a con/ant value :i* w be exactly repeat$ 9 ea* te/1 ev5 ?\gh no error be made4 ,! mo/ t c be accompli%$ is to f9d av]age values1 ! am\nt ( v>iation above & bel[1 & ! laws :i* gov]n ! v>iation4 ,on acc\nt ( ! great v>iability 9 /r5g? ( diff]5t specim5s ( wood ev5 f ! same /ick & appe>+ to be alike1 x is important to elim9ate z f> z possible all extrane\s factors liable to influ5ce ! results ( ! te/s4 ,! me*anical prop]ties ( wood consid]$ 9 ?is book are3 7#a7 /iffness & ela/icity1 7#b7 t5sile /r5g?1 7#c7 compressive or cru%+ /r5g?1 7#d7 %e>+ /r5g?1 7#e7 transv]se or b5d+ /r5g?1 7#f7 t\ghness1 7#g7 h>dness1 7#h7 cleavability1 7#i7 resili5ce4 ,9 connection ) ^!1 associat$ prop]ties ( importance are briefly treat$4 ,9 mak+ use ( figures indicat+ ! /r5g? or o!r me*anical prop]ties ( wood = ! purpose ( comp>+ ! relative m]its ( diff]5t species1 ! fact %\ld be borne 9 m9d t !re is a consid]able range 9 v>iability ( ea* individual mat]ial & t small diff]5ces1 su* z a few hundr$ p\nds 9 values ( #aj1jjj p\nds1 _c be consid]$ z a crit]ion ( ! quality ( ! timb]4 ,9 te/+ mat]ial ( ! same k9d & grade1 diff]5ces ( #be p] c5t betwe5 individual specim5s may be expect$ 9 conif]s & #ej p] c5t or ev5 m 9 h>dwoods4 ,! figures giv5 9 ! tables %\ld be tak5 z indications r ?an fix$ values1 & z applicable to a l>ge numb] collectively & n to individual pieces4 ,,fundam5tal ,,consid]ations ,,& ,,def9itions ,/udy ( ! me*anical prop]ties ( a mat]ial is conc]n$ mo/ly ) its behavior 9 relation to /resses & /ra9s1 & ! factors affect+ ?is behavior4 ,a /ress is a di/ribut$ =ce & may be def9$ z ! mutual action 7#a7 ( "o body ^u ano!r1 or 7#b7 ( "o "p ( a body ^u ano!r "p4 ,9 ! fir/ case ! /ress is ext]nal2 9 ! o!r int]nal4 ,! same /ress may be int]nal f "o po9t ( view & ext]nal f ano!r4 ,an ext]nal =ce is always balanc$ by ! int]nal /resses :5 ! body is 9 equilibrium4 ,if no ext]nal =ces act ^u a body its p>ticles assume c]ta9 relative positions1 & x has :at is call$ its natural %ape & size4 ,if suffici5t ext]nal =ce is appli$ ! natural %ape & size w be *ang$4 ,?is di/ortion or de=mation ( ! mat]ial is kn[n z ! /ra94 ,e /ress produces a correspond+ /ra91 & )9 a c]ta9 limit 7see ela/ic limit1 9 ,,fundam5tal ,,consid]ations ,,& ,,def9itions1 above7 ! /ra9 is directly proportional to ! /ress produc+ x4#a ,! same int5sity ( /ress1 h[ev]1 does n produce ! same /ra9 9 diff]5t mat]ials or 9 diff]5t qualities ( ! same mat]ial4 ,no /ra9 w\ld be produc$ 9 a p]fectly rigid body1 b su* is n kn[n to exi/4 ,footnote #a3 ,?is is 9 accordance ) ! discov]y made 9 #afgh by ,rob]t ,hooke1 & is kn[n z ,hooke's law4 ,/ress is measur$ 9 p\nds 7or o!r unit ( weight or =ce74 ,a unit /ress is ! /ress on a unit ( ! sectional ,p area4 ,unit /ress --- ,= in/ance1 if a load 7,p7 ( "o ,a hundr$ p\nds is uni=mly support$ by a v]tical po/ ) a cross-sectional area 7,a7 ( t5 squ>e in*es1 ! unit compressive /ress is t5 p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,/ra9 is measur$ 9 in*es 7or o!r l9e> unit74 ,a unit /ra9 is ! /ra9 p] unit ( l5g?4 ,?us if a po/ #aj in*es long be=e compression is #i4i in*es long "u ! compressive /ress1 ! total /ra9 is #j4a in*1 & ! unit l #j4a /ra9 is --- ----- #j4ja in* p] in* ( l5g?4 ,l #aj ,z ! /ress increases !re is a correspond+ increase 9 ! /ra94 ,?is ratio may be graphically %[n by means ( a diagram or curve plott$ ) ! increm5ts ( load or /ress z ord9ates & ! increm5ts ( /ra9 z absciss4 ,?is is kn[n z ! /ress-/ra9 diagram4 ,)9 ! limit m5tion$ above ! diagram is a /raight l9e4 7,see ,fig4 #a47 ,if ! results ( simil> exp]im5ts on diff]5t specim5s are plott$ to ! same scales1 ! diagrams furni% a ready means = comp>ison4 ,! great] ! resi/ance a mat]ial (f]s to de=mation ! /eep] or ne>] ! v]tical axis w be ! l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,/ress-/ra9 diagrams ( two longleaf p9e beams4 ,e4,l4 ela/ic limit4 ,! areas ( ! triangles #j7;,,el7,a & #j7;,,el7,b repres5t ! ela/ic resili5ce ( ! dry & gre5 beams1 respectively4 ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( int]nal /resses1 namely1 7#a7 t5sile1 7#b7 compressive1 & 7#c7 %e>+4 ,:5 ext]nal =ces act ^u a b> 9 a direction away f its ends or a direct pull1 ! /ress is a t5sile /ress2 :5 t[>d ! ends or a direct pu%1 compressive /ress4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance ! /ra9 is an elongation2 9 ! second a %ort5+4 ,:5ev] ! =ces t5d to cause "o portion ( ! mat]ial to slide ^u ano!r adjac5t to x ! action is call$ a %e>4 ,! action is t ( an ord9>y pair ( %e>s4 ,:5 rivet$ plates slide on ea* o!r ! rivets are %e>$ (f4 ,^! ?ree simple /resses may act toge!r1 produc+ comp\nd /resses1 z 9 flexure4 ,:5 a b[ is b5t !re is a compression ( ! fibres on ! inn] or concave side & an elongation ( ! fibres on ! out] or convex side4 ,!re is also a t5d5cy ( ! v>i\s fibres to slide pa/ "o ano!r 9 a longitud9al direction4 ,if ! b[ 7 made ( two or m sep>ate pieces ( equal l5g? x w\ld be not$ on b5d+ t slipp+ occurr$ along ! surfaces ( contact1 & t ! ends w\ld no long] be ev54 ,if ^! pieces 7 securely glu$ toge!r !y w\ld no long] slip1 b ! t5d5cy to d s w\ld exi/ j ! same4 ,moreov]1 x w\ld be f\nd 9 ! latt] case t ! b[ w\ld be mu* h>d] to b5d ?an :]e ! pieces 7 n glu$ toge!r--9 o!r words1 ! /iffness ( ! b[ w\ld be mat]ially increas$4 ,/iffness is ! prop]ty by means ( :i* a body act$ ^u by ext]nal =ces t5ds to reta9 its natural size & %ape1 or resi/s de=mation4 ,?us a mat]ial t is difficult to b5d or o!rwise de=m is /iff2 "o t is easily b5t or o!rwise de=m$ is flexible4 ,flexibility is n ! exact c\nt]p>t ( /iffness1 z x also involves t\ghness & pliability4 ,if successively l>g] loads are appli$ to a body & !n remov$ x w be f\nd t at fir/ ! body completely rega9s its orig9al =m ^u release f ! /ress--9 o!r words1 ! body is ela/ic4 ,no sub/ance kn[n is p]fectly ela/ic1 ?\gh _m are practically s "u small loads4 ,ev5tually a po9t w be rea*$ :]e ! recov]y ( ! specim5 is incomplete4 ,?is po9t is kn[n z ! ela/ic limit1 :i* may be def9$ z ! limit beyond :i* x is impossible to c>ry ! di/ortion ( a body )\t produc+ a p]man5t alt]ation 9 %ape4 ,aft] ?is limit has be5 exce$$1 ! size & %ape ( ! specim5 aft] removal ( ! load w n be ! same z be=e1 & ! diff]5ce or am\nt ( *ange is kn[n z ! p]man5t set4 ,ela/ic limit z measur$ 9 te/s & us$ 9 design may be def9$ z t unit /ress at :i* ! de=mation beg9s to increase 9 a fa/] ratio ?an ! appli$ load4 ,9 practice ! ela/ic limit ( a mat]ial "u te/ is det]m9$ f ! /ress-/ra9 diagram4 ,x is t po9t 9 ! l9e :]e ! diagram beg9s p]ceptibly to curve4#b 7,see ,fig4 #a47 ,footnote #b3 ,if ! /raight portion does n pass ?r\gh ! orig91 a p>allel l9e %\ld be drawn ?r\gh ! orig91 & ! load at ela/ic limit tak5 f ?is l9e4 7,see ,fig4 #cb47 ,resili5ce is ! am\nt ( "w done ^u a body 9 de=m+ x4 ,)9 ! ela/ic limit x is also a measure ( ! pot5tial en]gy /or$ 9 ! mat]ial & repres5ts ! am\nt ( "w ! mat]ial w\ld d ^u be+ releas$ f a /ate ( /ress4 ,?is may be graphically repres5t$ by a diagram 9 :i* ! absciss repres5t ! am\nt ( deflection & ! ord9ates ! =ce act+4 ,! area includ$ betwe5 ! /ress-/ra9 curve & ! initial l9e 7:i* is z]o7 repres5ts ! "w done4 7,see ,fig4 #a47 ,if ! unit ( space is 9 in*es & ! unit ( =ce is 9 p\nds ! result is in*-p\nds4 ,if ! ela/ic limit is tak5 z ! apex ( ! triangle ! area ( ! triangle w repres5t ! ela/ic resili5ce ( ! specim54 ,?is am\nt ( "w c be appli$ repeat$ly & is p]haps ! be/ measure ( ! t\ghness ( ! wood z a work+ quality1 ?\gh x is n synonym\s ) t\ghness4 ,p]man5t set is due to ! pla/icity ( ! mat]ial4 ,a p]fectly pla/ic sub/ance w\ld h no ela/icity & ! smalle/ =ces w\ld cause a set4 ,lead & moi/ clay are ne>ly pla/ic & wood possesses ?is prop]ty to a great] or less ext5t4 ,! pla/icity ( wood is increas$ by wett+1 heat+1 & especially by /eam+ & boil+4 ,7 x n = ?is prop]ty x w\ld be impossible to dry wood )\t de/roy+ completely its cohesion1 due to ! irregul>ity ( %r9kage4 ,a sub/ance t c und]go little *ange 9 %ape )\t break+ or ruptur+ is brittle4 ,*alk & glass are common examples ( brittle mat]ials4 ,sometimes ! ^w bra% is us$ to describe ?is condition 9 wood4 ,a brittle wood breaks sudd5ly ) a clean in/ead ( a spl9t]y fracture & )\t w>n+4 ,su* woods are unfitt$ to resi/ %ock or sudd5 application ( load4 ,! measure ( ! /iffness ( wood is t]m$ ! modulus ( ela/icity 7or coeffici5t ( ela/icity74 ,x is ! ratio ( /ress p] unit ( area to ! de=mation p] unit ( unit /ress l5g?4 ,e ------------- ,x is a numb] indicative ( unit /ra9 /iffness1 n ( /r5g?1 & only applies to conditions )9 ! ela/ic limit4 ,x is ne>ly ! same :e!r d]iv$ f compression te/s or f t5sion te/s4 ,a l>ge modulus indicates a /iff mat]ial4 ,?us 9 gre5 wood te/$ 9 /atic b5d+ x v>ies f #fdc1jjj p\nds p] squ>e in* = arborvit to #a1ffb1jjj p\nds = longleaf p9e1 & #a1gfi1jjj p\nds = pignut hickory4 7,see ,table ,,ix47 ,! values d]iv$ f te/s ( small beams ( dry mat]ial are mu* great]1 approa*+ #c1jjj1jjj = "s ( our woods4 ,^! values are small :5 comp>$ ) /eel :i* has a modulus ( ela/icity ( ab\t #cj1jjj1jjj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 7,see ,table ,i47 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,,table ,i ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,,comp>ative ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,iron1 ,,/eel1 ,,& ,,wood ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,sp4 ,modulus ( ,t5sile ,cru%+ ,modulus ,,mat]ial gr41 ela/icity /r5g? /r5g? ( dry 9 b5d+ rupture ------------------------------ ---------------------------------------- -- ,lbs4 p] ,lbs4 p] ,lbs4 p] ,lbs4 p] sq4 94 sq4 94 sq4 94 sq4 94 ,ca/ iron1 cold bla/ 7,hodgk9son7 #g4a #ag1bgj1jjj #af1gjj #ajf1jjj #ch1ejj ,bess5g] /eel1 high grade 7,fairba97 #g4h #bi1bae1jjj #hh1djj #bbe1fjj ,longleaf p9e1 #c4e moi/ure 7,u4,s47 4#fc #b1hjj1jjj #ac1jjj #ba1jjj ,r$spruce1 #c4e moi/ure 7,u4,s47 4#da #a1hjj1jjj #h1hjj #ad1ejj ,pignut hickory1 #c4e moi/ure 7,u4,s47 4#hf #b1cgj1jjj #aa1acj #bd1jjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,,note4--,great v>iation may be f\nd 9 diff]5t samples ( metals z well z ( wood4 ,! examples giv5 repres5t reasonable values4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,,t5sile ,,/r5g? ,t5sion results :5 a pull+ =ce is appli$ to opposite ends ( a body4 ,?is ext]nal pull is communicat$ to ! int]ior1 s t any portion ( ! mat]ial ex]ts a pull or t5sile =ce ^u ! rema9d]1 ! ability to d s dep5d+ ^u ! prop]ty ( cohesion4 ,! result is an elongation or /ret*+ ( ! mat]ial 9 ! direction ( ! appli$ =ce4 ,! action is ! opposite ( compression4 ,wood exhibits its greate/ /r5g? 9 t5sion p>allel to ! gra91 & x is v uncommon 9 practice = a specim5 to be pull$ 9 two l5g?wise4 ,?is is due to ! difficulty ( mak+ ! end fa/5+s secure en\gh = ! full t5sile /r5g? to be br\ght into play be=e ! fa/5+s %e> (f longitud9ally4 ,?is is n ! case ) metals1 & z a result !y are us$ 9 almo/ all places :]e t5sile /r5g? is p>ticul>ly ne$$1 ev5 ?\gh ! rema9d] ( ! /ructure1 su* z sills1 beams1 joi/s1 po/s1 & floor+1 may be ( wood4 ,?us 9 a wood5 truss bridge ! t5sion memb]s are /eel rods4 ,! t5sile /r5g? ( wood p>allel to ! gra9 dep5ds ^u ! /r5g? ( ! fibres & is affect$ n only by ! nature & dim5sions ( ! wood elem5ts b also by _! arrangem5t4 ,x is greate/ 9 /raight-gra9$ specim5s ) ?ick-wall$ fibres4 ,cross gra9 ( any k9d mat]ially r$uces ! t5sile /r5g? ( wood1 s9ce ! t5sile /r5g? at "r angles to ! gra9 is only a small fraction ( t p>allel to ! gra94 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,table ,,ii ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,ratio ,,( ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,wood ,,9 ,,t5sion ,,& ,,9 ,,compression 7,bul4 #aj1 ,u4 ,s4 ,div4 ( ,=e/ry1 p4 #dd7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,ratio3 ,a /ick #a squ>e in* 9 cross section4 ,t5sile ,,k9d ,,( ,,wood /r5g? ,weight requir$ to-- ,r ----------- ---------------------------- compressive ,pull ap>t ,cru% endwise /r5g? ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,hickory #c4g #cb1jjj #h1ejj ,elm #c4h #bi1jjj #g1ejj ,l>* #b4c #ai1djj #h1fjj ,longleaf ,p9e #b4b #ag1cjj #g1djj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,note4--,moi/ure condition n giv54 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,failure ( wood 9 t5sion p>allel to ! gra9 occurs sometimes 9 flexure1 especially ) dry mat]ial4 ,! t5sion portion ( ! fracture is ne>ly ! same z ?\gh ! piece 7 pull$ 9 two l5g?wise4 ,! fibre walls are torn across obliquely & usually 9 a spiral direction4 ,!re is practically no pull+ ap>t ( ! fibres1 t is1 no sep>ation ( ! fibres along _! walls1 reg>dless ( _! ?ickness4 ,! nature ( t5sion failure is app>5tly n affect$ by ! moi/ure condition ( ! specim51 at lea/ n s mu* s z ! o!r /r5g? values4#c ,footnote #c3 ,see ,bru%1 ,w>r5 ,d43 ,a microscopic /udy ( ! me*anical failure ( wood4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,rev4 ,f4,s4 ,inve/igations1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c41 #aiab1 p4 #ce4 ,t5sion at "r angles to ! gra9 is closely relat$ to cleavability4 ,:5 wood fails 9 ?is mann] ! ?9 fibre walls are torn 9 two l5g?wise :ile ! ?ick-wall$ fibres are usually pull$ ap>t along ! prim>y wall4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,,table ,,iii ---------------------------------------- ---- ,,t5sile ,,/r5g? ,,at ,,"r ,,angles ,,to ,,! ,,gra9 ,,( ,,small ,,cle> ,,pieces ,,( #be ,,woods ,,9 ,,gre5 ,,condition 7,=e/ ,s]vice ,cir4 #bac7 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,:5 ,:5 ,,common ,,"n surface ( surface ( ,,( ,,species failure is failure is radial tang5tial ---------------------------------------- -- ,lbs4 p] ,lbs4 p] sq4 in* sq4 in* ,h>dwoods ,a%1 :ite #fde #fga ,basswood #bbf #cjc ,bee* #fcc #ifi ,bir*1 yell[ #ddf #ebf ,elm1 slipp]y #gfe #hcb ,hackb]ry #ffa #ghf ,locu/1 honey #a1acc #a1dde ,maple1 sug> #faj #hfd ,oak1 po/ #gad #ibd r$ #fci #hgd swamp :ite #geg #iji :ite #fbb #gdi yell[ #gbh #ibi ,sycamore #edj #gha ,tupelo #dgb #gif ,conif]s ,arborvit #bda #bce ,cypress1 bald #bdb #bea ,fir1 :ite #bac #cjd ,hemlock #bga #cbc ,p9e1 longleaf #bdj #bih r$ #agi #bje sug> #bci #cjd we/]n yell[ #bcj #beb :ite #bbe #bhe ,tam>ack #bcf #bgd ---------------------------------------- ---- ,,compressive ,,or ,,cru%+ ,,/r5g? ,compression across ! gra9 is v closely relat$ to h>dness & transv]se %e>4 ,!re are two ways 9 :i* wood is subject$ to /ress ( ?is k9d1 namely1 7#a7 ) ! load act+ ov] ! entire area ( ! specim51 & 7#b7 ) a load conc5trat$ ov] a portion ( ! area4 7,see ,fig4 #b47 ,! latt] is ! condition m commonly met ) 9 practice1 z1 = example1 :]e a po/ re/s on a horizontal sill1 or a rail re/s on a cross-tie4 ,! =m] condition1 h[ev]1 gives ! true resi/ance ( ! gra9 to simple cru%+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,compression across ! gra94 ,! fir/ effect ( compression across ! gra9 is to compact ! fibres1 ! load gradually b irregul>ly increas+ z ! d5sity ( ! mat]ial is increas$4 ,if ! specim5 lies on a flat surface & ! load is appli$ to only a portion ( ! upp] area1 ! be>+ plate ind5ts ! wood1 cru%+ ! upp] fibres )\t affect+ ! l[] "p4 7,see ,fig4 #c47 ,z ! load increases ! project+ ends sometimes split horizontally4 7,see ,fig4 #d47 ,! irregul>ities 9 ! load are due to ! fact t ! fibres collapse a few at a "t1 beg9n+ ) ^? ) ! ?9ne/ walls4 ,! projection ( ! ends increases ! /r5g? ( ! mat]ial directly b5ea? ! compress+ weight by introduc+ a beam action :i* helps support ! load4 ,?is influ5ce is ex]t$ = a %ort di/ance only4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,side view ( failures 9 compression across ! gra91 %[+ cru%+ ( blocks "u be>+ plate4 ,specim5 at "r %[s splitt+ at ends4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,end view ( failures 9 compression across ! gra91 %[+ splitt+ ( ! ends ( ! te/ specim5s4 ,:5 wood is us$ = columns1 props1 po/s1 & spokes1 ! weight ( ! load t5ds to %ort5 ! mat]ial endwise4 ,?is is endwise compression1 or compression p>allel to ! gra94 ,9 ! case ( long columns1 t is1 pieces 9 :i* ! l5g? is v great comp>$ ) _! diamet]1 ! failure is by sidewise b5d+ or flexure1 in/ead ( by cru%+ or splitt+4 7,see ,fig4 #e47 ,a famili> in/ance ( ?is action is af=d$ by a flexible walk+-/ick4 ,if d[nw>d pressure is ex]t$ ) ! h& on ! upp] end ( ! /ick plac$ v]tically on ! floor1 x w be not$ t a def9ite am\nt ( =ce mu/ be appli$ 9 ea* in/ance be=e decid$ flexure takes place4 ,aft] ?is po9t is rea*$ a v slight increase ( pressure v l>gely increases ! deflection1 ?us obta9+ s great a lev]age ab\t ! middle section z to cause rupture4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,te/+ a buggy spoke 9 endwise compression1 illu/rat+ ! failure by sidewise b5d+ ( a long column fix$ only at ! l[] end4 ,photo by ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice ,! lat]al b5d+ ( a column produces a comb9ation ( b5d+ ) compressive /ress ov] ! section1 ! compressive /ress be+ maximum at ! section ( greate/ deflection on ! concave side4 ,! convex surface is "u t5sion1 z 9 an ord9>y beam te/4 7,see ,fig4 #f47 ,if ! same /ick is brac$ 9 su* a way t flexure is prev5t$1 its support+ /r5g? is increas$ enorm\sly1 s9ce ! compressive /ress acts uni=mly ov] ! section1 & failure is by cru%+ or splitt+1 z 9 small blocks4 ,9 all columns free to b5d 9 any direction ! deflection w be se5 9 ! direction 9 :i* ! column is lea/ /iff4 ,?is sidewise b5d+ c be ov]come by mak+ pill>s & columns ?ick] 9 ! middle ?an at ! ends1 & by brac+ /udd+1 props1 & compression memb]s ( trusses4 ,! /r5g? ( a column also dep5ds to a consid]able ext5t ^u :e!r ! ends are free to turn or are fix$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,unequal di/ribution ( /ress 9 a long column due to lat]al b5d+4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,table ,,iv ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,results ,,( ,,compression ,,te/s ,,across ,,! ,,gra9 ,,on #ea ,,woods ,,9 ,,gre5 ,,condition1 ,,& ,,comp>ison ,,) ,,:ite ,,oak 7,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice7 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,fibre /ress ,fib] /ress ,,common ,,"n at ela/ic 9 p] c5t ,,( ,,species limit ( :ite oak1 p]p5dicul> or #hec p\nds to gra9 p] sq4 94 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,lbs4 p] sq4 in* ,p] c5t ,osage orange #b1bfj #bfe4j ,honey locu/ #a1fhd #aig4e ,black locu/ #a1dbf #afg4b ,po/ oak #a1adh #acd4f ,pignut hickory #a1adb #acc4i ,wat] hickory #a1jhh #abg4e ,%agb>k hickory #a1jgj #abe4e ,mock]nut hickory #a1jab #aah4f ,big %ellb>k hickory #iig #aaf4i ,bitt]nut hickory #ihf #aae4g ,nutmeg hickory #ich #aaj4j ,yell[ oak #heg #ajj4e ,:ite oak #hec #ajj4j ,bur oak #hcf #ih4j ,:ite a% #hbh #ig4a ,r$ oak #ggh #ia4b ,sug> maple #gdb #hg4j ,rock elm #fif #ha4f ,bee* #fjg #ga4b ,slipp]y elm #eii #gj4b ,r$wood #egh #fg4h ,bald cypress #edh #fd4c ,r$ maple #eca #fb4c ,hackb]ry #ebe #fa4f ,inc5se c$> #eah #fj4h ,hemlock #dig #eh4c ,longleaf p9e #dia #eg4f ,tam>ack #dhj #ef4c ,silv] maple #def #ec4e ,yell[ bir* #ded #ec4b ,tupelo #dea #eb4i ,black *]ry #ddd #eb4a ,sycamore #dcc #ej4h ,d\glas fir #dbg #ej4a ,cucumb] tree #djh #dg4h ,%ortleaf p9e #djj #df4i ,r$ p9e #ceh #db4j ,sug> p9e #cec #da4a ,:ite elm #cea #da4b ,we/]n yell[ p9e #cdh #dj4h ,lodgepole p9e #cdh #dj4h ,r$ spruce #cde #dj4e ,:ite p9e #cad #cf4h ,engelman spruce #bij #cd4j ,arborvit #bhh #cc4h ,l>getoo? asp5 #bfi #ca4e ,:ite spruce #bfb #cj4g ,butt]nut #beh #cj4c ,buckeye 7yell[7 #baj #bd4f ,basswood #bji #bd4e ,black will[ #aic #bb4f ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,! complexity ( ! computations dep5ds ^u ! way 9 :i* ! /ress is appli$ & ! mann] 9 :i* ! /ick b5ds4 ,ord9>ily :]e ! l5g? ( ! te/ specim5 is n great] ?an f\r diamet]s & ! ends are squ>ely fac$ 7see ,fig4 #g71 ! =ce acts uni=mly ov] ea* squ>e in* ( area & ! cru%+ /r5g? is equal to ! maximum load 7,p7 divid$ ,p by ! area ( ! cross-section 7,a74 ,c --- ,a ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,endwise compression ( a %ort column4 ,x has be5 demon/rat$#d t ! ultimate /r5g? 9 compression p>allel to ! gra9 is v ne>ly ! same z ! extreme fibre /ress at ! ela/ic limit 9 b5d+4 7,see ,table ,v47 ,9 o!r words1 ! transv]se /r5g? ( beams at ela/ic limit is practically equal to ! compressive /r5g? ( ! same mat]ial 9 %ort columns4 ,x is accord+ly possible to calculate ! approximate break+ /r5g? ( beams f ! compressive /r5g? ( %ort columns except :5 ! wood is brittle4 ,s9ce te/s on endwise compression are simpl]1 easi] to make1 & less exp5sive ?an transv]se b5d+ te/s1 ! importance ( ?is relation is obvi\s1 ?\gh x does n d away ) ! necessity ( mak+ beam te/s4 ,footnote #d3 ,see ,circul> ,no4 #ah1 ,u4,s4 ,division ( ,=e/ry3 ,progress 9 timb] physics1 pp4 #ac-ah2 also ,bullet9 #gj1 ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice3 ,effect ( moi/ure on ! /r5g? & /iffness ( wood1 pp4 #db1 #hi-ij4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,,table ,v ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,,relation ,,( ,,fibre ,,/ress ,,at ,,ela/ic ,,limit 7r7 ,,9 ,,b5d+ ,,to ,,! ,,cru%+ ,,/r5g? 7,c7 ,,( ,,blocks ,,cut ,,!refrom1 ,,9 ,,p\nds ,,p] ,,squ>e ,,in* 7,=e/ ,s]vice ,bul4 #gj1 p4 #ij7 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,,longleaf ,,p9e ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,soak$ ,gre5 #ad #aa4e #i4e ,kiln-dry ,,moi/ure ,,condition #ej p] #bc p] p] p] p] #f4b p] c5t c5t c5t c5t c5t c5t ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,numb] ( te/s av]ag$ #e #e #e #e #d #e r 9 b5d+ #d1ibj #e1idd #f1ibd #g1heb #i1bhj #aa1eej ,c 9 compression #d1ffh #e1ajj #f1dff #g1dff #h1ihe #aj1iaj ,p] c5t r is 9 excess ( ,c #e4e #af4e #g4a #e4b #c4c #e4i ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,,spruce ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,soak$ ,gre5 #aj #h4a ,kiln-dry ,,moi/ure ,,condition #cj p] #cj p] p] p] #c4i p] c5t c5t c5t c5t c5t ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,numb] ( te/s av]ag$ #e #d #e #c #d r 9 b5d+ #c1jjb #c1cfb #f1deh #h1djj #aj1agj ,c 9 compression #b1fhj #c1jbe #f1abj #g1faj #i1cce ,p] c5t r is 9 excess ( ,c #ab4j #aa4a #e4e #aj4d #i4j ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,:5 a %ort column is compress$ until x breaks1 ! mann] ( failure dep5ds p>tly ^u ! anatomical /ructure & p>tly ^u ! degree ( humidity ( ! wood4 ,! fibres 7tra*eids 9 conif]s7 act z holl[ tubes b\nd closely toge!r1 & 9 giv+ way !y ei!r 7#a7 buckle1 or 7#b7 b5d4#e ,footnote #e3 ,see ,bullet9 #gj1 op4 cit41 p4 #abi4 ,! fir/ is typical ( any dry ?9-wall$ cells1 z is usually ! case 9 season$ :ite p9e & spruce1 & 9 ! e>ly wood ( h>d p9es1 hemlock1 & o!r species ) decid$ contra/ betwe5 ! two portions ( ! gr[? r+4 ,z a rule buckl+ ( a tra*eid beg9s at ! bord]$ pits :i* =m places ( lea/ resi/ance 9 ! walls4 ,9 h>dwoods su* z oak1 *e/nut1 a%1 etc41 buckl+ occurs only 9 ! ?9ne/-wall$ elem5ts1 su* z ! vessels1 & n 9 ! true fibres4 ,accord+ to ,jacc>d#f ! fold+ ( ! cells is accompani$ by *>act]i/ic alt]ations ( _! walls :i* seem to split !m into extremely ?9 lay]s4 ,:5 greatly magnifi$1 ^! lay]s appe> 9 longitud9al sections z delicate ?reads )\t any def9ite arrangem5ts1 :ile on cross section !y appe> z num]\s conc5tric /rata4 ,?is may be expla9$ on ! gr\nd t ! gr[? ( a fibre is by successive lay]s :i*1 "u ! influ5ce ( compression1 are %e>$ ap>t4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly ! case ) ?ick-wall$ cells su* z are f\nd 9 late wood4 ,footnote #f3 ,jacc>d1 ,p43 tude anatomique des bois comprims4 ,mit4 d4 ,s*w4 ,c5tralan/alt f4d4 =/4 ,v]su*swes54 ,x4 ,b&1 #a4 ,heft4 ,zuri*1 #aiaj1 p4 #ff4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,table ,,vi ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,results ,,( ,,endwise ,,compression ,,te/s ,,on ,,small ,,cle> ,,pieces ,,( #dj ,,woods ,,9 ,,gre5 ,,condition 7,=e/ ,s]vice ,cir4 #bac7 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,fibre ,modulus ,,common ,,"n /ress at ,cru%+ ( ,,( ,,species ela/ic /r5g? ela/icity limit ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,lbs4 p] ,lbs4 p] ,lbs4 p] sq4 in* sq4 in* sq4 in* ,h>dwoods ,a%1 :ite #c1eaj #d1bbj #a1eca1jjj ,basswood #ghj #a1hbj #a1jaf1jjj ,bee* #b1ggj #c1dhj #a1dab1jjj ,bir*1 yell[ #b1egj #c1djj #a1iae1jjj ,elm1 slipp]y #c1daj #c1iij #a1dec1jjj ,hackb]ry #b1gcj #c1caj #a1jfh1jjj ,hickory1 big %ellb>k #c1egj #d1ebj #a1feh1jjj bitt]nut #d1ccj #d1egj #a1faf1jjj mock]nut #c1iij #d1cbj #a1cei1jjj nutmeg #c1fbj #c1ihj #a1daa1jjj pignut #c1ebj #d1hbj #a1ihj1jjj %agb>k #c1gcj #d1fjj #a1idc1jjj wat] #c1bdj #d1ffj #a1ibf1jjj ,locu/1 honey #d1cjj #d1igj #a1ecf1jjj ,maple1 sug> #c1jdj #c1fgj #a1dfc1jjj ,oak1 po/ #b1ghj #c1ccj #a1jfb1jjj r$ #b1bij #c1baj #a1bie1jjj swamp :ite #c1dgj #d1cfj #a1dhi1jjj :ite #b1djj #c1ebj #idf1jjj yell[ #b1hgj #c1gjj #a1dfe1jjj ,osage orange #c1ihj #e1haj #a1cca1jjj ,sycamore #b1cbj #b1gij #a1jgc1jjj ,tupelo #b1bhj #c1eej #a1bhj1jjj ,conif]s ,arborvit #a1dbj #a1iij #ged1jjj ,c$>1 inc5se #b1gaj #c1jcj #hfh1jjj ,cypress1 bald #c1efj #c1ifj #a1gch1jjj ,fir1 alp9e #a1ffj #b1jfj #hhb1jjj amabilis #b1gfc #c1jdj #a1egi1jjj ,d\glas #b1cij #b1ibj #a1ddj1jjj :ite #b1faj #b1hjj #a1ccb1jjj ,hemlock #b1aaj #b1gej #a1jed1jjj ,p9e1 lodgepole #b1bij #b1ecj #a1bai1jjj longleaf #c1dbj #d1bhj #a1hij1jjj r$ #b1dgj #c1jhj #a1fdf1jjj sug> #b1cdj #b1fjj #a1jbi1jjj we/]n yell[ #b1ajj #b1dbj #a1bga1jjj :ite #b1cgj #b1gbj #a1cah1jjj ,r$wood #c1dbj #c1hbj #a1age1jjj ,spruce1 ,engelmann #a1hhj #b1agj #a1jba1jjj ,tam>ack #c1jaj #c1dhj #a1eif1jjj ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,! second case1 :]e ! fibres b5d ) m or less regul> curves in/ead ( buckl+1 is *>act]i/ic ( any gre5 or wet wood1 & 9 dry woods :]e ! fibres are ?ick-wall$4 ,9 woods 9 :i* ! fibre walls %[ all gradations ( ?ickness--9 o!r words1 :]e ! transition f ! ?9-wall$ cells ( ! e>ly wood to ! ?ick-wall$ cells ( ! late wood is gradual--! two k9ds ( failure1 namely1 buckl+ & b5d+1 grade into ea* o!r4 ,9 woods ) v decid$ contra/ betwe5 e>ly & late wood ! two =ms are usually di/9ct4 ,except 9 ! case ( complete failure ! cavity ( ! de=m$ cells rema9s op51 & 9 h>dwoods ?is is true n only ( ! wood fibres b also ( ! tube-l vessels4 ,9 _m cases longitud9al splits occur :i* isolate bundles ( elem5ts by great] or less int]vals4 ,! splitt+ occurs by a te>+ ( ! fibres or rays & n by ! sep>ation ( ! rays f ! adjac5t elem5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,failures ( %ort columns ( gre5 spruce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,failures ( %ort columns ( dry *e/nut4 ,moi/ure 9 wood decreases ! /iffness ( ! fibre walls & enl>ges ! region ( failure4 ,! curve :i* ! fibre walls make 9 ! region ( failure is m gradual & also m irregul> ?an 9 dry wood1 & ! fibres are m likely to be sep>at$4 ,9 exam9+ ! l9es ( rupture 9 compression p>allel to ! gra9 x appe>s t !re does n exi/ any specific type1 t is1 "o t is *>act]i/ic ( all woods4 ,te/ blocks tak5 f diff]5t p>ts ( ! same log may %[ v decid$ diff]5ces 9 ! mann] ( failure1 :ile blocks t are mu* alike 9 ! size1 numb]1 & di/ribution ( ! elem5ts ( unequal resi/ance may behave v simil>ly4 ,! direction ( rupture is1 accord+ to ,jacc>d1 n influ5c$ by ! di/ribution ( ! m$ull>y rays4#g ,^! are curv$ ) ! bundles ( fibres to :i* !y are atta*$4 ,9 any case ! failure />ts at ! weake/ po9ts & foll[s ! l9es ( lea/ resi/ance4 ,! plane ( failure1 z visible on radial surfaces1 is horizontal1 & on ! tang5tial surface x is diagonal4 ,footnote #g3 ,?is does n correspond exactly ) ! conclusions ( ,a4 ,?il1 :o says 7,con/itution anatomique du bois1 pp4 #adj-ada73 ,! sides ( ! m$ull>y rays sometimes produce planes ( lea/ resi/ance v>y+ 9 size ) ! height ( ! rays4 ,! m$ull>y rays assume a direction m or less p>allel to ! lum5 ( ! cells on :i* !y bord]2 ! latt] curve to ! "r or left to make room = ! ray & !n close aga9 beyond x4 ,if ! =ce acts p>allel to ! axis ( gr[?1 ! tra*eids are m likely to be displac$ if ! m>g9al cells ( ! m$ull>y rays are provid$ ) weak walls t are readily compress$4 ,?is expla9s :y on ! radial surface ( ! te/ blocks ! plane ( rupture passes 9 a direction ne>ly foll[+ a m$ull>y ray1 :]eas on ! tang5tial surface ! direction ( ! plane ( rupture is oblique--b ) an obliquity v>y+ ) ! species & det]m9$ by ! pit* ( ! spirals along :i* ! m$ull>y rays are di/ribut$ 9 ! /em4 ,see ,jacc>d1 op4 cit41 pp4 #eg et seq4 ,,%e>+ ,,/r5g? ,:5ev] =ces act ^u a body 9 su* a way t "o portion t5ds to slide ^u ano!r adjac5t to x ! action is call$ a %e>4#h ,9 wood ?is %e>+ action may be 7#a7 along ! gra91 or 7#b7 across ! gra94 ,a t5on break+ out its mortise is a famili> example ( %e> along ! gra91 :ile ! %ov+ (f ( ! t5on itself w\ld be %e> across ! gra94 ,! use ( wood = p9s or tree-nails involves resi/ance to %e> across ! gra94 ,ano!r common in/ance ( ! latt] is :]e ! /eel edge ( ! eye ( an axe or hamm] t5ds to cut (f ! h&le4 ,9 ,fig4 #aj ! action ( ! wood5 /rut t5ds to %e> (f along ! gra9 ! portion ,,ab ( ! wood5 tie rod1 & x is ess5tial t ! l5g? ( ?is portion be great en\gh to gu>d aga9/ x4 ,fig4 #aa %[s *>act]i/ic failures 9 %e> along ! gra94 ,footnote #h3 ,%e> %\ld n be confus$ ) ord9>y cutt+ or incision4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,example ( %e> along ! gra94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,failures ( te/ specim5s 9 %e> along ! gra94 ,9 ! block at ! left ! surface ( failure is radial2 9 ! "o at ! "r1 tang5tial ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,table ,,vii ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,%e>+ ,,/r5g? ,,along ,,! ,,gra9 ,,( ,,small ,,cle> ,,pieces ,,( #da ,,woods ,,9 ,,gre5 ,,condition 7,=e/ ,s]vice ,cir4 #bac7 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,:5 ,:5 ,,common ,,"n surface ( surface ( ,,( ,,species failure is failure is radial tang5tial ---------------------------------------- --- ,lbs4 p] ,lbs4 p] sq4 in* sq4 in* ,h>dwoods ,a%1 black #hgf #hcb :ite #a1cfj #a1cab ,basswood #efj #fag ,bee* #a1aed #a1cge ,bir*1 yell[ #a1ajc #a1ahh ,elm1 slipp]y #a1aig #a1agd :ite #ggh #hgb ,hackb]ry #a1jie #a1afa ,hickory1 big %ellb>k #a1acd #a1aia bitt]nut #a1acd #a1cdh mock]nut #a1bea #a1cac nutmeg #a1jaj #a1jec pignut #a1ccd #a1deg %agb>k #a1bcj #a1big wat] #a1cij #a1dij ,locu/1 honey #a1hhe #b1jif ,maple1 r$ #a1acj #a1ccj sug> #a1aic #a1dee ,oak1 po/ #a1aif #a1djb r$ #a1acb #a1aie swamp :ite #a1aih #a1cid :ite #a1jif #a1bib yell[ #a1afb #a1aif ,sycamore #ijj #a1ajb ,tupelo #igh #a1jhd ,conif]s ,arborvit #fag #fad ,c$>1 inc5se #fac #ffb ,cypress1 bald #hcf #hjj ,fir1 alp9e #egc #fed amabilis #eag #fci ,d\glas #hec #heh :ite #gdb #gbc ,hemlock #gij #hac ,p9e1 lodgepole #fgb #gdg longleaf #a1jfj #iec r$ #hab #gda sug> #gjb #gad we/]n yell[ #fhf #gjf :ite #fdi #fci ,spruce1 ,engelmann #fjg #fbd ,tam>ack #hhc #hdc ---------------------------------------- ----- ,bo? %e>+ /resses may act at ! same "t4 ,?us ! weight c>ri$ by a beam t5ds to %e> x (f at "r angles to ! axis2 ?is /ress is equal to ! resultant =ce act+ p]p5dicul>ly at any po9t1 & 9 a beam uni=mly load$ & support$ at ei!r end is maximum at ! po9ts ( support & z]o at ! c5tre4 ,9 addition !re is a %e>+ =ce t5d+ to move ! fibres ( ! beam pa/ ea* o!r 9 a longitud9al direction4 7,see ,fig4 #ab47 ,?is longitud9al %e> is maximum at ! neutral plane & decreases t[>d ! upp] & l[] surfaces4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,horizontal %e> 9 a beam4 ,%e>+ across ! gra9 is s closely relat$ to compression at "r angles to ! gra9 & to h>dness t !re is little to be ga9$ by mak+ sep>ate te/s ^u x4 ,k ( %e> p>allel to ! gra9 is important1 s9ce wood frequ5tly fails 9 t way4 ,! value ( %e>+ /ress p>allel to ! gra9 is f\nd by divid+ ! maximum load 9 p\nds 7,p7 by ! area ( ! cross section 9 in*es 7,a74 ,p ,%e> --- ,a ,oblique %e>+ /resses are develop$ 9 a b> :5 x is subject$ to direct t5sion or compression4 ,! maximum %e>+ /ress occurs along a plane :5 x makes an angle ( #de degrees ,p ) ! axis ( ! specim54 ,9 ?is case1 %e> -----4 ,:5 #b ,a ! value ( ! angle ,greek3 !ta is less ?an #de degrees1 ,p ! %e> along ! plane --- s9 ,greek3 !ta cos ,greek3 ,a !ta4 7,see ,fig4 #ac47 ,! effect ( oblique %e> is (t5 visible 9 ! failures ( %ort columns4 7,see ,fig4 #ad47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,oblique %e> 9 a %ort column4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,failure ( %ort column by oblique %e>4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,,table ,,viii ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,,%e>+ ,,/r5g? ,,across ,,! ,,gra9 ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,am]ican ,,woods 7,j4,c4 ,trautw9e4 ,j\r4 ,frankl9 ,in/itute4 ,vol4 #aji1 #ahhj1 pp4 #aje-ajf7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,,k9d ,,( ,,wood ,lbs4 p] ,,k9d ,,( ,,wood ,lbs4 p] sq4 in* sq4 in* ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,a% #f1bhj ,hickory #g1bhe ,bee* #e1bbc ,locu/ #g1agf ,bir* #e1eie ,maple #f1cee ,c$> 7:ite7 #a1cgb ,oak #d1dbe ,c$> 7:ite7 #a1eai ,oak 7live7 #h1dhj ,c$> 7,c5tral ,am]47 #c1daj ,p9e 7:ite7 #b1dhj ,*]ry #b1ide ,p9e 7nor!rn yell[7 #d1cdj ,*e/nut #a1ecf ,p9e 7s\!rnyell[7 #e1gce ,dogwood #f1eaj ,p9e 7v res9\s yell[7 #e1jec ,ebony #g1gej ,popl> #d1dah ,gum #e1hij ,spruce #c1bee ,hemlock #b1gej ,walnut 7black7 #d1gbh ,hickory #f1jde ,walnut 7common7 #b1hcj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,,note4--,two specim5s ( ea* 7 te/$4 ,all 7 fairly season$ & )\t defects4 ,! piece %e>$ (f 0 #e_/h 94 ,! s+le circul> area ( ea* p9 0 #j4cbb sq4 94 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,,transv]se ,,or ,,b5d+ ,,/r5g?3 ,,beams ,:5 ext]nal =ces act+ 9 ! same plane are appli$ at "r angles to ! axis ( a b> s z to cause x to b5d1 !y occasion a %ort5+ ( ! longitud9al fibres on ! concave side & an elongation ( ^? on ! convex side4 ,)9 ! ela/ic limit ! relative /ret*+ & contraction ( ! fibres is directly#i proportional to _! di/ances f a plane int]m$iate betwe5 !m--! neutral plane4 7,n#a ,p 9 ,fig4 #ae47 ,?us ! fibres half-way betwe5 ! neutral plane & ! out] surface exp]i5ce only half z mu* %ort5+ or elongation z ! out]mo/ or extreme fibres4 ,simil>ly = o!r di/ances4 ,! elem5ts along ! neutral plane exp]i5ce no t5sion or compression 9 an axial direction4 ,! l9e ( int]section ( ?is plane & ! plane ( section is kn[n z ! neutral axis 7,n ,a 9 ,fig4 #ae7 ( ! section4 ,footnote #i3 ,:ile 9 reality ?is relation%ip does n exactly hold1 ! =mul = beams are bas$ on its assumption4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,diagram ( a simple beam4 ,n#a ,p neutral plane1 ,n ,a neutral axis ( section ,r ,s4 ,if ! b> is symmetrical & homog5e\s ! neutral plane is locat$ half-way betwe5 ! upp] & l[] surfaces1 s long z ! deflection does n exce$ ! ela/ic limit ( ! mat]ial4 ,ow+ to ! fact t ! t5sile /r5g? ( wood is f two to ne>ly f\r times ! compressive /r5g?1 x foll[s t at rupture ! neutral plane is mu* ne>] ! convex ?an ! concave side ( ! b> or beam1 s9ce ! sum ( all ! compressive /resses on ! concave portion mu/ always equal ! sum ( ! t5sile /resses on ! convex portion4 ,! neutral plane beg9s to *ange f its c5tral position z soon z ! ela/ic limit has be5 pass$4 ,its location at any "t is v unc]ta94 ,! ext]nal =ces act+ to b5d ! b> also t5d to rupture x at "r angles to ! neutral plane by caus+ "o transv]se section to slip pa/ ano!r4 ,?is /ress at any po9t is equal to ! resultant p]p5dicul> to ! axis ( ! =ces act+ at ?is po9t1 & is t]m$ ! transv]se %e> 7or 9 ! case ( beams1 v]tical %e>74 ,9 addition to ?is !re is a %e>+ /ress1 t5d+ to move ! fibres pa/ "o ano!r 9 an axial direction1 :i* is call$ longitud9al %e> 7or 9 ! case ( beams1 horizontal %e>74 ,?is /ress mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation 9 ! design ( timb] /ructures4 ,x is maximum at ! neutral plane & decreases to z]o at ! out] elem5ts ( ! section4 ,! %ort] ! span ( a beam 9 proportion to its height1 ! great] is ! liability ( failure 9 horizontal %e> be=e ! ultimate /r5g? ( ! beam is rea*$4 ,beams ,!re are ?ree common =ms ( beams1 z foll[s3 7#a7 ,simple beam--a b> re/+ ^u two supports1 "o ne> ea* end4 7,see ,fig4 #af1 ,no4 #a47 7#b7 ,cantilev] beam--a b> re/+ ^u "o support or fulcrum1 or t portion ( any beam project+ out ( a wall or beyond a support4 7,see ,fig4 #af1 ,no4 #b47 7#c7 ,cont9u\s beam--a b> re/+ ^u m ?an two supports4 7,see ,fig4 #af1 ,no4 #c47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,?ree common =ms ( beams4 #a4 ,simple4 #b4 ,cantilev]4 #c4 ,cont9u\s4 ,/iffness ( ,beams ,! two ma9 requirem5ts ( a beam are /iffness & /r5g?4 ,! =mul = ! modulus ( ela/icity 7,e7 or measure ( /iffness ( a rectangul> prismatic simple beam load$ at ! c5tre & re/+ freely on supports at ei!r end is3#aj ,footnote #aj3 ,only ?is =m ( beam is consid]$ s9ce x is ! simple/4 ,= cantilev] & cont9u\s beams1 & beams rigidly fix$ at "o or bo? ends1 z well z = diff]5t me?ods ( load+1 diff]5t =ms ( cross section1 etc41 o!r =mul are requir$4 ,see any book on me*anics4 ,p' l#c ,e ------------- #d ,d b h#c b bread? or wid? ( beam1 in*es4 h height or dep? ( beam1 in*es4 l span 7l5g? betwe5 po9ts ( supports7 ( beam1 in*es4 ,d deflection produc$ by load ,p'1 in*es4 ,p' load at or bel[ ela/ic limit1 p\nds4 ,f ?is =mul x is evid5t t = rectangul> beams ( ! same mat]ial1 mode ( support1 & load+1 ! deflection is affect$ z foll[s3 7#a7 ,x is inv]sely proportional to ! wid? = beams ( ! same l5g? & dep?4 ,if ! wid? is tripl$ ! deflection is "o-?ird z great4 7#b7 ,x is inv]sely proportional to ! cube ( ! dep? = beams ( ! same l5g? & bread?4 ,if ! dep? is tripl$ ! deflection is "o tw5ty-sev5? z great4 7#c7 ,x is directly proportional to ! cube ( ! span = beams ( ! same bread? & dep?4 ,tripl+ ! span gives tw5ty-sev5 times ! deflection4 ,! numb] ( p\nds :i* conc5trat$ at ! c5tre w deflect a rectangul> prismatic simple beam "o in* may be f\nd f ! prec$+ =mul by sub/itut+ ,d #a & solv+ = ,p'4 ,! =mul !n becomes3 #d ,e b h#c ,necess>y weight 7,p'7 ------------- l#c ,9 ?is case ! values = ,e are read f tables prep>$ f data obta9$ by exp]im5tation on ! giv5 mat]ial4 ,/r5g? ( ,beams ,! measure ( ! break+ /r5g? ( a beam is express$ 9 t]ms ( unit /ress by a modulus ( rupture1 :i* is a purely hypo!tical expression = po9ts beyond ! ela/ic limit4 ,! =mul us$ 9 comput+ ?is modulus is z foll[s3 #a4e ,p l ,r --------- b h#b b1 h1 l bread?1 height1 & span1 respectively1 z 9 prec$+ =mul4 ,r modulus ( rupture1 p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,p maximum load1 p\nds4 ,9 calculat+ ! fibre /ress at ! ela/ic limit ! same =mul is us$ except t ! load at ela/ic limit 7,p#a7 is sub/itut$ = ! maximum load 7,p74 ,f ?is =mul x is evid5t t = rectangul> prismatic beams ( ! same mat]ial1 mode ( support1 & load+1 ! load :i* a giv5 beam c support v>ies z foll[s3 7#a7 ,x is directly proportional to ! bread? = beams ( ! same l5g? & dep?1 z is ! case ) /iffness4 7#b7 ,x is directly proportional to ! squ>e ( ! height = beams ( ! same l5g? & bread?1 in/ead ( z ! cube ( ?is dim5sion z 9 /iffness4 7#c7 ,x is inv]sely proportional to ! span = beams ( ! same bread? & dep? & n to ! cube ( ?is dim5sion z 9 /iffness4 ,! fact t ! /r5g? v>ies z ! squ>e ( ! height & ! /iffness z ! cube expla9s ! relation%ip ( b5d+ to ?ickness4 ,7 ! law ! same = /r5g? & /iffness a ?9 piece ( mat]ial su* z a %eet ( pap] c\ld n be b5t any fur!r )\t break+ ?an a ?ick piece1 say an in* bo>d4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,table ,,ix ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,results ,,( ,,/atic ,,b5d+ ,,te/s ,,on ,,small ,,cle> ,,beams ,,( #di ,,woods ,,9 ,,gre5 ,,condition 7,=e/ ,s]vice ,cir4 #bac7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----- ,fibre ,"w 9 ,b5d+ ,,common ,,"n /ress at ,modulus ,modulus ------------------------------- ,,( ,,species ela/ic ( ( ,to ,to limit rupture ela/icity ela/ic maximum ,total limit load ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,94-lbs4 ,94-lbs4 ,94-lb4 ,lbs4 p] ,lbs4 p] ,lbs4 p] p] cu4 p] cu4 p] sq4 94 sq4 94 sq4 94 in* in* in* ,h>dwoods ,a%1 black #b1ehj #f1jjj #ifj1jjj #j4da #ac4a #ch4i :ite #e1ahj #i1ibj #a1daf1jjj #a4aj #bj4j #dc4g ,basswood #b1dhj #d1dej #hdb1jjj 4#de #e4h #h4i ,bee* #d1dij #h1faj #a1cec1jjj 4#if #ad4a #ca4d ,bir*1 yell[ #d1aij #h1cij #a1eig1jjj 4#fb #ad4b #ca4e ,elm1 rock #d1bij #i1dcj #a1bbb1jjj 4#ij #ai4d #dg4d slipp]y #e1efj #i1eaj #a1cad1jjj #a4cb #aa4g #dd4b :ite #b1hej #f1idj #a1jeb1jjj 4#dd #aa4h #bg4d ,gum1 r$ #c1dfj #f1dej #a1ach1jjj ,hackb]ry #c1cbj #g1hjj #a1agj1jjj 4#ef #ai4f #eb4i ,hickory1 big %ellb>k #f1cgj #aa1aaj #a1efb1jjj #a4dg #bd4c #gh4j bitt]nut #e1dgj #aj1bhj #a1cii1jjj #a4bb #bj4j #ge4e mock]nut #f1eej #aa1aaj #a1ejh1jjj #a4ej #ca4g #hd4d nutmeg #d1hfj #i1jfj #a1bhi1jjj #a4jf #bb4h #eh4b pignut #e1hfj #aa1haj #a1gfi1jjj #a4ab #cj4f #hf4g %agb>k #f1abj #aa1jjj #a1geb1jjj #a4bb #ah4c #gb4c wat] #e1ihj #aj1gdj #a1efc1jjj #a4bi #ah4h #eb4i ,locu/1 honey #f1jbj #ab1cfj #a1gcb1jjj #a4bh #ag4c #fd4d ,maple1 r$ #d1dej #h1caj #a1dde1jjj 4#gh #i4h #ag4a sug> #d1fcj #h1hfj #a1dfb1jjj 4#hh #ab4g #cb4j ,oak1 po/ #d1gbj #g1chj #iac1jjj #a4ci #i4a #ag4d r$ #c1dij #g1ghj #a1bfh1jjj 4#fj #aa4d #bf4j swamp :ite #e1chj #i1hfj #a1eic1jjj #a4je #ad4e #cg4f tanb>k #f1ehj #aj1gaj #a1fgh1jjj #a4di :ite #d1cbj #h1jij #a1acg1jjj 4#ie #ab4a #cf4g yell[ #e1jfj #h1egj #a1bai1jjj #a4bj #aa4g #cj4g ,osage orange #g1gfj #ac1ffj #a1cbi1jjj #b4ec #cg4i #aja4g ,sycamore #b1hbj #f1cjj #ifa1jjj 4#ea #g4a #ac4f ,tupelo #d1cjj #g1chj #a1jde1jjj #a4jj #g4h #bj4i ,conif]s ,arborvit #b1fjj #d1bej #fdc1jjj 4#fj #e4g #i4e ,c$>1 inc5se #c1iej #f1jdj #ged1jjj ,cypress1 bald #d1dcj #g1aaj #a1cgh1jjj 4#if #e4a #ae4d ,fir1 alp9e #b1cff #d1dej #hfa1jjj 4#ff #d4d #g4d amabilis #d1jfj #f1egj #a1cbc1jjj ,d\glas #c1egj #f1cdj #a1bdb1jjj 4#ei #f4f #ac4f :ite #c1hhj #e1igj #a1aca1jjj 4#gg #e4b #ad4i ,hemlock #c1daj #e1ggj #iag1jjj 4#gc #f4f #ab4i ,p9e1 lodgepole #c1jhj #e1acj #a1jae1jjj 4#ed #e4a #g4d longleaf #e1jij #h1fcj #a1ffb1jjj 4#hh #h4a #cd4h r$ #c1gdj #f1dcj #a1chd1jjj 4#ei #e4h #bh4j %ortleaf #d1cfj #g1gaj #a1cie1jjj sug> #c1ccj #e1bgj #iff1jjj 4#ff #e4j #aa4f we/1 yell[ #c1ahj #e1ahj #a1aaa1jjj 4#eb #d4c #ae4f ,:ite #c1daj #e1caj #a1jgc1jjj 4#fb #e4i #ac4c ,r$wood #d1ecj #f1efj #a1jbd1jjj ,spruce1 ,engelmann #b1gdj #d1eej #hff1jjj 4#ej #d4h #f4a r$ #c1ddj #e1hbj #a1adc1jjj 4#fb #f4j :ite #c1afj #e1bjj #ifh1jjj 4#eh #f4f ,tam>ack #d1bjj #g1agj #a1bcf1jjj 4#hd #g4b #cj4j ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----- ,k9ds ( ,loads ,!re are v>i\s ways 9 :i* beams are load$1 ( :i* ! foll[+ are ! mo/ important3 7#a7 ,uni=m load occurs :]e ! load is spread ev5ly ov] ! beam4 7#b7 ,conc5trat$ load occurs :]e ! load is appli$ at s+le po9t or po9ts4 7#c7 ,live or imm$iate load is "o ( mom5t>y or %ort duration at any "o po9t1 su* z occurs 9 cross+ a bridge4 7#d7 ,dead or p]man5t load is "o ( con/ant & indet]m9ate duration1 z books on a %elf4 ,9 ! case ( a bridge ! weight ( ! /ructure itself is ! dead load4 ,all l>ge beams support a uni=m dead load consi/+ ( _! own weight4 ,! effect ( dead load on a wood5 beam may be two or m times t produc$ by an imm$iate load ( ! same weight4 ,loads great] ?an ! ela/ic limit are unsafe & w g5]ally result 9 rupture if cont9u$ long en\gh4 ,a beam may be consid]$ safe "u p]man5t load :5 ! deflections dim9i% dur+ equal successive p]iods ( "t4 ,a cont9ual increase 9 deflection indicates an unsafe load :i* is almo/ c]ta9 to rupture ! beam ev5tually4 ,v>iations 9 ! humidity ( ! surr\nd+ air influ5ce ! deflection ( dry wood "u dead load1 & increas$ deflections dur+ damp wea!r are cumulative & n recov]$ by subsequ5t dry+4 ,9 ! case ( longleaf p9e1 dry beams may ) safety be load$ p]man5tly to )9 ?ree-f\r?s ( _! ela/ic limit z det]m9$ f ord9>y /atic te/s4 ,increas$ moi/ure cont5t1 due to great] humidity ( ! air1 l[]s ! ela/ic limit ( wood s t :at 0 a safe load = ! dry mat]ial may become unsafe4 ,:5 a dead load n great en\gh to rupture a beam has be5 remov$1 ! beam t5ds gradually to recov] its =m] %ape1 b ! recov]y is n always complete4 ,if specim5s f su* a beam are te/$ 9 ! ord9>y te/+ ma*9e x w be f\nd t ! application ( ! dead load did n affect ! /iffness1 ultimate /r5g?1 or ela/ic limit ( ! mat]ial4 ,9 o!r words1 ! deflections & recov]ies produc$ by live loads are ! same z w\ld h be5 produc$ _h n ! beam previ\sly be5 subject$ to a dead load4#aa ,footnote #aa3 ,see ,tiemann1 ,h>ry ,d43 ,"s results ( dead load b5d+ te/s ( timb] by means ( a record+ deflectomet]4 ,proc4 ,am4 ,soc4 = ,te/+ ,mat]ials4 ,phila4 ,vol4 ,,ix1 #aiji1 pp4 #ecd-edh4 ,maximum load is ! greate/ load a mat]ial w support & is usually great] ?an ! load at rupture4 ,safe load is ! load consid]$ safe = a mat]ial to support 9 actual practice4 ,x is always less ?an ! load at ela/ic limit & is usually tak5 z a c]ta9 proportion ( ! ultimate or break+ load4 ,! ratio ( ! break+ to ! safe load is call$ ! factor ( safety4 7,factor ( safety ultimate /r5g? _/ safe load7 ,9 ord] to make due all[ance = ! natural v>iations & imp]fections 9 wood & 9 ! aggregate /ructure1 z well z = v>iations 9 ! load1 ! factor ( safety is usually z high z #f or #aj1 especially if ! safety ( human life dep5ds ^u ! /ructure4 ,?is means t only f "o-six? to "o-t5? ( ! comput$ /r5g? values is consid]$ safe to use4 ,if ! dep? ( timb]s exce$s f\r times _! ?ickness !re is a great t5d5cy = ! mat]ial to twi/ :5 load$4 ,x is to ov]come ?is t5d5cy t floor joi/s are brac$ at frequ5t int]vals4 ,%ort deep pieces %e> out or split be=e _! /r5g? 9 b5d+ c fully come into play4 ,application ( ,loads ,!re are ?ree#ab g5]al me?ods 9 :i* loads may be appli$ to beams1 namely3 ,footnote #ab3 ,a f\r? might be add$1 namely1 vibratory1 or h>monic repetition1 :i* is frequ5tly s]i\s 9 ! case ( bridges4 7#a7 ,/atic load+ or ! gradual imposition ( load s t ! mov+ p>ts acquire no appreciable mom5tum4 ,loads are s appli$ 9 ! ord9>y te/+ ma*9e4 7#b7 ,sudd5 imposition ( load )\t initial velocity4 ,?us 9 ! case ( plac+ a load on a beam1 if ! load be br\ght into contact ) ! beam1 b its weight su/a9$ by ext]nal means1 z by a cord1 & !n ?is ext]nal support be sudd5ly 7in/antane\sly7 remov$1 z by quickly cutt+ ! cord1 !n1 al?\gh ! load is already t\*+ ! beam 7& h5ce !re is no real impact71 yet ! beam is at fir/ (f]+ no resi/ance1 z x has yet suff]$ no de=mation4 ,fur!rmore1 z ! beam deflects ! resi/ance increases1 b does n come to be equal to ! load until x has atta9$ its normal deflection4 ,9 ! meantime !re has be5 an unbalanc$ =ce ( gravity act+1 ( a con/antly dim9i%+ am\nt1 equal at fir/ to ! entire load1 at ! normal deflection4 ,b at ?is in/ant ! load & ! beam are 9 motion1 ! hi!rto unbalanc$ =ce hav+ produc$ an accel]at$ velocity1 & ?is velocity ( ! weight & beam gives to !m an en]gy1 or vis viva1 :i* mu/ n[ sp5d itself 9 ov]com+ an excess ( resi/ance ov] & above ! impos$ load1 & ! :ole mass w n /op until ! deflection 7z well z ! resi/ance7 has come to be equal to twice t correspond+ to ! /atic load impos$4 ,h5ce we say ! effect ( a sudd5ly impos$ load is to produce twice ! deflection & /ress ( ! same load /atically appli$4 ,x mu/ be evid5t1 h[ev]1 t ?is case has no?+ 9 common ) ei!r ! ord9>y '/atic' te/s ( /ructural mat]ials 9 te/+-ma*9es1 or ) impact te/s4#ac ,footnote #ac3 ,johnson1 ,j4,b43 ,! mat]ials ( con/ruction1 pp4 #ha-hb4 7#c7 ,impact1 %ock1 or bl[4#ad ,!re are v>i\s common uses ( wood :]e ! mat]ial is subject$ to sudd5 %ocks & j>s or impact4 ,su* is ! action on ! felloes & spokes ( a wagon :eel pass+ ov] a r\gh road2 on a hamm] h&le :5 a bl[ is /ruck2 on a maul :5 x /rikes a w$ge4 ,footnote #ad3 ,see ,tiemann1 ,h>ry ,d43 ,! !ory ( impact & its application to te/+ mat]ials4 ,j\r4 ,frankl9 ,in/41 ,oct41 ,nov41 #aiji1 pp4 #bce-bei1 #ccf-cfd4 ,resi/ance to impact is resi/ance to en]gy :i* is measur$ by ! product ( ! =ce into ! space ?r\gh :i* x moves1 or by ! product ( "o-half ! mov+ mass :i* causes ! %ock into ! squ>e ( its velocity4 ,! "w done ^u ! piece at ! in/ant ! velocity is entirely remov$ f ! /rik+ body is equal to ! total en]gy ( t body4 ,x is impossible1 h[ev]1 to get all ( ! en]gy ( ! /rik+ body /or$ 9 ! specim51 ?\gh ! great] ! mass & ! %ort] ! space ?r\gh :i* x moves1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! great] ! proportion ( weight & ! small] ! proportion ( velocity mak+ up ! en]gy ( ! /rik+ body1 ! m en]gy ! specim5 w absorb4 ,! re/ is lo/ 9 friction1 vibrations1 heat1 & motion ( ! anvil4 ,9 impact ! /resses produc$ become v complex & difficult to measure1 especially if ! velocity is high1 or ! mass ( ! beam itself is l>ge comp>$ to t ( ! weight4 ,! difficulties att5d+ ! measurem5t ( ! /resses beyond ! ela/ic limit are s great t commonly !y are n reckon$4 ,)9 ! ela/ic limit ! =mul = calculat+ ! /resses are bas$ on ! assumption t ! deflection is proportional to ! /ress 9 ?is case z 9 /atic te/s4 ,a common me?od ( mak+ te/s ^u ! resi/ance ( wood to %ock is to support a small beam at ! ends & drop a heavy weight ^u x 9 ! middle4 7,see ,fig4 #dj47 ,! height ( ! weight is increas$ aft] ea* drop & records ( ! deflection tak5 until failure4 ,! total "w done ^u ! specim5 is equal to ! area ( ! /ress-/ra9 diagram plus ! effect ( local in]tia ( ! molecules at po9t ( contact4 ,! /resses involv$ 9 impact are complicat$ by ! fact t !re are v>i\s ways 9 :i* ! en]gy ( ! /rik+ body may be sp5t3 7a7 ,x produces a local de=mation ( bo? bodies at ! surface ( contact1 )9 or beyond ! ela/ic limit4 ,9 te/+ wood ! compression ( ! sub/ance ( ! /eel /rik+-weight may be neglect$1 s9ce ! /eel is v h>d 9 comp>ison ) ! wood4 ,9 addition to ! compression ( ! fibres at ! surface ( contact resi/ance is also (f]$ by ! in]tia ( ! p>ticles !re1 ! comb9$ effect ( :i* is a /ress at ! surface ( contact (t5 entirely out ( proportion to ! compression :i* w\ld result f ! action ( a /atic =ce ( ! same magnitude4 ,x frequ5tly exce$s ! cru%+ /r5g? at ! extreme surface ( contact1 z 9 ! case ( ! swag+ action ( a hamm] on ! head ( an iron spike1 or ( a locomotive :eel on ! /eel rail4 ,?is is also ! case :5 a bullet is %ot ?r\gh a bo>d or a pane ( glass )\t break+ x z a :ole4 7b7 ,x may move ! /ruck body z a :ole ) an accel]at$ velocity1 ! resi/ance consi/+ ( ! in]tia ( ! body4 ,?is effect is se5 :5 a croquet ball is /ruck ) a mallet4 7c7 ,x may de=m a fix$ body aga9/ its ext]nal supports & resi/ances4 ,9 mak+ impact te/s 9 ! laboratory ! te/ specim5 is 9 reality 9 ! nature ( a cu%ion betwe5 two impact+ bodies1 namely1 ! /rik+ weight & ! base ( ! ma*9e4 ,x is important t ! mass ( ?is base be suffici5tly great t its relative velocity to t ( ! common c5tre ( gravity ( itself & ! /rik+ weight may be disreg>d$4 7d7 ,x may de=m ! /ruck body z a :ole aga9/ ! resi/+ /resses develop$ by its own in]tia1 z1 = example1 :5 a baseball bat is brok5 by /rik+ ! ball4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,table ,x ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,results ,,( ,,impact ,,b5d+ ,,te/s ,,on ,,small ,,cle> ,,beams ,,( #cd ,,woods ,,9 ,,gre5 ,,condition 7,=e/ ,s]vice ,cir4 #bac7 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,fibre ,"w 9 ,,common ,,"n /ress at ,modulus ( b5d+ ,,( ,,species ela/ic ela/icity to limit ela/ic limit ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,94-lbs4 ,lbs4 p] ,lbs4 p] p] cu4 sq4 94 sq4 94 in* ,h>dwoods ,a%1 black #g1hdj #iee1jjj #c4fi :ite #aa1gaj #a1efd1jjj #d4ic ,basswood #e1dhj #iag1jjj #a4hd ,bee* #aa1gfj #a1eja1jjj #e4aj ,bir*1 yell[ #aa1jhj #a1hab1jjj #c4gi ,elm1 rock #ab1jij #a1cfg1jjj #f4eb slipp]y #aa1gjj #a1efi1jjj #d4hf :ite #i1iaj #a1ach1jjj #d4hb ,hackb]ry #aj1dbj #a1cih1jjj #d4dh ,locu/1 honey #ac1dfj #b1aad1jjj #d4gf ,maple1 r$ #aa1fgj #a1daa1jjj #e4de sug> #aa1fhj #a1fhj1jjj #d4ee ,oak1 po/ #aa1bfj #a1eif1jjj #d4da r$ #aj1ehj #a1ejf1jjj #d4af swamp :ite #ac1bhj #b1jdh1jjj #d4gi :ite #i1hfj #a1dad1jjj #c4hd yell[ #aj1hdj #a1dgi1jjj #d4dd ,osage orange #ae1ebj #a1dih1jjj #h4ib ,sycamore #h1ahj #a1afe1jjj #c4bb ,tupelo #g1fej #a1caj1jjj #b4di ,conif]s ,arborvit #e1bij #ggh1jjj #b4jd ,cypress1 bald #h1bij #a1dca1jjj #b4ga ,fir1 alp9e #e1bhj #ihj1jjj #a4ei ,d\glas #h1hgj #a1egi1jjj #b4gi :ite #g1bcj #a1cbf1jjj #b4ba ,hemlock #f1ccj #a1jbe1jjj #b4ai ,p9e1 lodgepole #f1hgj #a1adb1jjj #b4ca longleaf #i1fhj #a1gci1jjj #c4jb r$ #g1dhj #a1dch1jjj #b4ah sug> #f1gdj #a1jhc1jjj #b4cd we/]n yell[ #g1jgj #a1aae1jjj #b4ea :ite #f1dij #a1aef1jjj #b4jf ,spruce1 ,engelmann #f1cjj #a1jgf1jjj #b4ji ,tam>ack #g1gej #a1bfc1jjj #b4fg ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,impact te/+ is difficult to conduct satisfactorily & ! data obta9$ are ( *ief value 9 a relative s5se1 t is1 = comp>+ ! %ock-resi/+ ability ( woods ( :i* l specim5s h be5 subject$ to exactly id5tical treatm5t4 ,yet ?is te/ is "o ( ! mo/ important made on wood1 z x br+s out prop]ties n evid5t f o!r te/s4 ,defects & brittl5ess are reveal$ by impact bett] ?an by any o!r k9d ( te/4 ,9 common practice ne>ly all ext]nal /resses are ( ! nature ( impact4 ,9 fact1 no two mov+ bodies c come toge!r )\t impact /ress4 ,impact is !re=e ! commone/ =m ( appli$ /ress1 al?\gh ! mo/ difficult to measure4 ,failures 9 ,timb] ,beams ,if a beam is load$ too heavily x w break or fail 9 "s *>act]i/ic mann]4 ,^! failures may be classifi$ accord+ to ! way 9 :i* !y develop1 z t5sion1 compression1 & horizontal %e>2 & accord+ to ! appe>ance ( ! brok5 surface1 z bra%1 & fibr\s4 ,a numb] ( =ms may develop if ! beam is completely ruptur$4 ,s9ce ! t5sile /r5g? ( wood is on ! av]age ab\t ?ree times z great z ! compressive /r5g?1 a beam %\ld1 !re=e1 be expect$ to fail by ! =mation 9 ! fir/ place ( a fold on ! compression side due to ! cru%+ action1 foll[$ by failure on ! t5sion side4 ,?is is usually ! case 9 gre5 or moi/ wood4 ,9 dry mat]ial ! fir/ visible failure is n infrequ5tly on ! l[] or t5sion side1 & v>i\s attempts h be5 made to expla9 :y su* is ! case4#ae ,footnote #ae3 ,see ,proc4 ,int4 ,assn4 = ,te/+ ,mat]ials1 #aiab1 ,,xxiii#b1 pp4 #ab-ac4 ,)9 ! ela/ic limit ! elongations & %ort5+s are equal1 & ! neutral plane lies 9 ! middle ( ! beam4 7,see ,,transv]se ,,or ,,b5d+ ,,/r5g?3 ,,beams1 above47 ,lat] ! top lay] ( fibres on ! upp] or compression side fail1 & on ! load increas+1 ! next lay] ( fibres fail1 & s on1 ev5 ?\gh ?is failure may n be visible4 ,z a result ! %ort5+s on ! upp] side ( ! beam become consid]ably great] ?an ! elongations on ! l[] side4 ,! neutral plane mu/ be presum$ to s9k gradually t[>d ! t5sion side1 & :5 ! /resses on ! out] fibres at ! bottom h become suffici5tly great1 ! fibres are pull$ 9 two1 ! t5sion area be+ mu* small] ?an ! compression area4 ,! rupture is (t5 irregul>1 z 9 direct t5sion te/s4 ,failure may occur p>tially 9 s+le bundles ( fibres "s "t be=e ! f9al failure takes place4 ,"o reason :y ! failure ( a dry beam is diff]5t f "o t is moi/1 is t dry+ increases ! /iffness ( ! fibres s t !y (f] m resi/ance to cru%+1 :ile x has mu* less effect ^u ! t5sile /r5g?4 ,!re is consid]able v>iation 9 t5sion failures dep5d+ ^u ! t\ghness or ! brittl5ess ( ! wood1 ! arrangem5t ( ! gra91 defects1 etc41 mak+ fur!r classification desirable4 ,! f\r mo/ common =ms are3 7#a7,simple t5sion1 9 :i* !re is a direct pull+ 9 two ( ! wood on ! "u side ( ! beam due to a t5sile /ress p>allel to ! gra91 7,see ,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #a47 ,?is is common 9 /raight-gra9$ beams1 p>ticul>ly :5 ! wood is season$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,*>act]i/ic failures ( simple beams4 7#b7;,cross-gra9$ t5sion1 9 :i* ! fracture is caus$ by a t5sile =ce act+ oblique to ! gra94 7,see ,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #b47 ,?is is a common =m ( failure :]e ! beam has diagonal1 spiral or o!r =m ( cross gra9 on its l[] side4 ,s9ce ! t5sile /r5g? ( wood across ! gra9 is only a small fraction ( t ) ! gra9 x is easy to see :y a cross-gra9$ timb] w\ld fail 9 ?is mann]4 7#c7,spl9t]+ t5sion1 9 :i* ! failure consi/s ( a consid]able numb] ( slight t5sion failures1 produc+ a ragg$ or spl9t]y break on ! "u surface ( ! beam4 7,see ,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #c47 ,?is is common 9 t\gh woods4 ,9 ?is case ! surface ( fracture is fibr\s4 7#d7;,brittle t5sion1 9 :i* ! beam fails by a clean break ext5d+ entirely ?r\gh x4 7,see ,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #d47 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( a brittle wood :i* gives way sudd5ly )\t w>n+1 l a piece ( *alk4 ,9 ?is case ! surface ( fracture is describ$ z bra%4 ,compression failure 7see ,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #e7 has few v>iations except t x appe>s at v>i\s di/ances f ! neutral plane ( ! beam4 ,x is v common 9 gre5 timb]s4 ,! compressive /ress p>allel to ! fibres causes !m to buckle or b5d z 9 an endwise compressive te/4 ,?is action usually beg9s on ! top side %ortly aft] ! ela/ic limit is rea*$ & ext5ds d[nw>d1 sometimes almo/ rea*+ ! neutral plane be=e complete failure occurs4 ,frequ5tly two or m failures develop at ab\t ! same "t4 ,horizontal %e> failure1 9 :i* ! upp] & l[] portions ( ! beam slide along ea* o!r = a portion ( _! l5g? ei!r at "o or at bo? ends 7see ,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #f71 is fairly common 9 air-dry mat]ial & 9 gre5 mat]ial :5 ! ratio ( ! height ( ! beam to ! span is relatively l>ge4 ,x is n common 9 small cle> specim5s4 ,x is (t5 due to %ake or season *ecks1 common 9 l>ge timb]s1 :i* r$uce ! actual area resi/+ ! %e>+ action consid]ably bel[ ! calculat$ area us$ 9 ! =mul = horizontal %e>4 7,see page #ih = ?is =mul47 ,= ?is reason x is unsafe1 9 design+ l>ge timb] beams1 to use %e>+ /resses high] ?an ^? calculat$ = beams t fail$ 9 horizontal %e>4 ,! effect ( a failure 9 horizontal %e> is to divide ! beam into two or m beams ! comb9$ /r5g? ( :i* is mu* less ?an t ( ! orig9al beam4 ,fig4 #ah %[s a l>ge beam 9 :i* two failures 9 horizontal %e> occurr$ at ! same end4 ,t ! p>ts behave indep5d5tly is %[n by ! compression failure bel[ ! orig9al location ( ! neutral plane4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,failure ( a l>ge beam by horizontal %e>4 ,photo by ,u4 ,s1 ,=e/ ,s]vice4 ,table ,,xi gives an analysis ( ! causes ( fir/ failure 9 #hdj l>ge timb] beams ( n9e diff]5t species ( conif]s4 ,( ! total numb] te/$ #afe 7 air-season$1 ! rema9d] gre54 ,! failure occurr+ fir/ signifies ! po9t ( greate/ weakness 9 ! specim5 "u ! p>ticul> conditions ( load+ employ$ 79 ?is case1 ?ird-po9t /atic load+74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,table ,,xi ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,mann] ,,( ,,fir/ ,,failure ,,( ,,l>ge ,,beams 7,=e/ ,s]vice ,bul4 #ajh1 p4 #ef7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,total ,p] c5t ( total fail+ by ,,common ,,"n numb] ----------------------------- ,,( ,,species ( ,t5sion ,compression ,%e> te/s ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,longleaf p9e3 gre5 #ag #ah #bd #eh dry #i #bb #bb #ef ,d\glas fir3 gre5 #aia #bg #gb #a dry #ia #ai #gf #e ,%ortleaf p9e3 gre5 #dh #bg #ef #ag dry #ac #ed #df ,we/]n l>*3 gre5 #fb #bc #ga #f dry #eb #ed #ai #bg ,loblolly p9e3 gre5 #aaa #dj #ec #g dry #be #fj #ab #bh ,tam>ack3 gre5 #cj #cg #ec #aj dry #i #de #bb #cc ,we/]n hemlock3 gre5 #ci #ba #gd #e dry #dd #aa #ff #bc ,r$wood3 gre5 #bh #dc #ej #g dry #ab #hc #ag ,norway p9e3 gre5 #di #ah #gf #f dry #aj #cj #fj #aj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,note4--,^! te/s 7 made on timb]s rang+ 9 cross section f #d x #aj to #h x #af1 & ) a span ( #ae feet4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,t\ghness3 ,,torsion ,t\ghness is a t]m appli$ to m ?an "o prop]ty ( wood4 ,?us wood t is difficult to split is said to be t\gh4 ,aga91 a t\gh wood is "o t w n rupture until x has de=m$ consid]ably "u loads at or ne> its maximum /r5g?1 or "o :i* /ill hangs toge!r aft] x has be5 ruptur$ & may be b5t back & =? )\t break+ ap>t4 ,t\ghness includes flexibility & is ! rev]se ( brittl5ess1 9 t t\gh woods break gradually & give w>n+ ( failure4 ,t\gh woods (f] great resi/ance to impact & w p]mit r\gh] treatm5t 9 manipulations att5d+ manufacture & use4 ,t\ghness is dep5d5t ^u ! /r5g?1 cohesion1 quality1 l5g?1 & arrangem5t ( fibre1 & ! pliability ( ! wood4 ,conif]\s woods z a rule are n z t\gh z h>dwoods1 ( :i* hickory & elm are ! be/ examples4 ,! torsion or twi/+ te/ is useful 9 det]m9+ ! t\ghness ( wood4 ,if ! ends ( a %aft are turn$ 9 opposite directions1 or "o end is turn$ & ! o!r is fix$1 all ( ! fibres except ^? at ! axis t5d to assume ! =m ( helices4 7,see ,fig4 #ai47 ,! /ra9 produc$ by torsion or twi/+ is ess5tially %e> transv]se & p>allel to ! fibres1 comb9$ ) longitud9al t5sion & transv]se compression4 ,)9 ! ela/ic limit ! /ra9s increase directly z ! di/ance f ! axis ( ! specim54 ,! out] elem5ts are subject$ to t5sile /resses1 & z !y become twi/$ t5d to compress ^? ne> ! axis4 ,! elongat$ elem5ts also contract lat]ally4 ,cross sections :i* 7 orig9ally plane become w>p$4 ,) increas+ /ra9 ! lat]al adhesion ( ! out] fibres is de/roy$1 all[+ !m to slide pa/ ea* o!r1 & r$uc+ greatly _! p[] ( resi/ance4 ,9 ?is way ! /ra9s on ! fibres ne>] ! axis are progressively increas$ until f9ally all ( ! elem5ts are %e>$ ap>t4 ,x is only 9 ! t\ghe/ mat]ials t ! full effect ( ?is action c be obs]v$4 7,see ,fig4 #bj47 ,brittle woods snap (f sudd5ly ) only a small am\nt ( torsion1 & _! fracture is irregul> & oblique to ! axis ( ! piece in/ead ( fray$ out & m ne>ly p]p5dicul> to ! axis z is ! case ) t\gh woods4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,torsion ( a %aft4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,effect ( torsion on diff]5t grades ( hickory4 ,photo by ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4 ,,h>dness ,! t]m h>dness is us$ 9 two s5ses1 namely3 7#a7 resi/ance to ind5tation1 & 7#b7 resi/ance to abrasion or scrat*+4 ,9 ! latt] s5se h>dness comb9$ ) t\ghness is a measure ( ! we>+ ability ( wood & is an important consid]ation 9 ! use ( wood = floors1 pav+ blocks1 be>+s1 & roll]s4 ,:ile resi/ance to ind5tation is dep5d5t mo/ly ^u ! d5sity ( ! wood1 ! we>+ qualities may be gov]n$ by o!r factors su* z t\ghness1 & ! size1 cohesion1 & arrangem5t ( ! fibres4 ,9 use = floors1 "s woods t5d to compact & we> smoo?1 :ile o!rs become spl9t]y & r\gh4 ,?is feature is affect$ to "s ext5t by ! mann] 9 :i* ! wood is saw$2 ?us edge-gra9 p9e floor+ is mu* bett] ?an flat-sawn = uni=mity ( we>4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,table ,,xii ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,h>dness ,,( #cb ,,woods ,,9 ,,gre5 ,,condition1 ,,z ,,indicat$ ,,by ,,! ,,load ,,requir$ ,,to ,,imb$ ,a #j4ddd-;,,in* ,,/eel ,,ball ,,to ,,"o-,,half ,,its ,,diamet] 7,=e/ ,s]vice ,cir4 #bac7 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,common ,,"n ,,( ,,species ,av]age ,end ,radial ,tang5tial surface surface surface ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,p\nds ,p\nds ,p\nds ,p\nds ,h>dwoods #a ,osage orange #a1iga #a1hch #b1cab #a1gfb #b ,honey locu/ #a1hea #a1hfb #a1hfj #a1hcb #c ,swamp :ite oak #a1agd #a1bje #a1bag #a1jii #d ,:ite oak #a1afd #a1ahc #a1afc #a1adg #e ,po/ oak #a1jii #a1aci #a1jfh #a1jha #f ,black oak #a1jfi #a1jic #a1jhc #a1jca #g ,r$ oak #a1jdc #a1ajg #a1jbj #a1jjb #h ,:ite a% #a1jdf #a1aba #a1jjj #a1jag #i ,bee* #idb #a1jab #hig #iah #aj ,sug> maple #icg #iib #iah #ija #aa ,rock elm #iaj #ied #hhc #hic #ab ,hackb]ry #gii #hbi #gie #ggc #ac ,slipp]y elm #ghh #iai #geg #fhg #ad ,yell[ bir* #ggh #hbg #gfh #gci #ae ,tupelo #gch #had #fff #gcc #af ,r$ maple #fga #gff #fba #fbf #ag ,sycamore #fjh #ffd #efj #eii #ah ,black a% #eea #efe #edb #edf #ai ,:ite elm #dif #ecf #def #dig #bj ,basswood #bci #bgc #bbf #bag ,conif]s #a ,longleaf p9e #ecb #egd #ejb #eba #b ,d\glas fir #daj #dae #cii #daf #c ,bald cypress #cij #dfj #cee #ced #d ,hemlock #chd #dfc #ced #ccd #e ,tam>ack #chd #dja #chj #cgj #f ,r$ p9e #cdg #cee #cde #cdj #g ,:ite fir #cdf #cha #cbb #ccd #h ,we/]n yell[ p9e #cbh #ccd #cjg #cdb #i ,lodgepole p9e #cah #caf #cah #cai #aj ,:ite p9e #bii #cjd #bid #bii #aa ,engelmann p9e #bff #bgb #bec #bgd #ab ,alp9e fir #bda #bhd #bjc #bce ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,note4--,black locu/ & hickory are n includ$ 9 ?is table1 b _! position w\ld be ne> ! head ( ! li/4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,te/s = ei!r =m ( h>dness are ( comp>ative value only4 ,te/s = ind5tation are commonly made by p5etrations ( ! mat]ial ) a /eel pun* or ball4#af ,te/s = abrasion are made by we>+ d[n wood ) s&pap] or by means ( a s& bla/4 ,footnote #af3 ,see articles by ,gabriel ,janka li/$ 9 bibliography1 pages #aea-aeb4 ,,cleavability ,cleavability is ! t]m us$ to d5ote ! facility ) :i* wood is split4 ,a splitt+ /ress is "o 9 :i* ! =ces act normally l a w$ge4 7,see ,fig4 #ba47 ,! plane ( cleavage is p>allel to ! gra91 ei!r radially or tang5tially4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,cleavage ( highly ela/ic wood4 ,! cleft runs f> ahead ( ! w$ge4 ,?is prop]ty ( wood is v important 9 c]ta9 uses su* z firewood1 f5ce rails1 billets1 & squ>es4 ,resi/ance to splitt+ or l[ cleavability is desirable :]e wood mu/ hold nails or screws1 z 9 box-mak+4 ,wood usually splits m readily along ! radius ?an p>allel to ! gr[? r+s ?\gh exceptions occur1 z 9 ! case ( cross gra94 ,splitt+ involves transv]se t5sion1 b only a portion ( ! fibres are "u /ress at a "t4 ,a wood ( little /iffness & /rong cohesion across ! gra9 is difficult to split1 :ile "o ) great /iffness1 su* z longleaf p9e1 is easily split4 ,! =m ( ! gra9 & ! pres5ce ( knots greatly affect ?is quality4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,table ,,xiii ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,cleavage ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,small ,,cle> ,,pieces ,,( #cb ,,woods ,,9 ,,gre5 ,,condition 7,=e/ ,s]vice ,cir4 #bac7 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,:5 ,:5 ,,common ,,"n surface ( surface ( ,,( ,,species failure is failure is radial tang5tial ---------------------------------------- --- ,lbs4 p] ,lbs4 p] sq4 in* sq4 in* ,h>dwoods ,a%1 black #bge #bfj :ite #ccc #cdf ,ba%wood #acj #afh ,bee* #cci #ebg ,bir*1 yell[ #bid #bhg ,elm1 slipp]y #dja #dbd :ite #baj #bgj ,hackb]ry #dbb #dcf ,locu/1 honey #eeb #faj ,maple1 r$ #big #ccj sug> #cgf #eac ,oak1 po/ #ced #dhg r$ #chj #dgj swamp :ite #dbh #ecf :ite #chb #deg yell[ #cgi #dgj ,sycamore #bfe #dbe ,tupelo #bgg #chj ,conif]s ,arborvit #adh #aci ,cypress1 bald #afg #aed ,fir1 alp9e #acj #acc ,d\glas #aci #abg :ite #ade #ahg ,hemlock #afh #aea ,p9e1 lodgepole #adb #adj longleaf #ahg #ahj r$ #afa #aed sug> #afh #ahi we/]n yell[ #afb #ahg :ite #add #afj ,spruce1 ,engelmann #aaj #ace ,tam>ack #afg #aei ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,"p ,,ii ,,factors ,,affect+ ,,! ,,me*anical ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,wood ,,introduction ,wood is an organic product--a /ructure ( inf9ite v>iation ( detail & design4#ag ,x is on ?is acc\nt t no two woods are alike--9 reality no two specim5s f ! same log are id5tical4 ,!re are c]ta9 prop]ties t *>act]ize ea* species1 b !y are subject to consid]able v>iation4 ,oak1 = example1 is consid]$ h>d1 heavy1 & /rong1 b "s pieces1 ev5 ( ! same species ( oak1 are mu* h>d]1 heavi]1 & /rong] ?an o!rs4 ,) hickory are associat$ ! prop]ties ( great /r5g?1 t\ghness1 & resili5ce1 b "s pieces are comp>atively weak & bra% & ill-suit$ = ! exact+ dem&s = :i* good hickory is peculi>ly adapt$4 ,footnote #ag3 ,= details reg>d+ ! /ructure ( wood see ,record1 ,samuel ,j43 ,id5tification ( ! economic woods ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,new ,york1 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 #aiab4 ,x foll[s t no def9ite value c be assign$ to ! prop]ties ( any wood & t tables giv+ av]age results ( te/s may n be directly applicable to any individual /ick4 ,) suffici5t k ( ! intr9sic factors affect+ ! results x becomes possible to inf] f ! appe>ance ( mat]ial its probable v>iation f ! av]age4 ,z yet too little is kn[n ( ! relation ( /ructure & *emical composition to ! me*anical & physical prop]ties to p]mit m ?an g5]al conclusions4 ,,rate ,,( ,,gr[? ,to und]/& ! effect ( v>iations 9 ! rate ( gr[? x is fir/ necess>y to "k h[ wood is =m$4 ,a tree increases 9 diamet] by ! =mation1 betwe5 ! old wood & ! inn] b>k1 ( new woody lay]s :i* envelop ! entire /em1 liv+ bran*es1 & roots4 ,"u ord9>y conditions "o lay] is =m$ ea* ye> & 9 cross section z on ! end ( a log !y appe> z r+s--(t5 spok5 ( z annual r+s4 ,^! gr[? lay]s are made up ( wood cells ( v>i\s k9ds1 b = ! mo/ "p fibr\s4 ,9 timb]s l p9e1 spruce1 hemlock1 & o!r conif]\s or s(twood species ! wood cells are mo/ly ( "o k9d1 & z a result ! mat]ial is mu* m uni=m 9 /ructure ?an t ( mo/ h>dwoods4 7,see ,frontispiece47 ,!re are no vessels or pores 9 conif]\s wood su* z "o sees s prom95tly 9 oak & a%1 = example4 7,see ,fig4 #bb47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,cross sections ( a r+-por\s h>dwood 7:ite a%71 a diffuse-por\s h>dwood 7r$ gum71 & a non-por\s or conif]\s wood 7ea/]n hemlock74 ,x #cj4 ,photomicrographs by ! au?or4 ,! /ructure ( ! h>dwoods is m complex4 ,!y are m or less fill$ ) vessels1 9 "s cases 7oak1 *e/nut1 a%7 q l>ge & di/9ct1 9 o!rs 7buckeye1 popl>1 gum7 too small to be se5 pla9ly )\t a small h& l5s4 ,9 discuss+ su* woods x is cu/om>y to divide !m into two l>ge classes--r+-por\s & diffuse-por\s4 7,see ,fig4 #bb47 ,9 r+-por\s species1 su* z oak1 *e/nut1 a%1 black locu/1 catalpa1 mulb]ry1 hickory1 & elm1 ! l>g] vessels or pores 7z cross sections ( vessels are call$7 become localiz$ 9 "o "p ( ! gr[? r+1 ?us =m+ a region ( m or less op5 & por\s tissue4 ,! re/ ( ! r+ is made up ( small] vessels & a mu* great] proportion ( wood fibres4 ,^! fibres are ! elem5ts :i* give /r5g? & t\ghness to wood1 :ile ! vessels are a s\rce ( weakness4 ,9 diffuse-por\s woods ! pores are scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! gr[? r+ in/ead ( be+ collect$ 9 a b& or r[4 ,examples ( ?is k9d ( wood are gum1 yell[ popl>1 bir*1 maple1 cottonwood1 basswood1 buckeye1 & will[4 ,"s species1 su* z walnut & *]ry1 are on ! bord] betwe5 ! two classes1 =m+ a sort ( int]m$iate gr\p4 ,if "o exam9es ! smoo?ly cut end ( a /ick ( almo/ any k9d ( wood1 he w note t ea* gr[? r+ is made up ( two m or less well-def9$ p>ts4 ,t orig9ally ne>e/ ! c5tre ( ! tree is m op5 textur$ & almo/ inv>iably light] 9 color ?an t ne> ! out] portion ( ! r+4 ,! inn] portion 0 =m$ e>ly 9 ! season1 :5 gr[? 0 comp>atively rapid & is kn[n z e>ly wood 7also spr+ wood72 ! out] portion is ! late wood1 be+ produc$ 9 ! summ] or e>ly fall4 ,9 s(t p9es !re is n mu* contra/ 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! r+1 & z a result ! wood is v uni=m 9 texture & is easy to "w4 ,9 h>d p9e1 on ! o!r h&1 ! late wood is v d5se & is deep-color$1 pres5t+ a v decid$ contra/ to ! s(t1 /raw-color$ e>ly wood4 7,see ,fig4 #bc47 ,9 r+-por\s woods ea* season's gr[? is always well def9$1 because ! l>ge pores ( ! spr+ abut on ! d5s] tissue ( ! fall be=e4 ,9 ! diffuse-por\s1 ! dem>cation betwe5 r+s is n always s cle> & 9 n a few cases is almo/1 if n entirely1 invisible to ! unaid$ eye4 7,see ,fig4 #bb47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,cross section ( longleaf p9e %[+ sev]al gr[? r+s ) v>iations 9 ! wid? ( ! d>k-color$ late wood4 ,sev5 res9 ducts are visible4 ,x #cc4 ,photomicrograph by ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice ,if "o comp>es a heavy piece ( p9e ) a light specim5 x w be se5 at once t ! heavi] "o conta9s a l>g] proportion ( late wood ?an ! o!r1 & is !re=e consid]ably d>k]4 ,! late wood ( all species is d5s] ?an t =m$ e>ly 9 ! season1 h5ce ! great] ! proportion ( late wood ! great] ! d5sity & /r5g?4 ,:5 exam9$ "u a microscope ! cells ( ! late wood are se5 to be v ?ick-wall$ & ) v small cavities1 :ile ^? =m$ fir/ 9 ! season h ?9 walls & l>ge cavities4 ,! /r5g? is 9 ! walls1 n ! cavities4 ,9 *oos+ a piece ( p9e :]e /r5g? or /iffness is ! important consid]ation1 ! pr9cipal ?+ to obs]ve is ! comp>ative am\nts ( e>ly & late wood4 ,! wid? ( r+1 t is1 ! numb] p] in*1 is n ne>ly s important z ! proportion ( ! late wood 9 ! r+4 ,x is n only ! proportion ( late wood1 b also its quality1 t c\nts4 ,9 specim5s t %[ a v l>ge proportion ( late wood x may be noticeably m por\s & weigh consid]ably less ?an ! late wood 9 pieces t conta9 b little4 ,"o c judge comp>ative d5sity1 & !re=e to "s ext5t weight & /r5g?1 by visual inspection4 ,! conclusions ( ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice reg>d+ ! effect ( rate ( gr[? on ! prop]ties ( ,d\glas fir are summ>iz$ z foll[s3 #a4 ,9 g5]al1 rapidly gr[n wood 7less ?an eight r+s p] in*7 is relatively weak4 ,a /udy ( ! individual te/s ^u :i* ! av]age po9ts are bas$ %[s1 h[ev]1 t :5 x is n associat$ ) light weight & a small proportion ( summ] wood1 rapid gr[? is n indicative ( weak wood4 #b4 ,an av]age rate ( gr[?1 indicat$ by f #ab to #af r+s p] in*1 seems to produce ! be/ mat]ial4 #c4 ,9 rates ( gr[?s l[] ?an #af r+s p] in*1 ! av]age /r5g? ( ! mat]ial decreases1 app>5tly approa*+ a uni=m condition above #bd r+s p] in*4 ,9 su* sl[ rates ( gr[? ! texture ( ! wood is v uni=m1 & naturally !re is little v>iation 9 weight or /r5g?4 ,an analysis ( te/s on l>ge beams 0 made to asc]ta9 if av]age rate ( gr[? has any relation to ! me*anical prop]ties ( ! beams4 ,! analysis indicat$ conclusively t !re 0 no su* relation4 ,av]age rate ( gr[? )\t consid]ation also ( d5sity1 !re=e1 has little significance 9 grad+ /ructural timb]4#ah ,?is is because ( ! wide v>iation 9 ! p]c5tage ( late wood 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! cross section4 ,footnote #ah3 ,bul4 #hh3 ,prop]ties & uses ( ,d\glas fir1 p4 #bi4 ,exp]im5ts seem to indicate t = mo/ species !re is a rate ( gr[? :i*1 9 g5]al1 is associat$ ) ! greate/ /r5g?1 especially 9 small specim5s4 ,= eight conif]s x is z foll[s3#ai ,footnote #ai3 ,bul4 #ajh1 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice3 ,te/s ( /ructural timb]s1 p4 #cg4 ,r+s p] in* ,d\glas fir #bd ,%ortleaf p9e #ab ,loblolly p9e #f ,we/]n l>* #ah ,we/]n hemlock #ad ,tam>ack #bj ,norway p9e #ah ,r$wood #cj ,no satisfactory explanation c z yet be giv5 = ! real causes und]ly+ ! =mation ( e>ly & late wood4 ,sev]al factors may be involv$4 ,9 conif]s1 at lea/1 rate ( gr[? alone does n det]m9e ! proportion ( ! two portions ( ! r+1 = 9 "s cases ! wood ( sl[ gr[? is v h>d & heavy1 :ile 9 o!rs ! opposite is true4 ,! quality ( ! site :]e ! tree gr[s und\bt$ly affects ! "* ( ! wood =m$1 ?\gh x is n possible to =mulate a rule gov]n+ x4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 x may be said t :]e /r5g? or ease ( work+ is ess5tial1 woods ( mod]ate to sl[ gr[? %\ld be *os54 ,b 9 *oos+ a p>ticul> specim5 x is n ! wid? ( r+1 b ! proportion & "* ( ! late wood :i* %\ld gov]n4 ,9 ! case ( ! r+-por\s h>dwoods !re seems to exi/ a pretty def9ite relation betwe5 ! rate ( gr[? ( timb] & its prop]ties4 ,?is may be briefly summ$ up 9 ! g5]al /atem5t t ! m rapid ! gr[? or ! wid] ! r+s ( gr[?1 ! heavi]1 h>d]1 /rong]1 & /iff] ! wood4 ,?is1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 applies only to r+-por\s woods su* z oak1 a%1 hickory1 & o!rs ( ! same gr\p1 & is1 ( c\rse1 subject to "s exceptions & limitations4 ,9 r+-por\s woods ( good gr[? x is usually ! middle portion ( ! r+ 9 :i* ! ?ick-wall$1 /r5g?-giv+ fibres are mo/ abundant4 ,z ! bread? ( r+ dim9i%es1 ?is middle portion is r$uc$ s t v sl[ gr[? produces comp>atively light1 por\s wood compos$ ( ?9-wall$ vessels & wood p>5*yma4 ,9 good oak ^! l>ge vessels ( ! e>ly wood occupy f #f to #aj p] c5t ( ! volume ( ! log1 :ile 9 inf]ior mat]ial !y may make up #be p] c5t or m4 ,! late wood ( good oak1 except = radial grayi% pat*es ( small pores1 is d>k color$ & firm1 & consi/s ( ?ick-wall$ fibres :i* =m "o-half or m ( ! wood4 ,9 inf]ior oak1 su* fibre areas are mu* r$uc$ bo? 9 quantity & quality4 ,su* v>iation is v l>gely ! result ( rate ( gr[?4 ,wide-r+$ wood is (t5 call$ second-gr[?1 because ! gr[? ( ! "y timb] 9 op5 /&s aft] ! old trees h be5 remov$ is m rapid ?an 9 trees 9 ! =e/1 & 9 ! manufacture ( articles :]e /r5g? is an important consid]ation su* second-gr[? h>dwood mat]ial is pref]r$4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly ! case 9 ! *oice ( hickory = h&les & spokes4 ,"h n only /r5g?1 b t\ghness & resili5ce are important4 ,! results ( a s]ies ( te/s on hickory by ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice %[ t ! "w or %ock-resi/+ ability is greate/ 9 wide-r+$ wood t has f #e to #ad r+s p] in*1 is fairly con/ant f #ad to #ch r+s1 & decreases rapidly f #ch to #dg r+s4 ,! /r5g? at maximum load is n s great ) ! mo/ rapid-gr[+ wood2 x is maximum ) f #ad to #bj r+s p] in*1 & aga9 becomes less z ! wood becomes m closely r+$4 ,! natural d$uction is t wood ( fir/-class me*anical value %[s f #e to #bj r+s p] in* & t sl[] gr[? yields poor] /ock4 ,?us ! inspector or buy] ( hickory %\ld discrim9ate aga9/ timb] t has m ?an #bj r+s p] in*4 ,exceptions exi/1 h[ev]1 9 ! case ( normal gr[? ^u dry situations1 9 :i* ! sl[-gr[+ mat]ial may be /rong & t\gh4#bj ,footnote #bj3 ,bul4 #hj3 ,! comm]cial hickories1 pp4 #dh-ej4 ,! effect ( rate ( gr[? on ! qualities ( *e/nut wood is summ>iz$ by ! same au?ority z foll[s3 ,:5 ! r+s are wide1 ! transition f spr+ wood to summ] wood is gradual1 :ile 9 ! n>r[ r+s ! spr+ wood passes into summ] wood abruptly4 ,! wid? ( ! spr+ wood *anges b little ) ! wid? ( ! annual r+1 s t ! n>r[+ or broad5+ ( ! annual r+ is always at ! exp5se ( ! summ] wood4 ,! n>r[ vessels ( ! summ] wood make x ri*] 9 wood sub/ance ?an ! spr+ wood compos$ ( wide vessels4 ,!re=e1 rapid-gr[+ specim5s ) wide r+s h m wood sub/ance ?an sl[-gr[+ trees ) n>r[ r+s4 ,s9ce ! m ! wood sub/ance ! great] ! weight1 & ! great] ! weight ! /rong] ! wood1 *e/nuts ) wide r+s mu/ h /rong] wood ?an *e/nuts ) n>r[ r+s4 ,?is agrees ) ! accept$ view t spr\ts 7:i* always h wide r+s7 yield bett] & /rong] wood ?an se$l+ *e/nuts1 :i* gr[ m sl[ly 9 diamet]4#ba ,footnote #ba3 ,bul4 #ec3 ,*e/nut 9 s\!rn ,m>yl&1 pp4 #bj-ba4 ,9 diffuse-por\s woods1 z has be5 /at$1 ! vessels or pores are scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! r+ in/ead ( collect$ 9 ! e>ly wood4 ,! effect ( rate ( gr[? is1 !re=e1 n ! same z 9 ! r+-por\s woods1 approa*+ m ne>ly ! conditions 9 ! conif]s4 ,9 g5]al x may be /at$ t su* woods ( m$ium gr[? af=d /rong] mat]ial ?an :5 v rapidly or v sl[ly gr[n4 ,9 _m uses ( wood1 /r5g? is n ! ma9 consid]ation4 ,if ease ( work+ is priz$1 wood %\ld be *os5 ) reg>d to its uni=mity ( texture & /raightness ( gra91 :i* w 9 mo/ cases occur :5 !re is little contra/ betwe5 ! late wood ( "o season's gr[? & ! e>ly wood ( ! next4 ,,he>twood ,,& ,,sapwood ,exam9ation ( ! end ( a log ( _m species reveals a d>k]-color$ inn] portion--! he>twood1 surr\nd$ by a light]-color$ zone--! sapwood4 ,9 "s in/ances ?is di/9ction 9 color is v m>k$2 9 o!rs1 ! contra/ is slight1 s t x is n always easy to tell :]e "o leaves (f & ! o!r beg9s4 ,! color ( fre% sapwood is always light1 sometimes pure :ite1 b m (t5 ) a decid$ t+e ( gre5 or br[n4 ,sapwood is comp>atively new wood4 ,!re is a "t 9 ! e>ly hi/ory ( e tree :5 its wood is all sapwood4 ,its pr9cipal functions are to conduct wat] f ! roots to ! leaves & to /ore up & give back accord+ to ! season ! food prep>$ 9 ! leaves4 ,! m leaves a tree be>s & ! m ?rifty its gr[?1 ! l>g] ! volume ( sapwood requir$1 h5ce trees mak+ rapid gr[? 9 ! op5 h ?ick] sapwood = _! size ?an trees ( ! same species gr[+ 9 d5se =e/s4 ,sometimes trees gr[n 9 ! op5 may become ( consid]able size1 a foot or m 9 diamet]1 be=e any he>twood beg9s to =m1 = example1 9 second-gr[? hickory1 or field-gr[n :ite & loblolly p9es4 ,z a tree increases 9 age & diamet] an inn] portion ( ! sapwood becomes inactive & f9ally ceases to function4 ,?is in]t or dead portion is call$ he>twood1 d]iv+ its "n solely f its position & n f any vital importance to ! tree1 z is %[n by ! fact t a tree c ?rive ) its he>t completely decay$4 ,"s1 species beg9 to =m he>twood v e>ly 9 life1 :ile 9 o!rs ! *ange comes sl[ly4 ,?9 sapwood is *>act]i/ic ( su* trees z *e/nut1 black locu/1 mulb]ry1 ,osage orange1 & sassafras1 :ile 9 maple1 a%1 gum1 hickory1 hackb]ry1 bee*1 & loblolly p9e1 ?ick sapwood is ! rule4 ,!re is no def9ite relation betwe5 ! annual r+s ( gr[? & ! am\nt ( sapwood4 ,)9 ! same species ! cross-sectional area ( ! sapwood is r\ghly proportional to ! size ( ! cr[n ( ! tree4 ,if ! r+s are n>r[1 m ( !m are requir$ ?an :]e !y are wide4 ,z ! tree gets l>g]1 ! sapwood mu/ necess>ily become ?9n] or increase mat]ially 9 volume4 ,sapwood is ?ick] 9 ! upp] portion ( ! trunk ( a tree ?an ne> ! base1 because ! age & ! diamet] ( ! upp] sections are less4 ,:5 a tree is v "y x is cov]$ ) limbs almo/1 if n entirely1 to ! gr\nd1 b z x gr[s old] "s or all ( !m w ev5tually die & be brok5 (f4 ,subsequ5t gr[? ( wood may completely conceal ! /ubs :i*1 h[ev]1 w rema9 z knots4 ,no matt] h[ smoo? & cle> a log is on ! outside1 x is m or less knotty ne> ! middle4 ,consequ5tly ! sapwood ( an old tree1 & p>ticul>ly ( a =e/-gr[n tree1 w be fre] f knots ?an ! he>twood4 ,s9ce 9 mo/ uses ( wood1 knots are defects t weak5 ! timb] & int]f]e ) its ease ( work+ & o!r prop]ties1 x foll[s t sapwood1 because ( its position 9 ! tree1 may h c]ta9 advantages ov] he>twood4 ,x is really rem>kable t ! inn] he>twood ( old trees rema9s z s\nd z x usually does1 s9ce 9 _m cases x is hundr$s ( ye>s1 & 9 a few in/ances ?\s&s ( ye>s1 old4 ,e brok5 limb or root1 or deep w\nd f fire1 insects1 or fall+ timb]1 may af=d an entrance = decay1 :i*1 once />t$1 may p5etrate to all p>ts ( ! trunk4 ,! l>v ( _m insects bore into ! trees & _! tunnels rema9 indef9itely z s\rces ( weakness4 ,:atev] advantages1 h[ev]1 t sapwood may h 9 ?is connection are due solely to its relative age & position4 ,if a tree gr[s all its life 9 ! op5 & ! conditions ( soil & site rema9 un*ang$1 x w make its mo/ rapid gr[? 9 y\?1 & gradually decl9e4 ,! annual r+s ( gr[? are = _m ye>s q wide1 b lat] !y become n>r[] & n>r[]4 ,s9ce ea* succe$+ r+ is laid d[n on ! outside ( ! wood previ\sly =m$1 x foll[s t unless a tree mat]ially increases its production ( wood f ye> to ye>1 ! r+s mu/ necess>ily become ?9n]4 ,z a tree rea*es maturity its cr[n becomes m op5 & ! annual wood production is less5$1 !reby r$uc+ /ill m ! wid? ( ! gr[? r+s4 ,9 ! case ( =e/-gr[n trees s mu* dep5ds ^u ! competition ( ! trees 9 _! /ruggle = light & n\ri%m5t t p]iods ( rapid & sl[ gr[? may alt]nate4 ,"s trees1 su* z s\!rn oaks1 ma9ta9 ! same wid? ( r+ = hundr$s ( ye>s4 ,^u ! :ole1 h[ev]1 z a tree gets l>g] 9 diamet] ! wid? ( ! gr[? r+s decreases4 ,x is evid5t t !re may be decid$ diff]5ces 9 ! gra9 ( he>twood & sapwood cut f a l>ge tree1 p>ticul>ly "o t is ov]mature4 ,! relation%ip betwe5 wid? ( gr[? r+s & ! me*anical prop]ties ( wood is discuss$ "u ,rate ( ,gr[?4 ,9 ?is connection1 h[ev]1 x may be /at$ t z a g5]al rule ! wood laid on late 9 ! life ( a tree is s(t]1 light]1 weak]1 & m ev5-textur$ ?an t produc$ e>li]4 ,x foll[s t 9 a l>ge log ! sapwood1 because ( ! "t 9 ! life ( ! tree :5 x 0 gr[n1 may be inf]ior 9 h>dness1 /r5g?1 & t\ghness to equally s\nd he>twood f ! same log4 ,aft] exhau/ive te/s on a numb] ( diff]5t woods ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice concludes z foll[s3 ,sapwood1 except t f old1 ov]mature trees1 is z /rong z he>twood1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 & s f> z ! me*anical prop]ties g %\ld n be reg>d$ z a defect4#bb ,c>eful inspection ( ! individual te/s made 9 ! inve/igation fails to reveal any relation betwe5 ! proportion ( sapwood & ! break+ /r5g? ( timb]4 ,footnote #bb3 ,bul4 #ajh3 ,te/s ( /ructural timb]1 p4 #ce4 ,9 ! /udy ( ! hickories ! conclusion 03 ,!re is an unf\nd$ prejudice aga9/ ! he>twood4 ,specifications place :ite hickory1 or sapwood1 9 a high] grade ?an r$ hickory1 or he>twood1 ?\gh !re is no inh]5t diff]5ce 9 /r5g?4 ,9 fact1 9 ! case ( l>ge & old hickory trees1 ! sapwood ne>e/ ! b>k is comp>atively weak1 & ! be/ wood is 9 ! he>t1 ?\gh 9 "y trees ( ?rifty gr[? ! be/ wood is 9 ! sap4#bc ,! results ( te/s f select$ pieces ly+ side by side 9 ! same tree1 & also ! av]age values = he>twood & sapwood 9 %ipm5ts ( ! comm]cial hickories )\t selection1 %[ conclusively t ! trans=mation ( sapwood into he>twood does n affect ei!r ! /r5g? or t\ghness ( ! wood4444 ,x is true1 h[ev]1 t sapwood is usually m free f lat5t defects ?an he>twood4#bd ,footnote #bc3 ,bul4 #hj3 ,! comm]cial hickories1 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #bd3 ,loc4 cit4 ,specifications = pav+ blocks (t5 require t longleaf p9e be #ij p] c5t he>t4 ,?is is on ! belief t sapwood is n only m subject to decay1 b is also weak] ?an he>twood4 ,9 reality !re is no s\nd basis = discrim9ation aga9/ sapwood on acc\nt ( /r5g?1 provid$ o!r conditions are equal4 ,x is true t sapwood w n resi/ decay z long z he>twood1 if bo? are untreat$ ) pres]vatives4 ,x is especially s ( woods ) deep-color$ he>twood1 & is due to infiltrations ( tann9s1 oils1 & res9s1 :i* make ! wood m or less obnoxi\s to decay-produc+ fungi4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! timb]s are to be treat$1 sapwood is n a defect2 9 fact1 because ( ! relative ease ) :i* x c be impregnat$ ) pres]vatives x may be made m desirable ?an he>twood4#be ,footnote #be3 ,al?\gh ! factor ( he>t or sapwood does n influ5ce ! me*anical prop]ties ( ! wood & !re is usually no diff]5ce 9 /ructure obs]vable "u ! microscope1 nev]!less sapwood is g5]ally decid$ly diff]5t f he>twood 9 its physical prop]ties4 ,x dries bett] & m easily ?an he>twood1 usually ) less %r9kage & little *eck+ or honeycomb+4 ,?is is especially ! case ) ! m refractory woods1 su* z :ite oaks & ,eucalyptus globulus & vim9alis4 ,x is usually mu* m p]meable to air1 ev5 9 gre5 wood1 notably s 9 loblolly p9e & ev5 9 :ite oak4 ,z already /at$1 x is mu* m subject to decay4 ,! sapwood ( :ite oak may be impregnat$ ) creosote ) comp>ative ease1 :ile ! he>twood is practically imp5etrable4 ,^! facts indicate a diff]5ce 9 its *emical nature4--,h4,d4 ,tiemann4 ,9 specifications = /ructural timb]s ref]5ce is sometimes made to boxhe>t1 mean+ ! inclusion ( ! pi? or c5tre ( ! tree )9 a cross section ( ! timb]4 ,f num]\s exp]im5ts x appe>s t ! position ( ! pi? does n be> any relation to ! /r5g? ( ! mat]ial4 ,s9ce mo/ season *ecks1 h[ev]1 are radial1 ! position ( ! pi? may influ5ce ! resi/ance ( a season$ beam to horizontal %e>1 be+ greate/ :5 ! pi? is locat$ 9 ! middle half ( ! section4#bf ,footnote #bf3 ,bul4 #ajh1 ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 p4 #cf4 ,,weight1 ,,d5sity1 ,,& ,,specific ,,gravity ,f data obta9$ f a l>ge numb] ( te/s on ! /r5g? ( diff]5t woods x appe>s t1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! cru%+ /r5g? p>allel to ! gra91 fibre /ress at ela/ic limit 9 b5d+1 & %e>+ /r5g? along ! gra9 ( wood v>y 9 direct proportion to ! weight ( dry wood p] unit ( volume :5 gre54 ,o!r /r5g? values foll[ diff]5t laws4 ,! h>dness v>ies 9 a slightly great] ratio ?an ! squ>e ( ! d5sity4 ,! "w to ! break+ po9t increases ev5 m rapidly ?an ! cube ( d5sity4 ,! modulus ( rupture 9 b5d+ lies betwe5 ! fir/ p[] & ! squ>e ( ! d5sity4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is true only 9 case ! great] weight is due to increase 9 ! am\nt ( wood sub/ance4 ,a wood heavy ) res9 or o!r infiltrat$ sub/ance is n necess>ily /rong] ?an a simil> specim5 free f su* mat]ials4 ,if diff]5ces 9 weight are due to degree ( season+1 9 o!r words1 to ! relative am\nts ( wat] conta9$1 ! rules giv5 above w ( c\rse n hold1 s9ce /r5g? increases ) dryness4 ,b ( giv5 specim5s ( p9e or ( oak1 = example1 9 ! gre5 condition1 ! comp>ative /r5g? may be inf]r$ f ! weight4 ,x is n p]missible1 h[ev]1 to comp>e su* widely diff]5t woods z oak & p9e on a basis ( _! weights4#bg ,footnote #bg3 ,! oaks = "s unkn[n reason fall bel[ ! normal /r5g? = weight1 :]eas ! hickories rise above4 ,c]ta9 o!r woods also are some:at exceptional to ! normal relation ( /r5g? & d5sity4 ,! weight ( wood sub/ance1 t is1 ! mat]ial :i* composes ! walls ( ! fibres & o!r cells1 is practically ! same 9 all species1 :e!r p9e1 hickory1 or cottonwood1 be+ a little great] ?an half aga9 z heavy z wat]4 ,x v>ies slightly f bee* sapwood1 #a4ej1 to ,d\glas fir he>twood1 #a4eg1 av]ag+ ab\t #a4ee at #cj to #ce ,c41 9 t]ms ( wat] at its greate/ d5sity #d ,c4 ,! reason any wood floats is t ! air imprison$ 9 its cavities buoys x up4 ,:5 ?is is displac$ by wat] ! wood becomes wat]-logg$ & s9ks4 ,leav+ out ( consid]ation infiltrat$ sub/ances1 ! reason a cubic foot ( "o k9d ( dry wood is heavi] ?an t ( ano!r is because x conta9s a great] am\nt ( wood sub/ance4 ,d5sity is m]ely ! weight ( a unit ( volume1 z #ce p\nds p] cubic foot1 or #j4ef grams p] cubic c5timetre4 ,specific gravity or relative d5sity is ! ratio ( ! d5sity ( any mat]ial to ! d5sity ( di/ill$ wat] at #d ,c4 7#ci4b ,f474 ,a cubic foot ( di/ill$ wat] at #d ,c4 weighs #fb4dc p\nds4 ,h5ce ! specific gravity ( a piece ( wood ) a d5sity ( #ce p\nds is #ce _/ #fb4dc #j4efa4 ,to f9d ! weight p] cubic foot :5 ! specific gravity is giv51 simply multiply by #fb4dc4 ,?us1 #j4efa ,x #fb4dc #ce4 ,9 ! metric sy/em1 s9ce ! weight ( a cubic c5timetre ( pure wat] is "o gram1 ! d5sity 9 grams p] cubic c5timetre has ! same num]ical value z ! specific gravity4 ,s9ce ! am\nt ( wat] 9 wood is extremely v>iable x usually is n satisfactory to ref] to ! d5sity ( gre5 wood4 ,= sci5tific purposes ! d5sity ( ov5-dry wood is us$2 t is1 ! wood is dri$ 9 an ov5 at a temp]ature ( #ajj;,c4 7#bab;,f47 until a con/ant weight is atta9$4 ,= comm]cial purposes ! weight or d5sity ( air-dry or %ipp+-dry wood is us$4 ,?is is usually express$ 9 p\nds p] ?\s& bo>d feet1 a bo>d foot be+ consid]$ z "o-twelf? ( a cubic foot4 ,wood %r9ks greatly 9 dry+ f ! gre5 to ! ov5-dry condition4 7,see ,table ,,xiv47 ,consequ5tly a block ( wood measur+ a cubic foot :5 gre5 w measure consid]ably less :5 ov5-dry4 ,x foll[s t ! d5sity ( ov5-dry wood does n repres5t ! weight ( ! dry wood sub/ance 9 a cubic foot ( gre5 wood4 ,9 o!r words1 x is n ! weight ( a cubic foot ( gre5 wood m9us ! weight ( ! wat] :i* x conta9s4 ,s9ce ! latt] is (t5 a m conv5i5t figure to use & mu* easi] to obta9 ?an ! weight ( ov5-dry wood1 x is commonly express$ 9 tables ( specific gravity or d5sity ( dry wood4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,,table ,,xiv ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,,specific ,,gravity1 ,,& ,,%r9kage ,,( #ea ,,am]ican ,,woods 7,=e/ ,s]vice ,cir4 #bac7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,specific gravity ,%r9kage f gre5 to ,mois- ov5-dry1 bas$ on ov5-dry condition ,,common ,,"n ture ---------------------------------------- ------- ,,( ,,species cont5t ,volume ,volume ,9 ,tang5- :5 :5 volume ,radial tial gre5 ov5-dry ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,p] ,p] ,p] ,p] c5t c5t c5t c5t ,h>dwoods ,a%1 black #gg #j4dff :ite #ch 4#eej #j4fdj #ab4f #d4c #f4d #dg 4#eaf 4#eij #aa4g ,basswood #aaj 4#cae 4#cgd #ad4e #f4b #h4d ,bee* #fa 4#eef 4#ffi #af4e #d4f #aj4e ,bir*1 yell[ #gb 4#ede 4#ffa #ag4j #g4i #i4j ,elm1 rock #df 4#egh slipp]y #eg 4#eda 4#fci #ae4e #e4a #i4i :ite #ff 4#dcj ,gum1 r$ #ga 4#dcd ,hackb]ry #ej 4#ejd 4#egf #ad4j #d4b #h4i ,hickory1 big %ellb>k #fd 4#fja #ag4f #g4d #aa4b #ee 4#fff #bj4i #g4i #ad4b bitt]nut #fe 4#fbd mock]nut #fd 4#fjf #af4e #f4i #aj4d #eg 4#ffb #ah4i #h4d #aa4d #dh 4#fff nutmeg #gf 4#eeh pignut #ei 4#fbg #ae4j #e4f #i4h #ed 4#ffg #ae4c #f4c #i4e #ee 4#ffg #af4i #f4h #aj4i #eb 4#ffg #ba4b #h4e #ac4h %agb>k #fe 4#fjh #af4j #f4e #aj4b #eh 4#fdf #ah4d #g4i #aa4d #fd 4#fag #fj 4#fec #ae4e #f4e #i4g wat] #gd 4#fcj ,locu/1 honey #ec 4#fie 4#gei #h4f ,maple1 r$ #fi 4#eab sug> #eg 4#edf 4#fdc #ad4c #d4i #i4a #ef 4#egg ,oak1 po/ #fd 4#eij 4#gcb #af4j #e4g #aj4f r$ #hj 4#efh 4#ffj #ac4a #c4g #h4c swamp :ite #gd 4#fcg 4#gib #ag4g #e4e #aj4f tanb>k #hh 4#ehe :ite #eh 4#eid 4#gjd #ae4h #f4b #h4c #fb 4#fjc 4#fif #ad4c #d4i #i4j #gh 4#fjj 4#gjh #af4j #d4h #i4b yell[ #gg 4#egc 4#ffi #ad4b #d4e #i4g #hj 4#eej ,osage orange #ca 4#gfa 4#hch #h4i ,sycamore #ha 4#ded 4#ebf #ac4e #e4j #g4c ,tupelo #aba 4#dge 4#ede #ab4d #d4d #g4i ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,,table ,,xiv 7,,cont47 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,,specific ,,gravity1 ,,& ,,%r9kage ,,( #ea ,,am]ican ,,woods 7,=e/ ,s]vice ,cir4 #bac7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,specific gravity ,%r9kage f gre5 to ov5-dry1 bas$ on ov5-dry condition ,,common ,,"n ---------------------------------------- ------- ,,( ,,species ,mois- ,volume ,volume ,9 ,tang5- ture :5 :5 volume ,radial tial cont5t gre5 ov5-dry ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,p] ,p] ,p] ,p] c5t c5t c5t c5t ,conif]s ,arborvit #ee 4#bic 4#cae #g4j #b4a #d4i ,c$>1 inc5se #hj 4#cfc ,cypress1 bald #gi 4#deb 4#eac #aa4e #c4h #f4j ,fir1 alp9e #dg 4#cjf 4#cba #i4j #b4e #g4a amabilis #aag 4#chc ,d\glas #cb 4#dah 4#deh #aj4i #c4g #f4f :ite #aef 4#cej 4#dcg #aj4b #c4d #g4j ,hemlock 7ea/47 #abi 4#cdj 4#cid #i4b #b4c #e4j ,p9e1 lodgepole #dd 4#cgj 4#dae #aa4c #d4b #g4a #eh 4#cga 4#djg #aj4a #c4f #e4i longleaf #fc 4#ebh 4#eii #ab4h #f4j #g4f r$ or ,nor #ed 4#ddj 4#ejg #aa4e #d4e #g4b %ortleaf #eb 4#ddg sug> #abc 4#cfj 4#chf #h4d #b4i #e4f we/ yell[ #ih 4#cec 4#cie #i4b #d4a #f4d #abe 4#cgg 4#dcc #aa4e #d4c #g4c #ic 4#cia 4#dce #i4i #c4h #e4h :ite #gd 4#cfc 4#cia #g4h #b4b #e4i ,r$wood #ha 4#ccd #fi 4#cff ,spruce1 ,engelmann #de 4#cbe 4#cei #aj4e #c4g #f4i #aef 4#bii 4#cce #aj4c #c4j #f4b r$ #ca 4#cif :ite #da 4#cah ,tam>ack #eb 4#dia 4#eeh #ac4f #c4g #g4d ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,?is weight divid$ by #fb4dc gives ! specific gravity p] gre5 volume4 ,x is purely a fictiti\s quantity4 ,to conv]t ?is figure into actual d5sity or specific gravity ( ! dry wood1 x is necess>y to "k ! am\nt ( %r9kage 9 volume4 ,if ,s is ! p]c5tage ( %r9kage f ! gre5 to ! ov5-dry condition1 bas$ on ! gre5 volume2 ,d1 ! d5sity ( ! dry wood p] cubic foot :ile gre52 & d ! actual ,d d5sity ( ov5-dry wood1 !n ---------- d4 #a - 4#j ,s ,?is relation becomes cle>] f ! foll[+ analysis3 ,tak+ ,v & ,w z ! volume & weight1 respectively1 :5 gre51 & v & w z ! correspond+ volume & weight :5 w ,w ,v - v ov5-dry1 !n1 d --- 2 ,d --- 2 ,s ------- ,x #ajj1 & v ,v ,v ,v - v s ------- ,x #ajj1 9 :i* ,s is ! p]c5tage ( %r9kage v f ! gre5 to ! ov5-dry condition1 bas$ on ! gre5 volume1 & s ! same bas$ on ! ov5-dry volume4 ,9 tables ( specific gravity or d5sity ( wood x %\ld always be /at$ :e!r ! dry weight p] unit ( volume :5 gre5 or ! dry weight p] unit ( volume :5 dry is int5d$1 s9ce ! %r9kage 9 volume may v>y f #f to #ej p] c5t1 ?\gh 9 conif]s x is usually ab\t #aj p] c5t1 & 9 h>dwoods ne>] #ae p] c5t4 7,see ,table ,,xiv47 ,,color ,9 species :i* %[ a di/9ct diff]5ce betwe5 he>twood & sapwood ! natural color ( he>twood is inv>iably d>k] ?an t ( ! sapwood1 & v frequ5tly ! contra/ is conspicu\s4 ,?is is produc$ by deposits 9 ! he>twood ( v>i\s mat]ials result+ f ! process ( gr[?1 increas$ possibly by oxidation & o!r *emical *anges1 :i* usually h little or no appreciable effect on ! me*anical prop]ties ( ! wood4 7,see ,,he>twood ,,& ,,sapwood1 above47 ,"s exp]im5ts#bh on v res9\s longleaf p9e specim5s1 h[ev]1 indicate an increase 9 /r5g?4 ,?is is due to ! res9 :i* increases ! /r5g? :5 dry4 ,spruce impregnat$ ) crude res9 & dri$ is greatly increas$ 9 /r5g? !reby4 ,footnote #bh3 ,bul4 #gj1 ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 p4 #ib2 also p4 #abf1 app5dix4 ,s9ce ! late wood ( a gr[? r+ is usually d>k] 9 color ?an ! e>ly wood1 ?is fact may be us$ 9 judg+ ! d5sity1 & !re=e ! h>dness & /r5g? ( ! mat]ial4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly ! case ) conif]\s woods4 ,9 r+-por\s woods ! vessels ( ! e>ly wood n infrequ5tly appe> on a f9i%$ surface z d>k] ?an ! d5s] late wood1 ?\gh on cross sections ( he>twood ! rev]se is commonly true4 ,except 9 ! mann] j /at$ ! color ( wood is no indication ( /r5g?4 ,abnormal discoloration ( wood (t5 d5otes a diseas$ condition1 indicat+ uns\ndness4 ,! black *eck 9 we/]n hemlock is ! result ( insect attacks4#bi ,! r$di%-br[n /reaks s common 9 hickory & c]ta9 o!r woods are mo/ly ! result ( injury by birds4#cj ,! discoloration is m]ely an indication ( an injury1 & 9 all probability does n ( itself affect ! prop]ties ( ! wood4 ,c]ta9 rot-produc+ fungi imp>t to wood *>act]i/ic colors :i* ?us become crit]ions ( weakness4 ,ord9>y sap-/a9+ is due to fung\s gr[?1 b does n necess>ily produce a weak5+ effect4#ca ,footnote #bi3 ,see ,burke1 ,h4,e43 ,black *eck 9 we/]n hemlock4 ,cir4 ,no4 #fa1 ,u4,s4 ,bu4 ,entomology1 #aije4 ,footnote #cj3 ,see ,mc,atee1 ,w4,l43 ,woodpeck]s 9 relation to trees & wood products4 ,bul4 ,no4 #ci1 ,u4,s4 ,biol4 ,survey1 #aiaa4 ,footnote #ca3 ,see ,von ,s*r5ck1 ,h]mann3 ,! blu+ & ! r$ rot ( ! we/]n yell[ p9e1 ) special ref]5ce to ! ,black ,hills =e/ res]ve4 ,bul4 ,no4 #cf1 ,u4,s4 ,bu4 ,plant ,indu/ry1 ,wa%+ton1 #aijc1 pp4 #ac-ad4 ,weiss1 ,h[>d1 & ,b>num1 ,*>les ,t43 ,! prev5tion ( sap/a9 9 lumb]4 ,cir4 #aib1 ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 ,wa%+ton1 #aiaa1 pp4 #af-ag4 ,,cross ,,gra9 ,cross gra9 is a v common defect 9 timb]4 ,"o =m ( x is produc$ 9 lumb] by ! me?od ( saw+ & has no ref]5ce to ! natural arrangem5t ( ! wood elem5ts4 ,?us if ! plane ( ! saw is n approximately p>allel to ! axis ( ! log ! gra9 ( ! lumb] cut is n p>allel to ! edges & is t]m$ diagonal4 ,?is is likely to occur :]e ! logs h consid]able tap]1 & 9 ?is case may be produc$ if saw$ p>allel to ! axis ( gr[? in/ead ( p>allel to ! gr[? r+s4 ,lumb] & timb] ) diagonal gra9 is always weak] ?an /raight-gra9$ mat]ial1 ! ext5t ( ! defect v>y+ ) ! degree ( ! angle ! fibres make ) ! axis ( ! /ick4 ,9 ! vic9ity ( l>ge knots ! gra9 is likely to be cross4 ,! defect is mo/ s]i\s :]e wood is subject$ to flexure1 z 9 beams4 ,spiral gra9 is a v common defect 9 a tree1 & :5 excessive r5d]s ! timb] valueless = use except 9 ! r\nd4 ,x is produc$ by ! arrangem5t ( ! wood fibres 9 a spiral direction ab\t ! axis in/ead ( exactly v]tical4 ,timb] ) spiral gra9 is also kn[n z torse wood4 ,spiral gra9 usually _c be detect$ by casual inspection ( a /ick1 s9ce x does n %[ 9 ! s-call$ visible gra9 ( ! wood1 by :i* is commonly meant a sectional view ( ! annual r+s ( gr[? cut longitud9ally4 ,x is accord+ly v easy to all[ spiral-gra9$ mat]ial to pass inspection1 !reby introduc+ an elem5t ( weakness 9 a /ructure4 ,!re are me?ods = readily detect+ spiral gra94 ,! simple/ is t ( splitt+ a small piece radially4 ,x is necess>y1 ( c\rse1 t ! split be radial1 t is1 9 a plane pass+ ?r\gh ! axis ( ! log1 & n tang5tially4 ,9 ! latt] case x is q probable t ! wood w\ld split /raight1 ! l9e ( cleavage be+ betwe5 ! gr[? r+s4 ,9 inspection1 ! elem5ts to exam9e are ! rays4 ,9 ! case ( oak & c]ta9 o!r h>dwoods ^! rays are s l>ge t !y are readily se5 n only on a radial surface1 b on ! tang5tial z well4 ,on ! =m] !y appe> z flakes1 on ! latt] z %ort l9es4 ,s9ce ^! rays are betwe5 ! fibres x naturally foll[s t !y w be v]tical or incl9$ accord+ z ! tree is /raight-gra9$ or spiral-gra9$4 ,:ile !y are n conspicu\s 9 ! s(twoods1 !y c be se5 ^u close scrut9y1 & p>ticul>ly s if a small h& magnifi] is us$4 ,:5 wood has begun to dry & *eck x is v easy to see :e!r or n x is /raight- or spiral-gra9$1 s9ce ! *ecks w = ! mo/ "p foll[ along ! rays4 ,if "o exam9es a r[ ( telephone poles1 = example1 he w probably f9d t mo/ ( !m h *ecks runn+ spirally ar\nd !m4 ,if bo>ds 7 saw$ f su* a pole aft] x 0 badly *eck$ !y w\ld fall to pieces ( _! own weight4 ,! only way to get /raight mat]ial w\ld be to split x out4 ,x is = ?is reason t split billets & squ>es are /rong] ?an mo/ saw$ mat]ial4 ,! pres5ce ( ! spiral gra9 has little1 if any1 effect on ! timb] :5 x is us$ 9 ! r\nd1 b 9 saw$ mat]ial ! great] ! pit* ( ! spiral ! great] is ! defect4 ,,knots ,knots are portions ( bran*es includ$ 9 ! wood ( ! /em or l>g] bran*4 ,bran*es orig9ate z a rule f ! c5tral axis ( a /em1 & :ile liv+ increase 9 size by ! addition ( annual woody lay]s :i* are a cont9uation ( ^? ( ! /em4 ,! includ$ portion is irregul>ly conical 9 %ape ) ! tip at ! pi?4 ,! direction ( ! fibre is at "r angles or oblique to ! gra9 ( ! /em1 ?us produc+ local cross gra94 ,dur+ ! developm5t ( a tree mo/ ( ! limbs1 especially ! l[] ones1 die1 b p]si/ = a "t--(t5 = ye>s4 ,subsequ5t lay]s ( gr[? ( ! /em are no long] intimately jo9$ ) ! dead limb1 b are laid ar\nd x4 ,h5ce dead bran*es produce knots :i* are no?+ m ?an pegs 9 a hole1 & likely to drop out aft] ! tree has be5 saw$ into lumb]4 ,9 grad+ lumb] & /ructural timb]1 knots are classifi$ accord+ to _! =m1 size1 s\ndness1 & ! firmness ) :i* !y are held 9 place4#cb ,footnote #cb3 ,see ,/&>d classification ( /ructural timb]4 ,ye>book ,am4 ,soc4 = ,te/+ ,mat]ials1 #aiac1 pp4 #cjj-cjc4 ,conta9s ?ree plates %[+ /&>d defects4 ,knots mat]ially affect *eck+ & w>p+1 ease 9 work+1 & cleavability ( timb]4 ,!y are defects :i* weak5 timb] & depreciate its value = /ructural purposes :]e /r5g? is an important consid]ation4 ,! weak5+ effect is mu* m s]i\s :]e timb] is subject$ to b5d+ & t5sion ?an :]e "u compression4 ,! ext5t to :i* knots affect ! /r5g? ( a beam dep5ds ^u _! position1 size1 numb]1 direction ( fibre1 & condition4 ,a knot on ! upp] side is compress$1 :ile "o on ! l[] side is subject$ to t5sion4 ,! knot1 especially 7z is (t5 ! case7 if !re is a season *eck 9 x1 (f]s little resi/ance to ?is t5sile /ress4 ,small1 knots1 h[ev]1 may be s locat$ 9 a beam along ! neutral plane z actually to increase ! /r5g? by t5d+ to prev5t longitud9al %e>+4 ,knots 9 a bo>d or plank are lea/ injuri\s :5 !y ext5d ?r\gh x at "r angles to its broade/ surface4 ,knots :i* occur ne> ! ends ( a beam d n weak5 x4 ,s\nd knots :i* occur 9 ! c5tral portion "o-f\r? ! height ( ! beam f ei!r edge are n s]i\s defects4 ,ext5sive exp]im5ts by ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice#cc indicate ! foll[+ effects ( knots on /ructural timb]s3 ,footnote #cc3 ,bul4 #ajh1 pp4 #eb et seq4 7#a7 ,knots d n mat]ially influ5ce ! /iffness ( /ructural timb]4 7#b7 ,only defects ( ! mo/ s]i\s "* affect ! ela/ic limit ( beams4 ,/iffness & ela/ic /r5g? are m dep5d5t ^u ! quality ( ! wood fibre ?an ^u defects 9 ! beam4 7#c7 ,! effect ( knots is to r$uce ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! fibre /ress at ela/ic limit & ! modulus ( rupture ( beams4 ,! break+ /r5g? is v susceptible to defects4 7#d7 ,s\nd knots d n weak5 wood :5 subject to compression p>allel to ! gra94#cd ,footnote #cd3 ,bul4 #aae1 ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice3 ,me*anical prop]ties ( we/]n hemlock1 p4 #bj4 ,,fro/ ,,splits ,a common defect 9 /&+ timb] results f radial splits :i* ext5d inw>d f ! p]iph]y ( ! tree1 & almo/1 if n always1 ne> ! base4 ,x is mo/ common 9 trees :i* split readily1 & ^? ) l>ge rays & ?9 b>k4 ,! prim>y cause ( ! splitt+ is fro/1 & v>i\s !ories h be5 advanc$ to expla9 ! action4 ,r4 ,h>tig#ce believes t freez+ =ces out a "p ( ! imbibition wat] ( ! cell walls1 !reby caus+ ! wood to %r9k1 & if ! int]ior lay]s h n yet be5 cool$1 tang5tial /ra9s arise :i* f9ally produce radial clefts4 ,footnote #ce3 ,h>tig1 ,r43 ,! diseases ( trees 7trans4 by ,som]ville & ,w>d71 ,london & ,new ,york1 #ahid1 pp4 #bhb-bid4 ,ano!r !ory holds t ! wat] is n driv5 out ( ! cell walls1 b t diff]5ce 9 temp]ature conditions ( inn] & out] lay]s is itself suffici5t to set up ! /ra9s1 result+ 9 splitt+4 ,an air temp]ature ( #ad;,f4 or less is consid]$ necess>y to produce fro/ splits4 ,a /ill m rec5t !ory is t ( ,busse#cf :o consid]s ! me*anical action ( ! w9d a v important factor4 ,he obs]v$3 7a7 ,fro/ splits sometimes occur at high] temp]atures ?an #ad;,f4 7b7 ,mo/ splits take place %ortly be=e sunrise1 i4e41 at ! "t ( l[e/ air & soil temp]ature2 !y are nev] he>d to take place at noon1 aft]noon1 or ev5+4 7c7 ,!y always occur betwe5 two roots or betwe5 ! coll>s ( two roots1 7d7 ,!y are mo/ frequ5t 9 old1 /\t-root$1 broad-cr[n$ trees2 9 y\ng] /&s x is always ! /\te/ memb]s t are f\nd ) fro/ splits1 :ile 9 q "y /&s !y are altoge!r abs5t1 7e7 ,trees on wet sites are mo/ liable to splits1 due to diff]5ce 9 wood /ructure1 j z diff]5ce 9 wood /ructure makes diff]5t species v>y 9 ?is reg>d4 7f7 ,fro/ splits are mo/ num]\s less ?an ?ree feet above ! gr\nd4 ,footnote #cf3 ,busse1 ,w43 ,fro/-1 ,r+- und ,k]nrisse4 ,=/wiss4 ,c5tralb41 ,,xxxii1 #b1 #aiaj1 pp4 #gd-ha4 ,:5 a tree is sway$ by ! w9d ! roots are c\nt]act+ =ces1 & ! wood fibres are te/$ 9 t5sion & compression by ! oppos+ =ces2 :]e ! roots ex]cise t5sion /resses mo/ effectively ! effect ( compression /resses is at a m9imum2 only :]e ! pressure is 9 excess ( ! t5sion1 i4e41 betwe5 ! roots1 c a sep>ation ( ! fibre result4 ,h5ce1 :5 by fro/ a t5sion on ! entire p]iph]y is e/abli%$1 & ! w9d localizes additional /ra9s1 failure occurs4 ,! /rong] ! compression & t5sion1 ! sev]] ! /ra9s & ! (t5] failures occur4 ,! occurr5ce ( reports ( fro/ splits on w9d-/ill days is believ$ by ,busse to be due to ! op5+ ( old fro/ splits :]e ! t5sion produc$ by ! fro/ alone is suffici5t4 ,fro/ splits may heal ov] tempor>ily1 b usually op5 up aga9 dur+ ! foll[+ w9t]4 ,! pres5ce ( old splits is (t5 indicat$ by a ridge ( call\s1 ! result ( ! cambium's ef=t to occlude ! w\nd4 ,fro/ splits n only affect ! value ( lumb]1 b also af=d an entrance into ! liv+ tree = disease & decay4 ,,%akes1 ,,galls1 ,,pit* ,,pockets ,he>t %ake occurs 9 ne>ly all ov]mature timb]1 be+ m frequ5t 9 h>dwoods 7especially oak7 ?an 9 conif]s4 ,9 typical he>t %ake ! c5tre ( ! hole %[s indications ( becom+ holl[ & radial clefts ( v>y+ size ext5d outw>d f ! pi?1 be+ wide/ inw>d4 ,x frequ5tly affects only ! butt log1 b may ext5d to ! entire hole & ev5 ! l>g] bran*es4 ,x usually results f a %r9kage ( ! he>twood due probably to *emical *anges 9 ! wood4 ,:5 x consi/s ( a s+le cleft ext5d+ across ! pi? x is t]m$ simple he>t %ake4 ,%ake ( ?is "* 9 /raight-gra9$ trees affects only "o or two c5tral bo>ds :5 cut into lumb]1 b 9 spiral-gra9$ timb] ! damage is mu* great]4 ,:5 %ake consi/s ( sev]al radial clefts x is t]m$ /> %ake4 ,9 "s in/ances "o or m ( ^! clefts may ext5d ne>ly to ! b>k4 ,9 fell$ or conv]t$ timb] clefts due to he>t %ake may be di/+ui%$ f season+ cracks by ! d>k] color ( ! expos$ surfaces4 ,su* clefts1 h[ev]1 t5d to op5 up m & m z ! timb] seasons4 ,cup or r+ %ake results f ! pull+ ap>t ( two or m gr[? r+s4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ s]i\s defects to :i* s\nd timb] is subject1 z x s]i\sly r$uces ! te*nical prop]ties ( wood4 ,x is v common 9 sycamore & 9 we/]n l>*1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! butt portion4 ,its occurr5ce is mo/ frequ5t at ! junction ( two gr[? lay]s ( v unequal ?ickness4 ,consequ5tly x is likely to occur 9 trees :i* h gr[n sl[ly = a "t1 !n abruptly increas$1 due to improv$ conditions ( light & food1 z 9 ?9n+4 ,old timb] is m subject to x ?an "y trees4 ,! damage is l>gely conf9$ to ! butt log4 ,cup %ake is (t5 associat$ ) o!r =ms ( %ake1 & n infrequ5tly %[s traces ( decay4 ,! causes ( cup %ake are unc]ta94 ,! sway+ action ( ! w9d may result 9 %e>+ ap>t ! gr[? lay]s1 especially 9 trees gr[+ 9 expos$ places4 ,fro/ may 9 "s in/ances be responsible = cup %ake or at lea/ a contribut+ factor1 al?\gh trees gr[+ 9 regions free f fro/ (t5 h r+ %ake4 ,%r9kage ( ! he>twood may be conc5tric z well z radial 9 its action1 ?us produc+ cup %ake in/ead (1 or 9 connection )1 he>t %ake4 ,a local defect some:at simil> 9 effect to cup %ake is kn[n z r9d gall4 ,if ! cambium lay] is expos$ by ! removal ( ! entire b>k or r9d x w die4 ,subsequ5t gr[? ov] ! damag$ portion does n coh]e ) ! wood previ\sly =m$ by ! old cambium4 ,! defect result+ is t]m$ r9d gall4 ,! mo/ common causes ( x are fire1 gnaw+1 blaz+1 *ipp+1 sun scald1 lightn+1 & abrasions4 ,he>t break is a t]m appli$ to areas ( compression failure along ! gra9 f\nd 9 occasional logs4 ,sometimes ^! breaks are invisible until ! wood is manufactur$ into ! f9i%$ article4 ,! occurr5ce ( ?is defect is mo/ly limit$ to ! d5se h>dwoods1 su* z hickory & to heavy tropical species4 ,x is ! s\rce ( consid]able loss 9 ! fancy v5e] indu/ry1 z ! v5e] f valuable logs s affect$ drops to pieces4 ,! cause ( he>t break is n positively kn[n4 ,x is highly probable1 h[ev]1 t :5 ! tree is fell$ ! trunk /rikes across a rock or ano!r log1 & ! impact causes actual failure 9 ! log z 9 a beam4 ,res9 or pit* pockets are ( common occurr5ce 9 ! wood ( l>*1 spruce1 fir1 & especially ( longleaf & o!r h>d p9es4 ,!y are due to accumulations ( res9 9 op5+s betwe5 adjac5t lay]s ( gr[?4 ,!y are m frequ5t 9 trees gr[+ alone ?an 9 ^? ( d5se /&s4 ,! pockets are usually a few in*es 9 greate/ dim5sion & affect only "o or two gr[? lay]s4 ,!y are hidd5 until expos$ by ! saw1 r5d]+ x impossible to cut lumb] ) ref]5ce to _! position4 ,(t5 sev]al bo>ds are damag$ by a s+le pocket4 ,9 grad+ lumb]1 pit* pockets are classifi$ z small1 /&>d1 & l>ge1 dep5d+ ^u _! wid? & l5g?4 ,,insect ,,injuries#cg ,footnote #cg3 ,= detail$ in=mation reg>d+ insect injuries1 ! read] is ref]r$ to ! v>i\s publications ( ! ,u4,s4 ,bureau ( ,entomology1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 ,! l>v ( _m insects are de/ructive to wood4 ,"s attack ! wood ( liv+ trees1 o!rs only t ( fell$ or conv]t$ mat]ial4 ,e hole breaks ! cont9uity ( ! fibres & impairs ! /r5g?1 & if !re are v _m ( !m ! mat]ial may be ru9$ = all purposes :]e /r5g? is requir$4 ,"s ( ! mo/ common insects attack+ ! wood ( liv+ trees are ! oak timb] worm1 ! *e/nut timb] worm1 c>p5t] worms1 ambrosia beetles1 ! locu/ bor]1 turp5t9e beetles & turp5t9e bor]s1 & ! :ite p9e weevil4 ,! insect injuries to =e/ products may be class$ accord+ to ! /age ( manufacture ( ! mat]ial4 ,?us r\nd timb] ) ! b>k on1 su* z poles1 po/s1 m9e props1 & sawlogs1 is subject to s]i\s damage by ! same class ( insects z ^? m5tion$ above1 p>ticul>ly by ! r\nd-head$ bor]s1 timb] worms1 & ambrosia beetles4 ,manufactur$ unseason$ products are subject to damage f ambrosia beetles & o!r wood bor]s4 ,season$ h>dwood lumb] ( all k9ds1 r\gh h&les1 wagon /ock1 etc41 made p>tially or entirely ( sapwood1 are (t5 r$uc$ 9 value f #aj to #ij p] c5t by a class ( insects kn[n z p[d]-po/ beetles4 ,f9i%$ h>dwood products su* z h&les1 wagon1 c>riage & ma*9]y /ock1 especially if a% or hickory1 are (t5 de/roy$ by ! p[d]-po/ beetles4 ,con/ruction timb]s 9 build+s1 bridges & tre/les1 cross-ties1 poles1 m9e props1 f5ce po/s1 etc41 are sometimes s]i\sly injur$ by wood-bor+ l>v1 t]mites1 black ants1 c>p5t] bees1 & p[d]-po/ beetles1 & sometimes r$uc$ 9 value f #aj to #ajj p] c5t4 ,9 tropical c\ntries t]mites are a v s]i\s pe/ 9 ?is respect4 ,,m>9e ,,wood-,,bor] ,,injuries ,va/ am\nts ( timb] us$ = piles 9 :>ves & o!r m>9e /ructures are con/antly be+ de/roy$ or s]i\sly injur$ by m>9e bor]s4 ,almo/ inv>iably !y are conf9$ to salt wat]1 & all ! woods commonly us$ = pil+ are subject to _! attacks4 ,!re are two g5]a ( mollusks1 ,xylotrya & ,t]$o1 & ?ree ( cru/aceans1 ,limnoria1 ,*elura1 & ,spho]oma1 t d s]i\s damage 9 _m places along bo? ! ,atlantic & ,pacific coa/s4 ,^! mollusks1 :i* are popul>ly kn[n z %ipworms1 are mu* alike 9 /ructure & mode ( life4 ,!y attack ! expos$ surface ( ! wood & imm$iately beg9 to bore4 ,! tunnels1 (t5 z l>ge z a lead p5cil1 ext5d usually 9 a longitud9al direction & foll[ a v irregul>1 tangl$ c\rse4 ,h>d woods are app>5tly p5etrat$ z readily z s(t woods1 ?\gh 9 ! same timb] ! s(t] p>ts are pref]r$4 ,! food consi/s ( infusoria & is n obta9$ f ! wood sub/ance4 ,! sole object ( bor+ into ! wood is to obta9 %elt]4 ,al?\gh %ipworms c live 9 cold wat] !y ?rive be/ & are mo/ de/ructive 9 w>m wat]4 ,! l5g? ( "t requir$ to de/roy an av]age b>k$1 unprotect$ p9e pile on ! ,atlantic coa/ s\? f ,*esapeake ,bay & along ! entire ,pacific coa/ v>ies f b "o to ?ree ye>s4 ,( ! cru/acean bor]s1 ,limnoria1 or ! wood l\se1 is ! only "o ( great importance1 al?\gh ,spho]oma is report$ de/ructive 9 places4 ,limnoria is ab\t ! size ( a gra9 ( rice & tunnels into ! wood = bo? food & %elt]4 ,! gall]ies ext5d inw>d radially1 side by side1 9 c\ntless numb]s1 to ! dep? ( ab\t "o-half in*4 ,! ?9 wood p>titions rema9+ are de/roy$ by wave action1 s t a fre% surface is expos$ to attack4 ,bo? h>d & s(t woods are damag$1 b ! rate is fa/] 9 ! s(t woods or s(t] portions ( a wood4 ,timb]s s]i\sly attack$ by m>9e bor]s are badly weak5$ or completely de/roy$4 ,if ! orig9al /r5g? ( ! mat]ial is to be pres]v$ x is necess>y to protect ! wood f ! bor]s4 ,?is is sometimes accompli%$ by prop] injection ( creosote oil1 & m or less successfully by ! use ( v>i\s k9ds ( ext]nal coat+s4#ch ,no treatm5t1 h[ev]1 has prov$ entirely satisfactory4 ,footnote #ch3 ,see ,smi?1 ,c4 ,/[ell3 ,pres]vation ( pil+ aga9/ m>9e wood bor]s4 ,cir4 #abh1 ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 #aijh1 pp4 #ae4 ,,fung\s ,,injuries#ci ,footnote #ci3 ,see ,von ,s*r5ck1 ,h43 ,! decay ( timb] & me?ods ( prev5t+ x4 ,bul4 #ad1 ,u4,s4 ,bu4 ,plant ,indu/ry1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c41 #aijb4 ,also ,buls4 #cb1 #aad1 #bad1 #bff4 ,me9eoke1 ,e4,p43 ,=e/ tree diseases common 9 ,cali=nia & ,nevada1 ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c41 #aiad4 ,h>tig1 ,r43 ,! diseases ( trees4 ,london & ,new ,york1 #ahid4 ,fungi are responsible = almo/ all decay ( wood4 ,s f> z kn[n1 all decay is produc$ by liv+ organisms1 ei!r fungi or bact]ia4 ,"s species attack liv+ trees1 sometimes kill+ !m1 or mak+ !m holl[1 or 9 ! case ( pecky cypress & inc5se c$> fill+ ! wood ) gall]ies l ^? ( bor+ insects4 ,a mu* l>g] v>iety "w only 9 fell$ or dead wood1 ev5 aft] x is plac$ 9 build+s or manufactur$ articles4 ,9 any case ! process ( de/ruction is ! same4 ,! mycelial ?reads p5etrate ! walls ( ! cells 9 se>* ( food1 :i* !y f9d ei!r 9 ! cell cont5ts 7/>*es1 sug>s1 etc471 or 9 ! cell wall itself4 ,! break+ d[n ( ! cell walls ?r\gh ! *emical action ( s-call$ enzymes secret$ by ! fungi foll[s1 & ! ev5tual product is a rott51 moi/ sub/ance crumbl+ readily "u ! slighte/ pressure4 ,"s species remove ! ligne\s matt] & leave almo/ pure cellulose1 :i* is :ite1 l cotton2 o!rs dissolve ! cellulose1 leav+ a brittle1 d>k br[n mass ( ligno-cellulose4 ,fungi 7su* z ! blu+ fungus7 :i* m]ely /a9 wood usually d n affect its me*anical prop]ties unless ! attacks are excessive4 ,x is evid5t1 !n1 t ! action ( rot-caus+ fungi is to decrease ! /r5g? ( wood1 r5d]+ x uns\nd1 brittle1 & dang]\s to use4 ,! mo/ dang]\s k9ds are ! s-call$ dry-rot fungi :i* "w 9 _m k9ds ( lumb] aft] x is plac$ 9 ! build+s4 ,!y are p>ticul>ly to be dread$ because unse51 work+ z !y d )9 ! walls or inside ( cas+s4 ,sev]al s]i\s wrecks ( l>ge build+s h be5 attribut$ to ?is cause4 ,x is /at$#dj t 9 ! ?ree ye>s 7#aiaa-aiac7 m ?an #ajj1jjj 0 requir$ to repair damage due to dry rot4 ,footnote #dj3 ,dry rot 9 factory timb]s1 by ,inspection ,dept4 ,associat$ ,factory ,mutual ,fire ,insurance ,cos41 #ca ,milk ,/reet1 ,bo/on1 #aiac4 ,dry rot develops be/ at #ge;,f4 & is said to be kill$ by a temp]ature ( #aaj;,f4#da ,fully #gj p] c5t humidity is necess>y 9 ! air 9 :i* a timb] is surr\nd$ = ! gr[? ( ?is fungus1 & probably ! wood mu/ be q ne> its fibre saturation condition4 ,nev]!less ,m]ulius lacrymans 7"o ( ! mo/ important species7 has be5 f\nd to live f\r ye>s & eight mon?s 9 a dry condition4#db ,?or\gh kiln-dry+ w kill ?is fungus1 b w n prev5t its r$evelopm5t4 ,antiseptic treatm5t1 su* z creosot+1 is ! be/ prev5tion4 ,footnote #da3 ,falck1 ,ri*>d3 ,die ,m]uliusfale des ,bauholzes1 ,hauss*wamm=s*ung51 #f4 ,heft41 ,j5a1 #aiab4 ,footnote #db3 ,mez1 ,c>l3 ,d] ,hauss*wamm4 ,dresd51 #aijh1 p4 #fc4 ,all fungi require moi/ure & air#dc = _! gr[?4 ,depriv$ ( ei!r ( ^! ! fungus dies or ceases to develop4 ,j :at degree ( moi/ure 9 wood is necess>y = ! dry-rot fungus has n be5 det]m9$1 b x is evid5tly consid]ably above t ( ?or\ghly air-dry timb]1 probably m ?an #ae p] c5t moi/ure4 ,h5ce ! importance ( free circulation ( air ab\t all timb]s 9 a build+4 ,footnote #dc3 ,a culture ( fungus plac$ 9 a glass j> & ! air pump$ out ceases to gr[1 b w />t aga9 z soon z oxyg5 is admitt$4 ,w>m? is also conducive to ! gr[? ( fungi1 ! mo/ favorable temp]ature be+ ab\t #ij;,f4 ,!y _c gr[ 9 extreme cold1 al?\gh no degree ( cold su* z occurs naturally w kill !m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 high temp]ature w kill !m1 b ! spores may survive ev5 ! boil+ temp]ature4 ,m\ld fungus has be5 obs]v$ to develop rapidly at #acj;,f4 9 a dry kiln 9 moi/ air1 a condition "u :i* an animal _c live m ?an a few m9utes4 ,?is fungus 0 kill$1 h[ev]1 at ab\t #adj or #ade;,f4#dd ,footnote #dd3 ,exp]im5ts 9 kiln-dry+ ,eucalyptus 9 ,b]keley1 ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4 ,! fungus 7,endo?ia p>asitica ,&47 :i* causes ! *e/nut blight kills ! trees by girdl+ !m & has no direct effect ^u ! wood save possibly ! f\r or five gr[? r+s ( ! sapwood4#de ,footnote #de3 ,see ,&]son1 ,paul ,j43 ,! morphology & life hi/ory ( ! *e/nut blight fungus4 ,bul4 ,no4 #g1 ,p5na4 ,*e/nut ,tree ,blight ,com41 ,h>risburg1 #aiad1 p4 #ag4 ,,p>asitic ,,plant ,,injuries4#df ,footnote #df3 ,see ,york1 ,h>lan ,h43 ,! anatomy & "s ( ! biological aspects ( ! ,am]ican mi/letoe4 ,bul4 #abj1 ,sci4 ,s]4 ,no4 #ac1 ,univ4 ( ,texas1 ,au/91 #aiji4 ,bray1 ,wm4 ,l43 ,! mi/letoe pe/ 9 ! ,s\?we/4 ,bul4 #aff1 ,u4,s4 ,bu4 ,plant ,ind41 ,wa%+ton1 #aiaj4 ,me9ecke1 ,e4,p43 ,=e/ tree diseases common 9 ,cali=nia & ,nevada4 ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 ,wa%+ton1 #aiad1 pp4 #ed-eh4 ,! mo/ common ( ! high] p>asitic plants damag+ timb] trees are mi/letoes4 ,_m species ( decidu\s trees are attack$ by ! common mi/letoe 7,phorad5dron flavesc5s74 ,x is v preval5t 9 ! ,s\? & ,s\?we/ & :5 pres5t 9 suffici5t quantity does consid]able damage4 ,!re is also a consid]able numb] ( small] mi/letoes belong+ to ! g5us ,raz\m(skya 7,arceu?obium7 :i* are widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry1 & sev]al ( !m are common on conif]\s trees 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s & along ! ,pacific coa/4 ,"o effect ( ! common mi/letoe is ! =mation ( l>ge swell+s or tumors4 ,(t5 ! entire tree may become /unt$ or di/ort$4 ,! we/]n mi/letoe is mo/ common on ! bran*es1 :]e x produces wit*es' broom4 ,x frequ5tly attacks ! trunk z well1 & bo>ds cut f su* trees are fill$ ) long1 radial holes :i* s]i\sly damage or de/roy ! value ( ! timb] affect$4 ,,locality ,,( ,,gr[? ,! data available reg>d+ ! effect ( ! locality ( gr[? ^u ! prop]ties ( wood are n suffici5t to w>rant def9ite conclusions4 ,! subject has1 h[ev]1 be5 kept 9 m9d 9 _m ( ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice timb] te/s & ! foll[+ quotations are assembl$ f v>i\s reports3 ,9 bo? ! ,cuban & longleaf p9e ! locality :]e gr[n appe>s to h b little influ5ce on weight or /r5g?1 & !re is no reason to believe t ! longleaf p9e f "o ,/ate is bett] ?an t f any o!r1 s9ce su* v>iations z are claim$ c be f\nd on any #dj-;acre lot ( timb] 9 any ,/ate4 ,b ) loblolly & /ill m ) %ortleaf ?is seems n to be ! case4 ,be+ widely di/ribut$ ov] _m localities diff]5t 9 soil & climate1 ! gr[? ( ! %ortleaf p9e seems mat]ially influ5c$ by location4 ,! wood f ! s\!rn coa/ & gulf region & ev5 ,arkansas is g5]ally heavi] ?an ! wood f localities f>!r nor?4 ,v light & f9e-gra9$ wood is seldom met ne> ! s\!rn limit ( ! range1 :ile x is almo/ ! rule 9 ,miss\ri1 :]e =ms resembl+ ! ,norway p9e are by no means r>e4 ,! loblolly1 occupy+ bo? wet & dry soils1 v>ies accord+ly4 ,cir4 ,no4 #ab1 p4 #f4 444 ,x is cle> t z all localities h _! heavy & _! light timb]1 s !y all %>e 9 /rong & weak1 h>d & s(t mat]ial1 & ! diff]5ce 9 quality ( mat]ial is evid5tly f> m a matt] ( individual v>iation ?an ( soil or climate4 ,ibid41 p4#bb ,a repres5tative committee ( ! ,c>riage ,build]s' ,association _h publicly decl>$ t ?is important indu/ry c\ld n dep5d ^u ! supplies ( s\!rn timb]1 z ! oak gr[n 9 ! ,s\? lack$ ! necess>y qualities dem&$ 9 c>riage con/ruction4 ,)\t exp]im5t ?is /atem5t c\ld be little bett] ?an a guess1 & 0 d\bly unw>rant$1 s9ce x condemn$ an enorm\s am\nt ( mat]ial1 & "o produc$ "u a great v>iety ( conditions & by at lea/ a doz5 species ( trees1 involv+1 !re=e1 a complexity ( problems difficult en\gh = ! c>eful inve/igator1 & entirely beyond ! few unsy/ematic obs]vations ( ! memb]s ( a committee on a fly+ trip ?r\gh "o ( ! greate/ timb] regions ( ! _w4 ,a numb] ( samples 7 at once collect$ 7"p ( !m suppli$ by ! c>riage build]s' committee71 & ! fallacy ( ! broad /atem5t m5tion$ 0 fully demon/rat$ by a %ort s]ies ( te/s & a m ext5sive /udy into /ructure & weight ( ^! mat]ials4 ,f ^! te/s x appe>s t pieces ( :ite oak f ,arkansas excell$ well-select$ pieces f ,connecticut1 bo? 9 /iffness & endwise compression 7! two mo/ important =ms ( resi/ance74 ,report ^u ! =e/ry inve/igations ( ! ,u4,s4,d4,a4 #ahgg-ahih1 p4 #cca4 ,see also ,rep4 ( ,div4 ( ,=41 #ahij1 p4 #bji4 ,9 "s regions !re are _m small1 /unt$ hickories1 :i* mo/ us]s w n t\*4 ,!y h n>r[ sap1 are likely to be birdpeck$1 & %[ v sl[ gr[?4 ,yet five ( ^! trees f a /eep1 dry s\? slope 9 ,we/ ,virg9ia _h an av]age /r5g? fully equal to t ( ! pignut f ! bett] situation1 & 7 sup]ior 9 t\ghness1 ! "w to maximum load be+ #cf4h z aga9/ #ca4b = pignut4 ,! trees _h ab\t twice z _m r+s p] in* z o!rs f bett] situations4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n v significant1 z trees ( ! same species1 age1 & size1 gr[+ side by side "u ! same conditions ( soil & situation1 %[ great v>iation 9 _! te*nical value4 ,x is h>d to acc\nt = ?is diff]5ce1 b x seems t trees gr[+ 9 wet or moi/ situations are r inf]ior to ^? gr[+ on fre%] soil2 also1 x is claim$ by _m hickory us]s t ! wood f lime/one soils is sup]ior to t f s&y soils4 ,"o ( ! moot que/ions among hickory m5 is ! relative value ( nor!rn & s\!rn hickory4 ,! impression prevails t s\!rn hickory is m por\s & bra% ?an hickory f ! nor?4 ,! te/s 444 indicate t s\!rn hickory is z t\gh & /rong z nor!rn hickory ( ! same age4 ,b ! s\!rn hickories h a great] t5d5cy to be %aky1 & ?is results 9 mu* wa/e4 ,9 trees f s\!rn riv] bottoms ! loss ?r\gh %akes & grub-holes 9 _m cases am\nts to z mu* z #ej p] c5t4 ,x is cle>1 !re=e1 t ! diff]5ce 9 nor!rn & s\!rn hickory is n due to geographic location1 b r to ! "* ( timb] t is be+ cut4 ,ne>ly all ( t f s\!rn riv] bottoms & f ! ,cumb]l& ,m\nta9s is f l>ge1 old-gr[? trees2 t f ! nor? is f y\ng] trees :i* are gr[n "u m favorable conditions1 & x is due simply to ! great] age ( ! s\!rn trees t hickory f t region is light] & m bra% ?an t f ! nor?4 ,bul4 #hj1 pp4 #eb-ee4 ,,season ,,( ,,cutt+ ,x is g5]ally believ$ t w9t]-fell$ timb] has decid$ advantages ov] t cut at o!r seasons ( ! ye>1 & to t cause alone are frequ5tly ascrib$ mu* great] durability1 less liability to *eck & split1 bett] color1 & ev5 increas$ /r5g? & t\ghness4 ,! conclusion f ! v>i\s exp]im5ts made on ! subject is t :ile ! "t ( fell+ may1 & (t5 does1 affect ! prop]ties ( wood1 su* result is due to ! wea!r conditions r ?an to ! condition ( ! wood4 ,!re are two phases ( ?is "q4 ,"o is conc]n$ ) ! physiological *anges :i* might take place dur+ ! ye> 9 ! wood ( a liv+ tree4 ,! o!r deals ) ! purely physical results due to ! wea!r1 z diff]5ces 9 temp]ature1 humidity1 moi/ure1 & o!r features to be m5tion$ lat]4 ,^? :o adh]e to ! fir/ view ma9ta9 t wood cut 9 summ] is q diff]5t 9 composition f t cut 9 w9t]4 ,"o op9ion is t 9 summ] ! sap is up1 :ile 9 w9t] x is d[n1 consequ5tly w9t]-fell$ timb] is dri]4 ,a v>iation ( ?is belief is t 9 summ] ! sap conta9s c]ta9 *emicals :i* affect ! prop]ties ( wood & does n conta9 !m 9 w9t]4 ,aga9 x is sometimes ass]t$ t wood is actually d5s] 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]1 z "p ( ! wood sub/ance is dissolv$ out 9 ! spr+ & us$ = plant food1 be+ re/or$ 9 ! fall4 ,x is obvi\s t su* views c\ld apply only to sapwood1 s9ce x alone is 9 liv+ condition at ! "t ( cutt+4 ,he>twood is dead wood & has almo/ no function 9 ! exi/5ce ( ! tree o!r ?an ! purely me*anical "o ( support4 ,he>twood does und]go *anges1 b !y are gradual & almo/ entirely indep5d5t ( ! seasons4 ,sapwood might reasonably be expect$ to respond to seasonal *anges1 & to "s ext5t x does4 ,j b5ea? ! b>k !re is a ?9 lay] ( cells :i* dur+ ! gr[+ season h n atta9$ _! greate/ d5sity4 ,) ! exception ( ?is "o annual r+1 or portion ( "o1 ! d5sity ( ! wood sub/ance ( ! sapwood is ne>ly ! same ! ye> r\nd4 ,slight v>iations may occur due to impregnation ) sug> & />* 9 ! w9t] & its dissolution 9 ! gr[+ season4 ,! "t ( cutt+ c h no mat]ial effect on ! inh]5t /r5g? & o!r me*anical prop]ties ( wood except 9 ! out]mo/ annual r+ ( gr[?4 ,! popul> belief t sap is up 9 ! spr+ & summ] & is d[n 9 ! w9t] has n be5 sub/antiat$ by exp]im5t4 ,!re are seasonal diff]5ces 9 ! composition ( sap1 b s f> z ! am\nt ( sap 9 a tree is conc]n$ !re is fully z mu*1 if n m1 dur+ ! w9t] ?an 9 summ]4 ,w9t]-cut wood is n dri]1 to beg9 )1 ?an summ]-fell$--9 reality1 x is likely to be wett]4#dg ,footnote #dg3 ,see ,record1 ,s4,j43 ,sap 9 relation to ! prop]ties ( wood4 ,proc4 ,am4 ,wood ,pres]v]s' ,assn41 ,baltimore1 ,md41 #aiac1 pp4 #afj-aff4 ,kempf]1 ,wm4 ,h43 ,! air-season+ ( timb]4 ,9 ,bul4 #afa1 ,am4 ,ry4 ,eng4 ,assn41 #aiac1 p4 #bad4 ,! important consid]ation 9 reg>d to ?is "q is ! s]ies ( circum/ances att5d+ ! h&l+ ( ! timb] aft] x is fell$4 ,wood dries m rapidly 9 summ] ?an 9 w9t]1 n because !re is less moi/ure at "o "t ?an ano!r1 b because ( ! high] temp]ature 9 summ]4 ,?is great] heat is (t5 accompani$ by l[ humidity1 & conditions are favorable = ! rapid removal ( moi/ure f ! expos$ portions ( wood4 ,wood dries by evaporation1 & o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ?is w proce$ mu* fa/] 9 hot wea!r ?an 9 cold4 ,x is a matt] ( common obs]vation t :5 wood dries x %r9ks1 & if %r9kage is n uni=m 9 all directions ! mat]ial pulls ap>t1 caus+ season *ecks4 7,see ,fig4 #bg47 ,if evaporation proce$s m rapidly on ! outside ?an inside1 ! great] %r9kage ( ! out] portions is b\nd to result 9 _m *ecks1 ! numb] & size increas+ ) ! degree ( inequality ( dry+4 ,9 cold wea!r1 dry+ proce$s sl[ly b uni=mly1 ?us all[+ ! wood elem5ts to adju/ !mselves ) ! lea/ am\nt ( ruptur+4 ,9 summ]1 dry+ proce$s rapidly & irregul>ly1 s t mat]ial season$ at t "t is m likely to split & *eck4 ,!re is less dang] ( sap rot :5 trees are fell$ 9 w9t] because ! fungus does n gr[ 9 ! v cold wea!r1 & ! lumb] has a *ance to season to bel[ ! dang] po9t be=e ! fungus gets a *ance to attack x4 ,if ! logs 9 ea* case c\ld be cut into lumb] imm$iately aft] fell+ & giv5 exactly ! same treatm5t1 = example1 kiln-dri$1 no diff]5ce due to ! season ( cutt+ w\ld be not$4 ,,wat] ,,cont5t#dh ,footnote #dh3 ,see ,tiemann1 ,h4,d43 ,effect ( moi/ure ^u ! /r5g? & /iffness ( wood4 ,bul4 #gj1 ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c41 #aijf2 also ,cir4 #ajh1 #aijg4 ,wat] occurs 9 liv+ wood 9 ?ree conditions1 namely3 7#a7 9 ! cell walls1 7#b7 9 ! protoplasmic cont5ts ( ! cells1 & 7#c7 z free wat] 9 ! cell cavities & spaces4 ,9 he>twood x occurs only 9 ! fir/ & la/ =ms4 ,wood t is ?or\ghly air-dri$ reta9s f #h to #af p] c5t ( wat] 9 ! cell walls1 & none1 or practically none1 9 ! o!r =ms4 ,ev5 ov5-dri$ wood reta9s a small p]c5tage ( moi/ure1 b = all except *emical purposes1 may be consid]$ absolutely dry4 ,! g5]al effect ( ! wat] cont5t ^u ! wood sub/ance is to r5d] x s(t] & m pliable4 ,a simil> effect ( common obs]vation is 9 ! s(t5+ action ( wat] on ra:ide1 pap]1 or clo?4 ,)9 c]ta9 limits ! great] ! wat] cont5t ! great] its s(t5+ effect4 ,dry+ produces a decid$ increase 9 ! /r5g? ( wood1 p>ticul>ly 9 small specim5s4 ,an extreme example is ! case ( a completely dry spruce block two in*es 9 section1 :i* w su/a9 a p]man5t load f\r times z great z t :i* a gre5 block ( ! same size w support4 ,! greate/ increase due to dry+ is 9 ! ultimate cru%+ /r5g?1 & /r5g? at ela/ic limit 9 endwise compression2 ^! are foll[$ by ! modulus ( rupture1 & /ress at ela/ic limit 9 cross-b5d+1 :ile ! modulus ( ela/icity is lea/ affect$4 ,^! ratios are %[n 9 ,table ,,xv1 b x is to be not$ t !y apply only to wood 9 a mu* dri] condition ?an is us$ 9 practice4 ,= air-dry wood ! ratios are consid]ably l[]1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! case ( ! ultimate /r5g? & ! ela/ic limit4 ,/iffness 7)9 ! ela/ic limit71 :ile foll[+ a simil> law1 is less affect$4 ,9 ! case ( %e> p>allel to ! gra91 ! g5]al effect ( dry+ is to increase ! /r5g?1 b ?is is (t5 (fset by small splits & *ecks caus$ by %r9kage4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,table ,,xv ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,effect ,,( ,,dry+ ,,on ,,! ,,me*anical ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,wood1 ,,%[n ,,9 ,,ratio ,,( ,,increase ,,due ,,to ,,r$uc+ ,,moi/ure ,,cont5t ,,f ,,! ,,gre5 ,,condition ,,to ,,kiln-,,dry 7#c4e ,,p] ,,c5t7 7,=e/ ,s]vice ,bul4 #gj1 p4 #hi7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,k9d ,,( ,,/r5g? ,longleaf ,spruce ,*e/nut p9e ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- 7#a7 7#b7 7#a7 7#b7 7#a7 7#b7 ,cru%+ /r5g? p>allel to gra9 #b4hi #b4fj #c4ga #c4da #b4hc #b4ee ,ela/ic limit 9 compression p>allel to gra9 #b4fj #b4cd #c4hj #c4di #b4dj #b4bf ,modulus ( rupture 9 b5d+ #b4ej #b4bj #b4ha #b4ej #b4ji #a4hb ,/ress at ela/ic limit 9 b5d+ #b4ij #b4ee #b4ij #b4eh #b4cj #b4jj ,cru%+ /r5g? at "r angles to gra9 #b4eh #b4dh ,%e>+ /r5g? p>allel to gra9 #b4ja #a4ia #b4jc #a4ie #a4ee #a4dg ,modulus ( ela/icity 9 compression p>allel to gra9 #a4fc #a4dg #b4bf #b4jh #a4dc #a4bi ,modulus ( ela/icity 9 b5d+ #a4ei #a4ce #a4dc #a4bc #a4dd #a4ba ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,note4--,! figures 9 ! fir/ column %[ ! relative increase 9 /r5g? betwe5 a gre5 specim5 & a kiln-dry specim5 ( equal size4 ,! figures 9 ! second column %[ ! relative increase ( /r5g? ( ! same block aft] be+ dri$ f a gre5 condition to #c4e p] c5t moi/ure1 correction hav+ be5 made = %r9kage4 ,t is1 9 ! fir/ column ! /r5g? values p] actual unit ( area are us$2 9 ! second ! values p] unit ( area ( gre5 wood :i* %r9ks to small] size :5 dri$4 ,see also ,cir4 #ajh1 ,fig4 #a1 p4 #h4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,! moi/ure cont5t has a decid$ be>+ also ^u ! mann] 9 :i* wood fails4 ,9 compression te/s on v dry specim5s ! entire piece splits sudd5ly into pieces be=e any buckl+ takes place 7see ,fig4 #i471 :ile ) wet mat]ial ! block gives way gradually1 due to ! buckl+ or b5d+ ( ! walls ( ! fibres along "o or m %e>+ planes4 7,see ,fig4 #ad47 ,9 b5d+ te/s on wet beams1 fir/ failure occurs by compression on top ( ! beam1 gradually ext5d+ d[nw>d t[>d ! neutral axis4 ,f9ally ! beam ruptures at ! bottom4 ,9 ! case ( v dry beams ! failure is usually by splitt+ or t5sion on ! "u side 7see ,fig4 #ag471 )\t compression on ! upp]1 & is (t5 sudd5 & )\t w>n+1 & ev5 :ile ! load is /ill increas+4 ,! effect v>ies some:at ) diff]5t species1 *e/nut1 = example1 becom+ m brittle ^u dry+ ?an d a%1 hemlock1 & longleaf p9e4 ,! t5sile /r5g? ( wood is lea/ affect$ by dry+1 z a rule4 ,9 dry+ wood no increase 9 /r5g? results until ! free wat] is evaporat$ & ! cell walls beg9 to dry#di4 ,?is critical po9t has be5 call$ ! fibre-saturation po9t4 7,see ,fig4 #bd47 ,conv]sely1 aft] ! cell walls are saturat$ ) wat]1 any increase 9 ! am\nt ( wat] absorb$ m]ely fills ! cavities & int]cellul> spaces1 & has no effect on ! me*anical prop]ties4 ,h5ce1 soak+ gre5 wood does n less5 its /r5g? unless ! wat] is heat$1 :]eupon a decid$ weak5+ results4 ,footnote #di3 ,! wood ( ,eucalyptus globulus 7blue gum7 appe>s to be an exception to ?is rule4 ,tiemann says3 ,! wood ( blue gum beg9s to %r9k imm$iately f ! gre5 condition1 ev5 at #gj to #ij p] c5t moi/ure cont5t1 in/ead ( f #cj or #be p] c5t z 9 o!r species ( h>dwoods4 ,proc4 ,soc4 ,am4 ,=41 ,wa%+ton1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,no4 #c1 ,oct41 #aiac1 p4 #cac4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,relation ( ! moi/ure cont5t to ! v>i\s /r5g? values ( spruce4 ,,fsp fibre-saturation po9t4 ,! /r5g!n+ effects ( dry+1 :ile v m>k$ 9 ! case ( small pieces1 may be fully (fset 9 /ructural timb]s by inh]5t weak5+ effects due to ! splitt+ ap>t ( ! wood elem5ts z a result ( irregul> %r9kage1 & 9 "s cases also to ! slitt+ ( ! cell walls 7see ,fig4 #be74 ,consequ5tly ) l>ge timb]s 9 comm]cial use x is unsafe to c\nt ^u any great] /r5g?1 ev5 aft] season+1 ?an t ( ! gre5 or fre% condition4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,cross section ( ! wood ( we/]n l>* %[+ fissures 9 ! ?ick-wall$ cells ( ! late wood4 ,highly magnifi$4 ,photo by ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4 ,9 gre5 wood ! cells are all intimately jo9$ toge!r & are at _! natural or normal size :5 saturat$ ) wat]4 ,! cell walls may be consid]$ z made up ( little p>ticles ) wat] betwe5 !m4 ,:5 wood is dri$ ! films ( wat] betwe5 ! p>ticles become ?9n] & ?9n] until almo/ entirely gone4 ,z a result ! cell walls gr[ ?9n] ) loss ( moi/ure1--9 o!r words1 ! cell %r9ks4 ,x is at once evid5t t if dry+ does n take place uni=mly ?r\gh\t an entire piece ( timb]1 ! %r9kage z a :ole _c be uni=m4 ,! process ( dry+ is f ! outside inw>d1 & if ! loss ( moi/ure at ! surface is met by a /eady capill>y curr5t ( wat] f ! inside1 ! %r9kage1 s f> z ! degree ( moi/ure affect$ x1 w\ld be uni=m4 ,9 ! be/ type ( dry kilns ?is condition is approximat$ by fir/ heat+ ! wood ?or\ghly 9 a moi/ atmosph]e be=e all[+ dry+ to beg94 ,9 air-season+ & 9 ord9>y dry kilns ?is condition too (t5 is n atta9$1 & ! result is t a dry %ell is =m$ :i* encloses a moi/ int]ior4 7,see ,fig4 #bf47 ,subsequ5t dry+ out ( ! inn] portion is r5d]$ m difficult by ?is case-h>d5$ condition4 ,z ! out] "p dries x is prev5t$ f %r9k+ by ! wet int]ior1 :i* is /ill at its greate/ volume4 ,?is out] portion mu/ ei!r *eck op5 or ! fibres become /ra9$ 9 t5sion4 ,if ?is out] %ell dries :ile ! fibres are ?us /ra9$ !y become set 9 ?is condition1 & are no long] 9 t5sion4 ,lat] :5 ! inn] "p dries1 x t5ds to %r9k away f ! h>d5$ out] %ell1 s t ! inn] fibres are n[ /ra9$ 9 t5sion & ! out] fibres are 9 compression4 ,if ! /ress exce$s ! cohesion1 num]\s cracks op5 up1 produc+ a honey-comb$ condition1 or holl[-horn+1 z x is call$4 ,if su* a case-h>d5$ /ick ( wood be resaw$1 ! two halves w cup f ! int]nal t5sion & ext]nal compression1 ) ! concave surface inw>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,progress ( dry+ ?r\gh\t ! l5g? ( a *e/nut beam1 ! black spots indicat+ ! pres5ce ( free wat] 9 ! wood4 ,! fir/ section at ! left 0 cut "o-f\r? in* f ! end1 ! next "o-half in*1 ! next "o in*1 & all ! o!rs "o in* ap>t4 ,! illu/ration %[s case-h>d5+ v cle>ly4 ,photo by ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4 ,= a giv5 surface area ! loss ( wat] f wood is always great] f ! ends ?an f ! sides1 due to ! fact t ! vessels & o!r wat]-c>ri]s are cut across1 all[+ ready entrance ( dry+ air & outlet = ! wat] vapor4 ,wat] does n fl[ out ( bo>ds & timb]s ( its own accord1 b mu/ be evaporat$1 ?\gh x may be =c$ out ( v sappy specim5s by heat4 ,9 dry+ a log or pole ) ! b>k on1 mo/ ( ! wat] mu/ be evaporat$ ?r\gh ! ends1 b 9 ! case ( peel$ timb]s & sawn bo>ds ! loss is greate/ f ! surface because ! area expos$ is s mu* great]4 ,! m rapid dry+ ( ! ends causes local %r9kage1 & 7 ! mat]ial suffici5tly pla/ic ! ends w\ld become bluntly tap]+4 ,! rigidity ( ! wood sub/ance prev5ts ?is & ! fibres are split ap>t4 ,lat]1 z ! rema9d] ( ! /ick dries _m ( ! *ecks w come toge!r1 ?\gh "s ( ! l>ge/ w rema9 & ev5 increase 9 size z ! dry+ proce$s4 7,see ,fig4 #bg47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,excessive season *eck+4 ,photo by ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4 ,a wood cell %r9ks v little l5g?wise4 ,a dry wood cell is1 !re=e1 practically ( ! same l5g? z x 0 9 a gre5 or saturat$ condition1 b is small] 9 cross section1 has ?9n] walls1 & a l>g] cavity4 ,x is at once evid5t t ?is fact makes %r9kage m irregul>1 = :]ev] cells cross ea* o!r at a decid$ angle !y w t5d to pull ap>t ^u dry+4 ,?is occurs :]ev] pi? rays & wood fibres meet4 ,a consid]able portion ( e wood is made up ( ^! rays1 :i* = ! mo/ "p h _! cells ly+ 9 a radial direction in/ead ( longitud9ally4 7,see ,frontispiece47 ,9 p9e1 ov] #ae1jjj ( ^! occur on a squ>e in* ( a tang5tial section1 & ev5 9 oak ! v l>ge rays :i* are readily visible to ! eye z flakes on qu>t]-saw$ mat]ial repres5t sc>cely "o p] c5t ( ! numb] :i* ! microscope reveals4 ,a pi? ray %r9ks 9 height & wid?1 t is1 v]tically & tang5tially z appli$ to ! position 9 a /&+ tree1 b v little 9 l5g? or radially4 ,! o!r elem5ts ( ! wood %r9k radially & tang5tially1 b almo/ none l5g?wise or v]tically z appli$ to ! tree4 ,"h1 !n1 we f9d ! %r9kage ( ! rays t5d+ to %ort5 a /ick ( wood1 :ile ! o!r cells resi/ x1 & ! t5d5cy ( a /ick to get small] 9 circumf]5ce is resi/$ by ! endwise reaction or ?ru/ ( ! rays4 ,only 9 a tang5tial direction1 or ar\nd ! /ick 9 direction ( ! annual r+s ( gr[?1 d ! two =ces co9cide4 ,ano!r factor to ! same end is t ! d5s] b&s ( late wood are cont9u\s 9 a tang5tial direction1 :ile radially !y are sep>at$ by alt]nate zones ( less d5se e>ly wood4 ,consequ5tly ! %r9kage along ! r+s 7tang5tial7 is fully twice z mu* z t[>d ! c5tre 7radial74 7,see ,table ,,xiv47 ,?is expla9s :y "s cracks op5 m & m z dry+ advances4 7,see ,fig4 #bg47 ,al?\gh actual %r9kage 9 l5g? is small1 nev]!less ! t5d5cy ( ! rays to %ort5 a /ick produces /ra9s :i* are responsible = "s ( ! splitt+ op5 ( ties1 po/s1 & saw$ timb]s ) box he>t4 ,at ! v c5tre ( a tree ! wood is light & weak1 :ile f>!r out x becomes d5s] & /rong]4 ,longitud9al %r9kage is accord+ly lea/ at ! c5tre & great] t[>d ! outside1 t5d+ to become greate/ 9 ! sapwood4 ,:5 a r\nd or a box-he>t timb] dries fa/ x splits radially1 & z dry+ cont9ues ! cleft wid5s p>tly on acc\nt ( ! great] tang5tial %r9kage & also because ! great] contraction ( ! out] fibres w>ps ! sections ap>t4 ,if a small h>dwood /em is split :ile gre5 = a %ort di/ance at ! end & plac$ :]e x c dry out rapidly1 ! sections w become b[-%ap$ ) ! concave sides out4 ,^! v>i\s facts1 tak5 toge!r1 expla9 :y1 = example1 an oak tie1 pole1 or log may split op5 its entire l5g? if dry+ proce$s rapidly & f> en\gh4 ,initial /resses 9 ! liv+ trees produce a simil> effect :5 ! log is sawn into bo>ds4 ,?is is especially s 9 ,eucalyptus globulus & to a less ext5t ) any rapidly gr[n wood4 ,! use ( ,s-%ap$ ?9 /eel clamps to prev5t l>ge *ecks & splits is n[ a common practice 9 ?is c\ntry ) cros/ies & poles z x has be5 = a long "t 9 ,european c\ntries4 ,^! devices are driv5 into ! butts ( ! timb]s s z to cross incipi5t *ecks & prev5t _! wid5+4 ,9 place ( ! regul> ,s-hook ano!r ( crimp$ iron has be5 devis$4 7,see ,fig4 #bh47 ,?9 /raps ( iron ) "o tap]$ edge are run betwe5 int]me%+ cogs & crimp$1 aft] :i* !y may be cut (f any l5g? desir$4 ,! "t = driv+ ,s-irons ( ei!r =m is :5 ! cracks fir/ appe>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,control ( season *eck+ by ! use ( ,s-irons4 ,photo by ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4 ,! t5d5cy ( logs to split emphasizes ! importance ( conv]t+ !m into planks or timb]s :ile 9 a gre5 condition4 ,o!rwise ! pres5ce ( l>ge *ecks may r5d] mu* lumb] wor?less :i* might h be5 cut out 9 good condition4 ,! loss w\ld n be s great if logs 7 p]fectly /raight-gra9$1 b ?is is seldom ! case1 mo/ trees gr[+ m or less spirally or irregul>ly4 ,l>ge pieces crack m ?an small] ones1 qu>t]$ lumb] less ?an t saw$ ?r\gh & ?r\gh1 ?9 pieces1 especially v5e]s1 less ?an ?ick] bo>ds4 ,9 ord] to prev5t cracks at ! ends ( bo>ds1 small /raps ( wood may be nail$ on !m or !y may be pa9t$4 ,?is me?od is usually consid]$ too exp5sive1 except 9 ! case ( valuable mat]ial4 ,squ>es us$ = %uttles1 furniture1 gun-/ocks1 & tool h&les %\ld always be protect$ at ! ends4 ,"o ( ! be/ means is to dip !m into melt$ p>aff9e1 :i* seals ! ends & prev5ts loss ( moi/ure !re4 ,ano!r me?od is to glue pap] on ! ends4 ,9 "s cases abroad pap] is glu$ on to all ! surfaces ( valuable exotic balks4 ,o!r sub/ances sometimes employ$ = ! purpose ( seal+ ! wood are grease1 c>bol9eum1 wax1 clay1 petroleum1 l9se$ oil1 t>1 & soluble glass4 ,9 place ( solid beams1 built-up mat]ial is (t5 pref]able1 z ! disa/r\s results ( season *ecks are !reby l>gely ov]come or m9imiz$4 ,,temp]ature ,! effect ( temp]ature on wood dep5ds v l>gely ^u ! moi/ure cont5t ( ! wood & ! surr\nd+ m$ium4 ,if absolutely dry wood is heat$ 9 absolutely dry air ! wood exp&s4 ,! ext5t ( ?is expansion is d5ot$ by a coeffici5t correspond+ to ! increase 9 l5g? or o!r dim5sions = ea* degree rise 9 temp]ature divid$ by ! orig9al l5g? or o!r dim5sion ( ! specim54 ,! coeffici5t ( l9e> expansion ( oak has be5 f\nd to be 4#jjjjjdib2 radial expansion1 4#jjjjedd1 or ab\t elev5 times ! longitud9al4 ,spruce exp&s less ?an oak1 ! ratio ( radial to longitud9al expansion be+ ab\t six to "o4 ,metals & glass exp& equally 9 all directions1 s9ce !y are homog5e\s sub/ances1 :ile wood is a complicat$ /ructure4 ,! coeffici5t ( expansion ( iron is 4#jjjjbhe1 or ne>ly six times ! coeffici5t ( l9e> expansion ( oak & sev5 times t ( spruce#ej4 ,footnote #ej3 ,see ,s*li*'s ,manual ( ,=e/ry1 ,vol4 ,v4 7rev4 ed471 p4 #ge4 ,"u ord9>y conditions wood conta9s m or less moi/ure1 s t ! application ( heat has a dry+ effect :i* is accompani$ by %r9kage4 ,?is %r9kage completely obscures ! expansion due to ! heat+4 ,exp]im5ts made at ! ,yale ,=e/ ,s*ool reveal$ ! effect ( temp]ature on ! cru%+ /r5g? ( wet wood4 ,9 ! case ( wet *e/nut wood ! /r5g? decreases #j4db p] c5t = ea* degree ! wat] is heat$ above #fj ,f42 9 ! case ( spruce ! decrease is #j4cb p] c5t4 ,! effects ( high temp]ature on wet wood are v m>k$4 ,boil+ produces a condition ( great pliability1 especially 9 ! case ( h>dwoods4 ,if wood 9 ?is condition is b5t & all[$ to dry1 x rigidly reta9s ! %ape ( ! b5d1 ?\gh its /r5g? may be some:at r$uc$4 ,except 9 ! case ( v dry wood ! effect ( cold is to increase ! /r5g? & /iffness ( wood4 ,! freez+ ( any free wat] 9 ! pores ( ! wood w augm5t ^! conditions4 ,! effect ( /eam+ ^u ! /r5g? ( cross-ties 0 inve/igat$ by ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice 9 #aijd4 ,! conclusions 7 summ>iz$ z foll[s3 7#a7 ,! /eam at pressure up to #dj p\nds appli$ = #d h\rs1 or at a pressure ( #bj p\nds up to #bj h\rs1 increases ! weight ( ties4 ,at #dj p\nds' pressure appli$ = #d h\rs & at #bj p\nds = #e h\rs ! wood began to be scor*$4 7#b7 ,! /eam$ & saturat$ wood1 :5 te/$ imm$iately aft] treatm5t1 exhibit$ weaknesses 9 proportion to ! pressure & duration ( /eam+4 7,see ,table ,,xvi47 ,if all[$ to air-dry subsequ5tly ! specim5s rega9$ ! great] "p ( _! /r5g?1 provid$ ! pressure & duration _h n exce$$ ^? cit$ "u 7#a74 ,subsequ5t imm]sion 9 wat] ( ! /eam$ wood & dri$ specim5s %[$ t !y 7 weak] ?an natural wood simil>ly dri$ & resoak$4#ea ,footnote #ea3 ,cir4 #ci4 ,exp]im5ts on ! /r5g? ( treat$ timb]1 p4 #ah4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,table ,,xvi ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,effect ,,( ,,/eam+ ,,on ,,! ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,gre5 ,,loblolly ,,p9e 7,=e/ ,s]vice1 ,cir4 #ci7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,cyl9d] conditions ,/r5g? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------- ,/eam+ ,/atic ,impact ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,av]age ,treatm5t ,b5d+ ,compres- ,height ( ! modulus sion ( drop ?ree ,p]iod ,pressure ,temp]ature ( p>allel caus+ /r5g?s rupture to gra9 complete failure ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,lbs4 p] ,p] c5t ,p] c5t ,p] c5t ,p] c5t ,hrs4 sq4 in* ,f4 ,untreat$ wood #ajj ,/eam1 #d #bcj;a #ia4c #gi4a #if4d #hh4i at #d #aj #bch #gh4b #ic4g #ic4c #hh4d v>i\s #d #bj #bec #hc4c #hd4b #ia4d #hj4h pressures #d #cj #bfi #hj4d #gh4d #hi4h #hb4i #d #dj #bhc #gh4a #gd4d #gd4j #ge4e #d #ej #bib #ge4h #ga4e #fc4i #gj4d #d #ajj #ccg #da4d #fe4j #ee4b #ec4i ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,/eam1 #a #bj #beg #ajj4f #ih4f #hf4g #ie4c = #b #bj #bfg #hh4d #ic4j #ajg4j #if4a v>i\s #c #bj #bfj #ij4j #ic4f #hd4a #hi4b p]iods #d #bj #bec #hc4c #hd4b #ia4d #hf4c #e #bj #bec #he4j #gh4a #hd4b #hb4d #f #bj #bdb #ie4b #hi4h #gf4j #hg4j #aj #bj #bee #gc4g #hb4j #gf4j #gg4b #bj #bj #beh #fg4e #fe4j #ii4j #gg4b ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,footnote a3 ,x w be not$ t ! temp]ature 0 #bcj4 ,?is is ! maximum temp]ature by ! maximum-temp]ature record+ !rmomet]1 & is due to ! h&l+ ( ! exhau/ valve4 ,! av]age temp]ature 0 t ( exhau/ /eam4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- 7#c7 ,a high degree ( /eam+ is injuri\s to wood 9 /r5g? & spike-hold+ p[]4 ,! degree ( /eam+ at :i* pron\nc$ h>m results w dep5d ^u ! quality ( ! wood & its degree ( season+1 & ^u ! pressure 7temp]ature7 ( /eam & ! duration ( its application4 ,= loblolly p9e ! limit ( safety is c]ta9ly #cj p\nds = #d h\rs1 or #bj p\nds = #f h\rs4#eb ,footnote #eb3 ,ibid41 p4 #ba4 ,see also ,cir4 #ajh1 p4 #ai1 table #e4 ,exp]im5ts made at ! ,yale ,=e/ ,s*ool %[$ t /eam+ above #cj p\nds' gauge pressure r$uces ! /r5g? ( wood p]man5tly :ile wet f #be to #ge p] c5t4 ,,pres]vatives ,! exact effects ( *emical impregnation ^u ! me*anical prop]ties ( wood h n be5 fully det]m9$1 ?\gh !y h be5 ! subject ( consid]able inve/igation4#ec ,m dep5ds ^u ! me?od ( treatm5t ?an ^u ! pres]vatives us$4 ,?us prelim9>y /eam+ at too high pressure or = too long a p]iod w mat]ially weak5 ! wood1 7,see ,,temp]ature1 above47 ,footnote #ec3 ,hatt1 ,w4 ,k43 ,exp]im5ts on ! /r5g? ( treat$ timb]4 ,cir4 #ci1 ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 #aijf1 p4 #ca4 ,! pres5ce ( z9c *loride does n weak5 wood "u /atic load+1 al?\gh ! indications are t ! wood becomes brittle "u impact4 ,if ! solution is too /rong x w decompose ! wood4 ,soak+ 9 creosote oil causes wood to swell1 & accord+ly decreases ! /r5g? to "s ext5t1 b n ne>ly s mu* s z soak+ 9 wat]4#ed ,footnote #ed3 ,teesdale1 ,clyde ,,ii43 ,! absorption ( creosote by ! cell walls ( wood4 ,cir4 #bjj1 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 #aiab1 p4 #g4 ,soak+ 9 k]os5e seems to h no significant weak5+ effect4#ee ,footnote #ee3 ,tiemann1 ,h4,d43 ,effect ( moi/ure ^u ! /r5g? & /iffness ( wood4 ,bul4 #gj1 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 #aijg1 pp4 #abb-abc1 tables #dc-dd4 ,,"p ,,iii ,,timb] ,,te/+#ef ,footnote #ef3 ,! me?ods ( timb] te/+ describ$ "h are = ! mo/ "p ^? employ$ by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4 ,see ,cir4 #ch 7rev4 ed471 #aiji4 ,,work+ ,,plan ,prelim9>y to mak+ a s]ies ( timb] te/s x is v important t a work+ plan be prep>$ z a guide to ! inve/igation4 ,?is %\ld embrace3 7#a7 ! purpose ( ! te/s2 7#b7 k9d1 size1 condition1 & am\nt ( mat]ial ne$$2 7#c7 full description ( ! sy/em ( m>k+ ! pieces2 7#d7 details ( any special app>atus & me?ods employ$2 7#e7 propos$ me?od ( analyz+ ! data obta9$ & ! nature ( ! f9al report4 ,great c>e %\ld be tak5 9 ! prep>ation ( ?is plan 9 ord] t all problems aris+ may be anticipat$ s f> z possible & delays & unnecess>y "w avoid$4 ,a compreh5sive /udy ( previ\s inve/igations along ! same or relat$ l9es %\ld prove v helpful 9 outl9+ ! "w & prep>+ ! report4 7,= sample work+ plan see ,app5dix47 ,,=ms ,,( ,,mat]ial ,,te/$ ,9 g5]al1 f\r =ms ( mat]ial are te/$1 namely3 7#a7 l>ge timb]s1 su* z bridge /r+]s1 c> sills1 l>ge beams1 & o!r pieces five feet or m 9 l5g?1 ( actual sizes & grades 9 common use2 7#b7 built-up /ructural =ms & fa/5+s1 su* z built-up beams1 trusses1 & v>i\s k9d ( jo9ts2 7#c7 small cle> pieces1 su* z are us$ 9 compression1 %e>1 cleavage1 & small cross-break+ te/s2 7#d7 manufactur$ articles1 su* z axles1 spokes1 %afts1 wagon-tongues1 cross-arms1 insulator p9s1 b>rels1 & pack+ boxes4 ,z ! moi/ure cont5t is ( fundam5tal importance 7see ,,wat] ,,cont5t1 above471 all /&>d te/s are usually made 9 ! gre5 condition4 ,ano!r s]ies is also usually run 9 an air-dry condition ( ab\t #ab p] c5t moi/ure4 ,9 all cases ! moi/ure is v c>efully det]m9$ & /at$ ) ! results 9 ! tables4 ,,size ,,( ,,te/ ,,specim5s ,! size ( ! te/ specim5 mu/ be gov]n$ l>gely by ! purpose = :i* ! te/ is made4 ,if ! effect ( a s+le factor1 su* z moi/ure1 is ! object ( exp]im5t1 x is necess>y to use small pieces ( wood 9 ord] to elim9ate s f> z possible all di/urb+ factors4 ,if ! specim5s are too l>ge1 x is impossible to secure en\gh p]fect pieces f "o tree to =m a s]ies = v>i\s te/s4 ,moreov]1 ! dry+ process ) l>ge timb]s is v difficult & irregul>1 & requires a long p]iod ( "t1 besides caus+ *ecks & int]nal /resses :i* may obscure ! results obta9$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! small] ! dim5sions ( ! te/ specim5 ! great] becomes ! relative effect ( ! inh]5t factors affect+ ! me*anical prop]ties4 ,= example1 ! effect ( a knot ( giv5 size is m s]i\s 9 a small /ick ?an 9 a l>ge "o4 ,moreov]1 ! small] ! specim5 ! few] gr[? r+s x conta9s1 h5ce !re is great] opportunity = v>iation due to irregul>ities ( gra94 ,te/s on l>ge timb]s are consid]$ necess>y to furni% design]s data on ! probable /r5g? ( ! diff]5t sizes & grades ( timb] on ! m>ket2 _! coeffici5ts ( ela/icity "u b5d+ 7s9ce ! /iffness r ?an ! /r5g? (t5 det]m9es ! size ( a beam72 & ! mann] ( failure1 :e!r 9 b5d+ fibre /ress or horizontal %e>4 ,x is believ$ t ?is in=mation c only be obta9$ by direct te/s on ! diff]5t grades ( c> sills1 /r+]s1 & o!r mat]ial 9 common use4 ,:5 small pieces are select$ = te/ !y v (t5 are cle> & /raight-gra9$1 & ?us ( s mu* bett] grade ?an ! l>ge /icks t te/s ^u !m may n yield unit values applicable to ! l>g] sizes4 ,ext5sive exp]im5ts %[1 h[ev]1 7#a7 t ! modulus ( ela/icity is approximately ! same = l>ge timb]s z = small cle> specim5s cut f !m1 & 7#b7 t ! fibre /ress at ela/ic limit = l>ge beams is1 except 9 ! weake/ timb]s1 practically equal to ! cru%+ /r5g? ( small cle> pieces ( ! same mat]ial4#eg ,footnote #eg3 ,bul4 #ajh1 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice3 ,te/s ( /ructural timb]s1 pp4 #ec-ed4 ,,moi/ure ,,det]m9ation ,9 ord] = te/s to be comp>able1 x is necess>y to "k ! moi/ure cont5t ( ! specim5s at ! zone ( failure4 ,?is is det]m9$ f disks an in* ?ick cut f ! timb] imm$iately aft] te/+4 ,9 cases1 z 9 l>ge beams1 :]e x is desirable to "k n only ! av]age moi/ure cont5t b also its di/ribution ?r\gh ! timb]1 ! disks are cut up s z to obta9 an outside1 a middle1 & an inn] portion1 ( approximately equal areas4 ,?us 9 a section #aj x #ab ! out] /rip w\ld be "o in* wide1 & ! second "o a little m ?an an in* & a qu>t]4 ,moi/ure det]m9ations are made = ea* ( ! ?ree portions sep>ately4 ,! proc$ure is z foll[s3 7#a7 ,imm$iately aft] saw+1 loose spl9t]s are remov$ & ea* section is weigh$4 7#b7 ,! mat]ial is put into a dry+ ov5 at #ajj ,c4 7#bab ,f47 & dri$ until ! v>iation 9 weight = a p]iod ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs is less ?an #j4e p] c5t4 7#c7 ,! disk is aga9 c>efully weigh$4 7#d7 ,! loss 9 weight express$ 9 p] c5t ( ! dry weight indicates ! moi/ure cont5t ( ! specim5 f :i* ! specim5 0 cut4 ,,ma*9e ,,= ,,/atic ,,te/s ,! /&>d screw ma*9es us$ = metal te/s are also us$ = wood1 b 9 ! case ( wood te/s ! read+s mu/ be tak5 on ! fly1 & ! ma*9e op]at$ at a uni=m spe$ )\t int]ruption f beg9n+ to end ( ! te/4 ,?is is on acc\nt ( ! "t factor 9 ! /r5g? ( wood4 7,see ,,spe$ ,,( ,,te/+ ,,ma*9e1 bel[47 ,! /&>d ma*9es = /atic te/s c be us$ = transv]se b5d+1 compression1 t5sion1 %e>1 & cleavage4 ,a common =m consi/s ( ?ree ma9 p>ts1 namely3 7#a7 ! /ra9+ me*anism1 7#b7 ! weigh+ app>atus1 & 7#c7 ! ma*9]y = communicat+ motion to ! screws4 ,! /ra9+ me*anism consi/s ( two p>ts1 "o ( :i* is a movable cros%ead op]at$ by f\r 7sometimes two or ?ree7 upright /eel /ra9+ screws :i* pass ?r\gh op5+s 9 ! plat=m & be> upw>d on ! b$ ( ! ma*9e ^u :i* ! weigh+ plat=m re/s z a fulcrum4 ,at ! l[] ends ( ^! screws are ge>$ nuts all rotat$ simultane\sly by a sy/em ( ge>s :i* cause ! movable cros%ead to rise & fall z desir$4 ,! /ation>y "p ( ! /ra9+ me*anism1 :i* is us$ only = t5sion & cleavage te/s1 consi/s ( a /eel cage above ! movable cros%ead & re/s directly ^u ! weigh+ plat=m4 ,! top ( ! cage conta9s a squ>e hole into :i* "o end ( ! te/ specim5 may be clamp$1 ! cros%ead conta9+ a simil> clamp = ! o!r end1 9 mak+ t5sion te/s4 ,= te/+ long beams a special =m ( ma*9e ) an ext5d$ plat=m is us$4 7,see ,fig4 #bi47 ,! weigh+ plat=m re/s ^u knife edges c>ri$ by prim>y lev]s ( ! weigh+ app>atus1 ! fulcrum be+ on ! b$ ( ! ma*9e1 & any pressure ^u x is directly transmitt$ ?r\gh a s]ies ( lev]s to ! weigh+ beam4 ,?is beam is adju/$ by means ( a poise runn+ on a screw4 ,9 op]ation ! beam is kept float+ by means ( ano!r poise mov$ back & =? by a screw :i* is op]at$ by a h& :eel or automatically4 ,! l>g] units ( /ress are read f ! graduations along ! side ( ! beam1 :ile ! int]m$iate small] weights are obs]v$ on ! dial on ! re> end ( ! beam4 ,! ma*9e is driv5 by p[] f a %aft or a motor & is s ge>$ t v>i\s spe$s are obta9able4 ,"o man c op]ate x4 ,9 mak+ te/s ! op]ation ( ! /ra9+ screws is always d[nw>d s z to br+ pressure to be> ^u ! weigh+ plat=m4 ,= te/s 9 t5sion & cleavage ! specim5 is plac$ betwe5 ! top ( ! /ation>y cage & ! movable head & subject$ to a pull4 ,= te/s 9 transv]se b5d+1 compression1 & cleavage ! specim5 is plac$ betwe5 ! movable head & ! plat=m1 & a direct compression =ce appli$4 ,te/+ ma*9es are usually calibrat$ to a portion ( _! capacity be=e leav+ ! factory4 ,! delicacy ( ! weigh+ lev]s is v]ifi$ by det]m9+ ! numb] ( p\nds necess>y to move ! beam betwe5 ! /ops :ile a load ( #a1jjj p\nds re/s on ! plat=m4 ,! usual requirem5t is t t5 p\nds %\ld accompli% ?is movem5t4 ,! size ( ma*9e suitable = compression te/s on #b ,x #b /icks or = #b ,x #b beams ) #bf to #cf-;in* span has a capacity ( #cj1jjj p\nds4 ,,spe$ ,,( ,,te/+ ,,ma*9e ,9 in/ructions = mak+ /atic te/s ! rate ( application ( ! /ress1 i4e41 ! spe$ ( ! ma*9e1 is giv5 because ! /r5g? ( wood v>ies ) ! spe$ at :i* ! fibres are /ra9$4 ,! spe$ ( ! cros%ead ( ! te/+ ma*9e is practically nev] con/ant1 due to me*anical defects ( ! app>atus & v>iations 9 ! spe$ ( ! motor1 b s long z x does n exce$ #be p] c5t ! results w n be appreciably affect$4 ,9 fact1 a *ange 9 spe$ ( #ej p] c5t w n cause ! /r5g? ( ! wood to v>y m ?an #b p] c5t4#eh ,footnote #eh3 ,see ,tiemann1 ,h>ry ,donald3 ,! effect ( ! spe$ ( te/+ ^u ! /r5g? & ! /&>dization ( te/s = spe$4 ,proc4 ,am4 ,soc4 = ,te/+ ,mat]ials1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,philadelphia1 #aijh4 ,foll[+ are ! =mul us$ 9 det]m9+ ! spe$ ( ! movable head ( ! ma*9e 9 in*es p] m9ute 7n73 7#a7 ,= endwise compression n ,z l ,z l#b 7#b7 ,= beams 7c5tre load+7 n --------- #f;h ,z l#b 7#c7 ,= beams 7?ird-po9tload+7 n --------- #e4d;h ,z rate ( fibre /ra9 p] in* ( fibre l5g?4 l span ( beam or l5g? ( compression specim54 h height ( beam4 ,! values commonly us$ = ,z are z foll[s3 ,b5d+ l>ge beams ,z #j4jjjg ,b5d+ small beams ,z #j4jjae ,endwise compression-l>ge specim5s ,z #j4jjae ,endwise compression-small ,z #j4jjc ,"r-angl$ compression-l>ge ,z #j4jjg ,"r-angl$ compression-small ,z #j4jae ,%e>+ p>allel to ! gra9 ,z #j4jae ,example3 ,at :at spe$ %\ld ! cros%ead move to give ! requir$ rate ( fibre /ra9 9 te/+ a small beam #b ,x #b ,x #cj4 7,span #bh47 ,sub/itut+ ^! values 9 equation 7#b7 above3 7#j4jjae ,x #bhb7 n ----------------- #j4a in* p] m9ute4 7#f ,x #b7 ,9 ord] t te/s may be intellig5tly comp>$1 x is important t acc\nt be tak5 ( ! spe$ at :i* ! /ress 0 appli$4 ,9 det]m9+ ! basis = a ratio betwe5 "t & /r5g? ! rate ( /ra91 :i* is controllable1 & n ! ratio ( /ress1 :i* is circum/antial1 %\ld be us$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! rate at :i* ! movable head ( ! te/+ ma*9e desc5ds & n ! rate ( increase 9 ! load is to be regulat$4 ,?is ratio1 to :i* ! "n spe$-/r5g? modulus has be5 giv51 may be express$ z a coeffici5t :i*1 if multipli$ into any proportional *ange 9 spe$1 w give ! proportional *ange 9 /r5g?4 ,?is ratio is d]iv$ f empirical curves4 7,see ,table ,,xvii47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,table ,,xvii ,,table ,,xvii ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,spe$-,,/r5g? ,,moduli ,,& ,,relative ,,increase ,,9 ,,/r5g? ,,at ,,rates ,,( ,,fibre ,,/ra9 ,,increas+ ,,9 ,,geometrical ,,ratio4 7,tiemann1 loc4 cit47 7,values 9 p>5!ses are approximate7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,rate ( fibre /ra94 ,t5-?\s&?s in* #b_/c #b #f #ah #ed #afb #dhf p] m9ute p] in* ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,c ,spe$ ( cros%ead4 ,o ,in*es p] m9ute #j4jjjchc #j4jjaae #j4jjcde #j4jajc #j4jcaj #j4jica 4#bgi ,m ,p ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,r ,specim5s ,wet ,dry ,all ,wet ,dry ,all ,wet ,dry ,all ,wet ,dry ,all ,wet ,dry ,all ,wet ,dry ,all ,wet ,dry ,all ,e ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,s ,relative ,s cru%+ #ajj4j #ajj4j #ajj4j #ajc4d #ajj4h #aja4e #ajg4e #ajb4g #ajc4h #aac4i #aje4e #ajg4i #aba4c #ajh4c #aaf4d #abh4h #aaj4j #aah4i ,i /r5g? ,o ,n ,spe$-/r5g? #j4jag 7#j4jjf77j4jji7 #j4jcc #j4jab #j4jaf #j4jdg #j4jba #j4jbi #j4jec #j4jbg #j4jci #j4jfj #j4jbc #j4jdi 7#j4jeb77j4jae77j4jdj7 modulus1 ,t ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,spe$ ( cros%ead4 ,in*es p] m9ute #j4jjgb #j4jbaf #j4jfdh #j4aid #j4ehc #a4ge #e4be ,b ,e ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,n ,specim5s ,wet ,dry ,all ,wet ,dry ,all ,wet ,dry ,all ,wet ,dry ,all ,wet ,dry ,all ,wet ,dry ,all ,wet ,dry ,all ,d ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,i ,relative ,n cru%+ #ig4d #ii4j #ih4b #ajj4j #ajj4j #ajj4j #aje4a #ajb4a #ajc4g #aaa4c #aje4h #ajh4a #aag4i #ajh4f #aab4g #abc4g #aji4f #aaf4c #abf4c #aaj4c #aah4i ,g /r5g? ,spe$-/r5g? 7#j4jad77j4jje7 #j4jab #j4jcc #j4jad #j4jbf #j4jdi #j4jbf #j4jcg #j4jec #j4jcc #j4jch #j4jdi #j4jad #j4jce #j4jch #j4jjf #j4jbe 7#j4jbc77j4jjd77j4jad7 modulus1 ,t ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,note4--,! usual spe$s ( te/+ at ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice laboratory are at rates ( fibre /ra9 ( #ae & #aj t5-?\s&?s 94 p] m94 p] 94 = compression & b5d+ respectively4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,b5d+ ,,l>ge ,,beams ,app>atus3 ,a /atic b5d+ ma*9e 7describ$ above71 ) a special cros%ead = ?ird-po9t load+ & a long plat=m be>+ knife-edge supports1 is requir$4 7,see ,fig4 #bi47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,/atic b5d+ te/ on l>ge beam4 ,note arrangem5t ( wire & scale = measur+ deflection2 also me?od ( apply+ load at ?ird-po9ts4 ,prep>+ ! mat]ial3 ,/&>d sizes & grades ( beams & timb]s 9 common use are employ$4 ,! ends are r\ghly squ>$ & ! specim5 weigh$ & measur$1 tak+ ! cross-sectional dim5sions midway ( ! l5g?4 ,weights %\ld be to ! ne>e/ p\nd1 l5g?s to ! ne>e/ #j4a in*1 & cross-sectional dim5sions to ! ne>e/ #j4ja in*4 ,m>k+ & sket*+3 ,! butt end ( ! beam is m>k$ ,a & ! top end ,b4 ,:ile fac+ ,a1 ! top side is m>k$ a1 ! "r h& b1 ! bottom c1 ! left h& d4 ,sket*es are made ( ea* side & end1 %[+ 7#a7 size1 location1 & condition ( knots1 *ecks1 splits1 & o!r defects2 7#b7 irregul>ities ( gra92 7#c7 di/ribution ( he>twood & sapwood2 & on ! ends3 7#d7 ! location ( ! pi? & ! arrangem5t ( ! gr[? r+s1 7#e7 numb] ( r+s p] in*1 & 7#f7 ! proportion ( late wood4 ,! numb] ( r+s p] in* & ! proportion ( late wood %\ld always be det]m9$ along a radius or a l9e normal to ! r+s4 ,! av]age numb] ( r+s p] in* is ! total numb] ( r+s divid$ by ! l5g? ( ! l9e cross+ !m4 ,! proportion ( late wood is equal to ! sum ( ! wid?s ( ! late wood cross$ by ! l9e1 divid$ by ! l5g? ( ! l9e4 ,r+s p] in* %\ld be to ! ne>e/ #j4a2 late wood to ! ne>e/ #j4a p] c5t4 ,s9ce 9 l>ge beams a great v>iation 9 rate ( gr[? & relative am\nt ( late wood is likely 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! section1 x is advisable to consid] ! cross section 9 ?ree volumes1 namely1 ! upp] & l[] qu>t]s & ! middle half4 ,! det]m9ation %\ld be made ^u ea* volume sep>ately1 & ! av]age = ! entire cross section obta9$ f ^! results4 ,at ! conclusion ( ! te/ ! failure1 z x appe>s on ea* surface1 is trac$ on ! sket*es1 ) ! failures numb]$ 9 ! ord] ( _! occurr5ce4 ,if ! beam is subsequ5tly cut up & us$ = o!r te/s an additional sket* may be desirable to %[ ! location ( ea* piece4 ,adju/+ specim5 9 ma*9e3 ,! beam is plac$ 9 ! ma*9e ) ! side m>k$ a on top1 & ) ! ends project+ equally beyond ! supports4 ,9 ord] to prev5t cru%+ ( ! fibre at ! po9ts :]e ! /ress is appli$ x is necess>y to use be>+ blocks ( maple or o!r h>d wood ) a convex surface 9 contact ) ! beam4 ,roll] be>+s %\ld be plac$ betwe5 ! be>+ blocks & ! knife edges ( ! cros%ead to all[ = ! %ort5+ due to flexure4 7,see ,fig4 #bi47 ,?ird-po9t load+ is us$1 t is1 ! load is appli$ at two po9ts "o-?ird ! span ( ! beam ap>t4 7,see ,fig4 #cj47 ,?is af=ds a uni=m b5d+ mom5t ?r\gh\t ! c5tral ?ird ( ! beam4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,two me?ods ( load+ a beam1 namely1 ?ird-po9t load+ 7upp]71 & c5tre load+ 7l[]74 ,measur+ ! deflection3 ,! me?od ( measur+ ! deflection %\ld be su* t any compression at ! po9ts ( support or at ! application ( ! load w n affect ! read+4 ,?is may be accompli%$ by driv+ a small nail ne> ea* end ( ! beam1 ! exact location be+ on ! neutral plane & v]tically above ea* knife-edge support4 ,betwe5 ^! nails a f9e wire is /ret*$ free ( ! beam & kept taut by means ( a rubb] b& or coil$ spr+ on "o end4 ,beh9d ! wire at a po9t on ! beam midway betwe5 ! supports a /eel scale graduat$ to hundr$?s ( an in* is fa/5$ v]tically by means ( ?umb-tacks or small screws pass+ ?r\gh holes 9 x4 ,atta*m5t %\ld be made on ! neutral plane4 ,! fir/ read+ is made :5 ! scale beam is balanc$ at z]o load1 & aft]w>d at regul> increm5ts ( ! load :i* is appli$ cont9u\sly & at a uni=m spe$4 7,see ,,spe$ ,,( ,,te/+ ,,ma*9e1 above47 ,if desir$1 h[ev]1 ! load may be read at regul> increm5ts ( deflection4 ,! deflection read+s %\ld be to ! ne>e/ #j4ja in*4 ,to avoid error due to p>allax1 ! read+s may be tak5 by means ( a read+ telescope ab\t t5 feet di/ant & approximately on a level ) ! wire4 ,a mirror fa/5$ to ! scale w increase ! accuracy ( ! read+s if ! telescope is n us$4 ,z 9 all te/s on timb]1 ! /ra9 mu/ be cont9u\s to rupture1 n int]mitt5t1 & read+s mu/ be tak5 on ! fly4 ,! weigh+ beam is kept balanc$ aft] ! yield po9t is rea*$ & ! maximum load1 & at lea/ "o po9t beyond x1 not$4 ,log ( ! te/3 ,! prop] log %eet = ?is te/ consi/s ( a piece ( cross-section pap] ) space at ! m>g9 = notes4 7,see ,fig4 #cb47 ,! load 9 "s conv5i5t unit 7#a1jjj to #aj1jjj p\nds1 dep5d+ ^u ! dim5sions ( ! specim57 is ent]$ on ! ord9ates1 ! deflection 9 t5?s ( an in* on ! absciss4 ,! increm5ts ( load %\ld be *os5 s z to furni% ab\t t5 po9ts on ! /ress-/ra9 diagram bel[ ! ela/ic limit4 ,z ! read+s ( ! wire on ! scale are made !y are ent]$ directly 9 _! prop] place on ! cross-section pap]4 ,9 _m cases a te/ %\ld be cont9u$ until complete failure results4 ,! po9ts :]e ! v>i\s failures occur are indicat$ on ! /ress-/ra9 diagram4 ,a brief description ( ! failure is made on ! m>g9 ( ! log %eet1 & ! =m trac$ on ! sket*es4 ,disposal ( ! specim53 ,two "o-in* sections are cut f ! region ( failure to be us$ 9 det]m9+ ! moi/ure cont5t4 7,see ,,moi/ure ,,det]m9ation1 above47 ,a two-in* section may be cut = subsequ5t ref]5ce & id5tification1 & possible microscopic /udy4 ,! rema9d] ( ! beam may be cut into small beams & compression pieces4 ,calculat+ ! results3 ,! =mul us$ 9 calculat+ ! results ( te/s on l>ge rectangul> simple beams load$ at ?ird po9ts ( ! span are z foll[s3 #j4ge ,p 7#a7 ,j -------- b h l 7,p#a #j4ge ,w7 7#b7 r -------------------- b h#b l 7,p #j4ge ,w7 7#c7 ,r ---------------- b h#b ,p#a l#c 7#d7 ,e --------------- #d4g ,d b h#c #j4hg ,p#a ,d 7#e7 ,s -------------- #b ,v b1 h1 l bread?1 height1 & span ( specim51 in*es4 ,d total deflection at ela/ic limit1 in*es4 ,p maximum load1 p\nds4 ,p#a load at ela/ic limit1 p\nds4 ,e modulus ( ela/icity1 p\nds p] squ>e in*4 r fibre /ress at ela/ic limit1 p\nds p] sq4 in*4 ,r modulus ( rupture1 p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,s ela/ic resili5ce or "w to ela/ic limit1 in*-p\nds p] cu4 94 ,j greate/ calculat$ longitud9al %e>1 p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,v volume ( beam1 cubic in*es4 ,w weight ( ! beam4 ,9 l>ge beams ! weight %\ld be tak5 into acc\nt 9 calculat+ ! fibre /ress4 ,9 7#b7 & 7#c7 ?ree-f\r?s ( ! weight ( ! beam is add$ to ! load = ?is reason4 ,,b5d+ ,,small ,,beams ,app>atus3 ,an ord9>y /atic b5d+ ma*9e1 a /eel ,i-beam be>+ two adju/able knife-edge supports to re/ on ! plat=m1 & a special deflectomet]1 are requir$4 7,see ,fig4 #ca47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,/atic b5d+ te/ on small beam4 ,note ! use ( ! deflectomet] ) indicator & dial = measur+ ! deflection2 also roll] be>+s betwe5 beam & supports4 ,prep>+ ! mat]ial3 ,! specim5s may be ( any conv5i5t size1 ?\gh beams #b ,x #b ,x #cj te/$ ov] a #bh-;in* span1 are consid]$ be/4 ,! beams are surfac$ on all f\r sides1 c>e be+ tak5 t !y are n damag$ by ! roll]s ( ! surfac+ ma*9e4 ,mat]ial = ^! te/s is sometimes cut f l>ge beams aft] failure4 ,! specim5s are c>efully weigh$ 9 grams1 & all dim5sions measur$ to ! ne>e/ #j4ja in*4 ,if to be te/$ 9 a gre5 or fre% condition ! specim5s %\ld be kept 9 a damp box or cov]$ ) moi/ sawdu/ until ne$$4 ,no defects %\ld be all[$ 9 ^! specim5s4 ,m>k+ & sket*+3 ,sket*es are made ( ea* end ( ! specim5 to %[ ! "* ( ! gr[?1 & aft] te/+1 ! mann] ( failure is %[n = all f\r sides4 ,9 obta9+ data reg>d+ ! rate ( gr[? & ! proportion ( late wood ! same proc$ure is foll[$ z ) l>ge beams4 ,adju/+ specim5 9 ma*9e3 ,! beam %\ld be correctly c5tr$ 9 ! ma*9e & ea* end %\ld h a plate ) roll] be>+s betwe5 x & ! support4 ,c5tre load+ is us$4 ,betwe5 ! movable head ( ! ma*9e & ! specim5 is plac$ a be>+ block ( maple or o!r h>d wood1 ! l[] surface ( :i* is curv$ 9 a direction along ! beam1 ! curvature ( :i* %\ld be slightly less ?an t ( ! beam at rupture1 9 ord] to prev5t ! edges f cru%+ into ! fibres ( ! te/ piece4 ,measur+ ! deflection3 ,! me?od ( measur+ deflection ( l>ge beams c be us$ = small sizes1 b because ( ! %ortness ( ! span & consequ5t slight de=mation 9 ! latt]1 x is h>dly accurate en\gh = good "w4 ,! special deflectomet] %[n 9 ,fig4 #ca all[s clos] read+1 z x magnifies ! deflection t5 times4 ,x re/s on two small nails driv5 9 ! beam on ! neutral plane & v]tically above ! supports4 ,! f9e wire on ! :eel at ! base ( ! indicator is atta*$ to ano!r small nail driv5 9 ! beam on ! neutral plane midway betwe5 ! end nails4 ,all ?ree nails %\ld be 9 place be=e ! beam is put into ! ma*9e4 ,! indicator is adju/able by means ( a ?umb-screw at ! base & is set at z]o be=e ! load is appli$4 ,deflections are read to ! ne>e/ #j4jja in*4 ,= rate ( application ( load see ,,spe$ ,,( ,,te/+ ,,ma*9e1 above4 ,! spe$ %\ld be uni=m f />t to f9i% )\t /opp+4 ,read+s mu/ be made on ! fly4 ,log ( ! te/3 ,! log %eets us$ = small beams 7see ,fig4 #cb7 are ! same z = l>ge sizes & ! proc$ure is practically id5tical4 ,! /ress-/ra9 diagram is cont9u$ to or beyond ! maximum load1 & 9 a portion ( ! te/s %\ld be cont9u$ to six-in* deflection or until ! specim5 fails to support a load ( #bjj p\nds4 ,deflection read+s = equal increm5ts ( load are tak5 until well beyond ! ela/ic limit1 aft] :i* ! scale beam is kept balanc$ & ! load read = ea* #j4a in* deflection4 ,! load & deflection at fir/ failure1 ! maximum load1 & any po9ts ( sudd5 *ange %\ld be %[n on ! diagram1 ev5 ?\gh !y d n occur at "o ( ! regul> po9ts4 ,a brief description ( ! failure & ! nature ( any defects is ent]$ on ! log %eet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,sample log %eet1 giv+ full details ( a transv]se b5d+ te/ on a small p9e beam4 ,calculat+ ! results3 ,! =mul us$ 9 calculat+ ! results ( te/s on small rectangul> simple beams are z foll[s3 #j4ge ,p 7#a7 ,j -------- b h #a4e ,p#a l 7#b7 r ------------- b h#b #a4e ,p l 7#c7 ,r --------- b h#b ,p#a l#c 7#d7 ,e ------------- #d ,d b h#c ,p#a ,d 7#e7 ,s --------- #b ,v ,! same leg5d is us$ z 9 ,,b5d+ ,,l>ge ,,beams4 ,! weight ( ! beam itself is disreg>d$4 ,,endwise ,,compression ,app>atus3 ,an ord9>y /atic te/+ ma*9e & a compressomet] are requir$4 7,see ,fig4 #cc47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,endwise compression te/1 %[+ me?od ( measur+ ! de=mation by means ( a compressomet]4 ,prep>+ ! mat]ial3 ,two classes ( specim5s are commonly us$1 namely1 7#a7 po/s #bd in*es 9 l5g?1 & 7#b7 small cle> blocks approximately #b ,x #b ,x #h4 ,! specim5s are surfac$ on all f\r sides & bo? ends squ>$ smoo?ly & ev5ly4 ,!y are c>efully weigh$1 measur$1 rate ( gr[? & proportion ( late wood det]m9$1 z 9 b5d+ te/s4 ,aft] ! te/ a moi/ure section is cut & weigh$4 ,ord9>ily ^! specim5s %\ld be free f defects4 ,sket*+3 ,sket*es are made ( ea* end ( ! specim5s to %[ ! "* ( ! gr[?4 ,aft] te/+1 ! mann] ( failure is %[n = all f\r sides1 & ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! failure are numb]$ 9 ! ord] ( _! occurr5ce4 ,adju/+ specim5 9 ma*9e3 ,! compressomet] coll>s are adju/$1 ! di/ance betwe5 !m be+ #bj in*es = ! po/s & #f in*es = ! blocks4 ,if ! two ends ( ! blocks are n exactly p>allel a ball-&-socket block c be plac$ betwe5 ! upp] end ( ! specim5 & ! movable head ( ! ma*9e to ov]come ! irregul>ity4 ,if ! blocks are true !y c simply be /ood on end ^u ! plat=m & ! movable head all[$ to press directly ^u ! upp] end4 ,measur+ ! de=mation3 ,! de=mation is measur$ by a compressomet]4 7,see ,fig4 #cc47 ,! latt] regi/]s to #j4jja in*4 ,9 ! case ( po/s ! compression betwe5 ! coll>s is communicat$ to ! f\r po9ts on ! arms by means ( brass rods2 ) %ort blocks1 z 9 ,fig4 #cc1 ! po9ts ( ! arms are 9 direct contact ) ! coll>s4 ,! op]ator l[]s ! fulcrum ( ! app>atus by mov+ ! micromet] screws at su* a rate t ! set-screw 9 ! re> end ( ! upp] lev] is kept b>ely t\*+ ! fix$ arm bel[ x1 be+ guid$ by a bell op]at$ by electric contact4 ,log ( ! te/3 ,! load is appli$ cont9u\sly at a uni=m rate ( spe$4 7,see ,,spe$ ,,( ,,te/+ ,,ma*9e1 above47 ,read+s are tak5 f ! scale ( ! compressomet] at regul> increm5ts ( ei!r load or compression4 ,! /ress-/ra9 diagram is cont9u$ to at lea/ "o de=mation po9t beyond ! maximum load1 & 9 ev5t ( sudd5 failure1 ! direction ( ! curve beyond ! maximum po9t is indicat$4 ,a brief description ( ! failure is ent]$ on ! log %eet4 7,see ,fig4 #cd47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,sample log %eet ( an endwise compression te/ on a %ort p9e column4 ,9 %ort specim5s ! failure usually occurs 9 "o or sev]al planes diagonal to ! axis ( ! specim54 ,if ! ends are m moi/ ?an ! middle a cru%+ may occur on ! extreme ends 9 a horizontal plane4 ,su* a te/ is n valid & %\ld always be cull$4 ,if ! gra9 is diagonal or ! /ress is unev5ly appli$ a diagonal %e> may occur f top to bottom ( ! te/ specim54 ,su* te/s are also invalid & %\ld be cull$4 ,:5 ! plane 7or sev]al planes7 ( failure occurs ?r\gh ! body ( ! specim5 ! te/ is valid4 ,x may sometimes be advantage\s to all[ ! extreme ends to dry slightly be=e te/+ 9 ord] to br+ ! planes ( failure )9 ! body4 ,?is is a p]fectly legitimate proc$ure provid$ no dry+ is all[$ f ! sides ( ! specim51 & ! moi/ure disk is cut f ! region ( failure4 ,calculat+ ! results3 ,! =mul us$ 9 calculat+ ! results ( te/s on endwise compression are z foll[s3 ,p 7#a7 ,c ----- ,a ,p#a 7#b7 c ------- ,a ,p#a l 7#c7 ,e --------- ,a ,d ,p ,d 7#d7 ,s ----- #b ,v ,c cru%+ /r5g?1 p\nds p] squ>e in*4 c fibre /r5g? at ela/ic limit1 p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,a area ( cross section1 squ>e in*es4 l di/ance betwe5 c5tres ( coll>s1 in*es4 ,d total %ort5+ at ela/ic limit1 in*es4 ,v volume ( specim51 cubic in*es4 ,rema9d] ( leg5d z 9 ,,b5d+ ,,l>ge ,,beams1 above4 ,,compression ,,across ,,! ,,gra9 ,app>atus3 ,an ord9>y /atic te/+ ma*9e1 a be>+ plate1 & a deflectomet] are requir$4 7,see ,fig4 #ce47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,compression across ! gra94 ,note me?od ( measur+ ! de=mation by means ( a deflectomot]4 ,prep>+ ! mat]ial3 ,two classes ( specim5s are us$1 namely1 7#a7 sections ( comm]cial sizes ( ties1 beams1 & o!r timb]s1 & 7#b7 small1 cle> specim5s ) ! l5g? sev]al times ! wid?4 ,sometimes small cubes are te/$1 b ! results are h>dly applicable to conditions 9 practice4 ,9 7#b7 ! sides are surfac$ & ! ends squ>$4 ,! specim5s are !n c>efully measur$ & weigh$1 defects not$1 rate ( gr[? & proportion ( late wood det]m9$1 z 9 b5d+ te/s4 7,see ,,b5d+ ,,l>ge ,,beams1 above47 ,aft] ! te/ a moi/ure section is cut & weigh$4 ,sket*+3 ,sket*es are made z 9 endwise compression te/s4 7,see ,,endwise ,,compression1 above47 ,adju/+ specim5 9 ma*9e3 ,! specim5 is laid horizontally ^u ! plat=m ( ! ma*9e & a /eel be>+ plate plac$ on its upp] surface imm$iately b5ea? ! c5tre ( ! movable head4 ,= ! l>g] specim5s ?is plate is six in*es wide2 = ! small] sizes1 two in*es wide4 ,! plate 9 all cases projects ov] ! edges ( ! te/ piece1 & 9 no case %\ld ! l5g? ( ! latt] be less ?an f\r times ! wid? ( ! plate4 ,measur+ ! de=mation3 ,! compression is measur$ by means ( a deflectomet] 7see ,fig4 #ce71 :i*1 aft] ! fir/ increm5t ( load is appli$1 is adju/$ 7by means ( a small set screw7 to read z]o4 ,! actual d[nw>d motion ( ! movable head 7correspond+ to ! compression ( ! specim57 is multipli$ t5 times on ! scale f :i* ! read+s are made4 ,log ( ! te/3 ,! load is appli$ cont9u\sly & at uni=m spe$ 7see ,,spe$ ,,( ,,te/+ ,,ma*9e1 above71 until well beyond ! ela/ic limit4 ,! compression read+s are tak5 at regul> load increm5ts & ent]$ on ! cross-section pap] 9 ! usual way4 ,usually !re is no real maximum load 9 ?is case1 z ! /r5g? cont9ually increases z ! fibres are cru%$ m compactly toge!r4 ,calculat+ ! results3 ,ord9>ily only ! fibre /ress at ! ela/ic limit 7c7 is comput$4 ,x is equal to ! load at ela/ic limit 7,p#a7 divid$ by ! area "u ! plate 7,b74 ,p#a c ------- ,b ,,%e> ,,along ,,! ,,gra9 ,app>atus3 ,an ord9>y /atic te/+ ma*9e & a special tool design$ = produc+ s+le %e> are requir$4 7,see ,figs4 #cf & #cg47 ,?is %e>+ app>atus consi/s ( a solid /eel frame ) set screws = clamp+ ! block )9 x firmly 9 a v]tical position4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! frame is a v]tical slot 9 :i* a squ>e-edg$ /eel plate slides freely4 ,:5 ! te/+ block is 9 position1 ?is plate imp+es squ>ely along ! upp] surface ( ! t5on or lip1 :i*1 z v]tical pressure is appli$1 %e>s (f4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4--,v]tical section ( %e>+ tool4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,front view ( %e>+ tool ) te/ specim5 & /eel plate 9 position = te/+4 ,prep>+ ! mat]ial3 ,! specim5s are usually 9 ! =m ( small1 cle>1 /raight-gra9$ blocks ) a project+ t5on or lip to be %e>$ (f4 ,two common =ms & sizes are %[n 9 ,figure #ch4 ,"p ( ! blocks are cut s t ! %e>+ surface is p>allel to ! gr[? r+s1 or tang5tial2 o!rs at "r angles to ! gr[? r+s1 or radial4 ,x is important t ! upp] surface ( ! t5on or lip be saw$ exactly p>allel to ! base ( ! block4 ,:5 ! =m ) a t5on is us$ ! "u cut is ext5d$ a %ort di/ance horizontally into ! block to prev5t any compression f bel[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,two =ms ( %e> te/ specim5s4 ,9 design+ a %e>+ specim5 x is necess>y to take into consid]ation ! proportions ( ! area ( %e>1 s9ce1 if ! l5g? ( ! portion to be %e>$ (f is too great 9 ! direction ( ! %e>+ face1 failure w\ld occur by compression be=e ! piece w\ld %e>4 ,inasmu* z ! endwise compressive /r5g? is sometimes n m ?an five times ! %e>+ /r5g?1 ! %e>+ surface %\ld be less ?an five times ! surface to :i* ! load is appli$4 ,?is condition is fulfill$ 9 ! specim5s illu/rat$4 ,%e>+ specim5s are frequ5tly cut f beams aft] te/+4 ,9 ?is case ! specific gravity 7dry71 proportion ( late wood1 & rate ( gr[? are assum$ to be ! same z already record$ = ! beams4 ,9 specim5s n s tak51 ^! quantities are det]m9$ 9 ! usual way4 ,! %e>$-(f portion is us$ = a moi/ure section4 ,adju/+ specim5 9 ma*9e3 ,! te/ specim5 is plac$ 9 ! %e>+ app>atus ) ! t5on or lip "u ! slid+ plate1 :i* is c5tr$ "u ! movable head ( ! ma*9e4 7,see ,fig4 #ci47 ,9 ord] to r$uce to a m9imum ! friction due to ! lat]al pressure ( ! plate aga9/ ! be>+s ( ! slot1 ! app>atus is sometimes plac$ ^u sev]al p>allel /eel rods to =m a roll] base4 ,a slight initial load is appli$ to take up ! lo/ motion ( ! ma*9]y1 & ! beam balanc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,mak+ a %e>+ te/4 ,log ( ! te/3 ,! load is appli$ cont9u\sly & at a uni=m rate until failure1 b no de=mations are measur$4 ,! po9ts not$ are ! maximum load & ! l5g? ( "t requir$ to rea* x4 ,sket*es are made ( ! failure4 ,if ! failure is n pure %e> ! te/ is cull$4 ,! %e>+ /r5g? p] squ>e in* is f\nd by divid+ ! ,p maximum load by ! cross-sectional area4 ,q --- ,a ,,impact ,,te/ ,app>atus3 ,!re are sev]al types ( impact te/+ ma*9es4#ei ,"o ( ! simple/ & mo/ effici5t = use ) wood is illu/rat$ 9 ,figure #dj4 ,! base ( ! ma*9e is #g feet long1 #b4e feet wide at ! c5tre1 & weighs #c1ejj p\nds4 ,two upright columns1 ea* #h feet long1 act z guides = ! /rik+ head4 ,at ! top ( ! column is ! hoi/+ me*anism = rais+ or l[]+ ! /rik+ weights4 ,! p[] = op]at+ ! ma*9e is furni%$ by a motor set on ! top4 ,! hoi/+-me*anism is all controll$ by a s+le op]at+ lev]1 %[n on ! side ( ! column1 :]eby ! /rik+ weight may be rais$1 l[]$1 or /opp$ at ! w ( ! op]ator4 ,!re is an automatic safety device = /opp+ ! ma*9e :5 ! weight rea*es ! top4 ,footnote #ei3 ,= description ( ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice automatic & autographic impact te/+ ma*9e1 see ,proc4 ,am4 ,soc4 = ,te/+ ,mat]ials1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 #aijh1 pp4 #ech-edj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,impact te/+ ma*9e4 ,! weight is lift$ by a *a91 "o end ( :i* passes ov] a sprocket :eel 9 ! hoi/+ me*anism4 ,on ! l[] end ( ! *a9 is hung an electro-magnet ( suffici5t magnetic /r5g? to support ! heavie/ /rik+ weights4 ,:5 x is desir$ to drop ! /rik+ weight ! electric curr5t is brok5 & rev]s$ by means ( an automatic swit* & curr5t break]4 ,! height ( drop may be regulat$ by sett+ at ! desir$ height on "o ( ! columns a tripp+ p9 :i* ?r[s ! swit* on ! magnet & s breaks & rev]ses ! curr5t4 ,!re are f\r /rik+ weights1 weigh+ respectively #ej1 #ajj1 #bej1 & #ejj p\nds1 any "o ( :i* may be us$1 dep5d+ ^u ! desir$ en]gy ( bl[4 ,:5 us$ = compression te/s a flat /eel head six in*es 9 diamet] is screw$ into ! l[] end ( ! weight4 ,= transv]se te/s1 a well-r\nd$ knife edge is screw$ into ! weight 9 place ( ! flat head4 ,knife edges = support+ ! ends ( ! specim5 to be te/$1 are securely bolt$ to ! base ( ! ma*9e4 ,! record ( ! behavior ( ! specim5 at "t ( impact is trac$ ^u a revolv+ drum by a p5cil fix$ 9 ! /rik+ head4 7,see ,fig4 #da47 ,:5 a drop is made ! p5cil comes 9 contact ) ! drum & is held 9 place by a spr+4 ,! drum is revolv$ v sl[ly1 ei!r automatically or by h&4 ,! spe$ ( ! drum c be record$ by a p5cil 9 ! end ( a tun+ =k :i* gives a kn[n numb] ( vibrations p] second4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,drum record ( impact b5d+ te/4 ,"o size ( ?is ma*9e w h&le specim5s = transv]se te/s #i in*es wide & #f-;foot span2 ! o!r1 #ab in*es wide & #h-;foot span4 ,= compression te/s a free fall ( ab\t #f4e feet may be obta9$4 ,= transv]se te/s ! fall is a little less1 dep5d+ ^u ! size ( ! specim54 ,! ma*9e is calibrat$ by dropp+ ! hamm] ^u a copp] cyl9d]4 ,! axial compression ( ! plug is not$4 ,! en]gy us$ 9 /atic te/s to produce ?is axial compression "u /ress 9 a l piece ( metal is det]m9$4 ,! ext]nal en]gy ( ! bl[ 7i4e41 ! weight ( ! hamm] ,x ! height ( drop7 is comp>$ ) ! en]gy us$ 9 /atic te/s at equal am\nts ( compression4 ,= in/ance3 ,en]gy deliv]$1 impact te/ #ce1jjj in*-p\nds ,en]gy comput$ f /atic te/ 4#bf1djj ,effici5cy ( bl[ ( hamm] 4#ge4c p] c5t4 ,prep>+ ! mat]ial3 ,! mat]ial us$ 9 mak+ impact te/s is ( ! same size & prep>$ 9 ! same way z = /atic b5d+ & compression te/s4 ,b5d+ 9 impact te/s is m commonly us$ ?an compression1 & small beams ) #bh-;in* span are usually employ$4 ,me?od3 ,9 mak+ an impact b5d+ te/ ! hamm] is all[$ to re/ ^u ! specim5 & a z]o or datum l9e is drawn4 ,! hamm] is !n dropp$ f increas+ heights & drum records tak5 until fir/ failure4 ,! fir/ drop is "o in* & ! increase is by increm5ts ( "o in* until a height ( t5 in*es is rea*$1 aft] :i* increm5ts ( two in*es are us$ until complete failure occurs or #f-;in* deflection is secur$4 ,! #ej-p\nd hamm] is us$ :5 ) drops up to #fh in*es x is reasonably c]ta9 x w produce complete failure or #f-;in* deflection 9 ! case ( all specim5s ( a species2 = all o!r species a #ajj-p\nd hamm] is us$4 ,results3 ,! trac+ on ! drum 7see ,fig4 #da7 repres5ts ! actual deflection ( ! /ick & ! subsequ5t reb\nds = ea* drop4 ,! di/ance f ! l[e/ po9t 9 ea* case to ! datum l9e is measur$ & its squ>e 9 t5?s ( a squ>e in* ent]$ z an abscissa on cross-section pap]1 ) ! height ( drop 9 in*es z ! ord9ate4 ,! ela/ic limit is t po9t on ! diagram :]e ! squ>e ( ! deflection beg9s to increase m rapidly ?an ! height ( drop4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! datum l9e & ! f9al re/+ po9t aft] ea* drop repres5ts ! set ! mat]ial has receiv$4 ,! =mul us$ 9 calculat+ ! results ( impact te/s 9 b5d+ :5 ! load is appli$ at ! c5tre up to ! ela/ic limit are z foll[s3 #c ,w ,h l 7#a7 r ----------- ,d b h#b ,f ,s l#b 7#b7 ,e ----------- #f ,d h ,w ,h 7#c7 ,s ------- l b h ,h height ( drop ( hamm]1 includ+ deflection1 in*es4 ,s modulus ( ela/ic resili5ce1 in*-p\nds p] cubic in*4 ,w weight ( hamm]1 p\nds4 ,rema9d] ( leg5d z 9 ,,b5d+ ,,l>ge ,,beams1 above4 ,,h>dness ,,te/3 ,,abrasion ,,& ,,ind5tation ,abrasion3 ,! ma*9e us$ by ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice is a modifi$ =m ( ! ,dorry abrasion ma*9e4 7,see ,fig4 #db47 ,^u ! revolv+ horizontal disk is glu$ a comm]cial s&pap]1 kn[n z g>net pap]1 :i* is commonly employ$ 9 factories 9 f9i%+ wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,abrasion ma*9e = te/+ ! we>+ qualities ( woods4 ,a small block ( ! wood to be te/$ is fix$ 9 "o clamp & a simil> block ( "s wood *os5 z a /&>d1 z sug> maple1 at #aj p] c5t moi/ure1 9 ! opposite1 & held aga9/ ! same zone ( s&pap] by a weight ( #bf p\nds ea*4 ,! size ( ! section "u abrasion = ea* specim5 is #b ,x #b4 ,! conditions = we> are ! same = bo? specim5s4 ,! spe$ ( rotation is #fh revolutions a m9ute4 ,! te/ is cont9u$ until ! /&>d specim5 is worn a specifi$ am\nt1 :i* v>ies ) ! k9d ( wood "u te/4 ,a comp>ison ( ! we> ( ! two blocks af=ds a fair idea ( _! relative resi/ance to abrasion4 ,ano!r me?od makes use ( a s& bla/ to abrade ! woods & is ! "o employ$ 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales4#fj ,! app>atus consi/s ess5tially ( a nozzle ?r\gh :i* s& c be propell$ at a high velocity aga9/ ! te/ specim5 by means ( a /eam jet4 ,footnote #fj3 ,see ,w>r51 ,w4,h43 ,! /r5g?1 ela/icity1 & o!r prop]ties ( ,new ,s\? ,wales h>dwood timb]s4 ,dept4 ,=41 ,n4,s4,w41 ,sydney1 #aiaa1 pp4 #hh-ie4 ,! wood to be te/$ is cut into blocks #c ,x #c ,x #a'1 & ^! are weigh$ to ! ne>e/ gra9 j be=e plac+ 9 ! app>atus4 ,/eam f ! boil] at a pressure ( ab\t #dc p\nds p] squ>e in* is eject$ f a nozzle 9 su* a way t p>ticles ( f9e qu>tz s& are caught up & ?r[n viol5tly aga9/ ! block :i* is be+ rotat$4 ,only sup]heat$ /eam /rikes ! block1 ?us leav+ ! wood dry4 ,! te/ is cont9u$ = two m9utes1 aft] :i* ! specim5 is remov$ & imm$iately weigh$4 ,by comp>ison ) ! orig9al weight ! loss f abrasion is det]m9$1 & by comp>ison ) a c]ta9 wood *os5 z a /&>d1 a coeffici5t ( we>-resi/ance c be obta9$4 ,! am\nt ( we> w v>y m or less accord+ to ! surface expos$1 & 9 ^! te/s qu>t]-saw$ mat]ial 0 us$ ) ! edge gra9 to ! bla/4 ,ind5tation3 ,! tool us$ = ?is te/ consi/s ( a pun* ) a hemisph]ical end or /eel ball hav+ a diamet] ( #j4ddd in*1 giv+ a surface area ( "o-f\r? squ>e in*4 ,x is fitt$ ) a gu>d plate1 :i* works loosely until ! p5etration has progress$ to a dep? ( #j4bbb in*1 :]eupon x tight5s4 7,see ,fig4 #dc47 ,! effect is t ( s9k+ a ball half its diamet] into ! specim54 ,?is app>atus is fitt$ into ! movable head ( ! /atic te/+ ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,design ( tool = te/+ ! h>dness ( woods by ind5tation4 ,! wood to be te/$ is cut squ>e ) ! gra9 into rectangul> blocks measur+ #b ,x #b ,x #f4 ,a block is plac$ on ! plat=m & ! end ( ! pun* =c$ into ! wood at ! rate ( #j4be in* p] m9ute4 ,! op]ator keeps mov+ ! small h&le ( ! gu>d plate back & =? until x tight5s4 ,at ?is in/ant ! load is read & record$4 ,two p5etrations ea* are made on ! tang5tial & radial surfaces1 & "o on ea* end ( e specim5 te/$4 ,9 *oos+ ! places on ! block = ! ind5tations1 ef=t %\ld be made to get a fair av]age ( he>twood & sapwood1 f9e & co>se gra91 e>ly & late wood4 ,ano!r me?od ( te/+ by ind5tation involves ! use ( a "r-angl$ cone in/ead ( a ball4 ,= details ( ?is te/ z us$ 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales see loc4 cit41 pp4 #hf-hg4 ,,cleavage ,,te/ ,a /atic te/+ ma*9e & a special cleavage te/+ device are requir$4 7,see ,fig4 #dd47 ,! latt] consi/s ess5tially ( two hooks1 "o ( :i* is susp5d$ f ! c5tre ( ! top ( ! cage1 ! o!r ext5d$ above ! movable head4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,design ( tool = cleavage te/4 ,! specim5s are #b ,x #b ,x #c4ge4 ,at "o end a "o-in* hole is bor$1 ) its c5tre equidi/ant f ! two sides & #j4be in* f ! end4 7,see ,fig4 #de47 ,?is makes ! cross section to be te/$ #b ,x #c4 ,"s ( ! blocks are cut radially & "s tang5tially1 z indicat$ 9 ! figure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,design ( cleavage te/ specim54 ,! free ends ( ! hooks are fitt$ into ! not* 9 ! end ( ! specim54 ,! movable head ( ! ma*9e is !n made to desc5d at ! rate ( #j4be in* p] m9ute1 pull+ ap>t ! hooks & splitt+ ! block4 ,! maximum load only is tak5 & ! result express$ 9 p\nds p] squ>e in* ( wid?4 ,a piece "o-half in* ?ick is split (f p>allel to ! failure & us$ = moi/ure det]m9ation4 ,,t5sion ,,te/ ,,p>allel ,,to ,,! ,,gra9 ,s9ce ! t5sile /r5g? ( wood p>allel to ! gra9 is great] ?an ! compressive /r5g?1 & exce$+ly great] ?an ! %e>+ /r5g?1 x is v difficult to make satisfactory t5sion te/s1 z ! head & %\ld]s ( ! te/ specim5 7:i* is subject$ to bo? compression & %e>7 mu/ be /rong] ?an ! portion subject$ to a pure t5sile /ress4 ,v>i\s designs ( te/ specim5s h be5 made4 ,! "o fir/ employ$ by ! ,division ( ,=e/ry#fa 0 prep>$ z foll[s3 ,/icks 7 cut measur+ #a4e ,x #b4e ,x #af4 ,! ?ickness at ! c5tre 0 !n r$uc$ to ?ree-eigh?s ( an in* by cutt+ out circul> segm5ts ) a b& saw4 ,?is left a break+ section ( #b4e ,x #j4cge4 ,c>e 0 tak5 to cut ! specim5 z ne>ly p>allel to ! gra9 z possible1 s t its failure w\ld occur 9 a condition ( pure t5sion4 ,! specim5 0 !n plac$ betwe5 ! plane w$ge-%ap$ /eel grips ( ! cage & ! movable head ( ! /atic ma*9e & pull$ 9 two4 ,only ! maximum load 0 record$4 7,see ,fig4 #df1 ,no4 #a47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,designs ( t5sion te/ specim5s us$ 9 ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,footnote #fa3 ,bul4 ,no4 #h3 ,timb] physics1 ,"p ,,ii41 #ahic1 p4 #g4 ,! difficulty ( mak+ su* te/s comp>$ ) ! m9or importance ( ! results is s great t !y are at pres5t omitt$ by ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4 ,a =m ( specim5 is sugge/$1 h[ev]1 & is z foll[s3 ,a rod ( wood ab\t "o in* 9 diamet] is bor$ by a holl[ drill f ! /ick to be te/$4 ,! ends ( ?is rod are ins]t$ & glu$ 9 correspond+ holes 9 p]man5t h>dwood w$ges4 ,! specim5 is !n submitt$ to ! ord9>y t5sion te/4 ,! brok5 ends are pun*$ f ! w$ges4#fb 7,see ,fig4 #df1 ,no4 #b47 ,footnote #fb3 ,cir4 #ch3 ,in/ructions to eng9e]s ( timb] te/s1 #aijf1 p4 #bd4 ,! =m us$ by ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,=e/ry ( ,new ,s\? ,wales#fc is z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dg4 ,! specim5 has a total l5g? ( #da in*es & is circul> 9 cross section4 ,on ea* end is a head #d in*es 9 diamet] & #g in*es long4 ,bel[ ea* head is a %\ld] #h4e in*es long1 :i* tap]s f a diamet] ( #b4ge in*es to #a4be in*es4 ,9 ! middle is a cyl9drical portion #a4be in*es 9 diamet] & #aj in*es long4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,design ( t5sion te/ specim5 us$ 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales4 ,footnote #fc3 ,w>r51 ,w4,h43 ,! /r5g?1 ela/icity1 & o!r prop]ties ( ,new ,s\? ,wales h>dwood timb]s1 #aiaa1 pp4 #eh-fb4 ,9 mak+ ! te/ ! specim5 is fitt$ 9 ! ma*9e1 & an ext5somet] atta*$ to ! middle portion & arrang$ to record ! ext5sion betwe5 ! gauge po9ts #h in*es ap>t4 ,! area ( ! cross section !n is #a4bbf squ>e in*es1 & ! t5sile /r5g? is equal to ! total break+ load appli$ divid$ by ?is area4 ,,t5sion ,,te/ ,,at ,,"r ,,angles ,,to ,,! ,,gra9 ,a /atic te/+ ma*9e & a special te/+ device 7see ,fig4 #dh7 are requir$4 ,! latt] consi/s ess5tially ( two d\ble hooks or clamps1 "o ( :i* is susp5d$ f ! c5tre ( ! top ( ! cage1 ! o!r ext5d$ above ! movable head4 ,! specim5s are #b ,x #b ,x #b4e4 ,at ea* end a "o-in* hole is bor$ ) its c5tre equidi/ant f ! two sides & #j4be in* f ! ends4 ,?is makes ! cross section to be te/$ #a ,x #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,design ( tool & specim5 = te/+ t5sion at "r angles to ! gra94 ,! free ends ( ! clamps are fitt$ into ! not*es 9 ! ends ( ! specim54 ,! movable head ( ! ma*9e is !n made to desc5d at ! rate ( #j4be in* p] m9ute1 pull+ ! specim5 9 two at "r angles to ! gra94 ,! maximum load only is tak5 & ! result express$ 9 p\nds p] in* ( wid?4 ,a piece "o-half in* ?ick is split (f p>allel to ! failure & us$ = moi/ure det]m9ation4 ,,torsion ,,te/#fd ,footnote #fd3 ,wood is s seldom subject$ to a pure /ress ( ?is k9d t ! torsion te/ is usually omitt$4 ,app>atus3 ,! torsion te/ is made 9 a ,riehle-,mill] torsional te/+ ma*9e or its equival5t4 7,see ,fig4 #di47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,mak+ a torsion te/ on hickory4 ,prep>ation ( mat]ial3 ,! te/ pieces are cyl9drical1 #a4e in*es 9 diamet] & #ah in*es gauge l5g?1 ) squ>$ ends #d in*es long jo9$ to ! cyl9drical portion ) a fillet4 ,! dim5sions are c>efully measur$1 & ! usual data obta9$ 9 reg>d to ! rate ( gr[?1 proportion ( late wood1 location & k9d ( defects4 ,! weight ( ! cyl9drical portion ( ! specim5 is obta9$ aft] ! te/4 ,mak+ ! te/3 ,aft] ! specim5 is fitt$ 9 ! ma*9e ! load is appli$ cont9u\sly at ! rate ( #bb p] m9ute4 ,a troptomet] is us$ 9 measur+ ! de=mation4 ,read+s are made until failure occurs1 ! po9ts be+ ent]$ on ! cross-section pap]4 ,! "* ( ! failure is describ$4 ,moi/ure det]m9ations are made by ! disk me?od4 ,results3 ,! conditions ( ultimate rupture due to torsion appe> n to be gov]n$ by def9ite ma!matical laws2 b :]e ! mat]ial is n ov]/ra9$1 laws may be assum$ :i* are suffici5tly exact = practical cases4 ,! =mul commonly us$ = computations are z foll[s3 #e4a ,m 7#a7 ,t ------- c#c #aad4f ,t f 7#b7 ,g ----------- a c a angle measur$ by troptomet] at ela/ic limit1 9 degrees4 c diamet] ( specim51 in*es4 f gauge l5g? ( specim51 in*es4 ,g modulus ( ela/icity 9 %e> across ! gra91 p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,m mom5t ( torsion at ela/ic limit1 in*-p\nds4 ,t out] fibre torsional /ress at ela/ic limit1 p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,,special ,,te/s ,spike-pull+ ,te/ ,spike-pull+ te/s apply to problems ( railroad ma9t5ance1 & ! results are us$ to comp>e ! spike-hold+ p[]s ( v>i\s woods1 bo? untreat$ & treat$ ) diff]5t pres]vatives1 & ! effici5cy ( v>i\s =ms ( spikes4 ,special te/s are also made 9 :i* ! spike is subject$ to a transv]se load appli$ repetitively by a bl[4 ,= details ( te/s & results see3 ,cir4 #ch1 ,u4,s4,f4,s43 ,in/ructions to eng9e]s ( timb] te/s1 p4 #bf4 ,cir4 #df1 ,u4,s4,f4,s43 ,hold+ =ce ( railroad spikes 9 wood5 ties4 ,bul4 #aah1 ,u4,s4,f4,s13 ,prolong+ ! life ( cross-ties1 pp4 #cg-dj4 ,pack+ ,boxes ,special te/s on ! /r5g? ( pack+ boxes ( v>i\s woods h be5 made by ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice to det]m9e ! m]its ( diff]5t k9ds ( woods z box mat]ial ) ! view ( sub/itut+ new k9ds = ! m exp5sive ones n[ 9 use4 ,! me?ods ( te/s consi/$ 9 apply+ a load along ! diagonal ( a box1 an action simil> to t :i* occurs :5 a box is dropp$ on "o ( its corn]s4 ,! load 0 measur$ at ea* "o-f\r? in* 9 deflection1 & notes 7 made ( ! prim>y & subsequ5t failures4 ,= details ( te/s & results1 see3 ,cir4 #dg1 ,u4,s4,f4,s43 ,/r5g? ( pack+ boxes ( v>i\s woods4 ,cir4 #bad1 ,u4,s4,f4,s43 ,te/s ( pack+ boxes ( v>i\s =ms4 ,vehicle & ,implem5t ,woods ,te/s 7 made by ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice to obta9 a bett] k ( ! me*anical prop]ties ( ! woods at pres5t us$ 9 ! manufacture ( vehicles & implem5ts & ( ^? :i* might be sub/itut$ = !m4 ,te/s 7 made ^u ! foll[+ mat]ials3 hickory buggy spokes 7see ,fig4 #e72 hickory & r$ oak buggy %afts2 wagon tongues2 ,d\glas fir & s\!rn p9e cultivator poles4 ,details ( ! te/s & results may be f\nd 93 ,cir4 #adb1 ,u4,s4,f4,s43 ,te/s on vehicle & implem5t woods4 ,cross-arms ,9 te/s by ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice on cross-arms a special app>atus 0 devis$ 9 :i* ! load 0 di/ribut$ along ! arm z 9 actual practice4 ,! load 0 appli$ by rods pass+ ?r\gh ! p9holes 9 ! arms4 ,nuts on ^! rods pull$ d[n on ! wood5 be>+-blocks %ap$ to fit ! upp] side ( ! arm4 ,! l[] ends ( ^! rods 7 atta*$ to a sy/em ( equaliz+ lev]s1 s arrang$ t ! load at ea* p9hole w\ld be ! same4 ,9 all ! te/s ! load 0 appli$ v]tically by means ( ! /atic ma*9e4 ,see ,cir4 #bjd1 ,u4,s4,f4,s43 ,/r5g? te/s ( cross-arms4 ,o!r ,te/s ,_m o!r k9ds ( te/s are made z occasion dem&s4 ,"o k9d consi/s ( b>rels & liquid conta9]s1 mat*-boxes1 & explosive conta9]s4 ,^! articles are subject$ to %ocks su* z !y w\ld receive 9 transit & 9 h&l+1 & also to hydraulic pressure4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important te/s f a practical /&po9t is t ( built-up /ructures su* z comp\nd$ beams compos$ ( small pieces bolt$ toge!r1 mortis$ jo9ts1 wood5 trusses1 etc4 ,te/s ( ?is k9d c be/ be work$ out accord+ to ! specific requirem5ts 9 ea* case4 ,,app5dix ,,sample ,,work+ ,,plan ,,( ,,! ,u4,s4 ,,=e/ ,,s]vice ,,me*anical ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,woods ,,gr[n ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,work+ ,plan ,no4 #abd ,,purpose ,,( ,,"w ,x is ! g5]al purpose ( ! "w "h outl9$ to provide3 7a7 ,reliable data = comp>+ ! me*anical prop]ties ( v>i\s species2 7b7 ,data = ! e/abli%m5t ( correct /r5g? functions or work+ /resses2 7c7 ,data ^u :i* may be bas$ analyses ( ! influ5ce on ! me*anical prop]ties ( su* factors z3 ,locality2 ,di/ance ( timb] f ! pi? ( ! tree2 ,height ( timb] 9 ! tree2 ,*ange f ! gre5 to ! air-dri$ condition1 etc4 ,! me*anical prop]ties :i* w be consid]$ & ! pr9cipal te/s us$ to det]m9e !m are z foll[s3 ,/r5g? & /iffness-- ,/atic b5d+2 ,compression p>allel to gra92 ,compression p]p5dicul> to gra92 ,%e>4 ,t\ghness-- ,impact b5d+2 ,/atic b5d+2 ,"w to maximum load & total "w4 ,cleavability-- ,cleavage te/4 ,h>dness-- ,modification ( ,janka ball te/ = surface h>dness4 ,,mat]ial ,selection & ,numb] ( ,trees ,! mat]ial w be f trees select$ 9 ! =e/ by "o qualifi$ to det]m9e ! species4 ,f ea* locality1 ?ree to five dom9ant trees ( m]*antable size & approximately av]age age w be s *os5 z to be repres5tative ( ! dom9ant trees ( ! species4 ,ea* species w ev5tually be repres5t$ by trees f five to t5 localities4 ,^! localities w be s *os5 z to be repres5tative ( ! comm]cial range ( ! species4 ,trees f "o to ?ree localities w be us$ to repres5t ea* species until mo/ ( ! important species h be5 te/$4 ,! #af-;foot butt log w be tak5 f ea* tree select$ & ! entire m]*antable hole ( "o av]age tree = ea* species4 ,field ,notes & ,%ipp+ ,in/ructions ,field notes z outl9$ 9 ,=m--a ,%ipm5t ,description1 ,manual ( ! ,bran* ( ,products1 w be fully & c>efully made by ! collector4 ,! age ( ea* tree select$ w be record$ & any o!r in=mation likely to be ( int]e/ or importance w also be made a "p ( ^! field notes4 ,ea* log w h ! b>k left on4 ,x w be pla9ly m>k$ 9 accordance ) directions giv5 "u ,detail$ ,in/ructions4 ,all mat]ial w be %ipp$ to ! laboratory imm$iately aft] be+ cut4 ,no trees w be cut until ! collector is notifi$ t ! laboratory is ready to receive ! mat]ial4 ,,detail$ ,,in/ructions ,"p ( ,tree to be ,te/$ 7a7 ,= det]m9+ ! value ( tree & locality & ! influ5ce on ! me*anical prop]ties ( di/ance f ! pi?1 a #d-;foot bolt w be cut f ! top end ( ea* #af-;foot butt log4 7b7 ,= inve/igat+ ! v>iation ( prop]ties ) ! height ( timb] 9 ! tree1 all ! logs f "o av]age tree w be us$4 7c7 ,= inve/igat+ ! effect ( dry+ ! wood1 ! bolt next bel[ t provid$ = 9 7a7 w be us$ 9 ! case ( "o tree f ea* locality4 ,m>k+ & ,gr\p+ ( ,mat]ial ,! m>k+ w be /&>d except z not$4 ,ea* log w be consid]$ a piece4 ,! piece numb]s w be pla9ly m>k$ ^u ! butt end ( ea* log by ! collector4 ,! nor? side ( ea* log w also be m>k$4 ,:5 only "o bolt f a tree is us$ x w be designat$ by ! numb] ( ! log f :i* x is cut4 ,:5ev] m ?an "o bolt is tak5 f a tree1 ea* #d-;foot bolt or l5g? ( trunk w be giv5 a lett] 7m>k71 a1 b1 c1 etc41 beg9n+ at ! /ump4 ,all bolts w be saw$ into #b-a_/b ,x #b-a_/b /icks & ! /icks m>k$ accord+ to ! sket*1 ,fig4 #ej4 ,! lett]s ,n1 ,e1 ,s1 & ,w indicate ! c>d9al po9ts :5 kn[n2 :5 ^! are unkn[n1 ,h1 ,k1 ,l1 & ,m w be us$4 ,?us1 ,n#e1 ,k#h1 ,s#g1 ,m#d are /ick numb]s1 ! lett] be+ a "p ( ! /ick numb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,me?od ( cutt+ & m>k+ te/ specim5s4 ,only /raight-gra9$ specim5s1 free f defects :i* w affect _! /r5g?1 w be te/$4 ,c>e ( ,mat]ial ,no mat]ial w be kept 9 ! bolt or log long en\gh to be damag$ or disfigur$ by *ecks1 rot1 or /a9s4 ,gre5 mat]ial3 ,! mat]ial to be te/$ gre5 w be kept 9 a gre5 /ate by be+ subm]g$ 9 wat] until ne> ! "t ( te/4 ,x w !n be surfac$1 saw$ to l5g?1 & /or$ 9 damp sawdu/ at a temp]ature ( #gj;,f4 7z ne>ly z practicable7 until "t ( te/4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 to avoid z mu* z possible ! /orage ( gre5 mat]ial 9 any =m4 ,air-dry mat]ial3 ,! mat]ial to be air-dri$ w be cut into /icks #b-a_/b ,x #b-a_/b ,x #d'4 ,! ends ( ^! /icks w be p>aff9$ to prev5t *eck+4 ,?is mat]ial w be s pil$ z to leave an air space ( at lea/ "o-half in* on ea* side ( ea* /ick1 & 9 su* a place t x w be protect$ f sun%9e1 ra91 sn[1 & moi/ure f ! gr\nd4 ,! /icks w be surfac$ & cut to l5g? j previ\s to te/4 ,ord] ( ,te/s ,! ord] ( te/s 9 all cases w be su* z to elim9ate s f> z possible f ! comp>isons ! effect ( *anges ( condition ( ! specim5s due to su* factors z /orage & wea!r conditions4 ,! mat]ial us$ = det]m9+ ! effect ( height 9 tree w be te/$ 9 su* ord] t ! av]age "t elaps+ f "t ( cutt+ to "t ( te/ w be approximately ! same = all bolts f any "o tree4 ,te/s on ,gre5 ,mat]ial ,! te/s on all bolts1 except ^? f :i* a comp>ison ( gre5 & dry timb] is to be gott51 w be z foll[s3 ,/atic b5d+3 ,"o /ick f ea* pair4 ,a pair consi/s ( two adjac5t /icks equidi/ant f ! pi?1 z ,n#g & ,n#h1 or ,h#e & ,h#f4 ,impact b5d+3 ,f\r /icks2 "o to be tak5 f ne> ! pi?2 "o f ne> ! p]iph]y2 & two repres5tative ( ! cross section4 ,compression p>allel to gra93 ,"o specim5 f ea* /ick4 ,^! w be m>k$ #a 9 addition to ! numb] ( ! /ick f :i* !y are tak54 ,compression p]p5dicul> to gra93 ,"o specim5 f ea* ( #ej p] c5t ( ! /atic b5d+ /icks4 ,^! w be m>k$ #b 9 addition to ! numb] ( ! /ick f :i* !y are cut4 ,h>dness3 ,"o specim5 f ea* ( ! o!r #ej p] c5t ( ! /atic b5d+ /icks4 ,^! specim5s w be m>k$ #d4 ,%e>3 ,six specim5s f /icks n te/$ 9 b5d+ or f ! ends cut (f 9 prep>+ ! b5d+ specim5s4 ,two specim5s w be tak5 f ne> ! pi?2 two f ne> ! p]iph]y2 & two t are repres5tative ( ! av]age gr[?4 ,"o ( ea* two w be te/$ 9 radial %e> & ! o!r 9 tang5tial %e>4 ,^! specim5s w h ! m>k #c4 ,cleavage3 ,six specim5s *os5 & divid$ j z ^? = %e>+4 ,^! specim5s w h ! m>k #e4 7,= sket*es %[+ radial & tang5tial cleavage1 see ,fig4 #de47 ,:5 x is impossible to secure cle> specim5s = all ( ! above te/s1 te/s w h prec$5ce 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y are nam$4 ,te/s to ,det]m9e ! ,effect ( ,air-dry+ ,^! te/s w be made on mat]ial f ! adjac5t bolts m5tion$ 9 c "u ,"p ( ,tree to be ,te/$4 ,bo? bolts w be cut z outl9$ above4 ,"o-half ! /icks f ea* bolt w be te/$ gre51 ! o!r half w be air-dri$ & te/$4 ,! division ( gre5 & air-dry w be accord+ to ! foll[+ s*eme3 ,,/ick ,,numb]s ,l[] bolt1 #a1 #d1 #e1 #h1 #i1 ,te/$ etc4 gre5 ,upp] bolt1 #b1 #c1 #f1 #g1 #aj1 ,l[] bolt1 #b1 #c1 #f1 #g1 #aj1 ,air-dri$ etc4 & ,upp] bolt1 #a1 #d1 #e1 #h1 #i1 te/$ ,all gre5 /icks f ^! two bolts w be te/$ z if !y 7 f ! same bolt & accord+ to ! plan previ\sly outl9$ = gre5 mat]ial f s+le bolts4 ,! te/s on ! air-dri$ mat]ial w be ! same z on ! gre5 except = ! diff]5ce ( season+4 ,! mat]ial w be te/$ at z ne> #ab p] c5t moi/ure z is practicable4 ,! approximate weight ( ! air-dri$ specim5s at #ab p] c5t moi/ure w be det]m9$ by measur+ :ile gre5 #bj p] c5t ( ! /icks to be air-dri$ & assum+ _! dry gravity to be ! same z t ( ! specim5s te/$ gre54 ,?is #bj p] c5t w be weigh$ z (t5 z is necess>y to det]m9e ! prop] "t ( te/4 ,me?ods ( ,te/ ,all te/s w be made accord+ to ,circul> #ch except 9 case ( conflict ) ! in/ructions giv5 bel[3 ,/atic b5d+3 ,! te/s w be on specim5s #b ,x #b ,x #cj on #bh-;in* span4 ,load w be appli$ at ! c5tre4 ,9 all te/s ! load-deflection curve w be c>ri$ to or beyond ! maximum load4 ,9 "o-?ird ( ! te/s ! load-deflection curve w be cont9u$ to #f-;in* deflection1 or till ! specim5 fails to support a #bjj-p\nd load4 ,deflection read+s = equal increm5ts ( load w be tak5 until well pa/ ! ela/ic limit1 aft] :i* ! scale beam w be kept balanc$ & ! load read = ea* #j4a-;in* deflection4 ,! load & deflection at fir/ failure1 maximum load & po9ts ( sudd5 *ange1 w be %[n on ! curve %eet ev5 if !y d n occur at "o ( ! regul> load or deflection increm5ts4 ,impact b5d+3 ,! impact b5d+ te/s w be on specim5s ( ! same size z ^? us$ 9 /atic b5d+4 ,! span w be #bh in*es4 ,! te/s w be by increm5t drop4 ,! fir/ drop w be #a in* & ! increase w be by increm5ts ( #a in* till a height ( #aj in*es is rea*$1 aft] :i* increm5ts ( #b in*es w be us$ until complete failure occurs or #f-;in* deflection is secur$4 ,a #ej-p\nd hamm] w be us$ :5 ) drops up to #fh in*es x is practically c]ta9 t x w produce complete failure or #f-;in* deflection 9 ! case ( all specim5s ( a species4 ,= all o!r species1 a #ajj-p\nd hamm] w be us$4 ,9 all cases drum records w be made until fir/ failure4 ,also ! height ( drop caus+ complete failure or #f-;in* deflection w be not$4 ,compression p>allel to gra93 ,?is te/ w be on specim5s #b ,x #b ,x #h 9 size4 ,on #bj p] c5t ( ^! te/s load-compression curves = a #f-;in* c5trally locat$ gauge l5g? w be tak54 ,read+s w be cont9u$ until ! ela/ic limit is well pass$4 ,! o!r #hj p] c5t ( ! te/s w be made = ! purpose ( obta9+ ! maximum load only4 ,compression p]p5dicul> to gra93 ,?is te/ w be on specim5s #b ,x #b ,x #f 9 size4 ,! be>+ plates w be #b in*es wide4 ,! rate ( desc5t ( ! mov+ head w be #j4jbd in* p] m9ute4 ,! load-compression curve w be plott$ to #j4a in* compression & ! te/ w !n be discont9u$4 ,h>dness3 ,! tool %[n 9 ,fig4 #dc 7an adaptation ( ! app>atus us$ by ! ,g]man inve/igator1 ,janka7 w be us$4 ,! rate ( desc5t ( ! mov+ head w be #j4be in* p] m9ute4 ,:5 ! p5etration has progress$ to ! po9t at :i* ! plate a becomes tight1 due to be+ press$ aga9/ ! wood1 ! load w be read & record$4 ,two p5etrations w be made on a tang5tial surface1 two on a radial1 & "o on ea* end ( ea* specim5 te/$4 ,! *oice betwe5 ! two radial & betwe5 ! two tang5tial surfaces & ! di/ribution ( ! p5etrations ov] ! surfaces w be s made z to get a fair av]age ( he>t & sap1 sl[ & fa/ gr[?1 & spr+ & summ] wood4 ,specim5s w be #b ,x #b ,x #f4 ,%e>3 ,! te/s w be made ) a tool slightly modifi$ f t %[n 9 ,circul> #ch4 ,! spe$ ( desc5t ( head w be #j4jae in* p] m9ute4 ,! only measurem5ts to be made are ^? ( ! %e>+ area4 ,! (fset w be #a_/h in*4 ,specim5s w be #b ,x #b ,x #b-a_/b 9 size4 7,= def9ition ( (fset & =m ( te/ specim51 see ,fig4 #ch47 ,cleavage3 ,! cleavage te/s w be made on specim5s ( ! =m & size %[n 9 ,fig4 #de4 ,! app>atus w be z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dd4 ,! maximum load only w be tak5 & ! result express$ 9 p\nds p] in* ( wid?4 ,! spe$ ( ! mov+ head w be #j4be in* p] m9ute4 ,moi/ure ,det]m9ations ,moi/ure det]m9ations w be made on all specim5s te/$ except ^? to be photograph$ or kept = exhibit4 ,a #a-;in* disk w be cut f ne> ! po9t ( failure ( b5d+ & compression p>allel specim5s1 f ! portion "u ! plate 9 ! case ( ! compression p]p5dicul> specim5s1 & f ! c5tre ( ! h>dness te/ specim5s4 ,! beads f ! %e> specim5s w be us$ z moi/ure disks4 ,9 ! case ( ! cleavage specim5s a piece #a_/b in* ?ick w be split (f p>allel to ! failure & us$ z a moi/ure disk4 ,,records ,all records w be /&>d4 ,,photographs ,cross ,sections ,j be=e cutt+ into /icks1 ! fre%ly cut end ( at lea/ "o bolt f ea* tree w be photograph$4 ,a scale ( in*es w be %[n 9 ?is photograph4 ,specim5s ,?ree photographs w be made ( a gr\p consi/+ ( f\r #b ,x #b ,x #cj specim5s *os5 f ! mat]ial f ea* locality4 ,two ( ^! specim5s w be repres5tative ( av]age gr[?1 "o ( fa/ & "o ( sl[ gr[?4 ,^! photographs w %[ radial1 tang5tial1 & end surfaces = ea* specim54 ,failures ,typical & abnormal failures ( mat]ial f ea* site w be photograph$4 ,disposition ( ,mat]ial ,! specim5s photograph$ to %[ typical & abnormal failures w be sav$ = purposes ( exhibit until deem$ by ! p]son 9 *>ge ( ! laboratory to be ( no fur!r value4 ,,%r9kage ,,& ,,specific ,,gravity ,app5dix to ,work+ ,plan #abd ,,purpose ,,( ,,"w ,x is ! purpose ( ?is "w to secure data on ! %r9kage & specific gravity ( woods te/$ "u ,project #abd4 ,! figures to be obta9$ are = use z av]age work+ values r ?an z ! basis = a detail$ /udy ( ! pr9ciples involv$4 ,,mat]ial ,! mat]ial w be tak5 f t provid$ = me*anical te/s4 ,,radial ,,& ,,tang5tial ,,%r9kage ,specim5s ,prep>ation3 ,two specim5s #a in* ?ick1 #d in*es wide1 & #a in* long w be obta9$ f ne> ! p]iph]y ( ea* d bolt4 ,^! w be cut f ! sector-%ap$ sections left aft] secur+ ! mat]ial = ! me*anical te/s or f disks cut f ne> ! end ( ! bolt4 ,!y w be tak5 f adjo9+ pieces *os5 s t ! results w be comp>able = use 9 det]m9+ radial & tang5tial %r9kage4 7,:5 a disk is us$1 c>e mu/ be tak5 t x is gre5 & has n be5 affect$ by ! %r9kage & *eck+ ne> ! end ( ! bolt47 ,"o ( ^! specim5s w be cut ) its wid? 9 ! radial direction & w be us$ = ! det]m9ation ( radial %r9kage4 ,! o!r w h its wid? 9 ! tang5tial direction & w be us$ = tang5tial %r9kage4 ,^! specim5s w n be surfac$4 ,m>k+3 ,! %r9kage specim5s w reta9 ! %ipm5t & piece numb]s & m>ks ( ! bolts f :i* !y are tak51 & w h ! additional m>k #g,r or #g,t accord+ z _! wid?s are 9 ! radial or tang5tial direction4 ,%r9kage measurem5ts3 ,! %r9kage specim5s w be c>efully weigh$ & measur$ soon aft] cutt+4 ,r+s p] in*1 p] c5t sap1 & p] c5t summ] wood w be measur$4 ,!y w !n be air-dri$ 9 ! laboratory to con/ant weight1 & aft]w>d ov5-dri$ at #ajj;,c4 7#bab;,f471 :5 !y w aga9 be weigh$ & measur$4 ,,volumetric ,,%r9kage ,,& ,,specific ,,gravity ,specim5s ,selection & prep>ation3 ,f\r #b ,x #b ,x #f specim5s w be cut f ! me*anical te/ /icks ( ea* d bolt2 also f ea* ( ! composite bolts us$ 9 gett+ a comp>ison ( gre5 & air-dry4 ,"o ( ^! specim5s w be tak5 f ne> ! pi? & "o f ne> ! p]iph]y2 ! o!r two w be repres5tative ( ! av]age gr[? ( ! bolt4 ,! sides ( ^! specim5s w be surfac$ & ! ends smoo? sawn4 ,m>k+3 ,ea* specim5 w reta9 ! %ipm5t1 piece1 & /ick numb]s & m>k ( ! /ick f :i* x is cut1 & w h ! additional m>k ,s4 ,manipulation3 ,soon aft] cutt+1 ea* specim5 w be weigh$ & its volume w be det]m9$ by ! me?od describ$ bel[4 ,! r+s p] in* & p] c5t summ] wood1 :]e possible1 w be det]m9$1 & a c>bon impression ( ! end ( ! specim5 made4 ,x w !n be air-dri$ 9 ! laboratory to a con/ant weight & aft]w>d ov5-dri$ at #ajj;,c4 ,:5 dry1 ! specim5 w be tak5 f ! ov51 weigh$1 & a c>bon impression ( its end made4 ,:ile /ill w>m ! specim5 w be dipp$ 9 hot p>aff9e4 ,! volume w !n be det]m9$ by ! foll[+ me?od3 ,on "o pan ( a pair ( balances is plac$ a conta9] hav+ 9 x wat] en\gh = ! complete subm]sion ( ! te/ specim54 ,?is conta9] & wat] is balanc$ by weights plac$ on ! o!r scale pan4 ,! specim5 is !n held completely subm]g$ & n t\*+ ! conta9] :ile ! scales are aga9 balanc$4 ,! weight requir$ to balance is ! weight ( wat] displac$ by ! specim51 & h5ce if 9 grams is num]ically equal to ! volume ( ! specim5 9 cubic c5timetres4 ,a diagrammatic sket* ( ! arrangem5t ( ?is app>atus is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ea4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,diagram ( specific gravity app>atus1 %[+ a balance ) conta9] 7c7 fill$ ) wat] 9 :i* ! te/ block 7b7 is held subm]g$ by a light rod 7a7 :i* is adju/able v]tically & provid$ ) a %>p po9t to be driv5 into ! specim54 ,air-dry specim5s w be dipp$ 9 wat] & !n wip$ dry aft] ! fir/ weigh+ & j be=e be+ imm]s$ = weigh+ _! displacem5t4 ,all displacem5t det]m9ations w be made z quickly z possible 9 ord] to m9imize ! absorption ( wat] by ! specim54 ,,/r5g? ,,values ,,= ,,/ructural ,,timb]s 7,f ,cir4 #ahi1 ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice7 ,! foll[+ tables br+ toge!r 9 cond5s$ =m ! av]age /r5g? values result+ f a l>ge numb] ( te/s made by ! ,=e/ ,s]vice on ! pr9cipal /ructural timb]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,^! results are m completely discuss$ 9 o!r publications ( ! ,s]vice1 a li/ ( :i* is giv5 9 ,,bibliography1 ,,"p ,,iii4 ,! te/s 7 made at ! laboratories ( ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 9 coop]ation ) ! foll[+ in/itutions3 ,yale ,=e/ ,s*ool1 ,purdue ,univ]sity1 ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia1 ,univ]sity ( ,oregon1 ,univ]sity ( ,wa%+ton1 ,univ]sity ( ,colorado1 & ,univ]sity ( ,wiscons94 ,tables ,,xviii & ,,xix give ! av]age results obta9$ f te/s on gre5 mat]ial1 :ile ,tables ,,xx & ,,xxi give av]age results f te/s on air-season$ mat]ial4 ,! small specim5s1 :i* 7 inv>iably #b ,x #b 9 cross section1 7 free f defects su* z knots1 *ecks1 & cross gra92 all o!r specim5s 7 repres5tative ( mat]ial secur$ 9 ! op5 m>ket4 ,! relation ( /resses develop$ 9 diff]5t /ructural =ms to ^? develop$ 9 ! small cle> specim5s is %[n = ea* factor 9 ! column head$ ,ratio to #b ,x #b4 ,te/s to det]m9e ! me*anical prop]ties ( diff]5t species are (t5 conf9$ to small1 cle> specim5s4 ,! ratios includ$ 9 ! tables may be appli$ to su* results 9 ord] to approximate ! /r5g? ( ! species 9 /ructural sizes1 & conta9+ ! defects usually enc\nt]$1 :5 te/s on su* =ms are n available4 ,a comp>ison ( ! results ( te/s on season$ mat]ial ) ^? f te/s on gre5 mat]ial %[s t1 )\t exception1 ! /r5g? ( ! #b ,x #b specim5s is increas$ by l[]+ ! moi/ure cont5t1 b t increase 9 /r5g? ( o!r sizes is mu* m erratic4 ,"s specim5s1 9 fact1 %[ an app>5t loss 9 /r5g? due to season+4 ,if /ructural timb]s are season$ sl[ly1 9 ord] to avoid excessive *eck+1 !re %\ld be an increase 9 _! /r5g?4 ,9 ! light ( ^! facts x is n safe to base work+ /resses on results secur$ f any b gre5 mat]ial4 ,= a discussion ( factors ( safety & safe work+ /resses = /ructural timb]s see ! ,manual ( ! ,am]ican ,railway ,eng9e]+ ,association1 ,*icago1 #aiaa4 ,a table f t publication1 giv+ work+ unit /resses = /ructural timb]1 is reproduc$ 9 ?is book1 see ,table ,,xxii4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,table ,,xviii ,,table ,,xviii ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,b5d+ ,,te/s ,,on ,,gre5 ,,mat]ial ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,sizes ,f4,s4 at ,e4,l4 ,m4 ( ,r4 ,m4 ( ,e4 ,calculat$ ----------------- ,num- ,p] ,r+s %e> ,species b] c5t p] ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,cross ,span ( mois- in* ,av]age ,ratio ,av]age ,ratio ,av]age ,ratio ,av]age ,ratio ,section te/s ture p] sq4 to #b p] sq4 to #b p] sq4 to #b p] sq4 to #b in* by #b in* by #b in* by #b in* by #b ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- #a1jjj ,in*es ,ins4 ,lbs4 ,lbs4 lbs4 ,lbs4 ,longleaf p9e #ab by #ab #ach #d #bh4f #i4g #d1jbi #j4hc #f1gaj #j4gd #a1ebc #j4ii #bfa #j4hf #aj by #af #afh #d #bf4h #af4g #f1dec 4#he #f1dec 4#ga #a1fbf #a4je #cjf #a4ja #h by #af #aef #g #bh4d #ad4f #c1adg 4#fd #e1dci 4#fj #a1cfh 4#hi #cij #a4bi #f by #af #acb #a #dj4c #ba4h #d1abj 4#hc #f1dfj 4#ga #a1aij 4#gg #cgh #a4be #f by #aj #ahj #a #ca4j #f4b #c1ehj 4#gb #f1ejj 4#gb #a1dab 4#ib #age 4#eh #f by #h #ahj #b #bg4j #h4b #c1gce 4#ge #e1gde 4#fc #a1bhb 4#hc #aba 4#dj #b by #b #cj #ae #cc4i #ad4a #d1iej #a4jj #i1jgj #a4jj #a1edj #a3jj #cjc #a4jj ,d\glas fir #h by #af #ahj #aia #ca4e #aa4j #c1ifh 4#gf #e1ihc 4#gb #a1eag 4#ie #bfi 4#ha #e by #h #ahj #hd #cj4a #aj4h #c1fic 4#ga #e1agh 4#fc #a1ecc 4#if #agb 4#eb #b by #ab #ahj #bg #ce4g #bj4c #c1gba 4#ga #e1bgf 4#fd #a1fdb #a4jc #bef 4#gg #b by #aj #ahj #bf #cb4i #ba4f #c1afj 4#fj #d1fii 4#eg #a1eic #a4jj #ahi 4#eg #b by #h #ahj #bi #cc4f #ag4f #c1eic 4#fi #e1ceb 4#fe #a1fjg #a4ja #aga 4#ea #b by #b #bd #efh #cj4d #aa4f #e1bbg #a4jj #i1jgj #a4jj #a1edj #a4jj #cjc #a4jj ,d\glas fir 7fire-kill$7 #h by #af #ahj #cj #cf4h #aj4i #c1ejc 4#hj #d1iid 4#fd #a1eca 4#id #ccj #a4ai #b by #ab #ahj #cb #cd4b #ag4g #c1dhi 4#hj #e1jhe 4#ff #a1fbd 4#ii #bdg 4#hi #b by #aj #ahj #cb #ch4i #ah4a #c1hea 4#hh #e1cei 4#fi #a1gaf #a4je #baf 4#gh #b by #h #ahj #ca #cg4j #ae4g #c1djc 4#gh #e1cje 4#fh #a1fgf #a4jb #afi 4#fa #b by #b #cj #bij #cc4b #ag4b #d1cfj #a4jj #g1geb #a4jj #a1fcf #a4jj #bgg #a4jj ,%ortleaf p9e #h by #af #ahj #ab #ci4e #ab4a #c1ahe 4#gc #e1djg 4#gj #a1dch #a4jc #cfb #a4dj #h by #ad #ahj #ab #de4h #ab4g #c1bcd 4#gd #e1gha 4#ge #a1did #a4jg #cch #a4ca #h by #ab #ahj #bd #eb4b #aa4h #c1bfe 4#ge #e1ejc 4#ga #a1dhj #a4jf #bgg #a4jg #e by #h #ahj #bd #dg4h #aa4e #c1eai 4#ha #e1gcb 4#gd #a1dhe #a4jf #ahe 4#gb #b by #b #cj #bed #ea4g #ac4f #d1cej #a4jj #g1gaj #a4jj #a1cie #a4jj #beh #a4jj ,we/]n l>* #h by #af #ahj #cb #ea4j #be4c #c1bgf 4#gg #d1fcb 4#fd #a1bgb 4#ig #bih #a4aa #h by #ab #ahj #cj #ej4c #bc4b #c1cgf 4#gi #e1bhf 4#gc #a1cca #a4jb #bed 4#id #e by #h #ahj #ad #ef4j #be4f #c1ebh 4#hc #e1cca 4#gd #a1dcb #a4ji #afi 4#fc #b by #b #bh #ahi #df4b #bf4b #d1bgd #a4jj #g1bea #a4jj #a1caj #a4jj #bfi #a4jj ,loblolly p9e #h by #af #ahj #ag #ae4h #f4a #c1jid 4#ge #e1cid 4#fi #a1djf 4#ih #chc #a4dd #e by #ab #ahj #id #fj4i #e4i #c1jcj 4#gd #e1jbh 4#fd #a1chc 4#if #bba 4#hc #b by #b #cj #dd #gj4i #e4d #d1ajj #a4jj #g1hgj #a4jj #a1ddj #a4jj #bfe #a4jj ,tam>ack #f by #ab #afb #ae #eg4f #af4f #b1iad 4#ge #d1ejj 4#ff #a1bjb #a4je #bee #a4aa #d by #aj #afb #ae #dc4e #aa4d #b1gab 4#gj #d1faa 4#fh #a1bch #a4jh #bji 4#ia #b by #b #cj #hb #ch4h #ad4j #c1hge #a4jj #f1hbj #a4jj #a1ada #a4jj #bbi #a4jj ,we/]n hemlock #h by #af #ahj #ci #db4e #ae4f #c1eaf 4#hj #e1bif 4#gc #a1dde #a4ja #bfa 4#ib #b by #b #bh #eb #ea4h #ab4a #d4djf #a4jj #g1bid #a4jj #a1dbh #a4jj #bhd #a4jj ,r$wood #h by #af #ahj #ad #hf4e #ai4i #c1gcd 4#gi #d1dib 4#fd #a1jaf 4#if #cjj #a4ba #f by #ab #ahj #ad #hg4c #ag4h #c1ghg 4#hj #d1dea 4#fd #a1jfh #a4jj #bbd 4#ij #g by #i #ahj #ad #gi4h #af4g #d1dab 4#ic #e1bgi 4#gf #a1cbd #a4be #aii 4#hj #c by #ad #ahj #ac #hf4a #bc4g #c1ejf 4#gd #d1cfd 4#fb #idg 4#hi #bee #a4jc #b by #ab #ahj #ab #gj4i #ah4f #c1ajj 4#fe #c1gec 4#ed #a1jeb 4#ii #ahg 4#ge #b by #aj #ahj #ac #ee4h #bj4j #c1bhe 4#fi #d1jgi 4#eh #a1ajg #a4jd #afi 4#fh #b by #h #ahj #ac #fc4h #ba4e #b1ihi 4#fc #d1jfc 4#eh #a1ada #a4jh #acd 4#ed #b by #b #bh #aeg #ge4e #ai4a #d1gej #a4jj #f1ihj #a4jj #a1jfa #a4jj #bdh #a4jj ,norway p9e #f by #ab #afb #ae #ej4c #ab4e #b1cje 4#hb #c1egb 4#fi #ihg #a4jc #bja #a4ag #d by #ab #afb #ah #dg4i #ad4g #b1fdh 4#id #d1ajg 4#gi #a1bee #a4ca #bch #a4ch #d by #aj #afb #af #de4g #ac4c #b1fgd 4#ie #d1bje 4#ha #a1cjf #a4cf #aih #a4ae #b by #b #cj #acc #cb4c #aa4d #b1hjh #a4jj #e1agc #a4jj #ifj #a4jj #agb #a4jj ,r$ spruce #b by #aj #add #ad #cb4e #ba4i #b1cid 4#ff #c1eff 4#fj #a1ahj #a4jb #aha 4#hj #b by #b #bf #fj #cg4c #ba4c #c1fbg #a4jj #e1ijj #a4jj #a1aeg #a4jj #bbg #a4jj ,:ite spruce #b by #aj #add #af #dj4g #i4c #b1bci 4#gb #c1bhh 4#fc #a1jha #a4jh #aff 4#hc #b by #b #bf #hc #eh4c #aj4b #c4jij #a4jj #e1ahe #a4jj #iih #a4jj #aii #a4jj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,note4--,foll[+ is an explanation ( ! abbreviations us$ 9 ! =ego+ tables3 ,f4,s4 at ,e4,l4 ,fib] /ress at ela/ic limit4 ,m4 ( ,e4 ,modulus ( ela/icity4 ,m4 ( ,r4 ,modulus ( rupture4 ,cr4 /r4 at ,e4,l4 ,cru%+ /r5g? at ela/ic limit4 ,cr4 /r4 at max4 ld4 ,cru%+ /r5g? at maximum load4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,table ,,xix ,,table ,,xix ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,compression ,,& ,,%e> ,,te/s ,,on ,,gre5 ,,mat]ial ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,compression ,compression ,%e> p>allel to gra9 p]p5dicul> to gra9 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,cr4 ,cr4 ,cr4 ,species ,p] /r4 ,m4 ( /r4 ,p] /r4 ,p] ,size ( ,no4 c5t at ,e4 at max4 ,/ress ,no4 c5t at max4 ,no4 c5t ,%e> specim5 ( ( ,e4 ,l4 p] ld414 area ,height ( ( ld41 ( ( /r5g? te/s mois- p] squ>e p] te/s mois- p] te/s mois- ture squ>e in* squ>e ture squ>e ture in* in* in* ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- --------------------------------------- #a1jjj ,in*es ,lbs4 lbs4 ,lbs4 ,in*es ,in*es ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ,longleaf p9e #d by #d #df #bf4c #c1dhj #d1hjj #d by #d #d #bb #be4c #efh #dd #ba4h #igc #b by #b #ad #cd4g #d1djj ,d\glas fir #f by #f #eae #cj4g #b1ghj #a1aha #c1ejj #d by #h #af #bei #cj4c #egj #eca #bi4g #gfe #e by #f #agj #cj4i #b1gbj #b1abc #c1dij #b by #b #ijb #bi4h #c1ejj #a1ibe #d1jcj ,d\glas fir 7fire-kill$7 #f by #f #ajh #cd4h #b1fbj #a1hja #c1bij #f by #h #af #bd #cc4g #cfh #gg #ce4h #fca #b by #b #bjd #cg4i #c1dcj ,%ortleaf p9e #f by #f #ie #da4b #b1ead #a1efe #c1dcf #e by #h #af #ab #cg4g #cfa #agi #dg4j #gjd #e by #h #bc #dc4e #b1bda #a1ebi #c1dbc #e by #h #ad #ab #db4h #cff #b by #b #bha #ea4d #c1egj #e by #h #ab #bd #ec4j #cbe #e by #e #h #bd #dg4j #cdd #b by #b #b #bgg #dh4e #djj ,we/]n l>* #f by #f #ajg #di4a #b1fge #a1ege #c1eaj #f by #h #af #bb #dc4f #dag #agi #dj4g #gjj #b by #b #dia #ej4f #c1jbf #a1ede #c1fif #f by #h #ab #bj #dj4b #daf #d by #f #f #ec #eb4h #dgh #d by #d #d #cj #ej4d #dgb ,loblolly p9e #h by #h #ad #fc4d #a1efj #cfe #b1adj #h by #d #h #af #fg4b #cib #aba #hc4b #fcj #d by #h #ah #fj4j #b1dcj #fia #c1efj #d by #d #h #ch #dd4f #edf #b by #b #ec #gd4j #c1bdj ,tam>ack #f by #g #d #di4i #b1ccb #a1dcb #c1jcb #bd #ci4b #ffh #d by #g #f #bg4g #b1ddd #a1ccd #c1cfj #b by #b #afe #cf4h #c1aij ,we/]n hemlock #f by #f #hb #df4f #b1ije #a1fag #c1cee #f by #d #f #cj #dh4g #dcd #ed #fe4g #fcj #b by #b #aca #ee4f #b1ich #a1gcg #c1cib ,r$wood #f by #f #cd #hc4f #c1aid #a1bdj #c1hhb #f by #h #af #ac #hf4g #dgc #adh #hd4b #gdb #b by #b #adc #cf4h #c1dij #a1bbb #c1ihj #f by #f #ab #ad #hc4j #dbd #f by #g #i #ac #gd4g #dgg #f by #c #ad #ac #ge4f #daa #f by #b #ab #ab #ff4e #dcj #f by #b #aj #aa #ee4j #dbc #f by #b #h #ab #ef4g #cif #b by #b #b #ahf #ge4e #efi ,norway p9e #f by #g #e #bi4j #a1ibh #ije #b1djd #bj #bf4g #ehi #d by #g #h #bh4d #b1aed #a1jfc #b1feb #b by #b #agh #bf4h #b1ejd ,r$ spruce #b by #b #eh #ce4d #b1gej #b by #b #b #dc #ca4h #caj #cj #cb4j #geh ,:ite spruce #b by #b #hd #fa4j #b1cgj #b by #b #b #df #ej4d #bgj #dj #eh4j #fea ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,note4--,foll[+ is an explanation ( ! abbreviations us$ 9 ! =ego+ tables3 ,f4,s4 at ,e4,l4 ,fib] /ress at ela/ic limit4 ,m4 ( ,e4 ,modulus ( ela/icity4 ,m4 ( ,r4 ,modulus ( rupture4 ,cr4 /r4 at ,e4,l4 ,cru%+ /r5g? at ela/ic limit4 ,cr4 /r4 at max4 ld4 ,cru%+ /r5g? at maximum load4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,table ,,xx ,,table ,,xx ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,b5d+ ,,te/s ,,on ,,air-,,season$ ,,mat]ial ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,sizes ,f4,s4 at ,e4,l4 ,m4 ( ,r4 ,m4 ( ,e4 ,calculat$ ----------------- ,num- ,p] ,r+s %e> ,species b] c5t p] ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,cross ,span ( mois- in* ,av]age ,ratio ,av]age ,ratio ,av]age ,ratio ,av]age ,ratio ,section te/s ture p] sq4 to #b p] sq4 to #b p] sq4 to #b p] sq4 to #b in* by #b in* by #b in* by #b in* by #b ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- #a1jjj ,in*es ,ins4 ,lbs4 ,lbs4 lbs4 ,lbs4 ,longleaf p9e #h by #af #ahj #e #bb4b #af4j #c1cij #j4ej #d1bgd #j4cg #a1gdg #a4jj #bhh #j4ge #f by #af #acb #a #bc4d #ag4a #c1dgj 4#ea #f1faj 4#eg #a1eja 4#hf #chh #a4ja #f by #aj #agg #b #ai4j #h4h #d1efj 4#fh #g1hhj 4#fh #a1gbb 4#ii #bad 4#ef #d by #aa #ahj #a #ah4d #bc4i #c1jgh 4#df #h1jjj 4#fi #a1ffj 4#ie #bea 4#ff #f by #h #agg #f #bj4j #ac4g #d1bbg 4#fc #h1aif 4#ga #a1fcd 4#id #agg 4#df #b by #b #cj #ag #ae4i #ac4i #f1gej #a4jj #aa1ebj #a4jj #a1gdj #a4jj #chc #a4jj ,d\glas fir #h by #af #ahj #ia #bj4h #ac4a #d1efc 4#fh #f1cgb 4#fa #a1edi 4#ia #bfi 4#fd #e by #h #ahj #cj #ad4i #ab4b #e1jfe 4#gf #f1ggg 4#fe #a1hec #a4ji #bah 4#eb #b by #b #bd #baa #ai4j #af4d #f1fhf #a4jj #aj1cgh #a4jj #a1fie #a4jj #dai #a4jj ,%ortleaf p9e #h by #af #ahj #c #ag4j #ab4c #d1bbj 4#ed #f1jcj 4#ej #a1eag 4#he #cih 4#ih #h by #ad #ahj #c #af4j #ab4c #d1bec 4#ee #e1cdg 4#dd #a1geg 4#ih #cjg 4#gf #h by #ab #ahj #g #af4j #ab4d #e1jea 4#fe #g1cca 4#fj #a1hjc #a4ja #cfa 4#hi #e by #h #ahj #f #ab4b #bb4e #g1abc 4#ib #i1cgc 4#gg #a1ihe #a4aa #cja 4#gd #b by #b #cj #fg #ad4b #ac4g #g1ghj #a4jj #ab1abj #a4jj #a1gib #a4jj #djd #a4jj ,we/]n l>* #h by #af #ahj #bc #ah4c #ba4i #c1cdc 4#eg #e1ddj 4#ec #a1dji 4#ij #cdi 4#if #h by #ab #ahj #bi #ag4h #bc4d #c1fca 4#fb #f1ahf 4#fj #a1edi 4#ii #bie 4#ha #e by #h #ahj #aj #ac4f #bg4f #d1gcj 4#hj #g1beh 4#ga #a1fbj #a4jd #bba 4#fa #b by #b #cj #bdj #af4a #bf4h #e1hhj #a4jj #aj1bed #a4jj #a1efd #a4jj #cfd #a4jj ,loblolly p9e #h by #af #ahj #ad #bj4e #g4d #d1aie 4#ha #f1gcd 4#gb #a1fai #a4aj #dfb #a4de #f by #af #abf #d #bj4b #e4j #b1dcb 4#dg #d1bie 4#df #a1cbd 4#ij #bff 4#hd #f by #aj #agd #c #ba4c #d4g #c1ajj 4#fj #f1afg 4#ff #a1ddi 4#ii #agc 4#ed #d by #ab #agd #d #ai4h #d4g #b1gac 4#eb #e1gde 4#fa #a1bdi 4#he #ahe 4#eh #h by #h #ahj #i #bb4i #d4i #b1ijc 4#ef #d1eeg 4#dh #a1acf 4#gg #ic 4#bi #f by #g #add #b #ba4a #e4j #b1iij 4#eh #d1ifh 4#ec #a1bhf 4#hh #aaf 4#cf #d by #h #acb #h #ai4e #i4a #c1chd 4#fe #f1aid 4#ff #a1bjj 4#hb #aif 4#fb #b by #b #cj #abc #ag4f #f4f #e1agj #a4jj #i1djj #a4jj #a1dfg #a4jj #cah #a4jj ,tam>ack #f by #ab #afb #e #bc4j #ae4a #c1dcd 4#de #e1fdj 4#dc #a1ccj 4#hb #cah 4#ge #d by #aj #afb #d #ad4d #i4g #d1ajj 4#ed #e1cbj 4#da #a1chf 4#hd #beb 4#ei #b by #b #cj #dg #aa4c #af4b #g1fcj #a4jj #ac1jhj #a4jj #a1fbj #a4jj #dbe #a4jj ,we/]n hemlock #h by #af #ahj #dd #ag4g #ag4h #d1cih 4#fi #f1dbj 4#fb #a1gcg #a4jd #djf #a4jf #b by #b #bh #caa #ag4i #ai4d #f1ccc #a4jj #aj1cfi #a4jj #a1fff #a4jj #chb #a4jj ,r$wood #h by #af #ahj #f #bf4c #bb4d #c1gig 4#gi #d1dbh 4#eg #a1ajg 4#if #bid #a4je #f by #ab #ahj #f #af4a #ag4g #c1age 4#ff #c1cec 4#dc #gbh 4#fd #afg 4#fj #g by #i #ahj #f #ae4i #ae4b #c1bhj 4#fi #d1jjb 4#ea #a1ajd 4#if #adg 4#ec #c by #ad #ahj #f #ac4a #bd4d #e1jcc 4#fd #bia #a4jd #b by #ab #ahj #e #ac4h #ad4d #c1ibh 4#hb #e1ccf 4#fh #a1bdi #a4ji #bfj 4#ic #b by #aj #ahj #e #ac4h #bd4h #c1geg 4#gi #d1fjf 4#ei #a1aih #a4je #ahf 4#fg #b by #h #ahj #f #ac4g #bj4g #d1cad 4#ij #e1jej 4#fe #a1cac #a4ae #aff 4#fj #b by #b #bh #abb #ae4b #ah4h #d1ggg #a4jj #g1gih #a4jj #a1adf #a4jj #bgi #a4jj ,norway p9e #f by #ab #afb #e #af4g #h4a #b1ifh 4#ef #e1bjd 4#fa #a1abc 4#ig #bhf #a4jb #d by #aj #afb #e #ac4g #ab4j #e1agj 4#ih #f1ijd 4#hb #a1gab #a4dh #cag #a4ac #b by #b #cj #fj #ad4i #aa4b #e1bhj #a4jj #h1dgj #a4jj #a1aeh #a4jj #bha #a4jj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,note4--,foll[+ is an explanation ( ! abbreviations us$ 9 ! =ego+ tables3 ,f4,s4 at ,e4,l4 ,fib] /ress at ela/ic limit4 ,m4 ( ,e4 ,modulus ( ela/icity4 ,m4 ( ,r4 ,modulus ( rupture4 ,cr4 /r4 at ,e4,l4 ,cru%+ /r5g? at ela/ic limit4 ,cr4 /r4 at max4 ld4 ,cru%+ /r5g? at maximum load4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,table ,,xxi ,,table ,,xxi ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,compression ,,& ,,%e> ,,te/s ,,on ,,air-,,season$ ,,mat]ial ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,compression ,compression ,%e> p>allel to gra9 p]p5dicul> to gra9 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,cr4 ,cr4 ,cr4 ,species ,p] /r4 ,m4 ( /r4 ,p] /r4 ,p] ,size ( ,no4 c5t at ,e4 at max4 ,/ress ,no4 c5t at max4 ,no4 c5t ,%e> specim5 ( ( ,e4 ,l4 p] ld414 area ,height ( ( ld41 ( ( /r5g? te/s mois- p] squ>e p] te/s mois- p] te/s mois- ture squ>e in* squ>e ture squ>e ture in* in* in* ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- --------------------------------------- #a1jjj ,in*es ,lbs4 lbs4 ,lbs4 ,in*es ,in*es ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ,longleaf p9e #d by #e #df #bf4c #c1dhj #d1hjj #d by #e #d #bb #be4a #egb #eb #bj4b #ihd ,d\glas fir #f by #f #bei #bj4c #c1bga #a1jch #d1beh #d by #h #af #dd #bj4h #gcb #dfe #bb4a #hbb #b by #b #bdg #ah4g #c1hdb #a1jhd #e1jjb #d by #h #aj #cb #ah4a #ehd #d by #d #h #ea #bj4b #fch #d by #d #f #di #bd4j #fac #d by #d #d #bi #bd4h #fjc ,%ortleaf p9e #f by #f #bi #ae4g #d1jgj #a1iea #f1jcj #h by #e #af #d #ag4h #gbe #he #a1ace #b by #b #eg #ad4b #f1chj #h by #e #ad #c #af4c #geg #h by #e #ab #e #ae4a #gcj #e by #e #h #f #ac4j #iah #b by #b #b #eg #ac4i #ibf ,we/]n l>* #f by #f #aab #af4j #e1dde #h by #f #af #ag #ah4h #dia #aic #ae4j #ije #d by #d #ha #ad4g #f1afa #h by #f #ab #ah #ag4f #ebf #b by #b #bgj #ad4h #e1icd #e by #d #h #bb #ac4c #gce ,loblolly p9e #f by #f #bc #c1ceg #a1fic #e1jje #h by #e #af #ab #ai4h #fjb #aef #aa4c #a1aae #e by #e #aj #bb4d #b1bag #ede #b1iej #h by #e #h #g #bb4i #fgi #d by #h #h #ai4d #c1jaj #fcc #c1ibj #d by #e #h #h #ai4e #gae #b by #b #fi #e1edg ,tam>ack #f by #g #c #ae4g #b1beg #a1jdb #c1cbc #b by #b #b #eg #af4b #fig #fj #ad4j #hgi #d by #g #c #ac4f #c1ghj #a1cja #d1hbc #d by #d #eg #ad4i #c1chf #a1cec #d1cdf #b by #b #ff #ad4f #d1gij ,we/]n hemlock #f by #f #ajb #ah4f #d1hdj #b1adj #e1had #g by #f #ae #be #ah4b #ead #aca #ag4g #ibd #b by #b #dfc #ag4j #d1efj #a1ibc #e1djc #f by #f #f #bf #af4h #dca #d by #d #d #f #ae4i #dhh ,r$wood #f by #f #ah #af4i #d1bgf #h by #f #af #e #be4d #edh #ie #ab4d #fga #b by #b #aae #ad4f #e1aai #f by #f #ab #f #ad4g #faj #g by #f #i #e #ad4h #ejj #c by #f #ad #b #ab4f #dgj #b by #f #ab #b #af4b #dih #b by #f #aj #d #ad4c #eaa #b by #f #h #b #ac4b #dbi #b by #b #b #ade #ac4h #efd ,norway p9e #f by #g #d #ae4b #b1fgj #a1ahb #d1bab #b by #b #b #cf #aj4j #ibd #dd #aa4i #a1ade #d by #g #b #bb4b #c1bge #a1gbd #d1ege #d by #d #ee #af4f #c1jdh #a1cfg #d1bag #b by #b #dd #aa4b #g1eej ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,note4--,foll[+ is an explanation ( ! abbreviations us$ 9 ! =ego+ tables3 ,f4,s4 at ,e4,l4 ,fib] /ress at ela/ic limit4 ,m4 ( ,e4 ,modulus ( ela/icity4 ,m4 ( ,r4 ,modulus ( rupture4 ,cr4 /r4 at ,e4,l4 ,cru%+ /r5g? at ela/ic limit4 ,cr4 /r4 at max4 ld4 ,cru%+ /r5g? at maximum load4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,table ,,xxii ,,table ,,xxii ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ b,,work+ ,,unit-,,/resses ,,= ,,/ructural ,,timb]c ,,express$ ,,9 ,,p\nds ,,p] ,,squ>e ,,in* 7,f ,manual ( ! ,am]ican ,railway ,eng9e]+ ,assn41 #aiaa1 p4 #aec7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,note4--,! work+ unit-/resses giv5 9 ! table are int5d$ = railroad bridges & tre/les4 ,= highway bridges & tre/les ! unit-/resses may be increas$ tw5ty-five 7#be7 p] c5t4 ,= build+s & simil> /ructures1 9 :i* ! timb] is protect$ f ! wea!r & practically free f impact1 ! unit-/resses may be increas$ fifty 7#ej7 p] c5t4 ,to compute ! deflection ( a beam "u long-cont9u$ load+ in/ead ( t :5 ! load is fir/ appli$1 only fifty 7#ej7 p] c5t ( ! correspond+ modulus ( ela/icity giv5 9 ! table is to be employ$4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,b5d+ ,,%e>+ ,,compression ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,ratio ,extreme ,modulus ( ,p>allel to ,longitud9al ,p]p5dicul> ,p>allel to ,= ,=mul = ( fibre ela/icity ! gra9 %e> 9 to ! gra9 ! gra9 columns work+ /ress 9 l5g? ,,k9d ,,( /ress beams "u #ae long columns ov] ( ,,timb] ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- diamet]s #ae diamet]s /r+] ,av]age ,work+ ,av]age ,work+ ,ela/ic ,work+ ,ela/ic ,work+ ,av]age ,work+ work+ to ultimate /ress ,av]age ultimate /ress limit /ress limit /ress ultimate /ress /ress dep? ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,d\glas fir #fajj #abjj #a1eaj1jjj #fij #agj #bgj #aaj #fcj #caj #cfjj #abjj #ijj #abjj7a-l_/#fj;d7 #aj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,longleaf p9e #fejj #acjj #a1faj1jjj #gbj #ahj #cjj #abj #ebj #bfj #chjj #acjj #ihj #acjj7a-l_/#fj;d7 #aj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,%ortleaf p9e #efjj #aajj #a1dhj1jjj #gaj #agj #ccj #acj #cdj #agj #cdjj #aajj #hcj #aajj7a-l_/#fj;d7 #aj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,:ite p9e #ddjj #ijj #a1acj1jjj #djj #ajj #ahj #gj #bij #aej #cjjj #ajjj #gej #ajjj7a-l_/#fj;d7 #aj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,spruce #dhjj #ajjj #a1caj1jjj #fjj #aej #agj #gj #cgj #ahj #cbjj #aajj #hcj #aajj7a-l_/#fj;d7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,norway p9e #dbjj #hjj #a1aij1jjj #eij;d #acj #bej #ajj #aej #bfjj;d #hjj #fjj #hjj7a-l_/#fj;d7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,tam>ack #dfjj #ijj #a1bbj1jjj #fgj #agj #bfj #ajj #bbj #cbjj;d #ajjj #gej #ajjj7a-l_/#fj;d7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,we/]n hemlock #ehjj #aajj #a1dhj1jjj #fcj #afj #bgj;d #ajj #ddj #bbj #cejj #abjj #ijj #abjj7a-l_/#fj;d7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,r$wood #ejjj #ijj #hjj1jjj #cjj #hj #djj #aej #ccjj #ijj #fhj #ijj7a-l_/#fj;d7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,bald cypress #dhjj #ijj #a1aej1jjj #ejj #abj #cdj #agj #cijj #aajj #hcj #aajj7a-l_/#fj;d7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,r$ c$> #dbjj #hjj #hjj1jjj #dgj #bcj #bhjj #ijj #fhj #ijj7a-l_/#fj;d7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,:ite oak #egjj #aajj #a1aej1jjj #hdj #baj #bgj #aaj #ibj #dej #cejj #acjj #ihj #acjj7a-l_/#fj;d7 #ab ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,^! unit-/resses are = a gre5 condition ( timb] & are l ,l5g? 9 in*es4 to be us$ )\t increas+ ! live load /resses = impact4 d ,lea/ side 9 in*es4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,footnote b3 ,adopt$1 ,vol4 #aiji1 pp4 #ecg1 #efd1 #fji-faa4 ,footnote c3 ,gre5 timb] 9 expos$ "w4 ,footnote d3 ,p>tially air-dry ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,bibliography ,"p ,i3 ,"s g5]al works on me*anics1 mat]ials ( con/ruction1 & te/+ ( mat]ials4 ,"p ,,ii3 ,publications & articles on ! me*anical prop]ties ( wood1 & timb] te/+4 ,"p ,,iii3 ,publications ( ! ,u4,s4 ,gov]nm5t on ! me*anical prop]ties ( wood1 & timb] te/+4 ,,"p #a4 ,,"s ,,g5]al ,,works ,,on ,,me*anics1 ,,mat]ials ,,( ,,con/ruction1 ,,& ,,te/+ ,,( ,,mat]ials ,,allan1 ,,william3 ,/r5g? ( beams "u transv]se loads4 ,new ,york1 #ahic4 ,,&]son1 ,,sir ,,john3 ,! /r5g? ( mat]ials & /ructures4 ,london1 #aijb4 ,,b>l[1 ,,pet]3 ,/r5g? ( mat]ials1 #a/ ed4 #ahag2 rev4 #ahfg4 ,,burr1 ,,william ,h43 ,! ela/icity & resi/ance ( ! mat]ials ( eng9e]+4 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,,*ur*1 ,,irv+ ,p43 ,me*anics ( eng9e]+4 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,,hatfield1 ,r4,g43 ,!ory ( transv]se /ra94 #ahgg4 ,,hatt1 ,w4,k41 & ,,sc(ield1 ,h4,h43 ,laboratory manual ( te/+ mat]ials4 ,new ,york1 #aiac4 ,,jameson1 ,j4,m43 ,ex]cises 9 me*anics4 7,wiley te*nical s]ies47 ,new ,york1 #aiac4 ,,jamieson1 ,,&rew3 ,/r5g? ( mat]ials4 7,appli$ me*anics & me*anical eng9e]+1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,london1 #aiaa4 ,,johnson1 ,j4,b43 ,! mat]ials ( con/ruction4 ,new ,york1 #aiaj4 ,,k5t1 ,,william3 ,! /r5g? ( mat]ials4 ,new ,york1 #ahij4 ,,kottcamp1 ,j4,p43 ,ex]cises = ! appli$ me*anics laboratory4 7,wiley te*nical s]ies47 ,new ,york1 #aiac4 ,,lanza1 ,,gaetano3 ,appli$ me*anics4 ,new ,york1 #aija4 ,,m]riman1 ,,mansfield3 ,me*anics ( mat]ials4 ,new ,york1 #aiab4 ,,murdock1 ,h4,e43 ,/r5g? ( mat]ials4 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,,rank9e1 ,,william ,j4,m43 ,a manual ( appli$ me*anics4 ,london1 #aija4 ,,?il1 ,a43 ,conclusion de l'tude prs5te la ,commission des m?odes d'essai des matriaux de con/ruction4 ,p>is1 #aijj4 ,,?ur/on1 ,,rob]t ,h43 ,a treatise on non-metallic mat]ials ( eng9e]+3 /one1 timb]1 fuel1 lubricants1 etc4 7,mat]ials ( eng9e]+1 ,"p ,i47 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 ,,unw91 ,,william ,c43 ,! te/+ ( mat]ials ( con/ruction4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,,wat]bury1 ,l4,a43 ,laboratory manual = te/+ mat]ials ( con/ruction4 ,new ,york1 #aiab4 ,,wood1 ,,devolson3 ,a treatise on ! resi/ance ( mat]ials4 ,new ,york1 #ahig4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,publications ,,& ,,articles ,,on ,,! ,,me*anical ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,wood1 ,,& ,,timb] ,,te/+ ,,abbot1 ,,ar?ur ,v43 ,te/+ ma*9es1 _! hi/ory1 con/ruction & use4 ,van ,no/r&'s ,eng4 ,mag41 ,vol4 ,,xxx1 #ahhd1 pp4 #bjd-bad2 #cbe-cdd2 #chb-cig2 #dgg-dij4 ,,adams1 ,e4,e43 ,te/s to det]m9e ! /r5g? ( bolt$ timb] jo9ts4 ,cal4 ,j\r1 ( ,te*nology1 ,sept41 #aijd4 ,,alv>ez1 ,,ar?ur ,c43 ,! /r5g? ( long season$ ,d\glas fir & r$wood4 ,univ4 ( ,cal4 ,pub4 9 ,eng41 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #b1 ,b]keley1 #aiac1 pp4 #aa-bj4 ,,b>l[1 ,,pet]3 ,an essay on ! /r5g? & /ress ( timb]4 ,london1 #ahag2 #c;d ed41 #ahbf4 ----3 ,exp]im5ts on ! /r5g? ( diff]5t k9ds ( wood made 9 ! c>riage dep>tm5t1 ,royal ,ars5al1 ,woolwi*4 ,j\r4 ,frankl9 ,in/41 ,vol4 ,x1 #ahcb1 pp4 #di-eb4 ,repr9t$ f ,philosophical ,mag4 & ,annals ( ,philos41 ,no4 #fc1 ,m*41 #ahcb4 ,,bates1 ,,onw>d3 ,p9e /r+]s & floorbeams = bridges4 ,trans4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,c4,e41 ,vol4 ,,xxiii4 ,,baus*+]1 ,,johann3 ,unt]su*ung5 b] die ,ela/icitt und ,fe/igkeit von ,fi*t5- und ,kief]nbauhlz]n4 ,mitt4 a4 d4 me*4-te*4 ,laboratorium d4 k4 te*n4 ,ho*s*ule 9 ,mn*51 #i4 ,hft41 ,mn*51 #ahhc4 ----3 ,v]h&lung5 d] ,mn*5] ,conf]5z und d] von ihr gewhlt5 /ndig5 ,commission zur ,v]e9b>ung e9heitli*] ,prfungsme?od5 fr ,bau- und ,con/ructions-mat]ial4 ,ibid41 #ad4 ,hft41 #ahhf4 ----3 ,unt]su*ung5 b] die ,ela/icitt und ,fe/igkeit v]s*i$5] ,nadelhlz]4 ,ibid41 #af4 ,hft41 #ahhg4 ,,be>e1 ,t4 ,,hudson3 ,timb]3 its /r5g? & h[ to te/ x4 ,eng9e]+1 ,london1 ,dec4 #i1 #aijd4 ,,beauv]ie1 ,j43 ,le bois4 ,i4 ,p>is1 #aije1 pp4 #aje-ahe4 ----3 ,les bois indu/riels4 ,p>is1 #aiaj1 pp4 #ee-gg4 ,b5d+ te/s ) wood1 execut$ at ! ,dani% ,/ate ,te/+ ,laboratory1 ,cop5hag54 ,proc4 ,int4 ,assn4 ,te/4 ,mat41 #aiab1 ,,xxiii#b1 pp4 #ag4 ,see also ,eng4 ,record1 ,vol4 ,,lxvi1 #aiab1 p4 #bfi4 ,,b]g1 ,,walt] ,g43 ,b]g's complete timb] te/ record4 ,*icago1 #ahii4 ,repr9t f ,am4 ,by4 ,bridges & ,build+s4 ,,b\lg]1 ,g4,s43 ,wood4 ,london1 #aijh1 pp4 #aab-aba4 ,,b\niceau1--3 ,note et expri5ces sur la torsion des bois4 ,n4p41 n4d4 ,,bovey1 ,,h5ry ,t43 ,results ( exp]im5ts at ,mc,gill ,univ]sity1 ,montreal1 on ! /r5g? ( ,canadian ,d\glas fir1 r$ p9e1 :ite p9e1 & spruce4 ,trans4 ,c4 ,soc4 ,c4,e41 ,vol4 ,,ix1 ,"p ,i1 #ahie1 pp4 #fi-bcf4 ,,breuil1 ,m4 ,,pi]re3 ,contribution to ! discussion on ! te/+ ( wood4 ,proc4 ,int4 ,assn4 ,te/4 ,mat41 #aijf1 ,disc1 #a;e1 pp4 #b4 ,,br[n1 ,t4,s43 ,an ,acc\nt ( "s exp]im5ts made by ord] ( ,col4 ,tott51 at ,=t ,adams1 ,newport1 ,r4,i41 to asc]ta9 ! relative /iffness & /r5g? ( ! foll[+ k9ds ( timb]1 viz43 :ite p9e 7,p9us /robus71 spruce 7,abies nigra71 & s\!rn p9e 7,p9us au/ralis71 also call$ long-leav$ p9e4 ,j\r4 ,frankl9 ,in/41 ,vol4 ,,vii 7n4s471 #ahca1 pp4 #bcj-bch4 ,,bu*anan1 ,c4,p43 ,"s te/s ( old timb]4 ,eng4 ,news1 ,vol4 ,,lxiv1 ,no4 #bc1 #aiaj1 p4 #fg4 ,,busg51 ,m43 ,zur ,be/immung d] ,holzhrt54 ,zeits*rift f4 ,=/- und ,jagdwes54 ,b]l91 #aijd1 pp4 #edc-efb4 ,,*ev&i]1 ,e41 et ,,w]!im1 ,g43 ,mmoire sur les proprits mcaniques du bois4 ,p>is1 #ahdf4 ,,ciesl>1 ,a43 ,/udi5 b] die ,qualitt ras* erwa*s55 ,fi*t5holzes4 ,c5tralblatt f4 d4 ges4 ,=/wes51 ,wi51 #aijb1 pp4 #ccg-djc4 ,,cl9e1 ,mc,g,a,r,v,e,y3 ,=e/ ,s]vice inve/igations ( ,am]ican woods ) special ref]5ce to inve/igations ( me*anical prop]ties4 ,proc4 ,int4 ,assn4 ,te/4 ,mat41 #aiab1 ,,xxiii#e1 pp4 #ag4 ----3 ,=e/ ,s]vice te/s to det]m9e ! influ5ce ( diff]5t me?ods & rates ( load+ on ! /r5g? & /iffness ( timb]4 ,proc4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,te/4 ,mat41 ,vol4 ,,viii1 #aijh1 pp4 #ece-edj4 ----3 ,! ,=e/ ,products ,laboratory3 its purpose & "w4 ,proc4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,te/4 ,mat41 ,vol4 ,x1 #aiaj1 pp4 #dgg-dhi4 ----3 ,specifications & grad+ rules = ,d\glas fir timb]3 an analysis ( ,=e/ ,s]vice te/s on /ructural timb]s4 ,proc4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,te/4 ,mat41 ,vol4 ,,xi1 #aiaa1 pp4 #gdd-gff4 ,comp>ative /r5g? & resi/ance ( v>i\s tie timb]s4 ,elec4 ,traction ,weekly1 ,*icago1 ,june #ae1 #aiab4 ,,day1 ,,frank ,m43 ,microscopic exam9ation ( timb] ) reg>d to its /r5g?4 #ahhc1 pp4 #f4 ,,dewell1 ,h4,d43 ,te/s ( "s jo9ts us$ 9 heavy timb] fram+4 ,eng4 ,news1 ,m*4 #ai1 #aiad1 pp4 #eid-eih2 et seq4 ,d,,rr1 ,,k>l3 ,die ,fe/igkeit von ,fi*t5- und ,kief]nholz4 ,deuts*e ,bauzeitung1 ,b]l91 ,aug4 #ag1 #aiaj4 ,see also ,zeits*rift d4 v]4 deuts*4 ,+41 ,bd4 #ed1 ,nr4 #cf1 #aiaj1 p4 #aejc4 ,,dup91 ,,*>les3 ,expri5ces sur la flexibilit1 la =ce1 et l'la/icit des bois4 ,j\r1 de l'cole ,polyte*nique1 ,vol4 ,x1 #ahae4 ,,dupont1 ,,adolphe1 et ,,b\quet ,,de ,,la ,,grye3 ,les bois indignes et trang]s4 ,p>is1 #ahge1 pp4 #bgc-ceb4 ,,e/rada1 ,,e/eban ,,duque3 ,on ! /r5g? & o!r prop]ties ( ,cuban woods4 ,van ,no/r&'s ,eng4 ,mag41 ,vol4 ,,xxix1 #ahhc1 pp4 #dag-dbf2 #ddc-ddi4 ,,ev]ett1 ,w4,h43 ,memor&um on me*anical te/s ( "s ,indian timb]s4 ,govt4 ,bul4 ,no4 #f 7o4s471 ,calcutta4 ,,exn]1 ,,wilhelm ,,franz3 ,die me*anis*e ,te*nologie des ,holzes4 ,wi51 #ahga4 7,a translation & revision ( ,*ev&i] & ,w]!im's ,mmoire sur les proprits mcaniques du bois47 ----3 ,die te*nis*5 ,eig5s*aft5 d] ,hlz]4 ,lorey's ,h&bu* d] ,=/wiss5s*aft1 ,,ii4 ,bd41 #f4 ,kap41 ,tb+51 #aijc4 ,,f]n[1 ,b4,e43 ,sci5tific timb] te/+4 ,dige/ ( ,physical ,te/s1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #b1 #ahif1 pp4 #hg-ie4 ,,f[ke1 ,,francis3 ,exp]im5ts on ,briti% colonial & o!r woods4 #ahfg4 ,,g>dn]1 ,,rol&3 ,i4 ,me*anical te/s1 prop]ties1 & uses ( ?irty ,philipp9e woods4 ,,ii4 ,philipp9e sawmills1 lumb] m>ket & prices4 ,bul4 #d1 ,bu4 ,=41 ,p4,i41 #aijf4 7#b;d ed41 #aijg1 conta9s te/s ( #cd woods47 ,,gay]1 ,,k>l3 ,=e/ utilization4 7,vol4 ,v1 ,s*li*'s ,manual ( ,=e/ry4 ,translation ( ,die ,=/b5utzung1 ,b]l91 #ahid47 ,london1 #aijh4 ,,golln]1 ,h43 ,ueb] die ,fe/igkeit des ,s*w>zfhr5holzes4 ,mitt4 a4 d4 =/l4 ,v]su*swes5 ,oe/]rei*s4 ,,ii4 ,bd41 #c4 ,hft41 ,wi51 #ahha4 ,,gottgetreu1 ,,rudolph3 ,physis*e und *emis*e ,bes*aff5heit d] ,baumat]iali54 #c;d ed41 ,b]l91 #ahhj4 ,,gre51 ,a4,o43 ,tasmanian timb]s3 _! qualities & uses4 ,hob>t1 ,tasmania1 #aijc1 pp4 #fc4 ,,gregory1 ,w4,b43 ,te/s ( creosot$ timb]4 ,trans4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,c4,e41 ,vol4 ,,lxxvi1 #aiac1 pp4 #aaib-abjc4 ,see also ibid41 ,vol4 ,,lxx1 p4 #cg4 ,,gris>d1 ,,jules1 et ,,v&5b]ghe1 ,,maximili53 ,les bois indu/riels1 indignes et exotiques2 synonymie et description des espces1 proprits physiques des bois1 qualits1 dfauts1 usages et emplois4 ,p>is1 #ahi-4 ,f ,bul4 de la ,socit nationale d'acclimatation de ,france1 ,vols4 ,,xxxviii-,,xl4 ,h>dwoods ( ,we/]n ,au/ralia4 ,eng9e]+1 ,vol4 ,,lxxxiii1 ,jan4 #aa1 #aijg1 pp4 #ce-cg4 ,,hatt1 ,,william ,,k5drick3 ,a ,prelim9>y program = ! timb] te/ "w to be und]tak5 by ! ,bureau ( ,=e/ry1 ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,proc4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,te/4 ,mat41 ,vol4 ,,iii1 #aijc1 pp4 #cjh-cdc4 ,app5dix ,i3 ,me?od ( det]m9+ ! effect ( ! rate ( application ( load on ! /r5g? ( timb]1 pp4 #cbe-cbg2 ,app4 ,,ii3 ,a discussion on ! effect ( moi/ure on /r5g? & /iffness ( timb]1 toge!r ) a plan ( proc$ure = future te/s1 pp4 #cbh-ccd4 ,,hatt1 ,,william ,,k5drick3 ,relation ( timb] te/s to =e/ products4 ,proc4 ,int4 ,assn4 ,te/4 ,mat41 #aijf1 ,c #b e1 pp4 #f4 ----3 ,/ructural timb]4 ,proc4 ,we/]n ,ry4 ,club1 ,/4 ,l\is1 ,m*4 #ag1 #aijh4 ----3 ,ab/ract ( report on ! pres5t /atus ( timb] te/s 9 ! ,=e/ ,s]vice1 ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,proc4 ,int4 ,assn4 ,te/4 ,mat41 #aiji1 ,,xvl1 pp4 #aj4 ---- & ,,turn]1 ,w4,p43 ,! ,purdue ,univ]sity impact ma*9e4 ,proc4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,te/4 ,mat41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 #aijf1 pp4 #dfb-dge4 ,,haupt1 ,,h]man3 =mul = ! /ra9 ^u timb]4 ,c5t] ( gravity ( an ungula & semi-cyl9d]4 ,j\r4 ,frankl9 ,in/41 ,vol4 ,,xix1 #c;d s]ies1 #ahej1 pp4 #djh-dac4 ,,he>d+1 ,w4,h43 ,report ^u exp]im5ts 444 ^u ! compressive p[] ( p9e & hemlock timb]4 ,wa%+ton1 #ahgb1 pp4 #ab4 ,,h[e1 ,,malv]d ,a43 ,wood 9 compression2 be>+ values = incl9$ cuts4 ,eng4 ,news1 ,vol4 ,,lxviii1 #aiab1 pp4 #aij-aia4 ,,hoy]1 ,,egb]t3 ,lehrbu* d] v]glei*5d5 me*anis*5 ,te*nologie4 #ahgh4 ,,ihls5g1 ,,mangus ,c43 ,on ! modulus ( ela/icity ( "s ,am]ican woods z det]m9$ by vibration4 ,van ,no/r&'s ,eng4 ,mag41 ,vol4 ,,xix1 #ahgh1 pp4 #h-i4 ----3 ,on a mode ( measur+ ! velocity ( s\nds 9 woods4 ,am4 ,j\r4 ,sci4 & ,arts1 ,vol4 ,,xvii1 #ahgi4 ,,jacc>d1 ,p43 tude anatomique des bois comprims4 ,mitt4 d4 ,s*w4 ,c5tralan/alt f4 d4 =/4 ,v]su*swes54 ,x4 ,bd41 #a4 ,hft41 ,zuri*1 #aiaj1 pp4 #ec-aja4 ,,janka1 ,,gabriel3 ,unt]su*ung5 b] die ,ela/icitt und ,fe/igkeit d] /]rei*is*5 ,bauhlz]4 ,i4 ,fi*te ,sdtirols2 ,,ii4 ,fi*te von ,nordtirol vom ,wi5]walde und ,erzgebirge2 ,,iii4 ,fi*te aus d5 ,k>pat51 aus dem ,bhm]walde1 ,t]novan]walde und d5 ,z5tralalp54 ,te*nis*e ,qualitt des ,fi*t5holzes im allgeme952 ,,iv4 ,lr*e aus dem ,wi5]walde1 aus ,s*lesi51 ,nord- und ,sdtirol4 ,mitt4 a4 d4 =/4 ,unt]su*ungswes5 ,oe/]rei*s1 ,wi51 #aijj-ac4 ----3 ,unt]su*ung5 b] ,holzqualitt4 ,c5tralblatt f4 d4 ges4 ,=/wes54 ,wi51 #aijd1 pp4 #ie-aae4 ----3 ,ueb] neu]e holzte*nologis*e ,unt]su*ung54 ,oe/]r4 ,vi]teljahress*rift fr ,=/wes51 ,wi51 #aijf1 pp4 #bdh-bfi4 ----3 ,die ,hrte des ,holzes4 ,c5tralblatt f4 d4 ges4 ,=/wes51 ,wi51 #aijf1 pp4 #aic-bjb2 #bda-bfj4 ,,janka1 ,,gabriel3 ,die ,e9wirkung von ,sss- und ,salzwss]n auf die gew]bli*5 ,eig5s*aft5 d] ,haup?olz>t54 ,i4 ,teil4 ,unt]su*ung5 u4 ,ergebnisse 9 me*anis*-te*nis*] ,h9si*t4 ,mitt4 a4 d4 =/4 ,v]su*swes5 ,oe/]rei*s1 #cc4 ,hft41 ,wi51 #aijg4 ----3 ,results ( trials ) timb] c>ri$ out at ! ,au/rian =e/ry te/+-/ation at ,m>iabrunn4 ,proc4 ,int4 ,assn4 ,te/4 ,mat41 #aijf1 ,disc4 #b e1 pp4 #g4 ----3 ,ueb] die an d] k4 k4 =/li*5 ,v]su*san/alt ,m>iabrunn5 gewonn55 ,resultate d] ,holzfe/igkeitsprfung54 ,zeits*rift d4 ,oe/]r4 ,+4 u4 ,ar*4 ,v]41 ,wi51 ,aug4 #i1 #aijg4 ----3 ,ueb] ,holzhrteprufng4 ,c5tralblatt f4 d4 ges4 ,=/wes51 ,wi51 #aijh1 pp4 #ddc-def4 ----3 ,te/+ ! h>dness ( wood by means ( ! ball te/4 ,proc4 ,int4 ,assn4 ,te/4 ,mat41 #aiab1 ,,xxiii#c4 ,,j5ny1 ,k43 ,unt]su*ung5 b] die ,fe/igkeit d] ,hlz] aus d5 ,lnd]n d] ung>is*5 ,krone4 ,budape/1 #ahgc4 ,,johnson1 ,j4,b43 ,"t te/s ( timb] 9 endwise compression4 ,pap] be=e ,section ,d1 ,am4 ,assn4 = ,adv4 ( ,sci41 ,aug41 #ahih4 ,,johnson1 ,,walt] ,b43 ,exp]im5ts on ! adhesion ( iron spikes ( v>i\s =ms :5 driv5 into diff]5t species ( timb]s4 ,j\r4 ,frankl9 ,in/41 ,vol4 ,,xix 7n4s471 #ahcg1 pp4 #bha-bib4 ,,julius1 ,g4,a43 ,we/]n ,au/ralia timb] te/s1 #aijf4 ,! physical *>act]i/ics ( ! h>dwoods ( ,we/]n ,au/ralia4 ,p]?1 #aijf1 pp4 #cf4 ----3 ,supplem5t to ! ,we/]n ,au/ralia timb] te/s1 #aijf4 ,! h>dwoods ( ,au/ralia4 ,p]?1 #aijg1 pp4 #f4 ,,k>m>%1 ,,c>l3 ,h&bu* d] me*anis*5 ,te*nologie4 ,i4 ,aufl41 #ahcg2 ,v4 ,aufl41 #ahge2 v]m4 von ,h4 ,fi%]1 #ahhh4 ,,kidd]1 ,f4,e43 ,exp]im5ts on ! transv]se /r5g? ( s\!rn & :ite p9e4 ,van ,no/r&'s ,eng4 ,mag41 ,vol4 ,,xxii1 #ahhj1 pp4 #aff-afh4 ----3 ,exp]im5ts on ! /r5g? & /iffness ( small spruce beams4 ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,xxiv1 #ahha1 pp4 #dgc-dgg4 ----3 ,exp]im5ts on ! fatigue ( small spruce beams4 ,j\r4 ,frankl9 ,in/41 ,vol4 ,,cxiv1 #ahhb1 pp4 #bfa-bgi4 ,,kidwell1 ,,edg>3 ,! effici5cy ( built-up wood5 beams4 ,trans4 ,am4 ,in/4 ,m94 ,eng41 ,feb41 ,june1 #ahih4 ,,kirkaldy1 ,,wm4 ,g43 ,illu/rations ( ,david ,kirkaldy's sy/em ( me*anical te/+4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,,kumm]1 ,,fr$]ick ,a43 ,! effects ( pres]vative treatm5t on ! /r5g? ( timb]4 ,proc4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,te/4 ,mat41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 #aijd1 pp4 #dcd-dch4 ,,labord,,re1 ,p41 & ,,an/ett1 ,f43 ,contribution to ! /udy ( means = improv+ ! /r5g? ( wood = pavem5ts4 ,proc4 ,int4 ,assn4 ,te/4 ,mat41 #aiab1 ,,xxiii#d1 pp4 #ab4 ,,lanza1 ,,gaetano3 ,an acc\nt ( c]ta9 te/s on ! transv]se /r5g? & /iffness ( l>ge spruce beams4 ,trans4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,me*4 ,eng41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 #ahhb1 pp4 #aai-ace4 ,see also ,j\r4 ,frankl9 ,in/41 ,vol4 ,,xcv1 #ahhc1 pp4 #ha-id4 ,,laslett1 ,t43 ,prop]ties & *>act]i/ics ( timb]4 ,*a?am1 #ahfg4 ----3 ,timb] & timb] trees1 native & =eign4 7#b;d ed4 revis$ & enl>g$ by ,h4 ,m>%all ,w>d47 ,london & ,new ,york1 #ahid4 ,,lea1 ,w43 ,tables ( /r5g? & deflection ( timb]4 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,,l$ebur1 ,a43 ,die ,v]>beitung des ,holzes auf me*anis*em ,wege4 #ahha4 ,,lor5z1 ,n4 ,,von3 ,analytis*e ,unt]su*ung des ,begriffes d] ,holzhrte4 ,c5tralblatt f4 d4 ges4 ,=/wes51 ,wi51 #aiji1 pp4 #cdh-chg4 ,,ludwig1 ,,paul3 ,die ,regelprobe4 ,e9 neues ,v]fahr5 zur ,hrtebe/immung von ,mat]iali54 ,b]l94 #aijh4 ,,macf>l&1 ,h4,b43 ,te/s ( longleaf p9e bridge timb]s4 ,bul4 #adi1 ,am4 ,ry4 ,eng4 ,assn41 ,sept41 #aiab4 ,see also ,eng4 ,news1 ,dec4 #ab1 #aiab1 p4 #ajce4 ,mc,k,a,y1 ,,donald3 ,on ! weight & /r5g? ( ,am]ican %ip-timb]4 ,j\r4 ,frankl9 ,in/41 ,vol4 ,,xxxix 7#c;d s]ies71 #ahfj1 p4 #cbb4 ,,malette1 ,j43 ,essais des bois de con/ruction4 ,revue ,te*nique1 ,apr4 #be1 #aije4 ,,mann1 ,,james3 ,au/ralian timb]3 its /r5g?1 durability1 & id5tification4 ,melb\rne1 #aijj4 ,,m>t91 ,,cl>5ce ,a43 ,te/s on ! relation betwe5 cross-b5d+ & direct compressive /r5g? 9 timb]4 ,railroad ,gazette1 ,m*4 #ac1 #aijc4 ,me?ods ( te/+ metals & alloys 444 ,recomm5d$ by ! ,f\r? ,congress ( ! ,int]national ,association = ,te/+ ,mat]ials1 held at ,brussels1 ,sept4 #c-f1 #aijf4 ,london1 #aijg1 pp4 #ed4 ,me?ods ( te/+ wood1 pp4 #ci-di4 ,,mikolas*ek1 ,,c>l3 ,unt]su*ung5 b] die ,ela/icitt und ,fe/igkeit d] wi*tig/5 ,bau- und ,nutzhlz]4 ,mitt4 a4 d4 =/l4 ,v]su*swes5 ,oe/]rei*es1 ,,ii4 ,bd41 #a4 ,hft41 ,wi51 #ahgi4 ,,moell]1 ,,joseph3 ,die ,roh/(fe des ,tis*l]- und ,dre*sl]gew]bes4 ,i4 ,!il3 ,das ,holz4 ,kassel1 #ahhc1 pp4 #fh-abb4 ,,moleswor?1 ,g4,l43 ,graphic diagrams ( /r5g? ( teak beams4 ,roorke1 #ahha4 ,,morgan1 ,j4,j43 ,b5d+ /r5g? ( yell[ p9e timb]4 ,eng4 ,record1 ,vol4 ,,lxvii1 #aiac1 pp4 #fjh-fji4 ,,moroto1 ,k43 ,unt]su*ung5 b] die ,biegungsela/icitt und -,fe/igkeit d] japanis*5 ,bauhlz]4 ,c5tralblatt f4 d4 ges4 ,=/wes51 ,wi51 #aijh1 pp4 #cdf-cee4 ,,nordl+]1 ,h43 ,die te*nis*5 ,eig5s*aft5 d] ,hlz] fr ,=/- und ,baubeamte1 ,te*nolog5 und ,gew]betreib5de4 ,/uttg>t1 #ahfj4 ----3 ,druckfe/igkeit des ,holzes4 #ahhb4 ----3 ,die gew]bli*5 ,eig5s*aft5 d] ,hlz]4 ,/uttg>t1 #ahij4 ,,nor?1 ,a4,t43 ,! grad+ ( timb] on ! /r5g? basis4 ,address be=e ,we/]n ,society ( ,eng9e]s4 ,lumb] ,_w ,review1 ,may #be1 #aiad1 pp4 #bg-bi4 ,,norton1 ,w4,a43 ,results ( exp]im5ts on ! set ( b>s ( wood1 iron1 & /eel1 aft] a transv]se /ress4 ,van ,no/r&'s ,eng4 ,mag41 ,vol4 ,,xvii1 #ahgg1 pp4 #eca-ece4 ,,pacc9otti ,e ,,p]i3 ,inve/igations into ! ela/icity ( timb]s4 ,il ,cim5to1 ,vol4 ,,lviii1 #ahde4 ,,palacio1 ,e43 ,t5sile te/s ( timb]4 ,la ,+5i]ia1 ,bu5os ,aires1 ,may #ca1 #aijc1 et seq4 ,,p>5t1--3 ,expri5ces sur la rsi/ance des bois de *ne et de sap94 ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,sci5ces1 #agjg-jh4 ,propositions relatives l'tablissem5t d'un precd uni=me p\r l'essai des qualits te*niques des bois4 ,proc4 ,int4 ,assn4 ,te/4 ,mat41 #aija1 ,annexe1 pp4 #ac-bh4 ,,rog]s1 ,,*>les ,g43 ,a manual ( =e/ eng9e]+ = ,india4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,calcutta1 #aijj1 pp4 #ej-ia4 ,,rudel(f1 ,m43 ,d] heutige ,/& d] ,holzunt]su*ung54 ,mitt4 a4 d4 knigli*5 te*4 ,v]su*san/alt1 ,b]l91 ,,iv1 #ahii4 ----3 ,pr9ciples ( a /&>d me?od ( te/+ wood4 ,proc4 ,int4 ,assn4 ,te/4 ,mat41 #aijf1 #bc ,c1 pp4 #af4 ----3 ,l>ge vs4 small te/-pieces 9 te/+ wood4 ,proc4 ,int4 ,soc4 ,te/4 ,mat41 #aiab1 ,,xxiii#a1 pp4 #g4 ,,s>g5t1 ,,*>les ,,sprague3 ,woods ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) an acc\nt ( _! /ructure1 qualities1 & uses4 ,new ,york1 #ahhe4 ,,s*neid]1 ,a43 ,zusamm5gesetzte ,trg]4 ,zeits*rift d4 ,oe/]r4 ,+4 u4 ,ar*4 ,v]41 ,nov4 #bd2 ,dec4 #i1 #ahii4 ,,s*wappa*1 ,a4,f43 ,beitrge zur ,k5ntniss d] ,qualitt des ,rotbu*5holzes4 ,zeits*rift f4 ,=/- und ,jagdwes51 ,b]l91 #ahid1 pp4 #eac-eci4 ----3 ,unt]su*ung5 b] ,raumgewi*t und ,druckfe/igkeit des ,holzes wi*tig] ,waldbume4 ,b]l91 #ahig-ih4 ----3 ,etablissem5t de m?odes uni=mes p\r l'essai la compression des bois4 ,proc4 ,int4 ,assn4 ,te/4 ,mat41 #aija1 ,rapport #bc1 pp4 #bh4 ,,seb]t1 ,h43 ,notice sur les bois de la ,n\velle ,caldonie suivie de consid]ations gn]ates sur les proprits mcaniques des bois et sur les precds employs p\r les mesur]4 ,p>is4 ,,%]man1 ,,edw>d ,c43 ,cru%+ te/s on wat]-soak$ timb]s4 ,eng4 ,news1 ,vol4 ,,lxii1 #aiji1 p4 #bb4 ,,sn[1 ,,*>les ,h43 ,! pr9cipal species ( wood3 _! *>act]i/ic prop]ties4 ,new ,york1 #aijh4 ,,/auff]1 ,,ottm>3 ,unt]su*ung5 b] specifis*es ,trock5gewi*t1 s[ie anatomis*es ,v]halt5 des ,holzes d] ,birke4 ,mn*51 #ahib4 ,,/5s1 ,d43 ,ueb] die ,eig5s*aft5imprgni]t] ,grub5holz]1 insbesond]e b] ihre ,fe/igkeit4 ,glckauf1 ,ess51 ,m*4 #f1 #aijg4 ,/r5g? ( wood = pavem5ts4 ,c4 ,eng41 ,toronto1 ,sept4 #ab1 #aiab4 ,,/,,bs*5-,,kis*n]3 ,k>m>s*-,he]9s te*nis*es ,wrt]bu*4 #c4 ,aufl41 #ahhf4 ,,talbot1 ,,ar?ur ,n43 ,te/s ( timb] beams4 ,bul4 #da1 ,eng4 ,exp4 ,/a41 ,univ4 ( ,ill41 ,urbana1 #aiaj4 ,te/s ( wood5 beams made at ! ,massa*usetts ,in/itute ( ,te*nology on spruce1 :ite p9e1 yell[ p9e1 & oak beams ( comm]cial sizes4 ,te*nology ,qu>t]ly1 ,bo/on1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 #ahid4 ,,tetmaj]1 ,l4 v43 ,zur ,frage d] ,knickungsfe/igkeit d] ,bauhlz]4 ,s*weiz]is*e ,bauzeitung1 ,bd4 #aa1 ,nr4 #ag4 ----3 ,me?od5 und ,resultate d] ,prfung d] s*weiz]is*5 ,bauhlz]4 ,mitt4 d4 ,an/alt z4 ,prfung v4 ,baumat]iali5 am eidg5ssis*5 ,polyte*nicum 9 ,zri*4 #b4 ,hft41 #ahhd4 ----3 ,me?od5 und ,resultate d] ,prfung d] s*weiz]is*5 ,bauhlz]4 ,mitt4 d4 ,mat]ialprfungs-,an/alt am ,s*weiz4 ,polyte*nikum 9 ,zri*4 ,l&esau/ellungs-,ausgabe1 #b4 ,hft41 ,zri*1 #ahif4 ,,!l51 ,,rolf3 ,! /ructural timb]s ( ! ,pacific ,coa/4 ,proc4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,te/4 ,mat41 ,vol4 ,,viii1 #aijh1 pp4 #eeh-efg4 ,,?ur/on1 ,r4,h43 ,torsional resi/ance ( mat]ials det]m9$ by a new app>atus ) automatic regi/ry4 ,j\r4 ,frankl9 ,in/41 ,vol4 ,,lxv1 #ahgc1 pp4 #bed-bfj4 ----3 ,on ! /r5g? ( ,am]ican timb]4 ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,lxxviii1 #ahgi1 pp4 #bag-bce4 ----3 ,exp]im5ts on ! /r5g? ( yell[ p9e4 ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,lxxix1 #ahhj1 pp4 #aeg-afc4 ----3 ,influ5ce ( "t on b5d+ /r5g? & ela/icity4 ,proc4 ,am4 ,assn4 = ,adv4 ,sci41 #ahha4 ,also ,proc4 ,in/4 ,c4,e41 ,vol4 ,,lxxi4 ----3 ,on ! effect ( prolong$ /ress ^u ! /r5g? & ela/icity ( p9e timb]4 ,j\r4 ,frankl9 ,in/41 ,vol4 ,,lxxx1 #ahha1 pp4 #afa-afi4 ,,?ur/on1 ,r4,h43 ,on ,fl9t's inve/igations ( ,nic>aguan woods4 ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,xciv1 #ahhg1 pp4 #bhi-cae4 ,,tiemann1 ,,h>ry ,,donald3 ,! effect ( moi/ure & o!r extr9sic factors ^u ! /r5g? ( wood4 ,proc4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,te/4 ,mat41 ,vol4 ,,vii1 #aijg1 pp4 #ehb-eid4 ----3 ,! effect ( ! spe$ ( te/+ ^u ! /r5g? ( wood & ! /&>dization ( te/s = spe$4 ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,viii1 #aijh1 pp4 #eda-eeg4 ----3 ,! !ory ( impact & its application to te/+ mat]ials4 ,j\r4 ,frankl9 ,in/41 ,vol4 ,,clxviii1 #aiji1 pp4 #bce-bei2 #ccf-cfd4 ----3 ,"s results ( dead load b5d+ te/s ( timb] by means ( a record+ deflectomet]4 ,proc4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,te/4 ,mat41 ,vol4 ,,ix1 #aiji1 pp4 #ecd-edh4 ,,tjad51 ,m4,e4,h43 ,het ,indrukk5 van ,paalkopp5 9 ,kesp54 ,de ,+5ieur1 ,sept4 #aa1 #aiji4 ----3 ,we]/& van ,h\t loodre*t op de ,vezelri*t+4 ,ibid41 ,may1 #aiaa4 ----3 ,buigva/heid van ,h\t4 ,ibid41 ,may #ca1 #aiac4 ,,trautw9e1 ,,john ,c43 ,%e>+ /r5g? ( "s ,am]ican woods4 ,j\r4 ,frankl9 ,in/41 ,vol4 ,,cix1 #ahhj1 pp4 #aje-ajf4 ,,tr$gold1 ,,?omas3 ,elem5t>y pr9ciples ( c>p5try4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,,turnbull1 ,w43 ,a practical treatise on ! /r5g? & /iffness ( timb]4 ,london1 #ahcc4 ,unt]su*ung5 b] d5 ,e9fluss des ,blauw]d5s auf die ,fe/igkeit von ,kief]nholz4 ,mitt4 a4 d4 knig4 te*n4 ,v]su*san/alt51 ,i1 #ahig4 ,v]fahr5 zur ,prfung v4 ,metall5 und ,legi]ung51 von hydraulis*5 ,b9demitteln1 von ,holz1 von ,ton-1 ,/e9zeug- und ,zem5trhr54 ,empfohl5 v4 dem 9 ,brssel v4 #c-f1 ,,ix1 #aijf1 abgeh4 ,,iv4 ,kongress des int]national5 ,v]b&es f4 die ,mat]ialprfung5 d] ,te*nik4 ,wi51 #aijg4 ,,w>r51 ,w4,h43 ,au/ralian timb]s4 ,sydney1 #ahib4 ----3 ,! /r5g?1 ela/icity1 & o!r prop]ties ( ,new ,s\? ,wales h>dwood timb]s4 ,sydney1 #aiaa4 ----3 ,! /r5g?1 ela/icity1 & o!r prop]ties ( ,new ,s\? ,wales h>dwood timb]s4 ,proc4 ,int4 ,assn4 ,te/4 ,mat41 #aiab1 ,,xxiii#f1 pp4 #i4 ----3 ,! prop]ties ( ,new ,s\? ,wales h>dwood timb]s4 ,build]1 ,london1 ,nov4 #a1 #aiab4 ----3 ,! h>dwood timb]s ( ,new ,s\? ,wales1 ,au/ralia4 ,j\r4 ,soc4 ( ,arts1 ,london1 ,dec4 #f1 #aiab4 ,,well+ton1 ,a4,m43 ,exp]im5ts on impregnat$ timb]4 ,railroad ,gazette1 #ahhj4 ,,wijk&]1 ----3 ,unt]su*ung d] ,fe/igkeitseig5s*aft5 s*w$is*] ,holz>t5 9 d] ,mat]ialprfungsan/alt des ,*alm]s's*5 ,in/itutes ausgefhrt4 #ahig4 ,,w+1 ,,*>les ,b43 ,transv]se /r5g? ( ! ,d\glas fir4 ,eng4 ,news1 ,vol4 ,,xxxiii1 ,m*4 #ad1 #ahie4 ,,"p ,,iii4 ,,publications ,,( ,,! ,u4,s4 ,,gov]nm5t ,,on ,,! ,,me*anical ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,wood1 ,,& ,,timb] ,,te/+ ,,miscellane\s ,h\se ,misc4 ,doc4 #db1 pt4 #i1 #dg? ,cong41 #b;d sess41 #ahhd4 7,vol4 ,,ix1 ,t5? ,c5sus report47 ,report on ! =e/s ( ,nor? ,am]ica 7exclusive ( ,mexico74 ,"p ,,ii1 ,! ,woods ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,h\se ,report ,no4 #addb1 #ec;d ,cong41 #b;d sess4 ,inve/igations & te/s ( ,am]ican timb]4 #ahid1 pp4 #d4 ,w> ,dept4 ,doc4 #a4 ,resolutions ( ! conv5tions held at ,muni*1 ,dresd51 ,b]l91 & ,vi5na1 = ! purpose ( adopt+ uni=m me?ods = te/+ con/ruction mat]ials ) reg>d to _! me*anical prop]ties4 ,by ,j4 ,baus*+]4 ,translat$ by ,o4,m4 ,c>t] & ,e4,a4 ,giesel]4 #ahif1 pp4 #dd4 ,w> ,dept4 ,doc4 #aa4 ,on te/s ( con/ruction mat]ials4 ,translations f ! ,fr5* & f ! ,g]man4 ,by ,o4,m4 ,c>t] & ,e4,a4 ,giesel]4 #ahif1 pp4 #hd4 ,h\se ,doc4 ,no4 #aha1 #ee? ,cong41 #c;d sess4 ,report ^u ! =e/ry inve/igations ( ! ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 #ahgg-ahih4 ,by ,b4,e4 ,f]n[1 #ahii1 pp4 #dja4 ,conta9s *apt] on ,! "w 9 timb] physics 9 ! ,division ( ,=e/ry1 by ,filib]t ,ro?1 pp4 #ccj-cie4 ,,=e/ ,,s]vice ,cir4 #g--,! ,gov]nm5t timb] te/s #ahi-1 pp4 #d4 ,cir4 #h--,/r5g? ( box$ or turp5t9e timb]4 #ahib1 pp4 #d4 ,bul4 #f--,timb] ,physics4 ,pt4 ,i4 ,prelim9>y report4 #a4 ,ne$ ( ! inve/igation4 #b4 ,scope & hi/orical developm5t ( ! sci5ce ( timb] physics4 #c4 ,organization & me?ods ( timb] exam9ations 9 ! ,division ( ,=e/ry4 ,by ,b4,e4 ,f]n[1 #ahib1 pp4 #eg4 ,unnumb]$ ,cir4--,in/ructions = ! collection ( te/ pieces ( p9es = timb] inve/igations #ahic1 pp4 #d4 ,cir4 #i--;,effect ( turp5t9e ga!r+ on ! timb] ( longleaf p9e4 ,by ,b4,e4 ,f]n[ #ahic1 p4 #a4 ,bul4 #h--,timb] physics4 ,pt4 ,,ii4 ,progress report4 ,results ( inve/igations on longleaf p9e4 #ahic1 pp4 #ib4 ,bul4 #aj--,timb]3 an elem5t>y discussion ( ! *>act]i/ics & prop]ties ( wood4 ,by ,filib]t ,ro?4 #ahie1 pp4 #hh4 ,bul4 #ab--;,economical design+ ( timb] tre/le bridges4 ,by ,a4,l4 ,johnson1 #ahif1 pp4 #eg4 ,cir4 #ab--,s\!rn p9e1 me*anical & physical prop]ties4 #ahif1 pp4 #ab4 ,cir4 #ae--,summ>y ( me*anical te/s on ?irty-two species ( ,am]ican woods4 #ahig1 pp4 #ab4 ,cir4 #ah--,progress 9 timb] physics4 #ahih1 pp4 #bj4 ,cir4 #ai--,progress 9 timb] physics3 ,bald cypress 7,taxodium di/i*um74 ,by ,filib]t ,ro?1 #ahih1 pp4 #bd4 ,y4,b4 ,extr4 #bhh--,te/s on ! physical prop]ties ( woods4 ,by ,f4,e4 ,olm/ead1 #aijb1 pp4 #ecc-ech4 ,unnumb]$ ,cir4--,timb] te/s4 #aijc1 pp4 #ae4 ,unnumb]$ ,cir4--,timb] pres]vation & timb] te/+ at ! ,l\isiana ,pur*ase ,exposition4 #aijd1 pp4 #f4 ,cir4 #cb--,progress report on ! /r5g? ( /ructural timb]4 ,by ,w4,k4 ,hatt1 #aijd1 pp4 #bh4 ,bul4 #eh--,! r$ gum4 ,by ,alfr$ ,*itt5d54 ,includes a discussion ( ,! me*anical prop]ties ( r$ gum wood1 by ,w4,k4 ,hatt4 #aije1 pp4 #ef4 ,cir4 #ch--;,in/ructions to eng9e]s ( timb] te/s4 ,by ,w4,k4 ,hatt1 #aijf1 pp4 #ee4 ,revis$ edition1 #aiji1 pp4 #ef4 ,cir4 #ci--;,exp]im5ts on ! /r5g? ( treat$ timb]4 ,by ,w4,k4 ,hatt1 #aijf1 pp4 #ca4 ,revis$ edition1 #aijh4 ,bul4 #gj--;,effect ( moi/ure ^u ! /r5g? & /iffness ( wood4 ,by ,h4,d4 ,tiemann1 #aijf1 pp4 #add4 ,cir4 #df--;,hold+ =ce ( railroad spikes 9 wood5 ties4 ,by ,w4,k4 ,hatt1 #aijf1 pp4 #g4 ,cir4 #dg--,/r5g? ( pack+ boxes ( v>i\s woods4 ,by ,w4,k4 ,hatt1 #aijf1 pp4 #g4 ,cir4 #ajh--,! /r5g? ( wood z influ5c$ by moi/ure4 ,by ,h4,d4 ,tiemann1 #aijg1 pp4 #db4 ,cir4 #aae--,second progress report on ! /r5g? ( /ructural timb]4 ,by ,w4,k4 ,hatt1 #aijg1 pp4 #ci4 ,cir4 #adb--,te/s ( vehicle & implem5t woods4 ,by ,h4,b4 ,holroyd & ,h4,s4 ,betts1 #aijh1 pp4 #bi4 ,cir4 #adf--;,exp]im5ts ) railway cross-ties4 ,by ,h4,b4 ,ea/man1 #aijh1 pp4 #cb4 ,cir4 #agi--,utilization ( ,cali=nia eucalypts4 ,by ,h4,s4 ,betts & ,c4 ,/[ell ,smi?1 #aiaj1 pp4 #cj4 ,bul4 #ge--;,cali=nia tanb>k oak4 ,"p ,,ii1 ,utilization ( ! wood ( tanb>k oak1 by ,h4,s4 ,betts1 #aiaa1 pp4 #bd-cb4 ,bul4 #hh--,prop]ties & uses ( ,d\glas fir4 ,by ,mc,garvey ,cl9e & ,j4,b4 ,knapp1 #aiaa1 pp4 #ge4 ,cir4 #ahi--,/r5g? values = /ructural timb]s4 ,by ,mc,garvey ,cl9e1 #aiab1 pp4 #h4 ,cir4 #aic--,me*anical prop]ties ( r$wood4 ,by ,a4,l4 ,heim1 #aiab1 pp4 #cb4 ,bul4 #ajh--,te/s ( /ructural timb]s4 ,by ,mc,garvey ,cl9e & ,a4,l4 ,heim1 #aiab1 pp4 #abca4 ,bul4 #aab--;,fire-kill$ ,d\glas fir3 a /udy ( its rate ( det]ioration1 usability1 & /r5g?4 ,by ,j4,b4 ,knapp1 #aiab1 pp4 #ah4 ,bul4 #aae--,me*anical prop]ties ( we/]n hemlock4 ,by ,o4,p4,m4 ,goss1 #aiac1 pp4 #de4 ,bul4 #abb--,me*anical prop]ties ( we/]n l>*4 ,by ,o4,p4,m4 ,goss1 #aiac1 pp4 #de4 ,cir4 #bac--,me*anical prop]ties ( woods gr[n 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #aiac1 pp4 #d4 ,cir4 #bad--,te/s ( pack+ boxes ( v>i\s =ms4 ,by ,john ,a4 ,newl91 #aiac1 pp4 #bc4 ,review ,=e/ ,s]vice ,inve/igations4 #aiac4 ,outl9e ( inve/igations4 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ag-ba4 ,a microscopic /udy ( ! me*anical failure ( wood1 by ,w>r5 ,d4 ,bru%4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cc-ch4 ,bul4 #fg1 ,u4,s4,d4,a4--,te/s ( ,rocky ,m\nta9 woods = telephone poles4 ,by ,norman de,w4 ,betts & ,a4,l4 ,heim1 #aiad1 pp4 #bh4 ,bul4 #gg1 ,u4,s4,d4,a4--,rocky ,m\nta9 m9e timb]s4 ,by ,norman de,w4 ,betts1 #aiad1 pp4 #cd4 ,bul4 #hf1 ,u4,s4,d4,a4--,te/s ( wood5 b>rels4 ,by ,j4,a4 ,newl91 #aiad1 pp4 #ab4 ,,reports ,,( ,,te/s ,,on ,,! ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,/ructural ,,mat]ial1 ,,made ,,at ,,! ,,wat]t[n ,,ars5al1 ,,mass4 ,h\se ,ex4 ,doc4 ,no4 #ab1 #dg? ,cong41 #a/ sess41 #ahhb4 ,/r5g? ( wood gr[n on ! ,pacific slope1 pp4 #ai-ic4 ,s5ate ,ex4 ,doc4 ,no4 #a1 #dg? ,cong41 #b;d sess41 #ahhc4 ,resi/ance ( :ite & yell[ p9es to =ces ( compression 9 ! direction ( ! fib]s1 z us$ = columns1 or po/s1 pp4 #bci-cie4 ,s5ate ,ex4 ,doc4 ,no4 #e1 #dh? ,cong41 #a/ sess41 #ahhd4 ,te/s ( ,cali=nia laurel wood by compression1 ind5tation1 %e>+1 transv]se t5sion1 pp4 #bbc-bcf4 ,te/s ( ,nor? ,am]ican woods 7"u sup]vision ( ,pr(4 ,c4,s4 ,s>g5t 9 *>ge ( ! =e/ry division ( ! ,t5? ,c5sus71 ) #af photographs ( fractures ( ,am]ican woods1 pp4 #bcg-cdg4 ,s5ate ,ex4 ,doc4 ,no4 #ce1 #di? ,cong41 #a/ sess41 #ahhe4 ,adhesion ( nails1 spikes1 & screws 9 v>i\s woods4 ,exp]im5ts on ! resi/ance ( cut nails1 wire nails 7/eel71 wood screws1 lag screws 9 :ite p9e1 yell[ p9e1 *e/nut1 :ite oak1 & laurel1 pp4 #ddh-dga4 ,h\se ,ex4 ,doc4 ,no4 #ad1 #ea/ ,cong41 #a/ sess41 #ahij4 ,adhesion ( spikes & bolts 9 railroad ties1 pp4 #eie-fag4 ,h\se ,ex4 ,doc4 ,no4 #afa1 #eb;d ,cong41 #a/ sess41 #ahib4 ,adhesion ( nails 9 wood1 pp4 #gdd-gde4 ,h\se ,ex4 ,doc4 ,no4 #ib1 #ec;d ,cong41 #c;d sess41 #ahie4 ,woods--compression te/s 7endwise compression71 pp4 #dga-dgf4 ,h\se ,doc4 ,no4 #ed1 #ed? ,cong41 #a/ sess41 #ahif4 ,compression te/s on ,d\glas fir wood1 pp4 #ecf-efc4 ,expansion & contraction ( oak & p9e wood1 pp4 #efg-egd4 ,h\se ,doc4 ,no4 #afd1 #ee? ,cong41 #b;d sess41 #ahih4 ,compression te/s ( timb] po/s1 pp4 #dje-daa4 ,new po/s ( yell[ p9e & spruce1 pp4 #dac-dej2 ,old yell[ p9e po/s f ,bo/on ,fire ,brick ,co4 build+1 ,no4 #cid ,f$]al ,/41 ,bo/on1 ,mass41 pp4 #dea-dgc4 ,h\se ,doc4 ,no4 #adc1 #ee? ,cong41 #c;d sess41 #ahii4 ,fire-pro($ wood 7endwise & transv]se te/s71 pp4 #fgf-fha4 ,h\se ,doc4 ,no4 #aij1 #ef? ,cong41 #b;d sess41 #aija4 ,cypress wood = ,unit$ ,/ates ,eng9e] ,corps2 compression & transv]se te/s1 pp4 #aaba-aabf4 ,old :ite p9e & r$ oak f ro( trusses ( ,old ,s\? ,*ur*1 ,bo/on1 ,mass41 pp4 #aabg-aacj4 ,compression ( rubb]1 balata1 & wood buff]s1 pp4 #aadi-aaeh4 ,h\se ,doc4 ,no4 #cce1 #eg? ,cong41 #b;d sess41 #aijc4 ,d\glas fir & :ite oak woods4 ,transv]se & %e>+ te/s2 also obs]vations on heat conductivity ( /icks ov] wood fires & a /ick expos$ to l[ temp]ature4 ,expansion crosswise ! gra9 ( wood aft] subm]sion1 pp4 #eai-efa4 ,adhesion ( lag screws & bolts 9 wood1 pp4 #efc-egh4