,illustration3 ,interior of a ,french ,chateau ,shewing ,furniture of the ,time4 ,period3 ,late ,,xiv4 or ,early ,,xv4 ,century4 ,illustrated ,history ,of ,furniture3 ,from the ,earliest to the ,present ,time4 by ,frederick ,litchfield4 ,with numerous ,illustrations #ahic4 ,preface4 ,in the following pages the ,author has placed before the reader an account of the changes in the design of ,decorative ,furniture and ,woodwork1 from the earliest period of which we have any reliable or certain record until the present time4 ,a careful selection of illustrations has been made from examples of established authenticity1 the majority of which are to be seen1 either in the ,museums to which reference is made1 or by permission of the owners2 and the representations of the different interiors will convey an idea of the character and disposition of the furniture of the periods to which they refer4 ,these illustrations are arranged1 so far as is possible1 in chronological order1 and the descriptions which accompany them are explanatory of the historical and social changes which have influenced the manners and customs1 and directly or indirectly affected the ,furniture of different nations4 ,an endeavour is made to produce a panorama which may prove acceptable to many1 who1 without wishing to study the subject deeply1 may desire to gain some information with reference to it generally1 or with regard to some part of it1 in which they may feel a particular interest4 ,it will be obvious that within the limits of a single volume of moderate dimensions it is impossible to give more than an outline sketch of many periods of design and taste which deserve far more consideration than is here bestowed upon them2 the reader is1 therefore1 asked to accept the first chapter1 which refers to ,ancient ,furniture and covers a period of several centuries1 as introductory to that which follows1 rather than as a serious attempt to examine the history of the furniture during that space of time4 ,the fourth chapter1 which deals with a period of some hundred and fifty years1 from the time of ,king ,james the ,first until that of ,chippendale and his contemporaries1 and the last three chapters1 are more fully descriptive than some others1 partly because trustworthy information as to these times is more accessible1 and partly because it is probable that ,english readers will feel greater interest in the furniture of which they are the subject4 ,the ,french meubles de luxe1 from the latter half of the seventeenth century until the ,revolution1 are also treated more fully than the furniture of other periods and countries1 on account of the interest which has been manifested in this description of the cabinet maker's and metal mounter's work during the past ten or fifteen years4 ,there is evidence of this appreciation in the enormous prices realised at notable auction sales1 when such furniture has been offered for competition to wealthy connoisseurs4 ,in order to gain a more correct idea of the design of ,furniture of different periods1 it has been necessary to notice the alterations in architectural styles which influenced1 and were accompanied by1 corresponding changes in the fashion of interior woodwork4 ,such comments are made with some diffidence1 as it is felt that this branch of the subject would have received more fitting treatment by an architect1 who was also an antiquarian1 than by an antiquarian with only a limited knowledge of architecture4 ,some works on ,furniture have taken the word in its ,french interpretation1 to include everything that is movable in a house2 other writers have combined with historical notes1 critical remarks and suggestions as to the selection of ,furniture4 ,the author has not presumed to offer any such advice1 and has confined his attention to a description of that which1 in its more restricted sense1 is understood as ,decorative ,furniture and ,woodwork4 ,for his own information1 and in the pursuit of his business1 he has been led to investigate the causes and the approximate dates of the several changes in taste which have taken place1 and has recorded them in as simple and readable a story as the difficulties of the subject permit4 ,numerous acts of kindness and co-operation1 received while preparing the work for the press1 have rendered the task very pleasant2 and while the author has endeavoured to acknowledge1 in a great many instances1 the courtesies received1 when noticing the particular occasion on which such assistance was rendered1 he would desire generally to record his thanks to the owners of historic mansions1 the officials of our ,museums1 the ,clerks of ,city ,companies1 ,librarians1 and others1 to whom he is indebted4 ,the views of many able writers who have trodden the same field of enquiry have been adopted where they have been confirmed by the writer's experience or research1 and in these cases he hopes he has not omitted to express his acknowledgments for the use he has made of them4 ,the large number of copies subscribed for1 accompanied1 as many of the applications have been1 by expressions of goodwill and confidence beforehand1 have been very gratifying1 and have afforded great encouragement during the preparation of the work4 ,if the present venture is received in such a way as to encourage a larger effort1 the writer hopes both to multiply examples and extend the area of his observations4 ,f4 ,l4 ,hanway ,street1 ,london1 ,july1 #ahib4 ,contents4 ,chapter ,i4 ,,biblical ,,references3 ,solomon's ,house and ,temple--,palace of ,ahashuerus4 ,,assyrian ,,furniture3 ,nimrod's ,palace--,mr4 ,george ,smith quoted4 ,,egyptian ,,furniture3 ,specimens in the ,british ,museum--,the ,workman's ,stool--,various articles of ,domestic ,furniture--,dr4 ,birch quoted4 ,,greek ,,furniture3 ,the ,bas ,reliefs in the ,british ,museum--,the ,chest of ,cypselus--,laws and ,customs of the ,greeks--,house of ,alcibiades--,plutarch quoted4 ,,roman ,,furniture3 ,position of ,rome--,the ,roman ,house--,cicero's ,table--,thyine ,wood--,customs of wealthy ,romans--,downfall of the ,empire4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,period of #ajjj years from ,fall of ,rome1 ,a4,d4 #dgf1 to ,capture of ,constantinople1 #adec--,the ,crusades--,influence of ,christianity--,chairs of ,st4 ,peter and ,maximian at ,rome1 ,ravenna and ,venice--,edict of ,leo ,,iii4 prohibiting ,image worship--,the ,rise of ,venice--,charlemagne and his successors--,the ,chair of ,dagobert--,byzantine character of ,furniture--,norwegian carving--,russian and ,scandinavian--,the ,anglo-,saxons--,sir ,walter ,scott quoted--,descriptions of ,anglo-,saxon ,houses and ,customs--,art in ,flemish ,cities--,gothic ,architecture--,the ,coronation ,chair in ,westminster ,abbey--,penshurst--,french ,furniture in the #adth ,century--,description of rooms--,the ,south ,kensington ,museum--,transition from ,gothic to ,renaissance--,german carved work3 the ,credence1 the ,buffet1 and ,dressoir4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,italy3 ,leonardo da ,vinci and ,raffaele--,church of ,st4 ,peter1 contemporary great artists--,the ,italian ,palazzo--,methods of gilding1 inlaying and mounting ,furniture--,pietra-dura and other enrichments--,ruskin's criticism4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,france3 ,francois ,i4 and the ,chateau of ,fontainebleau--,influence on ,courtiers-,chairs of the time--,design of ,cabinets--,m4,e4 ,bonnaffe on ,the ,renaissance--,bedstead of ,jeanne d',albret--,deterioration of taste in time of ,henry ,,iv4--,louis ,,xiii4 ,furniture--,brittany woodwork4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,the ,,netherlands3 ,influence of the ,house of ,burgundy on ,art--,the ,chimney-piece at ,bruges1 and other casts of specimens in ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,spain3 ,the resources of ,spain in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries--,influence of ,saracenic ,art--,high-backed leather chairs--,the ,carthusian ,convent at ,granada4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,germany3 ,albrecht ,drer--,famous ,steel ,chair of ,augsburg--,german seventeenth century carving in ,st4 ,saviour's ,hospital4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,england3 ,influence of ,foreign ,artists in the time of ,henry ,,viii4--,end of ,feudalism--,hampton ,court ,palace--,linen pattern ,panels--,woodwork in the ,henry ,,vii4 ,chapel at ,westminster ,abbey--,livery ,cupboards at ,hengrave--,harrison quoted--,the parler--,alteration in ,english customs--,chairs of the sixteenth century--,coverings and ,cushions of the time1 extract from old ,inventory--,south ,kensington ,cabinet--,elizabethan ,mirror at ,goodrich ,court--,shaw's ,ancient ,furniture--,the ,glastonbury ,chair--,introduction of ,frames into ,england--,characteristics of ,native ,woodwork--,famous ,country ,mansions--,alteration in design of ,woodwork and ,furniture--,panelled ,rooms in ,south ,kensington--,the ,charterhouse--,gray's ,inn ,hall and ,middle ,temple--,the ,hall of the ,carpenters' ,company--,the ,great ,bed of ,ware--,shakespeare's ,chair--,penshurst ,place4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,english ,home ,life in the ,reign of ,james ,i4--,sir ,henry ,wootton quoted--,inigo ,jones and his work--,ford ,castle--,chimney ,pieces in ,south ,kensington ,museum--,table in the ,carpenters' ,hall--,hall of the ,barbers' ,company--,the ,charterhouse--,time of ,charles ,i4--,furniture at ,knole--,eagle ,house1 ,wimbledon--,mr4 ,charles ,eastlake--,monuments at ,canterbury and ,westminster--,settles1 ,couches1 and ,chairs of the ,stuart period--,sir ,paul ,pindar's ,house--,cromwellian ,furniture--,the ,restoration--,indo-,portuguese ,furniture--,hampton ,court ,palace--,evelyn's description--,the ,great ,fire of ,london--,hall of the ,brewers' ,company--,oak ,panelling of the time--,grinling ,gibbons and his work--,the ,edict of ,nantes--,silver ,furniture at ,knole--,william ,,iii4 and ,dutch influence--,queen ,anne--,sideboards1 ,bureaus1 and ,grandfather's ,clocks--,furniture at ,hampton ,court4 ,chapter ,v4 ,,chinese ,,furniture3 ,probable source of artistic taste--,sir ,william ,chambers quoted--,racinet's ,le ,costume ,historique--,dutch influence--,the ,south ,kensington and the ,duke of ,edinburgh ,collections--,processes of making ,lacquer--,screens in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,,japanese ,,furniture3 ,early ,history--,sir ,rutherford ,alcock and ,lord ,elgin--,the ,collection of the ,shogun--,famous ,collections--,action of the present ,government of ,japan--,special characteristics4 ,,indian ,,furniture3 ,early ,european influence--,furniture of the ,moguls--,racinet's ,work--,bombay ,furniture--,ivory ,chairs and ,table--,specimens in the ,india ,museum4 ,,persian ,,woodwork3 ,collection of ,objets d',art formed by ,gen4 ,murdoch ,smith1 ,r4,e4---,industrial ,arts of the ,persians--,arab influence--,south ,kensington specimens4 ,,saracenic ,,woodwork3 ,oriental customs--,specimens in the ,south ,kensington ,museum of ,arab ,work--,m4 d',aveune's ,work4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,,palace ,,of ,,versailles3 ,grand and ,petit ,trianon--,the three ,styles of ,louis ,,xiv41 ,,xv41 and ,,xvi4--,colbert and ,lebrun--,andr ,charles ,boule and his ,work--,carved and ,gilt ,furniture--,the ,regency and its ,influence--,alteration in ,condition of ,french ,society--,watteau1 ,lancret1 and ,boucher4 ,louis ,,xv4 ,,furniture3 ,famous benistes--,vernis ,martin ,furniture--,caffieri and ,gouthire ,mountings--,svres ,porcelain introduced into ,cabinets--,gobelins ,tapestry--,the ,bureau du ,roi4 ,,louis ,,xvi4 ,,and ,,marie ,,antoinette3 ,the ,queen's ,influence--,the ,painters ,chardin and ,greuze--,more simple ,designs--,characteristic ,ornaments of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,furniture--,riesener's ,work--,gouthire's ,mountings--,specimens in the ,louvre--,the ,hamilton ,palace ,sale--,french influence upon the design of ,furniture in other countries--,the ,jones ,collection--,extract from ,the ,times4 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,chinese style--,sir ,william ,chambers--,the ,brothers ,adams' work--,pergolesi1 ,cipriani1 and ,angelica ,kauffmann--,architects of the time--,wedgwood and ,flaxman--,chippendale's ,work and his ,contemporaries--,chair in the ,barbers' ,hall--,lock1 ,shearer1 ,hepplewhite2 ,ince1 ,mayhew1 ,sheraton--,introduction of ,satinwood and ,mahogany--,gillows1 of ,lancaster and ,london--,history of the ,sideboard--,the ,dining ,room--,furniture of the time4 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,the ,french ,revolution and ,first ,empire--,influence on design of ,napoleon's ,campaigns--,the ,cabinet presented to ,marie ,louise--,dutch ,furniture of the time--,english ,furniture--,sheraton's later work--,thomas ,hope1 architect--,george ,smith's designs--,fashion during the ,regency--,gothic revival--,seddon's ,furniture--,other ,makers--,influence on design of the ,restoration in ,france--,furniture of ,william ,,iv4 and early part of ,queen ,victoria's reign--,baroque and ,rococo styles--,the panelling of rooms1 dado1 and skirting--,the ,art ,union--,the ,society of ,arts--,sir ,charles ,barry and the new ,palace of ,westminster--,pugin's designs--,auction ,prices of ,furniture--,christie's--,the ,london ,club ,houses--,steam--,different ,trade ,customs--,exhibitions in ,france and ,england--,harry ,rogers' work--,the ,queen's cradle--,state of ,art in ,england during first part of present reign--,continental designs--,italian carving--,cabinet work--,general remarks4 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,great ,,exhibition3 ,exhibitors and contemporary ,cabinet ,makers--,exhibition of #ahfb1 ,london2 #ahfg1 ,paris2 and subsequently--,description of ,illustrations--,fourdinois1 ,wright and ,mansfield--,the ,south ,kensington ,museum--,revival of ,marquetry--,comparison of ,present ,day with that of a ,hundred ,years ago--stheticism--,traditions--,trades-,u nionism--,the ,arts and ,crafts ,exhibition ,society--,independence of ,furniture--,present ,fashions--,writers on ,design--,modern ,furniture in other ,countries--,concluding ,remarks4 ,,appendix4 ,list of ,artists and ,manufacturers of ,furniture--,woods--,tapestry used for ,french ,furniture--,the processes of ,gilding and ,polishing--,the ,pianoforte4 ,index4 ,list of ,subscribers4 ,list of ,illustrations4 ,frontispiece--,dwelling ,room of a ,french ,chateau ,chapter ,i4 ,vignette of ,bas-relief--egyptian ,seated1 as ,ornament to ,initial ,letter4 ,assyrian ,bronze ,throne and ,footstool ,chairs ,from ,khorsabad and ,xanthus and ,assyrian ,throne ,repose of ,king ,asshurbanipal ,examples of ,egyptian ,furniture in the ,british ,museum3 ,stool2 ,stand for a ,vase2 ,head-rest or ,pillow2 ,workman's ,stool2 ,vase on a ,stand2 ,folding ,stool2 ,ebony ,seat inlaid with ivory ,an ,egyptian of ,high ,rank ,seated ,an ,egyptian ,banquet ,chair with ,captives as ,supports1 and an ,ivory ,box ,bacchus and ,attendants ,visiting ,icarus ,greek ,bedstead with a ,table ,greek ,furniture ,interior of an ,ancient ,roman ,house ,roman ,state ,chair ,bronze ,lamp and ,stand ,roman ,scamnum or ,bench ,bisellium1 or ,seat for ,two ,persons ,roman ,couch1 ,generally of ,bronze ,a ,roman ,study ,roman ,triclinium or ,dining ,room ,chapter ,,ii4 ,vignette of ,gothic ,oak ,armoire1 as ,ornament to ,initial ,letter ,chair of ,st4 ,peter1 ,rome ,dagobert ,chair ,a ,carved ,norwegian ,doorway ,scandinavian ,chair ,cover of a ,casket ,carved in ,whalebone ,saxon ,house 7,,ix4 ,century7 ,anglo-saxon ,furniture of ,about the ,x4 ,century ,the ,seat on the ,das ,saxon ,state ,bed ,english ,folding ,chair 7,,xiv4 ,century7 ,cradle of ,henry ,v ,coronation ,chair1 ,westminster ,abbey ,chair in ,york ,minster ,two ,chairs of the ,,xv4 ,century ,table at ,penshurst ,bedroom 7,,xiv4 ,century7 ,carved ,oak ,bedstead and ,chair ,the ,new ,born ,infant ,portrait of ,christine ,de ,pisan ,state ,banquet with ,attendant ,musicians 7,two ,woodcuts7 ,a ,high-backed ,chair 7,,xv4 ,century7 ,medieval ,bed and ,bedroom ,a ,scribe or ,copyist ,two ,german ,chairs ,carved ,oak ,buffet 7,french ,gothic7 ,carved ,oak ,table ,flemish ,buffet ,a ,tapestried ,room ,a ,carved ,oak ,seat ,interior of ,apothecary's ,shop ,court of the ,ladies of ,queen ,anne of ,brittany ,chapter ,,iii4 ,vignette of the ,caryatides ,cabinet1 as ,ornament to ,initial ,letter ,reproduction of ,decoration by ,raffaele ,salon of ,m4 ,bonnaff ,a ,sixteenth ,century ,room ,chair in ,carved ,walnut ,venetian ,centre ,table ,marriage ,coffer in ,carved ,walnut ,marriage ,coffer ,pair of ,italian ,carved ,bellows ,carved ,italian ,mirror ,frame1 ,,xvi4 ,century ,a ,sixteenth ,century ,coffre-fort ,italian ,coffer ,italian ,chairs ,ebony ,cabinet ,venetian ,state ,chair ,ornamental ,panelling in ,st4 ,vincent's ,church1 ,rouen ,chimney ,piece 7,fontainebleau7 ,carved ,oak ,panel 7#aegg7 ,fac-,similes of ,engraving ,on ,wood ,carved ,oak ,bedstead of ,jeanne ,d'albret ,carved ,oak ,cabinet 7,lyons7 ,louis ,,xiii4 and ,his ,court ,decoration of a ,salon in ,louis ,,xiii4 ,style ,an ,ebony ,armoire 7,flemish ,renaissance7 ,a ,barber's ,shop 7,,xvi4 ,century7 ,a ,flemish ,citizen at ,meals ,sedan ,chair of ,charles ,v4 ,silver ,table 7,windsor ,castle7 ,chair of ,walnut or ,chesnut ,wood1 ,spanish1 with ,embossed ,leather ,wooden ,coffer 7,,xvi4 ,century7 ,the ,steel ,chair 7,longford ,castle7 ,german ,carved ,oak ,buffet ,carved ,oak ,chest ,chair of ,anna ,boleyn ,tudor ,cabinet ,the ,glastonbury ,chair ,carved ,oak ,elizabethan ,bedstead ,oak ,wainscoting ,dining ,hall in the ,charterhouse ,screen in the ,hall of ,gray's ,inn ,carved ,oak ,panels 7,carpenters' ,hall7 ,part of an ,elizabethan ,staircase ,the ,entrance ,hall1 ,hardwick ,hall ,shakespeare's ,chair ,the ,great ,bed of ,ware ,the ,queen's ,room1 ,penshurst ,place ,carved ,oak ,chimney ,piece in ,speke ,hall ,chapter ,,iv4 ,a ,chair of ,,xvii4 ,century1 as ,ornament to ,initial ,letter ,oak ,chimney ,piece in ,sir ,w4 ,raleigh's ,house ,chimney ,piece in ,byfleet ,house ,the ,king's ,chamber1 ,ford ,castle ,centre ,table 7,carpenters' ,hall7 ,carved ,oak ,chairs ,oak ,chimney ,piece ,from ,lime ,street1 ,city ,oak ,sideboard ,seats at ,knole ,arm ,chair1 ,knole ,the ,spangle ,bedroom1 ,knole ,couch1 ,chair1 and ,single ,chair 7,penshurst ,place7 ,folding and ,drawinge ,table ,chairs1 ,stuart ,period ,chair ,used by ,charles ,i4 ,during ,his ,trial ,two ,carved ,oak ,chairs ,settle of ,carved ,oak ,staircase in ,general ,treton's ,house ,settee and ,chair 7,penshurst ,place7 ,carved ,ebony ,chair ,sedes ,busbiana ,the ,master's ,chair in the ,brewers' ,hall ,carved ,oak ,livery ,cupboard ,carved ,oak ,napkin ,press ,three ,chairs ,from ,hampton ,court1 ,hardwick1 and ,knole ,carved ,oak ,screen in ,stationers' ,hall ,silver ,furniture at ,knole ,three ,chimney ,pieces by ,james ,gibbs ,chapter ,v4 ,pattern of a ,chinese ,lac ,screen ,an ,eastern 7,saracenic7 ,table1 as ,ornament to ,initial ,letter ,japanese ,cabinet of ,red ,chased ,lacquer ,ware ,casket of ,indian ,lacquer-work ,door of ,carved ,sandal ,wood ,from ,travancore ,persian ,incense ,burner of ,engraved ,brass ,governor's ,palace1 ,manfulut ,specimen of ,saracenic ,panelling ,a ,carved ,door of ,syrian ,work ,shaped ,panel of ,saracenic ,work ,chapter ,,vi4 ,boule ,armoire 7,hamilton ,palace7 ,vignette of a ,louis ,quatorze ,commode1 as ,ornament to ,initial ,letter4 ,boule ,armoire 7,jones ,collection7 ,pedestal ,cabinet by ,boule 7,jones ,collection7 ,a ,concert in the ,reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,a ,screen ,panel by ,watteau ,decoration of a ,salon in the ,louis ,,xiv4 ,style ,a ,boule ,commode ,french ,sedan ,chair ,part of a ,salon 7,louis ,,xv47 ,carved and ,gilt ,console ,table ,louis ,,xv4 ,fauteuil 7,carved and ,gilt7 ,louis ,,xv4 ,commode 7,jones ,collection7 ,a ,parqueterie ,commode ,bureau ,du ,roi ,a ,boudoir 7,louis ,,xvi4 ,period7 ,part of a ,salon in ,louis ,,xvi4 ,style ,a ,marqueterie ,cabinet 7,jones ,collection7 ,writing ,table 7,riesener7 ,the ,marie ,antoinette ,writing ,table ,bedstead of ,marie ,antoinette ,a ,cylinder ,secretaire 7,rothschild ,collection7 ,an ,arm ,chair 7,louis ,,xvi47 ,carved and ,gilt ,settee and ,arm ,chair ,a ,sofa ,en ,suite ,a ,marqueterie ,escritoire 7,jones ,collection7 ,a ,norse ,interior1 ,shewing ,french ,influence ,a ,secretaire with ,svres ,plaques ,a ,clock by ,robin 7,jones ,collection7 ,harpsichord1 ,about #agej ,italian ,sedan ,chair ,chapter ,,vii4 ,vignette of a ,chippendale ,girandole1 as ,ornament to ,initial ,letter ,fac-simile of ,drawings by ,robert ,adam ,english ,satinwood ,dressing ,table ,chimney-piece and ,overmantel1 ,designed by ,w4 ,thomas ,two ,chippendale ,chairs in the ,chinese ,style ,fac-simile of ,title ,page of ,chippendale's ,gentleman and ,cabinet ,maker's ,director ,two ,book ,cases ,from ,chippendale's ,director ,tea ,caddy ,carved in the ,french ,style 7,chippendale7 ,a ,bureau ,from ,chippendale's ,director ,a ,design for a ,state ,bed ,from ,chippendale's ,director ,french ,commode and ,lamp ,stands ,bed ,pillars ,chimney-piece and ,mirror ,parlour ,chairs by ,chippendale ,clock ,case by ,chippendale ,china ,shelves1 ,designed by ,w4 ,ince ,girandoles and ,pier ,table1 ,designed by ,w4 ,thomas ,toilet ,glass and ,urn ,stand1 ,from ,hepplewhite's ,guide ,parlour ,chairs1 ,designed by ,w4 ,ince ,ladies' ,secretaires1 ,designed by ,w4 ,ince ,desk and ,bookcase1 ,designed by ,w4 ,ince ,china ,cabinet1 ,designed by ,j4 ,mayhew ,dressing ,chairs1 ,designed by ,j4 ,mayhew ,designs of ,furniture ,from ,hepplewhite's ,guide ,plan of a ,room4 7,hepplewhite7 ,inlaid ,tea ,caddy and ,tops of ,pier ,tables1 ,from ,hepplewhite's ,guide ,kneehole ,table by ,sheraton ,chairs by ,sheraton ,chair ,backs1 ,from ,sheraton's ,cabinet ,maker ,urn ,stand ,a ,sideboard in the ,style of ,robert ,adam ,carved ,jardiniere by ,chippendale ,cabinet and ,bookcase with ,secretaire1 by ,sheraton ,chapter ,,viii4 ,vignette of an ,empire ,tripod1 as ,ornament to ,initial ,letter ,cabinet ,presented to ,marie ,louise ,stool and ,arm ,chair 7,napoleon ,i4 ,period7 ,nelson's ,chairs by ,sheraton ,drawing ,room ,chair1 ,designed by ,sheraton ,drawing ,room ,chair1 ,designed by ,sheraton ,canopy ,bed by ,sheraton ,sisters' ,cylinder ,bookcase by ,sheraton ,sideboard and ,sofa ,table 7,sheraton7 ,design of a ,room1 by ,t4 ,hope ,library ,fauteuil1 ,from ,smith's ,book of ,designs ,parlor ,chairs ,bookcase by ,sheraton ,drawing ,room ,chairs1 ,from ,smith's ,book ,prie-dieu in ,carved ,oak1 ,designed by ,mr4 ,pugin ,secretaire and ,bookcase 7,german ,gothic ,style7 ,cradle for ,h4,m4 the ,queen by ,h4 ,rogers ,design for a ,tea ,caddy by ,j4 ,strudwick ,design for ,one of the ,wings of a ,sideboard by ,w4 ,holmes ,design for a ,work ,table4 ,h4 ,fitzcook ,venetian ,stool of ,carved ,walnut ,chapter ,,ix4 ,examples of ,design in ,furniture in the #ahea ,exhibition3-- ,sideboard1 in ,carved ,oak1 by ,gillow ,chimney-piece and ,bookcase by ,holland and ,sons ,cabinet by ,grace ,bookcase by ,jackson and ,graham ,grand ,pianoforte by ,broadwood ,vignette of a ,cabinet1 ,modern ,jacobean ,style1 as ,ornament to ,initial ,letter ,lady's ,escritoire by ,wettli1 ,berne ,lady's ,work ,table and ,screen in ,papier ,mach ,sideboard 7,sir ,walter ,scott7 by ,cookes1 ,warwick ,a ,state ,chair by ,jancowski1 ,york ,sideboard1 in ,carved ,oak1 by ,dorand1 ,paris ,bedstead1 in ,carved ,ebony1 by ,roul1 ,antwerp ,pianoforte by ,leistler1 ,vienna ,bookcase1 in ,lime ,tree1 by ,leistler1 ,vienna ,cabinet1 with ,bronze and ,porcelain1 by ,games1 ,st4 ,petersburg ,casket of ,ivory1 with ,ormolu ,mountings1 by ,matifat1 ,paris ,table and ,chair1 in the ,classic ,style1 by ,capello1 ,turin ,cabinet of ,ebony1 with ,carnelions1 by ,litchfield ,radclyffe 7#ahfb ,exhibition1 ,london7 ,cabinet of ,ebony1 with ,boxwood ,carvings1 by ,fourdinois1 ,paris 7#ahfg ,exhibition1 ,paris7 ,cabinet of ,satinwood1 with ,wedgwood ,plaques1 by ,wright and ,mansfield 7#ahfg ,exhibition1 ,paris7 ,cabinet of ,ebony and ,ivory by ,andrea ,picchi1 ,florence 7#ahfg ,exhibition1 ,paris7 ,the ,ellesmere ,cabinet ,the ,saloon at ,sandringham ,house ,the ,drawing ,room at ,sandringham ,house ,carved ,frame by ,radspieler1 ,munich ,carved ,oak ,flemish ,armoire1 as ,tail ,piece ,a ,sixteenth ,century ,workshop ,chapter ,i4 ,ancient ,furniture4 ,,biblical ,,references3 ,solomon's ,house and ,temple--,palace of ,ahashuerus4 ,,assyrian ,,furniture3 ,nimrod's ,palace--,mr4 ,george ,smith quoted4 ,,egyptian ,,furniture3 ,specimens in the ,british ,museum--the ,workman's ,stool--various articles of ,domestic ,furniture--,dr4 ,birch quoted4 ,,greek ,,furniture3 ,the ,bas ,reliefs in the ,british ,museum--the ,chest of ,cypselus--,laws and ,customs of the ,greeks--,house of ,alcibiades--,plutarch quoted4 ,,roman ,,furniture3 ,position of ,rome--the ,roman ,house--,cicero's ,table--,thyine ,wood--,customs of wealthy ,romans--,downfall of the ,empire4 ,biblical ,references4 ,the first reference to woodwork is to be found in the ,book of ,genesis1 in the instructions given to ,noah to make an ,ark of#a gopher wood1 to make a window1 to pitch it within and without with pitch1 and to observe definite measurements4 ,from the specific directions thus handed down to us1 we may gather that mankind had acquired at a very early period of the world's history a knowledge of the different kinds of wood1 and of the use of tools4 ,we know1 too1 from the bas reliefs and papyri in the ,british ,museum1 how advanced were the ,ancient ,egyptians in the arts of civilization1 and that the manufacture of comfortable and even luxurious furniture was not neglected4 ,in them1 the ,hebrews must have had excellent workmen for teachers and taskmasters1 to have enabled them to acquire sufficient skill and experience to carry out such precise instructions as were given for the erection of the ,tabernacle1 some #a1ejj years before ,christ--as to the kinds of wood1 measurements1 ornaments1 fastenings 7loops and taches71 curtains of linen1 and coverings of dried skins4 ,we have only to turn for a moment to the #beth chapter of ,exodus to be convinced that all the directions there mentioned were given to a people who had considerable experience in the methods of carrying out work1 which must have resulted from some generations of carpenters1 joiners1 weavers1 dyers1 goldsmiths1 and other craftsmen4 ,a thousand years before ,christ1 we have those descriptions of the building and fitting by ,solomon of the glorious work of his reign1 the great ,temple1 and of his own1 the ,king's house1 which gathered from different countries the most skilful artificers of the time1 an event which marks an era of advance in the knowledge and skill of those who were thus brought together to do their best work towards carrying out the grand scheme4 ,it is worth while1 too1 when we are referring to ,old ,testament information bearing upon the subject1 to notice some details of furniture which are given1 with their approximate dates as generally accepted1 not because there is any particular importance attached to the precise chronology of the events concerned1 but because1 speaking generally1 they form landmarks in a history of furniture4 ,one of these is the verse 7,kings ii4 chap4 #d7 which tells us the contents of the little chamber in the wall1 when ,elisha visited the ,shunamite1 about ,b4,c4 #hie2 and we are told of the preparations for the reception of the prophet3 ,and let us set for him there a bed and a table and a stool and a candlestick4 ,the other incident is some #dbj years later1 when1 in the allusion to the grandeur of the palace of ,ahashuerus1 we catch a glimpse of ,eastern magnificence in the description of the drapery which furnished the apartment3 ,where were white1 green1 and blue hangings1 fastened with cords of fine linen and purple1 to silver rings and pillars of marble2 the beds were of gold and silver1 upon a pavement of red and blue and white and black marble4 7,esther i4 #f47 ,there are1 unfortunately1 no trustworthy descriptions of ancient ,hebrew furniture4 ,the illustrations in ,kitto's ,bible4 ,mr4 ,henry ,soltan's ,the ,tabernacle1 the ,priesthood1 and the ,offerings1 and other similar books1 are apparently drawn from imagination1 founded on descriptions in the ,old ,testament4 ,in these1 the table for shew-bread is generally represented as having legs partly turned1 with the upper portions square1 to which rings were attached for the poles by which it was carried4 ,as a nomadic people1 their furniture would be but primitive1 and we may take it that as the ,jews and ,assyrians came from the same stock1 and spoke the same language1 such ornamental furniture as there was would1 with the exception of the representations of figures of men or animals1 be of a similar character4 ,assyrian ,furniture4 ,illustration3 ,part of ,assyrian ,bronze ,throne and ,footstool1 about ,b4,c4 #hhj1 ,reign of ,asshurnazirpat4 7,from a photo by ,mansell ,co4 of the original in the ,british ,museum47 ,the discoveries which have been made in the oldest seat of monarchical government in the world1 by such enterprising travellers as ,sir ,austin ,layard1 ,mr4 ,george ,smith1 and others1 who have thrown so much light upon domestic life in ,nineveh1 are full of interest in connection with this branch of the subject4 ,we learn from these authorities that the furniture was ornamented with the heads of lions1 bulls1 and rams2 tables1 thrones1 and couches were made of metal and wood1 and probably inlaid with ivory2 the earliest chair1 according to ,sir ,austin ,layard1 having been made without a back1 and the legs terminating in lion's feet or bull's hoofs4 ,some were of gold1 others of silver and bronze4 ,on the monuments of ,khorsabad1 representations have been discovered of chairs supported by animals1 and by human figures1 probably those of prisoners4 ,in the ,british ,museum is a bronze throne found by ,sir ,a4 ,layard amidst the rains of ,nirnrod's palace1 which shews ability of high order for skilled metal work4 ,mr4 ,smith1 the famous ,assyrian excavator and translator of cuneiform inscriptions1 has told us in his ,assyrian ,antiquities of his finding close to the site of ,nineveh portions of a crystal throne somewhat similar in design to the bronze one mentioned above1 and in another part of this interesting book we have a description of an interior that is useful in assisting us to form an idea of the condition of houses of a date which can be correctly assigned to ,b4,c4 #hfj3--;,altogether in this place ,i opened six chambers1 all of the same character1 the entrances ornamented by clusters of square pilasters1 and recesses in the rooms in the same style2 the walls were coloured in horizontal bands of red1 green1 and yellow1 and where the lower parts of the chambers were panelled with small stone slabs1 the plaster and colours were continued over these4 ,then follows a description of the drainage arrangements1 and finally we have ,mr4 ,smith's conclusion that this was a private dwelling for the wives and families of kings1 together with the interesting fact that on the under side of the bricks he found the legend of ,shalmeneser ,,ii4 7,b4,c4 #hfj71 who probably built this palace4 ,illustration3 ,assyrian ,chair from ,khorsabad4 7,in the ,british ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,assyrian ,chair from ,xanthus4 7,in the ,british ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,assyrian ,throne4 7,in the ,british ,museum47 ,in the ,british ,museum is an elaborate piece of carved ivory1 with depressions to hold colored glass1 etc41 from ,nineveh1 which once formed part of the inlaid ornament of a throne1 shewing how richly such objects were ornamented4 ,this carving is said by the authorities to be of ,egyptian origin4 ,the treatment of figures by the ,assyrians was more clumsy and more rigid1 and their furniture generally was more massive than that of the ,egyptians4 ,an ornament often introduced into the designs of thrones and chairs is a conventional treatment of the tree sacred to ,asshur1 the ,assyrian ,jupiter2 the pine cone1 another sacred emblem1 is also found1 sometimes as in the illustration of the ,khorsabad chair on page #d1 forming an ornamental foot1 and at others being part of the merely decorative design4 ,the bronze throne1 illustrated on page #c1 appears to have been of sufficient height to require a footstool1 and in ,nineveh and its ,remains these footstools are specially alluded to4 ,the feet were ornamented like those of the chair with the feet of lions or the hoofs of bulls4 ,the furniture represented in the following illustration1 from a bas relief in the ,british ,museum1 is said to be of a period some two hundred years later than the bronze throne and footstool4 ,illustration3 ,repose of ,king ,asshurbanipal4 7,from a ,bas relief in the ,british ,museum47 ,egyptian ,furniture4 ,in the consideration of ancient ,egyptian furniture we find valuable assistance in the examples carefully preserved to us1 and accessible to everyone1 in the ,british ,museum1 and one or two of these deserve passing notice4 ,illustration3 ,stool1 ,stand for a ,vase1 ,head ,rest or ,pillow1 ,workman's ,stool1 ,vase on a ,stand1 ,folding ,stool1 ,ebony ,seat ,inlaid with ,ivory 7,from ,photos by ,mansell ,co4 of the originals in the ,british ,museum47 ,nothing can be more suitable for its purpose then the ,workman's ,stool3 the seat is precisely like that of a modern kitchen chair 7all wood71 slightly concaved to promote the sitter's comfort1 and supported by three legs curving outwards4 ,this is simple1 convenient1 and admirably adapted for long service4 ,for a specimen of more ornamental work1 the folding stool in the same glass case should be examined2 the supports are crossed in a similar way to those of a modern camp-stool1 and the lower parts of the legs carved as heads of geese1 with inlayings of ivory to assist the design and give richness to its execution4 ,illustration3 ,an ,egyptian of ,high ,rank ,seated4 7,from a ,photo by ,mansell ,co4 of the ,original ,wall ,painting in the ,british ,museum47 ,,period3 ,b4,c4 #aejj-adjj4 ,portions of legs and rails1 turned as if by a modern lathe1 mortice holes and tenons1 fill us with wonder as we look upon work which1 at the most modern computation1 must be #c1jjj years old1 and may be of a date still more remote4 ,in the same room1 arranged in cases round the wall1 is a collection of several objects which1 if scarcely to be classed under the head of furniture1 are articles of luxury and comfort1 and demonstrate the extraordinary state of civilisation enjoyed by the old ,egyptians1 and help us to form a picture of their domestic habits4 ,illustration3 ,an ,egyptian ,banquet4 7,from a ,wall ,painting at ,thebes47 ,amongst these are boxes inlaid with various woods1 and also with little squares of bright turquoise blue pottery let in as a relief2 others veneered with ivory2 wooden spoons1 carved in most intricate designs1 of which one1 representing a girl amongst lotus flowers1 is a work of great artistic skill2 boats of wood1 head rests1 and models of parts of houses and granaries1 together with writing materials1 different kinds of tools and implements1 and a quantity of personal ornaments and requisites4 ,for furniture1 various woods were employed1 ebony1 acacia or sont1 cedar1 sycamore1 and others of species not determined4 ,ivory1 both of the hippopotamus and elephant1 was used for inlaying1 as also were glass pastes2 and specimens of marquetry are not uncommon4 ,in the paintings in the tombs1 gorgeous pictures and gilded furniture are depicted4 ,for cushions and mattresses1 linen cloth and colored stuffs1 filled with feathers of the waterfowl1 appear to have been used1 while seats have plaited bottoms of linen cord or tanned and dyed leather thrown over them1 and sometimes the skins of panthers served this purpose4 ,for carpets they used mats of palm fibre1 on which they often sat4 ,on the whole1 an ,egyptian house was lightly furnished1 and not encumbered with so many articles as are in use at the present day4 ,the above paragraph forms part of the notice with which the late ,dr4 ,birch1 the eminent antiquarian1 formerly at the head of this department of the ,british ,museum1 has prefaced a catalogue of the antiquities alluded to4 ,the visitor to the ,museum should be careful to procure one of these useful and inexpensive guides to this portion of its contents4 ,some illustrations taken from ancient statues and bas reliefs in the ,british ,museum1 from copies of wall paintings at ,thebes1 and other sources1 give us a good idea of the furniture of this interesting people4 ,in one of these will be seen a representation of the wooden head-rest which prevented the disarrangement of the coiffure of an ,egyptian lady of rank4 ,a very similiar head-rest1 with a cushion attached for comfort to the neck1 is still in common use by the ,japanese of the present day4 ,illustration3 ,chair with ,captives ,as ,supports4 7,from ,papyrus in ,british ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,an ,ivory ,box4 ,illustration3 ,bacchus and ,attendants ,visiting ,icarus4 7,reproduced from a ,bas-relief in the ,british ,museum47 ,period3 ,about ,a4d4 #ajj4 ,greek ,furniture4 ,an early reference to ,greek furniture is made by ,homer1 who describes coverlids of dyed wool1 tapestries1 carpets1 and other accessories1 which must therefore have formed part of the contents of a great man's residence centuries before the period which we recognise as the meridian of ,greek art4 ,in the second ,vase-room of the ,british ,museum the painting on one of these vases represents two persons sitting on a couch1 upon which is a cushion of rich material1 while for the comfort of the sitters there is a footstool1 probably of ivory4 ,on the opposite leaf there is an illustration of a has relief in stone1 ,bacchus received as a guest by ,icarus1 in which the couch has turned legs and the feet are ornamented with carved leaf work4 ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,bedstead ,,with ,a ,,table4 7,from an old ,wall ,painting47 ,we know1 too1 from other illustrations of tripods used for sacred purposes1 and as supports for braziers1 that tables were made of wood1 of marble1 and of metal2 also folding chairs1 and couches for sleeping and resting1 but not for reclining at meals1 as was the fashion at a later period4 ,in most of the designs for these various articles of furniture there is a similarity of treatment of the head1 legs1 and feet of lions1 leopards1 and sphinxes to that which we have noticed in the ,assyrian patterns4 ,illustration3 ,greek ,furniture4 7,from ,antique ,bas reliefs47 ,the description of an interesting piece of furniture may be noticed here1 because its date is verified by its historical associations1 and it was seen and described by ,pausanias about #hjj years afterwards4 ,this is the famous chest of ,cypselus of ,corinth1 the story of which runs that when his mother's relations1 having been warned by the ,oracle of ,delphi1 that her son would prove formidable to the ruling party1 sought to murder him1 his life was saved by his concealment in this chest1 and he became ,ruler of ,corinth for some #cj years 7,b4,c4 #fee-fbe74 ,it is said to have been made of cedar1 carved and decorated with figures and bas reliefs1 some in ivory1 some in gold or ivory part gilt1 and inlaid on all four sides and on the top4 ,the peculiar laws and customs of the ,greeks at the time of their greatest prosperity were not calculated to encourage display or luxury in private life1 or the collection of sumptuous furniture4 ,their manners were simple and their discipline was very severe4 ,statuary1 sculpture of the best kind1 painting of the highest merit--in a word1 the best that art could produce--were all dedicated to the national service in the enrichment of ,temples and other public buildings1 the ,state having indefinite and almost unlimited power over the property of all wealthy citizens4 ,the public surroundings of an influential ,athenian were therefore in direct contrast to the simplicity of his home1 which contained the most meagre supply of chairs and tables1 while the chef d'oeuvres of ,phidias adorned the ,senate ,house1 the ,theatre1 and the ,temple4 ,there were some exceptions to this rule1 and we have records that during the later years of ,greek prosperity such simplicity was not observed4 ,alcibiades is said to have been the first to have his house painted and decorated1 and ,plutarch tells us that he kept the painter ,agatharcus a prisoner until his task was done1 and then dismissed him with an appropriate reward4 ,another ancient writer relates that the guest of a private house was enjoined to praise the decorations of the ceilings and the beauty of the curtains suspended from between the columns4 ,this occurs1 according to ,mr4 ,perkins1 the ,american translator of ,dr4 ,falke's ,german book ,kunst im ,hause1 in the ,wasps of ,aristophanes1 written ,b4,c4 #dbb4 ,the illustrations1 taken from the best authorities in the ,british ,museum1 the ,national ,library of ,paris1 and other sources1 shew the severe style adopted by the ,greeks in their furniture4 ,roman ,furniture4 ,as we are accustomed to look to ,greek ,art of the time of ,pericles for purity of style and perfection of taste1 so do we naturally expect the gradual demoralisation of art in its transfer to the great ,roman ,empire4 ,from that little village on the ,palatine ,hill1 founded some #gej years ,b4,c41 ,rome had spread and conquered in every direction1 until in the time of ,augustus she was mistress of the whole civilised world1 herself the centre of wealth1 civilisation1 luxury1 and power4 ,antioch in the ,east and ,alexandria in the ,south ranked next to her as great cities of the world4 ,from the excavations of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii we have learned enough to conceive some general idea of the social life of a wealthy ,roman in the time of ,rome's prosperity4 ,the houses had no upper story1 but were formed by the enclosure of two or more quadrangles1 each surrounded by courts opening into rooms1 and receiving air and ventilation from the centre open square or court4 ,the illustration will give an idea of this arrangement4 ,in ,mr4 ,hungerford ,pollen's useful handbook there is a description of each room in a ,roman house1 with its proper ,latin title and purpose2 and we know from other descriptions of ,ancient ,rome that the residences in the ,imperial ,city were divided into two distinct classes--that of domus and insula1 the former being the dwellings of the ,roman nobles1 and corresponding to the modern ,palazzi1 while the latter were the habitations of the middle and lower classes4 ,each insula consisted of several sets of apartments1 generally let out to different families1 and was frequently surrounded by shops4 ,the houses described by ,mr4 ,pollen appear to have had no upper story1 but as ground became more valuable in ,rome1 houses were built to such a height as to be a source of danger1 and in the time of ,augustus there were not only strict regulations as to building1 but the height was limited to #gj feet4 ,the ,roman furniture of the time was of the most costly kind4 ,illustration3 ,interior of an ,ancient ,roman ,house4 ,said to have been that of ,sallust4 ,period3 ,b4,c4 #bj ,,to ,a4,d4 #bj4 ,tables were made of marble1 gold1 silver1 and bronze1 and were engraved1 damascened1 plated1 and enriched with precious stones4 ,the chief woods used were cedar1 pine1 elm1 olive1 ash1 ilex1 beech1 and maple4 ,ivory was much used1 and not only were the arms and legs of couches and chairs carved to represent the limbs of animals1 as has been noted in the ,assyrian1 ,egyptian1 and ,greek designs1 but other parts of furniture were ornamented by carvings in bas relief of subjects taken from ,greek mythology and legend4 ,veneers were cut and applied1 not as some have supposed for the purpose of economy1 but because by this means the most beautifully marked or figured specimens of the woods could be chosen1 and a much richer and more decorative effect produced than would be possible when only solid timber was used4 ,as a prominent instance of the extent to which the ,romans carried the costliness of some special pieces of furniture1 we have it recorded on good authority 7,mr4 ,pollen7 that the table made for ,cicero cost a million sesterces1 a sum equal to about #i1jjj1 and that one belonging to ,king ,juba was sold by auction for the equivalent of #aj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,roman ,state ,chair4 7,from the ,marble example in the ,muse du ,louvre47 ,illustration3 ,roman ,bronze ,lamp and ,stand4 7,found in ,pompeii47 ,cicero's table was made of a wood called ,thyine--wood which was brought from ,africa and held in the highest esteem4 ,it was valued not only on account of its beauty but also from superstitious or religious reasons4 ,the possession of thyine wood was supposed to bring good luck1 and its sacredness arose from the fact that from it was produced the incense used by the priests4 ,dr4 ,edward ,clapton1 of ,st4 ,thomas' ,hospital1 who has made a collection of woods named in the ,scriptures1 has managed to secure a specimen of thyine1 which a friend of his obtained on the ,atlas ,mountains4 ,it resembles the woods which we know as tuyere and amboyna4#b ,roman1 like ,greek houses1 were divided into two portions--the front for reception of guests and the duties of society1 with the back for household purposes1 and the occupation of the wife and family2 for although the position of the ,roman wife was superior to that of her ,greek contemporary1 which was little better than that of a slave1 still it was very different to its later development4 ,the illustration given here of a repast in the house of ,sallust1 represents the host and his eight male guests reclining on the seats of the period1 each of which held three persons1 and was called a triclinium1 making up the favorite number of a ,roman dinner party1 and possibly giving us the proverbial saying--,not less than the ,graces nor more than the ,muses--which is still held to be a popular regulation for a dinner party4 ,illustration3 ,roman ,scamnum or ,bench4 ,illustration3 ,roman ,bisellium1 or ,seat for ,two ,persons4 ,but generally occupied by one1 on occasions of festivals1 etc4 ,from discoveries at ,herculaneum and ,pompeii a great deal of information has been gained of the domestic life of the wealthier ,roman citizens1 and there is a useful illustration at the end of this chapter of the furniture of a library or study in which the designs are very similar to the ,greek ones we have noticed2 it is not improbable they were made and executed by ,greek workmen4 ,it will be seen that the books such as were then used1 instead of being placed on shelves or in a bookcase1 were kept in round boxes called ,scrinia1 which were generally of beech wood1 and could be locked or sealed when required4 ,the books in rolls or sewn together were thus easily carried about by the owner on his journeys4 ,mr4 ,hungerford ,pollen mentions that wearing apparel was kept in vestiaria1 or wardrobe rooms1 and he quotes ,plutarch's anecdote of the purple cloaks of ,lucullus1 which were so numerous that they must have been stored in capacious hanging closets rather than in chests4 ,in the atrium1 or public reception room1 was probably the best furniture in the house4 ,according to ,moule's ,essay on ,roman ,villas1 it was here that numbers assembled daily to pay their respects to their patron1 to consult the legislator1 to attract the notice of the statesman1 or to derive importance in the eyes of the public from an apparent intimacy with a man in power4 ,the growth of the ,roman ,empire eastward1 the colonisation of ,oriental countries1 and subsequently the establishment of an ,eastern ,empire1 produced gradually an alteration in ,greek design1 and though1 if we were discussing the merits of design and the canons of taste1 this might be considered a decline1 still its influence on furniture was doubtless to produce more ease and luxury1 more warmth and comfort1 than would be possible if the outline of every article of useful furniture were decided by a rigid adherence to classical principles4 ,we have seen that this was more consonant with the public life of an ,athenian2 but the ,romans1 in the later period of the ,empire1 with their wealth1 their extravagance1 their slaves1 their immorality and gross sensuality1 lived in a splendour and with a prodigality that well accorded with the gorgeous colouring of ,eastern hangings and embroideries1 of rich carpets and comfortable cushions1 of the lavish use of gold and silver1 and meritricious and redundant ornament4 ,illustration3 ,roman ,couch1 ,generally of ,bronze4 7,from an ,antique ,bas relief47 ,this slight sketch1 brief and inadequate as it is1 of a history of furniture from the earliest time of which we have any record1 until from the extraordinary growth of the vast ,roman ,empire1 the arts and manufactures of every country became as it were centralised and focussed in the palaces of the wealthy ,romans1 brings us down to the commencement of what has been deservedly called the greatest event in history--the decline and fall of this enormous empire4 ,for fifteen generations1 for some five hundred years1 did this decay1 this vast revolution1 proceed to its conclusion4 ,barbarian hosts settled down in provinces they had overrun and conquered1 the old ,pagan world died as it were1 and the new ,christian era dawned4 ,from the latter end of the second century until the last of the ,western ,caesars1 in ,a4,d4 #dgf1 it is1 with the exception of a short interval when the strong hand of the great ,theodosius stayed the avalanche of ,rome's invaders1 one long story of the defeat and humiliation of the citizens of the greatest power the world has ever known4 ,it is a vast drama that the genius and patience of a ,gibbon has alone been able to deal with1 defying almost by its gigantic catastrophes and ever raging turbulence the pen of history to chronicle and arrange4 ,when the curtain rises on a new order of things1 the age of ,paganism has passed away1 and the period of the ,middle ,ages will have commenced4 ,illustration3 ,a ,roman ,study4 ,shewing ,scrolls or ,books in a ,scrinium2 also ,lamp1 ,writing ,tablets1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,the ,roman ,triclinium1 or ,dining ,room4 ,the plan in the margin shews the position of guests2 the place of honor was that which is indicated by ,no4 #a1 and that of the host by ,no4 #i4 7,the ,illustration is taken from ,dr4 ,jacob von ,falke's ,kunst im ,hause47 ,illustration3 ,plan of a ,triclinium4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,middle ,ages4 ,period of #ajjj years from ,fall of ,rome1 ,a4,d4 #dgf1 to ,capture of ,constantinople1 #adec--the ,crusades--,influence of ,christianity--,chairs of ,st4 ,peter and ,maximian at ,rome1 ,ravenna and ,venice--,edict of ,leo ,,iii4 prohibiting ,image worship--the ,rise of ,venice--,charlemagne and his successors--the ,chair of ,dagobert--,byzantine character of ,furniture--,norwegian carving--,russian and ,scandinavian--the ,anglo-,saxons--,sir ,walter ,scott quoted--,descriptions of ,anglo-,saxon ,houses and ,customs--,art in ,flemish ,cities--,gothic ,architecture--the ,coronation ,chair at ,westminster ,abbey--,penshurst--,french ,furniture in the #adth ,century--,description of rooms--the ,south ,kensington ,museum--,transition from ,gothic to ,renaissance--,german carved work3 the ,credence1 the ,buffet1 and ,dressoir4 ,illustration ,the history of furniture is so thoroughly a part of the history of the manners and customs of different peoples1 that one can only understand and appreciate the several changes in style1 sometimes gradual and sometimes rapid1 by reference to certain historical events and influences by which such changes were effected4 ,thus1 we have during the space of time known as the ,middle ,ages1 a stretch of some #a1jjj years1 dating from the fall of ,rome itself1 in ,a4,d4 #dgf1 to the capture of ,constantinople by the ,turks under ,mahomet ,,ii4 in #adec1 an historical panorama of striking incidents and great social changes bearing upon our subject4 ,it was a turbulent and violent period1 which saw the completion of ,rome's downfall1 the rise of the ,carlovingian family1 the subjection of ,britain by the ,saxons1 the ,danes1 and the ,normans2 the extraordinary career and fortunes of ,mahomet2 the conquest of ,spain and a great part of ,africa by the ,moors2 and the ,crusades1 which1 for a common cause1 united the swords and spears of friend and foe4 ,it was the age of monasteries and convents1 of religious persecutions and of heroic struggles of the ,christian ,church4 ,it was the age of feudalism1 chivalry1 and war2 but1 towards the close1 a time of comparative civilisation and progress1 of darkness giving way to the light which followed2 the night of the ,middle ,ages preceding the dawn of the ,renaissance4 ,with the growing importance of ,constantinople1 the capital of the ,eastern ,empire1 families of well-to-do citizens flocked thither from other parts1 bringing with them all their most valuable possessions2 and the houses of the great became rich in ornamental furniture1 the style of which was a mixture of ,eastern and ,roman3 that is1 a corruption of the ,early ,classic ,greek developing into the style known as ,byzantine4 ,the influence of ,christianity upon the position of women materially affected the customs and habits of the people4 ,ladies were allowed to be seen in chariots and open carriages1 the designs of which1 therefore1 improved and became more varied2 the old custom of reclining at meals ceased1 and guests sat on benches2 and though we have1 with certain exceptions1 such as the chair of ,st4 ,peter at ,rome1 and that of ,maximian in the ,cathedral at ,ravenna1 no specimens of furniture of this time1 we have in the old ,byzantine ivory bas-reliefs such representations of circular throne chairs and of ecclesiastical furniture as suffice to show the class of woodwork then in vogue4 ,the chair of ,st4 ,peter is one of the most interesting relics of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the woodcut will shew the design1 which is1 like other work of the period1 ,byzantine1 and the following description is taken from ,mr4 ,hungerford ,pollen's introduction to the ,south ,kensington catalogue3--,the chair is constructed of wood1 overlaid with carved ivory work and gold4 ,the back is bound together with iron4 ,it is a square with solid front and arms4 ,the width in front is #ci inches2 the height in front #cj inches1 shewing that a scabellum or footstool must have belonged to it4444 ,in the front are #ah groups or compositions from the ,gospels1 carved in ivory with exquisite fineness1 and worked with inlay of the purest gold4 ,on the outer sides are several little figures carved in ivory4 ,it formed1 according to tradition1 part of the furniture of the house of the ,senator ,pudens1 an early convert to the ,christian faith4 ,it is he who gave to the ,church his house in ,rome1 of which much that remains is covered by the ,church of ,st4 ,pudenziana4 ,pudens gave this chair to ,st4 ,peter1 and it became the throne of the ,see4 ,it was kept in the old ,basilica of ,st4 ,peter's4 ,since then it has been transferred from place to place1 until now it remains in the present ,church of ,st4 ,peter's1 but is completely hidden from view by the seat or covering made in #affg1 by ,bernini1 out of bronze taken from the ,pantheon4 ,much has been written about this famous chair4 ,cardinal ,wiseman and the ,cavaliere de ,rossi have defended its reputation and its history1 and ,mr4 ,nesbitt1 some years ago1 read a paper on the subject before the ,society of ,antiquaries4 ,illustration3 ,chair of ,st4 ,peter1 ,rome4 ,formerly there was in ,venice another chair of ,st4 ,peter1 of which there is a sketch from a photograph in ,mrs4 ,oliphant's ,makers of ,venice4 ,it is said to have been a present from the ,emperor ,michel1 son of ,theophilus 7#hbd-hfd71 to the ,venetian ,republic in recognition of services rendered1 by either the ,doge ,gradonico1 who died in #ahfd1 or his predecessor1 against the ,mahommedan incursions4 ,fragments only now remain1 and these are preserved in the ,church of ,st4 ,pietro1 at ,castello4 ,there is also a chair of historic fame preserved in ,venice1 and now kept in the treasury of ,st4 ,mark's4 ,originally in ,alexandria1 it was sent to ,constantinople and formed part of the spoils taken by the ,venetians in #abjd4 ,like both the other chairs1 this was also ornamented with ivory plaques1 but these have been replaced by ornamental marble4 ,the earliest of the before-mentioned chairs1 namely1 the one at ,ravenna1 was made for the ,archbishop about #edf to #eef1 and is thus described in ,mr4 ,maskell's ,handbook on ,ivories1 in the ,science and ,art series3--,the chair has a high back1 round in shape1 and is entirely covered with plaques of ivory arranged in panels carved in high relief with scenes from the ,gospels and with figures of saints4 ,the plaques have borders with foliated ornaments1 birds and animals2 flowers and fruits filling the intermediate spaces4 ,du ,sommerard names amongst the most remarkable subjects1 the ,annunciation1 the ,adoration of the ,wise ,men1 the ,flight into ,egypt1 and the ,baptism of ,our ,lord4 ,the chair has also been described by ,passeri1 the famous ,italian antiquary1 and a paper was read upon it1 by ,sir ,digby ,wyatt1 before the ,arundel ,society1 in which he remarked that as it had been fortunately preserved as a holy relic1 it wore almost the same appearance as when used by the prelate for whom it was made1 save for the beautiful tint with which time had invested it4 ,long before the general break up of the vast ,roman ,empire1 influences had been at work to decentralise ,art1 and cause the migration of trained and skilful artisans to countries where their work would build up fresh industries1 and give an impetus to progress1 where hitherto there had been stagnation4 ,one of these influences was the decree issued in ,a4,d4 #gbf by ,leo ,,iii41 ,emperor of the ,eastern ,empire1 prohibiting all image worship4 ,the consequences to ,art of such a decree were doubtless similar to the fanatical proceedings of the ,english ,puritans of the seventeenth century1 and artists1 driven from their homes1 were scattered to the different ,european capitals1 where they were gladly received and found employment and patronage4 ,it should be borne in mind that at this time ,venice was gradually rising to that marvellous position of wealth and power which she afterwards held4 ,a ruler of the waters and their powers3 ,and such she was2--her daughters had their dowers ,from spoils of nations1 and the exhaustless ,east ,pour'd in her lap all gems in sparkling showers2 ,in purple was she robed and of her feasts ,monarchs partook1 and deemed their dignity increased4 ,her wealthy merchants were well acquainted with the arts and manufactures of other countries1 and ,venice would be just one of those cities to attract the artist refugee4 ,it is indeed here that wood carving as an ,art may be said to have specially developed itself1 and though1 from its destructible nature1 there are very few specimens extant dating from this early time1 yet we shall see that two or three hundred years later ornamental woodwork flourished in a state of perfection which must have required a long probationary period4 ,illustration3 ,dagobert ,chair4 ,chair of ,dagobert1 of gilt bronze1 now in the ,muse de ,souverains1 ,paris4 ,originally as a folding chair said to be the work of ,st4 ,eloi1 #gth century2 back and arms added by the ,abbe ,suger in #abth century4 ,there is an electrotype reproduction in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,turning from ,venice4 ,during the latter end of the eighth century the star of ,charlemagne was in the ascendant1 and though we have no authentic specimen1 and scarcely a picture of any wooden furniture of this reign1 we know that1 in appropriating the property of the ,gallo-,romans1 the ,frank ,emperor ,king and his chiefs were in some degree educating themselves to higher notions of luxury and civilisation4 ,paul ,lacroix1 in ,manners1 ,customs1 and ,dress of the ,middle ,ages1 tells us that the trichorium or dining room was generally the largest hall in the palace3 two rows of columns divided it into three parts3 one for the royal family1 one for the officers of the household1 and the third for the guests1 who were always very numerous4 ,no person of rank who visited the ,king could leave without sitting at his table or at least draining a cup to his health4 ,the ,king's hospitality was magnificent1 especially on great religious festivals1 such as ,christmas and ,easter4 ,in other portions of this work of reference we read of boxes to hold articles of value1 and of rich hangings1 but beyond such allusions little can be gleaned of any furniture besides4 ,the celebrated chair of ,dagobert 7illustrated on p4 #ba71 now in the ,louvre1 and of which there is a cast in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 dates from some #aej years before ,charlemagne1 and is probably the only specimen of furniture belonging to this period which has been handed down to us4 ,it is made of gilt bronze1 and is said to be the work of a monk4 ,for the designs of furniture of the tenth to the fourteenth centuries we are in a great measure dependent upon old illuminations and missals of these remote times4 ,they represent chiefly the seats of state used by sovereigns on the occasions of grand banquets1 or of some ecclesiastical function1 and from the valuable collections of these documents in the ,national ,libraries of ,paris and ,brussels1 some illustrations are reproduced1 and it is evident from such authorities that the designs of ,state furniture in ,france and other countries dominated by the ,carlovingian monarchs were of ,byzantine character1 that pseudo-classic style which was the prototype of furniture of about a thousand years later1 when the ,csarism of ,napoleon ,i41 during the early years of the nineteenth century1 produced so many designs which we now recognise as ,empire4 ,no history of mediaeval woodwork would be complete without noticing the ,scandinavian furniture and ornamental wood carving of the tenth to the fifteenth centuries4 ,there are in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 plaster casts of some three or four carved doorways of ,norwegian workmanship1 of the tenth1 eleventh1 and twelfth centuries1 in which scrolls are entwined with contorted monsters1 or1 to quote ,mr4 ,lovett's description1 dragons of hideous aspect and serpents of more than usually tortuous proclivities4 ,the woodcut of a carved lintel conveys a fair idea of this work1 and also of the old ,juniper wood tankards of a much later time4 ,illustration3 ,a ,carved ,norwegian ,doorway4 ,period3 ,x4 to ,,xi4 ,century4 ,there are also at ,kensington other casts of curious ,scandinavian woodwork of more ,byzantine treatment1 the originals of which are in the ,museums of ,stockholm and ,copenhagen1 where the collection of antique woodwork of native production is very large and interesting1 and proves how wood carving1 as an industrial art1 has flourished in ,scandinavia from the early ,viking times4 ,one can still see in the old churches of ,borgund and ,hitterdal much of the carved woodwork of the seventh and eighth centuries2 and lintels and porches full of national character are to be found in ,thelemarken4 ,under this heading of ,scandinavian may be included the very early ,russian school of ornamental woodwork4 ,before the accession of the ,romanoff dynasty in the sixteenth century1 the ,ruric race of kings came originally from ,finland1 then a province of ,sweden2 and1 so far as one can see from old illuminated manuscripts1 there was a similarity of design to those of the early ,norwegian and ,swedish carved lintels which have been noticed above4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,wood ,chair1 ,scandinavian ,work4 ,period3 #abth to #acth ,century4 ,the covers and caskets of early mediaeval times were no inconsiderable items in the valuable furniture of a period when the list of articles coming under that definition was so limited4 ,these were made in oak for general use1 and some were of good workmanship2 but of the very earliest none remain4 ,there were1 however1 others1 smaller and of a special character1 made in ivory of the walrus and elephant1 of horn and whalebone1 besides those of metal4 ,in the ,british ,museum is one of these1 of which the cover is illustrated on the following page1 representing a man defending his house against an attack by enemies armed with spears and shields4 ,other parts of the casket are carved with subjects and runic inscriptions which have enabled ,mr4 ,stephens1 an authority on this period of archology1 to assign its date to the eighth century1 and its manufacture to that of ,northumbria4 ,it most probably represents a local incident1 and part of the inscription refers to a word signifying treachery4 ,it was purchased by ,mr4 ,a4,w4 ,franks1 ,f4,s4,a41 and is one of the many valuable specimens given to the ,british ,museum by its generous curator4 ,illustration3 ,cover of a ,casket ,carved in ,whalebone4 7,northumbrian1 #hth ,century4 ,british ,museum47 ,of the furniture of our own country previous to the eleventh or twelfth centuries we know but little4 ,the habits of the ,anglo-,saxons were rude and simple1 and they advanced but slowly in civilisation until after the ,norman invasion4 ,to convey1 however1 to our minds some idea of the interior of a ,saxon thane's castle1 we may avail ourselves of ,sir ,walter ,scott's antiquarian research1 and borrow his description of the chief apartment in ,rotherwood1 the hospitable hall of ,cedric the ,saxon4 ,though the time treated of in ,ivanhoe is quite at the end of the twelfth century1 yet we have in ,cedric a type of man who would have gloried in retaining the customs of his ancestors1 who detested and despised the new-fashioned manners of his conquerors1 and who came of a race that had probably done very little in the way of refurnishing for some generations4 ,if1 therefore1 we have the reader's pardon for relying upon the mise en scne of a novel for an authority1 we shall imagine the more easily what kind of furniture our ,anglo-,saxon forefathers indulged in4 ,illustration3 ,saxon ,house of #ith or #ajth ,century4 7,from the ,harleian ,,mss4 in the ,british ,museum47 ,in a hall1 the height of which was greatly disproportioned to its extreme length and width1 a long oaken table--formed of planks rough hewn from the forest1 and which had scarcely received any polish--stood ready prepared for the evening meal4444 ,on the sides of the apartment hung implements of war and of the chase1 and there were at each corner folding doors which gave access to the other parts of the extensive building4 ,the other appointments of the mansion partook of the rude simplicity of the ,saxon period1 which ,cedric piqued himself upon maintaining4 ,the floor was composed of earth mixed with lime1 trodden into a hard substance1 such as is often employed in flooring our modern barns4 ,for about one quarter of the length of the apartment1 the floor was raised by a step1 and this space1 which was called the das1 was occupied only by the principal members of the family and visitors of distinction4 ,for this purpose a table richly covered with scarlet cloth was placed transversely across the platform1 from the middle of which ran the longer and lower board1 at which the domestics and inferior persons fed1 down towards the bottom of the hall4 ,the whole resembled the form of the letter b,t_/b1 or some of those ancient dinner tables which1 arranged on the same principles1 may still be seen in the ancient colleges of ,oxford and ,cambridge4 ,massive chairs and settles of carved oak were placed upon the das1 and over these seats and the elevated table was fastened a canopy of cloth1 which served in some degree to protect the dignitaries who occupied that distinguished station from the weather1 and especially from the rain1 which in some places found its way through the ill-constructed roof4 ,the walls of this upper end of the hall1 as far as the das extended1 were covered with hangings or curtains1 and upon the floor there was a carpet1 both of which were adorned with some attempts at tapestry or embroidery1 executed with brilliant or rather gaudy colouring4 ,over the lower range of table the roof had no covering1 the rough plastered walls were left bare1 the rude earthen floor was uncarpeted1 the board was uncovered by a cloth1 and rude massive benches supplied the place of chairs4 ,in the centre of the upper table were placed two chairs more elevated than the rest1 for the master and mistress of the family4 ,to each of these was added a footstool curiously carved and inlaid with ivory1 which mark of distinction was peculiar to them4 ,a drawing in the ,harleian ,,mss4 in the ,british ,museum is shewn on page #be1 illustrating a ,saxon mansion in the ninth or tenth century4 ,there is the hall in the centre1 with chamber and bower on either side2 there being only a ground floor1 as in the earlier ,roman houses4 ,according to ,mr4 ,wright1 ,f4,s4,a41 who has written on the subject of ,anglo-,saxon manners and customs1 there was only one instance recorded of an upper floor at this period1 and that was in an account of an accident which happened to the house in which the ,witan or ,council of ,st4 ,dunstan met1 when1 according to the ancient chronicle which he quotes1 the ,council fell from an upper floor1 and ,st4 ,dunstan saved himself from a similar fate by supporting his weight on a beam4 ,the illustration here given shews the ,anglo-,saxon chieftain standing at the door of his hall1 with his lady1 distributing food to the needy poor4 ,other woodcuts represent ,anglo-,saxon bedsteads1 which were little better than raised wooden boxes1 with sacks of straw placed therein1 and these were generally in recesses4 ,there are old inventories and wills in existence which shew that some value and importance was attached to these primitive contrivances1 which at this early period in our history were the luxuries of only a few persons of high rank4 ,a certain will recites that the bed-clothes 7bed-reafes7 with a curtain 7hyrite7 and sheet 7hepp-scrytan71 and all that thereto belongs1 should be given to his son4 ,in the account of the murder of ,king ,athelbert by the ,queen of ,king ,offa1 as told by ,roger of ,wendover1 we read of the ,queen ordering a chamber to be made ready for the ,royal guest1 which was adorned for the occasion with what was then considered sumptuous furniture4 ,near the ,king's bed she caused a seat to be prepared1 magnificently decked and surrounded with curtains1 and underneath it the wicked woman caused a deep pit to be dug4 ,the author from whom the above translation is quoted adds with grim humour1 ,it is clear that this room was on the ground floor4 ,illustration3 ,anglo ,saxon ,furniture of ,about the ,tenth ,century4 7,from old ,,mss4 in the ,british ,museum47 #a4 ,a ,drinking ,party4 #b4 ,a ,dinner ,party1 in which the attendants are serving the meal on the spits on which it has been cooked4 #c4 ,anglo-,saxon ,beds4 ,there are in the ,british ,museum other old manuscripts whose illustrations have been laid under contribution representing more innocent occupations of our ,anglo-,saxon forefathers4 ,the seat on the dis1 an ,anglo-,saxon drinking party1 and other illustrations which are in existence1 prove generally that1 when the meal had finished1 the table was removed and drinking vessels were handed round from guest to guest2 the storytellers1 the minstrels1 and the gleemen 7conjurers7 or jesters1 beguiling the festive hour by their different performances4 ,illustration3 ,the ,seat on ,the ,das4 ,illustration3 ,saxon ,state ,bed4 ,some of these ,anglo-,saxon houses had formerly been the villas of the ,romans during their occupation1 altered and modified to suit the habits and tastes of their later possessors4 ,lord ,lytton has given us1 in the first chapter of his novel ,harold1 the description of one of such ,saxonised ,roman houses1 in his reference to ,hilda's abode4 ,the gradual influence of ,norman civilisation1 however1 had its effect1 though the unsettled state of the country prevented any rapid development of industrial arts4 ,the feudal system by which every powerful baron became a petty sovereign1 often at war with his neighbour1 rendered it necessary that household treasures should be few and easily transported or hidden1 and the earliest oak chests which are still preserved date from about this time4 ,bedsteads were not usual1 except for kings1 queens1 and great ladies2 tapestry covered the walls1 and the floors were generally sanded4 ,as the country became more calm1 and security for property more assured1 this comfortless state of living disappeared2 the dress of ladies was richer1 and the general habits of the upper classes were more refined4 ,stairs were introduced into houses1 the parloir or talking room was added1 and fire places were made in some of the rooms1 of brick or stonework1 where previously the smoke was allowed to escape through an aperture in the roof4 ,bedsteads were carved and draped with rich hangings4 ,armoires made of oak and enriched with carving1 and ,presses date from about the end of the eleventh century4 ,illustration3 ,english ,folding ,chair1 #adth ,century4#c ,illustration3 ,cradle ,of ,henry ,v4 ,it was during the reign of ,henry ,,iii41 #abaf-abgb1 that wood-panelling was first used for rooms1 and considerable progress generally appears to have been made about this period4 ,eleanor of ,provence1 whom the ,king married in #abcf1 encouraged more luxury in the homes of the barons and courtiers4 ,mr4 ,hungerford ,pollen has quoted a royal precept which was promulgated in this year1 and it plainly shows that our ancestors were becoming more refined in their tastes4 ,the terms of this precept were as follows1 viz41 the ,king's great chamber at ,westminster be painted a green colour like a curtain1 that in the great gable or frontispiece of the said chamber1 a ,french inscription should be painted1 and that the ,king's little wardrobe should be painted of a green colour to imitate a curtain4 ,in another #ajj or #aej years we find mediaeval ,art approaching its best period1 not only in ,england1 but in the great ,flemish cities1 such as ,bruges and ,ghent1 which in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries played so important a part in the history of that time4 ,the taste for ,gothic architecture had now well set in1 and we find that in this as in every change of style1 the fashion in woodwork naturally followed that of ornament in stone2 indeed1 in many cases it is more than probable that the same hands which planned the cathedral or monastery also drew the designs for furniture1 especially as the finest specimens of wood-carving were devoted to the service of the church4 ,the examples1 therefore1 of the woodwork of this period to which we have access are found to be mostly of ,gothic pattern1 with quaint distorted conceptions of animals and reptiles1 adapted to ornament the structural part of the furniture1 or for the enrichment of the panels4 ,to the end of the thirteenth century belongs the ,coronation chair made for ,king ,edward ,i41 #abif-acjj1 and now in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,this historic relic is of oak1 and the woodcut on the following page gives an idea of the design and decorative carving4 ,it is said that the pinnacles on each side of the gabled back were formerly surmounted by two leopards1 of which only small portions remain4 ,the famous ,coronation stone which1 according to ancient legend1 is the identical one on which the patriarch ,jacob rested his head at ,bethel1 when he tarried there all night because the sun was set1 and he took of the stones of that place and put them up for his pillows1 ,gen4 xxviii41 can be seen through the quatrefoil openings under the seat4#d ,the carved lions which support the chair are not original1 but modern work2 and were regilt in honour of the ,jubilee of ,her ,majesty in #ahhg1 when the chair was last used4 ,the rest of the chair now shows the natural colour of the oak1 except the arms1 which have a slight padding on them4 ,the wood was1 however1 formerly covered with a coating of plaster1 gilded over1 and it is probably due to this protection that it is now in such excellent preservation4 ,standing by its side in ,henry ,,iii4's ,chapel in ,westminster ,abbey is another chair1 similar1 but lacking the trefoil ,gothic arches1 which are carved on the sides of the original chair2 this was made for and used by ,mary1 daughter of ,james ,,ii4 and wife of ,william ,,iii41 on the occasion of their double coronation4 ,mr4 ,hungerford ,pollen has given us a long description of this chair1 with quotations from the different historical notices which have appeared concerning it4 ,the following is an extract which he has taken from an old writer3 ,it appears that the ,king intended1 in the first instance1 to make the chair in bronze1 and that ,eldam1 the ,king's workman1 had actually begun it4 ,indeed1 some parts were even finished1 and tools bought for the clearing up of the casting4 ,however1 the ,king changed his mind1 and we have accordingly #ajjs4 paid for a chair in wood1 made after the same pattern as the one which was to be cast in copper2 also #acs4 #d;d4 for carving1 painting1 and gilding two small leopards in wood1 which were delivered to ,master ,walter1 the ,king's painter1 to be placed upon and on either side of the chair made by him4 ,the wardrobe account of #bith ,ed4 ,i4 shows that ,master ,walter was paid #a #ais4 #g;d4 'for making a step at the foot of the new chair in which the ,scottish stone is placed2 and for the wages of the carpenters and of the painters1 and for colours and gold employed1 and for the making a covering to cover the said chair4' ,illustration3 ,coronation ,chair4 ,westminster ,abbey4 ,in #acbh1 ,june #a1 there is a royal writ ordering the abbot to deliver up the stone to the ,sheriff of ,london1 to be carried to the ,queen-,mother2 however1 it never went4 ,the chair has been used upon the occasion of every coronation since that time1 except in the case of ,mary1 who is said to have used a chair specially sent by the ,pope for the occasion4 ,illustration3 ,chair in the ,vestry of ,york ,minster4 ,late #adth century4 ,the above drawing of a chair in ,york ,minster1 and the two more throne-like seats on the full-page illustration1 will serve to shew the best kind of ornamental ,ecclesiastical furniture of the fourteenth century4 ,in the choir of ,canterbury ,cathedral there is a chair which has played its part in history1 and1 although earlier than the above1 it may be conveniently mentioned here4 ,this is the ,archbishop's throne1 and it is also called the chair of ,st4 ,augustine4 ,according to legend1 the ,saxon kings were crowned therein1 but it is probably not earlier than the thirteenth century4 ,it is an excellent piece of stonework1 with a shaped back and arms1 relieved from being quite plain by the back and sides being panelled with a carved moulding4 ,illustration3 ,chair4 ,in ,st4 ,mary's ,hall1 ,coventry4 ,chair4 ,from an ,old ,english ,monastery4 ,period3 ,,xv4 ,century4 ,penshurst ,place1 near ,tonbridge1 the residence of ,lord de l',isle and ,dudley1 the historic home of the ,sydneys1 is almost an unique example of what a wealthy ,english gentleman's country house was about the time of which we are writing1 say the middle of the fourteenth century1 or during the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 ,by the courtesy of ,lord de l',isle1 the writer has been allowed to examine many objects of great interest there1 and from the careful preservation of many original fittings and articles of furniture1 one may still gain some idea of the hall as it then appeared1 when that part of the house was the scene of the chief events in the life of the family--the raised das for host and honoured guests1 the better table which was placed there 7illustrated7 and the commoner ones for the body of the hall2 and though the ancient buffet which displayed the gold and silver cups is gone1 one can see where it would have stood4 ,penshurst is said to possess the only hearth of the time now remaining in ,england1 an octagonal space edged with stone in the centre of the hall1 over which was once the simple opening for the outlet of smoke through the roof1 and the old andirons or firedogs are still there4 ,illustration3 ,standing ,table at ,penshurst1 ,still on the ,das in the ,hall4 ,illustration3 ,bedroom in which a ,knight and ,his ,lady are ,seated4 7,from a ,miniature in ,othea1 a ,poem by ,christine de ,pisan4 ,,xiv4 ,century1 ,french47 ,an idea of the furniture of an apartment in ,france during the fourteenth century is conveyed by the above illustration1 and it is very useful1 because1 although we have on record many descriptions of the appearance of the furniture of state apartments1 we have very few authenticated accounts of the way in which such domestic chambers as the one occupied by a knight and his lady were arranged4 ,the prie dieu chair was generally at the bedside1 and had a seat which lifted up1 the lower part forming a box-like receptacle for devotional books then so regularly used by a lady of the time4 ,illustration3 ,bedstead and ,chair in ,carved ,oak4 ,from ,miniatures in the ,royal ,library1 ,brussels4 ,period3 ,,xiv4 ,century4 ,towards the end of the fourteenth century there was in high quarters a taste for bright and rich colouring2 we have the testimony of an old writer who describes the interior of the ,hotel de ,bohme1 which after having been the residence of several great personages was given by ,charles ,,vi4 of ,france in #achh to his brother the ,duke of ,orleans4 ,in this palace was a room used by the duke1 hung with cloth of gold1 bordered with vermilion velvet embroidered with roses2 the duchess had a room hung with vermilion satin embroidered with crossbows1 which were on her coat of arms2 that of the ,duke of ,burgundy was hung with cloth of gold embroidered with windmills4 ,there were besides eight carpets of glossy texture with gold flowers1 one representing 'the seven virtues and seven vices1' another the history of ,charlemagne1 another that of ,saint ,louis4 ,there were also cushions of cloth of gold1 twenty-four pieces of vermilion leather of ,aragon1 and four carpets of ,aragon leather1 'to be placed on the floor of rooms in summer4' ,the favourite arm-chair of the ,princess is thus described in an inventory--'a chamber chair with four supports1 painted in fine vermilion1 the seat and arms of which are covered in vermilion morocco1 or cordovan1 worked and stamped with designs representing the sun1 birds1 and other devices bordered with fringes of silk and studded with nails4' ,the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries had been remarkable for a general development of commerce3 merchants of ,venice1 ,geneva1 ,florence1 ,milan1 ,ghent1 ,bruges1 ,antwerp1 and many other famous cities had traded extensively with the ,east and had grown opulent1 and their homes naturally showed signs of wealth and comfort that in former times had been impossible to any but princes and rich nobles4 ,laws had been made in answer to the complaints of the aristocracy to place some curb on the growing ambition of the bourgeoisie2 thus we find an old edict in the reign of ,philippe the ,fair 7#abhe-acad7--,no bourgeois shall have a chariot1 nor wear gold1 precious stones1 nor crowns of gold and silver4 ,bourgeois not being prelates or dignitaries of state shall not have tapers of wax4 ,a bourgeois possessing #b1jjj pounds 7tournois7 or more1 may order for himself a dress of #abe sous #f deniers1 and for his wife one worth #af sous at the most1 etc41 etc41 etc4 ,this and many other similar regulations were made in vain2 the trading classes became more and more powerful1 and we quote the description of a furnished apartment in ,p4 ,lacroix's ,manners and ,customs of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the walls were hung with precious tapestry of ,cyprus1 on which the initials and motto of the lady were embroidered1 the sheets were of fine linen of ,rheims1 and had cost more than #cjj pounds1 the quilt was a new invention of silk and silver tissue1 the carpet was like gold4 ,the lady wore an elegant dress of crimson silk1 and rested her head and arms on pillows ornamented with buttons of oriental pearls4 ,it should be remarked that this lady was not the wife of a great merchant1 such as those of ,venice and ,genoa1 but of a simple retail dealer who was not above selling articles for #d sous2 such being the case1 we cannot wonder that ,christine de ,pisan should have considered the anecdote 'worthy of being immortalized in a book4' ,illustration3 ,the ,new ,born ,infant4 ,shewing the interior of an ,apartment at the end of the #adth or commencement of the #aeth century4 7,from a ,miniature in ,histoire de la ,belle ,hlaine1 ,national ,library of ,paris7 ,as we approach the end of the fourteenth century1 we find canopies added to the chaires or chayers dorseret1 which were carved in oak or chesnut1 and sometimes elaborately gilded and picked out in color4 ,the canopied seats were very bulky and throne-like constructions1 and were abandoned towards the end of the fifteenth century2 and it is worthy of notice that though we have retained our word chair1 adopted from the ,norman ,french1 the ,french people discarded their synonym in favour of its diminutive chaise to describe the somewhat smaller and less massive seat which came into use in the sixteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,portrait of ,christine de ,pisan1 ,seated on a ,canopied ,chair of carved wood1 the back lined with tapestry4 7,from ,miniature on ,,ms41 in the ,burgundy ,library1 ,brussels47 ,period3 ,,xv4 ,century4 ,the skilled artisans of ,paris had arrived at a very high degree of excellence in the fourteenth century1 and in old documents describing valuable articles of furniture1 care is taken to note that they are of ,parisian workmanship4 ,according to ,lacroix1 there is an account of the court silversmith1 ,etienne ,la ,fontaine1 which gives us an idea of the amount of extravagance sometimes committed in the manufacture and decorations of a chair1 into which it was then the fashion to introduce the incrustation of precious stones2 thus for making a silver arm chair and ornamenting it with pearls1 crystals1 and other stones1 he charged the ,king of ,france1 in #aceb1 no less a sum than #ggd louis4 ,the use of rich embroideries at state banquets and on grand occasions appears to have commenced during the reign of ,louis ,,ix4--,saint ,louis1 as he is called--and these were richly emblazoned with arms and devices4 ,indeed1 it was probably due to the fashion for rich stuffs and coverings of tables1 and of velvet embroidered cushions for the chairs1 that the practice of making furniture of the precious metals died out1 and carved wood came into favour4 ,illustration3 ,state ,banquet1 with ,attendant ,musicians4 7,from ,miniatures in the ,national ,library1 ,paris47 ,period3 ,,xv4 ,century4 ,chairs of this period appear only to have been used on very special occasions2 indeed they were too cumbersome to be easily moved from place to place1 and in a miniature from some ,,mss4 of the early part of the fifteenth century1 which represents a state banquet1 the guests are seated on a long bench with a back carved in the ,gothic ornament of the time4 ,in ,skeat's ,dictionary1 our modern word banquet is said to be derived from the banes or benches used on these occasions4 ,illustration3 ,a ,high ,backed ,chair1 in ,carved ,oak 7,gothic ,style74 ,period3 ,,xv4 ,century4 ,french4 ,illustration3 ,mediaeval ,bed and ,bedroom4 7,from ,viollet-le-,duc47 ,period3 ,,xiv4 to ,,xv4 ,century4 ,french4 ,the great hall of the ,king's ,palace1 where such an entertainment as that given by ,charles ,v4 to the ,emperor ,charles of ,luxemburg would take place1 was also furnished with three dressoirs for the display of the gold and silver drinking cups1 and vases of the time2 the repast itself was served upon a marble table1 and above the seat of each of the princes present was a separate canopy of gold cloth embroidered with fleur de lis4 ,illustration3 ,scribe or ,copyist4 ,working at his desk in a room in which are a reading desk and a chest with manuscript4 7,from an ,old ,minature7 ,period3 ,,xv4 ,century4 ,the furniture of ordinary houses of this period was very simple4 ,chests1 more or less carved1 and ornamented with iron work1 settles of oak or of chestnut1 stools or benches with carved supports1 a bedstead and a prie dieu chair1 a table with plain slab supported on shaped standards1 would nearly supply the inventory of the furniture of the chief room in a house of a well-to-do merchant in ,france until the fourteenth century had turned4 ,the table was narrow1 apparently not more than some #cj inches wide1 and guests sat on one side only1 the service taking place from the unoccupied side of the table4 ,in palaces and baronial halls the servants with dishes were followed by musicians1 as shewn in an old-miniature of the time1 reproduced on p4 #ci4 ,turning to ,german work of the fifteenth century1 there is a cast of the famous choir stalls in the ,cathedral of ,ulm1 which are considered the finest work of the ,swabian school of ,german wood carving4 ,the magnificent panel of foliage on the front1 the ,gothic triple canopy with the busts of ,isaiah1 ,david1 and ,daniel1 are thoroughly characteristic specimens of design2 and the signature of the artist1 ,jorg ,syrlin1 with date #adfh1 are carved on the work4 ,there were originally #hi choir stalls1 and the work occupied the master from the date mentioned1 #adfh1 until #adgd4 ,the illustrations of the two chairs of ,german ,gothic furniture formerly in some of the old castles1 are good examples of their time1 and are from drawings made on the spot by ,prof4 ,heideloff4 ,illustration3 ,two ,german ,chairs 7,late #aeth ,century74 7,from ,drawings made in ,old ,german ,castles by ,prof4 ,heideloff47 ,there are in our ,south ,kensington ,museum some full-sized plaster casts of important specimens of woodwork of the fifteenth and two previous centuries1 and being of authenticated dates1 we can compare them with the work of the same countries after the ,renaissance had been adopted and had completely altered design4 ,thus in ,italy there was1 until the latter part of the fifteenth century1 a mixture of ,byzantine and ,gothic of which we can see a capital example in the casts of the celebrated ,pulpit in the ,baptistry of ,pisa1 the date of which is #abfj4 ,the pillars are supported by lions1 which1 instead of being introduced heraldically into the design1 as would be the case some two hundred years later1 are bearing the whole weight of the pillars and an enormous superstructure on the hollow of their backs in a most impossible manner4 ,the spandril of each arch is filled with a saint in a grotesque position amongst ,gothic foliage1 and there is in many respects a marked contrast to the casts of examples of the ,renaissance period which are in the ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,buffet in ,gothic ,style 7,viollet le ,duc74 ,period3 ,,xv4 ,century4 ,french4 ,this transition from ,mediaeval and ,gothic1 to ,renaissance1 is clearly noticeable in the woodwork of many cathedrals and churches in ,england and in continental cities4 ,it is evident that the chairs1 stalls1 and pulpits in many of these buildings have been executed at different times1 and the change from one style to another is more or less marked4 ,the ,flemish buffet here illustrated is an example of this transition1 and may be contrasted with the ,french ,gothic buffet referred to in the following paragraph4 ,there is also in the central hall of the ,south ,kensington ,museum a plaster cast of a carved wood altar stall in the ,abbey of ,saint ,denis1 ,france3 the pilasters at the sides have the familiar ,gothic pinnacles1 while the panels are ornamented with arabesques1 scrolls1 and an interior in the ,renaissance style2 the date of this is late in the fifteenth century4 ,the buffet on page #dc is an excellent specimen of the best fifteenth century ,french ,gothic oak work1 and the woodcut shows the arrangement of gold and silver plate on the white linen cloth with embroidered ends1 in use at this time4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,table4 ,period3 ,late ,,xv4 or ,early ,,xvi4 ,century4 ,french4 ,illustration3 ,flemish ,buffet4 ,of ,carved ,oak2 open below with panelled cupboards above4 ,the back evidently of later work1 after the ,renaissance had set in4 7,from a ,photo1 by ,messrs4 ,r4 ,sutton ,co4 from the ,original in the ,s4 ,kensington ,museum47 ,period3 ,gothic ,to ,renaissance1 ,,xv4 ,century4 ,illustration3 ,a ,tapestried ,room in a ,french ,chateau1 ,with ,oak ,chests as ,seats4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,seat1 ,with moveable ,backrest1 in front of ,fireplace4 ,period3 ,late ,,xv4 ,century4 ,french4 ,we have now arrived at a period in the history of furniture which is confused1 and difficult to arrange and classify4 ,from the end of the fourteenth century to the ,renaissance is a time of transition1 and specimens may be easily mistaken as being of an earlier or later date than they really are4 ,m4 ,jacquemart notices this gap1 though he fixes its duration from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century1 and he quotes as an instance of the indecision which characterised this interval1 that workers in furniture were described in different terms2 the words coffer maker1 carpenter1 and huchier 7trunk-maker7 frequently occurring to describe the same class of artisan4 ,it is only later that the word menuisier1 or joiner1 appears1 and we must enter upon the period of the ,renaissance before we find the term cabinet maker1 and later still1 after the end of the seventeenth century1 we have such masters of their craft as ,riesener described as ebenistes1 the word being derived from ebony1 which1 with other eastern woods1 came into use after the ,dutch settlement in ,ceylon4 ,jacquemart also notices the fact that as early as #acfj we have record of a specialist1 ,jehan ,petrot1 as a chessboard maker4 ,illustration3 ,interior of ,an ,apothecary's ,shop4 ,late ,,xiv4 or ,early ,,xv4 ,century4 ,flemish4 7,from an ,old ,painting47 ,illustration3 ,court of the ,ladies of ,queen ,anne of ,brittany4 7,from a ,miniature in the ,library of ,st4 ,petersburg7 ,representing the ,queen weeping on account of her ,husband's absence during the ,italian ,war4 ,period3 ,,xv4 ,century4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,renaissance4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,italy3 ,leonardo da ,vinci and ,raffaele--,church of ,st4 ,peter1 contemporary great artists--,the ,italian ,palazzo--,methods of gilding1 inlaying and mounting ,furniture-,pietra-dura and other enrichments--,ruskin's criticism4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,france3 ,francois ,i4 and the ,chateau of ,fontainebleau--,influence on ,courtiers1 ,chairs of the time--,design of ,cabinets--,m4,e4 ,bonnaff on ,the ,renaissance1 ,bedstead of ,jeanne d',albret--,deterioration of taste in time of ,henry ,,iv41 ,louis ,,xiii4 ,furniture--,brittany woodwork4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,the ,,netherlands3 ,influence of the ,house of ,burgundy on ,art--,the ,chimney-piece at ,bruges1 and other casts of specimens at ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,spain3 ,the resources of ,spain in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries--,influence of ,saracenic ,art1 high-backed leather chairs1 the ,carthusian ,convent at ,granada4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,germany3 ,albrecht ,drer--,famous ,steel ,chair of ,augsburg--,german seventeenth century carving in ,st4 ,saviour's ,hospital4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,england3 ,influence of ,foreign ,artists in the time of ,henry ,,viii4--,end of ,feudalism--,hampton ,court ,palace--,linen pattern ,panels--,woodwork in the ,henry ,,vii4 ,chapel at ,westminster ,abbey--,livery ,cupboards at ,hengrave--,harrison quoted--the parler1 alteration in ,english customs--,chairs of the sixteenth century--,coverings and ,cushions of the time1 extract from old ,inventory--,south ,kensington ,cabinet--,elizabethan ,mirror at ,goodrich ,court--,shaw's ,ancient ,furniture the ,glastonbury ,chair--,introduction of ,frames into ,england--,characteristics of ,native ,woodwork--,famous ,country ,mansions1 alteration in design of ,woodwork and ,furniture--,panelled ,rooms at ,south ,kensington--,the ,charterhouse--,gray's ,inn ,hall and ,middle ,temple--,the ,hall of the ,carpenter's ,company--,the ,great ,bed of ,ware--,shakespeare's ,chair--,penshurst ,place4 ,illustration ,it is impossible to write about the period of the ,renaissance without grave misgivings as to the ability to render justice to a period which has employed the pens of many cultivated writers1 and to which whole volumes1 nay libraries1 have been devoted4 ,within the limited space of a single chapter all that can be attempted is a brief glance at the influence on design by which furniture and woodwork were affected4 ,perhaps the simplest way of understanding the changes which occurred1 first in ,italy1 and subsequently in other countries1 is to divide the chapter on this period into a series of short notes arranged in the order in which ,italian influence would seem to have affected the designers and craftsmen of several ,european nations4 ,towards the end of the fifteenth century there appears to have been an almost universal rage for classical literature1 and we believe some attempt was made to introduce ,latin as a universal language2 it is certain that ,italian ,art was adopted by nation after nation1 and a well known writer on architecture 7,mr4 ,parker7 has observed3--,it was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that the national styles of the different countries of ,modern ,europe were revived4 ,as we look back upon the history of ,art1 assisted by the numerous examples in our ,museums1 one is struck by the want of novelty in the imagination of mankind4 ,the glorious antique has always been our classic standard1 and it seems only to have been a question of time as to when and how a return was made to the old designs of the ,greek artists1 then to wander from them awhile1 and again to return when the world1 weary of over-abundance of ornament1 longed for the repose of simpler lines on the principles which governed the glorious ,athenian artists of old4 ,the ,renaissance in ,italy4 ,italy was the birthplace of the ,renaissance4 ,leonardo da ,vinci and ,raffaele may be said to have guided and led the natural artistic instincts of their countrymen1 to discard the ,byzantine-,gothic which1 as ,m4 ,bonnaffe has said1 was adopted by the ,italians not as a permanent institution1 but faute de mieux as a passing fashion4 ,it is difficult to say with any certainty when the first commencement of a new era actually takes place1 but there is an incident related in ,michael ,bryan's biographical notice of ,leonardo da ,vinci which gives us an approximate date4 ,ludovico ,sforza1 ,duke of ,milan1 had appointed this great master ,director of ,painting and ,architecture in his academy in #adid1 and1 says ,bryan1 who obtained his information from contemporary writers1 ,leonardo no sooner entered on his office1 than he banished all the ,gothic principles established by his predecessor1 ,michelino1 and introduced the beautiful simplicity and purity of the ,grecian and ,roman styles4 ,a few years after this date1 ,pope ,julius ,,ii4 commenced to build the present magnificent ,church of ,st4 ,peter's1 designed by ,bramante d',urbino1 kinsman and friend of ,raffaele1 to whose superintendence ,pope ,leo ,x4 confided the work on the death of the architect in #aead1 ,michael ,angelo having the charge committed to him some years after ,raffaele's death4 ,these dates give us a very fair idea of the time at which this important revolution in taste was taking place in ,italy1 at the end of the fifteenth and the commencement of the following century1 and carved woodwork followed the new direction4 ,illustration3 ,reproduction of ,decoration ,by ,raffaelle4 ,in the ,loggie of the ,vatican4 ,period3 ,italian ,renaissance4 ,illustration3 ,a ,sixteenth ,century ,room4 ,reproduced from the ,magazine of ,art 7,by ,permission7 ,illustration3 ,salon of ,m4 ,edmond ,bonnaff1 ,decorated and ,furnished in the ,renaissance ,style4 ,leo ,x4 was ,pope in #aeac4 ,the period of peace which then ensued after war1 which for so many decades had disturbed ,italy1 as ,france or ,germany had in turn striven to acquire her fertile soil1 gave the princes and nobles leisure to rebuild and adorn their palaces2 and the excavations which were then made brought to light many of the works of art which had remained buried since the time when ,rome was mistress of the world4 ,leo was a member of that remarkable and powerful family the ,medicis1 the very mention of whom is to suggest the ,renaissance1 and under his patronage1 and with the co-operation of the reigning dukes and princes of the different ,italian states1 artists were given encouragement and scope for the employment of their talents4 ,michael ,angelo1 ,titian1 ,raffaele ,sanzio1 ,andrea del ,sarto1 ,correggio1 and many other great artists were raising up monuments of everlasting fame2 ,palladio was rebuilding the palaces of ,italy1 which were then the wonder of the world2 ,benvenuto ,cellini and ,lorenzo ,ghiberti were designing those marvellous chef d'oeuvres in gold1 silver1 and bronze which are now so rare2 and a host of illustrious artists were producing work which has made the sixteenth century famous for all time4 ,illustration3 ,chair in ,carved ,walnut4 ,found in the house of ,michael ,angelo4 ,the circumstances of the ,italian noble caused him to be very amenable to ,art influence4 ,living chiefly out of doors1 his climate rendered him less dependent on the comforts of small rooms1 to which more northern people were attached1 and his ideas would naturally aspire to pomp and elegance1 rather than to home life and utility4 ,instead of the warm chimney corner and the comfortable seat1 he preferred furniture of a more palatial character for the adornment of the lofty and spacious saloons of his palace1 and therefore we find the buffet elaborately carved1 with a free treatment of the classic antique which marks the time2 it was frequently garnished with the beautiful majolica of ,urbino1 of ,pesaro1 and of ,gubbio4 ,the sarcophagus1 or cassone1 of oak1 or more commonly of chesnut or walnut1 sometimes painted and gilded1 sometimes carved with scrolls and figures2 the cabinet designed with architectural outline1 and fitted up inside with steps and pillars like a temple2 chairs which are wonderful to look upon as guardians of a stately doorway1 but uninviting as seats2 tables inlaid1 gilded1 and carved1 with slabs of marble or of ,florentine ,mosaic work1 but which from their height are as a rule impossible to use for any domestic purpose2 mirrors with richly carved and gilded frames are so many evidences of a style which is palatial rather than domestic1 in design as in proportion4 ,illustration3 ,venetian ,centre ,table1 ,carved and ,gilt4 ,in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,the walls of these handsome saloons or galleries were hung with rich velvet of ,genoese manufacture1 with stamped and gilt leather1 and a composition ornament was also applied to woodwork1 and then gilded and painted2 this kind of decoration was termed gesso work4 ,illustration3 ,marriage ,coffer in ,carved ,walnut4 7,collection of ,comte de ,briges47 ,period3 ,renaissance 7,,xvi4 ,century7 ,venetian4 ,illustration3 ,marriage ,coffer1 ,carved and ,gilt with ,painted ,subject4 ,italian4 ,,xvi4 ,century4 ,a rich effect was produced on the carved console tables1 chairs1 stools and frames intended for gilding1 by the method employed by the ,venetian and ,florentine craftsmen1 the gold leaf being laid on a red preparation1 and then the chief portions highly burnished4 ,there are in the ,south ,kensington ,museum several specimens of such work1 and now that time and wear have caused this red groundwork to shew through the faded gold1 the harmony of color is very satisfactory4 ,illustration3 ,pair of ,italian ,carved ,bellows1 in ,walnut ,wood4 7,south ,kensington ,museum47 ,other examples of fifteenth century ,italian carving1 such as the old ,cassone fronts1 are picked out with gold1 the remainder of the work displaying the rich warm color of the walnut or chesnut wood1 which were almost invariably employed4 ,of the smaller articles of furniture1 the bellows and wall brackets of this period deserve mention2 the carving of these is very carefully finished1 and is frequently very elaborate4 ,the illustration on page #ea is that of a pair of bellows in the ,south ,kensington collection4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,italian ,mirror ,frame1 #afth ,century4 7,in the ,south ,kensington ,museum47 ,the enrichment of woodwork by means of inlaying deserves mention4 ,in the chapter on ,ancient ,furniture we have seen that ivory was used as an inlaid ornament as early as six centuries before ,christ1 but its revival and development in ,europe probably commenced in ,venice about the end of the thirteenth century1 in copies of geometrical designs1 let into ebony and brown walnut1 and into a wood something like rosewood2 parts of boxes and chests of these materials are still in existence4 ,mr4 ,maskell tells us in his ,handbook on ,ivories1 that probably owing to the difficulty of procuring ivory in ,italy1 bone of fine quality was frequently used in its place4 ,all this class of work was known as ,tarsia1 ,intarsia1 or ,certosina1 a word supposed to be derived from the name of the well-known religious community--the ,carthusians--on account of the dexterity of those monks at this work4#f ,it is true that towards the end of the fourteenth century1 makers of ornamental furniture began to copy marble mosaic work1 by making similar patterns of different woods1 and subsequently this branch of industrial art developed from such modest beginnings as the simple pattern of a star1 or bandings in different kinds of wood in the panel of a door1 to elaborate picture-making1 in which landscapes1 views of churches1 houses and picturesque ruins were copied1 figures and animals being also introduced4 ,this work was naturally facilitated and encouraged by increasing commerce between different nations1 which rendered available a greater variety of woods4 ,in some of the early ,italian intarsia the decoration was cut into the surface of the panel piece by piece4 ,as artists became more skilful1 veneers were applied and the effect heightened by burning with hot sand the parts requiring shading2 and the lines caused by the thickness of the sawcuts were filled in with black wood or stained glue to give definition to the design4 ,illustration3 ,a ,sixteenth ,century ,coffre-,fort4 ,the mounting of articles of furniture with metal enrichments doubtless originated in the iron corner pieces and hinge plates1 which were used to strengthen the old chests1 of which mention has been already made1 and as artificers began to render their productions decorative as well as useful1 what more natural progress than that the iron corners1 bandings1 or fastenings1 should be of ornamental forged or engraved iron4 ,in the sixteenth century1 metal workers reached a point of excellence which has never been surpassed1 and those marvels of mountings in steel1 iron and brass were produced in ,italy and ,germany1 which are far more important as works of art1 than the plain and unpretending productions of the coffer maker1 which are their raison d'etre4 ,the woodcut on p4 #ec represents a very good example of a ,coffre-fort in the ,south ,kensington ,collection4 ,the decoration is bitten in with acids so as to present the appearance of its being damascened1 and the complicated lock1 shewn on the inside of the lid1 is characteristic of these safeguards for valuable documents at a time when the modern burglar-proof safe had not been thought of4 ,the illustration on the following page is from an example in the same museum1 shewing a different decoration1 the oval plaques of figures and coats of arms being of carved ivory let into the surface of the coffer4 ,this is an early specimen1 and belongs as much to the last chapter as to the present4 ,pietra-dura as an ornament was first introduced in ,italy during the sixteenth century1 and became a fashion4 ,this was an inlay of highly-polished rare marbles1 agates1 hard pebbles1 lapis lazuli1 and other stones2 ivory was also carved and applied as a bas relief1 as well as inlaid in arabesques of the most elaborate designs2 tortoiseshell1 brass1 mother of pearl1 and other enrichments were introduced in the decoration of cabinets and of caskets2 silver plaques embossed and engraved were pressed into the service as the native princes of ,florence1 ,urbino1 ,ferrara1 and other independent cities vied with ,rome1 ,venice1 and ,naples in sumptuousness of ornament1 and lavishness of expense1 until the inevitable period of decline supervened in which exaggeration of ornament and prodigality of decoration gave the eye no repose4 ,edmond ,bonnaffe1 contrasting the latter period of ,italian ,renaissance with that of sixteenth century ,french woodwork1 has pithily remarked3 ,chez cux1 l'art du bois consiste le dissimuler1 chez nous le faire valoir4 ,illustration3 ,italian ,coffer with ,medallions of ,ivory4 #aeth ,century4 7,south ,kensington ,museum47 ,in ,ruskin's ,stones of ,venice1 the author alludes to this over-ornamentation of the latter ,renaissance in severe terms4 ,after describing the progress of art in ,venice from ,byzantine to ,gothic1 and from ,gothic to ,renaissance he subdivides the latter period into three classes3--#a4 ,renaissance grafted on ,byzantine4 #b4 ,renaissance grafted on ,gothic4 #c4 ,renaissance grafted on ,renaissance1 and this last the veteran art critic calls double darkness1 one of his characteristic terms of condemnation which many of us cannot follow1 but the spirit of which we can appreciate4 ,speaking generally of the character of ornament1 we find that whereas in the furniture of the ,middle ,ages1 the subjects for carving were taken from the lives of the saints or from metrical romance1 the ,renaissance carvers illustrated scenes from classical mythology1 and allegories1 such as representations of elements1 seasons1 months1 the cardinal virtues1 or the battle scenes and triumphal processions of earlier times4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,walnut ,wood ,italian ,chairs4 #afth ,century4 7,from ,photos of the originals in the ,south ,kensington ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,ebony ,cabinet4 ,with marble mosaics1 and bronze gilt ornaments1 ,florentine work4 ,period3 ,,xvii4 ,century4 ,the outlines and general designs of the earlier ,renaissance cabinets were apparently suggested by the old ,roman triumphal arches and sarcophagi2 afterwards these were modified and became varied1 elegant and graceful1 but latterly as the period of decline was marked1 the outlines as shewn in the two chairs on the preceding page became confused and dissipated by over-decoration4 ,the illustrations given of specimens of furniture of ,italian ,renaissance render lengthy descriptions unnecessary4 ,so far as it has been possible to do so1 a selection has been made to represent the different classes of work1 and as there are in the ,south ,kensington ,museum numerous examples of cassone fronts1 panels1 chairs1 and cabinets which can be examined1 it is easy to form an idea of the decorative woodwork made in ,italy during the period we have been considering4 ,illustration3 ,venetian ,state ,chair4 ,carved and ,gilt ,frame1 ,upholstered with ,embroidered ,velvet4 ,date about #afgj4 7,in the possession of ,h4,m4 the ,queen at ,windsor ,castle47 ,the ,renaissance ,in ,france4 ,from ,italy the great revival of industrial art travelled to ,france4 ,charles ,,viii41 who for two years had held ,naples 7#adid-if71 brought amongst other artists from ,italy1 ,bernadino de ,brescia and ,domenico de ,cortona1 and ,art1 which at this time was in a feeble1 languishing state in ,france1 began to revive4 ,francis ,i4 employed an ,italian architect to build the ,chateau of ,fontainebleau1 which had hitherto been but an old fashioned hunting box in the middle of the forest1 and ,leonardo da ,vinci and ,andrea del ,sarto came from ,florence to decorate the interior4 ,guilio ,romano1 who had assisted ,raffaele to paint the loggie of the ,vatican1 exercised an influence in ,france1 which was transmitted by his pupils for generations4 ,the marriage of ,henry ,,ii4 with ,catherine de ,medici increased the influence of ,italian art1 and later that of ,marie de ,medici with ,henri ,quatre continued that influence4 ,diane de ,poietiers1 mistress of ,henri ,,ii41 was the patroness of artists2 and ,fontainebleau has been well said to reflect the glories of gay and splendour loving kings from ,francois ,premier to ,henri ,quatre4 ,besides ,fontainebleau1 ,francis ,i4 built the ,chateau of ,chambord1#g that of ,chenonceaux on the ,loire1 the ,chateau de ,madrid1 and others1 and commenced the ,louvre4 ,following their ,king's example1 the more wealthy of his subjects rebuilt or altered their chateaux and hotels1 decorated them in the ,italian style1 and furnished them with the cabinets1 chairs1 coffers1 armoires1 tables1 and various other articles1 designed after the ,italian models4 ,the character of the woodwork naturally accompanied the design of the building4 ,fireplaces1 which until the end of the fifteenth century had been of stone1 were now made of oak1 richly carved and ornamented with the armorial bearings of the seigneur4 ,the ,prie dieu chair1 which ,viollet le ,due tells us came into use in the fifteenth century1 was now made larger and more ornate1 in some cases becoming what might almost be termed a small oratory1 the back being carved in the form of an altar1 and the utmost care lavished on the work4 ,it must be remembered that in ,france1 until the end of the fifteenth century1 there were no benches or seats in the churches1 and1 therefore1 prayers were said by the aristocracy in the private chapel of the chateau1 and by the middle classes in the chief room of the house4 ,illustration3 ,ornamental ,panelling in ,st4 ,vincent's ,church1 ,rouen4 ,period3 ,early ,french ,renaissance4 ,temp4 ,francois ,i4 ,illustration3 ,chimney ,piece4 ,in the ,gallery of ,henri ,,ii41 ,chateau of ,fontainebleau4 ,period3 ,french ,renaissance1 ,early ,,xvi4 ,century4 ,the large high-backed chair of the sixteenth century chaire haut dossier1 the arm chair chaire bras1 chaire tournante1 for domestic use1 are all of this time1 and some illustrations will show the highly finished carved work of ,renaissance style which prevailed4 ,besides the chaire which was reserved for the seigneur1 there were smaller and more convenient stools1 the ,x form supports of which were also carved4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,panel1 ,dated #aegg4 ,cabinets were made with an upper and lower part2 sometimes the latter was in the form of a stand with caryatides figures like the famous cabinet in the ,chateau ,fontainebleau1 a vignette of which forms the initial letter of this chapter2 or were enclosed by doors generally decorated with carving1 the upper1 part having richly carved panels1 which when open disclosed drawers with fronts minutely carved4 ,m4 ,edmond ,bonnaff1 in his work on the sixteenth century furniture of ,france1 gives no less than #abj illustrations of tables1 coffres1 armoires1 dressoirs1 sieges1 et bancs1 manufactured at ,orleans1 ,anjou1 ,maine1 ,touraine1 ,le ,berri1 ,lorraine1 ,burgundy1 ,lyons1 ,provence1 ,auvergne1 ,languedoc1 and other towns and districts1 besides the capital1 which excelled in the reputation of her menuisiers1 and in the old documents certain articles of furniture are particularized as fait ,paris4 ,he also mentions that ,francis ,i4 preferred to employ native workmen1 and that the ,italians were retained only to furnish the designs and lead the new style2 and in giving the names of the most noted ,french cabinet makers and carvers of this time1 he adds that ,jacques ,lardant and ,michel ,bourdin received no less than #ae1gjj livres for a number of buffets de salles1 tables garnies de leurs trteaux1 chandeliers de bois and other articles4 ,illustration3 ,facsimiles of ,engravings on ,wood1 ,by ,j4 ,amman1 in the #afth century1 showing interiors of ,workshops of the period4 ,the bedstead1 of which there is an illustration1 is a good representation of ,french ,renaissance4 ,it formed part of the contents of the ,chateau of ,pau1 and belonged to ,jeanne d',albret1 mother of ,henri ,quatre1 who was born at ,pau in #aeec4 ,the bedstead is of oak1 and by time has acquired a rich warm tint1 the details of the carving remaining sharp and clear4 ,on the lower cornice moulding1 the date #aefb is carved4 ,this1 like other furniture and contents of ,palaces in ,france1 forms part of the ,state or ,national collection1 of which there are excellent illustrations and descriptions in ,m4 ,williamson's ,mobilier ,national1 a valuable contribution to the literature of this subject which should be consulted4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,bedstead of ,jeanne ,d'albret4 ,from the ,chateau of ,pau4 7,collection ,mobilier ,national47 ,period3 ,french ,renaissance 7,date #aefb74 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,cabinet4 ,made at ,lyons4 ,period3 ,latter ,part of ,,xvi4 ,century4 ,another example of four-post bedsteads of ,french sixteenth century work is that of the one in the ,cluny ,museum1 which is probably some years later than the one at ,pau1 and in the carved members of the two lower posts1 more resembles our ,english ,elizabethan work4 ,towards the latter part of ,henri ,,iv4 the style of decorative art in ,france became debased and inconsistent4 ,construction and ornamentation were guided by no principle1 but followed the caprice of the individual4 ,meaningless pilasters1 entablatures1 and contorted cornices replaced the simpler outline and subordinate enrichment of the time of ,henri ,,ii41 and until the great revival of taste under the grand monarque1 there was in ,france a period of richly ornamented but ill-designed decorative furniture4 ,an example of this can be seen at ,south ,kensington in the plaster cast of a large chimney-piece from the ,chateau of the ,seigneur de ,villeroy1 near ,menecy1 by ,germain ,pillon1 who died in #aeij4 ,in this the failings mentioned above will be readily recognized1 and also in another example1 namely1 that of a carved oak door from the church of ,st4 ,maclou1 ,rouen1 by ,jean ,goujon1 in which the work is very fine1 but somewhat overdone with enrichment4 ,this cast is in the same collection4 ,during the ',louis ,treize' period chairs became more comfortable than those of an earlier time4 ,the word chaise as a diminutive of chaire found its way into the ,french dictionary to denote the less throne-like seat which was in more ordinary use1 and1 instead of being at this period entirely carved1 it was upholstered in velvet1 tapestry or needlework2 the frame was covered1 and only the legs and arms visible and slightly carved4 ,in the illustration here given1 the ,king and his courtiers are seated on chairs such as have been described4 ,marqueterie was more common2 large armoires1 clients of drawers and knee-hole writing tables were covered with an inlay of vases of flowers and birds1 of a brownish wood1 with enrichments of bone and ivory1 inserted in a black ground of stained wood1 very much like the ,dutch inlaid furniture of some years later but with less colour in the various veneers than is found in the ,dutch work4 ,mirrors became larger1 the decoration of rooms had ornamental friezes with lower portions of the walls panelled1 and the bedrooms of ladies of position began to be more luxuriously furnished4 ,it is somewhat singular that while ,normandy very quickly adopted the new designs in her buildings and her furniture1 and ,rouen carvers and joiners became famous for their work1 the neighbouring province1 ,brittany1 was conservative of her earlier designs4 ,the sturdy ,breton has through all changes of style preserved much of the rustic quaintness of his furniture1 and when some three or four years ago the writer was stranded in a sailing trip up the ,ranee1 owing to the shallow state of the river1 and had an opportunity of visiting some of the farm houses in the country district a few miles from ,dinan1 there were still to be seen many examples of this quaint rustic furniture4 ,curious beds1 consisting of shelves for parents and children1 form a cupboard in the wall and are shut in during the day by a pair of lattice doors of ,moorish design1 with the wheel pattern and spindle perforations4 ,these1 with the armoire of similar design1 and the huche or chest with relief carving1 of a design part ,moorish1 part ,byzantine1 used as a step to mount to the bed and also as a table1 are still the garniture of a good farm house in ,brittany4 ,the earliest date of this quaint furniture is about the middle of the fifteenth century1 and has been handed down from father to son by the more well-to-do farmers4 ,the manufacture of armoires1 cupboards1 tables and doors1 is still carried on near ,st4 ,malo1 where also some of the old specimens may be found4 ,illustration3 ,louis ,,xiii4 ,and ,his ,court in a ,hall1 ,witnessing a ,play4 7,from a ,miniature dated #afdc47 ,illustration3 ,decoration for a ,salon in ,louis ,,xiii4 ,style4 ,the ,renaissance in the ,netherlands4 ,in the ,netherlands1 the reigning princes of the great ,house of ,burgundy had prepared the soil for the ,renaissance1 and1 by the marriage of ,mary of ,burgundy with the ,archduke ,maximilian1 the countries which then were called ,flanders and ,holland1 passed under the ,austrian rule4 ,this influence was continued by the taste and liberality of ,margaret of ,austria1 who1 being appointed ,governor of the ,low ,countries in #aejg1 seems to have introduced ,italian artists and to have encouraged native craftsmen4 ,we are told that ,corneille ,floris introduced ,italian ornamentation and grotesque borders2 that ,pierre ,coech1 architect and painter1 adopted and popularised the designs of ,vitruvius and ,serlio4 ,wood carvers multiplied and embellished churches and palaces1 the houses of the ,burgomasters1 the ,town ,halls1 and the residences of wealthy citizens4 ,oak1 at first almost the only wood used1 became monotonous1 and as a relief1 ebony and other rare woods1 introduced by the then commencing commerce with the ,indies1 were made available for the embellishments of furniture and wood work of this time4 ,one of the most famous examples of rich wood carving is the well known hall and chimney piece at ,bruges with its group of cupidons and armorial bearings1 amongst an abundance of floral detail4 ,this over ornate chef d'oeuvre was designed by ,lancelot ,blondel and ,guyot de ,beauregrant1 and its carving was the combined work of three craftsmen celebrated in their day1 ,herman ,glosencamp1 ,andr ,rash and ,roger de ,smet4 ,there is in the ,south ,kensington ,museum a full-sized plaster cast of this gigantic chimney piece1 the lower part being coloured black to indicate the marble of which it was composed1 with panels of alabaster carved in relief1 while the whole of the upper portion and the richly carved ceiling of the room is of oak4 ,the model1 including the surrounding woodwork1 measures thirty-six feet across1 and should not be missed by any one who is interested in the subject of furniture1 for it is noteworthy historically as well as artistically1 being a monument in its way1 in celebration of the victory gained by ,charles ,v4 over ,francis ,i4 of ,france1 in #aebi1 at ,pavia1 the victorious sovereign being at this time not only ,emperor of ,germany1 but also enjoying amongst other titles those of ,duke of ,burgundy1 ,count of ,flanders1 ,king of ,spain and the ,indies1 etc41 etc4 ,the large statues of the ,emperor1 of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 with some thirty-seven heraldic shields of the different royal families with which the conqueror claimed connection1 are prominent features in the intricate design4 ,there is in the same part of the ,museum a cast of the oak door of the ,council ,chamber of the ,hotel de ,ville at ,audenarde1 of a much less elaborate character4 ,plain mullions divide sixteen panels carved in the orthodox ,renaissance style1 with cupids bearing tablets1 from which are depending floral scrolls1 and at the sides the supports are columns1 with the lower parts carved and standing on square pedestals4 ,the date of this work is #aecd1 somewhat later than the ,bruges carving1 and is a representative specimen of the ,flemish work of this period4 ,illustration3 ,an ,ebony ,armoire1 ,richly ,carved1 ,flemish ,renaissance4 7,in ,south ,kensington ,museum47 ,the clever ,flemish artist so thoroughly copied the models of his different masters that it has become exceedingly difficult to speak positively as to the identity of much of the woodwork1 and to distinguish it from ,german1 ,english1 or ,italian1 although as regards the latter we have seen that walnut wood was employed very generally1 whereas in ,flanders1 oak was nearly always used for figure work4 ,after the period of the purer forms of the first ,renaissance1 the best time for carved woodwork and decorative furniture in the ,netherlands was probably the seventeenth century1 when the ,flemish designers and craftsmen had ceased to copy the ,italian patterns1 and had established the style we recognise as ,flemish ,renaissance4 ,lucas ,faydherbe1 architect and sculptor 7#afag-afid7--whose boxwood group of the death of ,john the ,baptist is in the ,south ,kensington ,museum--both the ,verbruggens1 and ,albert ,bruhl1 who carved the choir work of ,st4 ,giorgio ,maggiore in ,venice1 are amongst the most celebrated ,flemish wood carvers of this time4 ,vriedman de ,vriesse and ,crispin de ,passe1 although they worked in ,france1 belong to ,flanders and to the century4 ,some of the most famous painters--,francis ,hals1 ,jordaens1 ,rembrandt1 ,metsu1 ,van ,mieris--all belong to this time1 and in some of the fine interiors represented by these ,old ,masters1 in which embroidered curtains and rich coverings relieve the sombre colors of the dark carved oak furniture1 there is a richness of effect which the artist could scarcely have imagined1 but which he must have observed in the houses of the rich burghers of prosperous ,flanders4 ,illustration3 ,a ,barber's ,shop4 ,from a ,wood ,engraving by ,j4 ,amman4 #afth ,century4 ,shewing a ,chair of the time4 ,in the chapter on ,jacobean furniture1 we shall see the influence and assistance which ,england derived from ,flemish woodworkers2 and the similarity of the treatment in both countries will be noticed in some of the ,south ,kensington ,museum specimens of ,english marqueterie1 made at the end of the seventeenth century4 ,the figure work in ,holland has always been of a high order1 and though as the seventeenth century advanced1 this perhaps became less refined1 the proportions have always been well preserved1 and the attitudes are free and unconstrained4 ,a very characteristic article of seventeenth century ,dutch furniture is the large and massive wardrobe1 with the doors handsomely carved1 not infrequently having three columns1 one in the centre and one at each side1 and these generally form part of the doors1 which are also enriched with square panels1 carved in the centre and finished with mouldings4 ,there are specimens in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 of these and also of earlier ,flemish work when the ,renaissance was purer in style and1 as has been observed1 of less national character4 ,the marqueterie of this period is extremely rich1 the designs are less severe1 but the colouring of the woods is varied1 and the effect heightened by the addition of small pieces of mother of pearl and ivory4 ,later1 this marqueterie became florid1 badly finished1 and the colouring of the veneers crude and gaudy4 ,old pieces of plain mahogany furniture were decorated with a thin layer of highly coloured veneering1 a meretricious ornamentation altogether lacking refinement4 ,there is1 however1 a peculiarity and character about some of the furniture of ,north ,holland1 in the towns of ,alkmaar1 ,hoorn1 and others in this district1 which is worth noticing4 ,the treatment has always been more primitive and quaint than in the ,flemish cities to which allusion has been made--and it was here that the old farm houses of the ,nord-,hollander were furnished with the rush-bottomed chairs1 painted green2 the three-legged tables1 and dower chests painted in flowers and figures of a rude description1 with the colouring chiefly green and bright red1 is extremely effective4 ,illustration3 ,a ,flemish ,citizen at ,meals4 7,from a ,,xvi1 ,century ,,ms47 ,the ,renaissance in ,spain4 ,we have seen that ,spain as well as ,germany and the ,low ,countries were under the rule of the ,emperor ,charles ,v41 and therefore it is unnecessary to look further for the sources of influence which brought the wave of ,renaissance to the ,spanish carvers and cabinet makers4 ,illustration3 ,sedan ,chair ,of ,charles ,v4 ,probably made in the ,netherlands4 ,arranged with moveable back and uprights to form a canopy when desired4 7,in the ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid47 ,after ,van ,eyck was sent for to paint the portrait of ,king ,john's daughter1 the ,low ,countries continued to export to the ,peninsula painters1 sculptors1 tapestry weavers1 and books on ,art4 ,french artists also found employment in ,spain1 and the older ,gothic became superseded as in other countries4 ,berruguete1 a ,spaniard1 who had studied in the atelier of ,michael ,angelo1 returned to his own country with the new influence strong upon him1 and the vast wealth and resources of ,spain at this period of her history enabled her nobles to indulge their taste in cabinets richly ornamented with repouss plaques of silver1 and later of tortoiseshell1 of ebony1 and of scarce woods from her ,indian possessions2 though in a more general way chesnut was still a favorite medium4 ,contemporary with decorative woodwork of ,moorish design there was also a great deal of carving1 and of furniture made1 after designs brought from ,italy and the ,north of ,europe2 and ,mr4 ,j4,h4 ,pollen1 quoting a trustworthy ,spanish writer1 ,senor ,j4,f4 ,riario1 says3--,the brilliant epoch of sculpture 7in wood7 belongs to the sixteenth century1 and was due to the great impulse it received from the works of ,berruguete and ,felipe de ,borgoa4 ,he was the chief promoter of the ,italian style1 and the choir of the ,cathedral of ,toledo1 where he worked so much1 is the finest specimen of the kind in ,spain4 ,toledo1 ,seville1 and ,valladolid were at the time great productive and artistic centres4 ,illustration3 ,silver ,table1 ,late #afth or ,early #agth ,century4 7,in the ,queen's ,collection1 ,windsor ,castle47 ,the same writer1 after discussing the characteristic ,spanish cabinets1 decorated outside with fine ironwork and inside with columns of bone painted and gilt1 which were called ,varguenos1 says3--,the other cabinets or escritoires belonging to that period 7sixteenth century7 were to a large extent imported from ,germany and ,italy1 while others were made in ,spain in imitation of these1 and as the copies were very similar it is difficult to classify them4 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,chair of ,walnut or ,chesnut ,wood1 ,covered in ,leather with embossed pattern4 ,spanish1 7,collection of ,baron de ,vallire47 ,period3 ,early ,,xvii4 ,century4 ,illustration3 ,wooden ,coffer4 ,with wrought iron mounts and falling flap1 on carved stand4 ,spanish4 7,collection of ,m4 ,monbrison47 ,period3 ,,xvii4 ,century4 ,besides these inlaid cabinets1 others must have been made in the sixteenth century inlaid with silver4 ,an ,edict was issued in #aeid1 prohibiting1 with the utmost rigour1 the making and selling of this kind of merchandise1 in order not to increase the scarcity of silver4 ,the ,edict says that no cabinets1 desks1 coffers1 braziers1 shoes1 tables1 or other articles decorated with stamped1 raised1 carved1 or plain silver should be manufactured4 ,the beautiful silver table in ,her ,majesty's collection at ,windsor ,castle1 illustrated on page #fh1 is probably one of ,spanish make of late sixteenth or early seventeenth century4 ,although not strictly within the period treated of in this chapter1 it is convenient to observe that much later1 in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 one finds the ,spanish cabinet maker ornamenting his productions with an inlay of ivory let into tortoiseshell1 representing episodes in the history of ,don ,quichotte1 and the ,national pastime of bull-fighting4 ,these cabinets generally have simple rectangular outlines with numerous drawers1 the fronts of which are decorated in the manner described1 and where the stands are original they are formed of turned legs of ebony or stained wood4 ,in many ,spanish cabinets the influence of ,saracenic art is very dominant2 these have generally a plain exterior1 the front is hinged as a fall-down flap1 and discloses a decorative effect which reminds one of some of the ,alhambra work--quaint arches inlaid with ivory1 of a somewhat bizarre coloring of blue and vermilion--altogether a rather barbarous but rich and effective treatment4 ,to the seventeenth century also belong the high-backed ,spanish and ,portuguese chairs1 of dark brown leather1 stamped with numerous figures1 birds and floral scrolls1 studded with brass nails and ornaments1 while the legs and arms are alone visible as woodwork2 they are made of chesnut1 with some leafwork or scroll carving4 ,there is a good representative woodcut of one of these chairs4 ,until ,baron ,davillier wrote his work on ,spanish art1 very little was known of the different peculiarities by which we can now distinguish examples of woodwork and furniture of that country from many ,italian or ,flemish contemporary productions4 ,some of the ,museum specimens will assist the reader to mark some characteristics1 and it may be observed generally that in the treatment of figure subjects in the carved work1 the attitudes are somewhat strained1 and1 as has been stated1 the outlines of the cabinets are without any special feature4 ,besides the ,spanish chesnut 7noyer71 which is singularly lustrous and was much used1 one also finds cedar1 cypress wood and pine4 ,in the ,chapel of ,saint ,bruno1 attached to the ,carthusian ,convent at ,granada1 the doors and interior fittings are excellent examples of inlaid ,spanish work of the seventeenth century2 the monks of this order at a somewhat earlier date are said to have produced the tarsia1 or inlaid work1 to which some allusion has already been made4 ,the ,renaissance in ,germany4 ,german ,renaissance may be said to have made its debut under ,albrecht ,drer4 ,there was already in many of the ,german cities a disposition to copy ,flemish artists1 but under ,drer's influence this new departure became developed in a high degree1 and1 as the sixteenth century advanced1 the ,gothic designs of an earlier period were abandoned in favour of the more free treatment of figure ornament1 scrolls1 enriched panels and mouldings1 which mark the new era in all ,art work4 ,many remarkable specimens of ,german carving are to be met with in ,augsburg1 ,aschaffenburg1 ,berlin1 ,cologne1 ,dresden1 ,gotha1 ,munich1 ,manheim1 ,nuremberg1 ,ulm1 ,regensburg1 and other old ,german towns4 ,although made of steel1 the celebrated chair at ,longford ,castle in ,wiltshire is worthy of some notice as a remarkable specimen of ,german ,renaissance4 ,it is fully described in ,richardson's ,studies from ,old ,english ,mansions4 ,it was the work of ,thomas ,rukers1 and was presented by the city of ,augsburg to the ,emperor of ,germany in #aegg4 ,the city arms are at the back1 and also the bust of the ,emperor4 ,the other minute and carefully finished decorative subjects represent different events in history2 a triumphal procession of ,caesar1 the ,prophet ,daniel explaining his dream1 the landing of ,aeneas1 and other events4 ,the ,emperor ,rudolphus placed the chair in the ,city of ,prague1 ,gustavus ,adolphus plundered the city and removed it to ,sweden1 whence it was brought by ,mr4 ,gustavus ,brander about #ajj years ago1 and sold by him to ,lord ,radnor4 ,as is the case with ,flemish wood-carving1 it is often difficult to identify ,german work1 but its chief characteristics may be said to include an exuberant realism and a fondness for minute detail4 ,m4 ,bonnaff has described this work in a telling phrase3 l'ensemble est tourment1 laborieux1 touffu tumultueux4 ,illustration3 ,the ,steel ,chair1 ,at ,longford ,castle1 ,wiltshire4 ,there is a remarkable example of rather late ,german ,renaissance oak carving in the private chapel of ,s4 ,saviour's ,hospital1 in ,osnaburg ,street1 ,regent's ,park1 ,london4 ,the choir stalls1 some #ca in number1 and the massive doorway1 formed part of a ,carthusian monastery at ,buxheim1 ,bavaria1 which was sold and brought to ,london after the monastery had been secularised and had passed into the possession of the territorial landlords1 the ,bassenheim family4 ,at first intended to ornament one of the ,colleges at ,oxford1 it was afterwards resold and purchased by the author1 and fitted to the interior of ,s4 ,saviour's1 and so far as the proportions of the chapel would admit of such an arrangement1 the relative positions of the different parts are maintained4 ,the figures of the twelve apostles--of ,david1 ,eleazer1 ,moses1 ,aaron1 and of the eighteen saints at the backs of the choir stalls1 are marvellous work1 and the whole must have been a harmonious and well considered arrangement of ornament4 ,the work1 executed by the monks themselves1 is said to have been commenced in #afjj1 and to have been completed in #afea1 and though a little later than1 according to some authorities1 the best time of the ,renaissance1 is so good a representation of ,german work of this period that it will well repay an examination4 ,as the author was responsible for its arrangement in its present position1 he has the permission of the ,rev4 ,mother at the head of ,s4 ,saviour's to say that any one who is interested in ,art will be allowed to see the chapel4 ,illustration3 ,german ,carved ,oak ,buffet1 #agth ,century4 7,from a ,drawing by ,prof4 ,heideloff47 ,the ,renaissance ,in ,england4 ,england under ,henry the ,eighth was peaceful and prosperous1 and the ,king was ambitious to outvie his ,french contemporary1 ,francois ,i41 in the sumptuousness of his palaces4 ,john of ,padua1 ,holbein1 ,havernius of ,cleves1 and other artists1 were induced to come to ,england and to introduce the new style4 ,it1 however1 was of slow growth1 and we have in the mixture of ,gothic1 ,italian and ,flemish ornament1 the style which is known as ,tudor4 ,it has been well said that ,feudalism was ruined by gunpowder4 ,the old-fashioned feudal castle was no longer proof against cannon1 and with the new order of things1 threatening walls and serried battlements gave way as if by magic to the pomp and grace of the ,italian mansion4 ,high roofed gables1 rows of windows and glittering oriels looking down on terraced gardens1 with vases and fountains1 mark the new epoch4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,chest in the ,style of ,holbein4 ,the joiner's work played a very important part in the interior decoration of the castles and country seats of this time1 and the roofs were magnificently timbered with native oak1 which was available in longer lengths than that of foreign growth4 ,the ,great ,hall in ,hampton ,court ,palace1 which was built by ,cardinal ,wolsey and presented to his master1 the halls of ,oxford1 and many other public buildings which remain to us1 are examples of fine woodwork in the roofs4 ,oak panelling was largely used to line the walls of the great halls1 the linen scroll pattern being a favorite form of ornament4 ,this term describes a panel carved to represent a napkin folded in close convolutions1 and appears to have been adopted from ,german work2 specimens of this can be seen at ,hampton ,court1 and in old churches decorated in the early part of the sixteenth century4 ,there is also some fine panelling of this date in ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,in this class of work1 which accompanied the style known in architecture as the ,perpendicular1 some of the finest specimens of oak ornamented interiors are to be found1 that of the roof and choir stalls in the beautiful ,chapel of ,henry ,,vii4 in ,westminster ,abbey1 being world famous4 ,the carved enrichments of the under part of the seats1 or misericords1 are especially minute1 the subjects apparently being taken from old ,german engravings4 ,this work was done in ,england before architecture and wood carving had altogether flung aside their ,gothic trammels1 and shews an admixture of the new ,italian style which was afterwards so generally adopted4 ,there are in the ,british ,museum some interesting records of contracts made in the ninth year of ,henry ,,viii4's reign for joyner's work at ,hengrave1 in which the making of 'livery' or service cupboards is specified4 ,ye cobards they be made ye facyon of livery y is w'thout doors4 ,these were fitted up by the ordinary house carpenters1 and consisted of three stages or shelves standing on four turned legs1 with a drawer for table linen4 ,they were at this period not enclosed1 but the mugs or drinking vessels were hung on hooks1 and were taken down and replaced after use2 a ewer and basin was also part of the complement of a livery cupboard1 for cleansing these cups4 ,in ,harrison's description of ,england in the latter part of the sixteenth century the custom is thus described3 ,each one as necessitie urgeth1 calleth for a cup of such drinke as him liketh1 so when he hath tasted it1 he delivereth the cup again to some one of the standers by1 who maketh it clean by pouring out the drinke that remaineth1 restoreth it to the cupboard from whence he fetched the same4 ,it must be borne in mind1 in considering the furniture of the earlier part of the sixteenth century1 that the religious persecutions of the time1 together with the general break-up of the feudal system1 had gradually brought about the disuse of the old custom of the master of the house taking his meals in the large hall or houseplace1 together with his retainers and dependants2 and a smaller room leading from the great hall was fitted up with a dressoir or service cupboard1 for the drinking vessels in the manner just described1 with a bedstead1 and a chair1 some benches1 and the board on trestles1 which formed the table of the period4 ,this room1 called a parler or prive parloir1 was the part of the house where the family enjoyed domestic life1 and it is a singular fact that the ,clerics of the time1 and also the ,court party1 saw in this tendency towards private life so grave an objection that1 in #aebf1 this change in fashion was the subject of a court ordinance1 and also of a special ,pastoral from ,bishop ,grosbeste4 ,the text runs thus3 ,sundrie noblemen and gentlemen and others doe much delighte to dyne in corners and secret places1 and the reason given1 was that it was a bad influence1 dividing class from class2 the real reason was probably that by more private and domestic life1 the power of the ,church over her members was weakened4 ,illustration3 ,chair ,said ,to ,have ,belonged to ,anna ,boleyn1 ,hever ,castle4 7,from the ,collection of ,mr4 ,godwin1 ,f4,s4,a47 ,in spite1 however1 of opposition in high places1 the custom of using the smaller rooms became more common1 and we shall find the furniture1 as time goes on1 designed accordingly4 ,illustration3 ,tudor ,cabinet in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 7,described below47 ,in the ,south ,kensington ,museum there is a very remarkable cabinet1 the decoration of which points to its being made in ,england at this time1 that is1 about the middle1 or during the latter half1 of the sixteenth century1 but the highly finished and intricate marqueterie and carving would seem to prove that ,italian or ,german craftsmen had executed the work4 ,it should be carefully examined as a very interesting specimen4 ,the ,tudor arms1 the rose and portcullis1 are inlaid on the stand4 ,the arched panels in the folding doors1 and at the ends of the cabinet are in high relief1 representing battle scenes1 and bear some resemblance to ,holbein's style4 ,the general arrangement of the design reminds one of a ,roman triumphal arch4 ,the woods employed are chiefly pear tree1 inlaid with coromandel and other woods4 ,its height is #d ft4 #g in4 and width #c ft4 #a in41 but there is in it an immense amount of careful detail which could only be the work of the most skilful craftsmen of the day1 and it was evidently intended for a room of moderate dimensions where the intricacies of design could be observed4 ,mr4 ,hungerford ,pollen has described this cabinet fully1 giving the subjects of the ornament1 the ,latin mottoes and inscriptions1 and other details1 which occupy over four closely printed pages of his museum catalogue4 ,it cost the nation #ejj1 and was an exceedingly judicious purchase4 ,chairs were during the first half of the sixteenth century very scarce articles1 and as we have seen with other countries1 only used for the master or mistress of the house4 ,the chair which is said to have belonged to ,anna ,boleyn1 of which an illustration is given on p4 #gd1 is from the collection of the late ,mr4 ,geo4 ,godwin1 ,f4,s4,a41 formerly editor of ,the ,builder1 and was part of the contents of ,hever ,castle1 in ,kent4 ,it is of carved oak1 inlaid with ebony and boxwood1 and was probably made by an ,italian workman4 ,settles were largely used1 and both these and such chairs as then existed1 were dependent1 for richness of effect1 upon the loose cushions with which they were furnished4 ,if we attempt to gain a knowledge of the designs of the tables of the sixteenth1 and early part of the seventeenth centuries1 from interiors represented in paintings of this period1 the visit to the picture gallery will be almost in vain1 for in nearly every case the table is covered by a cloth4 ,as these cloths or carpets1 as they were then termed1 to distinguish them from the tapet or floor covering1 often cost far more than the articles they covered1 a word about them may be allowed4 ,most of the old inventories from #aeij1 after mentioning the framed or joyned table1 name the carpett of ,turky werke which covered it1 and in many cases there was still another covering to protect the best one1 and when ,frederick1 ,duke of ,wurtemburg1 visited ,england in #aeib he noted a very extravagant carpett at ,hampton ,court1 which was embroidered with pearls and cost #ej1jjj crowns4 ,the cushions or quysshens for the chairs1 of embroidered velvet1 were also very important appendages to the otherwise hard oaken and ebony seats1 and as the actual date of the will of ,alderman ,glasseor quoted below is #aehi1 we may gather from the extract given1 something of the character and value of these ornamental accessories which would probably have been in use for some five and twenty or thirty years previously4 ,inventory of the contents of the parler of ,st4 ,jone's1 within the cittie of ,chester1 of which place ,alderman ,glasseor was vice-chamberlain3-- ,a drawinge table of joyned work with a frame1 valued at xl shillings1 equilius ,labour #bj your present money4 ,two formes covered with ,turkey work to the same belonginge4 xiij shillings and iiij pence ,a joyned frame xvjd4 ,a bord ijs4 vjd4 ,a little side table upon a frame ijs4 vd4 ,a pair of virginalls with the frame xxxs4 ,sixe joyned stooles covr'd with nedle werke xvs4 ,sixe other joyned stooles vjs4 ,one cheare of nedle worke iijs4 iiijd4 ,two little fote stooles iiijd4 ,one longe carpett of ,turky werke vili4 ,a shortte carpett of the same werke xiijs4 iijd4 ,one cupbord carpett of the same xs4 ,sixe quysshens of ,turkye xijs4 ,sixe quysshens of tapestree xxs4 ,and others of velvet embroidered wt gold and silver armes in the middesle4 ,eight pictures xls4 ,maps1 a pedigree of ,earl ,leicester in joyned frame and a list of books4 ,this ,alderman ,glasseor was apparently a man of taste and culture for those days2 he had casting bottles of silver for sprinkling perfumes after dinner1 and he also had a country house at the sea1 where his parlour was furnished with a canapy bedd4 ,as the century advances1 and we get well into ,elizabeth's reign1 wood carving becomes more ambitious1 and although it is impossible to distinguish the work of ,flemish carvers who had settled in ,england from that of our native craftsmen1 these doubtless acquired from the former much of their skill4 ,in the costumes and in the faces of figures or busts1 produced in the highly ornamental oak chimney pieces of the time1 or in the carved portions of the fourpost bedsteads1 the national characteristics are preserved1 and1 with a certain grotesqueness introduced into the treatment of accessories1 combine to distinguish the ,english school of ,elizabethan ornament from other contemporary work4 ,knole1 ,longleaf1 ,burleigh1 ,hatfield1 ,hardwick1 and ,audley ,end are familiar instances of the change in interior decoration which accompanied that in architecture2 terminal figures1 that is1 pedestals diminishing towards their bases1 surmounted by busts of men or women1 elaborate interlaced strap work carved in low relief1 trophies of fruit and flowers1 take the places of the more ,gothic treatment formerly in vogue4 ,the change in the design of furniture naturally followed1 for in cases where ,flemish or ,italian carvers were not employed1 the actual execution was often by the hand of the house carpenter1 who was influenced by what he saw around him4 ,the great chimney piece in ,speke ,hall1 near ,liverpool1 portions of the staircase of ,hatfield1 and of other ,english mansions before mentioned1 are good examples of the wood carving of this period1 and the illustrations from authenticated examples which are given1 will assist the reader to follow these remarks4 ,illustration3 ,the ,glastonbury ,chair4 7,in the ,palace of the ,bishop of ,bath1 and ,wells47 ,there is a mirror frame at ,goodrich ,court of early ,elizabethan work1 carved in oak and partly gilt2 the design is in the best style of ,renaissance and more like ,italian or ,french work than ,english4 ,architectural mouldings1 wreaths of flowers1 cupids1 and an allegorical figure of ,faith are harmoniously combined in the design1 the size of the whole frame being #d ft4 #e ins4 by #c ft4 #f ins4 ,it bears the date #aeei and initials ,r4 ,m42 this was the year in which ,roland ,meyrick became ,bishop of ,bangor1 and it is still in the possession of the ,meyrick family4 ,a careful drawing of this frame was made by ,henry ,shaw1 ,f4,s4,a41 and published in ,specimens of ,ancient ,furniture drawn from existing ,authorities1 in #ahcf4 ,this valuable work of reference also contains finished drawings of other noteworthy examples of the sixteenth century furniture and woodwork4 ,amongst these is one of the ,abbot's chair at ,glastonbury1 temp4 ,henry ,,viii41 the original of the chair familiar to us now in the chancel of most churches2 also a chair in the state-room of ,hardwick ,hall1 ,derbyshire1 covered with crimson velvet embroidered with silver tissue1 and others1 very interesting to refer to because the illustrations are all drawn from the articles themselves1 and their descriptions are written by an excellent antiquarian and collector1 ,sir ,samuel ,rush ,meyrick4 ,the mirror frame1 described above1 was probably one of the first of its size and kind in ,england4 ,it was the custom1 as has been already stated1 to paint the walls with subjects from history or ,scripture1 and there are many precepts in existence from early times until about the beginning of ,henry ,,viii4's reign1 directing how certain walls were to be decorated4 ,the discontinuance of this fashion brought about the framing of pictures1 and some of the paintings by ,holbein1 who came to this country about #aeaa1 and received the patronage of ,henry ,,viii4 some fourteen or fifteen years later1 are probably the first pictures that were framed in ,england4 ,there are some two or three of these at ,hampton ,court ,palace1 the ornament being a scroll in gold on a black background1 the width of the frame very small in comparison with its canvas4 ,some of the old wall paintings had been on a small scale1 and1 where long stories were represented1 the subjects instead of occupying the whole flank of the wall1 had been divided into rows some three feet or less in height1 these being separated by battens1 and therefore the first frames would appear to be really little more than the addition of vertical sides to the horizontal top and bottom which such battens had formed4 ,subsequently1 frames became more ornate and elaborate4 ,after their application to pictures1 their use for mirrors was but a step in advance1 and the mirror in a carved and gilt or decorated frame1 probably at first imported and afterwards copied1 came to replace the older mirror of very small dimensions for toilet use4 ,until early in the fifteenth century1 mirrors of polished steel in the antique style1 framed in silver and ivory1 had been used2 in the wardrobe account of ,edward ,i4 the item occurs1 ,a comb and a mirror of silver gilt1 and we have an extract from the privy purse of expenses of ,henry ,,viii4 which mentions the payment to a ,frenchman for certayne loking glasses1 which would probably be a novelty then brought to his ,majesty's notice4 ,indeed1 there was no glass used for windows#h previous to the fifteenth century1 the substitute being shaved horn1 parchment1 and sometimes mica1 let into the shutters which enclosed the window opening4 ,the oak panelling of rooms during the reign of ,elizabeth was very handsome1 and in the example at ,south ,kensington1 of which there is here an illustration1 the country possesses a very excellent representative specimen4 ,this was removed from an old house at ,exeter1 and its date is given by ,mr4 ,hungerford ,pollen as from #aeej-ge4 ,the pilasters and carved panels under the cornice are very rich and in the best style of ,elizabethan ,renaissance1 while the panels themselves1 being plain1 afford repose1 and bring the ornament into relief4 ,the entire length is #eb ft4 and average height #h ft4 #c in4 ,if this panelling could be arranged as it was fitted originally in the house of one of ,elizabeth's subjects1 with models of fireplace1 moulded ceiling1 and accessories added1 we should then have an object lesson of value1 and be able to picture a ,drake or a ,raleigh in his ,west of ,england home4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,elizabethan ,bedstead4 ,a later purchase by the ,science and ,art ,department1 which was only secured last year for the extremely moderate price of #a1jjj1 is the panelling of a room some #bc ft4 square and #ab ft4 #f in4 high1 from ,sizergh ,castle1 ,westmoreland4 ,the chimney piece was unfortunately not purchased1 but the ,department has arranged the panelling as a room with a plaster model of the extremely handsome ceiling4 ,the panelling is of richly figured oak1 entirely devoid of polish1 and is inlaid with black bog oak and holly1 in geometrical designs1 being divided at intervals by tall pilasters fluted with bog oak and having ,ionic capitals4 ,the work was probably done locally1 and from wood grown on the estate1 and is one of the most remarkable examples in existence4 ,the date is about #aefj to #aegj1 and it has been described in local literature of nearly #bjj years ago4 ,illustration3 ,oak ,wainscoting1 ,from an old house in ,exeter4 ,s4 ,kensington ,museum4 ,period3 ,english ,renaissance 7,about #aeej-ge74 ,while we are on the subject of panelling1 it may be worth while to point out that with regard to old ,english work of this date1 one may safely take it for granted that where1 as in the ,south ,kensington 7,exeter7 example1 the pilasters1 frieze1 and frame-work are enriched1 and the panels plain1 the work was designed and made for the house1 but1 when the panels are carved and the rest plain1 they were bought1 and then fitted up by the local carpenter4 ,another ,museum specimen of ,elizabethan carved oak is a fourpost bedstead1 with the arms of the ,countess of ,devon1 which bears date #aeic1 and has all the characteristics of the time4 ,there is also a good example of ,elizabethan woodwork in part of the interior of the ,charterhouse1 immortalised by ,thackeray1 when1 as ,greyfriars1 in ,the ,newcomes1 he described it as the old school where the colonel1 and ,clive1 and ,i were brought up1 and it was here that1 as a poor brother1 the old colonel had returned to spend the evening of his gentle life1 and1 to quote ,thackeray's pathetic lines1 when the chapel bell began to toll1 he lifted up his head a little1 and said ',adsum6' ,it was the word we used at school when names were called4 ,this famous relic of old ,london1 which fortunately escaped the great fire in #afff1 was formerly an old monastery which ,henry ,,viii4 dissolved in #aecg1 and the house was given some few years later to ,sir ,edward1 afterwards ,lord ,north1 from whom the ,duke of ,norfolk purchased it in #aefe1 and the handsome staircase1 carved with terminal figures and ,renaissance ornament1 was probably built either by ,lord ,north or his successor4 ,the woodwork of the ,great ,hall1 where the pensioners still dine every day1 is very rich1 the fluted columns with ,corinthian capitals1 the interlaced strap work1 and other details of carved oak1 are characteristic of the best sixteenth century woodwork in ,england2 the shield bears the date of #aega4 ,this was the year when the ,duke of ,norfolk1 who was afterwards beheaded1 was released from the ,tower on a kind of furlough1 and probably amused himself with the enrichment of his mansion1 then called ,howard ,house4 ,in the old ,governors' room1 formerly the drawing room of the ,howards1 there is a specimen of the large wooden chimney piece of the end of the sixteenth century1 painted instead of carved4 ,after the ,duke of ,norfolk's death1 the house was granted by the ,crown to his son1 the ,earl of ,suffolk1 who sold it in #afaa to the founder of the present hospital1 ,sir ,thomas ,sutton1 a citizen who was reputed to be one of the wealthiest of his time1 and some of the furniture given by him will be found noticed in the chapter on the ,jacobean period4 ,illustration3 ,dining ,hall in the ,charterhouse4 ,shewing ,oak ,screen and front of ,minstrels' ,gallery1 dated #aega4 ,period3 ,elizabethan4 ,illustration3 ,screen in the ,hall of ,gray's ,inn4 ,with ,table and ,desks referred to4 ,there are in ,london other excellent examples of ,elizabethan oak carving4 ,amongst those easily accessible and valuable for reference are the ,hall of ,gray's ,inn1 built in #aefj1 the second year of the ,queen's reign1 and ,middle ,temple ,hall1 built in #aegj-b4 ,an illustration of the carved screen supporting the ,minstrels' ,gallery in the older ,hall is given by permission of ,mr4 ,william ,r4 ,douthwaite1 librarian of the ,inn1 for whose work1 ,gray's ,inn1 its ,history and ,associations1 it was specially prepared4 ,the interlaced strap work generally found in ,elizabethan carving1 encircles the shafts of the columns as a decoration4 ,the table in the centre has also some low relief carving on the drawer front which forms its frieze1 but the straight and severe style of leg leads us to place its date at some fifty years later than the ,hall4 ,the desk on the left1 and the table on the right1 are probably later still4 ,it may be mentioned here1 too1 that the long table which stands at the opposite end of the ,hall1 on the das1 said to have been presented by ,queen ,elizabeth1 is not of the design with which the furniture of her reign is associated by experts2 the heavy cabriole legs1 with bent knees1 corresponding with the legs of the chairs 7also on the das71 are of unmistakable ,dutch origin1 and1 so far as the writer's observations and investigations have gone1 were introduced into ,england about the time of ,william ,,iii4 ,the same remarks apply to a table in ,middle ,temple ,hall1 also said to have been there during ,elizabeth's time4 ,mr4 ,douthwaite alludes to the rumour of the ,queen's gift in his book1 and endeavoured to substantiate it from records at his command1 but in vain4 ,the authorities at ,middle ,temple are also1 so far as we have been able to ascertain1 without any documentary evidence to prove the claim of their table to any greater age than the end of the seventeenth century4 ,the carved oak screen of ,middle ,temple ,hall is magnificent1 and no one should miss seeing it4 ,terminal figures1 fluted columns1 panels broken up into smaller divisions1 and carved enrichments of various devices1 are all combined in a harmonious design1 rich without being overcrowded1 and its effect is enhanced by the rich color given to it by age1 by the excellent proportions of the ,hall1 by the plain panelling of the three other sides1 and above all by the grand oak roof1 which is certainly one of the finest of its kind in ,england4 ,some of the tables and forms are of much later date1 but an interest attaches even to this furniture from the fact of its having been made from oak grown close to the ,hall2 and as one of the tables has a slab composed of an oak plank nearly thirty inches wide1 we can imagine what fine old trees once grew and flourished close to the now busy ,fleet ,street1 and the bustling ,strand4 ,there are frames1 too1 in ,middle ,temple made from the oaken timbers which once formed the piles in the ,thames1 on which rested the ,temple ,stairs4 ,in ,mr4 ,herbert's ,antiquities of the ,courts of ,chancery1 there are several facts of interest in connection with the woodwork of ,middle ,temple4 ,he mentions that the screen was paid for by contributions from each bencher of twenty shillings1 each barrister of ten shillings1 and every other member of six shillings and eightpence2 that the ,hall was founded in #aefb1 and furnished ten years later1 the screen being put up in #aegd3 and that the memorials of some two hundred and fifty ,readers which decorate the otherwise plain oak panelling1 date from #aeig to #ahjd1 the year in which ,mr4 ,herbert's book was published4 ,referring to the furniture1 he says3--,the massy oak tables and benches with which this apartment was anciently furnished1 still remain1 and so may do for centuries1 unless violently destroyed1 being of wonderful strength4 ,mr4 ,herbert also mentions the masks and revels held in this famous ,hall in the time of ,elizabeth3 he also gives a list of quantities and prices of materials used in the decoration of ,gray's ,inn ,hall4 ,illustration3 ,three ,carved ,oak ,panels4 ,now in the ,court ,room of the ,hall of the ,carpenters' ,company4 ,removed from the former ,hall4 ,period3 ,elizabethan4 ,in the ,hall of the ,carpenters' ,company1 in ,throgmorton ,avenue1 are three curious carved oak panels1 worth noticing here1 as they are of a date bringing them well into this period4 ,they were formerly in the old ,hall1 which escaped the ,great ,fire1 and in the account books of the ,corporation is the following record of the cost of one of these panels3-- ,paide for a planke to carve the arms of the ,companie iijs4 ,paide to the ,carver for carvinge the ,arms of the ,companie xxiijs4 iiijd4 ,the price of material 7#cs47 and workmanship 7#bcs4 #d;d47 was certainly not excessive4 ,all three panels are in excellent preservation1 and the design of a harp1 being a rebus of the ,master's name1 is a quaint relic of old customs4 ,some other oak furniture1 in the ,hall of this ancient ,company1 will be noticed in the following chapter4 ,mr4 ,jupp1 a former ,clerk of the ,company1 has written an historical account of the ,carpenters1 which contains many facts of interest4 ,the office of ,king's ,carpenter or ,surveyor1 the powers of the ,carpenters to search1 examine1 and impose fines for inefficient work1 and the trade disputes with the ,joyners1 the ,sawyers1 and the ,woodmongers1 are all entertaining reading1 and throw many side-lights on the woodwork of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,illustration3 ,part of an ,elizabethan ,staircase4 ,the illustration of ,hardwick ,hall shews oak panelling and decoration of a somewhat earlier1 and also somewhat later time than ,elizabeth1 while the carved oak chairs are of ,jacobean style4 ,at ,hardwick is still kept the historic chair in which it is said that ,william1 fourth ,earl of ,devonshire1 sat when he and his friends compassed the downfall of ,james ,,ii4 ,in the curious little chapel hung with ancient tapestry1 and containing the original ,bible and ,prayer ,book of ,charles ,i41 are other quaint chairs covered with cushions of sixteenth or early seventeenth century needlework4 ,illustration3 ,the ,entrance ,hall1 ,hardwick ,hall4 ,period ,of ,furniture1 ,jacobean1 ,,xvii4 ,century4 ,before concluding the remarks on this period of ,english woodwork and furniture1 further mention should be made of ,penshurst ,place1 to which there has been already some reference in the chapter on the period of the ,middle ,ages4 ,it was here that ,sir ,philip ,sydney spent much of his time1 and produced his best literary work1 during the period of his retirement when he had lost the favour of ,elizabeth1 and in the room known as the ,queen's ,room1 illustrated on p4 #hi1 some of the furniture is of this period2 the crystal chandeliers are said to have been given by ,leicester to his ,royal ,mistress1 and some of the chairs and tables were sent down by the ,queen1 and presented to ,sir ,henry ,sydney 7,philip's father7 when she stayed at ,penshurst during one of her ,royal progresses4 ,the room1 with its vases and bowls of old oriental china and the contemporary portraits on the walls1 gives us a good idea of the very best effect that was attainable with the material then available4 ,richardson's ,studies contains1 amongst other examples of furniture1 and carved oak decorations of ,english ,renaissance1 interiors of ,little ,charlton1 ,east ,sutton ,place1 ,stockton ,house1 ,wilts1 ,audley ,end1 ,essex1 and the ,great ,hall1 ,crewe1 with its beautiful hall screens and famous carved parloir1 all notable mansions of the sixteenth century4 ,to this period of ,english furniture belongs the celebrated ,great ,bed of ,ware1 of which there is an illustration4 ,this was formerly at the ,saracen's ,head at ,ware1 but has been removed to ,rye ,house1 about two miles away4 ,shakespeare's allusion to it in the ,twelfth ,night has identified the approximate date and gives the bed a character4 ,the following are the lines3-- ,,sir ,,toby ,,belch4--,and as many lies as shall lie in thy sheet of paper1 altho' the sheet were big enough for the ,bed of ,ware in ,england1 set em down1 go about it4 ,another illustration shows the chair which is said to have belonged to ,william ,shakespeare2 it may or may not be the actual one used by the poet1 but it is most probably a genuine specimen of about his time1 though perhaps not made in ,england4 ,there is a manuscript on its back which states that it was known in #agfi as the ,shakespeare ,chair1 when ,garrick borrowed it from its owner1 ,mr4 ,james ,bacon1 of ,barnet1 and since that time its history is well known4 ,the carved ornament is in low relief1 and represents a rough idea of the dome of ,s4 ,marc and the ,campanile ,tower4 ,we have now briefly and roughly traced the advance of what may be termed the flood-tide of ,art from its birthplace in ,italy to ,france1 the ,netherlands1 ,spain1 ,germany1 and ,england1 and by explanation and description1 assisted by illustrations1 have endeavoured to shew how the ,gothic of the latter part of the ,middle ,ages gave way before the revival of classic forms and arabesque ornament1 with the many details and peculiarities characteristic of each different nationality which had adopted the general change4 ,during this period the bahut or chest has become a cabinet with all its varieties2 the simple prie dieu chair1 as a devotional piece of furniture1 has been elaborated into almost an oratory1 and1 as a domestic seat1 into a dignified throne2 tables have1 towards the end of the period1 become more ornate1 and made as solid pieces of furniture1 instead of the planks and tressels which we found when the ,renaissance commenced4 ,chimney pieces1 which in the fourteenth century were merely stone smoke shafts supported by corbels1 have been replaced by handsome carved oak erections1 ornamenting the hall or room from floor to ceiling1 and the ,english livery cupboard1 with its foreign contemporary the buffet1 is the forerunner of the sideboard of the future4 ,illustration3 ,shakespeare's ,chair4 ,illustration3 ,the ,great ,bed of ,ware4 ,formerly at the ,saracen's ,head1 ,ware1 but now at ,rye ,house1 ,broxbourne1 ,herts4 ,period3 ,,xvi4 ,century4 ,carved oak panelling has replaced the old arras and ruder wood lining of an earlier time1 and with the departure of the old feudal customs and the indulgence in greater luxuries of the more wealthy nobles and merchants in ,italy1 ,flanders1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,spain1 and ,england1 we have the elegancies and grace with which ,art1 and increased means of gratifying taste1 enabled the sixteenth century virtuoso to adorn his home4 ,illustration3 ,the ,queen's ,room1 ,penshurst ,place4 7,reproduced from ,historic ,houses of the ,united ,kingdom by permission of ,messrs4 ,cassell ,co41 ,limited47 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,chimney ,piece in ,speke ,hall1 ,near ,liverpool4 ,period3 ,elizabethan4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,jacobean furniture4 ,english ,home ,life in the ,reign of ,james ,i4--,sir ,henry ,wootton quoted--,inigo ,jones and his work--,ford ,castle--,chimney ,pieces in ,south ,kensington ,museum--,table in the ,carpenters' ,hall---,hall of the ,barbers' ,company--,the ,charterhouse--,time of ,charles ,i4--,furniture at ,knole--,eagle ,house1 ,wimbledon1 ,mr4 ,charles ,eastlake--,monuments at ,canterbury and ,westminster--,settles1 ,couches1 and ,chairs of the ,stuart period--,sir ,paul ,pindar's ,house--,cromwellian ,furniture--,the ,restoration--,indo-,portuguese ,furniture--,hampton ,court ,palace--,evelyn's description--,the ,great ,fire of ,london--,hall of the ,brewers' ,company--,oak ,panelling of the time--,grinling ,gibbons and his work--,the ,edict of ,nantes--,silver ,furniture at ,knole--,william ,,iii4 and ,dutch influence--,queen ,anne--,sideboards1 ,bureaus1 and ,grandfather's ,clocks--,furniture at ,hampton ,court4 ,illustration ,in the chapter on ,renaissance the great ,art revival in ,england has been noticed2 in the ,elizabethan oak work of chimney pieces1 panelling1 and furniture1 are to be found varying forms of the free classic style which the ,renaissance had brought about4 ,these fluctuating changes in fashion continued in ,england from the time of ,elizabeth until the middle of the eighteenth century1 when1 as will be shewn presently1 a distinct alteration in the design of furniture took place4 ,the domestic habits of ,englishmen were getting more established4 ,we have seen how religious persecution during preceding reigns1 at the time of the ,reformation1 had encouraged private domestic life of families1 in the smaller rooms and apart from the gossiping retainer1 who might at any time bring destruction upon the household by giving information about items of conversation he had overheard4 ,there is a passage in one of ,sir ,henry ,wootton's letters1 written in #afjj1 which shews that this home life was now becoming a settled characteristic of his countrymen4 ,every man's proper mansion house and home1 being the theatre of his hospitality1 the seate of his selfe fruition1 the comfortable part of his own life1 the noblest of his son's inheritance1 a kind of private princedom1 nay the possession thereof an epitome of the whole world1 may well deserve by these attributes1 according to the degree of the master1 to be delightfully adorned4 ,illustration3 ,oak ,chimney ,piece in ,sir ,walter ,raleigh's ,house1 ,youghal1 ,ireland4 ,said to be the work of a ,flemish ,artist who was brought over for the purpose of executing this and other carved work at ,youghal4 ,sir ,henry ,wootton was ambassador in ,venice in #afjd1 and is said to have been the author of the well-known definition of an ambassador's calling1 namely1 an honest man sent abroad to lie for his country's good4 ,this offended the piety of ,james ,i41 and caused him for some time to be in disgrace4 ,he also published some #bj years later ,elements of ,architecture1 and being an antiquarian and man of taste1 sent home many specimens of the famous ,italian wood carving4 ,it was during the reign of ,james ,i4 and that of his successor that ,inigo ,jones1 our ,english ,vitruvius1 was making his great reputation2 he had returned from ,italy full of enthusiasm for the ,renaissance of ,palladio and his school1 and of knowledge and taste gained by a diligent study of the ancient classic buildings of ,rome2 his influence would be speedily felt in the design of woodwork fittings1 for the interiors of his edifices4 ,there is a note in his own copy of ,palladio1 which is now in the library of ,worcester ,college1 ,oxford1 which is worth quoting3-- ,in the name of ,god3 ,amen4 ,the #b of ,january1 #afad1 ,i being in ,rome compared these desines following1 with the ,ruines themselves4--,,inigo ,,jones4 ,illustration3 ,chimney ,piece in ,byfleet ,house4 ,early ,jacobean4 ,in the following year he returned from ,italy on his appointment as ,king's surveyor of works1 and until his death in #afeb was full of work1 though unfortunately for us1 much that he designed was never carried out1 and much that he carried out has been destroyed by fire4 ,the ,banqueting ,hall of ,whitehall1 now ,whitehall ,chapel2 ,st4 ,paul's1 ,covent ,garden2 the old water gate originally intended as the entrance to the first ,duke of ,buckingham's ,palace1 close to ,charing ,cross2 ,nos4 #ee and #ef1 on the south side of ,great ,queen ,street1 ,lincoln's ,inn2 and one or two monuments and porches1 are amongst the examples that remain to us of this great master's work2 and of interiors1 that of ,ashburnham ,house is left to remind us1 with its quiet dignity of style1 of this great master4 ,it has been said in speaking of the staircase1 plaster ornament1 and woodwork of this interior1 upon the whole is set the seal of the time of ,charles ,i4 ,as the work was probably finished during that ,king's reign1 the impression intended to be conveyed was that after wood carving had rather run riot towards the end of the sixteenth century1 we had now in the interior designed by ,inigo ,jones1 or influenced by his school1 a more quiet and sober style4 ,illustration3 ,the ,king's ,chamber1 ,ford ,castle4 ,the above woodcut shews a portion of the ,king's room in ,ford ,castle1 which still contains souvenirs of ,flodden ,field--according to an article in the ,magazine of ,art4 ,the room is in the northernmost tower1 which still preserves externally the stern1 grim character of the border fortress2 and the room looks towards the famous battle-field4 ,the chair shews a date #afch1 and there is another of ,dutch design of about fifty or sixty years later2 but the carved oak bedstead1 with tapestry hangings1 and the oak press1 which the writer of the article mentions as forming part of the old furniture of the room1 scarcely appear in the illustration4 ,mr4 ,hungerford ,pollen tells us that the majority of so-called ,tudor houses were actually built during the reign of ,james ,i41 and this may probably be accepted as an explanation of the otherwise curious fact of there being much in the architecture and woodwork of this time which would seem to have belonged to the earlier period4 ,the illustrations of wooden chimney-pieces will show this change4 ,there are in the ,south ,kensington ,museum some three or four chimney-pieces of stone1 having the upper portions of carved oak1 the dates of which have been ascertained to be about #afbj2 these were removed from an old house in ,lime ,street1 ,city1 and give us an idea of the interior decoration of a residence of a ,london merchant4 ,the one illustrated is somewhat richer than the others1 the columns supporting the cornice of the others being almost plain pillars with ,ionic or ,doric capitals1 and the carving of the panels of all of them is in less relief1 and simpler in character1 than those which occur in the latter part of ,elizabeth's time4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,centre ,table4 ,in the ,hall of the ,carpenters' ,company4 ,the earliest dated piece of ,jacobean furniture which has come under the writer's observation is the octagonal table belonging to the ,carpenters' ,company4 ,the illustration1 taken from ,mr4 ,jupp's book referred to in the last chapter1 hardly does the table justice2 it is really a very handsome piece of furniture1 and measures about #c feet #c inches in diameter4 ,in the spandrils of the arches between the legs are the letters ,r4,w41 ,g4,i41 ,j4,r41 and ,w4,w41 being the initials of ,richard ,wyatt1 ,george ,isack1 ,john ,reeve1 and ,william ,willson1 who were ,master and ,wardens of the ,company in #afjf1 which date is carved in two of the spandrils4 ,while the ornamental legs shew some of the characteristics of ,elizabethan work1 the treatment is less bold1 the large acorn-shaped member has become more refined and attenuated1 and the ornament is altogether more subdued4 ,this is a remarkable specimen of early ,jacobean furniture1 and is the only one of the shape and kind known to the writer2 it is in excellent preservation1 save that the top is split1 and it shews signs of having been made with considerable skill and care4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,chair4 ,from ,abingdon ,park4 ,carved ,oak ,chair4 ,in the ,carpenters' ,hall ,from ,photos in the ,s4 ,kensington ,museum ,album4 ,early ,,xvii4 ,century4 ,english4 ,the ,science and ,art ,department keep for reference an album containing photographs1 not only of many of the specimens in the different museums under its control1 but also of some of those which have been lent for a temporary exhibition4 ,the illustration of the above two chairs is taken from this source1 the album having been placed at the writer's disposal by the courtesy of ,mr4 ,jones1 of the ,photograph ,department4 ,the left-hand chair1 from ,abingdon ,park1 is said to have belonged to ,lady ,barnard1 ,shakespeare's grand-daughter1 and the other may still be seen in the ,hall of the ,carpenters' ,company4 ,illustration3 ,oak ,chimney ,piece4 ,removed from an old house in ,lime ,street1 ,city4 7,south ,kensington ,museum47 ,period3 ,james ,i4 ,in the ,hall of the ,barbers' ,company in ,monkswell ,street1 the ,court room1 which is lighted with an octagonal cupola1 was designed by ,inigo ,jones as a ,theatre of ,anatomy1 when the ,barbers and ,surgeons were one corporation4 ,there are some three or four tallies of this period in the ,hall1 having four legs connected by stretchers1 quite plain2 the moulded edges of the table tops are also without enrichment4 ,these plain oak slabs1 and also the stretchers1 have been renewed1 but in exactly the same style as the original work2 the legs1 however1 are the old ones1 and are simple columns with plain turned capitals and bases4 ,other tables of this period are to be found in a few old country mansions2 there is one in ,longleat1 which1 the writer has been told1 has a small drawer at the end1 to hold the copper coins with which the retainers of the ,marquis of ,bath's ancestors used to play a game of shovel penny4 ,in the ,chapter ,house in ,westminster ,abbey1 there is also one of these plain substantial ,james ,i4 tables1 which is singular in being nearly double the width of those which were made at this time4 ,as the ,chapter ,house was1 until comparatively recent years1 used as a room for the storage of records1 this table was probably made1 not as a dining table1 but for some other purpose requiring greater width4 ,illustration3 ,oak ,sideboard in the ,s4 ,kensington ,museum4 ,period3 ,william ,,iii4 ,in the chapter on ,renaissance there was an allusion to ,charterhouse1 which was purchased for its present purpose by ,thomas ,sutton in #afaa1 and in the chapel may be seen to-day the original communion table placed there by the founder4 ,it is of carved oak1 with a row of legs running lengthways underneath the middle1 and four others at the corners2 these1 while being cast in the simple lines noticed in the tables in the ,barbers' ,hall1 and the ,chapter ,house1 ,westminster ,abbey1 are enriched by carving from the base to the third of the height of the leg1 and the frieze of the table is also carved in low relief4 ,the rich carved wood screen which supports the organ loft is also of ,jacobean work4 ,there is in the ,south ,kensington ,museum a carved oak chest1 with a centre panel representing the ,adoration of the ,magi1 about this date1 #afae-bj2 it is mounted on a stand which has three feet in front and two behind1 much more primitive and quaint than the ornate supports of ,elizabethan carving1 while the only ornament on the drawer fronts which form the frieze of the stand are moulded panels1 in the centre of each of which is a turned knob by which to open the drawer4 ,this chest and the table which forms its stand were probably not intended for each other4 ,the illustration on the previous page shows the stand1 which is a good representation of the carving of this time1 i4e41 early seventeenth century4 ,the round backed arm chair which the ,museum purchased last year from the ,hailstone collection1 though dated #afad1 is really more ,elizabethan in design4 ,there is no greater storehouse for specimens of furniture in use during the ,jacobean period than ,knole1 that stately mansion of the ,sackville family1 then the property of the ,earls of ,dorset4 ,in the ,king's ,bedroom1 which is said to have been specially prepared and furnished for the visit of ,king ,james ,i41 the public1 owing to the courtesy and generous spirit of the present ,lord ,sackville1 can still see the bed1 originally of crimson silk1 but now faded1 elaborately embroidered with gold4 ,it is said to have cost #h1jjj1 and the chairs and seats1 which are believed to have formed part of the original equipment of the room1 are in much the same position as they then occupied4 ,in the carved work of this furniture we cannot help thinking the hand of the ,venetian is to be traced1 and it is probable they were either imported or copied from a pattern brought over for the purpose4 ,a suite of furniture of that time appears to have consisted of six stools and two arm chairs1 almost entirely covered with velvet1 having the ,x form supports1 which1 so far as the writer's investigations have gone1 appear to have come from ,venice4 ,in the ,leicester gallery at ,knole there is a portrait of the ,king21 painted by ,mytens1 seated on such a chair1 and just below the picture is placed the chair which is said to be identical with the one portrayed4 ,it is similar to the one reproduced on page #ajj from a drawing of ,mr4 ,charles ,eastlake's4 ,illustration3 ,seats at ,knole4 ,covered with ,crimson ,silk ,velvet4 ,period3 ,james ,i4 ,in the same gallery also are three sofas or settees upholstered with crimson velvet1 and one of these has an accommodating rack1 by which either end can be lowered at will1 to make a more convenient lounge4 ,illustration3 ,arm ,chair4 ,covered with ,velvet1 ,ringed with ,fringe and studded with ,copper ,nails4 ,early ,,xvii4 ,century4 7,from a ,drawing of the ,original at ,knole1 by ,mr4 ,charles ,eastlake47 ,this excellent example of ,jacobean furniture has been described and sketched by ,mr4 ,charles ,eastlake in ,hints on ,household ,taste4 ,he says3 ,the joints are properly 'tenoned' and pinned together in such a manner as to ensure its constant stability4 ,the back is formed like that of a chair1 with a horizontal rail only at its upper edge1 but it receives additional strength from the second rail1 which is introduced at the back of the seat4 ,in ,marcus ,stone's well-known picture of ,the ,stolen ,keys1 this is the sofa portrayed4 ,the arm chair illustrated above is part of the same suite of furniture4 ,the furniture of another room at ,knole is said to have been presented by ,king ,james to the first ,earl of ,middlesex1 who had married into the ,dorset family4 ,the author has been furnished with a photograph of this room2 and the illustration prepared from this will give the reader a better idea than a lengthy description4 ,illustration3 ,the ,spangle ,bedroom ,at ,knole4 ,the ,furniture of this room was presented by ,james ,i4 to the ,earl of ,middlesex4 7,front a ,photo by ,mr4 ,corke1 of ,sevenoaks47 ,it seems from the ,knole furniture1 and a comparison of the designs with those of some of the tables and other woodwork produced during the same reign1 bearing the impress of the more severe style of ,inigo ,jones1 that there were then in ,england two styles of decorative furniture4 ,one of these1 simple and severe1 showing a reaction from the grotesque freedom of ,elizabethan carving1 and the other1 copied from ,venetian ornamental woodwork1 with cupids on scrolls forming the supports of stools1 having these ornamental legs connected by stretchers the design of which is1 in the case of those in the ,king's ,bedchamber at ,knole1 a couple of cupids in a flying attitude holding up a crown4 ,this kind of furniture was generally gilt1 and under the black paint of those at ,knole are still to be seen traces of the gold4 ,mr4 ,eastlake visited ,knole and made careful examination and sketches of the ,jacobean furniture there1 and has well described and illustrated it in his book just referred to2 he mentions that he found a slip of paper tucked beneath the webbing of a settle there1 with an inscription in ,old ,english characters which fixed the date of some of the furniture at #afbj4 ,in a letter to the writer on this subject1 ,mr4 ,lionel ,sackville ,west confirms this date by referring to the heirloom book1 which also bears out the writer's opinion that some of the more richly-carved furniture of this time was imported from ,italy4 ,in the ,lady ,chapel of ,canterbury ,cathedral there is a monument of ,dean ,boys1 who died in #afbe4 ,this represents the ,dean seated in his library1 at a table with turned legs1 over which there is a tapestry cover4 ,books line the walls of the section of the room shown in the stone carving2 it differs little from the sanctum of a literary man of the present day4 ,there are many other monuments which represent furniture of this period1 and amongst the more curious is that of a child of ,king ,james ,i41 in ,westminster ,abbey1 close to the monument of ,mary ,queen of ,scots4 ,the child is sculptured about life size1 in a carved cradle of the time4 ,in ,holland ,house1 ,kensington1#i which is a good example of a ,jacobean mansion1 there is some oak enrichment of the seventeenth century1 and also a garden bench1 with its back formed of three shells and the legs shaped and ornamented with scroll work4 ,horace ,walpole mentions this seat1 and ascribes the design to ,francesco ,cleyn1 who worked for ,charles ,i4 and some of the ,court4 ,there is another ,jacobean house of considerable interest1 the property of ,mr4 ,t4,g4 ,jackson1 ,a4,r4,a4 ,an account of it has been written by him1 and was read to some members of the ,surrey ,archaeological ,society1 who visited ,eagle ,house1 ,wimbledon1 in #ahij4 ,it appears to have been the country seat of a ,london merchant1 who lived early in the seventeenth century4 ,mr4 ,jackson bears witness to the excellence of the workmanship1 and expresses his opinion that the carved and decorated enrichments were executed by native and not foreign craftsmen4 ,he gives an illustration in his pamphlet of the sunk ,strap ,work1 which1 though ,jacobean in its date1 is also found in the carved ornament of ,elizabeth's time4 ,another relic of this time is the panel of carved oak in the lych gate of ,st4 ,giles'1 ,bloomsbury1 dated #afch4 ,this is a realistic representation of ,the ,resurrection1 and when the writer examined it a few weeks ago1 it seemed in danger of perishing for lack of a little care and attention4 ,it is very probable that had the reign of ,charles ,i4 been less troublous1 this would have been a time of much progress in the domestic arts in ,england4 ,the ,queen was of the ,medici family1 ,italian literature was in vogue1 and ,italian artists therefore would probably have been encouraged to come over and instruct our workmen4 ,the ,king himself was an excellent mechanic1 and boasted that he could earn his living at almost any trade save the making of hangings4 ,his father had established the tapestry works at ,mortlake2 he himself had bought the ,raffaele ,cartoons to encourage the work--and much was to be hoped from a monarch who had the judgment to induce a ,vandyke to settle in ,england4 ,the ,civil ,war1 whatever it has achieved for our liberty as subjects1 certainly hindered by many years our progress as an artistic people4 ,but to consider some of the furniture of this period in detail4 ,until the sixteenth century was well advanced1 the word table in our language meant an index1 or pocket book 7tablets71 or a list1 not an article of furniture2 it was1 as we have noticed in the time of ,elizabeth1 composed of boards generally hinged in the middle for convenience of storage1 and supported on trestles which were sometimes ornamented by carved work4 ,the word trestle1 by the way1 is derived from the threstule1 i4e41 three-footed supports1 and these three-legged stools and benches formed in those days the seats for everyone except the master of the house4 ,chairs were1 as we have seen1 scarce articles2 sometimes there was only one1 a throne-like seat for an honoured guest or for the master or mistress of the house1 and doubtless our present phrase of taking the chair is a survival of the high place a chair then held amongst the household gods of a gentleman's mansion4 ,shakespeare possibly had the boards and trestles in his mind when1 about #aeif1 he wrote in ,romeo and ,juliet-- ,come1 musicians1 play6 ,a hall6 a hall6 give room and foot it1 girls1 ,more light1 ye knaves1 and turn the tables up4 ,and as the scene in ,king ,henry the ,fourth is placed some years earlier than that of ,romeo and ,juliet1 it is probable that table had then its earlier meaning1 for the ,archbishop of ,york says3-- 444 ,the ,king is weary ,of dainty and such picking grievances2 ,and1 therefore1 will he wipe his tables clean ,and keep no tell-tale to his memory4 ,mr4 ,maskell1 in his handbook on ,ivories1 tells us that the word table was also used in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries to denote the religious carvings and paintings in churches2 and he quotes ,chaucer to show that the word was used to describe the game of draughts4 ,they dancen and they play at chess and tables4 ,now1 however1 at the time of which we are writing1 chairs were becoming more plentiful and the table was a definite article of furniture4 ,in inventories of the time and for some twenty years previous1 as has been already noticed in the preceding chapter1 we find mention of joyned table1 framed table1 standing and dormant table1 and the word board had gradually disappeared1 although it remains to us as a souvenir of the past in the name we still give to any body of men meeting for the transaction of business1 or in its more social meaning1 expressing festivity4 ,the width of these earlier tables had been about #cj inches1 and guests sat on one side only1 with their backs to the wall1 in order1 it may be supposed1 to be the more ready to resist any sudden raid1 which might be made on the house1 during the relaxation of the supper hour1 and this custom remained long after there was any necessity for its observance4 ,in the time of ,charles the ,first the width was increased1 and a contrivance was introduced for doubling the area of the top when required1 by two flaps which drew out from either end1 and1 by means of a wedge-shaped arrangement1 the centre or main table top was lowered1 and the whole table1 thus increased1 became level4 ,illustrations taken from ,mr4 ,g4,t4 ,robinson's article on furniture in the ,art ,journal of #ahha1 represent a ,drawinge table1 which was the name by which these latest improvements were known2 the black lines were of stained pear tree1 let into the oak1 and the acorn shaped member of the leg is an imported ,dutch design1 which became very common about this time1 and was applied to the supports of cabinets1 sometimes as in the illustration1 plainly turned1 but frequently carved4 ,another table of this period was the folding table1 which was made with twelve1 sixteen1 or with twenty legs1 as shewn in the illustration of this example1 and which1 as its name implies1 would shut up into about one third its extended size4 ,there is one of these tables in the ,stationers' ,hall4 ,illustration3 ,couch1 ,arm ,chair and ,single ,chair4 ,carved and ,gilt4 ,upholstered in rich ,silk ,velvet4 ,part of ,suite at ,penshurst ,place4 ,also an ,italian ,cabinet4 ,period3 ,charles ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,folding ,table at ,penshurst ,place4 ,period3 ,charles ,,ii4 to ,james ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,drawing ,table with ,black ,lines ,inlaid4 ,period3 ,charles ,,ii4 ,it was probably in the early part of the seventeenth century that the ,couch became known in ,england4 ,it was not common1 nor quite in the form in which we now recognize that luxurious article of furniture1 but was probably a carved oak settle1 with cushions so arranged as to form a resting lounge by day1 ,shakespeare speaks of the branch'd velvet gown of ,malvolio having come from a day bed1 and there is also an allusion to one in ,richard ,,iii4#aj ,in a volume of ,notes and ,queries there is a note which would show that the lady's wardrobe of this time 7#afbb7 was a very primitive article of furniture4 ,mention is made there of a list of articles of wearing apparel belonging to a certain ,lady ,elizabeth ,morgan1 sister to ,sir ,nathaniel ,rich1 which1 according to the old document there quoted1 dated the #acth day of ,november1 #afbb1 are to be found in a great bar'd chest in my ,ladie's ,bedchamber4 ,to judge from this list1 ,lady ,morgan was a person of fashion in those days4 ,we may also take it for granted that beyond the bedstead1 a prie dieu chair1 a bench1 some chests1 and the indispensable mirror1 there was not much else to furnish a lady's bedroom in the reign of ,james ,i4 or of his successor4 ,illustration3 ,theodore ,hook's ,chair4 ,illustration3 ,scrowled ,chair in ,carved ,oak4 ,the long settle and scrowled chair were two other kinds of seats in use from the time of ,charles ,i4 to that of ,james ,,ii4 ,the illustrations are taken from authenticated specimens in the collection of ,mr4 ,dalton1 of ,scarborough4 ,they are most probably of ,yorkshire manufacture1 about the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,the ornament in the panel of the back of the chair is inlaid work box or ash stained to a greenish black to represent green ebony1 with a few small pieces of rich red wood then in great favour2 and1 says ,mr4 ,g4 ,t4 ,robinson1 to whose article mentioned above we are indebted for the description1 probably brought by some buccaneer from the ,west4 ,mr4 ,robinson mentions another chair of the ,stuart period1 which formed a table1 and subsequently became the property of ,theodore ,hook1 who carefully preserved its pedigree4 ,it was purchased by its late owner1 ,mr4 ,godwin1 editor of ,the ,builder4 ,a woodcut of this chair is on p4 #ajf4 ,another chair which played an important part in history is the one in which ,charles ,i4 sat during his trial2 this was exhibited in the ,stuart ,exhibition in ,london in #ahhi4 ,the illustration is taken from a print in ,the ,illustrated ,london ,news of the time4 ,illustration3 ,chair ,used by ,king ,charles ,i4 ,during ,his ,trial4 ,in addition to the chairs of oak1 carved1 inlaid1 and plain1 which were in some cases rendered more comfortable by having cushions tied to the backs and seats1 the upholstered chair1 which we have seen had been brought from ,venice in the early part of the reign of ,james ,i41 now came into general use4 ,few appear to have survived1 but there are still to be seen in pictures of the period a chair represented as covered with crimson velvet1 studded with brass nails1 the seat trimmed with fringe1 similar to that at ,knole1 illustrated on p4 #ajj4 ,there is in the ,historical ,portrait ,gallery in ,bethnal ,green ,museum1 a painting by an unknown artist1 but dated #afdb1 of ,sir ,william ,lenthall1 who was ,speaker of the ,house of ,commons1 on the memorable occasion when1 on the #dth of ,january in that year1 ,charles ,i4 entered the ,house to demand the surrender of the five members4 ,the chair on which ,sir ,william is seated answers this description1 and is very similar to the one used by ,charles ,i4 7illustrated on p4 #ajg47 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,chair4 ,said to have been used by ,cromwell4 7,the original in the possession of ,t4 ,knollys ,parr1 ,esq47 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,chair1 ,jacobean ,style4 7,the original in the ,author's possession47 ,inlaid work1 which had been crude and rough in the time of ,elizabeth1 became more in fashion as means increased of decorating both the furniture and the woodwork panelling of the rooms of the ,stuart period4 ,mahogany had been discovered by ,raleigh as early as #aeie1 but did not come into general use until the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,the importation of scarce foreign woods in small quantities gave an impetus to this description of work1 which in the marqueterie of ,italy1 ,france1 ,holland1 ,germany1 and ,spain1 had already made great progress4 ,illustration3 ,settle of ,carved ,oak4 ,probably made in ,yorkshire4 ,period3 ,charles ,,ii4 ,within the past year1 owing to the extensions of the ,great ,eastern ,railway premises at ,bishopsgate ,street1 an old house of antiquarian interest was pulled down1 and generously presented by the ,company to the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,it will shortly be arranged so as to enable the visitor to see a good example of the exterior as well as some of the interior woodwork of a quaint house of the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,this was the residence of ,sir ,paul ,pindar1 diplomatist1 during the time of ,charles ,i41 and it contained a carved oak chimney-piece1 with some other good ornamental woodwork of this period4 ,the quaint and richly-carved chimney-piece1 which was dated #afjj1 and other decorative work1 was removed early in the present century1 when the possessors of that time were making improvements4 ,illustration3 ,staircase in ,general ,ireton's ,house1 ,dated #afcj4 ,illustration3 ,pattern of a ,chinese ,lac ,screen4 7,in the ,south ,kensington ,museum47 ,in the illustration of a child's chair1 which is said to have been actually used by ,cromwell1 can be seen an example of carved oak of this time2 it was lent to the writer by its present owner1 in whose family it was an heirloom since one of his ancestors married the ,protector's daughter4 ,the ornament has no particular style1 and it may be taken for granted that the period of the ,commonwealth was not marked by any progress in decorative art4 ,the above illustration1 however1 proves that there were exceptions to the prevalent ,puritan objection to figure ornament4 ,in one of ,mrs4 ,s4,c4 ,hall's papers1 ,pilgrimages to ,english ,shrines1 contributed in #ahdi to ,the ,art ,journal1 she describes the interior of the house which was built for ,bridget1 the ,protector's daughter1 who married ,general ,ireton4 ,the handsome oak staircase had the newels surmounted by carved figures1 representing different grades of men in the ,general's army--a captain1 common soldier1 piper1 drummer1 etc1 etc41 while the spaces between the balustrades were filled in with devices emblematical of warfare1 the ceiling being decorated in the fashion of the period4 ,at the time ,mrs4 ,hall wrote1 the house bore ,cromwell's name and the date #afcj4 ,we may date from the ,commonwealth the more general use of chairs2 people sat as they chose1 and no longer regarded the chair as the lord's place4 ,a style of chair1 which we still recognise as ,cromwellian1 was also largely imported from ,holland about this time--plain square backs and seats covered with brown leather1 studded with brass nails4 ,the legs1 which are now generally turned with a spiral twist1 were in ,cromwell's time plain and simple4 ,the residence of ,charles ,,ii4 abroad1 had accustomed him and his friends to the much more luxurious furniture of ,france and ,holland4 ,with the ,restoration came a foreign ,queen1 a foreign ,court1 ,french manners1 and ,french literature4 ,cabinets1 chairs1 tables1 and couches1 were imported into ,england from the ,netherlands1 ,france1 ,spain1 and ,portugal2 and our craftsmen profited by new ideas and new patterns1 and what was of equal consequence1 an increased demand for decorative articles of furniture4 ,the ,king of ,portugal had ceded ,bombay1 one of the ,portuguese ,indian stations1 to the new ,queen1 and there is a chair of this ,indo-,portuguese work1 carved in ebony1 now in the museum at ,oxford1 which was given by ,charles ,,ii4 either to ,elias ,ashmole or to ,evelyn3 the illustration on the next page shews all the details of the carving4 ,another woodcut1 on a smaller scale1 represents a similar chair grouped with a settee of a like design1 together with a small folding chair which ,mr4 ,g4,t4 ,robinson1 in his article on ,seats1 has described as ,italian1 but which we take the liberty of pronouncing ,flemish1 judging by one now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,in connection with this ,indo-,portuguese furniture1 it would seem that spiral turning became known and fashionable in ,england during the reign of ,charles ,,ii41 and in some chairs of ,english make1 which have come under the writer's notice1 the legs have been carved to imitate the effect of spiral turning--an amount of superfluous labour which would scarcely have been incurred1 but for the fact that the country house-carpenter of this time had an imported model1 which he copied1 without knowing how to produce by the lathe the effect which had just come into fashion4 ,there are1 too1 in some illustrations in ,shaw's ,ancient ,furniture1 some lamp-holders1 in which this spiral turning is overdone1 as is generally the case when any particular kind of ornament comes into vogue4 ,illustration3 ,settee ,and ,chair4 ,in carved ebony1 part of ,indo-,portuguese suite at ,penshurst ,place1 with ,flemish folding chair4 ,period3 ,charles ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,ebony ,chair of ,indo-portuguese ,work1 ,given by ,charles ,,ii4 to ,elias ,ashmole1 ,esq4 7,in the ,museum at ,oxford74 ,probably the illustrated suite of furniture at ,penshurst ,place1 which comprises thirteen pieces1 was imported about this time2 two of the smaller chairs appear to have their original cushions1 the others have been lately re-covered by ,lord de l',isle and ,dudley4 ,the spindles of the backs of two of the chairs are of ivory3 the carving1 which is in solid ebony1 is much finer on some than on others4 ,we gather a good deal of information about the furniture of this period from the famous diary of ,evelyn4 ,he thus describes ,hampton ,court ,palace1 as it appeared to him at the time of its preparation for the reception of ,catherine of ,braganza1 the bride of ,charles ,,ii41 who spent the royal honeymoon in this historic building1 which had in its time sheltered for their brief spans of favour the six wives of ,henry ,,viii4 and the sickly boyhood of ,edward ,,vi43-- ,it is as noble and uniform a pile as ,gothic architecture can make it4 ,there is incomparable furniture in it1 especially hangings designed by ,raphael1 very rich with gold4 ,of the tapestries ,i believe the world can show nothing nobler of the kind than the stories of ,abraham and ,tobit4#aa 444 ,the ,queen's bed was an embroidery of silver on crimson velvet1 and cost #h1jjj1 being a present made by the ,states of ,holland when his majesty returned4 ,the great looking-glass and toilet of beaten massive gold were given by the ,queen ,mother4 ,the ,queen brought over with her from ,portugal such ,indian cabinets as had never before been seen here4 ,evelyn wrote of course before ,wren made his ,renaissance additions to the ,palace4 ,after the great fire which occurred in #afff1 and destroyed some #ac1jjj houses and no less than #hj churches1 ,sir ,christopher ,wren was given an opportunity1 unprecedented in history1 of displaying his power of design and reconstruction4 ,writing of this great architect1 ,macaulay says1 ,the austere beauty of the ,athenian portico1 the gloomy sublimity of the ,gothic arcade1 he was1 like most of his contemporaries1 incapable of emulating1 and perhaps incapable of appreciating2 but no man born on our side of the ,alps has imitated with so much success the magnificence of the palace churches of ,italy4 ,even the superb ,louis ,,xiv4 has left to posterity no work which can bear a comparison with ,st4 ,paul's4 ,illustration3 ,sedes1 ecce tibi8 qu tot produxit alumnos ,quot gremio nutrit ,granta1 quot4 ,isis habet4 ,from the ,original by ,sir ,peter ,lely1 presented to ,dr4 ,busby by ,king ,charles ,sedes ,busbiana ,from a ,print in the possession of ,j4 ,c4 ,,thynne1 ,esq4 ,period3 ,charles ,,ii4 ,wren's great masterpiece was commenced in #afge1 and completed in #agaj1 and its building therefore covers a period of #ce years1 carrying us through the reigns of ,james ,,ii41 ,william ,,iii4 and ,mary1 and well on to the end of ,anne's4 ,the admirable work which he did during this time1 and which has effected so much for the adornment of our ,metropolis1 had a marked influence on the ornamental woodwork of the second half of the seventeenth century3 in the additions which he made to ,hampton ,court ,palace1 in ,bow ,church1 in the hospitals of ,greenwich and of ,chelsea1 there is a sumptuousness of ornament in stone and marble1 which shew the influence exercised on his mind by the desire to rival the grandeur of ,louis ,,xiv42 the ,fountain ,court at ,hampton being in direct imitation of the ,palace of ,versailles4 ,the carved woodwork of the choir of ,st4 ,paul's1 with fluted columns supporting a carved frieze2 the richly carved panels1 and the beautiful figure work on both organ lofts1 afford evidence that the oak enrichments followed the marble and stone ornament4 ,the swags of fruit and flowers1 the cherubs' heads with folded wings1 and other details in ,wren's work1 closely resemble the designs executed by ,gibbons1 whose carving is referred to later on4 ,it may be mentioned here that amongst the few churches in the city which escaped the great fire1 and contain woodwork of particular note1 are ,st4 ,helen's1 ,bishopgate1 and the ,charterhouse ,chapel1 which contain the original pulpits of about the sixteenth century4 ,the famous ,dr4 ,busby1 who for #ee years was head master of ,westminster ,school1 was a great favourite of ,king ,charles1 and a picture painted by ,sir ,peter ,lely1 is said to have been presented to the ,doctor by ,his ,majesty2 it is called ,sedes ,busbiana4 ,prints from this old picture are scarce1 and the writer is indebted to ,mr4 ,john ,c4 ,thynne for the loan of his copy1 from which the illustration is taken4 ,the portrait in the centre1 of the ,pedagogue aspiring to the mitre1 is that of ,dr4 ,south1 who succeeded ,busby1 and whose monument in ,westminster ,abbey is next to his4 ,the illustration is interesting1 as although it may not have been actually taken from a chair itself1 it shews a design in the mind of a contemporary artist4 ,of the ,halls of the ,city ,guilds1 there is none more quaint1 and in greater contrast to the bustle of the neighbourhood1 than the ,hall of the ,brewers' ,company1 in ,addle ,street1 ,city4 ,this was partially destroyed1 like most of the older ,halls1 by the ,great ,fire1 but was one of the first to be restored and refurnished4 ,in the kitchen are still to be seen the remains of an old trestle and other relics of an earlier period1 but the hall or dining room1 and the ,court room1 are complete1 with very slight additions1 since the date of their interior equipment in #afgj to #afgc4 ,the ,court room has a richly carved chimney-piece in oak1 nearly black with age1 the design of which is a shield with a winged head1 palms1 and swags of fruit and flowers1 while on the shield itself is an inscription1 stating that this room was wainscoted by ,alderman ,knight1 master of the ,company and ,lord ,mayor of the ,city of ,london1 in the year #afgj4 ,the room itself is exceedingly quaint1 with its high wainscoting and windows on the opposite side to the fireplace1 reminding one of the port-holes of a ship's cabin1 while the chief window looks out on to the old-fashioned garden1 giving the beholder altogether a pleasing illusion1 carrying him back to the days of ,charles ,,ii4 ,the chief room or ,hall is still more handsomely decorated with carved oak of this time4 ,the actual date1 #afgc1 is over the doorway on a tablet which bears the names1 in the letters of the period1 of the master1 ,james ,reading1 ,esq41 and the wardens1 ,mr4 ,robert ,lawrence1 ,mr4 ,samuel ,barber1 and ,mr4 ,henry ,sell4 ,the names of other masters and wardens are also written over the carved escutcheons of their different arms1 and the whole room is one of the best specimens in existence of the oak carving of this date4 ,at the western end is the master's chair1 of which by the courtesy of ,mr4 ,higgins1 clerk to the ,company1 we are able to give an illustration on p4 #aae--the shield-shaped back1 the carved drapery1 and the coat-of-arms with the company's motto1 are all characteristic features1 as are also the ,corinthian columns and arched pediments1 in the oak decoration of the room4 ,the broken swan-necked pediment1 which surmounts the cornice of the room over the chair1 is probably a more recent addition1 this ornament having come in about #cj years later4 ,there are also the old dining tables and benches2 these are as plain and simple as possible4 ,in the court room1 is a table1 which was formerly in the ,company's barge1 with some good inlaid work in the arcading which connects the two end standards1 and some old carved lions' feet2 the top and other parts have been renewed4 ,there is also an old oak fire-screen of about the end of the seventeenth century4 ,another city hall1 the interior woodwork of which dates from just after the ,great ,fire1 is that of the ,stationers' ,company1 in ,ave ,maria ,lane1 close to ,ludgate ,hill4 ,mr4 ,charles ,robert ,rivington1 the present clerk to the ,company1 has written a pamphlet1 full of very interesting records of this ancient and worshipful corporation1 from which the following paragraph is a quotation3--,the first meeting of the court after the fire was held at ,cook's ,hall1 and the subsequent courts1 until the hall was re-built1 at the ,lame ,hospital ,hall1 i4e41 ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,hospital4 ,in #afgj a committee was appointed to re-build the hall2 and in #afgd the ,court agreed with ,stephen ,colledge 7the famous ,protestant joiner1 who was afterwards hanged at ,oxford in #afha7 to wainscot the hall 'with well-seasoned and well-matched wainscot1 according to a model delivered in for the sum of #cjj4' ,his work is now to be seen in excellent condition4 ,illustration3 ,the ,master's ,chair4 7,hall of the ,brewers' ,company47 ,mr4 ,rivington read his paper to the ,london and ,middlesex ,archaeological ,society in #ahha2 and the writer can with pleasure confirm the statement as to the condition1 in #ahib1 of this fine specimen of seventeenth century work4 ,less ornate and elaborate than the ,brewers' ,hall1 the panels are only slightly relieved with carved mouldings2 but the end of the room1 or main entrance1 opposite the place of the old das 7long since removed71 is somewhat similar to the ,brewers'1 and presents a fine architectural effect1 which will be observed in the illustration on p4 #aag4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,livery ,cupboard4 ,in the ,hall of the ,stationers',company4 ,made in #afgd1 the curved pediment added later1 probably in #aghh4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,napkin ,press ,lent to the ,s4 ,kensington ,museum by ,h4 ,farrer1 ,esq4 ,early ,,xvii4 ,century4 ,there is above1 an illustration of one of the two livery cupboards1 which formerly stood on the das1 and these are good examples of the cupboards for display of plate of this period4 ,the lower part was formerly the receptacle of unused viands1 distributed to the poor after the feast4 ,in their original state these livery cupboards finished with a straight cornice1 the broken pediments with the eagle 7the ,company's crest7 having most probably been added when the hall was1 to quote an inscription on a shield1 repaired and beautified in the mayoralty of the ,right ,honourable ,william ,gill1 in the year #aghh1 when ,mr4 ,thomas ,hooke was master1 and ,mr4 ,field and ,mr4 ,rivington 7the present clerk's grandfather7 wardens4 ,illustration3 ,arm ,chairs4 ,chair upholstered in ,spitalfields silk4 ,hampton ,court ,palace4 ,carved and upholstered ,chair4 ,hardwick ,hall4 ,chair upholstered in ,spitalfields silk4 ,knole1 ,sevenoaks4 ,period3 ,william ,,iii4 ,to ,queen ,anne4 ,there is still preserved in a lumber room one of the old benches of seventeenth century work--now replaced in the hall by modern folding chairs4 ,this is of oak1 with turned skittle-shaped legs slanting outwards1 and connected and strengthened by plain stretchers4 ,the old tables are still in their places4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,oak ,screen4 ,in the ,hall of the ,stationers' ,company1 erected in #afgd3 the ,royal ,coat of ,arms has been since added4 ,another example of seventeenth century oak panelling is the handsome chapel of the ,mercers' ,hall--the only city ,company possessing their own chapel--but only the lining of the walls and the reredos are of the original work1 the remainder having been added some ten or twelve years ago1 when some of the original carving was made use of in the new work4 ,indeed1 in this magnificent hall1 about the most spacious of the old ,city ,corporation ,palaces1 there is a great deal of new work mixed with old--new chimney-pieces and old overmantels--some of ,grinling ,gibbons' carved enrichments1 so painted and varnished as to have lost much of their character2 these have been applied to the oak panels in the large dining hall4 ,the woodwork lining of living rooms had been undergoing changes since the commencement of the period of which we are now writing4 ,in #afch a man named ,christopher had taken out a patent for enamelling and gilding leather1 which was used as a wall decoration over the oak panelling4 ,this decorated leather hitherto had been imported from ,holland and ,spain2 when this was not used1 and tapestry1 which was very expensive1 was not obtainable1 the plaster was roughly ornamented4 ,somewhat later than this1 pictures were let into the wainscot to form part of the decoration1 for in #affi ,evelyn1 when writing of the house of the ,earle of ,norwich1 in ,epping ,forest1 says1 ,a good many pictures put into the wainstcot which ,mr4 ,baker1 his lordship's predecessor1 brought from ,spaine4 ,indeed1 subsequently the wainscot became simply the frame for pictures1 and we have the same writer deploring the disuse of timber1 and expressing his opinion that a sumptuary law ought to be passed to restore the ancient use of timber4 ,although no law was enacted on the subject1 yet1 some twenty years later1 the whirligig of fashion brought about the revival of the custom of lining rooms with oak panelling4 ,it is said that about #afgj ,evelyn found ,grinling ,gibbons in a small thatched house on the outskirts of ,deptford1 and introduced him to the ,king1 who gave him an appointment on the ,board of ,works1 and patronised him with extensive orders4 ,the character of his carving is well known2 generally using lime-tree as the vehicle of his designs1 the life-like birds and flowers1 the groups of fruit1 and heads of cherubs1 are easily recognised4 ,one of the rooms in ,windsor ,castle is decorated with the work of his chisel1 which can also be seen in ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 ,hampton ,court ,palace1 ,chatsworth1 ,burleigh1 and perhaps his best1 at ,petworth ,house1 in ,sussex4 ,he also sculptured in stone4 ,the base of ,king ,charles' statue at ,windsor1 the font of ,st4 ,james'1 ,piccadilly 7round the base of which are figures of ,adam and ,eve71 are his work1 as is also the lime-tree border of festoon work over the communion table4 ,gibbons was an ,englishman1 but appears to have spent his boyhood in ,holland1 where he was christened ,grinling4 ,he died in #agba4 ,his pupils were ,samuel ,watson1 a ,derbyshire man1 who did much of the carved work at ,chatsworth1 ,drevot of ,brussels1 and ,lawreans of ,mechlin4 ,gibbons and his pupils founded a school of carving in ,england which has been continued by tradition to the present day4 ,illustration3 ,silver ,furniture at ,knole4 7,from a ,photo by ,mr4 ,corke1 of ,sevenoaks47 ,a somewhat important immigration of ,french workmen occurred about this time owing to the persecutions of ,protestants in ,france1 which followed1 the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes in #afhe1 by ,louis ,,xiv41 and these refugees bringing with them their skill1 their patterns and ideas1 influenced the carving of our frames and the designs of some of our furniture4 ,this influence is to be traced in some of the contents of ,hampton ,court ,palace1 particularly in the carved and gilt centre tables and the torchres of ,french design but of ,english workmanship4 ,it is said that no less than #ej1jjj families left ,france1 some thousands of whom belonged to the industrial classes1 and settled in ,england and ,germany1 where their descendants still remain4 ,they introduced the manufacture of crystal chandeliers1 and founded our ,spitalfields silk industry and other trades1 till then little practised in ,england4 ,the beautiful silver furniture at ,knole belongs to this time1 having been made for one of the ,earls of ,dorset1 in the reign of ,james ,,ii4 ,the illustration is from a photograph taken by ,mr4 ,corke1 of ,sevenoaks4 ,electrotypes of the originals are in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,from two other suites at ,knole1 consisting of a looking glass1 a table1 and a pair of torchres1 in the one case of plain walnut wood1 and in the other of ebony with silver mountings1 it would appear that a toilet suite of furniture of the time of ,james ,,ii4 generally consisted of articles of a similar character1 more or less costly1 according to circumstances4 ,the silver table bears the ,english ,hall mark of the reign4 ,as we approach the end of the seventeenth century and examine specimens of ,english furniture about #afhj to #agjj1 we find a marked ,flemish influence4 ,the ,stadtholder1 ,king ,william ,,iii41 with his ,dutch friends1 imported many of their household goods#ab1 and our ,english craftsmen seem to have copied these very closely4 ,the chairs and settees in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 and at ,hampton ,court ,palace1 have the shaped back with a wide inlaid or carved upright bar1 the cabriole leg and the carved shell ornament on the knee of the leg1 and on the top of the back1 which are still to be seen in many of the old ,dutch houses4 ,there are a few examples of furniture of this date1 which it is almost impossible to distinguish from ,flemish1 but in some others there is a characteristic decoration in marqueterie1 which may be described as a seaweed scroll in holly or box wood1 inlaid on a pale walnut ground1 a good example of which is to be seen in the upright grandfather's clock in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 the effect being a pleasing harmony of colour4 ,in the same collection there is also a walnut wood centre table1 dating from about #agjj1 which has twisted legs and a stretcher1 the top being inlaid with intersecting circles relieved by the inlay of some stars in ivory4 ,as we have observed with regard to ,french furniture of this time1 mirrors came more generally into use1 and the frames were both carved and inlaid4 ,there are several of these at ,hampton ,court ,palace1 all with bevelled edged plate glass2 some have frames entirely of glass1 the short lengths which make the frame1 having in some cases the joints covered by rosettes of blue glass1 and in others a narrow moulding of gilt work on each side of the frame4 ,in one room 7the ,queen's ,gallery7 the frames are painted in colors and relieved by a little gilding4 ,the taste for importing old ,dutch furniture1 also lacquer cabinets from ,japan1 not only gave relief to the appearance of a well furnished apartment of this time1 but also brought new ideas to our designers and workmen4 ,our collectors1 too1 were at this time appreciating the ,oriental china1 both blue and white1 and colored1 which had a good market in ,holland1 so that with the excellent silversmith's work then obtainable1 it was possible in the time of ,william and ,mary to arrange a room with more artistic effect than at an earlier period1 when the tapestry and panelling of the walls1 a table1 the livery cupboard previously described1 and some three or four chairs1 had formed almost the whole furniture of reception rooms4 ,the first mention of corner cupboards appears to have been made in an advertisement of a ,dutch joiner in ,the ,postman of ,march #hth1 #agaa2 these cupboards1 with their carved pediments being part of the modern fittings of a room in the time of ,queen ,anne4 ,the oak presses common to this and earlier times are formed of an upper and lower part1 the former sometimes being three sides of an octagon with the top supported by columns1 while the lower half is straight1 and the whole is carved with incised ornament4 ,these useful articles of furniture1 in the absence of wardrobes1 are described in inventories of the time 7#afhj-agbj7 as press cupboards1 great cupboards1 wainscot1 and joyned cupboards4 ,the first mention of a ,buerow1 as our modern word ,bureau was then spelt1 is said by ,dr4 ,lyon1 in his ,american book1 ,the ,colonial ,furniture of ,new ,england1 to have occurred in an advertisement in ,the ,daily ,post of ,january #dth1 #agbg4 ,the same author quotes ,bailey's ,dictionarium ,britannicum1 published in ,london1 #agcf1 as defining the word bureau as a cabinet or chest of drawers1 or 'scrutoir' for depositing papers or accounts4 ,in the latter half of the eighteenth century those convenient pieces of furniture came into more general use1 and illustrations of them as designed and made by ,chippendale and his contemporaries will be found in the chapter dealing with that period4 ,dr4 ,lyon also quotes from an ,american newspaper1 ,the ,boston ,news ,letter of ,april #afth1 #agaf1 an advertisement which was evidently published when the tall clocks1 which we now call grandfathers' clocks1 were a novelty1 and as such were being introduced to the ,american public4 ,we have already referred to one of these which is in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 date #agjj1 and no doubt the manufacture of similar ones became more general during the first years of the eighteenth century4 ,the advertisement alluded to runs1 ,lately come from ,london1 a parcel of very fine clocks--they go a week and repeat the hour when pulled 7a string caused the same action as the pressing of the handle of a repeating watch7 in ,japan cases or wall-nut4 ,the style of decoration in furniture and woodwork which we recognise as ,queen ,anne1 apart from the marqueterie just described1 appears1 so far as the writer's investigations have gone1 to be due to the designs of some eminent architects of the time4 ,sir ,james ,vanbrugh was building ,blenheim ,palace for the ,queen's victorious general1 and also ,castle ,howard4 ,nicholas ,hawksmoor had erected ,st4 ,george's4 ,bloomsbury1 and ,james ,gibbs1 a ,scotch architect and antiquary1 ,st4 ,martin's-in-the-,fields1 and the ,royal ,library at ,oxford2 a ponderous style characterises the woodwork interior of these buildings4 ,we give an illustration of three designs for chimney-pieces and overmantels by ,james ,gibbs1 the centre one of which illustrates the curved or swan-necked pediment1 which became a favourite ornament about this time1 until supplanted by the heavier triangular pediment which came in with the ,georges4 ,the contents of ,hampton ,court ,palace afford evidence of the transition which the design of woodwork and furniture has undergone from the time of ,william ,,iii4 until that of ,george ,,ii4 ,there is the ,dutch chair with cabriole leg1 the plain walnut card table also of ,dutch design1 which probably came over with the ,stadtholder2 then1 there are the heavy draperies1 and chairs almost completely covered by ,spitalfields silk velvet1 to be seen in the bedroom furniture of ,queen ,anne4 ,later1 as the heavy ,georgian style predominated1 there is the stiff ungainly gilt furniture1 console tables with legs ornamented with the ,greek key pattern badly applied1 and finally1 as the ,french school of design influenced our carvers1 an improvement may be noticed in the tables and torchres1 which but for being a trifle clumsy1 might pass for the work of ,french craftsmen of the same time4 ,the ,state chairs1 the bedstead1 and some stools1 which are said to have belonged to ,queen ,caroline1 are further examples of the adoption of ,french fashion4 ,illustration3 ,three ,chimneypieces4 ,designed by ,james ,gibes1 ,architect1 in #agci4 ,nearly all writers on the subject of furniture and woodwork are agreed in considering that the earlier part of the period discussed in this chapter1 that is1 the seventeenth century1 is the best in the traditions of ,english work4 ,as we have seen in noticing some of the earlier ,jacobean examples already illustrated and described1 it was a period marked by increased refinement of design through the abandonment of the more grotesque and often coarse work of ,elizabethan carving1 and by soundness of construction and thorough workmanship4 ,oak furniture made in ,england during the seventeenth century1 is still a credit to the painstaking craftsmen of those days1 and even upholstered furniture1 like the couches and chairs at ,knole1 after more than #bej years' service1 are fit for use4 ,in the ninth and last chapter1 which will deal with furniture of the present day1 the methods of production which are now in practice will be noticed1 and some comparison will be made which must be to the credit of the ,jacobean period4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the foregoing chapters an attempt has been made to preserve1 as far as possible1 a certain continuity in the history of the subject matter of this work from the earliest times until after the ,renaissance had been generally adopted in ,europe4 ,in this endeavour a greater amount of attention has been bestowed upon the furniture of a comparatively short period of ,english history than upon that of other countries1 but it is hoped that this fault will be forgiven by ,english readers4 ,it has now become necessary to interrupt this plan1 and before returning to the consideration of ,european design and work1 to devote a short chapter to those branches of the ,industrial ,arts connected with furniture which flourished in ,china and ,japan1 in ,india1 ,persia1 and ,arabia1 at a time anterior and subsequent to the ,renaissance period in ,europe4 ,chapter ,v4 ,the ,furniture of ,eastern ,countries4 ,,chinese ,,furniture3 ,probable source of artistic taste--,sir ,william ,chambers quoted--,racinet's ,le ,costume ,historique--,dutch influence--,the ,south ,kensington and the ,duke of ,edinburgh ,collections--,processes of making ,lacquer--,screens in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,,japanese ,,furniture3 ,early ,history--,sir ,rutherford ,alcock and ,lord ,elgin--,the ,collection of the ,shogun--,famous ,collections--,action of the present ,government of ,japan--,special characteristics4 ,,indian ,,furniture3 ,early ,european influence--,furniture of the ,moguls--,racinet's ,work--,bombay ,furniture--,ivory ,chairs and ,table--,specimens in the ,india ,museum4 ,,persian ,,woodwork3 ,collection of ,objets d',art formed by ,general ,murdoch ,smith1 ,r4,e4--,industrial ,arts of the ,persians--,arab influence--,south ,kensington ,specimens4 ,,saracenic ,,woodwork3 ,oriental customs--,specimens in the ,south ,kensington ,museum of ,arab ,work--,m4 d',aveune's ,work4 ,chinese and ,japanese ,furniture4 ,illustration ,we have been unable to discover when the ,chinese first began to use ,state or domestic furniture4 ,whether1 like the ancient ,assyrians and ,egyptians1 there was an early civilization which included the arts of joining1 carving1 and upholstering1 we do not know2 most probably there was2 and from the plaster casts which one sees in our ,indian ,museum1 of the ornamental stone gateways of ,sanchi ,tope1 ,bhopal in ,central ,india1 it would appear that in the early part of our ,christian era1 the carvings in wood of their neighbours and co-religionists1 the ,hindoos1 represented figures of men and animals in the woodwork of sacred buildings or palaces2 and the marvellous dexterity in manipulating wood1 ivory and stone which we recognize in the ,chinese of to-day1 is inherited from their ancestors4 ,sir ,william ,chambers travelled in ,china in the early part of the last century4 ,it was he who introduced the ,chinese style into furniture and decoration1 which was adopted by ,chippendale and other makers1 as will be noticed in the chapter dealing with that period of ,english furniture4 ,he gives us the following description of the furniture he found in ,the ,flowery ,land4 ,the moveables of the saloon consist of chairs1 stools1 and tables2 made sometimes of rosewood1 ebony1 or lacquered work1 and sometimes of bamboo only1 which is cheap1 and1 nevertheless1 very neat4 ,when the moveables are of wood1 the seats of the stools are often of marble or porcelain1 which1 though hard to sit on1 are far from unpleasant in a climate where the summer heats are so excessive4 ,in the corners of the rooms are stands four or live feet high1 on which they set plates of citrons1 and other fragrant fruits1 or branches of coral in vases of porcelain1 and glass globes containing goldfish1 together with a certain weed somewhat resembling fennel2 on such tables as are intended for ornament only they also place little landscapes1 composed of rocks1 shrubs1 and a kind of lily that grows among pebbles covered with water4 ,sometimes also1 they have artificial landscapes made of ivory1 crystal1 amber1 pearls1 and various stones4 ,i have seen some of these that cost over #cjj guineas1 but they are at best mere baubles1 and miserable imitations of nature4 ,besides these landscapes they adorn their tables with several vases of porcelain1 and little vases of copper1 which are held in great esteem4 ,these are generally of simple and pleasing forms4 ,the ,chinese say they were made two thousand years ago1 by some of their celebrated artists1 and such as are real antiques 7for there are many counterfeits7 they buy at an extravagant price1 giving sometimes no less than #cjj sterling for one of them4 ,the bedroom is divided from the saloon by a partition of folding doors1 which1 when the weather is hot1 are in the night thrown open to admit the air4 ,it is very small1 and contains no other furniture than the bed1 and some varnished chests in which they keep their apparel4 ,the beds are very magnificent2 the bedsteads are made much like ours in ,europe--of rosewood1 carved1 or lacquered work3 the curtains are of taffeta or gauze1 sometimes flowered with gold1 and commonly either blue or purple4 ,about the top a slip of white satin1 a foot in breadth1 runs all round1 on which are painted1 in panels1 different figures--flower pieces1 landscapes1 and conversation pieces1 interspersed with moral sentences and fables written in ,indian ink and vermilion4 ,from old paintings and engravings which date from about the fourteenth or fifteenth century one gathers an idea of such furniture as existed in ,china and ,japan in earlier times4 ,in one of these1 which is reproduced in ,racinet's ,le ,costume ,historique1 there is a ,chinese princess reclining on a sofa which has a frame of black wood visible1 and slightly ornamented2 it is upholstered with rich embroidery1 for which these artistic people seem to have been famous from a very early period4 ,a servant stands by her side to hand her the pipe of opium with which the monotony of the day was varied--one arm rests on a small wooden table or stand which is placed on the sofa1 and which holds a flower vase and a pipe stand4 ,on another old painting two figures are seated on mats playing a game which resembles draughts1 the pieces being moved about on a little table with black and white squares like a modern chessboard1 with shaped feet to raise it a convenient height for the players3 on the floor stand cups of tea ready to hand4 ,such pictures are generally ascribed to the fifteenth century1 the period of the great ,ming dynasty1 which appears to have been the time of an improved culture and taste in ,china4 ,from this time and a century later 7the sixteenth7 also date those beautiful cabinets of lacquered wood enriched with ivory1 mother of pearl1 with silver and even with gold1 which have been brought to ,england occasionally2 but genuine specimens of this1 and of the seventeenth century1 are very scarce and extremely valuable4 ,the older ,chinese furniture which one sees generally in ,europe dates from the eighteenth century1 and was made to order and imported by the ,dutch2 this explains the curious combination to be found of ,oriental and ,european designs2 thus1 there are screens with views of ,amsterdam and other cities copied from paintings sent out for the purpose1 while the frames of the panels are of carved rosewood of the fretted bamboo pattern characteristic of the ,chinese4 ,elaborate bedsteads1 tables and cabinets were also made1 with panels of ash stained a dark color and ornamented with hunting scenes1 in which the men and horses are of ivory1 or sometimes with ivory faces and limbs1 the clothes being chiefly in a brown colored wood4 ,in a beautiful table in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 which is said to have been made in ,cochin-,china1 mother of pearl is largely used and produces a rich effect4 ,the furniture brought back by the ,duke of ,edinburgh from ,china and ,japan is of the usual character imported1 and the remarks hereafter made on ,indian or ,bombay furniture apply equally to this adaptation of ,chinese detail to ,european designs4 ,the most highly prized work of ,china and ,japan in the way of decorative furniture is the beautiful lacquer work1 and in the notice on ,french furniture of the eighteenth century1 in a subsequent chapter1 we shall see that the process was adopted in ,holland1 ,france and ,england with more or less success4 ,it is worth while1 however1 to allude to it here a little more fully4 ,the process as practised in ,china is thus described by ,m4 ,jacquemart3-- ,the wood when smoothly planed is covered with a sheet of thin paper or silk gauze1 over which is spread a thick coating made of powdered red sandstone and buffalo's gall4 ,this is allowed to dry1 after which it is polished and rubbed with wax1 or else receives a wash of gum water1 holding chalk in solution4 ,the varnish is laid on with a flat brush1 and the article is placed in a damp drying room1 whence it passes into the hands of a workman1 who moistens and again polishes it with a piece of very fine grained soft clay slate1 or with the stalks of the horse-tail or shave grass4 ,it then receives a second coating of lacquer1 and when dry is once more polished4 ,these operations are repeated until the surface becomes perfectly smooth and lustrous4 ,there are never applied less than three coatings and seldom more than eighteen1 though some old ,chinese and some ,japan ware are said to have received upwards of twenty4 ,as regards ,china1 this seems quite exceptional1 for there is in the ,louvre a piece with the legend 'lou-tinsg1' i4e4 six coatings1 implying that even so many are unusual enough to be worthy of special mention4 ,there is as much difference between different kinds and qualities of lac as between different classes of marquctcrie4 ,the most highly prized is the ,,lacquer ,,on ,,gold ,,ground1 and the specimens of this which first reached ,europe during the time of ,louis ,,xv41 were presentation pieces from the ,japanese ,princes to some of the ,dutch officials4 ,gold ground lacquer is rarely found in furniture1 and only as a rule in some of those charming little boxes1 in which the luminous effect of the lac is heightened by the introduction of silver foliage on a minute scale1 or of tiny landscape work and figures charmingly treated1 partly with dull gold and partly highly burnished4 ,small placques of this beautiful ware were used for some of the choicest pieces of ,gouthire's elegant furniture made for ,marie ,antoinette4 ,aventurine lacquer closely imitates in color the sparkling mineral from which it takes its name1 and a less highly finished preparation is used as a lining for the small drawers of cabinets4 ,another lacquer has a black ground1 on which landscapes delicately traced in gold stand out in charming relief4 ,such pieces were used by ,riesener and mounted by ,gouthire in some of the most costly furniture made for ,marie ,antoinette2 some specimens are in the ,louvre4 ,it is this kind of lacquer1 in varying qualities1 that is usually found in cabinets1 folding screens1 coffers1 tables1 etagres1 and other ornamental articles of furniture4 ,enriched with inlay of mother of pearl1 the effect of which is in some cases heightened and rendered more effective by some transparent coloring on its reverse side1 as in the case of a bird's plumage or of those beautiful blossoms which both ,chinese and ,japanese artists can represent so faithfully4 ,a very remarkable screen in ,chinese lacquer of later date is in the ,south ,kensington ,museum2 it is composed of twelve folds each ten feet high1 and measuring when fully extended twenty-one feet4 ,this screen is very beautifully decorated on both sides with incised and raised ornaments painted and gilt on black ground1 with a rich border ornamented with representations of sacred symbols and various other objects4 ,the price paid for it was #a1jjj4 ,there are also in the ,museum some very rich chairs of modern ,chinese work1 in brown wood1 probably teak1 very elaborately inlaid with mother-of-pearl2 they were exhibited in ,paris in #ahfg4 ,of the very early history of ,japanese industrial arts we know but little4 ,we have no record of the kind of furniture which ,marco ,polo found when he travelled in ,japan in the thirteenth century1 and until the ,jesuit missionaries obtained a footing in the sixteenth century and sent home specimens of native work1 there was probably very little of ,japanese manufacture which found its way to ,europe4 ,the beautiful lacquer work of ,japan1 which dates from the end of the sixteenth and the following century1 leads us to suppose that a long period of probation must have occurred before the ,arts1 which were probably learned from the ,chinese1 could have been so thoroughly mastered4 ,of furniture1 with the exception of the cabinets1 chests1 and boxes1 large and small1 of this famous lac1 there appears to have been little4 ,until the ,japanese developed a taste for copying ,european customs and manners1 the habit seems to have been to sit on mats and to use small tables raised a few inches from the ground4 ,even the bedrooms contained no bedsteads1 but a light mattress served for bed and bedstead4 ,the process of lacquering has already been described1 and in the chapter on ,french furniture of the eighteenth century it will be seen how specimens of this decorative material reached ,france by way of ,holland1 and were mounted into the meubles de luxe of that time4 ,with this exception1 and that of the famous collection of porcelain in the ,japan ,palace at ,dresden1 probably but little of the art products of this artistic people had been exported until the country was opened up by the expedition of ,lord ,elgin and ,commodore ,perry1 in #aheh-i1 and subsequently by the antiquarian knowledge and research of ,sir ,rutherford ,alcock1 who has contributed so much to our knowledge of ,japanese industrial art2 indeed it is scarcely too much to say1 that so far as ,england is concerned1 he was the first to introduce the products of the ,empire of ,japan4 ,illustration3 ,japanese ,cabinet of ,red ,chased ,lacquer ,work4 ,,xvii to ,,xviii ,century4 ,the ,revolution1 and the break up of the feudal system which had existed in that country for some eight hundred years1 ended by placing the ,mikado on the throne4 ,there was a sale in ,paris1 in #ahfg1 of the famous collection of the ,shgun1 who had sent his treasures there to raise funds for the civil war in which he was then engaged with the ,daimio4 ,this was followed by the exportation of other fine native productions to ,paris and ,london2 but the supply of old and really fine specimens has1 since about #ahgd1 almost ceased1 and1 in default1 the ,european markets have become flooded with articles of cheap and inferior workmanship1 exported to meet the modern demand4 ,the present ,government of ,japan1 anxious to recover many of the masterpieces which were produced in the best time1 under the patronage of the native princes of the old rgime1 have established a museum at ,tokio1 where many examples of fine lacquer work1 which had been sent to ,europe for sale1 have been placed after repurchase1 to serve as examples for native artists to copy1 and to assist in the restoration of the ancient reputation of ,japan4 ,there is in the ,south ,kensington ,museum a very beautiful ,japanese chest of lacquer work made about the beginning of the seventeenth century1 the best time for ,japanese art2 it formerly belonged to ,napoleon ,i4 and was purchased at the ,hamilton ,palace ,sale for #gbb3 it is some #c ft4 #c in4 long and #b ft4 #a in4 high1 and was intended originally as a receptacle for sacred ,buddhist books4 ,there are1 most delicately worked on to its surface1 views of the interior of one of the ,imperial ,palaces of ,japan1 and a hunting scene4 ,mother-of-pearl1 gold1 silver1 and aventurine1 are all used in the enrichment of this beautiful specimen of inlaid work1 and the lock plate is a representative example of the best kind of metal work as applied to this purpose4 ,h4,r4,h4 the ,duke of ,edinburgh has several fine specimens of ,chinese and ,japanese lacquer work in his collection1 about the arrangement of which the writer had the honour of advising his ,royal ,highness1 when it arrived some years ago at ,clarence ,house4 ,the earliest specimen is a reading desk1 presented by the ,mikado1 with a slope for a book much resembling an ordinary bookrest1 but charmingly decorated with lacquer in landscape subjects on the flat surfaces1 while the smaller parts are diapered with flowers and quatrefoils in relief of lac and gold4 ,this is of the sixteenth century4 ,the collections of the ,earl of ,elgin and ,kincardine1 ,sir ,rutherford ,alcock1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,mr4 ,salting1 ,viscount ,gough1 and other well-known amateurs1 contain some excellent examples of the best periods of ,japanese ,art work of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,the grotesque carving of the wonderful dragons and marvellous monsters introduced into furniture made by the ,chinese and ,japanese1 and especially in the ornamental woodwork of the ,old ,temples1 is thoroughly peculiar to these masters of elaborate design and skilful manipulation3 and the low rate of remuneration1 compared with our ,european notions of wages1 enables work to be produced that would be impracticable under any other conditions4 ,in comparing the decorative work on ,chinese and ,japanese furniture1 it may be said that more eccentricity is effected by the latter than by the former in their designs and general decorative work4 ,the ,japanese joiner is unsurpassed1 and much of the lattice work1 admirable in design and workmanship1 is so quaint and intricate that only by close examination can it be distinguished from finely cut fret work4 ,indian ,furniture4 ,european influence upon ,indian art and manufactures has been of long duration2 it was first exercised by the ,portuguese and ,dutch in the early days of the ,united ,east ,india ,company1 afterwards by the ,french1 who established a trading company there in #affd1 and since then by the ,english1 the first charter of the old ,east ,india ,company dating as far back as #afjj4 ,thus ,european taste dominated almost everything of an ornamental character until it became difficult to find a decorative article the design of which did not in some way or other shew the predominance of ,european influence over native conception4 ,therefore it becomes important to ascertain what kind of furniture1 limited as it was1 existed in ,india during the period of the ,mogul ,empire1 which lasted from #aeje to #agci1 when the invasion of the ,persians under ,kouli ,khan destroyed the power of the ,moguls2 the country formerly subject to them was then divided amongst sundry petty princes4 ,the thrones and ,state chairs used by the ,moguls were rich with elaborate gilding2 the legs or supports were sometimes of turned wood1 with some of the members carved2 the chair was formed like an hour glass1 or rather like two bowls reversed1 with the upper part extended to form a higher back to the seat4 ,in ,m4 ,racinet's sumptuous work1 ,le ,costume ,historique1 published in ,paris in #bj volumes 7#ahgf71 there are reproduced some old miniatures from the collection of ,m4 ,ambroise ,didot4 ,these represent--with all the advantages of the most highly finished printing in gold1 silver1 and colours--portraits of these native sovereigns seated on their ,state chairs1 with the umbrella1 as a sign of royalty4 ,the panels and ornaments of the thrones are picked out with patterns of flowers1 sometimes detached blossoms1 sometimes the whole plant2 the colors are generally bright red and green1 while the ground of a panel or the back of a chair is in silver1 with arabesque tracery1 the rest of the chair being entirely gilt4 ,the couches are rectangular1 with four turned and carved supports1 some eight or ten inches high1 and also gilt4 ,with the exception of small tables1 which could be carried into the room by slaves1 and used for the light refreshments customary to the country1 there was no other furniture4 ,the ladies of the harem are represented as being seated on sumptuous carpets1 and the walls are highly decorated with gold and silver and color1 which seems very well suited to the arched openings1 carved and gilt doors1 and brilliant costumes of the occupants of these ,indian palaces4 ,after the break up of the ,mogul power1 the influence of ,holland1 ,france1 and ,england brought about a mixture of taste and design which1 with the concurrent alterations in manners and customs1 gradually led to the production of what is now known as the ,bombay furniture4 ,the patient1 minute carving of ,indian design applied to utterly uncongenial ,portuguese or ,french shapes of chairs and sofas1 or to the familiar round or oval table1 carved almost beyond recognition1 are instances of this style4 ,one sees these occasionally in the house of an ,anglo-,indian1 who has employed native workmen to make some of this furniture for him1 the ,european chairs and tables being given as models1 while the details of the ornament have been left to native taste4 ,it is scarcely part of our subject to allude to the same kind of influence which has spoiled the quaint bizarre effect of native design and workmanship in silver1 in jewellery1 in carpets1 embroideries1 and in pottery1 which was so manifest in the contributions sent to ,south ,kensington at the ,colonial ,exhibition1 #ahhf4 ,there are in the ,indian ,museum at ,south ,kensington several examples of this ,bombay furniture1 and also some of ,cingalese manufacture4 ,in the ,jones ,collection at ,south ,kensington ,museum1 there are two carved ivory chairs and a table1 the latter gilded1 the former partly gilded1 which are a portion of a set taken from ,tippo ,sahib at the storming of ,seringapatam4 ,warren ,hastings brought them to ,england1 and they were given to ,queen ,charlotte4 ,after her death the set was divided2 ,lord ,londesborough purchased part of it1 and this portion is now on loan at the ,bethnal ,green ,museum4 ,the ,queen has also amongst her numerous ,jubilee presents some very handsome ivory furniture of ,indian workmanship1 which may be seen at ,windsor ,castle4 ,these1 however1 as well as the ,jones ,collection examples1 though thoroughly ,indian in character as regards the treatment of scrolls1 flowers1 and foliage1 shew unmistakcably the influence of ,french taste in their general form and contour4 ,articles1 such as boxes1 stands for gongs1 etc41 are to be found carved in sandal wood1 and in dalburgia1 or black wood1 with rosewood mouldings2 and a peculiar characteristic of this ,indian decoration1 sometimes applied to such small articles of furniture1 is the coating of the surface of the wood with red lacquer1 the plain parts taking a high polish while the carved enrichment remains dull4 ,the effect of this is precisely that of the article being made of red sealing wax1 and frequently the minute pattern of the carved ornament and its general treatment tend to give an idea of an impression made in the wax by an elaborately cut die4 ,the casket illustrated on p4 #acd is an example of this treatment4 ,it was exhibited in #ahea4 ,the larger examples of ,indian carved woodwork are of teak2 the finest and most characteristic specimens within the writer's knowledge are the two folding doors which were sent as a present to the ,indian ,government1 and are in the ,indian ,museum4 ,they are of seventeenth century work1 and are said to have enclosed a library at ,kerowlee4 ,while the door frames are of teak1 with the outer frames carved with bands of foliage in high relief1 the doors themselves are divided into panels of fantastic shapes1 and yet so arranged that there is just sufficient regularity to please the eye4 ,some of these panels are carved and enriched with ivory flowers1 others have a rosette of carved ivory in the centre1 and pieces of talc with green and red colour underneath1 a decoration also found in some ,arabian work4 ,it is almost impossible to convey by words an adequate description of these doors2 they should be carefully examined as examples of genuine native design and workmanship4 ,mr4 ,pollen has concluded a somewhat detailed account of them by saying3--,for elegance of shape and proportion1 and the propriety of the composition of the frame and sub-divisions of these doors1 their mouldings and their panel carvings and ornaments1 we can for the present name no other example so instructive4 ,we are much reminded by this decoration of the pierced lattices at the ,s4 ,marco in ,venice4 ,illustration3 ,casket of ,indian ,lacquer ,work4 ,there is in the ,indian ,museum another remarkable specimen of native furniture--namely1 a chair of the purest beaten gold of octagonal shape1 and formed of two bowls reversed1 decorated with acanthus and lotus in repouse ornament4 ,this is of eighteenth century workmanship1 and was formerly the property of ,runjeet ,sing4 ,the precious metal is thinly laid on1 according to the ,eastern method1 the wood underneath the gold taking all the weight4 ,there is also a collection of plaster casts of portions of temples and palaces from a very early period until the present time1 several having been sent over as a loan to the ,indian and ,colonial ,exhibition of #ahhf1 and afterwards presented by the ,commissioners to the ,museum4 ,a careful observation of the ornamental details of these casts leads us to the conclusion that the ,byzantine style which was dominant throughout the more civilized portion of ,asia during the power of the ,romans1 had survived the great changes of the ,middle ,ages4 ,as native work became subject more or less to the influence of the ,indo-,chinese carvers of deities on the one side1 and of the ,european notions of the ,portuguese pioneers of discovery on the other1 a fashion of decorative woodwork was arrived at which can scarcely be dignified by the name of a style1 and which it is difficult to describe4 ,dr4 ,birdwood1 in his work on ,indian ,art1 points out that1 about a hundred years ago1 ,indian designs were affected by the immigration of ,persian designers and workmen4 ,the result of this influence is to be seen in the examples in the ,museum1 a short notice of which will conclude these remarks on ,indian work4 ,the copy in shishem wood of a carved window at ,amritzar1 in the ,punjaub1 with its overhanging cornice1 ornamental arches1 supported by pillars1 and the whole surface covered with small details of ornament1 is a good example of the sixteenth and seventeenth century work4 ,the various faades of dwelling-houses in teak wood1 carved1 and still bearing the remains of paint with which part of the carving was picked out1 represent the work of the contemporary carvers of ,ahmedabad1 famous for its woodwork4 ,portions of a lacquer work screen1 similar in appearance to embossed gilt leather1 with the pattern in gold1 on a ground of black or red1 and the singular ,cashmere work1 called mirror mosaic1 give us a good idea of the ,indian decoration of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries4 ,this effective decoration is produced by little pieces of looking-glass being introduced into the small geometrical patterns of the panels2 these1 when joined together1 form a very rich ceiling4 ,the bedstead of ,king ,theebaw1 brought from ,mandalay1 is an example of this mixture of glass and wood1 which can be made extremely effective4 ,the wood is carved and gilt to represent the gold setting of numerous precious stones1 which are counterfeited by small pieces of looking-glass and variously-coloured pieces of transparent glass4 ,some of the ,prince of ,wales' presents1 namely1 chairs1 with carved lions forming arms2 tables of shishem wood1 inlaid with ebony and ivory1 shew the ,european influence we have alluded to4 ,amongst the modern ornamental articles in the ,museum are many boxes1 pen trays1 writing cases1 and even photograph albums of wood and ivory mosaic work1 the inlaid patterns being produced by placing together strips of tin wire1 sandal wood1 ebony1 and of ivory1 white1 or stained green3 these bound into a rod1 either triangular or hexagonal1 are cut into small sections1 and then inlaid into the surface of the article to be decorated4 ,papier mach and lacquer work are also frequently found in small articles of furniture2 and the collection of drawings by native artists attests the high skill in design and execution attained by ,indian craftsmen4 ,persia4 ,the ,persians have from time immemorial been an artistic people1 and their style of ,art throughout successive conquests and generations has varied but little4 ,major-,general ,murdoch ,smith1 ,r4,e41 the present ,director of the branch of the ,south ,kensington ,museum in ,edinburgh1 who resided for some years in ,persia1 and had the assistance when there of ,m4 ,richard 7a well-known ,french antiquarian71 made a collection of objets d'art some years ago for the ,science and ,art ,department1 which is now in the ,kensington ,museum1 but it contains comparatively little that can be actually termed furniture2 and it is extremely difficult to meet with important specimens of ornamental wordwork of native workmanship4 ,those in the ,museum1 and in other collections1 are generally small ornamental articles4 ,the chief reason of this is1 doubtless1 that little timber is to be found in ,persia1 except in the ,caspian provinces1 where1 as ,mr4 ,benjamin has told us in ,persia and the ,persians1 wood is abundant2 and the ,persian architect1 taking advantage of his opportunity1 has designed his houses with wooden piazzas--not found elsewhere--and with beams1 lintels1 and eaves quaintly1 sometimes elegantly1 carved1 and tinted with brilliant hues4 ,another feature of the decorative woodwork in this part of ,persia is that produced by the large latticed windows1 which are well adapted to the climate4 ,illustration3 ,door of ,carved ,sandal ,wood1 from ,travancore4 ,india ,museum1 ,south ,kensington4 ,period3 ,probably ,late ,,xviii4 ,century4 ,in the manufacture of textile fabrics--notably1 their famous carpets of ,yezd and ,ispahan1 and their embroidered cloths in hammered and engraved metal work1 and formerly in beautiful pottery and porcelain--they have excelled3 and examples will be found in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,it is difficult to find a representative specimen of ,persian furniture except a box or a stool2 and the illustration of a brass incense burner is1 therefore1 given to mark the method of design1 which was adopted in a modified form by the ,persians from their ,arab conquerors4 ,illustration3 ,incense ,burner of ,engraved ,brass4 7,in the ,south ,kensington ,museum74 ,this method of design has one or two special characteristics which are worth noticing4 ,one of these was the teaching of ,mahomet forbidding animal representation in design--a rule which in later work has been relaxed2 another was the introduction of mathematics into ,persia by the ,saracens1 which led to the adoption of geometrical patterns in design2 and a third1 the development of ,caligraphy into a fine art1 which has resulted in the introduction of a text1 or motto1 into so many of the ,persian designs of decorative work4 ,the combination of these three characteristics have given us the ,arabesque form of ornament1 which1 in artistic nomenclature1 occurs so frequently4 ,the general method of decorating woodwork is similar to that of ,india1 and consists in either inlaying brown wood 7generally teak7 with ivory or pearl in geometrical patterns1 or in covering the wooden box1 or manuscript case1 with a coating of lacquer1 somewhat similar to the ,chinese or ,japanese preparations4 ,on this groundwork some good miniature painting was executed1 the colours being1 as a rule1 red1 green1 and gold1 with black lines to give force to the design4 ,the author of ,persia and the ,persians1 already quoted1 had1 during his residence in the country1 as ,american ,minister1 great opportunities of observation1 and in his chapter entitled ,a ,glance at the ,arts of ,persia1 has said a good deal of this mosaic work4 ,referring to the scarcity of wood in ,persia1 he says3 ,for the above reason one is astonished at the marvellous ingenuity1 skill1 and taste developed by the art of inlaid work1 or ,mosaic in wood4 ,it would be impossible to exceed the results achieved by the ,persian artizans1 especially those of ,shiraz1 in this wonderful and difficult art4444 ,chairs1 tables1 sofas1 boxes1 violins1 guitars1 canes1 picture frames1 almost every conceivable object1 in fact1 which is made of wood1 may be found overlaid with an exquisite casing of inlaid work1 so minute sometimes that thirty-live or forty pieces may be counted in the space of a square eighth of an inch4 ,i have counted four hundred and twenty-eight distinct pieces on a square inch of a violin1 which is completely covered by this exquisite detail of geometric designs1 in ,mosaic4 ,mr4 ,benjamin--who1 it will be noticed1 is somewhat too enthusiastic over this kind of mechanical decoration--also observes that1 while the details will stand the test of a magnifying glass1 there is a general breadth in the design which renders it harmonious and pleasing if looked at from a distance4 ,in the ,south ,kensington ,museum there are several specimens of ,persian lacquer work1 which have very much the appearance of papier mach articles that used to be so common in ,england some forty years ago1 save that the decoration is1 of course1 of ,eastern character4 ,of seventeenth century work1 there is also a fine coffer1 richly inlaid with ivory1 of the best description of ,persian design and workmanship of this period1 which was about the zenith of ,persian ,art during the reign of ,shah ,abbas4 ,the numerous small articles of what is termed ,persian marqueterie1 are inlaid with tin wire and stained ivory1 on a ground of cedar wood1 very similar to the same kind of ornamental work already described in the ,indian section of this chapter4 ,these were purchased at the ,paris ,exhibition in #ahfg4 ,persian ,art of the present day may be said to be in a state of transition1 owing to the introduction and assimilation of ,european ideas4 ,saracenic ,woodwork ,from ,cairo and ,damascus4 ,while the changes of fashion in ,western1 as contrasted with ,eastern countries1 are comparatively rapid1 the record of two or three centuries presenting a history of great and well-defined alterations in manners1 customs1 and therefore1 of furniture1 the more conservative ,oriental has been content to reproduce1 from generation to generation1 the traditions of his forefathers2 and we find that1 from the time of the ,moorish conquest and spread of ,arabesque design1 no radical change in ,saracenic ,art occurred until ,french and ,english energy and enterprise forced ,european fashions into ,egypt3 as a consequence1 the original quaintness and ,orientalism natural to the country1 are being gradually replaced by buildings1 decoration1 and furniture of ,european fashion4 ,the carved pulpit1 from a mosque in ,cairo1 which is in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 was made for ,sultan ,kaitbeg1 #adfh-if4 ,the side panels1 of geometrical pattern1 though much injured by time and wear1 shew signs of ebony inlaid with ivory1 and of painting and gilding2 they are good specimens of the kind of work4 ,the two doors1 also from ,cairo1 the oldest parts of which are just two hundred years earlier than the pulpit1 are exactly of the same style1 and1 so far as appearances go1 might be just as well taken for two hundred years later1 so conservative was the ,saracenic treatment of decorative woodwork for some four or five centuries4 ,pentagonal and hexagonal mosaics of ivory1 with little mouldings of ebony dividing the different panels1 the centres of eccentric shapes of ivory or rosewood carved with minute scrolls1 combine to give these elaborate doors a very rich effect1 and remind one of the work still to be seen at the ,alhambra4 ,the ,science and ,art ,department has been fortunate in securing from the ,st4 ,maurice and ,dr4 ,meymar collections a great many specimens which are well worth examination4 ,the most remarkable is a complete room brought from a house in ,damascus1 which is fitted up in the ,oriental style1 and gives one a good idea of an ,eastern interior4 ,the walls are painted in colour and gold2 the spaces divided by flat pilasters1 and there are recesses1 or cupboards1 for the reception of pottery1 quaintly formed vessels1 and pots of brass4 ,oriental carpets1 octagonal tables1 such as the one which ornaments the initial letter of this chapter1 hookas1 incense burners1 and cushions furnish the apartment2 while the lattice window is an excellent representation of the ,mesherabijeh1 or lattice work1 with which we are familiar1 since so much has been imported by ,egyptian travellers4 ,in the upper panels of the lattice there are inserted pieces of coloured glass1 and1 looking outwards towards the light1 the effect is very pretty4 ,the date of this room is #agef1 which appears at the foot of an ,arabic inscription1 of which a translation is appended to the exhibit4 ,it commences--,in the ,name of ,god1 the ,merciful1 the ,compassionate1 and concludes2 ,pray1 therefore1 to ,him morning and evening4 ,illustration3 ,governor's ,palace1 ,manfalut4 ,shewing a ,window of ,arab ,lattice ,work1 similar to that of the ,damascus ,room in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,a number of bosses and panels1 detached from their original framework1 are also to be seen1 and are good specimens of ,saracenic design4 ,a bedstead1 with inlay of ivory and numerous small squares of glass1 under which are paper flowers1 is also a good example of native work4 ,illustration3 ,specimen of ,saracenic ,panelling of ,cedar1 ,ebony1 and ,ivory4 7,in the ,south ,kensington ,museum47 ,the illustration on p4 #adb is of a carved wood door from ,cairo1 considered by the ,south ,kensington authorities to be of ,syrian work4 ,it shews the turned spindles1 which the ,arabs generally introduce into their ornamental woodwork3 and the carving of the vase of flowers is a good specimen of the kind4 ,the date is about the seventeenth century4 ,for those who would gain an extended knowledge of ,saracenic or ,arabian ,art industry1 ,l',art ,arabe1 by ,m4 ,prisse d',aveunes1 should be consulted4 ,there will be found in this work many carefully-prepared illustrations of the cushioned seats1 the projecting balconies of the lattice work already alluded to1 of octagonal inlaid tables1 and such other articles of furniture as were used by the ,arabs4 ,the ,south ,kensington ,handbook1 ,persian ,art1 by ,major-,general ,murdoch ,smith1 ,r4,e41 is also a very handy and useful work in a small compass4 ,while discussing ,saracenic or ,arab furniture1 it is worth noticing that our word sofa is of ,arab derivation1 the word suffah meaning a couch or place for reclining before the door of ,eastern houses4 ,in ,skeat's ,dictionary the word is said to have first occurred in the ,guardian1 in the year #agac1 and the phrase is quoted from ,no4 #afg of that old periodical of the day--,he leapt off from the sofa on which he sat4 ,illustration3 ,a ,carved ,door of ,syrian ,work4 7,south ,kensington ,museum47 ,from the same source the word ottoman1 which ,webster defines as a stuffed seat without a back1 first used in ,turkey1 is obviously obtained1 and the modern low-seated upholsterer's chair of to-day is doubtless the development of a ,french adaptation of the ,eastern cushion or divan1 this latter word having become applied to the seats which furnished the hall or council chamber in an ,eastern palace1 although its original meaning was probably the council or court itself1 or the hall in which such was held4 ,thus do the habits and tastes of different nations act and re-act upon each other4 ,western peoples have carried eastward their civilisation and their fashions1 influencing ,arts and industries1 with their restless energy1 and breaking up the crust of ,oriental apathy and indolence2 and have brought back in return the ideas gained from an observation of the associations and accessories of ,eastern life1 to adapt them to the requirements and refinements of ,european luxury4 ,illustration3 ,shaped ,panel of ,saracenic ,work in ,carved ,bone or ,ivory4 ,illustration3 ,boule ,armoire4 ,designed by ,le ,brun1 formerly in the ,hamilton ,palace ,collection and purchased 7,wertheimer7 for #ab1jge the pair4 ,period3 ,louis ,,xiv4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,french ,furniture4 ,,palace ,,of ,,versailles3 ,grand and ,petit ,trianon--the three ,styles of ,louis ,,xiv41 ,,xv4 and ,,xvi4--,colbert and ,lebrun--,andr ,charles ,boule and his ,work--,carved and ,gilt ,furniture--,the ,regency and its ,influence--,alteration in ,condition of ,french ,society--,watteau1 ,lancret1 and ,boucher4 ,louis ,,xv4 ,,furniture3 ,famous ,ebenistes--,vernis ,martin ,furniture--,caffieri and ,gouthire ,mountings--,svres ,porcelain introduced into ,cabinets--,gobelins ,tapestry--,the ,bureau du ,roi4 ,louis ,,xvi4 ,,and ,,marie ,,antoinette3 ,the ,queen's ,influence--,the ,painters ,chardin and ,greuze--,more simple ,designs--,characteristic ,ornaments of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,furniture--,riesener's ,work--,gouthire's ,mountings--,specimens in the ,louvre--,the ,hamilton ,palace ,sale--,french influence upon the design of ,furniture in other countries--,the ,jones ,collection--,extract from the ,times4 ,illustration ,there is something so distinct in the development of taste in furniture1 marked out by the three styles to which the three monarchs have given the names of ,louis ,quatorze1 ,louis ,quinze1 and ,louis ,seize1 that it affords a fitting point for a new departure4 ,this will be evident to anyone who will visit1 first the ,palace of ,versailles1#ac then the ,grand ,trianon1 and afterwards the ,petit ,trianon4 ,by the help of a few illustrations1 such a visit in the order given would greatly interest anyone having a smattering of knowledge of the characteristic ornaments of these different periods4 ,a careful examination would demonstrate how the one style gradually merged into that of its successor4 ,thus the massiveness and grandeur of the best ,louis ,quatorze meubles de luxe1 became1 in its later development1 too ornate and effeminate1 with an elaboration of enrichment1 culminating in the rococo style of ,louis ,quinze4 ,then we find1 in the ,petit ,trianon1 and also in the ,chateau of ,fontainebleau1 the purer taste of ,marie ,antoinette dominating the ,art productions of her time1 which reached their zenith1 with regard to furniture1 in the production of such elegant and costly examples as have been preserved to us in the beautiful work-table and secretaire--sold some years since at the dispersion of the ,hamilton ,palace collection--and in some other specimens1 which may be seen in the ,muse du ,louvre1 in the ,jones ,collection in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 and in other public and private collections3 of these several illustrations are given4 ,we have to recollect that the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 was the time of the artists ,berain1 ,lebrun1 and1 later in the reign1 of ,watteau1 also of ,andr ,charles ,boule1 ciseleur et doreur du roi1 and of ,colbert1 that admirable ,minister of ,finance1 who knew so well how to second his royal master's taste for grandeur and magnificence4 ,the ,palace of ,versailles bears throughout the stamp and impress of the majesty of le ,grande ,monarque2 and the rich architectural ornament of the interior1 with moulded1 gilded1 and painted ceilings1 required the furnishing to be carried to an extent which had never been attempted previously4 ,louis ,,xiv4 had judgment in his taste1 and he knew that1 to carry out his ideas of a royal palace1 he must not only select suitable artists capable of control1 but he must centralize their efforts4 ,in #affd ,colbert founded the ,royal ,academy of ,painting1 ,architecture1 and ,sculpture1 to which designs of furniture were admitted4 ,the celebrated ,gobelins tapestry factory was also established2 and it was here the ,king collected together and suitably housed the different skilled producers of his furniture1 placing them all under the control of his favourite artist1 ,lebrun1 who was appointed director in #affg4 ,the most remarkable furniture artist of this time1 for surely he merits such title1 was ,andr ,charles ,boule1 of whom but little is known4 ,he was born in #afdb1 and1 therefore1 was #be years of age when ,lebrun was appointed ,art-director4 ,he appears to have originated the method of ornamenting furniture which has since been associated with his name4 ,this was to veneer his cabinets1 pedestals1 armoires1 encoignures1 clocks1 and brackets with tortoiseshell1 into which a cutting of brass was laid1 the latter being cut out from a design1 in which were harmoniously arranged scrolls1 vases of flowers1 satyrs1 animals1 cupids1 swags of fruit and draperies2 fantastic compositions of a free ,renaissance character constituted the panels2 to which bold scrolls in ormolu formed fitting frames2 while handsome mouldings of the same material gave a finish to the extremities4 ,these ormolu mountings were gilt by an old-fashioned process1#ad which left upon the metal a thick deposit of gold1 and were cunningly chiselled by the skilful hands of ,caffieri or his contemporaries4 ,illustration3 ,boule ,armoire1 ,in the ,jones ,collection1 ,s4 ,kensington ,museum4 ,louis ,,xiv4 ,period4 ,boule subsequently learned to economise labour by adopting a similar process to that used by the marqueterie cutter2 and by glueing together two sheets of brass1 or white metal1 and two of shell1 and placing over them his design1 he was then able to pierce the four layers by one cut of the handsaw2 this gave four exact copies of the design4 ,the same process would be repeated for the reverse side1 if1 as with an armoire or a large cabinet1 two panels1 one for each door1 right and left1 were required2 and then1 when the brass1 or white metal cutting was fitted into the shell so that the joins were imperceptible1 he would have two right and two left panels4 ,these would be positive and negative3 in the former pair the metal would represent the figured design with the shell as groundwork1 and the latter would have the shell as a design1 with a ground of metal4 ,the terms positive and negative are the writer's to explain the difference1 but the technical terms are first part and second part1 or ,boule and counter4 ,the former would be selected for the best part of the cabinet1 for instance1 the panels of the front doors1 while the latter would be used for the ends or sides4 ,an illustration of this plan of using all four cuttings of one design occurs in the armoire ,no4 #ajbf in the ,jones ,collection1 and in a great many other excellent specimens4 ,the brass1 or the white metal in the design1 was then carefully and most artistically engraved2 and the beauty of the engraving of ,boule's finest productions is a great point of excellence1 giving1 as it does1 a character to the design1 and emphasizing its details4 ,the mounting of the furniture in ormolu of a rich and highly-finished character1 completed the design4 ,the ,muse du ,louvre is rich in examples of ,boule's work2 and there are some very good pieces in the ,jones ,collection1 at ,hertford ,house1 and at ,windsor ,castle4 ,the illustration on p4 #add is the representation of an armoire1 which was1 undoubtedly1 executed by ,boule from a design by ,lebrun3 it is one of a pair which was sold in #ahhb1 at the ,hamilton ,palace sale1 by ,messrs4 ,christie1 for #ab1jge4 ,another small cabinet1 in the same collection1 realised #b1caj4 ,the pedestal cabinet illustrated on p4 #adh1 from the ,jones ,collection1 is very similar to the latter1 and cost ,mr4 ,jones #c1jjj4 ,when specimens1 of the genuineness of which there is no doubt1 are offered for sale1 they are sure to realize very high prices4 ,the armoire in the ,jones ,collection1 already alluded to 7,no4 #ajbf71 of which there is an illustration1 cost between #d1jjj and #e1jjj4 ,in some of the best of ,boule's cabinets1 as1 for instance1 in the ,hamilton ,palace armoire 7illustrated71 the bronze gilt ornaments stand out in bold relief from the surface4 ,in the ,louvre there is one which has a figure of ,le ,grand ,monarque1 clad in armour1 with a ,roman toga1 and wearing the full bottomed wig of the time1 which scarcely accords with the costume of a ,roman general4 ,the absurd combination which characterises this affectation of the classic costume is also found in portraits of our ,george ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,pedestal ,cabinet1 ,by ,boule1 formerly in ,mr4 ,baring's ,collection4 ,purchased by ,mr4 ,jones for #c1jjj4 7,south ,kensington ,museum7 ,the masks1 satyrs1 and ram's heads1 the scrolls and the foliage1 are also very bold in specimens of this class of ,boule's work2 and the sun 7that is1 a mask surrounded with rays of light7 is a very favourite ornament of this period4 ,boule had four sons and several pupils2 and he may be said to have founded a school of decorative furniture1 which has its votaries and imitators now1 as it had in his own time4 ,the word one frequently finds misspelt ,buhl1 and this has come to represent any similar mode of decorations on furniture1 no matter how meretricious or common it may be4 ,illustration3 ,a ,concert during the ,reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 7,from a ,miniature1 dated #afif47 ,later in the reign1 as other influences were brought to bear upon the taste and fashion of the day1 this style of furniture became more ornate and showy4 ,instead of the natural colour of the shell1 either vermilion or gold leaf was placed underneath the transparent shell2 the gilt mounts became less severe1 and abounded with the curled endive ornament1 which afterwards became thoroughly characteristic of the fashion of the succeeding reign2 and the forms of the furniture itself conformed to a taste for a more free and flowing treatment2 and it should be mentioned1 in justice to ,lebrun1 that from the time of his death and the appointment of his successor1 ,mignard1 a distinct decline in merit can be traced4 ,contemporary with ,boule's work1 were the richly-mounted tables1 having slabs of ,egyptian porphyry1 or ,florentine marble mosaic2 and marqueterie cabinets1 with beautiful mountings of ormolu1 or gilt bronze4 ,commodes and screens were ornamented with ,chinese lacquer1 which had been imported by the ,dutch and taken to ,paris1 after the ,french invasion of the ,netherlands4 ,illustration3 ,panel for a ,screen4 ,painted by ,watteau4 ,louis ,,xiv4 ,period4 ,about this time--that is1 towards the end of the seventeenth century--the resources of designers and makers of decorative furniture were reinforced by the introduction of glass in larger plates than had been possible previously4 ,mirrors of considerable size were first made in ,venice2 these were engraved with figures and scrolls1 and mounted in richly carved and gilt wood frames2 and soon afterwards manufactories of mirrors1 and of glass1 in larger plates than before1 were set up in ,england1 near ,battersea1 and in ,france at ,tour la ,ville1 near ,paris4 ,this novelty not only gave a new departure to the design of suitable frames in carved wood 7generally gilt71 but also to that of ,boule work and marqueterie4 ,it also led to a greater variety of the design for cabinets2 and from this time we may date the first appearance of the ,vitrine1 or cabinet with glass panels in the doors and sides1 for the display of smaller objets d'art4 ,illustration3 ,decoration of a ,salon in ,louis ,,xiv4 ,style4 ,the chairs and sofas of the latter half of the reign of ,louis ,quatorze are exceedingly grand and rich4 ,the suite of furniture for the state apartment of a prince or wealthy nobleman comprised a canap1 or sofa1 and six fauteils1 or arm chairs1 the frames carved with much spirit1 or with feeling1 as it is technically termed1 and richly gilt4 ,the backs and seats were upholstered and covered with the already famous tapestry of ,gobelins or ,beauvais4#ae ,such a suite of furniture1 in bad condition and requiring careful and very expensive restoration1 was sold at ,christie's some time ago for about #a1djj1 and it is no exaggeration to say that a really perfect suite1 with carving and gilding of the best1 and the tapestry not too much worn1 if offered for public competition1 would probably realise between #c1jjj and #d1jjj4 ,in the appendix will be found the names of many artists in furniture of this time1 and in the ,jones ,collection we have several very excellent specimens which can easily be referred to1 and compared with others of the two succeeding reigns1 whose furniture we are now going to consider4 ,as an example of the difference in both outline and detail which took place in design1 let the reader notice the form of the ,louis ,quatorze commode vignetted for the initial letter of this chapter1 and then turn to the lighter and more fanciful cabinets of somewhat similar shape which will be found illustrated in the ,louis ,quinze section which follows this4 ,in the ,louis ,quatorze cabinets the decorative effect1 so far as the woodwork was concerned1 was obtained first by the careful choice of suitable veneers1 and then1 by joining four pieces in a panel1 so that the natural figure of the wood runs from the centre1 and then a banding of a darker wood forms a frame4 ,an instance of this will also be found in the above-mentioned illustration4 ,louis ,,xv4 ,when the old ,king died1 at the ripe age of #gg1 the crown devolved on his great-grandson1 then a child five years old1 and therefore a ,regency became necessary2 and this period of some eight years1 until the death of ,philip1 ,duke of ,orleans1 in #agbc1 when the ,king was declared to have attained his majority at the age of #ac1 is known as ,l',epoch de la ,regence1 and is a landmark in the history of furniture4 ,illustration3 ,boule ,commode1 ,probably made during the period of the ,regency 7,muse du ,louvre47 ,there was a great change about this period of ,french history in the social condition of the upper classes in ,france4 ,the pomp and extravagance of the late monarch had emptied the coffers of the noblesse1 and in order to recruit their finances1 marriages became common which a decade or two before that time would hardly have been thought possible4 ,nobles of ancient lineage married the daughters of bankers and speculators1 in order to supply themselves with the means of following the extravagant fashions of the day1 and we find the wives of ministers of departments of ,state using their influence and power for the purpose of making money by gambling in stocks1 and accepting bribes for concessions and contracts4 ,illustration3 ,french ,sedan ,chair4 7,from an ,engraving in the ,south ,kensington ,art ,library47 ,period3 ,louis ,,xv4 ,it was a time of corruption1 extravagance1 licentiousness1 and intrigue1 and although one might ask what bearing this has upon the history of furniture1 a little reflection shows that the abandonment of the great ,state receptions of the late ,king1 and the pompous and gorgeous entertainments of his time1 gave way to a state of society in which the boudoir became of far more importance than the salon1 in the artistic furnishing of a fashionable house4 ,instead of the majestic grandeur of immense reception rooms and stately galleries1 we have the elegance and prettiness of the boudoir2 and as the reign of the young ,king advances1 we find the structural enrichment of rooms more free1 and busy with redundant ornament2 the curved endive decoration1 so common in carved woodwork and in composition of this period1 is seen everywhere2 in the architraves1 in the panel mouldings1 in the frame of an overdoor1 in the design of a mirror frame2 doves1 wreaths1 ,arcadian fountains1 flowing scrolls1 ,cupids1 and heads and busts of women terminating in foliage1 are carved or moulded in relief1 on the walls1 the doors1 and the alcoved recesses of the reception rooms1 either gilded or painted white2 and pictures by ,watteau1 ,lancret1 or ,boucher1 and their schools1 are appropriate accompaniments4#af ,illustration3 ,part of a ,salon1 ,decorated in the ,louis ,quinze style1 showing the carved and gilt ,console ,table and ,mirror1 with other enrichments1 en suite4 ,the furniture was made to agree with this decorative treatment3 couches and easy chairs were designed in more sweeping curves and on a smaller scale1 the woodwork wholly or partially gilt and upholstered1 not only with the tapestry of ,gobelins or ,beauvais1 but with soft colored silk brocades and brocatelles2 light occasional chairs were enriched with mother-of-pearl or marqueterie2 screens were painted with love scenes and representations of ladies and gentlemen who look as if they passed their entire existence in the elaboration of their toilettes or the exchange of compliments2 the stately cabinet is modified into the bomb fronted commode1 the ends of which curve outwards with a graceful sweep2 and the bureau is made in a much smaller size1 more highly decorated with marqueterie1 and more fancifully mounted to suit the smaller and more effeminate apartment4 ,the smaller and more elegant cabinets1 called ,bonheur du jour 7a little cabinet mounted on a table72 the small round occasional table1 called a gueridon2 the encoignure1 or corner cabinet2 the tagre1 or ornamental hanging cabinet1 with shelves2 the three-fold screen1 with each leaf a different height1 and with shaped top1 all date from this time4 ,the chaise porteur1 or ,sedan chair1 on which so much work and taste were expended1 became more ornate1 so as to fall in with the prevailing fashion4 ,marqueterie became more fanciful4 ,illustration3 ,console ,table1 ,carved and ,gilt4 7,collection of ,m4 ,double1 ,paris47 ,the ,louis ,quinze cabinets were inlaid1 not only with natural woods1 but with veneers stained in different tints2 and landscapes1 interiors1 baskets of flowers1 birds1 trophies1 emblems of all kinds1 and quaint fanciful conceits are pressed into the service of marqueterie decoration4 ,the most famous artists in this decorative woodwork were ,riesener1 ,david ,roentgen 7generally spoken of as ,david71 ,pasquier4 ,carlin1 ,leleu1 and others1 whose names will be found in a list in the appendix4 ,illustration3 ,louis ,,xv4 ,carved ,and ,gilt ,fauteui4 ,upholstered with ,beauvais tapestry4 ,subject from ,la ,fontaine's ,fables4 ,during the preceding reign the ,chinese lacquer ware then in use was imported from the ,east1 the fashion for collecting which had grown ever since the ,dutch had established a trade with ,china3 and subsequently as the demand arose for smaller pieces of meubles de luxe1 collectors had these articles taken to pieces1 and the slabs of lacquer mounted in panels to decorate the table1 or cabinet1 and to display the lacquer4 benists1 too1 prepared such parts of woodwork as were desired to be ornamented in this manner1 and sent them to ,china to be coated with lacquer1 a process which was then only known to the ,chinese2 but this delay and expense quickened the inventive genius of the ,european1 and it was found that a preparation of gum and other ingredients applied again and again1 and each time carefully rubbed down1 produced a surface which was almost as lustrous and suitable for decoration as the original article4 ,a ,dutchman named ,huygens was the first successful inventor of this preparation2 and1 owing to the adroitness of his work1 and of those who followed him and improved his process1 one can only detect ,european lacquer from ,chinese by trifling details in the costumes and foliage of decoration1 not strictly ,oriental in character4 ,illustration3 ,commode4 ,with ,panels of fine old ,laquer and ,mountings by ,caffieri4 ,jones ,collection1 ,s4 ,kensington ,museum4 ,period of ,louis ,,xv4 ,about #agdj-d the ,martin family had three manufactories of this peculiar and fashionable ware1 which became known as ,vernis-,martin1 or ,martins' ,varnish2 and it is singular that one of these was in the district of ,paris then and now known as ,faubourg ,saint ,martin4 ,by a special decree a monopoly was granted in #agdd to ,sieur ,simon ,etienne ,martin the younger1 ,to manufacture all sorts of work in relief and in the style of ,japan and ,china4 ,this was to last for twenty years2 and we shall see that in the latter part of the reign of ,louis ,,xv41 and in that of his successor1 the decoration was not confined to the imitation of ,chinese and ,japanese subjects1 but the surface was painted in the style of the decorative artist of the day1 both in monochrome and in natural colours2 such subjects as ,cupid ,awakening ,venus1 ,the ,triumph of ,galatea1 ,nymphs and ,goddesses1 ,garden ,scenes1 and ,ftes ,champtres1 being represented in accordance with the taste of the period4 ,it may be remarked in passing1 that lacquer work was also made previous to this time in ,england4 ,several cabinets of ,old ,english lac are included in the ,strawberry ,hill sale catalogue2 and they were richly mounted with ormolu1 in the ,french style2 this sale took place in #ahdb4 ,george ,robins1 so well known for his flowery descriptions1 was the auctioneer2 the introduction to the catalogue was written by ,harrison ,ainsworth4 ,illustration3 ,in ,parqueterie with massive ,mountings of ,gilt ,bronze1 probably by ,caffieri1 7,formerly in the ,hamilton ,palace ,collection4 ,purchased 7,westheims71 #f1bdg ,,ics47 ,louis ,,xv4 ,period4 ,the gilt bronze mountings of the furniture became less massive and much more elaborate3 the curled endive ornament was very much in vogue2 the acanthus foliage followed the curves of the commode2 busts and heads of women1 cupids1 satyrs terminating in foliage1 suited the design and decoration of the more fanciful shapes2 and ,caffieri1 who is the great master of this beautiful and highly ornate enrichment1 introduced ,chinese figures and dragons into his designs4 ,the amount of spirit imparted into the chasing of this ormolu is simply marvellous--it has never been equalled and could not be excelled4 ,time has now mellowed the colour of the woodwork it adorns2 and the tint of the gold with which it is overlaid1 improved by the lights and shadows caused by the high relief of the work and the consequent darkening of the parts more depressed while the more prominent ornaments have been rubbed bright from time to time1 produces an effect which is exceedingly elegant and rich4 ,one cannot wonder that connoisseurs are prepared to pay such large sums for genuine specimens1 or that clever imitations are exceedingly costly to produce4 ,illustrations are given from some of the more notable examples of decorative furniture of this period1 which were sold in #ahhb at the celebrated ,hamilton ,palace sale1 together with the sums they realised3 also of specimens in the ,south ,kensington ,museum in the ,jones ,collection4 ,we must also remember1 in considering the meubles de luxe of this time1 that in #agec ,louis ,,xv4 had made the ,svres ,porcelain ,manufactory a ,state enterprise2 and later1 as that celebrated undertaking progressed1 tables and cabinets were ornamented with plaques of the beautiful and choice pte tendre1 the delicacy of which was admirably adapted to enrich the light and frivolous furnishing of the dainty boudoir of a ,madame du ,barri or a ,madame ,pompadour4 ,another famous artist in the delicate bronze mountings of the day was ,pierre ,gouthire4 ,he commenced work some years later than ,caffieri1 being born in #agdj2 and1 like his senior fellow craftsman1 did not confine his attention to furniture1 but exercised his fertility of design1 and his passion for detail1 in mounting bowls and vases of jasper1 of ,svres and of ,oriental porcelain4 ,the character of his work is less forcible than that of ,caffieri1 and comes nearer to what we shall presently recognise as the ,louis ,seize1 or ,marie ,antoinette style1 to which period his work more properly belongs3 in careful finish of minute details1 it more resembles the fine goldsmith's work of the ,renaissance4 ,illustration3 ,bureau ,du ,roi4 ,made for ,louis ,,xv4 by ,riesener4 7,collection of ,mobilier ,national47 7,from a pen and ink drawing by ,h4 ,evans47 ,period3 ,louis ,,xv4 ,gouthire was employed extensively by ,madame du ,barri2 and at her execution1 in #agic1 he lost the enormous balance of #gef1jjj francs which was due to him1 but which debt the ,state repudiated1 and the unfortunate man died in extreme poverty1 the inmate of an almshouse4 ,the designs of the celebrated tapestry of ,gobelins and of ,beauvais1 used for the covering of the finest furniture of this time1 also underwent a change2 and1 instead of the representation of the chase1 with a bold and vigorous rendering1 we find shepherds and shepherdesses1 nymphs and satyrs1 the illustrations of ,la ,fontaine's fables1 or renderings of ,boucher's pictures4 ,without doubt1 the most important example of meubles de luxe of this reign is the famous ,bureau du ,roi1 made for ,louis ,,xv4 in #agfi1 and which appears fully described in the inventory of the ,garde ,meuble in the year #agge1 under ,no4 #beda4 ,this description is very minute1 and is fully quoted by ,m4 ,williamson in his valuable work1 ,les ,meubles d',art du ,mobilier ,national1 and occupies no less than thirty-seven lines of printed matter4 ,its size is five-and-a-half feet long and three feet deep2 the lines are the perfection of grace and symmetry2 the marqueterie is in ,riesner's best manner2 the mountings are magnificent--reclining figures1 foliage1 laurel wreaths1 and swags1 chased with rare skill2 the back of this famous bureau is as fully decorated as the front3 it is signed ,riesener1 f4e41 #agfi1 l'arsenal de ,paris4 ,riesener is said to have received the order for this bureau from the ,king in #agfg1 upon the occasion of the marriage of this favourite ,court beniste with the widow of his former master ,oeben4 ,its production therefore would seem to have taken about two years4 ,this celebrated chef d'oeuvre was in the ,tuileries in #ahjg1 and was included in the inventory found in the cabinet of ,napoleon ,i4 ,it was moved by ,napoleon ,,iii4 to the ,palace of ,st4 ,cloud1 and only saved from capture by the ,germans by its removal to its present home in the ,louvre1 in ,august1 #ahgj4 ,it is said that it would probably realise1 if offered for sale1 between fifteen and twenty thousand pounds4 ,a full-page illustration of this famous piece of furniture is given4 ,a similar bureau is in the ,hertford 7,wallace7 collection1 which was made to the order of ,stanilaus1 ,king of ,poland2 a copy executed by ,zwiener1 a very clever beniste of the present day in ,paris1 at a cost of some three thousand pounds1 is in the same collection4 ,louis ,,xvi4 and ,marie ,antoinette4 ,illustration3 ,boudoir ,furnished in the ,taste of the ,louis ,,xvi4 ,period4 ,it is probable that for some little time previous to the death of ,louis ,,xv41 the influence of the beautiful daughter of ,maria ,theresa on the fashions of the day was manifested in furniture and its accessories4 ,we know that ,marie ,antoinette disliked the pomp and ceremony of ,court functions1 and preferred a simpler way of living at the favourite farm house which was given to her husband as a residence on his marriage1 four years before his accession to the throne2 and here she delighted to mix with the bourgeoise on the terrace at ,versailles1 or1 donning a simple dress of white muslin1 would busy herself in the garden or dairy4 ,there was1 doubtless1 something of the affectation of a woman spoiled by admiration1 in thus playing the rustic2 still1 one can understand that the best ,french society1 weary of the domination of the late ,king's mistresses1 with their intrigues1 their extravagances1 and their creatures1 looked forward1 at the death of ,louis1 with hope and anticipation to the accession of his grandson and the beautiful young queen4 ,illustration3 ,part of a ,salon4 ,decorated and furnished in the ,louis ,,xvi4 ,style4 ,gradually1 under the new regime1 architecture became more simple2 broken scrolls are replaced by straight lines1 curves and arches only occur when justifiable1 and columns and pilasters reappear in the ornamental faades of public buildings4 ,interior decoration necessarily followed suit2 instead of the curled endive scrolls enclosing the irregular panel1 and the superabundant foliage in ornament1 we have rectangular panels formed by simpler mouldings1 with broken corners1 having a patera or rosette in each1 and between the upright panels there is a pilaster of refined ,renaissance design4 ,in the oval medallions supported by cupids1 is found a domestic scene by a ,fragonard or a ,chardin2 and the portraits of innocent children by ,greuze replace the courting shepherds and mythological goddesses of ,boucher and ,lancret4 ,sculpture1 too1 becomes more refined and decorous in its representations4 ,as with architecture1 decoration1 painting1 and sculpture1 so also with furniture4 ,the designs became more simple1 but were relieved from severity by the amount of ornament1 which1 except in some cases where it is over-elaborate1 was properly subordinate to the design and did not control it4 ,mr4 ,hungerford ,pollen attributes this revival of classic taste to the discoveries of ancient treasures in ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 but as these occurred in the former city so long before the time we are discussing as the year #agaa1 and in the latter in #agej1 these can scarcely be the immediate cause2 the reason most probably is that a reversion to simpler and purer lines came as a relief and reaction from the over-ornamentation of the previous period4 ,there are not wanting1 however1 in some of the decorated ornaments of the time1 distinct signs of the influence of these discoveries4 ,drawings and reproductions from frescoes1 found in these old ,italian cities1 were in the possession of the draughtsmen and designers of the time2 and an instance in point of their adaptation is to be seen in the small boudoir of the ,marquise de ,serilly1 one of the maids of honour to ,marie ,antoinette4 ,the decorative woodwork of this boudoir is fitted up in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,a notable feature in the ornament of woodwork and in metal mountings of this time1 is a fluted pilaster with quills or husks filling the flutings some distance from the base1 or starting from both base and top and leaving an interval of the hollow fluting plain and free4 ,an example of this will be seen in the next woodcut of a cabinet in the ,jones collection1 which has also the familiar ,louis ,seize riband surmounting the two oval ,svres china plaques4 ,when the flutings are in oak1 in rich mahogany1 or painted white1 these husks are gilt1 and the effect is chaste and pleasing4 ,variation was introduced into the gilding of frames by mixing silver with some portion of the gold so as to produce two tints1 red gold and green gold2 the latter would be used for wreaths and accessories1 while the former1 or ordinary gilding1 was applied to the general surface4 ,the legs of tables are generally fluted1 as noticed above1 tapering towards the feet1 and are relieved from a stilted appearance by being connected by a stretcher4 ,illustration3 ,marqueterie ,cabinet4 ,with ,plaques of ,svres ,china 7,in the ,jones ,collection1 ,south ,kensington ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,writing ,table4 ,made by ,riesener for ,marie ,antoinette4 ,collection ,mobilier ,national4 7,from a-pen and ink drawing by ,h4 ,evans47 ,period3 ,late ,louis ,,xv4 ,there occurs in ,m4 ,williamson's valuable contribution to the literature of our subject 7,les ,meubles d',art du ,mobilier ,national17 an interesting illustration of the gradual alterations which we are noticing as having taken place in the design of furniture4 ,this is a small writing table1 some #c ft4 #f in4 long1 made during the reign of ,louis ,,xv41 but quite in the ,marie ,antoinette style1 the legs tapering and fluted1 the frieze having in the centre a plaque of bronze dor1 the subject being a group of cupids1 representing the triumph of ,poetry1 and on each side a scroll with a head and foliage 7the only ornament characteristic of ,louis ,quinze style7 connecting leg and frieze4 ,m4 ,williamson quotes verbatim the memorandum of which this was the subject4 ,it was made for the ,trianon and the date is just one year after ,marie ,antoinette's marriage3--,memoire des ouvrages faits et livrs1 par les ordres de ,monsieur le ,chevalier de ,fontanieu1 pour le garde meuble du ,roy par ,riesener1 beniste a l'arsenal ,paris1 savoir ,sept4 #ba1 #agga2 and then follows a fully detailed description of the table1 with its price1 which was #f1jjj francs1 or #bdj4 ,there is a full page illustration of this table4 ,the maker of this piece of furniture was the same ,riesener whose masterpiece is the magnificent ,bureau du ,roi which we have already alluded to in the ,louvre4 ,this celebrated beniste continued to work for ,marie ,antoinette for about twenty years1 until she quitted ,versailles1 and he probably lived quite to the end of the century1 for during the ,revolution we find that he served on the ,special ,commission appointed by the ,national ,convention to decide which works of ,art should be retained and which should be sold1 out of the mass of treasure confiscated after the deposition and execution of the ,king4 ,riesener's designs do not show much fertility1 but his work is highly finished and elaborate4 ,his method was generally to make the centre panel of a commode front1 or the frieze of a table1 a tour de force1 the marqueterie picture being wonderfully delicate4 ,the subject was generally a vase with fruits and flowers2 the surface of the side panels inlaid with diamond-shaped lozenges1 or a small diaper pattern in marqueterie2 and then a framework of rich ormolu would separate the panels4 ,the centre panel had sometimes a richer frame4 ,his famous commode1 made for the ,chteau of ,fontainebleau1 which cost a million francs 7#d1jjj7--;an enormous sum in those days--is one of his chefs d'oeuvre1 and this is an excellent example of his style4 ,a similar commode was sold in the ,hamilton ,palace sale for #d1cje4 ,an upright secretaire1 en suite with the commode1 was also sold at the same time for #d1fbj1 and the writing table for #f1jjj4 ,an illustration of the latter is on the following page1 but the details of this elaborate gem of cabinet maker's work1 and of ,gouthire's skill in mounting1 are impossible to reproduce in a woodcut4 ,it is described as follows in ,christie's catalogue3-- ,lot #cjc4 ,an oblong writing table1 en suite1 with drawer fitted with inkstand1 writing slide and shelf beneath2 an oval medallion of a trophy and flowers on the top1 and trophies with four medallions round the sides3 stamped ,t4 ,riesener and branded underneath with cypher of ,marie ,antoinette1 and ,garde ,meuble de la ,reine4 ,there is no date on the table1 but the secretaire is stamped #agij1 and the commode #agia4 ,if we assume that the table was produced in #agib1 these three specimens1 which have always been regarded as amongst the most beautiful work of the reign1 were almost the last which the unfortunate ,queen lived to see completed4 ,illustration3 ,the ,marie ,antoinette ,writing ,table4 7,formerly in the ,hamilton ,palace ,collection47 ,illustration3 ,bedstead of ,marie ,antoinette1 ,from ,fontainebleau4 ,collection ,mobilier ,national4 7,from a pen and ink drawing by ,h4 ,evans47 ,period3 ,louis ,,xvi4 ,the fine work of ,riesener required the mounting of an artist of quite equal merit1 and in ,gouthire he was most fortunate4 ,there is a famous clock case in the ,hertford collection1 fully signed ,gouthire1 ciseleur et doreur du roi ,paris ,quai ,pelletier1 la ,boucle d'or1 #agga4 ,he worked1 however1 chiefly in conjunction with ,riesener and ,david ,roentgen for the decoration of their marqueterie4 ,in the ,louvre are some beautiful examples of this co-operative work2 and also of cabinets in which plaques of very fine black and gold lacquer take the place of marqueterie2 the centre panel being a finely chased oval medallion of ,gouthire's gilt bronze1 with caryatides figures of the same material at the ends supporting the cornice4 ,illustration3 ,cylinder ,secretaire1 ,in ,marqueterie1 with ,bronze ,gilt ,mountings1 by ,gouthire4 7,mr4 ,alfred de ,rothschild's ,collection47 ,period3 ,louis ,,xvi4 ,a specimen of this kind of work 7an upright secretaire1 of which we have not been able to obtain a satisfactory representation7 formed part of the ,hamilton ,palace collection1 and realised #i1dej1 the highest price which the writer has ever seen a single piece of furniture bring by auction2 it must be regarded as the chef d'oeuvre of ,gouthire4 ,in the ,jones ,collection1 at ,south ,kensington1 there are also several charming examples of ,louis ,seize meubles de luxe4 ,some of these are enriched with plaques of ,svres porcelain1 which treatment is better adapted to the more jewel-like mounting of this time than to the rococo style in vogue during the preceding reign4 ,illustration3 ,arm ,chair ,in ,louis ,,xvi4 ,style4 ,the upholstered furniture became simpler in design2 the sofas and chairs have generally1 but not invariably1 straight fluted tapering legs1 but these sometimes have the flutings spiral instead of perpendicular1 and the backs are either oval or rectangular1 and ornamented with a carved riband which is represented as tied at the top in a lover's knot4 ,gobelins1 ,beauvais1 and ,aubusson tapestry are used for covering1 the subjects being in harmony with the taste of the time4 ,a sofa in this style1 with settees at the ends1 the frame elaborately carved with trophies of arrows and flowers in high relief1 and covered with fine old ,gobelins tapestry1 was sold at the ,hamilton ,palace sale for #a1agf4 ,this was formerly at ,versailles4 ,beautiful silks and brocades were also extensively used both for chairs and for the screens1 which at this period were varied in design and extremely pretty4 ,small two-tier tables of tulip wood with delicate mountings were quite the rage1 and small occasional pieces1 the legs of which1 like those of the chairs1 are occasionally curved4 ,an excellent example of a piece with cabriole legs is the charming little ,marie ,antoinette cylinder-fronted marqueterie escritoire in the ,jones ,collection 7illustrated below74 ,the marqueterie is attributed to ,riesener1 but1 from its treatment being so different from that which he adopted as an almost invariable rule1 it is more probably the work of ,david4 ,illustration3 ,carved and ,gilt ,causeuse or ,settee1 and ,fauteuil or ,arm ,chair1 ,covered with ,beauvais tapestry4 7,collection ,mobilier ,national47 7,from a pen and ink drawing by ,h4 ,evans47 ,period3 ,end of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,illustration3 ,carved and ,gilt ,canap or ,sofa4 ,covered with ,beauvais tapestry4 7,colection ,mobilier ,natioanal47 ,period3 ,end of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,another fine specimen illustrated on page #agj is the small cabinet made of kingwood1 with fine ormolu mounts1 and some beautiful ,svres plaques4 ,illustration3 ,marqueterie ,escritoire4 ,by ,davis1 said to have belonged to ,marie ,antoinette4 7,jones ,collection1 ,south ,kensington ,museum47 ,the influence exercised by the splendour of the ,court of ,louis ,quatorze1 and by the bringing together of artists and skilled handicraftsmen for the adornment of the palaces of ,france1 which we have seen took place during the latter half of the seventeenth century1 was not without its effect upon the ,industrial ,arts of other countries4 ,macaulay mentions the bales of tapestry and other accessories which were sent to ,holland to fit up the camp quarters of ,louis le ,grand when he went there to take the command of his army against ,william ,,iii41 and he also tells us of the sumptuous furnishing of the apartments at ,st4 ,germains when ,james ,,ii41 during his exile1 was the guest of ,louis4 ,the grandeur of the ,french ,king impressed itself upon his contemporaries1 and war with ,germany1 as well as with ,holland and ,england1 helped to spread this influence4 ,we have noticed how ,wren designed the additions to ,hampton ,court ,palace in imitation of ,versailles2 and in the chapter which follows this1 it will be seen that the designs of ,chippendale were really reproductions of ,french furniture of the time of ,louis ,quinze4 ,the ,king of ,sweden1 ,charles ,,xii41 the ,madman of the ,north1 as he was called1 imitated his great ,french contemporary1 and in the ,palace at ,stockholm there are still to be seen traces of the ,louis ,quatorze style in decoration and in furniture2 such adornments are out of keeping with the simplicity of the habits of the present ,royal family of ,sweden4 ,a ,bourbon ,prince1 too1 succeeded to the throne of ,spain in #agjj1 and there are still in the palaces and picture galleries of ,madrid some fine specimens of ,french furniture of the three reigns which have just been discussed4 ,it may be taken1 therefore1 that from the latter part of the seventeenth century the dominant influence upon the design of decorative furniture was of ,french origin4 ,there is evidence of this in a great many examples of the work of ,flemish1 ,german1 ,english1 and ,spanish cabinet makers1 and there are one or two which may be easily referred to which it is worth while to mention4 ,one of these is a corner cupboard of rosewood1 inlaid with engraved silver1 part of the design being a shield with the arms of an ,elector of ,cologne2 there is also a pair of somewhat similar cabinets from the ,bishop's ,palace at ,salzburg4 ,these are of ,german work1 early eighteenth century1 and have evidently been designed after ,boule's productions4 ,the shape and the gilt mounts of a secretaire of walnutwood with inlay of ebony and ivory1 and some other furniture which1 with the other specimens just described1 may be seen in the ,bethnal ,green ,museum1 all manifest the influence of the ,french school1 when the bombe-fronted commodes and curved lines of chair and table came into fashion4 ,having described somewhat in detail the styles which prevailed and some of the changes which occurred in ,france1 from the time of ,louis ,,xiv4 until the ,revolution1 it is unnecessary for the purposes of this sketch1 to do more than briefly refer to the work of those countries which may be said to have adopted1 to a greater or less extent1 ,french designs4 ,for reasons already stated1 an exception is made in the case of our own country2 and the following chapter will be devoted to the furniture of some of the ,english designers and makers of the latter half of the eighteenth century4 ,of ,italy it may be observed generally that the ,renaissance of ,raffaele1 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 and ,michael ,angelo1 which we have seen became degenerate towards the end of the sixteenth century1 relapsed still further during the period which we have been discussing1 and although the freedom and grace of the ,italian carving1 and the elaboration of inlaid arabesques1 must always have some merit of their own1 the work of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in ,italy will compare very unfavourably with that of the earlier period of the ,renaissance4 ,illustration3 ,a ,norse ,interior1 ,shewing ,chairs of ,dutch ,design4 ,period3 ,late ,,xvii4 or ,early ,,xviii4 ,century4 ,there are many other museum specimens which might be referred to to prove the influence of ,french design of the seventeenth and subsequent centuries on that of other countries4 ,the above illustration of a ,norse interior shews that this influence penetrated as far as ,scandinavia2 for while the old-fashioned box-like bedsteads which the ,norwegians had retained from early times1 and which in a ruder form are still to be found in the cottages of many ,scottish counties1 especially of those where the ,scandinavian connection existed1 is a characteristic mark of the country1 the design of the two chairs is an evidence of the innovations which had been made upon native fashions4 ,these chairs are in style thoroughly ,dutch1 of about the end of the seventeenth or early in the eighteenth century2 the cabriole legs and shell ornaments were probably the direct result of the influence of the ,french on the ,dutch4 ,the woodcut is from a drawing of an old house in ,norwav4 ,illustration3 ,secretaire1 ,in ,king and ,tulip ,wood1 with ,svres ,plaques and ,ormolu ,mountings4 ,period3 ,early ,louis ,,xvi4 ,it would be unfitting to close this chapter on ,french furniture without paying a tribute to the munificence and public spirit of ,mr4 ,john ,jones1 whose bequest to the ,south ,kensington ,museum constitutes in itself a representative ,museum of this class of decorative furniture4 ,several of the illustrations in this chapter have been taken from this collection4 ,in money value alone1 the collection of furniture1 porcelain1 bronzes1 and articles de vert1 mostly of the period embraced within the limits of this chapter1 amounts to about #djj1jjj1 and exceeds the value of any bequest the nation has ever had4 ,perhaps the references contained in these few pages to the ,french furniture of this time may stimulate the interest of the public in1 and its appreciation of1 this valuable national property4 ,illustration3 ,clock1 ,by ,robin1 in ,marqueterie ,case1 with ,mountings of ,gilt ,bronze1 7,jones ,collection4 ,south ,kensington ,museum47 ,louis ,,xvi4 ,period4 ,soon after this generous bequest was placed in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 for the benefit of the public1 a leading article appeared in the ,times1 from which the following extract will very appropriately conclude this chapter3--,as the visitor passes by the cases where these curious objects are displayed1 he asks himself what is to be said on behalf of the art of which they are such notable examples4 ,tables1 chairs1 commodes1 secretaires1 wardrobes1 porcelain vases1 marble statuettes1 they represent in a singularly complete way the mind and the work of the ancien rgime4 ,like ,eisen's vignettes1 or the contes of innumerable story-tellers1 they bring back to us the grace1 the luxury1 the prettiness1 the frivolity of that ,court which believed itself1 till the rude awakening came1 to contain all that was precious in the life of ,france4 ,a piece of furniture like the little ,svres-inlaid writing table of ,marie ,antoinette is1 to employ a figure of ,balzac's1 a document which reveals as much to the social historian as the skeleton of an ichthyosaurus reveals to the palontologist4 ,it sums up an epoch4 ,a whole world can be inferred from it4 ,pretty1 elegant1 irrational1 and entirely useless1 this exquisite and costly toy might stand as a symbol for the life which the ,revolution swept away4 ,illustration3 ,harpsichord1 from the ,permanent ,collection belonging to ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,date3 ,about #agej4 ,illustration3 ,italian ,sedan ,chair4 ,used at the ,baptism of the ,grand ,ducal ,family of ,tuscany1 now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,period3 ,latter ,half of ,,xviii4 ,century4 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,chippendale and his ,contemporaries4 ,chinese style--,sir ,william ,chambers--,the ,brothers ,adams' work--,pergelesi1 ,cipriani1 and ,angelica ,kauffmann--,architects of the time--,wedgwood and ,flaxman--,chippendale's ,work and his ,contemporaries--,chair in the ,barbers' ,hall--,lock1 ,shearer1 ,hepplewhite1 ,ince1 ,mayhew1 ,sheraton--,introduction of ,satinwood and ,mahogany--,gillows of ,lancaster and ,london--,history of the ,sideboard--,the ,dining ,room--,furniture of the time4 ,soon after the second half of the eighteenth century had set in1 during the latter days of the second ,george1 and the early part of his successor's long reign1 there is a distinct change in the design of ,english decorative furniture4 ,sir ,william ,chambers1 ,r4,a41 an architect1 who has left us ,somerset ,house as a lasting monument of his talent1 appears to have been the first to impart to the interior decoration1 of houses what was termed the ,chinese style1 after his visit to ,china1 of which a notice was made in the chapter on ,eastern furniture3 and as he was considered an oracle of taste about this time1 his influence was very powerful4 ,chair backs consequently have the peculiar irregular lattice work which is seen in the fretwork of ,chinese and ,japanese ornaments1 and ,pagodas1 ,chinamen and monsters occur in his designs for cabinets4 ,the overmantel which had hitherto been designed with some architectural pretension1 now gave way to the larger mirrors which were introduced by the improved manufacture of plate glass3 and the chimney piece became lower4 ,during his travels in ,italy1 ,chambers had found some ,italian sculptors1 and had brought them to ,england1 to carve in marble his designs2 they were generally of a free ,italian character1 with scrolls of foliage and figure ornaments3 but being of stone instead of woodwork1 would scarcely belong to our subject1 save to indicate the change in fashion of the chimney piece1 the vicissitudes of which we have already noticed4 ,chimney pieces were now no longer specially designed by architects1 as part of the interior fittings1 but were made and sold with the grates1 to suit the taste of the purchaser1 often quite irrespective of the rooms for which they were intended4 ,it may be said that ,dignity gave way to ,elegance4 ,robert ,adam1 having returned from his travels in ,france and ,italy1 had designed and built1 in conjunction with his brother ,james1 ,adelphi ,terrace about #agfi1 and subsequently ,portland ,place1 and other streets and houses of a like character2 the furniture being made1 under the direction of ,robert1 to suit the interiors4 ,there is much interest attaching to ,no4 #be1 ,portland ,place1 because this was the house built1 decorated and furnished by ,robert ,adam for his own residence1 and1 fortunately1 the chief reception rooms remain to shew the style then in vogue4 ,the brothers ,adam introduced into ,england the application of composition ornaments to woodwork4 ,festoons of drapery1 wreaths of flowers caught up with rams' heads1 or of husks tied with a knot of riband1 and oval pateroe to mark divisions in a frieze1 or to emphasize a break in the design1 are ornaments characteristic of what was termed the ,adams style4 ,robert ,adam published between #aggh and #ahbb three magnificent volumes1 ,works on ,architecture4 ,one of these was dedicated to ,king ,george ,,iii41 to whom he was appointed architect4 ,many of his designs for furniture were carried out by ,gillows2 there is a good collection of his original drawings in the ,soane ,museum1 ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields4 ,the decoration was generally in low relief1 with fluted pilasters1 and sometimes a rather stiff ,renaissance ornament decorating the panel2 the effect was neat and chaste1 and a distinct change from the rococo style which had preceded it4 ,the design of furniture was modified to harmonize with such decoration4 ,the sideboard had a straight and not infrequently a serpentine-shaped front1 with square tapering legs1 and was surmounted by a pair of urn-shaped knife cases1 the wood used being almost invariably mahogany1 with the inlay generally of plain flutings relieved by fans or oval pateroe in satin wood4 ,pergolesi1 ,cipriani and ,angelica ,kaufmann had been attracted to ,england by the promise of lucrative employment1 and not only decorated the panels of ceilings and walls which were enriched by ,adams' compo' 7in reality a revival of the old ,italian gesso work71 but also painted the ornamental cabinets1 occasional tables1 and chairs of the time4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of ,original ,drawings by ,robert ,adam 7,reduced74 ,towards the end of the century1 satin wood was introduced into ,england from the ,east ,indies2 it became very fashionable1 and was a favourite ground-work for decoration1 the medallions of figure subjects1 generally of cupids1 wood-nymphs1 or illustrations of mythological fables on darker coloured wood1 formed an effective relief to the yellow satin wood4 ,sometimes the cabinet1 writing table1 or spindle-legged occasional piece1 was made entirely of this wood1 having no other decoration beyond the beautiful marking of carefully chosen veneers2 sometimes it was banded with tulipwood or harewood 7a name given to sycamore artificially stained71 and at other times painted as just described4 ,a very beautiful example of this last named treatment is the dressing table in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 which we give as an illustration1 and which the authorities should not1 in the writer's opinion1 have labelled ,chippendale4 ,besides ,chambers1 there were several other architects who designed furniture about this time who have been almost forgotten4 ,abraham ,swan1 some of whose designs for wooden chimney pieces in the quasi-classic style are given1 flourished about #ageh4 ,john ,carter1 who published ,specimens of ,ancient ,sculpture and ,painting2 ,nicholas ,revitt and ,james ,stewart1 who jointly published ,antiquities of ,athens in #agfb2 ,j4,c4 ,kraft1 who designed in the ,adams' style2 ,w4 ,thomas1 ,m4,s4,a41 and others1 have left us many drawings of interior decorations1 chiefly chimney pieces and the ornamental architraves of doors1 all of them in low relief and of a classical character1 as was the fashion towards the end of the eighteenth century4 ,josiah ,wedgwood1 too1 turned his attention to the production of plaques in relief1 for adaptation to chimney pieces of this character4 ,in a letter written from ,london to ,mr4 ,bentley1 his partner1 at the works1 he deplores the lack of encouragement in this direction which he received from the architects of his day2 he1 however1 persevered1 and by the aid of ,flaxman's inimitable artistic skill as a modeller1 made several plaques of his beautiful ,jasper ware1 which were let in to the friezes of chimney pieces1 and also into other wood-work4 ,there can be seen in the ,south ,kensington ,museum a pair of pedestals of this period 7#aggj-agij7 so ornamented4 ,it is now necessary to consider the work of a group of ,english cabinet makers1 who not only produced a great deal of excellent furniture1 but who also published a large number of designs drawn with extreme care and a considerable degree of artistic skill4 ,the first of these and the best known was ,thomas ,chippendale1 who appears to have succeeded his father1 a chair maker1 and to have carried on a large and successful business in ,st4 ,martin's ,lane1 which was at this time an important ,art centre1 and close to the newly-founded ,royal ,academy4 ,illustration3 ,english ,satinwood ,dressing ,table4 ,with ,painted ,decoration4 ,end of ,,xviii4 ,century4 ,illustration3 ,chimneypiece and ,overmantel4 ,designed by ,w4 ,thomas1 ,architect4 #aghc4 ,very similar to ,robert ,adam's work4 ,chippendale published ,the ,gentleman and ,cabinet ,maker's ,director1 not1 as stated in the introduction to the catalogue to the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 in #agfi1 but some years previously1 as is testified by a copy of the third edition of the work which is in the writer's possession and bears date #agfb1 the first edition having appeared in #aged4 ,the title page of this edition is reproduced in fac simile on page #agh4 ,illustration3 ,chairs1 ,with ornament in the ,chinese style1 by ,thomas ,chippendale4 ,this valuable work of reference contains over two hundred copperplate engravings of chairs1 sofas1 bedsteads1 mirror frames1 girandoles1 torchres or lamp stands1 dressing tables1 cabinets1 chimney pieces1 organs1 jardinires1 console tables1 brackets1 and other useful and decorative articles1 of which some examples are given4 ,it will be observed from these1 that the designs of ,chippendale are very different from those popularly ascribed to him4 ,indeed1 it would appear that this maker has become better known than any other1 from the fact of the designs in his book being recently republished in various forms2 his popularity has thus been revived1 while the names of his contemporaries are forgotten4 ,for the last fifteen or twenty years1 therefore1 during which time the fashion has obtained of collecting the furniture of a bygone century1 almost every cabinet1 table1 or mirror-frame1 presumably of ,english manufacture1 which is slightly removed from the ordinary type of domestic furniture1 has been1 for want of a better title1 called ,chippendale4 ,as a matter of fact1 he appears to have adopted from ,chambers the fanciful ,chinese ornament1 and the rococo style of that time1 which was superseded some five-and-twenty years later by the quieter and more classic designs of ,adam and his contemporaries4 ,illustration3 ,fac-,simile of the ,title ,page of ,chippendale's ,director4 7,reduced by ,photography47 ,the ,original is in ,folio ,size4 ,,the ,,gentleman and ,,cabinet-,,maker',s ,,director3 ,being a large ,,collection of the ,most ,,elegant and ,,useful ,,designs ,,of ,,household ,,furniture1 ,in the ,most ,,fashionable ,,taste4 ,including a great ,,variety of ,,chairs1 ,,sofas1 ,,beds1 and ,,couches2 ,,china-,,tables1 ,,dressing-,,tables1 ,,shaving-,,tables1 ,,bason-,,stands1 and ,,teakettle-,,stands2 ,,frames for ,,marble-,,slabs1 ,,bureau-,,dressing-,,tables1 and ,,commodes2 ,,writing-,,tables1 and ,,library-,,tables2 ,,library-,,book-,,cases1 ,,organ-,,cases for private ,rooms1 or ,churches1 ,,desks1 and ,,book-,,cases2 ,,dressing and ,,writing-,,tables with ,,book-,,cases1 ,,toilets1 ,,cabinets1 and ,,cloaths-,,presses2 ,,china-,,cases1 ,,china-,,shelves1 and ,,book-,,shelves2 ,,candle-,,stands1 ,,terms for ,,busts1 ,,stands for ,,china ,,jars1 and ,,pedestals2 ,,cisterns for ,,water1 ,,lanthorns1 and ,,chandeliers2 ,,fire-,,screens1 ,,brackets1 and ,,clock-,,cases2 ,,pier-,,glasses1 and ,,table-,,frames2 ,,girandoles1 ,,chimney-,,pieces1 and ,,picture-,,frames2 ,,stove-,,grates1 ,,boarders1 ,,frets1 ,,chinese-,,railing1 and ,,brass-,,work1 for ,furniture1 ,,and ,,other ,,ornaments1 ,,to ,,which ,,is ,,prefixed1 ,a ,short ,,explanation of the ,five ,,orders of ,,architecture2 ,,with ,proper ,,directions for executing the most difficult ,pieces1 the ,mouldings being exhibited at large1 and the ,dimensions of each ,,design specified4 ,the ,whole comprehended in ,two ,,hundred ,,copper-,,plates1 neatly engraved4 ,calculated to improve and refine the present ,,taste1 and suited to the ,fancy and ,circumstances of ,persons in all ,degrees of ,life4 ,by ,,thomas ,,chippendale1 ,,cabinet-,,maker and ,,upholsterer1 in ,st4 ,martin's ,lane1 ,london4 ,,the ,,third ,,edition4 ,,london3 ,printed for the ,,author1 and sold at his ,house1 in ,st4 ,martin's ,lane2 ,also by ,t4 ,,becket and ,p4,a4 ,de,h,o,n,d,t1 in the ,strand4 ,,mdcclxii4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of a ,page in ,chippendale's ,director4 7,the original is folio size47 ,illustration3 ,tea ,caddy1 ,carved in the ,french style4 7,from ,chippendale's ,director47 ,in the chapter on ,louis ,,xv4 and ,louis ,,xvi4 furniture1 it has been shewn how ,france went through a similar change about this same period4 ,in ,chippendale's chairs and console tables1 in his state bedsteads and his lamp-stands1 one can recognise the broken scrolls and curved lines1 so familiar in the bronze mountings of ,caffieri4 ,the influence of the change which had occurred in ,france during the ,louis ,seize period is equally evident in the ,adams' treatment4 ,it was helped forward by the migration into this country of skilled workmen from ,france1 during the troubles of the revolution at the end of the century4 ,some of ,chippendale's designs bear such titles as ,french chairs or a ,bomb-fronted ,commode4 ,these might have appeared as illustrations in a contemporary book on ,french furniture1 so identical are they in every detail with the carved woodwork of ,picau1 of ,cauner1 or of ,nilson1 who designed the flamboyant frames of the time of ,louis ,,xv4 ,others have more individuality4 ,in his mirror frames he introduced a peculiar bird with a long snipe-like beak1 and rather impossible wings1 an imitation of rockwork and dripping water1 ,chinese figures with pagodas and umbrellas2 and sometimes the illustration of ,aesop's fables interspersed with scrolls and flowers4 ,by dividing the glass unequally1 by the introduction into his design of bevelled pillars with carved capitals and bases1 he produced a quaint and pleasing effect1 very suitable to the rather effeminate fashion of his time1 and in harmony with three-cornered hats1 wigs and patches1 embroidered waistcoats1 knee breeches1 silk stockings1 and enamelled snuff-boxes4 ,in some of the designs there is a fanciful ,gothic1 to which he makes special allusion in his preface1 as likely to be considered by his critics as impracticable1 but which he undertakes to produce1 if desired-- ,though some of the profession have been diligent enough to represent them 7espescially those after the ,gothick and ,chinese manner7 as so many specious drawings impossible to be worked off by any mechanick whatsoever4 ,i will not scruple to attribute this to ,malice1 ,ignorance1 and ,inability2 and ,i am confident ,i can convince all ,noblemen1 ,gentlemen1 or others who will honour me with their ,commands1 that every design in the book can be improved1 both as to ,beauty and ,enrichment1 in the execution of it1 by ,their most obedient servant1 ,,thomas ,,chippendale4 ,illustration3 ,a ,bureau1 ,from ,chippendale's ,director4 ,the reader will notice that in the examples selected from ,chippendale's book there are none of those fretwork tables and cabinets which are generally termed ,chippendale4 ,we know1 however1 that besides the designs which have just been described1 and which were intended for gilding1 he also made mahogany furniture1 and in the ,director there are drawings of chairs1 washstands1 writing-tables and cabinets of this description4 ,fretwork is very rarely seen1 but the carved ornament is generally a foliated or curled endive scroll2 sometimes the top of a cabinet is finished in the form of a ,chinese pagoda4 ,upon examining a piece of furniture that may reasonably be ascribed to him1 it will be found of excellent workmanship1 and the wood1 always mahogany without any inlay1 is richly marked1 shewing a careful selection of material4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of a ,page ,in ,chippendale's ,director4 7,the original is folio size47 ,illustration3 ,french ,commode and ,lamp ,stands4 ,designed by ,t4 ,chippendale1 and ,published in ,his ,director4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of a ,page in ,chippendale's ,director4 7,the original is folio size47 ,illustration3 ,chimneypiece and ,mirror4 ,designed ,by ,t4 ,chippendale1 and ,published in ,his ,director4 ,illustration3 ,,parlour ,,chairs ,,by ,,chippendale4 ,the chairs of ,chippendale and his school are very characteristic4 ,if the outline of the back of some of them be compared with the stuffed back of the chair from ,hardwick ,hall 7illustrated in ,chap4 ,,iv47 it will be seen that the same lines occur1 but instead of the frame of the back being covered with silk1 tapestry1 or other material--as in ,william ,,iii4's time--,chippendale's are cut open into fanciful patterns2 and in his more highly ornate work1 the twisted ribands of his design are scarcely to be reconciled with the use for which a dining room chair is intended4 ,the well-moulded sweep of his lines1 however1 counterbalances this defect to some extent1 and a good ,chippendale mahogany chair will ever be an elegant and graceful article of furniture4 ,one of the most graceful chairs of about the middle of the century1 in the style of ,chippendale's best productions1 is the ,master's ,chair in the ,hall of the ,barbers' ,company4 ,carved in rich ,spanish mahogany1 and upholstered in morocco leather1 the ornament consists of scrolls and cornucopi1 with flowers charmingly disposed1 the arms and motto of the ,company being introduced4 ,unfortunately1 there is no certain record as to the designer and maker of this beautiful chair1 and it is to be regretted that the date 7#ahfe71 the year when the ,hall was redecorated1 should have been placed in prominent gold letters on this interesting relic of a past century4 ,illustration3 ,clock ,case1 by ,chippendale4 ,apart from the several books of design noticed in this chapter1 there were published two editions of a work1 undated1 containing many of the drawings found in ,chippendale's book4 ,this book was entitled1 ,upwards of ,one ,hundred ,new and ,genteel ,designs1 being all the most approved patterns of household furniture in the ,french taste4 ,by a ,society of ,upholders and ,cabinet makers4 ,it is probable that ,chippendale was a member of this ,society1 and that some of the designs were his1 but that he severed himself from it and published his own book1 preferring to advance his individual reputation4 ,the sideboard which one so generally hears called ,chippendale scarcely existed in his time4 ,if it did1 it must have been quite at the end of his career4 ,there were side tables1 sometimes called ,side-,boards1 but they contained neither cellaret nor cupboard3 only a drawer for table linen4 ,the names of two designers and makers of mahogany ornamental furniture1 which deserve to be remembered equally with ,chippendale1 are those of ,w4 ,ince and ,j4 ,mayhew1 who were partners in business in ,broad ,street1 ,golden ,square1 and contemporary with him4 ,they also published a book of designs which is alluded to by ,thomas ,sheraton in the preface to his ,cabinet ,maker and ,upholsterer's ,drawing ,book1 published in #agic4 ,a few examples from ,ince and ,mayhew's ,cabinet ,maker's ,real ,friend and ,companion are given1 from which it is evident that1 without any distinguishing brand1 or without the identification of the furniture with the designs1 it is difficult to distinguish between the work of these contemporary makers4 ,it is1 however1 noticeable after careful comparison of the work of ,chippendale with that of ,ince and ,mayhew1 that the furniture designed and made by the latter has many more of the characteristic details and ornaments which are generally looked upon as denoting the work of ,chippendale2 for instance1 the fretwork ornaments finished by the carver1 and then applied to the plain mahogany1 the open-work scroll-shaped backs to encoignures or china shelves1 and the carved ,chinaman with the pagoda4 ,some of the frames of chimney glasses and pictures made by ,ince and ,mayhew are almost identical with those of ,chippendale4 ,other well known designers and manufacturers of this time were ,hepplewhite1 who published a book of designs very similar to those of his contemporaries1 and ,matthias ,lock1 some of whose original drawings were on view in the ,exhibition of #ahfb1 and had interesting memoranda attached1 giving the names of his workmen and the wages paid3 from these it appears that five shillings a day was at that time sufficient remuneration for a skilful wood carver4 ,another good designer and maker of much excellent furniture of this time was ,shearer1 who has been unnoticed by nearly all writers on the subject4 ,in an old book of designs in the author's possession1 ,shearer delin and published according to ,act of ,parliament1 #aghh1 appears underneath the representations of sideboards1 tables1 bookcases1 dressing tables1 which are very similar in every way to those of ,sheraton1 his contemporary4 ,a copy of ,hepplewhite's book1 in the author's possession 7published in #aghi71 contains #cjj designs of every article of household furniture in the newest and most approved taste1 and it is worth while to quote from his preface to illustrate the high esteem in which ,english cabinet work was held at this time4 ,illustration3 ,china ,shelves1 ,designed by ,w4 ,ince4 7,reproduced by ,photography from an old ,print in the ,author's ,possession47 ,illustration3 ,girandoles and ,pier ,table1 ,designed by ,w4 ,thomas1 ,architect1 #aghc4 7,reproduced by ,photography from an old ,print in the ,author's possession47 ,english taste and workmanship have of late years been much sought for by surrounding nations2 and the mutability of all things1 but more especially of fashions1 has rendered the labours of our predecessors in this line of little use2 nay1 in this day can only tend to mislead those foreigners who seek a knowledge of ,english taste in the various articles of household furniture4 ,it is amusing to think how soon the mutabilities of fashion did for a time supersede many of his designs4 ,a selection of designs from his book is given1 and it will be useful to compare them with those of other contemporary makers4 ,from such a comparison it will be seen that in the progress from the rococo of ,chippendale to the more severe lines of ,sheraton1 ,hepplewhite forms a connecting link between the two4 ,illustration3 ,toilet ,glass4 ,urn ,stand4 7,from ,hepplewhite's ,guide47 ,the names given to some of these designs appear curious2 for instance3 ,rudd's table or reflecting dressing table1 so called from the first one having been invented for a popular character of that time4 ,knife cases1 for the reception of the knives which were kept in them1 and used to garnish the sideboards4 ,cabriole chair1 implying a stuffed back1 and not having reference1 as it does now1 to the curved form of the leg4 ,bar backed sofa1 being what we should now term a three or four chair settee1 i4e41 like so many chairs joined and having an arm at either end4 ,library case instead of ,bookcase4 ,confidante and ,duchesse1 which were sofas of the time4 ,gouty stool1 a stool having an adjustable top4 ,tea chest1 ,urn stand1 and other names which have now disappeared from ordinary use in describing similar articles4 ,illustration3 ,ladies' ,secretaires1 ,designed by ,w4 ,ince4 7,reproduced by ,photography from an old ,print in the ,author's possession47 ,illustration3 ,parlour ,chairs1 ,designed by ,w4 ,ince4 ,illustration3 ,desk and ,bookcase1 ,designed by ,w4 ,ince4 7,reproduced by ,photography from an old ,print in the ,author's possession47 ,illustration3 ,china ,cabinet1 ,designed by ,j4 ,mayhew4 7,reproduced from an old ,print in the ,author's possession74 ,illustration3 ,dressing ,chairs1 ,designed by ,j4 ,mayhew4 ,these shew the influence of ,sir ,w4 ,chamber's ,chinese style4 ,hepplewhite had a specialit1 to which he alludes in his book1 and of which he gives several designs4 ,this was his japanned or painted furniture3 the wood was coated with a preparation after the manner of ,chinese or ,japanese lacquer1 and then decorated1 generally with gold on a black ground1 the designs being in fruits and flowers3 and also medallions painted in the style of ,cipriani and ,angelica ,kauffmann4 ,subsequently1 furniture of this character1 instead of being japanned1 was only painted white4 ,it is probable that many of the chairs of this time which one sees1 of wood of inferior quality1 and with scarcely any ornament1 were originally decorated in the manner just described1 and therefore the carving of details would have been superfluous4 ,injury to the enamelling by wear and tear was most likely the cause of their being stripped of their rubbed and partly obliterated decorations1 and they were then stained and polished1 presenting an appearance which is scarcely just to the designer and manufacturer4 ,in some of ,hepplewhite's chairs1 too1 as in those of ,sheraton1 one may fancy one sees evidence of the squabbles of two fashionable factions of this time1 the ,court party and the ,prince's party1 the latter having the well known ,prince of ,wales' plumes very prominent1 and forming the ornamental support of the back of the chair4 ,another noticeable enrichment is the carving of wheat ears on the shield shape backs of the chairs4 ,the plan of a room shewing the proper distribution of the furniture1 appears on p4 #aic to give an idea of the fashion of the day2 it is evident from the large looking glass which overhangs the sideboard that the fashion had now set in to use these mirrors4 ,some thirty or forty year later this mirror became part of the sideboard1 and in some large and pretentious designs which we have seen1 the sideboard itself was little better than a support for a huge glass in a heavily carved frame4 ,the dining tables of this period deserve a passing notice as a step in the development of that important member of our ,lares and ,penates4 ,what was and is still called the pillar and claw table1 came into fashion towards the end of last century4 ,it consisted of a round or square top supported by an upright cylinder1 which rested on a plinth having three1 or sometimes four1 feet carved as claws4 ,in order to extend these tables for a larger number of guests1 an arrangement was made for placing several together4 ,when apart1 they served as pier or side tables1 and some of these--the two end ones1 being semi-circular--may still be found in some of our old inns4#ag ,illustration3 ,tea ,tray4 ,illustration3 ,girandole4 ,illustration3 ,tea ,tray4 ,illustration3 ,parlour ,chair1 with ,prince ,of ,wales' ,plumes4 ,illustration3 ,pier ,table4 ,illustration3 ,parlour ,chair4 ,illustration3 ,designs of ,furniture4 ,from ,hepplewhite's ,guide1 ,published #aghg4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of a ,page in ,hepplewhite's ,cabinet ,maker's ,guide4 ,published ,in #aghg4 ,it was not until #ahjj that ,richard ,gillow1 of the well-known firm in ,oxford ,street1 invented and patented the convenient telescopic contrivance which1 with slight improvements1 has given us the table of the present day4 ,the term still used by auctioneers in describing a modern extending table as a set of dining tables1 is1 probably1 a survival of the older method of providing for a dinner party4 ,gillow's patent is described as an improvement in the method of constructing dining and other tables calculated to reduce the number of legs1 pillars and claws1 and to facilitate and render easy1 their enlargement and reduction4 ,illustration3 ,inlaid ,tea ,caddy and ,top of ,pier ,tables4 7,from ,hepplewhite's ,guide7 ,as an interesting link between the present and the past it may be useful here to introduce a slight notice of this well-known firm of furniture manufacturers1 for which the writer is indebted to ,mr4 ,clarke1 one of the present partners of ,gillows4 ,we have an unbroken record of books dating from #agbd1 but we existed long anterior to this3 all records were destroyed during the ,scottish ,rebellion in #agde4 ,the house originated in ,lancaster1 which was then the chief port in the north1 ,liverpool not being in existence at the time1 and ,gillows exported furniture largely to the ,west ,indies1 importing rum as payment1 for which privilege they held a special charter4 ,the house opened in ,london in #agfe1 and for some time the ,lancaster books bore the heading and inscription1 ,adventure to ,london4 ,on the architect's plans for the premises now so well-known in ,oxford ,street1 occur these words1 ,this is the way to ,uxbridge4 ,mr4 ,clarke's information may be supplemented by adding that from ,dr4 ,gillow1 whom the writer had the pleasure of meeting some years ago1 and was the thirteenth child of the ,richard ,gillow before mentioned2 he learnt that this same ,richard ,gillow retired in #ahcj1 and died as late as #ahff at the age of #ij4 ,dowbiggin1 founder of the firm of ,holland and ,sons1 was an apprentice to ,richard ,gillow4 ,mahogany may be said to have come into general use subsequent to #agbj1 and its introduction is asserted to have been due to the tenacity of purpose of a ,dr4 ,gibbon1 whose wife wanted a candle box1 an article of common domestic use of the time4 ,the ,doctor1 who had laid by in the garden of his house in ,king ,street1 ,covent ,garden1 some planks sent to him by his brother1 a ,west ,indian captain1 asked the joiner to use a part of the wood for this purpose2 it was found too tough and hard for the tools of the period1 but the ,doctor was not to be thwarted1 and insisted on harder-tempered tools being found1 and the task completed2 the result was the production of a candle box which was admired by every one4 ,he then ordered a bureau of the same material1 and when it was finished invited his friends to see the new work2 amongst others1 the ,duchess of ,buckingham begged a small piece of the precious wood1 and it soon became the fashion4 ,on account of its toughness1 and peculiarity of grain1 it was capable of treatment impossible with oak1 and the high polish it took by oil and rubbing 7not ,french polish1 a later invention71 caused it to come into great request4 ,the term putting one's knees under a friend's mahogany1 probably dates from about this time4 ,illustration3 ,kneehole ,table1 by ,sheraton4 ,thomas ,sheraton1 who commenced work some #bj years later than ,chippendale1 and continued it until the early part of the nineteenth century1 accomplished much excellent work in ,english furniture4 ,the fashion had now changed2 instead of the rococo or rock work 7literally rock-scroll7 and shell 7rocquaille et cocquaille7 ornament1 which had gone out1 a simpler and more severe taste had come in4 ,in ,sheraton's cabinets1 chairs1 writing tables1 and occasional pieces we have therefore no longer the cabriole leg or the carved ornament2 but1 as in the case of the brothers ,adam1 and the furniture designed by them for such houses as those in ,portland ,place1 we have now square tapering legs1 severe lines1 and quiet ornament4 ,sheraton trusted almost entirely for decoration to his marqueterie4 ,some of this is very delicate and of excellent workmanship4 ,he introduced occasionally animals with foliated extremities into his scrolls1 and he also inlaid marqueterie trophies of musical instruments2 but as a rule the decoration was in wreaths of flowers1 husks1 or drapery1 in strict adherence to the fashion of the decorations to which allusion has been made4 ,a characteristic feature of his cabinets was the swan-necked pediment surmounting the cornice1 being a revival of an ornament fashionable during ,queen ,anne's reign4 ,it was then chiefly found in stone1 marble1 or cut brickwork1 but subsequently became prevalent in inlaid woodwork4 ,illustration3 ,chairs1 by ,sheraton4 ,sheraton was apparently a man very well educated for his time1 whether self taught or not one cannot say2 but that he was an excellent draughtsman1 and had a complete knowledge of geometry1 is evident from the wonderful drawings in his book1 and the careful though rather verbose directions he gives for perspective drawing4 ,many of his numerous designs for furniture and ornamental items1 are drawn to a scale with the geometrical nicety of an engineer's or architect's plan3 he has drawn in elevation1 plan1 and minute detail1 each of the five architectural orders4 ,illustration3 ,chair ,backs1 from ,sheraton's ,cabinet ,maker4 ,the selection made here from his designs for the purposes of illustration1 is not taken from his later work1 which properly belongs to a future chapter1 when we come to consider the influence of the ,french ,revolution1 and the translation of the ,empire style to ,england4 ,sheraton published ,the ,cabinet ,maker and ,upholsterer's ,drawing ,book in #agic1 and the list of subscribers whose names and addresses are given1 throws much light on the subject of the furniture of his time4#ah ,amongst these are many of his aristocratic patrons and no less than #dej names and addresses of cabinet makers1 chair makers and carvers1 exclusive of harpsichord manufacturers1 musical instrument makers1 upholsterers1 and other kindred trades4 ,included with these we find the names of firms who1 from the appointments they held1 it may be inferred1 had a high reputation for good work and a leading position in the trade1 but who1 perhaps from the absence of a taste for getting into print and from the lack of any brand or mark by which their work can be identified1 have passed into oblivion while their contemporaries are still famous4 ,the following names taken from this list are probably those of men who had for many years conducted well known and old established businesses1 but would now be but poor ones to conjure with1 while those of ,chippendale1 ,sheraton1 or ,hepplewhite1 are a ready passport for a doubtful specimen4 ,for instance3--,france1 ,cabinet ,maker to ,his ,majesty1 ,st4 ,martin's ,lane2 ,charles ,elliott1 ,upholder to ,his ,majesty and ,cabinet ,maker to the ,duke of ,york1 ,bond ,street2 ,campbell and ,sons1 ,cabinet ,makers to the ,prince of ,wales1 ,mary-le-bone ,street1 ,london4 ,besides those who held ,royal appointments1 there were other manufacturers of decorative furniture--,thomas ,johnson1 ,copeland1 ,robert ,davy1 a ,french carver named ,nicholas ,collet1 who settled in ,england1 and many others4 ,in ,mr4 ,j4,h4 ,pollen's larger work on furniture and woodwork1 which includes a catalogue of the different examples in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 there is a list of the various artists and craftsmen who have been identified with the production of artistic furniture either as designers or manufacturers1 and the writer has found this of considerable service4 ,in the ,appendix to this work1 this list has been reproduced1 with the addition of several names 7particularly those of the ,french school7 omitted by ,mr4 ,pollen1 and it will1 it is hoped1 prove a useful reference to the reader4 99 99 99 99 99 ,although this chapter is somewhat long1 on account of the endeavour to give more detailed information about ,english furniture of the latter half of last century1 than of some other periods1 in consequence of the prevailing taste for our ,national manufacture of this time1 still1 in concluding it1 a few remarks about the ,sideboard may be allowed4 ,the changes in form and fashion of this important article of domestic furniture are interesting1 and to explain them a slight retrospect is necessary4 ,the word ,buffet1 sometimes translated ,sideboard1 which was used to describe continental pieces of furniture of the #aeth and #afth centuries1 does not designate our ,sideboard1 which may be said to have been introduced by ,william ,,iii42 and of which kind there is a fair specimen in the ,south ,kensington ,museum2 an illustration of it has been given in the chapter dealing with that period4 ,the term stately sideboard occurs in ,milton's ,paradise ,regained1 which was published in #afga1 and ,dryden1 in his translation of ,juvenal1 published in #afic1 when contrasting the furniture of the classical period of which he was writing with that of his own time1 uses the following line3-- ,no sideboards then with gilded plate were dressed4 ,the fashion in those days of having symmetrical doors in a room1 that is1 false doors to correspond with the door used for exit1 which one still finds in many old houses in the neighbourhood of ,portland ,place1 and particularly in the palaces of ,st4 ,james' and of ,kensington1 enabled our ancestors to have good cupboards for the storage of glass1 crockery1 and reserve wine4 ,after the middle of the eighteenth century1 however1 these extra doors and the enclosed cupboard gradually disappeared1 and soon after the mahogany side table came into fashion it became the custom to supplement this article of furniture by a pedestal cupboard on either side 7instead of the cupboards alluded to71 one for hot plates and the other for wine4 ,then1 as the thin legs gave the table rather a lanky appearance1 the garde de vin1 or cellaret1 was added in the form of an oval tub of mahogany with bands of brass1 sometimes raised on low feet with castors for convenience1 which was used as a wine cooler4 ,a pair of urn-shaped mahogany vases stood on the pedestals1 and these contained--the one hot water for the servants' use in washing the knives1 forks and spoons1 which being then much more valuable were limited in quantity1 and the other held iced water for the guests' use4 ,a brass rail at the back of the side table with ornamental pillars and branches for candles was used1 partly to enrich the furniture1 and partly to form a support to the handsome pair of knife and spoon cases1 which completed the garniture of a gentleman's sideboard of this period4 ,the full page illustrations will give the reader a good idea of this arrangement1 and it would seem that the modern sideboard is the combination of these separate articles into one piece of furniture--at different times and in different fashions--first the pedestals joined to the table produced our pedestal sideboard1 then the mirror was joined to the back1 the cellarette made part of the interior fittings1 and the banishment of knife cases and urns to the realms of the curiosity hunter1 or for conversion into spirit cases and stationery holders4 ,the sarcophagus1 often richly carved1 of course succeeded the simpler cellaret of ,sheraton's period4 ,before we dismiss the furniture of the dining room of this period1 it may interest some of our readers to know that until the first edition of ,johnson's ,dictionary was published in #agee1 the term was not to be found in the vocabularies of our language designating its present use4 ,in ,barrat's ,alvearic1 published in #aehj1 parloir1 or parler1 was described as a place to sup in4 ,later1 ,minsheu's ,guide unto ,tongues1 in #afag1 gave it as an inner room to dine or to suppe in1 but ,johnson's definition is a room in houses on the first floor1 elegantly furnished for reception or entertainment4 ,illustration3 ,urn ,stand4 ,to the latter part of the eighteenth century--the ,english furniture of which time has been discussed in this ,chapter--belong the quaint little urn stands which were made to hold the urn with boiling water1 while the tea pot was placed on the little slide which is drawn out from underneath the table top4 ,in those days tea was an expensive luxury1 and the urn stand1 of which there is an illustration1 inlaid in the fashion of the time1 is a dainty relic of the past1 together with the old mahogany or marqueterie tea caddy1 which was sometimes the object of considerable skill and care4 ,one of these designed by ,chippendale is illustrated on p4 #agi1 and another by ,hepplewhite will be found on p4 #aid4 ,they were fitted with two and sometimes three bottles or tea-pays of silver or ,battersea enamel1 to hold the black and green teas1 and when really good examples of these daintily-fitted tea caddies are offered for sale1 they bring large sums4 ,illustration3 ,a ,sideboard in ,mahogany with ,inlay of ,satinwood4 ,in the ,style of ,robert ,adam4 ,the wine table of this time deserves a word4 ,these are now somewhat rare1 and are only to be found in a few old houses1 and in some of the ,colleges at ,oxford and ,cambridge4 ,these were found with revolving tops1 which had circles turned out to a slight depth for each glass to stand in1 and they were sometimes shaped like the half of a flat ring4 ,these latter were for placing in front of the fire1 when the outer side of the table formed a convivial circle1 round which the sitters gathered after they had left the dinner table4 ,one of these old tables is still to be seen in the ,hall of ,gray's ,inn1 and the writer was told that its fellow was broken and had been sent away4 ,they are nearly always of good rich mahogany1 and have legs more or less ornamental according to circumstances4 ,a distinguishing feature of ,english furniture of the last century was the partiality for secret drawers and contrivances for hiding away papers or valued articles2 and in old secretaires and writing tables we find a great many ingenious designs which remind us of the days when there were but few banks1 and people kept money and deeds in their own custody4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,jardiniere1 by ,chippendale4 ,illustration3 ,a ,china ,cabinet1 and a ,bookcase ,with ,secretaire4 ,designed by ,t4 ,sheraton1 and published in his ,cabinet ,maker and ,upholsterer's ,drawing ,book1 #agic4 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,first ,half of the ,nineteenth ,century ,the ,french ,revolution and ,first ,empire--,influence on design of ,napoleon's ,campaigns--,the ,cabinet presented to ,marie ,louise--,dutch ,furniture of the time--,english ,furniture--,sheraton's later work--,thomas ,hope1 architect--,george ,smith's designs--,fashion during the ,regency--,gothic revival--,seddon's ,furniture--,other ,makers--,influence on design of the ,restoration in ,france--,furniture of ,william ,,iv4 and early part of ,queen ,victoria's reign--,baroque and ,rococo styles--,the panelling of rooms1 dado1 and skirting--,the ,art ,union1--,the ,society of ,arts--,sir ,charles ,barry and the new ,palace of ,westminster--,pugin's designs--,auction ,prices of ,furniture--,christie's--,the ,london ,club ,houses--,steam--,different ,trade ,customs--,exhibitions in ,france and ,england--,harry ,rogers' work--,the ,queen's cradle--,state of ,art in ,england during first part of present reign--,continental designs--,italian carving--,cabinet work--,general remarks4 ,empire ,furniture4 ,illustration ,there are great crises in the history of a nation which stand out in prominent relief4 ,one of these is the ,french ,revolution1 which commenced in #agib1 and wrought such dire havoc amongst the aristocracy1 with so much misery and distress throughout the country4 ,it was an event of great importance1 whether we consider the religion1 the politics1 or the manners and customs of a people1 as affecting the changes in the style of the decoration of their homes4 ,the horrors of the ,revolution are matters of common knowledge to every schoolboy1 and there is no need to dwell either upon them or their consequences1 which are so thoroughly apparent4 ,the confiscation of the property of those who had fled the country was added to the general dislocation of everything connected with the work of the industrial arts4 ,nevertheless it should be borne in mind that amongst the anarchy and disorder of this terrible time in ,france1 the ,national ,convention had sufficient foresight to appoint a ,commission1 composed of competent men in different branches of ,art1 to determine what ,state property in artistic objects should be sold1 and what was of sufficient historical interest to be retained as a national possession4 ,riesener1 the celebrated beniste1 whose work we have described in the chapter on ,louis ,seize furniture1 and ,david1 the famous painter of the time1 both served on this ,commission1 of which they must have been valuable members4 ,there is a passage quoted by ,mr4 ,c4 ,perkins1 the ,american translator of ,dr4 ,falke's ,german work ,kunst im ,hause1 which gives us the keynote to the great change which took place in the fashion of furniture about the time of the ,revolution4 ,in an article on ,art1 says this democratic ,french writer1 as early as #agij1 when the great storm cloud was already threatening to burst1 ,we have changed everything2 freedom1 now consolidated in ,france1 has restored the pure taste of the antique6 ,farewell to your marqueterie and ,boule1 your ribbons1 festoons1 and rosettes of gilded bronze2 the hour has come when objects must be made to harmonize with circumstances4 ,thus it is hardly too much to say that designs were governed by the politics and philosophy of the day2 and one finds in furniture of this period the reproduction of ancient ,greek forms for chairs and couches2 ladies' work tables are fashioned somewhat after the old drawings of sacrificial altars2 and the classical tripod is a favourite support4 ,the mountings represent antique ,roman fasces with an axe in the centre2 trophies of lances1 surmounted by a ,phrygian cap of liberty2 winged figures1 emblematical of freedom2 and antique heads of helmeted warriors arranged like cameo medallions4 ,after the execution of ,robespierre1 and the abolition of the ,revolutionary ,tribunal in #agid1 came the choice of the ,directory3 and then1 after ,buonaparte's brilliant success in ,italy1 and the famous expeditions to ,syria and ,egypt two years later1 came his proclamation as ,first ,consul in #agii1 which in #ahjb was confirmed as a life appointment4 ,we have only to refer to the portrait of the great soldier1 represented with the crown of bay leaves and other attributes of old ,roman imperialism1 to see that in his mind was the ambition of reviving much of the splendour and of the surroundings of the ,caesars1 whom he took1 to some extent1 as his models2 and that in founding on the ashes of the ,revolution a new fabric1 with new people about him1 all influenced by his energetic personality1 he desired to mark his victories by stamping the new order of things with his powerful and assertive individualism4 ,illustration3 ,cabinet in ,mahogany with ,bronze ,gilt ,mountings1 ,presented by ,napoleon ,i4 to ,marie ,louise on his ,marriage with her in #ahaj ,period3 ,napoleon ,i4 ,the cabinet which was designed and made for ,marie ,louise1 on his marriage with her in #ahaj1 is an excellent example of the ,napoleonic furniture4 ,the wood used was almost invariably rich mahogany1 the colour of which made a good ground for the bronze gilt mounts which were applied4 ,the full-page illustration shews these1 which are all classical in character2 and though there is no particular grace in the outline or form of the cabinet1 there is a certain dignity and solemnity1 relieved from oppressiveness by the fine chasing and gilding of the metal enrichments1 and the excellent colour and figuring of the rich ,spanish mahogany used4 ,on secretaires and tables1 a common ornament of this description of furniture1 is a column of mahogany1 with a capital and base of bronze 7either gilt1 part gilt1 or green71 in the form of the head of a sphinx with the foot of an animal2 console tables are supported by sphinxes and griffins2 and candelabra and wall brackets for candles have winged figures of females1 stiff in modelling and constrained in attitude1 but almost invariably of good material with careful finish4 ,illustration3 ,tabouret1 or ,stool1 ,carved and ,gilt2 ,arm ,chair1 ,in ,mahogany1 with ,gilt ,bronze ,mountings4 ,period of ,napoleon ,i4 ,the bas-reliefs in metal which ornament the panels of the friezes of cabinets1 or the marble bases of clocks1 are either reproductions of mythological subjects from old ,italian gems and seals1 or represent the battles of the ,emperor1 in which ,napoleon is portrayed as a ,roman general4 ,there was plenty of room to replace so much that had disappeared during the ,revolution1 and a vast quantity of decorative furniture was made during the few years which elapsed before the disaster of ,waterloo caused the disappearance of a power which had been almost meteoric in its career4 ,the best authority on ,empire ,furniture is the book of designs1 published in #ahji by the architects ,percier and ,fontaine1 which is the more valuable as a work of reference1 from the fact that every design represented was actually carried out1 and is not a mere exercise of fancy1 as is the case with many such books4 ,in the preface the authors modestly state that they are entirely indebted to the antique for the reproduction of the different ornaments2 and the originals1 from which some of the designs were taken1 are still preserved in a fragmentary form in the ,museum of the ,vatican4 ,the illustrations on p4 #bje of an arm chair and a stool1 together with that of the tripod table which ornaments the initial letter of this chapter1 are favourable examples of the richly-mounted and more decorative furniture of this style4 ,while they are not free from the stiffness and constraint which are inseparable from classic designs as applied to furniture1 the rich colour of the mahogany1 the high finish and good gilding of the bronze mounts1 and the costly silk with which they are covered1 render them attractive and give them a value of their own4 ,the more ordinary furniture1 however1 of the same style1 but without these decorative accessories1 is stiff1 ungainly1 and uncomfortable1 and seems to remind us of a period in the history of ,france when political and social disturbance deprived the artistic and pleasure-loving ,frenchman of his peace of mind1 distracting his attention from the careful consideration of his work4 ,it may be mentioned here that1 in order to supply a demand which has lately arisen1 chiefly in ,new ,york1 but also to some extent in ,england1 for the best ,empire furniture1 the ,french dealers have bought up some of the old undecorated pieces1 and by ornamenting them with gilt bronze mounts1 cast from good old patterns1 have sold them as original examples of the meubles de luxe of the period4 ,in ,dutch furniture of this time one sees the reproduction of the ,napoleonic fashion--the continuation of the ,revolutionists' classicalism4 ,many marqueterie secretaires1 tables1 chairs1 and other like articles1 are mounted with the heads and feet of animals1 with lions' heads and sphinxes1 designs which could have been derived from no other source2 and the general design of the furniture loses its bomb form1 and becomes rectangular and severe4 ,whatever difficulty there may be in sometimes deciding between the designs of the ,louis ,,xiv4 period1 towards its close1 and that of ,louis ,,xv41 there can be no mistake about l'epoch de la ,directoire and le style de l',empire4 ,these are marked and branded with the ,egyptian expedition1 and the ,syrian campaign1 as legibly as if they all bore the familiar plain ,roman ,n1 surmounted by a laurel wreath1 or the ,imperial eagle which had so often led the ,french legions to victory4 ,it is curious to notice how ,england1 though so bitterly opposed to ,napoleon1 caught the infection of the dominant features of design which were prevalent in ,france about this time4 ,illustration3 ,nelson's ,chairs4 ,designs ,published by ,t4 ,sheraton1 ,october #bith1 #ahjf4 ,thus1 in ,sheraton's book on ,furniture1 to which allusion has been made1 and from which illustrations have been given in the chapter on ,chippendale and his ,contemporaries1 there is evidence that1 as in ,france during the influence of ,marie ,antoinette1 there was a classical revival1 and the lines became straighter and more severe for furniture1 so this alteration was adopted by ,sheraton1 ,shearer1 and other ,english designers at the end of the century4 ,but if we refer to ,sheraton's later drawings1 which are dated about #ahjd to #ahjf1 we see the constrained figures and heads and feet of animals1 all brought into the designs as shewn in the drawing room chairs here illustrated4 ,these are unmistakable signs of the ,french ,empire influence1 the chief difference between the ,french and ,english work being1 that1 whereas in ,french ,empire furniture the excellence of the metal work redeems it from heaviness or ugliness1 such merit was wanting in ,england1 where we have never excelled in bronze work1 the ornament being generally carved in wood1 either gilt or coloured bronze-green4 ,when metal was used it was brass1 cast and fairly finished by the chaser1 but much more clumsy than the ,french work4 ,therefore1 the ,english furniture of the first years of the nineteenth century is stiff1 massive1 and heavy1 equally wanting in gracefulness with its ,french contemporary1 and not having the compensating attractions of fine mounting1 or the originality and individuality which must always add an interest to ,napoleonic furniture4 ,illustration3 ,drawing ,room ,chair4 ,design published by ,t4 ,sheraton1 ,april1 #ahjd4 ,illustration3 ,drawing ,room ,chair4 ,design published by ,t4 ,sheraton1 ,april #a1 #ahjd4 ,there was1 however1 made about this time by ,gillow1 to whose earlier work reference has been made in the previous chapter1 some excellent furniture1 which1 while to some extent following the fashion of the day1 did so more reasonably4 ,the rosewood and mahogany tables1 chairs1 cabinets and sideboards of his make1 inlaid with scrolls and lines of flat brass1 and mounted with handles and feet of brass1 generally representing the heads and claws of lions1 do great credit to the ,english work of this time4 ,the sofa table and sideboard1 illustrated on the previous page1 are of this class1 and shew that ,sheraton1 too1 designed furniture of a less pronounced character1 as well as the heavier kind to which reference has been made4 ,illustration3 ,canopy ,bed ,design ,published by ,t4 ,sheraton1 ,november #ith1 #ahjc4 ,illustration3 ,sister's ,cylinder ,bookcase4 ,designed by ,t4 ,sheraton1 #ahjb4 ,illustration3 ,sideboard1 ,in ,mahogany1 with ,brass ,rail and ,convex ,mirror at back1 ,design published by ,t4 ,sheraton1 #ahjb4 ,illustration3 ,sofa ,table1 ,design published by ,t4 ,sheraton1 #ahjd4 ,a very favourable example of the craze in ,england for classic design in furniture and decoration1 is shown in the reproduction of a drawing by ,thomas ,hope1 in #ahjg1 a well-known architect of the time1 in which it will be observed that the forms and fashions of some of the chairs and tables1 described and illustrated in the chapter on ,ancient ,furniture1 have been taken as models4 ,there were several makers of first-class furniture1 of whom the names of some still survive in the style and title of firms of the present day1 who are their successors1 while those of others have been forgotten1 save by some of our older manufacturers and auctioneers1 who1 when requested by the writer1 have been good enough to look up old records and revive the memories of fifty years ago4 ,of these the best known was ,thomas ,seddon1 who came from ,manchester and settled in ,aldersgate ,street4 ,his two sons succeeded to the business1 became cabinet makers to ,george ,,iv41 and furnished and decorated ,windsor ,castle4 ,at the ,king's death their account was disputed1 and #cj1jjj was struck off1 a loss which necessitated an arrangement with their creditors4 ,shortly after this1 however1 they took the barracks of the ,london ,light ,horse ,volunteers in the ,gray's ,inn ,road 7now the ,hospital71 and carried on there for a time a very extensive business4 ,seddon's work ranked with ,gillow's1 and they shared with that house the best orders for furniture4 ,thomas ,seddon1 painter of ,oriental subjects1 who died in #ahef1 and ,p4 ,seddon1 a well-known architect1 were grandsons of the original founder of the firm4 ,on the death of the elder brother1 ,thomas1 the younger one then transferred his connection to the firm of ,johnstone and ,jeanes1 in ,bond ,street1 another old house which still carries on business as ,johnstone and ,norman1 and who some few years ago executed a very extravagant order for an ,american millionaire4 ,this was a reproduction of ,byzantine designs in furniture of cedar1 ebony1 ivory1 and pearl1 made from drawings by ,mr4 ,alma ,tadema1 ,r4,a4 ,illustration3 ,design of a ,room1 in the ,classic ,style1 by ,thomas ,hope1 ,architect1 ,in #ahjg4 ,snell1 of ,albemarle ,street1 had been established early in the century1 and obtained an excellent reputation2 his specialit was well-made birch bedroom suites1 but he also made furniture of a general description4 ,the predecessor of the present firm of ,howard and ,son1 who commenced business in ,whitechapel as early as #ahjj1 and the first ,morant1 may all be mentioned as manufacturers of the first quarter of the century4 ,somewhat later1 ,trollopes1 of ,parliament ,street2 ,holland1 who had succeeded ,dowbiggin 7,gillow's apprentice71 first in ,great ,pulteney ,street1 and subsequently at the firm's present address2 ,wilkinson1 of ,ludgate ,hill1 founder of the present firm of upholsterers in ,bond ,street2 ,aspinwall1 of ,grosvenor ,street2 the second ,morant1 of whom the great ,duke of ,wellington made a personal friend2 and ,grace1 a prominent decorator of great taste1 who carried out many of ,pugin's ,gothic designs1 were all men of good reputation4 ,miles and ,edwards1 of ,oxford ,street1 whom ,hindleys succeeded1 were also well known for good middle-class furniture4 ,these are some of the best known manufacturers of the first half of the present century1 and though until after the great ,exhibition there was1 as a rule1 little in the designs to render their productions remarkable1 the work of those named will be found sound in construction1 and free from the faults which accompany the cheap and showy reproductions of more pretentious styles which mark so much of the furniture of the present day4 ,with regard to this1 more will be said in the next chapter4 ,there was then a very limited market for any but the most commonplace furniture4 ,our wealthy people bought the productions of ,french cabinet makers1 either made in ,paris or by ,frenchmen who came over to ,england1 and the middle classes were content with the most ordinary and useful articles4 ,if they had possessed the means they certainly had neither the taste nor the education to furnish more ambitiously4 ,the great extent of suburbs which now surround the ,metropolis1 and which include such numbers of expensive and extravagantly-fitted residences of merchants and tradesmen1 did not then exist4 ,the latter lived over their shops or warehouses1 and the former only aspired to a dull house in ,bloomsbury1 or1 like ,david ,copperfield's father-in-law1 ,mr4 ,spenlow1 a villa at ,norwood1 or perhaps a country residence at ,hampstead or ,highgate4 ,in #ahjh a designer and maker of furniture1 ,george ,smith by name1 who held the appointment of ,upholder extraordinary to ,h4,r4,h4 the ,prince of ,wales1 and carried on business at ,princess ,street1 ,cavendish ,square1 produced a book of designs1 #aeh in number1 published by ,wm4 ,taylor1 of ,holborn4 ,these include cornices1 window drapery1 bedsteads1 tables1 chairs1 bookcases1 commodes1 and other furniture1 the titles of some of which occur for about the first time in our vocabularies1 having been adapted from the ,french4 ,escritore1 jardiniere1 dejun tables1 chiffoniers 7the spelling copied from ,smith's book71 all bear the impress of the pseudo-classic taste2 and his designs1 some of which are reproduced1 shew the fashion of our so-called artistic furniture in ,england at the time of the ,regency4 ,mr4 ,smith1 in the ,preliminary ,remarks prefacing the illustrations1 gives us an idea of the prevailing taste1 which it is instructive to peruse1 looking back now some three-quarters of a century3-- ,illustration3 ,library ,fauteuil4 ,reproduced from ,smith's ,book of ,designs1 published in #ahjd ,the following practical observations on the various woods employed in cabinet work may be useful4 ,mahogany1 when used in houses of consequence1 should be confined to the parlour and the bedchamber floors4 ,in furniture for these apartments the less inlay of other woods1 the more chaste will be the style of work4 ,if the wood be of a fine1 compact1 and bright quality1 the ornaments may be carved clean in the mahogany4 ,where it may be requisite to make out panelling by an inlay of lines1 let those lines be of brass or ebony4 ,in drawing-rooms1 boudoirs1 ante-rooms1 ,east and ,west ,india satin woods1 rosewood1 tulip wood1 and the other varieties of woods brought from the ,east1 may be used2 with satin and light coloured woods the decorations may be of ebony or rosewood2 with rosewood let the decorations be ormolu1 and the inlay of brass4 ,bronze metal1 though sometimes used with satin wood1 has a cold and poor effect3 it suits better on gilt work1 and will answer well enough on mahogany4 ,illustration3 ,parlor ,chairs1 ,shewing the ,inlay of ,brass referred to4 ,from ,smith's ,book of ,designs1 published #ahjh4 ,amongst the designs published by him are some few of a subdued ,gothic character2 these are generally carved in light oak1 or painted light stone colour1 and have1 in some cases1 heraldic shields1 with crests and coats of arms picked out in colour4 ,there are window seats painted to imitate marble1 with the ,roman or ,greco-,roman ornaments painted green to represent bronze4 ,the most unobjectionable are mahogany with bronze green ornaments4 ,of the furniture of this period there are several pieces in the ,mansion ,house1 in the ,city of ,london1 which apparently was partly refurnished about the commencement of the century4 ,illustration3 ,bookcase4 ,design ,published by ,t4 ,sheraton1 ,june #abth1 #ahjf4 ,note4--,very similar bookcases are in the ,london ,mansion ,house4 ,in the ,court ,room of the ,skinners' ,company there are tables which are now used' with extensions1 so as to form a horseshoe table for committee meetings4 ,they are good examples of the heavy and solid carving in mahogany1 early in the century before the fashion had gone out of representing the heads and feet of animals in the designs of furniture4 ,these tables have massive legs1 with lion's heads and claws1 carved with great skill and shewing much spirit1 the wood being of the best quality and rich in color4 ,illustration3 ,drawing ,room ,chairs in ,profile4 ,from ,g4 ,smith's ,book1 published #ahjh4 ,early ,victorian4 ,in the work of the manufacturers just enumerated1 may be traced the influence of the ,empire style4 ,with the restoration1 however1 of the ,monarchy in ,france came the inevitable change in fashions1 and ,le style de l',empire was condemned4 ,in its place came a revival of the ,louis ,quinze scrolls and curves1 but with less character and restraint1 until the style we know as baroque1 #ai or debased rococo1 came in4 ,ornament of a florid and incongruous character was lavished on decorative furniture1 indicative of a taste for display rather than for appropriate enrichment4 ,it had been our ,english custom for some long period to take our fashions from ,france1 and1 therefore1 about the time of ,william ,,iv4 and during the early part of the present ,queen's reign1 the furniture for our best houses was designed and made in the ,french style4 ,in the ,music ,room at ,chatsworth are some chairs and footstools used at the time of the ,coronation of ,william ,,iv4 and ,queen ,adelaide1 which have quite the appearance of ,french furniture4 ,the old fashion of lining rooms with oak panelling1 which has been noticed in an earlier chapter1 had undergone a change which is worth recording4 ,if the illustration of the ,elizabethan oak panelling1 as given in the ,english section of ,chapter ,,iii41 be referred to1 it will be seen that the oak lining reaches from the floor to within about two or three feet of the cornice4 ,subsequently this panelling was divided into an upper and a lower part1 the former commencing about the height of the back of an ordinary chair1 a moulding or chair-rail forming a capping to the lower part4 ,then pictures came to be let into the panelling2 and presently the upper part was discarded and the lower wainscoting remained1 properly termed the ,dado1#bj which we have seen revived both in wood and in various decorative materials of the present day4 ,during the period we are now discussing1 this arrangement lost favour in the eyes of our grandfathers1 and the lowest member only was retained1 which is now termed the skirting board4 ,as we approach a period that our older contemporaries can remember1 it is very interesting to turn over the leaves of the back numbers of such magazines and newspapers as treated of the ,industrial ,arts4 ,the ,art ,union1 which changed its title to the ,art ,journal in #ahdi1 had then been in existence for about ten years1 and had done good work in promoting the encouragement of ,art and manufactures4 ,the ,society of ,arts had been formed in ,london as long ago as #agef1 and had given prizes for designs and methods of improving different processes of manufacture4 ,exhibitions of the specimens sent in for competition for the awards were1 and are still1 held at their house in ,adelphi ,buildings4 ,old volumes of ,transactions of the ,society are quaint works of reference with regard to these exhibitions4 ,about #ahdj1 ,mr41 afterwards ,sir1 ,charles ,barry1 ,r4,a41 had designed and commenced the present1 or1 as it was then called1 the ,new ,palace of ,westminster1 and1 following the ,gothic character of the building1 the furniture and fittings were naturally of a design to harmonize with what was then quite a departure from the heavy architectural taste of the day4 ,mr4 ,barry was the first in this present century to leave the beaten track1 although the ,reform and ,travellers' ,clubs had already been designed by him on more classic lines4 ,the ,speaker's chair in the ,house of ,commons is evidently designed after one of the fifteenth century canopied seats1 which have been noticed and illustrated in the second chapter2 and the linen scroll pattern panels can be counted by the thousand in the ,houses of ,parliament and the different official residences which form part of the ,palace4 ,the character of the work is subdued and not flamboyant1 is excellent in design and workmanship1 and is highly creditable1 when we take into consideration the very low state of ,art in ,england fifty years ago4 ,this want of taste was very much discussed in the periodicals of the day1 and1 yielding to expressed public opinion1 ,government had in #ahdj-a appointed a ,select ,committee to take into consideration the promotion of the fine ,arts in the country1 ,mr4 ,charles ,barry1 ,mr4 ,eastlake1 and ,sir ,martin ,shee1 ,r4,a41 being amongst the witnesses examined4 ,the report of this ,committee1 in #ahda1 contained the opinion ,that such an important and ,national work as the erection of the two ,houses of ,parliament affords an opportunity which ought not to be neglected of encouraging1 not only the higher1 but every subordinate branch of fine ,art in this country4 ,mr4 ,augustus ,welby ,pugin was a well-known designer of the ,gothic style of furniture of this time4 ,born in #ahaa1 he had published in #ahce his ,designs for ,gothic ,furniture1 and later his ,glossary of ,ecclesiastical ,ornament and ,costume2 and by skilful application of his knowledge to the decorations of the different ecclesiastical buildings he designed1 his reputation became established4 ,one of his designs is here reproduced4 ,pugin's work and reputation have survived1 notwithstanding the furious opposition he met with at the time4 ,in a review of one of his books1 in the ,art ,union of #ahci1 the following sentence completes the criticism3--,as it is a common occurrence in life to find genius mistaken for madness1 so does it sometimes happen that a madman is mistaken for a genius4 ,mr4 ,welby ,pugin has oftentimes appeared to us to be a case in point4 ,illustration3 ,prie-dieu1 ,in ,carved ,oak1 enriched with ,painting and ,gilding4 ,designed by ,mr4 ,pugin1 and manufactured by ,mr4 ,crace1 ,london4 ,at this time furniture design and manufacture1 as an ,industrial ,art in ,england1 seems to have attracted no attention whatever4 ,there are but few allusions to the design of decorative woodwork in the periodicals of the day2 and the auctioneers' advertisements--with a few notable exceptions1 like that of the ,strawberry ,hill ,collection of ,horace ,walpole1 gave no descriptions2 no particular interest in the subject appears to have been manifested1 save by a very limited number of the dilettanti1 who1 like ,walpole1 collected the curios and cabinets of two or three hundred years ago4 ,illustration3 ,secretaire ,and ,bookcase1 ,in ,carved ,oak1 in the style of ,german ,gothic4 7,from ,drawing by ,professor ,heideloff1 ,published in the ,art ,union1 #ahaf47 ,york ,house was redecorated and furnished about this time1 and as it is described as ,excelling any other dwelling of its own class in regal magnificence and vieing with the ,royal ,palaces of ,europe1 we may take note of an account of its re-equipment1 written in #ahda for the ,art ,journal4 ,this notice speaks little for the taste of the period1 and less for the knowledge and grasp of the subject by the writer of an ,art critique of the day3--,the furniture generally is of no particular style1 but1 on the whole1 there is to be found a mingling of everything1 in the best manner of the best epochs of taste4 ,writing further on of the ottoman couches1 causeuses1 etc41 the critic goes on to tell of an alteration in fashion which had evidently just taken place3--,some of them1 in place of plain or carved rosewood or mahogany1 are ornamented in white enamel1 with classic subjects in bas-relief of perfect execution4 ,towards the close of the period embraced by the limits of this chapter1 the eminent firm of ,jackson and ,graham were making headway1 a ,french designer named ,prignot being of considerable assistance in establishing their reputation for taste2 and in the ,exhibition which was soon to take place1 this firm took a very prominent position4 ,collinson and ,lock1 who have recently acquired this firm's premises and business1 were both brought up in the house as young men1 and left some thirty odd years ago for ,herrings1 of ,fleet ,street1 whom they succeeded about #ahgj4 ,another well-known decorator who designed and manufactured furniture of good quality was ,leonard ,william ,collmann1 first of ,bouverie ,street and later of ,george ,street1 ,portman ,square4 ,he was a pupil of ,sydney ,smirke1 ,r4,a4 7who designed and built the ,carlton and the ,conservative ,clubs71 and was himself an excellent draughtsman1 and carried out the decoration and furnishing of many public buildings1 ,london clubs1 and mansions of the nobility and gentry4 ,his son is at present ,director of ,decorations to ,her ,majesty at ,windsor ,castle4 ,collmann's designs were occasionally ,gothic1 but generally classic4 ,there is evidence of the want of interest in the subject of furniture in the auctioneers' catalogues of the day4 ,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,christie and ,manson1 the writer has had access to the records of this old firm1 and two or three instances of sales of furniture may be given4 ,while the catalogues of the ,picture sales of #ahcj-dj were printed on paper of quarto size1 and the subjects described at length1 those of ,furniture are of the old-fashioned small octavo size1 resembling the catalogue of a small country auctioneer of the present day1 and the printed descriptions rarely exceed a single line4 ,the prices very rarely amount to more than #aj2 the whole proceeds of a day's sale were often less than #ajj1 and sometimes did not reach #ej4 ,at the sale of ,rosslyn ,house1 ,hampstead1 in #ahcj1 a mansion of considerable importance1 the highest-priced article was ,a capital maghogany pedestal sideboard1 with hot closet1 cellaret1 #b plate drawers1 and fluted legs1 which brought #cb4 ,at the sale of the property of ,a man of ,fashion1 a marqueterie cabinet1 inlaid with trophies1 the panels of ,svres china1 mounted in ormolu1 sold for twenty-five guineas2 and a ,reisener 7sic7 table1 beautifully inlaid with flowers1 and drawers1 which appears to have been reserved at nine guineas1 was bought in at eight-and-a-half guineas4 ,frequenters of ,christie's of the present day who have seen such furniture realize as many pounds as the shillings included in such sums1 will appreciate the enormously increased value of really good old ,french furniture4 ,perhaps the most noticeable comparison between the present day and that of half-a-century ago may be made in reading through the prices of the great sale at ,stowe ,house1 in #ahdh1 when the financial difficulties of the ,duke of ,buckingham caused the sale by auction which lasted thirty-seven days1 and realised upwards of #ga1jjj1 the proceeds of the furniture amounting to #bg1aeb4 ,we have seen in the notice of ,french furniture that armoires by ,boule have1 during the past few years1 brought from #d1jjj to #f1jjj each under the hammer1 and the want of appreciation of this work1 probably the most artistic ever produced by designer and craftsman1 is sufficiently exemplified by the statement that at the ,stowe sale two of ,boule's famous armoires1 of similar proportions to those in the ,hamilton ,palace and ,jones ,collections1 were sold for #ba and #ai #hs4 #f;d4 respectively4 ,we are accustomed now to see the bids at ,christie's advance by guineas1 by fives and by tens2 and it is amusing to read in these old catalogues of marqueterie tables1 satin wood cabinets1 rosewood pier tables1 and other articles of ornamental furniture1 as it was termed1 being knocked down to ,town and ,emanuel1 ,webb1 ,morant1 ,hitchcock1 ,raldock1 ,forrest1 ,redfearn1 ,litchfield 7the writer's father71 and others who were the buyers and regular attendants at ,christie's 7afterwards ,christie and ,manson7 of #ahcj to #ahde1 for such sums as #fs41 #aes41 and occasionally #aj or #ae4 ,a single quotation is given1 but many such are to be found3--,sale on ,february #beth and #bfth1 #ahda4 ,lot #ca4 ,a small oval table1 with a piece of ,svres porcelain painted with flowers4 #fs4 ,it is pleasant to remember1 as some exception to this general want of interest in the subject1 that in #ahdc there was held at ,gore ,house1 ,kensington1 then the fashionable residence of ,lady ,blessington1 an exhibition of old furniture2 and a series of lectures1 illustrated by the contributions1 was given by ,mr41 now ,sir1 ,j4,c4 ,robinson4 ,the ,venetian ,state chair1 illustrated on p4 #eg1 was amongst the examples lent by the ,queen on that occasion4 ,specimens of ,boule's work and some good pieces of ,italian ,renaissance were also exhibited4 ,a great many of the older ,club houses of ,london were built and furnished between #ahac and #ahea1 the ,guards' being of the earlier date1 and the ,army and ,navy of the latter2 and during the intervening thirty odd years the ,united ,service1 ,travellers'1 ,union1 ,united ,university1 ,athenaeum1 ,oriental1 ,wyndham1 ,oxford and ,cambridge1 ,reform1 ,carlton1 ,garrick1 ,conservative1 and some others were erected and fitted up4 ,many of these still retain much of the furniture of ,gillows1 ,seddons1 and some of the other manufacturers of the time whose work has been alluded to1 and these are favourable examples of the best kind of cabinet work done in ,england during the reign of ,george ,,iv41 ,william ,,iv41 and that of the early part of ,queen ,victoria4 ,it is worth recording1 too1 that during this period1 steam power1 which had been first applied to machinery about #ahae1 came into more general use in the manufacture of furniture1 and with its adoption there seems to have been a gradual abandonment of the apprenticeship system in the factories and workshops of our country2 and the present piece work arrangement1 which had obtained more or less since the ,english cabinet makers had brought out their ,book of ,prices some years previously1 became generally the custom of the trade1 in place of the older day work of a former generation4 ,illustration3 ,cradle1 ,in ,boxwood1 for ,h4,m4 the ,queen4 ,designed and ,carved by ,h4 ,rogers1 ,london4 ,in ,france the success of national exhibitions had become assured1 the exhibitors having increased from only #aaj when the first experiment was tried in #agih1 by leaps and bounds1 until at the eleventh exhibition1 in #ahdi1 there were #d1did entries4 ,the ,art ,journal of that year gives us a good illustrated notice of some of the exhibits1 and devotes an article to pointing out the advantages to be gained by something of the kind taking place in ,england4 ,from #ahbg onwards we had established local exhibitions in ,dublin1 ,leeds1 and ,manchester4 ,the first time a special building was devoted to exhibition of manufactures was at ,birmingham in #ahdi2 and from the illustrated review of this in the ,art ,journal one can see there was a desire on the part of our designers and manufacturers to strike out in new directions and make progress4 ,we are able to reproduce some of the designs of furniture of this period2 and in the cradle1 designed and carved in ,turkey-boxwood1 for the ,queen1 by ,mr4 ,harry ,rogers1 we have a fine piece of work1 which would not have disgraced the latter period of the ,renaissance4 ,indeed1 ,mr4 ,rogers was a very notable designer and carver of this time2 he had introduced his famous boxwood carvings about seven years previously4 ,illustration3 ,design for a ,tea ,caddy1 ,by ,j4 ,strudwick1 for ,inlaying and ,ivory4 ,published as one of the ,original ,designs for ,manufacturers in ,art ,journal1 #ahbi4 ,the cradle was also1 by the ,queen's command1 sent to the ,exhibition1 and it may be worth while quoting the artist's description of the carving3--,in making the design for the cradle it was my intention that the entire object should symbolize the union of the ,royal ,houses of ,england with that of ,saxe-,coburg and ,gothe1 and1 with this view1 ,i arranged that one end should exhibit the ,arms and national motto of ,england1 and the other those of ,h4,r4,h4 ,prince ,albert4 ,the inscription1 ',anno1 #ahej1' was placed between the dolphins by ,her ,majesty's special command4 ,illustration3 ,design for ,one of the ,wings of a ,sideboard1 ,by ,w4 ,holmes4 ,exhibited at the ,society of ,art in #ahah1 and published by the ,art ,journal in #ahbi4 ,in a criticism of this excellent specimen of work1 the ,art ,journal of the time said3--,we believe the cradle to be one of the most important examples of the art of wood carving ever executed in this country4 ,rogers was also a writer of considerable ability on the styles of ornament2 and there are several contributions from his pen to the periodicals of the day1 besides designs which were published in the ,art ,journal under the heading of ,original ,designs for ,manufacturers4 ,these articles appeared occasionally1 and contained many excellent suggestions for manufacturers and carvers1 amongst others1 the drawings of ,h4 ,fitzcook1 one of whose designs for a work table we are able to reproduce4 ,other more or less constant contributors of original designs for furniture were ,j4 ,strudwick and ,w4 ,holmes1 a design from the pencil of each of whom is given4 ,illustration3 ,design for a ,work ,table1 ,by ,h4 ,fitzcook4 ,published as one of the ,original ,designs for ,manufacturers in the ,art ,journal1 #ahej4 ,but though here and there in ,england good designers came to the front1 as a general rule the art of design in furniture and decorative woodwork was at a very low ebb about this time4 ,in furniture1 straight lines and simple curves may be plain and uninteresting1 but they are by no means so objectionable as the over ornamentation of the debased rococo style1 which obtained in this country about forty years ago2 and if the scrolls and flowers1 the shells and rockwork1 which ornamented mirror frames1 sideboard backs1 sofas1 and chairs1 were debased in style1 even when carefully carved in wood1 the effect was infinitely worse when1 for the sake of economy1 as was the case with the houses of the middle classes1 this elaborate and laboured enrichment was executed in the fashionable stucco of the day4 ,large mirrors1 with gilt frames of this material1 held the places of honour on the marble chimney piece1 and on the console1 or pier table1 which was also of gilt stucco1 with a marble slab4 ,the cheffonier1 with its shelves having scroll supports like an elaborate ,s1 and a mirror at the back1 with a scrolled frame1 was a favourite article of furniture4 ,carpets were badly designed1 and loud and vulgar in colouring2 chairs1 on account of the shape and ornament in vogue1 were unfitted for their purpose1 on account of the wood being cut across the grain2 the fire-screen1 in a carved rosewood frame1 contained the caricature1 in needlework1 of a spaniel1 or a family group of the time1 ugly enough to be in keeping with its surroundings4 ,the dining room was sombre and heavy4 ,the pedestal sideboard1 with a large mirror in a scrolled frame at the back1 had come in2 the chairs were massive and ugly survivals of the earlier reproductions of the ,greek patterns1 and1 though solid and substantial1 the effect was neither cheering nor refining4 ,in the bedrooms were winged wardrobes and chests of drawers2 dressing tables and washstands1 with scrolled legs1 nearly always in mahogany2 the old four-poster had given way to the ,arabian or ,french bedstead1 and this was being gradually replaced by the iron or brass bedsteads1 which came in after the ,exhibition had shewn people the advantages of the lightness and cleanliness of these materials4 ,in a word1 from the early part of the present century1 until the impetus given to ,art by the great ,exhibition had had time to take effect1 the general taste in furnishing houses of all but a very few persons1 was at about its worst4 ,in other countries the rococo taste had also taken hold4 ,france sustained a higher standard than ,england1 and such figure work as was introduced into furniture was better executed1 though her joinery was inferior4 ,in ,italy old models of the ,renaissance still served as examples for reproduction1 but the ornament became more carelessly carved and the decoration less considered4 ,ivory inlaying was largely executed in ,milan and ,venice2 mosaics of marble were specialites of ,rome and of ,florence1 and were much applied to the decoration of cabinets2 ,venice was busy manufacturing carved walnutwood furniture in buffets1 cabinets1 ,negro page boys1 elaborately painted and gilt1 and carved mirror frames1 the chief ornaments of which were cupids and foliage4 ,italian carving has always been free and spirited1 the figures have never been wanting in grace1 and1 though by comparison with the time of the ,renaissance there is a great falling off1 still1 the work executed in ,italy during the present century has been of considerable merit as regards ornament1 though this has been overdone4 ,in construction and joinery1 however1 the ,italian work has been very inferior4 ,cabinets of great pretension and elaborate ornament1 inlaid perhaps with ivory1 lapislazuli1 or marbles1 are so imperfectly made that one would think ornament1 and certainly not durability1 had been the object of the producer4 ,in ,antwerp1 ,brussels1 ,liege1 and other ,flemish ,art centres1 the ,school of ,wood ,carving1 which came in with the ,renaissance1 appears to have been maintained with more or less excellence4 ,with the increased quality of the carved woodwork manufactured1 there was a proportion of ill-finished and over-ornamented work produced2 and although1 as has been before observed1 the manufacture of cheap marqueterie in ,amsterdam and other ,dutch cities was bringing the name of ,dutch furniture into ill-repute--still1 so far as the writer's observations have gone1 the ,flemish wood-carver appears to have been1 at the time now under consideration1 ahead of his fellow craftsmen in ,europe2 and when in the ensuing chapter we come to notice some of the representative exhibits in the great ,international ,competition of #ahea1 it will be seen that the ,antwerp designer and carver was certainly in the foremost rank4 ,in ,austria1 too1 some good cabinet work was being carried out1 ,m4 ,leistler1 of ,vienna1 having at the time a high reputation4 ,in ,paris the house of ,fourdinois was making a name which1 in subsequent exhibitions1 we shall see took a leading place amongst the designers and manufacturers of decorative furniture4 ,england1 it has been observed1 was suffering from languor in ,art industry4 ,the excellent designs of the ,adams and their school1 which obtained early in the century1 had been supplanted1 and a meaningless rococo style succeeded the heavy imitations of ,french pseudo-classic furniture4 ,instead of1 as in the earlier and more tasteful periods1 when architects had designed woodwork and furniture to accord with the style of their buildings1 they appear to have then1 as a general rule1 abandoned the control of the decoration of interiors1 and the result was one which--when we examine our ,national furniture of half a century ago--has not left us much to be proud of1 as an artistic and industrious people4 ,some notice has been taken of the appreciation of this unsatisfactory state of things by the ,government of the time1 and by the ,press2 and1 as with a knowledge of our deficiency1 came the desire and the energy to bring about its remedy1 we shall see that1 with the ,exhibition of #ahea1 and the intercourse and the desire to improve1 which naturally followed that great and successful effort1 our designers and craftsmen profited by the great stimulus which ,art and ,industry then received4 ,illustration3 ,venetian ,stool of ,carved ,walnut ,wood4 ,illustration3 ,sideboard in ,carved ,oak1 with ,cellaret4 ,designed and ,manufactured by ,mr4 ,gillow1 ,london4 #ahea ,exhibition4 ,illustration3 ,chimneypiece and ,bookcase4 ,in carved walnut wood with colored marbles inlaid and doors of perforated brass4 ,designed ,by ,mr4 ,t4 ,r4 ,macquoid1 ,architect1 and ,manufactured by ,messrs4 ,holland ,sons4 ,london1 #ahea ,exhibition4 ,illustration3 ,cabinet in the ,mediaeval ,style4 ,designed and ,manufactured by ,mr4 ,grace1 ,london4 #ahea ,exhibition4 ,illustration3 ,bookcase in ,carved ,wood4 ,designed and ,manufactured by ,messrs4 ,jackson ,graham1 ,london1 #ahea ,exhibition4 ,illustration3 ,grand ,pianoforte4 ,in ,ebony inlaid1 and enriched with ,gold in relief4 ,designed and ,manufactured by ,messrs4 ,broadwood1 ,london4 #ahea ,exhibition ,chapter ,,ix4 ,from #ahea to the ,present ,time4 ,,the ,,great ,,exhibition3 ,exhibitors and contemporary ,cabinet ,makers--,exhibition of #ahfb1 ,london2 #ahfg1 ,paris2 and subsequently--,description of ,illustrations--,fourdinois1 ,wright1 and ,mansfield--,the ,south ,kensington ,museum--,revival of ,marquetry--,comparison of ,present ,day with that of a ,hundred ,years ago--stheticism--,traditions--,trades-,u nionism--,the ,arts and ,crafts ,exhibition ,society--,independence of ,furniture--,present ,fashions--,writers on ,design--,modern ,furniture in other ,countries--,concluding ,remarks4 ,illustration ,in the previous chapter attention has been called to the success of the ,national ,exhibition in ,paris of #ahdi2 in the same year the competition of our manufacturers at ,birmingham gave an impetus to ,industrial ,art in ,england1 and there was about this time a general forward movement1 with a desire for an ,international ,exhibition on a grand scale4 ,articles advocating such a step appeared in newspapers and periodicals of the time1 and1 after much difficulty1 and many delays1 a committee for the promotion of this object was formed4 ,this resulted in the appointment of a ,royal ,commission1 and the ,prince ,consort1 as ,president of this ,commission1 took the greatest personal interest in every arrangement for this great enterprise4 ,indeed1 there can be no doubt1 that the success which crowned the work was1 in a great measure1 due to his taste1 patience1 and excellent business capacity4 ,it is no part of our task to record all the details of an undertaking which1 at the time1 was a burning question of the day1 but as we cannot but look upon this ,exhibition of #ahea as one of the landmarks in the history of furniture1 it is worth while to recall some particulars of its genesis and accomplishment4 ,the idea of the ,exhibition of #ahea is said to have been originally due to ,mr4 ,f4 ,whishaw1 ,secretary of the ,society of ,arts1 as early as #ahdd1 but no active steps were taken until #ahdi1 when the ,prince ,consort1 who was ,president of the ,society1 took the matter up very warmly4 ,his speech at one of the meetings contained the following sentence3-- ,now is the time to prepare for a great ,exhibition--an ,exhibition worthy of the greatness of this country1 not merely national in its scope and benefits1 but comprehensive of the whole world2 and ,i offer myself to the public as their leader1 if they are willing to assist in the undertaking4 ,illustration3 ,lady's ,escritoire1 ,in ,white ,wood1 ,carved with ,rustic ,figures4 ,designed and ,manufactured by ,m4 ,wettli1 ,berne1 ,switzerland4 #ahea ,exhibition1 ,london4 ,to ,mr4 7afterwards ,sir7 ,joseph ,paxton1 then head gardener to the ,duke of ,devonshire1 the general idea of the famous glass and iron building is due4 ,an enterprising firm of contractors4 ,messrs4 ,fox and ,henderson1 were entrusted with the work2 a guarantee fund of some #bcj1jjj was raised by public subscriptions2 and the great ,exhibition was opened by ,her ,majesty on the #ast of ,may1 #ahea4 ,at a civic banquet in honour of the event1 the ,prince ,consort very aptly described the object of the great experiment3--,the ,exhibition of #ahea would afford a true test of the point of development at which the whole of mankind had arrived in this great task1 and a new starting point from which all nations would be able to direct their further exertions4 ,the number of exhibitors was some #ag1jjj1 of whom over #c1jjj received prize and council medals2 and the official catalogue1 compiled by ,mr4 ,scott ,russell1 the secretary1 contains a great many particulars which are instructive reading1 when we compare the work of many of the firms of manufacturers1 whose exhibits are therein described1 with their work of the present day4 ,the ,art ,journal published a special volume1 entitled ,the ,art ,journal ,illustrated ,catalogue1 with woodcuts of the more important exhibits1 and1 by the courtesy of the proprietors1 a small selection is reproduced1 which will give the reader an idea of the design of furniture1 both in ,england and the chief ,continental industrial centres at that time4 ,with regard to the exhibits of ,english firms1 of which these illustrations include examples1 little requires to be said1 in addition to the remarks already made in the preceding chapter1 of their work previous to the ,exhibition4 ,one of the illustrations1 however1 may be further alluded to1 since the changes in form and character of the ,pianoforte is of some importance in the consideration of the design of furniture4 ,messrs4 ,broadwood's ,grand ,pianoforte 7illustrated7 was a rich example of decorative woodwork in ebony and gold1 and may be compared with the illustration on p4 #agb of a harpsichord1 which the ,piano had replaced about #agfg1 and which at and since the time of the #ahea ,exhibition supplies evidence of the increased attention devoted to decorative furniture4 ,in the ,appendix will be found a short notice of the different phases through which the ever-present piano has passed1 from the virginal1 or spinette--of which an illustration will be found in ,a ,sixteenth ,century ,room1 in ,chapter ,,iii4--down to the latest development of the decoration of the case of the instrument by leading artists of the present day4 ,mr4 ,rose1 of ,messrs4 ,broadwood1 whose firm was established at this present address in #agcb1 has been good enough to supply the author with the particulars for this notice4 ,other illustrations1 taken from the exhibits of foreign cabinet makers1 as well as those of our ,english manufacturers1 have been selected1 being fairly representative of the work of the time1 rather than on account of their own intrinsic excellence4 ,it will be seen from these illustrations that1 so far as figure carving and composition are concerned1 our foreign rivals1 the ,italians1 ,belgians1 ,austrians1 and ,french1 were far ahead of us4 ,in mere construction and excellence of work we have ever been able to hold our own1 and1 so long as our designers have kept to beaten tracks1 the effect is satisfactory4 ,it is only when an attempt has been made to soar above the conventional1 that the effort is not so successful4 ,illustration3 ,lady's ,work ,table and ,screen4 ,in ,papier-mach4 #ahea ,exhibition1 ,london4 ,in looking over the list of exhibits1 one finds evidence of the fickleness of fashion4 ,the manufacture of decorative articles of furniture of papier-mach was then very extensive1 and there are several specimens of this class of work1 both by ,french and ,english firms4 ,the drawing-room of #ahej to #ahfj was apparently incomplete without occasional chairs1 a screen with painted panel1 a work table1 or some small cabinet or casket of this decorative but somewhat flimsy material4 ,illustration3 ,sideboard4 ,in ,carved ,oak1 with subjects taken from ,sir ,walter ,scott's ,kenilworth4 ,designed ,and ,manufactured by ,messrs4 ,cookes1 ,warwick #ahea ,exhibition1 ,london4 ,illustration3 ,a ,state ,chair4 ,carved and ,gilt ,frame1 upholstered in ,ruby ,silk1 ,embroidered with the ,royal ,coat of ,arms and the ,prince of ,wales' ,plumes4 ,designed and ,manufactured by ,m4 ,jancowski1 ,york4 #ahea ,exhibition1 ,london4 ,illustration3 ,sideboard in ,carved ,oak4 ,designed ,and ,manufactured by ,m4 ,durand1 ,paris4 #ahea ,exhibition1 ,london4 ,illustration3 ,bedstead in ,carved ,ebony4 ,renaissance ,style4 ,designed and ,manufactured by ,m4 ,roul1 ,antwerp4 #ahea ,exhibition1 ,london4 ,illustration3 ,pianoforte4 ,in ,rosewood1 inlaid with ,boulework1 in ,gold1 ,silver1 and ,copper4 ,designed and ,manufactured by ,m4 ,leistler1 ,vienna4 #ahea ,exhibition1 ,london4 ,illustration3 ,bookcase1 ,in ,carved ,lime ,tree1 with ,panels of ,satinwood4 ,designed and ,manufactured by ,m4 ,leistler1 ,vienna4 #ahea ,exhibition1 ,london4 ,illustration3 ,cabinet4 ,in ,tulipwood1 ornamented with bronze1 and inlaid with ,porcelain4 ,manufactured by ,m4 ,games1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahea ,exhibition4 ,the design and execution of mountings of cabinets in metal work1 particularly of the highly-chased and gilt bronzes for the enrichment of meubles de luxe1 was then1 as it still to a great extent remains1 the specialite of the ,parisian craftsman1 and almost the only ,english exhibits of such work were those of foreigners who had settled amongst us4 ,illustration3 ,casket of ,ivory1 ,with ,ormolu ,mountings4 ,designed and ,manufactured by ,m4 ,matifat1 ,paris4 #ahea ,exhibition1 ,london4 ,illustration3 ,table1 ,in the ,classic ,style1 inlaid with ,ivory1 ,manufactured for the ,king of ,sardinia by ,m4 ,g4 ,capello1 ,turin4 #ahea ,exhibition1 ,london4 ,illustration3 ,chair1 ,in the ,classic ,style1 inlaid with ,ivory4 ,manufactured for the ,king of ,sardinia by ,m4 ,g4 ,capello1 ,turin4 #ahea ,exhibition1 ,london4 ,amongst the latter was ,monbro1 a ,frenchman1 who established himself in ,berners ,street1 ,london1 and made furniture of an ornamental character in the style of his countrymen1 reproducing the older designs of ,boule and ,marqueterie furniture4 ,the present house of ,mellier and ,cie4 are his successors1 ,mellier having been in his employ4 ,the late ,samson ,wertheimer1 then in ,greek ,street1 ,soho1 was steadily making a reputation by the excellence of the metal mountings of his own design and workmanship1 which he applied to caskets of ,french style4 ,furniture of a decorative character and of excellent quality was also made some forty years ago by ,town and ,emanuel1 of ,bond ,street1 and many of this firm's ,old ,french tables and cabinets were so carefully finished with regard to style and detail1 that1 with the tone acquired by time since their production1 it is not always easy to distinguish them from the models from which they were taken4 ,toms was assistant to ,town and ,emanuel1 and afterwards purchased and carried on the business of ,toms and ,luscombe1 a firm well-known as manufacturers of excellent and expensive ,french furniture1 until their retirement from business some ten years ago4 ,illustration3 ,cabinet of ,ebony1 in the ,renaissance ,style4 ,with ,carnelions inserted4 ,litchfield and ,radclyffe4 #ahfb ,exhibition4 ,webb1 of ,old ,bond ,street1 succeeded by ,annoot1 and subsequently by ,radley1 was a manufacturer of this class of furniture2 he employed a considerable number of workmen1 and carried on a very successful business4 ,the name of ,blake1 too1 is one that will be remembered by some of our older readers who were interested in marqueterie furniture of forty years ago4 ,he made an inlaid centre table for the late ,duke of ,northumberland1 from a design by ,mr4 ,c4 ,p4 ,slocornbe1 of ,south ,kensington ,museum2 he also made excellent copies of ,louis ,,xiv4 furniture4 ,the next ,international ,exhibition held in ,london was in the year #ahfb1 and1 though its success was somewhat impaired by the great calamity this country sustained in the death of the ,prince ,consort on #adth ,december1 #ahfa1 and also by the breaking out of the ,civil ,war in the ,united ,states of ,america1 the exhibitors had increased from #ag1jjj in '#ea to some #bi1jjj in '#fb1 the foreign entries being #af1def1 as against #f1eff4 ,exhibitions of a ,national and ,international character had also been held in many of the ,continental capitals4 ,there was in #ahee a successful one in ,paris1 which was followed by one still greater in #ahfg1 and1 as every one knows1 they have been lately of almost annual occurrence in various countries1 affording the enterprising manufacturer better and more frequent opportunities of placing his productions before the public1 and of teaching both producer and consumer to appreciate and profit by every improvement in taste1 and by the greater demand for artistic objects4 ,the few illustrations from these more recent ,exhibitions of #ahfb and #ahfg deserve a passing notice4 ,the cabinet of carved ebony with enrichments of carnelian and other richly-colored minerals 7illustrated on previous page71 received a good deal of notice1 and was purchased by ,william1 third ,earl of ,craven1 a well-known virtuoso of thirty years ago4 ,the work of ,fourdinois1 of ,paris1 has already been alluded to1 and in the #ahfg ,exhibition his furniture acquired a still higher reputation for good taste and attention to detail4 ,the full page illustration of a cabinet of ebony1 with carvings of boxwood1 is a remarkably rich piece of work of its kind2 the effect is produced by carving the box-wood figures and ornamental scroll work in separate pieces1 and then inserting these bodily into the ebony4 ,by this means the more intricate work is able to be more carefully executed1 and the close grain and rich tint of ,turkey boxwood 7perhaps next to ivory the best medium for rendering fine carving7 tells out in relief against the ebony of which the body of the cabinet is constructed4 ,this excellent example of modern cabinet work by ,fourdinois1 was purchased for the ,south ,kensington ,museum for #a1bjj1 and no one who has a knowledge of the cost of executing minute carved work in boxwood and ebony will consider the price a very high one4 ,the house of ,fourdinois no longer exists2 the names of the foremost makers of ,french meubles de luxe1 in ,paris1 are ,buerdeley1 ,dasson1 ,roux1 ,sormani1 ,durand1 and ,zwiener4 ,some mention has already been made of ,zwiener1 as the maker of a famous bureau in the ,hertford collection1 and a sideboard exhibited by ,durand in the '#ea ,exhibition is amongst the illustrations selected as representative of cabinet work at that time4 ,illustration3 ,cabinet of ,ebony with ,carvings of ,boxwood4 ,designed and ,manufactured by ,m4 ,fourdenois1 ,paris4 #ahfg ,exhibition1 ,paris4 7,purchased by ,s4 ,kensington ,museum for #a1bjj47 ,illustration3 ,cabinet in ,satinwood1 ,with ,wedgwood plaques and inlay of various woods in the ,adams' style4 ,designed and ,manufactured by ,messrs4 ,wright ,mansfield1 ,london4 #ahfg ,exhibition1 ,paris4 ,purchased by the ,s4 ,kensington ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,ebony ,and ,ivory ,cabinet4 ,in ,the ,style of ,italian ,renaissance by ,andrea ,picchi1 ,florence1 ,exhibited ,paris1 #ahfg4 ,,note4--,a marked similarity in this design to that of a #agth ,century cabinet1 illustrated in the ,italian section of ,chapter iii41 will be observed4 ,the illustration of ,wright and ,mansfield's satin-wood cabinet1 with ,wedgewood plaques inserted1 and with wreaths and swags of marqueteric inlaid1 is in the ,adams' style1 a class of design of which this firm made a specialit4 ,both ,wright and ,mansfield had been assistants at ,jackson and ,graham's1 and after a short term in ,great ,portland ,street1 they removed to ,bond ,street1 and carried on a successful business of a high class and somewhat exclusive character1 until their retirement from business a few years since4 ,this cabinet was exhibited in ,paris in #ahfg1 and was purchased by our ,south ,kensington authorities4 ,perhaps it is not generally known that a grant is made to the ,department for the purchase of suitable specimens of furniture and woodwork for the ,museum4 ,this expenditure is made with great care and discrimination4 ,it may be observed here that the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 which was founded in #ahea1 was at this time playing an important part in the ,art education of the country4 ,the literature of the day also contributed many useful works of instruction and reference for the designer of furniture and woodwork4#ba ,one noticeable feature of modern design in furniture is the revival of marquetry4 ,like all mosaic work1 to which branch of ,industrial ,art it properly belongs1 this kind of decoration should be quite subordinate to the general design2 but with the rage for novelty which seized public attention some forty years ago1 it developed into the production of all kinds of fantastic patterns in different veneers4 ,a kind of minute mosaic work in wood1 which was called ,tunbridge ,wells work1 became fashionable for small articles4 ,within the last ten or fifteen years the reproductions of what is termed ,chippendale1 and also ,adam and ,sheraton designs in marqueterie furniture1 have been manufactured to an enormous extent4 ,partly on account of the difficulty in obtaining the richly-marked and figured old mahogany and satin-wood of a hundred years ago1 which needed little or no inlay as ornament1 and partly to meet the public fancy by covering up bad construction with veneers of marquetry decoration1 a great deal more inlay has been given to these reproductions than ever appeared in the original work of the eighteenth century cabinet makers4 ,simplicity was sacrificed1 and veneers1 thus used and abused1 came to be a term of contempt1 implying sham or superficial ornament4 ,dickens1 in one of his novels1 has introduced the ,veneer family1 thus stamping the term more strongly on the popular imagination4 ,the method now practised in using marquetry to decorate furniture is very similar to the one explained in the description of ,boule furniture given in ,chapter ,,vi41 except that1 instead of shell1 the marquetry cutter uses the veneer1 which he intends to be the groundwork of his design1 and as in some cases these veneers are cut to the thickness of #a_/af of an inch1 several layers can be sawn through at once4 ,sometimes1 instead of using so many different kinds of wood1 when a very polychromatic effect is required1 holly wood and sycamore are stained different colours1 and the marquetry thus prepared1 is glued on to the body of the furniture1 and subsequently prepared1 engraved1 and polished4 ,this kind of work is done to a great extent in ,england1 but still more extensively and elaborately in ,france and ,italy1 where ivory and brass1 marble1 and other materials are also used to enrich the effect4 ,this effect is either satisfactory or the reverse according as the work is well or ill-considered and executed4 ,it must be obvious1 too1 that in the production of marquetry the processes are attainable by machinery1 which saves labour and cheapens productions of the commoner kinds2 this tends to produce a decorative effect which is often inappropriate and superabundant4 ,perhaps it is allowable to add here that marquetry1 or marqueterie1 its ,french equivalent1 is the more modern survival of ,tarsia work to which allusion has been made in previous chapters4 ,webster defines the word as ,work inlaid with pieces of wood1 shells1 ivory1 and the like1 derived from the ,french word marqueter to checker and marque 7a sign71 of ,german origin4 ,it is distinguished from parquetry 7which is derived from pare1 an enclosure1 of which it is a diminutive71 and signifies a kind of joinery in geometrical patterns1 generally used for flooring4 ,when1 however1 the marquetry assumes geometrical patterns 7frequently a number of cubes shaded in perspective7 the design is often termed in ,art catalogues a parquetry design4 ,in considering the design and manufacture of furniture of the present day1 as compared with that of1 say1 a hundred years ago1 there are two or three main factors to be taken into account4 ,of these the most important is the enormously increased demand1 by the multiplication of purchasers1 for some classes of furniture1 which formerly had but a limited sale4 ,this enables machinery to be used to advantage in economising labour1 and therefore one finds in the so-called ,queen ,anne and ,jacobean cabinet work of the well furnished house of the present time1 rather too prominent evidence of the lathe and the steam plane4 ,mouldings are machined by the length1 then cut into cornices1 mitred round panels1 or affixed to the edge of a plain slab of wood1 giving it the effect of carving4 ,the everlasting spindle1 turned rapidly by the lathe1 is introduced with wearisome redundance1 to ornament the stretcher and the edge of a shelf2 the busy fret or band-saw produces fanciful patterns which form a cheap enrichment when applied to a drawer-front1 a panel1 or a frieze1 and carving machines can copy any design which a century ago were the careful and painstaking result of a practised craftsman's skill4 ,again1 as the manufacture of furniture is now chiefly carried on in large factories1 both in ,england and on the ,continent1 the sub-division of labour causes the article to pass through different hands in successive stages1 and the wholesale manufacture of furniture by steam has taken the place of the personal supervision by the master's eye of the task of a few men who were in the old days the occupants of his workshop4 ,as a writer on the subject has well said1 the chisel and the knife are no longer in such cases controlled by the sensitive touch of the human hand4 ,in connection with this we are reminded of ,ruskin's precept that the first condition of a work of ,art is that it should be conceived and carried out by one person4 ,instead of the carved ornament being the outcome of the artist's educated taste1 which places on the article a stamp of individuality--instead of the furniture being1 as it was in the seventeenth century in ,england1 and some hundred years earlier in ,italy and in ,france1 the craftsman's pride--it is now the result of the rapid multiplication of some pattern which has caught the popular fancy1 generally a design in which there is a good deal of decorative effect for a comparatively small price4 ,the difficulty of altering this unsatisfactory state of things is evident4 ,on the one side1 the manufacturers or the large furnishing firms have a strong case in their contention that the public will go to the market it considers the best3 and when decoration is pitted against simplicity1 though the construction which accompanies the former be ever so faulty1 the more pretentious article will be selected4 ,when a successful pattern has been produced1 and arrangements and sub-contracts have been made for its repetition in large quantities1 any considerable variation made in the details 7even if it be the suppression of ornament7 will cause an addition to the cost which those only who understand something of a manufacturer's business can appreciate4 ,during the present generation an ,art movement has sprung up called stheticism1 which has been defined as the ,science of the ,beautiful and the ,philosophy of the ,fine ,arts1 and aims at carrying a love of the beautiful into all the relations of life4 ,the fantastical developments which accompanied the movement brought its devotees into much ridicule about ten years ago1 and the pages of ,punch of that time will be found to happily travesty its more amusing and extravagant aspects4 ,the great success of ,gilbert and ,sullivan's operetta1 ,patience1 produced in #ahha1 was also to some extent due to the humorous allusions to the extravagances of the ,aesthetetes4 ,in support of what may be termed a higher stheticism1 ,mr4 ,ruskin has written much to give expression to his ideas and principles for rendering our surroundings more beautiful4 ,sir ,frederic ,leighton and ,mr4 ,alma ,tadema are conspicuous amongst those who have in their houses carried such principles into effect1 and amongst other artists who have been and are1 more or less1 associated with this movement1 may be named ,rossetti1 ,burne ,jones1 and ,holman ,hunt4 ,as a writer on stheticism has observed3--,when the extravagances attending the movement have been purged away1 there may be still left an educating influence1 which will impress the lofty and undying principles of ,art upon the minds of the people4 ,for a time1 in-spite of ridicule1 this so-called stheticism was the vogue1 and considerably affected the design and decoration of furniture of the time4 ,woodwork was painted olive green2 the panels of cabinets1 painted in sombre colors1 had pictures of sad-looking maidens1 and there was an attempt at a dim religious effect in our rooms quite inappropriate to such a climate as that of ,england4 ,the reaction1 however1 from the garish and ill-considered colourings of a previous decade or two has left behind it much good1 and with the catholicity of taste which marks the furnishing of the present day1 people see some merit in every style1 and are endeavouring to select that which is desirable without running to the extreme of eccentricity4 ,perhaps the advantage thus gained is counterbalanced by the loss of our old traditions1 for amongst the wilderness of reproductions of ,french furniture1 more or less frivolous--of ,chippendale1 as that master is generally understood--of what is termed ,jacobean and ,queen ,anne--to say nothing of a quantity of so-called antique furniture1 we are bewildered in attempting to identify this latter end of the nineteenth century with any particular style of furniture4 ,by tradition it is intended to allude to the old-fashioned manner of handing down from father to son1 or master to apprentice1 for successive generations1 the skill to produce any particular class of object of ,art or manufacture4 ,surely ,ruskin had something of this in his mind when he said1 ,now1 when the powers of fancy1 stimulated by this triumphant precision of manual dexterity1 descend from generation to generation1 you have at last what is not so much a trained artist1 as a new species of animal1 with whose instinctive gifts you have no chance of contending4 ,tradition may be said to still survive in the country cartwright1 who produces the farmer's wagon in accordance with custom and tradition1 modifying the method of construction somewhat perhaps to meet altered conditions of circumstances1 and then ornamenting his work by no particular set design or rule1 but partly from inherited aptitude and partly from playfulness or fancy4 ,in the house-carpenter attached to some of our old ,english family estates1 there will also be found1 here and there1 surviving representatives of the traditional joyner of the seventeenth century1 and in ,eastern countries1 particularly in ,japan1 we find the dexterous joiner or carver of to-day is the descendant of a long line of more or less excellent mechanics4 ,it must be obvious1 too1 that ,trades ,unionism of the present day cannot but be1 in many of its effects1 prejudicial to the ,industrial ,arts4 ,a movement which aims at reducing men of different intelligence and ability1 to a common standard1 and which controls the amount of work done1 and the price paid for it1 whatever are its social or economical advantages1 must have a deleterious influence upon the ,art products of our time4 ,writers on ,art and manufactures1 of varying eminence and opinion1 are unanimous in pointing out the serious drawbacks to progress which will exist1 so long as there is a demand for cheap and meretricious imitations of old furniture1 as opposed to more simply made articles1 designed in accordance with the purposes for which they are intended4 ,within the past few years a great many well directed endeavours have been made in ,england to improve design in furniture1 and to revive something of the feeling of pride and ambition in his craft1 which1 in the old days of the ,trade ,guilds1 animated our ,jacobean joiner4 ,one of the best directed of these enterprises is that of the ,arts and ,crafts ,exhibition ,society1 of which ,mr4 ,walter ,crane1 ,a4,r4,w4,s41 is president1 and which numbers1 amongst its committee and supporters1 a great many influential names4 ,as suggested in the design of the cover of their ,exhibition ,catalogue1 drawn by the ,president1 one chief aim of the society is to link arm in arm ,design and ,handicraft1 by exhibiting only such articles as bear the names of individuals who 7#a7 drew the design and 7#b7 carried it out3 each craftsman thus has the credit and responsibility of his own part of the work1 instead of the whole appearing as the production of ,messrs4 ,a4,b4 or ,c4,d41 who may have known nothing personally of the matter1 beyond generally directing the affairs of a large manufacturing or furnishing business4 ,in the catalogue published by this ,society there are several short and useful essays in which furniture is treated1 generally and specifically1 by capable writers1 amongst whom are ,mr4 ,walter ,crane1 ,mr4 ,edward ,prior1 ,mr4 ,halsey ,ricardo1 ,mr4 ,reginald ,t4 ,blomfield1 ,mr4 ,w4,r4 ,letharby1 ,mr4 ,j4,h4 ,pollen1 ,mr4 ,stephen ,webb1 and ,mr4 ,t4,g4 ,jackson1 ,a4,r4,a41 the order of names being that in which the several essays are arranged4 ,this small but valuable contribution to the subject of design and manufacture of furniture is full of interest1 and points out the defects of our present system4 ,amongst other regrets1 one of the writers 7,mr4 ,halsey ,ricardo7 complains1 that the transient tenure that most of us have in our dwellings1 and the absorbing nature of the struggle that most of us have to make to win the necessary provisions of life1 prevent our encouraging the manufacture of well wrought furniture4 ,we mean to outgrow our houses--our lease expires after so many years1 and then we shall want an entirely different class of furniture--consequently we purchase articles that have only sufficient life in them to last the brief period of our occupation1 and are content to abide by the want of appropriateness or beauty1 in the clear intention of some day surrounding ourselves with objects that shall be joys to us for the remainder of our life4 ,many other societies1 guilds1 and art schools have been established with more or less success1 with the view of improving the design and manufacture of furniture1 and providing suitable models for our young wood carvers to copy4 ,the ,ellesmere ,cabinet 7illustrated7 was one of the productions of the ,home ,arts and ,industries ,association1 founded by the late ,lady ,marian ,alford in #ahhc1 a well known connoisseur and ,art patron4 ,it will be seen that this is virtually a ,jacobean design4 ,in the earlier chapters of this book1 it has been observed that as ,architecture became a settled ,art or ,science1 it was accompanied by a corresponding development in the design of the room and its furniture1 under1 as it were1 one impulse of design1 and this appropriate concord may be said to have obtained in ,england until nearly the middle of the present century1 when1 after the artificial ,greek style in furniture and woodwork which had been attempted by ,wilkins1 ,soane1 and other contemporary architects1 had fallen into disfavour1 there was first a reaction1 and then an interregnum1 as has been noticed in the previous chapter4 ,the ,great ,exhibition marked a fresh departure1 and quickened1 as we have seen1 industrial enterprise in this country2 and though1 upon the whole1 good results have been produced by the impetus given by these international competitions1 they have not been exempt from unfavorable accompaniments4 ,one of these was the eager desire for novelty1 without the necessary judgment to discriminate between good and bad4 ,for a time1 nothing satisfied the purchaser of so-called artistic products1 whether of decorative furniture1 carpets1 curtains or merely ornamental articles1 unless the design was new4 ,the natural result was the production either of heavy and ugly1 or flimsy and inappropriate furniture1 which has been condemned by every writer on the subject4 ,in some of the designs selected from the exhibits of '#ea this desire to leave the beaten track of conventionality will be evident3 and for a considerable time after the exhibition there is to be seen in our designs1 the result of too many opportunities for imitation1 acting upon minds insufficiently trained to exercise careful judgment and selection4 ,illustration3 ,the ,ellesmere ,cabinet1 ,in the ,collection of the late ,lady ,marian ,alford4 ,the custom of appropriate and harmonious treatment of interior decorations and suitable furniture1 seems to have been in a great measure abandoned during the present century1 owing perhaps to the indifference of architects of the time to this subsidiary but necessary portion of their work1 or perhaps to a desire for economy1 which preferred the cheapness of painted and artificially grained pine-wood1 with decorative effects produced by wall papers1 to the more solid but expensive though less showy wood-panelling1 architectural mouldings1 well-made panelled doors and chimney pieces1 which one finds1 down to quite the end of the last century1 even in houses of moderate rentals4 ,furniture therefore became independent and beginning to account herself an ,art1 transgressed her limits 444 and grew to the conceit that it could stand by itself1 and1 as well as its betters1 went a way of its own4 #bb ,the interiors1 handed over from the builder1 as it were1 in blank1 are filled up from the upholsterer's store1 the curiosity shop1 and the auction room1 while a large contribution from the conservatory or the nearest florist gives the finishing touch to a mixture1 which characterizes the present taste for furnishing a boudoir or a drawing room4 ,there is1 of course1 in very many cases an individuality gained by the omnium gatherum of such a mode of furnishing4 ,the cabinet which reminds its owner of a tour in ,italy1 the quaint stool from ,tangier1 and the embroidered piano cover from ,spain1 are to those who travel1 pleasant souvenirs2 as are also the presents from friends 7when they have taste and judgment71 the screens and flower-stands1 and the photographs1 which are reminiscences of the forms and faces separated from us by distance or death4 ,the test of the whole question of such an arrangement of furniture in our living rooms1 is the amount of judgment and discretion displayed4 ,two favorable examples of the present fashion1 representing the interior of the ,saloon and ,drawing ,room at ,sandringham ,house1 are here reproduced4 ,illustration3 ,the ,saloon at ,sandringham ,house4 7,from a ,photo by ,bedford ,lemre ,co41 by permission of ,h4 ,r4 ,h4 the ,prince of ,wales74 ,illustration3 ,the ,drawing ,room at ,sandringham ,house4 7,from a ,photo by ,bedford ,lemre ,co41 by permission of ,h4 ,r4 ,h4 the ,prince of ,wales74 ,there is at the present time an ambition on the part of many well-to-do persons to imitate the effect produced in houses of old families where1 for generations1 valuable and memorable articles of decorative furniture have been accumulated1 just as pictures1 plate and china have been preserved2 and failing the inheritance of such household gods1 it is the practice to acquire1 or as the modern term goes1 to collect1 old furniture of different styles and periods1 until the room becomes incongruous and overcrowded1 an evidence of the wealth1 rather than of the taste1 of the owner4 ,as it frequently happens that such collections are made very hastily1 and in the brief intervals of a busy commercial or political life1 the selections are not the best or most suitable2 and where so much is required in a short space of time1 it becomes impossible to devote a sufficient sum of money to procure a really valuable specimen of the kind desired2 in its place an effective and low priced reproduction of an old pattern 7with all the faults inseparable from such conditions7 is added to the conglomeration of articles requiring attention1 and taking up space4 ,the limited accommodation of houses built on ground which is too valuable to allow spacious halls and large apartments1 makes this want of discretion and judgment the more objectionable4 ,there can be no doubt that want of care and restraint in the selection of furniture1 by the purchasing public1 affects its character1 both as to design and workmanship4 ,these are some of the faults in the modern style of furnishing1 which have been pointed out by recent writers and lecturers on the subject4 ,in ,hints on ,household ,taste1 #bc ,mr4 ,eastlake has scolded us severely for running after novelties and fashions1 instead of cultivating suitability and simplicity1 in the selection and ordering of our furniture2 and he has contrasted descriptions and drawings of well designed and constructed pieces of furniture of the ,jacobean period with those of this century's productions4 ,col4 ,robert ,edis1 in ,decoration and ,furniture of ,town ,houses1 has published designs which are both simple and economical1 with regard to space and money1 while suitable to the specified purpose of the furniture or fitment4 ,this revival in taste1 which has been not inappropriately termed ,the ,new ,renaissance1 has produced many excellent results1 and several well-known architects and designers in the foremost rank of art1 amongst whom the late ,mr4 ,street1 ,r4,a42 ,messrs4 ,norman ,shaw1 ,r4,a42 ,waterhouse1 ,r4,a42 ,alma ,tadema1 ,r4,a42 ,t4 ,g4 ,jackson1 ,a4,r4,a42 ,w4 ,burgess1 ,thomas ,cutler1 ,e4 ,w4 ,godwin1 ,s4 ,webb1 and many others1 have devoted a considerable amount of attention to the design of furniture4 ,the ruling principle in the majority of these designs has been to avoid over ornamentation1 and pretension to display1 and to produce good solid work1 in hard1 durable1 and 7on account of the increased labour7 expensive woods1 or1 when economy is required1 in light soft woods1 painted or enamelled4 ,some manufacturing firms1 whom it would be invidious to name1 and whose high reputation renders them independent of any recommendation1 have adopted this principle1 and1 as a result1 there is now no difficulty in obtaining well designed and soundly constructed furniture1 which is simple1 unpretentious1 and worth the price charged for it4 ,unfortunately for the complete success of the new teaching1 useful and appropriate furniture meets with a fierce competition from more showy and ornate productions1 made to sell rather than to last3 furniture which seems to have upon it the stamp of our three years' agreement1 or seven years' lease4 ,of this it may be said1 speaking not only from an artistic1 but from a moral and humane standpoint1 it is made so cheaply1 that it seems a pity it is made at all4 ,the disadvantages1 inseparable from our present state of society1 which we have noticed as prejudicial to ,english design and workmanship1 and which check the production of really satisfactory furniture1 are also to be observed in other countries2 and as the ,english1 and ,english-speaking people1 are probably the largest purchasers of foreign manufacturers1 these disadvantages act and re-act on the furniture of different nations4 ,in ,france1 the cabinet maker has ever excelled in the production of ornamental furniture2 and by constant reference to older specimens in the ,museums and ,palaces of his country1 he is far better acquainted with what may be called the traditions of his craft than his ,english brother4 ,with him the styles of ,francois ,premier1 of ,henri ,deux1 and the three ,louis are classic1 and in the beautiful chasing and finishing of the mounts which ornament the best meubles de luxe1 it is almost impossible to surpass his best efforts1 provided the requisite price be paid2 but this amounts in many cases to such considerable sums of money as would seem incredible to those who have but little knowledge of the subject4 ,as a simple instance1 the copy of the ,bureau du ,louvre 7described in ,chapter vi47 in the ,hertford ,house collection1 cost the late ,sir ,richard ,wallace a sum of #d1jjj4 ,as1 however1 in ,france1 and in countries which import ,french furniture1 there are many who desire to have the effect of this beautiful but expensive furniture1 but cannot afford to spend several thousand pounds in the decoration of a single room1 the industrious and ingenious ,frenchman manufactures1 to meet this demand1 vast quantities of furniture which affects1 without attaining1 the merits of the better made and more highly finished articles4 ,in ,holland1 ,belgium1 and in ,germany1 as has already been pointed out1 the manufacture of ornamental oak furniture1 on the lines of the ,renaissance models1 still prevails1 and such furniture is largely imported into this country4 ,italian carved furniture of modern times has been already noticed2 and in the selections made from the #ahea ,exhibition1 some productions of different countries have been illustrated1 which tend to shew that1 speaking generally1 the furniture most suitable for display is produced abroad1 while none can excel ,english cabinet makers in the production of useful furniture and woodwork1 when it is the result of design and handicraft1 unfettered by the detrimental1 but too popular1 condition that the article when finished shall appear to be more costly really than it is4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,frame1 by ,radspieler1 ,munich4 ,the illustration of a carved frame in the rococo style of ,chippendale1 with a ,chinaman in a canopy1 represents an important school of wood carving which has been developed in ,munich2 and in the ,knst ,gewerberein1 or ,workman's ,exhibition1 in that city1 the ,bavarians have a very similar arrangement to that of the ,arts and ,crafts ,exhibition ,society of this country1 of which mention has already been made4 ,each article is labelled with the name of the designer and maker4 ,in conclusion1 it seems evident that1 with all the faults and shortcomings of this latter part of the nineteenth century--and no doubt they are many1 both of commission and omission--still1 speaking generally1 there is no lack of men with ability to design1 and no want of well trained patient craftsmen to produce1 furniture which shall equal the finest examples of the ,renaissance and ,jacobean periods4 ,with the improved means of inter-communication between ,england and her ,colonies1 and with the chief industrial centres of ,europe united for the purposes of commerce1 the whole civilized world is1 as it were1 one kingdom3 merchants and manufacturers can select the best and most suitable materials1 can obtain photographs or drawings of the most distant examples1 or copies of the most expensive designs1 while the public ,art ,libraries of ,london1 and ,paris1 contain valuable works of reference1 which are easily accessible to the student or to the workman4 ,it is very pleasant to bear testimony to the courtesy and assistance which the student or workman invariably receives from those who are in charge of our public reference libraries4 ,there needs1 however1 an important condition to be taken into account4 ,good work1 requiring educated thought to design1 and skilled labour to produce1 must be paid for at a very different rate to the furniture of machined mouldings1 stamped ornament1 and other numerous and inexpensive substitutes for handwork1 which our present civilization has enabled our manufacturers to produce1 and which1 for the present1 seems to find favour with the multitude4 ,it has been well said that1 ,decorated or sumptuous furniture is not merely furniture that is expensive to buy1 but that which has been elaborated with much thought1 knowledge1 and skill4 ,such furniture cannot be cheap certainly1 but the real cost is sometimes borne by the artist who produces1 rather than by the man who may happen to buy it4 #bd ,it is often forgotten that the price paid is that of the lives and sustenance of the workers and their families4 ,conclusion4 ,a point has now been reached at which our task must be brought to its natural conclusion2 for although many collectors1 and others interested in the subject1 have invited the writer's attention to numerous descriptions and examples1 from an examination of which much information could1 without doubt1 be obtained1 still1 the exigencies of a busy life1 and the limits of a single volume of moderate dimensions1 forbid the attempt to add to a story which1 it is feared1 may perhaps have already overtaxed the reader's patience4 ,as has already been stated in the preface1 this book is not intended to be a guide to collecting1 or furnishing2 nevertheless1 it is possible that1 in the course of recording some of the changes which have taken place in designs and fashions1 and of bringing into notice1 here and there1 the opinions of those who have thought and written upon the subject1 some indirect assistance may have been given in both these directions4 ,if this should be the case1 and if an increased interest has been thereby excited in the surroundings of the ,home1 or in some of those ,art collections--the work of bye-gone years--which form part of our ,national property1 the writer's aim and object will have been attained1 and his humble efforts amply rewarded4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,a ,sixteenth ,century ,workshop4 ,index4 ,,note4--,the ,names of several ,designers and ,makers1 omitted from the ,index1 will be found in the ,list in the ,appendix1 with references4 ,academy 7,french7 of the ,arts founded ,adam1 ,robert and ,james stheticism ,ahashuerus1 ,palace of ,alcock1 ,sir ,rutherford1 collection of ,angelo1 ,michael ,anglo-,saxon ,furniture ,arabesque ,ornament1 origin of ,arabian ,woodwork ,ark1 reference to the ,armoires1 mention of ,art ,journal1 ,the ,arts and ,crafts ,exhibition ,society ,aspinwall1 of ,grosvenor ,street ,assyrian ,furniture ,aubusson ,tapestry ,audley ,end ,austrian ,work ,barbers' ,company1 ,hall of the ,baroque1 ,the style ,barry1 ,sir ,charles1 ,r4,a4 ,beauvais ,tapestry ,bedroom ,furniture ,bedstead of ,jeanne d',albret ,bedstead in the ,cluny ,museum ,bellows1 ,italian ,benjamin1 ,mr41 referred to ,berain1 ,charles1 ,french artist ,bethnal ,green ,museum ,biblical references ,birch1 ,dr41 reference to ,birdwood1 ,sir ,george1 referred to ,black1 ,mr4 ,adam1 reference to ,blomfield1 ,mr4 ,reginald ,t4 ,boards and ,trestles ,boleyn1 ,anna1 chair of ,bombay ,furniture ,bonnaff1 referred to ,boucher1 artist ,boudoir ,boule1 ,andr ,charles ,brackets1 ,wall ,british ,museum1 references to specimens in the ,brittany ,furniture ,broadwood1 ,messrs ,bronze ,mountings ,bruges1 ,chimney-piece at ,bryan1 ,michael1 referred to ,buffet1 ,the ,bureau du ,roi ,burgess1 ,mr4 ,w ,burleigh ,byzantine-,gothic1 discarded ,byzantine style ,caffieri1 work of ,cairo ,woodwork ,canopied ,seats ,canterbury ,cathedral ,carpenters' ,company ,cashmere ,work ,cauner1 ,french carver ,cellaret1 ,the ,cellini1 ,b4 ,chambers1 ,sir ,william1 ,r4,a4 ,chair of ,dagobert ,chairs of ,st4 ,peter ,chardin1 reference to ,charlemagne1 reference to ,charles ,i4 reference to ,charles ,,ii4 reference to ,charlton1 ,little ,charterhouse1 ,the ,chaucer quoted ,chippendale's ,work ,chippendale's ,gentleman and ,cabinetmakers' ,director ,christianity influence of ,christie1 ,manson1 ,wood1 ,messrs reference to old catalogues of ,cicero's ,tables ,cipriani ,clapton1 ,dr4 ,edward1 reference to ,club ,houses of ,london ,cluny ,museum1 reference to ,colbert1 ,finance ,minister ,coliards' predecessors ,collinson ,lock ,collman1 ,l4,w41 work of ,constantinople1 capture of ,coronation ,chair1 ,the ,correggio ,grace1 work of ,crane1 ,mr4 ,walter ,cromwell referred to ,crusades1 influence of the ,cutler1 ,mr4 ,t ,cypselus of ,corinth1 ,chest of ,dado1 the1 described ,dagobert ,chair ,dalburgia or ,blackwood ,damascus1 ,room from a house in ,davillier1 ,baron ,dining ,room1 the1 various definitions ,divan1 derivation of ,dowbiggin 7,gillow's apprentice7 ,dryden quoted ,drer1 ,a41 referred to ,d',urbino ,bramante ,du ,sommerard referred to ,dutch ,furniture ,eastlake1 ,mr4 ,c41 reference to ,edinburgh1 ,h4,r4,h4 the ,duke of1 ,art ,collection ,edis1 ,col4 ,robert1 referred to1 ,elgin and ,kincardine1 ,earl of1 ,collection of ,elizabethan ,work ,empire ,furniture ,english ,work ,evelyn's ,diary ,exhibiton1 ,the ,colonial ,the ,great 7#ahea7 ,inventions ,exhibitions1 ,local ,falk1 ,dr41 reference to ,faydherbe1 ,lucas ,fitzcook1 ,h41 designer ,flaxman's ,work ,flemish ,renaissance ,flemish ,work ,florentine ,mosaic ,work ,folding ,stool ,fontainebleau1 ,chateau of ,fourdinois1 ,work of ,fragonard1 ,french artist1 reference to ,frames for pictures and mirrors ,franks1 ,mr4 ,a4,w4 ,fretwork ,ornament ,gavard's1 ,c41 ,work on ,versailles ,german ,work ,gesso ,work ,ghiberti1 ,l ,gibbon1 ,dr41 story of ,gilding1 methods of ,gillow1 ,richard1 extending table patented work of ,gillow's ,records ,gillow's ,work ,glastonbury ,chair ,gobelins ,tapestry ,godwin1 ,mr4 ,g41 referred to ,godwin1 ,mr4 ,e4,w4 ,goodrich ,court ,gore ,house1 ,exhibition at ,gothic ,architecture ,gothic ,work ,french ,german ,chippendale's ,gough1 ,viscount1 collection of ,gouthire1 ,pierre ,gray's ,inn ,hall ,greek ,furniture ,greuze1 reference to ,hamilton ,palace ,collection ,hampton ,court ,palace ,hardwick ,hall ,harpsichord1 the ,harrison quoted ,hatfield ,house ,hebrew ,furniture ,henri ,,ii4 time of ,henri ,,iv4 style of ,art in ,france ,henry ,,viii ,hepplewhite1 work of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii discovery of ,herbert's ,antiquities ,hertford ,house ,collection ,holbein ,holland ,house ,holland ,sons ,holmes1 ,w41 designer ,home ,arts and ,industries ,association ,hope1 ,thomas1 design by ,hopkinson's ,pianos ,hotel de ,bohme ,howard ,sons1 firm of1 founded ,ince ,w41 contemporary of ,chippendale ,indian ,furniture ,indian ,museum1 ,the ,indo-,portuguese ,furniture ,intarsia ,work1 or ,tarsia ,inventories1 old ,italian ,carved ,furniture ,italian ,renaissance ,jackson1 ,mr4 ,t4,g41 ,a4,r4,a41 referred to ,jackson ,graham ,jacobean ,furniture ,jacquemart1 ,m41 reference to ,japan1 the ,revolution in ,japanese ,joiner1 the ,japanned ,furniture ,jeanne d',albret1 ,bedstead of ,jones1 ,inigo ,jones ,collection1 ,the ,kauffmann1 ,angelica ,kensington1 ,south1 ,museum1 foundation of ,kensington1 ,south1 ,museum1 reference to specimens in the ,khorsabad1 reference to ,kirkman's exhibit ,knife cases ,knole ,lacquer ,work1 ,chinese and ,japanese ,indian ,persian ,lacroix1 ,paul1 reference to ,lancret1 artist ,layard1 ,sir ,austen1 reference to ,lebrun1 artist ,leighton1 ,sir ,f41 referred to ,leo ,x41 ,pope ,letharby1 ,mr4 ,w4,r4 ,litchfield ,radclyffe ,livery cupboards ,longford ,castle ,collection ,longman ,broderip ,longleat ,louis ,,xiii4 ,furniture ,louis ,,xiv death of ,louis ,,xv death of ,louis ,,xvi ,louvre1 ,the ,macaulay1 ,lord1 quoted ,machine-made ,furniture ,madrid1 ,french ,furniture in ,mahogany1 introduction of ,mansion ,house1 ,furniture of the ,marie ,antionette ,marie ,louise1 ,cabinet designed for ,marqueterie ,maskell1 ,mr41 reference to ,mayhew1 ,j41 contemporary of ,chippendale ,medicis ,family1 influence of the ,meyrick1 ,s4 ,middle ,temple ,hall ,miles and ,edwards ,milton quoted ,mirror1 ,mosaic ,mirrors1 introduction of ,mobilier ,national1 the collection of ,modern fashion of ,furnishing ,mogul ,empire1 ,the ,monbro ,morant's ,furniture ,mounting of ,furniture ,munich1 ,work and ,exhibition of ,napoleon alluded to ,nilson1 ,french carver ,norman civilization1 influence of ,north ,holland1 ,furniture of ,notes and ,queries ,nineveh1 ,discoveries in ,oak ,panelling ,oriental ,conservatism ,ottoman1 derivation of ,panelling 7oak7 ,papier-mach ,work ,passe1 ,c4 de ,paxton1 ,sir ,joseph ,penshurst ,place ,pergolesi ,perkins1 ,mr4 ,c4 translator of ,kunst im ,hause ,persian ,designs ,pianoforte1 the ,picau1 ,french carver ,pietra-dura introduced ,pinder1 ,sir ,paul1 house of ,pollen1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,hungerford1 references to ,portuguese ,work ,prie ,dieu ,chair1 the ,prignot1 ,designs of ,prior1 ,mr4 ,edward1 essay on ,furniture ,pugin1 ,mr4 ,a4,w41 work of ,queen ,anne ,furniture ,queen's ,collection1 ,the ,racinet's ,work1 ,le ,costume ,historique ,radspieler of ,munich 7manufacturer7 ,raffaele1 referred to ,raleigh1 ,sir ,w4 ,regency1 ,period of the1 in ,france ,renaissance ,renaissance in ,england ,france ,germany ,italy ,the ,netherlands ,spain ,revolution1 ,the ,french ,revival of ,art in ,france ,ricardo1 ,mr4 ,halsey ,richardson's ,studies ,riesener1 ,court ,ebeniste ,robinson1 ,mr4 ,g4,t41 quoted ,rococo ,style1 the ,rogers1 ,harry1 work of ,roman ,furniture ,ruskin1 ,mr41 quoted ,russian ,woodwork ,st4 ,augustine's ,chair ,st4 ,giles'1 ,bloomsbury ,st4 ,peter's ,chairs ,st4 ,peter's ,church ,st4 ,saviour's ,chapel ,sallust1 ,house of ,salting1 ,mr41 collection of ,salzburg1 ,bishop's ,palace at ,sandringham ,house1 referred to ,saracenic ,art ,sarto1 ,andrea del ,satinwood1 introduction of ,scandinavian ,woodwork ,science and ,art ,department1 ,the ,scott1 ,sir ,walter1 reference to ,screens1 ,louis ,,xv4 period ,secret ,drawers1 etc41 in ,furniture ,sedan ,chair1 the ,seddon1 ,thomas1 and his ,sons1 ,work of ,serilly4 ,marquise de1 ,boudoir of ,svres ,porcelain1 introduction of ,shakespeare's ,chair ,shakespeare1 quoted ,shaw1 ,mr4 ,norman1 ,r4,a4 ,shaw's ,ancient ,furniture ,sheraton1 ,thomas1 ,work of ,shisham ,wood ,sideboard1 reference to the ,skinners' ,company1 ,the ,smith1 ,major ,general ,murdoch1 reference to ,smith1 ,mr4 ,george1 explorer1 reference to ,smith1 ,george1 manufacturer ,snell1 ,work of ,soane ,museum1 ,the ,society of ,arts1 ,the ,society of ,upholsterers and ,cabinet ,makers ,sofa1 derivation of ,south ,kensington4 ,see ,kensington ,spanish ,furniture ,speke ,hall1 ,liverpool ,spoon ,cases ,stationers' ,hall ,steam power applied to manufactures ,stephens1 ,mr41 referred to ,stockton ,house ,stone1 ,mr4 ,marcus ,strawberry ,hill ,sale ,street1 ,mr41 ,r4,a4 ,strudwick1 ,j41 designer ,sydney1 ,sir ,philip ,tabernacle1 ,the ,table1 ,dormant ,drawings ,extending ,folding ,framed ,kneehole ,pier ,side ,joined ,standing ,wine ,tables and ,trestles ,tadema1 ,mr4 ,alma1 ,r4,a41 design by ,tarsia ,work1 or ,intarsia ,tea ,caddies ,thackeray1 quoted ,theebaw1 ,king1 ,bedstead of ,thyine ,wood ,times ,newspaper1 ,the1 quoted ,titian ,toms ,luscombe ,town ,emanuel ,trades ,unionism ,traditions1 loss of old ,transition period ,trianon1 ,the ,trollopes founded ,ulm1 ,cathedral of ,urn ,stands1 the ,veeners ,venice1 importance of ,venice1 referred to ,verbruggens1 the ,vernis ,martin ,versailles1 ,palace of ,victorian 7early7 ,furniture ,vinci1 ,l4 da ,viollet-le-,duc ,vriesse1 ,v4 de ,wales1 ,h4,r4,h4 ,prince of1 ,art ,collection of ,wallace1 ,sir ,richard1 ,collection of ,walpole1 ,horace ,ware1 ,great ,bed of ,waterhouse1 ,mr41 ,r4,a4 ,watteau ,webb1 ,mr4 ,stephen ,wedgwood1 ,josiah ,wertheimer1 ,s4 ,westminster ,abbey ,wilkinson1 of ,ludgate ,hill ,williamson 7,mobilier ,national7 ,wine ,tables ,woods used for ,furniture ,wootton1 ,sir ,henry1 quoted ,wren1 ,sir ,christopher1 referred to ,wright1 ,mr41 ,f4,s4,a1 referred to ,wyatt1 ,sir ,digby1 paper read by ,york ,house1 described in the ,art ,journal ,york ,minster1 ,chair in ,list of ,subscribers4 ,,her ,,majesty ,,the ,,queen 7,for the ,royal ,library74 ,h4,i4,m4 ,,the ,,empress ,,frederick ,,of ,,germany4 ,h4,r4,h4 ,,the ,,duke ,,of ,,edinburgh4 ,h4,r4,h4 ,,the ,,princess ,,louise 7,marchioness of ,lorne74 ,h4,r4,h4 ,,the ,,duchess ,,of ,,teck4 ,,abercromby1 ,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,lord4 ,,aberdeen ,,public ,,library4 ,,agnew1 ,,sir ,,andrew ,,noel1 ,,bart4 ,,affleck1 ,,lady4 ,,allen1 ,e4,g41 #bh1 ,henrietta ,street1 ,covent ,garden1 ,london4 ,,amherst1 ,w4 ,,amhurst ,,tyssen1 ,m4,p41 ,didlington ,hall1 ,norfolk4 ,,anderson1 ,w4 ,,sons1 ,newcastle4 ,,andrews ,co41 ,durham4 ,,angst1 ,h41 ,h4,b4,m4 ,consul1 ,zurich4 ,,ashburnham1 ,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,earl ,,of4 ,,ashworth1 ,a41 ,manchester4 ,,bagott1 ,,henry ,,pearman1 ,dudley1 ,worcester4 ,,bailey1 ,,thomas ,j41 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a41 ,school ,board of ,london1 ,victoria ,embankment1 ,westminster4 ,,balfour1 ,,charles ,b41 ,j4,p41 ,balgonie1 ,fife4 ,,balfour1 ,,george ,w41 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 #ag1 ,walker ,street1 ,edinburgh4 ,,balfour1 ,,captain ,j4 ,e4 ,h41 #c1 ,berkeley ,square1 ,london4 ,,bahr1 ,,william1 #aai1 ,charlotte ,street1 ,fitzroy ,square1 ,london4 ,,ball1 ,,norris ,,hadley1 #e1 ,argyll ,place1 ,london4 ,,barber1 ,w41 ,swinden1 ,halifax4 ,,barnes1 ,j4,w41 ,f4,s4,a41 ,durham4 ,,barratt1 ,,thomas4 ,,bartlett1 ,,george ,a41 #a1 ,wolverton ,gardens1 ,london4 ,,battersea ,,public ,,library4 ,,battiscombe ,,harris1 #di and #ej1 ,great ,marylebone ,street1 ,london4 ,,baxter ,co41 ,colegate ,street1 ,norwich4 ,,bazley1 ,,sir ,,thomas ,s41 ,,bart4 ,,beloe1 ,,edward ,,milligen1 ,f4,s4,a41 ,paradise1 ,king's ,lynn4 ,,bennett-,,poe1 ,j4,t41 ,ashley ,place1 ,s4,w4 ,,beresford-,,peirse1 ,,sir ,,henry1 ,,bart4 ,,bevan1 ,,rev4 ,,philip ,,charles1 ,march ,baldon ,rectory1 ,near ,oxford4 ,,bibby1 ,,james ,j4 ,,birch1 ,,charles ,e41 #ai1 ,bloomsbury ,street1 ,london4 ,,birdwood1 ,,sir ,,george1 ,k4,c4,i4,e41 ,c4,s4,i41 ,m4,d4 ,,blackburne ,,johnston1 ,wells ,street1 ,oxford ,street1 ,london4 ,,blomfield1 ,,sir ,,arthur ,w41 ,m4,a41 ,a4,r4,a4 ,,bonham1 ,f4,j41 #fe1 ,oxford ,street1 ,london4 ,,bools1 ,w4,e41 #g1 ,cornhill1 ,london4 ,,borradaile1 ,,charles1 ,brighton4 ,,boucneau1 ,a4 ,j4 ,h41 #cdi1 ,euston ,rd41 ,london4 ,,boys ,,spurge1 #gi1 ,great ,eastern ,street1 ,london4 ,,bradshaw1 ,,christopher1 ,manchester4 ,,brady ,,son1 #gd1 ,high ,street1 ,perth4 ,,brereton1 ,,professor ,w4,w41 ,galway4 ,,brett1 ,,dr41 #fc1 ,shepherd's ,bush ,road1 ,london4 ,,briggs1 ,r4,a41 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a41 #b1 ,devonshire ,square1 ,london4 ,,brooke1 ,,henry1 #bj1 ,holland ,park ,villas1 ,london4 ,,brown ,,brothers1 #aad;a1 ,george ,street1 ,edinburgh4 ,,bruce1 ,,isaac1 #d1 ,maitland ,street1 ,edinburgh4 ,,bulkeley-,,owen1 ,rev4 ,t4,m41 ,tedsmore ,hall1 ,oswystry4 ,,burd1 ,j4,s41 ,compton ,gifford1 ,plymouth4 ,,burnard1 ,,robert1 #c4 ,hillsborough1 ,plymouth4 ,,butts1 ,,captain1 ,the ,salterns1 ,parkstone1 ,dorset4 ,,caine1 ,h4,j41 ,deanwood1 ,newbury4 ,,campbell1 ,,sir ,,archibald1 ,s4 ,j4 7of ,succoth71 ,bart4 ,,campbell1 ,,sir ,,guy4 ,,carliuan ,,beaumetz1 ,rue ,beaurepaire1 ,paris4 ,,carmichael1 ,,sir ,t4,d41 ,gibson1 ,bart4 ,,carrington1 ,,howard1 #ci1 ,high ,street1 ,stockport4 ,,castle1 ,,reuben1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a41 ,westgate1 ,cleckheaton4 ,,chamberlain1 ,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,joseph1 ,m4,p4 ,,chamberlain1 ,,king ,,jones1 #bg1 ,union ,street1 ,birmingham4 ,,chapman1 ,h41 ,windsor ,hall1 ,windsor ,street1 ,brighton4 ,,christie1 ,,manson ,,woods1 ,king ,street1 ,st4 ,james' ,square1 ,london4 ,,civil ,,service ,,supply ,,association1 ,bedford ,street1 ,strand1 ,london4 ,,clapperton1 ,w4,r4 ,co41 #ei1 ,princes ,street1 ,edinburgh4 ,,clapton1 ,,edward1 ,esq41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,l4,s41 #bb1 ,st4 ,thomas ,street1 ,london4 ,,clark1 ,,william1 ,oxford ,street1 ,london4 ,,clifford1 ,,samuel1 #ad1 ,goldsmith ,street1 ,nottingham4 ,,clowes1 ,j4,e41 ,quay1 ,great ,yarmouth4 ,,coates1 ,,major ,,edward ,f41 ,tayles ,hill1 ,ewell1 ,surrey4 ,,cochran1 ,,alex1 #bb1 ,blythewood ,square1 ,glasgow4 ,,cohen ,,sons1 ,b41 #a1 ,curtain ,road1 ,london4 ,,colt1 ,e4,w41 ,m4,a41 ,hagley ,hall1 ,rugeley4 ,,conrath ,,sons1 ,south ,audley ,street1 ,london4 ,,cook1 ,j41 ,,son1 #hj1 ,market ,street1 ,edinburgh4 ,,combe1 ,r4,h41 ,d4,l41 ,j4,p41 ,surrey4 ,,cooper1 ,,rev4 ,,canon ,w4,h41 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 #ai1 ,delahay ,street1 ,westminster4 ,,cooper1 ,,joseph1 ,granville ,terrace1 ,lytham4 ,,cornford1 ,l4 ,,cope1 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a41 ,norfolk ,road1 ,brighton4 ,,count1 ,f4,w41 ,market ,place1 ,east 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,,roberts1 ,d4 ,,lloyd1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 ,broughton ,park1 ,manchester4 ,,robson1 ,,edward ,r41 ,f4,s4,a41 #i1 ,bridge ,street1 ,westminster4 ,,robson1 ,r41 #af1 ,old ,bond ,street1 ,w4 ,,robson4 ,,sons1 #db1 ,northumberland ,street1 ,newcastle-on-,tyne4 ,,rogerson1 ,,arthur1 ,fleurville1 ,cheltenham4 ,,romaine-,,walker1 ,w4 ,h41 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a41 ,buckingham ,street1 ,strand1 ,london4 ,,rose1 ,,algernon1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,great ,pulteney ,street1 ,london4 ,,rothschild1 ,,the ,,lady4 ,,rothschild1 ,,leopold ,,de1 #e1 ,hamilton ,place1 ,w4 ,,russell1 ,,john1 ,m4 ,b41 #adb1 ,waterloo ,road1 ,burslem4 ,,sackville1 ,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,lord1 ,knole ,park1 ,sevenoaks4 ,,salmon1 ,w4 ,,forrest1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a41 #aig1 ,st4 ,vincent1 ,street1 ,glasgow4 ,,saiter1 ,s4 ,,james ,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,basingfield1 near ,basingstoke4 ,,sanders1 ,t4 ,r4 ,h41 ,old ,fore ,street1 ,sidmouth4 ,,sanderson1 ,,john1 #eb1 ,berners ,street1 ,london4 ,,savory1 ,,horace ,r41 #aa1 ,cornhill1 ,london4 ,,sawers1 ,,john1 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,j41 ,south ,preston ,lodge1 ,north ,shields4 ,,stenhouse ,,son1 #d1 ,alexandra ,gardens1 ,folkestone4 ,,stephens1 ,e4 ,,george1 #e1 ,portman ,street1 ,whalley ,range1 ,manchester4 ,,stephens1 ,j4 ,,wallace1 ,belph1 ,whitmell1 ,nr4 ,chesterfield4 ,,stone1 ,j4 ,h41 ,j4,p41 ,handsworth4 ,,storr1 ,j4 ,s41 #bf1 ,king ,street1 ,covent ,garden4 ,,talbot1 ,,lieut4 ,,colonel ,,gerald4 ,,talbot1 ,miss1 #c1 ,cavendish ,square1 ,london4 ,,tanner1 ,,robert ,r4,s41 #i1 ,montagu ,street1 ,portman ,square1 ,london4 ,,tanner1 ,,slingsby1 #ajdf1 ,mount ,street1 ,berkeley ,square1 ,london4 ,,taplin1 ,,john1 #h1 ,blomfield ,road1 ,maida ,vale1 ,london4 ,,tasker1 ,g4 ,s41 ,glen-,ashton1 ,wimbourne1 ,dorset4 ,,tate1 ,,john1 ,oaklands1 ,alnwick4 ,,taylor1 ,,john ,,sons1 #aji1 ,princes ,street1 ,edinburgh4 ,,tempest1 ,,sir ,,robert ,t41 ,,bart4 ,,tempest1 ,,major ,a4,c41 ,coleby ,hall1 near ,lincoln4 ,,thomason1 ,,yeoville1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a41 #i1 ,observatory ,gardens1 ,kensington1 ,london4 ,,thompson1 ,,the ,,lady ,,meysey4 ,,thompson1 ,j4 ,c4 ,,thompson1 ,,richard1 ,dringcote1 ,the ,mount1 ,york4 ,,thonet ,,bros41 #fh1 ,oxford ,street1 ,london4 ,,thynne1 ,j4 ,c41 ,cloisters1 ,westminster1 ,london4 ,,traill1 ,,james ,,christie1 ,j4,p1 ,d4,l41 ,rattan1 ,caithness2 and ,hobbister1 ,orkney4 ,,tapnall1 ,c41 #fj1 ,st4 ,john's ,road1 ,clifton4 ,,tunissen1 ,g41 #fd1 ,noordeinde1 ,the ,hague4 ,,turner1 ,r4 ,d41 ,roughway1 ,tonbridge4 ,,turner1 ,,william1 ,manchester4 ,,vanderbyl1 ,,mrs4 ,,philip1 ,porchester ,terrace1 ,london4 ,,vaughan ,co41 #ah1 ,gt4 ,eastern ,street1 ,london4 ,,vince1 ,a4 ,s41 #ad1 ,gt4 ,pulteney ,street1 ,london4 ,,viney1 ,,john ,p41 #bf1 ,charlotte ,street1 ,portland ,place1 ,london4 ,,vost ,,fisher1 ,halifax4 ,,wade1 ,,miss1 ,royal ,school of ,art ,needlework1 ,south ,kensington4 ,,wallace1 ,,mrs41 ,french ,hall1 ,gateshead4 ,,wallis ,co41 ,limited1 ,holborn ,circus1 ,london4 ,,walters1 ,,frederick ,a41 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a1 #d1 ,great ,queen ,street1 ,westminster4 ,,warburton1 ,,samuel1 #aj1 ,witton ,polygon1 ,cheetham ,hill1 ,manchester4 ,,waring1 ,s4 ,j4 ,,sons1 ,bold ,street1 ,liverpool4 ,,warner ,,sons1 ,newgate ,street1 ,e4,c4 ,,watkins1 ,,rev4 ,h4 ,g41 ,lilliput ,hill1 ,parkstone1 ,dorset4 ,,watney1 ,,vernon ,j41 ,berkeley ,square1 ,london4 ,,watterson1 ,,william ,,craven1 ,hill ,carr1 ,altrincham4 ,,watts1 ,g4 ,f41 ,r4,a41 ,little ,holland ,house1 ,kensington1 ,london4 ,,watts1 ,,james1 ,old ,hall1 ,cheadle1 near ,manchester4 ,,webb1 ,r4 ,,barrett1 ,bristol4 ,,weekes1 ,j4,e41 #ai1 ,sinclair ,gardens1 ,w4 ,,wellard1 ,,charles1 ,st4 ,leonard ,street1 ,bromley-by-,bow4 ,,wertheimer1 ,,asher1 #aed1 ,new ,bond ,street1 ,w4 ,,wertheimer1 ,,charles1 #ba1 ,norfolk ,street1 ,park ,lane1 ,w4 ,,westminster1 ,,his ,,grace ,,the ,,duke ,,of4 ,,weston1 ,,mrs4 ,e41 ,ashbank1 ,penrith4 ,,wharton1 ,,the ,,rev4 ,,george1 ,radley ,college1 ,abingdon4 ,,wharton1 ,w4 ,h4 ,b41 ,london ,road1 ,manchester4 ,,wheatley1 ,,colonel4 ,,wheeler1 ,,william1 ,george ,row1 ,york ,road1 ,city ,road1 ,london4 ,,whitaker1 ,,walter1 ,combe ,down1 ,bath4 ,,whitaker1 ,w4 ,w41 ,cornbrook ,house1 ,manchester4 ,,wigan ,,public ,,library4 ,,wilkinson ,,son1 #h1 ,old ,bond ,street1 ,london4 ,,williams1 ,,mrs41 ,parcian1 ,anglesey4 ,,wills1 ,,george1 ,park ,street1 ,bristol4 ,,wilson1 ,,samuel1 #g1 ,king ,street1 ,st4 ,james's ,square4 ,,wolfsohn1 ,,helena1 ,dresden4 ,,wood1 ,,alexander1 ,saltcoats4 ,,wood1 ,,herbert ,s41 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a41 #af1 ,basinghall ,street1 ,london4 ,,wood1 ,t4 ,a41 #fg1 ,berners ,street1 ,london4 ,,worcester ,,public ,,library4 ,,wornum1 ,r4 ,s41 #bf1 ,bedford ,square1 ,london4 ,,worthington1 ,,henry ,h41 ,sale ,old ,hall1 ,manchester4 ,,wright1 ,a4 ,o41 #be1 ,low ,skellgate1 ,ripon4 ,,wright1 ,e41 #add1 ,wardour ,street1 ,london4 ,,wylie1 ,s41 ,glasgow4 ,,wyllik ,,sons1 ,d41 ,aberdeen4 ,,yorke1 ,,the ,,hon4 ,,mrs4 ,,eliot4 ,,received ,,too ,,late ,,for ,,classification4 ,,anderson1 ,,mrs4 ,j4 ,h41 ,palewell1 ,east ,sheen1 ,s4,w4 ,,bethell1 ,,william1 ,derwent ,bank1 ,malton4 ,,edwards1 ,,thomas ,,sons1 ,wolverhampton4 ,,emslie1 ,a41 ,rothay1 ,border ,crescent1 ,sydenham4 ,,gosford1 ,,the ,,rt4 ,,honble4 ,,the ,,countess ,,of4 ,,larking1 ,t4 ,j41 #bh1 ,new ,bond ,street1 ,w4 ,,mrs4 ,,harry ,,pollock4 ,,sidney1 ,t4 ,h41 ,wolverhampton4 ,illustration ,footnotes #a ,gopher is supposed to mean cypress wood4 ,see notes on ,woods 7,appendix74 #b ,see also ,notes on ,woods 7,appendix74 #c ,folding stool--,faldistory or ,faldstool--a portable seat1 similar to a camp stool1 of wood or metal covered with silk or other material4 ,it was used by a ,bishop when officiating in other than his own cathedral church4 #d ,those who would read a very interesting account of the history of this stone are referred to the late ,dean ,stanley's ,historical ,memorials of ,westminster ,abbey4 #e ,the sous1 which was but nominal money1 may be reckoned as representing #bj francs1 the denier #a franc1 but allowance must be made for the enormous difference in the value of silver1 which would make #bj francs in the thirteenth century represent upwards of #bjj francs in the present century4 #f ,the panels of the high screen or back to the stalls in ,la ,certosa di ,pavia 7a ,carthusian ,monastery suppressed by ,joseph ,,ii471 are famous examples of early intarsia4 ,in an essay on the subject written by ,mr4 ,t4,g4 ,jackson1 ,a4,r4,a41 they are said to be the work of one ,bartolommeo1 an ,istrian artist1 and to date from #adhf4 ,the same writer mentions still more elaborate examples of pictorial intarsia in the choir stalls of ,sta4 ,maria1 ,maggiore1 in ,bergamo4 #g ,writers of authority on architecture have noticed that the chief characteristic in style of the ,french ,renaissance1 as contrasted with the ,italian1 is that in the latter the details and ornament of the new school were imposed on the old foundations of ,gothic character4 ,the ,chateau of ,chambord is given as an instance of this combination4 #h ,dr4 ,jacob von ,falk states that the first mention of glass as an extraordinary product occurs in a register of #abci4 #i ,holland ,house1 by ,princess ,marie ,liechtenstein1 gives a full account of this historic mansion4 #aj ,the following passage occurs in one of ,beaumont and ,fletcher's plays3 ,is the great couch up1 the ,duke of ,medina sent8 to which the duenna replies1 ',tis up and ready2 and then ,marguerite asks1 ,and day beds in all chambers8 receiving in answer1 ,in all1 lady4 #aa ,this tapestry is still in the ,great ,hall at ,hampton ,court ,palace4 #ab ,,pg ,note ,the original text said gods4 #ac ,the present decorations of the ,palace of ,versailles were carried out about #ahcj1 under ,louis ,phillipe4 ,versailles ,galeries ,historiques1 par ,c4 ,gavard1 is a work of #ac vols41 devoted to the illustration of the pictures1 portraits1 statues1 busts1 and various decorative contents of the ,palace4 #ad ,for description of method of gilding the mounts of furniture1 see ,appendix4 #ae ,for a short account of these ,factories1 see ,appendix4 #af ,watteau1 #afhd-agba4 ,lancrel1 b4 #afij1 d4 #agdc4 ,boucher1 b4 #agjc1 d4 #aggj4 #ag ,the ,court room of the ,stationers' ,hall contains an excellent set of tables of this kind4 #ah ,the late ,mr4 ,adam ,black1 senior partner in the publishing firm of ,a4 and ,c4 ,black1 and ,lord ,macaulay's colleague in ,parliament1 when quite a young man1 assisted ,sheraton in the production of this book2 at that time the famous designer of furniture was in poor circumstances4 #ai ,the word ,baroque1 which became a generic term1 was derived from the ,portugese barroco1 meaning a large irregular-shaped pearl4 ,at first a jeweller's technical term1 it came later1 like rococo1 to be used to describe the kind of ornament which prevailed in design of the nineteenth century1 after the disappearance of the classic4 #bj ,mr4 ,parker defines ,dado as ,the solid block1 or cube1 forming the body of a pedestal in classical architecture1 between the base mouldings and the cornice3 an architectural arrangement of mouldings1 etc41 round the lower parts of the wall of a room1 resembling a continuous pedestal4 #ba ,owen ,jones' ,grammar of ,ornament1 a work much used by designers1 was published in #ahef4 #bb ,essay by ,mr4 ,edward ,s4 ,prior1 ,of ,furniture and the ,room4 #bc ,published in #ahfh1 when the craze for novelties was at its height4 #bd ,essay on ,decorated ,furniture1 by ,j4 ,h4 ,pollen4