,,reflections ,,on ,,the ,,decline ,,of ,,science ,,in ,,england1 ,,and ,,on ,,some ,,of ,,its ,,causes4 ,by ,charles ,babbage ,,dedication4 ,,had ,i ,,intended ,,to ,,dedicate ,,this ,,volume1 ,i ,,should ,,have ,,inscribed ,,it ,,to ,a ,,nobleman ,,whose ,,exertions ,,in ,,promoting ,,every ,,object ,,that ,,can ,,advance ,,science ,,reflect ,,lustre ,,upon ,,his ,,rank4 ,,but ,,the ,,kindness ,,of ,,his ,,nature ,,might ,,have ,,been ,,pained ,,at ,,having ,,his ,,name ,,connected ,,with ,,strictures1 ,,perhaps ,,too ,,severely ,,just4 ,i ,,shall1 ,,therefore1 ,,abstain ,,from ,,mentioning ,,the ,,name ,,of ,,one ,,who ,,will ,,feel ,,that ,,he ,,has ,,commanded ,,my ,,esteem ,,and ,,respect4 ,c4 ,,babbage4 ,,dorset ,,street1 ,,manchester ,,square1 #bith ,april1 #ahcj4 ,,preface4 ,of the causes which have induced me to print this volume ,i have little to say2 my own opinion is1 that it will ultimately do some service to science1 and without that belief ,i would not have undertaken so thankless a task4 ,that it is too true not to make enemies1 is an opinion in which ,i concur with several of my friends1 although ,i should hope that what ,i have written will not give just reason for the permanence of such feelings4 ,on one point ,i shall speak decidedly1 it is not connected in any degree with the calculating machine on which ,i have been engaged2 the causes which have led to it have been long operating1 and would have produced this result whether ,i had ever speculated on that subject1 and whatever might have been the fate of my speculations4 ,if any one shall endeavour to account for the opinions stated in these pages by ascribing them to any imagined circumstance peculiar to myself1 ,i think he will be mistaken4 ,that science has long been neglected and declining in ,england1 is not an opinion originating with me1 but is shared by many1 and has been expressed by higher authority than mine4 ,i shall offer a few notices on this subject1 which1 from their scattered position1 are unlikely to have met the reader's attention1 and which1 when combined with the facts ,i have detailed in subsequent pages1 will be admitted to deserve considerable attention4 ,the following extract from the article ,chemistry1 in the ,encyclopaedia ,metropolitana1 is from the pen of a gentleman equally qualified by his extensive reading1 and from his acquaintance with foreign nations1 to form an opinion entitled to respect4 ,differing from him widely as to the cause1 ,i may be permitted to cite him as high authority for the fact4 ,in concluding this most circumscribed outline of the ,history of ,chemistry1 we may perhaps be allowed to express a faint shade of regret1 which1 nevertheless1 has frequently passed over our minds within the space of the last five or six years4 ,admiring1 as we most sincerely do1 the electro-magnetic discoveries of ,professor ,oersted and his followers1 we still1 as chemists1 fear that our science has suffered some degree of neglect in consequence of them4 ,at least1 we remark that1 during this period1 good chemical analyses and researches have been rare in ,england2 and yet1 it must be confessed1 there is an ample field for chemical discovery4 ,how scanty is our knowledge of the suspected fluorine6 ,are we sure that we understand the nature of nitrogen8 ,and yet these are amongst our elements4 ,much has been done by ,wollaston1 ,berzelius1 ,guy-,lussac1 ,thenard1 ,thomson1 ,prout1 and others1 with regard to the doctrine of definite proportions2 but there yet remains the ,atomic ,theory4 ,is it a representation of the laws of nature1 or is it not8---,,chemistry1 ,,encyc4 ,,metrop4 p4#eif4 ,when the present volume was considerably advanced1 the public were informed that the late ,sir ,humphry ,davy had commenced a work1 having the same title as the present1 and that his sentiments were expressed in the language of feeling and of eloquence4 ,it is to be hoped that it may be allowed by his friends to convey his opinions to posterity1 and that the writings of the philosopher may enable his contemporaries to forget some of the deeds of the ,president of the ,royal ,society4 ,whatever may be the fate of that highly interesting document1 we may infer his opinions upon this subject from a sentiment expressed in his last work3-- --,but we may in vain search the aristocracy now for philosophers4----,there are very few persons who pursue science with true dignity2 it is followed more as connected with objects of profit than those of fame4--,,sir ,h4 ,,davy',s ,,consolations ,,in ,,travel4 ,the last authority which ,i shall adduce is more valuable1 from the varied acquirements of its author1 and from the greater detail into which he enters4 ,we have drawn largely1 both in the present ,essay1 and in our article on ,,light1 from the ,,annales ,,de ,,chemie1 and we take this ,,only opportunity distinctly to acknowledge our obligations to that most admirably conducted work4 ,unlike the crude and undigested scientific matter which suffices1 7we are ashamed to say it7 for the monthly and quarterly amusement of our own countrymen1 whatever is admitted into ,,its pages1 has at least been taken pains with1 and1 with few exceptions1 has sterling merit4 ,indeed1 among the original communications which abound in it1 there are few which would misbecome the first academical collections2 and if any thing could diminish our regret at the long suppression of those noble memoirs1 which are destined to adorn future volumes of that of the ,institute1 it would be the masterly abstracts of them which from time to time appear in the ,,annales1 either from the hands of the authors1 or from the reports rendered by the committees appointed to examine them2 which latter1 indeed1 are universally models of their kind1 and have contributed1 perhaps more than any thing1 to the high scientific tone of the ,french ,,savans4 ,what author1 indeed1 but will write his best1 when he knows that his work1 if it have merit1 will immediately be reported on by a committee1 who will enter into all its meaning2 understand it1 however profound3 and1 not content with ,,merely understanding it1 pursue the trains of thought to which it leads2 place its discoveries and principles in new and unexpected lights2 and bring the whole of their knowledge of collateral subjects to bear upon it4 ,nor ought we to omit our acknowledgement to the very valuable ,journals of ,poggendorff and ,schweigger4 ,less exclusively national than their ,gallic compeer1 they present a picture of the actual progress of physical science throughout ,europe4 ,indeed1 we have been often astonished to see with what celerity every thing1 even moderately valuable in the scientific publications of this country1 finds its way into their pages4 ,this ought to encourage our men of science4 ,they have a larger audience1 and a wider sympathy than they are perhaps aware of2 and however disheartening the general diffusion of smatterings of a number of subjects1 and the almost equally general indifference to profound knowledge in any1 among their own countrymen1 may be1 they may rest assured that not a fact they may discover1 nor a good experiment they may make1 but is instantly repeated1 verified1 and commented upon1 in ,germany1 and1 we may add too1 in ,italy4 ,we wish the obligation were mutual4 ,here1 whole branches of continental discovery are unstudied1 and indeed almost unknown1 even by name4 ,it is in vain to conceal the melancholy truth4 ,we are fast dropping behind4 ,in mathematics we have long since drawn the rein1 and given over a hopeless race4 ,in chemistry the case is not much better4 ,who can tell us any thing of the ,sulfo-salts8 ,who will explain to us the laws of ,isomorphism8 ,nay1 who among us has even verified ,thenard's experiments on the oxygenated acids1--,oersted's and ,berzelius's on the radicals of the earths1--,balard's and ,serrulas's on the combinations of ,brome1--and a hundred other splendid trains of research in that fascinating science8 ,nor need we stop here4 ,there are1 indeed1 few sciences which would not furnish matter for similar remark4 ,the causes are at once obvious and deep-seated2 but this is not the place to discuss them4--,,mr4 ,,herschel',s ,,treatise ,,on ,,sound1 printed in the ,,encyclopaedia ,,metropolitana4 ,with such authorities1 ,i need not apprehend much doubt as to the fact of the decline of science in ,england3 how far ,i may have pointed out some of its causes1 must be left to others to decide4 ,many attacks have lately been made on the conduct of various scientific bodies1 and of their officers1 and severe criticism has been lavished upon some of their productions4 ,newspapers1 ,magazines1 ,reviews1 and ,pamphlets1 have all been put in requisition for the purpose4 ,odium has been cast upon some of these for being anonymous4 ,if a fact is to be established by testimony1 anonymous assertion is of no value2 if it can be proved1 by evidence to which the public have access1 it is of no consequence 7for the cause of truth7 who produces it4 ,a matter of opinion derives weight from the name which is attached to it2 but a chain of reasoning is equally conclusive1 whoever may be its author4 ,perhaps it would be better for science1 that all criticism should be avowed4 ,it would certainly have the effect of rendering it more matured1 and less severe2 but1 on the other hand1 it would have the evil of frequently repressing it altogether1 because there exists amongst the lower ranks of science1 a ,,genus ,,irritabile1 who are disposed to argue that every criticism is personal4 ,it is clearly the interest of all who fear inquiries1 to push this principle as far as possible1 whilst those whose sole object is truth1 can have no apprehensions from the severest scrutiny4 ,there are few circumstances which so strongly distinguish the philosopher1 as the calmness with which he can reply to criticisms he may think undeservedly severe4 ,i have been led into these reflections1 from the circumstance of its having been stated publicly1 that ,i was the author of several of those anonymous writings1 which were considered amongst the most severe2 and the assertion was the more likely to be credited1 from the fact of my having spoken a few words connected with one of those subjects at the last anniversary of the ,royal ,society4 ,i merely observed that the agreement made with the ,british ,museum for exchanging the ,arundel ,,mss4 for their duplicates1 7which had just been stated by the ,president17 was ,,unwise2--because it was not to be expected that many duplicates should be found in a library like that of the ,museum1 weak in the physical and mathematical sciences3 that it was ,,improvident and ,,unbusinesslike2--because it neither fixed the ,,time when the difference was to be paid1 in case their duplicates should be insufficient2 nor did it appear that there were any ,,funds out of which the money could be procured3 and ,i added1 that it would be more advantageous to sell the ,,mss41 and purchase the books we wanted with the produce4 ,i had hoped in that diminutive world1 the world of science1 my character had been sufficiently known to have escaped being the subject of such a mistake2 and1 in taking this opportunity of correcting it1 ,i will add that1 in the present volume1 ,i have thought it more candid to mention distinctly those whose line of conduct ,i have disapproved1 or whose works ,i have criticised1 than to leave to the reader inferences which he might make far more extensive than ,i have intended4 ,i hope1 therefore1 that where ,i have depicted species1 no person will be so unkind to others and unjust to me1 as to suppose ,i have described individuals4 ,with respect to the cry against personality1 which has been lately set up to prevent all inquiry into matters of scientific misgovernment1 a few words will suffice4 ,i feel as strongly as any one1 not merely the impropriety1 but the injustice of introducing private character into such discussions4 ,there is1 however1 a maxim too well established to need any comment of mine4 ,the public character of every public servant is legitimate subject of discussion1 and his fitness or unfitness for office may be fairly canvassed by any person4 ,those whose too sensitive feelings shrink from such an ordeal1 have no right to accept the emoluments of office1 for they know that it is the condition to which all must submit who are paid from the public purse4 ,the same principle is equally applicable to ,companies1 to ,societies1 and to ,academies4 ,those from whose pocket the salary is drawn1 and by whose appointment the officer was made1 have always a right to discuss the merits of their officers1 and their modes of exercising the duties they are paid to perform4 ,this principle is equally applicable to the conduct of a ,secretary of ,state1 or to that of a constable2 to that of a ,secretary of the ,royal ,society1 or of an adviser to the ,admiralty4 ,with respect to honorary officers1 the case is in some measure different4 ,but the ,president of a society1 although not recompensed by any pecuniary remuneration1 enjoys a station1 when the body over which he presides possesses a high character1 to which many will aspire1 who will esteem themselves amply repaid for the time they devote to the office1 by the consequence attached to it in public estimation4 ,he1 therefore1 is answerable to the ,society for his conduct in their chair4 ,there are several societies in which the secretaries1 and other officers1 have very laborious duties1 and where they are unaided by a train of clerks1 and yet no pecuniary remuneration is given to them4 ,science is much indebted to such men1 by whose quiet and unostentatious labours the routine of its institutions is carried on4 ,it would be unwise1 as well as ungrateful1 to judge severely of the inadvertencies1 or even of the negligence of such persons3 nothing but weighty causes should justify such a course4 ,whilst1 however1 ,i contend for the principle of discussion and inquiry in its widest sense1 because ,i consider it equally the safeguard of our scientific as of our political institutions1 ,i shall use it1 ,i hope1 temperately2 and having no personal feelings myself1 but living in terms of intercourse with almost all1 and of intimacy with several of those from whom ,i most widely differ1 ,i shall not attempt to heap together all the causes of complaint2 but1 by selecting a few in different departments1 endeavour to convince them that some alteration is essentially necessary for the promotion of that very object which we both by such different roads pursue4 ,i have found it necessary1 in the course of this volume1 to speak of the departed2 for the misgovernment of the ,royal ,society has not been wholly the result of even the present race4 ,it is said1 and ,i think with justice1 in the life of ,young1 inserted amongst ,dr4 ,johnson's1 that the famous maxim1 ,,de ,,mortuis ,,nil ,,nisi ,,bonum1 appears to savour more of female weakness than of manly reason4 ,the foibles and the follies of those who are gone1 may1 without injury to society1 repose in oblivion4 ,but1 whoever would claim the admiration of mankind for their good actions1 must prove his impartiality by fearlessly condemning their evil deeds4 ,adopt the maxim1 and praise to the dead becomes worthless1 from its universality2 and history1 a greater fable than it has been hitherto deemed4 ,perhaps ,i ought to apologize for the large space ,i have devoted to the ,royal ,society4 ,certainly its present state gives it no claim to that attention2 and ,i do it partly from respect for its former services1 and partly from the hope that1 if such an ,institution can be of use to science in the present day1 the attention of its members may be excited to take steps for its restoration4 ,perhaps ,i may be blamed for having published extracts from the minutes of its proceedings without the permission of its ,council4 ,to have asked permission of the present ,council would have been useless4 ,i might1 however1 have given the substance of what ,i have extracted without the words1 and no one could then have reproached me with any infringement of our rules3 but there were two objections to that course4 ,in the first place1 it is impossible1 even for the most candid1 in all cases1 to convey precisely the same sentiment in different language2 and ,i thought it therefore more fair towards those from whom ,i differed1 as well as to the public1 to give the precise words4 ,again3 had it been possible to make so accurate a paraphrase1 ,i should yet have preferred the risk of incurring the reproach of the ,royal ,society for the offence1 to escaping their censure by an evasion4 ,what ,i have done rests on my own head2 and ,i shrink not from the responsibility attaching to it4 ,if those1 whose mismanagement of that ,society ,i condemn1 should accuse me of hostility to the ,royal ,society2 my answer is1 that the party which governs it is not the ,royal ,society2 and that ,i will only admit the justice of the accusation1 when the whole body1 becoming acquainted with the system ,i have exposed1 shall1 by ratifying it with their approbation1 appropriate it to themselves3 an event of which ,i need scarcely add ,i have not the slightest anticipation4 ,,contents4 ,,preface ,introductory ,remarks ,,chap4 ,i4 ,on the ,reciprocal ,influence of ,science and ,education4 ,,chap4 ,,ii4 ,of the ,inducements to ,individuals to cultivate ,science4 --,sect4 #a4 ,professional ,impulses4 ------ #b4 ,of ,national ,encouragement4 ------ #c4 ,of ,encouragement from learned ,societies4 ,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,general ,state of learned ,societies in ,england4 ,,chap4 ,,iv4 ,state of the ,royal ,society in particular4 --,sect4 #a4 ,mode of becoming a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society4 ------ #b4 ,of the ,presidency and ,vice-,presidencies4 ------ #c4 ,of the ,secretariships ------ #d4 ,of the ,scientific ,advisers4 ------ #e4 ,of the ,union of several ,offices in one person4 ------ #f4 ,of the ,funds of the ,society4 ------ #g4 ,of the ,royal ,medals4 ------ #h4 ,of the ,copley ,medals4 ------ #i4 ,of the ,fairchild ,lecture4 ------ #aj4 ,of the ,croonian ,lecture4 ------ #aa4 ,of the ,causes of the ,present ,state of the ,royal ,society4 ------ #ab4 ,of the ,plan for ,reforming the ,society4 ,,chap4 ,v4 ,of ,observations4 --,sect4 #a4 ,of ,minute ,precision4 ------ #b4 ,on the ,art of ,observing4 ------ #c4 ,on the ,frauds of ,observers4 ,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,suggestions for the ,advancement of ,science in ,england4 --,sect4 #a4 ,of the ,necessity that ,members of the ,royal ,society --------- should express their ,opinions4 ------ #b4 ,of ,biennial ,presidents4 ------ #c4 ,of the ,influence of the ,colleges of ,physicians and --------- ,surgeons in the ,royal ,society4 ------ #d4 ,of the ,influence of the ,royal ,institution on the ,royal --------- ,society4 ------ #e4 ,of the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society4 ------ #f4 ,order of ,merit4 ------ #g4 ,of the ,union of ,scientific ,societies4 ,,conclusion4 ,,appendix ,,no4 #a4 ------- ,,no4 #b4 ------- ,,no4 #c4 ,,reflections ,,on ,,the ,,decline ,,of ,,science ,,in ,,england1 ,,and ,,on ,,some ,,of ,,its ,,causes4 ,,introductory ,,remarks4 ,it cannot have escaped the attention of those1 whose acquirements enable them to judge1 and who have had opportunities of examining the state of science in other countries1 that in ,england1 particularly with respect to the more difficult and abstract sciences1 we are much below other nations1 not merely of equal rank1 but below several even of inferior power4 ,that a country1 eminently distinguished for its mechanical and manufacturing ingenuity1 should be indifferent to the progress of inquiries which form the highest departments of that knowledge on whose more elementary truths its wealth and rank depend1 is a fact which is well deserving the attention of those who shall inquire into the causes that influence the progress of nations4 ,to trace the gradual decline of mathematical1 and with it of the highest departments of physical science1 from the days of ,newton to the present1 must be left to the historian4 ,it is not within the province of one who1 having mixed sufficiently with scientific society in ,england to see and regret the weakness of some of its greatest ornaments1 and to see through and deplore the conduct of its pretended friends1 offers these remarks1 with the hope that they may excite discussion1--with the conviction that discussion is the firmest ally of truth1--and with the confidence that nothing but the full expression of public opinion can remove the evils that chill the enthusiasm1 and cramp the energies of the science of ,england4 ,the causes which have produced1 and some of the effects which have resulted from1 the present state of science in ,england1 are so mixed1 that it is difficult to distinguish accurately between them4 ,i shall1 therefore1 in this volume1 not attempt any minute discrimination1 but rather present the result of my reflections on the concomitant circumstances which have attended the decay1 and at the conclusion of it1 shall examine some of the suggestions which have been offered for the advancement of ,british science4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,on ,,the ,,reciprocal ,,influence ,,of ,,science ,,and ,,education4 ,that the state of knowledge in any country will exert a directive influence on the general system of instruction adopted in it1 is a principle too obvious to require investigation4 ,and it is equally certain that the tastes and pursuits of our manhood will bear on them the traces of the earlier impressions of our education4 ,it is therefore not unreasonable to suppose that some portion of the neglect of science in ,england1 may be attributed to the system of education we pursue4 ,a young man passes from our public schools to the universities1 ignorant almost of the elements of every branch of useful knowledge2 and at these latter establishments1 formed originally for instructing those who are intended for the clerical profession1 classical and mathematical pursuits are nearly the sole objects proposed to the student's ambition4 ,much has been done at one of our universities during the last fifteen years1 to improve the system of study2 and ,i am confident that there is no one connected with that body1 who will not do me the justice to believe that1 whatever suggestions ,i may venture to offer1 are prompted by the warmest feelings for the honour and the increasing prosperity of its institutions4 ,the ties which connect me with ,cambridge are indeed of no ordinary kind4 ,taking it then for granted that our system of academical education ought to be adapted to nearly the whole of the aristocracy of the country1 ,i am inclined to believe that whilst the modifications ,i should propose would not be great innovations on the spirit of our institutions1 they would contribute materially to that important object4 ,it will be readily admitted1 that a degree conferred by an university1 ought to be a pledge to the public that he who holds it possesses a certain quantity of knowledge4 ,the progress of society has rendered knowledge far more various in its kinds than it used to be2 and to meet this variety in the tastes and inclinations of those who come to us for instruction1 we have1 besides the regular lectures to which all must attend1 other sources of information from whence the students may acquire sound and varied knowledge in the numerous lectures on chemistry1 geology1 botany1 history1 c4 ,it is at present a matter of option with the student1 which1 and how many of these courses he shall attend1 and such it should still remain4 ,all that it would be necessary to add would be1 that previously to taking his degree1 each person should be examined by those ,professors1 whose lectures he had attended4 ,the pupils should then be arranged in two classes1 according to their merits1 and the names included in these classes should be printed4 ,i would then propose that no young man1 except his name was found amongst the ,list of ,honours1 should be allowed to take his degree1 unless he had been placed in the first class of some one at least of the courses given by the professors4 ,but it should still be imperative upon the student to possess such mathematical knowledge as we usually require4 ,if he had attained the first rank in several of these examinations1 it is obvious that we should run no hazard in a little relaxing the strictness of his mathematical trial4 ,if it should be thought preferable1 the sciences might be grouped1 and the following subjects be taken together3-- ,modern ,history4 ,laws of ,england4 ,civil ,law4 ,political ,economy4 ,applications of ,science to ,arts and ,manufactures4 ,chemistry4 ,mineralogy4 ,geology4 ,zoology1 including ,physiology and ,comparative ,anatomy4 ,botany1 including ,vegetable ,physiology and ,anatomy4 ,one of the great advantages of such a system would be1 that no young person would have an excuse for not studying1 by stating1 as is most frequently done1 that the only pursuits followed at ,cambridge1 classics and mathematics1 are not adapted either to his taste1 or to the wants of his after life4 ,his friends and relatives would then reasonably expect every student to have acquired distinction in ,,some pursuit4 ,if it should be feared that this plan would lead to too great a diversity of pursuits in the same individual1 a limitation might be placed upon the number of examinations into which the same person might be permitted to enter4 ,it might also be desirable not to restrict the whole of these examinations to the third year1 but to allow the student to enter on some portion of them in the first or second year1 if he should prefer it4 ,by such an arrangement1 which would scarcely interfere seriously with our other examinations1 we should1 ,i think1 be enabled effectually to keep pace with the wants of society1 and retaining fully our power and our right to direct the studies of those who are intended for the church1 as well as of those who aspire to the various offices connected with our academical institutions2 we should1 at the same time1 open a field of honourable ambition to multitudes1 who1 from the exclusive nature of our present studies1 leave us with but a very limited addition to their stock of knowledge4 ,much more might be said on a subject so important to the interests of the country1 as well as of our university1 but my wish is merely to open it for our own consideration and discussion4 ,we have already done so much for the improvement of our system of instruction1 that public opinion will not reproach us for any unwillingness to alter4 ,it is our first duty to be well satisfied that we can improve3 such alterations ought only to be the result of a most mature consideration1 and of a free interchange of sentiments on the subject1 in order that we may condense upon the question the accumulated judgment of many minds4 ,it is in some measure to be attributed to the defects of our system of education1 that scientific knowledge scarcely exists amongst the higher classes of society4 ,the discussions in the ,houses of ,lords or of ,commons1 which arise on the occurrence of any subjects connected with science1 sufficiently prove this fact1 which1 if ,i had consulted the extremely limited nature of my personal experience1 ,i should1 perhaps1 have doubted4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,of ,,the ,,inducements ,,to ,,individuals ,,to ,,cultivate ,,science4 ,interest or inclination form the primary and ruling motives in this matter3 and both these exert greater or less proportionate influence in each of the respective cases to be examined4 ,,section #a4 ,,professional ,,impulses4 ,a large portion of those who are impelled by ambition or necessity to advance themselves in the world1 make choice of some profession in which they imagine their talents likely to be rewarded with success2 and there are peculiar advantages resulting to each from this classification of society into professions4 ,the ,,esprit ,,de ,,corps frequently overpowers the jealousy which exists between individuals1 and pushes on to advantageous situations some of the more fortunate of the profession2 whilst1 on the other hand1 any injury or insult offered to the weakest1 is redressed or resented by the whole body4 ,there are other advantages which are perhaps of more importance to the public4 ,the numbers which compose the learned professions in ,england are so considerable1 that a kind of public opinion is generated amongst them1 which powerfully tends to repress conduct that is injurious either to the profession or to the public4 ,again1 the mutual jealousy and rivalry excited amongst the whole body is so considerable1 that although the rank and estimation which an individual holds in the profession may be most unfairly appreciated1 by taking the opinion of his rival2 yet few estimations will be found generally more correct than the opinion of a whole profession on the merits of any one of its body4 ,this test is of great value to the public1 and becomes the more so1 in proportion to the difficulty of the study to which the profession is devoted4 ,it is by availing themselves of it that men of sense and judgment1 who have occasion for the services of professional persons1 are1 in a great measure1 guided in their choice4 ,the pursuit of science does not1 in ,england1 constitute a distinct profession1 as it does in many other countries4 ,it is therefore1 on that ground alone1 deprived of many of the advantages which attach to professions4 ,one of its greatest misfortunes arises from this circumstance2 for the subjects on which it is conversant are so difficult1 and require such unremitted devotion of time1 that few who have not spent years in their study can judge of the relative knowledge of those who pursue them4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that the public1 and even that men of sound sense and discernment1 can scarcely find means to distinguish between the possessors of knowledge1 in the present day1 merely elementary1 and those whose acquirements are of the highest order4 ,this remark applies with peculiar force to all the more difficult applications of mathematics2 and the fact is calculated to check the energies of those who only look to reputation in ,england4 ,as there exists with us no peculiar class professedly devoted to science1 it frequently happens that when a situation1 requiring for the proper fulfilment of its duties considerable scientific attainments1 is vacant1 it becomes necessary to select from among amateurs1 or rather from among persons whose chief attention has been bestowed on other subjects1 and to whom science has been only an occasional pursuit4 ,a certain quantity of scientific knowledge is of course possessed by individuals in many professions2 and when added to the professional acquirements of the army1 the navy1 or to the knowledge of the merchant1 is highly meritorious3 but it is obvious that this may become1 when separated from the profession1 quite insignificant as the basis of a scientific reputation4 ,to those who have chosen the profession of medicine1 a knowledge of chemistry1 and of some branches of natural history1 and1 indeed1 of several other departments of science1 affords useful assistance4 ,some of the most valuable names which adorn the history of ,english science have been connected with this profession4 ,the causes which induce the selection of the clerical profession are not often connected with science2 and it is1 perhaps1 a question of considerable doubt whether it is desirable to hold out to its members hopes of advancement from such acquirements4 ,as a source of recreation1 nothing can be more fit to occupy the attention of a divine2 and our church may boast1 in the present as in past times1 that the domain of science has been extended by some of its brightest ornaments4 ,in ,england1 the profession of the law is that which seems to hold out the strongest attraction to talent1 from the circumstance1 that in it ability1 coupled with exertion1 even though unaided by patronage1 cannot fail of obtaining reward4 ,it is frequently chosen as an introduction to public life4 ,it also presents great advantages1 from its being a qualification for many situations more or less remotely connected with it1 as well as from the circumstance that several of the highest officers of the state must necessarily have sprung from its ranks4 ,a powerful attraction exists1 therefore1 to the promotion of a study and of duties of all others engrossing the time most completely1 and which is less benefited than most others by any acquaintance with science4 ,this is one amongst the causes why it so very rarely happens that men in public situations are at all conversant even with the commonest branches of scientific knowledge1 and why scarcely an instance can be cited of such persons acquiring a reputation by any discoveries of their own4 ,but1 however consistent other sciences may be with professional avocations1 there is one which1 from its extreme difficulty1 and the overwhelming attention which it demands1 can only be pursued with success by those whose leisure is undisturbed by other claims4 ,to be well acquainted with the present state of mathematics1 is no easy task2 but to add to the powers which that science possesses1 is likely to be the lot of but few ,english philosophers4 ,,section #b4 ,,of ,,national ,,encouragement4 ,the little encouragement which at all previous periods has been afforded by the ,english ,government to the authors of useful discoveries1 or of new and valuable inventions1 is justified on the following grounds3 #a4 ,the public1 who consume the new commodity or profit by the new invention1 are much better judges of its merit than the government can be4 #b4 ,the reward which arises from the sale of the commodity is usually much larger than that which government would be justified in bestowing2 and it is exactly proportioned to the consumption1 that is1 to the want which the public feel for the new article4 ,it must be admitted that1 as general principles1 these are correct3 there are1 however1 exceptions which flow necessarily from the very reasoning from which they were deduced4 ,without entering minutely into these exceptions1 it will be sufficient to show that all abstract truth is entirely excluded from reward under this system4 ,it is only the application of principles to common life which can be thus rewarded4 ,a few instances may perhaps render this position more evident4 ,the principle of the hydrostatic paradox was known as a speculative truth in the time of ,stevinus2 ,about the year #afjj and its application to raising heavy weights has long been stated in elementary treatises on natural philosophy1 as well as constantly exhibited in lectures4 ,yet1 it may fairly be regarded as a mere abstract principle1 until the late ,mr4 ,bramah1 by substituting a pump instead of the smaller column1 converted it into a most valuable and powerful engine4--,the principle of the convertibility of the centres of oscillation and suspension in the pendulum1 discovered by ,huygens more than a century and a half ago1 remained1 until within these few years1 a sterile1 though most elegant proposition2 when1 after being hinted at by ,prony1 and distinctly pointed out by ,bonenberger1 it was employed by ,captain ,kater as the foundation of a most convenient practical method of determining the length of the pendulum4--,the interval which separated the discovery1 by ,dr4 ,black1 of latent heat1 from the beautiful and successful application of it to the steam engine1 was comparatively short2 but it required the efforts of two minds2 and both were of the highest order4--,the influence of electricity in producing decompositions1 although of inestimable value as an instrument of discovery in chemical inquiries1 can hardly be said to have been applied to the practical purposes of life1 until the same powerful genius which detected the principle1 applied it1 by a singular felicity of reasoning1 to arrest the corrosion of the copper-sheathing of vessels4 ,that admirably connected chain of reasoning1 the truth of which is confirmed by its very failure as a remedy1 will probably at some future day supply1 by its successful application1 a new proof of the position we are endeavouring to establish4 ,i am authorised in stating1 that this was regarded by ,laplace as the greatest of ,sir ,humphry ,davy's discoveries4 ,it did not fail in producing the effect foreseen by ,sir ,h4 ,davy1--the preventing the corrosion of the copper2 but it failed as a cure of the evil1 by producing one of an ,,opposite character2 either by preserving too perfectly from decay the surface of the copper1 or by rendering it negative1 it allowed marine animals and vegetables to accumulate on its surface1 and thus impede the progress of the vessel4 ,other instances might1 if necessary1 be adduced1 to show that long intervals frequently elapse between the discovery of new principles in science and their practical application3 nor ought this at all to surprise us4 ,those intellectual qualifications1 which give birth to new principles or to new methods1 are of quite a different order from those which are necessary for their practical application4 ,at the time of the discovery of the beautiful theorem of ,huygens1 it required in its author not merely a complete knowledge of the mathematical science of his age1 but a genius to enlarge its boundaries by new creations of his own4 ,such talents are not always united with a quick perception of the details1 and of the practical applications of the principles they have developed1 nor is it for the interest of mankind that minds of this high order should lavish their powers on subjects unsuited to their grasp4 ,in mathematical science1 more than in all others1 it happens that truths which are at one period the most abstract1 and apparently the most remote from all useful application1 become in the next age the bases of profound physical inquiries1 and in the succeeding one1 perhaps1 by proper simplification and reduction to tables1 furnish their ready and daily aid to the artist and the sailor4 ,it may also happen that at the time of the discovery of such principles1 the mechanical arts may be too imperfect to render their application likely to be attended with success4 ,such was the case with the principle of the hydrostatic paradox2 and it was not1 ,i believe1 until the expiration of ,mr4 ,bramah's patent1 that the press which bears his name received that mechanical perfection in its execution1 which has deservedly brought it into such general use4 ,on the other hand1 for one person who is blessed with the power of invention1 many will always be found who have the capacity of applying principles2 and much of the merit ascribed to these applications will always depend on the care and labour bestowed in the practical detail4 ,if1 therefore1 it is important to the country that abstract principles should be applied to practical use1 it is clear that it is also important that encouragement should be held out to the few who are capable of adding to the number of those truths on which such applications are founded4 ,unless there exist peculiar institutions for the support of such inquirers1 or unless the ,government directly interfere1 the contriver of a thaumatrope may derive profit from his ingenuity1 whilst he who unravels the laws of light and vision1 on which multitudes of phenomena depend1 shall descend unrewarded to the tomb4 ,perhaps it may be urged1 that sufficient encouragement is already afforded to abstract science in our different universities1 by the professorships established at them4 ,it is not however in the power of such institutions to create2 they may foster and aid the development of genius2 and1 when rightly applied1 such stations ought to be its fair and honourable rewards4 ,in many instances their emolument is small2 and when otherwise1 the lectures which are required from the professor are not perhaps in all cases the best mode of employing the energies of those who are capable of inventing4 ,i cannot resist the opportunity of supporting these opinions by the authority of one of the greatest philosophers of a past age1 and of expressing my acknowledgments to the author of a most interesting piece of scientific biography4 ,in the correspondence which terminated in the return of ,galileo to a professorship in his native country1 he remarks1 ,but1 because my private lectures and domestic pupils are a great hinderance and interruption of my studies1 ,i wish to live entirely exempt from the former1 and in great measure from the latter4--,,life ,,of ,,galileo1 p4#ah4 ,and1 in another letter to ,kepler1 he speaks with gratitude of ,cosmo1 the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 who has now invited me to attach myself to him with the annual salary of #ajjj florins1 and with the title of ,philosopher and principal ,mathematician to his ,highness1 without the duties of any office to perform1 but with most complete leisure2 so that ,i can complete my treatise on ,mechanics1 c4--p4#ca4 ,life of ,galileo1 published by the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,surely1 if knowledge is valuable1 it can never be good policy in a country far wealthier than ,tuscany1 to allow a genius like ,mr4 ,dalton's1 to be employed in the drudgery of elementary instruction4 ,i utter these sentiments from no feelings of private friendship to that estimable philosopher1 to whom it is my regret to be almost unknown1 and whose modest and retiring merit1 ,i may1 perhaps1 have the misfortune to offend by these remarks4 ,but ,mr4 ,dalton was of no party2 had he ever moved in that vortex which has brought discredit1 and almost ruin1 on the ,royal ,society of ,england2--had he taken part with those who vote to each other medals1 and1 affecting to be tired of the fatigues of office1 make to each other requisitions to retain places they would be most reluctant to quit2 his great and splendid discovery would long since have been represented to government4 ,expectant mediocrity would have urged on his claims to remuneration1 and those who covered their selfish purposes with the cloak of science1 would have hastened to shelter themselves in the mantle of his glory4--,but the philosopher may find consolation for the tardy approbation of that ,society1 in the applause of ,europe4 ,if he was insulted by their medal1 he escaped the pain of seeing his name connected with their proceedings4 ,where would have been the military renown of ,england1 if1 with an equally improvident waste of mental power1 its institutions had forced the ,duke of ,wellington to employ his life in drilling recruits1 instead of planning campaigns8 ,if we look at the fact1 we shall find that the great inventions of the age are not1 with us at least1 always produced in universities4 ,the doctrines of definite proportions1 and of the chemical agency of electricity1--principles of a high order1 which have immortalized the names of their discoverers1--were not produced by the meditations of the cloister3 nor is it in the least a reproach to those valuable institutions to mention truths like these4 ,fortunate circumstances must concur1 even to the greatest1 to render them eminently successful4 ,it is not permitted to all to be born1 like ,archimedes1 when a science was to be created2 nor1 like ,newton1 to find the system of the world without form and void2 and1 by disclosing gravitation1 to shed throughout that system the same irresistible radiance as that with which the ,almighty ,creator had illumined its material substance4 ,it can happen to but few philosophers1 and but at distant intervals1 to snatch a science1 like ,dalton1 from the chaos of indefinite combination1 and binding it in the chains of number1 to exalt it to rank amongst the exact4 ,triumphs like these are necessarily few and far between2 nor can it be expected that that portion of encouragement1 which a country may think fit to bestow on science1 should be adapted to meet such instances4 ,too extraordinary to be frequent1 they must be left1 if they are to be encouraged at all1 to some direct interference of the government4 ,the dangers to be apprehended from such a specific interference1 would arise from one1 or several1 of the following circumstances3--,that class of society1 from whom the government is selected1 might not possess sufficient knowledge either to judge themselves1 or know upon whose judgment to rely4 ,or the number of persons devoting themselves to science1 might not be sufficiently large to have due weight in the expression of public opinion4 ,or1 supposing this class to be large1 it might not enjoy1 in the estimation of the world1 a sufficiently high character for independence4 ,should these causes concur in any country1 it might become highly injurious to commit the encouragement of science to any department of the government4 ,this reasoning does not appear to have escaped the penetration of those who advised the abolition of the late ,board of ,longitude4 ,the question whether it is good policy in the government of a country to encourage science1 is one of which those who cultivate it are not perhaps the most unbiased judges4 ,in ,england1 those who have hitherto pursued science1 have in general no very reasonable grounds of complaint2 they knew1 or should have known1 that there was no demand for it1 that it led to little honour1 and to less profit4 ,that blame has been attributed to the government for not fostering the science of the country is certain2 and1 as far as regards past administrations1 is1 to a great extent1 just2 with respect to the present ministers1 whose strength essentially depends on public opinion1 it is not necessary that they should precede1 and they cannot remain long insensible to any expression of the general feeling4 ,but supposing science were thought of some importance by any administration1 it would be difficult in the present state of things to do much in its favour2 because1 on the one hand1 the higher classes in general have not a profound knowledge of science1 and1 on the other1 those persons whom they have usually consulted1 seem not to have given such advice as to deserve the confidence of government4 ,it seems to be forgotten1 that the money allotted by government to purposes of science ought to be expended with the same regard to prudence and economy as in the disposal of money in the affairs of private life4 ,who1 for instance1 could have advised the government to incur the expense of printing ,,seven ,,hundred ,,and ,,fifty copies of the ,astronomical ,observations made at ,paramatta1 to form a third part of the ,philosophical ,transactions for #ahbi1 whilst of the ,observations made at the ,royal ,observatory at ,greenwich1 two hundred and fifty copies only are printed8 ,of these seven hundred and fifty copies1 seven hundred and ten will be distributed to members of the ,royal ,society1 to six hundred of whom they will probably be wholly uninteresting or useless2 and thus the country incurs a constantly recurring annual expense4 ,nor is it easy to see on what principle a similar destination could be refused for the observations made at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,to those who measure the question of the national encouragement of science by its value in pounds1 shillings1 and pence1 ,i will here state a fact1 which1 although pretty generally known1 still1 ,i think1 deserves attention4 ,a short time since it was discovered by government that the terms on which annuities had been granted by them were erroneous1 and new tables were introduced by act of ,parliament4 ,it was stated at the time that the erroneous tables had caused a loss to the country of between two and three millions sterling4 ,the fact of the sale of those annuities being a losing concern was long known to many2 and the government appear to have been the last to be informed on the subject4 ,half the interest of half that loss1 judiciously applied to the encouragement of mathematical science1 would1 in a few years1 have rendered utterly impossible such expensive errors4 ,to those who bow to the authority of great names1 one remark may have its weight4 ,the ,,mecanique ,,coeleste1 ,the first volume of the first translation of this celebrated work into our own language1 has just arrived in ,england from--,america4 and the ,,theorie ,,analytique ,,des ,,probabilites1 were both dedicated1 by ,laplace1 to ,napoleon4 ,during the reign of that extraordinary man1 the triumphs of ,france were as eminent in ,science as they were splendid in arms4 ,may the institutions which trained and rewarded her philosophers be permanent as the benefits they have conferred upon mankind6 ,in other countries it has been found1 and is admitted1 that a knowledge of science is a recommendation to public appointments1 and that a man does not make a worse ambassador because he has directed an observatory1 or has added by his discoveries to the extent of our knowledge of animated nature4 ,instances even are not wanting of ministers who have begun their career in the inquiries of pure analysis4 ,as such examples are perhaps more frequent than is generally imagined1 it may be useful to mention a few of those men of science who have formerly held1 or who now hold1 high official stations in the governments of their respective countries4 ,country4 ,name4 ,department of ,public ,office4 ,science4 ,france44 ,marquis ,laplace7#a7 ,mathematics ,president of the ,conservative ,senate4 ,france44 ,m4,carnot ,mathematics ,minister of ,war4 ,france44 ,count ,chaptal7#b7 ,chemistry ,minister of the ,interior4 ,france44 ,baron ,cuvier7#c7 ,comparative ,minister of ,anatomy1 ,public ,history ,instruction ,prussia44 ,baron ,humboldt ,oriental ,ambassador ,languages to ,england ,prussia44 ,baron ,alexander ,the celebrated ,chamberlain to ,humboldt ,traveller the ,king of ,prussia ,modena4 ,marquis ,rangoni7#d7 ,mathematics ,minister of ,finance and of ,public ,instruction1 ,president of ,italian ,academy of ,forty4 ,tuscany4 ,count ,fossombroni ,mathematics ,prime ,minister 7#e7 of the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany4 ,saxony44 ,m4 ,lindenau7#f7 ,astronomy ,ambassador4 7#a7 ,author of the ,,mecanique ,,coeleste4 7#b7 ,author of ,,traite ,,de ,,chimie ,,applique ,,aux ,,arts4 7#c7 ,author of ,,lecons ,d',,anatomie ,,comparee--,,recherches ,,sur ,,ossemens ,,fossiles c4 c4 7#d7 ,author of ,,memoria ,,sulle ,,funzioni ,,generatrici1 ,modena1 #ahbd1 and of various other memoirs on mathematical subjects4 7#e7 ,author of several memoirs on mechanics and hydraulics1 in the ,transactions of the ,academy of ,forty4 7#f7 ,author of ,,tables ,,barometriques1 ,gotha1 #ahji--,,tabulae ,,veneris1 ,,novae ,,et ,,correctae1 ,gothae1 #ahaj--;,,investigatio ,,nova ,,orbitae ,a ,,mercurio ,,circa ,,solem ,,descriptae1 ,gothae1 #ahac1 and of other works4 ,m4 ,lindenau1 the ,minister from the ,king of ,saxony to the ,king of the ,netherlands1 commenced his career as astronomer at the observatory of the ,grand ,duke of ,gotha1 by whom he was sent as his representative at the ,german ,diet4 ,on the death of the late reigning ,duke1 ,m4 ,lindenau was invited to ,dresden1 and filled the same situation under the ,king of ,saxony2 after which he was appointed his minister at the court of the ,king of the ,netherlands4 ,such occurrences are not to be paralleled in our own country1 at least not in modern times4 ,newton was1 it is true1 more than a century since1 appointed ,master of the ,mint2 but let any person suggest an appointment of a similar kind in the present day1 and he will gather from the smiles of those to whom he proposes it that the highest knowledge conduces nothing to success1 and that political power is almost the only recommendation4 ,,section #c4 ,of ,encouragement from ,learned ,societies4 ,there are several circumstances which concur in inducing persons pursuing science1 to unite together1 to form societies or academies4 ,in former times1 when philosophical instruments were more rare1 and the art of making experiments was less perfectly known1 it was almost necessary4 ,more recently1 whilst numerous additions are constantly making to science1 it has been found that those who are most capable of extending human knowledge1 are frequently least able to encounter the expense of printing their investigations4 ,it is therefore convenient1 that some means should be devised for relieving them from this difficulty1 and the volumes of the transactions of academies have accomplished the desired end4 ,there is1 however1 another purpose to which academies contribute4 ,when they consist of a limited number of persons1 eminent for their knowledge1 it becomes an object of ambition to be admitted on their list4 ,thus a stimulus is applied to all those who cultivate science1 which urges on their exertions1 in order to acquire the wished-for distinction4 ,it is clear that this envied position will be valued in proportion to the difficulty of its attainment1 and also to the celebrity of those who enjoy it2 and whenever the standard of scientific knowledge which qualifies for its ranks is lowered1 the value of the distinction itself will be diminished4 ,if1 at any time1 a multitude of persons having no sort of knowledge of science are admitted1 it must cease to be sought after as an object of ambition by men of science1 and the class of persons to whom it will become an object of desire will be less intellectual4 ,let us now compare the numbers composing some of the various academies of ,europe4-,the ,royal ,society of ,london1 the ,institute of ,france1 the ,italian ,academy of ,forty1 and the ,royal ,academy of ,berlin1 are amongst the most distinguished4 ,name ,number of ,number ,population4 ,members of ,country4 of its ,foreign ,academy4 ,members #a4 ,england4 #bb1bii1jjj #fhe #ej #b4 ,france4 #cb1jeh1jjj #gf #h ,mem4 #ajj ,corr4 #h4 ,prussia4 #ab1iae1jjj #ch #af #d4 ,italy44 #ab1jjj1jjj #dj #h ,it appears then1 that in ,france1 one person out of #dbg1jjj is a member of the ,institute4 ,that in ,italy and ,prussia1 about one out of #cjj1jjj persons is a member of their ,academies4 ,that in ,england1 every #cb1jjj inhabitants produces a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society4 ,looking merely at these proportions1 the estimation of a seat in the ,academy of ,berlin1 must be more than nine times as valuable as a similar situation in ,england2 and a member of the ,institute of ,france will be more than thirteen times more rare in his country than a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society is in ,england4 ,favourable as this view is to the dignity of such situations in other countries1 their comparative rarity is by no means the most striking difference in the circumstances of men of science4 ,if we look at the station in society occupied by the ,,savans of other countries1 in several of them we shall find it high1 and their situations profitable4 ,perhaps1 at the present moment1 ,prussia is1 of all the countries in ,europe1 that which bestows the greatest attention1 and most unwearied encouragement on science4 ,great as are the merits of many of its philosophers1 much of this support arises from the character of the reigning family1 by whose enlightened policy even the most abstract sciences are fostered4 ,the maxim that knowledge is power1 can be perfectly comprehended by those only who are themselves well versed in science2 and to the circumstance of the younger branches of the royal family of ,prussia having acquired considerable knowledge in such subjects1 we may attribute the great force with which that maxim is appreciated4 ,in ,france1 the situation of its ,,savans is highly respectable1 as well as profitable4 ,if we analyze the list of the ,institute1 we shall find few who do not possess titles or decorations2 but as the value of such marks of royal favour must depend1 in a great measure1 on their frequency1 ,i shall mention several particulars which are probably not familiar to the ,english reader4 ,this analysis was made by comparing the list of the ,institute1 printed for that body in #ahbg1 with the ,,almanach ,,royale for #ahbc4 ,number of the ,members of the ,total ,number of each ,class ,institute of ,france who belong of the ,legion of ,honour4 to the ,legion of ,honour4 ,grand,croix444444444 #c #hj ,grand,officier44444 #c #afj ,commandeur44444444 #d #djj ,officier4444444444 #ag #b1jjj ,chevalier444444444 #dj ,not limited4 ,number of ,members of the ,institute ,total ,number decorated with of the ,order of ,st4 ,michel4 that ,order4 ,grand ,croix4444444 #b #ajj ,chevalier444444444 #bg ,amongst the members of the ,institute there are1-- ,dukes4444444444444444444 #b ,marquis44444444444444444 #a ,counts444444444444444444 #d ,viscounts4444444444444444 #b ,barons444444444444444444 #ad --#bc ,of these there are ,peers of ,france4444444444 #e ,we might1 on turning over the list of the #fhe members of the ,royal ,society1 find a greater number of peers than there are in the ,institute of ,france2 but a fairer mode of instituting the comparison1 is to inquire how many titled members there are amongst those who have contributed to its ,transactions4 ,in #ahbg1 there were one hundred and nine members who had contributed to the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society2 amongst these were found3-- ,peer444444444444444444444444 #a ,baronets44444444444444444444 #e ,knights444444444444444444444 #e ,it should be observed1 that five of these titles were the rewards of members of the medical profession1 and one only1 that of ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 could be attributed exclusively to science4 ,it must not be inferred that the titles of nobility in the ,french list1 were all of them the rewards of scientific eminence2 many are known to have been such2 but it would be quite sufficient for the argument to mention the names of ,lagrange1 ,laplace1 ,berthollet1 and ,chaptal4 ,the estimation in which the public hold literary claims in ,france and ,england1 was curiously illustrated by an incidental expression in the translation of the debates in the ,house of ,lords1 on the occasion of ,his ,majesty's speech at the commencement of the session of #ahcj4 ,the ,gazette de ,france stated1 that the address was moved by the ,duc de ,buccleugh1 ,,chef ,,de ,,la ,,maison ,,de ,,walter ,,scott4 ,had an ,english editor wished to particularize that nobleman1 he would undoubtedly have employed the term ,,wealthy1 or some other of the epithets characteristic of that quality most esteemed amongst his countrymen4 ,if we turn1 on the other hand1 to the emoluments of science in ,france1 we shall find them far exceed those in our own country4 ,i regret much that ,i have mislaid a most interesting memorandum on this subject1 which ,i made several years since3 but ,i believe my memory on the point will not be found widely incorrect4 ,a foreign gentleman1 himself possessing no inconsiderable acquaintance with science1 called on me a few years since1 to present a letter of introduction4 ,he had been but a short time in ,london2 and1 in the course of our conversation1 it appeared to me that he had imbibed very inaccurate ideas respecting our encouragement of science4 ,thinking this a good opportunity of instituting a fair comparison between the emoluments of science in the two countries1 ,i placed a sheet of paper before him1 and requested him to write down the names of six ,englishmen1 in his opinion1 best known in ,france for their scientific reputation4 ,taking another sheet of paper1 ,i wrote upon it the names of six ,frenchmen1 best known in ,england for their scientific discoveries4 ,we exchanged these lists1 and ,i then requested him to place against each name 7as far as he knew7 the annual income of the different appointments held by that person4 ,in the mean time1 ,i performed the same operation on his list1 against some names of which ,i was obliged to place a ,,zero4 ,the result of the comparison was an average of nearly #abjj,l4 per annum for the six ,french ,,savans whom ,i had named4 ,of the average amount of the sums received by the ,english1 ,i only remember that it was very much smaller4 ,when we consider what a command over the necessaries and luxuries of life #abjj,l4 will give in ,france1 it is underrating it to say it is equal to #bjjj,l4 in this country4 ,let us now look at the prospects of a young man at his entrance into life1 who1 impelled by an almost irresistible desire to devote himself to the abstruser sciences1 or who1 confident in the energy of youthful power1 feels that the career of science is that in which his mental faculties are most fitted to achieve the reputation for which he pants4 ,what are his prospects8 ,can even the glowing pencil of enthusiasm add colour to the blank before him8 ,there are no situations in the state2 there is no position in society to which hope can point1 to cheer him in his laborious path4 ,if1 indeed1 he belong to one of our universities1 there are some few chairs in his ,,own ,alma ,mater to which he may at some distant day pretend2 but these are not numerous2 and whilst the salaries attached are seldom sufficient for the sole support of the individual1 they are very rarely enough for that of a family4 ,what then can he reply to the entreaties of his friends1 to betake himself to some business in which perhaps they have power to assist him1 or to choose some profession in which his talents may produce for him their fair reward8 ,if he have no fortune1 the choice is taken away3 he ,,must give up that line of life in which his habits of thought and his ambition qualify him to succeed eminently1 and he ,,must choose the bar1 or some other profession1 in which1 amongst so many competitors1 in spite of his great talents1 he can be but moderately successful4 ,the loss to him is great1 but to the country it is greater4 ,we thus1 by a destructive misapplication of talent which our institutions create1 exchange a profound philosopher for but a tolerable lawyer4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he possess some moderate fortune of his own2 and1 intent on the glory of an immortal name1 yet not blindly ignorant of the state of science in this country1 he resolve to make for that aspiration a sacrifice the greater1 because he is fully aware of its extent2--if1 so circumstanced1 he give up a business or a profession on which he might have entered with advantage1 with the hope that1 when he shall have won a station high in the ranks of ,european science1 he may a little augment his resources by some of those few employments to which science leads2--if he hope to obtain some situation1 7at the ,board of ,longitude1 for example17 ,this body is now dissolved where he may be permitted to exercise the talents of a philosopher for the paltry remuneration of a clerk1 he will find that other qualifications than knowledge and a love of science are necessary for its attainment4 ,he will also find that the high and independent spirit1 which usually dwells in the breast of those who are deeply versed in these pursuits1 is ill adapted for such appointments2 and that even if successful1 he must hear many things he disapproves1 and raise no voice ,,against them4 ,thus1 then1 it appears that scarcely any man can be expected to pursue abstract science unless he possess a private fortune1 and unless he can resolve to give up all intention of improving it4 ,yet1 how few thus situated are likely to undergo the labour of the acquisition2 and if they do from some irresistible impulse1 what inducement is there for them to deviate one step from those inquiries in which they find the greatest delight1 into those which might be more immediately useful to the public8 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,general ,,state ,,of ,,learned ,,societies ,,in ,,england4 ,the progress of knowledge convinced the world that the system of the division of labour and of cooperation was as applicable to science1 as it had been found available for the improvement of manufactures4 ,the want of competition in science produced effects similar to those which the same cause gives birth to in the arts4 ,the cultivators of botany were the first to feel that the range of knowledge embraced by the ,royal ,society was too comprehensive to admit of sufficient attention to their favourite subject1 and they established the ,linnean ,society4 ,after many years1 a new science arose1 and the ,geological ,society was produced4 ,at an another and more recent epoch1 the friends of astronomy1 urged by the wants of their science1 united to establish the ,astronomical ,society4 ,each of these bodies found1 that the attention devoted to their science by the parent establishment was insufficient for their wants1 and each in succession experienced from the ,royal ,society the most determined opposition4 ,instituted by the most enlightened philosophers1 solely for the promotion of the natural sciences1 that learned body justly conceived that nothing could be more likely to render these young institutions permanently successful1 than discouragement and opposition at their commencement4 ,finding their first attempts so eminently successful1 they redoubled the severity of their persecution1 and the result was commensurate with their exertions1 and surpassed even their wildest anticipations4 ,the ,astronomical ,society became in six years known and respected throughout ,europe1 not from the halo of reputation which the glory of its vigourous youth had thrown around the weakness of its declining years2 but from the sterling merit of its unpretending deeds1 from the sympathy it claimed and received from every practical astronomer1 whose labours it relieved1 and whose calculations it lightened4 ,but the system which worked so well is now changed1 and the ,zoological and ,medico-,botanical ,societies were established without opposition3 perhaps1 indeed1 the total failure of the latter society is the best proof of the wisdom which guided the councils of the ,royal4 ,at present1 the various societies exist with no feelings of rivalry or hostility1 each pursuing its separate objects1 and all uniting in deploring with filial regret1 the second childhood of their common parent1 and the evil councils by which that sad event has been anticipated4 ,it is the custom to attach certain letters to the names of those who belong to different societies1 and these marks of ownership are by many considered the only valuable part of their purchase on entry4 ,the following is a list of some of these societies4 ,the second column gives the ready-money prices of the tail-pieces indicated in the third4 ,,societies4 ,fees on ,admission ,appended including ,composition ,letters for ,annual ,payments4 ,l4 s4 d4 ,royal ,society4444444444444 #ej #j #j ,f4,r4,s4 ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh4 #be #d #j99 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,royal ,academy of ,dublin444 #bf #e #j ,m4,r4,i4,a4 ,royal ,society of ,literature #cf #ae #j ,f4,r4,s4,lit4 ,antiquarian444444444444444 #ej #h #j ,f4,a4,s4 ,linnean4444444444444444444 #cf #j #j ,f4,l4,s4 ,geological4444444444444444 #cd #ae #j ,f4,g4,s4 ,astronomical44444444444444 #be #d #j ,m4,a4,s4 ,zoological4444444444444444 #bf #e #j ,f4,z4,s4 ,royal ,institution444444444 #ej #j #j ,m4,r4,i4 ,royal ,asiatic44444444444444 #ca #aj #j ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,horticultural4444444444444 #dc #f #j ,f4,h4,s4 ,medico-,botanical4444444444 #ba #j #j ,f4,m4,b4,s4 99 ,the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh now requires1 for composition in lieu of annual contributions1 a sum dependent on the value of the life of the member4 ,thus1 those who are ambitious of scientific distinction1 may1 according to their fancy1 render their name a kind of comet1 carrying with it a tail of upwards of forty letters1 at the average cost of #aj,l4 #is4 #i;d4 per letter4 ,perhaps the reader will remark1 that science cannot be declining in a country which supports so many institutions for its cultivation4 ,it is indeed creditable to us1 that the greater part of these societies are maintained by the voluntary contributions of their members4 ,but1 unless the inquiries which have recently taken place in some of them should rectify the ,,system ,,of ,,management by which several have been oppressed1 it is not difficult to predict that their duration will be short4 ,full ,,publicity1 ,,printed ,,statements ,,of ,,accounts1 and occasional ,,discussions and inquiries at ,,general ,,meetings1 are the only safeguards2 and a due degree of ,,vigilance should be exercised on those who ,,discourage these principles4 ,of the ,royal ,society1 ,i shall speak in a succeeding page2 and ,i regret to add1 that ,i might have said more4 ,my object is to amend it2 but1 like all deeply-rooted complaints1 the operation which alone can contribute to its cure1 is necessarily painful4 ,had the words of remonstrance or reproof found utterance through other channels1 ,i had gladly been silent1 content to support by my vote the reasonings of the friend of science and of the ,society4 ,but this has not been the case1 and after frustrated efforts to introduce improvements1 ,i shall now endeavour1 by the force of plain1 but perhaps painful truths1 to direct public opinion in calling for such a reform1 as shall rescue the ,royal ,society from contempt in our own country1 from ridicule in others4 ,on the next five societies in the list1 ,i shall offer no remarks4 ,of the ,geological1 ,i shall say a few words4 ,it possesses all the freshness1 the vigour1 and the ardour of youth in the pursuit of a youthful science1 and has succeeded in a most difficult experiment1 that of having an oral discussion on the subject of each paper read at its meetings4 ,to say of these discussions1 that they are very entertaining1 is the least part of the praise which is due to them4 ,they are generally very instructive1 and sometimes bring together isolated facts in the science which1 though insignificant when separate1 mutually illustrate each other1 and ultimately lead to important conclusions4 ,the continuance of these discussions evidently depends on the taste1 the temper1 and the good sense of the speakers4 ,the things to be avoided are chiefly verbal criticisms--praise of each other beyond its reasonable limits1 and contest for victory4 ,this latter is1 perhaps1 the most important of the three1 both for the interests of the ,society and of truth4 ,with regard to the published volumes of their ,transactions1 it may be remarked1 that if members were in the habit of communicating their papers to the ,society in a more finished state1 it would be attended with several advantages2 amongst others1 with that of lightening the heavy duties of the officers1 which are perhaps more laborious in this ,society than in most others4 ,to court publicity in their accounts and proceedings1 and to endeavour to represent all the feelings of the ,society in the ,council1 and to avoid permanent ,presidents1 is a recommendation not peculiarly addressed to this ,society1 but would contribute to the well-being of all4 ,of the ,astronomical ,society1 which1 from the nature of its pursuits1 could scarcely admit of the discussions similar to those of the ,geological1 ,i shall merely observe1 that ,i know of no secret which has caused its great success1 unless it be attention to the maxims which have just been stated4 ,on the ,zoological ,society1 which affords much rational amusement to the public1 a few hints may at present suffice4 ,the largeness of its income is a frightful consideration4 ,it is too tempting as the subject for jobs1 and it is too fluctuating and uncertain in its amount1 not to render embarrassment in the affairs of the ,society a circumstance likely to occur1 without the greatest circumspection4 ,it is most probable1 from the very recent formation of this ,institution1 that its ,officers and ,council are at present all that its best friends could wish2 but it is still right to mention1 that in such a ,society1 it is essentially necessary to have men of business on the ,council1 as well as persons possessing extensive knowledge of its pursuits4 ,it is more dangerous in such a ,society than in any other1 to pay compliments1 by placing gentlemen on the ,council who have not the qualifications which are requisite2 a frequent change in the members of the ,council is desirable1 in order to find out who are the most regular attendants1 and most qualified to conduct its business4 ,publicity in its accounts and proceedings is1 from the magnitude of its funds1 more essential to the ,zoological than to any other society2 and it is rather a fearful omen1 that a check was attempted to be given to such inquiries at the last anniversary meeting4 ,if it is to be a scientific body1 the friends of science should not for an instant tolerate such attempts4 ,it frequently happens1 that gentlemen take an active part in more than one scientific society3 in that case1 it may be useful to derive instruction as to their merits1 by observing the success of their measures in other societies4 ,the ,asiatic ,society has1 amongst other benefits1 caused many valuable works to be translated1 which could not have otherwise been published4 ,the ,horticultural ,society has been ridden almost to death1 and is now rousing itself2 but its constitution seems to have been somewhat impaired4 ,there are hopes of its purgation1 and ultimate restoration1 notwithstanding a debt of #ai1jjj,l41 which the ,committee of ,inquiry have ascertained to exist4 ,this1 after all1 will not be without its advantage to science1 if it puts a stop to ,,house-,,lists1 ,,named ,,by ,,one ,,or ,,two ,,persons1--to making ,,complimentary councillors1--and to auditing the accounts ,,without ,,examining ,,every ,,item1 or to omitting even that form altogether4 ,the ,medico-,botanical ,society suddenly claimed the attention of the public2 its pretensions were great--its assurance unbounded4 ,it speedily became distinguished1 not by its publications or discoveries1 but by the number of princes it enrolled in its list4 ,it is needless now to expose the extent of its short-lived quackery2 but the evil deeds of that institution will long remain in the impression they have contributed to confirm throughout ,europe1 of the character of our scientific establishments4 ,it would be at once a judicious and a dignified course1 if those lovers of science1 who have been so grievously deceived in this ,society1 were to enrol upon the latest page of its history its highest claim to public approbation1 and by signing its dissolution1 offer the only atonement in their power to the insulted science of their country4 ,as with a singular inversion of principle1 the society contrived to render ,,expulsion99 the highest ,,honour it could confer2 so it remains for it to exemplify1 in suicide1 the sublimest virtue of which it is capable4 99 ,they expelled from amongst them a gentleman1 of whom it is but slight praise to say1 that he is the first and most philosophical botanist of our own country1 and who is admired abroad as he is respected at home4 ,the circumstance which surprised the world was not his exit from1 but his previous entrance into that ,society4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,society ,,in ,,particular4 ,as the venerable first parent of ,english1 and ,i might perhaps say1 of ,european scientific societies2 as a body in the welfare of which1 in the opinions of many1 the interests of ,british science are materially involved1 ,i may be permitted to feel anxiously1 and to speak more in detail4 ,,section #a4 ,,mode ,,of ,,becoming ,a ,,fellow ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,society4 ,i have no intention of stating what ought to be the qualifications of a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society2 but1 for years1 the practical mode of arriving at that honour1 has been as follows3-- ,a4 ,b4 gets any three ,fellows to sign a certificate1 stating that he 7,a4 ,b47 is desirous of becoming a member1 and likely to be a useful and valuable one4 ,this is handed in to the ,secretary1 and suspended in the meeting-room4 ,at the end of ten weeks1 if ,a4 ,b4 has the good fortune to be perfectly unknown by any literary or scientific achievement1 however small1 he is quite sure of being elected as a matter of course4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he has unfortunately written on any subject connected with science1 or is supposed to be acquainted with any branch of it1 the members begin to inquire what he has done to deserve the honour2 and1 unless he has powerful friends1 he has a fair chance of being black-balled4 ,i understand that certificates are now read at the ,council1 previously to their being hung up in the meeting-room2 but ,i am not aware that this has in the slightest degree diminished their number1 which was1 at the time of writing this note1 ,,twenty-,,four4 ,in fourteen years' experience1 the few whom ,i have seen rejected1 have all been known persons2 but even in such cases a hope remains2--perseverance will do much1 and a gentleman who values so highly the distinction of admission to the ,royal ,society1 may try again2 and even after being twice black-balled1 if he will a third time condescend to express his desire to become a member1 he may perhaps succeed1 by the aid of a hard canvass4 ,in such circumstances1 the odds are much in favour of the candidate possessing great scientific claims2 and the only objection that could then reasonably be suggested1 would arise from his estimating rather too highly a distinction which had become insignificant from its unlimited extension4 ,it should be observed1 that all members contribute equally1 and that the sum now required is fifty pounds4 ,it used1 until lately1 to be ten pounds on entrance1 and four pounds annually4 ,the amount of this subscription is so large1 that it is calculated to prevent many men of real science from entering the ,society1 and is a very severe tax on those who do so2 for very few indeed of the cultivators of science rank amongst the wealthy classes4 ,several times1 whilst ,i have been consulting books or papers at ,somerset ,house1 persons have called to ask the ,assistant-secretary the mode of becoming a member of the ,royal ,society4 ,i should conjecture1 from some of these applications1 that it is not very unusual for gentlemen in the country to order their agents in ,london to take measures for putting them up at the ,royal ,society4 ,,section #b4 ,,of ,,the ,,presidency ,,and ,,vice-,,presidencies4 ,why ,mr4 ,davies ,gilbert became ,president of the ,royal ,society ,i cannot precisely say4 ,let him who penned1 and those who supported this resolution solve the enigma3 ,it was ,resolved1 ,that it is the opinion of the ,council that ,davies ,gilbert1 ,esq4 is by far the most fit person to be proposed to the ,society at the approaching anniversary as ,president1 and that he be recommended accordingly4 ,to resolve that he was a ,,fit person might have been sufficiently flattering3 to state that he was the most fit1 was a little hard upon the rest of the ,society2 but to resolve that he was ,,by ,,far ,,the ,,most ,,fit was only consistent with that strain of compliment in which his supporters indulge1 and was a eulogy1 by no means unique in its kind1 ,i believe1 even at that very ,council4 ,that ,mr4 ,gilbert is a most amiable and kind-hearted man will be instantly admitted by all who are1 in the least degree1 acquainted with him3 that he is fit for the chair of the ,royal ,society1 will be allowed by few1 except those who have committed themselves to the above-quoted resolution4 ,possessed of knowledge and of fortune more than sufficient for it1 he might have been the restorer of its lustre4 ,he might have called round him1 at the council board1 those most actively engaged in the pursuits of science1 most anxious for the improvement of the ,royal ,society4 ,instead of himself proposing resolutions1 he might have been1 what a chairman ought to be1 the organ of the body over which he presides4 ,by the firmness of his own conduct he might have taught the subordinate officers of the ,society the duties of their station4 ,instead of paying compliments to ,ministers1 who must have smiled at his simplicity1 he might have maintained the dignity of his ,council by the dignity of knowledge4 ,but he has chosen a different path2 with no motives of interest to allure1 or of ambition to betray him1 instead of making himself respected as the powerful chief of a united republic1--that of science1--he has grasped at despotic power1 and stands the feeble occupant of its desolated kingdom1 trembling at the force of opinions he might have directed1 and refused even the patronage of their names by those whose energies he might have commanded4 ,mr4 ,gilbert told the ,society he accepted the situation for a year2 and this circumstance caused a difficulty in finding a ,treasurer3 an office which he had long held1 and to which he wished to return4 ,another difficulty might have arisen1 from the fact of the late ,board of ,longitude comprising amongst its ,members the ,,president of the ,royal ,society1 and three of its ,fellows1 appointed by the ,president and ,council4 ,of course1 when ,mr4 ,gilbert accepted the higher situation1 he became1 ,,ex ,,officio1 a ,member of the ,board of ,longitude2 and a vacancy occurred1 which ought to have been filled up by the ,president and ,council4 ,but when this subject was brought before them1 in defiance of common sense1 and the plain meaning of the act of parliament1 which had enacted that the ,board of ,longitude should have the assistance of four persons belonging to the ,royal ,society1 ,mr4 ,gilbert refused to allow it to be filled up1 on the ground that he should not be ,president next year1 and had made no vacancy4 ,next year ,mr4 ,gilbert wished again to be ,president one other year2 but the ,board of ,longitude was dissolved1 otherwise we might have had some ,,locum ,,tenens to retire at ,mr4 ,gilbert's pleasure4 ,these circumstances are in themselves of trifling importance1 but they illustrate the character of the proceedings3 and it is not becoming the dignity of science or of the ,society that its officers should be so circumstanced as to have an apparent and direct interest in supporting the existing ,president1 in order to retain their own places2 and if such a system is once discovered1 doubt immediately arises as to the frequency of such arrangements4 ,,section #c4 ,,of ,,the ,,secretariships4 ,whether the present ,secretaries are the best qualified to aid in reforming the ,society1 is a question ,i shall not discuss4 ,with regard to the senior ,secretary1 the time of his holding office is perhaps more unfortunate than the circumstance4 ,if ,i might be permitted to allude for a moment to his personal character1 ,i should say that the mild excellencies of his heart have prevented the ,royal ,society from deriving the whole of that advantage from his varied knowledge and liberal sentiments which some might perhaps have anticipated2 and many will agree with me in regretting that his judgment has not directed a larger portion of the past deeds of the ,councils of the ,royal ,society4 ,of the junior ,secretary ,i shall only observe1 that whilst ,i admit his industry1 his perseverance1 and his talents1 ,i regret to see such valuable qualities exerted at a disadvantage1 and that ,i sincerely wish them all the success they merit in situations more adapted for their developement4 ,there are1 however1 some general principles which it may be important to investigate1 which relate to the future as well as to the past state of the office of ,secretary of the ,royal ,society4 ,inconvenience has already arisen from having had at a former period one of our ,secretaries the conductor of a scientific journal2 and this is one of the points in which ,i can agree with those who now manage the affairs of the ,society4 ,these observations were written previous to the late appointment1 to which ,i now devote ,section #f4 ,experience seems to be lost on the ,council of the ,royal ,society4 ,perhaps it might be advantageous to extend the same understanding to the other officers of the ,society at least1 if not to the members of its ,council4 ,another circumstance worthy of the attention of the ,society is1 to consider whether it is desirable1 except in special cases1 to have military persons appointed to any of its offices4 ,there are several peculiarities in the military character1 which1 though they do not absolutely unfit their possessors for the individual prosecution of science1 may in some degree disqualify such persons from holding offices in scientific institutions4 ,the habits both of obedience and command1 which are essential in military life1 are little fitted for that perfect freedom which should reign in the councils of science4 ,if a military chief commit an oversight or an error1 it is necessary1 in order to retain the confidence of those he commands1 to conceal or mask it as much as possible4 ,if an experimentalist make a mistake1 his only course to win the confidence of his fellow-labourers in science1 and to render his future observations of any use1 is to acknowledge it in the most full and explicit manner4 ,the very qualifications which contribute to the professional excellence of the soldier1 constitute his defects when he enters the paths of science2 and it is only in those rare cases where the force of genius is able to control and surmount these habits1 that his admission to the offices of science can be attended with any advantage to it4 ,another objection deserving notice1 although not applying exclusively to the military profession1 is1 that persons not imbued with the feelings of men of science1 when they have published their observations1 are too apt to view every criticism upon them as a personal question1 and to consider that it is as offensive to doubt the accuracy of their observations as it is to doubt their word4 ,nothing can be more injurious to science than that such an opinion should be tolerated4 ,the most unreserved criticism is necessary for truth2 and those suspicions respecting his own accuracy1 which every philosophical experimenter will entertain concerning his own researches1 ought never to be considered as a reproach1 when they are kept in view in examining the experiments of others4 ,the minute circumstances and apparently trivial causes which lend their influence towards error1 even in persons of the most candid judgment1 are amongst the most curious phenomena of the human mind4 ,the importance of affording every aid to enable others to try the merits of observations1 has been so well expressed by ,mayer1 that ,i shall conclude these remarks with an extract from the ,preface to his ,observations3 ,officii enim cujusque observatoris ease reor1 de habitu instrumenti sui1 de cura ac precautione1 qua usus est1 ad illud recte tractandum1 deque mediis in errores ejus inquirendi rationem reddere publice1 ut aliis quoque copia sit judicandi1 quanta fides habenda conclusionibus ex nostris observationibus deductis aut deducendis4 ,hoc cum minus fecissent precedentis saeculi astronomi1 praxin nimis secure1 nimisque theoretice tractantes1 factum inde potissimum est1 ut illorum observationes tot vigiliis tantoque labore comparatae tam cito obsoleverint4 ,p4 viii4 ,there are certain duties which the ,royal ,society owes to its own character as well as to the public1 which1 having been on some occasions apparently neglected1 it may be here the proper place to mention1 since it is reasonable to suppose that attention to them is within the province of its ,secretaries4 ,the first to which ,i shall allude is the singular circumstances attending the fact of the ,royal ,society having printed a volume of ,astronomical ,observations which were made at the ,observatory of ,paramatta 7,new ,south ,wales71 bearing the title of ,the ,third ,part of the ,philosophical ,transactions for the ,year #ahbi4 ,now this ,observatory was founded at the private expense of a ,british officer2 the instruments were paid for out of his purse2 two observers were brought from ,europe1 to be employed in making use of those instruments1 at salaries defrayed by him4 ,a considerable portion of the observations so printed were made by these astronomers during their employment in his service1 and some of them are personally his own4 ,yet has the ,royal ,society1 in adopting them as part of its ,transactions1 omitted all mention1 either in their title-page1 preface1 or in any part of the volume1 of the ,,fact that the world owed these valuable observations to the enlightened munificence of ,lieutenant-,general ,sir ,thomas ,brisbane2 whose ardent zeal in the pursuit of science induced him to found1 at his own private expense1 an establishment which it has been creditable to the ,british ,government to continue as a national institution4 ,had any kindred feelings existed in the ,council1 instead of endeavouring to shift the responsibility1 they would have hastened to rectify an omission1 less unjust to the individual than it was injurious to ,english science4 ,another topic1 which concerns most vitally the character and integrity of the ,royal ,society1 ,i hardly know how to approach4 ,it has been publicly stated that confidence cannot be placed in the written minutes of the ,society2 and an instance has been adduced1 in which an entry has been asserted to have been made1 which could not have been the true statement of what actually passed at the ,council4 ,the facts on which the specific instance rests are not difficult to verify by members of the ,royal ,society4 ,i have examined them1 and shall state them before ,i enter on the reasoning which may be founded upon them4 ,in the minutes of the ,council1 #bfth ,november1 #ahbi1 we find-- ,resolved1 that the following gentlemen be recommended to be put upon the ,council for the ensuing year4 ,here follows a list of persons1 amongst whom the name of ,sir ,john ,franklin occurs ,sir ,john ,franklin was absent from ,london1 and altogether unacquainted with this transaction1 until he saw it stated in the newspapers some months after it had taken place4 ,that his name was the one substituted for that of ,captain ,beaufort ,i know1 from other evidence which need not be produced here1 as the omission of the latter name is the charge that has been made41 and that of ,captain ,beaufort is not found4 ,any gentleman may satisfy himself that this is not a mistake of the ,assistant ,secretary's1 in copying1 by consulting the rough minutes of that meeting of the ,council1 which it might perhaps be as well to write in a rough minute-book1 instead of upon loose sheets of paper2 nor can it be attributed to any error arising from accidentally mislaying the real minutes1 for in that case the error would have been rectified immediately it was detected2 and this has remained uncorrected1 although publicly spoken of for months4 ,as there is no erasure in the list1 one is reluctantly compelled to conjecture that the real minutes of that meeting have been destroyed4 ,now this could not be the list actually recommended by the ,council on the morning of the #bfth of ,november1 because the ,president himself1 on the evening of that day1 informed ,capt4 ,beaufort that he was placed on the house list2 and that officer1 with the characteristic openness of his profession1 wrote on the next or the following day to the ,president1 declining that situation1 and stating his reasons for the step4 ,upon the fact1 therefore1 of the suppression of part of a resolution of the ,council1 on the #bfth of ,november1 there can be no doubt2 but in order to understand the whole nature of the transaction1 other information is necessary4 ,it has been the wish of many members of the ,society1 that the ,president should not absolutely name his own ,council1 but that the subject should be discussed fairly at the meeting previous to the ,anniversary--this has always been opposed by ,mr4 ,gilbert1 and those who support him4 ,now1 it has been stated1 that1 at the meeting of the ,council on the #bfth of ,november1 the ,president took out of his pocket a bit of paper1 from which he read the names of several persons as fit to be on the ,council for the ensuing year2--that it was not understood that any motion was made1 and it is certain that none was seconded1 nor was any ballot taken on such an important question2 and it was a matter of considerable surprise to some of those present1 to discover afterwards that it was entered on the minutes as a resolution4 ,this statement ,i have endeavoured to verify1 and ,i believe it to be substantially correct2 if it was a resolution1 it was dictated1 not discussed4 ,it is also important to observe1 that no similar resolution stands on the council-books for any previous year4 ,on examining the minutes of the succeeding ,council1 no notice of the letter of ,captain ,beaufort to the ,president is found4 ,why was it omitted8 ,if the first entry had been truly made1 there would have been no necessity for the omission2 and after the insertion of that letter1 a resolution would naturally have followed1 recommending another name instead of the one withdrawn4 ,such was the natural and open course2 but this would have exposed to the ,society the weakness of those who manage it4 ,if the rough minutes of each meeting of the ,council were read over before it separated1 and were copied previously to the next meeting1 such a substitution could hardly have occurred2 but1 unfortunately1 this is not the case1 and the delay is in some cases considerable4 ,thus1 the minutes of the three ,councils1 held on ,february #d1 on ,february #aa1 and on ,march #aa1 were not entered on the minute-books of the ,council on ,tuesday1 the #afth ,march2 nor was this the fault of the ,assistant-secretary1 for up to that day the rough minutes of no one of those ,councils had been transmitted to him4 ,deeply as every friend to the ,royal ,society must regret such an occurrence1 one slight advantage may accrue4 ,should that resolution be ever quoted hereafter to prove that the ,council of #ahbi really discussed the persons to be recommended as their successors1 the detection of this suppression of one portion of it1 will furnish better means of estimating the confidence due to the whole4 ,,section #d4 ,,of ,,the ,,scientific ,,advisers4 ,whether it was feared by the ,,party who govern the ,royal ,society1 that its ,council would not be sufficiently tractable1 or whether the ,admiralty determined to render that body completely subservient to them1 or whether both these motives concurred1 ,i know not2 but1 low as has been for years its character for independence1 and fallen as the ,royal ,society is in public estimation1 it could scarcely be prepared for this last insult4 ,in order to inform the public and the ,society1 7for ,i believe the fact is known to few of the members17 it will be necessary to trace the history of those circumstances which led to the institution of the offices of ,scientific ,advisers1 from the time of the existence of the late ,board of ,longitude4 ,that body consisted1 according to the act of parliament which established it1 of certain official members1 who usually possessed no knowledge of the subjects it was the duty of the ,board to discuss--of certain professors of the two universities1 and the ,astronomer ,royal1 who had some knowledge1 and who were paid #ajj,l4 a year for their attendance2--of three honorary members of the ,royal ,society1 who combined the qualifications of the two preceding classes2 and1 lastly1 of three other persons1 named ,resident ,commissioners1 who were supposed to be ,,well ,,versed ,,in ,,the ,,sciences ,,of ,,mathematics1 ,,astronomy1 ,,or ,,navigation1 and who were paid a hundred a year to do the work of the ,board4 ,the first three classes were permanent members1 but the three other persons only held the appointment for ,,one ,,year1 and were renewable at the pleasure of the ,admiralty4 ,this ,board was abolished by another act of parliament1 on the ground that it was useless4 ,shortly after1 the ,secretary of the ,admiralty communicated to the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 the copy of an ,order in ,council3 ,,admiralty ,,office1 ,november #a1 #ahbh4 ,,sir1 ,i am commanded by my ,lords ,commissioners of the ,admiralty1 to send herewith1 for the information of the ,president and ,council of the ,royal ,society1 a copy of ,his ,majesty's ,order in ,council of the #bgth of last month2 explaining that the salaries heretofore allowed to the ,resident ,commissioners of the ,board of ,longitude1 and to the ,superintendents of the ,nautical ,almanac1 and of ,chronometers1 shall be continued to them1 notwithstanding the abolition of the ,board of ,longitude4 ,and ,i am to acquaint you1 that the necessary orders have been given to the ,navy ,board for the payment of the said salaries4 ,i am1 ,sir1 ,your most obedient humble servant1 ,,john ,,barrow4 ,,at ,,the ,,court ,,at ,,windsor1 #bgth ,october1 #ahbh4 ,,present1 ,the ,king's most ,excellent ,majesty in ,council1 ,whereas1 there was this day read at the ,board a ,memorial from the ,right ,honourable the ,lords ,commissioners of the ,admiralty1 dated #dth of this instant1 in the words following1 viz4-- ,whereas1 by an ,act of the #ehth of his late ,majesty's reign1 cap4 #bj1 instituted ,an ,act for the more effectually discovering the ,longitude at sea1 and encouraging attempts to find a ,northern passage between the ,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans1 and to approach the ,north ,pole1 three persons well versed in the sciences of ,mathematics1 ,astronomy1 or ,navigation1 were appointed as a ,resident ,committee of the ,board of ,commissioners for discovery of the ,longitude at sea1 and a ,superintendent of the ,nautical ,almanac and of ,chronometers was also appointed1 with such salaries for the execution of those services as his ,majesty might1 by any ,order in ,council1 be pleased to direct2 and1 whereas1 your ,majesty was in consequence1 by your ,order in ,council of the #bgth of ,may1 #ahbh1 most graciously pleased to direct1 that the three said ,resident ,commissioners should be paid at the rate of #ajj,l4 a year each2 and by your further ,order in ,council1 of the #cast ,october1 #ahah1 that the ,superintendent of the ,nautical ,almanac should be allowed a salary of #cjj,l41 and the ,superintendent of ,chronometers #ajj,l4 a year2 and1 whereas1 the act above mentioned has been repealed1 and the ,board of ,longitude abolished2 and doubts have therefore arisen1 whether the said ,orders in ,council shall still continue in force2 and whereas it is expedient that the said appointments be continued2 ,we beg leave most humbly to submit to your ,majesty1 that your ,majesty may be graciously pleased1 by your ,order in ,council1 to direct that the said offices of ,superintendent of the ,nautical ,almanac1 and of ,superintendent of ,chronometers2 and also the three persons before-mentioned as a ,resident ,committee1 to advise with the ,commissioners for executing the ,office of ,lord ,high ,admiral1 on all questions of discoveries1 inventions1 calculations1 and other scientific subjects1 be continued1 with the same duties and salaries1 and under the same regulations as heretofore2 and further beg most humbly to propose1 that such three persons to form the ,resident ,committee1 be chosen annually by the ,commissioners for executing the office of ,lord ,high ,admiral1 from among the ,council of the ,royal ,society4 ,his ,majesty1 having taken the said ,memorial into consideration1 was pleased1 by and with the advice of his ,privy ,council1 to approve thereof and the ,right ,honourable the ,lords ,commissioners of the ,admiralty are to give the necessary directions herein accordingly4 7,signed7 ,,james ,,hiller4 ,thus1 it appeared that the ,admiralty were to choose three persons from among the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 who were to have a hundred a year each during the pleasure of the ,admiralty4 ,such an open attack on the independence of the ,council could not escape the remarks of some of the members1 and a kind of mild remonstrance was made1 in which the real ground of complaint was omitted4 ,,minute ,,of ,,council ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,society4 ,december #ah1 #ahbc4 ,,resolved1 ,that in acknowledging the communication of the ,lords ,commissioners of the ,admiralty1 made to the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 on the #bjth of ,november last1 it be represented to them that inconvenience may arise from the plan therein specified1 from the circumstance of all the members of the ,council being annually elected by the ,society at large2 and that body being consequently subject to continual changes from year to year4 ,this was answered by the following letter from the ,secretary of the ,admiralty3 ,,admiralty ,,office1 ,,dec4 #cj1 #ahbh4 ,,sir1 ,having submitted to my ,lords ,commissioners of the ,admiralty your ,letter of the #ahth instant1 subjoining an extract from the ,minutes of the proceedings of the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 arising out of the communication made to them by their ,lordships1 on the subject of his ,majesty's ,order in ,council1 of the fifth of ,october last1 ,i have their ,lordships' command to acquaint you1 for the information of the ,president and ,council1 and with reference to what they have stated as to the inconvenience which may arise from the intended plan of limiting their ,lordships' choice of members of the ,resident ,committee of ,scientific ,advice to the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 that their ,lordships were induced to recommend this plan to his ,majesty as a mark of respect to the ,society1 and as a pledge to the public of the qualification of the persons chosen4 ,nor did their ,lordships apprehend any inconvenience from the circumstance stated in the ,minute of the ,council1 of the ,members being annually elected1 as the ,resident ,committee is also annually appointed2 and1 in point of fact1 no practical inconvenience has been felt during the ten years that the ,committee has been in existence1 as four of the distinguished gentlemen whom their ,lordships have successively appointed to this office1 have continued during the whole period to be members of the ,council2 and if any such difficulty or inconvenience should hereafter arise1 their ,lordships will be ready to take proper measures for remedying it4 ,their ,lordships' intention therefore is1 to propose to ,captain ,kater and ,mr4 ,herschel1 to continue to fill this office2 and to ,dr4 ,young1 who had resigned it1 on receiving the appointment of ,secretary to the late ,board of ,longitude1 to be appointed4 ,i am1 ,sir1 ,your obedient servant1 ,,john ,,barrow4 ,the representation made by the ,council was not calculated to produce much effect2 but the ,secretary of the ,admiralty1 who knew well the stuff of which ,councils of the ,royal ,society are composed1 might have spared the bitter irony of making their ,lordships say1 that they recommended this plan ,,as ,a ,,mark ,,of ,,respect ,,to ,,the ,,society1 and ,,as ,a ,,pledge ,,to ,,the ,,public ,,of ,,the ,,qualifications ,,of ,,the ,,persons ,,chosen1 whilst he delicately hints to them their dependent situation1 by observing1 that the ,,resident ,,committee ,,is ,,also ,,annually ,,appointed4 ,the ,secretary knew that1 ,,practically speaking1 it had been the custom for years for the ,president of the ,royal ,society to nominate the ,council1 and consequently he knew that every scientific adviser must first be indebted to the ,president for being qualified to advise1 and then to the ,admiralty for deriving profit from his counsel4 ,thus then their ,lordships1 as a ,,mark ,,of ,,respect ,,for ,,the ,,society confirm the dependence of the ,council on the ,president1 by making his nomination a qualification for place1 and establish a new dependence of the same ,council on themselves1 by giving a hundred pounds each year to such three members of that ,council as they may select4 ,,the ,,pledge they offer ,,to ,,the ,,public1 ,,of ,,the ,,qualifications ,,of ,,the ,,persons ,,chosen1 is1 that ,mr4 ,davies ,gilbert had previously thought they would do for his ,council4 ,what the ,society1 when they are acquainted with it1 may think of this mark of respect1 or what value the public may put upon this pledge1 must be left to themselves to express4 ,in looking over the list of officers and ,council of the ,royal ,society the weakest perhaps 7for purposes of science7 which was ever made1 a consolation arises from the possibility of some of those who were placed there by way of compliment1 occasionally attending4 ,in that contracted field ,lord ,melville's penetration may not be uselessly employed2 and the soldier who presides over our colonies may judge whether the principles which pervade it are open and liberal as his own4 ,the inconvenience to the public service from such an arrangement is1 that the number out of which the advisers are selected must1 in any case1 be very small2 and may1 from several circumstances1 be considerably reduced4 ,in a council fairly selected1 to judge of the merits of the various subjects likely to be brought under the consideration of the ,society1 anatomy1 chemistry1 and the different branches of natural history1 will share with the numerous departments of physical science1 in claiming to be represented by persons competently skilled in those subjects4 ,these claims being satisfied1 but few places will be left to fill up with mathematicians1 astronomers1 and persons conversant with nautical astronomy4 ,let us look at the present ,council4 ,is there a single mathematician amongst them1 if we except ,mr ,barlow1 whose deservedly high reputation rests chiefly on his physical and experimental inquiries1 and whom the ,president and the ,admiralty have clearly shown they do not look upon as a mathematician1 by not appointing him an adviser8 ,small as the number of those persons on the ,council1 who are conversant with the three subjects named in the ,act of ,parliament1 must usually be1 it may be still further diminished4 ,the ,president1 when he forms his ,council1 may decline naming those members who are most fit for such situations4 ,or1 on the other hand1 some of those members who are best qualified for them1 from their knowledge1 may decline the honour of being the nominees of ,mr4 ,gilbert1 as ,vice ,presidents1 ,treasurers1 or ,councillors1 and thus lending their names to support a system of which they disapprove4 ,whether the first of these causes has ever operated can be best explained by those gentlemen who have been on the ,council4 ,the refusals are1 notwithstanding the ,president's taciturnity on the subject1 better known than he is willing that they should be4 ,having discussed the general policy of the measure1 with reference both to the ,society and to the public1 and without the slightest reference to the individuals who may have refused or accepted those situations1 ,i shall now examine the propriety of the appointments that have been made4 ,doubtless the gentlemen who now hold those situations either have never considered the influence such a mode of selection would have on the character of the ,council2 or1 having considered it1 they must have arrived at a different conclusion from mine4 ,there may1 however1 be arguments which ,i have overlooked1 and a discussion of them must ultimately lead to truth3 but ,i confess that it appears to me the objections which have been stated rest on principles of human nature1 too deeply seated to be easily removed4 ,that ,i am not singular in the view ,i have taken of this subject1 appears from several circumstances4 ,a question was asked respecting these appointments at the ,anniversary before the last2 and1 from the nature of the answer1 many of the members of the ,society have been led to believe the objections have been removed4 ,several ,fellows of the ,society1 who knew these facts1 thought it inexpedient ever to vote for placing any gentleman on the ,council who had accepted these situations2 and1 having myself the same view of the case1 ,i applied to the ,council to be informed of the names of the present ,scientific ,advisers4 ,but although they remonstrated against the ,,principle1 they replied that they had ,,no ,,cognizance of the fact4 ,the two first members of the ,council1 ,mr4 ,herschel and ,captain ,kater1 who were so appointed1 and who had previously been ,resident ,commissioners under the ,act1 immediately refused the situations4 ,dr4 ,young became one of the ,advisers2 and ,captain ,sabine and ,mr4 ,faraday were appointed by the ,admiralty as the two remaining ones4 ,of ,dr4 ,young1 who died shortly after1 ,i shall only observe that he possessed knowledge which qualified him for the situation4 ,whether those who at present fill these offices can be said to belong to that class of persons which the ,order in ,council and the ,act of ,parliament point out1 is a matter on which doubt may reasonably be entertained4 ,the ,order in ,council speaks of these three persons as being the same1 and having the ,,same ,,duties as those mentioned in the ,act2 and it recites the words of the ,act1 that they shall be persons ,,well ,,versed ,,in ,,the ,,sciences ,,of ,,mathematics ,,astronomy1 ,,and ,,navigation4 ,of the fitness of the gentlemen who now hold those situations to pronounce judgment on mathematical questions1 the public will be better able to form an opinion when they shall have communicated to the world any of their own mathematical inquiries4 ,although it is the practice to consider that acceptance of office is alone necessary to qualify a man for a statesman1 a similar doctrine has not yet prevailed in the world of science4 ,one of these gentlemen1 who has established his reputation as a chemist1 stands in the same predicament with respect to the other two sciences4 ,it remains then to consider ,captain ,sabine's claims1 which must rest on his skill in ,,practical ,,astronomy ,,and ,,navigation1--a claim which can only be allowed when the scientific world are set at rest respecting the extraordinary nature of those observations contained in his work on the ,pendulum4 ,that volume1 printed under the authority of the ,board of ,longitude1 excited at its appearance considerable attention4 ,the circumstance of the ,government providing instruments and means of transport for the purpose of these inquiries1 placed at ,captain ,sabine's disposal means superior to those which amateurs can generally afford1 whilst the industry with which he availed himself of these opportunities1 enabled him to bring home multitudes of observations from situations rarely visited with such instruments1 and for such purposes4 ,the remarkable agreement with each other1 which was found to exist amongst each class of observations1 was as unexpected by those most conversant with the respective processes1 as it was creditable to one who had devoted but a few years to the subject1 and who1 in the course of those voyages1 used some of the instruments for the first time in his life4 ,this accordance amongst the results was such1 that naval officers of the greatest experience1 confessed themselves unable to take such lunars2 whilst other observers1 long versed in the use of the transit instrument1 avowed their inability to take such transits4 ,those who were conversant with pendulums1 were at a loss how to make1 even under more favourable circumstances1 similarly concordant observations4 ,the same opinion prevailed on the continent as well as in ,england4 ,on whatever subject ,captain ,sabine touched1 the observations he published seemed by their accuracy to leave former observers at a distance4 ,the methods of using the instruments scarcely differed in any important point from those before adopted2 and1 but for a fortunate discovery1 which ,i shall presently relate1 the world must have concluded that ,captain ,sabine possessed some keenness of vision1 or acuteness of touch1 which it would be hopeless for any to expect to rival4 ,the ,council of the ,royal ,society spared no pains to stamp the accuracy of these observations with their testimony4 ,they seem to have thrust ,captain ,sabine's name perpetually on their minutes1 and in a manner which must have been almost distressing3 they recommend him in a letter to the ,admiralty1 then in another to the ,ordnance2 and several of the same persons1 in their other capacity1 as members of the ,board of ,longitude1 after voting him a ,,thousand ,,pounds for these observations1 are said to have again recommended him to the ,master-,general of the ,ordnance4 ,that an officer1 commencing his scientific career1 should be misled by such praises1 was both natural and pardonable2 but that the ,council of the ,royal ,society should adopt their opinion so heedlessly1 and maintain it so pertinaciously1 was as cruel to the observer as it was injurious to the interests of science4 ,it might have been imagined that such praises1 together with the ,copley medal1 presented to ,captain ,sabine by the ,royal ,society1 and the medal of ,lalande1 given to him by the ,institute of ,france1 had arisen from such a complete investigation of his observations1 as should place them beyond the reach even of criticism4 ,but1 alas6 the ,royal ,society may write1 and nobody will attend2 its medals have lost their lustre2 and even the ,institute of ,france may find that theirs cannot confer immortality4 ,that learned body is in the habit of making most interesting and profound reports on any memoirs communicated to it2 nothing escapes the penetration of their committees appointed for such purposes4 ,surely1 when they enter on the much more important subject of the award of a medal1 unusual pains must be taken with the previous report1 and it might1 perhaps1 be of some advantage to science1 and might furnish their admirers with arguments in their defence1 if they would publish that on which the decree of their ,lalande's medal to ,captain ,sabine was founded4 ,it is far from necessary to my present object1 to state all that has been written and said respecting these pendulum experiments3 ,i shall confine myself merely to two points2 one1 the transit observations1 ,i shall allude to1 because ,i may perhaps show the kind of feeling that exists respecting them1 and possibly enable ,captain ,sabine to explain them4 ,the other point1 the error in the estimation of the division of the level1 ,i shall discuss1 because it is an admitted fact4 ,some opinion may be formed of transit observations1 by taking the difference of times of the passage of any star between the several wires2 supposing the distances of those wires equal1 the intervals of time occupied by the star in passing from one to the other1 ought to be precisely the same4 ,as those times of passing from one wire to another are usually given to seconds and tenths of seconds1 it rarely happens that the accordance is perfect4 ,the transit instrument used by ,captain ,sabine was thirty inches in length1 and the wires are stated to be equi-distant4 ,out of about #cgj transits1 there are eighty-seven1 or nearly one-fourth1 which have the intervals between all the wires agreeing to the same1 the tenth of a second4 ,at ,sierra ,leone1 nineteen out of seventy-two have the same accordance2 and of the moon culminating stars1 p4 #dji1 twelve out of twenty-four are equally exact4 ,with larger instruments1 and in great observatories1 this is not always the case4 ,captain ,kater has given1 in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 #ahai1 p4 #dbg1 a series of transits1 with a three and a half foot transit1 in which about one-eleventh part of them only have this degree of accuracy2 and it should be observed that not merely the instrument1 but the stars selected1 have1 in this instance1 an advantage over ,captain ,sabine's4 ,the transit of ,m4 ,bessel is five feet in length1 made by ,frauenhofer1 and the magnifying power employed is #ahb2 yet1 out of some observations of his in ,january1 #ahbf1 only one-eleventh have this degree of accordance4 ,in thirty-three of the ,greenwich observations of ,january1 #ahbh1 fifteen have this agreement1 or five-elevenths2 but this is with a ten-feet transit4 ,now in none of these instances do the times agree within a tenth of a second between all the wires2 but ,i have accounted those as agreeing in all the wires in which there is not more than four-tenths of a second between the greatest and least4 ,this superior accuracy of the small instrument requires some explanation4 ,one which has been suggested is1 that ,captain ,sabine employs a chronometer to observe transits with2 and that since it beats five times in two seconds1 each beat will give four-tenths of a second2 and this being the smallest quantity registered1 the agreement becomes more probable than if tenths were the smallest quantities noticed4 ,in general1 the larger the lowest unity employed the greater will be the apparent agreement amongst the differences4 ,thus1 if1 in the transit of stars near the pole1 the times of passing the wires were only registered to the nearest minute1 the intervals would almost certainly be equal4 ,there is another circumstance1 about which there is some difficulty4 ,it is understood that the same instrument1--the thirty-inch transit1 was employed by ,lieutenant ,foster2 and it has not been stated that the wires were changed1 although this has most probably been the case4 ,now1 in the transits which the later observer has given1 he has found it necessary to correct for a considerable inequality between the first and second wires 7,see ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbg74 ,if an erroneous impression has gone abroad on this subject1 it is doing a service to science to insure its correction1 by drawing attention to it4 ,should these observations be confirmed by other observers1 it would seem to follow that the use of a chronometer renders a transit more exact1 and therefore that it ought to be used in observatories4 ,among the instruments employed by ,captain ,sabine1 was a repeating circle of six inches diameter1 made by order of the ,board of ,longitude1 for the express purpose of ascertaining how far repeating instruments might be diminished in size3--a most important subject1 on which the ,board seem to have entertained a very commendable degree of anxiety4 ,the following extract from the ,pendulum ,experiments is important3 ,the repeating circle was made by the direction1 and at the expense of the ,board of ,longitude1 for the purpose of exemplifying the principle of repetition when applied to a circle of so small a diameter as six inches1 carrying a telescope of seven inches focal length1 and one inch aperture2 and of practically ascertaining the degree of accuracy which might be retained1 whilst the portability of the instrument should be increased1 by a reduction in the size to half the amount which had been previously regarded by the most eminent artists as the extreme limit of diminution to which repeating circles1 designed for astronomical purposes1 ought to be carried4 ,the practical value of the six-inch repeating circle may be estimated1 by comparing the differences of the partial results from the mean at each station1 with the correspondence of any similar collection of observations made with a circle1 on the original construction1 and of large dimensions2 such1 for instance1 as the latitudes of the stations of the ,french are1 recorded in the ,base du ,systeme ,metrique3 when1 if due allowance be made for the extensive experience and great skill of the distinguished persons who conducted the ,french observations1 the comparison will scarcely appear to the disadvantage of the smaller circle1 even if extended generally through all the stations of the present volume2 but if it be particularly directed to ,maranham and ,spitzbergen1--at which stations the partial results were more numerous than elsewhere1 and obtained with especial regard to every circumstance by which their accuracy might be affected1 the performance of the six-inch circle will appear fully equal to that of circles of the larger dimension4 ,the comparison with the two stations1 at which a more than usual attention was bestowed1 is the more appropriate1 because it was essential to the purposes for which the latitudes of the ,french stations were required1 that the observations should always be conducted with the utmost possible regard to accuracy4 ,it would appear1 therefore1 that in a repeating circle of six inches1 the disadvantages of a smaller image enabling a less precise contact or bisection1 and of an arch of less radius admitting of a less minute subdivision1 may be compensated by the principle of repetition4 ,captain ,sabine has pointed out ,maranham and ,spitzbergen as places most favourable to the comparison4 ,let us take the former of these places1 and compare the observations made there with the small repeating instrument of six inches diameter1 with those made by the ,french astronomers at ,formentera1 with a repeating circle of forty-one centi-metres1 or about sixteen inches in diameter1 made by ,fortin4 ,it is singular that this instrument was directed1 by the ,french ,board of ,longitude1 to be made expressly for this survey1 and the ,french astronomers paid particular attention to it1 from the circumstance of some doubts having been entertained respecting the value of the principle of repetition4 ,the following series of observations were made with the two instruments4 ,i have chosen the inferior meridian altitude of ,polaris1 merely because the number of sets of observations are rather fewer4 ,the difference between the extremes of the altitude of ,polaris1 deduced from sets taken above the pole by the same observers1 amounts to seven seconds and a half4 ,latitude deduced from ,polaris1 with a repeating circle1 #af inches diameter4--,,base ,,du ,,systeme ,,metrique1 tom4 iv4 p4 #cgf4 #ahjg4 ,number of ,latitude ,names of ,observers4 ,observations4 of ,formentera4 deg4 min4 sec4 #fd #ch #ci #ee4c ,biot #ajj #ed4g ,arago #aj #ef4b ,biot #hh #ef4i ,biot #abj #ef4g ,arago #hd #ed4i ,biot #ajj #ef4e ,arago #ajb #eg4a ,arago #hj #ed4e ,biot #hh #ec4c ,arago #ij #ec4f ,arago #hh #ec4h ,arago #ib #ec4g ,arago #db #ee4f ,chaix #ij #ed4a ,chaix #hj #ec4i ,arago ,mean of #acah ,observations1 #ch;deg4 #cimin4 #ed4icsec4 ,sets of ,observations made with a six-inch repeating circle1 at ,maranham4 ,star4 ,number of ,latitude ,observer4 ,observations4 deduced4 deg4 min4 sec4 alpha ,lyrae #h #b #ca #db4d ,capt4 ,sabine alpha ,lyrae #ab #dc4h ,ditto alpha ,pavonis #aj #dd4e ,ditto alpha ,lyrae #ab #dd4f ,ditto alpha ,cygni #ab #db4a ,ditto alpha ,gruris #ab #db4b ,ditto ,mean latitude deduced from #ff observations #b;deg4 #camin #dc4csec4 ,in comparing these results1 although the ,french observations were more than twenty times as numerous as the ,english1 yet the deviations of the individual sets from the mean are greater4 ,one second and three-tenths is the greatest deviation from the mean of the ,maranham observations2 whilst the greatest deviation of those of ,formentera1 is two seconds and two-tenths4 ,if this mode of comparison should be thought unfair1 on account of the greater number of the sets in the ,french observations1 let any six1 in succession1 of those sets be taken1 and compared with the six ,english sets2 and it will be found that in no one instance is the greatest deviation from the mean of the whole of the observations less than in those of ,maranham4 ,it must also be borne in mind1 that by the latitude deduced by the mean of #abej superior culminations of ,polaris by the same observers1 the latitude of ,formentera was found to be #ch;deg4 #cimin #eg4jgsec41 a result differing by #b4adsec4 from the mean of the #acah inferior culminations given above4 ,this difference cannot be accounted for by any difference in the tables of refraction1 as neither the employment of those of ,bradley1 of ,piazzi1 of the ,french1 of ,groombridge1 of ,young1 of ,ivory1 of ,bessel1 or of ,carlini1 would make a difference of two-tenths of a second4 ,these facts alone ought to have awakened the attention of ,captain ,sabine1 and of those who examined and officially pronounced on the merits of his observations2 for1 supposing the skill of the observers equal1 it seems a necessary consequence that the performance of the six-inch circle is not merely fully equal to that of circles of larger dimensions1 but that it is decidedly ,,superior to one of sixteen inches in diameter4 ,this opinion did indeed gain ground for a time2 but1 fortunately for astronomy1 long after these observations were made1 published1 and rewarded1 ,captain ,kater1 having borrowed the same instrument1 discovered that the divisions of its level1 which ,captain ,sabine had considered to be equal to one second each1 were1 in fact1 more nearly equal to eleven seconds1 each one being #aj4isec4 ,this circumstance rendered necessary a recalculation of all the observations made with that instrument3 a re-calculation which ,i am not aware ,captain ,sabine has ever thought it necessary to publish4 ,above two hundred sets of observations with this instrument are given in the work alluded to4 ,it can never be esteemed satisfactory merely to state the mean results of the corrections arising from this error3 for the confidence to be attached to that mean will depend on the nature of the deviations from it4 ,this is the more to be regretted1 as it bears upon a point of considerable importance to navigation2 and if it should have caused any alteration in his opinion as to the comparative merits of great and small instruments1 it might have been expected from a gentleman1 who was expressly directed by the ,board of ,longitude1 to try the question with an instrument constructed for that especial purpose4 ,finding that this has not been done by the person best qualified for the task1 perhaps a few remarks from one who has no pretensions to familiarity with the instrument1 may tend towards elucidating this interesting question4 ,the following table gives the latitudes as corrected for the error of level3 ,station4 ,star ,latitude ,latitude ,diffe- by ,capt4 corrected for rence ,sabine error of level4 deg4min4sec4 deg4min4sec4 sec4 ,sierra ,leone ,sirius #h #bi #bg4i #h #bi #cd4g #f4h ,ascension ,alph4,centuri #g #ee #df4g #g #ee #dj4a #f4f ,bahia ,alph4,lyrae #ab #ei #ai4d #ab #ei #ba4d #b4j ,alph4,lyrae #ba4b #eh #di4h #ca4d ,alph4,pavonis #bb4d #ei #e4a #ag4c ,maranham ,alph4,lyrae #b #ca #db4d #b #ca #bb #bj4d ,alph4,lyrae #dc4h #ca4h #ab4j ,alph4,pavonis #dd4e #dd 4#e ,alph4,lyrae #dd4f #db4f #b4j ,alph4,cygni #db4a #ci4b #b4i ,alph4,gruris #db4b #bg4d #ad4h ,trinidad ,achernar #aj #ch #ef4a #aj #ch #eh4b #b4a ,alph4,gruris #eb4b #ej4h #a4d ,achernar #ei4c #ef4f #b4g ,jamaica ,polaris #ag #ef #h4f #ag #ef #d4f #d4j #f4f #c4c #c4c ,new ,york ,sun #dj #db #dj4a #dj #db #dd4f #d4e ,polaris #dh4i #ch4b #aj4g ,sun #da4d #dg4b #e4h ,beta ,urs4,min4 #db4c #eh4d #af4a ,hammerfest ,sun #gj #dj #e4c #gj #dj #g4b #a4i ,spitzbergen ,sun #gi #di #ef4a #gi #di #eh4f #b4e ,sun #ee4i #dd4h #aa4a ,sun #eh4f #eb4g #e4i ,sun #ei4c #ea4f #g4g ,sun #ee4h #ea4f #d4b ,sun #ej #a4e #eg4j #d4e ,greenland ,sun #gd #cb #ai4i #gd #cb #cb4d #ab4d ,sun #ag4i #ah4g #j4h ,drontheim ,sun #fc #be #ea4c #fc #bf #f4a #ad4h ,alph4,urs4,min4 #eg4b #di4d #g4h ,this presents a very different view of the latitudes as determined by the small repeating circle1 from that in ,captain ,sabine's book2 and confining ourselves still to ,maranham1 where the latitudes ,,were ,,obtained1 ,,with ,,especial ,,regard ,,to ,,every ,,circumstance ,,by ,,which ,,their ,,accuracy ,,might ,,be ,,affected1 and where ,a ,,more ,,than ,,usual ,,attention ,,was ,,bestowed1 it appears1 that if we take ,captain ,sabine's own test1 namely1 the differences of the partial results from the mean at each station1 the deviations become nearly ten times as large as they were before2 a circumstance which might be expected to have some influence in the decision of the question4 ,there is1 however1 another light in which it is impossible to avoid looking at this singular oversight4 ,the second column of the table of latitudes must now be considered the true one1 as that which really resulted from the observations4 ,now1 on examining the column of true latitudes1 the differences between the different sets of observations is so considerable as naturally to excite some fear of latent error1 more especially as nearly the greatest discordance arises from the same star1 ,alph4,lyrae1 observed after an interval of only three days4 ,it becomes interesting to every person engaged in making astronomical observations1 to know what is the probability of his being exposed to an error so little to be guarded against1 and so calculated to lull the suspicions of the unfortunate astronomer to whom it may happen4 ,in fact1 the question resolves itself into this3 the true latitude of a place being determined by sets of observations as in the first of the following columns-- ,latitudes as ,true latitudes observed4 computed by a mistake of ,capt4 ,sabine's4 deg4min4sec4 deg4min4sec4 ,alph4,lyrae1 #bhth ,aug4444 #b #ca #bb4j #b #ca #db4d ,alph4,lyrae1 #bith ,aug4444 #ca4h #dc4h ,alph4,pavonis1 #bith ,aug444 #dd1j #dd4e ,alph4,lyrae1 #cast ,aug4444 #db4f #dd4f ,alph4,cygni1 #cast ,aug4444 #ci4b #db4j ,alph4,gruris1 #b;d ,sept4444 #bg4d #db4b what are the chances that1 by one error all the latitudes in the first column should be brought so nearly to an agreement as they are in the second column8 ,the circumstance of the number of divisions of the level being almost arbitrary within limits1 might perhaps be alleged as diminishing this extraordinary improbability3 but let any one consider1 if he choose the error of each set1 as independent of the others1 still he will find the odds against it enormous4 ,when it is considered that an error1 almost arbitrary in its law1 has thus had the effect of bringing discordant observations into an almost unprecedented accordance1 as at ,maranham2 and not merely so1 but that at eight of the nine stations it has uniformly tended to diminish the differences between the partial results1 and that at the ninth station it only increased it by a small fraction of a second1 ,i cannot help feeling that it is more probable even that ,captain ,kater1 with all his admitted skill1 and that ,captain ,sabine himself1 should have been both mistaken in their measures of the divisions of the level1 than that so singular an effect should have been produced by one error2 and ,i cannot bring myself to believe that such an anticipation is entirely without foundation4 ,whatever may be the result of a re-examination1 it was a singular oversight ,,not ,,to ,,measure the divisions of a level intended to be used for determining so important a question2 more particularly as1 in the very work to which reference was made by ,captain ,sabine for the purpose of comparing the observations1 it was the very first circumstance which occupied the ,french philosophers1 and several pages ,see pages #bfe to #bge of the ,,recueil ,d',,observations ,,geodesiques1 c4 ,,par ,,mm4 ,,biot ,,et ,,arago1 which forms the fourth volume of the ,,base ,,du ,,systeme ,,metrique4 are filled with the details relative to the determination of the value of the divisions of the level4 ,it would also have been satisfactory1 with such an important object in view1 to have read off some of the sets after each pair of observations1 in order to see how far the system of repetition made the results gradually converge to a limit1 and in order to know how many repetitions were sufficient4 ,such a course would almost certainly have led to a knowledge of the true value of the divisions of the level2 for the differences in the altitude of the same star1 after a few minutes of time1 must1 in many instances1 have been far too great to have arisen from the change of its altitude3 and had these been noticed1 they must have been referred to some error in the instrument1 which could scarcely1 in such circumstances1 have escaped detection4 ,i have now mentioned a few of the difficulties which attend ,captain ,sabine's book on the pendulum1 difficulties which ,i am far from saying are inexplicable4 ,he would be bold indeed who1 after so wonderful an instance of the effect of chance as ,i have been just discussing1 should venture to pronounce another such accident impossible2 but ,i think enough has been said to show1 that the feeling which so generally prevails relative to it1 is neither captious nor unreasonable4 ,enough also has appeared to prove1 that the conduct of the ,admiralty in appointing that gentleman one of their scientific advisers1 was1 under the peculiar circumstances1 at least1 unadvised4 ,they have thus lent1 as far as they could1 the weight of their authority to support observations which are now found to be erroneous4 ,they have thus held up for imitation observations which may induce hundreds of meritorious officers to throw aside their instruments1 in the despair of ever approaching a standard which is since admitted to be imaginary2 and they have ratified the doctrine1 for ,i am not aware their official adviser has ever even modified it1 that diminutive instruments are equal almost to the largest4 ,to what extent this doctrine is correct1 may perhaps yet admit of doubt4 ,it cannot1 however1 admit of a doubt1 that it is unwise to crown it with official authority1 and thus expose the officers of their service to depend on means which may be quite insufficient for their purpose4 ,how the ,board of ,longitude1 after ,,expressly ,,directing ,,this ,,instrument ,,to ,,be ,,made ,,and ,,tried1 could come to the decision at which they arrived1 appears inexplicable4 ,the known difference of opinion amongst the best observers respecting the repeating principle1 ought to have rendered them peculiarly cautious1 nor ought the opinion of a ,troughton1 that instruments of less than one foot in diameter may be considered1 ,,for ,,astronomy1 ,,as ,,little ,,better ,,than ,,playthings1 ,memoirs of the ,astronomical ,society1 ,vol4,i4 p4#ec4 to have been rejected without the most carefully detailed experiments4 ,there were amongst that body1 persons who must have examined minutely the work on the ,pendulum4 ,captain ,kater must have felt those difficulties in the perusal of it which other observers have experienced2 and he who was placed in the ,board of ,longitude especially for his knowledge of instruments1 might1 in a few hours1 have arrived at more decisive facts4 ,but perhaps ,i am unjust4 ,captain ,kater's knowledge rendered it impossible for him to have been ignorant of the difficulties1 and his candour would have prevented him from concealing them3 he must1 therefore1 after examining the subject1 have been outvoted by his lay-brethren who had dispensed with that preliminary4 ,it would be unjust1 before quitting this subject1 not to mention with respect the acknowledgment made by an officer of the naval service of the errors into which he also fell from this same level4 ,lieutenant ,foster1 aware of the many occasions on which ,captain ,sabine had employed this instrument1 and knowing that he considered each division as equal to one second1 never thought that a doubt could exist on the subject1 and made all his calculations accordingly4 ,when ,captain ,kater made him acquainted with the mistake1 ,lieutenant ,foster immediately communicated a paper ,the paper of ,lieutenant ,foster is printed in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 #ahbg1 p4#abb1 and is worth consulting4 to the ,royal ,society1 in which he states the circumstance most fully1 and recomputed all the observations in which that instrument was used4 ,unfortunately1 from the original observations of ,mr4 ,ross being left on board the ,fury at the time of her loss1 the transcripts of his results could not be recomputed like the rest1 and were consequently useless4 ,,section #e4 ,,of ,,the ,,union ,,of ,,several ,,offices ,,in ,,one ,,person4 ,although the number of situations to which persons conversant with science may hope to be appointed1 is small1 yet it has somewhat singularly happened1 that instances of one individual1 holding more than one such appointment1 are frequent4 ,not to speak of those held by the late ,dr4 ,young1 we have at present3-- ,,mr4 ,,pond--,astronomer ,royal1 ,inspector of ,chronometers1 and ,superintendent of the ,nautical ,almanac4 ,,captain ,,sabine--,an officer of artillery on leave of absence from his regiment2 ,secretary of the ,royal ,society2 and ,scientific ,adviser of the ,admiralty4 ,,mr4 ,,brande--,clerk of the ,irons at the ,royal ,mint2 ,professor of ,chemistry at the ,royal ,institution2 ,analyser of ,rough ,nitre1 c4 to the ,east-,india ,company2 ,lecturer on ,materia ,medica1 ,apothecaries' ,hall2 ,superintending ,chemical ,operator at ditto2 ,lecturer on ,chemistry at ditto2 ,editor of the ,royal ,institution ,journal2 and ,foreign ,secretary to the ,royal ,society4 ,one should be led to imagine1 from these unions of scientific offices1 either that science is too little paid1 and that gentlemen cannot be found to execute the offices separately at the salaries offered2 or else1 that it is too well paid1 since each requires such little attention1 that almost any number can be executed by one person4 ,the ,director of the ,royal ,observatory has a larger and better collection of instruments1 and more assistants to superintend1 than any other astronomer in the world2 and1 to do it properly1 would require the almost undivided attention of a man in the vigour of youth4 ,nor would a superintendent of the ,nautical ,almanac1 if he made a point of being acquainted with every thing connected with his subject1 find his situation at all a sinecure4 ,slight as are the duties of the ,foreign ,secretary of the ,royal ,society1 it might have been supposed that ,mr4 ,brande would scarcely1 amongst his multifarious avocations1 have found time even for them4 ,but it may be a consolation to him to know1 that from the progress the ,society is making1 those duties must become shortly1 if they are not already1 almost extinct4 ,doubtless the ,president1 in making that appointment1 looked most anxiously over the list of the ,royal ,society4 ,he doubtless knew that the ,academics of ,sweden1 of ,denmark1 of ,scotland1 of ,prussia1 of ,hanover1 and of ,france1 derived honour from the discoveries of their ,secretaries2--that they prided themselves in the names of ,berzelius1 of ,oersted1 of ,brewster1 of ,encke1 of ,gauss1 and of ,cuvier4 ,doubtless the ,president must have been ambitious that ,england should contribute to this galaxy of glory1 that the ,royal ,society should restore the lost ,pleiad ,pleiades1 an assemblage of seven stars in the neck of the constellation ,taurus4 ,there are now only six of them visible to the naked eye4--,,hutton',s ,,dictionary--,art4 ,pleiades4 to the admiring science of ,europe4 ,but he could discover no kindred name amongst the ranks of his supporters1 and forgot1 for a moment1 the interest of the ,society1 in an amiable consideration for the feelings of his surrounding friends4 ,for had the ,president chosen a brighter star1 the lustre of his other officers might have been overpowered by its splendour3 but relieved from the pain of such a contrast1 he may still retain the hope1 that1 by their united brightness1 these suns of his little system shall yet afford sufficient light to be together visible to distant nations1 as a faint ,,nebula in the obscure horizon of ,english science4 ,,section #f4 ,,of ,,the ,,funds ,,of ,,the ,,society4 ,although the ,society is not in a state approaching to poverty1 it may be useful to offer a few remarks respecting the distribution of its money4 ,,expense ,,of ,,engravings ,,for ,,sir ,e4 ,,home',s ,,papers4--,the great expense of the engravings which adorn the volumes of the ,philosophical ,transactions1 is not sufficiently known4 ,that many of those engravings are quite essential for the papers they illustrate1 and that those papers are fit for the ,transactions1 ,i do not doubt2 but1 some inquiry is necessary1 when such large sums are expended4 ,i shall endeavour1 therefore1 to approximate to the sum these engravings have cost the ,royal ,society4 ,previous to #ahaj1 there are upwards of seventy plates to papers of ,sir ,e4 ,home's2 in many of these1 which ,i have purposely separated1 the workmanship is not so minute as in the succeeding ones4 ,since #ahaj1 there have occurred #ahg plates attached to papers of the same author4 ,many of these have cost from twelve to twenty guineas each plate2 but ,i shall take five pounds as the average cost of the first portion1 and twelve as that of the latter4 ,this would produce1 #gj ,x #e #cej #ahg ,x #ab #bbdd 444444 -----444444 ,l#beid ,as this is only proposed as a rough approximation1 let us omit the odd hundreds1 and we have two thousand pounds expended in plates only on ,,one branch of science1 and for one person6 ,without calling in question the importance of the discoveries contained in those papers1 it may be permitted to doubt whether such a large sum might not have been expended in a manner more beneficial to science4 ,not being myself conversant with those subjects1 ,i can only form an opinion of the value from extraneous circumstances4 ,had their importance been at all equal to their number1 ,i should have expected to have heard amongst the learned of other countries much more frequent mention of them than ,i have done1 and even the ,council of the ,royal ,society would scarcely have excluded from their ,transactions one of those productions which they had paid for as a lecture4 ,it might also have been more delicate not to have placed on the ,council so repeatedly a gentleman1 for whose engravings they were annually expending1 during the last twenty years1 about an hundred pounds4 ,on the other hand1 when the ,council lent ,sir ,e4 ,home the whole of those valuable plates to take off impressions for his large work on ,comparative ,anatomy1 of which they constitute almost the whole1 it might have been as well not to have obliterated from each plate all indication of the source to which he was indebted for them4 ,,the ,,president',s ,,discourses4--,i shall mention this circumstance1 because it fell under my own observation4 ,observing in the annual accounts a charge of #cha,l #es4 for the ,president's ,speeches1 ,i thought it right to inquire into the nature of this item4 ,happening to be on the ,council the next year1 ,i took an opportunity1 at an early meeting of that ,council1 to ask publicly for an explanation of the following resolution1 which stands in the ,council-books for ,dec4 #ba1 #ahbh4 ,resolved1 ,that #ejj copies of the ,president's ,discourses1 about to be printed by ,mr4 ,murray1 be purchased by the ,society1 at the usual trade price4 ,the answer given to that question was1 ,,that ,,the ,,council ,,had ,,agreed ,,to ,,purchase ,,these ,,volumes ,,at ,,that ,,price1 ,,in ,,order ,,to ,,induce ,,mr4 ,,murray ,,to ,,print ,,the ,,president',s ,,speeches4 ,i remarked at the time that such an answer was quite unsatisfactory1 as the following statement will prove4 ,the volume consists of #afj pages1 or twenty sheets1 and the following prices are very liberal3 ,l s4 d4 ,to composing and printing twenty sheets1 at #c,l4 per sheet444444444444444 #fj #j #j ,twenty reams of paper1 at #c,l4 per ream44444 #fj #j #j ,corrections1 alterations1 c4444444444 #cj #j #j ,total cost of #ejj copies444444 #aej #j #j ,now upon the subject of the expense of printing1 the ,council could not plead ignorance4 ,the ,society are engaged in printing1 and in paying printers' bills1 too frequently to admit of such an excuse2 and several of the individual members must have known1 from their own private experience1 that the cost of printing such a volume was widely different from that they were about to pay1 as an inducement to a bookseller to print it on his own account4 ,here1 then1 was a sum of above two hundred pounds beyond what was necessary for the object1 taken from the funds of the ,royal ,society2 and for what purpose8 ,did the ,president and his officers ever condescend to explain this transaction to the ,council2 or were they expected1 as a matter of course1 to sanction any thing proposed to them8 ,could they have been so weak1 or so obedient1 as to order the payment of above three hundred and eighty pounds1 to induce a bookseller to do what they might have done themselves for less than half the sum8 ,or did they wish to make ,mr4 ,murray a present of two hundred pounds8 ,if so1 he must have had powerful friends in the ,council1 and it is fit the ,society should know who they were2 for they were not friends1 either to its interests or to its honour4 ,the copies1 so purchased1 were ordered by the ,council to be sold to members of the ,society at #aes4 each3 7the trade price is #aes4 #c;d47 and out of the five hundred copies twenty-seven only have been sold3 the remainder encumber our shelves4 ,thus1 after four years1 the ,society are still losers of three hundred and sixty ,pounds on this transaction4 ,,on ,,the ,,conversion ,,of ,,the ,,greenwich ,,observations ,,into ,,pasteboard4--,although the printing of these observations is not paid for out of the funds of the ,royal ,society1 yet as the ,council of that body are the visitors of the ,royal ,observatory1 it may not be misplaced to introduce the subject here4 ,some years since1 a member of the ,royal ,society accidentally learned1 that there was1 at an old store-shop in ,thames ,street1 a large quantity of the volumes of the ,greenwich ,observations on sale as waste paper4 ,on making inquiry1 he ascertained that there were two tons and a half to be disposed of1 and that an equal quantity had already been sold1 for the purpose of converting it into pasteboard4 ,the vendor said he could get fourpence a pound for the whole1 and that it made capital ,bristol board4 ,the fact was mentioned by a member of the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 and they thought it necessary to inquire into the circumstances4 ,now1 the ,observations made at the ,royal ,observatory are printed with every regard to typographical luxury1 with large margins1 on thick paper1 hotpressed1 and with no sort of regard to economy4 ,this magnificence is advocated by some who maintain1 that the volumes ought to be worthy of a great nation2 whilst others1 seeing how little that nation spends on science1 regret that the sums allotted to it should not be applied with the strictest economy4 ,if the ,astronomer ,royal really has a right to these volumes1 printed by the government at a large expense1 it is1 perhaps1 the most extravagant mode which was ever yet invented of paying a public servant4 ,when that right was given to him1--let us suppose somebody had suggested the impolicy of it1 lest he should sell the costly volumes for waste paper1--who would have listened for one moment to such a supposition8 ,he would have been told that it was impossible to suppose a person in that high and responsible situation1 could be so indifferent to his own reputation4 ,a short time since1 ,i applied to the ,president and ,council of the ,royal ,society1 for copies of the ,greenwich ,observations1 which were necessary for an inquiry on which ,i was at that time engaged4 ,being naturally anxious to economize the small funds ,i can devote to science1 the request appeared to me a reasonable one4 ,it was1 however1 refused2 and ,i was at the same time informed that the ,observations could be purchased at the bookseller's4 ,this was a mistake2 ,mr4 ,murray has not copies of the ,greenwich ,observations prior to #ahbc4 ,when ,i consider that practical astronomy has not occupied a very prominent place in my pursuits1 ,i feel disposed1 on that ground1 to acquiesce in the propriety of the refusal4 ,this excuse can1 however1 be of no avail for similar refusals to other gentlemen1 who applied nearly at the same time with myself1 and whose time had been successfully devoted to the cultivation of that science4 ,m4 ,bessel1 at the wish of the ,royal ,academy of ,berlin1 projected a plan for making a very extensive map of the heavens4 ,too vast for any individual to attempt1 it was proposed that a portion should be executed by the astronomers of various countries1 and invitations to this effect were widely circulated4 ,one only of the divisions of this map was applied for by any ,english astronomer2 and1 after completing the portion of the map assigned to him1 he undertook another1 which had remained unprovided for4 ,this gentleman1 the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,hussey1 was one of the rejected applicants for the ,greenwich ,observations4 ,there was1 however1 another ground on which ,i had weakly anticipated a different result2--but those who occupy official situations1 rendered remarkable by the illustrious names of their predecessors1 are placed in no enviable station2 and1 if their own acquirements are confessedly insufficient to keep up the high authority of their office1 they must submit to the mortifications of their false position4 ,i am sure1 therefore1 that the ,president and officers of the ,royal ,society must have sympathized ,,most ,,deeply with me1 when they felt it their duty to propose that the ,society over which ,newton once presided1 should refuse so trifling an assistance to the unworthy possessor of the chair he once filled4 ,in reply to my application to the ,president and ,council1 to be allowed a copy of the ,greenwich ,observations1 ,i was informed that1 ,the number of copies placed by government at the disposal of the ,royal ,society1 was insufficient to supply the demands made on them by various learned bodies in ,europe2 and1 consequently1 they were unable1 however great their inclination1 to satisfy the wishes of individual applicants4 ,now ,i have spent some time in searching the numerous proceedings in the council-books of the ,royal ,society1 and ,i believe the following is the real state of the case3-- ,in #aghe1 ,lord ,sidney1 one of ,his ,majesty's principal ,secretaries of ,state1 wrote to the ,council a letter1 dated ,whitehall1 ,march #h1 #aghe1 from which the following is extracted3-- ,the ,king has been pleased to consent1 that any copies of the ,astronomical ,observations1 made at the ,observatory of ,greenwich1 7and paid for by the ,board of ,ordnance1 pursuant to ,his ,majesty's command1 of ,july #ba1 #agfg17 which may at any time remain in the hands of the printer1 shall1 after you have reserved such copies as you may think proper as presents1 be given to the said ,nevil ,maskelyne1 in consideration of his trouble in the superintending the printing thereof4 ,i am to signify ,his ,majesty's pleasure1 that you do1 from time to time1 give the necessary orders for that purpose1 until ,his ,majesty's further commands shall be communicated to you4 ,soon after this letter1 ,i find on the council-books3-- ,ordered1 ,that sixty copies of the ,greenwich ,observations1 last published1 be retained as presents1 and that the rest be delivered to the ,astronomer ,royal4 ,it is difficult to be sure of a negative fact1 but in searching many volumes of the ,proceedings of the ,council1 ,i have not discovered any revocation of this order1 and ,i believe none exists4 ,this is confirmed by the circumstance of the ,council at the present day receiving precisely the same number of copies as their predecessors1 and ,i believe that in fact they do not know the authority on which the right to those sixty rests4 ,supposing this order unrevoked1 it was clearly meant to be left to the discretion of the ,council1 to order such a number to be reserved1 from time to time1 as the demands of science might require4 ,when1 therefore1 they found that the number of sixty copies was insufficient1 they ought to have directed the printer to send them a larger number2 but when they found out the purpose to which the ,astronomer ,royal applied them1 they ought immediately to have ordered nearly the whole impression1 in order to prevent this destruction of public property4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the above order is revoked1 and we really have no right to more than sixty copies2 then1 on discovering the ,observations in their progress towards pasteboard1 it was the duty of the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 as visitors of the ,royal ,observatory1 immediately to have represented to ,government the evil of the arrangement1 and to have suggested1 that if the ,astronomer ,royal have the right1 it would be expedient to commute it for a liberal compensation4 ,whichever be the true view of the case1 they have taken no steps on the subject2 and ,i cannot help expressing my belief1 that the ,president and ,council were induced to be thus negligent of the interests of science1 from the fear of interfering with the perquisites of the ,astronomer ,royal4 ,it is1 however1 but justice to observe1 that the injury already done to science1 by the conversion of these ,observations into pasteboard1 is not so great as the public might have feared4 ,mr4 ,pond1 than whom no one can be supposed better acquainted with their value1 and whose right to judge no man can question1 has shown his own opinion to be1 that his reputation will be best consulted by diminishing the extent of their circulation4 ,before ,i quit the subject of the ,royal ,observatory1 on which much might be said1 ,i will just refer to the report by a ,committee of the ,royal ,society that was made relative to it1 some years since1 and which1 it is imagined1 is a subject by no means grateful to the memory of any of the parties concerned in it4 ,my object is to ascertain1 whether any amendments have taken place in consequence4 ,to one fact of considerable importance1 ,i was myself a witness1 when ,i was present officially at a visitation4 ,at that time1 no original observations made at the transit instrument were ever preserved4 ,had ,i not been an eye witness of the process of an observation1 ,i should not have credited the fact4 ,,section #g4 ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,medals4 ,at a period when the attention of ,government to science had not undergone any marked change1 a most unexpected occurrence took place4 ,his ,majesty intimated to the ,royal ,society1 through his ,secretary of ,state1 his intention to found two gold medals1 of the value of fifty guineas each1 to be awarded annually by the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 according to the rules they were desired to frame for that purpose4 ,the following is the copy of ,mr4 ,peel's letter3-- ,,whitehall1 ,december #c;d1 #ahbe4 ,,sir1 ,i am commanded by the ,king to acquaint you1 that ,his ,majesty proposes to found two gold medals1 of the value of fifty guineas each1 to be awarded as honorary premiums1 under the direction of the ,president and ,council of the ,royal ,society1 in such a manner as shall1 by the excitement of competition among men of science1 seem best calculated to promote the object for which the ,royal ,society was instituted4 ,his ,majesty desires to receive from the ,president and ,council of the ,royal ,society their opinion upon the subject generally of the regulations which it may be convenient to establish with regard to the appropriation of the medals2 and ,i have1 therefore1 to request that you will make the necessary communication to the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 in order that ,his ,majesty's wishes may be carried into effect4 ,i have the honour to be1 c4 c4 7,signed7 ,r4 ,,peel4 ,nothing could be more important for the interests of science1 than this gracious manifestation of ,his ,majesty's concern for its advancement4 ,it was hailed by all who were made acquainted with it1 as the commencement of a new era1 and the energies which it might have awakened were immense4 ,the unfettered nature of the gift excited admiration1 whilst the confidence reposed in the ,council was calculated to have insured the wavering faith of any less-gifted body4 ,even those who1 either from knowing the ,,management of the ,society1 or from other grounds1 doubted the policy of establishing medals1 saw much to admire in the tone and spirit in which they were offered4 ,the ,council immediately came to the resolution of gratefully accepting them3 and it appears that the ,president communicated that resolution1 on the #bfth1 to ,mr4 ,peel1 in a letter1 which is found on the minutes of the ,council-book of the #bfth of ,january4 ,at the same ,council1 the rules for the award of the ,royal medals were decided upon2 they were as follow3-- #bfth ,january1 #ahbf4 ,,resolved1 ,that it is the opinion of the ,council1 that the medals be awarded for the most important discoveries or series of investigations1 completed and made known to the ,royal ,society in the year preceding the day of their award4 ,that it is the opinion of the ,council1 that the presentation of the medals should not be limited to ,british subjects4 ,and they propose1 if it should be ,his ,majesty's pleasure1 that his effigy should form the obverse of the medal4 ,that two medals from the same die should be struck upon each foundation2 one in gold1 one in silver4 ,if these rules are not the wisest which might have been formed1 yet they are tolerably explicit2 and it might have been imagined that even a councillor of the ,royal ,society1 prepared for office by the education of a pleader1 could not have mystified his brethren so completely1 as to have made them doubt on the point of time4 ,the rules fixed precisely1 that the discoveries or experiments rewarded1 must be completed and made known to the ,royal ,society1 within the ,,year ,,preceding ,,the ,,day of the award4 ,perhaps it might have been a proper mark of respect to this communication1 to have convened a special general meeting of the ,society1 to have made known to the whole body the munificent endowment of their ,patron3 and when his approbation of the laws which were to govern the distribution of these medals had been intimated to the ,council1 such a course would have been in complete accordance with the wish expressed in ,mr4 ,peel's letter1 ,,to ,,excite ,,competition ,,amongst ,,men ,,of ,,science by making them generally known4 ,let us now examine the first award of these medals3 it is recorded in the following words3-- ,november #af1 #ahbf4 ,,one of the medals of ,his ,majesty's donation for the present year was awarded to ,john ,dalton1 ,esq4 ,president of the ,philosophical and ,literary ,society1 ,manchester1 for his development of the ,atomic ,theory1 and his other important labours and discoveries in physical science4 ,the other medal for the present year was awarded to ,james ,ivory1 ,esq4 for his paper on ,astronomical ,refractions1 published in the ,philosophical ,transactions for the year #ahbc1 and his other valuable papers on mathematical subjects4 ,the ,copley medal was awarded to ,james ,south1 ,esq4 for his observations of double stars1 and his paper on the discordances between the sun's observed and computed right ascensions1 published in the ,transactions4 ,it is difficult to believe that the same ,council1 which1 in ,january1 formed the laws for the distribution of these medals1 should meet together in ,november1 and in direct violation of these laws1 award them to two philosophers1 one of whom had made1 and fully established1 his great discovery almost twenty years before2 and the other of whom 7to stultify themselves still more effectually7 they expressly rewarded for a paper made known to them three years before4 ,were the rules for the award of these medals read previous to their decision8 ,or were the obedient ,council only used to register the edict of their ,president8 ,or were they mocked1 as they have been in other instances1 with the semblance of a free discussion8 ,has it never occurred to gentlemen who have been thus situated1 that although they have in truth had no part in the decision1 yet the ,society and the public will justly attribute a portion of the merit or demerit of their award1 to those to whom that trust was confided8 ,did no one member of the ,council venture1 with the most submissive deference1 to suggest to the ,president1 that the public eye would watch with interest this first decision on the ,royal medals1 and that it might perhaps be more discreet to adjudge them1 for the first time1 in accordance with the laws which had been made for their distribution8 ,or was public opinion then held in supreme contempt8 ,was it scouted1 as ,i have myself heard it scouted1 in the councils of the ,royal ,society8 ,or was the ,president exempt1 on this occasion1 from the responsibility of dictating an award in direct violation of the faith which had been pledged to the ,society and to the public8 and1 did the ,council1 intent on exercising a power so rarely committed to them2 and1 perhaps1 urged by the near approach of their hour of dinner1 dispense with the formality of reading the laws on which they were about to act8 ,whatever may have been the cause1 the result was most calamitous to the ,society4 ,its decision was attacked on other grounds2 for1 with a strange neglect1 the ,council had taken no pains to make known1 either to the ,society1 or to the public1 the rules they had made for the adjudication of these medals4 ,the evils resulting from this decision were many4 ,in the first place1 it was most indecorous and ungrateful to treat with such neglect the rules which had been approved by our ,royal ,patron4 ,in the next place1 the medals themselves became almost worthless from this original taint3 and they ceased to excite competition amongst men of science1 because no man could feel the least security that he should get them1 even though his discoveries should fulfil all the conditions on which they were offered1 ,the great injury which accrued to science from this proceeding1 induced me1 in the succeeding session1 when ,i found myself on the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 to endeavour to remove the stigma which rested on our character4 ,whether ,i took the best means to remedy the evil is now a matter of comparatively little consequence3 had ,i found any serious disposition to set it right1 ,i should readily have aided in any plans for doing that which ,i felt myself bound to attempt1 even though ,i should stand alone1 as ,i had the misfortune of doing on that occasion4 ,it is but justice to ,mr4 ,south1 who was a member of that ,council1 to state1 that the circumstance of his having had the ,copley medal of the same year awarded to him1 prevented him from taking any part in the discussion4 ,the impression which the whole of that discussion made on my mind will never be effaced4 ,regarding the original rules formed for the distribution of the ,royal medals1 when approved by his ,majesty1 as equally binding in honour and in justice1 ,i viewed the decision of the ,council1 which assigned those medals to ,mr4 ,dalton and ,mr4 ,ivory1 as void1 ,,ipso ,,facto1 on the ground that it was directly at variance with that part which ,,confines the medals to discoveries made known to the ,society within ,,one ,,year ,,previous ,,to ,,the ,,day ,,of ,,their ,,award4 ,i therefore moved the following resolutions3 #ast1 ,that the award of the ,royal medals1 made on the #afth of ,november1 #ahbf1 being contrary to the conditions under which they were offered1 is invalid4 #b;dly1 ,that the sum of fifty guineas each be presented to ,j4 ,dalton1 ,esq4 and ,james ,ivory1 ,esq4 from the funds of the ,society2 and that letters be written to each of those gentlemen1 expressing the hope of the ,council that this1 the only method which is open to them of honourably fulfilling their pledges1 will be received by those gentlemen as a mark of the high sense entertained by the ,council of the importance and value of their discoveries1 which require not the aid of medals to convey their reputation to posterity1 as amongst the greatest which distinguished the age in which they lived4 ,it may be curious to give the public a specimen of the reasoning employed in so select a body of philosophers as the ,council of the ,royal ,society4 ,it was contended1 on the one hand1 that although the award was ,,somewhat ,,irregular1 yet nothing was more easy than to set it right4 ,as the original rules for giving the medals were merely an order of the ,council1--it would only be necessary to alter them1 and then the award would agree perfectly with the laws4 ,on the other hand1 it was contended1 that the original rules were unknown to the public and to the ,society2 and that1 in fact1 they were only known to the members of the ,council and a few of their friends2 and therefore the award was no breach of faith4 ,all comment on such reasoning is needless4 ,that such propositions could not merely be offered1 but could pass unreproved1 is sufficient to show that the feelings of that body do not harmonize with those of the age2 and furnishes some explanation why several of the most active members of the ,royal ,society have declined connecting their names with the ,council as long as the present system of management is pursued4 ,the little interest taken by the body of the ,society1 either in its peculiar pursuits1 or in the proceedings of the ,council1 and the little communication which exists between them1 is an evil4 ,thus it happens that the deeds of the ,council are rarely known to the body of the ,society1 and1 indeed1 scarcely extend beyond that small portion who frequent the weekly meetings4 ,these pages will perhaps afford the first notice to the great majority of the ,society of a breach of faith by their ,council1 which it is impossible to suppose a body1 consisting of more than six hundred gentlemen1 could have sanctioned4 ,,section #h4 ,,of ,,the ,,copley ,,medals4 ,an important distinction exists between scientific communications1 which seems to have escaped the notice of the ,councils of the ,royal ,society4 ,they may contain discoveries of new principles1--of laws of nature hitherto unobserved2 or they may consist of a register of observations of known phenomena1 made under new circumstances1 or in new and peculiar situations on the face of our planet4 ,both these species of additions to our knowledge are important2 but their value and their rarity are very different in degree4 ,to make and to repeat observations1 even with those trifling alterations1 which it is the fashion in our country 7in the present day7 to dignify with the name of discoveries1 requires merely inflexible candour in recording precisely the facts which nature has presented1 and a power of fixing the attention on the instruments employed1 or phenomena examined1--a talent1 which can be much improved by proper ,instruction1 and which is possessed by most persons of tolerable abilities and education499 ,to discover new principles1 and to detect the undiscovered laws by which nature operates1 is another and a higher task1 and requires intellectual qualifications of a very different order3 the labour of the one is like that of the computer of an almanac2 the inquiries of the other resemble more the researches of the accomplished analyst1 who has invented the formula3 by which those computations are performed4 99,that the use even of the large astronomical instruments in a national observatory1 does not require any very profound acquirements1 is not an opinion which ,i should have put forth without authority4 ,the ,astronomer-,royal ought to be the best judge4 ,on the minutes of the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 for ,april #f1 #ahbf1 with reference to the ,assistants necessary for the two mural circles1 we find a letter from ,mr4 ,pond on the subject1 from which the following passage is extracted3 ,but to carry on such investigations1 ,i want indefatigable1 hard-working1 and above all1 obedient drudges 7for so ,i must call them1 although they are drudges of a superior order71 men who will be contented to pass half their day in using their hands and eyes in the mechanical act of observing1 and the remainder of it in the dull process of calculation4 ,such being the distinction between the merits of these inquiries1 some difference ought to exist in the nature of any rewards that may be proposed for their encouragement4 ,the ,royal ,society have never marked this difference1 and consequently those honorary medals which are given to observations1 gain a value which is due to those that are given for discoveries2 whilst these latter are diminished in their estimation by such an association4 ,i have stated this distinction1 because ,i think it a just one2 but the public would have little cause of complaint if this were the only ground of objection to the mode of appropriating the ,society's medals4 ,the first objection to be noticed1 is the indistinct manner in which the object for which the medals are awarded is sometimes specified4 ,a medal is given to ,a4 ,b4 for his various papers4 ,there are cases1 few perhaps in number1 where such a reason may be admissible2 but it is impossible not to perceive the weakness of those who judge these matters legibly written in the phrase1 and for his various other communications1 which comes in as the frequent tail-piece to these awards4 ,with a diffidence in their own powers1 which might be more admired if it were more frequently expressed1 the ,council think to escape through this loop-hole1 should the propriety of their judgment on the main point be called in question4 ,thus1 even the discovery which made chemistry a science1 has attached to it in their award this feeble appendage4 ,it has been objected to the ,royal ,society1 that their medals have been too much confined to a certain set4 ,when the ,royal medals were added to their patronage1 the past distribution of the ,copley medals1 furnished grounds to some of the journals to predict the future possessors of the new ones4 ,i shall1 doubtless1 be told that the ,council of the ,royal ,society are persons of such high feeling1 that it is impossible to suppose their decision could be influenced by any personal motives4 ,as ,i may not have had sufficient opportunities1 during the short time ,i was a member of that ,council1 to enable me to form a fair estimate1 ,i shall avail myself of the judgment of one1 from whom no one will be inclined to appeal1 who knew it long and intimately1 and who expressed his opinion deliberately and solemnly4 ,the late ,dr4 ,wollaston attached1 as a condition to be observed in the distribution of the interest of his munificent gift of #b1jjj,l4 to the ,royal ,society1 the following clause3--,and ,i hereby empower the said ,president1 ,council1 and ,fellows1 after my decease1 in furtherance of the above declared objects of the trust1 to apply the said dividends to aid or reward any individual or individuals of any country1 ,,saving ,,only ,,that ,,no ,,person ,,being ,a ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,council ,,for ,,the ,,time ,,being1 ,,shall ,,receive ,,or ,,partake ,,of ,,such ,,reward4 ,another improvement which might be suggested1 is1 that it is generally inexpedient to vote a medal until the paper which contains the discovery is at least read to the ,society2 perhaps even it might not be quite unreasonable to wish that it should have been printed1 and consequently have been perused by some few of those who have to decide on its merits4 ,these trifles have not always been attended to2 and even so lately as the last year1 they escaped the notice of the ,president and his ,council4 ,the ,society was1 however1 indebted to the good sense of ,mr4 ,faraday1 who declined the proffered medal2 and thus relieved us from one additional charge of precipitancy4 ,when this hasty adjudication was thus put a stop to1 one of the members of the ,council inquired1 whether1 as a ,copley medal must by the will be annually given1 some other person might not be found deserving of it4 ,to which the ,secretary replied1 ,we do not intend to give any this year4 ,all further discussion was thus silenced4 ,perhaps1 also1 as the ,council are on some occasions apt to be oblivious1 it might be convenient that the ,president should read1 previously to the award of any medals or to the decision of any other important subjects1 the statutes relating to them4 ,he might perhaps propitiate their attention to them1 by stating1 ,,how ,,much ,,it ,,importeth ,,to ,,the ,,consistency ,,of ,,the ,,council ,,to ,,be ,,acquainted ,,with ,,the ,,laws ,,on ,,which ,,they ,,are ,,about ,,to ,,decide4 ,if those who have been conversant with the internal management of the ,council1 would communicate their information1 something curious might perhaps be learned respecting a few of these medals4 ,concerning those of which ,i have had good means of information1 ,i shall merely state--of three of them--that whatever may have been the official reasons for their award1 ,i had ample reasons to convince me of the following being the true causes3-- ,first4--,a medal was given to ,a1 at a peculiarly inappropriate time--,,because ,,he ,,had ,,not ,,had ,,one ,,before4 ,second4--,subsequently a medal was given to ,b1 in order ,,to ,,destroy ,,the ,,impression ,,which ,,the ,,award ,,of ,,the ,,medal ,,to ,a ,,had ,,made ,,on ,,the ,,public ,,the ,,preceding ,,year4 ,third4--,a medal was given to ,c1 ,,because ,,we ,,think ,,he ,,has ,,been ,,ill ,,used4 ,i will now enter on an examination of one of their awards1 which was peculiarly injudicious4 ,i allude to that concerning the mode of rendering platina malleable4 ,respecting1 as ,i did1 the illustrious philosopher who invented the art1 and who has left many other claims to the gratitude of mankind1 ,i esteem it no disrespect to his memory to place that subject in its proper light4 ,an invention in science or in art1 may justly be considered as possessing the rights of property in the highest degree4 ,the lands we inherit from our fathers1 were cultivated ere they were born1 and yielded produce before they were cultivated4 ,the products of genius are the actual creations of the individual2 and1 after yielding profit or honour to him1 they remain the permanent endowments of the human race4 ,if the institutions of our country1 and the opinions of society1 support us fully in the absolute disposal of our fields1 of which we can1 by the laws of nature1 be only the transitory possessors1 who shall justly restrict our discretion in the disposal of those richer possessions1 the products of intellectual exertion8 ,two courses are open to those individuals who are thus endowed with ,nature's wealth4 ,they may lock up in their own bosoms the mysteries they have penetrated1 and by applying their knowledge to the production of some substance in demand in commerce1 thus minister to the wants or comforts of their species1 whilst they reap in pecuniary profit the legitimate reward of their exertions4 ,it is open to them1 on the other hand1 to disclose the secret they have torn from ,nature1 and by allowing mankind to participate with them1 to claim at once that splendid reputation which is rarely refused to the inventors of valuable discoveries in the arts of life4 ,the two courses are rarely compatible1 only indeed when the discoverer1 having published his process1 enters into equal competition with other manufacturers4 ,if an individual adopt the first of these courses1 and retaining his secret1 it perish with him1 the world have no right to complain4 ,during his life1 they profited by his knowledge1 and are better off than if the philosopher had not existed4 ,monopolies1 under the name of patents1 have been devised to assist and reward those who have chosen the line of pecuniary profit4 ,honorary rewards and medals have been the feeble expressions of the sentiments of mankind towards those who have preferred the other course4 ,but these have been1 and should always be1 kept completely distinct4 ,it is a condition with the ,society of ,arts1 never to give a reward to any thing for which a patent has been1 or is to be1 taken out4 ,let us now consider the case of platina4 ,a new process was discovered of rendering it malleable1 and the mere circumstance of so large a quantity having been sent into the market1 was a positive benefit1 of no ordinary magnitude1 to many of the arts4 ,the discoverer of this valuable process selected that course for which no reasonable man could blame him2 and from some circumstance1 or perhaps from accident1 he preserved no written record of the manipulations4 ,had ,providence appointed for that disorder1 which terminated too fatally1 a more rapid career1 all the knowledge he had acquired from the long attention he had devoted to the subject1 would have been lost to mankind4 ,the hand of a friend recorded the directions of the expiring philosopher1 whose anxiety to render useful even his unfinished speculations1 proves that the previous omission was most probably accidental4 ,under such circumstances it was published to the world in the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society4 ,but what could induce that body to bestow on it their medal8 ,to talk of adding lustre to the name of ,wollaston by their medal1 is to talk idly4 ,they must have done it then as an example1 as a stimulus to urge future inquiries in the career of discovery4 ,but did they wish discoveries to be so endangered8 ,the discoveries of ,professor ,mitscherlick1 of ,berlin1 had long been considered1 by a few members of the ,society1 as having strong claims on one of its honorary rewards2 but difficulties had arisen1 from so few members of the ,council having any knowledge of discoveries which had long been familiar to ,europe4 ,the ,council were just on the point of doing justice to the merits of the ,prussian philosopher1 when it was suggested that its medal should be given to ,dr4 ,wollaston1 and they immediately altered their intention1 and thus enabled themselves to reserve their medal to ,professor ,mitscherlick for another year2 at which period1 for aught they knew1 his discoveries might possess the additional merit of having been made prior to the limit allowed by their regulations4 ,that medal was1 in fact1 voted at a meeting1 at which no one member present was at all conversant with the subjects rewarded4 ,i shall1 however1 say no more on this subject4 ,they erred from feeling1 an error so very rare with them1 that it might be pardoned even for its singularity4 ,i will1 however1 add one word to those whose censures have been unjustly dealt1 to those who have reproached the philosopher for receiving pecuniary advantage from his inventions4 ,amongst the many and varied contrivances for the demands of science1 or the arts of life1 with which we were enriched by the genius of ,wollaston1 was it too much to allow him to retain1 during his fleeting career1 one out of the multitude1 to furnish that3 pecuniary supply1 without which1 the man will want food for his body1 and the philosopher be destitute of tools for his inventions8 ,had he been1 as1 from the rank he held in science1 he certainly would have been in other kingdoms1 rich in the honours his country could bestow1 and receiving from her a reward in some measure commensurate with his deserts1--then1 indeed1 there might have been reason for that reproach2 but ,i am convinced that1 in such circumstances1 the philosopher would have balanced1 with no niggard hand1 the claims of his country1 and would have given to it1 unreservedly1 the produce of his powerful mind4 ,,section #i4 ,,of ,,the ,,fairchild ,,lecture4 ,mr4 ,fairchild left by will twenty-five pounds to the ,royal ,society4 ,this was increased by several subscriptions1 and #ajj,l4 #c per cent4 ,south ,sea ,annuities was purchased1 the interest of which was to be devoted annually to pay for a sermon to be preached at ,st4,leonard's1 ,shoreditch4 ,few members of the ,society1 perhaps1 are aware1 either of the bequest or of its annual payment4 ,i shall merely observe1 that for five years1 from #ahjj to #ahjd1 it was regularly given to ,mr4 ,ascough2 and that for twenty-six years past1 it has been as regularly given to the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,ellis4 ,the annual amount is too trifling to stimulate to any extraordinary exertions2 yet1 small as it is1 it might1 if properly applied1 be productive of much advantage to religion1 and of great honour to the ,society4 ,for this purpose1 it would be desirable that it should be delivered at some church or chapel1 more likely to be attended by members of the ,royal ,society4 ,notice of it should be given at the place of worship appointed1 at least a week previous to its delivery1 and at the two preceding weekly meetings of the ,royal ,society4 ,the name of the gentleman nominated for that year1 and the church at which the sermon is to be preached1 should be stated4 ,with this publicity attending it1 and by a judicious selection of the first two or three gentlemen appointed to deliver it1 it would soon be esteemed an honour to be invited to compose such a lecture1 and the ,society might always find in its numerous list of members or aspirants1 persons well qualified to fulfil a task as beneficial for the promotion of true religion1 as it ever must be for the interest of science4 ,i am tempted to believe that such a course would call forth exertions of the most valuable character1 as well as give additional circulation to what is already done on that subject4 ,the geological speculations which have been adduced1 perhaps with too much haste by some1 as according with the ,mosaic history1 and by others1 as inconsistent with its truth1 would1 if this subject had been attentively considered1 have been allowed to remain until the fullest and freest inquiry had irrevocably fixed their claim to the character of indisputable facts4 ,but1 ,i will not press this subject further on my reader's attention1 lest he should think ,i am myself delivering the lecture4 ,all that ,i could have said on this point has been so much more ably stated by one whose enlightened view of geological science has taken away some difficulties from its cultivators1 and1 ,i hope1 removed a stumbling-block from many respectable individuals1 that ,i should only weaken by adding to the argument4 ,i allude to the critique of ,dr4 ,ure's ,geology in the ,british ,review1 for ,july1 #ahbi2 an ,essay1 equally worthy of a philosopher and a ,christian4 ,,section #aj4 ,,of ,,the ,,croonian ,,lecture4 ,the payment ,three pounds4 for this ,lecture1 like that of the preceding1 is small4 ,it was instituted by ,dr4 ,croone1 for an annual essay on the subject of ,muscular ,motion4 ,it is a little to be regretted1 that it should have been so restricted2 and perhaps its founder1 had he foreseen the routine into which it has dwindled1 might have endeavoured to preserve it1 by affording it a wider range4 ,by giving it to a variety of individuals1 competition might have been created1 and many young anatomists have been induced to direct their attention to the favourite inquiry of the founder of the ,lecture2 but from causes which need not here be traced1 this has not been the custom--one individual has monopolized it year after year1 and it seems1 like the ,fairchild ,lecture1 rather to have been regarded as a pension4 ,there have1 however1 been some intervals2 and we are still under obligations to those who have supported ,,the ,,system1 for not appointing ,sir ,everard ,home to read the ,croonian ,lecture twenty years in ,,succession4 ,had it been otherwise1 we might have heard of vested rights4 ,,section #aa4 ,,of ,,the ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,present ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,society4 ,the best friends of the ,royal ,society have long admitted1 whilst they regretted1 its declining fame2 and even those who support whatever exists1 begin a little to doubt whether it might not possibly be amended4 ,the great and leading cause of the present state to which the ,royal ,society is reduced1 may be traced to years of misrule to which it has been submitted4 ,in order to understand this1 it will be necessary to explain the nature of that misrule1 and the means employed in perpetuating it4 ,it is known1 that by the statutes1 the body of the ,society have the power of electing1 annually1 their ,president1 ,officers1 and ,council2 and it is also well known1 that this is a merely nominal power1 and that printed lists are prepared and put into the hands of the members on their entering the room1 and thus passed into the balloting box4 ,if these lists were1 as in other scientific societies1 openly discussed in the ,council1 and then offered by them as recommendations to the ,society1 little inconvenience would arise2 but the fact is1 that they are private nominations by the ,president1 usually without notice1 to the ,council1 and all the supporters of the system which ,i am criticizing1 endeavour to uphold the right of this nomination in the ,president1 and prevent or discourage any alteration4 ,the ,society has1 for years1 been managed by a ,,party1 or ,,coterie1 or by whatever other name may be most fit to designate a combination of persons1 united by no expressed compact or written regulations1 but who act together from a community of principles4 ,that each individual has invariably supported all the measures of the party1 is by no means the case2 and whilst instances of opposition amongst them have been very rare1 a silent resignation to circumstances has been the most usual mode of meeting measures they disapproved4 ,the great object of this1 as of all other parties1 has been to maintain itself in power1 and to divide1 as far as it could1 all the good things amongst its members4 ,it has usually consisted of persons of very moderate talent1 who have had the prudence1 whenever they could1 to associate with themselves other members of greater ability1 provided these latter would not oppose the system1 and would thus lend to it the sanction of their name4 ,the party have always praised each other most highly--have invariably opposed all improvements in the ,society1 all change in the mode of management2 and have maintained1 that all those who wished for any alteration were factious2 and1 when they discovered any symptoms of independence and inquiry breaking out in any member of the ,council1 they have displaced him as soon as they decently could4 ,of the arguments employed by those who support the ,,system ,,of ,,management by which the ,royal ,society is governed1 ,i shall give a few samples3 refutation is rendered quite unnecessary--juxta-position is alone requisite4 ,if any member1 seeing an improper appointment in contemplation1 or any abuse in the management of the affairs of the ,society continued1 raise a voice against it1 the ready answer is1 ,why should you interfere8 it may not be quite the thing you approve2 but it is no affair of yours4--,if1 on the other hand1 it do relate to himself1 the reply is equally ready4 ,it is immediately urged3 ,the question is of a personal nature2 you are the last person who ought to bring it forward2 you are yourself interested4 ,if any member of the ,society1 feeling annoyed at the neglect1 or hurt by the injuries or insults of the ,council1 show signs of remonstrance1 it is immediately suggested to him that he is irritated1 and ought to wait until his feelings subside1 and he can judge more coolly on the subject2 whilst with becoming candour they admit the ill-treatment1 but urge forbearance4 ,if1 after an interval1 when reflection has had ample time to operate1 the offence seems great as at first1 or the insult appears unmitigated by any circumstances on which memory can dwell1--if it is then brought forward1 the immediate answer is1 ,the affair is out of date--the thing is gone by--it is too late to call in question a transaction so long past4 ,thus1 if a man is interested personally1 he is unfit to question an abuse2 if he is not1 is it probable that he will question it8 and if1 notwithstanding this1 he do so1 then he is to be accounted a meddler4 ,if he is insulted1 and complain1 he is told to wait until he is cool2 and when that period arrives1 he is then told he is too late4 ,if his remonstrance relates to the alteration of laws which are never referred to1 or only known by their repeated breach1 he is told that any alteration is useless2 it is perfectly well known that they are never adhered to4 ,if it relate to the impolicy of any regulations attaching to an office1 he is immediately answered1 that that is a personal question1 in which it is impossible to interfere--the officer1 it seems1 is considered to have not merely a vested right to the continuance of every abuse1 but an interest in transmitting it unimpaired to his successors4 ,in the same spirit ,i have heard errors of calculation or observation defended4 ,if small errors occur1 it is said that they are too trifling to be of any importance4 ,if larger errors are pointed out1 it is immediately contended that they can deceive nobody1 because of their magnitude4 ,perhaps it might be of some use1 if the ,council would oblige the world with their ,,scale of ,,error1 with illustrations from some of the most ,,recent and ,,approved works1 and would favour the uninformed with the orthodox creed upon all grades1 from that which baffles the human faculties to detect1 up to that which becomes innocuous from its size4 ,the offices connected with the ,royal ,society are few in number1 and their emolument small in amount2 but the proper disposition of them is1 nevertheless1 of great importance to the ,society1 and was so to the science of ,england4 ,in the first place1 the ,president1 having in effect the absolute nomination of the whole ,council1 could each year introduce a few gentlemen1 whose only qualification to sit on it would be the high opinion they must necessarily entertain of the penetration of him who could discover their scientific merits4 ,he might also place in the list a few nobles or officials1 just to gild it4 ,neither of these classes would put any troublesome questions1 and one of them might be employed1 from its station in society1 to check any that might be proposed by others4 ,with these ingredients1 added to the regular train of the party1 and a star or two of science to shed lustre over the whole1 a very manageable ,council might be formed2 and such has been its frequent composition4 ,the duties of the ,secretaries1 when well executed1 are laborious1 although not in this respect equal to those of the same officers who1 in several societies1 give their gratuitous aid2 and their labours are much lightened by the ,assistant ,secretary and his clerk4 ,the following are their salaries3-- ,the ,senior ,secretary 44444444444 #aje,l4 ,the ,junior ,secretary1 #aje,l44444444 7 #e,l4 for making ,index to ,phil4 ,trans444 7 #aaj,l4 ,the ,foreign ,secretary44444444444 #bj,l4 ,now it is not customary to change these annually2 and as these offices are amongst the loaves and fishes they are generally given by the ,president to some staunch supporters of the system4 ,they have frequently been bestowed1 with very little consideration for the interest1 or even for the dignity of the ,society4 ,to notice only one instance3 the late ,sir ,joseph ,banks appointed a gentleman who remained for years in that situation1 although he was confessedly ignorant of every subject connected with the pursuits of the ,society4 ,i will1 however1 do justice to his memory1 by saying that his respectability was preserved under such circumstances1 by the most candid admission of the fact1 accompanied by a store of other knowledge unfortunately quite foreign to the pursuits of the ,society2 and ,i will add1 that ,i regretted to see him insulted by one ,president in a situation improperly given to him by a former4 ,next in order come the ,vice-,presidents1 who are appointed by the ,president2 and in this respect the present practice is not inconvenient4 ,the case1 however1 is widely different with the office of ,treasurer4 ,the ,president ought not to usurp the power of his appointment1 which ought1 after serious discussion by the ,council1 to be made by the ,society at large4 ,besides the three ,secretaries1 there is an ,assistant ,secretary1 and recently another has been added1 who may perhaps be called a ,sub-assistant ,secretary4 ,all these places furnish patronage to the ,president4 ,let us now look at the occasional patronage of the ,president1 arising from offices not belonging to the ,society4 ,he is1 ,,ex ,,officio1 a ,trustee of the ,british ,museum2 and it may seem harsh to maintain that he is not a fit person to hold such a situation4 ,it is no theoretical view1 but it is the ,,experience of the past which justifies the assertion2 and ,i fear that unless he has the sole responsibility for some specific appointments1 and unless his judgment is sharpened by the fear of public discussion1 a ,president of the ,royal ,society1 in the ,board-room of the ,british ,museum1 is quite as likely as another person to sacrifice his public duty to the influence of power1 or to private friendship4 ,with respect to the merits of that ,institution1 ,i have no inclination at present to inquire3 but when it is considered that there is at this moment attached to it no one whose observations or whose writings have placed him even in the second rank amongst the naturalists of ,europe1 the ,president of the ,royal ,society has given some grounds for the remark made by several members of the ,society1 that he is a little too much surrounded by the officers of a body who may reasonably be supposed to entertain towards him feelings either of gratitude or expectation4 ,it will be remembered that the name of ,mr4 ,robert ,brown has been but recently attached to the ,british ,museum1 and that it is to be attributed to his possessing a life interest in the valuable collection of the late ,sir ,joseph ,banks4 ,the late ,board of ,longitude was another source of patronage1 which1 although now abolished1 it may be useful to hint at4 ,there were three members to be appointed by the ,royal ,society3 these were honorary1 and1 as no salary was attached1 it might have been expected that this limited number of appointments would have been given in all cases to persons qualified for them4 ,but no3 it was convenient to pay compliments2 and ,lord ,colchester1 whose talents and knowledge insured him respect as ,speaker of the ,house of ,commons1 or as a ,british nobleman1 was placed for years in the situation as one of the ,commissioners of the ,board of ,longitude1 for which every competent judge knew him to be wholly unfit4 ,what was the return which he made for this indulgence8 ,little informed respecting the feelings of the ,society1 and probably misinformed by the party whose influence had placed him there1 he saved them in the day of their peril4 ,when the state of the ,society had reached such a point that many of the more scientific members felt that some amendment was absolutely necessary to its respectability1 a committee was formed to suggest to the ,council such improvements as they might consider it expedient to discuss4 ,amongst the names of the persons composing this ,committee1 which was proposed by ,mr4 ,south1 were those of ,dr4 ,wollaston and ,mr4 ,herschel4 ,the ,council received their report at the close of the session2 and in recording it on the journals1 they made an appeal to the ,council for the ensuing year to bestow on it ,,their ,,earliest ,,and ,,most ,,serious ,,attention4 ,now when the party1 to whose government some of these improvements would have been a death-warrant1 found that the subject was likely to be taken up in the ,council1 they were in dismay3 but the learned and grateful peer came to their assistance1 and aided ,mr4 ,davies ,gilbert in getting rid of these improvements completely4 ,it has been the fashion to maintain that all classes of the ,royal ,society should be represented in the ,council1 and consequently that a peer or two should find a place amongst them4 ,those who are most adverse to this doctrine would perhaps be the most anxious to render this tribute to any one really employing his time1 his talents1 or his rank in advancing the cause of science4 ,but when a nobleman1 unversed in our pursuits1 will condescend to use the influence of his station in aiding a ,president to stifle1 ,,without ,,discussion1 propositions recommended for consideration by some of the most highly gifted members of the ,society1--those who doubt the propriety of the principle may reasonably be pardoned for the disgust they must necessarily entertain for the practical abuse to which it leads4 ,of the other three ,commissioners1 who received each a hundred a-year1 although the nomination was1 in point of form1 in the ,admiralty1 yet it was well known that the ,president of the ,royal ,society did1 in fact1 always name them4 ,of these ,i will only mention one fact4 ,the late ,sir ,joseph ,banks assigned to me as a reason why ,i need not expect to be appointed1 7as he had held out to me at a former period when ,i had spoken to him on the subject7 that ,i had taken a prominent part in the formation of the ,,astronomical ,,society4 ,i am proud of the part ,i did take in establishing that ,society1 although an undue share of its honour was assigned to me by the ,president4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be inquired1 why ,i publish this fact at this distance of time8 ,i answer1 that ,i stated it publicly at the ,council of the ,astronomical ,society2--that ,i always talked of it publicly and openly at the time2--that ,i purposely communicated it to each succeeding ,president of the ,royal ,society2 and that1 although some may have forgotten the communications ,i made at the time1 there are others who remember them well4 ,the ,secretary of the late ,board of ,longitude received #cjj,l41 and #bjj,l4 more1 as ,superintendent of the ,nautical ,almanac4 ,another situation1 in the patronage of which the ,president is known to have considerable influence1 is that of ,astronomer ,royal2 and it is to be observed1 that he is kept in the ,council as much as possible1 notwithstanding the nature of his duties4 ,of the three appointments of #ajj,l4 a-year each1 which have been instituted since the abolition of the ,board of ,longitude1 the ,president is supposed to have the control1 thus making him quite sure of the obedience of his ,council4 ,besides these sources of patronage1 there are other incidental occasions on which ,government apply to the ,royal ,society to recommend proper persons to make particular experiments or observations2 and1 although ,i am far from supposing that these are in many instances given to persons the second or third best qualified for them1 yet they deserve to be mentioned4 ,,section #ab4 ,,of ,,the ,,plan ,,for ,,reforming ,,the ,,society4 ,the indiscriminate admission of every candidate became at last so notorious1 even beyond the pale of the ,society1 that some of the members began to perceive the inconveniences to which it led4 ,this feeling1 together with a conviction that other improvements were necessary to re-establish the ,society in public opinion1 induced several of the most active members to wish for some reform in its laws and proceedings2 and a ,committee was appointed to consider the subject4 ,it was perfectly understood1 that the object of this ,committee was to inquire1--,first1 as to the means and propriety of limiting the numbers of this ,society2 and then1 as to other changes which they might think beneficial4 ,the names of the gentlemen composing this ,committee were3-- ,dr4 ,wollaston1 ,mr4 ,herschel1 ,dr4 ,young1 ,mr4 ,babbage1 ,mr4 ,davies ,gilbert1 ,captain ,beaufort1 ,mr4 ,south1 ,captain ,kater4 ,the importance of the various improvements suggested was different in the eyes of different members4 ,the idea of rendering the ,society so select as to make it an object of ambition to men of science to be elected into it1 was by no means new1 as the following extract from the ,minutes of the ,council will prove3-- ,,minutes ,,of ,,council4 ,august #bg1 #afgd ,present1 ,sir ,w4 ,petty1 ,vice-,president1 ,sir ,john ,lowther1 ,sir ,john ,cutler1 ,sir ,christopher ,wren1 ,mr4 ,oldenburgh1 ,sir ,paul ,neile4 ,it was considered by this ,council1 that to make the ,society prosper1 good experiments must be in the first place provided to make the weekly meetings considerable1 and that the expenses for making these experiments must be secured by legal subscriptions for paying the contributors2 which done1 the ,council might then with confidence proceed to the ,,ejection ,,of ,,useless ,,fellows4 ,the reformers of modern times were less energetic in the measures they recommended4 ,dr4 ,wollaston and some others thought the limitation of the numbers of the ,society to be the most essential point1 and #djj was suggested as a proper number to be recommended1 in case a limitation should be ultimately resolved upon4 ,i confess1 such a limit did not appear to me to bring great advantages1 especially when ,i reflected how long a time must have elapsed before the #gad members of the ,society could be reduced by death to that number4 ,and ,i also thought that as long as those who alone sustained the reputation of the ,society by their writings and discoveries should be admitted into it on precisely the same terms1 and on the payment of the same sum of money as other gentlemen who contributed only with their purse1 it could never be an object of ambition to any man of science to be enrolled on its list4 ,with this view1 and also to assist those who wished for a limitation1 ,i suggested a plan extremely simple in its nature1 and which would become effective immediately4 ,i proposed that1 in the printed list of the ,royal ,society1 a star should be placed against the name of each ,fellow who had contributed two or more papers which had been printed in the ,transactions1 or that such a list should be printed separately at the end4 ,at that period there were #aji living members who had contributed papers to the ,transactions1 and they were thus arranged3 #cg ,contributors of44 #a paper #ba4444444444 #b papers #ai4444444444 #c ditto #e 4444444444 #d ditto #c 4444444444 #e ditto #c 4444444444 #f ditto #ab4444 from #g to #ab ditto #ad444 of more than #ab papers4 #ajj ,contributing ,fellows of the ,royal ,society4 #ehi ,papers contributed by them4 ,now the immediate effect of printing such a list would be the division of the ,society into two classes4 ,supposing two or more papers necessary for placing a ,fellow in the first class1 that class would only consist of seventy-two members1 which is nearly the same as the number of those of the ,institute of ,france4 ,if only those who had contributed three or more were admitted1 then this class would be reduced to fifty-one4 ,in either of these cases it would obviously become a matter of ambition to belong to the first class2 and a more minute investigation into the value of each paper would naturally take place before it was admitted into the ,transactions4 ,or it might be established that such papers only should be allowed to count1 as the ,committee1 who reported them as fit to be printed1 should also certify4 ,the great objection made to such an arrangement was1 that it would be displeasing to the rest of the ,society1 and that they had a vested right 7having entered the ,society when no distinction was made in the lists7 to have them always continued without one4 ,without replying to this shadow of an argument of vested rights1 ,i will only remark that he who maintains this view pays a very ill compliment to the remaining #fjj members of the ,royal ,society2 since he does1 in truth1 maintain that those gentlemen who1 from their position1 accidentally derive reputation which does not belong to them1 are unwilling1 when the circumstance is pointed out1 to allow the world to assign it to those who have fairly won it2 or else that they are incapable of producing any thing worthy of being printed in the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society4 ,lightly as the conduct of the ,society1 as a body1 has compelled me to think of it1 ,i do not think so ill of the personal character of its members as to believe that if the question were fairly stated to them1 many would object to it4 ,amongst the alterations which ,i considered most necessary to the renovation of the ,society1 was the recommendation1 by the expiring ,council1 of those whom they thought most eligible for that of the ensuing year4 ,the system which had got into practice was radically bad3 it is impossible to have an ,,independent ,council if it is named by ,,one ,,person4 ,our statutes were framed with especial regard to securing the fitness of the members elected to serve in the ,council2 and the ,president is directed1 by those statutes1 at the two ordinary meetings previous to the anniversary1 to give notice of the elections1 and to declare how much it importeth the good of the ,society that such persons may be chosen into the ,council as are most likely to attend the meetings and business of the ,council1 and out of whom may be made the best choice of a ,president and other officers4 ,this is regularly done2 and1 in mockery of the wisdom of our ancestors1 the ,president has perhaps in his pocket the list of the future ,council he has already fixed upon4 ,in some other ,societies1 great advantage is found to arise from the discussion of the proper persons to be recommended to the ,society for the ,council of the next year4 ,a list is prepared1 by the ,secretary1 of the old ,council1 and against each name is placed the number of times he has attended the meetings of the ,council4 ,those whose attendance has been least frequent are presumed to be otherwise engaged1 unless absence from ,london1 or engagement in some pursuit connected with the ,society1 are known to have interfered4 ,those members who have been on the ,council the number of years which is usually allowed1 added to those who go out by their own wish1 and by non-attendance1 are1 generally1 more in number than can be spared2 and the question is never1 who shall retire8--but1 who1 out of the rest of the ,society1 is most likely to work1 if placed on the ,council8 ,if any difference of opinion should exist in a society1 it is always of great importance to its prosperity to have both opinions represented in the ,council4 ,in this age of discussion it is impossible to stifle opinions2 and if they are not represented in the ,council1 there is some chance of their being brought before the general body1 or1 at last1 even before the public4 ,it is certainly an advantage that questions should be put1 and even that debates should take place on the days appropriated to the anniversaries of societies4 ,this is the best check to the commencement of irregularities2 and a suspicion may reasonably be entertained of those who endeavour to suppress inquiry4 ,on the other hand1 debates respecting the affairs of the ,society should never be entered on at the ordinary meetings1 as they interrupt its business1 and only a partial attendance can be expected4 ,that the conduct of those who have latterly managed the ,royal ,society has not led to such discussions1 is to be attributed more to the forbearance of those who disapprove of the line of conduct they have pursued1 than to the discretion of the party in not giving them cause4 ,the public is the last tribunal2 one to which nothing but strong necessity should induce an appeal4 ,there are1 however1 advantages in it which may1 in some cases1 render it better than a public discussion at the anniversary4 ,when the cause of complaint is a system rather than any one great grievance1 it may be necessary to enter more into detail than a speech will permit2 also the printed statement and arguments will probably come under the consideration of a larger number of the members4 ,another and a considerable benefit is1 that there is much less danger of any expression of temper interrupting or injuring the arguments employed4 ,there were other points suggested1 but ,i shall subjoin the ,report of the ,committee3-- ,,report ,,of ,,the ,,committee ,,appointed ,,to ,,consider ,,the ,,best ,,means ,,of ,,limiting ,,the ,,members ,,admitted ,,into ,,the ,,royal ,,society1 ,,as ,,well ,,as ,,to ,,make ,,such ,,suggestions ,,on ,,that ,,subject ,,as ,,may ,,seem ,,to ,,them ,,conducive ,,to ,,the ,,welfare ,,of ,,the ,,society4 ,your ,committee having maturely considered the resolution of the ,council under which they have been appointed2 and having satisfied themselves that the progressive increase of the ,society has been in a much higher ratio than the progressive increase of population1 or the general growth of knowledge1 or the extension of those sciences which it has been the great object of the ,society to promote1 they have agreed to the following ,report3-- ,your ,committee assume as indisputable propositions1 that the utility of the ,society is in direct proportion to its respectability4 ,that its respectability can only be secured by its comprising men of high philosophical eminence2 and that the obvious means of associating persons of this eminence will be the public conviction1 that to belong to the ,society is an honour4 ,your ,committee1 therefore1 think themselves fully borne out in the conclusion1 that it would be expedient to limit the ,society to such a number as should be a fair representation of the talent of the country2 the consequence of which will be1 that every vacancy would become an object of competition among persons of acknowledged merit4 ,from the returns which have been laid on your table1 of the ,fellows who have contributed papers1 and from the best estimate they can make of the persons without doors who are engaged in the active pursuit of science1 your ,committee feel justified in recommending that those limits should be fixed at four hundred1 exclusive of foreign members1 and of such royal personages as it may be thought proper to admit4 ,as many years must elapse before the present number of seven hundred and fourteen can be reduced to those limits by the course of nature1 and as it would be prejudicial to the interests of the ,society and of science1 that no fresh accessions should take place during that long period1 your ,committee would further recommend1 that till that event takes place1 four new members should be annually admitted4 ,with respect to the manner of admission1 your ,committee are of opinion1 that there are several inconveniences in the present mode of proceeding to a single ballot upon each certificate1 according to its seniority4 ,if the above limitation should be adopted1 it may be presumed1 that for every vacancy there will be many candidates2 from amongst them1 it must be the general wish to select the most distinguished individuals2 but to accomplish this1 if the present system were to be continued1 it would be necessary to reject all those candidates whose certificates were of earlier date than theirs2 a process not only extremely irritating1 but probably ineffectual from the want of unanimity4 ,your ,committee1 therefore1 most earnestly recommend1 that one general election should take place every year towards the end of the session1 and that this should be conducted on the same principles as the present annual election of the ,council and officers2 ,,viz4 by having lists printed of all the candidates 7whose certificates had been suspended for the usual time17 in which lists each ,fellow would mark the requisite number of persons4 ,as the charter1 however1 requires the concurrence of two-thirds of the ,fellows present1 your ,committee suggest1 that after the choice has been determined by the plurality of votes by ballot in the above manner1 the successful candidates should be again submitted to a general vote1 in accordance with the enactments of the said charter4 ,in concluding this part of the subject1 your ,committee beg leave to remark1 that by the method now proposed1 the invidious act of blackballing would cease1 and with it all feelings of resentment and mortification2 as the result of such an open competition could only be construed by the public into a fair preference of the superior claims of the successful few1 and not into a direct and disgraceful rejection of the others4 ,your ,committee are fully aware1 that such a reduction in the usual admissions would materially affect the pecuniary resources of the ,society2 but they are at the same time convinced1 that by a vigorous economy its present income might be rendered adequate to all its real wants1 and the aggregate expenditure might be considerably diminished by many small but wholesome retrenchments4 ,it appears1 from the accounts of last year1 that although #abjj,l4 was received for compositions1 in addition to the standing income1 and usual contributions1 c41 and although no money was invested1 yet there was a balance only of a few pounds at the end of the year4 ,it further appears1 that #ejj,l4 was paid for the paper1 #cgj,l4 for engravings1 and nearly #cdj,l4 for printing2 and from those alarming facts1 your ,committee submit to your consideration1 whether the expenditure might not be beneficially controlled by a standing ,committee of ,finance4 ,in obedience to the latter part of your resolution1 your ,committee now proceed to offer some further suggestions for your consideration4 ,they conceive that it would afford a beneficial stimulus to individual exertion1 if the ,fellows who have received the medals of the ,society1 and those who have repeatedly enriched its ,transactions1 were distinguished by being collected into a separate and honourable list4 ,it would also be found1 perhaps1 not less a future incentive than an act of retrospective justice1 if the names of all those illustrious ,fellows who have formerly obtained the medals1 as well as of all those individuals who have been large benefactors to the ,society1 were recorded at the end of the list4 ,it would be a satisfactory addition likewise to the annual list1 if all those ,fellows who have died1 or had been admitted within the preceding year1 were regularly noticed4 ,and your ,committee think1 that these lists should always form part of the ,transactions1 and be stitched up with the last part of the volume4 ,it requires no argument to demonstrate that the well-being of the ,society mainly depends on the activity and integrity of its ,council2 and as their selection is unquestionably of paramount importance1 your ,committee hope that our excellent ,president will not consider it any impeachment of his impartiality1 or any doubt of his zeal1 if they venture to suggest1 that the usual recommendation to the ,society of proper members for the future ,council should henceforth be considered as a fit subject for the diligent and anxious deliberation of the expiring ,council4 ,there is another point of great moment to the character of the ,society1 and to the dignified station it occupies among the learned associations of ,europe2 for its character abroad can only be appreciated by the nature and value of its ,transactions4 ,your ,committee allude to the important task of deciding on what papers should be published2 and they are of opinion that it would be a material improvement on the present mode1 if each paper were referred to a separate ,committee1 who should have sufficient time given them to examine it carefully1 who should be empowered to communicate on any doubtful parts with the author2 and who should report1 not only their opinion1 but the grounds on which that opinion is formed1 for the ultimate decision of the ,council4 ,if it should be thought fit to adopt the suggestions which your ,committee have now had the honour of proposing1 they beg leave to move1 that another ,committee be appointed1 with directions to frame or to alter the necessary statutes1 so that they may be in strict accordance with the charters4 ,in concluding the ,report1 your ,committee do not wish to disguise the magnitude of some of the measures they have thought it their duty to propose2 on the contrary1 they would not only urge the fullest discussion of their expediency2 but further1 that if you should even be unanimously disposed to confirm them1 your ,committee would recommend1 that the several statutes1 when they have been drawn up or modified1 should be only entered on your minutes1 and not finally enacted4 ,all innovations in the constitution1 or even the habits of the ,royal ,society1 should be scrutinized with the most jealous circumspection4 ,it is enough for the present ,council to have traced the plan2 let the ,council of the ensuing sessions share the credit of carrying that plan into effect4 ,this ,report was presented to the ,council very late in the session of #ahbg1 and on the #beth of ,june there occurs the following entry on the council-book3-- ,the ,report of the ,committee for considering the best means of limiting the number of members1 and such other suggestions as they may think conducive to the good of the ,society1 was received and read1 and ordered to be entered on the minutes2 and the ,council1 regarding the importance of the subject1 and its bearings on the essential interests of the ,society1 in conformity with the concluding paragraph1 and considering also the advanced stage of the session1 recommend it to the most serious and early consideration of the ,council for the ensuing year4 ,those who advocated these alterations1 were in no hurry for their hasty adoption2 they were aware of their magnitude1 and anxious for the fullest investigation before one of them should be tried4 ,unfortunately1 the concluding recommendation of the ,committee did not coincide with the views of ,mr4 ,gilbert1 whom the party had determined to make their new ,president4 ,that gentleman made such arrangements for the ,council of the succeeding year1 that when the question respecting the consideration of the ,report of that ,committee was brought forward1 it was thrown aside in the manner ,i have stated4 ,thus a report1 sanctioned by the names of such a committee1 and recommended by one ,council to ,,the ,,most ,,serious and ,,early consideration of the ,council for the ensuing year1 was by that very ,council rejected1 without even the ceremony of discussing its merits4 ,was every individual recommendation it contained1 not merely unfit to be adopted1 but so totally deficient in plausibility as to be utterly unworthy of discussion8 ,or did the ,president and his officers feel1 that their power rested on an insecure foundation1 and that they did not possess the confidence of the working members of the ,society8 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,of ,,observations4 ,there are several reflections connected with the art of making observations and experiments1 which may be conveniently arranged in this chapter4 ,,section #a4 ,,of ,,minute ,,precision4 ,no person will deny that the highest degree of attainable accuracy is an object to be desired1 and it is generally found that the last advances towards precision require a greater devotion of time1 labour1 and expense1 than those which precede them4 ,the first steps in the path of discovery1 and the first approximate measures1 are those which add most to the existing knowledge of mankind4 ,the extreme accuracy required in some of our modern inquiries has1 in some respects1 had an unfortunate influence1 by favouring the opinion1 that no experiments are valuable1 unless the measures are most minute1 and the accordance amongst them most perfect4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be of some use to show1 that even with large instruments1 and most practised observers1 this is but rarely the case4 ,the following extract is taken from a representation made by the present ,astronomer-,royal1 to the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 on the advantages to be derived from the employment of two mural circles3-- ,that by observing1 with two instruments1 the same objects at the same time1 and in the same manner1 we should be able to estimate how much of that ,,occasional ,,discordance ,,from ,,the ,,mean1 which attends ,,even ,,the ,,most ,,careful ,,observations1 ought to be attributed to irregularity of refraction1 and how much to ,,the ,,imperfections ,,of ,,instruments4 ,in confirmation of this may be adduced the opinion of the late ,m4 ,delambre1 which is the more important1 from the statement it contains relative to the necessity of publishing all the observations which have been made4 ,mais quelque soit le parti que l'on prefere1 il me semble qu'on doit tout publier4 ,ces irregularites memes sont des faits qu'il importe de connoitre4 ,,les ,,soins ,,les ,,plus ,,attentifs ,n',,en ,,sauroient ,,preserver ,,les ,,observateurs ,,les ,,plus ,,exerces1 et celui qui ne produiroit que des angles toujours parfaitment d'accord auroit ete singulierement bien servi par les circonstances ou ne seroit pas bien sincere4--,,base ,,du ,,systeme ,,metrique1 ,discours ,preliminaire1 p4 #aeh4 ,this desire for extreme accuracy has called away the attention of experimenters from points of far greater importance1 and it seems to have been too much overlooked in the present day1 that genius marks its tract1 not by the observation of quantities inappreciable to any but the acutest senses1 but by placing ,nature in such circumstances1 that she is forced to record her minutest variations on so magnified a scale1 that an observer1 possessing ordinary faculties1 shall find them legibly written4 ,he who can see portions of matter beyond the ken of the rest of his species1 confers an obligation on them1 by recording what he sees2 but their knowledge depends both on his testimony and on his judgment4 ,he who contrives a method of rendering such atoms visible to ordinary observers1 communicates to mankind an instrument of discovery1 and stamps his own observations with a character1 alike independent of testimony or of judgment4 ,,section #b4 ,,on ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,observing4 ,the remarks in this section are not proposed for the assistance of those who are already observers1 but are intended to show to persons not familiar with the subject1 that in observations demanding no unrivalled accuracy1 the principles of common sense may be safely trusted1 and that any gentleman of liberal education may1 by perseverance and attention1 ascertain the limits within which he may trust both his instrument and himself4 ,if the instrument is a divided one1 the first thing is to learn to read the verniers4 ,if the divisions are so fine that the coincidence is frequently doubtful1 the best plan will be for the learner to get some acquaintance who is skilled in the use of instruments1 and having set the instrument at hazard1 to write down the readings of the verniers1 and then request his friend to do the same2 whenever there is any difference1 he should carefully examine the doubtful one1 and ask his friend to point out the minute peculiarities on which he founds his decision4 ,this should be repeated frequently2 and after some practice1 he should note how many times in a hundred his reading differs from his friend's1 and also how many divisions they usually differ4 ,the next point is1 to ascertain the precision with which the learner can bisect an object with the wires of the telescope4 ,this can be done without assistance4 ,it is not necessary even to adjust the instrument1 but merely to point it to a distant object4 ,when it bisects any remarkable point1 read off the verniers1 and write down the result2 then displace the telescope a little1 and adjust it again4 ,a series of such observations will show the confidence which is due to the observer's eye in bisecting an object1 and also in reading the verniers2 and as the first direction gave him some measure of the latter1 he may1 in a great measure1 appreciate his skill in the former4 ,he should also1 when he finds a deviation in the reading1 return to the telescope1 and satisfy himself if he has made the bisection as complete as he can4 ,in general1 the student should practise each adjustment separately1 and write down the results wherever he can measure its deviations4 ,having thus practised the adjustments1 the next step is to make an observation2 but in order to try both himself and the instrument1 let him take the altitude of some fixed object1 a terrestrial one1 and having registered the result1 let him derange the adjustment1 and repeat the process fifty or a hundred times4 ,this will not merely afford him excellent practice1 but enable him to judge of his own skill4 ,the first step in the use of every instrument1 is to find the limits within which its employer can measure the ,,same ,,object ,,under ,,the ,,same ,,circumstances4 ,it is only from a knowledge of this1 that he can have confidence in his measures of the ,,same ,,object ,,under ,,different ,,circumstances1 and after that1 of ,,different ,,objects ,,under ,,different ,,circumstances4 ,these principles are applicable to almost all instruments4 ,if a person is desirous of ascertaining heights by a mountain barometer1 let him begin by adjusting the instrument in his own study2 and having made the upper contact1 let him write down the reading of the vernier1 and then let him derange the ,,upper adjustment ,,only1 re-adjust1 and repeat the reading4 ,when he is satisfied about the limits within which he can make that adjustment1 let him do the same repeatedly with the lower2 but let him not1 until he knows his own errors in reading and adjusting1 pronounce upon those of the instrument4 ,in the case of a barometer1 he must also be assured1 that the temperature of the mercury does not change during the interval4 ,a friend once brought to me a beautifully constructed piece of mechanism1 for marking minute portions of time2 the three-hundredth parts of a second were indicated by it4 ,it was a kind of watch1 with a pin for stopping one of the hands4 ,i proposed that we should each endeavour to stop it twenty times in succession1 at the same point4 ,we were both equally unpractised1 and our first endeavours showed that we could not be confident of the twentieth part of a second4 ,in fact1 both the time occupied in causing the extremities of the fingers to obey the volition1 as well as the time employed in compressing the flesh before the fingers acted on the stop1 appeared to influence the accuracy of our observations4 ,from some few experiments ,i made1 ,i thought ,i perceived that the rapidity of the transmission of the effects of the will1 depended on the state of fatigue or health of the body4 ,if any one were to make experiments on this subject1 it might be interesting1 to compare the rapidity of the transmission of volition in different persons1 with the time occupied in obliterating an impression made on one of the senses of the same persons4 ,for example1 by having a mechanism to make a piece of ignited charcoal revolve with different degrees of velocity1 some persons will perceive a continuous circle of light before others1 whose retina does not retain so long impressions that are made upon it4 ,,section #c4 ,,on ,,the ,,frauds ,,of ,,observers4 ,scientific inquiries are more exposed than most others to the inroads of pretenders2 and ,i feel that ,i shall deserve the thanks of all who really value truth1 by stating some of the methods of deceiving practised by unworthy claimants for its honours1 whilst the mere circumstance of their arts being known may deter future offenders4 ,there are several species of impositions that have been practised in science1 which are but little known1 except to the initiated1 and which it may perhaps be possible to render quite intelligible to ordinary understandings4 ,these may be classed under the heads of hoaxing1 forging1 trimming1 and cooking4 ,,of ,,hoaxing4 ,this1 perhaps1 will be better explained by an example4 ,in the year #aghh1 ,m4 ,gioeni1 a knight of ,malta1 published at ,naples an account of a new family of ,testacea1 of which he described1 with great minuteness1 one species1 the specific name of which has been taken from its habitat1 and the generic he took from his own family1 calling it ,gioenia ,sicula4 ,it consisted of two rounded triangular valves1 united by the body of the animal to a smaller valve in front4 ,he gave figures of the animal1 and of its parts2 described its structure1 its mode of advancing along the sand1 the figure of the tract it left1 and estimated the velocity of its course at about two-thirds of an inch per minute4 ,he then described the structure of the shell1 which he treated with nitric acid1 and found it approach nearer to the nature of bone than any other shell4 ,the editors of the ,,encyclopedie ,,methodique1 have copied this description1 and have given figures of the ,gioenia ,sicula4 ,the fact1 however1 is1 that no such animal exists1 but that the knight of ,malta1 finding on the ,sicilian shores the three internal bones of one of the species of ,bulla1 of which some are found on the south-western coast of ,england1 ,bulla lignaria described and figured these bones most accurately1 and drew the whole of the rest of the description from the stores of his own imagination4 ,such frauds are far from justifiable2 the only excuse which has been made for them is1 when they have been practised on scientific academies which had reached the period of dotage4 ,it should however be remembered1 that the productions of nature are so various1 that mere strangeness is very far from sufficient to render doubtful the existence of any creature for which there is evidence2 ,the number of vertebrae in the neck of the plesiosaurus is a strange but ascertained fact and that1 unless the memoir itself involves principles so contradictory1 as to outweigh the evidence of a single witness1 ,the kind of contradiction which is here alluded to1 is that which arises from well ascertained final causes2 for instance1 the ruminating stomach of the hoofed animals1 is in no case combined with the claw-shaped form of the extremities1 frequent in many of the carniverous animals1 and necessary to some of them for the purpose of seizing their prey it can only be regarded as a deception1 without the accompaniment of wit4 ,,forging differs from hoaxing1 inasmuch as in the latter the deceit is intended to last for a time1 and then be discovered1 to the ridicule of those who have credited it2 whereas the forger is one who1 wishing to acquire a reputation for science1 records observations which he has never made4 ,this is sometimes accomplished in astronomical observations by calculating the time and circumstances of the phenomenon from tables4 ,the observations of the second comet of #aghd1 which was only seen by the ,chevalier ,d',angos1 were long suspected to be a forgery1 and were at length proved to be so by the calculations and reasonings of ,encke4 ,the pretended observations did not accord amongst each other in giving any possible orbit4 ,but ,m4 ,encke detected an orbit1 belonging to some of the observations1 from which he found that all the rest might be almost precisely deduced1 provided a mistake of a unity in the index of the logarithm of the radius vector were supposed to have been made in all the rest of the calculations4 ,,zach4 ,,corr4 ,,astron4 ,tom4 ,,iv4 p4 #def4 ,fortunately instances of the occurrence of forging are rare4 ,,trimming consists in clipping off little bits here and there from those observations which differ most in excess from the mean1 and in sticking them on to those which are too small2 a species of equitable adjustment1 as a radical would term it1 which cannot be admitted in science4 ,this fraud is not perhaps so injurious 7except to the character of the trimmer7 as cooking1 which the next paragraph will teach1 ,the reason of this is1 that the ,,average given by the observations of the trimmer is the same1 whether they are trimmed or untrimmed4 ,his object is to gain a reputation for extreme accuracy in making observations2 but from respect for truth1 or from a prudent foresight1 he does not distort the position of the fact he gets from nature1 and it is usually difficult to detect him4 ,he has more sense or less adventure than the ,cook4 ,,of ,,cooking4 ,this is an art of various forms1 the object of which is to give to ordinary observations the appearance and character of those of the highest degree of accuracy4 ,one of its numerous processes is to make multitudes of observations1 and out of these to select those only which agree1 or very nearly agree4 ,if a hundred observations are made1 the cook must be very unlucky if he cannot pick out fifteen or twenty which will do for serving up4 ,another approved receipt1 when the observations to be used will not come within the limit of accuracy1 which it has been resolved they shall possess1 is to calculate them by two different formulae4 ,the difference in the constants employed in those formulae has sometimes a most happy effect in promoting unanimity amongst discordant measures4 ,if still greater accuracy is required1 three or more formulae can be used4 ,it must be admitted that this receipt is in some instances rather hazardous3 but in cases where the positions of stars1 as given in different catalogues1 occur1 or different tables of specific gravities1 specific heats1 c4 c41 it may safely be employed4 ,as no catalogue contains all stars1 the computer must have recourse to several2 and if he is obliged to use his judgment in the selection1 it would be cruel to deny him any little advantage which might result from it4 ,it may1 however1 be necessary to guard against one mistake into which persons might fall4 ,if an observer calculate particular stars from a catalogue which makes them accord precisely with the rest of his results1 whereas1 had they been computed from other catalogues the difference would have been considerable1 it is very unfair to accuse him of ,,cooking2 for--those catalogues may have been notoriously inaccurate2 or--they may have been superseded by others more recent1 or made with better instruments2 or--the observer may have been totally ignorant of their existence4 ,it sometimes happens that the constant quantities in formulae given by the highest authorities1 although they differ amongst themselves1 yet they will not suit the materials4 ,this is precisely the point in which the skill of the artist is shown2 and an accomplished cook will carry himself triumphantly through it1 provided happily some mean value of such constants will fit his observations4 ,he will discuss the relative merits of formulae he has just knowledge enough to use2 and1 with admirable candour assigning their proper share of applause to ,bessel1 to ,gauss1 and to ,laplace1 he will take ,,that mean value of the constant used by three such philosophers1 which will make his own observations accord to a miracle4 ,there are some few reflections which ,i would venture to suggest to those who cook1 although they may perhaps not receive the attention which1 in my opinion1 they deserve1 from not coming from the pen of an adept4 ,in the first place1 it must require much time to try different formulae4 ,in the next place it may happen that1 in the progress of human knowledge1 more correct formula3 may be discovered1 and constants may be determined with far greater precision4 ,or it may be found that some physical circumstance influences the results1 7although unsuspected at the time7 the measure of which circumstance may perhaps be recovered from other contemporary registers of facts4 ,imagine1 by way of example1 the state of the barometer or thermometer4 ,or if the selection of observations has been made with the view of its agreeing precisely with the latest determination1 there is some little danger that the average of the whole may differ from that of the chosen ones1 owing to some law of nature1 dependent on the interval between the two sets1 which law some future philosopher may discover1 and thus the very best observations may have been thrown aside4 ,in all these1 and in numerous other cases1 it would most probably happen that the cook would procure a temporary reputation for unrivalled accuracy at the expense of his permanent fame4 ,it might also have the effect of rendering even all his crude observations of no value2 for that part of the scientific world whose opinion is of most weight1 is generally so unreasonable1 as to neglect altogether the observations of those in whom they have1 on any occasion1 discovered traces of the artist4 ,in fact1 the character of an observer1 as of a woman1 if doubted is destroyed4 ,the manner in which facts apparently lost are restored to light1 even after considerable intervals of time1 is sometimes very unexpected1 and a few examples may not be without their use4 ,the thermometers employed by the philosophers who composed the ,academia ,del ,cimento1 have been lost2 and as they did not use the two fixed points of freezing and boiling water1 the results of a great mass of observations have remained useless from our ignorance of the value of a degree on their instrument4 ,m4 ,libri1 of ,florence1 proposed to regain this knowledge by comparing their registers of the temperature of the human body and of that of some warm springs in ,tuscany1 which have preserved their heat uniform during a century1 as well as of other things similarly circumstanced4 ,another illustration was pointed out to me by ,m4 ,gazzeri1 the ,professor of ,chemistry at ,florence4 ,a few years ago an important suit in one of the legal courts of ,tuscany depended on ascertaining whether a certain word had been erased by some chemical process from a deed then before the court4 ,the party who insisted that an erasure had been made1 availed themselves of the knowledge of ,m4 ,gazzeri1 who1 concluding that those who committed the fraud would be satisfied by the disappearance of the colouring matter of the ink1 suspected 7either from some colourless matter remaining in the letters1 or perhaps from the agency of the solvent having weakened the fabric of the paper itself beneath the supposed letters7 that the effect of the slow application of heat would be to render some difference of texture or of applied substance evident1 by some variety in the shade of colour which heat in such circumstances might be expected to produce4 ,permission having been given to try the experiment1 on the application of heat the important word reappeared1 to the great satisfaction of the court4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,the ,,advancement ,,of ,,science ,,in ,,england4 ,,section #a4 ,,of ,,the ,,necessity ,,that ,,members ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,society ,,should ,,express ,,their ,,opinions4 ,one of the causes which has contributed to the success of the ,,party1 is to be found in the great reluctance with which many of those whose names added lustre to the ,society expressed their opinions1 and the little firmness with which they maintained their objections4 ,how many times have those whose activity was additionally stimulated by their interest1 proposed measures which a few words might have checked2 whilst the names of those whose culpable silence thus permitted the project to be matured1 were immediately afterwards cited by their grateful coadjutors1 as having sanctioned that which in their hearts they knew to be a job4 ,even in the few cases which have passed the limits of such forbearance1 when the subject has been debated in the ,council1 more than one1 more than two instances are known1 where subsequent circumstances have occurred1 which proved1 with the most irresistible moral evidence1 that members have spoken on one side of the question1 and have voted on the contrary4 ,this reluctance to oppose that which is disapproved1 has been too extensively and too fatally prevalent for the interests of the ,royal ,society4 ,it may partly be attributed to that reserved and retiring disposition1 which frequently marks the man of real knowledge1 as strongly as an officious interference and flippant manner do the charlatan1 or the trader in science4 ,some portion of it is due to that improper deference which was long paid to every dictum of the ,president1 and much of it to that natural indisposition to take trouble on any point in which a man's own interest is not immediately concerned4 ,it is to be hoped1 for the credit of that learned body1 that no anticipation of the next feast of ,st4 ,andrew ever influenced the taciturnity of their disposition4 ,it may be necessary to inform those who are not members of the ,royal ,society1 that this is the day on which those ,fellows who choose1 meet at ,somerset ,house1 to register the names of the ,council and ,officers the ,president has been pleased to appoint for the ensuing year2 and who afterwards dine together1 for the purpose of praising each other over wine1 which1 until within these few years1 was ,,paid for out of the ,,funds of the ,society4 ,this abuse was attacked by an enterprising reformer1 and of course defended by the coterie4 ,it was1 however1 given up as too bad4 ,the public may form some idea of the feeling which prevails in the ,council1 when they are informed that this practice was defended by one of the officers of the ,society1 on the ground that1 if abolished1 ,,the ,,assistant ,,secretary ,,would ,,lose ,,his ,,percentage ,,on ,,the ,,tavern ,,bills4 ,,section #b4 ,,of ,,biennial ,,presidents4 ,the days in which the ,royal ,society can have much influence in science seem long past2 nor does it appear a matter of great importance who conduct its mismanaged affairs4 ,perpetual ,presidents have been tried until the ,society has become disgusted with dictators4 ,if any reform should be attempted1 it might perhaps be deserving consideration whether the practice of several of the younger institutions might not be worthy imitation1 and the office of ,president be continued only during two sessions4 ,there may be some inconveniences attending this arrangement2 but the advantages are conspicuous1 both in the ,astronomical and ,geological ,societies4 ,each ,president is ambitious of rendering the period of his reign remarkable for some improvement in the ,society over which he presides2 and the sacrifice of time which is made by the officers of those ,societies1 would become impossible if it were required to be continued for a much longer period4 ,another circumstance of considerable importance is1 that the personal character of the ,president is less impressed on the ,society2 and1 supposing any injudicious alterations to be made1 it is much less difficult to correct them4 ,,section #c4 ,,of ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,colleges ,,of ,,physicians ,,and ,,surgeons ,,in ,,the ,,royal ,,society4 ,the honour of belonging to the ,royal ,society is much sought after by medical men1 as contributing to the success of their professional efforts1 and two consequences result from it4 ,in the first place1 the pages of the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society occasionally contain medical papers of very moderate merit2 and1 in the second1 the preponderance of the medical interest introduces into the ,society some of the jealousies of that profession4 ,on the other hand1 medicine is intimately connected with many sciences1 and its professors are usually too much occupied in their practice to exert themselves1 except upon great occasions4 ,,section #d4 ,,of ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,institution ,,on ,,the ,,royal ,,society4 ,the ,royal ,institution was founded for the cultivation of the more popular and elementary branches of scientific knowledge1 and has risen1 partly from the splendid discoveries of ,davy1 and partly from the decline of the ,royal ,society1 to a more prominent station than it would otherwise have occupied in the science of ,england4 ,its general effects in diffusing knowledge among the more educated classes of the metropolis1 have been1 and continue to be1 valuable4 ,its influence1 however1 in the government of the ,royal ,society1 is by no means attended with similar advantages1 and has justly been viewed with considerable jealousy by many of the ,fellows of that body4 ,it may be stated1 without disparagement to the ,royal ,institution1 that the scientific qualifications necessary for its officers1 however respectable1 are not quite of that high order which ought to be required for those of the ,royal ,society1 if the latter body were in a state of vigour4 ,the ,royal ,institution interest has always been sufficient to appoint one of the ,secretaries of the ,royal ,society2 and at the present moment they have appointed two4 ,in a short time1 unless some effectual check is put to this1 we shall find them nominating the ,president and the rest of the officers4 ,it is certainly not consistent with the dignity of the ,royal ,society thus to allow its offices to be given away as the rewards of services rendered to other institutions4 ,the only effectual way to put a stop to this increasing interest would be1 to declare that no manager or officer of the ,royal ,institution should ever1 at the same time1 hold office in the ,royal ,society4 ,the use the ,members of the ,royal ,institution endeavour to make of their power in the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 is exemplified in the minutes of the ,council of ,march #aa1 #ahcj1 which may be consulted with advantage by those who doubt4 ,,section #e4 ,,of ,,the ,,transactions ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,society4 ,the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society1 unlike those of most foreign academies1 contain nothing relating to the history of the ,society4 ,the volumes contain merely those papers communicated to the ,society in the preceding year which the ,council have selected for printing1 a meteorological register1 and a notice of the award of the annual medals1 without any list of the ,council and officers of the ,society1 by whom that selection and that award have been made4 ,before ,i proceed to criticise this state of things1 ,i will mention one point on which ,i am glad to be able to bestow on the ,royal ,society the highest praise4 ,i refer to the extreme regularity with which the volumes of the ,transactions are published4 ,the appearance of the half-volumes at intervals of six months1 insures for any communication almost immediate publicity2 whilst the shortness of the time between its reception and publication1 is a guarantee to the public that the whole of the paper was really communicated at the time it bears date4 ,to this may also be added1 the rarity of any alterations made previously to the printing1 a circumstance which ought to be imitated1 as well as admired1 by other societies4 ,there may1 indeed1 be some1 perhaps the ,geological1 in which the task is more difficult1 from the nature of the subject4 ,the sooner1 however1 all societies can reduce themselves to this rule1 of rarely allowing any thing but a few verbal corrections to papers that are placed in their hands1 the better it will be for their own reputation1 and for the interests of science4 ,it has been1 and continues to be1 a subject of deep regret1 that the first scientific academy in ,europe1 the ,institute of ,france1 should be thus negligent in the regularity of its publications2 and it is the more to be regretted1 that it should be years in arrear1 from the circumstance1 that the memoirs admitted into their collection are usually of the highest merit4 ,i know some of their most active members have wished it were otherwise2 ,i would urge them to put a stop to a practice1 which1 whilst it has no advantages to recommend it1 is unjust to those who contribute1 and is only calculated to produce conflicting claims1 equally injurious to science1 and to the reputation of that body1 whose negligence may have given rise to them4 ,mr4 ,herschel1 speaking of a paper of ,fresnel's1 observes--,this memoir was read to the ,institute1 #gth of ,october1 #ahaf2 a supplement was received1 #aith of ,january1 #ahah2 ,m4 ,arago's report on it was read1 #dth of ,june1 #ahba3 and while every optical philosopher in ,europe has been impatiently expecting its appearance for seven years1 it lies as yet unpublished1 and is only known to us by meagre notices in a periodical journal4 ,,mr ,,herschel',s ,,treatise ,,on ,,light1 p4 #ecc4--;,,encyclopaedia ,,metropolitana4 ,one of the inconveniences arising from having no historical portion in the volumes of the ,royal ,society is1 that not only the public1 but our own members are almost entirely ignorant of all its affairs4 ,with a means of giving considerable publicity 7by the circulation of above #hjj copies of the ,transactions7 to whatever we wish to have made known to our members or to the world1 will it be credited1 that no notice was taken in our volume for #ahbf1 of the foundation of two ,royal medals1 nor of the conditions under which they were to be distributed4 ,that the ,council refrained from having their first award of those medals thus communicated1 is rather creditable to them1 and proves that they had a becoming feeling respecting their former errors4 ,that in #ahbh1 when a new fund1 called the donation fund1 was established1 and through the liberality of ,dr4 ,wollaston and ,mr4 ,davies ,gilbert1 it was endowed by them with the respective sums of #b1jjj,l4 and #a1jjj,l4 #c per cents2 no notice of such fact appears in our ,transactions for #ahbi4 ,other gentlemen have contributed2 and if it is desirable to possess such a fund1 it is surely of importance to inform the non-attending1 which is by far the largest part of the ,society1 that it exists2 and that we are grateful to those by whom it has been founded and augmented4 ,neither did the ,philosophical ,transactions inform our absent members1 that they could purchase the ,president's ,discourses at the trade-price4 ,the list of the ,officers1 ,council1 and ,members of the ,royal ,society is printed annually2 yet1 who ever saw it bound up with the ,philosophical ,transactions1 to which it is intended to be attached8 ,i never met with a single copy of that work so completed1 not even the one in our own library4 ,it is extremely desirable that the ,society should know the names of their ,council2 and whilst it would in some measure contribute to prevent the ,president from placing incompetent persons upon it1 it would also afford some check1 although perhaps but a slight one1 on the distribution of the medals4 ,when ,i have urged the expediency of the practice1 ,i have been answered by excuses1 that the list could not be made up in time for the volume4 ,if this is true of the first part1 they might appear with the second2 and even if this were impracticable1 the plan of prefixing them to the volume of the succeeding year1 would be preferable to that of omitting them altogether4 ,the true reason1 however1 appeared at last4 ,it was objected to the plan1 that by the present arrangement1 the porter of the ,royal ,society took round the list to those members resident in ,london1 and got from some of them a remuneration1 in the shape of a ,christmas-box2 and this would be lost1 if the time of printing were changed4 ,during the printing of this chapter1 a friend1 on whom ,i had called1 complained that the porter of the ,royal ,society had demanded half-a-crown for leaving the list4 ,such are the paltry interests to which those of the ,royal ,society are made to bow4 ,another point on which information ought to be given in each volume1 is the conditions on which the distribution of the ,society's medals are made4 ,it is true that these are1 or ought to be1 printed with the ,statutes of the ,society2 but that volume is only in the hands of members1 and it is for the credit of the medals themselves1 that the laws which regulate their award should be widely known1 in order that persons1 not members of the ,society1 might enter into competition for them4 ,information relative to the admissions and deaths amongst the ,society would also be interesting2 a list of the names of those whom the ,society had lost1 and of those members who had been added to its ranks each year1 would find a proper place in the historical pages which ought to be given with each volume of our ,transactions4 ,the want of a distinction between the working members of the ,society1 and those who merely honour it with their patronage1 renders many arrangements1 which would be advantageous to science1 in some cases1 injudicious1 and in other instances1 almost impossible4 ,collections of ,observations which are from time to time given to the ,society1 may be of such a nature1 that but few of the members are interested in them4 ,in such cases1 the expense of printing above #hjj copies may reasonably induce the ,council to decline printing them altogether2 whereas1 if they had any means of discrimination for distributing them1 they might be quite willing to incur the expense of printing #bej4 ,other cases may occur1 in which great advantage would accrue1 if the principle were once admitted4 ,government1 the ,universities1 public bodies1 and even individuals might1 in some cases1 be disposed to present to the ,royal ,society a limited number of copies of their works1 if they knew that they were likely to be placed in the hands of persons who would use them4 ,fifty or a hundred additional copies might1 in some cases1 not be objected to on the ground of expense1 when seven or eight hundred would be quite out of the question4 ,let us suppose twenty copies of a description of some new chemical process to be placed at the disposal of the ,royal ,society by any public body2 it will not surely be contended that they ought all to remain on the ,society's shelves4 ,yet1 with our present rules1 that would be the case4 ,if1 however1 the list of the ,members of the ,society were read over to the ,council1 and the names of those gentlemen known to be conversant with chemical science were written down2 then1 if nineteen copies of the work were given to those nineteen persons on this list1 who had contributed most to the ,transactions of the ,society1 they would in all probability be placed in the fittest hands4 ,complete sets of the ,philosophical ,transactions have now become extremely bulky2 it might be well worth our consideration1 whether the knowledge of the many valuable papers they contain would not be much spread1 by publishing the abstracts of them which have been read at the ordinary meetings of the ,society4 ,perhaps two or three volumes octavo1 would contain all that has been done in this way during the last century4 ,another circumstance1 which would contribute much to the order of the proceedings of the ,council1 would be to have a distinct list made out of all the statutes and orders of the ,council relating to each particular subject4 ,thus the ,president1 by having at one view before him all that had ever been decreed on the question under consideration1 would be much better able to prevent inconsistent resolutions1 and to save the time of the ,council from being wasted by unnecessary discussions4 ,,section #f4 ,,order ,,of ,,merit4 ,amongst the various proposals for encouraging science1 the institution of an order of merit has been suggested4 ,it is somewhat singular1 that whilst in most of the other kingdoms of ,europe1 such orders exist for the purpose of rewarding1 by honorary distinctions1 the improvers of the arts of life1 or successful discoverers in science1 nothing of the kind has been established in ,england4 ,at the great meeting of the philosophers at ,berlin1 in #ahbh1 of which an account is given in the ,appendix2 the respect in which ,berzelius1 ,oersted1 ,gauss1 and ,humboldt were held in their respective countries was apparent in the orders bestowed on them by the ,sovereigns of ,sweden1 of ,denmark1 of ,hanover1 and of ,prussia2 and there were present many other philosophers1 whose decorations sufficiently attested the respect in which science was held in the countries from which they came4 ,our orders of knighthood are favourable only to military distinction4 ,it has been urged1 as an argument for such institutions1 that they are a cheap mode of rewarding science1 whilst1 on the other hand1 it has been objected1 that they would diminish the value of such honorary distinctions by making them common4 ,the latter objection is of little weight1 because the numbers who pursue science are few1 and1 probably1 will long continue so4 ,it would also be easily avoided1 by restricting the number of the order or of the class1 if it were to form a peculiar class of another order4 ,another objection1 however1 appears to me to possess far greater weight2 and1 however strong the disposition of the ,government might be 7if such an order existed7 to fill it properly1 ,i do not believe that1 in the present state of public opinion respecting science1 it could be done1 and1 in all probability1 it would be filled up through the channels of patronage1 and by mere jobbers in science4 ,another proposal1 of a similar kind1 has also been talked of1 one which it may appear almost ridiculous to suggest in ,england1 but which would be considered so in no other country4 ,it is1 to ennoble some of the greatest scientific benefactors of their country4 ,not to mention political causes1 the ranks of the nobility are constantly recruited from the army1 the navy1 and the bar2 why should not the family of that man1 whose name is imperishably connected with the steam-engine1 be enrolled amongst the nobility of his country8 ,in utility and profit1 not merely to that country1 but to the human race1 his deeds may proudly claim comparison even with the most splendid of those achieved by classes so rich in glorious recollections4 ,an objection1 in most cases fatal to such a course1 arises from the impolicy of conferring a title1 unless a considerable fortune exists to support it2 a circumstance very rarely occurring to the philosopher4 ,it might in some measure be removed1 by creating such titles only for life4 ,but here1 again1 until there existed some knowledge of science amongst the higher classes1 and a sound state of public opinion relative to science1 the execution of the plan could only be injurious4 ,,section #g4 ,,of ,,the ,,union ,,of ,,scientific ,,societies4 ,this idea has occurred to several persons1 as likely to lead to considerable advantages to science4 ,if the various scientific societies could unite in the occupation of one large building1 considerable economy would result from the union4 ,by properly arranging their evenings of meeting1 one meeting-room only need be required4 ,the libraries might either be united1 or arranged in adjoining rooms2 and such a system would greatly facilitate the inquiries of scientific persons4 ,whether it would be possible to reunite in any way the different societies to the ,royal ,society1 might be a delicate question2 but although1 on some accounts1 desirable1 that event is not necessary for the purpose of their having a common residence4 ,the ,medico-,botanical ,society might1 perhaps1 from sympathy1 be the first to which the ,royal ,society would apply2 and by a proper interchange of diplomas1 ,a thing well understood by the ,,initiated1 both at ,,home and ,,abroad4 the two societies might be inoculated with each other4 ,but even here some tact would be required2 the ,medico-,botanical is a little particular about the purity of its written documents1 and lately attributed blame to one of its officers for some slight tampering with them1 a degree of illiberality which the ,council of the ,royal ,society are far from imitating4 ,the ,geological and the ,astronomical ,societies nourish no feelings of resentment to the parent institution for their early persecution2 and though they have no inducement to seek1 would scarcely refuse any union which might be generally advantageous to science4 ,,conclusion4 ,in a work on the ,decline of ,science1 at a period when ,england has so recently lost two of its brightest ornaments1 ,i should hardly be excused if ,i omitted to devote a few words to the names of ,wollaston and of ,davy4 ,until the warm feelings of surviving kindred and admiring friends shall be cold as the grave from which remembrance vainly recalls their cherished forms1 invested with all the life and energy of recent existence1 the volumes of their biography must be sealed4 ,their contemporaries can expect only to read their eloge4 ,in habits of intercourse with both those distinguished individuals1 sufficiently frequent to mark the curiously different structure of their minds1 ,i was yet not on such terms even with him ,i most esteemed1 as to view his great qualities through that medium which is rarely penetrated by the eyes of long and very intimate friendship4 ,caution and precision were the predominant features of the character of ,wollaston1 and those who are disposed to reduce the number of principles1 would perhaps justly trace the precision which adorned his philosophical1 to the extreme caution which pervaded his moral character4 ,it may indeed be questioned whether the latter quality will not in all persons of great abilities produce the former4 ,ambition constituted a far larger ingredient in the character of ,davy1 and with the daring hand of genius he grasped even the remotest conclusions to which a theory led him4 ,he seemed to think invention a more common attribute than it really is1 and hastened1 as soon as he was in possession of a new fact or a new principle1 to communicate it to the world1 doubtful perhaps lest he might not be anticipated2 but1 confident in his own powers1 he was content to give to others a chance of reaping some part of that harvest1 the largest portion of which he knew must still fall to his own share4 ,dr4 ,wollaston1 on the other hand1 appreciated more truly the rarity of the inventive faculty2 and1 undeterred by the fear of being anticipated1 when he had contrived a new instrument1 or detected a new principle1 he brought all the information that he could collect from others1 or which arose from his own reflection1 to bear upon it for years1 before he delivered it to the world4 ,the most singular characteristic of ,wollaston's mind was the plain and distinct line which separated what he knew from what he did not know2 and this again1 arising from his precision1 might be traced to caution4 ,it would1 however1 have been visible to such an extent in few except himself1 for there were very few so perfectly free from vanity and affectation4 ,to this circumstance may be attributed a peculiarity of manner in the mode in which he communicated information to those who sought it from him1 which was to many extremely disagreeable4 ,he usually1 by a few questions1 ascertained precisely how much the inquirer knew upon the subject1 or the exact point at which his ignorance commenced1 a process not very agreeable to the vanity of mankind2 taking up the subject at this point1 he would then very clearly and shortly explain it4 ,his acquaintance with mathematics was very limited4 ,many years since1 when ,i was an unsuccessful candidate for a professorship of mathematics1 ,i applied to ,dr4 ,w4 for a recommendation2 he declined it1 on the ground of its not being his pursuit4 ,i told him ,i asked it1 because ,i thought it would have weight1 to which he replied1 that it ought to have none whatever4 ,there is no doubt his view was the just one4 ,yet such is the state of ignorance which exists on these subjects1 that ,i have several times heard him mentioned as one of the greatest mathematicians of the age4 ,this of course could only have happened in ,england4 ,but in this as in all other points1 the precision with which he comprehended and retained all he had ever learned1 especially of the elementary applications of mathematics to physics1 was such1 that he possessed greater command over those subjects than many of far more extensive knowledge4 ,in associating with ,wollaston1 you perceived that the predominant principle was to avoid error2 in the society of ,davy1 you saw that it was the desire to see and make known truth4 ,wollaston never could have been a poet2 ,davy might have been a great one4 ,a question which ,i put1 successively1 to each of these distinguished philosophers1 will show how very differently a subject may be viewed by minds even of the highest order4 ,about the time ,mr4 ,perkins was making his experiments on the compression of water1 ,i was much struck with the mechanical means he had brought to bear on the subject1 and was speculating on other applications of it1 which ,i will presently mention4 ,meeting ,dr4 ,wollaston one morning in the shop of a bookseller1 ,i proposed this question3 ,if two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen are mixed together in a vessel1 and if by mechanical pressure they can be so condensed as to become of the same specific gravity as water1 will the gases under these circumstances unite and form water8 ,what do you think they will do8 said ,dr4 ,w4 ,i replied1 that ,i should rather expect they would unite4 ,i see no reason to suppose it1 said he4 ,i then inquired whether he thought the experiment worth making4 ,he answered1 that he did not1 for that he should think it would certainly not succeed4 ,a few days after1 ,i proposed the same question to ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,he at once said1 they will become water1 of course2 and on my inquiring whether he thought the experiment worth making1 he observed that it was a good experiment1 but one which it was hardly necessary to make1 as it must succeed4 ,these were off-hand answers1 which it might perhaps be hardly fair to have recorded1 had they been of persons of less eminent talent3 and it adds to the curiosity of the circumstance to mention1 that ,i believe ,dr4 ,wollaston's reason for supposing no union would take place1 arose from the nature of the electrical relations of the two gases remaining unchanged1 an objection which did not weigh with the philosopher whose discoveries had given birth to it4 ,the result of the experiment appeared1 and still appears to me1 to be of the highest importance2 and ,i will shortly state the views with which it was connected4 ,the next great discovery in chemistry to definite proportions1 will be to find means of forming all the simple unions of one atom with one1 with two1 or with more of say other substance3 and it occurred to me that the gaseous bodies presented the fairest chance of success2 and that if wishing1 for instance1 to unite four atoms of one substance with one of another1 we could1 by mechanical means1 reduce the mixed gases to the same specific gravity as the substance would possess which resulted from their union1 then either that such union would actually take place1 or the particles of the two substances would be most favourably situated for the action of caloric1 electricity1 or other causes1 to produce the combination4 ,it would indeed seem to follow1 that if combination should take place under such circumstances1 then the most probable proportion in which the atoms would unite1 should be that which furnished a fluid of the least specific gravity3 but until the experiments are made1 it is by no means certain that other combinations might not be produced4 ,the singular minuteness of the particles of bodies submitted by ,dr4 ,wollaston to chemical analysis1 has excited the admiration of all those who have had the good fortune to witness his experiments2 and the methods he employed deserve to be much more widely known4 ,it appears to me that a great mistake exists on the subject4 ,it has been adduced as one of those facts which prove the extraordinary acuteness of the bodily senses of the individual1--a circumstance which1 if it were true1 would add but little to his philosophical character2 ,i am1 however1 inclined to view it in a far different light1 and to see in it one of the natural results of the admirable precision of his knowledge4 ,during the many opportunities ,i have enjoyed of seeing his minute experiments1 ,i remember but one instance in which ,i noticed any remarkable difference in the acuteness of his bodily faculties1 either of his hearing1 his sight1 or of his sense of smell1 from those of other persons who possessed them in a good degree4 ,this was at ,mr4 ,south's observatory1 and the object was1 the dots on the declination circle of his equatorial2 but1 in this instance1 ,dr4 ,wollaston did not attempt to ,,teach ,,me ,,how ,,to ,,see ,,them4 ,he never showed me an almost microscopic wire1 which was visible to his1 and invisible to my own eye3 even in the beautiful experiments he made relative to sounds inaudible to certain ears1 he never produced a tone which was unheard by mine1 although sensible to his ear2 and ,i believe this will be found to have been the case by most of those whose minds had been much accustomed to experimental inquiries1 and who possessed their faculties unimpaired by illness or by age4 ,it was a much more valuable property on which the success of such inquiries depended4 ,it arose from the perfect attention which he could command1 and the minute precision with which he examined every object4 ,a striking illustration of the fact that an object is frequently not seen1 ,,from ,,not ,,knowing ,,how ,,to ,,see ,,it1 rather than from any defect in the organ of vision1 occurred to me some years since1 when on a visit at ,slough4 ,conversing with ,mr4 ,herschel on the dark lines seen in the solar spectrum by ,fraunhofer1 he inquired whether ,i had seen them2 and on my replying in the negative1 and expressing a great desire to see them1 he mentioned the extreme difficulty he had had1 even with ,fraunhofer's description in his hand and the long time which it had cost him in detecting them4 ,my friend then added1 ,i will prepare the apparatus1 and put you in such a position that they shall be visible1 and yet you shall look for them and not find them3 after which1 while you remain in the same position1 ,i will instruct you how to see them1 and you shall see them1 and not merely wonder you did not see them before1 but you shall find it impossible to look at the spectrum without seeing them4 ,on looking as ,i was directed1 notwithstanding the previous warning1 ,i did not see them2 and after some time ,i inquired how they might be seen1 when the prediction of ,mr4 ,herschel was completely fulfilled4 ,it was this attention to minute phenomena which ,dr4 ,wollaston applied with such powerful effect to chemistry4 ,in the ordinary cases of precipitation the cloudiness is visible in a single drop as well as in a gallon of a solution2 and in those cases where the cloudiness is so slight1 as to require a mass of fluid to render it visible1 previous evaporation1 quickly performed on slips of window glass1 rendered the solution more concentrated4 ,the true value of this minute chemistry arises from its cheapness and the extreme rapidity with which it can be accomplished3 it may1 in hands like those of ,wollaston1 be used for discovery1 but not for measure4 ,i have thought it more necessary to place this subject on what ,i consider its true grounds1 for two reasons4 ,in the first place1 ,i feel that injustice has been done to a distinguished philosopher in attributing to some of his bodily senses that excellence which ,i think is proved to have depended on the admirable training of his intellectual faculties4 ,and1 in the next place1 if ,i have established the fact1 whilst it affords us better means of judging of such observations as lay claim to an accuracy ,,more ,,than ,,human1 it also opens1 to the patient inquirer into truth1 a path by which he may acquire powers that he would otherwise have thought were only the gift of nature to a favoured few4 ,,appendix1 ,no4 #a4 ,in presenting to my readers the account of the meeting of men of science at ,berlin1 in the autumn of #ahbh1 ,i am happy to be able to state1 that its influence has been most beneficial1 and that the annual meeting to be held in #ahca1 will take place at ,vienna1 the ,emperor of ,austria having expressed a wish that every facility which his capital affords should be given to promote its objects4 ,it is gratifying to find that a country1 which has hitherto been considered adverse to the progress of knowledge1 should become convinced of its value2 and it is sincerely to be hoped1 that every one of the numerous members of the ,society will show1 by his conduct1 that the paths of science are less likely than any others to interfere with those of politics4 ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,congress ,,of ,,philosophers ,,at ,,berlin1 ,,on ,,the #ah,,th ,,of ,,september #ahbh4 ,,from ,,the ,,edinburgh ,,journal ,,of ,,science1 ,,april1 #ahbi4 ,the existence of a large society of cultivators of the natural sciences meeting annually at some great capital1 or some central town of ,europe1 is a circumstance almost unknown to us1 and deserving of our attention1 from the important advantages which may arise from it4 ,about eight years ago1 ,dr4 ,okens1 of ,munich1 suggested a plan for an annual meeting of all ,germans who cultivated the sciences of medicine and botany4 ,the first meeting1 of about forty members1 took place at ,leipsic1 in #ahbb1 and it was successively held at ,halle1 ,wurtzburg1 ,frankfort on the ,maine1 ,dresden1 ,munich1 and ,berlin4 ,all those who had printed a certain number of sheets of their inquiries on these subjects were considered members of this academy4 ,the great advantages which resulted to these sciences from the communication of observations from all quarters of ,germany1 soon induced an extension of the plan1 and other departments of natural knowledge were admitted1 until1 at the last meeting1 the cultivators even of pure mathematics were found amongst the ranks of this academy4 ,several circumstances1 independent of the form and constitution of the academy1 contributed to give unwonted splendour to the last meeting1 which took place at ,berlin in the middle of ,september of the last year4 ,the capital selected for its temporary residence is scarcely surpassed by any in ,europe in the number and celebrity of its savans4 ,the taste for knowledge possessed by the reigning family1 has made knowledge itself fashionable2 and the severe sufferings of the ,prussians previous to the war1 by which themselves and ,europe were freed1 have impressed on them so strongly the lesson that knowledge is power1 that its effects are visible in every department of the government2 and there is no country in ,europe in which talents and genius so surely open for their possessors the road to wealth and distinction4 ,another circumstance also contributed its portion to increase the numbers of the meeting of the past year4 ,the office of president1 which is annually changed1 was assigned to ,m4 ,alexander de ,humboldt4 ,the universality of his acquirements1 which have left no branch within the wide range of science indifferent or unexplored1 has connected him by friendship with almost all the most celebrated philosophers of the age2 whilst the polished amenity of his manners1 and that intense desire of acquiring and of spreading knowledge1 which so peculiarly characterizes his mind1 renders him accessible to all strangers1 and insures for them the assistance of his counsel in their scientific pursuits1 and the advantage of being made known to all those who are interested or occupied in similar inquiries4 ,professor ,lichtenstein1 7,director of the ,museum of ,zoology17 as secretary of the academy1 was indefatigable in his attentions1 and most ably seconded the wishes of its distinguished president4 ,these two gentlemen1 assisted by several of the residents at ,berlin1 undertook the numerous preliminary arrangements necessary for the accommodation of the meeting4 ,on the #ahth of ,september1 #ahbh1 there were assembled at ,berlin #cgg members of the academy1 whose names and residences 7in ,berlin7 were printed in a small pamphlet1 and to each name was attached a number1 to indicate his seat in the great concert room1 in which the morning meetings took place4 ,each member was also provided with an engraved card of the hall of meeting1 on which the numbers of the seats were printed in black ink1 and his own peculiar seat marked in red ink1 so that every person immediately found his own place1 and knew where to look for any friend whom he might wish to find4 ,at the hour appointed for the opening of the meeting1 the members being assembled1 and the galleries and orchestra being filled by an assemblage of a large part of the rank and beauty of the capital1 and the side-boxes being occupied by several branches of the royal family1 and by the foreign ambassadors1 the session of the academy was opened by the eloquent address of the president4 ,,speech made at the ,opening of the ,society of ,german ,naturalists and ,natural ,philosophers at ,berlin1 the #ahth of ,september1 #ahbh4--;,by ,,alexander ,,von ,,humboldt4 ,since through your choice1 which does me so much honour1 ,i am permitted to open this meeting1 the first duty which ,i have to discharge is one of gratitude4 ,the distinction which has been conferred on him who has never yet been able to attend your excellent society1 is not the reward of scientific efforts1 or of feeble and persevering attempts to discover new phenomena1 or to draw the light of knowledge from the unexplored depths of nature4 ,a finer feeling1 however1 directed your attention to me4 ,you have assured me1 that while1 during an absence of many years1 and in a distant quarter of the globe1 ,i was labouring in the same cause with yourselves1 ,i was not a stranger in your thoughts4 ,you have likewise greeted my return home1 that1 by the sacred tie of gratitude1 you might bind me still longer and closer to our common country4 ,what1 however1 can the picture of this1 our native land1 present more agreeable to the mind1 than the assembly which we receive to-day for the first time within our walls2 from the banks of the ,neckar1 the birth-place of ,kepler and of ,schiller1 to the remotest border of the ,baltic plains2 from hence to the mouths of the ,rhine1 where1 under the beneficent influence of commerce1 the treasuries of exotic nature have for centuries been collected and investigated1 the friends of nature1 inspired with the same zeal1 and1 urged by the same passion1 flock together to this assembly4 ,everywhere1 where the ,german language is used1 and its peculiar structure affects the spirit and disposition of the people4 ,from the ,great ,european ,alps1 to the other side of the ,weichsel1 where1 in the country of ,copernicus1 astronomy rose to renewed splendour2 everywhere in the extensive dominions of the ,german nation we attempt to discover the secret operations of nature1 whether in the heavens1 or in the deepest problems of mechanics1 or in the interior of the earth1 or in the finely woven tissues of organic structure4 ,protected by noble princes1 this assembly has annually increased in interest and extent4 ,every distinction which difference of religion or form of government can occasion is here annulled4 ,germany manifests itself as it were in its intellectual unity2 and since knowledge of truth and performance of duty are the highest object of morality1 that feeling of unity weakens none of the bonds which the religion1 constitution1 and laws of our country1 have rendered dear to each of us4 ,even this emulation in mental struggles has called forth 7as the glorious history of our country tells us17 the fairest blossoms of humanity1 science1 and art4 ,the assembly of ,german naturalists and natural philosophers since its last meeting1 when it was so hospitably received at ,munich1 has1 through the flattering interest of neighbouring states and academies1 shone with peculiar lustre4 ,allied nations have renewed the ancient alliance between ,germany and the ancient ,scandinavian ,north4 ,such an interest deserves acknowledgment the more1 because it unexpectedly increases the mass of facts and opinions which are here brought into one common and useful union4 ,it also recalls lofty recollections into the mind of the naturalist4 ,scarcely half a century has elapsed since ,linne appears1 in the boldness of the undertakings which he has attempted and accomplished1 as one of the greatest men of the last century4 ,his glory1 however bright1 has not rendered ,europe blind to the merits of ,scheele and ,bergman4 ,the catalogue of these great names is not completed2 but lest ,i shall offend noble modesty1 ,i dare not speak of the light which is still flowing in richest profusion from the ,north1 nor mention the discoveries in the chemical nature of substances1 in the numerical relation of their elements1 or the eddying streams of electro-magnetic powers4 ,the philosophers here referred to are ,berzelius and ,oersted4 ,may those excellent persons1 who1 deterred neither by perils of sea or land1 have hastened to our meeting from ,sweden1 ,norway1 ,denmark1 ,holland1 ,england1 and ,poland1 point our the way to other strangers in succeeding years1 so that by turns every part of ,germany may enjoy the effects of scientific communication with the different nations of ,europe4 ,but although ,i must restrain the expression of my personal feelings in presence of this assembly1 ,i must be permitted at least to name the patriarchs of our national glory1 who are detained from us by a regard for those lives so dear to their country2--,goethe1 whom the great creations of poetical fancy have not prevented from penetrating the ,,arcana of nature1 and who now in rural solitude mourns for his princely friend1 as ,germany for one of her greatest ornaments2--,olbers1 who has discovered two bodies where he had already predicted they were to be found2--the greatest anatomists of our age--,soemmering1 who1 with equal zeal1 has investigated the wonders of organic structure1 and the spots and ,,faculae of the sun1 7condensations and openings of the photosphere27 ,blumenbach1 whose pupil ,i have the honour to be1 who1 by his works and his immortal eloquence1 has inspired everywhere a love of comparative anatomy1 physiology1 and the general history of nature1 and who has laboured diligently for half a century4 ,how could ,i resist the temptation to adorn my discourse with names which posterity will repeat1 as we are not favoured with their presence8 ,these observations on the literary wealth of our native country1 and the progressive developement of our institution1 lead us naturally to the obstructions which will arise from the increasing number of our fellow-labourers1 ,the chief object of this assembly does not consist1 as in other societies whose sphere is more limited1 in the mutual interchange of treatises1 or in innumerable memoirs1 destined to be printed in some general collection4 ,the principal object of this ,society is1 to bring those personally together who are engaged in the same field of science4 ,it is the immediate1 and therefore more obvious interchange of ideas1 whether they present themselves as facts1 opinions1 or doubts4 ,it is the foundation of friendly connexion which throws light on science1 adds cheerfulness to life1 and gives patience and amenity to the manners4 ,in the most flourishing period of ancient ,greece1 the distinction between words and writing first manifested itself most strongly amongst a race1 which had raised itself to the most splendid intellectual superiority1 and to whose latest descendants1 as preserved from the shipwreck of nations1 we still consecrate our most anxious wishes4 ,it was not the difficulty of interchange of ideas alone1 nor the want of ,german science1 which has spread thought as on wings through the world1 and insured it a long continuance1 that then induced the friends of philosophy and natural history in ,magna ,graecia and ,asia ,minor to wander on long journeys4 ,that ancient race knew the inspiring influence of conversation as it extemporaneously1 freely1 and prudently penetrates the tissue of scientific opinions and doubts4 ,the discovery of the truth without difference of opinion is unattainable1 because the truth1 in its greatest extent1 can never be recognized by all1 and at the same time4 ,each step1 which seems to bring the explorer of nature nearer to his object1 only carries him to the threshold of new labyrinths4 ,the mass of doubt does not diminish1 but spreads like a moving cloud over other and new fields2 and whoever has called that a golden period1 when difference of opinions1 or1 as some are accustomed to express it1 the disputes of the learned1 will be finished1 has as imperfect a conception of the wants of science1 and of its continued advancement1 as a person who expects that the same opinions in geognosy1 chemistry1 or physiology1 will be maintained for several centuries4 ,the founders of this society1 with a deep sense of the unity of nature1 have combined in the completest manner1 all the branches of physical knowledge1 and the historical1 geometrical1 and experimental philosophy4 ,the names of natural historian and natural philosopher are here1 therefore1 nearly synonymous1 chained by a terrestrial link to the type of the lower animals4 ,man completes the scale of higher organization4 ,in his physiological and pathological qualities1 he scarcely presents to us a distinct class of beings4 ,as to what has brought him to this exalted object of physical study1 and has raised him to general scientific investigation1 belongs principally to this society4 ,important as it is not to break that link which embraces equally the investigation of organic and inorganic nature1 still the increasing ties and daily developement of this institution renders it necessary1 besides the general meeting which is destined for these halls1 to have specific meetings for single branches of science4 ,for it is only in such contracted circles1--it is only among men whom reciprocity of studies has brought together1 that verbal discussions can take place4 ,without this sort of communication1 would the voluntary association of men in search of truth be deprived of an inspiring principle4 ,among the preparations which are made in this city for the advancement of the society1 attention has been principally paid to the possibility of such a subdivision into sections4 ,the hope that these preparations will meet with your approbation1 imposes upon me the duty of reminding you1 that1 although you had entrusted to two travellers1 equally1 the duty of making these arrangements1 yet it is to one alone1 my noble friend1 ,m4 ,lichtenstein1 that the merit of careful precaution and indefatigable activity is due4 ,out of respect to the scientific spirit which animates the ,society of ,german ,naturalists and ,natural ,philosophy1 and in acknowledgment of the utility of their efforts1 government have seconded all our wishes with the greatest cheerfulness4 ,in the vicinity of the place of meeting1 which has in this manner been prepared for our general and special labours1 are situated the museums dedicated to anatomy1 zoology1 oryctognosy1 and geology4 ,they exhibit to the naturalist a rich mine for observation and critical discussion4 ,the greater number of these well-arranged collections have existed1 like the ,university of ,berlin1 scarcely twenty years4 ,the oldest of them1 to which the ,botanical ,garden1 7one of the richest in ,europe7 belongs1 have during this period not only been increased1 but entirely remodelled4 ,the amusement and instruction derived from such institutions1 call to our minds1 with deep feelings of gratitude1 that they are the work of that great monarch1 who modestly and in simple grandeur1 adorns every year this royal city with new treasures of nature and art2 and what is of still greater value than the treasures themselves1--what inspires every ,prussian with youthful strength1 and with an enthusiastic love for the ancient reigning family1--that he graciously attaches to himself every species of talent1 and extends with confidence his royal protection to the free cultivation of the understanding4 ,this was followed by a paper on magnetism1 by ,professor ,oersted2 and several other memoirs were then read4 ,the arrival of so many persons of similar pursuit1 7for #dfd members were present17 rendered it convenient to have some ordinary1 at which those who chose might dine1 and introduce their friends or families4 ,this had been foreseen1 and his ,majesty had condescended to allow the immense building used for the exercise of his troops1 to be employed for this purpose4 ,one-third of it was floored on the occasion1 and tables were arranged1 at which1 on one occasion1 #hej persons sat down to dinner4 ,on the evening of the first day1 ,m4 de ,humboldt gave a large ,,soiree in the concert rooms attached to the theatre4 ,about #abjj persons assembled on this occasion1 and his ,majesty the ,king of ,prussia honoured with his presence the fete of his illustrious chamberlain4 ,the nobility of the country1 foreign princes1 and foreign ambassadors1 were present4 ,it was gratifying to observe the princes of the blood mingling with the cultivators of science1 and to see the heir-apparent to the throne1 during the course of the evening1 engaged in conversation with those most celebrated for their talents1 of his own1 or of other countries4 ,nor were the minor arrangements of the evening beneath the consideration of the ,president4 ,the words of the music selected for the concert1 were printed and distributed to the visitors4 ,the names of the most illustrious philosophers which ,germany had produced1 were inscribed in letters of gold at the end of the great concert room4 ,in the first rank amongst these stood a name which1 ,england1 too1 enrolls amongst the brightest in her scientific annals2 and proud1 as well she may be1 of having fostered and brought to maturity the genius of the first ,herschel1 she has reaped an ample reward in being able to claim as entirely her own1 the inheritor of his talents and his name4 ,the six succeeding days were occupied1 in the morning1 by a meeting of the academy1 at which papers of general interest were read4 ,in the afternoon1 through the arrangement of ,m4 de ,humboldt and ,m4 ,lichtenstein1 various rooms were appropriated for different sections of the academy4 ,in one1 the chemical philosophers attended to some chemical memoir1 whilst the botanists assembled in another room1 the physiologists in a third1 and the natural philosophers in a fourth4 ,each attended to the reading of papers connected with their several sciences4 ,thus every member was at liberty to choose that section in which he felt most interest at the moment1 and he had at all times power of access to the others4 ,the evenings were generally spent at some of the ,,soirees of the savans1 resident at ,berlin1 whose hospitality and attentions to their learned brethren of other countries were unbounded4 ,during the unoccupied hours of the morning1 the collections of natural history1 which are rapidly rising into importance1 were open to examination2 and the various professors and directors who assisted the stranger in his inquiries1 left him equally gratified by the knowledge and urbanity of those who so kindly aided him4 ,a map of ,europe was printed1 on which those towns only appeared which had sent representatives to this scientific congress2 and the numbers sent by different kingdoms appeared by the following table1 which was attached to it2-- ,russia444444444 #a ,austria44444444 #j ,england44444444 #a ,holland44444444 #b ,denmark44444444 #g ,france 44444444 #a ,sardinia 4444444 #j ,prussia44444444 #ie ,bavaria44444444 #ab ,hanover44444444 #e ,saxony 44444444 #ba ,wirtemburg 444444 #b ,sweden 44444444 #ac ,naples 44444444 #a ,poland 44444444 #c ,german ,states44444 #dc --- #bjf ,berlin 4444444 #agb --- #cgh ,the proportion in which the cultivators of different sciences appeared1 was not easy to ascertain1 because there were few amongst the more eminent who had not added to more than one branch of human knowledge4 ,the following table1 though not professing to be very accurate1 will afford1 perhaps1 a tolerably fair view3-- ,geometers4444444444444 #aa ,astronomers44444444444 #e ,natural ,philosophers 4 #bc -- #ci ,mines444444444444 #e ,mineralogy 444444 #af ,geology4444444444 #i -- #cj ,chemistry44444444444 #ah ,geography44444444444 #h ,anatomy4444444444444 #ab ,zoology444444444444 #ad ,natural ,history4444 #h ,botany44444444444444 #ce -- #eg ,physicians4444444 #age ,amateurs 4444444 #i ,various 444444444 #ce ---#cha ,a medal was struck in commemoration of this meeting1 and it was proposed that it should form the first of a series1 which should comprise all those persons most celebrated for their scientific discoveries in the past and present age4 ,,appendix1 ,no4 #b4 ,an examination into some charges brought against one of the twenty-four candidates1 mentioned in a note as having their names suspended in the meeting-room of the ,royal ,society1 at one time1 has caused a printed pamphlet to be circulated amongst the members of the ,society4 ,of the charges themselves ,i shall offer no opinion1 but entreat every member to judge for himself4 ,i shall1 however1 make one extract1 which tends to show how the ranks of the ,society are recruited4 ,,extract ,,from ,a ,,printed ,,letter ,,from ,a4 ,f4 ,m4 ,,to ,j4 ,g4 ,,children1 ,,esq4 ,,dated1 #bb1 ,,upper ,,bedford-,,place1 ,,march #ac1 #ahcj4 ,when ,i wished you to ,propose me at the ,geological ,society1 you asked me why you should not propose me also at the ,royal ,society2 and my answer was1 that it was an honour to which ,i did not think ,i could aspire2 that my talents were too insignificant to warrant such pretensions4 ,many days passed1 and still you pressed me on the subject1 because your partiality made you think me deserving of the honour2 but ,i resisted1 really through modesty1 not that ,i did not covet the distinction1 until something was said of my paper on the meteoric mass of iron of ,brazil1 which was published some years ago in the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society2 when you insisted on proposing me1 and ,i assented gratefully1 because ,i was and am desirous of being a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 if ,i can be supposed worthy of having my name so honourably enrolled4 ,,extract ,,from ,a ,,letter ,,of ,j4 ,g4 ,,children1 ,,esq4 ,,to ,a4 ,f4 ,m4 ,,esq4 ,,dated1 ,,british ,,museum1 ,,march #bd1 #ahcj4 ,all that you have said respecting your being a candidate for admission into the ,royal ,society1 is correct to the letter4 ,i pressed the subject upon you1 and ,i would do it again to-morrow1 were it necessary4 ,here1 then1 we find ,mr4 ,children1 who has been on the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 and who was1 a few years since1 one of its ,secretaries1 pressing one of his friends to become1 and actually insisting on proposing him as1 a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 ,he must have been well aware of the feelings which prevail amongst the ,council as to the propriety of such a step1 and by publishing the fact1 seems quite satisfied that such a course is advantageous to the interests of the ,society4 ,that similar applications were not unfrequently made in private1 is well known2 but it remains for the ,society to consider whether1 now they are publicly and officially announced to them1 it will sanction this mode of augmenting the already numerous list of its fellows4 ,,appendix1 ,no4 #c1 ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,members ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,society1 ,,who ,,have ,,contributed ,,to ,,the ,,philosophical ,,transactions1 ,,or ,,have ,,been ,,on ,,the ,,council4 ,n4 ,b4--,the ,numbers are made up to the present year for the ,papers1 but only to #ahbg for ,members of the ,council4 ,no4 of ,no4 of ,papers years on printed ,council4 in ,phil4 ,trans4-------- ------- #c ,aberdeen1 ,earl of4 #c #c ,abernethy1 ,john4 #b ,allan1 ,thomas4 #c ,allen1 ,william4 #a ,arden1 ,lord4 #a ,atholl1 ,duke of4 #g #b ,babbage1 ,charles1 #a ,babington1 ,william4 #a #b ,baily1,francis4 #i ,barlow1 ,peter4 7,c7 #b ,barnard1 ,sir ,f4 ,augusta4 #e ,barrow1 ,john4 #b ,bauer1 ,francis4 #a ,bayley1 ,john4 #a ,beaufort1 ,francis4 #b ,beaufoy1 ,henry4 #e ,bell1 ,charles4 #a ,bingley1 ,robert4 #a ,blackburne1 ,john4 #c ,blake1 ,william4 #a #c ,blane1 ,sir ,gilbert4 #a #a ,blizard1 ,sir ,william4 #a #a ,bostock1 ,john4 #ab #aj ,brande1 ,wm4 ,thos4 7,c7 #af ,brewster1 ,david4 7,c7 #f #a ,brodie1 ,b4 ,collins4 7,c7 #a ,bromhead ,sir ,e4 ,f4 #c ,brougham1 ,henry4 #a ,browne1 ,henry4 #a ,brown1 ,robert4 #b ,brownlow1 ,earl4 #a ,buckland1 ,rev4 ,w4 7,c7 #a ,burney1 ,rev4 ,c4 ,parr4 #a ,canterbury1 ,archbp4 of4 #a ,carew1 ,rt4 ,hon4 ,r4 ,p4 #g ,carlisle1 ,sir ,anthony4 #b ,carlisle1 ,nicholas4 #a ,carne1 ,joseph4 #a ,carrington1 ,sir ,c4 ,e4 #b ,charleville1 ,earl of4 #g #b ,chenevix1 ,richard4 7,c7 #c #d ,children1 ,john ,george4 #aj ,christie1 ,sam4 ,hunter4 #a ,clerk1 ,sir ,george4 #b ,clift1 ,william4 #i ,cloyne1 ,bishop of4 7,c7 #b ,colby1 ,colonel ,thomas4 #a ,colebrooke1 ,henry ,t4 #b #b ,cooper1 ,sir ,astley ,p4 7,c7 #a ,crichton1 ,sir ,alex4 #e ,croker1 ,john ,wilson4 #a ,cullum1 ,sir ,t4 ,gery4 #b ,dalton1 ,john4 #b ,darnley1 ,earl of #a ,darwin1 ,robert ,waring4 #a ,davis1 ,john ,francis4 #b ,davy1 ,edmund4 #ac ,davy1 ,john4 #c ,dyllwin1 ,lewis ,weston4 #a ,dollond1 ,george4 #a ,dudley and ,ward1 ,visc4 #b ,earle1 ,henry4 #a ,egremont1 ,earl of4 #a ,fallows1 ,rev4 ,fearon4 #h ,faraday1 ,michael4 #a ,farnborough1 ,lord4 #a ,fisher1 ,rev4 ,george4 #a ,fly1 ,rev4 ,henry4 #b ,foster1 ,henry4 #a #a ,frankland1 ,sir ,thomas4 #a ,gibbes1 ,sir ,geo1 ,smith4 #b #ac ,gilbert1 ,davies4 #b ,gillies1 ,john4 #e ,goldingham1 ,john4 #c #a ,gompertz1 ,benjamin4 #a ,goodenough1 ,george ,t4 #b ,gordon1 ,sir ,james ,w4 #c ,granville1 ,augustus ,b4 #a ,greatorex1 ,thomas4 #a ,greenough1 ,geo4,bellas4 #a ,griffiths1 ,john4 #c #a ,groombridge1 ,stephen4 #a ,halford1 ,sir ,henry4 #b ,hall1 ,basil4 #a ,hamilton1 ,wm4 ,rich4 #b ,hardwicke1 ,earl of4 #b ,harvey1 ,george4 #a ,harwood1 ,j4 #af #aj ,hatchett1 ,charles4 7,c7 #a ,hawkins1 ,john4 #b #b ,heberden1 ,william4 #i ,hellins1 ,rev4 ,john1 7,c7 #a ,henley1 ,morton ,lord4 #aj ,henry1 ,william4 7,c7 #ab #f ,herschel1 ,john ,f4,w4 7,c7 #a ,hoare1 ,henry ,hugh #a ,hoare1 ,sir ,richard ,colt4 #b ,hobhouse1 ,sir ,benj4 #a ,holland1 ,henry4 #aji #af ,home1 ,sir ,everard4 7,c7 #b ,hope1 ,thomas ,charles4 #a ,hosack1 ,david4 #a #a ,horsburgh1 ,james4 #a ,howard1 ,luke4 #b ,hume1 ,sir ,abraham4 #g #b ,ivory1 ,james4,c4 #a ,jekyll1 ,joseph4 #d #a ,johnson1 ,jas4 ,rawlins4 #ac #g ,kater1 ,capt4 ,henry4 7,c7 #b ,kidd1 ,john4 #bd #a ,knight1 ,thomas ,a4 7,c7 #a #a ,konig1 ,charles4 #b ,lambert1 ,aylmer ,b4 #a ,lansdowne1 ,marquis of4 #a #a ,latham1 ,john4 #b ,lax1 ,rev4 ,william4 #a ,leach1 ,william ,elford4 #a ,lowther1 ,viscount4 #b ,macartney1 ,james4 #b ,macdonald1 ,lieut4 ,col4 #a ,mac ,grigor1 ,sir ,james4 #b ,mac ,leay1 ,alexander4 #a ,mansfield1 ,earl of #d #aa ,marsden1 ,william4 #a ,mathias1 ,thomas ,jas4 #c ,maton1 ,william ,george4 #a ,miller1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,g4 #b ,montagu1 ,matthew4 #g #d ,morgan1 ,william4 #a ,mount ,edgecumbe1 ,earl of4 #c ,murdoch1 ,thomas4 #b ,nicholl1 ,rt4 ,hon4 ,sir ,j4 #a ,norfolk1 ,duke of4 #b ,ord1 ,craven4 #a ,parry1 ,charles ,henry4 #a ,pepys1 ,sir ,lucas4 #f #b ,pepys1 ,wm4 ,hasledine4 #g ,philip1 ,a4 ,p4 ,wilson4 #a ,phillips1 ,richard4 #b ,pitt1 ,william ,morton4 #a #bi ,planta1 ,joseph4 #ai #ag ,pond1 ,john4 7,c7 #b ,powell1 ,rev4 ,baden4 #b ,prinsep1 ,james4 #d #a ,prout ,william4 #a ,rackett1 ,rev4 ,thomas4 #a ,redesdale1 ,lord4 #b ,reeves1 ,john4 #e #c ,rennell1 ,james 7,c7 #a ,rennie1 ,george4 #d ,ritchie1 #a ,robertson1 ,james4 #a ,rogers1 ,samuel4 #b #a ,roget1 ,peter ,mark4 #c ,rudge1 ,edward4 #ab ,sabine1 ,edward4 7,c7 #b ,sabine1 ,joseph4 #a ,st4 ,aubyn1 ,sir ,john4 #c ,scoresby1 jun4 ,william4 #b ,scott1 ,john ,corse4 #c #a ,seppings1 ,sir ,robert4 7,c7 #a ,sewell1 ,sir ,john4 #c ,somerset1 ,duke of4 #c ,sotheby1 ,william4 #c #b ,south1 ,james4 7,c7 #e ,spencer1 ,earl4 #c ,stanley1 ,sir ,john ,thos4 #c ,staunton1 ,sir ,geo4 ,thos4 #b ,stowell1,lord4 #a ,sumner1 ,george ,holme4 #a ,thomas1 ,honoratus ,l4 #b ,thomson1 ,thomas4 #a ,tiarks1 ,dr4 ,john ,lewis4 #a ,troughton1 ,edward4 7,c7 #b ,ure1 ,andrew4 #b ,warburton1 ,henry4 #a ,weaver1 ,thomas4 #a ,whewell1 ,william4 #c ,whidbey1 ,joseph4 #b #c ,wilkins1 ,charles4 #c ,williams1 ,john ,lloyd4 #a #a ,wilson1 ,sir ,giffin4 #b ,wilson1 ,gloucester4 #a ,yorke1 ,rt4 ,hon4 ,chas4 ,i had intended to have printed a list of those persons to whom the ,royal ,society had in past years awarded the ,copley medals1 and the reasons for which they were given2 but having applied to the ,council for permission to employ an amanuensis1 to copy those awards1 either from the minutes1 or from the volumes of the ,philosophical ,transactions1 ,i was surprised at receiving a refusal4 ,i confess it appeared to me1 that as a whole1 those adjudications did us credit1 although ,i doubted the propriety of many individual cases4 ,as1 however1 the ,council seem to have had a different opinion1 and as ,i had made the application through courtesy1 ,i shall decline printing a list1 every individual portion of which has been already published in many ways1 although the whole has never been printed in a collected form4