,,johns ,,hopk9s ,,univ]sity ,,/udies ,,9 ,,hi/orical ,,& ,,political ,,sci5ce ,,h]b]t ,b4 ,,adams1 ,editor ,hi/ory is pa/ ,politics & ,politics pres5t ,hi/ory--,freeman ,,n9? ,,s]ies ,i-,,ii ,,gov]nm5t ,,& ,,adm9i/ration ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,by ,,we/el ,w4 ,,will\ghby1 ,a4,b4 ,fell[ 9 ,hi/ory ,,& ,,william ,f4 ,,will\ghby1 ,a4,b4 ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,labor #ahja ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts4 ,*apt]s4 ,i4 ,preface ,,ii4 ,gov]nm5t ,mon>*y ,absolute ,limit$ ,ari/ocracy ,democracy ,republic ,popul> ,gov]nm5t ,,iii4 ,functions ( ,gov]nm5t ,necess>y ,optional ,,iv4 ,colonial ,gov]nm5ts3 ,_! ,relation to ,ea* ,o!r1 & to ,engl& ,prov9cial ,propriet>y ,*>t] ,v4 ,/eps ,t[>d ,union--,articles ( ,conf$]ation ,new ,engl& ,conf$]ation ,albany ,conv5tion ,/amp ,act ,congress ,fir/ ,cont95tal ,congress ,second ,cont95tal ,congress ,articles ( ,conf$]ation ,elem5ts ,t5d+ to ,sep>ation & to ,union ,purposes ( ! ,conf$]ation ,s*eme ( ,gov]nm5t "u ! ,articles ,defects ( ! ,articles ,,vi4 ,adoption ( ! ,con/itution ,! ,con/itutional ,conv5tion ,argum5ts ,= & ,aga9/ ,adoption ,,vii4 ,presid5tial ,succession ,,viii4 ,election ( ,s5ators ,,ix4 ,congressional ,gov]nm5t ,x4 ,cab9et & ,executive ,dep>tm5ts ,/ate ,dep>tm5t ,treasury ,dep>tm5t ,w> ,dep>tm5t ,navy ,dep>tm5t ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t ,commission] ( ,l& ,(fice ,commission] ( ,p5sions ,commission] ( ,pat5ts ,commission] ( ,indian ,affairs ,bureau ( ,education ,commission] ( ,railroads ,geological ,survey ,sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,c5sus ,po/ ,(fice ,dep>tm5t ,dep>tm5t ( ,ju/ice ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture ,dep>tm5t ( ,labor ,int]/ate ,comm]ce ,commission ,fi% ,commission ,civil ,s]vice ,commission ,gov]nm5t ,pr9t+ ,(fice ,national ,museum1 ,smi?sonian ,in/itution1 & ,bureau ( ,e?nology ,libr>ian ( ,congress ,,xi4 ,! ,f$]al ,judici>y ,f$]al ,judicial ,sy/em ,di/rict ,c\rts ,circuit ,c\rts ,jurisdiction ,,xii4 ,ord9ance = ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,nor?we/ ,t]ritory ,,xiii4 ,gov]nm5t ( ,t]ritories ,admission ( a ,t]ritory z a ,/ate ,,xiv4 ,/ate ,gov]nm5ts ,/ate ,con/itutions ,/ate ,legislatures ,/ate ,executives ,/ate ,judici>y ,,xv4 ,local ,gov]nm5t ,9 ,new ,engl& ,9 ! ,s\? ,9 ! ,we/ ,,xvi4 ,city ,gov]nm5t ,,xvii4 ,gov]nm5t ,rev5ue & ,exp5diture ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t ,/ate & ,local ,taxes ,exp5ditures ,m>yl& ,baltimore ,,xviii4 ,money ,gold ,co91 ,gold ,bullion1 & ,gold ,c]tificates ,silv] ,doll>s & ,silv] ,c]tificates ,subsidi>y & ,m9or ,co9s ,treasury ,notes ,notes ( ,national ,banks ,,xix4 ,public ,l&s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,educational ,grants ,l& ,b\nties = ,milit>y & ,naval ,s]vice ,l& ,grants to ,/ates = ,int]nal ,improvem5t ,sale ( ,public ,l& ,"u ,pre-emption ,acts ,"u ,home/ead ,acts ,"u ,timb] ,culture ,act ,c]ta9 ,l&s to ,/ates ,grants to ,pacific & o!r ,railroads ,,xx4 ,recon/ruction ,,xxi4 ,p>ty ,ma*9]y ,,xxii4 ,national ,conv5tions & ,presid5tial ,campaigns ,hi/ory & ,developm5t ( ! ,national ,conv5tion ,me?od ( ,proc$ure ,,xxiii4 ,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,political ,p>ties 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bibliographical ,note ,,gov]nm5t ,,& ,,adm9i/ration ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,preface4 ,^! *apt]s 7 orig9ally prep>$ = & us$ z a manual 9 ! public s*ools ( ! ,di/rict ( ,columbia4 ,9 a revis$ & amplifi$ =m !y are n[ publi%$ z "o ( ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity ,/udies 9 ,hi/ory & ,politics4 ,! aim ( ?is revision is to furni% assi/ance to /ud5ts beg9n+ ! /udy ( ! hi/ory & practical work+s ( our political in/itutions4 ,x is n ! purpose to furni% a complete text-book ^u ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & its adm9i/ration1 b1 by a cle>1 concise /atem5t ( ! sali5t po9ts ( our f$]al sy/em1 & a description ( ! actual work+s ( ! *>act]i/ic features ( our in/itutions1 to give to ! /ud5t a bett] und]/&+ ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! same are adm9i/]$1 ?an is to be obta9$ f ! ord9>y text-books on ,civil ,gov]nm5t4 ,^! ,outl9es are int5d$ z an aid to bo? tea*] & pupil1 & = use 9 a class ^: memb]s are already famili> ) ! lead+ ev5ts & names 9 ,unit$ ,/ates hi/ory4 ,! "w is int5d$ to furni% su* supplem5t>y in=mation z c be obta9$ only ) great difficulty by mo/ tea*]s1 & :i* = ! mo/ "p _c be obta9$ at all by ! pupils4 ,! au?ors h endeavor$ to make prom95t ! fact t our pres5t =m ( gov]nm5t is f> f be+ conta9$ 9 ! writt5 con/itution ( #aghg1 & consequ5tly1 t a /udy ( t in/rum5t alone w give a v inadequate idea ( our gov]nm5t z x is4 ,! con/itution 0 b a f\ndation ^u :i* to build a gov]nm5t4 ,no?+ l an analysis or comm5t>y ^u ! con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is "h attempt$4 ,! public is already well suppli$ ) books cov]+ t gr\nd4 ,hi/ory prop]1 except z %[+ ! basis & reason = ! e/abli%m5t ( our in/itutions1 has likewise f\nd no place "h4 ,! book is to be us$ *iefly z a manual1 to supply in=mation t w\ld o!rwise ne$ to be dictat$ by ! in/ructor4 ,! ,outl9es are 9 _m p>ticul>s m]ely sugge/ive4 ,_m topics are simply m5tion$1 :i* ! tea*] mu/ elaborate & expla9 at great] l5g?4 ,la/ly1 ?\gh ?is book does n pret5d to give a connect$ acc\nt ( our adm9i/ration or politics1 yet ! subjects h be5 c>efully arrang$ 9 su* an ord] z w\ld mo/ naturally be foll[$ 9 a c\rse to :i* ! "w is int5d$ to be an aid4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,gov]nm5t4 ,f ! e>lie/ times ( :i* hi/ory furni%es au!ntic record1 & 9 all c\ntries inhabit$ by man1 p h f\nd x necess>y to b9d !mselves toge!r by civic regulations s t c]ta9 ?+s may be done by all 9 common--9 %ort1 to e/abli% "s =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,n[1 z has always be5 ! case1 !re are c]ta9 ?+s :i*1 f _! v nature1 _c be left to ea* individual to d1 or n to d1 z he may *oose1 or to d 9 8 own way4 ,fir/ ( all1 !re is ! necessity ( "s means by :i* ! weak may be protect$ f ! /rong4 ,! individual mu/ be protect$ 9 8 life & lib]ty1 & !re mu/ be "s gu>antee to him1 t if he is indu/ri\s ! enjoym5t ( ! product ( 8 labor w be secur$ to him4 ,human nature be+ imp]fect1 disputes & inju/ice are sure to arise4 ,h5ce comes ! necessity ( "s p[] above ! citiz5s & able to comm& _! ob$i5ce1 "s p[] t c adm9i/] ju/ice accord+ to ! rights & n accord+ to ! /r5g? ( individuals4 ,to ?us control ! actions ( individuals1 ?is p[] above ! citiz5s1 ?is gov]nm5t1 mu/ possess functions ( ?ree k9ds4 ,fir/1 legislative p[]1 or p[] to decl>e ! rules ( conduct to :i* ! citiz5 mu/ con=m2 second1 judicial p[]1 or p[] to int]pret & decl>e ! true mean+ ( ^! rules1 & to apply !m to ! p>ticul> cases t may arise2 & ?ird1 ! executive p[]1 or p[] to c>ry into execution ^! laws1 & to en=ce ! ob$i5ce ( ! citiz5s4 ,to ! /ud5t no?+ c\ld be m int]e/+ & in/ructive1 ?an to trace h[1 z tribes & nations h progress$ 9 civilization1 gov]nm5t has advanc$ 9 its developm5t4 ,h[1 z m5 h progress$1 fir/ f ! condition ( savage hunt]s to ! rov+ fe$]s ( flocks1 !n to till]s ( ! soil ) fix$ places ( abode1 & f9ally to build]s ( cities teem+ ) trade1 comm]ce & manufactures2 h[ z m5 h ?us improv$ 9 civilization & mat]ial well-be+1 _! mutual duties & common int]e/s h become m & m important & num]\s1 & gov]nm5t z controll+ ^! int]e/s & duties1 has develop$ 9 =m & improv$ 9 /ructure until x has become an all-p[]ful1 complex ma*9e1 controll+ 9 _m ways ! actions1 & ev5 ! lives ( its citiz5s4 ,= ?\s&s ( ye>s1 gov]nm5ts h be5 develop+ & *ang+ 9 =m & functions1 & a v l>ge "p ( ! hi/ory ( ! nations ( ! globe is id5tifi$ ) ! hi/ory ( ! developm5t & *anges ( _! gov]nm5ts4 ,z new conditions & ne$s h aris51 gov]nm5ts h adapt$ !mselves to !m4 ,9 "s cases ?is has be5 done peacefully1 z 9 ,engl&1 & 9 o!rs viol5tly1 by revolution>y means1 z 9 ,france4 ,9 "s cases functions previ\sly ex]cis$ h be5 rel9qui%$1 9 o!rs1 new p[]s h be5 assum$2 b 9 ! majority ( cases1 ! *ange has be5 m]ely 9 ! mann] ( ex]cis+ ?is or t p[]4 ,all peoples h n ! same *>act]i/ics1 nor h !y develop$ "u ! same conditions ( climate1 soil or situation4 ,diff]5t nations h1 !re=e1 develop$ = !mselves diff]5t =ms ( gov]nm5t4 ,yet ^! gov]nm5ts1 h[ev] diff]5t 9 _! /ructures & adm9i/ration1 are 9 all cases di/9ctly ref]able to f\r well def9$ types3 ,mon>*y1 ,ari/ocracy1 ,democracy1 & ! ,republic4 ,mon>*y4--,a mon>*y is a nation at ^: head is a p]sonal rul]1 call$ ,k+1 ,emp]or1 or ,cz>1 :o has control ( ! gov]nm5t1 appo9ts ! pr9cipal (fic]s ( /ate1 & to :om 9 !ory at lea/1 ^! appo9tees are responsible = _! actions4 ,?us ,engl&1 ,g]many1 ,spa91 ,italy1 ,sw$51 & o!rs are mon>*ies4 ,! sov]eign holds 8 position = life1 & usually acquires 8 ?rone by inh]itance4 ,:]e ! cr[n is nom9ally elective1 z 9 ,engl&1 k+%ip is practically h]$it>y1 ! regul> l9e ( desc5t be+ dep>t$ f only ^u r>e occasions4 ,! am\nt ( p[] actually ex]cis$1 ! responsibility borne by ! sov]eign v>ies widely 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 & ^u ! basis ( ^! diff]5ces mon>*ial =ms ( gov]nm5t are classifi$ "u ! two heads1 ,absolute & ,limit$ ,mon>*ies4 ,an ,absolute ,mon>*y4--,an absolute mon>*y is "o 9 :i* ! sov]eign or rul] is possess$ ( supreme p[] & au?ority1 & controls absolutely1 )\t limitation or int]f]5ce1 all ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t4 ,8 ^w is law & requires n ! sanction ( ! p4 ,8 comm&s are absolute & require n ! =mality ( judicial proc$ure1 & are n necess>ily 9 con=mity ) exi/+ laws4 ,implicit ob$i5ce to 8 comm&s1 h[ev] arbitr>y1 may be dem&$1 & !re is no appeal4 ,^! are1 !oretically1 ! p[]s ( ! absolute mon>*4 ,practically1 h[ev]1 he is con/ra9$ to keep )9 fair b\nds ( ju/ice & good policy1 le/ 8 subjects be goad$ to rebellion & revolution4 ,! absolute =m ( mon>*y exi/s to-day 9 ! empires ( ,russia & ,turkey4 ,a ,limit$ ,mon>*y4--,a limit$ mon>*y is "o 9 :i* ! rul]1 ?\gh at ! head ( ! gov]nm5t1 is n absolute1 b is limit$ 9 8 p[]s by ! action ( a body ( m51 select$ by ! p1 :o make ! laws by :i* ! nation is to be gov]n$4 ,! respective rights & p[]s ( ! sov]eign & ( ! law-mak+ body1 are det]m9$ by a collection ( rules1 writt5 or unwritt51 collectively kn[n z ! con/itution4 ,! con/itution conta9s ! fundam5tal law ( ! l&4 ,all acts ( ! gov]nm5t to be valid1 mu/ be con/itutional1 t is to say1 9 con=mity ) ! rules laid d[n 9 ! con/itution4 ,= ?is reason limit$ mon>*ies are also kn[n by ! "n ( ,con/itutional ,mon>*ies4 ,engl& is ! mo/ conspicu\s example ( a limit$ or con/itutional mon>*y4 ,9 consid]ation ( our =m] connection ) h]1 & ! ext5t to :i* we h d]iv$ our ideas ( gov]nm5t f h] political in/itutions1 x w be ( great assi/ance to u if we /op = a mom5t to consid] h] gov]nm5t1 be=e proce$+ to a /udy ( our own4 ,! sov]eign ( ,engl& is t]m$ ,k+ or ,que54 ,orig9ally possess$ ( almo/ absolute p[]1 ! ,engli% rul]1 at ! pres5t day possesses v little actual p[] & influ5ce1 mu* less 9 fact ?an ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates h entru/$ to _! ,presid5t4 ,! con/itutional hi/ory ( ,engl& is l>gely ! n>rative ( ! successive /eps by :i* ! p h wre/$ f royal h&s & tak5 "u _! own control1 ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t4 ,! rights ( ! ,engli% p 9 ! p>ticipation ( _! own gov]nm5t are n conta9$ 9 ! writt5 docum5t1 su* z we possess 9 our con/itution1 b re/ ^u e/abli%$ cu/om & prec$5t1 & v>i\s *>t]s wre/$ f _! k+s4 ,! ,engli% ,p>liam5t1 or1 to speak m exactly1 ! l[] bran* ( ! ,p>liam5t1 call$ ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 rules ! ,engli% p4 ,! ,p>liam5t or law-mak+ bran* ( ! ,engli% gov]nm5t1 is divid$ into two h\ses1 ! ,h\se ( ,lords1 & ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 ,! ,h\se ( ,lords is1 z its "n d5otes1 compos$ ma9ly ( memb]s ( ! noble families ( ,engl&1 :o owe _! seat 9 t body to ! *ance ( bir?4 ,!oretically possess$ ( p[]s ( legislation equal to ^? ex]cis$ by ! l[] & m num]\s bran* 7! ,commons71 ! ,lords h 9 reality b a small voice 9 ! control ( public affairs4 ,! ,h\se ( ,commons is compos$ ( memb]s elect$ by ! p4 ,9 ?is body reside almo/ all ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t4 ,its acts require ! ass5t ( ! ,h\se ( ,lords & ( ! ,k+1 b ?is ass5t is almo/ :olly =mal4 ,! sph]e ( legislation all[$ ! ,engli% ,p>liam5t is unlimit$1 diff]+ 9 ?is respect fundam5tally f our ,congress1 :i* is limit$ 9 its legislative field by ! ,con/itution4 ,f ! ,engli% ,p>liam5t is select$ ! ,cab9et consi/+ ( ! pr9cipal executive (ficials1 :o guide ! ,h\se 9 its legislation1 & at ! same "t conduct ! executive affairs ( ! nation4 ,^! m9i/]s1 z !y are call$1 are appo9t$ by ! k+ f ! p>ty 9 ! majority 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 ,!y are responsible to t body = all _! actions1 & reta9 _! (fices only s long z !y reta9 ! confid5ce & good w ( ! ,commons4 ,an ,ari/ocracy4--,an ari/ocracy is a gov]nm5t 9 ! h&s ( a select few1 call$ ! ari/ocracy1 :o transmit ?is au?ority to _! *ildr54 ,!re are to-day no ari/ocratic gov]nm5ts prop]1 ?\gh _m nations exhibit ari/ocratic t5d5cies4 ,9 ne>ly all ( ! ,european c\ntries1 "o bran*1 at lea/1 ( _! legislatures is compos$ ( memb]s hold+ _! seats on acc\nt ( noble bir?1 ?us admitt+ ! ari/ocratic elem5t into _! gov]nm5ts4 ,democracy4--,a pure democracy is a gov]nm5t 9 :i* all ! p rule directly1 meet+ 9 popul> assemblies 9 :i* is det]m9$ by ! votes ( ! majority h[ ! gov]nm5t is to be adm9i/]$4 ,?is =m ( gov]nm5t is obvi\sly possible only 9 v small communities4 ,sev]al ( ! ,grecian /ates gov]n$ !mselves aft] ?is mann]4 ,no p]fect example ( a nation ) ?is =m ( gov]nm5t c be said to exi/ at ?is "t4 ,! ne>e/ approa* to pure democracy is f\nd 9 c]ta9 cantons ( ,switz]l&4 ,! ,roman hi/orian ,tacitus tells u t ! e>ly ,g]mans gov]n$ !mselves 9 a purely democratic mann]1 & ! fir/ gov]nm5ts ( sev]al ( our ,am]ican colonies 7 ( ! democratic type4 ,:5 we come to ! /udy ( local gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates we %all see ! democratic =m foll[$ 9 ! ,new ,engl& ,t[n ,meet+s4 ,republic4--,a republic is a democracy adapt$ by means ( ! introduction ( ! repres5tative pr9ciple1 to ! gov]nm5t ( a l>ge & widely sep>at$ p4 ,"u ?is =m ( gov]nm5t ! p rule !mselves1 n directly1 z 9 a democracy1 b ?r\gh ag5ts or repres5tatives ( _! own selection4 ,! p>ticipation ( ! p 9 _! own gov]nm5t consi/s !re=e m]ely 9 ! *oice ( (fic]s to repres5t !m & c>ry out _! wi%es4 ,!re exi/ at pres5t sev]al republics1 ! t5d5cy seem+ to be = nations to approa* m ne>ly ?is =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,france has be51 s9ce #ahgj1 ! be/ ,european example ( a republic4 ,our own gov]nm5t--! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica--is to u ! mo/ int]e/+ & important example ( a republic4 ,popul> ,gov]nm5t4--,by ! ^w 'popul>' is meant1 ( or by ! p1 & by popul> gov]nm5t is to be und]/ood a gov]nm5t 9 ! adm9i/ration ( :i* ! p z a :ole p>ticipate4 ,e *ange by :i* new & great] political p[]s are giv5 into ! h&s ( ! common p is consid]$ a /ep t[>ds ! full realization ( popul> gov]nm5t4 ,dur+ ! la/ "o hundr$ ye>s great /rides h be5 made 9 ?is direction by all ,european nations except ,turkey & ,russia4 ,! ext5t to :i* ?is movem5t t[>ds popul> control ( gov]nm5t c be safely & successfully c>ri$ is a "q ( v great importance4 ,to a v l>ge ext5t x dep5ds ^u ! intellig5ce1 previ\s tra9+1 & natural political ability ( ! p :o are to be entru/$ ) _! own gov]nm5t4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,! ,functions ( ,gov]nm5t4 ,broadly speak+1 ! functions p]=m$ by gov]nm5t are ( a ?reefold ord]3 ! e/abli%m5t1 int]pretation1 & en=cem5t ( laws4 ,a division ( gov]nm5t into ?ree bran*es is ?us call$ =3 ! legislative1 ! judicial & ! executive4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ^! dep>tm5ts are relat$ to ea* o!r1 ! ext5t to :i* !y are ve/$ 9 ! same h&s1 & ! degree 9 :i* !y are sep>ate f ea* o!r & indep5d5t 9 _! work+s1 diff] 9 diff]5t c\ntries4 ,9 ,engl&1 z we h se51 ! executive & legislative functions are closely unit$4 ,9 our gov]nm5t1 z we %all see :5 we come to consid] its /ructure1 complete indep5d5ce ( ! ?ree dep>tm5ts has be5 aim$ at4 ,all /atesm5 agree t a good gov]nm5t %\ld possess ample p[] to int]pret its own laws1 & suffici5t /r5g? to fully en=ce !m4 ,:5 we come1 h[ev]1 to ! "q ( :at are ! prop] subjects = control by gov]nm5t1 & :at = free managem5t by individuals1 we rea* a subject ^u :i* writ]s & ?9k]s h be5 unable to agree4 ,"u ! great "q1 ov] h[ broad a field x is exp$i5t & "r to ext5d ! activities ( gov]nm5t1 are embrac$ _m ( ! great topics at pres5t agitat+ ! public m9d4 ,diff]5ce ^u ?is po9t has be5 "o ( ! und]ly+ causes ( ! exi/5ce ( political p>ties 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & has furni%$ "o ( ! real spr+s ( our hi/ory4 ,communism1 socialism1 & an>*y1 may be embrac$ "u ?is "q4 ,?is x is t makes ! /udy ( ! pr9ciples ( gov]nm5t1 especially 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 s important to e "o :o w\ld und]/& ! political life ar\nd him1 & be able to =m an intellig5t decision ^u ! que/ions ( ! day4 ,%all ! nation or ! /ate own & manage ! railroads1 ! telegraph l9es1 & ! canals8 ,%all education receive ! support ( ! /ate8 ,%all ! employm5t ( wom5 & *ildr5 9 m9es & factories be regulat$ by law8 ,%all ! city own its own /reet railways1 its m>kets1 its wat] & gas supply1 its telephones1 & its wat] fronts8 ,%all ?is or t duty be delegat$ to ! city or to ! /ate1 or %all x be left to ! *ance p]=mance ( individuals or corporations8 ,^! are "s ( ! _m que/ions ( supreme importance t meet u at e po9t1 & ! bett] we und]/& ! true nature & /ructure ( our gov]nm5t1 ! bett] %all we be able to give intellig5t answ]s4 ,among ! _m functions ( gov]nm5t1 !re are _m s obvi\sly necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( a nation1 h[ev] organiz$1 t !re is no discussion conc]n+ ! exp$i5cy ( _! ex]cise by ! /ate4 ,we may1 !re=e1 gr\p gov]nm5tal duties "u two heads3 ! necess>y1 & ! optionable2 or1 z ,pr(essor ,wilson has nam$ !m1 ! ,con/itu5t & ! ,m9i/rant4#a ,"u ! fir/ head is embrac$ all ^? functions :i* mu/ exi/ "u e =m ( gov]nm5t2 & "u ! second title ^? und]tak51 n by way ( gov]n+1 b by way ( advanc+ ! g5]al int]e/s ( society4 ,! foll[+ is ,pr(essor ,wilson's classification3 ,i4 ,! ,necess>y or ,con/itu5t ,functions4-- 7#a74 ,! keep+ ( ord] & provid+ = ! protection ( p]sons & prop]ty f viol5ce & robb]y4 7#b74 ,! fix+ ( ! legal relations betwe5 man & wife1 & betwe5 p>5ts & *ildr54 7#c74 ,! regulation ( ! hold+1 transmission1 & int]*ange ( prop]ty1 & det]m9ation ( its liabilities = debt or = crime4 7#d74 ,! det]m9ation ( contract rights betwe5 individuals4 7#e74 ,! def9ition & puni%m5t ( crime4 7#f74 ,! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice 9 civil causes4 7#g74 ,! det]m9ation ( ! political duties1 privileges1 & relations ( citiz5s4 7#h74 ,deal+s ( ! /ate ) =eign p[]s2 ! pres]vation ( ! /ate f ext]nal dang] or encroa*m5t1 & ! advancem5t ( its intellectual int]e/s4 ,,ii4 ,optional or ,m9i/rant ,functions4 7#a74 ,! regulation ( trade & indu/ry4 ,"u ?is head we mu/ include ! co9age ( money1 & ! e/abli%m5t ( /&>d weights & measures1 laws aga9/ =e/all+1 engross+1 ! lic5s+ ( trades1 etc41 z well z ! great matt]s ( t>iffs1 navigation laws1 & ! l4 7#b74 ,! regulation ( labor4 7#c74 ,! ma9t5ance ( ?or\ghf>es1 includ+ /ate managem5t ( railways1 & t great gr\p ( und]tak+s :i* we embrace )9 ! compreh5sive t]ms ',int]nal ,improvem5ts1' or ',! ,developm5t ( ! ,c\ntry4' 7#d74 ,! ma9t5ance ( po/al & telegraph sy/ems1 :i* is v simil> 9 pr9ciple to 7#c74 7#e74 ,! manufacture & di/ribution ( gas1 ! ma9t5ance ( wat]-works1 c4 7#f74 ,sanitation1 includ+ ! regulation ( trades = sanit>y purposes4 7#g74 ,education4 7#h74 ,c>e ( ! poor & incapable4 7#i74 ,c>e & cultivation ( =e/s & l matt]s1 su* z /ock+ ( riv]s ) fi%4 7#aj74 ,sumptu>y laws1 su* z 'prohibition' laws4 ,"u ?is second head h be5 includ$ by no means all ( ! functions ^: ex]cise by ! gov]nm5t has be5 attempt$ or propos$1 b !y %[ ! pr9cipal ones1 & s]ve to indicate ! nature ( ! optional field ( gov]nm5tal activity4 ,footnote #a3 ,wilson1 ,! ,/ate1 ,section #abcb4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,colonial ,gov]nm5ts2 ,_! ,relation to ,ea* ,o!r1 & to ,engl&4 ,to und]/& cle>ly ! e>ly hi/ory ( our c\ntry2 to appreciate ! reasons = ! grievances ( ! coloni/s aga9/ _! "m c\ntry2 & to ga9 an intellig5t idea ( ! ev5ts ( t mo/ critical p]iod ( our hi/ory1 :5 ! colonies1 !n free1 7 9 d\bt z to ! nature ( ! f$]al gov]nm5t !y %\ld adopt2 prop]ly to und]/& all ^! facts1 x is ( ess5tial importance t we %\ld ga9 a correct k ( ! condition ( ! colonies dur+ ^? times1 _! relations to "o ano!r1 _! gov]nm5tal connection ) & attitude t[>ds ,engl&4 ,! ?irte5 ,am]ican colonies1 :i* 9 #agge d>$ defy ! might ( ,great ,brita91 & :i* 9 a /ubborn /ruggle 7 able to w9 _! indep5d5ce1 7 settl$ at v>i\s times1 & by coloni/s actuat$ by widely diff]5t motives4 ,at ! "t ( ! beg9n+ ( _! resi/ance to ! oppressive acts ( _! "m c\ntry1 !y 71 9 _! gov]nm5ts1 entirely sep>ate f & indep5d5t ( ea* o!r4 ,?\gh ! colonies _h a common orig91 & ow$ a common allegiance to ,engl&1 & ! inhabitants ( ea* 7 ,briti% subjects1 !y _h no direct political connection ) ea* o!r4 ,ea* 9 a limit$ s5se1 0 sov]eign )9 its own t]ritory4444 ,! assembly ( "o prov9ce c\ld n make laws = ano!r4444 ,z coloni/s !y 7 also exclud$ f all connection ) =eign /ates4 ,!y 7 kn[n only z dep5d5cies4 ,!y foll[$ ! fate ( _! "m c\ntry bo? 9 peace & w>4444 ,!y c\ld n =m any treaty1 ev5 among !mselves1 )\t ! cons5t ( ,engl&4#a ,footnote #a3 ,/ory's ,comm5t>ies on ! ,con/itution1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #afc4 ,all ! colonies did n be> ! same relation to ! ,engli% gov]nm5t4 ,ow+ to ! diff]5t mann] 9 :i* ! "r ( settlem5t1 & occupancy ( ! soil _h be5 obta9$ f ! k+1 ! colonies _h obta9$ diff]5t rights ( gov]nm5t1 & 7 plac$ "u diff]5t obligations to ! cr[n4 ,!re came ?us to be ?ree types ( colonial gov]nm5ts2 ! prov9cial or royal1 ! propriet>y1 & *>t] gov]nm5ts4 ,i4 ,prov9cial ,colonies4--,^? colonies :i* possess$ a prov9cial =m ( gov]nm5t 7 royal colonies1 be+ gov]n$ almo/ entirely by ,engl&1 z %e gov]ns _m ( h] colonies to-day4 ,at ! head ( ea* 0 a ,gov]nor appo9t$ by ! ,k+ ( ,engl&4 ,he 0 assi/$ by a c\ncil1 also appo9t$ by ! k+4 ,! con/itution & laws = ?is =m ( gov]nm5t 7 conta9$ 9 ! commission & in/ruction giv5 to ! ,gov]nor by ! ,engli% gov]nm5t4 ,by !m ! ,gov]nor 0 emp[]$ to summon a repres5tative assembly4 ,! legislative body consi/$1 !n1 ( ! ,gov]nor1 8 c\ncil1 appo9t$ by ! k+1 & a l[] h\se elect$ by ! p4 ,! ,gov]nor _h ! "r ( veto1 & ! p[] to dissolve ! assembly4 ,! legislature c\ld make laws1 provid$ !y 7 n repugnant to ! laws ( ,engl&4 ,^! laws 7 subject to ! approval ( ! ,cr[n4 ,! gov]nor1 ) ! advice ( 8 c\ncil1 c\ld erect c\rts1 appo9t judges1 levy =ces1 etc4 ,f ! highe/ c\rts 9 all ! colonies an appeal lay to ! ,engli% ,k+ 9 ,c\ncil4 ,,ii4 ,propriet>y ,colonies4--,! ,engli% ,k+ (t5 gave to individuals l>ge tracts ( l& 9 ! ,new ,_w4 ,9 addition to own]%ip ( ! soil1 0 giv5 9 _m cases ! "r to e/abli% civil gov]nm5t4 ,^! proprietors _h all ! inf]ior royalties & subord9ate p[]s ( legislation4 ,! proprietor c\ld appo9t or dismiss ! gov]nor1 he c\ld inve/ him ) ! p[] to conv5e a legislature1 ) p[] to veto its acts accord+ to 8 wi%es1 & to p]=m all o!r p[]s ( a gov]nor4 ,all laws made1 ^? ( ,m>yl& except$1 7 subject to ! approval ( ! ,engli% ,cr[n4 ,,iii4 ,*>t] ,colonies4--,colonies "u ?is =m ( gov]nm5t 7 s call$ f _! possess+ con/itutions = _! g5]al political gov]nm5t4 ,^! writt5 con/itutions 7 *>t]s obta9$ f ! ,k+1 9 :i* 7 grant$ to ! p ( ! colony c]ta9 privileges & rights ( self-gov]nm5t :i* ! ,engli% gov]nm5t c\ld n ju/ly take away f !m4 ,"o ( ! unju/ acts t did mu* to ar\se ! coloni/s to resi/ance1 0 ! attempt ( ! ,engli% gov]nm5t 9 #aggd1 to annul ! *>t] ( ,massa*usetts by ! ,regulation ,act4 ,9 ?is act 0 conta9$ a prec$5t t 7z ,curtis says7 ju/ly al>m$ ! entire cont95t1 & 9 its pr9ciple affect$ all ! colonies1 s9ce x assum$ t none ( !m possess$ con/itutional rights :i* c\ld n be alt]$ or tak5 away by an act ( ,p>liam5t4 ,! *>t]s 7 v lib]al1 grant+ almo/ entire self-gov]nm5t4 ,z 9 ! royal colonies1 ! executive 0 a gov]nor1 & ! law-mak+ bran* a legislature ( two h\ses4 ,9 ,massa*usetts ! gov]nor 0 appo9t$ by ! ,cr[n1 & _h a veto p[]4 ,! ,c\ncil or upp] bran* ( ! legislature 0 *os5 annually by ! l[] h\se1 b ! gov]nor _h a "r ( veto on _! *oice4 ,! l[] h\se 0 elect$ by ! p4 ,9 ,connecticut & ,rhode ,isl& ! gov]nor1 c\ncil1 toge!r ) ! assembly 7 *os5 annually by popul> vote1 & all (fic]s 7 appo9t$ by !m4 ,9 ^! two ! gov]nor _h no "r ( veto1 & ! laws be=e go+ into execution did n require ! royal approval4 ,sev5 ( ! orig9al colonies began "u propriet>y gov]nm5ts--,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,delaw>e1 ,nor? & ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ,m>yl& & ,new ,j]sey4 ,( ^!1 f\r--,new ,york1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,nor? & ,s\? ,c>ol9a--became ev5tually prov9cial colonies1 & ,m>yl& 0 at "o "t a propriet>y4 ,?ree ( ! colonies1 ,massa*usetts1 ,connecticut & ,rhode ,isl&1 7 settl$ "u *>t]s t 7 nev] surr5d]$4 ,?ree o!rs1 ,virg9ia1 ,georgia & ,new ,hamp%ire possess$ *>t]s = a :ile1 b ev5tually became royal colonies4 ,not)/&+ ^! div]sities ( gov]nm5t t h be5 po9t$ out1 !re 7 _m features common to all ! colonies4 ,all consid]$ !mselves dep5d5cies ( ! ,briti% ,cr[n4 ,all ! coloni/s claim$ ! enjoym5t ( ! privileges & rights ( ,briti%-born subjects1 & ! b5efit ( ! common law ( ,engl&4 ,! laws ( all 7 requir$ to be n repugnant to1 b1 z ne>ly z possible1 9 con=mity ) ! laws ( ,engl&4 ,9 all ! colonies local legislatures exi/$1 at lea/ "o bran* ( :i* consi/$ ( repres5tatives *os5 by ! p4 ,! g5]al condition ( ! colonies at ! "t ( ! outbreak ( ! ,revolution>y ,w>1 s f> at lea/ z conc]ns _! gov]nm5ts1 has n[ be5 giv54 ,:at 7 ! gr\nds ^u :i* ! coloni/s ju/ifi$ _! resi/ance to ! acts ( ,engli% gov]nm5t8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y claim$ t _! rights 7 receiv$ f1 & _! allegiance 0 due to ! ,k+1 n to ! ,p>liam5t4 ,! coloni/s said ! ,k+ 0 ! only tie t b\nd !m to ,engl&2 t ,p>liam5t 0 compos$ ( repres5tatives f ,engl& alone1 & !re=e _h p[]s ( legislation only = ,engl&4 ,lat]1 h[ev]1 x 0 conc$$ t 9 matt]s ( g5]al int]e/ to ! :ole ,unit$ ,k+dom1 ,p>liam5t might ex]cise control1 b t conc]n+ all matt]s ( dome/ic & int]nal int]e/1 & ( conc]n only to !mselves1 x 0 ! "r ( _! own legislatures to legislate1 & t "u ?is head came taxation4 ,says ,/ory3#a ,p]haps ! be/ summ>y ( ! rights & lib]ties ass]t$ by all ! colonies is conta9$ 9 ! celebrat$ decl>ation drawn up by ! ,congress ( n9e colonies assembl$ at ,new ,york 9 ,octob]1 #agfe 7,/amp ,act ,congress74 ,t decl>ation ass]t$ t ! coloni/s 'owe ! same allegiance to ! ,cr[n ( ,great ,brita9 t is ow+ f 8 subjects born )9 ! realm1 & all due subord9ation to t augu/ body1 ! p>liam5t ( ,great ,brita91' ,t ! coloni/s 'are entitl$ to all ! inh]5t rights & lib]ties ( 8 7! ,k+'s7 natural born subjects )9 ! k+dom ( ,great ,brita94 ,t x is insep>ably ess5tial to ! fre$om ( a p1 & ! und\bt$ rights ( ,engli%m51 t no taxes be impos$ on !m b ) _! own cons5t giv5 p]sonally or by _! repres5tatives4' ,t ! 'p ( ! colonies are n1 & f _! local circum/ances _c be repres5t$ 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons ( ,great ,brita94 ,t ! only repres5tatives ( ^! colonies are p]sons *os5 by !mselves !re92 & t no taxes ev] h be5 or c be con/itutionally impos$ ^u !m b by _! respective legislatures1 & t trial by jury is ! inh]5t & invaluable "r ( e ,briti% subject 9 ^! colonies4' ,footnote #a3 ,comm5t>ies1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #age4 ,9 opposition to ^! views1 ! ,engli% gov]nm5t held t ,p>liam5t _h ! au?ority to b9d ! colonies 9 all matt]s :atsoev]1 & t !re 7 no ve/$ rights possess$ by ! colonies1 t c\ld n be alt]$ or annull$ if ,p>liam5t s desir$4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,revolution>y ,w>1 complete indep5d5ce 0 n claim$ by ! colonies4 ,x 0 n until ,july #d1 #aggf1 t !y 7 driv5 to a decl>ation ( full & entire indep5d5ce & self-gov]nm5t4 ,by ?is decl>ation ! colonies ?rew (f _! colonial "*1 & assum$ ! position ( /ates4 ,?is !y did by simply tak+ into _! own h&s ! p[]s previ\sly ex]cis$ by ! ,engli% ,k+ & ,p>liam5t4 ,9 ! /ate con/itutions :i* _m colonies =m$ dur+ ! ye>1 _! old colonial =ms ( gov]nm5t 7 closely foll[$4 ,connecticut & ,rhode ,isl&1 9 fact1 m]ely decl>$ _! allegiance to ,engl& absolv$1 & reta9$ un*ang$ _! old *>t]s z _! fundam5tal law4 ,9 ,connecticut no o!r /ate con/itution 0 adopt$ until #ahah1 nor 9 ,rhode ,isl& until #ahdb4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,/eps ,t[>d ,union4--,articles ( ,conf$]ation4 ,previ\s to #aggd ! ?irte5 ,engli% colonies 9 ,am]ica _h _h no political or gov]nm5tal connection ) ea* o!r4 ,any attempt on _! "p to unite )\t ! cons5t ( ! ,engli% ,k+ or ,p>liam5t w\ld h be5 consid]$ an act beyond _! p[]s & z insubord9ation t[>ds ! ,engli% gov]nm5t4 ,new ,engl& ,conf$]ation4--,9 #afdc !re 0 =m$ a union ( ! f\r colonies ( ,connecticut1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,plym\?1 & ,massa*usetts ,bay1 t]m$ ! ,new ,engl& ,conf$]ation1 :i* la/$ =ty ye>s2 b ?is 0 m]ely a union = mutual protection aga9/ _! common foes1 ! ,fr5*1 ! ,dut*1 & ! ,indians1 & n = jo9t legislation or gov]nm5t4 ,x 0 a def5sive alliance4 ,! ,albany ,conv5tion4--7,frankl9's ,plan47 ,9 #aged1 h[ev]1 !re 0 held a meet+ ( ! colonies ( ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,massa*usetts1 ,rhode ,isl&1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 & ,m>yl&1 call$ ! ,albany ,conv5tion1 9 :i* 0 propos$ a union ( all ! colonies "u "o gov]nm5t4 ,b5jam9 ,frankl91 ! *ief promot] ( ?is s*eme1 drew up an elaborate con/itution :i* 0 to be adopt$4 ,accord+ to ?is plan !re 0 to be a *ief executive1 elect$ by ! k+1 & a c\ncil ( #dh memb]s1 to be *os5 by ! legislatures ( ! sev]al colonies4 ,?is s*eme fail$ to obta9 ei!r ! cons5t ( ! k+ or ( ! colonies !mselves4 ,x 0 too mu* ( a union to suit ! k+1 & n en\gh = ! colonies4 ,! ,/amp ,act ,congress4--,! indignation ar\s$ by ! attempt ( ,engl& to tax h] colonies )\t all[+ !m a voice 9 ! ,p>liam5t :i* impos$ su* taxes1 gave rise 9 #agfe to a meet+ ( delegates f eight ( ! colonies4 ,?is assembly 0 call$ ! ,/amp ,act ,congress4 ,! obnoxi\s ,/amp ,act 0 repeal$1 b ,engl& cont9u$ to impose o!r taxes4 ,fir/ ,cont95tal ,congress4--,an invitation 0 s5t out by ,virg9ia to all ! colonies1 call+ a meet+ ( delegates to consid] :at c\ld be done by _! unit$ action to resi/ _! common grievance4 ,?us met ! ,fir/ ,cont95tal ,congress 9 #aggd1 9 :i* all ! colonies b ,georgia 7 repres5t$4 ,?is ,congress adopt$ a decl>ation ( rights & grievances4 ,! colonies ma9ta9$ t z long z !y 7 unrepres5t$ 9 ! ,engli% legislature 7,p>liam5t71 taxes %\ld be impos$ only by _! own legislatures2 also1 t !y 7 entitl$ to ! rights1 lib]ties1 & immunities ( free1 natural-born subjects )9 ! realm ( ,engl&4 ,! ,second ,cont95tal ,congress4--,on ,may #aj1 #agge1 assembl$ ! ,second ,cont95tal ,congress1 9 :i* all ! ?irte5 colonies 7 repres5t$4 ,! battle ( ,lex+ton _h !n be5 f\ght1 & blood _h be5 %$4 ,?\gh ! colonies _h z yet no int5tion ( ?r[+ (f all connection ) ,engl&1 !y 7 n[ prep>$ to resi/ ) arms any invasion ( _! rights4 ,! "w p]=m$ by ?is body has be5 concisely & =cibly /at$ by ,s*\l]4#a ,he says3 ,?us orig9at$ t rem>kable body kn[n z ! ,cont95tal ,congress1 :i*1 ) its p]iodical sessions & frequ5t *anges ( memb]%ip1 bore = fifte5 ye>s ! symbols ( ,f$]al p[] 9 ,am]ica2 :i*1 z a s+le h\se ( deputies act+ by ,colonies or ,/ates1 & bl5d+ ) legislative au?ority1 imp]fect executive & judicial functions1 rais$ armies1 laid taxes1 contract$ a common debt1 negotiat$ =eign treaties1 made w> & peace2 :i*1 9 ! "n & ) ! assum$ w>rant ( ! ?irte5 colonies1 decl>$ _! indep5d5ce ( ,great ,brita91 & by ,god's bless+ accompli%$ x2 :i*1 hav+ fram$ & promulgat$ a plan ( g5]al conf$]ation1 p]suad$ ^! same ?irte5 republics to adopt x1 ea* mak+ a sacrifice ( its sov]eignty = ! sake ( e/abli%+ a p]petual league1 to be kn[n z ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 a league pres]v$ until 9 ! fullness ( "t came a m p]fect ,union4 ,footnote #a3 ,hi/4 ,u4,s41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ac4 ,! acts ( ?is ,congress 7 ! fir/ legislative acts by ! jo9t action ( ! colonies4 ,! ,second ,cont95tal ,congress 0 ess5tially a revolution>y body4 ,t is to say1 ! au?ority = its acts re/$ ^u no def9ite grant ( p[]s by ! colonies1 b 0 assum$ by x to meet ! crisis ( w>4 ,prop]ly speak+1 x c\ld h>dly be call$ a gov]nm5t4 ,x 0 m 9 ! nature ( a direct+ advisory committee4 ,its comm&s possess$ a recomm5datory "* only1 & x 0 entirely )\t executive (fic]s1 or legal control ov] ei!r individuals or ! colonies4 ,! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation4--,a /rong] c5tral p[] ?an t af=d$ by ! ,cont95tal ,congress 0 se5 to be a necessity4 ,accord+ly1 9 #aggg1 !re 0 drawn up a s*eme ( union embrac$ 9 a pap] t]m$ ,! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation4 ,^! articles1 ?\gh adopt$ z e>ly z #aggg1 did n g into effect until #agha1 ! provision be+ t !y %\ld n be consid]$ z 9 =ce until ratifi$ by all ! colonies1 & sev]al refus$ to ratify until all /ate claims to we/]n t]ritory 7 rel9qui%$ 9 favor ( ! ,national ,gov]nm5t4 ,elem5ts ,t5d+ to ,sep>ation & ,^? ,t5d+ to ,union4--,we mu/ rememb] t ?is 0 a union ( ?irte5 previ\sly sep>ate colonies4 ,! facts :i* _h t5d$ to keep !m ap>t _h be5 ! difficulty ( travel & communication betwe5 ! colonies1 ! lack ( comm]cial int]c\rse1 b m ?an all1 _! local jeal\sies4 ,! small ,/ates fe>$ ! l>g]2 comm]cial jeal\sies 7 v ke54 ,9 #agef ,georgia & ,s\? ,c>ol9a actually came to bl[s ov] a dispute z to ! navigation ( ! ,savannah riv]4 ,o!r disputes ab\t b\nd>ies 7 frequ5t4 ,colonies ) good h>bors & seaports desir$ to keep ! b5efits ( !m exclusively to !mselves4 ,at t "t1 too1 ! p ( ! ?irte5 colonies 7 f> m widely sep>at$ 9 _! =ms ( gov]nm5t1 _! indu/rial habits & social cu/oms ?an !y n[ are4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! old facts :i* t5d$ to urge on a common union betwe5 !m 7 common race1 language1 & nationality1 _m simil> political in/itutions1 &1 mo/ ( all1 common int]e/s & a common p]il4 ,! ,purposes ( ! ,conf$]ation4--,! purposes ( ?is ,conf$]ation are be/ /at$ by giv+ ,article ,,iii ( ! ,articles3 ,! said ,/ates h]eby sev]ally ent] into a firm league ( fri5d%ip ) ea* o!r = _! common def5se & security ( _! lib]ties & _! mutual & g5]al welf>e1 b9d+ !mselves to assi/ ea* o!r aga9/ all =ce (f]$ to or attacks made ^u !m1 or any ( !m1 on acc\nt ( religion1 sov]eignty1 trade1 or any o!r pretext :atev]4 ,s*eme ( ,gov]nm5t "u ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation4--,! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation e/abli%$ a framework ( gov]nm5t = ! conf$]at$ colonies1 :i* gov]nm5t 0 to control ^? matt]s t exp]i5ce _h %[n c\ld be execut$ only by unit$ action4 ,z a s*eme ( gov]nm5t x 0 no bett] ?an a make%ift4 ,x 0 an ef=t to =m a f$]al p[] )\t dim9i%+ ! p[]s ( ! ,/ates--an ef=t to p>e (f slices ( /ate gov]nm5t )\t dim9i%+ ! loaf4 ,t su* a union c\ld be p]petual1 z ! s*eme pr(ess$1 0 impossible4 ,"u ^! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation ! sole functions ( ! f$]al au?ority1 legislative1 executive1 & judicial1 7 ve/$ 9 a ,cont95tal ,congress1 consi/+ ( a s+le h\se ( delegates1 :o vot$ by ,/ates1 & 7 appo9t$ annually 9 su* a mann] z ! respective ,/ates direct$4 ,ea* ,/ate 0 entitl$ to n less ?an two nor m ?an sev5 delegates1 a majority ( :om decid$ ! vote ( ! ,/ate 9 "q4 ,! executive functions 7 l>gely p]=m$ by a ,committee ( ,/ates1 :i* 0 emp[]$ to sit dur+ recesses4 ,= all important measures ! vote ( e ,/ate 0 requir$4 ,! vote ( all ?irte5 0 requir$ = an am5dm5t4 ,defects ( ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation4--,9 ?is s*eme ( union !re 7 _m fatal defects4 ,! pr9cipal ( ^! defects 7-- #a4 ,! want ( "s compulsory means ( en=c+ ob$i5ce to ! acts ( ,congress4 ,! articles provid$ nei!r an executive p[] nor a national judici>y wor? m5tion+4 ,z "o writ] has said3 ,congress c\ld decl>e ev]y?+1 b d no?+4 ,a s+le colony c\ld ) impunity disreg>d any decree ( ! ,congress4 #b4 ,! l>ge vote requir$ to pass all important measures4 #c4 ,! abs5ce ( ! "r to regulate =eign comm]ce1 & make duties uni=m1 & to collect ^? duties4 ,?is defect1 z we %all f9d1 0 "o ( ! mo/ vital1 & m ?an any ?+ else decre$ ! failure ( ! practical work+ ( ! ,conf$]ation1 & %[$ ! necessity ( a bett] & /rong] ,national gov]nm5t4 #d4 ,! virtual impossibility ( am5dm5t4 ,s9ce a unanim\s vote 0 requir$1 ! selfi% int]e/ ( "o ,/ate c\ld1 & did1 /& 9 ! way ( an am5dm5t b5eficial & necess>y to ! o!r twelve4 #e4 ,!re 0 no p[] to en=ce treaties4 ,=eign c\ntries recogniz$ ?is1 & !re=e refus$ to ent] into any treaties ) u4 ,wa%+ton said3 ,we are "o nation to-day1 & ?irte5 to-morr[4 ,:o w treat ) u on su* t]ms4 ,engl& refus$ to c>ry out ! conditions ( ! treaty ( #aghc1 & cont9u$ to keep troops on our ,we/]n bord]s4 #f4 ,! c5tral au?ority _h insuffici5t p[] to control disputes aris+ betwe5 ! ,/ates4 #g4 ,! lack ( a ,f$]al judici>y4 #h4 ,lack ( p[] to collect taxes1 or to raise rev5ue to defray ev5 ! ord9>y exp5ses ( gov]nm5t4 ,?is 0 ! mo/ /rik+ & important defect ( !m all4 ,! :ole p[] giv5 to ,congress "u ?is head 0 ! p[] to asc]ta9 ! sum necess>y to be rais$ = ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & apportion ! rate or proportion on ea* ,/ate4 ,! collection ( su* taxes 0 left to ! ,/ates !mselves1 & if !y refus$ 7z !y frequ5tly did7 ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t _h no p[] to compel !m4 ,our pres5t bett] gov]nm5t 0 wrung f ! gr9d+ necessities ( a reluctant p4 ,adoption ( ! ,con/itution4--,actual ho/ilities ceas$ 9 #agha4 ,9 #aghc peace ) ,engl& 0 decl>$1 & ! indep5d5ce ( ! colonies 0 a*iev$4 ,! w> left ! ,am]ican p ) an empty treasury1 & a c\ntry dra9$ ( its weal? & impov]i%$ by ! exhau/ive /ruggle4 ,x left u ) a l>ge national debt1 bo? to our own citiz5s & fri5ds abroad1 & mo/ ( all1 left u ) an army ( unpaid patriotic soldi]s4 ,& no soon] _h =eign dang] be5 remov$ ?an dome/ic tr\bles arose :i* fill$ all ) gloomy =ebod+s = ! future4 ,) ! loss ( t cohesive pr9ciple :i* common dang] suppli$ !m1 ! colonies n[ began to fall ap>t4 ,ev5 dur+ ! progress ( ! w> ! weakness ( ! ,union _h %[n itself4 ,wa%+ton unhesitat+ly decl>$ t x 0 ! lack ( suffici5t c5tral au?ority t caus$ ! prolongation ( ! w>4 ,"o in/ance w %[ h[ weak 0 ! ,f$]al au?ority4 ,dur+ ! summ] ( #aghc1 :5 ,congress 0 at ,philadelphia1 "s eighty des]t]s f ! army s ?reat5$ ,congress z to =ce a removal ( our ,f$]al capital f t place to ,pr9ceton4 ,! ,cont95tal f9ances 7 9 a deplorable condition4 ,congress c\ld n ev5 collect suffici5t taxes = ! paym5t ( ! int]e/ on ! public debt4 ,! ,/ates c\ld1 & (t5 did1 refuse to pay _! proportion ( taxes impos$ ^u !m by ,congress4 ,congress made a la/ attempt1 9 #aghe1 to raise a rev5ue by a tax on import$ goods1 b ?is measure fail$1 ,new ,york refus+ to ratify4 ,congress1 inde$1 did n collect "o-f\r? ( h] dem&s4 ,comm]ce 0 go+ to ru94 ,engl& refus$ to all[ our c\ntry ! ri* trade ) ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,to ^! tr\bles 7 add$ ! mutual jeal\sies & selfi%ness ( ! ,/ates4 ,ea* ( !m tri$ to attract comm]ce to itself1 & pass$ laws hurtful to ! o!r ,/ates4 ,! p 9 ,massa*usetts 7 9 insurrection4 ,! ,fr5* m9i/] wrote to 8 c\ntry3 ,!re is n[ no g5]al gov]nm5t 9 ,am]ica--no head1 no ,congress1 no adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts4 ,= all ^! evils ! limit$ & imp]fect p[]s conf]r$ ^u ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t by ! articles ( ,conf$]ation af=d$ no adequate rem$y4 ,ev5 ! ,con/itutional ,congress 0 n[ 9 dang] ( break+ up4 ,/ates1 to save exp5se1 neglect$ to s5d delegates1 & repeat$ appeals _h to be made to get repres5tation f n9e ,/ates s z to pass important measures4 ,a bett] union 0 se5 by all ?\ghtful citiz5s to be necess>y1 b v difficult to obta91 ow+ to int]-/ate diff]5ces4 ,! idea ( hav+ a conv5tion sep>ate f ! ,congress1 ^: "w %\ld be ! fram+ ( a /rong] gov]nm5t1 gradually ga9$ gr\nd4 ,! ,con/itutional ,conv5tion 0 obta9$ 9 a r\ndab\t way1 & only aft] repeat$ failures4 ,! fir/ attempt to obta9 an assembly ( repres5tatives 0 made at ,annapolis1 ,m>yl&4 ,only five ,/ates s5t repres5tatives1 & ! conv5tion accord+ly adj\rn$ to ,philadelphia1 :]e 9 ,may1 #aggh1 delegates f all ! ,/ates1 except ,rhode ,isl&1 f9ally assembl$4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,adoption ( ! ,con/itution4 ,! ,con/itutional ,conv5tion4--,fifty-five delegates 7 pres5t4 ,) sc>cely an exception !y 7 all cle>head$1 able1 & mod]ate m54 ,virg9ia s5t ,wa%+ton1 ,madison1 ,edmund ,r&olph2 ,p5nsylvania s5t ,b5jam9 ,frankl91 ,rob]t ,morris1 & ,james ,wilson2 ,new ,york s5t ,alex&] ,hamilton2 ,new ,j]sey1 ,patt]son2 & ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ! two ,p9ckneys4 ,wa%+ton 0 *os5 ,presid5t ( ! ,conv5tion4 ,two rules 7 adopt$3 #a/1 proce$+s 7 to be secret1 & #b;d1 "o vote 0 to be giv5 to ea* ,/ate1 ?us mak+ x ( no importance :e!r a ,/ate _h a l>ge or small delegation4 ,?\gh ! delegates _h ?us assembl$ to =m a bett] & new union1 !y diff]$ widely 9 _! views z to :at *anges 7 necess>y1 & z to :at p[]s %\ld be giv5 to ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1 & :at reta9$ by ! ,/ates4 ,"s desir$ m]ely a *ange ( ! exi/+ ,articles ( ,conf$]ation1 m p[] be+ grant$1 h[ev]1 to ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t2 :ile o!rs wi%$ = an entirely new ,con/itution4 ,! conv5tion at once divid$ into two p>ties4 ,! "o repres5t+ ! small ,/ates1 su* z ,new ,j]sey & ,delaw>e2 & ! o!r1 ! l>g] ,/ates1 su* z ,virg9ia1 ,new ,york & ,massa*usetts4 ,! plan br\ght =w>d by ! p>ty ( ! l>ge ,/ates 0 t pres5t$ to ! conv5tion by ,edmund ,r&olph1 ( ,virg9ia1 & g5]ally kn[n z ! ,national or ,l>ge ,/ate ,plan4 ,?is plan propos$ a congress ( two h\ses1 hav+ p[] to legislate on all ,national matt]s1 & to compel ob$i5ce on ! "p ( ! ,/ates4 ,repres5tation 9 bo? h\ses 0 to be bas$ on population1 ?us giv+ to ! l>g]1 & m popul\s1 ,/ates ! control ( bo? bran*es ( ! legislature2 &1 also1 s9ce by ?is s*eme ! presid5t1 executive (fic]s1 & judges 7 to be appo9t$ by ,congress1 control ( ! :ole adm9i/ration ( ! new gov]nm5t4 ,on behalf ( ! small ,/ates1 ,patt]son1 ( ,new ,j]sey1 introduc$ :at is call$ ! ,new ,j]sey plan4 ,by ?is plan ! old ,f$]al ,congress 0 to be cont9u$ ) its s+le h\se ( legislature1 & equal ,/ate vote4 ,! great po9t ^u :i* ! two plans diff]$1 0 z to h[ repres5tation 9 ! legislature %\ld be apportion$ among ! ,/ates2 :e!r x %\ld be accord+ to population1 & ) two h\ses1 or :e!r !re %\ld be b "o h\se1 9 :i* ea* ,/ate %\ld h an equal vote4 ,! "q 0 settl$ by a compromise4 ,x 0 agre$ t !re %\ld be a legislature ( two h\ses1 a ,s5ate or upp] & less num]\s bran*2 & ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 ! popul> & m num]\s l[] bran*4 ,9 ! ,s5ate ea* ,/ate 0 to h an equal repres5tation1 ?us putt+ ! l>ge & small ,/ates on an equal foot+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives repres5tation 0 to be accord+ to population1 ?us favor+ ! l>g] ,/ates4 ,ano!r po9t ^u :i* ! conv5tion diff]$ 0 conc]n+ ! slave trade2 :e!r x %\ld1 or %\ld n1 be all[$ to cont9ue4 ,?is "q 0 also compromis$1 x be+ agre$ to p]mit its cont9uance = tw5ty ye>s 7until #ahjh71 aft] :i* all importation ( slaves might be prohibit$4 ,yet ano!r po9t 9 dispute 0 :e!r ! slaves %\ld1 or %\ld n1 be c\nt$ 9 e/imat+ ! population ( ! ,/ates1 9 ord] to det]m9e ! numb] ( repres5tatives to :i* ea* ,/ate %\ld be entitl$4 ,?is likewise 0 compromis$4 ,x 0 agre$ t five slaves %\ld be c\nt$ equival5t to ?ree :ite m54 ,^! ?ree ma9 po9ts be+ settl$ by compromises1 o!r p>ts ( ! gov]nm5t1 su* z a s+le *ief executive1 a ,f$]al judici>y1 & ! decision z to :at p[]s %\ld be giv5 to ! ,presid5t1 :at to ! ,s5ate1 & :at to ! ,h\se1 7 m easily arrang$1 & ! conv5tion adj\rn$ ,septemb] #ag1 #aghg1 hav+ be5 9 session a little ov] f\r mon?s4 ,?us 0 prep>$ ! ,con/itution "u :i* we are n[ liv+--an a*ievem5t decl>$ by ,guizot to be ! greate/ "w ( its k9d1 & by ,glad/one to be ! greate/ "w ev] /ruck out at "o "t by ! h& ( man4 ,! ,con/itution hav+ be5 agre$ to 9 conv5tion1 x 0 n[ submitt$ to ! vote ( ea* ( ! colonies = acceptance4 ,x 0 decid$ 9 ?is conv5tion t x %\ld be consid]$ z ratifi$1 & %\ld g into effect z soon z accept$ by n9e ( ! ?irte5 ,/ates4 ,! adoption or rejection ( ! ,con/itution n[ became a "q :i* claim$ ! entire att5tion ( ! ,/ates1 & x is dur+ ?is conte/ t we f9d ! orig9 ( ! fir/ political p>ties 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,^? favor+ ! adoption ( ! ,con/itution 7 call$ ,f$]ali/s & ^? oppos+ x ,anti-,f$]ali/s4 ,argum5ts ,= & ,aga9/ ,adoption4--,! ,f$]ali/ p>ty 0 compos$ ( ^? m5 :o 7 desir\s ( a /rong c5tral gov]nm5t1 & = ?is reason favor$ ! ,con/itution4 ,?is p>ty 0 especially /rong 9 ,new ,engl&1 l>gely because ,new ,engl&1 be+ ! comm]cial "p ( ! colonies1 _h _h ! lam5table weakness ( ! old conf$]ation br\ght home to !m ! m =cibly by ! disorganization & loss ( comm]ce :i* ! ,cont95tal ,congress _h be5 unable to regulate4 ,! ,anti-,f$]ali/s 7 ^? :o wi%$ ! ,/ate gov]nm5ts to be kept /rong1 & t !re %\ld be a comp>atively weak c5tral gov]nm5t4 ,! argum5t us$ by ! ,f$]ali/s = ! adoption ( ! ,con/itution 01 t only by correct+ all ^? defects ( ! ,conf$]ation :i* h be5 po9t$ out1 c\ld ord] & prosp]ity be re/or$ to ! c\ntry4 ,!y said t ! ,con/itution1 be+ a s]ies ( compromises1 c\ld n please ev]yone 9 all respects1 b t x 0 ! be/ t c\ld be obta9$ "u ! circum/ances4 ,_! argum5ts appe>$ 9 a rem>kable collection ( eighty-five essays1 call$ ! ,f$]ali/1 writt5 by ,alex&] ,hamilton 9 company ) ,john ,jay & ,james ,madison4 ,9 ^! 7 expla9$ all ! po9ts ( ! ,con/itution1 & to ?is day !y rema9 ! be/ exposition ( ! ,con/itution ev] writt54 ,! objections rais$ by ! ,anti-,f$]ali/s 7 _m4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x 0 ( c\rse object$ t x gave to ! c5tral gov]nm5t too mu* p[]2 t /ate gov]nm5t & ,/ate lib]ty w\ld be cru%$ out4 ,! ,/ate 0 !n z de> to ! citiz5 z is ! ,national ,gov]nm5t to u to-day4 ,patriotism 0 !n devotion to ! ,/ate4 ,! coloni/s _h suff]$ s mu* f control ov] _! /ate gov]nm5ts by an outside /rong gov]nm5t1 t !y 7 fe>ful ( aga9 putt+ !mselves "u a /rong national gov]nm5t ?\gh ( _! own mak+4 ,9 w>n+ t]ms x 0 decl>$ x w\ld be a gov]nm5t f\nd$ ^u ! de/ruction ( ! gov]nm5ts ( ! sev]al ,/ates4 ,!y said1 ,congress may monopolize e s\rce ( rev5ue1 & ?us indirectly demoli% ! ,/ate gov]nm5ts1 = )\t funds !y _c exi/4 ,^! elem5ts ( ,/ate love & jeal\sy ( ! ,f$]al p[] are ( ! utmo/ importance 9 /udy+ our hi/ory4 ,we see !m runn+ ?r\gh all our life z ! ma9 causes ( division betwe5 political p>ties4 7,see lat] *apt] on ,introduction to ,hi/ory ( ,political ,p>ties47 ,ano!r objection 01 t ! ,con/itution conta9$ no def9ite bill ( rights recogniz+ & gu>antee+ fundam5tal p]sonal lib]ties1 su* z fre$om ( spee*1 lib]ty ( ! press1 assurance aga9/ unju/ arre/1 ! "r to be> arms1 & trial by jury 9 civil cases1 etc4 ,?is class ( objections 0 satisfi$ by ! adoption ( ! fir/ t5 con/itutional am5dm5ts4 ,x 0 also claim$ by ^? oppos$ to ! ratification1 t inasmu* z ! ,con/itution plac$ no limit to ! numb] ( t]ms :i* a ,presid5t might s]ve1 "o man might become s p[]ful z to obta9 a life-t5ure ( (fice1 & ?us ! gov]nm5t w\ld deg5]ate into a mon>*y4 ,to %[ h[ exagg]at$ 7 ! fe>s dur+ ?is critical p]iod ( our hi/ory1 we h ! report t x 0 actually claim$ & believ$ by _m at t "t t ! ,f$]ali/s _h ! secret int5tion ( invit+ ov] to our c\ntry "s ,european pr9ce :o %\ld rule z k+4 ,patrick ,h5ry cri$1 ,we %all h a k+2 ! army w salute him mon>*4 ,?\gh n fix$ by ! ,con/itution1 x has be5 s9ce ! "t ( ,wa%+ton ! inv>iable rule t no man %all be elect$ = m ?an two t]ms4 ,! fri5ds ( ,presid5t ,grant attempt$ to h him nom9at$ = a ?ird "t1 b s /rong 0 ?is prejudice t1 popul> z he 0 at t "t1 ! plan fail$4 ,= n9e mon?s ! /ruggle 0 wag]$ fi]cely 9 ! ,/ates1 b ! ,f$]ali/s prevail$4 ,9 ,june1 #aghh1 ! n9? ,/ate ratifi$1 & adoption 0 assur$4 ,congress fix$ ! fir/ ,w$nesday 9 ,janu>y = ! election ( presid5tial electors1 ! fir/ ,w$nesday 9 ,febru>y = ! meet+ ( ! electors & election ( ! ,presid5t1 & ! fir/ ,w$nesday 9 ,m>*1 #aghi1 = ! inauguration ( ! ,presid5t & ! beg9n+ ( ! new gov]nm5t4 ,?is la/ date fell ^u ! #d? ( ,m>*1 :i* date has f t "t s]v$ z ! day = ! inauguration ( our presid5ts4 ,ow+ to a delay 9 ! assembl+ ( ! new ,congress1 ,wa%+ton 0 n inaugurat$1 nor our pres5t gov]nm5t in/itut$1 until ,april #cj1 #aghi4 ,?us 0 f\nd$ our pres5t gov]nm5t1 :i* has /ood ! te/ ( a c5tury4 ,:5 adopt$ !re 7 ?irte5 ,/ates2 n[ !re are =ty-f\r4 ,! inhabit$ area 0 !n ! n>r[ /rip betwe5 ! ,atlantic ,ocean & ! ,allegh5y ,m\nta9s1 ) a population ( sc>cely #c1jjj1jjj4 ,n[ ! ,unit$ ,/ates /ret*es #c1jjj miles f ocean to ocean1 & conta9s a population ( ov] sixty millions4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,presid5tial ,succession4 ,! provisions ( ! ,con/itution reg>d+ ! ,presid5tial succession1 9 case ( ! dea? or resignation ( bo? ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t1 are3 ,9 case ( ! removal ( ! ,presid5t f (fice1 or ( 8 dea?1 resignation1 or inability to dis*>ge ! p[]s & duties ( ! said (fice1 ! same devolve on ! ,vice-,presid5t1 & ! ,congress may by law provide = ! case ( removal1 dea?1 resignation1 or inability bo? ( ! ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t1 decl>+ :at (fic] %all !n act z ,presid5t1 & su* (fic] %all act accord+ly until ! disability be remov$ or a ,presid5t %all be elect$4 7,article ,,ii1 section #f47 ,9 pursuance ( ! p[] ?us grant$ to x 9 ! la/ half ( ?is section1 ,congress 9 #agib pass$ an act decl>+ t 9 case ( ! dea?1 resignation1 etc41 ( bo? ! ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t1 ! succession %\ld be fir/ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate & !n to ! ,speak] ( ! ,h\se4 ,?is ord] 0 *ang$ by ! act ( #ahhf1 :i* provid$ t ! succession to ! presid5cy %\ld be z foll[s3 #a4 ,presid5t4 #b4 ,vice-,presid5t4 #c4 ,secret>y ( ,/ate4 #d4 ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury4 #e4 ,secret>y ( ,w>4 #f4 ,attorney-,g5]al4 #g4 ,po/ma/]-,g5]al4 #h4 ,secret>y ( ! ,navy4 #i4 ,secret>y ( ! ,int]ior4 ,9 all cases ! rema9d] ( ! f\r-ye>s' t]m %all be s]v$ out4 ,?is act also regulat$ ! c\nt+ ( ! votes ( ! electors by ,congress1 & ! det]m9ation ( :o 7 legally *os5 electors4 ,note4--,! ,con/itution made no provision 9 case ( a conte/$ election1 or :5 no "o %\ld be elect$4 ,su* a cont+5cy seem$ to h be5 ov]look$ 9 ! fram+ ( ! ,con/itution4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,election ( ,s5ators4 ,! provisions ( ! ,con/itution reg>d+ ! election ( s5ators 7 z foll[s3 ,! ,s5ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be compos$ ( two s5ators f ea* ,/ate1 *os5 by ! ,legislature !re(1 = six ye>s2 & ea* s5ator %all h "o vote4 7,article ,i1 section #c1 p>agraph #a47 ,! times1 places1 & mann] ( hold+ elections = s5ators & repres5tatives %all be prescrib$ 9 ea* ,/ate by ! ,legislature !re(1 b ! ,congress may at any "t by law make or alt] su* regulations1 except z to ! places ( *oos+ s5ators4 7,article ,i1 section #d1 p>agraph #a47 ,until #ahff ?is matt] 0 left entirely to ! ,/ates1 z p]mitt$ by ! section ( ! ,con/itution j giv54 ,9 t ye> an act 0 pass$ by ! ,f$]al ,congress regulat+ ! election ( s5ators by ! ,/ate ,legislatures4 ,by x 0 provid$ t ! ,legislature ( ea* ,/ate1 :i* is *os5 next prec$+ ! expiration ( ! t]m ( ei!r ( _! s5ators1 %all on ! second ,tuesday aft] assembl+ elect a s5ator 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,ea* ,h\se %all by op5 ballot 7viva voce7 *oose "s man = s5ator1 & he :o receives a majority ( ! total numb] ( votes ca/ 9 su* ,h\se is ent]$ on ! j\rnal ( t ,h\se4 ,at noon on ! foll[+ day ! memb]s ( ! two ,h\ses conv5e 9 jo9t assembly1 & ! j\rnal ( ea* ,h\se is !n read1 & if ! same p]son has receiv$ a majority ( ! votes ( ea* ,h\se he is decl>$ duly elect$ s5ator4 ,b if n1 ! jo9t assembly !n proce$s to *oose by a viva voce vote ( ea* memb] pres5t1 a p]son = s5ator1 & ! p]son :o receives a majority ( all ! votes ( ! jo9t assembly--a majority ( all ! memb]s elect$ to bo? ,h\ses be+ pres5t & vot+--is decl>$ duly elect$4 ,if no p]son receives su* a majority on ! fir/ day1 ! jo9t assembly meets at noon on ea* succe$+ day dur+ ! session ( ! ,legislature1 & takes at lea/ "o vote until a s5ator is elect$4 ,9 case ( a vacancy occurr+ 9 ! ,s5ate dur+ ! recess ( ! ,/ate ,legislature1 ! gov]nor appo9ts a man to fill ! place1 8 appo9tee hold+ until a successor %all be *os5 9 ! above me?od by ! ,/ate ,legislature4 ,9 ! ,h\se1 :5 vacancies happ5 9 ! repres5tation f any ,/ate1 ! ,gov]nor issues an ord] = a new election 9 ! congressional di/ricts 9 :i* su* vacancies occur4 ,! repres5tatives ?us elect$ hold (fice = ! unexpir$ t]ms ( _! pr$ecessors4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,congressional ,gov]nm5t4 ,! ,con/itution creat$ ,congress & conf]r$ ^u x p[]s ( legislation = national purposes1 b made no provision z to ! me?od by :i* ^! p[]s %\ld be ex]cis$4 ,9 consequ5ce ,congress has itself develop$ a me?od ( transact+ its bus9ess by means ( committees4 ,! ,f$]al ,legislature consi/s ( two ,h\ses--! ,s5ate1 or ,upp] & less num]\s bran*1 & ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 or ! ,l[] & m num]\s popul> bran*4 ,! ,s5ate is compos$ ( two memb]s f ea* ,/ate elect$ by ! /ate legislatures = a t]m ( six ye>s1 "o-?ird ( :om retire e two ye>s4 ,! presid+ (fic] is ! ,vice-,presid5t4 ,e>ly 9 ea* session1 ! ,s5ate *ooses a ,presid5t pro tempore1 s z to provide = any abs5ce ( ! ,vice-,presid5t1 :e!r caus$ by dea?1 sickness1 or = o!r reasons4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives is at pres5t compos$ ( #ccb memb]s & f\r delegates f ! ,t]ritories4 ,^! delegates1 h[ev]1 h no vote1 ?\gh !y may speak4 ,! ,h\se is presid$ ov] by a speak]1 elect$ at ! beg9n+ ( ea* session4 ,a quorum = bus9ess is1 9 ei!r ,h\se1 a majority4 ,congress meets e ye> 9 ! beg9n+ ( ,decemb]4 ,ea* ,congress la/s two ye>s & holds two sessions--a long & a %ort session4 ,! long session la/s f ,decemb] to midsumm]4 ,! %ort session la/s f ,decemb]1 :5 ,congress meets aga91 until ! #d? ( ,m>*4 ,! t]m ( (fice !n expires = all ! memb]s ( ! ,h\se1 & = "o-?ird ( ! ,s5ators4 ,! long session ends 9 ev5 ye>s 7#ahhj & #ahhb1 etc471 & ! %ort session 9 odd ye>s 7#ahha & #ahhc74 ,extra sessions may be call$ by ! ,presid5t = urg5t bus9ess4 ,9 ! e>ly "p ( ! ,novemb] prec$+ ! end ( ! %ort session ( ,congress1 occurs ! election ( ,repres5tatives4 ,congressm5 !n elect$ d n take _! seats until ?irte5 mon?s lat]1 t is1 at ! reassembl+ ( ,congress 9 ,decemb] ( ! ye> foll[+1 unless an extra session is call$4 ,! ,s5ate frequ5tly holds secret1 or1 z !y are call$1 executive sessions1 = ! consid]ation ( treaties & nom9ations ( ! ,presid5t1 9 :i* ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives has no voice4 ,x is !n said to sit ) clos$ doors4 ,an imm5se am\nt ( bus9ess mu/ necess>ily be transact$ by a ,congress t legislates = ne>ly sixty-?ree millions ( p1 inhabit+ a t]ritory ( ov] ?ree & a half millions ( squ>e miles4 ,lack ( "t1 ( c\rse1 prev5ts a consid]ation ( ea* bill sep>ately by ! :ole legislature4 ,to provide a means by :i* ea* subject may receive inve/igation & consid]ation1 a plan is us$ by :i* ! memb]s ( bo? bran*es ( ,congress are divid$ into committees4 ,ea* committee busies itself ) a c]ta9 class ( bus9ess1 & bills :5 introduc$ are ref]r$ to ?is or t committee = consid]ation1 accord+ to ! subjects to :i* ! bills relate4 ,?us1 = example1 affairs relat+ to ,wa%+ton are h&$ ov] to :at is kn[n z ! ,di/rict ,committee1 a regul> appropriation bill to ! ,committee on ,appropriations1 etc4 ,^! committees consid] ^! bills c>efully1 frequ5tly tak+ ! te/imony ( outside p]sons to discov] ! advisability ( ea* bill4 ,! regul> c\rse ?r\gh :i* a bill has to g be=e becom+ an act--i4e41 to pass bo? h\ses & receive ! signature ( ! ,presid5t--is z foll[s3 ,on ,mondays !re is a roll-call ( ! ,/ates1 & memb]s may !n introduce 9 ! ,h\se or ,s5ate any bill !y may desire4 ,^! bills are !n ref]r$ by ! presid+ (fic] to appropriate committees4 ,^! committees1 meet+ 9 _! own sep>ate rooms1 debate1 inve/igate1 &1 if necess>y1 z has be5 said1 ask ! op9ion ( outside p]sons4 ,aft] su* consid]ation bills are report$ back to ! ,h\se or ,s5ate4 ,b v few bills rea* ?is /age1 = ! committee does n get "t to report any save ! m important ones1 & ?us ! majority ( !m disappe>1 or1 z ! say+ is1 are kill$ 9 committee4 ,if a bill receives ! approval ( ! committee x is favorably report$ to ! ,s5ate or ,h\se1 z ! case may be--i4e41 ! bill is return$1 accompani$ by a report advis+ ! passage ( ! accompany+ bill4 ,if ! bill is n approv$ by ! committee1 an unfavorable report is made2 bills are seldom pass$ aft] su* an adv]se report4 ,^! reports :i* accompany ! bills1 are pr9t$1 (t5 at great l5g?1 giv+ reasons = ! propos$ action 9 reg>d to ! bills4 ,:5 report$ by ! committee back to ! h\se 9 :i* x 0 introduc$1 a bill is vot$ ^u1 &1 if pass$1 is s5t to ! o!r bran*4 ,if pass$ !re1 x is ready = ! ,presid5t's signature2 if veto$1 ! bill is lo/1 unless pass$ ov] ! veto by a two-?irds vote ( bo? h\ses4 ,b frequ5tly "o h\se1 :ile n wi%+ to defeat a measure s5t to x f ! o!r h\se1 may desire to *ange x by "s am5dm5t4 ,if ?is is done1 ! bill1 z am5d$1 is s5t back to ! h\se f :i* x came1 & if !n agre$ to z am5d$ by x1 x is s5t to ! ,presid5t = 8 approval4 ,?us by repeat$ am5dm5ts x may pass to & fro betwe5 ! ,h\se & ,s5ate sev]al1 times4 ,9 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 _m bills are pass$ ?r\gh all _! v>i\s /ages by a s+le vote1 by :at is kn[n z a susp5sion ( ! rules1 :i* may be ord]$ by a two-?irds vote4 ,! ,s5ate is n[ divid$ into betwe5 fifty & sixty committees1 b ! numb] v>ies f session to session4 ,! pr9cipal committees are ^? on 7#a7 ,=eign ,relations1 7#b7 ,privileges & ,elections1 7#c7 ,judici>y1 7#d7 ,comm]ce1 7#e7 ,f9ance1 & 7#f7 ,appropriations4 ,! ,s5ate selects ! memb]s = ! diff]5t committees by ballot1 ?\gh x is pretty well det]m9$ be=eh& h[ ea* committee %all be con/itut$ by means ( p>ty caucuses 7in=mal meet+s ( memb]s ( ! same p>ty to det]m9e ^u l9es ( action t w be support$ by all74 ,a committee is always compos$ ( an odd numb] ( memb]s1 & bo? political p>ties are always repres5t$ on e committee1 ?\gh ! majority is1 9 almo/ all cases1 f t p>ty :i* has ! majority ( ! memb]s ( ! ,s5ate4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives is organiz$ into sixty committees1 rang+1 9 _! numb] ( memb]s1 f ?irte5 d[n4 ,z reg>ds p>ty repres5tation1 _! con/itution is simil> to t ( ! ,s5ate ,committees4 ,! ,committee ( ,ways & ,means1 :i* regulates cu/oms duties & excise taxes1 is by f> ! mo/ important4 ,o!r important committees are ^? on 7#a7 ,elections1 7#b7 ,appropriations1 7#c7 ,judici>y1 7#d7 ,=eign ,affairs1 7#e7 ,manufactures1 7#f7 ,comm]ce1 7#g7 ,labor4 ,e ,repres5tative is on "o committee1 & mo/ ( !m on sev]al4 ,unlike ! cu/om 9 ! ,s5ate1 9 ! ,h\se ! presid+ (fic] has ! sole p[] ( appo9tm5t1 :i* makes him1 next to ! ,presid5t1 ! mo/ important & p[]ful gov]nm5t (ficial4 ,! *airman ( ea* committee has1 ( c\rse1 a l>ge p[] ov] affairs ) :i* 8 committee is conc]n$1 & = ?is reason x is (t5 said t x is ! *airm5 ( ^! committees :o rule ! l&4 ,! precise am\nt ( effective "w done by ,congress dur+ ! two sessions ( ! ,fiftie? ,congress 0 z foll[s3 ,!re 7 #d1jjj bills introduc$ 9 ! ,s5ate & #ade ,s5ate jo9t resolutions3 ( ?is numb] #a1abg bills & jo9t resolutions pass$ ! ,s5ate1 & #eed 7 ei!r po/pon$ indef9itely or ref]r$ to ! ,c\rt ( ,claims1 s t ! total numb] on :i* f9al action 0 tak5 by ! ,s5ate 0 #a1fha4 ,! committee on enroll$ bills exam9$ #ffg ,s5ate bills & jo9t resolutions & s5t !m to ! ,presid5t & #eia became laws1 ! numb] ( vetoes1 includ+ pocket vetoes1 be+ #gf4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives pass$ #a1efa ,h\se bills & s5t !m to ! ,s5ate1 & ! ,s5ate pass$ #a1cdg ( !m1 leav+ #bad to p]i%4 ,! ,h\se pass$ #ef ,h\se jo9t resolutions & ! ,s5ate pass$ all ( !m b eight4 ,! ,h\se pass$1 !re=e1 #b1bhd ,h\se & ,s5ate bills1 & ! ,s5ate pass$ #b1ebb4 ,! fir/ session ( ! ,fifty-fir/ ,congress 7#ahhi-ij7 01 ) "o exception1 ! longe/ ev] held4#a ,dur+ ! session !re 7 introduc$ 9 ! ,h\se #ab1djb bills & jo9t resolutions1 & 9 ! ,s5ate #d1egj1 mak+ a total ( #af1igb4 ,! total numb] ( acts pass$ 0 #a1cce z aga9/ #a1gij = bo? sessions ( ! ,fiftie? ,congress4 ,( ^! #hha 7 p5sion bills4 ,footnote #a3 ,! longe/ session 0 ! long session ( ! ,fiftie? ,congress4 ,congress ord9>ily assembles at noon1 & rema9s 9 session until #d or #e p4m41 ?\gh t[>ds ! end ( ! t]m x frequ5tly rema9s 9 session until late 9 ! night4 ,! fir/ ?+ ^u assembl+ 9 ! morn+ is pray]4 ,on ,mondays1 z /at$1 !re is next a roll-call ( ,/ates = ! introduction ( bills4 ,sometimes a committee is in/ruct$ to prep>e & br+ 9 a bill ( its own1 )\t wait+ to h "o introduc$ & ref]r$ to x4 ,reports f committees are he>d dur+ morn+ h\rs on ,tuesdays1 ,w$nesdays1 & ,fridays1 & on ,mondays aft] ! introduction ( bills4 ,friday is a day usually set ap>t = ! consid]ation ( private measures4 ,on ,saturdays ,congress seldom sits4 ,!re is /ill "o feature ( ,congressional gov]nm5t :i* ne$s explanation1 & t is ! caucus4 ,a caucus is ! meet+ ( ! memb]s ( "o p>ty 9 private1 = ! discussion ( ! attitude & l9e ( policy :i* memb]s ( t p>ty are to take on que/ions :i* are expect$ to arise 9 ! legislative halls4 ,?us1 9 ,s5ate caucus1 is decid$ :o %all be memb]s ( ! v>i\s committees4 ,9 ^! meet+s is frequ5tly discuss$ :e!r or n ! :ole p>ty %all vote = or aga9/ ?is or t important bill1 & ?us its fate is decid$ be=e x has ev5 come up = debate 9 ,congress4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,! ,cab9et & ,executive ,dep>tm5ts4 ,we h se5 t ! functions ( gov]nm5t are divid$ into ?ree di/9ct classes1 ! legislative1 ! judicial1 & ! executive4 ,! ,con/itution provides z to ! me?ods = ! ex]cise ( ! fir/ two1 b none = ! ?ird4 ,! only ref]5ce 9 ! con/itution to executive dep>tm5ts is 9 ,art4 ,,ii1 ,sec4 #b1 :]e ! ,presid5t is giv5 ! p[] to require ! op9ion 9 writ+ ( ! pr9cipal (fic] 9 ea* executive dep>tm5t ^u any subject relat+ to ! duties ( 8 (fice4 ,! dep>tm5ts h 9 ea* case be5 creat$ by an act ( ,congress & f "t to "t z conv5i5ce has dem&$4 ,! duties ( ! executive are to en=ce & apply ! laws ( ! nation aft] !y are made by ! legislature & int]pret$ by ! c\rts4 ,?is is ! real bus9ess ( gov]nm5t1 by :i* ! laws are put into effect1 & ! "w ( gov]nm5t is actually c>ri$ on4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t ?is p[] is plac$ 9 ! h&s ( a body ( m5 di/9ct f ! legislative & judicial (fic]s4 ,at ! head is ! ,presid5t1 & h5ce 8 title ( ,*ief ,executive4 ,x is evid5t t he mu/ divide up ! va/ am\nt ( "w to be done1 & delegate x to o!rs4 ,congress directs h[ ?is %all be done4 ,= ?is purpose ,congress has creat$ n9e executive dep>tm5ts 7#a7,/ate1 7#b7,treasury1 7#c7,w>1 7#d7,navy1 7#e7;,int]ior1 7#f7,po/ ,(fice1 7#g7;,ju/ice1 7#h7;,agriculture1 7#i7,labor4 ,^! dep>tm5ts h be5 creat$ z requir$ by ! gr[? ( gov]nm5t duties4 ,?ree dep>tm5ts1 ! ,/ate1 ,treasury & ,w>1 7 creat$ by ! fir/ ,congress1 9 #aghi4 ,by ! same ,congress 0 creat$ ! (fice ( ,attorney-,g5]al ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :o1 toge!r ) ! ,secret>ies ( ! ?ree dep>tm5ts1 con/itut$ ,presid5t ,wa%+ton's fir/ cab9et4 ,! ,navy ,dep>tm5t 0 add$ 9 #agih4 ,prior to t date1 naval affairs _h be5 manag$ by ! ,w> ,dep>tm5t4 ,a ,po/ ,(fice = ! colonies 0 e/abli%$ by ! ,po/al ,act ( ,que5 ,anne's reign4 ,! ,po/ ,(fice ,dep>tm5t "u ! pres5t gov]nm5t 0 e/abli%$ 9 #aghi1 b ! ,po/ma/]-,g5]al did n become a ,cab9et (fic] until #ahbi4 ,! ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t 0 creat$ 9 #ahdi by gr\p+ toge!r 9 "o dep>tm5t sev]al bran*es ( ! gov]nm5t s]vice1 :i* _h =m]ly be5 di/ribut$ among ! o!r dep>tm5ts4 ,z e>ly z #ahci ! ,pat5t ,(fice1 "u ! ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t1 0 intru/$ ) v>i\s duties conc]n+ ! agricultural int]e/s ( ! c\ntry1 among ! *ief ( :i* 0 ! di/ribution ( se$s4 ,9 #ahfb a sep>ate ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture 0 e/abli%$1 & ^! duties transf]r$ to x4 ,9 #ahhi ! head ( ! ,dep>tm5t became ,secret>y ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture & a ,cab9et (fic]4 ,a ,bureau ( ,labor "u ! ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t 0 creat$ 9 #ahhd4 ,9 #ahhh ,congress con/itut$ x a sep>ate dep>tm5t1 b did n make its head a ,secret>y1 & !re=e n a ,cab9et (fic]4 ,! heads ( ! fir/ eight ( ^! dep>tm5ts toge!r =m a c\ncil ( eight1 call$ ! ,cab9et1 ^: duty x is1 9 addition to ! managem5t ( ! dep>tm5ts1 to advise ! ,presid5t on matt]s ( importance4 ,= ?is purpose regul> meet+s are held1 at :i* ! affairs ( gov]nm5t are discuss$1 & l9es ( action decid$ ^u4 ,! cab9et is nei!r ! creation ( ! con/itution1 nor /rictly ( law4 ,! exi/5ce ( a cab9et1 h[ev]1 0 always tak5 = grant$ 9 ! discussion & =mation ( ! con/itution4 ,x is a creation ( cu/om & has no p[]s o!r ?an ( advice & c\nsel to ! ,presid5t4 ,! gr[? ( executive & adm9i/rative bus9ess is n fully indicat$ by ! increase 9 ! numb] ( dep>tm5ts4 ,! gr[? )9 ea* dep>tm5t has be5 mu* great]4 ,sep>ate bureaus & divisions h be5 creat$1 :i* 9 "s cases are1 = all practical purposes1 z indep5d5t & important z ! dep>tm5ts !mselves4 ,! organization ( all ! diff]5t dep>tm5ts is mu* ! same4 ,at ! head ( ea* is an (fic] appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t1 ! ,presid5t ?us hav+ control g5]ally ov] ! :ole executive bus9ess ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,^! (fic]s are call$ ,secret>ies1 except 9 ! cases ( ! ,po/ ,(fice ,dep>tm5t1 ^: head is ! ,po/ma/]-,g5]al1 & ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,ju/ice1 ^: head is ! ,attorney-,g5]al4 ,9 a numb] ( ! ,dep>tm5ts !re are also "o1 two1 ?ree or f\r assi/ant secret>ies1 accord+ z ! bus9ess ( ! dep>tm5ts requires4 ,= conv5i5ce 9 ! despat* ( bus9ess1 ! dep>tm5ts are divid$ into bureaus1 ! bureaus into divisions1 & ! divisions into rooms1 until1 f9ally1 ! individual work]s--! cl]ks--are readi$4 ,ea* bureau & division has at its head an (fic] call$ ,commission] & ,*ief ( ,division1 respectively4 ,ea* dep>tm5t & bureau1 &1 9 "s cases1 ! division also1 has a ,*ief ,cl]k :o has *>ge ( ! details ( ! adm9i/ration1 & imm$iate ov]sight ov] ! cl]ks4#a ,all "w 9 "o f9ely organiz$ sy/em4 ,! cl]k is responsible to 8 *ief ( division1 ! *ief ( division to 8 commission]1 ! commission] to ! ,secret>y & he1 f9ally1 to ,congress4 ,ea* man has 8 p>ticul> place 9 ! sy/em1 & no "o works at r&om4#b ,footnote #a3 ,!re are a numb] ( (ficials & cl]ks :o prop]ly belong to no division or bureau1 z1 = in/ance1 ! libr>ian's private secret>y & o!r cl]ical assi/ance 9 ! ,secret>y's (fice1 :o are "u 8 imm$iate sup]vision4 ,footnote #b3 ,?is sy/em is n always c>ri$ out p]fectly 9 practice4 ,9 "s cases an (fic] is t]m$ commission] :o is m prop]ly a *ief ( division1 & vice v]sa4 ,9 o!r cases ! title ( commission] or *ief ( division is repres5t$ by a m te*nical designation z ,director ( ! ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey1 ,comptroll] ( ! ,curr5cy1 etc4 ,! ,presid5t & heads ( dep>tm5ts appo9t all (fic]s 9 ! executive dep>tm5ts4 ,x is manife/ly impossible = !m to base _! appo9tm5ts ^u p]sonal k4 ,h5ce has aris5 ! cu/om ( fill+ almo/ all (fices n controll$ by ! ,civil ,s]vice ,commission ^u ! recomm5dation ( congressm51 ea* ( :om controls = ! mo/ "p ! patronage ( 8 own di/rict4 ,only ! ,secret>ies1 ,assi/ant ,secret>ies1 ,commission]s1 & o!r *ief (ficials are really appo9tees ( ! ,presid5t on 8 own responsibility4 ,prior to ! fir/ adm9i/ration ( ,jackson ! positions ( gov]nm5t cl]ks 9 ! dep>tm5ts 7 p]man5t4 ,9 #ahbh ,jackson inaugurat$ ! s-call$ spoils sy/em1 :i* means t to ! victor belongs ! spoils4 ,only #gd removals _h be5 made f #aghi to #ahbh4 ,jackson remov$ dur+ ! fir/ ye> ( 8 adm9i/ration #b1jjj cl]ks4 ,s9ce !n1 until #ahhc1 ea* p>ty1 on ga9+ control ( ! gov]nm5t1 has remov$ almo/ all ! cl]ks 9 (fice :o 7 ( ! opposite political fai?1 replac+ !m ) memb]s ( its own p>ty4 ,9 #ahhc 0 pass$ ! ,civil ,s]vice ,act1 by :i* x is provid$ t all future appo9tm5ts ( subord9ate cl]ks 9 ! executive dep>tm5ts are to be made only f ^? :o h pass$ successfully an exam9ation set by ! ,civil ,s]vice ,commission creat$ by ! act4 ,! ,/ate ,dep>tm5t4--,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,/ate 0 ! fir/ dep>tm5t e/abli%$4 7,act ( ,july #bg1 #aghi47 ,!re are ?ree ,assi/ant ,secret>ies4 ,_! sal>ies are1 ,secret>y #h1jjj1 ,fir/ ,assi/ant #d1jjj1 & ! o!r two #c1ejj4 ,! dep>tm5t is divid$ into sev5 bureaus1 7#a7 ,diplomatic1 7#b7 ,consul>1 7#c7 ,ar*ives & ,indexes1 7#d7 ,acc\nts1 7#e7 ,/ati/ics1 7#f7 ,rolls & ,libr>y1 & 7#g7 ,claims4 ,! ,secret>y ( ,/ate is *>g$1 "u ! direction ( ! ,presid5t1 ) ! duties app]ta9+ to correspond5ce ) ! public m9i/]s & consuls ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ) ! repres5tatives ( =eign p[]s accr$it$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & to negotiations ( :atev] "* relat+ to ! =eign affairs ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,he is also ! m$ium ( correspond5ce betwe5 ! ,presid5t & ! *ief executive ( ! sev]al ,/ates ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 he has ! cu/ody ( ! great seal ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & c\nt]signs & affixes su* seal to all executive proclamations1 to v>i\s commissions1 & to w>rants = p>don1 & ! extradition ( fugitives f ju/ice4 ,he is reg>d$ z ! fir/ 9 rank among ! memb]s ( ! ,cab9et4 ,he is also ! cu/odian ( ! treaties made ) =eign /ates1 & ( ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,he grants & issues passports4 ,exequaturs to =eign consuls 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates are issu$ ?r\gh 8 (fice4 ,he publi%es ! laws & resolutions ( ,congress1 am5dm5ts to ! ,con/itution1 & proclamations decl>+ ! admission ( new ,/ates into ! ,union4 ,he is also *>g$ ) c]ta9 annual reports to ,congress relat+ to comm]cial in=mation receiv$ f diplomatic & consul> (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! patronage ( ! ,secret>y at ,wa%+ton is small1 ab\t sixty cl]ks1 b t :i* conc]ns ! diplomatic & consul> s]vice is important4 ,to facilitate communications & negotiations ) =eign nations1 & to protect ! int]e/s ( ,am]ican citiz5s 9 =eign c\ntries1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 common ) all civiliz$ nations1 has an elaborate sy/em ( repres5tatives resid+ at ! capitals ( all ! pr9cipal nations4 ,?is sy/em is call$ ! diplomatic s]vice1 & is "u ! *>ge ( a sep>ate bureau ( ! ,/ate ,dep>tm5t4 ,communications & negotiations ) =eign p[]s are g5]ally c>ri$ on ?r\gh !m or ?r\gh m9i/]s ( o!r nations /ation$ at ,wa%+ton4 ,^! ag5ts are call$ m9i/]s & are ( ?ree grades 7#a7 envoys extraord9>y & m9i/]s pl5ipot5ti>y1 7#b7 m9i/]s resid5t1 7#c7 *>gs d'affaires4 ,^! grades correspond to ! l[] grades ( simil> s]vices 9 ,european c\ntries4 ,we h no grade correspond+ to t ( ambassador4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates has m9i/]s 9 ab\t ?irty-?ree c\ntries4 ,! *ief legations are ^? ( ,great ,brita91 ,france1 ,g]many & ,russia4 ,! sal>y atta*$ to ea* ( ^! legations is #ag1ejj4 ,! social dem&s ^u m9i/]s are great1 &1 z a rule1 ! exp5ses ( m9i/]s h be5 m ?an _! sal>ies4 ,m9i/]s ( =eign p[]s receive a mu* l>g] comp5sation ?an d ours4 ,to protect our comm]cial int]e/s abroad1 & our seam5 & vessels 9 =eign ports1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has ag5ts resid5t 9 all =eign sea-ports ( any prom95ce4 ,_! duties are num]\s4 ,!y %ip seam51 c]tify invoices1 take te/imony1 exam9e emigrants1 etc4 ,!y transmit to ! ,/ate ,dep>tm5t mon?ly reports conc]n+ any matt] ( comm]cial or social int]e/ occurr+ at _! /ations4 ,^! reports are publi%$ mon?ly by ! dep>tm5t & h a wide gratuit\s circulation4 ,?is sy/em is call$ ! consul> s]vice2 & is also "u ! *>ge ( a sep>ate bureau4 ,^! ag5ts1 call$ consuls1 are ( ?ree ranks & titles2 7#a7 consul-g5]als1 7#b7 consuls1 7#c7 consul> ag5ts1 ( :om #ahj are sal>i$1 ! re/ be+ paid by fees4 ,! names ( ! o!r bureaus indicate ! nature ( ! duties p]=m$ by ea*4 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,/ate has be5 prom95tly be=e ! p dur+ ! la/ two ye>s 9 consequ5ce ( ! ,pan-,am]ican ,congress1#a compos$ ( repres5tatives f all ,am]ican nations4 ,?is congress met 9 #ahhi1 "u ! auspices ( ! ,/ate ,dep>tm5t at ,wa%+ton1 to consid] subjects ( common int]e/1 su* z int]national arbitration1 railroad & /eam%ip communication1 uni=m money & comm]cial regulations4 ,v>i\s /&+ committees & commissions 7 provid$ =2 & x is believ$ t ?r\gh _! ef=ts bett] comm]cial & social relations ) ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,republics w be e/abli%$4 ,! ,int]national ,m>9e ,conf]5ce1 compos$ ( repres5tatives f all m>9e p[]s1 likewise met at ,wa%+ton "u ! auspices ( ! same dep>tm5t1 & adopt$ a code ( m>9e regulations = ! guidance ( all nations4 ,footnote #a3 ,! ,proce$+s ( ! ,pan ,am]ican ,congress 7 publi%$ by ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,/ate1 & also 9 ! ,tribune ,mon?ly = ,septemb]1 #ahij4 ,articles ^u ! subject lay ,mr4 ,rom]o1 ! ,mexican ,m9i/]1 appe>$ 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,review1 ,septemb] & ,octob]1 #ahij4 ,9 =eign relations ! dep>tm5t has be5 *iefly occupi$ ( late 9 ! attempt$ settlem5t ( ! "r ( ! ,engli% & ,canadians to capture seals 9 ,b]+'s ,sea & ,/raits1 & ( ! rights ( ,am]ican & ,engli% fi%]m5#a 9 ! fi%+ gr\nds (f ! coa/ ( ,new ,f\ndl&2 9 ! conclusion ( a new extradition#b treaty ) ,engl&1 & ( v>i\s treaties conc]n+ trade ) o!r nations4 ,footnote #a3 ,see ,tribune ,mon?ly entitl$ ,our ,cont95t1 or ,am]ica = ! ,am]icans4 ,footnote #b3 ,an excell5t monograph ^u ! subject ( ,extradition1 by ,hon4 ,j4,b4 ,moore1 has be5 publi%$ by ! ,/ate ,dep>tm5t4 ,! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t4--,?is dep>tm5t 0 creat$ by act ( ,septemb] #b1 #aghi4 ,!re are two assi/ant secret>ies4 ,! dep>tm5t is divid$ into a l>ge numb] ( divisions1 ) ! foll[+ *ief (fic]s3 7#a7 ,! ,comptroll]s1 7#b7 ! ,auditors1 7#c7 ,treasur]1 7#d7 ,regi/]1 7#e7 ,commission] ( ,cu/oms1 7#f7 ,commission] ( ,int]nal ,rev5ue1 7#g7 ,comptroll] ( ! ,curr5cy1 7#h7 ,*ief ( ! ,bureau ( ,/ati/ics1 7#i7 ,sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,bureau ( ,engrav+ & ,pr9t+1 7#aj7 ,director ( ! ,m9t1 7#aa7 ,sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,life ,sav+ ,s]vice1 7#ab7 ,sup]vis+-,surgeon-,g5]al ( ! ,m>9e ,hospital ,s]vice1 7#ac7 ,sup]vis+-,inspector-,g5]al ( ,/eam ,vessels4 ,o!r (fic]s are1 ! ,sup]vis+ ,ar*itect1 ,commission] ( ,navigation1 ,solicitor ( ! ,treasury1 & ,*airman ( ! ,light ,h\se ,bo>d4 ,! m5tion ( ! v>i\s divisions indicates ! importance & v>iety ( ! duties com+ "u ?is dep>tm5t4 ,! ,secret>y is *>g$ ) ! entire managem5t ( ! national f9ances4 ,he submits annually to ,congress e/imates ( ! probable rev5ues & disbursem5ts ( ! ,gov]nm5t1 prep>es plans = ! improvem5t ( ! rev5ue & = ! support ( ! public cr$it1 & sup]9t5ds ! collection ( ! rev5ue4 ,two comptroll]s pass ^u all claims aga9/ ! gov]nm5t & acc\nts receiv$ f ! auditors4 ,six auditors exam9e & adju/ acc\nts relat+ to ! exp5ditures ( ! v>i\s bran*es ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,! ,treasur] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates receives & keeps its moneys1 disburses !m on ! ,secret>y's w>rants1 & manages ! ,indep5d5t ,treasury ,sy/em4 ,! ,indep5d5t or ,sub-,treasury ,sy/em 0 adopt$ by ,congress 9 #ahdf4 ,by ?is means ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t is indep5d5t ( ! bank+ sy/em ( ! c\ntry2 b has e/abli%$ sub-treasuries 9 ! pr9cipal cities ( ! ,union = ! receipt & disbursem5t ( public moneys4 ,!re are sub-treasuries 9 ,new ,york1 ,san ,francisco1 ,sa9t ,l\is1 ,*icago1 ,bo/on1 ,philadelphia1 ,baltimore1 ,new ,orleans & ,c9c9nati4 ,= great] conv5i5ce moneys are also deposit$ at c]ta9 designat$ banks4 ,secret>y ,w9dom1 h[ev]1 began rapidly remov+ su* deposits f ! banks & ann\nc$ 8 int5tion to cease ! plac+ ( deposits ) any bank4 ,! ,regi/] ( ! ,treasury is ! (ficial book-keep] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,commission]s ( ,cu/oms & ( ,int]nal ,rev5ue h *>ge respectively ( ! collection ( cu/oms duties & int]nal rev5ue taxes4 ,! ,comptroll] ( ! ,curr5cy has control ( ! national banks4 ,! ,*ief ( ! ,bureau ( ,/ati/ics collects & publi%es ! /ati/ics ( our =eign comm]ce4 ,9 ! ,bureau ( ,engrav+ & ,pr9t+ are design$1 engrav$ & pr9t$ all gov]nm5t bonds1 national bank notes1 drafts1 ,unit$ ,/ates notes1 etc41 = :i* "w ab\t #abjj p]sons are employ$4 ,! director ( ! ,m9t has g5]al sup]vision ov] all m9ts & assay (fices4 ,9 addition to 8 annual report he publi%es ye>ly a report on ! /ati/ics ( ! production ( preci\s metals4 ,! titles ( ! o!r (fic]s indicate ! g5]al duties ( ea*4 ,! :ole dep>tm5t employs ab\t #c1djj p]sons at ,wa%+ton4 ,"s ( ! m important public que/ions com+ )9 ! prov9ce ( ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t at ! pres5t "t are 7#a7 ! ,t>iff1 :i* has be5 settl$ = "s ye>s by ! high t>iff act ( ?is ,congress2 7#b7 ! silv] "q involv+ ! grave/ que/ions ( f9ance1 likewise settl$ = a "t by ! silv] act ( ?is ,congress2 7#c7 ! pur*ase ( bonds on ! m>ket z a device to r$uce ! surplus & prev5t ! accumulation ( money 9 ! ,treasury2 7#d7 ! national bank+ sy/em1 ^: basis is be+ remov$ by ! rapid paym5t ( ! public debt2 7#e7 ! m]its ( ! ,indep5d5t ,treasury ,sy/em by :i* x is claim$ t money is kept out ( circulation & a /r+5cy caus$ 9 ! money m>ket2 & 7#f7 ! advisability ( transf]r+ ! rev5ue m>9e s]vice to ! ,navy ,dep>tm5t4 ,! ,w> ,dep>tm5t4--,! ,w> ,dep>tm5t 0 e/abli%$ ,augu/ #g1 #aghi4 ,!re is "o assi/ant secret>y4 ,! *iefs ( ! bureaus into :i* ! dep>tm5t is divid$1 are (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,army1 & a "p ( ! milit>y e/abli%m5t4 ,_! titles & duties are z foll[s4 ,! ,adjutant ,g5]al ( ! ,army1 :o has "u him a l>ge =ce ( cl]ks1 has ! duty ( issu+ ord]s1 conduct+ ! correspond5ce ( ! dep>tm5t1 & keep+ ! record4 ,! ,inspector-,g5]al inspects & reports ^u ! condition ( ! army at all po9ts1 & ! acc\nts ( ! disburs+ (fic]s4 ,! ,qu>t]ma/]-,g5]al has *>ge ( ! clo?+1 qu>t]s1 & supplies1 except food supplies1 :i* =m ! prov9ce ( ! ,commiss>y-,g5]al4 ,! ,surgeon-,g5]al has *>ge ( ! m$ical dep>tm5t1 ( ! ,army ,m$ical ,museum1 & a special libr>y4 ,! ,*ief ( ,eng9e]s has *>ge ( ! con/ruction ( =tifications1 etc4 ,! ,judge-,advocate-,g5]al reviews ! proce$+s ( c\rts-m>tial1 & advises ! ,secret>y on po9ts ( law4 ,!re are also a ,payma/]-,g5]al1 a ,*ief ( ,ordnance1 & a ,*ief ,signal ,(fic]4 ,! ,*ief ,signal ,(fic] has *>ge ( ! sy/em ( communicat+ ) di/ant po9ts by means ( v>i\s sy/ems ( signals1 ! mo/ notewor?y ( :i* is t ( ! heliograph1 by :i* in=mation is convey$ by ! use ( sun-reflect+ mirrors4 ,communication has be5 e/abli%$ betwe5 po9ts #abe miles di/ant by means ( a heliograph ) a reflect+ surface ( b tw5ty squ>e in*es4 ,! ,w> ,dep>tm5t answ]s m ne>ly ?an any o!r to ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,public ,works f\nd 9 o!r gov]nm5ts4 ,all public improvem5ts1 ! con/ruction ( docks1 bridges1 & ! improvem5t ( riv]s & h>bors1 are "u ! sup]vision ( army eng9e]s4 ,all arctic explorations & ! explorations ( our we/]n t]ritory1 h be5 conduct$ by army (fic]s "u ! direction ( ! ,secret>y ( ,w>4 ,! publication ( w> records is be+ made by a special bo>d 9 ! ,w> ,dep>tm5t4 ,?irty-five volumes h be5 publi%$4 ,x is e/imat$ t !re w be "o hundr$ & n9ete5 volumes :5 ! "w is complet$4 ,! ,secret>y ( ,w> also has *>ge ( ! ,milit>y ,academy at ,we/ ,po9t1 ( c]ta9 national p>ks1 & homes = disabl$ soldi]s4 ,! army is comm&$ by a lieut5ant-g5]al "u :om are ?ree major-g5]als & six brigadi]-g5]als4 ,x consi/s ( ab\t #bf1jjj m5 di/ribut$ 9 ! ?ree divisions ( ! ,miss\ri1 ! ,atlantic1 & ! ,pacific1 ( :i* ! fir/ conta9s f\r dep>tm5ts1 ! second1 "o1 & ! ?ird1 ?ree4 ,congress appropriates & exp5ds ?r\gh ! ,w> ,dep>tm5t #djj1jjj ye>ly on ! ,national ,gu>d = its armam5t & equipm5t4 ,! aggregate ( ?is res]ve army regul>ly organiz$ & uni=m$ is #ajf1ejj m54 ,! ,secret>y also details army (fic]s to furni% milit>y in/ruction at v>i\s colleges4 ,! pr9cipal que/ions to-day conc]n+ ! ,w> ,dep>tm5t are ! advisability ( /r5g!n+ our coa/ def5ces1 & ! less5+ ( ! des]tions 9 ! army1 :i* am\nt ye>ly to f t5 to fifte5 p] c5t1 ( ! total /r5g? ( ! army4 ,! ,navy ,dep>tm5t4--,! ,navy ,dep>tm5t 0 e/abli%$ ,april #cj1 #agih4 ,!re is "o assi/ant secret>y4 ,! r\t9e "w ( ! dep>tm5t is di/ribut$ among eight bureaus3 7#a7 ( ,y>ds & ,docks1 7#b7 ( ,equipm5t & ,recruit+1 7#c7 ( ,navigation1 7#d7 ( ,ord9ance1 7#e7 ( ,con/ruction & ,repair1 7#f7 ( ,/eam ,eng9e]+1 7#g7 ( ,provisions & ,clo?+1 7#h7 ( ,m$ic9e & ,surg]y4 ,! *iefs ( ! bureaus are (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,navy4 ,!re is a hydrographic (fice atta*$ to ! bureau ( navigation1 :i* prep>es maps1 *>ts & nautical books relat+ to navigation1 & makes inve/igations conc]n+ m>9e meteorology4 ,?is ,dep>tm5t has *>ge ( ! ,naval ,obs]vatory = :i* a new set ( build+s is n[ be+ built at ,wa%+ton4 ,! ,dep>tm5t publi%es ye>ly1 = ! guidance ( seam51 ! nautical almanac1 ! prep>ation ( :i* is intru/$ to a sep>ate bureau4 ,! dep>tm5t also compiles & publi%es naval records ( ! rec5t w>1 & has *>ge ( ! ,naval ,academy at ,annapolis1 ,m>yl&4 ,! ,(fic]s ( ! ,navy ^u ! active li/ include "o admiral1 "o vice-admiral1 six re>-admirals1 & t5 commodores4 ,! naval =ce includes #aj1jjj (fic]s & m51 toge!r ) #b1jjj m>9es4 ,! numb] ( vessels ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,navy :5 all ! %ips n[ au?oriz$ are complet$1 exclud+ ^? :i* by ! process ( decay & ! op]ation ( law w by t date h be5 condemn$1 w comprise #aa armor$ & #ca un>mor$ vessels4 ,! five /ations ma9ta9$ are ! ,asiatic1 ,european1 ,nor? ,atlantic1 ,s\? ,atlantic1 & ,pacific4 ,! *ief matt] ( pres5t public int]e/ conc]n+ ?is dep>tm5t is ! creation ( a new navy by ! con/ruction ( mod]n /eel vessels4 ,?is new policy 0 begun 9 #ahhb4 ,! ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t4--,! ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t 0 creat$ 9 #ahdi1 to take *>ge ( v>i\s duties n prop]ly belong+ to any ( ! exi/+ dep>tm5ts4 ,!re are two assi/ant secret>ies4 ,! *iefs ( ! bureaus into :i* ?is dep>tm5t is divid$1 & _! respective duties are z foll[s3 ,! ,commission] ( ! ,g5]al ,l& ,(fice has *>ge ( all ! public l& ( ! gov]nm5t1 its c>e1 sup]vision1 & sale or di/ribution4 ,9 ano!r *apt] we give fur!r details conc]n+ ! op]ations ( ?is important bureau4 ,! ,commission] ( ,p5sions has *>ge ( ! grant+ ( p5sions to old soldi]s & sailors4 ,he has a l>ge =ce at ,wa%+ton4 ,!re are eighte5 p5sion ag5cies 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,9 #ahjh ! ,unit$ ,/ates assum$ all ! /ate p5sion obligations4 ,! act ( #ahah gave p5sions to all :o _h s]v$ n9e mon?s 9 ! ,revolution>y ,w>2 o!r w>s 7 aft]w>ds includ$4 ,! acts ( ! p]iod beg9n+ #ahfb h enorm\sly increas$ ! am\nt paid4 ,! report ( ! ,commission] = #ahij %[s t at ! close ( ! fiscal ye> ( #ahhi ! numb] ( p5sion]s 0 #ecg1idd1 & ! annual exp5ditures = p5sions #aje1ebh1ahj4ch4 ,! disability p5sion law pass$ ,june #bg1ahij1 w greatly l5g!n ! p5sion li/ & increase ! annual exp5ditures4 ,! pres5t ,commission] says 9 8 la/ report t x is believ$ t !re are probably ov] "o hundr$ ?\s& claims 9 ?is (fice :i* c be prop]ly all[$ "u ! provisions ( ^! regulations4 ,! act ( ,june #bg1 #ahij1 is ! fir/ disability p5sion law 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w :i* grants to soldi]s & sailors p5sions = disabilities :i* are n prov5 to h be5 incurr$ 9 ! s]vice & 9 l9e ( duty4 ,speak] ,re$ ( ! ,h\se *>act]iz$ x z ! mo/ g5]\s piece ( p5sion legislation ev] pass$ by any nation on e>?4 ,! ,commission] ( ,pat5ts has *>ge ( ! grant+ ( pat5ts4 ,up to #agic ! grant+ ( lett]s-pat5t 0 giv5 to a bo>d consi/+ ( ! ,secret>y ( ,/ate1 ,secret>y ( ,w> & ! ,attorney ,g5]al1 ! records & models be+ kept 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,/ate4 ,9 #agic ! grant+ ( pat5ts 0 giv5 exclusively to ! ,secret>y ( ,/ate4 ,9 #ahba ! cl]k ( ! ,/ate ,dep>tm5t :o exam9$ applications = pat5ts receiv$ ! title ( ,sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,pat5t ,(fice1 & on ,july #d1 #ahcf1 ! ,pat5t ,(fice 0 creat$ z a sep>ate bureau & a ,commission] ( ,pat5ts creat$4 ,ab\t #bd1jjj pat5ts are issu$ annually4 ,!re is an ,assi/ant ,commission]-9-*ief1 an ,exam9] ( ,int]f]5ces1 ?ree ,exam9]s-9-*ief1 ?irty-eight ,pr9cipal ,exam9]s1 & a l>ge =ce ( assi/ant exam9]s = diff]5t bran*es4 ,pat5ts run = sev5te5 ye>s4 ,! annual receipts ( ! bureau f fees m ?an equal ! exp5ditures1 & ! (fice n[ has a surplus ( sev]al millions to its cr$it 9 ! ,treasury4 ,! ,commission] ( ,indian ,affairs has *>ge ( all matt]s conc]n+ ! ,indians1 _! education1 gov]nm5t & support4 ,!re are #bci ,indian s*ools support$ by appropriations made by ,congress1 #adg ( :i* are controll$ directly by ! ,indian ,bureau4 ,! av]age att5dance ( pupils at ^! s*ools is betwe5 elev5 & twelve ?\s&4 ,! numb] ( ,indians 9 our c\ntry 7n c\nt+ ^? ( ,alaska7 is ab\t #bej1jjj4 ,!y occupy or h control ( ab\t #aaf1fcj1ajf acres4 ,! ,bureau ( ,education 0 orig9ally e/abli%$ z an indep5d5t ,dep>tm5t by act ( ,congress1 approv$ by ! ,presid5t ,m>* #b1 #ahfg4 ,by an act ( ,congress :i* took effect ,july #a1 #ahfi1 ?is ,dep>tm5t 0 *ang$ to an ,(fice or ,bureau 9 ! ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t4 ,! duties ( ?is ,bureau are to collect & diffuse in=mation reg>d+ s*ools1 me?ods ( in/ruction & s*ool discipl9e1 etc41 & o!rwise to promote ! cause ( education4 ,! results ( ! inve/igations "h c>ri$ on1 ?\gh ) a small cl]ical =ce1 are ( ! utmo/ value to all educators1 & su* is ! ext5t to :i* ! m]it ( ! "w & publications ( ?is (fice are recogniz$ by ! lead+ educators ( ! c\ntry1 t1 9 _! op9ion1 ! ,bureau %\ld be re-e/abli%$ z a dep>tm5t1 & its *ief be made a memb] ( ! ,presid5t's cab9et4 ,! publications ( ! ,bureau consi/ ( 7#a7 ,annual ,reports1 :i* set =? /ati/ics & g5]al in=mation conc]n+ ! educational sy/ems ( ! ,/ates1 ,t]ritories1 l>g] cities1 univ]sities1 & colleges2 pr(essional1 special1 & sci5tific s*ools1 academies1 prep>atory s*ools & k9d]g>t5s1 ) a summ>y ( ! progress ( education 9 =eign c\ntries2 7#b7 ,special ,reports1 on subjects p]t95t to ! times2 7#c7 ,occasional ,bullet9s1 on matt]s ( curr5t educational int]e/2 7#d7 ,circul>s ( ,in=mation1 on important que/ions ( educational "w or hi/ory1 :i* are issu$ 9 ye>ly s]ies4 ,"u ?is la/ title !re is n[ 9 c\rse ( publication a v valuable s]ies ( monographs ^u ! ,hi/ory ( ,high] ,education 9 ! v>i\s ,/ates4 ,^! monographs are be+ prep>$ by compet5t s*ol>s "u ! editorial sup]vision ( ,dr4 ,h4,b4 ,adams ( ! ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity4 ,num]\s ,annual ,reports h be5 issu$1 & "o is n[ 9 press1 = ! ye> #ahhi-ij4 ,! work+ =ce ( ! ,bureau is divid$ into ?ree divisions3 7#a7 ,records2 7#b7 ,/ati/ics2 7#c7 ,libr>y & ,museum4 ,! libr>y ( ?is ,(fice conta9s "o ( ! mo/ valuable p$agogical collections 9 ! c\ntry4 ,! ,commission] ( ,railroads has *>ge ( ! gov]nm5t's int]e/s 9 c]ta9 railroads to :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates has grant$ loans ( cr$it or subsidies 9 l&s or bonds4 ,by ! acts ( ,july #a1 #ahfb1 & ,july #a1 #ahfd1 ,congress1 9 ord] to enc\rage ! build+ ( a trans-cont95tal railroad1 grant$ to sev]al ,pacific railroad companies subsidies 9 l& adjac5t to ! roads1 & issu$ c]ta9 am\nts ( bonds on :i* 0 gu>ante$ int]e/ at ! rate ( six p] c5t4 ,! am\nt ( l&s giv5 & bonds issu$ 7 9 proportion to ! numb] ( miles ( road con/ruct$4 ,! l&s 7 a gift4 ,! bonds 7 to be repaid by ! companies ) all int]e/ :i* might h be5 advanc$ by ! gov]nm5t4 ,f #ahej to #ahgb ! v>i\s railroads receiv$ a total ( #aee1ejd1iid acres ( l&s1 & #adg1aaj1jfi proce$s ( bonds & int]e/ paid by ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! roads h repaid ( ?is am\nt #cf1gbc1dgg1 leav+ at ! pres5t "t due f ! roads to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! sum ( #aaj1chf1eib4 ,?is !y w be unable to pay ^u ! maturity ( ! bonds1 & a bill has be5 be=e ,congress = sev]al sessions look+ t[>ds a bett] adju/m5t ( ?is debt4 ,! ,commission] ( ,railroads 0 orig9ally /yl$ ! ,auditor ( ,railroad ,acc\nts4 ,! (fice 0 creat$ ,june #ai1 #ahgh4 ,geological ,survey4--,?is bran* ( ! ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t 0 e/abli%$ 9 #ahgi4 ,its "w is ! inve/igation & det]m9ation ( ! geological /ructure ( ! v>i\s sections ( ! c\ntry1 ! composition ( soils1 ! reclamation ( wa/e l&s1 etc4 ,9 ?is bureau are made topographical surveys & irrigation surveys ( arid regions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! publications connect$ ) ?is "w1 numb] t5 ,annual ,reports1 ?irte5 ,monographs1 fifty-eight ,bullet9s & five ,/ati/ical ,pap]s4 ,9 ^! !re is a discussion ( ! geological /ructure ( e /ate & t]ritory1 & in=mation conc]n+ ! occurr5ce & production ( ea* great metallic & m9]al /aple ( ! c\ntry4 ,! bureau comprises "o geographical1 twelve geological1 six paleontological & f\r accessory divisions4 ,a division ( m9es & m9+ publi%es an annual report on ! m9]al res\rces & production ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,c5sus4--,! ,sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,c5sus is appo9t$ ea* decade = ! purpose ( tak+ ! regul> dec5nial c5sus4 ,! ,elev5? ,c5sus has j be5 tak54 ,! fir/ 0 tak5 9 #agij4 ,ea* c5sus has %[n a t5d5cy to be m elaborate & to embrace a great] numb] ( subjects ?an any prec$+4 ,!re 7 employ$ 9 ! tak+ ( ! ,elev5? ,c5sus #db1jjj enum]ators1 #b1jjj cl]ks1 f #hjj to #ijj special ag5ts1 #age sup]visors & #be exp]ts4 ,9 addition to ^! eight bureaus1 ! dep>tm5t has *>ge ( v>i\s o!r bran*es ( gov]nm5t4 ,all ( ! t]ritories come "u ! ,secret>y's sup]vision1 & look to him 9 case ( any difficulty4 ,! ,secret>y also has *>ge ( ! ,yell[/one ,national ,p>k1 ! ,hot ,spr+s ,res]vation 9 ,arkansas1 & ( c]ta9 hospitals & eleemosyn>y in/itutions 9 ! ,di/rict ( ,columbia4 ,a ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,public ,docum5ts looks aft] ! receipt1 di/ribution1 & sale ( gov]nm5t publications4 ,! mo/ important subjects ( rec5t legislation conc]n+ ?is dep>tm5t h be5 ! dep5d5t p5sion act1 ! act provid+ = ! survey ( ,we/]n l&s suitable = irrigation1 & ! l& =feiture act4 ,by ?is act ov] #h1jjj1jjj acres ( l&s 7 =feit$ by ! railroads = failure to fulfill ! conditions "u :i* ! l& 0 orig9ally grant$ to !m4 ,! ,po/ ,(fice ,dep>tm5t4--,! ,po/ ,(fice ,dep>tm5t 0 e/abli%$ 9 #aghi1 b ! ,po/ma/]-,g5]al did n become a cab9et (fic] until #ahbi4 ,! ,po/ma/]-,g5]al has *>ge & managem5t ( ! dep>tm5t1 & ( ! dome/ic & =eign mail s]vice4 ,he c e/abli% po/ (fices & appo9t po/ma/]s ( ! f\r? & fif? classes1 i4e4 ^? ^: sal>ies are less ?an #a1jjj4 ,^! numb] ov] #ej1jjj4 ,! total numb] ( po/(fices is ab\t #ef1jjj4 ,! ,presid5t appo9ts to ^? ( ! fir/ ?ree classes4 ,o!r (fic]s besides ! ,assi/ant ,po/ma/]s-,g5]al are1 ! ,sup]9t5d5ts ( ! ,money ,ord] ,division1 ( ,=eign ,mails1 & ( ! ,railway ,s]vice1 & an ,assi/ant ,attorney-,g5]al = ! dep>tm5t4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is a memb] ( ! ,univ]sal ,po/al ,union1 ( :i* mo/1 if n all1 ( ! civiliz$ c\ntries are memb]s4 ,! c5tral (fice is kn[n z ! ,int]national ,bureau ( ! ,univ]sal ,po/al ,union1 & is conduct$ "u ! sup]9t5d5ce ( ! ,swiss ,po/al ,adm9i/ration1 & its exp5ses are borne by all ! nations compos+ ! ,union4 ,! rev5ues ( ! ,po/ ,(fice ,dep>tm5t ne>ly equal ! exp5ditures1 & w\ld h exce$$ !m be=e ?is b = ! fact t z soon z ! am\nt ( receipts has w>rant$1 improvem5ts h be5 made 9 ! s]vice1 ?r\gh ! r$uction ( po/age rates & ! ext5sion ( ! free deliv]y sy/em4 ,x has nev] be5 ! policy ( ! gov]nm5t to make ?is dep>tm5t a s\rce ( rev5ue4 ,! patronage ( ! po/(fice dep>tm5t is ! mo/ important ( any ( ! dep>tm5ts1 & x is v l>gely = ?is reason t ! ,po/ma/]-,g5]al is a memb] ( ! ,cab9et4 ,craw=d ( ,s\? ,c>ol9a secur$ 9 #ahbj ! passage ( an act limit+ ! t]m ( (fice ( po/ma/]s to f\r ye>s4 ,! appo9tm5t ( po/ma/]s does n come "u ! ,civil ,s]vice ,act4 ,x is ! pr9cipal aim ( civil s]vice re=m]s1 t po/ma/]s %\ld be appo9t$ "u its provisions4 ,! mo/ important que/ions ( public policy conc]n+ ?is dep>tm5t1 are ! r$uction ( po/age rates on lett]s to "o c5t2 ! advisability ( ! e/abli%m5t ( a po/al telegraph s]vice2 ! ext5sion ( ! free deliv]y sy/em1 & ! relation ( ! dep>tm5t to ! civil s]vice regulations4 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,ju/ice4--,! (fice ( ! ,attorney-,g5]al ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 e/abli%$ 9 #aghi2 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,ju/ice n until #ahgj4 ,! ,attorney-,g5]al gives advice ^u legal po9ts to ! ,presid5t & also1 :5 reque/$ to d s1 to ! heads ( dep>tm5ts4 ,he directs ! cases ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & sometimes appe>s 9 !m1 especially 9 ! ,supreme ,c\rt4 ,he sup]vises ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,m>%als & ,di/rict ,attorneys4 ,8 sub/itute & pr9cipal assi/ant is ! ,solicitor-,g5]al4 ,!re are two ,assi/ant-,attorneys-,g5]al1 ! bus9ess ( ! "o be+ connect$ ) ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 & ( ! o!r ) ! ,c\rt ( ,claims4 ,!re are also1 z m5tion$ be=e1 c]ta9 legal (fic]s atta*$ to ! o!r dep>tm5ts4 ,additional c\nsel is frequ5tly employ$ to assi/ 9 ! argum5t ( important cases4 ,to ! ,attorney-,g5]al belongs ! duty ( recomm5d+ p]sons to ! (fice ( judges1 etc41 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,circuit & ,di/rict ,c\rts4 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4--,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture 0 organiz$ z a sep>ate dep>tm5t 9 ! ye> #ahfb4 ,9 #ahhi its head became a cab9et (fic]4 ,!re is "o ,assi/ant ,secret>y4 ,! duties ( ! ,secret>y are to promote 9 e way ! agricultural int]e/s ( ! c\ntry4 ,= ?is purpose ! dep>tm5t is sep>at$ into ?irte5 bureaus1 "u ! foll[+ (fic]s 7#a7 ! ,entomologi/1 7#b7 ,*ief ( ! ,bureau ( ,animal ,indu/ry1 7#c7 ,*emi/1 7#d7 ,botani/1 7#e7 ,*ief ( ! ,section ( ,vegetable ,pa?ology1 7#f7 ,/ati/ician1 7#g7 ,orni?ologi/1 7#h7 ,director ( ! ,(fice ( ,exp]im5t ,/ations1 7#i7 ,microscopi/1 7#aj7 ,pomologi/1 7#aa7 ,*ief ( ! ,=e/ry ,division1 7#ab7 ,*ief ( ! ,se$ ,division1 & 7#ac7 ,wea!r ,bureau4 ,! enum]ation ( ^! titles indicates ! g5]al nature ( ! "w ( ! dep>tm5t4 ,"h are inve/igat$ ! habits ( injuri\s insects & birds & ! be/ means = _! de/ruction2 ! causes ( & rem$ies = vegetable & fruit diseases4 ,! ,*ief ( ! ,bureau ( ,animal ,indu/ry inspects h]ds ( cattle & causes to be slaught]$ ^? suff]+ f a contagi\s disease4 ,"u a law pass$ 9 #ahij1 he also inspects all cattle & meat int5d$ = export to =eign c\ntries4 ,he inve/igates causes ( & rem$ies = cattle diseases1 ! be/ me?od ( bre$+1 etc4 ,! ,/ati/ician publi%es mon?ly & annual reports conc]n+ /ati/ics ( ! condition1 prospects & h>ve/s ( ! pr9cipal crops1 ! wages ( f>m labor1 etc4 ,! ,*emi/ analyzes f]tiliz]s1 soils1 etc4 ,by ! act ( ,m>* #b1 #ahhg1 #ae1jjj p] annum 0 appropriat$ by ,congress to ea* ( ! ,/ates & ,t]ritories :i* h e/abli%$ an agricultural college or an agricultural college dep>tm5t1 = ! e/abli%m5t ( exp]im5t /ations4 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture has g5]al ov]sight ov] ^! /ations4 ,! ,dep>tm5t c>ries on exp]im5ts reg>d+ ! feasibility ( pr(itable silk reel+ 9 ?is c\ntry1 = :i* purpose !re is a sep>ate division2 x also makes exp]im5ts 9 ! manufacture ( sug> f sorghum & f beets gr[n 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! be/ qualities ( se$s are te/$ & di/ribut$ gratuit\sly among ! f>m]s4 ,ef=ts are made to introduce & fo/] ! cultivation ( new k9ds ( agricultural products1 & 9 v>i\s ways to advance agricultural int]e/s4 ,congress1 by an act pass$ dur+ its la/ session1 #ahij1 creat$ a wea!r bureau "u ! ,agricultural ,dep>tm5t & transf]r$ to x ! bus9ess ( wea!r progno/ication :i* _h be5 t9d] ! ,*ief ,signal (fic] 9 ! ,w> ,dep>tm5t4 ,! s]vice rema9s un*ang$4 ,x has /ations at ! milit>y /ations 9 ! int]ior ( ! cont95t1 at life-sav+ /ations1 & at o!r po9ts 9 ! ,/ates & ,t]ritories4 ,meteorological obs]vations are tak5 at ea* /ation1 & ! in=mation =w>d$ to ! c5tral (fice at ,wa%+ton1 :]e wea!r pr$ictions = ! succe$+ day or days are made4 ,! pr$ictions are giv5 gratuit\sly to ! public ?r\gh a sy/em ( flag signals1 by ! di/ribution ( wea!r maps1 & by publication 9 ! daily pap]s4 ,! p]c5tage ( successful =eca/s ( ! wea!r dur+ #ahij 0 #hd4d4 ,! ,dep>tm5t publi%es ! result ( ! sci5tific inve/igations c>ri$ on by its (fic]s 9 ,annual ,reports ( ! ,secret>y & ,*iefs ( ,divisions2 9 a s]ies ( ,circul>s on special subjects1 9 regul> ,bullet9s2 & 9 a s]ies ( /udies on ,insect ,life4 ,^! docum5ts are di/ribut$ gratuit\sly4 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,labor4--,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,labor 0 creat$ 9 #ahhd1 z a bureau "u ! ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t4 ,9 #ahhh1 x became a sep>ate dep>tm5t4 ,x is a purely /ati/ical bureau4 ,x collects & publi%es /ati/ics on ! co/ ( production1 on wages1 labor /ati/ics1 etc4 ,its six publi%$ reports are on 7#a7 ,indu/rial ,depressions1 7#b7 ,convict ,labor1 7#c7 ,/rikes & ,lock\ts1 7#d7 ,work+ ,wom5 9 ,l>ge ,cities1 7#e7 ,m>riage & ,divorce1 & 7#f7 ,railroad ,employs4 ,_h all ! executive dep>tm5ts be5 creat$ at "o "t by a con/itutional conv5tion1 we %\ld be ju/ifi$ 9 expect+ a great] symmetry & uni=mity 9 ! nam+ & gr\p+ ( *ief (ficials4 ,an inspection ( ! v>i\s executive (fic]s %[s t n a few are "u dep>tm5ts o!r ?an w\ld be expect$2 & ! nam+ ( (ficials is (t5 mislead+ z to _! importance4 ,)9 rec5t ye>s !re has appe>$ a /rong t5d5cy to dep>t yet m f a sy/ematic gr\p+ ( executive duties "u dep>tm5ts4 ,executive functions h be5 giv5 to bodies entirely indep5d5t ( ! dep>tm5ts4 ,to complete our survey ( ! f$]al executive we mu/ consid] ! foll[+3 7#a7 ! ,int]/ate ,comm]ce ,commission1 7#b7 ! ,fi% ,commission1 7#c7 ! ,civil ,s]vice ,commission1 7#d7 ! ,gov]nm5t ,pr9t+ ,(fice1 7#e7 ! ,national ,museum1 ,smi?sonian ,in/itution1 ! ,bureau ( ,e?nology1 7#f7 ! ,congressional ,libr>y4 ,! ,int]/ate ,comm]ce ,commission4--,) ! gr[? ( our railroad sy/em h come v>i\s abuses4 ,roads h discrim9at$ 9 favor ( "o %ipp] ov] o!rs1 & ( "o locality ov] o!rs4 ,comb9ations h be5 =m$ to keep up railroad pass5g] & freight *>ges4 ,_! influ5ce has be5 us$ 9 political (fices ?r\gh ! issu+ ( free pass5g] tickets1 etc4 ,v>i\s o!r m9or abuses h c5t]$ ar\nd ^! corporations4 ,! ,/ates h be5 p[]less to provide a rem$y = ! roads h be5 mo/ly engag$ 9 int]/ate comm]ce ) :i* ! ,/ates are =bidd5 by ! con/itution to int]f]e4 ,to provide a rem$y = ! pr9cipal ( ^! abuses ,congress pass$ ! act ( ,febru>y #d1 #ahhg1 regulat+ ! practice ( railroads & creat+ ! ,int]/ate ,comm]ce ,commission to en=ce ! provisions4 ,! ,commission is compos$ ( five commission]s appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t4 ,! ,commission sits z a c\rt & adjudicates compla9ts aris+ betwe5 railroads or betwe5 citiz5s & railroads1 involv+ pr9ciples cov]$ by ! act4 ,x has rapidly atta9$ its pres5t position z "o ( ! mo/ important c\rts 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,a /ati/ician1 atta*$ to ! ,commission1 publi%es annual /ati/ics ( railroads1 cov]+ ! ext5t1 ! am\nt1 & value ( _! /ock & bonds1 exp5ses ( managem5t1 receipts1 c4 ,! act1 ( c\rse1 applies only to ^? railroads ly+ 9 m ?an "o ,/ate4 ,! ,fi% ,commission4--,! ,fi% ,commission 0 creat$ by act ( ,congress 9 #ahgj4 ,its *ief is ! ,commission] ( ,fi% & ,fi%]ies4 ,!re is also an ,assi/ant ,commission]4 ,?is ,commission /&s 9 ! same relation to ! fi%]y int]e/s ( ! c\ntry z does ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture to agricultural int]e/s4 ,bo? are sci5tific & practical dep>tm5ts4 ,! =m] inve/igates ! food1 habits & enemies ( fi%es2 exp]im5ts conc]n+ ! be/ me?ods ( _! capture1 ! be/ k9d ( baits1 app>atus1 etc4 ,x collects /ati/ics ( fi% & fi%]ies ( ! :ole c\ntry4 ,probably its mo/ important s]vice is ! propagation & di/ribution ( food fi%es4 ,"u its direction are hat*$ & lib]at$ millions ( ! "y ( ! be/ food fi%es 9 ! v>i\s inl& wat]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,riv]s suitable = black bass1 %ad1 c>p1 or o!r food fi%es1 b n hav+ !m 9 _! wat]s1 are suppli$4 ,= ^! purposes ! ,commission owns & manages v>i\s fi% hat*]ies1 fi% di/ribut+ vessels & c>s1 propagat+ ponds1 etc4 ,! ye>ly appropriation = c>ry+ on ?is "w am\nts to ne>ly a qu>t] ( a million ( doll>s4 ,! ,civil ,s]vice ,commission4--,to correct ! wa/eful & demoraliz+ spoils sy/em1 9 vogue ev] s9ce ! fir/ adm9i/ration ( ,jackson1 ,congress pass$1 ,janu>y #af1 #ahhc1 an act to regulate & improve ! ,civil ,s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,"u ! provisions ( ?is act1 ! ,presid5t appo9ts ?ree commission]s1 only two ( :om may be ( ! same political p>ty1 to adm9i/] ! act4 ,x is "o ( ! duties ( ?is ,commission to provide exam9ations = te/+ ! fitness ( applicants = public s]vice4 ,appo9tm5ts 9 ^? bran*es ( ! gov]nm5t com+ "u ?is act c only be made f p]sons :o h pass$ ! civil s]vice exam9ation successfully4 ,adh]5ce to "o or ! o!r political p>ties has little weight 9 ! selection ( employs4 ,"u ! regulation ( ?is act are3 ! n9e executive dep>tm5ts at ,wa%+ton1 ! ,civil ,s]vice ,commission itself1 ! cu/oms di/ricts1 elev5 9 numb]1 9 ea* ( :i* !re are fifty or m employs1 all po/(fices 9 :i* !re are fifty or m employs1 & ! ,railway ,mail ,s]vice2 includ+ altoge!r ab\t #bh1ejj cl]ks4 ,! ,gov]nm5t ,pr9t+ ,(fice4--,9 ord] t !re may be intellig5t legislation & adm9i/ration1 an ext5sive sy/em ( reports is requir$4 ,! publications ( ! f$]al gov]nm5t are ( c\rse v num]\s4 ,ea* dep>tm5t1 bureau1 & division makes an annual report4 ,! proce$+s ( ,congress are report$ v]batim & publi%$4 ,?is pr9t+ & b9d+ are done by ! gov]nm5t ?r\gh ! gov]nm5t pr9t+ (fice1 e/abli%$ = t purpose4 ,! ,bureau ( ,pr9t+ & ,engrav+1 :i* is "u ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t1 does no "p ( ?is4 ,its duties are limit$ to ^? ( engrav+ & pr9t+ banknotes1 etc4 ,! *ief ( ! ,gov]nm5t ,pr9t+ ,(fice is /yl$ ! ,gov]nm5t ,pr9t]1 & is appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t4 ,! ,national ,museum1 ,smi?sonian ,in/itution & ,bureau ( ,e?nology4--,9 #ahbi ,james ,smi?son1 bequea!d by 8 w ! :ole ( 8 prop]ty1 some?+ ov] half a million doll>s1 to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica to f\nd at ,wa%+ton1 "u ! "n ( ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itution1 an e/abli%m5t = ! increase & diffusion ( k among m54 ,?is fund held by ! ,unit$ ,/ates n[ am\nts to #gjb1jjj yield+ six p] c5t1 p] annum4 ,9 #ahdf ,congress det]m9$ to devote ?is gift ( ,smi?son to ! f\nd+ & support ( a museum4 ,! ,national ,museum 0 e/abli%$ 9 #ahdf1 & is support$ by annual appropriations by ,congress4 ,9 #ahgi ,congress creat$ a special bureau "u ! ,secret>y ( ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itution1 to be call$ ! ,bureau ( ,e?nology1 to make rese>*es 9 ,nor? ,am]ican an?ropology4 ,?is "w is support$ by annual appropriations4 ,! ,national ,museum1 ,smi?sonian ,in/itution & ,bureau ( ,e?nology1 ?\gh di/9ct in/itutions#a are "u sub/antially ! same managem5t4 ,_! reports are ( great sci5tific value4 ,! ,libr>ian ( ,congress4--,! ,libr>ian ( ,congress is an indep5d5t (fic] & reports directly to ,congress4 ,he has complete control ( ! ,congressional ,libr>y1 n[ situat$ 9 ! ,capitol build+4 ,! books n[ collect$ 9 ?is libr>y h be5 pur*as$ f "t to "t by ,congress4 ,!re is a law requir+ t two copies ( e book1 pamphlet1 newspap]1 photograph1 etc41 copyright$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be s5t to ! ,congressional ,libr>y4 ,x ?us receives l>ge & valuable additions ye>ly4 ,! ,libr>y n[ numb]s ov] half a million volumes4 ,a new build+ = ! libr>y is 9 process ( con/ruction1 & x w h co/ :5 complet$ betwe5 sev5 & eight million doll>s4 ,footnote #a3 ,a valuable & sugge/ive pap] on ,! ,orig9 ( ! ,national ,sci5tific & ,educational ,in/itutions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 by ,dr4 ,g4 ,br[n ,goode1 ,assi/ant ,secret>y ( ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itution1 0 publi%$ by ! ,am]ican ,hi/orical ,association4 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,"p #b4 ,g4,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #ahij4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,! ,f$]al ,judici>y4 ,9 =m+ ! ,con/itution ! fram]s ( our gov]nm5t 7 controll$ by ! pr9ciple t ! p[]s :i* belong to all gov]nm5ts c be mo/ safely & satisfactorily ex]cis$ by divid+ !m accord+ to _! nature among ?ree sep>ate bran*es1 ! executive1 ! legislative1 & ! judicial4 ,"u ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation ?is maxim ( gov]nm5t _h be5 disreg>d$4 ,! old ,cont95tal ,congress _h be5 giv5 "u t plan1 n only legislative p[]s1 b also ^? executive & judicial p[]s :i* ! ,/ates _h yield$ to ! c5tral gov]nm5t4 ,! lack ( a ,f$]al judici>y 01 z ,ju/ice ,/ory says1 "o ( ! vital defects ( ! old conf$]ation4 ,hamilton1 ! exp\nd] ( ! ,con/itution1 said3 ,laws are a dead lett] )\t c\rts to en=ce & apply !m4 ,! reasons :y a national sy/em ( c\rts 0 necess>y 7 9 ord] t !re might be "s p[]3-- #a4 ,to give to laws an int]pretation t w\ld be uni=m ?r\gh\t ! l&4 ,if !re 7 ?irte5 indep5d5t c\rts1 ea* giv+ ,f$]al decisions on ! same causes aris+ "u ! same national laws1 :at b confusion & contradiction c\ld arise8 #b4 ,to settle disputes betwe5 ! ,/ates & citiz5s ( diff]5t ,/ates4 #c4 ,to con/rue & int]pret ! ,con/itution itself1 & decide all disputes aris+ "u x act ( ei!r ,congress or ( a ,/ate legislature contr>y to ! ,con/itution c !re=e be valid4 ,h5ce1 ! necessity ( "s p[] :i* %\ld h au?ority to det]m9e ! con/itutionality ( an act :5 br\ght into "q1 &-- #e4 ,!re %\ld be ! p[] ( det]m9+ ! con/itutionality ( any act ( a ,/ate legislature1 & ?us en=ce ^u ,/ate legislatures ! re/rictions laid ^u !m1 su* z1 = example1 ! inability to lay impo/ duties1 to pass laws violat+ ! obligation ( contracts1 etc41 or to regulate objects giv5 exclusively to ,congress4 ,! manife/ necessity ( su* a p[] may be be/ /at$ by us+ ,hamilton's own words 7,f$]ali/1 #cj73 ,:at w\ld avail re/rictions on ! au?ority ( ! ,/ate legislatures )\t "s con/itutional mode ( en=c+ ! obs]vance ( !m8 ,! ,/ates1 by ! plan ( ! ,con/itution1 are prohibit$ f do+ a v>iety ( ?+s1 "s ( :i* are incompatible ) ! int]e/s ( ! ,union2 o!rs ) ! pr9ciples ( good gov]nm5t4 ,! imposition ( duties on import$ articles1 & ! emission ( pap] money are specim5s ( ?is k9d4 ,no man ( s5se w believe t su* prohibition w\ld be scrupul\sly reg>d$1 )\t "s effectual p[] 9 ! gov]nm5t to re/ra9 or correct infractions ( !m4 ,?is p[] mu/ be ei!r a direct negative on ! ,/ate laws1 or an au?ority 9 ! ,f$]al c\rts to annul su* z might be 9 manife/ contrav5tion ( ! articles ( ,union4 99 99 99 ,^! c\rts are to be ! bulw>ks ( a limit$ con/itution aga9/ legislative encroa*m5ts4 ,^! reasons 7 s /rong t !re 0 little or no objection 9 ! con/itutional conv5tion to ! creation ( a national judici>y1 b difficulty arose 9 det]m9+ its precise nature & p[]s4 ,z we h le>n$1 ! difficulty to be ov]come 9 draft+ our new s*eme ( gov]nm5t 0 to satisfy ,/ate jeal\sies & int]e/s1 & pres]ve ,/ate rights ( gov]nm5t1 & yet to obta9 a /rong c5tral gov]nm5t2 & to h>monize ,/ate rights ) ,f$]al /r5g?4 ,9 =m+ ! national judici>y1 ! objects to be obta9$1 difficult ( a*ievem5t1 71 to use ! words ( ,judge ,curtis 7,f$]al ,c\rts ( ,unit$ ,/ates73 ,to con/ruct a judicial p[] )9 ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1 & to clo! x ) attributes :i* w\ld enable x to secure ! supremacy ( ! g5]al con/itution & all ( its provisions2 to give to x exact au?ority t w\ld ma9ta9 ! divid+ l9e betwe5 ! p[]s ( ! ,nation & ! ,/ates1 & to give to x no m3 & to add to ^! a faculty ( disp5s+ ju/ice to =eign]s1 to citiz5s ( diff]5t ,/ates & among ! sov]eign ,/ates !mselves1 ) a m ev5 h& & ) a m assur$ c]ta9ty ( ! great ends ( ju/ice ?an any ,/ate p[] c\ld furni%--^! 7 objects n readily or easily to be obta9$1 & yet !y 7 obta9$ ) wond]ful success4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( ! f$]al judici>y is giv5 9 a few words 9 ! ,con/itution3 ,! judicial p[]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be ve/$ 9 "o ,supreme ,c\rt & 9 su* inf]ior c\rts z ,congress may f "t to "t orda9 & e/abli%4 ,9 pursuance ( ?is clause1 ,congress pass$ 9 #aghi1 :at is kn[n z ! ,judici>y ,act1 ! fir/ section ( :i* reads3 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all consi/ ( "o *ief ju/ice & five associate ju/ices4 ,?is act also e/abli%$ ! inf]ior f$]al c\rts1 ! circuit & di/rict c\rts1 & also def9$ & fix$ _! fields ( jurisdiction1 i4e41 ! class ( cases :i* ^! c\rts c\ld h p[] to try4 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt /&s at ! head ( our national judici>y4 ,its field ( jurisdiction is ! con/ruction & exposition ( ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,hon4 ,s4,f4 ,mill]1 s5ior ju/ice ( ?is c\rt1 speak+ ( ! high "* ( ! duties p]=m$ by ?is c\rt1 said3 ,?is c\rt1 :e!r we take ! "* ( ! suitors t are br\ght be=e x1 or ! importance ( ! subjects ( litigation ov] :i* x has f9al jurisdiction1 may be consid]$ ! highe/ ! _w has ev] se54 ,x has p[] to br+ ,/ates be=e x1 ,/ates :i* "s ( our politicians h be5 9 ! habit ( consid]+ sov]eign1 n only :5 !y come volunt>ily1 b by ,f$]al process !y are subject$1 9 c]ta9 cases1 to ! judgm5t ( ! c\rt4 ,:atev] ^! ,/ates may h be5 at ! "t ( ! =mation ( ! ,con/itution1 !y n[ numb] _! inhabitants by ! millions1 & 9 weal? & civilization are equal to _m ( ! indep5d5t sov]eignties ( ,europe4 ,!re h be5 consid]able *anges 9 ! /ructure & duties ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt s9ce its =mation4 ,at pres5t !re are n9e ju/ices1 in/ead ( six4 ,!re is n[ "o annual t]m ( ! c\rt held1 beg9n+ on ! #b;d ,monday ( ,octob] & cont9u+ until ab\t ,may #a4 ,( ! n9e ju/ices six con/itute a quorum4 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt fir/ met 9 ,febru>y1 #agij4 ,s9ce its organization x has _h eight *ief ju/ices1 9 ! foll[+ ord]4 ,john ,jay1 #aghi-agie4 ,oliv] ,ellswor?1 #agie-ahja4 ,john ,m>%all1 #ahja-ahce4 ,r4,b4 ,taney1 #ahcf-ahfd4 ,s4,p4 ,*ase1 #ahfd-ahgc4 ,m4,r4 ,waite1 #ahgc-ahhh4 ,m4 ,full]1 #ahhh4 ,9 #agie ,john ,rutl$ge 0 appo9t$ to succe$ ,jay1 receiv$ 8 commission1 & held "o t]m ( ! c\rt1 b 0 n confirm$ by ! ,s5ate4 ,dur+ ! e>ly ye>s ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt few cases arose requir+ its jurisdiction4 ,dur+ ! fir/ t]m !re 0 no bus9ess to be transact$4 ,9 #ahja !re 7 only t5 cases on ! docket1 & = "s ye>s ! av]age annual numb] ( cases 0 tw5ty-f\r2 b 9 lat] ye>s ! numb] rapidly increas$4 ,f #ahej ! av]age numb] ( cases decid$ 0 sev5ty-"o1 :ile f #ahge to #ahhj ! av]age 0 ?ree hundr$ & n9ety-"o p] annum1 & n[ !re are m ?an a ?\s& cases await+ a he>+1 & ! c\rt is s f> beh9dh& 9 its "w t x takes f ?ree to f\r ye>s = a case to come up = trial aft] hav+ be5 ent]$ ^u ! docket4 ,at pres5t !re are ab\t f\r hundr$ cases grant$ a he>+ ye>ly4 ,almo/ imm$iately aft] ! adoption ( ! ,con/itution began /ruggles & disputes betwe5 ! ,/ates & ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t4 ,9 ?is conte/ ! ,supreme ,c\rt /eadily upheld ! c5tral p[]1 & did mu* by its decisions to en=ce & e/abli% ! p[] ( ! ,con/itution4 ,especially 0 ! c\rt p[]ful dur+ ! ye>s #ahja to #ahce1 :5 ,m>%all 0 *ief ju/ice1 to ^: wisdom & prud5ce x is difficult to ascribe too mu* influ5ce 9 fix+ ! pres5t /ability ( our gov]nm5t4 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt has be5 an inv>iable support] ( ! ,f$]al ,con/itution4 ,dur+ ! e>ly ye>s ( our gov]nm5t x 0 our firme/ b>ri] aga9/ ! ef=ts ( ! ,/ates to less5 ! f$]al p[]4 ,x has always ma9ta9$ ! balance ( p[] betwe5 ! ,/ates & ! ,union4 ,! annual t]m ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt beg9s ! second ,monday ( ,octob] & la/s until ab\t ,may4 ,daily sessions1 ) ! exceptions ( ,saturdays & ,sundays1 are held1 beg9n+ at #ab o'clock1 9 ! ,capitol build+ at ,wa%+ton4 ,! pres5t ju/ices are ,full]1 *ief ju/ice1 & ,lam>1 ,bradley1 ,field1 ,h>lan1 ,gray1 ,blat*=d & ,brew]1 associate ju/ices4 ,e ,saturday morn+ ! ju/ices meet 9 consultation & decide cases argu$ dur+ ! week4 ,! decisions are ann\nc$ on ,monday morn+s4 ,! ju/ices are appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t1 hold (fice = life1 & are removable only by impea*m5t4 ,! foll[+ are a few cases decid$ by ! ,supreme ,c\rt ) :i* x is important t we %\ld be acqua9t$ ow+ to ! influ5ce :i* _! decision has _h ^u our hi/ory3 #a4 ,9 #agic ! case ( ,*isolm vs4 ,georgia came be=e ?is c\rt4 ,*isolm1 a citiz5 ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 su$ ! ,/ate ( ,georgia = a sum ( money1 & "u ! second section ( ,article ,,iii ( ! ,con/itution1 :i* says t ! judicial p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all ext5d to disputes betwe5 a ,/ate & citiz5s ( ano!r ,/ate1 ! c\rt gave judgm5t 9 8 favor4 ,?is decision t a ,/ate gov]nm5t c\ld be su$ aga9/ its w creat$ s mu* dissatisfaction t ! ,elev5? ,am5dm5t 0 adopt$1 :i* says1 ! judicial p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all n be con/ru$ to ext5d to any suit 9 law or equity comm5c$ or prosecut$ aga9/ "o ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates by citiz5s ( ano!r ,/ate1 or by citiz5s or subjects ( any =eign ,/ate4 ,! effect ( ?is am5dm5t has be5 to enable a ,/ate to repudiate its j debts4 #b4 ,9 #ahai 0 decid$ ! v important case ( ,mc,culloch vs4 ,m>yl&4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates _h e/abli%$ a national bank1 :i* 0 objectionable to _m ( ! ,/ates4 ,m>yl& attempt$ to de/roy ! bank by levy+ a v high tax ^u a bran* bank )9 ! ,/ate4 ,! "q z to h] "r to d ?is 0 br\ght be=e ! ,supreme ,c\rt4 ,to h all[$ ,m>yl& ?is "r w\ld h be5 to give to a ,/ate ,gov]nm5t ! p[] to oppose & r5d] useless an in/itution creat$ by ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t4 ,! c\rt su/a9$ ! ,f$]al p[]1 & x 0 decl>$ uncon/itutional = any ,/ate to pass laws oppos+ ! op]ation ( any ,f$]al /atute4 #c4 ,9 ! case ( ,d>tm\? ,college vs4 ,new ,hamp%ire 0 decl>$ ! uncon/itutionally ( a /ate law :i* impair$ ! obligation ( contracts4 #d4 ,a v important case decid$ by ,*ief ,ju/ice ,taney 0 t ( ,dr$ ,scott vs4 ,s&=d 9 #aheg4 ,dr$ ,scott1 a negro slave 9 ,miss\ri1 _h be5 c>ri$ into ! ,t]ritory ( ,m9nesota1 :]e1 by ! ,miss\ri ,compromise ( #ahbj1 slav]y did n exi/4 ,^u be+ c>ri$ back into ,miss\ri by 8 ma/]1 ,scott claim$ 8 fre$om ^u ! gr\nd t he _h be5 volunt>ily c>ri$ into a ,t]ritory :]e slav]y 0 n all[$4 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt 9 its decision decl>$ t ,congress _h nev] _h ! p[] to pass any law :i* w\ld =bid slave-own]s settl+ 9 ,t]ritories & /ill reta9+ control ( _! slaves4 ,! :ole c\ntry 0 at ?is "t 9 great excitem5t 9 reg>d to ! "q :e!r or n1 9 ! organization ( ! ,t]ritories ( ,kansas & ,nebraska into ,/ates1 slav]y %\ld be prohibit$1 & ?is decision1 :]eby ! ,miss\ri ,compromise ,act 0 practically annull$1 & :i* po9t$ directly =w>d to an e/abli%m5t ( slav]y 9 ! new ,t]ritories1 rais$ public excitem5t to a fev] heat4 ,x 0 9 ?is decision t ! /atem5t 0 made t at ! "t ( ! =mation ( ! ,con/itution ! g5]al op9ion _h be5 t ! color$ man _h no rights :i* ! :ite man 0 b\nd to respect4 ,z a direct result ( ?is case a m det]m9$ /& 0 tak5 at ! ,nor? aga9/ slav]y2 ! ,anti-,slav]y ,republican p>ty 0 /r5g!n$1 & _! c&idate = ,presid5t1 ,abraham ,l9coln1 elect$ 9 #ahfa1 & ! cata/rophe ( civil w> precipitat$4 #e4 ,! ,legal-,t5d] decisions1 giv5 9 sev]al cases soon aft] ! civil w>1 are important4 ,dur+ ! progress ( ! w> ! ,gov]nm5t1 9 ord] to raise funds to meet its extraord9>y exp5ses1 _h be5 =c$ to issue slips ( pap] :i* repres5t$ no deposits ( co9 9 ! ,treasury1 b only promises to pay c]ta9 sums by ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,^! 7 decl>$ legal t5d]1 t is1 made by law z good z gold & silv]1 & ! p 7 =c$ to receive !m 9 paym5t ( debts & = commodities4 ,x 0 que/ion$ :e!r ! ,gov]nm5t _h by ! ,con/itution p[] to d ?is4 ,! legal-t5d] decisions decl>$ t x _h4 ,judicial ,sy/em & ,jurisdiction ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,c\rts4 ,di/rict ,c\rts4--,! ,unit$ ,/ates is divid$ into judicial di/ricts4 ,_m s+le ,/ates =m a judicial di/rict1 :ile o!rs are divid$ into two & o!rs into ?ree di/ricts4 ,! numb] ( di/ricts has v>i$4 ,at pres5t !re are ab\t sixty4 ,to ea* ( ^! di/ricts is giv5 a c\rt & a di/rict judge4 ,^! =m ! l[e/ grade ( ,f$]al c\rts4 ,circuit ,c\rts4--,^! judicial di/ricts are gr\p$ into n9e circuits4 ,= example1 ! ,f\r? circuit includes ! di/ricts ( ,m>yl&1 ,virg9ia1 ,we/ ,virg9ia1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 & ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 ,= ea* circuit is appo9t$ "o circuit judge4 ,"o ( ! ju/ices ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt is also allott$ to ea* ( ! circuits1 :o1 aft] ! expiration ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt t]m1 visits 8 circuit1 & tries ! m important cases :i* may arise 9 t circuit4 ,! ,circuit ,c\rt may be held by ! circuit judge1 ! ,supreme ,c\rt ju/ice1 or ! di/rict judge ( t di/rict 9 :i* ! c\rt is sitt+1 or by any two ( !m1 or all ( !m1 sitt+ toge!r4 ,! ,circuit ,c\rts =m ! next s]ies ( ! ,f$]al c\rts high] ?an ! ,di/rict ,c\rts4 ,jurisdiction4--,! relation betwe5 ! ,supreme1 ,circuit & ,di/rict c\rts is easy to expla94 ,_! jurisdiction is ^u f$]al que/ions2 t is1 ov] ^? cases m5tion$ 9 ! ,con/itution ov] :i* judicial p[] has be5 grant$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 viz41 que/ions aris+ "u ! ,con/itution1 f$]al laws1 or treaties1 betwe5 citiz5s ( diff]5t ,/ates1 betwe5 citiz5s & =eign]s1 betwe5 ,/ates !mselves1 etc41 & all crimes puni%able "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates laws4 ,! ,circuit ,c\rt is high] ?an ! ,di/rict ,c\rt1 & to x cases involv+ #ejj & ov] may be appeal$ f ! ,di/rict c\rts4 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt is ! c\rt ( la/ resort1 & to x all appeals f ! ,circuit ,c\rts come1 ) ! limitation t #e1jjj be involv$4 ,! cases decid$ by ! ,supreme ,c\rt are !n ( two classes3 7#a7 ^? ov] :i* x has orig9al jurisdiction1 7see ,con/itution72 i4e41 ^? cases :i* orig9ate or beg9 9 t c\rt2 & 7#b7 ^? cases ov] :i* x has appellate jurisdiction1 i4e41 ^? cases :i* come ?i!r by appeal f ! l[] ,circuit ,c\rts1 & :i* =m ! l>g] "p ( its "w1 & also by appeal f ! highe/ ,/ate c\rts 9 cases involv+ c]ta9 ,f$]al que/ions4 ,! ,di/rict ( ,columbia be+ directly gov]n$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 its c\rts are ,f$]al c\rts1 & h5ce1 cases may be appeal$ f su* c\rts to ! ,supreme ,c\rt2 likewise = ! same reason appeals may be _h to ! ,supreme ,c\rt f ! t]ritorial c\rts4 ,we mu/ rememb] t ^! c\rts deal only ) ,f$]al que/ions aris+ "u ,unit$ ,/ates laws1 &1 t besides ^! c\rts1 all ( ! ,/ates h _! own judicial sy/ems ( c\rts to int]pret /ate laws & to try ! great majority ( cases4 ,^! c\rts are entirely sep>ate f ! ,unit$ ,/ates c\rts1 & ) diff]5t judges1 ?\gh cases may beg9 9 !m & be transf]r$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,c\rts1 if ! int]pretation ( a ,f$]al law is br\ght into "q4 ,!re are f\r grades ( law 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,fir/ & highe/ is ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,con/itution2 second1 ,unit$ ,/ates laws1 or /atutes z !y are call$1 pass$ by ,congress2 ?ird1 ,/ate con/itutions2 & f\r?1 ,/ate laws1 pass$ by ! ,/ate legislatures4 ,9 case ( conflict ( laws ! l[] mu/ yield to ! high]4 ,= ! purpose ( settl+ claims ( private p]sons aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 !re has be5 e/abli%$ at ,wa%+ton a ,c\rt ( ,claims1 held by five judges4 ,f x appeals lie1 9 "s cases1 to ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 &1 9 o!rs1 !y are ref]r$ to ,congress = action4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,! ,ord9ance = ! ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,nor?we/ ,t]ritory4 ,:5 ! colonies jo9$ 9 union "u ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation1 9 #agha1 !y c$$ to ! ,g5]al gov]nm5t _! claims to unoccupi$ we/]n t]ritory4 ,! l>ge/ l& grant 0 t by ! ,/ate ( ,virg9ia1 :i* occupi$ t "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ly+ nor? ( ! ,ohio ,riv] & ea/ ( ! ,mississippi ,riv]4 ,! problem ( managem5t ( public l&s 0 ?us e>ly pres5t$ to our ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t = solution4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ,congress dealt ) ?is "q has prov5 em95tly wise & successful1 & has be5 l>gely influ5tial 9 mak+ ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! nation t x is to-day4 ,! feature t has *>act]iz$ ! plan foll[$ f ! beg9n+1 & :i* /ill obta9s1 is ! =mation ( ,/ates f su* t]ritory z soon z !re is suffici5t population4 ,su* ,/ates h simil> =ms & p[]s ( gov]nm5t z ! orig9al ,/ates1 are on an equal foot+ ) !m1 & are b\nd by ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,congress has absolute control ( ! ,t]ritories4 7,= ,t]ritorial gov]nm5t see ,article on ,t]ritories47 ,! ord9ance :i* ! ,cont95tal ,congress adopt$ 9 #aghg = ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,nor?we/ ,t]ritory is ( great importance3 x provides = ! e/abli%m5t ( our t]ritorial sy/em2 x conta9s _m ( ^? features ( managem5t :i* h be5 us$ f t date until n[2 & x is also ( int]e/ because ( ! influ5ce x has _h ^u ! hi/ory ( slav]y 9 our c\ntry4 ,?is ord9ance provid$ t ! :ole ( ?is t]ritory %\ld =m "o di/rict4 ,at fir/ ,congress appo9t$ ! gov]nor1 secret>y1 judges1 & milit>y g5]als4 ,! gov]nor 0 to make ! laws1 subject to ! approval ( ,congress4 ,:5 ! population rea*$ five ?\s& ! inhabitants 7 to h a legislature ( _! own1 & to h a delegate :o %\ld sit 9 ,congress1 b h no vote4 ,!re 0 a bill ( rights4 ,public education 0 enc\rag$4 ,n less ?an ?ree nor m ?an five ,/ates 7 to be =m$ f x4 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,ill9ois1 ,mi*igan1 & ,wiscons9 h be5 ! five ,/ates =m$ f ?is t]ritory4 ,! trans=mation ( ! t]ritory into ,/ates 0 promis$ z soon z ! population %\ld rea* sixty ?\s&4 ,slav]y 0 =ev] prohibit$ 9 all ?is t]ritory4 ,we %all see ! trem5d\s importance ( ?is clause1 :i* gu>ante$ to ?is l>ge tract fre$om f ! curse ( slav]y1 :5 we come to consid] ! /ruggles :i* 7 made = _m ye>s to keep slav]y f ! t]ritories4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,t]ritories4 ,!re are at pres5t f\r areas1 situat$ outside ( ! ,/ates1 & organiz$ "u t]ritorial gov]nm5ts4 ,^! are ,utah1 ,arizona1 ,new ,mexico & ,oklahoma4 ,besides ^! !re are ! two unorganiz$ t]ritories1 ,indian ,t]ritory1 & ,alaska1 & ! ,di/rict ( ,columbia1 :i* la/ tract conta9s sixty-f\r squ>e miles4 ,gov]nm5t ( ,t]ritories4--,! fundam5tal law ( a ,t]ritory is ! ,f$]al ,con/itution1 j z 9 a ,/ate4 ,unlike ! ,/ate1 h[ev]1 x has no con/itution ( its own1 b is regulat$ entirely by ,congress4 ,9 ,section #c1 ,article ,,iv1 ( ! ,con/itution1 x is decl>$ t ,congress %all h p[] to dispose ( & make all ne$ful regulations respect+ ! t]ritory or o!r prop]ty belong+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 pursuance ( ?is clause ,congress has 9 ! f\r organiz$ ,t]ritories in/itut$ gov]nm5ts z foll[s3 ,! executive ( ! ,t]ritory is a ,gov]nor appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t = a f\r ye>s' t]m4 ,!re is also a secret>y & treasur]4 ,! legislature consi/s ( two h\ses1 a c\ncil ( #ab1 & a ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives ( #bd4 ,^! are elect$ by ! p ( ! ,t]ritories1 & h a t]m ( two ye>s4 ,! ,legislature meets e o!r ye>4 ,all its acts require approval by ,congress be=e becom+ law4 ,! judici>y consi/s ( ?ree or m judges appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t1 toge!r ) a di/rict attorney & ,unit$ ,/ates m>%al4 ,t]ritories s5d nei!r ,s5ators nor ,repres5tatives to ,congress1 b h "o delegate apiece 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 :o may speak1 b n vote4 ,admission ( a ,t]ritory z a ,/ate4--,a ,t]ritory is an embryo ,/ate4 ,z soon z a ,t]ritory becomes suffici5tly populat$ x applies = admission into ! ,union z a ,/ate1 & su* admission is accompli%$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,:5 an application by a ,t]ritory = ,/atehood is made1 x is consid]$ by ,congress1 &1 if approv$1 ! inhabitants ( ! ,t]ritory are au?oriz$ to =m = !mselves out ( su* ,t]ritory a ,/ate gov]nm5t1 & ?us prep>e !mselves = admission into ! ,union4 ,a ,/ate gov]nm5t is =m$ z foll[s3 ,! ,gov]nor ( ! ,t]ritory issues a proclamation decl>+ t on a c]ta9 date !re %all be an election ( delegates to a conv5tion2 su* conv5tion is to be held on a c]ta9 date4 ,^! delegates are elect$ by a popul> vote4 ,! memb]s ( ! conv5tion ?us =m$ decl>e t !y1 on behalf ( ! p ( ! ,t]ritory1 adopt ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & !n proce$ to draft a ,/ate con/itution & gov]nm5t4 ,x is provid$ t ?is con/itution %all be ,republican 9 =m1 & make no di/9ction 9 civil & political rights on acc\nt ( race or color1 except = ,indians n tax$3 t x %all n be repugnant to ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ! pr9ciples ( ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce4 ,p]fect religi\s tol]ation mu/ be gu>ante$1 all "r or title to ! unappropriat$ public l&s ly+ )9 ! ,t]ritory mu/ be disclaim$ & giv5 ov] to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,provision mu/ be made by ! con/itution = ! e/abli%m5t & ma9t5ance ( ! sy/em ( public s*ools4 ,aft] adoption by ! conv5tion ! con/itution is (f]$ to ! p = ratification4 ,if x is ratifi$1 ! ,gov]nor c]tifies ! fact to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,provid$ ! con/itution is f\nd to comply ) all ! conditions j m5tion$1 ! ,presid5t issues 8 proclamation decl>+ ! ratification ( ! con/itution1 & ^u ! same day t ! proclamation is issu$ ! t]ritory is deem$ admitt$ by ,congress into ! ,union z a ,/ate1 on an equal foot+ ) ! orig9al ,/ates1 & entitl$ to repres5tation 9 bo? h\ses ( ! ,f$]al ,congress4 ,! repres5tatives & ! ,gov]nor & o!r ,/ate (fic]s are elect$ on ! same day z t ^u :i* ! con/itution is ratifi$ by ! p4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,/ate ,gov]nm5ts4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is a nation ( =ty-f\r f$]at$ ,/ates4 ,ea* ,/ate has its own sep>ate gov]nm5t1 :i* is sov]eign1 except z to a few p[]s :i* h be5 grant$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t = g5]al purposes4 ,citiz5s ( ,/ates are also citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ?us owe a d\ble allegiance1 namely1 to ! ,/ate 9 :i* !y reside & to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,^! ,/ates v>y 9 size f t ( ,texas1 ! l>ge/1 ) an area ( #bfe1ghj squ>e miles1 to t ( ,rhode ,isl&1 ! smalle/1 ) #a1bej2 & 9 population f t ( ,new ,york1 ) ne>ly six millions1 to t ( ,nevada1 ) ab\t =ty-five ?\s&4 ,! l>ge/ ,/ate is great] ?an ei!r ,france or ! ,g]man ,empire4 ,/ate gov]nm5ts are old] ?an ! ,f$]al gov]nm5t1 = x 0 by a grant by ! ,/ates ( c]ta9 ( _! p[]s t ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t 0 creat$4 ,ea* ,/ate is repres5t$ 9 ,congress by two memb]s 9 ! ,s5ate4 ,memb]s ( ! l[] bran* ( ! ,f$]al legislature are apportion$ among ! ,/ates accord+ to population4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t are divid$ among ?ree dep>tm5ts--! executive1 legislative1 & judicial4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,con/itution x is expressly decl>$ t ! p[]s n grant$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ! ,con/itution1 nor prohibit$ by x to ! ,/ates1 are res]v$ to ! ,/ates respectively1 or to ! p4 ,x w\ld require consid]able space to enum]ate ! duties ( ,/ate gov]nm5ts4 ,) ! exception ( ! few acts :i* ! con/itution =bids !m to p]=m1 mo/ ( :i* !y w\ld n c>e to p]=m if all[$1 & ! few g5]al p[]s com+ )9 ! prov9ce ( ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1 ! ,/ates c d :atev] _! legislatures sanction4 ,!y c g to ! extremes ( ,/ate socialism4 ,all ,/ates h a complete judicial sy/em4 ,!y regulate all legal relations ( _! citiz5s1 ! laws ( husb& & wife1 pr9cipal & ag5t1 & ( contract4 ,!y provide = ! detection & puni%m5t ( crime4 ,!y control & ma9ly support ! militia ( ! c\nty4 ,railroad1 bank+1 insurance1 & o!r corporations1 are *>t]$ & controll$ by !m4 ,! con/ruction & ma9t5ance ( roads1 ! c>e ( ! public heal?1 ! inspection ( factories1 ! det]m9ation ( ! "r ( suffrage1 & ! control ( its own elections are among ! exclusive p[]s ( ,/ate gov]nm5ts4 ,our ext5sive sy/em ( public s*ools are "u ! dual managem5t ( ! ,/ate & local gov]nm5ts1 & "u ! sup]9t5d5ce ( ,/ate (fic]s4 ,! ,/ate takes c>e ( ! defective classes1 ( ! insane1 paup]s1 etc42 &1 9 g5]al1 p]=ms all ^? ord9>y duties conc]n+ int]nal affairs :i* are ex]cis$ by c5tral gov]nm5ts4 ,ea* ,/ate gov]nm5t has-- #a4 ,a ,con/itution4 #b4 ,a ,legislature ( two ,h\ses4 #c4 ,an executive1 compos$ ( a ,gov]nor1 ,lieut5ant-,gov]nor 79 almo/ all cases71 ,secret>y ( ,/ate1 ,auditor1 & a few o!r (fic]s4 #d4 ,a sy/em ( local gov]nm5t 9 c\nties1 t[ns1 cities1 etc4 #e4 ,a body ( ,/ate laws4 #f4 ,a judicial sy/em ( c\rts1 f :i* no appeal c be _h to ,unit$ ,/ates c\rts1 except ^u ,f$]al que/ions4 #g4 ,a sy/em ( local taxation4 ,ea* ,/ate gov]nm5t has all ! rights usually p]ta9+ to a sov]eign ,/ate1 except--,^? p[]s :i* ! ,f$]al ,con/itution expressly =bids to ! ,/ates4 #c4 ,^? p[]s :i* h 9 ! ,con/itution be5 exclusively giv5 to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,all ,/ates h public debts1 :i* !y may1 & sometimes d1 repudiate4 ,!y c be su$ only by o!r ,/ates4 ,! ,elev5? ,am5dm5t decl>$ t a citiz5 c\ld n ma9ta9 a suit aga9/ a ,/ate4 ,/ate laws are b9d+ only )9 ! b\nd>ies ( ! ,/ate enact+ !m4 ,/ate ,con/itutions4--,z ! ,f$]al ,con/itution is ! supreme law ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 s ! ,/ate con/itution is ! highe/ law ( ! ,/ates4 ,! ,con/itutions ( ! orig9al ?irte5 ,/ates 7 naturally =m$ aft] ! model ( ! *>t]s enjoy$ by ! ,new ,engl& colonies4 ,9 ! colonies ( ,rhode ,isl&1 ,connecticut1 & ,massa*usetts _! *>t]s 7 adopt$ z con/itutions )\t any *ange1 except1 ( c\rse1 ! annulm5t ( ob$i5ce to ! ,engli% k+4 ,all subsequ5t con/itutions h be5 closely model$ aft] ^! fir/ ?irte54 ,! ,f$]al ,con/itution provides t all ,/ate con/itutions mu/ be ,republican 9 =m4 7,= o!r conditions ( admission ( t]ritories z ,/ates1 see subject ,t]ritories47 ,! modes ( am5dm5t ( con/itutions diff] 9 diff]5t ,/ates1 b 9 all1 am5dm5t is mu* easi] ( accompli%m5t ?an 9 ! case ( ! ,f$]al ,con/itution4 ,?is is %[n by ! fact t s9ce #aggf !re h be5 adopt$ by ! ,/ates "o hundr$ & five complete con/itutions1 & two hundr$ & f\rte5 p>tial am5dm5ts2 :ile1 s9ce ! passage ( ! fir/ t5 ,f$]al am5dm5ts 9 #aghi1 !re h be5 b five additional am5dm5ts4 ,"s ,/ates provide t ! con/itution %all be submitt$ to ! p = am5dm5t at ! end ( c]ta9 int]vals ( "t4 ,9 ! l>g] numb] ( cases a majority ( ! popul> vote is requir$ = ratification ( a con/itutional am5dm5t4 ,/ate con/itutions %[ a t5d5cy to become long]1 & to regulate a con/antly increas+ numb] ( subjects4 ,a normal ,/ate con/itution has ! foll[+ provisions3 #a4 ,a def9ition ( ! ,/ate b\nd>ies4 #b4 ,a bill ( rights 7gu>antee+ private rights1 su* z fre$om ( ! press & spee*1 trial by jury 9 crim9al cases1 "r to assemble & petition1 etc474 #c4 ,a frame ( gov]nm5t1 an enum]ation ( (fic]s & p[]s ( legislature1 executive1 c\rts ( ju/ice1 etc4 #d4 ,miscellane\s provisions1 relat+ to adm9i/ration ( s*ools1 militia1 taxation1 debts1 local gov]nm5t1 corporations1 am5dm5ts1 etc4 ,/ate ,legislatures4--,! legislature 9 all ,/ates consi/s ( two ,h\ses1 ( :i* ! upp] & small] bran* is call$ ! ,s5ate1 & ! l[] & m num]\s bran* usually ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 ?\gh 9 six ,/ates x is t]m$ ! ,assembly1 & 9 ?ree ! ,h\se ( ,delegates4 ,! memb]s ( bo? h\ses are elect$ by popul> vote1 b ,s5ators usually = a long] "t1 & frequ5tly high] qualifications = !m are requir$4 ,/ates are divid$ into di/ricts = election purposes1 &1 ?\gh memb]s ( ! legislature may (f] !mselves = election f any di/rict1 x has become ! inv>iable cu/om = !m to be elect$ only f ! di/ricts 9 :i* !y reside4 ,univ]sal manhood suffrage1 t is1 ! "r ( all male citiz5s ov] #ba ye>s ( age to vote1 is ! rule1 ?\gh 9 eight ,/ates paup]s h no vote1 & 9 a few1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( education is requir$ 7g5]ally en\gh to read ! ,/ate con/itution74 ,! numb] ( memb]s 9 ! ,/ate legislatures v>ies greatly4 ,9 ! ,s5ate1 ,delaw>e has ! smalle/ numb] 7#i71 & ,ill9ois ! l>ge/ 7#ea74 ,9 ! l[] ,h\se1 ,delaw>e has likewise ! smalle/ numb] 7#ba71 :ile ,new ,hamp%ire has ! greate/ 7#cba74 ,! ,lieut5ant-,gov]nor ( ! ,/ate is ex (ficio ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate4 ,9 all ,/ates1 except six1 sessions ( ! legislature are held only once e o!r ye>1 & ev5 !n ! l5g? ( ! session is limit$ to a fix$ numb] ( days4 ,z 9 ,congress1 bus9ess is conduct$ by means ( committees1 b are 9 bo? ,h\ses elect$ by ballot4 ,! ,/ate legislatures h full *>ge & control ( all local gov]nm5ts )9 _! individual ,/ates4 ,! ,s5ate has ! p[] ( try+ impea*m5ts ( ,/ate (ficials4 ,x also ratifies appo9tm5ts ( ! ,gov]nor4 ,9 all ,/ates1 except f\r1 acts ( ! legislature require ! signature ( ! ,gov]nor be=e !y become laws4 ,to pass a bill ov] a veto requires 9 tw5ty-?ree ,/ates a two-?irds vote 9 bo? ,h\ses2 9 two1 a ?ree-fif?s vote1 & 9 n9e1 a majority vote ( ! total numb] ( memb]s4 ,a ,/ate legislature c enact no law :i* w be effective beyond its own b\nd>ies4 ,/ate ,executive4--,! *ief executive ( ! ,/ate is ! ,gov]nor4 ,o!r *ief (ficials are ! ,lieut5ant-,gov]nor1 ,treasur]1 ,attorney ,g5]al1 ,secret>y ( ,/ate1 ,auditor1 & ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,public ,in/ruction4 ,! t]m ( (fice ( ! ,gov]nor v>ies 9 diff]5t ,/ates f "o to f\r ye>s4 ,he has b small p[]s ( appo9tm5t1 mo/ ( ! ,/ate (ficials be+ elect$ by ! p4 ,9 all b f\r ,/ates he has a veto on legislation4 ,he has ! p[] ( p>don+4 ,! ,lieut5ant-,gov]nor is ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate4 ,/ate ,judici>y4--,! ,/ate judici>y includes ?ree sets ( c\rts3 #a4 ,a ,supreme ,c\rt ( ,appeals1 ! highe/ c\rt1 f :i* cases involv+ ,f$]al que/ions may be appeal$ to ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #b4 ,sup]ior c\rts ( record4 #c4 ,v>i\s local c\rts1 su* z c\nty c\rts1 corporation c\rts1 etc4 ,ea* ,/ate recognizes ! judgm5ts ( o!r ,/ates1 & gives cr$it to _! public acts & records1 & deliv]s up to ju/ice1 on dem& ( ! executive1 any crim9al flee+ f o!r ,/ates into h] bord]s4 ,9 mo/ ( ! ,/ates ! judges are elect$ by ! p1 ?\gh 9 eight !y are appo9t$ by ! ,gov]nor1 & 9 five by ! legislature4 ,! ,attorney-,g5]al conducts cases 9 :i* ! ,/ate is a p>ty1 & manages o!r legal bus9ess 9 :i* ! ,/ate is int]e/$4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,local ,gov]nm5t4 ,9 ! *apt] on ,gov]nm5t we le>n$ t ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates owe allegiance to two sy/ems ( gov]nm5t2 ! "o a c5tral national gov]nm5t1 ! o!r ! /ate gov]nm5ts4 ,we h n[ to m5tion a ?ird sy/em ( gov]nm5ts1 namely1 local gov]nm5ts2 = citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates live1 9 reality1 "u ?ree di/9ct gov]nm5ts3 fir/ & highe/1 ! ,national ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t2 second1 ,/ate gov]nm5ts1 & ?ird1 local gov]nm5ts4 ,x is conc]n+ local gov]nm5ts 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates t we %all le>n 9 ?is *apt]4 ,j z ! :ole ,unit$ ,/ates is divid$ into =ty-eight sections1 ea* section be+ a ,/ate or ,t]ritory1 s ea* ,/ate is 9 turn1 = conv5i5ce 9 ! adm9i/ration ( its gov]nm5t1 divid$ into small local areas1 ea* division manag+ ^? affairs :i* app]ta9 to its own area4 ,_m ( ^! divisions 7 n =m$ by divid+ up ! ,/ates4 ,! divisions came fir/1 or sprang up naturally )9 ! ,/ates z soon z ! colonies 7 settl$4 ,social gov]nm5ts 7 ! fir/ gov]nm5ts =m$ 9 ! settlem5t ( our ,we/]n t]ritory4 ,dr4 ,edw>d ,bemis has describ$ ! beg9n+s ( gov]nm5t 9 a new ,/ate 9 ! foll[+ int]e/+ mann]3 ,! g5esis ( local gov]nm5t 9 ,we/]n hamlets is v simple4 ,fir/ comes ! settl] :o1 ax 9 h&1 cle>s ! gr\nd = 8 humble dwell+1 & plants :atev] se$ he has br\ght ) him4 ,!n comes ano!r settl] & ano!r until p]haps a doz5 families are e/abli%$ ne>4 ,two wants are n[ felt3 roads1 or at lea/ pa?s f h\se to h\se1 f hamlet to m>ket t[n1 & a s*ool-h\se = ! multiply+ *ildr54 ,!re is no /rong c5tral au?ority to provide ^! ?+s1 b ! settl]s meet & vote to tax !mselves4 ,! s]vices ( a sup]visor1 collector1 cl]k1 con/able & ju/ice ( ! peace are requir$4#a ,?is is ! beg9n+ ( ! t[n%ip & c\nty4 ,z population increases1 o!r wants arise :i* only a /rong] gov]nm5t c supply4 ,a t]ritorial1 & !n a ,/ate gov]nm5t are consequ5tly =m$4 ,footnote #a3 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ,mi*igan & ! ,nor?we/4 ,j4,h4,u4 ,/udies 9 ,hi/ory & ,political ,sci5ce4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #e1 p4 #aa4 ,! pr9cipal duties ( local gov]nm5ts are ^? ( education1 police1 sanitation1 *>ity1 ! con/ruction & ma9t5ance ( public roads1 ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 ! assessm5t & collection ( taxes1 etc4 ,!re are ?ree types ( local gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 ,fir/1 ! ,new ,engl& type1 9 :i* ! unit ( gov]nm5t is ! t[n or t[n%ip2 second1 ! ,s\!rn type1 9 :i* ! unit is ! c\nty2 & ?ird1 ! ,we/]n sy/em1 9 :i* ! ,new ,engl& & ,s\!rn sy/ems are comb9$4 #a/4 ,local ,gov]nm5t ,new ,engl&4--,"h ! unit ( gov]nm5t is ! t[n%ip1 or t[n1 z x is usually call$4 ,!re are few t[ns exce$+ five squ>e miles 9 area1 & ! population is g5]ally less ?an #c1jjj4 ,! ,new ,engl& t[n%ip is !re=e n a ?ickly settl$ area4 ,:5 a t[n becomes closely settl$ x is incorporat$ z a city4 ,9 ! ,new ,engl& t[ns ! p gov]n !mselves directly4 ,9 ! ,/ate & ,f$]al gov]nm5ts ! p are gov]n$ n by !mselves1 b ?r\gh repres5tatives *os5 by !mselves4 ,! t[n or t[n%ip =m ( gov]nm5t is t ( a pure democracy2 ! ,/ates & ,f$]al gov]nm5ts are repres5tative gov]nm5ts or republics4 ,! supreme gov]n+ p[] ( a t[n is 9 ! t[n meet+1 compos$ ( all qualifi$ vot]s ( ! t[n4 ,! t[n meet+ is held 9 ! ,spr+ ( ea* ye>4 ,aft] ! *oice ( a ,mod]ator1 (fic]s are elect$ = ! ensu+ ye>1 reports ( (fic]s = ! pa/ ye> read1 & ! am\nt ( taxes to be rais$ & exp5ditures to be made dur+ ! ye>1 det]m9$ ^u4 ,! (fic]s are ! ,selectm51 ?ree1 five1 sev5 or n9e 9 numb]1 :o con/itute ! executive (fic]s ( ! t[n1 & adm9i/] ! ord9ances pass$ by ! t[n meet+2 a t[n cl]k1 :o keeps a record ( ! proce$+s ( ! t[n meet+1 & a record ( bir?s1 dea?s1 m>riages1 etc42 a treasur]1 assessors & collectors ( taxes1 con/ables1 & v>i\s o!r petty (fic]s4 ,sev]al (fices are frequ5tly giv5 to ! same individual4 ,! c\nty also exi/s 9 ,new ,engl&1 & is =m$ by ! union ( sev]al t[ns1 b x is ( v little importance1 & has b few duties4 ,! t[n%ip sy/em is f\nd 9 ! ,middle ,/ates1 b 9 a modifi$ =m4 ,x is less democratic z a rule--(fic]s be+ elect$ by ballot1 ! t[n meet+ g5]ally abs5t1 & c\nty gov]nm5t m important4 #b;d4 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,s\?4--,"h ! t[n 7t[n%ip7 does n exi/1 except 9 a few in/ances4 ,! unit ( gov]nm5t = p]=m+ local duties is ! c\nty1 :i* is mu* l>g] ?an ! ,new ,engl& t[n%ips4 ,! c\nty gov]nm5t is manag$ by a ,bo>d ( ,c\nty ,commission]s4 ,^! are elect$ n 9 op5 meet+ z are ! t[n (fic]s1 b by ballot4 ,c\nty gov]nm5t is !re=e a repres5tative or republican gov]nm5t4 ,! c\nty1 :]ev] f\nd1 is prim>ily a judicial di/rict4 ,! *ief (fic] = execut+ ! decrees ( ! c\nty judici>y is ! %]iff4 ,o!r c\nty (fic]s are ! treasur]1 assessor1 etc4 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,we/4--,"h1 z be=e /at$1 we f9d ! ,new ,engl& & ! ,s\!rn sy/ems comb9$1 b comb9$ 9 diff]5t ,/ates 9 su* v>i\s degrees z to make impracticable any attempt to describe !m m p>ticul>ly4#a ,9 consequ5ce ( ! grants ( l& by ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t to ,we/]n ,/ates = education1 local areas = ! adm9i/ration ( ^! funds h be5 =m$4 ,^! are call$ s*ool di/ricts4 ,local gov]nm5t has t5d$ to c5t] ar\nd ^! di/ricts1 & !y h 9 _m cases become important adm9i/rative di/ricts4 ,_! b\nd>ies co9cide ) ! b\nd>ies ( ! t[n%ips & c\nties1 ?\gh a numb] ( s*ool di/ricts may be 9 "o c\nty or t[n%ip4 ,footnote #a3 ,m detail$ acc\nts ( ! v>i\s sy/ems ( ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates may be f\nd 9 ! e>ly numb]s ( ! ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity ,/udies1 & also 9 ,pr(essor ,george ,e4 ,h[>d's ,local ,con/itutional ,hi/ory1 an extra volume 9 ! same s]ies4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,city ,gov]nm5t4 ,! proportion ( p 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates :o reside 9 cities is increas+4 ,9 #agij !re 7 only ?irte5 cities ( #e1jjj inhabitants & none ) #dj1jjj4 ,n[ !re are ov] #ejj t h a population exce$+ #e1jjj & #bh ) a population ( #ajj1jjj4 ,9 #agij #cc p] c5t4 ( ! total population liv$ 9 cities ( ov] #h1jjj inhabitants1 :ile to-day ov] #be p] c5t live 9 cities ( ?is size or ov]4 ,:5 any small area becomes ?ickly & p]man5tly settl$1 & a c]ta9 population is rea*$ 7:i* v>ies 9 diff]5t ,/ates71 ! /ate legislature is appeal$ to1 & a *>t] ( incorporation z a city is grant$4 ,?is enables ! incorporat$ di/rict to act indep5d5tly ( ! c\nty or t[n%ip1 to levy municipal taxes & c>ry out public improvem5ts4 ,rapid z has be5 ! gr[? ( cities1 ! duties requir$ ( city gov]nm5ts h increas$ /ill fa/]4 ,! gov]nm5t ( our l>ge cities has become a "q ( vital importance4 ,x w\ld be difficult to give a complete li/ ( ! duties devolv+ ^u !m4 ,! pr9cipal duties are 7#a7 ! collection ( municipal & /ate taxes1 7#b7 ! e/abli%m5t & c>e ( public s*ools1 7#c7 ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 7#d7 police sup]vision1 7#e7 ! support ( a fire dep>tm5t1 7#f7 ! c>e ( ! /reets1 7#g7 ( /reet gas & electric light+1 7#h7 ( sew]age1 7#i7 ( ! wat] supply1 7#aj7 ( public p>ks1 7#aa7 ( sanitation & public heal?1 7#ab7 ( prisons1 7#ac7 ! sup]vision ( ! liquor traffic1 7#ad7 ! regulation ( /reet railways1 7#ae7 ! en=cem5t ( build+ regulations1 7#af7 ! sup]vision ( *>ities1 hospitals1 asylums1 etc4 ,! =m ( gov]nm5t ( all our l>ge cities is mu* ! same4 ,x is sub/antially a reproduction1 9 =m1 ( ! /ate gov]nm5ts4 ,fir/1 !re is a mayor1 :o is ! *ief executive1 & is elect$ directly by ! p ( ! city4 ,8 t]m ( (fice is sometimes only "o ye>1 ?\gh m (t5 two1 ?ree1 or f\r ye>s4 ,9 almo/ all cases he has a veto on acts ( ! city legislature1 :i* veto may1 h[ev]1 be ov]ridd5 by a two-?irds vote4 ,o!r subord9ate (ficials are1 ! treasur]1 collector ( taxes1 *ief ( police1 heal? (fic]1 etc4 ,!y are 9 "p elect$ by ! p1 9 "p appo9t$ by ! mayor1 or appo9t$ by ! city legislature4 ,practice v>ies 9 diff]5t cities4 ,city legislatures are ( "o or two h\ses4 ,! l>g] cities usually h two h\ses1 & ! small] cities "o h\se4 ,! legislature is usually call$ ! ,city ,c\ncil1 ! upp] bran* ! ,bo>d ( ,ald]m51 & ! l[] & m num]\s bran*1 ! ,common ,c\ncil4 ,! memb]s ( ! city c\ncil are elect$ by ! p4 ,! acts ( ! c\ncil are call$ ord9ances4 ,!y are n suffici5tly g5]al to m]it ! designation ( laws4 ,city judges are usually elect$ by ! p4 ,! adm9i/ration ( ! v>i\s duties ( municipal gov]nm5t are g5]ally giv5 to special bo>ds ( (fic]s1 z ! police dep>tm5t1 fire dep>tm5t1 etc4 ,= election purposes1 cities are divid$ into w>ds1 & ! w>ds into vot+ prec9cts4 ,our me?ods ( municipal gov]nm5t h prov$ ! lea/ successful ( any ( our in/itutions4 ,corruption & grave abuses exi/ 9 almo/ e "o ( ! l>g] cities4 ,problems connect$ ) city gov]nm5t are among ! mo/ important que/ions ( our "t4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,gov]nm5t ,rev5ue & ,exp5diture4 ,gov]nm5t is an enorm\s bus9ess ent]prise1 ma9ta9$ & op]at$ by its citiz5s1 t c]ta9 duties ( a g5]al int]e/ & b5efit may be p]=m$4 ,! magnitude ( ! "w p]=m$ necess>ily requires ! exp5diture ( va/ sums ( money4 ,! *ief s\rce f :i* ^! sums are d]iv$ is taxation4 ,taxes h be5 def9$ to be ! legally det]m9$ & legally collect$ contributions ( individuals = meet+ ! necess>y & g5]al exp5ses ( ! ,/ate4#a ,9 ! l>ge majority ( cases ?is is a good def9ition1 b 9 a few in/ances x is too n>r[4 ,!re are "s taxes t are levi$ n prim>ily = ! purpose ( rais+ an income to meet ! exp5ses ( ! gov]nm5t1 b to subs]ve "s o!r purpose4 ,= in/ance1 ! ma9t5ance ( our high duties on articles import$ into ! ,unit$ ,/ates f =eign c\ntries has = its ma9 purpose ! protection ( our indu/ries f ,european competition4 ,! l>ge rev5ues t are d]iv$ !refrom are incid5tal4 ,high liquor lic5ses1 also1 are ma9ta9$ = ! express purpose ( less5+ ! consumption ( intoxicat+ bev]ages4 ,footnote #a3 ,c>l ,knies4 ,! aim ( e good gov]nm5t is to di/ribute its burd5s ( taxation1 z well z its b5efits1 fairly & equitably among its citiz5s4 ,x is ! duty ( e citiz5 to assi/ 9 ! realization ( ?is aim1 by an intellig5t1 hone/ & dis9t]e/$ vote4 ,equality ( taxation means equality ( sacrifice4 ,ea* p]son %\ld contribute t[>ds ! support ( ! gov]nm5t 9 proportion to 8 means & ! b5efits enjoy$4 ,x is ! duty ( e citiz51 fir/ to see t j & exp$i5t tax laws are pass$1 !n to pay 8 prop] proportion1 & la/ly1 to see t 8 neighbors likewise contribute _! %>e4 ,to obta9 an equitable sy/em ( gov]nm5t rev5ue & exp5diture has be5 ! great motive =ce :i*1 9 ! pa/1 has urg$ ! p =w>d 9 _! ef=ts to secure popul> =ms ( gov]nm5t4 ,! p[] to tax is legislative1 &1 accord+ to our !ory1 c be ex]cis$ only by repres5tatives directly elect$ by ! p4 ,! refusal ( ,engl& 9 ! la/ c5tury to ext5d ?is pr9ciple ( no taxation )\t repres5tation to h] colonies 9 ,am]ica1 lo/ h] ^! possessions4 ,a gov]nm5t to be /able & effici5t mu/ possess adequate p[]s = ! collection ( its rev5ue4 ,! mis]able condition to :i* ! old ,conf$]ation 0 r$uc$ by reason ( ! inadequacy ( its p[]s 9 ?is respect1 has already be5 discuss$4 ,says ,fiske3 ,betwe5 ! old ,cont95tal ,congress & ! gov]nm5t "u :i* we h liv$ s9ce #aghi1 ! diff]5ces 7 _m2 b by f> ! mo/ ess5tial diff]5ce 0 t ! new gov]nm5t c\ld raise money by taxation1 & 0 ?us enabl$ prop]ly to c>ry on ! "w ( gov]n+4#a ,footnote #a3 ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 p4 #gg4 ,! s\rces ( gov]nm5t rev5ue o!r ?an taxes1 are v>i\s1 & diff] 9 diff]5t c\ntries4 ,9 our consid]ation ( ! rev5ues & exp5ditures ( our national1 /ate1 & local gov]nm5ts we %all h occasion to notice ! v>i\s means by :i* _! treasuries are fill$4 ,! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t raises its rev5ues indep5d5tly ( ! o!r gov]n+ bodies1 f diff]5t s\rces1 & by a diff]5t set ( (ficials4 ,besides taxation1 ! pr9cipal s\rce ( rev5ue is f ! sale ( public l&s4 ,f$]al taxes are ( two k9ds3 #a4 ,cu/oms duties4 #b4 ,excise or int]nal rev5ue duties4 ,( ^!1 mu* ! great] sum is rais$ f cu/oms duties4 ,= ! ye> #ahhi1a ! total net receipts 7 #chg1jej1jeh4 ,( ?is #bbc1hcb1gda 0 d]iv$ f cu/oms1 & #acj1hid1dcd f ! int]nal rev5ue duties4 ,! sale ( public l&s yield$ 9 t ye> #h1jch1fea4 ,! miscellane\s rev5ues am\nt$ to #bd1big1aea4 ,footnote #a3 ,= fiscal purposes ! ye> beg9s ,july #a/4 ,cu/oms or t>iff duties are taxes :i* h to be paid on a l>ge class ( goods import$ into ?is c\ntry f =eign c\ntries4 ,^! *>ges are collect$ by ,gov]nm5t collectors1 /ation$ 9 all our pr9cipal seaport cities1 :o inspect all incom+ vessels & det]m9e ! am\nt to be paid1 accord+ to ! rate det]m9$ by ,congress4 ,?is sy/em con/itutes ! s-call$ protective t>iff policy ( our c\ntry4 ,^? commodities n s tax$ are said to be on ! free li/4 ,h[ mu*1 & on :at articles ^! duties %all be levi$1 is ! "q ^u :i* ! ,republican & ,democratic p>ties diff]2 ! =m] favor+ high1 & ! latt] l[ rates1 t is to say m]ely en\gh to support ! ,gov]nm5t1 or1 z x is t]m$1 a t>iff = rev5ue only4 ,int]nal rev5ue duties are ^? taxes collect$ by ! gov]nm5t f its own citiz5s ^u a small class ( articles produc$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! *ief items ( ?is class are di/ill$ liquors1 tobacco1 & oleom>g>9e4 ,9 #ahhi1 out ( ! #acj1hid1dcd receiv$ f int]nal rev5ue1 !re 0 d]iv$ f spirits & f]m5t$ liquor #ih1jcf1jda2 tobacco1 #ca1hff1hfa2 oleom>g>9e & miscellane\s1 #iia1ecb4 ,^! duties are collect$ by ,gov]nm5t collectors /ation$ 9 e ,unit$ ,/ates di/rict1 :o visit ! di/ill]ies1 collect ! taxes1 & see t ! law is en=c$4 ,9 sev]al ,s\!rn ,/ates attempts to evade ! law are v frequ5t & difficult ( detection4 ,! exp5ses ( ! va/ po/al sy/em conduct$ by ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t are v ne>ly defray$ by ! *>ges made = po/age1 & ! am\nt receiv$ by fees m ?an equals ! exp5se ( ! ,pat5t ,(fice4 ,! ,/ate & ,local ,taxes are g5]ally1 = conv5i5ce1 collect$ at ! same "t1 & by ! same (ficials1 b indep5d5tly ( ! ,f$]al gov]nm5t4 ,! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates =bids ! ,/ates to d]ive a rev5ue f duty ^u goods import$ or export$4 ,! ,/ates are1 !re=e1 = ! mo/ "p1 re/rict$ to a direct tax on prop]ty = ! support ( _! gov]nm5ts4 ,! g5]al me?od = rais+ ?is tax is z foll[s3 ,! legislature ( ! ,/ate1 hav+ det]m9$ :at income is ne$$1 apportion ?is sum among ! c\nties1 or1 9 ,new ,engl&1 directly among ! t[n%ips1 9 proportion to ! value ( ! prop]ty situat$ )9 !m1 or e/abli% a c]ta9 p]c5tage tax on all prop]ty1 to be collect$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,s1 simil>ly1 ! c\nties apportion among ! cities & t[n%ips )9 _! areas1 9 proportion to ! value ( _! taxable prop]ty1 n only :at !y h to pay to ! ,/ate1 b also ! sums !y h to raise = c\nty purposes4 ,?us :5 ! t[n%ip or city au?orities assess & collect taxes f ! individual citiz5s1 !y collect at "o & ! same "t ?ree di/9ct taxes--! ,/ate tax1 ! c\nty tax1 & ! city or t[n%ip tax4 ,reta9+ ! la/ = local purposes1 !y h& on ! two =m] to ! c\nty au?orities1 :o1 9 turn1 reta9 ! c\nty tax1 h&+ on to ! ,/ate :at x requires4 ,?us tr\ble & exp5se are sav$ 9 ! process ( collection1 & ! citiz5 sees on "o tax pap] all t he has to pay4 ,! *ief tax is ! prop]ty tax1 bas$ on a valuation ( prop]ty1 & g5]ally ( all prop]ty1 real & p]sonal4 ,( ?is1 by f> ! great] sum is realiz$ f ! tax on real prop]ty1 7l& & build+s on x74 ,cities & o!r local subdivisions1 z has be5 /at$1 are rais+ _! rev5ues m & m f ! sale1 taxation1 or op]ation ( su* public fran*ises & rights z /reet-c> l9es1 gas & wat]works4 ,^? :o fix ! value ( taxable prop]ty & ?us det]m9e ! am\nt ! own]s are to pay1 are call$ assessors4 ,^? collect+ taxes are call$ collectors4 ,! rev5ue ( ! ,/ates is seldom l>ge 9 proportion to ! weal? & numb] ( ! inhabitants1 because ! *ief burd5 ( adm9i/ration is borne n by ! ,/ates1 b by ! ,f$]al gov]nm5t1 on ! "o h&1 & ! local subdivisions ( ! ,/ates on ! o!r4 ,! total rev5ue ( all ! ,/ates is b>ely "o-?ird t ( ! ,f$]al gov]nm5t4 ,! ,exp5ditures ( all ! gov]n+ bodies1 ,f$]al1 ,/ate1 & local1 are kept entirely indep5d5t ( ea* o!r4 ,^? ( ! ,f$]al gov]nm5t are = ! b5efit ( all ! ,/ates1 :ile ^? ( ! o!r bodies are only = _! own individual b5efit4 ,! ,f$]al gov]nm5t receives mu* m ?an x exp5ds1 & has ye>ly a surplus on h& 9 ! ,treasury4 ,! ,/ates & local bodies h 9 ! pa/ exp5d$ m ?an _! rev5ues1 mak+ up _! defici5cy by loans on _! cr$it4 ,! *ief objects ( ,f$]al exp5diture 79 addition to ! po/al sy/em already consid]$ & = ! mo/ "p support$ by its own rev5ue7 are3 #a/1 int]e/ on ! public debt2 #b;d1 p5sions to disabl$ soldi]s2 #c;d1 = ! support ( ! civil bran* ( ! gov]nm5t2 #d?1 w> & naval exp5ditures4 ,total exp5ditures = ! ye> #ahhi 7 #bii1bhh1ihh4 ,! *ief items 73 #a4 ,int]e/ on ! public debt1 #da1jjj1dhd #b4 ,p5sions1 #hg1fbd1ggi #c4 ,civil s]vice1 #hj1ffd1jfd #d4 ,w> & ,navy1 #fe1hae1jgi #e4 ,indians1 #f1hib1bjg ,money c be exp5d$ by ! gov]nm5t only aft] x has be5 appropriat$ by ,congress 9 its annual appropriation bills4 ,! appropriation ( supplies by ,congress is ! mo/ important bus9ess t x transacts4 ,e ye> ! heads ( all ! diff]5t dep>tm5ts frame e/imates ( ! am\nts ( money ne$$ to support _! dep>tm5ts dur+ ! foll[+ ye>1 :i* e/imates !y s5d to ! ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury1 :o1 aft] consid]+ & revis+ !m1 transmits !m to ,congress 9 8 ,annual ,lett]4 ,?is lett] is consid]$ by ! ,appropriation ,committee1 ^: duty x is to consid] & frame bills = ! appropriation ( moneys4 ,?\gh guid$ by ^! e/imates1 supplies frequ5tly dep>t widely f !m4 ,aft] be+ report$ to ! ,h\se & pass$1 money bills are s5t to ! ,s5ate1 :]e !y are inv>iably am5d$ by increas+ ! appropriations & are return$ to ! ,h\se4 ,a conf]5ce committee is !n appo9t$ f ! ,h\se & ,s5ate ,committees on ,appropriations1 :o1 aft] mutual concessions1 agree ^u su* appropriations z w be pass$ by bo? h\ses4 ,! ,h\se !n am5ds ! bill z agre$ ^u1 passes x1 & s5ds x to ! ,s5ate aga91 :i* 9 turn passes x1 & s5ds x to ! ,presid5t = 8 signature4 ,all bills = rais+ money mu/1 by ! ,con/itution1 orig9ate 9 ! ,h\se4 ,besides ! appropriations = ! exp5ses ( gov]nm5t !re is annually au?oriz$ a l>ge exp5diture = improvem5t ( riv]s & h>bors4 ,_m ( ! exp5ditures au?oriz$ by ^! bills are und\bt$ly unnecess>y1 b !y are pass$ by g5]al cons5t ( ! memb]s1 ea* ( :om desires to increase 8 popul>ity at home by gett+ public money sp5t 9 8 di/rict4 ,! exp5ses ( ! ,/ate gov]nm5ts are n heavy1 & are devot$ to b few objects4 ,! *ief exp5ditures are =3--7#a7 ! sal>ies ( (ficials2 7#b7 judicial exp5ditures2 7#c7 ! ,/ate volunte] militia2 7#d7 grants to public s*ools2 7#e7 public *>ities & in/itutions1 z prisons1 insane asylums1 etc41 7#f7 int]e/ on ,/ate debts2 7#g7 int]nal improvem5ts & public build+s4 ,! me?ods ( appropriations are simil> to ^? employ$ by ! ,f$]al gov]nm5t4 ,! exp5ditures ( ! local bodies1 & p>ticul>ly cities1 are mu* l>g]1 9 proportion to _! population1 ?an ^? ( ! ,/ates1 & are increas+ at a great] rate ?an ! increase ( population4 ,! objects ( exp5diture are num]\s & v important4 ,! *ief ones are3 7#a7 ,int]e/ on local debts2 7#b7 ma9t5ance & c>e ( ! /reets & roads2 7#c7 light+ ( /reets2 7#d7 police2 7#e7 sal>ies ( (ficials4 ,! foll[+ are outl9es ( ! receipts & exp5ditures ( ! ,/ate ( ,m>yl& = #ahhh1 & = ! ,city ( ,baltimore = #ahhg4 ,^! figures are giv5 n because !y ( !mselves possess any especial importance1 b because f !m c be obta9$ an idea ( ! activity ( a typical ,/ate & city4 ,m>yl&4#a--,! total receipts f all s\rces 7 #b1edb1acj2 & !re 0 paid out #b1jaf1jfj4 ,! *ief receipts 7 f3 ,g5]al ,taxes1 #gic1cja ,lic5ses1 #dhg1ifi ,corporation ,tax1 #gc1eec ,railroad ,tax1 #eh1dee ,inh]itance ,tax1 #eg1gfg ,income f ,/ocks & ,bonds own$1 #bjf1age ,fees1 #ag1ehe ,baltimore4#b--,! gross receipts into ! treasury = ! ye> end+ ,decemb] #ca1 #ahhg1 7 #h1ddf1dci1 & 7 *iefly f ! foll[+ s\rces3 ,taxes1 #d1baj1aab ,public s*ools1 tuition fees1 etc41 #f1gff ,m>ket h\ses1 r5t ( /alls1 #eh1bhg ,:>fage & r5t ( :>ves1 #cc1efa ,g5]al lic5ses1 #dd1fji ,auction duties1 #g1dca ,divid5ds on /ock 9 ,b4 ,o4 ,r4,r41 #acj1jjj ,wat] r5ts1 #gde1ddf ,pass5g] railway companies1 #acb1afg ,f ! ,/ate = public s*ools1 #adg1djc ,tempor>y loan1 #a1eaj1jjj ,receipts to pay int]e/ on loans1 #hif1gjd ,sale ( /ock1 #bdc1bhe ,! total disbursem5ts 7 #h1djc1icj4 ,( ?is #d1eda1ceg 0 sp5t on acc\nt ( exp5ses ( city gov]nm5t1 ! foll[+ be+ ! pr9cipal items ( exp5se3 ,int]e/ on ! public debt1 #iae1ihg ,exp5ses ( law c\rts1 #aah1ijf ,exp5ses ( jail1 magi/rates1 c41 4 4 #ajc1ehg ,public s*ools 7less am\nt paid by ,/ate71 #eid1jhi ,exp5ses ( poor1 #baj1gci ,police dep>tm5t1 #gjb1hhb ,/reet-clean+ dep>tm5t1 #bfc1icd ,fire dep>tm5t1 #bad1bbf ,/reet light+1 #bba1bjc ,p>ks1 c41 #eb1jhj ,sal>ies1 #gb1fbd ,city c\ncil1 #eb1ibe ,footnote #a3 ,f9ance ,/ati/ics ( ! ,am]ican ,commonweal?s3 ,e4,e4 ,seligman4 ,publications ( ,am4 ,/ati/ical ,asso41 ,dec41 #ahhi4 ,footnote #b3 ,r4,t4 ,ely1 ,taxation 9 ,am4 ,/ates & ,cities4 ,ne>ly all ( our ,/ate & local gov]nm5ts1 z well z ! national gov]nm5t1 h contract$ l>ge public debts1 ! int]e/ paym5ts ^u :i* con/itute "o ( ! *ief items 9 _! li/s ( exp5ditures4 ,! pres5t debt ( ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t is l>gely ! result ( ! enorm\s exp5ditures occasion$ by ! ,civil ,w>4 ,9 #ahfe1 ,augu/ #ca1 x rea*$ its highe/ po9t #b1cha1ecj1bid1 ) an annual int]e/ *>ge ( #aej1igg1fig4 ,s9ce !n x has be5 /eadily r$uc$ until 9 #ahhi ! total int]e/-be>+ debt 0 b #hbi1hec1iij1 ) an annual int]e/ *>ge ( #cc1geb1ced4 ,! pr9cipal ( ! national debt is ma9ly 9 ! =m ( int]e/-be>+ bonds held by ! ,national banks & private individuals4 ,^! bonds are ( v>i\s d5om9ations & are promises ( ! gov]nm5t to pay ! sums nam$ on _! face1 at ! expiration ( a c]ta9 p]iod4 ,! bonds at pres5t unpaid1 & z su* con/itut+ ! major portion ( our national debt1 are pr9cipally ( two k9ds2 ^? be>+ f\r & "o-half p] c5t1 annual int]e/ & fall+ due 9 #ahia1 & ^? be>+ f\r p] c5t1 int]e/ & fall+ due 9 #aijg4 ,! debts ( mo/ ( ! ,/ates 7 contract$ by ill-advis$ & untimely sy/ems ( int]nal improvem5ts4 ,! total /ate indebt$ness ,june ,i1 #ahij1 z %[n by ! ,elev5? ,c5sus1 0 #bch1cif1eij1 a decrease ( slightly ov] #eh1jjj1jjj 9 t5 ye>s4 ,! t5d5cy n[ seems to be = ,/ates to )draw f ! money m>ket z borr[]s1 & = ! c\nty & city gov]nm5ts to take _! place4 ,! local debts are v l>ge1 & h %[n a m>k$ increase dur+ ! la/ tw5ty ye>s4 ,!y h be5 = ! mo/ "p incurr$ 9 improvem5ts & con/ruction ( public works1 :i* h 9 mo/ in/ances well repaid ! debts incurr$4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,money4#a ,no man by himself produces ev]y?+ he wants to use1 b devotes 8 "t to ! production ( "s few ?+s1 & ! surplus t he does n use1 he ex*anges = o!r ?+s made by o!r m54 ,9 rude /ages ( society ?is is done by a direct ex*ange ( "o commodity = ano!r1 e4g4 s mu* :eat or corn = a gun or pl[4 ,?is is a v imp]fect & cumb]some me?od1 :i* _c be employ$ 9 our pres5t complicat$ transactions ( buy+ & sell+4 ,!re ?us e>ly develop$ ! use ( money1 or ! practice ( ref]r+ ! value ( all ?+s to "o /&>d1 usually ! preci\s metals3 s t1 in/ead ( trad+ #bj bu%els ( corn = a pl[1 :]e x w\ld be necess>y to g to ! great tr\ble ( f9d+ a man :o _h a pl[1 & also want$ y\r corn1 y sell x = s mu* money1 & ) ?is money y buy a pl[4 ,money is ?us b a m$ium ( ex*ange & a /&>d ( value4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z 9 mo/ nations1 money has always be5 made by ! ,gov]nm5t1 & ! ,gov]nm5t alone1 s t "o c]ta9 fix$ sy/em may prevail4 ,= ! sake ( conv5i5ce1 money is made ( v>i\s k9ds & d5om9ations1 & ,unit$ ,/ates money may conv5i5tly be reg>d$ "u ! five foll[+ divisions3 #a4 ,gold ,co91 ,gold ,bullion1 & ,gold ,c]tificates4--,!re are six gold co9s3 7#a7 ! eagle1 #aj piece2 7#b7 ! d\ble eagle1 #bj piece2 7#c7 ! half eagle1 #e2 7#d7 ! qu>t] eagle1 #b4ej2 7#e7 ! #c piece1 & 7#f7 ! #a piece4 ,! ?ree la/ are b little us$4 ,! gold bullion1 or gold 9 b>s & blocks unco9$1 is = all practical purposes z good z ! co91 & 9 =eign trade is mu* us$1 x be+ m conv5i5t to h&le4 ,besides ! gold co9 & bullion !re are 9 circulation gold c]tificates4 ,^! are pap]1 ! same 9 g5]al appe>ance z ! ord9>y bank-note1 & c]tify t an equival5t am\nt ( gold has be5 deposit$ ) ! ,treasur] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & t ! hold] ( ! c]tificate has ! "r to obta9 ! gold = x at any "t4 ,?is does n increase ! am\nt ( money 9 circulation1 z = e "o issu$ j s mu* co9 is )drawn & /[$ away 9 ! ,treasury4 ,! c]tificates are us$ simply = conv5i5ce1 & 9 ord] to avoid ! necess>y we> ( ! co9 if 9 con/ant use4 ,^! c]tificates are ( ! d5om9ation ( #bj4 #b4 ,silv] ,doll>s & ,silv] ,c]tificates4--,!re is no silv] bullion circulat+ z money1 = a silv] doll> does n conta9 a doll>'s wor? ( silv]1 z ! gold doll> does ( gold1 & ! silv] bullion is ?us ( diff]5t value 7less value71 accord+ to weight1 ?an ! silv] doll>4 ,! silv] c]tificates are simil> to ! gold c]tificates1 already describ$1 & c]tify t an equival5t am\nt ( silv] has be5 deposit$ 9 ! ,treasury4 #c4 ,subsidi>y & ,m9or ,co9s4--,all co9s ( a l[] d5om9ation ?an #a belong to "o or ! o!r ( ^! two classes4 ,!re are ?ree subsidi>y co9s1 ! fifty c5t1 ! tw5ty-five c5t1 & ! t5 c5t pieces4 ,! ?ree c5t piece is no long] co9$4 ,all o!r co9s are m9or co9s4 ,! peculi>ity ( ! subsidi>y & m9or co9s is t !y are1 z comp>$ ) ! /&>d co9s 7gold & silv] doll>s71 ( a great] value ?an ! value ( ! metal !y conta94 ,! subsidi>y co9s are legal-t5d] to ! am\nt ( #aj1 ! m9or to ! ext5t ( tw5ty-five c5ts4 ,by legal-t5d] is meant t ! gov]nm5t has ord]$ t x mu/ be receiv$ 9 paym5t ( all debts & articles b\ght4 ,gold co9 & ! silv] doll>s & c]tificates are legal-t5d] to any am\nt4 #d4 ,treasury ,notes4--,"u ?is head are includ$ t =m ( money ord9>ily kn[n z gre5backs1 f ! color ( _! backs4 ,!y 7 orig9ally issu$ dur+ ! civil w>1 & are promissory notes on ! "p ( ! gov]nm5t1 & z su* con/itute a portion ( ! debt ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,!y are pap]1 :i* ( itself is ( no value1 & no co9 is deposit$ 9 ! ,treasury :i* !y repres5t1 z 9 ! case ( ! gold & silv] c]tificates4 ,!y ?us co/ ! gov]nm5t no?+1 &1 z !y are made legal-t5d]1 & paid out by ! gov]nm5t1 !y 7 j s mu* cle> ga9 to x4 ,at fir/ !y 7 n r$eemable1 i4e41 ex*angeable = co9 at ! ,treasury1 b s9ce #ahgi !y are1 & are !re=e j z valuable n[ z any o!r =m ( money1 ?\gh =m]ly wor? mu* less ?an _! face value4 ,"o hundr$ million doll>s 9 gold is kept on deposit 9 ! ,treasury = _! r$emption4 #e4 ,notes ( ,national ,banks4--,?is is ! "o =m ( money t is n issu$ directly by ! ,f$]al gov]nm5t1 b ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( :at is call$ our ,national ,bank+ ,sy/em1 :i* may be ?us describ$3 ,a national bank c be organiz$ by any numb] ( m51 provid$ ! capital /ock ( ! bank is at lea/ #ajj1jjj4 ,"o-?ird ( ! capital mu/ !n be inve/$ 9 gov]nm5t bonds & deposit$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,treasury4 ,! bank may !n issue notes to ! ext5t ( #ij p] c5t1 ( su* deposit4 ,su* notes are ?us amply secur$ by ! deposits ) ! gov]nm5t4 ,! gov]nm5t gu>antees _! paym5t1 & s !y circulate z well z ! c]tificates issu$ directly by ! gov]nm5t4 ,?us a great deal ( ! pap] money 9 circulation is issu$ by ! national banks1 :i* mu/1 on dem&1 be r$eem$ ) co91 &1 9 case ( failure ( ! banks1 are paid by ! gov]nm5t1 :i* reimburses itself f ! deposits4 ,a bank-note diff]s f a ,treasury note 9 two p>ticul>s4 ,! ,treasury note or gre5back is a promise ( ! gov]nm5t1 & is legal-t5d] 9 paym5t ( all private debts2 ! bank-note is ! promise ( a private company1 & is n legal-t5d]4 ,a bank-note is said to be paid :5 ! bank gives a gre5back or co9 = x4 ,a gre5back is said to be paid or r$eem$ :5 ! gov]nm5t gives gold = x4 ,! foll[+ figures1 tak5 f ! report ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury = #ahhi1 give ! am\nts ( ! v>i\s sorts ( money describ$ 9 ! =ego+1 :i* 7 !n 9 ! ,treasury1 9 ! banks1 & 9 ! h&s ( ! p3 ,gold co9 & gold bullion1 #fhj1jfc1eje ,silv] co9 & silv] bullion1 #cdc1idg1jic ,u4,s4 ,treasury notes1 #cdf1fha1jjj ,national ,bank-notes1 #baa1cgh1ifc ,subsidi>y co9s1 #gf1fja1hcf ,x w be notic$ t gold & silv] c]tificates are n includ$1 =1 z expla9$1 !y m]ely repres5t an equal am\nt ( co9 or bullion on deposit4 ,! total am\nt ( money is ?us approximately #a1ffj1jjj1jjj1 :i*1 divid$ by ! total population1 gives ab\t #bg p] capita4 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d 9 connection ) ^! figures t o!r devices1 su* z *ecks1 drafts1 bills ( ex*ange1 & o!r =ms ( cr$it1 are us$ side by side ) money 9 c>ry+ on trade & s]v+ ! same purposes4 ,by ! ,compromise ,silv] ,bill ( ,july #ad1 #ahij1 provision 0 made = a new k9d ( pap] money4 ,by ?is act ! ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury 0 direct$ to pur*ase1 f "t to "t1 silv] bullion to ! am\nt ( #d1ejj1jjj ounces ea* mon?1 & to issue 9 paym5t = su* pur*ases ,treasury notes2 ^! notes s issu$ to be r$eemable on dem& 9 co91 & to be a legal t5d] 9 paym5t ( all debts1 public & private1 except :]e o!rwise expressly /ipulat$4 ,footnote #a3 ,9 ! prep>ation ( ?is article1 mu* assi/ance has be5 d]iv$ f an article by ,h4,c4 ,adams contribut$ to ! ,*autauquan4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,public ,l&s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,prior to #agha b six ( ! orig9al ?irte5 ,/ates--,new ,hamp%ire1 ,rhode ,isl&1 ,m>yl&1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,new ,j]sey1 & ,delaw>e--_h exactly def9$ b\nd>ies4 ,! o!rs claim$ l&s ( v>i\s ext5ts1 /ret*+ to ! ,mississippi ,riv]1 or ev5 to ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,! title to all ?is l& 0 !n 9 ! individual ,/ates1 & ! ,national ,gov]nm5t1 z su*1 _h no l& ( its own4 ,?is "q ( ! own]%ip ( ! we/]n l& 0 "o ( ! subjects ( controv]sy & discont5t betwe5 ! ,/ates4 ,x delay$ ! adoption ( ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation = "s "t4 ,^? ,/ates ) little or no l& reg>d$ ) jeal\sy _! m =tunate neighbors1 & w\ld n cons5t to a union until a settlem5t or und]/&+ 0 rea*$4 ,! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation 7 adopt$ only aft] assurance 0 made t all ! public l&s w\ld be c$$ to ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t4 ,?is 0 f9ally done by ! ,/ates4 ,! ,gov]nm5t =m$ "u ! ,con/itution succe$$ to all ?is l&1 & 9 addition1 to fur!r cessions made by ! ,/ates1 ! la/ be+ t ( ,georgia 9 #ahjb4 ,! subsequ5t additions ( t]ritory 7 made directly to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & n to ! ,/ates1 & all l& ?us ga9$ 0 held z public l& to be dispos$ ( by ,congress4 ,:ile ! area ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is #c1fjc1hhd squ>e miles1 ! public doma9 :i* has be5 acquir$ by cession1 pur*ase1 or conque/1 to be dispos$ ( by ! ,gov]nm5t z x desires1 has am\nt$ to #b1gjh1chh squ>e miles1 or ab\t two-?irds ( ! total area ( ! c\ntry4 ,! absolute title to ?is l&1 z be=e /at$1 became ve/$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t4 ,! disposal ( ^! l&s has always be5 "u ! sole p[] & control ( ,congress4 ,?is l& 0 all ?9ly populat$ by ,indian tribes1 :o m]ely hunt$ ov] x1 leav+ unimprov$ its natural f]tility & va/ m9]al res\rces4 ,^! tribes1 be+ actual occupants1 7 recogniz$ to h a sort ( half int]e/ 9 ! l&4 ,?is half own]%ip 0 always fir/ ext+ui%$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates by pur*ase = small sums1 or by ! grant+ ( c]ta9 privileges1 etc41 be=e x 0 op5$ up = settlem5t & occupation by ! :ite man4 ,l& is /ill held1 to a consid]able ext5t1 9 ?is way by ! ,indians4 ,?is "r ( ! ,indians c be ext+ui%$ only by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z !y are n all[$ to sell or treat at all ) individuals or ,/ates or =eign nations4 ,until #ahab ! affairs ( ! public doma9 7 manag$ by ! ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury4 ,9 t ye> ! (fice ( ,commission] ( ! ,g5]al ,l& ,(fice 0 creat$1 :i* rema9$ a bureau "u ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t until #ahdf4 ,on ! creation ( ! ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t 9 t ye>1 ,indian affairs 7 transf]r$ to x1 & h rema9$ "u ! same managem5t until ! pres5t "t4 ,?is bureau has complete *>ge ( all matt]s relat+ to ! managem5t & disposal ( ! public l&s1 subject to ! direction ( ,congress4 ,almo/ e conceivable me?od ( dispos+ ( ?is l& has be5 foll[$4 ,! ,gov]nm5t has1 h[ev]1 nev] assum$ ! position ( l&lord & r5t$ ! l&1 except 9 "o case ( "s m9]al l&1 & ?is exp]im5t result$ disa/r\sly4 ,be=e ! l& c\ld be dispos$ (1 x 0 necess>y t x %\ld be survey$ by ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,to d ?is !re 0 adopt$ z e>ly z #aggf1 ! s-call$ rectangul> sy/em1 :i*1 ) slight *anges1 has be5 cont9u$ until ! pres5t "t4 ,by ?is sy/em !re are fir/ survey$ a base & a m]idian l9e1 cross+ ea* o!r at "r angles1 runn+ nor? & s\? & ea/ & we/4 ,f ^! fix$ l9es ! l& is survey$ & m>k$ (f into rectangles ( six miles squ>e1 ea* ?us conta9+ ?irty-six squ>e miles4 ,?is is call$ a t[n%ip4 ,?is is aga9 divid$ up into sections ( "o squ>e mile ea* or #fdj acres1 & ?is aga9 into qu>t] sections ( #afj acres ea*4 ,9 "s cases ^! are /ill fur!r subdivid$4 ,! regulation & disposition ( ! public l&s has be5 "o ( ! *ief duties impos$ ^u ,congress4 ,! *ief me?ods by :i* ! public l&s h be5 dispos$ ( are z foll[s3 #a4 ,educational ,grants4--,congress f ! v fir/ provid$ lib]ally = ! e/abli%m5t ( common s*ools ?r\gh grants ( public l&s = ?is purpose4 ,z ea* t[n%ip is survey$ "o qu>t] section ( #fdj acres is set ap>t = common s*ools4 ,?is has cont9u$ f ! beg9n+ d[n to ! pres5t "t4 ,9 addition1 l>ge grants h be5 made specially = ! end[m5t ( univ]sities4 ,)9 lat] ye>s l& has be5 giv5 to e ,/ate to f\nd ,/ate milit>y & agricultural colleges4 ,up to ! ye> #ahhh1 !re _h ?us be5 grant$ = educational purposes #gg1ddh1aib acres4 #b4 ,l& ,b\nties = ,milit>y & ,naval ,s]vice4--,!re h be5 grant$ by diff]5t acts b\nties ( public l&1 9 ! nature ( p5sions1 to ! soldi]s & sailors ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,army1 on _! honorable dis*>ge1 = _! s]vice to ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,! am\nt ( l& ?us grant$ 7#ahhj7 has be5 #fa1jbh1dcj acres4 #c4 ,to ! ,/ates = ,int]nal ,improvem5t4--,!re 0 grant$ to ! ,/ates dur+ ! ye>s f #ahbh to #ahdf1 = ! improvem5t ( riv]s1 build+ ( canals1 wagon roads1 railroads1 etc41 #afb1bcj1jii acres4 #d4 ,sale ( ,public ,l&4--,"u ?is head !re are two classes ( public l&--fir/1 t :i* may be b\ght = ! m9imum rate ( #a4be2 &1 secondly1 ! alt]nate sections along ! railroads 7! o!r alt]nate sections be+ grant$ to ! railroads71 ! m9imum price ( :i* is #b4ej4 ,!re h be5 sold 9 all #aib1ehd1aaf acres1 realiz+ #bcc1jjj1jjj4 #e4 ,"u ! ,pre-emption ,acts4--,^! acts1 pass$ at v>i\s times1 provide t :]e a man1 a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 settles ^u & cultivates = a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t1 a tract ( l& n great] ?an #afj acres1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates w give him su* tract4 #f4 ,"u ! ,home/ead ,acts4--,! home/ead laws h creat$ a bett] & m c]ta9 mann] = settl]s to acquire l& ?an "u ! pre-emption acts4 ,by ^! acts x is provid$ t any citiz5 :o w select ei!r #afj acres ( ! #a4be l&1 or #hj ( ! #b4ej l&1 c !n get a p]mit f ! l& (fice1 settle on 8 l&1 & acquire a title to x4 #g4 ,"u ! ,timb] ,culture ,act4--,?is act gives to any "o ! "r to #afj acres ( ! #a4be l& if he w plant #aj acres 9 timb]1 or #hj acres ( ! #b4ej l& if he w plant #e acres 9 timb]4 #h4 ,c]ta9 ,l&s to ,/ates4--,q a l>ge quantity ( ! public l& has be5 giv5 to ! ,/ates on acc\nt ( its quality1 z swamp or ov]fl[$ l&1 & = v>i\s reasons1 to ! ext5t ( #aeh1dag1ead acres4 #i4 ,grants to ,pacific & o!r ,railroad ,companies4--,! nature ( ^! grants h already be5 spok5 ( 9 ano!r *apt]4 ,f #ahej to #ahgb a total ( #aej1ejd1iid acres 0 giv5 = railroad con/ruction4 ,,xx4 ,recon/ruction4 ,! conclusion ( ! civil w> 9 #ahfe did n relieve ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t ( its extraord9>y difficulties4 ,!re 0 ! :ole ,s\?1 a conqu]$ t]ritory1 occupy+ ! anomal\s position ( a di/rict1 /ill )9 ! ,union1 yet possess+ no legal /ate gov]nm5ts4 ,! ,conf$]ate gov]nm5t _h n[ be5 de/roy$ by ! ,nor?1 & ! ,s\? 0 ?us )\t a gov]nm5t4 ,f\r million slaves _h be5 lib]at$1 :o 7 un$ucat$1 )\t money1 & liv+ among p ho/ile to !m4 ,congress _h to provide = & protect ^! fre$m5 9 _! rights4 ,! "w to be done by ,congress1 0 !n3--#a4 ,to decide ^u :at t]ms & ^u :at conditions ! sec$$ ,/ates %\ld be re-admitt$ into ! ,union1 & to provide = !m a gov]nm5t until su* re-admission4 #b4 ,to protect ! negro4 ,! ,s\?1 ?\gh 9 ! ,union1 _h at ?is "t1 ( c\rse1 no repres5tation 9 ,congress1 & consequ5tly1 ! ,republicans 7 9 great majority4 ,un=tunately1 ,johnson1 :o succe$$ to ! ,presid5cy at ! dea? ( ,l9coln1 ?\gh a ,republican1 disagre$ ) 8 p>ty1 & legislation ^u ?is subject 0 only secur$ by pass+ all acts ov] 8 veto by a two-?irds vote4 ,aft] mu* discussion1 ! fir/ ,recon/ruction ,bill1 to provide = ! m effici5t gov]nm5t ( ! rebel ,/ates1 0 pass$ 9 #ahfg1 veto$ by ! ,presid5t1 & pass$ ov] 8 veto4 ,its pr9cipal provisions 7--#a4 ,! insurrection>y ,/ates 7 to be put "u ,unit$ ,/ates control1 & = ?is purpose divid$ into five milit>y di/ricts1 ov] ea* ( :i* ! ,presid5t 0 to appo9t a comm&+ (fic]4 #b4 ,! p ( ! v>i\s ,/ates might hold a delegate conv5tion1 elect$ by ! citiz5s :o _h n be5 depriv$ ( ! "r to vote = p>ticipation 9 ! rebellion4 ,! conv5tion 0 to prep>e a new con/itution1 :i* con/itution 0 to be !n submitt$ to ! vote ( ! p1 & :5 ratifi$ by !m & approv$ by ,congress1 %\ld g into =ce1 & ! ,/ate be entitl$ to repres5tation 9 ,congress4 ,be=e approval by ,congress ! con/itutions adopt$ by ! rebel ,/ates _h to agree 9 all ! foll[+ p>ticul>s3 7#a7 aboli%+ slav]y2 7#b7 decl>+ null & void all debts creat$ by ,/ates 9 aid ( ! rebellion2 7#c7 r5\nc+ all "r ( secession2 7#d7 decl>+ ! ord9ance ( secession :i* !y _h pass$ null & void2 7#e7 giv+ ! "r to vote to all male citiz5s1 )\t reg>d to color2 7#f7 prohibit+ ! pass+ ( any law to limit or abridge ! rights ( any class ( citiz5s4 ,9 #ahfh ! ,f\rte5? ,am5dm5t 0 adopt$ by a suffici5t numb] ( ,/ates1 & 0 decl>$ a "p ( ! ,con/itution4 ,9 #ahga all ! ,/ates 71 = ! fir/ "t s9ce #ahfa1 repres5t$ 9 bo? h\ses ( ,congress4 ,recon/ruction by ,congress 0 !n complet$4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,p>ty ,ma*9]y4 ,9 all ! ,/ates1 c\nties1 cities1 & ev5 9 ! small] subdivisions ( w>ds1 political p>ties are ?or\ghly organiz$1 ) ackn[l$g$ lead]s1 & "u sy/ems ( rules or p>ty gov]nm5t4 ,?is p>ty gov]nm5t1 or ma*9e1 z x is call$1 has be5 creat$ by no law or con/itution1 b is "o :i* has be5 gradually =m$ by ! vot]s !mselves1 & "u :i* !y h volunt>ily plac$ !mselves1 9 ord] bett] to succe$ 9 _! elections1 well realiz+ t ! be/ *ance ( success is by hav+ all ! vot]s ( _! p>ty unit$ on c]ta9 pr9ciples embodi$ 9 a p>ty plat=m1 & hav+ c&idates s nom9at$ t ! :ole p>ty w recognize !m z _! *oice4 ,! aims ( p>ty organization are3 ,fir/1 union1 t is1 hav+ all vot]s unit$ z to c&idates & plat=m2 & second1 recruit+ or ! ga9+ ( new adh]5ts4 ,!re are at pres5t two oppos+ political p>ties1 bo? /riv+ = ! control ( ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,bo? h v ne>ly ! same sy/em ( p>ty gov]nm5t1 b _! organizations are totally di/9ct & sep>ate "o f ! o!r4 ,!re are two di/9ct p>ts ( p>ty gov]nm5t4 ,!y are2 fir/1 sets ( committees1 ^: bus9ess x is to d all ! "w ( manag+ elections1 su* z rais+ & apply+ funds = election purposes1 organiz+ meet+s1 provid+ speak]s1 publi%+ & di/ribut+ political tracts & o!r in=mation1 & /irr+ up en?usiasm by p>ades & fireworks1 etc4 ,!y h also ! important duty ( call+ toge!r nom9at+ conv5tions4 ,! second "p ( ! ma*9e embraces ! nom9at+ conv5tions1 :i* propose ! names ( ! c&idates :om _! p>ty are to support = election4 ,^! assemblies are call$ toge!r by ! committees p]iodically1 = ! purpose ( specific nom9ations1 & cease to exi/ z soon z _! "w is done4 ,besides nom9at+ c&idates1 ! conv5tions draw up ! plat=m1 :i* is a /atem5t ( p>ty pr9ciples1 beliefs1 & pl$ges4 ,to provide = _! reassembl+ next "t1 !y also elect a new committee1 = ! next t]m2 & also s5d delegates to ! next high] conv5tion4 ,?us are f\nd committees & a nom9at+ conv5tion1 manag+ n only national & /ate elections1 b ev5 arrang+ & manag+ elections 9 ! small] electoral subdivisions4 ,!re is a committee & a nom9at+ conv5tion = e city1 = e c\nty1 = e di/rict1 & = e ,/ate4 ,!re are1 !n1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole ,unit$ ,/ates1 su* committees1 ea* controll+ its own local affairs1 b yet all relat$ to ea* o!r1 ?us =m+ "o va/ organiz$ sy/em4 ,beg9n+ ) ! smalle/ & l[e/1 let u %[ _! mutual connections & work+s4 ,/>t+1 !n1 ) ! t[n%ip conv5tion1 or conv5tion ( a city w>d1 we f9d t all ! vot]s ( ! p>ty are call$ toge!r on a c]ta9 day by a committee 7:i* 0 *os5 at ! prec$+ meet+7 = ! purpose ( nom9at+ c&idates = local affairs1 & nam+ delegates to repres5t !m at ! city or c\nty conv5tion4 ,! city or c\nty conv5tion1 compos$ ( ^! m51 is call$ toge!r by ! city or c\nty committee4 ,x fir/ nom9ates c&idates = ! city or c\nty (fices1 & selects delegates to ! /ate conv5tion1 & also provides = ! next meet+ by ! election ( a new committee = ! ensu+ ye>4 ,9 simil> mann]1 j be=e e /ate election1 ! /ate conv5tion1 compos$ ( city & c\nty delegates1 is call$ toge!r by ! /ate c5tral committee4 ,"h are nom9at$ m5 = /ate (fic]s2 a new committee is appo9t$ to manage /ate elections2 & also1 once e f\r ye>s1 ! important duty ( select+ ,presid5tial electors is p]=m$4 ,! ,democrats also select1 9 ?is /ate conv5tion1 _! delegates to ! ,national ,presid5tial ,nom9at+ ,conv5tion4 ,! ,republicans select b f\r delegates f ea* ,/ate 9 /ate conv5tions1 ! rema9d] be+ appo9t$ 9 di/rict conv5tions4 ,foll[+ ! same me?od ! ,national ,c5tral ,committee calls toge!r a ,national ,conv5tion ( all ! delegates :i* h be5 appo9t$ by ! ,/ate1 = ! purpose ( 7#a7 nom9at+ c&idates = _! p>ty = ,presid5t & ,vice ,presid5t2 7#b7 draw+ up & accept+ a p>ty plat=m2 7#c7 select+ a new ,national ,c5tral ,committee = ! next f\r ye>s1 :i* committee is to manage ! election campaign & call ! next ,national ,conv5tion4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,national ,conv5tions & ,presid5tial ,campaigns4 ,hi/ory & ,developm5t ( ! ,national ,conv5tion4--,9 ! ,presid5tial elections ( #aghi & #agib !re 0 no necessity = regul> p>ty nom9ations1 z ! :ole p 7 practically unanim\s 9 favor ( ,wa%+ton4 ,likewise 9 #agif x 0 s well und]/ood t ,adams 0 ! man desir$ by ! ,f$]ali/s1 & ,jeff]son by ! ,democrats1 t =mal nom9ations 7 n requir$4 ,b1 comm5c+ ) #ahjj1 political p>ties 7 m divid$ 9 _! *oice1 & "s me?od 0 dem&$ by :i* x might be decid$ on :om ! p>ty %\ld unite4 ,f #ahjj to #ahbj ?is dem& 0 met by nom9ations made by ,congressm51 9 caucuses1 or private meet+s1 ( ! memb]s ( ea* p>ty4 ,?is me?od f9ally prov$ unsatisfactory to ! c\ntry1 b f #ahbd-ahce no new & bett] me?od 0 inv5t$1 & nom9ations 7 made r irregul>ly1 ea* ,/ate legislature propos+ ! "n ( its favorite4 ,?is me?od ( nom9ation naturally fail$ to unite ! vot]s ( ! p>ty1 9 all ! diff]5t ,/ates1 on "o man1 & _h to be ab&on$4 ,aft] a failure to revive nom9ation = ,presid5t by ,congressional caucuses1 a new me?od 0 develop$ & adopt$1 :i* 0 by ,national ,nom9at+ ,conv5tions1 su* z we h to-day4 ,! introduction ( ?is la/ plan may fairly be dat$ at #ahdj4 ,national ,conv5tions 7 fir/ held at ,ea/]n cities1 b are n[ held fur!r ,we/1 to accommodate ! %ift+ c5t] ( population1 ,*icago be+ ! favorite city4 ,! ,national ,conv5tion is compos$ ( delegates f all ! ,/ates4 ,ea* ,/ate s5ds twice z _m delegates z x has repres5tatives 9 ! ,national ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 ?us mak+ a total n[ ( #hjb4 ,9 addition to ^!1 ! ,republicans all[ two delegates f ea* ( ! ,t]ritories4 ,me?od ( ,proc$ure4--,z soon z ! ,/ate & ,t]ritorial delegations arrive 9 ! city !y ea* elect a memb] = ! new ,national ,c5tral ,committee = ! next t]m4 ,inside ( ?is committee is *os5 an executive committee1 :i*1 9 reality1 does all ! "w ( conduct+ ! campaign4 ,! memb]s ( ?is committee are almo/ always m5 ( weal?1 & are expect$ to contribute lib]ally to ! campaign fund4 ,! bus9ess ( ! ,national ,conv5tion is comm5c$ by ! *airman ( ! ,national ,c5tral ,committee call+ ! conv5tion to ord]4 ,a tempor>y *airman is !n *os51 :o appo9ts a committee on cr$5tials1 ^: duty x is to decide :i* delegation %all be admitt$ 9 case two delegations are s5t f ! same ,/ate1 bo? claim+ admittance z repres5t+ ! p>ty 9 t ,/ate4 ,a committee on resolutions is also appo9t$ to prep>e ! p>ty plat=m4 ,! next day ! p]man5t *airman is appo9t$4 ,! plat=m is !n read & adopt$1 or am5d$ & adopt$4 ,!re is next an alphabetical roll-call ( ! ,/ates1 :5 names are propos$ & second$ = nom9ation z c&idates = ,presid5t4 ,! av]age numb] ( names propos$ is sev5 or eight1 ?\gh sometimes z _m z twelve are (f]$4 ,z ea* man is propos$ ! delegate pres5t+ 8 "n extols him 9 a laudatory spee*1 & gives reasons :y 8 man w make a /rong c&idate & an able ,presid5t4 ,vot+ !n comm5ces4 ,ea* delegate has "o vote4 ,9 ! ,republican conv5tion a majority ( ! :ole numb] ( ! delegates vot+ = "o man is requir$ be=e a nom9ation is rea*$1 :ile ! ,democrats require a two-?irds vote4 ,sometimes a nom9ation is made on ! fir/ ballot1 :ile at o!r times ! conv5tion has be5 s divid$ t z _m z #ec ballots h be5 requir$1 z 0 ! case :5 ! ,:igs nom9at$ ,scott4 ,=ty-n9e ballots 7 ne$$ :5 ,pi]ce 0 nom9at$ by ! ,democrats4 ,9 #ahhh ,clevel& 0 nom9at$ by ! ,democrats by acclamation1 no vote be+ necess>y to %[ ! wi%es ( ! delegates4 ,h>rison 0 nom9at$ by ! ,republicans on ! eigh? ballot4 ,a c&idate = ,presid5t hav+ be5 select$1 a ,vice ,presid5t is nom9at$ 9 a simil> mann]1 ?\gh g5]ally ) mu* less tr\ble1 & ! "w ( ! conv5tion is end$4 ,! c&idates are n[ put be=e ! p by _! respective p>ties4 ,! p1 ( c\rse1 d n vote directly = !m1 b :at am\nts to ! same ?+1 vote = electors1 :o are pl$g$ to vote = !m4 ,a vigor\s campaign ( f\r mon?s !n foll[s1 until election day1 9 ! fir/ week 9 ,novemb]4 ,ea* c&idate1 a %ort "t aft] 8 nom9ation1 is expect$ to publi% a lett] ( acceptance1 9 :i* he expresses 8 full confid5ce & belief 9 ! plat=m :i* 8 p>ty has adopt$1 discloses 8 views1 & outl9es :at 8 future policy w be if he is elect$4 ,to recapitulate1 !n1 9 a few words1 let u see h[ a ,presid5t is nom9at$ & elect$4 ,9 nom9at+ ! ,presid5t ea* vot] 9 caucus or prim>y meet+ %>es 9 *oos+ delegates to ! w>d conv5tion1 :i* *ooses delegates to ! city or c\nty conv5tion1 :i* 9 turn s5ds delegates to ! di/rict conv5tions4 ,9 ^!1 delegates are *os5 = ! ,/ate conv5tions1 :]e ,presid5tial electors are appo9t$1 & also ! delegates s5t to ! ,national ,conv5tion4 ,9 ! ,national ,conv5tion1 compos$ ( delegates s5t f ! ,/ate conv5tions & ,t]ritories1 ! ,presid5tial c&idate is nom9at$4 ,! electors are elect$ by ! p1 :o 9 turn elect ! nom9ees ( _! ,national ,conv5tion4 ,if ,/ate (fic]s1 z ,gov]nor1 ,attorney-,g5]al1 ,secret>y ( ,/ate1 ,treasur]1 etc41 are to be elect$1 !y are nom9at$ 9 ! ,/ate conv5tions & elect$ by ! p4 ,besides c\nties1 t[n%ips1 & cities1 ,/ates h o!r subdivisions = political purposes4 ,?us ! :ole ,/ate is divid$ into s5atorial di/ricts1 ea* "o ( :i* s5ds "o ,s5ator to ! ,/ate legislature1 & also into small] di/ricts1 ea* "o ( :i* s5ds "o memb] to ! l[] h\se ( ! ,/ate legislature4 ,usually a s5atorial di/rict is "o or m c\nties1 except 9 ! case ( l>ge cities1 :i* may 9 itself conta9 two or m s5atorial di/ricts4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,political ,p>ties 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,a k ( ! nature ( our f$]al gov]nm5t1 & its relations to ! ,/ate ,gov]nm5ts1 ( :i* x is compos$1 is a pr]equisite to an und]/&+ ( ! hi/ory ( our political p>ties4 ,! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is a f$]al republic1 fir/ =m$ by ! volunt>y union ( ?irte5 commonweal?s4 ,at pres5t x is compos$ ( =ty-f\r unit$ ,/ates4 ,x is a gov]nm5t ( enum]at$ p[]s1 & 9 ?is respect diff]s radically f ! gov]nm5ts ( ! individual ,/ates4 ,z all agree1 ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t possesses only ^? p[]s specifically grant$ to x by ! con/itution4 ,! ,/ates possess all p[]s except ^? grant$ to ! ,national ,gov]nm5t1 & ^? n prohibit$ to !m by ! t]ms ( ! con/itution4 ,:5 ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates desires to ex]cise a p[]1 x mu/ be prov5 t x 0 ! int5tion ( ! fram]s ( ! con/itution1 & s express$ 9 t in/rum5t1 t x %\ld possess su* a p[]4 ,! ,/ates 9 ! ex]cise ( _! p[]s ne$ only %[ t !y h n resign$ t p[]4 ,if !re be any dispute z to ! con/itutionality ( an act ( ei!r ,congress or a ,/ate legislature1 ! po9t is decid$ 9 ! f9al in/ance by ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ! political hi/ory ( our c\ntry s9ce ! adoption ( ! con/itution1 !re h be5 ev] pres5t two great con/itutional que/ions1 9 ! conflict+ answ]s to :i* we mu/ seek ! orig9 & cre$s ( our great political p>ties4 ,if we c ga9 a prop] conception ( ! "* ( ^! two que/ions1 we %all h tak5 a long /ep t[>ds ! und]/&+ ( ! reasons = ! conduct ( ! v>i\s oppos+ p>ties1 & ! basis ( ! disputes aris+ betwe5 !m4 ,^! h be5 ! two que/ions4 ,fir/1 ,:at is ! ext5t ( ! p[]s grant$ by ! con/itution to ! ,national ,gov]nm5t8 ,second1 ,:at is ! real nature ( our ,union2 &1 aris+ "u ?is problem1 ,:at is ! ext5t to :i* ! ,/ates are ju/ifi$ 9 oppos+ :at !y believe to be uncon/itutional acts on ! "p ( ! ,national ,gov]nm5t2 &1 ,c a ,/ate or ,/ates1 z a la/ resort1 )draw f ! ,union8 ,! rema9d] ( ?is *apt] w be ma9ly devot$ to a m p>ticul> exam9ation ( ^! que/ions4 ,:at are ! legitimate p[]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t8 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t 0 ! result ( ! union ( ?irte5 indep5d5t colonies--a union volunt>y on ! "p ( ! colonies1 yet =c$ ^u !m by ! evid5t ne$ ( "s c5tral p[] /rong en\gh to en=ce ob$i5ce at home & dem& respect abroad4 ,! det]m9ation ( :at & h[ _m ! national p[]s %\ld be1 0 ! "w ( ! ,con/itutional ,conv5tion4 ,( ! difficulties ( ?is task we h already spok54 ,9 =m+ a s*eme = a c5tral gov]nm5t1 !re 0 ! d\ble necessity ( creat+ a gov]nm5t /rong en\gh to p]=m ! duties = :i* x 0 e/abli%$1 & yet n s /rong z to endang] ! free self-gov]nm5t ( ! ,/ates4 ,! delicate po9t to be adju/$ 0 to give to ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t only su* p[]s z 7 necess>y = ! e/abli%m5t ( an effective ,national ,gov]nm5t1 &1 z f> z possible1 to reta9 9 ! ,/ates _! full gov]nm5tal p[]s2 9 o!r words1 to h>monize f$]al /r5g? ) ,/ate sov]eignty4 ,! fe> exhibit$ by ! ,/ates 9 ! debates prec$+ ! adoption & ratification ( ! con/itution ( #aghg1 t ! ,national ,gov]nm5t might become too /rong at ! exp5se ( _! own p[]s ( gov]nm5t1 0 n set at re/ by ! compromises obta9$ 9 ! conv5tion1 nor by ! elev5 am5dm5ts adopt$ soon aft] ! inauguration ( ! new gov]nm5t4 ,! reason = ! cont9uance ( ?is fe> is t ! con/itution is s word$ t ! p[]s ( ! g5]al gov]nm5t are n precisely fix$4 ,! /atem5t sometimes loosely made t a description ( our gov]nm5t is conta9$ 9 ! con/itution1 is apt to be mislead+4 ,! con/itution has s]v$ r z a f\ndation ^u :i* to build ! gov]nm5t1 ?an z an entire framework4 ,z a di/+ui%$ writ] has t]m$ x1 ,! con/itution 0 meant only z a s*eme 9 outl9e1 to be fill$ up aft]w>ds1 & f "t to "t1 by legislation4 ,a description ( our pres5t =m ( gov]nm5t is f> f be+ conta9$ 9 ! in/rum5t adopt$ 9 #aghh4 ,= example1 ! con/itution makes no m5tion ( h[ bus9ess %all be transact$ by ! legislature4 ,committee ,gov]nm5t 9 ,congress owes its exi/5ce to no provision ( ! con/itution4 ,! only m5tion made 9 ! con/itution ( ! ,speak] ( ! ,h\se1 to-day ! mo/ p[]ful (fic] 9 ! legislature1 is :]e x is provid$ t ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all *oose _! speak] & o!r (fic]s4 ,all executive dep>tm5ts--! ,/ate1 ,w>1 ,navy1 ,treasury1 ,po/ ,(fice1 ,int]ior1 ,ju/ice1 ,agriculture1 & ,labor--h be5 creat$ f "t to "t by act ( ,congress4 ,reg>d+ ! /ructure & numb] ( f$]al c\rts1 ! con/itution m]ely provides t ,! judicial p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be ve/$ 9 "o ,supreme ,c\rt1 & 9 su* inf]ior c\rts z ,congress may f "t to "t orda9 & e/abli%4 ,our elaborate sy/em ( di/rict1 circuit1 & t]ritorial c\rts1 re/s solely ^u congressional enactm5ts4 ,s1 too1 ! con/itution gives to ,congress ! control ( t]ritories1 b does n provide h[ t control %all be ex]cis$4 ,! fram]s ( our con/itution 7 wise 9 n attempt+ to specify m p>ticul>ly ?an !y did1 ! mann] 9 :i* ! sev]al p[]s grant$ to ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t %\ld be ex]cis$4 ,!y realiz$ t !y 7 =m+ a s*eme t 0 to endure = _m ye>s1 & t if x 0 to be capable ( meet+ ! ne$s ( a *ang+ & rapidly gr[+ c\ntry1 x w\ld h to be ela/ic1 & conta9 )9 itself ! p[] ( adapt+ itself to new ne$s & conditions4 ,to secure ! b5eficial execution ( ! p[]s grant$1 ,congress 0 giv5 ! p[] ( select+ appropriate means4 ,to h refus$ ! grant ( ?is p[]1 w\ld h be5 to attempt to provide by un*angeable rule = em]g5cies t c\ld by no possibilities be =ese54 ,or1 z ,*ief ,ju/ice ,m>%all has put x1 ,x w\ld h be5 to deprive ! legislature ( ! capacity to avail itself ( exp]i5ce1 to ex]cise its reason1 & to accommodate its legislation to circum/ances4 ,aft] enum]at+ ! v>i\s p>ticul> p[]s giv5 to ! ,f$]al ,legislature1 ! con/itution fur!r says 7,art4 ,i1 ,sec4 #h7 & %all h p[] to make all laws :i* %all be necess>y & prop] = c>ry+ into execution ! =ego+ p[]s1 & all o!r p[]s ve/$ by ?is con/itution 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or 9 any dep>tm5t or (fic] !re(4 ,?is is ! clause "u ^: au?orization all ^? p[]s h be5 assum$1 & functions ex]cis$1 t h made ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t ( to-day s diff]5t f t ( #aghi4 ,! g5]al rule is1 z has be5 said1 t ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t possesses only ^? p[]s grant$ to x by ! con/itution4 ,b "h1 9 ?is clause j quot$1 is a g5]al grant ( all p[]s necess>y or prop] = c>ry+ into effect any ( ! p[]s p>ticul>ly grant$4 ,:o or :at is to decide j :at p[]s are necess>y & prop] = ! accompli%m5t ( ?is object8 ,naturally p h n be5 able to agree ^u ! "q ( j :at p[]s are con/itutional or exp$i5t z impli$ "u ?is title ( necess>y & prop] & ?is "q has be5 l>gely in/rum5tal 9 divid+ ! p 9 oppos+ political p>ties4 ,!re has always be5 a p>ty1 ! memb]s ( :i*1 favor+ great p[]s = ! ,/ates r ?an = ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1 h be5 /rict con/ructioni/s1 & h advocat$ a close & n>r[ int]pretation ( ?is clause ( impli$ p[]s4 ,f _! desire to reta9 9 ! ,/ate gov]nm5ts z _m p[]s z possible1 !y h be5 kn[n z ! ,/ates' ,rights ,p>ty4 ,oppos+ !m has be5 ! p>ty ( loose con/ructioni/s1 ! memb]s ( :i* h held to a free1 lib]al int]pretation ( ! con/itution1 & h endeavor$ to increase ! p[] ( ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t4 ,!re h nev] be5 political p>ties /yl+ !mselves ,/rict ,con/ructioni/s & ,loose ,con/ructioni/s1 = ^! are t]ms t h be5 us$ n z titles1 b z def9itions ( diff]5t pr9ciples ( con/itutional int]pretation4 ,b by :atev] "n !y may h be5 kn[n1 !re h be51 dur+ ! great] "p ( our hi/ory1 ^! two political p>ties1 ! "o hold+ to ! pr9ciple ( /rict con/ruction & ,/ates' ,rights1 & ! o!r to t ( loose con/ruction & f$]al p[]4 ,! second fundam5tal "q spok5 ( 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?is *apt] z und]ly+ national politics1 is conc]n+ ! nature ( our union & ! rights ( /ate nullification & secession4 ,a f9al answ] to ^! que/ions _c ( c\rse be "h attempt$1 b t :i* c be done1 is to /ate 9 a few words j :at _! mean+ is1 & ! po9ts ^u :i* !y h turn$4 ,:5 we come to ! consid]ation ( ! c\rse ( politics 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates we %all see ! answ]s t hi/ory has giv5 to !m4 ,! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is ! judge ( its own p[]s1 = x is 9 its own supreme judicial tribunal t ! con/itutionality ( bo? ,/ate & ,f$]al laws is f9ally det]m9$4 ,m ?an once has a practical answ] be5 dem&$ to ! "q ,:at is to be done by a ,/ate or ,/ates :51 9 _! e/imation1 ! ,national ,gov]nm5t has transc5d$ its p[]s & legislat$ 9 an uncon/itutional mann]8 ,ob$i5ce1 nullification1 or1 9 ! la/ resort1 secession f ! ,union1 h be5 ! v>i\s alt]natives t h (f]$ !mselves to ! ,/ates4 ,diff]5t views ( ! nature ( our ,union h su/a9$ ! propriety ( ! selection ( diff]5t ones ( ^! alt]natives4 ,accord+ to ! nullification !ory1 ! con/itution is held to be ( ! nature ( a compact betwe5 ! ,/ates z "o p>ty & ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t z ! o!r2 & t1 z 9 all contracts1 if ! agreem5ts conta9$ !re9 are brok5 by ! "o p>ty1 ! o!r p>ty has ! "r to refuse its ass5t !reto4 ,!re=e1 if ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t attempts ! ex]cise ( p[]s n grant$ 9 ! compact1 ! ,/ates h ! "r to int]pose ! rightful rem$y ( nullification4 ,t is to say1 t ea* ,/ate has ! "r to det]m9e = itself :5 an unw>rant$ p[] has be5 assum$ by ! g5]al gov]nm5t1 & 9 su* a case to decl>e ! obnoxi\s law null & ( no =ce )9 h] own b\nd>ies4 ,9 consid]+ ! "q ( nullification1 x is necess>y to di/+ui% betwe5 ! !ory or r me?od ( nullification prop\nd$ by ,madison & ,jeff]son 9 ! ,virg9ia & ,k5tucky ,resolutions1 f t ( ,calh\n br\ght =w>d at ! "t ( ,s\? ,c>ol9a's resi/ance to1 & attempt$ nullification (1 ! ,t>iff laws ( #ahbh1 & #ahcb4 ,9 ! ,virg9ia & ,k5tucky ,resolutions ! ,ali5 & ,s$ition ,acts 7 solemnly decl>$ to be uncon/itutional1 t ! ,union 0 a compact1 & ! ,/ates _h ! "r to int]pose ! rem$y ( nullification2 b op5 resi/ance 0 n propos$4 ,by ! ,jeff]sonian !ory1 x 0 propos$ to obta9 ! op9ion ( ?ree-f\r?s ( ! ,/ates t ! acts 7 uncon/itutional1 & ?us to nullify !m aft] ! mann] ( a con/itutional am5dm5t4 ,until su* nullification1 ! laws 7 to be obey$4 ,! ,calh\n doctr9e 0 some?+ entirely diff]5t f ?is4 ,accord+ to 8 doctr9e1 any s+le ,/ate might ord] at once a susp5sion ( ! law )9 h] bord]s1 & n until ?ree-f\r?s ( ! ,/ates 9 national conv5tion _h ov]rul$ ! nullification c\ld ! ,/ate be =c$ to obey ! obnoxi\s law4 ,to use ,calh\n's own words1 8 !ory 01 t x belongs to ! ,/ate1 z a memb] ( ! ,union1 9 h] sov]eign capacity 9 conv5tion1 to det]m9e def9itely1 z f> z h] citiz5s are conc]n$1 ! ext5t ( ! obligation :i* %e has contract$2 & if1 9 h] op9ion1 ! act ex]cis+ ! p[] 9 dispute be uncon/itutional1 to decl>e x null & void1 :i* decl>ation w\ld be obligatory on h] citiz5s4 ,! sum & sub/ance ( ?is 01 z ,von ,hol/ has po9t$ out1#a to give to "o-f\r? ( ! ,/ates ! p[] if !y saw fit to deprive ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t ( e p[] entru/$ to x1 t is1 to alt] ! con/itution at w4 ,footnote #a3 ,con/itutional ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dgd1 note4 ,! "r ( secession foll[s z a logical outcome ( ! !ory ( nullification rigidly c>ri$ out4 ,f$]al laws are g5]al 9 _! nature1 & if b9d+ any:]e1 mu/ be b9d+ ev]y:]e4 ,if !n1 a m9ority ( ,/ates insi/ on _! "r ( nullification1 ! f$]al gov]nm5t w be oblig$ ei!r to admit t e act ( ,congress is )\t any =ce 9 a ,/ate until x has obta9$ ! tacit approval ( ! p ( t ,/ate1 or else x w be driv5 to ! necessity ( obta9+ ! en=cem5t ( ! law by arms4 ,su* employm5t ( =ce w\ld ( c\rse be b ! prelude to secession4 ,inde$1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 9 h] ,ord9ance ( ,nullification1 decl>$ t %e w\ld sec$e1 if ! ,unit$ ,/ates did n repeal ! obnoxi\s laws1 or if %e %\ld attempt to en=ce ! collections ( ! t>iff duties provid$ = by ! acts 9 dispute4 ,accord+ to ! ,unioni/ view1 x is held t 9 no case has ! individual ,/ate ! "r to resi/ ! op]ation ( a f$]al law1 mu* less does x possess ! actual p[] to pass a law affect+ its relation to1 or cont9uance 91 ! ,union4 ,?is view is support$ by an int]pretation ( ! con/itution t d5ies to t in/rum5t ! "* ( a compact betwe5 ! ,/ates & ! ,national ,gov]nm5t4 ,! con/itutional !ory ( ?is s*ool is t ! ,national ,gov]nm5t 0 =m$ by ! p z a :ole1 & n by ! ,/ates4 ,t ! ,/ates accept$ ?is gov]nm5t1 b 7 9 no s5se p>ties to an agreem5t betwe5 !m & ! ,nation4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 ! ,union began ) ! fir/ acts ( resi/ance tak5 9 common by ! colonies1 & is ?us1 9 a s5se1 old] ?an ! /ate gov]nm5ts1 :i* 7 n =m$ until aft] ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce4 ,also1 t :5 ! ,/ates gave 9 #aghh _! cons5t to ! con/itution1 _! cons5t 0 irrevocable4 ,two quotations f decisions r5d]$ by ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates w make cle> ! argum5ts & !ory ( ! ,unioni/s4 ,said ,*ief ,ju/ice ,m>%all3#a ,! conv5tion :i* promulgat$ ! con/itution 0 inde$ elect$ by ! /ate legislatures1 b ! in/rum5t :5 x came f _! h&s1 0 a m]e proposal1 )\t obligations or pret5ti\s to x4 ,x 0 report$ to ! !n exi/+ ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) a reque/ t x might 'be submitt$ to a conv5tion ( delegates *os5 9 ea* ,/ate by ! p !re(1 "u recomm5dation ( its legislature = _! ass5t & ratification4' ,?is mode ( proce$+ 0 adopt$1 & by ! conv5tions1 by ,congress1 & by ! /ate legislatures1 ! in/rum5t 0 submitt$ to ! p4 ,!y act$ ^u x 9 ! only way 9 :i* !y c act safely1 effectually1 & wisely on su* a subject1 by ass5t+ 9 conv5tion4 ,x is true !y assembl$ 9 _! sev]al ,/ates1 an :]e c\ld !y h assembl$8 ,f ^! conv5tions ! con/itution d]ives its :ole au?ority4 ,! gov]nm5t proce$s directly f ! p4 ,! ass5t ( ! ,/ates 9 _! sov]eign capacity is impli$ 9 call+ ! conv5tion1 & ?us submitt+ t in/rum5t to ! p4 ,b ! p 7 at p]fect lib]ty to accept or reject x1 & _! decision 0 f9al4 ,x requir$ n ! affirmance (1 & c\ld n be negativ$ by1 ! /ate gov]nm5ts4 ,! con/itution :5 adopt$ 0 ( complete obligation1 & b\nd ! /ate sov]eignties4 ,! gov]nm5t ( ! ,union !n1 is emphatically & truly a gov]nm5t ( ! p4 ,9 =m & 9 sub/ance x emanates f !m4 ,its p[]s are grant$ by !m1 & are to be ex]cis$ directly on !m1 & = _! b5efit4 ,footnote #a3 ,mc,culloch v4 ,md41 #d ,dall41 #caf4 ,said ,*ief ,ju/ice ,*ase3#a ,! union ( ! ,/ates nev] 0 a purely artificial & arbitr>y relation4 ,x began among ! colonies1 & grew out ( common orig91 mutual sympa?ies1 k9dr$ pr9ciples1 & geographical relations4 ,x 0 confirm$ & /r5g!n$ by ! necessities ( w>1 & receiv$ def9ite =m & "* & sanction f ! articles ( ,conf$]ation4 ,by ^! ! union 0 solemnly decl>$ to 'be p]petual4' ,& :5 ! articles 7 f\nd to be inadequate to ! exig5cies ( ! c\ntry1 ! con/itution 0 orda9$ 'to =m a m p]fect union4' ,x is difficult to convey ! idea ( indissoluble unity m cle>ly ?an by ^! words4 ,:at c be m indissoluble if a p]petual union made m p]fect1 is n8 ,b ! p]petuity & indissolubility ( ! union1 by no means implies ! loss ( di/9ct & individual exi/5ce1 or ( ! "r ( self-gov]nm5t by ! ,/ates4444 ,)\t ! ,/ates 9 ,union1 !re c\ld be no su* political body z ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,n only1 !re=e1 c !re be no loss ( sep>ate & indep5d5t autonomy to ! ,/ates1 ?r\gh _! union "u ! con/itution1 b x may be n unreasonably said t ! pres]vation ( ! ,/ates1 & ! ma9t5ance ( _! gov]nm5ts are z mu* )9 ! design & c>e ( ! con/itution1 z ! pres]vation ( ! ,union & ! ma9t5ance ( ! ,national ,gov]nm5t4 ,! con/itution 9 all its provisions looks to an inde/ructible ,union compos$ ( inde/ructible ,/ates4 ,footnote #a3 ,texas v4 ,:ite1 #g ,wall41 #gej4 ,a civil w> ( f\r ye>s' duration has decid$ ! ,unioni/ !ory ( our gov]nm5t to be ! "o "u :i* ! ,nation is to be gov]n$4 ,:e!r or n1 9 po9t ( fact1 ! ,nation 0 old] ?an ! ,/ates1 & ! con/itution n a compact1 b an indissoluble ,union1 w always rema9 a "q to be discuss$4 ,! dispute turns ^u a po9t t does n admit ( f9al det]m9ation4 ,we c only !orize4 ,to ma9ta9 ! view t ! ,union is old] ?an ! ,/ates x is necess>y to %[ t ! ,cont95tal ,congress 0 ( su* a "*1 & its p[]s ( su* a nature1 t a true national gov]nm5t may be said to h exi/$ be=e ,july #d1 #aggf1 & !re=e1 t ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce & ! consequ5t trans=mation ( ! colonies into ,/ates 7 n ! result ( ! individual action ( sep>ate colonies1 b ( ! :ole p unit$ 9 a nation4 ,&1 foll[+ f ?is1 t ! ,/ates 7 nev] out ( ! union1 b t ! individual colonies became ,/ates1 only z belong+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,consequ5tly t ! !ory ( a 'compact' betwe5 ! ,/ates & ! ,unit$ ,/ates is unt5able1 = at ! "t ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 born1 ! ,/ates did n exi/4#a ,footnote #a3 ,z ,l9coln express$ x 9 8 message ( ,july #d1 #ahfa3 ,! ,/ates h _! /atus 9 ! ,union1 & !y h no o!r legal /atus4444 ,! ,union is old] ?an any ( ! ,/ates1 & 9 fact1 x creat$ !m z ,/ates4 ,to ma9ta9 ! ,compact ,!ory x is necess>y to %[ t ! ,cont95tal ,congress _h no prop]ly delegat$ national p[]s1 & to x ! "* ( a national gov]nm5t c\ld n fitly be appli$1 & t ! colonies :5 !y sep>at$ f ,engl& rema9$ indep5d5t ( ea* o!r1 because z colonies !y _h be5 indep5d5t4 ,!re=e1 t ! initial clause ( ! ,preamble to ! ,con/itution ,we ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ref]r$ n to all ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 _! collective capacity1 b to ! p ( ! sev]al ,/ates4 ,9 f9e1 admitt+1 z all d1 ! ,cont95tal ,congress to h be5 a revolution>y body1 ex]cis+ undelegat$ p[]s1 ! "q is1 ,0 x1 or 0 x n1 a de jure1 z well z de facto national gov]nm5t1 & ?is is a "q t _c be answ]$ absolutely4 ,^! oppos+ views ( ! "* ( our con/itution h be5 /at$ n ) ! idea ( prov+ ei!r ( !m to be ! correct "o1 b solely to indicate ! l9es along :i* political p>ties h f\ght _! battles4 ,?us1 x is hop$1 ! /ud5t w be prep>$ = an intellig5t consid]ation ( ! v>i\s political p>ties t h exi/$ 9 ! c\rse ( 8 c\ntry's hi/ory4 ,to complete ! /atem5t ( ! und]ly+ causes & fundam5tal pr9ciples t h direct$ ! c\rse ( our national politics1 x is necess>y to give at lea/ "s %ort acc\nt ( ! natural causes t h op]at$ irresi/ibly to divide ! ,nor? & ! ,s\? 9 _! political ?\ghts & actions4 ,:y is x t slav]y fl\ri%$ 9 ! ,s\?1 b langui%$ & 0 gradually aboli%$ 9 ! ,nor?8 ,:y is x t ! /ronghold ( ! ,/ates' ,rights doctr9e ( nullification & ( secession 0 9 ! ,s\?1 & ! citadel ( ! ,unioni/s 9 ! ,nor?8 ,:y is x t to-day ! debate betwe5 high & l[ cu/oms duties1 is1 to a v consid]able ext5t1 a discussion betwe5 ! ,new ,engl& & ,middle ,/ates & ! ,s\!rn ,/ates8 ,to all ^! que/ions a v satisfactory answ] c be f\nd 9 ! diff]5t physical *>act]i/ics ( ! ,nor? & ,s\?4 ,! nature ( ! soil & climate1 z well z ! "* ( ! settl]s1 pr$et]m9$ = ! ,s\!rn colonies an agricultural "*1 & = ! colonies ( ! ,nor? a comm]cial & indu/rial "*2 &1 already by ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury we f9d 9 !m a m>k$ diff]5ce ( political & social life4 ,f ! v />t1 ! ,s\?1 favor$ by a mild climate1 ri* soil1 & broad1 l[-ly+ valleys1 develop$ an agricultural life4 ,slav]y 0 introduc$ at an e>ly date1 & fl\ri%$1 ! w>m climate be+ cong5ial to ! negro1 & ! rude manual labor ( ! field suit$ to 8 meagre capabilities4 ,! result ( ^! influ5ces 0 to develop 9 ! ,s\? a sy/em ( l>ge ill-work$ manors or e/ates4 ,! pr$om9ance ( slave labor1 disc\rag$ ! immigration ( free labor1 & ! ,s\? rema9$ comp>atively ?9ly settl$4 ,! moral effect ( slav]y ^u ! :ite population 0 bad4 ,habits ( ?riftlessness & laz9ess 7 eng5d]$ among ! free population1 & _! social relations corrupt$4 ,9 ! ,nor?1 an ind5t$ coa/ ) _m good h>bors1 a rugg$ soil1 & a w9try climate1 enc\rag$ ! developm5t ( a comm]cial & manufactur+ life4 ,slave labor "h prov$ itself sc>cely pr(itable1 nei!r ! climate nor ! nature ( ! "w requir$1 be+ suit$ to ! frames & abilities ( ! ,african4 ,z comp>$ ) ! ,s\?1 ! ,nor? soon became ?ickly settl$1 & l>gely z a result ( ?is1 adopt$ ! small area ( ! t[n or t[n%ip z its mo/ important unit ( local gov]nm5t1 in/ead ( ! l>g] area1 ! c\nty1 us$ 9 ! ,s\?4 ,?is ess5tial diff]5ce 9 ! sy/em ( local gov]nm5t 9 ! ,nor?1 f t ( ! ,s\?1 has rema9$ un*ang$ to ?is day1 & has ex]cis$ great influ5ce ^u ! political habits ( ! peoples ( ^! two sections4 ,at ! "t ( ! adoption ( ! con/itution1 ^! diff]5ces betwe5 ! nor!rn & s\!rn colonies 7 n s great z !y 7 soon to become4 ,z contra/$ ) ! ,nor?1 ! agricultural "* ( ! ,s\? 0 already m>k$1 b ! designation ( ^! two sections z free & slave /ates _h n yet come into use4 ,x 0 ! rem>kable developm5t ( ! cultivation ( cotton consequ5t ^u ! inv5tion ( ,:itney's cotton g9 9 #agic1 t gave ! trem5d\s impetus to ! increase ( slav]y 9 ! ,s\?4 ,:ile prior to ! introduction ( ?is ma*9e1 sc>cely a s+le p\nd ( cotton c\ld be sep>at$ f ! se$ by a man 9 a day1 ,:itney's g9 made x possible to prep>e = m>ket ?ree hundr$ & fifty p\nds p] day4 ,! nature ( ! cotton plant r5d]$ x peculi>ly fitt$ to ! climate & soil ( ! ,s\?1 & ! ease ) :i* x c\ld be cultivat$ & prep>$ = m>ket1 made ! application ( slave labor extremely pr(itable4 ,9 #aghi _m ( ! s\!rn /ates exhibit$ evid5ces ( a desire & int5tion to ultimately aboli% slav]y1 b f ?is "t we he> no?+ m ( ?is4 ,aft] #ahjj ! numb] ( slaves increas$ rapidly4 ,! c5sus ( #agij %[$ 9 ! s\!rn colonies #fej1jjj1 :ile t ( #ahbj %[$ ! numb] to be ov] #a1ehj1jjj4 ,f #ahjj to #ahfe ! political life ( ! ,s\? is l>gely expla9able by ! int]e/ ( its p 91 & devotion to1 ! in/itution ( slav]y4 ,! promptness ) :i*1 irrespective ( p>ty affiliations1 ! p ( ! ,nor? assum$ ! anti-slav]y attitude & ^? ( ! ,s\? plac$ !mselves "u ! pro-slav]y bann]1 at ! "t ( ! ,miss\ri conte/ 9 #ahbj1 %[s ! ext5t to :i* ^! two sections ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7 already divid$ ^u ?is great "q4 ,! ,s\?1 ret>d$ 9 its gr[? by ! employm5t ( slave labor1 z comp>$ ) ! ,nor? already exhibit$ an example ( arre/$ developm5t1 & h] politicians saw t if ! balance ( p[] betwe5 ! slave-hold+ & ! non-slave-hold+ ,/ates 0 to be ma9ta9$1 a wid] field = ! ext5sion ( _! favorite in/itution w\ld h to be provid$4 ,x is 9 ! light ( ?is motive t ! desire ( ! ,s\? = ! annexation ( ,cuba & ( ,texas1 ev5 at ! exp5se ( a w> ) ,mexico1 is to be int]pret$4 ,! compromise ( #ahbj satisfi$ ! dem&s ( ! slavocracy = a "t1 b only = a "t4 ,9 #ahej ! ,s\? aga9 dem&$1 & obta9$ concessions4 ,x requir$ a civil w> to demon/rate to u ! futility ( endeavor+ to av]t by compromise ! conflict t 0 irrepressible betwe5 ! ,nor? & ,s\? s long z slav]y exi/$ 9 ! "o1 & 0 reprobat$ 9 ! o!r4 ,! diff]5t attitudes assum$ at ! pres5t day by ! ,nor? & ,s\? 9 reg>d to ! ,t>iff "q1 is expla9able by ! diff]5ce 9 ! indu/rial life ( ^! two sections4 ,! ,nor? is ess5tially a manufactur+ c5tre1 &1 z su*1 dem&s high import duties z a protection to h] manufactur]s & m]*ants4 ,! ,s\? is1 z a :ole1 agricultural1 & favors l[ duties ) ! idea ( ?us ext5d+ =eign trade1 & af=d+ a l>g] m>ket = ! sale ( h] raw products4 ,a /rik+ pro( ( ! influ5ce ( ! indu/rial life ( a section 9 det]m9+ its attitude t[>ds ! t>iff1 is se5 9 ! *ange ( front ( ,massa*usetts aft] #ahbd f free-trade to protection1 ?is *ange be+ :olly due to ! pr$om9at+ influ5ce acquir$ by h] manufactures ov] h] comm]ce & agriculture4 ,,f9is4 ,,notes4 ,= ! assi/ance ( ^? :o may desire a full] acqua9tance ) ! adm9i/rative me?ods ( our ,f$]al & ,/ate ,gov]nm5ts ?an is to be obta9$ f ?is book1 ^! bibliographical notes are app5d$4 ,n only ! au?orities actually consult$ 9 ! prep>ation ( ?is monograph are giv51 b m5tion is also made ( ! mo/ reliable & accessible s\rces ( in=mation ^u ! m important topics g]mane to ! /udy ( ,gov]nm5t & ,adm9i/ration4 ,9 arrangem5t1 ! notes foll[ ! ord] ( topics us$ 9 ! text4 ,g5]al ,works ^u ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t4 ,wor?y ( fir/ m5tion is ! admirable "w ( ,james ,bryce1 ,! ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 #b vols41 #ahhh4 ,to ! /ud5t ( ,am]ican in/itutions & adm9i/ration ^! two volumes are indisp5sable4 ,9 !m is conta9$ ! be/ & late/ sci5tific exposition ( our political in/itutions z !y exi/ to-day4 ,! only criticism t c be made reg>d+ ! "w is t ! executive dep>tm5ts h n receiv$ suffici5t att5tion z reg>ds ! details ( _! adm9i/ration1 nor ! practical & sci5tific value ( ! "w p]=m$ by _! num]\s bureaus4 ,int]e/+ f an hi/orical po9t ( view is ,de ,tocqueville's ,democracy 9 ,am]ica1 n[ fifty ye>s old4 ,lalor's ,encyclopa$ia ( ,political ,sci5ce1 ,political ,economy & ,am]ican ,hi/ory is by f> ! be/ "w = ref]5ce4 ,! pr9cipal articles 9 ! field ( political sci5ce are contribut$ by ,dr4 ,j4,c4 ,blunts*li1 ^? ^u ,unit$ ,/ates ,hi/ory by ! late ,pr(4 ,alex&] ,john/on1 & ^? ^u ,f$]al ,adm9i/ration by ,a4,r4 ,sp(=d1 ,libr>ian ( ,congress4 ,bannatyne's ,h&-book ( ,republican ,in/itutions 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is an au?oritative "w bas$ ^u f$]al & /ate laws1 & o!r au?oritative s\rces ( in=mation4 ,x is entirely descriptive & v complete4 ,o!r g5]al works are ,mul=d's ,! ,nation3 ! ,f\ndation ( ,civil ,ord] & ,political ,life 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 ,lab\laye's ,hi/oire ,politique des ,etats-,unis1 #c vols42 & ,lamph]e's ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t3 ,its ,organization & ,practical ,work+s1 ?is la/ be+ *iefly valuable = its /ati/ical & tabulat$ in=mation4 ,among =eign works t consid] ! !ory & practice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t1 are ,bagehot's ,engli% ,con/itution2 ,sir ,h5ry ,ma9e's *apt] on ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 8 ,popul> ,gov]nm5t2 ,e4,a4 ,freeman's article ,presid5tial ,gov]nm5t conta9$ 9 8 ,hi/orical ,essays 7#ahga72 ,"l ,br\gham's *apt] on ! ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 8 ,political ,philosophy1 ,vol4 #c2 & ,e4 ,b\tmy's ,etudes de droit ,con/itutionel4 ,= curr5t political in=mation ,mc,pherson's ,h&-book ( ,politics1 issu$ e two ye>s s9ce #ahgj1 is valuable4 ,besides /ati/ical in=mation reg>d+ gov]nm5t rev5ues & exp5ditures1 public debts1 votes1 population1 names ( congressm51 c42 ^! h&-books conta9 ,presid5tial & ,gub]natorial messages1 transcripts f ! ,congressional ,record relat+ to lead+ matt]s discuss$ 9 ,congress2 & decisions ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt t are ( g5]al importance4 ,! ,/atesman's ,ye>-,book1 publi%$ annually by ,macmillan ,co41 is valuable = ref]5ce 9 matt]s conc]n+ bo? =eign & ,am]ican gov]nm5ts4 ,bibliographical ref]5ces are also giv5 to ea* exi/+ gov]nm5t4 ,john ,fiske's rec5t volume on ,civil ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 /&s 9 m]it f> above o!r manuals be>+ ?is "n1 mo/ ( :i* are simply runn+ comm5t>ies on ! con/itution4 ,an excell5t feature ( ,mr4 ,fiske's book is ! addition ( bibliographical notes at ! ends ( ! *apt]s4 ,! foll[+ are manuals t may be recomm5d$ z ( comp>ative m]it3 ,macy1 ,our ,gov]nm5t3 ,h[ x ,grew1 ,:at x ,does1 & ,h[ x ,does x2 ,cock]'s ,civil ,gov]nm5t2 ,?orpe's ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 ,m>t9's ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 & ,=d's ,am]ican ,citiz5s' ,manual4 ,! mo/ complete collection ( bibliographical ref]5ces to ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is t prep>$ by ,w4,e4 ,fo/]1 & publi%$ z ,economic ,tract ,no4 xxix1 by ! ,society = ,political ,education1 ,new ,york4 ,gov]nm5t4 ,dr4 ,j4,c4 ,blunts*li's ,lehre vom ,mod]n5 ,/at1 9 ?ree volumes1 gives ! f9e/ treatm5t ( ! v>i\s =ms & g5]al pr9ciples ( gov]nm5ts4 ,a portion ( ,dr4 ,blunts*li's "w has be5 translat$ into ,engli% & publi%$ "u ! title ,! ,!ory ( ! ,/ate4 ,!re is also a ,fr5* translation ( ?is "w4 ,o!r au?orities "u ?is head are3 ,blunts*li's ,/aatswrt]bu*2 ,woolsey's ,political ,sci5ce1 or ! ,/ate ,!oretically & ,practically ,consid]$2 & ,montesquieu's ,de l',esprit des ,lois4 ,int]e/+ f an hi/orical po9t ( view1 are ! !ories conta9$ 9 ! works ( political philosoph]s 9 ! pa/4 ,see ,plato's ,republic2 ,ari/otle's ,politics1 ,cic]o's ,de ,republica2 ,?omas ,aqu9as' ,( ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,pr9ciples2 ,dante's ,de ,mon>*ia2 ,ma*iavelli's ,pr9ce2 ,jean ,bod9's ,( ! ,commonweal?2 ,hobbes' ,levia?an2 ,film]'s ,patri>*a2 ,hook]'s ,ecclesia/ical ,polity2 ,locke's ,civil ,gov]nm5t2 ,j4,j4 ,r\sseau's ,social ,contract2 ,b5?am's ,fragm5t on ,gov]nm5t2 ,j4,s4 ,mills' ,repres5tative ,gov]nm5t4 ,pollock's ,hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,politics1 publi%$ 9 ! ,humboldt ,libr>y1 conta9s an admirable summ>y ( ! views ( ^! political philosoph]s4 ,! works ( sev]al ( ^! au?ors 7,hobbes1 ,hook]1 ,locke1 ,film]1 ,ma*iavelli7 are conta9$ 9 ,morley's ,univ]sal ,libr>y1 publi%$ by ,r\tl$ge at "o %ill+ p] volume4 ,= !ories reg>d+ ! orig9 & developm5t ( gov]nm5t1 see ,ma9e's ,anci5t ,law1 ,e>ly ,hi/ory ( ,in/itutions1 & ,e>ly ,law & ,cu/om2 ,sp5c]'s ,pr9ciples ( ,sociology1 ,vol4 ,i2 ,morgan's ,anci5t ,society2 ,mc,lennan's ,/udies 9 ,anci5t ,hi/ory1 & ,! ,patri>*al ,!ory2 & ,bagehot's ,physics & ,politics1 publi%$ 9 ! ,humbolt ,libr>y4 ,! contract !ory ( gov]nm5t is pres5t$ 9 v>i\s =ms 9 ! works ( ,hobbes1 ,hook]1 ,locke & ,r\sseau4 ,functions ( ,gov]nm5t4 ,! prop] limits ( /ate action are discuss$ 9 ,mill's ,essay on ,lib]ty2 ,huxley's ,adm9i/rative ,nihilism 7,humboldt ,lib472 ,sp5c]'s ,social ,/atics1 ,man v]sus ! ,/ate1 ,! ,com+ ,slav]y1 & ,! ,s9s ( ,legislators 7,humboldt ,lib472 ,/eph5's ,lib]ty1 ,equality1 ,frat]nity2 ,humboldt's ,sph]e & ,duties ( ,gov]nm5t2 & ,h4,c4 ,adams' ,/ate 9 ,relation to ,indu/rial ,action1 publi%$ by ! ,am]ican ,economic ,association4 ,wilson's ,! ,/ate conta9s a valuable *apt] ^u ! functions ( gov]nm5t4 ,= a description ( exi/+ =ms ( gov]nm5t1 ,pr(4 ,woodr[ ,wilson's ,! ,/ate is v valuable4 ,see also ,/atesm5's ,ye> ,books4 ,colonial ,gov]nm5ts4 ,volumes ,,iii1 ,,iv1 & ,v ( ,w9sor's ,n>rative & ,critical ,hi/ory ( ,am]ica1 #h vols41 conta9 excell5t monographs ^u ! f\nd+1 hi/ory & nature ( gov]nm5t ( ! v>i\s colonies4 ,doyle's two volumes1 entitl$ ,! ,engli% ,colonies 9 ,am]ica1 pres5t an exhau/ive /udy ( ! ,am]ican colonies f an ,european po9t ( view4 ,a h&y dige/ ( ?is "w is conta9$ 9 8 small ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 publi%$ z "o ( ! volumes 9 ,freeman's ,hi/orical ,c\rse = ,s*ools4 ,lodge's ,%ort ,hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,colonies 9 ,am]ica is *iefly devot$ to colonial social life4 ,9 ! prep>ation ( ! *apt] ^u ,colonial ,gov]nm5ts1 we h obta9$ ! mo/ assi/ance f ! fir/ volume ( ,/ory's ,comm5t>ies ^u ! ,con/itution4 ,pages #ae to #ej ( ,hannis ,taylor's ,orig9 & ,gr[? ( ! ,engli% ,con/itution are important4 ,fiske's ,beg9n+s ( ,new ,engl& is an extremely int]e/+ description ( ! e>ly hi/ory ( a s+le section4 ,/eps ,t[>d ,union & ,indep5d5ce4 ,see especially ,/ory's ,comm5t>ies2 ,fro?+ham's ,rise ( ! ,republic ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 ,scott's ,developm5t ( ,con/itutional ,lib]ty 9 ! ,engli% ,colonies 9 ,am]ica2 ,fiske's ,critical ,p]iod ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory2 & ,a4,b4 ,h>t's ,=mation ( ! ,union1 #agfc-ahbi1 to appe> 9 ! s]ies1 ,epo*s ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory4 ,= ! ,albany plan ( union see ,frankl9's ,life & ,lett]s1 ,vol4 #d4 ,= an acc\nt ( ! causes lead+ to revolution writt5 f an ess5tially ,engli% /&po9t1 see ,lecky's ,hi/ory ( ,engl& 9 ! ,eighte5? ,c5tury1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,articles ( ,conf$]ation4 ,be/ ^u ?is subject are3 ,curtis' ,hi/ory ( ! ,con/itution2 ,m>%all's ,life ( ,wa%+ton2 ,bancr(t's ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & ,w9sor's ,n>rative & ,critical ,hi/ory ( ,am]ica1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 article ,! ,conf$]ation by ! ,editor4 ,see also ,secret ,j\rnals ( ,congress1 & au?orities cit$ above4 ,con/itutional ,conv5tion & ! ,adoption ( ! ,con/itution4 ,see au?orities cit$ above1 & ,j4,a4 ,jameson's ,treatise on ,con/itutional ,conv5tions4 ,! (ficial s\rces ( in=mation are3 ! meagre ,j\rnal1 ,acts1 & ,proce$+s ( ! ,conv5tion2 & ,elliot's ,debates 9 ! ,sev]al ,/ate ,conv5tions on ! ,adoption ( ! ,f$]al ,con/itution1 99 99 99 99 toge!r ) ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,f$]al ,conv5tion1 ! la/ volume ( :i* conta9s ,madison's notes ( ,debates 9 ! ,f$]al ,conv5tion1 frequ5tly call$ ,! ,madison ,pap]s4 ,! ,con/itution4 ,! numb] ( valuable works conc]n$ m or less directly ) a /udy ( ! ,con/itution is v great4 ,only a v few c be m5tion$4 ,a v complete li/ ( ref]5ces to ! ,con/itution1 is t by ,w4,e4 ,fo/]1 already ref]r$ to4 ,! lead+ works ^u ,con/itutional ,law are ,cooley's ,g5]al ,pr9ciples ( ,con/itutional ,law1 & ,con/itutional ,limitations2 ,von ,hol/'s1 ,h>e's & ,pom]oy's treatises on ,con/itutional ,law4 ,/ory's ,comm5t>ies on ! ,con/itution are invaluable4 ,! "* & value ( ,! ,f$]ali/ h be5 notic$ 9 ! text 7p4 #be74 ,on ,con/itutional ,am5dm5ts1 see ,john/on's article on ,am5dm5ts 9 ,lalor's ,encyclopa$ia4 ,conc]n+ ,con/itutional developm5ts1 due to judicial con/ruction1 see ,will\ghby's ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 its ,hi/ory & ,influ5ce 9 our ,con/itutional ,sy/em1 publi%$ 9 ! ,johns ,hopk9s ,/udies1 ,extra ,vol4 ,,vii2 & ,! ,con/itutional ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates z ,se5 9 ! ,developm5t ( ,am]ican ,law1 by ,judge ,cooley & o!rs1 edit$ by ,h4,w4 ,rog]s4 ,! ,unwritt5 ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is ! title ( a v rec5t book by ,c4,g4 ,ti$eman4 ,= con/itutional developm5t due to w> exp]i5ces1 see ,dunn+'s ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ,civil ,w> & 9 ,recon/ruction4 ,w4,e4 ,fo/] has 9 press a pamphlet ( ref]5ces on ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,con/itution 9 ,civil ,w>4 ,on ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1 see ,jell9ek's ,die ,lehre von d5 ,/aat5v]b9dung52 & ,h>t's ,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1 ,h>v>d ,hi/orical ,monographs1 ,no4 #b4 ,besides giv+ an outl9e ( ! political hi/ory ( ! successive f$]ations 9 ! _w's hi/ory1 ) an acc\nt ( ! lit]ature ^u ea*1 ,mr4 ,h>t's monograph conta9s a v excell5t bibliographical note on ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t 9 g5]al1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,con/itution 9 p>ticul>4 ,! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are kn[n z ,unit$ ,/ates ,/atutes at ,l>ge4 ,9 #ahgh 0 publi%$ a l>ge volume conta9+ all ,f$]al laws 9 =ce 9 #ahgd4 ,9 #ahha 0 publi%$ a ,supplem5t 7kn[n z ,ri*>dson's ,supplem5t7 conta9+ congressional legislation dur+ ! ye>s #ahgd--ahha4 ,congressional ,gov]nm5t4 ,! (ficial reports ( ! debates ( ,congress h be5 publi%$ "u ! foll[+ titles3 ,annals ( ,congress 7#aghi--ahbc71 ,congressional ,debates 7#ahbd-ahcg71 ,congressional ,globe 7#ahcc-ahgc71 ,congressional ,record 7#ahgc to ! pres5t "t74 ,b5ton's ,abridgm5t ( ,debates 9 #af volumes cov]s ! p]iod #aghi to #ahej4 ,mc,pherson's ,h&book ( ,politics1 already cit$1 conta9s acc\nts ( ! m important debates 9 ,congress4 ,pr9t$ copies ( bills & reports ( committees c be obta9$ ^u application4 ,= ! be/ descriptions ( ! practical work+ ( ,congress1 see ,bryce's ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 & ,woodr[ ,wilson's ,congressional ,gov]nm5t4 ,9 bo? ( ^! works our committee me?od ( congressional legislation is comp>$ ) ! ,engli% me?od ( ,p>liam5t>y legislation "u ! lead]%ip ( a responsible m9i/ry4 ,! conclusions obta9$ f ?is comp>ison by ! latt] au?or1 are especially unfavorable to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,o!r ref]5ces to works comp>+ ,engli% & ,am]ican me?ods ( legislation1 are ,sn['s ,def5ce ( ,congressional ,gov]nm5t1 publi%$ 9 ! pap]s ( ! ,am]ican ,hi/orical ,association1 ,vol4 ,,iv2 ,a4,l4 ,l[ell's ,essays on ,gov]nm5t2 ,bagehot's ,engli% ,con/itution2 ,b\r9ot's article1 ,canada & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,scotti% ,review1 ,july1 #ahij1 & ,annals ( ! ,am]ican ,academy ( ,social ,sci5ce1 ,no4 ,i2 & an article by ,hon4 ,joseph ,*amb]la91 ,%all ,we ,am]icanize ,our ,in/itutions8 ,n9ete5? ,c5tury1 ,decemb]1 #ahij4 ,! ,congressional ,directory1 publi%$ annually1 conta9s mu* h&y in=mation reg>d+ ! con/itution & (fic]s ( ,congress1 & ( ! v>i\s f$]al dep>tm5ts at ,wa%+ton4 ,= an acc\nt ( ! "w done dur+ ! la/ session 7#ahhi-ij71 see ,nor? ,am]ican ,review1 ,novemb]1 #ahij4 ,reg>d+ ! rec5t controv]sy on ! p[] ( ! ,speak] ( ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives to c\nt z pres5t memb]s 9 ! hall1 b n answ]+ to ! roll-call1 see ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,review = ,octob]1 #ahhi2 ! ,nos4 = ,m>*1 ,may1 ,july1 ,augu/ & ,octob]1 #ahij1 also conta9 int]e/+ articles on ! same subject4 ,executive ,dep>tm5ts4 ,( especial & au?oritative value is ! report ( a select committee ( ! ,s5ate to ,enquire into & ,exam9e ! ,me?ods ( ,bus9ess & ,"w 9 ! ,executive ,dep>tm5ts1 9 #c vols41 kn[n z ,cockrell's ,report1 or ,s5ate ,report #ejg1 #ej? ,cong41 #a/ ,sess41 & also a supplem5t>y report 9 "o volume1 dat$ ,m>* #bh1 #ahhi4 ,= o!r (ficial s\rces ( in=mation1 see ! annual reports ( ! v>i\s dep>tm5ts1 & ( ! individual bureaus4 ,see also special reports m5tion$ 9 ! text4 ,on diplomatic relations1 see ! annual report ( ! ,secret>y ( ,/ate ,on ,=eign ,relations1 & ,treaties & ,conv5tions betwe5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,o!r ,p[]s 7#aggf-ahhg71 publi%$ by ! same dep>tm5t4 ,! ,consul> ,reports1 issu$ f "t to "t by ! ,/ate ,dep>tm5t1 are ( value z furni%+ economic in=mation reg>d+ =eign c\ntries4 ,! reports ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury are ( extreme /ati/ical & f9ancial value4 ,= h&y use ! ,/ati/ical ,ab/ract is issu$ annually by ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t4 ,! reports publi%$ by ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,/ate1 ( ! ,int]national ,conf]5ces ( #ahgh1 & ( #ahha1 & t ( ,edw>d ,atk9son on ,! ,pres5t ,/atus ( ,bimetalism 9 ,europe 7#ahhg71 are ( especial value ^u monet>y topics4 ,9 #ahhf ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t issu$ a volume ( ,laws ,relat+ to ,loans1 & ! ,curr5cy1 ,co9age & ,bank+4 ,besides 8 annual report ! ,director ( ! ,m9t publi%es annually a report on ! ,production ( ,gold & ,silv] 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,= an acc\nt ( ! ,sub-,treasury sy/em1 see ,bolle's ,f9ancial ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,conc]n+ ! evils ( ?is sy/em1 see an article by ,pr(4 ,j4,l4 ,laughl9 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,review1 ,vol4 #acg1 p4 #eeb4 ,reg>d+ ! ,silv] ,"q & o!r important public que/ions com+ )9 ! prov9ce ( ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t1 in=mation c be d]iv$ f rec5t p]iodicals4 ,poole's ,index to ,p]iodical ,lit]ature %\ld also be consult$4 ,an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ! ,p5sion ,(fice is conta9$ 9 ! ,atlantic ,mon?ly1 ,janu>y1 #ahij4 ,reg>d+ ! ,int]/ate ,comm]ce ,commission1 see ! book by ,don ,passes 9 ,putnam's ,que/ions ( ! ,day s]ies4 ,see also ,political ,sci5ce ,qu>t]ly1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bbc & #cfi4 ,! ,elev5? ,c5sus is n[ be+ compil$1 & ,bullet9s are issu$ f "t to "t by ! sup]9t5d5t4 ,po/ma/]-,g5]al ,wanamak] has rec5tly issu$ a pamphlet 9 support ( a ,limit$ ,po/ & ,telegraph4 ,conc]n+ ! con/itutional p[]s possess$ by executive (fic]s1 see ,a4 ,conkl+'s ,p[]s ( ! ,executive ,dep>tm5ts2 de ,*ambrun's ,! ,executive ,p[]1 & *apt] ,,vii ( ,will\ghby's ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,(ficial ,regi/] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 issu$ annually 9 two l>ge volumes1 conta9s ! names & positions ( all p]sons 9 f$]al employm5t4 ,! second volume is devot$ exclusively to ! ,po/al ,s]vice4 ,v _m ( ! gov]nm5t reports m5tion$ 9 ?is note w be s5t to any address ^u application4 ,a descriptive catalogue ( all gov]nm5t publications arrang$ 9 *ronological ord]1 f #aggd to #ahha1 0 prep>$ by ,b4,p4 ,poore & publi%$ by ! gov]nm5t4 ,f$]al ,judici>y4 ,among ! treatises ^u ! practical work+ ( ! ,f$]al ,judici>y are3 ,b4,r4 ,curtis' ,f$]al ,c\rts2 ,bryce's ,am]ican ,commonweal?2 & ,will\ghby's ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 already ref]r$ to4 ,= an excell5t description ( ! relations betwe5 ! ,f$]al & ,/ate c\rts1 see ,*amb]la9's lecture publi%$ 9 ,! ,con/itutional ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates z se5 9 ! ,developm5t ( its ,law4 ,! reports ( decisions ( cases tri$ 9 ! ,supreme ,c\rt are conta9$ 9 "o hundr$ & ?irty-?ree volumes4 ,until #ahge1 ^! volumes 7 kn[n by ! names ( ! report]s1 viz43 ,dallas1 ,cran*1 ,:eaton1 ,pet]s1 ,h[>d1 ,black1 & ,wallace4 ,s9ce #ahge !y h be5 designat$ simply z ,unit$ ,/ates ,reports4 ,ord9ance ( #aghg4 ,= text & comm5ts see ,old ,s\? ,leaflet ,no #ac 7,hea? ,co41 price five c5ts74 ,= ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,con/itution & ! ,ord9ance ( #aghg 9 ,relation to ,education1 see ,magaz9e ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 ,septemb]1 #ahhh4 ,see also ,pap]s ( ! ,am]ican ,hi/orical ,association1 ,vol4 ,,iii2 pamphlets by ,dr4 ,poole & ,f4,d4 ,/one1 & ,sato's ,hi/ory ( ! ,l& ,"q 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity ,/udies1 ,s]ies ,,iv4 ,t]ritories4 ,! reports ( ! ,gov]nors ( ! v>i\s t]ritories to ! ,secret>y ( ! ,int]ior furni% an (ficial s\rce ( in=mation4 ,reg>d+ ! gov]nm5t (1 & conditions ( admission ( t]ritories z ,/ates1 see especially ,bannatyne's ,republican ,in/itutions 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,/ate ,gov]nm5ts4 ,= ! text ( ,/ate con/itutions see ,b4,p4 ,poore's ,f$]al & ,/ate ,con/itutions1 ,colonial ,*>t]s1 & ,o!r ,organic ,l[s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 two vols4 7#ahgg71 publi%$ by ! gov]nm5t4 ,= fur!r in=mation reg>d+ ,/ate con/itutions consult ,davis' ,am]ican ,con/itutions1 9 ! ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity ,/udies1 ,s]ies ,,iii2 ,jameson's ,introduction to ! ,con/itutional & ,political ,hi/ory ( ! ,/ates1 ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity ,/udies1 ,s]ies ,,iv2 & ,hit*cock's ,am]ican ,/ate ,con/itutions 7,putnam's ,que/ions ( ! ,day s]ies74 ,see also ( c\rse ,bryce's ,am]ican ,commonweal?4 ,= ,rec5t ,t5d5cies 9 ,/ate ,activities1 see pap] by ,w4,f4 ,will\ghby1 to be publi%$ 9 ! ,pap]s ( ! ,am]ican ,hi/orical ,association1 ,vol4 ,v41 & articles by ,dr4 ,alb]t ,%aw1 entitl$ ,am]ican ,/ate ,legislatures1 9 ,contempor>y ,review1 ,octob]1 #ahhi1 & ,! ,am]ican ,/ate & ! ,am]ican ,man1 9 ! same review = ,may1 #ahhg4 ,! ,=um = ,novemb]1 #ahij1 conta9s an int]e/+ description ( ! ,six ,new ,/ates1 by ,s5ator ,cullom4 ,= hi/ories ( ! individual ,/ates1 see ! s]ies ( ,am]ican ,commonweal?s1 edit$ by ,h4,e4 ,scudd]1 & publi%$ by ,h\ghton1 ,miffl9 ,co4 ,^? = ,connecticut1 ,indiana1 ,mi*igan1 ,miss\ri1 ,kansas1 ,cali=nia1 ,m>yl&1 ,k5tucky1 ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 ,colorado1 ,oregon1 & ,virg9ia1 h already appe>$4 ,local ,gov]nm5t4 ,among au?orities on ,local ,gov]nm5t are v>i\s monographs ^u ?is subject 9 ! sev]al ,/ates1 contribut$ to ! ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity ,/udies 9 ,hi/orical & ,political ,sci5ce4 ,see also ,bryce & ,bannatyne4 ,city ,gov]nm5t4 ,see ,j4,h4,u4 ,/udies1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,nos4 #d1 #aj2 ,vol4 ,v1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d2 ,vol4 ,,vii1 ,nos4 #a1 #c1 #d4 ,also supplem5t>y volume1 ,philadelphia1 #afha-ahhg3 a ,hi/ory ( ,municipal ,developm5t1 by ,all9son & ,p5rose4 ,simon ,/]ne has an able article on ,cities 9 ,lalor's ,encyclopa$ia4 ,see also *apt]s 9 ,bryce's great "w1 & articles 9 ! ,political ,sci5ce ,qu>t]ly = ,june1 #ahhg1 & ,june1 #ahhi2 ,=um1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bfj1 #eci2 & ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ,economics1 ,janu>y1 #ahij4 ,! report ( ! ,new ,york ,commission on ,a ,plan = a ,new ,gov]nm5t ( ,new ,york1 #ahgf1 is valuable1 z are also sev]al ( ex-,mayor ,hewitt's messages4 ,pr(4 ,gnie/ has a sugge/ive article on ,b]l91 ! be/ gov]n$ city 9 ! _w1 9 ! ,contempor>y ,review1 ,vol4 #df4 ,%aw's article on ,glasg[ 9 ! ,c5tury1 ,m>*1 #ahij1 is likewise in/ructive4 ,sp(=d's ,city ( ,wa%+ton & ,gr[? ( ,unit$ ,/ates ,cities is int]e/+4 ,ely's ,taxation 9 ,am]ican ,/ates & ,cities conta9s _m excell5t sugge/ions = improvem5ts 9 our me?ods ( municipal adm9i/ration4 ,see also ,ely's ,problems ( ,to-day4 ,putnam is publi%+ a s]ies entitl$ ,great ,cities ( ! ,republic4 ,! ,/ories ( ,new ,york1 ,bo/on & ,wa%+ton h ?us f> appe>$4 ,gov]nm5t ,rev5ue & ,exp5diture4 ,f$]al & ,/ate f9ance reports furni% (ficial in=mation4 ,seligman's ,f9ances ( ,am]ican ,/ates & ,cities1 publi%$ by ! ,am]ican ,/ati/ical ,association1 #ahij1 is valuable1 & furni%es excell5t /ati/ical & tabulat$ in=mation4 ,ely's ,taxation 9 ,am]ican ,/ates & ,cities conta9s mu* in=mation4 ,sp(=d's article on ,! ,budget 9 ,lalor's ,encyclopa$ia is extremely in/ructive4 ,h4,c4 ,adams' ,public ,debts is "o ( ! able/ f9ancial works 9 ! ,engli% language4 ,! prop] adm9i/ration ( ,f$]al & ,/ate f9ances is discuss$1 & ! subject ( national & local debts consid]$4 ,bolle's ,f9ancial ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ?ree l>ge volumes1 is an able "w1 & c be consult$ ) pr(it4 ,c5sus ,bullet9s1 ,nos4 #f & #g1 describe respectively ,! ,indebt$ness ( ,/ates 9 #ahhj & #ahij1 & ,! ,f9ancial ,condition ( ,c\nties4 ,money4 ,see reports ( ! ,director ( ! ,m9t1 & ( ! ,comptroll] ( ! ,curr5cy4 ,see also ,knox's ,unit$ ,/ates ,notes2 ,simm]'s ,hi/ory ( ,am]ican ,curr5cy1 & text-books on ,political ,economy4 ,public ,l&s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sato's ,hi/ory ( ! ,l& ,"q 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity ,/udies1 ,s]ies ,,iv1 is ! be/ book = ref]5ce4 ,! (ficial s\rce ( in=mation reg>d+ ! public l&s is ,donaldson's enorm\s report ( #acda pages on ,! ,public ,doma93 its ,hi/ory ) ,/ati/ics 7#ahhd71 publi%$ by ! gov]nm5t 7,h\se ,executive ,docum5ts #dg1 ,"p #d1 #df? ,congress1 #c;d ,session47 ,= a %ort acc\nt ( ,! ,disposition ( ,our ,public ,l&s1 see an article by ,a4,b4 ,h>t1 9 ! ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ,economics1 ,janu>y1 #ahhg4 ,/ati/ical tables are app5d$ to ?is article4 ,recon/ruction4 ,see ,john/on's article 9 ,lalor's ,encyclopa$ia1 & au?orities !re cit$4 ,also ,mc,pherson's ,hi/ory ( ,recon/ruction1 ,dunn+'s ,unit$ ,/ales ,con/itution 9 ,civil ,w> & 9 ,recon/ruction1 & ,w4,e4 ,fo/]'s ,ref]5ces on ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,con/itution 9 ,civil ,w>1 ab\t to be publi%$ 7#ahia74 ,p>ty ,ma*9]y & ,national ,conv5tions4 ,see especially ,bryce's ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 & ,o/rogorski's ,organisation des p>ties politiques aux ,etats-,unis4 ,on ! ,caucus see ,:itridge's ,! ,caucus ,sy/em1 publi%$ z ,economic ,tract ,no4 #h1 by ! ,society = ,political ,education1 ,new ,york4 ,political ,p>ties4 ,w9sor's ,n>rative & ,critical ,hi/ory ( ,am]ica conta9s a %ort hi/ory ( political p>ties by ,pr(essor ,alex&] ,john/on4 ,see also ,john/on's admirable manual1 ,hi/ory ( ,am]ican ,politics1 a book especially adapt$ = s*ool use4 ,von ,hol/'s ,con/itutional & ,political ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 six volumes1 conta9s ! mo/ compreh5sive treatm5t ( ! hi/ory ( political p>ties4 ,s*\l]'s ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates "u ! ,con/itution1 is an exce$+ly able & int]e/+ "w4 ,f\r volumes br+ ?is hi/ory d[n to #ahdg4 ,! fif? volume soon to appe>1 w br+ ! n>rative d[n to ! ,civil ,w>4 ,! fir/ volume ( ,von ,hol/ is especially int]e/+1 z giv+ /atem5ts ( ! v>i\s !ories held reg>d+ ! orig9 & nature ( our con/itution4 ,^u ,nullification & ,secession1 see ,von ,hol/'s ,life ( ,calh\n2 ,/eph5s' ,w> betwe5 ! ,/ates2 ,greeley's ,am]ican ,conflict2 ,mc,pherson's ,political ,hi/ory ( ! ,rebellion2 & articles 9 ,lalor's ,encyclopa$ia4 ,! ,am]ican ,/atesman ,s]ies1 n[ be+ publi%$ by ,h\ghton1 ,miffl9 ,co41 conta9s valuable biographies ( lead+ ,am]ican /atesm54 ,see especially 9 ?is s]ies ,s*urz's ,h5ry ,clay2 ,morse's ,jeff]son2 ,lodge's ,web/]2 & ,von ,hol/'s ,calh\n4 ,^u ! ,economic contra/s betwe5 ! ,nor? & ,s\?1 see ,von ,hol/'s ,con/itutional ,hi/ory1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,*apt]s ,,ix & ,x4 ,taussig's ,hi/ory ( ! ,t>iff1 gives ! be/ hi/ory ( ?is mu* debat$ subject4