,transcriber's note3 ,the extensive and lengthy footnotes have been renumbered and placed at the end of the book4 ,,roman ,,farm ,,management ,,the ,,treatises ,,of ,,cato ,,and ,,varro ,,done ,,into ,,english1 ,,with ,,notes ,,of ,,modern ,,instances ,,by ,a ,,virginia ,,farmer #aiah ,,preface ,the present editor made the acquaintance of ,cato and ,varro standing at a book stall on the ,quai ,voltaire in ,paris1 and they carried him away in imagination1 during a pleasant half hour1 not to the vineyards and olive yards of ,roman ,italy1 but to the blue hills of a far distant ,virginia where the corn was beginning to tassel and the fat cattle were loafing in the pastures4 ,subsequently1 when it appeared that there was then no readily available ,english version of the ,roman agronomists1 this translation was made1 in the spirit of old ,piero ,vettori1 the kindly ,florentine scholar1 whose portrait was painted by ,titian and whose monument may still be seen in the ,church of ,santo ,spirito3 in the preface of his edition of ,varro he says that he undertook the work1 not for the purpose of displaying his learning1 but to aid others in the study of an excellent author4 ,victorius was justified by his scholarship and the present editor has no such claim to attention3 he1 therefore1 makes the confession frankly 7to anticipate perhaps such criticism as ,bentley's a very pretty poem1 ,mr4 ,pope1 but don't call it ,homer7 and offers the little book to those who love the country1 and to read about the country amidst the crowded life of towns1 with the hope that they may find in it some measure of the pleasure it has afforded the editor4 ,the texts and commentaries used have been those of ,schneider and ,keil1 the latter more accurate but the former more sympathetic4 ,f4,h4 ,,belvoir1 ,fauquier ,county1 ,virginia4 ,december1 #aiab4 ,,foreword ,,to ,,second ,,edition ,the call for a reprint of this book has afforded the opportunity to correct some errors and to make several additions to the notes4 ,in withholding his name from the title page the editor sought not so much to conceal his identity as to avoid the appearance of a parade in what was to him the unwonted field of polite literature4 ,as1 however1 he is neither ashamed of the book nor essays the rle of ,a violet by a mossy stone ,half hidden from the eye1 he now and here signs his name4 ,,fairfax ,,harrison4 ,,belvoir ,,house1 ,christmas1 #aiag4 ,,contents ,,note ,,upon ,,the ,,roman ,,agronomists ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,obligation ,,of ,,virgil ,,to ,,varro 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cato',s ,,de ,,agricultura ,,synopsis ,introduction3 ,of the ,dignity of the ,farmer ,of ,buying a ,farm ,of the ,duties of the ,owner ,of ,laying out the ,farm ,of ,stocking the ,farm ,of the ,duties of the ,overseer ,of the ,duties of the ,housekeeper ,of the ,hands ,of ,draining ,of ,preparing the ,seed ,bed ,of ,manure ,of ,soil ,improvement ,of ,forage ,crops ,of ,planting ,of ,pastures ,of ,feeding ,live ,stock ,of the ,care of ,live ,stock ,of ,cakes and ,salad ,of ,curing ,hams ,,varro',s ,,rerum ,,rusticarum ,,libri ,,tres ,,synopsis ,,book ,i ,,the ,,husbandry ,,of ,,agriculture ,,chapter ,i4 ,introduction3 the literary tradition of country life ,of the definition of ,agriculture3 ,,ii4 a4 ,what it is not ,,iii4 b4 ,what it is ,,iv4 ,the purposes of ,agriculture are profit and pleasure ,v4 ,the four-fold division of the study of ,agriculture ,i ,concerning the farm itself3 ,,vi4 ,how conformation of the land affects ,agriculture ,,vii4 ,how character of soil affects ,agriculture ,,viii4 7,a digression on the maintenance of vineyards7 ,,ix4 ,of the different kinds of soils ,x4 ,of the units of area used in measuring land ,of the considerations on building a steading3 ,,xi4 a4 ,size b4 ,water supply ,,xii4 c4 ,location1 with regard to health ,,xiii4 d4 ,arrangement ,of the protection of farm boundaries3 ,,xiv4 a4 ,fences ,,xv4 b4 ,monuments ,,xvi4 ,of the considerations of neighbourhood #b ,concerning the equipment of a farm3 ,,xvii4 ,of agricultural labourers ,,xviii4 ,,xix4 ,of draught animals ,,xx4 ,,xxi4 ,of watch dogs ,,xxii4 ,of farming implements #c ,concerning the operation of a farm3 ,,xxiii4 ,of planting field crops ,,xxiv4 ,of planting olives ,,xxv4 ,of planting vines ,,xxvi4 #d ,concerning the agricultural seasons3 ,,xxvii4 ,of the solar measure of the year1 illustrated by ,,xxviii4 ,a ,,calendar ,,of ,,agricultural ,,operations throughout the year1 in eight seasons1 viz3 ,,xxix4 #a ,february #g-,march #bd ,,xxx4 #b ,march #bd-,may #g ,,xxxi4 #c ,may #g-;,june #bd ,,xxxii4 #d ,june #bd-;,july #ba ,,xxxiii4 #e ,july #ba-,september #bf ,,xxxiv4 #f ,september #bf-,october #bh ,,xxxv4 #g ,october #bh-;,december #bd ,,xxxvi4 #h ,december #bd-;,february #g ,,xxxvii4 ,of the influence of the moon on ,agriculture to which is added ,,another ,,calendar ,,of ,,six ,,agricultural ,,seasons with a commentary on their several occupations1 viz3 ,,chapter #a ,preparing time3 ,of tillage1 ,,xxxviii4 ,of manuring1 ,,xxxix4 #b ,planting time3 ,of the four methods of propagating plants1 viz3 ,,xl4 a4 ,seeding and here of seed selection b4 ,transplanting c4 ,cuttage d4 ,graftage1 and e4 ,a new method1 inarching ,,xli4 ,of when to use these different methods ,,xlii4 ,of seeding alfalfa ,,xliii4 ,of seeding clover and cabbage ,,xliv4 ,of seeding grain #c ,cultivating time3 ,,xlv4 ,of the conditions of plant growth ,,xlvi4 ,of the mechanical action of plants ,,xlvii4 ,of the protection of nurseries and meadows ,,xlviii4 ,of the structure of a wheat plant ,,xlix4 #d ,harvest time3 ,of the hay harvest ,l4 ,of the wheat harvest ,,li4 ,the threshing floor ,,lii4 ,threshing and winnowing ,,liii4 ,gleaning ,,liv4 ,of the vintage ,,lv4 ,of the olive harvest #e ,housing time3 ,,lvi4 ,of storing hay ,,lvii4 ,of storing grain ,,lviii4 ,of storing legumes ,,lix4 ,of storing pome fruits ,,lx4 ,of storing olives ,,lxi4 ,of storing amurca ,,lxii4 #f ,consuming time3 ,,lxiii4 ,of cleaning grain ,,lxiv4 ,of condensing amurca ,,lxv4 ,of racking wine ,,lxvl4 ,of preserved olives ,,lxvil4 ,of nuts1 dates and figs ,,lxviii4 ,of stored fruits ,,lxix4 ,of marketing grain ,epilogue3 the dangers of the streets of ,rome ,,book ,,ii ,,the ,,husbandry ,,of ,,live ,,stock ,introduction3--the decay of country life ,i4 ,of the origin1 the importance and the economy of live stock husbandry ,,ii4 ,of sheep ,,iii4 ,of goats ,,iv4 ,of swine ,v4 ,of neat cattle ,,vi4 ,of asses ,,vii4 ,of horses ,,viii4 ,of mules ,,ix4 ,of herd dogs ,n4 ,of shepherds ,,xi4 ,of milk and cheese and wool ,,book ,,iii ,,the ,,husbandry ,,of ,,the ,,steading ,i4 ,introduction3 the antiquity of country life ,,ii4 ,of the definition of a ,roman villa ,,iii4 ,of the ,roman development of the industries of the steading ,,iv4 ,of aviaries ,v4 a4 for profit b4 for pleasure 7including here the description of ,varro's own aviary7 ,,vi4 ,of pea-cocks ,,vii4 ,of pigeons ,,viii4 ,of turtle doves ,,ix4 ,of poultry ,x4 ,of geese ,,xi4 ,of ducks ,,xii4 ,of rabbits ,,xiii4 ,of game preserves ,,xiv4 ,of snails ,,xv4 ,of dormice ,,xvi4 ,of bees ,,xvii4 ,of fish ponds ,,index4 ,,roman ,,farm ,,management ,,note ,,upon ,,the ,,roman ,,agronomists ,quaecunque autem propter disciplinam ruris nostrorum temporum cum priscis discrepant1 non deterrere debent a lectione discentem4 ,nam multo plura reperiuntur1 apud veteres1 quae nobis probanda sint1 quam quae repudianda4 ,,columella ,i1 ,i4 ,the study of the ,roman treatises on farm management is profitable to the modern farmer however practical and scientific he may be4 ,he will not find in them any thing about bacteria and the nodular hypothesis in respect of legumes1 nor any thing about plant metabolism1 nor even any thing about the effects of creatinine on growth and absorption2 but1 important and fascinating as are the illuminations of modern science upon practical agriculture1 the intelligent farmer with imagination 7every successful farmer has imagination1 whether or not he is intelligent7 will find some thing quite as important to his welfare in the body of ,roman husbandry which has come down to us1 namely3 a background for his daily routine1 an appreciation that two thousand years ago men were studying the same problems and solving them by intelligent reasoning4 ,columella well says that in reading the ancient writers we may find in them more to approve than to disapprove1 however much our new science may lead us to differ from them in practice4 ,the characteristics of the ,roman methods of farm management1 viewed in the light of the present state of the art in ,america1 were thoroughness and patience4 ,the ,romans had learned many things which we are now learning again1 such as green manuring with legumes1 soiling1 seed selection1 the testing of soil for sourness1 intensive cultivation of a fallow as well as of a crop1 conservative rotation1 the importance of live stock in a system of general farming1 the preservation of the chemical content of manure and the composting of the rubbish of a farm1 but they brought to their farming operations some thing more which we have not altogether learned--the character which made them a people of enduring achievement4 ,varro quotes one of their proverbs ,romanus sedendo vincit1 which illustrates my present point4 ,the ,romans achieved their results by thoroughness and patience4 ,it was thus that they defeated ,hannibal and it was thus that they built their farm houses and fences1 cultivated their fields1 their vineyards and their oliveyards1 and bred and fed their live stock4 ,they seem to have realized that there are no short cuts in the processes of nature1 and that the law of compensations is invariable4 ,the foundation of their agriculture was the fallow#a and one finds them constantly using it as a simile--in the advice not to breed a mare every year1 as in that not to exact too much tribute from a bee hive4 ,ovid even warns a lover to allow fallow seasons to intervene in his courtship4 ,while one can find instruction in their practice even today1 one can benefit even more from their agricultural philosophy1 for the characteristic of the ,american farmer is that he is in too much of a hurry4 ,the ancient literature of farm management was voluminous4 ,varro cites fifty ,greek authors on the subject whose works he knew1 beginning with ,hesiod and ,xenophon4 ,mago of ,carthage wrote a treatise in the ,punic tongue which was so highly esteemed that the ,roman ,senate ordered it translated into ,latin1 but1 like most of the ,greeks1#b it is now lost to us except in the literary tradition4 ,columella says that it was ,cato who taught ,agriculture to speak ,latin4 ,cato's book1 written in the middle of the second century ,b4 ,c1 was the first on the subject in ,latin2 indeed1 it was one of the very first books written in that vernacular at all4 ,of the other ,latin writers whose bucolic works have survived1 ,varro and ,virgil wrote at the beginning of the ,augustan ,age and were followed by the ,spanish ,columella under ,tiberius1 and by ,pliny 7with his ,natural ,history7 under ,titus4 ,after them 7and a long way after1 as ,mr4 ,punch says7 came in the fourth century the worthy but dull ,palladius1 who supplied the hornbook used by the agricultural monks throughout the ,dark ,ages4 ,,marcus ,,porcius ,,cato 7,b4,c4 #bcd-adi71 known in history as the elder ,cato1 was the type of ,roman produced by the most vigorous days of the ,republic4 ,born at ,tusculum on the narrow acres which his peasant forefathers had tilled in the intervals of military service1 he commenced advocate at the country assizes1 followed his fortunes to ,rome and there became a leader of the metropolitan bar4 ,he saw gallant military service in ,spain and in ,greece1 commanded an army1 held all the curule offices of state and ended a contentious life in the ,senate denouncing ,carthage and the degeneracy of the times4 ,he was an upstanding man1 but as coarse as he was vigorous in mind and in body4 ,roman literature is full of anecdotes about him and his wise and witty sayings4 ,unlike many men who have devoted a toilsome youth to agricultural labour1 when he attained fame and fortune he maintained his interest in his farm1 and wrote his ,de re rustica in green old age4 ,it tells what sort of farm manager he himself was1 or wanted to be thought to be1 and1 though a mere collection of random notes1 sets forth more shrewd common sense and agricultural experience than it is possible to pack into the same number of ,english words4 ,it remains today of much more than antiquarian interest4 ,,marcus ,,terentius ,,varro 7,b4,c4 #aaf-bh7 whom ,quintilian called the most learned of the ,romans1 and ,petrarch il terzo gran lume ,romano1 ranking him with ,cicero and ,virgil1 probably studied agriculture before he studied any thing else1 for he was born on a ,sabine farm1 and although of a well to do family1 was bred in the habits of simplicity and rural industry with which the poets have made that name synonymous4 ,all his life he amused the leisure snatched from his studies with intelligent supervision of the farming of his several estates3 and he wrote his treatise ,rerum ,rusticarum in his eightieth year4#c ,he had his share of active life1 but it was as a scholar that he distinguished himself4#d ,belonging to the aristocratic party1 he became a friend and supporter of ,pompey1 and1 after holding a naval command under him in the war against the ,pirates in ,b4,c4 #fg1 was his legatus in ,spain at the beginning of the civil wars and there surrendered to ,caesar4 ,he was again on the losing side at the battle of ,pharsalia1 but was pardoned by ,caesar1 who selected him to be librarian of the public library he proposed to establish at ,rome4#e ,from this time ,varro eschewed politics and devoted himself to letters1 although his troubles were not yet at an end3 after the death of ,caesar1 the ruthless ,antony despoiled his villa at ,casinum 7where ,varro had built the aviary described in book ,three71 and like ,cicero he was included in the proscriptions which followed the compact of the triumvirs1 but in the end unlike ,cicero he escaped and spent his last years peacefully at his villas at ,cumae and ,tusculum4 ,his literary activity was astonishing3 he wrote at least six hundred books covering a wide range of antiquarian research4 ,st4 ,augustine1 who dearly loved to turn a balanced phrase1 says that ,varro had read so much that it is difficult to understand when he found time to write1 while on the other hand he wrote so much that one can scarcely read all his books4 ,cicero1 who claimed him as an intimate friend1 describes 7,acad4 ,ill7 what ,varro had written before ,b4,c4 #df1 but he went on producing to the end of his long life1 eighteen years later3 ,for1 says ,cicero1 while we are sojourners1 so to speak1 in our own city and wandering about like strangers1 your books have conducted us1 as it were1 home again1 so as to enable us at last to recognize who and whence we are4 ,you have discussed the antiquities of our country and the variety of dates and chronology relating to it4 ,you have explained the laws which regulate sacrifices and priests3 you have unfolded the customs of the city both in war and peace3 you have described the various quarters and districts3 you have omitted mentioning none of the names1 or kinds1 or functions1 or causes of divine or human things3 you have thrown a flood of light on our poets and altogether on ,latin literature and the ,latin language3 you have yourself composed a poem of varied beauties and elegant in almost every part3 and you have in many places touched upon philosophy in a manner sufficient to excite our curiosity1 though inadequate to instruct us4 ,of ,varro's works1 beside the ,rerum ,rusticarum1 there have survived only fragments1 including a considerable portion of the treatise on the ,latin language3 the story is that most of his books were deliberately destroyed at the procurement of the ,church 7something not impossible1 as witness the ,emperor ,theodosius in ,corpus ,juris ,civilis4 ,cod4 ,lib4 ,i1 tit4 ,i1 cap4 #c1 ,i7 to conceal ,st4 ,augustine's plagiarism from them2 yet the ,de ,civitate ,dei1 which is largely devoted to refuting ,varro's pagan theology1 is a perennial monument to his fame4 ,st4 ,augustine says 7,,vi1 #b73 ,although his elocution has less charm1 he is so full of learning and philosophy that 444 he instructs the student of facts as much as ,cicero delights the student of style4 ,varro's treatise on farm management is the best practical book on the subject which has come down to us from antiquity4 ,it has not the spontaneous originality of ,cato1 nor the detail and suave elegance of ,columella4 ,walter ,harte in his ,essays on ,husbandry 7#agfd7 says that ,cato writes like an ,english squire and ,varro like a ,french academician4 ,this is just comment on ,cato but it is at once too much and too little to say of ,varro3 a ,french academician might be proud of his antiquarian learning1 but would balk at his awkward and homely ,latin1 as indeed one ,french academician1 ,m4 ,boissier1 has since done4 ,the real merit of ,varro's book is that it is the well digested system of an experienced and successful farmer who has seen and practised all that he records4 ,the authority from which ,virgil drew the practical farming lore1 for which he has been extolled in all ages1 was ,varro3 indeed1 as a farm manual the ,georgics go astray only when they depart from ,varro4 ,it is worth while to elaborate this point1 which ,professor ,sellar1 in his argument for the originality of ,virgil1 only suggests4#f ,after ,philippi the times were ripe for books on agriculture4 ,the ,roman world had been divided between ,octavian and ,antony and there was peace in ,italy3 men were turning back to the land4 ,an agricultural regeneration of ,italy was impending1 chiefly in viticulture1 as ,ferrero has pointed out4 ,with far sighted appreciation of the economic advantages of this1 ,octavian determined to promote the movement1 which became one of the completed glories of the ,augustan ,age1 when ,horace sang ,tua1 ,caesar1 aetas ,fruges et agris rettulit uberes4 ,varro's book appeared in ,b4,c4 #cg and during that year ,maecenas commissioned ,virgil to put into verse the spirit of the times2 just as1 under similar circumstances1 ,cromwell pensioned ,samuel ,hartlib4 ,such is the co-incidence of the dates that it is not impossible that the ,rerum ,rusticarum suggested the subject of the ,georgics1 either to ,virgil or to ,maecenas4 ,there is no evidence in the ,bucolics that ,virgil ever had any practical knowledge of agriculture before he undertook to write the ,georgics4 ,his father was1 it is true1 a farmer1 but apparently in a small way and unsuccessful1 for he had to eke out a frugal livelihood by keeping bees and serving as the hireling deputy of a viator or constable4 ,this type of farmer persists and may be recognized in any rural community3 but the agricultural colleges do not enlist such men into their faculties4 ,so it is possible that ,virgil owed little agricultural knowledge to his father's precepts or example4 ,virgil perhaps had tended his father's flock1 as he pictures himself doing under the guise of ,tityrus2 certainly he spent many hours of youth patulae recubans sub tegmine fagi steeping his ,celtic soul with the beauty and the melancholy poetry of the ,lombard landscape3 and so he came to know and to love bird and flower and the external aspects of wheat and woodland tilth and vineyard1 hive and horse and herd1 but it does not appear that he ever followed the plough1 or1 what is more important1 ever laid off a ploughgate4 ,as a poet of nature no one was ever better equipped 7the highest testimony is that of ,tennyson71 but when it came to writing poetry around the art of farm management it was necessary for him to turn to books for his facts4 ,he acknowledges 7,geo4 ,i1 #agf7 his obligation only to veterum praecepta without naming them1 but as ,m4 ,gaston ,boissier says he was evidently referring to ,varro le plus moderne de tous les anciens4#g ,virgil evidently regarded ,varro's treatise as a solid foundation for his poem and he used it freely1 just as he drew on ,hesiod for literary inspiration1 on ,lucretius for imaginative philosophy1 and on ,mago and ,cato and the two ,sasernas for local colour4 ,virgil probably had also the advantage of personal contact with ,varro during the seven years he was composing and polishing the ,georgics4 ,he spent them largely at ,naples 7,geo4 ,,iv1 #efc7 and ,varro was then established in retirement at ,cumae3 thus they were neighbours1 and1 although they belonged to different political parties1 the young poet must have known and visited the old polymath2 there was every reason for him to have taken advantage of the opportunity4 ,whatever justification there may be for this conjecture1 the fact remains that ,varro is in the background every where throughout the ,georgics1 as the deadly parallel in the appended note will indicate4 ,this is perhaps the most interesting thing about ,varro's treatise3 instructive and entertaining as it is to the farmer1 in the large sense of the effect of literature on mankind1 ,virgil gave it wings--the useful cart horse became ,pegasus4 ,as a consequence of the chorus of praise of the ,georgics1 there have been those1 in all ages1 who have sneered at ,virgil's farming4 ,the first such advocatus diaboli was ,seneca1 who1 writing to ,lucilius 7,ep4 #hf7 from the farm house of ,scipio ,africanus1 fell foul of the advice 7,geo1 ,i1 #baf7 to plant both beans and millet in the spring1 saying that he had just seen at the end of ,june beans gathered and millet sowed on the same day3 from which he generalized that ,virgil disregarded the truth to turn a graceful verse1 and sought rather to delight his reader than to instruct the husbandman4 ,this kind of cheap criticism does not increase our respect for ,nero's philosophic minister4#h ,whatever may have been ,virgil's mistakes1 every farmer of sentiment should thank ,god that one of the greatest poems in any language contains as much as it does of a sound tradition of the practical side of his art1 and here is where ,varro is entitled to the appreciation which is always due the schoolmaster of a genius4 ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,obligation ,,of ,,virgil ,,to ,,varro ,at the beginning of the first ,georgic 7#a-e7 ,virgil lays out the scope of the poem as dealing with three subjects1 agriculture1 the care of live stock and the husbandry of bees4 ,this was ,varro's plan 7,r4,r4 ,i1 ,i1 #b1 and ,i1 #b passim7 except that under the third head ,varro included1 with bees1 all the other kinds of stock which were usually kept at a ,roman steading4 ,varro asserts that his was the first scientific classification of the subject ever made4 ,virgil 7,g4 ,i1 #e-ac7 begins too with the invocation of the ,sun and the ,moon and certain rural deities1 as did ,varro 7,r4,r4 ,i1 ,i1 #d74 ,the passages should be compared for1 as ,m4 ,gaston ,boissier has pointed out1 the difference in the point of view of the two men is here illustrated by the fact that ,varro appeals to purely ,roman deities1 while ,virgil invokes the literary gods of ,greece4 ,following the ,georgics through1 one who has studied ,varro will note other passages for which a suggestion may be found in ,varro1 usually in facts1 but some times in thought and even in words1 viz3 ,before beginning his agricultural operations a farmer should study the character of the country 7,g4 ,i1 #ej3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #f71 the prevailing winds and the climate 7,g4 ,i1 #ea3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #b1 #c71 the farming practice of the neighbourhood 7,g4 ,i1 #eb3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #ah1 #g71 this land is fit for corn1 that for vines1 and the other for trees1 7,g4 ,i1 #ed3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #f1 #e74 ,he should practise fallow and rotation 7,g4 ,i1 #ga3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #dd1 #b71 and compensate the land by planting legumes 7,g4 ,i1 #gd3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #bc72 he should irrigate his meadows in summer 7,g4 ,i1 #ajd3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #ca1 #e71 and drain off surface water in winter 7,g4 ,i1 #aac3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #cf74 ,man has progressed from a primitive state1 when he subsisted on nuts and berries1 to the domestication of animals and to agriculture 7,g4 ,i1 #aba-aei3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #a1 #c74 ,the threshing floor must be protected from pests 7,g4 ,i1 #agh3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #ea74 ,seed should be carefully selected 7,g4 ,i1 #aig3 ,r4,r4 #dj1 #b72 the time for sowing grain is the autumn 7,g4 ,i1 #bai3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #cd74 ,everlasting night prevails in the ,arctic regions 7,g4 ,i1 #bdg3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #b1 #e72 the importance to the farmer of the four seasons 7,g4,i4 #beh2 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #bg7 and the influence of the ,moon 7,g4,i4 #bgf3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #cg74 ,the several methods of propagating plants described 7,g4 ,,ii1 #i-cd3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #ci71 but here ,varro follows ,theophrastus 7,h4,p4 ,,ii1 #a72 trees grow slowly from seed 7,g4 ,,ii1 #eg2 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #da1 #d72 olives are propagated from truncheons 7,g4 ,,ii1 #fc2 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #da1 #f74 ,the praise of ,italy 7,g4 ,,ii1 #acf-agf3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #b1 #f71 where trees bear twice a year 7,g4 ,,ii1 #aej3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #g1 #f74 ,certain plants affect certain soils 7,g4 ,,ii1 #agg3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #i74 ,a physical experiment 7,g4 ,,ii1 #bcj2 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #g72 the advantage of the quincunx in planting 7,g4 ,,ii1 #bhf3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #g74 ,fence the vineyard to keep out live stock 7,g4 ,,ii1 #cga3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #ad72 the goat a proper sacrifice to ,bacchus 7,g4 ,,ii1 #chj3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #b1 #ai74 ,be the first to put your vine props under cover 7,g4 ,,ii1 #dji3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #h1 #f74 ,the points of cattle 7,g4 ,,iii1 #ej3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #e1 #g72 their breeding age 7,g4 ,,iii1 #fa3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #e1 #ac72 segregate the bulls before the breeding season 7,g4 ,,iii1 #bab3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #e1 #ab74 ,recruit your herd with fresh blood 7,g4 ,,iii1 #fi3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #e1 #ag74 ,how to break young oxen 7,g4 ,,iii1 #afc3 ,r4,r4 ,i1 #bj74 ,of breeding live stock1 the males should be fat1 the females lean 7,g4 ,,iii1 #abc-abi3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #e1 #ab74 ,the points of a horse 7,g4 ,,iii1 #gi3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #g1 #e74 ,mares fecundated by the wind 7,g4 ,,iii1 #bgc3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #a1 #ai74 ,the care of the brood mare 7,g4 ,,iii1 #ach3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #g1 #aj74 ,the bearing of a spirited colt in the field 7,g4 ,,iii1 #ge3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #g1 #f72 the training of a colt1 rattling bridles in the stable 7,g4 ,,iii1 #ahd3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #g1 #ab74 ,supply bedding for the sheep 7,g4 ,,iii1 #bih3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #b1 #h71 the goat stable should face southeast 7,g4 ,,iii1 #cjb3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #c1 #f74 ,goats' hair used for military purposes 7,g4 ,,iii1 #cac3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #aa1 #aa47 ,goats affect rough pasture 7,g4 ,,iii1 #cad3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #c1 #f74 ,a shepherd's daily routine 7,g4 ,,iii1 #cbb2 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #b1 #aj-aa74 ,the life of shepherds in the saltus 7,g4 ,,iii1 #cdj3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #aj1 #f74 ,beware of a ram with a spotted tongue 7,g4 ,,iii1 #chg3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #b1 #d74 ,anoint sheep as a precaution against scab 7,g4 ,,iii1 #ddh3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #aa1 #g74 ,the location of the bee-stand3 a drinking pool with stones in it 7,g4 ,,iv1 #bf3 ,r4,r4 ,,iii1 #af1 #bg72 planted round with bee plants 7,g4 ,,iv1 #be3 ,r4,r4 ,,iii1 #af1 #ac71 and free from an echo 7,g4 ,,iv1 #ej3 ,r4,r4 ,,iii1 #af1 #ab74 ,when saving a swarm sprinkle bees balm and beat cymbals 7,g4 ,,iv1 #fb3 ,r4,r4 ,,iii1 #af1 #g and #cj74 ,bees at war obey their leaders 'as at the sound of a trumpet1' but may be quelled by the bee-keeper 7,g4 ,,iv1 #gj-hg3 ,r4,r4 ,,iii1 #af1 #i and #ce74 ,keep the mottled king and destroy the black one 7,g4 ,,iv1 #ij3 ,r4,r4 ,,iii1 #af1 #ah72 the old ,corycian and the brothers ,veiani 7,g4 ,,iv1 #abe3 ,r4,r4 ,,iii1 #af1 #aj73 the bees' care of their king 7,g4 ,,iv1 #bab3 ,r4,r4 ,,iii1 #af1 #h74 ,take off the honey twice in the season 7,g4 ,,iv1 #bba3 ,r4,r4 ,,iii1 #af1 #cd72 the generation of bees from the carcase of an ox 7,g4 ,,iv1 #bha3 ,r4,r4 ,,ii1 #e1 #e7 and cf4 the wisdom on this subject attributed to ,varro by the ,geoponica 7,,xv1 #b74 ,,cato',s ,,de ,,agricultura ,introduction3 of the dignity of the farmer ,the pursuits of commerce would be as admirable as they are profitable if they were not subject to so great risks3 and so1 likewise1 of banking1 if it was always honestly conducted4 ,for our ancestors considered1 and so ordained in their laws1 that1 while the thief should be cast in double damages1 the usurer should make four-fold restitution4 ,from this we may judge how much less desirable a citizen they esteemed the banker than the thief4 ,when they sought to commend an honest man1 they termed him good husbandman1 good farmer4 ,this they rated the superlative of praise4#i ,personally1 ,i think highly of a man actively and diligently engaged in commerce1 who seeks thereby to make his fortune1 yet1 as ,i have said1 his career is full of risks and pitfalls4 ,but it is from the tillers of the soil that spring the best citizens1 the stanchest soldiers2 and theirs are the enduring rewards which are most grateful and least envied4 ,such as devote themselves to that pursuit are least of all men given to evil counsels4 ,and now1 to get to my subject1 these observations will serve as preface to what ,i have promised to discuss4 ,of buying a farm 7,i7#aj ,when you have decided to purchase a farm1 be careful not to buy rashly2 do not spare your visits and be not content with a single tour of inspection4 ,the more you go1 the more will the place please you1 if it be worth your attention4 ,give heed to the appearance of the neighbourhood1--a flourishing country should show its prosperity4 ,when you go in1 look about1 so that1 when needs be1 you can find your way out4 ,take care that you choose a good climate1 not subject to destructive storms1 and a soil that is naturally strong4 ,if possible1 your farm should be at the foot of a mountain1 looking to the ,south1 in a healthy situation1 where labour and cattle can be had1 well watered1 near a good sized town1 and either on the sea or a navigable river1 or else on a good and much frequented road4 ,choose a place which has not often changed ownership1 one which is sold unwillingly1 that has buildings in good repair4 ,beware that you do not rashly contemn the experience of others4 ,it is better to buy from a man who has farmed successfully and built well4#aa ,when you inspect the farm1 look to see how many wine presses and storage vats there are2 where there are none of these you can judge what the harvest is4 ,on the other hand1 it is not the number of farming implements1 but what is done with them1 that counts4 ,where you find few tools1 it is not an expensive farm to operate4 ,know that with a farm1 as with a man1 however productive it may be1 if it has the spending habit1 not much will be left over4#ab ,of the duties of the owner4 7,,ii7 ,when you have arrived at your country house and have saluted your household1 you should make the rounds of the farm the same day1 if possible2 if not1 then certainly the next day4 ,when you have observed how the field work has progressed1#ac what things have been done1 and what remains undone1 you should summon your overseer the next day1 and should call for a report of what work has been done in good season and why it has not been possible to complete the rest1 and what wine and corn and other crops have been gathered4 ,when you are advised on these points you should make your own calculation of the time necessary for the work1 if there does not appear to you to have been enough accomplished4 ,the overseer will report that he himself has worked diligently1 but that some slaves have been sick and others truant1 the weather has been bad1 and that it has been necessary to work the public roads4 ,when he has given these and many other excuses1 you should recall to his attention the program of work which you had laid out for him on your last visit and compare it with the results attained4 ,if the weather has been bad1 count how many stormy days there have been1 and rehearse what work could have been done despite the rain1 such as washing and pitching the wine vats1 cleaning out the barns1 sorting the grain1 hauling out and composting the manure1 cleaning seed1 mending the old gear1 and making new1 mending the smocks and hoods furnished for the hands4 ,on feast days the old ditches should be mended1 the public roads worked1 briers cut down1 the garden dug1 the meadow cleaned1 the hedges trimmed and the clippings collected and burned1 the fish pond cleaned out4 ,on such days1 furthermore1 the slaves' rations should be cut down as compared with what is allowed when they are working in the fields in fine weather4 ,when this routine has been discussed quietly and with good humour and is thoroughly understood by the overseer1 you should give orders for the completion of the work which has been neglected4 ,the accounts of money1 supplies and provisions should then be considered4 ,the overseer should report what wine and oil has been sold1 what price he got1 what is on hand1 and what remains for sale4 ,security should be taken for such accounts as ought to be secured4 ,all other unsettled matters should be agreed upon4 ,if any thing is needed for the coming year1 it should be bought2 every thing which is not needed should be sold4 ,whatever there is for lease should be leased4 ,orders should be given 7and take care that they are in writing7 for all work which next it is desired to have done on the farm or let to contract4 ,you should go over the cattle and determine what is to be sold4 ,you should sell the oil1 if you can get your price1 the surplus wine and corn1 the old cattle1 the worn out oxen1 and the cull sheep1 the wool and the hides1 the old and sick slaves1 and if any thing else is superfluous you should sell that4 ,the appetite of the good farmer is to sell1 not to buy4#ad 7,,iv7 ,be a good neighbour4 ,do not roughly give offence to your own people4 ,if the neighbourhood regards you kindly1 you will find a readier market for what you have to sell1 you will more easily get your work done1 either on the place or by contract4 ,if you build1 your neighbours will aid you with their services1 their cattle and their materials4 ,if any misfortune should overtake you 7which ,god forbid67 they will protect you with kindly interest4#ae ,of laying out the farm 7,i7 ,if you ask me what is the best disposition to make of your estate1 ,i would say that should you have bought a farm of one hundred jugera 7about #ff acres7 all told1#af in the best situation1 it should be planted as follows3 #a a vineyard1 if it promises a good yield1 #b an irrigated garden1 #c an osier bed1 #d an olive yard1 #e a meadow1 #f a corn field1 #g a wood lot1 #h a cultivated orchard1 and #i a mast grove#ag4 7,,iii7 ,in his youth1 the farmer ought1 diligently to plant his land1 but he should ponder before he builds4 ,planting does not require reflection1 but demands action4 ,it is time enough to build when you have reached your thirty-sixth year1 if you have farmed your land well meanwhile4 ,when you do build1 let your buildings be proportioned to your estate1 and your estate to your buildings#ah4 ,it is fitting that the farm buildings should be well constructed1 that you should have ample oil cellars and wine vats1 and a good supply of casks1 so that you can wait for high prices1 something which will redound to your honour1 your profit and your self-respect4 7,,iv7 ,build your dwelling house in accordance with your means4 ,if you build well in a good situation and on a good property1 and furnish the house suitably for country life1 you will come there more often and more willingly#ai4 ,the farm will then be better1 fewer mistakes will be made1 and you will get larger crops4 ,the face of the master is good for the land4#bj 7,,vi7 ,plant elm trees along the roads and fence rows1 so that you may have the leaves to feed the sheep and cattle1 and the timber will be available if you need it4 ,if any where there are banks of streams or wet places1 there plant reeds2 and surround them with willows that the osiers may serve to tie the vines4 7,,vii7 ,it is most convenient to set out the land nearest the house as an orchard1 whence fire wood and faggots may be sold and the supply of the master obtained4 ,in this enclosure should be planted every thing fitting to the land and vines should be married to the trees4#ba 7,,viii7 ,near the house lay out also a garden with garland flowers and vegetables#bb of all kinds1 and set it about with myrtle hedges1 both white and black1 as well as ,delphic and ,cyprian laurel4 ,of stocking the farm 7,x7 ,an olive farm of two hundred and forty jugera 7#afj acres7 ought to be stocked as follows3 an overseer1 a house keeper1 five labourers1 three ox drivers1 one swineherd1 one ass driver1 one shepherd2 in all thirteen hands3 three pair of oxen1#bc three asses with pack saddles1 to haul out the manure1 one other ass to turn the mill1 and one hundred sheep4#bd ,of the duties of the overseer4#be 7,v7 ,these are the duties of the overseer3 ,he should maintain discipline4 ,he should observe the feast days4 ,he should respect the rights of others and steadfastly uphold his own4 ,he should settle all quarrels among the hands2 if any one is at fault he should administer the punishment4 ,he should take care that no one on the place is in want1 or lacks food or drink2 in this respect he can afford to be generous1 for he will thus more easily prevent picking and stealing4#bf ,unless the overseer is of evil mind1 he will himself do no wrong1 but if he permits wrong-doing by others1 the master should not suffer such indulgence to pass with impunity4 ,he should show appreciation of courtesy1 to encourage others to practise it4 ,he should not be given to gadding or conviviality1 but should be always sober4 ,he should keep the hands busy1 and should see that they do what the master has ordered4 ,he should not think that he knows more than his master4 ,the friends of the master should be his friends1 and he should give heed to those whom the master has recommended to him4 ,he should confine his religious practices to church on ,sunday1 or to his own house4#bg ,he should lend money to no man unbidden by the master1 but what the master has lent he should collect4 ,he should never lend any seed reserved for sowing1 feed1 corn1 wine1 or oil1 but he should have relations with two or three other farms with which he can exchange things needed in emergency4 ,he should state his accounts with his master frequently4 ,he should not keep any hired men or day hands longer than is necessary4 ,he should not sell any thing without the knowledge of the master1 nor should he conceal any thing from the master4 ,he should not have any hangers-on1 nor should he consult any soothsayer1 fortune teller1 necromancer1 or astrologer4 ,he should not spare seed in sowing1 for that is bad economy4 ,he should strive to be expert in all kinds of farm work1 and1 without exhausting himself1 often lend a hand4 ,by so doing1 he will better understand the point of view of his hands1 and they will work more contentedly2 moreover1 he will have less inclination to gad1 his health will be better1 and he will sleep more refreshingly4 ,first up in the morning1 he should be the last to go to bed at night2 and before he does1 he should see that the farm gates are closed1 and that each of the hands is in his own bed1 that the stock have been fed4 ,he should see that the best of care is taken of the oxen1 and should pay the highest compliments to the teamsters who keep their cattle in the best condition4 ,he should see to it that the ploughs and plough shares are kept in good repair4 ,plan all the work in ample time1 for so it is with farm work1 if one thing is done late1 every thing will be late4 7,,xxxix7 ,when it rains try to find some thing to do indoors4 ,clean up1 rather than remain idle4 ,remember that while work may stop1 expenses still go on4 ,of the duties of the housekeeper 7,,cxliii7 ,the overseer should be responsible for the duties of the housekeeper4 ,if the master has given her to you for a wife1 you should be satisfied with her1 and she should respect you4 ,require that she be not given to wasteful habits2 that she does not gossip with the neighbours and other women4 ,she should not receive visitors either in the kitchen or in her own quarters4 ,she should not go out to parties1 nor should she gad about4#bh ,she should not practise religious observances1 nor should she ask others to do so for her without the permission of the master or the mistress4 ,remember that the master practises religion for the entire household4 ,she should be neat in appearance and should keep the house swept and garnished4 ,every night before she goes to bed she should see that the hearth is swept and clean4 ,on the ,kalends1 the ,ides1 the ,nones1 and on all feast days1 she should hang a garland over the hearth4 ,on those days also she should pray fervently to the household gods4 ,she should take care that she has food cooked for you and for the hands4 ,she should have plenty of chickens and an abundance of eggs4#bi ,she should diligently put up all kinds of preserves every year4 ,of the hands 7,,lvi7 ,the following are the customary allowances for food3 ,for the hands1 four pecks of meal for the winter1 and four and one-half for the summer4 ,for the overseer1 the housekeeper1 the wagoner1 the shepherd1 three pecks each4 ,for the slaves1 four pounds of bread for the winter1 but when they begin to cultivate the vines this is increased to five pounds until the figs are ripe1 then return to four pounds4 7,,lvii7 ,the sum of the wine allowed for each hand per annum is eight quadrantals1 or ,amphora1 but add in the proportion as they do work4 ,ten quadrantals per annum is not too much to allow them to drink4 7,,lviii7 ,save the wind fall olives as much as possible as relishes for the hands4 ,later set aside such of the ripe olives as will make the least oil4 ,be careful to make them go as far as possible4 ,when the olives are all eaten1 give them fish pickles and vinegar4 ,one peck of salt per annum is enough for each hand4 7,,lix7 ,allow each hand a smock and a cloak every other year4 ,as often as you give out a smock or cloak to any one take up the old one1 so that caps can be made out of it4 ,a pair of heavy wooden shoes should be allowed every other year4 ,of draining 7,,xliii7 ,if the land is wet1 it should be drained with trough shaped ditches dug three feet wide at the surface and one foot at the bottom and four feet deep4 ,blind these ditches with rock4 ,if you have no rock then fill them with green willow poles braced crosswise4 ,if you have no poles1 fill then with faggots4 ,then dig lateral trenches three feet deep and four feet wide in such way that the water will flow from the trenches into the ditches4 7,,clv7 ,in the winter surface water should be drained off the fields4 ,on hillsides courses should be kept clear for the water to flow off4 ,during the rainy season at the beginning of ,autumn is the greatest risk from water4 ,when it begins to rain all the hands should go out with picks and shovels and clear out the drains so that the water may flow off into the roads1 and the crops be protected4 ,of preparing the seed bed 7,,lxi7 ,what is the first principle of good agriculture8 ,to plough well4 ,what is the second8 ,to plough again2 and the third is to manure4 ,when you plough corn land1 plough well and in good weather1 lest you turn a cloddy furrow4 ,the other things of good agriculture are to sow seed plentifully1 to thin the young sprouts1 and to hill up the roots with earth4 7,v7 ,never plough rotten land#cj nor drive flocks or carts across it4 ,if care is not taken about this1 the land so abused will be barren for three years4 ,of manure 7,v7 ,plan to have a big compost heap and take the best of care of the manure4 ,when it is hauled out see that it is well rotted and spread4 ,the ,autumn is the time to do this4 7,,xxxvii7 ,you can make manure of litter1 lupine straw1 chaff1 bean stalks1 husks and the leaves of ilex and of oak4#ca 7,,xxx7 ,fold your sheep on the land which you are about to seed1 and there feed them leaves4#cb ,of soil improvement 7,,xxxvii7 ,the things which are harmful to corn land are to plough the ground when it is rotten1 and to plant chick peas which are harvested with the straw and are salt4 ,barley1 fenugreek and pulse all exhaust corn land1 as well as all other things which are harvested with the straw4 ,do not plant nut trees in the corn land4 ,on the other hand1 lupines1 field beans and vetch manure corn land4#cc 7,,vi7 ,where the soil is rich and fertile1 without shade1 there the corn land ought to be4 ,where the land lies low1 plant rape1 millet1 and panic grass4 ,of forage crops 7,,viii7 ,if you have a water meadow you will not want forage1 but if not then sow an upland meadow1 so that hay may not be lacking4 7,,liii7 ,save your hay when the times comes1 and beware lest you mow too late4 ,mow before the seed is ripe4 ,house the best hay by itself1 so that you may feed it to the draft cattle during the spring ploughing1 before the clover is mature4 7,,xxvii7 ,sow1 for feed for the cattle1 clover1 vetch1 fenugreek1 field beans and pulse4 ,sow these crops a second and a third time4 ,of planting 7,,xxxiv7 ,wherever the land is cold and wet1 sow there first1 and last of all in the warmest places4 ,of pastures 7,l7 ,manure the pastures in early spring in the dark of the moon1 when the west wind begins to blow4 ,when you close your pastures 7to the stock7 clean them and root out all weeds4 ,of feeding live stock 7,,xxx7 ,as long as they are available1 feed green leaves of elm1 poplar1 oak and fig to your cattle and sheep4 7,v7 ,store leaves1 also1 to be fed to the sheep before they have withered4#cd 7,,xxx7 ,take the best of care of your dry fodder1 which you house for the winter1 and remember always how long the winter may last4 7,,iv7 ,be sure you have well constructed stables furnished with substantial stalls and equipped with latticed feed racks4 ,the intervals between the bars of the racks should be one foot4 ,if you build them in this way1 the cattle will not waste their food4 7,,liv7 ,this is the way that provender should be prepared and fed3 ,when the seeding is finished1 gather mast and soak it in water4 ,feed a measure of it every day to each steer2 or if they have not been worked it will be sufficient to let them pasture the mast beds4 ,another good feed is a measure of grape husks which you shall have preserved in jars4 ,by day turn the cattle out and at night feed twenty-five pounds of hay to each steer4 ,if hay is short1 feed the leaves of the ilex and ivy4#ce ,stack the straw of wheat1 barley1 beans1 vetch and lupine1 indeed all the grain straws1 but pick out and house the best of it4 ,scatter your straw with salt and you can then feed it in place of hay4 ,when in the spring you begin to feed 7more heavily to prepare for work71 feed a measure of mast or of grape husks1 or a measure of ground lupines1 and fifteen pounds of hay4 ,when the clover is ripe1 feed that first4 ,gather it by hand so that it will bloom a second time1 for what you harvest with the sickle blooms no more4 ,feed clover until it is dry1 then feed vetch and then panic grass1 and after the panic grass feed elm leaves4 ,if you have poplar1 mix that with the elm so that the elm may last the longer4 ,if you have no elm feed oak and fig leaves4 ,nothing is more profitable than to take good care of your cattle4 ,cattle should not be put out to graze except in winter when they are not worked2 for when they eat green stuff they expect it all the time1 and it is then necessary to muzzle them while they plough4 ,of the care of live stock 7,v7 ,the flocks and herds should be well supplied with litter and their feet kept clean4 ,if litter is short1 haul in oak leaves1 they will serve as bedding for sheep and cattle4 ,beware of scab among the sheep and cattle4 ,this comes from hunger and exposure to rain4 7,,lxxii7 ,to prevent the oxen from wearing down their hoofs1 anoint the bottom of the hoof with liquid pepper before driving them on the highroad4 7,,lxxiii7 ,take care that during the summer the cattle drink only sweet and fresh water4 ,their health depends on it4 7,,xcvi7 ,to prevent scab among sheep1 make a mixture of equal parts of well strained amurca1#cf of water in which lupine has been steeped1 and of lees of good wine4 ,after shearing1 anoint all the flock with this mixture1 and let them sweat profusely for two or three days4 ,then dip them in the sea4 ,if you have no sea water1 make salt water and dip then in that4 ,if you will do this they will suffer no scab1 they will have more and better wool and they will not be molested by ticks4 7,,lxxi7 ,if an ox begins to sicken1 give him without delay a raw hen's egg and make him swallow it whole4 ,the next day make him drink from a wooden bowl a measure of wine in which has been scraped the head of an onion4 ,both the ox and his attendant should do these things fasting and standing upright4 7,,cii7 ,if a serpent shall bite an ox1 or any other quadruped1 take a cup of that extract of fennel1 which the physicians call smyrnean1 and mix it with a measure of old wine4 ,inject this through his nostrils and at the same time poultice the wound with hogs' dung4#cg ,you can treat a man the same way4 7,,clx7 ,if a bone is dislocated it can be made sound by this incantation4 ,take a green reed four or five feet long1 split it down the middle and let two men hold the pieces against your hips4 ,begin then to chant as follows3 ,in ,alio4 ,s4,f4 ,motas ,vaeta1 ,daries ,dardaries ,astataries ,dissunapiter and continue until the free ends of the reed are brought slowly together in front of you4 ,meanwhile1 wave a knife above the reeds1 and when they come together and one touches the other1 seize them in your hand and cut them right and left4 ,these pieces of reed bound upon a dislocated or fractured bone will cure it4#ch ,but every day repeat the incantation1 or in place of it this one3 ,huat ,hanat ,huat ,ista ,pista ,sista ,domiabo ,damnaustra#ci ,of cakes and salad#dj 7,,lxxv7 ,this is the recipe for cheese cake 7libum73 ,bray well two pounds of cheese in a mortar1 and1 when this is done1 pour in a pound of corn meal 7or1 if you want to be more dainty1 a half pound of flour7 and mix it thoroughly with the cheese4 ,add one egg and beat it well4 ,pat into a cake1 place it on leaves and bake slowly on a hot hearth stone under a dish4 7,,cxix7 ,this is the recipe for olive salad 7epityrum73 ,select some white1 black and mottled olives and stone them4 ,mix and cut them up4 ,add a dressing of oil1 vinegar1 coriander1 cumin1 fennel1 rue and mint4 ,mix well in an earthen ware dish1 and serve with oil4 7,,cxxi7 ,this is the recipe for must cake 7mustaceus73 ,sprinkle a peck of wheat flour with must4 ,add anise1 cumin1 two pounds of lard1 a pound of cheese and shredded laurel twigs4 ,when you have kneaded the dough1 put laurel leaves under it and so bake4 ,of curing hams 7,,clxii7 ,this is the way to cure hams in jars or tubs3 ,when you have bought your hams trim off the hocks4 ,take a half peck 7semodius7 of ground ,roman salt for each ham4 ,cover the bottom of the jar or tub with salt and put in a ham1 skin down4 ,cover the whole with salt and put another ham on top1 and cover this in the same manner4 ,be careful that meat does not touch meat4 ,so proceed1 and when you have packed all the hams1 cover the top with salt so that no meat can be seen1 and smooth it out even4 ,when the hams have been in salt five days1 take them all out with the salt and repack them1 putting those which were on top at the bottom4 ,cover them in the same way with salt and press them down4 ,after the twelfth day remove the hams finally1 brush off the salt and hang them for two days in the wind4 ,on the third day wipe them off clean with a sponge and rub them with 7olive7 oil4 ,then hang them in smoke for two days1 and on the third day rub them with a mixture of 7olive7 oil and vinegar4 ,then hang them in the meat house1 and neither bats nor worms will touch them4#da ,,varro',s ,,rerum ,,rusticarum ,,libri ,,tres ,,book ,i ,,the ,,husbandry ,,of ,,agriculture ,introduction3 the literary tradition of country life ,i ,had ,i leisure1 ,fundania1 this book would be more worthy of you1 but ,i write as best ,i may1 conscious always of the necessity of haste3 for1 if1 as the saying is1 all life is but a bubble1 the more fragile is that of an old man1 and my eightieth year admonishes me to pack my fardel and prepare for the long journey4 ,you have bought a farm and wish to increase its fertility by good cultivation1 and you ask me what ,i would do with it were it mine4 ,not only while ,i am still alive will ,i try to advise you in this1 but ,i will make my counsel available to you after ,i am dead4 ,for as it befel the ,sibyl to have been of service to mankind not alone while she lived1 but even to the uttermost generations of men after her demise 7for we are wont after so many years still to have solemn recourse to her books for guidance in interpretation of strange portents71 so may not ,i1 while ,i still live1 bequeath my counsel to my nearest and dearest4#db ,i will then write three books for you1 to which you may have recourse for guidance in all things which must be done in the management of a farm4 ,and since1 as men say1 the gods aid those who propitiate them1 ,i will begin my book by invoking divine approval1 not like ,homer and ,ennius1 from the ,muses1 nor indeed from the twelve great gods of the city whose golden images stand in the forum1 six male and as many female1 but from a solemn council of those twelve divinities who are the tutelaries of husbandmen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,first3 ,i call upon ,father ,jupiter and ,mother ,earth1 who fecundate all the processes of agriculture in the air and in the soil1 and hence are called the great parents4 ,second3 ,i invoke the ,sun and the ,moon by whom the seasons for sowing and reaping are measured4 ,third3 ,i invoke ,ceres and ,bacchus because the fruits they mature are most necessary to life1 and by their aid the land yields food and drink4 ,fourth3 ,i invoke ,robigus and ,flora by whose influence the blight is kept from crop and tree1 and in due season they bear fruit 7for which reason is the annual festival of the robigalia celebrated in honour of ,robigus1 and that of the floralia in honour of ,flora74#dc ,next3 ,i supplicate ,minerva1 who protects the olive2 and ,venus1 goddess of the garden1 wherefore is she worshipped at the rural wine festivals4 ,and last3 ,i adjure ,lympha1 goddess of the fountains1 and ,bonus ,eventus1 god of good fortune1 since without water all vegetation is starved and stunted and without due order and good luck all tillage is in vain4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and so having paid my duty to the gods1 ,i proceed to rehearse some conversations#dd concerning agriculture in which ,i have recently taken part4 ,from them you will derive all the practical instruction you require1 but in case any thing is lacking and you wish further authority1 ,i refer you to the treatises of the ,greeks and of our own countrymen4 ,the ,greek writers who have treated incidentally of agriculture are more than fifty in number4 ,those whom you may consult with profit are ,hieron of ,sicily and ,attalus ,philometor1 among the philosophers2 ,democritus the physicist2 ,xenophon the disciple of ,socrates2 ,aristotle and ,theophrastus1 the peripatetics2 ,archytas the pythagorean2 likewise the ,athenian ,amphilochus1 ,anaxipolis of ,thasos1 ,apollodorus of ,lemnos1 ,aristophanes of ,mallos1 ,antigonus of ,cyme1 ,agathocles of ,chios1 ,apollonius of ,pergamum1 ,aristandrus of ,athens1 ,bacchius of ,miletus1 ,bion of ,soli1 ,chaeresteus and ,chaereas of ,athens1 ,diodorus of ,priene1 ,dion of ,colophon1 ,diophanes of ,nicaea1 ,epigenes of ,rhodes1 ,evagon of ,thasos1 ,euphronius of ,athens1 and his name sake of ,amphipolis1 ,hegesias of ,maronea1 the two ,menanders1 one of ,priene1 the other of ,heraclaea1 ,nicesius of ,maronea1 ,pythion of ,rhodes4 ,among the rest whose countries ,i do not know1 are ,andiotion1 ,aeschrion1 ,aristomenes1 ,athenagoras1 ,crates1 ,dadis1 ,dionysius1 ,euphiton1 ,euphorion1 ,eubulus1 ,lysimachus1 ,mnaseas1 ,menestratus1 ,plentiphanes1 ,persis1 and ,theophilus4 ,all those whom ,i have named wrote in prose1 but there are those also who have written in verse1 as ,hesiod of ,ascra and ,menecrates of ,ephesus4 ,the agricultural writer of the greatest reputation is1 however1 ,mago the ,carthaginian#de who wrote in the ,punic tongue and collected in twenty-eight books all the wisdom which before him had been scattered in many works4 ,cassius ,dionysius of ,utica translated ,mago into ,greek in twenty books 7and dedicated his work to the praetor ,sextilius71 and notwithstanding that he reduced ,mago by eight books he cited freely from the ,greek authors whom ,i have named4 ,diophanes made a useful digest of ,cassius in six books1 which he dedicated to ,deiotarus1 ,king of ,bithynia4 ,i have ventured to compress the subject into the still smaller compass of three books1 the first on the husbandry of agriculture1 the second on the husbandry of live stock and the third on the husbandry of the steading4 ,from the first book ,i have excluded all those things which ,i do not deem to relate immediately to agriculture3 thus having first limited my subject ,i proceed to discuss it1 following its natural divisions4 ,my information has been derived from three sources1 my own experience1 my reading1 and what ,i have heard from others4 ,of the definition of agriculture a4 ,what it is not ,,ii4 ,on the holiday which we call ,sementivae ,i came to the temple of ,tellus at the invitation of the ,sacristan 7,i was taught by my ancestors to call him ,aeditumus but the modern purist tells me ,i must say ,aedituus74 ,there ,i found assembled ,c4 ,fundanius1 my father-in-law1 ,c4 ,agrius1 a ,roman ,knight and a disciple of the ,socratic school1 and ,p4 ,agrasius1 of the ,revenue service3 they were gazing on a map of ,italy painted on the wall4 ,what are you doing here8 said ,i4 ,has the festival of the seed-sowing drawn you hither to spend your holiday after the manner of our ancestors1 by praying for good crops8 ,we are here1 said ,agrius1 for the same reason that you are1 ,i imagine--because the ,sacristan has invited us to dinner4 ,if this be true1 as your nod admits1 wait with us until he returns1 for he was summoned by his chief1 the aedile1 and has not yet returned though he left word for us to wait for him4 ,until he comes then1 said ,i1 let us make a practical application of the ancient proverb that ',the ,roman conquers by sitting down4' ,you're right1 cried ,agrius1 and1 remembering that the first step of a journey is the most difficult1#df he lead the way to the benches forthwith and we followed4 ,when we were seated ,agrasius spoke up4 ,you who have travelled over many lands1 said he1 have you seen any country better cultivated than ,italy8 ,i1 for one1 don't believe1 replied ,agrius1 that there is any country which is so intensely cultivated4 ,by a very natural division ,eratosthenes has divided the earth into two parts1 that facing ,south and that facing ,north3 and as without doubt the ,north is healthier than the ,south1 so it is more fertile1 for a healthy country is always the most fertile4 ,it must be admitted then that the ,north is fitter for cultivation than ,asia1 and particularly is this true of ,italy2 first1 because ,italy is in ,europe1 and1 second1 because this part of ,europe has a more temperate climate than the interior4 ,for almost everlasting winter grips the lands to the ,north of us4 ,nor is this to be wondered at since there are regions within the ,arctic ,circle and at the pole where the sun is not seen for six months at a time4 ,yea1 it is even said that it is not possible to sail a ship in those parts because the very sea is frozen over4 ,would you think it possible1 said ,fundanius1 for any thing to grow in such a region1 and1 if it did grow1 how could it be cultivated8 ,the tragedian ,pacuvius has spoken sooth where he says3 ',should sun or night maintain e'er lasting reign1 ,then all the grateful fruits of earth must die1 ,nipped by the cold1 or blasted by the heat4' ,even here in this pleasant region1 where night and day revolve punctually1 ,i am not able to live in summer unless ,i divide the day with my appointed midday nap4 ,how is it possible to plant or to cultivate or to harvest any thing there where the days and nights are six months long4 ,on the other hand1 what useful thing is there which does not only grow but flourish in ,italy8 ,what spelt shall ,i compare with that of ,campania8 ,what wheat with that of ,apulia8 ,what wine with that of ,falernum8 ,what oil with that of ,venafrum8 ,is not ,italy so covered with fruit trees that it seems one vast orchard8 ,is ,phrygia1 which ,homer calls ,greek3 ampeloessa1 more teeming with vines1 or is ,argos1 which the same poet calls ,greek3 polupuros more rich in corn8#dg ,in what land does one jugerum produce ten1 nay even fifteen1 cullei of wine1 as in some regions of ,italy8 ,has not ,m4 ,cato written in his book of ,origines ',that region lying this side of ,ariminium and beyond ,picenum1 which was allotted to colonists1 is called ,roman ,gaul4 ,there in several places a single jugerum of land produces ten cullei of wine4' ,is it not the same in the region of ,faventia where the vines are called tre centaria because a jugerum yields three hundred amphorae of wine1 and1 looking at me1 he added1 indeed ,l4 ,martius1 your chief engineer1 said that the vines on his ,faventine farm yielded that much4#dh ,the ,italian farmer looks chiefly for two things in considering a farm1 whether it will yield a harvest proportioned to the capital and labour he must invest1 and whether the location is healthy4 ,whoever neglects either of these considerations and despite them proposes to carry on a farm1 is a fool and should be taken in charge by a committee of his relatives4#di ,for no sane man is willing to spend on an agricultural operation time and money which he knows he cannot recoup1 nor even if he sees a likely profit1 if it must be at the risk of losing all by an evil climate4 ,but there are here present those who can discourse on this subject with more authority than ,i1 for ,i see ,c4 ,licinius ,stolo and ,cn4 ,tremelius ,scrofa approaching4 ,it was the ancestor of the first of these who brought in the law for the regulation of land-holding2 for the law which forbade a ,roman citizen to own more than #ejj jugera of land was proposed by that ,licinius who acquired the cognomen of ,stolo on account of his diligence in cultivating his land3 he is said to have dug around his trees so thoroughly that there could not be found on his farm a single one of those suckers which spring up from the ground at the roots of trees and are called stolones4 ,of the same family was that other ,c4 ,licinius who1 when he was tribune of the people1 #cfe years after the expulsion of the ,kings1 first transferred the ,sovereign function of law making from the ,comitium to the ,forum1 thus as it were constituting that area the 'farm' of the entire people4#ej ,the other whom ,i see come hither is ,cn4 ,tremelius ,scrofa1 your colleague on the ,committee of ,twenty for the division of the ,campanian lands1 a man distinguished by all the virtues and considered to be the ,roman most expert in agriculture4#ea ,and justly so1 ,i exclaimed1 for his farms are a more pleasing spectacle to many on account of their clean cultivation than the stately palaces of others2#eb when one goes to visit his country place1 one sees granaries and not picture galleries1 as at the 'farm' of ,lucullus4#ec ,indeed1 ,i added1 the apple market at the head of the ,sacred ,way is the very image of ,scrofa's fruit house4 ,as the new comers joined us1 ,stolo inquired3 ,have we arrived after dinner is over1 for we do not see ,l4 ,fundilius who invited us4 ,be of good cheer1 replied ,agrius1 for not only has that egg which indicates the last lap of the chariot race in the games at the circus not yet been removed1 but we have not even seen that other egg which is the first course of dinner4#ed ,and so until the ,sacristan returns and joins us do you discourse to us of the uses or the pleasures of agriculture1 or of both4 ,for now the sceptre of agriculture is in your hands1 which formerly1 they say1 belonged to ,stolo4 ,first of all1 began ,scrofa1 we must have a definition4 ,are we to be limited in discussing agriculture to the planting of the land or are we to touch also on those other occupations which are carried on in the country1 such as feeding sheep and cattle4 ,for ,i have observed that those who write on agriculture1 whether in ,greek or ,punic or ,latin1 wander widely from their subject4 ,i do not think that those authors should be imitated in that1 said ,stolo1 for ,i deem them to have done better who have confined the subject to the straitest limits1 excluding all considerations which are not strictly pertinent to the subject4 ,wherefore the subject of grazing1 which many writers treat as a part of agriculture1 seems to me to belong rather to a treatise on live stock4 ,that the occupations are different is apparent from the difference in the names of those we put in charge of them1 for we call one the farmer 7villicus7 and the other the herdsman 7magister pecoris74 ,the farmer is charged with the cultivation of the land and is so called from the villa or farm house to which he hauls in the crops from the fields and from which he hauls them away when they are sold4 ,wherefore also the peasants say vea for via1 deriving their word for the road over which they haul from the name of the vehicle in which they do the hauling1 vectura1 and by the same derivation vella for villa1 the farm house to and from which they haul4 ,in like manner the trade of a carrier is called vellatura from the practice of driving a vectura1 or cart4 ,surely1 said ,fundanius1 feeding cattle is one thing and agriculture is another1 but they are related4 ,just as the right pipe of the tibia is different from the left pipe1 yet are they complements because while the one leads1 it is to carry the air1 and the other follows1 it is for the accompaniment4 ,and1 to push your analogy further1 it may be added1 said ,i1 that the pastoral life1 like the tibia dextra1 has led and given the cue to the agricultural life1 as we have on the authority of that learned man ,dicaearchus who1 in his ,life of ,greece from the earliest times1 shows us how in the beginning men pursued a purely pastoral life and knew not how to plough nor to plant trees nor to prune them2 only later taking up the pursuits of agriculture2 whence it may be said that agriculture is in harmony with the pastoral life but is subordinate to it1 as the left pipe is to the right pipe4 ,beware1 exclaimed ,agrius1 of pushing your musical analogy too far1 for you would not only rob the farmer of his cattle and the shepherd of his livelihood but you would even break the law of the land in which it is written that a farmer may not graze a young orchard with that pestiferous animal which astrology has placed in the heavens near the ,bull4 ,see here1 ,agrius1 said ,fundanius1 let there be no mistake about this4 ,the law you cite applies only to certain designated kinds of cattle1 as indeed there are kinds of cattle which are the foes and the bane of agriculture such as those you have mentioned--the goats--for by their nibbling they ruin young plantations1 and not the least vines and olives4 ,but1 because the goat is the greatest offender in this respect1 we have a rule for him which works both ways1 namely3 that victims of his family are grateful offerings on the altar of one god but should never come near the fane of another2 since by reason of the same hate one god is not willing even to see a goat and the other is pleased to see him killed4 ,so it is that goats found among the vines are sacrificed to ,father ,bacchus as it were that they should pay the penalty of their evil doing with their lives2 while on the contrary nothing of the goat kind is ever sacrificed to ,minerva1 because they are said to make the olive sterile even by licking it1 for their very spittle is poison to the fruit4 ,for this reason goats are never driven into the ,acropolis of ,athens1 except once a year for a certain necessary sacrifice1 lest the olive tree1 which is said to have its origin there1#ee might be touched by a goat4 ,no kind of cattle1 said ,i1 are of any use to agriculture except those which aid in the cultivation of the land1 as they do when they are yoked to the plough4 ,if this was so1 said ,agrasius1 how could we afford to take cattle off the land1 since it is from our flocks and herds that we derive the manure which is of the greatest benefit to our purely agricultural operations4 ,on your argument of convenience1 said ,agrius1 we might claim that slave dealing was a branch of agriculture1 if they were agricultural slaves which we dealt in4 ,the error lies in the assumption that because cattle are good for the land1 they make crops grow on the land4 ,it does not follow1 for by that reasoning other things would become part of agriculture which have nothing to do with it3 as for example spinsters and weavers and other craftsmen which you might keep on your farm4 ,let us then agree1 said ,scrofa1 to exclude live stock from our consideration of the art of agriculture4 ,does any one want to exclude any thing else8 ,are we to follow the book of the two ,sasernas1 ,i inquired1 and discuss whether the manufacture of pottery is more related to agriculture than mining for silver or other metals8 ,doubtless the material comes out of the ground in both cases1 but no one claims that quarrying for stone or washing sand has any thing to do with agriculture1 so why bring in the potter8 ,it is not a question of what comes out of the land1 nor of what can be done profitably on a farm1 for if it were it might as well be argued that had one a farm lying along a frequented road and a site on it convenient to travellers1 it would be the farmer's business to build a cross-roads tavern4 ,but surely1 however profitable this might prove1 it would not make the speculation any part of agriculture4 ,it is not1 ,i repeat1 whether the business is carried on on account of the land1 nor out of the land1 that it may be classed as a part of agriculture1 but only if from planting the land one gains a profit4 ,you are jealous of this great writer1 interrupted ,stolo4 ,because of his unfortunate potteries you rebuke him captiously and give him no credit for all the admirable things which he says about matters which certainly relate to agriculture4 ,at this sally1 ,scrofa1 who knew the book and justly contemned it1 smiled1 whereupon ,agrasius1 who thought that he and ,stolo alone knew the book demanded of ,scrofa a quotation from it4 ,here is his recipe for getting rid of bugs1 said ,scrofa4 ',steep a wild cucumber in water and where-ever you sprinkle it the bugs will disappear1' and again1 ',grease your bed with ox gall mixed with vinegar4' ,fundanius looked at ,scrofa4 ,and yet ,saserna gives good advice even if it is in a book on agriculture1 he said4 ,yes1 by ,hercules1 said ,scrofa1 and especially in his recipe for removing superfluous hair1 in which he bids you take a yellow frog and stew it down to a third of its size and then rub the body with what is left4#ef ,i would rather cite1 said ,i1 ,sasernas' prescription for the malady from which ,fundanius suffers1 for his corns make wrinkles on his brow4 ,tell me1 pray1 quickly1 exclaimed ,fundanius1 for ,i had rather learn how to root out my corns than how to plant beet roots4 ,i will tell you1 said ,stolo1 in the very words he wrote it1 or at least as ,i heard ,tarquenna read it3 ',when a man's feet begin to hurt he should think of you to enable you to cure him4' ,i am thinking of you1 said ,fundanius1 now cure my feet4 ,listen to the incantation1 said ,stolo4 ',may the earth keep the malady1 ,may good health remain here4' ,saserna bids you chant this formula thrice nine times1 to touch the earth1 to spit and be sure that you do it all before breakfast4 ,you will find1 said ,i1 many other wonderful secrets in ,saserna1 all equally foreign to agriculture1 and so all to be left where they are4 ,but it must be admitted that such digressions are found in many other authors4 ,does not the agricultural treatise of the great ,cato himself fairly bristle with them1 as for instance his instructions how to make must cake and cheese cake1 and how to cure hams8 ,you forget1 said ,agrius1 his most important precept3 ',if you wish to drink freely and dine well in company1 you should eat five leaves of raw cabbage steeped in vinegar1 before sitting down to the table4' b4 ,what agriculture is ,,iii4 ,and so1 said ,agrasius1 as we have agreed upon and eliminated from the discussion all those things which agriculture is not1 it remains to discuss what it is4 ,is it an art1 and1 if so1 what are its principles and its purposes8 ,stolo turned to ,scrofa and said3 ,you are our senior in age1 in reputation and in experience1 you should speak4 ,and ,scrofa1 nothing loath1 began as follows3 ,in the first place1 agriculture is not only an art but an art which is as useful as it is important4 ,it is furthermore a science1 which teaches how every kind of land should be planted and cultivated1 and how to know what kind of land will produce the largest crops for the longest time4#eg ,the purposes of agriculture are profit and pleasure ,,iv4 ,the elements with which this science deals are the same as those which ,ennius says are the elements of the universe--water1 earth1 air and fire4 ,before sowing your seed it behooves you to study these elements because they are the origin of all growing things4 ,so prepared1 the farmer should direct his efforts to two ends3 profit and pleasure1#eh one solid the other agreeable3 but he should give the preference to the pursuit of profit4#ei ,and yet those who have regard for appearances in their farming1 as for instance by planting their orchards and olive yards in orderly array1 often add not only to the productiveness of the farm but as well to its saleability1 and so doubly increase the value of their estate4 ,for of two things of equal usefulness1 who would not prefer to buy the better looking8 ,the farm which is healthiest is the most valuable1 for there the profit is certain4 ,on the other hand1 on an unhealthy farm1 however fertile it may be1 misfortune dogs the steps of the farmer4 ,for where the struggle is against ,death1 there not only is the profit uncertain1 but one's very existence is constantly at risk3 and so agriculture becomes a gamble in which the farmer hazards both his life and his fortune4 ,and yet this risk can be diminished by forethought1 for1 when health depends upon climate1 we can do much to control nature and by diligence improve evil conditions4 ,if the farm is unhealthy by reason of the plight of the land itself1 or of the water supply1 or is exposed to the miasma which breeds in some localities1 or if the farm is too hot on account of the climate1 or is exposed to mischievous winds1 these discomforts can be mitigated by one who knows what to do and is willing to spend some money4 ,what is of the greatest importance in this respect is the situation of the farm buildings1 their plan and convenience1 and what is the aspect of their doors and gates and windows4 ,during the great plague1 ,hippocrates the physician saved not merely one farm but many cities because he knew this4 ,but why should ,i summon him as a witness3 for when the army and the fleet lay at ,corcyra#fj and all the houses were crowded with the sick and dying1 did not our ,varro here contrive to open new windows to the healthy ,north wind and close those which gave entrance to the infected breezes of the ,south1 to change doors and to do other such things1 and so succeed in restoring his comrades safe and sound to their native land8 ,the fourfold division of the study of agriculture ,v4 ,i have rehearsed the elements and the purposes of agriculture1 it now remains to consider in how many divisions this science is to be studied4 ,i have supposed these to be without number1 said ,agrius1 when ,i have read the many books which ,theophrastus wrote on ,the ,history of ,plants and ,the ,causes of ,vegetation4 ,these books1 said ,stolo1 have always seemed to me to be fitter for use in the schools of the philosophers than in the hands of a practical farmer4 ,i do not mean to say that they do not contain many things which are both useful and practical4 ,however that may be1 do you rather explain to us the divisions in which agriculture should be studied4 ,there are four chapters for the study of agriculture1 of the highest practical importance1 resumed ,scrofa1 namely3 #a ,what are the physical characteristics of the land to be cultivated1 including the constitution of the soil2 #b ,what labour and equipment are necessary for such cultivation2 #c ,what system of farming is to be practised2 #d ,what are the season8 at which the several farming operations are to be carried out4 ,each of these four chapters may be divided in at least two subdivisions3 ,the first into 7a7 a study of the soil1 and 7b7 a survey of the buildings and stabling4 ,the second into an enquiry as to 7c71 the men who will carry on the farming operations1 and 7d7 the implements they will require4 ,the third into 7e7 the kind of work to be planned1 and 7f7 where that work is to be done4 ,the fourth into what relates 7g7 to the annual revolution of the sun1 and 7h7 the monthly revolution of the moon4 ,i will speak of the four principal parts first1 and then in detail of the eight subdivisions4 #a ,,concerning ,,the ,,farm ,,itself ,how conformation of the land affects agriculture ,,vi4 ,four things must be considered in respect of the physical characteristics of the farm3 its conformation1 the quality of the soil1 its extent1 and whether it is naturally protected4 ,the conformation is either natural1 or artificial as the result of cultivation1 and may be good or bad in either case4 ,i will speak first of natural conformation1 of which there are three kinds3 plain1 hill and mountain--although there is a fourth kind made up of a combination of any two or all three of those mentioned1 as may be seen in many places4 ,a different system of cultivation is required for each of these three kinds of farms1 for without doubt that which is suited for the hot plain would not suit the windy mountain1 while a hill farm enjoys a more temperate climate than either of the other two kinds and so demands its own system of cultivation4 ,these distinctions are most apparent when the several characteristic conformations are of large extent1 as for example the heat and the humidity are greater in a broad plain1 like that of ,apulia1 while on a mountain like ,vesuvius the climate is usually fresher and so more healthy4 ,those who cultivate the lowlands feel the effects of their climate most in summer1 but they are able to do their planting earlier in the spring1 while those who dwell in the mountains suffer most from their climate in winter1 and both sow and reap at later seasons4 ,frequently the winter is more propitious to those who dwell in the plains because then the pastures are fresh there and the trees may be pruned more readily4 ,on the other hand the summer is more kindly in the mountains for then the upland grass is rich when the pastures of the plains are burnt1 and it is more comfortable to cultivate the trees in a keen air4 ,a lowland farm is best when it is gently sloping rather than absolutely flat1 because on a flat farm water cannot run off and so forms swampy places4 ,but it is a disadvantage to have the surface too rolling because that causes the water to collect and form ponds4 ,certain trees1 like the fir and the pine1 flourish most in the mountains on account of the eager air1 while in this region where it is more temperate the poplars and the willows thrive best4 ,again the arbute and the oak prefer the more fertile lands1 while the almond and the fig trees love the lowlands4#fa ,the growth on the low hills takes on more of the character of the plains1 on the high hills that of the mountains4 ,for these reasons the kind of crops to be planted must be suited to the physical characteristics of the farm1 as grain for the plains1 vines for the hills and forests for the mountains4 ,all these considerations should be weighed separately with reference to each of the three kinds of conformation4 ,,vii4 ,it seems to me1 said ,stolo1 that1 so far as concerns the natural situation of a farm1 ,cato's opinion is just4 ,he wrote1 you will recall1 that the best farm was one which lay at the foot of a mountain looking to the ,south4 ,scrofa resumed3 ,so far as concerns the laying out of the farm1 ,i maintain that the more appearances are considered the greater will be the profit1 as1 for instance1 orchards should be planted in straight lines arranged in quincunxes and at a reasonable distance apart4 ,it is a fact that1 because of their unintelligent plan of planting1 our ancestors made less wine and corn to the acre than we do4 ,the point is that if each plant is set with due reference to the others they occupy less land and are less likely to screen from one another the influence of the sun and the moon and the air4 ,this may be illustrated by an experiment3 you can press a parcel of nuts with their shells on into a measure having only two thirds of the capacity of what is required to contain them after they have been cracked1 because the shells keep them naturally compacted4 ,when trees are planted in rows the sun and the moon have access to them equally from all sides1 with the result that more raisins and olives are developed and then mature more quickly1 a double result with the double consequence of a larger crop of must and oil and a greater profit4 ,how character of soil affects agriculture ,we will now take up the second consideration in respect of the physical characteristics of a farm1 namely3 the quality of the soil1 which partly1 if not entirely1 determines whether it is considered a good or a bad farm3 for on this depends what crops can be planted and harvested and how they should be cultivated1 as it is not possible to plant everything successfully on the same soil4 ,for one soil is suitable for vines1 another for corn1 and others for other things4 ,in the island of ,crete1 near ,cortynia1 there is said to be a plane tree which does not lose its leaves even in winter--a phenomenon due doubtless to the quality of the soil4 ,there is another of the same kind in ,cyprus1 according to ,theophrastus4 ,likewise within sight of the city of ,sybaris 7which is now called ,thurii7 stands an oak having the same characteristic4 ,again at ,elephantine neither the vines nor the fig trees lose their leaves1 something that never happens with us4 ,for the same reason many trees bear fruit twice a year1 as do the vines near the sea at ,smyrna1 and the apples in the fields of ,consentinium4 ,the effect of soil appears also from the fact that those plants which bear most profusely in wild places produce better fruit under cultivation4 ,the same explanation applies to those plants which cannot live except in a marshy place1 or indeed in the very water3 they are even nice about the kind of water1 some grow in ponds like the reeds at ,reate1 others in streams like the alders in ,epirus1 some even in the sea like the palms and the squills of which ,theophrastus writes4 ,when ,i was in the army1 ,i saw in ,transalpine ,gaul1 near the ,rhine1 lands where neither the vine1 nor the olive1 nor the pear tree grew1 where they manured their fields with a white chalk which they dug out of the ground3#fb where they had no salt1 either mineral or marine1 but used in place of it the salty ashes obtained from burning a certain kind of wood4 ,stolo here interrupted4 ,you will recall1 he said1 that ,cato in comparing the different kinds of soil1 ranked them by their merit in nine classes according to what they would produce1 of which the first was that on which the vine would grow a plentiful supply of good wine2 the second that fit for an irrigated garden2 the third for an osier bed2 the fourth for an olive yard2 the fifth for a meadow2 the sixth for a corn field2 the seventh for a wood lot2 the eighth for a cultivated orchard1 and the ninth for a mast grove4 ,i know he wrote that1 replied ,scrofa1 but every one does not agree with him4 ,there are some who put a good pasture first1 and ,i am among them4 ,our ancestors were wont to call them not prala1 as we do1 but parata 7because they are always ready for use74 ,the sedile ,caesar ,vopicus1 in pleading a cause before the ,censors1 once said that the prairie of ,rosea was the nurse of ,italy1 because if one left his surveying instruments there on the ground over night they were lost next day in the growth of the grass4#fc 7,a digression on the maintenance of vineyards7 ,,viii4 ,there be those who assert that the cost of maintaining a vineyard eats up the profit4 ,what kind of vineyard8 ,i ask4 ,for there are several3 in one the vines grow on the ground without props1 as in ,spain2 in another1 which is the kind common in ,italy1 the vines climb and are trained either separately on props or one with another on a trellis1 which last is what is called marrying the vine4 ,there are four kinds of trellis in use--made out of poles1 of reeds1 of ropes and of vines themselves1 which are in use respectively in ,falerum1 in ,arpinum1 in ,brundisium and in ,mediolanum4 ,there are two methods of training the vine on trellises1 one upright1 as is done in the country of ,canusium2 the other crossed and interwoven1 as is the practice generally throughout ,italy4 ,if one obtains the material for his trellises from his own land1 the expense of maintaining that kind of vineyard is negligible1 nor is it burdensome if the material is procured from the neighbourhood4 ,such trellis material1 as has been described1 can be grown at home by planting willows1 reeds and rushes1 or some thing of that kind2 but if you propose to rely on the vines to form their own trellis1 then you must plant an arbustum where the vines can be trained on trees1 such as maples1 which the inhabitants of ,mediolanum use for that purpose2 or fig trees1 on which the people of ,canusium train their vines4 ,likewise there are four kinds of props used for the cultivation of unwedded vines2 first1 the planted post1 which is called ridicum and is best when fashioned out of oak or juniper2 second1 poles cut in the swamp1 and the more seasoned they are the longer they will last1 but it is the practice to reset them upside down when they rot out in the ground2 third1 for lack of some thing better1 a bundle of reeds tied together and thrust into a pointed tube of baked clay1 which is then planted in the ground and serves to preserve the reeds from water rot2 the fourth is what may be called the natural prop1 when vines are swung from tree to tree4 ,vines should be trained to the height of a man and the interval between the props should be sufficient to give room for a yoke of oxen to plough4 ,the least expensive kind of a vineyard is that which brings wine to the jug without the aid of any sort of prop4 ,there are two of this kind1 one in which the earth serves as a bed for the grapes1 as in many places in ,asia1 and where usually the foxes share the crop with man2#fd or1 if mice appear1 it is they who make the vintage1 unless you put a mouse trap in every vine1 as they do on the island of ,pandataria4 ,the other kind of vineyard1 is that where each shoot which promises to bear grapes is lifted from the earth and supported about two feet off the ground by a forked stick3 by this means the grapes1 as they form1 learn to hang as it were from a branch and do not have to be taught after the vintage2 they are held in place with a bit of cord or by that kind of tie which the ancients called a cestus4 ,as soon as the farmer sees the vintagers turn their backs he carries these props under cover for the winter so that he may use them another year without expense for that account4 ,in ,italy the people of ,reate practise this custom4 ,thus there are as many methods of cultivating the vine as there are kinds of soil4 ,for where the land is wet the vine must be trained high because when wine is being made and matured on the vine1 it needs sun1 not water--as when it is in the cup6 ,for this reason it was1 ,i think1 that first the vine was made to grow on trees4 ,of the different kinds of soil ,,ix4 ,it is expedient then1 as ,i was saying1 to study each kind of soil to determine for what it is1 and for what it is not1 suitable4 ,the word terra is used in three senses3 general1 particular and mixed4 ,it is a general designation when we speak of the orb of the earth1 the land of ,italy or any other country4 ,in this designation is included rock and sand and other such things4 ,in the second place1 terra is referred to particularly when it is spoken of without qualification or epithet4 ,in the third place1 which is the mixed sense1 when one speaks of terra as soil--that in which seeds are sown and developed2 as for example1 clay soil or rocky soil or others4 ,in this sense there are as many kinds of earth as there are when one speaks of it in the general sense1 on account of the mixtures of substances in it in varying quantities which make it of different heart and strength1 such as rock1 marble1 sand1 loam1 clay1 red ochre1 dust1 chalk1 gravel1 carbuncle 7which is a condition of soil formed by the burning of roots in the intense heat of the sun72 from which each kind of soil is called by a particular name1 in accordance with the substances of which it is composed1 as a chalky soil1 a gravelly soil1 or what ever else may be its distinguishing quality4 ,and as there are different varieties of soil so each variety may be subdivided according to its quality1 as1 for example1 a rocky soil is either very rocky1 moderately rocky or hardly rocky at all4 ,so three grades may be made of other mixed soils4 ,in turn each of these three grades has three qualities3 some are very wet1 some very dry1 some moderate1 ,these distinctions are of the greatest importance in respect of the crops1 for the skilled husbandman plants spelt rather than wheat in wet land1 and on dry land barley rather than spelt1 in medium land both4 ,furthermore there are still more subtle distinctions to be made in respect of all these kinds of soil1 as for example it must be considered in respect of loam1 whether it is white loam or red loam1 because white loam is unfit for nursery beds1 while red loam is what they require4 ,but the three great distinctions of quality of soil are whether it is lean or fat1 or medium4 ,fat soils are apparent from the heavy growth of their vegetation1 and the lean lie bare2 as witness the territory of ,pupinia 7in ,latium71 where all the foliage is meagre and the vines look starved1 where the scant straw never stools1 nor the fig tree blooms1 while for the most part the trees are as covered with moss as are the arid pastures4 ,on the other hand1 a rich soil like that of ,etruria reveals itself heavy with grain and forage crops and its umbrageous trees are clean of moss4 ,soil of medium strength1 like that near ,tibur1 which one might say is rather hungry than starved1 repays cultivation in proportion as it takes on the quality of rich land4 ,diophanes of ,bithynia1 said ,stolo1 was very much to the point when he wrote that the best indication of the suitability of soil for cultivation can be had either from the soil itself or from what grows in it3 so one should ascertain whether it is white or black1 if it is light and friable when it is dug1 whether its consistency is ashy1 or too heavy3 or it can be tested by evidence that the wild growth upon it is heavy and fruitful after its kind4#fe ,but proceed and tell us of your third division1 which relates to the measurement and laying out of the farm4 ,of the units of area used in measuring land ,x4 ,scrofa resumed3 ,every country has its own system for measuring land4 ,in ,further ,spain the unit of area is the jugum1 in ,campania the versus1 here in the ,roman country and among the ,latins it is the jugerum4 ,they call a jugum the area which a pair of oxen can plough in a day4 ,the versus is one hundred feet square3 the jugerum is the area containing two square actus3 the actus quadratus or acnua1 as it is called by the ,latins1 measuring #abj feet in width and as much in length4#ff ,the smallest fraction of a jugerum is called a scripulum and is ten feet square4 ,from this base the surveyors some times call the butts of land which exceed a jugerum unciae 7twelfths7 or sextantes 7seventy seconds7 or some other such duodecimal division1 for the jugerum contains #bhh scripula1 like the ancient pound weight which was in use before the ,punic wars4 ,two jugera1 which ,romulus first made the headright and which thus became the unit of inheritance1 are called an haeredium3#fg later one hundred haeredia were called a centuria1 which is #b1djj unciae square4 ,four centuriae adjoining1 so that there are two on each side1 are called a saltus in the distribution of the public lands4 ,of the considerations on building a steading a4 ,size ,,xi4 ,as the result of faulty surveys of the farm it often happens that the steading is constructed either too small or too large for the farm1 a mistake which in either case is of prejudice both to the property and its revenue4 ,if one builds too large or too many buildings he is eaten up by the expense of maintenance1 while if one builds less than the farm requires the harvest is lost1 for there is no doubt that the largest wine cellar must be provided for that farm on which the vintages are largest1 or granary1 if it is a grain farm4 b4 ,water supply ,if possible1 the steading should be so built that it shall have water within the walls1 or certainly near at hand3 it is preferable that this should be derived from a spring1 or1 if not1 then from an unfailing stream4 ,if no running water is available a cistern should be constructed within doors1 and a pond in the open1 the one for the use of the men1 the other for the use of the cattle4 c4 ,location1 with regard to health ,,xii4 ,when you plan to build1 try your best to locate the steading at the foot of a wooded hill where the pastures are rich1 and turn it so as to catch the healthiest prevailing breeze4 ,the best situation is facing the east so to secure shade in summer and sun in winter4 ,but if you must build on the bank of a river1 take care that you do not let the steading face the river1 for it will be very cold in winter and unhealthy in summer4 ,like precautions must be taken against swampy places for the same reasons and particularly because as they dry1 swamps breed certain animalculae which cannot be seen with the eyes and which we breathe through the nose and mouth into the body where they cause grave maladies4#fh ,but1 said ,fundanius1 suppose ,i inherited a farm like that1 what should ,i do to avoid the malady you describe8 ,the answer to that question is easy1 said ,agrius4 ,you should sell the farm for what you can get for it3 and if you can't sell it1 give it away4 ,scrofa resumed3 ,take care to avoid having the steading face the direction from which disagreeable winds blow1 yet you should not build in a hollow4 ,high ground is the best location for a steading3 for by ventilation all noxious gases are dissipated1 and the steading is healthier if exposed to the sun all day3 with the further advantage that any insects which may be bred in or brought upon the premises are either blown away or quickly perish where there is no damp4 ,sudden rains and overflowed streams are dangerous to those who have their steadings in low or hollow places1 and they are more at the hazard of the ruthless hand of the robber because he is able to take advantage of those who are unprepared4 ,against either of these risks the higher places are safer4 d4 ,arrangement ,,xiii4 ,in arranging the steading1 see that the cattle are put where they will be warm in winter4 ,such crops as wine and oil should be housed below ground in cellars1 or rather in jars placed in such cellars1 while dry crops like beans1 and hay1 are best stored on high board floors4 ,a rest room should be provided for the comfort of the hands where they can gather after the day's work or for protection from cold or heat and there recruit themselves in quiet4 ,the room of the overseer should be near the entrance to the farm house so that he may know who comes in and who goes out during the night1 and what they bring in or out1 especially if there is no gate-keeper4 ,the kitchen also should be near the overseer's room because there in winter is great activity before daylight when food is being prepared and eaten4 ,good sized sheds should be built in the barn yard for the wagons and other implements which might be damaged by the rain4 ,for while they may be kept safe from the thief within the gates1 yet if they are exposed to the weather they will be lost nevertheless4 ,it is better to have two barn yards for a large farm4 ,the inner court should contain a cistern like a little fish pond into which the drainage from the eaves may collect3 as here the cattle and swine and geese can drink and bathe in summer when they are driven in from work or pasture4 ,in the outer court there should be another pond where you can handle lupines and such other things as must be soaked in water4 ,this exterior court yard should be strewn thick with straw and chaff1 which1 by being trampled under the feet of the cattle1 becomes the handmaid of the farm by reason of the service it renders when it is hauled out4 ,every farm should have two manure pits1 or one divided into two parts2 into one division should be put the new manure from the barn1 in the other the old manure which is ready for use on the farm3 for new manure is not as good as that which is well rotted4#fi ,the manure pit is more serviceable when its sides and top are protected from the sun by leaves and branches1 for the sun draws out from the manure those elements which the land requires2 for this reason experienced farmers sprinkle water on their manure pits1 and so largely preserve its quality3 here too some establish the privies for the slaves4 ,one should build a barracks 7what we call a nubilarium because it affords protection from the weather7 and it should be large enough to contain under its roof the entire crop of the farm3 this should be placed near the threshing floor and left open only on the side of the threshing floor1 so that while threshing you may conveniently throw out the corn and if it begins to cloud up then quickly throw it back again under shelter4 ,there should be windows in this barracks on the side most fitted for ventilation4 ,a farm would be more of a farm1 said ,fundanius1 if the buildings were constructed with reference to the diligence of our ancestors rather than the luxury of their descendants4 ,for they built for use1 while we build to gratify an unbridled luxury4 ,their barns were bigger than their houses1 but the contrary is often the case today4 ,then a house was praised if it had a good kitchen1 roomy stables and a cellar for wine and oil fitted1 according to the custom of the country1 with a floor draining into a reservoir1 into which the wine can flow when1 as often happens after the new wine has been laid by1 the fermentation of the must bursts both ,spanish butts and our own ,italian tuns4 ,in like manner our ancestors equipped a country house with whatever other things were necessary to agriculture1 but now on the contrary it is the effort to make such a house as vast and as elegant as possible1 and we vie with those palaces which men like ,metellus and ,lucullus have built1 to the detriment of the very state itself3 in them the effort is to contrive summer dining rooms fronting the cool east1 and those designed for use in winter facing the western sun1 rather than1 as the ancients did1 to adjust their windows with regard chiefly to the cellars1 since wine in casks keeps best when it is cool1 while oil craves warmth4 ,for this reason also it would seem that the best place to put a house is on a hill1 if nothing obstructs it4 ,of the protection of farm boundaries a4 ,fences ,,xiv4 ,now1 resumed ,scrofa1 ,i will speak of fences1 which are constructed for the protection of the farm or for dividing the fields4 ,there are four kinds of such barriers3 natural1 dead wood1 military and masonry4 ,the first is the natural fence of live hedge1 consisting of planted shrubs or thorns1 and1 as it has roots1 runs no risk from the flaming torch of the passing traveller who may be inclined to mischief4 ,the second kind is built of the wood of the country1 but is not alive4 ,it is made either of palings placed close together and wattled with twigs1 or posts placed at some distance apart and pierced to receive the ends of rails1 which are generally built two or three to the panel1 or else of trunks of trees laid on the ground and joined in line4 ,the third1 or military fence1 consists of a ditch and a mound3 but such a ditch should be so constructed to collect all the rain water1 or it should be graded to drain the surface water off the farm4 ,the mound is best when constructed close adjoining the ditch1 or else it should be steep so that it will be difficult to scale4 ,it is customary to construct this kind of fence along the public roads or along streams4 ,in the district of ,crustumeria one can see in many places along the via ,salaria ditches and mounds constructed as dikes against damage by the river 7,tiber74#gj ,mounds are some times built without ditches and are called walls1 as in the country around ,reate4 ,the fourth and last kind of fence is of built up masonry4 ,there are usually four varieties3 those of cut stone1 as in the country around ,tusculum2 those of burned brick1 as in ,gaul2 those of unburned brick as in the ,sabine country2 those of gravel concrete1#ga as in ,spain and about ,tarentum4 b4 ,monuments ,,xv4 ,lacking fences1 the more discreet establish the boundaries of their property1 or of their sowings1 by blazed trees1 and so prevent neighbourhood quarrels and lawing about corners4 ,some plant pines around their boundaries1 as my wife did on her ,sabine farm1 or cypresses1 as ,i have on my property on ,vesuvius4#gb ,others plant elms1 as many have done in the district of ,crustumeria3 indeed1 for planting in plains where it flourishes there is no tree which can be set out with such satisfaction or with more profit than the elm1 for it supports the vine and so fills many a basket with grapes1 yields its leaves to be a most agreeable forage for flocks and herds1 and supplies rails for fences and wood for hearth and oven4 ,and now1 said ,scrofa1 ,i have expounded my four points upon the physical characteristics of a farm1 which were1 its conformation1 the quality of the soil1 its extent and layout1 its boundaries and their protection4 ,of the considerations of neighbourhood ,,xvi4 ,it remains to discuss the conditions outside the farm itself1 for the character of the neighbourhood is of the utmost importance to agriculture on account of the necessary relations with it4 ,there are four considerations in this respect also1 namely3 whether the neighbourhood bears a bad reputation2 whether it affords a market to which our products can be taken and whence we can bring back what we may require at home2 whether there is a road or a river leading to that market1 and1 if so1 whether it is fit for use2 and fourth whether there is in our immediate vicinity any thing which may be to our advantage or disadvantage4 ,of these four considerations the most important is whether the neighbourhood bears a bad reputation3 for there are many farms which are fit for cultivation but not expedient to undertake on account of the brigandage in the neighbourhood1 as in ,sardinia those farms which adjoin ,oelium1 and in ,spain those on the borders of ,lusitania4 ,on the second point those farms are the most profitable which have opportunities in the vicinity for marketing what they raise and buying what they must consume3 for there are many farms which must buy corn or wine or what ever else they lack1 and not a few which have a surplus of these commodities for sale4 ,so in the suburbs of a city it is fitting to cultivate gardens on a large scale1 and to grow violets and roses and many other such things which a city consumes1 while it would be folly to undertake this on a distant farm with no facilities for reaching the market4 ,so1 again1 if there is nearby a town or a village or even the well furnished estate of a rich man where you can buy cheap what you require on the farm1 and where you can trade your surplus of such things as props and poles and reeds1 your farm will be more profitable than if you had to buy at a distance2 nay1 more profitable even than if you were able to produce all you require at home3 because in this situation you can make annual arrangements with your neighbours to furnish on hire the services of physicians1 fullers and blacksmiths to better advantage than if they were your own3 for the death of a single such skilled slave wipes out the entire profit of a farm4 ,in carrying on the operation of a vast estate1 the rich can afford to provide such servants for every department of the work3 for if towns and villages are far distant from the farm1 they supply blacksmiths and all other necessary craftsmen and keep them on the place1 in order to prevent the hands from leaving the farm and spending working days in going leisurely to and from the shop when they might more profitably be engaged on what should be done in the fields4 ,so ,saserna's book lays down the rule that ,no one may leave the farm except the overseer1 the butler1 or such a one as the overseer sends on an errand4 ,if any one disobeys this rule1 he shall be punished for it1 but if he disobeys a second time the overseer shall be punished4 ,this rule may be better stated that no one should leave the farm without the approval of the overseer1 and1 without the consent of the master1 not even the overseer1 for more than a day at a time1 but in no event more frequently than the business of the farm requires4 ,on the third point1 conveniences of transportation make a farm more profitable1 and these are whether the roads are in such condition that wagons can use them smoothly1 or whether there are rivers nearby which can be navigated4 ,we know that each of these means of transportation is available to many farms4 ,the fourth point1 which is concerned with how your neighbour has planted his land1 also relates to your profits3 because if he has an oak forest near your boundary1 you cannot profitably plant olives in that vicinity1 for the oak is so perverse in its effect upon the olive that not only will your trees bear less but they will even avoid the oaks and bend away from them until they are prostrate on the ground1 as the vine is wont to do when planted near vegetables4 ,like the oak1 a grove of thickly planted full grown walnut trees renders sterile all the surrounding land4 #b ,,concerning ,,the ,,equipment ,,of ,a ,,farm ,,xvii4 ,i have spoken of the four points of husbandry which relate to the land to be cultivated and also of those other four points which have to do with the outside relations of that land3 now ,i will speak of those things which pertain to the cultivation of the land4 ,some divide this subject into two parts1 men and those assistants to men without which agriculture cannot be carried on4 ,others divide it into three parts1 the instruments of agriculture which are articulate1 inarticulate and mute3 the articulate being the servants1#gc the inarticulate the draught animals1 and the mute being the wagons and other such implements4 ,of agricultural labourers ,all men carry on agriculture by means of slaves or freemen or both4 ,the freemen who cultivate the land do so either on their own account1 as do many poor people with the aid of their own children1 or for wages1#gd as when the heaviest farm operations1 like the vintage and the harvest1 are accomplished with the aid of hired freemen3 in which class may be included those bond servants whom our ancestors called obaerati1 a class which may still be found in ,asia1 in ,egypt and in ,illyricum4 ,with respect to the use of freemen in agriculture1 my own opinion is that it is more profitable to use hired hands than one's own slaves in cultivating unhealthy lands1 and1 even where the country is salubrious1 they are to be preferred for the heaviest kind of farm work1 such as harvesting and storing grapes and corn4 ,cassius has this to say on the subject3 ',select for farm hands those who are fitted for heavy labour1 who are not less than twenty-two years of age and have some aptitude for agriculture1 which can be ascertained by trying them on several tasks and by enquiring as to what they did for their former master4' ,slaves should be neither timid nor overconfident4 ,the foreman should have some little education1 a good disposition and economical habits1 and it is better that they should be some what older than the hands1 for then they will be listened to with more respect than if they were boys4 ,it is most important to choose as foremen those who are experienced in agricultural work1 for they should not merely give orders but lend a hand at the work1 so that the labourers may learn by imitation and may also appreciate that it is greater knowledge and skill which entitles the foreman to command4 ,the foreman should never be authorized to enforce his discipline with the whip if he can accomplish his result with words4 ,avoid having many slaves of the same nation1 for this gives rise to domestic rows4 ,the foremen will work more cheerfully if rewards are offered them1 and particularly pains must be taken to see that they have some property of their own1 and that they marry wives among their fellow servants1 who may bear them children1 some thing which will make them more steady and attach them to the place4#ge ,on account of such relationships families of ,epirote slaves are esteemed the best and command the highest prices4 ,marks of consideration by the master will go far in giving happiness to your hands3 as1 for instance1 by asking the opinion of those of them who have done good work1 as to how the work ought to be done1 which has the effect of making them think less that they are looked down upon1 and encourages them to believe that they are held in some estimation by the master4 ,those slaves who are most attentive to their work should be treated more liberally either in respect of food or clothes1 or in holidays1 or by giving them permission to graze some cattle of their own on the place1 or some thing of that kind4 ,such liberality tempers the effect of a harsh order or a heavy punishment1 and restores the slaves' good will and kindly feeling towards their master4 ,,xviii4 ,on the subject of the number of slaves one will require for operating a farm1 ,cato lays down the two measures of the extent of the farm and the kind of farming to be carried on4 ,writing about the cultivation of olives and vines he gives these formulas1 viz43 ,for carrying on an olive farm of two hundred and forty jugera1 thirteen slaves are necessary1 to-wit3 an overseer1 a housekeeper1 five labourers1 three teamsters1 an ass driver1 a swineherd and a shepherd3 for carrying on a vineyard of one hundred jugera1 fifteen slaves are necessary1 to-wit3 an overseer1 a housekeeper1 ten labourers1 a teamster1 an ass driver and a swineherd4 ,on the other hand ,saserna says that one man is enough for every eight jugera1#gf as a man should cultivate that much land in forty-five days3 for while one man can cultivate a jugerum in four days1 yet he allows thirteen days extra for the entire eight jugera to provide against the chance of bad weather1 the illness or idleness of the labourer and the indulgence of the master4#gg ,at this ,licinius ,stolo put in4 ,neither of these writers has given us an adequate rule1 he said4 ,for if ,cato intended1 as he doubtless did1 that we should add to or subtract from what he prescribes in proportion as our farm is of greater or less extent than that he describes1 he should have excluded the overseer and the housekeeper from his enumeration4 ,if you cultivate less than two hundred and forty jugera of olives you cannot get along with less than one overseer1 while if you cultivate twice or more as much land you will not require two or three overseers4 ,it is the number of labourers and teamsters only which must be added to or diminished in proportion to the size of the farm3 and this applies only if the land is all of the same character1 for if part of it is of a kind which cannot be ploughed1 as for example very rocky1 or on a steep hillside1 there is that much less necessity for teams and teamsters4 ,i pass over the fact that ,cato's example of a farm of two hundred and forty jugera is neither a fair nor a comparable unit4#gh ,the true unit for comparison of farms is a centuria1 which contains two hundred jugera1 but if one deducts forty jugera1 or one-sixth1 from ,cato's two hundred and forty jugera1 ,i do not see how in applying this rule one can deduct also one-sixth of his thirteen slaves2 or1 even if we leave out the overseer and the housekeeper1 how one can deduct one-sixth of eleven slaves4 ,again1 ,cato says that one should have fifteen slaves for one hundred jugera of vineyard1 but suppose one had a centuria half in vines and half in olives1 then1 according to ,cato's rule1 one would require two overseers and two housekeepers1 which is absurd4 ,wherefore it is necessary to find another measure than ,cato's for determining the number of slaves1 and ,i myself think better of ,saserna's rule1 which is that for each jugerum it suffices to provide four days work of one hand4 ,yet1 if this was a good rule on ,saserna's farm in ,gaul1 it might not apply on a mountain farm in ,liguria4 ,in fine you will best determine what number of slaves and what other equipment you will require if you diligently consider three things1 that is to say1 what kind of farms are there in your neighbourhood1 how large are they1 and how many hands are engaged in cultivating them1 and you should add to or subtract from that number in proportion as you take up more or less work4 ,for nature gave us two schools of agriculture1 which are experience and imitation4 ,the most ancient farmers established many principles by experiment and their descendants for the most part have simply imitated them4 ,we should do both these things3 imitate others and on our own account make experiments1 following always some principle1 not chance3#gi thus we might work our trees deeper or not so deep as others do to see what the effect would be4 ,it was with such intelligent curiosity that some farmers first cultivated their vines a second and a third time1 and deferred grafting the figs from spring to summer4 ,of draught animals ,,xix4 ,in respect of those instruments of agriculture which are called inarticulate1 ,saserna says that two yokes of oxen will be enough for two hundred jugera of arable land1 while ,cato prescribes three yokes for two hundred and forty jugera in olives3 thus if ,saserna is correct1 one yoke of oxen is required for every hundred jugera1 but if ,cato is correct a yoke is needed for every eighty jugera4 ,my opinion is that neither of these standards is appropriate for all kinds of land1 but each for some kind3 for some land is easy and some difficult to plough1 and oxen are unable to break up some land except by great effort and often they leave the ploughshare in the furrow broken from the beam3 wherefore in this respect we should observe a triple rule on every farm1 when we are new to it1 namely3 find out the practice of the last owner2 that of the neighbours1 and make some experiments of our own4 ,cato adds1 resumed ,scrofa1 that on his olive farm there are required three asses to haul out the manure and one to turn the mill1 and on his hundred jugera vineyard a yoke of oxen and a pair of asses for the manure1 and an ass for the wine press4 ,in respect of cattle kept for all these purposes1 which it is customary to feed in the barn yard1 it should be added that you should keep as many and only as many as you need for carrying on the work of the farm1 so that more easily you can secure diligent care of them from the servants whose chief care is of themselves4 ,in this connection the keeping of sheep is preferable to hogs not only by those who have pastures but also by those who have none1 for you should keep them not merely because you have pasture1 but for the sake of the manure4 ,watch dogs should be kept in any event for the safety of the farm4 ,,xx4 ,the most important consideration with respect to barn yard cattle is that the draft oxen should be fit for their work3 when bought unbroken they should not be less than three years old nor more than four1 strong1 but well matched1 lest the stronger wear out the weaker3 with large horns1 black rather than any other color1 broad foreheads1 flat noses1 deep chests and heavy quarters4 ,old steers which have worked in the plains cannot be trained to service in rough and mountain land2 a rule as applicable when reversed4 ,in breaking young steers it is best to begin by fastening a fork shaped yoke on their necks and leaving it there even when they are fed2 in a few days they will become used to it and disposed to be docile4 ,then they should be broken to work gradually until they are accustomed to it1 as may be done by yoking a young ox with an old one1 so that he may learn what is expected of him by imitation4 ,it is best to work them first on level ground without a plough1 then with a light plough1 so that their first lessons may be easy and in sand and mellow soil4 ,oxen intended for the wagon should be broken in the same way1 at first by drawing an empty cart1 if possible through the streets of a village or a town1 where they may become quickly inured to sudden noises and strange sights4 ,you should not work an ox always on the same side of the team1 for an occasional change from right to left relieves the strain of the work4 ,where the land is light1 as in ,campania1 they do not plough with heavy steers but with cows or asses1 as they can be driven more easily to a light plough4 ,for turning the mill and for carrying about the farm some use asses1 some cows and others mules3 a choice determined by the supply of provender4 ,for an ass is cheaper to feed than a cow1 though a cow is more profitable4#hj ,in the choice of the kind of draft animals he is to keep1 a farmer should always take into consideration the characteristics of his soil3 thus on rocky and difficult land the prime requirement is doubtless strength1 but his purpose should be to keep that kind of stock which under his conditions yields the largest measure of profit and still do all the necessary work4 ,of watch dogs ,,xxi4 ,it is more desirable to keep a few dogs and fierce ones than a pack of curs4 ,they should be trained to watch by night and to sleep by day chained in the kennel so that they may be the more alert when set loose4 ,it remains to speak elsewhere of unyoked cattle1 like the flocks1 but if there are meadows on the farm and the owner keeps no live stock1 it is the business of a good farmer after he has sold his hay to graze and feed another's cattle on his land4 ,of farming implements ,,xxii4 ,concerning the instruments of agriculture which are called mute1 in which are included baskets1 wine jars and such things1 this may be said3 ,those utensils which can be produced on the farm or made by the servants should never be bought1 among which are what ever may be made out of osiers or other wood of the country1 such as hampers1 fruit baskets1 threshing sledges1 mauls and mattocks1 or what ever is made out of the fibre plants like hemp1 flax1 rushes1 palm leaves and nettles1 namely3 rope1 twine and mats4 ,those implements which cannot be manufactured on the farm should be bought more with reference to their utility than their appearance that they may not diminish your profit by useless expense1 a result which may be best secured by buying where the things you need may be found at once of good quality1 near at hand and cheap4 ,the requirement of the kind and number of such implements is measured by the extent of the farm because the further your boundaries lie apart the more work there is to do4 ,in this connection1 put in ,stolo1 given the size of the farm1 ,cato recommends with respect to implements as follows3 he who cultivates #bdj jugera in olives should have five sets of oil making implements1 which he enumerates severally1 such as the copper utensils1 including kettles1 pots1 ewers with three spouts1 etc42 the implements made out of wood and iron1 including three large wagons1 six ploughs with their shares1 four manure carriers1 etc4 ,so of the iron tools1 what they are and how many are needed1 he speaks in great detail1 as eight iron pitch forks1 as many hoes and half as many shovels1 etc4 ,in like manner he lays down another formula of implements for a vineyard1 viz43 if you cultivate #ajj jugera you should have three sets of implements for the wine press and also covered storage vats of a capacity of eight hundred cullei1 as well as twenty harvesting hampers for grapes and as many for corn1 and other things in like proportion4 ,other writers advise a smaller quantity of such conveniences1 but ,i believe ,cato prescribed so great a capacity in order that one might not be compelled to sell his wine every year1 for old wine sells better than new1 and the same quality sells better at one time than another4 ,cato writes further in great detail of the kind and number of iron tools which are required for a vineyard1 such as the falx or pruning hook1 spades1 hoes4 ,so also several of these instruments are of many varieties1 as for instance the falx1 of which this author says that there must be provided forty of the kind suitable for use in a vineyard1 five for cutting rushes1 three for pruning trees and ten for cutting briers4 ,so far ,stolo1 when ,scrofa began again4 ,the owner should have an inventory of all the farm implements and equipment1 with a copy on file both at the house and at the steading1 and it should be the duty of the overseer to see that everything is checked against this inventory and is assigned its appropriate keeping place in the barn4 ,what cannot be kept under lock and key should be kept in plain sight1 and this is particularly necessary in respect of the utensils which are used only at intervals1 as at harvest time1 like the grape baskets and such things1 for what ever one sees daily is in the least danger from the thief4 #c ,,concerning ,,the ,,operation ,,of ,a ,,farm ,,xxiii4 ,and now1 interposed ,agrasius1 as we have discussed the two first parts of the four-fold division of agriculture1 namely3 concerning the farm itself and the implements with which it is worked1 proceed with the third part4 ,of planting field crops ,as ,i hold1 said ,scrofa1 that the profit of a farm is that only which comes from sowing the land1 there are two considerations which remain for discussion1 what one should sow and where it is most expedient to sow it1 for some lands are best suited for hay1 some for corn1 some for wine and some for oil4 ,so also should be considered the forage crops like basil1 mixed fodder1 vetch1 alfalfa1 snail clover and lupines4 ,all things should not be sown in rich land1 nor should thin land be left unsown1 for it is better to sow in light soil those things which do not require much nourishment1 such as snail clover and the legumes1 except always chick peas 7for this also is a legume like the other plants which are not reaped but from which the grain is plucked7 because those things which it is the custom to pluck 7legere7 are called legumes4 ,in rich land should be sown what ever require much nourishment1 such as cabbage1 spring and winter1 wheat and flax4 ,certain plants are cultivated not so much for their immediate yield as with forethought for the coming year1 because cut and left lying they improve the land4 ,so1 if land is too thin it is the practice to plough in for manure1 lupines not yet podded1 and likewise the field bean1 if it has not yet ripened so that it is fitting to harvest the beans4#ha ,not less should you make provision for cultivating what yields you profit in mere pleasure1 like arbours and flower gardens3 and those plantations which do not serve either for the support of man or the delight of the senses1 but are not the less useful in the economy of the farm4 ,thus suitable places must be set aside for growing willows and reeds and other such things which affect wet places4 ,on the other hand1 you should sow field beans as much as possible in your corn land4 ,there are other plants which seek dry places1 and still others demand shade1 like asparagus1 both when wild and cultivated3 while violets and garden flowers1 which flourish in the sun should be set out in the open4 ,so other things demand other planting conditions1 like the osiers from which you derive your material for making basket ware1 for wagon frames1 winnowing baskets and grape hampers4 ,elsewhere you might plant and cultivate a forest for cut wood and a spinney for fowling4 ,so you should reserve ground for planting hemp1 flax1 rush and ,spanish broom 7spartum7 which serve to make shoes for the cattle1 thread1 cord and rope4 ,other situations are suitable for still other kinds of planting1 as1 for example1 some plant garden truck and some plant other things1 in a nursery1 or between the rows of a young orchard before the roots of the trees have spread far out1 but this should never be done when the trees have grown lest the roots be injured4 ,in this respect1 said ,stolo1 what ,cato says about planting is in point1 that a field which is rich and in good heart and without shade should be planted in corn1 while a low lying field should be set in turnips1 radishes1 millet and panic grass4 ,of planting olives ,,xxiv4 ,scrofa resumed3 ,the varieties of olives to plant in rich and warm land are the preserving olive radius major1 the olive of ,sallentina1 the round orchis1 the bitter posea1 the ,sergian1 the ,colminian1 and the waxy albicera3 which ever of these does best in your locality1 plant that most extensively4 ,an olive yard is not worth cultivating unless it looks to the west wind and is exposed to the sun2 if the soil is cold and thin there you should plant the ,licinian olive1 for if you set out this variety in a rich and warm soil it will never make a hostus and the tree will exhaust itself in bearing and will become infected with red moss4 7,hostus is the country name for the yield of oil from a single tree at each factus or pressing3 some claim this should amount to #afj modii1 while others reduce it to #abj modii1 and even less in proportion to the size and number of their storage vats47 ,cato advises you to plant elms and poplars around the farm so as to obtain from them leaves to feed the sheep and cattle as well as a supply of lumber3 while this is not necessary on all farms1 nor in some for the forage alone1 it may be done with advantage as a wind break against the north where the trees will not shut out the sun4 ,stolo added the following advice from the same author3 ',if you have a piece of wet ground there plant cuttings of poplars1 and also reeds which are set out as follows3 having turned the sod with a hoe plant the scions of reed three feet one from the other4 ,wild asparagus 7from which you may cultivate garden asparagus7 should also be set out in such a place because the same kind of cultivation is suitable for it as for reeds4 ,you should set out ,greek willows around the reed bed to supply ties for your vines4' ,of planting vines ,,xxv4 ,in respect of planting vines1 resumed ,scrofa1 it should be observed that the varieties fitted for the best land and exposure to the sun are the little ,aminean1 the twin ,eugeneam and the little yellow kind3 while on rich or wet land the best varieties are the large ,aminean1 the ,murgentine1 the ,apician and the ,lucanian4 ,other vines1 and especially the mixed varieties1 do well in any kind of land4 ,,xxvi4 ,in all vineyards care is taken that the prop should shelter the vine against the north wind4 ,and if live cypresses are used as props they are planted in alternate rows and are not allowed to grow higher than is necessary for use as a prop4 ,cabbages are never planted near vines because they do each other damage4 ,i fear1 said ,agrius1 turning to ,fundanius1 that the ,sacristan may get back before we have reached the fourth head of our subject1 that of the vintage1 for ,i am looking forward thirstily to the vintage4 ,be of good cheer1 said ,scrofa1 and prepare the grape baskets and the ewer4 #d ,,concerning ,,the ,,agricultural ,,seasons ,,xxvii4 ,we have two standards of time1 the first that of the revolution of the year1 because in it the sun completes his circuit1 the other the measure of the month1 because it includes the waxing and the waning of the moon4 ,of the solar measure of the year ,first ,i will speak of the sun1 whose recurring journey is divided with reference to the pursuits of agriculture into four seasons of three months each1 or more accurately into eight seasons of a month and a half each4 ,the four seasons are ,spring1 ,summer1 ,autumn and ,winter4 ,in ,spring certain crops are sown and the sod fields are broken up1#hb so that the weeds in them may be destroyed before they have seeded themselves again1 and the clods1 by drying out in the sun1 may become more accessible to the rain and when broken down by its action easier to cultivate4 ,such land should be ploughed not less than twice1 but three times is better4#hc ,the ,summer is the season of the grain harvest2 the ,autumn1 when the weather is dry1 that of the vintage3 and it is also the fit time for thinning out the woods1 when the trees to be removed should be cut down close to the ground and the roots should be dug up before the first rains to prevent them from stooling4 ,in ,winter the trees may be pruned1 provided this is done at a time when the bark is free from frost and rain and ice4 ,,xxviii4 ,spring begins when the sun is in ,aquarius1 ,summer when it is in ,taurus1 ,autumn when it is in ,leo1 and ,winter when it is in ,scorpio4 ,since the beginning of each of the four seasons is the twenty-third day after the entrance of the sun in these signs respectively1 it follows that ,spring has ninety-one days1 ,summer ninety-four1 ,autumn ninety-one and ,winter eighty-nine3 which1 reduced to the dates of our present official calendar1#hd makes the beginning of ,spring on the seventh day before the ,ides of ,february 7,february #g71 of ,summer on the seventh day before the ,ides of ,may 7,may #i71 of ,autumn on the third day before the ,ides of ,august 7,august #aa71 and of ,winter on the fourth day before the ,ides of ,november 7,november #aj74 ,a ,,calendar ,,of ,,agricultural ,,operations ,by a more exact definition of the seasons1 the year is divided into eight parts1 the first of forty-five days from the date of the rising of the west wind 7,february #g7 to the date of the vernal equinox 7,march #bd71 the second of the ensuing forty-four days to the rising of the ,pleiades 7,may #g71 the third of forty-eight days to the summer solstice 7,june #bd71 the fourth of twenty-seven days to the rising of the ,dog ,star 7,july #ba71 the fifth of sixty-seven days to the ,autumn equinox 7,september #bf71 the sixth of thirty-two days to the setting of the ,pleiades 7,october #bh71 the seventh of fifty-seven days to the winter solstice 7,december #bd71 and the eighth of forty-five days to the beginning of the first4#he #a ,february #g-,march #bd ,,xxix4 ,these are the things to be done during the first of the seasons so enumerated3 ,all kinds of nurseries should be set out1 the vines should be first pruned1 then dug1 and the roots which have protruded from the ground should be cut out1 the meadows should be cleaned1 willows planted and the corn hoed4 ,we call that corn land 7seges7 which has been ploughed and sowed as distinguished from plough land 7arva7 which has been ploughed but not yet sowed1 while that land which was formerly sowed and lies awaiting a new ploughing is called stubble 7novalis74 ,when land is ploughed for the first time it is said to be broken up 7proscindere71 and at the second ploughing to be broken down 7offringere7 because at the first ploughing large clods are turned up and at the second ploughing these are reduced4 ,the third cultivation1 after the seed has been sown1 is called ridging 7lirare71 that is1 when by fastening mould boards on the plough1 the sown seed is covered up in ridges#hf and at the same time furrows are cut by means of which the surface water may drain off4 ,some farmers who cultivate small farms1 as in ,apulia1 are wont to harrow their land after it is ridged1 if perchance any large clods have been left in the seed bed4 ,the hollow channel left by the share of the plough is called the furrow1 the raised land between two furrows is called the ridge 7porca17 because there the seed is as it were laid upon an altar 7porricere7 to secure a crop1 for when the entrails are offered to the gods this word porricere is used to describe the oblation4 #b ,march #bd-,may #g ,,xxx4 ,these are the things to be done during the second season between the vernal equinox and the rising of the ,pleiades4 ,weed the corn land1 break up old sod1 cut the willows1 close the pastures 7to the stock7 and complete any thing left undone in the preceding season4 ,plant trees before the buds shoot and they begin to blossom1 for deciduous trees are not fit to transplant after they put forth leaves4 ,plant and prune your olives4 #c ,may #g-;,june #bd ,,xxxi4 ,these are the things to be done during the third season between the rising of the ,pleiades and the summer solstice4 ,dig the young vines or plough them1 and afterwards put the land in good order2 that is to say1 fine the soil so that no clods shall remain4 ,this is called fining the soil 7occare7 because it breaks down 7occidare7 the clods4 ,thin out the vines1 but let it be done by one who knows how1 for this operation which is considered of great importance is performed only on vines and not on the orchard4 ,to thin a vine is to select and reserve the one1 two and some times even three best new tendrils sprung from the stem of the vine1 cutting off all the others1 lest the stem may be unable to furnish nourishment for those which have been reserved4 ,so in a nursery it is the custom to cut it back at first so that the vine may grow with a stronger stem and may have greater strength to produce fruitful tendrils3 for a stem which grows slender like a rush is sterile through weakness and cannot throw out tendrils4 ,thus it is the custom to call a weak stem a flag1 and a strong stem1 which bears grapes1 a palm4 ,the name flagellum1 indicating something as unstable as a breeze1 is derived from flatus1 by the change of a letter1 just as in the case of the word flabellum1 which means fly fan4 ,the name palma1 which is given to those vine shoots which are fruitful in grapes1 was it seems1 at first1 parilema1 derived from parire 7to produce71 whence by a change of letters1 such as we find in many instances1 it came to be called palma4 ,from another part of the vine springs the capreolus1 which is a little spiral tendril1 like a curled hair1 by means of which the vine holds on while it creeps towards the place of which it would take possession1 from which quality of taking hold of things 7capere7 it is called capreolus4 ,all forage crops should be saved at this season2 first1 basil1 then mixed fodder 7farrago7#hg and vetch1 and last of all the hay4 ,our name for basil is ocinum1 which is derived from the ,greek word ,greek3 ocheos and signifies that it comes quickly1 like the pot herb of the same name4 ,it has this name also because it quickens the action of the bowels of cattle and so is fed to them as a purgative4 ,it is cut green from a bean field before the pods are formed4 ,on the other hand that forage which is cut with a sickle from a field in which barley and vetch and other legumes have been sown in mixture for forage1 is called farrago from the instrument 7ferro7 with which it is cut1 or perhaps because it was first sown in the stubble of a field of corn 7far74 ,it is fed to horses and other cattle in the spring to purge and to fatten them4 ,vetch 7vicia7 is so called from its quality of conquering 7vincire7 because this plant1 like the vine1 has tendrils by means of which it creeps twisting upward on the stalks of lupines or other plants where it clings until it over-tops its host4 ,if you have irrigated meadows1 proceed to water them at this season1 as soon as you have saved the hay4 ,during droughts water your grafted fruit trees every evening4 ,they probably derive their name1 7poma71 from their appetite for drink 7potus74 #d ,june #bd-;,july #ba ,,xxxii4 ,during the fourth season between the summer solstice and the rising of the ,dog ,star most farmers make their harvest1 because it is claimed that to mature properly corn should be allowed fifteen days to germinate and shoot1 fifteen days to bloom and fifteen days to ripen4 ,finish your ploughing3 it will be more profitable in proportion as the earth is ploughed warm1 when the land is broken up1 fine it1 that is1 work it again in order that all the clods may be reduced1 for at the first ploughing large clods are always turned up4 ,this is the time also to sow vetch1 lentils1 the small variety of chick peas1 pulse 7ervilia7 and the other things which we call legumes1 but which others1 as for example the ,gauls1 call legarica1 both of which names come from the practice of picking their fruit 7legere7 because they are not cut but gathered4 ,work the old vines a second time and the young ones thrice1 especially if there are any clods left4 #e ,july #ba-,september #bf ,,xxxiii4 ,during the fifth season between the rising of the ,dog ,star and the autumn equinox thresh your straw and rick it1 continue the harrowing of your fallow land1 prune your fruit trees1 and mow your irrigated meadow the second time4 #f ,september #bf-,october #bh ,,xxxiv4 ,the authorities advise you to begin to sow at the commencement of the sixth season immediately after the autumn equinox and to keep it up for the following #ia days1 but not to attempt to sow any thing after the winter solstice1 unless it is absolutely necessary1 because seed sown before the winter solstice germinates in seven days1 while that sown later hardly ever sprouts for #dj days4 ,in like manner the authorities say that you should not begin your sowing before the equinox1 lest continued rains cause the seed to rot in the ground4 ,the best time to plant beans is at the setting of the ,pleiades1 but gather the grapes and make the vintage between the equinox and the setting of the ,pleiades4 ,immediately afterward begin to prune the vines1 to propagate them and plant fruit trees1 but in those regions where the frost comes early it is better to postpone these operations until the following spring4 #g ,october #bh-;,december #bd4 ,,xxxv4 ,these are the things to do during the seventh season between the setting of the ,pleiades and the winter solstice4 ,plant lilies and crocuses and propagate roses1 which may be done by making cuttings about three inches in length from a stem already rooted1 set these out and later1 after they have formed their own roots1 transplant them4 ,the cultivation of violets has no place on a farm because they require elevated beds for which the soil is scraped up and these are damaged or even washed away by heavy rains1 thus wasting the fertility of the land4 ,at any time of the year between the rising of the west wind and the rising of ,arcturus 7,february-,september7 it is proper to transplant from the seed beds thyme1 an herb1 which owes its name1 serpyllum1 to its creeping habit 7quod serpit74 ,this is the season also to dig new ditches1 clean the old ones1 and to prune the trees in the arbustum and the vines which are married to them1 but be careful that you suspend most of your work during the fifteen days before and after the winter solstice3 it is fitting1 however1 to set out some trees during this period1 as1 for example1 elms4 #h ,december #bd-;,february #g ,,xxxvi4 ,these are the things to do during the eighth season between the winter solstice and the rising of the west wind4 ,drain the fields1 if any water is standing on them1 but if they are dry and the land is friable1 harrow them4 ,prune the vines and the orchard4 ,when it is not fitting to work in the fields then those things should be done which can be done under cover during the winter twilight4 ,all these rules should be written out and posted in the farmstead and the overseer especially should have them at the tip of his tongue4 ,of the influence of the moon on agriculture ,,xxxvii4 ,the lunar seasons also must be considered4 ,they are divided into two terms1 that from the new moon to the full1 and that from the full moon to the next moon1 or until that day which we call intermenstruus1 or the last and the first of a moon1 whence at ,athens this day is called ,greek3 henae kai nea 7the old and the new71 though the other ,greeks call it ,greek3 triakas the thirtieth day4 ,some agricultural operations may be undertaken with more advantage during the increase of the moon1 others during the decrease1#hh as1 for example1 the harvest or cutting of wood4 ,i observe a practice which ,i learned from my father1 said ,agrasius1 not only never to shear my sheep1 but not even to have my own hair cut on the decrease of the moon1 for fear that ,i might become bald4 ,what are the quarters of the moon1 said ,agrius1 and what bearing have they on agriculture8 ,have you never heard in the country1 said ,tremelius1 the lore about the influence of ,jana 7,diana7 on the eighth day before her waxing1 and again on the eighth day before her waning2 how certain things which ought to be done during the increase can be done to better advantage in the second quarter than the first1 and that what ever is fitting to do on the wane of the moon can be better done when her light is less8 ,this is all ,i know about the effect of the four quarters of the moon upon agriculture4 ,,another ,,calendar ,,of ,,six ,,agricultural ,,seasons ,there is another division of the year1 said ,stolo1 which takes account of both the sun and the moon1 namely3 into six seasons1 because almost all the cultivated fruits of the earth come to maturity and reach the vat or the granary after five successive agricultural operations and are put to use by a sixth1 and these are1 first1 the preparing 7praeparandum72 second1 the planting 7serendum72 third1 the cultivating of the growing crop 7nutricandum72 fourth1 the ingathering 7legendum72 fifth1 the storing 7condendum71 and sixth1 the consuming 7promendum74 #a ,,preparing ,,time ,of tillage ,in the matter of preparation there are different things to be done for different crops1 as1 if you wish to make an orchard or an arbustum1 you trench and grub and plough2 if you plant grain1 you plough and harrow2 while1 if you cultivate trees1 you mulch their roots by breaking the earth with a mattock1 more or less according to the nature of the tree1 for some trees1 like the cypress1 have a small1 and others like the plane tree have a large1 root system 7for example1 that in the ,lyceum at ,athens described by ,theophastus1 which1 when it was still a young tree1 had a spread of roots to the extent of #cc cubits74 ,if you break the ground with a plough and cattle1 it is well to work the land a second time before you sow your seed4 ,so1 if you are making a meadow the preparation is to close it to the stock1 and this is usually done when the pear tree is in bloom3 if it is an irrigated meadow the preparation is to turn in the water at the proper time4 ,of manuring ,,xxxviii4 ,as part of this same operation should be considered what places in a field need manure and what kind of manure you can use to the greatest advantage1 for the several kinds have different qualities4 ,cassius says that the best manure is that of birds1 except swamp and sea birds1#hi but the best of all is1 he claims1 the manure of pigeons because it is the hottest and causes the land to ferment4 ,this ought to be sown on the land like seed1 not distributed in heaps like the dung of cattle4 ,i myself think the best manure is that from aviaries in which thrushes and blackbirds are kept1 because it is not only good for the land but serves as a fattening food for cattle and hogs3 for which reason those who farm aviaries pay less rent when the owner stipulates that the manure is to be used on the farm1 than those to whom it is a perquisite4 ,cassius advises that the manure next in value to that of doves is human feces1 and third that of goats and sheep and asses4 ,the manure of horses is of the least value on corn land1 but on meadows it is the best1 because1 like the manure of other draught animals fed on barley1 it brings a heavy stand of grass4 ,the manure pit should be near the barn in order that it may be available with the least labour4 ,if you plant a stake of oak wood in the manure pit it will not harbour serpents4 #b ,,planting ,,time ,of the four methods of propagating plants ,,xxxix4 ,the second operation1 namely that of propagating1 must be considered in relation to the proper time for sowing each kind of seed1 for this concerns the aspect of the field you are to sow and the season fitting for what you are to plant4 ,do we not see some things grow best in the spring1 others in summer1 some in autumn1 and others again in winter8 ,for each plant is sowed or propagated or harvested in season according to its nature3 so while most trees are grafted most successfully in spring1 rather than the autumn1 yet figs may be grafted at the summer solstice1 and cherries even in winter4 ,and since there are four methods of propagation of plants1 by nature and by the several processes of art1 namely3 transplanting from one place to another1 as is done in layering vines1 what is called cuttage or propagating quick sets cut from trees1 and graftage1 which consists in transferring scions from one tree to another1 let us consider at what season and in what locality you should do each of these things4 a4 ,seeding1 and here of seed selection ,,xl4 ,in the first place1 the seed1 which is the principle of all germination1 is of two kinds1 that which is not appreciable by our senses and that which is4 ,seed is hidden from us when it is disseminated in the air1 as the physicist ,anaxagoras holds1 or is distributed over the land by the surface water1 as ,theophrastus maintains4 ,the seeds which the farmer can see should be studied with the greatest care4 ,there are some varieties1 like that of the cypress1 which are so small as to be almost invisible1 for those nuts which the cypress bears1 that look like little balls covered with bark1 are not the seed but contain it4 ,nature gave the principle of germination to seed1 the rest of agriculture was left for the experience of man to discover1 for in the beginning before the interference of man plants were generated before they were sown1 afterwards those seeds which were collected by man from the original plants did not generate until after they had been sown4 ,seed should be examined to ascertain that it is not sterile by age1 that it is clean1 particularly that it is not adulterated with other varieties of similar appearances3 for age has such effect upon seed as in some respects to change its very nature1 thus it is said that rape will grow from old cabbage seed1 and vice versa4#ij b4 ,transplanting ,in respect of transplanting1 care should be taken that it is done neither too soon nor too late4 ,the fit time1 according to ,theophrastus1 is spring and autumn and midsummer1 but the same rule will not apply in all places and to all kinds of plants3 for in dry and thin clay soil1 which has little natural moisture1 the wet spring is the time1 but in a rich and fat soil it is safe to transplant in autumn4 ,some limit the practice of transplanting to a period of thirty days4 c4 ,cuttage ,in respect of cuttage1 which consists in planting in the ground a live cutting from a tree1 it behooves you especially to see that this is done at the proper time1 which is before the tree has begun to bud or bloom3 that you take off the cutting carefully rather than break it from the parent tree1 because the cutting will be more firmly established in proportion as it has a broad footing which can readily put out roots3 and that it is planted promptly before the sap dries out of it4 ,in propagating olives select a truncheon of new grown wood about a foot in length and the same size at each end3 some call these clavolae and others call them taleae4 d4 ,graftage ,in respect of graftage1 which consists in transferring growing wood from one tree to another1 care must be taken in selecting the tree from which the scion is taken1 the tree on which it is grafted1 and the time and the manner in which it is done3 for the pear cannot be grafted on an oak1 even though it may upon the apple4 ,in this operation many men who have great faith in the sayings of the soothsayers give heed to their warning that as many kinds of grafts there may be on a tree so many bolts of lightning will strike it1 because a bolt of lightning is generated by each graft 7ictu74#ia ,if you graft a cultivated pear upon a wild pear tree no matter how good it may be1 the result will not be as fortunate as if you had grafted on another cultivated pear4 ,having regard for the result1 on what ever kind of tree you graft1 if it is of exactly the same kind1 as1 for instance1 apple on apple1 you should take care that the scion comes from a better tree than that on which it is grafted4 e4 ,a new method--inarching ,there is another operation recently suggested1#ib for propagating one tree from another1 when the trees are neighbours4 ,from the tree from which you wish to take a scion a branch is trained to that on which you wish to make the graft and the scion is bound upon an incision in a branch of the stock4 ,the place of contact of both scion and stock is cut away with a knife so that the bark of one joins evenly with the bark of the other at the point of exposure to the weather4 ,care should be taken that the growing top of the scion is pointed straight upwards4 ,the following year when the graft has knitted1 the scion may be cut from its parent tree4 ,of when to use these different methods ,,xli4 ,the most important consideration in propagating is1 however1 the time at which you do it3 thus things which formerly were propagated in the spring now are propagated in summer1 like the fig1 whose wood is not heavy and so craves heat1 as a consequence of which quality figs cannot be grown in cold climates4 ,for the same reason water is dangerous to a new fig graft because its soft wood rots easily4 ,for these reasons it is now considered that midsummer is the best season to propagate figs4 ,on the other hand it is the custom to tie a pot of water above a graft of hard wood trees so that it may drip on the graft and prevent the scion from drying up before it has been incorporated with the stock4 ,care must be taken that the bark of the scion is kept intact1 and to that end it should be sharpened but so that the pith 7medulla7 is not exposed4 ,to prevent the rain or the heat from injuring it from without1 it should be smeared with clay and bound with bark4 ,it is customary to take off the scion of a vine three days before it is to be grafted so that the superfluity of moisture may drain out before the scion is inserted1 or1 if the graft is already in place1 an incision is made in the stock a little below the graft from which the adventitious moisture may drain off3 but this is not done with figs and pomegranates1 for in all trees of a comparatively dry nature the graft is made immediately4 ,indeed1 some trees1 like the fig1 are best grafted when the scion is in bud4 ,of the four kinds of propagation which ,i have discussed1 that of graftage is preferred in respect of those trees which1 like the fig1 are slow in developing3 for the natural seeds of the fig are those grains seen in the fruit we eat and are so small as scarcely to be capable of sprouting the slenderest shoots4 ,for all seeds which are small and hard are slow in germinating1 while those which are soft are more spontaneous1 just as girls grow faster than boys4 ,thus by reason of their feminine tenderness the fig1 the pomegranate and the vine are quicker to mature than the palm1 the cypress and the olive1 which are rather dry than humid by nature4 ,wherefore we some times propagate figs in nurseries from cuttings rather than attempt to raise them from seed3 unless there is no other way to secure them1 as happens when one wishes to send or receive seed across the sea4 ,for this purpose the ripe figs which we eat are strung together and when they have dried out are packed and shipped wheresoever we wish1 and thereafter being planted in a nursery they germinate4 ,in this way the ,chian1 the ,chalcidian1 the ,lydian1 the ,african and other foreign varieties of figs were imported into ,italy4 ,for the same reason olives are usually propagated in nurseries from truncheons such as ,i have described1 rather than from its seed1 which is hard like a nut and slow to germinate4 ,of seeding alfalfa ,,xlii4 ,you should take care not to plant alfalfa#ic in soil which is either too dry or half wet1#id but in good order4 ,the authorities say that if the soil is in proper condition a modius 7peck7 and a half of alfalfa seed will suffice to sow a jugerum of land4 ,this seed is sowed broad-cast on the land like grass and grain4 ,of seeding clover and cabbage ,,xliii4 ,snail clover 7cytisus7 and cabbage is sowed in beds well prepared and is transplanted from them and set out so that the plants are a foot and a half apart1 also cuttings are taken from the stronger plants and set out like those which were raised from seed4 ,of seeding grain ,,xliv4 ,the quantity of seed required for one jugerum is1 of beans1 four modii1 of wheat five modii1 of barley six modii1 and of spelt ten modii3 in some places a little more or a little less2 if the soil is rich1 more2 if it is thin1 less4 ,wherefore you should observe how much it is the custom to sow in your locality in order that you may do what the region and the quality of the soil demands1 which is the more necessary as the same amount of seed will yield in some localities ten for one1 and in others fifteen for one1 as in ,etruria4 ,in ,italy also1 in the region of ,sybaris it is said that seed yields as much as one hundred for one1 and as much is claimed for the soil of ,syria at ,gadara1 and in ,africa at ,byzacium4#ie ,it is also important to consider whether you will sow in land which is cropped every year which we call restibilis1 or in fallow land 7vervactum71 which is ploughed in the spring and so allowed an interval of rest4 ,in ,olynthia1 said ,agrius1 they are said to crop the land every year but to get a greater yield every third year4 ,a field ought to lie fallow every other year1 said ,stolo1 or at least be planted with some crop which makes less demand upon the soil4 #c ,,cultivating ,,time ,tell us1 said ,agrius1 about the third operation which relates to the cultivation and the nourishment of the crops4 ,of the conditions of plant growth ,all things which germinate in the soil1 replied ,licinius1 in the soil also are nourished1 come to maturity1 conceive1 are pregnant and in due time bear fruit or ear1 so each fruit after its kind yields seed similar to that from which it is sprung4 ,thus if you pluck a blossom or a green pear from a pear tree1 or the like from any other tree1 nothing will grow again in that place during the same year1 because a tree cannot have two periods of fruition in the same season4 ,they produce only as women bear children1 when their time has come4 ,,xlv4 ,barley usually sprouts in seven days after it has been sowed1 and wheat not much later1 while the legumes almost always sprout in four or five days1 except the bean1 which is somewhat later4 ,millet and sesame and the other similar grains sprout in the same time unless some thing in the nature of the soil or the weather retards them4 ,if the locality is cold1 those plants which are propagated in the nursery and are tender by nature ought to be protected from the frosts by coverings of leaves or straw1 and1 if rains follow1 care should be taken that water is not permitted to stand any where about them1 for ice is a poison to tender roots under ground1 as to sprouts above1 and prevents them from developing normally4 ,in autumn and winter the roots develop more than does the leaf of the plant because they are nourished by the warmth of the roof of earth1 while the leaf above is cut down by the frosty air4 ,we can learn this by observation of the wild vegetation which grows without the intervention of man1 for the roots grow more rapidly than that which springs from them1 but only so far as they are actuated by the rays of the sun4 ,there are two causes of the growth of roots1 the vitality of the root itself by which nature drives it forward1 and the quality of the soil which yields a passage more easily in some conditions than in others4 ,of the mechanical action of plants ,,xlvi4 ,in their effect upon plants such natural forces as ,i have mentioned produce some curious mechanical results4 ,thus it is possible to determine the time of the year from the motion of the leaves of certain trees like the olive1 the white poplar and the willow1 for when the summer solstice has arrived their leaves turn over4 ,not less curious is the habit of that flower which is called the heliotrope1 which in the morning looks upon the rising sun and1 following its journey to its setting1 never turns away its face4 ,of the protection of nurseries and meadows ,,xlvii4 ,those plants1 which1 like olives and figs1 are grown in the nursery from cuttings and are of a tender nature1 should be protected by sheds built of two planks fastened at each end3 moreover they should be weeded1 and this should be done while the weeds are still young1 for after they have become dry they offer resistance1 and more readily break off in your hand than yield to your pull4 ,on the other hand the grass which springs in the meadows and gives you hope of forage not only should not be rooted out while it is growing1 but should not even be walked upon2 hence both the flock and the herd should be excluded from the meadow at this time and even man himself should keep away1 for grass disappears under the foot and the track soon becomes a path4 ,of the structure of a wheat plant ,,xlviii4 ,a corn plant consists of a culm bearing at its head a spike1 which1 when it is not mutilated1 has1 as in barley and wheat1 three parts1 namely3 the grain1 the glume and the beard1 not to speak of the sheath which contains the spike while it is being formed4 ,the grain is that solid interior part of the spike1 the glume is its hull and the beard those long thin needles which grow out of the glume4 ,thus as the glume is the pontifical robe of the grain1 the beard is its apex4 ,the beard and the grain are well known to almost every one1 but the glume to very few3 indeed ,i know only one book in which it is mentioned1 the translation which ,ennius made of the verses of ,evhemerus4 ,the etymology of the word gluma seems to be from glubere1 to strip1 because the grain must be stripped from this hull3 and by a like derivation the hull of the fig which we eat is called a glume4 ,the beard we call arista because it is the first part of the corn to dry 7arescere71 while we call the grain granum from the fact that it is produced 7gerere71 for we plant corn to produce grain1 not glumes or beards1 just as vines are planted to produce grapes1 not tendrils4 ,the spike1 which1 by tradition1 the country people call speca1 seems to get its name from spes1 hope4 ,for men plant with hope of the harvest4 ,a spike which has no beard is called polled 7muticus71 for1 when the spike is first forming1 the beard1 like the horns of a young animal1 is not apparent but lies hid like a sword in its scabbard under a wrapping of foliage which hence is called the sheath4 ,when the spike is mature its taper end above the grain is called the frit1 while that below1 where the spike joins the straw culm1 is called the urruncum4 ,,xlix4 ,when ,stolo drew breath1 no one asked any questions1 and so1 believing that enough had been said on the subject of the care of the growing crops1 he resumed4 #d ,,harvest ,,time ,i will now speak about the gathering of the crops4 ,of the hay harvest ,and first of the meadows3 when the grass ceases to grow and begins to dry out with the heat1 then it should be cut with scythes and1 as it begins to cure1 turned with forks4 ,when it is cured it should be tied in bales and hauled into the steading2 then what hay was left lying should be raked together and stacked1 and1 finally1 when this has all been done1 the meadow should be gleaned1 that is1 gone over with the sickle to save what ever grass escaped the mowing1 such as that left standing on tussocks4 ,from this act of cutting 7sectare7 ,i think that the word sicilire 7to glean with a sickle7 is derived4 ,of the wheat harvest ,l4 ,the word harvest 7messis7 is properly used with respect to the ingathering of those crops which are reaped1 and from this action 7metere7 its name is derived1 but it is mostly used in respect of corn4 ,there are three methods of harvesting corn1 one as in ,umbria1 where they cradle the straw close to the earth and shock up the sheaves as they are cut3 when a sufficient number of shocks has been made1 they go over them again and cut each sheaf between the spikes and the straw1 the spikes being thrown into baskets and sent off to the threshing floor1 while the straw is left in the field and stacked4 ,a second method of harvesting is practised in ,picenum1 where they have a curved wooden header#if on the edge of which is fixed an iron saw3 when this instrument engages the spikes of grain it cuts them off1 leaving the straw standing in the field1 where it is afterwards cut4 ,a third method of harvesting1 which is used in the vicinity of ,rome and in most places1 is to cut the straw in the middle and take away the upper part with the left hand 7whence the word to reap metere is1 ,i think1 derived from the word medium--connoting a cutting in the middle74 ,the lower part of the straw which remains standing is cut later1#ig while the rest1 which goes with the grain1 is hauled off in baskets to the threshing floor and there in an airy place is winnowed with a shovel 7pala7 from which perhaps the chaff 7palea7 takes its name4 ,some derive the name of straw 7stramentum7 from the fact that it stands 7stare71 as they think the word stamen is also derived1 while others derive it from the fact that it is spread 7strare71 because straw is used as litter for cattle4 ,the grain should be harvested when it is ripe3 it is considered that under normal conditions and in an easy field one man should reap almost a jugerum a day and still have time to carry the grain in baskets to the threshing floor4 ,the threshing floor ,,li4 ,the threshing floor should be on high ground so that the wind can blow upon it from all directions4 ,it should be constructed of a size proportioned to your crops1 preferably round and with the centre slightly raised so that if it rains the water may not stand on it but drain off as quickly as possible1 and there is no shorter distance from the centre to the circumference of a circle than a radius3#ih it should be paved with well packed earth1 best of all of clay1 so that it may not crack in the sun and open honeycombs in which the grain can hide itself1 and water collect and give vent to the burrows of mice and ants4 ,it is the practice to anoint the threshing floor with amurca1#ii for that is an enemy of grass and a poison to ants and to moles4 ,some build up and even pave their threshing floor with rock to make it permanent1 and some1 like the people of ,bagiennae1 even roof it over because in that country storms are prevalent at the threshing season4 ,in a hot country where the threshing floor is uncovered it is desirable to build a shelter near by where the hands can resort in the heat of the day4 ,threshing and winnowing ,,lii4 ,the heaviest and best of the sheaves should be selected on the threshing floor and the spikes laid aside for seed4 ,the grain is threshed from the spikes on the threshing floor1 an operation which some perform by means of a sledge drawn by a yoke of oxen3 this sledge consisting of a wooden platform1 studded underneath with flints or iron spikes1 on which either the driver rides or some heavy weight is imposed in order1 as it is drawn around1 to separate the grain from the chaff3 others use for this purpose what is called the punic cart1 consisting of a series of axle trees1 equipped with toothed rollers1 on which some one sits and drives the cattle which draw it1 as they do in hither ,spain and other places4 ,others cause the grain to be trodden out under the hoofs of a herd of driven cattle1 which are kept moving by goading them with long poles4 ,when the grain has been threshed it should be tossed from the ground by means of a winnowing basket or a winnowing shovel when the wind is blowing gently1 and this is done in such way that the lightest part1 which is called the chaff1 is blown away beyond the threshing floor1 while the heavy part1 which is the corn1 comes clean into the basket4#ajj ,gleaning ,,liii4 ,after the harvest is over the grain fields should be gleaned of shattered grain1 and the straw left in the field should be gathered and housed1 but if there is little to be gained by such work1 and the expense is disproportionate1 the stubble should be grazed3 for in farming it is of the greatest importance that the expense of an operation shall not exceed the return from it4 ,of the vintage ,,liv4 ,in vineyards the vintage should begin when the grape is ripe1 but care must be taken with what kind of grapes and in what part of the vineyard you begin3 for the early grapes and the mixed variety1 which is called black1 ripen some time before the others and should be gathered first1 like the fruit grown on the side of the arbustum1 or of the vineyard1 which is exposed to the sun4 ,during the gathering those grapes from which you expect to make wine should be separated from those reserved for the table3 the choicer being carried to the wine press and collected in empty jars1 while those reserved to eat are collected in separate baskets1 transferred to little pots and stored in jars packed with marc1 though some are immersed in the pond in jars daubed with pitch and some raised to a shelf in the store room4 ,the stems and the skins of the grapes which have been trodden out should be put under the press so that any must left in them may be added to the supply in the vat4 ,when this marc ceases to yield a flow1 it is chopped with a knife and pressed again1 and the must expressed by this final operation is hence called circumcisitum#aja and is kept by itself because it smacks of the knife4 ,the marc finally remaining is thrown into jars1 to which water is added1 thus preparing a drink which is called after-wine or grape juice1 and is given to the hands in the winter instead of wine4 ,of the olive harvest ,,lv4 ,and now of the harvest of the olive yard4#ajb ,you should pick by hand1 rather than beat from the tree1 all the olives which can be reached from the ground or from a ladder1 because this fruit becomes arid when it has been struck and does not yield so much oil3 and in picking by hand it is better to do so with the bare fingers rather than with a tool because the texture of a tool not only injures the berry but barks the branches and leaves them exposed to the frost4 ,so it is better to use a reed than a pole to strike down the fruit which cannot be reached by hand1 for 7as the proverb is7 the heavier the blow1 the more need there is for a surgeon4 ,he who beats his trees should beware of doing injury1 for often an olive when it is struck away brings down with it from the branch a twig1 and when this happens the fruit of the following year is lost3 and this is not the least reason why it is said that the olive bears fruit1 or much fruit1 only every other year4 ,like the grape1 the olive serves a two-fold function after it is gathered4 ,some are set aside to be eaten and the rest are made into oil1 which comforts the body of man not only within but without1 for it follows us into the bath and the gymnasium4 ,those berries from which it is proposed to make oil are usually stored in heaps on tables for several days where they may mellow a little4 ,each heap in turn is carried in crates to the oil jars and to the trapetus1 or pressing mill1 which is equipped with both hard and rough stones4 ,if the olives are left too long in the heap they heat and spoil and the oil is rancid1 so if you are unable to grind promptly the heaps of olives should be ventilated by moving them4 ,the yield of the olive is of two kinds1 oil which is well known and amurca1 of the use of which many are so ignorant that one can often see it streaming from the mill and wasting upon the ground where it not only discolours the soil1 but in places where it collects even makes it sterile3 while if applied intelligently it has many uses of the greatest importance to agriculture1 as1 for instance1 by pouring it around the roots of trees1 chiefly the olive itself1 or wherever it is desired to destroy weeds4#ajc #e ,,housing ,,time ,,lvi4 ,up to this moment1 cried ,agrius1 ,i have been sitting in the barn with the keys in my hands waiting for you1 ,stolo1 to bring in the harvest4 ,lo1 ,i am here at the threshold1 replied ,stolo4 ,open the gates for me4 ,of storing hay ,in the first place1 it is better to house your hay than to leave it stacked in the field1 for thus it makes more palatable provender1 as may be proven by putting both kinds before the cattle4 ,of storing grain ,,lvii4 ,but corn should be stored in an elevated granary1 exposed to the winds from the east and the north1 and where no damp air may reach it from places near at hand4 ,the walls and the floors should be plastered with a stucco of marble dust or at least with a mixture of clay and chaff and amurca1 for amurca will serve to keep out mice and weevil and will make the grain solid and heavy4 ,some men even sprinkle their grain with amurca in the proportion of a quadrantal to every thousand modii of grain3 others crumble or scatter over it1 for the same purpose1 other vermifuges like ,chalcidian or ,carian chalk or wormwood1 and other things of that kind4 ,some farmers have their granaries under ground1 like caverns1 which they call silos1 as in ,cappadocia and ,thrace1 while in hither ,spain1 in the vicinity of ,carthage1 and at ,osca pits are used for this purpose1 the bottoms of which are covered with straw3 and they take care that neither moisture nor air has access to them1 except when they are opened for use1 a wise precaution because where the air does not move the weevil will not hatch4 ,corn stored in this way is preserved for fifty years1 and millet1 indeed1 for more than a century4 ,on the ether hand again1 in hither ,spain and in certain parts of ,apulia they build elevated granaries above ground1 which the winds keep cool1 not only by windows at the sides but also from underneath the floor4 ,of storing legumes ,,lviii4 ,beans and other legumes keep safe a long time in oil jars covered with ashes4 ,cato says the little ,aminnean grape1 as well as the large variety and that called ,apician1 keep very well when buried in earthen pots3 or they may be preserved quite as well in boiled new wine1 or in fresh after-wine4 ,the varieties which keep best when hung up are the hard grapes and those known as the ,aminnean ,scantian4 ,of storing pome fruits ,,lix4 ,the pome fruits1 like the preserving sparrow apples1 quinces and the varieties of apples known as ,scantian1 and 'little rounds' 7orbiculata7 and those which formerly were called winesap 7mustea71 and now are called honey apples 7melimela71 can all be kept safely in a cold and dry place when laid on straw1 and so those who build fruit houses take care to have the windows give upon the north wind and that it may blow through them3 but they should not be left without shutters for fear that the fruits should lose their moisture and become shrivelled by the effect of the continuous wind4 ,the vaults1 the walls and the pavements of these fruiteries are usually laid in stucco to keep them cool3 thus rendering them such pleasant resorts that some men even spread there their dining couches3 as well they may1 for if the pursuit of luxury impels some of us to turn our dining rooms into picture galleries in order to regale even our eyes with works of art while we eat1 should we not find still greater gratification in contemplating the works of nature displayed in a savory array of beautiful fruits1 especially if this was not procured1 as has been done1 by setting up in your fruitery on the occasion of a party a supply of fruit purchased for the purpose in town8 ,some think best to dispose their apples in the fruitery on concrete tables1 others on beds of straw1 and some even on flocks of wool4 ,pomegranates are preserved by sticking their twigs in jars of sand1 quinces and sparrow apples are strung together and hung up1 but the late maturing ,anician pears are best preserved in boiled must4 ,sorbs and pears also are some times cut up and dried in the sun1 though the sorb may be easily preserved intact by keeping them in a dry place3 turnips are cut up and preserved in mustard1 while walnuts keep well in sand1 as ,i have explained with respect to ripe pomegranates4 ,there is a similar way of ripening pomegranates3 put the fruit1 while it is still green and attached to its branch1 in a pot without a bottom1 bury this in the earth and scrape the soil around the protruding branch so as to keep out the air1 and when the pomegranates are dug up they will be found to be not only intact but larger than if they had hung all the time on the tree4 ,of storing olives ,,lx4 ,with respect to preserving olives1 ,cato advises that table olives1 both the round and the bitter berried kinds1 keep best in brine both when they are dry and when they are green1 but if they are bruised it is well to put them in mastich oil4 ,round olives will retain their black colour if they are packed in salt for five days1 and then1 the salt having been brushed away1 are exposed for two days in the sun3 or they may be preserved in must boiled down to one-third1 without the use of salt4 ,of storing amurca ,,lxi4 ,experienced farmers do well to save their amurca as they do their oil and their wine4 ,the method of preserving it is this3 immediately after the oil has been pressed out1 draw off the amurca and boil it down to one-third and1 when it has cooled1 store it in vats4 ,there are other methods also1 as that in which must is mingled with the amurca4 #f ,,consuming ,,time ,,lxii4 ,since no one stores his crops except to bring them out again1 it remains to make a few observations upon the sixth and last operation in our round of agriculture4 ,crops which have been stored are brought out either to care for them1 to consume them or to sell them1 and as all crops are not alike there are different times for caring for them and for consuming them4 ,of cleaning grain ,,lxiii4 ,grain is taken out of store to be cleaned1 when the weevil begins to damage it4 ,when this is apparent the grain should be laid out in the sun and bowls of water placed nearby and the weevil will swarm on this water and drown themselves4 ,those who store their grain in the pits which are called silos should not attempt to bring out the grain for some time after the silo has been opened because there is danger of suffocation in entering a recently opened silo4 ,the corn which1 during the harvest time1 you stored in the ear and which you contemplate using for food1 should be brought out during the winter to be crushed and ground in the grist mill4 ,of condensing amurca ,,lxiv4 ,when it flows from the oil mill1 amurca is a watery fluid full of dregs4 ,it is the custom to store it in this state in earthen jars and fifteen days later to skim off the scum from the top and transfer this to other jars1 an operation which is repeated at regular intervals twelve times during the following six months1 taking care that the last skimming is done on the wane of the moon4 ,then it is boiled in a copper kettle over a slow fire until it is reduced two-thirds1 when it may be drawn off for use4 ,of racking wine ,,lxv4 ,when the must is stored in the vat to make wine1 it should not be racked off while it is fermenting nor until this process has advanced so far that the wine may be considered to be made4 ,if you wish to drink old wine1 it is not made until a year is completed2 when it is a year old1 then draw it out4 ,but if your vineyard contains that kind of grape which turns sour early1 you should eat the fruit1 or sell it before the succeeding vintage4 ,there are kinds of wine1 like that of ,falernum1 which improve the longer you keep them4 ,of preserved olives ,,lxvi4 ,if you attempt to eat white olives immediately after you have put them up and before they are cured your palate will reject them on account of their bitterness 7and the same is true of the black olive7 unless you dip them in salt to make them palatable4 ,of nuts1 dates and figs ,,lxvii4 ,the sooner you use nuts1 dates and figs after they have been stored1 the more palatable they will be1 for by keeping figs lose their flavour1 dates rot and nuts dry up4 ,of stored fruits ,,lxviii4 ,fruits which are strung1 such as grapes1 apples and sorbs show by their appearance when they may be taken down for use1 for by their change of colour and shrinking they reveal themselves as destined to the garbage pile unless they are eaten in time4 ,sorbs which have been laid by when they are already dead-ripe should be used promptly1 but those which were picked green are slower to decay3 for green fruit in the store house must there go through the process of ripening which was denied it on the tree4 ,of marketing grain ,,lxix4 ,the spelt which you wish to have prepared for food should be taken out in the winter to be ground in the mill3 but your seed corn should not be taken out until the fields are ready to receive it1 a rule which obtains in respect of all kinds of seed4 ,what you have for sale should be taken out at the appropriate time also1 for some things which cannot be kept long without spoiling should be taken out and sold promptly1 while others which keep should be retained so that you may sell when the price is high1 for often commodities which are kept on hand a long time1 will1 if put on the market at the proper time1 not only yield interest for the time you held them but even a double profit4 ,as ,stolo was speaking1 the freedman of the ,sacristan ran up to us with his eyes full of tears and1 begging our pardon for having kept us waiting so long1 invited us to come to the funeral on the following day4 ,we all sprang up and cried out together ,what8 ,to the funeral8 ,whose funeral8 ,what has happened8 ,the freedman1 weeping1 told us that his master had been struck down by a blow with a knife1 but who did it he had been unable to discover by reason of the crowd1 all that he heard being an exclamation that a mistake had been made4 ,he added that when he had carried his master home and had sent the servants to call a doctor1 whom they brought back with them quickly1 he trusted that it might seem reasonable to us that he had waited to attend upon the doctor rather than come to notify us at once1 and while he had not been able to be of any service to his master1 who had given up the ghost in a few minutes1 yet he hoped we might approve his conduct4 ,accepting these excuses as amply justified1 we descended from the temple bewildered more by the hazard of human life than surprised that such a fate should be possible at ,rome3#ajd and so we went our several ways4 ,,book ,,ii ,,the ,,husbandry ,,of ,,live ,,stock ,introduction3 the decay of country life ,those great men our ancestors did well to esteem the ,romans who lived in the country above those who dwelt in town4 ,for as our peasants today contemn the tenant of a villa as an idler in comparison with the busy life of an agricultural labourer1 so our ancestors regarded the sedentary occupations of the town as waste of time from their habitual rural pursuits3 and in consequence they so divided their time that they might have to devote only one day of the week to their affairs in town1 reserving the remaining seven for country life4#aje ,so long as they persisted in this practice they accomplished two things both that their farms were fertile through good cultivation and that they themselves enjoyed the best of health3 they felt no need of those ,greek gymnasia which now every one of us must have in his town house1 nor did they deem that in order to enjoy a house in the country one must give sounding ,greek names to all its apartments1 such as ,greek3 prokoiton 7antechamber7 ,greek3 palaistra 7exercising room7 ,greek3 apodutaerion 7dressing room7 ,greek3 peristulon 7arcade7 ,greek3 ornithon or 7poultry house7 ,greek3 peristereon 7dove cote7 ,greek3 oporothaekae 7fruitery7 and the like4 ,since now forsooth most of our gentry crowd into town1 abandoning the sickle and the plough and prefer to exercise their hands in the theatre and the circus rather than in the corn field and the vineyard1 it has resulted that we must fain buy the very corn that fills our bellies and have it hauled in for us1 yea1 out of ,africa and ,sardinia1 while we bring home the vintage in ships from the islands of ,cos and ,chios6 ,and so it has happened that those lands which the shepherds who founded the city taught their children to cultivate are now1 by their later descendants1 converted again from corn fields back to pastures1 thus in their greed of gain violating even the law1 since they fail to distinguish the difference between agriculture and grazing4#ajf ,for a shepherd is one thing and a ploughman another1 nor for all that he may feed his stock on farm land is a drover the same as a teamster3 herded cattle1 indeed1 do nothing to create what grows in the land1 but destroy it with their teeth1 while the yoked ox on the contrary conduces to the maturity of grain in the corn fields and forage in the fallow land4 ,the practice and the art of the farmer is one thing1 ,i say2 that of the shepherd another2 the farmer's object being that what ever may be produced by cultivating the land should yield a profit2 that of the shepherd to make his profit from the increase of his flock2 and yet the relation between them is intimate because it is much more desirable for a farmer to feed his forage on the land than to sell it1 and a herd of cattle is the best source of supply of that which is the most available food of growing plants1 namely1 manure3#ajg so it follows that whoever has a farm ought to practise both arts1 that of agriculture and that of grazing cattle1 indeed1 also that of feeding game1 as is done at our country houses1 since no little profit may be derived from aviaries and rabbit warrens and fish ponds4 ,and since ,i have written a book concerning the first of these occupations--that of the husbandry of agriculture--for my wife ,fundania because of her interest in that subject1 now1 my dear ,turranius ,niger1 ,i write this one on the husbandry of live stock for you1 who are so keen a stock fancier that you are a frequent attendant at the cattle market at ,macri ,campi1 where1 by your fortunate speculations1 you have found means to make provision for many crying expenses4 ,i could do this on my own authority because ,i am myself a considerable owner of live stock with my flocks of sheep in ,apulia and my stud of horses at ,reate1 but ,i will run through the subject1 briefly and summarily rehearsing what ,i gathered from conversation with certain large stock feeders in ,epirus at the time when1 being in command of the fleet in ,greece during the war with the pirates1 ,i lay between ,delos and ,sicily4#ajh ,of the origin1 the importance and the economy of live stock husbandry ,i4#aji ,when ,menates had gone1 ,cossinius said to me3 ,we shall not let you go until you have explained those three points which you began to discuss the other day when we were interrupted4 ,what three points1 said ,murrius4 ,are they those concerning feeding cattle1 of which you spoke to me yesterday8 ,yes1 replied ,cossinius1 they are the considerations of what was the origin1 what the importance1 and what the economy of the husbandry of live stock4 ,varro here had begun to discourse upon them while we were calling on ,petus during his illness1 when the arrival of the physician interrupted us4 ,of the three divisions of the ,greek3 historikon or interpretation of this subject1 which you have mentioned1 ,i will venture1 said ,i1 to speak only of the first two1 of the origin and of the importance of this industry4 ,the third division1 of how it should be practised1 ,scrofa shall undertake for us1 as one1 if ,i may speak ,greek to a company of half ,greek shepherds ,greek3 hos per mou pollon ameinon 7who is better qualified than ,i am71#aaj for ,scrofa was the teacher of ,c4 ,lucilius ,hirrus1 your son-in-law1 whose flocks and herds in ,bruttii have such reputation4 ,but1 interrupted ,scrofa1 you shall hear what we have to say only on condition that you1 who come from ,epirus and are masters of the art of feeding cattle1 shall recompense us and shall give public testimony of what you know on the subject3 for none of us knows it all4 ,having thus assumed that my share of the discussion should be the first or theoretical part of the subject 7which ,i did1 although ,i have a stock farm in ,italy1 because1 as the proverb is1 not every one who owns a lyre is a musician71 ,i began3 ,doubtless in the very order of nature both man and cattle have existed since the beginning of time1 for whether we believe that there was a ,first ,cause of the generation of animals1 as ,thales of ,miletus and ,zeno of ,citium maintained1 or that there was none as was the opinion of ,pythagoras of ,samos and ,aristotle of ,stagira1 it is1 as ,dicaearchus points out1 a necessity of human life to have descended gradually from the earliest time to the present day3 thus in the beginning was the primitive age when man lived on whatever the virgin soil produced spontaneously2 thence he descended to the second or pastoral age1 when1 as he had formerly gathered for his use acorns1#aaa strawberries1 mulberries and apples by picking them from trees and bushes1 so now1 to satisfy a like need1 he captured in the woods such as he could of the wild beasts of the field1 and1 having enclosed1 began to domesticate them4 ,among these it is considered not without reason that sheep were foremost1 both because of their utility and because of their docile nature1 for this animal is the gentlest of all and most readily accommodated to the life of man1 and supplies him with milk and cheese for food1 and skins and wool to clothe his body4 ,finally1 by the third step1 man descended from the pastoral age to that of agriculture4 ,in this there have persisted many relics of the two preceding ages1 which1 long remaining in their original state1 are found even in our day3 for in many places may yet be seen some kinds of our domestic cattle still in their wild state1 such as the large flocks of wild sheep in ,phrygia1 and in ,samothrace a species of wild goats like those which are called big horns 7platycerotes7 and abound in ,italy on the mountains of ,fiscellum and ,tetrica4 ,every body knows that there are wild swine1 unless you maintain that the wild boar is not a true member of the swine family4 ,there are still many cattle running at large in ,dardania1 ,medica and ,thrace1 while there are wild asses in ,phrygia and ,lycaonia1 and wild horses in certain regions of hither ,spain4 ,i have now told you of the origin of the industry of feeding cattle4 ,as to its importance1 ,i have this to say3 ,the most important persons of antiquity were all keepers of live stock1 as both the ,greek and ,latin languages reveal1 as well as the earliest poets1 who describe their heroes some as ,greek3 polyarnos 7rich in lambs71 some as ,greek3 polymaelos 7rich in sheep71 and others as ,greek3 polyboutaes 7rich in herds71 and tell of flocks which on account of their value were said to have golden fleeces1 like that of ,atreus in ,argos which he complained that ,thyestes stole away from him3 or that ram which ,aeetes sacrificed at ,colchis1 whose fleece was the quest of those princes known as the ,argonauts3 or again like those so called golden apples 7mala7 of the ,hesperides that ,hercules brought back from ,africa into ,greece1 which were1 according to the ancient tradition1 in fact goats and sheep which the ,greeks1 from the sound of their voice1 called ,greek3 maela3 indeed1 much in the same way our country people1 using a different letter 7since the bleat of a sheep seems to make more of the sound of bee than of me7 say that sheep be-alare1 whence by the elision of a letter as often happens1 is derived the word belare 7or balare71 to bleat4 ,if cattle had not been held in the highest esteem among the ancients the astrologers would not have called the signs of the zodiac by their names in describing the heavens3 and they not only did not hesitate to place them there but many even begin their enumeration of the twelve signs with these animal names1 thus giving ,aries and ,taurus precedence over ,apollo and ,hercules1 whose signs1 very gods as they are1 are subordinated under the name of ,gemini3 nor did they deem that a sixth of these twelve signs was a sufficient proportion for the names of cattle1 but they must even add ,capricornus and make it a quarter4 ,furthermore1 in naming the constellations they selected other names of cattle1 as the goat1 the kid1 and the dog4 ,and in like manner have not certain parts both of the sea and of the land taken their names from cattle1 as witness the ,aegean ,sea1 which is called after the ,greek name for goat ,greek3 aigeos1 and ,mount ,taurus in ,syria after the bull1 and ,mount ,cantherius in the ,sabine country after the horse1 and the ,thracian1 as well as the ,cimmerian1 ,bosphorus1 after the ox3 and again many place names on land like the town in ,greece known as ,greek3 hippion ,argos1 or horse breeding ,argos4 ,yea1 ,italy itself derives its name1 according to ,piso1 from vitula1 our word for heifer4 ,who can deny that the ,roman people themselves are sprung from a race of shepherds1 for every one knows that ,faustulus1 the foster father of ,romulus and ,remus1 who brought them up1 was a shepherd4 ,is it not proof that they were shepherds that they chose the ,parilia1 or feast of the goddess of the shepherds1 in preference to all other days1 for the founding of the city2 that a penalty even to this day is assessed in terms of cattle or sheep1 according to the ancient custom2 that our most ancient money1 the as of cast copper1 always bore the effigy of some domestic animal2 that whenever a town was founded the limits of the walls and the gates were laid off with a plough drawn by a bull and a cow yoked together2 that when the ,roman people are purified it is done by driving around them a boar1 a ram and a bull1 whence the sacrifice is known as the ,suovetaurilia2 that we have many family names among us derived from both the great and small cattle3 thus from small cattle ,porcius1 ,ovinius1 ,caprilius1 and from great cattle ,equitius1 ,taurius1 and some of our families have received from cattle cognomens which signify for what they are esteemed1 as1 for instance1 the ,annius family are called ,capra1 the ,statilius family are called ,taurus and the ,pomponius family are called ,vitulus1 and so many others are derived from cattle4 ,it remains now to discuss the art of animal husbandry1 and on this subject our friend ,scrofa1 to whom this age has awarded the palm for excellence in all branches of farm management1 will say what ever is to be said1 as he is better qualified than am ,i4 ,when all eyes had been turned upon him1 ,scrofa began3 ,doubtless the art of breeding and of feeding cattle consists in getting the maximum profit out of those things from which the very name of money is derived1 for our word for money 7pecunia7 comes from pecus1 cattle1 which is the foundation of all wealth4 ,our enquiry may be divided into nine subjects1 or three parts each with three subdivisions1 namely3 7i7 concerning small cattle1 of which the three kinds are sheep1 goats and swine3 7#b7 concerning large cattle1 which are likewise divided by nature into three species1 neat cattle1 asses and horses3 and 7#c7 concerning those instruments of animal husbandry which are not kept for profit but for convenience1 namely3 mules1 dogs and shepherds4 ,each of these nine subjects must be considered under nine heads3 7a7 four relating to the acquisition of cattle1 7b7 four to the care of them1 and 7c7 one which has to do with all the others4 ,so there are at least eighty-one chapters for discussion of the subject1 all indispensable and all of great importance4 ,under the head 7a7 of acquisition1 it is first of all necessary1 to enable you to buy good live stock1 that you should know at what age it is best to buy and to keep each different kind4 ,for instance1 you may buy neat cattle for less money before they are a year old and after they are ten1 because they begin to breed at two or three years and leave off soon after the tenth year1 the beginning and the end of the life of all live stock being sterile4 ,the second consideration under this head is a knowledge of the conformation of each kind of cattle and what it should be1 for this is of great importance in determining the value of all animals4 ,thus experienced stockmen buy cattle with black horns rather than white1 large goats rather than small1 and swine with long bodies and short heads4 ,the third consideration under this head is to make sure of the breeding4 ,on this account the asses of ,arcadia are celebrated in ,greece1 as are those of ,reate in ,italy1 so that ,i remember an ass that brought sixty thousand sesterces1 and a four-in-hand team at ,rome that was held at four hundred thousand4 ,the fourth consideration is of the legal precautions to be observed in buying live stock1 for in order that title may pass from one to another certain formalities must intervene1 since neither a contract nor even the payment of the purchase money suffices in all cases to transfer a title3 thus in buying you some times stipulate that the animal is in good health1 some times that it comes out of a healthy flock or herd1 and some times no stipulation at all is made4 ,under the head 7b7 of the care of live stock1 the four considerations are what should be done1 after you have bought your cattle1 in respect of feeding1 of breeding1 of raising them1 and of maintaining their health4 ,in the matter of feeding1 which is the first of these considerations1 the three things to be observed are where and how much1 when1 and on what your cattle will graze3 thus it suits goats better to graze on rough and mountain land than in fat pastures1 while the contrary is true of horses4 ,nor are the same places fit for grazing for all kinds of cattle both in summer and winter3 thus flocks of sheep are driven from ,apulia a long distance into ,samnium to spend the summer1 and are reported to the tax farmer to be registered lest they violate the regulations of the censor4#aab ,in the same way mules are driven in the summer from the prairie of ,rosea to the high mountains of ,gurgures4 ,the rules for feeding each kind of live stock in the barn yard must also be studied1 as1 for instance1 that hay is fed to the horse and the ox1 while it will not do for swine which require mast1 and that barley and beans should at intervals be fed to some kinds of stock1 lupines to draft cattle and alfalfa and clover to milch cows4 ,furthermore1 it is desirable to feed the ram and the bull more heavily for thirty days before admitting them to the flock and the herd1 the purpose being to increase their strength1 while on the other hand the feed of the cows is cut down at that time because it is deemed that they breed most successfully when they are thin4 ,the next consideration is concerning breeding1 which ,i call the period between conception and birth1 for these are the beginning and the end of pregnancy4 ,first of all then we should consider the stinting and the season at which this should be accomplished1 for as the season from the rising of the west wind to the vernal equinox 7,february-,march7 is considered best for swine1 so that from the setting of ,arcturus to the setting of ,aquila 7,may-,july7 is best for sheep4 ,furthermore1 a rule should be made that the male animals are kept apart from the females for some time before they are bred1 a period which neatherds and shepherds usually fix at two months4 ,the next consideration is of the rules to be observed while the animal is pregnant1 because the periods of gestation differ in the several domestic animals3 thus the mare goes twelve months1 the cow ten1 the ewe and the goat five and the sow four4 ,in ,spain is reported a phenomenon of breeding which seems incredible1 but is nevertheless true1 namely3 that on ,mount ,tagnus on that part of the coast of ,lusitania near the town of ,olisippo1 mares are some times impregnated by the wind1#aac some thing which often happens with respect to chickens1 whence their eggs are called ,greek3 hypaenemios 7conceived by the wind71#aad but the foals born of such mares never live more than three years4 ,when lambs are born in due season1 or what we call chordi 7that is to say those lambs which are born late and have remained beyond their season in the belly of the dam1 the name chordi1 being derived from ,greek3 chorion the ,greek name for the membrane which is called the after birth71 care must be taken to clean them and set them gently on their feet and to prevent the dam from crushing them4 ,on the third consideration with respect to raising young animals1 you must consider for how long they should be permitted to suck the dam and when and where1 and if the mother has an insufficient supply of milk1 how you may put the young one to nurse at the udder of another3 in which case they are called subrumi1 that is to say1 under the udder1 for ,i think that rumis is an old word for udder4 ,lambs are weaned usually at the end of four months1 kids in three1 pigs in two4 ,weanling pigs1 from the fact that they are considered fit to be offered for sacrifice at that age1 were formerly called sacres as ,plautus calls them when he says1 ,what's the price of sacred pigs8#aae ,in like manner stall fed cattle1 which are being fattened for the public sacrifices1 are called opimi4 ,the fourth consideration relates to the health of the cattle1 a subject as important as it is complex1 for a single beast which may be sick or infected and ailing often brings a great calamity on an entire herd4 ,there are two degrees of the healing art1 one which requires consultation with a surgeon1 as for men3 the other which the skilful shepherd can himself practise1 and this consists of three parts1 namely3 the consideration of what are the causes1 the symptoms and the treatment which should be followed in relation to each malady4 ,the common causes of disease in cattle are excess of heat or of cold1 overwork1 or its opposite lack of exercise1 or1 if when they have been worked1 you give them food and drink at once without an interval of rest4 ,the symptoms of fever due to heat or overwork are a gaping mouth1 heavy humid breath and a burning body4 ,the cure when such is the malady is this3 bathe the animal with water1 rub it with a warm mixture of oil and wine1 put it on a nourishing diet1 blanket it as protection against chills and give it tepid water when it is thirsty4#aaf ,if this treatment does not suffice1 let the blood1 chiefly from the head4 ,so there are different causes and different symptoms of the maladies peculiar to each kind of cattle1 and the flock master should have them all written down4 ,it remains to speak of the ninth head 7c71 which ,i mentioned1 and this relates to the number of cattle to be kept and so concerns both of the other heads4 ,for whoever buys cattle must consider the number of herds and how many in each herd he can feed on his land1 lest his pastures prove short or more than he need1 as so in either case the profit be lost4 ,further more1 one should know how many breeding ewes there are in the flock1 how many rams1 how many lambs of each sex1 how many culls to be weeded out4 ,thus1 if a ewe has more lambs at a birth than she can nourish1 you should do what some shepherds practise--take part of them away from her1 which is done to the end that those remaining may prosper4 ,beware6 put in ,atticus1 that your generalisations do not lead you astray1 and that your insistence on the rule of nine does not contradict your own definition of small and large cattle3 for how can all your principles be applied to mules and to shepherds1 since those with respect to breeding certainly cannot be followed so far as they are concerned4 ,as to dogs ,i can see their application4 ,i admit even that men may be included in them1 because they have their wives on the farm in winter1 and indeed even in their summer pasture camps1 a concession which is deemed beneficial because it attaches the shepherds to their flocks1 and by begetting children they increase the establishment and with it the profit on your investment4 ,if ,scrofa's number cannot be measured with a carpenter's rule1 said ,i1 neither can many other generalisations1 as1 for instance1 when we say that a thousand ships sailed against ,troy1 or that a certain court of ,rome consists of a hundred judges 7centumviri74 ,leave out1 if you wish1 the two chapters relating to breeding in so far as mules are concerned4 ,but why should we1 exclaimed ,vaccius1 for it is related that on several occasions at ,rome a mule has had a foal4 ,to back up what ,vaccius had said1 ,i cited ,mago and ,dionysius as writing that when mules and mares conceive they bear in the twelfth month4 ,if1 ,i added1 it is considered a prodigy in ,italy when a mule has a foal1 it is not necessarily so in all countries4 ,for is it not true that swallows and swans breed in ,italy1 which do not lay in other lands1 and don't you know that the ,syrian date palm1 which bears fruit in ,judea1 does not yield in ,italy8 ,if you prefer1 said ,scrofa1 to make out the entire eighty-one chapters without any on the care of mules during the breeding season1 there are subjects with which you can fill this double vacancy by adding those two kinds of extraordinary profit which is derived from live stock4 ,one of these is the fleece which men shear or pull from sheep and goats1 the other1 which is more widely practised1 that from milk and cheese3 the ,greek writers indeed actually treat this separately under the title ,greek3 turopoiia1 and have written extensively about it4 ,of sheep ,,ii4 ,and now1 since ,i have completed my task and the economy of live stock husbandry has been defined1 do you1 men of ,epirus1 requite us by expounding the subject in detail1 so that we may see of what the shepherds of ,pergamis and ,maledos are capable4 ,at this challenge1 ,atticus 7who then was known as ,t4 ,pomponius but now as ,q4 ,caecilius retaining the same cognomen7#aag began as follows3 ,i gather that ,i must make the beginning since you seem to turn your eyes upon me3 so ,i will speak of those cattle which you1 ,varro1 have called primitive1 for you say that sheep were the first of the wild beasts of the field which were captured and domesticated by man4 ,in the first place you should buy good sheep1 and they are so judged primarily in respect of their age1 that they are not what is known as aged nor yet undeveloped lambs1 because neither can yield you any profit1 the one no longer1 the other not yet3 but you may deem that age which holds out a promise preferable to that whose only future is death4 ,so far as concerns conformation1 a sheep should have a round barrel1 wool thick and soft and with long fibre1 and1 while heavy all over the body1 it should be thickest on the back and neck1 and yet the belly also should be covered1 for unless the belly was covered our ancestors were wont to call a sheep apica and throw it out4 ,they should have short legs1#aah and1 if they are of the ,italian breed1 long tails1 or short tails if they come from ,syria4 ,the most important point to guard is that your flock is headed by a good sire4 ,the quality of a ram can usually be determined from his conformation and from his get4 ,so far as concerns conformation1 a ram should have a face well covered with wool1 horns twisted and converging on the muzzle1 tawny eyes1 woolly ears1 a deep chest1 wide shoulders and loin1 a long and large tail4 ,you should see also whether he has a black or a spotted tongue1#aai for such rams usually get black or spotted lambs4 ,you may judge them by their get1 if their lambs are of good quality4 ,in buying sheep we practise the formalities which the law requires1 following them more or less strictly in particular cases4 ,some men in fixing a price per head stipulate that two late lambs or two toothless ewes shall be counted as one4 ,in other respects the traditional formula is employed thus3 the buyer says to the seller1 ,do you sell me these sheep for so much8 ,and the seller answers1 ,they are your sheep1 and states the price4 ,whereupon the buyer stipulates according to the ancient formula3 ,do you guarantee that these sheep1 for which we have bargained1 are in such good health as sheep should be2 that there is none among them one-eyed1 deaf or bare-bellied2 that they do not come out of an infected flock and that ,i will take them by good right and title8 ,even when this is done the title to the flock does not pass until they have been counted1 but1 nevertheless1 the purchaser can hold the seller to the bargain if he does not make delivery1 even though the purchase money has not passed1 and by a like right the seller can hold the buyer if he does not pay up4 ,i will next speak about those other four subjects which ,scrofa outlined1 namely3 the feeding1 breeding1 raising and physicking of sheep4 ,in the first place1 one should see that provision is made for feeding the flock throughout the entire year1 as well indoors as out4 ,the stable should be in a suitable location1 protected against the wind1 looking rather to the ,east than the ,south1 on cleared and sloping ground so that it can be easily swept out and kept clean1 for moisture not only rots the wool of the sheep but their hoofs as well and causes scab4 ,when sheep have stood for several days you should strew the stable with new bedding1 so that they may be more comfortable and be kept cleaner1 and thus eat with more appetite4 ,you should also contrive stalls separated from the others in which you may segregate the ewes about to yean1 as well as any which may be ailing4 ,this precaution is practicable1 however1 only with sheep fed at the steading1 but those who graze their sheep in the mountain pastures and far from cover1 carry with them wicker hurdles or nets1 and other such conveniences with which they contrive folds for such separation4 ,sheep indeed are grazed far and wide so that often it happens that their winter quarters are many miles from their summer pastures4 ,i know that to be true1 said ,i1 for my flocks winter in ,apulia and spend the summer in the mountains above ,reate3 thus the public cattle drifts between these two localities balance the separated pastures1 as a yoke balances two baskets4#abj ,atticus resumed3 ,when sheep are fed continually in the same locality distinction must be made in the times of feeding them according to the seasons3 thus in summer they are driven out#aba to pasture at day break because then the dewy grass is more appetizing than at midday1 when it is dry4 ,at sunrise they are driven to water1 to make them more lickerish on their return4 ,about noon and during the heat of the day they are permitted to lie in the shade of rocks or under broad spreading trees until the fresher evening air invites them to feed again until sunset4#abb ,a sheep should always graze with the sun behind it1 because its head is very sensitive to heat4 ,at sunset the flock should be given a short rest and then driven again to water1 and so brought back to feed again until it is dark1 for at that time of day the grass has renewed its pleasant savour4 ,this routine is usually followed from the rising of the ,pleiades until the autumn equinox4 ,after the harvest it is of two-fold advantage to turn the flock in on the stubble1 as they will fatten on the shattered grain and improve the land for next year's planting by spreading their manure in the trampled straw4 ,the rules for pasturing sheep in winter and spring differ from the summer rules in this1 that at those seasons the flock is not driven to pasture until the hoar frost has evaporated and they feed all day long1 one watering about noon being enough4 ,this is about all there to say on the subject of feeding sheep1 so ,i pass to the consideration of breeding4 ,the rams which you are about to use for breeding should be separated from the flock for two months before the season1 and fed heavily by giving them a ration of barley when they come into the stable from the pasture3 it will make them stronger for their duty4 ,the best breeding season is from the setting of ,arcturus to the setting of ,aquila1 7,may-,july7 because lambs begotten later are apt to be born runts1 and weak4 ,as a ewe is pregnant for one hundred and fifty days1 this arrangement causes her to drop her lambs at the end of autumn when the temperature is mild and the grass is renewed by the first rains4 ,during the breeding season the flock should drink only the same kind of water1 since a change not only makes spotted wool but injures the offspring4 ,when all the ewes have been stinted1 the rams should be separated from them again1 because it injures ewes to be teased while they are pregnant4 ,ewe lambs should never be bred before they are two years old1 as they cannot earlier produce strong lambs1 but will themselves degenerate3 indeed1 it is better to keep them until the third year4 ,to this end some shepherds protect their ewe lambs from the ram by tying baskets made of rushes or something of that kind over their rumps1 but it is better to feed them apart from the flock4 ,i come now to the consideration of how lambs should be raised4 ,when the ewes begin to yean they are driven into a stable which has stalls set apart for the purpose1 where the new born lambs can be placed near a fire to strengthen them1 and there the ewes are kept two or there days until the lambs know their dams and are able to feed themselves4 ,thereafter the lambs are still kept up but the ewes are driven out to pasture with the flock1 being brought back to them in the evening to be suckled and then once more separated1 lest the lambs be trampled by the ewes at night4 ,in the morning before the ewes go out to pasture they are given access to their young again until the lambs are satisfied with milk4 ,after about ten days have elapsed the lambs are picketed out of doors1 being tethered with fibre or such other light material1 to stakes planted some distance apart so that the little fellows may not injure themselves as they frisk together all day4 ,if a lamb will not suck1 it should be held up to the teat and its lips greased with butter or suet1 and so made to smell at the milk4 ,a few days later some soft vetch or tender grass may be given them before they go out to pasture and after they come in4 ,and so they are nursed until they are four months old4 ,there are some shepherds who do not milk the ewes during the nursing period1 but those who do not milk them at all do better1 as thus they bear more wool and more lambs4 ,when the lambs are weaned great attention is necessary to prevent them from wasting away in their longing for the dam3 they should be tempted to eat by giving them appetizing food1 and care should be taken that they do not suffer from cold or heat4 ,when at last they have forgotten the taste of milk and no longer yearn for the dam1 they may be driven out with the flock4 ,a ram lamb should not be altered until he is five months old1 nor yet in very hot or very cold weather4 ,those which you wish to keep for rams should be chosen as far as possible from dams who are in the habit of having twin lambs4 ,most of these recommendations apply equally to those fine wool sheep which are called pellitae1 because they are jacketed with skins1 as is done at ,tarentum and in ,attica1 to protect their wool from fouling1 for by this precaution the fleece is kept in better plight for dyeing1 washing or cleaning4 ,greater diligence is required to keep clean the folds and stables of such sheep than is necessary for the ordinary breeds3 so they are paved with stone to the end that no urine may stand anywhere in the stable4 ,sheep eat whatever is put before them--fig leaves1 marc1 even straw4 ,bran should be fed to them in moderation1 lest they eat either too much or too little of it1 in either of which cases it is bad for the digestion1 but clover and alfalfa agree with them best and make both fat and milk with the utmost facility4 ,so far as concerns the health of the flock1 there are many things ,i might add1 but1 as ,scrofa has said1 the flock master keeps his prescriptions written down in a book and carries with him what he needs in the way of physic4 ,it remains to speak of the number of sheep in a flock4 ,some make this more1 some less1 for there is no natural limit4 ,in ,epirus almost all of us have a rule not to allow more than one hundred short wool sheep or fifty fine wool jacketed sheep to a shepherd4 ,of goats ,,iii4 ,as ,atticus stopped1 ,cossinius took him up4 ,come1 my dear ,faustulus1 he cried1 you have bleated long enough4 ,take now from me1 as from a late born ,homeric ,melanthius1#abc a small offering from my flock of goats1 and at the same time learn a lesson in brevity4 ,he who wishes to form a flock of goats should consider in choosing them3 first of all that they are of an age capable of breeding1 and that for some time to come1 for a tiro is more useful for that purpose than a veteran4 ,as to conformation1 see to it that they are strong and large1 with a smooth body and thick coat3 but beware of the short haired goat1 for there are both kinds4 ,the she goat should have two excrescences1 like little teats1 hanging under the muzzle3 those which have them are fecund3#abd the larger the udder the more milk and butter fat she will yield4 ,the qualities of a buck are that his coat should be largely white3 his crest and neck short and his gullet long4 ,you will have a better flock if you buy at one time goats which have been accustomed to run together1 rather than by putting together a lot of goats picked up here and there4 ,concerning breeding1 ,i refer to what ,atticus has said about sheep1 with this difference3 that while you select a breed of sheep which are slow of foot1 because they are of quieter disposition1 all goats are as excitable as they are agile4 ,of1 this last characteristic ,cato records in his book ,origines3 ',in the mountains of ,socrate and ,fiscellus there are wild goats which leap from rock to rock a distance of more than sixty feet4' ,for as the sheep which we feed are sprung from wild sheep1 so the goats which we herd are sprung from wild goats3 and it is from them that the island of ,caprasia1 near the coast of ,italy1 gets its name4 ,as it is recognized that the best breed of goats is one which bears two kids at a birth1 breeding bucks are chosen from such a race whenever possible4 ,some fanciers even take the trouble to import bucks from the island of ,melia1 where are bred what are considered the largest and most beautiful specimens of the race4 ,i hold that the formula for buying sheep cannot altogether apply to goats because no sane man ever guaranteed that goats are without malady1 for the fact is that they are forever in a fever4 ,for this reason the usual stipulation has had a few words cut out of it for use in respect of goats1 and1 as ,manilius gives it in his treatise on the law of ,sales1 runs as follows3 ',do you guarantee that these goats are well today2 that they are able to drink1 and that ,i will get good title to them8' ,there is a wonderful fact concerning goats which has been stated by certain ingenious shepherds and is even recorded in the book of ,archelaus1 namely1 that they do not breathe through their nostrils1 like other animals1 but through their ears4#abe ,upon ,scrofa's four considerations which relate to the care of goats ,i have this to say4 ,the flock is better stabled in the winter if its quarters look toward the ,southeast1 because goats are very sensitive to cold4 ,so also1 as for most cattle1 the goat stable should be paved with stone or brick that the flock may be less exposed to damp and mud4 ,when the flock passes the night out of doors1 a place should be selected having the same exposure and the fold strewn with leaves to protect the flock from fouling themselves4 ,there is not much difference in the method of handling goats in the pasture from sheep1 but goats have this characteristic1 that they prefer the mountain woodland pastures to meadows1 for they feed eagerly on the brushwood and in cultivated places crop the shrubbery2 indeed1 their name caprae is derived from carpere1 to crop4 ,for this reason it is customary to stipulate in farm leases that the tenant shall not graze any goat on the leased land1 for their teeth are the enemies of all planted crops3 wherefore the astrologers were careful to station them in the heavens outside of the pale of the twelve signs of the zodiac1 but there are two kids and a goat not far from ,taurus4 ,so far as concerns breeding1 it is the custom to separate the bucks from the pastured flock at the end of autumn and confine them apart1 as has been said with respect to rams4 ,the nannies which conceive at this time drop their kids in four months1 and so in the spring4 ,in what regards rearing the kids1 it is enough to say that when they are three months old they are raised and may join the flock4 ,what shall ,i say of the health of these animals who never have any8 yet the flock master should have written down what remedies are used for certain of their maladies and especially for the wounds which often befall them by reason of their constant fighting among themselves and their feeding in thorny places4 ,it remains to speak of number3 this is less to the herd in the case of goats than with sheep because of the wantonness and wandering habit of the goat3 sheep1 on the other hand1 are wont to flock together and keep in one place4 ,for another reason it is the custom in ,gaul to divide the goats into many flocks rather than concentrate them in large ones1 because a pestilence quickly takes possession of a large herd and sweeps it to destruction4 ,about fifty goats is considered to be a large enough flock4 ,the experience of ,gaberius1 a ,roman of the equestrian order1 will illustrate the reason for this3 for he1 who had a thousand jugera of land near ,rome1 met one day a certain goatherd leading ten goats to town1 and heard him say that he made a denier#abf a day out of each goat1 whereupon ,gaberius bought a thousand goats1 hoping that he might thereby derive from his property an income of a thousand deniers a day3 but so it fell out that he lost all his goats after a brief illness4 ,on the other hand1 among the ,sallentini and near ,casinum they graze their goats in flocks of one hundred4 ,almost the same difference of opinion exists as to the relative number of bucks to nannies1 for some1 and ,i am among them1 allow a buck to every ten nannies1 but others1 like ,menas1 make it fifteen1 and some even twenty1 like ,murrius4 ,of swine ,,iv4 ,and now1 concluded ,cossinius1 which of you ,italian swine breeders will stand forth and tell us of his herd8 ,surely he should be able to speak with the most authority whose cognomen is ,scrofa4 ,at this pleasantry1 ,tremelius turned upon ,cossinius and said3 ,you seem to be ignorant why ,i am called ,scrofa1 but1 in order that our friends sitting beside you may understand1 you should know my family did not always bear this swinish cognomen1 nor am ,i of the race of ,eumaeus4 ,the first of us to be called ,scrofa was my grandfather who1 when he was quaestor under the praetor ,licinius ,nerva1 and was left in command of the army in the province of ,macedonia during the absence of the praetor1 it so happened that the enemy thought they had an opportunity to gain a victory and began to attack the camp4 ,my grandfather1 in exhorting the soldiers to take up their arms and go out against the enemy1 exclaimed that he would soon scatter them as a sow 7scrofa7 does her pigs1 and he was as good as his word4 ,for in that battle he so overwhelmed and discomfited the enemy1 that on account of it the praetor ,nerva was hailed ,imperator and my grandfather obtained his cognomen and so was called ,scrofa4#abg ,so1 while neither my great grandfather nor any of my ancestors of the ,tremelian family was ever called ,scrofa1 yet as ,i am not less than the sixth of our family in succession who has attained praetorian rank1 it ill becomes me to run away in the face of your challenge1 so ,i will tell you what ,i know about swine4 ,indeed from my youth ,i have been devoted to agriculture1 so that ,i am perhaps as well acquainted with that animal as is any of you great stockmen3 for who of us cultivates a farm but keeps hogs1 and who has not heard his father say that that man is either lazy or a spendthrift who hangs in the meat house a flitch of bacon obtained from the butcher rather than from his own farm4 ,he who wishes to have a proper herd of swine ought to choose them1 in the first place1 of the right age1 and in the second place1 of good conformation3 which means large everywhere except in the head and feet and of a solid colour rather than spotted3 but the boar should have without fail a thick neck in addition to these other qualities4 ,swine of good breed may be known from their appearance1 if both boar and sow are of good conformation2 from their get1 if they have many pigs at a birth2 and from their origin1 if you buy them in a place with a reputation for producing fat rather than lean hogs4 ,the usual formula for buying runs thus3 ',do you warrant that these hogs are in good health2 that ,i shall take good title to them2 that they have committed no tort1 and that they do not come out of a diseased herd8' ,some add a particular stipulation that they are not affected with cholera4 ,in the matter of pasture1 a marshy place is well fitted for hogs1 because they delight not only in water1 but in mud1 the reason for which appears in the tradition that when a wolf has fallen upon a hog he always drags the carcass into the water because his teeth cannot endure the natural heat of hog flesh4 ,swine are fed mostly on mast1 though also on beans1 barley and other kinds of corn1 which not only make them fat but give the meat an agreeable relish4 ,in summer they go out to pasture early in the morning and before the heat of the day3 at midday they are brought into some shady place1 preferably where there is water3 in the afternoon1 when the heat has abated1 they are fed again4 ,in the winter time they do not go out to pasture until the hoar frost has evaporated and the ice has melted4 ,in the matter of breeding1 the boar should be separated from the herd for two months before the season1 which should be arranged between the rising of the west wind and the vernal equinox1 for thus it will befall that the sows 7which are big for four months7 will have their litters in summer when forage is plenty4 ,sows should not be bred under a year old1 but it is better to wait until the twentieth month so that they may have pigs at two years4 ,they are said to breed regularly for seven years after the first litter4 ,during the breeding season they should be given access to muddy ditches and sloughs1 so that they may wallow in the mud1 which is the same relaxation to them that a bath is to a man4 ,when all the sows are stinted1 the boars should be segregated again4 ,a boar is fit for service at eight months and so continues until his prime1 after which his vigor decreases until he is fit only for the butcher to make of his flesh a dainty offering for the people4 ,our name for the hog1 sus1 is called ,greek3 hus in ,greek1 but formerly it was ,greek3 thus1 derived from ,greek3 thuein1 meaning to offer as a sacrifice1 for it seems that victims were chosen from the race of swine for the earliest sacrifices2 evidence of which remains in the tradition that pigs are sacrificed at the initiation to the mysteries of ,ceres1 that when a treaty is ratified peace begins with the slaughter of a pig1 and that in solemnizing a marriage the ancient kings and mighty men of ,etruria caused the bride and the bridegroom to sacrifice a pig at the beginning of the ceremony1 a practice which the earliest ,latins and the ,greek colonists in ,italy seem also to have followed3 nam et nostrae mulieres1 maxime nutrices1 naturam qua feminae sunt in virginibus appellant porcum1 et graecae ,greek3 choiron1 significantes esse dignum insigni nuptiarum4#abh ,the hog is said to be created by nature for the food of man#abi and so life and salt perform the same functions for him1 as they both preserve his flesh4 ,the ,gauls#acj are reputed to put up not only the largest quantity but the best quality of pork3 evidence of its quality being that even now hams1 sausage1#aca bacon and shoulders are imported every year from ,gaul to ,rome3 while ,cato writes concerning the amount of pork cured by the ,gauls3 ',in 7northern7 ,italy the ,insubres are wont to put up three or four thousand cuts of pork the bulk of which can be appreciated from the fact that among that people#acb the hog some times grows so fat that it is not able to stand on its feet or to walk1 so that it is necessary to put it on a cart to move it any where4' ,atilius the ,spaniard1 who is a truthful man and learned in many things1 tells of a hog which was killed in further ,spain or ,lusitania from which two chops1 sent to the ,senator ,l4 ,volumnius1 were found to weigh three and twenty pounds1 the fat on them being so thick that it measured a foot and three fingers from the skin to the bone4 ,i can testify to some thing not less extraordinary than what you have related1 said ,i1 for in ,arcadia ,i saw with my own eyes a hog which was so fat that not only was it unable to get up but a shrew mouse having eaten a hole in its back had there made its nest and was rearing a family4 ,i have heard that this same thing happened in the country of the ,veneti4 ,usually1 resumed ,scrofa1 the fecundity of a sow may be learned from her first litter1 for in later litters she does not vary much from the number of pigs in the first4 ,in the matter of rearing young swine1 which we call porculatio it is customary to leave pigs with the sow for two months1 and then when they are able to feed themselves to separate them4 ,pigs born in the winter are apt to be runts on account of the cold and because the sow refuses to suckle them1 partly by reason of her lack of milk at that season and partly to protect her teats from the teeth of the hungry pigs4 ,each sow should suckle her pigs in her own stye1 because a sow will not drive strange pigs away from her1 and it results that if the litters are mingled the breed deteriorates4 ,the year is naturally divided for the sow into two parts1 because they breed twice a year1 being heavy in pig for four months and suckling for two4 ,the stye should be built about three feet deep and a little more in width and such a height from the ground as will permit a pregnant sow to get out without straining herself1 as that might cause her to abort4 ,a good measure of the proper height from the ground is what is necessary to enable the swineherd to keep watch that no little pigs are crushed by the sow1 and to clean out the bedding easily4 ,there should be a door to the stye with the lower sill elevated a foot and a palm high so as to prevent the pigs from following the sow when she goes out4 ,as often as the swineherd cleans out the stye he should strew the floor with sand1 or some thing else to absorb moisture4 ,when a sow has had her pigs she should be fed liberally to enable her to make milk3 for this the ration is usually two pounds of boiled barley1 indeed some feed this both at morning and at night if other feed is lacking4 ,when pigs are taken from their dam they are sometimes called delici or weanlings being then no longer lactantes or sucklings4 ,pigs are considered to be clean ten days after birth1 and for that reason were then called by the ancients sacred1 as being then first fit for sacrifice3 and so in the ,menaechmi of ,plautus1 when a character thinking some one in ,epidamnus to be out of his wits and seeking to purify him1 asks3 ',how much are sacred pigs here4' ,if the farm affords them1 pigs should be fed grape husks and stalks4 ,after they have lost the name of lactantes the shoats are called nefrendes because they are not yet able to break down 7frendere that is frangere7 the bean stalks4 ,porcus is the ancient ,greek name for them but is fallen into disuse1 for the ,greeks now call them ,greek3 choiros4 ,while she is giving suck the sow should be watered twice a day to promote the flow of milk4 ,a sow should bear as many pigs as she has teats3 if she has less it is considered that she is unprofitable1 but if more1 a prodigy4 ,in this respect there is the ancient tradition that the sow of ,aeneas bore thirty white 7albos7 pigs at ,lavinium1#acc which portended that after thirty years the inhabitants of ,lavinium would found the town of ,alba3 indeed1 vestiges of this sow and of her pigs may still be seen at ,lavinium where there is a brazen image of them now in the public square1 and the true body of the sow is shown by the priests1 preserved in pickle4 ,sows are able at first to suckle eight little pigs1 but as they grow larger half of them are usually taken away by experienced swineherds1 because the sow cannot supply milk enough for all1 and too many pigs fed together do not prosper in any event4 ,a sow should not be driven out of the stye for ten days after having her litter except for water1 but after that time she is permitted to graze in a paddock so conveniently near at hand that she may return to the stye frequently to suckle the pigs4 ,when the pigs are large enough they are permitted to follow the sow to pasture1 but at home they should be penned apart from the sow and fed by themselves until they overcome their yearning for the dam1 which usually happens in ten days4 ,the swineherd should train his shoats to do every thing at the sound of the trumpet4 ,this training is begun by letting the shoats hear the trumpet outside their pens and then at once come out to a place where barley has been scattered broad cast 7for thus less is wasted than if the feed is put in heaps and more of the shoats can get to it easily74 ,by such education it is possible to collect pasturing hogs at the sound of a trumpet and prevent their being lost when scattered in the woods4#acd ,boars are altered most successfully when they are a year old1 but in no case should this be done when they are less than six months old4 ,after the operation they are no longer called boars1 but barrows4 ,concerning the health of swine1 ,i will say one thing only by way of example3 if the sow is not able to supply milk the sucking pigs should be fed1 until they are three months old1 on roasted wheat 7for when it is raw it loosens the bowels7 or on barley boiled in water4 ,as to number3 it is considered that ten boars to an hundred sows is enough2 some even reduce this proportion4 ,the practice varies as to the number to a herd1 but my judgment is that a hundred is a moderate number3 some make it more1 say #aej3 some feed two herds together1 and some do even more than that4 ,a small herd is less expensive than a large one because the swineherd requires less assistance4 ,a swinefeeder should fix the number to be fed as a herd on a principle of utility1 not by the number of boars he may happen to have1 for that is determined by nature4 ,so far ,scrofa4 ,of neat cattle ,v4 ,at this point we were joined by the ,senator ,q4 ,lucienus1 a man as learned as he is agreeable and intimate with us all4 ,hail1 my fellow citizens of ,epirus1 he exclaimed in ,greek1#ace and you1 my dear ,varro1 'shepherd of men1' for ,i have already greeted ,scrofa this morning4 ,while one saluted him1 another reproached him for having come so late to our club4 ,i will see to that1 my merry men1 for ,i am about to offer you my back and a scourge3 or else1 ,murrius1 you who are my friend3 come with me while ,i pay a forfeit to the goddess ,pales1 so that you may bear me witness if our friends here seek to make me do it again4 ,tell him1 said ,atticus1 turning to ,murrius1 what we have been talking about and what is still on the programme1 so that when his turn comes he may be prepared4 ,in the meantime we will take up the second order of domestic live stock and proceed to a discussion of the larger cattle4 ,in this1 said ,vaccius1 my name would seem to assign me a part1 since cows 7vaccae7 are included in that category4 ,wherefore ,i will tell what ,i know about neat cattle1 so that he who knows less may learn1 while he who knows more may correct me when ,i fall down4 ,be careful what you do1 ,vaccius1 said ,i1 for the genus ,bos is of the first importance among cattle1 certainly in ,italy1 which is thought to have taken its very name from that family1 for1 as ,timaeus records1 in ancient ,greece a bull was called ,greek3 italos1 whence is derived our word vitula1 and from this ,italy is supposed to have taken its name because of the number and beauty of its breed1 of cattle 7vituli74 ,others claim that the name comes from that of the famous bull ,italus which ,hercules drove out of ,sicily into this country4 ,the ox is indeed the companion and fellow labourer of man and the minister of ,ceres3 wherefore the ancients1 holding him inviolable1 made it a capital offence to kill an ox4#acf ,both ,attica and ,peloponnesus bear witness of the regard in which the ox was held3 for he who first yoked oxen to the plough is celebrated at ,athens under the name ,buzyges and at ,argos under that of ,homogyros4 ,i know1 replied ,vaccius1 the importance of the ox and that his very name is used to signify that quality1 as in words like ,greek3 bousukon7big fig71 ,greek3 boupais7a big boy71 ,greek3 boulimos 7a ravenous hunger71,greek3 boopis 7large eyed71 and again that a certain large grape is called bumamma 7cow teat74 ,furthermore1 ,i know it was the form of a bull that ,jupiter assumed when he wooed ,europa and bore her across the sea from ,phoenicia3 that it was a bull which protected the children of ,neptune and ,melanippe from being crushed in a stable by a herd of cattle3 ,i know too that the bees which give the sweetest honey are generated from the carcase of an ox1 whence the ,greeks call them ,greek3 bougeneis 7born of an ox71 an expression which ,plautius latinized on the occasion where the praetor ,hirrius1 was accused at ,rome of having libeled the ,senate4 ',but be of good cheer1 ,i will give you at least as great satisfaction as did he who wrote the ,bugonia4'#acg ,in the first place there are said to be four ages of cattle1 during which they are known by the successive designation of calf 7vitulus71 yearling 7juvencus71 prime 7novellus7 and aged 7vetulus74 ,these designations are further divided according to sex1 as bull-calf and heifer-calf1 or bull and cow4 ,a cow which is sterile is called taura3 when pregnant1 horda1 from which last name a certain festival is called the hordicalia 7,fordicidia7 because cows in calf are sacrificed upon it4 ,he who wishes to buy a herd of neat cattle should take care first that they are of an age to produce1 rather than past breeding2 that they are well set up1 clean limbed1 square bodied1 large1 with black horns and broad brows1 large black eyes1 hairy ears1 flat cheek bones1 snub-nosed1 not hump-backed but rather with the back bone slightly roached1 wide nostrils1 blackish lips1 a neck muscular and long with dew laps hanging from it1 the barrel large and well ribbed1 the shoulders broad and the quarters good1 a tail sweeping the heels1 the end being frizzled in a heavy brush1 the legs rather short and straight with knees projecting a little and well separated1 the feet narrow and not inclined to spread in walking1 the hoofs not being splayed but consisting of light and even bones1 and a hide which is not rough and hard to the touch4 ,the best colour is black1 next red1 third chestnut and last white3 for a white coat indicates weakness1 as black indicates endurance3 of the other two colours red is more common than chestnut1 and both than black and white4 ,in addition you should be particular that the bull is of good breed1 which is determined from his conformation and his get1 as calves usually reproduce the qualities of their sire4 ,and1 finally1 it is of importance whence they come4 ,gallic cattle are considered in ,italy to be the best for work1 while on the other hand ,ligurian cattle are worthless4 ,the foreign cattle of ,epirus are not only better than all the ,greek cattle but even than the ,italian3 nevertheless1 there are those who choose ,italian cattle for victims and to serve as offerings to the gods on account of their size3 and without doubt they may be preferred for such holy offices1 so great is the distinction of their majestic bulk and their candid coats3 and they are the more suitable for such use because white cattle are not so common in ,italy as in ,thrace at the gulf of ,melas1 where there are few of any other colour4 ,when cattle are bought already broken for work we stipulate thus3 ',do you guarantee these cattle to be in good health and warrant me against liability for any tort committed by them8' ,when we buy them unbroken1 we say3 ',do you guarantee these yearlings to be in good health and to come out of a healthy herd1 and warrant me against liability for tort8' ,when butchers buy for the shambles they use a fuller formula recommended by ,manilius3 but those who buy for the altar do not usually stipulate for health in their victims4 ,neat cattle pasture best in groves where there is brushwood and much leafage3 and so when they are wintered by the sea they are driven up to pasture in summer in the hills where shrubbery abounds4 ,these are my breeding rules3 ,for a month before breeding ,i cut down the food and drink of the cows because it is deemed that they breed more certainly when they are thin4 ,on the other hand1 ,i fatten the bulls up on grass and straw and hay for two months before the breeding season1 and during that time ,i keep them apart from the cows4 ,like ,atticus1 ,i have two for seventy cows1 one a yearling1 the other two years old4 ,when that constellation has risen which the ,greeks call ,lyra1 and we ,romans1 ,fides1 ,i turn the bull into the herd again4 ,the bull indicates whether a male or a female calf has been conceived by the side on which he leaves the cow3 if male1 on the right2 if female1 on the left4 ,why this is so1 said ,vaccius1 turning to me1 ,i leave to you who read ,aristotle4 ,a cow should not be served under two years1 so that she may have her first calf in the third year3 it would be better in the fourth4 ,most cows bear for ten years1 some even more4 ,the most suitable time for stinting cows is during the forty days following the rising of the ,dolphin1 or even a little later1 for thus they will drop their calves at the most temperate season of the year1 for a cow goes ten months pregnant4 ,on this subject ,i have come upon an extraordinary statement in a book that a bull which has just been altered can get a cow with calf4 ,breeding cows should be pastured where there is abundant grass and plenty of water1 and care should be taken to protect them from crowding too close together1 and from being struck1 or from fighting with one another3 moreover1 to protect them against being worried in summer by cattle flies and those minute insects which get under their tails1 some farmers shut them up during the heat of the day in pens1 which should be strewn with leaves or some other bedding on which they can rest comfortably4 ,in summer they are driven to water twice a day1 in winter once4 ,against the time when they are due to drop their calves you should arrange to give them access to fresh forage near the stable which they can eat with appetite as they go out1 for at that time they are very dainty about their food4 ,a watch out must be kept to prevent their frequenting chilly places1 for cold depresses the vitality as much as hunger4 ,these are the rules for raising neat cattle3 the suckling calves should not be suffered to sleep with their dams1 for they might crush them1 but should be given access to them in the morning and when they return from pasture4 ,when the calves are weaned the dams should be comforted by having green stuff thrown into their stalls for them to eat4 ,the floor of a calf stable1 like most others1 should be paved with stone to keep their hoofs from rotting4 ,the calves may be pastured with their dams after the autumn equinox4 ,bull calves should not be altered before they are two years old1 as they recover with difficulty if the operation is performed sooner1 while if it is done later they are apt to be stubborn and useless4 ,as in the case of other cattle1 the herd should be gone over every year and the culls thrown out because they occupy the room of those which might be profitable4 ,if a cow loses her calf she should be given another to nurse1 taken from a cow which has not a sufficient supply of milk4 ,calves six months old are fed wheat bran and barley meal and young grass1 and care should be taken that they are watered morning and evening4 ,the rules for taking care of the health of neat cattle are many4 ,i have those which ,mago has recorded written out and ,i take care that my herdsman reads them frequently4 ,i have already said that a yearling and a two-year old bull should be provided for every sixty cows1 though some have more or less cows in the herd3 thus ,atticus has two bulls for every seventy cows4 ,some observe one rule as to the number of cattle to the herd1 some another4 ,i am among those who think that one hundred is enough1 but ,atticus here1 like ,lucienus1 has one hundred and twenty4 ,so far ,vaccius4 ,of asses ,,vi4 ,while ,vaccius was speaking1 ,murrius had returned with ,lucienus and now began3 ,i propose to tell about asses as well ,i may1 because ,i am from ,reate where the best and the largest are found2 indeed1 ,i have sold to the ,arcadians themselves asses of this race and of my own breeding4 ,he who wishes to establish a good herd of asses should see in the first place that he procures jacks and jennies of prime age so that they may breed as long as possible1 strong1 well made in all parts1 of full body and of a good breed1 that is to say derived from those localities whence the best specimens come2 thus the ,peloponnesians1 so far as possible1 buy asses bred in ,arcadia and we in ,italy those from the valley of ,reate4 ,for if the best of those delicious fish we call muraenae flutae are taken on the coast of ,sicily and the best sturgeons at ,rhodes1 it does not follow that they are of equal delicacy in all seas4 ,there are two kinds of asses1 one wild1 which is called the onager1 of which there1 are many herds in ,phrygia and ,lycaonia2 the other domestic1 as they are all over ,italy4 ,the onager is fit for use for breeding because he is easily tamed and once domesticated never reverts to a wild life4#ach ,because their young take after their parents1 it is important to choose both jack and jenny of good conformation4 ,the conditions of buying and selling asses are much the same as for other kinds of cattle and include stipulations as to their health and against tort4 ,they are best fed on corn and barley bran4 ,the jennies are bred before the solstice so that they may have their foals at the same season in the following year1 for their period of gestation is twelve months4 ,the jennies should be relieved from work while in foal for fatigue at that time injures the offspring3 but the jacks1 on the contrary1 are worked all the time1 because it is lack of exercise which is bad for them4 ,in the matter of rearing1 practically the same rules apply to asses as to horses4 ,the foals are not separated from their dams for the first year after they are born3 during the second year they are permitted to stay with their dams at night1 but they should then be tied with a loose halter or some other such restraint4 ,in the third year you begin to break them for whatever service they are intended4 ,as to the number3 they are not usually kept in herds unless it may be for transport service2 generally they are used to turn the mill1 or for carrying about the farm1 or even for the plough where the soil is light1 as in ,campania4 ,herds of asses are some times employed by merchants1 like those who transport wine1 or oil1 or corn1 or any other commodity1 from ,brundisium or ,apulia to the sea1 by pack trains4 ,of horses ,,vii4 ,here ,lucienus took up the discourse4 ,it is my turn1 he said1 to open the barrier and drive in my horses3 and they are not only stallions1 of which1 like ,atticus1 ,i keep one for every ten breeding mares1 but mares as well1 such as ,q4 ,modius ,equiculus1 that gallant soldier1 was wont to esteem for use even in war nearly as much as stallions4#aci ,he who wishes to have such studs of stallions and mares as may be seen in ,peloponnesus and in ,apulia should first consider age and see that he obtains them not less than three nor more than ten years old4 ,the age of a horse1 as also of nearly all animals whose hoofs are not cloven1 even horned animals1 may be known from the condition of the teeth3 thus at thirty months of age a colt is said to lose the milk incisors from the middle of his mouth1 two above and two below4 ,at the beginning of the fourth year1 in like manner he sheds the same number1 being the incisors adjoining those previously lost1 and at that age also the teeth called canine begin to appear4 ,at the beginning of the fifth year he loses two more incisors1 and at that time the new teeth show hollow4 ,in the sixth year the new teeth begin to fill out their cavities1 and by the seventh usually all have been renewed and the permanent mouth is made4 ,what is the age of a horse beyond this point it is not possible to determine accurately1 except that when the teeth project and the eye brows are white and have hollows under them1 it is considered that a horse is sixteen years old4 ,a breeding mare should be of medium size1 for it is not fitting that they should be either very large or very small1 but the quarters and belly should be broad4 ,a breeding stallion on the other hand should be chosen with a large body1 well made and all his parts in harmony4 ,what sort of horse it will turn out to be can be determined from the points of the foal1 for it should exhibit a small head3 limbs well knit together3 a black eye1 wide nostrils3 ears well pricked3 a mane which is thick1 dark and curly1 of fine hairs and falling on the right side of the neck3 a breast broad and well developed3 strong shoulders3 a moderate belly3 the loins flat and rising to the quarters3 long shoulder blades3 a back bone well doubled with ridges of meat but if these are not prominent in no event should the bone itself stand out3 a tail large and curly3 legs straight and even and rather long3 knees round and small and not turned in as you look at them3 hard hoofs3 veins visible all over the body 7for a horse of this kind is fit for treatment when he is sick74 ,the breed is of the greatest importance1 for there are many4 ,in this respect the celebrated breeds take the names of the countries from which they come3 thus in ,greece we have the ,thessalian breed3 in ,italy the ,apulian from ,apulia1 and the ,rosean from ,rosea4#adj ,it is a sign that they will make good horses if1 when at pasture with the herd1 the colts contend with one another for superiority in running or in any thing else1 or if when a stream is to be crossed they leap it at the head of the herd and do not look back for the others4 ,horses are bought in almost the same manner as cattle or asses1 because they change ownership by similar formalities1 all of which are set forth in the book of ,manilius4 ,horses should be pastured whenever possible in meadows of grass1 and in the stable and stall they are fed on hay4 ,when a mare has foaled she should be fed on barley and watered twice a day4 ,in the matter of breeding1 the period of service is from the vernal equinox to the solstice so that the foal may come at a suitable season1 for they are supposed to be born on the tenth day of the twelfth month after the mare was stinted4 ,those which are born after the time are usually defective and unfit for use4 ,when the season has come the stallion should be admitted to the mare twice a day1 in the morning and in the evening1 under the direction of the origa 7so the studgroom is called71 for a mare held in hand is stinted more quickly1 nor does the stallion waste his seed by excess of ardor4 ,when a mare is stinted she makes it known by defending herself4 ,if the stallion shows an aversion for a mare1 her parts should be smeared when she is in heat with the marrow of a shrimp macerated in water to the consistency of honey1 and the stallion allowed to smell of it4 ,although it may seem incredible1 what ,i am about to relate is true and should be remembered4 ,once upon a time a studgroom tried to make a stallion cover his mother1 but could never get him to come near her3 so one day the groom muffled the stallion's head and put him to his mother successfully3 but when the bandage was removed and the stallion saw what he had done1 he fell upon the groom and killed him with his teeth4 ,when the mares have been stinted it must be seen to that they are worked only in moderation and are kept out of cold places1 because cold is of the greatest prejudice to a mare in that condition4 ,for this reason the floor of their stable should be kept dry and the windows and doors should be kept shut3 and furthermore the mares should be separated one from another by long poles fastened back from the manger so that they may not fight4 ,mares in foal should neither be over-fed nor starved4 ,there are some who breed their mares only every other year and claim they get better colts1 on the same principle that as corn land is exhausted by continuous cropping1 so is a mare which is bred every year4#ada ,the foal should be led out to pasture with its dam on the tenth day after it is born1 so to avoid burning its tender hoofs by standing on manure in the stable4 ,when five months old a colt should be fed1 whenever he is brought into the stable1 a ration of barley meal whole with its bran1 or any other product of the earth which he will eat with appetite4 ,when they are a year old they may be fed barley in the grain mixed with bran1 and this should be kept up as long as they suckle1 for they should not be weaned until they have completed the second year4 ,from time to time while they are still with their dams they should be handled so that they may not be wild after they are separated4 ,to the same end it is well to hang bridles in their stalls so that while they are still colts they may become accustomed to the sight of them and the sound of their clanking as well4 ,when a colt has learned to come to an outstretched hand you should put a boy on his back1 for the first two or three times stretched out flat on his belly1 but afterwards sitting upright4 ,the time to do this is when the colt is three years old1 for then he has his full growth and is beginning to develop muscles4 ,there are those who say that a colt may be broken at eighteen months1 but it is better to wait until the third year4 ,then is the time too to begin to feed him that mixture of grain in the milk which we call farrago1 for this is very good for a horse as a purgative4 ,it should be fed for ten days to the exclusion of all other food4 ,on the eleventh day and until the fourteenth you should feed barley1 adding a little to the ration every day for four days and then maintaining that quantity for the ten days succeeding3 during this period the horse should be exercised moderately1 and when in a sweat rubbed down with oil4 ,if it is cold a fire should be lit in the stable4 ,as some horses are suitable for military service1 some for the cart1 some for breeding1 some for racing1 and others for the carriage1 it follows that the methods of handling and looking after them all are not the same4 ,thus the soldier chooses some and rears and trains them for his particular use1 and so in turn does the charioteer and the circus rider4 ,nor does he who wishes a cart horse choose the same conformation or give the same training as to a horse intended for the saddle or the carriage3 for as the one desires mettle for military service1 the other prefers a gentle disposition for use on the road4 ,it was to provide for this difference of use that the practice of castrating horses was inaugurated1 for horses that are altered are of a quieter disposition3 they are called geldings1 as hogs in the same state are called barrows and chickens are called capons4 ,as to medicine for the horse1 there are so many symptoms of their maladies and so many cures that the studgroom must have them written down3 indeed1 on this account in ,greece the veterinarians are mostly called ,greek3 hippiatroi 7horse leeches74 ,of mules ,,viii4 ,while we were talking a freedman came from ,menas and said that the sacrificial cakes were cooked and every thing ready for the sacrifice--that whoever wishes to take part had only to come4 ,but ,i will not suffer you to go1 ,i protested1 until you have fulfilled your promise and given me the third chapter of our subject1 that concerning mules and dogs and shepherds4 ,what is to be said about mules1#adb replied ,murrius1 may be said briefly4 ,mules and hinnies are mongrels and grafts as it were on a stock of a different species1 for a mule is got by an ass out of a mare1 and a hinny by a horse out of a she ass4 ,both have their uses1 but neither is fit to reproduce its kind4 ,for this purpose it is the custom to put a newborn ass colt to nurse to a mare because mares' milk will make it more vigorous3 it is considered better than asses' milk1 or indeed than any other kind of milk4 ,later they are fed on straw1 hay and barley4 ,the foster mother must be given good attention also1 as she must bring up her own colt in addition to her service as a wet nurse4 ,an ass raised in this way is fit to get mules when he is three years old1 nor will he contemn the mares because he has become used to their kind4 ,if you use him for breeding earlier he will quickly exhaust himself and his get will be poor4 ,if you have no ass foal to have brought up by a mare and you wish a breeding jackass1 you should buy the largest and handsomest you can find2 the best breed1 as the ancients said1 was that of ,arcadia1 but nowadays we who know maintain that the breed of ,reate is best3 where breeding jacks have brought thirty and even forty thousand sesterces 7#a1hjj-b1jjj74 ,jacks are bought like horses1 with the same stipulations and guarantees4 ,we feed them principally on hay and barley1 increasing the ration at the breeding season so as to infuse strength into their get by means of their food4 ,the breeding season is the same as for horses1 and1 like them again1 we have the jack handled by a studgroom4 ,when a mare has dropped a mule colt or filly we bring it up with care4 ,those which are born in marshy and swampy country have soft hoofs1 but if they are driven up into the mountain in summer1 as we do at ,reate1 their hoofs become hardened4 ,in buying mules you must consider age and conformation1 the one that they may be able to work under a load1 the other that the eye may have pleasure in looking at them3 for a team of two good mules is capable of drawing any kind of a wagon on the road4 ,you1 my friend from ,reate1 ,murrius added1 turning to me1 can vouch for what ,i have said1 as you yourself have herds of breeding mares at home and have bred and sold many mules4 ,the get of a horse out of a she ass is called a hinny3 he is smaller in the body and usually redder in colour than a mule1 and has ears like a horse1 but mane and tail like an ass4 ,hinnies are carried by the dam twelve months1 like a horse1 and1 like the horse too1 they are raised and fed1 and their age can be told by their teeth4 ,of herd dogs ,,ix4 ,it remains1 said ,atticus1 to speak of the last of the quadrupeds on our programme1 that is to say1 of dogs1 which are of the greatest importance to us who feed the woolly flock1 for the dog is the guardian of such cattle as lack the means to defend themselves1 chiefly sheep and goats4 ,for the wolf is wont to lie in wait for them and we oppose our dogs to him as defenders4 ,hogs can defend themselves1 as well pigs1 boars1 barrows and sows1 for they are near akin to the wild boar1 which we know often kills dogs in the woods1 with their tusks4 ,what shall ,i say of large cattle8 ,i know of an instance of a herd of mules pastured together1 which1 when they were attacked by a wolf1 joined in forming a circle about him and killed him with blows of their hoofs3 and again1 bulls often stand together1 rump to rump1 and drive off wolves with their horns4 ,but of dogs there are two kinds1 hunting dogs1 which are used against wild beasts and game1 and herd dogs1 which are used by the shepherd4 ,i will discuss the latter methodically1 following ,scrofa's nine heads4 ,of the first importance is the choice of dogs of suitable age1 for puppies and old dogs cannot protect themselves1 much less the sheep1 and so often become themselves the prey of wild beasts4 ,in appearance they should be handsome1 of good size1 with black or tawny eyes3 a symmetrical nose3 lips blackish or ruddy1 neither drawn back above nor hanging underneath3 a short muzzle1 showing two teeth on either side1 those of the lower jaw projecting a little1 those above rather straight and not so apparent1 and the other teeth1 which are covered by the lips1 very sharp3 a large head1 ears large and turned over3 a thick crest and neck3 long joints3 straight legs1 rather bowed than knock-kneed3 feet large and well developed1 so that in walking they may spread out3 toes slightly splayed3 claws hard and curved3 the pad of the foot neither horny nor hard but as it were puffed and soft3 short-coupled3 a back bone neither projecting nor roached3 a heavy tail3 a deep bark1 and wide gaping chops4 ,the colour to be preferred is white because it gives the dog a lion-like aspect in the dark4#adc ,finally1 the females should have large teats equally distributed4 ,care should be taken that they are of good breed1 such as those called for their place of origin1 ,laconian1 ,epirot and ,sallentian4 ,be careful not to buy a sheep dog from a professional hunter or a butcher1 because the one is apt to be lazy about following the flock1 while the other is more likely to make after a hare or a deer which it might see1 than to tend the sheep4 ,it is better either to buy1 from a shepherd1 dogs which are accustomed to follow sheep or dogs which are without any training at all4 ,while a dog does readily whatever he has been trained to do1 his affection is apt to be stronger for the shepherds than for the flock4#add ,once ,p4 ,aufidius ,pontianus of ,amiternum bought certain flocks of sheep in further ,umbria1 the dogs which herded them being included in the bargain1 but not the shepherds1 who were1 however1 to make the delivery at the ,saltus of ,metapontum and the market of ,heraclea3 when these shepherds had returned home1 their dogs1 longing for their masters1 a few days later of their own will came back to the shepherds in ,umbria1 having made several days journey without other food than what the fields afforded4 ,nor had any one of those shepherds done what ,saserna advises in his books on agriculture1 ',whoever wishes to be followed by a dog should throw him a cooked frog4'#ade ,it is of importance that all your dogs should be of the same breed1 for when they are related they are of the greatest aid to one another4 ,now as to ,scrofa's fourth consideration1 that concerning the manner of buying3 this is accomplished by delivery by the former owner to the purchaser4 ,the same stipulations as to health and against liability for tort are made as in the case of cattle1 leaving out whatever is inapplicable to dogs4 ,some make a price on dogs at so much per head1 others stipulate that the puppies shall go with the mother1 others that two puppies shall count as one dog--as two lambs usually count as a sheep4 ,usually it is provided that all the dogs which have been accustomed to be together should be included in the bargain4 ,the food appropriate for dogs is more like that of man than of sheep1 for they are fed on scraps and bones rather than on grass and leaves4 ,care must be taken that they are fed regularly1 for1 if food is not provided1 hunger will lead them in search of it away from the flock1 unless1 indeed1 they shall find it in one another1 thereby contradicting the old proverb1#adf or perchance they may realize the fable of ,actaeon and turn their teeth against their master himself4 ,you would do well to feed them on barley bread soaked in milk1 because when they have become accustomed to that diet they will not readily desert the flock4 ,they should never be suffered to taste the flesh of a carrion sheep lest the relish should tempt them to indulge in such food again4 ,they may be fed also broth made out of bones1 or bones themselves when broken up1 for that makes their teeth stronger and the mouth wider3 and thereby the jaws are stretched1 while the zest of the marrow makes the dog fiercer4 ,they should be accustomed to take their food in the day time where the flock is feeding and at night where the flock is folded4 ,in the matter of breeding it is the practice to line the bitch at the beginning of spring1 for then she is said to be in heat1 that is to say1 to show a readiness for breeding4 ,when they are lined at this season they pup about the solstice1 for they go three months4 ,while they are in pup they should be fed barley bread rather than wheat bread1 for it is more nourishing and makes more milk4 ,in the matter of bringing up the puppies after birth3 if there are many in the litter you should choose those you wish to keep and destroy the others3 the fewer you keep the better they will be nourished1 for then their portion of the mother's milk will be larger4 ,chaff or some thing else of that sort should be spread under them1 because the better they are bedded the more easily they are brought up4 ,puppies open their eyes twenty days after birth4#adg ,during the first two months they are not separated from their mother1 but wean themselves gradually4 ,a number of puppies should be kenneled together1 where they may be encouraged to fight1 which will make them fiercer1 but they should never be suffered to tire themselves since weariness develops cowardice4 ,they should also be accustomed to be tied1 at first with a light leash1 and if they attempt to gnaw it they should be punished by whipping1 so that they may not get the habit4 ,on rainy days their kennels should be bedded with leaves or grass1 for two reasons3 that they may not soil themselves or suffer from cold4 ,some castrate their puppies thinking them less likely to leave the flock1 but others do not1 thinking that the operation makes them less fierce4 ,some rub their ears and between their toes with a suffusion of bitter almonds steeped in water because flies1 ticks and fleas usually develop sores in those parts1 unless it is your practice to so anoint them4 ,to protect them from wounds from wild beasts we place collars on them1 of the kind which we call melium1 which is a girth around the neck made from strong leather studded with nails and lined with soft leather to protect the neck from being chafed by the hard iron heads of the nails3 for if a wolf or other wild beast is once wounded by these nails all the other dogs are safe from his attack1 even if they have no collars4 ,the number of dogs to be kept is determined by the size of the flock1 usually one dog for every shepherd is considered enough1 but the practice varies4 ,thus there should be more in localities where wild beasts are plentiful1 and those increase the number also who are wont to drive their flocks over the long forest drift ways to their summer or their winter feeding grounds4 ,but two dogs are enough for a flock kept on a farm3 in which case they should be male and female1 for they are more attached and1 by emulation1 fiercer1 and if one is sick for a protracted time the flock will not be without a dog4 ,here ,atticus looked around as if to enquire whether he had omitted any thing4 ,this is the silence1 said ,i1 which summons another player on the boards4 ,of shepherds ,x4 ,the rest of this act1 ,i added1 relates to how many and what kind of shepherds are necessary4 ,cossinius took the cue4 ,for large cattle1 he said1 men of full age are required2 for small cattle boys will do3 but in either case those who drive their flocks and herds on the drift ways must be stouter than those who remain on the farm and return to the steading every day4 ,so in the wood pastures 7saltus7 it behooves one to have young men and usually armed men1 while on the farm boys or even girls may tend the flock4 ,those who use the distant feeding grounds should require their shepherds to feed their flocks together all day1 but at night to remain each one with his own flock4 ,they should all be under the supervision of one flock master1 who should be older and more experienced than the others1 because they will obey more cheerfully one who surpasses them in age and knowledge2 and yet the flock master should be of such years that he may not be prevented by age from hard work3 for neither old men nor boys can endure the steeps of the drift ways1 nor the ardours and roughness of the mountains1 which must be suffered by those who follow flocks1 especially cattle and goats1 to whom the rocks and the forests are pleasant grazing places4 ,so far as concerns the conformation of the men chosen for these occupations1 they should be strong and swift and active1 with ready limbs not only able to follow the cattle but to defend them from the incursions of wild beasts and of brigands3 men who can load the packs on the sumpter beasts3 can run and throw a javelin4#adh ,every nation is not fit for tending cattle1 especially the ,basculi and the ,turduli of ,spain4 ,the ,gauls are the best of all1 particularly for draught cattle4 ,in the matter of the purchase of shepherds1 there are six usual methods of obtaining lawful title to a slave3 7i7 by inheritance1 7#b7 by due form of mancipation1 which is delivery of possession by one who has the legal right1 7#c7 by the legal process called surrender in court 7cessio in jure7 from one who has that right1 the transfer taking place where it should1 7#d7 by prescriptive use 7usucapion71 7#e7 by purchase of a prisoner of war under the crown 7#f7 by auction at the distribution of some one's property by order of court under the process known as bonorum emptio4#adi ,the peculium or personal property of the slave usually passes with him to a new master unless it is specially excepted in the terms of sale3 there is also the usual guaranty as to the health of the slave and that he has committed no theft or tort for which his master is legally responsible1 and1 unless the purchase is by mancipation1 the bargain is bound by an obligation of double indemnity1 or in the amount of the purchase price alone1 if that is the agreement4 ,the shepherds should take their meals separately during the day1 each one with his flock1 but in the evening they should meet at a common supper under the supervision of the flock master4#aej ,it should be the duty of the flock master to see that every thing is provided which may be required by the flock or by the shepherds1 chiefly the victuals for the men and medicine for the flock3 for which the master should provide beasts of burden1 either horses or some thing else which can carry a load on its back4 ,as to what relates to the breeding of shepherds1 it is easy1 so far as concerns those who remain on the farm all the time because they can have a fellow servant to wife at the farmstead1 for ,venus ,pastoralis demands no more4 ,some hold that it is expedient also to furnish women#aea for those who pasture the flocks in the ,saltus and the forests and have no residence but find their shelter from the rain under improvised sheds3 that such women following the flocks and preparing the food for the shepherds keep the men better satisfied and more devoted to their duty4 ,but they must needs be strong though not deformed1 and not less capable of work then the men themselves1 as they are in many localities and as may be seen throughout ,illyricum1 where the women feed the flocks or carry in wood for the fire and cook the food1 or keep watch over the household utensils in their cottages4 ,as to the method of raising their children1 it suffices to say that the shepherd women are usually both mothers and nurses at the same time4 ,at this ,cossinius looked at me and said3 ,i have heard you relate that1 when you were in ,liburnia1 you saw women big with child bringing in fire wood and at the same time carrying a nursing child1 or even two of them1 thus putting to shame those slender reeds1 the women of our class1 who are wont to lie abed under mosquito bars for days at a time when they are pregnant4 ,that is true1 ,i replied1 and the contrast is even more marked in ,illyricum1 where it often happens that a pregnant woman whose time has come will leave her work for a little while and return with a new born child which you would think she had found rather than borne4#aeb ,not only this1 the custom of that country permits the girls as much as twenty years of age1 whom they call virgins1 to go about unprotected and to give themselves to whomever they wish and to have children before marriage4 ,as to what pertains to the health of man and beast1 resumed ,cossinius1 and the leech craft which may be practised without the aid of a physician1 the flock master should have the rules written down3 indeed1 the flock master must have some education1 otherwise he can never keep his flock accounts properly4#aec ,as to the number of shepherds1 some make a narrow1 some a broad1 allowance4 ,i have one shepherd for every eighty long wool sheep3 ,atticus here has one for every hundred4 ,one can reduce the number of men required in respect of large flocks 7like those containing a thousand head or more7 much more readily than in respect of comparatively small flocks1 like ,atticus' and mine1 for ,i have only seven hundred head of sheep1 and you1 ,atticus1 have1 ,i believe1 eight hundred1 though we are alike in providing a ram for every ten ewes4 ,two men are required to care for a herd of fifty mares3 and each of them should have a mare broken for riding to serve as a mount in those localities where it is the custom to drive the mares to pasture1 as often happens in ,apulia and ,lucania4 ,of milk and cheese and wool ,,xi4 ,and now that we have fulfilled our promise1 let us go1 said ,cossinius4 ,not until you have added some thing1 ,i cried1 concerning that supplemental profit from cattle which was promised2 namely1 of milk and cheese and the shearing of wool4 ,so ,cossinius resumed3 ,ewes' milk1 and1 after it1 goats' milk1 is the most nourishing of all liquids which we drink4 ,as a purgative1 mares' milk ranks first1 and1 after it1 in order1 asses' milk1 cows' milk and goats' milk1 but the quality depends upon what has been fed to the cattle1 upon the condition of the cattle1 and upon when it is milked4 ,so far as concerns the food of the cattle1 milk is nourishing which is made from barley and stover and other such kinds of dry and hard cattle food4 ,so far as concerns its purgative qualities1 milk is good when made from green stuff1 especially if it is grass containing plants which1 taken by themselves1 have a purgative effect upon the human body4 ,so far as concerns the condition of the cattle1 that milk is best which comes from cattle in vigorous health and from those still young4 ,so far as concerns the time of milking1 that milk is best which comes neither from a 'stripper' nor from a recently fresh dam4 ,the cheese made of cows' milk is the most agreeable to the taste but the most difficult to digest3 next1 that of ewes' milk1 while the least agreeable in taste1 but the most easily digested1 is that of goats' milk4 ,there is also a distinction between cheese when it is soft and new made and when it is dry and old1 for when it is soft it is more nourishing and digestible1 but the opposite is true of old and dry cheese4 ,the custom is to make cheese from the rising of the ,pleiades in spring to their rising in summer1 and yet the rule is not invariable1 because of difference in locality and the supply of forage4 ,the practice is to add a quantity of rennet1 equal to the size of an olive1 to two congii of milk to make it curdle4 ,the rennet taken from the stomachs of the hare and the kid is better than that from lambs1 but some use as a ferment the milk of the fig tree mixed with vinegar1 and some times sprinkled with other vegetable products4 ,in parts of ,greece this is called ,greek3 opos1 elsewhere ,greek3 dakruos4 ,i am prepared to believe1 ,i said1 that the fig tree standing beside the chapel of the goddess ,rumina#aed was planted by shepherds for the purpose you mention1 for there is it the practice to make libations of milk rather than of wine or to sacrifice suckling pigs4 ,for men used to use the word rumis or ruma where we now say mamma1 signifying a teat3 hence even now suckling lambs are called subrumi from the teat they suck1 just as we call suckling pigs lactantes from lac1 the milk that comes from the teat4 ,cossinius resumed3 ,if you sprinkle your cheese with salt it is better to use the mineral than the marine kind4 ,concerning the shearing of sheep1 the first thing to be looked into before you begin is that the sheep are not suffering from scab or sores1 as it is better to wait1 if necessary1 until they are cured before shearing4 ,the time to shear is between the vernal equinox and the summer solstice1 when the sheep begin to sweat 7it is the sweat which gives new clipped wool its name sucida74 ,as soon as the sheep are sheared they are smeared with a mixture#aee of wine and oil1 some add white wax and hogs' grease4 ,if they are sheep which are kept blanketed1 the inside of the blanket should be anointed with this mixture before it is put on again4 ,if the sheep has suffered any wound during the shearing1 it should be treated with liquid tar4 ,long wool sheep are usually sheared about the time of the barley harvest3 in some places before the hay harvest4 ,some men shear their sheep twice a year1 as in hither ,spain1 investing double work because they think they get more wool1 just as some men mow their meadows twice a year4 ,careful shepherds are wont to shear on a mat so as not to lose any of the wool4 ,a clear day should be chosen for the shearing and it is usually done between the fourth and the tenth hours 7#aj a4m4-#d p4m47 since wool sheared in the hot sun is softer1 heavier and of better colour by reason of the sweat of the sheep4 ,wool which has been collected and packed in bags is called vellera or velamina1 words derived from vellere1 to pull1 whence it may be concluded that the practice of pulling wool is older than shearing4 ,those who pull the wool today make a practice of starving their sheep for three days before1 because when they are weak the wool yields more readily4 ,speaking of shearing1 ,i said1 it is reported that the first barbers were brought into ,italy from ,sicily in the year #dec after the foundation of ,rome 7,b4,c4 #cjj7 by ,p4 ,ticinius ,menas1 as appears from the inscription in the public square of ,ardea4 ,the statues of the ancients show that formerly there were no barbers because most of them have long hair and a heavy beard4#aef ,cossinius resumed3 ,as the wool of the sheep serves to make clothes1 so the hair of goats is employed3 on ships1 in making military engines and certain implements of industry4 ,certain nations1 indeed1 are clad in goat skins1 as in ,gaetulia and ,sardinia4 ,their use for this purpose by the ancient ,greeks is apparent1 because old men in the tragedies are called ,greek3 diphtheriai1 from the fact that they were clad in goat skins3 and it is the custom also in our comedies to dress rustic characters in goat skins1 like the youth in the ,hypobolimaeus 7the ,counterfeit7 of ,caecilius1 and the old man in the ,heautontimorumenos 7the ,self ,tormentor7 of ,terence4 ,it is the practice to shear goats in the greater part of ,phrygia because there the goats have heavy coats1 of which cilicia 7so called because the practice of shearing goats began in the city of that name7 and other hair cloth materials of that kind are made4 ,with this ,cossinius stopped1 and1 while he was waiting for criticism of what he had said1 ,vitulus' freedman1 coming into town from the gardens of his master turned to us and said1 ,i was on my way to your house to invite you to come early so as not to shorten the holiday4 ,and so1 my dear ,turranius ,niger1 we separated3 ,scrofa and ,i going to the gardens of ,vitulus2 the others1 some home and some to see ,menas4 ,,book ,,iii ,,the ,,husbandry ,,of ,,the ,,steading ,introduction3 the antiquity of country life ,i ,there are two modes of human life1 my dear ,pinnius1 which are manifestly as different in the time of their origin as they are in their habitat1 that of the country and that of the town4 ,country life is much the more ancient1 for time was when men lived altogether in the country and had no towns3 indeed1 the oldest town in ,greece1 according to the tradition1 is the ,boeotian ,thebes1 which was founded by ,king ,ogyges1 and in our own land that of ,rome1 founded by ,king ,romulus of which now it may be affirmed with confidence1 as was not possible when ,ennius wrote3 ',tis seven hundred years1 or more or less1 ,since first illustrious ,rome began her sway1 ,with hallowed augury4 ,now1 if it is admitted that ,thebes was founded before the deluge1 which is known by ,ogyges' name1 its age is not more than about twenty-one hundred years3 and if that period is compared with the lapse of time since men began to cultivate the land and to live in huts and hovels1 knowing naught of city walls and gates1 it is evident that life in the country preceded life in town by a tale of immemorial years4 ,nor is this to be wondered at since ',god made the country and man made the town4'#aeg ,while the tradition is that all the arts were invented in ,greece within a thousand years1 there never was a time when the earth could not be cultivated4 ,and1 as life in the country is the more ancient1 so it is the better life3 for it was not without good reason that our ancestors were wont to plant colonies of citizens in the country1 because by them they were both fed in times of peace and protected in times of war3 nor was it without significance that they called both the ,earth and ,ceres by the common name of ,mother and esteemed that those who worshipped her lead a life at once pious and useful and were the sole representatives left on earth of the race of ,saturn4 ,a proof of this is that the mysteries peculiar to the cult of ,ceres were called ,initia1 the very name indicating that they related to the beginning of things4 ,a further proof that country life was earlier than that of town is found in the name of the town of ,thebes1 which was bestowed from the character of its situation rather than from the name of its founder3 for in the ancient language1 and among the ,aeolians who had their origin in ,boeotia1 a small hill is called tebas without the aspirate2 and in the ,sabine country1 where ,pelasgians from ,greece settled1 they still have the same locution3 witness that hill called ,tebae which stands in the ,sabine country on the via ,salaria not far from the mile stone of ,reate4 ,at first agriculture was conducted on so small a scale that it had little distinction1 since those who followed it1 being sprung from shepherds1 at once sowed their corn and pastured their flocks on the same land1 but as later this art grew in importance the husbandry of live stock was separated1 and it befel that some men were called farmers and others shepherds4 ,the art of feeding live stock should really be divided into two branches1 as is not yet fully appreciated1 one relating to the stock kept at the steading1 the other to the stock pastured in the fields4 ,the latter1 which is designated by the name pecuaria1 is well known and highly esteemed so that rich men1 either lease or buy much pasture land in order to carry it on3 the other1 which is known as villatice1 has1 because it seemed to be of less importance1 been treated by some as an incident of the husbandry of agriculture1 when in fact it should be made a part of the husbandry of live stock3 nor has it been described separately and at length by any one1 so far as ,i know4 ,and so1 as ,i think that there are three branches of farm management which are undertaken for profit1 namely3 agriculture1 live stock and the industries peculiar to the steading1 ,i have planned three books1 of which ,i have already written two1 the first concerning the husbandry of agriculture1 which ,i dedicated to my wife ,fundania1 and the second concerning the husbandry of live stock to ,turranius ,niger3 the third1 relating to the profits of those industries which are carried on at the steading1 ,i now send herewith to you2 for the fact that we are neighbours and entertain a mutual affection seems to demand that it should be dedicated to you above all others4 ,although you have a villa1 which is remarkable for the beauty of its workmanship within and without1 and for the splendour of its mosaic pavements1 still you deem it to be bare unless you have the walls decorated also with books3 so in like manner that your villa may be more distinguished by the profits you derive from it than by the character of its construction1 and that ,i may be of assistance to that end1 so far as may be1 ,i have sent you this book1 which is a summary of some conversations which we have had on the subject of what makes the perfectly equipped villa3 and so ,i begin as follows3 ,of the definition of a ,roman villa ,,ii4 ,the ,senator ,q4 ,axius1 my fellow tribesman1 and ,i had cast our votes at the comitia for the election of aediles1 and1 although it was the heat of the day1 we wished to be on hand when the candidate whom we were supporting should go home4 ,so ,axius said to me3 ,what would you think of taking shelter in the villa publica#aeh while the votes are being sorted rather than in the booth of our candidate4 ,i hold1 said ,i1 not only with the proverb that bad advice is worst for him who gives it1 but that good advice is good for both the giver and the taker4 ,and so we made our way to the villa publica1 where we found ,appius ,claudius1#aei the ,augur1 seated on a bench waiting for any call for his services by the ,consul3 on his left was ,cornelius ,merula 7blackbird7 of the ,consular family of that name1 and ,fircellius ,pavo 7pea-cock7 of ,reate1 and on his right ,minutius ,pica 7mag-pie7 and ,m4 ,petronius ,passer 7sparrow74 ,when we had approached them ,axius1 smiling1 said to ,appius3 ,may we come into your aviary where you are sitting among the birds8 ,by all means1 replied ,appius1 and especially you who set before me such birds as still make my mouth water1 when ,i was your guest a few days ago at your ,reatine villa on my way to lake ,velinus to settle the controversy between the people of ,interamna and ,reate4#afj ,but he added1 is not this villa1 which our ancestors constructed1 simpler and so better than that elaborate one of yours at ,reate3 do you see any where here any furniture of citrus wood or ormolu1 any decorations of vermillion or blue1 any tessellations or mosaic work1 all of which on the other hand were displayed in your house8 ,and while this is open to the entire people1 yours is available to you alone3 this is the resort for the citizens after the comitia in the ,campus ,martius1 and for all alike1 while yours is reserved for mares and asses4 ,and furthermore it should be considered that this building is useful in carrying on the public business1 for here the consuls review the army on parade1 here the arms are inspected1 here the censors enumerate the people4 ,tell me1 retorted ,axius1 which is useful1 this villa of yours giving on the ,campus ,martius1 more extravagantly arrayed with objects of art than all ,reate put together1 so bedizened is it with pictures and garnished with statues1 or mine where there is no trace of the artists ,lysippus or ,antiphilus1 but there are many of the farm hand and the shepherd8 ,and since there can be no villa where there is no farm and that well cultivated1 how can you call this house of yours a villa which has no land appurtenant to it and no cattle or horses8 ,again1 tell me1 pray1 how does your villa compare with that of your grandfather and great grandfather1 for one cannot see at yours1 as one could always see at theirs1 cured hay in the mows1 the vintage in the cellar1 and the harvest in the granary8 ,because1 forsooth1 a house is situated out of town1 it is no more a villa for that reason than the houses of those who dwell beyond the ,porta ,flumentaria or in the ,aemiliana suburb4 ,since it appears that ,i do not know what a villa is1 replied ,appius1 smiling1 ,i wish you would be good enough to instruct me1 so that ,i may not make a fool of myself1 as ,i am planning to buy from ,m4 ,seius his villa at ,ostia3 for if a mere house is not a villa unless it is equipped with a jackass costing forty thousand sesterces 7#b1jjj71 like that you showed me at your place1 ,i fear that ,i would be making a mistake in buying ,seius' house on the shore at ,ostia in the belief that it is a villa4 ,but it was our friend ,merula here who put me in mind of buying this house1 for he told me that he had spent several days there and that he had never seen a more delightful villa1 and yet he saw there no paintings1 nor any bronze or marble statues1 neither did he see any wine press1 or oil mill1 or oil jars4 ,and what kind of a villa is this1 said ,axius1 turning to ,merula1 where there are neither the ornaments of a town house nor the utensils of a farm8 ,do you consider1 said ,merula1 that your house on the bank of ,velinus1 which neither painter nor architect has ever seen1 is any less a villa than the one you have in ,rosea so elegantly decorated with the work of an architect and which you share with your famous jackass8 ,axius admitted1 with a nod1 that a simple farm house was as much entitled to be called a villa as any house which united the characteristics of both town and country1 and asked what he deduced from this4 ,what8 said ,merula4 ,why1 if your estate in ,rosea is to be approved by reason of the husbandry which you carry on1 and is properly called a villa because there cattle are fed and stabled1 then1 by the same reasoning1 all those houses should be called villas in which large profits are derived from husbandry3 for what difference does it make whether you derive your profit from sheep or from birds8 ,is the income any sweeter which comes from cattle in which bees are generated1 than from the bees themselves1 such as work in their hives at the villa of ,seius8 ,do you sell to the butcher the hogs which you raise at your farm for more than ,seius sells his wild boars to the meat market8 ,am ,i any less able1 replied ,axius1 to have these things at my farm at ,reate3 is ,sicilian honey made at ,seius' place and only ,corsican honey at ,reate1#afa and does the mast which he buys for his wild boars make them fat while that which ,i get for nothing from my woods makes mine lean8 ,but1 said ,appius1 ,merula does not deny that you can carry on at your villa the kind of husbandry which ,seius does at his1 yet ,i myself have seen that you don't4 ,for there are two kinds of husbandry of live stock3 one in the fields1 as of cattle2 and the other at the steading1 as of chickens and pigeons and bees and other such things which are usually kept at a villa4 ,about the latter1 ,mago the ,carthaginian1 and ,cassius ,dionysius and others have treated specially in different parts of their books1 and it would seem that ,seius has read their precepts and so has learned how to make more profit from his villa alone by such husbandry than others make out of an entire farm4 ,certainly1 agreed ,merula1 for ,i have seen there great flocks of geese1 chickens1 pigeons1 cranes and pea-cocks3 also dormice1 fish1 wild boars and other such game4#afb ,the freedman who keeps his books which ,varro has seen1 assured me when he was doing the honours in the absence of his master1 that ,seius derives an income of more than fifty thousand sesterces 7#b1ejj7 per annum from his villa4 ,as ,axius seemed astonished1 ,i asked him3 ,surely you know the estate of my aunt in the ,sabine country which is at the twenty-fourth mile stone from ,rome on the via ,salaria4 ,of course1 ,i do1 ,axius replied1 for it is there that ,i am wont to divide the day in summer on my way from ,reate to town and to spend the night when ,i come thence in winter4 ,well1 ,i continued1 in that villa there is an aviary from which ,i know that there were taken in one season five thousand thrushes1 which1 at three deniers apiece1 means that that department of the establishment brought in a revenue of sixty thousand sesterces that year1 or twice the yield of the entire two hundred jugera of your farm at ,reate4#afc ,what1 sixty thousand1 exclaimed ,axius1 sixty thousand3 you are making game of me6 ,sixty thousand1 ,i affirmed1 but in order that you might realize such a lucky throw you will require either a public banquet or a triumph on the scale of that of ,scipio ,metellus1 or club dinners1 which indeed have now become so frequent as to raise the price of provisions of the market4 ,you will perchance expect this return every year1 said ,merula1 so ,i trust that your aviary may not lead you into a loss4 ,but surely in such good times as these it could not happen that you would fail1 except rarely1 for what year is there that does not see such a feast or a triumph1 or club dinners1 such as now-a-days consume victuals without number4 ,nay1 he added1 it seems that in our habit of luxury such a public banquet is a daily occurrence within the gates of ,rome4#afd ,to supplement the examples of such profits3 ,l4 ,albutius1 a learned man and1 as you know1 the author of certain satires in the manner of ,lucilius1 has said that the returns from feeding live stock on his ,alban farm are always less than his income from his villa1 for the farm yields less than ten thousand sesterces and the villa more than twenty4 ,he even maintains that if he should establish a villa near the sea in such a place as he might choose he could derive from it an income of more than a hundred thousand sesterces4 ,did not ,m4 ,cato recently sell forty thousand sesterces worth of fishes from the fish ponds of ,lucullus after he had accepted the administration of his estate8 ,my dear ,merula1 exclaimed ,axius1 take me1 ,i beg of you1 as your pupil in the art of the husbandry of the steading4 ,i will begin1 replied ,merula1 as soon as you promise me a minerval in the form of a dinner4#afe ,you shall have it1 said ,axius1 both today1 and hereafter as well1 off those delicacies you will teach me to rear4 ,i fear1 replied ,merula1 that what you may offer me at the beginning of your experience with villa feeding will be dead geese or deceased pea-cocks4 ,and what difference will it make to you1 retorted ,axius1 if ,i do serve you fish or fowl which has come to an untimely end3 for in no event could you eat them unless they were dead3 but ,i beg you1 he added1 matriculate me in the school of villa husbandry and expound to me the theory and the practice of it4 ,merula accepted the invitation cheerfully4 ,of the ,roman development of the industries of the steading ,,iii4 ,in the first place1 he said1 you should know what kind of creatures you may raise or feed in or about a villa1 either for your profit or for your pleasure4 ,there are three divisions for this study3 poultry houses1 warrens and fish ponds4 ,i include under the head of poultry houses the feeding of all kinds of fowls which are usually kept within the walls of a steading3 under the head of warrens not merely what our great grandfathers meant--places where rabbits were usually kept--but any enclosure adjoining a villa in which game animals are enclosed to be fed4 ,in like manner ,i include under the head of fish ponds all those places in which fish are kept at a villa either in fresh or salt water4 ,each of these divisions may be separated into at least two parts3 thus the first1 that with respect to poultry houses1 should be treated with reference to a classification of fowls as between those which are content on land alone1 such as pea-cocks1 turtle doves1 thrushes2 and those which require access to water as well as land1 such as geese1 widgeons and ducks4 ,so the second division1 that relating to game1 has two different classifications3 one which includes the wild boar1 the roe buck and hares2 the other bees1 snails and dormice4 ,the third1 or aquatic division1 likewise has two classifications1 one including fresh water fish1 the other salt water fish4 ,in order to secure and maintain a supply of these six classes of stock it is necessary to provide a force of three kinds of artificers1 namely3 fowlers1 hunters and fishermen1 or else you may buy breeding stock from such men1 and trust to the diligence of your servants to rear and fatten their offspring until they are ready for market4 ,certain of them1 such as dormice1 snails and chickens1 may1 however1 be obtained without the aid of a hunter's net1 and doubtless the business of keeping them began with the stock native to every farm3 for the breeding even of chickens has not been a monopoly of the ,roman augurs1 to make provision for their auspices1 but has been practised by all farmers from the beginning of time4#aff ,from such a start in the kind of husbandry we are now discussing1 the next step was to provide masonry enclosures near the steading to confine game1 and these served as well for shelter for the bee-stand1 for originally the bees were wont to make their hives under the eaves of the farm house itself4 ,the third division1 that of keeping fish1 had its origin in simple fresh water ponds in which fish taken in the streams were kept4 ,there have been two steps in the development of each of these three conveniences2 the earlier distinguished by the ancient simplicity1 the later by our modern luxury4 ,the earlier stage was that of our ancestors1 who had but two places for keeping poultry3 one the court yard of the steading in which chickens were fed and their profit derived from eggs and pullets1 the other above ground1 for their pigeons were kept in the dormers or on the roof of the farm house4 ,now-a-days1 on the contrary1 what our ancestors called hen-houses are known as ornithones1 and serve to house thrushes and pea-cocks to cater to the delicate appetite of the master3 and indeed such structures now have larger roofs than formerly sufficed to cover an entire farm house4 ,such has been the progress in respect of warrens also3 your father1 ,axius1 never saw any game but rabbits1 nor did there exist in his time any such extensive enclosures as now are made1 many jugera in extent1 to hold wild boars and roe bucks4 ,you can witness1 he said1 turning to me1 that you found many wild boars in the warren of your farm at ,tusculum1 when you bought it from ,m4 ,piso4 ,in respect of the third class1 who was there who used to have any kind of a fish pond1 except of fresh water1 stocked merely with cat fish and mullets1 while today our elegants declare that they would as soon have a pond stocked with frogs as with those fish ,i have named4 ,you will recall the story of ,philippus when he was entertained at ,casinum by ,ummidius3 a pickerel caught in your river1 ,varro1 was put before him1 he tasted it and forthwith spat it out1 exclaiming ,may ,i perish1 but ,i thought it was fish6#afg ,as the luxury of this age has enlarged our warrens1 so has it carried our fish ponds even to the sea itself and has herded shoals of sea fish into them4 ,have not ,sergius ,orata 7goldfish7 and ,licinius ,murena 7lamprey7 taken their cognomens from fishes for this reason8 ,and who does not know the fame of the fish ponds of ,philippus1 of ,hortensius1 and of the brothers ,lucullus8 ,where1 then1 ,axius1 do you wish me to begin8 ,of aviaries ,,iv4 ,i prefer1 replied ,axius1 that you should begin with the sequel--postprincipia1 as they say in the camps--that is1 with the present day rather than with the past1 because the profits from pea-cocks are greater than those from hens1 ,i will not dissemble that ,i wish to hear first of ornithones because the thrushes which are kept in them make the very name sound like money3 indeed1 the #fj1jjj sesterces of ,fircelina have consumed me with avarice4 ,there are two kinds of ornithones1 replied ,merula2 one for pleasure1 like that so much admired which our friend ,varro here has at his villa near ,casinum3 the other for profit1 such as are maintained commercially1 some even indoors in town1 but chiefly in the ,sabine country which abounds in thrushes4 ,there is a third kind1 consisting of a combination of the two ,i have mentioned1 such as ,lucullus maintained at his ,tusculan villa1 where he contrived a dining room under the same roof as his aviary to the end that he might feast delicately1 satisfying two senses1 now by eating the birds cooked and spread on a platter1 now by seeing them flying about the windows3 but the truth is that he was disappointed1 for the eyes did not take as much pleasure from the sight of the flying birds as the nostrils were offended by their odour4 a4 ,for profit ,v4 ,but1 as ,i gather you would prefer1 ,axius1 ,i will speak of that kind of ornithon which is established for profit1 whence1 but not where1 fat thrushes are served4 ,for this purpose is built a dome1 in the form of a peristyle1 with a roof over it and enclosed with netting1 sufficiently large to accommodate several thousand thrushes#afh and blackbirds2 indeed1 some also include other kinds of birds1 such as ortolans and quail1 which sell for a good price when fat4 ,into this enclosure water should be conducted through a conduit and so disposed as to wind through the aviary in channels narrow enough to be cleaned easily 7for if the water spreads out it is quickly polluted and rendered unfit to drink7 and draining like a running stream to find its vent through another conduit1 so that the birds may not be exposed to the risk of mud4 ,the door should be low and narrow and well balanced on its hinges like the doors they have in the amphitheatres where bulls are fought3 few windows and so placed that the birds cannot see trees and wild birds without1 for that makes the prisoners pine and grow thin4 ,the place should have only so much light as may be necessary to enable the birds to see where they are to perch and to eat and drink4 ,the doors and the windows should be lightly stuccoed round about to keep out rats and other such vermin4 ,around the wall of the building on the inside are fastened many perches where the birds can sit1 and another such convenience should be contrived from poles set on the ground and leaning against the walls and tied together with other poles fastened transversely at regular intervals1 thus giving the appearance of the rising degrees of a theatre4 ,down on the ground near the drinking water you should place the birds' food1 which usually consists of little balls of a paste made out of figs and corn meal3 but for twenty days before you intend to market your thrushes it is customary to feed them more heavily1 both by giving them more food and that chiefly of finer meal4 ,in this enclosure there should also be cages with wooden floors which may serve the birds as resting places supplementing the perches4 ,next to the aviary should be contrived a smaller structure1 called the seclusorium1 in which the keeper may array the birds found dead1 to render an account of them to his master1 and where he may drive the birds which are ready for market from the larger aviary3 and to this end this smaller room is connected with the main cage by a large door and has more light3 and there1 when he has collected the number he wishes to market1 the keeper kills them1 which is done secretly1 lest the others might despond at the sight and themselves die before they are ready for market4 ,thrushes are not like other birds of passage which lay their eggs in particular places1 as the swan does in the fields and the swallows under the roof1 but they lay anywhere3 for1 despite their masculine name 7turdus7 there are female thrushes1 just as there are male blackbirds1 although they have a purely feminine name 7merula74 ,all birds are divided as between those which are of passage1 like swallows and cranes1 and those which are domestic1 like chickens and pigeons3 thrushes are birds of passage and every year fly from across the sea into ,italy about the time of the autumn equinox1 returning about the spring equinox4 ,at another season doves and quail do the same in immense numbers1 as may be seen in the neighbouring islands of ,pontia1 ,palmaria and ,pandataria1 for there they are wont to rest a few days on their arrival and again before they set out across the sea from ,italy4 b4 ,for pleasure ,so1 said ,appius to ,axius1 if you enclose five thousand thrushes in such an aviary as ,merula has described and there happens to be a banquet or a triumph1 you will gain forthwith that sixty thousand sesterces which you so keenly covet and be able to lend the money out at good interest4 ,and then1 turning to me1 he added1 ,do you tell us of that other kind of ornithon1 namely3 for pleasure merely1 for it is said that you have constructed one near ,casinum which surpasses not only the original built by the inventor of such flying cages1 our friend ,m4 ,laenius ,strabo of ,brundisium 7who was the first to keep birds confined in the chamber of a peristyle and to feed them through the net71 but also the vast structures of ,lucullus at ,tusculum4 ,you know1 ,i said1 that there flows through my estate near ,casinum#afi a stream which is both deep and clear and fifty-seven feet wide between the masonry embankments1 so that it is necessary to use bridges to get from one part of the property to the other4 ,on the upper reach of this stream is situated my ,museum#agj and at a distance of #iej feet below is an island formed by the confluence of another stream4 ,along the bank for this distance is an uncovered walk ten feet broad and between this walk and the field is the location of my aviary enclosed on both sides1 right and left1 with high masonry walls4 ,the ornithon itself is built in the shape of a writing tablet with a capital on it1 the main quadrangle being forty-eight feet wide and seventy-two feet long1 the capital semi-circular with a radius of twenty-seven feet4 ,to this a covered walk or portico is joined1 as it were across the bottom of the page of the tablet1 with passages leading on either side of the ornithon proper which contains the cages1 to the upper end of the interior quadrangle adjoining the capital4 ,this portico is constructed of a series of stone columns between which and the main outside walls are planted dwarf shrubs1 a net of hemp being stretched from the top of the walls to the architrave of the portico1 and thence down to the stylobate or floor4 ,the exterior spaces thus enclosed are filled with all kinds of birds which are fed through the net1 water being provided by a small running stream4 ,on the interior sides of the porticos1 and adjoining them at the upper end of the interior quadrangle1 are constructed on both sides two narrow oblong basins4 ,between these basins a path leads to the tholus1 or rotunda1 which is surrounded with two rows of columns1 like that in the house of ,catulus1 except that ,i have substituted columns for walls4 ,beyond these columns at the end is a grove of large transplanted trees forming a roof of leaves1 but admitting light underneath1 as that is entirely cut off by the high walls on the sides4 ,between the exterior row of columns of the tholus1 which are of stone1 and the interior row1 which are of pine1 there is a narrow space1 five feet in width4 ,the exterior columns are filled in with a transparent net instead of walls1 thus permitting the birds to look out upon the grove and the wild birds there but without escaping3 the interior columns being filled in with the net of the main aviary4 ,the space between the two rows of columns thus enclosed is equipped with perches for the birds in the form of many rods let into all the columns in ascending array like the degrees of a theatre2 and here are enclosed all kinds of birds1 but chiefly singing birds1 like nightingales and blackbirds1 for whom water is conducted by means of a small canal and food is supplied under the net4 ,under the lantern of the tholus is a basin of water3 and around this a foot and nine inches below the stylobate or pedestal of the interior row of columns1 runs a stone platform4 ,this is five feet in width and two feet above the level of the basin1 thus affording a space on which my bird guests may hop about from the cushions to the little columns which are there provided for them4#aga ,the basin is immediately surrounded with a quay a foot in width adjoining but below the level of the platform and has a little island in the middle4 ,around the platform and the quay are contrived docks for ducks4 ,on the island is a little column arranged to turn on its axis and carrying a wheel-shaped table with hollow drum-like dishes fashioned at the ends of the spokes two and a half feet wide and a palm in depth4 ,this is turned by a boy whose business that is1 so that meat and drink is put before all my bird guests in turn4 ,from the elevation of the platform1 where mats are usually placed1 the ducks go out to swim in the basin1 and from this streams flow into the two basins ,i have already described1 and little fish may be seen darting from one to the other1 while warm or cold water may be turned on the guests from the circumference of the revolving table1 which ,i have described as equipped with spokes4 ,within the dome is an arrangement to tell the hours by marking the position in the heavens of the sun by day and ,hesperus by night3 and furthermore1 as in the clock which ,andronicus ,cyrrestes constructed at ,athens1 the eight winds are depicted on the dome1 and1 by means of an arrow connecting with a vane1 the prevailing wind is indicated to those within4#agb ,as we were talking an uproar was heard on the ,campus ,martius4 ,while this did not astonish old parliamentary hands#agc like ourselves1 who knew the enthusiasm of an election1 yet we were anxious to know what it meant1 and at this moment ,pantuleius ,parra came up and told us that while the votes were being sorted some one was caught stuffing the ballot box#agd and had been haled before the consul by the supporters of the rival candidate4 ,pavo rose to go1 for it was understood that he who had been arrested was the campaign manager of ,pavo's own candidate4 ,of pea-cocks ,,vi4 ,now that ,fircellius is gone you can speak freely of pea-cocks1 said ,axius1 for if you should say any thing to their disadvantage in his presence1 you might perchance have a crow to pluck with him on account of his relationship4#age ,within my memory1 said ,merula1 the practice of keeping commercial flocks of pea-cocks has largely developed and it has so developed that ,m4 ,aufidius ,lurco is said to derive an income of sixty thousand sesterces per annum from them4 ,if you keep them for profit it is well to have somewhat fewer males than females2 while the contrary is true if you keep them for pleasure1 for the pea-cock far surpasses his hen in beauty4 ,with us they are fed in the country1 but abroad it is said that they are kept on islands1 as at ,samos in the grove of ,juno and at ,planasia1 the island of ,m4 ,piso4 ,in setting up a flock age and beauty must be considered1 for nature has given the palm of beauty to the pea-cock among all the birds4 ,the hens are not fit for breeding under two years of age1 nor when they are aged4 ,they are fed all kinds of grain but chiefly barley4 ,scius makes a practice of feeding them a modius of barley apiece for the month before they begin to breed1 his purpose being to make them more productive4 ,he expects his overseer to raise three pea fowl for every hen1 and he sells them when matured for fifty deniers 7#aj7 a piece1 a price such as one never obtains for a sheep4#agf ,furthermore1 he buys eggs and sets them under dunghill hens1 transferring the young pea fowls so hatched to the shelter set apart for their kind4 ,this house should be built large enough for the number of pea fowl to be kept and should be equipped with separate roosting places smoothly stuccoed1 so that snakes and such vermin may not be able to get into it3 and1 furthermore1 it should have attached to it a run in which the pea fowl may feed on sunny days1 and both these places should be kept clean1 as this kind of fowl demands4 ,the keeper should make the rounds often with a shovel to collect and preserve their manure1 which is not only fit for use in agriculture but serves also as bedding for your pea chicks4 ,it is said that ,q4 ,hortensius was the first to serve pea-cocks at dinner1 on the occasion of his inauguration as an augur1 an evidence of prodigality which was more approved by the luxurious than by good men of simple manners3 but many others quickly followed his example1 so that the price of pea fowl was raised until an egg sold for five deniers 7#a7 and a pea fowl itself readily for fifty 7#aj71 thus a flock of an hundred of them easily yields an income of forty thousand sesterces1 7#b1jjj71 or even sixty 7#c1jjj71 if1 as ,abuccius advises1 one obtains three chickens from every pea hen4 ,of pigeons ,,vii4 ,in the meanwhile an apparitor came to ,appius from the ,consul and said that the augurs were summoned4 ,as ,appius went out from the villa publica1 a flock of pigeons flew in1 whereupon ,merula said to ,axius3 ,if you had established a ,greek3 peristerogropheion you would think that these were your pigeons1 although they are wild1 for it is the custom to keep both kinds in a ,greek3 peristerotropheion4 ,one is the wild dove 7or1 as some call them the rock dove1 or saxatilis71 such as live in the towers and dormers 7columines7 of a farm house1 whence they get the name columbae1 because1 on account of their natural timidity1 they seek the highest places on the roof4 ,on this account wild doves usually frequent towers1 to which they may fly from the fields of their own accord1 and return4#agg ,the other kind of pigeons is tamer and are wont to seek their food at the very threshold of a house4 ,this kind is usually white in colour1 the wild variety being mottled but without any white4 ,from these two stocks a third or mixed variety has been developed for commercial profit and these are collected in the place which some call a peristereon 7pigeon house71 and others a peristerotropheion 7place for raising pigeons71 where there are often confined as many as five thousand at a time4 ,a pigeon house is made like a great dome1 with arched roof1 a narrow entrance1 and grilled windows or with wider lattices on all sides so that the interior may be well lighted and yet no snake or other such pest may have access4 ,the walls and the dome within and the edges of the windows without should be smeared with light stucco to keep out rats and lizards1 for nothing is so timid as a pigeon4 ,a round nest should be provided for each pair of pigeons and these should be arranged in close order so that there may be established as many as possible of them ranked from the ground to the very dome4 ,each nest should have a door no bigger than necessary to enable the pigeons to go in and out but within should be of three palms in diameter4 ,under each rank of nests should be fastened planks two palms broad for the use of the pigeons as a vestibule on coming out4 ,water should be led into the pigeon house1 both for them to drink and to bathe in1 for pigeons are very clean birds4 ,for this reason the keeper of the pigeons should sweep out the house several times a month1 for that which soils it has so great a4 value in agriculture that some writers even claim that it is the best of all manures4 ,furthermore1 the keeper in these rounds may tend any pigeon which is ailing1 remove any which are dead1 and take out such squabs as are fit for market4 ,likewise1 those which are setting should be transferred to a particular place1 separated from the others by a net but from which the mothers may be free to get out of doors3 which is done for two reasons3 first1 because if they become weary or decrepit from being cooped too long1 they will be refreshed by the free air when they go abroad3 secondly1 because they serve as decoys for other pigeons1 for their squabs will always bring them home themselves unless they are struck down by a crow or cut off by a hawk4 ,pigeon breeders rid themselves of the last mentioned pests by planting in the ground two rods smeared with birdlime and bent in one upon the other1 and then tie on some bait so disposed that when the hawk falls upon his prey he finds himself entangled in the birdlime and is taken4 ,it may be noted that the pigeon has a homing instinct1 as is proved by the practice of many in letting pigeons loose from their bosoms in the theatre expecting them to return home1 for if they did not return the practice would not persist4 ,the food for pigeons is placed in mangers fastened around the walls and filled from the outside by means of conduits4 ,they thrive on millet1 wheat1 barley1 peas1 beans and vetch4 ,this regimen should be followed also1 as far as possible1 in the care of the wild pigeons1 which live on the towers and the roofs of the barn4 ,in equipping a ,greek3 peristereon pigeons of good age should be secured1 neither squabs nor veterans1 and as many males as females4 ,nothing is more prolific than the pigeon1 for in forty days they conceive1 lay1 hatch and raise a brood1 and they keep this up nearly all the year1 stopping only from the winter solstice until spring4 ,squabs are hatched in pairs1 and as soon as they have grown up and have strength breed with their own mothers4 ,those who fatten squabs in order to sell them dearer1 make a practice of isolating them as soon as they are covered with feathers1 then they cram them with white bread which has been chewed3#agh in winter this is fed twice a day1 in summer three times a day1 morning1 noon and night1 the midday meal being omitted in winter4 ,those which are just beginning to have feathers are left in the nests1 but their legs are broken1 and1 in order that they may be crammed1 the food is put before the mothers1 for they will feed themselves and their squabs on it all day long4 ,squabs which are reared in this way become fat more quickly than others and have whiter flesh4 ,a pair of pigeons will commonly sell at ,rome for two hundred nummi1 if they are well made1 of good colour1 without blemish1 and of good breed3 some times they even bring a thousand nummi1 and there is a report that recently ,l4 ,axius1 a ,roman of the equestrian order1 declined that sum1 refusing to sell for less than four hundred deniers4#agi ,if ,i could procure a fully equipped ,greek3 peristereon1 cried ,axius1 as readily as ,i have bought a supply of earthen ware nests1 ,i would have had it already on the way to my farm4 ,as if1 remarked ,pica1 there were not many of them here in town4 ,but perhaps those who have pigeon houses on their roofs do not seem to you to be justified in calling them ,greek3 peristereonas even though some of them represent an investment of more than one hundred thousand sesterces4 ,i advise you to buy out one of them and learn how to pocket a profit here in town1 before you build on a large scale in the country4 ,of turtle doves ,,viii4 ,so much for that then1 said ,axius4 ,proceed1 please1 to the next subject1 ,merula4 ,for turtle doves1 said ,merula1 in like manner a house should be constructed proportioned to the number you intend to feed1 and this1 like the pigeon house1 ,i have described1 should have a door and windows and fresh water and walls and a vaulted roof1 but in place of breeding nests the mutules should be extended through the walls or poles set in them in regular order with hempen mats on them1 the lowest rank being not more than three feet from the floor1 the rest at intervals of nine inches1 the top rank six inches from the vault1 and of equal breadth as the mutule stands out from the wall4 ,on these the doves are fed day and night4 ,for food they are given dry wheat1 usually a half modius for every one hundred and twenty doves4 ,every day the house should be cleaned out1 that they may not be injured by the accumulation of manure1 and because also it has its place in the economy of the farm4 ,the best time for fattening doves is about the harvest1 for then the mothers are in their best condition and produce young ones not only in the largest number but the best for cramming3 so that is the time when they are most profitable4 ,of poultry ,,ix4 ,tell me now1 if you please1 ,merula1 said ,axius1 what ,i should know of raising and fattening poultry and wood pigeons1 then we can proceed to the discussion of the remainder of our programme4 ,there are three kinds of fowls usually classed as poultry1 replied ,merula1 dunghill fowl1 jungle fowl and guinea fowl4 ,the dunghill fowl are those which are constantly kept in the country at farms4 ,he who wishes to establish an ,greek3 ornithoboskeion from which1 by the exercise of intelligence and care1 he can take large profits1 as the people of ,delos do with such great success1#ahj should observe five principal rules3 #a in regard to buying1 what kind and how many he will keep3 #b in regard to breeding3 #c in regard to eggs1 how they are set and hatched3 #d in regard to chicks1 how and by whom they are reared1 and #e1 which is a supplement of all the foregoing1 how they are fattened4 ,the females of the dunghill fowl are called hens1 the breeding males cocks1 and the males which have been altered capons4 ,cocks are caponized by burning the spurs#aha with a hot iron until the skin is broken1 the wound being poulticed with potters' clay4 ,he who wishes to have a model ,greek3 ornithoboskeion should equip it with all three kinds of fowls1 though chiefly the dunghill variety4 ,in purchasing these last it is important to choose fertile hens1 which are indicated by red feathers1 black wings1 unequal toes1 large heads1 combs upstanding and heavy1 for such hens are more likely to lay4 ,a lusty cock may be known by his muscular carriage1 his red comb1 a beak short1 strong and sharp1 eyes tawny or black1 wattles a whitish red1 neck spotted or tinged with gold1 the second joint of his legs well covered with feathers1 short legs long spurs1 a heavy tail1 and profuse feathers1 also by his spirit and his frequent crowing1 his readiness to fight1 and that he is not only not afraid of such animals as do the hens harm1 but even goes out to fight them4 ,you must be careful1 however1 not to buy for breeding any fowls of the breeds known as ,tanagran1 ,medean and ,chalcidean1 for1 while they are beautiful to look at and are fit for fighting with one another1 they are practically sterile4 ,if you wish to keep a flock of two hundred1 choose an enclosed place and there construct two large poultry houses side by side and looking to the ,east1 each about ten by five feet and a little less than five feet in height1 and furnished with windows three by four feet in which are fitted shutters of wickerwork1 which will serve to let in plenty of fresh air and light and yet keep out such vermin as prey upon chickens4 ,between the two houses should be a door by which the gallinarius who takes care of them1 may have access4 ,within the houses enough poles are arranged to serve as roosts for all the chickens3 opposite each roost a nest should be set in the wall4 ,in front of the house should be an enclosed yard to which the fowls may have access in the day time and where they can dust themselves1#ahb and there should be constructed the keeper's house1 which should be equipped all about with nests1 either set into the walls or firmly fastened to them1 for the least disturbance injures eggs when they are setting4 ,when the hens begin to lay1 straw should be spread in their nests and this should be renewed when they begin to set1 for in such bedding are bred mites and other insects which will not suffer the hen to be quiet1 with the result that the eggs are hatched unequally or rot4 ,a hen should not be allowed to set on more than twenty-five eggs1 although such is her fecundity that she lays more than that in a season4 ,the best time for hatching is from the spring to the autumn equinox4 ,eggs laid before or after this season1 or the first eggs laid by a pullet1 should never be set4 ,hens used for setting should be old rather than young1 without sharp beaks and claws1 for those so equipped are better employed in laying than in setting4 ,hens a year or two years old are better fitted for laying4 ,if you set pea-cock eggs under a hen1 you should wait ten days before adding hen eggs to the nest1 to insure them all hatching together1 for the period of incubation of chicken eggs is thrice seven days and that of the eggs of pea-fowl is thrice nine4 ,sitting hens should be shut up day and night1 except for a time in the morning and evening1 when they are let out to eat and drink4 ,the keeper should make the rounds every few days and turn the eggs1 so that they may be kept warm all over4 ,it is said that you can tell whether an egg is fertile or sterile by putting it in water3 for if it is sterile it will float1 while if it is fertile it will sink4 ,those who shake their eggs to ascertain this fact make a mistake for thereby they destroy the germ in them4 ,it is also said that you can tell a sterile egg by the fact that it is transparent when held against the light4 ,to preserve eggs they should be rubbed with fine salt or soaked for three or four hours in brine1 and then cleaned off or packed in chaff or straw4 ,care should be taken to set eggs only in uneven numbers4 ,the keeper can tell whether an egg is fertile or not four days after it is set1 by holding it to the light1 when he should throw it out if it is found to be empty and substitute another for it4 ,the new hatched chickens should be taken from every nest and given to a hen who has only a few to care for4 ,when in this way a setting hen has less than half her eggs left unhatched1 they should be taken from her and put under another hen which has eggs still unhatched4 ,it is not well to give more than thirty chicks to a hen4 ,chicks should be fed for the first fifteen days in the dust to protect them from injuring their tender beaks on the hard ground3 their diet being crushed barley mixed with cress seed and soaked in wine1 for prepared in this way the grain is digestible4 ,they should be kept away from water in the beginning4 ,when they begin to have feathers on their legs the mites should be carefully picked off their heads and necks1 for these banes often destroy them4 ,deer's horn should be burnt around their coops to keep snakes away1 for the very smell of those vermin is fatal to young chickens4 ,they should be allowed to run in the sun and to scratch in a dung heap1 which serves to develop them4 ,this rule applies not only to young chickens but also to the entire ,greek3 ornithoboskeion1 and should be practised all summer and even in winter on mild and sunny days4 ,a net should be stretched over the chicken yard to keep the fowls themselves from flying out and to protect them from hawks and other birds of prey4 ,fowls should be protected from heat as well as cold1 for both are harmful to them4 ,when the chicks have got their feathers it is best to accustom them to follow one or two hens1 leaving the other hens free to go to laying1 in which occupation they are more useful than in rearing chicks4 ,a hen should be set after the new moon1 for those which begin earlier seldom hatch many chicks4 ,they hatch usually in twenty days4 ,and now since ,i have discussed the dunghill fowl at some length1 ,i will make up to you by brevity with respect to the other kinds of fowls4 ,jungle fowl are rarely seen at ,rome1 and then usually in cages4 ,they resemble guinea chickens more than dunghill fowls4 ,when perfect in form and appearance they are often carried in the public processions with parrots and white blackbirds and other such rarities4 ,they do not usually lay or raise their chickens on a farm1 but in the forests4 ,the island of ,gallinaria1 which lies in the ,tuscan sea off the coast of ,italy1 opposite the ,ligurian mountains 7and the towns of ,intermelii and ,alba ,ingannua7 derives its name from them1 though some maintain that the name comes from dunghill fowl which were carried to that island by sailors and have there run wild4 ,guinea fowl 7gallinae africanae7 are large1 mottled and have their humps in their backs4 ,the ,greeks call them ,greek3 meleagrs4#ahc ,they are the last fowls which the culinary art has introduced to our dining tables1 on account of their gamy flavour4#ahd ,by reason of their rarity they sell for a high price4 ,of the three kinds of fowls1 the ordinary dunghill fowl is used chiefly for cramming4 ,for this purpose they are shut up in a small confined and darkened coop1 because both exercise and light are enemies of fat4 ,any large chickens may be selected for this operation1 not necessarily of that breed which the peasants call ,melica incorrectly1 for as the ancients said ,thelis when they meant ,thetis1 so the country people still say ,melica for ,medica4 ,this name was given at first to the fowls which were imported from ,medea on account of their great size and then to all of that breed1 but now the name is given indiscriminately to all large fowls by reason of their general resemblance4 ,after the feathers have been pulled from their tails and wings they are crammed with balls of barley paste1 with which may be mixed darnel meal1 or flax seed soaked in soft water4 ,they are fed twice a day but care must be taken to see that the last meal is digested before another is put before them4 ,after they have been fed and their heads have been cleaned of mites1 they are shut up again4 ,this process is kept up for twenty-five days1 when they will be fat4 ,some cram them on wheat bread soaked in water1 or even in wine of good flavour and bouquet1 claiming that they are thereby made fat and tender in twenty days4#ahe ,if in the process of cramming the fowls lose their appetite from too much food1 the ration should be reduced daily during the last ten days in the same proportion as it was increased during the first ten days1 so that the ration will be the same on the twentieth as on the first day4 ,wood pigeons are crammed and fattened in the same way4 ,of geese ,x4 ,let us now pass1 said ,axius1 to that tribe which cannot live in the barn yard all the time1 or even on land1 but requires access to ponds4 ,i mean those whom you philhellenes call amphibia4 ,i understand that you call the places in which geese are kept by the ,greek name ,greek3 chaenoboskeion1 and that ,scipio ,metellus and ,m4 ,seius have several large flocks of geese4 ,it is ,seius' practice1 said ,merula1 to maintain his flocks of geese#ahf in accordance with the five rules ,i have laid down for poultry1 namely3 with respect to choice of individuals1 breeding1 eggs1 goslings and the process of cramming4 ,on the first point he requires the slave who buys his geese to select them of good size and of white plumage1 because they reproduce their own qualities in their goslings4 ,this is necessary for there is another kind of geese of variegated plumage1 which are called wild1 and do not flock freely with the other kind and are domesticated with difficulty4 ,the best time for breeding geese is at the end of winter and for laying and hatching from the beginning of ,february or ,march until the summer solstice4 ,they breed usually in the water1 diving to the bottom of the stream or pond4#ahg ,a goose lays only three times a year3 and each one should be furnished with a coop about two and a half feet square and bedded with straw3 each of their eggs should be marked for identification1 for they will not hatch any eggs but their own4 ,they are usually set on nine or eleven eggs1 never more than fifteen1 nor less than five4 ,in cold weather they set for thirty days1 in warm weather twenty-five4 ,when they are hatched the goslings are suffered to remain with their mother for five days1 and then daily1 when the weather is fine1 they are driven out to the meadows or to the ponds or some swampy place4 ,the gosling houses may be built either above or below ground1 but never more than twenty should be housed together and care must be taken lest the floor be damp and that they are bedded on chaff or some thing of that kind1 and that the house is so constructed as to keep out weasels and other beasts which prey on goslings4 ,geese are fed in wet places and it is the practice to sow especially for their food supply1 using for this purpose any kind of grain1 but particularly that salad plant called endive#ahh which keeps green wherever there is water1 freshening at the mere contact of water however dry it may be4 ,this is gathered to be fed to them1 for if they have access to the place where it is growing they will destroy the plant by trampling on it1 or else kill themselves by eating too much of it1 for they are greedy by nature4 ,for this reason they must be watched1 as often in feeding their greediness leads them to seize a root and to break their own necks in attempting to pull it from the ground3 for the neck is weak1 as the head is soft4 ,if there is none of this plant they should be fed barley or some other grain4 ,when the farrago season is on1 feed that to them1 but in the same manner as ,i have described in respect of endive4 ,while they are setting they may be fed ground barley soaked in water4 ,the goslings may be fed for the first two days on barley cake 7pollenta7 or raw barley1 and for the next three days fresh water cress chopped fine in a dish4 ,when they are of an age to be kept by themselves in flocks of twenty1 in the kind of house ,i have described1 they are fed on barley meal or farrago or some kind of young herbage cut up4 ,for cramming1 goslings are picked out when they are about six months old1 and are shut up in the fattening pen and there are fed three times a day as much as they will eat1 of crushed barley and flour dust mixed with water1 and after meals they should be made to drink copiously4 ,kept on this diet they will be fat in about two months4#ahi ,after every meal the feeding place must be cleaned1 for1 while geese like a clean place1 they never leave any place clean in which they have been4 ,of ducks ,,xi4 ,whoever wishes to keep a flock of ducks and to establish a ,greek3 naessotropheion1 should choose for it1 above all others if it is possible1 a swampy location because that is most agreeable to the ducks1 but1 if not1 then a situation sloping to a natural lake or pool1 or to an artificial pond1 with steps leading down to it1 practicable for the ducks4 ,the enclosure where they are kept should have a wall fifteen feet high1 such as you saw at ,seius' villa1 with only one door opening into it4 ,all around the wall on the inside should run a broad platform on which are built against the wall the duck houses1 fronting on a level concrete vestibule in which is constructed a permanent channel in which their food can be placed in water1 for ducks are fed in that way4 ,the entire wall should be given a smooth coating of stucco to keep out polecats#aij and other animals of prey1 and the enclosure should be covered with a net of large mesh to prevent eagles from pouncing in and the ducks themselves from flying out4#aia ,for food they are given wheat1 barley1 grape marc1 and some times even lobsters and other such aquatic animals4 ,the pond in the enclosure should be fed with a large head of water so that it may be kept always fresh4 ,there are other kinds of similar birds1 like teals and coots which may be fed in the same way4 ,some even keep partridges1 which1 as ,archelaus writes1 conceive when they hear the voice of the male bird4 ,by reason of the natural abundance and the delicacy of their flesh1 these last are not crammed like those domestic fowls ,i have described1 but they are fattened by feeding in the ordinary way4 ,and now1 as ,i think that ,i have completed the first act of the drama of the barn yard1 ,i am done4 ,of rabbits ,,xii4 ,at this point ,appius returned and1 after an exchange of questions and answers as to what had been said and done during his absence1 he said3 ,here beginneth the second act of those industries which are wont to be practised at a villa1 namely of those enclosures which are still known as leporaria from their ancient special designation4 ,today a warren no longer means an acre or two in which hares are kept1 but some times forests of vast extent in which troops of red deer and roe deer are enclosed4 ,q4 ,fulvius ,lippinus is said to have forty jugera enclosed in the neighbourhood of ,tarquinii#aib where he keeps not only those animals ,i have named but wild sheep as well4 ,parks of still larger extent are found in the territory of ,statonia 7in ,etruria7 and in certain other places3 indeed1 in transalpine ,gaul ,t4 ,pompeius has so great a game preserve that the enclosure is about four miles in extent4#aic ,it is the practice to keep in such enclosures not only the animals ,i have named1 but also snail houses and bee hives and jars in which dormice are fed1 but the care and the increase and the feeding of all these things are easy1 except in the case of bees4 ,who does not know that a leporarium should be enclosed with masonry walls which are at once smooth and high the one to keep out wild cats and badgers and other such beasts3 the other to prevent wolves from getting over4 ,within should be coverts where the hares may lurk in the day time under bushes and grass1 and trees with broad spreading branches to ward off the attacks of the eagle4 ,who does not know also that if he introduces only a few hares of both sexes in a short time the place will be full of them1 for such is the fecundity of this quadruped that two pair are enough to stock an entire warren in a short time4 ,often a mother who has just had her litter is found to be big with another3 indeed1 ,archelaus says that if you want to know how old a hare is you have only to count the number of openings in her belly1 for without doubt there is one for every year of her life4 ,it has recently become the practice to cram hares as well as poultry1 and for this purpose they are taken out of the warren and shut up in small hutches where they are fattened4 ,there are three kinds of hares3 the first1 our common ,italian kind1 which has short front legs and long hind legs1 the upper part of the body dark coloured1 the belly white1 and long ears4 ,some say that our hare conceives a second time while it is still big4 ,in transalpine ,gaul and ,macedonia they grow to a great size1 but in ,spain and in ,italy they are not so large4 ,the second kind is native in ,gaul near the ,alps1 and is white all over the body3 these are brought to ,rome1 but rarely4 ,the third kind is native in ,spain and is like our hare in every way except that it is smaller and is called rabbit 7cuniculus74#aid ,l4 ,aelius thinks that the hare 7lepus7 gets his name from his swiftness1 as it were that he is light of foot 7levipes71 but ,i think the name is derived from the ancient ,greek1 because the ,aeolians of ,boeotia call him ,greek3 leporis4 ,the rabbits derive their latin name of cuniculi from the habit of making underground burrows to hide in for cuniculus is a ,spanish word for mine4 ,if possible you should have all these three kinds in your warren4 ,i am sure you already have the first two kinds1 ,apius added1 turning to me1 and1 as you were so many years in ,spain doubtless some rabbits followed you home4 ,of game preserves ,,xiii4 ,then addressing himself again to ,axius1 ,appius continued3 ,you know1 of course1 that wild boars are kept in game parks1 and that those which are brought in wild are fattened with as little trouble as the tame ones which are born in the park1 for you have doubtless seen at the farm near ,tusculum1 which ,varro here bought from ,m4 ,pupius ,piso1 wild boars and roe bucks assemble at the sound of the trumpet to be fed at regular hours1 when from a platform1 the keeper scatters mast to the wild boars and vetch or some such forage to the roe bucks4 ,i saw this done1 put in ,axius1 more dramatically when ,i was a visitor at the villa of ,q4 ,hortensius in the country near ,laurentum4 ,he has there a wood of more than fifty jugera in extent1 all enclosed1 but it might better be called a ,greek3 theriotropheion than a warren2 there on high ground he caused his dinner table to be spread1 and while we supped ,hortensius gave orders that ,orpheus be summoned3 when he came1 arrayed in his long robe1 with a cithara in his hands1 he was desired to sing4 ,at that moment a trumpet was sounded and at once ,orpheus was surrounded by a large audience of deer and wild boars and other quadrupeds3 it seemed to be not less agreeable a spectacle than the shows of game1 without ,african beasts1 which the ,aediles provide in the ,circus ,maximus4 ,of snails ,,xiv4 ,and turning to ,merula1 ,axius continued3 ,appius has lightened your task1 my dear ,merula1 so far as concerns the matter of game1 and briefly the second act of our drama may be brought to an end1 for ,i do not seek to learn any thing about snails and dormice1 which is all that is left on the programme1 for there can be no great trouble in keeping them4 ,it is not so simple as you seem to think1 my dear ,axius1 replied ,merula1 for a place suitable for keeping snails#aie ,i must be not only in the open air but entirely surrounded by water1 otherwise you will be kept running not only after the children but also the parents which you have supplied for breeding4 ,in other words1 said ,i1 they must be enclosed by water to save the maintenance of a slave catcher4 ,a place which is not baked by the sun and on which the dew remains is preferable1 continued ,merula4 ,if the place you use for your snails is not supplied with dew naturally1 as often is the case in sunny situations1 and there is no available shady recess1 such as is found under rocks or hills whose feet are laved by a lake or a stream1 then you must supply dew artificially4 ,this may be done by leading into the snailery a pipe on the end of which is fixed a rose nozzle1 through which water is forced against a rock so that it scatters in spray4 ,the problem of feeding snails is small1 for they supply themselves without help1 finding what they require as they creep over the level ground and also while clinging to the sides of a wall1 if no running water prevents their access to it4 ,on the hucksters' stands they keep alive a long time1 as it were chewing their own cud1 all that is done for them being to supply a few laurel leaves and scatter a little bran over them3 so a cook never knows whether he is cooking them alive or dead4 ,there are many kinds of snails1 such as the small white ones1 which come from ,reate3 the large variety which are imported from ,illyricum1 and the medium size which come from ,africa3 but they vary in size in certain localities of each of those countries4 ,thus1 there is found in ,africa a variety which are called solitannae of so great size that their shells will hold ten quarts3#aif and so in the other countries ,i have named they are found together of all sizes4 ,they produce an innumerable progeny1 which at first are very small and soft but develop their hard shell with time4 ,if you have large islands in the enclosure you may expect a rich haul from your snails4 ,snails are fattened by placing them in a jar smeared with boiled must and corn meal1 on which they feed1 and pierced with holes to admit the air1 but they are naturally hardy4 ,of dormice ,,xv4 ,dormice#aig are preserved on a different systern than snails1 for while the one is confined by barriers of water1 the other is kept in by a wall which must be coated on the inside with smooth stone or stucco to prevent their escape4 ,young nut trees should be planted in the enclosure1 and when these are not bearing1 mast and chestnuts should be thrown in to the dormice1 for that is what makes them fat4 ,roomy cages should be provided for them in which to rear their young4#aih ,little water is necessary1 for dormice do not require much water1 but on the contrary affect dry places4 ,they are fattened in jars which are usually kept indoors4 ,the potters make these jars in different shapes1 but with paths for the dormice to use contrived on the sides and a hollow to hold their food1 which consists of mast1 walnuts and chestnuts4#aii ,covers are placed on the jars and there in the dark the dormice are fattened4 ,of bees ,,xvi4 ,it remains now1 said ,appius1 to rehearse the third and last act of our drama of the husbandry of the steading and to discuss the keeping of fishes4 ,the third1 indeed1 exclaimed ,axius1 shall we deprive ourselves of honey because in your youth you never drank mead in your own house1 such was your practice of frugality8 ,he speaks the truth1 said ,appius1 to us1 for ,i was indeed left a poor orphan with two brothers and two sisters to provide for1 and it was not until ,i had married one of them to ,lucullus without portion and he had named me his heir that ,i began to drink mead in my own house and to supply it to my household3 but there never was a day when ,i did not offer it to all my guests4 ,but apart from that1 it has been my fortune1 not yours1#bjj ,axius1 to have known these winged creatures whom nature has endowed so richly with industry and art1 and that you may appreciate that ,i know more than you do of their almost incredible natural art1 listen to what ,i am to say4 ,it will then be for ,merula to develop the practice of the bee keeper1 or1 as the ,greeks call it1 ,greek3 melittourgia1 as methodically as he has his other subjects4 ,to begin then1#bja bees are generated partly by other bees and partly from the decaying carcase of an ox3 so ,archelaus in one of his epigrams calls them 'flitting offspring of decaying beef1' and else where he says1 'wasps spring from horses1 bees from calves4' ,bees are not of a solitary habit like eagles1 but are of a social nature1 like men1 a characteristic they share with daws1 but not for the same reason1 for bees live in colonies1 the better to work and build1 while daws congregate for gossip4 ,thus the life of a bee is one of intelligence and art1 for man has learned from them to manufacture1 to build1 and to store his food3 three occupations which are not the same but are diverse in their nature1 for it is one thing to provide food1 another to manufacture wax and honey1 and still another to build a house4 ,has not each cell in a honey comb six sides1 or as many as a bee has feet1 the art of which arrangement appears in the teaching of the geometricians that of all polygons the hexagon covers the largest area within a circle4#bjb ,bees feed out of doors1 but it is at home that they manufacture that which is the sweetest of all things1 acceptable to gods and men alike3 for honey comb is offered on the altars and honey is served at the beginning of a dinner and again at dessert4 ,bees have institutions like our own1 consisting of royalty1 government and organized society4 ,cleanliness in all things is their aim3 and so they never alight in any place where there is filth or an evil odour1 or even where there is a strong savour of such an unguent as we may consider agreeable4 ,for the same reason if one who approaches them is covered with perfume1#bjc they do not lick him as flies do1 but they sting him1 and by the same token no one ever sees bees crawling on meat and blood and grease1 as flies do4 ,and so they only settle in places of sweet savour4 ,they do a minimum of damage because in their harvesting they leave what they touch none the worse4#bjd ,they are not so cowardly as not to resist who ever attempts to disturb them1 and yet they are fully conscious of their own weakness4 ,they are called the ,winged ,servants of the ,muses1 because when they swarm they are quickly brought together by the music of cymbals and the clapping of hands3 and as men assign ,helicon and ,olympus to be the haunts of the ,muses1 so nature has attributed the flowery and uncultivated mountains to the bees4 ,they follow their king#bje wheresoever he goes1 supporting him when he is tired and even taking him upon their backs if he is unable to fly1 so do they wish to serve him4#bjf ,as they are not idlers themselves1 so do they hate those who are1 and thus driving out the drones1 they exclude them from the hive1 because they are of no service but merely consume honey3 and it happens that a few bees1 buzzing with wrath1 will drive out a number of drones4 ,they smear every thing about the entrance to the hive with a gum which is found between the cells which the ,greeks call ,greek3 erithakae4 ,they live under the discipline of an army1 taking turns in resting and all doing their equal share of work1 and they send out colonies and carry out the orders of their leaders1 given with the voice1 but as it were with a trumpet3 and in like manner they have signs of peace and of war4 ,but1 ,merula1 now in my course ,i pass on the torch to you1 as our ,axius here is doubtless languishing while he has listened to all this natural history1 for ,i have said nothing of profit4 ,i do not know1 said ,merula1 whether what ,i can say on the subject of the profit to be derived from bees will satisfy you1 ,axius1 but ,i have as my authorities not only ,seius1 who takes five thousand pounds of honey every year from the hives he leases1#bjg but also our friend ,varro here1 for ,i have heard him tell of two brothers ,veiani1 from the ,falerian territory1 whom he had under his command in ,spain and who1 although their father left them only a small house with a curtilage of not exceeding a jugerum in extent1 nevertheless made themselves rich4 ,they set bee hives all about the house and planted part of the land in a garden and filled up the rest with thyme and clover and that bee plant known to us as apiastrum1 though some call it ,greek3 meliphullon1 others ,greek3 mellissophullon and still others melittaena3 and by this means they were wont to derive1 as they estimated1 an average income of not less than ten thousand sesterces per annum from honey2 but they did this by being willing to wait until they could sell at their own time and price rather than by forcing the market4 ,tell me1 exclaimed ,axius1 where and how ,i should establish a bee-stand to make such a handsome profit4 ,the apiary1 replied ,merula1 which some call by the ,greek names ,greek3 melitton and ,greek3 melittotropheion1 and others mellarium1 should preferably be placed near the house#bjh in a location where there is no echo 7for such sounds are deemed to put them to flight1 as timid men are by the din of a battle7 and where the temperature is mild1 exposed neither to the heat of summer nor the cold of winter1 giving preferably to the ,southeast and near of access to places where their food is abundant and there is a supply of fresh water4 ,if there is no natural supply of food available you should plant such things as best serve bees for pasture1 namely3 roses1 thyme1 bee balm1#bji poppies1 beans1 lentils1 peas1 basil1 gladiolus1 alfalfa1 and especially clover which is of great service to the bees which are sick1 for it begins to bloom at the vernal equinox and lasts until that of autumn4 ,as clover is the best food for sick bees1 so thyme is the best for making honey1 and it is because ,sicily abounds in good thyme that it takes the palm for producing honey4 ,on this account some men bruise thyme in a mortar and mix warm water with it and then spray all their nursery plants with it for the sake of the bees4 ,the hives should be set as near the house as convenient3 some men even put them under the very portico for greater safety4 ,hives are made in various shapes and sizes and of different material2#baj thus some make them round out of wicker work3 others of frame covered with bark3 others use hollow tree trunks3 others vessels of pottery3 some even build them square out of rods1 allowing about three feet in length and a foot in height1 but these dimensions should be reduced where you have not enough bees to fill a hive of that size1 for fear that the bees might become discouraged by too large an empty space4 ,the bee hive derives its name alvus1 which is the same as our word for belly1 from the fact that it holds food1 that is to say1 honey2 and it is on this analogy that hives are usually shaped to imitate the form of the belly1 small in the waist and bulging out below4 ,when the hives are made of wicker work they should be coated evenly within and without with ox dung#baa so that the bees may not be driven away by the roughness of their roof4 ,the hives should be so ordered under the shelter of a wall that they may not be disturbed nor touch one another when arranged in ranks1 for it is the practice to place hives in two and some times three separated ranks1 but the opinion is that it is better to reduce the ranks to two than to increase them to four4 ,in the middle of the hive small openings are made on the right and the left to serve as entrances for the bees1 and on top is placed a practicable cover1 which may be removed to give access to the honey comb4 ,this is best when made of bark1 and worst of pottery1 because that is strongly affected both by the cold of winter and the heat of summer4 ,in spring and summer the bee keeper should inspect each hive at least three times a month1 fumigating them lightly1 cleaning and throwing out dirt and worms4 ,at the same time he should take precautions to keep down the number of princes1 for they keep the bees from work by stirring up sedition4 ,there are said to be three kinds of royalties among the bees3 the black1 the red and the mottled1 or1 as ,menecrates writes1 two3 the black and the mottled3 and as the latter is the better it behooves the bee keeper1 when he finds both kinds in a hive1 to kill the black one1 as he is forever playing politics#bab against the other king1 whereby the hive must suffer1 for inevitably one of the kings will flee or be driven out1 in either case taking his party with him4 ,of working bees the small round mottled variety is considered the best4 ,the drone1 or1 as some call him1 the thief1#bac is black with a large belly4 ,the wasp1 which has some resemblance to a bee1 is not1 however1 a fellow labourer1 but attacks the bees with his sting1 wherefore the bees keep him at a distance4 ,bees are themselves distinguished as wild and tame4 ,i call those wild which feed in the forests1 and those tame which feed in cultivated places4 ,the forest bees are smaller in size and hairy but better workmen4 ,in buying bees it behooves the purchaser to see whether they are well or ailing4 ,the signs of health are a thick swarm1 well groomed appearance and a hive being filled in a workmanlike manner4 ,the signs of lack of condition on the other hand are a hairy and bristling appearance and a dusty coat1 unless this last is caused by a pressure of work1 for under such circumstances they often wear themselves down and become thin4 ,if the hives are to be transferred from one place to another it is necessary to choose a fit time to make the move and a suitable place to receive them4 ,as to time1 spring is preferable to winter because in winter they have difficulty in adjusting themselves to a new location and so often run away1 as they do also if you move them from a good location to a place where proper pasture is not available4 ,nor is a transfer from one hive to another in the same place to be undertaken carelessly1 but that to which the bees are to be transferred should be rubbed with bee balm1 which will serve as a bait for them1 and some pieces of honey comb should be placed in it1 not far from the entrances1 for fear that the bees might run away if they found the larder of their new home empty4 ,menecrates says that bees contract a malady of the bowels from their first spring pasture on the blossoms of the almond and the cornel cherry and are cured by giving them urine to drink4#bad ,that gummy substance which the bees use1 chiefly in summer to construct a sort of curtain between the entrance and the hive1 is called propolis1 and by the same name is used by physicians in making plasters3 by reason of which use it sells in the ,via ,sacra for more than honey itself4 ,that substance which is called erithacen1 and is used to glue the cells together1 is different from both honey and propolis3 it is supposed to have a quality of attraction for bees and is accordingly mixed with bee balm and smeared on the branch or other place on which it is desired to have a swarm light4 ,the comb is made of wax and is multicellular1 each cell in it having six sides or as many as nature has given the bee feet4 ,it is said that bees do not gather from the same plants all the materials which enter in these four substances which they manufacture1 namely3 propolis1 erithacen1 wax and honey4 ,thus from the pomegranate and the asparagus they gather food alone1 wax from the olive tree1 honey from the fig1 but not of good quality3 other plants like the bean1 the bee balm1 the gourd and the cabbage serve a double purpose and yield both wax and food3 while the apple and the wild pear serve a similar double purpose but for food and honey and the poppy again for wax and honey4 ,others again provide material for three purposes1 food1 honey and wax1 such as the almond and the charlock4#bae ,in like manner there are flowers from each of which they derive a different one of these substances1 and others from which they derive several of them3 while they make distinctions in respect of plants according to the quality of the product they yield1--or rather the plants make the distinction for them--as with respect to honey1 some yield liquid honey1 like the skirwort1#baf and others thick honey like the rosemary4 ,so again honey of insipid flavour is made from the fig1 good honey from clover1 and the best of all from thyme4 ,and since drink is part of a bee's diet and water is the liquid they use1 there should be provided near the stand a place for them to drink1 which may be either a running stream or a reservoir not more than two or three fingers deep in which bricks or stones are placed in such a way as to project a little from the water1 and so furnish a place for the bees to sit and drink2 but the greatest care must be taken to keep this water fresh1 as it is of high importance to the making of good honey4 ,as the bees cannot go out to distant pasture in all weathers1 food must be prepared for them1 as otherwise they will live on their supply of honey and so deplete the store in the hive4 ,for this purpose ten pounds of ripe figs may be boiled in six congii of water and bits of the paste thus prepared should be set out near the hives4 ,others provide honey water in little dishes and float flocks of clean wool on them through which the bees may suck without risk of either getting more than is good for them or of being drowned4 ,one such dish should be provided for each hive and they should be kept filled4 ,others again bray dried grapes and figs together and1 mixing in some boiled must1 make a paste of which bits are exposed near the hives during such part of the winter as the bees are still able to go forth in search of food4 ,when a swarm is about to come out of the hive 7which happens when a number of young bees have matured1 and the hive determines to send their youth out to found a colony1 as formerly the ,sabines often were compelled to do on account of the number of their children7#bag there are two signs by which the intention may be known3 one that for several days before hand1 and especially in the evening1 many bees weave themselves together and hang upon the entrance of the hive like grapes3 the other that when they are about to go forth or have already begun to go they buzz together lustily1 as soldiers do when they break camp4 ,those who have come forth first fly about the hive waiting for the others1 who have not yet collected1 to join them4 ,when the bee keeper notices this he has only to throw dust on them and at the same time beat upon some copper vessel to collect them1 thoroughly frightened1 where he desires in some nearby place on which he has smeared erithacen and bees' balm and other things in which they delight4 ,when they have settled down he should place near them a hive smeared within with the same baits1 and then1 by blowing a light smoke around them1 compel them to enter the hive4 ,when thus introduced into their new abode the swarm makes itself at home cheerfully1 so that even if placed next to the parent hive they will prefer their new colonial settlement4 ,and now1 having told you all ,i know about the care of bees1 ,i will speak of that for which the industry is carried on1 that is to say1 of the profit4 ,the honey is taken off when the hive is full1 as may be determined by removing the cover of the hive1 for if the openings of the combs are seen to be sealed1 as it were with a skin1 then the hive is full of honey3 but the bees themselves give notice of this condition by keeping up a loud buzzing within1 by their agitation when they go in and out and by driving out the drones4 ,in taking off honey some say that you should be content with nine parts1 leaving the tenth1 because if you take it all the bees will desert the hive3 others leave a still larger proportion than ,i have mentioned4 ,as those who crop their corn land every year obtain good yields only at intervals1 so it is with bee hives3 you will have more industrious and more profitable bees if you do not exact of them the same tribute every year4 ,it is considered that honey should be taken off for the first time at the rising of the ,pleiades1 for the second time at the end of summer before ,arcturus has reached the zenith1 and for the third time after the setting of the ,pleiades1 but this last time beware not to take more than one-third of the store even if the hive is full1 leaving the other two-thirds for the winter supply1 but if the hive is only partially filled nothing should be taken off4 ,in any event1 when a large amount of honey is to be taken off a hive it should not be done all at once or ostentatiously less the bees be discouraged4 ,those combs which1 on being taken off1 are found to be partly unfilled with honey or to be soiled1 should be pared with a knife4 ,care must be taken that the weaker bees in a hive are not oppressed by the stronger1 for this diminishes the profit3 to this end the minority party#bah may be colonized under another king4 ,when bees are given to fighting with one another1 you should sprinkle them with honey water1 upon which they will not only cease fighting but will crowd together and kiss one another3 and this will prove the case even more if they are sprinkled with mead1 for the savour of the wine in it will cause them to apply themselves so greedily that they will fuddle themselves in sucking it4 ,if the bees seem lazy about coming out to work and any part of them get the habit of remaining in the hive1 they should be fumigated and odoriferous herbs1 like bees' balm and thyme1 should be placed near the hive4 ,watchful care is necessary to protect them from ruin by heat or cold4 ,if the bees are overtaken by a sudden rain or cold while at pasture 7which rarely happens for they usually foresee such things7 and are stricken down by the heavy rain drops and laid low and stunned1 you should gather them in a dish and place them under cover in a warm place until the weather has cleared1 when they should be sprinkled with ashes of fig wood 7making sure that the ashes are rather hot than warm7 the dish should then be shaken gently without touching the bees with your hand1 and placed in the sun4 ,when the bees feel this warmth they revive and get on their feet again1 just as flies do after they have been apparently drowned4 ,this should be done near the hive so that when the bees have come to themselves they may return home and to work4 ,of fish ponds ,,xvii4 ,here ,pavo returned and said3 ,you may weigh anchor now if you wish4 ,the drawing of the lots of the tribes to determine a tie vote is over and the herald is announcing the result of the election4 ,appius arose without delay and went to congratulate his candidate1 and escort him home4 ,merula said3 ,i will leave the third act of our drama of the husbandry of the steading to you1 ,axius1 and went out with the others1 leaving ,axius with me to wait for our candidate whom we knew would come to join us4 ,axius said to me3 ,i do not regret ,merula's departure at this point1 for ,i am quite well up on the subject of fish ponds1 which still remains to complete our programme4 ,there are two kinds of fish ponds1 of fresh water and salt water4 ,the former are commonly maintained by farmers and without much expense1 for the ,lymphae1 the homely goddesses of the ,fountains1 supply the water for them1 while the latter1 the sea ponds1 are the play things of our nobles and are furnished with both water and fishes1 as it were by ,neptune himself3 serving more the purposes of pleasure than of utility1 their accomplishment being rather to empty than to fill the exchequers of their lords4 ,for in the first place they are built at great expense1 then they are stocked at great expense1 and finally they are maintained at great expense4 ,hirrus was wont to derive an income of twelve thousand sesterces from the buildings surrounding his fish ponds1 all of which he spent for food for his fishes3 and no wonder1 for ,i remember that on one occasion he lent two thousand murenae to ,caesar#bai by weight 7stipulating for their return in kind71 so that his villa 7which was not otherwise extraordinary7 sold for four million sesterces on account of the stock of fish4 ,in sooth1 the inland ponds of our farmer folk may well be called dulcis1 and those other amara4#bbj ,a single fish pond suffices us simple folk1 but those amateurs must have a series of them linked together3 for as ,pausias and other painters of his school have boxes with as many compartments as they have different coloured wax1 so must they fain have as many ponds as they have different varieties of fish4 ,these fish are furthermore sacred1 more sacred1 indeed1 than those fish which you1 ,varro1 say you saw in ,lydia1 7at the same time that you saw the dancing isles7#bba which came to the shore1 where the altar was erected for a sacrifice1 in shoals at the sound of the ,greek pipe1 because no one ever ventured to molest them2 so no cook has ever been known to have 'sauced' one of these fishes4#bbb ,when our friend ,hortensius had those fish ponds at ,baulii1 which represented so large an investment1 he was wont to send to ,puteoli to buy the fish he served on his table1 as ,i have often seen when ,i was visiting him4 ,and it was not enough that his fishes did not supply his table1 but he was at pains to supply theirs1 taking greater precautions lest his mullets 7mulli7 should go hungry than ,i do for my mules in ,rosea1 and it was not at less cost that he supplied meat and drink to his stock than ,i do to mine4 ,for ,i raise my asses1 which bring such fancy prices1 at the cost of one servant1 a little barley and the water which springs from my land1 while ,hortensius must needs maintain a fleet of fishermen to keep him supplied with small fry to feed to his fish1 or1 when the sea runs high and such deep sea forage is cut off by a storm1 and it is not possible even to draw live bait ashore in a net1 he is fain to buy in the market for the delectation of the denizens of his ponds the very salt fish which is the food of the people4 ,doubtless1 said ,i1 ,hortensius would prefer to have you take the carriage mules out of his stable than one of his barbel mules from the fish pond4 ,yes1 indeed1 agreed ,axius1 and he would rather have a sick slave drink cold water than that his beloved fish should be risked in that which is fresh4 ,on the other hand1 ,m4 ,lucullus was reputed to be so careless and neglectful of his fish ponds that he did not provide any suitable quarters for his fishes in hot weather1 but permitted them to remain in ponds which were unhealthy with stagnant water3 a practice very different from that of his brother ,l4 ,lucullus1 who yielded nothing to ,neptune himself in his care of his fishes1 for he pierced a mountain at ,naples1 and so contrived that the sea water in his fish ponds should be renewed by the action of the tides4 ,furthermore1 he has arranged that his beloved fishes may be driven into a cool place during the heat of the day1 just as the ,apulian shepherds do when they drive their flocks along the drift ways to the ,sabine mountains3 for so great was his ardour for the welfare of his fishes that he gave a commission to his architect to drive at his sole cost a tunnel from his fish ponds at ,raise to the sea1 and by throwing out a mole contrived that the tide should flow in and out of his fish ponds twice a day1 from moon to moon1 and so cool them off4 ,at this moment1 while we were talking1 there was a sound of foot steps on the right and our candidate came into the villa publica arrayed in the broad purple of his new rank as an aedile4 ,we went to meet him and1 after congratulations1 escorted him to the ,capitol1 whence he departed for his home and we to ours4 ,so there1 my dear ,pinnius1 is the brief record of our discourse on the husbandry of the steading4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,the manner in which the ancients managed their fallow is certainly most worthy of our attention3 their care in ploughing1 according to the situation of the land1 and nature of the climate1 and their manner of adapting the kind of ploughing to answer the purposes intended by the operation1 are also most worthy of our imitation4 ,their exactness in these things exceeds any thing of the kind found amongst the moderns1 and is even beyond what any practical writer on agriculture has proposed4 ,this is an evidence that tillage is not even in this age brought to that perfection of which it is capable3 and that1 notwithstanding all the improvements lately introduced1 we may yet receive some instruction from a proper attention to the precepts and practices of the ancients4 ,i am desirous to add that this attention may be useful by preventing improvers from running into every specious scheme of agriculture produced by a lively imagination and engaging them to study the great variety of soils and even climates in this island1 and to be careful in adapting to these their several operations4 ,dickson ,husbandry of the ,ancients1 ,,xxiii4 ,the ,rev4 ,andrew ,dickson1 who died in #aggf1 was minister of ,aberlady in the county of ,east ,lothian1 the son of a progressive and successful ,scots farmer1 and had experience in practical agriculture1 as well as in scholarship1 as his book shows4 ,footnote #b3 ,the compilation of rural lore1 known as the ,geoponica1 which exists in ,greek1 was made at ,byzantium for the ,emperor ,constantine ,,vii about the middle of the tenth century ,a4,d4 ,it is very largely a paraphrase of the ,roman authors1 and is useful principally in elucidating their textual difficulties4 ,footnote #c3 ,donald ,g4 ,mitchell made an interesting collation1 in his ,wet ,days at ,edgewood1 of the large number of books on agriculture which have been written in old age and by men of affairs1 in many lands and many languages4 ,footnote #d3 ,it is interesting to record1 however1 that ,varro received the ,navalis ,corona for personal gallantry in the war against the pirates4 ,this distinction was even more rare than our modern ,medal of ,honor or ,victoria ,cross1 and was awarded only to a commander who leapt under arms on the deck of an enemies' ship and then succeeded in capturing her4 ,footnote #e3 ,caesar did not live to accomplish this1 but some years after his death a public library was established at ,rome by ,asinius ,pollio1 which ,pliny says 7,h4,n4 ,,vii1 #ca7 was the first ever built1 those at ,alexandria and ,pergamus having been private institutions of the kings4 ,in a land where public libraries have been every where founded out of the accumulations of ,big ,business1 it is interesting to note that ,pollio derived the funds with which this the first of their kind was endowed1 from the plunder of the ,illyrians6 ,footnote #f3 ,cf4 ,sellar1 ,roman ,poets of the ,augustan ,age4 ,virgil ,ch4 ,v4 ,boissier1 ,etudes sur ,m4,t4 ,varron1 ,ch4 ,,ix4 ,servius ,comm4 in ,verg4 ,georg4 ,i1 #dc4 ,it does not appear that many of the commentators on ,virgil have taken the trouble to study ,varro thoroughly4 ,they are usually better scholars than farmers4 ,footnote #g3 ,it is not remarkable that ,virgil failed to make acknowledgment to ,varro in the ,georgics when he failed to make acknowledgment to ,homer in the ,aeneid4 ,see ,petrarch's ,epistle to ,homer for a loyal but vain attempt to justify this neglect4 ,footnote #h3 ,cf4 ,w4,h4 ,myers' ,classical ,essays1 p4 #aaj3 ,for in the face of some ,german criticism it is necessary to repeat that in order to judge poetry it is1 before all things1 necessary to enjoy it4 ,we may all desire that historical and philological science should push her dominion into every recess of human action and human speech1 but we must utter some protest when the very heights of ,parnassus are invaded by a spirit which surely is not science1 but her unmeaning shadow2 a spirit which would degrade every masterpiece of human genius into the mere pabulum of hungry professors1 and which values a poet's text only as a field for the rivalries of sterile pedantry and arbitrary conjecture4 ,footnote #i3 ,it was perhaps this encomium upon the farmer at the expense of the banker which inspired ,horace's friend ,alfius to withdraw his capital from his banking business and dream a delicious idyl of a simple carefree country life3 but1 it will be recalled 7,epode ,,ii1 the famous ,beatus ille qui procul negotiis7 that ,alfius1 like many a modern amateur farmer1 recruited from town1 soon repented that he had ever listened to the alluring call of back to the land and after a few weeks of disillusion in the country1 returned to town and sought to get his money out again at usury4 ,columella 7,i1 praef47 is not content with ,cato's contrast of the virtue of the farmer with the iniquity of the banker1 but he brings in the lawyer's profession for animadversion also4 ,this1 he says1 the ancient ,romans used to term a canine profession1 because it consisted in barking at the rich4 ,footnote #aj3 ,the ,roman numerals at the beginning of the paragraphs indicate the chapters of ,cato from which they are translated4 ,if ,cato had not pretended to despise every thing which smacked of ,greek literary art he might have edited and arranged his material1 in which event his book would have been easier to read than it is1 and no less valuable4 ,modern scholarship would not now venture to perform such an office for such a result1 because it involves tampering with a text 7as who should say1 shooting a fox67 and yet modern scholarship wonders at the decay of classical studies in an impatient age4 ,at the risk of anathema the present version has attempted to group ,cato's material1 and in so doing has omitted most of those portions which are now of merely curious interest4 ,footnote #aa3 ,this1 of course1 means buying at a high price1 except in extraordinary cases4 ,there is another system of agriculture which admits of the pride of making two blades of grass grow where none was before1 and the profit which comes of buying cheap and selling dear4 ,this is farming for improvement1 an art which was well described two hundred years before ,cato4 ,xenophon 7,economicus ,,xx1 #bb7 says3 ,for those who are able to attend to their affairs1 however1 and who will apply themselves to agriculture earnestly1 my lather both practised himself and taught me a most successful method of making profit2 for he would never allow me to buy ground already cultivated1 but exhorted me to purchase such as from want of care or want of means in those who had possessed it1 was left untilled and unplanted4 ,he used to say that well cultivated land cost a great sum of money and admitted of no improvement1 and he considered that land which is unsusceptible of improvement did not give the same pleasure to the owner as other land1 but he thought that whatever a person had or bought up that was continually growing better afforded him the highest gratification4 ,footnote #ab3 ,every rural community in the ,eastern part of the ,united ,states has grown familiar with the contrast between the intelligent amateur1 who1 while endeavoring earnestly to set an example of good agriculture1 fails to make expenses out of his land1 and the born farmer who is self-supporting in the practice of methods contemned by the agricultural colleges4 ,too often the conclusion is drawn that scientific agriculture will not pay2 but ,cato puts his finger on the true reason4 ,the man who does not depend on his land for his living too often permits his farm to get what ,cato calls the spending habit4 ,pliny 7,h4,n4 ,,xviii1 #g7 makes some pertinent observations on the subject3 ,i may possibly appear guilty of some degree of rashness in making mention of a maxim of the ancients which will very probably be looked upon as quite incredible1 'that nothing is so disadvantageous as to cultivate land in the highest style of perfection4' ,and he illustrates by the example of a ,roman gentleman1 who1 like ,arthur ,young in eighteenth century ,england1 wasted a large fortune in an attempt to bring his lands to perfect cultivation4 ,to cultivate land well is absolutely necessary1 ,pliny continues1 but to cultivate it in the very highest style is mere extravagance1 unless1 indeed1 the work is done by the hands of a man's own family1 his tenants1 or those whom he is obliged to keep at any rate4 ,footnote #ac3 ,in this practice has been the delight of men of affairs of all ages who turn to agriculture for relaxation4 ,horace cites it with telling effect in the ode 7,,iii1 #e7 in which he describes the noble serenity of mind with which ,regulus returned to the torture and certain death which awaited him at ,carthage3 and ,homer makes an enduring picture of it in the person of the ,king supervising his fall ploughing1 which ,hephsestus wrought upon the shield of ,achilles 7,iliad1 ,,xviii1 #edj74 ,furthermore1 he set in the shield a soft fresh ploughed field1 rich tilth and wide1 the third time ploughed1 and many ploughers therein drove their yokes to and fro as they wheeled about4 ,whensoever they came to the boundary of the field and turned1 then would a man come to each and give into his hands a goblet of sweet wine3 while others would be turning back along the furrows1 fain to reach the boundary of the deep tilth1 444 and among them the ,king was standing in silence1 with his staff1 rejoicing in his heart4 ,footnote #ad3 ,this advice to sell the worn out oxen and the sick slaves justly excited ,plutarch's generous scorn1 and has been made the text of a sweeping denunciation by ,mommsen of the practice of husbandry by men of affairs in ,cato's time4 ,the whole system1 says ,mommsen1 was pervaded by the utterly unscrupulous spirit characteristic of the power of capital4 ,and he adds1 ,if we have risen to that little-to-be-envied elevation of thought which values no feature of an economy save the capital invested in it1 we cannot deny to the management of the ,roman estates the praise of consistency1 energy1 punctuality1 frugality and solidity4 ,without any desire to defend ,cato1 one may suggest1 out of an experience in a kind of farm management not very different from that ,cato pictures1 that it is doubtful whether even ,cato himself was quite as economical and efficient1 and so as capitalistic in his farming1 as he advises others to be3 certainly a whole race of contemporary country gentlemen was not equal to it4 ,it is much easier to write about business-like farming than to practise it4 ,footnote #ae3 ,hesiod 7,w4 ,d4 #cch7 had already given this same advice to the ,greek farmer3 ,invite the man that loves thee to a feast1 but let alone thine enemy1 and especially invite him that dwelleth near thee1 for if1 mark you1 any thing untoward shall have happened at home neighbours are wont to come ungirt1 but kinsfolk gird themselves first4 ,this agreement of the ,socialist ,hesiod with the ,capitalist ,cato is remarkable only as it illustrates that both systems when wisely expounded rest on human nature4 ,that upon which they here agree is the foundation of the modern ,european societies for rural co-operative credit which ,president ,taft recommended to the ,american people4 ,these societies1 says the bulletin of the ,international ,institute of ,agriculture published at ,rome in #aiab1 rest on three chief safeguards3 7a7 ,that membership is confined to persons residing within a small district1 and1 therefore1 the members are personally known to one another2 7b7 ,that the members1 being mutually responsible1 it will be to the interest of all members to keep an eye upon a borrower and to see that he makes proper use of the money lent to him2 7c7 ,that in like manner1 it is to the interest of all members to help a member when he is in difficulties4 ,footnote #af3 ,this was an estate of average size1 probably within ,virgil's precept1 7,georgic ,,ii1 #dab74 ,laudato ingentia rura1 exiguum colito4 ,some scholars have deemed this phrase a quotation from ,cato1 but it is more likely derived from ,mago the ,carthaginian who is reported to have said3 ,imbecilliorem agrum quam agricolam1 esse debere1--the farmer should be bigger than his farm4 ,footnote #ag3 ,the philosophy of ,cato's plan1 of laying out a farm is found in the agricultural history of the ,romans down to the time of the ,punic wars4 ,mommsen 7,,ii1 #cgj7 gives the facts1 and ,ferrero in his first volume makes brilliant use of them4 ,there is sketched the old peasant aristocrat living on his few acres1 his decay and the creation of comparatively large estates worked by slaves in charge of overseers1 which followed the conquest of the ,italian states about ,b4,c4 #cjj4 ,this was the civilization in which ,cato had been reared1 but in his time another important change was taking place4 ,the ,roman frontier was again widened by the conquest of the ,mediterranean basin3 the acquisition of ,sicily and ,sardinia ended breadstuff farming as the staple on the ,italian peninsular4 ,the competition of the broad and fertile acres of those great ,islands had the effect in ,italy which the cultivation of the ,dakota wheat lands had upon the grain farming of ,new ,york and ,virginia4 ,about #aej ,b4,c4 the vine and the olive became the staples of ,italy and corn was superseded4 ,although this was not accomplished until after ,cato's death1 he foresaw it1 and recommended that a farm be laid out accordingly1 and his scheme of putting one's reliance upon the vine and the olive was doubtless very advanced doctrine1 when it first found expression4 ,footnote #ah3 ,pliny quotes ,cato as advising to buy what others have built rather than build oneself1 and thus1 as he says1 enjoy the fruits of another's folly4 ,the cacoethes aedificandi is a familiar disease among country gentlemen4 ,footnote #ai3 ,columella 7,i1#d7 makes the acute observation that the country house should also be agreeable to the owner's wife if he wishes to get the full measure of enjoyment out of it4 ,mago1 the ,carthaginian1 advised to1 if you buy a farm1 sell your house in town1 lest you be tempted to prefer the cultivation of the urban gods to those of the country4 ,footnote #bj3 ,according to ,german scholarship the accepted text of ,cato's version of this immemorial epigram is a model of the brevity which is the test of wit1 ,frons occipitio prior est4 ,pliny probably quoting from memory1 expands it to ,frons domini plus prodest quam occpitum4 ,palladius 7,i1 #f7 gives another version3 ,praesentia domini provectus est agri4 ,it is found in some form in almost every book on agriculture since ,cato1 until we reach the literature in which science has taken the place of wisdom--in the ,byzantine ,geoponica1 the ,italian ,crescenzi1 the ,dutch ,heresbach1 the ,french ,maison ,rustique1 and the ,english ,gervase ,markkam4 ,poor ,richard's ,almanack gives it twice1 as the foot of a master is the best manure and the eye of a master will do more work than both his hands4 ,it is perennial in its appeal4 ,the present editor saw it recently in the ,german comic paper ,fliegende ,bltter4 ,but the jest is much older than ,cato4 ,it appears in ,aeschylus1 ,persae1 #aga and ,xenophon employs it in ,oeconomicus 7,,xii1 #bj73 ,the reply attributed to the barbarian1 added ,ischomachus1 appears to me to be exceedingly to the purpose1 for when the ,king of ,persia having met with a fine horse and wishing to have it fattened as soon as possible1 asked one of those who were considered knowing about horses what would fatten a horse soonest1 it is said that he answered 'the master's eye4' ,footnote #ba3 ,the ,english word orchard scarcely translates arbustum1 but every one who has been in ,italy will recall the endless procession of small fields of maize and rye and alfalfa through which serried ranks of mulberry or feathery elm trees1 linked with the charming drop and garland of the vines1 seem to dance toward one in the brilliant sunlight1 like so many ,greek maidens on a frieze4 ,these are arbusta4 ,footnote #bb3 ,cato was a strong advocate of the cabbage2 he called it the best of the vegetables and urged that it be planted in every garden for health and happiness4 ,horace records 7,odes4 ,,iii1 #ba1 #aa7 that old ,cato's virtue was frequently warmed with wine1 and ,cato himself explains 7,,clvi7 how this could be accomplished without loss of dignity1 for1 he says1 if1 after you have dined well1 you will eat five cabbage leaves they will make you feel as if you had had nothing to drink1 so that you can drink as much more as you wish--bibesque quantum voles6 ,this was an ancient ,egyptian precaution which the ,greeks had learned4 ,cf4 ,athenaeus1 ,i1 #fb4 ,footnote #bc3 ,henry ,home1 ,lord ,kames1 a ,scots judge of the eighteenth century1 whom ,dr4 ,johnson considered a better farmer than judge and a better judge than scholar1 but who had many of the characteristics of our priscus ,cato1 argues 7following an ,english tradition which had previously been voiced by ,walter of ,henley and ,sir ,anthony ,fitzherbert7 in his ingenious ,gentleman ,farmer against the expense of ploughing with horses and urges a return to oxen4 ,he points out that horses involve a large original investment1 are worn out in farm work1 and after their prime steadily depreciate in value2 while1 on the other hand1 the ox can be fattened for market when his usefulness as a draught animal is over1 and then sell for more than his original cost2 that he is less subject to infirmities than the horse2 can be fed per tractive unit more economically and gives more valuable manure4 ,these are strong arguments where the cost of human labour is small and economical farm management does not require that the time of the ploughman shall be limited if the unit cost of ploughing is to be reasonable4 ,the ox is slow1 but in slave times he might reasonably have been preferred to the horse4 ,today ,lord ,kames1 7or even old ,hesiod1 who urged that a ploughman of forty year and a yoke of eight year steers be employed because they turned a more deliberate and so a better furrow7 would be considering the economical practicability of the gasolene motor as tractive power for a gang of crooked ploughs4 ,footnote #bd3 ,cato adds a long list of implements and other necessary equipment4 ,footnote #be3 ,the ,roman overseer was usually a superior1 and often a much indulged1 slave4 ,cf4 ,horace's letter 7,epist4 ,i1 #ad7 to his overseer4 ,footnote #bf3 ,this was the traditional wisdom which was preached also in ,virginia in slave times4 ,in his ,arator 7#ahag7 ,col4 ,john ,taylor of ,caroline says of agricultural slaves3 ,the best source for securing their happiness1 their honesty and their usefulness is their food4444 ,one great value of establishing a comfortable diet for slaves is its convenience as an instrument of reward and punishment1 so powerful as almost to abolish the thefts which often diminish considerably the owner's ability to provide for them4 ,footnote #bg3 ,reading compitalibus in compito1 literally the cross roads altar on festival days4 ,footnote #bh3 ,it is evident that ,cato's housekeeper would have welcomed a visit from ,mr4 ,roosevelt's ,rural ,uplift ,commission4 ,we may add to this ,sir ,anthony ,fitzherbert's description of the duties of a farmer's wife in sixteenth century ,england3 ,it is a wyues occupation to wynowe all maner of cornes1 to make malte1 to wasshe and wrynge1 to make heye1 shere corne1 and in tyme of nede to helpe her husbande to fyll the mucke-wayne or dounge-carte1 dryue the ploughe1 to loode hey1 corne and suche other4 ,and to go or ride to the market1 to sel butter1 chese1 mylke1 egges1 chekyns1 capons1 hennes1 pygges1 gese1 and all maner of cornes4 ,and also to bye all maner of necessarye thynges belongynge to houssholde1 and to make a trewe rekenynge and acompte to her husbande what she hath payed4 ,sir ,anthony ,fitzherbert 7#adgj-aech7 was the ,english judge whose law books are1 or should be1 known to all lawyers4 ,his ,boke of ,husbandry1 published in #aecd1 is one of the classics of ,english agriculture1 and justly1 for it is full of shrewd observation and deliberate wisdom expressed in a virile style1 with agreeable leaven of piety and humour4 ,fitzherbert anticipated a modern poet1 ,henley1 in one of his most happy phrases3 ,ryght so euery man is capitayne of his owne soule4 ,the ,husbandry is best available to the modern reader in the edition by ,skeat published for the ,english ,dialect ,society in #ahhb4 ,footnote #bi3 ,cato is careful not to undertake to say how this may be assured2 another evidence of his wisdom4 ,footnote #cj3 ,in his instructive discourse on ploughing1 ,columella 7,,ii1 #d7 gives the key to ,cato's warning against ploughing land when it is in the condition he calls rotten 7cariosa73 ,rich land1 which holds moisture a long time1 should be broken up 7proscindere7 at the season when the weather is beginning to be warm and the weeds are developing1 so that none of their seed may mature3 but it should be ploughed with such close furrows that one can with difficulty distinguish where the plough share has been1 for in that way all the weeds are uprooted and destroyed4 ,the spring ploughing should be followed up with frequent stirring of the soil until it is reduced to dust1 so that there may be no necessity1 or very little1 of harrowing after the land is seeded3 for the ancient ,romans said that a field was badly ploughed which had to be harrowed after the seed had been sown4 ,a farmer should himself make sure that his ploughing has been well done1 not alone by inspection1 for the eye is often amused by a smooth surface which in fact conceals clods1 but also by experiment1 which is less likely to be deceived1 as by driving a stout stick through the furrows3 if it penetrates the soil readily and without obstruction1 it will be evident that all the land there about is in good order3 but if some part harder than the rest resists the pressure1 it will be clear that the ploughing has been badly done4 ,when the ploughmen see this done from time to time they are not guilty of clod hopping4 ,hence wet land should be broken up after the ,ides of ,april1 and1 when it has been ploughed at that season1 it should be worked again1 after an interval of twenty days1 about the time of the solstice1 which is the eighth or ninth day before the ,kalends of ,july1 and again the third time about the ,kalends of ,september1 for it is not the practice of experienced farmers to till the land in the interval after the summer solstice1 unless the ground shall have been soaked with a heavy down-pour of sudden rain1 like those of winter1 as does some times happen at this season4 ,in that event there is no reason why the fallow should not be cultivated during the month of ,july4 ,but when you do till at this season beware lest the land be worked while it is muddy3 or when1 having been sprinkled by a shower1 it is in the condition which the country people call varia and cariosa1 that is to say1 when1 after a long drought1 a light rain has moistened the surface of the upturned sod but has not soaked to the bottom of the furrow4 ,those plough lands which are cultivated when they are miry are rendered useless for an entire year--they can be neither seeded nor harrowed nor hoed--but those which are worked when they are in the state which has been described as varia1 remain sterile for three years on end4 ,we should1 therefore1 follow a medium course and plough when the land neither lacks moisture nor yet is deep in marsh4 ,footnote #ca3 ,columella 7,,ii1 #ac7 justly says about manure1 ,wherefore if it is1 as it would seem to be1 the thing of the greatest value to the farmer1 ,i consider that it should be studied with the greatest care1 especially since the ancient authors1 while they have not altogether neglected it1 have nevertheless discussed it with too little elaboration4 ,he goes on 7,,ii1 #ad7 to lay down rules about the compost heap which should be written in letters of gold in every farm house4 ,i appreciate that there are certain kinds of farms on which it is impossible to keep either live stock or birds1 yet even in such places it is a lazy farmer who lacks manure3 for he can collect leaves1 rubbish from the hedge rows1 and droppings from the high ways3 without giving offence1 and indeed earning gratitude1 he can cut ferns from his neighbour's land3 and all these things he can mingle with the sweepings of the courtyard3 he can dig a pit1 like that we have counselled for the protection of stable manure1 and there mix together ashes1 sewage1 and straw1 and indeed every waste thing which is swept up on the place4 ,but it is wise to bury a piece of oak wood in the midst of this compost1 for that will prevent venomous snakes from lurking in it4 ,this will suffice for a farm without live stock4 ,one can see in ,flanders today the happy land smiling its appreciation of farm management such as this1 but what ,american farmer has yet learned this kind of conservation of his natural resources4 ,footnote #cb3 ,the occupants of the motor cars which now roll so swiftly and so comfortably along the ,french national highway from ,paris to ,tours1 through the pleasant pays de ,beauce1 can see this admirable and economical method of manuring still in practice4 ,the sheep are folded and fed at night1 under the watchful eye of the shepherd stretched at ease in his wheeled cabin1 on the land which was ploughed the day before4 ,footnote #cc3 ,these of course are all legumes4 ,the intelligent farmer today sits under his shade tree and meditates comfortably upon the least expensive and most profitable labour on his farm1 the countless millions of beneficent bacteria who1 his willing slaves1 are ceaselessly at work during hot weather forming root tubercles on his legumes1 be it clover or cow peas1 and so fixing for their lord the free atmospheric nitrogen contained in the soil4 ,as ,macaulay would say1 every school boy knows now that leguminous root nodules are endotrophic mycorrhiza1--but the ,romans did not6 ,nevertheless their empirical practice of soil improvement with legumes was quite as good as ours4 ,varro 7,i1 #bc7 explains the ,roman method of green manuring more fully than ,cato4 ,columella 7,,ii1 #ac7 insists further that if the hay is saved the stubble of legumes should be promptly ploughed for he says the roots will evaporate their own moisture and continue to pump the land of its fertility unless they are at once turned over4 ,if the ,romans followed this wise advice they were better farmers than most of us today1 for we are usually content to let the stubble dry out before ploughing4 ,footnote #cd3 ,was this ensilage8 ,the ancients had their silo pits1 but they used them chiefly as granaries1 and as such they are described1 by ,varro 7,i1 #eg1 #fc71 by ,columella 7,i1 #f71 and by ,pliny 7,,xviii1 #cj1 #gc74 ,footnote #ce3 ,the extravagant ,american farmer has not yet learned to feed the leaves of trees1 but in older and more economical civilizations the practice is still observed4 ,footnote #cf3 ,amurca was the dregs of olive oil4 ,cato recommends its use for many purposes in the economy of the farm1 for a moth proof 7,,xcviii71 as a relish for cattle 7,,ciii71 as a fertilizer 7,,cxxx71 and as an anointment for the threshing floor to kill weevil 7,,xci74 ,footnote #cg3 ,there is a similar remedy for scratches in horses1 which is traditional in the cavalry service today1 and is extraordinarily efficacious4 ,footnote #ch3 ,cf4 ,pliny ,h4,n4 ,,xvii1 #bfg and ,fraser1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,,xi1 #agg4 ,the principle is one of magical homeopathy3 as the split reed1 when bound together1 may cohere and heal by the medicine of the incantation1 so may the broken bone4 ,footnote #ci3 ,these examples will serve to illustrate how far ,cato's veterinary science was behind his agriculture1 and what a curious confusion of native good sense and traditional superstition there was in his method of caring for his live stock4 ,on questions of preventing malady he had the wisdom of experience1 but malady once arrived he was a simple pagan4 ,there was a notable advance in the ,roman knowledge of how to treat sick cattle in the century after ,cato4 ,cf4 ,varro1 ,,ii1 #e4 ,the words of the incantations themselves are mere sound and fury signifying nothing1 like the counting out rhythms used by children at their games4 ,footnote #dj3 ,cato gives many recipes of household as well as agricultural economy4 ,out of respect for the pure food law most of them have been here suppressed1 but these samples are ventured because ,varro mentions them and the editor is advised that some enterprising young ladies in ,wisconsin have recently had the courage to put them to the test1 and vow that they ate their handiwork6 ,as they live to tell the tale1 it is assumed that the recipes are harmless4 ,footnote #da3 ,cf4 the following traditional formula as practised in ,virginia3 ,a ,,virginia ,,recipe ,,for ,,curing ,,hams ,rub each ham separately with teaspoonful of saltpetre 7use a small spoon72 then rub each ham with a large tablespoonfulof best black pepper2 then rub each ham with a gill of molasses 7black strap is best74 ,then for #a1jjj lbs4 of ham take #c-a_/d pecks of coarse salt1 #b-a_/b lbs4 of saltpetre1 #b qts4 hickory ashes1 #b qts4 molasses1 #b teacupfuls of red pepper4 ,mix all together on the salting table4 ,then rub each ham with this mixture1 and1 in packing1 spread some of it on each layer of ham4 ,use no more salt than has been mixed4 ,pack skin down and let stand for five weeks1 then hang in the smoke house for five or six weeks1 and smoke in damp weather1 using hickory wood4 ,as a ham1 however well cured1 is of no use to civilized man until it is cooked1 and as this crowning mystery is seldom revealed out of ,virginia1 it may not be out of place to record here the process4 ,a ,,virginia ,,recipe ,,for ,,cooking ,,hams ,soak over night in cold water1 having first scrubbed the ham with a small brush to remove all the pepper1 saltpetre1 etc41 left from the curing process4 ,put on to boil next morning in tepid water1 skin downwards1 letting it simmer on back of stove1 never to boil hard4 ,this takes about four hours 7or until it is done1 when the ham is supposed to turn over1 skin upwards1 of its own accord1 as it will if the boiler is large enough74 ,set aside over another night in the water it has boiled in4 ,the following day1 skin and bake in the oven1 having covered the ham well with brown sugar1 basting at intervals with cider4 ,when it is well baked1 take it out of the oven and baste another ten to twenty minutes in the pan on top of the stove4 ,the sugar crust should be quite brown and crisp when done4 ,to be thoroughly appreciated a ham should be carved on the table1 by a pretty woman4 ,a thick slice of ham is a crime against good breeding4 ,footnote #db3 ,it is interesting that ,varro has realized the hope1 here expressed1 that his wisdom might survive for the benefit of the uttermost generations of men chiefly in the case of this treatise on ,husbandry among the many monuments of his industry and learning4 ,petrarch in his ,epistle to ,varro in that first delightful book of ,letters to ,dead ,authors 7de rebus familiaribus ,,xxiv1 #f7 rehearses the loss of ,varro's books and1 adapting the thought here expressed in the text1 regrets for that reason that ,varro cannot be included in that company of men whom we love even after their death owing to the good and righteous deeds that live after them1 men who mold our character by their teaching and comfort us by their example1 when the rest of mankind offends both our eyes and our nostrils2 men who1 though they have gone hence to the common abode of all 7as ,plautus says in ,casina71 nevertheless continue to be of service to the living4 ,if ,petrarch had been a farmer he might have saved some of his regret1 for ,varro is surely1 by virtue of the ,rerum ,rusticarum1 a member of the fellowship ,petrarch describes4 ,footnote #dc3 ,varro was essentially an antiquary and it is amusing to observe that he is unable to suppress his learning even in his prayers4 ,one is reminded of the anecdote of the ,new ,england minister1 who1 in the course of an unctuous prayer1 proclaimed1 with magisterial authority1 ,paradoxical as it may appear1 ,o ,lord1 it is nevertheless true1 etc4 ,footnote #dd3 ,following ,plato and ,xenophon and ,cicero1 ,varro cast his books into the form of dialogues to make them entertaining 7and what is the use of a book1 thought ,alice in ,wonderland1 without pictures or conversations473 for the same reason he was careful about his local colour4 ,thus the scene of this first book1 which relates to agriculture proper1 is laid at ,rome in the temple of ,earth on the festival of the ,seed ,sowing1 and the characters bear names of punning reference to the tilling of the soil4 ,varro was strong on puns1 avowing 7,cicero ,acad4 ,i1 #b7 that that form of humour made it easier for people of small intelligence to swallow his learning4 ,footnote #de3 ,the story is that when ,scipio captured ,carthage he distributed the ,punic libraries among the native allies1 reserving only the agricultural works of ,mago1 which the ,roman ,senate subsequently ordered to be translated into ,latin1 so highly were they esteemed4 ,probably more real wealth was brought to ,rome in the pages of these precious volumes than was represented by all the other plunder of ,carthage4 ,the improving a kingdom in matter of husbandry is better than conquering a new kingdom1 says old ,samuel ,hartlib1 ,milton's friend1 in his ,legacie4 ,it is a curious fact that as the ,romans derived agricultural wisdom from their ancient enemies1 so did the ,english4 ,cf4 ,thorold ,rogers' ,six ,centuries of ,work and ,wages4 ,we owe the improvements in ,english agriculture to ,holland4 ,from this country we borrowed1 at the beginning of the seventeenth century1 the cultivation of winter roots1 and1 at that of the eighteenth1 the artificial grasses4 ,the ,dutch had practised agriculture with the patient and minute industry of market gardeners4 ,they had tried successfully to cultivate every thing to the uttermost1 which could be used for human food1 or could give innocent gratification to a refined taste4 ,they taught agriculture and they taught gardening4 ,they were the first people to surround their homesteads with flower beds1 with groves1 with trim parterres1 with the finest turf1 to improve fruit trees1 to seek out and perfect edible roots and herbs at once for man and cattle4 ,we owe to the ,dutch that scurvy and leprosy have been banished from ,england1 that continuous crops have taken the place of barren fallows1 that the true rotation of crops has been discovered and perfected1 that the population of these islands has been increased and that the cattle and sheep in ,england are ten times what they were in numbers and three times what they were in size and quality4 ,footnote #df3 ,the ,roman proverb which ,agrius had in mind reminds one of the witty ,french woman's comment upon the achievement of ,st4 ,denis in walking several miles to ,montmartre1 after his head had been cut off1 7as all the world can still see him doing in the verrires of ,notre ,dame de ,chartres73 en pareil cas1 ce n'est que le premier pas qui cote4 ,footnote #dg3 ,to this glowing description of agricultural ,italy in the ,augustan age may be annexed that of ,machiavelli on the state of ,tuscany in his youth3 ,ridotta tutta in somma pace e tranquillit1 coltivata non meno ne' luoghi pi montuosi e pi sterili che nelle pianure e regioni pi fertili4444 ,it is our privilege to see the image of this fruitful cultivation of the mountain tops not only in ,machiavelli's prose1 but on the walls of the ,palazzo ,riccardi in ,gozzoli's ,journey of the ,magi1 where1 like ,king ,robert of ,sicily1 the ,magi crossed ,into the lovely land of ,italy ,whose loveliness was more resplendent made ,by the mere passing of that cavalcade4 ,it seems almost a pity to contrast with these the comment of a careful and sympathetic student of the agricultural ,italy of the age of ,king ,umberto3 ,to return to the question of the natural richness of agricultural ,italy1 says ,dr4 ,w4,n4 ,beauclerk in his ,rural ,italy 7#ahhh71 we may compare the words of the ,german ballad3 ',in ,italy macaroni ready cooked rains from the sky1 and the vines are festooned with sausages1' with the words today rife throughout the ,kingdom1 ',rural ,italy is poor and miserable1 and has no future in store for her4' ,the fact is that ,italy is rich in capabilities of production1 but exhausted in spontaneous fertility4 ,her vast forests have been cut down1 giving place to sterile and malarious ground3 the plains and shores formerly covered with wealthy and populous cities are now deserted marshes3 ,sardinia and other ancient granaries of the ,roman ,empire are empty and unproductive3 two-thirds of the ,kingdom are occupied by mountains impossible of cultivation1 and the remainder is to a large extent ill-farmed and unremunerative4 ,to call ,italy the ',garden of ,europe' under these circumstances seems cruel irony4 ,footnote #dh3 ,as we may assume that the yields of wine of which ,fundanius boasts were the largest of which ,varro had information in the ,italy of his time1 it is interesting to compare them with the largest yields of the most productive wine country of ,france today4 ,fifteen cullei1 or three hundred amphorae per jugerum1 is the equivalent of #bgjj gallons per acre3 while according to ,p4 ,joigneaux1 in the ,livre de la ,ferme1 the largest yields in modern ,france are in the ,midi 7specifically ,herault71 where in exceptional cases they amount to as much as #bej hectolitres to the hectare1 or say #bfgb gallons per acre4 ,it may be noted that the yields of the best modern wines1 like ,burgundy1 are less than half of this1 and it is probable that the same was true of the vinum ,setinum of ,augustus1 if not of the ,horatian ,massic4 ,footnote #di3 ,the modern ,italian opinion of farming in a fertile but unhealthy situation is expressed with a grim humour in the ,tuscan proverb3 in ,maremma s'arricchisce in un anno1 si muore in sei mesi4 ,footnote #ej3 ,this is ,keil's ingenious interpretation of an obscure passage4 ,we may compare the ,english designation of a church yard as ,god's acre4 ,what ,licinius ,crassus actually did was1 while haranguing from the rostra1 to turn his back upon the ,comitium1 where the ,senators gathered1 and address himself directly to the people assembled in the ,forum4 ,the act was significant as indicating that the sovereignty had changed place4 ,footnote #ea3 ,tremelius ,scrofa was the author of a treatise on agriculture1 which ,columella cites1 but which has not otherwise survived4 ,footnote #eb3 ,it was a received opinion amongst the antients that a large1 busy1 well peopled village1 situated in a country thoroughly cultivated1 was a more magnificent sight than the palaces of noblemen and princes in the midst of neglected lands4 ,harte's ,essays on ,husbandry1 p4 #aa4 ,this is a delightful book1 the ripe product of a gentleman and a scholar4 ,in the middle of the eighteenth century it advocated what we are still advocating--that agriculture1 as the basis of national wealth1 deserves the study and attention of the highest intelligence2 specifically it proposed the introduction of new grasses and forage crops 7alfalfa above all others7 to enable the land to support more live stock4 ,it was published in #agfd1 just after ,france had ceded to ,england by the ,treaty of ,paris all of her possessions in ,america east of the ,mississippi ,river2 and not the least interesting passages of ,harte's book are those proposing an agricultural development of the newly acquired territory between ,lake ,illinois 7,michigan7 and the ,mississippi1 which he suggests may be readily brought under cultivation with the aid of the buffaloes of the country4 ,he shrewdly says3 ,maize may be raised in this part of ,canada to what quantity we please1 for it grows there naturally in great abundance4 ,it happened1 however1 that a few years later1 in #aggh1 ,col4 ,george ,rogers ,clark of ,virginia made a certain expedition through the wilderness to the ,british outpost at ,vincennes1 which saved ,england the trouble of taking ,harte's advice1 but that it has not been neglected may be evident from the fact that less than a century and a half later1 or in #aiaj1 the ,state of ,illinois produced #dae million bushels of maize1 besides twice as much oats and half as much wheat as did old ,england herself in the same year of grace4 ,harte was the travelling governor of that young ,mr4 ,stanhope1 to whom my lord ,chesterfield wrote his famous worldly wise letters4 ,he was the author also of a ,life of ,gustavus ,adolphus1 which was a failure4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 who liked ,harte1 said3 ,it was unlucky in coming out on the same day with ,robertson's ,history of ,scotland4 ,his ,husbandry1 however1 is good4 7,boswell1 ,,iv1 #ia74 ,with this judgment of ,dr4 ,johnson there has been1 and must be1 general concurrence4 ,footnote #ec3 ,pliny records 7,h4,n4 ,,xviii1 #g7 that at ,lucullus' farm there was less ground for ploughing than of floor for sweeping4 ,footnote #ed3 ,eggs were the first course1 as apples were the last1 at a ,roman dinner1 hence the saying ab ovo usque ad mala4 ,footnote #ee3 ,cf4 ,gilbert ,murray's version of ,euripides' ,troades1 #gii3 ,in ,salamis1 filled with the foaming ,of billows and murmur of bees1 ,old ,telamon stayed from his roaming1 ,long ago1 on a throne of the seas2 ,looking out on the hills olive laden1 ,enchanted1 where first from the earth4 ,the gray-gleaming fruit of the ,maiden ,athena had birth4 ,the physical reason why the olive flourished in ,attica1 as ,theophrastus points out 7,c4,p4,v4 ,,ii1 #b71 was because it craves a thin soil1 and that of ,attica1 with its out-croppings of calcareous rock1 suits the olive perfectly1 while fit for little else agricultural4 ,footnote #ef3 ,in the ,geoponica 7,,xiii1 #ae7 there has been preserved a remedy for a similar evil1 which1 in all fairness1 should be credited to ,saserna4 ,in any event1 it is what the newspapers used to call important1 if true1 viz3 ,if ever you come into a place where fleas abound1 cry ,och6 ,och6 7,greek3 och1 och7 and they will not touch you4 ,footnote #eg3 ,the editor of an ,iowa farm journal1 who has been making a study of agricultural ,europe1 has recently reported an interesting comparison between the results of extensive farming as practised in ,iowa and intensive farming as practised in ,bavaria4 ,he begins with the thesis that the object of agriculture is to put the energy of the sun's rays into forms which animals and human beings can use1 and1 reducing the crop production of each country to thermal units1 he finds that for every man1 woman and child connected with farming in ,iowa #ad1bjj therms of sun's energy were imprisoned1 while for every man1 woman and child connected with farming in ,bavaria only #b1fjj therms were stored up4 ,in other words1 the average ,iowa farmer is six times as successful in his efforts to capture the power of the sun's rays as the average ,bavarian farmer4 ,on the other hand1 the average acre of ,iowa land is only about one-seventh as successful as the average acre of ,bavarian land in supporting those who live on it4 ,if we look on land as the unit1 then the ,bavarians get better results than we in ,iowa1 but if we look on human labor as the unit1 then the ,iowa farmers are far ahead of those of ,bavaria4 ,it may be remarked that if the ,iowa farmer1 who gets his results by the use of machinery1 was to adopt also the intensive practice of the ,bavarian farmer1 he would secure at once the greatest efficiency per acre and per man1 and that is the true purpose of agriculture4 ,footnote #eh3 ,it is one of the charms of ,varro's treatise that he always insists cheerfully on the pleasure to be derived from the land4 ,it is the same spirit which ,conington has remarked cropping out in many places in ,virgil's ,georgics--the joy of the husbandman in his work1 as in the iuvat of iuvat ,ismara ,baccho ,conserere1 atque olea magnum vestire ,taburnum4 ,this is the blessed surcease of sorrow of which the crowded life of the modern city knows nothing3 but1 as the practical ,roman indicates1 it will not support life of its own mere motion4 ,cf4 ,dr4 ,johnson's picture of ,shenstone3 ,he began from this time to entangle his walks and to wind his waters3 which he did with such judgment and such fancy as made his little domain the envy of the great and the admiration of the skillful4 ,his house was mean1 and he did not improve it3 his care was of his grounds4444 ,in time his expences brought clamours about him1 that overpowered the lambs' bleat and the linnets' song2 and his groves were haunted by beings very different from fawns and fairies4 ,footnote #ei3 ,walter of ,henley1 in thirteenth century ,england1 drove home a shrewd comment on the country gentleman who farms without keeping accounts and thinks he is engaged in a profitable industry4 ,you know surely1 he says1 that an acre sown with wheat takes three ploughings1 except lands which are sown yearly1 and that one with another each ploughing is worth six pence1 and harrowing a penny1 and on the acre it is necessary to sow at least two bushels4 ,now two bushels at ,michaelmas are worth at least twelve pence1 and weeding a half penny and reaping five pence1 and carrying in ,august a penny3 the straw will pay for the threshing4 ,at three times your sowing you ought to have six bushels1 worth three shillings2 and the cost amounts to three shillings and three half pence1 and the ground is yours and not reckoned4 ,of ,walter of ,henley little is known1 but it is conjectured that he was the bailiff of the manors near ,henley which belonged to the ,abbey of ,canterbury4 ,his curious and valuable ,dite de ,hosebondrie1 which is as original in its way as ,cato's treatise1 being entirely free from mere literary tradition1 is now available to the modern reader in a translation1 from the original barbarous ,english law ,french1 by ,elizabeth ,lamond1 made for the ,royal ,historical ,society in #ahij4 ,footnote #fj3 ,this was just before ,pharsalia1 and the army was that of ,pompey which ,varro had joined after surrendering to ,caesar in ,spain4 ,footnote #fa3 ,in this enumeration of trees ,varro does not include the chestnut which is now one of the features of the ,italian mountain landscape and furnishes support for a considerable part of the ,italian population1 who subsist on necci1 those indigestible chestnut flour cakes1 just as the ,irish peasants do on potatoes4 ,the chestnut was late in getting a foothold in ,italy but it was there in ,varro's day4 ,he mentions the nuts as part of the diet of dormice 7,,iii1 #ae74 ,by the thirteenth century chestnuts had become an established article of human food in ,italy4 ,pietro ,crescenzi 7#abcj-acjg7 describes two varieties1 the cultivated and the wild1 and quotes the ,arabian physician ,avicenna to the effect that chestnuts are di tarda digestione ma di buono nuttimento4 ,it is perhaps for this very reason that chestnut bread is acceptable to those engaged in heavy labor4 ,fynes ,moryson says in his ,itinerary 7#afag7 that maslin bread made of a mixture of rye and wheat flour was used by labourers in ,england because it abode longer in the stomach and was not so soon digested with their labour4 ,crescenzi1 who was a lawyer and a judge1 says in his preface that he had left his native ,bologna because of the civil strifes1 had taken foreign service in several parts of ,italy1 and so had opportunity to see the world4 ,he wrote his book on agriculture because1 as he says1 of all the things he learned on his travels there was nothing piu a bondevole1 niuna piu dolce1 et niuna piu degna de l'huomo libero1 a sentiment which ,socrates had expressed sixteen hundred years earlier and which was echoed six hundred years later by another far-sighted ,italian1 the statesman ,cavour4 ,footnote #fb3 ,the white chalk which ,scrofa saw used as manure in ,transalpine ,gaul1 when he was serving in the army under ,julius ,caesar1 was undoubtedly marl1 the use of which in that region as in ,britain was subsequently noted by ,pliny 7,h4,n4 ,,xvii1 #d74 ,there were no deposits of marl in ,italy1 and so the ,romans knew nothing of its use1 from experience1 but ,pliny's treatment of the subject shows a sound source of information4 ,in ,england1 where several kinds of marl are found in quantities1 its use was probably never discontinued after the ,roman times4 ,walter of ,henley discusses its use in the thirteenth century1 and ,sir ,anthony ,fitzherbert continues the discussion in the sixteenth century4 ,in connection with the history of the use of marl in agriculture may be cited the tender tribute which ,arthur ,young recorded on the tombstone of his wife in ,bradfield ,church4 ,the lady's chief virtue appears to have been1 in the memory of her husband1 that she was the great-grand-daughter of ,john ,allen1 esq4 of ,lyng ,house in the ,county of ,norfolk1 the first person according to the ,comte de ,boulainvilliers1 who there used marl4 ,the ,romans did not have the fight against sour land which is the heritage of the modern farmer after years of continuous application to his land of phosphoric and sulphuric acid in the form of mineral fertilizers4 ,what sour land the ,romans had they corrected with humus making barnyard manure1 or the rich compost which ,cato and ,columella recommend4 ,they had1 however1 a test for sourness of land which is still practised even where the convenient litmus paper is available4 ,virgil 7,georgic ,,ii1 #bda7 gives the formula3 ,fill a basket with soil1 and strain fresh water through it4 ,the taste of water strained through sour soil will twist awry the taster's face4 ,footnote #fc3 ,this sounds like the boast of the modern proprietor of an old blue grass sod in ,northern ,virginia or ,kentucky4 ,on the general question of pasture vs4 arable land1 cf4 ,hartlib's ,legacie3 ,it is a misfortune that pasture lands are not more improved4 ,england abounds in pasturage more than any other country1 and is1 therefore1 richer4 ,in ,france1 acre for acre1 the land is not comparable to ours3 and1 therefore1 ,fortescue1 chancellor to ,henry ,,vi1 observes that we get more in ,england by standing still 7alluding to our meadows7 than the ,french do by working 7that is1 cultivating their vineyards and corn lands74 ,we may permit ,montesquieu 7,esprit des ,lois ,,ii1 #bc1 #ad7 to voice the ,french side of this question4 ,les pais de pturage sont pen peupls4 ,les terres bled occupent plus d'hommes et les vignobles infiniment d'avantage4 ,en ,angleterre on s'est souvent plaint que l'augmentation des pturage diminuoit les habitans4 ,in the introduction to his ,book ,two 7post1 p4 #agi7 ,varro states the sound conclusion1 that the two kinds of husbandry should be combined on the same land4 ,sir ,anthony ,fitzherbert knew this3 ,an housbande can not well thryue by his corne without he haue other cattell1 nor by his cattell without corne4 ,for els he shall be a byer1 a borrower or a beggar4 ,footnote #fd3 ,this is the explanation of why ,aesop's fox found the grapes to be sour which grew on a trellis1 for he had expected to find them of easy access on the ground4 ,aesop was a ,phrygian1 and1 while ,bentley has proved that ,aesop never wrote the existing fables which go by that name1 yet it is recognized that they are of ,oriental origin and it is evident that that of the ,fox and the ,grapes came out of ,asia1 where1 as ,varro says1 the grapes were usually allowed to grow on the ground4 ,footnote #fe3 ,one is tempted to include here ,pliny's observations upon the tests of good soil if only for the sake of his description of one of the sweetest sensations of the farmer every where1 the aroma of new ploughed fertile land3-- ,those unguents which have a taste of earth are better1 says ,cicero1 than those which smack of saffron1 it seeming to him more to the purpose to express himself by the word taste than smell4 ,and such is the fact no doubt1 that soil is the best which has the savour of a perfume4 ,if the question should be put to us1 what is this odour of the earth that is held in such estimation2 our answer is that it is the same that is often to be recognized at the moment of sunset without the necessity even of turning up the ground1 at the spots where the extremities of the rainbow have been observed to meet the earth3 as also1 when after long continued drought1 the rain has soaked the ground4 ,then it is that the earth exhales the divine odour that is so peculiarly its own1 and to which1 imparted to it by the sun1 there is no perfume however sweet that can possibly be compared4 ,it is this odour which the earth1 when turned up1 ought to emit1 and which1 when once found1 can never deceive any person3 and this will be found the best criterion for judging of the quality of the soil4 ,such1 too1 is the odour that is usually perceived in land newly cleared when an ancient forest has been just cut down2 its excellence is a thing that is universally admitted4 ,footnote #ff3 ,the actus was the head land or as much land as a yoke of oxen could plough at a single spell without stopping1 and measured #abj feet in length and four feet in width4 ,cf4 ,pliny1 ,h4,n4 ,,xviii1 #c4 ,hence the square of the head land became the basis of the ,roman land measure4 ,with the derivation of the actus may be compared that of the ,english furlong 7furrow-long7 and the ,french arpent 7literally1 head land74 ,footnote #fg3 ,on the socialistic principle of ,strepsiades in ,aristophanes' ,clouds that the use of geometry is to divide the land into equal parts4 ,footnote #fh3 ,as it is difficult to appreciate that the ,roman ,campagna was formerly populous with villas1 when one contemplates its green solitudes today1 so when one faces the dread malaria which there breeds1 one wonders how the ,romans of the ,republic maintained so long their hardy constitutions4 ,it is now agreed that there was no malaria in the ,land of ,saturn so long as the volcanos in the ,alban hills were active1 because their gases purified the air and kept down the mosquitoes1 and geology tells us that ,monte ,pila was in eruption for two or three centuries after the foundation of ,rome4 ,by the beginning of the second century ,b4,c4 the fever seems to have become endemic4 ,plautus and ,terence both mention it and ,cato 7,,clvii7 describes its symptoms unmistakably4 ,in his book on the effect of malaria in history1 ,w4,h4 ,jones expresses the opinion that the malady was brought into ,italy from ,africa by ,hannibal's soldiers1 but it is more probable that it was always there4 ,see the discussion in ,lanciani's ,wanderings in the ,roman ,campagna4 ,in ,varro's time the ,roman fever had begun to sap the vitality of the ,roman people1 and the animalia minuta in this passage suggests that ,varro had a curious appreciation of what we call the modern science of the subject4 ,columella 7,i1 #e1 #f7 indeed specifically mentions mosquitoes 7infestis aculeis armata animalia7 as one of the risks incident to living near a swamp4 ,footnote #fi3 ,in the thirteenth century ,ibn-al-,awam1 a learned ,moor1 wrote at ,seville his ,kitab al-felahah1 or ,book of ,agriculture1 which has preserved for us not only the wisdom of the ,moorish practice in agriculture and gardening which made ,spain an enchanted paradise1 but also the tradition of the ,arabs in such matters1 purporting to go back1 through the ,nabataeans to the ,chaldaean books1 which recorded the agricultural methods that obtained by the waters of ,babylon4 ,ibn-al-,awam's book has1 therefore1 a double interest for us1 and we are fortunate in having it available in an admirable ,french translation from the ,arabic by ,j4,j4 ,clement-,mullet 7,paris1 ,librairie ,a4 ,franck1 #ahfd74 ,not the least profitable chapters in this book are those devoted to the preparation of manure in composts1 to be ripened in pits as ,varro advises in the text4 ,they show a thoroughness1 a care and an art in the mixing of the various animal dungs1 with straw1 woodsearth and cinders1 which few modern gardeners could equal4 ,german scholarship has questioned the ,chaldaean origin of the authorities quoted1 but there is internal evidence which smacks of an oriental despotism that might well be ,babylonian4 ,in a recipe for a rich compost suitable for small garden plants1 we are advised 7,i1 #b1 ,i1 p4 #ie71 without a quiver1 to mix in blood--that of the camel or the sheep if necessary--but human blood is to be preferred6 ,footnote #gj3 ,what ,varro describes as the military fence of ditch and bank was doubtless the typical ,herefordshire fence of modern ,england which ,arthur ,young1 in ,the ,farmers' ,letters1 recommends so highly as at once most effective and most economical4 ,the bank is topped with a plashed hedge of white thorn in which sallow1 ash1 hazel and beech are planted for firing4 ,the fencing practice of the ,american farmer has followed the line of least resistance and is founded on the lowest first cost3 the original snake fences of split rails1 upon the making of which a former generation of pioneer ,american boys qualified themselves for ,presidential campaigns1 being followed by woven wire made by a trust and not the most enduring achievement of ,big ,business4 ,the practical farmer1 as well as the lover of rural scenery1 has cause for regret that ,american agricultural practice has not yet had the patience to enclose the land within live hedges and ditches4 ,footnote #ga3 ,the kind of fence which ,varro here describes as ex terra et lapillis compositis in formis is also described by ,pliny 7,h4,n4 ,,xxxv1 #afi71 as formaceos or moulded1 and he adds1 aevis durant4 ,it would thus clearly appear to have been of gravel concrete1 the use of which the manufacturers of cement are now telling us1 is the badge of the modern progressive farmer4 ,cato 7,,xxxviii7 told how to burn lime on the farm1 and these concrete fences were1 of course1 formed with lime as the matrix4 ,when only a few years ago1 ,portland cement was first produced in ,america at a cost and in a quantity to stimulate the development of concrete construction1 engineers began with rough broken stone and sand as the constituents of what they call the aggregate1 but some one soon discovered that the use of smooth natural gravel made more compact concrete and gravel concrete became the last word in engineering practice4 ,but it was older even than ,varro4 ,a ,chicago business man visiting ,mycenae picked up and brought home a bit of rubbish from ,schliemann's excavations of the ancient masonry3 lying on his office desk it attracted the attention of an engineering friend who exclaimed1 ,that is one of the best samples of the new gravel concrete ,i have seen4 ,did it come out of the ,illinois tunnel8 ,no1 replied the returned traveller1 it came out of the tomb of ,agamemnon6 ,footnote #gb3 ,varro here seems to forget the unities4 ,he speaks in his own person1 when ,scrofa has the floor4 ,footnote #gc3 ,it will be recalled that ,aristotle described slaves as living tools4 ,in ,roman law a slave was not a persona but a res4 ,cf4 ,gaius ,,ii1 #ae4 ,footnote #gd3 ,one of the most interesting of these freemen labourers of whom we know is that ,ofellus whom ,horace 7,satire ,,ii1 #b7 tells us was working with cheerful philosophy as a hired hand upon his own ancestral property from which he had been turned out in the confiscations following the battle of ,philippi4 ,this might have been the fate of ,virgil also had he not chanced to have powerful friends4 ,footnote #ge3 ,mais lorsque1 malgr le dgot de la chane domestique1 nous voyons natre entre les males et les femelles ces sentiments que la nature a partout fonds sur un libre choix3 lorsque l'amour a commenc a unir ces couples captifs1 alors leur esclavage1 devenu pour eux aussi doux que la douce libert1 leur fait oublier peu peu leur droits de franchise naturelle et les prrogatives de leur tat sauvage2 et ces lieux des premiers plaisirs1 des premires amours1 ces lieux si chers tout tre sensible1 deviennent leur demeure de prdilection et leur habitation de choix3 l'ducation de la famille rend encore cette affection plus profonde et la communique en mme temps aux petits1 qui s'tant trouvs citoyens par naissance d'un sjour adopt par leur parents1 ne cherchent point en changer3 car ne pouvant avoir que pen ou point d'ide d'un tat different ni d'un autre sjour ils s'attachent au lieu ou ils sont ns comme leur patrie2 et l'on sait que la terre natale est chre a ceux mme qui l'habitent en esclaves4 ,one might assume that this eloquent and comfortable essay on contentment in slavery had been written to illustrate ,varro's text at this point1 but1 as a matter of fact1 it is ,buffon's observation 7,,viii1 #dfj7 on the domestication of wild ducks6 ,footnote #gf3 ,saserna's rule would be the equivalent of one hand to every five acres cultivated4 ,with slave labour1 certainly with negro slave labour1 the experience of ,american cotton planters in the nineteenth century very nearly confirmed this requirement1 but one of the economic advantages of the abolition of slavery is illustrated by this very point4 ,in ,latimer's ,first ,sermon before ,king ,edward ,,vi1 animadverting on the advance in farm rents in his day1 he says that his father1 a typical substantial ,english yeoman of the time of the discovery of ,america1 was able to employ profitably six labourers in cultivating #abj acres1 or1 say1 one hand for each twenty acres1 which was precisely what ,arthur ,young recommended as necessary for high farming at the end of the eighteenth century4 ,at the beginning of the twentieth century the ,american farmer seldom employs more than one hand for every eighty acres cultivated1 but this is partly due to the use of improved machinery and partly to the fact that his land is not thoroughly cultivated4 ,footnote #gg3 ,this example of ,roman cost accounting is matched by ,walter of ,henley in thirteenth century ,england4 ,some men will tell you that a plough cannot work eight score or nine score acres yearly1 but ,i will show you that it can4 ,you know well that a furlong ought to be forty perches long and four wide1 and the ,king's perch is sixteen feet and a half3 then an acre is sixty-six feet in width4 ,now in ploughing go thirty-six times round to make the ridge narrower1 and when the acre is ploughed then you have made seventy-two furlongs1 which are six leagues1 for be it known that twelve furlongs are a league4 ,and the horse or ox must be very poor that cannot from the morning go easily in pace three leagues in length from his starting place and return by three o'clock4 ,and ,i will show you by another reason that it can do as much4 ,you know that there are in the year fifty-two weeks4 ,now take away eight weeks for holy days and other hindrances1 then are there forty-four working weeks left4 ,and in all that time the plough shall only have to plough for fallow or for spring or winter sowing three roods and a half daily1 and for second fallowing an acre4 ,now see if a plough were properly kept and followed1 if it could not do as much daily4 ,footnote #gh3 ,stolo is quibbling4 ,cato's unit of #bdj jugera was based on the duodecimal system of weights and measures which the ,romans had originally derived from ,babylon but afterwards modified by the use of a decimal system4 ,the enlightened and progressive nations of the modern world who have followed the ,romans in adopting a decimal system may perhaps approve ,stolo's remarks1 but it behooves those of us who still cling to the duodecimal system to defend ,cato1 if only to keep up our own courage4 ,footnote #gi3 ,here1 in a few words1 is the whole doctrine of intelligent agriculture4 ,cf4 ,donaldson's ,agricultural ,biography1 tit4 ,jethro ,tull4 ,the name of ,tull will ever descend to posterity as one of the greatest luminaries1 if not the very greatest benefactor1 that ,british agriculture has the pride to acknowledge4 ,his example furnishes the vast advantages of educated men directing their attention to the cultivation of the soil1 as they bring enlightened minds to bear upon its practice and look at the object in a naked point of view1 being divested of the dogmas and trammels of the craft with which the practitioners of routine are inexpugnably provided and entrenched4 ,footnote #hj3 ,pliny quotes ,cato3 ,what ever can be done by the help of the ass costs the least money1 which is the philosophy of modern power machinery on the farm1 as elsewhere4 ,it is largely a question of the cost of fuel1 as ,varro says4 ,footnote #ha3 ,green manuring is one of the oldest1 as it is one of the best1 of agricultural practices4 ,long before ,varro1 ,theophrastus 7,,ii4,p4 #i1 ,i7 had recorded what the agricultural colleges teach today--that beans are valuable for this purpose because they rot readily1 and1 he adds1 in ,macedonia and ,thessaly it has always been the custom to turn them under when they bloom4 ,footnote #hb3 ,although ,varro advises the first ploughing in the spring1 the ancients were not unmindful of the advantages of winter ploughing of stiff and heavy clay4 ,theophrastus1 who died in ,b4,c4 #bhg1 advises it that the earth may feel the cold4 ,indeed1 he was fully alive to the reasons urged by the modern professors of agronomy for intensive cultivation4 ,for the soil1 he says 7,c4,p4 ,,iii1 #be71 often inverted becomes free1 light and clear of weeds1 so that it can most easily afford nourishment4 ,king ,solomon gives the same advice1 ,the sluggard will not plough by reason of the winter1 therefore shall he begin harvest and have nothing4 ,proverbs1 ,,xx1 #d4 ,footnote #hc3 ,the ,romans understood the advantages of thorough cultivation of the soil4 ,as appears from the text1 they habitually broke up a sod in the spring1 ploughed it again at midsummer1 and once more in ,september before seeding4 ,pliny prescribes that the first ploughing should be nine inches deep1 and says that the ,etruscans some times ploughed their stiff clay as many as nine times4 ,the accepted ,roman reason for this was the eradication of weeds1 but it also accomplished in some measure the purpose of dry farming--the conservation of the moisture content of the soil1 as that had been practised for countless generations in the sandy ,valley of ,mesopotamia4 ,varro makes no exception to this rule1 but ,virgil was here1 as in other instances1 induced to depart from ,varro's wisdom1 with the result that he imposed upon ,roman agriculture several thoroughly bad practices4 ,thus1 while he applies ,varro ploughing rules to rich land and bids the farmer exercetque frequens tellurem atque imperat arvis1 he says 7,geo4 ,i1 #fb7 that it will suffice to give sandy land a single shallow ploughing in ,september immediately before seeding1 for fear1 forsooth1 that the summer suns will evaporate whatever moisture there is in it6 ,again1 ,virgil recommends1 what ,varro does not1 cross-ploughing and burning the stubble and ,virgil's advice was generally followed4 ,in ,william ,benson's edition 7#agbe7 of the ,georgics with notes critical and rustick1 it is stated that the husbandry of ,england in general is ,virgilian1 which is shown by paring and burning the surface3 by raftering and cross-ploughing1 and that in those parts of ,england where the ,romans principally inhabited all along the ,southern coast ,latin words remain to this hour among shepherds and ploughmen in their rustick affairs3 and what will seem more strange at first sight to affirm though in fact really true1 there is more of ,virgil's husbandry put in practice in ,england at this instant than in ,italy itself4 ,that this was the fact in the thirteenth century is clear from the quotations we have made from ,walter of ,henley's ,dite de ,hosebondrie4 ,cf4 also ,sir ,anthony ,fitzherbert and the account of the manorial system of farming in ,england in ,prothero's ,english ,farming ,past and ,present4 ,it remained for ,jethro ,tull of the ,horseshoeing ,husbandry to unloose in ,england the long spell of the magic of ,virgil's poetry upon practical agriculture4 ,footnote #hd3 ,the ,julian calendar1 which took effect on ,january #a1 ,b4,c4 #de1 had been in use only eight years when ,varro was writing4 ,footnote #he3 ,schneider and others have attempted to emend the enumeration of the days in this succession of seasons1 but ,keil justly observes3 ,as we do not know what principle ,varro followed in establishing these divisions of the year1 it is safer to set them down as they are written in the codex than to be tempted by uncertain emendation4 ,i have accordingly followed ,keil here4 ,footnote #hf3 ,the practice of ridging land seeded to grain was necessary before the invention of the modern drill4 ,dickson1 in his ,husbandry of the ,ancients1 ,,xxiv1 argues that1 while wasteful of land1 it had the advantage of preventing the grain from lodging4 ,walter of ,henley1 who followed the ,roman methods by tradition without knowing it1 advises with them that to be successful in this kind of seeding the furrow at the last ploughing of the fallow should be so narrow as to be indistinguishable4 ,at sowing do not plough large furrows1 he says1 but little and well laid together that the seed may fall evenly3 if you plough a large furrow to be quick you will do harm4 ,how8 ,i will tell you4 ,when1 the ground is sown then the harrow will come and pull the corn into the hollow which is between the two ridges and the large ridge shall be uncovered1 then no corn shall grow there4 ,and will you see this8 ,when the corn is above ground go to the end of the ridge and you will see that ,i tell you truly4 ,and if the land must be sown below the ridge see that it is ploughed with small furrows and the earth raised as much as you are able4 ,and see that the ridge which is between the two furrows is narrow4 ,and let the earth1 which lies like a crest in the furrow under the left foot after the plough1 be over-turned1 and then shall the furrow be narrow enough4 ,footnote #hg3 ,farrago was a mixture of refuse far1 or spelt1 with vetch1 sown thick and cut green to be fed to cattle in the process now called soiling4 ,the ,english word forage comes from this ,latin original4 ,footnote #hh3 ,spanish ,american engineers today insert in their specifications for lumber the stipulation that it be cut on the wane of the moon4 ,the rural confidence in the influence of the moon upon the life of a farm still persists vigorously3 thus as ,pliny 7,h4,n4 ,,xviii1 #ge7 counselled that one wean a colt only when the moon is on the wane1 so it will be found that the moon is consulted before a colt is weaned on most ,american farms today3 for that may be safely done1 says the rural oracle1 only when the moon's sign1 as given in the almanack1 corresponds with a part of the almanack's moon's man or anatomic at or below the knees1 i4e41 when the moon is in one or the other of the signs ,pisces1 ,capricornus or ,aquarius3 but never at a time of day when the moon is in its ,southing4 ,footnote #hi3 ,modern agricultural chemistry has contradicted this judgment of ,cassius1 for the manure of sea birds1 especially that brought from the ,south ,american islands in the ,pacific1 known commercially as ,peruvian guano1 is found on analysis to be high in the elements which are most beneficial to plant life4 ,footnote #ij3 ,seed selection1 which is now preached so earnestly by the ,agricultural ,department of the ,united ,states as one of the things necessary to increase the yield of wheat and corn1 has ever been good practice4 ,following ,varro ,virgil 7,georgic ,i1 #aig7 insists upon it3 ,i have seen those seeds on whose selection much time and labour had been spent1 nevertheless degenerate if men did not every year rigorously separate by hand all the largest specimens4 ,footnote #ia3 ,cicero 7de ,div4 ,,ii1 #bd7 records a mot of ,cato's that he wondered that an haruspex did not laugh when he saw another--qui mirari se aiebat1 quod non rideret aruspex1 aruspicem quum vidisset4 ,footnote #ib3 ,this process of propagation which ,varro describes as new is still practised by curious orchardists under the name inarching4 ,the free end of a growing twig is introduced into a limb of its own tree1 back of a specimen fruit1 thus pushing its development by means of the supplemental feeding so provided4 ,cf4 ,cyc4 ,am4 ,hort4 ,,ii1 #ffd4 ,footnote #ic3 ,alfalfa is the ,moorish name which the ,spaniards brought to ,america with the forage plant ,medicago ,sativa1 ,linn41 which all over ,southern ,europe is known by the ,french name lucerne4 ,it is proper to honour the ,moors by continuing in use their name for this interesting plant1 because undoubtedly they preserved it for the use of the modern world1 just as undoubtedly they bequeathed to us that fine sentiment known as personal honour4 ,alfalfa was one of the standbys of ancient agriculture4 ,according to ,pliny1 it was introduced into ,italy from ,greece1 whence it had been brought from ,asia during the ,persian wars1 and so derived its ,greek and ,roman name ,medica4 ,as ,cato does not mention it with the other legumes he used1 it is probable that the ,romans had not yet adopted it in ,cato's day1 but by the time of ,varro and ,virgil it was well established in ,italy4 ,in ,columella's day it was already a feature of the agriculture of ,andalousia1 and there the ,moors1 who loved plants1 kept it alive1 as it were a ,vestal fire1 while it died out of ,italy during the ,dark ,ages3 from ,spain it spread again all over ,southern ,europe1 and with ,america it was a fair exchange for tobacco4 ,alfalfa has always been the subject of high praise wherever it has been known4 ,the ,greek ,amphilochus devoted a whole book to it1 as have the ,english ,walter ,harte in the middle of the eighteenth century and the ,american ,coburn at the beginning of the twentieth century1 but none of them is more instructive on the subject of its culture than is ,columella in a few paragraphs4 ,because of the difficulty of getting a stand of it in many soils1 it is important to realize the pains which the ,romans took with the seed bed1 for it is on this point that most ,american farmers fail4 ,says ,columella 7,,ii1 #aj73 ,but of all the legumes1 alfalfa is the best1 because1 when once it is sown1 it lasts ten years3 because it can be mowed four times1 and even six times1 a year3 because it improves the soil3 because all lean cattle grow fat by feeding upon it3 because it is a remedy for sick beasts3 because a jugerum 7two-thirds of an acre7 of it will feed three horses plentifully for a year4 ,we will teach you the manner of cultivating it1 as follows3 ,the land which you wish to set in alfalfa the following spring should be broken up about the ,kalends of ,october1 so that it may mellow through the entire winter4 ,about the ,kalends of ,february harrow it thoroughly1 remove all the stones and break up the clods4 ,later1 about the month of ,march1 harrow it for the third time4 ,when you have so got the land in good order1 lay it off after the manner of a garden1 in beds ten feet wide and fifty feet long1 so that it may be possible to let in water by the paths1 and access on every side may be had by the weeders4 ,then cover the beds with well rotted manure4 ,at last1 about the end of ,april1 sow plentifully so that a single measure 7cyanthus7 of seed will cover a space ten feet long and five wide4 ,when you have done this brush in the seed with wooden rakes3 this is most important for otherwise the sprouts will be withered by the sun4 ,after the sowing no iron tool should touch the beds2 but1 as ,i have said1 they should be cultivated with wooden rakes1 and in the same manner they should be weeded so that no foreign grass can choke out the young alfalfa4 ,the first cutting should be late1 when the seed begins to fall3 afterwards1 when it is well rooted1 you can cut it as young as you wish to feed to the stock4 ,feed it at first sparingly1 until the stock becomes accustomed to it1 for it causes bloat and excess of blood4 ,after cutting1 irrigate the beds frequently1 and after a few days1 when the roots begin to sprout1 weed out all other kinds of grass4 ,cultivated in this way alfalfa can be mowed six times a year1 and it will last for ten years4 ,footnote #id3 ,see the explanation of what the ,romans meant by terra varia in the note on ,cato ,v4 ante1 p4 #dj4 ,footnote #ie3 ,it is interesting to note from the statements in the text that in ,varro's time the ,roman farmer in ,italy both sowed and reaped substantially the same amount of wheat as does the ,american farmer today4 ,varro says that the ,romans sowed five modii of wheat to the jugerum and reaped on the maximum fifteen for one4 ,as the modius was nearly the equivalent of our peck1 the ,roman allowance for sowing corresponds to the present ,american practice of sowing seven pecks of wheat to the acre3 and on this basis a yield of #bf bushels to the acre1 which is not uncommon in the ,united ,states1 is the equivalent of the ,roman harvest of fifteen for one4 ,it is fair to the average ,italian farmer of the present day who is held up by the economists to scorn because he does not produce more than eleven bushels of wheat to the acre1 to record that in ,columella's time1 when agriculture had declined as compared with ,varro's experience1 the average yield of grain in many parts of ,italy did not exceed four for one 7,columella1 ,,iii1 #c71 or say seven and a half bushels to the acre4 ,varro's statement that at ,byzacium in ,africa wheat yielded #ajj for one1 which ,pliny 7,,ii4,n4 ,,xviii1 #bc7 increases to #aej for one1 means from #age to #bfj bushels per acre1 seems incredible to us1 but is confirmed by the testimony of agricultural practice in ,palestine4 ,isaac claimed to reap an hundred fold1 and the parable of the ,sower alludes to yields of #cj1 #fj and #ajj fold4 ,harte ,essays on ,husbandry1 #ia1 says that the average yield in ,england in the middle of the eighteenth century was seven for one1 though he records the case of an award by the ,dublin ,society in #agfc to an ,irish gentleman who raised #ej bushels of wheat from a single peck of seed6 ,harte was a parson1 but apparently he did not bring the same unction into his agriculture as did the ,rev4 ,robert ,herrick to the husbandry of his ,devonshire glebe1 a century earlier4 ,in ,herrick's ,thanksgiving to ,god for his ,house he sings3 ,lord1 'tis thy plenty dropping hand ,that soils my land ,and giv'st me for my bushel sown ,twice ten for one4 ,thou makst my teeming hen to lay ,her egg each day3 ,besides my healthful ewes to bear ,me twins each year4 ,footnote #if3 ,as the ,gallic header here described by ,varro is the direct ancestor of our modern marvellous self-binding harvester1 it is of interest to rehearse the other ancient references to it4 ,pliny 7,h4 ,n4 ,,xviii1 #gb7 says3 ,in the vast domains of the provinces of ,gaul a large hollow frame armed with teeth and supported on two wheels is driven through the standing corn1 the beasts being yoked behind it1 the result being that the ears are torn off and fall within the frame4 ,palladius 7,,vii1 #b7 goes more into detail3 ,the people of the more level regions of ,gaul have devised a method of harvesting quickly and with a minimum of human labour1 for thereby a single ox is made to bear the burden of the entire harvest4 ,a cart is constructed on two low wheels and is furnished with a square body1 of which the side boards are adjusted to slope upward and outward to make greater capacity4 ,the front of the body is left open and there across the width of the cart are set a series of lance shaped teeth spaced to the distance between the grain stalks and curved upward4 ,behind the cart two short shafts are fashioned1 like those of a litter1 where the ox is yoked and harnessed with his head towards the cart3 for this purpose it is well to use a well broken and sensible ox1 which will not push ahead of his driver4 ,when this machine is driven through the standing grain all the heads are stripped by the teeth and are thrown back and collected in the body of the cart1 the straw being left standing4 ,the machine is so contrived that the driver can adjust its height to that of the grain4 ,thus with little going and coming and in a few short hours the entire harvest is made4 ,this method is available in level or prairie countries and to those who do not need to save the straw4 ,that ingenious ,dutchman ,conrad ,heresbach refers1 in his ,husbandry1 to ,palladius' description of the ,gallic header with small respect1 which indicates that in the sixteenth century it was no longer in use4 ,i quote from ,barnaby ,googe's translation of ,heresbach 7the book which served ,izaak ,walton as the model for his ,compleat ,angler73 ,this tricke might be used in levell and champion countries1 but with us it would make but ill-favoured worke4 ,dondlinger1 in his excellent ,book of ,wheat 7#aijh71 which should be in the hands of every grain farmer1 gives a picture reproducing the ,gallic header and says3 ,after being used during hundreds of years the ,gallic header disappeared1 and it seems to have been completely forgotten for several centuries4 ,only through literature did it escape the fate of permanent oblivion and become a heritage for the modern world4 ,the published description of the machine by ,pliny and ,palladius furnished the impulse in which modern harvesting inventions originated4 ,its distinctive features are retained in several modern inventions of this class1 machines which have a practical use and value under conditions similar to those which existed on the plains of ,gaul4 ,toward the close of the eighteenth century1 the social1 economic and agricultural conditions in ,england1 on account of increasing competition and the higher value of labour1 were ripe for the movement of invention that was heralded by the printed account of the ,gallic header4 ,the first header was constructed by ,william ,pitt in #aghf4 ,it was an attempted improvement on the ancient machine in that the stripping teeth were placed in a cylinder which was revolved by power transmitted from the wheels4 ,this 'rippling cylinder' carried the heads of the wheat into the box of the machine1 and gradually evolved into the present day reel4 ,it may be added that the ,william ,pitt mentioned was not the statesman1 but a contemporary agricultural writer of the same name4 ,footnote #ig3 ,according to ,sir ,anthony ,fitzherbert it was the custom in ,england to shear wheat and rye and to leave the straw standing after the third method described by ,varro1 the purpose being to preserve the straw to be cut later for thatching1 as threshing it would necessarily destroy its value for thatching4 ,it was the custom in ,england1 however1 to mow barley and oats4 ,footnote #ih3 ,pliny advises that the grain which collects on the circumference of a threshing floor of this description be saved for seed because it is evidently the heaviest4 ,footnote #ii3 ,in the ,apennines today the threshing floor1 or aja1 is anointed with cow dung smeared smooth with water1 doubtless for the same reason that the ,romans so used amurca4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,between harvests the winnowing basket is quite generally used in ,italy today for a cradle1 as it was from the beginning of time1 for there is an ancient gem representing the infant ,bacchus asleep in a winnowing basket4 ,footnote #aja3 ,what the ,french call1 from the same practice1 vin de rognure4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,varro does not mention the season of the olive harvest1 but ,virgil tells us 7,g4 ,,ii1 #eai7 that in their day as now it was winter4 ,cato 7,,xx-,,xxii7 described the construction and operation of the trapetus in detail4 ',it can still be seen in operation in ,italy1 turned by a patient donkey and flowing with the new oil of an intense blue-green colour4 ,it is always flanked by an array of vast storage jars 7,cato's dolii now called orci71 which make one realize the story of ,ali ,baba and the ,forty ,thieves4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,the ,roman waste of amurca1 through ignorance of its value1 was like the ,american waste of the cotton seed1 which for many years was thrown out from the gin to rot upon the ground1 even its fertilizing use being neglected4 ,now cotton seed has a market value equivalent to nearly #bj per cent of that of the staple4 ,it is used for cattle feed and also is made into lard and pure olive oil1 being exported in bulk and imported again in bottles with ,italian labels4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,cf4 ,fowler1 ,social ,life at ,rome in the ,age of ,cicero4 ,let us consider that in a large city today the person and property of all1 rich or poor1 are adequately protected by a sound system of police and by courts of first instance which are sitting every day4 ,assault and murder1 theft and burglary are exceptional4 ,it might be going too far to say that at ,rome they were the rule3 but it is the fact that in what we may call the slums of ,rome there was no machinery for checking them4444 ,it is the great merit of ,augustus that he made ,rome not only a city of marble but one in which the persons and property of all citizens were fairly secure4 ,there are several contemporary references to the crowded and dangerous condition of the streets of ,rome at the end of the ,republic4 ,cicero 7,plancius1 #g7 tells how he was pushed against the arch of ,fabius while struggling through the press of the ,via ,sacra1 and exonerates from blame the man who was the immediate cause of his inconvenience1 holding that the one next beyond was more responsible3 in which judgment ,cicero was of the opinion of ,mr4 ,justice ,blackstone in the famous leading case of ,scott v4 ,shepherd 7#a ,smith's ,l4,c41 #dhj71 where the question was who was liable for the damage eventually done by the burning squib which was passed about the market house by successive hands4 ,the majority of the court held1 however1 against ,blackstone and ,cicero1 and established the doctrine of proximate cause4 ,footnote #aje3 ,the ,roman week 7nundinum1 or more properly inter nundinum7 was of eight days1 the last being the market day on which the citizens rested from agricultural labour and came into town to sell and buy and talk politics4 ,cf4 ,pliny1 ,,xviii1 #c4 ,this custom which ,varro regrets had fallen into desuetude so far as ,rome was concerned was in his day still practised in the provinces4 ,thus the five tenants on ,horace's ,sabine farm were wont to go every nundinum to the market town of ,varia 7the modern ,vicovaro7 to transact public business 7,epist4 ,i1 #ad1 #b74 ,footnote #ajf3 ,varro here refers to the great economic change which was coming over ,italian husbandry in the last days of the ,republic1 the disappearance of the small farms1 the septem jugera which nurtured the early ,roman heroes like ,cincinnatus and ,dentatus1 and even the larger1 but still comparatively small1 farms which ,cato describes1 and the development of the latifundia given over to grazing4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,the tradition is1 says ,pliny1 that ,king ,augeas was the first in ,greece to use manure1 and that ,hercules introduced the practice into ,italy4 ,to the wise farmer the myth of the ,augean stables is the genesis of good agriculture4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,this was the crowded hour in ,varro's life1 and1 as ,m4 ,boissier has pointed out1 he loved to dwell upon its episodes4 ,it will be recalled that ,pompey divided the ,mediterranean into thirteen districts for the war with the ,pirates and put a responsible lieutenant in command of each1 thus enabling him by concurrent action in all the districts to clear the seas in three months4 ,appian gives the list of officers and the limits of their commands1 saying3 ,the coasts of ,sicily and the ,ionian sea as far as ,acarnania were entrusted to ,plotius and ,varro4 ,it is difficult to understand ,varro's own reference to ,delos1 but ,appian makes clear how it happened that ,varro was stationed on the coast of ,epirus and so fell in with the company of half ,greek shepherds who are the dramatis personae of the second book4 ,as the scene of the first book was laid in a temple of ,tellus1 so this relating to live stock is cast in a temple of ,pales1 the goddess of shepherds1 on the occasion of the festival of the ,parilia1 and the names of the characters have a punning reference to live stock4 ,footnote #aji3 ,the codices here contain an interpolation of the words ,,hic ,,intermisimus1 to indicate that a part of the text is missing1 with which judgment of some early student of the archetype ,victorius1 ,scaliger and ,ursinus1 as well as their successors among the commentators on ,varro1 have all agreed4 ,it is a pleasure to record the agreement on this point1 because it is believed to be unique3 but many precedents for plunging the reader in medias res1 as does the surviving text1 might be found in the modern short story of the artist in style4 ,as ,m4 ,boissier points out ,varro might have cited the beginning of the ,odyssey as a precedent for this4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,this is a paraphase of a favorite locution of ,homer's heroes1 whose characteristic modesty does not1 however1 permit them to apply it to themselves1 as ,varro does4 ,thus in ,iliad1 ,,vii1 #aad1 ,agamemnon advises ,menelaos not to venture against ,hector1 whom even ,achilles dreadeth to meet in battle1 wherein is the warrior's glory1 and ,achilles is better far than thou4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,virgil 7,aen4 ,,vii1 #cad7 made a fine line out of this tradition1 endowing the sturdy race of ,fauns and ,nymphs who inhabited the land of ,saturn before the ,golden ,age1 with the qualities of the trees on whose fruit they subsisted1 gensque virum truncis et duro robore nata4 ,footnote #aab3 ,in the registers of the censors every thing from which the public revenues were derived was set down under the head of pascua1 or pasture lands1 because for a long time the pasture lands were the only source of such revenue4 ,cf4 ,pliny1 ,h4,n4 ,,xviii1 #c4 ,footnote #aac3 ,olisippo is the modern ,lisbon4 ,this tradition about the mares of the region is repeated by ,virgil 7,geo4 ,,iii1 #bgb7 by ,columella 7,,vi1 #bg7 and by ,pliny 7,,viii1 #fg74 ,professor ,ridgeway in ,the ,origin and ,influence of the ,thoroughbred ,horse describes it as an aetiological myth to explain the swiftness of horses for the fleetest horses came out of the ,west2 thus ,pegasus was born at the springs of the ocean1 and there is the passage in ,homer 7,iliad1 ,,xvi1 #adi7 about the horses that flew as swift as the winds1 the horses that the harpy ,podarge 7,swift ,foot7 bare to the ,west ,wind as she grazed on the meadows by the stream of the ,ocean4 ,hence we may conclude that there was a race of swift horses in ,portugal in the earliest times1 which ,professor ,ridgeway would doubtless like very much to prove1 in support of his interesting thesis1 were derived from ,libya4 ,footnote #aad3 ,hypenemia1 or barren eggs1 are described intelligently by ,aristotle 7,h4,a4,v4 #a1 #d1 ,,vi4 #b1 #e71 and1 with ,varro's confidence in the country traditions1 by ,pliny1 ,h4,n4 ,x1 #hj4 ,if he had known it1 ,varro might have here cited the fact that the unfertilized queen bee is parthenogenetic1 though producing only male bees2 i4e41 drones3 but it remained for a ,german clergyman1 ,dzierzon1 to discover this in the eighteenth century4 ,footnote #aae3 ,cf4 ,plautus ,menaechmi1 ,,ii1 #b1 #bgi4 ,one of the two ,menaechmi is1 on his arrival at ,epidamnus1 mistaken for his brother1 of whose existence he does not know1 and much to his amazement is introduced into the brother's life and possessions4 ,at first he expostulates1 accusing the slave of the brother1 who has mistaken his identity1 of being crazy and offers to exorcise him by a sacrifice of weanling pigs1 wherefore he asks the question quoted in the text4 ,varro was evidently fond of this passage1 as he quotes it again1 post1 p4 #bba4 ,the ,menaechmi is one of the immortal comedies and has survived in many forms on the modern stage all over ,europe4 ,from it ,shakespeare derived the plot of the ,comedy of ,errors4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,it is interesting to compare these sane therapeutics with ,cato's practice less than two hundred years previous 7ante1 p4 #dg71 which was characteristic of the superstitious peasant who in ,italy still seeks the priest to bless his ailing live stock4 ,footnote #aag3 ,this ,atticus was ,cicero's intimate friend to whom he addressed so many of his charming letters4 ,he changed his name as stated in the text1 the new name being that of an uncle who adopted him1 as we learn from his life by ,nepos4 ,as is well known to all students of ,cicero1 ,atticus had dwelt in ,athens many years and derived his income from estates in ,epirus1 which is the point of ,scrofa's jest4 ,footnote #aah3 ,this requirement of short legs is the more remarkable because of the long journeys which ,varro says the ,roman sheep were required to make between their summer and winter pastures4 ,a similar necessity and bad roads created in ,england1 before the eighteenth century1 a demand for long legged sheep4 ,prothero 7,english ,farming ,past and ,present7 quotes a description of the true old ,warwickshire ram in #aghi3 ,his frame large and remarkably loose4 ,his bone throughout heavy4 ,his legs long and thick1 terminating in large splaw feet4 ,one of the things which ,bakewell accomplished was to shorten the legs as well as to increase the mutton on his ,new ,leicesters4 ,of ,bakewell1 ,mr4 ,prothero justly says1 ,by providing meat for the million he contributed as much to the wealth of the country as ,arkwright or ,watt4 ,footnote #aai3 ,shepherds still look for the black or spotted tongue in the mouth of the ram1 for the reason given by ,varro1 but the warning is no longer put in the shepherds' manual4 ,footnote #abj3 ,varro would still feel at home in ,apulia1 for there the sheep industry is carried on much as it was in his time1 and thence the calles publicae1 to which he refers1 still lead to the summer pastures in the ,apennines4 ,cf4 ,beauclerk ,rural ,italy1 chap4 ,v4 ,the extensive pasturages of the ',tavoliere di ,puglia' 7,apulia7 are of great importance and have a history of their own4 ,this vast domain covers #gej1jjj acres3 its origin belongs to the time of the ,roman ,conquests and the protracted wars of the ,republic1 which were fought out in the plains1 whence they became deserted and uncultivated1 fit only for public pastures in winter time 444 the periodical emigrations of the flocks continue as in the past times3 they descend from the mountains into the plains by a network of wide grassy roads which traverse the region in every direction and are called tratturi4 ,these lanes are over #ajj yards in width and cover a total length of #idj miles4444 ,not less than #ej1jjj animals are pastured on the ,tavoliere1 requiring over #a1ejj square miles of land for their subsistence4444 ,five thousand persons are employed as shepherds4 ,footnote #aba3 ,varro quite uniformly uses words which indicate that he was accustomed to see sheep driven 7abigere1 propellere1 adpellere7 but we can see the flocks led in ,italy today1 as they were in ,palestine soon after ,varro's death1 according to the testimony of that beautiful figure of the ,good ,shepherd 7,st4 ,john1 ,x1 #d73 ,and when he putteth forth his own sheep he goeth before them1 and the sheep follow him1 for they know his voice4 ,r4 ,child1 in his ,large ,letter in ,hartlib's ,legacie1 gives the explanation of the difference in the custom3 ,our sheep do not follow their shepherds as they do in all other countries3 for the shepherd goeth before and the sheep follow like a pack of dogs4 ,this disobedience of our sheep doth not happen to us1 as the ,papist ,priests tell their simple flocks1 because we have left their great shepherd the ,pope2 but because we let our sheep range night and day in our fields without a shepherd3 which other countries dare not for fear of wolves and other ravenous beasts1 but are compelled to guard them all day with great dogs and to bring them home at night1 or to watch them in their folds4 ,footnote #abb3 ,cf4 ,dante1 ,purg4 ,,xxvii1 #gi4 ,le capre ,tacite all' ombra mentre che'l sol ferve ,guardate dal pastor che'n su la verga ,poggiato s'e1 e lor poggiato serve4 ,footnote #abc3 ,it will be recalled that when ,odysseus1 disguised as a beggar1 was making his way to his house in company with the faithful swineherd ,eumaeus1 they met the goatherd ,melanthius leading his goats to feast the wooers1 the best goats that were in all the herds4 7,odyssey1 ,,xvii1 #baf71 and that subsequently he suffered a terrible punishment for this unfaithfulness to his master's interests4 ,footnote #abd3 ,pliny 7,,viii1 #gf7 calls these excrescences lanciniae1 or folds1 and attributes them exclusively to the she goat1 as ,varro seems to do also1 but ,columella 7,,vii1 #f7 attributes them to the buck4 ,footnote #abe3 ,aristotle 7,h4,a4 ,i1 #i4a7 refers to this opinion and denounces it as erroneous4 ,footnote #abf3 ,the ,roman denarius1 which has been here and later translated denier1 may be considered for the purpose of comparing values as1 roughly1 the equivalent of the modern franc1 or lira1 say #bj cents ,united ,states money4 ,footnote #abg3 ,macrobius 7,saturn4 ,i1 #f7 tells another story of the origin of this cognomen1 which1 if not so heroic as that in the text1 is entertaining4 ,it is related that a neighbour's sow strayed on ,tremelius' land and was caught and killed as a vagrant4 ,when the owner came to claim it and asserted the right to search the premises ,tremelius hid the carcass in the bed in which his wife was lying and then took a solemn oath that there was no sow in his house except that in the bed4 ,footnote #abh3 ,it would seem1 as ,gibbon says of the ,empress ,theodora1 that this passage could be left veiled in the obscurity of a learned language2 but it may be noted that the locus classicus for the play on the word is the incident of the ,megarian mystery pigs in ,aristophanes' ,acharnians1 #gbh ff4 ,cf4 also ,athenaeus1 ,,ix1 #ag1 #ah4 ,footnote #abi3 ,cf4 ,pliny 7,h4,n4 ,,viii1 #gg73 ,there is no animal that affords a greater variety to the palate of the epicure3 all the others have their own peculiar flavour1 but the flesh of the hog has nearly fifty different flavours4 ,footnote #acj3 ,in his stimulating book1 ,comment la route cre le type ,social1 ,edmond ,desmolins submits an ingenious hypothesis to explain the pre-eminence of the ,gauls in the growing and making of pork1 and how that pre-eminence was itself the explanation of their early success in cultivating the cereals4 ,he describes their migrating ancestors1 the ,celts1 pushing their way up the ,danube as hordes of nomad shepherds with their vast flocks and herds of horses and cattle1 on the milk of which they had hitherto subsisted4 ,so long as they journeyed through prairie steppes1 the last of which was ,hungary1 they maintained their shepherd character1 but when they once passed the site of the present city of ,vienna and entered the plateau of ,bavaria1 they found new physical conditions which caused them to reduce and to separate their herds of large cattle--an unbroken forest affording little pasture of grass4 ,here they found the wild boar subsisting upon the mast of the forest1 and him they domesticated out of an economic necessity1 to take the place of their larger cattle as a basis of food supply4 ,until then they had not been meat eaters1 and so had known no necessity for cereals1 for milk is a balanced ration in itself4 ,but this change of diet required them also to take to agriculture and so to abandon their nomad life4 ',by reason of the habits of the animal1 swine husbandry has a tendency in itself to confine those engaged in it to a more or less sedentary life1 but we are about to see how the ,celts were compelled to accomplish this important evolution by an even more powerful force4 ,meat cannot be eaten habitually except in conjunction with a cereal 444 and of all the meats pork is the one which demands this association most insistently1 because it is the least easily digested and the most heating of all the meats4444 ,so that is how the adoption of swine husbandry and a diet of pork compelled our nomad ,celts to take the next step and settle down to agriculture4' ,footnote #aca3 ,this ,gallic tomacina was doubtless the ancestor of the mortadella now produced in the ,emilia and known to ,english speaking consumers as ,bologna sausage4 ,footnote #acb3 ,the ,gaul of which ,cato was here writing is the modern ,lombardy1 one of the most densely populated and richest agricultural districts in the world4 ,here are found today those truly marvellous marchite or irrigated meadows which owe the initiative for their existence to the ,cistercian monks of the ,chiaravalle ,abbey1 who began their fruitful agricultural labours in the country near ,milan in the twelfth century4 ,there is a recorded instance of one of these meadows which yielded in a single season #adj tons of grass per hectare1 equal to #ge tons of hay1 or #cj tons per acre6 ,the meadows are mowed six times a year1 and the grass is fed green to ,swiss cows1 which are kept in great numbers for the manufacture of frommaggio di grana1 or ,parmesan cheese4 ,this system of green soiling maintains the fertility of the meadows1 while the by-product of the dairies is the feeding of hogs1 which are kept in such quantity that they are today exported as they were in the times of ,cato and ,varro4 ,there is no region of the earth1 unless it be ,flanders1 of which the aspect so rejoices the heart of a farmer as the ,milanese4 ,well may the ,lombard proverb say1 ,chi ha prato1 ha tutto4 ,footnote #acc3 ,virgil 7,aen4 ,,vii1 #bf7 subsequently made good use of this tradition of the founding of ,lavinium1 the sacred city of the ,romans where the ,penates dwelt and whither solemn processions were wont to proceed from ,rome until ,christianity became the ,state religion4 ,the site has been identified as that of the modern village of ,practica1 where a few miserable shepherds collect during the winter months1 fleeing to the hills at the approach of summer and the dread malaria4 ,footnote #acd3 ,cf4 ,polybius1 ,,xii1 #d3 ',for in ,italy the swineherds manage the feeding of their pigs in the same way4 ,they do not follow close behind the beasts1 as in ,greece1 but keep some distance in front of them1 sounding their horn every now and then3 and the animals follow behind and run together at the sound4 ,indeed1 the complete familiarity which the animals show with the particular horn to which they belong seems at first astonishing and almost incredible4 ,for1 owing to the populousness and wealth of the country1 the droves of swine in ,italy are exceedingly large1 especially along the sea coast of the ,tuscans and ,gauls3 for one sow will bring up a thousand pigs1 or some times even more4 ,they1 therefore1 drive them out from their night styes to feed according to their litters and ages4 ,when if several droves are taken to the same place they cannot preserve these distinctions of litters3 but they1 of course1 get mixed up with each other both as they are being driven out and as they feed1 and as they are being brought home4 ,accordingly1 the device of the horn blowing has been invented to separate them when they have got mixed up together1 without labour or trouble4 ,for as they feed one swineherd goes in one direction sounding his horn1 and another in another and thus the animals sort themselves of their own accord and follow their own horn with such eagerness that it is impossible by any means to stop or hinder them4 ,but in ,greece when the swine get mixed up in the oak forests in their search for the mast1 the swineherd who has most assistants and the best help at his disposal1 when collecting his own animals drives off his neighbours' also4 ,some times1 too1 a thief lies in wait and drives them off without the swineherd knowing how he has lost them1 because the beasts straggle a long way from their drivers in their eagerness to find acorns1 when they are just beginning to fall4' ,bishop ,latimer in one of his sermons quotes the phrase used in his youth1 at the time of the discovery of ,america1 in calling hogs3 ',come to thy minglemangle1 come pur1 come pur4' ,it would be impossible to transcribe the traditional call used in ,virginia4 ,one some times thinks that it was the original of the celebrated 'rebel yell' of ,general ,lee's army4 ,footnote #ace3 ,the use of the ,greek salutation was esteemed by the more austere ,romans of the age of ,scipio an evidence of preciosity1 to be laughed at3 and so ,lucienus' jesting apology for the use of it here doubtless was in reference to ,lucilius' epigram which ,cicero has preserved1 de ,finibus1 ,i1 #c4 ,graece ergo praetor ,athenis ,id quod maluisti te1 quum ad me accedi1 saluto ,greek3 ,chaire inquam1 ,tite3 lictores turma omni cohorsque ,greek3 ,chaire ,tite6 ,hinc hostis mi ,albucius1 hinc inimicus4 ,it was the word which the ,romans taught their parrots4 ,cf4 ,persius1 ,prolog4 #h4 ,footnote #acf3 ,the working ox was respected by the ancient ,romans as a fellow labourer4 ,valerius ,maximus 7,,viii1 #h ad fin47 cites a case of a ,roman citizen who was put to death1 because1 to satisfy the craving of one of his children for beef to eat1 he slew an ox from the plough4 ,ovid puts this sentiment in the mouth of ,pythagoras1 when he agrees that pigs and goats are fit subjects for sacrifice1 but protests against such use of sheep and oxen4 7,metamor4 ,,xv1 #aci47 ,quid meruere boves1 animal sine fraude dolisque ,innocuum1 simplex1 natum tolerare labores8 ,immemor est demum1 nee frugum manere dignus ,qui potuit curvi demto modo pondere arati ,ruricolam mactare suum3 qui trita labore ,ilia quibus toties durum renovaverat arvum ,tot dederse messes1 percussit colla securi4 ,footnote #acg3 ,the learned commentators have been able to discover nothing about either this ,plautius or this ,hirrius1 but it appears that ,archelaus wrote a book under the title ,bugonia1 of which nothing survives4 ,it may be conjectured1 however1 on the analogy of ,samson's riddle to the ,philistines1 ,out of the eater came forth meat1 and out of the strong came forth sweetness1 7,judges1 ,,xiv1 #ad71 that ,plautius meant to imply that some good might be the consequence of the evil ,hirrius had done3 and that ,vaccius cited the allusion to suggest to ,varro that1 while he might know nothing much about cattle1 his attempt to deal with the subject might provoke some useful discussion4 ,footnote #ach3 ,darwin1 ,animals and ,plants1 ,,ii1 #bj1 cites this passage and says that at the present day the natives of ,java some times drive their cattle into the forests to cross with the wild ,banteng4 ,the crossing of wild blood on domestic animals is not1 however1 always successful4 ,a recent visitor to the ,german agricultural experiment station at ,halle describes a curious hairy beast with great horns1 a wild look in his eye1 a white streak down his back and a bumpy forehead1 which had in it blood from cattle which had lived on the plains of ,thibet1 which had grazed on the lowland pastures of ,holland1 which had roamed the forests of northeast ,india and of the ,malay ,peninsular1 and had wandered through the forests of ,germany4 ,we ,americans had sympathy for this beast4 ,he was some thing like ourselves1 with the blood of many different races flowing through his veins4 ,footnote #aci3 ,pliny 7,,viii1 #ff7 cites the fact that the ,scythians always preferred mares to stallions for war1 and gives an ingenious reason for the preference4 ,aristotle 7,h4,a4 ,,vi1 #bb7 says that the ,scythians rode their pregnant mares until the very last1 saying that the exercise rendered parturition more easy4 ,every breeder of heavy draft horses has seen a mare taken from the plough and have her foal in the field1 with no detriment to either3 and the story of the mare ,keheilet ,ajuz1 who founded the best of the ,arab families1 is well known1 but bears repetition4 ,i quote from ,spencer ,borden1 ,the ,arab ,horse1 p4 #dd3 ,it is related that a certain ,sheik was flying from an enemy1 mounted on his favourite mare4 ,arab warriors trust themselves only to mares1 they will not ride a stallion in war4 ,the said mare was at the time far along toward parturition3 indeed she became a mother when the flying horseman stopped for rest at noonday1 the new comer being a filly4 ,being hard pressed the ,sheik was compelled to remount his mare and again seek safety in flight1 abandoning the newborn filly to her fate4 ,finally reaching safety among his own people1 great was the surprise of all when1 shortly after the arrival of the ,sheik on his faithful mare1 the little filly less than a day old came into camp also1 having followed her mother across miles of desert4 ,she was immediately given into the care of an old woman of the tribe 7,ajuz an old woman71 hence her name ,keheilet ,ajuz1 'the mare of the old woman1' and grew to be the most famous of all the animals in the history of the breed4 ,footnote #adj3 ,varro does not describe the livery of the horses of his day1 as he does of cattle1 but ,virgil 7,georg4 ,,iii1 #ha7 supplies the deficiency1 asserting that the best horses were bay 7spadices7 and roan 7glauci7 while the least esteemed were white 7albi7 and dun 7gilvi71 which is very interesting testimony in support of the most recent theory of the origin of the thoroughbred horse4 ,professor ,ridgeway who1 opposing ,darwin's conclusion1 contends for a multiple origin of the historic and recent races of horses1 has collected a mass of information about the marking of famous horses of all ages in his ,origin and ,influence of the ,thoroughbred ,horse4 ,he maintains that a bay livery1 with a white star and stockings1 the development of protective coloration from an originally striped coat1 such as has gone on more recently in the case of the quaggas1 is absolute evidence of the ,north ,african origin of a horse1 and he shows that all the swiftest horses mentioned in history are of that race1 while the heavier and less mettlesome horses of ,northern origin have been1 when pure bred1 dun coloured or white4 ,of the ,italian breeds mentioned by ,varro1 ,professor ,ridgeway conjectures that the ,etruscan 7or ,rosean7 was probably an improved ,northern horse1 while the ,apulian1 from the ,south of ,italy1 represented an admixture of ,libyan blood4 ,footnote #ada3 ,aristotle 7,h4,a4 ,,vi1 #bb7 preceded ,varro with this good advice1 saying that a mare produces better foals at the end of four or five years4 ,it is quite necessary that she should wait one year and should pass through a fallow1 as it were--,greek3 poiein osper neion4 ,footnote #adb3 ,mules were employed in antiquity from the earliest times4 ,in ,homer they were used for drawing wagons3 thus ,nausicaa drove a mule team to haul out the family wash1 and ,priam made his visit to ,achilles in a mule litter4 ,homer professes to prefer mules to oxen for ploughing4 ,there were mule races at the ,greek games4 ,aristotle 7,rhetoric1 ,,iii1 #b7 tells an amusing story of ,simonides1 who1 when the victor in the mule race offered him only a poor fee1 refused to compose an ode1 pretending to be shocked at the idea of writing about semi-asses1 but1 on receipt of a proper fee1 he wrote the ode beginning3 ,hail1 daughters of storm-footed mares1 although they were equally daughters of the asses4 ,footnote #adc3 ,the breed of ,maremma sheep dogs1 still preferred in ,italy1 is white4 ,he is doubtless the descendant of the large woolly ,spitz or ,pomeranian wolf dog which is figured on ,etruscan coins4 ,footnote #add3 ,in his essay1,notre ami le chien1 ,maeterlinck maintains eloquently that the dog alone among the domestic animals has given his confidence and friendship to man4 ,we are alone1 absolutely alone1 on this chance planet3 and amid all the forms of life that surround us not one excepting the dog has made alliance with us4 ,a few creatures fear us1 most are unaware of us1 and not one loves us4 ,in the world of plants1 we have dumb and motionless slaves3 but they serve us in spite of themselves4444 ,the rose and the corn1 had they wings1 would fly at our approach1 like birds4 ,among the animals1 we number a few servants who have submitted only through indifference1 cowardice or stupidity3 the uncertain and craven horse1 who responds only to pain and is attached to nothing 444 the cow and the ox happy so long as they are eating and docile because for centuries they have not had a thought of their own4444 ,i do not speak of the cat1 to whom we are nothing more than a too large and uneatable prey3 the ferocious cat whose side long contempt tolerates us only as encumbering parasites in our own homes4 ,she at least curses us in her mysterious heart3 but all the others live beside us as they might live beside a rock or a tree4 ,the effective use of this thesis in the scene of the revolt of the domestic animals in the ,blue ,bird will be remembered4 ,footnote #ade3 ,this method of securing the faithful affection of a dog is solemnly recommended1 without acknowledgment to ,saserna1 in the seventeenth century editions of the ,maison ,rustique 7,i1 #bg74 ,footnote #adf3 ,keil happily points out that in his book on the ,latin language 7,,vii1 #ca71 ,varro quotes the ancient proverb to which he here refers1 viz43 canis caninam non est dog doesn't eat dog4 ,footnote #adg3 ,aristotle 7,h4,a4 ,,vi1 #bj7 says that puppies are blind from twelve to seventeen days1 depending upon the season of the year at which they are born4 ,pliny 7,h ,n4 ,,viii1 #fb7 says from seven to twenty days1 depending upon the supply of the mother's milk4 ,footnote #adh3 ,it was among these hardy shepherd slaves that ,spartacus recruited his army in #gb-ga ,b4,c41 as did ,caelius and ,milo in #dh ,b4,c41 while their descendants were the brigands who infested ,southern ,italy even in the nineteenth century4 ,footnote #adi3 ,gaius1 ,i1 #aai1 ,,ii1 #bd1 #da1 describes in detail the processes here referred to by which a slave was acquired under the ,roman law4 ,footnote #aej3 ,dennis1 in his ,cities and ,cemeteries of ,etruria1 draws a picture of modern ,italy which may serve to illustrate ,varro's sketch of the mountain life of the shepherds of his day3 ,occasionally in my wanderings on this site 7,veii7 ,i have entered1 either from curiosity or for shelter1 one of the capanne scattered over the downs4 ,these are tall conical thatched huts which the shepherds make their winter abode4 ,for in ,italy1 the lowlands being generally unhealthy in summer1 the flocks are driven to the mountains about ,may1 and as soon as the great heats are past are brought back to the rich pastures of the plains4 ,it is a curious sight1 the interior of a capanna1 and affords an agreeable diversity to the antiquity hunter4 ,a little boldness is requisite to pass through the pack of dogs1 white as new dropt lambs1 but large and fierce as wolves1 which1 were the shepherd not at hand1 would tear in pieces whoever might venture to approach the hut3 but with one of the pecoraj for a ,teucer1 nothing is to be feared4 ,the capanne are of various sizes4 ,one ,i entered not far from ,veii was thirty or forty feet in diameter and fully as high1 propped in the centre by two rough masts1 between which a hole was left in the roof for the escape of smoke4 ,within the door lay a large pile of lambs1 there might be a hundred1 killed that morning and already flayed1 and a number of shepherds were busied in operating on the carcases of others3 all of which were to be dispatched forthwith to the ,roman market4 ,though a fierce ,may sun blazed without1 a huge fire roared in the middle of the hut3 but this was for the sake of the ricotta1 which was being made in another part of the capanna4 ,here stood a huge cauldron1 full of boiling ewes' milk4 ,in a warm state this curd is a delicious jelly and has often tempted me to enter a capanna in quest of it1 to the amazement of the pecoraj1 to whom it is vilior alga4 ,lord of the cauldron1 stood a man dispensing ladlefuls of the rich simmering mess to his fellows1 as they brought their bowls for their morning allowance3 and he varied his occupation by pouring the same into certain small baskets1 the serous part running off through the wicker and the residue caking as it cooled4 ,on the same board stood the cheeses1 previously made from the cream4 ,in this hut lived twenty-five men1 their nether limbs clad in goat skins1 with the hair outwards1 realizing the satyrs of ancient fable3 but they had no nymphs to tease1 nor shepherdesses to woo1 and never 'sat all day ,playing on pipes of corn1 and versing love ,to amorous ,phillida4' ,they were a band of celibates without the vows4 ,in such huts they dwell all the year round1 flaying lambs or shearing sheep1 living on bread1 ricotta and water1 very rarely tasting meat or wine and sleeping on shelves ranged round the hut1 like berths in a ship's cabin4 ,thus are the dreams of ,arcadia dispelled by realities4 ,footnote #aea3 ,in modern ,italy the shepherds do not take their women with them to the saltus1 but1 as ,dennis says1 lead there the life of celibates1 without the vows4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,in the ,venitian provinces of ,italy today the women are still seen at work in the harvest and rice fields with their babes in their bosoms3 but the most amazing modern spectacle of this kind is that of women coaling ships in the ,east1 carrying their unhappy youngsters up and down the coal ladders throughout the work4 ,footnote #aec3 ,the author of ,maison ,rustique did not agree with ,varro in this opinion4 ,i quote from ,surflet's translation of #afjf 7,i1 #g73 ,and for writing and reading it skilleth not whether he be able to doe it or no1 or that he should have any other charge to looke unto besides that of yours1 or else that he should use another to set downe in writing such expences as he hath laid out3 for paper will admit any thing4 ,footnote #aed3 ,this temple and fig tree stood in ,rome at the foot of the ,palatine hill1 in the neighbourhood of the ,lupercal4 ,it was under this fig tree that ,romulus and ,remus were supposed to have been suckled by the wolf4 ,footnote #aee3 ',that is the beste grease that is to a shepe1 to grease hym in the mouthe with good meate1' says ,sir ,anthony ,fitzherbert4 ,footnote #aef3 ,pliny 7,,vii1 #ei7 says that most nations learn the use of barbers next after that of letters1 but that the ,romans were late in this respect4 ,varro himself wore a beard1 as appears on the coin he struck during the war with the ,pirates4 ,it is reproduced in ,smiths ,dict4 ,gr4 and ,rom4 ,biog41 ,,iii1 p4 #abbg4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,cowper's verse in ,the ,task seems to be all that is happy in the way of translation of ,varro's text1 divina natura dedit agros1 ars humana aedificavit urbes3 but ,cowley's ,god the first garden made1 and the first city ,cain was probably ,cowper's source4 ,cowley was a reader of ,varro1 as his pleasant and sane essay ,of ,agriculture shows4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,following the precedent of the first and second books in the matter of local colour1 the scene of this third book1 relating to villas and the small deer1 which were there reared1 is laid in the villa publica at ,rome1 and the characters of the dialogue are selected for the suggestion which their names may make of the denizens of the aviary1 the barn yard and the bee-stand4 ,footnote #aei3 ,this ,appius ,claudius ,pulcher served in ,asia under his brother-in-law ,lucullus1 was ,augur in ,b4,c4 #ei1 ,consul in #ed and ,censor in #ej4 ,he wrote a book on augural law and the habits of birds at which ,cicero poked some rather mean fun4 ,he fixes the date of the dialogue4 ,footnote #afj3 ,in ,varro's time1 as today1 the river ,velinus drained the fresh pastures of the ,umbrian prairie of ,rosea1 the nurse of ,italy1 which lay below the town of ,reate 7the modern ,rieti71 and was originally the bed of a lake4 ,its waters are so strongly impregnated with carbonate of lime that by their deposit of travertine they tend to block their own channel4 ,the drainage of ,rosea has1 therefore1 always been a matter of concern to the live stock industry of ,reate1 and in ,b4,c4 #bgb ,m4 ,curius ,dentatus opened the first of several successful artificial canals 7the last dating from the sixteenth century1 ,a4,d471 which still serve to lead the ,velinus into the ,nar at the renowned ,cascate delle ,marmore4 ,for two hundred years the people of ,interamna 7the modern ,terni7 had complained that their situation below the falls was endangered by ,curius' canal1 and finally in ,b4,c4 #ed the ,roman ,senate appointed the commission to which ,appius ,claudius refers in the text1 to hear the controversy4 ,cicero was retained as counsel for the people of ,reate1 and during the hearing stopped1 as ,appius ,claudius did1 with our friend ,axius at his ,reatine villa1 and wrote about the visit to the same ,atticus whom we met in ,varro's second book1 as follows 7ad ,atticum1 ,,iv1 #ae73 ,after this was over the people of ,reate summoned me to their ,tempe to plead their cause against the people of ,interamna1 before the ,consul and ten commissioners1 the question being concerning the ,veline lake1 which1 drained by ,m4 ,curius by means of a channel cut through the mountain1 now flows into the ,nar3 by this means the famous ,rosea has been reclaimed from the swamp1 though still fairly moist4 ,i stopped with ,axius1 who took me also to visit the ,seven ,waters4 ,what was once deemed a danger is a double source of profit to the modern folk of ,interamna4 ,tourists today crowd to see the same waterfall which ,cicero visited1 taking a tram from the busy little industrial town of ,terni3 and the waters which flow from ,velinus now serve to generate power with which armour plates are manufactured for the ,italian navy on the site of the ancient ,interamna4 ,footnote #afa3 ,sicilian honey was famous for its flavour because of the bee pasture of thyme which there abounded1 especially at ,hybla4 ,theophrastus 7,h4,p4 ,,iii1 #ae1 #e7 explains that the honey of ,corsica had an acrid taste1 because the bees pastured there largely on box trees4 ,footnote #afb3 ,these denizens of the ,roman villa are all enumerated by ,martial in his delightful verses 7,,iii1 #ch7 upon ,faustinus' villa at ,baiae4 ,the picture of the barn yard is very true to life in all ages1 especially the touch of the hungry pigs sniffing after the pail of the farmer's wife3 ,vagatur omnis turba sordidae cortis ,argutus anser1 gemmeique pavones ,nomenque debet quae rubentibus pennis1 ,et picta perdix1 ,numidicaeque guttatae ,et impiorum phasiana ,colchorum4 ,rhodias superbi feminas prement galli ,sonantque turres plausibus columbarum1 ,gemit hinc palumbus1 inde cereus turtur ,avidi sequuntur villicae sinum porci3 ,matremque plenam mollis agnus exspectat4 ,footnote #afc3 ,the sestertius was one quarter of a denarius1 or1 say1 the equivalent of five cents4 ,it was also called nummus1 as we say nickel4 ,the ordinary unit used by the ,romans in reckoning considerable sums of money was #a1jjj sesterces1 which may accordingly be translated as the equivalent of 7say7 #ej4 ,axius' jackass thus cost #b1jjj1 while ,seius' income from his villa was #b1ejj per annum1 that of ,varro's aunt from her aviary was #c1jjj1 and that of ,axius from his farm #a1ejj4 ,cicero records that ,axius was a money lender1 which explains the fun here made of his avarice4 ,footnote #afd3 ,columella1 writing about one hundred years after ,varro1 refers to this passage and says that luxury had so developed since ,varro's time that it no longer required an extraordinary occasion1 like a triumph1 to bring the price of thrushes to three denarii a piece1 but that that had become a current quotation4 ,footnote #afe3 ,a minerval was the fee 7of ,minerva7 paid to a school teacher4 ,footnote #aff3 ,the inventor of the auspices ex tripudiis or the feeding of chickens was evidently an ingenious poultry fancier who succeeded in securing the care of his favourites at the public charge4 ,footnote #afg3 ,this was ,l4 ,marcius ,philippus1 the orator mentioned by ,horace 7,epist4 ,i1 #g1 #df71 who was ,consul in ,b4,c4 #ia1 and was celebrated for his luxurious habits1 which his wealth enabled him to gratify4 ,his son married the widow of ,c4 ,octavius and so became the step-father of the ,emperor ,augustus4 ,footnote #afh3 ,this was turdus pilaris1 the variety of thrush which is called field fare4 ,footnote #afi3 ,the traveller by railway from ,rome to ,naples passes near ,varro's estate of ,casinum1 and if he stops at the mediaeval town of ,san ,germano to visit the neighbouring ,badia di ,monte ,cassino1 where the angelic doctor ,thomas ,aquinas was educated1 he will find ,varro's memory kept green3 for he will be entertained at the ,albergo ,varrone 7very fair but bargaining advisable1 sagely counsels ,mr4 ,baedeker7 and on his way up the long winding road to the ,abbey there will be pointed out to him the river ,rapido1 on the banks of which ,varro's aviary stood1 and nearby what is reputed to be the site of the old polymath's villa which ,antony polluted with the orgies ,cicero described in the second ,philippic4 ,antony's destruction of his library was a great blow to ,varro1 but one likes to think that his ghost can take satisfaction in the maintenance1 so near the haunts of his flesh1 of such a noble collection of books as is the continuing pride of the ,abbey on the mountain above4 ,footnote #agj3 ,varro's ,museum1 or study where he wooed the ,muses1 on his estate at ,casinum was not unlike that of ,cicero at his native ,arpinum1 which he described 7de ,leg4 ,,ii1 #c7 agreeably as on an island in the cold and clear ,fibrenus just above its confluence with the more important river ,liris1 where1 like a plebeian marrying into a patrician family1 it lost its name but contributed its freshness4 ,the younger ,pliny built a study in the garden of his ,laurentine villa near ,ostia1 which he describes 7,,ii1 #ag7 with enthusiasm3 horti diaeta est1 amores mei1 re vera amores3 and here he found refuge from the tumult of his household during the festivities of the ,saturnalia1 which corresponded with our ,christmas4 ,in the ante bellum days every ,virginia gentleman had such an office in his house yard where he pretended to transact his farm business1 but where actually he was wont to escape from the obligations of family and continuous hospitality4 ,footnote #aga3 ,the commentators on this interesting but obscure description of ,varro's aviary have at this point usually endeavoured to explain the arrangements of the chamber under the lantern of the tholus with respect to its use as a dining room which ,varro frequented himself1 and hence have been amused into all kinds of difficulties of interpretation4 ,the references to the convivae are what lead them astray1 and it remained for ,keil to suggest that this was a playful allusion to the birds themselves1 a conclusion which is strengthened by ,varro's previous statement of the failure of ,lucullus' attempt to maintain a dining room in his aviary4 ,footnote #agb3 ,cf4 ,vitruvius1 ,i1 #f3 ,andronicus ,cyrrhestes built at ,athens an octagonal marble tower1 on the sides of which were carved images of the eight winds1 each on the side opposite that from which it blew4 ,on the pyramidal roof of this tower he placed a bronze ,triton holding a rod in his right hand1 and so contrived that the ,triton1 revolving with the wind1 always stood opposed to that which prevailed1 and thus pointed with his rod to the image on the tower of the wind that was blowing at the moment4 ,the ruins of this ,tower of the ,winds may still be seen in ,athens4 ,there is a picture of it in ,harper's ,dictionary of ,classical ,antiquities in the article ,andronicus4 ,footnote #agc3 ,one ventures to translate athletoe comitiorum by ,mr4 ,gladstone's famous phrase4 ,footnote #agd3 ,reading tesserulas coicientem in loculum4 ,footnote #age3 ,a ,french translator might better convey the intention of the pun1 contained in the ducere serram of the text1 by the locution1 une prise de bec4 ,footnote #agf3 ,it probably will not comfort the ultimate consumer who holds in such odium the celebrated ,schedule ,k of the ,payne-,aldrich tariff1 to realize that the ,american wool grower puts no higher value on his sheep than did his ,roman ancestor1 as revealed by this quotation from the stock yards of ,varro's time4 ,it is interesting1 however1 to the breeder to know that a good price for wool has always stimulated the production of the best stock4 ,strabo says that the wool of ,turdetania in ,spain was so celebrated in the generation after ,varro that a ram of the breed 7the ancestors of the modern ,merino7 fetched a talent1 say #a1bjj2 a price which may be compared with that of the prize ram recently sold in ,england for export to the ,argentine for as much as a thousand pounds sterling1 and considered a good commercial investment at that4 ,doubtless the market for ,rosean mules comforted ,axius in his investment of the equivalent of #djj in a breeding jack4 ,footnote #agg3 ,in feudal times the right to maintain a dove cote was the exclusive privilege of the lord of the manor4 ,according to their immemorial custom1 which ,varro notices1 the pigeons preyed on the neighbourhood crops and were detested by the community in consequence4 ,during the ,french revolution they were one of the counts in the indictment of the land-owning aristocracy1 and in the event the pigeons as well as their owners had the sins of their forefathers justly visited upon them4 ,the ,american farmer who has a pigeon-keeping neighbour and is restrained by the pettiness of the annoyance from making a point on their trespasses1 feels something of the blind and impotent wrath of the ,french peasant against the whole pigeon family4 ,footnote #agh3 ,it appears that the ,romans actually hired men to chew the food intended for cramming birds1 so as to relieve the unhappy victims even of such exercise as they might get from assimilating their diet4 ,columella 7,,vii1 #aj7 in discussing the diet of thrushes deprecates this practice1 sagely saying that the wages of the chewers are out of proportion to the benefit obtained1 and that any way the chewers swallow a good part of what they are given to macerate4 ,the typical tramp of the comic papers who is forever looking for occupation without work might well envy these ,roman professional chewers4 ,not even ,dr4 ,wiley's poison squad employed to test food products could compare with them4 ,footnote #agi3 ,these prices of #aj and #ej and even #hj a pair for pigeons1 large as they seem1 were surpassed under the ,empire4 ,columella says 7,,viii1 #h73 ,that excellent author1 ,m4 ,varro1 tells us that in his more austere time it was not unusual for a pair of pigeons to sell for a thousand sesterces1 a price at which the present day should blush1 if we may believe the report that men have been found to pay for a pair as much as four thousand nummi4 7#bjj47 ,footnote #ahj3 ,the market for chickens and eggs in the ,united ,states would doubtless astonish the people of ,delos as much as the statistics do us 7ipsa suas mirantur ,gargara messes674 ,it is solemnly recorded that the ,american hen produces a billion and a quarter dozen eggs per annum1 of a value greater than that of either the wheat or cotton crops1 and yet there are many of us who cannot get our hens to lay more than a hundred eggs a year6 ,footnote #aha3 ,reading ad infirma crura4 ,this practice is explained more at length by ,columella 7,,viii1 #b1 #c7 who specifies the spurs1 calcaribus inustis4 ,buffon1 who describes a 'practice of trimming the combs of capons1 adds 7,v1 #cjb7 an interesting account of an experiment which he says he had made une espece de greffe animale3 after trimming the comb of a growing cockerel his budding spurs were cut out and grafted on the roots of the comb1 where they took root and flourished1 growing to a length of two and a half inches1 in some cases curving forward like the horns of a ram1 and in others turning back like those of a goat4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,the dusting yard which ,varro here describes was in the open1 but ,columella 7,,viii1 #c7 advises what modern poultry farmers pride themselves upon having recently discovered1--a covered scratching pen strewn with litter to afford exercise for the hens in rough weather4 ,it will be observed that1 so far as ventilation is concerned1 ,varro recommends a hen house open to the weather3 this is another standard of modern practice which has had a hard struggle against prejudice4 ,columella adds two more interesting bits of advice1 that for the comfort of the hens the roosts should be cut square1 and for cleanliness their water trough should be enclosed leaving only openings large enough to receive a hen's head4 ,with so much enlightenment and sanitation one would expect one or the other of these ,romans to tell us of some teeming hen like ,herrick's who laid her egg each day4 ,we are proud to be able to cite the eminent ,roseburg ,industrious ,biddy who1 in the year of grace #aiab1 achieved the championship of ,america with a record of #bff eggs in ten months and nineteen days1 and was sold for #hjj3 but ,varro is content to suggest that a hen will lay more eggs in a season than she can hatch1 and the conservative ,columella 7,,viii1 #e7 that the number of eggs depends upon diet4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,the guinea fowl got their ,greek name1 meleagrides1 because the story was that the sisters of ,meleager were turned into guinea hens4 ,pliny 7,h4,n4 ,x1 #ch7 says that they fight every year on ,meleager's tomb4 ,it is a fact that they are a pugnacious fowl4 ,buffon says that guinea fowl disappeared from ,europe in the ,dark ,ages and were not known again until the route to the ,indies via the ,cape of ,good ,hope was opened when they were imported anew from the west coast of ,africa4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,reading1 propter fastidium hominum4 ,cf4 ,pliny 7,x1 #ch71 whose explanation is propter ingratum virus4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,there is a ,virginia practice of feeding a fat turkey heavily on bread soaked in wine or liquor just before he is killed1 the result being that as the turkey gets into that condition which used to put our ancestors under the table1 he relaxes all his tendons and so is sweeter and more tender when he comes above the table4 ,there is a humanitarian side to the practice which should recommend it even to the ,w4,c4,t4,u4 as well as to the epicure4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,many thousands of geese used to be driven every year to ,rome from the land of the ,morini in ,northern ,gaul1 but the ,germans are the modern consumers4 ,a ,british consular report says that in addition to the domestic supply a special goose train of from fifteen to forty cars is received daily in ,berlin from ,russia4 ,it would seem that the goose that lays the golden egg has emigrated to ,muscovy4 ,buffon says that the introduction of the ,virginia turkey into ,europe drove the goose off the tables of all civilized peoples4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,columella 7,,viii1 #ad7 repeats this myth1 but ,aristotle 7,h4,a4 ,v1 #b1 #i7 says that geese bathe after breeding4 ,buffon gives a ,gallic touch1 ces oiseaux preludent aux actes de l'amour en allant d'abord s'egayer dans l'eau4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,reading seris4 ,it is the ,cichorium endivia of ,linnaeus4 ,cf4 ,pliny 7,h4,n4 ,,xx1 #cb47 ,footnote #ahi3 ,varro does not mention it1 but the ,romans knew and prized pt de foie gras under the name ficatum1 which indicates that they produced it by cramming their geese with a diet of figs4 ,cf4 ,horace's verse pinguibus et ficis pastum iecur anseris albi4 ,in ,toulouse1 whence now comes the best of this dainty of the epicure1 the geese are crammed daily with a dough of corn meal mixed with the oil of poppies1 fed through a tin funnel1 which is introduced into the esophagus of the unhappy bird4 ,at the end of a month the stertorous breathing of the victim proclaims the time of sacrifice to ,apicius4 ,the liver is expected to weigh a kilogram1 7say two pounds71 while at least two kilograms of fat are saved in addition1 to garnish the family plat of vegetables during the remainder of the year4 ,footnote #aij3 ,reading foeles1 which ,keller1 in his account of the fauna of ancient ,italy in the ,cambridge ,companion to ,latin ,studies1 identifies with ,martes vulgaris4 ,sir ,anthony ,fitzherbert calls them fullymartes4 ,it does not appear that the ,romans had in ,varro's time brought from ,egypt our household cat1 ,f4 maniculata4 ,they used weasels and tame snakes for catching mice4 ,footnote #aia3 ,darwin 7,animals and ,plants1 ,i1 #h7 cites this passage and argues that ,varro's advice to cover the duck yard with netting to keep the ducks from flying out is evidence that in ,varro's time ducks were not entirely domesticated1 and hence that the modern domestic duck is the same species as the wild duck4 ,it may be noted1 however1 that ,varro gives the same advice about netting the chicken yard1 having said that chickens had been domesticated from the beginning of time4 ,footnote #aib3 ,the ancient ,etruscan city of ,tarquinii is now known as ,corneto4 ,the wild sheep which ,lippinus there kept in his game preserves were probably the mouflon which are still hunted in ,sardinia and ,corsica1 though they may have been the ,phrygian wild sheep 7,aegoceros argali7 which ,varro mentions in ,book ,,ii4 ,pliny 7,h4,n4 ,,viii1 #baa7 says that this ,lippinus was the first of the ,romans to keep wild animals enclosed2 that he established his preserves shortly before the ,civil ,wars1 and that he soon had imitators4 ,footnote #aic3 ,reading 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 the preceding four 99s are actually four instances of the infinity symbol 7like a digit #h rotated horizontally7passum4 ,the ,roman mile1 mille passuum1 was #adb yards less than the ,english mile4 ,footnote #aid3 ,of the three kinds of hares mentioned by ,varro the common ,italian kind was ,l4 timidus1 a roast shoulder of which ,horace vaunts as a delicacy3 the ,alpine hare was ,l4 variabilis1 which grows white on the approach of winter3 and the cuniculus was the common rabbit known to our ,english ancestors as the coney4 ,strabo records 7,casaub1 #add7 that the inhabitants of the ,gymnesian 7,balearic7 ,islands in ,spain sent a deputation to ,augustus to request a military force to exterminate the pest of rabbits1 for such was their multitude that the people were being crowded out of their homes by them1 in which their plight was that of modern ,australia4 ,they were usually hunted in ,spain with muzzled ferrets imported from ,africa4 ,footnote #aie3 ,the edible snail1 helix pomatia1 ,l41 is still an article of commerce in ,france and ,italy4 ,they prey upon vines and give evidence of their appreciation of the best by abounding in the vineyards of the ,cote d'or1 the ancient ,burgundy4 ,there at the end of summer they are gathered for the double purpose of protecting the vines and delighting the epicure3 are then stored in a safe place until cold weather1 when they considerately seal up their own shells with a calcareous secretion and so are shipped to market4 ,here is the recipe for 'escargots la bourguignonne1' which despite the prejudice engendered by ,leviticus 7,,xi1 #cj47 may be recommended to the ,american palate jaded by beefsteak and potatoes and the high cost of living3 ,mettre les escargots a bouillir pendant #e a #aj minutes dans de l'eau sale1 les retirer de leur coquille1 les laver a l'eau froide pour les debarrasser du limon1 les cuire dans un court-bouillon fortement assaisonn4 ,apres cuisson les replacer dans le coquille bien nettoyee1 en les garnissant au fond et par dessus d'une farce de beurre frais manipule avec un fin hachis de persil1 cerfeuil1 ail1 echalote1 sel et poivre4 ,avant de servir1 faire chauffer au four4 ,footnote #aif3 ,reading ,,lxxx quadrantes4 ,a comparison may be made of this capacity with that of the ordinary snail known to the ,romans1 for their smallest unit of liquid measure was called a cochlear1 or snail shell1 and contained4#jb of a modern pint1 or1 as we may say1 a spoonful3 indeed the ,french word cuiller is derived from cochlear4 ,footnote #aig3 ,it is perhaps well to remind the ,american reader that the ,european dormouse 7,myoxus glis4 ,fr4 loir4 ,ger4 siebenschlafer7 is rather a squirrel than a mouse1 and that he is still esteemed a dainty edible1 as he was by the ,romans3 indeed when fat1 just before he retires to hibernate1 he might be preferred to 'possum and other strange dishes on which some hospitable ,americans regale themselves and the patient palates of touring ,presidents4 ,in his treatise ,de re culinaria ,apicius gives a recipe for a ragout of dormice which sounds appetizing4 ,footnote #aih3 ,darwin 7,animals and ,plants1 ,,xviii7 says3 ,i have never heard of the dormouse breeding in captivity4 ,footnote #aii3 ,varro makes no mention of tea and bread and butter as part of the diet of a dormouse2 so we are better able to understand his abstinence at the mad tea party in ,alice in ,wonderland4 ,as ,martial 7,,iii1 #eh7 calls him somniculosus1 it is probable that his table manners on that occasion were nothing new and that his ,english and ,german names were always justified4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,this is one of ,varro's puns which requires a surgical operation to get it into one's head4 ,appius is selected to talk about bees because his name has some echo of the sound of apis1 the word for bee4 ,footnote #bja3 ,the study of bees was as interesting to the ancients as it is to us4 ,there have survived from among many others the treatises of ,aristotle1 ,varro1 ,virgil1 ,columella and ,pliny1 but they are all made up1 as ,maeterlinck has remarked1 of erreurs charmantes1 and for that reason the antique lore of bees is read perhaps to best advantage in the mellifluous verses of the fourth ,georgic1 which follow ,varro closely4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,he might have said also that the hexagonal form of construction employed by bees produces the largest possible result with the least labour and material4 ,maeterlinck rehearses 7,la ,vie des ,abeilles1 #ach7 the result of the study of this problem in the highest mathematics3 ,raumur avait propos au clbre mathematicien ,koenig le problem suivant3 ',entre toutes les cellules hexagonales a fond pyramidal compose de trois rhombes semblables et gaux1 determiner celle qui peut tre construite avec le moins de matire8' ,koenig trouva qu'une telle cellule avait son fond fait de trois rhombes dont chaque grand angle tait de #aji degrs1 #bf minutes et chaque petit de #gj degrs1 #cd minutes4 ,or1 un autre savant1 ,maraldi1 ayant mesur aussi exactement que possible les angles des rhombes construits par les abeilles fixa les grands #aji degrs1 #bh minutes1 et les petits a #gj degrs1 #cb minutes4 ,il n'y avait done1 entre les deux solutions qu'une difference de #b minutes4 ,,ii est probable que l'erreur1 s'il y en a une1 doit tre imputee a ,maraldi plutot qu'aux abeilles1 car aucun instrument ne permet de mesurer avec une precision infallible les angles des cellules qui ne sont pas assez nettlement definis4 ,maclaurin1 a ,scotch physicist1 checked ,koenig's computations and reported to the ,royal ,society in ,london in #agdc that he found a solution in exact accord with ,maraldi's measurements1 thereby completely justifying the mathematics of the bee architect4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,the ,romans were as curious and as constant in the use of perfumes as we are of tobacco4 ,it is perhaps well to remember that they might find our smoke as offensive as we would their unguents4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,indeed one of the marvels of nature is the service which certain bees perform for certain plants in transferring their fertilizing pollen which has no other means of transportation4 ,darwin is most interesting on this subject4 ,footnote #bje3 ,the ancients1 even ,aristotle1 did not know that the queen bee is the common mother of the hive4 ,they called her the king1 and it remained for ,swammerdam in the seventeenth century to determine with the microscope this important fact4 ,from that discovery has developed our modern knowledge of the bee2 that the drones are the males and are suffered by the 7normally7 sterile workers to live only until one of them has performed his office of fertilizing once for all the new queen in that nuptial flight1 so dramatically fatal to the successful swain1 which ,maeterlinck has described with wonderful rhetoric1 whereupon the workers massacre the surviving males without mercy4 ,this is the driving out which ,varro mentions4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,this picture of the queen bee is hardly in accord with modern observations4 ,it seems that while the queen is treated with the utmost respect1 she is rather a royal prisoner than a ruler1 and1 after her nuptial flight1 is confined to her function of laying eggs incessantly unless she may be unwillingly dragged forth to lead a swarm4 ,maeterlinck thus pictures 7,la ,vie des ,abeilles1 #agd7 her existence with a ,gallic pencil3 ,elle n'aura aucune des habitudes1 aucunes des passions que nous croyons inherentes l'abeille4 ,elle n'eprouvera ni le desir du soleil1 ni le besoin de l'espace et mourra sans avoir visite une fleur4 ,elle passera son existence dans l'ombre et l'agitation de la foule la recherche infatigable de berceaux peupler4 ,en revanche1 elle connaitra seule l'inquietude de l'amour4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,it would have interested ,axius to know that the annual consumption of honey in the ,united ,states today is from #ajj to #abe million pounds and that the crop has a money value of at least ten million dollars4 ,to match ,seius1 we might put forward a bee farmer in ,california who produces annually #aej1jjj pounds of honey from #b1jjj hives4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,maeterlinck has made a charming picture of this habit of propinquity of the bee-stand to the human habitation4 ,he describes 7,la ,vie des ,abeilles1 #ad7 the old man who taught him to love bees when he was a boy in ,flanders1 an old man whose entire happiness consistait aux beauts d'un jardin et parmi ces beauts la mieux aimee et la plus visites etait un roucher1 compos de douze cloches de paille qu'il avait peint1 les unes de rose vif1 les autres de jaune clair1 la plupart d'un bleu tendre1 car il avail observ1 bien avant les experiences de ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 que le bleu est la couleur prefere des abeilles4 ,il avait install ce roucher centre le mur blanchi de la maison1 dans l'angle que formait une des ces savoureuses et fraiches cuisines hollondaises aux dressoirs de faience ou tincalaient les etains et les cuivres qui1 par la porte ouverte1 se refltaient dans un canal paisible4 ,et l'eau chargs d'images familires1 sous un rideau de peupliers1 guidait les regards jusqu'au rpos d'un horizon de moulins et de prs4 ,footnote #bji3 ,reading ,apiastro4 ,this is the ,melissa officinalis of ,linnaeus4 ,cf4 ,pliny1 ,,xx1 #de and ,,xxi1 #hf4 ,footnote #baj3 ,bee keepers attribute to ,reaumur the invention of the modern glass observation hive1 which has made possible so much of our knowledge of the bee1 but it may be noted that ,pliny 7,h4,n4 ,,xxi1 #dg7 mentions hives of lapis specularis1 some sort of talc1 contrived for the purpose of observing bees at work4 ,the great advance in bee hives is1 however1 the sectional construction attributed to ,langstroth and developed in ,america by ,root4 ,footnote #baa3 ,columella1 7,,ix1 #ad7 referring to the myth of the generation of bees in the carcase of an ox 7out of which ,virgil made the fable of the pastor ,aristaeus in the ,fourth ,georgic71 explains the practice mentioned in the text with the statement hic enim quasi quadam cognatione generis maxime est apibus aptus4 ,the plastering of wicker hives with ox dung persisted and is recommended in the seventeenth century editions of the ,maison ,rustique4 ,footnote #bab3 ,reading seditiosum4 ,footnote #bac3 ,this is a mistake upon which ,aristotle could have corrected ,varro4 ,footnote #bad3 ,after studying the commentators on this obscure passage1 ,i have elected to follow the emendation of ,ursinus1 which1 although ,keil sneers at its license1 has the advantage of making sense4 ,footnote #bae3 ,sinapis arvensis1 ,linn4 ,footnote #baf3 ,sium sisarum1 ,linn4 ,footnote #bag3 ,the philosophy of the bee is not as selfish as that human principle which ,varro attributes to them4 ,the hive does not send forth its youth to found a colony1 but1 on the contrary1 abandons its home and its accumulated store of wealth to its youth and itself ventures forth under the leadership of the old queen to face the uncertainties of the future1 leaving only a small band of old bees to guard the hive and rear the young until the new queen shall have supplied a new population4 ,footnote #bah3 ,reading imbecilliores4 ,footnote #bai3 ,pliny 7,h4,n4 ,,ix1 #ha7 relates that this loan was made to supply the banquet on the occasion of one of the triumphs of ,caesar the dictator1 but ,pliny puts the loan at six thousand fishes4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,it is impossible to translate this pun into ,english1 dulcis being the equivalent of both fresh and agreeable1 and amara of salt and disagreeable4 ,a ,french translator would have at his command doux and amer4 ,footnote #bba3 ,cf4 ,pliny 7,h4,n4 ,,ii1 #if73 ,in ,lydia the islands called ,calaminae are not only driven about by the wind1 but may even be pushed at pleasure from place to place1 by which means many people saved themselves in the ,mithridatic war4 ,there are some small islands in the ,nymphaeus called the ,dancers1 because1 when choruses are sung1 they move in tune with the measure of the music4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,reading in ius vocare1 with the double entendre of service in a sauce and bringing to justice4 ,,index ,actus 7actus guadratus71 unit of area in land measurement ,aegean ,sea1 derivation of name ,aesop's fable of the fox ,agriculture1 distinguished from grazing1 pottery-making1 etc4 definition of scope of purposes of1 are profit and pleasure four divisions for the study of effect of conformation of the land on1 effect of character of soil ,albutius1 ,l4 ,alfalfa1 advice concerning ,alfius1 ,roman farmer banker ,alpine hares ,amurca1 farm uses of used for anointing threshing floors waste of1 by ,romans method of preserving condensing ,apiaries1 location of ,see ,bees4 ,apicius1 recipe for ragout of dormice by1 ,appian1 quoted ,appius ,claudius ,pulcher ,apples1 storing ,apulian breed of horses ,aquinas1 ,thomas ,arbusta1 the ,italian ,arista1 etymology of word ,aristotle1 on blindness of puppies cited on goats' breathing through their ears on exercising of pregnant mares on breeding of mares story related by ,arpent1 derivation of ,asparagus planting1 ,asses1 use of1 as compared with other draught animals manure of certain choice breeds of buying1 breeding1 care of1 etc4 milk of ,atticus1 ,t4 ,pomponius ,augeas1 ,king1 tradition concerning ,augustine1 ,st41 on ,varro indebtedness of1 to works of ,varro ,aviaries1 profits from two classes of those kept for profit those kept for pleasure ,aviary1 ,varro's1 at ,casinum ,b ,bakewell1 breeding of sheep by ,barbers1 the first1 in ,italy ,barn yards1 arrangement of ,barrows1 hogs called ,bavaria1 agriculture in ,iowa contrasted with that in ,beans1 use of1 for green manuring storing ,beauclerk1 ,w4,n41 on agriculture in modern ,italy quoted ,bees1 eggs of unfertilized queen the keeping of theories concerning generation of treatises on1 by ancient writers habits and houses of money to be made from location of stands for food for2 structure and care of hives kinds of selection of moving swarming of removal of honey general care of ,benson1 ,william1 edition of ,georgics by1 quoted ,birds1 manure of ,blackbirds1 houses for keeping ,blackstone1 opinion by1 cited ,bleat1 etymology of word ,blood1 use of1 in composts ,boars1 advice concerning altering2 wild ,boissier1 ,gaston quoted and cited ,boke of ,husbandry1 ,fitzherbert's ,bologna sausages ,bones1 remedy for injuries to ,borden1 ,spencer1 ,the ,arab ,horse by1 quoted ,boundaries1 protection of farm ,buffon1 quotations from cited ,bugs1 recipe for exterminating ,buildings on farm ,c ,cabbage1 ,cato's advocacy of the planting seeding ,cakes1 recipes for ,calendar of agricultural operations ,capons1 chickens called method of caponizing cocks ,caprae1 goats1 derivation of word ,capreolus1 a spiral tendril ,cascate delle ,marmore ,casinum1 ,varro's estate of ,cassius1 quoted ,cassius ,dionysius ,cat1 the modern household1 unknown to ,varro ,cato1 ,marcus ,porcius the ,de re rustica of literary style of1 compared with ,varro ,cats1 contrasted with dogs in relations with man ,cattle1 leaves as fodder for feeding of care of number and selection of1 for a farm honour paid to1 in naming ,zodiacal signs and the constellations advice on breeding and feeding number of1 to be kept advice on neat cattle ,centuria1 defined ,chaff1 derivation of word ,cheese1 varieties and qualities of ,cheese cake ,chestnuts as food in ,italy ,child1 ,r41 quoted ,cicero1 quoted concerning ,varro verse from ,cleaning grain ,clement-,mullet1 ,j4,j41 translation by ,climate1 choice of1 in buying a farm connection between conformation of land and ,clover1 advice on seeding ,coburn1 book on alfalfa by ,colours of horses1 significance of ,columella cited on ploughing rules about the compost heap on soil improvement with legumes on dangers from mosquitoes on alfalfa quoted ,comedy of ,errors1 origin of ,compost heap1 rules concerning the ,concrete1 fences of ,conformation of land1 effect of1 on agriculture ,constellations1 names of cattle given to ,coots ,corn1 structure of plant storing ,see ,grain ,corn land as distinguished from plough land ,corsican honey ,cotton seed1 utilization of ,country life1 antiquity of ,cowper and ,cowley1 lines by ,crescenzi1 ,pietro1 cited ,cultivating time ,curing hams ,cuttage of plants ,cyrrhestes1 ,tower of the ,winds built by ,d ,dante1 quotation from ,darwin1 ,charles1 ,animals and ,plants by quoted on dormice ,dates1 eating preserved ,denarius1 value of the ,dennis1 ,cities and ,cemeteries of ,etruria by1 quoted ,de re rustica1 ,cato's ,desmolins1 ,edmond1 cited ,dickson1 ,andrew1 quoted cited ,diophanes of ,bithynia ,disease in cattle1 and remedies ,dislocations of bones1 remedy for ,dogs1 watch herd ,donaldson's ,agricultural ,biography1 quoted ,dondlinger1 ,book of ,wheat by1 quoted ,dormice1 enclosures for1 feeding1 etc4 ,draining period for ,draught animals on farm number and choice of ,dry farming ,ducks1 housing1 care of1 etc4 ,dunghill fowl ,dusting yard for poultry ,e ,eggs1 the first course in ,roman dinners barren number for setting preserving ,elm trees1 planting of for marking boundaries ,endive1 as food for geese ,ensilage1 question of use of1 by ancients ,equipment of a farm ,f ,fallow1 as managed by the ,romans ,farm1 buying a laying out of the stocking the as a source of both profit and pleasure effect of conformation of the land effect of character of the soil ,farm hands1 allowances for selection1 treatment1 number of1 etc41 ,farrago1 mixed fodder as food for geese ,feast days1 observance of ,feed racks1 construction of ,fences ,ferrero1 cited ,field crops1 planting of ,figs1 season for propagating eating preserved ,fining the soil ,fishes1 feeding and care of ,fish ponds fresh-water and salt-water number of1 on one estate ,fitzherbert1 ,sir ,anthony quoted2 cited on combining two kinds of husbandry on greasing of sheep ,flock masters1 duties of ,forage1 derivation from farrago ,forage crops ,foremen of farm hands1 qualifications of ,fowl4 ,see ,poultry ,fowler1 ,social ,life at ,rome by1 quoted ,france1 yields of wine in ,freemen as agricultural labourers ,fruits1 preserving time for using stored ,furlong1 derivation of ,g ,game preserves ,gauls1 pre-eminence of1 in growing and making of pork high qualities as shepherds ,geese1 selection of1 breeding1 care1 etc4 ,geldings1 horses called ,geoponica1 the2 cited ,georgics1 ,virgil's1 passages based on information from ,varro ,gestation1 periods of ,gleaning of grain fields ,gluma1 etymology of word ,goats1 as foes of agriculture characteristics1 breeding and handling milk of2 use of hair and skins of2 shearing of ,googe1 ,barnaby1 translation of ,heresbach by ,graftage of plants ,grain1 advice on seeding storing of cleaning1 when taken out of storage time for marketing ,granaries1 varieties of ,granum1 etymology of word ,grapes1 harvesting of advice on storing ,grapevines1 trellises and props for ,grazing1 to be distinguished from agriculture ,greek writers on agriculture ,green manuring ,guano ,guinea fowl ,h ,haeredium1 defined ,hair1 removal of superfluous ,hams1 recipes for curing and cooking ,hares1 varieties of ,see ,rabbits ,harte1 ,walter1 ,essays on ,husbandry by on alfalfa quoted ,hartlib1 ,samuel quoted on pasture vs4 arable land ,harvester1 ancient forerunners of the modern ,harvest time ,hay1 harvesting the storing of ,haymaking ,health1 location of farm steading with regard to ,healthfulness of farms1 importance of ,hedges1 myrtle ,heliotrope1 habits of the ,hens ,herd dogs ,heresbach1 ,conrad1 cited ,herrick1 ,robert1 quoted ,hesiod quoted and cited ,hinnies ,hives for bees1 location and structure inventors of modern devices ,hogs ,homer1 quoted on use of mules ,honey1 ,sicilian and ,corsican profits from removal of1 from hive ,honeycomb1 structure of the ,horace1 cited quoted ,horses1 oxen vs4 manure of breeding1 feeding1 care of1 etc4 ,house for residence on farm ,housekeeper1 duties of the ,i ,ibn-al-,awam1 book of agriculture by ,implements1 farming ,inarching1 propagation by ,incantations as cures ,interamna1 town of ,iowa1 farming in ,bavaria and ,italy1 agriculture in modern ,j ,johnson1 ,samuel1 on ,harte's ,husbandry quoted on ,shenstone ,joigneaux1 ,p41 on yields of wine in ,france ,jones1 ,w4,h41 on malaria in the ,roman ,campagna ,jugerum1 defined ,jugum1 defined ,jungle fowl ,k ,kames1 ,lord1 quoted ,keil1 quoted cited ,keller1 cited ,kitab al-felahah of ,ibn-al-,awam ,l ,labourers1 agricultural ,lanciani1 cited ,land1 effect of conformation of1 on agriculture ,leaves as fodder for cattle ,legumes1 soil improvement with storing ,leporaria ,library1 public1 at ,rome ,literature of farm management1 ancient ,live stock1 feeding care of origin and importance of husbandry of ,see ,cattle ,lombardy1 agriculture in ancient and modern ,m ,machiavelli1 quoted ,maeterlinck1 quoted on dogs on the antique lore of bees on the mathematics of the honeycomb on the queen bee's life on the nearness of the bee-stand to the dwelling-house ,mago the ,carthagenian1 treatise on farm management by quoted ,varro's account of ,maison ,rustique1 cited and quoted ,malaria in ,roman ,campagna ,manure1 preparation of best kinds of ,manure pits1 arrangement of ,manuring1 importance of green ,maremma sheep dogs ,mares1 use of1 for war horses milk of ,market day among the ,romans ,marl1 use of1 as manure ,marrying the vine ,martial1 quotation from ,meadows1 protection of irrigated1 of ,lombardy ,measurement of land1 units of area used in ,mile1 the ,roman ,military fences ,milk and milking1 advice on ,minerval1 a ,mitchell1 ,donald ,g4 ,mommsen1 quoted ,montesquieu1 quoted ,moon1 influence of1 on agriculture ,moryson1 ,fynes1 quoted ,mosquitoes1 perception by ,varro of damages from ,mules1 remarks on foaling by uses1 care of1 etc4 ,murray1 ,gilbert1 translation of ,euripides by ,must cake ,myers1 ,f4,w4,h41 cited ,n ,neat cattle1 buying1 breeding1 feeding1 etc4 ,neighbourhood1 considerations of1 in locating farm ,neighbours1 treatment of one's ,nummus1 a nickel1 ,nundinum1 the ,roman week ,nurseries1 protection of ,nuts1 eating preserved ,o ,oaks1 effect of1 on olive trees ,oboerati1 class of bondservants called ,ocinum1 basil ,oil1 manufacture of1 from olives ,oil-making implements ,olive farm1 number of hands for working an ,olives1 allowances of1 for farm hands reasons for growth in ,attica effect of oaks in neighbourhood of advice on planting propagating from truncheons harvesting of methods of preserving eating preserved ,olive salad ,onager1 wild ass ,orchards laying out and planting of olive ,ornithones ,see ,aviaries ,ortolans1 houses for keeping ,overseer duties of the location of room of ,ovid1 quoted ,oxen selling of worn-out comparison of horses and care of hoofs of treatment of sick number of1 suitable for a farm qualities of1 to be considered breaking of respect in which held by ancient ,romans ,p ,palladius quoted on the ,gallic harvester ,palma1 palm ,partridges ,pastures care of vs4 arable land ,pt de foie gras1 known and prized by ,romans ,peacocks1 discussion of ,perfumes among the ,romans ,persius1 cited ,petrarch on ,varro on the loss of ,varro's books ,philippus1 ,l4 ,marcius ,pigeon houses ,pigeons manure of kinds and care of ,pigs1 weanling1 called sacred ,planting field crops olives vines time of ,plants four methods of propagating transplanting cuttage graftage inarching time for using different methods of propagation mechanical action of ,plautus ,menaechmi of quoted ,plautius ,pleasure as a main purpose of agriculture ,pliny quoted use of marl as manure noted by on the ,gallic harvester cited ,pliny the ,younger1 study in garden of ,ploughing1 importance of thorough of rotten land ,plough land1 as distinguished from corn land ,polecats ,pollio1 ,asinius1 library at ,rome founded by ,polybius1 quoted ,pome fruits1 storing ,pomegranates1 preserving ,poultry1 kinds1 feeding1 and care of ,poultry houses ,protection of nurseries and meadows ,prothero1 quoted ,punning1 ,varro's use of ,pythagoras ,q ,quail1 houses for keeping migrations of ,queen bees1 recency of knowledge about ,quinces1 storing ,quintilian1 on ,varro ,r ,rabbits1 warrens for breeding and feeding of derivation of ,latin name for ,racking wine ,reate1 asses from ,recipes ,rerum ,rusticarum of ,varro ,virgil's indebtedness to ,rest room for farm hands ,ridgeway1 quoted on markings of horses ,ridging land1 custom of ,rogers1 ,thorold1 quoted ,roman fever ,rome1 insecurity of life in ancient ,rosea1 drainage of1 by artificial canals ,rosean breed of horses ,rotten land1 precautions regarding ,s ,sacred pigs ,salad1 olive ,salt1 allowance of1 for farm hands ,saltus1 defined ,salutations1 ,greek1 as used by ,romans ,saserna1 as a writer on agriculture quoted on number of farm hands necessary on securing allegiance of dogs ,sausages ,scab among sheep and cattle ,scratches in horses1 remedy for ,scratching pen for hens ,scripulum1 defined ,scrofa1 ,tremelius origin of name ,sea birds1 manure of ,seasons1 agricultural ,seed1 selection of ,seed bed1 preparing the ,sellar1 cited ,seneca1 on ,virgil's farming ,sestertius1 value of the ,sheep1 value of1 for their manure buying of feeding1 breeding1 and care of shearing of ,sheep dogs ,shepherds1 distinguished from farmers number and kind of1 requisite purchase of slaves for life of ,sicilian honey ,silos ,size of farm ,slaves1 selling of old and sick importance of food to contentment of selection of1 for farm hands number of1 for operating a farm buying1 to act as shepherds ,snails1 recipe for preparing cooked method of keeping in enclosures varieties of fattening of ,snakebite1 remedy for ,soil1 improvement of effect of character of1 on agriculture different kinds of fining the ,solar measure of year ,solomon1 quotation on ploughing from ,sour land1 treatment of ,sowing1 period for ,spring ploughing ,squabs ,stables for live stock ,steading1 building a husbandry of the development of the industries of the ,stamen1 etymology of ,stocking a farm ,storing crops ,strabo1 inventor of aviaries cited ,straw1 derivation of word ,swine1 selecting1 feeding1 breeding1 etc4 ,t ,tarquinii1 ancient ,etruscan city ,taylor1 ,john1 ,arator by1 quoted ,teals ,teeth1 telling age of animals by the ,terra1 different senses of word ,thales of ,miletus ,thebes1 derivation of name ,theophrastus1 works by cited quoted on honey of ,corsica ,thessalian horses ,thinning vines ,threshing ,threshing floor1 the ,thrushes1 profits from houses for keeping ,tillage1 advice on ,time1 standards of the ,roman week ,tools1 farming ,toulouse1 production of pt de foie gras in ,transplanting ,transportation1 importance of ease of ,trellises in vineyards ,trumpet1 training hogs to obey sound of assembling wild boars and roebucks by the ,tull1 ,jethro ,turkeys1 fattening effect of introduction into ,europe1 on geese ,turtle doves1 housing and care of ,v ,varro1 ,marcus ,terentius the ,rerum ,rusticarum of works of1 besides ,rerum ,rusticarum1 activities of1 in war against pirates estate and museum of ,vegetable gardens ,versus1 the1 defined ,vetch1 derivation of name ,veterinary science of ancient ,romans ,villa1 discussion of the ,roman ,vines1 for marking farm boundaries advice on planting thinning ,vineyards1 the maintenance of implements for ,vintage1 work of the ,virgil indebtedness of1 to ,varro formula for testing sour land by advice on ploughing cited on colours of horses ,vitruvius1 quoted on ,cyrrhestes' ,tower of the ,winds ,w ,walnut trees1 effect of1 on surrounding land ,walter of ,henley quoted on use of marl as manure ,warrens1 defined ,watch dogs1 #aaf ,water for cattle ,water supply for a steading ,weaning1 of young cattle of lambs ,weanling pigs ,week1 the ,roman ,wheat1 seeding yields of structure of plant harvesting of ,wild asses ,wild boars1 keeping of1 in game preserves ,wind1 impregnating of mares by the ,wind breaks for olive orchards ,wine1 cabbage as an offset to effects of allowances of1 for farm hands yields of1 in ancient ,italy racking1 #agc used in cramming fowls ,winnowing ,winnowing basket1 use of1 for a cradle ,winter ploughing ,wood pigeons1 cramming and fattening ,wool1 shearing sheep for ,x ,xenophon1 as a writer on agriculture quoted ,y ,year1 solar measure of the ,young1 ,arthur inscription on tombstone of wife fences recommended by on necessary number of farm labourers ,z ,zeno of ,citium ,zodiacal signs1 honour paid to cattle in