,a ,,study ,,in ,,magic ,,and ,,religion
    ,,third ,,edition    ,,part ,,vii   
,,balder ,,the ,,beautiful    ,,vol4 ,i 
,,balder  ,,the ,,beautiful    ,,the    
,,fire-,,festivals ,,of ,,europe  ,,and 
,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,the ,,external  
,,soul    ,j4,g4 ,,frazer1 ,d4,c4,l41   
,,ll4,d41 ,litt4,d4    ,,fellow ,,of    
,,trinity ,,college1 ,,cambridge        
,,professor ,,of ,,social ,,anthropology
 ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of           
,,liverpool4    ,,in ,,two ,,volumes    
,,vol4 ,i    #aiac          ,,preface   
,in this concluding part of ,the ,golden
 ,bough ,i have discussed the  problem  
which gives its title to the whole work4
 ,if ,i am right1 the  ,golden ,bough   
over which the ,king of the ,wood1      
,diana's priest at ,aricia1  kept watch 
and ward was no other than a branch of  
mistletoe growing on  an oak within the 
sacred grove2 and as the plucking of the
 bough was a  necessary prelude to the  
slaughter of the priest1 ,i have been   
led to  institute a parallel between the

 ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi and the    
,norse  god ,balder1 who was worshipped 
in a sacred grove beside the beautiful  
,sogne fiord of ,norway and was said to 
have perished by a stroke of  mistletoe1
 which alone of all things on earth or  
in heaven could wound  him4 ,on the     
theory here suggested both ,balder and  
the ,king of the ,wood  personified in a
 sense the sacred oak of our ,aryan     
forefathers1 and both  had deposited    
their lives or souls for safety in the  
parasite which  sometimes1 though       
rarely1 is found growing on an oak and  
by the very  rarity of its appearance   
excites the wonder and stimulates the   
devotion  of ignorant men4 ,though ,i am
 now less than ever disposed to lay     
weight  on the analogy between the      
,italian priest and the ,norse god1 ,i  
have  allowed it to stand because it    
furnishes me with a pretext for         
discussing not only the general question
 of the external soul in popular        
superstition1 but also the              

fire-festivals of ,europe1 since fire   
played a  part both in the myth of      
,balder and in the ritual of the        
,arician grove4  ,thus ,balder the      
,beautiful in my hands is little more   
than a  stalking-horse to carry two     
heavy pack-loads of facts4 ,and what is 
true  of ,balder applies equally to the 
priest of ,nemi himself1 the nominal    
hero of the long tragedy of human folly 
and suffering which has unrolled  itself
 before the readers of these volumes1   
and on which the curtain is  now about  
to fall4 ,he1 too1 for all the quaint   
garb he wears and the  gravity with     
which he stalks across the stage1 is    
merely a puppet1 and  it is time to     
unmask him before laying him up in the  
box4    ,to drop metaphor1 while        
nominally investigating a particular    
problem of  ancient mythology1 ,i have  
really been discussing questions of more
  general interest which concern the    
gradual evolution of human thought  from
 savagery to civilization4 ,the enquiry 

is beset with difficulties of  many     
kinds1 for the record of man's mental   
development is even more  imperfect than
 the record of his physical development1
 and it is harder  to read1 not only by 
reason of the incomparably more subtle  
and complex  nature of the subject1 but 
because the reader's eyes are apt to be 
dimmed by thick mists of passion and    
prejudice1 which cloud in a far  less   
degree the fields of comparative anatomy
 and geology4 ,my  contribution to the  
history of the human mind consists of   
little more  than a rough and purely    
provisional classification of facts     
gathered  almost entirely from printed  
sources4 ,if there is one general       
conclusion  which seems to emerge from  
the mass of particulars1 ,i venture to  
think  that it is the essential         
similarity in the working of the less   
developed  human mind among all races1  
which corresponds to the essential      
similarity in their bodily frame        
revealed by comparative anatomy4 ,but   

while this general mental similarity    
may1 ,i believe1 be taken as            
established1 we must always be on our   
guard against tracing to it a  multitude
 of particular resemblances which may be
 and often are due to  simple diffusion1
 since nothing is more certain than that
 the various  races of men have borrowed
 from each other many of their arts and 
crafts1 their ideas1 customs1 and       
institutions4 ,to sift out the elements 
of culture which a race has             
independently evolved and to distinguish
  them accurately from those which it   
has derived from other races is a  task 
of extreme difficulty and delicacy1     
which promises to occupy  students of   
man for a long time to come2 indeed so  
complex are the facts  and so imperfect 
in most cases is the historical record  
that it may be  doubted whether in      
regard to many of the lower races we    
shall ever  arrive at more than probable
 conjectures4    ,since the last edition
 of ,the ,golden ,bough was published   

some thirteen  years ago1 ,i have seen  
reason to change my views on several    
matters  discussed in this concluding   
part of the work1 and though ,i have    
called  attention to these changes in   
the text1 it may be well for the sake of
  clearness to recapitulate them here4  
,in the first place1 the arguments of   
,dr4 ,edward ,westermarck have          
satisfied me that the solar theory of   
the ,european fire-festivals1 which  ,i 
accepted from ,w4 ,mannhardt1 is very   
slightly1 if at all1 supported by  the  
evidence and is probably erroneous4 ,the
 true explanation of the  festivals ,i  
now believe to be the one advocated by  
,dr4 ,westermarck  himself1 namely that 
they are purificatory in intention1 the 
fire being  designed not1 as ,i formerly
 held1 to reinforce the sun's light and 
heat  by sympathetic magic1 but merely  
to burn or repel the noxious things1    
whether conceived as material or        
spiritual1 which threaten the life of   
man1 of animals1 and of plants4 ,this   

aspect of the fire-festivals had  not   
wholly escaped me in former editions2 ,i
 pointed it out explicitly1  but1       
biassed perhaps by the great authority  
of ,mannhardt1 ,i treated it  as        
secondary and subordinate instead of    
primary and dominant4 ,out of  deference
 to ,mannhardt1 for whose work ,i       
entertain the highest respect1  and     
because the evidence for the            
purificatory theory of the fires is     
perhaps not quite conclusive1 ,i have in
 this edition repeated and even         
reinforced the arguments for the solar  
theory of the festivals1 so that  the   
reader may see for himself what can be  
said on both sides of the  question and 
may draw his own conclusion2 but for my 
part ,i cannot but  think that the      
arguments for the purificatory theory   
far outweigh the  arguments for the     
solar theory4 ,dr4 ,westermarck based   
his criticisms  largely on his own      
observations of the ,mohammedan         
fire-festivals of  ,morocco1 which      

present a remarkable resemblance to     
those of ,christian  ,europe1 though    
there seems no reason to assume that    
herein ,africa has  borrowed from       
,europe or ,europe from ,africa4 ,so far
 as ,europe is  concerned1 the evidence 
tends strongly to shew that the grand   
evil which  the festivals aimed at      
combating was witchcraft1 and that they 
were  conceived to attain their end by  
actually burning the witches1 whether   
visible or invisible1 in the flames4 ,if
 that was so1 the wide prevalence  and  
the immense popularity of the           
fire-festivals provides us with a       
measure for estimating the extent of the
 hold which the belief in  witchcraft   
had on the ,european mind before the    
rise of ,christianity or  rather of     
rationalism2 for ,christianity1 both    
,catholic and ,protestant1  accepted the
 old belief and enforced it in the old  
way by the faggot and  the stake4 ,it   
was not until human reason at last awoke
 after the long  slumber of the ,middle 

,ages that this dreadful obsession      
gradually passed  away like a dark cloud
 from the intellectual horizon of       
,europe4    ,yet we should deceive      
ourselves if we imagined that the belief
 in  witchcraft is even now dead in the 
mass of the people2 on the contrary     
there is ample evidence to show that it 
only hibernates under the  chilling     
influence of rationalism1 and that it   
would start into active  life if that   
influence were ever seriously relaxed4  
,the truth seems to  be that to this day
 the peasant remains a pagan and savage 
at heart2 his  civilization is merely a 
thin veneer which the hard knocks of    
life soon  abrade1 exposing the solid   
core of paganism and savagery below4    
,the  danger created by a bottomless    
layer of ignorance and superstition     
under  the crust of civilized society is
 lessened1 not only by the natural      
torpidity and inertia of the bucolic    
mind1 but also by the progressive       
decrease of the rural as compared with  

the urban population in modern  states2 
for ,i believe it will be found that the
 artisans who congregate  in towns are  
far less retentive of primitive modes of
 thought than their  rustic brethren4   
,in every age cities have been the      
centres and as it  were the lighthouses 
from which ideas radiate into the       
surrounding  darkness1 kindled by the   
friction of mind with mind in the       
crowded  haunts of men2 and it is       
natural that at these beacons of        
intellectual  light all should partake  
in some measure of the general          
illumination4 ,no  doubt the mental     
ferment and unrest of great cities have 
their dark as  well as their bright     
side2 but among the evils to be         
apprehended from  them the chances of a 
pagan revival need hardly be reckoned4  
,another point on which ,i have changed 
my mind is the nature of the great      
,aryan god whom the ,romans called      
,jupiter and the ,greeks ,zeus4 ,whereas
 ,i  formerly argued that he was        

primarily a personification of the      
sacred  oak and only in the second place
 a personification of the thundering    
sky1 ,i now invert the order of his     
divine functions and believe that he    
was a sky-god before he came to be      
associated with the oak4 ,in fact1 ,i   
revert to the traditional view of       
,jupiter1 recant my heresy1 and am      
gathered like a lost sheep into the fold
 of mythological orthodoxy4 ,the  good  
shepherd who has brought me back is my  
friend ,mr4 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler4  ,he has
 removed the stone over which ,i        
stumbled in the wilderness by           
explaining in a simple and natural way  
how a god of the thundering sky  might  
easily come to be afterwards associated 
with the oak4 ,the  explanation turns on
 the great frequency with which1 as     
statistics  prove1 the oak is struck by 
lightning beyond any other tree of the  
wood  in ,europe4 ,to our rude          
forefathers1 who dwelt in the gloomy    
depths of  the primaeval forest1 it     

might well seem that the riven and      
blackened  oaks must indeed be          
favourites of the sky-god1 who so often 
descended on  them from the murky cloud 
in a flash of lightning and a crash of  
thunder4    ,this change of view as to  
the great ,aryan god necessarily affects
 my  interpretation of the ,king of the 
,wood1 the priest of ,diana at ,aricia1 
if ,i may take that discarded puppet out
 of the box again for a moment4  ,on my 
theory the priest represented ,jupiter  
in the flesh1 and  accordingly1 if      
,jupiter was primarily a sky-god1 his   
priest cannot have  been a mere         
incarnation of the sacred oak1 but must1
 like the deity  whose commission he    
bore1 have been invested in the         
imagination of his  worshippers with the
 power of overcasting the heaven with   
clouds and  eliciting storms of thunder 
and rain from the celestial vault4 ,the 
attribution of weather-making powers to 
kings or priests is very common  in     
primitive society1 and is indeed one of 

the principal levers by which  such     
personages raise themselves to a        
position of superiority above  their    
fellows4 ,there is therefore no         
improbability in the supposition  that  
as a representative of ,jupiter the     
priest of ,diana enjoyed this           
reputation1 though positive evidence of 
it appears to be lacking4    ,lastly1 in
 the present edition ,i have shewn some 
grounds for thinking  that the ,golden  
,bough itself1 or in common parlance the
 mistletoe on the  oak1 was supposed to 
have dropped from the sky upon the tree 
in a flash  of lightning and therefore  
to contain within itself the seed of    
celestial fire1 a sort of smouldering   
thunderbolt4 ,this view of the  priest  
and of the bough which he guarded at the
 peril of his life has  the advantage of
 accounting for the importance which the
 sanctuary at  ,nemi acquired and the   
treasure which it amassed through the   
offerings of  the faithful2 for the     
shrine would seem to have been to       

ancient what  ,loreto has been to modern
 ,italy1 a place of pilgrimage1 where   
princes  and nobles as well as commoners
 poured wealth into the coffers of      
,diana  in her green recess among the   
,alban hills1 just as in modern times   
kings  and queens vied with each other  
in enriching the black ,virgin who from 
her ,holy ,house on the hillside at     
,loreto looks out on the blue ,adriatic 
and the purple ,apennines4 ,such pious  
prodigality becomes more  intelligible  
if the greatest of the gods was indeed  
believed to dwell in  human shape with  
his wife among the woods of ,nemi4      
,these are the principal points on which
 ,i have altered my opinion since  the  
last edition of my book was published4  
,the mere admission of such  changes may
 suffice to indicate the doubt and      
uncertainty which attend  enquiries of  
this nature4 ,the whole fabric of       
ancient mythology is so  foreign to our 
modern ways of thought1 and the evidence
 concerning it is  for the most part so 

fragmentary1 obscure1 and conflicting   
that in our  attempts to piece together 
and interpret it we can hardly hope to  
reach  conclusions that will completely 
satisfy either ourselves or others4 ,in 
this as in other branches of study it is
 the fate of theories to be  washed away
 like children's castles of sand by the 
rising tide of  knowledge1 and ,i am not
 so presumptuous as to expect or desire 
for mine  an exemption from the common  
lot4 ,i hold them all very lightly and  
have  used them chiefly as convenient   
pegs on which to hang my collections of 
facts4 ,for ,i believe that1 while      
theories are transitory1 a record of    
facts has a permanent value1 and that as
 a chronicle of ancient customs  and    
beliefs my book may retain its utility  
when my theories are as  obsolete as the
 customs and beliefs themselves deserve 
to be4    ,i cannot dismiss without some
 natural regret a task which has        
occupied  and amused me at intervals for
 many years4 ,but the regret is tempered

 by  thankfulness and hope4 ,i am       
thankful that ,i have been able to      
conclude  at least one chapter of the   
work ,i projected a long time ago4 ,i am
  hopeful that ,i may not now be taking 
a final leave of my indulgent  readers1 
but that1 as ,i am sensible of little   
abatement in my bodily  strength and of 
none in my ardour for study1 they will  
bear with me yet  a while if ,i should  
attempt to entertain them with fresh    
subjects of  laughter and tears drawn   
from the comedy and the tragedy of man's
  endless quest after happiness and     
truth4    ,j4,g4 ,,frazer4              
,,cambridge1 #agth ,october #aiac4      
,,contents      ,,preface1 ,pp4 v-xii   
,,chapter ,i4--,,between ,,heaven ,,and 
,,earth1 ,pp4 #a-ba     #a4 ,not to     
touch the ,earth1 pp4 #a-ah4--,the      
priest of ,aricia and the  ,golden      
,bough1 #a sq42 sacred kings and priests
 forbidden to touch the  ground with    
their feet1 #b-d2 certain persons on    
certain occasions  forbidden to touch   

the ground with their feet1 #d-f2 sacred
 persons  apparently thought to be      
charged with a mysterious virtue which  
will run  to waste or explode by contact
 with the ground1 #f sq42 things as well
  as persons charged with the mysterious
 virtue of holiness or taboo and        
therefore kept from contact with the    
ground1 #g2 festival of the wild  mango1
 which is not allowed to touch the      
earth1 #g-aa2 other sacred  objects kept
 from contact with the ground1 #aa sq42 
sacred food not  allowed to touch the   
earth1 #ac sq42 magical implements and  
remedies  thought to lose their virtue  
by contact with the ground1 #ad sq42    
serpents' eggs or snake stones1 #ae sq42
 medicinal plants1 water1 etc41  not    
allowed to touch the earth1 #ag sq4     
#b4 ,not to see the ,sun1 pp4           
#ah-ba4--,sacred persons not allowed to 
see  the sun1 #ah-bj2 tabooed persons   
not allowed to see the sun1 #bj2 certain
  persons forbidden to see fire1 #bj    
sq42 the story of ,prince ,sunless1     

#ba4    ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,the          
,,seclusion ,,of ,,girls ,,at ,,puberty1
 ,pp4 #bb-ajj     #a4 ,seclusion of     
,girls at ,puberty in ,africa1 pp4      
#bb-cb4--;,girls at  puberty forbidden  
to touch the ground and see the sun1    
#bb2 seclusion of  girls at puberty     
among the ,zulus and kindred tribes1    
#bb2 among the  ,a-,kamba of ,british   
,east ,africa1 #bc2 among the ,baganda  
of ,central ,africa1  #bc sq42 among the
 tribes of the ,tanganyika plateau1 #bd 
sq42 among  the tribes of ,british      
,central ,africa1 #be sq42 abstinence   
from salt  associated with a rule of    
chastity in many tribes1 #bf-bh2        
seclusion of  girls at puberty among the
 tribes about ,lake ,nyassa and on the  
,zambesi1  #bh sq42 among the ,thonga of
 ,delagoa ,bay1 #bi sq42 among the      
,caffre  tribes of ,south ,africa1 #cj  
sq42 among the ,bavili of the ,lower    
,congo1  #ca sq4     #b4 ,seclusion of  
,girls at ,puberty in ,new ,ireland1    
,new ,guinea1 and  ,indonesia1 pp4      

#cb-cf4--,seclusion of girls at puberty 
in ,new ,ireland1  #cb-cd2 in ,new      
,guinea1 ,borneo1 ,ceram1 and the       
,caroline ,islands1 #ce sq4     #c4     
,seclusion of ,girls at ,puberty in the 
,torres ,straits ,islands and  ,northern
 ,australia1 pp4 #cf-da4--,seclusion of 
girls at puberty in  ,mabuiag1 ,torres  
,straits1 #cf sq42 in ,northern         
,australia1 #cg-ci2 in the  islands of  
,torres ,straits1 #ci-da4     #d4       
,seclusion of ,girls at ,puberty among  
the ,indians of ,north ,america1  pp4   
#da-ee4--,seclusion of girls at puberty 
among the ,indians of  ,california1     
#da-dc2 among the ,indians of           
,washington ,state1 #dc2 among the      
,nootka ,indians of ,vancouver ,island1 
#dc sq42 among the ,haida ,indians of   
the ,queen ,charlotte ,islands1 #dd sq42
 among the ,tlingit ,indians of         
,alaska1 #de sq42 among the ,tsetsaut   
and ,bella ,coola ,indians of ,british  
,columbia1 #df sq42 among the ,tinneh   
,indians of ,british ,columbia1 #dg     

sq42 among the ,tinneh ,indians of      
,alaska1 #dh sq42 among the ,thompson   
,indians of ,british ,columbia1 #di-eb2 
among the ,lillooet ,indians of         
,british ,columbia1 #eb sq42 among the  
,shuswap ,indians of ,british           
,columbia1 #ec sq42 among the ,delaware 
and ,cheyenne ,indians1 #ed sq42  among 
the ,esquimaux1 #ee sq4     #e4         
,seclusion of ,girls at ,puberty among  
the ,indians of ,south ,america1  pp4   
#ef-fh4--,seclusion of girls at puberty 
among the ,guaranis1  ,chiriguanos1 and 
,lengua ,indians1 #ef sq42 among the    
,yuracares of  ,bolivia1 #eg sq42 among 
the ,indians of the ,gran ,chaco1 #eh   
sq42 among  the ,indians of ,brazil1 #ei
 sq42 among the ,indians of ,guiana1 #fj
 sq42  beating the girls and stinging   
them with ants1 #fa2 stinging young men 
with ants and wasps as an initiatory    
rite1 #fa-fc2 stinging men and women    
with ants to improve their character or 
health or to render them  invulnerable1 
#fc sq42 in such cases the beating or   

stinging was  originally a purification1
 not a test of courage and endurance1   
#fe  sq42 this explanation confirmed by 
the beating of girls among the  ,banivas
 of the ,orinoco to rid them of a demon1
 #ff-fh2 symptoms of  puberty in a girl 
regarded as wounds inflicted on her by a
 demon1 #fh4     #f4 ,seclusion of      
,girls at ,puberty in ,india and        
,cambodia1 pp4  #fh-gj4--,seclusion of  
girls at puberty among the ,hindoos1    
#fh2 in ,southern  ,india1 #fh-gj2 in   
,cambodia1 #gj4     #g4 ,seclusion of   
,girls at ,puberty in ,folk-tales1 pp4  
#gj-gf4--;,danish  story of the girl who
 might not see the sun1 #gj-gb2         
,tyrolese story of  the girl who might  
not see the sun1 #gb2 modern ,greek     
stories of the maid  who might not see  
the sun1 #gb sq42 ancient ,greek story  
of ,danae and  its parallel in a        
,kirghiz legend1 #gc sq42 impregnation  
of women by the  sun in legends1 #gd    
sq42 traces in marriage customs of the  
belief that  women can be impregnated by

 the sun1 #ge2 belief in the            
impregnation of  women by the moon1 #ge 
sq4     #h4 ,reasons for the ,seclusion 
of ,girls at ,puberty1 pp4              
#gf-ajj4--,the  reason for the seclusion
 of girls at puberty is the dread of    
menstruous  blood1 #gf2 dread and       
seclusion of menstruous women among the 
aborigines  of ,australia1 #gf-gh2 in   
,torres ,straits ,islands1 ,new ,guinea1
 ,galela1 and  ,sumatra1 #gh sq42 among 
the tribes of ,south ,africa1 #gi sq42  
among the  tribes of ,central and ,east 
,africa1 #hj-hb2 among the tribes of    
,west  ,africa1 #hb2 powerful influence 
ascribed to menstruous blood in ,arab   
legend1 #hb sq42 dread and seclusion of 
menstruous women among the ,jews  and in
 ,syria1 #hc sq42 in ,india1 #hd sq42 in
 ,annam1 #he2 among the  ,indians of    
,central and ,south ,america1 #he sq42  
among the ,indians of  ,north ,america1 
#hg-id2 among the ,creek1 ,choctaw1     
,omaha and ,cheyenne  ,indians1 #hh sq42
 among the ,indians of ,british         

,columbia1 #hi sq42  among the          
,chippeway ,indians1 #ij sq42 among the 
,tinneh or ,dn ,indians1  #ia2 among the
 ,carrier ,indians1 #ia-id2 similar     
rules of seclusion  enjoined on         
menstruous women in ancient ,hindoo1    
,persian1 and ,hebrew  codes1 #id-if2   
superstitions as to menstruous women in 
ancient and modern  ,europe1 #if sq42   
the intention of secluding menstruous   
women is to  neutralize the dangerous   
influences which are thought to emanate 
from  them in that condition1 #ig2      
suspension between heaven and earth1    
#ig2 the  same explanation applies to   
the similar rules of seclusion observed 
by  divine kings and priests1 #ig-ii2   
stories of immortality attained by      
suspension between heaven and earth1 #ii
 sq4    ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,the ,,myth  
,,of ,,balder1 ,pp4 #aja-aje    ,how    
,balder1 the good and beautiful god1 was
 done to death by a stroke of           
mistletoe1 #aja sq42 story of ,balder in
 the older ,edda1 #ajb sq42  story of   

,balder as told by ,saxo ,grammaticus1  
#ajc2 ,balder worshipped in  ,norway1   
#ajd2 legendary death of ,balder        
resembles the legendary death of        
,isfendiyar in the epic of ,firdusi1    
#ajd sq42 the myth of ,balder perhaps   
acted as a magical ceremony2 the two    
main incidents of the myth1 namely  the 
pulling of the mistletoe and the burning
 of the god1 have perhaps  their        
counterpart in popular ritual1 #aje4    
,,chapter ,,iv4--,,the ,,fire           
,,festivals ,,of ,,europe1 ,pp4 #ajf-cbg
     #a4 ,the ,lenten ,fires1 pp4       
#ajf-abj4--;,european custom of kindling
  bonfires on certain days of the year1 
dancing round them1 leaping over  them1 
and burning effigies in the flames1     
#ajf2 seasons of the year at  which the 
bonfires are lit1 #ajf sq42 bonfires on 
the first ,sunday in  ,lent in the      
,belgian ,ardennes1 #ajg sq42 in the    
,french department of the  ,ardennes1   
#aji sq42 in ,franche-,comt1 #aaj sq42  
in ,auvergne1 #aaa-aac2  ,french custom 

of carrying lighted torches 7brandons7  
about the  orchards and fields to       
fertilize them on the first ,sunday of  
,lent1  #aac-aae2 bonfires on the first 
,sunday of ,lent in ,germany and        
,austria1  #aae sq42 burning the witch1 
#aaf2 burning discs thrown into the air1
  #aaf sq42 burning wheels rolled down  
hill1 #aag sq42 bonfires on the  first  
,sunday in ,lent in ,switzerland1 #aah  
sq42 burning discs thrown  into the air1
 #aai2 connexion of these fires with the
 custom of carrying  out ,death1 #aai   
sq4     #b4 ,the ,easter ,fires1        
#abj-adf4--;,custom in ,catholic        
countries of  kindling a holy new fire  
on ,easter ,saturday1 marvellous        
properties  ascribed to the embers of   
the fire1 #aba2 effigy of ,judas burnt  
in the  fire1 #aba2 ,easter fires in    
,bavaria and the ,abruzzi1 #abb2 water  
as well  as fire consecrated at ,easter 
in ,italy1 ,bohemia1 and ,germany1      
#abb-abd2  new fire at ,easter in       
,carinthia1 #abd2 ,thomas ,kirchmeyer's 

account of the  consecration of fire and
 water by the ,catholic ,church at      
,easter1 #abd  sq42 the new fire on     
,easter ,saturday at ,florence1 #abf    
sq42 the new  fire and the burning of   
,judas on ,easter ,saturday in ,mexico  
and ,south  ,america1 #abg sq42 the new 
fire on ,easter ,saturday in the ,church
 of the  ,holy ,sepulchre at ,jerusalem1
 #abh-acj2 the new fire and the burning 
of  ,judas on ,easter ,saturday in      
,greece1 #acj sq42 the new fire at      
,candlemas  in ,armenia1 #aca2 the new  
fire and the burning of ,judas at       
,easter are  probably relics of         
paganism1 #aca sq42 new fire at the     
summer solstice  among the ,incas of    
,peru1 #acb2 new fire among the ,indians
 of ,mexico and  ,new ,mexico1 the      
,iroquois1 and the ,esquimaux1 #acb-acd2
 new fire in ,wadai1  among the         
,swahili1 and in other parts of ,africa1
 #acd-acf2 new fires  among the ,todas  
and ,nagas of ,india1 #acf2 new fire in 
,china and ,japan1  #acg sq42 new fire  

in ancient ,greece and ,rome1 #ach2 new 
fire at  ,hallowe'en among the old      
,celts of ,ireland1 #aci2 new fire on   
the first of  ,september among the      
,russian peasants1 #aci2 the rite of the
 new fire  probably common to many      
peoples of the ,mediterranean area      
before the  rise of ,christianity1 #aci 
sq42 the pagan character of the ,easter 
fire  manifest from the superstitions   
associated with it1 such as the belief  
that the fire fertilizes the fields and 
protects houses from  conflagration and 
sickness1 #adj sq42 the ,easter fires in
 ,mnsterland1  ,oldenburg1 the ,harz    
,mountains1 and the ,altmark1 #ada-adc2 
,easter fires  and the burning of ,judas
 or the ,easter ,man in ,bavaria1 #adc  
sq42 ,easter  fires and thunder poles in
 ,baden1 #ade2 ,easter fires in ,holland
 and  ,sweden1 #ade sq42 the burning of 
,judas in ,bohemia1 #adf4     #c4 ,the  
,beltane ,fires1 pp4 #adf-afj4--,the    
,beltane fires on the first  of ,may in 
the ,highlands of ,scotland1 #adf-aed2  

,john ,ramsay of ,ochtertyre1  his      
description of the ,beltane fires and   
cakes and the ,beltane carline1         
#adf-adi2 ,beltane fires and cakes in   
,perthshire1 #aej-aec2 ,beltane fires   
in the north-east of ,scotland to burn  
the witches1 #aec sq42 ,beltane  fires  
and cakes in the ,hebrides1 #aed2       
,beltane fires and cakes in ,wales1     
#aee-aeg2 in the ,isle of ,man to burn  
the witches1 #aeg2 in  ,nottinghamshire1
 #aeg2 in ,ireland1 #aeg-aei2 fires on  
the ,eve of ,may ,day  in ,sweden1 #aei2
 in ,austria and ,saxony to burn the    
witches1 #aei sq4     #d4 ,the          
,midsummer ,fires1 pp4 #afj-bai4--,the  
great season for  fire-festivals in     
,europe is ,midsummer ,eve or ,midsummer
 ,day1 which the  church has dedicated  
to ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 #afj sq42   
the bonfires1  the torches1 and the     
burning wheels of the festival1 #afa2   
,thomas  ,kirchmeyer's description of   
the ,midsummer festival1 #afb sq42 the  
,midsummer fires in ,germany1 #afc-aga2 

burning wheel rolled down hill at  ,konz
 on the ,moselle1 #afc sq42 ,midsummer  
fires in ,bavaria1 #afd-aff2 in         
,swabia1 #aff sq42 in ,baden1 #afg-afi2 
in ,alsace1 ,lorraine1 the ,eifel1  the 
,harz district1 and ,thuringia1 #afi2   
,midsummer fires kindled by the         
friction of wood1 #afi sq42 driving away
 the witches and demons1 #agj2          
,midsummer fires in ,silesia1 scaring   
away the witches1 #agj sq42  ,midsummer 
fires in ,denmark and ,norway1 keeping  
off the witches1 #aga2  ,midsummer fires
 in ,sweden1 #agb2 ,midsummer fires in  
,switzerland and  ,austria1 #agb sq42 in
 ,bohemia1 #agc-age2 in ,moravia1       
,austrian ,silesia1  and the district of
 ,cracow1 #age2 among the ,slavs of     
,russia1 #agf2 in  ,prussia and         
,lithuania as a protection against      
witchcraft1 thunder1 hail1  and cattle  
disease1 #agf sq42 in ,masuren the fire 
is kindled by the  revolution of a      
wheel1 #agg2 ,midsummer fires among the 
,letts of ,russia1  #agg sq42 among the 

,south ,slavs1 #agh2 among the ,magyars1
 #agh sq42  among the ,esthonians1 #agi 
sq42 among the ,finns and ,cheremiss of 
,russia1 #ahj sq42 in ,france1 #aha-aid2
 ,bossuet on the ,midsummer  festival1  
#ahb2 the ,midsummer fires in ,brittany1
 #ahc-ahe2 in ,normandy1  the           
,brotherhood of the ,green ,wolf at     
,jumiges1 #ahe sq42 ,midsummer  fires in
 ,picardy1 #ahg sq42 in ,beauce and     
,perche1 #ahh2 the fires a  protection  
against witchcraft1 #ahh2 the ,midsummer
 fires in the ,ardennes1  the ,vosges1  
and the ,jura1 #ahh sq42 in             
,franche-,comt1 #ahi2 in ,berry and     
other parts of ,central ,france1 #ahi   
sq42 in ,poitou1 #aij sq42 in the       
departments of ,vienne and ,deux-,svres 
and in the provinces of ,saintonge  and 
,aunis1 #aia sq42 in ,southern ,france1 
#aib sq42 ,midsummer festival  of fire  
and water in ,provence1 #aic sq42       
,midsummer fires in ,belgium1  #aid-aif2
 in ,england1 #aif-bjj2 ,stow's         
description of the ,midsummer fires  in 

,london1 #aif sq42 ,john ,aubrey on the 
,midsummer fires1 #aig2 ,midsummer      
fires in ,cumberland1 ,northumberland1  
and ,yorkshire1 #aig sq42 in            
,herefordshire1 ,somersetshire1         
,devonshire1 and ,cornwall1 #aii sq42 in
  ,wales and the ,isle of ,man1 #bjj    
sq42 in ,ireland1 #bja-bje2 holy wells  
resorted to on ,midsummer ,eve in       
,ireland1 #bje sq42 ,midsummer fires in 
,scotland1 #bjf sq42 ,midsummer fires   
and divination in ,spain and the        
,azores1 #bjh sq42 ,midsummer fires in  
,corsica and ,sardinia1 #bji2 in the    
,abruzzi1 #bji sq42 in ,sicily1 #baj2 in
 ,malta1 #baj sq42 in ,greece and  the  
,greek islands1 #baa sq42 in ,macedonia 
and ,albania1 #bab2 in ,south  ,america1
 #bab sq42 among the ,mohammedans of    
,morocco and ,algeria1  #bac-baf2 the   
,midsummer festival in ,north ,africa   
comprises rites of water  as well as    
fire1 #baf2 similar festival of fire and
 water at ,new ,year in  ,north ,africa1
 #bag sq42 the duplication of the       

festival probably due to  a conflict    
between the solar calendar of the       
,romans and the lunar  calendar of the  
,arabs1 #bah sg42 the ,midsummer        
festival in ,morocco  apparently of     
,berber origin1 #bai4     #e4 ,the      
,autumn ,fires1 pp4                     
#bbj-bbb4--;,festivals of fire in       
,august1 #bbj2  living fire made by the 
friction of wood1 #bbj2 feast of the    
,nativity  of the ,virgin on the eighth 
of ,september at ,capri and ,naples1    
#bbj-bbb4     #f4 ,the ,halloween       
,fires1 pp4 #bbb-bdf4--,while the       
,midsummer festival  implies observation
 of the solstices1 the ,celts appear to 
have divided  their year1 without regard
 to the solstices1 by the times when    
they  drove their cattle to and from the
 summer pasture on the first of ,may    
and the last of ,october 7,hallowe'en71 
#bbb-bbd2 the two great ,celtic         
festivals of ,beltane 7,may ,day7 and   
,hallowe'en 7the last of ,october71     
#bbd2 ,hallowe'en seems to have marked  

the beginning of the ,celtic year1  #bbd
 sq42 it was a season of divination and 
a festival of the dead1 #bbe  sq42      
fairies and hobgoblins let loose at     
,hallowe'en1 #bbf-bbh2  divination in   
,celtic countries at ,hallowe'en1 #bbh  
sq42 ,hallowe'en  bonfires in the       
,highlands of ,scotland1 #bbi-bcb2      
,hallowe'en fires in  ,buchan to burn   
the witches1 #bcb sq42 processions with 
torches at  ,hallowe'en in the ,braemar 
,highlands1 #bcc sq42 divination at     
,hallowe'en  in the ,highlands and      
,lowlands of ,scotland1 #bcd-bci2       
,hallowe'en fires in  ,wales1 omens     
drawn from stones cast into the fires1  
#bci sq42  divination at ,hallowe'en in 
,wales1 #bdj sq42 divination at         
,hallowe'en  in ,ireland1 #bda-bdc2     
,hallowe'en fires and divination in the 
,isle of ,man1  #bdc sq42 ,hallowe'en   
fires and divination in ,lancashire1    
#bdd sq42  marching with lighted candles
 to keep off the witches1 #bde2         
divination  at ,hallowe'en in           

,northumberland1 #bde2 ,hallowe'en fires
 in ,france1 #bde  sq4     #g4 ,the     
,midwinter ,fires1 pp4                  
#bdf-bfi4--;,christmas the continuation 
of  an old heathen festival of the sun1 
#bdf2 the ,yule log the ,midwinter      
counterpart of the ,midsummer bonfire1  
#bdg2 the ,yule log in ,germany1        
#bdg-bdi2 in ,switzerland1 #bdi2 in     
,belgium1 #bdi2 in ,france1 #bdi-bee2   
,french superstitions as to the ,yule   
log1 #bej2 the ,yule log at ,marseilles 
and in ,perigord1 #bej sq42 in ,berry1  
#bea sq42 in ,normandy and  ,brittany1  
#beb sq42 in the ,ardennes1 #bec sq42 in
 the ,vosges1 #bed2 in  ,franche-,comt1 
#bed sq42 the ,yule log and ,yule candle
 in ,england1  #bee-beh2 the ,yule log  
in the north of ,england and ,yorkshire1
 #bef sq42  in ,lincolnshire1           
,warwickshire1 ,shropshire1 and         
,herefordshire1 #beg sq42  in ,wales1   
#beh2 in ,servia1 #beh-bfb2 among the   
,servians of ,slavonia1 #bfb  sq42 among
 the ,servians of ,dalmatia1            

,herzegovina1 and ,montenegro1 #bfc     
sq42 in ,albania1 #bfd2 belief that the 
,yule log protects against fire  and    
lightning1 #bfd sq42 public             
fire-festivals at ,midwinter1 #bfe-bfi2 
,christmas bonfire at ,schweina in      
,thuringia1 #bfe sq42 ,christmas        
bonfires in ,normandy1 #bff2 bonfires on
 ,st4 ,thomas's ,day in the ,isle of    
,man1 #bff2 the ,burning of the ,clavie 
at ,burghead on the last day of         
,december1 #bff-bfh2 ,christmas         
procession with burning tar-barrels at  
,lerwick1 #bfh sq4     #h4 ,the         
,need-fire1 pp4 #bfi-cjj4--,need-fire   
kindled not at fixed  periods but on    
occasions of distress and calamity1     
#bfi2 the need-fire in  the ,middle     
,ages and down to the end of the        
sixteenth century1 #bgj sq42  mode of   
kindling the need-fire by the friction  
of wood1 #bga sq42 the  need-fire in    
,central ,germany1 particularly about   
,hildesheim1 #bgb sq42  the need-fire in
 the ,mark1 #bgc2 in ,mecklenburg1 #bgd 

sq42 in ,hanover1  #bge sq42 in the     
,harz ,mountains1 #bgf sq42 in          
,brunswick1 #bgg sq42 in  ,silesia and  
,bohemia1 #bgh sq42 in ,switzerland1    
#bgi sq42 in ,sweden and  ,norway1 #bhj2
 among the ,slavonic peoples1 #bha-bhf2 
in ,russia and ,poland1  #bha sq42 in   
,slavonia1 #bhb2 in ,servia1 #bhb-bhd2  
in ,bulgaria1 #bhd-bhf2  in ,bosnia and 
,herzegovina1 #bhf2 in ,england1        
#bhf-bhi2 in ,yorkshire1  #bhf-bhh2 in  
,northumberland1 #bhh sq42 in ,scotland1
 #bhi-big2 ,martin's  account of it in  
the ,highlands1 #bhi2 the need-fire in  
,mull1 #bhi sq42  in ,caithness1        
#bij-bib2 ,w4 ,grant ,stewart's account 
of the need-fire1 #bib  sq42 ,alexander 
,carmichael's account1 #bic-bie2 the    
need-fire in  ,aberdeenshire1 #bif2 in  
,perthshire1 #bif sq42 in ,ireland1     
#big2 the use  of need-fire a relic of  
the time when all fires were similarly  
kindled  by the friction of wood1 #big  
sq42 the belief that need-fire cannot   
kindle if any other fire remains alight 

in the neighbourhood1 #bih sq42  the    
need-fire among the ,iroquois of ,north 
,america1 #bii sq4     #i4 ,the         
,sacrifice of an ,animal to stay a      
,cattle-plague1 pp4  #cjj-cbg4--,the    
burnt sacrifice of a calf in ,england   
and ,wales1 #cjj sq42  burnt sacrifices 
of animals in ,scotland1 #cja sq42 calf 
burnt in order  to break a spell which  
has been cast on the herd1 #cjb sq42    
mode in  which the burning of a         
bewitched animal is supposed to break   
the spell1  #cjc-cje2 in burning the    
bewitched animal you burn the witch     
herself1  #cje2 practice of burning     
cattle and sheep as sacrifices in the   
,isle of  ,man1 #cje-cjg2 by burning a  
bewitched animal you compel the witch to
  appear1 #cjg2 magic sympathy between  
the witch and the bewitched animal1     
#cjh2 similar sympathy between a        
were-wolf and his or her human shape1   
wounds inflicted on the animal are felt 
by the man or woman1 #cjh2  were-wolves 
in ,europe1 #cjh-caj2 in ,china1 #caj   

sq42 among the ,toradjas  of ,central   
,celebes1 #caa-cac sq42 in the ,egyptian
 ,sudan1 #cac sq42 the  were-wolf story 
in ,petronius1 #cac sq42 witches like   
were-wolves can  temporarily transform  
themselves into animals1 and wounds     
inflicted on  the transformed animals   
appear on the persons of the witches1   
#cae sq42  instances of such            
transformations and wounds in ,scotland1
 ,england1  ,ireland1 ,france1 and      
,germany1 #caf-cba2 hence the reason for
 burning  bewitched animals is either to
 burn the witch herself or at all events
  to compel her to appear1 #cba sq42 the
 like reason for burning  bewitched     
things1 #cbb sq42 similarly by burning  
alive a person whose  likeness a witch  
has assumed you compel the witch to     
disclose herself1  #cbc2 woman burnt    
alive as a witch in ,ireland at the end 
of the  nineteenth century1 #cbc sq42   
bewitched animals sometimes buried alive
  instead of being burned1 #cbd-cbf2    
calves killed and buried to save the    

rest of the herd1 #cbf sq4    ,,chapter 
,v4--,,the ,,interpretation ,,of ,,the  
,,fire-,,festivals1 ,pp4 #cbh-cdf       
#a4 ,on the ,fire-festivals in general  
pp4 #cbh-cca4--;,general  resemblance of
 the fire-festivals to each other1 #cbh 
sq42 two  explanations of the festivals 
suggested1 one by ,w4 ,mannhardt that   
they  are sun-charms1 the other by ,dr4 
,e4 ,westermarck that they are          
purificatory1 #cbi sq42 the two         
explanations perhaps not mutually       
exclusive1 #ccj sq4     #b4 ,the ,solar 
,theory of the ,fire-festivals1 pp4     
#cca-cda4--,theory that  the            
fire-festivals are charms to ensure a   
supply of sunshine1 #cca2  coincidence  
of two of the festivals with the        
solstices1 #cca sq42  attempt of the    
,bushmen to warm up the fire of ,sirius 
in midwinter by  kindling sticks1 #ccb  
sq42 the burning wheels and discs of the
  fire-festivals may be direct          
imitations of the sun1 #ccd2 the wheel  
which  is sometimes used to kindle the  

fire by friction may also be an         
imitation of the sun1 #ccd-ccf2 the     
influence which the bonfires are        
supposed to exert on the weather and    
vegetation may be thought to be due  to 
an increase of solar heat produced by   
the fires1 #ccf-cch2 the effect  which  
the bonfires are supposed to have in    
fertilizing cattle and women  may also  
be attributed to an increase of solar   
heat produced by the  fires1 #cch sq42  
the carrying of lighted torches about   
the country at  the festivals may be    
explained as an attempt to diffuse the  
sun's heat1  #cci-cda4     #c4 ,the     
,purificatory ,theory of the            
,fire-festivals1 pp4  #cda-cdf4--,theory
 that the fires at the festivals are    
purificatory1 being  intended to burn up
 all harmful things1 #cda2 the          
purificatory or  destructive effect of  
the fires is often alleged by the people
 who light  them1 and there is no reason
 to reject this explanation1 #cda sq42  
the  great evil against which the fire  

at the festivals appears to be  directed
 is witchcraft1 #cdb2 among the evils   
for which the  fire-festivals are deemed
 remedies the foremost is               
cattle-disease1 and  cattle-disease is  
often supposed to be an effect of       
witchcraft1 #cdc  sq42 again1 the       
bonfires are thought to avert hail1     
thunder1  lightning1 and various        
maladies1 all of which are attributed to
 the  maleficent arts of witches1 #cdd  
sq42 the burning wheels rolled down     
hill and the burning discs thrown into  
the air may be intended to burn  the    
invisible witches1 #cde sq42 on this    
view the fertility supposed to  follow  
the use of fire results indirectly from 
breaking the spells of  witches1 #cdf2  
on the whole the theory of the          
purificatory or destructive  intention  
of the fire-festivals seems the more    
probable1 #cdf4    ,transcriber's ,note3
 ,the brief descriptions often found    
enclosed in  square brackets are        
sidenotes1 which appeared in the        

original book in  the margins of the    
paragraph following the sidenote4       
,footnotes were  originally at the      
bottoms of the printed pages4           
,,chapter ,i    ,,between ,,heaven ,,and
 ,,earth       #a4 ,not to touch the    
,earth      ,the priest of ,aricia and  
the ,golden ,bough    ,we have travelled
 far since we turned our backs on ,nemi 
and set forth in  quest of the secret of
 the ,golden ,bough4 ,with the present  
volume we  enter on the last stage of   
our long journey4 ,the reader who has   
had the  patience to follow the enquiry 
thus far may remember that at the outset
  two questions were proposed for       
answer3 ,why had the priest of ,aricia  
to  slay his predecessor8 ,and why1     
before doing so1 had he to pluck the    
,golden ,bough8#a ,of these two         
questions the first has now been        
answered4  ,the priest of ,aricia1 if ,i
 am right1 was one of those sacred kings
 or  human divinities on whose life the 
welfare of the community and even the   

course of nature in general are believed
 to be intimately dependent4 ,it  does  
not appear that the subjects or         
worshippers of such a spiritual         
potentate form to themselves any very   
clear notion of the exact  relationship 
in which they stand to him2 probably    
their ideas on the  point are vague and 
fluctuating1 and we should err if we    
attempted to  define the relationship   
with logical precision4 ,all that the   
people  know1 or rather imagine1 is that
 somehow they themselves1 their cattle1 
and their crops are mysteriously bound  
up with their divine king1 so  that     
according as he is well or ill the      
community is healthy or sickly1  the    
flocks and herds thrive or languish with
 disease1 and the fields  yield an      
abundant or a scanty harvest4 ,the worst
 evil which they can  conceive of is the
 natural death of their ruler1 whether  
he succumb to  sickness or old age1 for 
in the opinion of his followers such a  
death  would entail the most disastrous 

consequences on themselves and their    
possessions2 fatal epidemics would sweep
 away man and beast1 the earth  would   
refuse her increase1 nay the very frame 
of nature itself might be  dissolved4   
,to guard against these catastrophes it 
is necessary to put  the king to death  
while he is still in the full bloom of  
his divine  manhood1 in order that his  
sacred life1 transmitted in unabated    
force to  his successor1 may renew its  
youth1 and thus by successive           
transmissions  through a perpetual line 
of vigorous incarnations may remain     
eternally  fresh and young1 a pledge and
 security that men and animals shall in 
like manner renew their youth by a      
perpetual succession of generations1    
and that seedtime and harvest1 and      
summer and winter1 and rain and         
sunshine shall never fail4 ,that1 if my 
conjecture is right1 was why the  priest
 of ,aricia1 the ,king of the ,wood at  
,nemi1 had regularly to perish  by the  
sword of his successor4    ,what was the

 ,golden ,bough8    ,but we have still  
to ask1 ,what was the ,golden ,bough8   
and why had each  candidate for the     
,arician priesthood to pluck it before  
he could slay  the priest8 ,these       
questions ,i will now try to answer4    
,sacred kings and priests forbidden to  
touch the ground with their  feet4      
,it will be well to begin by noticing   
two of those rules or taboos by  which1 
as we have seen1 the life of divine     
kings or priests is  regulated4 ,the    
first of the rules to which ,i desire to
 call the reader's  attention is that   
the divine personage may not touch the  
ground with his  foot4 ,this rule was   
observed by the supreme pontiff of the  
,zapotecs in  ,mexico2 he profaned his  
sanctity if he so much as touched the   
ground  with his foot4#b ,montezuma1    
emperor of ,mexico1 never set foot on   
the  ground2 he was always carried on   
the shoulders of noblemen1 and if he    
lighted anywhere they laid rich tapestry
 for him to walk upon4#c ,for  the      

,mikado of ,japan to touch the ground   
with his foot was a shameful            
degradation2 indeed1 in the sixteenth   
century1 it was enough to deprive  him  
of his office4 ,outside his palace he   
was carried on men's shoulders2  within 
it he walked on exquisitely wrought     
mats4#d ,the king and queen  of ,tahiti 
might not touch the ground anywhere but 
within their  hereditary domains2 for   
the ground on which they trod became    
sacred4 ,in  travelling from place to   
place they were carried on the shoulders
 of  sacred men4 ,they were always      
accompanied by several pairs of these   
sanctified attendants2 and when it      
became necessary to change their        
bearers1 the king and queen vaulted on  
to the shoulders of their new  bearers  
without letting their feet touch the    
ground4#e ,it was an evil  omen if the  
king of ,dosuma touched the ground1 and 
he had to perform an  expiatory         
ceremony4#f ,within his palace the king 
of ,persia walked on  carpets on which  

no one else might tread2 outside of it  
he was never  seen on foot but only in a
 chariot or on horseback4#g ,in old days
 the  king of ,siam never set foot upon 
the earth1 but was carried on a throne  
of gold from place to place4#h ,formerly
 neither the kings of ,uganda1  nor     
their mothers1 nor their queens might   
walk on foot outside of the  spacious   
enclosures in which they lived4         
,whenever they went forth they  were    
carried on the shoulders of men of the  
,buffalo clan1 several of  whom         
accompanied any of these royal          
personages on a journey and took it  in 
turn to bear the burden4 ,the king sat  
astride the bearer's neck with  a leg   
over each shoulder and his feet tucked  
under the bearer's arms4  ,when one of  
these royal carriers grew tired he shot 
the king on to the  shoulders of a      
second man without allowing the royal   
feet to touch the  ground4 ,in this way 
they went at a great pace and travelled 
long  distances in a day1 when the king 

was on a journey4 ,the bearers had a    
special hut in the king's enclosure in  
order to be at hand the moment  they    
were wanted4#i ,among the ,bakuba or    
rather ,bushongo1 a nation in  the      
southern region of the ,congo1 down to a
 few years ago persons of the  royal    
blood were forbidden to touch the       
ground2 they must sit on a hide1  a     
chair1 or the back of a slave1 who      
crouched on hands and feet2 their  feet 
rested on the feet of others4 ,when they
 travelled they were carried  on the    
backs of men2 but the king journeyed in 
a litter supported on  shafts4#aj ,among
 the ,ibo people about ,awka1 in        
,southern ,nigeria1 the  priest of the  
,earth has to observe many taboos2 for  
example1 he may not  see a corpse1 and  
if he meets one on the road he must hide
 his eyes with  his wristlet4 ,he must  
abstain from many foods1 such as eggs1  
birds of  all sorts1 mutton1 dog1       
bush-buck1 and so forth4 ,he may neither
 wear nor  touch a mask1 and no masked  

man may enter his house4 ,if a dog      
enters his  house1 it is killed and     
thrown out4 ,as priest of the ,earth he 
may not  sit on the bare ground1 nor eat
 things that have fallen on the ground1 
nor may earth be thrown at him4#aa      
,according to ancient ,brahmanic  ritual
 a king at his inauguration trod on a   
tiger's skin and a golden  plate2 he was
 shod with shoes of boar's skin1 and so 
long as he lived  thereafter he might   
not stand on the earth with his bare    
feet4#ab    ,certain persons on certain 
occasions forbidden to touch the ground 
with  their feet4    ,but besides       
persons who are permanently sacred or   
tabooed and are  therefore permanently  
forbidden to touch the ground with their
 feet1  there are others who enjoy the  
character of sanctity or taboo only on  
certain occasions1 and to whom          
accordingly the prohibition in question 
only applies at the definite seasons    
during which they exhale the odour  of  
sanctity4 ,thus among the ,kayans or    

,bahaus of ,central ,borneo1 while  the 
priestesses are engaged in the          
performance of certain rites they may   
not step on the ground1 and boards are  
laid for them to tread on4#ac ,at  a    
funeral ceremony observed by night among
 the ,michemis1 a ,tibetan tribe  near  
the northern frontier of ,assam1 a      
priest fantastically bedecked  with     
tiger's teeth1 many-coloured plumes1    
bells1 and shells1 executed a  wild     
dance for the purpose of exorcising the 
evil spirits2 then all  fires were      
extinguished and a new light was struck 
by a man suspended by  his feet from a  
beam in the ceiling2 he did not touch   
the ground1 we  are told1 in order to   
indicate that the light came from       
heaven4#ad  ,again1 newly born infants  
are strongly tabooed2 accordingly in    
,loango  they are not allowed to touch  
the earth4#ae ,among the ,iluvans of    
,malabar the bridegroom on his          
wedding-day is bathed by seven young men
  and then carried or walks on planks   

from the bathing-place to the  marriage 
booth2 he may not touch the ground with 
his feet4#af ,with the  ,dyaks of       
,landak and ,tajan1 two districts of    
,dutch ,borneo1 it is a custom  that for
 a certain time after marriage neither  
bride nor bridegroom may  tread on the  
earth4#ag ,warriors1 again1 on the      
war-path are surrounded1  so to say1 by 
an atmosphere of taboo2 hence some      
,indians of ,north  ,america might not  
sit on the bare ground the whole time   
they were out on  a warlike             
expedition4#ah ,in ,laos the hunting of 
elephants gives rise to  many taboos2   
one of them is that the chief hunter may
 not touch the  earth with his foot4    
,accordingly1 when he alights from his  
elephant1 the  others spread a carpet of
 leaves for him to step upon4#ai ,german
  wiseacres recommended that when       
witches were led to the block or the    
stake1 they should not be allowed to    
touch the bare earth1 and a reason      
suggested for the rule was that if they 

touched the earth they might  make      
themselves invisible and so escape4 ,the
 sagacious author of ,the               
,striped-petticoat ,philosophy in the   
eighteenth century ridicules the  idea  
as mere silly talk4 ,he admits1 indeed1 
that the women were conveyed  to the    
place of execution in carts2 but he     
denies that there is any deep           
significance in the cart1 and he is     
prepared to maintain this view by a     
chemical analysis of the timber of which
 the cart was built4 ,to clinch  his    
argument he appeals to plain matter of  
fact and his own personal  experience4  
,not a single instance1 he assures us   
with apparent  satisfaction1 can be     
produced of a witch who escaped the axe 
or the fire  in this fashion4 ,i have   
myself1 says he1 in my youth seen divers
  witches burned1 some at ,arnstadt1    
some at ,ilmenau1 some at ,schwenda1 a  
noble village between ,arnstadt and     
,ilmenau1 and some of them were         
pardoned and beheaded before being      

burned4 ,they were laid on the earth  in
 the place of execution and beheaded    
like any other poor sinner2  whereas if 
they could have escaped by touching the 
earth1 not one of  them would have      
failed to do so4#bj    ,sacred or       
tabooed persons apparently thought to be
 charged with a  mysterious virtue like 
a fluid1 which will run to waste or     
explode if it  touches the ground4      
,apparently holiness1 magical virtue1   
taboo1 or whatever we may call that     
mysterious quality which is supposed to 
pervade sacred or tabooed  persons1 is  
conceived by the primitive philosopher  
as a physical  substance or fluid1 with 
which the sacred man is charged just as 
a  ,leyden jar is charged with          
electricity2 and exactly as the         
electricity  in the jar can be          
discharged by contact with a good       
conductor1 so the  holiness or magical  
virtue in the man can be discharged and 
drained away  by contact with the earth1
 which on this theory serves as an      

excellent  conductor for the magical    
fluid4 ,hence in order to preserve the  
charge  from running to waste1 the      
sacred or tabooed personage must be     
carefully  prevented from touching the  
ground2 in electrical language he must  
be  insulated1 if he is not to be       
emptied of the precious substance or    
fluid  with which he1 as a vial1 is     
filled to the brim4 ,and in many cases  
apparently the insulation of the tabooed
 person is recommended as a  precaution 
not merely for his own sake but for the 
sake of others2 for  since the virtue of
 holiness or taboo is1 so to say1 a     
powerful  explosive which the smallest  
touch may detonate1 it is necessary in  
the  interest of the general safety to  
keep it within narrow bounds1 lest      
breaking out it should blast1 blight1   
and destroy whatever it comes into      
contact with4    ,things as well as     
persons can be charged with the         
mysterious quality of  holiness or      
taboo2 and when so charged they must be 

kept from contact  with the ground4     
,but things as well as persons are often
 charged with the mysterious  quality of
 holiness or taboo2 hence it frequently 
becomes necessary for  similar reasons  
to guard them also from coming into     
contact with the  ground1 lest they     
should in like manner be drained of     
their valuable  properties and be       
reduced to mere commonplace material    
objects1 empty  husks from which the    
good grain has been eliminated4 ,thus1  
for example1  the most sacred object of 
the ,arunta tribe in ,central ,australia
 is1 or  rather used to be1 a pole about
 twenty feet high1 which is completely  
smeared with human blood1 crowned with  
an imitation of a human head1 and  set  
up on the ground where the final        
initiatory ceremonies of young men  are 
performed4 ,a young gum-tree is chosen  
to form the pole1 and it must  be cut   
down and transported in such a way that 
it does not touch the  earth till it is 
erected in its place on the holy ground4

 ,apparently the  pole represents some  
famous ancestor of the olden time4#ba   
,festival of the wild manog tree in     
,british ,new ,guinea4    ,again1 at a  
great dancing festival celebrated by the
 natives of ,bartle  ,bay1 in ,british  
,new ,guinea1 a wild mango tree plays a 
prominent part4  ,the tree must be      
self-sown1 that is1 really wild and so  
young that it  has never flowered4 ,it  
is chosen in the jungle some five or six
 weeks  before the festival1 and a      
circle is cleared round its trunk4 ,from
 that  time the master of the ceremonies
 and some eight to twenty other men1    
who have aided him in choosing the tree 
and in clearing the jungle1  become     
strictly holy or tabooed4 ,they sleep by
 themselves in a house  into which no   
one else may intrude3 they may not wash 
or drink water1  nor even allow it      
accidentally to touch their bodies3 they
 are forbidden  to eat boiled food and  
the fruit of mango trees3 they may drink
 only the  milk of a young coco-nut     

which has been baked1 and they may eat  
certain  fruits and vegetables1 such as 
paw-paws 7,carica papaya7 and           
sugar-cane1 but only on condition that  
they have been baked4 ,all refuse  of   
their food is kept in baskets in their  
sleeping-house and may not be  removed  
from it till the festival is over4 ,at  
the time when the men  begin to observe 
these rules of abstinence1 some six to  
ten women1  members of the same clan as 
the master of the ceremonies1 enter on a
  like period of mortification1 avoiding
 the company of the other sex1 and      
refraining from water1 all boiled food1 
and the fruit of the mango tree4  ,these
 fasting men and women are the principal
 dancers at the festival4  ,the dancing 
takes place on a special platform in a  
temporary village  which has been       
erected for the purpose4 ,when the      
platform is about to be  set up1 the    
fasting men rub the stepping posts and  
then suck their hands  for the purpose  
of extracting the ghost of any dead man 

that might  chance to be in the post and
 might be injured by the weight of the  
platform pressing down on him4 ,having  
carefully extracted these poor  souls1  
the men carry them away tenderly and set
 them free in the forest  or the long   
grass4    ,the wild mango tree not      
allowed to touch the ground4    ,on the 
day before the festival one of the      
fasting men cuts down the  chosen mango 
tree in the jungle with a stone adze1   
which is never  afterwards put to any   
other use2 an iron tool may not be used 
for the  purpose1 though iron tools are 
now common enough in the district4 ,in  
cutting down the mango they place nets  
on the ground to catch any leaves  or   
twigs that might fall from the tree as  
it is being felled and they  surround   
the trunk with new mats to receive the  
chips which fly out  under the adze of  
the woodman2 for the chips may not drop 
on the earth4  ,once the tree is down1  
it is carried to the centre of the      
temporary  village1 the greatest care   

being taken to prevent it from coming   
into  contact with the ground4 ,but when
 it is brought into the village1 the    
houses are connected with the top of the
 mango by means of long vines  decorated
 with the streamers4 ,in the afternoon  
the fasting men and women  begin to     
dance1 the men bedizened with gay       
feathers1 armlets1 streamers1  and      
anklets1 the women flaunting in         
parti-coloured petticoats and sprigs  of
 croton leaves1 which wave from their   
waistbands as they dance4 ,the  dancing 
stops at sundown1 and when the full moon
 rises over the shoulder  of the eastern
 hill 7for the date of the festival     
seems to be determined  with reference  
to the time of the moon71 two chiefs    
mount the gables of  two houses on the  
eastern side of the square1 and1 their  
dusky figures  standing sharply out     
against the moonlight1 pray to the evil 
spirits to  go away and not to hurt the 
people4 ,next morning pigs are killed by
  being speared as slowly as possible in

 order that they may squeal loud  and   
long2 for the people believe that the   
mango trees hear the  squealing1 and are
 pleased at the sound1 and bear plenty  
of fruit1  whereas if they heard no     
squeals they would bear no fruit4       
,however1 the  trees have to content    
themselves with the squeals2 the flesh  
of the pigs  is eaten by the people4    
,this ends the festival4    ,final      
disposition of the wild mango tree4     
,next day the mango is taken down from  
the platform1 wrapt in new mats1  and   
carried by the fasting men to their     
sleeping house1 where it is hung  from  
the roof4 ,but after an interval1 it may
 be of many months1 the tree  is brought
 forth again4 ,as to the reason for its 
reappearance in public  opinions are    
divided2 but some say that the tree     
itself orders the  master of the        
ceremonies to bring it forth1 appearing 
to him in his  dreams and saying1 ,let  
me smell the smoking fat of pigs4 ,so   
will your  pigs be healthy and your     

crops will grow4 ,be that as it may1 out
 it  comes1 conducted by the fasting men
 in their dancing costume2 and with  it 
come in the solemn procession all the   
pots1 spoons1 cups and so forth  used by
 the fasting men during their period of 
holiness or taboo1 also  all the refuse 
of their food which has been collected  
for months1 and  all the fallen leaves  
and chips of the mango in their bundles 
of mats4  ,these holy relics are carried
 in front and the mango tree itself     
brings  up the rear of the procession4  
,while these sacred objects are being   
handed out of the house1 the men who are
 present rush up1 wipe off the  hallowed
 dust which has accumulated on them1 and
 smear it over their own  bodies1 no    
doubt in order to steep themselves in   
their blessed  influence4 ,thus the tree
 is carried as before to the centre of  
the  temporary village1 care being again
 taken not to let it touch the  ground4 
,then one of the fasting men takes from 
a basket a number of  young green       

mangoes1 cuts them in pieces1 and places
 them with his own  hands in the mouths 
of his fellows1 the other fasting men1  
who chew the  pieces small and turning  
round spit the morsels in the direction 
of the  setting sun1 in order that the  
sun should carry the mango bits over the
  whole country and everyone should     
know4 ,a portion of the mango tree is   
then broken off and in the evening it is
 burnt along with the bundles of        
leaves1 chips1 and refuse of food1 which
 have been stored up4 ,what  remains of 
the tree is taken to the house of the   
master of the  ceremonies and hung over 
the fire-place2 it will be brought out  
again at  intervals and burned bit by   
bit1 till all is consumed1 whereupon a  
new  mango will be cut down and treated 
in like manner4 ,the ashes of the holy  
fire on each occasion are gathered by   
the people and preserved in the  house  
of the master of the ceremonies4#bb     
,the ceremony apparently intended to    
fertilize the mango trees4    ,the      

meaning of these ceremonies is not      
explained by the authorities who        
describe them2 but we may conjecture    
that they are intended to fertilize  the
 mango trees and cause them to bear a   
good crop of fruit4 ,the central        
feature of the whole ritual is a wild   
mango tree1 so young that it has  never 
flowered3 the men who cut it down1 carry
 it into the village1 and  dance at the 
festival1 are forbidden to eat mangoes3 
pigs are killed in  order that their    
dying squeals may move the mango trees  
to bear fruit3  at the end of the       
ceremonies pieces of young green mangoes
 are solemnly  placed in the mouths of  
the fasting men and are by them spurted 
out  towards the setting sun in order   
that the luminary may carry the         
fragments to every part of the country2 
and finally when after a longer  or     
shorter interval the tree is wholly     
consumed1 its place is supplied  by     
another4 ,all these circumstances are   
explained simply and naturally  by the  

supposition that the young mango tree is
 taken as a  representative of mangoes  
generally1 that the dances are intended 
to  quicken it1 and that it is          
preserved1 like a ,may-pole of old in   
,england1  as a sort of general fund of 
vegetable life1 till the fund being     
exhausted by the destruction of the tree
 it is renewed by the  importation of a 
fresh young tree from the forest4 ,we   
can therefore  understand why1 as a     
storehouse of vital energy1 the tree    
should be  carefully kept from contact  
with the ground1 lest the pent-up and   
concentrated energy should escape and   
dribbling away into the earth be        
dissipated to no purpose4    ,sacred    
objects of various sorts not allowed to 
touch the ground4    ,to take other     
instances of what we may call the       
conservation of energy  in magic or     
religion by insulating sacred bodies    
from the ground1 the  natives of ,new   
,britain have a secret society called   
the ,duk-duk1 the  members of which     

masquerade in petticoats of leaves and  
tall headdresses  of wickerwork shaped  
like candle extinguishers1 which descend
 to the  shoulders of the wearers1      
completely concealing their faces4 ,thus
  disguised they dance about to the awe 
and terror1 real or assumed1 of  the    
women and uninitiated1 who take1 or     
pretend to take1 them for  spirits4     
,when lads are being initiated into the 
secrets of this august  society1 the    
adepts cut down some very large and     
heavy bamboos1 one for  each lad1 and   
the novices carry them1 carefully wrapt 
up in leaves1 to  the sacred ground1    
where they arrive very tired and weary1 
for they may  not let the bamboos touch 
the ground nor the sun shine on them4   
,outside  the fence of the enclosure    
every lad deposits his bamboo on a      
couple of  forked sticks and covers it  
up with nut leaves4#bc ,among the       
,carrier  ,indians of ,north-,western   
,america1 who burned their dead1 the    
ashes of a  chief used to be placed in a

 box and set on the top of a pole beside
 his  hut3 the box was never allowed to 
touch the ground4#bd ,in the ,omaha     
tribe of ,north ,american ,indians the  
sacred clam shell of the ,elk clan  was 
wrapt up from sight in a mat1 placed on 
a stand1 and never suffered  to come in 
contact with the earth4#be ,the         
,cherokees and kindred ,indian  tribes  
of the ,united ,states used to have     
certain sacred boxes or arks1  which    
they regularly took with them to war4   
,such a holy ark consisted of  a square 
wooden box1 which contained certain     
consecrated vessels made  by beloved    
superannuated women1 and of such various
 antiquated forms1 as  would have       
puzzled ,adam to have given significant 
names to each4 ,the  leader of a war    
party and his attendant bore the ark by 
turns1 but they  never set it on the    
ground nor would they themselves sit on 
the bare  earth while they were carrying
 it against the enemy4 ,where stones    
were  plentiful they rested the ark on  

them2 but where no stones were to be    
found1 they deposited it on short logs4 
,the ,indian ark is deemed so  sacred   
and dangerous to be touched1 either by  
their own sanctified  warriors1 or the  
spoiling enemy1 that they durst not     
touch it upon any  account4 ,it is not  
to be meddled with by any1 except the   
war chieftain  and his waiter1 under the
 penalty of incurring great evil4 ,nor  
would the  most inveterate enemy touch  
it in the woods1 for the very same      
reason4  ,after their return home they  
used to hang the ark on the leader's    
red-painted war pole4#bf ,at ,sipi1 near
 ,simla1 in ,northern ,india1 an  annual
 fair is held1 at which men purchase    
wives4 ,a square box with a  domed top  
figures prominently at the fair4 ,it is 
fixed on two poles to  be carried on    
men's shoulders1 and long               
heavily-plaited petticoats hang  from it
 nearly to the ground4 ,three sides of  
the box are adorned with  the head and  
shoulders of a female figure and the    

fourth side with a  black yak's tail4   
,four men bear the poles1 each carrying 
an axe in his  right hand4 ,they dance  
round1 with a swinging rhythmical step1 
to the  music of drums and a pipe4 ,the 
dance goes on for hours and is thought  
to  avert ill-luck from the fair4 ,it is
 said that the box is brought to  ,simla
 from a place sixty miles off by relays 
of men1 who may not stop  nor set the   
box on the ground the whole way4#bg ,in 
,scotland1 when water  was carried from 
sacred wells to sick people1 the        
water-vessel might not  touch the       
earth4#bh ,in some parts of             
,aberdeenshire the last bunch of        
standing corn1 which is commonly viewed 
as very sacred1 being the last  refuge  
of the corn-spirit retreating before the
 reapers1 is not suffered  to touch the 
ground2 the master or gueedman sits down
 and receives  each handful of corn as  
it is cut on his lap4#bi    ,sacred food
 not allowed to touch the earth4        
,again1 sacred food may not under       

certain circumstances be brought into   
contact with the earth4 ,some of the    
aborigines of ,victoria used to  regard 
the fat of the emu as sacred1 believing 
that it had once been the  fat of the   
black man4 ,in taking it from the bird  
or giving it to another  they handled it
 reverently4 ,any one who threw away the
 fat or flesh of  the emu was held      
accursed4 ,the late ,mr4 ,thomas        
observed on one  occasion1 at           
,nerre-nerre-,warreen1 a remarkable     
exhibition of the effects  of this      
superstition4 ,an aboriginal child--one 
attending the  school--having eaten some
 part of the flesh of an emu1 threw away
 the  skin4 ,the skin fell to the       
ground1 and this being observed by his  
parents1 they showed by their gestures  
every token of horror4 ,they  looked    
upon their child as one utterly lost4   
,his desecration of the bird  was       
regarded as a sin for which there was no
 atonement4#cj ,the  ,roumanians of     
,transylvania believe that every        

fresh-baked loaf of  wheaten bread is   
sacred1 and should a piece inadvertently
 fall to the  ground1 it is hastily     
picked up1 carefully wiped and kissed1  
and if  soiled1 thrown into the         
fire--partly as an offering to the dead1
 and  partly because it were a heavy sin
 to throw away or tread upon any        
particle of it4#ca ,at certain festivals
 in south-eastern ,borneo the  food     
which is consumed in the common house   
may not touch the ground2  hence1 a     
little before the festivals take place1 
foot-bridges made of  thin poles are    
constructed from the private dwellings  
to the common  house4#cb ,when ,hall was
 living with the ,esquimaux and grew    
tired of  eating walrus1 one of the     
women brought the head and neck of a    
reindeer  for him to eat4 ,this venison 
had to be completely wrapt up before it 
was  brought into the house1 and once in
 the house it could only be placed on   
the platform which served as a bed4 ,to 
have placed it on the floor or  on the  

platform behind the fire-lamp1 among the
 walrus1 musk-ox1 and  polar-bear meat  
which occupy a goodly portion of both of
 these places1  would have horrified the
 whole town1 as1 according to the actual
 belief  of the ,innuits1 not another   
walrus could be secured this year1 and  
there  would ever be trouble in catching
 any more4#cc ,but in this case the     
real scruple appears to have been felt  
not so much at placing the  venison on  
the ground as at bringing it into       
contact with walrus  meat4#cd           
,magical implements and remedies thought
 to lose their virtue by contact  with  
the ground4    ,sometimes magical       
implements and remedies are supposed to 
lose their  virtue by contact with the  
ground1 the volatile essence with which 
they  are impregnated being no doubt    
drained off into the earth4 ,thus in the
  ,boulia district of ,queensland the   
magical bone1 which the native  sorcerer
 points at his victim as a means of     
killing him1 is never by any  chance    

allowed to touch the earth4#ce ,the     
wives of rajahs in ,macassar1  a        
district of southern ,celebes1 pride    
themselves on their luxuriant  tresses  
and are at great pains to oil and       
preserve them4 ,should the hair  begin  
to grow thin1 the lady resorts to many  
devices to stay the ravages  of time2   
among other things she applies to her   
locks a fat extracted  from crocodiles  
and venomous snakes4 ,the unguent is    
believed to be very  efficacious1 but   
during its application the woman's feet 
may not come  into contact with the     
ground1 or all the benefit of the       
nostrum would be  lost4#cf ,some people 
in antiquity believed that a woman in   
hard labour  would be delivered if a    
spear1 which had been wrenched from a   
man's body  without touching the ground1
 were thrown over the house where the   
sufferer lay4 ,again1 according to      
certain ancient writers1 arrows which   
had been extracted from a body without  
coming into contact with the  earth and 

laid under sleepers1 acted as a         
love-charm4#cg ,among the  peasantry of 
the north-east of ,scotland the         
prehistoric weapons called  celts went  
by the name of thunderbolts and were    
coveted as the sure  bringers of        
success1 always provided that they were 
not allowed to fall  to the ground4#ch  
,serpents eggs or ,snake ,stones4    ,in
 ancient ,gaul certain glass or paste   
beads attained great celebrity as       
amulets under the name of serpents'     
eggs2 it was believed that serpents1    
coiling together in a wriggling1        
writhing mass1 generated them from      
their slaver and shot them into the air 
from their hissing jaws4 ,if a  man was 
bold and dexterous enough to catch one  
of these eggs in his  cloak before it   
touched the ground1 he rode off on      
horseback with it at  full speed1       
pursued by the whole pack of serpents1  
till he was saved by  the interposition 
of a river1 which the snakes could not  
pass4 ,the proof  of the egg being      

genuine was that if it were thrown into 
a stream it  would float up against the 
current1 even though it were hooped in  
gold4  ,the ,druids held these beads in 
high esteem2 according to them1 the     
precious objects could only be obtained 
on a certain day of the moon1  and the  
peculiar virtue that resided in them was
 to secure success in  law suits and    
free access to kings4 ,pliny knew of a  
,gaulish knight who  was executed by the
 emperor ,claudius for wearing one of   
these  amulets4#ci ,under the name of   
,snake ,stones 7glain neidr7 or ,adder  
,stones the beads are still known in    
those parts of our own country where    
the ,celtic population has lingered1    
with its immemorial superstitions1  down
 to the present or recent times2 and the
 old story of the origin of  the beads  
from the slaver of serpents was believed
 by the modern  peasantry of ,cornwall1 
,wales1 and ,scotland as by the ,druids 
of ancient  ,gaul4 ,in ,cornwall the    
time when the serpents united to fashion

 the beads  was commonly said to be at  
or about ,midsummer ,eve2 in ,wales it  
was  usually thought to be spring1      
especially the ,eve of ,may ,day1 and   
even  within recent years persons in the
 ,principality have affirmed that they  
witnessed the great vernal congress of  
the snakes and saw the magic  stone in  
the midst of the froth4 ,the ,welsh     
peasants believe the beads to  possess  
medicinal virtues of many sorts and to  
be particularly  efficacious for all    
maladies of the eyes4 ,in ,wales and    
,ireland the beads  sometimes went by   
the name of the ,magician's or ,druid's 
,glass 7,gleini  na ,droedh and ,glaine 
nan ,druidhe74 ,specimens of them may be
 seen in  museums2 some have been found 
in ,british barrows4 ,they are of glass 
of  various colours1 green1 blue1 pink1 
red1 brown1 and so forth1 some plain    
and some ribbed4 ,some are streaked with
 brilliant hues4 ,the beads are         
perforated1 and in the ,highlands of    
,scotland the hole is explained by      

saying that when the bead has just been 
conflated by the serpents  jointly1 one 
of the reptiles sticks his tail through 
the still viscous  glass4 ,an           
,englishman who visited ,scotland in    
#afii found many of these  beads in use 
throughout the country4 ,they were hung 
from children's  necks to protect them  
from whooping cough and other ailments4 
,snake  ,stones were1 moreover1 a charm 
to ensure prosperity in general and to  
repel evil spirits4 ,when one of these  
priceless treasures was not on  active  
service1 the owner kept it in an iron   
box to guard it against  fairies1 who1  
as is well known1 cannot abide iron4#dj 
,medicinal plants1 water1 are not       
allowed to touch the earth4    ,pliny   
mentions several medicinal plants1      
which1 if they were to retain  their    
healing virtue1 ought not to be allowed 
to touch the earth4#da  ,the curious    
medical treatise of ,marcellus1 a native
 of ,bordeaux in the  fourth century of 
our era1 abounds with prescriptions of  

this sort2 and  we can well believe the 
writer when he assures us that he       
borrowed many  of his quaint remedies   
from the lips of common folk and        
peasants rather  than from the books of 
the learned4#db ,thus he tells us that  
certain  white stones found in the      
stomachs of young swallows assuage the  
most  persistent headache1 always       
provided that their virtue be not       
impaired  by contact with the ground4#dc
 ,another of his cures for the same     
malady  is a wreath of fleabane placed  
on the head1 but it must not touch the  
earth4#dd ,on the same condition a      
decoction of the root of elecampane  in 
wine kills worms2 a fern1 found growing 
on a tree1 relieves the  stomach-ache2  
and the pastern-bone of a hare is an    
infallible remedy for  colic1 provided1 
first1 it be found in the dung of a     
wolf1 second1 that  it docs not touch   
the ground1 and1 third1 that it is not  
touched by a  woman4#de ,another cure   
for colic is effected by certain        

hocus-pocus  with a scrap of wool from  
the forehead of a first-born lamb1 if   
only the  lamb1 instead of being allowed
 to fall to the ground1 has been caught 
by  hand as it dropped from its dam4#df 
,in ,andjra1 a district of ,morocco1    
the people attribute many magical       
virtues to rain-water which has fallen  
on the twenty-seventh day of ,april1    
,old ,style2 accordingly they collect   
it and use it for a variety of purposes4
 ,mixed with tar and sprinkled on  the  
door-posts it prevents snakes and       
scorpions from entering the house3      
sprinkled on heaps of threshed corn it  
protects them from the evil eye3  mixed 
with an egg1 henna1 and seeds of cress  
it is an invaluable  medicine for sick  
cows3 poured over a plate1 on which a   
passage of the  ,koran has been written1
 it strengthens the memory of schoolboys
 who  drink it2 and if you mix it with  
cowdung and red earth and paint rings   
with the mixture round the trunks of    
your fig-trees at sunset on  ,midsummer 

,day1 you may depend on it that the     
trees will bear an  excellent crop and  
will not shed their fruit untimely on   
the ground4 ,but  in order to preserve  
these remarkable properties it is       
absolutely  essential that the water    
should on no account be allowed to touch
 the  ground2 some say too that it      
should not be exposed to the sun nor    
breathed upon by anybody4#dg ,again1 the
 ,moors ascribe great magical  efficacy 
to what they call the sultan of the     
oleander1 which is a  stalk of oleander 
with a cluster of four pairs of leaves  
springing from  it4 ,they think that the
 magical virtue is greatest if the stalk
 has been  cut immediately before       
midsummer4 ,but when the plant is       
brought into the  house1 the branches   
may not touch the ground1 lest they     
should lose  their marvellous           
qualities4#dh ,in the olden days1 before
 a ,lithuanian  or ,prussian farmer went
 forth to plough for the first time in  
spring1 he  called in a wizard to       

perform a certain ceremony for the good 
of the  crops4 ,the sage seized a mug of
 beer with his teeth1 quaffed the       
liquor1  and then tossed the mug over   
his head4 ,this signified that the corn 
in  that year should grow taller than a 
man4 ,but the mug might not fall to  the
 ground2 it had to be caught by somebody
 stationed at the wizard's  back1 for if
 it fell to the ground the consequence  
naturally would be  that the corn also  
would be laid low on the earth4#di      
#b4 ,not to see the ,sun      ,sacred   
persons not allowed to see the sun4     
,the second rule to be here noted is    
that the sun may not shine upon the     
divine person4 ,this rule was observed  
both by the ,mikado and by the  pontiff 
of the ,zapotecs4 ,the latter was looked
 upon as a god whom the  earth was not  
worthy to hold1 nor the sun to shine    
upon4#ej ,the  ,japanese would not allow
 that the ,mikado should expose his     
sacred person  to the open air1 and the 
sun was not thought worthy to shine on  

his  head4#ea ,the ,indians of ,granada1
 in ,south ,america1 kept those who were
  to be rulers or commanders1 whether   
men or women1 locked up for several     
years when they were children1 some of  
them seven years1 and this so  close    
that they were not to see the sun1 for  
if they should happen to  see it they   
forfeited their lordship1 eating certain
 sorts of food  appointed2 and those who
 were their keepers at certain times    
went into  their retreat or prison and  
scourged them severely4#eb ,thus1 for   
example1 the heir to the throne of      
,bogota1 who was not the son but the    
sister's son of the king1 had to undergo
 a rigorous training from his  infancy3 
he lived in complete retirement in a    
temple1 where he might not  see the sun 
nor eat salt nor converse with a woman3 
he was surrounded by  guards who        
observed his conduct and noted all his  
actions3 if he broke a  single one of   
the rules laid down for him1 he was     
deemed infamous and  forfeited all his  

rights to the throne4#ec ,so1 too1 the  
heir to the  kingdom of ,sogamoso1      
before succeeding to the crown1 had to  
fast for  seven years in the temple1    
being shut up in the dark and not       
allowed to  see the sun or light4#ed    
,the prince who was to become ,inca of  
,peru had  to fast for a month without  
seeing light4#ee ,on the day when a     
,brahman  student of the ,veda took a   
bath1 to signify that the time of his   
studentship was at an end1 he entered a 
cow-shed before sunrise1 hung  over the 
door a skin with the hair inside1 and   
sat there2 on that day  the sun should  
not shine upon him4#ef    ,tabooed      
persons not allowed to see the sun2     
certain persons forbidden  to see fire4 
,again1 women after childbirth and their
 offspring are more or less  tabooed all
 the world over2 hence in ,corea the    
rays of the sun are  rigidly excluded   
from both mother and child for a period 
of twenty-one  or a hundred days1       
according to their rank1 after the birth

 has taken  place4#eg ,among some of the
 tribes on the north-west coast of ,new 
,guinea a woman may not leave the house 
for months after childbirth4 ,when  she 
does go out1 she must cover her head    
with a hood or mat2 for if the  sun were
 to shine upon her1 it is thought that  
one of her male relations  would die4#eh
 ,again1 mourners are everywhere taboo2 
accordingly in  mourning the ,ainos of  
,japan wear peculiar caps in order that 
the sun may  not shine upon their       
heads4#ei ,during a solemn fast of three
 days the  ,indians of ,costa ,rica eat 
no salt1 speak as little as possible1   
light no  fires1 and stay strictly      
indoors1 or if they go out during the   
day they  carefully cover themselves    
from the light of the sun1 believing    
that  exposure to the sun's rays would  
turn them black4#fj ,on ,yule ,night it 
has been customary in parts of ,sweden  
from time immemorial to go on           
pilgrimage1 whereby people learn many   
secret things and know what is to       

happen in the coming year4 ,as a        
preparation for this pilgrimage1 some   
secrete themselves for three days       
previously in a dark cellar1 so as to   
be shut out altogether from the light of
 heaven4 ,others retire at an  early    
hour of the preceding morning to some   
out-of-the-way place1 such  as a        
hay-loft1 where they bury themselves in 
the hay1 that they may  neither see nor 
hear any living creature2 and here they 
remain1 in  silence and fasting1 until  
after sundown2 whilst there are those   
who  think it sufficient if they rigidly
 abstain from food on the day before    
commencing their wanderings4 ,during    
this period of probation a man ought    
not to see fire1 but should this have   
happened1 he must strike a light  with  
flint and steel1 whereby the evil that  
would otherwise have ensued  will be    
obviated4#fa ,during the sixteen days   
that a ,pima ,indian is  undergoing     
purification for killing an ,apache he  
may not see a blazing  fire4#fb    ,the 

story of ,prince ,sunless4              
,acarnanian peasants tell of a handsome 
prince called ,sunless1 who would  die  
if he saw the sun4 ,so he lived in an   
underground palace on the site  of the  
ancient ,oeniadae1 but at night he came 
forth and crossed the  river to visit a 
famous enchantress who dwelt in a castle
 on the further  bank4 ,she was loth to 
part with him every night long before   
the sun was  up1 and as he turned a deaf
 ear to all her entreaties to linger1   
she hit  upon the device of cutting the 
throats of all the cocks in the         
neighbourhood4 ,so the prince1 whose ear
 had learned to expect the shrill       
clarion of the birds as the signal of   
the growing light1 tarried too  long1   
and hardly had he reached the ford when 
the sun rose over the  ,aetolian        
mountains1 and its fatal beams fell on  
him before he could  regain his dark    
abode4#fc      ,notes3    #a ,the ,magic
 ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4  
#dd4    #b ,h4,h4 ,bancroft1 ,native    

,races of the ,pacific ,states 7,london1
  #ahge-ahgf71 ii4 #adb2 ,brasseur de   
,bourbourg1 ,histoire des ,nations      
civilises du ,mexique et de             
l',amrique-,centrale 7,paris1           
#aheg-ahei71  iii4 #bi4    #c ,manuscrit
 ,ramirez1 ,histoire de l'origine des   
,indiens1 publi par  ,d4 ,charnay       
7,paris1 #aijc71 p4 #ajh2 ,j4 de        
,acosta1 ,the ,natural and ,moral       
,history of the ,indies1 bk4 vii4 chap4 
#bb1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eje of ,e4            
,grimston's translation1 edited by      
7,sir7 ,clements ,r4 ,markham 7,hakluyt 
,society1 ,london1 #ahhj74    #d        
,memorials of the ,empire of ,japon in  
the ,,xvi4 and ,,xvii4 ,centuries1      
edited by ,t4 ,rundall 7,hakluyt        
,society1 ,london1 #ahej71 pp4 #ad1     
#ada2 ,b4  ,varenius1 ,descriptio regni 
,japoniae et ,siam 7,cambridge1 #afgc71 
p4 #aa2  ,caron1 ,account of ,japan1 in 
,john ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels
  7,london1 #ahjh-ahad71 vii4 #fac2     
,kaempfer1 ,history of ,japan1 in id4   

vii4 #gaf4    #e ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian
 ,researches1 ,second ,edition 7,london1
  #ahcb-ahcf71 iii4 #ajb sq42 ,captain  
,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to  
the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean 7,london1 
#agii71 p4 #cbi4    #f ,a4 ,bastian1    
,der ,mensch in der ,geschichte         
7,leipsic1 #ahfj71 iii4 #ha4    #g      
,athenaeus1 xii4 #h1 p4 #ead c4    #h   
,the ,voiages and ,travels of ,john     
,struys 7,london1 #afhd71 p4 #cj4    #i 
,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,further ,notes on   
the ,manners and ,customs of the        
,baganda1 ,journal of the               
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4     
7#aijb7 pp4  #fb1 #fg2 id41 ,the        
,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #aed sq4 
,compare ,l4  ,decle1 ,three ,years in  
,savage ,africa 7,london1 #ahih71 p4    
#dde note3  ,before horses had been     
introduced into ,uganda the king and his
 mother  never walked1 but always went  
about perched astride the shoulders of a
  slave--a most ludicrous sight4 ,in    
this way they often travelled hundreds  

of miles4 ,the use both of horses and of
 chariots by royal personages  may often
 have been intended to prevent their    
sacred feet from touching  the ground4  
#aj ,e4 ,torday et ,t4,a4 ,joyce1 ,les  
,bushongo 7,brussels1 #aiaj71 p4 #fa4   
#aa ,northcote ,w4 ,thomas1             
,anthropological ,report on the         
,ibo-speaking  ,peoples of ,nigeria     
7,london1 #aiac71 i4 #eg sq4    #ab     
,satapatha ,brhmana1 translated by      
,julius ,eggeling1 ,part iii4  7,oxford1
 #ahid7 pp4 #ha1 #ia1 #ib1 #ajb1 #abh   
sq4 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1  vol4 
xli474    #ac ,a4,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer
 durch ,borneo 7,leyden1 #aijd-aijg71 i4
 #agb4    #ad ,letter of ,missionary    
,krick1 in ,annales de la ,propagation  
de la  ,foi1 xxvi4 7#ahed7 pp4 #hf-hh4  
#ae ,pechuel-,loesche1 ,indiscretes aus 
,loango1 ,zeitschrift fr  ,ethnologie1  
x4 7#ahgh7 pp4 #bi sq4    #af ,edgar    
,thurston1 ,ethnographic ,notes in      
,southern ,india 7,madras1  #aijf71 p4  
#gj4    #ag ,m4,c4 ,schadee1 ,het       

familieleven en familierecht der ,dajaks
 van  ,landak en ,tajan1 ,bijdragen tot 
de ,taal-,land en ,volkenkunde van      
,nederlandsch-,indi1 lxiii4 7#aiaj7 p4  
#dcc4    #ah ,james ,adair1 ,history of 
the ,american ,indians 7,london1 #agge71
 p4  #chb2 ,narrative of the ,captivity 
and ,adventures of ,john ,tanner        
7,london1  #ahcj71 p4 #abc4 ,as to the  
taboos to which warriors are subject see
 ,taboo  and the ,perils of the ,soul1  
pp4 #aeg sqq4    #ai ,etienne ,aymonier1
 ,notes sur le ,laos 7,saigon1 #ahhe71  
p4 #bf4    #bj ,die gestritgelte        
,rockenphilosophie99#e 7,chemnitz1      
#agei71 pp4 #ehf  sqq4    #ba ,baldwin  
,spencer and ,f4,j4 ,gillen1 ,native    
,tribes of ,central  ,australia         
7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #cfd1 #cgj sqq41  
#fbi2 id41 ,across  ,australia 7,london1
 #aiab71 ii4 #bhj1 #bhe sq4    #bb      
,c4,g4 ,seligmann1 ,m4,d41 ,the         
,melanesians of ,british ,new ,guinea   
7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 pp4 #ehi-eii4      
#bc ,george ,brown1 ,d4,d41 ,melanesians

 and ,polynesians 7,london1 #aiaj71  pp4
 #fj sq41 #fd4 ,as to the ,duk-duk      
society1 see below1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bdf   
sq4    #bd ,john ,keast ,lord1 ,the     
,naturalist in ,vancouver ,island and   
,british  ,columbia 7,london1 #ahff71   
ii4 #bcg4    #be ,edwin ,james1 ,account
 of an ,expedition from ,pittsburgh to  
the ,rocky  ,mountains 7,london1 #ahbc71
 ii4 #dg2 ,rev4 ,j4 ,owen ,dorsey1      
,omaha  ,sociology1 ,third ,annual      
,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology    
7,washington1 #ahhd71 p4 #bbf4    #bf   
,james ,adair1 ,history of the ,american
 ,indians 7,london1 #agge71 pp4         
#afa-afc4    #bg 7,sir7 ,henry          
,babington ,smith1 in ,folk-lore1 v4    
7#ahid7 p4 #cdj4    #bh ,miss ,c4,f4    
,gordon ,cumming1 ,in the ,hebrides     
7,london1 #ahhc71 p4 #baa4    #bi ,w4   
,gregor1 ,quelques coutumes du ,nord-est
 du ,comt d',aberdeen1  ,revue des      
,traditions populaires1 iii4 7#ahhh7 p4 
#dhe ,b4 ,compare  ,spirits of the ,corn
 and of the ,wild1 i4 #aeh sq4    #cj   

,r4 ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines of      
,victoria 7,melbourne and ,london1      
#ahgh71 i4 #dej4    #ca ,e4 ,gerard1    
,the ,land beyond the ,forest           
7,edinburgh and ,london1  #ahhh71 ii4   
#g4    #cb ,f4 ,grabowsky1 ,der         
,distrikt ,dusson ,timor in             
,sdost-,borneo und seine  ,bewohner1    
,das ,ausland1 #ahhd1 ,no4 #bd1 p4 #dgj4
    #cc ,narrative of the ,second       
,arctic ,expedition made by ,charles ,f4
  ,hall1 edited by ,prof4 ,j4,e4 ,nourse
 7,washington1 #ahgi71 pp4 #aaj sq4     
#cd ,see ,taboo and ,perils of the      
,soul1 pp4 #bjg sqq4    #ce ,walter ,e4 
,roth1 ,ethnological ,studies among the 
,north-,west-,central  ,queensland      
,aborigines 7,brisbane and ,london1     
#ahig71 p4 #aef1  #bfe4 ,the  custom of 
killing a man by pointing a bone or     
stick at him1 while the  sorcerer utters
 appropriate curses1 is common among the
 tribes of  ,central ,australia2 but    
amongst them there seems to be no       
objection to  place the bone or stick on

 the ground2 on the contrary1 an ,arunta
 wizard  inserts the bone or stick in   
the ground while he invokes death and   
destruction on his enemy4 ,see ,baldwin 
,spencer and ,f4,j4 ,gillen1 ,native    
,tribes of ,central ,australia 7,london1
 #ahii71 pp4 #ecd sqq42 id41  ,northern 
,tribes of ,central ,australia 7,london1
 #aijd71 pp4 #dee sqq4    #cf ,hugh     
,low1 ,sarawak 7,london1 #ahdh71 pp4    
#ade sq4    #cg ,pliny1 ,naturalis      
,historia xxviii4 #cc sq4    #ch ,rev4  
,walter ,gregor1 ,notes on the          
,folk-lore of the ,north-,east of       
,scotland 7,london1 #ahha71 p4 #ahd4 ,as
 to the superstitions attaching to      
stone arrowheads and axeheads 7celts71  
commonly known as thunderbolts1  in the 
,british ,islands1 see ,w4,w4 ,skeat1   
,snakestones and ,stone  ,thunderbolts1 
,folklore1 xxiii4 7#aiab7 pp4 #fj sqq42 
and as to such  superstitions in        
general1 see ,chr4 ,blinkenberg1 ,the   
,thunderweapon in  ,religion and        
,folklore 7,cambridge1 #aiaa74    #ci   

,pliny1 ,naturalis ,historia1 xxix4     
#eb-ed4    #dj ,w4 ,borlase1            
,antiquities1 ,historical and           
,monumental1 of the ,county  of         
,cornwall 7,london1 #agfi71 pp4 #adb    
sq42 ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular  ,antiquities 
of ,great ,britain 7,london1            
#ahhb-ahhc71 i4 #cbb2 ,j4,g4 ,dalyell1  
,darker ,superstitions of ,scotland     
7,edinburgh1 #ahcd71 pp4 #adj sq42      
,daniel ,wilson1 ,the ,archaeology and  
,prehistoric ,annals of ,scotland       
7,edinburgh1 #ahea71 pp4 #cjc sqq42     
,lieut4-,col4 ,forbes ,leslie1 ,the     
,early  ,races of ,scotland and their   
,monuments 7,edinburgh1 #ahff71 i4 #ge  
sqq42  ,j4,g4 ,campbell1 ,witchcraft and
 ,second ,sight in the ,highlands and   
,islands  of ,scotland 7,glasgow1       
#aijb71 pp4 #hd-hh2 ,marie ,trevelyan1  
,folk-lore and  ,folk-stories of ,wales 
7,london1 #aiji71 pp4 #agj sq42 ,j4,c4  
,davies1  ,folk-lore of ,west and       
,mid-,wales 7,aberystwyth1 #aiaa71 p4   
#gf4 ,compare  ,w4,w4 ,skeat1           

,snakestones and ,stone ,thunderbolts1  
,folk-lore1 xxiii4  7#aiab7 pp4 #de sqq4
 ,the superstition is described as      
follows by ,edward  ,lhwyd in a letter  
quoted by ,w4 ,borlase 7op4 cit4 p4     
#adb73 ,in most  parts of ,wales1 and   
throughout all ,scotland1 and in        
,cornwall1 we find it  a common opinion 
of the vulgar1 that about               
,midsummer-,eve 7though in the  time    
they do not all agree7 it is usual for  
snakes to meet in companies2  and that1 
by joining heads together1 and hissing1 
a kind of bubble is  formed1 which the  
rest1 by continual hissing1 blow on till
 it passes  quite through the body1 and 
then it immediately hardens1 and        
resembles a  glass-ring1 which whoever  
finds 7as some old women and children   
are  persuaded7 shall prosper in all his
 undertakings4 ,the rings thus          
generated1 are called ,gleineu          
,nadroeth2 in ,english1 ,snake-stones4  
,they  are small glass amulets1 commonly
 about half as wide as our              

finger-rings1 but much thicker1 of a    
green colour usually1 though  sometimes 
blue1 and waved with red and white4     
#da ,pliny1 ,naturalis ,historia xxiv4  
#ab and #fh1 xxv4 #aga4    #db          
,marcellus1 ,de medicamentis1 ed4 ,g4   
,helmreich 7,leipsic1 #ahhi71  preface1 
p4 i43 ,nec solum veteres medicinae     
artis auctores ,latino  dumtaxat sermone
 perscriptos 444 lectione scrutatus sum1
 sed etiam ab  agrestibus et plebeis    
remedia fortuita atque simplicia1 quae  
experimentis probaverant didici4 ,as to 
,marcellus and his work1 see  ,jacob    
,grimm1 ,ueber ,marcellus               
,burdigalensis1 ,abhandlungen der       
koniglichen ,akademie der ,wissenschaft 
zu ,berlin1 #ahdg1 pp4 #dbi-dfj2  id41  
,ueber die ,marcellischen ,formeln1     
ibid44 #ahee1 pp4 #ej-fh4    #dc        
,marcellus1 ,de medicamentis1 i4 #fh4   
#dd ,marcellus1 op4 cit4 i4 #gf4    #de 
,marcellus1 op4 cit4 xxviii4 #bh and    
#ga1 xxix4 #ce4    #df ,marcellus1 op4  
cit4 xxix4 #ea4    #dg ,edward          

,westermarck1 ,midsummer ,customs in    
,morocco1 ,folklore1  xvi4 7#aije7 pp4  
#cb sq42 id41 ,ceremonies and ,beliefs  
connected with  ,agriculture1 certain   
,dates of the ,solar ,year1 and the     
,weather in  ,morocco 7,helsingfors1    
#aiac71 pp4 #ge sq4    #dh ,e4          
,westermarck1 ,midsummer ,customs in    
,morocco1 ,folk-lore1 xvi4  7#aije7 p4  
#ce id41 ,ceremonies and ,beliefs       
connected with ,agriculture1  certain   
,dates of the ,solar ,year1 and the     
,weather in ,morocco  7,helsingfors1    
#aiac71 pp4 #hh sq4    #di ,matthus     
,prtorius1 ,deliciae ,prussicae1        
herausgegeben von ,dr4 ,w4  ,pierson    
7,berlin1 #ahga71 p4 #ed4    #ej ,h4,h4 
,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the        
,pacific ,states 7,london1  #ahge-ahgf71
 ii4 #adb2 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1     
,histoire des ,nations  civilises du    
,mexique et de l',amrique ,centrale     
7,paris1 #aheg-ahei71  iii4 #bi4    #ea 
,kaempfer1 ,history of ,japan1 in ,j4   
,pinkerton's ,voyages and  ,travels1    

vii4 #gag2 ,caron1 ,account of ,japan1  
ibid4 vii4 #fac2 ,b4  ,varenius1        
,descriptio regni ,japoniae et ,siam    
7,cambridge1 #afgc71 p4 #aa3  ,radiis   
solis caput nunquam illustrabatur3 in   
apertum acrem non  procedebat4    #eb   
,a4 de ,herrera1 ,general ,history of   
the vast ,continent and ,islands  of    
,america1 trans1 by ,capt4 ,john        
,stevens 7,london1 #agbe-agbf71 v4 #hh4 
#ec ,h4 ,ternaux-,compans1 ,essai sur   
l'ancien ,cundinamarca 7,paris1         
,n4,d471 p4 #ef2 ,theodor ,waitz1       
,anthropologie der ,naturvlker iv4      
7,leipsic1 #ahfd7 p4 #cei4    #ed       
,alonzo de ,zurita1 ,rapport sur les    
differentes classes de chefs de  la     
,nouvelle-,espagne1 p4 #cj1 in ,h4      
,ternaux-,compans's ,voyages1 ,relations
  et ,mmoires originaux1 pour servir    
l',histoire de la ,dcouvertede          
l',amrique 7,paris1 #ahdj72 ,th4 ,waitz1
 l4c42 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die  ,culturlnder 
des alten ,amerika 7,berlin1 #ahgh71 ii4
 #bjd4    #ee ,cieza de ,leon1 ,second  

,part of the ,chronicle of ,peru        
7,hakluyt  ,society1 ,london1 #ahhc71 p4
 #ah4    #ef ,the ,grihya ,stras1       
translated by ,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,part ii4 
7,oxford1  #ahib7 pp4 #afe1 #bge        
7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4      
xxx474 ,umbrellas  appear to have been  
sometimes used in ritual for the purpose
 of  preventing the sunlight from       
falling on sacred persons or things4    
,see ,w4  ,caland1 ,altindisches        
,zauberritual 7,amsterdam1 #aijj71 p4   
#aaj note #ab4  ,at an ,athenian        
festival called ,scira the priestess of 
,athena1 the priest  of ,poseidon1 and  
the priest of the ,sun walked from the  
,acropolis under  the shade of a huge   
white umbrella which was borne over     
their heads by  the ,eteobutads4 ,see   
,harpocration and ,suidas1 s4v4 ,greek3 
,skiron2  ,scholiast on ,aristophanes1  
,eccles4 #ah4    #eg ,mrs4 ,bishop1     
,korea and her ,neighbours 7,london1    
#ahih71 ii4 #bdh4    #eh ,j4,l4 van     
,hasselt1 ,eenige aanteekeningen        

aangaande de bewoners der  ,n4 ,westkust
 van ,nieuw ,guinea1 ,tijdschrift voor  
,indische ,taal-,landen  ,volkenkunde1  
xxxi4 7#ahhf7 p4 #ehg4    #ei ,a4       
,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen      
,asien1 v4 7,jena1 #ahfi7 p4  #cff4     
#fj ,w4,m4 ,gabb1 ,on the ,indian       
,tribes and ,languages of ,costa ,rica1 
,proceedings of the ,american           
,philosophical ,society held at         
,philadelphia1 xiv4 7,philadelphia1     
#ahgf71 p4 #eaj4    #fa ,l4 ,lloyd1     
,peasant ,life in ,sweden 7,london1     
#ahgj71 p4 #aid4    #fb ,h4,h4          
,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the        
,pacific ,states1 i4 #eec4 ,see  ,taboo 
and the ,perils of the ,soul1 p4 #ahb4  
#fc ,l4 ,heuzey1 ,le ,mont ,olympe et   
l',acarnanie 7,paris1 #ahfj71 pp4 #deh  
sq4          ,,chapter ,,ii    ,,the    
,,seclusion ,,of ,,girls ,,at ,,puberty 
#a4 ,seclusion of ,girls at ,puberty in 
,africa      ,girls at puberty forbidden
 to touch the ground and to see the sun2
  seclusion of girls at puberty among   

the ,a-,kamba2 seclusion of girls at    
puberty among the ,baganda4    ,now it  
is remarkable that the foregoing two    
rules--not to touch the  ground and not 
to see the sun--are observed either     
separately or  conjointly by girls at   
puberty in many parts of the world4     
,thus amongst  the negroes of ,loango   
girls at puberty are confined in        
separate huts1  and they may not touch  
the ground with any part of their bare  
body4#fd  ,among the ,zulus and kindred 
tribes of ,south ,africa1 when the first
 signs  of puberty shew themselves while
 a girl is walking1 gathering wood1 or  
working in the field1 she runs to the   
river and hides herself among the  reeds
 for the day1 so as not to be seen by   
men4 ,she covers her head  carefully    
with her blanket that the sun may not   
shine on it and shrivel  her up into a  
withered skeleton1 as would result from 
exposure to the  sun's beams4 ,after    
dark she returns to her home and is     
secluded in a  hut for some time4#fe    

,during her seclusion1 which lasts for  
about a  fortnight1 neither she nor the 
girls who wait upon her may drink any   
milk1 lest the cattle should die4 ,and  
should she be overtaken by the  first   
flow while she is in the fields1 she    
must1 after hiding in the  bush1        
scrupulously avoid all pathways in      
returning home4#ff ,a reason  for this  
avoidance is assigned by the ,a-,kamba  
of ,british ,east ,africa1  whose girls 
under similar circumstances observe the 
same rule4 ,a girl's  first menstruation
 is a very critical period of her life  
according to  ,a-,kamba beliefs4 ,if    
this condition appears when she is away 
from the  village1 say at work in the   
fields1 she returns at once to her      
village1  but is careful to walk through
 the grass and not on a path1 for if she
  followed a path and a stranger        
accidentally trod on a spot of blood and
  then cohabited with a member of the   
opposite sex before the girl was  better
 again1 it is believed that she would   

never bear a child4 ,she  remains at    
home till the symptoms have ceased1 and 
during this time she  may be fed by none
 but her mother4 ,when the flux is over1
 her father and  mother are bound to    
cohabit with each other1 else it is     
believed that  the girl would be barren 
all her life4#fg ,similarly1 among the  
,baganda1  when a girl menstruated for  
the first time she was secluded and not 
allowed to handle food2 and at the end  
of her seclusion the kinsman with  whom 
she was staying 7for among the ,baganda 
young people did not reside  with their 
parents7 was obliged to jump over his   
wife1 which with the  ,baganda is       
regarded as equivalent to having        
intercourse with her4 ,should  the girl 
happen to be living near her parents at 
the moment when she  attained to        
puberty1 she was expected on her        
recovery to inform them of  the fact1   
whereupon her father jumped over her    
mother4 ,were this custom  omitted1 the 
,baganda1 like the ,a-,kamba1 thought   

that the girl would  never have children
 or that they would die in infancy4#fh  
,thus the  pretence of sexual           
intercourse between the parents or other
 relatives of  the girl was a magical   
ceremony to ensure her fertility4 ,it is
  significant that among the ,baganda   
the first menstruation was often  called
 a marriage1 and the girl was spoken of 
as a bride4#fi ,these  terms so applied 
point to a belief like that of the      
,siamese1 that a  girl's first          
menstruation results from her           
defloration by one of a host  of aerial 
spirits1 and that the wound thus        
inflicted is repeated  afterwards every 
month by the same ghostly agency4#gj    
,for a like  reason1 probably1 the      
,baganda imagine that a woman who does  
not  menstruate exerts a malign         
influence on gardens and makes them     
barren#ga if she works in them4 ,for not
 being herself fertilized by a  spirit1 
how can she fertilize the garden8       
,seclusion of girls at puberty among the

 tribes of the ,tanganyika  plateau4    
,among the ,amambwe1 ,winamwanga1       
,alungu1 and other tribes of the great  
plateau to the west of ,lake            
,tanganyika1 when a young girl knows    
that  she has attained puberty1 she     
forthwith leaves her mother's hut1 and  
hides herself in the long grass near the
 village1 covering her face with  a     
cloth and weeping bitterly4 ,towards    
sunset one of the older  women--who1 as 
directress of the ceremonies1 is called 
nachimbusa--  follows her1 places a     
cooking-pot by the cross-roads1 and     
boils therein  a concoction of various  
herbs1 with which she anoints the       
neophyte4 ,at  nightfall the girl is    
carried on the old woman's back to her  
mother's  hut4 ,when the customary      
period of a few days has elapsed1 she is
 allowed  to cook again1 after first    
whitewashing the floor of the hut4 ,but1
 by  the following month1 the           
preparations for her initiation are     
complete4  ,the novice must remain in   

her hut throughout the whole period of  
initiation1 and is carefully guarded by 
the old women1 who accompany her        
whenever she leaves her quarters1       
veiling her head with a native cloth4   
,the ceremonies last for at least one   
month4 ,during this period of           
seclusion1 drumming and songs are kept  
up within the mother's hut by the       
village women1 and no male1 except1 it  
is said1 the father of twins1 is        
allowed to enter4 ,the directress of the
 rites and the older women  instruct the
 young girl as to the elementary facts  
of life1 the duties  of marriage1 and   
the rules of conduct1 decorum1 and      
hospitality to be  observed by a married
 woman4 ,amongst other things the damsel
 must submit  to a series of tests such 
as leaping over fences1 thrusting her   
head  into a collar made of thorns1 and 
so on4 ,the lessons which she receives  
are illustrated by mud figures of       
animals and of the common objects of    
domestic life4 ,moreover1 the directress

 of studies embellishes the walls  of   
the hut with rude pictures1 each with   
its special significance and  song1     
which must be understood and learned by 
the girl4#gb ,in the  foregoing account 
the rule that a damsel at puberty may   
neither see the  sun nor touch the      
ground seems implied by the statement   
that on the  first discovery of her     
condition she hides in long grass and is
 carried  home after sunset on the back 
of an old woman4    ,seclusion of girls 
at puberty among the tribes of ,british 
,central  ,africa4    ,among the        
,nyanja-speaking tribes of ,central     
,angoniland1 in ,british  ,central      
,africa1 when a young girl finds that   
she has become a woman1 she  stands     
silent by the pathway leading to the    
village1 her face wrapt in  her calico4 
,an old woman1 finding her there1 takes 
her off to a stream  to bathe2 after    
that the girl is secluded for six days  
in the old  woman's hut4 ,she eats her  
porridge out of an old basket and her   

relish1  in which no salt is put1 from a
 potsherd4 ,the basket is afterwards    
thrown away4 ,on the seventh day the    
aged matrons gather together1 go  with  
the girl to a stream1 and throw her into
 the water4 ,in returning  they sing    
songs1 and the old woman1 who directs   
the proceedings1 carries  the maiden on 
her back4 ,then they spread a mat and   
fetch her husband and  set the two down 
on the mat and shave his head4 ,when it 
is dark1 the old  women escort the girl 
to her husband's hut4 ,there the ndiwo  
relish is  cooking on the fire4 ,during 
the night the woman rises and puts some 
salt  in the pot4 ,next morning1 before 
dawn1 while all is dark and the         
villagers have not yet opened their     
doors1 the young married woman goes  off
 and gives some of the relish to her    
mother and to the old woman who  was    
mistress of the ceremony4 ,this relish  
she sets down at the doors of  their    
houses and goes away4 ,and in the       
morning1 when the sun has risen  and all

 is light in the village1 the two women 
open their doors1 and  there they find  
the relish with the salt in it2 and they
 take of it and  rub it on their feet   
and under their arm-pits2 and if there  
are little  children in the house1 they 
eat of it4 ,and if the young wife has a 
kinsman who is absent from the village1 
some of the relish is put on a  splinter
 of bamboo and kept against his return1 
that when he comes he1  too1 may rub his
 feet with it4 ,but if the woman finds  
that her husband  is impotent1 she does 
not rise betimes and go out in the dark 
to lay the  relish at the doors of her  
mother and the old woman4 ,and in the   
morning1  when the sun is up and all the
 village is light1 the old women open   
their doors1 and see no relish there1   
and they know what has happened1  and so
 they go wilily to work4 ,for they      
persuade the husband to consult  the    
diviner that he may discover how to cure
 his impotence2 and while he  is        
closeted with the wizard1 they fetch    

another man1 who finishes the  ceremony 
with the young wife1 in order that the  
relish may be given out  and that people
 may rub their feet with it4 ,but if it 
happens that when  a girl comes to      
maturity she is not yet betrothed to any
 man1 and  therefore has no husband to  
go to1 the matrons tell her that she    
must go  to a lover instead4 ,and this  
is the custom which they call chigango4 
,so in the evening she takes her cooking
 pot and relish and hies away to  the   
quarters of the young bachelors1 and    
they very civilly sleep  somewhere else 
that night4 ,and in the morning the girl
 goes back to the  kuka hut4#gc         
,abstinence from salt associated with a 
rule of chastity in many  tribes4       
,from the foregoing account it appears  
that among these tribes no sooner  has a
 girl attained to womanhood than she is 
expected and indeed  required to give   
proof of her newly acquired powers by   
cohabiting with a  man1 whether her     
husband or another4 ,and the abstinence 

from salt during  the girl's seclusion  
is all the more remarkable because as   
soon as the  seclusion is over she has  
to use salt for a particular purpose1 to
 which  the people evidently attach very
 great importance1 since in the event of
  her husband proving impotent she is   
even compelled1 apparently1 to  commit  
adultery in order that the salted relish
 may be given out as  usual4 ,in this   
connexion it deserves to be noted that  
among the ,wagogo  of ,german ,east     
,africa women at their monthly periods  
may not sleep with  their husbands and  
may not put salt in food4#gd ,a similar 
rule is  observed by the                
,nyanja-speaking tribes of ,central     
,angoniland1 with whose  puberty customs
 we are here concerned4 ,among them1 we 
are told1 some  superstition exists with
 regard to the use of salt4 ,a woman    
during her  monthly sickness must on no 
account put salt into any food she is   
cooking1 lest she give her husband or   
children a disease called tsempo        

7chitsoko soko7 but calls a child to put
 it in1 or1 as the song goes1  ',natira 
nichere ni bondo chifukwa n'kupanda     
mwana' and pours in the  salt by placing
 it on her knee1 because there is no    
child handy4 ,should  a party of        
villagers have gone to make salt1 all   
sexual intercourse is  forbidden among  
the people of the village1 until the    
people who have  gone to make the salt  
7from grass7 return4 ,when they do come 
back1 they  must make their entry into  
the village at night1 and no one must   
see  them4 ,then one of the elders of   
the village sleeps with his wife4 ,she  
then cooks some relish1 into which she  
puts some of the salt4 ,this  relish is 
handed round to the people who went to  
make the salt1 who rub  it on their feet
 and under their armpits4#ge ,hence it  
would seem that  in the mind of these   
people abstinence from salt is somehow  
associated  with the idea of chastity4  
,the same association meets us in the   
customs  of many peoples in various     

parts of the world4 ,for example1       
ancient  ,hindoo ritual prescribed that 
for three nights after a husband had    
brought his bride home1 the two should  
sleep on the ground1 remain  chaste1 and
 eat no salt4#gf ,among the ,baganda1   
when a man was making a  net1 he had to 
refrain from eating salt and meat and   
from living with  his wife2 these       
restrictions he observed until the net  
took its first  catch of fish4          
,similarly1 so long as a fisherman's    
nets or traps were in  the water1 he    
must live apart from his wife1 and      
neither he nor she nor  their children  
might eat salt or meat4#gg ,evidence of 
the same sort  could be multiplied1#gh  
but without going into it further we may
 say  that for some reason which is not 
obvious to us primitive man connects    
salt with the intercourse of the sexes  
and therefore forbids the use of  that  
condiment in a variety of circumstances 
in which he deems  continence necessary 
or desirable4 ,as there is nothing which

 the savage  regards as a greater bar   
between the sexes than the state of     
menstruation1 he naturally prohibits the
 use of salt to women and girls  at     
their monthly periods4    ,seclusion of 
girls at puberty among the tribes about 
,lake ,nyassa and on  the ,zambesi4     
,with the ,awa-nkonde1 a tribe at the   
northern end of ,lake ,nyassa1 it is a  
rule that after her first menstruation a
 girl must be kept apart1 with a  few   
companions of her own sex1 in a darkened
 house4 ,the floor is covered  with dry 
banana leaves1 but no fire may be lit in
 the house1 which is  called the house  
of the ,awasungu1 that is1 of maidens   
who have no  hearts4#gi ,when a girl    
reaches puberty1 the ,wafiomi of        
,eastern ,africa  hold a festival at    
which they make a noise with a peculiar 
kind of  rattle4 ,after that the girl   
remains for a year in the large common  
hut  7tembe71 where she occupies a      
special compartment screened off from   
the men's quarters4 ,she may not cut her

 hair or touch food1 but is fed  by     
other women4 ,at night1 however1 she    
quits the hut and dances with  young    
men4#hj ,among the ,barotse or ,marotse 
of the upper ,zambesi1 when  a girl     
arrives at the age of puberty she is    
sent into the fields1 where  a hut is   
constructed far from the village4       
,there1 with two or three  companions1  
she spends a month1 returning home late 
and starting before  dawn in order not  
to be seen by the men4 ,the women of the
 village visit  her1 bringing food and  
honey1 and singing and dancing to amuse 
her4 ,at  the end of a month her husband
 comes and fetches her4 ,it is only     
after  this ceremony that women have the
 right to smear themselves with         
ochre4#ha ,we may suspect that the chief
 reason why the girl during her         
seclusion may visit her home only by    
night is a fear1 not so much lest  she  
should be seen by men1 as that she might
 be seen by the sun4 ,among  the        
,wafiomi1 as we have just learned1 the  

young woman in similar  circumstances is
 even free to dance with men1 provided  
always that the  dance is danced at     
night4 ,the ceremonies among the        
,barotse or ,marotse  are somewhat more 
elaborate for a girl of the royal       
family4 ,she is shut  up for three      
months in a place which is kept secret  
from the public2  only the women of her 
family know where it is4 ,there she sits
 alone in  the darkness of the hut1     
waited on by female slaves1 who are     
strictly  forbidden to speak and may    
communicate with her and with each other
 only  by signs4 ,during all this time1 
though she does nothing1 she eats much1 
and when at last she comes forth1 her   
appearance is quite changed1 so  fat has
 she grown4 ,she is then led by night to
 the river and bathed in  presence of   
all the women of the village4 ,next day 
she flaunts before  the public in her   
gayest attire1 her head bedecked with   
ornaments and  her face mottled with red
 paint4 ,so everybody knows what has    

happened4#hb    ,seclusion of girls at  
puberty among the ,thonga on ,delagoa   
,bay4    ,among the northern clans of   
the ,thonga tribe1 in ,south-,eastern   
,africa1  about ,delagoa ,bay1 when a   
girl thinks that the time of her        
nubility is  near1 she chooses an       
adoptive mother1 perhaps in a           
neighbouring village4  ,when the        
symptoms appear1 she flies away from her
 own village and  repairs to that of her
 adopted mother to weep near her4 ,after
 that she  is secluded with several     
other girls in the same condition for a 
month4  ,they are shut up in a hut1 and 
whenever they come outside they must    
wear  a dirty greasy cloth over their   
faces as a veil4 ,every morning they are
  led to a pool and plunged in the water
 up to their necks4 ,initiated  girls or
 women accompany them1 singing obscene  
songs and driving away  with sticks any 
man who meets them2 for no man may see a
 girl during  this time of seclusion4   
,if he saw her1 it is said that he would

 be  struck blind4 ,on their return from
 the river1 the girls are again         
imprisoned in the hut1 where they remain
 wet and shivering1 for they may  not go
 near the fire to warm themselves4      
,during their seclusion they  listen to 
lascivious songs sung by grown women and
 are instructed in  sexual matters4 ,at 
the end of the month the adoptive mother
 brings the  girl home to her true      
mother and presents her with a pot of   
beer4#hc    ,seclusion of girls at      
puberty among the ,caffre tribes of     
,south ,africa4    ,among the ,caffre   
tribes of ,south ,africa the period of a
 girl's seclusion  at puberty varies    
with the rank of her father4 ,if he is a
 rich man1 it  may last twelve days2 if 
he is a chief1 it may last twenty-four  
days4#hd ,and when it is over1 the girl 
rubs herself over with red  earth1 and  
strews finely powdered red earth on the 
ground1 before she  leaves the hut where
 she has been shut up4 ,finally1 though 
she was  forbidden to drink milk all the

 days of her separation1 she washes out 
her mouth with milk1 and is from that   
moment regarded as a full-grown         
woman4#he ,afterwards1 in the dusk of   
the evening1 she carries away all  the  
objects with which she came into contact
 in the hut during her  seclusion and   
buries them secretly in a sequestered   
spot4#hf ,when the  girl is a chief's   
daughter the ceremonies at her          
liberation from the hut  are more       
elaborate than usual4 ,she is led forth 
from the hut by a son of  her father's  
councillor1 who1 wearing the wings of a 
blue crane1 the  badge of bravery1 on   
his head1 escorts her to the cattle     
kraal1 where  cows are slaughtered and  
dancing takes place4 ,large skins full  
of milk  are sent to the spot from      
neighbouring villages2 and after the    
dances  are over the girl drinks milk   
for the first time since the day she    
entered into retreat4 ,but the first    
mouthful is drunk by the girl's aunt  or
 other female relative who had charge of

 her during her seclusion2 and  a little
 of it is poured on the fire-place4#hg  
,amongst the ,zulus1 when  the girl was 
a princess royal1 the end of her time of
 separation was  celebrated by a sort of
 saturnalia3 law and order were for the 
time  being in abeyance3 every man1     
woman1 and child might appropriate any  
article of property3 the king abstained 
from interfering2 and if during  this   
reign of misrule he was robbed of       
anything he valued he could only        
recover it by paying a fine4#hh ,among  
the ,basutos1 when girls at  puberty are
 bathed as usual by the matrons in a    
river1 they are hidden  separately in   
the turns and bends of the stream1 and  
told to cover their  heads1 as they will
 be visited by a large serpent4 ,their  
limbs are then  plastered with clay1    
little masks of straw are put on their  
faces1 and  thus arrayed they daily     
follow each other in procession1 singing
  melancholy airs1 to the fields1 there 
to learn the labours of husbandry  in   

which a great part of their adult life  
will be passed4#hi ,we may  suppose1    
though we are not told1 that the straw  
masks which they wear in  these         
processions are intended to hide their  
faces from the gaze of men  and the rays
 of the sun4    ,seclusion of girls at  
puberty in the ,lower ,congo4    ,among 
the tribes in the lower valley of the   
,congo1 such as the ,bavili1  when a    
girl arrives at puberty1 she has to pass
 two or three months in  seclusion in a 
small hut built for the purpose4 ,the   
hair of her head is  shaved off1 and    
every day the whole of her body is      
smeared with a red  paint 7takulla7 made
 from a powdered wood mixed with water4 
,some of  her companions reside in the  
hut with her and prepare the paint for  
her  use4 ,a woman is appointed to take 
charge of the hut and to keep off       
intruders4 ,at the end of her           
confinement she is taken to water by the
  women of her family and bathed2 the   
paint is rubbed off her body1 her  arms 

and legs are loaded with brass rings1   
and she is led in solemn  procession    
under an umbrella to her husband's      
house4 ,if these ceremonies  were not   
performed1 the people believe that the  
girl would be barren or  would give     
birth to monsters1 that the rain would  
cease to fall1 the  earth to bear fruit1
 and the fishing to be successful4#ij   
,such serious  importance do these      
savages ascribe to the performance of   
rites which to  us seem so childish4    
#b4 ,seclusion of ,girls at ,puberty in 
,new ,ireland1 ,new ,guinea1 and        
,indonesia      ,seclusion of girls at  
puberty in ,new ,ireland4    ,in ,new   
,ireland girls are confined for four or 
five years in small cages1  being kept  
in the dark and not allowed to set foot 
on the ground4 ,the  custom has been    
thus described by an eye-witness4 ,i    
heard from a  teacher about some strange
 custom connected with some of the young
 girls  here1 so ,i asked the chief to  
take me to the house where they were4   

,the  house was about twenty-five feet  
in length1 and stood in a reed and      
bamboo enclosure1 across the entrance to
 which a bundle of dried grass  was     
suspended to show that it was strictly  
'tabu4' ,inside the house  were three   
conical structures about seven or eight 
feet in height1 and  about ten or twelve
 feet in circumference at the bottom1   
and for about  four feet from the       
ground1 at which point they tapered off 
to a point at  the top4 ,these cages    
were made of the broad leaves of the    
pandanus-tree1  sewn quite close        
together so that no light and little or 
no air could  enter4 ,on one side of    
each is an opening which is closed by a 
double  door of plaited cocoa-nut tree  
and pandanus-tree leaves4 ,about three  
feet from the ground there is a stage of
 bamboos which forms the floor4  ,in    
each of these cages we were told there  
was a young woman confined1  each of    
whom had to remain for at least four or 
five years1 without ever  being allowed 

to go outside the house4 ,i could       
scarcely credit the story  when ,i heard
 it2 the whole thing seemed too horrible
 to be true4 ,i spoke  to the chief1 and
 told him that ,i wished to see the     
inside of the cages1  and also to see   
the girls that ,i might make them a     
present of a few  beads4 ,he told me    
that it was 'tabu1' forbidden for any   
men but their  own relations to look at 
them2 but ,i suppose the promised beads 
acted as  an inducement1 and so he sent 
away for some old lady who had charge1  
and  who alone is allowed to open the   
doors4 ,while we were waiting we could  
hear the girls talking to the chief in a
 querulous way as if objecting  to      
something or expressing their fears4    
,the old woman came at length and       
certainly she did not seem a very       
pleasant jailor or guardian2 nor did    
she seem to favour the request of the   
chief to allow us to see the  girls1 as 
she regarded us with anything but       
pleasant looks4 ,however1 she  had to   

undo the door when the chief told her to
 do so1 and then the  girls peeped out  
at us1 and1 when told to do so1 they    
held out their  hands for the beads4 ,i1
 however1 purposely sat at some distance
 away and  merely held out the beads to 
them1 as ,i wished to draw them quite   
outside1 that ,i might inspect the      
inside of the cages4 ,this desire of    
mine gave rise to another difficulty1 as
 these girls were not allowed to  put   
their feet to the ground all the time   
they were confined in these  places4    
,however1 they wished to get the beads1 
and so the old lady had  to go outside  
and collect a lot of pieces of wood and 
bamboo1 which she  placed on the ground1
 and then going to one of the girls1 she
 helped her  down and held her hand as  
she stepped from one piece of wood to   
another  until she came near enough to  
get the beads ,i held out to her4 ,i    
then  went to inspect the inside of the 
cage out of which she had come1 but     
could scarcely put my head inside of it1

 the atmosphere was so hot and          
stifling4 ,it was clean and contained   
nothing but a few short lengths of      
bamboo for holding water4 ,there was    
only room for the girl to sit or lie    
down in a crouched position on the      
bamboo platform1 and when the doors  are
 shut it must be nearly or quite dark   
inside4 ,the girls are never  allowed to
 come out except once a day to bathe in 
a dish or wooden bowl  placed close to  
each cage4 ,they say that they perspire 
profusely4 ,they  are placed in these   
stifling cages when quite young1 and    
must remain  there until they are young 
women1 when they are taken out and have 
each  a great marriage feast provided   
for them4 ,one of them was about        
fourteen  or fifteen years old1 and the 
chief told us that she had been there   
for  five years1 but would soon be taken
 out now4 ,the other two were about     
eight and ten years old1 and they have  
to stay there for several years         
longer4#ia ,a more recent observer has  

described the custom as it is  observed 
on the western coast of ,new ,ireland4  
,he says3 ,a buck is the  name of a     
little house1 not larger than an        
ordinary hen-coop1 in which a  little   
girl is shut up1 sometimes for weeks    
only1 and at other times for  months4444
 ,briefly stated1 the custom is this4   
,girls1 on attaining  puberty or        
betrothal1 are enclosed in one of these 
little coops for a  considerable time4  
,they must remain there night and day4  
,we saw two of  these girls in two      
coops2 the girls were not more than ten 
years old1  still they were lying in a  
doubled-up position1 as their little    
houses  would not admit of them lying in
 any other way4 ,these two coops were   
inside a large house2 but the chief1 in 
consideration of a present of a  couple 
of tomahawks1 ordered the ends to be    
torn out of the house to  admit the     
light1 so that we might photograph the  
buck4 ,the occupant  was allowed to put 
her face through an opening to be       

photographed1 in  consideration of      
another present4#ib ,as a consequence of
 their long  enforced idleness in the   
shade the girls grow fat and their dusky
  complexion bleaches to a more pallid  
hue4 ,both their corpulence and  their  
pallor are regarded as beauties4#ic     
,seclusion of girls at puberty in ,new  
,guinea1 ,borneo1 ,ceram and ,yap4      
,in ,kabadi1 a district of ,british ,new
 ,guinea1 daughters of chiefs1 when     
they are about twelve or thirteen years 
of age1 are kept indoors for two  or    
three years1 never being allowed1 under 
any pretence1 to descend from  the      
house1 and the house is so shaded that  
the sun cannot shine on  them4#id ,among
 the ,yabim and ,bukaua1 two            
neighbouring and kindred  tribes on the 
coast of ,german ,new ,guinea1 a girl at
 puberty is secluded  for some five or  
six weeks in an inner part of the house2
 but she may  not sit on the floor1 lest
 her uncleanness should cleave to it1 so
 a log  of wood is placed for her to    

squat on4 ,moreover1 she may not touch  
the  ground with her feet2 hence if she 
is obliged to quit the house for a      
short time1 she is muffled up in mats   
and walks on two halves of a  coconut   
shell1 which are fastened like sandals  
to her feet by creeping  plants4 ,during
 her seclusion she is in charge of her  
aunts or other  female relatives4 ,at   
the end of the time she bathes1 her     
person is  loaded with ornaments1 her   
face is grotesquely painted with red    
stripes  on a white ground1 and thus    
adorned she is brought forth in public  
to be  admired by everybody4 ,she is now
 marriageable4#ie ,among the ,ot ,danoms
  of ,borneo girls at the age of eight  
or ten years are shut up in a little    
room or cell of the house1 and cut off  
from all intercourse with the  world for
 a long time4 ,the cell1 like the rest  
of the house1 is raised  on piles above 
the ground1 and is lit by a single small
 window opening  on a lonely place1 so  
that the girl is in almost total        

darkness4 ,she may  not leave the room  
on any pretext whatever1 not even for   
the most  necessary purposes4 ,none of  
her family may see her all the time she 
is  shut up1 but a single slave woman is
 appointed to wait on her4 ,during  her 
lonely confinement1 which often lasts   
seven years1 the girl occupies  herself 
in weaving mats or with other handiwork4
 ,her bodily growth is  stunted by the  
long want of exercise1 and when1 on     
attaining womanhood1  she is brought    
out1 her complexion is pale and         
wax-like4 ,she is now  shewn the sun1   
the earth1 the water1 the trees1 and the
 flowers1 as if  she were newly born4   
,then a great feast is made1 a slave is 
killed1 and  the girl is smeared with   
his blood4#if ,in ,ceram girls at       
puberty were  formerly shut up by       
themselves in a hut which was kept      
dark4#ig ,in ,yap1  one of the ,caroline
 ,islands1 should a girl be overtaken by
 her first  menstruation on the public  
road1 she may not sit down on the earth1

 but  must beg for a coco-nut shell to  
put under her4 ,she is shut up for      
several days in a small hut at a        
distance from her parents' house1 and   
afterwards she is bound to sleep for a  
hundred days in one of the  special     
houses which are provided for the use of
 menstruous women4#ih       #c4         
,seclusion of ,girls at ,puberty in the 
,torres ,straits ,islands and  ,northern
 ,australia      ,seclusion of girls at 
puberty in ,mabuiag1 ,torres ,straits4  
,in the island of ,mabuiag1 ,torres     
,straits1 when the signs of puberty     
appear on a girl1 a circle of bushes is 
made in a dark corner of the  house4    
,here1 decked with shoulder-belts1      
armlets1 leglets just below the  knees1 
and anklets1 wearing a chaplet on her   
head1 and shell ornaments  in her ears1 
on her chest1 and on her back1 she      
squats in the midst of  the bushes1     
which are piled so high round about her 
that only her head  is visible4 ,in this
 state of seclusion she must remain for 

three months4  ,all this time the sun   
may not shine upon her1 but at night she
 is  allowed to slip out of the hut1 and
 the bushes that hedge her in are  then 
changed4 ,she may not feed herself or   
handle food1 but is fed by one  or two  
old women1 her maternal aunts1 who are  
especially appointed to  look after her4
 ,one of these women cooks food for her 
at a special fire  in the forest4 ,the  
girl is forbidden to eat turtle or      
turtle eggs during  the season when the 
turtles are breeding2 but no vegetable  
food is  refused her4 ,no man1 not even 
her own father1 may come into the house 
while her seclusion lasts2 for if her   
father saw her at this time he  would   
certainly have bad luck in his fishing1 
and would probably smash  his canoe the 
very next time he went out in it4 ,at   
the end of the three  months she is     
carried down to a fresh-water creek by  
her attendants1  hanging on to their    
shoulders in such a way that her feet do
 not touch  the ground1 while the women 

of the tribe form a ring round her1 and 
thus  escort her to the beach4 ,arrived 
at the shore1 she is stripped of her    
ornaments1 and the bearers stagger with 
her into the creek1 where they  immerse 
her1 and all the other women join in    
splashing water over both  the girl and 
her bearers4 ,when they come out of the 
water one of the two  attendants makes a
 heap of grass for her charge to squat  
upon4 ,the other  runs to the reef1     
catches a small crab1 tears off its     
claws1 and hastens  back with them to   
the creek4 ,here in the meantime a fire 
has been  kindled1 and the claws are    
roasted at it4 ,the girl is then fed by 
her  attendants with the roasted claws4 
,after that she is freshly decorated1   
and the whole party marches back to the 
village in a single rank1 the  girl     
walking in the centre between her two   
old aunts1 who hold her by  the wrists4 
,the husbands of her aunts now receive  
her and lead her into  the house of one 
of them1 where all partake of food1 and 

the girl is  allowed once more to feed  
herself in the usual manner4 ,a dance   
follows1  in which the girl takes a     
prominent part1 dancing between the     
husbands  of the two aunts who had      
charge of her in her retirement4#ii     
,seclusion of girls at puberty in       
,northern ,australia4    ,among the     
,yaraikanna tribe of ,cape ,york        
,peninsula1 in ,northern  ,queensland1 a
 girl at puberty is said to live by     
herself for a month or  six weeks2 no   
man may see her1 though any woman may4  
,she stays in a hut  or shelter         
specially made for her1 on the floor of 
which she lies  supine4 ,she may not see
 the sun1 and towards sunset she must   
keep her  eyes shut until the sun has   
gone down1 otherwise it is thought that 
her  nose will be diseased4 ,during her 
seclusion she may eat nothing that      
lives in salt water1 or a snake would   
kill her4 ,an old woman waits upon  her 
and supplies her with roots1 yams1 and  
water4#ajj ,some tribes are  wont to    

bury their girls at such seasons more or
 less deeply in the  ground1 perhaps in 
order to hide them from the light of the
 sun4 ,thus  the ,larrakeeyah tribe in  
the northern territory of ,south        
,australia used  to cover a girl up with
 dirt for three days at her first       
monthly  period4#aja ,in similar        
circumstances the ,otati tribe1 on the  
east coast  of the ,cape ,york          
,peninsula1 make an excavation in the   
ground1 where the  girl squats4 ,a bower
 is then built over the hole1 and sand  
is thrown on  the young woman till she  
is covered up to the hips4 ,in this     
condition  she remains for the first    
day1 but comes out at night4 ,so long as
 the  period lasts1 she stays in the    
bower during the day-time1 but is not   
again covered with sand4 ,afterwards her
 body is painted red and white  from the
 head to the hips1 and she returns to   
the camp1 where she squats  first on the
 right side1 then on the left side1 and 
then on the lap of  her future husband1 

who has been previously selected for    
her4#ajb ,among  the natives of the     
,pennefather ,river1 in the ,cape ,york 
,peninsula1  ,queensland1 when a girl   
menstruates for the first time1 her     
mother takes  her away from the camp to 
some secluded spot1 where she digs a    
circular  hole in the sandy soil under  
the shade of a tree4 ,in this hole the  
girl  squats with crossed legs and is   
covered with sand from the waist        
downwards4 ,a digging-stick is planted  
firmly in the sand on each side of  her1
 and the place is surrounded by a fence 
of bushes except in front1  where her   
mother kindles a fire4 ,here the girl   
stays all day1 sitting  with her arms   
crossed and the palms of her hands      
resting on the sand4  ,she may not move 
her arms except to take food from her   
mother or to  scratch herself2 and in   
scratching herself she may not touch    
herself  with her own hands1 but must   
use for the purpose a splinter of wood1 
which1 when it is not in use1 is stuck  

in her hair4 ,she may speak to  nobody  
but her mother2 indeed nobody else would
 think of coming near  her4 ,at evening 
she lays hold of the two digging-sticks 
and by their  help frees herself from   
the superincumbent weight of sand and   
returns to  the camp4 ,next morning she 
is again buried in the sand under the   
shade  of the tree and remains there    
again till evening4 ,this she does daily
  for five days4 ,on her return at      
evening on the fifth day her mother     
decorates her with a waist-band1 a      
forehead-band1 and a necklet of         
pearl-shell1 ties green parrot feathers 
round her arms and wrists and  across   
her chest1 and smears her body1 back and
 front1 from the waist  upwards with    
blotches of red1 white1 and yellow      
paint4 ,she has in like  manner to be   
buried in the sand at her second and    
third menstruations1  but at the fourth 
she is allowed to remain in camp1 only  
signifying her  condition by wearing a  
basket of empty shells on her back4#ajc 

,among  the ,kia blacks of the          
,prosperine ,river1 on the east coast of
 ,queensland1  a girl at puberty has to 
sit or lie down in a shallow pit away   
from the  camp2 a rough hut of bushes is
 erected over her to protect her from   
the  inclemency of the weather4 ,there  
she stays for about a week1 waited on   
by her mother and sister1 the only      
persons to whom she may speak4 ,she is  
allowed to drink water1 but may not     
touch it with her hands2 and she may    
scratch herself a little with a         
mussel-shell4 ,this seclusion is        
repeated  at her second and third       
monthly periods1 but when the third is  
over she  is brought to her husband     
bedecked with savage finery4 ,eagle-hawk
 or  cockatoo feathers are stuck in her 
hair3 a shell hangs over her  forehead3 
grass bugles encircle her neck and an   
apron of opossum skin  her waist3       
strings are tied to her arms and wrists2
 and her whole body  is mottled with    
patterns drawn in red1 white1 and yellow

 pigments and  charcoal4#ajd            
,seclusion of girls at puberty in the   
islands of ,torres ,straits4    ,among  
the ,uiyumkwi tribe in ,red ,island the 
girl lies at full length in a  shallow  
trench dug in the foreshore1 and sand is
 lightly thrown over her  legs and body 
up to the breasts1 which appear not to  
be covered4 ,a rough  shelter of boughs 
is then built over her1 and thus she    
remains lying for  a few hours4 ,then   
she and her attendant go into the bush  
and look for  food1 which they cook at a
 fire close to the shelter4 ,they sleep 
under  the boughs1 the girl remaining   
secluded from the camp but apparently   
not  being again buried4 ,at the end of 
the symptoms she stands over hot  stones
 and water is poured over her1 till1    
trickling from her body on  the stones1 
it is converted into steam and envelops 
her in a cloud of  vapour4 ,then she is 
painted with red and white stripes and  
returns to  the camp4 ,if her future    
husband has already been chosen1 she    

goes to him  and they eat some food     
together1 which the girl has previously 
brought  from the bush4#aje ,in ,prince 
of ,wales ,island1 ,torres ,strait1 the 
treatment of the patient is similar1 but
 lasts for about two months4  ,during   
the day she lies covered up with sand in
 a shallow hole on the  beach1 over     
which a hut is built4 ,at night she may 
get out of the hole1  but she may not   
leave the hut4 ,her paternal aunt looks 
after her1 and  both of them must       
abstain from eating turtle1 dugong1 and 
the heads of  fish4 ,were they to eat   
the heads of fish no more fish would be 
caught4  ,during the time of the girl's 
seclusion1 the aunt who waits upon her  
has  the right to enter any house and   
take from it anything she likes without 
payment1 provided she does so before the
 sun rises4 ,when the time of her       
retirement has come to an end1 the girl 
bathes in the sea while the  morning    
star is rising1 and after performing    
various other ceremonies is  readmitted 

to society4#ajf ,in ,saibai1 another    
island of ,torres ,straits1  at her     
first monthly sickness a girl lives     
secluded in the forest for  about a     
fortnight1 during which no man may see  
her2 even the women who  have spoken to 
her in the forest must wash in salt     
water before they  speak to a man4 ,two 
girls wait upon and feed the damsel1    
putting the  food into her mouth1 for   
she is not allowed to touch it with her 
own  hands4 ,nor may she eat dugong and 
turtle4 ,at the end of a fortnight the  
girl and her attendants bathe in salt   
water while the tide is running  out4   
,afterwards they are clean1 may again   
speak to men without ceremony1  and move
 freely about the village4 ,in ,yam and 
,tutu a girl at puberty  retires for a  
month to the forest1 where no man nor   
even her own mother  may look upon her4 
,she is waited on by women who stand to 
her in a  certain relationship 7mowai71 
apparently her paternal aunts4 ,she is  
blackened all over with charcoal and    

wears a long petticoat reaching  below  
her knees4 ,during her seclusion the    
married women of the village  often     
assemble in the forest and dance1 and   
the girl's aunts relieve the  tedium of 
the proceedings by thrashing her from   
time to time as a useful  preparation   
for matrimony4 ,at the end of a month   
the whole party go into  the sea1 and   
the charcoal is washed off the girl4    
,after that she is  decorated1 her body 
blackened again1 her hair reddened with 
ochre1 and  in the evening she is       
brought back to her father's house1     
where she is  received with weeping and 
lamentation because she has been so long
  away4#ajg       #d4 ,seclusion of     
,girls at ,puberty among the ,indians of
 ,north ,america      ,seclusion of     
girls at puberty among the ,indians of  
,california    ,among the ,indians of   
,california a girl at her first         
menstruation was  thought to be         
possessed of a particular degree of     
supernatural power1  and this was not   

always regarded as entirely defiling or 
malevolent4  ,often1 however1 there was 
a strong feeling of the power of evil   
inherent  in her condition4 ,not only   
was she secluded from her family and the
  community1 but an attempt was made to 
seclude the world from her4 ,one of  the
 injunctions most strongly laid upon her
 was not to look about her4  ,she kept  
her head bowed and was forbidden to see 
the world and the sun4  ,some tribes    
covered her with a blanket4 ,many of the
 customs in this  connection resembled  
those of the ,north ,pacific ,coast most
 strongly1  such as the prohibition to  
the girl to touch or scratch her head   
with  her hand1 a special implement     
being furnished her for the purpose4    
,sometimes she could eat only when fed  
and in other cases fasted  altogether4  
,some form of public ceremony1 often    
accompanied by a dance  and sometimes by
 a form of ordeal for the girl1 was     
practised nearly  everywhere4 ,such     
ceremonies were well developed in       

,southern ,california1  where a number  
of actions symbolical of the girl's     
maturity and  subsequent life were      
performed4#ajh ,thus among the ,maidu   
,indians of  ,california a girl at      
puberty remained shut up in a small     
separate hut4  ,for five days she might 
not eat flesh or fish nor feed herself1 
but was  fed by her mother or other old 
woman4 ,she had a basket1 plate1 and cup
  for her own use1 and a stick with     
which to scratch her head1 for she      
might not scratch it with her fingers4  
,at the end of five days she took  a    
warm bath and1 while she still remained 
in the hut and plied the                
scratching-stick on her head1 was       
privileged to feed herself with her  own
 hands4 ,after five days more she bathed
 in the river1 after which her  parents 
gave a great feast in her honour4 ,at   
the feast the girl was  dressed in her  
best1 and anybody might ask her parents 
for anything he  pleased1 and they had  
to give it1 even if it was the hand of  

their  daughter in marriage4 ,during the
 period of her seclusion in the hut the 
girl was allowed to go by night to her  
parents' house and listen to  songs sung
 by her friends and relations1 who      
assembled for the purpose4  ,among the  
songs were some that related to the     
different roots and seeds  which in     
these tribes it is the business of women
 to gather for food4  ,while the singers
 sang1 she sat by herself in a corner of
 the house  muffled up completely in    
mats and skins2 no man or boy might come
 near  her4#aji ,among the ,hupa1       
another ,indian tribe of ,california1   
when a  girl had reached maturity her   
male relatives danced all night for nine
  successive nights1 while the girl     
remained apart1 eating no meat and      
blindfolded4 ,but on the tenth night she
 entered the house and took part  in the
 last dance4#aaj ,among the ,wintun1    
another ,californian tribe1 a  girl at  
puberty was banished from the camp and  
lived alone in a distant  booth1 fasting

 rigidly from animal food2 it was death 
to any person to  touch or even approach
 her4#aaa    ,seclusion of girls at     
puberty among the ,indians of           
,washington ,state4    ,in the interior 
of ,washington ,state1 about ,colville1 
the customs of the  ,indians1 in        
relation to the treatment of females1   
are singular4 ,on the  first appearance 
of the menses1 they are furnished with  
provisions1 and  sent into the woods1 to
 remain concealed for two days2 for they
 have a  superstition1 that if a man    
should be seen or met with during that  
time1  death will be the consequence4   
,at the end of the second day1 the woman
  is permitted to return to the lodge1  
when she is placed in a hut just  large 
enough for her to lie in at full length1
 in which she is compelled  to remain   
for twenty days1 cut off from all       
communication with her  friends1 and is 
obliged to hide her face at the         
appearance of a man4  ,provisions are   
supplied her daily4 ,after this1 she is 

required to  perform repeated ablutions1
 before she can resume her place in the 
family4 ,at every return1 the women go  
into seclusion for two or more          
days4#aab ,among the ,chinook ,indians  
who inhabited the coast of  ,washington 
,state1 from ,shoalwater ,bay as far as 
,grey's ,harbour1 when a  chief's       
daughter attained to puberty1 she was   
hidden for five days from  the view of  
the people2 she might not look at them  
nor at the sky1 nor  might she pick     
berries4 ,it was believed that if she   
were to look at the  sky1 the weather   
would be bad2 that if she picked        
berries1 it would  rain2 and that when  
she hung her towel of cedar-bark on a   
spruce-tree1  the tree withered up at   
once4 ,she went out of the house by a   
separate  door and bathed in a creek far
 from the village4 ,she fasted for some 
days1 and for many days more she might  
not eat fresh food4#aac    ,seclusion of
 girls at puberty among the ,nootka     
,indians of ,vancouver  ,island4        

,amongst the ,aht or ,nootka ,indians of
 ,vancouver ,island1 when girls reach   
puberty they are placed in a sort of    
gallery in the house and are there      
surrounded completely with mats1 so that
 neither the sun nor any fire  can be   
seen4 ,in this cage they remain for     
several days4 ,water is given  them1 but
 no food4 ,the longer a girl remains in 
this retirement the  greater honour is  
it to the parents2 but she is disgraced 
for life if it  is known that she has   
seen fire or the sun during this        
initiatory  ordeal4#aad ,pictures of the
 mythical thunder-bird are painted on   
the  screens behind which she hides4    
,during her seclusion she may neither   
move nor lie down1 but must always sit  
in a squatting posture4 ,she may  not   
touch her hair with her hands1 but is   
allowed to scratch her head  with a comb
 or a piece of bone provided for the    
purpose4 ,to scratch her  body is also  
forbidden1 as it is believed that every 
scratch would leave  a scar4 ,for eight 

months after reaching maturity she may  
not eat any  fresh food1 particularly   
salmon2 moreover1 she must eat by       
herself1 and  use a cup and dish of her 
own4#aae    ,seclusion of girls at      
puberty among the ,haida ,indians of the
 ,queen  ,charlotte ,islands4    ,among 
the ,haida ,indians of the ,queen       
,charlotte ,islands girls at puberty    
were secluded behind screens in the     
house for about twenty days4 ,in some   
parts of the islands separate fires were
 provided for the girls1 and  they went 
out and in by a separate door at the    
back of the house4 ,if a  girl at such a
 time was obliged to go out by the front
 door1 all the  weapons1                
gambling-sticks1 medicine1 and other    
articles had to be removed  from the    
house till her return1 for otherwise it 
was thought that they  would be unlucky2
 and if there was a good hunter in the  
house1 he also  had to go out at the    
same time on pain of losing his good    
luck if he  remained4 ,during several   

months or even half a year the girl was 
bound  to wear a peculiar cloak or hood 
made of cedar-bark1 nearly conical in   
shape and reaching down below the       
breast1 but open before the face4       
,after the twenty days were over the    
girl took a bath2 none of the water     
might be spilled1 it had all to be taken
 back to the woods1 else the  girl would
 not live long4 ,on the west coast of   
the islands the damsel  might eat       
nothing but black cod for four years2   
for the people believed  that other     
kinds of fish would become scarce if she
 partook of them4 ,at  ,kloo the young  
woman at such times was forbidden to    
look at the sea1 and  for forty days she
 might not gaze at the fire2 for a whole
 year she  might not walk on the beach  
below high-water mark1 because then the 
tide  would come in1 covering part of   
the food supply1 and there would be bad 
weather4 ,for five years she might not  
eat salmon1 or the fish would be        
scarce2 and when her family went to a   

salmon-creek1 she landed from the  canoe
 at the mouth of the creek and came to  
the smoke-house from behind2  for were  
she to see a salmon leap1 all the salmon
 might leave the creek4  ,among the     
,haidas of ,masset it was believed that 
if the girl looked at  the sky1 the     
weather would be bad1 and that if she   
stepped over a  salmon-creek1 all the   
salmon would disappear4#aaf             
,seclusion of girls at puberty among the
 ,tlingit ,indians of ,alaska4          
,amongst the ,tlingit 7,thlinkeet7 or   
,kolosh ,indians of ,alaska1 when a girl
  shewed signs of womanhood she used to 
be confined to a little hut or  cage1   
which was completely blocked up with the
 exception of a small  air-hole4 ,in    
this dark and filthy abode she had to   
remain a year1  without fire1 exercise1 
or associates4 ,only her mother and a   
female  slave might supply her with     
nourishment4 ,her food was put in at the
  little window2 she had to drink out of
 the wing-bone of a white-headed  eagle4

 ,the time of her seclusion was         
afterwards reduced in some places  to   
six or three months or even less4 ,she  
had to wear a sort of hat with  long    
flaps1 that her gaze might not pollute  
the sky2 for she was thought  unfit for 
the sun to shine upon1 and it was       
imagined that her look would  destroy   
the luck of a hunter1 fisher1 or        
gambler1 turn things to stone1  and do  
other mischief4 ,at the end of her      
confinement her old clothes  were burnt1
 new ones were made1 and a feast was    
given1 at which a slit  was cut in her  
under lip parallel to the mouth1 and a  
piece of wood or  shell was inserted to 
keep the aperture open4#aag             
,seclusion of girls at puberty among the
 ,tsetsaut and ,bella ,coola  ,indians  
of ,british ,columbia4    ,in the       
,tsetsaut tribe of ,british ,columbia a 
girl at puberty wears a  large hat of   
skin which comes down over her face and 
screens it from the  sun4 ,it is        
believed that if she were to expose her 

face to the sun or to  the sky1 rain    
would fall4 ,the hat protects her face  
also against the  fire1 which ought not 
to strike her skin2 to shield her hands 
she wears  mittens4 ,in her mouth she   
carries the tooth of an animal to       
prevent her  own teeth from becoming    
hollow4 ,for a whole year she may not   
see blood  unless her face is blackened2
 otherwise she would grow blind4 ,for   
two  years she wears the hat and lives  
in a hut by herself1 although she is    
allowed to see other people4 ,at the end
 of two years a man takes the hat  from 
her head and throws it away4#aah ,in the
 ,bilqula or ,bella ,coola  tribe of    
,british ,columbia1 when a girl attains 
puberty she must stay in  the shed which
 serves as her bedroom1 where she has a 
separate  fireplace4 ,she is not allowed
 to descend to the main part of the     
house1  and may not sit by the fire of  
the family4 ,for four days she is bound 
to  remain motionless in a sitting      
posture4 ,she fasts during the day1 but 

is  allowed a little food and drink very
 early in the morning4 ,after the  four 
days' seclusion she may leave her room1 
but only through a separate  opening cut
 in the floor1 for the houses are raised
 on piles4 ,she may  not yet come into  
the chief room4 ,in leaving the house   
she wears a large  hat which protects   
her face against the rays of the sun4   
,it is believed  that if the sun were to
 shine on her face her eyes would       
suffer4 ,she may  pick berries on the   
hills1 but may not come near the river  
or sea for a  whole year4 ,were she to  
eat fresh salmon she would lose her     
senses1 or  her mouth would be changed  
into a long beak4#aai    ,seclusion of  
girls at puberty among the ,tinneh      
,indians of ,british  ,columbia4        
,among the ,tinneh ,indians about       
,stuart ,lake1 ,babine ,lake1 and       
,fraser ,lake  in ,british ,columbia    
girls verging on maturity1 that is when 
their  breasts begin to form1 take      
swans' feathers mixed with human hair   

and  plait bands1 which they tie round  
their wrists and ankles to secure long  
life4 ,at this time they are careful    
that the dishes out of which they  eat1 
are used by no other person1 and wholly 
devoted to their own use2  during this  
period they eat nothing but dog fish1   
and starvation only  will drive them to 
eat either fresh fish or meat4 ,when    
their first  periodical sickness comes  
on1 they are fed by their mothers or    
nearest  female relation by themselves1 
and on no account will they touch their 
food with their own hands4 ,they are at 
this time also careful not to  touch    
their heads with their hands1 and keep a
 small stick to scratch  their heads    
with4 ,they remain outside the lodge1   
all the time they are  in this state1 in
 a hut made for the purpose4 ,during all
 this period  they wear a skull-cap made
 of skin to fit very tight2 this is     
never  taken off until their first      
monthly sickness ceases2 they also wear 
a  strip of black paint about one inch  

wide across their eyes1 and wear a      
fringe of shells1 bones1 etc41 hanging  
down from their foreheads to  below     
their eyes2 and this is never taken off 
till the second monthly  period arrives 
and ceases1 when the nearest male       
relative makes a feast2  after which she
 is considered a fully matured woman2   
but she has to  refrain from eating     
anything fresh for one year after her   
first monthly  sickness2 she may however
 eat partridge1 but it must be cooked in
 the  crop of the bird to render it     
harmless4 ,i would have thought it      
impossible to perform this feat had ,i  
not seen it done4 ,the crop is  blown   
out1 and a small bent willow put round  
the mouth2 it is then  filled with      
water1 and the meat being first minced  
up1 put in also1 then  put on the fire  
and boiled till cooked4 ,their reason   
for hanging fringes  before their eyes1 
is to hinder any bad medicine man from  
harming them  during this critical      
period3 they are very careful not to    

drink whilst  facing a medicine man1 and
 do so only when their backs are turned 
to  him4 ,all these habits are left off 
when the girl is a recognised woman1    
with the exception of their going out of
 the lodge and remaining in a  hut1     
every time their periodical sickness    
comes on4 ,this is a rigidly  observed  
law with both single and married        
women4#abj    ,seclusion of girls at    
puberty among the ,tinneh ,indians of   
,alaska4    ,among the ,hareskin ,tinneh
 a girl at puberty was secluded for five
 days  in a hut made specially for the  
purpose2 she might only drink out of a  
tube made from a swan's bone1 and for a 
month she might not break a  hare's     
bones1 nor taste blood1 nor eat the     
heart or fat of animals1 nor  birds'    
eggs4#aba ,among the ,tinneh ,indians of
 the middle ,yukon valley1  in ,alaska1 
the period of the girl's seclusion lasts
 exactly a lunar  month2 for the day of 
the moon on which the symptoms first    
occur is  noted1 and she is sequestered 

until the same day of the next moon4 ,if
  the season is winter1 a corner of the 
house is curtained off for her use  by a
 blanket or a sheet of canvas2 if it is 
summer1 a small tent is  erected for her
 near the common one4 ,here she lives   
and sleeps4 ,she  wears a long robe and 
a large hood1 which she must pull down  
over her  eyes whenever she leaves the  
hut1 and she must keep it down till she 
returns4 ,she may not speak to a man nor
 see his face1 much less touch  his     
clothes or anything that belongs to him2
 for if she did so1 though  no harm     
would come to her1 he would grow        
unmanly4 ,she has her own dishes  for   
eating out of and may use no other2 at  
,kaltag she must suck the  water through
 a swan's bone without applying her lips
 to the cup4 ,she  may eat no fresh meat
 or fish except the flesh of the        
porcupine4 ,she may  not undress1 but   
sleeps with all her clothes on1 even her
 mittens4 ,in  her socks she wears1 next
 to the skin1 the horny soles cut from  

the feet  of a porcupine1 in order that 
for the rest of her life her shoes may  
never wear out4 ,round her waist she    
wears a cord to which are tied the      
heads of femurs of a porcupine2 because 
of all animals known to the  ,tinneh the
 porcupine suffers least in parturition1
 it simply drops its  young and         
continues to walk or skip about as if   
nothing had happened4  ,hence it is easy
 to see that a girl who wears these     
portions of a  porcupine about her      
waist1 will be delivered just as easily 
as the  animal4 ,to make quite sure of  
this1 if anybody happens to kill a      
porcupine big with young while the girl 
is undergoing her period of  separation1
 the foetus is given to her1 and she    
lets it slide down  between her shirt   
and her body so as to fall on the ground
 like an  infant4#abb ,here the         
imitation of childbirth is a piece of   
homoeopathic  or imitative magic        
designed to facilitate the effect which 
it  simulates4#abc    ,seclusion of     

girls at puberty among the ,thompson    
,indians of ,british  ,columbia4        
,among the ,thompson ,indians of        
,british ,columbia1 when a girl attained
  puberty1 she was at once separated    
from all the people4 ,a conical hut of  
fir branches and bark was erected at    
some little distance from the other     
houses1 and in it the girl had to squat 
on her heels during the day4  ,often a  
deep circular hole was dug in the hut   
and the girl squatted in  the hole1 with
 her head projecting above the surface  
of the ground4 ,she  might quit the hut 
for various purposes in the early       
morning1 but had  always to be back at  
sunrise4 ,on the first appearance of the
 symptoms  her face was painted red all 
over1 and the paint was renewed every   
morning during her term of seclusion4 ,a
 heavy blanket swathed her body  from   
top to toe1 and during the first four   
days she wore a conical cap  made of    
small fir branches1 which reached below 
the breast but left an  opening for the 

face4 ,in her hair was fastened an      
implement made of  deer-bone with which 
she scratched herself4 ,for the first   
four days she  might neither wash nor   
eat1 but a little water was given her in
 a  birch-bark cup painted red1 and she 
sucked up the liquid through a tube     
made out of the leg of a crane1 a swan1 
or a goose1 for her lips might  not     
touch the surface of the water4 ,after  
the four days she was allowed1  during  
the rest of the period of isolation1 to 
eat1 to wash1 to lie  down1 to comb her 
hair1 and to drink of streams and       
springs4 ,but in  drinking at these     
sources she had still to use her tube1  
otherwise the  spring would dry up4     
,while her seclusion lasted she         
performed by night  various ceremonies1 
which were supposed to exert a          
beneficial influence  on her future     
life4 ,for example1 she ran as fast as  
she could1 praying  at the same time to 
the ,earth or ,nature that she might be 
fleet of foot  and tireless of limb4    

,she dug trenches1 in order that in     
after life she  might be able to dig    
well and to work hard4 ,these and other 
ceremonies  she repeated for four nights
 or mornings in succession1 four times  
each  morning1 and each time she        
supplicated the ,dawn of the ,day4      
,among the  ,lower ,thompson ,indians   
she carried a staff for one night2 and  
when the  day was breaking she leaned   
the staff against the stump of a tree   
and  prayed to the ,dawn that she might 
be blessed with a good husband1 who  was
 symbolized by the staff4 ,she also     
wandered some nights to lonely  parts of
 the mountains1 where she would dance1  
imploring the spirits to  pity and      
protect her during her future life2     
then1 the dance and prayer  over1 she   
would lie down on the spot and fall     
asleep4 ,again1 she carried  four stones
 in her bosom to a spring1 where she    
spat upon the stones and  threw them one
 after the other into the water1 praying
 that all disease  might leave her1 as  

these stones did4 ,also she ran four    
times in the  early morning with two    
small stones in her bosom2 and as she   
ran the  stones slipped down between her
 bare body and her clothes and fell to  
the ground4 ,at the same time she prayed
 to the ,dawn that when she should  be  
with child1 she might be delivered as   
easily as she was delivered of  these   
stones4 ,but whatever exercises she     
performed or prayers she  offered on the
 lonely mountains during the hours of   
darkness or while  the morning light was
 growing in the east1 she must always be
 back in  her little hut before the sun 
rose4 ,there she often passed the       
tedious  hours away picking the needles1
 one by one1 from the cones on two large
  branches of fir1 which hung from the  
roof of her hut on purpose to  provide  
her with occupation4 ,and as she picked 
she prayed to the  fir-branch that she  
might never be lazy1 but always quick   
and active at  work4 ,during her        
seclusion1 too1 she had to make         

miniatures of all the  articles that    
,indian women make1 or used to make1    
such as baskets1 mats1  ropes1 and      
thread4 ,this she did in order that     
afterwards she might be  able to make   
the real things properly4 ,four large   
fir-branches also were  placed in front 
of the hut1 so that when she went out or
 in1 she had to  step over them4 ,the   
branches were renewed every morning and 
the old ones  thrown away into the      
water1 while the girl prayed1 ,may ,i   
never bewitch  any man1 nor my          
fellow-women6 ,may it never happen6 ,the
 first four times  that she went out and
 in1 she prayed to the fir-branches1    
saying1 ,if  ever ,i step into trouble  
or difficulties or step unknowingly     
inside the  magical spell of some       
person1 may you help me1 ,o             
,fir-branches1 with your  power6 ,every 
day she painted her face afresh1 and she
 wore strings of  parts of deer-hoofs   
round her ankles and knees1 and tied to 
her  waistband on either side1 which    

rattled when she walked or ran4 ,even   
the  shape of the hut in which she lived
 was adapted to her future rather  than 
to her present needs and wishes4 ,if she
 wished to be tall1 the hut  was tall2  
if she wished to be short1 it was low1  
sometimes so low that  there was not    
room in it for her to stand erect1 and  
she would lay the  palm of her hand on  
the top of her head and pray to the     
,dawn that she  might grow no taller4   
,her seclusion lasted four months4 ,the 
,indians say  that long ago it extended 
over a year1 and that fourteen days     
elapsed  before the girl was permitted  
to wash for the first time4 ,the dress  
which she wore during her time of       
separation was afterwards taken to the  
top of a hill and burned1 and the rest  
of her clothes were hung up on          
trees4#abd    ,seclusion of girls at    
puberty among the ,lillooet ,indians of 
,british  ,columbia4    ,among the      
,lillooet ,indians of ,british          
,columbia1 neighbours of the            

,thompsons1 the customs observed by     
girls at puberty were similar4 ,the     
damsels were secluded for a period of   
not less than one year nor more  than   
four years1 according to their own      
inclination and the wishes of  their    
parents4 ,among the ,upper ,lillooets   
the hut in which the girl  lodged was   
made of bushy fir-trees set up like a   
conical tent1 the inner  branches being 
lopped off1 while the outer branches    
were closely  interwoven and padded to  
form a roof4 ,every month or half-month 
the hut  was shifted to another site or 
a new one erected4 ,by day the girl sat 
in  the hut2 for the first month she    
squatted in a hole dug in the middle of 
it2 and she passed the time making      
miniature baskets of birch-bark and     
other things1 praying that she might be 
able to make the real things  well in   
after years4 ,at the dusk of the evening
 she left the hut and  wandered about   
all night1 but she returned before the  
sun rose4 ,before  she quitted the hut  

at nightfall to roam abroad1 she painted
 her face  red and put on a mask of     
fir-branches1 and in her hand1 as she   
walked1  she carried a basket-rattle to 
frighten ghosts and guard herself from  
evil4 ,among the ,lower ,lillooets1 the 
girl's mask was often made of           
goat-skin1 covering her head1 neck1     
shoulders and breast1 and leaving  only 
a narrow opening from the brow to the   
chin4 ,during the nocturnal  hours she  
performed many ceremonies4 ,thus she put
 two smooth stones in  her bosom and    
ran1 and as they fell down between her  
body and her  clothes1 she prayed1      
saying1 ,may ,i always have easy        
child-births6 ,now  one of these stones 
represented her future child and the    
other  represented the afterbirth4 ,also
 she dug trenches1 praying that in the  
years to come she might be strong and   
tireless in digging roots2 she  picked  
leaves and needles from the fir-trees1  
praying that her fingers  might be      
nimble in picking berries2 and she tore 

sheets of birch-bark  into shreds1      
dropping the shreds as she walked and   
asking that her hands  might never tire 
and that she might make neat and fine   
work of  birch-bark4 ,moreover1 she ran 
and walked much that she might be light 
of  foot4 ,and every evening1 when the  
shadows were falling1 and every         
morning1 when the day was breaking1 she 
prayed to the ,dusk of the  ,evening or 
to the ,dawn of ,day1 saying1 ,o ,dawn  
of ,day6 or ,o ,dusk1 as  it might be1  
may ,i be able to dig roots fast and    
easily1 and may ,i  always find plenty6 
,all her prayers were addressed to the  
,dusk of the  ,evening or the ,dawn of  
,day4 ,she supplicated both1 asking for 
long life1  health1 wealth1 and         
happiness4#abe    ,seclusion of girls at
 puberty among the ,shuswap ,indians of 
,british  ,columbia4    ,among the      
,shuswap ,indians of ,british ,columbia1
 who are neighbours of the  ,thompsons  
and ,lillooets1 a girl on reaching      
maturity has to go through  a great     

number of ceremonies4 ,she must leave   
the village and live alone  in a small  
hut on the mountains4 ,she cooks her own
 food1 and must not  eat anything that  
bleeds4 ,she is forbidden to touch her  
head1 for which  purpose she uses a comb
 with three points4 ,neither is she     
allowed to  scratch her body1 except    
with a painted deer-bone4 ,she wears the
 bone  and the comb suspended from her  
belt4 ,she drinks out of a painted cup  
of  birch-bark1 and neither more nor    
less than the quantity it holds4 ,every 
night she walks about her hut1 and      
plants willow twigs1 which she has      
painted1 and to the ends of which she   
has attached pieces of cloth1 into  the 
ground4 ,it is believed that thus she   
will become rich in later life4  ,in    
order to become strong she should climb 
trees and try to break off  their       
points4 ,she plays with lehal sticks    
that her future husbands  might have    
good luck when gambling4#abf ,during the
 day the girl stays  in her hut and     

occupies herself in making miniature    
bags1 mats1 and  baskets1 in sewing and 
embroidery1 in manufacturing thread1    
twine1 and  so forth2 in short she makes
 a beginning of all kinds of woman's    
work1  in order that she may be a good  
housewife in after life4 ,by night she  
roams the mountains and practises       
running1 climbing1 carrying burdens1    
and digging trenches1 so that she may be
 expert at digging roots4 ,if she  has  
wandered far and daylight overtakes her1
 she hides herself behind a  veil of fir
 branches2 for no one1 except her       
instructor or nearest  relatives1 should
 see her face during her period of      
seclusion4 ,she wore  a large robe      
painted red on the breast and sides1 and
 her hair was done  up in a knot at each
 ear4#abg    ,seclusion of girls at     
puberty among the ,delaware and         
,cheyenne ,indians4    ,ceremonies of   
the same general type were probably     
observed by girls at  puberty among all 
the ,indian tribes of ,north ,america4  

,but the record of  them is far less    
full for the ,central and ,eastern      
tribes1 perhaps  because the settlers   
who first came into contact with the    
,red ,man in  these regions were too    
busy fighting him to find leisure1 even 
if they  had the desire1 to study his   
manners and customs4 ,however1 among the
  ,delaware ,indians1 a tribe in the    
extreme east of the continent1 we read  
that when a ,delaware girl has her first
 monthly period1 she must  withdraw into
 a hut at some distance from the        
village4 ,her head is  wrapped up for   
twelve days1 so that she can see nobody1
 and she must  submit to frequent vomits
 and fasting1 and abstain from all      
labor4 ,after  this she is washed and   
new clothed1 but confined to a solitary 
life for  two months1 at the close of   
which she is declared marriageable4#abh 
,again1 among the ,cheyennes1 an ,indian
 tribe of the ,missouri valley1 a  girl 
at her first menstruation is painted red
 all over her body and  secluded in a   

special little lodge for four days4     
,however1 she may  remain in her        
father's lodge provided that there are  
no charms  7medicine71 no sacred bundle1
 and no shield in it1 or that these and 
all other objects invested with a sacred
 character have been removed4  ,for four
 days she may not eat boiled meat2 the  
flesh of which she  partakes must be    
roasted over coals4 ,young men will not 
eat from the  dish nor drink from the   
pot1 which has been used by her2 because
 they  believe that were they to do so  
they would be wounded in the next fight4
  ,she may not handle nor even touch any
 weapon of war or any sacred  object4   
,if the camp moves1 she may not ride a  
horse1 but is mounted on a  mare4#abi   
,seclusion of girls at puberty among the
 ,esquimaux4    ,among the ,esquimaux   
also1 in the extreme north of the       
continent1 who  belong to an entirely   
different race from the ,indians1 the   
attainment of  puberty in the female sex
 is1 or used to be1 the occasion of     

similar  observances4 ,thus among the   
,koniags1 an ,esquimau people of        
,alaska1 a  girl at puberty was placed  
in a small hut in which she had to      
remain on  her hands and knees for six  
months2 then the hut was enlarged a     
little  so as to allow her to straighten
 her back1 but in this posture she had  
to remain for six months more4 ,all this
 time she was regarded as an  unclean   
being with whom no one might hold       
intercourse4 ,at the end of the  year   
she was received back by her parents and
 a great feast held4#acj  ,again1 among 
the ,malemut1 and southward from the    
lower ,yukon and  adjacent districts1   
when a girl reaches the age of puberty  
she is  considered unclean for forty    
days and must therefore live by herself 
in  a corner of the house with her face 
to the wall1 always keeping her hood    
over her head and her hair hanging      
dishevelled over her eyes4 ,but if it   
is summer1 she commonly lives in a rough
 shelter outside the house4 ,she  may   

not go out by day1 and only once at     
night1 when every one else is  asleep4  
,at the end of the period she bathes and
 is clothed in new  garments1 whereupon 
she may be taken in marriage4 ,during   
her seclusion  she is supposed to be    
enveloped in a peculiar atmosphere of   
such a sort  that were a young man to   
come near enough for it to touch him1 it
 would  render him visible to every     
animal he might hunt1 so that his luck  
as a  hunter would be gone4#aca         
#e4 ,seclusion of ,girls at ,puberty    
among the ,indians of ,south ,america   
,seclusion of girls at puberty among the
 ,guaranis1 ,chiriguanos1 and  ,lengua  
,indians of ,south ,america4    ,when   
symptoms of puberty appeared on a girl  
for the first time1 the  ,guaranis of   
,southern ,brazil1 on the borders of    
,paraguay1 used to sew her  up in her   
hammock1 leaving only a small opening in
 it to allow her to  breathe4 ,in this  
condition1 wrapt up and shrouded like a 
corpse1 she was  kept for two or three  

days or so long as the symptoms lasted1 
and during  this time she had to observe
 a most rigorous fast4 ,after that she  
was  entrusted to a matron1 who cut the 
girl's hair and enjoined her to  abstain
 most strictly from eating flesh of any 
kind until her hair  should be grown    
long enough to hide her ears4 ,meanwhile
 the diviners  drew omens of her future 
character from the various birds or     
animals  that flew past or crossed her  
path4 ,if they saw a parrot1 they would 
say  she was a chatterbox2 if an owl1   
she was lazy and useless for domestic   
labours1 and so on4#acb ,in similar     
circumstances the ,chiriguanos of       
southeastern ,bolivia hoisted the girl  
in her hammock to the roof1 where  she  
stayed for a month3 the second month the
 hammock was let half-way  down from the
 roof2 and in the third month old women1
 armed with sticks1  entered the hut and
 ran about striking everything they met1
 saying they  were hunting the snake    
that had wounded the girl4#acc ,the     

,lengua  ,indians of the ,paraguayan    
,chaco under similar circumstances hang 
the  girl in her hammock from the roof  
of the house1 but they leave her there  
only three days and nights1 during which
 they give her nothing to eat  but a    
little ,paraguay tea or boiled maize4   
,only her mother or  grandmother has    
access to her2 nobody else approaches or
 speaks to her4  ,if she is obliged to  
leave the hammock for a little1 her     
friends take  great care to prevent her 
from touching the ,boyrusu1 which is an 
imaginary serpent that would swallow her
 up4 ,she must also be very  careful not
 to set foot on the droppings of fowls  
or animals1 else she  would suffer from 
sores on the throat and breast4 ,on the 
third day they  let her down from the   
hammock1 cut her hair1 and make her sit 
in a  corner of the room with her face  
turned to the wall4 ,she may speak to   
nobody1 and must abstain from flesh and 
fish4 ,these rigorous observances  she  
must practise for nearly a year4 ,many  

girls die or are injured for  life in   
consequence of the hardships they endure
 at this time4 ,their  only occupations 
during their seclusion are spinning and 
weaving4#acd    ,seclusion of girls at  
puberty among the ,yuracares of         
,bolivia4    ,among the ,yuracares1 an  
,indian tribe of ,bolivia1 at the       
eastern foot of  the ,andes1 when a girl
 perceives the signs of puberty1 she    
informs her  parents4 ,the mother weeps 
and the father constructs a little hut  
of palm  leaves near the house4 ,in this
 cabin he shuts up his daughter so that 
she cannot see the light1 and there she 
remains fasting rigorously for  four    
days4 ,meantime the mother1 assisted by 
the women of the  neighbourhood1 has    
brewed a large quantity of the native   
intoxicant  called chicha1 and poured it
 into wooden troughs and palm leaves4   
,on  the morning of the fourth day1     
three hours before the dawn1 the girl's 
father1 having arrayed himself in his   
savage finery1 summons all his          

neighbours with loud cries4 ,the damsel 
is seated on a stone1 and every  guest  
in turn cuts off a lock of her hair1 and
 running away hides it in  the hollow   
trunk of a tree in the depths of the    
forest4 ,when they have  all done so and
 seated themselves again gravely in the 
circle1 the girl  offers to each of them
 a calabash full of very strong chicha4 
,before  the wassailing begins1 the     
various fathers perform a curious       
operation  on the arms of their sons1   
who are seated beside them4 ,the        
operator  takes a very sharp bone of an 
ape1 rubs it with a pungent spice1 and  
then pinching up the skin of his son's  
arm he pierces it with the bone  through
 and through1 as a surgeon might        
introduce a seton4 ,this  operation he  
repeats till the young man's arm is     
riddled with holes at  regular intervals
 from the shoulder to the wrist4 ,almost
 all who take  part in the festival are 
covered with these wounds1 which the    
,indians  call culucute4 ,having thus   

prepared themselves to spend a happy    
day1  they drink1 play on flutes1 sing  
and dance till evening4 ,rain1 thunder1 
and lightning1 should they befall1 have 
no effect in damping the general        
enjoyment or preventing its continuance 
till after the sun has set4 ,the  motive
 for perforating the arms of the young  
men is to make them skilful  hunters2 at
 each perforation the sufferer is       
cheered by the promise of  another sort 
of game or fish which the surgical      
operation will  infallibly procure for  
him4 ,the same operation is performed on
 the arms  and legs of the girls1 in    
order that they may be brave and strong2
 even  the dogs are operated on with the
 intention of making them run down the  
game better4 ,for five or six months    
afterwards the damsel must cover her    
head with bark and refrain from speaking
 to men4 ,the ,yuracares think  that if 
they did not submit a young girl to this
 severe ordeal1 her  children would     
afterwards perish by accidents of       

various kinds1 such as  the sting of a  
serpent1 the bite of a jaguar1 the fall 
of a tree1 the  wound of an arrow1 or   
what not4#ace    ,seclusion of girls at 
puberty among the ,indians of the ,gran 
,chaco4    ,among the ,matacos or       
,mataguayos1 an ,indian tribe of the    
,gran ,chaco1 a  girl at puberty has to 
remain in seclusion for some time4 ,she 
lies  covered up with branches or other 
things in a corner of the hut1 seeing   
no one and speaking to no one1 and      
during this time she may eat neither    
flesh nor fish4 ,meantime a man beats a 
drum in front of the house4#acf         
,similarly among the ,tobas1 another    
,indian tribe of the same region1 when  
a chief's daughter has just attained to 
womanhood1 she is shut up for  two or   
three days in the house1 all the men of 
the tribe scour the  country to bring in
 game and fish for a feast1 and a       
,mataco ,indian is  engaged to drum1    
sing1 and dance in front of the house   
without  cessation1 day and night1 till 

the festival is over4 ,as the           
merrymaking  lasts for two or three     
weeks1 the exhaustion of the musician at
 the end  of it may be readily          
conceived4 ,meat and drink are supplied 
to him on  the spot where he pays his   
laborious court to the ,muses4 ,the     
proceedings  wind up with a saturnalia  
and a drunken debauch4#acg ,among the   
,yaguas1  an ,indian tribe of the ,upper
 ,amazon1 a girl at puberty is shut up  
for  three months in a lonely hut in the
 forest1 where her mother brings her    
food daily4#ach ,when a girl of the     
,peguenches tribe perceives in  herself 
the first signs of womanhood1 she is    
secluded by her mother in a  corner of  
the hut screened off with blankets1 and 
is warned not to lift  up her eyes on   
any man4 ,next day1 very early in the   
morning and again  after sunset1 she is 
taken out by two women and made to run  
till she is  tired2 in the interval she 
is again secluded in her corner4 ,on the
  following day she lays three packets  

of wool beside the path near the  house 
to signify that she is now a woman4#aci 
,among the ,passes1 ,mauhes1  and other 
tribes of ,brazil the young woman in    
similar circumstances is  hung in her   
hammock from the roof and has to fast   
there for a month or  as long as she can
 hold out4#adj ,one of the early        
settlers in ,brazil1  about the middle  
of the sixteenth century1 has described 
the severe  ordeal which damsels at     
puberty had to undergo among the        
,indians on the  south-east coast of    
that country1 near what is now ,rio de  
,janeiro4 ,when  a girl had reached this
 critical period of life1 her hair was  
burned or  shaved off close to the head4
 ,then she was placed on a flat stone   
and  cut with the tooth of an animal    
from the shoulders all down the back1   
till she ran with blood4 ,next the ashes
 of a wild gourd were rubbed into  the  
wounds2 the girl was bound hand and     
foot1 and hung in a hammock1  being     
enveloped in it so closely that no one  

could see her4 ,here she had  to stay   
for three days without eating or        
drinking4 ,when the three days  were    
over1 she stepped out of the hammock    
upon the flat stone1 for her  feet might
 not touch the ground4 ,if she had a    
call of nature1 a female  relation took 
the girl on her back and carried her    
out1 taking with her  a live coal to    
prevent evil influences from entering   
the girl's body4  ,being replaced in her
 hammock1 she was now allowed to get    
some flour1  boiled roots1 and water1   
but might not taste salt or flesh4 ,thus
 she  continued to the end of the first 
monthly period1 at the expiry of which  
she was gashed on the breast and belly  
as well as all down the back4  ,during  
the second month she still stayed in her
 hammock1 but her rule of  abstinence   
was less rigid1 and she was allowed to  
spin4 ,the third month  she was         
blackened with a certain pigment and    
began to go about as  usual4#ada        
,seclusion of girls at puberty among the

 ,indians of ,guiana2 custom of  beating
 the girls and of causing them to be    
stung by ants4    ,amongst the ,macusis 
of ,british ,guiana1 when a girl shews  
the first signs  of puberty1 she is hung
 in a hammock at the highest point of   
the hut4  ,for the first few days she   
may not leave the hammock by day1 but at
  night she must come down1 light a     
fire1 and spend the night beside it1    
else she would break out in sores on her
 neck1 throat1 and other parts  of her  
body4 ,so long as the symptoms are at   
their height1 she must fast  rigorously4
 ,when they have abated1 she may come   
down and take up her  abode in a little 
compartment that is made for her in the 
darkest corner  of the hut4 ,in the     
morning she may cook her food1 but it   
must be at a  separate fire and in a    
vessel of her own4 ,after about ten days
 the  magician comes and undoes the     
spell by muttering charms and breathing 
on  her and on the more valuable of the 
things with which she has come in       

contact4 ,the pots and drinking-vessels 
which she used are broken and the       
fragments buried4 ,after her first bath1
 the girl must submit to be  beaten by  
her mother with thin rods without       
uttering a cry4 ,at the end  of the     
second period she is again beaten1 but  
not afterwards4 ,she is now  clean1 and 
can mix again with people4#adb ,other   
,indians of ,guiana1  after keeping the 
girl in her hammock at the top of the   
hut for a month1  expose her to certain 
large ants1 whose bite is very          
painful4#adc  ,sometimes1 in addition to
 being stung with ants1 the sufferer has
 to  fast day and night so long as she  
remains slung up on high in her         
hammock1 so that when she comes down she
 is reduced to a skeleton4 ,the         
intention of stinging her with ants is  
said to be to make her strong to  bear  
the burden of maternity4#add ,amongst   
the ,uaupes of ,brazil a girl  at       
puberty is secluded in the house for a  
month1 and allowed only a  small        

quantity of bread and water4 ,then she  
is taken out into the midst  of her     
relations and friends1 each of whom     
gives her four or five blows  with      
pieces of sipo 7an elastic climber71    
till she falls senseless or  dead4 ,if  
she recovers1 the operation is repeated 
four times at intervals  of six hours1  
and it is considered an offence to the  
parents not to  strike hard4 ,meantime1 
pots of meats and fish have been made   
ready2 the  sipos are dipped into them  
and then given to the girl to lick1 who 
is  now considered a marriageable       
woman4#ade    ,custom in ,south ,america
 of causing young men to be stung with  
ants as  an initiatory rite4    ,the    
custom of stinging the girl at such     
times with ants or beating her  with    
rods is intended1 we may be sure1 not as
 a punishment or a test of  endurance1  
but as a purification1 the object being 
to drive away the  malignant influences 
with which a girl in this condition is  
believed to  be beset and enveloped4    

,examples of purification1 by beating1  
by  incisions in the flesh1 and by      
stinging with ants1 have already come   
before us4#adf ,in some ,indian tribes  
of ,brazil and ,guiana young men do  not
 rank as warriors and may not marry till
 they have passed through a  terrible   
ordeal1 which consists in being stung by
 swarms of venomous  ants whose bite is 
like fire4 ,thus among the ,mauhes on   
the ,tapajos  river1 a southern         
tributary of the ,amazon1 boys of eight 
to ten years  are obliged to thrust     
their arms into sleeves stuffed with    
great  ferocious ants1 which the        
,indians call tocandeira 7,cryptocerus  
atratus1 ,f474 ,when the young victim   
shrieks with pain1 an excited mob  of   
men dances round him1 shouting and      
encouraging him till he falls  exhausted
 to the ground4 ,he is then committed to
 the care of old women1  who treat his  
fearfully swollen arms with fresh juice 
of the manioc2 and  on his recovery he  
has to shew his strength and skill in   

bending a bow4  ,this cruel ordeal is   
commonly repeated again and again1 till 
the lad has  reached his fourteenth year
 and can bear the agony without         
betraying any  sign of emotion4 ,then he
 is a man and can marry4 ,a lad's age is
 reckoned  by the number of times he has
 passed through the ordeal4#adg ,an     
eye-witness has described how a young   
,mauhe hero bore the torture with  an   
endurance more than ,spartan1 dancing   
and singing1 with his arms cased  in the
 terrible mittens1 before every cabin of
 the great common house1  till pallid1  
staggering1 and with chattering teeth he
 triumphantly laid  the gloves before   
the old chief and received the          
congratulations of the  men and the     
caresses of the women2 then breaking    
away from his friends  and admirers he  
threw himself into the river and        
remained in its cool  soothing water    
till nightfall4#adh ,similarly among the
 ,ticunas of the  ,upper ,amazon1 on the
 border of ,peru1 the young man who     

would take his  place among the warriors
 must plunge his arm into a sort of     
basket full  of venomous ants and keep  
it there for several minutes without    
uttering  a cry4 ,he generally falls    
backwards and sometimes succumbs to the 
fever  which ensues2 hence as soon as   
the ordeal is over the women are        
prodigal  of their attentions to him1   
and rub the swollen arm with a          
particular  kind of herb4#adi ,ordeals  
of this sort appear to be in vogue among
 the  ,indians of the ,rio ,negro as    
well as of the ,amazon4#aej ,among the  
,rucuyennes1 a tribe of ,indians in the 
north of ,brazil1 on the borders of     
,guiana1 young men who are candidates   
for marriage must submit to be  stung   
all over their persons not only with    
ants but with wasps1 which  are applied 
to their naked bodies in curious        
instruments of trellis-work  shaped like
 fantastic quadrupeds or birds4 ,the    
patient invariably falls  down in a     
swoon and is carried like dead to his   

hammock1 where he is  tightly lashed    
with cords4 ,as they come to themselves1
 they writhe in  agony1 so that their   
hammocks rock violently to and fro1     
causing the hut  to shake as if it were 
about to collapse4 ,this dreadful ordeal
 is called  by the ,indians a marak4#aea
    ,custom of causing men and women to 
be stung with ants to improve their     
character and health or to render them  
invulnerable4    ,the same ordeal1 under
 the same name1 is also practised by the
 ,wayanas1  an ,indian tribe of ,french 
,guiana1 but with them1 we are told1 it 
is no  longer deemed an indispensable   
preliminary to marriage2 it is rather a 
sort of national medicine administered  
chiefly to the youth of both  sexes4    
,applied to men1 the marak1 as it is    
called1 sharpens them1  prevents them   
from being heavy and lazy1 makes them   
active1 brisk1  industrious1 imparts    
strength1 and helps them to shoot well  
with the  bow2 without it the ,indians  
would always be slack and rather sickly1

  would always have a little fever1 and 
would lie perpetually in their          
hammocks4 ,as for the women1 the marak  
keeps them from going to sleep1  renders
 them active1 alert1 brisk1 gives them  
strength and a liking for  work1 makes  
them good housekeepers1 good workers at 
the stockade1 good  makers of cachiri4  
,every one undergoes the marak at least 
twice in  his life1 sometimes thrice1   
and oftener if he likes4 ,it may be had 
from  the age of about eight years and  
upward1 and no one thinks it odd that a 
man of forty should voluntarily submit  
to it4#aeb ,similarly the  ,indians of  
,st4 ,juan ,capistrano in ,california   
used to be branded on some  part of     
their bodies1 generally on the right    
arm1 but sometimes on the  leg also1 not
 as a proof of manly fortitude1 but     
because they believed  that the custom  
added greater strength to the nerves1   
and gave a better  pulse for the        
management of the bow4 ,afterwards they 
were whipped with  nettles1 and covered 

with ants1 that they might become       
robust1 and the  infliction was always  
performed in summer1 during the months  
of ,july and  ,august1 when the nettle  
was in its most fiery state4 ,they      
gathered small  bunches1 which they     
fastened together1 and the poor deluded 
,indian was  chastised1 by inflicting   
blows with them upon his naked limbs1   
until  unable to walk2 and then he was  
carried to the nest of the nearest and  
most furious species of ants1 and laid  
down among them1 while some of  his     
friends1 with sticks1 kept annoying the 
insects to make them still  more        
violent4 ,what torments did they not    
undergo6 ,what pain6 ,what  hellish     
inflictions6 ,yet their faith gave them 
power to endure all  without a murmur1  
and they remained as if dead4 ,having   
undergone these  dreadful ordeals1 they 
were considered as invulnerable1 and    
believed  that the arrows of their      
enemies could no longer harm them4#aec  
,among  the ,alur1 a tribe inhabiting   

the south-western region of the upper   
,nile1  to bury a man in an ant-hill and
 leave him there for a while is the     
regular treatment for insanity4#aed     
,in such cases the beating or stinging  
was originally a purification2 at  a    
later time it is interpreted as a test  
of courage and endurance4    ,in like   
manner it is probable that beating or   
scourging as a religious  or ceremonial 
rite was originally a mode of           
purification4 ,it was meant  to wipe off
 and drive away a dangerous contagion1  
whether personified as  demoniacal or   
not1 which was supposed to be adhering  
physically1 though  invisibly1 to the   
body of the sufferer4#aee ,the pain     
inflicted on the  person beaten was no  
more the object of the beating than it  
is of a  surgical operation with us2 it 
was a necessary accident1 that was all4 
,in later times such customs were       
interpreted otherwise1 and the pain1    
from being an accident1 became the prime
 object of the ceremony1 which  was now 

regarded either as a test of endurance  
imposed upon persons at  critical epochs
 of life1 or as a mortification of the  
flesh well  pleasing to the god4 ,but   
asceticism1 under any shape or form1 is 
never  primitive4 ,the savage1 it is    
true1 in certain circumstances will     
voluntarily subject himself to pains and
 privations which appear to us  wholly  
needless2 but he never acts thus unless 
he believes that some  solid temporal   
advantage is to be gained by so doing4  
,pain for the sake  of pain1 whether as 
a moral discipline in this life or as a 
means of  winning a glorious immortality
 hereafter1 is not an object which he   
sets  himself deliberately to pursue4   
,this explanation confirmed with        
reference to the beating of girls at    
puberty among the ,south ,american      
,indians2 treatment of a girl at puberty
  among the ,banivas of the ,orinoco2   
symptoms of puberty in a girl regarded  
as wounds inflicted by a demon4    ,if  
this view is correct1 we can understand 

why so many ,indian tribes of  ,south   
,america compel the youth of both sexes 
to submit to these painful  and         
sometimes fatal ordeals4 ,they imagine  
that in this way they rid the  young    
folk of certain evils inherent in youth1
 especially at the  critical age of     
puberty2 and when they picture to       
themselves the evils  in a personal form
 as dangerous spirits or demons1 the    
ceremony of their  expulsion may in the 
strict sense be termed an exorcism4     
,this certainly  appears to be the      
interpretation which the ,banivas of the
 ,orinoco put  upon the cruel scourgings
 which they inflict on girls at puberty4
 ,at her  first menstruation a ,baniva  
girl must pass several days and nights  
in  her hammock1 almost motionless and  
getting nothing to eat and drink but    
water and a little manioc4 ,while she   
lies there1 the suitors for her  hand   
apply to her father1 and he who can     
afford to give most for her or  can     
prove himself the best man1 is promised 

the damsel in marriage4 ,the  fast over1
 some old men enter the hut1 bandage the
 girl's eyes1 cover  her head with a    
bonnet of which the fringes fall on her 
shoulders1 and  then lead her forth and 
tie her to a post set up in an open     
place4 ,the  head of the post is carved 
in the shape of a grotesque face4 ,none 
but  the old men may witness what       
follows4 ,were a woman caught peeping   
and  prying1 it would go ill with her2  
she would be marked out for the         
vengeance of the demon1 who would make  
her expiate her crime at the very  next 
moon by madness or death4 ,every        
participant in the ceremony comes  armed
 with a scourge of cords or of fish     
skins2 some of them reinforce  the      
virtue of the instrument by tying little
 sharp stones to the end of  the thongs4
 ,then1 to the dismal and deafening     
notes of shell-trumpets  blown by two or
 three supernumeraries1 the men circle  
round and round  the post1 every one    
applying his scourge as he passes to the

 girl's  back1 till it streams with     
blood4 ,at last the musicians1 winding  
tremendous blasts on their trumpets     
against the demon1 advance and touch    
the post in which he is supposed to be  
incorporate4 ,then the blows cease  to  
descend2 the girl is untied1 often in a 
fainting state1 and carried  away to    
have her wounds washed and simples      
applied to them4 ,the youngest  of the  
executioners1 or rather of the          
exorcists1 hastens to inform her        
betrothed husband of the happy issue of 
the exorcism4 ,the spirit1 he  says1 had
 cast thy beloved into a sleep as deep  
almost as that of  death4 ,but we have  
rescued her from his attacks1 and laid  
her down in  such and such a place4 ,go 
seek her4 ,then going from house to     
house  through the village he cries to  
the inmates1 ,come1 let us burn the     
demon who would have taken possession of
 such and such a girl1 our  friend4 ,the
 bridegroom at once carries his wounded 
and suffering bride  to his own house2  

and all the people gather round the post
 for the  pleasure of burning it and the
 demon together4 ,a great pile of       
firewood  has meanwhile been heaped up  
about it1 and the women run round the   
pyre  cursing in shrill voices the      
wicked spirit who has wrought all this  
evil4 ,the men join in with hoarser     
cries and animate themselves for the    
business in hand by deep draughts of an 
intoxicant which has been  provided for 
the occasion by the parents-in-law4     
,soon the bridegroom1  having committed 
the bride to the care of his mother1    
appears on the  scene brandishing a     
lighted torch4 ,he addresses the demon  
with bitter  mockery and reproaches2    
informs him that the fair creature on   
whom he1  the demon1 had nefarious      
designs1 is now his1 the bridegroom's1  
blooming  spouse2 and shaking his torch 
at the grinning head on the post1 he    
screams out1 ,this is how the victims of
 thy persecution take vengeance  on     
thee6 ,with these words he puts a light 

to the pyre4 ,at once the  drums strike 
up1 the trumpets blare1 and men1 women1 
and children begin  to dance4 ,in two   
long rows they dance1 the men on one    
side1 the women on  the other1 advancing
 till they almost touch and then        
retiring again4  ,after that the two    
rows join hands1 and forming a huge     
circle trip it  round and round the     
blaze1 till the post with its grotesque 
face is  consumed in the flames and     
nothing of the pyre remains but a heap  
of red  and glowing embers4 ,the evil   
spirit has been destroyed4 ,thus        
delivered  from her persecutor1 the     
young wife will be free from sickness1  
will not  die in childbed1 and will bear
 many children to her husband4#aef ,from
  this account it appears that the      
,banivas attribute the symptoms of      
puberty in girls to the wounds inflicted
 on them by an amorous devil1  who1     
however1 can be not only exorcised but  
burnt to ashes at the stake4       #f4  
,seclusion of ,girls at ,puberty in     

,india and ,cambodia      ,seclusion of 
girls at puberty among the ,hindoos2    
seclusion of girls at  puberty in       
,southern ,india4    ,when a ,hindoo    
maiden reaches maturity she is kept in a
 dark room for  four days1 and is       
forbidden to see the sun4 ,she is       
regarded as unclean2  no one may touch  
her4 ,her diet is restricted to boiled  
rice1 milk1  sugar1 curd1 and tamarind  
without salt4 ,on the morning of the    
fifth day  she goes to a neighbouring   
tank1 accompanied by five women whose   
husbands are alive4 ,smeared with       
turmeric water1 they all bathe and      
return home1 throwing away the mat and  
other things that were in the  room4#aeg
 ,the ,rarhi ,brahmans of ,bengal compel
 a girl at puberty to live  alone1 and  
do not allow her to see the face of any 
male4 ,for three days  she remains shut 
up in a dark room1 and has to undergo   
certain penances4  ,fish1 flesh1 and    
sweetmeats are forbidden her2 she must  
live upon rice  and ghee4#aeh ,among the

 ,tiyans of ,malabar a girl is thought  
to be  polluted for four days from the  
beginning of her first menstruation4    
,during this time she must keep to the  
north side of the house1 where she      
sleeps on a grass mat of a particular   
kind1 in a room festooned with  garlands
 of young coco-nut leaves4 ,another girl
 keeps her company and  sleeps with her1
 but she may not touch any other person1
 tree or plant4  ,further1 she may not  
see the sky1 and woe betide her if she  
catches  sight of a crow or a cat6 ,her 
diet must be strictly vegetarian1       
without  salt1 tamarinds1 or chillies4  
,she is armed against evil spirits by a 
knife1 which is placed on the mat or    
carried on her person4#aei ,among  the  
,kappiliyans of ,madura and ,tinnevelly 
a girl at her first monthly  period     
remains under pollution for thirteen    
days1 either in a corner of  the house1 
which is screened off for her use by her
 maternal uncle1 or  in a temporary hut1
 which is erected by the same relative  

on the common  land of the village4 ,on 
the thirteenth day she bathes in a tank1
 and1 on  entering the house1 steps over
 a pestle and a cake4 ,near the entrance
  some food is placed and a dog is      
allowed to partake of it2 but his       
enjoyment is marred by suffering1 for   
while he eats he receives a sound       
thrashing1 and the louder he howls the  
better1 for the larger will be  the     
family to which the young woman will    
give birth2 should there be no  howls1  
there will be no children4 ,the         
temporary hut in which the girl  passed 
the days of her seclusion is burnt down1
 and the pots which she  used are       
smashed to shivers4#afj ,similarly among
 the ,parivarams of  ,madura1 when a    
girl attains to puberty she is kept for 
sixteen days in a  hut1 which is guarded
 at night by her relations2 and when her
  sequestration is over the hut is burnt
 down and the pots she used are  broken 
into very small pieces1 because they    
think that if rain-water  gathered in   

any of them1 the girl would be          
childless4#afa ,the ,pulayars  of       
,travancore build a special hut in the  
jungle for the use of a girl at         
puberty2 there she remains for seven    
days4 ,no one else may enter the  hut1  
not even her mother4 ,women stand a     
little way off and lay down food  for   
her4 ,at the end of the time she is     
brought home1 clad in a new or  clean   
cloth1 and friends are treated to       
betel-nut1 toddy1 and  arack4#afb ,among
 the ,singhalese a girl at her first    
menstruation is  confined to a room1    
where she may neither see nor be seen by
 any male4  ,after being thus secluded  
for two weeks she is taken out1 with her
 face  covered1 and is bathed by women  
at the back of the house4 ,near the     
bathing-place are kept branches of any  
milk-bearing tree1 usually of the       
jak-tree4 ,in some cases1 while the time
 of purification or uncleanness  lasts1 
the maiden stays in a separate hut1     
which is afterwards burnt  down4#afc    

,seclusion of girls at puberty in       
,cambodia4    ,in ,cambodia a girl at   
puberty is put to bed under a mosquito  
curtain1  where she should stay a       
hundred days4 ,usually1 however1 four1  
five1 ten1  or twenty days are thought  
enough2 and even this1 in a hot climate 
and  under the close meshes of the      
curtain1 is sufficiently trying4#afd    
,according to another account1 a        
,cambodian maiden at puberty is said to 
enter into the shade4 ,during her       
retirement1 which1 according to the     
rank and position of her family1 may    
last any time from a few days to        
several years1 she has to observe a     
number of rules1 such as not to be  seen
 by a strange man1 not to eat flesh or  
fish1 and so on4 ,she goes  nowhere1 not
 even to the pagoda4 ,but this state of 
seclusion is  discontinued during       
eclipses2 at such times she goes forth  
and pays her  devotions to the monster  
who is supposed to cause eclipses by    
catching  the heavenly bodies between   

his teeth4#afe ,this permission to break
 her  rule of retirement and appear     
abroad during an eclipse seems to shew  
how  literally the injunction is        
interpreted which forbids maidens       
entering  on womanhood to look upon the 
sun4       #g4 ,seclusion of ,girls at  
,puberty in ,folk-tales      ,traces of 
the seclusion of girls at puberty in    
folk-tales4 ,danish story  of the girl  
who might not see the sun4    ,a        
superstition so widely diffused as this 
might be expected to leave  traces in   
legends and folk-tales4 ,and it has done
 so4 ,in a ,danish story  we read of a  
princess who was fated to be carried off
 by a warlock if  ever the sun shone on 
her before she had passed her thirtieth 
year2 so  the king her father kept her  
shut up in the palace1 and had all the  
windows on the east1 south1 and west    
sides blocked up1 lest a sunbeam  should
 fall on his darling child1 and he      
should thus lose her for ever4  ,only at
 evening1 when the sun was down1 might  

she walk for a little in  the beautiful 
garden of the castle4 ,in time a prince 
came a-wooing1  followed by a train of  
gorgeous knights and squires on horses  
all ablaze  with gold and silver4 ,the  
king said the prince might have his     
daughter  to wife on condition that he  
would not carry her away to his home    
till  she was thirty years old but would
 live with her in the castle1 where  the
 windows looked out only to the north4  
,the prince agreed1 so married  they    
were4 ,the bride was only fifteen1 and  
fifteen more long weary years  must pass
 before she might step out of the gloomy
 donjon1 breathe the  fresh air1 and see
 the sun4 ,but she and her gallant young
 bridegroom  loved each other and they  
were happy4 ,often they sat hand in hand
 at the  window looking out to the north
 and talked of what they would do when  
they were free4 ,still it was a little  
dull to look out always at the  same    
window and to see nothing but the castle
 woods1 and the distant  hills1 and the 

clouds drifting silently over them4     
,well1 one day it  happened that all the
 people in the castle had gone away to a
  neighbouring castle to witness a      
tournament and other gaieties1 and the  
two young folks were left as usual all  
alone at the window looking out  to the 
north4 ,they sat silent for a time      
gazing away to the hills4 ,it  was a    
grey sad day1 the sky was overcast1 and 
the weather seemed to draw  to rain4 ,at
 last the prince said1 ,there will be no
 sunshine to-day4  ,what if we were to  
drive over and join the rest at the     
tournament8 ,his  young wife gladly     
consented1 for she longed to see more of
 the world  than those eternal green    
woods and those eternal blue hills1     
which were  all she ever saw from the   
window4 ,so the horses were put into the
 coach1  and it rattled up to the door1 
and in they got and away they drove4 ,at
  first all went well4 ,the clouds hung 
low over the woods1 the wind sighed  in 
the trees1 a drearier day you could     

hardly imagine4 ,so they joined  the    
rest at the other castle and took their 
seats to watch the jousting  in the     
lists4 ,so intent were they in watching 
the gay spectacle of the  prancing      
steeds1 the fluttering pennons1 and the 
glittering armour of  the knights1 that 
they failed to mark the change1 the     
fatal change1 in  the weather4 ,for the 
wind was rising and had begun to        
disperse the  clouds1 and suddenly the  
sun broke through1 and the glory of it  
fell  like an aureole on the young wife1
 and at once she vanished away4 ,no     
sooner did her husband miss her from his
 side than he1 too1 mysteriously        
disappeared4 ,the tournament broke up in
 confusion1 the bereft father  hastened 
home1 and shut himself up in the dark   
castle from which the  light of life had
 departed4 ,the green woods and the blue
 hills could  still be seen from the    
window that looked to the north1 but the
 young  faces that had gazed out of it  
so wistfully were gone1 as it seemed1   

for  ever4#aff    ,tyrolese story of the
 girl who might not see the sun4    ,a  
,tyrolese story tells how it was the    
doom of a lovely maiden with  golden    
hair to be transported into the belly of
 a whale if ever a  sunbeam fell on her4
 ,hearing of the fame of her beauty the 
king of the  country sent for her to be 
his bride1 and her brother drove the    
fair  damsel to the palace in a         
carefully closed coach1 himself sitting 
on the  box and handling the reins4 ,on 
the way they overtook two hideous       
witches1 who pretended they were weary  
and begged for a lift in the  coach4 ,at
 first the brother refused to take them 
in1 but his  tender-hearted sister      
entreated him to have compassion on the 
two poor  footsore women2 for you may   
easily imagine that she was not         
acquainted  with their true character4  
,so down he got rather surlily from the 
box1  opened the coach door1 and in the 
two witches stepped1 laughing in their  
sleeves4 ,but no sooner had the brother 

mounted the box and whipped up  the     
horses1 than one of the two wicked      
witches bored a hole in the  closed     
coach4 ,a sunbeam at once shot through  
the hole and fell on the  fair damsel4  
,so she vanished from the coach and was 
spirited away into  the belly of a whale
 in the neighbouring sea4 ,you can      
imagine the  consternation of the king1 
when the coach door opened and instead  
of his  blooming bride out bounced two  
hideous hags6#afg    ,modern ,greek     
stories of the maid who might not see   
the sun4    ,in a modern ,greek         
folk-tale the ,fates predict that in her
 fifteenth year  a princess must be     
careful not to let the sun shine on her1
 for if this  were to happen she would  
be turned into a lizard4#afh ,in another
 modern  ,greek tale the ,sun bestows a 
daughter upon a childless woman on      
condition of taking the child back to   
himself when she is twelve years  old4  
,so1 when the child was twelve1 the     
mother closed the doors and  windows1   

and stopped up all the chinks and       
crannies1 to prevent the ,sun  from     
coming to fetch away her daughter4 ,but 
she forgot to stop up the  key-hole1 and
 a sunbeam streamed through it and      
carried off the  girl4#afi ,in a        
,sicilian story a seer foretells that a 
king will have a  daughter who1 in her  
fourteenth year1 will conceive a child  
by the ,sun4  ,so1 when the child was   
born1 the king shut her up in a lonely  
tower  which had no window1 lest a      
sunbeam should fall on her4 ,when she   
was  nearly fourteen years old1 it      
happened that her parents sent her a    
piece  of roasted kid1 in which she     
found a sharp bone4 ,with this bone she 
scraped a hole in the wall1 and a       
sunbeam shot through the hole and got   
her with child4#agj    ,the story of    
,danae and its parallel in a ,kirghiz   
legend4    ,the old ,greek story of     
,danae1 who was confined by her father  
in a  subterranean chamber or a brazen  
tower1 but impregnated by ,zeus1 who    

reached her in the shape of a shower of 
gold1#aga perhaps belongs to  the same  
class of tales4 ,it has its counterpart 
in the legend which the  ,kirghiz of    
,siberia tell of their ancestry4 ,a     
certain ,khan had a fair  daughter1 whom
 he kept in a dark iron house1 that no  
man might see her4  ,an old woman tended
 her2 and when the girl was grown to    
maidenhood she  asked the old woman1    
,where do you go so often8 ,my child1   
said the  old dame1 there is a bright   
world4 ,in that bright world your father
 and  mother live1 and all sorts of     
people live there4 ,that is where ,i go4
  ,the maiden said1 ,good mother1 ,i    
will tell nobody1 but shew me that      
bright world4 ,so the old woman took the
 girl out of the iron house4 ,but  when 
she saw the bright world1 the girl      
tottered and fainted2 and the  eye of   
,god fell upon her1 and she conceived4  
,her angry father put her in  a golden  
chest and sent her floating away 7fairy 
gold can float in  fairyland7 over the  

wide sea4#agb ,the shower of gold in the
 ,greek  story1 and the eye of ,god in  
the ,kirghiz legend1 probably stand for 
sunlight and the sun4    ,impregnation  
of women by the sun in legends4    ,the 
idea that women may be impregnated by   
the sun is not uncommon in  legends4    
,thus1 for example1 among the ,indians  
of ,guacheta in ,colombia1  it is said1 
a report once ran that the sun would    
impregnate one of their  maidens1 who   
should bear a child and yet remain a    
virgin4 ,the chief had  two daughters1  
and was very desirous that one of them  
should conceive in  this miraculous     
manner4 ,so every day he made them climb
 a hill to the  east of his house in    
order to be touched by the first beams  
of the  rising sun4 ,his wishes were    
fulfilled1 for one of the damsels       
conceived  and after nine months gave   
birth to an emerald4 ,so she wrapped it 
in  cotton and placed it in her bosom1  
and in a few days it turned into a      
child1 who received the name of         

,garanchacha and was universally        
recognized as a son of the sun4#agc     
,again1 the ,samoans tell of a woman    
named ,mangamangai1 who became pregnant 
by looking at the rising sun4 ,her  son 
grew up and was named ,child of the     
,sun4 ,at his marriage he applied  to   
his mother for a dowry1 but she bade him
 apply to his father1 the  sun1 and told
 him how to go to him4 ,so one morning  
he took a long vine  and made a noose in
 it2 then climbing up a tree he threw   
the noose over  the sun and caught him  
fast4 ,thus arrested in his progress1   
the luminary  asked him what he wanted1 
and being told by the young man that he 
wanted  a present for his bride1 the sun
 obligingly packed up a store of        
blessings in a basket1 with which the   
youth descended to the earth4#agd       
,traces in marriage customs of the      
belief that women can be impregnated  by
 the sun4    ,even in the marriage      
customs of various races we may perhaps 
detect  traces of this belief that women

 can be impregnated by the sun4 ,thus   
amongst the ,chaco ,indians of ,south   
,america a newly married couple used  to
 sleep the first night on a mare's or   
bullock's skin with their heads  towards
 the west1 for the marriage is not      
considered ratified till the  rising sun
 shines on their feet the succeeding    
morning4#age ,at old  ,hindoo marriages 
the first ceremony was the              
,impregnation-rite  7,garbhadhana72     
during the previous day the bride was   
made to  look towards the sun or to be  
in some way exposed to its rays4#agf    
,amongst the ,turks of ,siberia it was  
formerly the custom on the morning      
after the marriage to lead the young    
couple out of the hut to greet the      
rising sun4 ,the same custom is said to 
be still practised in ,iran and         
,central ,asia under a belief that the  
beams of the rising sun are the  surest 
means of impregnating the new bride4#agg
    ,belief in the impregnation of women
 by the moon4    ,and as some people    

think that women may be gotten with     
child by the sun1  so others imagine    
that they can conceive by the moon4     
,according to the  ,greenlanders the    
moon is a young man1 and he now and then
 comes down to  give their wives a visit
 and caress them2 for which reason no   
woman dare  sleep lying upon her back1  
without she first spits upon her fingers
 and  rubs her belly with it4 ,for the  
same reason the young maids are afraid  
to stare long at the moon1 imagining    
they may get a child by the             
bargain4#agh ,similarly ,breton peasants
 are reported to believe that  women or 
girls who expose their persons to the   
moonlight may be  impregnated by it and 
give birth to monsters4#agi       #h4   
,reasons for the ,seclusion of ,girls at
 ,puberty      ,the reason for the      
seclusion of women at puberty is the    
dread of  menstruous blood4    ,the     
motive for the restraints so commonly   
imposed on girls at puberty is  the     
deeply engrained dread which primitive  

man universally entertains of           
menstruous blood4 ,he fears it at all   
times but especially on its first       
appearance2 hence the restrictions under
 which women lie at their first         
menstruation are usually more stringent 
than those which they have to  observe  
at any subsequent recurrence of the     
mysterious flow4 ,some  evidence of the 
fear and of the customs based on it has 
been cited in an  earlier part of this  
work2#ahj but as the terror1 for it is  
nothing  less1 which the phenomenon     
periodically strikes into the mind of   
the  savage has deeply influenced his   
life and institutions1 it may be well   
to illustrate the subject with some     
further examples4    ,dread and         
seclusion of menstruous women among the 
aborigines of  ,australia4    ,thus in  
the ,encounter ,bay tribe of ,south     
,australia there is1 or used to  be1 a  
superstition which obliges a woman to   
separate herself from the  camp at the  
time of her monthly illness1 when1 if a 

young man or boy  should approach1 she  
calls out1 and he immediately makes a   
circuit to  avoid her4 ,if she is       
neglectful upon this point1 she exposes 
herself to  scolding1 and sometimes to  
severe beating by her husband or nearest
  relation1 because the boys are told   
from their infancy1 that if they see    
the blood they will early become        
grey-headed1 and their strength will    
fail prematurely4#aha ,and of the ,south
 ,australian aborigines in  general we  
read that there is a custom requiring   
all boys and  uninitiated young men to  
sleep at some distance from the huts of 
the  adults1 and to remove altogether   
away in the morning as soon as daylight 
dawns1 and the natives begin to move    
about4 ,this is to prevent their  seeing
 the women1 some of whom may be         
menstruating2 and if looked upon  by the
 young males1 it is supposed that dire  
results will follow4#ahb  ,and amongst  
these tribes women in their courses are 
not allowed to eat  fish of any kind1 or

 to go near the water at all2 it being  
one of their  superstitions1 that if a  
female1 in that state1 goes near the    
water1 no  success can be expected by   
the men in fishing4#ahc ,similarly1     
among  the natives of the ,murray       
,river1 menstruous women were not       
allowed to  go near water for fear of   
frightening the fish4 ,they were also   
not  allowed to eat them1 for the same  
reason4 ,a woman during such periods    
would never cross the river in a canoe1 
or even fetch water for the  camp4 ,it  
was sufficient for her to say ,thama1 to
 ensure her husband  getting the water  
himself4#ahd ,the ,dieri of ,central    
,australia believe  that if women at    
these times were to eat fish or bathe in
 a river1 the  fish would all die and   
the water would dry up4 ,in this tribe a
 mark made  with red ochre round a      
woman's mouth indicates that she has her
 courses2  no one would offer fish to   
such a woman4#ahe ,the ,arunta of       
,central  ,australia forbid menstruous  

women to gather the irriakura bulbs1    
which  form a staple article of diet for
 both men and women4 ,they believe that 
were a woman to break this rule1 the    
supply of bulbs would fail4#ahf  ,among 
the aborigines of ,victoria the wife at 
her monthly periods had to  sleep on the
 opposite side of the fire from her     
husband2 she might  partake of nobody's 
food1 and nobody would partake of hers1 
for people  thought that if they ate or 
drank anything that had been touched by 
a  woman in her courses1 it would make  
them weak or ill4 ,unmarried girls  and 
widows at such times had to paint their 
heads and the upper parts of  their     
bodies red1#ahg no doubt as a danger    
signal4    ,severe penalties inflicted  
for breaches of the custom of seclusion4
    ,in some ,australian tribes the     
seclusion of menstruous women was even  
more rigid1 and was enforced by severer 
penalties than a scolding or a  beating4
 ,thus with regard to certain tribes of 
,new ,south ,wales and  ,southern       

,queensland we are told that during the 
monthly illness1 the  woman is not      
allowed to touch anything that men use1 
or even to walk on  a path that any man 
frequents1 on pain of death4#ahh ,again1
 there is  a regulation relating to     
camps in the ,wakelbura tribe which     
forbids the  women coming into the      
encampment by the same path as the men4 
,any  violation of this rule would in a 
large camp be punished with death4 ,the 
reason for this is the dread with which 
they regard the menstrual period  of    
women4 ,during such a time1 a woman is  
kept entirely away from the  camp1 half 
a mile at least4 ,a woman in such a     
condition has boughs of  some tree of   
her totem tied round her loins1 and is  
constantly watched  and guarded1 for it 
is thought that should any male be so   
unfortunate as  to see a woman in such a
 condition1 he would die4 ,if such a    
woman were  to let herself be seen by a 
man1 she would probably be put to death4
  ,when the woman has recovered1 she is 

painted red and white1 her head  covered
 with feathers1 and returns to the      
camp4#ahi    ,dread and seclusion of    
menstruous women in the ,torres ,straits
 ,islands1  ,new ,guinea1 ,galela1 and  
,sumatra4    ,in ,muralug1 one of the   
,torres ,straits ,islands1 a menstruous 
woman may  not eat anything that lives  
in the sea1 else the natives believe    
that  the fisheries would fail4 ,again1 
in ,mabuiag1 another of these islands1  
women who have their courses on them may
 not eat turtle flesh nor turtle  eggs1 
probably for a similar reason4 ,and     
during the season when the  turtles are 
pairing the restrictions laid on such a 
woman are much  severer4 ,she may not   
even enter a house in which there is    
turtle flesh1  nor approach a fire on   
which the flesh is cooking2 she may not 
go near  the sea and she should not walk
 on the beach below high-water mark4    
,nay1  the infection extends to her     
husband1 who may not himself harpoon or 
otherwise take an active part in        

catching turtle2 however1 he is         
permitted to form one of the crew on a  
turtling expedition1 provided he  takes 
the precaution of rubbing his armpits   
with certain leaves1 to  which no doubt 
a disinfectant virtue is ascribed4#aij  
,among the ,kai of  ,german ,new ,guinea
 women at their monthly sickness must   
live in little  huts built for them in  
the forest2 they may not enter the      
cultivated  fields1 for if they did go  
to them1 and the pigs were to taste of  
the  blood1 it would inspire the animals
 with an irresistible desire to go      
likewise into the fields1 where they    
would commit great depredations on  the 
growing crops4 ,hence the issue from    
women at these times is  carefully      
buried to prevent the pigs from getting 
at it4 ,and conversely1  if the pigs    
often break into the fields1 the blame  
is laid on the women  who by the neglect
 of these elementary precautions have   
put temptation  in the way of the       
swine4#aia ,in ,galela1 to the west of  

,new ,guinea1  women at their monthly   
periods may not enter a tobacco-field1  
or the  plants would be attacked by     
disease4#aib ,the ,minangkabauers of    
,sumatra  are persuaded that if a woman 
in her unclean state were to go near a  
rice-field1 the crop would be           
spoiled4#aic    ,dread and seclusion of 
menstruous women among the tribes of    
,south  ,africa4    ,the ,bushmen of    
,south ,africa think that1 by a glance  
of a girl's eye at  the time when she   
ought to be kept in strict retirement1  
men become  fixed in whatever position  
they happen to occupy1 with whatever    
they  were holding in their hands1 and  
are changed into trees that talk4#aid   
,cattle-rearing tribes of ,south ,africa
 hold that their cattle would die  if   
the milk were drunk by a menstruous     
woman2#aie and they fear the  same      
disaster if a drop of her blood were to 
fall on the ground and the  oxen were to
 pass over it4 ,to prevent such a       
calamity women in general1  not         

menstruous women only1 are forbidden to 
enter the cattle enclosure2  and more   
than that1 they may not use the ordinary
 paths in entering the  village or in   
passing from one hut to another4 ,they  
are obliged to make  circuitous tracks  
at the back of the huts in order to     
avoid the ground  in the middle of the  
village where the cattle stand or lie   
down4 ,these  women's tracks may be seen
 at every ,caffre village4#aif    ,dread
 and seclusion of menstruous women among
 the tribes of ,central and  ,east      
,africa4    ,similarly among the        
,bahima1 a cattle-breeding tribe of     
,ankole1 in  ,central ,africa1 no       
menstruous woman may drink milk1 lest by
 so doing she  should injure the cows2  
and she may not lie on her husband's    
bed1 no  doubt lest she should injure   
him4 ,indeed she is forbidden to lie on 
a  bed at all and must sleep on the     
ground4 ,her diet is restricted to      
vegetables and beer4#aig ,among the     
,baganda1 in like manner1 no  menstruous

 woman might drink milk or come into    
contact with any  milk-vessel2#aih and  
she might not touch anything that       
belonged to her  husband1 nor sit on his
 mat1 nor cook his food4 ,if she touched
 anything  of his at such a time it was 
deemed equivalent to wishing him dead or
 to  actually working magic for his     
destruction4#aii ,were she to handle any
  article of his1 he would surely fall  
ill2 were she to handle his  weapons1 he
 would certainly be killed in the next  
battle4 ,even a woman  who did not      
menstruate was believed by the ,baganda 
to be a source of  danger to her        
husband1 indeed capable of killing him4 
,hence1 before he  went to war1 he used 
to wound her slightly with his spear so 
as to draw  blood2 this was thought to  
ensure his safe return4#bjj ,apparently 
the  notion was that if the wife did not
 lose blood in one way or another1  her 
husband would be bled in war to make up 
for her deficiency2 so by  way of       
guarding against this undesirable event1

 he took care to relieve  her of a      
little superfluous blood before he      
repaired to the field of  honour4       
,further1 the ,baganda would not suffer 
a menstruous woman to  visit a well2 if 
she did so1 they feared that the water  
would dry up1  and that she herself     
would fall sick and die1 unless she     
confessed her  fault and the            
medicine-man made atonement for her4#bja
 ,among the  ,akikuyu of ,british ,east 
,africa1 if a new hut is built in a     
village and  the wife chances to        
menstruate in it on the day she lights  
the first  fire there1 the hut must be  
broken down and demolished the very next
  day4 ,the woman may on no account     
sleep a second night in it2 there is a  
curse 7thahu7 both on her and on it4#bjb
 ,in the ,suk tribe of ,british  ,east  
,africa warriors may not eat anything   
that has been touched by  menstruous    
women4 ,if they did so1 it is believed  
that they would lose  their virility2 in
 the rain they will shiver and in the   

heat they will  faint4 ,suk men and     
women take their meals apart1 because   
the men fear  that one or more of the   
women may be menstruating4#bjc ,the     
,anyanja of  ,british ,central ,africa1 
at the southern end of ,lake ,nyassa1   
think that a  man who should sleep with 
a woman in her courses would fall sick  
and  die1 unless some remedy were       
applied in time4 ,and with them it is a 
rule  that at such times a woman should 
not put any salt into the food she is   
cooking1 otherwise the people who       
partook of the food salted by her  would
 suffer from a certain disease called   
tsempo2 hence to obviate  the danger she
 calls a child to put the salt into the 
dish4#bjd    ,dread and seclusion of    
menstruous women among the tribes of    
,west  ,africa4    ,among the ,hos1 a   
tribe of ,ewe negroes of ,togoland in   
,west ,africa1 so  long as a wife has   
her monthly sickness she may not cook   
for her  husband1 nor lie on his bed1   
nor sit on his stool2 an infraction of  

these rules would assuredly1 it is      
believed1 cause her husband to die4  ,if
 her husband is a priest1 or a magician1
 or a chief1 she may not pass  the days 
of her uncleanness in the house1 but    
must go elsewhere till she  is          
clean4#bje ,among the ,ewe negroes of   
this region each village has its  huts  
where women who have their courses on   
them must spend their time  secluded    
from intercourse with other people4     
,sometimes these huts stand  by         
themselves in public places2 sometimes  
they are mere shelters built  either at 
the back or front of the ordinary       
dwelling-houses4 ,a woman is  punishable
 if she does not pass the time of her   
monthly sickness in one  of these huts  
or shelters provided for her use4 ,thus1
 if she shews  herself in her own house 
or even in the yard of the house1 she   
may be  fined a sheep1 which is killed1 
its flesh divided among the people1 and 
its blood poured on the image of the    
chief god as a sin-offering to  expiate 

her offence4 ,she is also forbidden to  
go to the place where the  villagers    
draw water1 and if she breaks the rule1 
she must give a goat  to be killed2 its 
flesh is distributed1 and its blood1    
diluted with  water and mixed with      
herbs1 is sprinkled on the              
watering-place and on  the paths leading
 to it4 ,were any woman to disregard    
these salutary  precautions1 the chief  
fetish-man in the village would fall    
sick and  die1 which would be an        
irreparable loss to society4#bjf        
,powerful influence ascribed to         
menstruous blood in ,arab legend4       
,the miraculous virtue ascribed to      
menstruous blood is well illustrated  in
 a story told by the ,arab chronicler   
,tabari4 ,he relates how ,sapor1  king  
of ,persia1 besieged the strong city of 
,atrae1 in the desert of  ,mesopotamia1 
for several years without being able to 
take it4 ,but the  king of the city1    
whose name was ,daizan1 had a daughter1 
and when it was  with her after the     

manner of women she went forth from the 
city and  dwelt for a time in the       
suburb1 for such was the custom of the  
place4  ,now it fell out that1 while she
 tarried there1 ,sapor saw her and loved
  her1 and she loved him2 for he was a  
handsome man and she a lovely maid4     
,and she said to him1 ,what will you    
give me if ,i shew you how you may      
destroy the walls of this city and slay 
my father8 ,and he said to her1  ,i will
 give you what you will1 and ,i will    
exalt you above my other  wives1 and    
will set you nearer to me than them all4
 ,then she said to  him1 ,take a        
greenish dove with a ring about its     
neck1 and write  something on its foot  
with the menstruous blood of a blue-eyed
 maid2  then let the bird loose1 and it 
will perch on the walls of the city1 and
  they will fall down4 ,for that1 says  
the ,arab historian1 was the  talisman  
of the city1 which could not be         
destroyed in any other way4 ,and  ,sapor
 did as she bade him1 and the city fell 

down in a heap1 and he  stormed it and  
slew ,daizan on the spot4#bjg    ,dread 
and seclusion of menstruous women among 
the ,jews and in ,syria4    ,according  
to the ,talmud1 if a woman at the       
beginning of her period  passes between 
two men1 she thereby kills one of them2 
if she passes  between them towards the 
end of her period1 she only causes them 
to  quarrel violently4#bjh ,maimonides  
tells us that down to his time it was  a
 common custom in the ,east to keep     
women at their periods in a separate    
house and to burn everything on which   
they had trodden2 a man who spoke  with 
such a woman or who was merely exposed  
to the same wind that blew  over her1   
became thereby unclean4#bji ,peasants of
 the ,lebanon think  that menstruous    
women are the cause of many misfortunes2
 their shadow  causes flowers to wither 
and trees to perish1 it even arrests the
  movements of serpents2 if one of them 
mounts a horse1 the animal might  die or
 at least be disabled for a long        

time4#baj ,in ,syria to this day a      
woman who has her courses on her may    
neither salt nor pickle1 for the  people
 think that whatever she pickled or     
salted would not keep4#baa  ,the        
,toaripi of ,new ,guinea1 doubtless for 
a similar reason1 will not  allow women 
at such times to cook4#bab    ,dread and
 seclusion of menstruous women in       
,india4    ,the ,bhuiyars1 a ,dravidian 
tribe of ,south ,mirzapur1 are said to  
feel an  intense dread of menstrual     
pollution4 ,every house has two doors1  
one of  which is used only by women in  
this condition4 ,during her impurity the
  wife is fed by her husband apart from 
the rest of the family1 and  whenever   
she has to quit the house she is obliged
 to creep out on her  hands and knees in
 order not to defile the thatch by her  
touch4#bac ,the  ,kharwars1 another     
aboriginal tribe of the same district1  
keep their  women at such seasons in the
 outer verandah of the house for eight  
days1  and will not let them enter the  

kitchen or the cowhouse2 during this    
time the unclean woman may not cook nor 
even touch the cooking vessels4  ,when  
the eight days are over1 she bathes1    
washes her clothes1 and  returns to     
family life4#bad ,hindoo women seclude  
themselves at their  monthly periods and
 observe a number of rules1 such as not 
to drink  milk1 not to milk cows1 not to
 touch fire1 not to lie on a high bed1  
not  to walk on common paths1 not to    
cross the track of animals1 not to walk 
by the side of flowering plants1 and not
 to observe the heavenly  bodies4#bae   
,the motive for these restrictions is   
not mentioned1 but  probably it is a    
dread of the baleful influence which is 
supposed to  emanate from women at these
 times4 ,the ,parsees1 who reverence    
fire1 will  not suffer menstruous women 
to see it or even to look on a lighted  
taper2#baf during their infirmity the   
women retire from their houses to       
little lodges in the country1 whither   
victuals are brought to them  daily2 at 

the end of their seclusion they bathe   
and send a kid1 a fowl1  or a pigeon to 
the priest as an offering4#bag ,in      
,annam a woman at her  monthly periods  
is deemed a centre of impurity1 and     
contact with her is  avoided4 ,she is   
subject to all sorts of restrictions    
which she must  observe herself and     
which others must observe towards her4  
,she may not  touch any food which is to
 be preserved by salting1 whether it be 
fish1  flesh1 or vegetables2 for were   
she to touch it the food would putrefy4 
,she may not enter any sacred place1 she
 may not be present at any  religious   
ceremony4 ,the linen which she wears at 
such times must be  washed by herself at
 sunrise1 never at night4 ,on reaching  
puberty girls  may not touch flowers or 
the fruits of certain trees1 for touched
 by  them the flowers would fade and the
 fruits fall to the ground4 ,it is on   
account of their reputation for impurity
 that the women generally live          
isolated4 ,in every house they have an  

apartment reserved for them1 and  they  
never eat at the same table as the men4 
,for the same reason they  are excluded 
from all religious ceremonies4 ,they may
 only be present at  family ceremonies1 
but without ever officiating in         
them4#bah    ,dread and seclusion of    
menstruous women among the ,indians of  
,south and  ,central ,america4    ,the  
,guayquiries of the ,orinoco think that 
when a woman has her courses1           
everything upon which she steps will    
die1 and that if a man treads on  the   
place where she has passed1 his legs    
will immediately swell up4#bai  ,among  
the ,guaraunos of the same great river1 
women at their periods are  regarded as 
unclean and kept apart in special huts1 
where all that they  need is brought to 
them4#bbj ,in like manner among the     
,piapocos1 an  ,indian tribe on the     
,guayabero1 a tributary of the ,orinoco1
 a menstruous  woman is secluded from   
her family every month for four or five 
days4 ,she  passes the time in a special

 hut1 whither her husband brings her    
food2  and at the end of the time she   
takes a bath and resumes her usual      
occupations4#bba ,so among the ,indians 
of the ,mosquito territory in  ,central 
,america1 when a woman is in her        
courses1 she must quit the  village for 
seven or eight days4 ,a small hut is    
built for her in the  wood1 and at night
 some of the village girls go and sleep 
with her to  keep her company4 ,or if   
the nights are dark and jaguars are     
known to be  prowling in the            
neighbourhood1 her husband will take his
 gun or bow and  sleep in a hammock near
 her4 ,she may neither handle nor cook  
food2 all  is prepared and carried to   
her4 ,when the sickness is over1 she    
bathes in  the river1 puts on clean     
clothes1 and returns to her household   
duties4#bbb ,among the ,bri-bri ,indians
 of ,costa ,rica a girl at her first    
menstruation retires to a hut built for 
the purpose in the forest1 and  there   
she must stay till she has been purified

 by a medicine-man1 who  breathes on her
 and places various objects1 such as    
feathers1 the beaks  of birds1 the teeth
 of beasts1 and so forth1 upon her body4
 ,a married  woman at her periods       
remains in the house with her husband1  
but she is  reckoned unclean 7bukuru7   
and must avoid all intimate relations   
with  him4 ,she uses for plates only    
banana leaves1 which1 when she has done 
with them1 she throws away in a         
sequestered spot2 for should a cow find 
and eat them1 the animal would waste    
away and perish4 ,also she drinks  only 
out of a special vessel1 because any    
person who should afterwards  drink out 
of the same vessel would infallibly pine
 away and die4#bbc    ,dread and        
seclusion of menstruous women among the 
,indians of ,north  ,america4    ,among 
most tribes of ,north ,american ,indians
 the custom was that women in  their    
courses retired from the camp or the    
village and lived during the  time of   
their uncleanness in special huts or    

shelters which were  appropriated to    
their use4 ,there they dwelt apart1     
eating and sleeping  by themselves1     
warming themselves at their own fires1  
and strictly  abstaining from all       
communications with men1 who shunned    
them just as if  they were stricken with
 the plague4 ,no article of furniture   
used in  these menstrual huts might be  
used in any other1 not even the flint   
and  steel with which in the old days   
the fires were kindled4 ,no one would   
borrow a light from a woman in her      
seclusion4 ,if a white man in his       
ignorance asked to light his pipe at her
 fire1 she would refuse to grant  the   
request1 telling him that it would make 
his nose bleed and his head  ache1 and  
that he would fall sick in consequence4 
,if an ,indian's wooden  pipe cracked1  
his friends would think that he had     
either lit it at one  of these polluted 
fires or had held some converse with a  
woman during  her retirement1 which was 
esteemed a most disgraceful and wicked  

thing  to do4 ,decent men would not     
approach within a certain distance of a 
woman at such times1 and if they had to 
convey anything to her they  would stand
 some forty or fifty paces off and throw
 it to her4  ,everything which was      
touched by her hands during this period 
was deemed  ceremonially unclean4       
,indeed her touch was thought to convey 
such  pollution that if she chanced to  
lay a finger on a chief's lodge or his  
gun or anything else belonging to him1  
it would be instantly destroyed4  ,if   
she crossed the path of a hunter or a   
warrior1 his luck for that day  at least
 would be gone4 ,were she not thus      
secluded1 it was supposed that  the men 
would be attacked by diseases of various
 kinds1 which would  prove mortal4 ,in  
some tribes a woman who infringed the   
rules of  separation might have to      
answer with her life for any misfortunes
 that  might happen to individuals or to
 the tribe in consequence1 as it was    
supposed1 of her criminal negligence4   

,when she quitted her tent or hut  to go
 into retirement1 the fire in it was    
extinguished and the ashes  thrown away 
outside of the village1 and a new fire  
was kindled1 as if  the old one had been
 defiled by her presence4 ,at the end of
 their  seclusion the women bathed in   
running streams and returned to their   
usual occupations4#bbd    ,dread and    
seclusion of menstruous women among the 
,creek1 ,choctaw1  ,omaha1 and ,cheyenne
 ,indians4    ,thus1 to take examples1  
the ,creek and kindred ,indians of the  
,united  ,states compelled women at     
menstruation to live in separate huts at
 some  distance from the village4 ,there
 the women had to stay1 at the risk of  
being surprised and cut off by enemies4 
,it was thought a most horrid  and      
dangerous pollution to go near the women
 at such times2 and the  danger extended
 to enemies who1 if they slew the women1
 had to cleanse  themselves from the    
pollution by means of certain sacred    
herbs and  roots4#bbe ,similarly1 the   

,choctaw women had to quit their huts   
during  their monthly periods1 and might
 not return till after they had been    
purified4 ,while their uncleanness      
lasted they had to prepare their own    
food4 ,the men believed that if they    
were to approach a menstruous woman1    
they would fall ill1 and that some      
mishap would overtake them when they    
went to the wars4#bbf ,when an ,omaha   
woman has her courses on her1 she       
retires from the family to a little     
shelter of bark or grass1 supported  by 
sticks1 where she kindles a fire and    
cooks her victuals alone4 ,her          
seclusion lasts four days4 ,during this 
time she may not approach or  touch a   
horse1 for the ,indians believe that    
such contamination would  impoverish or 
weaken the animal4#bbg ,among the       
,potawatomis the women at  their monthly
 periods are not allowed to associate   
with the rest of the  nation2 they are  
completely laid aside1 and are not      
permitted to touch  any article of      

furniture or food which the men have    
occasion to use4 ,if  the ,indians be   
stationary at the time1 the women are   
placed outside of  the camp2 if on a    
march1 they are not allowed to follow   
the trail1 but  must take a different   
path and keep at a distance from the    
main  body4#bbh ,among the ,cheyennes   
menstruous women slept in special       
lodges2 the men believed that if they   
slept with their wives at such  times1  
they would probably be wounded in their 
next battle4 ,a man who  owned a shield 
had very particularly to be on his guard
 against women in  their courses4 ,he   
might not go into a lodge where one of  
them happened  to be1 nor even into a   
lodge where one of them had been1 until 
a  ceremony of purification had been    
performed4 ,sweet grass and juniper     
were burnt in the tent1 and the pegs    
were pulled up and the covering  thrown 
back1 as if the tent were about to be   
struck4 ,after this pretence  of        
decamping from the polluted spot the    

owner of the shield might enter  the    
tent4#bbi    ,dread and seclusion of    
menstruous women among the ,indians of  
,british  ,columbia4    ,the ,stseelis  
,indians of ,british ,columbia imagined 
that if a menstruous  woman were to step
 over a bundle of arrows1 the arrows    
would thereby be  rendered useless and  
might even cause the death of their     
owner2 and  similarly that if she passed
 in front of a hunter who carried a gun1
 the  weapon would never shoot straight 
again4 ,neither her husband nor her     
father would dream of going out to hunt 
while she was in this state2 and  even  
if he had wished to do so1 the other    
hunters would not go with him4  ,hence  
to keep them out of harm's way1 the     
women1 both married and  unmarried1 were
 secluded at these times for four days  
in shelters4#bcj  ,among the ,thompson  
,indians of ,british ,columbia every    
woman had to  isolate herself from the  
rest of the people during every         
recurring  period of menstruation1 and  

had to live some little way off in a    
small  brush or bark lodge made for the 
purpose4 ,at these times she was        
considered unclean1 must use cooking and
 eating utensils of her own1 and  was   
supplied with food by some other woman4 
,if she smoked out of a pipe  other than
 her own1 that pipe would ever          
afterwards be hot to smoke4 ,if  she    
crossed in front of a gun1 that gun     
would thenceforth be useless for  the   
war or the chase1 unless indeed the     
owner promptly washed the weapon  in    
medecine or struck the woman with it    
once on each principal part of  her     
body4 ,if a man ate or had any          
intercourse with a menstruous woman1    
nay if he merely wore clothes or        
mocassins made or patched by her1 he    
would have bad luck in hunting and the  
bears would attack him fiercely4        
,before being admitted again among the  
people1 she had to change all her       
clothes and wash several times in clear 
water4 ,the clothes worn during  her    

isolation were hung on a tree1 to be    
used next time1 or to be  washed4 ,for  
one day after coming back among the     
people she did not cook  food4 ,were a  
man to eat food cooked by a woman at    
such times1 he would  have incapacitated
 himself for hunting and exposed himself
 to sickness  or death4#bca    ,dread   
and seclusion of menstruous women among 
the ,chippeway ,indians4    ,among the  
,chippeways and other ,indians of the   
,hudson ,bay ,territory1  menstruous    
women are excluded from the camp1 and   
take up their abode in  huts of         
branches4 ,they wear long hoods1 which  
effectually conceal the  head and       
breast4 ,they may not touch the         
household furniture nor any  objects    
used by men2 for their touch is supposed
 to defile them1 so  that their         
subsequent use would be followed by     
certain mischief or  misfortune1 such as
 disease or death4 ,they must drink out 
of a swan's  bone4 ,they may not walk on
 the common paths nor cross the tracks  

of  animals4 ,they are never permitted  
to walk on the ice of rivers or  lakes1 
or near the part where the men are      
hunting beaver1 or where a  fishing-net 
is set1 for fear of averting their      
success4 ,they are also  prohibited at  
those times from partaking of the head  
of any animal1 and  even from walking in
 or crossing the track where the head of
 a deer1  moose1 beaver1 and many other 
animals have lately been carried1 either
  on a sledge or on the back4 ,to be    
guilty of a violation of this custom  is
 considered as of the greatest          
importance2 because they firmly believe 
that it would be a means of preventing  
the hunter from having an equal  success
 in his future excursions4#bcb ,so the  
,lapps forbid women at  menstruation to 
walk on that part of the shore where the
 fishers are in  the habit of setting   
out their fish2#bcc and the ,esquimaux  
of ,bering  ,strait believe that if     
hunters were to come near women in their
 courses  they would catch no game4#bcd 

,dread and seclusion of menstruous women
 among the ,tinneh or ,dn  ,indians2    
customs and beliefs of the ,carrier     
,indians in regard to  menstruous women4
    ,but the beliefs and superstitions  
of this sort that prevail among the     
western tribes of the great ,dn or      
,tinneh stock1 to which the  ,chippeways
 belong1 have been so well described by 
an experienced  missionary1 that ,i will
 give his description in his own words4 
,prominent  among the ceremonial rites  
of these ,indians1 he says1 are the     
observances peculiar to the fair sex1   
and many of them are remarkably         
analogous to those practised by the     
,hebrew women1 so much so that1 were  it
 not savouring of profanity1 the        
ordinances of the ,dn ritual code  might
 be termed a new edition 'revised and   
considerably augmented' of  the ,mosaic 
ceremonial law4 ,among the              
,carriers1#bce as soon as a girl  has   
experienced the first flow of the menses
 which in the female  constitution are a

 natural discharge1 her father believed 
himself under  the obligation of atoning
 for her supposedly sinful condition by 
a small  impromptu distribution of      
clothes among the natives4 ,this        
periodical  state of women was          
considered as one of legal impurity     
fateful both to  the man who happened to
 have any intercourse1 however indirect1
 with  her1 and to the woman herself who
 failed in scrupulously observing all   
the rites prescribed by ancient usage   
for persons in her condition4           
,seclusion of ,carrier girls at puberty4
    ,upon entering into that stage of   
her life1 the maiden was immediately    
sequestered from company1 even that of  
her parents1 and compelled to  dwell in 
a small branch hut by herself away from 
beaten paths and the  gaze of           
passers-by4 ,as she was supposed to     
exercise malefic influence on  any man  
who might inadvertently glance at her1  
she had to wear a sort of  head-dress   
combining in itself the purposes of a   

veil1 a bonnet1 and a  mantlet4 ,it was 
made of tanned skin1 its forepart was   
shaped like a long  fringe completely   
hiding from view the face and breasts2  
then it formed  on the head a           
close-fitting cap or bonnet1 and finally
 fell in a broad  band almost to the    
heels4 ,this head-dress was made and    
publicly placed  on her head by a       
paternal aunt1 who received at once some
 present from  the girl's father4 ,when1
 three or four years later1 the period  
of  sequestration ceased1 only this same
 aunt had the right to take off her     
niece's ceremonial head-dress4          
,furthermore1 the girl's fingers1       
wrists1  and legs at the ankles and     
immediately below the knees1 were       
encircled  with ornamental rings and    
bracelets of sinew intended as a        
protection  against the malign          
influences she was supposed to be       
possessed  with4#bcf ,to a belt girding 
her waist were suspended two bone       
implements called respectively ,tsoenkuz

 7bone tube7 and ,tsiltsoet  7head      
scratcher74 ,the former was a hollowed  
swan bone to drink with1 any  other mode
 of drinking being unlawful to her4 ,the
 latter was fork-like  and was called   
into requisition whenever she wanted to 
scratch her  head--immediate contact of 
the fingers with the head being reputed 
injurious to her health4 ,while thus    
secluded1 she was called asta1  that is 
'interred alive' in ,carrier1 and she   
had to submit to a rigorous  fast and   
abstinence4 ,her only allowed food      
consisted of dried fish  boiled in a    
small bark vessel which nobody else must
 touch1 and she had  to abstain         
especially from meat of any kind1 as    
well as fresh fish4 ,nor  was this all  
she had to endure2 even her contact1    
however remote1 with  these two articles
 of diet was so dreaded that she could  
not cross the  public paths or trails1  
or the tracks of animals4 ,whenever     
absolute  necessity constrained her to  
go beyond such spots1 she had to be     

packed  or carried over them lest she   
should contaminate the game or meat     
which  had passed that way1 or had been 
brought over these paths2 and also for  
the sake of self-preservation against   
tabooed1 and consequently to her1       
deleterious food4 ,in the same way she  
was never allowed to wade in  streams or
 lakes1 for fear of causing death to the
 fish4    ,it was also a prescription of
 the ancient ritual code for females    
during this primary condition to eat as 
little as possible1 and to  remain lying
 down1 especially in course of each     
monthly flow1 not only  as a natural    
consequence of the prolonged fast and   
resulting weakness2  but chiefly as an  
exhibition of a becoming penitential    
spirit which was  believed to be        
rewarded by long life and continual good
 health in after  years4    ,seclusion  
of ,carrier women at their monthly      
periods2 reasons for the  seclusion of  
menstruous women among the ,indians4    
,these mortifications or seclusion did  

not last less than three or four  years4
 ,useless to say that during all that   
time marriage could not be  thought of1 
since the girl could not so much as be  
seen by men4 ,when  married1 the same   
sequestration was practised relatively  
to husband and                          
fellow-villagers--without the particular
 head-dress and rings spoken  of--on the
 occasion of every recurring            
menstruation4 ,sometimes it was         
protracted as long as ten days at a     
time1 especially during the first  years
 of cohabitation4 ,even when she        
returned to her mate1 she was not       
permitted to sleep with him on the first
 nor frequently on the second  night1   
but would choose a distant corner of the
 lodge to spread her  blanket1 as if    
afraid to defile him with her dread     
uncleanness4#bcg  ,elsewhere the same   
writer tells us that most of the devices
 to which  these ,indians used to resort
 for the sake of ensuring success in the
  chase were based on their regard for  

continence and their excessive          
repugnance for1 and dread of1           
menstruating women4#bch ,but the strict 
observances imposed on ,tinneh or ,dn   
women at such times were designed  at   
the same time to protect the women      
themselves from the evil  consequences  
of their dangerous condition4 ,thus it  
was thought that  women in their courses
 could not partake of the head1 heart1  
or hind  part of an animal that had been
 caught in a snare without exposing     
themselves to a premature death through 
a kind of rabies4 ,they might not  cut  
or carve salmon1 because to do so would 
seriously endanger their  health1 and   
especially would enfeeble their arms for
 life4 ,and they had  to abstain from   
cutting up the grebes which are caught  
by the ,carriers  in great numbers every
 spring1 because otherwise the blood    
with which  these fowls abound would    
occasion haemorrhage or an unnaturally  
prolonged flux in the transgressor4#bci 
,similarly ,indian women of the         

,thompson tribe abstained from venison  
and the flesh of other large game       
during menstruation1 lest the animals   
should be displeased and the  menstrual 
flow increased4#bdj ,for a similar      
reason1 probably1 ,shuswap  girls during
 their seclusion at puberty are         
forbidden to eat anything  that         
bleeds4#bda ,the same principle may     
perhaps partly explain the  rule1 of    
which we have had some examples1 that   
women at such times  should refrain from
 fish and flesh1 and restrict themselves
 to a  vegetable diet4    ,similar rules
 of seclusion enjoined on menstruous    
women in ancient  ,hindoo1 ,persian1 and
 ,hebrew codes4    ,the philosophic     
student of human nature will observe1 or
 learn1 without  surprise that ideas    
thus deeply ingrained in the savage mind
 reappear at  a more advanced stage of  
society in those elaborate codes which  
have  been drawn up for the guidance of 
certain peoples by lawgivers who claim  
to have derived the rules they inculcate

 from the direct inspiration of  the    
deity4 ,however we may explain it1 the  
resemblance which exists  between the   
earliest official utterances of the     
deity and the ideas of  savages is      
unquestionably close and remarkable2    
whether it be1 as some  suppose1 that   
,god communed face to face with man in  
those early days1  or1 as others        
maintain1 that man mistook his wild and 
wandering thoughts  for a revelation    
from heaven4 ,be that as it may1 certain
 it is that the  natural uncleanness of 
woman at her monthly periods is a       
conception  which has occurred1 or been 
revealed1 with singular unanimity to    
several  ancient legislators4 ,the      
,hindoo lawgiver ,manu1 who professed to
 have  received his institutes from the 
creator ,brahman1 informs us that the   
wisdom1 the energy1 the strength1 the   
sight1 and the vitality of a man  who   
approaches a woman in her courses will  
utterly perish2 whereas1 if  he avoids  
her1 his wisdom1 energy1 strength1      

sight1 and vitality will  all           
increase4#bdb ,the ,persian lawgiver    
,zoroaster1 who1 if we can take  his    
word for it1 derived his code from the  
mouth of the supreme being  ,ahura      
,mazda1 devoted special attention to the
 subject4 ,according to him1  the       
menstrous flow1 at least in its abnormal
 manifestations1 is a work  of ,ahriman1
 or the devil4 ,therefore1 so long as it
 lasts1 a woman is  unclean and         
possessed of the demon2 she must be kept
 confined1 apart  from the faithful whom
 her touch would defile1 and from the   
fire which  her very look would injure2 
she is not allowed to eat as much as she
  wishes1 as the strength she might     
acquire would accrue to the fiends4     
,her food is not given her from hand to 
hand1 but is passed to her from a       
distance1 in a long leaden spoon4#bdc   
,the ,hebrew lawgiver ,moses1 whose     
divine legation is as little open to    
question as that of ,manu and           
,zoroaster1 treats the subject at still 

greater length2 but ,i must leave  to   
the reader the task of comparing the    
inspired ordinances on this head  with  
the merely human regulations of the     
,carrier ,indians which they so  closely
 resemble4    ,superstitions as to      
menstruous women in ancient and modern  
,europe4    ,amongst the civilized      
nations of ,europe the superstitions    
which cluster  round this mysterious    
aspect of woman's nature are not less   
extravagant  than those which prevail   
among savages4 ,in the oldest existing  
cyclopaedia--the ,natural ,history of   
,pliny--the list of dangers  apprehended
 from menstruation is longer than any   
furnished by mere  barbarians4          
,according to ,pliny1 the touch of a    
menstruous woman turned  wine to        
vinegar1 blighted crops1 killed         
seedlings1 blasted gardens1  brought    
down the fruit from trees1 dimmed       
mirrors1 blunted razors1  rusted iron   
and brass 7especially at the waning of  
the moon71 killed  bees1 or at least    

drove them from their hives1 caused     
mares to miscarry1  and so forth4#bdd   
,similarly1 in various parts of ,europe1
 it is still  believed that if a woman  
in her courses enters a brewery the beer
 will  turn sour2 if she touches beer1  
wine1 vinegar1 or milk1 it will go bad2 
if she makes jam1 it will not keep2 if  
she mounts a mare1 it will  miscarry2 if
 she touches buds1 they will wither2 if 
she climbs a cherry  tree1 it will      
die4#bde ,in ,brunswick people think    
that if a menstruous  woman assists at  
the killing of a pig1 the pork will     
putrefy4#bdf ,in  the ,greek island of  
,calymnos a woman at such times may not 
go to the  well to draw water1 nor cross
 a running stream1 nor enter the sea4   
,her  presence in a boat is said to     
raise storms4#bdg    ,the intention of  
secluding menstruous women is to        
neutralize the  dangerous influences    
which are thought to emanate from them  
in that  condition2 suspension between  
heaven and earth4    ,thus the object of

 secluding women at menstruation is to  
neutralize the  dangerous influences    
which are supposed to emanate from them 
at such  times4 ,that the danger is     
believed to be especially great at the  
first  menstruation appears from the    
unusual precautions taken to isolate    
girls  at this crisis4 ,two of these    
precautions have been illustrated above1
  namely1 the rules that the girl may   
not touch the ground nor see the  sun4  
,the general effect of these rules is to
 keep her suspended1 so to  say1 between
 heaven and earth4 ,whether enveloped in
 her hammock and  slung up to the roof1 
as in ,south ,america1 or raised above  
the ground in  a dark and narrow cage1  
as in ,new ,ireland1 she may be         
considered to be  out of the way of     
doing mischief1 since1 being shut off   
both from the  earth and from the sun1  
she can poison neither of these great   
sources of  life by her deadly          
contagion4 ,in short1 she is rendered   
harmless by  being1 in electrical       

language1 insulated4 ,but the           
precautions thus taken  to isolate or   
insulate the girl are dictated by a     
regard for her own  safety as well as   
for the safety of others4 ,for it is    
thought that she  herself would suffer  
if she were to neglect the prescribed   
regimen4 ,thus  ,zulu girls1 as we have 
seen1 believe that they would shrivel to
  skeletons if the sun were to shine on 
them at puberty1 and in some  ,brazilian
 tribes the young women think that a    
transgression of the rules  would entail
 sores on the neck and throat4 ,in      
short1 the girl is viewed  as charged   
with a powerful force which1 if not kept
 within bounds1 may  prove destructive  
both to herself and to all with whom she
 comes in  contact4 ,to repress this    
force within the limits necessary for   
the  safety of all concerned is the     
object of the taboos in question4       
,the same explanation applies to the    
similar rules of seclusion observed  by 
divine kings and priests2 suspension    

between heaven and earth4    ,the same  
explanation applies to the observance of
 the same rules by  divine kings and    
priests4 ,the uncleanness1 as it is     
called1 of girls at  puberty and the    
sanctity of holy men do not1 to the     
primitive mind1  differ materially from 
each other4 ,they are only different    
manifestations of the same mysterious   
energy which1 like energy in  general1  
is in itself neither good nor bad1 but  
becomes beneficent or  maleficent       
according to its application4#bdh       
,accordingly1 if1 like  girls at        
puberty1 divine personages may neither  
touch the ground nor see  the sun1 the  
reason is1 on the one hand1 a fear lest 
their divinity  might1 at contact with  
earth or heaven1 discharge itself with  
fatal  violence on either2 and1 on the  
other hand1 an apprehension that the    
divine being1 thus drained of his       
ethereal virtue1 might thereby be       
incapacitated for the future performance
 of those magical functions1  upon the  

proper discharge of which the safety of 
the people and even of  the world is    
believed to hang4 ,thus the rules in    
question fall under the  head of the    
taboos which we examined in the second  
part of this  work2#bdi they are        
intended to preserve the life of the    
divine person  and with it the life of  
his subjects and worshippers4 ,nowhere1 
it is  thought1 can his precious yet    
dangerous life be at once so safe and so
  harmless as when it is neither in     
heaven nor in earth1 but1 as far as     
possible1 suspended between the two4#bej
    ,stories of immortality attained by 
suspension between heaven and  earth4   
,in legends and folk-tales1 which       
reflect the ideas of earlier ages1 we   
find this suspension between heaven and 
earth attributed to beings who  have    
been endowed with the coveted yet       
burdensome gift of immortality4  ,the   
wizened remains of the deathless ,sibyl 
are said to have been  preserved in a   
jar or urn which hung in a temple of    

,apollo at ,cumae2 and  when a group of 
merry children1 tired1 perhaps1 of      
playing in the sunny  streets1 sought   
the shade of the temple and amused      
themselves by  gathering underneath the 
familiar jar and calling out1 ,sibyl1   
what do  you wish8 a hollow voice1 like 
an echo1 used to answer from the urn1 ,i
  wish to die4#bea ,a story1 taken down 
from the lips of a ,german peasant  at  
,thomsdorf1 relates that once upon a    
time there was a girl in ,london  who   
wished to live for ever1 so they say3   
,london1 ,london is a fine town4  ,a    
maiden prayed to live for ever4    ,and 
still she lives and hangs in a basket in
 a church1 and every ,st4  ,john's ,day1
 about the hour of noon1 she eats a roll
 of bread4#beb  ,another ,german story  
tells of a lady who resided at ,danzig  
and was so  rich and so blest with all  
that life can give that she wished to   
live  always4 ,so when she came to her  
latter end1 she did not really die but  
only looked like dead1 and very soon    

they found her in a hollow of a  pillar 
in the church1 half standing and half   
sitting1 motionless4 ,she  stirred never
 a limb1 but they saw quite plainly that
 she was alive1 and  she sits there down
 to this blessed day4 ,every ,new       
,year's ,day the  sacristan comes and   
puts a morsel of the holy bread in her  
mouth1 and  that is all she has to live 
on4 ,long1 long has she rued her fatal  
wish  who set this transient life above 
the eternal joys of heaven4#bec ,a      
third ,german story tells of a noble    
damsel who cherished the same  foolish  
wish for immortality4 ,so they put her  
in a basket and hung her  up in a       
church1 and there she hangs and never   
dies1 though many a year  has come and  
gone since they put her there4 ,but     
every year on a certain  day they give  
her a roll1 and she eats it and cries   
out1 ,for ever6 for  ever6 for ever6    
,and when she has so cried she falls    
silent again till  the same time next   
year1 and so it will go on for ever and 

for  ever4#bed ,a fourth story1 taken   
down near ,oldenburg in ,holstein1 tells
  of a jolly dame that ate and drank and
 lived right merrily and had all  that  
heart could desire1 and she wished to   
live always4 ,for the first  hundred    
years all went well1 but after that she 
began to shrink and  shrivel up1 till at
 last she could neither walk nor stand  
nor eat nor  drink4 ,but die she could  
not4 ,at first they fed her as if she   
were a  little child1 but when she grew 
smaller and smaller they put her in a   
glass bottle and hung her up in the     
church4 ,and there she still hangs1  in 
the church of ,st4 ,mary1 at ,lbeck4    
,she is as small as a mouse1 but  once a
 year she stirs4#bee    ,notes3    #fd  
,pechuel-,loesche1 ,indiscretes aus     
,loango1 ,zeitschrift fr  ,ethnologie1  
x4 7#ahgh7 p4 #bc4    #fe ,rev4 ,j4     
,macdonald1 ,manners1 ,customs1         
,superstitions1 and ,religions  of      
,south ,african ,tribes1 ,journal of the
 ,anthropological ,institute1  xx4      

7#ahia7 p4 #aah4    #ff ,dudley ,kidd1  
,the ,essential ,kafir 7,london1 #aijd71
 p4 #bji4 ,the  prohibition to drink    
milk under such circumstances is also   
mentioned1  though without the reason   
for it1 by ,l4 ,alberti 7,de ,kaffersaan
 de  ,zuidkust van ,afrika1 ,amsterdam1 
#ahaj1 p4 #gi71 ,george ,thompson       
7,travels  and ,adventures in ,southern 
,africa1 ,london1 #ahbg1 ii4 #ced sq471 
and  ,mr4 ,warner 7in ,col4 ,maclean's  
,compendium of ,kafir ,laws and         
,customs2  ,cape ,town1 #ahff1 p4 #ih74 
,as to the reason for the prohibition1  
see  below1 p4 #hj4    #fg ,c4,w4       
,hobley1 ,ethnology of ,a-,kamba and    
other ,east ,african ,tribes            
7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 p4 #fe4    #fh     
,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda        
7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #hj4 ,as to the    
interpretation which the ,baganda put on
 the act of jumping or stepping  over a 
woman1 see id41 pp4 #dh1 #ceg note #a4  
,apparently some of the  ,lower ,congo  
people interpret the act similarly4 ,see

 ,j4,h4 ,weeks1 ,notes  on some ,customs
 of the ,lower ,congo ,people1          
,folk-lore1 xix4 7#aijh7 p4  #dca4      
,among the ,baganda the separation of   
children from their parents  took place 
after weaning2 girls usually went to    
live either with an  elder married      
brother or 7if there was none such7 with
 one of their  father's brothers2 boys  
in like manner went to live with one of 
their  father's brothers4 ,see ,j4      
,roscoe1 op4 cit4 p4 #gd4 ,as to the    
prohibition to touch food with the      
hands1 see ,taboo and the ,perils of    
the ,soul1 pp4 #ach sqq41 #adf sqq41    
etc4    #fi ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the     
,baganda1 p4 #hj4    #gj ,de la         
,loubere1 ,du royaume de ,siam          
7,amsterdam1 #afia71 i4 #bjc4 ,in       
,travancore it is believed that women at
 puberty and after childbirth are       
peculiarly liable to be attacked by     
demons4 ,see ,s4 ,mateer1 ,the ,land of 
,charity 7,london1 #ahga71 p4 #bjh4     
#ga ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda1 p4

 #hj4    #gb ,c4 ,gouldsbury and ,h4    
,sheane1 ,the ,great ,plateau of        
,northern  ,nigeria 7,london1 #aiaa71   
pp4 #aeh-afj4    #gc ,r4 ,sutherland    
,rattray1 ,some ,folk-lore1 ,stories and
 ,songs in  ,chinyanja 7,london1 #aijg71
 pp4 #ajb-aje4    #gd ,rev4 ,h4 ,cole1  
,notes on the ,wagogo of ,german ,east  
,africa1 ,journal  of the               
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4     
7#aijb7 pp4 #cji sq4    #ge ,r4         
,sutherland ,rattray1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aia 
sq4    #gf ,the ,grihya ,sutras1        
translated by ,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,part i4  
p4 #ceg1  ,part ii4 p4 #bfg 7,sacred    
,books of the ,east1 vols4 xxix41 xxx474
    #gg ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda
 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #cic sq41        
compare pp4 #cif1 #cih4    #gh ,see     
,totemism and ,exogamy1 iv4 #bbd sqq4   
#gi ,sir ,harry ,h4 ,johnston1 ,british 
,central ,africa 7,london1 #ahig71 p4   
#daa4    #hj ,oscar ,baumann1 ,durch    
,massailand zur ,nilquelle 7,berlin1    
#ahid71 p4  #agh4    #ha ,lionel ,decle1

 ,three ,years in ,savage ,africa       
7,london1 #ahih71 p4 #gh4  ,compare ,e4 
,jacottet1 tudes sur les ,langues du    
,haut-,zambze1 ,troisime  ,partie       
7,paris1 #aija71 pp4 #agd sq4 7as to the
 ,a-,louyi74    #hb ,e4 ,bguin1 ,les    
,ma-rots 7,lausanne and ,fontaines1     
#aijc71 p4 #aac4    #hc ,henri ,a4      
,junod1 ,the ,life of a ,south ,african 
,tribe 7,neuchatel1  #aiab-aiac71 i4    
#agh sq4    #hd ,g4 ,mc,call ,theal1    
,kaffir ,folk-lore 7,london1 #ahhf71 p4 
#bah4    #he ,l4 ,alberti1 ,de ,kaffers 
aan de ,zuidkust van ,afrika            
7,amsterdam1  #ahaj71 pp4 #gi sq42 ,h4  
,lichtenstein1 ,reisen im sdlichen      
,africa  7,berlin1 #ahaa-ahab71 i4 #dbh4
    #hf ,gustav ,fritsch1 ,die          
,eingeborenen ,sd-,afrika's 7,breslau1  
#ahgb71 p4  #aab4 ,this statement       
applies especially to the ,ama-,xosa4   
#hg ,g4 ,mc,call ,theal1 ,kaffir        
,folk-lore1 p4 #bah4    #hh ,rev4 ,canon
 ,henry ,callaway1 ,nursery ,tales1     
,traditions1 and  ,histories of the     

,zulus 7,natal and ,london1 #ahfh71 p4  
#ahb1 note #bj4 ,from  one of the ,zulu 
texts which the author edits and        
translates 7p4 #ahi7 we  may infer that 
during the period of her seclusion a    
,zulu girl may not  light a fire4       
,compare above1 p4 #bh4    #hi ,e4      
,casalis1 ,the ,basutos 7,london1       
#ahfa71 p4 #bfh4    #ij ,j4 ,merolla1   
,voyage to ,congo1 in ,j4 ,pinkerton's  
,voyages and  ,travels 7,london1        
#ahjh-ahad71 xvi4 #bch2 ,father         
,campana1 ,congo2 ,mission  ,catholique 
de ,landana1 ,les ,missions             
,catholiques1 xxvii4 7#ahie7 p4  #afa2  
,r4,e4 ,dennett1 ,at the ,back of the   
,black ,man's ,mind 7,london1 #aijf71   
pp4 #fi sq44 ,according to ,merolla1 it 
is thought that if girls did not  go    
through these ceremonies1 they would    
never be fit for procreation4  ,the     
other consequences supposed to flow from
 the omission of the rites  are         
mentioned by ,father ,campana4 ,from    
,mr4 ,dennett's account 7op4 cit4  pp4  

#ec1 #fg-ga7 we gather that drought and 
famine are thought to result  from the  
intercourse of a man with a girl who has
 not yet passed through  the            
paint-house1 as the hut is called where 
the young women live in  seclusion4     
,according to ,o4 ,dapper1 the women of 
,loango paint themselves  red on every  
recurrence of their monthly sickness2   
also they tie a cord  tightly round     
their heads and take care neither to    
touch their husband's  food nor to      
appear before him 7,description de      
l',afrique1 ,amsterdam1  #afhf1 p4      
#cbf74    #ia ,the ,rev4 ,g4 ,brown1    
quoted by the ,rev4 ,b4 ,danks1         
,marriage ,customs  of the ,new ,britain
 ,group1 ,journal of the                
,anthropological ,institute1  xviii4    
7#ahhi7 pp4 #bhd4 sq42 id41 ,melanesians
 and ,polynesians 7,london1  #aiaj71 pp4
 #aje-ajg4 ,compare id41 ,notes on the  
,duke of ,york ,group1 ,new  ,britain1  
and ,new ,ireland1 ,journal of the      
,royal ,geographical ,society1  xlvii4  

7#ahgg7 pp4 #adb sq42 ,a4 ,hahl1 ,das   
mittlere ,neumecklenburg1  ,globus1 xci4
 7#aijg7 p4 #cac4 ,wilfred ,powell's    
description of the ,new  ,ireland custom
 is similar 7,wanderings in a ,wild     
,country1 ,london1 #ahhc1  p4 #bdi74    
,according to him1 the girls wear       
wreaths of scented herbs round  the     
waist and neck2 an old woman or a little
 child occupies the lower  floor of the 
cage2 and the confinement lasts only a  
month4 ,probably the  long period       
mentioned by ,dr4 ,brown is that        
prescribed for chiefs'  daughters4 ,poor
 people could not afford to keep their  
children so long  idle4 ,this           
distinction is sometimes expressly      
stated4 ,see above1 p4 #cj4  ,among the 
,goajiras of ,colombia rich people keep 
their daughters shut up  in separate    
huts at puberty for periods varying from
 one to four years1  but poor people    
cannot afford to do so for more than a  
fortnight or a  month4 ,see ,f4,a4      
,simons1 ,an ,exploration of the        

,goajira ,peninsula1  ,proceedings of   
the ,royal ,geographical ,society1      
,n4,s41 vii4 7#ahhe7 p4  #gia4 ,in      
,fiji1 brides who were being tattooed   
were kept from the sun  7,thomas        
,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1      
,second ,edition1 ,london1 #ahfj1  i4   
#agj74 ,this was perhaps a modification 
of the ,melanesian custom of  secluding 
girls at puberty4 ,the reason mentioned 
by ,mr4 ,williams1 to  improve her      
complexion1 can hardly have been the    
original one4    #ib ,rev4 ,r4,h4       
,rickard1 quoted by ,dr4 ,george ,brown1
 ,melanesians and  ,polynesians1 pp4    
#ajg sq44 ,his observations were made in
 #ahib4    #ic ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,dreissig
 ,jahre in der ,sdsee 7,stuttgart1      
#aijg71 p4  #bgb4 ,the natives told ,mr4
 ,parkinson that the confinement of the 
girls  lasts from twelve to twenty      
months4 ,the length of it may have been 
reduced since ,dr4 ,george ,brown       
described the custom in #ahgf4    #id   
,j4 ,chalmers and ,w4 ,wyatt ,gill1     

,work and ,adventure in ,new ,guinea    
7,london1 #ahhe71 p4 #aei4    #ie ,h4   
,zahn and ,s4 ,lehner1 in ,r4           
,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,new-,guinea       
7,berlin1 #aiaa71 iii4 #bih1 #dah-dbj4  
,the customs of the two tribes seem to  
be in substantial agreement1 and the    
accounts of them supplement each  other4
 ,the description of the ,bukaua        
practice is the fuller4    #if          
,c4,a4,l4,m4 ,schwaner1 ,borneo1        
,beschrijving van het stroomgebied van  
den ,barito 7,amsterdam1 #ahec-ahed71   
ii4 #gg sq42 ,w4,f4,a4 ,zimmermann1     
,die ,inseln des ,indischen und ,stillen
 ,meeres 7,berlin1 #ahfd-ahfe71 ii4     
#fcb sq42 ,otto ,finsch1 ,neu ,guinea   
und seine ,bewohner 7,bremen1 #ahfe71   
pp4 #aaf sq44    #ig ,j4,g4,f4 ,riedel1 
,de sluik--en kroesharige rassen        
tusschen ,selebes  en ,papua 7,the      
,hague1 #ahhf71 p4 #ach4    #ih ,a4     
,senfft1 ,ethnographische ,beitrge ber  
die ,karolineninsel ,yap1  ,petermanns  
,mitteilungen1 xlix4 7#aijc7 p4 #ec2    

id41 ,die ,rechtssitten  der            
,jap-,eingeborenen1 ,globus1 xci4       
7#aijg7 pp4 #adb sq44    #ii ,dr4 ,c4,g4
 ,seligmann1 in ,journal of the         
,anthropological ,institute1  xxix4     
7#ahii7 pp4 #bab sq42 id41 in ,reports  
of the ,cambridge  ,anthropological     
,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 v4     
7,cambridge1 #aijd7 pp4  #bjc sq4       
#ajj ,dr4 ,c4,g4 ,seligmann1 in ,reports
 of the ,cambridge ,expedition to       
,torres ,straits1 v4 7,cambridge1 #aijd7
 p4 #bje4    #aja ,l4 ,crauford1 in     
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 xxiv4  7#ahie7 p4 #aha4     
#ajb ,dr4 ,c4,g4 ,seligmann1 op4 cit4 v4
 #bjf4    #ajc ,walter ,e4 ,roth1 ,north
 ,queensland ,ethnography1 ,bulletin    
,no4 #e1  ,superstition1 ,magic1 and    
,medicine 7,brisbane1 #aijc71 pp4 #bd   
sq4    #ajd ,walter ,e4 ,roth1 op4 cit4 
p4 #be4    #aje ,dr4 ,c4,g4 ,seligmann1 
in ,reports of the ,cambridge           
,anthropological  ,expedition to ,torres
 ,straits1 v4 7,cambridge1 #aijd71 p4   

#bje4    #ajf ,from notes kindly sent me
 by ,dr4 ,c4,g4 ,seligmann4 ,the        
practice of  burying a girl at puberty  
was observed also by some ,indian tribes
 of  ,california1 but apparently rather 
for the purpose of producing a sweat    
than for the sake of concealment4 ,the  
treatment lasted only twenty-four       
hours1 during which the patient was     
removed from the ground and washed      
three or four times1 to be afterwards   
reimbedded4 ,dancing was kept up  the   
whole time by the women4 ,see ,h4 ,r4   
,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes of  the   
,united ,states 7,philadelphia1         
#ahec-ahef71 v4 #bae4    #ajg ,dr4      
,c4,g4 ,seligmann1 in ,reports of the   
,cambridge ,anthropological  ,expedition
 to ,torres ,straits1 v4 #bja sq4       
#ajh ,a4,l4 ,kroeber1 ,the ,religion of 
the ,indians of ,california1            
,university of ,california ,publications
 in ,american ,archaeology and          
,ethnology1 vol4 iv4 ,no4 #f            
7,september1 #aijg71 p4 #cbd4    #aji   

,roland ,b4 ,dixon1 ,the ,northern      
,maidu1 ,bulletin of the ,american      
,museum of ,natural ,history1 vol4 xvii4
 ,part iii4 7,may #aije7 pp4 #bcb  sq41 
compare pp4 #bcc-bch4    #aaj ,stephen  
,powers1 ,tribes of ,california         
7,washington1 #ahgg71 p4 #he            
7,contributions to ,north ,american     
,ethnology1 vol4 iii474    #aaa ,stephen
 ,powers1 op4 cit4 p4 #bce4    #aab     
,charles ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the     
,united ,states ,exploring  ,expedition1
 ,new ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahea71 iv4 
#def4    #aac ,franz ,boas1 ,chinook    
,texts 7,washington1 #ahid71 pp4 #bdf   
sq4 ,the  account1 taken down from the  
lips of a ,chinook ,indian1 is not      
perfectly  clear2 some of the           
restrictions were prolonged after the   
girl's second  monthly period4    #aad  
,g4,m4 ,sproat1 ,scenes and ,studies of 
,savage ,life 7,london1 #ahfh71  pp4 #ic
 sq4    #aae ,franz ,boas1 in ,sixth    
,report on the ,north-,western ,tribes  
of  ,canada1 pp4 #dj-db 7separate       

reprint from the ,report of the ,british
  ,association for the ,advancement of  
,science1 ,leeds meeting1 #ahij74 ,the  
rule not to lie down is observed also   
during their seclusion at puberty  by   
,tsimshian girls1 who always sit propped
 up between boxes and mats2  their heads
 are covered with small mats1 and they  
may not look at men  nor at fresh salmon
 and olachen4 ,see ,franz ,boas1 in     
,fifth ,report on the  ,north-,western  
,tribes of ,canada1 p4 #da 7separate    
reprint from the  ,report of the        
,british ,association for the           
,advancement of ,science1               
,newcastle-upon-,tyne meeting1 #ahhi72  
,g4,m4 ,dawson1 ,report on the ,queen   
,charlotte ,islands1 #ahgh 7,montreal1  
#ahhj71 pp4 #acj ,b sq4 ,some divine    
kings are not allowed to lie down4 ,see 
,taboo and the ,perils of the  ,soul1 p4
 #e4    #aaf ,george ,m4 ,dawson1       
,report on the ,queen ,charlotte        
,islands1 #ahgh  7,montreal1 #ahhj71 p4 
#acj ,b2 ,j4,r4 ,swanton1 ,contributions

 to the  ,ethnology of the ,haida       
7,leyden and ,new ,york1 #aije71 pp4    
#dh-ej 7,the  ,jesup ,north ,pacific    
,expedition1 ,memoir of the ,american   
,museum of ,natural  ,history1 ,new     
,york74 ,speaking of the customs        
observed at ,kloo1 where the  girls had 
to abstain from salmon for five years1  
,mr4 ,swanton says 7p4  #di73 ,when five
 years had passed1 the girl came out1   
and could do as she  pleased4 ,this     
seems to imply that the girl was        
secluded in the house  for five years4  
,we have seen 7above1 p4 #cb7 that in   
,new ,ireland the  girls used sometimes 
to be secluded for the same period4     
#aag ,g4,h4 von ,langsdorff1 ,reise um  
die ,welt 7,frankfort1 #ahab71 ii4  #aad
 sq42 ,h4,j4 ,holmberg1 ,ethnographische
 ,skizzen ber die ,vlker des            
,russischen ,amerika1 ,acta ,societatis 
,scientiarum ,fennicae1 iv4             
7,helsingfors1 #ahef7 pp4 #cai sq42 ,t4 
de ,pauly1 ,description  ,ethnographique
 des ,peuples de la ,russie 7,st4       

,petersburg1 #ahfb71  ,peuples de       
l',amrique ,russe1 p4 #ac2 ,a4 ,erman1  
,ethnographische  ,wahrnehmungen und    
,erfahrungen an den ,ksten des          
,berings-,meeres1  ,zeitschrift fr      
,ethnologie1 ii4 7#ahgj7 pp4 #cah sq42  
,h4,h4 ,bancroft1  ,native ,races of the
 ,pacific ,states 7,london1 #ahge-ahgf71
 i4 #aaj sq42  ,rev4 ,sheldon ,jackson1 
,alaska and its ,inhabitants1 ,the      
,american  ,antiquarian1 ii4 7,chicago1 
#ahgi-ahhj7 pp4 #aaa sq42 ,a4 ,woldt1   
,captain  ,jacobsen's ,reise an der     
,nordwestkiiste ,americas1 #ahha-ahhc   
7,leipsic1  #ahhd71 p4 #cic2 ,aurel     
,krause1 ,die ,tlinkit-,indianer 7,jena1
 #ahhe71 pp4  #bag sq42 ,w4,m4 ,grant1  
in ,journal of ,american ,folk-lore1 i4 
7#ahhh7 p4  #afi2 ,john ,r4 ,swanton1   
,social ,conditions1 ,beliefs1 and      
,linguistic  ,relationship of the       
,tlingit ,indians1 ,twenty-sixth ,annual
 ,report of the  ,bureau of ,american   
,ethnology 7,washington1 #aijh71 p4     
#dbh4    #aah ,franz ,boas1 in ,tenth   

,report of the ,committee on the        
,north-,western  ,tribes of ,canada1 p4 
#de 7separate reprint from the ,report  
of the  ,british ,association for the   
,advancement of ,science1 ,ipswich      
meeting1  #ahie74    #aai ,franz ,boas1 
in ,fifth ,report of the ,committee on  
the ,north-,western  ,tribes of ,canada1
 p4 #db 7separate reprint from the      
,report of the  ,british ,association   
for the ,advancement of ,science1       
,newcastle-upon-,tyne  meeting1 #ahhi72 
id41 in ,seventh ,report1 etc41 p4 #ab  
7separate  reprint from the ,report of  
the ,british ,association for the       
,advancement  of ,science1 ,cardiff     
meeting1 #ahia74    #abj ,customs of the
 ,new ,caledonian women belonging to the
 ,nancaushy  ,tine1 or ,stuart's ,lake  
,indians1 ,natotin ,tine1 or ,babine's  
and ,nantley  ,tine1 or ,fraser ,lake   
,tribes1 from information supplied by   
,gavin  ,hamilton1 chief factor of the  
,hudson's ,bay ,company's service1 who  
has  been for many years among these    

,indians1 both he and his wife speaking 
their languages fluently 7communicated  
by ,dr4 ,john ,rae71 ,journal of the    
,anthropological ,institute1 vii4       
7#ahgh7 pp4 #bjf sq4    #aba mile       
,petitot1 ,traditions ,indiennes du     
,canada ,nord-ouest 7,paris1  #ahhf71   
pp4 #beg sq4    #abb ,fr4 ,julius ,jett1
 ,s4,j41 ,on the ,superstitions of the  
,ten'a  ,indians1 ,anthropos1 vi4       
7#aiaa7 pp4 #gjj-gjb4    #abc ,compare  
,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of  
,kings1 i4 #gj sqq4    #abd ,james      
,teit1 ,the ,thompson ,indians of       
,british ,columbia1 pp4  #caa-cag 7,the 
,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1     
,memoir of the ,american  ,museum of    
,natural ,history1 ,new ,york1 ,april1  
#aijj74 ,as to the customs  observed    
among these ,indians by the father of a 
girl at such times in  order not to lose
 his luck in hunting1 see ,spirits of   
the ,corn and of  the ,wild1 ii4 #bfh4  
#abe ,james ,teit1 ,the ,lillooet       
,indians 7,leyden and ,new ,york1       

#aijf71  pp4 #bfc-bfe 7,the ,jesup      
,north ,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of 
the ,american  ,museum of ,natural      
,history1 ,new ,york74 ,compare ,c4     
,hill ,tout1 ,report on  the ,ethnology 
of the ,stlatlumh of ,british ,columbia1
 ,journal of the  ,anthropological      
,institute1 xxxv4 7#aije7 p4 #acf4      
#abf ,franz ,boas1 in ,sixth ,report of 
the ,committee on the ,north-,western   
,tribes of ,canada1 pp4 #hi sq4         
7separate reprint from the ,report of   
the ,british ,association for the       
,advancement of ,science1 ,leeds        
meeting1  #ahij74    #abg ,james ,teit1 
,the ,shuswap 7,leyden and ,new ,york1  
#aiji71 pp4 #ehg  sq4 7,the ,jesup      
,north ,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of 
the ,american  ,museum of ,natural      
,history1 ,new ,york74    #abh ,g4,h4   
,loskiel1 ,history of the ,mission of   
the ,united ,brethren among  the        
,indians of ,north ,america 7,london1   
#agid71 ,part i4 pp4 #ef sq4    #abi    
,g4,b4 ,grinnell1 ,cheyenne ,woman      

,customs1 ,american  ,anthropologist1   
,new ,series1 iv4 7,new ,york1 #aijb7   
pp4 #ac sq4 ,the  ,cheyennes appear to  
have been at first settled on the       
,mississippi1 from  which they were     
driven westward to the ,missouri4 ,see  
,handbook of  ,american ,indians north  
of ,mexico1 edited by ,f4,w4 ,hodge     
7,washington1  #aijg-aiaj71 i4 #bej sqq4
    #acj ,h4,j4 ,holmberg1 ,ueber die   
,vlker des ,russischen ,amerika1 ,acta  
,societatis ,scientiarum ,fennicae1 iv4 
7,helsingfors1 #ahef7 pp4 #dja sq42     
,ivan ,petroff1 ,report on the          
,population1 ,industries and ,resources 
of  ,alaska1 p4 #adc4    #aca ,e4,w4    
,nelson1 ,the ,eskimo about ,bering     
,strait1 ,eighteenth ,annual  ,report of
 the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1   
,part i4 7,washington1 #ahii7  p4 #bia4 
#acb ,jose ,guevara1 ,historia del      
,paraguay1 ,rio de la ,plata1 y         
,tucuman1  pp4 #af sq41 in ,pedro de    
,angelis1 ,coleccion de ,obras y        
,documentos  relativos a la ,historia   

antigua y moderna de las ,provincias del
 ,rio de  la ,plata1 vol4 ii4           
7,buenos-,ayres1 #ahcf72 ,j4,f4         
,lafitau1 ,moeurs des  ,sauvages        
,ameriquains 7,paris1 #agbd71 i4 #bfb   
sq4    #acc ,father ,ignace ,chom1 in   
,lettres difiantes et ,curieuses1       
,nouvelle ,edition 7,paris1 #aghj-aghc71
 viii4 #ccc4 ,as to the ,chiriguanos1   
see ,c4,f4 ,phil4 von ,martius1 ,zur    
,ethnographie ,amerika's1 zumal         
,brasiliens 7,leipsic1 #ahfg71 pp4 #bab 
sqq42 ,colonel ,g4,e4 ,church1          
,aborigines of ,south ,america 7,london1
 #aiab71 pp4 #bjg-bbg4    #acd ,a4      
,thouar1 ,explorations dans l',amrique  
du ,sud 7,paris1 #ahia71  pp4 #dh sq42  
,g4 ,kurze1 ,sitten und ,gebruche der   
,lengua-,indianer1  ,mitteilungen der   
,geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 
xxiii4 7#aije7  pp4 #bf sq4 ,the two    
accounts appear to be identical2 but the
 former  attributes the custom to the   
,chiriguanos1 the latter to the         
,lenguas4 ,as  the latter account is    

based on the reports of the ,rev4 ,w4,b4
 ,grubb1 a  missionary who has been     
settled among the ,indians of the ,chaco
 for many  years and is our principal   
authority on them1 ,i assume that the   
ascription of the custom to the ,lenguas
 is correct4 ,however1 in the  volume on
 the ,lengua ,indians1 which has been   
edited from ,mr4 ,grubb's  papers 7,an  
,unknown ,people in an ,unknown ,land1  
,london1 #aiaa71 these  details as to   
the seclusion of girls at puberty are   
not mentioned1  though what seems to be 
the final ceremony is described 7op4    
cit4 pp4  #agg sq474 ,from the          
description we learn that boys dressed  
in ostrich  feathers and wearing masks  
circle round the girl with shrill cries1
 but  are repelled by the women4    #ace
 ,alcide d',orbigny1 ,voyage dans       
l',amrique ,mridionale vol4 iii4  #ato  
,partie 7,paris and ,strasburg1 #ahdd71 
pp4 #bje sq4    #acf ,a4 ,thouar1       
,explorations dans l',amrique du ,sud   
7,paris1 #ahia7 pp4  #ef sq42 ,father   

,cardus1 quoted in ,j4 ,pelleschi's ,los
 ,indios ,matacos  7,buenos ,ayres1     
#ahig71 pp4 #dg sq4    #acg ,a4 ,thouar1
 op4 cit4 p4 #fc4    #ach ,francis de   
,castelnau1 ,expdition dans les parties 
centrales de  l',amrique du ,sud        
7,paris1 #ahej-ahea71 v4 #be4    #aci   
,d4 ,luis de la ,cruz1 ,descripcion de  
la ,naturaleza de los ,terrenos  que se 
comprenden en los ,andes1 poseidos por  
los ,peguenches y los demas  espacios   
hasta el rio de ,chadileuba1 p4 #fb1 in 
,pedro de ,angelis1  ,coleccion de      
,obras y ,documentos relativos a la     
,historia antigua y  moderna de las     
,provincias del ,rio de la ,plata1 vol4 
i4 7,buenos-,ayres1  #ahcf74 ,apparently
 the ,peguenches are an ,indian tribe of
 ,chili4    #adj ,j4,b4 von ,spix und   
,c4,f4 ,ph4 von ,martius1 ,reise in     
,brasilien  7,munich1 #ahbc-ahca71 iii4 
#aahf1 #aahg1 #acah4    #ada ,andr      
,thevet1 ,cosmographie ,universelle     
7,paris1 #aege71 ii4 #idf ,b  #ihj sq42 
id41 ,les ,singularites de la ,france   

,antarctique1 autrement  nomme ,amerique
 7,antwerp1 #aeeh71 p4 #gf2 ,j4,f4      
,lafitau1 ,moeurs des  ,sauvages        
,ameriquains 7,paris1 #agbd71 i4 #bij   
sqq4    #adb ,r4 ,schomburgk1 ,reisen in
 ,britisch ,guiana 7,leipsic1           
#ahdg-ahdh71  ii4 #cae sq42 ,c4,f4,ph4  
von ,martius1 ,zur ,ethnographie        
,amerika's1 zumal  ,brasiliens          
7,leipsic1 #ahfg71 p4 #fdd4    #adc     
,labat1 ,voyage du ,chevalier des       
,marchais en ,guine1 ,isles  voisines1  
et  ,cayenne1 iv4 #cfe sq4 7,paris1     
#agcj71 pp4 #ag sq4  7,amsterdam1       
#agca74    #add ,a4 ,caulin1 ,historia  
,coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela
 ,nueva  ,andalucia 7#aggi71 p4 #ic4 ,a 
similar custom1 with the omission of the
  stinging1 is reported of the ,tamanaks
 in the region of the ,orinoco4 ,see    
,f4,s4 ,gilij1 ,saggio di ,storia       
,americana1 ii4 7,rome1 #agha71 p4 #acc4
    #ade ,a4,r4 ,wallace1 ,narrative of 
,travels on the ,amazon and ,rio ,negro1
  p4 #dif 7p4 #cde of the ,minerva      

,library edition1 ,london1 #ahhi74      
#adf ,taboo and the ,perils of the      
,soul1 pp4 #aje sqq42 ,the  ,scapegoat  
pp4 #bei sqq4    #adg ,j4,b4 von ,spix  
and ,c4,f4,ph4 von ,martius1 ,reise in  
,brasilien  7,munich1 #ahbc-ahca71 iii4 
#acbj4    #adh ,w4 ,lewis ,herndon1     
,exploration of the ,valley of the      
,amazon  7,washington1 #ahed71 pp4 #cai 
sq4 ,the scene was described to ,mr4    
,herndon  by a ,french engineer and     
architect1 ,m4 de ,lincourt1 who        
witnessed it at  ,manduassu1 a village  
on the ,tapajos river4 ,mr4 ,herndon    
adds3 ,the  ,tocandeira ants not only   
bite1 but are also armed with a sting   
like  the wasp2 but the pain felt from  
it is more violent4 ,i think it equal to
  that occasioned by the sting of the   
black scorpion4 ,he gives the name  of  
the ,indians as ,mahues1 but ,i assume  
that they are the same as the  ,mauhes  
described by ,spix and ,martius4    #adi
 ,francis de ,castelnau1 ,expdition dans
 les parties centrals de  l',amrique du 

,sud 7,paris1 #ahej-ahea71 v4 #df4      
#aej ,l',abb ,durand1 ,le ,rio ,negro du
 ,nord et son bassin1 ,bulletin de  la  
,socit de ,gographie 7,paris71 vi4      
,srie1 iii4 7#ahgb7 pp4 #ba sq4  ,the   
writer says that the candidate has to   
keep his arms plunged up to  the        
shoulders in vessels full of ants1 as in
 a bath of vitriol1 for  hours4 ,he     
gives the native name of the ant as     
issauba4    #aea ,j4 ,crevaux1 ,voyages 
dans l',amrique du ,sud 7,paris1 #ahhc71
 pp4  #bde-bej4    #aeb ,h4 ,coudreau1  
,chez nos ,indiens3 quatre annes dans la
 ,guyane  ,franaise 7,paris1 #ahie71 p4 
#bbh4 ,for details as to the different  
modes  of administering the marak see   
ibid4 pp4 #bbh-bce4    #aec ,father     
,geronimo ,boscana1 ,chinigchinich1 in  
,life in ,california  by an ,american   
,a4 ,robinson 7,new ,york1 #ahdf71 pp4  
#bgc sq4    #aed ,f4 ,stuhlmann1 ,mit   
,emin ,pascha ins ,herz von ,afrika     
7,berlin1  #ahid71 p4 #ejf4    #aee ,as 
a confirmation of this view it may be   

pointed out that beating  or scourging  
is inflicted on inanimate objects       
expressly for the purpose  indicated in 
the text4 ,thus the ,indians of ,costa  
,rica hold that there  are two kinds of 
ceremonial uncleanness1 nya and bu-ku-r4
 ,anything  that has been connected with
 a death is nya4 ,but bu-ku-r is much   
more virulent4 ,it can not only make one
 sick but kill4 ,bu-ku-r  emanates in a 
variety of ways2 arms1 utensils1 even   
houses become  affected by it after long
 disuse1 and before they can be used    
again must  be purified4 ,in the case of
 portable objects left undisturbed for a
 long  time1 the custom is to beat them 
with a stick before touching them4 ,i   
have seen a woman take a long           
walking-stick and beat a basket hanging 
from the roof of a house by a cord4 ,on 
asking what that was for1 ,i was  told  
that the basket contained her treasures1
 that she would probably  want to take  
something out the next day1 and that she
 was driving off  the bu-ku-r4 ,a house 

long unused must be swept1 and then the 
person  who is purifying it must take a 
stick and beat not only the movable     
objects1 but the beds1 posts1 and in    
short every accessible part of the      
interior4 ,the next day it is fit for   
occupation4 ,a place not visited for  a 
long time or reached for the first time 
is bu-ku-r4 ,on our return  from the    
ascent of ,pico ,blanco1 nearly all the 
party suffered from  little calenturas1 
the result of extraordinary exposure to 
wet and cold  and of want of food4 ,the 
,indians said that the peak was         
especially  bu-ku-r since nobody had    
ever been on it before4 ,one day ,mr4   
,gabb  took down some dusty blow-guns   
amid cries of bu-ku-r from the          
,indians4 ,some weeks afterwards a boy  
died1 and the ,indians firmly  believed 
that the bu-ku-r of the blow-guns had   
killed him4 ,from all  the foregoing1 it
 would seem that bu-ku-r is a sort of   
evil spirit  that takes possession of   
the object1 and resents being disturbed2

 but ,i  have never been able to learn  
from the ,indians that they consider it 
so4  ,they seem to think of it as a     
property the object acquires4 ,but the  
worst bu-ku-r of all1 is that of a young
 woman in her first  pregnancy4 ,she    
infects the whole neighbourhood4        
,persons going from the  house where she
 lives1 carry the infection with them to
 a distance1 and  all the deaths or     
other serious misfortunes in the        
vicinity are laid to  her charge4 ,in   
the old times1 when the savage laws and 
customs were in  full force1 it was not 
an uncommon thing for the husband of    
such a woman  to pay damages for        
casualties thus caused by his           
unfortunate wife4 ,see  ,wm4 ,m4 ,gabb1 
,on the ,indian ,tribes and ,languages  
of ,costa ,rica1  ,proceedings of the   
,american ,philosophical ,society held  
at  ,philadelphia1 xiv4 7,philadelphia1 
#ahgf7 pp4 #ejd sq4    #aef ,j4         
,chaffanjon1 ,l',ornoque et le ,caura   
7,paris1 #ahhi71 pp4  #bac-bae4    #aeg 

,shib ,chunder ,bose1 ,the ,hindoos as  
they are 7,london and ,calcutta1        
#ahha71 p4 #hf4 ,similarly1 after a     
,brahman boy has been invested with the 
sacred thread1 he is for three days     
strictly forbidden to see the sun4  ,he 
may not eat salt1 and he is enjoined to 
sleep either on a carpet or a  deer's   
skin1 without a mattress or mosquito    
curtain 7ibid4 p4 #ahf74 ,in  ,bali1    
boys who have had their teeth filed1 as 
a preliminary to marriage1  are kept    
shut up in a dark room for three days   
7,r4 ,van ,eck1 ,schetsen  van het      
eiland ,bali1 ,tijdschrift voor         
,nederlandsch ,indi1 ,n4,s41 ix4        
7#ahhj7 pp4 #dbh sq474    #aeh 7,sir7   
,h4,h4 ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes of  
,bengal1 ,ethnographic  ,glossary       
7,calcutta1 #ahia-ahib71 i4 #aeb4       
#aei ,edgar ,thurston1 ,castes and      
,tribes of ,southern ,india 7,madras1   
#aiji71 vii4 #fc sq4    #afj ,edgar     
,thurston1 op4 cit4 iii4 #bah4    #afa  
,edgar ,thurston1 op4 cit4 vi4 #aeg4    

#afb ,s4 ,mateer1 ,native ,life in      
,travancore 7,london1 #ahhc71 p4 #de4   
#afc ,arthur ,a4 ,perera1 ,glimpses of  
,singhalese ,social ,life1 ,indian      
,antiquary xxxi1 7#aijb7 p4 #chj4       
#afd ,j4 ,moura1 ,le ,royaume du        
,cambodge 7,paris1 #ahhc71 i4 #cgg4     
#afe tienne ,aymonier1 ,notes sur les   
coutumes et croyances  superstitieuses  
des ,cambodgiens1 ,cochinchine          
,franaise3 ,excursions et               
,reconnaissances1 ,no4 #af 7,saigon1    
#ahhc71 pp4 #aic sq4 ,compare id41      
,notice sur le ,cambodge 7,paris1       
#ahge71 p4 #ej id41 ,notes sur le ,laos 
7,saigon1 #ahhe71 p4 #agg4    #aff      
,svend ,grundtvig1 ,dnische             
,volks-mrchen1 bersetzt von ,a4         
,strodtmann1 ,zweite ,sammlung          
7,leipsic1 #ahgi71 pp4 #aii sqq4    #afg
 ,christian ,schneller1 ,mrchen und     
,sagen aus ,wlschtirol  7,innsbruck1    
#ahfg71 ,no4 #bb1 pp4 #ea sqq4    #afh  
,bernbard ,schmidt1 ,griechische        
,mrchen1 ,sagen und ,volkslieder        

7,leipsic1 #ahgg71 p4 #ih4    #afi      
,j4,g4 von ,hahn1 ,griechische und      
albanesische ,mrchen 7,leipsic1  #ahfd71
 ,no4 #da1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bde sqq4    #agj
 ,laura ,gonzenbach1 ,sicilianische     
,mrchen 7,leipsic1 #ahgj71 ,no4 #bh1    
vol4 i4 pp4 #agg sqq4 ,the incident of  
the bone occurs in other  folk-tales4 ,a
 prince or princess is shut up for      
safety in a tower and  makes his or her 
escape by scraping a hole in the wall   
with a bone which  has been accidentally
 conveyed into the tower2 sometimes it  
is expressly  said that care was taken  
to let the princess have no bones with  
her meat  7,j4,g4 von ,hahn1 op4 cit4   
,no4 #ae2 ,l4 ,gonzenbach1 op4 cit4     
,nos4 #bf1  #bg2 ,der ,pentamerone1 aus 
dem ,neapolitanischen bertragen von     
,felix  ,liebrecht 7,breslau1 #ahdf71   
,no4 #bc1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bid sqq474 ,from 
this we  should infer that it is a rule 
with savages not to let women handle the
  bones of animals during their monthly 
seclusions4 ,we have already seen  the  

great respect with which the savage     
treats the bones of game  7,spirits of  
the ,corn and of the ,wild ii4 #bch     
sqq41 #bef sqq472 and  women in their   
courses are specially forbidden to      
meddle with the hunter  or fisher1 as   
their contact or neighbourhood would    
spoil his sport 7see  below1 pp4 #gg1   
#gh sq41 #hg1 #hi sqq474 ,in folk-tales 
the hero who uses  the bone is sometimes
 a boy2 but the incident might easily be
  transferred from a girl to a boy after
 its real meaning had been  forgotten4  
,amongst the ,tinneh ,indians a girl at 
puberty is forbidden to  break the bones
 of hares 7above1 p4 #dh74 ,on the other
 hand1 she drinks  out of a tube made of
 a swan's bone 7above1 pp4 #dh1 #di71   
and the same  instrument is used for the
 same purpose by girls of the ,carrier  
tribe of  ,indians 7see below1 p4 #ib74 
,we have seen that a ,tlingit           
7,thlinkeet7 girl  in the same          
circumstances used to drink out of the  
wing-bone of a  white-headed eagle      

7above1 p4 #de71 and that among the     
,nootka and ,shuswap  tribes girls at   
puberty are provided with bones or combs
 with which to  scratch themselves1     
because they may not use their fingers  
for this  purpose 7above1 pp4 #dd1 #ec74
    #aga ,sophocles1 ,antigone1 #idd    
sqq42 ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 ii4   
#d4 ,i2 ,horace1 ,odes1 iii4 #af4 ,i    
sqq42 ,pausanias1 ii4 #bc4 #g4    #agb  
,w4 ,radloff1 ,proben der               
,volks-litteratur der trkischen ,stmme  
,sd-,siberiens1 iii4 7,st4 ,petersburg1 
#ahgj7 pp4 #hb sq4    #agc ,h4          
,ternaux-,compans1 ,essai sur l'ancien  
,cundinamarca 7,paris1  ,n4,d471 p4 #ah4
    #agd ,george ,turner1 ,,ll4,d41     
,samoa1 a ,hundred ,years ago and long  
before  7,london1 #ahhd71 p4 #bjj4 ,for 
other examples of such tales1 see       
,adolph  ,bastian1 ,die ,voelker des    
,oestlichen ,asien1 i4 #daf1 vi4 #be2   
,panjab  ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 p4    
#adh1  #gig 7,june1 #ahhe72 ,a4         
,pfizmaier1  ,nachrichten von den alten 

,bewohnern des heutigen ,corea1         
,sitzungsberichte der philosoph4 histor4
 ,classe der kaiser4 ,akademie der      
,wissenschaften 7,vienna71 lvii4 7#ahfh7
 pp4 #die sq4    #age ,thomas ,j4       
,hutchinson1 ,on the ,chaco and other   
,indians of ,south  ,america1           
,transactions of the ,ethnological      
,society of ,london1 ,n4,s4  iii4       
7#ahfe7 p4 #cbg4 ,amongst the ,lengua   
,indians of the ,paraguayan ,chaco  the 
marriage feast is now apparently        
extinct4 ,see ,w4 ,barbrooke ,grubb1    
,an ,unknown ,people in an ,unknown     
,land 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #agi4    #agf
 ,monier ,williams1 ,religious ,thought 
and ,life in ,india 7,london1  #ahhc71  
p4 #ced4    #agg ,h4 ,vambery1 ,das     
,trkenvolk 7,leipsic1 #ahhe71 p4 #aab4  
#agh ,hans ,egede1 ,a ,description of   
,greenland 7,london1 #ahah71 p4 #bji4   
#agi ,revue des ,traditions ,populaires1
 xv4 7#aijj7 p4 #dga4    #ahj ,taboo and
 the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #ade sqq4
    #aha ,h4,e4,a4 ,meyer1 ,manners and 

,customs of the ,aborigines of the      
,encounter ,bay ,tribe1 ,south          
,australia1 ,the ,native ,tribes of     
,south  ,australia 7,adelaide1 #ahgi71  
p4 #ahf4    #ahb ,e4,j4 ,eyre1 ,journals
 of ,expeditions of ,discovery into     
,central  ,australia 7,london1 #ahde71  
ii4 #cjd4    #ahc ,e4,j4 ,eyre1 op4 cit4
 ii4 #bie4    #ahd ,r4 ,brough ,smyth1  
,the ,aborigines of ,victoria           
7,melbourne and  ,london1 #ahgh71 i4    
#bcf4    #ahe ,samuel ,gason1 in        
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 xxiv4  7#ahie7 p4 #aga4     
#ahf ,baldwin ,spencer and ,f4,j4       
,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central    
,australia 7,london1 #ahii71 p4 #dgc2   
idem1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central     
,australia 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #fae4   
#ahg ,james ,dawson1 ,australian        
,aborigines 7,melbourne1 ,sydney1 and   
,adelaide1 #ahha71 pp4 ci4 sq4    #ahh  
,rev4 ,william ,ridley1 ,report on      
,australian ,languages and  ,traditions1
 ,journal of the ,anthropological       

,institute1 ii4 7#ahgc7 p4  #bfh4       
,compare id41 ,kamilaroi and other      
,australian ,languages 7,sydney1        
#ahge71 p4 #aeg4    #ahi ,a4,w4 ,howitt1
 ,the ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east   
,australia 7,london1  #aijd471 pp4 #ggf 
sq41 on the authority of ,mr4 ,j4,c4    
,muirhead4 ,the  ,wakelbura are in      
,central ,queensland4 ,compare ,captain 
,w4,e4 ,armit1 quoted  in ,journal of   
the ,anthropological ,institute1 ix4    
7#ahhj7 pp4 #dei sq4    #aij ,reports of
 the ,cambridge ,anthropological        
,expedition to ,torres  ,straits1 v4    
7,cambridge1 #aijd7 pp4 #aif1 #bjg4     
#aia ,ch4 ,keysser1 ,aus dem ,leben der 
,kaileute1 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's  ,deutsch 
,neu-,guinea 7,berlin1 #aiaa71 iii4 #ia4
    #aib ,m4,j4 van ,baarda1 ,fabelen1  
,verhalen en ,overleveringen der        
,galelareezen1 ,bijdragen tot de        
,taal-,landen ,volkenkinde van          
,nederlandsch-,indi1 xlv4 7#ahie7 p4    
#dhi4    #aic ,j4,l4 van der ,toorn1    
,het animisme bij den ,minangkabauer der

  ,padangsche ,bovenlanden1 ,bijdragen  
tot de ,taal-,land- en ,volkenkunde van 
,nederlandsch-,indi1 xxxix4 7#ahij7 p4  
#ff4    #aid ,w4,h4,i4 ,bleek1 ,a ,brief
 ,account of ,bushman ,folk-lore        
7,london1  #ahge71 p4 #ad2 compare      
ibid41 p4 #aj4    #aie ,rev4 ,james     
,macdonald1 ,manners1 ,customs1         
,superstitions and  ,religions of ,south
 ,african ,tribes1 ,journal of the      
,anthropological  ,institute1 xx4       
7#ahia7 p4 #ach2 id41 ,light in ,africa1
 ,second ,edition  7,london1 #ahij71 p4 
#bba4    #aif ,dudley ,kidd1 ,the       
,essential ,kafir 7,london1 #aijd71 p4  
#bch2 ,mr4  ,warren's ,notes1 in ,col4  
,maclean's ,compendium of ,kafir ,laws  
and ,customs  7,cape ,town1 #ahff71 p4  
#ic2 ,rev4 ,j4 ,macdonald1 ,light in    
,africa1 p4 #bba2  id41 ,religion and   
,myth 7,london1 #ahic71 p4 #aih4        
,compare ,henri ,a4 ,junod1  ,les       
conceptions physiologiques des ,bantou  
,sud-,africains et leurs  tabous1 ,revue
 d',ethnographie et de ,sociologie1 i4  

7#aiaj7 p4 #aci4 ,the  danger of death  
to the cattle from the blood of women is
 mentioned only  by ,mr4 ,kidd4 ,the    
part of the village which is frequented 
by the cattle1  and which accordingly   
must be shunned by women1 has a special 
name1  inkundhla 7,mr4 ,warner's ,notes1
 l4c474    #aig ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the 
,bahima1 a ,cow ,tribe of ,enkole1      
,journal of  the ,royal ,anthropological
 ,institute1 xxxvii4 7#aijg7 p4 #ajf4   
#aih ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda   
7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #dai4    #aii ,rev4
 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda1 p4 #if4    
#bjj ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,notes on the   
,manners and ,customs of the ,baganda1  
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 xxxi4 7#aija7 p4 #aba2 id41 
,further ,notes on the ,manners and     
,customs of the ,baganda1 ,journal of   
the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 
7#aijb7 p4 #ci2 id41 ,the ,baganda1  p4 
#ceb4    #bja ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the   
,baganda1 p4 #dei4    #bjb ,c4,w4       
,hobley1 ,further ,researches into      

,kikuyu and ,kamba ,religious  ,beliefs 
and ,customs1 ,journal of the ,royal    
,anthropological ,institute1  xli4      
7#aiaa7 p4 #dji4    #bjc ,mervyn ,w4,h4 
,beech1 ,the ,suk1 their ,language and  
,folklore 7,oxford1  #aiaa71 p4 #aa4    
#bjd ,h4,s4 ,stannus1 ,notes on some    
,tribes of ,british ,central ,africa1   
,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological 
,institute1 xl4 7#aiaj7 p4 #cje2 ,r4    
,sutherland ,rattray1 ,some ,folk-lore  
,stories and ,songs in ,chinyanja       
7,london1 #aijg71 p4 #aia4 ,see above1  
p4 #bg4    #bje ,jakob ,spieth1 ,die    
,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1 #aijf71 p4 #aib4  
#bjf ,anton ,witte1 ,menstruation und   
,puberttsfeier der ,mdchen in           
,kpandugebiet ,togo1 ,baessler-,archiv1 
i4 7#aiaa7 p4 #bgi4    #bjg ,th4        
,nldeke1 ,geschichte der ,perser und    
,araber zur ,zeit der  ,sassaniden1 aus 
der arabischen ,chronik des ,tabari     
bersetzt 7,leyden1  #ahgi71 pp4 #cc-ch4 
,i have to thank my friend ,professor   
,a4,a4 ,bevan for  pointing out to me   

this passage4 ,many ancient cities had  
talismans on  the preservation of which 
their safety was believed to depend4    
,the  ,palladium of ,troy is the most   
familiar instance4 ,see ,chr4 ,a4       
,lobeck1  ,aglaophamus 7,knigsberg1     
#ahbi71 pp4 #bgh sqq41 and my note on   
,pausanias1 viii4 #dg4 #e 7vol4 iv4 pp4 
#dcc sq474    #bjh ,j4 ,mergel1 ,die    
,medezin der ,talmudisten 7,leipsic and 
,berlin1  #ahhe71 pp4 #ae sq4    #bji   
,maimonides1 quoted by ,d4 ,chwolsohn1  
,die ,ssabier und der  ,ssabismus 7,st4 
,petersburg1 #ahef71 ii4 #dhc4          
,according to the editor 7p4  #gce7 by  
the ,east ,maimonides means ,india and  
eastern countries generally4    #baj    
,l'abb ,bchara ,chmali1 ,naissance et   
premier ge au ,liban1  ,anthropos1 v4   
7#aiaj7 p4 #gce4    #baa ,eijub ,abela1 
,beitrge zur ,kenntniss aberglubischer  
,gebruche in  ,syrien1 ,zeitschrift des 
deutschen ,palaestina-,vereins1 vii4    
7#ahhd7 p4  #aaa4    #bab ,j4 ,chalmers1
 ,toaripi1 ,journal of the              

,anthropological  ,institute1 xxvii4    
7#ahih7 p4 #cbh4    #bac ,w4 ,crooke1   
,tribes and ,castes of the              
,north-,western ,provinces and  ,qudh   
7,calcutta1 #ahif71 ii4 #hg4    #bad ,w4
 ,crooke1 in ,north ,indian ,notes and  
,queries1 i4 p4 #fg1  #dfg  7,july1     
#ahia74    #bae ,l4,k4 ,anantha ,krishna
 ,iyer1 ,the ,cochin ,tribes and        
,castes1 i4  7,madras1 #aiji7 pp4       
#bja-bjc4 ,as to the seclusion of       
menstruous women  among the ,hindoos1   
see also ,sonnerat1 ,voyage aux ,indes  
,orientates et   la ,chine 7,paris1     
#aghb71 i4 #ca2 ,j4,a4 ,dubois1 ,moeurs1
 ,institutions et  ,crmonies des        
,peuples de l',inde 7,paris1 #ahbe71 i4 
#bde sq4 ,nair women  in ,malabar       
seclude themselves for three days at    
menstruation and prepare  their food in 
separate pots and pans4 ,see ,duarte    
,barbosa1 ,description  of the ,coasts  
of ,east ,africa and ,malabar in the    
beginning of the  ,sixteenth ,century   
7,hakluyt ,society1 ,london1 #ahff71 pp4

 #acb sq4    #baf ,g4 ,hoffman1 ,auszge 
aus ,syrischen ,akten persisischer      
,martyrer  bersetzt 7,leipsic1 #ahhj71  
p4 #ii4 ,this passage was pointed out to
 me by  my friend ,professor ,a4,a4     
,bevan4    #bag ,j4,b4 ,tavernier1      
,voyages en ,turquie1 en ,perse1 et aux 
,indes 7,the  ,hague1 #agah71 i4 #dhh4  
#bah ,paul ,giran1 ,magie et ,religion  
,annamites 7,paris1 #aiab71 pp4 #ajg    
sq41 #aab4    #bai ,joseph ,gumilla1    
,histoire ,naturelle1 ,civile1 et       
,gographique de  l',orenoque 7,avignon1 
#ageh71 i4 #bdi4    #bbj ,dr4 ,louis    
,plassard1 ,les ,guaraunos et le delta  
de l',ornoque1  ,bulletin de la ,socit  
de ,gographie 7,paris71 v4 ,srie1 xv4   
7#ahfh7 p4  #ehd4    #bba ,j4 ,crevaux1 
,voyages dans l',amrique du ,sud        
7,paris1 #ahhc71 p4  #ebf4 ,as to the   
customs observed at menstruation by     
,indian women in ,south  ,america1 see  
further ,a4 d',orbigny1 ,l',homme       
,americain 7,paris1 #ahci71 i4  #bcg4   
#bbb ,chas4 ,n4 ,bell1 ,the ,mosquito   

,territory1 ,journal of the ,royal      
,geographical ,society1 xxxii4 7#ahfb7  
p4 #bed4    #bbc ,h4 ,pittier de        
,fabrega1 ,die ,sprache der             
,bribri-,indianer in ,costa  ,rica1     
,sitztungsberichte der                  
philosophischen-historischen ,classe der
  ,kaiserlichen ,akademie der           
,wissenschaften 7,vienna71 cxxxviii4    
7#ahih7 pp4  #ai sq4    #bbd ,gabriel   
,sagard1 ,le ,grand ,voyage du ,pays des
 ,hurons1 ,nouvelle  dition 7,paris1    
#ahfe71 p4 #ed 7original edition1       
,paris1 #afcb72 ,j4,f4  ,lafitau1       
,moeurs des ,sauvages ,ameriquains      
7,paris1 #agbd71 i4 #bfb2  ,charlevoix1 
,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france       
7,paris1 #agdd71 v4 #dbc  sq42 ,captain 
,jonathan ,carver1 ,travels through the 
,interior ,parts of  ,north ,america1   
,third ,edition 7,london1 #agha71 pp4   
#bcf sq42 ,captains  ,lewis and ,clark1 
,expedition to the ,sources of the      
,missouri1 etc4  7,london1 #aije71 iii4 
#ij 7original edition1 #ahad72 ,rev4    

,jedidiah ,morse1  ,report to the       
,secretary of ,war of the ,united       
,states on ,indian ,affairs  7,new      
,haven1 #ahbb71 pp4 #acf sq42 ,annales  
de l',association de la  ,propagation de
 la ,foi1 iv1 7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahcj7
 pp4 #dhc1 #did sq42  ,george ,catlin1  
,letters and ,notes on the ,manners1    
,customs1 and ,condition  of the ,north 
,american ,indians1 ,fourth ,edition    
7,london1 #ahdd71 ii4 #bcc2  ,h4,r4     
,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes of the    
,united ,states 7,philadelphia1         
#ahec-ahef71 v4 #gj2 ,a4,l4 ,kroeber1   
,the ,religion of the ,indians of       
,california1 ,university of ,california 
,publication in ,american  ,archaeology 
and ,ethnology1 vol4 iv4 ,no4 #f        
7,berkeley1 ,september1 #aijg71  pp4    
#cbc sq42 ,frank ,g4 ,speck1 ,ethnology 
of the ,yuchi ,indians  7,philadelphia1 
#aiji71 p4 #if4 ,among the ,hurons of   
,canada women at their  periods did not 
retire from the house or village1 but   
they ate from  small dishes apart from  

the rest of the family at these times   
7,gabriel  ,sagard1 l4c474    #bbe      
,james ,adair1 ,history of the ,american
 ,indians 7,london1 #agge71 pp4  #abc   
sq4    #bbf ,bossu1 ,nouveaux ,voyages  
aux ,indes occidentales 7,paris1 #agfh71
  ii4 #aje4    #bbg ,edwin ,james1      
,account of an ,expedition from         
,pittsburgh to the  ,rocky ,mountains   
7,london1 #ahbc71 i4 #bad4    #bbh      
,william ,h4 ,keating1 ,narrative of an 
,expedition to the ,source of  ,st4     
,peter's ,river 7,london1 #ahbe71 i4    
#acb4    #bbi ,g4,b4 ,grinnell1         
,cheyenne ,woman ,customs1 ,american    
,anthropologist1 ,new ,series1 iv4 7,new
 ,york1 #aijb7 p4 #ad4    #bcj ,c4 ,hill
 ,tout1 ,ethnological ,report on the    
,stseelis and ,skaulits  ,tribes of the 
,halokmelem ,division of the ,salish of 
,british ,columbia1  ,journal of the    
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxiv4     
7#aijd7 p4 #cbj4    #bca ,james ,teit1  
,the ,thompson ,indians of ,british     
,columbia1 pp4 #cbf  sq4 7,the ,jesup   

,north ,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of 
the ,american  ,museum of ,natural      
,history1 ,new ,york1 ,april1 #aijj74   
#bcb ,samuel ,hearne1 ,journey from     
,prince of ,wales's ,fort in ,hudson's  
,bay to the ,northern ,ocean 7,london1  
#agie71 pp4 #cad sq42 ,alex4            
,mackenzie1 ,voyages through the        
,continent of ,north ,america 7,london1 
#ahja71 p4 cxxiii42 ,e4 ,petitot1       
,monographic des ,dn-,dindji 7,paris1   
#ahgf71 pp4 #ge sq4    #bcc ,c4         
,leemius1 ,de ,lapponibus ,finmarchiae  
eorumque lingua vita et  religione      
pristina 7,copenhagen1 #agfg71 p4 #did4 
#bcd ,e4,w4 ,nelson1 ,the ,eskimo about 
,bering ,strait1 ,eighteenth ,annual    
,report of the ,bureau of ,american     
,ethnology1 ,part i4 7,washington1      
#ahii7  p4 #ddj4    #bce ,the ,carriers 
are a tribe of ,dn or ,tinneh ,indians  
who get their  name from a custom       
observed among them by widows1 who      
carry1 or rather  used to carry1 the    
charred bones of their dead husbands    

about with them  in bundles4    #bcf    
,hence we may conjecture that the       
similar ornaments worn by ,mabuiag      
girls in similar circumstances are also 
amulets4 ,see above1 p4 #cf4 ,among  the
 aborigines of the ,upper ,yarra river  
in ,victoria1 a girl at puberty  used to
 have cords tied very tightly round     
several parts of her body4  ,the cords  
were worn for several days1 causing the 
whole body to swell  very much and      
inflicting great pain4 ,the girl might  
not remove them till  she was clean4    
,see ,r4 ,brough ,smyth1 ,aborigines of 
,victoria 7,melbourne  and ,london1     
#ahgh71 i4 #fe4 ,perhaps the cords were 
intended to arrest the  flow of blood4  
#bcg ,rev4 ,father ,a4,g4 ,morice1 ,the 
,western ,dns1 their ,manners and       
,customs1 ,proceedings of the ,canadian 
,institute1 ,toronto1 ,third  ,series1  
vii4 7#ahhh-hi7 pp4 #afb-afd4 ,the      
writer has repeated the  substance of   
this account in a later work1 ,au pays  
de l',ours ,noir3 chez  les sauvages de 

la ,colombia ,britannique 7,paris and   
,lyons1 #ahig71 pp4 #gb  sq4    #bch    
,a4,g4 ,morice1 ,notes1 ,archaeological1
 ,industrial1 and ,sociological1  on the
 ,western ,dns1 ,transactions of the    
,canadian ,institute1 iv4  7#ahib-ic7   
pp4 #ajf sq4 ,compare ,rev4 ,father     
,julius ,jett1 ,on the  ,superstitions  
of the ,ten'a ,indians1 ,anthropos1 vi4 
7#aiaa7 pp4 #gjc  sq41 who tells us that
 ,tinneh women at these times may not   
lift their  own nets1 may not step over 
other people's nets1 and may not pass in
 a  boat or canoe near a place where    
nets are being set4    #bci ,a4,g4      
,morice1 in ,transactions of the        
,canadian ,institute1 iv4  7#ahib-ic7   
pp4 #ajg1 #aaj4    #bdj ,james ,teit1   
,the ,thompson ,indians of ,british     
,columbia1 p4 #cbg  7,the ,jesup ,north 
,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of the    
,american ,museum of  ,natural ,history1
 ,new ,york1 ,april #aijj74    #bda ,see
 above1 p4 #ec4    #bdb ,laws of ,manu1 
translated by ,g4 ,buhler 7,oxford1     

#ahhf71 ch4 iv4 #da  sq41 p4 #ace       
7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4      
xxv474    #bdc ,the ,zend-,avesta1      
translated by ,j4 ,darmesteter1 i4      
7,oxford1 #ahhj7  p4 xcii4 7,sacred     
,books of the ,east1 vol4 iv474 ,see    
id41 pp4 #i1  #aha-ahe1 ,fargard1 i4 #ah
 and #ai1 xvi4 #a-ah4    #bdd ,pliny1   
,nat4 ,hist4 vii4 #fd sq41 xxviii4 #gg  
sqq4 ,compare  ,geoponica1 xii4 #bj4 #e 
and #be4 #b2 ,columella1 ,de re rustica1
 xi4 #ceg  sqq4    #bde ,august         
,schleicher1 ,volkstmliches aus         
,sonnenberg 7,weimar1 #aheh71  p4 #acd2 
,b4 ,souch1 ,croyances1 ,prsages et     
,traditions diverses 7,niort1  #ahhj71  
p4 #aa2 ,a4 ,meyrac1 ,traditions1       
,coutumes ,lgendes et ,contes des       
,ardennes 7,charleville1 #ahij71 p4     
#aga2 ,v4 ,fossel1 ,volksmedicin und    
medicinischer ,aberglaube in            
,steiermark#b 7,graz1 #ahhf71 p4 #abd4  
,a  correspondent1 who withholds her    
name1 writes to me that in a ,suffolk   
village1 where she used to live some    

twenty or thirty years ago1 every  one  
pickled their own beef1 and it was held 
that if the pickling were  performed by 
a woman during her menstrual period the 
meat would not  keep4 ,if the cook were 
incapacitated at the time when the      
pickling was  due1 another woman was    
sent for out of the village rather than 
risk what  was considered a certainty4  
,another correspondent informs me that  
in  some of the dales in the north of   
,yorkshire a similar belief prevailed   
down to recent years with regard to the 
salting of pork4 ,another  correspondent
 writes to me3 ,the prohibition that a  
menstruating woman  must not touch meat 
that is intended for keeping appears to 
be common  all over the country2 at     
least ,i have met with it as a confirmed
 and  active custom in widely separated 
parts of ,england4444 ,it is in regard  
to the salting of meat for bacon that   
the prohibition is most usual1  because 
that is the commonest process2 but it   
exists in regard to any  meat food that 

is required to be kept4    #bdf ,r4     
,andree1 ,braunschweiger ,volkskunde    
7,brunswick1 #ahif71 p4 #bia4    #bdg   
,w4,r4 ,paton1 in ,folk-lore1 i4 7#ahij7
 p4 #ebd4    #bdh ,the ,greeks and      
,romans thought that a field was        
completely  protected against insects if
 a menstruous woman walked round it with
  bare feet and streaming hair 7,pliny1 
,nat4 ,hist4 xvii4 #bff1 xxviii4 #gh2   
,columella1 ,de re rustica1 x4 #ceh sq41
 xi4 #c4 #fd2 ,palladius1 ,de re        
rustica1 i4 #ce4 #c2 ,geoponica1 xii4   
#h4 #e sq42 ,aelian1 ,nat4 ,anim4  vi4  
#cf74 ,a similar preventive is employed 
for the same purpose by ,north          
,american ,indians and ,european        
peasants4 ,see ,h4,r4 ,schoolcraft1     
,indian  ,tribes of the ,united ,states 
7,philadelphia1 #ahec-ahef71 v4 #gj2    
,f4,j4  ,wiedemann1 ,aus dem inneren und
 assern ,leben der ,ehsten 7,st4        
,petersburg1 #ahgf71 p4 #dhd4 ,compare  
,j4 ,haltrich1 ,zur ,volkskunde der     
,siebenbrger ,sachsen 7,vienna1 #ahhe71 

p4 #bhj2 ,adolph ,heinrich1  ,agrarische
 ,sitten und ,gebruche unter den        
,sachsen ,siebenbrgens  7,hermannstadt1 
#ahhj71 p4 #ad2 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche   
,mythologie199#d iii4  #dfh2 ,g4        
,lammert1 ,volksmedizin und             
medizinischer ,aberglaube aus ,bayern   
7,wrzburg1 #ahfi71 p4 #adg4 ,among the  
,western ,dns it is believed that  one  
or two transverse lines tattooed on the 
arms or legs of a young man  by a       
pubescent girl are a specific against   
premature weakness of these  limbs4 ,see
 ,a4,g4 ,morice1 ,notes1                
,archaeological1 ,industrial1 and       
,sociological1 on the ,western ,dns1    
,transactions of the ,canadian          
,institute1 iv4 7#ahib-ic7 p4 #ahb4 ,the
 ,thompson ,indians of ,british         
,columbia thought that the ,dawn of ,day
 could and would cure hernia if  only an
 adolescent girl prayed to it to do so4 
,just before daybreak the  girl would   
put some charcoal in her mouth1 chew it 
fine1 and spit it out  four times on the

 diseased place4 ,then she prayed3 ,o   
,day-dawn6 thy  child relies on me to   
obtain healing from thee1 who art       
mystery4 ,remove  thou the swelling of  
thy child4 ,pity thou him1 ,day-,dawn6  
,see ,james  ,teit1 ,the ,thompson      
,indians of ,british ,columbia1 pp4 #cde
 sq4 7,the  ,jesup ,north ,pacific      
,expedition1 ,memoir of the ,american   
,museum of ,natural  ,history1 ,new     
,york1 ,april1 #aijj74 ,to cure the     
painful and dangerous  wound inflicted  
by a ray-fish1 the ,indians of the ,gran
 ,chaco smoke the  wounded limb and then
 cause a woman in her courses to sit    
astride of it4  ,see ,g4 ,pelleschi1    
,eight ,months on the ,gran ,chaco of   
the ,argentine  ,republic 7,london1     
#ahhf71 p4 #ajf4 ,an ancient ,hindoo    
method of securing  prosperity was to   
swallow a portion of the menstruous     
fluid4 ,see ,w4  ,caland1 ,altindisches 
,zauberritual 7,amsterdam1 #aijj71 pp4  
#eg sq4 ,to  preserve a new cow from the
 evil eye ,scottish ,highlanders used to

  sprinkle menstruous blood on the      
animal2 and at certain seasons of the   
year1 especially at ,beltane 7the first 
of ,may7 and ,lammas 7the first of      
,august7 it was their custom to sprinkle
 the same potent liquid on the          
doorposts and houses all round to guard 
them from harm4 ,the fluid was  applied 
by means of a wisp of straw1 and the    
person who discharged this  salutary    
office went round the house in the      
direction of the sun4 ,see  ,j4,g4      
,campbell1 ,superstitions of the        
,highlands and ,islands of ,scotland    
7,glasgow1 #aijj71 p4 #bdh4 ,these are  
examples of the beneficent  application 
of the menstruous energy4    #bdi ,taboo
 and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #a   
sqq4    #bej ,for a similar reason1     
perhaps1 ancient ,hindoo ritual         
prescribed  that when the hair of a     
child's head was shorn in the third     
year1 the  clippings should be buried in
 a cow-stable1 or near an udumbara tree1
  or in a clump of darbha grass1 with   

the words1 ,where ,pushan1  ,brihaspati1
 ,savitri1 ,soma1 ,agni dwell1 they have
 in many ways searched  where they      
should deposit it1 between heaven and   
earth1 the waters and  heaven4 ,see ,the
 ,grihya-,stras1 translated by ,h4      
,oldenberg1 ,part ii4  7,oxford1 #ahib7 
p4 #bah 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1   
vol4 xxx474    #bea ,petronius1 ,sat4   
#dh2 ,pausanias1 x4 #ab3 #h2 ,justin    
,martyr1 ,cohort  ad ,graecos1 #cg1 p4  
#cd c 7ed4 #agdb74 ,according to another
 account1 the  remains of the ,sibyl    
were enclosed in an iron cage which hung
 from a  pillar in an ancient temple of 
,hercules at ,argyrus 7,ampelius1 ,liber
  ,memorialis1 viii4 #af74    #beb ,a4  
,kuhn und ,w4 ,schwartz1 ,nord-deutsche 
,sagen1 ,mrchen und  ,gebruche          
7,leipsic1 #ahdh71 p4 #gj1 ,no4 #gb4 i4 
,this and the following  ,german        
parallels to the story of the ,sibyl's  
wish were first indicated  by ,dr4      
,m4,r4 ,james 7,classical ,review1 vi4  
7#ahib7 p4 #gd74 ,i have already  given 

the stories at length in a note on      
,pausanias1 x4 #ab4 #h 7vol4 v4  pp4    
#bib sq474    #bec ,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4    
,schwartz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #gj sq41 ,no4   
#gb4 #b4    #bed ,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4      
,schwartz1 op4 cit4 p4 #ga1 ,no4 #gb4   
#c4    #bee ,karl ,mllenhoff1 ,sagen1   
,mrchen und ,lieder der ,herzogthmer    
,holstein und ,lauenburg 7,kiel1 #ahde71
 pp4 #aeh sg41 ,no4 #bag4               
,,chapter ,,iii    ,,the ,,myth ,,of    
,,balder      ,how ,balder1 the good and
 beautiful god1 was done to death by a  
stroke  of the mistletoe4    ,a deity   
whose life might in a sense be said to  
be neither in heaven nor  on earth but  
between the two1 was the ,norse ,balder1
 the good and  beautiful god1 the son of
 the great god ,odin1 and himself the   
wisest1  mildest1 best beloved of all   
the immortals4 ,the story of his death1 
as  it is told in the younger or prose  
,edda1 runs thus4 ,once on a time       
,balder dreamed heavy dreams which      
seemed to forebode his death4           

,thereupon the gods held a council and  
resolved to make him secure  against    
every danger4 ,so the goddess ,frigg    
took an oath from fire and  water1 iron 
and all metals1 stones and earth1 from  
trees1 sicknesses and  poisons1 and from
 all four-footed beasts1 birds1 and     
creeping things1  that they would not   
hurt ,balder4 ,when this was done       
,balder was deemed  invulnerable2 so the
 gods amused themselves by setting him  
in their  midst1 while some shot at him1
 others hewed at him1 and others threw  
stones at him4 ,but whatever they did1  
nothing could hurt him2 and at  this    
they were all glad4 ,only ,loki1 the    
mischief-maker1 was displeased1  and he 
went in the guise of an old woman to    
,frigg1 who told him that the  weapons  
of the gods could not wound ,balder1    
since she had made them all  swear not  
to hurt him4 ,then ,loki asked1 ,have   
all things sworn to spare  ,balder8 ,she
 answered1 ,east of ,walhalla grows a   
plant called mistletoe2  it seemed to me

 too young to swear4 ,so ,loki went and 
pulled the  mistletoe and took it to the
 assembly of the gods4 ,there he found  
the  blind god ,hother standing at the  
outside of the circle4 ,loki asked him1 
,why do you not shoot at ,balder8       
,hother answered1 ,because ,i do not see
  where he stands2 besides ,i have no   
weapon4 ,then said ,loki1 ,do like the  
rest and shew ,balder honour1 as they   
all do4 ,i will shew you where he       
stands1 and do you shoot at him with    
this twig4 ,hother took the  mistletoe  
and threw it at ,balder1 as ,loki       
directed him4 ,the mistletoe  struck    
,balder and pierced him through and     
through1 and he fell down  dead4 ,and   
that was the greatest misfortune that   
ever befell gods and  men4 ,for a while 
the gods stood speechless1 then they    
lifted up their  voices and wept        
bitterly4 ,they took ,balder's body and 
brought it to the  sea-shore4 ,there    
stood ,balder's ship2 it was called     
,ringhorn1 and was  the hugest of all   

ships4 ,the gods wished to launch the   
ship and to burn  ,balder's body on it1 
but the ship would not stir4 ,so they   
sent for a  giantess called ,hyrrockin4 
,she came riding on a wolf and gave the 
ship  such a push that fire flashed from
 the rollers and all the earth shook4   
,then ,balder's body was taken and      
placed on the funeral pile upon his     
ship4 ,when his wife ,nanna saw that1   
her heart burst for sorrow and she      
died4 ,so she was laid on the funeral   
pile with her husband1 and fire was  put
 to it4 ,balder's horse1 too1 with all  
its trappings1 was burned on  the       
pile4#bef    ,tale of ,balder in the    
older ,edda4    ,in the older or poetic 
,edda the tragic tale of ,balder is     
hinted at  rather than told at length4  
,among the visions which the ,norse     
,sibyl sees  and describes in the weird 
prophecy known as the ,voluspa is one of
 the  fatal mistletoe4 ,i behold1 says  
she1 ,fate looming for ,balder1 ,woden's
  son1 the bloody victim4 ,there stands 

the ,mistletoe slender and delicate1    
blooming high above the ground4 ,out of 
this shoot1 so slender to look  on1     
there shall grow a harmful fateful      
shaft4 ,hod shall shoot it1 but  ,frigga
 in ,fen-hall shall weep over the woe of
 ,wal-hall4#beg ,yet  looking far into  
the future the ,sibyl sees a brighter   
vision of a new  heaven and a new earth1
 where the fields unsown shall yield    
their  increase and all sorrows shall be
 healed2 then ,balder will come back to 
dwell in ,odin's mansions of bliss1 in a
 hall brighter than the sun1  shingled  
with gold1 where the righteous shall    
live in joy for ever  more4#beh    ,the 
story of ,balder as related by ,saxo    
,grammaticus4    ,writing about the end 
of the twelfth century1 the old ,danish 
historian  ,saxo ,grammaticus tells the 
story of ,balder in a form which        
professes to  be historical4 ,according 
to him1 ,balder and ,hother were rival  
suitors  for the hand of ,nanna1        
daughter of ,gewar1 ,king of ,norway4   

,now ,balder was  a demigod and common  
steel could not wound his sacred body4  
,the two  rivals encountered each other 
in a terrific battle1 and though ,odin  
and  ,thor and the rest of the gods     
fought for ,balder1 yet was he defeated 
and  fled away1 and ,hother married the 
princess4 ,nevertheless ,balder took    
heart of grace and again met ,hother in 
a stricken field4 ,but he fared  even   
worse than before2 for ,hother dealt him
 a deadly wound with a magic  sword1    
which he had received from ,miming1 the 
,satyr of the woods2 and  after         
lingering three days in pain ,balder    
died of his hurt and was  buried with   
royal honours in a barrow4#bei          
,balder worshipped in ,norway4          
,whether he was a real or merely a      
mythical personage1 ,balder was         
worshipped in ,norway4 ,on one of the   
bays of the beautiful ,sogne ,fiord1    
which penetrates far into the depths of 
the solemn ,norwegian mountains1  with  
their sombre pine-forests and their     

lofty cascades dissolving into  spray   
before they reach the dark water of the 
fiord far below1 ,balder  had a great   
sanctuary4 ,it was called ,balder's     
,grove4 ,a palisade enclosed  the       
hallowed ground1 and within it stood a  
spacious temple with the  images of many
 gods1 but none of them was worshipped  
with such devotion  as ,balder4 ,so     
great was the awe with which the heathen
 regarded the  place that no man might  
harm another there1 nor steal his       
cattle1 nor  defile himself with women4 
,but women cared for the images of the  
gods in  the temple2 they warmed them at
 the fire1 anointed them with oil1 and  
dried them with cloths4#bfj    ,the     
legendary death of ,balder resembles the
 legendary death of the  ,persian hero  
,isfendiyar in the epic of ,firdusi4    
,it might be rash to affirm that the    
romantic figure of ,balder was  nothing 
but a creation of the mythical fancy1 a 
radiant phantom conjured  up as by a    
wizard's wand to glitter for a time     

against the gloomy  background of the   
stern ,norwegian landscape4 ,it may be  
so2 yet it is  also possible that the   
myth was founded on the tradition of a  
hero1  popular and beloved in his       
lifetime1 who long survived in the      
memory of  the people1 gathering more   
and more of the marvellous about him as 
he  passed from generation to generation
 of story-tellers4 ,at all events it  is
 worth while to observe that a somewhat 
similar story is told of  another       
national hero1 who may well have been a 
real man4 ,in his great  poem1 ,the     
,epic of ,kings1 which is founded on    
,persian traditions1 the  poet ,firdusi 
tells us that in the combat between     
,rustem and ,isfendiyar  the arrows of  
the former did no harm to his adversary1
 because ,zerdusht  had charmed his body
 against all dangers1 so that it was    
like unto  brass4 ,but ,simurgh1 the    
bird of ,god1 shewed ,rustem the way he 
should  follow in order to vanquish his 
redoubtable foe4 ,he rode after her1 and

  they halted not till they came to the 
sea-shore4 ,there she led him into  a   
garden1 where grew a tamarisk1 tall and 
strong1 and the roots thereof  were in  
the ground1 but the branches pierced    
even unto the sky4 ,then the  bird of   
,god bade ,rustem break from the tree a 
branch that was long and  slender1 and  
fashion it into an arrow1 and she said1 
,only through his  eyes can ,isfendiyar 
be wounded4 ,if1 therefore1 thou wouldst
 slay him1  direct this arrow unto his  
forehead1 and verily it shall not miss  
its  aim4 ,rustem did as he was bid2 and
 when next he fought with ,isfendiyar1  
he shot the arrow at him1 and it pierced
 his eye1 and he died4 ,great was  the  
mourning for ,isfendiyar4 ,for the space
 of one year men ceased not to  lament  
for him1 and for many years they shed   
bitter tears for that  arrow1 and they  
said1 ,the glory of ,iran hath been laid
 low4#bfa    ,the myth of ,balder was   
perhaps acted as a magical ceremony4    
,the two  chief incidents of the myth1  

namely the pulling of the mistletoe and 
the  death and burning of the god1 have 
perhaps their counterparts in popular   
ritual4    ,whatever may be thought of  
an historical kernel underlying a       
mythical  husk in the legend of ,balder1
 the details of the story suggest that  
it  belongs to that class of myths which
 have been dramatized in ritual1 or1  to
 put it otherwise1 which have been      
performed as magical ceremonies for  the
 sake of producing those natural effects
 which they describe in  figurative     
language4 ,a myth is never so graphic   
and precise in its  details as when it  
is1 so to speak1 the book of the words  
which are  spoken and acted by the      
performers of the sacred rite4 ,that the
 ,norse  story of ,balder was a myth of 
this sort will become probable if we can
  prove that ceremonies resembling the  
incidents in the tale have been         
performed by ,norsemen and other        
,european peoples4 ,now the main        
incidents  in the tale are two--first1  

the pulling of the mistletoe1 and       
second1  the death and burning of the   
god2 and both of them may perhaps be    
found  to have had their counterparts in
 yearly rites observed1 whether         
separately or conjointly1 by people in  
various parts of ,europe4 ,these  rites 
will be described and discussed in the  
following chapters4 ,we  shall begin    
with the annual festivals of fire and   
shall reserve the  pulling of the       
mistletoe for consideration later on4   
,notes3    #bef ,die ,edda1 bersetzt von
 ,k4 ,simrock99#h 7,stuttgart1 #ahhb71  
pp4  #bhf-bhh4 ,compare pp4 #h1 #cd1    
#bfd4 ,balder's story is told in a      
professedly  historical form by the old 
,danish historian ,saxo ,grammaticus in 
his  third book4 ,see below1 p4 #ajc4   
,in ,english the story is told at length
 by  ,professor 7,sir7 ,john ,rhys1     
,celtic ,heathendom 7,london and        
,edinburgh1  #ahhh71 pp4 #ebi sqq4 ,it  
is elaborately discussed by ,professor  
,f4  ,knuffmann in a learned monograph1 

,balder1 ,mythus und ,sage 7,strasburg1 
#aijb74    #beg ,gudbrand ,vigfusson and
 ,f4 ,york ,powell1 ,corpus ,poeticum   
,boreale1  i4 7,oxford1 #ahhc7 p4 #aig4 
,compare ,edda ,rhythmica seu           
,antiquior1 vulgo  ,saemundina dicta1   
,pars iii4 7,copenhagen1 #ahbh7 pp4 #ci 
sq42 ,die  ,edda1 bersetzt von ,k4      
,simrock99#h 7,stuttgart1 #ahhb71 p4 #h2
 ,k4  ,mllenhoff1 ,deutsche             
,altertumskunde1 v4 ,zweite ,abteilung  
7,berlin1  #ahia71 pp4 #gh sq42 ,fr4    
,kauffmann1 ,balder1 ,mythus und ,sage1 
pp4 #bj  sq4 ,in this passage the words 
translated bloody victim 7blaupom       
tivor7 and fate looming 7rlog flgen7 are
 somewhat uncertain and  have been      
variously interpreted4 ,the word tivor1 
usually understood to  mean god1 seems  
to be found nowhere else4 ,professor    
,h4,m4 ,chadwick has  kindly furnished  
me with the following literal           
translation of the  passage3 ,i saw 7or 
'have seen'7 held in safe keeping the   
life of  ,balder1 the bloody god1       

,othin's son4 ,high above the fields    
7i4e4 the  surface of the earth7 grew a 
mistletoe1 slender and very beautiful4  
,from  a shaft 7or 'stem'7 which        
appeared slender1 came a dangerous      
sorrow-bringing missile 7i4e4 the shaft 
became a 444 missile72 ,hodr  proceeded 
to shoot4 ,soon was a brother of ,balder
 born4 ,he1 ,othin's son1  proceeded to 
do battle when one day old4 ,he did not 
wash his hands or  comb his head before 
he brought ,balder's antagonist on to   
the pyre4 ,but  ,frigg in ,fen-salir    
7i4e4 the ,fen-abode7 lamented the      
trouble of  ,val-holl4 ,in translating  
the words rlog flgen held in safe       
keeping  the life ,professor ,chadwick  
follows ,professor ,f4 ,kauffmann's     
rendering  7das ,leben verwahrt72 but he
 writes to me that he is not quite      
confident about it1 as the word rlog    
usually means fate rather than  life4   
,several sentences translated by        
,professor ,chadwick 7,soon was a       
brother of ,balder born 444 he brought  

,balder's antagonist on the pyre7  are  
omitted by some editors and translators 
of the ,edda4    #beh ,g4 ,vigfusson and
 ,f4 ,york ,powell1 ,corpus ,poeticum   
,boreale1 i4 #bjj  sq42 ,edda ,rhythmica
 seu ,antiquior1 vulgo ,saemundina      
dicta1 ,pars iii4  pp4 #ea-ed2 ,die     
,edda1 bersetzt von ,k4 ,simrock199#h p4
 #aj sq42 ,k4  ,mllenhoff1 ,deutsche    
,altertumskunde1 v4 ,zweite ,abteilung1 
pp4 #hd sq4    #bei ,saxo ,grammaticus1 
,historia ,danica1 ed4 ,p4,e4 ,mller    
7,copenhagen1  #ahci-aheh71 lib4 iii4   
vol4 i4 pp4 #aaj sqq42 ,the ,first ,nine
 ,books of  the ,danish ,history of     
,saxo ,grammaticus1 translated by       
,oliver ,elton  7,london1 #ahid71 pp4   
#hc-ic4    #bfj ,fridthjofs ,saga1 aus  
dem ,alt-islndischen1 von ,j4,c4        
,poestion1  7,vienna1 #ahgi71 pp4 #c    
sq41 #ad-ag1 #de-eb4    #bfa ,the ,epic 
of ,kings1 ,stories retold from         
,firdusi1 by ,helen ,zimmern  7,london1 
#ahhc71 pp4 #cbe-cca4 ,the parallel     
between ,balder and ,isfendiyar  was    

pointed out in the ,lexicon             
,mythologicum appended to the ,edda     
,rhythmifa seu ,antiquior1 vulgo        
,saemundina dicta1 ,pars iii4           
7,copenhagen1  #ahbh7 p4 #eac note1 with
 a reference to ,schah ,namech1         
verdeutscht von  ,grres1 ii4 #cbd1 #cbg 
sq4 ,it is briefly mentioned by ,dr4 ,p4
 ,wagler1  ,die ,eiche in alter und     
neuer ,zeit1 ii4 ,teil 7,berlin1 #ahia71
 p4 #dj4          ,,chapter ,,iv        
,,the ,,fire-,,festivals ,,of ,,europe  
#a4 ,the ,lenten ,fires      ,european  
custom of kindling bonfires on certain  
days of the year1  dancing round them   
and leaping over them4 ,effigies are    
sometimes burnt  in the fires4    ,all  
over ,europe the peasants have been     
accustomed from time immemorial  to     
kindle bonfires on certain days of the  
year1 and to dance round or  leap over  
them4 ,customs of this kind can be      
traced back on historical  evidence to  
the ,middle ,ages1#bfb and their analogy
 to similar customs  observed in        

antiquity goes with strong internal     
evidence to prove that  their origin    
must be sought in a period long prior to
 the spread of  ,christianity4 ,indeed  
the earliest proof of their observance  
in ,northern  ,europe is furnished by   
the attempts made by ,christian synods  
in the  eighth century to put them down 
as heathenish rites4#bfc ,not uncommonly
  effigies are burned in these fires1 or
 a pretence is made of burning a  living
 person in them2 and there are grounds  
for believing that  anciently human     
beings were actually burned on these    
occasions4 ,a  general survey of the    
customs in question will bring out the  
traces of  human sacrifice1 and will    
serve at the same time to throw light on
 their  meaning4#bfd    ,seasons of the 
year at which the bonfires are lit4     
,the seasons of the year when these     
bonfires are most commonly lit are      
spring and midsummer2 but in some places
 they are kindled also at the  end of   
autumn or during the course of the      

winter1 particularly on ,hallow  ,e'en  
7the thirty-first of ,october71         
,christmas ,day1 and the ,eve of        
,twelfth ,day4 ,we shall consider them  
in the order in which they occur in  the
 calendar year4 ,the earliest of them is
 the winter festival of the  ,eve of    
,twelfth ,day 7the fifth of ,january72  
but as it has been already  described in
 an earlier part of this work#bfe we    
shall pass it over  here and begin with 
the fire-festivals of spring1 which     
usually fall on  the first ,sunday of   
,lent 7,quadragesima or ,invocavit71#bff
 ,easter  ,eve1 and ,may ,day4          
,custom of kindling bonfires on the     
first ,sunday in ,lent in the ,belgian  
,ardennes4    ,the custom of kindling   
bonfires on the first ,sunday in ,lent  
has  prevailed in ,belgium1 the north of
 ,france1 and many parts of ,germany4   
,thus in the ,belgian ,ardennes for a   
week or a fortnight before the day  of  
the great fire1 as it is called1        
children go about from farm to farm     

collecting fuel4 ,at ,grand ,halleux any
 one who refuses their request is       
pursued next day by the children1 who   
try to blacken his face with the  ashes 
of the extinct fire4 ,when the day has  
come1 they cut down bushes1  especially 
juniper and broom1 and in the evening   
great bonfires blaze on  all the        
heights4 ,it is a common saying that    
seven bonfires should be  seen if the   
village is to be safe from              
conflagrations4 ,if the ,meuse  happens 
to be frozen hard at the time1 bonfires 
are lit also on the ice4  ,at ,grand    
,halleux they set up a pole called      
makral or the witch1 in  the midst of   
the pile1 and the fire is kindled by the
 man who was last  married in the       
village4 ,in the neighbourhood of       
,morlanwelz a straw man  is burnt in the
 fire4 ,young people and children dance 
and sing round the  bonfires1 and leap  
over the embers to secure good crops or 
a happy  marriage within the year1 or as
 a means of guarding themselves against 

colic4 ,in ,brabant on the same ,sunday1
 down to the beginning of the           
nineteenth century1 women and men       
disguised in female attire used to go   
with burning torches to the fields1     
where they danced and sang comic  songs 
for the purpose1 as they alleged1 of    
driving away the wicked  sower1 who is  
mentioned in the ,gospel for the day4   
,at ,maeseyck and in  many villages of  
,limburg1 on the evening of the day     
children run through  the streets       
carrying lighted torches2 then they     
kindle little fires of  straw in the    
fields and dance round them4 ,at        
,ensival old folks tell  young folks    
that they will have as many ,easter eggs
 as they see bonfires  on this day4#bfg 
,at ,pturages1 in the province of       
,hainaut1 down to  about #ahdj the      
custom was observed under the name of   
,escouvion or  ,scouvion4 ,every year on
 the first ,sunday of ,lent1 which was  
called the  ,day of the ,little         
,scouvion1 young folks and children used

 to run with  lighted torches through   
the gardens and orchards4 ,as they ran  
they cried  at the pitch of their       
voices1    ,bear apples1 bear pears     
,and cherries all black    ,to          
,scouvion6    ,at these words the       
torch-bearer whirled his blazing brand  
and hurled it  among the branches of the
 apple-trees1 the pear-trees1 and the   
cherry-trees4 ,the next ,sunday was     
called the ,day of the ,great ,scouvion1
  and the same race with lighted torches
 among the trees of the orchards  was   
repeated in the afternoon till darkness 
fell4 ,the same custom was  observed on 
the same two days at ,wasmes4#bfh ,in   
the neighbourhood of  ,lige1 where the  
,lenten fires were put down by the      
police about the  middle of the         
nineteenth century1 girls thought that  
by leaping over the  fires without being
 smirched they made sure of a happy     
marriage4  ,elsewhere in order to get a 
good husband it was necessary to see    
seven  of the bonfires from one spot4   

,in ,famenne1 a district of ,namur1 men 
and  cattle who traversed the ,lenten   
fires were thought to be safe from      
sickness and witchcraft4 ,anybody who   
saw seven such fires at once had        
nothing to fear from sorcerers4 ,an old 
saying ran1 that if you do not  light   
the great fire1 ,god will light it for  
you2 which seems to imply  that the     
kindling of the bonfires was deemed a   
protection against  conflagrations      
throughout the year4#bfi    ,bonfires on
 the first ,sunday of ,lent in the      
,french department of the  ,ardennes4   
,in the ,french department of the       
,ardennes the whole village used to     
dance  and sing round the bonfires which
 were lighted on the first ,sunday in   
,lent4 ,here1 too1 it was the person    
last married1 sometimes a man and       
sometimes a woman1 who put the match to 
the fire4 ,the custom is still  kept up 
very commonly in the district4 ,cats    
used to be burnt in the fire  or roasted
 to death by being held over it2 and    

while they were burning  the shepherds  
drove their flocks through the smoke and
 flames as a sure  means of guarding    
them against sickness and witchcraft4   
,in some communes  it was believed that 
the livelier the dance round the fire1  
the better  would be the crops that     
year4#bgj ,in the ,vosges ,mountains it 
is still  customary to light great fires
 on the heights and around the villages 
on  the first ,sunday in ,lent2 and at  
,rupt and elsewhere the right of        
kindling them belongs to the person who 
was last married4 ,round the  fires the 
people dance and sing merrily till the  
flames have died out4  ,then the master 
of the fire1 as they call the man who   
kindled it1  invites all who contributed
 to the erection of the pile to follow  
him to  the nearest tavern1 where they  
partake of good cheer4 ,at ,dommartin   
they  say that1 if you would have the   
hemp tall1 it is absolutely necessary   
that the women should be tipsy on the   
evening of this day4#bga ,at  pinal in  

the ,vosges1 on the first ,sunday in    
,lent1 bonfires used to be  kindled at  
various places both in the town and on  
the banks of the  ,moselle4 ,they       
consisted of pyramids of sticks and     
faggots1 which had  been collected some 
days earlier by young folks going from  
door to door4  ,when the flames blazed  
up1 the names of various couples1       
whether young  or old1 handsome or ugly1
 rich or poor1 were called out1 and the 
persons  thus linked in mock marriage   
were forced1 whether they liked it or   
not1  to march arm in arm round the fire
 amid the laughter and jests of the     
crowd4 ,the festivity lasted till the   
fire died out1 and then the  spectators 
dispersed through the streets1 stopping 
under the windows of  the houses and    
proclaiming the names of the fchenots   
and  fchenottes or ,valentines whom the 
popular voice had assigned to each      
other4 ,these couples had to exchange   
presents2 the mock bridegroom gave  his 
mock bride something for her toilet1    

while she in turn presented him  with a 
cockade of coloured ribbon4 ,next       
,sunday1 if the weather allowed  it1 all
 the couples1 arrayed in their best     
attire and attended by their  relations1
 repaired to the wood of ,saint ,antony1
 where they mounted a  famous stone     
called the danserosse or danseresse4    
,here they found  cakes and refreshments
 of all sorts1 and danced to the music  
of a couple  of fiddlers4 ,the evening  
bell1 ringing the ,angelus1 gave the    
signal to  depart4 ,as soon as its      
solemn chime was heard1 every one       
quitted the  forest and returned home4  
,the exchange of presents between the   
,valentines went by the name of ransom  
or redemption 7rachat71 because  it was 
supposed to redeem the couple from the  
flames of the bonfire4 ,any  pair who   
failed thus to ransom themselves were   
not suffered to share the  merrymaking  
at the great stone in the forest2 and a 
pretence was made of  burning them in   
small fires kindled before their own    

doors4#bgb    ,bonfires on the ,first   
,sunday of ,lent in ,franche-,comt4     
,in the ,french province of             
,franche-,comt1 to the west of the ,jura
  ,mountains1 the first ,sunday of ,lent
 is known as the ,sunday of the         
,firebrands 7,brandons71 on account of  
the fires which it is customary  to     
kindle on that day4 ,on the ,saturday or
 the ,sunday the village lads  harness  
themselves to a cart and drag it about  
the streets1 stopping at  the doors of  
the houses where there are girls and    
begging for a faggot4  ,when they have  
got enough1 they cart the fuel to a spot
 at some little  distance from the      
village1 pile it up1 and set it on fire4
 ,all the  people of the parish come out
 to see the bonfire4 ,in some villages1 
when  the bells have rung the ,angelus1 
the signal for the observance is given  
by cries of1 ,to the fire6 to the fire6 
,lads1 lasses1 and children  dance round
 the blaze1 and when the flames have    
died down they vie with  each other in  

leaping over the red embers4 ,he or she 
who does so without  singeing his or her
 garments will be married within the    
year4 ,young folk  also carry lighted   
torches about the streets or the fields1
 and when  they pass an orchard they cry
 out1 ,more fruit than leaves6 ,down to 
recent years at ,laviron1 in the        
department of ,doubs1 it was the young  
married couples of the year who had     
charge of the bonfires4 ,in the midst   
of the bonfire a pole was planted with a
 wooden figure of a cock  fastened to   
the top4 ,then there were races1 and the
 winner received the  cock as a         
prize4#bgc    ,bonfires on the first    
,sunday of ,lent in ,auvergne2 the      
,granno invoked at  these bonfires may  
be the old ,celtic god ,grannus1 who was
 identified  with ,apollo4    ,in       
,auvergne fires are everywhere kindled  
on the evening of the first  ,sunday in 
,lent4 ,every village1 every hamlet1    
even every ward1 every  isolated farm   
has its bonfire or figo1 as it is       

called1 which blazes  up as the shades  
of night are falling4 ,the fires may be 
seen flaring on  the heights and in the 
plains2 the people dance and sing round 
about  them and leap through the flames4
 ,then they proceed to the ceremony of  
the ,grannas-mias4 ,a granno-mio#bgd is 
a torch of straw fastened to  the top of
 a pole4 ,when the pyre is half         
consumed1 the bystanders kindle  the    
torches at the expiring flames and carry
 them into the neighbouring  orchards1  
fields1 and gardens1 wherever there are 
fruit-trees4 ,as they  march they sing  
at the top of their voices1    ,granno1 
mo mio1  ,granno1 mon poure1  ,granno1  
mo moure6    that is1 ,grannus my       
friend1 ,grannus my father1 ,grannus my 
mother4 ,then  they pass the burning    
torches under the branches of every     
tree1 singing1    ,brando1 brandounci   
,tsaque brantso1 in plan panei6    that 
is1 ,firebrand burn2 every branch a     
basketful6 ,in some villages  the people
 also run across the sown fields and    

shake the ashes of the  torches on the  
ground2 also they put some of the ashes 
in the fowls'  nests1 in order that the 
hens may lay plenty of eggs throughout  
the  year4 ,when all these ceremonies   
have been performed1 everybody goes home
  and feasts2 the special dishes of the 
evening are fritters and  pancakes4#bge 
,here the application of the fire to the
 fruit-trees1 to  the sown fields1 and  
to the nests of the poultry is clearly a
 charm  intended to ensure fertility2   
and the ,granno to whom the invocations 
are  addressed1 and who gives his name  
to the torches1 may possibly be1 as     
,dr4 ,pommerol suggests1#bgf no other   
than the ancient ,celtic god  ,grannus1 
whom the ,romans identified with        
,apollo1 and whose worship is  attested 
by inscriptions found not only in       
,france but in ,scotland and on  the    
,danube4#bgg ,if the name ,grannus is   
derived1 as the learned tell us1  from a
 root meaning to glow1 burn1 shine1#bgh 
the deity who bore the  name and was    

identified with ,apollo may well have   
been a sun-god2 and in  that case the   
prayers addressed to him by the peasants
 of the ,auvergne1  while they wave the 
blazing1 crackling torches about the    
fruit-trees1  would be eminently        
appropriate4 ,for who could ripen the   
fruit so well as  the sun-god8 and what 
better process could be devised to draw 
the  blossoms from the bare boughs than 
the application to them of that  genial 
warmth which is ultimately derived from 
the solar beams8 ,thus the              
fire-festival of the first ,sunday in   
,lent1 as it is observed in  ,auvergne1 
may be interpreted very naturally and   
simply as a religious or  rather perhaps
 magical ceremony designed to procure a 
due supply of the  sun's heat for plants
 and animals4 ,at the same time we      
should remember  that the employment of 
fire in this and kindred ceremonies may 
have been  designed originally1 not so  
much to stimulate growth and            
reproduction1  as to burn and destroy   

all agencies1 whether in the shape of   
vermin1  witches1 or what not1 which    
threatened or were supposed to threaten 
the  growth of the crops and the        
multiplication of animals4 ,it is often 
difficult to decide between these two   
different interpretations of the  use of
 fire in agricultural rites4 ,in any    
case the fire-festival of  ,auvergne on 
the first ,sunday in ,lent may date from
 ,druidical times4    ,french custom of 
carrying lighted torches 7brandons7     
about the  orchards and fields to       
fertilize them on the first ,sunday of  
,lent4    ,the custom of carrying       
lighted torches of straw 7brandons7     
about the  orchards and fields to       
fertilize them on the first ,sunday of  
,lent seems  to have been common in     
,france1 whether it was accompanied with
 the  practice of kindling bonfires or  
not4 ,thus in the province of ,picardy  
on the first ,sunday of ,lent people    
carried torches through the fields1     
exorcising the field-mice1 the darnel1  

and the smut4 ,they imagined that  they 
did much good to the gardens and caused 
the onions to grow large4  ,children ran
 about the fields1 torch in hand1 to    
make the land more  fertile4 ,all that  
was done habitually in ,picardy1 and the
 ceremony of  the torches is not        
entirely forgotten1 especially in the   
villages on  both sides the ,somme as   
far as ,saint-,valery4#bgi ,a very      
agreeable  spectacle1 said the curate of
 l'toile1 is to survey from the portal  
of  the church1 situated almost on the  
top of the mountain1 the vast plains  of
 ,vimeux all illuminated by these       
wandering fires4 ,the same pastime is   
observed at ,poix1 at ,conty1 and in all
 the villages round about4#bhj  ,again1 
in the district of ,beauce a festival of
 torches 7brandons or  brandelons7 used 
to be held both on the first and on the 
second ,sunday  in ,lent2 the first was 
called the ,great ,torches and the      
second the  ,little ,torches4 ,the      
torches were1 as usual1 bundles of straw

 wrapt  round poles4 ,in the evening the
 village lads carried the burning brands
  through the country1 running about in 
disorder and singing1          ,torches 
burn  ,at these vines1 at this wheat2   
,torches burn  ,for the maidens that    
shall wed6    ,from time to time the    
bearers would stand still and smite the 
earth all  together with the blazing    
straw of the torches1 while they cried1 
,a  sheaf of a peck and a half6 7,gearbe
  boissiaux74 ,if two torchbearers      
happened to meet each other on their    
rounds1 they performed the same         
ceremony and uttered the same words4    
,when the straw was burnt out1 the      
poles were collected and a great bonfire
 made of them4 ,lads and lasses  danced 
round the flames1 and the lads leaped   
over them4 ,afterwards it  was customary
 to eat a special sort of hasty-pudding 
made of wheaten  flour4 ,these usages   
were still in vogue at the beginning of 
the  nineteenth century1 but they have  
now almost disappeared4 ,the peasants   

believed that by carrying lighted       
torches through the fields they         
protected the crops from field-mice1    
darnel1 and smut4#bha ,at ,dijon1  in   
,burgundy1 it is the custom upon the    
first ,sunday in ,lent to make  large   
fires in the streets1 whence it is      
called ,firebrand ,sunday4 ,this        
practice originated in the processions  
formerly made on that day by the        
peasants with lighted torches of straw1 
to drive away1 as they called  it1 the  
bad air from the earth4#bhb ,in some    
parts of ,france1 while the  people     
scoured the country with burning brands 
on the first ,sunday in  ,lent1 they    
warned the fruit-trees that if they did 
not take heed and  bear fruit they would
 surely be cut down and cast into the   
fire4#bhc ,on  the same day peasants in 
the department of ,loiret used to run   
about the  sowed fields with burning    
torches in their hands1 while they      
adjured the  field-mice to quit the     
wheat on pain of having their whiskers  

burned4#bhd ,in the department of ,ain  
the great fires of straw and  faggots   
which are kindled in the fields at this 
time are or were  supposed to destroy   
the nests of the caterpillars4#bhe ,at  
,verges1 a  lonely village surrounded by
 forests between the ,jura and the      
,combe  d',ain1 the torches used at this
 season were kindled in a peculiar      
manner4 ,the young people climbed to the
 top of a mountain1 where they  placed  
three nests of straw in three trees4    
,these nests being then set  on fire1   
torches made of dry lime-wood were      
lighted at them1 and the  merry troop   
descended the mountain to their         
flickering light1 and went  to every    
house in the village1 demanding roasted 
peas and obliging all  couples who had  
been married within the year to         
dance4#bhf ,in ,berry1 a  district of   
central ,france1 it appears that        
bonfires are not lighted on  this day1  
but when the sun has set the whole      
population of the villages1  armed with 

blazing torches of straw1 disperse over 
the country and scour  the fields1 the  
vineyards1 and the orchards4 ,seen from 
afar1 the  multitude of moving lights1  
twinkling in the darkness1 appear like  
will-o'-the-wisps chasing each other    
across the plains1 along the  hillsides1
 and down the valleys4 ,while the men   
wave their flambeaus  about the branches
 of the fruit-trees1 the women and      
children tie bands  of wheaten-straw    
round the tree-trunks4 ,the effect of   
the ceremony is  supposed to be to avert
 the various plagues from which the     
fruits of the  earth are apt to suffer2 
and the bands of straw fastened round   
the stems  of the trees are believed to 
render them fruitful4#bhg ,in the       
peninsula  of ,la ,manche the ,norman   
peasants used to spend almost the whole 
night of  the first ,sunday in ,lent    
rushing about the country with lighted  
torches  for the purpose1 as they       
supposed1 of driving away the moles and 
field-mice2 fires were also kindled on  

some of the dolmens4#bhh    ,bonfires on
 the first ,sunday in ,lent in ,germany 
and ,austria2 burning  the witch2       
burning discs thrown into the air2      
burning wheels rolled down  hill2       
bonfires on the first ,sunday in ,lent  
in ,switzerland4    ,in ,germany1       
,austria1 and ,switzerland at the same  
season similar customs  have prevailed4 
,thus in the ,eifel ,mountains1 ,rhenish
 ,prussia1 on the  first ,sunday in     
,lent young people used to collect straw
 and brushwood  from house to house4    
,these they carried to an eminence and  
piled up  round a tall1 slim beech-tree1
 to which a piece of wood was fastened  
at  right angles to form a cross4 ,the  
structure was known as the hut or       
castle4 ,fire was set to it and the     
young people marched round the  blazing 
castle bareheaded1 each carrying a      
lighted torch and praying  aloud4       
,sometimes a straw-man was burned in the
 hut4 ,people observed  the direction in
 which the smoke blew from the fire4 ,if

 it blew towards  the corn-fields1 it   
was a sign that the harvest would be    
abundant4 ,on  the same day1 in some    
parts of the ,eifel1 a great wheel was  
made of  straw and dragged by three     
horses to the top of a hill4 ,thither   
the  village boys marched at nightfall1 
set fire to the wheel1 and sent it      
rolling down the slope4 ,two lads       
followed it with levers to set it in    
motion again1 in case it should anywhere
 meet with a check4 ,at  ,oberstattfeld 
the wheel had to be provided by the     
young man who was last  married4#bhi    
,about ,echternach in ,luxemburg the    
same ceremony is called  burning the    
witch2 while it is going on1 the older  
men ascend the  heights and observe what
 wind is blowing1 for that is the wind  
which  will prevail the whole year4#bij 
,at ,voralberg in the ,tyrol1 on the    
first ,sunday in ,lent1 a slender young 
fir-tree is surrounded with a pile  of  
straw and firewood4 ,to the top of the  
tree is fastened a human figure  called 

the witch1 made of old clothes and      
stuffed with gunpowder4 ,at  night the  
whole is set on fire and boys and girls 
dance round it1  swinging torches and   
singing rhymes in which the words corn  
in the  winnowing-basket1 the plough in 
the earth may be distinguished4#bia ,in 
,swabia on the first ,sunday in ,lent a 
figure called the witch or the  old wife
 or winter's grandmother is made up of  
clothes and fastened  to a pole4 ,this  
is stuck in the middle of a pile of     
wood1 to which fire  is applied4 ,while 
the witch is burning1 the young people  
throw blazing  discs into the air4 ,the 
discs are thin round pieces of wood1 a  
few  inches in diameter1 with notched   
edges to imitate the rays of the sun or 
stars4 ,they have a hole in the middle1 
by which they are attached to the  end  
of a wand4 ,before the disc is thrown it
 is set on fire1 the wand is  swung to  
and fro1 and the impetus thus           
communicated to the disc is  augmented  
by dashing the rod sharply against a    

sloping board4 ,the  burning disc is    
thus thrown off1 and mounting high into 
the air1  describes a long fiery curve  
before it reaches the ground4 ,a single 
lad  may fling up forty or fifty of     
these discs1 one after the other4 ,the  
object is to throw them as high as      
possible4 ,the wand by which they are   
hurled must1 at least in some parts of  
,swabia1 be of hazel4 ,sometimes  the   
lads also leap over the fire brandishing
 lighted torches of  pine-wood4 ,the    
charred embers of the burned witch and  
discs are taken  home and planted in the
 flaxfields the same night1 in the      
belief that  they will keep vermin from 
the fields4#bib ,at ,wangen1 near       
,molsheim in  ,baden1 a like custom is  
observed on the first ,sunday in ,lent4 
,the young  people kindle a bonfire on  
the crest of the mountain above the     
village2  and the burning discs which   
they hurl into the air are said to      
present  in the darkness the aspect of a
 continual shower of falling stars4     

,when  the supply of discs is exhausted 
and the bonfire begins to burn low1 the 
boys light torches and run with them at 
full speed down one or other of  the    
three steep and winding paths that      
descend the mountain-side to the        
village4 ,bumps1 bruises1 and scratches 
are often the result of their  efforts  
to outstrip each other in the headlong  
race4#bic ,in the ,rhn  ,mountains1     
situated on the borders of ,hesse and   
,bavaria1 the people used  to march to  
the top of a hill or eminence on the    
first ,sunday in ,lent4  ,children and  
lads carried torches1 brooms daubed with
 tar1 and poles  swathed in straw4 ,a   
wheel1 wrapt in combustibles1 was       
kindled and rolled  down the hill2 and  
the young people rushed about the fields
 with their  burning torches and brooms1
 till at last they flung them in a heap1
 and  standing round them1 struck up a  
hymn or a popular song4 ,the object of  
running about the fields with the       
blazing torches was to drive away the   

wicked sower4 ,or it was done in honour 
of the ,virgin1 that she might  preserve
 the fruits of the earth throughout the 
year and bless  them4#bid ,in           
neighbouring villages of ,hesse1 between
 the ,rhn and the  ,vogel ,mountains1 it
 is thought that wherever the burning   
wheels roll1  the fields will be safe   
from hail and storm4#bie ,at ,konz on   
the  ,moselle1 on the ,thursday before  
the first ,sunday in ,lent1 the two     
guilds  of the butchers and the weavers 
used to repair to the ,marxberg and     
there  set up an oak-tree with a wheel  
fastened to it4 ,on the following       
,sunday  the people ascended the hill1  
cut down the oak1 set fire to the wheel1
  and sent both oak and wheel rolling   
down the hillside1 while a guard of     
butchers1 mounted on horses1 fired at   
the flaming wheel in its descent4  ,if  
the wheel rolled down into the ,moselle1
 the butchers were rewarded  with a     
waggon-load of wine by the archbishop of
 ,treves4#bif    ,burning discs thrown  

into the air4    ,in ,switzerland1 also1
 it is or used to be customary to kindle
 bonfires  on high places on the evening
 of the first ,sunday in ,lent1 and the 
day  is therefore popularly known as    
,spark ,sunday4 ,the custom prevailed1  
for  example1 throughout the canton of  
,lucerne4 ,boys went about from house to
  house begging for wood and straw1 then
 piled the fuel on a conspicuous        
mountain or hill round about a pole1    
which bore a straw effigy called  the   
witch4 ,at nightfall the pile was set on
 fire1 and the young folks  danced      
wildly round it1 some of them cracking  
whips or ringing bells2  and when the   
fire burned low enough1 they leaped over
 it4 ,this was  called burning the      
witch4 ,in some parts of the canton also
 they used  to wrap old wheels in straw 
and thorns1 put a light to them1 and    
send  them rolling and blazing down     
hill4 ,the same custom of rolling       
lighted  wheels down hill is attested by
 old authorities for the cantons of     

,aargau and ,ble4 ,the more bonfires    
could be seen sparkling and flaring  in 
the darkness1 the more fruitful was the 
year expected to be2 and the  higher the
 dancers leaped beside or over the fire1
 the higher1 it was  thought1 would grow
 the flax4 ,in the district of ,freiburg
 and at ,birseck  in the district of    
,ble it was the last married man or     
woman who must  kindle the bonfire4     
,while the bonfires blazed up1 it was   
customary in  some parts of ,switzerland
 to propel burning discs of wood through
 the  air by means of the same simple   
machinery which is used for the purpose 
in ,swabia4 ,each lad tried to send his 
disc fizzing and flaring through  the   
darkness as far as possible1 and in     
discharging it he mentioned the  name of
 the person to whose honour it was      
dedicated4 ,but in ,prttigau  the words 
uttered in launching the fiery discs    
referred to the abundance  which was    
apparently expected to follow the       
performance of the ceremony4  ,among    

them were1 ,grease in the pan1 corn in  
the fan1 and the plough in  the         
earth6#big    ,connexion of these       
bonfires with the custom of carrying out
 ,death2  effigies burnt on ,shrove     
,tuesday4    ,it seems hardly possible  
to separate from these bonfires1 kindled
 on the  first ,sunday in ,lent1 the    
fires in which1 about the same season1  
the  effigy called ,death is burned as  
part of the ceremony of carrying out    
,death4 ,we have seen that at           
,spachendorf1 in ,austrian ,silesia1 on 
the  morning of ,rupert's ,day 7,shrove 
,tuesday871 a straw-man1 dressed in a   
fur  coat and a fur cap1 is laid in a   
hole outside the village and there      
burned1 and that while it is blazing    
every one seeks to snatch a  fragment of
 it1 which he fastens to a branch of the
 highest tree in his  garden or buries  
in his field1 believing that this will  
make the crops  to grow better4 ,the    
ceremony is known as the burying of     
,death4#bih  ,even when the straw-man is

 not designated as ,death1 the meaning  
of the  observance is probably the same2
 for the name ,death1 as ,i have tried  
to  shew1 does not express the original 
intention of the ceremony4 ,at ,cobern  
in the ,eifel ,mountains the lads make  
up a straw-man on ,shrove ,tuesday4     
,the effigy is formally tried and       
accused of having perpetrated all the   
thefts that have been committed in the  
neighbourhood throughout the  year4     
,being condemned to death1 the straw-man
 is led through the  village1 shot1 and 
burned upon a pyre4 ,they dance round   
the blazing  pile1 and the last bride   
must leap over it4#bii ,in ,oldenburg on
 the  evening of ,shrove ,tuesday people
 used to make long bundles of straw1    
which they set on fire1 and then ran    
about the fields waving them1           
shrieking1 and singing wild songs4      
,finally they burned a straw-man on  the
 field4#cjj ,in the district of         
,dsseldorf the straw-man burned on      
,shrove ,tuesday was made of an         

unthreshed sheaf of corn4#cja ,on the   
first ,monday after the spring equinox  
the urchins of ,zurich drag a  straw-man
 on a little cart through the streets1  
while at the same time  the girls carry 
about a ,may-tree4 ,when vespers ring1  
the straw-man is  burned4#cjb ,in the   
district of ,aachen on ,ash ,wednesday a
 man used to be  encased in peas-straw  
and taken to an appointed place4 ,here  
he slipped  quietly out of his straw    
casing1 which was then burned1 the      
children  thinking that it was the man  
who was being burned4#cjc ,in the ,val  
di  ,ledro 7,tyrol7 on the last day of  
the ,carnival a figure is made up of    
straw and brushwood and then burned4    
,the figure is called the ,old ,woman1  
and the ceremony burning the ,old       
,woman4#cjd       #b4 ,the ,easter      
,fires      ,fire-festivals on ,easter  
,eve4 ,custom in ,catholic countries of 
kindling  a holy new fire at the church 
on ,easter ,saturday2 marvellous        
properties  ascribed to the embers of   

the fire2 the burning of ,judas4        
,another occasion on which these        
fire-festivals are held is ,easter ,eve1
  the ,saturday before ,easter ,sunday4 
,on that day it has been customary in   
,catholic countries to extinguish all   
the lights in the churches1 and  then to
 make a new fire1 sometimes with flint  
and steel1 sometimes with  a            
burning-glass4 ,at this fire is lit the 
great ,paschal or ,easter candle1  which
 is then used to rekindle all the       
extinguished lights in the  church4 ,in 
many parts of ,germany a bonfire is also
 kindled1 by means of  the new fire1 on 
some open space near the church4 ,it is 
consecrated1 and  the people bring      
sticks of oak1 walnut1 and beech1 which 
they char in  the fire1 and then take   
home with them4 ,some of these charred  
sticks are  thereupon burned at home in 
a newly-kindled fire1 with a prayer that
 ,god  will preserve the homestead from 
fire1 lightning1 and hail4 ,thus every  
house receives new fire4 ,some of the   

sticks are kept throughout the  year and
 laid on the hearth-fire during heavy   
thunder-storms to prevent  the house    
from being struck by lightning1 or they 
are inserted in the  roof with the like 
intention4 ,others are placed in the    
fields1 gardens1  and meadows1 with a   
prayer that ,god will keep them from    
blight and hail4  ,such fields and      
gardens are thought to thrive more than 
others2 the corn  and the plants that   
grow in them are not beaten down by     
hail1 nor  devoured by mice1 vermin1 and
 beetles2 no witch harms them1 and the  
ears  of corn stand close and full4 ,the
 charred sticks are also applied to the 
plough4 ,the ashes of the ,easter       
bonfire1 together with the ashes of the 
consecrated palm-branches1 are mixed    
with the seed at sowing4 ,a wooden      
figure called ,judas is sometimes burned
 in the consecrated bonfire1 and  even  
where this custom has been abolished the
 bonfire itself in some  places goes by 
the name of the burning of ,judas4#cje  

,easter fires in ,bavaria and the       
,abruzzi4    ,in the ,hollertau1        
,bavaria1 the young men used to light   
their lanterns at  the newly-kindled    
,easter candle in the church and then   
race to the  bonfire2 he who reached it 
first set fire to the pile1 and next    
day1  ,easter ,sunday1 was rewarded at  
the church-door by the housewives1 who  
presented him with red eggs4 ,great was 
the jubilation while the effigy  of the 
traitor was being consumed in the       
flames4 ,the ashes were  carefully      
collected and thrown away at sunrise in 
running water4#cjf ,in  many parts of   
the ,abruzzi1 also1 pious people kindle 
their fires on  ,easter ,saturday with a
 brand brought from the sacred new fire 
in the  church4 ,when the brand has thus
 served to bless the fire on the        
domestic  hearth1 it is extinguished1   
and the remainder is preserved1 partly  
in a  cranny of the outer wall of the   
house1 partly on a tree to which it is  
tied4 ,this is done for the purpose of  

guarding the homestead against  injury  
by storms4 ,at ,campo di ,giove the     
people say that if you can get a  piece 
of one of the three holy candles which  
the priest lights from the  new fire1   
you should allow a few drops of the wax 
to fall into the crown  of your hat2 for
 after that1 if it should thunder and   
lighten1 you have  nothing to do but to 
clap the hat on your head1 and no flash 
of  lightning can possibly strike       
you4#cjg    ,water as well as fire      
consecrated in the ,abruzzi on ,easter  
,saturday2  water consecrated in        
,calabria on ,easter ,saturday2 water   
and fire  consecrated on ,easter        
,saturday among the ,germans of         
,bohemia2 ,easter  rites of fire and    
water at ,hildesheim4    ,further1 it   
deserves to be noted that in the        
,abruzzi water as well as  fire is1 as  
it were1 renewed and consecrated on     
,easter ,saturday4 ,most  people fetch  
holy water on that day from the         
churches1 and every member  of the      

family drinks a little of it1 believing 
that it has power to  protect him or her
 against witchcraft1 fever1 and         
stomach-aches of all  sorts4 ,and when  
the church bells ring again after their 
enforced  silence1 the water is         
sprinkled about the house1 and          
especially under  the beds1 with the    
help of a palm-branch4 ,some of this    
blessed water is  also kept in the house
 for use in great emergencies1 when     
there is no  time to fetch a priest2    
thus it may be employed to baptize a    
newborn  infant gasping for life or to  
sprinkle a sick man in the last agony2  
such a sprinkling is reckoned equal to  
priestly absolution4#cjh ,in  ,calabria 
the customs with regard to the new      
water1 as it is called1 on  ,easter     
,saturday are similar2 it is poured into
 a new vessel1 adorned  with ribbons and
 flowers1 is blessed by the priest1 and 
is tasted by  every one of the          
household1 beginning with the parents4  
,and when the air  vibrates with the    

glad music of the church bells          
announcing the  resurrection1 the people
 sprinkle the holy water about the      
houses1  bidding in a loud voice all    
evil things to go forth and all good    
things  to come in4 ,at the same time1  
to emphasize the exorcism1 they knock on
  doors1 window-shutters1 chests1 and   
other domestic articles of  furniture4  
,at ,cetraro people who suffer from     
diseases of the skin bathe  in the sea  
at this propitious moment2 at ,pietro in
 ,guarano they plunge  into the river on
 the night of ,easter ,saturday before  
,easter ,sunday  dawns1 and while they  
bathe they utter never a word4          
,moreover1 the  ,calabrians keep the new
 water as a sacred thing4 ,they believe 
that it  serves as a protection against 
witchcraft if it is sprinkled on a fire 
or a lamp1 when the wood crackles or the
 wick sputters2 for they regard  it as a
 bad omen when the fire talks1 as they  
say4#cji ,among the  ,germans of        
,western ,bohemia1 also1 water as well  

as fire is consecrated  by the priest in
 front of the church on ,easter         
,saturday4 ,people bring  jugs full of  
water to the church and set them beside 
the holy fire2  afterwards they use the 
water to sprinkle on the palm-branches  
which are  stuck in the fields4 ,charred
 sticks of the ,judas fire1 as it is    
popularly called1 are supposed to       
possess a magical and healing virtue2   
hence the people take them home with    
them1 and even scuffle with each  other 
for the still glowing embers in order to
 carry them1 still  glimmering1 to their
 houses and so obtain the light or the  
holy  light4#caj ,at ,hildesheim1 also1 
and the neighbouring villages of        
central ,germany rites both of fire and 
water are or were till lately  observed 
at ,easter4 ,thus on ,easter night many 
people fetch water from  the ,innerste  
river and keep it carefully1 believing  
it to be a remedy  for many sorts of    
ailments both of man and beast4 ,in the 
villages on the  ,leine river servant   

men and maids used to go silently on    
,easter night  between the hours of     
eleven and twelve and silently draw     
water in  buckets from the river2 they  
mixed the water with the fodder and the 
drink of the cattle to make the animals 
thrive1 and they imagined that  to wash 
in it was good for human beings4 ,many  
were also of opinion that  at the same  
mystic hour the water turned to wine as 
far as the crowing  of a cock could be  
heard1 and in this belief they laid     
themselves flat  on their stomachs and  
kept their tongues in the water till the
  miraculous change occurred1 when they 
took a great gulp of the  transformed   
water4 ,at ,hildesheim1 too1 and the    
neighbouring villages  fires used to    
blaze on all the heights on ,easter     
,eve2 and embers taken  from the        
bonfires were dipped in the cattle      
troughs to benefit the  beasts and were 
kept in the houses to avert             
lightning4#caa    ,new fire at ,easter  
in ,carinthia2 consecration of fire and 

water by the  ,catholic ,church at      
,easter4    ,in the ,lesachthal1        
,carinthia1 all the fires in the houses 
used to be  extinguished on ,easter     
,saturday1 and rekindled with a fresh   
fire brought  from the churchyard1 where
 the priest had lit it by the friction  
of  flint and steel and had bestowed his
 blessing on it4#cab ,such customs  were
 probably widespread4 ,in a ,latin poem 
of the sixteenth century1  written by a 
certain ,thomas ,kirchmeyer and         
translated into ,english by  ,barnabe   
,googe1 we read3--    ,on ,easter ,eve  
the fire all is quencht in every place1 
,and fresh againe from out the flint is 
fetcht with solemne grace3  ,the priest 
doth halow this against great daungers  
many one1  ,a brande whereof doth every 
man with greedie mind take home1  ,that 
when the fearefull storme appeares1 or  
tempest black arise1  ,by lighting this 
he safe may be from stroke of hurtful   
skies3  ,a taper great1 the ,paschall   
namde1 with musicke then they blesse1   

,and franckensence herein they pricke1  
for greater holynesse3  ,this burneth   
night and day as signe of ,christ that  
conquerde hell1  ,as if so be this      
foolish toye suffiseth this to tell4    
,then doth the ,bishop or the ,priest1  
the water halow straight1  ,that for    
their baptisme is reservde3 for now no  
more of waight  ,is that they usde the  
yeare before1 nor can they any more1    
,yong children christen with the same1  
as they have done before4  ,with        
wondrous pompe and furniture1 amid the  
,church they go1  ,with candles1        
crosses1 banners1 ,chrisme1 and oyle    
appoynted tho3  ,nine times about the   
font they marche1 and on the saintes doe
 call1  ,then still at length they      
stande1 and straight the ,priest begins 
withall1  ,and thrise the water doth he 
touche1 and crosses thereon make1  ,here
 bigge and barbrous wordes he speakes1  
to make the devill quake3  ,and holsome 
waters conjureth1 and foolishly doth    
dresse1  ,supposing holyar that to make1

 which ,god before did blesse3  ,and    
after this his candle than1 he thrusteth
 in the floode1  ,and thrise he breathes
 thereon with breath1 that stinkes of   
former foode3  ,and making here an ende1
 his ,chrisme he poureth thereupon1     
,the people staring hereat stande1      
amazed every one2  ,beleeving that great
 powre is given to this water here1  ,by
 gaping of these learned men1 and such  
like trifling gere4  ,therefore in      
vessels brought they draw1 and home they
 carie some1  ,against the grieves that 
to themselves1 or to their beastes may  
come4  ,then ,clappers ceasse1 and      
belles are set againe at liberte1  ,and 
herewithall the hungrie times of fasting
 ended be4#cac    ,it is said that      
formerly all the fires in ,rome were    
lighted afresh from  the holy fire      
kindled in ,st4 ,peter's on ,easter     
,saturday4#cad    ,the new fire on      
,easter ,saturday at ,florence4    ,in  
,florence the ceremony of kindling the  
new fire on ,easter ,eve is  peculiar4  

,the holy flame is elicited from certain
 flints which are said  to have been    
brought by a member of the ,pazzi family
 from the ,holy ,land4  ,they are kept  
in the church of the ,holy ,apostles on 
the ,piazza del  ,limbo1 and on the     
morning of ,easter ,saturday the prior  
strikes fire from  them and lights a    
candle from the new flame4 ,the burning 
candle is then  carried in solemn       
procession by the clergy and members of 
the  municipality to the high altar in  
the cathedral4 ,a vast crowd has        
meanwhile assembled in the cathedral and
 the neighbouring square to  witness the
 ceremony2 amongst the spectators are   
many peasants drawn  from the           
surrounding country1 for it is commonly 
believed that on the  success or failure
 of the ceremony depends the fate of the
 crops for the  year4 ,outside the door 
of the cathedral stands a festal car    
drawn by two  fine white oxen with      
gilded horns4 ,the body of the car is   
loaded with a  pyramid of squibs and    

crackers and is connected by a wire with
 a pillar  set up in front of the high  
altar4 ,the wire extends down the middle
 of  the nave at a height of about six  
feet from the ground4 ,beneath it a     
clear passage is left1 the spectators   
being ranged on either side and         
crowding the vast interior from wall to 
wall4 ,when all is ready1 ,high  ,mass  
is celebrated1 and precisely at noon1   
when the first words of the  ,gloria are
 being chanted1 the sacred fire is      
applied to the pillar1  which like the  
car is wreathed with fireworks4 ,a      
moment more and a fiery  dove comes     
flying down the nave1 with a hissing    
sound and a sputter of  sparks1 between 
the two hedges of eager spectators4 ,if 
all goes well1  the bird pursues its    
course along the wire and out at the    
door1 and in  another moment a prolonged
 series of fizzes1 pops and bangs       
announces to  the excited crowd in the  
cathedral that the fireworks on the car 
are  going off4 ,great is the joy       

accordingly1 especially among the       
bumpkins1  who are now sure of an       
abundant harvest4 ,but if1 as sometimes 
happens1  the dove stops short in its   
career and fizzles out1 revealing itself
 as  a stuffed bird with a packet of    
squibs tied to its tail1 great is the   
consternation1 and deep the curses that 
issue from between the set teeth  of the
 clodhoppers1 who now give up the       
harvest for lost4 ,formerly the         
unskilful mechanician who was           
responsible for the failure would have  
been clapped into gaol2 but nowadays he 
is thought sufficiently punished  by the
 storm of public indignation and the    
loss of his pay4 ,the disaster  is      
announced by placards posted about the  
streets in the evening2 and  next       
morning the newspapers are full of      
gloomy prognostications4#cae    ,the new
 fire and burning of ,judas on ,easter  
,saturday in ,mexico4    ,some of these 
customs have been transported by the    
,catholic ,church to  the ,new ,world4  

,thus in ,mexico the new fire is struck 
from a flint early  in the morning of   
,easter ,saturday1 and a candle which   
has been lighted  at the sacred flame is
 carried through the church by a deacon 
shouting  ,lumen ,christi4 ,meantime the
 whole city1 we are informed1 has been  
converted into a vast place of          
execution4 ,ropes stretch across the    
streets from house to house1 and from   
every house dangles an effigy of        
,judas1 made of paper pulp4 ,scores or  
hundreds of them may adorn a single     
street4 ,they are of all shapes and     
sizes1 grotesque in form and garbed  in 
strange attire1 stuffed with gunpowder1 
squibs and crackers1  sometimes1 too1   
with meat1 bread1 soap1 candy1 and      
clothing1 for which  the crowd will     
scramble and scuffle while the effigies 
are burning4  ,there they hang grim1    
black1 and sullen in the strong         
sunshine1 greeted  with a roar of       
execration by the pious mob4 ,a peal of 
bells from the  cathedral tower on the  

stroke of noon gives the signal for the 
execution4 ,at the sound a frenzy seizes
 the crowd4 ,they throw themselves      
furiously on the figures of the detested
 traitor1 cut them down1 hurl  them with
 curses into the fire1 and fight and    
struggle with each other  in their      
efforts to tear the effigies to tatters 
and appropriate their  contents4 ,smoke1
 stink1 sputter of crackers1 oaths1     
curses1 yells are  now the order of the 
day4 ,but the traitor does not perish   
unavenged4 ,for  the anatomy of his     
frame has been cunningly contrived so as
 in burning  to discharge volleys of    
squibs into his assailants2 and the     
wounds and  burns with which their piety
 is rewarded form a feature of the      
morning's  entertainment4 ,the ,english 
,jockey ,club in ,mexico used to improve
 on this  popular pastime by suspending 
huge figures of ,judas1 stuffed with    
copper  coins1 from ropes in front of   
their clubhouse4 ,these were ignited at 
the  proper moment and lowered within   

reach of the expectant rabble1 and it   
was the privilege of members of the     
club1 seated in the balcony1 to  watch  
the grimaces and to hear the shrieks of 
the victims1 as they  stamped and       
capered about with the hot coppers      
sticking to their hands1  divided in    
their minds between an acute sense of   
pain and a thirst for  filthy lucre4#caf
    ,the burning of ,judas at ,easter in
 ,south ,america4    ,scenes of the same
 sort1 though on a less ambitious scale1
 are witnessed  among the ,catholics of 
,south ,america on the same day4 ,in    
,brazil the  mourning for the death of  
,christ ceases at noon on ,easter       
,saturday and  gives place to an        
extravagant burst of joy at his         
resurrection4 ,shots  are fired         
everywhere1 and effigies of ,judas are  
hung on trees or dragged  about the     
streets1 to be finally burned or        
otherwise destroyed4#cag ,in  the       
,indian villages scattered among the    
wild valleys of the ,peruvian  ,andes   

figures of the traitor1 made of         
pasteboard and stuffed with squibs  and 
crackers1 are hanged on gibbets before  
the door of the church on  ,easter      
,saturday4 ,fire is set to them1 and    
while they crackle and  explode1 the    
,indians dance and shout for joy at the 
destruction of their  hated enemy4#cah  
,similarly at ,rio ,hacha1 in ,colombia1
 ,judas is  represented during ,holy    
,week by life-sized effigies1 and the   
people fire  at them as if they were    
discharging a sacred duty4#cai    ,the  
new fire on ,easter ,saturday in the    
,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre at      
,jerusalem4    ,but usages of this sort 
are not confined to the ,latin ,church2 
they are  common to the ,greek ,church  
also4 ,every year on the ,saturday      
before  ,easter ,sunday a new fire is   
miraculously kindled at the ,holy       
,sepulchre  in ,jerusalem4 ,it descends 
from heaven and ignites the candles     
which the  patriarch holds in his hands1
 while with closed eyes he wrestles in  

prayer all alone in the chapel of the   
,angel4 ,the worshippers meanwhile  wait
 anxiously in the body of the church1   
and great are their transports  of joy  
when at one of the windows of the       
chapel1 which had been all dark  a      
minute before1 there suddenly appears   
the hand of an angel1 or of the         
patriarch1 holding a lighted taper4     
,this is the sacred new fire2 it is     
passed out to the expectant believers1  
and the desperate struggle which  ensues
 among them to get a share of its       
blessed influence is only  terminated by
 the intervention of the ,turkish       
soldiery1 who restore  peace and order  
by hustling the whole multitude         
impartially out of the  church4 ,in days
 gone by many lives were often lost in  
these holy  scrimmages4 ,for example1 in
 the year #ahcd1 the famous ,ibrahim    
,pasha  witnessed the frantic scene from
 one of the galleries1 and1 being moved 
with compassion at the sight1 descended 
with a few guards into the arena  in the

 chimerical hope of restoring peace and 
order among the contending  ,christians4
 ,he contrived to force his way into the
 midst of the dense  crowd1 but there   
the heat and pressure were so great that
 he fainted  away2 a body of soldiers1  
seeing his danger1 charged straight into
 the  throng and carried him out of it  
in their arms1 trampling under foot the 
dying and dead in their passage4 ,nearly
 two hundred people were killed  that   
day in the church4 ,the fortunate       
survivors on these occasions who        
succeeded in obtaining a portion of the 
coveted fire applied it freely  to their
 faces1 their beards1 and their         
garments4 ,the theory was that  the     
fire1 being miraculous1 could only bless
 and not burn them2 but the  practical  
results of the experiment were often    
disappointing1 for while  the blessings 
were more or less dubious1 there could  
be no doubt  whatever about the         
burns4#cbj ,the history of the miracle  
has been  carefully investigated by a   

,jesuit father4 ,the conclusions at     
which he  arrives are that the miracle  
was a miracle indeed so long as the     
,catholics had the management of it2 but
 that since it fell into the  hands of  
the heretics it has been nothing but a  
barefaced trick and  imposture4#cba     
,many people will be disposed to agree  
with the latter  conclusion who might   
hesitate to accept the former4    ,the  
new fire and the burning of ,judas on   
,easter ,saturday in ,greece4    ,at    
,athens the new fire is kindled in the  
cathedral at midnight on ,holy          
,saturday4 ,a dense crowd with unlit    
candles in their hands fills the  square
 in front of the cathedral2 the king1   
the archbishop1 and the  highest        
dignitaries of the church1 arrayed in   
their gorgeous robes1  occupy a         
platform2 and at the exact moment of the
 resurrection the bells  ring out1 and  
the whole square bursts as by magic into
 a blaze of light4  ,theoretically all  
the candles are lit from the sacred new 

fire in the  cathedral1 but practically 
it may be suspected that the matches    
which  bear the name of ,lucifer have   
some share in the sudden                
illumination4#cbb ,effigies of ,judas   
used to be burned at ,athens on  ,easter
 ,saturday1 but the custom has been     
forbidden by the ,government4  ,however1
 firing goes on more or less            
continuously all over the city both  on 
,easter ,saturday and ,easter ,sunday1  
and the cartridges used on this         
occasion are not always blank4 ,the     
shots are aimed at ,judas1 but          
sometimes they miss him and hit other   
people4 ,outside of ,athens the         
practice of burning ,judas in effigy    
still survives in some places4 ,for     
example1 in ,cos a straw image of the   
traitor is made on ,easter ,day1 and    
after being hung up and shot at it is   
burned4#cbc ,a similar custom  appears  
to prevail at ,thebes2#cbd it used to be
 observed by the  ,macedonian peasantry1
 and it is still kept up at ,therapia1 a

 fashionable  summer resort of          
,constantinople4#cbe    ,the new fire at
 ,candlemas in ,armenia4    ,in the     
,armenian ,church the sacred new fire is
 kindled not at ,easter but  at         
,candlemas1 that is1 on the second of   
,february1 or on the eve of that        
festival4 ,the materials of the bonfire 
are piled in an open space near a       
church1 and they are generally ignited  
by young couples who have been  married 
within the year4 ,however1 it is the    
bishop or his vicar who  lights the     
candles with which fire is set to the   
pile4 ,all young married  pairs are     
expected to range themselves about the  
fire and to dance round  it4 ,young men 
leap over the flames1 but girls and     
women content  themselves with going    
round them1 while they pray to be       
preserved from  the itch and other      
skin-diseases4 ,when the ceremony is    
over1 the people  eagerly pick up       
charred sticks or ashes of the fire and 
preserve them or  scatter them on the   

four corners of the roof1 in the        
cattle-stall1 in  the garden1 and on the
 pastures2 for these holy sticks and    
ashes protect  men and cattle against   
disease1 and fruit-trees against worms  
and  caterpillars4 ,omens1 too1 are     
drawn from the direction in which the   
wind  blows the flames and the smoke3 if
 it carries them eastward1 there is     
hope of a good harvest2 but if it       
inclines them westward1 the people  fear
 that the crops will fail4#cbf    ,the  
new fire and the burning of ,judas at   
,easter are probably relics of          
paganism4    ,in spite of the thin cloak
 of ,christianity thrown over these     
customs by  representing the new fire as
 an emblem of ,christ and the figure    
burned  in it as an effigy of ,judas1 we
 can hardly doubt that both practices   
are  of pagan origin4 ,neither of them  
has the authority of ,christ or of his  
disciples2 but both of them have        
abundant analogies in popular custom    
and superstition4 ,some instances of the

 practice of annually  extinguishing    
fires and relighting them from a new and
 sacred flame have  already come before 
us2#cbg but a few examples may here be  
cited for  the sake of illustrating the 
wide diffusion of a custom which has    
found  its way into the ritual both of  
the ,eastern and of the ,western        
,church4    ,the new fire at the summer 
solstice among the ,incas of ,peru2  the
 new fire among the ,indians of ,mexico 
and ,new ,mexico2 the new fire  among   
the ,esquimaux4    ,the ,incas of ,peru 
celebrated a festival called ,raymi1 a  
word which their  native historian      
,garcilasso de la ,vega tells us was    
equivalent to our  ,easter4 ,it was held
 in honour of the sun at the solstice in
 ,june4 ,for  three days before the     
festival the people fasted1 men did not 
sleep with  their wives1 and no fires   
were lighted in ,cuzco1 the capital4    
,the sacred  new fire was obtained      
direct from the sun by concentrating his
 beams on  a highly polished concave    

plate and reflecting them on a little   
cotton  wool4 ,with this holy fire the  
sheep and lambs offered to the sun were 
consumed1 and the flesh of such as were 
to be eaten at the festival was         
roasted4 ,portions of the new fire were 
also conveyed to the temple of  the sun 
and to the convent of the sacred        
virgins1 where they were kept  burning  
all the year1 and it was an ill omen if 
the holy flame went  out4#cbh ,at a     
festival held in the last month of the  
old ,mexican year  all the fires both in
 the temples and in the houses were     
extinguished1  and the priest kindled a 
new fire by rubbing two sticks against  
each  other before the image of the     
fire-god4#cbi ,the ,zuni ,indians of    
,new  ,mexico kindle a new fire by the  
friction of wood both at the winter and 
the summer solstice4 ,at the winter     
solstice the chosen fire-maker  collects
 a faggot of cedar-wood from every house
 in the village1 and  each person1 as he
 hands the wood to the fire-maker1 prays

 that the  crops may be good in the     
coming year4 ,for several days before   
the new  fire is kindled1 no ashes or   
sweepings may be removed from the houses
  and no artificial light may appear    
outside of them1 not even a burning     
cigarette or the flash of firearms4 ,the
 ,indians believe that no rain  will    
fall on the fields of the man outside   
whose house a light has been  seen at   
this season4 ,the signal for kindling   
the new fire is given by  the rising of 
the ,morning ,star4 ,the flame is       
produced by twirling an  upright stick  
between the hands on a horizontal stick 
laid on the floor  of a sacred chamber1 
the sparks being caught by a tinder of  
cedar-dust4  ,it is forbidden to blow up
 the smouldering tinder with the breath1
 for  that would offend the gods4 ,after
 the fire has thus been ceremonially    
kindled1 the women and girls of all the 
families in the village clean  out their
 houses4 ,they carry the sweepings and  
ashes in baskets or bowls  to the fields

 and leave them there4 ,to the sweepings
 the woman says3 ,i  now deposit you as 
sweepings1 but in one year you will     
return to me as  corn4 ,and to the ashes
 she says3 ,i now deposit you as ashes1 
but in  one year you will return to me  
as meal4 ,at the summer solstice the    
sacred fire which has been procured by  
the friction of wood is used to  kindle 
the grass and trees1 that there may be a
 great cloud of smoke1  while           
bull-roarers are swung and prayers      
offered that the ,rain-makers up  aloft 
will water the earth4#ccj ,from this    
account we see how intimately  the      
kindling of a new fire at the two       
turning-points of the sun's course  is  
associated in the minds of these        
,indians with the fertility of the      
land1 particularly with the growth of   
the corn4 ,the rolling smoke is         
apparently an imitation of rain-clouds  
designed1 on the principle of           
homoeopathic magic1 to draw showers from
 the blue sky4 ,once a year the         

,iroquois priesthood supplied the people
 with a new fire4 ,as a  preparation for
 the annual rite the fires in all the   
huts were  extinguished and the ashes   
scattered about4 ,then the priest1      
wearing the  insignia of his office1    
went from hut to hut relighting the     
fires by  means of a flint4#cca ,among  
the ,esquimaux with whom ,c4,f4 ,hall   
resided1  it was the custom that at a   
certain time1 which answered to our ,new
  ,year's ,day1 two men went about from 
house to house blowing out every  light 
in the village4 ,one of the men was     
dressed to represent a woman4           
,afterwards the lights were rekindled   
from a fresh fire4 ,an ,esquimau  woman 
being asked what all this meant1        
replied1 ,new sun--new  light4#ccb      
,among the ,esquimaux of ,iglulik1 when 
the sun first rises  above the horizon  
after the long night of the ,arctic     
winter1 the  children who have watched  
for his reappearance run into the houses
 and  blow out the lamps4 ,then they    

receive from their mothers presents of  
pieces of wick4#ccc    ,the new fire in 
,wadai1 among the ,swahili1 and in other
 parts of  ,africa4    ,in the ,sudanese
 kingdom of ,wadai all the fires in the 
villages are put  out and the ashes     
removed from the houses on the day which
 precedes the  ,new ,year festival4 ,at 
the beginning of the new year a new fire
 is lit by  the friction of wood in the 
great straw hut where the village elders
  lounge away the sultry hours together2
 and every man takes thence a  burning  
brand with which he rekindles the fire  
on his domestic  hearth4#ccd ,in the    
,bahr-el-,ghazal province of the        
,egyptian ,sudan the  people extinguish 
their old fires at the ,arab ,new ,year 
and bring in new  fire4 ,on the same    
occasion they beat the walls of their   
huts1 the grass  thatches1 and the walls
 of their enclosures in order to drive  
away the  devil or evil spirits4 ,the   
beating of the walls and roofs is       
accompanied  by the firing of guns1 the 

shouting of men1 and the shriller cries 
of  the women4#cce ,thus these people   
combine an annual expulsion of demons   
with an annual lighting of a new fire4  
,among the ,swahili of ,east ,africa    
the greatest festival is that of the    
,new ,year1 which falls in the second   
half of ,august4 ,at a given moment all 
the fires are extinguished with  water  
and afterwards relit by the friction of 
two dry pieces of wood4  ,the ashes of  
the old fires are carried out and       
deposited at cross-roads4  ,all the     
people get up very early in the morning 
and bathe in the sea or  some other     
water1 praying to be kept in good health
 and to live that  they may bathe again 
next year4 ,sham-fights form part of the
 amusements  of the day2 sometimes they 
pass into grim reality4 ,indeed the day 
was  formerly one of general license2   
every man did that which was good in    
his own eyes4 ,no awkward questions were
 asked about any crimes committed  on   
this occasion1 so some people improved  

the shining hour by knocking a  few poor
 devils on the head4 ,shooting still    
goes on during the whole  day1 and at   
night the proceedings generally wind up 
with a great  dance4#ccf ,the ,king of  
,benametapa1 as the early ,portuguese   
traders  called him1 in ,east ,africa   
used to send commissioners annually to  
every  town in his dominions2 on the    
arrival of one of these officers the    
inhabitants of each town had to put out 
all their fires and to receive a  new   
fire from him4 ,failure to comply with  
this custom was treated as              
rebellion4#ccg ,some tribes of ,british 
,central ,africa carefully  extinguish  
the fires on the hearths at the         
beginning of the hoeing  season and at  
harvest2 the fires are afterwards       
rekindled by friction1  and the people  
indulge in dances of various kinds4#cch 
,the new fire among the ,todas of       
,southern ,india and among the ,nagas of
  ,north-,eastern ,india4    ,the ,todas
 of the ,neilgheny ,hills1 in ,southern 

,india1 annually kindle a  sacred new   
fire by the friction of wood in the     
month which begins with  the ,october   
moon4 ,the ceremony is performed by two 
holy dairymen at the  foot of a high    
hill4 ,when they have lighted the fire  
by rubbing two dry  sticks together1 and
 it begins to burn well1 they stand a   
little way off  and pray1 saying1 ,may  
the young grass flower6 ,may honey      
flourish6 ,may  fruit ripen6 ,the       
purpose of the ceremony is to make the  
grass and honey  plentiful4 ,in ancient 
times the ,todas lived largely on wild  
fruits1 and  then the rite of the new   
fire was very important4 ,now that they 
subsist  chiefly on the milk of their   
buffaloes1 the ceremony has lost much of
  its old significance4#cci ,when the   
,nagas of ,north-,eastern ,india have   
felled the timber and cut down the scrub
 in those patches of jungle  which they 
propose to cultivate1 they put out all  
the fires in the  village and light a   
new fire by rubbing two dry pieces of   

wood together4  ,then having kindled    
torches at it they proceed with them to 
the jungle  and ignite the felled timber
 and brushwood4 ,the flesh of a cow or  
buffalo is also roasted on the new fire 
and furnishes a sacrificial  meal4#cdj  
,near the small town of ,kahma in       
,burma1 between ,prome and  ,thayetmyo1 
certain gases escape from a hollow in   
the ground and burn  with a steady flame
 during the dry season of the year4 ,the
 people regard  the flame as the forge  
of a spectral smith who here carried on 
his  business after death had removed   
him from his old smithy in the village4 
,once a year all the household fires in 
,kahma are extinguished and then        
lighted afresh from the ghostly         
flame4#cda    ,the new fire in ,china   
and ,japan4    ,in ,china every year1   
about the beginning of ,april1 certain  
officials1  called ,sz'hen1 used of old 
to go about the country armed with      
wooden  clappers4 ,their business was to
 summon the people and command them to  

put out every fire4 ,this was the       
beginning of a season called            
,han-shih-tsieh1 or eating cold food4   
,for three days all household  fires    
remained extinct as a preparation for   
the solemn renewal of the  fire1 which  
took place on the fifth or sixth day of 
,april1 being the  hundred and fifth day
 after the winter solstice4 ,the        
ceremony was  performed with great pomp 
by the same officials1 who procured the 
new  fire from heaven by reflecting the 
sun's rays either from a metal mirror   
or from a crystal on dry moss4 ,fire    
thus obtained is called by the  ,chinese
 heavenly fire1 and its use is enjoined 
in sacrifices2 whereas  fire elicited by
 the friction of wood is termed by them 
earthly fire1  and its use is prescribed
 for cooking and other domestic         
purposes4 ,when  once the new fire had  
thus been drawn from the sun1 all the   
people were  free to rekindle their     
domestic hearths2 and1 as a ,chinese    
distich has  it--    ,at the festival of

 the cold food there are a thousand     
white stalks      among the flowers2    
,on the day ,tsing-ming1 at sunrise1 you
 may see the smoke of ten  thousand     
houses4    ,according to a ,chinese     
philosopher1 the reason for thus        
renewing fire  periodically is that the 
vital principle grows weaker and weaker 
in old  fire1 whereas in new fire it is 
young and vigorous4 ,this annual renewal
  of fire was a ceremony of very great  
antiquity in ,china1 since it is  known 
to have been observed in the time of the
 first dynasty1 about two  thousand     
years before ,christ4 ,under the ,tcheou
 dynasty a change in the  calendar led  
to shifting the fire-festival from      
spring to the summer  solstice1 but     
afterwards it was brought back to its   
original date4  ,although the custom    
appears to have long fallen into disuse1
 the  barbarous inhabitants of ,hainan1 
an island to the south of ,china1 still 
call a year a fire1 as if in memory of  
the time when the years were  reckoned  

by the annually recurring ceremony of   
rekindling the sacred  fire4#cdb ,a     
,japanese book written two centuries ago
 informs us that  sticks resembling the 
wands used for offerings at the         
purification  ceremony were part shaven 
and set up in bundles at the four       
corners of  the ,gion shrine on the last
 day of the year4 ,the priests1 after   
prayers  were recited1 broke up the     
bundles and set fire to the sticks1     
which the  people then carried home to  
light their household fires with for the
 ,new  ,year4 ,the object of this       
ceremony was to avert pestilence4#cdc   
,the new fire in ancient ,greece and    
,rome4    ,in classical antiquity the   
,greek island of ,lemnos was devoted to 
the  worship of the smith-god           
,hephaestus1 who was said to have fallen
 on it  when ,zeus hurled him from      
heaven4#cdd ,once a year every fire in  
the  island was extinguished and        
remained extinct for nine days1 during  
which  sacrifices were offered to the   

dead and to the infernal powers4 ,new   
fire  was brought in a ship from the    
sacred isle of ,delos1 and with it the  
fires in the houses and the workshops   
were relit4 ,the people said that  with 
the new fire they made a new beginning  
of life4 ,if the ship that  bore the    
sacred flame arrived too soon1 it might 
not put in to shore1  but had to cruise 
in the offing till the nine days were   
expired4#cde ,at  ,rome the sacred fire 
in the temple of ,vesta was kindled anew
 every year  on the first of ,march1    
which used to be the beginning of the   
,roman  year2#cdf the task of lighting  
it was entrusted to the ,vestal         
,virgins1  and they performed it by     
drilling a hole in a board of lucky wood
 till  the flame was elicited by        
friction4 ,the new fire thus produced   
was  carried into the temple of ,vesta  
by one of the virgins in a bronze       
sieve4#cdg    ,the new fire at ,hallow  
,e'en among the old ,celts of ,ireland2 
the new  fire on ,september #ast among  

the ,russian peasants4    ,among the    
,celts of ,ireland a new fire was       
annually kindled on ,hallowe'en  or the 
,eve of ,samhain1 as they called it1 the
 last day of ,october1 from  which the  
,irish new year began2 and all the      
hearths throughout the  country are said
 to have been relighted from the fresh  
fire4 ,the place  where this holy flame 
was lit bore the name of ,tlachtga or   
,tlactga2 it  has been identified with a
 rath or native fort on the ,hill of    
,ward near  ,athboy in the county of    
,meath4 ,it was there1 says the old     
,irish  historian1 ,geoffrey ,keating1  
that the ,festival of the ,fire of      
,tlactga  was ordered to be held1 and it
 was thither that the ,druids of        
,ireland  were wont to repair and to    
assemble1 in solemn meeting1 on the eve 
of  ,samhain1 for the purpose of making 
a sacrifice to all the gods4 ,it was  in
 that fire at ,tlactga1 that their      
sacrifice was burnt2 and it was made    
obligatory1 under pain of punishment1 to

 extinguish all the fires of  ,ireland1 
on that eve2 and the men of ,ireland    
were allowed to kindle no  other fire   
but that one2 and for each of the other 
fires1 which were all  to be lighted    
from it1 the king of ,munster was to    
receive a tax of a  sgreball1 that is1  
of three pence1 because the land1 upon  
which  ,tlactga was built1 belongs to   
the portion of ,meath which had been    
taken  from ,munster4#cdh ,in the       
villages near ,moscow at the present    
time the  peasants put out all their    
fires on the eve of the first of        
,september1  and next morning at sunrise
 a wise man or a wise woman rekindles   
them  with the help of muttered         
incantations and spells4#cdi    ,thus   
the ceremony of the new fire in the     
,eastern and ,western ,church is        
probably a relic of an old heathen rite4
    ,instances of such practices might  
doubtless be multiplied1 but the        
foregoing examples may suffice to render
 it probable that the  ecclesiastical   

ceremony of lighting a sacred new fire  
on ,easter ,saturday  had originally    
nothing to do with ,christianity1 but is
 merely one case  of a world-wide custom
 which the ,church has seen fit to      
incorporate in  its ritual4 ,it might be
 supposed that in the ,western ,church  
the custom  was merely a survival of the
 old ,roman usage of renewing the fire  
on the  first of ,march1 were it not    
that the observance by the ,eastern     
,church of  the custom on the same day  
seems to point back to a still older    
period  when the ceremony of lighting a 
new fire in spring1 perhaps at the      
vernal equinox1 was common to many      
peoples of the ,mediterranean area4 ,we 
may conjecture that wherever such a     
ceremony has been observed1 it          
originally marked the beginning of a new
 year1 as it did in ancient ,rome  and  
,ireland1 and as it still does in the   
,sudanese kingdom of ,wadai and  among  
the ,swahili of ,eastern ,africa4       
,the pagan character of the ,easter fire

 appears from the superstitions         
associated with it1 such as the belief  
that the fire fertilizes the  fields and
 protects houses from conflagration and 
sickness4    ,the essentially pagan     
character of the ,easter fire festival  
appears  plainly both from the mode in  
which it is celebrated by the peasants  
and  from the superstitious beliefs     
which they associate with it4 ,all over 
northern and central ,germany1 from     
,altmark and ,anhalt on the east1       
through ,brunswick1 ,hanover1           
,oldenburg1 the ,harz district1 and     
,hesse to  ,westphalia the ,easter      
bonfires still blaze simultaneously on  
the  hill-tops4 ,as many as forty may   
sometimes be counted within sight at    
once4 ,long before ,easter the young    
people have been busy collecting        
firewood2 every farmer contributes1 and 
tar-barrels1 petroleum cases1  and so   
forth go to swell the pile4             
,neighbouring villages vie with each    
other as to which shall send up the     

greatest blaze4 ,the fires are always   
kindled1 year after year1 on the same   
hill1 which accordingly often  takes the
 name of ,easter ,mountain4 ,it is a    
fine spectacle to watch from  some      
eminence the bonfires flaring up one    
after another on the  neighbouring      
heights4 ,as far as their light reaches1
 so far1 in the  belief of the peasants1
 the fields will be fruitful1 and the   
houses on  which they shine will be safe
 from conflagration or sickness4 ,at    
,volkmarsen and other places in ,hesse  
the people used to observe which  way   
the wind blew the flames1 and then they 
sowed flax seed in that  direction1     
confident that it would grow well4      
,brands taken from the  bonfires        
preserve houses from being struck by    
lightning2 and the ashes  increase the  
fertility of the fields1 protect them   
from mice1 and mixed  with the          
drinking-water of cattle make the       
animals thrive and ensure  them against 
plague4 ,as the flames die down1 young  

and old leap over  them1 and cattle are 
sometimes driven through the smouldering
 embers4 ,in  some places tar-barrels or
 wheels wrapt in straw used to be set on
 fire1  and then sent rolling down the  
hillside4 ,in others the boys light     
torches and wisps of straw at the       
bonfires and rush about brandishing     
them in their hands4 ,where the people  
are divided between ,protestantism  and 
,catholicism1 as in ,hildesheim1 it has 
been observed that among  ,protestants  
the ,easter bonfires are generally left 
to the boys1 while in  ,catholic        
districts they are cared for by grown-up
 persons1 and here the  whole population
 will gather round the blazing pile and 
join in singing  choral hymns1 which    
echo far and wide in the stillness of   
night4#cej    ,the ,easter fires in     
,mnsterland1 ,oldenburg1 the ,harz      
,mountains and the  ,altmark4    ,in    
,mnsterland these ,easter fires are     
always kindled upon certain  definite   
hills1 which are hence known as ,easter 

or ,paschal ,mountains4  ,the whole     
community assembles about the fire4     
,fathers of families form  an inner     
circle round it4 ,an outer circle is    
composed of the young men  and maidens1 
who1 singing ,easter hymns1 march round 
and round the fire  in the direction of 
the sun1 till the blaze dies down4 ,then
 the girls  jump over the fire in a     
line1 one after the other1 each         
supported by two  young men who hold her
 hands and run beside her4 ,when the    
fire has  burned out1 the whole assembly
 marches in solemn procession to the    
church1 singing hymns4 ,they go thrice  
round the church1 and then break  up4   
,in the twilight boys with blazing      
bundles of straw run over the  fields to
 make them fruitful4#cea ,at            
,delmenhorst1 in ,oldenburg1 it used  to
 be the custom to cut down two trees1   
plant them in the ground side by  side1 
and pile twelve tar-barrels1 one above  
the other1 against each of  the trees4  
,brushwood was then heaped about the    

trees1 and on the evening  of ,easter   
,saturday the boys1 after rushing about 
with blazing beanpoles  in their hands1 
set fire to the whole4 ,at the end of   
the ceremony the  urchins tried to      
blacken each other and the clothes of   
grown-up  people4#ceb ,in ,schaumburg   
the ,easter bonfires may be seen blazing
 on  all the mountains around for miles4
 ,they are made with a tar-barrel       
fastened to a pine-tree1 which is wrapt 
in straw4 ,the people dance  singing    
round them4#cec ,in the ,harz ,mountains
 the fire is commonly made  by piling   
brushwood about a tree and setting it on
 fire4 ,at ,osterode  every one tries to
 snatch a brand from the bonfire and    
runs about with  it2 the better it      
burns1 the more lucky it is4 ,in ,grund 
there are  torch-races4#ced ,in the     
,altmark the ,easter bonfires are       
composed of  tar-barrels1 bee-hives1 and
 so forth1 piled round a pole4 ,the     
young folk  dance round the fire2 and   
when it has died out1 the old folk come 

and  collect the ashes1 which they      
preserve as a remedy for the ailments of
  bees4 ,it is also believed that as far
 as the blaze of the bonfire is         
visible1 the corn will grow well        
throughout the year1 and no             
conflagration will break out4#cee ,at   
,braunrde1 in the ,harz ,mountains1  it 
was the custom to burn squirrels in the 
,easter bonfire4#cef ,in the  ,altmark1 
bones were burned in it4#ceg    ,the    
,easter fires in ,bavaria2 the burning  
of ,judas2 burning the ,easter  ,man4   
,further south the ,easter fires are1 or
 used to be1 lit in many districts  of  
,bavaria4 ,thus on ,easter ,monday in   
some parts of ,middle ,franken the      
schoolboys collect all the old worn-out 
besoms they can lay hands on1  and march
 with them in a long procession to a    
neighbouring height4 ,when  the first   
chime of the evening bell comes up from 
the dale they set fire  to the brooms1  
and run along the ridges waving them1 so
 that seen from  below the hills appear 

to be crested with a twinkling and      
moving chain  of fire4#ceh ,in some     
parts of ,upper ,bavaria at ,easter     
burning arrows or  discs of wood were   
shot from hill-tops high into the air1  
as in the  ,swabian and ,swiss customs  
already described4#cei ,at ,oberau1     
instead of  the discs1 an old cart-wheel
 was sometimes wrapt in straw1 ignited1 
and  sent rolling and blazing down the  
mountain4 ,the lads who hurled the      
discs received painted ,easter eggs from
 the girls4#cfj ,near ,forchheim1  in   
,upper ,franken1 a straw-man called the 
,judas used to be burned in the         
churchyards on ,easter ,saturday4 ,the  
whole village contributed wood to  the  
pyre on which he perished1 and the      
charred sticks were afterwards  kept and
 planted in the fields on ,walpurgis    
,day 7the first of ,may7 to  preserve   
the wheat from blight and mildew4#cfa   
,about a hundred years  ago or more the 
custom at ,althenneberg1 in ,upper      
,bavaria1 used to be as  follows4 ,on   

the afternoon of ,easter ,saturday the  
lads collected wood1  which they piled  
in a cornfield1 while in the middle of  
the pile they  set up a tall wooden     
cross all swathed in straw4 ,after the  
evening  service they lighted their     
lanterns at the consecrated candle in   
the  church1 and ran with them at full  
speed to the pyre1 each striving to  get
 there first4 ,the first to arrive set  
fire to the heap4 ,no woman or  girl    
might come near the bonfire1 but they   
were allowed to watch it from  a        
distance4 ,as the flames rose the men   
and lads rejoiced and made merry1       
shouting1 ,we are burning the ,judas6   
,two of them had to watch the  glowing  
embers the whole night long1 lest people
 should come and steal  them4 ,next     
morning at sunrise they carefully       
collected the ashes1 and  threw them    
into the running water of the ,rten     
brook4 ,the man who had  been the first 
to reach the pyre and to kindle it was  
rewarded on ,easter  ,sunday by the     

women1 who gave him coloured eggs at the
 church door4  ,well-to-do women gave   
him two2 poorer women gave him only one4
 ,the  object of the whole ceremony was 
to keep off the hail4 ,about a century  
ago the ,judas fire1 as it was called1  
was put down by the police4#cfb  ,at    
,giggenhausen and ,aufkirchen1 two other
 villages of ,upper ,bavaria1 a  similar
 custom prevailed1 yet with some        
interesting differences4 ,here  the     
ceremony1 which took place between nine 
and ten at night on ,easter  ,saturday1 
was called burning the ,easter ,man4 ,on
 a height about a mile  from the village
 the young fellows set up a tall cross  
enveloped in  straw1 so that it looked  
like a man with his arms stretched out4 
,this  was the ,easter ,man4 ,no lad    
under eighteen years of age might take  
part  in the ceremony4 ,one of the young
 men stationed himself beside the       
,easter ,man1 holding in his hand a     
consecrated taper which he had brought  
from the church and lighted4 ,the rest  

stood at equal intervals in a  great    
circle round the cross4 ,at a given     
signal they raced thrice round  the     
circle1 and then at a second signal ran 
straight at the cross and at  the lad   
with the lighted taper beside it2 the   
one who reached the goal  first had the 
right of setting fire to the ,easter    
,man4 ,great was the  jubilation while  
he was burning4 ,when he had been       
consumed in the  flames1 three lads were
 chosen from among the rest1 and each of
 the  three drew a circle on the ground 
with a stick thrice round the ashes4    
,then they all left the spot4 ,on       
,easter ,monday the villagers gathered  
the  ashes and strewed them on their    
fields2 also they planted in the fields 
palm-branches which had been consecrated
 on ,palm ,sunday1 and sticks  which had
 been charred and hallowed on ,good     
,friday1 all for the purpose  of        
protecting their fields against showers 
of hail4 ,the custom of  burning an     
,easter ,man made of straw on ,easter   

,saturday was observed also  at         
,abensberg1 in ,lower ,bavaria4#cfc ,in 
some parts of ,swabia the ,easter  fires
 might not be kindled with iron or steel
 or flint1 but only by the  friction of 
wood4#cfd    ,the ,easter fires in      
,baden2 ,thunder poles4    ,in ,baden   
bonfires are still kindled in the       
churchyards on ,easter  ,saturday1 and  
ecclesiastical refuse of various sorts1 
such as  candle-ends1 old surplices1 and
 the wool used by the priest in the     
application of extreme unction1 is      
consumed in the flames4 ,at ,zoznegg    
down to about #ahej the fire was lighted
 by the priest by means of a  flint     
which had never been used before4       
,people bring sticks1 especially  oaken 
sticks1 char them in the fire1 and then 
carry them home and keep  them in the   
house as a preservative against         
lightning4 ,at ,zoznegg these  oaken    
sticks were sword-shaped1 each about an 
ell and a half long1 and  they went by  
the name of weather or thunder poles    

7,wetterpfhle74  ,when a thunderstorm   
threatened to break out1 one of the     
sticks was put  into a small fire1 in   
order that the hallowed smoke1 ascending
 to the  clouds1 might ward off the     
lightning from the house and the hail   
from  the fields and gardens4 ,at       
,schllbronn the oaken sticks1 which are 
thus  charred in the ,easter bonfire and
 kept in the house as a protective      
against thunder and lightning1 are three
 in number1 perhaps with an  allusion to
 the ,trinity2 they are brought every   
,easter to be consecrated  afresh in the
 bonfire1 till they are quite burnt     
away4 ,in the lake  district of ,baden  
it is also customary to burn one of     
these holy sticks  in the fire when a   
heavy thunderstorm is raging4#cfe ,hence
 it seems  that the ancient association 
of the oak with the thunder#cff persists
  in the minds of ,german peasants to   
the present day4    ,easter fires in    
,holland and ,sweden2 the burning of    
,judas in ,bohemia4    ,thus the custom 

of the ,easter fires appears to have    
prevailed all over  central and western 
,germany from north to south4 ,we find  
it also in  ,holland1 where the fires   
were kindled on the highest eminences1  
and the  people danced round them and   
leaped through the flames or over the   
glowing embers4 ,here too1 as so often  
in ,germany1 the materials for the      
bonfire were collected by the young folk
 from door to door4#cfg ,in many  parts 
of ,sweden firearms are1 as at ,athens1 
discharged in all directions  on ,easter
 eve1 and huge bonfires are lighted on  
hills and eminences4  ,some people think
 that the intention is to keep off the  
,troll and other  evil spirits who are  
especially active at this season4#cfh   
,when the  afternoon service on ,good   
,friday is over1 ,german children in    
,bohemia  drive ,judas out of the church
 by running about the sacred edifice and
  even the streets shaking rattles and  
clappers4 ,next day1 on ,easter         
,saturday1 the remains of the holy oil  

are burnt before the church door  in a  
fire which must be kindled with flint   
and steel4 ,this fire is  called the    
burning of ,judas1 but in spite of its  
evil name a  beneficent virtue is       
ascribed to it1 for the people scuffle  
for the  cinders1 which they put in the 
roofs of their houses as a safeguard    
against fire and lightning4#cfi         
#c4 ,the ,beltane ,fires      ,the      
,beltane fires on the first of ,may in  
the ,highlands of ,scotland2            
description of the ,beltane fires by    
,john ,ramsay of ,ochtertyre in the     
eighteenth century4    ,in the central  
,highlands of ,scotland bonfires1 known 
as the ,beltane  fires1 were formerly   
kindled with great ceremony on the first
 of ,may1  and the traces of human      
sacrifices at them were particularly    
clear and  unequivocal4 ,the custom of  
lighting the bonfires lasted in various 
places far into the eighteenth century1 
and the descriptions of the  ceremony by
 writers of that period present such a  

curious and  interesting picture of     
ancient heathendom surviving in our own 
country  that ,i will reproduce them in 
the words of their authors4 ,the fullest
 of  the descriptions1 so far as ,i     
know1 is the one bequeathed to us by    
,john  ,ramsay1 laird of ,ochtertyre1   
near ,crieff1 the patron of ,burns and  
the  friend of ,sir ,walter ,scott4     
,from his voluminous manuscripts1       
written in  the last quarter of the     
eighteenth century1 a selection was     
published in  the latter part of the    
nineteenth century4 ,the following      
account of  ,beltane is extracted from a
 chapter dealing with ,highland         
superstitions4  ,ramsay says3 ,but the  
most considerable of the ,druidical     
festivals is  that of ,beltane1 or      
,may-day1 which was lately observed in  
some parts of  the ,highlands with      
extraordinary ceremonies4 ,of later     
years it is  chiefly attended to by     
young people1 persons advanced in years 
considering it as inconsistent with     

their gravity to give it any            
countenance4 ,yet a number of           
circumstances relative to it may be     
collected from tradition1 or the        
conversation of very old people1 who    
witnessed this feast in their youth1    
when the ancient rites were better      
observed4    ,need-fire4    ,this       
festival is called in ,gaelic           
,beal-tene--i4e41 the fire of  ,bel4444 
,like the other public worship of the   
,druids1 the ,beltane feast  seems to   
have been performed on hills or         
eminences4 ,they thought it  degrading  
to him whose temple is the universe1 to 
suppose that he would  dwell in any     
house made with hands4 ,their sacrifices
 were therefore  offered in the open    
air1 frequently upon the tops of hills1 
where they  were presented with the     
grandest views of nature1 and were      
nearest the  seat of warmth and order4  
,and1 according to tradition1 such was  
the  manner of celebrating this festival
 in the ,highlands within the last      

hundred years4 ,but since the decline of
 superstition1 it has been  celebrated  
by the people of each hamlet on some    
hill or rising ground  around which     
their cattle were pasturing4 ,thither   
the young folks  repaired in the        
morning1 and cut a trench1 on the summit
 of which a seat  of turf was formed for
 the company4 ,and in the middle a pile 
of wood or  other fuel was placed1 which
 of old they kindled with tein-eigin--  
i4e41 forced-fire or need-fire4         
,although1 for many years past1 they    
have been contented with common fire1   
yet we shall now describe the  process1 
because it will hereafter appear that   
recourse is still had to  the tein-eigin
 upon extraordinary emergencies4        
,need-fire kindled by the friction of   
oak wood4    ,the night before1 all the 
fires in the country were carefully     
extinguished1 and next morning the      
materials for exciting this sacred  fire
 were prepared4 ,the most primitive     
method seems to be that which was  used 

in the islands of ,skye1 ,mull1 and     
,tiree4 ,a well-seasoned plank of  oak  
was procured1 in the midst of which a   
hole was bored4 ,a wimble of  the same  
timber was then applied1 the end of     
which they fitted to the  hole4 ,but in 
some parts of the mainland the machinery
 was different4  ,they used a frame of  
green wood1 of a square form1 in the    
centre of  which was an axle-tree4 ,in  
some places three times three persons1  
in  others three times nine1 were       
required for turning round by turns the 
axle-tree or wimble4 ,if any of them had
 been guilty of murder1 adultery1       
theft1 or other atrocious crime1 it was 
imagined either that the fire  would not
 kindle1 or that it would be devoid of  
its usual virtue4 ,so  soon as any      
sparks were emitted by means of the     
violent friction1 they  applied a       
species of agaric which grows on old    
birch-trees1 and is very  combustible4  
,this fire had the appearance of being  
immediately derived  from heaven1 and   

manifold were the virtues ascribed to   
it4 ,they esteemed  it a preservative   
against witchcraft1 and a sovereign     
remedy against  malignant diseases1 both
 in the human species and in cattle2 and
 by it  the strongest poisons were      
supposed to have their nature changed4  
,the ,beltane cake and the ,beltane     
carline 7cailleach74    ,after kindling 
the bonfire with the tein-eigin the     
company prepared  their victuals4 ,and  
as soon as they had finished their meal1
 they amused  themselves a while in     
singing and dancing round the fire4     
,towards the  close of the              
entertainment1 the person who officiated
 as master of the  feast produced a     
large cake baked with eggs and scalloped
 round the  edge1 called am bonnach     
beal-tine--i4e4 the ,beltane cake4 ,it  
was  divided into a number of pieces1   
and distributed in great form to the    
company4 ,there was one particular piece
 which whoever got was called  cailleach
 beal-tine--i4e41 the ,beltane carline1 

a term of great  reproach4 ,upon his    
being known1 part of the company laid   
hold of him and  made a show of putting 
him into the fire2 but the majority     
interposing1  he was rescued4 ,and in   
some places they laid him flat on the   
ground1  making as if they would quarter
 him4 ,afterwards1 he was pelted with   
egg-shells1 and retained the odious     
appellation during the whole year4  ,and
 while the feast was fresh in people's  
memory1 they affected to speak  of the  
cailleach beal-tine as dead4    ,this   
festival was longest observed in the    
interior ,highlands1 for  towards the   
west coast the traces of it are         
faintest4 ,in ,glenorchy and  ,lorne1 a 
large cake is made on that day1 which   
they consume in the  house2 and in ,mull
 it has a large hole in the middle1     
through which each  of the cows in the  
fold is milked4 ,in ,tiree it is of a   
triangular form4  ,the more elderly     
people remember when this festival was  
celebrated  without-doors with some     

solemnity in both these islands4 ,there 
are at  present no vestiges of it in    
,skye or the ,long ,island1 the         
inhabitants of  which have substituted  
the connach ,micheil or ,st4 ,michael's 
cake4 ,it  is made at ,michaelmas with  
milk and oatmeal1 and some eggs are     
sprinkled  on its surface4 ,part of it  
is sent to the neighbours4    ,it is    
probable that at the original ,beltane  
festival there were two  fires kindled  
near one another4 ,when any person is in
 a critical  dilemma1 pressed on each   
side by unsurmountable difficulties1 the
  ,highlanders have a proverb1 ,the e'  
eada anda theine bealtuin--i4e41 he  is 
between the two ,beltane fires4 ,there  
are in several parts small round  hills1
 which1 it is like1 owe their present   
names to such solemn uses4  ,one of the 
highest and most central in ,icolmkil is
 called  ,cnoch-nan-ainneal--i4e41 the  
hill of the fires4 ,there is another of 
the same name near the kirk of          
,balquhidder2 and at ,killin there is a 

round green eminence which seems to have
 been raised by art4 ,it is  called     
,tom-nan-ainneal--i4e41 the eminence of 
the fires4 ,around it  there are the    
remains of a circular wall about two    
feet high4 ,on the top  a stone stands  
upon end4 ,according to the tradition of
 the inhabitants1  it was a place of    
,druidical worship2 and it was          
afterwards pitched on as  the most      
venerable spot for holding courts of    
justice for the country of              
,breadalbane4 ,the earth of this        
eminence is still thought to be         
possessed  of some healing virtue1 for  
when cattle are observed to be diseased 
some  of it is sent for1 which is rubbed
 on the part affected4#cgj    ,local    
differences in the ,beltane cakes2      
evidence of two fires at  ,beltane2     
,beltane pies and cakes in the parish of
 ,callander4    ,in the parish of       
,callander1 a beautiful district of     
western ,perthshire1  the ,beltane      
custom was still in vogue towards the   

end of the eighteenth  century4 ,it has 
been described as follows by the parish 
minister of the  time3 ,upon the first  
day of ,may1 which is called ,beltan1 or
  ,bal-tein day1 all the boys in a      
township or hamlet1 meet in the moors4  
,they cut a table in the green sod1 of a
 round figure1 by casting a  trench in  
the ground1 of such circumference as to 
hold the whole  company4 ,they kindle a 
fire1 and dress a repast of eggs and    
milk in the  consistence of a custard4  
,they knead a cake of oatmeal1 which is 
toasted  at the embers against a stone4 
,after the custard is eaten up1 they    
divide the cake into so many portions1  
as similar as possible to one  another  
in size and shape1 as there are persons 
in the company4 ,they  daub one of these
 portions all over with charcoal1 until 
it be perfectly  black4 ,they put all   
the bits of the cake into a bonnet4     
,every one1  blindfold1 draws out a     
portion4 ,he who holds the bonnet1 is   
entitled to  the last bit4 ,whoever     

draws the black bit1 is the devoted     
person who  is to be sacrificed to      
,baal#cga whose favour they mean to     
implore1 in  rendering the year         
productive of the sustenance of man and 
beast4 ,there  is little doubt of these 
inhuman sacrifices having been once     
offered in  this country1 as well as in 
the east1 although they now pass from   
the  act of sacrificing1 and only compel
 the devoted person to leap three  times
 through the flames2 with which the     
ceremonies of this festival are         
closed4#cgb    ,pennant's description of
 the ,beltane fires and cakes in        
,perthshire4    ,thomas ,pennant1 who   
travelled in ,perthshire in the year    
#agfi1 tells us  that on the first of   
,may1 the herdsmen of every village hold
 their  ,bel-tien1 a rural sacrifice4   
,they cut a square trench on the ground1
  leaving the turf in the middle2 on    
that they make a fire of wood1 on  which
 they dress a large caudle of eggs1     
butter1 oatmeal and milk2 and  bring    

besides the ingredients of the caudle1  
plenty of beer and whisky2  for each of 
the company must contribute something4  
,the rites begin with  spilling some of 
the caudle on the ground1 by way of     
libation3 on that  every one takes a    
cake of oatmeal1 upon which are raised  
nine square  knobs1 each dedicated to   
some particular being1 the supposed     
preserver  of their flocks and herds1 or
 to some particular animal1 the real    
destroyer of them3 each person then     
turns his face to the fire1 breaks  off 
a knob1 and flinging it over his        
shoulders1 says1 ',this ,i give to      
thee1 preserve thou my horses2 this to  
thee1 preserve thou my sheep2 and  so   
on1' ,after that1 they use the-same     
ceremony to the noxious animals3  ',this
 ,i give to thee1 ,o fox6 spare thou my 
lambs2 this to thee1 ,o hooded  crow6   
this to thee1 ,o eagle6' ,when the      
ceremony is over1 they dine on  the     
caudle2 and after the feast is finished1
 what is left is hid by two  persons    

deputed for that purpose2 but on the    
next ,sunday they  re-assemble1 and     
finish the reliques of the first        
entertainment#cgc    ,beltane cakes and 
fires in the parishes of ,logierait and 
,kirkmichael2  omens drawn from the     
cakes4    ,another writer of the        
eighteenth century has described the    
,beltane  festival as it was held in the
 parish of ,logierait in ,perthshire4   
,he  says3 ,on the first of ,may1       
,o4,s41 a festival called ,beltan is    
annually  held here4 ,it is chiefly     
celebrated by the cow-herds1 who        
assemble by  scores in the fields1 to   
dress a dinner for themselves1 of boiled
 milk  and eggs4 ,these dishes they eat 
with a sort of cakes baked for the      
occasion1 and having small lumps in the 
form of nipples1 raised all  over the   
surface4#cgd ,in this last account no   
mention is made of  bonfires1 but they  
were probably lighted1 for a            
contemporary writer  informs us that in 
the parish of ,kirkmichael1 which       

adjoins the parish  of ,logierait on the
 east1 the custom of lighting a fire in 
the fields  and baking a consecrated    
cake on the first of ,may was not quite 
obsolete  in his time4#cge ,we may      
conjecture that the cake with knobs was 
formerly used for the purpose of        
determining who should be the ,beltane  
carline or victim doomed to the flames4 
,a trace of this custom  survived1      
perhaps1 in the custom of baking oatmeal
 cakes of a special  kind and rolling   
them down hill about noon on the first  
of ,may2 for it  was thought that the   
person whose cake broke as it rolled    
would die or  be unfortunate within the 
year4 ,these cakes1 or bannocks as we   
call them  in ,scotland1 were baked in  
the usual way1 but they were washed over
 with  a thin batter composed of whipped
 egg1 milk or cream1 and a little       
oatmeal4 ,this custom appears to have   
prevailed at or near ,kingussie in      
,inverness-shire4 ,at ,achterneed1 near 
,strathpeffer in ,ross-shire1 the       

,beltane bannocks were called tcharnican
 or hand-cakes1 because they  were      
kneaded entirely in the hand1 and not on
 a board or table like  common cakes2   
and after being baked they might not be 
placed anywhere  but in the hands of the
 children who were to eat them4#cgf     
,beltane fires in the north-east of     
,scotland to burn the witches2 the      
,beltane cake4    ,in the north-east of 
,scotland the ,beltane fires were still 
kindled in  the latter half of the      
eighteenth century2 the herdsmen of     
several farms  used to gather dry wood1 
kindle it1 and dance three times        
southways  about the burning pile4#cgg  
,but in this region1 according to a     
later  authority1 the ,beltane fires    
were lit not on the first but on the    
second  of ,may1 ,old ,style4 ,they were
 called bone-fires4 ,the people believed
 that  on that evening and night the    
witches were abroad and busy casting    
spells on cattle and stealing cows'     
milk4 ,to counteract their              

machinations1 pieces of rowan-tree and  
woodbine1 but especially of  rowan-tree1
 were placed over the doors of the      
cow-houses1 and fires were  kindled by  
every farmer and cottar4 ,old thatch1   
straw1 furze1 or broom  was piled in a  
heap and set on fire a little after     
sunset4 ,while some of  the bystanders  
kept tossing the blazing mass1 others   
hoisted portions of  it on pitchforks or
 poles and ran hither and thither1      
holding them as  high as they could4    
,meantime the young people danced round 
the fire or  ran through the smoke      
shouting1 ,fire6 blaze and burn the     
witches2 fire6  fire6 burn the witches4 
,in some districts a large round cake of
 oat or  barley meal was rolled through 
the ashes4 ,when all the fuel was       
consumed1 the people scattered the ashes
 far and wide1 and till the  night grew 
quite dark they continued to run through
 them1 crying1 ,fire6  burn the         
witches4#cgh    ,beltane cakes and fires
 in the ,hebrides4    ,in the ,hebrides 

the ,beltane bannock is smaller than    
that made at ,st4  ,michael's1 but is   
made in the same way2 it is no longer   
made in ,uist1  but ,father ,allan      
remembers seeing his grandmother make   
one about  twenty-five years ago4 ,there
 was also a cheese made1 generally on   
the  first of ,may1 which was kept to   
the next ,beltane as a sort of charm    
against the bewitching of milk-produce4 
,the ,beltane customs seem to have  been
 the same as elsewhere4 ,every fire was 
put out and a large one lit  on the top 
of the hill1 and the cattle driven round
 it sunwards  7dessil71 to keep off     
murrain all the year4 ,each man would   
take home  fire wherewith to kindle his 
own4#cgi    ,beltane fires and cakes in 
,wales4    ,in ,wales also the custom of
 lighting ,beltane fires at the         
beginning of  ,may used to be observed1 
but the day on which they were kindled  
varied  from the ,eve of ,may ,day to   
the third of ,may4 ,the flame was       
sometimes  elicited by the friction of  

two pieces of oak1 as appears from the  
following description4 ,the fire was    
done in this way4 ,nine men would  turn 
their pockets inside out1 and see that  
every piece of money and all  metals    
were off their persons4 ,then the men   
went into the nearest woods1  and       
collected sticks of nine different kinds
 of trees4 ,these were  carried to the  
spot where the fire had to be built4    
,there a circle was  cut in the sod1 and
 the sticks were set crosswise4 ,all    
around the circle  the people stood and 
watched the proceedings4 ,one of the men
 would then  take two bits of oak1 and  
rub them together until a flame was     
kindled4  ,this was applied to the      
sticks1 and soon a large fire was made4 
,sometimes two fires were set up side by
 side4 ,these fires1 whether one  or    
two1 were called coelcerth or bonfire4  
,round cakes of oatmeal and  brown meal 
were split in four1 and placed in a     
small flour-bag1 and  everybody present 
had to pick out a portion4 ,the last bit

 in the bag  fell to the lot of the     
bag-holder4 ,each person who chanced to 
pick up a  piece of brown-meal cake was 
compelled to leap three times over the  
flames1 or to run thrice between the two
 fires1 by which means the  people      
thought they were sure of a plentiful   
harvest4 ,shouts and screams  of those  
who had to face the ordeal could be     
heard ever so far1 and  those who       
chanced to pick the oatmeal portions    
sang and danced and  clapped their hands
 in approval1 as the holders of the     
brown bits leaped  three times over the 
flames1 or ran three times between the  
two fires4  ,as a rule1 no danger       
attended these curious celebrations1 but
  occasionally somebody's clothes caught
 fire1 which was quickly put out4  ,the 
greatest fire of the year was the eve of
 ,may1 or ,may first1 second1  or third4
 ,the ,midsummer ,eve fire was more for 
the harvest4 ,very often a  fire was    
built on the eve of ,november4 ,the high
 ground near the ,castle  ,ditches at   

,llantwit ,major1 in the ,vale of       
,glamorgan1 was a familiar spot  for the
 ,beltane on ,may third and on          
,midsummer ,eve4444 ,sometimes the      
,beltane fire was lighted by the flames 
produced by stone instead of wood       
friction4 ,charred logs and faggots used
 in the ,may ,beltane were  carefully   
preserved1 and from them the next fire  
was lighted4 ,may fires  were always    
started with old faggots of the previous
 year1 and midsummer  from those of the 
last summer4 ,it was unlucky to build a 
midsummer fire  from ,may faggots4      
,people carried the ashes left after    
these fires to  their homes1 and a      
charred brand was not only effectual    
against  pestilence1 but magical in its 
use4 ,a few of the ashes placed in a    
person's shoes protected the wearer from
 any great sorrow or woe4#chj    ,welsh 
belief that passage over or between the 
fires ensured good  crops4    ,from the 
foregoing account we learn that bonfires
 were kindled in ,wales  on ,midsummer  

,eve and ,hallowe'en 7the thirty-first  
of ,october71 as well  as at the        
beginning of ,may1 but that the ,beltane
 fires in ,may were  deemed the most    
important4 ,to the ,midsummer ,eve and  
,hallowe'en fires we  shall return      
presently4 ,the belief of the people    
that by leaping thrice  over the        
bonfires or running thrice between them 
they ensured a  plentiful harvest is    
worthy of note4 ,the mode in which this 
result was  supposed to be brought about
 is indicated by another writer on      
,welsh  folk-lore1 according to whom it 
used to be held that the bonfires       
lighted in ,may or ,midsummer protected 
the lands from sorcery1 so that  good   
crops would follow4 ,the ashes were also
 considered valuable as  charms4#cha    
,hence it appears that the heat of the  
fires was thought to  fertilize the     
fields1 not directly by quickening the  
seeds in the  ground1 but indirectly by 
counteracting the baleful influence of  
witchcraft or perhaps by burning up the 

persons of the witches4    ,beltane     
fires in the ,isle of ,man to burn the  
witches2 ,beltane fires in              
,nottinghamshire4    ,the ,druidical    
anniversary of ,beil or ,baal is still  
celebrated in the  ,isle of ,man4 ,on   
the first of ,may1 #ahcg1 the ,baal     
fires were1 as usual on  that day1 so   
numerous as to give the island the      
appearance of a general                 
conflagration4#chb ,by ,may ,day in     
,manx folk-lore is meant ,may ,day ,old 
,style1 or ,shenn ,laa ,boaldyn1 as it  
is called in ,manx4 ,the day was one  on
 which the power of elves and witches   
was particularly dreaded1 and  the      
people resorted to many precautions in  
order to protect themselves  against    
these mischievous beings4 ,hence at     
daybreak they set fire to the  ling or  
gorse1 for the purpose of burning out   
the witches1 who are wont  to lurk in   
the form of hares4#chc ,on the ,hemlock 
,stone1 a natural  pillar of sandstone  
standing on ,stapleford ,hill in        

,nottinghamshire1 a  fire used to be    
solemnly kindled every year on ,beltane 
,eve4 ,the custom  seems to have        
survived down to the beginning of the   
nineteenth century2  old people could   
remember and describe the ceremony long 
after it had  fallen into desuetude4#chd
    ,beltane fires in ,ireland4    ,the 
,beltane fires appear to have been      
kindled also in ,ireland1 for  ,cormac1 
or somebody in his name1 says that      
belltaine1 ,may-day1 was so  called from
 the 'lucky fire1' or the 'two fires1'  
which the druids of  ,erin used to make 
on that day with great incantations2 and
 cattle1 he  adds1 used to be brought to
 those fires1 or to be driven between   
them1  as a safeguard against the       
diseases of the year4#che ,again1 a very
  ancient ,irish poem1 enumerating the  
,may ,day celebrations1 mentions among  
them a bonfire on a hill 7tendal ar     
cnuc72 and another old authority  says  
that these fires were kindled in the    
name of the idol-god ,bel4#chf  ,from an

 old life of ,st4 ,patrick we learn that
 on a day in spring the  heathen of     
,ireland were wont to extinguish all    
their fires until a new  fire was       
kindled with solemn ceremony in the     
king's house at ,tara4 ,in  the year in 
which ,st4 ,patrick landed in ,ireland  
it chanced that the  night of the       
extinguished fires coincided with the   
,eve of ,easter2 and  the saint1        
ignorant of this pagan superstition1    
resolved to celebrate  his first ,easter
 in ,ireland after the true ,christian  
fashion by lighting  the holy ,paschal  
fire on the hill of ,slane1 which rises 
high above the  left bank of the ,boyne1
 about twelve miles from the mouth of   
the river4  ,so that night1 looking from
 his palace at ,tara across the darkened
  landscape1 the king of ,tara saw the  
solitary fire flaring on the top of  the
 hill of ,slane1 and in consternation he
 asked his wise men what that  light    
meant4 ,they warned him of the danger   
that it betokened for the  ancient faith

 of ,erin4#chg ,in spite of the         
difference of date between  ,easter and 
,beltane1 we may suspect that the new   
fire annually kindled  with solemn      
ceremony about ,easter in the king of   
,ireland's palace at  ,tara was no other
 than the ,beltane fire4 ,we have seen  
that in the  ,highlands of ,scotland    
down to modern times it was customary to
  extinguish all fires in the           
neighbourhood before proceeding to      
kindle  the sacred flame4#chh ,the      
,irish historian ,geoffrey ,keating1 who
 wrote  in the first part of the        
seventeenth century1 tells us that the  
men of  ,ireland held a great fair every
 year in the month of ,may at ,uisnech  
7,ushnagh7 in the county of ,meath1 and 
at it they were wont to  exchange their 
goods and their wares and their jewels4 
,at it1 they were1  also1 wont to make a
 sacrifice to the ,arch-,god that they  
adored1 whose  name was ,bl 7bayl74 ,it 
was1 likewise1 their usage to light two 
fires  to ,bl1 in every district of     

,ireland1 at this season1 and to drive a
  pair of each kind of cattle that the  
district contained1 between those  two  
fires1 as a preservative to guard them  
against all the diseases of  that year4 
,it is from that fire1 thus made in     
honour of ,bl1 that the  day the first  
of ,may on which the noble feast of the 
apostles1 ,philip  and ,james1 is held1 
has been called ,bltaini1 or ,baltaine  
7,bayltinnie72 for ,beltaini is the same
 as ,bil-tein1 i4e4 ,tein ,bhil         
7,tinnie ,vayl7 or ,bl's ,fire4#chi ,the
 custom of driving cattle  through or   
between fires on ,may ,day or the eve of
 ,may ,day persisted in  ,ireland down  
to a time within living memory4 ,thus   
,sir ,john ,rhys was  informed by a     
,manxman that an ,irish cattle-dealer of
 his acquaintance  used to drive his    
cattle through fire on ,may ,day so as  
to singe them a  little1 since he       
believed that it would preserve them    
from harm4 ,when  the ,manxman was asked
 where the dealer came from1 he         

answered1 ,from the  mountains over     
there1 pointing to the ,mourne          
,mountains then looming  faintly in the 
mists on the western horizon4#cij       
,fires on the ,eve of ,may ,day in      
,sweden2 fires on the ,eve of ,may ,day 
in  ,austria and ,saxony for the purpose
 of burning the witches4    ,the first  
of ,may is a great popular festival in  
the more midland and  southern parts of 
,sweden4 ,on the eve of the festival1   
huge bonfires1  which should be lighted 
by striking two flints together1 blaze  
on all  the hills and knolls4 ,every    
large hamlet has its own fire1 round    
which  the young people dance in a ring4
 ,the old folk notice whether the flames
  incline to the north or to the south4 
,in the former case1 the spring  will be
 cold and backward2 in the latter1 it   
will be mild and  genial4#cia           
,similarly1 in ,bohemia1 on the eve of  
,may ,day1 young people  kindle fires on
 hills and eminences1 at crossways1 and 
in pastures1 and  dance round them4     

,they leap over the glowing embers or   
even through the  flames4 ,the ceremony 
is called burning the witches4 ,in some 
places an  effigy representing a witch  
used to be burnt in the bonfire4#cib ,we
  have to remember that the eve of ,may 
,day is the notorious ,walpurgis        
,night1 when the witches are everywhere 
speeding unseen through the air  on     
their hellish errands4 ,on this witching
 night children in ,voigtland  also     
light bonfires on the heights and leap  
over them4 ,moreover1 they  wave burning
 brooms or toss them into the air4 ,so  
far as the light of  the bonfire        
reaches1 so far will a blessing rest on 
the fields4 ,the  kindling of the fires 
on ,walpurgis ,night is called driving  
away the  witches4#cic ,the custom of   
kindling fires on the eve of ,may ,day  
7,walpurgis ,night7 for the purpose of  
burning the witches is1 or used to  be1 
widespread in the ,tyrol1 ,moravia1     
,saxony and ,silesia4#cid       #d4 ,the
 ,midsummer ,fires      ,the great      

season for fire-festivals in ,europe is 
the summer solstice1  ,midsummer ,eve or
 ,midsummer ,day1 which the church has  
dedicated to ,st4  ,john the ,baptist2  
the bonfires1 the torches1 and the      
burning wheels of  the festival4    ,but
 the season at which these              
fire-festivals have been mostly         
generally  held all over ,europe is the 
summer solstice1 that is ,midsummer ,eve
 7the  twenty-third of ,june7 or        
,midsummer ,day 7the twenty-fourth of   
,june74 ,a  faint tinge of ,christianity
 has been given to them by naming       
,midsummer  ,day after ,st4 ,john the   
,baptist1 but we cannot doubt that the  
celebration  dates from a time long     
before the beginning of our era4 ,the   
summer  solstice1 or ,midsummer ,day1 is
 the great turning-point in the sun's   
career1 when1 after climbing higher and 
higher day by day in the sky1  the      
luminary stops and thenceforth retraces 
his steps down the heavenly  road4 ,such
 a moment could not but be regarded with

 anxiety by primitive  man so soon as he
 began to observe and ponder the courses
 of the great  lights across the        
celestial vault2 and having still to    
learn his own  powerlessness in face of 
the vast cyclic changes of nature1 he   
may have  fancied that he could help the
 sun in his seeming decline--could prop 
his failing steps and rekindle the      
sinking flame of the red lamp in his    
feeble hand4 ,in some such thoughts as  
these the midsummer festivals of  our   
,european peasantry may perhaps have    
taken their rise4 ,whatever their       
origin1 they have prevailed all over    
this quarter of the globe1 from         
,ireland on the west to ,russia on the  
east1 and from ,norway and ,sweden on   
the north to ,spain and ,greece on the  
south4#cie ,according to a medival      
writer1 the three great features of the 
midsummer celebration were the          
bonfires1 the procession with torches   
round the fields1 and the custom  of    
rolling a wheel4 ,he tells us that boys 

burned bones and filth of  various kinds
 to make a foul smoke1 and that the     
smoke drove away  certain noxious       
dragons which at this time1 excited by  
the summer heat1  copulated in the air  
and poisoned the wells and rivers by    
dropping their  seed into them2 and he  
explains the custom of trundling a wheel
 to mean  that the sun1 having now      
reached the highest point in the        
ecliptic1  begins thenceforward to      
descend4#cif    ,t4 ,kirchmeyer's       
description of the ,midsummer ,festival4
    ,a good general account of the      
midsummer customs1 together with some of
  the reasons popularly alleged for     
observing them1 is given by ,thomas     
,kirchmeyer1 a writer of the sixteenth  
century1 in his poem ,the ,popish       
,kingdome3--    ,then doth the joyfull  
feast of ,john the ,baptist take his    
turne1  ,when bonfiers great with loftie
 flame1 in every towne doe burne2  ,and 
yong men round about with maides1 doe   
daunce in every streete1  ,with garlands

 wrought of ,motherwort1 or else with   
,vervain sweete1  ,and many other       
flowres faire1 with ,violets in their   
handes1  ,whereas they all do fondly    
thinke1 that whosoever standes1  ,and   
thorow the flowres beholds the flame1   
his eyes shall feele no paine4  ,when   
thus till night they daunced have1 they 
through the fire amaine  ,with striving 
mindes doe runne1 and all their hearbes 
they cast therin1  ,and then with wordes
 devout and prayers1 they solemnely     
begin1  ,desiring ,god that all their   
illes may there consumed bee1  ,whereby 
they thinke through all that yeare from 
,agues to be free4  ,some others get a  
rotten wheele1 all worne and cast aside1
  ,which covered round about with       
strawe1 and tow1 they closely hide3     
,and caryed to some mountaines top1     
being all with fire light1  ,they hurle 
it downe with violence1 when darke      
appeares the night3  ,resembling much   
the ,sunne1 that from the heavens downe 
should fal1  ,a straunge and monstrous  

sight it seemes1 and fearfull to them   
all2  ,but they suppose their mischiefes
 all are likewise throwne to hell1  ,and
 that from harmes and daungers now1 in  
safetie here they dwell4#cig    ,from   
these general descriptions1 which to    
some extent still hold good1  or did so 
till lately1 we see that the main       
features of the midsummer  fire-festival
 resemble those which we have found to  
characterize the  vernal festivals of   
fire4 ,the similarity of the two sets of
 ceremonies  will plainly appear from   
the following examples4    ,the         
,midsummer fires in ,germany2 the       
celebration at ,konz on the ,moselle3   
the rolling of a burning wheel down     
hill4    ,a writer of the first half of 
the sixteenth century informs us that in
  almost every village and town of      
,germany public bonfires were kindled on
  the ,eve of ,st4 ,john1 and young and 
old1 of both sexes1 gathered about  them
 and passed the time in dancing and     
singing4 ,people on this occasion  wore 

chaplets of mugwort and vervain1 and    
they looked at the fire  through bunches
 of larkspur which they held in their   
hands1 believing  that this would       
preserve their eyes in a healthy state  
throughout the  year4 ,as each departed1
 he threw the mugwort and vervain into  
the fire1  saying1 ,may all my ill-luck 
depart and be burnt up with these4#cih  
,at  ,lower ,konz1 a village prettily   
situated on a hillside overlooking the  
,moselle1 in the midst of a wood of     
walnut-trees and fruit-trees1 the       
midsummer festival used to be celebrated
 as follows4 ,a quantity of straw  was  
collected on the top of the steep       
,stromberg ,hill4 ,every inhabitant1  or
 at least every householder1 had to     
contribute his share of straw to  the   
pile2 a recusant was looked at askance1 
and if in the course of the  year he    
happened to break a leg or lose a child1
 there was not a gossip  in the village 
but knew the reason why4 ,at nightfall  
the whole male  population1 men and     

boys1 mustered on the top of the hill2  
the women and  girls were not allowed to
 join them1 but had to take up their    
position  at a certain spring half-way  
down the slope4 ,on the summit stood a  
huge  wheel completely encased in some  
of the straw which had been jointly     
contributed by the villagers2 the rest  
of the straw was made into  torches4    
,from each side of the wheel the        
axle-tree projected about three  feet1  
thus furnishing handles to the lads who 
were to guide it in its  descent4 ,the  
mayor of the neighbouring town of       
,sierck1 who always  received a basket  
of cherries for his services1 gave the  
signal2 a  lighted torch was applied to 
the wheel1 and as it burst into flame1  
two  young fellows1 strong-limbed and   
swift of foot1 seized the handles and   
began running with it down the slope4 ,a
 great shout went up4 ,every man  and   
boy waved a blazing torch in the air1   
and took care to keep it  alight so long
 as the wheel was trundling down the    

hill4 ,some of them  followed the fiery 
wheel1 and watched with amusement the   
shifts to which  its guides were put in 
steering it round the hollows and over  
the broken  ground on the mountainside4 
,the great object of the young men who  
guided  the wheel was to plunge it      
blazing into the water of the ,moselle2 
but  they rarely succeeded in their     
efforts1 for the vineyards which cover  
the greater part of the declivity       
impeded their progress1 and the wheel   
was often burned out before it reached  
the river4 ,as it rolled past the  women
 and girls at the spring1 they raised   
cries of joy which were  answered by the
 men on the top of the mountain2 and the
 shouts were  echoed by the inhabitants 
of neighbouring villages who watched the
  spectacle from their hills on the     
opposite bank of the ,moselle4 ,if the  
fiery wheel was successfully conveyed to
 the bank of the river and  extinguished
 in the water1 the people looked for an 
abundant vintage  that year1 and the    

inhabitants of ,konz had the right to   
exact a  waggon-load of white wine from 
the surrounding vineyards4 ,on the other
  hand1 they believed that1 if they     
neglected to perform the ceremony1 the  
cattle would be attacked by giddiness   
and convulsions and would dance in      
their stalls4#cii    ,the ,midsummer    
fires in ,bavaria2 ,cattle driven       
through the fire2 the new  fire2 omens  
of the harvest drawn from the fires2    
burning discs thrown  into the air4     
,down at least to the middle of the     
nineteenth century the midsummer  fires 
used to blaze all over ,upper ,bavaria4 
,they were kindled especially  on the   
mountains1 but also far and wide in the 
lowlands1 and we are told  that in the  
darkness and stillness of night the     
moving groups1 lit up by  the flickering
 glow of the flames1 presented an       
impressive spectacle4 ,in  some places  
the people shewed their sense of the    
sanctity of the fires  by using for fuel
 the trees past which the gay procession

 had defiled1  with fluttering banners1 
on ,corpus ,christi ,day4 ,in others the
 children  collected the firewood from  
door to door on the eve of the festival1
  singing their request for fuel at     
every house in doggerel verse4 ,cattle  
were driven through the fire to cure the
 sick animals and to guard such  as were
 sound against plague and harm of every 
kind throughout the year4  ,many a      
householder on that day put out the fire
 on the domestic hearth  and rekindled  
it by means of a brand taken from the   
midsummer bonfire4  ,the people judged  
of the height to which the flax would   
grow in the year  by the height to which
 the flames of the bonfire rose2 and    
whoever  leaped over the burning pile   
was sure not to suffer from backache in 
reaping the corn at harvest4 ,but it was
 especially the practice for  lovers to 
spring over the fire hand in hand1 and  
the way in which each  couple made the  
leap was the subject of many a jest and 
many a  superstition4 ,in one district  

the custom of kindling the bonfires was 
combined with that of lighting wooden   
discs and hurling them in the air  after
 the manner which prevails at some of   
the spring festivals4#djj ,in  many     
parts of ,bavaria it was believed that  
the flax would grow as high  as the     
young people leaped over the fire4#dja  
,in others the old folk  used to plant  
three charred sticks from the bonfire in
 the fields1  believing that this would 
make the flax grow tall4#djb ,elsewhere 
an  extinguished brand was put in the   
roof of the house to protect it  against
 fire4 ,in the towns about ,wrzburg the 
bonfires used to be  kindled in the     
market-places1 and the young people who 
jumped over them  wore garlands of      
flowers1 especially of mugwort and      
vervain1 and carried  sprigs of larkspur
 in their hands4 ,they thought that such
 as looked at  the fire holding a bit of
 larkspur before their face would be    
troubled  by no malady of the eyes      
throughout the year4#djc ,further1 it   

was  customary at ,wrzburg1 in the      
sixteenth century1 for the bishop's     
followers to throw burning discs of wood
 into the air from a mountain  which    
overhangs the town4 ,the discs were     
discharged by means of flexible  rods1  
and in their flight through the darkness
 presented the appearance  of fiery     
dragons4#djd    ,the ,midsummer fires in
 ,swabia2 omens drawn from the leaps    
over the  fires2 burning wheels rolled  
down hill2 burning the ,angel-,man at   
,rottenburg4    ,in the valley of the   
,lech1 which divides ,upper ,bavaria    
from ,swabia1 the  midsummer customs and
 beliefs are1 or used to be1 very       
similar4 ,bonfires  are kindled on the  
mountains on ,midsummer ,day2 and       
besides the bonfire a  tall beam1       
thickly wrapt in straw and surmounted by
 a cross-piece1 is  burned in many      
places4 ,round this cross as it burns   
the lads dance with  loud shouts2 and   
when the flames have subsided1 the young
 people leap  over the fire in pairs1 a 

young man and a young woman together4   
,if they  escape unsmirched1 the man    
will not suffer from fever1 and the girl
 will  not become a mother within the   
year4 ,further1 it is believed that the 
flax will grow that year as high as they
 leap over the fire2 and that if  a     
charred billet be taken from the fire   
and stuck in a flax-field it  will      
promote the growth of the flax4#dje     
,similarly in ,swabia1 lads and  lasses1
 hand in hand1 leap over the midsummer  
bonfire1 praying that the  hemp may grow
 three ells high1 and they set fire to  
wheels of straw and  send them rolling  
down the hill4 ,among the places where  
burning wheels  were thus bowled down   
hill at ,midsummer were the             
,hohenstaufen mountains  in ,wurtemberg 
and the ,frauenberg near ,gerhausen4#djf
 ,at ,deffingen1 in  ,swabia1 as the    
people sprang over the midsummer bonfire
 they cried out1  ,flax1 flax6 may the  
flax this year grow seven ells high6#djg
 ,at  ,rottenburg in ,swabia1 down to   

the year #ahjg or #ahjh1 the festival   
was  marked by some special features4   
,about mid-day troops of boys went about
  the town begging for firewood at the  
houses4 ,in each troop there were  three
 leaders1 one of whom carried a dagger1 
a second a paper banner1  and a third a 
white plate covered with a white cloth4 
,these three  entered each house and    
recited verses1 in which they expressed 
an  intention of roasting ,martin       
,luther and sending him to the devil2   
and  for this meritorious service they  
expected to be paid1 the contributions  
being received in the cloth-covered     
plate4 ,in the evening they counted  up 
their money and proceeded to behead the 
,angel-man4 ,for this  ceremony an open 
space was chosen1 sometimes in the      
middle of the town4  ,here a stake was  
thrust into the ground and straw wrapt  
about it1 so as  to make a rude effigy  
of human form with arms1 head1 and face4
 ,every boy  brought a handful of       
nosegays and fastened them to the       

straw-man1 who  was thus enveloped in   
flowers4 ,fuel was heaped about the     
stake and set  on fire4 ,when the       
,angel-man1 as the straw-effigy was     
called1 blazed up1  all the boys of the 
neighbourhood1 who had gathered         
expectantly around1  fell upon him with 
their wooden swords and hewed him to    
pieces4 ,as soon  as he had vanished in 
smoke and flame1 the lads leaped        
backward and  forward over the glowing  
embers1 and later in the evening they   
feasted  on the proceeds of their       
collection4#djh ,here the ,angel-man    
burnt in  the fire appears to be        
identified with ,martin ,luther1 to     
whom1 as we  have seen1 allusion was    
made during the house-to-house          
visitation4 ,the  identification was    
probably modern1 for we may assume that 
the custom of  burning an effigy in the 
,midsummer bonfire is far older than the
 time of  ,luther4    ,the ,midsummer   
fires in ,baden2 omens drawn from leaps 
over the fires2  burning discs thrown   

into the air2 ,midsummer fires in       
,alsace1 ,lorraine1  the ,eifel1 the    
,harz districts and ,thuringia2 burning 
barrel swung round  a pole4    ,in      
,baden the children used to collect fuel
 from house to house for the  ,midsummer
 bonfire on ,st4 ,john's ,day2 and lads 
and lasses leaped over the  fire in     
couples4 ,here1 as elsewhere1 a close   
connexion was traced  between these     
bonfires and the harvest4 ,in some      
places it was thought  that those who   
leaped over the fires would not suffer  
from backache at  reaping4 ,sometimes1  
as the young folk sprang over the       
flames1 they  cried1 ,grow1 that the    
hemp may be three ells high6 ,this      
notion that  the hemp or the corn would 
grow as high as the flames blazed or as 
the  people jumped over them1 seems to  
have been widespread in ,baden4 ,it was 
held that the parents of the young      
people who bounded highest over the     
fire would have the most abundant       
harvest2 and on the other hand1 if a    

man contributed nothing to the bonfire1 
it was imagined that there would  be no 
blessing on his crops1 and that his hemp
 in particular would never  grow4#dji   
,in the neighbourhood of ,bhl and       
,achern the ,st4 ,john's fires  were    
kindled on the tops of hills2 only the  
unmarried lads of the  village brought  
the fuel1 and only the unmarried young  
men and women  sprang through the       
flames4 ,but most of the villagers1 old 
and young1  gathered round the bonfires1
 leaving a clear space for the leapers  
to  take their run4 ,one of the         
bystanders would call out the names of a
 pair  of sweethearts2 on which the two 
would step out from the throng1 take    
each other by the hand1 and leap high   
and lightly through the swirling  smoke 
and flames1 while the spectators watched
 them critically and drew  omens of     
their married life from the height to   
which each of them  bounded4 ,such an   
invitation to jump together over the    
bonfire was  regarded as tantamount to a

 public betrothal4#daj ,near ,offenburg1
 in  the ,black ,forest1 on ,midsummer  
,day the village boys used to collect   
faggots and straw on some steep and     
conspicuous height1 and they spent  some
 time in making circular wooden discs by
 slicing the trunk of a  pine-tree      
across4 ,when darkness had fallen1 they 
kindled the bonfire1  and then1 as it   
blazed up1 they lighted the discs at it1
 and1 after  swinging them to and fro at
 the end of a stout and supple          
hazel-wand1  they hurled them one after 
the other1 whizzing and flaming1 into   
the  air1 where they described great    
arcs of fire1 to fall at length1 like   
shooting-stars1 at the foot of the      
mountain4#daa ,in many parts of  ,alsace
 and ,lorraine the midsummer fires still
 blaze annually or did so  not very many
 years ago4#dab ,at ,speicher in the    
,eifel1 a district which  lies on the   
middle ,rhine1 to the west of ,coblentz1
 a bonfire used to be  kindled in front 
of the village on ,st4 ,john's ,day1 and

 all the young  people had to jump over 
it4 ,those who failed to do so were not 
allowed  to join the rest in begging for
 eggs from house to house4 ,where no    
eggs  were given1 they drove a wedge    
into the keyhole of the door4 ,on this  
day  children in the ,eifel used also to
 gather flowers in the fields1 weave    
them into garlands1 and throw the       
garlands on the roofs or hang them on   
the doors of the houses4 ,so long as the
 flowers remained there1 they  were     
supposed to guard the house from fire   
and lightning4#dac ,in the  southern    
,harz district and in ,thuringia the    
,midsummer or ,st4 ,john's  fires used  
to be commonly lighted down to about the
 middle of the  nineteenth century1 and 
the custom has probably not died out4   
,at  ,edersleben1 near ,sangerhausen1 a 
high pole was planted in the ground and 
a tar-barrel was hung from it by a chain
 which reached to the ground4  ,the     
barrel was then set on fire and swung   
round the pole amid shouts of  joy4#dad 

,midsummer fires kindled by the friction
 of wood in ,germany and  ,switzerland2 
driving away demons and witches4        
,according to one account1 ,german      
tradition required that the midsummer   
fire should be lighted1 not from a      
common hearth1 but by the friction of   
two sorts of wood1 namely oak and       
fir4#dae ,in some old farm-houses of    
the ,surenthal and ,winenthal1 in       
,switzerland1 a couple of holes or a    
whole row of them may be seen facing    
each other in the door-posts of the     
barn or stable4 ,sometimes the holes are
 smooth and round2 sometimes they  are  
deeply burnt and blackened4 ,the        
explanation of them is this4 ,about     
midsummer1 but especially on ,midsummer 
,day1 two such holes are bored  opposite
 each other1 into which the extremities 
of a strong pole are  fixed4 ,the holes 
are then stuffed with tow steeped in    
resin and oil2 a  rope is looped round  
the pole1 and two young men1 who must be
 brothers  or must have the same        

baptismal name1 and must be of the same 
age1 pull  the ends of the rope         
backwards and forwards so as to make the
 pole  revolve rapidly1 till smoke and  
sparks issue from the two holes in the  
door-posts4 ,the sparks are caught and  
blown up with tinder1 and this is  the  
new and pure fire1 the appearance of    
which is greeted with cries of  joy4    
,heaps of combustible materials are now 
ignited with the new fire1  and blazing 
bundles are placed on boards and sent   
floating down the  brook4 ,the boys     
light torches at the new fire and run to
 fumigate the  pastures4 ,this is       
believed to drive away all the demons   
and witches that  molest the cattle4    
,finally the torches are thrown in a    
heap on the  meadow and allowed to burn 
out4 ,on their way back the boys strew  
the  ashes over the fields1 which is    
supposed to make them fertile4 ,if a    
farmer has taken possession of a new    
house1 or if servants have changed      
masters1 the boys fumigate the new abode

 and are rewarded by the farmer  with a 
supper4#daf    ,midsummer fires in      
,silesia2 scaring away the witches4     
,in ,silesia1 from the south-eastern    
part of the ,sudeten range and          
north-westward as far as ,lausitz1 the  
mountains are ablaze with bonfires  on  
,midsummer ,eve2 and from the valleys   
and the plains round about  ,leobschtz1 
,neustadt1 ,zlz1 ,oels1 and other places
 answering fires  twinkle through the   
deepening gloom4 ,while they are        
smouldering and  sending forth volumes  
of smoke across the fields1 young men   
kindle  broom-stumps1 soaked in pitch1  
at the bonfires and then1 brandishing   
the  stumps1 which emit showers of      
sparks1 they chase one another or dance 
with the girls round the burning pile4  
,shots1 too1 are fired1 and shouts      
raised4 ,the fire1 the smoke1 the shots1
 and the shouts are all intended  to    
scare away the witches1 who are let     
loose on this witching day1 and  who    
would certainly work harm to the crops  

and the cattle1 if they were  not       
deterred by these salutary measures4    
,mere contact with the fire  brings all 
sorts of blessings4 ,hence when the     
bonfire is burning low1  the lads leap  
over it1 and the higher they bound1 the 
better is the luck  in store for them4  
,he who surpasses his fellows is the    
hero of the day  and is much admired by 
the village girls4 ,it is also thought  
to be very  good for the eyes to stare  
steadily at the bonfire without         
blinking2  moreover he who does so will 
not drowse and fall asleep betimes in   
the  long winter evenings4 ,on          
,midsummer ,eve the windows and doors of
 houses  in ,silesia are crowned with   
flowers1 especially with the blue       
cornflowers and the bright corn-cockles2
 in some villages long strings  of      
garlands and nosegays are stretched     
across the streets4 ,the people  believe
 that on that night ,st4 ,john comes    
down from heaven to bless the  flowers  
and to keep all evil things from house  

and home4#dag    ,the ,midsummer fires  
in ,denmark and ,norway2 keeping off the
 witches2 the  ,midsummer fires in      
,sweden4    ,in ,denmark and ,norway    
also ,midsummer fires were kindled on   
,st4 ,john's  ,eve on roads1 open       
spaces1 and hills4 ,people in ,norway   
thought that the  fires banished        
sickness from among the cattle4#dah     
,even yet the fires  are said to be     
lighted all over ,norway on the night of
 ,june the  twenty-third1 ,midsummer    
,eve1 ,old ,style4 ,as many as fifty or 
sixty  bonfires may often be counted    
burning on the hills round ,bergen4     
,sometimes fuel is piled on rafts1      
ignited1 and allowed to drift blazing   
across the fiords in the darkness of    
night4 ,the fires are thought to be     
kindled in order to keep off the        
witches1 who are said to be flying from 
all parts that night to the ,blocksberg1
 where the big witch lives4#dai  ,in    
,sweden the ,eve of ,st4 ,john 7,st4    
,hans7 is the most joyous night of the  

whole year4 ,throughout some parts of   
the country1 especially in the          
provinces of ,bohus and ,scania and in  
districts bordering on ,norway1 it  is  
celebrated by the frequent discharge of 
firearms and by huge  bonfires1 formerly
 called ,balder's ,balefires 7,balder's 
,balar71 which  are kindled at dusk on  
hills and eminences and throw a glare of
 light  over the surrounding landscape4 
,the people dance round the fires and   
leap over or through them4 ,in parts of 
,norrland on ,st4 ,john's ,eve the      
bonfires are lit at the cross-roads4    
,the fuel consists of nine different    
sorts of wood1 and the spectators cast  
into the flames a kind of  toad-stool   
7,bran7 in order to counteract the power
 of the ,trolls and  other evil spirits1
 who are believed to be abroad that     
night2 for at  that mystic season the   
mountains open and from their cavernous 
depths  the uncanny crew pours forth to 
dance and disport themselves for a time4
  ,the peasants believe that should any 

of the ,trolls be in the vicinity  they 
will shew themselves2 and if an animal1 
for example a he or she  goat1 happens  
to be seen near the blazing1 crackling  
pile1 the peasants  are firmly persuaded
 that it is no other than the ,evil ,one
 in  person4#dbj ,further1 it deserves  
to be remarked that in ,sweden ,st4     
,john's ,eve is a festival of water as  
well as of fire2 for certain holy       
springs are then supposed to be endowed 
with wonderful medicinal  virtues1 and  
many sick people resort to them for the 
healing of their  infirmities4#dba      
,the ,midsummer fires in ,switzerland   
and ,austria2 effigies burnt in the     
fires2 burning wheels rolled down hill4 
,in ,switzerland on ,midsummer ,eve     
fires are1 or used to be1 kindled on    
high places in the cantons of ,bern1    
,neuchatel1 ,valais1 and ,geneva4#dbb   
,in ,austria the midsummer customs and  
superstitions resemble those of         
,germany4 ,thus in some parts of the    
,tyrol bonfires are kindled and  burning

 discs hurled into the air4#dbc ,in the 
lower valley of the ,inn a              
taterdemalian effigy is carted about the
 village on ,midsummer ,day and  then   
burned4 ,he is called the ,lotter1 which
 has been corrupted into  ,luther4 ,at  
,ambras1 one of the villages where      
,martin ,luther is thus  burned in      
effigy1 they say that if you go through 
the village between  eleven and twelve  
on ,st4 ,john's ,night and wash yourself
 in three wells1  you will see all who  
are to die in the following year4#dbd   
,at ,gratz on  ,st4 ,john's ,eve 7the   
twenty-third of ,june7 the common people
 used to make  a puppet called the      
,tatermann1 which they dragged to the   
bleaching  ground1 and pelted with      
burning besoms till it took fire4#dbe   
,at  ,reutte1 in the ,tyrol1 people     
believed that the flax would grow as    
high  as they leaped over the midsummer 
bonfire1 and they took pieces of        
charred wood from the fire and stuck    
them in their flax-fields the same      

night1 leaving them there till the flax 
harvest had been got in4#dbf ,in  ,lower
 ,austria fires are lit in the fields1  
commonly in front of a cross1  and the  
people dance and sing round them and    
throw flowers into the  flames4 ,before 
each handful of flowers is tossed into  
the fire1 a set  speech is made2 then   
the dance is resumed and the dancers    
sing in chorus  the last words of the   
speech4 ,at evening bonfires are kindled
 on the  heights1 and the boys caper    
round them1 brandishing lighted torches 
drenched in pitch4 ,whoever jumps thrice
 across the fire will not suffer  from  
fever within the year4 ,cart-wheels are 
often smeared with pitch1  ignited1 and 
sent rolling and blazing down the       
hillsides4#dbg    ,midsummer fires in   
,bohemia2 wreaths thrown across the     
fire2 uses made  of the singed wreaths2 
burning wheels rolled down hill2 embers 
of the  fire stuck in fields1 gardens1  
and houses as a talisman against        
lightning and conflagration2 use of     

mugwort2 cattle protected against       
witchcraft4    ,all over ,bohemia       
bonfires still burn on ,midsummer ,eve4 
,in the afternoon  boys go about with   
handcarts from house to house collecting
 fuel1 such  as sticks1 brushwood1 old  
besoms1 and so forth4 ,they make their  
request  at each house in rhyming       
verses1 threatening with evil           
consequences the  curmudgeons who refuse
 them a dole4 ,sometimes the young men  
fell a tall  straight fir in the woods  
and set it up on a height1 where the    
girls  deck it with nosegays1 wreaths of
 leaves1 and red ribbons4 ,then         
brushwood is piled about it1 and at     
nightfall the whole is set on fire4     
,while the flames break out1 the young  
men climb the tree and fetch down  the  
wreaths which the girls had placed on   
it4 ,after that1 lads and  lasses stand 
on opposite sides of the fire and look  
at one another  through the wreaths to  
see whether they will be true to each   
other and  marry within the year4 ,also 

the girls throw the wreaths across the  
flames to the men1 and woe to the       
awkward swain who fails to catch the    
wreath thrown him by his sweetheart4    
,when the blaze has died down1 each     
couple takes hands1 and leaps thrice    
across the fire4 ,he or she who does  so
 will be free from ague throughout the  
year1 and the flax will grow as  high as
 the young folks leap4 ,a girl who sees 
nine bonfires on ,midsummer  ,eve will  
marry before the year is out4 ,the      
singed wreaths are carried  home and    
carefully preserved throughout the year4
 ,during thunderstorms a  bit of the    
wreath is burned on the hearth with a   
prayer2 some of it is  given to kine    
that are sick or calving1 and some of it
 serves to  fumigate house and          
cattle-stall1 that man and beast may    
keep hale and  well4 ,sometimes an old  
cartwheel is smeared with resin1        
ignited1 and  sent rolling down the     
hill4 ,often the boys collect all the   
worn-out  besoms they can get hold of1  

dip them in pitch1 and having set them  
on  fire wave them about or throw them  
high into the air4 ,or they rush down   
the hillside in troops1 brandishing the 
flaming brooms and shouting1  only      
however to return to the bonfire on the 
summit when the brooms have  burnt out4 
,the stumps of the brooms and embers    
from the fire are  preserved and stuck  
in cabbage gardens to protect the       
cabbages from  caterpillars and gnats4  
,some people insert charred sticks and  
ashes from  the bonfire in their sown   
fields and meadows1 in their gardens and
 the  roofs of their houses1 as a       
talisman against lightning and foul     
weather2  or they fancy that the ashes  
placed in the roof will prevent any fire
  from breaking out in the house4 ,in   
some districts they crown or gird       
themselves with mugwort while the       
midsummer fire is burning1 for this is  
supposed to be a protection against     
ghosts1 witches1 and sickness2 in       
particular1 a wreath of mugwort is a    

sure preventive of sore eyes4           
,sometimes the girls look at the        
bonfires through garlands of wild       
flowers1 praying the fire to strengthen 
their eyes and eyelids4 ,she who  does  
this thrice will have no sore eyes all  
that year4 ,in some parts of  ,bohemia  
they used to drive the cows through the 
midsummer fire to guard  them against   
witchcraft4#dbh    ,the ,midsummer fires
 in ,moravia1 ,austrian ,silesia1 and   
the district of  ,cracow2 fire kindled  
by the friction of wood4    ,the        
,germans of ,moravia in like manner     
still light bonfires on open  grounds   
and high places on ,midsummer ,eve2 and 
they kindle besoms in the  flames and   
then stick the charred stumps in the    
cabbage-fields as a  powerful protection
 against caterpillars4 ,on the same     
mystic evening  ,moravian girls gather  
flowers of nine sorts and lay them under
 their  pillow when they go to sleep2   
then they dream every one of him who is 
to  be her partner for life4 ,for in    

,moravia maidens in their beds as well  
as  poets by haunted streams have their 
,midsummer ,night's dreams4#dbi ,in     
,austrian ,silesia the custom also      
prevails of lighting great bonfires on  
hilltops on ,midsummer ,eve1 and here   
too the boys swing blazing besoms or    
hurl them high in the air1 while they   
shout and leap and dance wildly4  ,next 
morning every door is decked with       
flowers and birchen  saplings4#dcj ,in  
the district of ,cracow1 especially     
towards the  ,carpathian ,mountains1    
great fires are kindled by the peasants 
in the  fields or on the heights at     
nightfall on ,midsummer ,eve1 which     
among them  goes by the name of         
,kupalo's ,night4 ,the fire must be     
kindled by the  friction of two sticks4 
,the young people dance round or leap   
over it2  and a band of sturdy fellows  
run a race with lighted torches1 the    
winner  being rewarded with a peacock's 
feather1 which he keeps throughout the  
year as a distinction4 ,cattle also are 

driven round the fire in the  belief    
that this is a charm against pestilence 
and disease of every  sort4#dca    ,the 
,midsummer fires among the ,slavs of    
,russia2 cattle protected against       
witchcraft2 the fires lighted by the    
friction of wood4    ,the name of       
,kupalo's ,night1 applied in this part  
of ,galicia to ,midsummer  ,eve1 reminds
 us that we have now passed from ,german
 to ,slavonic ground2  even in ,bohemia 
the midsummer celebration is common to  
,slavs and  ,germans4 ,we have already  
seen that in ,russia the summer solstice
 or ,eve  of ,st4 ,john is celebrated by
 young men and maidens1 who jump over a 
bonfire in couples carrying a straw     
effigy of ,kupalo in their arms4#dcb    
,in some parts of ,russia an image of   
,kupalo is burnt or thrown into a       
stream on ,st4 ,john's ,night4#dcc      
,again1 in some districts of ,russia the
  young folk wear garlands of flowers   
and girdles of holy herbs when they     
spring through the smoke or flames2 and 

sometimes they drive the cattle  also   
through the fire in order to protect the
 animals against wizards  and witches1  
who are then ravenous after milk4#dcd   
,in ,little ,russia a  stake is driven  
into the ground on ,st4 ,john's ,night1 
wrapt in straw1 and  set on fire4 ,as   
the flames rise the peasant women throw 
birchen boughs  into them1 saying1 ,may 
my flax be as tall as this bough6#dce   
,in  ,ruthenia the bonfires are lighted 
by a flame procured by the friction of  
wood4 ,while the elders of the party are
 engaged in thus churning the  fire1 the
 rest maintain a respectful silence2 but
 when the flame bursts  from the wood1  
they break forth into joyous songs4 ,as 
soon as the  bonfires are kindled1 the  
young people take hands and leap in     
pairs  through the smoke1 if not through
 the flames2 and after that the cattle  
in their turn are driven through the    
fire4#dcf    ,the ,midsummer fires in   
,prussia and ,lithuania thought to      
protect against  witchcraft1 thunder1   

hail1 and cattle disease2 the fire      
kindled by the  friction of wood4    ,in
 many parts of ,prussia and ,lithuania  
great fires are kindled on  ,midsummer  
,eve4 ,all the heights are ablaze with  
them1 as far as the eye  can see4 ,the  
fires are supposed to be a protection   
against witchcraft1  thunder1 hail1 and 
cattle disease1 especially if next      
morning the cattle  are driven over the 
places where the fires burned4 ,above   
all1 the  bonfires ensure the farmer    
against the arts of witches1 who try to 
steal  the milk from his cows by charms 
and spells4 ,that is why next morning   
you may see the young fellows who lit   
the bonfire going from house to  house  
and receiving jugfuls of milk4 ,and for 
the same reason they stick  burs and    
mugwort on the gate or the hedge through
 which the cows go to  pasture1 because 
that is supposed to be a preservative   
against  witchcraft4#dcg ,in ,masuren1 a
 district of ,eastern ,prussia inhabited
 by  a branch of the ,polish family1 it 

is the custom on the evening of         
,midsummer ,day to put out all the fires
 in the village4 ,then an oaken  stake  
is driven into the ground and a wheel is
 fixed on it as on an  axle4 ,this wheel
 the villagers1 working by relays1 cause
 to revolve with  great rapidity till   
fire is produced by friction4 ,every one
 takes home a  lighted brand from the   
new fire and with it rekindles the fire 
on the  domestic hearth4#dch ,in the    
sixteenth century ,martin of ,urzedow1 a
  ,polish priest1 denounced the heathen 
practices of the women who on ,st4      
,john's ,eve 7,midsummer ,eve7 kindled  
fires by the friction of wood1  danced1 
and sang songs in honour of the         
devil4#dci    ,the ,midsummer fires     
among the ,letts of ,russia2 ,midsummer 
,day in ancient  ,rome4    ,among the   
,letts who inhabit the ,baltic provinces
 of ,russia the most  joyful festival of
 the year is held on ,midsummer ,day4   
,the people drink  and dance and sing   
and adorn themselves and their houses   

with flowers  and branches4 ,chopped    
boughs of fir are strewn about the      
rooms1 and  leaves are stuck in the     
roofs4 ,in every farm-yard a birch tree 
is set  up1 and every person of the name
 of ,john who enters the farm that day  
must break off a twig from the tree and 
hang up on its branches in  return a    
small present for the family4 ,when the 
serene twilight of the  summer night has
 veiled the landscape1 bonfires gleam on
 all the hills1  and wild shouts of     
,ligho6 ,ligho6 echo from the woods and 
fields4 ,in  ,riga the day is a festival
 of flowers4 ,from all the neighbourhood
 the  peasants stream into the city     
laden with flowers and garlands4 ,a     
market  of flowers is held in an open   
square and on the chief bridge over the 
river2 here wreaths of immortelles1     
which grow wild in the meadows and      
woods1 are sold in great profusion and  
deck the houses of ,riga for long       
afterwards4 ,roses1 too1 are now at the 
prime of their beauty1 and masses  of   

them adorn the flower-stalls4 ,till far 
into the night gay crowds  parade the   
streets to music or float on the river  
in gondolas decked  with flowers4#ddj   
,so long ago in ancient ,rome barges    
crowned with  flowers and crowded with  
revellers used to float down the ,tiber 
on  ,midsummer ,day1 the twenty-fourth  
of ,june1#dda and no doubt the strains  
of music were wafted as sweetly across  
the water to listeners on the  banks as 
they still are to the throngs of        
merrymakers at ,riga4    ,the ,midsummer
 fires among the ,south ,slavs4         
,bonfires are commonly kindled by the   
,south ,slavonian peasantry on          
,midsummer ,eve1 and lads and lasses    
dance and shout round them in the  usual
 way4 ,the very names of ,st4 ,john's   
,day 7,ivanje7 and the ,st4  ,john's    
fires 7kries7 are said to act like      
electric sparks on the  hearts and minds
 of these swains1 kindling a thousand   
wild1 merry1 and  happy fancies and     
ideas in their rustic breasts4 ,at      

,kamenagora in  ,croatia the herdsmen   
throw nine three-year old vines into the
 bonfire1  and when these burst into    
flames the young men who are candidates 
for  matrimony jump through the blaze4  
,he who succeeds in leaping over the    
fire without singeing himself will be   
married within the year4 ,at  ,vidovec  
in ,croatia parties of two girls and one
 lad unite to kindle a  ,midsummer      
bonfire and to leap through the flames2 
he or she who leaps  furthest will      
soonest wed4 ,afterwards lads and lasses
 dance in separate  rings1 but the ring 
of lads bumps up against the ring of    
girls and  breaks it1 and the girl who  
has to let go her neighbour's hand will 
forsake her true love hereafter4#ddb ,in
 ,servia on ,midsummer ,eve  herdsmen   
light torches of birch bark and march   
round the sheepfolds and  cattle-stalls2
 then they climb the hills and there    
allow the torches to  burn out4#ddc     
,the ,midsummer fires among the ,magyars
 of ,hungary4    ,among the ,magyars in 

,hungary the midsummer fire-festival is 
marked by  the same features that meet  
us in so many parts of ,europe4 ,on     
,midsummer  ,eve in many places it is   
customary to kindle bonfires on heights 
and to  leap over them1 and from the    
manner in which the young people leap   
the  bystanders predict whether they    
will marry soon4 ,at ,nograd-,ludany the
  young men and women1 each carrying a  
truss of straw1 repair to a meadow1     
where they pile the straw in seven or   
twelve heaps and set it on fire4  ,then 
they go round the fire singing1 and hold
 a bunch of iron-wort in  the smoke1    
while they say1 ,no boil on my body1 no 
sprain in my foot6  ,this holding of the
 flowers over the flames is regarded1 we
 are told1 as  equally important with   
the practice of walking through the fire
 barefoot  and stamping it out4 ,on this
 day also many ,hungarian swineherds    
make  fire by rotating a wheel round a  
wooden axle wrapt in hemp1 and through  
the fire thus made they drive their pigs

 to preserve them from  sickness4#ddd   
,in villages on the ,danube1 where the  
population is a  cross between ,magyar  
and ,german1 the young men and maidens  
go to the  high banks of the river on   
,midsummer ,eve2 and while the girls    
post  themselves low down the slope1 the
 lads on the height above set fire to   
little wooden wheels and1 after swinging
 them to and fro at the end of a  wand1 
send them whirling through the air to   
fall into the ,danube4 ,as he  does so1 
each lad sings out the name of his      
sweetheart1 and she listens  well       
pleased down below4#dde    ,the         
,midsummer fires among the ,esthonians2 
the ,midsummer fires in  ,oesel4    ,the
 ,esthonians of ,russia1 who1 like the  
,magyars1 belong to the great  ,turanian
 family of mankind1 also celebrate the  
summer solstice in the  usual way4 ,on  
the ,eve of ,st4 ,john all the people of
 a farm1 a village1  or an estate1 walk 
solemnly in procession1 the girls decked
 with  flowers1 the men with leaves and 

carrying bundles of straw under their   
arms4 ,the lads carry lighted torches or
 flaming hoops steeped in tar at  the   
top of long poles4 ,thus they go singing
 to the cattle-sheds1 the  granaries1   
and so forth1 and afterwards march      
thrice round the  dwelling-house4       
,finally1 preceded by the shrill music  
of the bagpipes  and shawms1 they repair
 to a neighbouring hill1 where the      
materials of a  bonfire have been       
collected4 ,tar-barrels filled with     
combustibles are  hung on poles1 or the 
trunk of a felled tree has been set up  
with a  great mass of juniper piled     
about it in the form of a pyramid4 ,when
 a  light has been set to the pile1 old 
and young gather about it and pass  the 
time merrily with song and music till   
break of day4 ,every one who  comes     
brings fresh fuel for the fire1 and they
 say1 ,now we all gather  together1     
where ,st4 ,john's fire burns4 ,he who  
comes not to ,st4 ,john's  fire will    
have his barley full of thistles1 and   

his oats full of weeds4  ,three logs are
 thrown into the fire with special      
ceremony2 in throwing  the first they   
say1 ,gold of pleasure 7a plant with    
yellow flowers7 into  the fire6 in      
throwing the second they say1 ,weeds to 
the unploughed  land6 but in throwing   
the third they cry1 ,flax on my field6  
,the fire  is said to keep the witches  
from the cattle4#ddf ,according to      
others1  it ensures that for the whole  
year the milk shall be as pure as silver
  and as the stars in the sky1 and the  
butter as yellow as the sun and the     
fire and the gold4#ddg ,in the          
,esthonian island of ,oesel1 while they 
throw fuel into the midsummer fire1 they
 call out1 ,weeds to the fire1  flax to 
the field1 or they fling three billets  
into the flames1 saying1  ,flax grow    
long6 ,and they take charred sticks from
 the bonfire home  with them and keep   
them to make the cattle thrive4 ,in some
 parts of the  island the bonfire is    
formed by piling brushwood and other    

combustibles  round a tree1 at the top  
of which a flag flies4 ,whoever succeeds
 in  knocking down the flag with a pole 
before it begins to burn will have  good
 luck4 ,formerly the festivities lasted 
till daybreak1 and ended in  scenes of  
debauchery which looked doubly hideous  
by the growing light of  a summer       
morning4#ddh    ,the ,midsummer fires   
among the ,finns and ,cheremiss of      
,russia4    ,still farther north1 among 
a people of the same ,turanian stock1 we
 learn  from an eye-witness that        
,midsummer ,night used to witness a sort
 of  witches' sabbath on the top of     
every hill in ,finland4 ,the bonfire was
  made by setting up four tall birches  
in a square and piling the  intermediate
 space with fuel4 ,round the roaring    
flames the people sang  and drank and   
gambolled in the usual way4#ddi ,farther
 east1 in the  valley of the ,volga1 the
 ,cheremiss celebrate about midsummer a 
festival  which ,haxthausen regarded as 
identical with the midsummer ceremonies 

of  the rest of ,europe4 ,a sacred tree 
in the forest1 generally a tall and     
solitary oak1 marks the scene of the    
solemnity4 ,all the males assemble      
there1 but no woman may be present4 ,a  
heathen priest lights seven fires  in a 
row from north-west to south-east2      
cattle are sacrificed and their  blood  
poured in the fires1 each of which is   
dedicated to a separate  deity4         
,afterwards the holy tree is illumined  
by lighted candles placed  on its       
branches2 the people fall on their knees
 and with faces bowed to  the earth pray
 that ,god would be pleased to bless    
them1 their children1  their cattle1 and
 their bees1 grant them success in      
trade1 in travel1  and in the chase1    
enable them to pay the ,czar's taxes1   
and so  forth4#dej    ,the ,midsummer   
fires in ,france2 ,bossuet on the       
,midsummer festival4    ,when we pass   
from the east to the west of ,europe we 
still find the  summer solstice         
celebrated with rites of the same       

general character4  ,down to about the  
middle of the nineteenth century the    
custom of  lighting bonfires at         
midsummer prevailed so commonly in      
,france that  there was hardly a town or
 a village1 we are told1 where they were
 not  kindled4#dea ,though the pagan    
origin of the custom may be regarded as 
certain1 the ,catholic ,church threw a  
,christian cloak over it by boldly      
declaring that the bonfires were lit in 
token of the general rejoicing  at the  
birth of the ,baptist1 who opportunely  
came into the world at the  solstice of 
summer1 just as his greater successor   
did at the solstice of  winter2 so that 
the whole year might be said to revolve 
on the golden  hinges of these two great
 birthdays4#deb ,writing in the         
seventeenth  century ,bishop ,bossuet   
expressly affirms this edifying theory  
of the  ,midsummer bonfires1 and he     
tells his catechumens that the ,church  
herself  participated in the            
illumination1 since in several dioceses1

 including  his own diocese of ,meaux1 a
 number of parishes kindled what were   
called  ecclesiastical fires for the    
purpose of banishing the superstitions  
practised at the purely mundane         
bonfires4 ,these superstitions1 he goes 
on to say1 consisted in dancing round   
the fire1 playing1 feasting1  singing   
ribald songs1 throwing herbs across the 
fire1 gathering herbs at  noon or while 
fasting1 carrying them on the person1   
preserving them  throughout the year1   
keeping brands or cinders of the fire1  
and other  similar practices4#dec       
,however excellent the intentions of the
  ecclesiastical authorities may have   
been1 they failed of effecting their    
purpose2 for the superstitions as well  
as the bonfires survived in  ,france far
 into the nineteenth century1 if indeed 
they are extinct even  now at the       
beginning of the twentieth4 ,writing in 
the latter part of the  nineteenth      
century ,mr4 ,ch4 ,cuissard tells us    
that he himself witnessed  in ,touraine 

and ,poitou the superstitious practices 
which he describes as  follows3 ,the    
most credulous examine the ways in which
 the flame burns  and draw good or bad  
omens accordingly4 ,others1 after       
leaping through  the flames crosswise1  
pass their little children through them 
thrice1  fully persuaded that the little
 ones will then be able to walk at once4
  ,in some places the shepherds make    
their sheep tread the embers of the     
extinct fire in order to preserve them  
from the foot-rot4 ,here you may  see   
about midnight an old woman grubbing    
among the cinders of the pyre  to find  
the hair of the ,holy ,virgin or ,saint 
,john1 which she deems an  infallible   
specific against fever4 ,there1 another 
woman is busy plucking  the roots of the
 herbs which have been burned on the    
surface of the  ground2 she intends to  
eat them1 imagining that they are an    
infallible  preservative against cancer4
 ,elsewhere a girl wears on her neck a  
flower  which the touch of ,st4 ,john's 

fire has turned for her into a talisman1
  and she is sure to marry within the   
year4 ,shots are fired at the tree      
planted in the midst of the fire to     
drive away the demons who might  purpose
 to send sicknesses about the country4  
,seats are set round about  the bonfire1
 in order that the souls of dead        
relations may come and  enjoy themselves
 for a little with the living4#ded      
,the ,midsummer fires in ,brittany2 uses
 made of the charred sticks and         
flowers4    ,in ,brittany1 apparently1  
the custom of the ,midsummer bonfires is
 kept up  to this day4 ,thus in ,lower  
,brittany every town and every village  
still  lights its tantad or bonfire on  
,st4 ,john's ,night4 ,when the flames   
have  died down1 the whole assembly     
kneels round about the bonfire and an   
old  man prays aloud4 ,then they all    
rise and march thrice round the fire2 at
  the third turn they stop and every one
 picks up a pebble and throws it  on the
 burning pile4 ,after that they         

disperse4#dee ,in ,finistre the         
bonfires of ,st4 ,john's ,day are       
kindled by preference in an open space  
near a chapel of ,st4 ,john2 but if     
there is no such chapel1 they are       
lighted in the square facing the parish 
church and in some districts at         
cross-roads4 ,everybody brings fuel for 
the fire1 it may be a faggot1 a  log1 a 
branch1 or an armful of gorse4 ,when the
 vespers are over1 the  parish priest   
sets a light to the pile4 ,all heads are
 bared1 prayers  recited1 and hymns     
sung4 ,then the dancing begins4 ,the    
young folk skip  round the blazing pile 
and leap over it1 when the flames have  
died down4  ,if anybody makes a false   
step and falls or rolls in the hot      
embers1 he  or she is greeted with hoots
 and retires abashed from the circle of 
dancers4 ,brands are carried home from  
the bonfire to protect the houses       
against lightning1 conflagrations1 and  
certain maladies and spells4 ,the       
precious talisman is carefully kept in a

 cupboard till ,st4 ,john's ,day of  the
 following year4#def ,at ,quimper1 and  
in the district of ,lon1 chairs  used to
 be placed round the midsummer bonfire1 
that the souls of the  dead might sit on
 them and warm themselves at the        
blaze4#deg ,at ,brest  on this day      
thousands of people used to assemble on 
the ramparts towards  evening and       
brandish lighted torches1 which they    
swung in circles or  flung by hundreds  
into the air4 ,the closing of the town  
gates put an end  to the spectacle1 and 
the lights might be seen dispersing in  
all  directions like wandering          
will-o'-the-wisps4#deh ,in ,upper       
,brittany the  materials for the        
midsummer bonfires1 which generally     
consist of bundles  of furze and heath1 
are furnished by voluntary              
contributions1 and piled  on the tops of
 hills round poles1 each of which is    
surmounted by a  nosegay or a crown4    
,this nosegay or crown is generally     
provided by a man  named ,john or a     

woman named ,jean1 and it is always a   
,john or a ,jean who  puts a light to   
the bonfire4 ,while the fire is blazing 
the people dance  and sing round it1 and
 when the flames have subsided they leap
 over the  glowing embers4 ,charred     
sticks from the bonfire are thrown into 
wells to  improve the water1 and they   
are also taken home as a protection     
against  thunder4#dei ,to make them     
thoroughly effective1 however1 against  
thunder and lightning you should keep   
them near your bed1 between a bit  of a 
,twelfth ,night cake and a sprig of     
boxwood which has been blessed on  ,palm
 ,sunday4#dfj ,flowers from the nosegay 
or crown which overhung the  fire are   
accounted charms against disease and    
pain1 both bodily and  spiritual2 hence 
girls hang them at their breast by a    
thread of scarlet  wool4 ,in many       
parishes of ,brittany the priest used to
 go in procession  with the crucifix and
 kindle the bonfire with his own hands2 
and farmers  were wont to drive their   

flocks and herds through the fire in    
order to  preserve them from sickness   
till midsummer of the following year4   
,also  it was believed that every girl  
who danced round nine of the bonfires   
would marry within the year4#dfa    ,the
 ,midsummer fires in ,normandy2 the     
fires as a protection against           
witchcraft2 the ,brotherhood of the     
,green ,wolf at ,jumiges2 pretence of   
throwing the ,green ,wolf into the fire4
    ,in ,normandy the midsummer fires   
have now almost disappeared1 at least in
  the district known as the ,bocage1 but
 they used to shine on every hill4      
,they were commonly made by piling      
brushwood1 broom1 and ferns about a     
tall tree1 which was decorated with a   
crown of moss and sometimes with        
flowers4 ,while they burned1 people     
danced and sang round them1 and young   
folk leaped over the flames or the      
glowing ashes4 ,in the valley of the    
,orne the custom was to kindle the      
bonfire just at the moment when the  sun

 was about to dip below the horizon2 and
 the peasants drove their  cattle       
through the fires to protect them       
against witchcraft1 especially  against 
the spells of witches and wizards who   
attempted to steal the  milk and        
butter4#dfb ,at ,jumiges in ,normandy1  
down to the first half of  the          
nineteenth century1 the midsummer       
festival was marked by certain  singular
 features which bore the stamp of a very
 high antiquity4 ,every  year1 on the   
twenty-third of ,june1 the ,eve of ,st4 
,john1 the ,brotherhood  of the ,green  
,wolf chose a new chief or master1 who  
had always to be  taken from the hamlet 
of ,conihout4 ,on being elected1 the new
 head of the  brotherhood assumed the   
title of the ,green ,wolf1 and donned a 
peculiar  costume consisting of a long  
green mantle and a very tall green hat  
of a  conical shape and without a brim4 
,thus arrayed he stalked solemnly at    
the head of the brothers1 chanting the  
hymn of ,st4 ,john1 the crucifix  and   

holy banner leading the way1 to a place 
called ,chouquet4 ,here the  procession 
was met by the priest1 precentors1 and  
choir1 who conducted  the brotherhood to
 the parish church4 ,after hearing mass 
the company  adjourned to the house of  
the ,green ,wolf1 where a simple repast1
 such as  is required by the church on  
fast-days1 was served up to them4 ,then 
they  danced before the door till it was
 time to light the bonfire4 ,night      
being come1 the fire was kindled to the 
sound of hand-bells by a young  man and 
a young woman1 both decked with flowers4
 ,as the flames rose1 the  ,te ,deum was
 sung1 and a villager thundered out a   
parody in the ,norman  dialect of the   
hymn ut queant laxis4 ,meantime the     
,green ,wolf and his  brothers1 with    
their hoods down on their shoulders and 
holding each  other by the hand1 ran    
round the fire after the man who had    
been chosen  to be the ,green ,wolf of  
the following year4 ,though only the    
first and  the last man of the chain had

 a hand free1 their business was to     
surround and seize thrice the future    
,green ,wolf1 who in his efforts to     
escape belaboured the brothers with a   
long wand which he carried4 ,when  at   
last they succeeded in catching him they
 carried him to the burning  pile and   
made as if they would throw him on it4  
,this ceremony over1 they  returned to  
the house of the ,green ,wolf1 where a  
supper1 still of the  most meagre fare1 
was set before them4 ,up till midnight a
 sort of  religious solemnity prevailed4
 ,no unbecoming word might fall from the
  lips of any of the company1 and a     
censor1 armed with a hand-bell1 was     
appointed to mark and punish instantly  
any infraction of the rule4 ,but  at the
 stroke of twelve all this was changed4 
,constraint gave way to  license2 pious 
hymns were replaced by ,bacchanalian    
ditties1 and the  shrill quavering notes
 of the village fiddle hardly rose above
 the roar  of voices that went up from  
the merry brotherhood of the ,green     

,wolf4  ,next day1 the twenty-fourth of 
,june or ,midsummer ,day1 was celebrated
 by  the same personages with the same  
noisy gaiety4 ,one of the ceremonies    
consisted in parading1 to the sound of  
musketry1 an enormous loaf of           
consecrated bread1 which1 rising in     
tiers1 was surmounted by a pyramid  of  
verdure adorned with ribbons4 ,after    
that the holy handbells1  deposited on  
the step of the altar1 were entrusted as
 insignia of office  to the man who was 
to be the ,green ,wolf next year4#dfc   
,the ,midsummer fires in ,picardy4      
,in the canton of ,breteuil in ,picardy 
7department of ,oise7 the priest  used  
to kindle the midsummer bonfire1 and the
 people marched thrice  round it in     
procession4 ,some of them took ashes of 
the fire home with  them to protect the 
houses against lightning4#dfd ,the      
custom is1 or was  down to recent years1
 similar at ,vorges1 near ,laon4 ,an    
enormous pyre1  some fifty or sixty feet
 high1 supported in the middle by a tall

 pole1  is constructed every year on the
 twenty-third of ,june1 the ,eve of ,st4
  ,john4 ,it stands at one end of the   
village1 and all the inhabitants        
contribute fuel to it3 a cart goes round
 the village in the morning1 by  order  
of the mayor1 collecting combustibles   
from house to house3 no one  would dream
 of refusing to comply with the         
customary obligation4 ,in the  evening1 
after a service in honour of ,st4 ,john 
has been performed in the  church1 the  
clergy1 the mayor1 the municipal        
authorities1 the rural  police1 and the 
fire-brigade march in procession to the 
bonfire1  accompanied by the inhabitants
 and a crowd of idlers drawn by         
curiosity  from the neighbouring        
villages4 ,after addressing the throng  
in a sermon1  to which they pay little  
heed1 the parish priest sprinkles the   
pyre with  holy water1 and taking a     
lighted torch from the hand of an       
assistant  sets fire to the pile4 ,the  
enormous blaze1 flaring up against the  

dark  sky of the summer night1 is seen  
for many miles around1 particularly     
from the hill of ,laon4 ,when it has    
died down into a huge heap of glowing   
embers and grey ashes1 every one carries
 home a charred stick or some  cinders2 
and the fire-brigade1 playing their hose
 on what remains1  extinguishes the     
smouldering fire4 ,the people preserve  
the charred  sticks and cinders         
throughout the year1 believing that     
these relics of  ,st ,john's bonfire    
have power to guard them from lightning 
and from  contagious diseases4#dfe ,at  
,chteau-,thierry1 a town of the         
department  of ,aisne1 between ,paris   
and ,reims1 the custom of lighting      
bonfires and  dancing round them at the 
midsummer festival of ,st4 ,john lasted 
down to  about #ahej2 the fires were    
kindled especially when ,june had been  
rainy1  and the people thought that the 
lighting of the bonfires would cause the
  rain to cease4#dff    ,the ,midsummer 
fires in ,beauce and ,perche2 the fires 

as a protection  against witchcraft4    
,in ,beauce and ,perche1 two            
neighbouring districts of ,france to the
  south-west of ,paris1 the midsummer   
bonfires have nearly or wholly          
disappeared1 but formerly they were     
commonly kindled and went by the  name  
of the fires of ,st4 ,john4 ,the site of
 the bonfire was either the  village    
square or beside the cross in the       
cemetery4 ,here a great pile of         
faggots1 brushwood1 and grass was       
accumulated about a huge branch1 which  
bore at the top a crown of fresh        
flowers4 ,the priest blessed the bonfire
  and the people danced round it4 ,when 
it blazed and crackled1 the  bystanders 
thrust their heads into the puffs of    
smoke1 in the belief  that it would     
preserve them from a multitude of ills2 
and when the fire  was burnt out1 they  
rushed upon the charred embers and ashes
 and carried  them home1 imagining that 
they had a secret virtue to guard their 
houses  from being struck by lightning  

or consumed by fire4 ,some of the       
,perche  farmers in the old days1 not   
content with the public bonfire1 used to
  light little private bonfires in their
 farmyards and make all their  cattle   
pass through the smoke and flames for   
the purpose of protecting  them against 
witchcraft or disease4#dfg    ,the      
,midsummer fires in the ,ardennes1 the  
,vosges1 and the ,jura2 the  ,midsummer 
fires in ,franche-,comt2 the ,midsummer 
fires in ,berry and other  parts of     
,central ,france4    ,in the department 
of the ,ardennes every one was wont to  
contribute his  faggot to the midsummer 
bonfire1 and the clergy marched at the  
head of  the procession to kindle it4   
,failure to light the fires would1 in   
the  popular belief1 have exposed the   
fields to the greatest danger4 ,at      
,revin  the young folk1 besides dancing 
round the fire to the strains of the    
village fiddler1 threw garlands of      
flowers across the flames to each       
other4#dfh ,in the ,vosges it is still  

customary to kindle bonfires upon  the  
hill-tops on ,midsummer ,eve2 the people
 believe that the fires help  to        
preserve the fruits of the earth and    
ensure good crops4#dfi ,in the  ,jura   
,mountains the midsummer bonfires went  
by the name of b or  beau4 ,they were   
lit on the most conspicuous points of   
the  landscape4#dgj ,near ,st4 ,jean1 in
 the ,jura1 it appears that at this     
season young people still repair to the 
cross-roads and heights1 and  there wave
 burning torches so as to present the   
appearance of fiery  wheels in the      
darkness4#dga ,in ,franche-,comt1 the   
province of ,france  which lies         
immediately to the west of the ,jura    
mountains1 the fires of  ,st4 ,john     
still shone on the saint's day in       
several villages down to  recent years4 
,they were generally lit on high ground 
and the young folks  of both sexes sang 
and danced round them1 and sprang over  
the dying  flames4#dgb ,in ,bresse      
bonfires used to be kindled on          

,midsummer ,eve 7the  twenty-third of   
,june7 and the people danced about them 
in a circle4  ,devout persons1          
particularly old women1 circumambulated 
the fires  fourteen times1 telling their
 beads and mumbling seven ,paters and   
seven ,aves in the hope that thereby    
they would feel no pains in their  backs
 when they stooped over the sickle in   
the harvest field4#dgc ,in  ,berry1 a   
district of ,central ,france1 the       
midsummer fire was lit on the  ,eve of  
,st4 ,john and went by the name of the  
jne1 joanne1 or  jouanne4 ,every family 
according to its means contributed      
faggots1  which were piled round a pole 
on the highest ground in the            
neighbourhood4 ,in the hamlets the      
office of kindling the fire devolved  on
 the oldest man1 but in the towns it was
 the priest or the mayor who  discharged
 the duty4 ,here1 as in ,brittany1      
people supposed that a girl  who had    
danced round nine of the midsummer      
bonfires would marry within  the year4  

,to leap several times over the fire was
 regarded as a sort of  purification    
which kept off sickness and brought good
 luck to the  leaper4 ,hence the nimble 
youth bounded through the smoke and     
flames1 and  when the fire had somewhat 
abated parents jumped across it with    
their  children in their arms in order  
that the little ones might also partake 
of its beneficent influence4 ,embers    
from the extinct bonfire were taken     
home1 and after being dipped in holy    
water were kept as a talisman  against  
all kinds of misfortune1 but especially 
against lightning4#dgd  ,the same virtue
 was ascribed to the ashes and charred  
sticks of the  midsummer bonfire in     
,prigord1 where everybody contributed   
his share of  fuel to the pile and the  
whole was crowned with flowers1         
especially with  roses and lilies4#dge  
,on the borders of the departments of   
,creuse and  ,corrze1 in ,central       
,france1 the fires of ,st4 ,john used to
 be lit on the  ,eve of the saint's day 

7the twenty-third of ,june72 the custom 
seems to  have survived till towards the
 end of the nineteenth century4 ,men1   
women1 and children assembled round the 
fires1 and the young people  jumped over
 them4 ,children were brought by their  
parents or elder  brothers into contact 
with the flames in the belief that this 
would save  them from fever4 ,older     
people girded themselves with stalks of 
rye taken  from a neighbouring field1   
because they fancied that by so doing   
they  would not grow weary in reaping   
the corn at harvest4#dgf    ,the        
,midsummer fires in ,poitou4            
,bonfires were lit in almost all the    
hamlets of ,poitou on the ,eve of ,st4  
,john4 ,people marched round them       
thrice1 carrying a branch of walnut in  
their hand4 ,shepherdesses and children 
passed sprigs of mullein  7verbascum7   
and nuts across the flames2 the nuts    
were supposed to cure  toothache1 and   
the mullein to protect the cattle from  
sickness and  sorcery4 ,when the fire   

died down people took some of the ashes 
home with  them1 either to keep them in 
the house as a preservative against     
thunder  or to scatter them on the      
fields for the purpose of destroying    
corn-cockles and darnel4 ,stones were   
also placed round the fire1 and it  was 
believed that the first to lift one of  
these stones next morning  would find   
under it the hair of ,st4 ,john4#dgg ,in
 ,poitou also it used to  be customary  
on the ,eve of ,st4 ,john to trundle a  
blazing wheel wrapt in  straw over the  
fields to fertilize them4#dgh ,this last
 custom is said  to be now extinct1#dgi 
but it is still usual1 or was so down to
 recent  years1 in ,poitou to kindle    
fires on this day at cross-roads or on  
the  heights4 ,the oldest or youngest   
person present sets a light to the pile1
  which consists of broom1 gorse1 and   
heath4 ,a bright and crackling blaze    
shoots up1 but soon dies down1 and over 
it the young folk leap4 ,they  also     
throw stones into it1 picking the stone 

according to the size of  the turnips   
that they wish to have that year4 ,it is
 said that the good  ,virgin comes and  
sits on the prettiest of the stones1 and
 next morning  they see there her       
beautiful golden tresses4 ,at ,lussac1  
in ,poitou1 the  lighting of the        
midsummer bonfire is still an affair of 
some ceremony4 ,a  pyramid of faggots is
 piled round a tree or tall pole on the 
ground  where the fair is held2 the     
priest goes in procession to the spot   
and  kindles the pile4 ,when prayers    
have been said and the clergy have      
withdrawn1 the people continue to march 
round the fire1 telling their  beads1   
but it is not till the flames have begun
 to die down that the  youth jump over  
them4 ,a brand from the midsummer       
bonfire is supposed to  be a            
preservative against thunder4#dhj       
,the ,midsummer fires in the departments
 of ,vienne and ,deux-,svres and in  the
 provinces of ,saintonge and ,aunis4    
,in the department of ,vienne the       

bonfire was kindled by the oldest man1  
and before the dance round the flames   
began it was the custom to pass  across 
them a great bunch of mullein 7bouillon 
blanc7 and a branch of  walnut1 which   
next morning before sunrise were        
fastened over the door of  the chief    
cattle-shed4#dha ,a similar custom      
prevailed in the  neighbouring          
department of ,deux-,svres2 but here it 
was the priest who  kindled the bonfire1
 and old men used to put embers of the  
fire in their  wooden shoes as a        
preservative against many evils4#dhb ,in
 some towns  and villages of ,saintonge 
and ,aunis1 provinces of ,western       
,france now  mostly comprised in the    
department of ,charente ,infrieure1 the 
fires of  ,st4 ,john are still kindled  
on ,midsummer ,eve1 but the custom is   
neither  so common nor carried out with 
so much pomp and ceremony as formerly4  
,great quantities of wood used to be    
piled on an open space round about a    
huge post or a tree stripped of its     

leaves and branches4 ,every one took    
care to contribute a faggot to the pile1
 and the whole population  marched to   
the spot in procession with the crucifix
 at their head and  the priest bringing 
up the rear4 ,the squire1 or other      
person of high  degree1 put the torch to
 the pyre1 and the priest blessed it4   
,in the  southern and eastern parts of  
,saintonge children and cattle were     
passed  through the smoke of the        
bonfires to preserve them from          
contagious  diseases1 and when the fire 
had gone out the people scuffled for the
  charred fragments of the great post1  
which they regarded as talismans        
against thunder4 ,next morning1 on      
,midsummer ,day1 every shepherdess in   
the neighbourhood was up very early1 for
 the first to drive her sheep  over the 
blackened cinders and ashes of the great
 bonfire was sure to  have the best     
flock all that year4 ,where the         
shepherds shrunk from  driving their    
flocks through the smoke and flames of  

the bonfire they  contented themselves  
with marking the hinder-quarters of the 
animals  with a broom which had been    
blackened in the ashes4#dhc    ,the     
,midsummer fires in ,southern ,france2  
,midsummer festival of fire and  water  
in ,provence2 bathing in the sea at     
,midsummer2 temporary ,midsummer  kings 
at ,aix and ,marseilles4    ,in the     
mountainous part of ,comminges1 a       
province of ,southern ,france1 now      
comprised in the department of ,haute   
,garonne1 the midsummer fire is made  by
 splitting open the trunk of a tall     
tree1 stuffing the crevice with         
shavings1 and igniting the whole4 ,a    
garland of flowers is fastened to  the  
top of the tree1 and at the moment when 
the fire is lighted the man  who was    
last married has to climb up a ladder   
and bring the flowers  down4 ,in the    
flat parts of the same district the     
materials of the  midsummer bonfires    
consist of fuel piled in the usual way2 
but they must  be put together by men   

who have been married since the last    
midsummer  festival1 and each of these  
benedicts is obliged to lay a wreath of 
flowers on the top of the pile4#dhd ,at 
the entrance of the valley of  ,aran    
young people set up on the banks of the 
,garonne a tree covered with  ribbons   
and garlands2 at the end of a year the  
withered tree and faded  flowers furnish
 excellent fuel4 ,so on the ,eve of ,st4
 ,john the villagers  assemble1 and an  
old man or a child kindles the fire     
which is to consume  tree and garlands  
together4 ,while the blaze lasts the    
people sing and  dance2 and the burnt   
tree is then replaced by another which  
will suffer  the same fate after the    
lapse of a year4#dhe ,in some districts 
of the  ,french ,pyrenees it is deemed  
necessary to leap nine times over the   
midsummer fire if you would be assured  
of prosperity4#dhf ,a traveller  in     
,southern ,france at the beginning of   
the nineteenth century tells us  that   
the ,eve of ,st4 ,john is also a day of 

joy for the ,provenals4 ,they  light    
great fires and the young folk leap over
 them4 ,at ,aix they shower  squibs and 
crackers on the passers-by1 which has   
often had disagreeable  consequences4   
,at ,marseilles they drench each other  
with scented water1  which is poured    
from the windows or squirted from little
 syringes2 the  roughest jest is to     
souse passers-by with clean water1 which
 gives rise  to loud bursts of          
laughter4#dhg ,at ,draguignan1 in the   
department of  ,var1 fires used to be   
lit in every street on the ,eve of ,st4 
,john1 and  the people roasted pods of  
garlic at them2 the pods were afterwards
  distributed to every family4 ,another 
diversion of the evening was to  pour   
cans of water from the houses on the    
heads of people in the  streets4#dhh ,in
 ,provence the midsummer fires are still
 popular4  ,children go from door to    
door begging for fuel1 and they are     
seldom sent  empty away4 ,formerly the  
priest1 the mayor1 and the aldermen used

 to  walk in procession to the bonfire1 
and even deigned to light it2 after     
which the assembly marched thrice round 
the burning pile1 while the  church     
bells pealed and rockets fizzed and     
sputtered in the air4 ,dancing  began   
later1 and the bystanders threw water on
 each other4 ,at ,ciotat1  while the    
fire was blazing1 the young people      
plunged into the sea and  splashed each 
other vigorously4 ,at ,vitrolles they   
bathed in a pond in  order that they    
might not suffer from fever during the  
year1 and at  ,saintes-,maries they     
watered the horses to protect them from 
the  itch4#dhi ,at ,aix a nominal king1 
chosen from among the youth for his     
skill in shooting at a popinjay1        
presided over the festival4 ,he selected
  his own officers1 and escorted by a   
brilliant train marched to the  bonfire1
 kindled it1 and was the first to dance 
round it4 ,next day he  distributed     
largesse to his followers4 ,his reign   
lasted a year1 during  which he enjoyed 

certain privileges4 ,he was allowed to  
attend the mass  celebrated by the      
commander of the ,knights of ,st4 ,john 
on ,st4 ,john's  ,day3 the right of     
hunting was accorded to him2 and        
soldiers might not be  quartered in his 
house4 ,at ,marseilles also on this day 
one of the guilds  chose a king of the  
badache or double axe2 but it does not  
appear that  he kindled the bonfire1    
which is said to have been lighted with 
great  ceremony by the prfet and other  
authorities4#dij    ,the ,midsummer     
fires in ,belgium2 bonfires on ,st4     
,peter's ,day in ,brabant2  the ,king   
and ,queen of the ,roses2 effigies burnt
 in the ,midsummer fires4    ,in        
,belgium the custom of kindling the     
midsummer bonfires has long  disappeared
 from the great cities1 but it is still 
kept up in rural  districts and small   
towns of ,brabant1 ,flanders1 and       
,limburg4 ,people leap  across the fires
 to protect themselves against fever1   
and in eastern  ,flanders women perform 

similar leaps for the purpose of        
ensuring an easy  delivery4 ,at         
,termonde young people go from door to  
door collecting fuel  for the fires and 
reciting verses1 in which they beg the  
inmates to give  them wood of ,st4 ,john
 and to keep some wood for ,st4 ,peter's
 ,day 7the  twenty-ninth of ,june72 for 
in ,belgium the ,eve of ,st4 ,peter's   
,day is  celebrated by bonfires and     
dances exactly like those which         
commemorate  ,st4 ,john's ,eve4 ,the    
ashes of the ,st4 ,john's fires are     
deemed by ,belgian  peasants an         
excellent remedy for consumption1 if you
 take a spoonful or  two of them1       
moistened with water1 day by day4       
,people also burn vervain  in the fires1
 and they say that in the ashes of the  
plant you may find1  if you look for it1
 the ,fool's ,stone4#dia ,in many parts 
of ,brabant  ,st4 ,peter's bonfire used 
to be much larger than that of his rival
 ,st4  ,john4 ,when it had burned out1  
both sexes engaged in a game of ball1   

and  the winner became the ,king of     
,summer or of the ,ball and had the     
right to  choose his ,queen4 ,sometimes 
the winner was a woman1 and it was then 
her  privilege to select her royal mate4
 ,this pastime was well known at        
,louvain and it continued to be         
practised at ,grammont and ,mespelaer   
down  to the second half of the         
nineteenth century4 ,at ,mespelaer1     
which is a  village near ,termonde1 a   
huge pile of eglantine1 reeds1 and straw
 was  collected in a marshy meadow for  
the bonfire2 and next evening after     
vespers the young folk who had lit it   
assembled at the ,good ,life  tavern to 
play the game4 ,the winner was crowned  
with a wreath of roses1  and the rest   
danced and sang in a ring about him4 ,at
 ,grammont1 while the  bonfire was lit  
and the dances round it took place on   
,st4 ,peter's ,eve1  the festival of the
 ,crown of ,roses was deferred till the 
following  ,sunday4 ,the young folk     
arranged among themselves beforehand who

 should  be ,king and ,queen of the     
,roses3 the rosy wreaths were hung on   
cords  across the street3 the dancers   
danced below them1 and at a given moment
  the wreaths fell on the heads of the  
chosen ,king and ,queen1 who had to     
entertain their fellows at a feast4     
,according to some people the fires  of 
,st4 ,peter1 like those of ,st4 ,john1  
were lighted in order to drive  away    
dragons4#dib ,in ,french ,flanders down 
to #aghi a straw figure  representing a 
man was always burned in the midsummer  
bonfire1 and the  figure of a woman was 
burned on ,st4 ,peter's ,day4#dic ,in   
,belgium people  jump over the midsummer
 bonfires as a preventive of colic1 and 
they keep  the ashes at home to hinder  
fire from breaking out4#did    ,the     
,midsummer fires in ,england2 ,stow's   
description of the ,midsummer  fires in 
,london2 the ,midsummer fires at ,eton4 
,the custom of lighting bonfires at     
midsummer has been observed in many     
parts of our own country4 ,on the ,vigil

 of ,saint ,john the ,baptist1  commonly
 called ,midsummer ,eve1 it was usual in
 most country places1 and  also in towns
 and cities1 for the inhabitants1 both  
old and young1 and  of both sexes1 to   
meet together1 and make merry by the    
side of a large  fire made in the middle
 of the street1 or in some open and     
convenient  place1 over which the young 
men frequently leaped by way of frolic1 
and  also exercised themselves with     
various sports and pastimes1 more       
especially with running1 wrestling1 and 
dancing4 ,these diversions they         
continued till midnight1 and sometimes  
till cock-crowing4#die ,in the  streets 
of ,london the midsummer fires were     
lighted in the time of ,queen           
,elizabeth down to the end of the       
sixteenth century1 as we learn from     
,stow's description1 which runs thus3   
,in the months of ,june and ,july1 on   
the vigils of festival days1 and on the 
same festival days in the  evenings     
after the sun setting1 there were       

usually made bonfires in the  streets1  
every man bestowing wood or labour      
towards them2 the wealthier  sort also1 
before their doors near to the said     
bonfires1 would set out  tables on the  
vigils furnished with sweet bread and   
good drink1 and on  the festival days   
with meats and drinks plentifully1      
whereunto they  would invite their      
neighbours and passengers also to sit   
and be merry  with them in great        
familiarity1 praising ,god for ,his     
benefits bestowed  on them4 ,these were 
called bonfires as well of good amity   
amongst  neighbours that being before at
 controversy1 were there1 by the labour 
of others1 reconciled1 and made of      
bitter enemies loving friends2 and  also
 for the virtue that a great fire hath  
to purge the infection of the  air4 ,on 
the vigil of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1   
and on ,st4 ,peter and ,paul the        
,apostles1 every man's door being       
shadowed with green birch1 long fennel1 
,st ,john's wort1 orpin1 white lilies1  

and such like1 garnished upon with      
garlands of beautiful flowers1 had also 
lamps of glass1 with oil burning  in    
them all the night2 some hung out       
branches of iron curiously wrought1     
containing hundreds of lamps alight at  
once1 which made a goodly show1  namely1
 in ,new ,fish ,street1 ,thames ,street1
 etc4#dif ,in the sixteenth  century the
 ,eton boys used to kindle a bonfire on 
the east side of the  church both on ,st
 ,john's ,day and on ,st4 ,peter's      
,day4#dig ,writing in the  second half  
of the seventeenth century1 the         
antiquary ,john ,aubrey tells  us that  
bonfires were still kindled in many     
places on ,st4 ,john's ,night1  but that
 the civil wars had thrown many of these
 old customs out of  fashion4 ,wars1 he 
adds1 extinguish superstition as well as
 religion and  laws1 and there is       
nothing like gunpowder for putting      
phantoms to  flight4#dih    ,the        
,midsummer fires in the north of        
,england2 the ,midsummer fires in       

,northumberland4    ,in the north of    
,england these fires used to be lit in  
the open streets4  ,young and old       
gathered round them1 and while the young
 leaped over the  fires and engaged in  
games1 their elders looked on and       
probably  remembered with regret the    
days when they used to foot it as       
nimbly4  ,sometimes the fires were      
kindled on the tops of high hills4 ,the 
people  also carried firebrands about   
the fields4#dii ,the custom of kindling 
bonfires on ,midsummer ,eve prevailed   
all over ,cumberland down to the  second
 half of the eighteenth century4#ejj ,in
 ,northumberland the custom  seems to   
have lasted into the first quarter of   
the nineteenth century2  the fires were 
lit in the villages and on the tops of  
high hills1 and  the people sported and 
danced round them4#eja ,moreover1 the   
villagers  used to run with burning     
brands round their fields and to snatch 
ashes  from a neighbour's fire1 saying  
as they did so1 ,we have the flower 7or 

flour7 of the wake4#ejb ,at ,sandhill   
bonfires were kindled on the ,eve  of   
,st4 ,peter as well as on ,midsummer    
,eve2 the custom is attested for the    
year #aege1 when it was described as    
ancient4#ejc ,we are told that on       
,midsummer's eve1 reckoned according to 
the old style1 it was formerly  the     
custom of the inhabitants1 young and    
old1 not only of ,whalton1 but  of most 
of the adjacent villages1 to collect a  
large cartload of whins  and other      
combustible materials1 which was dragged
 by them with great  rejoicing 7a       
fiddler being seated on the top of the  
cart7 into the  village and erected into
 a pile4 ,the people from the           
surrounding country  assembled towards  
evening1 when it was set on fire2 and   
whilst the young  danced around it1 the 
elders looked on smoking their pipes and
 drinking  their beer1 until it was     
consumed4 ,there can be little doubt    
that this  curious old custom dates from
 a very remote antiquity4 ,in a         

law-suit1  which was tried in #ahgh1 the
 rector of ,whalton gave evidence of the
  constant use of the village green for 
the ceremony since #ahdc4 ,the  bonfire1
 he said1 was lighted a little to the   
north-east of the well  at ,whalton1 and
 partly on the footpath1 and people     
danced round it and  jumped through it4 
,that was never interrupted4 ,the ,rev4 
,g4,r4 ,hall1  writing in #ahgi1 says   
that the fire festivals or bonfires of  
the summer  solstice at the ,old        
,midsummer until recently were          
commemorated on  ,christenburg ,crags   
and elsewhere by leaping through and    
dancing round  the fires1 as those who  
have been present have told me4#ejd     
,down to  the early part of the         
nineteenth century bonfires called      
,beal-fires used  to be lit on          
,midsummer ,eve all over the wolds in   
the ,east ,riding of  ,yorkshire4#eje   
,the ,midsummer fires in ,herefordshire1
 ,somersetshire1 ,devonshire1 and       
,cornwall2 the ,cornish fires on        

,midsummer ,eve and ,st4 ,peter's ,eve4 
,in ,herefordshire and ,somersetshire   
the peasants used to make fires in  the 
fields on ,midsummer ,eve to bless the  
apples4#ejf ,in ,devonshire  the custom 
of leaping over the midsummer fires was 
also observed4#ejg  ,in ,cornwall1 the  
festival fires1 called bonfires1 are    
kindled on the  ,eves of ,st4 ,john     
,baptist and ,st4 ,peter's day2 and     
,midsummer is thence1  in the ,cornish  
tongue1 called ,goluan1 which signifies 
both light and  rejoicing4 ,at these    
fires the ,cornish attend with lighted  
torches1  tarred and pitched at the end1
 and make their perambulations round    
their  fires1 going from village to     
village and carrying their torches      
before  them2 this is certainly the     
remains of ,druid superstition2 for1    
,faces  praeferre1 to carry lighted     
torches was reckoned a kind of          
gentilism1  and as such particularly    
prohibited by the ,gallick              
,councils4#ejh ,at  ,penzance and       

elsewhere in the county the people      
danced and sang about  the bonfires on  
,midsummer ,eve4 ,on ,whiteborough1 a   
large tumulus near  ,launceston1 a huge 
bonfire used to be kindled on ,midsummer
 ,eve2 a tall  summer pole with a large 
bush at the top was fixed in the centre 
of the  bonfire4#eji ,the ,cornish fires
 at this season appear to have been     
commonly lit on high and conspicuous    
hills1 such as ,tregonan1 ,godolphin1   
,carnwarth1 and ,cam ,brea4 ,when it    
grew dusk on ,midsummer ,eve1 old men   
would hobble away to some height whence 
they counted the fires and drew  a      
presage from their number4#eaj ,it is   
the immemorial usage in  ,penzance1 and 
the neighbouring towns and villages1 to 
kindle bonfires  and torches on         
,midsummer-eve2 and on ,midsummer-day to
 hold a fair on  ,penzance quay1 where  
the country folks assemble from the     
adjoining  parishes in great numbers to 
make excursions on the water4 ,st4      
,peter's  ,eve 7the twenty-eighth of    

,june7 is distinguished by a similar    
display of  bonfires and torches1       
although the 'quay-fair' on ,st4        
,peter's-day 7the  twenty-ninth of      
,june71 has been discontinued upwards of
 forty years4 ,on  these eves a line of 
tar-barrels1 relieved occasionally by   
large  bonfires1 is seen in the centre  
of each of the principal streets in     
,penzance4 ,on either side of this line 
young men and women pass up and  down1  
swinging round their heads heavy torches
 made of large pieces of  folded canvas 
steeped in tar1 and nailed to the ends  
of sticks between  three and four feet  
long2 the flames of some of these almost
 equal those  of the tar-barrels4 ,rows 
of lighted candles1 also1 when the air  
is calm1  are fixed outside the windows 
or along the sides of the streets4 ,in  
,st4  ,just1 and other mining parishes1 
the young miners1 mimicking their       
fathers' employments1 bore rows of holes
 in the rocks1 load them with           
gunpowder1 and explode them in rapid    

succession by trains of the same        
substance4 ,as the holes are not deep   
enough to split the rocks1 the same     
little batteries serve for many years4  
,on these nights1 ,mount's ,bay has  a  
most animating appearance1 although not 
equal to what was annually  witnessed at
 the beginning of the present century1  
when the whole coast1  from the ,land's 
,end to the ,lizard1 wherever a town or 
a village existed1  was lighted up with 
these stationary or moving fires4 ,in   
the early part  of the evening1 children
 may be seen wearing wreaths of         
flowers--a  custom in all probability   
originating from the ancient use of     
these  ornaments when they danced around
 the fires4 ,at the close of the        
fireworks in ,penzance1 a great number  
of persons of both sexes1 chiefly  from 
the neighbourhood of the quay1 used     
always1 until within the last  few      
years1 to join hand in hand1 forming a  
long string1 and run through  the       
streets1 playing 'thread the needle1'   

heedless of the fireworks  showered upon
 them1 and oftentimes leaping over the  
yet glowing embers4  ,i have on these   
occasions seen boys following one       
another1 jumping  through flames higher 
than themselves4#eaa    ,the ,midsummer 
fires in ,wales and the ,isle of ,man2  
burning wheel rolled  down hill4    ,in 
,wales the midsummer fires were kindled 
on ,st4 ,john's ,eve and on ,st4        
,john's ,day4 ,three or nine different  
kinds of wood and charred faggots       
carefully preserved from the last       
midsummer were deemed necessary to      
build the bonfire1 which was generally  
done on rising ground4 ,various  herbs  
were thrown into the blaze2 and girls   
with bunches of three or  nine different
 kinds of flowers would take the hands  
of boys1 who wore  flowers in their     
buttonholes and hats1 and together the  
young couples  would leap over the      
fires4 ,on the same two midsummer days  
roses and  wreaths of flowers were hung 
over the doors and windows4 ,describing 

a  midsummer fire1 an old inhabitant1   
born in #ahji1 remembered being taken   
to different hills in the ,vale of      
,glamorgan to see festivities in which  
people from all parts of the district   
participated4 ,she was at that time     
about fourteen1 and old enough to retain
 a vivid recollection of the            
circumstances4 ,people conveyed trusses 
of straw to the top of the hill1  where 
men and youths waited for the           
contributions4 ,women and girls were    
stationed at the bottom of the hill4    
,then a large cart-wheel was thickly    
swathed with straw1 and not an inch of  
wood was left in sight4 ,a pole  was    
inserted through the centre of the      
wheel1 so that long ends extended  about
 a yard on each side4 ,if any straw     
remained1 it was made up into  torches  
at the top of tall sticks4 ,at a given  
signal the wheel was  lighted1 and sent 
rolling downhill4 ,if this fire-wheel   
went out before  it reached the bottom  
of the hill1 a very poor harvest was    

promised4 ,if  it kept lighted all the  
way down1 and continued blazing for a   
long time1  the harvest would be        
exceptionally abundant4 ,loud cheers and
 shouts  accompanied the progress of the
 wheel4#eab ,at ,darowen in ,wales small
  bonfires were kindled on ,midsummer   
,eve4#eac ,on the same day people in    
the ,isle of ,man were wont to light    
fires to the windward of every field1   
so that the smoke might pass over the   
corn2 and they folded their cattle  and 
carried blazing furze or gorse round    
them several times4#ead    ,the         
,midsummer fires in ,ireland2 passage of
 people and cattle through  the fires2  
cattle driven through the fire2 ashes   
used to fertilize the  fields2 the      
,white ,horse at the ,midsummer fire4   
,a writer of the last quarter of the    
seventeenth century tells us that in    
,ireland1 on the ,eves of ,st4 ,john    
,baptist and ,st4 ,peter1 they always   
have in every town a bonfire1 late in   
the evenings1 and carry about  bundles  

of reeds fast tied and fired2 these     
being dry1 will last long1  and flame   
better than a torch1 and be a pleasing  
divertive prospect to  the distant      
beholder2 a stranger would go near to   
imagine the whole  country was on       
fire4#eae ,another writer says of the   
,south of ,ireland3  ,on ,midsummer's   
,eve1 every eminence1 near which is a   
habitation1 blazes  with bonfires2 and  
round these they carry numerous torches1
 shouting and  dancing1 which affords a 
beautiful sight4#eaf ,an author who     
described  ,ireland in the first quarter
 of the eighteenth century says3 ,on the
  vigil of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist's    
,nativity1 they make bonfires1 and run  
along the streets and fields with wisps 
of straw blazing on long poles  to      
purify the air1 which they think        
infectious1 by believing all the        
devils1 spirits1 ghosts1 and hobgoblins 
fly abroad this night to hurt           
mankind4#eag ,another writer states that
 he witnessed the festival in  ,ireland 

in #aghb3 ,at the house where ,i was    
entertained1 it was told me1  that we   
should see1 at midnight1 the most       
singular sight in ,ireland1  which was  
the lighting of fires in honour of the  
sun4 ,accordingly1  exactly at midnight1
 the fires began to appear2 and taking  
the advantage  of going up to the leads 
of the house1 which had a widely        
extended view1  ,i saw on a radius of   
thirty miles1 all around1 the fires     
burning on  every eminence which the    
country afforded4 ,i had a farther      
satisfaction  in learning1 from         
undoubted authority1 that the people    
danced round the  fires1 and at the     
close went through these fires1 and made
 their sons  and daughters1 together    
with their cattle1 pass through the     
fire2 and  the whole was conducted with 
religious solemnity4#eah ,that the      
custom  prevailed in full force as late 
as #ahfg appears from a notice in a     
newspaper of that date1 which runs thus3
 ,the old pagan fire-worship  still     

survives in ,ireland1 though nominally  
in honour of ,st4 ,john4 ,on  ,sunday   
night bonfires were observed throughout 
nearly every county in  the province of 
,leinster4 ,in ,kilkenny1 fires blazed  
on every hillside at  intervals of about
 a mile4 ,there were very many in the   
,queen's ,county1  also in ,kildare and 
,wexford4 ,the effect in the rich sunset
 appeared to  travellers very grand4    
,the people assemble1 and dance round   
the fires1  the children jump through   
the flames1 and in former times live    
coals  were carried into the corn-fields
 to prevent blight4#eai ,in ,county     
,leitrim on ,st4 ,john's ,eve1 which is 
called ,bonfire ,day1 fires are still   
lighted after dusk on the hills and     
along the sides of the roads4#ebj  ,all 
over ,kerry the same thing continues to 
be done1 though not so  commonly as of  
old4 ,small fires were made across the  
road1 and to drive  through them brought
 luck for the year4 ,cattle were also   
driven through  the fires4 ,on          

,lettermore ,island1 in ,south          
,connemara1 some of the ashes  from the 
midsummer bonfire are thrown on the     
fields to fertilize  them4#eba ,one     
writer informs us that in ,munster and  
,connaught a bone  must always be burned
 in the fire2 for otherwise the people  
believe that  the fire will bring no    
luck4 ,he adds that in many places      
sterile beasts  and human beings are    
passed through the fire1 and that as a  
boy he  himself jumped through the fire 
for luck4#ebb ,an eye-witness has       
described as follows a remarkable       
ceremony observed in ,ireland on        
,midsummer ,eve3 ,when the fire burned  
for some hours1 and got low1 an         
indispensable part of the ceremony      
commenced4 ,every one present of the    
peasantry passed through it1 and several
 children were thrown across the        
sparkling embers2 while a wooden frame1 
of some eight feet long1 with a  horse's
 head fixed to one end1 and a large     
white sheet thrown over it  concealing  

the wood and the man on whose head it   
was carried1 made its  appearance4 ,this
 was greeted with loud shouts of ',the  
white horse6' and  having been safely   
carried by the skill of its bearer      
several times  through the fire with a  
bold leap1 it pursued the people1 who   
ran  screaming and laughing in every    
direction4 ,i asked what the horse was  
meant for1 and was told that it         
represented 'all cattle4'#ebc    ,lady  
,wilde's account of the ,midsummer fires
 in ,ireland4    ,lady ,wilde's account 
of the midsummer festival in ,ireland is
 picturesque  and probably correct in   
substance1 although she does not cite   
her  authorities4 ,as it contains some  
interesting features which are not      
noticed by the other writers on ,ireland
 whom ,i have consulted1 ,i will  quote 
the greater part of it in full4 ,in     
ancient times1 she says1 the  sacred    
fire was lighted with great ceremony on 
,midsummer ,eve2 and on  that night all 
the people of the adjacent country kept 

fixed watch on  the western promontory  
of ,howth1 and the moment the first     
flash was seen  from that spot the fact 
of ignition was announced with wild     
cries and  cheers repeated from village 
to village1 when all the local fires    
began  to blaze1 and ,ireland was       
circled by a cordon of flame rising up  
from  every hill4 ,then the dance and   
song began round every fire1 and the    
wild  hurrahs filled the air with the   
most frantic revelry4 ,many of these    
ancient customs are still continued1 and
 the fires are still lighted on  ,st4   
,john's ,eve on every hill in ,ireland4 
,when the fire has burned down  to a red
 glow the young men strip to the waist  
and leap over or through  the flames2   
this is done backwards and forwards     
several times1 and he  who braves the   
greatest blaze is considered the victor 
over the powers  of evil1 and is greeted
 with tremendous applause4 ,when the    
fire burns  still lower1 the young girls
 leap the flame1 and those who leap     

clean  over three times back and forward
 will be certain of a speedy marriage   
and good luck in after-life1 with many  
children4 ,the married women then  walk 
through the lines of the burning embers2
 and when the fire is  nearly burnt and 
trampled down1 the yearling cattle are  
driven through  the hot ashes1 and their
 back is singed with a lighted hazel    
twig4 ,these  rods are kept safely      
afterwards1 being considered of immense 
power to  drive the cattle to and from  
the watering places4 ,as the fire       
diminishes  the shouting grows fainter1 
and the song and the dance commence2    
while  professional story-tellers       
narrate tales of fairy-land1 or of the  
good  old times long ago1 when the kings
 and princes of ,ireland dwelt amongst  
their own people1 and there was food to 
eat and wine to drink for all  comers to
 the feast at the king's house4 ,when   
the crowd at length  separate1 every one
 carries home a brand from the fire1 and
 great virtue  is attached to the       

lighted brone which is safely carried to
 the house  without breaking or falling 
to the ground4 ,many contests also arise
  amongst the young men2 for whoever    
enters his house first with the  sacred 
fire brings the good luck of the year   
with him4#ebd    ,holy water resorted to
 on ,midsummer ,eve in ,ireland4    ,in 
,ireland1 as elsewhere1 water was also  
apparently thought to acquire a  certain
 mystical virtue at midsummer4 ,at      
,stoole1 near ,downpatrick1  there is a 
ceremony commencing at twelve o'clock at
 night on ,midsummer  ,eve4 ,its sacred 
mount is consecrated to ,st4 ,patrick2  
the plain contains  three wells1 to     
which the most extraordinary virtues are
 attributed4  ,here and there are heaps 
of stones1 around some of which appear  
great  numbers of people1 running with  
as much speed as possible2 around others
  crowds of worshippers kneel with bare 
legs and feet as an indispensable  part 
of the penance4 ,the men1 without coats1
 with handkerchiefs on their  heads     

instead of hats1 having gone seven times
 round each heap1 kiss the  ground1     
cross themselves1 and proceed to the    
hill2 here they ascend1 on  their bare  
knees1 by a path so steep and rugged    
that it would be  difficult to walk up4 
,many hold their hands clasped at the   
back of their  necks1 and several carry 
large stones on their heads4 ,having    
repeated  this ceremony seven times1    
they go to what is called ,st4          
,patrick's  ,chair1 which are two great 
flat stones fixed upright in the hill2  
here  they cross and bless themselves as
 they step in between these stones1     
and1 while repeating prayers1 an old    
man1 seated for the purpose1 turns  them
 round on their feet three times1 for   
which he is paid2 the devotee  then goes
 to conclude his penance at a pile of   
stones1 named the ,altar4  ,while this  
busy scene is continued by the          
multitude1 the wells and  streams       
issuing from them are thronged by crowds
 of halt1 maimed1 and  blind1 pressing  

to wash away their infirmities with     
water consecrated by  their patron      
saint1 and so powerful is the impression
 of its efficacy on  their minds1 that  
many of those who go to be healed1 and  
who are not  totally blind1 or          
altogether crippled1 really believe for 
a time that  they are by means of its   
miraculous virtues perfectly            
restored4#ebe    ,the ,midsummer fires  
in ,scotland2 fires on ,st4 ,peter's    
,day 7the  twenty-ninth of ,june74      
,in ,scotland the traces of midsummer   
fires are few4 ,we are told by a  writer
 of the eighteenth century that the     
midsummer-even fire1 a relict  of       
,druidism1 was kindled in some parts of 
the county of ,perth4#ebf  ,another     
writer of the same period1 describing   
what he calls the  ,druidical festivals 
of the ,highlanders1 says that the least
  considerable of them is that of       
midsummer4 ,in the ,highlands of        
,perthshire there are some vestiges of  
it4 ,the cowherd goes three times  round

 the fold1 according to the course of   
the sun1 with a burning torch  in his   
hand4 ,they imagined this rite had a    
tendency to purify their  herds and     
flocks1 and to prevent diseases4 ,at    
their return the landlady  makes an     
entertainment for the cowherd and his   
associates4#ebg ,in the  northeast of   
,scotland1 down to the latter half of   
the eighteenth  century1 farmers used to
 go round their lands with burning      
torches about  the middle of ,june4#ebh 
,on the hill of ,cairnshee1 in the      
parish of  ,durris1 ,kincardineshire1   
the herdsmen of the country round about 
annually kindle a bonfire at sunset on  
,midsummer ,day 7the twenty-fourth  of  
,june72 the men or lads collect the fuel
 and push each other through  the smoke 
and flames4 ,the custom is kept up      
through the benefaction of a  certain   
,alexander ,hogg1 a native of the       
parish1 who died about #agij and  left a
 small sum for the maintenance of a     
midsummer bonfire on the spot1  because 

as a boy he had herded cattle on the    
hill4 ,we may conjecture  that in doing 
so he merely provided for the           
continuance of an old custom  which he  
himself had observed in the same place  
in his youth4#ebi ,at  the village of   
,tarbolton in ,ayrshire a bonfire has   
been annually kindled  from time        
immemorial on the evening of the first  
,monday after the  eleventh of ,june4 ,a
 noted cattle-market was formerly held  
at the fair on  the following day4 ,the 
bonfire is still lit at the gloaming by 
the lads  and lasses of the village on a
 high mound or hillock just outside of  
the  village4 ,fuel for it is collected 
by the lads from door to door4 ,the     
youth dance round the fire and leap over
 the fringes of it4 ,the many           
cattle-drovers who used to assemble for 
the fair were wont to gather  round the 
blazing pile1 smoke their pipes1 and    
listen to the young folk  singing in    
chorus on the hillock4 ,afterwards they 
wrapped themselves in  their plaids and 

slept round the bonfire1 which was      
intended to last all  night4#ecj ,thomas
 ,moresin of ,aberdeen1 a writer of the 
sixteenth  century1 says that on ,st4   
,peter's ,day1 which is the twenty-ninth
 of  ,june1 the ,scotch ran about at    
night with lighted torches on mountains 
and high grounds1 as ,ceres did when she
 roamed the whole earth in  search of   
,proserpine2#eca and towards the end of 
the eighteenth  century the parish      
minister of ,loudoun1 a district of     
,ayrshire whose  bonny woods and braes  
have been sung by ,burns1 wrote that the
 custom  still remains amongst the herds
 and young people to kindle fires in the
  high grounds in honour of ,beltan4    
,beltan1 which in ,gaelic signifies     
,baal1 or ,bel's-fire1 was antiently the
 time of this solemnity4 ,it is  now    
kept on ,st4 ,peter's day4#ecb    ,the  
,midsummer fires in ,spain and the      
,azores2 divination on ,midsummer  ,eve 
in the ,azores2 the ,midsummer fires in 
,corsica and ,sardinia4    ,all over    

,spain great bonfires called lumes are  
still lit on ,midsummer  ,eve4 ,they are
 kept up all night1 and the children    
leap over them in a  certain rhythmical 
way which is said to resemble the       
ancient dances4 ,on  the coast1 people  
at this season plunge into the sea2 in  
the inland  districts the villagers go  
and roll naked in the dew of the        
meadows1  which is supposed to be a     
sovereign preservative against diseases 
of the  skin4 ,on this evening1 too1    
girls who would pry into the future put 
a  vessel of water on the sill outside  
their window2 and when the clocks       
strike twelve1 they break an egg in the 
water and see1 or fancy they  see1 in   
the shapes assumed by the pulp1 as it   
blends with the liquid1  the likeness of
 future bridegrooms1 castles1 coffins1  
and so forth4 ,but  generally1 as might 
perhaps have been anticipated1 the      
obliging egg  exhibits the features of a
 bridegroom4#ecc ,in the ,azores1 also1 
bonfires are lit on ,midsummer ,eve     

7,st4 ,john's ,eve71 and boys jump over 
them for luck4 ,on that night ,st4 ,john
 himself is supposed to appear in       
person and bless all the seas and       
waters1 driving out the devils and      
demons who had been disporting          
themselves in them ever since the second
  day of ,november2 that is why in the  
interval between the second of          
,november and the twenty-third of ,june 
nobody will bathe in the sea or in  a   
hot spring4 ,on ,midsummer ,eve1 too1   
you can always see the devil1 if  you   
will go into a garden at midnight4 ,he  
is invariably found standing  near a    
mustard-plant4 ,his reason for adopting 
this posture has not been  ascertained2 
perhaps in the chilly air of the upper  
world he is  attracted by the genial    
warmth of the mustard4 ,various forms of
  divination are practised by people in 
the ,azores on ,midsummer ,eve4 ,thus  a
 new-laid egg is broken into a glass of 
water1 and the shapes which it  assumes 
foreshadow the fate of the person       

concerned4 ,again1 seven  saucers are   
placed in a row1 filled respectively    
with water1 earth1  ashes1 keys1 a      
thimble1 money1 and grass1 which things 
signify travel1  death1 widowhood1      
housekeeping1 spinsterhood1 riches1 and 
farming4 ,a  blindfolded person touches 
one or other of the saucers with a wand 
and  so discovers his or her fate4      
,again1 three broad beans are taken2 one
 is  left in its skin1 one is half      
peeled1 and the third is peeled         
outright4  ,the three denote            
respectively riches1 competence1 and    
poverty4 ,they are  hidden and searched 
for2 and he who finds one of them knows 
accordingly  whether he will be rich1   
moderately well-off1 or poor4 ,again1   
girls take  slips of paper and write the
 names of young men twice over on them4 
,these they fold up and crumple and     
place one set under their pillows and   
the other set in a saucer full of water4
 ,in the morning they draw one  slip of 
paper from under their pillow1 and see  

whether one in the water  has opened    
out4 ,if the names on the two slips are 
the same1 it is the  name of her future 
husband4 ,young men do the same with    
girls' names4  ,once more1 if a girl    
rises at sunrise1 goes out into the     
street1 and  asks the first passer-by   
his ,christian name1 that will be her   
husband's  name4#ecd ,some of these     
modes of divination resemble those which
 are or  used to be practised in        
,scotland at ,hallowe'en4#ece ,in       
,corsica on the  ,eve of ,st4 ,john the 
people set fire to the trunk of a tree  
or to a whole  tree1 and the young men  
and maidens dance round the blaze1 which
 is  called fucaraia4#ecf ,we have seen 
that at ,ozieri1 in ,sardinia1 a  great 
bonfire is kindled on ,st4 ,john's ,eve1
 and that the young people  dance round 
it4#ecg    ,the ,midsummer fires in the 
,abruzzi2 bathing on ,midsummer ,eve in 
the  ,abruzzi2 the ,midsummer fires in  
,sicily2 the witches at ,midsummer4     
,passing to ,italy1 we find that the    

midsummer fires are still lighted on    
,st4 ,john's ,eve in many parts of the  
,abruzzi4 ,they are commonest in the    
territory which was inhabited in        
antiquity by the ,vestini2 they are     
rarer in the land of the ancient ,marsi1
 and they disappear entirely in  the    
lower valley of the ,sangro4 ,for the   
most part1 the fires are fed  with straw
 and dry grass1 and are kindled in the  
fields near the  villages or on high    
ground4 ,as they blaze up1 the people   
dance round or  over them4 ,in leaping  
across the flames the boys cry out1 ,st4
 ,john1  preserve my thighs and legs6   
,formerly it used to be common to light 
the  bonfires also in the towns in front
 of churches of ,st4 ,john1 and the     
remains of the sacred fire were carried 
home by the people2 but this  custom has
 mostly fallen into disuse4 ,however1 at
 ,celano the practice is  still kept up 
of taking brands and ashes from the     
bonfires to the  houses1 although the   
fires are no longer kindled in front of 

the  churches1 but merely in the        
streets4#ech ,in the ,abruzzi water also
 is  supposed to acquire certain        
marvellous and beneficent properties on 
,st4  ,john's ,night4 ,hence many people
 bathe or at least wash their faces and 
hands in the sea or a river at that     
season1 especially at the moment of     
sunrise4 ,such a bath is said to be an  
excellent cure for diseases of the      
skin4 ,at ,castiglione a ,casauria the  
people1 after washing in the river  or  
in springs1 gird their waists and wreath
 their brows with sprigs of  briony in  
order to keep them from aches and       
pains4#eci ,in various parts  of        
,sicily1 also1 fires are kindled on     
,midsummer ,eve 7,st4 ,john's ,eve71    
the twenty-third of ,june4 ,on the      
,madonie mountains1 in the north of the 
island1 the herdsmen kindle them at     
intervals1 so that the crests of the    
mountains are seen ablaze in the        
darkness for many miles4 ,about         
,acireale1 on the east coast of the     

island1 the bonfires are lit by boys1   
who jump over them4 ,at ,chiaromonte the
 witches that night acquire             
extraordinary powers2 hence everybody   
then puts a broom outside of his  house1
 because a broom is an excellent        
protective against  witchcraft4#edj ,at 
,orvieto the midsummer fires were       
specially excepted  from the prohibition
 directed against bonfires in           
general4#eda    ,the ,midsummer fires in
 ,malta     ,in ,malta also the people  
celebrate ,midsummer ,eve 7,st4 ,john's 
,eve7 by  kindling great fires in the   
public streets1 and giving their        
children  dolls to carry in their arms  
on this day1 in order to make good the  
prophecy respecting the ,baptist1 ,multi
 in nativitate ejus gaudebunt4  ,days   
and even weeks before this festival1    
groups of children are seen  going out  
into the country fields to gather straw1
 twigs1 and all sorts  of other         
combustibles1 which they store up for   
,st4 ,john's ,eve4 ,on the  night of the

 twenty-third of ,june1 the day before  
the festival of the  ,saint1 great fires
 are kindled in the streets1 squares1   
and market  places of the towns and     
villages of the ,island1 and as fire    
after fire  blazes out of the darkness  
of that summer night1 the effect is     
singularly striking4 ,these fires are   
sometimes kept up for hours1 being      
continually fed by the scores of        
bystanders1 who take great delight in   
throwing amidst the flames some old     
rickety piece of furniture which  they  
consider as lumber in their houses4     
,lots of happy and reckless  children1  
and very often men1 are seen merrily    
leaping in succession  over and through 
the crackling flames4 ,at the time of   
the ,order of ,st4  ,john of ,jerusalem1
 the ,grand ,master himself1 soon after 
the ,angelus1  used to leave his palace1
 accompanied by the ,grand ,prior1 the  
,bishop1  and two bailiffs1 to set fire 
to some pitch barrels which were placed 
for the occasion in the square facing   

the sacred ,hospital4 ,great crowds     
used to assemble here in order to assist
 at this ceremony4 ,the setting  ablaze 
of the five casks1 and later on of the  
eight casks1 by the ,grand  ,master1 was
 a signal for the others to kindle their
 fires in the  different parts of the   
town4#edb    ,the ,midsummer fires in   
,greece2 the ,midsummer fires in        
,macedonia and  ,albania4    ,in        
,greece1 the custom of kindling fires on
 ,st4 ,john's ,eve and jumping  over    
them is said to be still universal4 ,one
 reason assigned for it is a  wish to   
escape from the fleas4#edc ,according to
 another account1 the  women cry out1 as
 they leap over the fire1 ,i leave my   
sins behind  me4#edd ,in ,lesbos the    
fires on ,st4 ,john's ,eve are usually  
lighted by  threes1 and the people      
spring thrice over them1 each with a    
stone on his  head1 saying1 ,i jump the 
hare's fire1 my head a stone6 ,on the   
morning  of ,st4 ,john's ,day those who 
dwell near the coast go to bathe in the 

sea4  ,as they go they gird themselves  
with osiers1 and when they are in the   
water they let the osiers float away1   
saying1 ,let my maladies go away6  ,then
 they look for what is called the hairy 
stone1 which possesses the  remarkable  
property not only of keeping moths from 
clothes but even of  multiplying the    
clothes in the chest where it is laid   
up1 and the more  hairs on the stone the
 more will the clothes multiply in the  
chest4#ede  ,in ,calymnos the midsummer 
fire is supposed to ensure abundance in 
the  coming year as well as deliverance 
from fleas4 ,the people dance round  the
 fires singing1 with stones on their    
heads1 and then jump over the  blaze or 
the glowing embers4 ,when the fire is   
burning low1 they throw  the stones into
 it2 and when it is nearly out1 they    
make crosses on  their legs and then go 
straightway and bathe in the sea4#edf   
,in ,cos the  lads and lasses dance     
round the bonfires on ,st4 ,john's ,eve4
 ,each of the  lads binds a black stone 

on his head1 signifying that he wishes  
to  become as strong as the stone4 ,also
 they make the sign of the cross on     
their feet and legs and jump over the   
fire4#edg ,on ,midsummer ,eve the       
,greeks of ,macedonia light fires after 
supper in front of their gates4  ,the   
garlands1 now faded1 which were hung    
over the doors on ,may ,day1 are  taken 
down and cast into the flames1 after    
which the young folk leap  over the     
blaze1 fully persuaded that ,st4 ,john's
 fire will not burn  them4#edh ,in      
,albania fires of dry herbage are1 or   
used to be1 lit  everywhere on ,st4     
,john's ,eve2 young and old leap over   
them1 for such a  leap is thought to be 
good for the health4#edi    ,the        
,midsummer fires in ,america4    ,from  
the ,old ,world the midsummer fires have
 been carried across the  ,atlantic to  
,america4 ,in ,brazil people jump over  
the fires of ,st4 ,john1  and at this   
season they can take hot coals in their 
mouths without  burning themselves4#eej 

,in ,bolivia on the ,eve of ,st4 ,john  
it is usual  to see bonfires lighted on 
the hills and even in the streets of the
  capital ,la ,paz4 ,as the city stands 
at the bottom of an immense ravine1  and
 the ,indians of the neighbourhood take 
a pride in kindling bonfires  on heights
 which might seem inaccessible1 the     
scene is very striking  when the        
darkness of night is suddenly and       
simultaneously lit up by  hundreds of   
fires1 which cast a glare on surrounding
 objects1 producing  an effect at once  
weird and picturesque4#eea    ,the      
,midsummer fires among the ,mohammedans 
of ,morocco and ,algeria4    ,the custom
 of kindling bonfires on ,midsummer ,day
 or on ,midsummer ,eve is  widely spread
 among the ,mohammedan peoples of ,north
 ,africa1 particularly  in ,morocco and 
,algeria2 it is common both to the      
,berbers and to many of  the ,arabs or  
,arabic-speaking tribes4 ,in these      
countries ,midsummer ,day  7the         
twenty-fourth of ,june1 ,old ,style7 is 

called ,arabic3 l'ansara4  ,the fires   
are lit in the courtyards1 at           
cross-roads1 in the fields1 and         
sometimes on the threshing-floors4      
,plants which in burning give out a     
thick smoke and an aromatic smell are   
much sought after for fuel on  these    
occasions2 among the plants used for the
 purpose are giant-fennel1  thyme1 rue1 
chervil-seed1 camomile1 geranium1 and   
penny-royal4 ,people  expose themselves1
 and especially their children1 to the  
smoke1 and  drive it towards the        
orchards and the crops4 ,also they leap 
across the  fires2 in some places       
everybody ought to repeat the leap seven
 times4  ,moreover they take burning    
brands from the fires and carry them    
through  the houses in order to fumigate
 them4 ,they pass things through the    
fire1  and bring the sick into contact  
with it1 while they utter prayers for   
their recovery4 ,the ashes of the       
bonfires are also reputed to possess    
beneficial properties2 hence in some    

places people rub their hair or  their  
bodies with them4#eeb ,for example1 the 
,andjra mountaineers of  ,morocco kindle
 large fires in open places of their    
villages on ,midsummer  ,day4 ,men1     
women1 and children jump over the flames
 or the glowing  embers1 believing that 
by so doing they rid themselves of all  
misfortune  which may be clinging to    
them2 they imagine1 also1 that such     
leaps cure  the sick and procure        
offspring for childless couples4        
,moreover1 they  burn straw1 together   
with some marjoram and alum1 in the fold
 where the  cattle1 sheep1 and goats are
 penned for the night2 the smoke1 in    
their  opinion1 will make the animals   
thrive4 ,on ,midsummer ,day the ,arabs  
of the  ,mnasara tribe make fires       
outside their tents1 near their animals1
 on  their fields1 and in their gardens4
 ,large quantities of penny-royal are   
burned in these fires1 and over some of 
them the people leap thrice to  and fro4
 ,sometimes small fires are also kindled

 inside the tents4 ,they  say that the  
smoke confers blessings on everything   
with which it comes  into contact4 ,at  
,salee1 on the ,atlantic coast of       
,morocco1 persons who  suffer from      
diseased eyes rub them with the ashes of
 the midsummer fire2  and in ,casablanca
 and ,azemmur the people hold their     
faces over the fire1  because the smoke 
is thought to be good for the eyes4 ,the
 ,arab tribe  ,ulad ,bu ,aziz1 in the   
,dukkala province of ,morocco1 kindle   
midsummer  bonfires1 not for themselves 
and their cattle1 but only for crops and
  fruit2 nobody likes to reap his crops 
before ,midsummer ,day1 because if  he  
did they would lose the benefit of the  
blessed influence which flows  from the 
smoke of the bonfires4 ,again1 the ,beni
 ,mgild1 a ,berber tribe of  ,morocco1  
light fires of straw on ,midsummer ,eve 
and leap thrice over them  to and fro4  
,they let some of the smoke pass        
underneath their clothes1  and married  
women hold their breasts over the fire1 

in order that their  children may be    
strong4 ,moreover1 they paint their eyes
 and lips with  some black powder1 in   
which ashes of the bonfire are mixed4   
,and in order  that their horses may    
also benefit by the fires1 they dip the 
right  forelegs of the animals in the   
smoke and flames or in the hot embers1  
and they rub ashes on the foreheads and 
between the nostrils of the  horses4    
,berbers of the ,rif province1 in       
northern ,morocco1 similarly make  great
 use of fires at midsummer for the good 
of themselves1 their  cattle1 and their 
fruit-trees4 ,they jump over the        
bonfires in the belief  that this will  
preserve them in good health1 and they  
light fires under  fruit-trees to keep  
the fruit from falling untimely4 ,and   
they imagine  that by rubbing a paste of
 the ashes on their hair they prevent   
the hair  from falling off their        
heads4#eec    ,beneficial effect        
ascribed to the smoke of the fires2 ill 
luck supposed  to be burnt in the       

,midsummer fires2 the ,midsummer        
festival in ,north  ,africa comprises   
rites concerned with water as well as   
with fire2 the  ,midsummer festival in  
,north ,africa is probably older than   
,mohammedanism4    ,in all these        
,moroccan customs1 we are told1 the     
beneficial effect is  attributed wholly 
to the smoke1 which is supposed to be   
endued with a  magical quality that     
removes misfortune from men1 animals1   
fruit-trees1  and crops4 ,but in some   
parts of ,morocco people at midsummer   
kindle fires  of a different sort1 not  
for the sake of fumigation1 but in order
 to  burn up misfortune in the flames4  
,thus on ,midsummer ,eve the ,berber    
tribe  of the ,beni ,mgild burn three   
sheaves of unthreshed wheat or barley1  
one  for the children1 one for the      
crops1 and one for the animals4 ,on the 
same occasion they burn the tent of a   
widow who has never given birth to  a   
child2 by so doing they think to rid the
 village of ill luck4 ,it is  said that 

at midsummer the ,zemmur burn a tent1   
which belongs to somebody  who was      
killed in war during a feast2 or if     
there is no such person in  the village1
 the schoolmaster's tent is burned      
instead4 ,among the  ,arabic-speaking   
,beni ,ahsen it is customary for those  
who live near the  river ,sbu to make a 
little hut of straw at midsummer1 set it
 on fire1  and let it float down the    
river4 ,similarly the inhabitants of    
,salee burn  a straw hut on the river   
which flows past their town4#eed        
,further it deserves to be noticed that 
in ,northern ,africa1 as in  ,southern  
,europe1 the midsummer festival         
comprises rites concerned with  water as
 well as with fire4 ,for example1 among 
the ,beni-,snous the women  light a fire
 in an oven1 throw perfumes into it1 and
 circumambulate a  tank1 which they also
 incense after a fashion4 ,in many      
places on the  coast1 as in the province
 of ,oran and particularly in the north 
of  ,morocco1 everybody goes and bathes 

in the sea at midsummer2 and in many    
towns of the interior1 such as ,fez1    
,mequinez1 and especially ,merrakech1   
people throw water over each other on   
this day2 and where water is  scarce1   
earth is used instead1 according to the 
,mohammedan principle  which permits    
ablutions to be performed with earth or 
sand when water  cannot be spared for   
the purpose4#eee ,people of the ,andjra 
district in  ,morocco not only bathe    
themselves in the sea or in rivers at   
midsummer1  they also bathe their       
animals1 their horses1 mules1 donkeys1  
cattle1  sheep1 and goats2 for they     
think that on that day water possesses a
  blessed virtue 7baraka71 which removes
 sickness and misfortune4 ,in  ,aglu1   
again1 men1 women1 and children bathe in
 the sea or springs or  rivers at       
midsummer1 alleging that by so doing    
they protect themselves  against disease
 for the whole year4 ,among the ,berbers
 of the ,rif  district the custom of    
bathing on this day is commonly         

observed1 and  animals share the        
ablutions4#eef    ,some ,mohammedans of 
,north ,africa kindle fires and observe 
water  ceremonies at their movable ,new 
,year2 water ceremonies at ,new ,year in
  ,morocco2 the rites of fire and water 
at ,midsummer and ,new ,year in         
,morocco seem to be identical in        
character2 the duplication of the       
festival is probably due to a conflict  
between the solar calendar of the       
,romans and the lunar calendar of the   
,arabs4    ,the celebration of a        
midsummer festival by ,mohammedan       
peoples is  particularly remarkable1    
because the ,mohammedan calendar1 being 
purely  lunar and uncorrected by        
intercalation1 necessarily takes no note
 of  festivals which occupy fixed points
 in the solar year2 all strictly        
,mohammedan feasts1 being pinned to the 
moon1 slide gradually with that         
luminary through the whole period of the
 earth's revolution about the  sun4     
,this fact of itself seems to prove that

 among the ,mohammedan  peoples of      
,northern ,africa1 as among the         
,christian peoples of ,europe1  the     
midsummer festival is quite independent 
of the religion which the  people       
publicly profess1 and is a relic of a   
far older paganism4 ,there  are1 indeed1
 independent grounds for thinking that  
the ,arabs enjoyed the  advantage of a  
comparatively well-regulated solar year 
before the  prophet of ,god saddled them
 with the absurdity and inconvenience of
 a  purely lunar calendar4#eeg ,be that 
as it may1 it is notable that some      
,mohammedan people of ,north ,africa    
kindle fires and bathe in water at the  
movable ,new ,year of their lunar       
calendar instead of at the fixed        
,midsummer of the solar year2 while     
others again practise these  observances
 at both seasons4 ,new ,year's ,day1 on 
which the rites are  celebrated1 is     
called ,ashur2 it is the tenth day of   
,moharram1 the  first month of the      
,mohammedan calendar4 ,on that day      

bonfires are kindled  in ,tunis and also
 at ,merrakech and among some tribes of 
the  neighbourhood4#eeh ,at ,demnat1 in 
the ,great ,atlas mountains1 people     
kindle a large bonfire on ,new ,year's  
,eve and leap to and fro over the       
flames1 uttering words which imply that 
by these leaps they think to  purify    
themselves from all kinds of evil4 ,at  
,aglu1 in the province of  ,sus1 the    
fire is lighted at three different      
points by an unmarried girl1  and when  
it has died down the young men leap over
 the glowing embers1  saying1 ,we shook 
on you1 ,o ,lady ,ashur1 fleas1 and     
lice1 and the  illnesses of the heart1  
as also those of the bones2 we shall    
pass  through you again next year and   
the following years with safety and     
health4 ,both at ,aglu and ,glawi1 in   
the ,great ,atlas1 smaller fires are    
also kindled1 over which the animals are
 driven4 ,at ,demnat girls who  wish to 
marry wash themselves in water which has
 been boiled over the  ,new ,year fire2 

and in ,dukkala people use the ashes of 
that fire to rub  sore eyes with4 ,new  
,year fires appear to be commonly       
kindled among the  ,berbers who inhabit 
the western portion of the ,great       
,atlas1 and also  among the             
,arabic-speaking tribes of the plains2  
but ,dr4 ,westermarck  found no traces  
of such fires among the ,arabic-speaking
 mountaineers of  ,northern ,morocco and
 the ,berbers of the ,rif province4     
,further1 it should  be observed that   
water ceremonies like those which are   
practised at  ,midsummer are very       
commonly observed in ,morocco at the    
,new ,year1 that  is1 on the tenth day  
of the first month4 ,on the morning of  
that day  7,ashur7 all water or1        
according to some people1 only spring   
water is  endowed with a magical virtue 
7baraka71 especially before sunrise4    
,hence at that time the people bathe and
 pour water over each other2 in  some   
places they also sprinkle their animals1
 tents1 or rooms4 ,in  ,dukkala some of 

the ,new ,year water is preserved at    
home till ,new ,year's  ,day 7,ashur7 of
 next year2 some of it is kept to be    
used as medicine1  some of it is poured 
on the place where the corn is threshed1
 and some  is used to water the money   
which is to be buried in the ground2 for
 the  people think that the             
earth-spirits will not be able to steal 
the buried  treasures which have thus   
been sanctified with the holy water4#eei
    ,the ,midsummer festival in ,morocco
 seems to be of ,berber origin4    ,thus
 the rites of fire and water which are  
observed in ,morocco at  ,midsummer and 
,new ,year appear to be identical in    
character and  intention1 and it seems  
certain that the duplication of the     
rites is due  to a conflict between two 
calendars1 namely the old ,julian       
calendar of  the ,romans1 which was     
based on the sun1 and the newer         
,mohammedan  calendar of the ,arabs1    
which is based on the moon4 ,for not    
only was the  ,julian calendar in use   

throughout the whole of ,northern       
,africa under the  ,roman ,empire2 to   
this day it is everywhere employed among
 ,mohammedans  for the regulation of    
agriculture and all the affairs of daily
 life2 its  practical convenience has   
made it indispensable1 and the lunar    
calendar  of orthodox ,mohammedanism is 
scarcely used except for purposes of    
chronology4 ,even the old ,latin names  
of the months are known and  employed1  
in slightly disguised forms1 throughout 
the whole ,moslem  world2 and little    
calendars of the ,julian year circulate 
in manuscript  among ,mohammedans1      
permitting them to combine the practical
 advantages  of pagan science with a    
nominal adherence to orthodox           
absurdity4#efj  ,thus the heathen origin
 of the midsummer festival is too       
palpable to  escape the attention of    
good ,mohammedans1 who accordingly frown
 upon the  midsummer bonfires as pagan  
superstitions1 precisely as similar     
observances in ,europe have often been  

denounced by orthodox  ,christianity4   
,indeed1 many religious people in       
,morocco entirely  disapprove of the    
whole of the midsummer ceremonies1      
maintaining that  they are all bad2 and 
a conscientious schoolmaster will even  
refuse his  pupils a holiday at         
midsummer1 though the boys sometimes    
offer him a  bribe if he will sacrifice 
his scruples to his avarice4#efa ,as the
  midsummer customs appear to flourish  
among all the ,berbers of ,morocco  but 
to be unknown among the pure ,arabs who 
have not been affected by  ,berber      
influence1 it seems reasonable to infer 
with ,dr4 ,westermarck that  the        
midsummer festival has belonged from    
time immemorial to the ,berber  race1   
and that so far as it is now observed by
 the ,arabs of ,morocco1 it  has been   
learned by them from the ,berbers1 the  
old indigenous  inhabitants of the      
country4 ,dr4 ,westermarck may also be  
right in holding  that1 in spite of the 
close similarity which obtains between  

the  midsummer festival of ,europe and  
the midsummer festival of ,north        
,africa1  the latter is not a copy of   
the former1 but that both have been     
handed  down independently from a time  
beyond the purview of history1 when such
  ceremonies were common to the         
,mediterranean race4#efb       #e4 ,the 
,autumn ,fires      ,festivals of fire  
in ,august2 ,russian feast of ,florus   
and ,laurus on  ,august #ahth2 ,living  
fire made by the friction of wood4      
,in the months which elapse between     
midsummer and the setting in of  winter 
the ,european festivals of fire appear  
to be few and unimportant4  ,on the     
evening of the first day of ,august1    
which is the ,festival of the  ,cross1  
bonfires are commonly lit in ,macedonia 
and boys jump over them1  shouting1 ,dig
 up6 bury6 but whom or what they wish to
 dig up or bury  they do not know4#efc  
,the ,russians hold the feast of two    
martyrs1  ,florus and ,laurus1 on the   
eighteenth day of ,august1 ,old ,style4 

,on this  day the ,russians lead their  
horses round the church of their        
village1  beside which on the foregoing 
evening they dig a hole with two mouths4
  ,each horse has a bridle made of the  
bark of the linden-tree4 ,the horses  go
 through this hole one after the other1 
opposite to one of the mouths  of which 
the priest stands with a sprinkler in   
his hand1 with which he  sprinkles them4
 ,as soon as the horses have passed by  
their bridles are  taken off1 and they  
are made to go between two fires that   
they kindle1  called by the ,russians   
,givoy ,agon1 that is to say1 living    
fires1 of  which ,i shall give an       
account4 ,i shall before remark1 that   
the ,russian  peasantry throw the       
bridles of their horses into one of     
these fires to  be consumed4 ,this is   
the manner of their lighting these givoy
 agon1 or  living fires4 ,some men hold 
the ends of a stick made of the         
plane-tree1  very dry1 and about a      
fathom long4 ,this stick they hold      

firmly over one  of birch1 perfectly    
dry1 and rub with violence and quickly  
against the  former2 the birch1 which is
 somewhat softer than the plane1 in a   
short  time inflames1 and serves them to
 light both the fires ,i have           
described4#efd    ,feast of the         
,nativity of the ,virgin on the eighth  
of ,september at ,capri  and ,naples4   
,the ,feast of the ,nativity of the     
,virgin on the eighth day of ,september 
is celebrated at ,naples and ,capri with
 fireworks1 bonfires1 and               
assassinations4 ,on this subject my     
friend ,professor ,a4 ,e4 ,housman1 who 
witnessed the celebration in different  
years at both places1 has kindly        
furnished me with the following         
particulars3 ,in #aijf ,i was in the    
island of ,capri on ,september the      
eighth1 the feast of the ,nativity of   
the ,virgin4 ,the anniversary was duly  
solemnised by fire-works at nine or  ten
 in the evening1 which ,i suppose were  
municipal2 but just after  sundown the  

boys outside the villages were making   
small fires of  brushwood on waste bits 
of ground by the wayside4 ,very pretty  
it looked1  with the flames blowing     
about in the twilight2 but what took my 
attention was the listlessness of the   
boys and their lack of interest in  the 
proceeding4 ,a single lad1 the youngest1
 would be raking the fire  together and 
keeping it alight1 but the rest stood   
lounging about and  looking in every    
other direction1 with the air of        
discharging  mechanically a traditional 
office from which all zest had          
evaporated4  ,the pious orgy at ,naples 
on ,september the eighth went through   
the  following phases when ,i witnessed 
it in #ahig4 ,it began at eight in the  
evening with an illumination of the     
faade of ,santa ,maria ,piedigrotta  and
 with the whole population walking about
 blowing penny trumpets4  ,after four   
hours of this ,i went to bed at         
midnight1 and was lulled to  sleep by   
barrel-organs1 which supersede the      

trumpets about that hour4 ,at  four in  
the morning ,i was waked by detonations 
as if the ,british fleet  were          
bombarding the city1 caused1 ,i was     
afterwards told1 by dynamite  rockets4  
,the only step possible beyond this is  
assassination1 which  accordingly takes 
place about peep of day3 ,i forget now  
the number of  the slain1 but ,i think  
the average is eight or ten1 and ,i know
 that in  honour of my presence they    
murdered a few more than usual4    ,the 
,feast of the ,nativity of the ,virgin  
may have replaced a pagan  festival2 the
 coincidence of the ,midsummer festival 
with the summer  solstice implies that  
the founders of the festival regulated  
their  calendar by observation of the   
sun4    ,it is no doubt possible that   
these illuminations and fireworks1 like 
the  assassinations1 are merely the     
natural and spontaneous expressions of  
that overflowing joy with which the     
thought of the birth of the ,virgin     
must fill every pious heart2 but when we

 remember how often the ,church  has    
skilfully decanted the new wine of      
,christianity into the old bottles  of  
heathendom1 we may be allowed to        
conjecture that the ecclesiastical      
authorities adroitly timed the ,nativity
 of the ,virgin so as to coincide  with 
an old pagan festival of that day1 in   
which fire1 noise1 and  uproar1 if not  
broken heads and bloodshed1 were        
conspicuous features4  ,the penny       
trumpets blown on this occasion recall  
the like melodious  instruments which   
figure so largely in the celebration of 
,befana 7the  ,eve of ,epiphany7 at     
,rome4#efe       #f4 ,the ,hallowe'en   
,fires      ,on the other hand the      
,celts divided their year1 not by the   
solstices1  but by the beginning of     
summer 7the first of ,may7 and the      
beginning of  winter 7the first of      
,november74    ,from the foregoing      
survey we may infer that among the      
heathen  forefathers of the ,european   
peoples the most popular and widespread 

fire-festival of the year was the great 
celebration of ,midsummer ,eve or       
,midsummer ,day4 ,the coincidence of the
 festival with the summer solstice  can 
hardly be accidental4 ,rather we must   
suppose that our pagan  ancestors       
purposely timed the ceremony of fire on 
earth to coincide with  the arrival of  
the sun at the highest point of his     
course in the sky4 ,if  that was so1 it 
follows that the old founders of the    
midsummer rites had  observed the       
solstices or turning-points of the sun's
 apparent path in  the sky1 and that    
they accordingly regulated their festal 
calendar to  some extent by astronomical
 considerations4    ,the division seems 
to have been neither astronomical nor   
agricultural  but pastoral1 being       
determined by the times when cattle are 
driven to  and from their summer        
pasture4    ,but while this may be      
regarded as fairly certain for what we  
may call  the aborigines throughout a   
large part of the continent1 it appears 

not  to have been true of the ,celtic   
peoples who inhabited the ,land's ,end  
of  ,europe1 the islands and            
promontories that stretch out into the  
,atlantic  ocean on the ,north-,west4   
,the principal fire-festivals of the    
,celts1  which have survived1 though in 
a restricted area and with diminished   
pomp1 to modern times and even to our   
own day1 were seemingly timed  without  
any reference to the position of the sun
 in the heaven4 ,they  were two in      
number1 and fell at an interval of six  
months1 one being  celebrated on the eve
 of ,may ,day and the other on          
,allhallow ,even or  ,hallowe'en1 as it 
is now commonly called1 that is1 on the 
thirty-first  of ,october1 the day      
preceding ,all ,saints' or ,allhallows' 
,day4 ,these  dates coincide with none  
of the four great hinges on which the   
solar  year revolves1 to wit1 the       
solstices and the equinoxes4 ,nor do    
they  agree with the principal seasons  
of the agricultural year1 the sowing in 

spring and the reaping in autumn4 ,for  
when ,may ,day comes1 the seed has  long
 been committed to the earth2 and when  
,november opens1 the harvest  has long  
been reaped and garnered1 the fields lie
 bare1 the fruit-trees  are stripped1   
and even the yellow leaves are fast     
fluttering to the  ground4 ,yet the     
first of ,may and the first of ,november
 mark  turning-points of the year in    
,europe2 the one ushers in the genial   
heat  and the rich vegetation of summer1
 the other heralds1 if it does not      
share1 the cold and barrenness of       
winter4 ,now these particular points of 
the year1 as has been well pointed out  
by a learned and ingenious  writer1#eff 
while they are of comparatively little  
moment to the  ,european husbandman1 do 
deeply concern the ,european herdsman2  
for it is  on the approach of summer    
that he drives his cattle out into the  
open to  crop the fresh grass1 and it is
 on the approach of winter that he leads
  them back to the safety and shelter of

 the stall4 ,accordingly it seems  not  
improbable that the ,celtic bisection of
 the year into two halves at  the       
beginning of ,may and the beginning of  
,november dates from a time  when the   
,celts were mainly a pastoral people1   
dependent for their  subsistence on     
their herds1 and when accordingly the   
great epochs of the  year for them were 
the days on which the cattle went forth 
from the  homestead in early summer and 
returned to it again in early           
winter4#efg  ,even in ,central ,europe1 
remote from the region now occupied by  
the  ,celts1 a similar bisection of the 
year may be clearly traced in the  great
 popularity1 on the one hand1 of ,may   
,day and its ,eve 7,walpurgis  ,night71 
and1 on the other hand1 of the ,feast of
 ,all ,souls at the  beginning of       
,november1 which under a thin ,christian
 cloak conceals an  ancient pagan       
festival of the dead4#efh ,hence we may 
conjecture that  everywhere throughout  
,europe the celestial division of the   

year  according to the solstices was    
preceded by what we may call a          
terrestrial division of the year        
according to the beginning of summer    
and the beginning of winter4    ,the two
 great ,celtic festivals1 ,beltane and  
,hallowe'en4    ,be that as it may1 the 
two great ,celtic festivals of ,may ,day
 and the  first of ,november or1 to be  
more accurate1 the ,eves of these two   
days1  closely resemble each other in   
the manner of their celebration and in  
the superstitions associated with them1 
and alike1 by the antique  character    
impressed upon both1 betray a remote and
 purely pagan origin4  ,the festival of 
,may ,day or ,beltane1 as the ,celts    
called it1 which  ushered in summer1 has
 already been described2#efi it remains 
to give  some account of the            
corresponding festival of ,hallowe'en1  
which  announced the arrival of winter4 
,hallowe'en 7the evening of ,october    
#cast7 seems to have marked the         
beginning of the ,celtic year2 the many 

forms of divination resorted to  at     
,hallowe'en are appropriate to the      
beginning of a ,new ,year2 ,hallowe'en  
also a festival of the dead4    ,of the 
two feasts ,hallowe'en was perhaps of   
old the more important1  since the      
,celts would seem to have dated the     
beginning of the year from  it rather   
than from ,beltane4 ,in the ,isle of    
,man1 one of the fortresses  in which   
the ,celtic language and lore longest   
held out against the siege  of the      
,saxon invaders1 the first of ,november1
 ,old ,style1 has been  regarded as ,new
 ,year's day down to recent times4 ,thus
 ,manx mummers used  to go round on     
,hallowe'en 7,old ,style71 singing1 in  
the ,manx language1 a  sort of ,hogmanay
 song which began ,to-night is ,new     
,year's ,night1  ,hog-unnaa6#egj ,one of
 ,sir ,john ,rhys's ,manx informants1 an
 old man of  sixty-seven1 had been a    
farm servant from the age of sixteen    
till he  was twenty-six to the same man1
 near ,regaby1 in the parish of         

,andreas1  and he remembers his master  
and a near neighbour of his discussing  
the  term ,new ,year's ,day as applied  
to the first of ,november1 and          
explaining  to the younger men that it  
had always been so in old times4 ,in    
fact1 it  seemed to him natural enough1 
as all tenure of land ends at that time1
  and as all servant men begin their    
service then4#ega ,in ancient  ,ireland1
 as we saw1 a new fire used to be       
kindled every year on  ,hallowe'en or   
the ,eve of ,samhain1 and from this     
sacred flame all the  fires in ,ireland 
were rekindled4#egb ,such a custom      
points strongly to  ,samhain or ,all    
,saints' ,day 7the first of ,november7  
as ,new ,year's ,day2  since the annual 
kindling of a new fire takes place most 
naturally at  the beginning of the year1
 in order that the blessed influence of 
the  fresh fire may last throughout the 
whole period of twelve months4  ,another
 confirmation of the view that the      
,celts dated their year from  the first 

of ,november is furnished by the        
manifold modes of divination  which1 as 
we shall see presently1 were commonly   
resorted to by ,celtic  peoples on      
,hallowe'en for the purpose of          
ascertaining their destiny1  especially 
their fortune in the coming year2 for   
when could these  devices for prying    
into the future be more reasonably put  
in practice  than at the beginning of   
the year8 ,as a season of omens and     
auguries  ,hallowe'en seems to have far 
surpassed ,beltane in the imagination of
 the  ,celts2 from which we may with    
some probability infer that they        
reckoned  their year from ,hallowe'en   
rather than ,beltane4 ,another          
circumstance of  great moment which     
points to the same conclusion is the    
association of  the dead with           
,hallowe'en4 ,not only among the ,celts 
but throughout  ,europe1 ,hallowe'en1   
the night which marks the transition    
from autumn to  winter1 seems to have   
been of old the time of year when the   

souls of the  departed were supposed to 
revisit their old homes in order to warm
  themselves by the fire and to comfort 
themselves with the good cheer  provided
 for them in the kitchen or the parlour 
by their affectionate  kinsfolk4#egc ,it
 was1 perhaps1 a natural thought that   
the approach of  winter should drive the
 poor shivering hungry ghosts from the  
bare  fields and the leafless woodlands 
to the shelter of the cottage with its  
familiar fireside4#egd ,did not the     
lowing kine then troop back from the    
summer pastures in the forests and on   
the hills to be fed and cared for  in   
the stalls1 while the bleak winds       
whistled among the swaying boughs  and  
the snow drifts deepened in the hollows8
 and could the good-man and  the        
good-wife deny to the spirits of their  
dead the welcome which they  gave to the
 cows8    ,fairies and ,hobgoblins let  
loose at ,hallowe'en4    ,but it is not 
only the souls of the departed who are  
supposed to be  hovering unseen on the  

day when autumn to winter resigns the   
pale  year4 ,witches then speed on their
 errands of mischief1 some sweeping     
through the air on besoms1 others       
galloping along the roads on            
tabby-cats1 which for that evening are  
turned into coal-black  steeds4#ege ,the
 fairies1 too1 are all let loose1 and   
hobgoblins of  every sort roam freely   
about ,in ,south ,uist and ,eriskay     
there is a  saying3--    ,hallowe'en    
will come1 will come1  ,witchcraft or   
divination will be set agoing1  ,fairies
 will be at full speed1  ,running in    
every pass4  ,avoid the road1 children1 
children4#egf    ,dancing with the      
fairies at ,hallowe'en4    ,in          
,cardiganshire on ,november ,eve a bogie
 sits on every stile4#egg ,on  that     
night in ,ireland all the fairy hills   
are thrown wide open and the  fairies   
swarm forth2 any man who is bold enough 
may then peep into the  open green hills
 and see the treasures hidden in them4  
,worse than that1  the cave of ,cruachan

 in ,connaught1 known as the ,hell-gate 
of ,ireland1  is unbarred on ,samhain   
,eve or ,hallowe'en1 and a host of      
horrible fiends  and goblins used to    
rush forth1 particularly a flock of     
copper-red  birds1 which blighted crops 
and killed animals by their poisonous   
breath4#egh ,the ,scotch ,highlanders   
have a special name ,samhanach  7derived
 from ,samhain1 ,all-hallows7 for the   
dreadful bogies that go  about that     
night stealing babies and committing    
other atrocities4#egi  ,and though the  
fairies are a kindlier folk1 it is      
dangerous to see even  them at their    
revels on ,hallowe'en4 ,a melancholy    
case of this sort is  reported from the 
,ferintosh district of the ,highlands1  
though others say  that it happened at  
the ,slope of ,big ,stones in ,harris4  
,two young men  were coming home after  
nightfall on ,hallowe'en1 each with a   
jar of  whisky on his back1 when they   
saw1 as they thought1 a house all lit up
  by the roadside1 from which proceeded 

the sounds of music and dancing4  ,in   
reality it was not a house at all but a 
fairy knoll1 and it was the  fairies who
 were jigging it about there so merrily4
 ,but one of the young  men was deceived
 and stepping into the house joined in  
the dance1  without even stopping to put
 down the jar of whisky4 ,his companion 
was  wiser2 he had a shrewd suspicion   
that the place was not what it seemed1  
and on entering he took the precaution  
of sticking a needle in the door4  ,that
 disarmed the power of the fairies1 and 
he got away safely4 ,well1  that day    
twelve months he came back to the spot  
and what should he see  but his poor    
friend still dancing away with the jar  
of whisky on his  back8 ,a weary man was
 he1 as you may well believe1 but he    
begged to be  allowed to finish the reel
 which he was in the act of executing1  
and  when they took him out into the    
open air1 there was nothing of him left 
but skin and bones4#ehj ,again1 the     
wicked fairies are apt to carry off     

men's wives with them to fairyland2 but 
the lost spouses can be  recovered      
within a year and a day when the        
procession of the fairies is  defiling  
past on ,hallowe'en1 always provided    
that the mortals did not  partake of    
elfin food while they were in           
elfinland4#eha    ,guleesh and the      
revels of the fairies at ,hallowe'en4   
,sometimes valuable information may be  
obtained from the fairies on            
,hallowe'en4 ,there was a young man     
named ,guleesh in the ,county of ,mayo4 
,near his house was a rath or old fort  
with a fine grass bank running  round   
it4 ,one ,hallowe'en1 when the darkness 
was falling1 ,guleesh went to  the rath 
and stood on a gray old flag4 ,the night
 was calm and still2  there was not a   
breath of wind stirring1 nor a sound to 
be heard except  the hum of the insects 
flitting past1 or the whistle of the    
plovers1 or  the hoarse scream of the   
wild geese as they winged their way far 
overhead4 ,above the white fog the moon 

rose like a knob of fire in the  east1  
and a thousand thousand stars were      
twinkling in the sky4 ,there was  a     
little frost in the air1 the grass was  
white and crisp and crackled  under     
foot4 ,guleesh expected to see the      
fairies1 but they did not come4  ,hour  
after hour wore away1 and he was just   
bethinking him of going home  to bed1   
when his ear caught a sound far off     
coming towards him1 and he  knew what it
 was in a moment4 ,the sound grew louder
 and louder2 at first  it was like the  
beating of waves on a stony shore1 then 
it was like the  roar of a waterfall1 at
 last it was like a mighty rushing wind 
in the  tops of the trees1 then the     
storm burst upon the rath1 and sure     
enough  the fairies were in it4 ,the    
rout went by so suddenly that ,guleesh  
lost  his breath2 but he came to himself
 and listened4 ,the fairies were now    
gathered within the grassy bank of the  
rath1 and a fine uproar they  made4 ,but
 ,guleesh listened with all his ears1   

and he heard one fairy  saying to       
another that a magic herb grew by       
,guleesh's own door1 and that  ,guleesh 
had nothing to do but pluck it and boil 
it and give it to his  sweetheart1 the  
daughter of the ,king of ,france1 and   
she would be well1  for just then she   
was lying very ill4 ,guleesh took the   
hint1 and  everything went as the fairy 
had said4 ,and he married the daughter  
of  the ,king of ,france2 and they had  
never a cark nor a care1 a sickness nor 
a sorrow1 a mishap nor a misfortune to  
the day of their death4#ehb             
,divination resorted to in ,celtic      
countries at ,hallowe'en4    ,in all    
,celtic countries ,hallowe'en seems to  
have been the great season  of the year 
for prying into the future2 all kinds of
 divination were put  in practice that  
night4 ,we read that ,dathi1 a king of  
,ireland in the  fifth century1         
happening to be at the ,druids' ,hill   
7,cnoc-nan-druad7 in  the county of     
,sligo one ,hallowe'en1 ordered his     

druid to forecast for  him the future   
from that day till the next ,hallowe'en 
should come round4  ,the druid passed   
the night on the top of the hill1 and   
next morning made  a prediction to the  
king which came true4#ehc ,in ,wales    
,hallowe'en was  the weirdest of all the
 ,teir ,nos ,ysbrydion1 or ,three       
,spirit ,nights1  when the wind1 blowing
 over the feet of the corpses1 bore     
sighs to the  houses of those who were  
to die within the year4 ,people thought 
that if  on that night they went out to 
a cross-road and listened to the wind1  
they would learn all the most important 
things that would befall them  during   
the next twelve months4#ehd ,in ,wales1 
too1 not so long ago women  used to     
congregate in the parish churches on the
 night of ,hallowe'en and  read their   
fate from the flame of the candle which 
each of them held in  her hand2 also    
they heard the names or saw the coffins 
of the  parishioners who would die      
within the year1 and many were the sad  

scenes  to which these gloomy visions   
gave rise4#ehe ,and in the ,highlands of
  ,scotland anybody who pleased could   
hear proclaimed aloud the names of      
parishioners doomed to perish within the
 next twelve months1 if he would  only  
take a three-legged stool and go and sit
 on it at three  cross-roads1 while the 
church clock was striking twelve at     
midnight on  ,hallowe'en4 ,it was even  
in his power to save the destined       
victims from  their doom by taking with 
him articles of wearing apparel and     
throwing  them away1 one by one1 as each
 name was called out by the mysterious  
voice4#ehf    ,hallowe'en bonfires in   
the ,highlands of ,scotland2 ,john      
,ramsay's account  of the ,hallowe'en   
bonfires2 divination from stones at the 
fire2  ,hallowe'en fires in the parishes
 of ,callander and ,logierait4    ,but  
while a glamour of mystery and awe has  
always clung to ,hallowe'en in  the     
minds of the ,celtic peasantry1 the     
popular celebration of the  festival has

 been1 at least in modern times1 by no  
means of a  prevailingly gloomy cast2 on
 the contrary it has been attended by   
picturesque features and merry pastimes1
 which rendered it the gayest  night of 
all the year4 ,amongst the things which 
in the ,highlands of  ,scotland         
contributed to invest the festival with 
a romantic beauty were  the bonfires    
which used to blaze at frequent         
intervals on the heights4  ,on the last 
day of autumn children gathered ferns1  
tar-barrels1 the  long thin stalks      
called ginisg1 and everything suitable  
for a  bonfire4 ,these were placed in a 
heap on some eminence near the house1   
and in the evening set fire to4 ,the    
fires were called ,samhnagan4 ,there    
was one for each house1 and it was an   
object of ambition who should have  the 
biggest4 ,whole districts were brilliant
 with bonfires1 and their  glare across 
a ,highland loch1 and from many         
eminences1 formed an  exceedingly       
picturesque scene4#ehg ,like the        

,beltane fires on the first  of ,may1   
the ,hallowe'en bonfires seem to have   
been kindled most commonly  in the      
,perthshire ,highlands4 ,travelling in  
the parish of ,moulin1 near             
,pitlochrie1 in the year #aggb1 the     
,englishman ,thomas ,pennant writes that
  ,hallow ,eve is also kept sacred3 as  
soon as it is dark1 a person sets  fire 
to a bush of broom fastened round a     
pole1 and1 attended with a  crowd1 runs 
about the village4 ,he then flings it   
down1 heaps great  quantity of          
combustible matters on it1 and makes a  
great bonfire4 ,a  whole tract is thus  
illuminated at the same time1 and makes 
a fine  appearance4#ehh ,the custom has 
been described more fully by a          
,scotchman of the eighteenth century1   
,john ,ramsay of ,ochtertyre4 ,on the   
evening of ,hallowe'en the young people 
of every hamlet assembled upon  some    
eminence near the houses4 ,there they   
made a bonfire of ferns or  other fuel1 
cut the same day1 which from the feast  

was called ,samh-nag  or ,savnag1 a fire
 of rest and pleasure4 ,around it was   
placed a circle  of stones1 one for each
 person of the families to whom they    
belonged4  ,and when it grew dark the   
bonfire was kindled1 at which a loud    
shout was  set up4 ,then each person    
taking a torch of ferns or sticks in his
 hand1  ran round the fire exulting2 and
 sometimes they went into the adjacent  
fields1 where1 if there was another     
company1 they visited the bonfire1      
taunting the others if inferior in any  
respect to themselves4 ,after the  fire 
was burned out they returned home1 where
 a feast was prepared1 and  the         
remainder of the evening was spent in   
mirth and diversions of  various kinds4 
,next morning they repaired betimes to  
the bonfire1 where  the situation of the
 stones was examined with much          
attention4 ,if any of  them were        
misplaced1 or if the print of a foot    
could be discerned near  any particular 
stone1 it was imagined that the person  

for whom it was  set would not live out 
the year4 ,of late years this is less   
attended to1  but about the beginning of
 the present century it was regarded as 
a sure  prediction4 ,the ,hallowe'en    
fire is still kept up in some parts of  
the  ,low country2 but on the western   
coast and in the ,isles it is never     
kindled1 though the night is spent in   
merriment and  entertainments4#ehi ,in  
the ,perthshire parish of ,callander1   
which  includes the now famous pass of  
the ,trossachs opening out on the       
winding  and wooded shores of the lovely
 ,loch ,katrine1 the ,hallowe'en        
bonfires  were still kindled down to    
near the end of the eighteenth century4 
,when  the fire had died down1 the ashes
 were carefully collected in the form   
of a circle1 and a stone was put in1    
near the circumference1 for every       
person of the several families          
interested in the bonfire4 ,next        
morning1  if any of these stones was    
found to be displaced or injured1 the   

people  made sure that the person       
represented by it was fey or devoted1   
and  that he could not live twelve      
months from that day4#eij ,in the parish
  of ,logierait1 which covers the       
beautiful valley of the ,tummel1 one of 
the fairest regions of all ,scotland1   
the ,hallowe'en fire was somewhat       
different4 ,faggots of heath1 broom1 and
 the dressings of flax were  kindled and
 carried on poles by men1 who ran with  
them round the  villages1 attended by a 
crowd4 ,as soon as one faggot was burnt 
out1 a  fresh one was lighted and       
fastened to the pole4 ,numbers of these 
blazing  faggots were often carried     
about together1 and when the night      
happened  to be dark1 they formed a     
splendid illumination4#eia              
,hallowe'en fires on ,loch ,tay2        
,hallowe'en fires at ,balquhidder4      
,nor did the ,hallowe'en fires die out  
in ,perthshire with the end of the      
eighteenth century4 ,journeying from    
,dunkeld to ,aberfeldy on ,hallowe'en   

in the first half of the nineteenth     
century1 ,sheriff ,barclay counted      
thirty fires blazing on the hill tops1  
and saw the figures of the people       
dancing like phantoms round the         
flames4#eib ,again1 in #ahfj1 ,i was    
residing near the head of ,loch ,tay    
during the season of the ,hallowe'en    
feast4 ,for several days before         
,hallowe'en1 boys and youths collected  
wood and conveyed it to the most        
prominent places on the hill sides in   
their neighbourhood4 ,some of the heaps 
were as large as a corn-stack or        
hayrick4 ,after dark on ,hallowe'en1    
these heaps were kindled1 and for       
several hours both sides of ,loch ,tay  
were illuminated as far as the eye      
could see4 ,i was told by old men that  
at the beginning of this century  men as
 well as boys took part in getting up   
the bonfires1 and that1 when  the fire  
was ablaze1 all joined hands and danced 
round the fire1 and  made a great noise2
 but that1 as these gatherings generally

 ended in  drunkenness and rough and    
dangerous fun1 the ministers set their  
faces  against the observance1 and were 
seconded in their efforts by the more   
intelligent and well-behaved in the     
community2 and so the practice was      
discontinued by adults and relegated to 
school boys4#eic ,at  ,balquhidder down 
to the latter part of the nineteenth    
century each  household kindled its     
bonfire at ,hallowe'en1 but the custom  
was chiefly  observed by children4 ,the 
fires were lighted on any high knoll    
near the  house2 there was no dancing   
round them4#eid    ,hallowe'en fires in 
,buchan to burn the witches2 processions
 with  torches at ,hallowe'en in the    
,braemar ,highlands4    ,hallowe'en     
fires were also lighted in some         
districts of the north-east  of         
,scotland1 such as ,buchan4 ,villagers  
and farmers alike must have their  fire4
 ,in the villages the boys went from    
house to house and begged a  peat from  
each householder1 usually with the      

words1 ,ge's a peat t' burn  the        
witches4 ,in some villages the lads     
collected the peats in a cart1  some of 
them drawing it along and the others    
receiving the peats and  loading them on
 the cart4 ,along with the peats they   
accumulated straw1  furze1 potato haulm1
 everything that would burn quickly1 and
 when they  had got enough they piled it
 all in a heap and set it on fire4 ,then
 each  of the youths1 one after another1
 laid himself down on the ground as     
near to the fire as he could without    
being scorched1 and thus lying  allowed 
the smoke to roll over him4 ,the others 
ran through the smoke and  jumped over  
their prostrate comrade4 ,when the heap 
was burned down1 they  scattered the    
ashes4 ,each one took a share in this   
part of the ceremony1  giving a kick    
first with the right foot and then with 
the left2 and each  vied with the other 
who should scatter the most4 ,after that
 some of them  still continued to run   
through the scattered ashes and to pelt 

each  other with the half-burned peats4 
,at each farm a spot as high as         
possible1 not too near the steading1 was
 chosen for the fire1 and the           
proceedings were much the same as at the
 village bonfire4 ,the lads of  one     
farm1 when their own fire was burned    
down and the ashes scattered1  sometimes
 went to a neighbouring fire and helped 
to kick the ashes  about4#eie ,referring
 to this part of ,scotland1 a writer at 
the end of  the eighteenth century      
observes that the ,hallow-even fire1    
another  relict of druidism1 was kindled
 in ,buchan4 ,various magic ceremonies  
were  then celebrated to counteract the 
influence of witches and demons1 and  to
 prognosticate to the young their       
success or disappointment in the        
matrimonial lottery4 ,these being       
devoutly finished1 the hallow fire was  
kindled1 and guarded by the male part of
 the family4 ,societies were  formed1   
either by pique or humour1 to scatter   
certain fires1 and the  attack and      

defence were often conducted with art   
and with fury4#eif  ,down to about the  
middle of the nineteenth century the    
,braemar  ,highlanders made the circuit 
of their fields with lighted torches at 
,hallowe'en to ensure their fertility in
 the coming year4 ,at that date  the    
custom was as follows3 ,every member of 
the family 7in those days  households   
were larger than they are now7 was      
provided with a bundle of  fir 'can'les'
 with which to go the round4 ,the father
 and mother stood at  the hearth and lit
 the splints in the peat fire1 which    
they passed to  the children and        
servants1 who trooped out one after the 
other1 and  proceeded to tread the      
bounds of their little property1 going  
slowly  round at equal distances apart1 
and invariably with the sun4 ,to go     
'withershins' seems to have been        
reserved for cursing and                
excommunication4 ,when the fields had   
thus been circumambulated the  remaining
 spills were thrown together in a heap  

and allowed to burn  out4#eig           
,divination at ,hallow-e'en in the      
,highlands and ,lowlands of ,scotland2  
the stolen kail2 sowing hemp seed2 the  
winnowing basket2 the wet shirt2  the   
thrown shoe4    ,in the ,highlands of   
,scotland1 as the evening of ,hallowe'en
 wore on1  young people gathered in one 
of the houses and resorted to an almost 
endless variety of games1 or rather     
forms of divination1 for the purpose  of
 ascertaining the future fate of each   
member of the company4 ,were they  to   
marry or remain single1 was the marriage
 to take place that year or  never1 who 
was to be married first1 what sort of   
husband or wife she or  he was to get1  
the name1 the trade1 the colour of the  
hair1 the amount  of property of the    
future spouse--these were questions that
 were eagerly  canvassed and the answers
 to them furnished never-failing        
entertainment4#eih ,nor were these modes
 of divination at ,hallowe'en  confined 
to the ,highlands1 where the bonfires   

were kindled2 they were  practised with 
equal faith and in practically the same 
forms in the  ,lowlands1 as we learn1   
for example1 from ,burns's poem         
,hallowe'en1  which describes the       
auguries drawn from a variety of omens  
by the  ,ayrshire peasantry4 ,these     
,lowlanders of ,saxon descent may well  
have  inherited the rites from the      
,celts who preceded them in the         
possession  of the south country4 ,a    
common practice at ,hallowe'en was to go
 out  stealthily to a neighbour's       
kailyard and there1 with shut eyes1 to  
pull  up the first kail stock that came 
to hand4 ,it was necessary that the     
plants should be stolen without the     
knowledge or consent of their owner2    
otherwise they were quite useless for   
the purpose of divination4  ,strictly   
speaking1 too1 the neighbour upon whose 
garden the raid was  made should be     
unmarried1 whether a bachelor or a      
spinster4 ,the stolen  kail was taken   
home and examined1 and according to its 

height1 shape1  and features would be   
the height1 shape1 and features of the  
future  husband or wife4 ,the taste of  
the custock1 that is1 the heart of the  
stem1 was an infallible indication of   
his or her temper2 and a clod of  earth 
adhering to the root signified1 in      
proportion to its size1 the  amount of  
property which he or she would bring to 
the common stock4 ,then  the kail-stock 
or runt1 as it was called in ,ayrshire1 
was placed over  the lintel of the door2
 and the baptismal name of the young man
 or woman  who first entered the door   
after the kail was in position would be 
the  baptismal name of the husband or   
wife4#eii ,again1 young women sowed     
hemp seed over nine ridges of ploughed  
land1 saying1 ,i sow hemp seed1  and he 
who is to be my husband1 let him come   
and harrow it4 ,on looking  back over   
her left shoulder the girl would see the
 figure of her future  mate behind her  
in the darkness4 ,in the north-east of  
,scotland lint seed  was used instead of

 hemp seed and answered the purpose     
quite as  well4#fjj ,again1 a mode of   
ascertaining your future husband or wife
 was  this4 ,take a clue of blue yarn   
and go to a lime-kiln4 ,throw the clue  
into the kiln1 but keep one end of the  
thread in your hand and wind it  on to  
another clue4 ,as you come near the end 
somebody or something will  hold the    
other end tight in the kiln4 ,then you  
call out1 ,who holds8  giving the thread
 at the same time a gentle pull4 ,some  
one or something  will thereupon pull   
the other end of the thread1 and a voice
 will  mention the name of your future  
husband or wife4#fja ,another way is    
this4 ,go to the barn alone and         
secretly4 ,be sure to open both doors   
and  if possible take them off their    
hinges2 for if the being who is about to
  appear should catch you in the barn   
and clap the doors to on you1 he or  she
 might do you a mischief4 ,having done  
this1 take the sieve or                 
winnowing-basket1 which in ,lowland     

,scotch is called a wecht or  waicht1   
and go through the action of winnowing  
corn4 ,repeat it thrice1  and at the    
third time the apparition of your future
 husband or wife will  pass through the 
barn1 entering at the windy door and    
passing out at the  other4#fjb ,or this4
 ,go to a southward running stream1     
where the lands  of three lairds meet1  
or to a ford where the dead and living  
have  crossed4 ,dip the left sleeve of  
your shirt in the water4 ,then go home1 
take off the shirt1 hang it up before a 
fire to dry1 and go to bed1  taking care
 that the bed stands so that you can see
 your shirt hanging  before the fire4   
,keep awake1 and at midnight you will   
see the form of  your future spouse come
 into the room and turn the other side  
of the  sleeve to the fire to dry       
it4#fjc ,a ,highland form of divination 
at  ,hallowe'en is to take a shoe by the
 tip and throw it over the house1  then 
observe the direction in which the toe  
points as it lies on the  ground on the 

other side2 for in that direction you   
are destined to go  before long4 ,if the
 shoe should fall sole uppermost1 it is 
very unlucky  for you4#fjd    ,the white
 of eggs in water2 the names on the     
chimney piece2 the nuts in  the fire2   
the milk and meal2 the apples in the    
water2 the three plates4    ,these ways 
of prying into the future are practised 
outside of the house2  others are       
observed in the kitchen or the parlour  
before the cheerful  blaze of the fire4 
,thus the white of eggs1 dropped in a   
glass of pure  water1 indicates by      
certain marks how many children a person
 will have4  ,the impatience and clamour
 of the children1 eager to ascertain the
 exact  number of their future progeny1 
often induced the housewife to perform  
this ceremony for them by daylight2 and 
the kindly mother1 standing with  her   
face to the window1 dropping the white  
of an egg into a crystal  glass of clean
 water1 and surrounded by a group of    
children intently  watching her         

proceedings1 made up a pretty           
picture4#fje ,when the fun of  the      
evening had fairly commenced1 the names 
of eligible or likely  matches were     
written on the chimney-piece1 and the   
young man who wished  to try his fortune
 was led up blindfolded to the list4    
,whatever name he  put his finger on    
would prove that of his future wife4#fjf
 ,again1 two  nuts1 representing a lad  
and a lass whose names were announced to
 the  company1 were put side by side in 
the fire4 ,if they burned quietly       
together1 the pair would be man and     
wife1 and from the length of time  they 
burned and the brightness of the flame  
the length and happiness of  the married
 life of the two were augured4 ,but if  
instead of burning  together one of the 
nuts leaped away from the other1 then   
there would be  no marriage1 and the    
blame would rest with the person whose  
nut had thus  started away by           
itself4#fjg ,again1 a dish of milk and  
meal 7in ,gaelic  fuarag1 in ,lowland   

,scotch crowdie7 or of beat potatoes was
 made and  a ring was hidden in it4     
,spoons were served out to the company1 
who  supped the contents of the dish    
hastily with them1 and the one who got  
the ring would be the first to be       
married4#fjh ,again1 apples and a       
silver sixpence were put in a tub of    
water2 the apples naturally floated  on 
the top and the sixpence sank to the    
bottom4 ,whoever could lift an  apple or
 the sixpence from the water with his   
mouth1 without using his  teeth1 was    
counted very lucky and got the prize to 
himself4#fji ,again1  three plates or   
basins were placed on the hearth4 ,one  
was filled with  clean water1 another   
with dirty water1 and the third was     
empty4 ,the  enquirer was blindfolded1  
knelt in front of the hearth1 and groped
 about  till he put his finger in one of
 them4 ,if he lighted on the plate with 
the clean water1 he would wed a maid2 if
 on the plate with the dirty  water1 he 
would marry a widow2 and if on the empty

 plate1 he would  remain a bachelor4    
,for a girl the answer of the oracle was
 analogous2  she would marry a bachelor1
 a widower1 or nobody according to the  
plate  into which she chanced to dip her
 finger4 ,but to make sure1 the         
operation had to be repeated thrice1 the
 position of the plates being  changed  
each time4 ,if the enquirer put his or  
her finger into the same  plate thrice  
or even twice1 it was quite             
conclusive4#faj    ,the sliced apple2   
the white of egg in water2 the salt cake
 or salt  herring4    ,these forms of   
divination in the house were practised  
by the company in  a body2 but the      
following had to be performed by the    
person alone4 ,you  took an apple and   
stood with it in your hand in front of a
  looking-glass4 ,then you sliced the   
apple1 stuck each slice on the point  of
 the knife1 and held it over your left  
shoulder1 while you looked into  the    
glass and combed your hair4 ,the spectre
 of your future husband would  then     

appear in the mirror stretching forth   
his hand to take the slices  of the     
apple over your shoulder4 ,some say that
 the number of slices  should be nine1  
that you should eat the first eight     
yourself1 and only  throw the ninth over
 your left shoulder for your husband2   
also that at  each slice you should say1
 ,in the name of the ,father and the    
,son4#faa  ,again1 take an egg1 prick it
 with a pin1 and let the white drop into
 a  wine-glass nearly full of water4    
,take some of this in your mouth and go 
out for a walk4 ,the first name you hear
 called out aloud will be that of  your 
future husband or wife4 ,an old woman   
told a lady that she had tried  this    
mode of divination in her youth1 that   
the name of ,archibald came  up as it   
were from the very ground1 and that     
,archibald sure enough was  the name of 
her husband4#fab ,in ,south ,uist and   
,eriskay1 two of the  outer ,hebrides1 a
 salt cake called ,bonnach ,salainn is  
eaten at  ,hallowe'en to induce dreams  

that will reveal the future4 ,it is     
baked of  common meal with a great deal 
of salt4 ,after eating it you may not   
drink  water nor utter a word1 not even 
to say your prayers4 ,a salt herring1   
eaten bones and all in three bites1 is  
equally efficacious1 always  provided   
that you drink no water and hold your   
tongue4#fac    ,hallowe'en fires in     
,wales2 omens drawn from stones thrown  
into the  fire2 divination by stones in 
the ashes4    ,in the northern part of  
,wales it used to be customary for every
 family  to make a great bonfire called 
,coel ,coeth on ,hallowe'en4 ,the fire  
was  kindled on the most conspicuous    
spot near the house2 and when it had    
nearly gone out everyone threw into the 
ashes a white stone1 which he  had first
 marked4 ,then having said their prayers
 round the fire1 they  went to bed4     
,next morning1 as soon as they were up1 
they came to search  out the stones1 and
 if any one of them was found to be     
missing1 they had  a notion that the    

person who threw it would die before he 
saw another  ,hallowe'en4#fad ,a writer 
on ,wales at the beginning of the       
nineteenth  century says that the       
autumnal fire is still kindled in ,north
 ,wales1  being on the eve of the first 
day of ,november1 and is attended by    
many  ceremonies2 such as running       
through the fire and smoke1 each casting
 a  stone into the fire1 and all running
 off at the conclusion to escape  from  
the black short-tailed sow2 then supping
 upon parsnips1 nuts1 and  apples2      
catching up an apple suspended by a     
string with the mouth alone1  and the   
same by an apple in a tub of water3 each
 throwing a nut into the  fire2 and     
those that burn bright1 betoken         
prosperity to the owners  through the   
following year1 but those that burn     
black and crackle1  denote misfortune4  
,on the following morning the stones are
 searched for  in the fire1 and if any  
be missing1 they betide ill to those who
 threw  them in4#fae ,according to ,sir 

,john ,rhys1 the habit of celebrating   
,hallowe'en by lighting bonfires on the 
hills is perhaps not yet extinct  in    
,wales1 and men still living can        
remember how the people who assisted  at
 the bonfires would wait till the last  
spark was out and then would  suddenly  
take to their heels1 shouting at the top
 of their voices1 ,the  cropped black   
sow seize the hindmost6 ,the saying1 as 
,sir ,john ,rhys  justly remarks1       
implies that originally one of the      
company became a  victim in dead        
earnest4 ,down to the present time the  
saying is current  in ,carnarvonshire1  
where allusions to the cutty black sow  
are still  occasionally made to frighten
 children4#faf ,we can now understand   
why  in ,lower ,brittany every person   
throws a pebble into the midsummer      
bonfire4#fag ,doubtless there1 as in    
,wales and the ,highlands of            
,scotland1#fah omens of life and death  
have at one time or other been  drawn   
from the position and state of the      

pebbles on the morning of ,all  ,saints'
 ,day4 ,the custom1 thus found among    
three separate branches of the  ,celtic 
stock1 probably dates from a period     
before their dispersion1 or  at least   
from a time when alien races had not yet
 driven home the wedges  of separation  
between them4    ,divination as to love 
and marriage at ,hallowe'en in ,wales4  
,in ,wales1 as in ,scotland1 ,hallowe'en
 was also the great season for          
forecasting the future in respect of    
love and marriage1 and some of the      
forms of divination employed for this   
purpose resembled those which were  in  
use among the ,scotch peasantry4 ,two   
girls1 for example1 would make a  little
 ladder of yarn1 without breaking it    
from the ball1 and having  done so they 
would throw it out of the window4 ,then 
one of the girls1  holding the ball in  
her hand1 would wind the yarn back1     
repeating a  rhyme in ,welsh4 ,this she 
did thrice1 and as she wound the yarn   
she would  see her future husband       

climbing up the little ladder4 ,again1  
three bowls  or basins were placed on a 
table4 ,one of them contained clean     
water1 one  dirty water1 and one was    
empty4 ,the girls of the household1 and 
sometimes the boys too1 then eagerly    
tried their fortunes4 ,they were        
blindfolded1 led up to the table1 and   
dipped their hands into a bowl4 ,if     
they happened to dip into the clean     
water1 they would marry maidens or      
bachelors2 if into the dirty water1 they
 would be widowers or widows2 if  into  
the empty bowl1 they would live         
unmarried4 ,again1 if a girl1  walking  
backwards1 would place a knife among the
 leeks on ,hallowe'en1  she would see   
her future husband come and pick up the 
knife and throw it  into the middle of  
the garden4#fai    ,divination at       
,hallowe'en in ,ireland4    ,in ,ireland
 the ,hallowe'en bonfires would seem to 
have died out1 but the  ,hallowe'en     
divination has survived4 ,writing       
towards the end of the  eighteenth      

century1 ,general ,vallancey tells us   
that on ,hallowe'en or the  vigil of    
,saman1 as he calls it1 the peasants in 
,ireland assemble with  sticks and clubs
 7the emblems of laceration7 going from 
house to house1  collecting money1      
bread-cake1 butter1 cheese1 eggs1 etc41 
etc41 for the  feast1 repeating verses  
in honour of the solemnity1 demanding   
preparations for the festival1 in the   
name of ,st4 ,columb ,kill1 desiring    
them to lay aside the fatted calf1 and  
to bring forth the black sheep4  ,the   
good women are employed in making the   
griddle cake and candles2  these last   
are sent from house to house in the     
vicinity1 and are lighted  up on the    
7,saman7 next day1 before which they    
pray1 or are supposed to  pray1 for the 
departed souls of the donor4 ,every     
house abounds in the  best viands they  
can afford3 apples and nuts are devoured
 in abundance3  the nut-shells are      
burnt1 and from the ashes many strange  
things are  foretold3 cabbages are torn 

up by the root3 hemp seed is sown by the
  maidens1 and they believe1 that if    
they look back1 they will see the       
apparition of the man intended for their
 future spouse3 they hang a  smock      
before the fire1 on the close of the    
feast1 and sit up all night1  concealed 
in a corner of the room1 convinced that 
his apparition will  come down the      
chimney and turn the smock3 they throw a
 ball of yarn out  of the window1 and   
wind it on the reel within1 convinced1  
that if they  repeat the ,pater ,noster 
backwards1 and look at the ball of yarn 
without1 they will then also see his    
sith or apparition3 they dip for  apples
 in a tub of water1 and endeavour to    
bring one up in the mouth3  they suspend
 a cord with a cross-stick1 with apples 
at one point1 and  candles lighted at   
the other1 and endeavour to catch the   
apple1 while it  is in a circular       
motion1 in the mouth4 ,these1 and many  
other  superstitious ceremonies1 the    
remains of ,druidism1 are observed on   

this  holiday1 which will never be      
eradicated1 while the name of ,saman is 
permitted to remain4#fbj    ,divination 
at ,hallow-e'en in ,queen's ,county2    
divination at ,hallow-e'en  in ,county  
,leitrim2 divination at ,hallowe'en in  
,county ,roscommon4    ,in ,queen's     
,county1 ,ireland1 down to the latter   
part of the nineteenth  century children
 practised various of these rites of    
divination on  ,hallowe'en4 ,girls went 
out into the garden blindfold and pulled
 up  cabbages3 if the cabbage was well  
grown1 the girl would have a handsome   
husband1 but if it had a crooked stalk1 
the future spouse would be a  stingy old
 man4 ,nuts1 again1 were placed in pairs
 on the bar of the  fire1 and from their
 behaviour omens were drawn of the fate 
in love and  marriage of the couple whom
 they represented4 ,lead1 also1 was     
melted and  allowed to drop into a tub  
of cold water1 and from the shapes which
 it  assumed in the water predictions   
were made to the children of their      

future destiny4 ,again1 apples were     
bobbed for in a tub of water and        
brought up with the teeth2 or a stick   
was hung from a hook with an apple  at  
one end and a candle at the other1 and  
the stick being made to  revolve you    
made a bite at the apple and sometimes  
got a mouthful of  candle instead4#fba  
,in ,county ,leitrim1 also1 down to near
 the end of  the nineteenth century     
various forms of divination were        
practised at  ,hallowe'en4 ,girls       
ascertained the character of their      
future husbands by  the help of cabbages
 just as in ,queen's ,county4 ,again1 if
 a girl found a  branch of a briar-thorn
 which had bent over and grown into the 
ground so  as to form a loop1 she would 
creep through the loop thrice late in   
the  evening in the devil's name1 then  
cut the briar and put it under her      
pillow1 all without speaking a word4    
,then she would lay her head on the     
pillow and dream of the man she was to  
marry4 ,boys1 also1 would dream in  like

 manner of love and marriage at         
,hallowe'en1 if only they would  gather 
ten leaves of ivy without speaking1     
throw away one1 and put the  other nine 
under their pillow4 ,again1 divination  
was practised by means  of a cake called
 barm-breac1 in which a nut and a ring  
were baked4  ,whoever got the ring would
 be married first2 whoever got the nut  
would  marry a widow or a widower2 but  
if the nut were an empty shell1 he or   
she would remain unwed4 ,again1 a girl  
would take a clue of worsted1 go  to a  
lime kiln in the gloaming1 and throw the
 clew into the kiln in the  devil's     
name1 while she held fast the other end 
of the thread4 ,then she  would rewind  
the thread and ask1 ,who holds my clue8 
and the name of  her future husband     
would come up from the depth of the     
kiln4 ,another way  was to take a rake1 
go to a rick and walk round it nine     
times1 saying1  ,i rake this rick in the
 devil's name4 ,at the ninth time the   
wraith of  your destined partner for    

life would come and take the rake out of
 your  hand4 ,once more1 before the     
company separated for the night1 they   
would  rake the ashes smooth on the     
hearth1 and search them next morning for
  tracks1 from which they judged whether
 anybody should come to the house1  or  
leave it1 or die in it before another   
year was out4#fbb ,in ,county           
,roscommon1 which borders on ,county    
,leitrim1 a cake is made in nearly      
every house on ,hallowe'en1 and a ring1 
a coin1 a sloe1 and a chip of  wood are 
put into it4 ,whoever gets the coin will
 be rich2 whoever gets  the ring will be
 married first2 whoever gets the chip of
 wood1 which  stands for a coffin1 will 
die first2 and whoever gets the sloe    
will live  longest1 because the fairies 
blight the sloes in the hedges on       
,hallowe'en1 so that the sloe in the    
cake will be the last of the year4      
,again1 on the same mystic evening girls
 take nine grains of oats in  their     
mouths1 and going out without speaking  

walk about till they hear a  man's name 
pronounced2 it will be the name of their
 future husband4 ,in  ,county           
,roscommon1 too1 on ,hallowe'en there is
 the usual dipping in water  for apples 
or sixpences1 and the usual bites at a  
revolving apple and  tallow candle4#fbc 
,hallowe'en fires in the ,isle of ,man2 
divination at ,hallowe'en in the  ,isle 
of ,man4    ,in the ,isle of ,man also1 
another ,celtic country1 ,hallow-e'en   
was  celebrated down to modern times by 
the kindling of fires1 accompanied  with
 all the usual ceremonies designed to   
prevent the baneful influence  of       
fairies and witches4 ,bands of young men
 perambulated the island by  night1 and 
at the door of every dwelling-house they
 struck up a ,manx  rhyme1 beginning    
,noght oie howney hop-dy-naw1    that is
 to say1 ,this is ,hollantide ,eve4 ,for
 ,hollantide is the ,manx way  of       
expressing the old ,english ,all        
hallowen tide1 that is1 ,all ,saints'   
,day1 the first of ,november4 ,but as   

the people reckon this festival         
according to the ,old ,style1           
,hollantide in the ,isle of ,man is our 
twelfth  of ,november4 ,the native ,manx
 name for the day is ,sauin or ,laa     
,houney4 ,potatoes1 parsnips and fish1  
pounded up together and mixed with      
butter1 formed the proper evening meal  
7mrastyr7 on ,hallowe'en in the  ,isle  
of ,man4#fbd ,here1 too1 as in ,scotland
 forms of divination are  practised by  
some people on this important evening4  
,for example1 the  housewife fills a    
thimble full of salt for each member of 
the family and  each guest2 the contents
 of the thimblefuls are emptied out in  
as many  neat little piles on a plate1  
and left there over night4 ,next morning
  the piles are examined1 and if any of 
them has fallen down1 he or she  whom it
 represents will die within the year4   
,again1 the women carefully  sweep out  
the ashes from under the fireplace and  
flatten them down  neatly on the open   
hearth4 ,if they find next morning a    

footprint turned  towards the door1 it  
signifies a death in the family within  
the year2  but if the footprint is      
turned in the opposite direction1 it    
bodes a  marriage4 ,again1 divination by
 eavesdropping is practised in the ,isle
 of  ,man in much the same way as in    
,scotland4 ,you go out with your mouth  
full  of water and your hands full of   
salt and listen at a neighbour's door1  
and the first name you hear will be the 
name of your husband4 ,again1  ,manx    
maids bandage their eyes and grope about
 the room till they dip  their hands in 
vessels full of clean or dirty water1   
and so on2 and from  the thing they     
touch they draw corresponding omens4    
,but some people in  the ,isle of ,man  
observe these auguries1 not on          
,hallowe'en or ,hollantide  ,eve1 as    
they call it1 which was the old ,manx   
,new ,year's ,eve1 but on the  modern   
,new ,year's ,eve1 that is1 on the      
thirty-first of ,december4 ,the  change 
no doubt marks a transition from the    

ancient to the modern mode  of dating   
the beginning of the year4#fbe          
,hallowe'en fires and divination in     
,lancashire2 candles lighted to keep    
off the witches2 divination at          
,hallowe'en in ,northumberland2         
,hallowe'en  fires in ,france4    ,in   
,lancashire1 also1 some traces of the   
old ,celtic celebration of  ,hallowe'en 
have been reported in modern times4 ,it 
is said that fires  are still lighted in
 ,lancashire1 on ,hallowe'en1 under the 
name of  ,beltains or ,teanlas2 and even
 such cakes as the ,jews are said to    
have  made in honour of the ,queen of   
,heaven1 are yet to be found at this    
season amongst the inhabitants of the   
banks of the ,ribble4444 ,both the      
fires and the cakes1 however1 are now   
connected with superstitious  notions   
respecting ,purgatory1 etc4#fbf ,on     
,hallowe'en1 too1 the  ,lancashire      
maiden strews the ashes which are to    
take the form of one or  more letters of
 her lover's name2 she throws hemp-seed 

over her shoulder  and timidly glances  
to see who follows her4#fbg ,again1     
witches in  ,lancashire used to gather  
on ,hallowe'en at the ,malkin ,tower1 a 
ruined  and desolate farm-house in the  
forest of ,pendle4 ,they assembled for  
no  good purpose2 but you could keep the
 infernal rout at bay by carrying a     
lighted candle about the fells from     
eleven to twelve o'clock at night4  ,the
 witches tried to blow out the candle1  
and if they succeeded1 so much  the     
worse for you2 but if the flame burned  
steadily till the clocks had  struck    
midnight1 you were safe4 ,some people   
performed the ceremony by  deputy2 and  
parties went about from house to house  
in the evening  collecting candles1 one 
for each inmate1 and offering their     
services to  late or leet the witches1  
as the phrase ran4 ,this custom was     
practised at ,longridge ,fell in the    
early part of the nineteenth            
century4#fbh ,in ,northumberland on     
,hallowe'en omens of marriage were      

drawn from nuts thrown into the fire2   
and the sports of ducking for  apples   
and biting at a revolving apple and     
lighted candle were also  practised on  
that evening4#fbi ,the equivalent of the
 ,hallowe'en  bonfires is reported also 
from ,france4 ,we are told that in the  
department of ,deux-,svres1 which forms 
part of the old province of  ,poitou1   
young people used to assemble in the    
fields on ,all ,saints' ,day  7the first
 of ,november7 and kindle great fires of
 ferns1 thorns1 leaves1  and stubble1 at
 which they roasted chestnuts4 ,they    
also danced round the  fires and        
indulged in noisy pastimes4#fcj         
#g4 ,the ,midwinter ,fires      ,a      
,midwinter festival of fire2 ,christmas 
the continuation of an old  heathen     
festival of the sun4    ,if the heathen 
of ancient ,europe celebrated1 as we    
have good reason to  believe1 the season
 of ,midsummer with a great festival of 
fire1 of which  the traces have survived
 in many places down to our own time1 it

 is  natural to suppose that they should
 have observed with similar rites the   
corresponding season of ,midwinter2 for 
,midsummer and ,midwinter1 or1 in  more 
technical language1 the summer solstice 
and the winter solstice1  are the two   
great turning-points in the sun's       
apparent course through  the sky1 and   
from the standpoint of primitive man    
nothing might seem  more appropriate    
than to kindle fires on earth at the two
 moments when  the fire and heat of the 
great luminary in heaven begin to wane  
or to  wax4 ,in this way the savage     
philosopher1 to whose meditations on the
  nature of things we owe many ancient  
customs and ceremonies1 might  easily   
imagine that he helped the labouring sun
 to relight his dying  lamp1 or at all  
events to blow up the flame into a      
brighter blaze4  ,certain it is that the
 winter solstice1 which the ancients    
erroneously  assigned to the            
twenty-fifth of ,december1 was          
celebrated in antiquity as  the         

,birthday of the ,sun1 and that festal  
lights or fires were kindled on  this   
joyful occasion4 ,our ,christmas        
festival is nothing but a  continuation 
under a ,christian name of this old     
solar festivity2 for the  ecclesiastical
 authorities saw fit1 about the end of  
the third or the  beginning of the      
fourth century1 arbitrarily to transfer 
the nativity of  ,christ from the sixth 
of ,january to the twenty-fifth of      
,december1 for  the purpose of diverting
 to their ,lord the worship which the   
heathen had  hitherto paid on that day  
to the sun4#fca    ,the ,yule log is the
 ,midwinter counterpart of the          
,midsummer bonfire4    ,in modern       
,christendom the ancient fire-festival  
of the winter solstice  appears to      
survive1 or to have survived down to    
recent years1 in the old  custom of the 
,yule log1 clog1 or block1 as it was    
variously called in  ,england4#fcb ,the 
custom was widespread in ,europe1 but   
seems to have  flourished especially in 

,england1 ,france1 and among the ,south 
,slavs2 at  least the fullest accounts  
of the custom come from these quarters4 
,that  the ,yule log was only the winter
 counterpart of the ,midsummer bonfire1 
kindled within doors instead of in the  
open air on account of the cold  and    
inclement weather of the season1 was    
pointed out long ago by our  ,english   
antiquary ,john ,brand2#fcc and the view
 is supported by the many  quaint       
superstitions attaching to the ,yule    
log1 superstitions which have  no       
apparent connexion with ,christianity   
but carry their heathen origin  plainly 
stamped upon them4 ,but while the two   
solstitial celebrations  were both      
festivals of fire1 the necessity or     
desirability of holding  the winter     
celebration within doors lent it the    
character of a private  or domestic     
festivity1 which contrasts strongly with
 the publicity of  the summer           
celebration1 at which the people        
gathered on some open space  or         

conspicuous height1 kindled a huge      
bonfire in common1 and danced and  made 
merry round it together4    ,the ,yule  
log in ,germany2 the ,yule log in       
,switzerland4    ,among the ,germans the
 custom of the ,yule log is known to    
have been  observed in the eleventh     
century2 for in the year #aahd the      
parish priest  of ,ahlen1 in            
,mnsterland1 spoke of bringing a tree to
 kindle the festal  fire at the ,lord's 
,nativity4#fcd ,down to about the middle
 of the  nineteenth century the old rite
 was kept up in some parts of central   
,germany1 as we learn from an account of
 it given by a contemporary  writer4    
,after mentioning the custom of feeding 
the cattle and shaking  the fruit-trees 
on ,christmas night1 to make them bear  
fruit1 he goes on  as follows3 ,other   
customs pointing back to the far-off    
times of  heathendom may still be met   
with among the old-fashioned peasants of
 the  mountain regions4 ,such is in the 
valleys of the ,sieg and ,lahn the      

practice of laying a new log as a       
foundation of the hearth4 ,a heavy      
block of oak-wood1 generally a stump    
grubbed up from the ground1 is  fitted  
either into the floor of the hearth1 or 
into a niche made for the  purpose in   
the wall under the hook on which the    
kettle hangs4 ,when the  fire on the    
hearth glows1 this block of wood glows  
too1 but it is so  placed that it is    
hardly reduced to ashes within a year4  
,when the new  foundation is laid1 the  
remains of the old block are carefully  
taken  out1 ground to powder1 and       
strewed over the fields during the      
,twelve  ,nights4 ,this1 so people      
fancied1 promotes the fruitfulness of   
the year's  crops4#fce ,in some parts of
 the ,eifel ,mountains1 to the west of  
,coblentz1 a log of wood called the     
,christbrand used to be placed on  the  
hearth on ,christmas ,eve2 and the      
charred remains of it on ,twelfth       
,night were put in the corn-bin to keep 
the mice from devouring the  corn4#fcf  

,at ,weidenhausen and ,girkshausen1 in  
,westphalia1 the practice  was to       
withdraw the ,yule log 7,christbrand7   
from the fire so soon as it  was        
slightly charred2 it was then kept      
carefully to be replaced on the  fire   
whenever a thunder-storm broke1 because 
the people believed that  lightning     
would not strike a house in which the   
,yule log was  smouldering4#fcg ,in some
 villages near ,berleburg in ,westphalia
 the old  custom was to tie up the ,yule
 log in the last sheaf cut at           
harvest4#fch  ,on ,christmas ,eve the   
peasantry of the ,oberland1 in          
,meiningen1 a province  of ,central     
,germany1 used to put a great block of  
wood called the  ,christklots on the    
fire before they went to bed2 it should 
burn all  night1 and the charred remains
 were believed to guard the house for   
the  whole year against the risk of     
fire1 burglary1 and other               
misfortunes4#fci ,the ,yule log seems to
 be known only in the  ,french-speaking 

parts of ,switzerland1 where it goes by 
the usual ,french  name of ,bche de     
,nol4 ,in the ,jura mountains of the    
canton of ,bern1  while the log is      
burning on the hearth the people sing a 
blessing over  it as follows3--    ,may 
the log burn6  ,may all good come in6   
,may the women have children  ,and the  
sheep lambs6  ,white bread for every one
  ,and the vat full of wine6    ,the    
embers of the ,yule log were kept       
carefully1 for they were believed  to be
 a protection against lightning4#fdj    
,the ,yule log in ,belgium4    ,the     
,christmas fires1 which were formerly   
lit everywhere in the ,low  ,countries1 
have fallen into disuse4 ,but in        
,flanders a great log of wood1  called  
the kersavondblok and usually cut from  
the roots of a fir or a  beech1 is still
 put on the fire2 all the lights in the 
house are  extinguished1 and the whole  
family gathers round the log to spend   
part  of the night in singing1 in       
telling stories1 especially about       

ghosts1  were-wolves1 and so on1 and    
also in drinking gin4 ,at ,grammont and 
in the  neighbourhood of that town1     
where the ,yule log is called           
,kersmismot1  it is customary to set    
fire to the remainder of the gin at the 
moment  when the log is reduced to      
ashes4 ,elsewhere a piece of the log is 
kept  and put under the bed to protect  
the house against thunder and           
lightning4 ,the charcoal of the log     
which burned during ,christmas ,night1  
if pounded up and mixed with water1 is a
 cure for consumption4 ,in the  country 
of ,limburg the log burns several       
nights1 and the pounded  charcoal is    
kept as a preventive 7so they say71 of  
toothache4#fda    ,the ,yule log in     
,france4    ,in several provinces of    
,france1 and particularly in ,provence1 
the custom  of the ,yule log or trfoir1 
as it was called in many places1 was    
long  observed4 ,a ,french writer of the
 seventeenth century tells us that on   
,christmas ,eve the log was prepared1   

and when the whole family had  assembled
 in the kitchen or parlour of the house1
 they went and brought  it in1 walking  
in procession and singing ,provenal     
verses to the  following effect3--      
,let the log rejoice1  ,to-morrow is the
 day of bread2  ,let all good enter     
here2  ,let the women bear children2    
,let the she-goats bring forth kids2    
,let the ewes drop lambs2  ,let there be
 much wheat and flour1  ,and the vat    
full of wine4    ,then the log was      
blessed by the smallest and youngest    
child of the  house1 who poured a glass 
of wine over it saying1 ,in nomine      
patris1  etc42 after which the log was  
set on the fire4 ,the charcoal of the   
burnt  wood was kept the whole year1 and
 used as an ingredient in several       
remedies4#fdb    ,french superstitions  
as to the ,yule log4    ,amongst the    
superstitions denounced by the same     
writer is the belief  that a log called 
the trefoir or ,christmas brand1 which  
you put on the  fire for the first time 

on ,christmas ,eve and continue to put  
on the fire  for a little while every   
day till ,twelfth ,night1 can1 if kept  
under the  bed1 protect the house for a 
whole year from fire and thunder2 that  
it  can prevent the inmates from having 
chilblains on their heels in winter2    
that it can cure the cattle of many     
maladies2 that if a piece of it be      
steeped in the water which cows drink it
 helps them to calve2 and lastly  that  
if the ashes of the log be strewn on the
 fields it can save the  wheat from     
mildew4#fdc    ,the ,yule log at        
,marseilles and in ,perigord2 virtues   
ascribed to the  charcoal and ashes of  
the burnt log2 the ,yule log in ,berry4 
,in ,marseilles the ,yule log used to be
 a great block of oak1 which went  by   
the name of calendeau or calignau2 it   
was sprinkled with wine and  oil1 and   
the head of the house kindled it        
himself4#fdd ,the ,yule log  plays a    
great part at the festival of the winter
 solstice in ,perigord4  ,the countryman

 thinks that it is best made of         
plum-tree1 cherry1 or oak1  and that the
 larger it is the better4 ,if it burns  
well1 it is a good  omen1 the blessing  
of heaven rests upon it4 ,the charcoal  
and ashes1  which are collected very    
carefully1 are excellent for healing    
swollen  glands2 the part of the trunk  
which has not been burnt in the fire is 
used by ploughmen to make the wedge     
7tcoin ou cale7 for their plough1       
because they allege that it causes the  
seeds to thrive better2 and the  women  
keep pieces of it till ,twelfth ,night  
for the sake of their  chickens4        
,nevertheless if you sit down on the    
log1 you become subject to  boils1 and  
to cure yourself of them you must pass  
nine times under a  bramble branch which
 happens to be rooted in the ground at  
both ends4  ,the charcoal heals sheep of
 a disease called the goumon2 and the   
ashes1 carefully wrapt up in white      
linen1 preserve the whole household     
from accidents4 ,some people think that 

they will have as many chickens  as     
there are sparks that fly out of the    
brands of the log when they  shake them2
 and others place the extinct brands    
under the bed to drive  away vermin4 ,in
 ,vienne1 on ,christmas ,eve1 when      
supper is over1 the  master of the house
 has a great log--the ,christmas        
brand--brought in1  and then1 surrounded
 by all the spectators gathered in      
profound silence1  he sprinkles salt and
 water on the log4 ,it is then put on   
the fire to  burn during the three      
festivals2 but they carefully preserve a
 piece to  be kindled every time that it
 thunders4#fde ,in ,berry1 a district of
  ,central ,france1 the ,yule log was   
called the cosse de ,nau1 the last  word
 being an abbreviation of the usual     
,french word for ,christmas  7,nol74 ,it
 consisted of an enormous tree-trunk1 so
 heavy that the united  strength of     
several men was needed to carry it in   
and place it on the  hearth1 where it   
served to feed the fire during the three

 days of the  ,christmas festivity4     
,strictly speaking1 it should be the    
trunk of an old  oak-tree which had     
never been lopped and had been felled at
 midnight4 ,it  was placed on the hearth
 at the moment when the tinkle of the   
bell  announced the elevation of the    
host at the midnight mass2 and the head 
of the family1 after sprinkling it with 
holy water1 set it on fire4 ,the        
remains of the log were preserved till  
the same day next year4 ,they were  kept
 under the bed of the master of the     
house2 and whenever thunder was  heard1 
one of the family would take a piece of 
the log and throw it on  the fire1 which
 was believed to guard the family       
against lightning4 ,in  the ,middle     
,ages1 we are told1 several fiefs were  
granted on condition  that the vassal   
should bring in person a ,yule log every
 year for the  hearth of his liege      
lord4#fdf    ,the ,yule log in ,normandy
 and ,brittany4    ,similar customs and 
beliefs survived till recent years in   

some of the  remote country villages of 
the picturesque district known as the   
,bocage  of ,normandy4 ,there it was the
 grandfather or other oldest man of the 
family who chose the ,yule log in good  
time and had it ready for  ,christmas   
,eve4 ,then he placed it on the hearth  
at the moment when the  church bell     
began to ring for the evening service4  
,kneeling reverently  at the hearth with
 the members of his family in a like    
attitude of  devotion1 the old man      
recited three ,pater ,nosters and three 
,aves1  and invoked the blessing of     
heaven on the log and on the cottage4   
,then  at the sound of the bell which   
proclaimed the sacrament of the mass1   
or1  if the church was too far off to   
allow the tinkle of the bell to be      
heard1 at the moment when they judged   
that the priest was elevating the  host 
before the high altar1 the patriarch    
sprinkled the burning log with  holy    
water1 blessed it in the name of the    
,father and of the ,son and of  the     

,holy ,ghost1 and drew it out of the    
fire4 ,the charred log was then         
carefully kept till the following       
,christmas as a precious relic which    
would guard the house against the levin 
bolt1 evil spirits1 sorcerers1  and     
every misfortune that might befall in   
the course of the year4#fdg  ,in the    
department of ,orne the ,yule-log is    
called trefouet2 holy water  is poured  
on it2 it should last the three days of 
the festival1 and the  remains of it are
 kept to be put on the fire when it     
thunders4 ,this  brand is a protection  
both against thunder and against        
sorcerers4#fdh  ,in ,upper ,brittany1   
also1 the ,yule log is thought to be a  
safeguard  against thunder and          
lightning4 ,it is sprinkled with holy   
water on  ,christmas morning and allowed
 to burn till evening4 ,if a piece of it
 is  thrown into the well1 it will      
ensure a supply of good water4#fdi      
,the ,yule log in the ,ardennes4    ,in 
almost all the families of the          

,ardennes1 we are told1 at the  present 
day they never fail to put the ,yule log
 on the fireplace1 but  formerly it was 
the object of a superstitious worship   
which is now  obsolete4 ,the charred    
remains of it1 placed under the pillow  
or under  the house1 preserved the house
 from storms1 and before it was burned  
the  ,virgin used to come and sit on it1
 invisible1 swaddling the infant        
,jesus4 ,at ,nouzon1 twenty years ago1  
the traditional log was brought into    
the kitchen on ,christmas ,eve1 and the 
grandmother1 with a sprig of box  in her
 hand1 sprinkled the log with holy water
 as soon as the clock  struck the first 
stroke of midnight4 ,as she did so she  
chanted1    ',when ,christmas comes1    
,every one should rejoice1  ,for it is a
 ,new ,covenant4'    ,following the     
grandmother and joining in the song1 the
 children and the  rest of the family   
marched thrice round the log1 which was 
as fine a log  as could be got4#fej ,we 
can now1 perhaps1 understand why in     

,perigord  people who sat on the ,yule  
log suffered from boils1#fea and why in 
,lorraine young folks used to be warned 
that if they sat on it they would  have 
the scab4#feb ,the reason probably was  
that the ,virgin and child  were        
supposed to be seated1 invisible1 upon  
the log and to resent the  indignity of 
contact with mortal children4    ,the   
,yule log in the ,vosges2 the ,yule log 
in ,franche-,comt and  ,burgundy4    ,on
 ,christmas ,eve the mountaineers of    
,rupt1 in the ,vosges1 also never  fail 
to put on the hearth the largest log    
which the hearth can hold2  they call it
 la galeuche de ,no1 that is1 the ,yule 
log4 ,next morning  they rake the ashes 
for any charred fragments and keep them 
as valuable  talismans to guard them    
against the stroke of lightning4 ,at    
,vagney and  other places near it in the
 ,vosges it used to be customary on the 
same  evening to grease the hinges and  
the latches of the doors1 that no harsh 
grating sound should break the slumbers 

of the infant ,christ4 ,in the  ,vosges 
,mountains1 too1 as indeed in many other
 places1 cattle acquired  the gift of   
speech on ,christmas ,eve and conversed 
with each other in the  language of     
,christians4 ,their conversation was1   
indeed1 most  instructive2 for the      
future1 it seems1 had no secret worth   
mentioning  for them4 ,yet few people   
cared to be caught eavesdropping at the 
byre2  wise folk contented themselves   
with setting a good store of fodder in  
the manger1 then shut the door1 and left
 the animals to their  ruminations4 ,a  
farmer of ,vecoux once hid in a corner  
of the byre to  overhear the edifying   
talk of the beasts4 ,but it did him     
little good2  for one ox said to another
 ox1 ,what shall we do to-morrow8 and   
the  other replied1 ,we shall carry our 
master to the churchyard4 ,sure  enough 
the farmer died that very night and was 
buried next morning4#fec  ,in           
,franche-,comt1 the province of ,france 
to the west of the ,jura  mountains1 if 

the ,yule log is really to protect a    
house against thunder  and lightning1 it
 is essential that it should burn during
 the midnight  mass1 and that the flame 
should not go out before the divine     
service is  concluded4 ,otherwise the   
log is quite useless for the            
purpose4#fed ,in  ,burgundy the log     
which is placed on the fire on          
,christmas ,eve is called  the suche4   
,while it is burning1 the father of the 
family1 assisted by  his wife and       
children1 sings ,christmas carols2 and  
when he has finished1  he tells the     
smallest children to go into a corner of
 the room and pray  ,god that the log   
may give them sweeties4 ,the prayer is  
invariably  answered4#fee    ,the ,yule 
log and the ,yule candle in ,england4   
,in ,england the customs and beliefs    
concerning the ,yule log1 clog1 or      
block1 as it was variously called1 used 
to be similar4 ,on the night of         
,christmas ,eve1 says the antiquary     
,john ,brand1 our ancestors were wont   

to light up candles of an uncommon size1
 called ,christmas ,candles1 and  lay a 
log of wood upon the fire1 called a     
,yule-clog or ,christmas-block1  to     
illuminate the house1 and1 as it were1  
to turn night into day4 ,this  custom   
is1 in some measure1 still kept up in   
the ,north of ,england4 ,in  the buttery
 of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,oxford1 an  
ancient candle-socket of  stone still   
remains ornamented with the figure of   
the ,holy ,lamb4 ,it was  formerly used 
to burn the ,christmas ,candle in1 on   
the high table at  supper1 during the   
twelve nights of that festival4#fef ,a  
tall mould  candle1 called a ,yule      
candle1 is lighted and set on the table2
 these  candles are presented by the    
chandlers and grocers to their          
customers4  ,the ,yule-log is bought of 
the carpenters' lads4 ,it would be      
unlucky to  light either of them before 
the time1 or to stir the fire or candle 
during the supper2 the candle must not  
be snuffed1 neither must any one  stir  

from the table till supper is ended4 ,in
 these suppers it is  considered unlucky
 to have an odd number at table4 ,a     
fragment of the log  is occasionally    
saved1 and put under a bed1 to remain   
till next  ,christmas3 it secures the   
house from fire2 a small piece of it    
thrown  into a fire occurring at the    
house of a neighbour1 will quell the    
raging  flame4 ,a piece of the candle   
should likewise be kept to ensure good  
luck4#feg ,in the seventeenth century1  
as we learn from some verses of         
,herrick1 the ,english custom was to    
light the ,yule log with a fragment of  
its predecessor1 which had been kept    
throughout the year for the  purpose2   
where it was so kept1 the fiend could do
 no mischief4#feh  ,indeed the practice 
of preserving a piece of the ,yule-log  
of one year to  light that of the next  
was observed by at least one family at  
,cheadle in  ,staffordshire down to the 
latter part of the nineteenth           
century4#fei    ,the ,yule-log in       

,yorkshire2 the ,yule log in            
,lincolnshire2 the ,yule log  in        
,warwickshire1 ,shropshire1 and         
,herefordshire2 the ,yule log in ,wales4
    ,in the ,north of ,england          
farm-servants used to lay by a large    
knotty  block of wood for the ,christmas
 fire1 and so long as the block lasted  
they were entitled by custom to ale at  
their meals4 ,the log was as large  as  
the hearth could hold4#ffj ,at ,belford1
 in ,northumberland1 the lord  of the   
manor sends round to every house1 on the
 afternoon of ,christmas  ,eve1 the     
,yule ,logs--four or five large logs--to
 be burnt on ,christmas  ,eve and ,day4 
,this old custom has always1 ,i am told1
 been kept up  here4#ffa ,the custom of 
burning the ,yule log at ,christmas used
 to be  observed in ,wensleydale and    
other parts of ,yorkshire1 and prudent  
housewives carefully preserved pieces of
 the log throughout the year4 ,at       
,whitby the portions so kept were stowed
 away under the bed till next           

,christmas1 when they were burnt with   
the new log2 in the interval they  were 
believed to protect the house from      
conflagration1 and if one of  them were 
thrown into the fire1 it would quell a  
raging storm4#ffb ,the  practice and the
 belief were similar at ,filey on the   
coast of ,yorkshire1  where besides the 
,yule log a tall ,yule candle was lit on
 the same  evening4#ffc ,in the ,west   
,riding1 while the log blazed           
cheerfully1 the  people quaffed their   
ale and sang1 ,yule6 ,yule6 a pack of   
new cards and  a ,christmas stool6#ffd  
,at ,clee1 in ,lincolnshire1 when       
,christmas ,eve  has come the ,yule cake
 is duly cut and the ,yule log lit1 and 
,i know of  some even middle-class      
houses where the new log must always    
rest upon  and be lighted by the old    
one1 a small portion of which has been  
carefully stored away to preserve a     
continuity of light and heat4#ffe  ,at  
the village of ,wootton ,wawen in       
,warwickshire1 down to #agei at least1  

the ,yule-block1 as it was called1 was  
drawn into the house by a horse on      
,christmas ,eve as a foundation for the 
fire on ,christmas ,day1 and  according 
to the superstition of those times for  
the twelve days  following1 as the said 
block was not to be entirely reduced to 
ashes  till that time had passed by4#fff
 ,as late as #ahcj1 or thereabout1 the  
scene of lighting the hearth-fire on    
,christmas ,eve1 to continue burning    
throughout the ,christmas season1 might 
have been witnessed in the  secluded and
 beautiful hill-country of ,west        
,shropshire1 from ,chirbury  and        
,worthen to ,pulverbatch and            
,pontesbury4 ,the ,christmas brand or   
brund1  as they called it1 was a great  
trunk of seasoned oak1 holly1 yew1 or   
crab-tree1 drawn by horses to the       
farm-house door and thence rolled by    
means of rollers and levers to the back 
of the wide open hearth1 where  the fire
 was made up in front of it4 ,the embers
 were raked up to it  every night1 and  

it was carefully tended1 that it might  
not go out  during the whole ,christmas 
season4 ,all those days no light might  
be  struck1 given1 or borrowed4 ,such   
was the custom at ,worthen in the early 
part of the nineteenth century4#ffg ,in 
,herefordshire the ,christmas  feast    
lasted for twelve days1 and no work was 
done4 ,all houses were1  and are now1   
decorated with sprigs of holly and ivy1 
which must not be  brought in until     
,christmas ,eve4 ,a ,yule log1 as large 
as the open hearth  could accommodate1  
was brought into the kitchen of each    
farmhouse1 and  smaller ones were used  
in the cottages4 ,w---- ,p---- said he  
had seen a  tree drawn into the kitchen 
at ,kingstone ,grange years ago by two  
cart  horses2 when it had been consumed 
a small portion was carefully kept to   
be used for lighting next year's log4   
',mother always kept it very  carefully2
 she said it was lucky1 and kept the    
house from fire and from  lightning4'   
,it seems to have been the general      

practice to light it on  ,christmas     
,eve4#ffh ,in many parts of ,wales it is
 still customary to  keep part of the   
,yule-log until the following ,christmas
 ,eve 'for luck4'  ,it is then put into 
the fireplace and burnt1 but before it  
is consumed  the new log is put on1 and 
thus 'the old fire and the new' burn    
together4 ,in some families this is done
 from force of habit1 and they  cannot  
now tell why they do it2 but in the past
 the observance of this  custom was to  
keep witches away1 and doubtless was a  
survival of  fire-worship4#ffi    ,the  
,yule log in ,servia2 the cutting of the
 oak tree to form the ,yule  log4       
,but nowhere1 apparently1 in ,europe is 
the old heathen ritual of the ,yule  log
 preserved to the present day more      
perfectly than in ,servia4 ,at early    
dawn on ,christmas ,eve 7,badnyi ,dan7  
every peasant house sends two of  its   
strongest young men to the nearest      
forest to cut down a young oak  tree and
 bring it home4 ,there1 after offering  

up a short prayer or  crossing          
themselves thrice1 they throw a handful 
of wheat on the chosen  oak and greet it
 with the words1 ,happy ,badnyi day to  
you6 ,then they  cut it down1 taking    
care that it shall fall towards the east
 at the  moment when the sun's orb      
appears over the rim of the eastern     
horizon4  ,should the tree fall towards 
the west1 it would be the worst possible
  omen for the house and its inmates in 
the ensuing year2 and it is also  an    
evil omen if the tree should be caught  
and stopped in its fall by  another     
tree4 ,it is important to keep and carry
 home the first chip from  the fallen   
oak4 ,the trunk is sawn into two or     
three logs1 one of them  rather longer  
than the others4 ,a flat1 unleavened    
cake of the purest  wheaten flour is    
brought out of the house and broken on  
the larger of  the logs by a woman4 ,the
 logs are left for the present to stand 
outside1  leaning on one of the walls of
 the house4 ,each of them is called a   

,yule  log 7badnyak74    ,prayers to    
,colleda4    ,meanwhile the children and
 young people go from house to house    
singing  special songs called ,colleda  
because of an old pagan divinity        
,colleda1  who is invoked in every line4
 ,in one of them she is spoken of as a  
beautiful little maid2 in another she is
 implored to make the cows  yield milk  
abundantly4 ,the day is spent in busy   
preparations4 ,the women  bake little   
cakes of a special sort in the shape of 
lambs1 pigs1 and  chickens2 the men make
 ready a pig for roasting1 for in every 
,servian  house roast pig is the        
principal dish at ,christmas4 ,a bundle 
of straw1  tied with a rope1 is brought 
into the courtyard and left to stand    
there  near the ,yule logs4    ,the     
bringing in of the ,yule log4    ,at the
 moment when the sun is setting all the 
members of the family  assemble in the  
central hall 7the great family kitchen7 
of the principal  house4 ,the mother of 
the family 7or the wife of the chief of 

the  ,zadrooga7#fgj gives a pair of     
woollen gloves to one of the young men1 
who goes out and presently returns      
carrying in his gloved hands the        
largest of the logs4 ,the mother        
receives him at the threshold1 throwing 
at him a handful of wheat1 in which the 
first chip of the oak tree cut  in the  
early morning for the ,yule log has been
 kept all day4 ,entering  the central   
hall with the ,yule log the young man   
greets all present with  the words3     
,good evening1 and may you have a happy 
,christmas6 and they  all answer in     
chorus1 ,may ,god and the happy and holy
 ,christmas help  thee6 ,in some parts  
of ,servia the chief of the family1     
holding a glass  of red wine in his     
hand1 greets the ,yule log as if it were
 a living  person1 and drinks to its    
health4 ,after that1 another glass of   
red wine  is poured on the log4 ,then   
the oldest male member of the family1   
assisted by the young man who brought in
 the log1 places it on the  burning fire

 so that the thicker end of the log     
protrudes for about a  foot from the    
hearth4 ,in some places this end is     
smeared with honey4    ,the ceremony    
with the straw2 the ,yule candle4       
,next the mother of the family brings in
 the bundle of straw which was  left    
standing outside4 ,all the young        
children arrange themselves behind  her 
in a row4 ,she then walks slowly round  
the hall and the adjoining  rooms1      
throwing handfuls of straw on the floor 
and imitating the  cackling of a hen1   
while all the children follow her       
peeping with their  lips as if they were
 chickens cheeping and waddling after   
the mother  bird4 ,when the floor is    
well strewn with straw1 the father or   
the eldest  member of the family throws 
a few walnuts in every corner of the    
hall1  pronouncing the words3 ,in the   
name of ,god the ,father1 and the ,son1 
and  the ,holy ,ghost1 ,amen6 ,a large  
pot1 or a small wooden box1 filled with 
wheat is placed high in the east corner 

of the hall1 and a tall candle  of      
yellow wax is stuck in the middle of the
 wheat4 ,then the father of  the family 
reverently lights the candle and prays  
,god to bless the  family with health   
and happiness1 the fields with a good   
harvest1 the  beehives with plenty of   
honey1 the cattle and sheep with young1 
and the  cows with abundant milk and    
rich cream4 ,after that they all sit    
down to  supper1 squatting on the floor1
 for the use of chairs and tables is    
forbidden on this occasion4    ,the     
roast ,pig2 the drawing of the water4   
,by four o'clock next morning           
7,christmas ,day7 the whole village is  
astir2  indeed most people do not sleep 
at all that night4 ,it is deemed most   
important to keep the ,yule log burning 
brightly all night long4 ,very  early1  
too1 the pig is laid on the fire to     
roast1 and at the same moment  one of   
the family goes out into the yard and   
fires a pistol or gun2 and  when the    
roast pig is removed from the fire the  

shot is repeated4 ,hence  for several   
hours in the early morning of ,christmas
 ,day such a popping  and banging of    
firearms goes on that a stranger might  
think a stubborn  skirmish was in       
progress4 ,just before the sun rises a  
girl goes and  draws water at the       
village spring or at the brook4 ,before 
she fills her  vessels1 she wishes the  
water a happy ,christmas and throws a   
handful of  wheat into it4 ,the first   
cupfuls of water she brings home are    
used to  bake a special ,christmas cake 
7chesnitsa71 of which all the members   
partake at dinner1 and portions are kept
 for absent relatives4 ,a small  silver 
coin is baked in the cake1 and he or she
 who gets it will be  lucky during the  
year4    ,the ,christmas visiter        
7polaznik74    ,all the family gathered 
round the blazing ,yule log now         
anxiously expect  the arrival of the    
special ,christmas visiter1 who bears   
the title of  polaznik4 ,he is usually a
 young boy of a friendly family4 ,no    

other  person1 not even the priest or   
the mayor of the village1 would be      
allowed to set foot in the house before 
the arrival of this important           
personage4 ,therefore he ought to come1 
and generally does come1 very  early in 
the morning4 ,he carries a woollen glove
 full of wheat1 and when  the door is   
opened at his knock he throws handfuls  
of wheat on the  family gathered round  
the hearth1 greeting them with the      
words1 ,christ  is born6 ,they all      
answer1 ,he is born indeed1 and the     
hostess flings a  handful of wheat over 
the ,christmas visiter1 who moreover    
casts some of  his wheat into the       
corners of the hall as well as upon the 
people4 ,then  he walks straight to the 
hearth1 takes a shovel and strikes the  
burning  log so that a cloud of sparks  
flies up the chimney1 while he says1    
,may  you have this year so many oxen1  
so many horses1 so many sheep1 so many  
pigs1 so many beehives full of honey1 so
 much good luck1 prosperity1  progress1 

and happiness6 ,having uttered these    
good wishes1 he embraces  and kisses his
 host4 ,then he turns again to the      
hearth1 and after  crossing himself     
falls on his knees and kisses the       
projecting part of  the ,yule log4 ,on  
rising to his feet he places a coin on  
the log as his  gift4 ,meanwhile a low  
wooden chair has been brought in by a   
woman1 and  the visiter is led to it to 
take his seat4 ,but just as he is about 
to do  so1 the chair is jerked away from
 under him by a male member of the      
family and he measures his length on the
 floor4 ,by this fall he is  supposed to
 fix into the ground all the good wishes
 which he has uttered  that morning4    
,the hostess thereupon wraps him in a   
thick blanket1 and he  sits quietly     
muffled in it for a few minutes2 the    
thick blanket in which  he is swathed is
 believed1 on the principles of         
homoeopathic magic1 to  ensure that the 
cows will give thick cream next year4   
,while he sits thus  enriching the milk 

of the dairy1 the lads who are to herd  
the sheep in  the coming year go to the 
hearth and kneeling down before it kiss 
each  other across the projecting end of
 the ,yule log4 ,by this demonstration  
of affection they are thought to seal   
the love of the ewes for their          
lambs4#fga    ,the ,yule log among the  
,servians of ,slavonia2 the ,christmas  
visiter  7polazenik74    ,the ritual of 
the ,yule log is observed in a similar  
form by the ,servians  who inhabit the  
southern provinces of ,austria4 ,thus in
 ,syrmia1 a  district of ,slavonia which
 borders on ,servia1 the head of the    
house  sends out one or two young men on
 ,christmas ,eve to cut the ,yule log in
  the nearest forest4 ,on being brought 
in1 the log is not mixed with the       
ordinary fuel but placed by itself1     
generally leaning against a  fruit-tree 
till the evening shadows begin to fall4 
,when a man carries it  into the kitchen
 and lays it on the fire1 the master of 
the house throws  corn over him1 and the

 two greet each other solemnly the one  
saying1  ,christ is born1 and the other 
answering ,he is born indeed4 ,later in 
the evening the master of the house     
pours a glass of wine on the charred    
end of the log1 whereupon one of the    
younger men takes the burnt piece  of   
wood1 carries it to the orchard1 and    
sets it up against one of the           
fruit-trees4 ,for this service he is    
rewarded by the master of the house     
with a piece of money4 ,on ,christmas   
,day1 when the family is assembled at   
table1 they expect the arrival of the   
special ,christmas visiter 7called      
polazenik71 the only person who is      
allowed to enter the house that  day4   
,when he comes1 he goes to the hearth1  
stirs the fire with the poker  and says1
 ,christ is born4 ,may the family enjoy 
all good luck and  happiness in this    
year6 ,may the cattle increase in number
 like the  sparks ,i have struck6 ,as he
 says these words1 the mistress of the  
house  pours corn over him and leads him

 to the parlour1 where he takes the     
place of honour beside the master of the
 house4 ,he is treated with  marked     
attention and respect4 ,the family are  
at pains to entertain him2  they sing   
their best songs for his amusement1 and 
after midnight a  numerous band of men  
and maidens escorts him by torchlight1  
with songs  and jubilation1 to his own  
house4#fgb    ,the ,yule log among the  
,servians of ,dalmatia1 ,herzegovina1   
and  ,montenegro2 the ,yule log in      
,albania4    ,among the ,servians of    
,dalmatia1 ,herzegovina1 and ,montenegro
 it is  customary on ,christmas ,eve    
7,badnyi ,dan7 to fetch a great ,yule   
log  7badnyak71 which serves as a symbol
 of family luck4 ,it is generally  cut  
from an evergreen oak1 but sometimes    
from an olive-tree or a beech4  ,at     
nightfall the master of the house       
himself brings in the log and lays  it  
on the fire4 ,then he and all present   
bare their heads1 sprinkle the  log with
 wine1 and make a cross on it4 ,after   

that the master of the  house says1     
,welcome1 ,o log6 ,may ,god keep you    
from mishap6 ,so saying he  strews peas1
 maize1 raisins1 and wheat on the log1  
praying for ,god's  blessing on all     
members of the family living and dead1  
for heaven's  blessing on their         
undertakings1 and for domestic          
prosperity4 ,in  ,montenegro they meet  
the log with a loaf of bread and a jug  
of wine1  drink to it1 and pour wine on 
it1 whereupon the whole family drinks   
out  of the same beaker4 ,in ,dalmatia  
and other places1 for example in        
,rizano1  the ,yule logs are decked by  
young women with red silk1 flowers1     
laurel  leaves1 ribbons1 and even gold  
wire2 and the lights near the doorposts 
are kindled when the log is brought into
 the house4 ,among the ,morlaks1  as    
soon as the master of the house crosses 
the threshold with the ,yule  log1 one  
of the family must sprinkle corn on him 
and say1 ,god bless  you1 to which he   
answers1 ,the same to you4 ,a piece of  

the log is kept  till ,new ,year's ,day 
to kindle a light with or it is carried 
out to the  fields to protect them from 
hail4 ,it is customary to invite before 
hand  a ,christmas visitor 7polazaynik7 
and to admit no one else into the  house
 on that day4 ,he comes early1 carrying 
in his sleeves a quantity of  corn which
 he throws into the house1 saying1      
,christ is born4 ,one of  the household 
replies1 ,he is born indeed1 and throws 
corn on the  visiter4 ,then the newcomer
 goes up to the hearth1 pokes the fire  
and  strikes the burning log with the   
poker so hard that sparks fly off in    
all directions4 ,at each blow he says1  
,i wish the family as many cows1        
calves1 sucking pigs1 goats1 and sheep1 
and as many strokes of good  luck1 as   
the sparks that now fly from the log4   
,with these words he  throws some small 
coins into the ashes4#fgc ,in ,albania  
down to recent  years it was a common   
custom to burn a ,yule log at           
,christmas1 and with  it corn1 maize1   

and beans2 moreover1 wine and rakia were
 poured on the  flames1 and the ashes of
 the fire were scattered on the fields  
to make  them fertile4#fgd ,the ,huzuls1
 a ,slavonic people of the ,carpathians1
  kindle fire by the friction of wood on
 ,christmas ,eve 7,old ,style1 the      
fifth of ,january7 and keep it burning  
till ,twelfth ,night4#fge    ,belief    
that the ,yule log protects against fire
 and lightning4    ,it is remarkable how
 common the belief appears to have been 
that the  remains of the ,yule-log1 if  
kept throughout the year1 had power to  
protect the house against fire and      
especially against lightning4#fgf ,as   
the ,yule log was frequently of oak1#fgg
 it seems possible that this  belief may
 be a relic of the old ,aryan creed     
which associated the  oak-tree with the 
god of thunder4#fgh ,whether the        
curative and  fertilizing virtues       
ascribed to the ashes of the ,yule log1 
which are  supposed to heal cattle as   
well as men1 to enable cows to calve1   

and to  promote the fruitfulness of the 
earth1#fgi may not be derived from the  
same ancient source1 is a question which
 deserves to be considered4    ,public  
celebrations of the fire-festival at    
,midwinter2 the bonfire on  ,christmas  
,eve at ,schweina in ,thuringia4        
,thus far we have regarded only the     
private or domestic celebration of  the 
fire-festival at midwinter4 ,the public 
celebration of such rites at  that      
season of the year appears to have been 
rare and exceptional in  ,central and   
,northern ,europe4 ,however1 some       
instances are on record4 ,thus  at      
,schweina1 in ,thuringia1 down to the   
second half of the nineteenth  century1 
the young people used to kindle a great 
bonfire on the ,antonius  ,mountain     
every year on ,christmas ,eve4 ,neither 
the civil nor the  ecclesiastical       
authorities were able to suppress the   
celebration2 nor  could the cold1 rain1 
and snow of the season damp or chill the
  enthusiasm of the celebrants4 ,for    

some time before ,christmas the young   
men and boys were busy building a       
foundation for the bonfire on the top   
of the mountain1 where the oldest church
 of the village used to stand4  ,the    
foundation consisted of a pyramidal     
structure composed of stones1  turf1 and
 moss4 ,when ,christmas ,eve came round1
 a strong pole1 with  bundles of        
brushwood tied to it1 was erected on the
 pyramid4 ,the young  folk also provided
 themselves with poles to which old     
brooms or faggots  of shavings were     
attached4 ,these were to serve as       
torches4 ,when the  evening grew dark   
and the church bells rang to service1   
the troop of  lads ascended the         
mountain2 and soon from the top the     
glare of the  bonfire lit up the        
darkness1 and the sound of a hymn broke 
the stillness  of night4 ,in a circle   
round the great fire lesser fires were  
kindled2  and last of all the lads ran  
about swinging their lighted torches1   
till  these twinkling points of fire1   

moving down the mountain-side1 went out 
one by one in the darkness4 ,at midnight
 the bells rang out from the  church    
tower1 mingled with the blast of horns  
and the sound of singing4  ,feasting and
 revelry were kept up throughout the    
night1 and in the  morning young and old
 went to early mass to be edified by    
hearing of the  light eternal4#fhj      
,bonfires on ,christmas ,eve in         
,normandy4    ,in the ,bocage of        
,normandy the peasants used to repair1  
often from a  distance of miles1 to the 
churches to hear the midnight mass on   
,christmas ,eve4 ,they marched in       
procession by torchlight1 chanting      
,christmas carols1 and the fitful       
illumination of the woods1 the hedges1  
and the fields as they moved through the
 darkness1 presented a  succession of   
picturesque scenes4 ,mention is also    
made of bonfires  kindled on the        
heights2 the custom is said to have been
 observed at  ,athis near ,cond down to 
recent years4#fha    ,bonfires on ,st4  

,thomas's ,day in the ,isle of ,man2 the
 ,burning of the  ,clavie at ,burghead  
on the last day of ,december2 the old   
rampart at  ,burghead    ,in the ,isle  
of ,man1 on the twenty-first of         
,december1 a day dedicated to  ,saint   
,thomas1 the people went to the         
mountains to catch deer and sheep  for  
,christmas1 and in the evenings always  
kindled a large fire on the  top of     
every fingan or cliff4 ,hence1 at the   
time of casting peats1  every one laid  
aside a large one1 saying1 ',faaid mooar
 moayney son  oie'l fingan'2 that is1 'a
 large turf for ,fingan ,eve4'#fhb ,at  
,burghead1 an ancient village on the    
southern shore of the ,moray ,firth1    
about nine miles from the town of       
,elgin1 a festival of fire called the   
,burning of the ,clavie has been        
celebrated from time immemorial on      
,hogmanay1 the last day of ,december4 ,a
 tar-barrel is sawn in two1 one  half of
 it is set on the top of a stout pole1  
and filled with tar and  other          

combustibles4 ,the half-barrel is       
fastened to the pole by means of  a long
 nail1 which is made for the purpose and
 furnished gratuitously by  the village 
blacksmith4 ,the nail must be knocked in
 with a stone2 the  use of a hammer is  
forbidden4 ,when the shades of evening  
have begun to  fall1 the ,clavie1 as it 
is called1 is set on fire by means of a 
burning  peat1 which is always fetched  
from the same house2 it may not be      
kindled  with a match4 ,as soon as it is
 in a blaze1 it is shouldered by a man1 
who proceeds to carry it at a run1      
flaring and dripping melted tar1  round 
the old boundaries of the village2 the  
modern part of the town is  not included
 in the circuit4 ,close at his heels    
follows a motley crowd1  cheering and   
shouting4 ,one bearer relieves another  
as each wearies of  his burden4 ,the    
first to shoulder the ,clavie1 which is 
esteemed an  honour1 is usually a man   
who has been lately married4 ,should the
 bearer  stumble or fall1 it is deemed a

 very ill omen for him and for the      
village4 ,in bygone times it was thought
 necessary that one man should  carry it
 all round the village2 hence the       
strongest man was chosen for  the       
purpose4 ,moreover it was customary to  
carry the burning ,clavie round  every  
fishing-boat and vessel in the harbour2 
but this part of the  ceremony was      
afterwards discontinued4 ,finally1 the  
blazing tar-barrel is  borne to a small 
hill called the ,doorie1 which rises    
near the northern  end of the           
promontory4 ,here the pole is fixed into
 a socket in a pillar  of freestone1 and
 fresh fuel is heaped upon the flames1  
which flare up  higher and brighter than
 ever4 ,formerly the ,clavie was allowed
 to burn  here the whole night1 but now1
 after blazing for about half an hour1  
it  is lifted from the socket and thrown
 down the western slope of the hill4    
,then the crowd rushes upon it1         
demolishes it1 and scrambles for the    
burning1 smoking embers1 which they     

carry home and carefully preserve as    
charms to protect them against          
witchcraft and misfortune4#fhc ,the     
great  antiquity of ,burghead1 where    
this curious and no doubt ancient       
festival  is still annually observed1   
appears from the remains of a very      
remarkable rampart which formerly       
encircled the place4 ,it consists of a  
mound of earth faced on both sides with 
a solid wall of stone and  strengthened 
internally by oak beams and planks1 the 
whole being laid on  a foundation of    
boulders4 ,the style of the rampart     
agrees in general  with ,caesar's       
description of the mode in which the    
,gauls constructed  their walls of      
earth1 stone1 and logs1#fhd and it      
resembles the ruins  of ,gallic         
fortifications which have been          
discovered in ,france1 though it  is    
said to surpass them in the strength and
 solidity of its structure4  ,no similar
 walls appear to be known in ,britain4  
,a great part of this  interesting      

prehistoric fortress was barbarously    
destroyed in the early  part of the     
nineteenth century1 much of it being    
tumbled into the sea  and many of the   
stones used to build the harbour        
piers4#fhe    ,procession with burning  
tar-barrels on ,christmas ,eve 7,old    
,style7 at  ,lerwick4    ,in ,lerwick1  
the capital of the ,shetland ,islands1  
on ,christmas ,eve1 the  fourth of      
,january1--for the old style is still   
observed--the children go  a guizing1   
that is to say1 they disguising         
themselves in the most  fantastic and   
gaudy costumes1 parade the streets1 and 
infest the houses  and shops1 begging   
for the wherewithal to carry on their   
,christmas  amusements4 ,one o'clock on 
,yule morning having struck1 the young  
men  turn out in large numbers1 dressed 
in the coarsest of garments1 and1 at    
the double-quick march1 drag huge tar   
barrels through the town1 shouting  and 
cheering as they go1 or blowing loud    
blasts with their 'louder  horns4' ,the 

tar barrel simply consists of           
several--say from four to  eight--tubs  
filled with tar and chips1 placed on a  
platform of wood4 ,it  is dragged by    
means of a chain1 to which scores of    
jubilant youths  readily yoke           
themselves4 ,they have recently been    
described by the worthy  burgh officer  
of ,lerwick as 'fiery chariots1 the     
effect of which is  truly grand and     
terrific4' ,in a ,christmas morning the 
dark streets of  ,lerwick are generally 
lighted up by the bright glare1 and its 
atmosphere  blackened by the dense smoke
 of six or eight tar barrels in         
succession4  ,on the appearance of      
daybreak1 at six ,a4,m41 the morning    
revellers put  off their coarse         
garments--well begrimed by this         
time--and in their turn  become         
guizards4 ,they assume every imaginable 
form of costume--those of  soldiers1    
sailors1 ,highlanders1 ,spanish         
chevaliers1 etc4 ,thus disguised1  they 
either go in pairs1 as man and wife1 or 

in larger groups1 and  proceed to call  
on their friends1 to wish them the      
compliments of the  season4 ,formerly1  
these adolescent guizards used to seat  
themselves in  crates1 and accompanied  
by fiddlers1 were dragged through the   
town4#fhf    ,persian festival of fire  
at the winter solstice4    ,the         
,persians used to celebrate a festival  
of fire called ,sada or  ,saza at the   
winter solstice4 ,on the longest night  
of the year they  kindled bonfires      
everywhere1 and kings and princes tied  
dry grass to the  feet of birds and     
animals1 set fire to the grass1 and then
 let the birds  and beasts fly or run   
blazing through the air or over the     
fields and  mountains1 so that the whole
 air and earth appeared to be on        
fire4#fhg       #h4 ,the ,need-fire     
,european festivals of fire in seasons  
of distress and calamity2 the           
need-fire4    ,the fire-festivals       
hitherto described are all celebrated   
periodically at  certain stated times of

 the year4 ,but besides these regularly 
recurring  celebrations the peasants in 
many parts of ,europe have been wont    
from  time immemorial to resort to a    
ritual of fire at irregular intervals in
  seasons of distress and calamity1     
above all when their cattle were        
attacked by epidemic disease4 ,no       
account of the popular ,european        
fire-festivals would be complete without
 some notice of these remarkable  rites1
 which have all the greater claim on our
 attention because they  may perhaps be 
regarded as the source and origin of all
 the other  fire-festivals2 certainly   
they must date from a very remote       
antiquity4  ,the general name by which  
they are known among the ,teutonic      
peoples is  need-fire4#fhh    ,the      
needfire in the ,middle ,ages2 the      
needfire at ,neustadt in #aeih4    ,the 
history of the need-fire can be traced  
back to early ,middle ,ages2  for in the
 reign of ,pippin1 ,king of ,franks1 the
 practice of kindling  need-fires was   

denounced as a heathen superstition by a
 synod of  prelates and nobles held     
under the presidency of ,boniface1      
,archbishop of  ,mainz4#fhi ,not long   
afterwards the custom was again         
forbidden1 along  with many more relics 
of expiring paganism1 in an ,index of   
,superstitions and ,heathenish          
,observances1 which has been usually    
referred to the year #gdc ,a4,d41 though
 some scholars assign it a later  date  
under the reign of ,charlemagne4#fij ,in
 ,germany the need-fires  would seem to 
have been popular down to the second    
half of the  nineteenth century4 ,thus  
in the year #aeih1 when a fatal         
cattle-plague  was raging at ,neustadt1 
near ,marburg1 a wise man of the name of
 ,joh4  ,khler induced the authorities  
of the town to adopt the following      
remedy4 ,a new waggon-wheel was taken   
and twirled round an axle1 which  had   
never been used before1 until the       
friction elicited fire4 ,with this  fire
 a bonfire was next kindled between the 

gates of the town1 and all  the cattle  
were driven through the smoke and       
flames4 ,moreover1 every  householder   
had to rekindle the fire on his hearth  
by means of a light  taken from the     
bonfire4 ,strange to say1 this salutary 
measure had no  effect whatever in      
staying the cattle-plague1 and seven    
years later the  sapient ,joh4 ,khler   
himself was burnt as a witch4 ,the      
farmers1 whose  pigs and cows had       
derived no benefit from the need-fire1  
perhaps  assisted as spectators at the  
burning1 and1 while they shook their    
heads1 agreed among themselves that it  
served ,joh4 ,khler perfectly           
right4#fia ,according to a writer who   
published his book about nine  years    
afterwards1 some of the ,germans1       
especially in the ,wassgaw  mountains1  
confidently believed that a             
cattle-plague could be stayed by        
driving the animals through a need-fire 
which had been kindled by the  violent  
friction of a pole on a quantity of dry 

oak wood2 but it was a  necessary       
condition of success that all fires in  
the village should  previously be       
extinguished with water1 and any        
householder who failed to  put out his  
fire was heavily fined4#fib    ,method  
kindling the need fire4    ,the method  
of kindling the need-fire is described  
as follows by a writer  towards the end 
of the seventeenth century3 ,when an    
evil plague has  broken out among the   
cattle1 large and small1 and the herds  
have thereby  suffered great ravages1   
the peasants resolve to light a         
need-fire4 ,on a  day appointed there   
must be no single flame in any house nor
 on any  hearth4 ,from every house a    
quantity of straw and water and         
underwood  must be brought forth2 then a
 strong oaken pole is fixed firmly in   
the  earth1 a hole is bored in it1 and a
 wooden winch1 well smeared with  pitch 
and tar1 is inserted in the hole and    
turned round forcibly till  great heat  
and then fire is generated4 ,the fire so

 produced is caught in  fuel and fed    
with straw1 heath1 and underwood till it
 bursts out into a  regular need-fire1  
which must then be somewhat spread out  
between walls  or fences1 and the cattle
 and horses driven through it twice or  
thrice  with sticks and whips4 ,others  
set up two posts1 each with a hole in   
it1  and insert a winch1 along with old 
greasy rags1 in the holes4 ,others use  
a thick rope1 collect nine kinds of     
wood1 and keep them in violent  motion  
till fire leaps forth4 ,perhaps there   
may be other ways of  generating or     
kindling this fire1 but they are all    
directed simply at  the cure of the     
cattle4 ,after passing twice or thrice  
through the fire  the cattle are driven 
to their stalls or to pasture1 and the  
heap of  wood that had been collected is
 destroyed1 but in some places every    
householder must take with him a brand1 
extinguish it in a washing-tub  or      
trough1 and put it in the manger where  
the cattle are fed1 where it  must lie  

for some time4 ,the poles that were used
 to make the need-fire1  together with  
the wood that was employed as a winch1  
are sometimes  burned with the rest of  
the fuel1 sometimes carefully preserved 
after  the cattle have been thrice      
driven through the flames4#fic    ,the  
mode of kindling the need-fire about    
,hildesheim4    ,sometimes the need-fire
 was known as the wild fire1 to         
distinguish it  no doubt from the tame  
fire produced by more ordinary methods4 
,the  following is ,grimm's account of  
the mode of kindling it which prevailed 
in some parts of ,central ,germany1     
particularly about ,hildesheim1 down    
apparently to the first half of the     
nineteenth century3 ,in many places  of 
,lower ,saxony1 especially among the    
mountains1 the custom prevails of       
preparing the so-called 'wild fire' for 
the purpose of preventing               
cattle-plague2 and through it first the 
pigs1 then the cows1 and last of  all   
the geese are driven4 ,the proceedings  

on the occasion are as  follows4 ,the   
principal farmers and parishioners      
assemble1 and notice is  served to every
 inhabitant to extinguish entirely all  
fire in his house1  so that not even a  
spark remains alight in the whole       
village4 ,then young  and old repair to 
a road in a hollow1 usually towards     
evening1 the women  carrying linen1 and 
the men wood and tow4 ,two oaken poles  
are driven  into the ground about a foot
 and a half from each other4 ,each pole 
has  in the side facing the other a     
socket into which a cross-piece as thick
  as a man's arm is fitted4 ,the sockets
 are stuffed with linen1 and the        
cross-piece is rammed in as tight as    
possible1 while the poles are bound     
together at the top by ropes4 ,a rope is
 wound about the round1 smooth          
cross-piece1 and the free ends of the   
rope at both sides are gripped by       
several persons1 who pull the           
cross-piece to and fro with the utmost  
rapidity1 till through the friction the 

linen in the sockets takes fire4  ,the  
sparks of the linen are immediately     
caught in tow or oakum and waved  about 
in a circle until they burst into a     
bright glow1 when straw is  applied to  
it1 and the flaming straw used to kindle
 the brushwood which  has been stacked  
in piles in the hollow way4 ,when this  
wood has blazed  up and the fire has    
nearly died out again1 the people hasten
 to the  herds1 which have been waiting 
in the background1 and drive them       
forcibly1 one after the other1 through  
the glow4 ,as soon as all the  beasts   
are through1 the young folk rush wildly 
at the ashes and cinders1  sprinkling   
and blackening each other with them2    
those who have been most  sprinkled and 
blackened march in triumph behind the   
cattle into the  village and do not wash
 themselves for a long time4 ,if after  
long  rubbing the linen should not catch
 fire1 they guess that there is still   
fire somewhere in the village2 then a   
strict search is made from house  to    

house1 any fire that may be found is put
 out1 and the householder is  punished  
or upbraided4 ,the 'wild fire' must be  
made by prolonged  friction2 it may not 
be struck with flint and steel4 ,some   
villages do  not prepare it yearly as a 
preventive of cattle-plague1 but only   
kindle  it when the disease has actually
 broken out4#fid ,in the ,halberstadt   
district the ends of the rope which was 
used to make the cross-piece  revolve in
 the sockets had to be pulled by two    
chaste young men4#fie    ,the mode of   
kindling the need-fire in the ,mark4    
,in the ,mark down to the first half of 
the nineteenth century the  practice was
 similar4 ,we read that in many parts of
 the ,mark there  still prevails on     
certain occasions the custom of kindling
 a need-fire1  it happens particularly  
when a farmer has sick pigs4 ,two posts 
of dry  wood are planted in the earth   
amid solemn silence before the sun      
rises1  and round these posts hempen    
ropes are pulled to and fro till the    

wood  kindles2 whereupon the fire is fed
 with dry leaves and twigs and the  sick
 beasts are driven through it ,in some  
places the fire is produced by  the     
friction of an old cart-wheel4#fif      
,the mode of kindling the need-fire in  
,mecklenburg    ,in ,mecklenburg the    
need-fire used to be lighted by the     
friction of a  rope wound about an oaken
 pole or by rubbing two boards against  
each  other4 ,having been thus elicited1
 the flame was fed with wood of seven   
kinds4 ,the practice was forbidden by   
,gustavus ,adolphus1 ,duke of           
,mecklenburg1 in #afhb2 but the         
prohibition apparently had little       
effect1  for down to the end of the     
eighteenth century the custom was so    
common  that the inhabitants even of    
large towns made no scruple of resorting
 to  it4 ,for example1 in the month of  
,july #agib sickness broke out among the
  cattle belonging to the town of       
,sternberg2 some of the beasts died     
suddenly1 and so the people resolved to 

drive all the survivors through  a      
need-fire4 ,on the tenth day of ,july   
the magistrates issued a  proclamation  
announcing that next morning before     
sunrise a need-fire  would be kindled   
for the behoof of all the cattle of the 
town1 and  warning all the inhabitants  
against lighting fires in their kitchens
  that evening4 ,so next morning very   
early1 about two o'clock1 nearly the    
whole population was astir1 and having  
assembled outside one of the  gates of  
the town they helped to drive the timid 
cattle1 not without  much ado1 through  
three separate need-fires2 after which  
they dispersed  to their homes in the   
unalterable conviction that they had    
rescued the  cattle from destruction4   
,but to make assurance doubly sure they 
deemed  it advisable to administer the  
rest of the ashes as a bolus to the     
animals4 ,however1 some people in       
,mecklenburg used to strew the ashes of 
the need-fire on fields for the purpose 
of protecting the crops against  vermin4

 ,as late as ,june #ahfh a traveller in 
,mecklenburg saw a couple of  peasants  
sweating away at a rope1 which they were
 pulling backwards and  forwards so as  
to make a tarry roller revolve with     
great speed in the  socket of an upright
 post4 ,asked what they were about1 they
 vouchsafed  no reply2 but an old woman 
who appeared on the scene from a        
neighbouring  cottage was more          
communicative4 ,in the fulness of her   
heart she confided  to the stranger that
 her pigs were sick1 that the two       
taciturn bumpkins  were her sons1 who   
were busy extracting a need-fire from   
the roller1 and  that1 when they        
succeeded1 the flame would be used to   
ignite a heap of  rags and brushwood1   
through which the ailing swine would be 
driven4 ,she  further explained that the
 persons who kindle a need-fire should  
always  be two brothers or at least bear
 the same ,christian name4#fig    ,the  
mode of kindling the need-fire in       
,hanover4    ,in the summer of #ahbh    

there was much sickness among the pigs  
and the  cows of ,eddesse1 a village    
near ,meinersen1 in the south of        
,hanover4 ,when  all ordinary measures  
to arrest the malady failed1 the farmers
 met in  solemn conclave on the village 
green and determined that next morning  
there should be a need-fire4 ,thereupon 
the head man of the village sent  word  
from house to house that on the         
following day nobody should kindle  a   
fire before sunrise1 and that everybody 
should stand by ready to drive  out the 
cattle4 ,the same afternoon all the     
necessary preparations were  made for   
giving effect to the decision of the    
collective wisdom4 ,a  narrow street was
 enclosed with planks1 and the village  
carpenter set to  work at the machinery 
for kindling the fire4 ,he took two     
posts of oak  wood1 bored a hole about  
three inches deep and broad in each1 and
 set  the two poles up facing each other
 at a distance of about two feet4 ,then 
he fitted a roller of oak wood into the 

two holes of the posts1 so that  it     
formed a cross-piece between them4      
,about two o'clock next morning  every  
householder brought a bundle of straw   
and brushwood and laid it  down across  
the street in a prescribed order4 ,the  
sturdiest swains who  could be found    
were chosen to make the need-fire4 ,for 
this purpose a  long hempen rope was    
wound twice round the oaken roller in   
the oaken  posts3 the pivots were well  
smeared with pitch and tar3 a bundle of 
tow  and other tinder was laid close at 
hand1 and all was ready4 ,the stalwart  
clodhoppers now seized the two ends of  
the rope and went to work with a  will4 
,puffs of smoke soon issued from the    
sockets1 but to the  consternation of   
the bystanders not a spark of fire could
 be elicited4  ,some people openly      
declared their suspicion that some      
rascal had not put  out the fire in his 
house1 when suddenly the tinder burst   
into flame4  ,the cloud passed away from
 all faces2 the fire was applied to the 

heaps  of fuel1 and when the flames had 
somewhat died down1 the herds were      
forcibly driven through the fire1 first 
the pigs1 next the cows1 and  last of   
all the horses4 ,the herdsmen then drove
 the beasts to pasture1  and persons    
whose faith in the efficacy of the      
need-fire was  particularly robust      
carried home brands4#fih    ,the mode of
 kindling the need-fire in the ,harz    
,mountains4    ,again1 at a village near
 ,quedlinburg1 in the ,harz ,mountains1 
it was  resolved to put a herd of sick  
swine through the need-fire4 ,hearing of
  this intention the ,superintendent of 
,quedlinburg hurried to the spot and    
has described for us what he saw4 ,the  
beadles went from house to house  to see
 that there was no fire in any house2   
for it is well known that  should there 
be common fire burning in a house the   
need-fire will not  kindle4 ,the men    
made their rounds very early in the     
morning to make  quite sure that all    
lights were out4 ,at two o'clock a      

night-light was  still burning in the   
parsonage1 and this was of course a     
hindrance to  the need-fire4 ,the       
peasants knocked at the window and      
earnestly  entreated that the           
night-light might be extinguished4 ,but 
the parson's  wife refused to put the   
light out2 it still glimmered at the    
window2 and  in the darkness outside the
 angry rustics vowed that the parson's  
pigs  should get no benefit of the      
need-fire4 ,however1 as good luck would 
have  it1 just as the morning broke1 the
 night-light went out of itself1 and    
the hopes of the people revived4 ,from  
every house bundles of straw1 tow1      
faggots and so forth were now carried to
 feed the bonfire4 ,the noise and  the  
cheerful bustle were such that you might
 have thought they were all  hurrying to
 witness a public execution4 ,outside   
the village1 between two  garden walls1 
an oaken post had been driven into the  
ground and a hole  bored through it4 ,in
 the hole a wooden winch1 smeared with  

tar1 was  inserted and made to revolve  
with such force and rapidity that fire  
and  smoke in time issued from the      
socket4 ,the collected fuel was then    
thrown  upon the fire and soon a great  
blaze shot up4 ,the pigs were now driven
  into the upper end of the street4 ,as 
soon as they saw the fire1 they  turned 
tail1 but the peasants drove them       
through with shrieks and shouts  and    
lashes of whips4 ,at the other end of   
the street there was another  crowd     
waiting1 who chased the swine back      
through the fire a second time4  ,then  
the other crowd repeated the manoeuvre1 
and the herd of swine was  driven for   
the third time through the smoke and    
flames4 ,that was the end  of the       
performance4 ,many pigs were scorched so
 severely that they gave  up the ghost4 
,the bonfire was broken up1 and every   
householder took home  with him a brand1
 which he washed in the water-barrel and
 laid for some  time1 as a treasure of  
great price1 in the manger from which   

the cattle  were fed4 ,but the parson's 
wife had reason bitterly to repent her  
folly  in refusing to put out that      
night-light2 for not one of her pigs was
  driven through the need-fire1 so they 
died4#fii    ,the mode of kindling the  
need-fire in ,brunswick4    ,in         
,brunswick1 also1 the need-fire is known
 to have been repeatedly  kindled during
 the nineteenth century4 ,after driving 
the pigs through  the fire1 which was   
kindled by the friction of wood1 some   
people took  brands home1 dipped them in
 water1 and then gave the water to the  
pigs  to drink1 no doubt for the purpose
 of inoculating them still more         
effectually with the precious virtue of 
the need-fire4 ,in the villages  of the 
,drmling district everybody who bore a  
hand in kindling the wild  fire must    
have the same ,christian name2 otherwise
 they laboured in  vain4 ,the fire was  
produced by the friction of a rope round
 the beams of  a door2 and bread1 corn1 
and old boots contributed their mites to

 swell  the blaze through which the pigs
 as usual were driven4 ,in one place1   
apparently not far from ,wolfenbttel1   
the needfire is said to have been       
kindled1 contrary to custom1 by the     
smith striking a spark from the cold    
anvil4#gjj ,at ,gandersheim down to     
about the beginning of the nineteenth   
century the need-fire was lit in the    
common way by causing a cross-bar  to   
revolve rapidly on its axis between two 
upright posts4 ,the rope which  produced
 the revolution of the bar had to be    
new1 but it was if possible  woven from 
threads taken from a gallows-rope1 with 
which people had been  hanged4 ,while   
the need-fire was being kindled in this 
fashion1 every  other fire in the town  
had to be put out2 search was made      
through the  houses1 and any fire       
discovered to be burning was            
extinguished4 ,if in  spite of every    
precaution no flame could be elicited by
 the friction of  the rope1 the failure 
was set down to witchcraft2 but if the  

efforts  were successful1 a bonfire was 
lit with the new fire1 and when the     
flames had died down1 the sick swine    
were driven thrice through the  glowing 
embers4#gja ,on the lower ,rhine the    
need-fire is said to have  been kindled 
by the friction of oak-wood on fir-wood1
 all fires in the  village having been  
previously extinguished4 ,the bonfires  
so kindled  were composed of wood of    
nine different sorts2 there were three  
such  bonfires1 and the cattle were     
driven round them with great gravity and
  devotion4#gjb    ,the mode of kindling
 the need-fire in ,silesia and ,bohemia4
    ,in ,silesia1 also1 need-fires were 
often employed for the purpose of       
curing a murrain or preventing its      
spread4 ,while all other lights within  
the boundaries were extinguished1 the   
new fire was produced by the  friction  
of nine kinds of wood1 and the flame so 
obtained was used to  kindle heaps of   
brushwood or straw to which every       
inhabitant had  contributed4 ,through   

these fires the cattle1 both sick and   
sound1 were  driven in the confident    
expectation that thereby the sick would 
be  healed and the sound saved from     
sickness4#gjc ,when plague breaks out   
among the herds at ,dobischwald1 in     
,austrian ,silesia1 a splinter of wood  
is chipped from the threshold of every  
house1 the cattle are driven to a       
cross-road1 and there a tree1 growing at
 the boundary1 is felled by a  pair of  
twin brothers4 ,the wood of the tree and
 the splinters from the  thresholds     
furnish the fuel of a bonfire1 which is 
kindled by the  rubbing of two pieces of
 wood together4 ,when the bonfire is    
ablaze1 the  horns of the cattle are    
pared and the parings thrown into the   
flames1  after which the animals are    
driven through the fire4 ,this is       
believed to  guard the herd against the 
plague4#gjd ,the ,germans of ,western   
,bohemia  resort to similar measures for
 staying a murrain4 ,you set up a post1 
bore a hole in it1 and insert in the    

hole a stick1 which you have first  of  
all smeared with pitch and wrapt in     
inflammable stuffs4 ,then you wind  a   
rope round the stick and give the two   
ends of the rope to two persons  who    
must either be brothers or have the same
 baptismal name4 ,they haul  the rope   
backwards and forwards so as to make the
 tarred stick revolve  rapidly1 till the
 rope first smokes and then emits       
sparks4 ,the sparks  are used to kindle 
a bonfire1 through which the cattle are 
driven in the  usual way4 ,and as usual 
no other fire may burn in the village   
while the  need-fire is being kindled2  
for otherwise the rope could not        
possibly be  ignited4#gje ,in ,upper    
,austria sick pigs are reported to have 
been  driven through a need-fire about  
the beginning of the nineteenth         
century4#gjf    ,the use the need-fire  
in ,switzerland4    ,the need-fire is   
still in use in some parts of           
,switzerland1 but it seems  to have     
degenerated into a children's game and  

to be employed rather for  the dispersal
 of a mist than for the prevention or   
cure of  cattle-plague4 ,in some cantons
 it goes by the name of mist-healing1   
while in others it is called            
butter-churning4 ,on a misty or rainy   
day  a number of children will shut     
themselves up in a stable or byre and   
proceed to make fire for the purpose of 
improving the weather4 ,the way  in     
which they make it is this4 ,a boy      
places a board against his breast1      
takes a peg pointed at both ends1 and1  
setting one end of the peg  against the 
board on his breast1 presses the other  
end firmly against a  second board1 the 
surface of which has been flaked into a 
nap4 ,a string  is tied round the peg1  
and two other boys pull it to and fro1  
till  through the rapid motion of the   
point of the peg a hole is burnt in the 
flaked board1 to which tow or dry moss  
is then applied as a tinder4 ,in  this  
way fire and smoke are elicited1 and    
with their appearance the  children     

fancy that the mist will vanish4#gjg ,we
 may conjecture that  this method of    
dispersing a mist1 which is now left to 
children1 was  formerly practised in all
 seriousness by grown men in            
,switzerland4 ,it is  thus that         
religious or magical rites dwindle away 
into the sports of  children4 ,in the   
canton of the ,grisons there is still in
 common use an  imprecation1 ,mist1 go  
away1 or ,i'll heal you1 which points to
 an old  custom of burning up the fog   
with fire4 ,a longer form of the curse  
lingers in the ,valle des ,bagnes of the
 canton ,valais4 ,it runs thus3  ,mist1 
mist1 fly1 fly1 or ,st4 ,martin will    
come with a sheaf of straw to  burn your
 guts1 a great log of wood to smash your
 brow1 and an iron  chain to drag you to
 hell4#gjh    ,the mode of kindling the 
need-fire in ,sweden and ,norway2 the   
need-fire  as a protection against      
witchcraft4    ,in ,sweden the need-fire
 is called1 from the mode of its        
production1  either vrid-eld1 turned    

fire1 or gnid-eld1 rubbed fire4 ,down to
  near the end of the eighteenth century
 the need-fire was kindled1 as in       
,germany1 by the violent rubbing of two 
pieces of wood against each  other2     
sometimes nine different kinds of wood  
were used for the purpose4  ,the smoke  
of the fire was deemed salutary2        
fruit-trees and nets were  fumigated    
with it1 in order that the trees might  
bear fruit and the nets  catch fish4    
,cattle were also driven through the    
smoke4#gji ,in ,sundal1 a  narrow       
,norwegian valley1 shut in on both sides
 by precipitous mountains1  there lived 
down to the second half of the          
nineteenth century an old man  who was  
very superstitious4 ,he set salmon-traps
 in the river ,driva1  which traverses  
the valley1 and he caught many fish both
 in spring and  autumn4 ,when his       
fishing went wrong1 he kindled naueld   
7need-fire7  or gnideild 7rubbed fire1  
friction fire7 to counteract the        
witchcraft1 which he believed to be the 

cause of his bad luck4 ,he set up  two  
planks near each other1 bored a hole in 
each1 inserted a pointed rod  in the    
holes1 and twisted a long cord round the
 rod4 ,then he pulled the  cord so as to
 make the rod revolve rapidly4 ,thus by 
reason of the  friction he at last drew 
fire from the wood4 ,that contented him1
 for he  believed that the witchery was 
thus rendered powerless1 and that good  
luck in his fishing was now ensured4#gaj
    ,the need-fire among the ,slavonic  
peoples4    ,slavonic peoples hold the  
need-fire in high esteem4 ,they call it 
living  fire1 and attribute to it a     
healing virtue4 ,the ascription of      
medicinal  power to fire kindled by the 
friction of wood is said to be          
especially  characteristic of the ,slavs
 who inhabit the ,carpathian ,mountains 
and the  ,balkan peninsula4 ,the mode in
 which they produce the need-fire       
differs  somewhat in different places4  
,thus in the ,schar mountains of ,servia
 the  task is entrusted to a boy and    

girl between eleven and fourteen years  
of  age4 ,they are led into a perfectly 
dark room1 and having stripped          
themselves naked kindle the fire by     
rubbing two rollers of lime wood        
against each other1 till the friction   
produces sparks1 which are caught  in   
tinder4 ,the ,serbs of ,western         
,macedonia drive two oaken posts into   
the  ground1 bore a round hole in the   
upper end of each1 insert a roller of   
lime wood in the holes1 and set it      
revolving rapidly by means of a cord1   
which is looped round the roller and    
worked by a bow4 ,elsewhere the  roller 
is put in motion by two men1 who hold   
each one end of the cord  and pull it   
backwards and forwards forcibly between 
them4 ,bulgarian  shepherds sometimes   
kindle the need-fire by drawing a       
prism-shaped piece  of lime wood to and 
fro across the flat surface of a        
tree-stump in the  forest4#gaa ,but in  
the neighbourhood of ,kstendil1 in      
,bulgaria1 the  need-fire is kindled by 

the friction of two pieces of oak wood  
and the  cattle are driven through      
it4#gab    ,the need-fire in ,russia and
 ,poland2 the need-fire in ,slavonia4   
,in many districts of ,russia1 also1    
living fire is made by the friction  of 
wood on ,st4 ,john's ,day1 and the herds
 are driven through it1 and the  people 
leap over it in the conviction that     
their health is thereby  assured2 when a
 cattle-plague is raging1 the fire is   
produced by rubbing  two pieces of oak  
wood against each other1 and it is used 
to kindle the  lamps before the holy    
pictures and the censers in the         
churches4#gac  ,thus it appears that in 
,russia the need-fire is kindled for the
 sake of  the cattle periodically as    
well as on special emergencies4         
,similarly in  ,poland the peasants are 
said to kindle fires in the village     
streets on  ,st4 ,rochus's day and to   
drive the cattle thrice through them in 
order to  protect the animals against   
the murrain4 ,the fire is produced by   

rubbing  a pole of poplar wood on a     
plank of poplar or fir wood and catching
 the  sparks in tow4 ,the embers are    
carried home to be used as remedies in  
sickness4#gad ,as practised in          
,slavonia1 the custom of the need-fire  
used to present some interesting        
features1 which are best described in   
the words of an eyewitness3--,in the    
year #ahcc ,i came for the first time   
as a young merchant to ,slavonia2 it was
 to ,gaj that ,i went1 in the  ,pozega  
district4 ,the time was autumn1 and it  
chanced that a  cattle-plague was raging
 in the neighbourhood1 which inflicted  
much loss  on the people4 ,the peasants 
believed that the plague was a woman1 an
  evil spirit 7,kutga71 who was         
destroying the cattle2 so they sought to
  banish her4 ,i had then occasion to   
observe the proceedings in the  villages
 of ,gaj1 ,kukunjevac1 ,brezina1 and    
,brekinjska4 ,towards evening  the whole
 population of the village was busy     
laying a ring of brushwood  round the   

boundaries of the village4 ,all fires   
were extinguished  throughout the       
village4 ,then pairs of men in several  
places took pieces  of wood1 which had  
been specially prepared for the purpose1
 and rubbed  them together till they    
emitted sparks4 ,the sparks were allowed
 to fall  on tinder and fanned into a   
flame1 with which the dry brushwood was 
kindled4 ,thus the fire burned all round
 the village4 ,the peasants  persuaded  
themselves that thereupon ,kuga must    
take her  departure4#gae    ,the        
need-fire in ,servia4    ,this last     
account leaves no doubt as to the       
significance of the  need-fire in the   
minds of ,slavonian peasantry4 ,they    
regard it simply as  a barrier          
interposed between their cattle and the 
evil spirit1 which  prowls1 like a      
hungry wolf1 round the fold and can1    
like a wolf1 be kept  at bay by fire4   
,the same interpretation of the         
need-fire comes out1  hardly less       
clearly1 in the account which another   

writer gives of a  ceremony witnessed by
 him at the village of ,setonje1 at the 
foot of the  ,homolje mountains in the  
great forest of ,servia4 ,an epidemic   
was raging  among the children1 and the 
need-fire was resorted to as a means of 
staying the plague4 ,it was produced by 
an old man and an old woman in  the     
first of the ways described above2 that 
is1 they made it in the dark  by rubbing
 two sticks of lime wood against each   
other4 ,before the  healing virtue of   
the fire was applied to the inhabitants 
of the  village1 two old women performed
 the following ceremony4 ,both bore the 
name of ,stana1 from the verb stati1 to 
remain standing2 for the  ceremony could
 not be successfully performed by       
persons of any other  name4 ,one of them
 carried a copper kettle full of water1 
the other an  old house-lock with the   
key4 ,thus equipped they repaired to a  
spot  outside of the village1 and there 
the old dame with the kettle asked the  
old dame with the lock1 ,whither away8  

and the other answered her1 ,i  came to 
shut the village against ill-luck4 ,with
 that she locked the  lock and threw it 
with the key into the kettle of water4  
,then they  marched thrice round the    
village1 repeating the ceremony of the  
lock and  key at each round4 ,meantime  
all the villagers1 arrayed in their best
  clothes1 were assembled in an open    
place4 ,all the fires in the houses  had
 been previously extinguished4 ,two     
sturdy yokels now dug a tunnel  through 
a mound beside an oak tree2 the tunnel  
was just high enough to  let a man creep
 through it on all fours4 ,two fires1   
lit by the  need-fire1 were now laid1   
one at each end of the tunnel2 and the  
old  woman with the kettle took her     
stand at the entrance of the tunnel1    
while the one with the lock posted      
herself at the exit4 ,facing the  latter
 stood another woman with a great pot of
 milk before her1 and on  the other side
 was set a pot full of melted swine's   
fat4 ,all was now  ready4 ,the villagers

 thereupon crawled through the tunnel on
 hands and  knees1 one behind the other4
 ,each1 as he emerged from the tunnel1  
received a spoonful of milk from the    
woman and looked at his face  reflected 
in the pot of melted swine's fat4 ,then 
another woman made a  cross with a piece
 of charcoal on his back4 ,when all the 
inhabitants had  thus crept through the 
tunnel and been doctored at the other   
end1 each  took some glowing embers home
 with him in a pot wherewith to rekindle
  the fire on the domestic hearth4      
,lastly they put some of the charcoal in
  a vessel of water and drank the       
mixture in order to be thereby magically
  protected against the epidemic4#gaf   
,it would be superfluous to point out in
 detail how admirably these  measures   
are calculated to arrest the ravages of 
disease2 but for the  sake of those1 if 
there are any1 to whom the medicinal    
effect of  crawling through a hole on   
hands and knees is not at once apparent1
 ,i  shall merely say that the procedure

 in question is one of the most         
powerful specifics which the wit of man 
has devised for maladies of all  sorts4 
,ample evidence of its application will 
be adduced in a later part  of this     
work4#gag    ,the need-fire in          
,bulgaria4    ,in ,bulgaria the herds   
suffer much from the raids of certain   
blood-sucking vampyres called ,ustrels4 
,an ,ustrel is the spirit of a          
,christian child who was born on a      
,saturday and died unfortunately before 
he could be baptized4 ,on the ninth day 
after burial he grubs his way out  of   
the grave and attacks the cattle at     
once1 sucking their blood all  night and
 returning at peep of dawn to the grave 
to rest from his  labours4 ,in ten days 
or so the copious draughts of blood     
which he has  swallowed have so         
fortified his constitution that he can  
undertake  longer journeys2 so when he  
falls in with great herds of cattle or  
flocks of sheep he returns no more to   
the grave for rest and refreshment  at  

night1 but takes up his quarters during 
the day either between the  horns of a  
sturdy calf or ram or between the hind  
legs of a milch-cow4  ,beasts whose     
blood he has sucked die the same night4 
,in any herd that he  may fasten on he  
begins with the fattest animal and works
 his way down  steadily through the     
leaner kine till not one single beast is
 left  alive4 ,the carcases of the      
victims swell up1 and when the hide is  
stripped off you can always perceive the
 livid patch of flesh where the  monster
 sucked the blood of the poor creature4 
,in a single night he may1  by working  
hard1 kill five cows2 but he seldom     
exceeds that number4 ,he  can change his
 shape and weight very easily2 for      
example1 when he is  sitting by day     
between the horns of a ram1 the animal  
scarcely feels his  weight1 but at night
 he will sometimes throw himself on an  
ox or a cow  so heavily that the animal 
cannot stir1 and lows so pitifully that 
it  would make your heart bleed to hear4

 ,people who were born on a ,saturday   
can see these monsters1 and they have   
described them accurately1 so that      
there can be no doubt whatever about    
their existence4 ,it is1 therefore1  a  
matter of great importance to the       
peasant to protect his flocks and  herds
 against the ravages of such dangerous  
vampyres4 ,the way in which  he does so 
is this4 ,on a ,saturday morning before 
sunrise the village  drummer gives the  
signal to put out every fire in the     
village2 even  smoking is forbidden4    
,next all the domestic animals1 with the
 exception  of fowls1 geese1 and ducks1 
are driven out into the open4 ,in front 
of  the flocks and herds march two men1 
whose names during the ceremony may  not
 be mentioned in the village4 ,they go  
into the wood1 pick two dry  branches1  
and having stript themselves of their   
clothes they rub the two  branches      
together very hard till they catch fire2
 then with the fire so  obtained they   
kindle two bonfires1 one on each side of

 a cross-road  which is known to be     
frequented by wolves4 ,after that the   
herd is driven  between the two fires4  
,coals from the bonfires are then taken 
back to  the village and used to        
rekindle the fires on the domestic      
hearths4 ,for  several days no one may  
go near the charred and blackened       
remains of the  bonfires at the         
cross-road4 ,the reason is that the     
vampyre is lying  there1 having dropped 
from his seat between the cow's horns   
when the  animals were driven between   
the two fires4 ,so if any one were to   
pass by  the spot during these days1 the
 monster would be sure to call him by   
name and to follow him to the village2  
whereas if he is left alone1 a  wolf    
will come at midnight and strangle him1 
and in a few days the  herdsmen can see 
the ground soaked with his slimy blood4 
,so that is the  end of the vampyre4#gah
 ,in this ,bulgarian custom1 as in the  
,slavonian  custom described above1 the 
conception of the need-fire as a barrier

 set  up between the cattle and a       
dangerous spirit is clearly worked out4 
,the  spirit rides the cow till he comes
 to the narrow pass between the two     
fires1 but the heat there is too much   
for him2 he drops in a faint from  the  
saddle1 or rather from the horns1 and   
the now riderless animal  escapes safe  
and sound beyond the smoke and flame1   
leaving her  persecutor prostrate on the
 ground on the further side of the      
blessed  barrier4    ,the need-fire in  
,bosnia and ,herzegovina4    ,in ,bosnia
 and ,herzegovina there are some local  
differences in the mode  of kindling the
 need-fire1 or living fire1 as it is    
called4 ,thus at  ,jablanica both the   
uprights and the roller or cross-piece1 
which by its  revolution kindles the    
fire1 are made of cornel-tree wood2     
whereas at  ,dolac1 near ,sarajevo1 the 
uprights and the cross-piece or roller  
are all  made of lime wood4 ,in ,gacko1 
contrary to the usual custom1 the fire  
is  made by striking a piece of iron on 

an anvil1 till sparks are given out1    
which are caught in tinder4 ,the living 
fire thus produced is employed  for     
purposes of healing4 ,in particular1 if 
any one suffers from wounds  or sores1  
ashes of the need-fire are sprinkled on 
the ailing part4 ,in  ,gacko it is also 
believed that if a pregnant woman       
witnesses a  conflagration1 her child   
will either be born with a red eruption 
on its  skin or will contract the malady
 sooner or later afterwards4 ,the only  
remedy consists in ashes of the         
need-fire1 which are mixed with water   
and given to the child to drink4#gai    
,the need-fire in ,england2 the         
need-fire in ,yorkshire4    ,in ,england
 the earliest notice of the need-fire   
seems to be contained in  the ,chronicle
 of ,lanercost for the year #abfh4 ,the 
annalist tells with  pious horror how1  
when an epidemic was raging in that year
 among the  cattle1 certain beastly men1
 monks in garb but not in mind1 taught  
the  idiots of their country to make    

fire by the friction of wood and to set 
up an image of ,priapus1 whereby they   
thought to succour the  animals4#gbj    
,the use of the need-fire is            
particularly attested for the  counties 
of ,yorkshire and ,northumberland4 ,thus
 in ,yorkshire down to the  middle of   
the eighteenth century the favourite    
remedy of the country  people1 not only 
in the way of cure1 but of prevention1  
was an odd one2  it was to smoke the    
cattle almost to suffocation1 by        
kindling straw1  litter1 and other      
combustible matter about them4 ,the     
effects of this  mode of cure are not   
stated1 but the most singular part of it
 was that  by which it was reported to  
have been discovered4 ,an angel 7says   
the  legend71 descended into ,yorkshire1
 and there set a large tree on fire2    
the strange appearance of which or else 
the savour of the smoke1 incited  the   
cattle around 7some of which were       
infected7 to draw near the  miracle1    
when they all either received an        

immediate cure or an absolute           
prevention of the disorder4 ,it is not  
affirmed that the angel staid to  speak 
to anybody1 but only that he left a     
written direction for the  neighbouring 
people to catch this supernatural fire1 
and to communicate  it from one to      
another with all possible speed         
throughout the country2  and in case it 
should be extinguished and utterly lost1
 that then new  fire1 of equal virtue1  
might be obtained1 not by any common    
method1 but  by rubbing two pieces of   
wood together till they ignited4 ,upon  
what  foundation this story stood1 is   
not exactly known1 but it put the       
farmers actually into a hurry of        
communicating flame and smoke from one  
house to another with wonderful speed1  
making it run like wildfire over  the   
country4#gba ,again1 we read that the   
father of the writer1 who  died in      
#ahdc1 in his seventy-ninth year1 had a 
perfect remembrance of a  great number  
of persons1 belonging to the upper and  

middle classes of  his native parish of 
,bowes1 assembling on the banks of the  
river ,greta  to work for need-fire4 ,a 
disease among cattle1 called the        
murrain1 then  prevailed to a very great
 extent through that district of        
,yorkshire4 ,the  cattle were made to   
pass through the smoke raised by this   
miraculous  fire1 and their cure was    
looked upon as certain1 and to neglect  
doing so  was looked upon as wicked4    
,this fire was produced by the violent  
and  continued friction of two dry      
pieces of wood until such time as it was
  thereby obtained4 ',to work as though 
one was working for need-fire' is a     
common proverb in the ,north of         
,england4#gbb ,at ,ingleton1 a small    
town  nestling picturesquely at the foot
 of the high hill of ,ingleborough in   
western ,yorkshire1 within the last     
thirty years or so it was a common      
practice to kindle the so-called        
',need-fire' by rubbing two pieces of   
wood briskly together1 and setting      

ablaze a large heap of sticks and       
brushwood1 which were dispersed1 and    
cattle then driven through the  smoking 
brands4 ,this was thought to act as a   
charm against the spread or             
developement of the various ailments to 
which cattle are liable1 and the        
farmers seem to have had great faith in 
it4#gbc ,writing about the  middle of   
the nineteenth century1 ,kemble tells us
 that the will-fire or  need-fire had   
been used in ,devonshire for the purpose
 of staying a  murrain within the memory
 of man4#gbd    ,the need-fire in       
,northumberland4    ,so in              
,northumberland1 down to the first half 
of the nineteenth century1  when a      
contagious disease enters among cattle1 
the fires are  extinguished in the      
adjacent villages4 ,two pieces of dried 
wood are then  rubbed together until    
fire be produced2 with this a quantity  
of straw is  kindled1 juniper is thrown 
into the flame1 and the cattle are      
repeatedly  driven through the smoke4   

,part of the forced fire is sent to the 
neighbours1 who again forward it to     
others1 and1 as great expedition is     
used1 the fires may be seen blazing over
 a great extent of country in a  very   
short space of time4#gbe ,it is strange1
 says the antiquary  ,william           
,henderson1 writing about #ahff1 to find
 the custom of lighting  'need-fires' on
 the occasion of epidemics among cattle 
still lingering  among us1 but so it is4
 ,the vicar of ,stamfordham writes thus 
respecting  it3 ',when the murrain broke
 out among the cattle about eighteen    
years  ago1 this fire was produced by   
rubbing two pieces of dry wood together1
  and was carried from place to place   
all through this district1 as a  charm  
against cattle taking the disease4      
,bonfires were kindled with it1  and the
 cattle driven into the smoke1 where    
they were left for some  time4 ,many    
farmers hereabouts1 ,i am informed1 had 
the need-fire4'#gbf    ,martin's account
 of the need-fire in the ,highlands of  

,scotland4    ,in the earliest          
systematic account of the western       
islands of ,scotland we  read that the  
inhabitants here did also make use of a 
fire called  ,tin-egin1 i4e4 a forced   
fire1 or fire of necessity1 which they  
used as  an antidote against the plague 
or murrain in cattle2 and it was        
performed thus3 all the fires in the    
parish were extinguished1 and then      
eighty-one married men1 being thought   
the necessary number for effecting  this
 design1 took two great planks of wood1 
and nine of them were  employed by      
turns1 who by their repeated efforts    
rubbed one of the  planks against the   
other until the heat thereof produced   
fire2 and from  this forced fire each   
family is supplied with new fire1 which 
is no  sooner kindled than a pot full of
 water is quickly set on it1 and        
afterwards sprinkled upon the people    
infected with the plague1 or upon  the  
cattle that have the murrain4 ,and this 
they all say they find  successful by   

experience3 it was practised in the main
 land1 opposite to  the south of ,skie1 
within these thirty years4#gbg    ,the  
need-fire in the island of ,mull2       
sacrifice of a heifer4    ,in the island
 of ,mull1 one of the largest of the    
,hebrides1 the need-fire  was kindled as
 late as #agfg4 ,in consequence of a    
disease among the  black cattle the     
people agreed to perform an incantation1
 though they  esteemed it a wicked      
thing4 ,they carried to the top of      
,carnmoor a wheel  and nine spindles of 
oakwood4 ,they extinguished every fire  
in every  house within sight of the     
hill2 the wheel was then turned from    
east to  west over the nine spindles    
long enough to produce fire by friction4
 ,if  the fire were not produced before 
noon1 the incantation lost its effect4  
,they failed for several days running4  
,they attributed this failure to  the   
obstinacy of one householder1 who would 
not let his fires be put out  for what  
he considered so wrong a purpose4       

,however1 by bribing his  servants they 
contrived to have them extinguished and 
on that morning  raised their fire4     
,they then sacrificed a heifer1 cutting 
in pieces and  burning1 while yet alive1
 the diseased part4 ,they then lighted  
their own  hearths from the pile and    
ended by feasting on the remains4 ,words
 of  incantation were repeated by an old
 man from ,morven1 who came over as     
master of the ceremonies1 and who       
continued speaking all the time the     
fire was being raised4 ,this man was    
living a beggar at ,bellochroy4 ,asked  
to repeat the spell1 he said1 the sin of
 repeating it once had brought  him to  
beggary1 and that he dared not say those
 words again4 ,the whole  country       
believed him accursed4#gbh ,from this   
account we see that in  ,mull the       
kindling of the need-fire as a remedy   
for cattle disease was  accompanied by  
the sacrifice of one of the diseased    
animals2 and though  the two customs are
 for the most part mentioned separately 

by our  authorities1 we may surmise that
 they were often1 perhaps usually1      
practised together for the purpose of   
checking the ravages of sickness  in the
 herds4#gbi    ,the need-fire in        
,caithness4    ,in the county of        
,caithness1 forming the extreme         
northeast corner of the  mainland of    
,scotland1 the practice of the need-fire
 survived down at  least to about #aghh4
 ,we read that in those days1 when the  
stock of any  considerable farmer was   
seized with the murrain1 he would send  
for one  of the charm-doctors to        
superintend the raising of a need-fire4 
,it was  done by friction1 thus2 upon   
any small island1 where the stream of a 
river or burn ran on each side1 a       
circular booth was erected1 of stone    
and turf1 as it could be had1 in which a
 semicircular or highland couple  of    
birch1 or other hard wood1 was set2 and1
 in short1 a roof closed on  it4 ,a     
straight pole was set up in the centre  
of this building1 the upper  end fixed  

by a wooden pin to the top of the       
couple1 and the lower end in  an oblong 
trink in the earth or floor2 and lastly1
 another pole was  set across           
horizontally1 having both ends tapered1 
one end of which was  supported in a    
hole in the side of the perpendicular   
pole1 and the other  in a similar hole  
in the couple leg4 ,the horizontal stick
 was called the  auger1 having four     
short arms or levers fixed in its       
centre1 to work it  by2 the building    
having been thus finished1 as many men  
as could be  collected in the vicinity1 
7being divested of all kinds of metal in
  their clothes1 etc471 would set to    
work with the said auger1 two after     
two1 constantly turning it round by the 
arms or levers1 and others  occasionally
 driving wedges of wood or stone behind 
the lower end of the  upright pole1 so  
as to press it the more on the end of   
the auger3 by  this constant friction   
and pressure1 the ends of the auger     
would take  fire1 from which a fire     

would be instantly kindled1 and thus the
  needfire would be accomplished4 ,the  
fire in the farmer's house1 etc41  was  
immediately quenched with water1 a fire 
kindled from this needfire1  both in the
 farm-houses and offices1 and the cattle
 brought to feel the  smoke of this new 
and sacred fire1 which preserved them   
from the  murrain4#gcj    ,the need-fire
 in ,caithness4    ,the last recorded   
case of the need-fire in ,caithness     
happened in #ahji or  #ahaj4 ,at        
,houstry1 ,dunbeath1 a crofter named    
,david ,gunn had made for  himself a    
kail-yard and in doing so had wilfully  
encroached on one of  those prehistoric 
ruins called brochs1 which the people of
 the  neighbourhood believed to be a    
fairy habitation4 ,soon afterwards a    
murrain broke out among the cattle of   
the district and carried off many       
beasts4 ,so the wise men put their heads
 together and resolved to light a       
teine-eigin or need-fire as the best way
 of stopping the plague4 ,they  cut a   

branch from a tree in a neighbouring    
wood1 stripped it of bark1  and carried 
it to a small island in the ,houstry    
,burn4 ,every fire in the  district     
having been quenched1 new fire was made 
by the friction of wood  in the island1 
and from this sacred flame all the      
hearths of the houses  were lit afresh4 
,one of the sticks used in making the   
fire was preserved  down to about the   
end of the nineteenth century2          
apparently the mode of  operation was   
the one known as the fire-drill3 a      
pointed stick was  twirled in a hole    
made in another stick till fire was     
elicited by the  friction4#gca          
,another account of the need-fire in the
 ,highlands4    ,another account of the 
use of need-fire in the ,highlands of   
,scotland  runs as follows3 ,when1 by   
the neglect of the prescribed safeguards
  against witchcraft1 the seeds of      
iniquity have taken root1 and a         
person's means are decaying in          
consequence1 the only alternative1 in   

this case1 is to resort to that grand   
remedy1 the ,tein ,econuch1 or          
',forlorn ,fire1' which seldom fails of 
being productive of the best  effects4  
,the cure for witchcraft1 called ,tein  
,econuch1 is wrought in  the following  
manner3--,a consultation being held by  
the unhappy sufferer  and his friends as
 to the most advisable measures of      
effecting a cure1  if this process is   
adopted1 notice is privately            
communicated to all  those householders 
who reside within the nearest of two    
running streams1  to extinguish their   
lights and fires on some appointed      
morning4 ,on its  being ascertained that
 this notice has been duly observed1 a  
spinning-wheel1 or some other convenient
 instrument1 calculated to  produce fire
 by friction1 is set to work with the   
most furious  earnestness by the        
unfortunate sufferer1 and all who wish  
well to his  cause4 ,relieving each     
other by turns1 they drive on with such 
persevering diligence1 that at length   

the spindle of the wheel1 ignited  by   
excessive friction1 emits 'forlorn fire'
 in abundance1 which1 by the            
application of tow1 or some other       
combustible material1 is widely         
extended over the whole neighbourhood4  
,communicating the fire to the  tow1 the
 tow communicates it to a candle1 the   
candle to a fir-torch1 the  torch to a  
cartful of peats1 which the master of   
the ceremonies1 with  pious ejaculations
 for the success of the experiment1     
distributes to  messengers1 who will    
proceed with portions of it to the      
different houses  within the said two   
running streams1 to kindle the different
 fires4 ,by  the influence of this      
operation1 the machinations and spells  
of  witchcraft are rendered null and    
void4#gcb    ,alexander ,carmichael's   
account of the need-fire in the         
,highlands of  ,scotland during the     
nineteenth century4    ,in various parts
 of the ,highlands of ,scotland the     
needfire was still  kindled during the  

first half of the nineteenth century1 as
 we learn  from the following account3--
    ,tein-eigin1 neid-fire1 need-fire1  
forced fire1 fire produced by the       
friction of wood or iron against wood4  
,the fire of purification was kindled   
from the neid-fire1 while the  domestic 
fire on the hearth was re-kindled from  
the purification fire on  the knoll4    
,among other names1 the purification    
fire was called ,teine  ,bheuil1 fire of
 ,beul1 and ,teine mor ,bheuil1 great   
fire of ,beul4 ,the  fire of ,beul was  
divided into two fires between which    
people and cattle  rushed australly for 
purposes of purification4 ,the ordeal   
was trying1 as  may be inferred from    
phrases still current4 ,is teodha so na 
teine  teodha ,bheuil1 ',hotter is this 
than the hot fire of ,beul4' ,replying  
to  his grandchild1 an old man in ,lewis
 said 444 ',mary6 sonnie1 it were  worse
 for me to do that for thee than to go  
between the two great fires  of ,beul4' 
,the neid-fire was resorted to in       

imminent or actual calamity upon the    
first day of the quarter1 and to ensure 
success in great or important  events4  
,the needfire in ,arran4    ,the writer 
conversed with several persons who saw  
the neid-fire made1  and who joined in  
the ceremony4 ,as mentioned elsewhere1 a
 woman in ,arran  said that her father1 
and the other men of the townland1 made 
the  neid-fire on the knoll on ,la      
buidhe ,bealltain--,yellow ,day of      
,beltane4  ,they fed the fire from      
cuaile mor conaidh caoin--great bundles 
of  sacred faggots brought to the knoll 
on ,beltane ,eve4 ,when the sacred fire 
became kindled1 the people rushed home  
and brought their herds and drove  them 
through and round the fire of           
purification1 to sain them from the     
bana bhuitseach mhor ,nic ,creafain ,mac
 ,creafain--the great arch witch  ,mac  
,crauford1 now ,crawford4 ,that was in  
the second decade of this  century4     
,the need-fire in ,north ,uist4    ,john
 ,macphail1 ,middlequarter1 ,north      

,uist1 said that the last occasion  on  
which the neid-fire was made in ,north  
,uist was bliadhna an  t-sneachda       
bhuidhe--the year of the yellow         
snow--#ahbi 7874 ,the snow lay  so deep 
and remained so long on the ground1 that
 it became yellow4 ,some  suggest that  
the snow was originally yellow1 as snow 
is occasionally  red4 ,this             
extraordinary continuance of snow caused
 much want and  suffering throughout the
 ,isles4 ,the people of ,north ,uist    
extinguished  their own fires and       
generated a purification fire at ,sail  
,dharaich1  ,sollas4 ,the fire was      
produced from an oak log by rapidly     
boring with an  auger4 ,this was        
accomplished by the exertions of naoi   
naoinear ciad  ginealach mac--the nine  
nines of first-begotten sons4 ,from the 
neid-fire produced on the knoll the     
people of the parish obtained fire  for 
their dwellings4 ,many cults and        
ceremonies were observed on the         
occasion1 cults and ceremonies in which 

,pagan and ,christian beliefs           
intermingled4 ,sail ,dharaich1 ,oak     
,log1 obtained its name from the log  of
 oak for the neid-fire being there4 ,a  
fragment of this log riddled  with auger
 holes marks a grave in ,cladh          
,sgealoir1 the burying-ground  of       
,sgealoir1 in the neighbourhood4    ,the
 need-fire in ,reay1 ,sutherland4       
,mr4 ,alexander ,mackay1 ,edinburgh1 a  
native of ,reay1 ,sutherland1           
says3--',my father was the skipper of a 
fishing crew4 ,before beginning         
operations for the season1 the crew of  
the boat met at night in our  house to  
settle accounts for the past1 and to    
plan operations for the  new season4 ,my
 mother and the rest of us were sent to 
bed4 ,i lay in the  kitchen1 and was    
listening and watching1 though they     
thought ,i was  asleep4 ,after the men  
had settled their past affairs and      
future plans1  they put out the fire on 
the hearth1 not a spark being allowed to
 live4  ,they then rubbed two pieces of 

wood one against another so rapidly as  
to  produce fire1 the men joining in one
 after the other1 and working with  the 
utmost energy and never allowing the    
friction to relax4 ,from this           
friction-fire they rekindled the fire on
 the hearth1 from which all the  men    
present carried away a kindling to their
 own homes4 ,whether their  success was 
due to their skill1 their industry1     
their perseverance1 or  to the          
neid-fire1 ,i do not know1 but ,i know  
that they were much the most  successful
 crew in the place4 ,they met on        
,saturday1 and went to church  on       
,sunday like the good men and the good  
,christians they were--a little  of     
their ,pagan faith mingling with their  
,christian belief4 ,i have reason  to   
believe that other crews in the place as
 well as my father's crew  practised the
 neid-fire4'    ,a man at ,helmsdale1   
,sutherland1 saw the tein-eigin made in 
his  boyhood4    ,the neid-fire was made
 in ,north ,uist about the year #ahbi1  

in ,arran  about #ahbj1 in ,helmsdale   
about #ahah1 in ,reay about #ahcj4gcc   
,the ,beltane fire a precaution against 
witchcraft4    ,from the foregoing      
account we learn that in ,arran the     
annual ,beltane  fire was regularly made
 by the friction of wood1 and that it   
was used to  protect men and cattle     
against a great witch4 ,when we remember
 that  ,beltane ,eve or the ,eve of ,may
 ,day 7,walpurgis ,night7 is the great  
witching time of the year throughout    
,europe1 we may surmise that  wherever  
bonfires have been ceremonially kindled 
on that day it has been  done simply as 
a precaution against witchcraft2 indeed 
this motive is  expressly alleged not   
only in ,scotland1 but in ,wales1 the   
,isle of ,man1  and many parts of       
,central ,europe4#gcd ,it deserves1     
further1 to be  noticed that in ,north  
,uist the wood used to kindle the       
need-fire was  oak1 and that the nine   
times nine men by whose exertions the   
flame was  elicited were all first-born 

sons4 ,apparently the first-born son of 
a  family was thought to be endowed with
 more magical virtue than his  younger  
brothers4 ,similarly in the ,punjaub the
 supernatural power  ascribed to the    
first born is not due to his being      
unlucky1 but the idea  underlying the   
belief seems to be that being the first 
product of the  parents1 he inherits the
 spiritual powers 7or magnetism7 in a   
high  degree4 ,the success of such      
persons in stopping rain and hail and in
  stupefying snakes is proverbial4 ,it  
is believed that a first child born     
with feet forward can cure backache by  
kicking the patient in the back1  on a  
crossing4#gce    ,the need-fire in      
,aberdeenshire4    ,in the north-east of
 ,aberdeenshire and the neighbourhood1  
when the  cattle-disease known as the   
quarter-ill broke out1 the 'muckle      
wheel'  was set in motion and turned    
till fire was produced4 ,from this      
virgin  flame fires were kindled in the 
byres4 ,at the same time1 if neighbours 

requested the favour1 live coals were   
given them to kindle fires for the      
purification of their homesteads and    
turning off the disease4 ,fumigating    
the byres with juniper was a method     
adopted to ward off disease4 ,such a    
fire was called 'needfyre4' ,the        
kindling of it came under the censure of
  the ,presbytery at times4#gcf    ,the 
need-fire in ,perthshire4    ,in        
,perthshire the need-fire was kindled as
 a remedy for cattle-disease  as late as
 #ahbf4 ,a wealthy old farmer1 having   
lost several of his  cattle by some     
disease very prevalent at present1 and  
being able to  account for it in no way 
so rationally as by witchcraft1 had     
recourse to  the following remedy1      
recommended to him by a weird sister in 
his  neighbourhood1 as an effectual     
protection from the attacks of the foul 
fiend4 ,a few stones were piled together
 in the barnyard1 and woodcoals  having 
been laid thereon1 the fuel was ignited 
by will-fire1 that is  fire obtained by 

friction2 the neighbours having been    
called in to  witness the solemnity1 the
 cattle were made to pass through the   
flames1  in the order of their dignity  
and age1 commencing with the horses and 
ending with the swine4 ,the ceremony    
having been duly and decorously gone    
through1 a neighbouring farmer observed 
to the enlightened owner of the  herd1  
that he1 along with his family1 ought to
 have followed the example  of the      
cattle1 and the sacrifice to ,baal would
 have been complete4#gcg    ,the        
need-fire in ,ireland4    ,in ,county   
,leitrim1 ,ireland1 in order to prevent 
fever from spreading1  all the fires on 
the townland1 and the two adjoining 7one
 on each  side71 would be put out4 ,then
 the men of the three townlands would   
come  to one house1 and get two large   
blocks of wood4 ,one would be set in the
  ground1 and the other one1 fitted with
 two handles1 placed on the top of  it4 
,the men would then draw the upper block
 backwards and forwards over  the lower 

until fire was produced by friction1 and
 from this the fires  would be lighted  
again4 ,this would prevent the fever    
from  spreading1#gch    ,the use of the 
need-fire a relic of a time when all    
fires were kindled  by the friction of  
wood4    ,thus it appears that in many  
parts of ,europe it has been customary  
to  kindle fire by the friction of wood 
for the purpose of curing or  preventing
 the spread of disease1 particularly    
among cattle4 ,the mode of  striking a  
light by rubbing two dry sticks against 
each other is the one  to which all over
 the world savages have most commonly   
resorted for the  sake of providing     
themselves with fire2#gci and we can    
scarcely doubt  that the practice of    
kindling the need-fire in this primitive
 fashion is  merely a survival from the 
time when our savage forefathers lit all
  their fires in that way4 ,nothing is  
so conservative of old customs as       
religious or magical ritual1 which      
invests these relics of the past with   

an atmosphere of mysterious virtue and  
sanctity4 ,to the educated mind it      
seems obvious that a fire which a man   
kindles with the sweat of his brow  by  
laboriously rubbing one stick against   
each other can possess neither  more nor
 less virtue than one which he has      
struck in a moment by the  friction of a
 lucifer match2 but to the ignorant and 
superstitious this  truth is far from   
apparent1 and accordingly they take     
infinite pains to  do in a roundabout   
way what they might have done directly  
with the  greatest ease1 and what1 even 
when it is done1 is of no use whatever  
for  the purpose in hand4 ,a vast       
proportion of the labour which mankind  
has  expended throughout the ages has   
been no better spent2 it has been like  
the stone of ,sisyphus eternally rolled 
up hill only to revolve eternally  down 
again1 or like the water poured for ever
 by the ,danaids into broken  pitchers  
which it could never fill4    ,the      
belief that the need-fire cannot kindle 

if any other fire remains  alight in the
 neighbourhood4    ,the curious notion  
that the need-fire cannot kindle if any 
other fire  remains alight in the       
neighbourhood seems to imply that fire  
is  conceived as a unity which is broken
 up into fractions and consequently     
weakened in exact proportion to the     
number of places where it burns2  hence 
in order to obtain it at full strength  
you must light it only at a  single     
point1 for then the flame will burst out
 with a concentrated  energy derived    
from the tributary fires which burned on
 all the  extinguished hearths of the   
country4 ,so in a modern city if all the
 gas  were turned off simultaneously at 
all the burners but one1 the flame      
would no doubt blaze at that one burner 
with a fierceness such as no  single    
burner could shew when all are burning  
at the same time4 ,the  analogy may help
 us to understand the process of        
reasoning which leads  the peasantry to 
insist on the extinction of all common  

fires when the  need-fire is about to be
 kindled4 ,perhaps1 too1 it may partly  
explain  that ceremonial extinction of  
all old fires on other occasions which  
is  often required by custom as a       
preliminary to the lighting of a new and
  sacred fire4#gdj ,we have seen that in
 the ,highlands of ,scotland all  common
 fires were extinguished on the ,eve of 
,may-day as a preparation  for kindling 
the ,beltane bonfire by friction next   
morning2#gda and no  doubt the reason   
for the extinction was the same as in   
the case of the  need-fire4 ,indeed we  
may assume with a fair degree of        
probability that  the need-fire was the 
parent of the periodic fire-festivals2  
at first  invoked only at irregular     
intervals to cure certain evils as they 
occurred1 the powerful virtue of fire   
was afterwards employed at regular      
intervals to prevent the occurrence of  
the same evils as well as to  remedy    
such as had actually arisen4    ,the    
needfire among the ,iroquois of ,north  

,america4    ,the need-fire of ,europe  
has its parallel in a ceremony which    
used to be  observed by the ,iroquois   
,indians of ,north ,america4 ,formerly  
when an  epidemic prevailed among the   
,iroquois despite the efforts to stay   
it1 it  was customary for the principal 
shaman to order the fires in every cabin
  to be extinguished and the ashes and  
cinders to be carefully removed2  for it
 was believed that the pestilence was   
sent as a punishment for  neglecting to 
rekindle 'new fire1' or because of the  
manner in which the  fire then in use   
had been kindled4 ,so1 after all the    
fires were out1 two  suitable logs of   
slippery elm 7,ulmus fulva7 were        
provided for the new  fire4 ,one of the 
logs was from six to eight inches in    
diameter and from  eight to ten feet    
long2 the other was from ten to twelve  
inches in  diameter and about ten feet  
long4 ,about midway across the larger   
log a  cuneiform notch or cut about six 
inches deep was made1 and in the        

wedge-shaped notch punk was placed4 ,the
 other log was drawn rapidly to  and fro
 in the cut by four strong men chosen   
for the purpose until the  punk was     
ignited by the friction thus produced4  
,before and during the  progress of the 
work of igniting the fire the shaman    
votively sprinkled  tcar-hu'-e-we1 'real
 tobacco1' three several times into the 
cuneiform  notch and offered earnest    
prayers to the ,fire-god1 beseeching him
 'to  aid1 to bless1 and to redeem the  
people from their calamities4' ,the     
ignited punk was used to light a large  
bonfire1 and then the head of  every    
family was required to take home 'new   
fire' to rekindle a fire in  his or her 
fire-place4#gdb       #i4 ,the          
,sacrifice of an ,animal to stay a      
,cattle-,plague      ,the burnt         
sacrifice of a calf in ,england and     
,wales2 burnt sacrifice a  pig in       
,scotland4    ,sometimes apparently in  
,england as well as in ,scotland the    
kindling of a  need-fire was accompanied

 by the sacrifice of a calf4 ,thus in   
,northamptonshire1 at some time during  
the first half of the nineteenth        
century1 ,miss ,c---- and her cousin    
walking saw a fire in a field and a     
crowd round it4 ,they said1 ',what is   
the matter8' ',killing a calf4' ',what  
for8' ',to stop the murrain4' ,they went
 away as quickly as possible4 ,on       
speaking to the clergyman he made       
enquiries4 ,the people did not like to  
talk of the affair1 but it appeared that
 when there is a disease among  the cows
 or the calves are born sickly1 they    
sacrifice 7i4e4 kill and  burn7 one 'for
 good luck4'#gdc ,it is not here said   
that the fire was a  need-fire1 of which
 indeed the two horrified ladies had    
probably never  heard2 but the analogy  
of the parallel custom in ,mull#gdd     
renders it  probable that in            
,northamptonshire also the fire was     
kindled by the  friction of wood1 and   
that the calf or some part of it was    
burnt in the  fire4 ,certainly the      

practice of burning a single animal     
alive in order  to save all the others  
would seem to have been not uncommon in 
,england  down to the nineteenth        
century4 ,thus a farmer in ,cornwall    
about the year  #ahjj1 having lost many 
cattle by disease1 and tried many       
remedies in  vain1 consulted with some  
of his neighbours and laying their heads
  together they recalled to their       
recollections a tale1 which tradition   
had handed down from remote antiquity1  
that the calamity would not cease  until
 he had actually burned alive the finest
 calf which he had upon his  farm2 but  
that1 when this sacrifice was made1 the 
murrain would afflict  his cattle no    
more4 ,accordingly1 on a day appointed  
they met1 lighted a  large fire1 placed 
the best calf in it1 and standing round 
the blazing  pile drove the animal with 
pitchforks back into the flames whenever
 it  attempted to escape4 ,thus the     
victim was burned alive to save the rest
  of the cattle4#gde ,there can be no   

doubt but that a belief prevailed  until
 a very recent period1 amongst the small
 farmers in the districts  remote from  
towns in ,cornwall1 that a living       
sacrifice appeased the  wrath of ,god4  
,this sacrifice must be by fire2 and ,i 
have heard it argued  that the ,bible   
gave them warranty for this belief4444  
,while correcting  these sheets ,i am   
informed of two recent instances of this
 superstition4  ,one of them was the    
sacrifice of a calf by a farmer near    
,portreath1 for  the purpose of removing
 a disease which had long followed his  
horses and  his cows4 ,the other was the
 burning of a living lamb1 to save1 as  
the  farmer said1 'his flocks from      
spells which had been cast on 'em4'#gdf 
,in a recent account of the             
fire-festivals of ,wales we read that ,i
 have  also heard my grandfather and    
father say that in times gone by the    
people would throw a calf in the fire   
when there was any disease among  the   
herds4 ,the same would be done with a   

sheep if there was anything the  matter 
with a flock4 ,i can remember myself    
seeing cattle being driven  between two 
fires to 'stop the disease spreading4'  
,when in later times  it was not        
considered humane to drive the cattle   
between the fires1 the  herdsmen were   
accustomed to force the animals over the
 wood ashes to  protect them against    
various ailments4#gdg ,writing about    
#ahff1 the  antiquary ,w4 ,henderson    
says that a live ox was burned near     
,haltwhistle  in ,northumberland only   
twenty years ago to stop a murrain4#gdh 
,about  the year #ahej disease broke out
 among the cattle of a small farm in the
  parish of ,resoliss1 ,black ,isle1    
,ross-shire4 ,the farmer prevailed on   
his  wife to undertake a journey to a   
wise woman of renown in ,banffshire to  
ask a charm against the effects of the  
'ill eye4' ,the long journey of  upwards
 of fifty miles was performed by the    
good wife1 and the charm was  got4 ,one 
chief thing ordered was to burn to death

 a pig1 and sprinkle  the ashes over the
 byre and other farm buildings4 ,this   
order was carried  out1 except that the 
pig was killed before it was burned4 ,a 
more  terrible sacrifice was made at    
times4 ,one of the diseased animals was 
rubbed over with tar1 driven forth1 set 
on fire1 and allowed to run till  it    
fell down and died4#gdi ,living animals 
have been burnt alive in  sacrifice     
within memory to avert the loss of other
 stock4 ,the burial of  three puppies   
'brandise-wise' in a field is supposed  
to rid it of weeds4  ,throughout the    
rural districts of ,devon witchcraft is 
an article of  current faith1 and the   
toad is thrown into the flames as an    
emissary of  the evil one4#gej    ,the  
calf is burnt in order to break a spell 
which has been cast on the  herd4       
,but why1 we may ask1 should the burning
 alive of a calf or a sheep be  supposed
 to save the rest of the herd or the    
flock from the murrain8  ,according to  
one writer1 as we have seen1 the burnt  

sacrifice was  thought to appease the   
wrath of ,god4#gea ,the idea of         
appeasing the  wrath of a ferocious     
deity by burning an animal alive is     
probably no  more than a theological    
gloss put on an old heathen rite2 it    
would  hardly occur to the simple mind  
of an ,english bumpkin1 who1 though he  
may be stupid1 is not naturally cruel   
and does not conceive of a  divinity who
 takes delight in the contemplation of  
suffering4 ,to his  thinking ,god has   
little or nothing to do with the        
murrain1 but witches1  ill-wishers1 and 
fairies have a great deal to do with it4
 ,the ,english  farmer who burned one of
 his lambs alive said that he did it to 
save  his flocks from spells which had  
been cast on them2 and the ,scotch      
farmer who was bidden to burn a pig     
alive for a similar purpose1 but who    
had the humanity to kill the animal     
first1 believed that this was a  remedy 
for the evil eye which had been cast    
upon his beasts4 ,again1 we  read that a

 farmer1 who possessed broad acres1 and 
who was in many  respects a sensible    
man1 was greatly annoyed to find that   
his cattle  became diseased in the      
spring4 ,nothing could satisfy him but  
that they  were bewitched1 and he was   
resolved to find out the person who had 
cast  the evil eye on his oxen4         
,according to an anciently-prescribed   
rule1 the  farmer took one of his       
bullocks and bled it to death1 catching 
all the  blood on bundles of straw4 ,the
 bloody straw was then piled into a     
heap1  and set on fire4 ,burning with a 
vast quantity of smoke1 the farmer      
expected to see the witch1 either in    
reality or in shadow1 amidst the        
smoke4#geb ,such reasons express the    
real beliefs of the peasants4  ,cattle1 
like human beings1 were exposed to the  
influences of the evil  eye1 of         
forespeaking1 and of the casting of     
evil4 ,witches and warlocks  did the    
work of evil among their neighbours'    
cattle if their anger had  been aroused 

in any way4 ,the fairies often wrought  
injury amongst  cattle4 ,every animal   
that died suddenly was killed by the    
dart of the  fairies1 or1 in the        
language of the people1 was             
'shot-a-dead4' ,flint  arrows and       
spear-heads went by the name of 'faery  
dairts4444' ,when an  animal died       
suddenly the canny woman of the district
 was sent for to  search for the 'faery 
dairt1' and in due course she found one1
 to the  great satisfaction of the owner
 of the dead animal4#gec    ,mode in    
which the burning of a bewitched animal 
is supposed to break  the spell4    ,but
 how1 we must still ask1 can burning an 
animal alive break the spell  that has  
been cast upon its fellows by a witch or
 a warlock8 ,some light  is thrown on   
the question by the following account of
 measures which  rustic wiseacres in    
,suffolk are said to have adopted as a  
remedy for  witchcraft4 ,a woman ,i knew
 forty-three years had been employed by 
my  predecessor to take care of his     

poultry4 ,at the time ,i came to make   
her  acquaintance she was a bedridden   
toothless crone1 with chin and nose all 
but meeting4 ,she did not discourage in 
her neighbours the idea that she  knew  
more than people ought to know1 and had 
more power than others had4  ,many years
 before ,i knew her it happened one     
spring that the ducks1  which were a    
part of her charge1 failed to lay       
eggs4444 ,she at once took  it for      
granted that the ducks had been         
bewitched4 ,this misbelief  involved    
very shocking consequences1 for it      
necessitated the idea that  so          
diabolical an act could only be combated
 by diabolical cruelty4 ,and  the most  
diabolical act of cruelty she could     
imagine was that of baking  alive in a  
hot oven one of the ducks4 ,and that was
 what she did4 ,the  sequence of thought
 in her mind was that the spell that had
 been laid on  the ducks was that of    
preternaturally wicked wilfulness2 that 
this spell  could only be broken through

 intensity of suffering1 in this case   
death  by burning2 that the intensity of
 suffering would break the spell in the 
one roasted to death2 and that the spell
 broken in one would be  altogether     
broken1 that is1 in all the ducks4444   
,shocking1 however1 as  was this method 
of exorcising the ducks1 there was      
nothing in it  original4 ,just about a  
hundred years before1 everyone in the   
town and  neighbourhood of ,ipswich had 
heard1 and many had believed1 that a    
witch  had been burnt to death in her   
own house at ,ipswich by the process of 
burning alive one of the sheep she had  
bewitched4 ,it was curious1 but it  was 
as convincing as curious1 that the hands
 and feet of this witch were  the only  
parts of her that had not been          
incinerated4 ,this1 however1 was        
satisfactorily explained by the fact    
that the four feet of the sheep1 by     
which it had been suspended over the    
fire1 had not been destroyed in the     
flames that had consumed its body4#ged  

,according to a slightly  different     
account of the same tragic incident1 the
 last of the ,ipswitch  witches1 one    
,grace ,pett1 laid her hand heavily on a
 farmer's sheep1  who1 in order to      
punish her1 fastened one of the sheep in
 the ground and  burnt it1 except the   
feet1 which were under the earth4 ,the  
next morning  ,grace ,pett was found    
burnt to a cinder1 except her feet4 ,her
 fate is  recorded in the ,philosophical
 ,transactions as a case of spontaneous 
combustion4#gee    ,in burning the      
bewitched animal you burn the witch     
herself4    ,this last anecdote is      
instructive1 if perhaps not strictly    
authentic4 ,it  shows that in burning   
alive one of a bewitched flock or herd  
what you  really do is to burn the      
witch1 who is either actually incarnate 
in the  animal or perhaps more probably 
stands in a relation of sympathy with it
  so close as almost to amount to       
identity4 ,hence if you burn the        
creature  to ashes1 you utterly destroy 

the witch and thereby save the whole of 
the rest of the flock or herd from her  
abominable machinations2 whereas  if you
 only partially burn the animal1        
allowing some parts of it to  escape the
 flames1 the witch is only half-baked1  
and her power for  mischief may be      
hardly1 if at all1 impaired by the      
grilling4 ,we can now  see that in such 
matters half-measures are useless4 ,to  
kill the animal  first and burn it      
afterwards is a weak compromise1        
dictated no doubt by  a well-meant but  
utterly mistaken kindness2 it is like   
shutting the  stable-door when the steed
 is stolen1 for obviously by leaving the
  animal's1 and therefore the witch's1  
body nearly intact at the moment of     
death1 it allows her soul to escape and 
return safe and sound to her own  human 
body1 which all the time is probably    
lying quietly at home in bed4  ,and the 
same train of reasoning that justifies  
the burning alive of  bewitched animals 
justifies and indeed requires the       

burning alive of the  witches           
themselves2 it is really the only way of
 destroying them1 body  and soul1 and   
therefore of thoroughly extirpating the 
whole infernal  crew4    ,practice of   
burning cattle and sheep as sacrifices  
in the ,isle of ,man4    ,in the ,isle  
of ,man the practice of burning cattle  
alive in order to stop  a murrain seems 
to have persisted down to a time within 
living memory4  ,on this subject ,i will
 quote the evidence collected by ,sir   
,john ,rhys3 ,a  respectable farmer from
 ,andreas told me that he was driving   
with his  wife to the neighbouring      
parish of ,jurby some years ago1 and    
that on the  way they beheld the carcase
 of a cow or an ox burning in a field1  
with a  woman engaged in stirring the   
fire4 ,on reaching the village to which 
they were going1 they found that the    
burning beast belonged to a farmer  whom
 they knew4 ,they were further told it  
was no wonder that the said  farmer had 
one of his cattle burnt1 as several of  

them had recently  died4 ,whether this  
was a case of sacrifice or not ,i cannot
 say4 ,but let  me give you another     
instance3 a man whom ,i have already    
mentioned1 saw  at a farm nearer the    
centre of the island a live calf being  
burnt4 ,the  owner bears an ,english    
name1 but his family has long been      
settled in  ,man4 ,the farmer's         
explanation to my informant was that the
 calf was  burnt to secure luck for the 
rest of the herd1 some of which were    
threatening to die4 ,my informant       
thought there was absolutely nothing    
the matter with them1 except that they  
had too little to eat4 ,be that as  it  
may1 the one calf was sacrificed as a   
burnt-offering to secure luck  for the  
rest of the cattle4 ,let me here also   
quote ,mr4 ,moore's note in  his ,manx  
,surnames1 p4 #ahd1 on the place name   
,cabbal yn ,oural ,losht1  or the       
,chapel of the ,burnt ,sacrifice4 ',this
 name1' he says1 'records a             
circumstance which took place in the    

nineteenth century1 but which1 it  is to
 be hoped1 was never customary in the   
,isle of ,man4 ,a farmer1 who  had lost 
a number of his sheep and cattle by     
murrain1 burned a calf as a             
propitiatory offering to the ,deity on  
this spot1 where a chapel was           
afterwards built4 ,hence the name4'     
,particulars1 ,i may say1 of time1      
place1 and person could be easily added 
to ,mr4 ,moore's statement1  excepting1 
perhaps as to the deity in question2 on 
that point ,i have  never been informed1
 but ,mr4 ,moore is probably right in   
the use of the  capital d1 as the       
sacrificer is1 according to all         
accounts1 a highly  devout ,christian4  
,one more instance3 an octogenarian     
woman1 born in the  parish of ,bride1   
and now living at ,kirk ,andreas1 saw1  
when she was a  'lump of a girl' of ten 
or fifteen years of age1 a live sheep   
being  burnt in a field in the parish of
 ,andreas1 on ,may-day1 whereby she     
meant  the first of ,may reckoned       

according to the ,old ,style4 ,she      
asserts very  decidedly that it was son 
oural1 'as a sacrifice1' as she put it1 
and  'for an object to the public'3     
those were her words when she expressed 
herself in ,english4 ,further1 she made 
the statement that it was a custom  to  
burn a sheep on old ,may-day for a      
sacrifice4 ,i was fully alive to the    
interest of this evidence1 and          
cross-examined her so far as her age    
allows of it1 and ,i find that she      
adheres to her statement with all       
firmness4#gef    ,by burning a bewitched
 animal you compel the witch to appear4 
,but ,manxmen burn beasts when they are 
dead as well as when they are  alive2   
and their reasons for burning the dead  
animals may help us to  understand their
 reasons for burning the living animals4
 ,on this subject  ,i will again quote  
,sir ,john ,rhys3 ,when a beast dies on 
a farm1 of  course it dies1 according to
 the old-fashioned view of things1 as ,i
  understand it1 from the influence of  

the evil eye or the interposition  of a 
witch4 ,so if you want to know to whom  
you are indebted for the loss  of the   
beast1 you have simply to burn its      
carcase in the open air and  watch who  
comes first to the spot or who first    
passes by2 that is the  criminal to be  
charged with the death of the animal1   
and he cannot help  coming there--such  
is the effect of the fire4 ,a ,michael  
woman1 who is  now about thirty1 related
 to me how she watched while the carcase
 of a  bewitched colt was burning1 how  
she saw the witch coming1 and how she   
remembers her shrivelled face1 with nose
 and chin in close proximity4           
,according to another native of         
,michael1 a well-informed middle-aged   
man1  the animal in question was        
oftenest a calf1 and it was wont to be  
burnt  whole1 skin and all4 ,the object1
 according to him1 is invariably to     
bring the bewitcher on the spot1 and he 
always comes2 but ,i am not clear  what 
happens to him when he appears4 ,my     

informant added1 however1 that  it was  
believed that1 unless the bewitcher got 
possession of the heart  of the burning 
beast1 he lost all his power of         
bewitching4#geg    ,magic sympathy      
between the witch and the bewitched     
animal4    ,these statements shew that  
in the ,isle of ,man the sympathetic    
relation  between the witch and his or  
her animal victim is believed to be so  
close that by burning the animal you    
compel the witch to appear4 ,the        
original idea may have been that1 by    
virtue of a magic sympathy which  binds 
the two together1 whatever harm you do  
to the animal is felt by  the witch as  
if it were done to herself4 ,that notion
 would fully explain  why ,manx people  
used also to burn bewitched animals     
alive2 in doing so  they probably       
imagined that they were simultaneously  
burning the witch  who had cast the     
spell on their cattle4    ,parallel     
belief in magic sympathy between the    
animal shape of a  were-wolf and his or 

her ordinary human shape3 by wounding   
the wolf you  simultaneously wound the  
man or woman4    ,this explanation of   
the reason for burning a bewitched      
animal1 dead or  alive1 is confirmed by 
the parallel belief concerning          
were-wolves4 ,it is  commonly supposed  
that certain men and women can transform
 themselves by  magic art into wolves or
 other animals1 but that any wound      
inflicted on  such a transformed beast  
7a were-wolf or other were-animal7 is   
simultaneously inflicted on the human   
body of the witch or warlock who  had   
transformed herself or himself into the 
creature4 ,this belief is  widely       
diffused2 it meets us in ,europe1 ,asia1
 and ,africa4 ,for example1  ,olaus     
,magnus tells us that in ,livonia1 not  
many years before he wrote1 a  noble    
lady had a dispute with her slave on the
 subject of were-wolves1  she doubting  
whether there were any such things1 and 
he maintaining that  there were4 ,to    
convince her he retired to a room1 from 

which he soon  appeared in the form of a
 wolf4 ,being chased by the dogs into   
the forest  and brought to bay1 the wolf
 defended himself fiercely1 but lost an 
eye  in the struggle4 ,next day the     
slave returned to his mistress in human 
form but with only one eye4#geh ,again1 
it happened in the year #aehh  that a   
gentleman in a village among the        
mountains of ,auvergne1 looking  out of 
the window one evening1 saw a friend of 
his going out to hunt4 ,he  begged him  
to bring him back some of his bag1 and  
his friend said that  he would4 ,well1  
he had not gone very far before he met a
 huge wolf4 ,he  fired and missed it1   
and the animal attacked him furiously1  
but he stood  on his guard and with an  
adroit stroke of his hunting knife he   
cut off  the right fore-paw of the      
brute1 which thereupon fled away and he 
saw it  no more4 ,he returned to his    
friend1 and drawing from his pouch the  
severed paw of the wolf he found to his 
horror that it was turned into a        

woman's hand with a golden ring on one  
of the fingers4 ,his friend  recognized 
the ring as that of his own wife and    
went to find her4 ,she  was sitting by  
the fire with her right arm under her   
apron4 ,as she  refused to draw it out1 
her husband confronted her with the hand
 and the  ring on it4 ,she at once      
confessed the truth1 that it was she in 
the form  of a were-wolf whom the hunter
 had wounded4 ,her confession was       
confirmed  by applying the severed hand 
to the stump of her arm1 for the two    
fitted  exactly4 ,the angry husband     
delivered up his wicked wife to justice2
 she  was tried and burnt as a          
witch4#gei ,it is said that a were-wolf1
  scouring the streets of ,padua1 was   
caught1 and when they cut off his  four 
paws he at once turned into a man1 but  
with both his hands and feet            
amputated4#gfj ,again1 in a farm of the 
,french district of ,beauce1 there  was 
once a herdsman who never slept at home4
 ,these nocturnal absences  naturally   

attracted attention and set people      
talking4 ,at the same time1  by a       
curious coincidence1 a wolf used to     
prowl round the farm every  night and to
 excite the dogs in the farmyard to fury
 by thrusting his  snout derisively     
through the cat's hole in the great     
gate4 ,the farmer  had his suspicions   
and he determined to watch4 ,one night1 
when the  herdsman went out as usual1   
his master followed him quietly till he 
came  to a hut1 where with his own eyes 
he saw the man put on a broad belt and  
at once turn into a wolf1 which scoured 
away over the fields4 ,the farmer       
smiled a sickly sort of smile and went  
back to the farm4 ,there he took a      
stout stick and sat down at the cat's   
hole to wait4 ,he had not long to  wait4
 ,the dogs barked like mad1 a wolf's    
snout shewed through the hole1  down    
came the stick1 out gushed the blood1   
and a voice was heard to say  without   
the gate1 ,a good job too4 ,i had still 
three years to run4 ,next  day the      

herdsman appeared as usual1 but he had a
 scar on his brow1 and  he never went   
out again at night4#gfa    ,werewolves  
in ,china4    ,in ,china also the faith 
in similar transformation is reflected  
in the  following tale4 ,a certain man  
in ,sung-yang went into the mountains to
  gather fuel4 ,night fell and he was   
pursued by two tigers1 but scrambled  up
 a tree out of their reach4 ,then said  
the one tiger to the other  tiger1 ,if  
we can find ,chu-,tu-shi1 we are sure to
 catch this man up the  tree4 ,so off   
went one of them to find ,chu-,tu-shi1  
while the other kept  watch at the foot 
of the tree4 ,soon after that another   
tiger1 leaner and  longer than the other
 two1 appeared on the scene and made a  
grab at the  man's coat4 ,but           
fortunately the moon was shining1 the   
man saw the paw1  and with a stroke of  
his axe cut off one of its claws4 ,the  
tigers roared  and fled1 one after the  
other1 so the man climbed down the tree 
and went  home4 ,when he told his tale  

in the village1 suspicion naturally fell
 on  the said ,chu-,tu-shi2 next day    
some men went to see him in his house4  
,they were told that they could not see 
him2 for he had been out the  night     
before and had hurt his hand1 and he was
 now ill in bed4 ,so they  put two and  
two together and reported him to the    
police4 ,the police  arrived1 surrounded
 the house1 and set fire to it2 but     
,chu-,tu-shi rose  from his bed1 turned 
into a tiger1 charged right through the 
police1 and  escaped1 and to this day   
nobody ever knew where he went to4#gfb  
,werewolves among the ,toradjas of      
,central ,celebes4    ,the ,toradjas of 
,central ,celebes stand in very great   
fear of werewolves1  that is of men and 
women1 who have the power of            
transforming their  spirits into animals
 such as cats1 crocodiles1 wild pigs1   
apes1 deer1  and buffaloes1 which roam  
about battening on human flesh1 and     
especially  on human livers1 while the  
men and women in their own proper human 

form  are sleeping quietly in their beds
 at home4 ,among them a man is either   
born a were-wolf or becomes one by      
infection2 for mere contact with a      
were-wolf1 or even with anything that   
has been touched by his spittle1  is    
quite enough to turn the most innocent  
person into a were-wolf2 nay  even to   
lean your head against anything against 
which a were-wolf has  leaned his head  
suffices to do it4 ,the penalty for     
being a were-wolf is  death2 but the    
sentence is never passed until the      
accused has had a fair  trial and his   
guilt has been clearly demonstrated by  
an ordeal1 which  consists in dipping   
the middle finger into boiling resin4   
,if the finger  is not burnt1 the man is
 no were-wolf2 but if it is burnt1 a    
werewolf he  most assuredly is1 so they 
take him away to a quiet spot and hack  
him to  bits4 ,in cutting him up the    
executioners are naturally very careful 
not  to be bespattered with his blood1  
for if that were to happen they would   

of course be turned into were-wolves    
themselves4 ,further1 they place his    
severed head beside his hinder-quarters 
to prevent his soul from coming  to life
 again and pursuing his depredations4   
,so great is the horror of  were-wolves 
among the ,toradjas1 and so great is    
their fear of  contracting the deadly   
taint by infection1 that many persons   
have  assured a missionary that they    
would not spare their own child if they 
knew him to be a were-wolf4#gfc ,now    
these people1 whose faith in            
were-wolves is not a mere dying or dead 
superstition but a living1  dreadful    
conviction1 tell stories of were-wolves 
which conform to the  type which we are 
examining4 ,they say that once upon a   
time a were-wolf  came in human shape   
under the house of a neighbour1 while   
his real body  lay asleep as usual at   
home1 and calling out softly to the     
man's wife  made an assignation with her
 to meet him in the tobacco-field next  
day4  ,but the husband was lying awake  

and he heard it all1 but he said nothing
  to anybody4 ,next day chanced to be a 
busy one in the village1 for a roof  had
 to be put on a new house and all the   
men were lending a hand with  the work1 
and among them to be sure was the       
were-wolf himself1 ,i mean to  say his  
own human self2 there he was up on the  
roof working away as hard  as anybody4  
,but the woman went out to the          
tobacco-field1 and behind went  unseen  
her husband1 slinking through the       
underwood4 ,when they were come  to the 
field1 he saw the were-wolf make up to  
his wife1 so out he rushed  and struck  
at him with a stick4 ,quick as thought1 
the were-wolf turned  himself into a    
leaf1 but the man was as nimble1 for he 
caught up the  leaf1 thrust it into the 
joint of bamboo1 in which he kept his   
tobacco1  and bunged it up tight4 ,then 
he walked back with his wife to the     
village1 carrying the bamboo with the   
werewolf in it4 ,when they came to  the 
village1 the human body of the were-wolf

 was still on the roof1  working away   
with the rest4 ,the man put the bamboo  
in a fire4 ,at that  the human were-wolf
 looked down from the roof and said1    
,don't do that4  ,the man drew the      
bamboo from the fire1 but a moment      
afterwards he put it  in the fire again1
 and again the human were-wolf on the   
roof looked down  and cried1 ,don't do  
that4 ,but this time the man kept the   
bamboo in the  fire1 and when it blazed 
up1 down fell the human were-wolf from  
the roof  as dead as a stone4#gfd       
,again1 the following story went round  
among the  ,toradjas not so very many   
years ago4 ,the thing happened at       
,soemara1 on  the ,gulf of ,tomori4 ,it 
was evening and some men sat chatting   
with a  certain ,hadji ,mohammad4 ,when 
it had grown dark1 one of the men went  
out  of the house for something or      
other4 ,a little while afterwards one of
  the company thought he saw a stag's   
antlers standing out sharp and clear    
against the bright evening sky4 ,so     

,hadji ,mohammad raised his gun and     
fired4 ,a minute or two afterwards back 
comes the man who had gone out1  and    
says he to ,hadji ,mohammad1 ,you shot  
at me and hit me4 ,you must pay  me a   
fine4 ,they searched him but found no   
wound on him anywhere4 ,then  they knew 
that he was a were-wolf who had turned  
himself into a stag and  had healed the 
bullet-wound by licking it4 ,however1   
the bullet had found  its billet1 for   
two days afterwards he was a dead       
man4#gfe    ,were-wolves in the         
,egyptian ,sudan4    ,in ,sennar1 a     
province of the ,egyptian ,sudan1 the   
,hammeg and ,fungi enjoy  the reputation
 of being powerful magicians who can    
turn themselves into  hyaenas and in    
that guise scour the country at night1  
howling and  gorging themselves4 ,but by
 day they are men again4 ,it is very    
dangerous  to shoot at such human       
hyaenas by night4 ,on the ,jebel ,bela  
mountain a  soldier once shot at a      
hyaena and hit it1 but it dragged itself

 off1  bleeding1 in the darkness and    
escaped4 ,next morning he followed up   
the  trail of blood and it led him      
straight to the hut of a man who was    
everywhere known for a wizard4 ,nothing 
of the hyaena was to be seen1 but  the  
man himself was laid up in the house    
with a fresh wound and died  soon       
afterwards4 ,and the soldier did not    
long survive him4#gff    ,the were-wolf 
story in ,petronius4    ,but the        
classical example of these stories is an
 old ,roman tale told by  ,petronius4   
,it is put in the mouth of one ,niceros4
 ,late at night he left  the town to    
visit a friend of his1 a widow1 who     
lived at a farm five  miles down the    
road4 ,he was accompanied by a soldier1 
who lodged in the  same house1 a man of 
,herculean build4 ,when they set out it 
was near  dawn1 but the moon shone as   
bright as day4 ,passing through the     
outskirts  of the town1 they came       
amongst the tombs1 which lined the      
highroad for  some distance4 ,there the 

soldier made an excuse for retiring     
behind a  monument1 and ,niceros sat    
down to wait for him1 humming a tune and
  counting the tombstones to pass the   
time4 ,in a little he looked round  for 
his companion1 and saw a sight which    
froze him with horror4 ,the  soldier had
 stripped off his clothes to the last   
rag and laid them at  the side of the   
highway4 ,then he performed a certain   
ceremony over them1  and immediately was
 changed into a wolf1 and ran howling   
into the  forest4 ,when ,niceros had    
recovered himself a little1 he went to  
pick up  the clothes1 but found that    
they were turned to stone4 ,more dead   
than  alive1 he drew his sword1 and1    
striking at every shadow cast by the    
tombstones on the moonlit road1 he      
tottered to his friend's house4 ,he     
entered it like a ghost1 to the surprise
 of the widow1 who wondered to  see him 
abroad so late4 ,if you had only been   
here a little ago1 said  she1 you might 
have been of some use4 ,for a wolf came 

tearing into the  yard1 scaring the     
cattle and bleeding them like a butcher4
 ,but he did  not get off so easily1 for
 the servant speared him in the neck4   
,after  hearing these words1 ,niceros   
felt that he could not close an eye1 so 
he  hurried away home again4 ,it was now
 broad daylight1 but when he came to    
the place where the clothes had been    
turned to stone1 he found only a  pool  
of blood4 ,he reached home1 and there   
lay the soldier in bed like an  ox in   
the shambles1 and the doctor was        
bandaging his neck4 ,then ,i  knew1 said
 ,niceros1 that the man was a were-wolf1
 and never again  could ,i break bread  
with him1 no1 not if you had killed me  
for it4#gfg    ,witches like were-wolves
 can temporarily transform themselves   
into  animals4    ,these stories may    
help us to understand the custom of     
burning a  bewitched animal1 which has  
been observed in our own country down to
  recent times1 if indeed it is even now
 extinct4 ,for a close parallel may  be 

traced in some respects between witches 
and were-wolves4 ,like  were-wolves1    
witches are commonly supposed to be able
 to transform  themselves temporarily   
into animals for the purpose of playing 
their  mischievous pranks2#gfh and like 
were-wolves they can in their animal    
disguise be compelled to unmask         
themselves to any one who succeeds in   
drawing their blood4 ,in either case the
 animal-skin is conceived as a  cloak   
thrown round the wicked enchanter2 and  
if you can only pierce the  skin1       
whether by the stab of a knife or the   
shot of a gun1 you so rend  the disguise
 that the man or woman inside of it     
stands revealed in his  or her true     
colours4 ,strictly speaking1 the stab   
should be given on the  brow or between 
the eyes in the case both of a witch and
 of a  were-wolf2#gfi and it is vain to 
shoot at a were-wolf unless you have    
had the bullet blessed in a chapel of   
,st4 ,hubert or happen to be  carrying  
about you1 without knowing it1 a        

four-leaved clover2 otherwise  the      
bullet will merely rebound from the     
were-wolf like water from a  duck's     
back4#ggj ,however1 in ,armenia they say
 that the were-wolf1 who  in that       
country is usually a woman1 can be      
killed neither by shot nor by  steel2   
the only way of delivering the unhappy  
woman from her bondage is  to get hold  
of her wolf's skin and burn it2 for that
 naturally prevents  her from turning   
into a wolf again4 ,but it is not easy  
to find the skin1  for she is cunning   
enough to hide it by day4#gga ,so with  
witches1 it is  not only useless but    
even dangerous to shoot at one of them  
when she has  turned herself into a     
hare2 if you do1 the gun may burst in   
your hand or  the shot come back and    
kill you4 ,the only way to make quite   
sure of  hitting a witch-animal is to   
put a silver sixpence or a silver button
 in  your gun4#ggb ,for example1 it     
happened one evening that a native of   
the  island of ,tiree was going home    

with a new gun1 when he saw a black     
sheep  running towards him across the   
plain of ,reef4 ,something about the    
creature excited his suspicion1 so he   
put a silver sixpence in his gun  and   
fired at it4 ,instantly the black sheep 
became a woman with a drugget  coat     
wrapt round her head4 ,the man knew her 
quite well1 for she was a  witch who had
 often persecuted him before in the     
shape of a cat4#ggc    ,wounds inflicted
 on an animal into which a witch has    
transformed  herself are inflicted on   
the witch herself4    ,again1 the wounds
 inflicted on a witch-hare or a         
witch-cat are to be  seen on the witch  
herself1 just as the wounds inflicted on
 a were-wolf  are to be seen on the man 
himself when he has doffed the wolfs    
skin4 ,to  take a few instances out of a
 multitude1 a young man in the island of
  ,lismore was out shooting4 ,when he   
was near ,balnagown loch1 he started a  
hare and fired at it4 ,the animal gave  
an unearthly scream1 and then for  the  

first time it occurred to him that there
 were no real hares in  ,lismore4 ,he   
threw away his gun in terror and fled   
home2 and next day he  heard that a     
notorious witch was laid up with a      
broken leg4 ,a man need  be no conjuror 
to guess how she came by that broken    
leg4#ggd ,again1 at  ,thurso certain    
witches used to turn themselves into    
cats and in that  shape to torment an   
honest man4 ,one night he lost patience1
 whipped out  his broadsword1 and put   
them to flight4 ,as they were scurrying 
away he  struck at them and cut off a   
leg of one of the cats4 ,to his         
astonishment  it was a woman's leg1 and 
next morning he found one of the witches
 short  of the corresponding limb4#gge  
,glanvil tells a story of an old woman  
in ,cambridge-shire1 whose astral       
spirit1 coming into a man's house 7as   
he was sitting alone at the fire7 in the
 shape of an huge cat1 and  setting her 
self before the fire1 not far from him1 
he stole a stroke at  the back of it    

with a fire-fork1 and seemed to break   
the back of it1 but  it scambled from   
him1 and vanisht he knew not how4 ,but  
such an old  woman1 a reputed witch1 was
 found dead in her bed that very night1 
with  her back broken1 as ,i have heard 
some years ago credibly reported4#ggf   
,in ,yorkshire during the latter half of
 the nineteenth century a parish        
clergyman was told a circumstantial     
story of an old witch named ,nanny1  who
 was hunted in the form of a hare for   
several miles over the  ,westerdale     
moors and kept well away from the dogs1 
till a black one  joined the pack and   
succeeded in taking a bit out of one of 
the hare's  legs4 ,that was the end of  
the chase1 and immediately afterwards   
the  sportsmen found old ,nanny laid up 
in bed with a sore leg4 ,on examining   
the wounded limb they discovered that   
the hurt was precisely in that  part of 
it which in the hare had been bitten by 
the black dog and1 what  was still more 
significant1 the wound had all the      

appearance of having  been inflicted by 
a dog's teeth4 ,so they put two and two 
together4#ggg  ,the same sort of thing  
is often reported in ,lincolnshire4 ,one
 night1  said a servant from ,kirton    
,lindsey1 my father and brother saw a   
cat in  front of them4 ,father knew it  
was a witch1 and took a stone and       
hammered  it4 ,next day the witch had   
her face all tied up1 and shortly       
afterwards  died4 ,again1 a ,bardney    
bumpkin told how a witch in his         
neighbourhood  could take all sorts of  
shapes4 ,one night a man shot a hare1   
and when he  went to the witch's house  
he found her plastering a wound just    
where he  had shot the hare4#ggh ,so in 
,county ,leitrim1 in ,ireland1 they say 
that  a hare pursued by dogs fled to a  
house near at hand1 but just as it was  
bolting in at the door one of the dogs  
came up with it and nipped a  piece out 
of its leg4 ,the hunters entered the    
house and found no hare  there but only 
an old woman1 and her side was bleeding2

 so they knew  what to think of her4#ggi
    ,wounded witches in the ,vosges4    
,again1 in the ,vosges ,mountains a     
great big hare used to come out every   
evening to take the air at the foot of  
the ,mont des ,fourches4 ,all the       
sportsmen of the neighbourhood tried    
their hands on that hare for a  month1  
but not one of them could hit it4 ,at   
last one marksman1 more  knowing than   
the rest1 loaded his gun with some      
pellets of a consecrated  wafer in      
addition to the usual pellets of lead4  
,that did the trick4 ,if  puss was not  
killed outright1 she was badly hurt1 and
 limped away  uttering shrieks and      
curses in a human voice4 ,later it      
transpired that  she was no other than  
the witch of a neighbouring village who 
had the  power of putting on the shape  
of any animal she pleased4#ghj ,again1 a
  hunter of ,travexin1 in the ,vosges1  
fired at a hare and almost shot away    
one of its hind legs4 ,nevertheless the 
creature contrived to escape into  a    

cottage through the open door4          
,immediately a child's cries were heard 
to proceed from the cottage1 and the    
hunter could distinguish these  words1  
,daddy1 daddy1 come quick6 ,poor mammy  
has her leg broken4#gha    ,wounded     
witches in ,swabia4    ,in ,swabia the  
witches are liable to accidents of the  
same sort when they  go about their     
business in the form of animals4 ,for   
example1 there was a  soldier who was   
betrothed to a young woman and used to  
visit her every  evening when he was off
 duty4 ,but one evening the girl told   
him that he  must not come to the house 
on ,friday nights1 because it was never 
convenient to her to see him then4 ,this
 roused his suspicion1 and the  very    
next ,friday night he set out to go to  
his sweetheart's house4 ,on  the way a  
white cat ran up to him in the street   
and dogged his steps1  and when the     
animal would not make off he drew his   
sword and slashed off  one of its paws4 
,on that the cat bolted4 ,the soldier   

walked on1 but when  he came to his     
sweetheart's house he found her in bed1 
and when he asked  her what was the     
matter1 she gave a very confused reply4 
,noticing stains  of blood on the bed1  
he drew down the coverlet and saw that  
the girl was  weltering in her gore1 for
 one of her feet was lopped off4 ,so    
that's  what's the matter with you1 you 
witch6 said he1 and turned on his heel  
and left her1 and within three days she 
was dead4#ghb ,again1 a farmer  in the  
neighbourhood of ,wiesensteig frequently
 found in his stable a  horse over and  
above the four horses he actually owned4
 ,he did not know  what to make of it   
and mentioned the matter to the smith4  
,the smith said  quietly1 ,the next time
 you see a fifth horse in the stable1   
just you  send for me4 ,well1 it was not
 long before the strange horse was there
  again1 and the farmer at once sent for
 the smith4 ,he came bringing four      
horse-shoes with him1 and said1 ,i'm    
sure the nag has no shoes2 ,i'll  shoe  

her for you4 ,no sooner said than done4 
,however1 the smith  overreached        
himself2 for next day when his friend   
the farmer paid him a  visit he found   
the smith's own wife prancing about with
 horse-shoes  nailed on her hands and   
feet4 ,but it was the last time she ever
 appeared  in the shape of a horse4#ghc 
,the miller's wife and the two grey     
cats4    ,once more1 in ,silesia they   
tell of a miller's apprentice1 a sturdy 
and  industrious young fellow1 who set  
out on his travels4 ,one day he came to 
a mill1 and the miller told him that he 
wanted an apprentice but did not  care  
to engage one1 because hitherto all his 
apprentices had run away in  the night1 
and when he came down in the morning the
 mill was at a stand4  ,however1 he     
liked the looks of the young chap and   
took him into his pay4  ,but what the   
new apprentice heard about the mill and 
his predecessors  was not encouraging2  
so the first night when it was his duty 
to watch in  the mill he took care to   

provide himself with an axe and a       
prayer-book1  and while he kept one eye 
on the whirring1 humming wheels he kept 
the  other on the good book1 which he   
read by the flickering light of a       
candle set on a table4 ,so the hours at 
first passed quietly with nothing  to   
disturb him but the monotonous drone and
 click of the machinery4 ,but  on the   
stroke of twelve1 as he was still       
reading with the axe lying on  the table
 within reach1 the door opened and in   
came two grey cats  mewing1 an old one  
and a young one4 ,they sat down opposite
 him1 but it  was easy to see that they 
did not like his wakefulness and the    
prayer-book and the axe4 ,suddenly the  
old cat reached out a paw and made  a   
grab at the axe1 but the young chap was 
too quick for her and held it  fast4    
,then the young cat tried to do the same
 for the prayer-book1 but  the          
apprentice gripped it tight4 ,thus      
balked1 the two cats set up such a      
squalling that the young fellow could   

hardly say his prayers4 ,just  before   
one o'clock the younger cat sprang on   
the table and fetched a  blow with her  
right paw at the candle to put it out4  
,but the apprentice  struck at her with 
his axe and sliced the paw off1         
whereupon the two  cats vanished with a 
frightful screech4 ,the apprentice      
wrapped the paw  up in paper to shew it 
to his master4 ,very glad the miller was
 next  morning when he came down and    
found the mill going and the young chap 
at  his post4 ,the apprentice told him  
what had happened in the night and  gave
 him the parcel containing the cat's    
paw4 ,but when the miller opened  it1   
what was the astonishment of the two to 
find in it no cat's paw but  a woman's  
hand6 ,at breakfast the miller's young  
wife did not as usual  take her place at
 the table4 ,she was ill in bed1 and the
 doctor had to  be called in to bind up 
her right arm1 because in hewing wood1  
so they  said1 she had made a slip and  
cut off her own right hand4 ,but the    

apprentice packed up his traps and      
turned his back on that mill before  the
 sun had set4#ghd    ,the analogy of    
were-wolves confirms the view that the  
reason for  burning bewitched animals is
 either to burn the witch or to compel  
her  to appear4    ,it would no doubt be
 easy to multiply instances1 all equally
 well  attested and authentic1 of the   
transformation of witches into animals  
and of the damage which the women       
themselves have sustained through       
injuries inflicted on the animals4#ghe  
,but the foregoing evidence may  suffice
 to establish the complete parallelism  
between witches and  were-wolves in     
these respects4 ,the analogy appears to 
confirm the view  that the reason for   
burning a bewitched animal alive is a   
belief that  the witch herself is in the
 animal1 and that by burning it you     
either  destroy the witch completely or 
at least unmask her and compel her to   
reassume her proper human shape1 in     
which she is naturally far less  potent 

for mischief than when she is careering 
about the country in the  likeness of a 
cat1 a hare1 a horse1 or what not4 ,this
 principle is still  indeed clearly     
recognized by people in ,oldenburg1     
though1 as might be  expected1 they do  
not now carry out the principle to its  
logical  conclusion by burning the      
bewitched animal or person alive2       
instead they  resort to a feeble and1 it
 must be added1 perfectly futile        
subterfuge  dictated by a mistaken      
humanity or a fear of the police4 ,when 
anything  living is bewitched in a      
house1 for example1 children or animals1
 they  burn or boil the nobler inwards  
of animals1 especially the hearts1 but  
also the lungs or the liver4 ,if animals
 have died1 they take the inwards  of   
one of them or of an animal of the same 
kind slaughtered for the  purpose2 but  
if that is not possible they take the   
inwards of a cock1 by  preference a     
black one4 ,the heart1 lung1 or liver is
 stuck all over with  needles1 or marked

 with a cross cut1 or placed on the fire
 in a tightly  closed vessel1 strict    
silence being observed and doors and    
windows well  shut4 ,when the heart     
boils or is reduced to ashes1 the witch 
must  appear1 for during the boiling she
 feels the burning pain4 ,she either    
begs to be released or seeks to borrow  
something1 for example1 salt or a  coal 
of fire1 or she takes the lid off the   
pot1 or tries to induce the  person     
whose spell is on her to speak4 ,they   
say1 too1 that a woman comes  with a    
spinning-wheel4 ,if it is a sheep that  
has died1 you proceed in  the same way  
with a tripe from its stomach and prick 
it with needles  while it is on the     
boil4 ,instead of boiling it1 some      
people nail the  heart to the highest   
rafter of the house1 or lay it on the   
edge of the  hearth1 in order that it   
may dry up1 no doubt because the same   
thing  happens to the witch4 ,we may    
conjecture that other sympathetic means 
of  destruction are employed against    

witchcraft4 ,the following is expressly 
reported3 the heart of a calf that has  
died is stuck all over with  needles1   
enclosed in a bag1 and thrown into      
flowing water before  sunset4#ghf       
,there is the same reason for burning   
bewitched things2 similarly by  burning 
alive a person whose form a witch has   
assumed1 you compel the  witch to       
disclose herself4    ,and the same thing
 holds good also of inanimate objects on
 which a witch  has cast her spell4 ,in 
,wales they say that if a thing is      
bewitched1  burn it1 and immediately    
afterwards the witch will come to borrow
  something of you4 ,if you give what   
she asks1 she will go free2 if you      
refuse it1 she will burn1 and a mark    
will be on her body the next  day4#ghg  
,so1 too1 in ,oldenburg1 the burning of 
things that are  bewitched or that have 
been received from witches is another   
way of  breaking the spell4 ,it is often
 said that the burning should take place
  at a cross-road1 and in several places

 cross-roads are shewn where the        
burning used to be performed4444 ,as a  
rule1 while the things are  burning1 the
 guilty witches appear1 though not      
always in their own  shape4 ,at the     
burning of bewitched butter they often  
appear as  cockchafers and can be killed
 with impunity4 ,victuals received from 
witches may be safely consumed if only  
you first burn a portion of  them4#ghh  
,for example1 a young man in ,oldenburg 
was wooing a girl1 and  she gave him two
 fine apples as a gift4 ,not feeling any
 appetite at the  time1 he put the      
apples in his pocket1 and when he came  
home he laid  them by in a chest4 ,two  
or three days afterwards he remembered  
the  apples and went to the chest to    
fetch them4 ,but when he would have put 
his hand on them1 what was his horror to
 find in their stead two fat  ugly toads
 in the chest4 ,he hastened to a wise   
man and asked him what he  should do    
with the toads4 ,the man told him to    
boil the toads alive1 but  while he was 

doing so he must be sure on no account  
to lend anything out  of the house4     
,well1 just as he had the toads in a pot
 on the fire and  the water began to    
grow nicely warm1 who should come to the
 door but the  girl who had given him   
the apples1 and she wished to borrow    
something2  but he refused to give her  
anything1 rated her as a witch1 and     
drove her  out of the house4 ,a little  
afterwards in came the girl's mother and
  begged with tears in her eyes for     
something or other2 but he turned her   
out also4 ,the last word she said to him
 was that he should at least  spare her 
daughter's life2 but he paid no heed to 
her and let the toads  boil till they   
fell to bits4 ,next day word came that  
the girl was  dead4#ghi ,can any        
reasonable man doubt that the witch     
herself was  boiled alive in the person 
of the toads8    ,the burning alive of a
 supposed witch in ,ireland in #ahie4   
,moreover1 just as a witch can assume   
the form of an animal1 so she can       

assume the form of some other human     
being1 and the likeness is sometimes  so
 good that it is difficult to detect the
 fraud4 ,however1 by burning  alive the 
person whose shape the witch has put on1
 you force the witch  to disclose       
herself1 just as by burning alive the   
bewitched animal you  in like manner    
oblige the witch to appear4 ,this       
principle may perhaps be  unknown to    
science1 falsely so called1 but it is   
well understood in  ,ireland and has    
been acted on within recent years4 ,in  
,march #ahie a  peasant named ,michael  
,cleary1 residing at ,ballyvadlea1 a    
remote and  lonely district in the      
county of ,tipperary1 burned his wife   
,bridget  ,cleary alive over a slow fire
 on the kitchen hearth in the presence  
of  and with the active assistance of   
some neighbours1 including the woman's  
own father and several of her cousins4  
,they thought that she was not  ,bridget
 ,cleary at all1 but a witch1 and that  
when they held her down on  the fire she

 would vanish up the chimney2 so they   
cried1 while she was  burning1 ,away she
 goes6 ,away she goes6 ,even when she   
lay quite dead on  the kitchen floor    
7for contrary to the general expectation
 she did not  disappear up the chimney71
 her husband still believed that the    
woman  lying there was a witch1 and that
 his own dear wife had gone with the    
fairies to the old rath or fort on the  
hill of ,kylenagranagh1 where he  would 
see her at night riding a grey horse and
 roped to the saddle1 and  that he would
 cut the ropes1 and that she would stay 
with him ever  afterwards4 ,so he went  
with some friends to the fort night     
after night1  taking a big table-knife  
with him to cut the ropes4 ,but he never
 saw his  wife again4 ,he and the men   
who had held the woman on the fire were 
arrested and tried at ,clonmel for      
wilful murder in ,july #ahie2 they were 
all found guilty of manslaughter and    
sentenced to various terms of penal     
servitude and imprisonment2 the sentence

 passed on ,michael ,cleary was  twenty 
years' penal servitude4#gij             
,sometimes bewitched animals are buried 
alive instead of being burned4          
,however1 our ,british peasants1 it must
 be confessed1 have not always  acted up
 to the strict logical theory which     
seems to call for death by  fire as the 
proper treatment both of bewitched      
animals and of witches4  ,sometimes1    
perhaps in moments of weakness1 they    
have merely buried the  bewitched       
animals alive instead of burning them4  
,for example1 in the  year #afdc1 many  
cattle having died1 ,john ,brughe and   
,neane ,nikclerith1  also one of the    
initiated1 conjoined their mutual skill 
for the safety  of the herd4 ,the       
surviving animals were drove past a tub 
of water  containing two enchanted      
stones3 and each was sprinkled from the 
liquid  contents in its course4 ,one1   
however1 being unable to walk1 'was by  
force drawin out at the byre dure2 and  
the said ,johnne with ,nikclerith       

smelling the nois thereof said it wald  
not leive1 caused are hoill to be  maid 
in ,maw ,greane1 quhilk was put quick in
 the hole and maid all the  rest of the 
cattell theireftir to go over that      
place3 and in that  devillische maner1  
be charmeing1' they were cured4#gia     
,again1 during  the prevalence of a     
murrain about the year #afbi1 certain   
persons  proposed to stay the plague    
with the help of a celebrated cureing   
stane of which the laird of ,lee was the
 fortunate owner4 ,but from this  they  
were dissuaded by one who had sene      
bestiall curet be taking are  quik seik 
ox1 and making are deip pitt1 and       
bureing him therin1 and be  calling the 
oxin and bestiall over that place4      
,indeed ,issobell ,young1  the mother of
 these persons1 had herself endeavoured 
to check the  progress of the distemper 
by taking ane quik ox with ane catt1 and
 ane  grit quantitie of salt1 and       
proceeding to burie the ox and catt quik
  with the salt1 in ane deip hoill in   

the grund1 as ane sacrifice to the      
devill1 that the rest of the guidis     
might be fred of the seiknes or         
diseases4#gib ,writing towards the end  
of the eighteenth century1 ,john        
,ramsay of ,ochtertyre tells us that the
 violent death even of a brute is  in   
some cases held to be of great avail4   
,there is a disease called the  black   
spauld1 which sometimes rages like a    
pestilence among black  cattle1 the     
symptoms of which are a mortification in
 the legs and a  corruption of the mass 
of blood4 ,among the other engines of   
superstition  that are directed against 
this fatal malady1 the first cow seized 
with  it is commonly buried alive1 and  
the other cattle are forced to pass     
backwards and forwards over the pit4 ,at
 other times the heart is taken  out of 
the beast alive1 and then the carcass is
 buried4 ,it is remarkable  that the leg
 affected is cut off1 and hung up in    
some part of the house  or byre1 where  
it remains suspended1 notwithstanding   

the seeming danger  of infection4 ,there
 is hardly a house in ,mull where these 
may not be  seen4 ,this practice seems  
to have taken its rise antecedent to    
,christianity1 as it reminds us of the  
pagan custom of hanging up  offerings in
 their temples4 ,in ,breadalbane1 when a
 cow is observed to  have symptoms of   
madness1 there is recourse had to a     
peculiar process4  ,they tie the legs of
 the mad creature1 and throw her into a 
pit dug at  the door of the fold4 ,after
 covering the hole with earth1 a large  
fire  is kindled upon it2 and the rest  
of the cattle are driven out1 and       
forced to pass through the fire one by  
one4#gic ,in this latter custom  we may 
suspect that the fire kindled on the    
grave of the buried cow was  originally 
made by the friction of wood1 in other  
words1 that it was a  need-fire4 ,again1
 writing in the year #ahfb1 ,sir ,arthur
 ,mitchell tells us  that for the cure  
of the murrain in cattle1 one of the    
herd is still  sacrificed for the good  

of the whole4 ,this is done by burying  
it alive4  ,i am assured that within the
 last ten years such a barbarism        
occurred in  the county of ,moray4#gid  
,calves killed and buried to save the   
rest of the herd4    ,sometimes1        
however1 the animal has not even been   
buried alive1 it has  been merely killed
 and then buried4 ,in this emasculated  
form the  sacrifice1 we may say with    
confidence1 is absolutely useless for   
the  purpose of stopping a murrain4     
,nevertheless1 it has been tried4 ,thus 
in  ,lincolnshire1 when the cattle      
plague was so prevalent in #ahff1 there 
was1 ,i believe1 not a single cowshed in
 ,marshland but had its wicken  cross   
over the door2 and other charms more    
powerful than this were in  some cases  
resorted to4 ,i never heard of the use  
of the needfire in the  ,marsh1 though  
it was1 ,i believe1 used on the wolds   
not many miles off4  ,but ,i knew of at 
least one case in which a calf was      
killed and solemnly  buried feet        

pointing upwards at the threshold of the
 cowshed4 ,when our  garthman told me of
 this1 ,i pointed out to him that the   
charm had  failed1 for the disease had  
not spared that shed4 ,but he promptly  
replied1 ,yis1 but owd ,edwards were a  
soight too cliver2 he were that  mean he
 slew nobbutt a wankling cauf as were   
bound to deny anny road2 if  he had     
nobbutt tekken his best cauf it wud hev 
worked reight enuff2  'tain't in reason 
that owd skrat 'ud be hanselled wi'     
wankling  draffle4#gie    ,notes3       
#bfb ,see ,jacob ,grimm1 ,deutsche      
,mythologie99#d 7,berlin1 #ahge-ahgh71  
i4  #ejb1 #eaj1 #eaf4    #bfc ,w4       
,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus der        
,germanen und ihrer  ,nachbarstmme      
7,berlin1 #ahge71 pp4 #eah sq4    #bfd  
,in the following survey of these       
fire-customs ,i follow chiefly ,w4      
,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus1 kap4 vi4  
pp4 #dig sqq4 ,compare also ,j4  ,grimm1
 ,deutsche ,mythologie199#d i4 #ejj     
sqq42 ,walter ,e4 ,kelly1  ,curiosities 

of ,indo-,european ,tradition and       
,folk-lore 7,london1 #ahfc71  pp4 #df   
sqq42 ,f4 ,vogt1 ,scheibentreiben und   
,frhlingsfeuer1  ,zeitschrift des       
,vereins fr ,volkskunde1 iii4 7#ahic7   
pp4 #cdi-cfi2  ibid4 iv4 7#ahid7 pp4    
#aie-aig4    #bfe ,the ,scapegoat1 pp4  
#caf sqq4    #bff ,the first ,sunday in 
,lent is known as ,invocavit from the   
first  word of the mass for the day 7,o4
 ,frh4 von ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1      
,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #fg74    
#bfg ,le ,baron de                      
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,calendrier     
,belge 7,brussels1  #ahfa-ahfb71 i4     
#ada-adc2 ,e4 ,monseur1 ,le ,folklore   
,wallon 7,brussels1  ,n4,d471 pp4 #abd  
sq4    #bfh mile ,hublard1 ,ftes du     
,temps ,jadis1 les ,feux du ,carme      
7,mons1  #ahii71 pp4 #be4 ,for the loan 
of this work ,i am indebted to ,mrs4    
,wherry of  ,st4 ,peter's ,terrace1     
,cambridge4    #bfi 4 ,hublard1 op4 cit4
 pp4 #bg sq4    #bgj ,a4 ,meyrac1       
,traditions1 coutumes1 lgendes et contes

 des ,ardennes  7,charleville1 #ahij71  
p4 #fh4    #bga ,l4,f4 ,sauv1 ,le       
,folk-lore des ,hautes-,vosges 7,paris1 
#ahhi71 p4 #ef4  ,the popular name for  
the bonfires in the ,upper ,vosges      
7,hautes-,vosges7  is chavandes4    #bgb
 ,e4 ,cortet1 ,essai sur les ftes       
religieuses 7,paris1 #ahfg71 pp4  #aja  
sq4 ,the local name for these bonfires  
is bures4    #bgc ,charles ,beauquier1  
,les mois en ,franche-,comt 7,paris1    
#aijj71 pp4  #cc sq4 ,in ,bresse the    
custom was similar4 ,see ,la ,bresse    
,louhannaise1  ,bulletin ,mensuel1      
,organe de la ,socit d',agriculture et  
d',horticulture  de l',arrondissement de
 ,louhans1 ,mars1 #aijf1 pp4 #aaa sq42  
,e4 ,cortet1  op4 cit4 p4 #ajj4 ,the    
usual name for the bonfires is chevannes
 or  schvannes2 but in some places they 
are called foulres1 foualres1  failles1 
or bourdifailles 7,ch4 ,beauquier1 op4  
cit4 p4 #cd74 ,but the  ,sunday is      
called the ,sunday of the brandons1     
bures1 bordes1 or  boids1 according to  

the place4 ,the brandons are the torches
 which  are carried about the streets   
and the fields2 the bonfires1 as we have
  seen1 bear another name4 ,a curious   
custom1 observed on the same ,sunday  in
 ,franche-,comt1 requires that couples  
married within the year should          
distribute boiled peas to all the young 
folks of both sexes who demand  them at 
the door4 ,the lads and lasses go about 
from house to house1  making the        
customary request2 in some places they  
wear masks or are  otherwise disguised4 
,see ,ch4 ,beauquier1 op4 cit4 pp4      
#ca-cc4    #bgd ,curiously enough1 while
 the singular is granno-mio1 the plural 
is grannas-mias4    #bge ,dr4 ,pommerol1
 ,la fte des ,brandons et le dieu       
,gaulois ,grannus1  ,bulletins et       
,mmoires de la ,socit d',anthropologie  
de ,paris1 v4  ,srie1 ii4 7#aija7 pp4   
#dbg-dbi4    #bgf ,op4 cit4 pp4 #dbh sq4
    #bgg ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones    
,latinae ,selectae1 vol4 ii4 ,pars i4   
7,berlin1 #aijb7 pp4 #baf sq41 ,nos4    

#dfdf-dfeb4    #bgh 7,sir7 ,john ,rhys1 
,celtic ,heathendom 7,london1 #ahhh71   
pp4 #bb-be4    #bgi mile ,hublard1 ,ftes
 du ,temps ,jadis1 les ,feux du ,carme  
7,mons1  #ahii71 p4 #ch1 quoting ,dom   
,grenier1 ,histoire de la ,province de  
,picardie4    #bhj 4 ,hublard1 op4 cit4 
p4 #ci1 quoting ,dom ,grenier4    #bha  
,m4 ,desgranges1 ,usages du ,canton de  
,bonneval1 ,mmoires de la  ,socit       
,royale des ,antiquaires de ,france1 i4 
7,paris1 #ahag7 pp4 #bcf-bch2  ,felix   
,chapiseau1 ,le folk-lore de la ,beauce 
et du ,perche 7,paris1 #aijb71  i4 #cae 
sq4    #bhb ,john ,brand1 ,popular      
,antiquities of ,great ,britain         
7,london1  #ahhb-ahhc71 i4 #ajj4    #bhc
 ,e4 ,cortet1 ,essai sur les ftes       
religieuses 7,paris1 #ahfg71 pp4 #ii    
sq42 ,la ,bresse ,louhannaise1 ,mars1   
#aijf1 p4 #aaa4    #bhd ,a4 de ,nore1   
,coutumes1 mythes et traditions des     
provinces de  ,france 7,paris and       
,lyons1 #ahdf71 pp4 #bhc sq4 ,a similar1
 though not  identical1 custom prevailed

 at ,valenciennes 7ibid4 p4 #cch74      
#bhe ,a4 de ,nore1 op4 cit4 p4 #cjb4    
#bhf ,dsir ,monnier1 ,traditions        
populaires compares 7,paris1 #ahed71    
pp4 #aia sq4    #bhg ,laisnel de la     
,salle1 ,croyances et lgendes du centre 
de la  ,france 7,paris1 #ahge74 i4 #ce  
sqq4    #bhh ,jules ,lecoeur1 ,esquisses
 du ,rocage ,normand                    
7,cond-sur-,noireau1  #ahhg71 ii4 #aca  
sq4 ,for more evidence of customs of    
this sort observed  in various parts of 
,france on the first ,sunday in ,lent1  
see ,madame  ,clment1 ,histoire des     
,ftes civiles et religieuses1 etc41 du  
,dpartement du ,nord99#b 7,cambrai1     
#ahcf71 pp4 #cea sqq42 mile ,hublard1   
,ftes du ,temps ,jadis1 les ,feux du    
,carme 7,mons1 #ahii71 pp4 #cc sqq4     
#bhi ,j4,h4 ,schmitz1 ,sitten und       
,sagen1 ,lieder1 ,sprchwrter und ,rthsel
  des ,eifler ,volkes 7,trves1          
#ahef-aheh71 i4 #ba-be2 ,n4 ,hocker1 in 
,zeitschrift fr deutsche ,mythologie und
 ,sittenkunde1 i4 7#ahec7 p4 #ij2  ,w4  

,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus der        
,germanen und ihrer ,nachbarstmme       
7,berlin1 #ahge71 p4 #eja4    #bij ,n4  
,hocker1 op4 cit4 pp4 #hi sq42 ,w4      
,mannhardt1 l4c4    #bia ,f4,j4 ,vonbun1
 ,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie     
7,chur1 #ahfb71 p4  #bj2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1
 l4c4    #bib ,ernst ,meier1 ,deutsche  
,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus       
,schwaben  7,stuttgart1 #aheb71 pp4 #chj
 sqq42 ,anton ,birlinger1               
,volksthmliches aus  ,schwaben          
7,freiburg im ,breisgau1 #ahfa-ahfb71   
ii4 #ef sqq41 #ff sqq42  ,bavaria1      
,landes-und ,volkskunde des ,knigreichs 
,bayern 7,munich1  #ahfj-ahfg71 ii4 #b1 
pp4 #hch sq42 ,f4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur 
deutschen  ,mythologie 7,munich1        
#ahdh-ahee71 i4 #baa1  #bcb2 ,w4        
,mannhardt1 l4c4 ,one  of the popular   
,german names for the first ,sunday in  
,lent is ,white  ,sunday1 which is not  
to be confused with the first ,sunday   
after ,easter1  which also goes by the  
name of ,white ,sunday 7,e4 ,meier1 op4 

cit4 p4  #chj2 ,a4 ,birlinger1 op4 cit4 
ii4 #ef74    #bic ,h4 ,gaidoz1 ,le dieu 
gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la
  roue1 ,revue ,archologique1 iii4 srie1
 iv4 7#ahhd7 pp4 #aci sq4    #bid       
,august ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und 
,gebruche aus ,thringen  7,vienna1      
#ahgh71 p4 #ahi2 ,f4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag  
zur deutschen ,mythologie  7,munich1    
#ahdh-ahee71 ii4 #bjg2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1  
,der ,baumkultus1 pp4 #ejj  sq4    #bie 
,w4 ,kolbe1 ,hessiche ,volks-,sitten und
 ,gebruche99#b 7,marburg1  #ahhh71 p4   
#cf4    #bif ,adalbert ,kuhn1 ,die      
,herabkunft des ,feuers und des         
,gttertranks99#b 7,gtersloh1 #ahhf71 p4 
#hf1 quoting ,hocker1 ,des  ,mosellandes
 ,geschichten1 ,sagen und ,legenden     
7,trier1 #aheb71 pp4 #dae  sqq4 ,compare
 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus1 p4   
#eja2 and below1 pp4  #afc sq4 ,thus it 
appears that the ceremony of rolling the
 fiery wheel  down hill was observed    
twice a year at ,konz1 once on the first
 ,sunday in  ,lent1 and once at         

,midsummer4    #big ,h4 ,herzog1        
,schweizerische ,volksfeste1 ,sitten und
 ,gebruche  7,aarau1 #ahhd71 pp4        
#bad-baf2 ,e4 ,hoffmann-,krayer1        
,fruchtbarkeitsriten im  schweizerischen
 ,volksbrauch1 ,schweizerisches ,archiv 
fr ,volkskunde1  xi4 7#aijg7 pp4        
#bdg-bdi2 id41 ,feste und ,bruche des   
,schweizervolkes  7,zurich1 #aiac71 pp4 
#ace sq4    #bih ,theodor ,vernaleken1  
,mythen und ,bruche des ,volkes in      
,oesterreich  7,vienna1 #ahei71 pp4 #bic
 sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus1 
p4 #dih4  ,see ,the ,dying ,god1 p4     
#bci4    #bii ,j4 ,h4 ,schmitz1 ,sitten 
und ,sagen1 ,lieder1 ,sprchwrter und    
,rthsel  des ,eifler ,volkes 7,treves1  
#ahef-aheh71 i4 #bj2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1    
,der  ,baumkultus1 p4 #dii4    #cjj ,l4 
,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus
 dem ,herzogthum  ,oldenburg            
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 ii4 #ci1  #cjf2 ,w4
 ,mannhardt1 ,der  ,baumkultus1 p4 #dih4
    #cja ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der           
,baumkultus1 p4 #dii4    #cjb ,w4       

,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dih sq4       
#cjc ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dii4  
#cjd ,christian ,schneller1 ,mrchen und 
,sagen aus ,wlschtirol  7,innsbruck1    
#ahfg71 pp4 #bcd sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1   
op4 cit4 pp4 #dii sq4    #cje ,john     
,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities of ,great 
,britain 7,london1  #ahhb-ahhc71 i4 #aeg
 sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus1 
pp4 #ejb-eje2  ,karl ,freiherr von      
,leoprechting1 ,aus dem ,lechrain       
7,munich1 #ahee71 pp4  #agb sq42 ,anton 
,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus         
,schwaben 7,freiburg im  ,breisgau1     
#ahfa-ahfb71 i4 #dgb sq42 ,montanus1    
,die deutschen ,volksfeste1             
,volksbruche und deutscher ,volksglaube 
7,iserlohn1 ,n4,d471 p4 #bf2 ,f4        
,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen         
,mythologie 7,munich1 #ahdh-ahee71 ii4  
#bda  sq42 ,ernst ,meier1 ,deutsche     
,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus       
,schwaben  7,stuttgart1 #aheb71 pp4 #aci
 sq42 ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde
 des  ,knigreichs ,bayern 7,munich1     

#ahfj-ahfg71 i4 #cga2 ,a4 ,wuttke1 ,der 
deutsche ,volksaberglaube99#b 7,berlin1 
#ahfi71 pp4 #fh sq41  #ha2 ,ignaz  ,v4  
,zingerle1 ,sitten1 ,bruche und         
,meinungen des ,tiroler ,volkes99#b     
7,innsbruck1 #ahga71 p4 #adi1           
#abhf-abhi2 ,w4 ,kolbe1 ,hessische      
,volks-,sitten und ,gebruche99#b        
7,marburg1 #ahhh71 pp4 #dd sqq42 ,county
  ,folk-lore1 ,printed ,extracts1       
,leicestershire and ,rutland1 collected 
by  ,c4,j4 ,billson 7,london1 #ahie71   
pp4 #ge sq42 ,a4 ,tiraboschi1 ,usi      
pasquali  nel ,bergamasco1 ,archivio per
 lo ,studio delle ,tradizione ,popolari1
 i4  7#ahib7 pp4 #ddb sq4 ,the          
ecclesiastical custom of lighting the   
,paschal  or ,easter candle is very     
fully described by ,mr4 ,h4,j4 ,feasey1 
,ancient  ,english ,holy ,week          
,ceremonial 7,london1 #ahig71 pp4 #agi  
sqq4 ,these  candles were sometimes of  
prodigious size2 in the cathedrals of   
,norwich  and ,durham1 for example1 they
 reached almost to the roof1 from which 

they had to be lighted4 ,often they went
 by the name of the ,judas ,light  or   
the ,judas ,candle2 and sometimes small 
waxen figures of ,judas were  hung on   
them4 ,see ,h4,j4 ,feasey1 op4 cit4 pp4 
#aic1 #bac sqq4 ,as to the  ritual of   
the new fire at ,st4 ,peter's in ,rome1 
see ,r4 ,chambers1 ,the  ,book of ,days 
7,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahhf71 i4     
#dba2 and as to the early  history of   
the rite in the ,catholic church1 see   
,mgr4 ,l4 ,duchesne1  ,origines du      
,culte ,chrtien99#c 7,paris1 #aijc71 pp4
 #bej-beg4    #cjf ,bavaria1 ,landes und
 ,volkskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern    
7,munich1  #ahfj-ahfg71 i4 #ajjb sq4    
#cjg ,gennaro ,finamore1 ,credenze1 ,usi
 e ,costumi ,abruzzesi 7,palermo1       
#ahij71 pp4 #abb sq4    #cjh ,g4        
,finamore1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abc sq4    #cji
 ,vincenzo ,dorsa1 ,la ,tradizione      
,greco-,latina negli ,usi e nelle       
,credenze ,popolari della ,calabria     
,citeriore 7,cosenza1 #ahhd71 pp4 #dh   
sq4    #caj ,alois ,john1 ,sitte1       

,brauch und ,volksglaube im deutschen   
,westbhmen 7,prague1 #aije71 pp4 #fb sq4
    #caa ,k4 ,seifart1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen1 
,schwnke und ,gebruche aits ,stadt und  
,stift ,hildesheim99#b 7,hildesheim1    
#ahhi71 pp4 #agg sq41 #agi sq4    #cab  
,m4 ,lexer1 ,volksberlieferungen aus dem
 ,lesachthal in ,karnten1  ,zeitschrift 
fr deutsche ,mythologie und             
,sittenkunde1 iii4 7#ahee7 p4  #ca4     
#cac ,the ,popish ,kingdome or reigne of
 ,antichrist1 written in ,latin  verse  
by ,thomas ,naogeorgus and ,englyshed by
 ,barnabe ,googe1 #aegj1 edited  by     
,r4,c4 ,hope 7,london1 #ahhj71 p4 #eb1  
recto4 ,the title of the original  poem 
was ,regnum ,papisticum4 ,the author1   
,thomas ,kirchmeyer 7,naogeorgus1  as he
 called himself71 died in #aegg4 ,the   
book is a satire on the abuses  and     
superstitions of the ,catholic ,church4 
,only one perfect copy of  ,googe's     
translation is known to exist3 it is in 
the ,university ,library  at ,cambridge4
 ,see ,mr4 ,r4,c4 ,hope's introduction  

to his reprint of this  rare work1 pp4  
xv4 sq4 ,the words1 ,then ,clappers     
ceasse1 and belles  are set againe at   
liberte1 refer to the custom in         
,catholic countries  of silencing the   
church bells for two days from noon on  
,maundy ,thursday  to noon on ,easter   
,saturday and substituting for their    
music the harsh  clatter of wooden      
rattles4 ,see ,r4 ,chambers1 ,the ,book 
of ,days 7,london  and ,edinburgh1      
#ahhf71 i1 #dab sq4 ,according to       
another account the  church bells are   
silent from midnight on the ,wednesday  
preceding ,maundy  ,thursday till matins
 on ,easter ,day4 ,see ,w4 ,smith and   
,s4 ,cheetham1  ,dictionary of          
,christian ,antiquities 7,london1       
#ahge-ahhj71 ii4 #aafa1  referring to   
,ordo ,roman4 i4 u4s4    #cad ,r4       
,chambers1 ,the ,book of ,days 7,london 
and ,edinburgh1 #ahhf71 i4  #dba4       
#cae ,miss ,jessie ,l4 ,weston1 ,the    
,scoppio del ,carro at ,florence1       
,folk-lore1 xvi4 7#aije7 pp4 #ahb-ahd2  

,lo ,scoppio del ,carro1  ,resurrezione1
 ,numero ,unico del ,sabato ,santo      
7,florence1 ,april1 #aijf71  p4 #a      
7giving a picture of the car with its   
pyramid of fire-works74 ,the  latter    
paper was kindly sent to me from        
,florence by my friend ,professor       
,w4,j4 ,lewis4 ,i have also received a  
letter on the subject from ,signor      
,carlo ,placci1 dated #d 7or #g7        
,september1 #aije1 #a ,via ,alfieri1    
,firenze4    #caf ,frederick ,starr1    
,holy ,week in ,mexico1 ,the ,journal of
 ,american  ,folk-lore1 xii4 7#ahii7 pp4
 #afd sq42 ,c4 ,boyson ,taylor1 ,easter 
in ,many  ,lands1 ,everybody's          
,magazine1 ,new ,york1 #aijc1 p4 #bic4  
,i have to thank  ,mr4 ,s4,s4 ,cohen1 of
 #aebe ,walnut ,street1 ,philadelphia1  
for sending me a  cutting from the      
latter magazine4    #cag ,k4 von den    
,steinen1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern       
,zentral-,brasiliens  7,berlin1 #ahid71 
pp4 #deh sq42 ,e4 ,montet1 ,religion et 
,superstition dans  l',amrique du ,sud1 

,revue de l',histoire des ,religions1   
xxxii4 7#ahie7  p4 #ade4    #cah ,j4,j4 
von ,tschudi1 ,peru1 ,reiseskizzen aus  
den ,jahren #ahch-ahdb  7,st4 ,gallen1  
#ahdf71 ii4 #ahi sq4    #cai ,h4        
,candelier1 ,rio-,hacha et les ,indiens 
,goajires 7,paris1 #ahic71  p4 #he4     
#cbj ,henry ,maundrell1 ,a ,journey from
 ,aleppo to ,jerusalem at ,easter1      
,a4,d4 #afig1 in ,bohn's ,early         
,travellers in ,palestine 7,london1     
#ahdh71  pp4 #dfb-dfe2 ,mgr4 ,auvergne1 
in ,annales de la ,propagation de la    
,foi1 x4  7#ahcg7 pp4 #bc sq42 ,a4,p4   
,stanley1 ,sinai and ,palestine1 ,second
 ,edition  7,london1 #ahef71 pp4        
#dfj-dfe2 ,e4 ,cortet1 ,essai sur les   
,ftes  ,religieuses 7,paris1 #ahfg71 pp4
 #acg-aci2 ,a4,w4 ,kinglake1 ,eothen1   
chapter xvi4 pp4 #aeh-afc 7,temple      
,classics edition72 ,father ,n4         
,abougit1  ,s4,j41 ,le feu du           
,saint-,spulcre1 ,les ,missions         
,catholiques1 viii4  7#ahgf7 pp4 #eah   
sq42 ,rev4 ,c4,t4 ,wilson1 ,peasant     

,life in the ,holy ,land  7,london1     
#aijf71 pp4 #de sq42 ,p4 ,saint-yves1   
,le ,renouvellement du ,feu  ,sacr1     
,revue des ,traditions ,populaires1     
xxvii4 7#aiab7 pp4 #ddi sqq4  ,the      
distribution of the new fire in the     
,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre is  the 
subject of a picture by ,holman ,hunt4  
,from some printed notes on the         
picture1 with which ,mrs4 ,holman ,hunt 
was so kind as to furnish me1 it        
appears that the new fire is carried by 
horsemen to ,bethlehem and ,jaffa1  and 
that a ,russian ship conveys it from    
,jaffa to ,odessa1 whence it is         
distributed all over the country4       
#cba ,father ,x4 ,abougit1 ,s4,j41 ,le  
feu du ,saint-,spulcre1 ,les ,missions  
,catholiques1 viii4 7#ahgf7 pp4         
#afe-afh4    #cbb ,i have described the 
ceremony as ,i witnessed it at ,athens1 
on  ,april #acth1 #ahij4 ,compare       
,folk-lore1 i4 7#ahij7 p4 #bge4 ,having 
been  honoured1 like other strangers1   
with a place on the platform1 ,i did not

  myself detect ,lucifer at work among  
the multitude below2 ,i merely          
suspected his insidious presence4       
#cbc ,w4,h4,d4 ,rouse1 ,folk-lore from  
the ,southern ,sporades1 ,folk-lore1  x4
 7#ahii7 p4 #agh4    #cbd ,mrs4 ,a4,e4  
,gardner was so kind as to send me a    
photograph of a  ,theban ,judas dangling
 from a gallows and partially enveloped 
in smoke4  ,the photograph was taken at 
,thebes during the ,easter celebration  
of  #ahia4    #cbe ,g4,f4 ,abbott1      
,macedonian ,folklore 7,cambridge1      
#aijc7 p4 #cg4    #cbf ,cirbied1 ,mmoire
 sur la gouvernment et sur la religion  
des  anciens ,armniens1 ,mmoires publies
 par la ,socit ,royale des  ,antiquaires
 de ,france1 ii4 7#ahbj7 pp4 #bhe-bhg2  
,manuk ,abeghian1 ,der  armenische      
,volksglaube 7,leipsic1 #ahii71 pp4     
#gb-gd4 ,the ceremony is said  to be    
merely a continuation of an old heathen 
festival which was held at  the         
beginning of spring in honour of the    
fire-god ,mihr4 ,a bonfire was  made in 

a public place1 and lamps kindled at it 
were kept burning  throughout the year  
in each of the fire-god's temples4      
#cbg ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution
 of ,kings1 i4 #cb1 ii4 #bdc2  ,spirits 
of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ii4 #fe1 
#gd1 #ge1 #gh1 #acf4    #cbh ,garcilasso
 de la ,vega1 ,royal ,commentaries of   
the ,yncas  translated by 7,sir7        
,clements ,r4 ,markham 7,hakluyt        
,society1 ,london1  #ahfi-ahga71 vol4   
ii4 pp4 #aee-afc4 ,compare ,juan de     
,velasco1 ,histoire du  ,royaume de     
,quito1 in ,h4 ,ternaux-,compans's      
,voyages1 ,relations et  ,mmoires       
originaux pour servir  l',histoire de la
 ,dcouverte de  l',amrique1 xviii4      
7,paris1 #ahdj7 p4 #adj4    #cbi ,b4 de 
,sahagun1 ,histoire ,gnrale des ,choses 
de la ,nouvelle  ,espagne1 traduite par 
,d4 ,jourdanet et ,r4 ,simeon 7,paris1  
#ahhj71 bk4 ii4  chapters #ah and #cg1  
pp4 #gf1 #afa2 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 
,histoire des  ,nations civilises du    
,mexique et de l',amrique-,centrale     

7,paris1  #aheg-ahei71 iii4 #acf4       
#ccj ,mrs4 ,matilda ,coxe ,stevenson1   
,the ,zui ,indians1 ,twenty-third       
,annual ,report of the ,bureau of       
,american ,ethnology 7,washington1      
#aijd71  pp4 #ajh-ada1 #adh-afb1        
especially pp4 #ajh1 #aji1 #aad sq41    
#abj sq41 #acj  sq41 #acb1 #adh sq41    
#aeg sq4 ,i have already described these
  ceremonies in ,totemism and ,exogamy1 
iii4 #bcg sq4 ,among the ,hopi  7,moqui7
 ,indians of ,walpi1 another pueblo     
village of this region1 new  fire is    
ceremonially kindled by friction in     
,november4 ,see ,jesse ,walter  ,fewkes1
 ,the ,tusayan ,new ,fire ,ceremony1    
,proceedings of the ,boston  ,society of
 ,natural ,history1 xxvi4 #dbb-deh2 id41
 ,the ,group of ,tusayan  ,ceremonials  
called ,katcinas1 ,fifteenth ,annual    
,report of the ,bureau of  ,ethnology   
7,washington1 #ahig71 p4 #bfc2 id41     
,hopi ,katcinas1  ,twenty-first ,annual 
,report of the ,bureau of ,american     
,ethnology  7,washington1 #aijc71 p4    

#bd4    #cca ,henry ,r4 ,schoolcraft1   
,notes on the ,iroquois 7,albany1       
#ahdg71 p4  #acg4 ,schoolcraft did not  
know the date of the ceremony1 but he   
conjectured that it fell at the end of  
the ,iroquois year1 which was a  lunar  
year of twelve or thirteen months4 ,he  
says3 ,that the close of the  lunar     
series should have been the period of   
putting out the fire1 and  the beginning
 of the next1 the time of relumination1 
from new fire1 is  so consonant to      
analogy in the tropical tribes1 as to be
 probable 7op4  cit4 p4 #ach74    #ccb  
,c4,f4 ,hall1 ,life with the ,esquimaux 
7,london1 #ahfd71 ii4 #cbc4    #ccc     
,franz ,boas1 ,the ,eskimo of ,baffin   
,land and ,hudson ,bay1 ,bulletin  of   
the ,american ,museum of ,natural1      
,history1 xv4 ,part i4 7,new ,york1     
#aija7 p4 #aea4    #ccd ,g4 ,nachtigal1 
,sahar und ,sdn1 iii4 7,leipsic1 #ahhi7 
p4 #bea4    #cce ,major ,c4 ,percival1  
,tropical ,africa1 on the ,border ,line 
of  ,mohamedan ,civilization1 ,the      

,geographical ,journal1 xlii4 7#aiac7   
pp4  #bec sq4    #ccf ,adrien ,germain1 
,note sur ,zanzibar et la cte orientale 
de  l',afrique1 ,bulletin de la ,socit  
de ,gographie 7,paris71 v4 ,srie  xvi4  
7#ahfh7 p4 #eeg2 ,les ,missions         
,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 p4 #bgj2     
,charles ,new1 ,life1 ,wanderings1 and  
,labours in ,eastern ,africa 7,london1  
#ahgc71 p4 #fe2 ,jerome ,becker1 ,la    
,vie en ,afrique 7,paris and ,brussels1 
#ahhg71 ii4 #cf2 ,o4 ,baumann1 ,usambara
 und seine ,nachbargebiele 7,berlin1    
#ahia71 pp4 #ee sq42 ,c4 ,velten1       
,sitten und ,gebrucheaer ,suaheli       
7,gttingen1#aijc71 pp4 #cdb-cdd4    #ccg
 ,duarte ,barbosa1 ,description of the  
,coasts of ,east ,africa and  ,malabar  
7,hakluyt ,society1 ,london1 #ahff71 p4 
#h2 id41 in ,records of  ,south-,eastern
 ,africa1 collected by ,g4 ,mc,call     
,theal1 vol4 i4 7#ahih7 p4  #if2 ,damio 
de ,goes1 ,chronicle of the ,most       
,fortunate ,king ,dom ,emanuel1  in     
,records of ,south-,eastern ,africa1    

collected by ,g4 ,mc,call ,theal1 vol4  
iii4 7#ahii7 pp4 #acj sq4 ,the name     
,benametapa 7more correctly  monomotapa7
 appears to have been the regular title 
of the paramount  chief1 which the      
,portuguese took to be the name of the  
country4 ,the  people over whom he ruled
 seem to have been the ,bantu tribe of  
the  ,makalanga in the neighbourhood of 
,sofala4 ,see ,g4 ,mc,call ,theal1      
,records  of ,south-,eastern ,africa1   
vii4 7#aija7 pp4 #dha-dhd4 ,it is to    
their custom  of annually extinguishing 
and relighting the fire that ,montaigne 
refers  in his essay 7i4 #bb1 vol4 i4 p4
 #adj of ,charpentier's edition71 though
 he  mentions no names4    #cch ,sir    
,h4,h4 ,johnson1 ,british ,central      
,africa 7,london1 #ahig71 pp4  #dbf1    
#dci4    #cci ,w4,h4,r4 ,rivers1 ,the   
,todas 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #bij-bib4  
#cdj ,lieut4 ,r4 ,stewart1 ,notes on    
,northern ,cachar1 ,journal of the      
,asiatic ,society of ,bengal xxiv4      
7#ahee7 p4 #fab4    #cda ,a4 ,bastian1  

,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 ii4    
7,leipsic1 #ahff7  pp4 #di sq42 ,shway  
,yoe1 ,the ,burman 7,london1 #ahhb71 ii4
 #cbe sq4    #cdb ,g4 ,schlegel1        
,uranographie ,chinoise 7,the ,hague and
 ,leyden1 #ahge71  pp4 #aci-adc2 ,c4    
,puini1 ,il fuoco nella tradizione degli
 antichi ,cinesi1  ,giornale della      
,societ ,asiatica ,italiana1 i4 7#ahhg7 
pp4 #bj-bc2 ,j4,j4,m4  de ,groot1 ,les  
,ftes annuellement clbres  moui 7,amoy7 
7,paris1  #ahhf71 i4 #bjh sqq4 ,the     
notion that fire can be worn out with   
age meets  us also in ,brahman ritual4  
,see the ,satapatha ,brahmana1          
translated by  ,julius ,eggeling1 ,part 
i4 7,oxford1 #ahhb7 p4 #bcj 7,sacred    
,books of the  ,east1 vol4 xii474       
#cdc ,w4,g4 ,aston1 ,shinto1 ,the ,way  
of the ,gods 7,london1 #aije71 pp4 #beh 
sq41 compare p4 #aic4 ,the wands in     
question are sticks whittled near  the  
top into a mass of adherent shavings2   
they go by the name of  kedzurikake     
7part-shaved71 and resemble the sacred  

inao of the  ,aino4 ,see ,w4,g4 ,aston1 
op4 cit4 p4 #aia2 and as to the inao1   
see  ,spirits of the ,corn and of the   
,wild1 ii4 #ahe1 with note #b4    #cdd  
,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #hb2 ,homer1 ,iliad1
 i4 #eij1 sqq4    #cde ,philostiatus1   
,heroica1 xx4 #bd4    #cdf ,ovid1       
,fasti1 iii4 #adc sq42 ,macrobius1      
,saturn1 i4 #ab4 #f4    #cdg ,festus1   
ed4 ,c4,o4 ,mller 7,leipsic1 #ahci71 p4 
#ajf1 s4v4 ,ignis4  ,plutarch describes 
a method of rekindling the sacred fire  
by means of  the sun's rays reflected   
from a hollow mirror 7,numa1 #i72 but he
 seems  to be referring to a ,greek     
rather than to the ,roman custom4 ,the  
rule of  celibacy imposed on the        
,vestals1 whose duty it was to relight  
the sacred  fire as well as to preserve 
it when it was once made1 is perhaps    
explained by a superstition current     
among ,french peasants that if a girl   
can blow up a smouldering candle into a 
flame she is a virgin1 but that  if she 
fails to do so1 she is not4 ,see ,jules 

,lecoeur1 ,esquisses du  ,bocage        
,normand 7,cond-sur-,noireau1           
#ahhc-ahhg71 ii4 #bg2 ,b4 ,souch1       
,croyances1 ,prsages et ,traditions     
diverses 7,niort1 #ahhj71 p4 #ab4 ,at   
least it seems more likely that the rule
 sprang from a superstition of  this    
sort than from a simple calculation of  
expediency1 as ,i formerly  suggested   
7,journal of ,philology1 xiv4 7#ahhe7 p4
 #aeh74 ,compare ,the  ,magic ,art and  
the ,evolution of ,kings ii4 #bcd sqq4  
#cdh ,geoffrey ,keating1 ,d4,d41 ,the   
,history of ,ireland1 translated from   
the original ,gaelic1 and copiously     
annotated1 by ,john ,o',mahony 7,new    
,york1 #aheg71 p4 #cjj1 with the        
translator's note4 ,compare 7,sir7 ,john
  ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom 7,london1  
#ahhh71 pp4 #ead sq4    #cdi ,w4,r4,s4  
,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian        
,people1 ,second ,edition  7,london1    
#ahgb71 pp4 #bed sq4    #cej ,a4 ,kuhn  
und ,w4 ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1
 ,mrchen und  ,gebruche 7,leipsic1      

#ahdh71 p4 #cgc2 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,sagen1     
,gebruche und  ,mrchen aus ,westfalen   
7,leipsic1 #ahei71 ii4 #acd sqq42 id41  
,mrkische  ,sagen und ,mrchen 7,berlin1 
#ahdc71 pp4 #cab sq42 ,j4,d4,h4 ,temme1 
,die  ,volkssagen der ,altmark 7,berlin1
 #ahci71 pp4 #ge sq42 ,k4 ,lynker1      
,deutsche ,sagen und ,sitten in         
hessischen ,gauen99#b 7,cassel and      
,gttingen1 #ahfj71 p4 #bdj2 ,h4 ,prhle1 
,harzbilder 7,leipsic1 #ahee71 p4  #fc2 
,r4 ,andree1 ,braunschweiger ,volkskunde
 7,brunswick1 #ahif71 pp4  #bdj-bdb2 ,w4
 ,kolbe1 ,hessische ,volks-,sitten und  
,gebruche 7,marburg1  #ahhh71 pp4       
#dd-dg2 ,f4,a4 ,reimann1 ,deutsche      
,volksfeste 7,weimar1 #ahci71 p4  #cg2  
,sitten und ,gebruche in ,duderstadt1   
,zeitschrift fr deutsche  ,mythologie   
und ,sitten-kunde1 ii4 7#ahee7 p4 #ajg2 
,k4 ,seifart1 ,sagen1  ,mrchen1 ,schwnke
 und ,gebruche aus ,stadt und ,stift    
,hildesheim99#b  7,hildesheim1 #ahhi71  
pp4 #agg1 #ahj2 ,o4 ,hartung1 ,zur      
,volkskunde aus  ,anhalt1 ,zeitschrift  

des ,vereins fr ,volkskunde1 vii4       
7#ahig7 p4 #gf4    #cea ,l4             
,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus
 dem ,herzogthum  ,oldenburg            
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 ii4 p4 #dc sq41    
#cac2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der  ,baumkultus 
der ,germanen und ihrer ,nachbarstmme   
7,berlin1 #ahge71 pp4 #eje  sq4    #ceb 
,l4 ,strackerjan1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #dc1  
#cac4    #cec ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche     
,mythologie199#d 7,berlin1 #ahge-ahgh71 
i4 #eab2  ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der          
,baumkultus der ,germanen und ihrer     
,nachbarstmme1 pp4  #ejf sq4    #ced ,h4
 ,prhle1 ,harzbilder 7,leipsic1 #ahee71 
p4 #fc2 id41 in  ,zeitschrift fr        
deutsche ,mythologie und ,sittenkunde1  
i4 7#ahec7 p4 #gi2  ,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4   
,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen
 und ,gebruche  7,leipsic1 #ahdh71 p4   
#cgc2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus1 
p4 #ejg4    #cee ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,mrkische   
,sagen und ,mrchen 7,berlin1 #ahdc71 pp4
 #cab  sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 l4c4    #cef
 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus p4    

#ejh4 ,compare ,j4,w4 ,wolf1  ,beitrge  
zur deutschen ,mythologie 7,gttingen1   
#aheb-aheg71 i4 #gd2 ,j4  ,grimm1       
,deutsche ,mythologie199#d i4 #eab4 ,the
 two latter writers only  state that    
before the fires were kindled it was    
customary to hunt  squirrels in the     
woods4    #ceg ,a4 ,kuhn1 l4c42 ,w4     
,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus1 p4 #ejh4  
#ceh ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde 
des ,knigreichs ,bayern 7,munich1       
#ahfj-ahfg71 iii4 #ief4    #cei ,see    
above1 pp4 #aaf sq41 #aai4    #cfj ,f4  
,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen         
,mythologie 7,munich1 #ahdh-ahee71  i4  
pp4 #baa sq41  #bcc2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1    
,der ,baumkultus1 pp4 #ejg sq4    #cfa  
,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde des  
,knigreichs ,bayern1 iii4  #ceg4    #cfb
 ,f4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen    
,mythologie 7,munich1 #ahdh-ahee71  i4  
pp4 #bab sq41  #bcf4    #cfc ,f4        
,panzer1 op4 cit4 ii4 pp4 #gh sq41      
#aad1 #aae4 ,the customs  observed at   
these places and at ,althenneberg are   

described together by  ,w4 ,mannhardt1  
,der ,baumkultus1 p4 #eje4    #cfd ,a4  
,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus         
,schwaben 7,freiburg im  ,breisgau1     
#ahfa-ahfb71 ii4 p4 #hb1  #ajf2 ,w4     
,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus1  p4 #ejh4 
#cfe ,elard ,hugo ,meyer1 ,badisches    
,volksleben 7,strasburg1 #aijj71 pp4 #ig
  sq4    #cff ,the ,magic ,art and the  
,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #cdi sqq4 ,see
  further below1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bih sqq4 
#cfg ,j4,w4 ,wolf1 ,beitrge sur         
deutschen ,mythologie1 i4 #ge sq42 ,w4  
,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus1 p4 #ejf4  
#cfh ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in      
,sweden 7,london1 #ahgj71 p4 #bbh4      
#cfi ,w4 ,mller1 ,beitrge sur           
,volkskunde der ,deutschen in ,mahren   
7,vienna and ,olmtz1 #ahic71 pp4 #cba1  
#cig sq4 ,in ,wagstadt1 a town of       
,austrian ,silesia1 a boy in a red      
waistcoat used to play the part of      
,judas on the ,wednesday before ,good   
,friday4 ,he was chased from before the 
church door by the other school         

children1 who pursued him through the   
streets with shouts and the noise of    
rattles and clappers till they  reached 
a certain suburb1 where they always     
caught and beat him because  he had     
betrayed the ,redeemer4 ,see ,anton     
,peter1 ,volksthmliches aus             
sterreichisch-,schlesien 7,troppau1     
#ahfe-ahfg71 ii4 #bhb sq42 ,paul        
,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und         
,volksglaube in ,schlesien 7,leipsic1   
#aijc-aijf71 i4 #gg sq4    #cgj         
,scotland and ,scotsmen in the          
,eighteenth ,century1 from the ,,mss4   
of ,john ,ramsay1 ,esq41 of ,ochtertyre1
 edited by ,alexander ,allardyce        
7,edinburgh and ,london1 #ahhh71 ii4    
#dci-dde4 ,as to the tein-eigin or      
need-fire1 see below1 pp4 #bfi sqq4 ,the
 etymology of the word ,beltane  is     
uncertain2 the popular derivation of the
 first part from the  ,phoenician ,baal 
is absurd4 ,see1 for example1 ,john     
,graham ,dalyell1 ,the  ,darker         
,superstitions of ,scotland 7,edinburgh1

 #ahcd71 pp4 #agf sq43 ,the  recognition
 of the pagan divinity ,baal1 or ,bel1  
the ,sun1 is discovered  through        
innumerable etymological sources4 ,in   
the records of ,scottish  history1 down 
to the sixteenth or seventeenth         
centuries1 multiplied  prohibitions were
 issued from the fountains of           
ecclesiastical  ordinances1 against     
kindling ,bailfires1 of which the origin
 cannot be  mistaken4 ,the festival of  
this divinity was commemorated in       
,scotland  until the latest date4       
,modern scholars are not agreed as to   
the  derivation of the name ,beltane4   
,see ,rev4 ,john ,gregorson ,campbell1  
,witchcraft and ,second ,sight in the   
,highlands and ,islands of ,scotland    
7,glasgow1 #aijb71 pp4 #bfh sq42 ,j4,a4 
,mac,culloch1 ,the ,religion of the     
,ancient ,celts 7,edinburgh1 #aiaa71 p4 
#bfd4    #cga ,bal-tein signifies the   
fire of ,baal4 ,baal or ,ball is the    
only word in ,gaelic for a globe4 ,this 
festival was probably in honour  of the 

sun1 whose return1 in his apparent      
annual course1 they  celebrated1 on     
account of his having such a visible    
influence1 by his  genial warmth1 on the
 productions of the earth4 ,that the    
,caledonians  paid a superstitious      
respect to the sun1 as was the practice 
among many  other nations1 is evident1  
not only by the sacrifice at ,baltein1  
but  upon many other occasions4 ,when a 
,highlander goes to bathe1 or to drink  
waters out of a consecrated fountain1 he
 must always approach by going  round   
the place1 from east to west on the     
south side1 in imitation of  the        
apparent diurnal motion of the sun4     
,when the dead are laid in the  earth1  
the grave is approached by going round  
in the same manner4 ,the  bride is      
conducted to her future spouse1 in the  
presence of the  minister1 and the glass
 goes round a company1 in the course of 
the sun4  ,this is called1 in ,gaelic1  
going round the right1 or the lucky way4
  ,the opposite course is the wrong1 or 

the unlucky way4 ,and if a  person's    
meat or drink were to affect the        
wind-pipe1 or come against his  breath1 
they instantly cry out deisheal6 which  
is an ejaculation  praying that it may  
go by the right way 7,rev4 ,j4          
,robertson1 in ,sir ,john  ,sinclair's  
,statistical ,account of ,scotland1 xi4 
#fba note74 ,compare  ,j4,g4 ,campbell1 
,superstitions of the ,highlands and    
,islands of ,scotland  7,glasgow1       
#aijj71 pp4 #bbi sq43 ,the ,right-hand  
,turn 7,deiseal74--  ,this was the most 
important of all the observances4 ,the  
rule is  ',deiseal 7i4e4 the right-hand 
turn7 for everything1' and consists in  
doing all things with a motion          
corresponding to the course of the sun1 
or from left to right4 ,this is the     
manner in which screw-nails are  driven1
 and is common with many for no reason  
but its convenience4 ,old  men in the   
,highlands were very particular about   
it4 ,the coffin was taken  deiseal about
 the grave1 when about to be lowered2   

boats were turned  to sea according to  
it1 and drams are given to the present  
day to a  company4 ,when putting a straw
 rope on a house or corn-stack1 if the  
assistant went tuaitheal 7i4e4 against  
the course of the sun71 the old  man was
 ready to come down and thrash him4 ,on 
coming to a house the  visitor should go
 round it deiseal to secure luck in the 
object of his  visit4 ,after milking a  
cow the dairy-maid should strike it     
deiseal  with the shackle1 saying 'out  
and home' 7mach 'us dachaigh74 ,this    
secures its safe return4 ,the word is   
from deas1 right-hand1 and iul1         
direction1 and of itself contains no    
allusion to the sun4 ,compare ,m4       
,martin1 ,description of the ,western   
,islands of ,scotland1 in ,j4           
,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 iii4
 #fab sq43 ,there was an ancient  custom
 in the island of ,lewis1 to make a     
fiery circle about the houses1  corn1   
cattle1 etc41 belonging to each         
particular family3 a man carried  fire  

in his right hand1 and went round1 and  
it was called dessil1 from  the right   
hand1 which in the ancient language is  
called dess4444 ,there  is another way  
of the dessil1 or carrying fire round   
about women  before they are churched1  
after child-bearing2 and it is used     
likewise  about children until they are 
christened2 both which are performed in 
the morning and at night4 ,this is only 
practised now by some of the  ancient   
midwives3 ,i enquired their reason for  
this custom1 which ,i told  them was    
altogether unlawful2 this disobliged    
them mightily1 insomuch  that they would
 give me no satisfaction4 ,but others1  
that were of a more  agreeable temper1  
told me that fire-round was an effectual
 means to  preserve both the mother and 
the infant from the power of evil       
spirits1  who are ready at such times to
 do mischief1 and sometimes carry away  
the  infant2 and when they get them once
 in their possession1 return them  poor 
meagre skeletons2 and these infants are 

said to have voracious  appetites1      
constantly craving for meat4 ,in this   
case it was usual with  those who       
believed that their children were thus  
taken away1 to dig a  grave in the      
fields upon quarter-day1 and there to   
lay the fairy  skeleton till next       
morning2 at which time the parents went 
to the place1  where they doubted not to
 find their own child instead of this   
skeleton4  ,some of the poorer sort of  
people in these islands retain the      
custom of  performing these rounds      
sun-ways about the persons of their     
benefactors  three times1 when they     
bless them1 and wish good success to all
 their  enterprizes4 ,some are very     
careful when they set out to sea that   
the  boat be first rowed about sun-ways2
 and if this be neglected1 they are     
afraid their voyage may prove           
unfortunate4 ,probably the superstition 
was based entirely on the supposed      
luckiness of the right hand1 which      
accordingly1 in making a circuit round  

an object1 is kept towards the  centre4 
,as to a supposed worship of the sun    
among the ,scottish  ,highlanders1      
compare ,j4,g4 ,campbell1 ,witchcraft   
and ,second ,sight in the  ,highlands   
and ,islands of ,scotland1 p4 #cjd3     
,both the sun 7a ,ghrian7  and moon 7a  
,ghealach7 are feminine in ,gaelic1 and 
the names are simply  descriptive of    
their appearance4 ,there is no trace of 
a ,sun-,god or  ,moon-,goddess4 ,as to  
the etymology of ,beltane1 see above1 p4
 #adi note4    #cgb ,rev4 ,james        
,robertson 7,parish ,minister of        
,callander71 in ,sir ,john  ,sinclair's 
,statistical ,account of ,scotland      
7,edinburgh1 #agia-agii71 xi4  #fbj sq4 
#cgc ,pennant's ,tour in ,scotland1 in  
,john ,pinkerton's ,voyages and         
,travels 7,london1 #ahjh-ahad71 iii4    
#di4    #cgd ,rev4 ,dr4 ,thomas ,bisset1
 in ,sir ,john ,sinclair's ,statistical 
,account of ,scotland1 v4 #hd4    #cge  
,rev4 ,allan ,stewart1 in ,sir ,john    
,sinclair's ,statistical ,account of    

,scotland1 xv4 #eag note4    #cgf ,rev4 
,walter ,gregor1 ,notes on ,beltane     
,cakes1 ,folk-lore1 vi4  7#ahie7 pp4 #b 
sq4 ,the ,beltane cakes with the nine   
knobs on them remind  us of the cakes   
with twelve knobs which the ,athenians  
offered to ,cronus  and other deities   
7see ,the ,scapegoat1 p4 #cea74 ,the    
,king of the ,bean on  ,twelfth ,night  
was chosen by means of a cake1 which was
 broken in as many  pieces as there were
 persons present1 and the person who    
received the  piece containing a bean or
 a coin became king4 ,see ,j4 ,boemus1  
,mores1  leges et ritus omnium gentium  
7,lyons1 #aeda71 p4 #bbb2 ,john ,brand1 
,popular ,antiquities of ,great ,britain
 7,london1 #ahhb-ahhc71 i4 #bb sq42     
,the ,scapegoat1 pp4 #cac sqq4    #cgg  
,shaw1 in ,pennant's ,tour in ,scotland1
 printed in ,j4 ,pinkerton's  ,voyages  
and ,travels1 iii4 #acf4 ,the part of   
,scotland to which ,shaw's  description 
applies is what he calls the province or
 country of ,murray1  extending from the

 river ,spey on the east to the river   
,beauly on the  west1 and south-west to 
,loch ,lochy4    #cgh ,rev4 ,walter     
,gregor1 ,notes on the ,folk-lore of the
 ,north-,east of  ,scotland 7,london1   
#ahha71 p4 #afg4    #cgi ,a4            
,goodrich-,freer1 ,more ,folklore from  
the ,hebrides1 ,folk-lore1  xiii4       
7#aijb7 p4 #da4 ,the ,st4 ,michael's    
cake 7,strthan na h'eill  ,micheil71    
referred to in the text1 is described as
 the size of a  quern in circumference4 
,it is kneaded simply with water1 and   
marked  across like a scone1 dividing it
 into four equal parts1 and then placed 
in front of the fire resting on a quern4
 ,it is not polished with dry  meal as  
is usual in making a cake1 but when it  
is cooked a thin coating  of eggs 7four 
in number71 mixed with buttermilk1 is   
spread first on one  side1 then on the  
other1 and it is put before the fire    
again4 ,an earlier  shape1 still in use1
 which tradition associates with the    
female sex1 is  that of a triangle with 

the corners cut off4 ,a strhthan or     
strhdhan 7the word seems to be used for 
no other kind of cake7 is  made for each
 member of the household1 including     
servants and herds4  ,when harvest is   
late1 an early patch of corn is mown on 
purpose for the  strthan 7,a4           
,goodrich-,freer1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dd4     
sq447    #chj ,marie ,trevelyan1        
,folk-lore and ,folk-stories of ,wales  
7,london1  #aiji71 pp4 #bb-bd4    #cha  
,jonathan ,ceredig ,davies1 ,folklore of
 ,west and ,mid-,wales  7,aberystwyth1  
#aiaa71 p4 #gf4    #chb ,joseph ,train1 
,an ,historical and ,statistical        
,account of the ,isle  of ,man          
7,douglas1 ,isle of ,man1 #ahde71 i4    
#cad sq4    #chc 7,sir7 ,john ,rhys1    
,celtic ,folk-lore1 ,welsh and ,manx    
7,oxford1  #aija71 i4 #cji2 id41 ,the   
,coligny ,calendar1 ,proceedings of the 
,british ,academy1 #aiji-aiaj1 pp4 #bfa 
sq4 ,see further ,the ,magic ,art  and  
the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #ec sq4   
#chd ,professor ,frank ,granger1 ,early 

,man1 in ,the ,victoria ,history of  the
 ,county of ,nottingham1 edited by      
,william ,page1 i4 7,london1 #aijf7 pp4 
#ahf sq4    #che 7,sir7 ,john ,rhys1    
,celtic ,folk-lore1 ,welsh and ,manx    
7,oxford1  #aija71 i4 #caj2 id41 ,manx  
,folk-lore and ,superstitions1          
,folk-lore1  ii4 7#ahia7 pp4 #cjc sq4   
#chf ,p4,w4 ,joyce1 ,a ,social ,history 
of ,ancient ,ireland 7,london1 #aijc71  
i4 #bij sq41 referring to ,kuno ,meyer1 
,hibernia ,minora1 p4 #di and           
,glossary1 #bc4    #chg ,j4,b4 ,bury1   
,the ,life of ,st4 ,patrick 7,london1   
#aije71 pp4 #ajd  sqq4    #chh ,above1  
p4 #adg4    #chi ,geoffrey ,keating1    
,d4,d41 ,the ,history of ,ireland1      
translated by  ,john ,o',mahony 7,new   
,york1 #aheg71 pp4 #cjj sq4    #cij     
7,sir7 ,john ,rhys1 ,manx ,folk-lore and
 ,superstition1 ,folk-lore1  ii4 7#ahia7
 p4 #cjc2 id41 ,celtic ,folk-lore1      
,welsh and ,manx 7,oxford1  #aija71 i4  
#cji4 ,compare ,p4,w4 ,joyce1 ,a ,social
 ,history of ,ancient ,ireland          

7,london1 #aijc71 i4 #bia3 ,the custom  
of driving cattle through fires  against
 disease on the eve of the #ast of ,may1
 and on the eve of the #bdth  ,june     
7,st4 ,john's ,day71 continued in       
,ireland1 as well as in the ,scottish   
,highlands1 to a period within living   
memory4 ,in a footnote ,mr4 ,joyce      
refers to ,carmichael1 ,carmina         
,gadelica1 ii4 #cdj1 for ,scotland1 and 
adds1 ,i saw it done in ,ireland4       
#cia ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in      
,sweden 7,london1 #ahgj71 pp4 #bcc sq4  
#cib ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1            
,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen 7,prague1    
,n4,d471  pp4 #baa sq42 ,br4 ,jelnek1   
,materialien zur ,vorgeschichte und     
,volkskunde ,bhmens1 ,mittheilungen der 
anthropologischen ,gesellschaft  in     
,wien1 xxi4 7#ahia7 p4 #ac2 ,alois      
,john1 ,sitte1 ,branch1 und ,volksglaube
  im deutschen ,westbhmen 7,prague1     
#aije71 p4 #ga4    #cic ,j4,a4,e4       
,khler1 ,volksbrauch1 ,aberglauben1     
,sagen und andre alte  ,ueberlieferungen

 im ,voigtlande 7,leipsic1 #ahfg71 p4   
#cgc4 ,the  superstitions relating to   
witches at this season are legion4 ,for 
instance1 in ,saxony and ,thuringia any 
one who labours under a physical        
blemish can easily rid himself of it by 
transferring it to the witches  on      
,walpurgis ,night4 ,he has only to go   
out to a cross-road1 make three  crosses
 on the blemish1 and say1 ,in the name  
of ,god the ,father1 the  ,son1 and the 
,holy ,ghost4 ,thus the blemish1        
whatever it may be1 is left  behind him 
at the cross-road1 and when the witches 
sweep by on their way  to the ,brocken1 
they must take it with them1 and it     
sticks to them  henceforth4 ,moreover1  
three crosses chalked up on the doors of
 houses  and cattle-stalls on ,walpurgis
 ,night will effectually prevent any of 
the  infernal crew from entering and    
doing harm to man or beast4 ,see ,e4    
,sommer1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche  
aus ,sachsen und ,thringen 7,halle1     
#ahdf71 pp4 #adh sq42 ,die gestriegelte 

,rockenphilosophie 7,chemnitz1  #agei71 
p4 #aaf4    #cid ,see ,the ,scapegoat1  
pp4 #aeh sqq4    #cie ,as to the        
,midsummer ,festival of ,europe in      
general see the evidence  collected in  
the ,specimen ,calendarii ,gentilis1    
appended to the ,edda  ,rhythmica seu   
,antiquior1 vulgo ,saemundina dicta1    
,pars iii4 7,copenhagen1  #ahbh7 pp4    
#ajhf-ajig4    #cif ,john ,mitchell     
,kemble1 ,the ,saxons in ,england1 ,new 
,edition  7,london1 #ahgf71 i4 #cfa sq41
 quoting an ancient ,,ms4 written in    
,england1 and now in the ,harleian      
,collection1 ,no4 #bcde1 fol4 #ej4 ,the 
passage is quoted in part by ,j4 ,brand1
 ,popular ,antiquities of ,great        
,britain 7,london1 #ahhb-ahhc71 i4 #bih 
sq41 by ,r4,t4 ,hampson1 ,medii ,aevi   
,kalendarium 7,london1 #ahda71 i4 #cjj1 
and by ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der             
,baumkultus1 p4 #eji4 ,the same         
explanations of the ,midsummer fires and
 of  the custom of trundling a burning  
wheel on ,midsummer ,eve are given also 

by ,john ,beleth1 a writer of the       
twelfth century4 ,see his ,rationale    
,divinorum ,officiorum 7appended to the 
,rationale ,divinorum ,officiorum  of   
,g4 ,w4 ,durandus1 ,lyons1 #aehd71 p4   
#eef recto3 ,solent porro hoc  tempore  
the ,eve of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist ex  
veteri consuetudine  mortuorum animalium
 ossa comburi1 quod hujusmodi habet     
originem4 ,sunt  enim animalia1 quae    
dracones appellamus4444 ,haec inquam    
animalia in aere  volant1 in aquis      
natant1 in terra ambulant4 ,sed quando  
in aere ad  libidinem concitantur 7quod 
fere fit7 saepe ipsum sperma vel in     
puteos1  vel in aquas fluviales ejicunt 
ex quo lethalis sequitur annus4         
,adversus  haec ergo hujusmodi inventum 
est remedium1 ut videlicet rogus ex     
ossibus  construeretur1 et ita fumus    
hujusmodi animalia fugaret4 ,et quia    
istud  maxime hoc tempore fiebat1 idem  
etiam modo ab omnibus observatur4444    
,consuetum item est hac vigilia ardentes
 deferri faculas quod ,johannes  fuerit 

ardens lucerna1 et qui vias ,domini     
praeparaverit4 ,sed quod etiam  rota    
vertatur hinc esse putant quia in eum   
circulum tunc ,sol descenderit  ultra   
quem progredi nequit1 a quo cogitur     
paulatim descendere4 ,the  substance of 
the passage is repeated in other words  
by ,g4 ,durandus  7,wilh4 ,durantis71 a 
writer of the thirteenth century1 in his
 ,rationale  ,divinorum ,officiorum1    
lib4 vii4 cap4 #ad 7p4 #ddb verso1 ed4  
,lyons1  #aehd74 ,compare ,j4 ,grimm1   
,deutsche ,mythologie199#d i4 #eaf4     
,with the notion that the air is        
poisoned at midsummer we may compare the
  popular belief that it is similarly   
infected at an eclipse4 ,thus among  the
 ,esquimaux on the ,lower ,yukon river  
in ,alaska it is believed that a  subtle
 essence or unclean influence descends  
to the earth during an  eclipse1 and if 
any of it is caught in utensils of any  
kind it will  produce sickness4 ,as a   
result1 immediately on the commencement 
of an  eclipse1 every woman turns bottom

 side up all her pots1 wooden buckets1  
and dishes 7,e4,w4 ,nelson1 ,the ,eskimo
 about ,bering ,strait1 ,eighteenth     
,annual ,report of the ,bureau of       
,american ,ethnology1 ,part i4          
7,washington1  #ahii7 p4 #dca74 ,similar
 notions and practices prevail among the
 peasantry  of southern ,germany4 ,thus 
the ,swabian peasants think that during 
an  eclipse of the sun poison falls on  
the earth2 hence at such a time they    
will not sow1 mow1 gather fruit or eat  
it1 they bring the cattle into  the     
stalls1 and refrain from business of    
every kind4 ,if the eclipse  lasts long1
 the people get very anxious1 set a     
burning candle on the  mantel-shelf of  
the stove1 and pray to be delivered from
 the danger4 ,see  ,anton ,birlinger1   
,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben 7,freiburg
 im ,breisgau1  #ahfa-ahfb71 i4 #ahi4   
,similarly ,bavarian peasants imagine   
that water is  poisoned during a solar  
eclipse 7,f4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur      
deutschen  ,mythologie1 ii4 #big72 and  

,thuringian bumpkins cover up the wells 
and  bring the cattle home from pasture 
during an eclipse either of the sun  or 
of the moon2 an eclipse is particularly 
poisonous when it happens to  fall on a 
,wednesday4 ,see ,august ,witzschel1    
,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche  aus      
,thringen 7,vienna1 #ahgh71 p4 #bhg4 ,as
 eclipses are commonly supposed  by the 
ignorant to be caused by a monster      
attacking the sun or moon  7,e4,b4      
,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture199#b        
,london1 #ahgc1 i4 #cbh sqq471 we  may  
surmise1 on the analogy of the          
explanation given of the ,midsummer     
fires1 that the unclean influence which 
is thought to descend on the  earth at  
such times is popularly attributed to   
seed discharged by the  monster or      
possibly by the sun or moon then in     
conjunction with each  other4    #cig   
,the ,popish ,kingdome or reigne of     
,antichrist1 written in ,latin  verse by
 ,thomas ,naogeorgus and ,englyshed by  
,barnabe ,googe1 #aegj1 edited  by      

,r4,c4 ,hope 7,london1 #ahhj71 p4 #ed   
verso4 ,as to this work see above1  p4  
#abe note #a4    #cih ,j4 ,boemus1      
,mores1 leges et ritus omnium gentium   
7,lyons1 #aeda71  pp4 #bbe sq4    #cii  
,tessier1 ,sur la fte annuelle de la    
roue flamboyante de la  ,saint-,jean1   
,basse-,kontz1 arrondissement de        
,thionville1 ,mmoires et  dissertations 
publis par la ,socit ,royale des        
,antiquaires de ,france1  v4 7#ahbc7 pp4
 #cgi-cic4 ,tessier witnessed the       
ceremony1 #bcrd ,june #ahbb  7not #ahbc1
 as is sometimes stated74 ,his account  
has been reproduced more  or less fully 
by ,j4 ,grimm 7,deutsche                
,mythologie199#d i4 #eae sq47 ,w4       
,mannhardt 7,der ,baumkultus1 pp4 #eaj  
sq471 and ,h4 ,gaidoz 7,le dieu  gaulois
 du ,soleil et le symbolisme de la      
,roue1 ,revue ,archologique1  iii4      
,srie1 iv4 7#ahhd7 pp4 #bd sq474    #djj
 ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde des 
,knigreichs ,bayern 7,munich1           
#ahfj-ahfg71 i4 #cgc sq42 compare id41  

iii4 #cbg sq4 ,as to the  burning discs 
at the spring festivals1 see above1 pp4 
#aaf sq41 #aai1  #adc4    #dja ,op4 cit4
 ii4 #bfj sq41 iii4 #icf1 #ief1 iv4 #b4 
p4 #cfj4    #djb ,op4 cit4 ii4 #bfj4    
#djc ,op4 cit4 iv4 i4 p4 #bdb4 ,we have 
seen 7p4 #afc7 that in the  sixteenth   
century these customs and beliefs were  
common in ,germany4 ,it  is also a      
,german superstition that a house which 
contains a brand from  the midsummer    
bonfire will not be struck by lightning 
7,j4,w4 ,wolf1  ,beitrge1 zur deutschen 
,mythologie1 i4 p4 #bag1  #ahe74    #djd
 ,j4 ,boemus1 ,mores1 leges et ritus    
omnium gentium 7,lyons1 #aeda71  p4     
#bbf4    #dje ,karl ,freiherr von       
,leoprechting1 ,aus dem ,lechrain       
7,munich1 #ahee71  pp4 #aha sqq42 ,w4   
,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus1 p4 #eaj4  
#djf ,a4 ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus
 ,schwaben 7,freiburg im  ,breisgau1    
#ahfa-ahfb71 ii4 pp4 #if sqq41  #abh1   
pp4 #ajc sq41  #abi2  id41 ,aus         
,schwaben 7,wiesbaden1 #ahgd71 ii4      

#aaf-abj2 ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche  ,sagen1
 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben    
7,stuttgart1 #aheb71 pp4 #dbc  sqq42 ,w4
 ,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus1 p4 #eaj4 
#djg ,f4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen
 ,mythologie 7,munich1 #ahdh-ahee71  i4 
pp4 #bae sq41  #bdb2 id41 ii4 #edi4     
#djh ,a4 ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus
 ,schwaben 7,freiburg im  ,breisgau1    
#ahfa-ahfb71 ii4 #ii-aja4    #dji ,elard
 ,hugo ,mayer1 ,badisches ,volksleben   
7,strasburg1 #aijj71 pp4  #ajc sq41 #bbe
 sq4    #daj ,w4 von ,schulenberg1 in   
,verhandlungen der ,berliner            
,gesellschaft  fr ,anthropologie1       
,ethnologie und ,urgeschichte1 ,jahrgang
 #ahig1 pp4 #did  sq4 7bound up with    
,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xxix4      
#ahig74    #daa ,h4 ,gaidoz1 ,le dieu   
,gaulois du ,soleil et le symbolisme de 
la  ,roue1 ,revue ,archologique1 iii4   
,srie1 iv4 7#ahhd7 pp4 #bi sq4    #dab  
,bruno ,stehle1 ,volksglauben1 ,sitten  
und ,gebruche in ,lothringen1  ,globus1 
lix4 7#ahia7 pp4 #cgh sq42 ,die         

,sommerwendfeier im ,st4  ,amarinthale1 
,der ,urquell1 ,n4,f41 i4 7#ahig7 pp4   
#aha sqq4    #dac ,j4,h4 ,schmitz1      
,sitten und ,sagen ,lieder1 ,sprchwrter 
und ,rthsel  des ,eifler ,volkes        
7,treves1 #ahef-aheh71 i4 #dj sq4       
,according to one  writer1 the garlands 
are composed of ,st4 ,john's wort       
7,montanus1 ,die  deutschen ,volksfeste1
 ,volksbruche und deutscher             
,volksglaube1 ,iserlohn1  ,n4,d41 p4    
#cc74 ,as to the use of ,st4 ,john's    
wort at ,midsummer1 see below1  vol4 ii4
 pp4 #ed sqq4    #dad ,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4 
,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen
 und  ,gebruche 7,leipsic1 #ahdh71 p4   
#cij4    #dae ,montanus1 ,die deutschen 
,volksfeste1 ,volksbruche und deutscher 
,volksglaube 7,iserlohn1 ,n4,d471 pp4   
#cc sq4    #daf ,c4,l4 ,rochholz1       
,deutscher ,glaube und ,brauch 7,berlin1
 #ahfg71 ii4  #add sqq4    #dag ,philo  
vom ,walde1 ,schlesien in ,sage und     
,brauch 7,berlin1 ,n4,d471 p4  #abd2    
,paul ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch1 und  

,volksglaube in ,schlesien  7,leipsic1  
#aijc-aijf71 i4 #acf sq4    #dah ,j4    
,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie199#d i4   
#eag sq4    #dai ,from information      
supplied by ,mr4 ,sigurd ,k4 ,heiberg1  
engineer1 of  ,bergen1 ,norway1 who in  
his boyhood regularly collected fuel for
 the  fires4 ,i have to thank ,miss     
,anderson1 of ,barskimming1 ,mauchline1 
,ayrshire1 for kindly procuring the     
information for me from ,mr4 ,heiberg4  
,the ,blocksberg1 where ,german as well 
as ,norwegian witches gather for  their 
great ,sabbaths on the ,eve of ,may ,day
 7,walpurgis ,night7 and  ,midsummer    
,eve1 is commonly identified with the   
,brocken1 the highest peak  of the ,harz
 mountains4 ,but in ,mecklenburg1       
,pomerania1 and probably  elsewhere1    
villages have their own local           
,blocksberg1 which is generally  a hill 
or open place in the neighbourhood2 a   
number of places in  ,pomerania go by   
the name of the ,blocksberg4 ,see ,j4   
,grimm1 ,deutsche  ,mythologie99#d ii4  

#hgh sq42 ,ulrich ,jahn1 ,hexenwesen und
 ,zauberei in  ,pommern 7,breslau1      
#ahhf71 pp4 #d sq42 id41 ,volkssagen aus
 ,pommern  und ,rgen 7,stettin1 #ahhf71 
p4 #cbi4    #dbj ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant   
,life in ,sweden 7,london1 #ahgj71 pp4  
#bei1 #bfe4    #dba ,l4 ,lloyd1 op4 cit4
 pp4 #bfa sq4 ,these springs are called 
sacrificial fonts 7,offer kllor7 and are
 so named because in  heathen times the 
limbs of the slaughtered victim1 whether
 man or beast1  were here washed prior  
to immolation 7,l4 ,lloyd1 op4 cit4 p4  
#bfa74    #dbb ,e4 ,hoffmann-,krayer1   
,feste und ,bruche des ,schweizervolkes 
7,zurich1 #aiac71 p4 #afd4    #dbc      
,ignaz ,v4 ,zingerle1 ,sitten1 ,bruche  
und ,meinungen des ,tiroler  ,volkes99#b
 7,innsbruck1 #ahga71 ii4 p4 #aei1      
#aced4    #dbd ,i4,v4 ,zingerle1 op4    
cit4 p4 #aei1  #acec1 #acee1 #acef2 ,w4 
,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus1 p4 #eac4  
#dbe ,w4 ,mannhardt1 l4c4    #dbf ,f4   
,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen         
,mythologie 7,munich1 #ahdh-ahee71  i4  

p4 #baj1  #bca4    #dbg ,theodor        
,vernaleken1 ,mythen und ,bruche des    
,volkes in ,oesterreich  7,vienna1      
#ahei71 pp4 #cjg sq4    #dbh ,j4 ,grimm1
 ,deutsche ,mythologie99#d i4 #eai2     
,theodor ,vernaleken1  ,mythen und      
,bruche des ,volkes in ,oesterreich     
7,vienna1 #ahei71 p4 #cjh2  ,joseph     
,virgil ,grohmann1 ,aberglauben und     
,gebruche aus ,bohmen und  ,mhren       
7,prague and ,leipsic1 #ahfd71 p4 #hj1  
#fcf2 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1           
,fest-,kalender aus ,bohmen 7,prague1   
,n4,d471 pp4 #cjf-caa2 ,br4 ,jelfnek1   
,materialien zur ,vorgeschichte und     
,volkskunde ,bhmens1 ,mittheilungen  der
 anthropologischen ,gesellschaft in     
,wien xxi4 7#ahia7 p4 #ac2 ,alois       
,john1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube 
im deutschen ,westbhmen 7,prague1       
#aije7 pp4 #hd-hf4    #dbi ,willibald   
,mller1 ,beitrge zur ,volkskunde der    
,deutschen in  ,mhren 7,vienna and      
,olmutz1 #ahic71 pp4 #bfc-bfe4    #dcj  
,anton ,peter1 ,volksthmliches aus      

sterreichisch-,schlesien  7,troppau1    
#ahfe-ahfg71 ii4 #bhg4    #dca ,th4     
,vernaleken1 ,mythen und ,bruche des    
,volkes in ,oesterreich  7,vienna1      
#ahei71 pp4 #cjh sq4    #dcb ,the ,dying
 ,god1 p4 #bfb4 ,compare ,m4            
,kowalewsky1 in ,folk-lore1 i4  7#ahij7 
p4 #dfg4    #dcc ,w4,r4,s4 ,ralston1    
,songs of the ,russian ,people1 ,second 
,edition  7,london1 #ahgb71 p4 #bdj4    
#dcd ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche              
,mythologie199#d i4 #eai2 ,w4,r4,s4     
,ralston1  ,songs of the ,russian       
,people 7,london1 #ahgb71 pp4 #bdj1     
#cia4    #dce ,w4,r4,s4 ,ralston1 op4   
cit4 p4 #bdj4    #dcf ,w4,r4,s4         
,ralston1 l4c4    #dcg ,w4,j4,a4 von    
,tettau und ,j4,d4,h4 ,temme1 ,die      
,volkssagen ,ostpreussens1  ,litthauens 
und ,westpreussens 7,berlin1 #ahcg71 p4 
#bgg4    #dch ,m4 ,tppen1 ,aberglauben  
aus ,masuren99#b 7,danzig1 #ahfg71 p4   
#ga4    #dci ,f4,s4 ,krauss1            
,altslavische ,feuergewinnung1 ,globus1 
lix4 7#ahia7  p4 #cah4    #ddj ,j4,g4   

,kohl1 ,die deutsch-russischen          
,ostseeprovinzen 7,dresden and          
,leipsic1 #ahda71 i4 #agh-ahj1 ii4 #bd  
sq4 ,ligho was an old heathen deity1    
whose joyous festival used to fall in   
spring4    #dda ,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi4 #gge 
sqq4    #ddb ,friederich ,s4 ,krauss1   
,sitte und ,brauch der ,sdslaven        
7,vienna1  #ahhe71 pp4 #agf sq4    #ddc 
,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie199#d  
i4 #eai4    #ddd ,h4 von ,wlislocki1    
,volksglaube und religiser ,brauch der  
,magyar  7,mnster i4 ,w41 #ahic71 pp4   
#dj-dd4    #dde ,a4 von ,ipolyi1        
,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie aus  
,ungarn1  ,zeitschrift fr deutsche      
,mythologie und ,sittenkunde1 i4 7#ahec7
 pp4 #bgj  sq4    #ddf ,j4,g4 ,kohl1    
,die deutsch-russischen                 
,ostseeprovinzen1 ii4 #bfh  sq42 ,f4,j4 
,wiedemann1 ,aus dem inneren und usseren
 ,leben der ,ehsten  7,st4 ,petersburg1 
#ahgf71 p4 #cfb4 ,the word which ,i have
 translated weeds  is in ,esthonian     
kaste-heinad1 in ,german ,thaugras4     

,apparently it is  the name of a special
 kind of weed4    #ddg ,fr4 ,kreutzwald 
und ,h4 ,neus1 ,mythische und ,magische 
,lieder der  ,ehsten 7,st4 ,petersburg1 
#ahed71 p4 #fb4    #ddh ,j4,b4          
,holzmayer1 ,osiliana1 ,verhandlungen   
der gelehrten  ,estnischen ,gesellschaft
 zu ,dorpat1 vii4 7#ahgb7 pp4 #fb sq4   
,wiedemann  also observes that the      
sports in which young couples engage in 
the woods  on this evening are not      
always decorous 7,aus dem inneren und   
usseren  ,leben der ,ehsten1 p4 #cfb74  
#ddi ,j4,g4 ,kohl1 ,die                 
deutsch-russischen ,ostseeprovinzen1 ii4
 #ddg sq4    #dej ,j4,g4 ,georgi1       
,beschreibung aller ,nationen des       
russischen ,reichs  7,st4 ,petersburg1  
#aggf71 p4 #cf2 ,august ,freiherr von   
,haxthausen1 ,studien  ber die innere   
,zustnde das ,volksleben und            
insbesondere die lndlichen              
,einrichtungen ,russlands 7,hanover1    
#ahdg71 i4 #ddf sqq4    #dea ,alfred de 
,nore1 ,coutumes1 ,mythes et ,traditions

 des ,provinces de  ,france 7,paris and 
,lyons1 #ahdf71 p4 #ai4    #deb ,it is  
notable that ,st4 ,john is the only     
saint whose birthday the  ,church       
celebrates with honours like those which
 she accords to the  nativity of        
,christ4 ,compare ,edmond ,doutt1 ,magie
 et ,religion dans  l',afrique du ,nord 
7,algiers1 #aijh71 p4 #ega note ,i4     
#dec ,bossuet1 ,oeuvres 7,versailles1   
#ahae-ahai71 vi4 #bgf 7,catchisme  du   
diocse de ,meaux74 ,his description of  
the superstitions is1 in his  own words1
 as follows3 ,danser  l'entour du feu1  
jouer1 faire des  festins1 chanter des  
chansons deshonntes1 jeter des herbes   
par-dessus  le feu1 en cueillir avant   
midi ou  jeun1 en porter sur soi1 les   
conserver le long de l'anne1 garder des 
tisons ou des charbons du feu1  et      
autres semblables4 ,this and other      
evidence of the custom of  kindling     
,midsummer bonfires in ,france is cited 
by ,ch4 ,cuissard in his  tract ,les    
,feux de la ,saint-,jean 7,orleans1     

#ahhd74    #ded ,ch4 ,cuissard1 ,les    
,feux de la ,saint-,jean 7,orleans1     
#ahhd71 pp4 #dj  sq4    #dee ,a4 ,le    
,braz1 ,la ,lgende de la ,mort en       
,basse-,bretagne 7,paris1  #ahic71 p4   
#bgi4 ,for an explanation of the custom 
of throwing a pebble  into the fire1 see
 below1 p4 #bdj4    #def ,m4 ,quellien1 
quoted by ,alexandre ,bertrand1 ,la     
,religion des  ,gaulois 7,paris1 #ahig71
 pp4 #aaf sq4    #deg ,collin de        
,plancy1 ,dictionnaire ,infernal        
7,paris1 #ahbe-ahbf71 iii4  #dj2 ,j4,w4 
,wolf1 ,beitrge zur deutschen           
,mythologie 7,gttingen1  #aheb-aheg71 i4
 p4 #bag1  #ahe2 ,a4 ,breuil1 ,du ,culte
 de ,st4 ,jean  ,baptiste1 ,mmoires de  
la ,socit des ,antiquaires de ,picardie1
 viii4  7,amiens1 #ahde7 pp4 #ahi sq4   
#deh ,eugene ,cortet1 ,essai sur les    
,ftes ,religieuses 7,paris1 #ahfg71 p4  
#baf2 ,ch4 ,cuissard1 ,les ,feux de la  
,saint-,jean 7,orleans1 #ahhd71 p4 #bd4 
#dei ,paul ,sbillot1 ,coutumes          
populaires de la ,haute-,bretagne       

7,paris1  #ahhf71 pp4 #aib-aie4 ,in     
,upper ,brittany these bonfires are     
called rieux  or raviers4    #dfj ,a4 de
 ,nore1 ,coutumes1 ,mythes et           
,traditions des ,provinces de  ,france  
7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahdf71 p4 #bai2 ,e4
 ,cortet1 ,essai sur les ,ftes          
,religieuses1 p4 #baf4    #dfa ,a4 de   
,nore1 ,coutumes1 ,mythes et ,traditions
 des ,provinces de  ,france1 pp4 #bai1  
#bbh1 #bca2 ,e4 ,cortet1 op4 cit4 pp4   
#bae sq4    #dfb ,j4 ,lecoeur1          
,esquisses du ,bocage ,normand          
7,cond-sur-,noireau1  #ahhc-ahhg71 ii4  
#bai-bbd4    #dfc ,this description is  
quoted by ,madame ,clment 7,histoire des
 ftes  civites et religieuses1 etc41 de 
la ,belgique ,mridionale1 ,avesnes1     
#ahdf1 pp4 #cid-cif72 ,f4 ,liebrecht    
7,des ,gervasius von ,tilbury ,otia     
,imperialia1 ,hanover1 #ahef1 pp4 #bji  
sq472 and ,w4 ,mannhardt 7,antike  ,wald
 und ,feldkulte1 ,berlin1 #ahgg1 pp4    
#cbc sqq47 from the ,magazin            
pittoresque1 ,paris1 viii4 7#ahdj7 pp4  

#bhg sqq4 ,a slightly condensed  account
 is given1 from the same source1 by ,e4 
,cortet 7,essai sur les  ,ftes          
,religieuses1 pp4 #bba sq474    #dfd    
,bazin1 quoted by ,breuil1 in ,mmoires  
de la ,socit d' ,antiquaires  de        
,picardie1 viii4 7#ahde7 p4 #aia note4  
#dfe ,correspondents quoted by ,a4      
,bertrand1 ,la ,religion des ,gaulois   
7,paris1 #ahig71 pp4 #aah1 #djf4    #dff
 ,correspondent quoted by ,a4 ,bertrand1
 op4 cit4 p4 #djg4    #dfg ,felix       
,chapiseau1 ,le folk-lore de la ,beauce 
et du ,perche 7,paris1  #aijb71 i4      
#cah-cbj4 ,in ,perche the midsummer     
bonfires were called  marolles4 ,as to  
the custom formerly observed at ,bullou1
 near  ,chateaudun1 see a correspondent 
quoted by ,a4 ,bertrand1 ,la ,religion  
des  ,gaulois 7,paris1 #ahig71 p4 #aag4 
#dfh ,albert ,meyrac1 ,traditions1      
,coutumes1 ,lgendes1 et ,contes des     
,ardennes 7,charleville1 #ahij71 pp4 #hh
 sq4    #dfi ,l4,f4 ,sauv1 ,le          
,folk-lore des ,hautes-,vosges 7,paris1 

#ahhi71 p4  #ahf4    #dgj ,dsir         
,monnier1 ,traditions populaires        
compares 7,paris1 #ahed71  pp4 #bjg     
sqq42 ,e4 ,cortet1 ,essai sur les ,ftes 
,religieuses1 pp4 #bag  sq4    #dga     
,brenger-,fraud1 ,rminiscences          
populaires de la ,provence 7,paris1     
#ahhe71 p4 #adb4    #dgb ,charles       
,beauquier1 ,les ,mois en ,franche-,comt
 7,paris1 #aijj71 p4  #hi4 ,the names of
 the bonfires vary with the place2 among
 them are  failles1 bourdifailles1 bs or
 baux1 feulres or folires1 and          
chavannes4    #dgc ,la ,bresse          
,louhannaise1 ,juin1 #aijf1 p4 #bjg4    
#dgd ,laisnel de la ,salle1 ,croyances  
et ,lgendes du ,centre de la  ,france   
7,paris1 #ahge71 i4 #gh sqq4 ,the writer
 adopts the absurd  derivation of jne   
from ,janus4 ,needless to say that our  
old friend  ,baal1 ,bel1 or ,belus      
figures prominently in this and many    
other accounts  of the ,european        
fire-festivals4    #dge ,a4 de ,nore1   
,coutumes1 ,mythes et ,traditions des   

,provinces de  ,france 7,paris and      
,lyons1 #ahdf71 p4 #aej4    #dgf        
,correspondent1 quoted by ,a4 ,bertrand1
 ,la ,religion des ,gaulois  7,paris1   
#ahig71 p4 #djh4    #dgg ,guerry1 ,sur  
les usages et traditions du ,poitou1    
,mmoires et  dissertations publis par la
 ,socit ,royale des ,antiquaires de     
,france1  viii4 7#ahbi7 pp4 #dea sq4    
#dgh ,breuil1 in ,mmoires de la ,socit  
des ,antiquaires de ,picardie1  viii4   
7#ahde7 p4 #bjf2 ,e4 ,cortet1 ,essai sur
 les ,ftes ,religieuses1 p4  #baf2      
,laisnel de la ,salle1 ,croyances et    
,lgendes du ,centre de la  ,france1 i4  
#hc2 ,j4 ,lecoeur1 ,esquisses du ,bocage
 ,normand1 ii4 #bbe4    #dgi ,h4        
,gaidoz1 ,le dieu gaulois du soleil et  
le symbolisme de la  roue1 ,revue       
,archologique1 iii4 ,srie1 iv4 7#ahhd7  
p4 #bf1 note #c4    #dhj ,l4 ,pineau1   
,le ,folk-lore du ,poitou 7,paris1      
#ahib71 pp4 #dii sq4  ,in ,prigord the  
ashes of the midsummer bonfire are      
searched for the hair  of the ,virgin   

7,e4 ,cortet1 ,essai sur les ,ftes      
,religieuses1 p4 #bai74    #dha ,a4 de  
,nore1 ,coutumes ,mythes et ,traditions 
des ,provinces de  ,france1 pp4 #adi    
sq42 ,e4 ,cortet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bah sq4 
#dhb ,dupin1 ,notice sur quelques ftes  
et divertissemens populaires du         
dpartement des ,deux-,svres1 ,mmoires et
 ,dissertations publis par la  ,socit   
,royale des ,antiquaires de ,france1 iv4
 7#ahbc7 p4 #aaj4    #dhc ,j4,l4,m4     
,nogus1 ,les moeurs d'autrefois en      
,saintonge et en ,aunis  7,saintes1     
#ahia71 pp4 #gb1 #agh sq4    #dhd ,h4   
,gaidoz1 ,le dieu soleil et le          
symbolisme de la roue1 ,revue           
,archologique1 iii4 ,srie1 iv4 7#ahhd7  
p4 #cj4    #dhe ,ch4 ,cuissard1 ,les    
,feux de la ,saint-,jean 7,orleans1     
#ahhd71 pp4 #bb  sq4    #dhf ,a4 de     
,nore1 ,coutumes1 ,mythes et ,traditions
 des ,provinces de  ,france p4 #abg4    
#dhg ,aubin-,louis ,millin1 ,voyage dans
 les ,dpartemens du ,midi de la  ,france
 7,paris1 #ahjg-ahaa71 iii4 #cda sq4    

#dhh ,aubin-,louis ,millin1 op4 cit4    
iii4 #bh4    #dhi ,a4 de ,nore1 op4 cit4
 pp4 #ai sq42 ,brenger-,fraud1          
,reminiscences populaires de la         
,provence 7,paris1 #ahhe71 pp4 #ace-ada4
 ,as  to the custom at ,toulon1 see     
,poncy1 quoted by ,breuil1 ,mmoires de  
la  ,socit des ,antiquaires de          
,picardie1 viii4 7#ahde7 p4 #aij note4  
,the  custom of drenching people on this
 occasion with water used to prevail  in
 ,toulon1 as well as in ,marseilles and 
other towns in the south of  ,france4   
,the water was squirted from syringes1  
poured on the heads of  passers-by from 
windows1 and so on4 ,see ,breuil1 op4   
cit4 pp4 #bcg sq4    #dij ,a4 de ,nore1 
op4 cit4 pp4 #bj sq42 ,e4 ,cortet1 op4  
cit4 pp4  #bah1 #bai sq4    #dia ,le    
,baron de ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1       
,calendrier ,belge 7,brussels1          
#ahfa-ahfb71 i4 #daf sq4 #dci4    #dib  
,le ,baron de ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1   
op4 cit4 i4 #dci-ddb4    #dic ,madame   
,clment1 ,histoire des ftes civiles et  

religieuses1 etc41  du ,dpartement du   
,nord 7,cambrai1 #ahcf71 p4 #cfd2 ,j4,w4
 ,wolf1 ,beitrge  zur deutschen         
,mythologie 7,gttingen1 #aheb-aheg71 ii4
 #cib2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1  ,der            
,baumkultus4 p4 #eac4    #did ,e4       
,monseur1 ,folklore ,wallon 7,brussels1 
,n4,d471 p4 #acj1  #aghc1  #aghf1 #aghg4
    #die ,joseph ,strutt1 ,the ,sports  
and ,pastimes of the ,people of         
,england1  ,new ,edition1 by ,w4 ,hone  
7,london1 #ahcd71 p4 #cei4    #dif ,john
 ,stow1 ,a ,survay of ,london1 edited by
 ,henry ,morley 7,london1  ,n4,d471 pp4 
#abf sq4 ,stow's ,survay was written in 
#aeih4    #dig ,john ,brand1 ,popular   
,antiquities of ,great ,britain         
7,london1  #ahhb-ahhc71 i4 #cch2 ,t4,f4 
,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british ,popular     
,customs  7,london1 #ahgf71 p4 #cca4    
,both writers refer to ,status ,scholae 
,etonensis  7,a4,d4 #aefj74    #dih     
,john ,aubrey1 ,remaines of ,gentilisme 
and ,judaisme 7,london1 #ahha71  p4 #bf4
    #dii ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular           

,antiquities of ,great ,britain         
7,london1  #ahhb-ahhc71 i4 #cjj sq41    
#cah1 compare pp4 #cje1 #cjf1 #cjh sq42 
,w4  ,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus1 p4   
#eab4 ,compare ,w4 ,hutchinson1 ,view of
  ,northumberland1 vol4 ii4 7,newcastle1
 #aggh71 ,appendix1 p4 7#ae71 under  the
 head ,midsummer3--,it is usual to raise
 fires on the tops of high  hills and in
 the villages1 and sport and danse      
around them2 this is of  very remote    
antiquity1 and the first cause lost in  
the distance of  time4    #ejj ,dr4     
,lyttelton1 ,bishop of ,carlisle1 quoted
 by ,william ,borlase1  ,antiquities1   
,historical and ,monumental1 of the     
,county of ,cornwall  7,london1 #agfi71 
p4 #ace note4    #eja ,county           
,folk-lore1 vol4 iv4 ,northumberland1   
collected by ,m4,c4  ,balfour 7,london1 
#aijd71 p4 #gf1 quoting ,e4 ,mackenzie1 
,an ,historical1  ,topographical1 and   
,descriptive ,view of the ,county of    
,northumberland1  ,second ,edition      
7,newcastle1 #ahbe71 i4 #bag4    #ejb   

,county ,folk-lore1 vol4 iv4            
,northumberland1 collected by ,m4,c4    
,balfour1 p4 #ge4    #ejc ,county       
,folk-lore1 vol4 iv4 ,northumberland1   
collected by ,m4,c4  ,balfour1 p4 #ge4  
#ejd ,the ,denham ,tracts1 edited by ,j4
 ,hardy 7,london1 #ahib-ahie71 ii4  #cdb
 sq41 quoting ,archlogia ,aeliana1      
,n4,s41 vii4 #gc1 and the  ,proceedings 
of the ,berwickshire ,naturalists'      
,club1 vi4 #bdb sq42  ,county           
,folk-lore1 vol4 iv4 ,northumberland1   
collected by ,m4,c4 ,balfour  7,london1 
#aijd71 pp4 #ge sq4 ,whalton is a       
village of ,northumberland1 not  far    
from ,morpeth4    #eje ,county          
,folk-lore1 vol4 vi4 ,east ,riding of   
,yorkshire1 collected  and edited by    
,mrs4 ,gutch 7,london1 #aiab71 p4 #ajb4 
#ejf ,john ,aubrey1 ,remaines of        
,gentilisme and ,judaisme 7,london1     
#ahha71  p4 #if1 compare id41 p4 #bf4   
#ejg ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities  
of ,great ,britain 7,london1            
#ahhb-ahhc71 i4 #caa4    #ejh ,william  

,borlase1 ,,ll4,d41 ,antiquities1       
,historical and ,monumental1  of the    
,county of ,cornwall 7,london1 #agfi71  
pp4 #ace sq4 ,the ,eve of ,st4  ,peter  
is ,june #bhth4 ,bonfires have been lit 
elsewhere on the ,eve or the  day of    
,st4 ,peter4 ,see above1 pp4 #aid sq4   
#aif sq41 and below1 pp4 #aii  sq41     
#bjb1 #bjg4    #eji ,j4 ,brand1 op4 cit4
 i4 #cah1 #cai2 ,t4,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1
 ,british  ,popular ,customs 7,london1  
#ahgf71 p4 #cae4    #eaj ,william       
,bottrell1 ,traditions and ,hearthside  
,stories of ,west  ,cornwall 7,penzance1
 #ahgj71 pp4 #h sq41 #ee sq42 ,james    
,napier1  ,folk-lore1 or ,superstitious 
,beliefs in the ,west of ,scotland      
7,paisley1  #ahgi71 p4 #agc4    #eaa    
,richard ,edmonds1 ,the ,land's ,end    
,district 7,london1 #ahfb71 pp4 #ff     
sq42 ,robert ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances  
of the ,west of ,england1 ,third        
,edition 7,london1 #ahha71 pp4 #bjg sq4 
#eab ,marie ,trevelyan1 ,folk-lore and  
,folk-stories of ,wales 7,london1       

#aiji71 pp4 #bg sq4 ,compare ,jonathan  
,ceredig ,davies1 ,folk-lore of ,west   
and ,mid-,wales 7,aberystwyth1 #aiaa71  
p4 #gf4    #eac ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular    
,antiquities of ,great ,britain         
7,london1  #ahhb-ahhc71 i4 #cah4    #ead
 ,joseph ,train1 ,account of the ,isle  
of ,man 7,douglas1 ,isle of ,man1       
#ahde71 ii4 #abj4    #eae ,sir ,henry   
,piers1 ,description of the ,county of  
,westmeath1 written  in #afhb1 published
 by 7,general7 ,charles ,vallancey1     
,collectanea de ,rebus  ,hibernieis1 i4 
7,dublin1 #aghf7 pp4 #abc sq4    #eaf   
,j4 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities of    
,great ,britain 7,london1  #ahhb-ahhc71 
i4 #cjc1 quoting the author of the      
,survey of the ,south of  ,ireland1 p4  
#bcb4    #eag ,j4 ,brand1 op4 cit4 i4   
#cje1 quoting the author of the ,comical
  ,pilgrim's ,pilgrimage into ,ireland  
7#agbc71 p4 #ib4    #eah ,the           
,gentleman's ,magazine1 vol4 lxv4       
7,london1 #agie7 pp4 #abd sq4  ,the     
writer dates the festival on ,june      

#bast1 which is probably a mistake4     
#eai ,t4,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british  
,popular ,customs 7,london1 #ahgf71 pp4 
#cba sq41 quoting the ,liverpool        
,mercury of ,june #bith1 #ahfg4    #ebj 
,l4,l4 ,duncan1 ,further ,notes from    
,county ,leitrim1 ,folk-lore1 v4        
7#ahid7 p4 #aic4    #eba ,a4,c4 ,haddon1
 ,a ,batch of ,irish ,folk-lore1        
,folk-lore1 iv4 7#ahic7  pp4 #cea1 #cei4
    #ebb ,g4,h4 ,kinahan1 ,notes on     
,irish ,folk-lore1 ,folk-lore ,record1  
iv4  7#ahha7 p4 #ig4    #ebc ,charlotte 
,elizabeth1 ,personal ,recollections1   
quoted by ,rev4  ,alexander ,hislop1    
,the ,two ,babylons 7,edinburgh1 #ahec71
 p4 #ec4    #ebd ,lady ,wilde1 ,ancient 
,legends1 ,mystic ,charms1 and          
,superstitions of  ,ireland 7,london1   
#ahhg71 i4 #bad sq4    #ebe ,t4,f4      
,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british ,popular     
,customs 7,london1 #ahgf71 pp4  #cbb    
sq41 quoting the ,hibernian ,magazine1  
,july #ahag4 ,as to the  worship of     
wells in ancient ,ireland1 see ,p4,w4   

,joyce1 ,a ,social ,history  of ,ancient
 ,ireland 7,london1 #aijc71 i4 #bhh sq41
 #cff sqq4    #ebf ,rev4 ,a4 ,johnstone1
 describing the parish of ,monquhitter  
in  ,perthshire1 in ,sir ,john          
,sinclair's ,statistical ,account of    
,scotland  7,edinburgh1 #agia-agii71    
xxi4 #ade4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler      
writes that in  ,scotland before the    
bonfires were kindled on midsummer eve1 
the houses  were decorated with foliage 
brought from the woods 7,roman          
,festivals of  the ,period of the       
,republic1 ,london1 #ahii1 pp4 #hj sq474
 ,for his  authority he refers to       
,chambers' ,journal1 ,july1 #ahdb4      
#ebg ,john ,ramsay1 of ,ochtertyre1     
,scotland and ,scotsmen in the          
,eighteenth ,century1 edited by ,a4     
,allardyce 7,edinburgh1 #ahhh71 ii4     
#dcf4    #ebh ,rev4 ,mr4 ,shaw1         
,minister of ,elgin1 in ,pennant's ,tour
 in ,scotland1  printed in ,john        
,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels      
7,london1 #ahjh-ahad71  iii4 #acf4      

#ebi ,a4 ,macdonald1 ,midsummer         
,bonfires1 ,folk-lore1 xv4 7#aijd7 pp4  
#aje sq4    #ecj ,from notes kindly     
furnished to me by the ,rev4 ,j4,c4     
,higgins1 parish  minister of           
,tarbolton4 ,mr4 ,higgins adds that he  
knows of no superstition  connected with
 the fire1 and no tradition of its      
origin4 ,i visited the  scene of the    
bonfire in #ahih1 but1 as ,pausanias    
says 7viii4 #da4 #f7 in  similar        
circumstances1 ,i did not happen to     
arrive at the season of the  festival4  
,indeed the snow was falling thick as ,i
 trudged to the village  through the    
beautiful woods of the ,castle o'       
,montgomery immortalized  by ,burns4    
,from a notice in ,the ,scotsman of     
#bfth ,june1 #aijf 7p4 #h7 it  appears  
that the old custom was observed as     
usual that year4    #eca ,thomas        
,moresinus1 ,papatus seu ,depravatae    
,religionis ,origo et  ,incrementum     
7,edinburgh1 #aeid71 p4 #ef4    #ecb    
,rev4 ,dr4 ,george ,lawrie1 in ,sir     

,john ,sinclair's ,statistical  ,account
 of ,scotland1 iii4 7,edinburgh1 #agib7 
p4 #aje4    #ecc ,letter from ,dr4      
,otero ,acevado of ,madrid1 published in
 ,le ,temps1  ,september #ahih4 ,an     
extract from the newspaper was sent me1 
but without  mention of the day of the  
month when it appeared4 ,the fires on   
,st4  ,john's ,eve in ,spain are        
mentioned also by ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular  
,antiquities  of ,great ,britain1 i4    
#cag4 ,jacob ,grimm inferred the custom 
from a  passage in a romance 7,deutsche 
,mythologie199#d i4 #eah74 ,the custom  
of  washing or bathing on the morning of
 ,st4 ,john's ,day is mentioned by the  
,spanish historian ,diego ,duran1       
,historia de las ,indias de ,nueva      
,espaa1  edited by ,j4,f4 ,ramirez      
7,mexico1 #ahfg-ahhj71 vol4 ii4 p4 #bic4
 ,to roll in  the dew on the morning of 
,st4 ,john's ,day is a cure for diseases
 of the  skin in ,normandy1 ,prigord1   
and the ,abruzzi1 as well as in ,spain4 
,see ,j4  ,lecoeur1 ,esquisses du       

,bocage ,normand1 ii4 #h2 ,a4 de ,nore1 
,coutumes1  ,mythes et ,traditions des  
,provinces de ,france1 p4 #aej2 ,gennaro
 ,finamore1  ,credenze1 ,usi e ,costumi 
,abruzzesi 7,palermo1 #ahij71 p4 #aeg4  
#ecd ,m4 ,longworth ,dames and ,mrs4 ,e4
 ,seemann1 ,folklore of the ,azores1    
,folk-lore1 xiv4 7#aijc7 pp4 #adb sq42  
,theophilo ,braga1 ,o ,povo  ,portuguez 
nos seus ,costumes1 ,crenas e ,tradioes 
7,lisbon1 #ahhe71 ii4  #cjd sq41 #cjg   
sq4    #ece ,see below1 pp4 #bcd sqq4   
#ecf ,angelo de ,gubernatis1 ,mythologie
 des ,plantes 7,paris1 #ahgh-ahhb71  i4 
#ahe note #a4    #ecg ,adonis1 ,attis1  
,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #bjb sq4 
#ech ,g4 ,finamore1 ,credenze1 ,usi e   
,costumi ,abruzzesi 7,palermo1 #ahij71  
pp4 #aed sq4    #eci ,g4 ,finamore1     
,credenze1 ,usi e ,costumi ,abruzzesi1  
pp4 #aeh-afj4 ,we  may compare the      
,provenal and ,spanish customs of       
bathing and splashing  water at         
,midsummer4 ,see above1 pp4 #aic sq41   
#bjh4    #edj ,giuseppe ,pitr1          

,spettacoli e ,feste ,popolari          
,siciliane 7,palermo1  #ahha71 pp4 #bdf1
 #cjh sq42 id41 ,usi e ,costumi1        
,credenze e ,pregiudizi  del ,popolo    
,siciliano 7,palermo1 #ahhi71 pp4 #adf  
sq4    #eda ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche       
,mythologie199#d i4 #eah4    #edb ,v4   
,busuttil1 ,holiday ,customs in ,malta1 
and ,sports1 ,usages1  ,ceremonies1     
,omens1 and ,superstitions of the       
,maltese ,people 7,malta1  #ahid71 pp4  
#ef sqq4 ,the extract was kindly sent to
 me by ,mr4 ,h4,w4  ,underwood 7letter  
dated #adth ,november1 #aijb1 ,birbeck  
,bank ,chambers1  ,southampton          
,buildings1 ,chancery ,lane1 ,w4,c474   
,see ,folk-lore1 xiv4  7#aijc7 pp4 #gg  
sq4    #edc ,w4 ,r4 ,paton1 in          
,folk-lore1 ii4 7#ahia7 p4 #abh4 ,the   
custom was  reported to me when ,i was  
in ,greece in #ahij 7,folk-lore1 i4     
7#ahij7 p4  #ebj74    #edd ,j4 ,grimm1  
,deutsche ,mythologie199#d i4 #eai4     
#ede ,g4 ,georgeakis et ,l4 ,pineau1 ,le
 ,folk-lore de ,lesbos 7,paris1  #ahid71

 pp4 #cjh sq4    #edf ,w4,r4 ,paton1 in 
,folk-lore1 vi4 7#ahie7 p4 #id4 ,from   
the stones cast  into the fire omens may
 perhaps be drawn1 as in ,scotland1     
,wales1 and  probably ,brittany4 ,see   
above1 p4 #ahc1 and below1 pp4 #bcj sq41
 #bci1  #bdj4    #edg ,w4,h4,d4 ,rouse1 
,folklore from the ,southern ,sporades1 
,folk-lore1  x4 7#ahii7 p4 #agi4    #edh
 ,lucy ,m4,j4 ,garnett1 ,the ,women of  
,turkey and their ,folk-lore1 the       
,christian ,women 7,london1 #ahij71 p4  
#abb2 ,g4,f4 ,abbott1 ,macedonian       
,folklore 7,cambridge1 #aijc71 p4 #eg4  
#edi ,j4,g4 von ,hahn1 ,albanesische    
,studien 7,jena1 #ahed71 i4 #aef4       
#eej ,k4 von den ,steinen1 ,unter den   
,natur-,vlkern ,zentral-,brasiliens     
7,berlin1 #ahid71 p4 #efa4    #eea      
,alcide d',orbigny1 ,voyage dans        
l',amrique ,mridionale1 ii4 7,paris  and
 ,strasbourg1 #ahci-ahdc71 p4 #dbj2 ,d4 
,forbes1 ,on the ,aymara ,indians of    
,bolivia and ,peru1 ,journal of the     
,ethnological ,society of ,london1 ii4  

7#ahgj7 p4 #bce4    #eeb ,edmond ,doutt1
 ,magie et ,religion dans l',afrique du 
,nord  7,algiers1 #aijh71 pp4 #eff sq4  
,for an older but briefer notice of the 
,midsummer fires in ,north ,africa1 see 
,giuseppe ,ferraro1 ,superstizioni1     
,usi e ,proverbi ,monferrini 7,palermo1 
#ahhf71 pp4 #cd sq43 ,also in  ,algeria1
 among the ,mussalmans1 and in ,morocco1
 as ,alvise da ,cadamosto  reports in   
his ,relazione dei viaggi d',africa1    
which may be read in  ,ramusio1 people  
used to hold great festivities on ,st4  
,john's ,night2 they  kindled everywhere
 huge fires of straw 7the ,palilia of   
the ,romans71 in  which they threw      
incense and perfumes the whole night    
long in order to  invoke the divine     
blessing on the fruit-trees4 ,see also  
,budgett ,meakin1  ,the ,moors 7,london1
 #aijb71 p4 #cid3 ,the ,berber festivals
 are mainly  those of ,islam1 though a  
few traces of their predecessors are    
observable4 ,of these the most          
noteworthy is ,midsummer or ,st4 ,john's

 ,day1  still celebrated in a special   
manner1 and styled ,el ,ansarah4 ,in the
  ,rf it is celebrated by the lighting  
of bonfires only1 but in other  parts   
there is a special dish prepared of     
wheat1 raisins1 etc41  resembling the   
frumenty consumed at the ,new ,year4 ,it
 is worthy of remark  that the ,old     
,style ,gregorian calendar is maintained
 among them1 with  corruptions of ,latin
 names4    #eec ,edward ,westermarck1   
,midsummer ,customs in ,morocco1        
,folklore1  xvi4 7#aije7 pp4 #bh-cj2    
id41 ,ceremonies and ,beliefs connected 
with  ,agriculture1 ,certain ,dates of  
the ,solar ,year1 and the ,weather      
7,helsingfors1 #aiac71 pp4 #gi-hc4      
#eed ,e4 ,westermarck1 ,midsummer       
,customs in ,morocco1 ,folk-lore1 xvi4  
7#aije7 pp4 #cj sq42 id41 ,ceremonies   
and ,beliefs connected with             
,agriculture1 etc41 pp4 #hc sq4    #eee 
,edmond ,doutt1 ,magie et ,religion dans
 l',afrique du ,nord  7,algiers1 #aijh71
 pp4 #efg sq4    #eef ,e4 ,westermarck1 

,midsummer ,customs in ,morocco1        
,folk-lore1 xvi4  7#aije7 pp4 #ca sq42  
id41 ,ceremonies and ,beliefs connected 
with  ,agriculture1 etc41 pp4 #hd-hf4   
#eeg ,see ,k4 ,vollers1 in ,dr4 ,james  
,hastings's ,encyclopaedia of ,religion 
and ,ethics iii4 7,edinburgh1 #aiaj7    
s4v4 ,calendar 7,muslim71 pp4 #abf  sq4 
,however1 ,l4 ,ideler held that even    
before the time of ,mohammed the  ,arab 
year was lunar and vague1 and that      
intercalation was only employed  in     
order to fix the pilgrimage month in    
autumn1 which1 on account of the  milder
 weather and the abundance of food1 is  
the best time for pilgrims  to go to    
,mecca4 ,see ,l4 ,ideler1 ,handbuch der 
mathematischen und  techischen          
,chronologie 7,berlin1 #ahbe-ahbf71 ii4 
#die sqq4    #eeh ,e4 ,doutt1 ,magie et 
,religion dans l',afrique du ,nord1 pp4 
#dif1  #eji1 #ecb1 #edc1 #efi4 ,it is   
somewhat remarkable that the tenth1 not 
the  first1 day of the first month      
should be reckoned ,new ,year's ,day4   

#eei ,e4 ,westermarck1 ,midsummer       
,customs in ,morocco1 ,folk-lore1 xvi4  
7#aije7 pp4 #dj-db4    #efj ,e4 ,doutt1 
,magie et ,religion dans l',afrique du  
,nord 7,algiers1  #aijh71 pp4 #eda sq4  
#efa ,e4 ,westermarck1 ,midsummer       
,customs in ,morocco1 ,folk-lore1 xvi4  
7#aije7 p4 #db2 id41 ,ceremonies and    
,beliefs connected with ,agriculture1   
,certain ,dates of the ,solar ,year1 and
 the ,weather in ,morocco               
7,helsingfors1 #aiac71 p4 #aja4    #efb 
,e4 ,westermarck1 ,midsummer ,customs in
 ,morocco1 ,folk-lore1 xvi4  7#aije71   
pp4 #db sq41 #df sq42 id41 ,ceremonies  
and ,beliefs connected  with            
,agriculture1 etc41 in ,morocco1 pp4 #ii
 sqq4    #efc ,g4 ,f4 ,abbott1          
,macedonian ,folklore 7,cambridge1      
#aijc71 pp4 #fj  sq4    #efd ,narrative 
of the ,adventures of four ,russian     
,sailors1 who were  cast in a storm upon
 the uncultivated island of ,east       
,spitzbergen1  translated from the      
,german of ,p4,l4 ,le ,roy1 in ,john    

,pinkerton's ,voyages  and ,travels     
7,london1 #ahjh-ahad71 i4 #fjc4 ,this   
passage is quoted from  the original by 
7,sir7 ,edward ,b4 ,tylor1 ,researches  
into the ,early  ,history of ,mankind1  
,third ,edition 7,london1 #ahgh71 pp4   
#bei sq4    #efe ,see ,the ,scapegoat1  
pp4 #aff sq4    #eff ,e4,k4 ,chambers1  
,the ,mediaeval ,stage 7,oxford1 #aijc71
 i4 #aaj sqq4    #efg ,in ,eastern      
,europe to this day the great season for
 driving out the  cattle to pasture for 
the first time in spring is ,st4        
,george's ,day1 the  twenty-third of    
,april1 which is not far removed from   
,may ,day4 ,see ,the  ,magic ,art and   
the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #cbd sqq4 
,as to the  bisection of the ,celtic    
year1 see the old authority quoted by   
,p4,w4  ,joyce1 ,the ,social ,history of
 ,ancient ,ireland 7,london1 #aijc71 ii4
 #cij3  ,the whole year was originally  
divided into two parts--,summer from    
#ast  ,may to #ast ,november1 and       
,winter from #ast ,november to #ast     

,may4 ,on this  subject compare 7,sir7  
,john ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom        
7,london and  ,edinburgh1 #ahhh71 pp4   
#dfj1 #ead sqq42 id41 ,celtic           
,folk-lore1 ,welsh and  ,manx 7,oxford1 
#aija71 i4 #cae sqq42 ,j4,a4            
,mac,culloch1 in ,dr4 ,james            
,hastings's ,encyclopaedia of ,religion 
and ,ethics1 iii4 7,edinburgh1  #aiaj7  
p4 #hj4    #efh ,see below1 p4 #bbe4    
#efi ,above1 pp4 #adf sqq42 ,the ,magic 
,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1  ii4 
#ei sqq4    #egj 7,sir7 ,john ,rhys1    
,celtic ,folk-lore1 ,manx and ,welsh    
7,oxford1  #aija71 i4 #caf1 #cag sq42   
,j4,a4 ,mac,culloch1 in ,dr4 ,james     
,hastings's  ,encyclopaedia of ,religion
 and ,ethics1 iii4 7,edinburgh1 #aiaj7  
s4v4  ,calendar1 p4 #hj1 referring to   
,kelly1 ,english and ,manx ,dictionary  
7,douglas1 #ahff71 s4v4 ,blein4         
,hogmanay is the popular ,scotch name   
for  the last day of the year4 ,see ,dr4
 ,j4 ,jamieson1 ,etymological           
,dictionary  of the ,scottish ,language1

 ,new ,edition 7,paisley1 #ahgi-ahhb71  
ii4 #fjb  sq4    #ega 7,sir7 ,john      
,rhys1 ,celtic ,folk-lore1 ,welsh and   
,manx1 i4 #caf sq4    #egb ,above1 p4   
#aci4    #egc ,see ,adonis1 ,attis1     
,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #cji-cah4
 ,as ,i  have there pointed out1 the    
,catholic ,church succeeded in altering 
the  date of the festival by one day1   
but not in changing the character of    
the festival4 ,all ,souls' ,day is now  
the second instead of the first of      
,november4 ,but we can hardly doubt that
 the ,saints1 who have taken  possession
 of the first of ,november1 wrested it  
from the ,souls of the  ,dead1 the      
original proprietors4 ,after all1 the   
,saints are only one  particular class  
of the ,souls of the ,dead2 so that the 
change which the  ,church effected1 no  
doubt for the purpose of disguising the 
heathen  character of the festival1 is  
less great than appears at first sight4 
#egd ,in ,wales it was firmly believed  
in former times that on ,all  ,hallows' 

,eve the spirit of a departed person was
 to be seen at midnight  on every       
cross-road and on every stile 7,marie   
,trevelyan1 ,folk-lore and              
,folk-stories of ,wales1 ,london1 #aiji1
 p4 #bed74    #ege ,e4 ,j4 ,guthrie1    
,old ,scottish ,customs 7,london and    
,glasgow1 #ahhe71  p4 #fh4    #egf ,a4  
,goodrich-,freer1 ,more ,folklore from  
the ,hebrides1 ,folk-lore1  xiii4       
7#aijb7 p4 #ec4    #egg 7,sir7 ,jolin   
,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom 7,london and 
,edinburgh1  #ahhh71 p4 #eaf4    #egh   
,p4,w4 ,joyce1 ,a ,social ,history of   
,ancient ,ireland 7,london1 #aijc71  i4 
#bfd sq41 ii4 #eef4    #egi 7,sir7 ,john
 ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom1 p4 #eaf4   
#ehj ,rev4 ,john ,gregorson ,campbell1  
,superstitions of the ,highlands and    
,islands of ,scotland 7,glasgow1 #aijj71
 pp4 #fa sq4    #eha ,ch4 ,rogers1      
,social ,life in ,scotland 7,edinburgh1 
#ahhd-ahhf71 iii4  #beh-bfj4    #ehb    
,douglas ,hyde1 ,beside the ,fire1 a    
,collection of ,irish ,gaelic ,folk     

,stories 7,london1 #ahij71 pp4 #ajd1    
#aje1 #aba-abh4    #ehc ,p4,w4 ,joyce1  
,social ,history of ,ancient ,ireland1  
i4 #bbi4    #ehd ,marie ,trevelyan1     
,folk-lore and ,folk-stories of ,wales  
7,london1  #aiji71 p4 #bed4    #ehe     
7,sir7 ,john ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom1
 pp4 #ead sq4 ,in order to  see the     
apparitions all you had to do was to run
 thrice round the parish  church and    
then peep through the key-hole of the   
door4 ,see ,marie  ,trevelyan1 op4 cit4 
p4 #bed2 ,j4 ,c4 ,davies1 ,folk-lore of 
,west and  ,mid-,wales 7,aberystwyth1   
#aiaa71 p4 #gg4    #ehf ,miss ,e4 ,j4   
,guthrie1 ,old ,scottish ,customs       
7,london and ,glasgow1  #ahhe71 p4 #ge4 
#ehg ,rev4 ,john ,gregorson ,campbell1  
,witchcraft and ,second ,sight in the   
,highlands and ,islands of ,scotland    
7,glasgow1 #aijb71 p4 #bhb4    #ehh     
,thomas ,pennant1 ,tour in ,scotland1   
and ,voyage to the ,hebrides in  #aggb1 
in ,john ,pinkerton's ,voyages and      
,travels1 iii4 7,london1 #ahji7  pp4    

#chc sq4 ,in quoting the passage ,i have
 corrected what seem to be  two         
misprints4    #ehi ,john ,ramsay1 of    
,ochtertyre1 ,scotland and ,scotsmen in 
the  ,eighteenth ,century1 edited by    
,alexander ,allardyce 7,edinburgh and   
,london1 #ahhh71 ii4 #dcg sq4 ,this     
account was written in the eighteenth   
century4    #eij ,rev4 ,james           
,robertson1 ,parish minister of         
,callander1 in ,sir ,john  ,sinclair's  
,statistical ,account of ,scotland1 xi4 
7,edinburgh1 #agid71 pp4  #fba sq4      
#eia ,rev4 ,dr4 ,thomas ,bisset1 in ,sir
 ,john ,sinclair's ,statistical         
,account of ,scotland v4 7,edinburgh1   
#agic7 pp4 #hd sq4    #eib ,miss ,e4 ,j4
 ,guthrie1 ,old ,scottish ,customs      
7,london and ,glasgow1  #ahhe71 p4 #fg4 
#eic ,james ,napier1 ,folk ,lore1 or    
,superstitious ,beliefs in the ,west of 
,scotland within this ,century          
7,paisley1 #ahgi71 p4 #agi4    #eid ,j4 
,g4 ,frazer1 ,folk-lore at ,balquhidder1
 ,the ,folk-lore ,journal1  vi4 7#ahhh7 

p4 #bgj4    #eie ,rev4 ,walter ,gregor1 
,notes on the ,folk-lore of the         
,north-,east of  ,scotland 7,london1    
#ahha71 pp4 #afg sq4    #eif ,rev4 ,a4  
,johnstone1 as to the parish of         
,monquhitter1 in ,sir ,john  ,sinclair's
 ,statistical ,account of ,scotland1    
xxi4 7,edinburgh1 #agii7 pp4  #ade sq4  
#eig ,a4 ,macdonald1 ,some former       
,customs of the ,royal ,parish of       
,crathie1  ,scotland1 ,folk-lore1 xviii4
 7#aijg7 p4 #he4 ,the writer adds3 ,in  
this  way the 'faulds' were purged of   
evil spirits4 ,but it does not appear   
whether this expresses the belief of the
 people or only the  interpretation of  
the writer4    #eih ,rev4 ,john         
,gregorson ,campbell1 ,witchcraft and   
,second ,sight in the  ,highlands and   
,islands of ,scotland 7,glasgow1 #aijb71
 pp4 #bhb sq4    #eii ,robert ,burns1   
,hallowe'en1 with the poet's note2 ,rev4
 ,walter  ,gregor1 op4 cit4 p4 #hd2     
,miss ,e4,j4 ,guthrie1 op4 cit4 p4 #fi2 
,rev4 ,j4,g4  ,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4    

#bhg4    #fjj ,r4 ,burns1 l4c42 ,rev4   
,walter ,gregor1 l4c42 ,miss ,e4,j4     
,guthrie1  op4 cit4 pp4 #gj sq42 ,rev4  
,j4,g4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #bhf4     
#fja ,r4 ,burns1 l4c442 ,rev4 ,w4       
,gregor1 l4c42 ,miss ,e4,j4 ,guthrie1   
op4  cit4 p4 #gc2 ,rev4 ,j4,g4          
,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #bhe2 ,a4        
,goodrich-,freer1  ,more ,folklore from 
the ,hebrides1 ,folk-lore1 xiii4 7#aijb7
 pp4 #ed  sq4    #fjb ,r4 ,burns1 l4c42 
,rev4 ,w4 ,gregor1 op4 cit4 p4 #he2     
,miss ,e4,j4  ,guthrie1 op4 cit4 p4 #ga2
 ,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4    
#bhe4  ,according to the last of these  
writers1 the winnowing had to be done in
  the devil's name4    #fjc ,r4 ,burns1 
l4c42 ,rev4 ,w4 ,gregor1 l4c42 ,miss    
,e4,j4 ,guthrie1 op4  cit4 p4 #gb2 ,rev4
 ,j4,g4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #bhf2 ,a4
 ,goodrich-,freer1  ,more ,folklore from
 the ,hebrides1 ,folklore1 xiii4 7#aijb7
 p4 #ed4    #fjd ,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,campbell1
 op4 cit4 p4 #bhc4    #fje ,rev4 ,j4,g4 
,campbell1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bhc sq42 ,a4   

,goodrich-,freer1  l4c4    #fjf ,rev4   
,j4,g4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #bhd4     
#fjg ,r4 ,burns1 l4c42 ,rev4 ,w4        
,gregor1 op4 cit4 p4 #he2 ,miss ,e4,j4  
,guthrie1 op4 cit4 p4 #gj2 ,rev4 ,j4,g4 
,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #bhd4 ,where     
nuts were not to be had1 peas were      
substituted4    #fjh ,rev4 ,j4,g4       
,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #bhd4    #fji    
,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,campbell1 l4c4 ,according 
to my recollection of  ,hallowe'en      
customs observed in my boyhood at       
,helensburgh1 in  ,dumbartonshire1      
another way was to stir the floating    
apples and then  drop a fork on them as 
they bobbed about in the water4 ,success
 consisted  in pinning one of the apples
 with the fork4    #faj ,r4 ,burns1     
l4c42 ,rev4 ,w4 ,gregor1 op4 cit4 pp4   
#he sq42 ,miss  ,e4,j4 ,guthrie1 op4    
cit4 pp4 #gb sq42 ,rev4 ,j4,g4          
,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4  #bhg4    #faa   
,r4 ,burns1 l4c42 ,rev4 ,w4 ,gregor1 op4
 cit4 p4 #he2 ,miss ,e4,j4  ,guthrie1   
op4 cit4 pp4 #fi sq42 ,rev4 ,j4,g4      

,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #bhe4  ,it is the
 last of these writers who gives what   
may be called the  ,trinitarian form of 
the divination4    #fab ,miss ,e4,j4    
,guthrie1 ,old ,scottish ,customs       
7,london and ,glasgow1  #ahhe71 pp4 #gd 
sq4    #fac ,a4 ,goodrich-,freer1 ,more 
,folklore from the ,hebrides1           
,folk-lore1  xiii4 7#aijb7 p4 #ee4      
#fad ,pennant's manuscript1 quoted by   
,j4 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities of    
,great ,britain 7,london1 #ahhb-ahhc71  
i4 #chi sq4    #fae ,sir ,richard ,colt 
,hoare1 ,the ,itinerary of ,archbishop  
,baldwin  through ,wales ,a4,d4         
,,mclxxxviii4 by ,giraldus de ,barri    
7,london1 #ahjf71 ii4  #cae2 ,j4 ,brand1
 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #cij4 ,the   
passage quoted in the  text occurs in   
one of ,hoare's notes on the ,itinerary4
 ,the dipping for  apples1 burning of   
nuts1 and so forth1 are mentioned also  
by ,marie  ,trevelyan1 ,folk-lore and   
,folk-stories of ,wales 7,london1       
#aiji71 pp4  #bec1 #bee4    #faf 7,sir7 

,john ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom        
7,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahhh71  pp4   
#eae sq4 ,as to the ,hallowe'en bonfires
 in ,wales compare ,j4,c4  ,davies1     
,folk-lore of ,west and ,mid-,wales     
7,aberystwyth1 #aiaa71 p4 #gg4    #fag  
,see above1 p4 #ahc4    #fah ,see above1
 p4 #bca4    #fai ,marie ,trevelyan1    
,folk-lore and ,folk-stories of ,wales  
7,london1  #aiji71 pp4 #bed sq4    #fbj 
7,general7 ,charles ,vallancey1         
,collectanea de ,rebus ,hibernicis1     
iii4 7,dublin1 #aghf71 pp4 #dei-dfa4    
#fba ,miss ,a4 ,watson1 quoted by ,a4,c4
 ,haddon1 ,a ,batch of ,irish           
,folk-lore1 ,folk-lore1 iv4 7#ahic7 pp4 
#cfa sq4    #fbb ,leland ,l4 ,duncan1   
,further ,notes from ,county ,leitrim1  
,folk-lore1 v4 7#ahid7 pp4 #aie-aig4    
#fbc ,h4,j4 ,byrne1 ,all ,hallows ,eve  
and other ,festivals in ,connaught1     
,folk-lore1 xviii4 7#aijg7 pp4 #dcg sq4 
#fbd ,joseph ,train1 ,historical and    
,statistical ,account of the ,isle of   
,man 7,douglas1 ,isle of ,man1 #ahde71  

ii4 #abc2 7,sir7 ,john ,rhys1 ,celtic   
,folk-lore1 ,welsh and ,manx 7,oxford1  
#aija71 i4 #cae sqq4    #fbe 7,sir7     
,john ,rhys1 ,celtic ,folk-lore1 ,welsh 
and ,manx 7,oxford1  #aija71 i4         
#cah-cba4    #fbf ,john ,harland and    
,t4,t4 ,wilkinson1 ,lancashire          
,folk-lore  7,manchester and ,london1   
#ahhb71 pp4 #c sq4    #fbg ,j4 ,harland 
and ,t4,t4 ,wilkinson1 op4 cit4 p4 #adj4
    #fbh ,annie ,milner1 in ,william    
,hone's ,year ,book 7,london1 preface   
dated  ,january1 #ahcb71 coll4          
#abgf-abgi 7letter dated ,june1 #ahca72 
,r4,t4 ,hampson1  ,medii ,aevi          
,kalendarium 7,london1 #ahda71 i4 #cfe2 
,t4,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1  ,british      
,popular ,customs 7,london1 #ahgf71 p4  
#cie4    #fbi ,county ,folk-lore vol4   
iv4 ,northumberland1 collected by ,m4,c4
  ,balfour 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #gh4    
,compare ,w4 ,henderson1 ,notes on the  
,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties of
 ,england 7,london1 #ahgi71 pp4 #if  sq4
    #fcj ,baron ,dupin1 in ,mmoires     

publies par la ,socit ,royale des       
,antiquaires de ,france1 iv4 7#ahbc7 p4 
#ajh4    #fca ,the evidence for the     
solar origin of ,christmas is given in  
,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second       
,edition1 pp4 #bed-bef4    #fcb ,for the
 various names 7,yu-batch1 ,yu-block1   
,yule-log1 etc47 see  ,francis ,grose1  
,provincial ,glossary1 ,new ,edition    
7,london1 #ahaa71 p4  #ada2 ,joseph     
,wright1 ,the ,english ,dialect         
,dictionary 7,london1  #ahih-aije71 vi4 
#eic1 s4v4 ,yule4    #fcc ,i am pretty  
confident that the ,yule block will be  
found1 in its  first use1 to have been  
only a counterpart of the ,midsummer    
fires1 made  within doors because of the
 cold weather at this winter solstice1  
as  those in the hot season1 at the     
summer one1 are kindled in the open     
air4 7,john ,brand1 ,popular            
,antiquities of ,great ,britain1        
,london1  #ahhb-ahhc1 i4 #dga74 ,his    
opinion is approved by ,w4 ,mannhardt   
7,der  ,baumkultus der ,germanen und    

ihrer ,nachbarstmme1 p4 #bcf74    #fcd  
,et arborem in nativitate domini ad     
festivum ignem suum  adducendam esse    
dicebat 7quoted by ,jacob ,grimm1       
,deutsche ,mythologie1  i4 #ebb74       
#fce ,montanus1 ,die deutschen          
,volksfeste1 ,volksbrauche und deutscher
  ,volksglaube 7,iserlohn1 ,n4,d471 p4  
#ab4 ,the ,sieg and ,lahn are two rivers
  of ,central ,germany1 between ,siegen 
and ,marburg4    #fcf ,j4,h4 ,schmitz1  
,sitten und ,sagen1 ,lieder1 ,sprchwrter
 und ,rthsel  des ,eifler ,volkes       
7,treves1 #ahef-aheh71 i4 #d4    #fcg   
,adalbert ,kuhn1 ,sagen1 ,gebruche und  
,mrchen aus ,westfalen  7,leipsic1      
#ahei71 ii4  #cai1 pp4 #ajc sq4    #fch 
,a4 ,kuhn1 op4 cit4 ii4  #ebc1 p4 #ahg4 
#fci ,august ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten
 und ,gebruche aus ,thringen  7,vienna1 
#ahgh71 p4 #agb4    #fdj ,k4            
,hoffmann-,krayer1 ,feste und ,bruche   
des ,schweizervolkes  7,zurich1 #aiac71 
pp4 #ajh sq4    #fda ,le ,baron de      
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,calendrier     

,belge 7,brussels1  #ahfa-ahfb71 ii4    
#cbf sq4 ,compare ,j4,w4 ,wolf1         
,beitrgezur deutschen  ,mythologie      
7,gttingen1 #aheb-aheh71 i4 #aag4       
#fdb ,j4,b4 ,thiers1 ,trait des         
,superstitions99#e 7,paris1 #agda71 i4  
#cjb  sq42 ,eugne ,cortet1 ,essai sur   
les ,ftes ,religieuses 7,paris1 #ahfg71 
pp4 #bff sq4    #fdc ,j4,b4 ,thiers1    
,trait des ,superstitions 7,paris1      
#afgi71 p4 #cbc4    #fdd ,aubin-,louis  
,millin1 ,voyage dans les ,dpartemens du
 ,midi de la  ,france 7,paris1          
#ahjg-ahaa71 iii4 #ccf sq4 ,the fire so 
kindled was  called caco fuech4    #fde 
,alfred de ,nore1 ,coutumes1 ,mythes et 
,traditions des ,provinces de  ,france  
7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahdf71 pp4 #aea sq4
 ,the three festivals  during which the 
,yule log is expected to burn are       
probably ,christmas ,day  7,december    
#beth71 ,st4 ,stephen's ,day 7,december 
#bfth71 and ,st4 ,john the              
,evangelist's ,day 7,december #bgth74   
,compare ,j4,l4,m4 ,nogus1 ,les ,moeurs 

d'autrefois en ,saintonge et en ,aunis  
7,saintes1 #ahia71 pp4 #de-dg4          
,according to the latter writer1 in     
,saintonge it was the mistress of the   
house who blessed the ,yule log1        
sprinkling salt and holy water on it2 in
  ,poitou it was the eldest male who    
officiated4 ,the log was called the     
cosse de ,n4    #fdf ,laisnel de ,salle1
 ,croyances et ,lgendes du ,centres de  
la ,france  7,paris1 #ahge71 i4 #a-c4   
#fdg ,jules ,lecoeur1 ,esquisses du     
,bocage ,normand 7,cond-sur-,noireau1   
#ahhc-ahhg71 ii4 #bia4 ,the author      
speaks of the custom as still practised 
in out-of-the-way villages at the time  
when he wrote4 ,the usage of  preserving
 the remains of the ,yule-log 7called   
trfouet7 in ,normandy  is mentioned also
 by ,m'elle ,amlie ,bosquet1 ,la        
,normandie ,romanesque et  ,merveilleuse
 7,paris and ,rouen1 #ahde71 p4 #bid4   
#fdh ,a4 de ,nore1 ,coutumes1 ,mythes1  
et ,traditions des ,provinces de        
,france 7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahdf71 p4  

#bef4    #fdi ,paul ,sbillot1 ,coutumes 
populaires de la ,haute-,bretagne       
7,paris1  #ahhf71 pp4 #bag sq4    #fej  
,albert ,meyrac1 ,traditions1 ,coutumes1
 ,lgendes et ,contes des  ,ardennes     
7,charleville1 #ahij71 pp4 #if sq4      
#fea ,see above1 p4 #bea4    #feb       
,lerouze1 in ,mmoires de l',academie    
,celtique1 iii4 7#ahji7 p4 #dda1  quoted
 by ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities of
 ,great ,britain 7,london1  #ahhb-ahhc71
 i4 #dfi note4    #fec ,l4,f4 ,sauv1 ,le
 ,folk-lore des ,hautes-,vosges 7,paris1
 #ahhi71 pp4  #cgj sq4    #fed ,charles 
,beauquier1 ,les ,mois en ,franche-,comt
 7,paris1 #aijj71 p4  #ahc4    #fee ,a4 
de ,nore1 ,coutumes1 ,mythes1 et        
,traditions des ,provinces de  ,france  
7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahdf71 pp4 #cjb sq4
    #fef ,john ,brand1 ,popular         
,antiquities of ,great ,britain         
7,london1  #ahhb-ahhc71 i4 #dfg4    #feg
 ,j4 ,brand1 op4 cit4 i4 #dee2 ,the     
,denham ,tracts1 edited by ,dr4  ,james 
,hardy 7,london1 #ahib-ahie71 ii4 #be   

sq4    #feh ,herrick1 ,hesperides1      
,ceremonies for ,christmasse3    ,come1 
bring with a noise1  ,my merrie merrie  
boyes1  ,the ,christmas log to the      
firing2444  ,with the last yeeres brand 
,light the neiv block    ,and1 again1 in
 his verses1 ,ceremonies for            
,candlemasse ,day3    ,kindle the       
,christmas brand1 and then  ,till       
sunne-set let it burne2  ,which quencht1
 then lay it up agen1  ,till ,christmas 
next returne4  ,part must be kept1      
wherewith to teend  ,the ,christmas log 
next yeare2  ,and where 'tis safely     
kept1 the fiend  ,can do no mischiefe   
there    ,see ,the ,works of ,robert    
,herrick 7,edinburgh1 #ahbc71 vol4 ii4  
pp4 #ia1  #abd4 ,from these latter      
verses it seems that the ,yule log was  
replaced on  the fire on ,candlemas 7the
 second of ,february74    #fei ,miss ,c4
 ,s4 ,burne and ,miss ,g4 ,f4 ,jackson1 
,shropshire ,folk-lore  7,london1       
#ahhc71 p4 #cih note #b4 ,see also      
below1 pp4 #beg1 #beh1 as to the        

,lincolnshire1 ,herefordshire1 and      
,welsh practice4    #ffj ,francis       
,grose1 ,provincial ,glossary1 ,second  
,edition 7,london1  #ahaa71 pp4 #ada    
sq42 ,t4,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british  
,popular ,customs  7,london1 #ahgf71 p4 
#dff4    #ffa ,county ,folk-lore1 vol4  
iv4 ,northumberland1 collected by ,m4,c4
  ,balfour and edited by ,northcote ,w4 
,thomas 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #gi4       
#ffb ,county ,folk-lore1 vol4 ii4 ,north
 ,riding of ,yorkshire1 ,york and  the  
,ainsty1 collected and edited by ,mrs4  
,gutch 7,london1 #aija71 pp4 #bgc1      
#bgd1 #bge sq4    #ffc ,county          
,folk-lore1 vol4 vi4 ,east ,riding of   
,yorkshire1 collected  and edited by    
,mrs4 ,gutch 7,london1 #aiab71 pp4 #bc1 
#aah1 compare p4 #aad4    #ffd ,john    
,aubrey1 ,remaines of ,gentilisme and   
,judaisme 7,london1 #ahha71  p4 #e4     
#ffe ,county ,folk-lore1 vol4 v4        
,lincolnshire1 collected by ,mrs4       
,gutch and ,mabel ,peacock 7,london1    
#aijh71 p4 #bai4 ,elsewhere in          

,lincolnshire the ,yule-log seems to    
have been called the ,yule-clog 7op4    
cit4 pp4 #bae1 #baf74    #fff ,mrs4     
,samuel ,chandler 7,sarah ,whateley71   
quoted in ,the ,folk-lore  ,journal1 i4 
7#ahhc7 pp4 #cea sq4    #ffg ,miss      
,c4,s4 ,burne and ,miss ,g4,f4 ,jackson1
 ,shropshire ,folk-lore  7,london1      
#ahhc71 pp4 #cig sq4 ,one of the        
informants of these writers  says 7op4  
cit4 p4 #cii73 ,in #ahde ,i was at the  
,vessons farmhouse1 near  the           
,eastbridge ,coppice 7at the northern   
end of the ,stiperstones74 ,the  floor  
was of flags1 an unusual thing in this  
part4 ,observing a sort of  roadway     
through the kitchen1 and the flags much 
broken1 ,i enquired what  caused it1 and
 was told it was from the horses' hoofs 
drawing in the  ',christmas ,brund4'    
#ffh ,mrs4 ,ella ,mary ,leather1 ,the   
,folklore of ,herefordshire 7,hereford  
and ,london1 #aiab71 p4 #aji4 ,compare  
,miss ,c4,s4 ,burne1 ,herefordshire     
,notes1 ,the ,folk-lore ,journal1 iv4   

7#ahhf7 p4 #afg4    #ffi ,marie         
,trevelyan1 ,folk-lore and ,folk-stories
 of ,wales 7,london1  #aiji71 p4 #bh4   
#fgj ,in earlier ages1 and even so late 
as towards the middle of the  nineteenth
 century1 the ,servian village          
organisation and the ,servian           
agriculture had yet another             
distinguishing feature4 ,the dangers    
from  wild beasts in old time1 the want 
of security for life and property       
during the ,turkish rule1 or rather     
misrule1 the natural difficulties of    
the agriculture1 more especially the    
lack in agricultural labourers1  induced
 the ,servian peasants not to leave the 
parental house but to  remain together  
on the family's property4 ,in the same  
yard1 within the  same fence1 one could 
see around the ancestral house a number 
of wooden  huts which contained one or  
two rooms1 and were used as sleeping    
places  for the sons1 nephews and       
grandsons and their wives4 ,men and     
women of  three generations could be    

often seen living in that way together1 
and  working together the land which was
 considered as common property of the   
whole family4 ,this expanded family1    
remaining with all its branches         
together1 and1 so to say1 under the same
 roof1 working together1  dividing the  
fruits of their joint labours together1 
this family and an  agricultural        
association in one1 was called ,zadrooga
 7,the  ,association74 ,this combination
 of family and agricultural association 
has morally1 economically1 socially1 and
 politically rendered very  important   
services to the ,servians4 ,the headman 
or chief 7called  ,stareshina7 of such  
family association is generally the     
oldest male  member of the family4 ,he  
is the administrator of the common      
property and  director of work4 ,he is  
the executive chairman of the           
association4  ,generally he does not    
give any order without having consulted 
all the  grown-up male members of the   
,zadroega 7,chedo ,mijatovich1 ,servia  

and  the ,servians1 ,london1 #aijh1 pp4 
#bcg sq474 ,as to the house-communities 
of the ,south ,slavs see further ,og4   
,m4 ,utiesenovic1 ,die ,hauskommunionen 
der ,sdslaven 7,vienna1 #ahei72 ,f4     
,demelic1 ,le ,droit ,coutumier des     
,slaves ,mridionaux 7,paris1 #ahgf71 pp4
 #bc sqq42 ,f4,s4 ,krauss1 ,sitte  und  
,brauch der ,sdslaven 7,vienna1 #ahhe71 
pp4 #fd sqq4 ,since ,servia1  freed from
 ,turkish oppression1 has become a      
well-regulated ,european  state1 with   
laws borrowed from the codes of ,france 
and ,germany1 the old  house-communities
 have been rapidly disappearing 7,chedo 
,mijatovich1 op4  cit4 p4 #bdj74    #fga
 ,chedo ,mijatovich1 ,servia and the    
,servians 7,london1 #aijh71 pp4         
#ih-aje4    #fgb ,baron ,rajacsich1 ,das
 ,leben1 die ,sitten und ,gebruche der  
im  ,kaiserthume ,oesterreich lebenden  
,sdslaven 7,vienna1 #ahgc71 pp4         
#abb-abh4    #fgc ,baron ,rajacsich1    
,das ,leben1 die ,sitten und ,gebrauche 
der im  ,kaiserthume ,oesterreich       

lebenden ,sdslaven 7,vienna1 #ahgc71 pp4
 #abi-aca4  ,the ,yule log 7badnyak7 is 
also known in ,bulgaria1 where the women
  place it on the hearth on ,christmas  
,eve4 ,see ,a4 ,strausz1 ,die ,bulgaren 
7,leipsic1 #ahih71 p4 #cfa4    #fgd ,m4 
,edith ,durham1 ,high ,albania 7,london1
 #aiji71 p4 #abi4    #fge ,r4,f4        
,kaindl1 ,die ,huzulen 7,vienna1 #ahid7 
p4 #ga4    #fgf ,see above1 pp4 #bdh1   
#bdi1 #bej1 #bea1 #beb1 #bec1 #bed1     
#bee1 #bef1 #beh4  ,similarly at        
,candlemas people lighted candles in the
 churches1 then took  them home and kept
 them1 and thought that by lighting them
 at any time  they could keep off       
thunder1 storm1 and tempest4 ,see       
,barnabe ,googe1 ,the  ,popish ,kingdom 
7reprinted ,london1 #ahhj71 p4 #dh      
verso4    #fgg ,see above1 pp4 #bdh1    
#bej1 #bea1 #beg1 #beh1 #bfc4    #fgh   
,see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution
 of ,kings1 ii4 #cef sqq4    #fgi ,see  
above1 pp4 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bej1 #bea1 #bfd4
    #fhj ,august ,witzschel1 ,sagen1    

,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen     
7,vienna1 #ahgh71 pp4 #aga sq4    #fha  
,jules ,lecoeur1 ,esquisses du ,bocage  
,normand 7,cond-sur-,noireau1           
#ahhc-ahhg71 ii4 #bhi sq4    #fhb       
,joseph ,train1 ,historical and         
,statistical ,account of the ,isle of   
,man 7,douglas1 ,isle of ,man1 #ahde71  
ii4 #abd1 referring to ,cregeen's ,manx 
,dictionary1 p4 #fg4    #fhc ,r4        
,chambers1 ,the ,book of ,days 7,london 
and ,edinburgh1 #ahhf71 ii4  #ghi-gia1  
quoting ,the ,banffshire ,journal2 ,miss
 ,c4,f4 ,gordon ,cumming1 ,in  the      
,hebrides 7,london1 #ahhc71 p4 #bbf2    
,miss ,e4,j4 ,guthrie1 ,old ,scottish   
,customs 7,london and ,glasgow1 #ahhe71 
pp4 #bbc-bbe2 ,ch4 ,rogers1 ,social     
,life in ,scotland 7,edinburgh1         
#ahhd-ahhf71 iii4 #bdd sq42 ,the        
,folk-lore  ,journal1 vii4 7#ahhi7 pp4  
#aa-ad1 #df4 ,miss ,gordon ,gumming and 
,miss  ,guthrie say that the burning of 
the ,clavie took place upon ,yule       
,night2  but this seems to be a mistake4

    #fhd ,caesar1 ,de bello ,gallico1   
vii4 #bc4    #fhe ,hugh ,w4 ,young1     
,f4,s4,a4 ,scot41 ,notes on the         
,ramparts of ,burghead as  revealed by  
recent ,excavations 7,edinburgh1 #ahib71
 pp4 #c sqq42 ,notes  on further        
,excavations at ,burghead 7,edinburgh1  
#ahic71 pp4 #g sqq4  ,these papers are  
reprinted from the ,proceedings of the  
,society of  ,antiquaries of ,scotland1 
vols4 xxv41 xxvii4 ,mr4 ,young concludes
 as  follows3 ,it is proved that the    
fort at ,burghead was raised by a people
  skilled in engineering1 who used axes 
and chisels of iron2 who shot  balista  
stones over #bj lbs4 in weight2 and     
whose daily food was the bos            
longifrons4 ,a people who made paved    
roads1 and sunk artesian wells1 and     
used ,roman beads and pins4 ,the riddle 
of ,burghead should not now be very     
difficult to read4 7,notes on further   
,excavations at ,burghead1 pp4 #ad      
sq474 ,for a loan of ,mr4 ,young's      
pamphlets ,i am indebted to the         

kindness of ,sheriff-,substitute ,david4
    #fhf ,robert ,cowie1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41
 ,shetland1 ,descriptive and ,historical
  7,aberdeen1 #ahga71 pp4 #abg sq42     
,county ,folk-lore1 vol4 iii4 ,orkney   
and ,shetland ,islands1 collected by    
,g4,f4 ,black and edited by ,northcote  
,w4 ,thomas 7,london1 #aijc71 pp4 #bjc  
sq4 ,a similar celebration1 known as    
,up-helly-a1 takes place at ,lerwick on 
the #bith of ,january1 twenty-four  days
 after ,old ,christmas4 ,see ,the       
,scapegoat1 pp4 #afg-afi4 ,perhaps the  
popular festival of ,up-helly-a has     
absorbed some of the features of the    
,christmas ,eve celebration4    #fhg    
,thomas ,hyde1 ,historia ,religionis    
veterum ,persarum 7,oxford1  #agjj71 pp4
 #bee-beg4    #fhh ,on the need-fire see
 ,jacob ,grimm1 ,deutsche               
,mythologie99#d i4 #eja  sqq42 ,j4,w4   
,wolf1 ,beitrge zur deutschen           
,mythologie 7,gttingen and  ,leipsic1   
#aheb-aheg71 i4 #aaf sq41 ii4 #cgh sqq42
 ,adalbert ,kuhn1 ,die  ,herabkunjt des 

,feuers und des ,gttertranks99#b        
7,gtersloh1 #ahhf71 pp4  #da sqq42      
,walter ,k4 ,kelly1 ,curiosities of     
,indo-,european ,tradition and          
,folk-lore 7,london1 #ahfc71 pp4 #dh    
sqq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus  
der ,germanen und ihrer ,nachbarstmme   
7,berlin1 #ahge71 pp4 #eah sqq42        
,charles ,elton1 ,origins of ,english   
,history 7,london1 #ahhb71 pp4 #bic     
sqq42 ,ulrich ,jahn1 ,die deutschen     
,opfergebruche bei ,ackerbau und        
,viehzucht 7,breslau1 #ahhd71 pp4 #bf   
sqq4 ,grimm would derive the name       
need-fire 7,german1 niedfyr1 nodfyr1    
nodfeur1 nothfeur7 from need  7,german1 
noth71 necessity1 so that the phrase    
need-fire would mean  a forced fire4    
,this is the sense attached to it in    
,lindenbrog's  glossary on the          
capitularies1 quoted by ,grimm1 op4 cit4
 i4 p4 #ejb3  ,eum ergo ignem nodfeur et
 nodfyr1 quasi necessarium ignem vocant 
,c4,l4 ,rochholz would connect need with
 a verb nieten to churn1 so  that       

need-fire would mean churned fire4 ,see 
,c4,l4 ,rochholz1 ,deutscher  ,glaube   
und ,brauch 7,berlin1 #ahfg71 ii4 #adi  
sq4 ,this interpretion is  confirmed by 
the name ankenmilch bohren1 which is    
given to the  need-fire in some parts of
 ,switzerland4 ,see ,e4                 
,hoffmann-,krayer1  ,fruchtbarkeitsriten
 im schweizerischen ,volksbrauch1       
,schweizerisches  ,archiv fr ,volksknde1
 xi4 7#aijg7 p4 #bde4    #fhi ,illos    
sacrilegos ignes1 quos niedfyr vocant1  
quoted by ,j4  ,grimm1 ,deutsche        
,mythologie199#d i4 #ejb2 ,r4 ,andree1  
,braunschweiger  ,volkskunde            
7,brunswick1 #ahif71 p4 #cab4    #fij   
,indiculus ,superstitionum et           
,paganiarum1 ,no4 ,,xv41 ,de igne       
fricato de ligno i4e4 nodfyr4 ,a        
convenient edition of the ,indiculus    
has been published with a commentary by 
,h4,a4 ,saupe 7,leipsic1 #ahia74 ,as  to
 the date of the work1 see the editor's 
introduction1 pp4 #d sq4    #fia ,karl  
,lynker1 ,deutsche ,sagen und ,sitten in

 hessischen ,gauen199#b  7,cassel and   
,gttingen1 #ahfj71 pp4 #beb sq41 quoting
 a letter of the  mayor 7,schultheiss7  
of ,neustadt to the mayor of ,marburg   
dated #abth  ,december #afje4    #fib   
,bartholomus ,carrichter1 ,der          
,teutschen ,speisskammer 7,strasburg1   
#afad71 ,fol4 pag4 #ag and #ah1 quoted  
by ,c4,l4 ,rochholz1 ,deutscher ,glaube 
und ,brauch 7,berlin1 #ahfg71 ii4 #adh  
sq4    #fic ,joh4 ,reiskius1            
,untersuchung des ,notfeuers 7,frankfort
 and  ,leipsic1 #afif71 p4 #ea1 quoted  
by ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche                
,mythologie199#d i4  #ejb sq42 ,r4      
,andree1 ,braunschweiger ,volkskunde    
7,brunswick1 #ahif71 p4  #cac4    #fid  
,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 99#d 
i4 #ejc sq4    #fie ,j4 ,grimm1 op4 cit4
 i4 #ejd4    #fif ,adalbert ,kuhn1      
,mrkische ,sagen und ,mrchen 7,berlin1  
#ahdc71 p4  #cfi4    #fig ,karl         
,bartsch1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche 
aus ,mecklenburg  7,vienna1 #ahgi-ahhj71
 ii4 #adi-aea4    #fih ,carl und        

,theodor ,colshorn1 ,mrchen und ,sagen  
7,hanover1 #ahed71  pp4 #bcd-bcf1 from  
the description of an eye-witness4      
#fii ,heinrich ,prhle1 ,harzbilder1     
,sitten und ,gebruche aus dem           
,harz-gebirge 7,leipsic1 #ahee71 pp4 #gd
 sq4 ,the date of this need-fire  is not
 given2 probably it was about the middle
 of the nineteenth  century4    #gjj ,r4
 ,andree1 ,braunschweiger ,volkskunde   
7,brunswick1 #ahif71 pp4 #cac  sq4      
#gja ,r4 ,andree1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cad sq4 
#gjb ,montanus1 ,die deutschen          
,volks-feste1 ,volksbruche und deutscher
  ,volksglaube 7,iserlohn1 ,n4,d471 p4  
#abg4    #gjc ,paul ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 
,brauch und ,volksglaube in ,schlesien  
7,leipsic1 #aijc-aijf71 ii4 #bjd4       
#gjd ,anton ,peter1 ,volksthmliches aus 
sterreichisch-,schlesien  7,troppau1    
#ahfe-ahfg71 ii4 #bej4    #gje ,alois   
,john1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube 
im deutschen  ,westbhmen 7,prague1      
#aije71 p4 #bji4    #gjf ,c4,l4         
,rochholz1 ,deutscher ,glaube und       

,brauch 7,berlin1 #ahfg71 ii4  #adi4    
#gjg ,e4 ,hoffmann-,krayer1             
,fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen 
,volksbrauch1 ,schweizerisches ,archiv  
fur ,volkskunde1 xi4 7#aijg7 pp4        
#bdd-bdf4    #gjh ,e4 ,hoffmann-,krayer1
 op4 cit4 p4 #bdf4    #gji ,j4 ,grimm1  
,deutsche ,mythologie199#d i4 #eje4     
#gaj ,old-time ,survivals in remote     
,norwegian ,dales1 ,folk-lore1 xx4      
7#aiji7 pp4 #cad1 #cbb sq4 ,this record 
of ,norwegian folk-lore is  translated  
from a little work ,sundalen og         
ksendalens ,beskrivelse  written by     
,pastor ,chr4 ,glkstad and published at 
,christiania about  twenty years ago4   
#gaa ,prof4 ,,vi4 ,titelbach1 ,das      
heilige ,feuer bei den ,balkanslaven1   
,inter-nationales ,archiv fr            
,ethnographie1 xiii4 7#aijj7 pp4 #b sq4 
,we  have seen 7above1 p4 #bbj7 that in 
,russia the need-fire is1 or used to    
be1 annually kindled on the eighteenth  
of ,august4 ,as to the need-fire in     
,bulgaria see also below1 pp4 #bhd sq4  

#gab ,f4,s4 ,krauss1 ,altslavische      
,feuergewinnung1 ,globus1 lix4 7#ahia7  
p4 #cah1 quoting ,p4 ,ljiebenov1 ,baba  
,ega 7,trnovo1 #ahhg71 p4 #dd4    #gac  
,f4,s4 ,krauss1 op4 cit4 p4 #cai1       
quoting ,wisla1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #a1  #bdd  
sqq4    #gad ,f4,s4 ,krauss1 op4 cit4 p4
 #cah1 quoting ,oskar ,kolberg1 in      
,mazowsze1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ach4    #gae    
,f4,s4 ,krauss1 ,slavische ,feuerbohrer1
 ,globus1 lix4 7#ahia7 p4  #adj4 ,the   
evidence quoted by ,dr4 ,krauss is that 
of his father1 who often  told of his   
experience to his son4    #gaf ,prof4   
,vl4 ,titelbach1 ,das heilige ,feuer bei
 den ,balkanslaven1  ,internationales   
,archiv fur ,ethnographie1 xiii4 7#aijj7
 p4 #c4    #gag ,see below1 vol4 ii4 pp4
 #afh sqq4    #gah ,adolf ,strausz1 ,die
 ,bulgaren 7,leipsic1 #ahih71 pp4       
#aid-aii4    #gai ,wissenschaftliche    
,mittheilungen aus ,bosnien und der     
,hercegovina1  redigirt von ,moriz      
,hoernes1 iii4 7,vienna1 #ahie7 pp4 #egd
 sq4    #gbj ,pro fidei divinae         

integritate servanda recolat lector     
quod1 cum  hoc anno in ,laodonia pestis 
grassaretur in pecudes armenti1 quam    
vocant  usitate ,lungessouth1 quidam    
bestiales1 habitu claustrales non animo1
  docebant idiotas patriae ignem        
confrictione de lignis educere et       
simulachrum ,priapi statuere1 et per    
haec bestiis succurrere quoted by       
,j4,m4 ,kemble1 ,the ,saxons in ,england
 7,london1 #ahdi71 i4 #ceh sq42 ,a4     
,kuhn1 ,die ,herabkunft des ,feuers und 
des ,gttertranks99#b 7,gtersloh1        
#ahhf71 p4 #dc2 ,ulrich ,jahn1 ,die     
deutschen ,opfergebruche bei ,ackerbau  
und ,viehzucht 7,breslau1 #ahhd7 p4 #ca4
    #gba ,w4,g4,m4 ,jones ,barker1 ,the 
,three ,days of ,wensleydale 7,london1  
#ahed71 pp4 #ij sq42 ,county ,folk-lore1
 vol4 ii41 ,north ,riding of            
,yorkshire1 ,york and the ,ainsty1      
collected and edited by ,mrs4 ,gutch    
7,london1 #aija71 p4 #aha4    #gbb ,the 
,denham ,tracts1 a ,collection of       
,folklore by ,michael ,aislabie         

,denham1 edited by ,dr4 ,james ,hardy   
7,london1 #ahib-ahie71 ii4 #ej4    #gbc 
,harry ,speight1 ,tramps and ,drives in 
the ,craven ,highlands  7,london1       
#ahie71 p4 #afb4 ,compare1 id41 ,the    
,craven and ,north-,west  ,yorkshire    
,highlands 7,london1 #ahib71 pp4 #bjf   
sq4    #gbd ,j4,m4 ,kemble1 ,the ,saxons
 in ,england 7,london1 #ahdi71 i4 #cfa  
note4    #gbe ,e4 ,mackenzie1 ,an       
,historical1 ,topographical and         
,descriptive ,view  of the ,county of   
,northumberland1 ,second ,edition       
7,newcastle1 #ahbe71 i4  #bah1 quoted in
 ,county ,folk-lore1 vol4 iv4           
,northumberland1 collected  by ,m4,c4   
,balfour 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #de4      
,compare ,j4,t4 ,brockett1 ,glossary  of
 ,north ,country ,words1 p4 #adg1 quoted
 by ,mrs4 ,m4,c4 ,balfour1 l4c43        
,need-fire 444 an ignition produced by  
the friction of two pieces of  dried    
wood4 ,the vulgar opinion is1 that an   
angel strikes a tree1 and  that the fire
 is thereby obtained4 ,need-fire1 ,i am 

told1 is still  employed in the case of 
cattle infected with the murrain4 ,they 
were  formerly driven through the smoke 
of a fire made of straw1 etc4 ,the      
first edition of ,brockett's ,glossary  
was published in #ahbe4    #gbf ,w4     
,henderson1 ,notes on the ,folklore of  
the ,northern ,counties of  ,england and
 the ,borders 7,london1 #ahgi71 pp4 #afg
 sq4 ,compare ,county  ,folklore1 vol4  
iv4 ,northumberland1 collected by ,m4,c4
 ,balfour 7,london1  #aijd71 p4 #de4    
,stamfordham is in ,northumberland4 ,the
 vicar's testimony  seems to have       
referred to the first half of the       
nineteenth century4    #gbg ,m4 ,martin1
 ,description of the ,western ,islands  
of ,scotland1 in ,j4  ,pinkerton's      
,general ,collection of ,voyages and    
,travels1 iii4 7,london1  #ahji71 p4    
#faa4 ,the second edition of ,martin's  
book1 which ,pinkerton  reprints1 was   
published at ,london in #agaf4 ,for     
,john ,ramsay's account of  the         
need-fire1 see above1 pp4 #adg sq4      

#gbh ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche              
,mythologie199#d i4 #ejf1 referring to  
,miss  ,austin as his authority4    #gbi
 ,as to the custom of sacrificing one of
 a plague-stricken herd or  flock for   
the purpose of saving the rest1 see     
below1 pp4 #cjj sqq4    #gcj ,john      
,jamieson1 ,etymological ,dictionary of 
the ,scottish ,language1  ,new ,edition1
 revised by ,j4 ,longmuir and ,d4       
,donaldson1 iii4 7,paisley1  #ahhj7 pp4 
#cdi sq41 referring to ,agr4 ,surv4     
,caithn41 pp4 #bjj1 #bja4    #gca ,r4,c4
 ,maclagan1 ,sacred ,fire1 ,folk-lore1  
ix4 7#ahih7 pp4 #bhj  sq4 ,as to the    
fire-drill see ,the ,magic ,art and the 
,evolution of  ,kings1 ii4 #bjg sqq4    
#gcb ,w4 ,grant ,stewart1 ,the ,popular 
,superstitions and ,festive  ,amusements
 of the ,highlanders of ,scotland       
7,edinburgh1 #ahbc71 pp4  #bad-baf2     
,walter ,k4 ,kelly1 ,curiosities of     
,indo-,european ,tradition and          
,folk-lore 7,london1 #ahfc71 pp4 #ec sq4
    #gcc ,alexander ,carmichael1        

,carmina ,gadelica 7,edinburgh1 #aijj71 
ii4  #cdj sq4    #gcd ,see above1 pp4   
#aed1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aei sq4    #gce      
,census of ,india1 #aiaa1 vol4 xiv4     
,punjab1 ,part i4 ,report1 by  ,pandit  
,harikishan ,kaul 7,lahore1 #aiab71 p4  
#cjb4 ,so in the north-east of          
,scotland those who were born with their
 feet first possessed great  power to   
heal all kinds of sprains1 lumbago1 and 
rheumatism1 either by  rubbing the      
affected part1 or by trampling on it4   
,the chief virtue lay  in the feet4     
,those who came into the world in this  
fashion often  exercised their power to 
their own profit4 ,see ,rev4 ,walter    
,gregor1  ,notes on the ,folk-lore of   
the ,north-,east of ,scotland 7,london1 
#ahha71  pp4 #de sq4    #gcf ,rev4      
,walter ,gregor1 ,notes on the          
,folk-lore of the ,north-,east of       
,scotland 7,london1 #ahha71 p4 #ahf4    
,the fumigation of the byres with       
juniper is a charm against witchcraft4  
,see ,j4,g4 ,campbell1 ,witchcraft  and 

,second ,sight in the ,highlands and    
,islands of ,scotland 7,glasgow1        
#aijb71 p4 ii4 ,the quarter-ill is a    
disease of cattle1 which affects  the   
animals only in one limb or quarter4 ,a 
very gross superstition is  observed by 
some people in ,angus1 as an antidote   
against this ill4 ,a  piece is cut out  
of the thigh of one of the cattle that  
has died of it4  ,this they hang up     
within the chimney1 in order to preserve
 the rest of  the cattle from being     
infected4 ,it is believed that as long  
as it hangs  there1 it will prevent the 
disease from approaching the place4 ,it 
is  therefore carefully preserved2 and  
in case of the family removing1         
transported to the new farm1 as one of  
their valuable effects4 ,it is  handed  
down from one generation to another 7,j4
 ,jamieson1 ,etymological  ,dictionary  
of the ,scottish ,language1 revised by  
,j4 ,longmuir and ,d4  ,donaldson1 iii4 
#ege1 s4v4 ,quarter-ill74 ,see further  
,rev4 ,w4 ,gregor1  op4 cit4 pp4 #ahf   

sq43 ,the forelegs of one of the animals
 that had  died were cut off a little   
above the knee1 and hung over the       
fire-place  in the kitchen4 ,it was     
thought sufficient by some if they were 
placed  over the door of the byre1 in   
the 'crap o' the wa'4' ,sometimes the   
heart  and part of the liver and lungs  
were cut out1 and hung over the         
fireplace instead of the fore-feet4     
,boiling them was at times  substituted 
for hanging them over the hearth4       
,compare ,w4 ,henderson1  ,notes on the 
,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties of
 ,england and the  ,borders 7,london1   
#ahgi71 p4 #afg3 ,a curious aid to the  
rearing of cattle  came lately to the   
knowledge of ,mr4 ,george ,walker1 a    
gentleman of the  city of ,durham4      
,during an excursion of a few miles into
 the country1 he  observed a sort of    
rigging attached to the chimney of a    
farmhouse well  known to him1 and asked 
what it meant4 ,the good wife told him  
that they  had experienced great        

difficulty that year in rearing their   
calves2 the  poor little creatures all  
died off1 so they had taken the leg and 
thigh  of one of the dead calves1 and   
hung it in a chimney by a rope1 since   
which they had not lost another calf4   
,in the light of facts cited below  7pp4
 #cae sqq47 we may conjecture that the  
intention of cutting off the  legs or   
cutting out the heart1 liver1 and lungs 
of the animals and  hanging them up or  
boiling them1 is by means of            
homoeopathic magic to  inflict          
corresponding injuries on the witch who 
cast the fatal spell on  the cattle4    
#gcg ,the ,mirror1 #bdth ,june1 #ahbf1  
quoted by ,j4 ,m4 ,kemble1 ,the ,saxons 
in ,england 7,london1 #ahdi71 i4 #cfj   
note #b4    #gch ,leland ,l4 ,duncan1   
,fairy ,beliefs and other ,folklore     
,notes from  ,county ,leitrim1          
,folk-lore1 vii4 7#ahif7 pp4 #aha sq4   
#gci 7,sir7 ,edward ,b4 ,tylor1         
,researches into the ,early ,history of 
,mankind1 ,third ,edition 7,london1     

#ahgh71 pp4 #bcg sqq42 ,the ,magic ,art 
and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #bjg  
sqq4    #gdj ,for some examples of such 
extinctions1 see ,the ,magic ,art and   
the  ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #bfa     
sqq41 #bfg sq42 ,spirits of the ,corn   
and  of the ,wild1 i4 #caa1 ii4 #gc sq42
 and above1 pp4 #abd sq41 #acb-aci4     
,the reasons for extinguishing fires    
ceremonially appear to vary with the    
occasion4 ,sometimes the motive seems to
 be a fear of burning or at least       
singeing a ghost1 who is hovering       
invisible in the air2 sometimes it is   
apparently an idea that a fire is old   
and tired with burning so long1  and    
that it must be relieved of the         
fatiguing duty by a young and  vigorous 
flame4    #gda ,above1 pp4 #adg1 #aed4  
,the same custom appears to have been   
observed  in ,ireland4 ,see above1 p4   
#aeh4    #gdb ,j4,n4,b4 ,hewitt1 ,new   
,fire among the ,iroquois1 ,the         
,american  ,anthropologist1 ii4 7#ahhi7 
p4 #cai4    #gdc ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche  

,mythologie199#d i4 #ejg4    #gdd ,see  
above1 p4 #bij4    #gde ,william ,hone1 
,every-day ,book 7,london1 preface dated
 #ahbg71 i4  coll4 #hec sq4 7,june      
#bdth71 quoting ,hitchin's ,history of  
,cornwall4    #gdf ,hunt1 ,romances and 
,drolls of the ,west of ,england1 #ast  
series1 p4  #bcg1 quoted by ,w4         
,henderson1 ,notes on the ,folk-lore of 
the ,northern  ,counties of ,england and
 the ,borders 7,london1 #ahgi71 p4 #adi4
 ,compare  ,j4,g4 ,dalyell1 ,the ,darker
 ,superstitions of ,scotland            
7,edinburgh1 #ahcd71  p4 #ahd3 ,here    
also maybe found a solution of that     
recent expedient so  ignorantly         
practised in the neighbouring kingdom1  
where one having lost  many of his herd 
by witchcraft1 as he concluded1 burnt a 
living calf to  break the spell and     
preserve the remainder4    #gdg ,marie  
,trevelyan1 ,folk-lore and ,folk-stories
 of ,wales 7,london1  #aiji71 p4 #bc4   
#gdh ,w4 ,henderson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #adh  
sq4    #gdi ,rev4 ,walter ,gregor1      

,notes on the ,folk-lore of the         
,north-,east of  ,scotland 7,london1    
#ahha71 p4 #ahf4    #gej ,r4 ,n4 ,worth1
 ,history of ,devonshire1 ,second       
,edition 7,london1  #ahhf71 p4 #cci4    
,the diabolical nature of the toad      
probably explains why  people in        
,herefordshire think that if you wear a 
toad's heart concealed  about your      
person you can steal to your heart's    
content without being  found out4 ,a    
suspected thief was overheard boasting1 
,they never catches  me3 and they never 
ooll neither4 ,i allus wears a toad's   
heart round my  neck1 ,i does4 ,see     
,mrs4 ,ella ,m4 ,leather1 in ,folk-lore1
 xxiv4 7#aiac7  p4 #bch4    #gea ,above1
 p4 #cja4    #geb ,robert ,hunt1        
,popular ,romances of the ,west of      
,england1 ,third  ,edition 7,london1    
#ahha71 p4 #cbj4 ,the writer does not   
say where this took  place2 probably it 
was in ,cornwall or ,devonshire4    #gec
 ,rev4 ,walter ,gregor1 ,notes on the   
,folk-lore of the ,north-,east of       

,scotland 7,london1 #ahha71 p4 #ahd4    
#ged ,county ,folk-lore1 ,printed       
,extracts1 ,no4 #b1 ,suffolk1 collected 
and edited by the ,lady ,eveline        
,camilla ,gurdon 7,london1 #ahic71 pp4  
#aij  sq41 quoting ,some ,materials for 
the ,history of ,wherstead by ,f4       
,barham ,zincke 7,ipswich1 #ahhg71 p4   
#afh4    #gee ,county ,folk-lore1       
,printed ,extracts1 ,no4 #b1 ,suffolk1  
p4 #aia1  referring to ,murray's        
,handbook for ,essex1 ,suffolk1 etc41 p4
 #aji4    #gef 7,sir7 ,john ,rhys1 ,manx
 ,folklore and ,superstitions1          
,folk-lore1  ii4 7#ahia7 pp4 #cjj-cjb2  
repeated in his ,celtic ,folk-lore1     
,welsh and  ,manx 7,oxford1 #aija71 i4  
#cjf sq4 ,sir ,john ,rhys does not doubt
 that the  old woman saw1 as she said1 a
 live sheep being burnt on old ,may-day2
 but  he doubts whether it was done as a
 sacrifice4 ,he adds3 ,i have failed to 
find anybody else in ,andreas or ,bride1
 or indeed in the whole island1  who    
will now confess to having ever heard of

 the sheep sacrifice on old  ,may-day4  
,however1 the evidence ,i have adduced  
of a custom of burnt  sacrifice among   
,english rustics tends to confirm the   
old woman's  statement1 that the burning
 of the live sheep which she witnessed  
was  not an act of wanton cruelty but a 
sacrifice per formed for the public     
good4    #geg 7,sir7 ,john ,rhys1 ,manx 
,folklore and ,superstitions1           
,folk-lore1  ii4 7#ahia7 pp4 #bii sq42  
id41 ,celtic ,folklore1 ,welsh and ,manx
 7,oxford1  #aija71 i4 #cjd sq4 ,we have
 seen that by burning the blood of a    
bewitched bullock a farmer expected to  
compel the witch to appear4 ,see  above1
 p4 #cjc4    #geh ,olaus ,magnus1       
,historia de ,gentium ,septentrionalium 
,conditionibus1 lib xviii4 cap4 #dg1 p4 
#gac 7ed4 ,ble1 #aefg74    #gei ,collin 
de ,plancy1 ,dictionnaire ,infernal     
7,paris1 #ahbe-ahbf71 iii4  #dgc sq41   
referring to ,boguet4    #gfj ,collin de
 ,plancy1 op4 cit4 iii4 #dgc4    #gfa   
,felix ,chapiseau1 ,le ,folk-lore de la 

,beauce et du ,perche 7,paris1  #aijb71 
i4 #bci sq4 ,the same story is told in  
,upper ,brittany4 ,see ,paul  ,sbillot1 
,traditions et ,superstitions de la     
,haute-,bretagne 7,paris1  #ahhb71 i4   
#bib4 ,it is a common belief that a man 
who has once been  transformed into a   
werewolf must remain a were-wolf for    
seven years  unless blood is drawn from 
him in his animal shape1 upon which he  
at  once recovers his human form and is 
delivered from the bondage and  misery  
of being a were-wolf4 ,see ,f4          
,chapiseau1 op4 cit4 i4 #bah-bbj2       
,amlie ,bosquet1 ,la ,normandie         
,romanesque et ,merveilleuse 7,paris and
  ,rouen1 #ahde71 p4 #bcc4 ,on the      
belief in were-wolves in general2 see   
,w4  ,hertz1 ,der ,werwolf 7,stuttgart1 
#ahfb72 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche           
,mythologie99#d i4 #iae sqq42 7,sir7    
,edward ,b4 ,tylor1 ,primitive          
,culture#b 7,london1 #ahgc71 i4 #cjh    
sqq42 ,r4 ,andree1 ,ethnographische     
,parallelen und ,vergleiche 7,stuttgart1

 #ahgh71 pp4 #fb-hj4 ,in ,north         
,germany it is believed that a man can  
turn himself into a wolf by  girding    
himself with a strap made out of a      
wolf's hide4 ,some say that  the strap  
must have nine1 others say twelve1 holes
 and a buckle2 and  that according to   
the number of the hole through which the
 man inserts  the tongue of the buckle  
will be the length of time of his       
transformation4 ,for example1 if he puts
 the tongue of the buckle through  the  
first hole1 he will be a wolf for one   
hour2 if he puts it through  the second1
 he will be a wolf for two days2 and so 
on1 up to the last  hole1 which entails 
a transformation for a full year4 ,but  
by putting off  the girdle the man can  
resume his human form4 ,the time when   
were-wolves  are most about is the      
period of the ,twelve ,nights between   
,christmas and  ,epiphany2 hence        
cautious ,german farmers will not remove
 the dung from  the cattle stalls at    
that season for fear of attracting the  

were-wolves  to the cattle4 ,see        
,adalbert ,kuhn1 ,mrkische ,sagen und   
,mrchen 7,berlin1  #ahdc71 p4 #cge2     
,ulrich ,jahn1 ,volkssagen aus ,pommern 
und ,rgen 7,stettin1  #ahhf71 pp4 #chd1 
#chf1 ,nos4 #dia1 #die4 ,down to the    
time of ,elizabeth it was  reported that
 in the county of ,tipperary certain men
 were annually  turned into wolves4 ,see
 ,w4 ,camden1 ,britain1 translated into 
,english by  ,philemon ,holland         
7,london1 #afaj71 ,ireland1 p4 #hc4     
#gfb ,j4,j4,m4 de ,groot1 ,the          
,religious ,system of ,china1 v4        
7,leyden1  #aijg7 p4 #edh4    #gfc ,a4  
,c4 ,kruijt1 ,de weerwolf bij de        
,toradja's van ,midden-,celebes1        
,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal-      
,landen ,volkenkunde1 xli4 7#ahii7 pp4  
#edh-eea1 #eeg-efj4    #gfd ,a4,c4      
,kruijt1 op4 cit4 pp4 #eeb sq4    #gfe  
,a4,c4 ,kruijt1 op4 cit4 pp4 #eec4 ,for 
more evidence of the belief  in         
were-wolves1 or rather in were-animals  
of various sorts1 particularly          

were-tigers1 in the ,east ,indies1 see  
,j4,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,de ,weertijger in
  onze ,kolonin en op het oostaziatische
 ,vasteland1 ,bijdragen tot de  ,taal-  
,land- en ,volkenkunde van              
,nederlandsch-,indi1 xlix4 7#ahih7 pp4  
#edi-ehe2 ,g4,p4 ,rouffaer1 ,matjan     
,gadoengan1 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal-    
,land- en ,volkenkunde van              
,nederlandsch-,indi #a4 7#ahii7 pp4     
#fg-ge2 ,j4  ,knebel1 ,de ,weertijger op
 ,midden-,java1 den ,javaan naverteld1  
,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal-      
,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xli4 7#ahii7 pp4
  #efh-ehg2 ,l4,m4,f4 ,plate1 ,bijdrage 
tot de kennis van de lykanthropie bij   
de ,sasaksche bevolking in              
,oost-,lombok1 ,tijdschrift voor        
,indische ,taal-  ,land- en             
,volkenkunde1 liv4 7#aiab7 pp4 #deh-dfi2
 ,g4,a4 ,wilken1 ,het  animisme bij de  
volken van den ,indischen ,archipel1    
,verspreide  ,geschriften 7,the ,hague1 
#aiab71 iii4 #be-cj4    #gff ,ernst     
,marno1 ,reisen im ,gebiete des blauen  

und weissen ,nil  7,vienna1 #ahgd71 pp4 
#bci sq4    #gfg ,petronius1 ,sat4 #fa  
sq4 7pp4 #dj sq41 ed4 ,fr4              
,buecheler199#c  ,berlin1 #ahhb74 ,the  
,latin word for a were-wolf             
7versipellis7 is  expressive3 it means  
literally skin-shifter1 and is equally  
appropriate whatever the particular     
animal may be into which the wizard     
transforms himself4 ,it is to be        
regretted that we have no such general  
term in ,english4 ,the bright moonlight 
which figures in some of these          
were-wolf stories is perhaps not a mere 
embellishment of the tale but  has its  
own significance2 for in some places it 
is believed that the  transformation of 
were-wolves into their bestial shape    
takes place  particularly at full moon4 
,see ,a4 de ,nore1 ,coutumes1 ,mythes et
  ,traditions des ,provinces de ,france 
7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahdf71 pp4 #ii1    
#aeg2 ,j4,l4,m4 ,nogus1 ,les ,moeurs    
d'autrefois en ,saintonge et en ,aunis  
7,saintes1 #ahia71 p4 #ada4    #gfh     

,j4,g4 ,campbell1 ,witchcraft and       
,second ,sight in the ,highlands and    
,islands of ,scotland 7,glasgow1 #aijb71
 p4 #f3 ,in carrying out their          
unhallowed cantrips1 witches assumed    
various shapes4 ,they became gulls1     
cormorants1 ravens1 rats1 mice1 black   
sheep1 swelling waves1 whales1 and  very
 frequently cats and hares4 ,to this    
list of animals into which  witches can 
turn themselves may be added horses1    
dogs1 wolves1 foxes1  pigs1 owls1       
magpies1 wild geese1 ducks1 serpents1   
toads1 lizards1 flies1  wasps1 and      
butterflies4 ,see ,a4 ,wuttke1 ,der     
deutsche  ,volksaberglaube99#b 7,berlin1
 #ahfi71 p4 #aej  #bag2 ,l4             
,strackerjan1  ,aberglaube und ,sagen   
aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg          
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71  i4 #cbg  #bbj2    
,ulrich ,jahn1 ,hexenwesen und ,zauberei
 in ,pommern  7,breslau1 #ahhf71 p4 #g4 
,in his ,topography of ,ireland 7chap4  
#ai71 a work  completed in #aahg ,a4,d41
 ,giraldus ,cambrensis records that it  

has also  been a frequent complaint1    
from old times as well as in the        
present1  that certain hags in ,wales1  
as well as in ,ireland and ,scotland1   
changed  themselves into the shape of   
hares1 that1 sucking teats under this   
counterfeit form1 they might stealthily 
rob other people's milk4 ,see  ,the     
,historical ,works of ,giraldus         
,cambrensis1 revised and edited by      
,thomas ,wright 7,london1 #ahhg71 p4    
#hc4    #gfi ,the ,folk-lore ,journal1  
iv4 7#ahhf7 p4 #bff2 ,collin de ,plancy1
  ,dictionnaire ,infernal 7,paris1      
#ahbe-ahbf71 iii4 #dge2 ,j4,l4,m4       
,nogus1  ,les ,moeurs d'autrefois en    
,saintonge et en ,aunis 7,saintes1      
#ahia71 p4  #ada4 ,in ,scotland the cut 
was known as scoring above the breath4  
,it  consisted of two incisions made    
crosswise on the witch's forehead1 and  
was confided in all throughout ,scotland
 as the most powerful  counter-charm4   
,see ,sir ,walter ,scott1 ,letters on   
,demonology and  ,witchcraft 7,london1  

#ahhd71 p4 #bgb2 ,j4,g4 ,dalyell1 ,the  
,darker  ,superstitions of ,scotland    
7,edinburgh1 #ahcd71 pp4 #eca sq42      
,m4,m4 ,banks1  ,scoring a ,witch above 
the ,breath1 ,folk-lore1 xxiii4 7#aiab7 
p4 #dij4    #ggj ,j4,l4,m4 ,nogus1 l4c42
 ,l4,f4 ,sauv1 ,le ,folk-lore des       
,hautes-,vosges 7,paris1 #ahhi71 ,p4    
#ahg4    #gga ,m4 ,abeghian1 ,der       
armenische ,volksglaube 7,leipsic1      
#ahii71 p4 #aag4  ,the wolf-skin is     
supposed to fall down from heaven and to
 return to  heaven after seven years1 if
 the were-wolf has not been delivered   
from  her unhappy state in the meantime 
by the burning of the skin4    #ggb     
,j4,g4 ,campbell1 ,witchcraft and       
,second ,sight in the ,highlands and    
,islands of ,scotland 7,glasgow1 #aijb71
 p4 #h2 compare ,a4 ,wuttke1 ,der       
deutsche ,volksaberglaube99#b 7,berlin1 
#ahfi71 p4 #aej  #bag4 ,some think  that
 the sixpence should be crooked4 ,see   
,rev4 ,w4 ,gregor1 ,notes on the        
,folk-lore of the ,north-,east of       

,scotland 7,london1 #ahha71 pp4 #ga sq41
  #abh2 ,county ,folk-lore1 vol4 v4     
,lincolnshire1 collected by ,mrs4 ,gutch
  and ,mabel ,peacock 7,london1 #aijh71 
p4 #ge4    #ggc ,j4,g4 ,campbell1 op4   
cit4 p4 #cj4    #ggd ,j4,g4 ,campbell1  
op4 cit4 p4 #cc4    #gge 7,sir7 ,edward 
,b4 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture99#b     
7,london1 #ahgc71 i4  #cad4    #ggf     
,joseph ,glanvil1 ,saducismus           
,triumphatus or ,full and ,plain        
,evidence  concerning ,witches and      
,apparitions 7,london1 #afha71 ,part ii4
 p4 #bje4    #ggg ,rev4 ,j4,c4          
,atkinson1 ,forty ,years in a ,moorland 
,parish 7,london1  #ahia71 pp4 #hb-hd4  
#ggh ,county ,folk-lore1 vol4 v4        
,lincolnshire1 collected by ,mrs4       
,gutch and ,mabel ,peacock 7,london1    
#aijh71 pp4 #gi1 #hj4    #ggi ,leland   
,l4 ,duncan1 ,folk-lore ,gleanings from 
,county ,leitrim1  ,folklore1 iv4       
7#ahic7 pp4 #ahc sq4    #ghj ,l4,f4     
,sauv1 ,le ,folk-lore des               
,hautes-,vosges 7,paris1 #ahhi71 p4     

#agf4    #gha ,l4,f4 ,sauv1 op4 cit4 pp4
 #agf sq4    #ghb ,ernst ,meier1        
,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche 
aus ,schwaben  7,stuttgart1 #aheb71 pp4 
#ahd sq41 ,no4 #bjc4    #ghc ,e4 ,meier1
 op4 cit4 pp4 #aia sq41 ,no4 #bae4 ,a   
similar story of  the shoeing of a woman
 in the shape of a horse is reported    
from ,silesia4  ,see ,r4 ,khnau1        
,schlesische ,sagen 7,berlin1           
#aiaj-aiac71 iii4 pp4 #bg  sq41 ,no4    
#achj4    #ghd ,r4 ,khnau1 ,schlesische 
,sagen 7,berlin1 #aiaj-aiac71 iii4 pp4  
#bc  sq41 ,no4 #acge4 ,compare id41 iii4
 pp4 #bh sq41 ,no4 #acha4    #ghe ,see  
for example ,l4 ,strackerjan1           
,aberglaube und ,sagen aus dem          
,herzogthum ,oldenburg 7,oldenburg1     
#ahfg71 i4 pp4 #cbh1 #cbi1 #ccd1 #cci2  
,w4  von ,schulenburg1 ,wendische       
,volkssagen und ,gebruche aus dem       
,spreewald  7,leipsic1 #ahhj71 pp4 #afd1
 #afe sq42 ,h4 ,prhle1 ,harzsagen       
7,leipsic1  #ahei71 i4 #ajj sq4 ,the    
belief in such things is said to be     

universal  among the ignorant and       
superstitious in ,germany4 ,see ,a4     
,wuttke1 ,der  deutsche                 
,volksaberglaube99#b 7,berlin1 #ahfi71  
p4 #aej1  #bag4 ,in ,wales1  also1 the  
possibility of injuring or marking the  
witch in her assumed  shape so deeply   
that the bruise remained a mark on her  
in her natural  form was a common belief
 7,j4 ,ceredig ,davies1 ,folk-lore of   
,west and  ,mid-,wales1 ,aberystwyth1   
#aiaa1 p4 #bdc74 ,for ,welsh stories of 
this sort1  see ,j4 ,ceredig ,davies1   
l4c42 ,rev4 ,elias ,owen1 ,welsh        
,folk-lore  7,oswestry and ,wrexham1    
,n4,d41 preface dated #ahif71 pp4 #bbh  
sq42 ,m4  ,trevelyan1 ,folk-lore and    
,folk-stories of ,wales 7,london1       
#aiji71 p4 #bad4    #ghf ,l4            
,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus
 dem ,herzogthum  ,oldenburg            
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 i4 p4 #cfa1  #bci4 
#ghg ,marie ,trevelyan1 ,folk-lore and  
,folk-stories of ,wales 7,london1       
#aiji71 p4 #baj4    #ghh ,l4            

,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus
 dem ,herzogthum  ,oldenburg            
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 i4 p4 #ceh1  #bch4 
#ghi ,l4 ,strackerjan1 op4 cit4 i4 p4   
#cfj1  #bch;e4    #gij ,the             
',witch-burning' at ,clonmell1          
,folk-lore1 vi4 7#ahie7 pp4  #cgc-chd4  
,the account there printed is based on  
the reports of the  judicial proceedings
 before the magistrates and the judge1  
which were  published in ,the ,irish    
,times for ,march #bfth1 #bgth1 and     
#bhth1 ,april  #bnd1 #crd1 #fth1 and    
#hth1 and ,july #fth1 #ahie4    #gia    
,john ,graham ,dalyell1 ,the ,darker    
,superstitions of ,scotland             
7,edinburgh1 #ahcd71 p4 #ahe4 ,in this  
passage quick is used in the old  sense 
of living1 as in the phrase the quick   
and the dead4 ,nois is  nose1 hoill is  
hole1 quhilk 7whilk7 is which1 and be is
  by4    #gib ,j4,g4 ,dalyell1 op4 cit4 
p4 #ahf4 ,bestiallanimals2 seiksick2    
callingdriving2 guidiscattle4    #gic   
,john ,ramsay1 of ,ochtertyre1 ,scotland

 and ,scotsmen in the  ,eighteenth      
,century1 edited by ,alexander          
,allardyce 7,edinburgh and  ,london1    
#ahhh71 ii4 #ddf sq4 ,as to the custom  
of cutting off the leg of  a diseased   
animal and hanging it up in the house1  
see above1 p4 #bif1  note #a4    #gid   
7,sir7 ,arthur ,mitchell1 ,a4,m41       
,m4,d41 ,on ,various ,superstitions in  
the ,north-,west ,highlands and ,islands
 of ,scotland 7,edinburgh1 #ahfb71 p4   
#ab 7reprinted from the ,proceedings of 
the ,society of ,antiquaries of         
,scotland1 vol4 iv474    #gie ,county   
,folk-lore1 vol4 v4 ,lincolnshire1      
collected by ,mrs4  ,gutch and ,mabel   
,peacock 7,london1 #aijh71 p4 #ge1      
quoting ,rev4 ,r4,m4  ,heanley1 ,the    
,vikings3 traces of their ,folklore in  
,marshland1 a paper  read before the    
,viking ,club1 ,london1 and printed in  
its ,saga-,book1  vol4 iii4 ,part i4    
,jan4 #aijb4 ,the wicken-tree is the    
mountain-ash or  rowan free1 which is a 
very efficient1 or at all events a very 

popular  protective against witchcraft4 
,see ,county ,folk-lore1 vol4 v4        
,lincolnshire1 pp4 #bf sq41 #ih sq42    
,mabel ,peacock1 ,the ,folklore of      
,lincolnshire1 ,folk-lore1 xii4 7#aija7 
p4 #age2 ,j4,g4 ,campbell1  ,witchcraft 
and ,second ,sight in the ,highlands and
 ,islands of ,scotland  7,glasgow1      
#aijb71 pp4 #aa sq42 ,rev4 ,walter      
,gregor1 ,notes on the  ,folk-lore of   
the ,north-,east of ,scotland 7,london1 
#ahha71 p4 #ahh4 ,see  further ,the     
,scapegoat1 pp4 #bff sq4                
,,chapter ,v    ,,the ,,interpretation  
,,of ,,the ,,fire-,,festivals       #a4 
,on the ,fire-festivals in general      
,general resemblance of the ,european   
fire-festivals to each other4    ,the   
foregoing survey of the popular         
fire-festivals of ,europe suggests  some
 general observations4 ,in the first    
place we can hardly help being  struck  
by the resemblance which the ceremonies 
bear to each other1 at  whatever time of
 the year and in whatever part of       

,europe they are  celebrated4 ,the      
custom of kindling great bonfires1      
leaping over them1  and driving cattle  
through or round them would seem to have
 been  practically universal throughout 
,europe1 and the same may be said of the
  processions or races with blazing     
torches round fields1 orchards1         
pastures1 or cattle-stalls4 ,less       
widespread are the customs of hurling   
lighted discs into the air#gif and      
trundling a burning wheel down          
hill2#gig for to judge by the evidence  
which ,i have collected these  modes of 
distributing the beneficial influence of
 the fire have been  confined in the    
main to ,central ,europe4 ,the          
ceremonial of the ,yule log  is         
distinguished from that of the other    
fire-festivals by the privacy  and      
domesticity which characterize it2 but1 
as we have already seen1  this          
distinction may well be due simply to   
the rough weather of  midwinter1 which  
is apt not only to render a public      

assembly in the open  air disagreeable1 
but also at any moment to defeat the    
object of the  assembly by extinguishing
 the all-important fire under a downpour
 of  rain or a fall of snow4 ,apart from
 these local or seasonal differences1   
the general resemblance between the     
fire-festivals at all times of the  year
 and in all places is tolerably close4  
,and as the ceremonies  themselves      
resemble each other1 so do the benefits 
which the people  expect to reap from   
them4 ,whether applied in the form of   
bonfires  blazing at fixed points1 or of
 torches carried about from place to    
place1 or of embers and ashes taken from
 the smouldering heap of fuel1  the fire
 is believed to promote the growth of   
the crops and the welfare  of man and   
beast1 either positively by stimulating 
them1 or negatively  by averting the    
dangers and calamities which threaten   
them from such  causes as thunder and   
lightning1 conflagration1 blight1       
mildew1 vermin1  sterility1 disease1 and

 not least of all witchcraft4    ,two   
explanations suggested of the           
fire-festivals4 ,according to ,w4       
,mannhardt1 they are charms to secure a 
supply of sunshine2 according to  ,dr4  
,e4 ,westermarck they are purificatory1 
being intended to burn and  destroy all 
harmful influences4    ,but we naturally
 ask1 ,how did it come about that       
benefits so great and  manifold were    
supposed to be attained by means so     
simple8 ,in what way  did people imagine
 that they could procure so many goods  
or avoid so  many ills by the           
application of fire and smoke1 of embers
 and ashes8 ,in  short1 what theory     
underlay and prompted the practice of   
these customs8  ,for that the           
institution of the festivals was the    
outcome of a definite  train of         
reasoning may be taken for granted2 the 
view that primitive man  acted first and
 invented his reasons to suit his       
actions afterwards1 is  not borne out by
 what we know of his nearest living     

representatives1 the  savage and the    
peasant4 ,two different explanations of 
the fire-festivals  have been given by  
modern enquirers4 ,on the one hand it   
has been held  that they are sun-charms 
or magical ceremonies intended1 on the  
principle of imitative magic1 to ensure 
a needful supply of sunshine for  men1  
animals1 and plants by kindling fires   
which mimic on earth the  great source  
of light and heat in the sky4 ,this was 
the view of ,wilhelm  ,mannhardt4#gih   
,it may be called the solar theory4 ,on 
the other hand it  has been maintained  
that the ceremonial fires have no       
necessary  reference to the sun but are 
simply purificatory in intention1 being 
designed to burn up and destroy all     
harmful influences1 whether these  are  
conceived in a personal form as witches1
 demons1 and monsters1 or in  an        
impersonal form as a sort of pervading  
taint or corruption of the  air4 ,this  
is the view of ,dr4 ,edward             
,westermarck#gii and apparently of      

,professor ,eugen ,mogk4#hjj ,it may be 
called the purificatory theory4         
,obviously the two theories postulate   
two very different conceptions of  the  
fire which plays the principal part in  
the rites4 ,on the one view1  the fire1 
like sunshine in our latitude1 is a     
genial creative power  which fosters the
 growth of plants and the development of
 all that makes  for health and         
happiness2 on the other view1 the fire  
is a fierce  destructive power which    
blasts and consumes all the noxious     
elements1  whether spiritual or         
material1 that menace the life of men1  
of animals1  and of plants4 ,according  
to the one theory the fire is a         
stimulant1  according to the other it is
 a disinfectant2 on the one view its    
virtue  is positive1 on the other it is 
negative4    ,the two explanations are  
perhaps not mutually exclusive4    ,yet 
the two explanations1 different as they 
are in the character which  they        
attribute to the fire1 are perhaps not  

wholly irreconcilable4 ,if we  assume   
that the fires kindled at these         
festivals were primarily intended  to   
imitate the sun's light and heat1 may we
 not regard the purificatory  and       
disinfecting qualities1 which popular   
opinion certainly appears to  have      
ascribed to them1 as attributes derived 
directly from the  purificatory and     
disinfecting qualities of sunshine8 ,in 
this way we  might conclude that1 while 
the imitation of sunshine in these      
ceremonies  was primary and original1   
the purification attributed to them was 
secondary and derivative4 ,such a       
conclusion1 occupying an intermediate   
position between the two opposing       
theories and recognizing an element of  
truth in both of them1 was adopted by me
 in earlier editions of this  work2#hja 
but in the meantime ,dr4 ,westermarck   
has argued powerfully in  favour of the 
purificatory theory alone1 and ,i am    
bound to say that his  arguments carry  
great weight1 and that on a fuller      

review of the facts  the balance of     
evidence seems to me to incline         
decidedly in his favour4  ,however1 the 
case is not so clear as to justify us in
 dismissing the  solar theory without   
discussion1 and accordingly ,i propose  
to adduce the  considerations which tell
 for it before proceeding to notice     
those which  tell against it4 ,a theory 
which had the support of so learned and 
sagacious an investigator as ,w4        
,mannhardt is entitled to a respectful  
hearing4       #b4 ,the ,solar ,theory  
of the ,fire-festivals      ,theory that
 the fire-festivals are charms to ensure
 a supply of  sunshine4    ,in an       
earlier part of this work we saw that   
savages resort to charms for  making    
sunshine1#hjb and it would be no wonder 
if primitive man in  ,europe did the    
same4 ,indeed1 when we consider the cold
 and cloudy  climate of ,europe during a
 great part of the year1 we shall find  
it  natural that sun-charms should have 
played a much more prominent part  among

 the superstitious practices of         
,european peoples than among those  of  
savages who live nearer the equator and 
who consequently are apt to  get in the 
course of nature more sunshine than they
 want4 ,this view of  the festivals may 
be supported by various arguments drawn 
partly from  their dates1 partly from   
the nature of the rites1 and partly from
 the  influence which they are believed 
to exert upon the weather and on        
vegetation4    ,coincidence of two of   
the festivals with the solstices4       
,first1 in regard to the dates of the   
festivals it can be no mere  accident   
that two of the most important and      
widely spread of the  festivals are     
timed to coincide more or less exactly  
with the summer and  winter solstices1  
that is1 with the two turning-points in 
the sun's  apparent course in the sky   
when he reaches respectively his highest
 and  his lowest elevation at noon4     
,indeed with respect to the midwinter   
celebration of ,christmas we are not    

left to conjecture2 we know from the    
express testimony of the ancients that  
it was instituted by the church  to     
supersede an old heathen festival of the
 birth of the sun1#hjc which  was       
apparently conceived to be born again on
 the shortest day of the  year1 after   
which his light and heat were seen to   
grow till they  attained their full     
maturity at midsummer4 ,therefore it is 
no very far  fetched conjecture to      
suppose that the ,yule log1 which       
figures so  prominently in the popular  
celebration of ,christmas1 was          
originally  designed to help the        
labouring sun of midwinter to rekindle  
his  seemingly expiring light4          
,attempt of the ,bushmen to warm up the 
fire of ,sirius in midwinter by         
kindling sticks4    ,the idea that by   
lighting a log on earth you can rekindle
 a fire in  heaven or fan it into a     
brighter blaze1 naturally seems to us   
absurd2  but to the savage mind it wears
 a different aspect1 and the institution

  of the great fire-festivals which we  
are considering probably dates from  a  
time when ,europe was still sunk in     
savagery or at most in barbarism4  ,now 
it can be shewn that in order to        
increase the celestial source of  heat  
at midwinter savages resort to a        
practice analogous to that of our  ,yule
 log1 if the kindling of the ,yule log  
was originally a magical rite  intended 
to rekindle the sun4 ,in the southern   
hemisphere1 where the  order of the     
seasons is the reverse of ours1 the     
rising of ,sirius or the  ,dog ,star in 
,july marks the season of the greatest  
cold instead of1 as  with us1 the       
greatest heat2 and just as the civilized
 ancients ascribed  the torrid heat of  
midsummer to that brilliant star1#hjd so
 the modern  savage of ,south ,africa   
attributes to it the piercing cold of   
midwinter  and seeks to mitigate its    
rigour by warming up the chilly star    
with the  genial heat of the sun4 ,how  
he does so may be best described in his 

own  words as follows3--#hje    ,the    
,bushmen perceive ,canopus1 they say to 
a child3 ',give me yonder  piece of     
wood1 that ,i may put the end of it in  
the fire1 that ,i may  point it burning 
towards grandmother1 for grandmother    
carries ,bushman  rice2 grandmother     
shall make a little warmth for us2 for  
she coldly  comes out2 the sun#hjf shall
 warm grandmother's eye for us4' ,sirius
  comes out2 the people call out to one 
another3 ',sirius comes yonder2'  they  
say to one another3 ',ye must burn a    
stick for us towards ,sirius4'  ,they   
say to one another3 ',who was it who saw
 ,sirius8' ,one man says to  the other3 
',our brother saw ,sirius1' ,the other  
man says to him3 ',i saw  ,sirius4' ,the
 other man says to him3 ',i wish thee to
 burn a stick for us  towards ,sirius2  
that the sun may shining come out for   
us2 that ,sirius  may not coldly come   
out' ,the other man 7the one who saw    
,sirius7 says to  his son3 ',bring me   
the small piece of wood yonder1 that ,i 

may put the  end of it in the fire1 that
 ,i may burn it towards grandmother2    
that  grandmother may ascend the sky1   
like the other one1 ,canopus4' ,the     
child  brings him the piece of wood1 he 
7the father7 holds the end of it in the 
fire4 ,he points it burning towards     
,sirius2 he says that ,sirius shall     
twinkle like ,canopus4 ,he sings2 he    
sings about ,canopus1 he sings about    
,sirius2 he points to them with         
fire1#hjg that they may twinkle like    
each other4 ,he throws fire at them4 ,he
 covers himself up entirely  7including 
his head7 in his kaross and lies down4  
,he arises1 he sits  down2 while he does
 not again lie down2 because he feels   
that he has  worked1 putting ,sirius    
into the sun's warmth2 so that ,sirius  
may warmly  come out4 ,the women go out 
early to seek for ,bushman rice2 they   
walk1  sunning their shoulder           
blades4#hjh ,what the ,bushmen thus do  
to temper  the cold of midwinter in the 
southern hemisphere by blowing up the   

celestial fires may have been done by   
our rude forefathers at the             
corresponding season in the northern    
hemisphere4    ,the burning wheels and  
discs of the fire-festivals may be      
direct  imitations of the sun4    ,not  
only the date of some of the festivals  
but the manner of their  celebration    
suggests a conscious imitation of the   
sun4 ,the custom of  rolling a burning  
wheel down a hill1 which is often       
observed at these  ceremonies1 might    
well pass for an imitation of the sun's 
course in the  sky1 and the imitation   
would be especially appropriate on      
,midsummer ,day  when the sun's annual  
declension begins4 ,indeed the custom   
has been thus  interpreted by some of   
those who have recorded it4#hji ,not    
less  graphic1 it may be said1 is the   
mimicry of his apparent revolution by   
swinging a burning tar-barrel round a   
pole4#haj ,again1 the common  practice  
of throwing fiery discs1 sometimes      
expressly said to be shaped  like suns1 

into the air at the festivals may well  
be a piece of  imitative magic4 ,in     
these1 as in so many cases1 the magic   
force may be  supposed to take effect   
through mimicry or sympathy3 by         
imitating the  desired result you       
actually produce it3 by counterfeiting  
the sun's  progress through the heavens 
you really help the luminary to pursue  
his  celestial journey with punctuality 
and despatch4 ,the name fire of  heaven1
 by which the midsummer fire is         
sometimes popularly known1#haa  clearly 
implies a consciousness of a connexion  
between the earthly and  the heavenly   
flame4    ,the wheel sometimes used to  
kindle the fire by friction may also be 
an  imitation of the sun4    ,again1 the
 manner in which the fire appears to    
have been originally  kindled on these  
occasions has been alleged in support of
 the view that  it was intended to be a 
mock-sun4 ,as some scholars have        
perceived1 it is  highly probable that  
at the periodic festivals in former     

times fire was  universally obtained by 
the friction of two pieces of wood4#hab 
,we have  seen that it is still so      
procured in some places both at the     
,easter and  the midsummer festivals1   
and that it is expressly said to have   
been  formerly so procured at the       
,beltane celebration both in ,scotland  
and  ,wales4#hac ,but what makes it     
nearly certain that this was once the   
invariable mode of kindling the fire at 
these periodic festivals is the  analogy
 of the need-fire1 which has almost     
always been produced by the  friction of
 wood1 and sometimes by the revolution  
of a wheel4 ,it is a  plausible         
conjecture that the wheel employed for  
this purpose represents  the sun1#had   
and if the fires at the regularly       
recurring celebrations  were formerly   
produced in the same way1 it might be   
regarded as a  confirmation of the view 
that they were originally sun-charms4   
,in point  of fact there is1 as ,kuhn   
has indicated1#hae some evidence to shew

 that  the midsummer fire was originally
 thus produced4 ,we have seen that many 
,hungarian swineherds make fire on      
,midsummer ,eve by rotating a wheel     
round a wooden axle wrapt in hemp1 and  
that they drive their pigs  through the 
fire thus made4#haf ,at ,obermedlingen1 
in ,swabia1 the fire  of heaven1 as it  
was called1 was made on ,st4 ,vitus's   
,day 7the fifteenth  of ,june7 by       
igniting a cartwheel1 which1 smeared    
with pitch and plaited  with straw1 was 
fastened on a pole twelve feet high1 the
 top of the pole  being inserted in the 
nave of the wheel4 ,this fire was made  
on the  summit of a mountain1 and as the
 flame ascended1 the people uttered a   
set form of words1 with eyes and arms   
directed heavenward4#hag ,here the      
fixing of a wheel on a pole and igniting
 it suggests that originally the  fire  
was produced1 as in the case of the     
need-fire1 by the revolution of  a      
wheel4 ,the day on which the ceremony   
takes place 7the fifteenth of  ,june7 is

 near midsummer2 and we have seen that  
in ,masuren fire is1 or  used to be1    
actually made on ,midsummer ,day by     
turning a wheel rapidly  about an oaken 
pole1#hah though it is not said that the
 new fire so  obtained is used to light 
a bonfire4 ,however1 we must bear in    
mind that  in all such cases the use of 
a wheel may be merely a mechanical      
device  to facilitate the operation of  
fire-making by increasing the friction2 
it need not have any symbolical         
significance4    ,the influence which   
the fires are supposed to exert on the  
weather and  vegetation may be thought  
to be due to an increase of solar heat  
produced by the fires4    ,further1 the 
influence which these fires1 whether    
periodic or  occasional1 are supposed to
 exert on the weather and vegetation may
 be  cited in support of the view that  
they are sun-charms1 since the effects  
ascribed to them resemble those of      
sunshine4 ,thus1 the ,french belief     
that in a rainy ,june the lighting of   

the midsummer bonfires will cause  the  
rain to cease#hai appears to assume that
 they can disperse the dark  clouds and 
make the sun to break out in radiant    
glory1 drying the wet  earth and        
dripping trees4 ,similarly the use of   
the need-fire by ,swiss  children on    
foggy days for the purpose of clearing  
away the mist#hbj  may very naturally be
 interpreted as a sun-charm4 ,again1 we 
have seen  that in the ,vosges          
,mountains the people believe that the  
midsummer fires  help to preserve the   
fruits of the earth and ensure good     
crops4#hba ,in  ,sweden the warmth or   
cold of the coming season is inferred   
from the  direction in which the flames 
of the ,may ,day bonfire are blown2 if  
they  blow to the south1 it will be     
warm1 if to the north1 cold4#hbb ,no    
doubt  at present the direction of the  
flames is regarded merely as an augury  
of the weather1 not as a mode of        
influencing it4 ,but we may be pretty   
sure that this is one of the cases in   

which magic has dwindled into           
divination4 ,so in the ,eifel           
,mountains1 when the smoke blows towards
 the  corn-fields1 this is an omen that 
the harvest will be abundant4#hbc ,but  
the older view may have been not merely 
that the smoke and flames               
prognosticated1 but that they actually  
produced an abundant harvest1 the  heat 
of the flames acting like sunshine on   
the corn4 ,perhaps it was with  this    
view that people in the ,isle of ,man   
lit fires to windward of their  fields  
in order that the smoke might blow over 
them4#hbd ,so in ,south  ,africa1 about 
the month of ,april1 the ,matabeles     
light huge fires to the  windward of    
their gardens1 their idea being that the
 smoke1 by passing  over the crops1 will
 assist the ripening of them4#hbe ,among
 the ,zulus  also medicine is burned on 
a fire placed to windward of the garden1
 the  fumigation which the plants in    
consequence receive being held to       
improve  the crop4#hbf ,again1 the idea 

of our ,european peasants that the corn 
will grow well as far as the blaze of   
the bonfire is visible1#hbg may  be     
interpreted as a remnant of the belief  
in the quickening and  fertilizing power
 of the bonfires4 ,the same belief1 it  
may be argued1  reappears in the notion 
that embers taken from the bonfires and 
inserted  in the fields will promote the
 growth of the crops1#hbh and it may be 
thought to underlie the customs of      
sowing flax-seed in the direction in    
which the flames blow1#hbi of mixing the
 ashes of the bonfire with the          
seed-corn at sowing1#hcj of scattering  
the ashes by themselves over the  field 
to fertilize it1#hca and of             
incorporating a piece of the ,yule log  
in the plough to make the seeds         
thrive4#hcb ,the opinion that the flax  
or hemp will grow as high as the flames 
rise or the people leap over  them#hcc  
belongs clearly to the same class of    
ideas4 ,again1 at ,konz1 on  the banks  
of the ,moselle1 if the blazing wheel   

which was trundled down  the hillside   
reached the river without being         
extinguished1 this was  hailed as a     
proof that the vintage would be         
abundant4 ,so firmly was this  belief   
held that the successful performance of 
the ceremony entitled the  villagers to 
levy a tax upon the owners of the       
neighbouring  vineyards4#hcd ,here the  
unextinguished wheel might be taken to  
represent an unclouded sun1 which in    
turn would portend an abundant  vintage4
 ,so the waggon-load of white wine which
 the villagers received  from the       
vineyards round about might pass for a  
payment for the sunshine  which they had
 procured for the grapes4 ,similarly we 
saw that in the  ,vale of ,glamorgan a  
blazing wheel used to be trundled down  
hill on  ,midsummer ,day1 and that if   
the fire were extinguished before the   
wheel  reached the foot of the hill1 the
 people expected a bad harvest2 whereas 
if the wheel kept alight all the way    
down and continued to blaze for a  long 

time1 the farmers looked forward to     
heavy crops that summer4#hce  ,here1    
again1 it is natural to suppose that the
 rustic mind traced a  direct connexion 
between the fire of the wheel and the   
fire of the sun1  on which the crops are
 dependent4    ,the effect which the    
bonfires are supposed to have in        
fertilizing  cattle and women may also  
be attributed to an increase of solar   
heat  produced by the fires4    ,but in 
popular belief the quickening and       
fertilizing influence of the  bonfires  
is not limited to the vegetable world2  
it extends also to  animals4 ,this      
plainly appears from the ,irish custom  
of driving barren  cattle through the   
midsummer fires1#hcf from the ,french   
belief that the  ,yule-log steeped in   
water helps cows to calve1#hcg from the 
,french and  ,servian notion that there 
will be as many chickens1 calves1 lambs1
 and  kids as there are sparks struck   
out of the ,yule log1#hch from the      
,french custom of putting the ashes of  

the bonfires in the fowls' nests  to    
make the hens lay eggs1#hci and from the
 ,german practice of mixing  the ashes  
of the bonfires with the drink of cattle
 in order to make the  animals          
thrive4#hdj ,further1 there are clear   
indications that even  human fecundity  
is supposed to be promoted by the genial
 heat of the  fires4 ,in ,morocco the   
people think that childless couples can 
obtain  offspring by leaping over the   
midsummer bonfire4#hda ,it is an ,irish 
belief that a girl who jumps thrice over
 the midsummer bonfire will soon  marry 
and become the mother of many           
children2#hdb in ,flanders women  leap  
over the ,midsummer fires to ensure an  
easy delivery2#hdc and in  various parts
 of ,france they think that if a girl   
dances round nine  fires she will be    
sure to marry within the year4#hdd ,on  
the other hand1  in ,lechrain people say
 that if a young man and woman1 leaping 
over the  midsummer fire together1      
escape unsmirched1 the young woman will 

not  become a mother within twelve      
months3#hde the flames have not touched 
and fertilized her4 ,in parts of        
,switzerland and ,france the lighting of
  the ,yule log is accompanied by a     
prayer that the women may bear          
children1 the she-goats bring forth     
kids1 and the ewes drop lambs4#hdf  ,the
 rule observed in some places that the  
bonfires should be kindled by  the      
person who was last married#hdg seems to
 belong to the same class  of ideas1    
whether it be that such a person is     
supposed to receive from1  or to impart 
to1 the fire a generative and           
fertilizing influence4 ,the  common     
practice of lovers leaping over the     
fires hand in hand may very  well have  
originated in a notion that thereby     
their marriage would be  blessed with   
offspring2 and the like motive would    
explain the custom  which obliges       
couples married within the year to dance
 to the light of  torches4#hdh ,and the 
scenes of profligacy which appear to    

have marked  the midsummer celebration  
among the ,esthonians1#hdi as they once 
marked  the celebration of ,may ,day    
among ourselves1 may have sprung1 not   
from  the mere license of               
holiday-makers1 but from a crude notion 
that such  orgies were justified1 if not
 required1 by some mysterious bond which
  linked the life of man to the courses 
of the heavens at this  turning-point of
 the year4    ,the custom of carrying   
lighted torches about the country at the
  festival may be explained as an       
attempt to diffuse the ,sun's heat4     
,at the festivals which we are          
considering the custom of kindling      
bonfires is commonly associated with a  
custom of carrying lighted  torches     
about the fields1 the orchards1 the     
pastures1 the flocks and the  herds2 and
 we can hardly doubt that the two       
customs are only two  different ways of 
attaining the same object1 namely1 the  
benefits which  are believed to flow    
from the fire1 whether it be stationary 

or  portable4 ,accordingly if we accept 
the solar theory of the bonfires1 we    
seem bound to apply it also to the      
torches2 we must suppose that the       
practice of marching or running with    
blazing torches about the country  is   
simply a means of diffusing far and wide
 the genial influence of the  sunshine1 
of which these flickering flames are a  
feeble imitation4 ,in  favour of this   
view it may be said that sometimes the  
torches are  carried about the fields   
for the express purpose of fertilizing  
them1#hej and for the same purpose live 
coals from the bonfires are  sometimes  
placed in the fields to prevent         
blight4#hea ,on the ,eve of  ,twelfth   
,day in ,normandy men1 women1 and       
children run wildly through the  fields 
and orchards with lighted torches1 which
 they wave about the  branches and dash 
against the trunks of the fruit-trees   
for the sake of  burning the moss and   
driving away the moles and field mice4  
,they  believe that the ceremony fulfils

 the double object of exorcizing the    
vermin whose multiplication would be a  
real calamity1 and of imparting         
fecundity to the trees1 the fields1 and 
even the cattle2 and they  imagine that 
the more the ceremony is prolonged1 the 
greater will be the  crop of fruit next 
autumn4#heb ,in ,bohemia they say that  
the corn will  grow as high as they     
fling the blazing besoms into the       
air4#hec ,nor are  such notions confined
 to ,europe4 ,in ,corea1 a few days     
before the ,new  ,year festival1 the    
eunuchs of the palace swing burning     
torches1 chanting  invocations the      
while1 and this is supposed to ensure   
bountiful crops  for the next           
season4#hed ,the custom of trundling a  
burning wheel over  the fields1 which   
used to be observed in ,poitou for the  
express purpose  of fertilizing         
them1#hee may be thought to embody the  
same idea in a  still more graphic form2
 since in this way the mock-sun itself1 
not  merely its light and heat          

represented by torches1 is made actually
 to  pass over the ground which is to   
receive its quickening and kindly       
influence4 ,once more1 the custom of    
carrying lighted brands round           
cattle#hef is plainly equivalent to     
driving the animals through the         
bonfire2 and if the bonfire is a        
sun-charm1 the torches must be so also4 
#c4 ,the ,purificatory ,theory of the   
,fire-festivals      ,theory that the   
fires at the festivals are purificatory1
 being intended  to burn up all harmful 
things4    ,thus far we have considered 
what may be said for the theory that at 
the  ,european fire-festivals the fire  
is kindled as a charm to ensure an      
abundant supply of sunshine for man and 
beast1 for corn and fruits4 ,it  remains
 to consider what may be said against   
this theory and in favour  of the view  
that in these rites fire is employed not
 as a creative but  as a cleansing      
agent1 which purifies men1 animals1 and 
plants by burning  up and consuming the 

noxious elements1 whether material or   
spiritual1  which menace all living     
things with disease and death4    ,the  
purificatory or destructive effect of   
the fires is often alleged by  the      
people who light them2 the great evil   
against which the fire at the  festivals
 is directed appears to be witchcraft4  
,first1 then1 it is to be observed that 
the people who practise the             
fire-customs appear never to allege the 
solar theory in explanation of  them1   
while on the contrary they do frequently
 and emphatically put  forward the      
purificatory theory4 ,this is a strong  
argument in favour of  the purificatory 
and against the solar theory2 for the   
popular  explanation of a popular custom
 is never to be rejected except for     
grave  cause4 ,and in the present case  
there seems to be no adequate reason for
  rejecting it4 ,the conception of fire 
as a destructive agent1 which can  be   
turned to account for the consumption of
 evil things1 is so simple  and obvious 

that it could hardly escape the minds   
even of the rude  peasantry with whom   
these festivals originated4 ,on the     
other hand the  conception of fire as an
 emanation of the sun1 or at all events 
as  linked to it by a bond of physical  
sympathy1 is far less simple and        
obvious2 and though the use of fire as a
 charm to produce sunshine  appears to  
be undeniable1#heg nevertheless in      
attempting to explain  popular customs  
we should never have recourse to a more 
recondite idea  when a simpler one lies 
to hand and is supported by the explicit
  testimony of the people themselves4   
,now in the case of the  fire-festivals 
the destructive aspect of fire is one   
upon which the  people dwell again and  
again2 and it is highly significant that
 the  great evil against which the fire 
is directed appears to be witchcraft4   
,again and again we are told that the   
fires are intended to burn or repel  the
 witches2#heh and the intention is      
sometimes graphically expressed  by     

burning an effigy of a witch in the     
fire4#hei ,hence1 when we  remember the 
great hold which the dread of witchcraft
 has had on the  popular ,european mind 
in all ages1 we may suspect that the    
primary  intention of all these         
fire-festivals was simply to destroy or 
at all  events get rid of the witches1  
who were regarded as the causes of      
nearly  all the misfortunes and         
calamities that befall men1 their       
cattle1 and  their crops4#hfj           
,amongst the evils for which the        
fire-festivals are deemed remedies the  
foremost is cattle-disease1 and         
cattle-disease is often supposed to be  
an effect of witchcraft4    ,this       
suspicion is confirmed when we examine  
the evils for which the  bonfires and   
torches were supposed to provide a      
remedy4 ,foremost1  perhaps1 among these
 evils we may reckon the diseases of    
cattle2 and of  all the ills that       
witches are believed to work there is   
probably none  which is so constantly   

insisted on as the harm they do to the  
herds1  particularly by stealing the    
milk from the cows4#hfa ,now it is      
significant that the need-fire1 which   
may perhaps be regarded as the  parent  
of the periodic fire-festivals1 is      
kindled above all as a remedy  for a    
murrain or other disease of cattle2 and 
the circumstance suggests1  what on     
general grounds seems probable1 that the
 custom of kindling the  need-fire goes 
back to a time when the ancestors of the
 ,european peoples  subsisted chiefly on
 the products of their herds1 and when  
agriculture  as yet played a subordinate
 part in their lives4 ,witches and      
wolves are  the two great foes still    
dreaded by the herdsman in many parts of
  ,europe2#hfb and we need not wonder   
that he should resort to fire as a      
powerful means of banning them both4    
,among ,slavonic peoples it appears     
that the foes whom the need-fire is     
designed to combat are not so much      
living witches as vampyres and other    

evil spirits1#hfc and the  ceremony1 as 
we saw1 aims rather at repelling these  
baleful beings than  at actually        
consuming them in the flames4 ,but for  
our present purpose  these distinctions 
are immaterial4 ,the important thing to 
observe is  that among the ,slavs the   
need-fire1 which is probably the        
original of  all the ceremonial fires   
now under consideration1 is not a       
sun-charm1  but clearly and unmistakably
 nothing but a means of protecting man  
and  beast against the attacks of       
maleficent creatures1 whom the peasant  
thinks to burn or scare by the heat of  
the fire1 just as he might burn  or     
scare wild animals4    ,again1 the      
bonfires are thought to avert hail1     
thunder1 lightning1 and  other maladies1
 all of which are attributed to the     
maleficent arts of  witches4    ,again1 
the bonfires are often supposed to      
protect the fields against  hail#hfd and
 the homestead against thunder and      
lightning4#hfe ,but both  hail and      

thunderstorms are frequently thought to 
be caused by  witches2#hff hence the    
fire which bans the witches necessarily 
serves  at the same time as a talisman  
against hail1 thunder1 and lightning4   
,further1 brands taken from the bonfires
 are commonly kept in the houses  to    
guard them against conflagration2#hfg   
and though this may perhaps be  done on 
the principle of homoeopathic magic1 one
 fire being thought to  act as a        
preventive of another1 it is also       
possible that the intention  may be to  
keep witch-incendiaries at bay4 ,again1 
people leap over the  bonfires as a     
preventive of colic1#hfh and look at the
 flames steadily  in order to preserve  
their eyes in good health2#hfi and both 
colic and  sore eyes are in ,germany1   
and probably elsewhere1 set down to the 
machinations of witches4#hgj ,once more1
 to leap over the ,midsummer  fires or  
to circumambulate them is thought to    
prevent a person from  feeling pains in 
his back at reaping2#hga and in ,germany

 such pains are  called witch-shots and 
ascribed to witchcraft4#hgb    ,the     
burning wheels rolled down hills and the
 burning discs and brooms  thrown into  
the air may be intended to burn the     
invisible witches4    ,but if the       
bonfires and torches of the             
fire-festivals are to be regarded       
primarily as weapons directed against   
witches and wizards1 it becomes         
probable that the same explanation      
applies not only to the flaming discs   
which are hurled into the air1 but also 
to the burning wheels which are  rolled 
down hill on these occasions2 discs and 
wheels1 we may suppose1  are alike      
intended to burn the witches who hover  
invisible in the air or  haunt unseen   
the fields1 the orchards1 and the       
vineyards on the  hillside4#hgc         
,certainly witches are constantly       
thought to ride through  the air on     
broomsticks or other equally convenient 
vehicles2 and if they  do so1 how can   
you get at them so effectually as by    

hurling lighted  missiles1 whether      
discs1 torches1 or besoms1 after them as
 they flit  past overhead in the gloom8 
,the ,south ,slavonian peasant believes 
that  witches ride in the dark          
hail-clouds2 so he shoots at the clouds 
to  bring down the hags1 while he curses
 them1 saying1 ,curse1 curse  ,herodias1
 thy mother is a heathen1 damned of ,god
 and fettered through  the ,redeemer's  
blood4 ,also he brings out a pot of     
glowing charcoal on  which he has thrown
 holy oil1 laurel leaves1 and wormwood  
to make a  smoke4 ,the fumes are        
supposed to ascend to the clouds and    
stupefy the  witches1 so that they      
tumble down to earth4 ,and in order that
 they may  not fall soft1 but may hurt  
themselves very much1 the yokel hastily 
brings out a chair and tilts it bottom  
up so that the witch in falling  may    
break her legs on the legs of the chair4
 ,worse than that1 he cruelly  lays     
scythes1 bill-hooks and other formidable
 weapons edge upwards so as  to cut and 

mangle the poor wretches when they drop 
plump upon them from  the clouds4#hgd   
,on this view the fertility supposed to 
follow the use of fire results          
indirectly from breaking the spells of  
witches4    ,on this view the fertility 
supposed to follow the application of   
fire in  the form of bonfires1 torches1 
discs1 rolling wheels1 and so forth1 is 
not conceived as resulting directly from
 an increase of solar heat which  the   
fire has magically generated2 it is     
merely an indirect result  obtained by  
freeing the reproductive powers of      
plants and animals from  the fatal      
obstruction of witchcraft4 ,and what is 
true of the  reproduction of plants and 
animals may hold good also of the       
fertility  of the human sexes4 ,we have 
seen that the bonfires are supposed to  
promote marriage and to procure         
offspring for childless couples4 ,this  
happy effect need not flow directly from
 any quickening or fertilizing  energy  
in the fire2 it may follow indirectly   

from the power of the fire  to remove   
those obstacles which the spells of     
witches and wizards  notoriously present
 to the union of man and wife4#hge      
,on the whole the theory of the         
purificatory or destructive intention of
  the fire-festivals seems the more     
probable4    ,on the whole1 then1 the   
theory of the purificatory virtue of the
  ceremonial fires appears more probable
 and more in accordance with the        
evidence than the opposing theory of    
their connexion with the sun4 ,but      
,europe is not the only part of the     
world where ceremonies of this sort     
have been performed2 elsewhere the      
passage through the flames or smoke  or 
over the glowing embers of a bonfire1   
which is the central feature of  most of
 the rites1 has been employed as a cure 
or a preventive of  various ills4 ,we   
have seen that the midsummer ritual of  
fire in ,morocco  is practically        
identical with that of our ,european    
peasantry2 and  customs more or less    

similar have been observed by many races
 in various  parts of the world4 ,a     
consideration of some of them may help  
us to  decide between the conflicting   
claims of the two rival theories1 which 
explain the ceremonies as sun-charms or 
purifications respectively4    ,notes3  
#gif ,above1 pp4 #aaf sq41 #aai1 #adc1  
#afe1 #aff1 #afh sq41 #agb4    #gig     
,above1 pp4 #aaf1 #aag sq41 #aai1 #ada1 
#adc1 #afa1 #afb sq41 #afc  sq41 #agc1  
#aia1 #bja4    #gih ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der
 ,baumkultus der ,germanen und ihrer    
,nachbarstmme 7,berlin1 #ahge71 pp4 #eba
 sqq4    #gii ,e4 ,westermarck1         
,midsummer ,customs in ,morocco1        
,folk-lore1 xvi4  7#aije7 pp4 #dd sqq42 
id41 ,the ,origin and ,development of   
the ,moral ,ideas  7,london1            
#aijf-aijh71 i4 #ef2 id41 ,ceremonies   
and ,beliefs connected with             
,agriculture1 certain ,dates of the     
,solar ,year1 and the ,weather in       
,morocco 7,helsingfors1 #aiac71 pp4     
#ic-ajb4    #hjj ,e4 ,mogk1 ,sitten und 

,gebruche im ,kreislauf des ,jahres1 in 
,r4  ,wuttke's ,schsische               
,volkskunde99#b 7,dresden1 #aija71 pp4  
#caj sq4    #hja ,the ,golden ,bough1   
,second ,edition 7,london1 #aijj71 iii4 
#cab3 ,the  custom of leaping over the  
fire and driving cattle through it may  
be  intended1 on the one hand1 to secure
 for man and beast a share of the  vital
 energy of the sun1 and1 on the other   
hand1 to purge them of all  evil        
influences2 for to the primitive mind   
fire is the most powerful of  all       
purificatory agents2 and again1 id4 iii4
 #cad3 ,it is quite  possible that in   
these customs the idea of the quickening
 power of fire  may be combined with the
 conception of it as a purgative agent  
for the  expulsion or destruction of    
evil beings1 such as witches and the    
vermin  that destroy the fruits of the  
earth4 ,certainly the fires are often   
interpreted in the latter way by the    
persons who light them2 and this        
purgative use of the element comes out  

very prominently1 as we have  seen1 in  
the general expulsion of demons from    
towns and villages4 ,but in  the present
 class of cases this aspect of fire may 
be secondary1 if  indeed it is more than
 a later misinterpretation of the       
custom4    #hjb ,the ,magic ,art and the
 ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #caa sqq4     
#hjc ,see ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1     
,second ,edition1 pp4 #bed sqq4    #hjd 
,manilius1 ,astronom4 v4 #bjf sqq43     
,cum vero in vastos surget ,nemeaeus    
hiatus1     ,exoriturque ,canis1        
latratque ,canicula       flammas       
,et rabit igne suo geminatque incendia  
solis1     ,qua subdente facem terris   
radiosque       movente etc4    ,pliny1 
,naturalis ,historic xviii4 #bfi sq43   
,exoritur dein post  triduum fere ubique
 confessum inter omnes sidus ingens quod
 canis ortum  vocamus1 sole partem      
primam leonis ingresso4 ,hoc fit post   
solstitium  ,,xxiii4 die4 ,sentiunt id  
maria et terrae1 multae vero et ferae1  
ut suis  locis diximus4 ,neque est minor

 ei veneratio quam descriptis in deos   
stellis accendique solem et magnam      
aestus obtinet causam4    #hje          
,specimens of ,bushman ,folklore        
collected by the late ,w4,h4,i4  ,bleek1
 ,ph4,d41 and ,l4,c4 ,lloyd 7,london1   
#aiaa71 pp4 #cci1 #cda4 ,in quoting  the
 passage ,i have omitted the brackets   
which the editors print for the  purpose
 of indicating the words which are      
implied1 but not expressed1 in  the     
original ,bushman text4    #hjf ,the sun
 is a little warm1 when this star       
appears in winter  7,editors of         
,specimens of ,bushman ,folklore74      
#hjg ,with the stick that he had held in
 the fire1 moving it up and  down       
quickly 7,editors74    #hjh ,they take  
one arm out of the kaross1 thereby      
exposing one  shoulder blade to the sun 
7,editors74    #hji ,see above1 pp4     
#afa1 #afb sq4 ,on the wheel as an      
emblem of the  sun1 see ,j4 ,grimm1     
,deutsche ,mythologie199#d ii4 #ehe2 ,a4
 ,kuhn1 ,die  ,herabkunft des ,feuers   

und des ,gttertranks99#b 7,gtersloh1    
#ahhf71 pp4  #de sqq42 ,h4 ,gaidoz1 ,le 
dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme 
de la  roue1 ,revue ,archologique1 iii4 
,srie1 iv4 7#ahhd7 pp4 #ad sqq42        
,william ,simpson1 ,the ,buddhist       
,praying ,wheel 7,london1 #ahif71 pp4   
#hg  sqq4 ,it is a popular ,armenian    
idea that the body of the sun has the   
shape of the wheel of a water-mill2 it  
revolves and moves forward4 ,as  drops  
of water sputter from the mill-wheel1 so
 sunbeams shoot out from  the spokes of 
the sun-wheel 7,m4 ,abeghian1 ,der      
armenische ,volksglaube1  ,leipsic1     
#ahii1 p4 #da74 ,in the old ,mexican    
picture-books the usual  representation 
of the sun is a wheel1 often brilliant  
with many  colours1 the rays of which   
are so many bloodstained tongues1 by    
means of  which the ,sun receives his   
nourishment 7,e4,j4 ,payne1 ,history of 
the ,new  ,world called ,america1       
,oxford1 #ahib1 i4 #eba74    #haj       
,above1 p4 #afi4    #haa ,ernst ,meier1 

,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche 
aus ,schwaben  7,stuttgart1 #aheb71 p4  
#bbe2 ,f4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur         
deutschen ,mythologie  7,munich1        
#ahdh-ahee71 ii4 #bdj2 ,anton           
,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus         
,schwaben 7,freiburg im ,breisgau1      
#ahfa-ahfb71 ii4 #eg1 #ig2 ,w4          
,mannhardt1  ,baumkultus1 p4 #eaj4      
#hab ,compare ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche     
,mythologie199#d i4 #eba2 ,j4,w4 ,wolf1 
,beitrge zur deutschen ,mythologie      
7,gottingen und ,leipsic1 #aheb-aheg71  
ii4 #chi2 ,adalbert ,kuhn1 ,die         
,herabkunft des ,feuers und des         
,gttertranks99#b 7,gtersloh1 #ahhf71 pp4
 #da sq41 #dg2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1          
,baumkultus1 p4 #eba4 ,lindenbrog in his
 ,glossary on the ,capitularies  7quoted
 by ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche               
,mythologie199#d i4 #ejb7 expressly     
says3  ,the rustics in many parts of    
,germany1 particularly on the festival  
of  ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 wrench a   
stake from a fence1 wind a rope round   

it1  and pull it to and fro till it     
catches fire4 ,this fire they carefully 
feed with straw and dry sticks and      
scatter the ashes over the vegetable    
gardens1 foolishly and superstitiously  
imagining that in this way the          
caterpillar can be kept off4 ,they call 
such a fire nodfeur or  nodfyr1 that is 
to say need-fire4    #hac ,above1 pp4   
#add sq41 #adg sq41 #aee1 #afi sq41     
#age1 #agg1 #agi4    #had ,j4 ,grimm1   
,deutsche ,mythologie199#d i4 #eji2     
,j4,w4 ,wolf1 ,beitrge  zur deutschen   
,mythologie1 i4 #aag2 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,die   
,herabkunft des  ,feuers199#b pp4 #dg   
sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4    
#eba2 ,w4,e4  ,kelly1 ,curiosities of   
,indo-,european ,tradition and          
,folk-lore 7,london1  #ahfc71 p4 #di4   
#hae ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,die ,herabkunft des    
,feuers und des ,gttertranks99#b        
7,gtersloh1 #ahhf71 p4 #dg4    #haf     
,above1 p4 #agi4    #hag ,f4 ,panzer1   
,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie      
7,munich1 #ahdh-ahee71  ii4 #bdj1  #ddc4

    #hah ,above1 p4 #agg4    #hai       
,above1 pp4 #ahg sq4    #hbj ,above1 pp4
 #bgi sq4    #hba ,above1 p4 #ahh4      
#hbb ,above1 p4 #aei4    #hbc ,above1 p4
 #aaf4    #hbd ,above1 p4 #bja4    #hbe 
,l4 ,decle1 ,three ,years in ,savage    
,africa 7,london1 #ahih71 pp4 #afj  sq4 
#hbf ,rev4 ,j4 ,shooter1 ,the ,kafirs of
 ,natal and the ,zulu ,country          
7,london1 #aheg71 p4 #ah4    #hbg       
,above1 pp4 #adj1 #adb4    #hbh ,above1 
pp4 #aai1 #afe1 #aff1 #agc1 #bjc4       
#hbi ,above1 p4 #adj4    #hcj ,above1 p4
 #aba4    #hca ,above1 pp4 #ada1 #agj1  
#aij1 #bjc1 #bdh1 #bej1 #bfd4    #hcb   
,above1 p4 #bea4    #hcc ,above1 pp4    
#aai1 #afe1 #aff1 #afh1 #agc1 #agd4     
#hcd ,above1 pp4 #aah1 #afc sq4    #hce 
,above1 p4 #bja4    #hcf ,above1 p4     
#bjc4    #hcg ,above1 p4 #bej4    #hch  
,above1 pp4 #bea1 #bfb1 #bfc1 #bfd4     
#hci ,above1 p4 #aab4    #hdj ,above1 p4
 #ada4    #hda ,above1 p4 #bad4    #hdb 
,above1 p4 #bjd4    #hdc ,above1 p4     
#aid4    #hdd ,above1 p4 #ahe1 #ahi2    

compare p4 #agd4    #hde ,above1 p4     
#aff4    #hdf ,above1 pp4 #bdi1 #bej4   
#hdg ,above1 pp4 #ajg1 #aji1 #aaa1 #aai2
 compare pp4 #aaf1 #aib1 #aic4    #hdh  
,above1 p4 #aae4    #hdi ,above1 p4     
#ahj4    #hej ,above1 pp4 #aac1 #adb1   
#agj1 #bcc4 ,the torches of ,demeter1   
which  figure so largely in her myth and
 on her monuments1 are perhaps to be    
explained by this custom4 ,see ,spirits 
of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 i4  #eg4 
,w4 ,mannhardt thought 7,baumkultus1 p4 
#ecf7 that the torches in the  modern   
,european customs are imitations of     
lightning4 ,at some of their  ceremonies
 the ,indians of ,north-,west ,america  
imitate lightning by means  of          
pitch-wood torches which are flashed    
through the roof of the house4  ,see    
,j4,g4 ,swan1 quoted by ,franz ,boas1   
,the ,social ,organization and the      
,secret ,societies of the ,kwakiutl     
,indians1 ,report of the ,united ,states
  ,national ,museum for #ahie           
7,washington1 #ahig71 p4 #fci4    #hea  

,above1 p4 #bjc4    #heb ,amlie         
,bosquet1 ,la ,normandie ,romanesque et 
,merveilleuse 7,paris  and ,rouen1      
#ahde71 pp4 #bie sq42 ,jules ,lecoeur1  
,esquisses du ,bocage  ,normand         
7,cond-sur-,noireau1 #ahhc-ahhg71 ii4   
#abf-abi4 ,see ,the  ,scapegoat1 pp4    
#caf sq4    #hec ,br4 ,jelnek1          
,materialen zur ,vorgeschichte mid      
,volkskunde  ,bhmens1 ,mittheilungen der
 anthropolog4 ,gesellschaft in ,wien    
xxi4  7#ahia7 p4 #ac note4    #hed ,mrs4
 ,bishop1 ,korea and her ,neighbours    
7,london1 #ahih71 ii4 #ef  sq4    #hee  
,above1 pp4 #aij sq4    #hef ,above1 pp4
 #agh1 #bje1 #bjf4    #heg ,see ,the    
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 i4 #caa sqq4    #heh ,above1 pp4
 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaf1 #aah sq41 #aba1 #adh1
 #aed1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aei1  #afj1 #agj1   
#aga1 #agd1 #age1 #agf1 #ahj1 #ahc1     
#ahe1 #ahh1 #bcb sq41 #bde1 #beb1  #bec1
 #bhj1 #bib1 #bic1 #bie1 #big4 ,for more
 evidence of the use of fire to  burn or
 expel witches on certain days of the   

year1 see ,the ,scapegoat  pp4 #aeh sqq4
 ,less often the fires are thought to   
burn or repel evil  spirits and         
vampyres4 ,see above1 pp4 #adf1 #agj1   
#agb1 #bjb1 #beb1 #bhb1 #bhe4           
,sometimes the purpose of the fires is  
to drive away dragons 7above1 pp4  #afa1
 #aie74    #hei ,above1 pp4 #ajg1 #aaf1 
#aah sq41 #aei4    #hfj ,in short1 of   
all the ills incident to the life of    
man1 none are  so formidable as         
witchcraft1 before the combined         
influence of which1 to  use the language
 of an honest man who had himself       
severely suffered from  its effects1 the
 great laird of ,grant himself could not
 stand them if  they should fairly yoke 
upon him 7,w4 ,grant ,stewart1 ,the     
,popular  ,superstitions and ,festive   
,amusements of the ,highlanders of      
,scotland1  ,edinburgh1 #ahbc1 pp4 #bjb 
sq474 ,every misfortune and calamity    
that  took place in the parish1 such as 
ill-health1 the death of friends1 the   
loss of stock1 and the failure of crops2

 yea to such a length did they  carry   
their superstition1 that even the       
inclemency of the seasons1 were         
attributed to the influence of certain  
old women who were supposed to be  in   
league1 and had dealings with the       
,devil4 ,these the common people        
thought had the power and too often the 
inclination to injure their  property1  
and torment their persons 7,county      
,folklore1 vol4 v4  ,lincolnshire1      
collected by ,mrs4 ,gutch and ,mabel    
,peacock1 ,london1 #aijh1  p4 #gf74 ,the
 county of ,salop is no exception to the
 rule of  superstition4 ,the late vicar 
of a parish on the ,clee ,hills1        
startled to  find that his parishioners 
still believed in witchcraft1 once      
proposed  to preach a sermon against it1
 but he was dissuaded from doing so by  
the  parish schoolmaster1 who assured   
him that the belief was so deeply       
rooted in the people's minds that he    
would be more likely to alienate  them  
from the ,church than to weaken their   

faith in witchcraft 7,miss  ,c4,f4      
,burne and ,miss ,g4,f4 ,jackson1       
,shropshire ,folk-lore1 ,london1 #ahhc1 
p4 #ade74 ,wherever a man or any living 
creature falls sick1 or a  misfortune of
 any kind happens1 without any natural  
cause being  discoverable or rather     
lying on the surface1 there in all      
probability  witchcraft is at work4 ,the
 sudden stiffness in the small of the   
back1  which few people can account for 
at the time1 is therefore called a      
'witch-shot' and is really ascribed to  
witchcraft 7,l4 ,strackerjan1           
,aberglaube und ,sagen aus dem          
,herzogthum ,oldenburg1 ,oldenburg1     
#ahfg1 i4  p4 #bih1  #bji74 ,what ,sir  
,walter ,scott said less than a hundred 
years ago  is probably still true3 ,the 
remains of the superstition sometimes   
occur2 there can be no doubt that the   
vulgar are still addicted to the  custom
 of scoring above the breath 7as it is  
termed71 and other  counter-spells1     
evincing that the belief in witchcraft  

is only asleep1  and might in remote    
corners be again awakened to deeds of   
blood  7,letters on ,demonology and     
,witchcraft1 ,london1 #ahhd1 p4 #bgb74  
,compare  ,l4 ,strackerjan1 op4 cit4 i4 
p4 #cdj1  #bba3 ,the great power1 the   
malicious wickedness of the witches1    
cause them to be feared and hated  by   
everybody4 ,the hatred goes so far that 
still at the present day you  may hear  
it said right out that it is a pity     
burning has gone out of  fashion1 for   
the evil crew deserve nothing else4     
,perhaps the hatred  might find vent yet
 more openly1 if the fear were not so   
great4    #hfa ,for some evidence1 see  
,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of  
,kings2  ii4 #eb-ee1 #ccj sqq4 ,it is a 
popular belief1 universally diffused in 
,germany1 that cattle-plagues are caused
 by witches 7,a4 ,wuttke1 ,der  deutsche
 ,volksaberglaube199#b ,berlin1 #ahfi1  
p4 #adi  #baf74 ,the ,scotch            
,highlanders thought that a witch could 
destroy the whole of a farmer's  live   

stock by hiding a small bag1 stuffed    
with charms1 in a cleft of the  stable  
or byre 7,w4 ,grant ,stewart1 ,the      
,popular superstitions and ,festive     
,amusements of the ,highlanders of      
,scotland1 ,edinburgh1 #ahbc1 pp4 #bja  
sq474    #hfb ,the ,magic ,art and the  
,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #ccj sqq4     
#hfc ,above1 pp4 #bhb1 #bhd sq4    #hfd 
,above1 pp4 #aah1 #aba1 #add1 #ade1     
#agf4    #hfe ,above1 pp4 #aba1 #abb1   
#abd1 #adj sq41 #ade1 #adf1 #agd1 #agf1 
#ahc1 #ahd1  #ahg1 #ahh1 #aij1 #aia1    
#aib1 #bdi1 #bej1 #beb1 #bec1 #bed1     
#beh4    #hff ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsch      
,mythologie199#d ii4 #ijh sqq42 ,j4,v4  
,grohmann1  ,aberglauben und ,gebruche  
aus ,bhmen und ,mhren 7,prague and      
,leipsic1  #ahfd71 p4 #cb  #ahb2 ,a4    
,wuttke1 ,der deutsche                  
,volksaberglaube99#b  7,berlin1 #ahfi71 
pp4 #adi sq41 #baf2 ,j4 ,ceredig        
,davies1 ,folk-lore of  ,west and       
,mid-,wales 7,aberystwyth1 #aiaa71 p4   
#bcj2 ,alois ,john1 ,sitte1  ,branch und

 ,volksglaube im deutschen ,westbhmen   
7,prague1 #aije71 p4 #bjb4    #hfg      
,above1 pp4 #ajh1 #aba1 #adj1 #adf1     
#afe1 #ahc1 #ahh1 #aif1 #bej1 #bee1     
#bef1  #beh4    #hfh ,above1 pp4 #ajg1  
#aie sq4    #hfi ,above1 pp4 #afb1 #afc1
 #aff1 #aga1 #agd4    #hgj ,a4 ,wuttke1 
,der deutsche ,volksaberglaube99#b      
7,berlin1 #ahfi71 p4  #cea1  #cie4      
#hga ,above1 pp4 #afe1 #afh1 #ahi1      
compare #aij4    #hgb ,a4 ,wuttke1 ,der 
deutsche ,volksaberglaube99#b 7,berlin1 
#ahfi71 p4  #cea1  #cie2 ,l4            
,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus
 dem ,herzogthum  ,oldenburg            
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 i4 p4 #bih1  #bji4 
,see above1 p4 #cdc note4    #hgc ,in   
the ,ammerland1 a district of           
,oldenburg1 you may sometimes see  an   
old cart-wheel fixed over the principal 
door or on the gable of a  house2 it    
serves as a charm against witchcraft and
 is especially  intended to protect the 
cattle as they are driven out and in4   
,see ,l4  ,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und 

,sagen aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg   
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 i4 p4 #ceg1  #bcf4 
,can this use of a wheel as a  talisman 
against witchcraft be derived from the  
practice of rolling  fiery wheels down  
hill for a similar purpose8    #hgd     
,f4,s4 ,krauss1 ,volksglaube und        
religiser ,brauch der ,sdslaven         
7,mnster i4 ,w41 #ahij71 pp4 #aah sq4   
#hge ,in ,german such spells are called 
,nestelknpfen2 in ,french1  nouer       
l'aiguilette4 ,see ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche
 ,mythologie199#d ii4 #hig1  #ihc2 ,a4  
,wuttke1 ,der deutsche                  
,volksaberglaube99#b 7,berlin1 #ahfi71  
p4  #beb  #cif2 ,k4 ,doutt1 ,magic et   
,religion dans l',afrique du ,nord      
7,algiers1 #aijh71 pp4 #hg sq41 #bid    
sqq42 ,j4,l4,m4 ,nogus1 ,les ,moeurs    
d'autrefois en ,saintonge et en ,aunis  
7,saintes1 #ahia71 pp4 #aga sq4