,,home ,,geography ,,for ,,primary ,,grades ,,by ,c4 ,c4 ,,long1 ,ph4,d4 ,,author ,,of ,,new ,,language ,,lessons1 ,,lessons ,,in ,,english1 ,,etc41 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4 ,geography may be divided into the geography of the home and the geography of the world at large4 ,a knowledge of the home must be obtained by direct observation2 of the rest of the world1 through the imagination assisted by information4 ,ideas acquired by direct observation form a basis for imagining those things which are distant and unknown4 ,the first work1 then1 in geographical instruction1 is to study that small part of the earth's surface lying just at our doors4 ,all around are illustrations of lake and river1 upland and lowland1 slope and valley4 ,these forms must be actually observed by the pupil1 mental pictures obtained1 in order that he may be enabled to build up in his mind other mental pictures of similar unseen forms4 ,the hill that he climbs each day may1 by an appeal to his imagination1 represent to him the lofty ,andes or the ,alps4 ,from the meadow1 or the bit of level land near the door1 may be developed a notion of plain and prairie4 ,the little stream that flows past the schoolhouse door1 or even one formed by the sudden shower1 may speak to him of the ,mississippi1 the ,amazon1 or the ,rhine4 ,similarly1 the idea of sea or ocean may be deduced from that of pond or lake4 ,thus1 after the pupil has acquired elementary ideas by actual perception1 the imagination can use them in constructing1 on a larger scale1 mental pictures of similar objects outside the bounds of his own experience and observation4 ,to effect this1 the teacher should visit with her class places where the simpler geographical features in miniature may be observed4 ,if the school is in the city1 pupils may be taken to the parks for this purpose4 ,if out-of-door study be impossible1 they may be induced to recall objects which they have seen on their way to school or on short excursions in the neighborhood4 ,in the case of children who have little opportunity for observing nature1 a drawing1 a photograph1 or a model will be helpful in giving them a proper idea of the matter4 ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that actual observation by the pupil is necessary to seeing clearly and intelligently4 ,vegetable and animal life are essential features of the geography of the world1 and considerable time should be given to the study of those within the observation of the pupils4 ,information concerning plants may be gained by outdoor study2 also by planting seeds in boxes and having pupils carefully watch their germination and growth4 ,pupils should be encouraged to make collections of the minerals and rocks of their region4 ,these should be classified and arranged for use1 not for show4 ,the lessons about rain1 snow1 dew1 etc41 should be given at appropriate times4 ,a wet day will suggest a lesson on rain1 a snowy day a lesson about snow4 ,no attempt should be made at science teaching1 so-called4 ,all that should be sought is to get the pupil thoughtfully to observe1 and thus to awaken his interest in the world about him4 ,lessons should be conversational in form1 which is always a most pleasing style for children1 as it is the most natural4 ,the work of the teacher is to awaken and stimulate interest1 not to impart information4 ,the attention of the child should be directed to what lies around him4 ,he must observe1 and think1 and express his thoughts4 ,nor should his observations be confined to the school and school hours4 ,he should be encouraged to obtain his information by his own searching1 without guidance1 and report the results4 ,the development of clear mental pictures is stimulated by expression4 ,expression is the test of the pupil's knowledge4 ,hence1 the child should be required to reproduce what he has learned4 ,he may do this by modeling1 drawing1 and oral and written description4 ,these are placed in the order which should be followed in the training of children4 ,the inclination of nearly every child left to his own mode of development is to make1 in some plastic material1 what he has seen4 ,trying to fashion the hills and valleys with which he is familiar excites his interest1 and leads to closer observation4 ,this may be followed by the reproduction in molder's sand1 or in clay1 of the forms seen in pictures or learned from description4 ,definitions of the various forms1 hill1 mountain1 valley1 island1 etc41 should be developed as they are molded4 ,the memorizing of definitions should seldom be required1 and should never be made a test of the pupil's knowledge4 ,reproduction by the hand should be followed by drawing1 whenever this can be done4 ,drawing teaches the child how to see well4 ,it often enables him to reveal what could not well be expressed in words4 ,he also becomes ready and rapid in the use of the pencil when he has ideas to put on paper4 ,only reasonable accuracy should be required4 ,practice in making fine pictures should not be the end sought1 but the development of geographical ideas4 ,finally1 pupils should be led to give clear and connected statements of what has been learned4 ,for a language lesson1 a written description may be prepared1 illustrated by a drawing4 ,,contents4 ,i4--,,position ,,ii4--,,how ,,the ,,sun ,,shows ,,direction ,,iii4--,,how ,,the ,,stars ,,show ,,direction ,,iv4--,,how ,,the ,,compass ,,shows ,,direction ,v4--,,questions ,,on ,,direction ,,vi4--,,what ,,the ,,winds ,,bring 7,,poem7 ,,vii4--,,how ,,to ,,tell ,,distance ,,viii4--,,pictures ,,and ,,plans ,,ix4--,,written ,,exercise ,x4--,,god ,,made ,,them ,,all 7,,poem7 ,,xi4--,,plains ,,xii4--,,hills1 ,,mountains1 ,,valleys ,,xiii4--,,rain1 ,,wind1 ,,and ,,snow ,,xiv4--,,how ,,water ,,is ,,changed ,,to ,,vapor ,,xv4--,,how ,,vapor ,,is ,,changed ,,to ,,water ,,xvi4--,,dew1 ,,clouds1 ,,and ,,rain ,,xvii4--,,the ,,fairy ,,artist 7,,poem7 ,,xviii4--,,how ,,rivers ,,are ,,made ,,xix4--,,more ,,about ,,rivers ,,xx4--,,the ,,brook 7,,poem7 ,,xxi4--,,work ,,of ,,flowing ,,rivers ,,xxii4--,,waterdrop',s ,,story ,,xxiii4--,,the ,,river 7,,poem7 ,,xxiv4--,a ,,map ,,xxv4--,,forms ,,of ,,land ,,and ,,water ,,xxvi4--,,more ,,about ,,forms ,,of ,,land ,,and ,,water ,,xxvii4--,a ,,trip ,,to ,,the ,,highlands ,,xxviii4--,,spring 7,,poem7 ,,xxix4--,,useful ,,vegetables ,,xxx4--,,useful ,,grains ,,xxxi4--,,fruits ,,xxxii4--,,useful ,,plants ,,xxxiii4--,,forest ,,trees ,,xxxiv4--,,flowers ,,xxxv4--,,what ,,is ,,necessary ,,to ,,make ,,plants ,,grow ,,xxxvi4--,,summer ,,rain 7,,poem7 ,,xxxvii4--,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,animals ,,xxxviii4--,,the ,,covering ,,of ,,animals ,,xxxix4--,,uses ,,of ,,animals ,,xl4--,,the ,,signs ,,of ,,the ,,seasons 7,,poem7 ,,xli4--,,things ,,found ,,in ,,the ,,earth ,,xlii4--,,more ,,about ,,things ,,found ,,in ,,the ,,earth ,,xliii4--,,how ,,people ,,live1 ,,and ,,what ,,they ,,are ,,doing ,,xliv4--,,more ,,about ,,what ,,people ,,are ,,doing ,,xlv4--,a ,,review ,,lesson ,home ,geography4 ,,lesson ,i4 ,,position4 ,lay your hands upon your desk1 side by side4 ,which side shall we call the right side8 ,the left side8 ,put your hands on the middle of your desk on the side farthest from you4 ,that part is the back of your desk4 ,think which is the front of your desk4 ,put your hands on the front of your desk4 ,who sits on your right hand8 ,on your left8 ,at the desk in front of you8 ,at the desk behind you8 ,turn round4 ,who is on your right now8 ,on your left8 ,before you8 ,behind you8 ,turn again4 ,who is now on your right8 ,on your left8 ,before you8 ,behind you8 ,,note4--,lead children to see that the terms right1 left1 front1 and back are of little use in telling the position of places1 and that some fixed standard of direction is necessary4 ,,lesson ,,ii4 ,,how ,,the ,,sun ,,shows ,,direction4 ,if ,i should ask1 ,which is the way to your home8 who could tell me what ,i mean8 ,you all know which way you must go to find your home1 but if you should wish to go to a place where you have never been1 you would ask1 perhaps1 ,which way is it8 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,way ,,to ,a ,,place ,,is ,,called ,,direction4 ,the way to a place is called direction4 ,in order to find a place1 we must know in what direction from us it lies1 and we have names for directions1 such as north1 south1 east1 and west4 ,we may know these directions by seeing where the sun is4 ,did you ever see the sun rise8 ,point to the place where you saw the sun rise4 ,the direction in which the sun seems to rise is called the east4 ,did you ever see the sun set8 ,point to where you saw the sun set4 ,the direction in which the sun seems to set is called the west4 ,the west is just the opposite direction from east4 ,when do we see the sun rise8 ,where do we see the sun rise8 ,what is the name of this direction8 ,when do we see the sun set8 ,where do we see it set8 ,what is the name of this direction8 ,on which side of the schoolroom does the sun rise8 ,on which side does it set8 ,which is the east side of your desk8 ,which the west side8 ,when coming to school this morning1 in what direction did you see the sun8 ,if we walk so that the morning sun shines in our faces1 in what direction are we going8 ,what direction is behind us8 ,now that you know the east1 you will be able to find other directions in this way3 ,stretch out your arms so that your right hand points toward the east1 and your left hand toward the west4 ,you are now facing the north4 ,the direction behind you is the south4 ,illustration3 ,,you ,,are ,,now ,,facing ,,the ,,north4 ,write the following on your slates3 ,the sun seems to rise toward the east1 and set toward the west4 ,the west is just the opposite direction from the east4 ,when my right hand is pointing to the east1 and my left hand to the west1 my face is toward the north and my back is toward the south4 ,,oral ,,exercises4 ,which is the north side of the schoolroom8 ,which is the south side8 ,who sits to the north of you8 ,to the south8 ,in what direction do the pupils face8 ,on which side of your schoolroom is the teacher's table8 ,which sides have no windows8 ,which sides have no doors8 ,if a room has a fireplace in the middle of the east side1 which side of the room faces the fire8 ,suppose the wind is blowing from the north1 in what direction will the smoke go8 ,in what direction from the schoolhouse is the playground8 ,what is the first street or road north of the school8 ,the first street or road east8 ,south8 ,west8 ,in what direction is your home from the school8 ,the school from your home8 ,the nearest church from the school8 ,the post office from your home8 ,,lesson ,,iii4 ,,how ,,the ,,stars ,,show ,,direction4 ,you have learned how to tell north1 south1 east1 and west by the sun2 but how can we tell these directions at night8 ,ask some one to point out to you a group of seven bright stars in the north part of the sky4 ,some people think that this group of stars looks like a wagon and three horses2 others say that it looks like a plow4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,bear4 ,the proper name of the group containing these seven stars is the ,great ,bear4 ,the group was given this name because men at first thought it looked like a bear with a long tail4 ,these seven stars are called the ,dipper4 ,it is a part of a larger group called the ,great ,bear4 ,find the two bright twinkling stars farthest from its handle4 ,a line drawn through them will point to another star1 not quite so bright1 called the ,north ,star4 ,that star is always in the north2 so by it1 on a clear night1 you can tell the other directions at once4 ,write on your slates3 ,sailors out on the sea at night often find direction by looking at the ,north ,star4 ,,lesson ,,iv4 ,,how ,,the ,,compass ,,shows ,,direction4 ,but there are times when it is cloudy1 and neither the sun nor the stars can be seen4 ,how can we tell direction then8 ,have you ever seen a compass8 ,it is a box in which is a little needle swinging on the top of a pin4 ,when this needle is at rest1 one end of it points to the north4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,compass4 ,as the needle shows where the north is2 it is easy to find the south1 the east1 or the west4 ,with the compass as a guide1 the sailor1 in the darkest night1 can tell in what direction he is going4 ,north1 south1 east1 and west are called the chief points of the compass4 ,other directions are northeast1 halfway between north and east2 northwest1 halfway between north and west2 southeast1 halfway between south and east2 and southwest1 halfway between south and west4 ,illustration3 ,,points ,,of ,,the ,,compass4 ,write on your slates3 ,the chief points of the compass are north1 south1 east1 and west4 ,other directions are northeast1 southeast1 southwest1 and northwest4 ,sailors find their way over the ocean by the help of the compass4 ,,lesson ,v4 ,,questions ,,on ,,direction4 ,your teacher will give you time to discover answers to these questions4 ,she could tell you1 but it is better to find them out for yourself4 ,if ,i go out of doors1 how can ,i find the north8 ,how can ,i find it on a starlight night8 ,how can ,i find it on pleasant days8 ,how on rainy days8 ,how does a sailor find the north8 ,if you were lost and knew your home was north1 how would you find it8 ,do you know how hunters and ,indians who live a great deal in the woods find out where the north is8 ,when you are in the woods1 notice the amount of moss on the north side of trees as compared to that on the south side4 ,as winter approaches2 many of our birds will want to go to a warmer country2 in what direction will they fly8 ,point to where ice and snow have their home4 ,what direction is that8 ,in what direction does your shadow fall at sunrise8 ,at sunset8 ,at noon8 ,when1 during the day1 is your shadow shortest8 ,illustration3 ,,in ,,what ,,direction ,,does ,,your ,,shadow ,,fall8 ,in what direction does your shadow extend from yourself when it is shortest8 ,what time of day is noon8 ,how can we tell when it is noon8 ,when is the sun highest in the sky8 ,illustration3 ,,what ,,may ,,we ,,discover ,,by ,,watching ,,the ,,smoke8 ,what may we discover by watching the direction of the smoke from the chimneys8 ,what does a vane on a steeple tell us8 ,what is a north wind8 ,a south wind8 ,an east wind8 ,a west wind8 ,what kind of weather may be expected from a north wind8 ,from a south wind8 ,from an east wind8 ,from a west wind8 ,,lesson ,,vi4 ,,what ,,the ,,winds ,,bring4 ,comes the north wind1 snowflakes bringing3 ,robes the fields in purest white1 ,paints grand houses1 trees1 and mountains ,on our window-panes at night4 ,hills and vales the east wind visits1 ,brings them chilly1 driving rain2 ,shivering cattle homeward hurry1 ,onward through the darkening lane4 ,heat the south wind kindly gives us2 ,reddens apples1 gilds the pear1 ,gives the grape a richer purple1 ,scatters plenty everywhere4 ,flowers sweet the west wind offers1 ,peeping forth from vines and trees2 ,brings the butterflies so brilliant1 ,and the busy1 humming bees4 ,each wind brings his own best treasure ,to our land from year to year2 ,blessings many without measure ,e'er attend the winds' career4 ,lillian ,cox4 ,whichever way the wind doth blow4 ,some heart is glad to have it so2 ,and blow it east or blow it west1 ,the wind that blows1 that wind is best4 ,write all that you can tell about the wind4 ,what was the direction of the wind during the last snow-storm8 ,why is the north wind cold8 ,why is the south wind warm8 ,,lesson ,,vii4 ,,how ,,to ,,tell ,,distance4 ,to tell where a place is1 we must know its direction4 ,but this is not all2 we must also know how far it is from us2 that is2 its distance4 ,to find this out we measure4 ,you have often heard of an inch1 a foot1 and a yard4 ,this line is one inch long --------4 ,your ruler is twelve inches long1 that is a foot4 ,three lengths of your ruler make a yard4 ,a yard stick is three feet long4 ,illustration3 ,,measuring ,,short ,,distances4 ,with these measures you can tell how long your slate or your desk is1 or how long and wide the schoolroom is4 ,the inch1 foot1 and yard are used for measuring short distances4 ,but when we wish to tell the distance between objects far apart1 we use another measure called a mile4 ,a mile is much longer than a yard4 ,think of some object that is a mile from our schoolhouse4 ,how long would it take you to walk that distance8 ,illustration3 ,,measuring ,,long ,,distances4 ,,oral ,,exercises4 ,how many inches long is your slate8 ,how long is your desk8 ,how many feet long is your room8 ,how wide is it8 ,what is the distance around the room8 ,how many feet wide is each window8 ,each door8 ,how many yards wide is the nearest street or road8 ,about what is the height of the schoolroom8 ,of the schoolhouse8 ,of the tallest tree near by8 ,of the nearest church spire8 ,about how long is the longest street in the town where you live8 ,do you know how many blocks or squares make a mile8 ,name the nearest river or creek4 ,give its direction from the school4 ,in what direction does the water run8 ,give the direction and distance of the nearest church4 ,what must you know to go to any place8 ,,note4--,have pupils estimate distances by the eye1 then verify by actual measurement4 ,continue the exercises until the work becomes quite accurate4 ,correct ideas of distance are necessary in order to understand how large the world is1 and how far apart places are on its surface4 ,,lesson ,,viii4 ,,pictures ,,and ,,plans4 ,you all know what a picture is4 ,but do you know what a plan is8 ,a little boy wanted to show his cousin1 who lived some miles away2 the shape and size of his house1 and how the rooms were arranged4 ,how could he do this8 ,on a large sheet of white paper1 he placed lines of blocks in the form of his house4 ,then1 with a lead pencil1 he drew a line on the paper along the sides of the blocks4 ,he next took up the blocks1 and there1 on the paper1 was a plan of his house4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,picture ,,shows ,,the ,,objects4 ,here is a picture of a schoolroom4 ,we see desks1 the teacher's table1 a chair1 a clock1 globe1 and two maps1 in the picture4 ,the picture shows these objects as they would appear if we stood at the door behind the teacher's table and looked in4 ,this is a plan of the schoolroom1 a picture of which is shown above4 ,you see1 the plan and picture are quite different4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,plan ,,shows ,,where ,,the ,,objects ,,are4 ,the picture shows the objects as we see them before us4 ,the plan shows where the objects are1 and their direction from one another4 ,now let us see if we can make a plan of the same schoolroom on the blackboard4 ,the first thing is to measure the sides of the room4 ,we will suppose the two long sides are each forty feet long1 and the two short sides each thirty feet long4 ,now we will draw four straight lines on the board for the four sides4 ,of course1 the lines must be much shorter than the sides themselves1 else our plan will be too large4 ,make one inch in the plan stand for one foot in the room4 ,so the lines for the long sides will each be forty inches long1 and the lines for the short sides thirty inches long4 ,the next thing is to make spaces in the sides for the door and the windows1 and oblongs for the desks4 ,but we must remember that an inch in our plan stands for a foot in the object itself1 and therefore we must allow as many inches for the width of doors and windows1 and for the length and width of the desks1 as there are feet in the objects themselves4 ,thus1 if the door is three feet wide1 we must make it three inches wide in our plan4 ,and lastly1 we will draw a circle for the globe1 and an oblong and square for the teacher's table and chair1 that shall show just where and just how long these objects are4 ,we have now a plan of the schoolroom4 ,let us put ,n4 to show the north side of the room1 ,s4 to show the south side1 ,e4 to show the east side1 and ,w4 to show the west side4 ,we can now tell the direction of one thing from another in our plan4 ,,lesson ,,ix4 ,,written ,,exercise4 ,illustration3 ,,picture ,,of ,,school ,,grounds4 ,write the answers to the following questions1 in full sentences3 ,what is the name of your school8 ,on what street or road is it8 ,which side of the street8 ,between what streets8 ,in which direction does the building face8 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,school ,,grounds4 ,how many rooms has the building8 ,in what part of the building is your room8 ,how large is it8 ,how many doors and windows8 ,how many seats8 ,in what direction is the school from your home8 ,how far is it8 ,how long does it take you to walk to school8 ,,exercises ,,in ,,drawing ,,plans4 ,draw a plan of the schoolroom on your slates4 ,it cannot be drawn on your slates as large as it was drawn on the board4 ,so let one inch stand for ten feet1 instead of for one foot2 that is1 use a scale of one inch for every ten feet4 ,your plan will not be as large as mine1 but it will show the position of everything as correctly4 ,draw a plan of the top of the teacher's table1 showing two books and an inkstand upon it4 ,first1 measure the sides4 ,then decide to what scale you will draw your plan4 ,now draw a plan of the schoolhouse and grounds4 ,you must measure not only the house1 but the width and length of the yard4 ,the plan must show the size1 shape1 and place of everything upon the grounds4 7,while drawing a plan of this kind1 it is better to let the pupils face the north4 ,the top of the plan should be the north side of the grounds47 ,draw a plan of your own room at home1 showing the table1 bed1 chairs1 and other objects in it4 ,,oral ,,exercise4 ,if the shape of a room is shown on the blackboard1 what have we drawn8 ,is a plan the same as a picture8 ,what is the use of a plan8 ,mention some things of which plans can be drawn4 ,,note4--,it is wrong to teach that the top of a map or plan is always north2 as often as not1 the bottom is north1 in plans especially4 ,,lesson ,x4 ,,god ,,made ,,them ,,all4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,purple-,,headed ,,mountain1 ,,the ,,river ,,running ,,by4 ,all things bright and beautiful1 ,all creatures great and small1 ,all things wise and wonderful1 ,the good ,god made them all4 ,each little flower that opens1 ,each little bird that sings1 ,he made their glowing colors1 ,he made their tiny wings4 ,the purple-headed mountain1 ,the river running by1 ,the morning and the sunset1 ,the twinkling stars on high2 ,the tall trees in the greenwood1 ,the pleasant summer sun1 ,the ripe fruits in the garden-- ,he made them every one4 ,he gave us eyes to see them1 ,and lips that we might tell ,how great is ,god ,almighty1 ,who hath made all things well4 ,,lesson ,,xi4 ,,plains4 ,the floor of our schoolroom is level4 ,the playground is almost1 if not quite1 level4 ,as you look away from the school1 is the land nearly level8 ,did you ever see a broad extent of nearly level land8 ,let us imagine that we are out on a piece of nearly level land1 many1 many times larger than our playground4 ,such a broad1 nearly level stretch of land is called a plain4 ,illustration3 ,,such ,a ,,broad ,,level ,,stretch ,,of ,,land ,,is ,,called ,a ,,plain4 ,if this plain were covered with rich green grass and beautiful flowers1 we should call it a prairie4 ,in the summer it is a vast sea of waving grass4 ,on the prairie we might find herds of wild horses and cattle1 which feed upon the rich grass4 ,if it were late in the summer1 when the grass is dry and crisp1 it might catch fire1 and we might then see a grand sight--a prairie on fire4 ,we now come to another plain1 miles and miles long1 miles and miles wide4 ,no rain falls here1 and therefore we see no grass1 nor flowers1 nor cattle1 nor horses1 nothing but dry1 burning sand1 rocks1 or gravel4 ,we are in a desert4 ,but we are so thirsty and tired6 ,no water to drink1 no shade from the burning sun6 ,suddenly1 in the midst of the desert1 we come to a beautiful grassy spot4 ,there is a cluster of date-palm trees1 and1 better still1 a well or a spring of fresh water4 ,this pleasant spot in the desert is called an oasis4 ,here we may quench our thirst1 and rest beneath the shade of the trees4 ,illustration3 ,,this ,,pleasant ,,spot ,,in ,,the ,,desert ,,is ,,called ,,an ,,oasis4 ,an oasis is a fertile spot in a desert4 ,what does fertile mean8 ,when do we say land is fertile8 ,when barren8 ,when desert8 ,find a picture of a palm tree1 and try to draw it4 ,if we were really in a desert1 we might see a company of merchants carrying goods to sell in the countries they visit4 ,such a company is called a caravan4 ,the goods are packed in bundles1 which are carried on camels' backs4 ,the camel can live for a long time without drinking1 and can carry a heavy load of merchandise a long distance4 ,it is sometimes called the ship of the desert4 ,why do travelers use camels to cross the desert8 ,why do they not use horses8 ,if you can not find answers to these questions in your books at home1 ask your teacher about them4 ,you have seen a small whirlwind in the street4 ,the leaves flew round and round1 the dust whirled along in clouds4 ,trees are sometimes torn from the ground1 and houses overturned1 by a strong wind4 ,now think of a wind-storm in the desert4 ,a loud1 rustling noise is heard4 ,great clouds of fine sand are lifted into the air--clouds which darken the sun6 ,travelers must at once jump from their camels1 cover themselves with their cloaks1 and lie flat on the ground4 ,the poor beasts will close their eyes and nostrils1 and kneel with their backs to the wind until the storm has passed over4 ,thankful will the travelers be if none of them are buried in the sand4 ,,lesson ,,xii4 ,,hills1 ,,mountains1 ,,valleys4 ,the land is not always level like a plain4 ,in some places it is high and uneven4 ,we all know what a hill is4 ,it is land a little higher than the surrounding country4 ,is there a hill near where you live8 ,let us walk to the top1 and stand on its summit4 ,we will start from the foot or base of the hill4 ,now we have climbed its steep1 rough sides or slopes4 ,was the ascent difficult8 ,is the view from the top fine8 ,illustration3 ,,what ,,can ,,you ,,see ,,from ,,the ,,top ,,of ,,the ,,hill8 ,what can you see from the top of the hill--meadow1 river1 lake1 town8 ,what grow on the hill8 ,what live on the hill8 ,which part of a hill is called the base1 or foot8 ,the slope1 or sides8 ,the top1 or summit8 ,give two names for the lowest part of a hill4 ,two for the highest part4 ,two for the part between the highest and lowest parts4 ,parts of the land very much higher than the surrounding country are called mountains4 ,mountains are much higher than hills4 ,have you ever seen a steeple one hundred feet high8 ,a mountain is as high as twenty such steeples1 one on the top of the other4 ,how high the mountains must be6 ,some mountains reach away above the clouds4 ,their white tops seem to touch the sky4 ,a man on the summit of one saw the clouds beneath his feet1 while the sun shone where he stood4 ,when it lightened he saw the flash far below him4 ,is it warm or cold at the tops of mountains8 ,with what are many high mountains covered1 even in summer8 ,the land between mountains or hills is called a valley4 ,is there a valley near here8 ,what do you call the ground on either side8 ,would you like best to live on the mountains or in the valley8 ,why8 ,are mountains of any use8 ,yes1 hills and mountains are of very great use4 ,they make the earth more beautiful4 ,tops of high mountains are so cold that they turn the clouds into drops of water which fall as rain or snow4 ,then mountains give rise to rivers which make the valleys beautiful with grass and flowers4 ,mountains do much good to some countries by keeping off cold winds4 ,they also give us coal and iron and other minerals which we find so useful4 ,illustration3 ,,think ,,of ,a ,,real ,,valley ,,between ,,mountains4 ,here is a picture4 ,what do you call the very high land on the right and on the left8 ,the long1 narrow piece of land between the two mountains8 ,when you look at this picture you must think of a real valley between mountains4 ,bring pictures of hills and mountains to school2 if you can find them4 ,if you had a molding-board and a few quarts of sand2 you might represent hills and mountains with valleys between4 ,think of a real hill while you mold4 ,draw on your slate a hill you have seen with a little of the surrounding country4 ,write3 ,a long1 narrow piece of land between hills and mountains is called a valley4 ,a hill is land a little higher than the country about it4 ,a mountain is land that rises to a very great height above the country about it4 ,,lesson ,,xiii4 ,,rain1 ,,wind1 ,,and ,,snow4 ,do you see the dropping rain1 ,pitter-patter on the pane8 ,how it runs along the street6 ,and it wets our little feet2 ,but it makes the green grass grow1 ,and the tiny streamlets flow4 ,listen to the wintry blast ,moaning1 shrieking1 howling past1 ,striking with tremendous force ,rocks and forests in its course2 ,but it blows the windmills strong1 ,and it sends big ships along4 ,watch the pretty snowflakes fall1 ,some are large and some are small2 ,look1 they cover all the ground1 ,miles of dazzling white around2 ,but this covering1 ,i am told1 ,keeps the earth from frost and cold4 ,ah6 and ,i must work alway1 ,life's not meant to spend in play2 ,every moment's fleeting fast1 ,and our day will soon be past2 ,if our work is truly done1 ,it will last though ages run4 ,of what use is rain8 ,of what use is snow8 ,of what use is wind8 ,,lesson ,,xiv4 ,,how ,,water ,,is ,,changed ,,to ,,vapor4 ,what happens when a kettle of water is put on a hot stove8 ,the water gets hot and boils away4 ,where does it go8 ,is it destroyed8 ,the water is changed1 but it is not destroyed4 ,coal burns1 but we do not get rid of it altogether4 ,it is changed into gas and smoke and ashes4 ,what is the water changed into8 ,it is changed to vapor4 ,if we let the kettle remain on the fire long enough1 the water it contains will all pass away as vapor4 ,where does the vapor go8 ,the water1 though turned into vapor1 must be somewhere4 ,it is floating about in the air of the room1 though we cannot see it4 ,the air holds the vapor1 just as a sponge holds water4 ,heat expands or swells air4 ,warm air1 therefore1 can contain more vapor than cold air4 ,on a warm day there may be many times as much moisture in the air as on a cold day4 ,moisten your slate with a damp sponge4 ,observe the disappearance of the moisture4 ,dip your hand in water1 and wave it in the air4 ,the water on your hand disappears4 ,where has it gone8 ,when wet clothes are hung on the line1 they soon become dry4 ,what becomes of the water in the clothes8 ,if we set a plate of water out in the sunshine1 what happens8 ,is the water lost8 ,the streets and roads were wet and muddy1 now they are dry4 ,what has become of the water8 ,has it all sunk into the ground8 ,sometimes we see leaves and grass sparkle with water-drops1 early in the morning1 ,when the sun shines out and warms the air2 what happens8 ,why does vapor rise into the air8 ,why does smoke go up8 ,because it is lighter than air4 ,as vapor is lighter than air2 what do you think ought to happen to it8 ,,lesson ,,xv4 ,,how ,,vapor ,,is ,,changed ,,to ,,water1 ,heat1 as you have learned1 changes water into vapor4 ,you must also know that cold turns vapor back into water again4 ,illustration3 ,,think ,,of ,,the ,,kettle ,,with ,,the ,,boiling ,,water4 ,now let us think of the kettle with the boiling water4 ,you will notice a little space2 quite close to the spout1 where nothing can be seen4 ,is there no vapor there8 ,yes1 there is vapor there1 but it cannot be seen2 it is invisible4 ,a little way from the spout we see something white1 like smoke4 ,this is only the vapor that has been chilled by the cool air and changed back again into water4 ,the water is in the form of very fine particles1 and may be called water-dust4 ,hold a cold plate over boiling water4 ,observe how the water-dust gathers into drops that roll down the plate4 ,you have seen the inside of windows in cold weather covered with moisture4 ,where does it come from8 ,why did it form there8 ,why does it sometimes run down on the cold pane8 ,the vapor in our breath turns into water on frosty mornings4 ,explain this4 ,carry a pitcher of ice-water into a room1 and notice what takes place4 ,a thin mist at once gathers on the outside of the pitcher4 ,what takes place among the little drops of mist8 ,what becomes of these larger drops8 ,where does the water which collects on the outside of the pitcher come from8 ,does it come through the pitcher from the inside8 ,would the same thing have taken place if some other cold object had been used instead of a cold pitcher8 ,write out what you have learned about vapor4 ,,lesson ,,xvi4 ,,dew1 ,,clouds1 ,,and ,,rain4 ,the sun is all the time heating the water on the land and in the sea1 and changing it into vapor1 which rises in the air4 ,we cannot see the vapor2 but it is in the air around us4 ,if the vapor in the air is suddenly cooled1 a strange thing happens4 ,some of it quickly changes back into water4 ,you have often seen1 in the early morning1 little drops of water hanging like pearls upon the blades of grass4 ,now1 where do these drops come from8 ,they come from the air4 ,the vapor in the air floats against the cold grass and leaves1 and is cooled and changed into tiny drops of water4 ,we call this dew4 ,of what use is dew8 ,if the night is quite cold1 the dew will freeze4 ,it is then called frost4 ,you have seen the frosty window pane with the beautiful pictures upon it4 ,make a picture of the window as you remember it1 covered with the pretty things made by the frost4 ,illustration3 ,,when ,,vapor ,,rises ,,high ,,in ,,the ,,cool ,,air4 ,when vapor rises high in the cool air it is turned into very small drops of water or minute crystals of ice1 and we can see it floating about in the air4 ,it is then called a cloud4 ,almost any clear day you may see clouds form and then seem to melt away4 ,you have seen on a blue sky1 light1 fleecy feather-clouds4 ,they are very high up1 and it is very cold where they are4 ,you have also noticed the clouds at sunset with their beautiful colors4 ,as the sun sank lower and lower1 how did they change1 in shape and color8 ,when clouds are low down1 near the earth1 we call them fogs or mist4 ,if clouds are cooled1 the little particles of water gather into large drops and fall as rain4 ,if the drops should freeze in falling1 we would call them hail4 ,what shape are the raindrops8 ,of what use is the rain8 ,illustration3 ,,have ,,you ,,ever ,,seen ,,snowflakes ,,through ,a ,,microscope8 ,sometimes1 when it is very cold1 the moisture in the air freezes before it forms into drops1 and falls in the beautiful flakes we call snow4 ,have you ever seen snowflakes through a microscope8 ,snow keeps the roots of plants warm4 ,many plants would die in winter if it were not for the snow4 ,what other uses has snow8 ,observe the clouds2 fog1 rain1 snow1 dew1 frost1 and tell what you have noticed4 ,write what you have seen or noticed about vapor1 clouds1 rain1 etc4 ,,lesson ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,fairy ,,artist4 ,oh1 there is a little artist ,who paints in the cold night hours ,pictures for little children ,of wondrous trees and flowers6 ,pictures of snow-white mountains ,touching the snow-white sky2 ,pictures of distant oceans ,where pretty ships sail by4 ,pictures of rushing rivers ,by fairy bridges spanned2 ,bits of beautiful landscape ,copied from elfin land4 ,the moon is the lamp he paints by2 ,his canvas the window pane2 ,his brush is a frozen snowflake2 ,jack ,frost the artist's name4 ,,lesson ,,xviii4 ,,how ,,rivers ,,are ,,made4 ,have you ever seen a brook or creek8 ,a river8 ,is there a brook or river near here8 ,who can tell where it begins8 where the water conies from that fills it8 where it goes8 ,let us try to understand this4 ,as vapor rises into high1 cool air1 or is carried with the air in winds up the sides of mountains1 it turns into water again1 and comes falling down as rain4 ,now think where the rain that falls on mountains must go4 ,some of the water runs off on the surface1 down the mountain slope4 ,some sinks into the ground1 and runs along in little streams below the surface4 ,it will appear again1 bubbling out of the mountain side as a spring4 ,the spring is the beginning of a river4 ,did you ever see a spring8 ,where was it8 ,was it shaded by trees8 ,where did the water come from8 ,did you drink from it8 ,was the water pure and cold8 ,where did the water go after leaving the spring8 ,illustration3 ,,did ,,you ,,ever ,,see ,a ,,spring8 ,from the spring flows a tiny1 thread-like stream1 so small that we can easily step across it4 ,this little stream is called a rill4 ,other rills meet this1 and form a larger stream1 which is called a brook or creek4 ,illustration3 ,,river ,,from ,,its ,,source ,,to ,,its ,,mouth4 ,as the brook flows on1 it is joined by other streams1 until1 little by little1 it becomes a wide and deep river on which large boats may float4 ,at last1 it finds its way into the ocean4 ,where a river begins is its source4 ,the place where it flows into another body of water is called its mouth4 ,the land over which it flows is its bed4 ,a river has two banks4 ,as we go toward its mouth1 the right bank is on our right hand1 and the left bank is on our left4 ,do you live near a river8 ,where does the water come from8 ,in what direction does it flow8 ,why does it flow in such direction8 ,does it wind about much8 ,does it flow into the ocean1 or into another river8 ,is the water fresh or salt8 ,what grow on its banks8 ,near which bank do you live8 ,make a picture of a spring1 and a brook flowing from it4 ,draw the tall grass and plants that grow near it4 ,write the names of all the rivers you have seen4 ,write the following3 ,water flowing out of the ground is called a spring4 ,from springs flow small streams called rills1 brooks1 or creeks4 ,a large stream of water flowing through the land is called a river4 ,a small stream of water flowing into a larger one is called a tributary4 ,the source of a river is where it begins4 ,the place where it empties into another body of water is its mouth4 ,every river has two banks--a right-hand bank and a left-hand bank4 ,,lesson ,,xix4 ,,more ,,about ,,rivers4 ,let us have another chat about the river4 ,we may fancy that we are following it in its course to the sea4 ,we shall then learn for ourselves many things we do not know about rivers4 ,we will begin our journey at its source4 ,here it is a little rill1 formed by water that trickles from a spring1 or by the melting of snow4 ,as it flows on1 it is joined by many other little streams1 until it grows to be much larger4 ,there is a large word used for a stream that feeds another stream4 ,do you know what it is8 ,the word1 is tributary4 ,tributaries are often called branches4 ,before we leave this part of the river1 ,i wish you to learn another hard word4 ,you have seen the water run off the roof of a shed4 ,the ridge2 or highest part of the roof1 divides the rain that falls on it1 so that part of the rain flows down the one side1 and part of it flows down the other side4 ,illustration3 ,,hills ,,send ,,off ,,streams ,,on ,,both ,,sides4 ,now1 hills1 like the roof of a house1 send off streams on both sides4 ,when it rains1 or the snow melts1 some of the water goes down on one side1 some on the other4 ,and that is why the hills which divide or part the waters of streams are called a water-parting or water-shed4 ,let us now go further down the stream4 ,here we see it rushing rapidly down a steep slope4 ,its waters foam and dash between the great rocks that lie in the stream4 ,such places in the river are called rapids4 ,can you tell why they are so called8 ,illustration3 ,,such ,,places ,,are ,,called ,,rapids4 ,the stream flows on4 ,it has now reached a high ledge of rock4 ,over this it leaps1 making a great foam and noise4 ,when the water of a river falls over high rocks1 it is called a waterfall or cataract4 ,you may have seen the ,falls of ,niagara1 the greatest waterfall in the world4 ,illustration3 ,,you ,,may ,,have ,,seen ,,the ,,falls ,,of ,,niagara4 ,the course of our river is now through a lower country4 ,the valley in which it flows spreads out1 and the stream grows wider and wider4 ,the water moves slower and slower4 ,why is the river swift in some places1 and in others slow8 ,at length it flows through an almost level country4 ,it is here widest and deepest4 ,its course is more winding4 ,do you know why it is crooked and winding8 ,because on the steep hillside the water runs very rapidly1 and is not easily turned aside4 ,where the ground is nearly level1 it runs slowly1 and is easily turned from its course4 ,,lesson ,,xx4 ,,the ,,brook4 ,from a fountain ,in a mountain1 ,drops of water ran ,trickling through the grasses2 ,so our brook began4 ,slow it started2 ,soon it darted1 ,cool and clear and free1 ,rippling over pebbles1 ,hurrying to the sea4 ,children straying ,came a-playing ,on its pretty banks2 ,glad1 our little brooklet ,sparkled up its thanks4 ,blossoms floating1 ,mimic boating1 ,fishes darting past1 ,swift1 and strong1 and happy1 ,widening very fast4 ,bubbling1 singing1 ,rushing1 ringing1 ,flecked with shade and sun4 ,soon our pretty brooklet ,to the sea has run4 ,,lesson ,,xxi4 ,,work ,,of ,,flowing ,,rivers4 ,would you like to know more about brooks and rivers--about the work they do8 ,notice what happens when it rains4 ,little tiny streams are formed1 which chase each other down the slopes4 ,see how they cut away the loose soil and carry it off4 ,notice how muddy this loose soil makes the water4 ,what becomes of this loose soil1 or mud8 ,fill a jar with water4 ,put in a handful of mud from the nearest stream4 ,shake the jar1 and the water is muddy4 ,let it stand awhile4 ,what do you notice8 ,the water is clear1 and the soil has settled to the bottom4 ,follow the streams to the valley where they unite to form a river4 ,when does the load of mud it carries settle8 ,here1 where the water scarcely moves1 we find some of the soil spread out over the ground near the river banks4 ,you have seen a river overflow its banks4 ,when the water went down1 it left a layer of rich mud1 which made the soil very fertile4 ,illustration3 ,,these ,,fertile ,,meadows ,,were ,,formed ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,loam4 ,have you never seen the low ground on the banks of rivers covered with rich grass and clover8 ,well1 these fertile meadows were formed out of the loam that has been washed down the streams from the far-off hills and mountains4 ,look at the jar again4 ,which settled first1 the coarse material or fine loam8 ,what kind of a deposit will be made in the upper course of a river8 ,what kind toward the mouth8 ,high up in the valley1 when the river is low1 we see pebbles in its bed2 lower down1 the pebbles are worn into gravel2 and as we get still farther down1 we find the gravel ground into sand4 ,examine the stones found along the shore of a brook or river4 ,some are quite smooth and round4 ,they were not always so1 but had sharp edges4 ,do you know what made them round8 ,when there are heavy rains1 the rushing water sweeps large stones down the mountain side and into the valley4 ,as they are carried down the stream1 the stones1 by rubbing against each other1 are smoothed and rounded and ground into pebbles4 ,the pebbles themselves are ground at last into gravel and fine sand4 ,this is what the streams are doing everywhere--plowing deep furrows in the sides of the mountains1 grinding the pebbles and sand into fine soil1 and carrying it into the valleys below4 ,,lesson ,,xxii4 ,,waterdrop',s ,,story4 ,patter1 patter1 fall the raindrops on the brown leaves in the woods4 ,mr4 ,squirrel's bright eyes sparkle as he peeps out of his queer little home1 a hole in the tree2 his store of nuts has been carefully hidden away4 ,splash comes a drop on a leaf just opposite him4 ,such a friendly little drop it is1 for soon it tells this little woodland dweller of all its travels4 ,let us listen1 for we may hear too3 ,my home1 began the ,waterdrop1 is in the wide blue sea1 where ,i live with many1 many other drops4 ,one day as we rode up and down on the big waves1 the sun shone down on us1 and we grew warmer4 ,each little drop felt1 ',oh1 if ,i could only get away from the other drops1 how much cooler ,i should be6' ,then each tiny drop separated from the others1 and grew so small you could not see it4 ,we1 of course1 grew lighter1 lighter than the air4 ,up1 up we rose into the bright blue sky4 ,when we got pretty high1 where the air was cool1 we came closer together again and formed a great fleecy white cloud1 that cast its shadow over everything4 ,then a friendly wind carried us along1 and soon we left the sea behind4 ,far below2 we could see green fields and waving woods4 ,you must have been very happy said the little squirrel4 ,yes2 it was a merry life we led1 as we floated hither and thither1 playing with the sun-beams1 replied the ,waterdrop4 ,but we came at last to a purple mountain1 and a chill wind began to blow4 ,how we shivered with the cold6 ,then we huddled close together to get warm4 ,we were now heavy again--so heavy that we could not stay up in the air4 ,then1 ',i'm going down to cheer a flower1' ,cried a little drop of rain2 ',i hear it sigh4 ,it droops its head ,as if in weary pain4' ',and ,i will go6' ',and ,i6' ',and ,i6' ,cried all the raindrops near4 ,so down we went in merry haste ,the whole wide field to cheer4 ,the drooping flowers lifted their bright faces to thank the little drops for the cool drink4 ,even the great tall trees nodded their heads in welcome4 ,the grass on the hillside and in the valley must have been grateful1 too1 for your coming1 said the squirrel4 ,it always looks so fresh and green after a shower4 ,but1 tell me1 what became of you8 ,i fell where the ground was brown and bare1 stopped for a moment1 then went down1 down into the ground1 where all was dark4 ,i met other drops trying to get out1 and we went on together1 turning first this way1 then that way1 till we burst into the sunshine again4 ,we rested for a moment in a tiny pool of clear water2 then ,i ran with the rest down the mountain side1 slipping over smooth pebbles1 and tumbling over sharp rocks1 until ,i found myself in a deep1 swift stream1 where plants and trees grew on either bank4 ,illustration3 ,,suddenly ,,we ,,fell ,,over ,,the ,,rocks4 ,as ,i was hurried along1 ,i heard a great roaring noise made by the river falling over a high ledge of rocks1 as a cataract or waterfall4 ,suddenly we fell over the rocks so steep and high that we went leaping and dashing in all directions4 ,we rose in the air in a fine gray mist1 then sank back again into the foam-covered stream4 ,illustration3 ,,then ,,we ,,came ,,to ,a ,,big ,,mill-,,wheel4 ,soon we were in a broad1 quiet river1 flowing past the grassy hills and green pastures4 ,then we came to a big mill-wheel1 upon which we jumped1 and by our weight made it turn over and over1 and thus move the machinery in the mill4 ,here we were tossed in the air1 whirled around1 and at last flung back into the river1 where we sailed slowly and quietly as before4 ,by and by1 we saw large boats floating on the water4 ,we passed towns and cities with busy streets and many people2 and as our river widened1 and we heard the big sea waves dashing against the shore1 we knew our brothers and sisters were singing a welcome home4 ,illustration3 ,,we ,,passed ,,towns ,,and ,,cities4 ,and now farewell1 little squirrel4 ,my story is done1 and ,i must hasten to my home in the sea4 ,perhaps we shall meet again some day4 ,i may float down to you1 a white-winged snowflake1 or patter down as ,i came this time1 a tiny raindrop4 ,write the following3 ,the water rises from the sea in vapor4 ,the vapor is turned into clouds1 which fall in rain or snow4 ,the rain forms rivers1 which flow back again into the sea4 ,thus the water is always going round and round in its long and curious journey--up to the clouds in vapor1 down in rain1 back in streams to the place it started from4 ,,lesson ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,river4 ,oh1 tell me1 pretty river1 ,whence do thy waters flow8 ,and whither art thou roaming1 ,so smoothly and so slow8 ,my birthplace was the mountain1 ,my nurse the ,april showers2 ,my cradle was a fountain1 ,o'er-curtained by wild flowers4 ,one morn ,i ran away1 ,a madcap1 noisy rill2 ,and many a prank that day ,i played adown the hill6 ,and then 'mid meadowy banks1 ,i flirted with the flowers1 ,that stooped with glowing lips ,to woo me to their bowers4 ,but these bright scenes are o'er1 ,and darkly flows my wave2 ,i hear the ocean's roar-- ,and there must be my grave6 ,where have you seen a river like the one spoken of in the poem8 ,are rivers born8 ,what is meant by ,my nurse the ,april showers8 ,i flirted with the flowers8 ,explain the last stanza4 ,,lesson ,,xxiv4 ,a ,,map ,a drawing made to show a room1 or a house2 or the school-yard1 or even a village1 is called a plan4 ,drawings which represent land and water are called maps4 ,you may learn from maps where the countries1 and mountains1 and rivers1 and cities are that you have seen4 ,it also shows how far places are from one another4 ,here is a map showing mountains and rivers4 ,the many short lines facing each other represent mountains4 ,to show the very high part of the mountains1 the lines are drawn close to each other1 making that part of the map look dark4 ,the line winding about1 like the stream itself1 represents a river4 ,the line1 as you see1 is made thicker and thicker toward its mouth4 ,from this you may know that the river itself becomes broader and broader as it flows toward the sea4 ,but you must not think that the crooked line on the map is a river1 or the lines which face each other are mountains4 ,if you do1 you will learn very little of geography4 ,when you look at these lines1 you must think of the real things which they stand for--the lofty mountains1 with their covering of forests1 and with long1 narrow valleys between them2 the winding1 gently flowing river1 bearing boats upon its waters4 ,,lesson ,,xxv4 ,,forms ,,of ,,land ,,and ,,water4 ,you all know what a pond is4 ,is there a pond near where you live8 ,did you ever fish in it8 ,did you ever walk round it8 ,when a stream1 on its way to the ocean1 flows into a basin or hollow in the land1 the water spreads out and fills it4 ,a hollow in the land filled with water is called a lake1 or1 if it be quite small1 a pond4 ,what is a lake made of8 ,what is round it8 ,suppose some one who never saw a lake were to ask you what a lake is1 what would you say8 ,what do we find in lakes8 ,would you not like to sail on a lake8 ,in the hollows among mountains are great numbers of beautiful lakes4 ,in their clear waters may be seen the mountains1 the forests1 and the sky1 as in a looking-glass4 ,at night the moon and stars may be seen below you as plainly as above4 ,here is a picture of a pretty lake in a valley4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,pretty ,,lake ,,in ,a ,,valley4 ,you see a river flowing from the hills beyond4 ,into what is it flowing8 ,the river that lets the water into the lake is called an inlet4 ,you see another river that lets the water out of the lake4 ,this river we call the outlet of the lake4 ,make a lake on your molding-board1 or in the sand near your home4 ,represent its inlet and outlet4 ,out in the lake is a little piece of land round which the waters play4 ,we could not go to this land without crossing the water2 the water is on all sides of it4 ,such a little piece of land is called an island4 ,did you ever read the story of ,robinson ,crusoe8 ,you will remember that he went up a hill in search of water4 ,when he got to the top of the hill1 he saw that he was on an island4 ,how did he know8 ,have you ever seen an island8 ,what island was it8 ,could you sail round it8 ,what was on every side of it8 ,what grew on it8 ,what is an island8 ,if there is a brook or lake near your home1 how can you make an island8 ,opposite is a picture of a river and a lake4 ,make a map of the same river and lake on your slate4 ,notice how the coast or shore of the lake bends in and out4 ,write the following3 ,a lake is water surrounded by land4 ,the land near the water of a lake is called its shore4 ,an island is a little piece of land surrounded by water4 ,,lesson ,,xxvi4 ,,more ,,about ,,forms ,,of ,,land ,,and ,,water4 ,illustration3 ,,picture ,,of ,a ,,peninsula4 ,an island1 as we have learned1 is a piece of land with water all round it4 ,now1 sometimes we see a piece of land that has water nearly all round it4 ,this form of land is called a peninsula4 ,the word peninsula means almost an island4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,a ,,peninsula4 ,in the picture we see a narrow strip of land which extends far out into the water4 ,you will notice that the land has water all round2 except at one place4 ,what is the name for land that has water on all sides but one8 ,what is a peninsula8 ,how would you change this peninsula to an island8 ,what is the difference between a peninsula and an island8 ,the narrow neck which joins the peninsula to other land--just as the neck joins the head to the body-is called an isthmus1 which means neck4 ,illustration3 ,,picture ,,of ,a ,,bay4 ,here is another picture which ,i wish you to look at4 ,you see where the shore bends like a bow2 and the water runs a little way into the land4 ,can you think of anything else that is bent like this8 ,yes-a bay-window4 ,now1 when ,i tell yon that bay means the same as bow1 you can almost guess the name for this bend in the land4 ,it is called a bay4 ,you will easily remember that little word4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,a ,,bay4 ,a wide opening or bend in the land1 into which the water flows1 is usually called a bay4 ,sometimes1 when the opening in the bend is long and narrow1 it is called a gulf4 ,on the next page is shown a narrow strip of water joining two larger bodies of water4 ,the name given to this narrow passage is strait1 a word meaning narrow4 ,as an isthmus connects two bodies of land1 so a strait connects two bodies of water4 ,illustration3 ,,picture ,,of ,a ,,strait4 ,after a rain make little lakes1 rivers1 bays1 etc4 ,perhaps you may find some already made4 ,see whether you can find in the magazines and books at home pictures of gulfs1 bays1 peninsulas1 etc4 ,write the following3 ,a peninsula is land almost surrounded by water4 ,an isthmus is a neck of land joining two larger bodies of land4 ,a gulf or bay is a portion of some large body of water extending into the land4 ,a strait is a narrow passage of water that joins two larger bodies of water4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,a ,,strait4 ,,lesson ,,xxvii4 ,a ,,trip ,,to ,,the ,,highlands4 ,uncle ,tom had been telling ,fred and me about many strange places he had seen4 ,last of all1 he told us about some high mountains he had climbed4 ,we wanted to climb one very much4 ,so father said he would go with us up a high hill not far from the city4 ,mother did not need to call us in the morning1 for we woke up very early4 ,the sky in the east was bright1 and we knew that soon we should see the sun4 ,we wanted to start at once1 but mother said it would be better to have breakfast first4 ,we put on thick shoes that the stones would not easily cut4 ,father gave each of us a stout stick to help us climb4 ,fred had a knapsack1 in which mother put some bread1 cold meat1 crackers1 and a cup to drink from4 ,in one corner we put some towels4 ,we were soon outside the city1 walking along the road4 ,we passed a village1 and went through fields and woods4 ,by and by we could see the land before us rising higher and higher4 ,we saw no longer such beautiful farms and gardens as we had passed4 ,illustration3 ,,as ,,we ,,went ,,up ,,the ,,slope4 ,in a little while we reached the foot of the hill and began to ascend4 ,as we went up the slope1 we came to steep1 rugged places that were hard to climb1 where we needed our sticks4 ,the trees were smaller1 and there were many bushes4 ,there were large rocks1 too1 in the sides of the hill4 ,at the foot1 the weather was quite warm1 but it grew cooler and cooler the higher we went4 ,illustration3 ,,we ,,could ,,see ,,the ,,city ,,with ,,its ,,little ,,straight ,,streets4 ,on the summit at last6 cried ,fred1 as we reached the top4 ,from where we stood1 we could see the city with its little straight streets1 that look so wide when we walk on them4 ,we could see the house-tops1 too1 and the church steeples4 ,then father showed us the village we passed2 and the woods we went through4 ,but the trees looked like bushes1 and some men at the foot of the hill looked no larger than the baby4 ,down the mountain1 a little way1 we found a spring where the water was clear and cool4 ,here we sat down on a rock1 and ate the lunch we had brought4 ,while we rested1 we watched the little rill that flowed from the spring-- ,blue in the shadow1 ,silver in the sun4 ,down the hill1 it was larger1 and we saw other rills flowing into it4 ,when it reached the valley1 it was much larger2 and farther down1 father said1 boats could sail on it4 ,illustration3 ,,in ,,the ,,valley ,,lay ,a ,,large ,,sheet ,,of ,,still ,,water4 ,before us1 in the valley1 lay a large sheet of still water4 ,oh1 how pretty6 exclaimed ,i4 ,yes1 that is a lake1 said father4 ,how beautiful it looks as the sunlight plays on its smooth surface6 ,it reflects in its clear water the sky and the trees around it4 ,i can see an island in the lake1 said ,fred4 ,vessels are sailing all round it4 ,are all islands small1 like that8 he asked4 ,oh1 no6 said father4 ,some islands are hundreds of miles round1 and have many people living upon them4 ,fred then pointed to a piece of land extending out into the water1 and asked whether that1 too1 was an island4 ,no1 replied father1 that is a peninsula4 ,it is land almost surrounded by water4 ,and the narrow neck which joins the peninsula to the mainland is called an isthmus4 ,you see the bend in the land1 with the water from the lake running in8 asked father4 ,yes1 said ,fred4 ,that is called a bay4 ,around every ocean1 which is a much larger body of water1 there are many such bays4 ,the narrow strip of water1 which a boat is just entering1 is called a strait4 ,the strait separates the island from the mainland4 ,stretching far away to the east was flat1 level land1 which father called a plain4 ,scattered here and there were many farmhouses and quiet villages4 ,little bright1 sparkling streams wound their way like silver threads through the green grass of the meadows4 ,it was a lovely scene indeed6 ,the sun was already low in the west as we made ready to return4 ,as it set-- ,a wonderful glory of color1 ,a splendor of shifting light-- ,orange and scarlet and purple ,flamed in the sky so bright4 ,,lesson ,,xxviii4 ,,spring4 ,drops of rain and bits of sunshine ,falling here and gleaming there1 ,tiny blades of grass appearing4 ,tell of springtime bright and fair4 ,budding leaves are gently swaying1 ,merry glad notes sweetly ring2 ,robins1 bluebirds1 gayly singing1 ,tell of happy1 pleasant spring4 ,violets1 in blue and purple1 ,by the twinkling water clear2 ,fair spring beauties1 frail and dainty1 ,tell the story1 spring is here4 ,cherry1 peach1 and apple blossoms ,scattering fragrance far and wide2 ,buttercups and pure white snowdrops ,tell of gracious1 sweet springtide4 ,lillian ,cox4 ,,lesson ,,xxix4 ,,useful ,,vegetables4 ,in the heart of a seed buried deep1 so deep1 ,a dear little plant lay fast asleep4 ,wake6 said the sunshine1 and creep to the light4 ,wake6 said the voice of the raindrops bright4 ,the little plant heard1 and it rose to see ,what the wonderful outside world might be4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,sprout4 ,what vegetables grow in your neighborhood8 ,illustration3 ,a ,,vine ,,beginning ,,to ,,grow4 ,of which do we use the roots as food8 ,of which the leaves8 ,of which the seeds8 ,of which the stems or stalks8 ,which is the most useful garden vegetable8 ,there is no common garden vegetable so highly thought of as the potato4 ,how are potatoes planted8 ,answer the questions in writing so as to make a little composition about vegetables4 ,,lesson ,,xxx4 ,,useful ,,grains4 ,wheat and corn are called grain because they are small1 hard seeds ,what other kinds of grain can you name8 ,illustration2 ,,ripe ,,wheat4 ,which of these grains is used the most8 ,which makes the choicest flour8 ,some kinds of wheat are sown in the spring4 ,these are called spring wheat4 ,winter wheat is sown in the fall4 ,a few days of sun and rain1 and the plants spring up like grass1 remaining green through the winter4 ,what color does the wheat turn as it ripens8 ,when it is ripe what is done with it8 ,for what is the flour of wheat used8 ,illustration3 ,,harvesting ,,wheat ,,in ,,the ,,west4 ,what is sometimes done with the stalks1 or straw8 ,indian corn is one of the most useful of plants4 ,do you know why it is called ,indian corn8 ,it is because the ,indians first raised it4 ,when is corn planted8 ,how is the land prepared for planting8 ,what is done to the corn while the plants are small8 ,when does it ripen8 ,how tall does it grow8 ,illustration3 ,,several ,,kinds ,,of ,,grain4 ,what is the stem of the corn called8 ,what are the flowers on the stalk of corn called8 ,on what do the grains of corn grow8 ,what use is made of the green stalks and leaves8 ,what use is made of the ripe grain8 ,for what are corn-husks largely used8 ,sweet corn1 if boiled when green1 is an excellent vegetable4 ,it is preserved by canning4 ,a large cornfield1 with its tall1 straight stalks1 covered with green shining leaves and crowned by flowers1 is a very pleasant sight4 ,illustration3 ,,another ,,grain ,,which ,,we ,,find ,,on ,,almost ,,every ,,table4 ,corn is sometimes called the national emblem4 ,what does emblem mean8 ,what use is made of oats2 barley1 rye1 and buckwheat8 ,some of these grains are useful in two or three ways4 ,there is another grain which we find on almost every table4 ,it is rice4 ,the rice plant1 when growing1 resembles wheat2 but1 unlike wheat1 it needs a great deal of moisture4 ,so the rice-grower sows it in fields which he can flood or drain at will4 ,do you know what people live on rice without any meat at all8 ,ask your teacher to tell you how rice is raised in ,china and ,japan4 ,you ought to find something to tell your teacher and classmates about the grains4 ,perhaps you would enjoy drawing some of the grains you have seen4 ,choose one of the grains1 and write what you have ,learned about it from conversation and observation4 ,we plow the fields1 and scatter ,the good seed on the land1 ,but it is fed and watered ,by ,god's almighty hand4 ,he sends the snow in winter1 ,the warmth to swell the grain1 ,the breezes and the sunshine1 ,and soft refreshing rain4 ,,lesson ,,xxxi4 ,,fruits4 ,name some trees upon which grow things to eat4 ,what do we call such trees8 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,orange ,,trees ,,are ,,loaded ,,with ,,golden ,,fruit4 ,what fruit trees have you seen8 ,what do we call the place where many fruit trees grow8 ,did you ever pick berries8 ,what makes it hard to pick blackberries8 ,name fruits that grow about here4 ,which grow on trees8 ,which on bushes8 ,which on vines8 ,mention the different uses of these fruits4 ,the orange is one of the most delicious and wholesome of fruits4 ,it grows only in the warmer parts of our country4 ,in winter as well as in summer1 the orange trees are loaded with golden fruit and fragrant blossom4 ,the blossoms are white1 and are very beautiful4 ,name other fruits that grow in warm parts of the country4 ,people who live in cold countries need such food as will make them warm4 ,what kinds of food are best in cold countries8 ,what people live mainly on fish and the flesh of animals8 ,do any fruit trees grow in very cold countries8 ,what kinds of food are best in hot countries8 ,the people cannot eat fatty food1 for that would heat the body4 ,do we find in such countries grain1 vegetables and cooling fruits for the people to live upon8 ,write answers to some of the questions asked in the lesson1 so as to make a composition about fruits4 ,,lesson ,,xxxii4 ,,useful ,,plants4 ,what plant supplies us with much of our clothing8 ,name articles of clothing made of cotton4 ,did you ever see a field of cotton8 ,in the summer the young plant is covered with pretty1 pale-yellow flowers4 ,in the autumn you see the pod or boll which contains the cotton4 ,illustration3 ,,you ,,see ,,the ,,pod ,,or ,,boll4 ,as the pod ripens1 it bursts open4 ,the cotton-field is now a pretty sight--the bright green leaves1 yellow blossoms1 and snowy cotton all mingled together4 ,form a picture in your mind of a field of cotton in bloom4 ,the cotton is now picked4 ,the first thing is to separate it from its seed4 ,this is done by a machine called a cotton-gin4 ,illustration3 ,,flax ,,is ,a ,,small ,,plant4 ,now it is ready to be pressed in great bales and sent to market4 ,it will1 at last1 go to the cotton mills and be spun into thread1 then woven into muslin1 calico1 etc4 ,are the seeds of any use8 ,they contain a great deal of oil1 which is pressed out by machinery4 ,what is the name of this oil8 ,what use is made of it8 ,there is another plant from which clothing is made4 ,do you know what plant linen is made from8 ,linen comes from the flax plant4 ,flax is a small plant which grows two or three feet high1 bearing on the top a bunch of pretty blue flowers4 ,a field of flax in bloom is a very pretty sight4 ,the flax does not grow in a pod like cotton4 ,the stalk of the plant is covered with a bark1 or skin1 containing fibers4 ,these fibers are spun into thread1 which is woven into a cloth called linen4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,plant ,,that ,,yields ,,no ,,food4 ,the seeds are used for making an oil called linseed oil4 ,for what is linseed oil used8 ,do you think people who live in hot countries need the same kind of clothing as those who live in cold countries8 ,what kind of clothing should you think was needed in cold countries8 ,would such clothes be comfortable in hot countries8 ,there is a plant that yields no food1 drink1 or clothing1 yet it is used in nearly every country in the world4 ,can you tell its name8 ,every one has seen it growing4 ,it is tobacco4 ,do you think the tobacco plant is as useful as the cotton and flax plants8 ,everybody eats sugar4 ,did you ever see a table set for supper without a sugar bowl8 ,illustration3 ,,sugar-,,cane ,,is ,a ,,tall ,,plant4 ,the sugar in common use in this country is made chiefly from sugar-cane4 ,the sugar-cane is a tall plant which looks much like ,indian corn when growing4 ,it is called the sugar-cane because it is filled with the sweet juice that is made into the sugar4 ,when the stalks are cut they are taken to a sugar mill4 ,here they pass between great rollers which press out the juice4 ,the liquid is then boiled until it turns to sugar4 ,much sugar is made from the sap of the sugar-maple tree4 ,in the early spring the sap begins to rise4 ,a hole is bored in the tree and a tube inserted1 through which the sap passes to a bucket or other vessel placed to receive it4 ,the sap is boiled in large kettles and becomes syrup4 ,more boiling turns the syrup into sugar4 ,write what you have learned of cotton and linen4 ,,lesson ,,xxxiii4 ,,forest ,,trees4 ,in your walks what things please you the most8 ,is it not the trees8 ,trees are very useful to us1 and we ought to be very grateful for them4 ,name some trees along the streets and in the parks4 ,are they useful to us1 especially on a hot day8 ,why8 ,then what kind of trees do we call them8 7,shade47 ,which of these are the first to put on their green dresses in the spring8 ,which are the brightest in autumn8 ,name some trees that grow in the woods4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,shady ,,street4 ,name a tree whose wood is dark4 ,a tree whose wood is light4 ,a tree whose wood is hard4 ,a tree whose wood is soft4 ,name some trees that are valued for the color and hardness1 or the beautiful grain1 of their wood4 ,what kind of wood are the desks made of8 ,the teacher's table8 ,what kinds of wood are used in making chairs8 tables8 pianos8 windows8 floors8 ,if we wish to make a carriage1 omnibus1 cart1 or wagon1 which wood should we use8 ,why8 ,from which trees do we get lumber for building8 ,can you name a wood which is very hard and tough1 and is used in building ships8 ,what do we call many trees together1 like these8 ,what is ,arbor ,day8 ,why need we plant trees8 ,what do we plant when we plant the tree8 ,we plant the houses for you and me4 ,we plant the rafters1 the shingles1 the floors1 ,we plant the studding1 the laths1 the doors1 ,the beams and siding1 all parts that be-- ,we plant the house when we plant the tree4 ,what do we plant when we plant the tree8 ,a thousand things that we daily see4 ,we plant tie spire that out-towers the crag1 ,we plant the staff for our country's flag1 ,we plant the shade1 from the hot sun free-- ,we plant all these when we plant the tree4 ,there are trees much larger than any we find growing here4 ,i am sure you must have heard of the great trees of ,california4 ,some of them are one hundred feet around1 and nearly four hundred feet high1--twice as high as a very tall steeple4 ,in one of these trees1 if hollowed out1 a large family might live4 ,illustration3 ,,great ,,trees ,,of ,,california4 ,in your rambles in the woods1 notice and examine the trees which you see4 ,learn to know the trees so that you can call them by their proper names4 ,draw and paint some of the objects noticed2 as grains1 vegetables1 trees1 etc4 ,you will enjoy this very much1 and it will help you to see these things better4 ,,lesson ,,xxxiv4 ,,flowers ,illustration3 ,,flowers ,a flower is a weak and tiny thing2 but there are many flowers1 and by helping together they cover the earth with beauty and fill the air with sweetness4 ,they seem to have been made to give us pleasure4 ,it will be easy and useful to learn something about the flowers that grow where you live4 ,how many flowers can you mention by name8 ,which do you know at sight8 ,where would you go to find them8 ,would you find them all growing in the same place8 ,which can live only in wet places8 ,which thrive best where there is but little moisture8 ,if we take a walk in the fields in the early spring1 which flowers shall we be likely to see8 ,which later8 ,what color are they8 ,which are fragrant8 ,which most beautiful8 ,which would you like for your flower vase8 ,which would you like to plant and care for in a box of earth or a garden-bed8 ,can you find and name the parts of a plant--root1 stem1 leaves1 bud1 flower8 ,learn the uses of each part4 ,here are some pretty verses on ,spring and the ,flowers4 ,perhaps you will commit them to memory4 ,in the snowing and the blowing1 ,in the cruel sleet1 ,little flowers begin their growing ,far beneath our feet4 ,softly taps the ,spring and cheerly3 ,darlings1 are you there8 ,till they answer1 ,we are nearly1 ,nearly ready1 dear4 ,where is ,winter with his snowing8 ,tell us1 ,spring1 they say4 ,then she answers1 ,he is going1 ,going on his way4 ,poor old ,winter does not love you1 ,but his time is past2 ,soon my birds shall sing above you-- ,set you free at last4 ,,lesson ,,xxxv4 ,,what ,,is ,,necessary ,,to ,,make ,,plants ,,grow4 ,plants do not grow in winter4 ,can you tell why8 ,plants do not grow in hot places called deserts4 ,can yon think of any reason for this8 ,what two things are necessary to make plants grow8 ,at what time of the year can they get these8 ,if a country has a great deal of heat and rain2 what can we be sure of about its trees and grass and flowers8 ,there are places that have rain enough1 but very little heat4 ,how do you suppose the trees grow there8 ,you may get information about plants and things by seeing for yourself1 by asking others1 and by reading books4 ,illustration3 ,,if ,a ,,country ,,has ,a ,,great ,,deal ,,of ,,heat ,,and ,,rain4 ,write the names3 ,of some grains that we use for food4 ,of some vegetables that we use for food4 ,of two plants from which clothing is made4 ,of woods used in making furniture4 ,of woods used in building our houses4 ,,lesson ,,xxxvi4 ,,summer ,,rain4 ,oh1 gentle1 gentle summer rain6 ,let not the silver lily pine1 ,the drooping lily pine in vain1 ,to feel that dewy touch of thine1 ,to drink thy freshness once again1 ,oh1 gentle1 gentle summer rain6 ,in heat the landscape quivering lies1 ,the cattle pant beneath the tree2 ,through parching air and purple skies ,the earth looks up1 in vain1 for thee2 ,for thee--for thee it looks in vain1 ,oh1 gentle1 gentle summer rain6 ,come thou1 and brim the meadow streams1 ,and soften all the hills with mist1 ,oh1 falling dew6 ,from burning dreams ,by thee shall herb and flower be kissed2 ,and earth shall bless thee yet again1 ,oh1 gentle1 gentle summer rain6 ,,lesson ,,xxxvii4 ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,animals4 ,animals which live in or near people's houses and are tame are domestic animals2 others are wild4 ,illustration3 ,,tiger',s ,,feet4 ,what animals are found where you live8 ,which are domestic8 ,which wild8 ,which of these animals feed upon grass8 grains8 fruits8 flesh8 ,you know what sharp claws a cat can put out when it pleases4 ,what use does the cat make of its claws8 ,how does a cat's paw differ from a dog's8 ,how does a dog seize its prey8 ,illustration3 ,,duck',s ,,foot4 ,illustration3 ,,hen',s ,,foot4 ,compare a duck's bill with an owl's4 ,what use does the duck make of its broad flat bill8 ,the owl1 of its sharp hooked bill8 ,how do the bills of the hen and the duck differ8 ,would a bill fitted for pecking be as useful to the duck as its own bill8 ,illustration3 ,,seizing ,,claw4 ,can you draw a picture of a duck's foot and a hen's foot8 ,for what does each use its feet8 ,would broad web-feet be as useful to the hen as slender toes8 ,what kind of feet has the sheep8 ,for what are its feet only used8 ,could a sheep use feet like those of a cat or a hen8 ,you see each animal has parts well fitted for the life it leads4 ,,lesson ,,xxxviii4 ,,the ,,covering ,,of ,,animals4 ,name two animals covered with fur4 ,two covered with hair4 ,two covered with feathers4 ,what do we call the covering of a sheep8 ,of a pig8 ,of what use is hair to animals8 ,what covering has an oyster8 ,a lobster8 ,a turtle8 ,of what use is it to them8 ,the duck's feathers are covered with an oily coating1 which keeps them from getting wet4 ,are the feathers of the hen so covered8 ,why8 ,suppose a squirrel's covering were like that of a turtle's1 what would result8 ,what would result if a bird had scales instead of feathers8 ,you see that each animal has that covering which suits its habits best4 ,,lesson ,,xxxix4 ,,uses ,,of ,,animals4 ,what domestic animals are used for food8 ,what wild animals are used for food8 ,illustration3 ,,what ,,domestic ,,animals ,,are ,,used ,,for ,,food8 ,from what animals do we get beef8 pork8 mutton8 veal8 ,what birds and fowls are used for food8 ,what fishes8 ,from what animal do we get wool8 ,how is wool taken from the sheep8 ,what articles of dress are made of wool8 ,illustration3 ,,from ,,what ,,animal ,,do ,,we ,,get ,,wool8 ,name the animals whose skins are used to make leather4 ,how is leather prepared8 ,did you ever see a tannery8 ,what do they do there8 ,from what animals do we get furs8 ,what is silk8 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,silkworm ,,and ,,moth4 ,silk is made by little worms called silkworms4 ,when the worm is fully grown1 it spins round itself a small ball of silk1 called a cocoon4 ,if this cocoon were left to itself1 the worm would change to a moth1 and the moth would eat its way out of this little house4 ,but this1 of course1 would cut the little threads and spoil the silk4 ,as soon1 therefore1 as the cocoon is made1 it is put into hot water to kill the worm4 ,in this way the silk is saved4 ,almost every part of the cow is made use of4 ,for what is the flesh used8 ,what use is made of the hoofs8 horns8 hair8 ,what is done with the skin8 ,what other uses has the cow8 ,what animal shows the most affection for his master8 ,mention some kinds of dogs4 ,you may have seen a dog called the ,st4 ,bernard4 ,he is large1 with long curly hair4 ,in the ,alps mountains1 where traveling is dangerous1 the ,st4 ,bernard dogs have saved many lives4 ,who use their dogs1 as we use horses1 to draw their sledges8 ,which is the most useful animal to man8 ,draw and paint some of the animals spoken of in the lesson4 ,write the names3 ,of animals useful for food4 ,of animals which work for man4 ,of animals useful to us for clothing4 ,of birds and fowls used for food4 ,,lesson ,,xl4 ,,the ,,signs ,,of ,,the ,,seasons4 ,what does it mean when the bluebird comes ,and builds its nest1 singing sweet and clear8 ,when violets peep among blades of grass8-- ,these are the signs that spring is here4 ,what does it mean when berries are ripe8 ,when butterflies flit1 and honeybees hum8 ,when cattle stand under the shady trees8-- ,these are the signs that summer has come4 ,what does it mean when the crickets chirp1 ,and away to the south the robins steer8 ,when apples are falling1 and leaves grow brown8-- ,these are the signs that autumn is here ,what does it mean when days are short8 ,when leaves are gone1 and brooks are dumb ,when fields are white with drifted snow8-- ,these are the signs that winter has come4 ,,lesson ,,xli4 ,,things ,,found ,,in ,,the ,,earth4 ,the earth contains many things that are of great value to us4 ,these we must find and dig out4 ,the coal we burn in our grates to warm us2 iron1 from which so many useful things are made2 gold1 silver1 tin1 lead1 and copper1--all come out of the earth4 ,but these are not all the valuable things hidden away in the earth4 ,from salt wells we get a great deal of the salt used on our tables4 ,from oil wells is obtained the oil we use in our lamps to give us light4 ,diamonds which sparkle so beautifully1 and the stone we use in building1 are also taken from the earth4 ,coal1 iron1 gold1 silver1 lead1 tin1 copper1 mercury1 and salt are called minerals4 ,the opening dug in the earth from which minerals1 except stone1 are taken2 is called a mine4 ,one of the most useful of minerals is coal4 ,did you ever stop to think how much hard work coal does for us8 ,it grinds our wheat1 it weaves our cloth1 it carries us by sea and by land over the earth4 ,hardly any labor can be done without coal4 ,illustration3 ,,oil ,,wells4 ,you have noticed that some coal burns with a great deal of flame and smoke4 ,that is called soft or bituminous coal4 ,that hard1 clean-looking coal1 which burns with little blaze1 yet gives out such great heat1 is anthracite coal4 ,coal has many uses4 ,mention all you can think of4 ,from which kind is gas obtained1 hard or soft coal8 ,what is coal8 ,some day you will be able to understand how coal was made1 and how it got deep down in the earth4 ,what article used with food is found in mines8 ,does all salt come out of the mines8 ,how is the salt made that is not found in mines8 ,there are salt mines where men1 women1 and children live all their lives1 and never see sun or sky4 ,many great rooms and galleries1 with tall pillars to hold up the roof1 are cut out of the salt4 ,when lighted up with torches1 they glitter as if studded with precious stones4 ,it is like a fairy palace4 ,some minerals are called metals4 ,iron1 gold1 silver1 copper1 tin1 and mercury are metals4 ,iron is the most useful of all metals4 ,did you ever think what we should do without this hard1 strong metal8 ,the following lines tell some of the uses of iron3 ,illustration3 ,,iron ,,mine4 ,iron vessels cross the ocean4 ,iron engines give them motion2 ,iron pipe our gas delivers1 ,iron bridges span our rivers1 ,iron horses draw our loads1 ,iron rails compose our roads2 ,iron houses1 iron walls1 ,iron cannon1 iron balls1 ,iron lightning rods on spires1 ,iron telegraphic wires1 ,iron hammers1 nails1 and screws1 ,iron everything we use4 ,steel is iron made very hard4 ,knives1 axes1 hatchets1 and other tools are made of steel4 ,many little things are made of steel4 ,mention some of them4 ,which is the most valuable of all metals8 ,is all the gold made into money8 ,is money made of pure gold8 ,why8 ,name articles of ornament made of gold4 ,articles of use4 ,are gold watches1 chains1 and rings usually made of pure gold8 ,why8 ,what do you call the man who makes these articles8 ,illustration3 ,,casting ,,iron ,,from ,,the ,,ore4 ,silver is the whitest and most lustrous of all the metals4 ,what does lustrous mean8 ,is iron lustrous8 ,are silver articles usually made of pure silver8 ,why8 ,silver and gold are found among the mountains in the west4 ,sometimes they are dug out of the ground4 ,sometimes they are found in rocks1 and the rocks must be broken up before they can be taken out4 ,illustration3 ,,sometimes ,,men ,,wash ,,down ,,the ,,hills4 ,sometimes men wash down the hills with streams of water in order to get at the silver or gold among the rocks4 ,gold and silver are called the precious metals because they do not rust1 and on account of their scarcity4 ,tin is white and bright1 but too soft to make articles which shall be light and strong4 ,therefore1 thin plates of iron are dipped into melted tin4 ,the tin adheres to the iron and makes it bright like tin itself4 ,a thin sheet of iron1 covered with tin1 is called tin-plate4 ,it is of this that our tin cups1 pans1 and kitchen utensils are made4 ,a tin cup is really made of iron4 ,lead is a very heavy metal4 ,it is so soft that it can be cut with a knife4 ,it is used in making shot1 and water pipes4 ,do you know how shot is made8 ,did you ever see a shot-tower8 ,small shot is made by dropping melted lead through a sieve in rapid motion1 from the top of a high tower4 ,the drops fall into a vessel of water below4 ,they are next polished and made black1 and then are ready for sale4 ,you think1 ,i suppose1 that the lead pencil with which you write is made of lead4 ,it is not made of lead1 but of graphite1 which is a kind of coal4 ,copper is softer than iron1 but harder than lead4 ,it will not rust4 ,cooking vessels are often made of copper4 ,zinc is another valuable metal1 and is almost the color of tin4 ,brass is made by mixing copper and zinc together4 ,mention some articles made of brass4 ,write five lines about tin4 ,write five or more lines about coal4 ,write what you know of iron1 gold1 silver1 copper1 lead4 ,,lesson ,,xlii4 ,,more ,,about ,,things ,,found ,,in ,,the ,,earth4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,granite ,,quarry4 ,we have seen that there are many kinds of metals4 ,there are also many kinds of stone4 ,those which are strong and do not crumble by exposure are useful for building4 ,the place from which stones are taken for building is called a quarry4 ,the more common stones are granite1 sandstone2 limestone1 marble1 and slate4 ,we will first examine a piece of granite4 ,how hard and firm it is6 ,what a beautiful clean surface when polished6 ,granite is used for steps1 for paving streets1 and for sidewalk curbings4 ,are houses ever built of granite8 ,can you think of other uses of granite8 ,why is granite used for these purposes8 ,it is easily shaped4 ,it is hard enough to give strength4 ,it is enduring4 ,what does enduring mean8 ,this is a piece of sandstone1 made of little grains of sand4 ,it will crumble more easily than granite4 ,what does crumble mean8 ,brownstone1 used in building1 is a kind of sandstone4 ,and this is the common gray limestone of which lime used in building is made4 ,the large oven in which lime is burned is called a lime-kiln4 ,did you ever see one8 ,can you tell how the lime is made8 ,here are three pieces of marble4 ,this piece is pure white4 ,this is colored4 ,it is marked by many strange forms1 as you see in your mantel-pieces and table-tops4 ,in this piece1 you see many colored spots--mottled it may be called4 ,marble is beautiful when polished4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,marble ,,quarry4 ,in what different ways have you seen marble used8 ,what parts of furniture are sometimes marble8 ,why is it suitable for this8 ,is marble ever used for building houses8 ,do you think it would be good for that purpose8 ,why8 ,which1 do you think1 is the best of all building stones8 ,why8 ,marble and granite are the most beautiful and enduring of all building stones4 ,chalk is a variety of limestone4 ,could it be used as a building stone8 ,is chalk harder or softer than other stone8 ,you need not to be told the name of this dark stone4 ,you could not get along well in school without slate4 ,slate is easily split into thin plates1 and has a smooth1 firm surface4 ,slate is used to write on4 ,it is used in house building4 ,what part of a house is sometimes slate8 ,think of other uses4 ,why is it useful for these purposes8 ,we must not forget brick in our talks about things that come out of the ground4 ,brick is not found in the earth1 as the metals and stone are found2 but it is made of clay1 which is itself a part of the ground4 ,have you ever seen a brick-yard8 ,what are some of the uses of bricks8 ,what is the man called who builds houses of bricks8 ,is glass taken out of a mine or quarry8 ,no2 but glass is made from sand2 which is also a part of the ground4 ,in laying brick or stone1 the mason uses mortar4 ,mortar is made chiefly of lime4 ,lime is made of stone which comes out of the ground4 ,if possible1 visit mines and quarries4 ,take careful notice of all you see1 and on your return to school tell what you have learned4 ,,lesson ,,xliii4 ,,how ,,people ,,live ,,and ,,what ,,they ,,are ,,doing ,illustration3 ,,did ,,you ,,ever ,,hear ,,of ,,people ,,who ,,live ,,in ,,snow ,,houses8 ,can you think of anything used in building houses that does not come from the earth8 ,do all people have large1 fine houses of brick or stone to live in8 ,what is a tent8 ,illustration3 ,,wigwams4 ,a wigwam8 ,who live in huts8 ,did you ever hear of people who live in snow houses8 ,illustration3 ,,houses ,,built ,,of ,,bamboo4 ,in some places houses are built of bamboo4 ,bamboo is a kind of cane that grows in warm countries4 ,what building is now going up in this place8 ,tell the use of stone1 brick1 mortar1 iron1 tin1 lead1 and glass in building the house4 ,where and how are they obtained8 ,illustration3 ,,who ,,live ,,in ,,huts8 ,we could not live without food4 ,we must also have clothes to wear and houses to live in4 ,besides these1 we need schools1 books1 and churches1 which make us wiser and better4 ,now1 if you think a little1 you can name many other things which we need to make our homes beautiful4 ,to supply us with all of these things1 men must do many different kinds of work4 ,where does the food we eat come from8 ,we get most of it from plants4 ,wheat1 corn1 peas1 and beans are seeds of plants4 ,almost all our bread is made from wheat4 ,beets1 turnips1 and radishes are roots of plants4 ,lettuce and cabbage are the leaves of plants4 ,illustration3 ,,our ,,bread ,,is ,,made ,,from ,,wheat4 ,apples1 peaches1 pears1 and other fruits grow on plants4 ,all these we use for food4 ,plants also supply us with material for clothing4 ,some clothes are made from cotton2 cotton grows in the pod of a plant4 ,some clothes are made from linen2 linen comes from flax1 which is a plant4 ,hats are made from straw2 straw is the stem or stalk of plants4 ,now1 these plants1 which supply us with so much of our food and clothing1 do not grow of themselves4 ,the ground must be plowed1 the seeds planted and taken care of while growing4 ,so1 outside the city1 you may see a great many people at work raising grain1 vegetables1 and other plants4 ,this occupation we call agriculture or farming2 the people we call farmers4 ,animals1 as well as plants1 furnish much of our food4 ,all meat comes from animals4 ,we get milk from cows4 ,from milk we make butter and cheese4 ,animals also supply us with clothing4 ,many articles of dress are made of wool4 ,wool1 you know1 grows on the sheep4 ,shoes and kid gloves are made of leather4 ,leather is made from the hides of cows2 sheep1 oxen1 and goats4 ,but animals could not live and grow if people did not carefully raise them4 ,in the country1 yon may see flocks of sheep and herds of cows and oxen feeding on the fresh sweet grass of the pastures4 ,those animals are called stock4 ,the business of those who raise them is called stock-raising4 ,illustration3 ,,herds ,,of ,,cows ,,and ,,oxen ,,feeding4 ,most farmers raise cows1 horses1 and other animals4 ,which land does the farmer use for pasture8 ,what is a pasture8 ,what is a meadow8 ,grazing means feeding on grass4 ,what animals have you seen grazing8 ,does a dog graze8 ,a cow8 ,mountains1 so rough and rocky1 are not good for farms and gardens4 ,but many of them contain coal1 on which millions of people depend for heat and light4 ,in mountains1 too1 we find iron1 which is more useful to us than gold and silver4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,mine ,,is ,,like ,a ,,great ,,cavern4 ,to get these1 thousands of men are at work in places called mines4 ,a mine is like a great cavern4 ,there is neither sun nor sky4 ,torches and lamps give the only light the miners have to see by4 ,the air is damp and close4 ,i suppose you would not like to work in such a place4 ,yet great numbers of persons are employed in mining4 ,how is coal taken out of a mine8 ,what are the dangers of coal-mining8 ,try to find answers to these questions for yourself4 ,if necessary1 your teacher will help you4 ,in some parts of the country are forests of pine1 oak1 and other trees4 ,some of these forests are so large we might travel for days or weeks through them4 ,from trees we get lumber4 ,lumber is needed for building houses and ships1 and for furniture4 ,so a great many men are employed in cutting down trees and preparing the wood for use4 ,this is called lumbering4 ,the lumbermen go into the woods in winter1 and build themselves little huts to live in4 ,all through the winter months they work in the woods from sunrise to sunset1 felling the best trees and cutting them into logs4 ,then they haul them over the snow-covered ground to the frozen streams1 and pile them upon the banks4 ,illustration3 ,,they ,,work ,,in ,,the ,,woods4 ,here the logs must rest till the snow and ice have melted and the streams are full4 ,then they are floated down to the great saw-mills2 and cut up into boards1 laths1 shingles1 and other kinds of lumber4 ,what is a forest8 ,name some forest trees that grow near your home4 ,the sea yields much that we eat4 ,some parts abound in codfish1 mackerel1 and herring4 ,sardines1 the little fish that come in boxes1 are also found in the sea4 ,it is the business of thousands of people who live near the ocean to catch fish1 salt them1 and pack them1 to send to those who want them for food4 ,illustration3 ,,it ,,is ,,the ,,business ,,of ,,thousands ,,of ,,people4 ,have you ever seen the ocean1 or eaten any of its fish8 ,name some fishes found in fresh water4 ,name some kinds of fishes found in waters near where you live4 ,how may they be caught8 ,,lesson ,,xliv4 ,,more ,,about ,,what ,,people ,,are ,,doing4 ,in the city or town we shall find many of the people busy about something else than the occupations we have learned4 ,what do you suppose it is8 ,if you go about the city1 you will see large buildings several stories high1 with long rows of windows1 and great smoking chimneys4 ,these are mills or factories1 full of machines in motion doing their work almost like human beings4 ,the people who work in them make almost everything that is needed for our use4 ,wheat is changed into flour2 cotton1 into thread1 fine muslins1 and pretty calicoes2 leather1 into boots and shoes2 iron and steel1 into plows1 stoves2 and cutlery2 lumber1 into wagons1 carriages1 and all kinds of furniture4 ,other articles which we must not forget are elegant jewelry1 all sorts of ornaments for parlors1 and beautiful toys which you admire so much4 ,illustration3 ,,busy ,,mills ,,and ,,factories4 ,it would take a long time to name a small part of the things made in the busy mills and factories2 but think of the articles used in your home1 and you may be sure they are manufactured articles4 ,you see1 manufacturing gives work to many thousands of persons4 ,what is cutlery8 ,name some articles of cutlery4 ,we need many things which we do not produce4 ,other people need things which they do not produce4 ,how can each obtain what he needs8 ,by exchanging one thing for another4 ,this exchange of goods1 or buying and selling them for money2 gives rise to another occupation called trade1 or commerce4 ,so many people spend their time buying and selling grain1 vegetables1 clothing1 boots and shoes1 or in sending them to places where they are needed4 ,on all the large rivers and lakes you may see boats going up and down1 carrying goods from one part of the country to another4 ,can you think how goods are carried from place to place where there are no rivers8 ,in countries where few people live1 goods are often carried in wagons and on the backs of animals4 ,i wonder how many people have to work to get food and clothing for us4 ,make a list of all the occupations you can think of4 ,perhaps you can think of other occupations we have not named4 ,is dressmaking an occupation8 ,teaching8 ,which occupation would you prefer8 ,why8 ,if you think1 perhaps you can tell why men do different kinds of work4 ,what people do to make a living1 depends very much upon the place they live in4 ,for men almost always do that kind of work that pays them best for their labor4 ,those who live where the land is rich and level will raise grain to make flour1 or cotton and flax to make clothing4 ,some people among the mountains work in the mines4 ,some keep cows for their milk and butter1 and sheep for their wool2 for the hills and many of the mountain sides afford excellent pasture4 ,people who live near the sea will be apt to catch fish along the coast1 or engage in trade upon the water4 ,employments in the city differ widely from those in the country4 ,here1 as we have learned1 most people make their living by working in factories1 or as merchants in buying and selling goods which come from all parts of the world4 ,all people do not live in the same way4 ,some people have no churches1 schools1 books1 or factories4 ,what do people who live in this way eat8 ,what do they wear8 ,how do they spend their time8 ,,lesson ,,xlv4 ,a ,,review ,,lesson4 ,what kind of work is done by the people among whom you live8 ,are they farmers8 ,how does the farmer make his living8 ,where does he sell the things which he raises8 ,where does he buy his sugar and tea and other things which he needs8 ,do you live in a city8 ,what are the chief occupations of the people8 ,do they work in shops or mills or factories8 ,name some mills or factories in or near your city4 ,what articles are made there8 ,what manufactured articles are in the schoolroom8 ,at home8 ,what do you call the men who make these articles8 ,what kinds of goods are sold in the stores8 ,what is a grocery store8 ,a dry-goods store8 ,a shoe store8 ,where did the things in these stores come from8 ,which were made in your city8 ,which were brought from other places8 ,what railroads or canals are in the city8 ,do boats come to the wharves8 ,what do the boats or railroads take away8 ,what do they bring in return8 ,write the following3 ,farmers raise 7write the names of all the things you can think of74 ,miners dig out of the earth4 ,quarrymen dig from the quarries4 ,a shoemaker makes 4 ,a blacksmith makes 4 ,merchants buy and sell 4