,,johns ,,hopkins ,,university ,,studies
  ,,in  ,,historical ,,and ,,political  
,,science    ,,herbert ,b4 ,,adams1     
,editor    ,history is past ,politics   
and ,politics present ,history--,freeman
        ,,ninth ,,series  ,i-,,ii       
,,government ,,and ,,administration     
,,of ,,the  ,,united ,,states    ,,by   
,,westel ,w4 ,,willoughby1 ,a4,b4       
,fellow in ,history    ,,and            
,,william ,f4 ,,willoughby1 ,a4,b4      
,u4,s4 ,department of ,labor            
#ahja          ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 
,chapters4    ,i4     ,preface    ,,ii4 
,government           ,monarchy         
,absolute             ,limited          
,aristocracy           ,democracy       
,republic           ,popular ,government
    ,,iii4    ,functions of ,government 
,necessary            ,optional    ,,iv4
    ,colonial ,governments3 ,their      
,relation to ,each              ,other1 
and to ,england           ,provincial   
,proprietary           ,charter    ,v4  
,steps ,toward ,union--,articles of     

,confederation           ,new ,england  
,confederation           ,albany        
,convention           ,stamp ,act       
,congress           ,first ,continental 
,congress           ,second ,continental
 ,congress           ,articles of       
,confederation           ,elements      
,tending to ,separation and to ,union   
,purposes of the ,confederation         
,scheme of ,government under the        
,articles           ,defects of the     
,articles    ,,vi4    ,adoption of the  
,constitution           ,the            
,constitutional ,convention             
,arguments ,for and ,against ,adoption  
,,vii4   ,presidential ,succession      
,,viii4  ,election of ,senators    ,,ix4
    ,congressional ,government    ,x4   
,cabinet and ,executive ,departments    
,state ,department           ,treasury  
,department           ,war ,department  
,navy ,department           ,interior   
,department             ,commissioner of
 ,land ,office             ,commissioner
 of ,pensions             ,commissioner 

of ,patents             ,commissioner of
 ,indian ,affairs             ,bureau of
 ,education             ,commissioner of
 ,railroads             ,geological     
,survey             ,superintendent of  
the ,census           ,post ,office     
,department           ,department of    
,justice           ,department of       
,agriculture           ,department of   
,labor           ,interstate ,commerce  
,commission           ,fish ,commission 
,civil ,service ,commission             
,government ,printing ,office           
,national ,museum1 ,smithsonian         
,institution1 and ,bureau               
of ,ethnology           ,librarian of   
,congress    ,,xi4    ,the ,federal     
,judiciary           ,federal ,judicial 
,system           ,district ,courts     
,circuit ,courts           ,jurisdiction
    ,,xii4   ,ordinance for ,government 
of the ,northwest ,territory    ,,xiii4 
,government of ,territories             
,admission of a ,territory as a ,state  
,,xiv4   ,state ,governments            

,state ,constitutions           ,state  
,legislatures           ,state          
,executives           ,state ,judiciary 
,,xv4    ,local ,government             
,in ,new ,england           ,in the     
,south           ,in the ,west    ,,xvi4
   ,city ,government    ,,xvii4         
,government ,revenue and ,expenditure   
,federal ,government           ,state   
and ,local ,taxes                       
,expenditures           ,maryland       
,baltimore    ,,xviii4 ,money           
,gold ,coin1 ,gold ,bullion1 and ,gold  
,certificates          ,silver ,dollars 
and ,silver ,certificates               
,subsidiary and ,minor ,coins           
,treasury ,notes          ,notes of     
,national ,banks    ,,xix4   ,public    
,lands of the ,united ,states           
,educational ,grants           ,land    
,bounties for ,military and ,naval      
,service           ,land ,grants to     
,states for ,internal ,improvement      
,sale of ,public ,land           ,under 
,pre-emption ,acts           ,under     

,homestead ,acts           ,under       
,timber ,culture ,act           ,certain
 ,lands to ,states           ,grants to 
,pacific and other ,railroads    ,,xx4  
,reconstruction    ,,xxi4   ,party      
,machinery    ,,xxii4  ,national        
,conventions and ,presidential          
,campaigns           ,history and       
,development of the ,national           
,convention           ,method of        
,procedure    ,,xxiii4 ,introduction to 
the ,study of the ,history of           
,political ,parties in the ,united      
,states    ,bibliographical ,note       
,,government ,,and ,,administration     
,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4           
,,chapter ,i4    ,preface4      ,these  
chapters were originally prepared for   
and used as a manual in the  public     
schools of the ,district of ,columbia4  
,in a revised and amplified  form they  
are now published as one of ,johns      
,hopkins ,university ,studies  in       
,history and ,politics4    ,the aim of  
this revision is to furnish assistance  

to students beginning  the study of the 
history and practical workings of our   
political  institutions4 ,it is not the 
purpose to furnish a complete text-book 
upon  the government of the ,united     
,states and its administration1 but1 by 
a  clear1 concise statement of the      
salient points of our federal system1   
and a description of the actual workings
 of the characteristic features  of our 
institutions1 to give to the student a  
better understanding of  the manner in  
which the same are administered1 than is
 to be obtained  from the ordinary      
text-books on ,civil ,government4       
,these ,outlines are intended as an aid 
to both teacher and pupil1 and for  use 
in a class whose members are already    
familiar with the leading  events and   
names in ,united ,states history4 ,the  
work is intended to  furnish such       
supplementary information as can be     
obtained only with  great difficulty by 
most teachers1 and which for the most   
part cannot be  obtained at all by the  

pupils4    ,the authors have endeavored 
to make prominent the fact that our     
present  form of government is far from 
being contained in the written          
constitution of #aghg1 and consequently1
 that a study of that instrument  alone 
will give a very inadequate idea of our 
government as it is4 ,the  constitution 
was but a foundation upon which to build
 a government4    ,nothing like an      
analysis or commentary upon the         
constitution of the  ,united ,states is 
here attempted4 ,the public is already  
well supplied  with books covering that 
ground4 ,history proper1 except as      
showing the  basis and reason for the   
establishment of our institutions1 has  
likewise  found no place here4    ,the  
book is to be used chiefly as a manual1 
to supply information that  would       
otherwise need to be dictated by the    
instructor4 ,the ,outlines are  in many 
particulars merely suggestive4 ,many    
topics are simply mentioned1  which the 
teacher must elaborate and explain at   

greater length4    ,lastly1 though this 
book does not pretend to give a         
connected account of  our administration
 or politics1 yet the subjects have been
 carefully  arranged in such an order as
 would most naturally be followed in a  
course to which the work is intended to 
be an aid4        ,,chapter ,,ii4       
,government4    ,from the earliest times
 of which history furnishes authentic   
record1 and  in all countries inhabited 
by man1 people have found it necessary  
to  bind themselves together by civic   
regulations so that certain things may  
be done by all in common--in short1 to  
establish some form of  government4     
,now1 as has always been the case1 there
 are certain things which1 from  their  
very nature1 cannot be left to each     
individual to do1 or not to  do1 as he  
may choose1 or to do in his own way4    
,first of all1 there is  the necessity  
of some means by which the weak may be  
protected from the  strong4 ,the        
individual must be protected in his life

 and liberty1 and  there must be some   
guarantee to him1 that if he is         
industrious the  enjoyment of the       
product of his labor will be secured to 
him4 ,human  nature being imperfect1    
disputes and injustice are sure to      
arise4 ,hence  comes the necessity of   
some power above the citizens and able  
to command  their obedience1 some power 
that can administer justice according to
 the  rights and not according to the   
strength of individuals4    ,to thus    
control the actions of individuals1 this
 power above the  citizens1 this        
government1 must possess functions of   
three kinds4 ,first1  legislative power1
 or power to declare the rules of       
conduct to which the  citizen must      
conform2 second1 judicial power1 or     
power to interpret and  declare the true
 meaning of these rules1 and to apply   
them to the  particular cases that may  
arise2 and third1 the executive power1  
or  power to carry into execution these 
laws1 and to enforce the obedience  of  

the citizens4    ,to the student nothing
 could be more interesting and          
instructive1 than  to trace how1 as     
tribes and nations have progressed in   
civilization1  government has advanced  
in its development4 ,how1 as men have   
progressed1  first from the condition of
 savage hunters to the roving feeders of
  flocks1 then to tillers of the soil   
with fixed places of abode1 and  finally
 to builders of cities teeming with     
trade1 commerce and  manufactures2 how  
as men have thus improved in            
civilization and material  well-being1  
their mutual duties and common interests
 have become more  and more important   
and numerous1 and government as         
controlling these  interests and duties1
 has developed in form and improved in  
structure  until it has become an       
all-powerful1 complex machine1          
controlling in  many ways the actions1  
and even the lives of its citizens4     
,for thousands of years1 governments    
have been developing and changing in    

form and functions1 and a very large    
part of the history of the nations  of  
the globe is identified with the history
 of the development and  changes of     
their governments4 ,as new conditions   
and needs have arisen1  governments have
 adapted themselves to them4 ,in some   
cases this has been  done peacefully1 as
 in ,england1 and in others violently1  
by  revolutionary means1 as in ,france4 
,in some cases functions previously     
exercised have been relinquished1 in    
others1 new powers have been  assumed2  
but in the majority of cases1 the change
 has been merely in the  manner of      
exercising this or that power4    ,all  
peoples have not the same               
characteristics1 nor have they developed
  under the same conditions of climate1 
soil or situation4 ,different  nations  
have1 therefore1 developed for          
themselves different forms of           
government4 ,yet these governments1     
however different in their structures   
and administration1 are in all cases    

distinctly referable to four well       
defined types3 ,monarchy1 ,aristocracy1 
,democracy1 and the ,republic4          
,monarchy4--,a monarchy is a nation at  
whose head is a personal ruler1  called 
,king1 ,emperor1 or ,czar1 who has      
control of the government1  appoints the
 principal officers of state1 and to    
whom in theory at  least1 these         
appointees are responsible for their    
actions4 ,thus ,england1  ,germany1     
,spain1 ,italy1 ,sweden1 and others are 
monarchies4 ,the sovereign  holds his   
position for life1 and usually acquires 
his throne by  inheritance4 ,where the  
crown is nominally elective1 as in      
,england1  kingship is practically      
hereditary1 the regular line of descent 
being  departed from only upon rare     
occasions4    ,the amount of power      
actually exercised1 the responsibility  
borne by the  sovereign varies widely in
 different countries1 and upon the basis
 of  these differences monarchial forms 
of government are classified under  the 

two heads1 ,absolute and ,limited       
,monarchies4    ,an ,absolute           
,monarchy4--,an absolute monarchy is one
 in which the  sovereign or ruler is    
possessed of supreme power and          
authority1 and  controls absolutely1    
without limitation or interference1 all 
the powers  of government4 ,his word is 
law and requires not the sanction of the
  people4 ,his commands are absolute and
 require not the formality of  judicial 
procedure1 and are not necessarily in   
conformity with existing  laws4         
,implicit obedience to his commands1    
however arbitrary1 may be  demanded1 and
 there is no appeal4 ,these are1        
theoretically1 the powers  of the       
absolute monarch4 ,practically1 however1
 he is constrained to keep  within fair 
bounds of justice and good policy1 lest 
his subjects be  goaded to rebellion and
 revolution4 ,the absolute form of      
monarchy exists  to-day in the empires  
of ,russia and ,turkey4    ,a ,limited  
,monarchy4--,a limited monarchy is one  

in which the  ruler1 though at the head 
of the government1 is not absolute1 but 
is  limited in his powers by the action 
of a body of men1 selected by the       
people1 who make the laws by which the  
nation is to be governed4 ,the          
respective rights and powers of the     
sovereign and of the law-making  body1  
are determined by a collection of rules1
 written or unwritten1  collectively    
known as the constitution4 ,the         
constitution contains the  fundamental  
law of the land4 ,all acts of the       
government to be valid1  must be        
constitutional1 that is to say1 in      
conformity with the rules  laid down in 
the constitution4 ,for this reason      
limited monarchies are  also known by   
the name of ,constitutional ,monarchies4
    ,england is the most conspicuous    
example of a limited or constitutional  
monarchy4 ,in consideration of our      
former connection with her1 and the     
extent to which we have derived our     
ideas of government from her  political 

institutions1 it will be of great       
assistance to us if we stop  for a      
moment to consider her government1      
before proceeding to a study of  our    
own4    ,the sovereign of ,england is   
termed ,king or ,queen4 ,originally     
possessed  of almost absolute power1 the
 ,english ruler1 at the present day     
possesses very little actual power and  
influence1 much less in fact than  the  
people of the ,united ,states have      
entrusted to their ,president4 ,the     
constitutional history of ,england is   
largely the narrative of the  successive
 steps by which the people have wrested 
from royal hands and  taken under their 
own control1 the powers of government4  
,the rights of the ,english people in   
the participation of their own          
government are not contained in the     
written document1 such as we possess  in
 our constitution1 but rest upon        
established custom and precedent1 and   
various charters wrested from their     
kings4    ,the ,english ,parliament1 or1

 to speak more exactly1 the lower branch
 of  the ,parliament1 called the ,house 
of ,commons1 rules the ,english people4 
,the ,parliament or law-making branch of
 the ,english government1 is  divided   
into two houses1 the ,house of ,lords1  
and the ,house of ,commons4  ,the ,house
 of ,lords is1 as its name denotes1     
composed mainly of members  of the noble
 families of ,england1 who owe their    
seat in that body to the  chance of     
birth4 ,theoretically possessed of      
powers of legislation equal  to those   
exercised by the lower and more numerous
 branch 7the ,commons71  the ,lords have
 in reality but a small voice in the    
control of public  affairs4 ,the ,house 
of ,commons is composed of members      
elected by the  people4 ,in this body   
reside almost all the powers of         
government4 ,its  acts require the      
assent of the ,house of ,lords and of   
the ,king1 but this  assent is almost   
wholly formal4 ,the sphere of           
legislation allowed the  ,english       

,parliament is unlimited1 differing in  
this respect fundamentally  from our    
,congress1 which is limited in its      
legislative field by the  ,constitution4
 ,from the ,english ,parliament is      
selected the ,cabinet  consisting of the
 principal executive officials1 who     
guide the ,house in  its legislation1   
and at the same time conduct the        
executive affairs of  the nation4 ,these
 ministers1 as they are called1 are     
appointed by the  king from the party in
 the majority in the ,house of ,commons4
 ,they are  responsible to that body for
 all their actions1 and retain their    
offices  only so long as they retain the
 confidence and good will of the        
,commons4    ,an ,aristocracy4--,an     
aristocracy is a government in the hands
 of a  select few1 called the           
aristocracy1 who transmit this authority
 to their  children4 ,there are to-day  
no aristocratic governments proper1     
though  many nations exhibit            
aristocratic tendencies4 ,in nearly all 

of the  ,european countries1 one branch1
 at least1 of their legislatures is     
composed of members holding their seats 
on account of noble birth1 thus         
admitting the aristocratic element into 
their governments4    ,democracy4--,a   
pure democracy is a government in which 
all the people  rule directly1 meeting  
in popular assemblies in which is       
determined by  the votes of the majority
 how the government is to be            
administered4 ,this  form of government 
is obviously possible only in very small
 communities4  ,several of the ,grecian 
states governed themselves after this   
manner4 ,no  perfect example of a nation
 with this form of government can be    
said to  exist at this time4 ,the       
nearest approach to pure democracy is   
found in  certain cantons of            
,switzerland4 ,the ,roman historian     
,tacitus tells us  that the early       
,germans governed themselves in a purely
 democratic  manner1 and the first      
governments of several of our ,american 

colonies  were of the democratic type4  
,when we come to the study of local     
government in the ,united ,states we    
shall see the democratic form  followed 
in the ,new ,england ,town ,meetings4   
,republic4--,a republic is a democracy  
adapted by means of the  introduction of
 the representative principle1 to the   
government of a  large and widely       
separated people4 ,under this form of   
government the  people rule themselves1 
not directly1 as in a democracy1 but    
through  agents or representatives of   
their own selection4 ,the participation 
of  the people in their own government  
consists therefore merely in the  choice
 of officers to represent them and carry
 out their wishes4 ,there  exist at     
present several republics1 the tendency 
seeming to be for  nations to approach  
more nearly this form of government4    
,france has  been1 since #ahgj1 the best
 ,european example of a republic4 ,our  
own  government--the ,united ,states of 
,america--is to us the most interesting 

and important example of a republic4    
,popular ,government4--,by the word     
'popular' is meant1 of or by the        
people1 and by popular government is to 
be understood a government in  the      
administration of which the people as a 
whole participate4 ,every  change by    
which new and greater political powers  
are given into the  hands of the common 
people is considered a step towards the 
full  realization of popular government4
 ,during the last one hundred years     
great strides have been made in this    
direction by all ,european nations      
except ,turkey and ,russia4 ,the extent 
to which this movement towards  popular 
control of government can be safely and 
successfully carried is  a question of  
very great importance4 ,to a very large 
extent it depends  upon the             
intelligence1 previous training1 and    
natural political ability  of the people
 who are to be entrusted with their own 
government4        ,,chapter ,,iii4     
,the ,functions of ,government4         

,broadly speaking1 the functions        
performed by government are of a        
threefold order3 the establishment1     
interpretation1 and enforcement of      
laws4 ,a division of government into    
three branches is thus called for3  the 
legislative1 the judicial and the       
executive4 ,the manner in which  these  
departments are related to each other1  
the extent to which they  are vested in 
the same hands1 and the degree in which 
they are separate  from each other and  
independent in their workings1 differ in
 different  countries4 ,in ,england1 as 
we have seen1 the executive and         
legislative  functions are closely      
united4 ,in our government1 as we shall 
see when we  come to consider its       
structure1 complete independence of the 
three  departments has been aimed at4   
,all statesmen agree that a good        
government should possess ample power to
  interpret its own laws1 and sufficient
 strength to fully enforce them4  ,when 
we come1 however1 to the question of    

what are the proper subjects  for       
control by government1 and what for free
 management by individuals1  we reach a 
subject upon which writers and thinkers 
have been unable to  agree4    ,under   
the great question1 over how broad a    
field it is expedient and  right to     
extend the activities of government1 are
 embraced many of the  great topics at  
present agitating the public mind4      
,difference upon this  point has been   
one of the underlying causes of the     
existence of  political parties in the  
,united ,states1 and has furnished one  
of the  real springs of our history4    
,communism1 socialism1 and anarchy1 may 
be  embraced under this question4 ,this 
it is that makes the study of the       
principles of government1 especially in 
the ,united ,states1 so important  to   
every one who would understand the      
political life around him1 and be  able 
to form an intelligent decision upon the
 questions of the day4  ,shall the      
nation or the state own and manage the  

railroads1 the  telegraph lines1 and the
 canals8 ,shall education receive the   
support of  the state8 ,shall the       
employment of women and children in     
mines and  factories be regulated by    
law8 ,shall the city own its own street 
railways1 its markets1 its water and gas
 supply1 its telephones1 and its  water 
fronts8 ,shall this or that duty be     
delegated to the city or to the  state1 
or shall it be left to the chance       
performance of individuals or           
corporations8 ,these are some of the    
many questions of supreme importance    
that meet us at every point1 and the    
better we understand the true  nature   
and structure of our government1 the    
better shall we be able to  give        
intelligent answers4    ,among the many 
functions of government1 there are many 
so obviously  necessary to the existence
 of a nation1 however organized1 that   
there is  no discussion concerning the  
expediency of their exercise by the     
state4  ,we may1 therefore1 group       

governmental duties under two heads3 the
  necessary1 and the optionable2 or1 as 
,professor ,wilson has named them1  the 
,constituent and the ,ministrant4#a     
,under the first head is  embraced all  
those functions which must exist under  
every form of  government2 and under the
 second title those undertaken1 not by  
way of  governing1 but by way of        
advancing the general interests of      
society4  ,the following is ,professor  
,wilson's classification3         ,i4   
,the ,necessary or ,constituent         
,functions4--         7#a74 ,the keeping
 of order and providing for the         
protection of       persons and property
 from violence and robbery4 7#b74 ,the  
fixing of       the legal relations     
between man and wife1 and between       
parents and       children4             
7#c74 ,the regulation of the holding1   
transmission1 and interchange       of  
property1 and determination of its      
liabilities for debt or for       crime4
         7#d74 ,the determination of    

contract rights between individuals4    
7#e74 ,the definition and punishment of 
crime4         7#f74 ,the administration
 of justice in civil causes4            
7#g74 ,the determination of the         
political duties1 privileges1 and       
relations of citizens4         7#h74    
,dealings of the state with foreign     
powers2 the preservation of       the   
state from external danger or           
encroachment1 and the advancement       
of its intellectual interests4          
,,ii4 ,optional or ,ministrant          
,functions4         7#a74 ,the          
regulation of trade and industry4 ,under
 this head we must       include the    
coinage of money1 and the establishment 
of standard       weights and measures1 
laws against forestalling1 engrossing1  
the       licensing of trades1 etc41 as 
well as the great matters of tariffs1   
navigation laws1 and the like4          
7#b74 ,the regulation of labor4         
7#c74 ,the maintenance of thoroughfares1
 including state management       of    

railways1 and that great group of       
undertakings which we embrace           
within the comprehensive terms          
',internal ,improvements1' or ',the     
,development of the ,country4'          
7#d74 ,the maintenance of postal and    
telegraph systems1 which is very        
similar in principle to 7#c74           
7#e74 ,the manufacture and distribution 
of gas1 the maintenance of              
water-works1 c4         7#f74           
,sanitation1 including the regulation of
 trades for sanitary       purposes4    
7#g74 ,education4         7#h74 ,care of
 the poor and incapable4 7#i74 ,care and
 cultivation of       forests and like  
matters1 such as stocking of rivers with
 fish4         7#aj74 ,sumptuary laws1  
such as 'prohibition' laws4    ,under   
this second head have been included by  
no means all of the  functions whose    
exercise by the government has been     
attempted or  proposed1 but they show   
the principal ones1 and serve to        
indicate the  nature of the optional    

field of governmental activity4         
,footnote #a3 ,wilson1 ,the ,state1     
,section #abcb4        ,,chapter ,,iv4  
,colonial ,governments2 ,their ,relation
 to ,each ,other1 and to ,england4      
,to understand clearly the early history
 of our country2 to appreciate  the     
reasons for the grievances of the       
colonists against their mother  country2
 and to gain an intelligent idea of the 
events of that most  critical period of 
our history1 when the colonies1 then    
free1 were in  doubt as to the nature of
 the federal government they should     
adopt2  properly to understand all these
 facts1 it is of essential importance   
that we should gain a correct knowledge 
of the condition of the colonies  during
 those times1 their relations to one    
another1 their governmental  connection 
with and attitude towards ,england4     
,the thirteen ,american colonies1 which 
in #agge dared defy the might of  ,great
 ,britain1 and which in a stubborn      
struggle were able to win their         

independence1 were settled at various   
times1 and by colonists actuated  by    
widely different motives4 ,at the time  
of the beginning of their  resistance to
 the oppressive acts of their mother    
country1 they were1 in  their           
governments1 entirely separate from and 
independent of each other4  ,though the 
colonies had a common origin1 and owed a
 common allegiance  to ,england1 and the
 inhabitants of each were ,british      
subjects1 they had  no direct political 
connection with each other4 ,each in a  
limited sense1  was sovereign within its
 own territory4444 ,the assembly of one 
province  could not make laws for       
another4444 ,as colonists they were also
 excluded  from all connection with     
foreign states4 ,they were known only as
  dependencies4 ,they followed the fate 
of their mother country both in  peace  
and war4444 ,they could not form any    
treaty1 even among themselves1  without 
the consent of ,england4#a    ,footnote 
#a3 ,story's ,commentaries on the       

,constitution1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4  #afc4      
,all the colonies did not bear the same 
relation to the ,english  government4   
,owing to the different manner in which 
the right of  settlement1 and occupancy 
of the soil had been obtained from the  
king1  the colonies had obtained        
different rights of government1 and were
  placed under different obligations to 
the crown4 ,there came thus to be  three
 types of colonial governments2 the     
provincial or royal1 the  proprietary1  
and charter governments4    ,i4         
,provincial ,colonies4--,those colonies 
which possessed a provincial  form of   
government were royal colonies1 being   
governed almost entirely  by ,england1  
as she governs many of her colonies     
to-day4 ,at the head of  each was a     
,governor appointed by the ,king of     
,england4 ,he was assisted by  a        
council1 also appointed by the king4    
,the constitution and laws for  this    
form of government were contained in the
 commission and instruction  given to   

the ,governor by the ,english           
government4 ,by them the ,governor  was 
empowered to summon a representative    
assembly4 ,the legislative body         
consisted1 then1 of the ,governor1 his  
council1 appointed by the king1  and a  
lower house elected by the people4 ,the 
,governor had the right of  veto1 and   
the power to dissolve the assembly4 ,the
 legislature could make  laws1 provided 
they were not repugnant to the laws of  
,england4 ,these  laws were subject to  
the approval of the ,crown4 ,the        
governor1 with the  advice of his       
council1 could erect courts1 appoint    
judges1 levy forces1  etc4 ,from the    
highest courts in all the colonies an   
appeal lay to the  ,english ,king in    
,council4    ,,ii4 ,proprietary         
,colonies4--,the ,english ,king often   
gave to  individuals large tracts of    
land in the ,new ,world4 ,in addition to
  ownership of the soil1 was given in   
many cases the right to establish  civil
 government4 ,these proprietors had all 

the inferior royalties and  subordinate 
powers of legislation4 ,the proprietor  
could appoint or  dismiss the governor1 
he could invest him with the power to   
convene a  legislature1 with power to   
veto its acts according to his wishes1  
and to  perform all other powers of a   
governor4 ,all laws made1 those of      
,maryland  excepted1 were subject to the
 approval of the ,english ,crown4       
,,iii4 ,charter ,colonies4--,colonies   
under this form of government were  so  
called from their possessing            
constitutions for their general         
political government4 ,these written    
constitutions were charters obtained    
from the ,king1 in which were granted to
 the people of the colony certain       
privileges and rights of self-government
 which the ,english government  could   
not justly take away from them4 ,one of 
the unjust acts that did  much to arouse
 the colonists to resistance1 was the   
attempt of the  ,english government in  
#aggd1 to annul the charter of          

,massachusetts by the  ,regulation ,act4
 ,in this act was contained a precedent 
that 7as ,curtis  says7 justly alarmed  
the entire continent1 and in its        
principle  affected all the colonies1   
since it assumed that none of them      
possessed  constitutional rights which  
could not be altered or taken away by an
 act  of ,parliament4 ,the charters were
 very liberal1 granting almost entire   
self-government4 ,as in the royal       
colonies1 the executive was a governor1 
and the law-making branch a legislature 
of two houses4    ,in ,massachusetts the
 governor was appointed by the ,crown1  
and had a veto  power4 ,the ,council or 
upper branch of the legislature was     
chosen  annually by the lower house1 but
 the governor had a right of veto on    
their choice4 ,the lower house was      
elected by the people4 ,in ,connecticut 
and ,rhode ,island the governor1        
council1 together with the assembly were
  chosen annually by popular vote1 and  
all officers were appointed by  them4   

,in these two the governor had no right 
of veto1 and the laws  before going into
 execution did not require the royal    
approval4    ,seven of the original     
colonies began under proprietary        
governments--,new  ,york1 ,pennsylvania1
 ,delaware1 ,north and ,south ,carolina1
 ,maryland and  ,new ,jersey4 ,of these1
 four--,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,north 
and ,south  ,carolina--became eventually
 provincial colonies1 and ,maryland was 
at one  time a proprietary4    ,three of
 the colonies1 ,massachusetts1          
,connecticut and ,rhode ,island1 were   
settled under charters that were never  
surrendered4 ,three others1  ,virginia1 
,georgia and ,new ,hampshire possessed  
charters for a while1 but  eventually   
became royal colonies4                  
,notwithstanding these diversities of   
government that have been pointed  out1 
there were many features common to all  
the colonies4 ,all considered           
themselves dependencies of the ,british 
,crown4 ,all the colonists claimed  the 

enjoyment of the privileges and rights  
of ,british-born subjects1 and  the     
benefit of the common law of ,england4  
,the laws of all were required  to be   
not repugnant to1 but1 as nearly as     
possible1 in conformity with  the laws  
of ,england4 ,in all the colonies local 
legislatures existed1 at  least one     
branch of which consisted of            
representatives chosen by the  people4  
,the general condition of the colonies  
at the time of the outbreak of the      
,revolutionary ,war1 so far at least as 
concerns their governments1 has  now    
been given4 ,what were the grounds upon 
which the colonists justified  their    
resistance to the acts of ,english      
government8    ,in the first place1 they
 claimed that their rights were received
 from1  and their allegiance was due to 
the ,king1 not to the ,parliament4 ,the 
colonists said the ,king was the only   
tie that bound them to ,england2  that  
,parliament was composed of             
representatives from ,england alone1 and

  therefore had powers of legislation   
only for ,england4 ,later1 however1 it  
was conceded that in matters of general 
interest to the whole ,united  ,kingdom1
 ,parliament might exercise control1 but
 that concerning all  matters of        
domestic and internal interest1 and of  
concern only to  themselves1 it was the 
right of their own legislatures to      
legislate1 and  that under this head    
came taxation4    ,says ,story3#a       
,perhaps the best summary of the rights 
and liberties  asserted by all the      
colonies is contained in the celebrated 
declaration  drawn up by the ,congress  
of nine colonies assembled at ,new ,york
 in  ,october1 #agfe 7,stamp ,act       
,congress74 ,that declaration asserted  
that the  colonists 'owe the same       
allegiance to the ,crown of ,great      
,britain that is  owing from his        
subjects born within the realm1 and all 
due subordination  to that august body1 
the parliament of ,great ,britain1'     
,that the  colonists 'are entitled to   

all the inherent rights and liberties of
 his  7the ,king's7 natural born        
subjects within the kingdom of ,great   
,britain4  ,that it is inseparably      
essential to the freedom of a people1   
and the  undoubted rights of            
,englishmen1 that no taxes be imposed on
 them but  with their own consent given 
personally or by their representatives4'
  ,that the 'people of the colonies are 
not1 and from their local  circumstances
 cannot be represented in the ,house of 
,commons of ,great  ,britain4 ,that the 
only representatives of these colonies  
are persons  chosen by themselves       
therein2 and that no taxes ever have    
been or can be  constitutionally imposed
 upon them but by their respective      
legislatures1  and that trial by jury is
 the inherent and invaluable right of   
every  ,british subject in these        
colonies4'    ,footnote #a3             
,commentaries1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #age4    ,in
 opposition to these views1 the ,english
 government held that  ,parliament had  

the authority to bind the colonies in   
all matters  whatsoever1 and that there 
were no vested rights possessed by the  
colonies1 that could not be altered or  
annulled if ,parliament so  desired4    
,at the beginning of the ,revolutionary 
,war1 complete independence was not     
claimed by the colonies4 ,it was not    
until ,july #d1 #aggf1 that they were   
driven to a declaration of full and     
entire independence and                 
self-government4 ,by this declaration   
the colonies threw off their  colonial  
character1 and assumed the position of  
states4 ,this they did by  simply taking
 into their own hands the powers        
previously exercised by  the ,english   
,king and ,parliament4 ,in the state    
constitutions which many  colonies      
formed during the year1 their old       
colonial forms of government  were      
closely followed4 ,connecticut and      
,rhode ,island1 in fact1 merely         
declared their allegiance to ,england   
absolved1 and retained unchanged  their 

old charters as their fundamental law4  
,in ,connecticut no other  state        
constitution was adopted until #ahah1   
nor in ,rhode ,island until  #ahdb4     
,,chapter ,v4    ,steps ,toward         
,union4--,articles of ,confederation4   
,previous to #aggd the thirteen ,english
 colonies in ,america had had no        
political or governmental connection    
with each other4 ,any attempt on  their 
part to unite without the consent of the
 ,english ,king or  ,parliament would   
have been considered an act beyond their
 powers and as  insubordination towards 
the ,english government4    ,new        
,england ,confederation4--,in #afdc     
there was formed a union of the  four   
colonies of ,connecticut1 ,new          
,hampshire1 ,plymouth1 and              
,massachusetts  ,bay1 termed the ,new   
,england ,confederation1 which lasted   
forty years2  but this was merely a     
union for mutual protection against     
their common  foes1 the ,french1 the    
,dutch1 and the ,indians1 and not for   

joint  legislation or government4 ,it   
was a defensive alliance4    ,the       
,albany ,convention4--7,franklin's      
,plan47 ,in #aged1 however1 there  was  
held a meeting of the colonies of ,new  
,hampshire1 ,massachusetts1  ,rhode     
,island1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1      
,pennsylvania1 and ,maryland1 called    
the ,albany ,convention1 in which was   
proposed a union of all the  colonies   
under one government4 ,benjamin         
,franklin1 the chief promoter of  this  
scheme1 drew up an elaborate            
constitution which was to be adopted4   
,according to this plan there was to be 
a chief executive1 elected by the  king1
 and a council of #dh members1 to be    
chosen by the legislatures of  the      
several colonies4 ,this scheme failed to
 obtain either the consent of  the king 
or of the colonies themselves4 ,it was  
too much of a union to  suit the king1  
and not enough for the colonies4 ,the   
,stamp ,act  ,congress4--,the           
indignation aroused by the attempt of   

,england to tax  her colonies without   
allowing them a voice in the ,parliament
 which  imposed such taxes1 gave rise in
 #agfe to a meeting of delegates from   
eight of the colonies4 ,this assembly   
was called the ,stamp ,act  ,congress4  
,the obnoxious ,stamp ,act was repealed1
 but ,england continued  to impose other
 taxes4    ,first ,continental          
,congress4--,an invitation was sent out 
by ,virginia  to all the colonies1      
calling a meeting of delegates to       
consider what  could be done by their   
united action to resist their common    
grievance4  ,thus met the ,first        
,continental ,congress in #aggd1 in     
which all the  colonies but ,georgia    
were represented4 ,this ,congress       
adopted a  declaration of rights and    
grievances4 ,the colonies maintained    
that as  long as they were unrepresented
 in the ,english legislature            
7,parliament71  taxes should be imposed 
only by their own legislatures2 also1   
that they  were entitled to the rights1 

liberties1 and immunities of free1      
natural-born subjects within the realm  
of ,england4    ,the ,second            
,continental ,congress4--,on ,may #aj1  
#agge1 assembled the  ,second           
,continental ,congress1 in which all the
 thirteen colonies were  represented4   
,the battle of ,lexington had then been 
fought1 and blood had  been shed4       
,though the colonies had as yet no      
intention of throwing off  all          
connection with ,england1 they were now 
prepared to resist with arms  any       
invasion of their rights4 ,the work     
performed by this body has been         
concisely and forcibly stated by        
,schouler4#a ,he says3 ,thus originated 
that remarkable body known as the       
,continental ,congress1 which1 with its 
periodical sessions and frequent changes
 of membership1 bore for fifteen  years 
the symbols of ,federal power in        
,america2 which1 as a single house  of  
deputies acting by ,colonies or ,states1
 and blending with legislative          

authority1 imperfect executive and      
judicial functions1 raised armies1  laid
 taxes1 contracted a common debt1       
negotiated foreign treaties1 made  war  
and peace2 which1 in the name and with  
the assumed warrant of the  thirteen    
colonies1 declared their independence of
 ,great ,britain1 and by  ,god's        
blessing accomplished it2 which1 having 
framed and promulgated a  plan of       
general confederation1 persuaded these  
same thirteen republics  to adopt it1   
each making a sacrifice of its          
sovereignty for the sake of             
establishing a perpetual league1 to be  
known as the ,united ,states of         
,america1 a league preserved until in   
the fullness of time came a more        
perfect ,union4    ,footnote #a3 ,hist4 
,u4,s41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ac4    ,the acts  
of this ,congress were the first        
legislative acts by the joint  action of
 the colonies4    ,the ,second          
,continental ,congress was essentially a
 revolutionary body4  ,that is to say1  

the authority for its acts rested upon  
no definite grant  of powers by the     
colonies1 but was assumed by it to meet 
the crisis of  war4 ,properly speaking1 
it could hardly be called a government4 
,it was  more in the nature of a        
directing advisory committee4 ,its      
commands  possessed a recommendatory    
character only1 and it was entirely     
without  executive officers1 or legal   
control over either individuals or the  
colonies4    ,the ,articles of          
,confederation4--,a stronger central    
power than that  afforded by the        
,continental ,congress was seen to be a 
necessity4  ,accordingly1 in #aggg1     
there was drawn up a scheme of union    
embraced in a  paper termed ,the        
,articles of ,confederation4 ,these     
articles1 though  adopted as early as   
#aggg1 did not go into effect until     
#agha1 the  provision being that they   
should not be considered as in force    
until  ratified by all the colonies1 and
 several refused to ratify until all    

state claims to western territory were  
relinquished in favor of the  ,national 
,government4    ,elements ,tending to   
,separation and ,those ,tending to      
,union4--,we must  remember that this   
was a union of thirteen previously      
separate colonies4  ,the facts which had
 tended to keep them apart had been the 
difficulty of  travel and communication 
between the colonies1 the lack of       
commercial  intercourse1 but more than  
all1 their local jealousies4 ,the small 
,states  feared the larger2 commercial  
jealousies were very keen4 ,in #agef    
,georgia  and ,south ,carolina actually 
came to blows over a dispute as to the  
navigation of the ,savannah river4      
,other disputes about boundaries were   
frequent4 ,colonies with good harbors   
and seaports desired to keep the        
benefits of them exclusively to         
themselves4 ,at that time1 too1 the     
people of the thirteen colonies were far
 more widely separated in their  forms  
of government1 their industrial habits  

and social customs than  they now are4  
,on the other hand1 the old facts which 
tended to urge on a  common union       
between them were common race1 language1
 and nationality1  many similar         
political institutions1 and1 most of    
all1 common interests  and a common     
peril4    ,the ,purposes of the         
,confederation4--,the purposes of this  
,confederation are best stated by giving
 ,article ,,iii of the ,articles3       
,the said ,states hereby severally enter
 into a firm league of friendship  with 
each other for their common defense and 
security of their liberties  and their  
mutual and general welfare1 binding     
themselves to assist each  other against
 all force offered to or attacks made   
upon them1 or any of  them1 on account  
of religion1 sovereignty1 trade1 or any 
other pretext  whatever4    ,scheme of  
,government under the ,articles of      
,confederation4--,the  ,articles of     
,confederation established a framework  
of government for the  confederated     

colonies1 which government was to       
control those matters  that experience  
had shown could be executed only by     
united action4 ,as a  scheme of         
government it was no better than a      
makeshift4 ,it was an effort  to form a 
federal power without diminishing the   
powers of the ,states--an  effort to    
pare off slices of state government     
without diminishing the  loaf4 ,that    
such a union could be perpetual1 as the 
scheme professed1  was impossible4      
,under these ,articles of ,confederation
 the sole functions of the federal      
authority1 legislative1 executive1 and  
judicial1 were vested in a  ,continental
 ,congress1 consisting of a single house
 of delegates1 who  voted by ,states1   
and were appointed annually in such a   
manner as the  respective ,states       
directed4 ,each ,state was entitled to  
not less than two  nor more than seven  
delegates1 a majority of whom decided   
the vote of  the ,state in question4    
,the executive functions were largely   

performed by  a ,committee of ,states1  
which was empowered to sit during       
recesses4 ,for  all important measures  
the vote of every ,state was required4  
,the vote of  all thirteen was required 
for an amendment4    ,defects of the    
,articles of ,confederation4--,in this  
scheme of union  there were many fatal  
defects4 ,the principal of these defects
 were--    #a4 ,the want of some        
compulsory means of enforcing obedience 
to the acts  of ,congress4 ,the articles
 provided neither an executive power nor
 a  national judiciary worth mentioning4
 ,as one writer has said3 ,congress     
could declare everything1 but do        
nothing4 ,a single colony could with    
impunity disregard any decree of the    
,congress4    #b4 ,the large vote       
required to pass all important measures4
    #c4 ,the absence of the right to    
regulate foreign commerce1 and make     
duties uniform1 and to collect those    
duties4 ,this defect1 as we shall  find1
 was one of the most vital1 and more    

than any thing else decreed  the failure
 of the practical working of the        
,confederation1 and showed  the         
necessity of a better and stronger      
,national government4    #d4 ,the       
virtual impossibility of amendment4     
,since a unanimous vote was  required1  
the selfish interest of one ,state      
could1 and did1 stand in the  way of an 
amendment beneficial and necessary to   
the other twelve4    #e4 ,there was no  
power to enforce treaties4 ,foreign     
countries recognized  this1 and         
therefore refused to enter into any     
treaties with us4  ,washington said3 ,we
 are one nation to-day1 and thirteen    
to-morrow4 ,who  will treat with us on  
such terms4    ,england refused to carry
 out the conditions of the treaty of    
#aghc1 and  continued to keep troops on 
our ,western borders4    #f4 ,the       
central authority had insufficient power
 to control disputes  arising between   
the ,states4    #g4 ,the lack of a      
,federal judiciary4    #h4 ,lack of     

power to collect taxes1 or to raise     
revenue to defray even  the ordinary    
expenses of government4 ,this was the   
most striking and  important defect of  
them all4 ,the whole power given to     
,congress under  this head was the power
 to ascertain the sum necessary to be   
raised for  the service of the ,united  
,states1 and apportion the rate or      
proportion  on each ,state4 ,the        
collection of such taxes was left to the
 ,states  themselves1 and if they       
refused 7as they frequently did7 the    
,federal  ,government had no power to   
compel them4    ,our present better     
government was wrung from the grinding  
necessities  of a reluctant people4     
,adoption of the ,constitution4--,actual
 hostilities ceased in #agha4 ,in  #aghc
 peace with ,england was declared1 and  
the independence of the  colonies was   
achieved4 ,the war left the ,american   
people with an empty  treasury1 and a   
country drained of its wealth and       
impoverished by the  exhaustive         

struggle4 ,it left us with a large      
national debt1 both to our  own citizens
 and friends abroad1 and most of all1   
left us with an army  of unpaid         
patriotic soldiers4 ,and no sooner had  
foreign danger been  removed than       
domestic troubles arose which filled all
 with gloomy  forebodings for the       
future4 ,with the loss of that cohesive 
principle  which common danger supplied 
them1 the colonies now began to fall    
apart4  ,even during the progress of the
 war the weakness of the ,union had     
shown  itself4 ,washington              
unhesitatingly declared that it was the 
lack of  sufficient central authority   
that caused the prolongation of the war4
  ,one instance will show how weak was  
the ,federal authority4 ,during the     
summer of #aghc1 when ,congress was at  
,philadelphia1 some eighty deserters    
from the army so threatened ,congress as
 to force a removal of our  ,federal    
capital from that place to ,princeton4  
,the ,continental finances  were in a   

deplorable condition4 ,congress could   
not even collect  sufficient taxes for  
the payment of the interest on the      
public debt4 ,the  ,states could1 and   
often did1 refuse to pay their          
proportion of taxes  imposed upon them  
by ,congress4 ,congress made a last     
attempt1 in #aghe1 to  raise a revenue  
by a tax on imported goods1 but this    
measure failed1 ,new  ,york refusing to 
ratify4 ,congress1 indeed1 did not      
collect one-fourth of  her demands4     
,commerce was going to ruin4 ,england   
refused to allow our  country the rich  
trade with the ,west ,indies4 ,to these 
troubles were  added the mutual         
jealousies and selfishness of the       
,states4 ,each of them  tried to attract
 commerce to itself1 and passed laws    
hurtful to the  other ,states4    ,the  
people in ,massachusetts were in        
insurrection4 ,the ,french minister     
wrote to his country3 ,there is now no  
general government in ,america--no      
head1 no ,congress1 no administrative   

departments4    ,for all these evils the
 limited and imperfect powers conferred 
upon the  ,federal ,government by the   
articles of ,confederation afforded no  
adequate  remedy4 ,even the             
,constitutional ,congress was now in    
danger of breaking  up4 ,states1 to save
 expense1 neglected to send delegates1  
and repeated  appeals had to be made to 
get representation from nine ,states so 
as to  pass important measures4 ,a      
better union was seen by all thoughtful 
citizens to be necessary1 but very      
difficult to obtain1 owing to           
inter-state differences4 ,the idea of   
having a convention separate from  the  
,congress1 whose work should be the     
framing of a stronger government1       
gradually gained ground4    ,the        
,constitutional ,convention was obtained
 in a roundabout way1 and only  after   
repeated failures4 ,the first attempt to
 obtain an assembly of  representatives 
was made at ,annapolis1 ,maryland4 ,only
 five ,states sent  representatives1 and

 the convention accordingly adjourned to
  ,philadelphia1 where in ,may1 #aggh1  
delegates from all the ,states1 except  
,rhode ,island1 finally assembled4      
,,chapter ,,vi4    ,adoption of the     
,constitution4      ,the ,constitutional
 ,convention4--,fifty-five delegates    
were present4  ,with scarcely an        
exception they were all clearheaded1    
able1 and moderate  men4 ,virginia sent 
,washington1 ,madison1 ,edmund          
,randolph2 ,pennsylvania  sent ,benjamin
 ,franklin1 ,robert ,morris1 and ,james 
,wilson2 ,new ,york sent  ,alexander    
,hamilton2 ,new ,jersey1 ,patterson2 and
 ,south ,carolina1 the two  ,pinckneys4 
,washington was chosen ,president of the
 ,convention4 ,two rules  were adopted3 
#ast1 proceedings were to be secret1 and
 #b;d1 one vote was  to be given to each
 ,state1 thus making it of no importance
 whether a  ,state had a large or small 
delegation4    ,though the delegates had
 thus assembled to form a better and new
 union1  they differed widely in their  

views as to what changes were necessary1
  and as to what powers should be given 
to the ,federal ,government1 and  what  
retained by the ,states4 ,some desired  
merely a change of the  existing        
,articles of ,confederation1 more power 
being granted1 however1  to the ,federal
 ,government2 while others wished for an
 entirely new  ,constitution4    ,the   
convention at once divided into two     
parties4 ,the one representing  the     
small ,states1 such as ,new ,jersey and 
,delaware2 and the other1 the  larger   
,states1 such as ,virginia1 ,new ,york  
and ,massachusetts4 ,the plan  brought  
forward by the party of the large       
,states was that presented to  the      
convention by ,edmund ,randolph1 of     
,virginia1 and generally known as  the  
,national or ,large ,state ,plan4 ,this 
plan proposed a congress of two  houses1
 having power to legislate on all       
,national matters1 and to compel        
obedience on the part of the ,states4   
,representation in both houses was  to  

be based on population1 thus giving to  
the larger1 and more populous1  ,states 
the control of both branches of the     
legislature2 and1 also1 since  by this  
scheme the president1 executive         
officers1 and judges were to be         
appointed by ,congress1 control of the  
whole administration of the new         
government4    ,on behalf of the small  
,states1 ,patterson1 of ,new ,jersey1   
introduced what  is called the ,new     
,jersey plan4 ,by this plan the old     
,federal ,congress was  to be continued 
with its single house of legislature1   
and equal ,state  vote4    ,the great   
point upon which the two plans differed1
 was as to how  representation in the   
legislature should be apportioned among 
the  ,states2 whether it should be      
according to population1 and with two   
houses1 or whether there should be but  
one house1 in which each ,state  should 
have an equal vote4 ,the question was   
settled by a compromise4 ,it  was agreed
 that there should be a legislature of  

two houses1 a ,senate or  upper and less
 numerous branch2 and the ,house of     
,representatives1 the  popular and more 
numerous lower branch4 ,in the ,senate  
each ,state was to  have an equal       
representation1 thus putting the large  
and small ,states on  an equal footing4 
,on the other hand1 in the ,house of    
,representatives  representation was to 
be according to population1 thus        
favoring the  larger ,states4           
,another point upon which the convention
 differed was concerning the  slave     
trade2 whether it should1 or should not1
 be allowed to continue4  ,this question
 was also compromised1 it being agreed  
to permit its  continuance for twenty   
years 7until #ahjh71 after which all    
importation  of slaves might be         
prohibited4    ,yet another point in    
dispute was whether the slaves should1  
or should  not1 be counted in estimating
 the population of the ,states1 in order
 to  determine the number of            
representatives to which each ,state    

should be  entitled4 ,this likewise was 
compromised4 ,it was agreed that five   
slaves  should be counted equivalent to 
three white men4    ,these three main   
points being settled by compromises1    
other parts of the  government1 such as 
a single chief executive1 a ,federal    
judiciary1 and  the decision as to what 
powers should be given to the           
,president1 what to  the ,senate1 and   
what to the ,house1 were more easily    
arranged1 and the  convention adjourned 
,september #ag1 #aghg1 having been in   
session a little  over four months4     
,thus was prepared the ,constitution    
under which we are  now living--an      
achievement declared by ,guizot to be   
the greatest work of  its kind1 and by  
,gladstone to be the greatest work ever 
struck out at  one time by the hand of  
man4    ,the ,constitution having been  
agreed to in convention1 it was now     
submitted to the vote of each of the    
colonies for acceptance4 ,it was        
decided in this convention that it      

should be considered as ratified1 and   
should go into effect as soon as        
accepted by nine of the thirteen        
,states4    ,the adoption or rejection  
of the ,constitution now became a       
question  which claimed the entire      
attention of the ,states1 and it is     
during this  contest that we find the   
origin of the first political parties in
 the  ,united ,states4 ,those favoring  
the adoption of the ,constitution were  
called ,federalists and those opposing  
it ,anti-,federalists4    ,arguments    
,for and ,against ,adoption4--,the      
,federalist party was  composed of those
 men who were desirous of a strong      
central government1  and for this reason
 favored the ,constitution4 ,this party 
was especially  strong in ,new ,england1
 largely because ,new ,england1 being   
the commercial  part of the colonies1   
had had the lamentable weakness of the  
old  confederation brought home to them 
the more forcibly by the                
disorganization and loss of commerce    

which the ,continental ,congress had    
been unable to regulate4    ,the        
,anti-,federalists were those who wished
 the ,state governments to be  kept     
strong1 and that there should be a      
comparatively weak central  government4 
,the argument used by the ,federalists  
for the adoption of the  ,constitution  
was1 that only by correcting all those  
defects of the  ,confederation which    
have been pointed out1 could order and  
prosperity be  restored to the country4 
,they said that the ,constitution1 being
 a series  of compromises1 could not    
please everyone in all respects1 but    
that it  was the best that could be     
obtained under the circumstances4 ,their
  arguments appeared in a remarkable    
collection of eighty-five essays1       
called the ,federalist1 written by      
,alexander ,hamilton in company with    
,john ,jay and ,james ,madison4 ,in     
these were explained all the points of  
the ,constitution1 and to this day they 
remain the best exposition of the       

,constitution ever written4    ,the     
objections raised by the                
,anti-,federalists were many4 ,in the   
first  place1 it was of course objected 
that it gave to the central government  
too much power2 that state government   
and ,state liberty would be crushed     
out4 ,the ,state was then as dear to the
 citizen as is the ,national            
,government to us to-day4 ,patriotism   
was then devotion to the ,state4 ,the   
colonists had suffered so much from     
control over their state governments  by
 an outside strong government1 that they
 were fearful of again putting          
themselves under a strong national      
government though of their own  making4 
,in warning terms it was declared it    
would be a government  founded upon the 
destruction of the governments of the   
several ,states4  ,they said1 ,congress 
may monopolize every source of revenue1 
and thus  indirectly demolish the ,state
 governments1 for without funds they    
cannot  exist4 ,these elements of ,state

 love and jealousy of the ,federal power
  are of the utmost importance in       
studying our history4 ,we see them      
running through all our life as the main
 causes of division between  political  
parties4 7,see later chapter on         
,introduction to ,history of  ,political
 ,parties47    ,another objection was1  
that the ,constitution contained no     
definite bill  of rights recognizing and
 guaranteeing fundamental personal      
liberties1  such as freedom of speech1  
liberty of the press1 assurance against 
unjust arrest1 the right to bear arms1  
and trial by jury in civil cases1  etc4 
,this class of objections was satisfied 
by the adoption of the first  ten       
constitutional amendments4 ,it was also 
claimed by those opposed to  the        
ratification1 that inasmuch as the      
,constitution placed no limit to  the   
number of terms which a ,president might
 serve1 one man might become  so        
powerful as to obtain a life-tenure of  
office1 and thus the  government would  

degenerate into a monarchy4 ,to show how
 exaggerated  were the fears during this
 critical period of our history1 we have
 the  report that it was actually       
claimed and believed by many at that    
time  that the ,federalists had the     
secret intention of inviting over to our
  country some ,european prince who     
should rule as king4 ,patrick ,henry    
cried1 ,we shall have a king2 the army  
will salute him monarch4 ,though  not   
fixed by the ,constitution1 it has been 
since the time of ,washington  the      
invariable rule that no man shall be    
elected for more than two  terms4 ,the  
friends of ,president ,grant attempted  
to have him nominated  for a third time1
 but so strong was this prejudice that1 
popular as he  was at that time1 the    
plan failed4    ,for nine months the    
struggle was wagered fiercely in the    
,states1 but the  ,federalists          
prevailed4 ,in ,june1 #aghh1 the ninth  
,state ratified1 and  adoption was      
assured4 ,congress fixed the first      

,wednesday in ,january for  the election
 of presidential electors1 the first    
,wednesday in ,february  for the meeting
 of the electors and election of the    
,president1 and the  first ,wednesday in
 ,march1 #aghi1 for the inauguration of 
the ,president  and the beginning of the
 new government4 ,this last date fell   
upon the  #dth of ,march1 which date has
 from that time served as the day for   
the  inauguration of our presidents4    
,owing to a delay in the assembling of  
the new ,congress1 ,washington was not  
inaugurated1 nor our present  government
 instituted1 until ,april #cj1 #aghi4   
,thus was founded our present           
government1 which has stood the test of 
a  century4 ,when adopted there were    
thirteen ,states2 now there are         
forty-four4 ,the inhabited area was then
 the narrow strip between the  ,atlantic
 ,ocean and the ,allegheny ,mountains1  
with a population of  scarcely          
#c1jjj1jjj4 ,now the ,united ,states    
stretches #c1jjj miles from  ocean to   

ocean1 and contains a population of over
 sixty millions4        ,,chapter ,,vii4
    ,presidential ,succession4      ,the
 provisions of the ,constitution        
regarding the ,presidential  succession1
 in case of the death or resignation of 
both ,president and  ,vice-,president1  
are3 ,in case of the removal of the     
,president from  office1 or of his      
death1 resignation1 or inability to     
discharge the  powers and duties of the 
said office1 the same devolve on the    
,vice-,president1 and the ,congress may 
by law provide for the case of  removal1
 death1 resignation1 or inability both  
of the ,president and  ,vice-,president1
 declaring what officer shall then act  
as ,president1 and  such officer shall  
act accordingly until the disability be 
removed or a  ,president shall be       
elected4 7,article ,,ii1 section #f47   
,in pursuance of the power thus granted 
to it in the last half of this  section1
 ,congress in #agib passed an act       
declaring that in case of the  death1   

resignation1 etc41 of both the          
,president and ,vice-,president1 the    
succession should be first to the       
,president of the ,senate and then to   
the ,speaker of the ,house4    ,this    
order was changed by the act of #ahhf1  
which provided that the  succession to  
the presidency should be as follows3    
#a4 ,president4       #b4               
,vice-,president4       #c4 ,secretary  
of ,state4       #d4 ,secretary of the  
,treasury4       #e4 ,secretary of ,war4
       #f4 ,attorney-,general4       #g4
 ,postmaster-,general4       #h4        
,secretary of the ,navy4       #i4      
,secretary of the ,interior4    ,in all 
cases the remainder of the four-years'  
term shall be served out4  ,this act    
also regulated the counting of the votes
 of the electors by  ,congress1 and the 
determination of who were legally chosen
 electors4    ,note4--,the ,constitution
 made no provision in case of a         
contested  election1 or when no one     
should be elected4 ,such a contingency  

seemed to  have been overlooked in the  
framing of the ,constitution4           
,,chapter ,,viii4    ,election of       
,senators4      ,the provisions of the  
,constitution regarding the election of 
senators  were as follows3 ,the ,senate 
of the ,united ,states shall be composed
 of  two senators from each ,state1     
chosen by the ,legislature thereof1 for 
six  years2 and each senator shall have 
one vote4 7,article ,i1 section #c1     
paragraph #a47 ,the times1 places1 and  
manner of holding elections for         
senators and representatives shall be   
prescribed in each ,state by the        
,legislature thereof1 but the ,congress 
may at any time by law make or  alter   
such regulations1 except as to the      
places of choosing senators4  7,article 
,i1 section #d1 paragraph #a47    ,until
 #ahff this matter was left entirely to 
the ,states1 as permitted by  the       
section of the ,constitution just given4
 ,in that year an act was  passed by the
 ,federal ,congress regulating the      

election of senators by  the ,state     
,legislatures4 ,by it was provided that 
the ,legislature of each  ,state1 which 
is chosen next preceding the expiration 
of the term of  either of their         
senators1 shall on the second ,tuesday  
after assembling  elect a senator in the
 following manner3 ,each ,house shall by
 open ballot  7viva voce7 choose some   
man for senator1 and he who receives a  
majority of the total number of votes   
cast in such ,house is entered on  the  
journal of that ,house4 ,at noon on the 
following day the members of  the two   
,houses convene in joint assembly1 and  
the journal of each ,house  is then     
read1 and if the same person has        
received a majority of the  votes of    
each ,house he is declared duly elected 
senator4 ,but if not1 the  joint        
assembly then proceeds to choose by a   
viva voce vote of each  member present1 
a person for senator1 and the person who
 receives a  majority of all the votes  
of the joint assembly--a majority of all

 the  members elected to both ,houses   
being present and voting--is declared   
duly elected4 ,if no person receives    
such a majority on the first day1  the  
joint assembly meets at noon on each    
succeeding day during the  session of   
the ,legislature1 and takes at least one
 vote until a senator  is elected4 ,in  
case of a vacancy occurring in the      
,senate during the  recess of the ,state
 ,legislature1 the governor appoints a  
man to fill the  place1 his appointee   
holding until a successor shall be      
chosen in the  above method by the      
,state ,legislature4    ,in the ,house1 
when vacancies happen in the            
representation from any  ,state1 the    
,governor issues an order for a new     
election in the  congressional districts
 in which such vacancies occur4 ,the    
representatives thus elected hold office
 for the unexpired terms of  their      
predecessors4        ,,chapter ,,ix4    
,congressional ,government4      ,the   
,constitution created ,congress and     

conferred upon it powers of  legislation
 for national purposes1 but made no     
provision as to the  method by which    
these powers should be exercised4 ,in   
consequence  ,congress has itself       
developed a method of transacting its   
business by  means of committees4       
,the ,federal ,legislature consists of  
two ,houses--the ,senate1 or ,upper and 
less numerous branch1 and the ,house of 
,representatives1 or the ,lower and     
more numerous popular branch4    ,the   
,senate is composed of two members from 
each ,state elected by the  state       
legislatures for a term of six years1   
one-third of whom retire  every two     
years4 ,the presiding officer is the    
,vice-,president4 ,early in  each       
session1 the ,senate chooses a          
,president pro tempore1 so as to        
provide for any absence of the          
,vice-,president1 whether caused by     
death1  sickness1 or for other reasons4 
,the ,house of ,representatives is at   
present composed of #ccb members and    

four delegates from the ,territories4   
,these delegates1 however1 have no      
vote1 though they may speak4 ,the ,house
 is presided over by a speaker1  elected
 at the beginning of each session4 ,a   
quorum for business is1 in  either      
,house1 a majority4    ,congress meets  
every year in the beginning of          
,december4 ,each ,congress  lasts two   
years and holds two sessions--a long and
 a short session4 ,the  long session    
lasts from ,december to midsummer4 ,the 
short session lasts  from ,december1    
when ,congress meets again1 until the   
#dth of ,march4 ,the  term of office    
then expires for all the members of the 
,house1 and for  one-third of the       
,senators4 ,the long session ends in    
even years 7#ahhj and  #ahhb1 etc471 and
 the short session in odd years 7#ahha  
and #ahhc74 ,extra  sessions may be     
called by the ,president for urgent     
business4    ,in the early part of the  
,november preceding the end of the short
 session  of ,congress1 occurs the      

election of ,representatives4           
,congressmen then  elected do not take  
their seats until thirteen months later1
 that is1 at  the reassembling of       
,congress in ,december of the year      
following1 unless  an extra session is  
called4 ,the ,senate frequently holds   
secret1 or1 as  they are called1        
executive sessions1 for the             
consideration of treaties  and          
nominations of the ,president1 in which 
the ,house of ,representatives  has no  
voice4 ,it is then said to sit with     
closed doors4    ,an immense amount of  
business must necessarily be transacted 
by a  ,congress that legislates for     
nearly sixty-three millions of people1  
inhabiting a territory of over three and
 a half millions of square  miles4      
,lack of time1 of course1 prevents a    
consideration of each bill  separately  
by the whole legislature4 ,to provide a 
means by which each  subject may receive
 investigation and consideration1 a plan
 is used by  which the members of both  

branches of ,congress are divided into  
committees4 ,each committee busies      
itself with a certain class of          
business1 and bills when introduced are 
referred to this or that  committee for 
consideration1 according to the subjects
 to which the  bills relate4 ,thus1 for 
example1 affairs relating to ,washington
 are  handed over to what is known as   
the ,district ,committee1 a regular     
appropriation bill to the ,committee on 
,appropriations1 etc4 ,these  committees
 consider these bills carefully1        
frequently taking the  testimony of     
outside persons to discover the         
advisability of each bill4  ,the regular
 course through which a bill has to go  
before becoming an  act--i4e41 to pass  
both houses and receive the signature of
 the  ,president--is as follows3 ,on    
,mondays there is a roll-call of the    
,states1  and members may then introduce
 in the ,house or ,senate any bill they 
may  desire4 ,these bills are then      
referred by the presiding officer to    

appropriate committees4 ,these          
committees1 meeting in their own        
separate  rooms1 debate1 investigate1   
and1 if necessary1 as has been said1 ask
 the  opinion of outside persons4 ,after
 such consideration bills are reported  
back to the ,house or ,senate4 ,but very
 few bills reach this stage1 for  the   
committee does not get time to report   
any save the more important  ones1 and  
thus the majority of them disappear1 or1
 as the saying is1  are killed in       
committee4 ,if a bill receives the      
approval of the  committee it is        
favorably reported to the ,senate or    
,house1 as the case  may be--i4e41 the  
bill is returned1 accompanied by a      
report advising  the passage of the     
accompanying bill4 ,if the bill is not  
approved by the  committee1 an          
unfavorable report is made2 bills are   
seldom passed after  such an adverse    
report4 ,these reports which accompany  
the bills1 are  printed1 often at great 
length1 giving reasons for the proposed 

action  in regard to the bills4 ,when   
reported by the committee back to the   
house  in which it was introduced1 a    
bill is voted upon1 and1 if passed1 is  
sent to the other branch4 ,if passed    
there1 it is ready for the  ,president's
 signature2 if vetoed1 the bill is lost1
 unless passed over  the veto by a      
two-thirds vote of both houses4 ,but    
frequently one house1  while not wishing
 to defeat a measure sent to it from the
 other house1  may desire to change it  
by some amendment4 ,if this is done1 the
 bill1 as  amended1 is sent back to the 
house from which it came1 and if then   
agreed to as amended by it1 it is sent  
to the ,president for his  approval4    
,thus by repeated amendments it may pass
 to and fro between the  ,house and     
,senate several1 times4 ,in the ,house  
of ,representatives1 many  bills are    
passed through all their various stages 
by a single vote1 by  what is known as a
 suspension of the rules1 which may be  
ordered by a  two-thirds vote4    ,the  

,senate is now divided into between     
fifty and sixty committees1 but  the    
number varies from session to session4  
,the principal committees are  those on 
7#a7 ,foreign ,relations1 7#b7          
,privileges and ,elections1 7#c7        
,judiciary1 7#d7 ,commerce1 7#e7        
,finance1 and 7#f7 ,appropriations4 ,the
 ,senate  selects the members for the   
different committees by ballot1 though  
it is  pretty well determined beforehand
 how each committee shall be            
constituted by means of party caucuses  
7informal meetings of members of  the   
same party to determine upon lines of   
action that will be supported  by all74 
,a committee is always composed of an   
odd number of members1 and  both        
political parties are always represented
 on every committee1 though  the        
majority is1 in almost all cases1 from  
that party which has the  majority of   
the members of the ,senate4    ,the     
,house of ,representatives is organized 
into sixty committees1  ranging1 in     

their number of members1 from thirteen  
down4 ,as regards  party representation1
 their constitution is similar to that  
of the  ,senate ,committees4 ,the       
,committee of ,ways and ,means1 which   
regulates  customs duties and excise    
taxes1 is by far the most important4    
,other important committees are those on
 7#a7 ,elections1 7#b7  ,appropriations1
 7#c7 ,judiciary1 7#d7 ,foreign         
,affairs1 7#e7 ,manufactures1  7#f7     
,commerce1 7#g7 ,labor4 ,every          
,representative is on one committee1 and
  most of them on several4 ,unlike the  
custom in the ,senate1 in the ,house    
the presiding officer has the sole power
 of appointment1 which makes  him1 next 
to the ,president1 the most important   
and powerful government  official4 ,the 
chairman of each committee has1 of      
course1 a large power  over affairs with
 which his committee is concerned1 and  
for this reason  it is often said that  
it is the chairmen of these committees  
who rule  the land4    ,the precise     

amount of effective work done by        
,congress during the two  sessions of   
the ,fiftieth ,congress was as follows3 
,there were #d1jjj bills  introduced in 
the ,senate and #ade ,senate joint      
resolutions3 of this  number #a1abg     
bills and joint resolutions passed the  
,senate1 and #eed were  either postponed
 indefinitely or referred to the ,court 
of ,claims1 so  that the total number on
 which final action was taken by the    
,senate was  #a1fha4 ,the committee on  
enrolled bills examined #ffg ,senate    
bills and  joint resolutions and sent   
them to the ,president and #eia became  
laws1  the number of vetoes1 including  
pocket vetoes1 being #gf4    ,the ,house
 of ,representatives passed #a1efa      
,house bills and sent them to  the      
,senate1 and the ,senate passed #a1cdg  
of them1 leaving #bad to perish4  ,the  
,house passed #ef ,house joint          
resolutions and the ,senate passed all  
of  them but eight4 ,the ,house passed1 
therefore1 #b1bhd ,house and ,senate    

bills1 and the ,senate passed #b1ebb4   
,the first session of the ,fifty-first  
,congress 7#ahhi-ij7 was1 with one      
exception1 the longest ever held4#a     
,during the session there were          
introduced in the ,house #ab1djb bills  
and joint resolutions1 and in the       
,senate #d1egj1 making a total of       
#af1igb4 ,the total number of acts      
passed  was #a1cce as against #a1gij for
 both sessions of the ,fiftieth         
,congress4  ,of these #hha were pension 
bills4    ,footnote #a3 ,the longest    
session was the long session of the     
,fiftieth  ,congress4    ,congress      
ordinarily assembles at noon1 and       
remains in session until #d or  #e p4m41
 though towards the end of the term it  
frequently remains in  session until    
late in the night4 ,the first thing upon
 assembling in the  morning is prayer4  
,on ,mondays1 as stated1 there is next a
 roll-call of  ,states for the          
introduction of bills4 ,sometimes a     
committee is  instructed to prepare and 

bring in a bill of its own1 without     
waiting to  have one introduced and     
referred to it4 ,reports from committees
 are  heard during morning hours on     
,tuesdays1 ,wednesdays1 and ,fridays1   
and on  ,mondays after the introduction 
of bills4 ,friday is a day usually set  
apart for the consideration of private  
measures4 ,on ,saturdays ,congress      
seldom sits4    ,there is still one     
feature of ,congressional government    
which needs  explanation1 and that is   
the caucus4 ,a caucus is the meeting of 
the  members of one party in private1   
for the discussion of the attitude and  
line of policy which members of that    
party are to take on questions  which   
are expected to arise in the legislative
 halls4    ,thus1 in ,senate caucus1 is 
decided who shall be members of the     
various  committees4 ,in these meetings 
is frequently discussed whether or not  
the  whole party shall vote for or      
against this or that important bill1 and
  thus its fate is decided before it has

 even come up for debate in  ,congress4 
,,chapter ,x4    ,the ,cabinet and      
,executive ,departments4      ,we have  
seen that the functions of government   
are divided into three  distinct        
classes1 the legislative1 the judicial1 
and the executive4 ,the  ,constitution  
provides as to the methods for the      
exercise of the first  two1 but none for
 the third4 ,the only reference in the  
constitution to  executive departments  
is in ,art4 ,,ii1 ,sec4 #b1 where the   
,president is  given the power to       
require the opinion in writing of the   
principal  officer in each executive    
department upon any subject relating to 
the  duties of his office4 ,the         
departments have in each case been      
created by  an act of ,congress and from
 time to time as convenience has        
demanded4    ,the duties of the         
executive are to enforce and apply the  
laws of the  nation after they are made 
by the legislature and interpreted by   
the  courts4 ,this is the real business 

of government1 by which the laws are    
put into effect1 and the work of        
government is actually carried on4 ,in  
the ,united ,states ,government this    
power is placed in the hands of a body  
of men distinct from the legislative and
 judicial officers4 ,at the head  is the
 ,president1 and hence his title of     
,chief ,executive4 ,it is  evident that 
he must divide up the vast amount of    
work to be done1 and  delegate it to    
others4 ,congress directs how this shall
 be done4 ,for this  purpose ,congress  
has created nine executive departments  
7#a7,state1  7#b7,treasury1 7#c7,war1   
7#d7,navy1 7#e7;,interior1 7#f7,post    
,office1 7#g7;,justice1                 
7#h7;,agriculture1 7#i7,labor4    ,these
 departments have been created as       
required by the growth of  government   
duties4 ,three departments1 the ,state1 
,treasury and ,war1 were  created by the
 first ,congress1 in #aghi4 ,by the same
 ,congress was created  the office of   
,attorney-,general of the ,united       

,states1 who1 together with  the        
,secretaries of the three departments1  
constituted ,president  ,washington's   
first cabinet4 ,the ,navy ,department   
was added in #agih4 ,prior  to that     
date1 naval affairs had been managed by 
the ,war ,department4 ,a  ,post ,office 
for the colonies was established by the 
,postal ,act of ,queen  ,anne's reign4  
,the ,post ,office ,department under the
 present government  was established in 
#aghi1 but the ,postmaster-,general did 
not become a  ,cabinet officer until    
#ahbi4 ,the ,interior ,department was   
created in #ahdi  by grouping together  
in one department several branches of   
the  government service1 which had      
formerly been distributed among the     
other  departments4 ,as early as #ahci  
the ,patent ,office1 under the ,interior
  ,department1 was intrusted with       
various duties concerning the           
agricultural interests of the country1  
among the chief of which was the        
distribution of seeds4 ,in #ahfb a      

separate ,department of ,agriculture was
  established1 and these duties         
transferred to it4 ,in #ahhi the head of
 the  ,department became ,secretary of  
the ,department of ,agriculture and a   
,cabinet officer4 ,a ,bureau of ,labor  
under the ,interior ,department was     
created in #ahhd4 ,in #ahhh ,congress   
constituted it a separate department1   
but did not make its head a ,secretary1 
and therefore not a ,cabinet  officer4  
,the heads of the first eight of these  
departments together form a  council of 
eight1 called the ,cabinet1 whose duty  
it is1 in addition to  the management of
 the departments1 to advise the         
,president on matters of  importance4   
,for this purpose regular meetings are  
held1 at which the  affairs of          
government are discussed1 and lines of  
action decided upon4  ,the cabinet is   
neither the creation of the             
constitution1 nor strictly of  law4 ,the
 existence of a cabinet1 however1 was   
always taken for granted  in the        

discussion and formation of the         
constitution4 ,it is a creation of      
custom and has no powers other than of  
advice and counsel to the  ,president4  
,the growth of executive and            
administrative business is not  fully   
indicated by the increase in the number 
of departments4 ,the growth  within each
 department has been much greater4      
,separate bureaus and  divisions have   
been created1 which in some cases are1  
for all practical  purposes1 as         
independent and important as the        
departments themselves4    ,the         
organization of all the different       
departments is much the same4 ,at  the  
head of each is an officer appointed by 
the ,president1 the ,president  thus    
having control generally over the whole 
executive business of the  government4  
,these officers are called ,secretaries1
 except in the cases  of the ,post      
,office ,department1 whose head is the  
,postmaster-,general1 and  of the       
,department of ,justice1 whose head is  

the ,attorney-,general4 ,in a  number of
 the ,departments there are also one1   
two1 three or four  assistant           
secretaries1 according as the business  
of the departments  requires4 ,for      
convenience in the despatch of business1
 the departments  are divided into      
bureaus1 the bureaus into divisions1 and
 the divisions  into rooms1 until1      
finally1 the individual workers--the    
clerks--are  readied4 ,each bureau and  
division has at its head an officer     
called  ,commissioner and ,chief of     
,division1 respectively4 ,each          
department and  bureau1 and1 in some    
cases1 the division also1 has a ,chief  
,clerk who has  charge of the details of
 the administration1 and immediate      
oversight  over the clerks4#a ,all work 
in one finely organized system4 ,the    
clerk  is responsible to his chief of   
division1 the chief of division to his  
commissioner1 the commissioner to the   
,secretary and he1 finally1 to          
,congress4 ,each man has his particular 

place in the system1 and no one  works  
at random4#b    ,footnote #a3 ,there are
 a number of officials and clerks who   
properly  belong to no division or      
bureau1 as1 for instance1 the           
librarian's  private secretary and other
 clerical assistance in the ,secretary's
  office1 who are under his immediate   
supervision4    ,footnote #b3 ,this     
system is not always carried out        
perfectly in  practice4 ,in some cases  
an officer is termed commissioner who is
 more  properly a chief of division1 and
 vice versa4 ,in other cases the title  
of commissioner or chief of division is 
represented by a more technical         
designation as ,director of the ,u4,s4  
,geological ,survey1 ,comptroller of    
the ,currency1 etc4 ,the ,president and 
heads of departments appoint all        
officers in the executive departments4  
,it is manifestly impossible for  them  
to base their appointments upon personal
 knowledge4 ,hence has  arisen the      
custom of filling almost all offices not

 controlled by the  ,civil ,service     
,commission upon the recommendation of  
congressmen1 each of  whom controls for 
the most part the patronage of his own  
district4 ,only  the ,secretaries1      
,assistant ,secretaries1 ,commissioners1
 and other chief  officials are really  
appointees of the ,president on his own 
responsibility4    ,prior to the first  
administration of ,jackson the positions
 of government  clerks in the           
departments were permanent4 ,in #ahbh   
,jackson inaugurated  the so-called     
spoils system1 which means that to the  
victor belongs the  spoils4 ,only #gd   
removals had been made from #aghi to    
#ahbh4 ,jackson  removed during the     
first year of his administration #b1jjj 
clerks4 ,since  then1 until #ahhc1 each 
party1 on gaining control of the        
government1 has  removed almost all the 
clerks in office who were of the        
opposite  political faith1 replacing    
them with members of its own party4 ,in 
#ahhc  was passed the ,civil ,service   

,act1 by which it is provided that all  
future appointments of subordinate      
clerks in the executive departments  are
 to be made only from those who have    
passed successfully an  examination set 
by the ,civil ,service ,commission      
created by the act4    ,the ,state      
,department4--,the ,department of ,state
 was the first  department established4 
7,act of ,july #bg1 #aghi47 ,there are  
three  ,assistant ,secretaries4 ,their  
salaries are1 ,secretary #h1jjj1 ,first 
,assistant #d1jjj1 and the other two    
#c1ejj4 ,the department is divided  into
 seven bureaus1 7#a7 ,diplomatic1 7#b7  
,consular1 7#c7 ,archives and  ,indexes1
 7#d7 ,accounts1 7#e7 ,statistics1 7#f7 
,rolls and ,library1 and 7#g7  ,claims4 
,the ,secretary of ,state is charged1   
under the direction of the ,president1  
with the duties appertaining to         
correspondence with the public ministers
  and consuls of the ,united ,states1   
and with the representatives of  foreign
 powers accredited to the ,united       

,states2 and to negotiations of         
whatever character relating to the      
foreign affairs of the ,united  ,states4
 ,he is also the medium of              
correspondence between the ,president   
and the chief executive of the several  
,states of the ,united ,states2 he  has 
the custody of the great seal of the    
,united ,states1 and countersigns  and  
affixes such seal to all executive      
proclamations1 to various  commissions1 
and to warrants for pardon1 and the     
extradition of  fugitives from justice4 
,he is regarded as the first in rank    
among the  members of the ,cabinet4 ,he 
is also the custodian of the treaties   
made  with foreign states1 and of the   
laws of the ,united ,states4 ,he grants 
and  issues passports4 ,exequaturs to   
foreign consuls in the ,united ,states  
are  issued through his office4 ,he     
publishes the laws and resolutions of   
,congress1 amendments to the            
,constitution1 and proclamations        
declaring  the admission of new ,states 

into the ,union4 ,he is also charged    
with  certain annual reports to         
,congress relating to commercial        
information  received from diplomatic   
and consular officers of the ,united    
,states4    ,the patronage of the       
,secretary at ,washington is small1     
about sixty  clerks1 but that which     
concerns the diplomatic and consular    
service is  important4 ,to facilitate   
communications and negotiations with    
foreign  nations1 and to protect the    
interests of ,american citizens in      
foreign  countries1 the ,united ,states1
 in common with all civilized nations1  
has  an elaborate system of             
representatives residing at the capitals
 of all  the principal nations4 ,this   
system is called the diplomatic service1
 and  is under the charge of a separate 
bureau of the ,state ,department4       
,communications and negotiations with   
foreign powers are generally  carried on
 through them or through ministers of   
other nations stationed  at ,washington4

 ,these agents are called ministers and 
are of three grades  7#a7 envoys        
extraordinary and ministers             
plenipotentiary1 7#b7 ministers         
resident1 7#c7 chargs d'affaires4 ,these
 grades correspond to the lower  grades 
of similar services in ,european        
countries4 ,we have no grade            
corresponding to that of ambassador4    
,the ,united ,states has ministers in   
about thirty-three countries4 ,the chief
 legations are those of ,great          
,britain1 ,france1 ,germany and ,russia4
 ,the salary attached to each of  these 
legations is #ag1ejj4 ,the social       
demands upon ministers are great1  and1 
as a rule1 the expenses of ministers    
have been more than their  salaries4    
,ministers of foreign powers receive a  
much larger compensation  than do ours4 
,to protect our commercial interests    
abroad1 and our seamen and vessels  in  
foreign ports1 the ,united ,states has  
agents resident in all foreign          
sea-ports of any prominence4 ,their     

duties are numerous4 ,they ship  seamen1
 certify invoices1 take testimony1      
examine emigrants1 etc4 ,they  transmit 
to the ,state ,department monthly       
reports concerning any matter  of       
commercial or social interest occurring 
at their stations4 ,these  reports are  
published monthly by the department and 
have a wide  gratuitous circulation4    
,this system is called the consular     
service2 and  is also under the charge  
of a separate bureau4 ,these agents1    
called  consuls1 are of three ranks and 
titles2 7#a7 consul-generals1 7#b7      
consuls1 7#c7 consular agents1 of whom  
#ahj are salaried1 the rest being  paid 
by fees4 ,the names of the other bureaus
 indicate the nature of the  duties     
performed by each4    ,the ,department  
of ,state has been prominently before   
the people during  the last two years in
 consequence of the ,pan-,american      
,congress1#a  composed of               
representatives from all ,american      
nations4 ,this congress met  in #ahhi1  

under the auspices of the ,state        
,department at ,washington1 to  consider
 subjects of common interest1 such as   
international arbitration1  railroad and
 steamship communication1 uniform money 
and commercial  regulations4 ,various   
standing committees and commissions were
 provided  for2 and it is believed that 
through their efforts better commercial 
and  social relations with the ,south   
,american ,republics will be            
established4  ,the ,international       
,marine ,conference1 composed of        
representatives from  all marine powers1
 likewise met at ,washington under the  
auspices of the  same department1 and   
adopted a code of marine regulations for
 the  guidance of all nations4          
,footnote #a3 ,the ,proceedings of the  
,pan ,american ,congress were published 
by the ,department of ,state1 and also  
in the ,tribune ,monthly for            
,september1 #ahij4 ,articles upon the   
subject lay ,mr4 ,romero1 the ,mexican  
,minister1 appeared in the ,north       

,american ,review1 ,september and       
,october1 #ahij4    ,in foreign         
relations the department has been       
chiefly  occupied of late in the        
attempted settlement of the right of the
 ,english  and ,canadians to capture    
seals in ,bering's ,sea and ,straits1   
and of the  rights of ,american and     
,english fishermen#a in the fishing     
grounds off  the coast of ,new          
,foundland2 in the conclusion of a new  
extradition#b  treaty with ,england1 and
 of various treaties concerning trade   
with other  nations4    ,footnote #a3   
,see ,tribune ,monthly entitled ,our    
,continent1 or ,america  for the        
,americans4    ,footnote #b3 ,an        
excellent monograph upon the subject of 
,extradition1 by  ,hon4 ,j4,b4 ,moore1  
has been published by the ,state        
,department4    ,the ,treasury          
,department4--,this department was      
created by act of  ,september #b1 #aghi4
 ,there are two assistant secretaries4  
,the department  is divided into a large

 number of divisions1 with the following
 chief  officers3 7#a7 ,the             
,comptrollers1 7#b7 the ,auditors1 7#c7 
,treasurer1 7#d7  ,register1 7#e7       
,commissioner of ,customs1 7#f7         
,commissioner of ,internal  ,revenue1   
7#g7 ,comptroller of the ,currency1 7#h7
 ,chief of the ,bureau of  ,statistics1 
7#i7 ,superintendent of the ,bureau of  
,engraving and ,printing1  7#aj7        
,director of the ,mint1 7#aa7           
,superintendent of the ,life ,saving    
,service1 7#ab7                         
,supervising-,surgeon-,general of the   
,marine ,hospital  ,service1 7#ac7      
,supervising-,inspector-,general of     
,steam ,vessels4 ,other  officers are1  
the ,supervising ,architect1            
,commissioner of ,navigation1           
,solicitor of the ,treasury1 and        
,chairman of the ,light ,house ,board4  
,the mention of the various divisions   
indicates the importance and  variety of
 the duties coming under this           
department4 ,the ,secretary is  charged 

with the entire management of the       
national finances4 ,he submits  annually
 to ,congress estimates of the probable 
revenues and  disbursements of the      
,government1 prepares plans for the     
improvement of  the revenue and for the 
support of the public credit1 and       
superintends  the collection of the     
revenue4 ,two comptrollers pass upon all
 claims  against the government and     
accounts received from the auditors4    
,six  auditors examine and adjust       
accounts relating to the expenditures of
 the  various branches of the           
government4    ,the ,treasurer of the   
,united ,states receives and keeps its  
moneys1  disburses them on the          
,secretary's warrants1 and manages the  
,independent  ,treasury ,system4 ,the   
,independent or ,sub-,treasury ,system  
was adopted by  ,congress in #ahdf4 ,by 
this means the ,treasury ,department is 
independent  of the banking system of   
the country2 but has established        
sub-treasuries  in the principal cities 

of the ,union for the receipt and       
disbursement of  public moneys4 ,there  
are sub-treasuries in ,new ,york1 ,san  
,francisco1  ,saint ,louis1 ,chicago1   
,boston1 ,philadelphia1 ,baltimore1 ,new
 ,orleans and  ,cincinnati4 ,for greater
 convenience moneys are also deposited  
at certain  designated banks4 ,secretary
 ,windom1 however1 began rapidly        
removing such  deposits from the banks  
and announced his intention to cease the
 placing  of deposits with any bank4    
,the ,register of the ,treasury is the  
official book-keeper of the ,united     
,states4 ,the ,commissioners of ,customs
 and of ,internal ,revenue have charge  
respectively of the collection of       
customs duties and internal revenue     
taxes4 ,the ,comptroller of the         
,currency has control of the national   
banks4 ,the ,chief of the ,bureau of    
,statistics collects and publishes the  
statistics of our foreign commerce4 ,in 
the ,bureau of ,engraving and  ,printing
 are designed1 engraved and printed all 

government bonds1  national bank notes1 
drafts1 ,united ,states notes1 etc41 for
 which work  about #abjj persons are    
employed4 ,the director of the ,mint has
 general  supervision over all mints and
 assay offices4 ,in addition to his     
annual  report he publishes yearly a    
report on the statistics of the         
production  of precious metals4    ,the 
titles of the other officers indicate   
the general duties of each4  ,the whole 
department employs about #c1djj persons 
at ,washington4    ,some of the more    
important public questions coming within
 the province  of the ,treasury         
,department at the present time are 7#a7
 the ,tariff1 which  has been settled   
for some years by the high tariff act of
 this ,congress2  7#b7 the silver       
question involving the gravest questions
 of finance1  likewise settled for a    
time by the silver act of this          
,congress2 7#c7 the  purchase of bonds  
on the market as a device to reduce the 
surplus and  prevent the accumulation of

 money in the ,treasury2 7#d7 the       
national  banking system1 whose basis is
 being removed by the rapid payment of  
the  public debt2 7#e7 the merits of the
 ,independent ,treasury ,system by which
  it is claimed that money is kept out  
of circulation and a stringency  caused 
in the money market2 and 7#f7 the       
advisability of transferring the        
revenue marine service to the ,navy     
,department4    ,the ,war               
,department4--,the ,war ,department was 
established ,august #g1  #aghi4 ,there  
is one assistant secretary4 ,the chiefs 
of the bureaus into  which the          
department is divided1 are officers of  
the ,united ,states ,army1  and a part  
of the military establishment4 ,their   
titles and duties are as  follows4 ,the 
,adjutant ,general of the ,army1 who has
 under him a large  force of clerks1 has
 the duty of issuing orders1 conducting 
the  correspondence of the department1  
and keeping the record4 ,the            
,inspector-,general inspects and reports

 upon the condition of the army at  all 
points1 and the accounts of the         
disbursing officers4 ,the               
,quartermaster-,general has charge of   
the clothing1 quarters1 and  supplies1  
except food supplies1 which form the    
province of the  ,commissary-,general4  
,the ,surgeon-,general has charge of the
 medical  department1 of the ,army      
,medical ,museum1 and a special library4
 ,the ,chief  of ,engineers has charge  
of the construction of fortifications1  
etc4 ,the  ,judge-,advocate-,general    
reviews the proceedings of              
courts-martial1 and  advises the        
,secretary on points of law4 ,there are 
also a  ,paymaster-,general1 a ,chief of
 ,ordnance1 and a ,chief ,signal        
,officer4 ,the  ,chief ,signal ,officer 
has charge of the system of             
communicating with  distant points by   
means of various systems of signals1 the
 most  noteworthy of which is that of   
the heliograph1 by which information is 
conveyed by the use of sun-reflecting   

mirrors4 ,communication has been        
established between points #abe miles   
distant by means of a heliograph  with a
 reflecting surface of but twenty square
 inches4    ,the ,war ,department       
answers more nearly than any other to   
the ,department  of ,public ,works found
 in other governments4 ,all public      
improvements1 the  construction of      
docks1 bridges1 and the improvement of  
rivers and  harbors1 are under the      
supervision of army engineers4 ,all     
arctic  explorations and the            
explorations of our western territory1  
have been  conducted by army officers   
under the direction of the ,secretary of
 ,war4    ,the publication of war       
records is being made by a special board
 in the  ,war ,department4 ,thirty-five 
volumes have been published4 ,it is     
estimated  that there will be one       
hundred and nineteen volumes when the   
work is  completed4 ,the ,secretary of  
,war also has charge of the ,military   
,academy  at ,west ,point1 of certain   

national parks1 and homes for disabled  
soldiers4    ,the army is commanded by a
 lieutenant-general under whom are three
  major-generals and six                
brigadier-generals4 ,it consists of     
about #bf1jjj  men distributed in the   
three divisions of the ,missouri1 the   
,atlantic1  and the ,pacific1 of which  
the first contains four departments1 the
  second1 one1 and the third1 three4    
,congress appropriates and expends      
through the ,war ,department #djj1jjj   
yearly on the ,national ,guard for its  
armament and equipment4 ,the aggregate  
of this reserve army regularly          
organized and uniformed is #ajf1ejj men4
 ,the ,secretary also details army      
officers to furnish military instruction
 at various colleges4    ,the principal 
questions to-day concerning the ,war    
,department are the  advisability of    
strengthening our coast defences1 and   
the lessening of  the desertions in the 
army1 which amount yearly to from ten to
 fifteen  per cent1 of the total        

strength of the army4    ,the ,navy     
,department4--,the ,navy ,department was
 established ,april #cj1  #agih4 ,there 
is one assistant secretary4 ,the routine
 work of the  department is distributed 
among eight bureaus3 7#a7 of ,yards and 
,docks1  7#b7 of ,equipment and         
,recruiting1 7#c7 of ,navigation1 7#d7  
of ,ordinance1  7#e7 of ,construction   
and ,repair1 7#f7 of ,steam             
,engineering1 7#g7 of  ,provisions and  
,clothing1 7#h7 of ,medicine and        
,surgery4 ,the chiefs of the  bureaus   
are officers of the ,united ,states     
,navy4 ,there is a hydrographic  office 
attached to the bureau of navigation1   
which prepares maps1 charts  and        
nautical books relating to navigation1  
and makes investigations  concerning    
marine meteorology4 ,this ,department   
has charge of the ,naval  ,observatory  
for which a new set of buildings is now 
being built at  ,washington4 ,the       
,department publishes yearly1 for the   
guidance of seamen1  the nautical       

almanac1 the preparation of which is    
intrusted to a  separate bureau4 ,the   
department also compiles and publishes  
naval  records of the recent war1 and   
has charge of the ,naval ,academy at    
,annapolis1 ,maryland4 ,the ,officers of
 the ,navy upon the active list  include
 one admiral1 one vice-admiral1 six     
rear-admirals1 and ten  commodores4 ,the
 naval force includes #aj1jjj officers  
and men1 together  with #b1jjj marines4 
,the number of vessels of the ,united   
,states ,navy when  all the ships now   
authorized are completed1 excluding     
those which by the  process of decay and
 the operation of law will by that date 
have been  condemned1 will comprise #aa 
armored and #ca unarmored vessels4 ,the 
five  stations maintained are the       
,asiatic1 ,european1 ,north ,atlantic1  
,south  ,atlantic1 and ,pacific4 ,the   
chief matter of present public interest 
concerning this department is the       
creation of a new navy by the           
construction of modern steel vessels4   

,this new policy was begun in #ahhb4    
,the ,interior ,department4--,the       
,interior ,department was created in    
#ahdi1 to take charge of various duties 
not properly belonging to any of  the   
existing departments4 ,there are two    
assistant secretaries4 ,the  chiefs of  
the bureaus into which this department  
is divided1 and their  respective duties
 are as follows3 ,the ,commissioner of  
the ,general ,land  ,office has charge  
of all the public land of the           
government1 its care1  supervision1 and 
sale or distribution4 ,in another       
chapter we give  further details        
concerning the operations of this       
important bureau4    ,the ,commissioner 
of ,pensions has charge of the granting 
of pensions to  old soldiers and        
sailors4 ,he has a large force at       
,washington4 ,there are  eighteen       
pension agencies in different parts of  
the country4 ,in #ahjh the  ,united     
,states assumed all the state pension   
obligations4 ,the act of #ahah  gave    

pensions to all who had served nine     
months in the ,revolutionary  ,war2     
other wars were afterwards included4    
,the acts of the period  beginning #ahfb
 have enormously increased the amount   
paid4 ,the report of  the ,commissioner 
for #ahij shows that at the close of the
 fiscal year of  #ahhi the number of    
pensioners was #ecg1idd1 and the annual 
expenditures  for pensions              
#aje1ebh1ahj4ch4    ,the disability     
pension law passed ,june #bg1ahij1 will 
greatly lengthen  the pension list and  
increase the annual expenditures4 ,the  
present  ,commissioner says in his last 
report that it is believed that there   
are  probably over one hundred thousand 
claims in this office which can be      
properly allowed under the provisions of
 these regulations4 ,the act of  ,june  
#bg1 #ahij1 is the first disability     
pension law in the history of the  world
 which grants to soldiers and sailors   
pensions for disabilities  which are not
 proven to have been incurred in the    

service and in line of  duty4 ,speaker  
,reed of the ,house characterized it as 
the most generous  piece of pension     
legislation ever passed by any nation on
 earth4    ,the ,commissioner of        
,patents has charge of the granting of  
patents4 ,up  to #agic the granting of  
letters-patent was given to a board     
consisting  of the ,secretary of ,state1
 ,secretary of ,war and the ,attorney   
,general1  the records and models being 
kept in the ,department of ,state4 ,in  
#agic  the granting of patents was given
 exclusively to the ,secretary of       
,state4  ,in #ahba the clerk of the     
,state ,department who examined         
applications for  patents received the  
title of ,superintendent of the ,patent 
,office1 and  on ,july #d1 #ahcf1 the   
,patent ,office was created as a        
separate bureau and  a ,commissioner of 
,patents created4    ,about #bd1jjj     
patents are issued annually4 ,there is  
an ,assistant  ,commissioner-in-chief1  
an ,examiner of ,interferences1 three   

,examiners-in-chief1 thirty-eight       
,principal ,examiners1 and a large force
  of assistant examiners for different  
branches4 ,patents run for seventeen    
years4 ,the annual receipts of the      
bureau from fees more than equal the    
expenditures1 and the office now has a  
surplus of several millions to  its     
credit in the ,treasury4    ,the        
,commissioner of ,indian ,affairs has   
charge of all matters  concerning the   
,indians1 their education1 government   
and support4 ,there  are #bci ,indian   
schools supported by appropriations made
 by ,congress1 #adg  of which are       
controlled directly by the ,indian      
,bureau4 ,the average  attendance of    
pupils at these schools is between      
eleven and twelve  thousand4 ,the number
 of ,indians in our country 7not        
counting those of  ,alaska7 is about    
#bej1jjj4 ,they occupy or have control  
of about  #aaf1fcj1ajf acres4    ,the   
,bureau of ,education was originally    
established as an independent           

,department by act of ,congress1        
approved by the ,president ,march #b1   
#ahfg4  ,by an act of ,congress which   
took effect ,july #a1 #ahfi1 this       
,department  was changed to an ,office  
or ,bureau in the ,interior ,department4
 ,the  duties of this ,bureau are to    
collect and diffuse information         
regarding  schools1 methods of          
instruction and school discipline1 etc41
 and  otherwise to promote the cause of 
education4 ,the results of the          
investigations here carried on1 though  
with a small clerical force1 are  of the
 utmost value to all educators1 and such
 is the extent to which  the merit of   
the work and publications of this office
 are recognized by  the leading         
educators of the country1 that1 in their
 opinion1 the ,bureau  should be        
re-established as a department1 and its 
chief be made a member  of the          
,president's cabinet4 ,the publications 
of the ,bureau consist of  7#a7 ,annual 
,reports1 which set forth statistics and

 general information  concerning the    
educational systems of the ,states1     
,territories1 larger  cities1           
universities1 and colleges2             
professional1 special1 and  scientific  
schools1 academies1 preparatory schools 
and kindergartens1  with a summary of   
the progress of education in foreign    
countries2 7#b7  ,special ,reports1 on  
subjects pertinent to the times2 7#c7   
,occasional  ,bulletins1 on matters of  
current educational interest2 7#d7      
,circulars  of ,information1 on         
important questions of educational work 
or history1  which are issued in yearly 
series4 ,under this last title there is 
now in  course of publication a very    
valuable series of monographs upon the  
,history of ,higher ,education in the   
various ,states4 ,these monographs are  
being prepared by competent scholars    
under the editorial supervision of  ,dr4
 ,h4,b4 ,adams of the ,johns ,hopkins   
,university4 ,numerous ,annual ,reports 
have been issued1 and one is now in     

press1 for the year #ahhi-ij4 ,the      
working force of the ,bureau is divided 
into three divisions3 7#a7  ,records2   
7#b7 ,statistics2 7#c7 ,library and     
,museum4 ,the library of this  ,office  
contains one of the most valuable       
pedagogical collections in the  country4
    ,the ,commissioner of ,railroads has
 charge of the government's interests   
in certain railroads to which the       
,united ,states has granted loans of    
credit or subsidies in lands or bonds4  
,by the acts of ,july #a1 #ahfb1 and    
,july #a1 #ahfd1 ,congress1 in order to 
encourage the building of a             
trans-continental railroad1 granted to  
several ,pacific railroad  companies    
subsidies in land adjacent to the roads1
 and issued certain  amounts of bonds on
 which was guaranteed interest at the   
rate of six per  cent4 ,the amount of   
lands given and bonds issued were in    
proportion to  the number of miles of   
road constructed4 ,the lands were a     
gift4 ,the  bonds were to be repaid by  

the companies with all interest which   
might  have been advanced by the        
government4 ,from #ahej to #ahgb the    
various  railroads received a total of  
#aee1ejd1iid acres of lands1 and        
#adg1aaj1jfi proceeds of bonds and      
interest paid by the ,united ,states4   
,the roads have repaid of this amount   
#cf1gbc1dgg1 leaving at the present     
time due from the roads to the ,united  
,states the sum of #aaj1chf1eib4  ,this 
they will be unable to pay upon the     
maturity of the bonds1 and a  bill has  
been before ,congress for several       
sessions looking towards a  better      
adjustment of this debt4 ,the           
,commissioner of ,railroads was         
originally styled the ,auditor of       
,railroad ,accounts4 ,the office was    
created ,june #ai1 #ahgh4    ,geological
 ,survey4--,this branch of the ,interior
 ,department was  established in #ahgi4 
,its work is the investigation and      
determination of  the geological        
structure of the various sections of the

 country1 the  composition of soils1 the
 reclamation of waste lands1 etc4 ,in   
this  bureau are made topographical     
surveys and irrigation surveys of arid  
regions of the ,united ,states4 ,the    
publications connected with this work1  
number ten ,annual ,reports1 thirteen   
,monographs1 fifty-eight ,bulletins  and
 five ,statistical ,papers4 ,in these   
there is a discussion of the  geological
 structure of every state and territory1
 and information  concerning the        
occurrence and production of each great 
metallic and  mineral staple of the     
country4 ,the bureau comprises one      
geographical1  twelve geological1 six   
paleontological and four accessory      
divisions4 ,a  division of mines and    
mining publishes an annual report on the
 mineral  resources and production of   
the ,united ,states4    ,the            
,superintendent of the ,census4--,the   
,superintendent of the ,census is       
appointed each decade for the purpose of
 taking the regular decennial  census4  

,the ,eleventh ,census has just been    
taken4 ,the first was taken in  #agij4  
,each census has shown a tendency to be 
more elaborate and to  embrace a greater
 number of subjects than any preceding4 
,there were  employed in the taking of  
the ,eleventh ,census #db1jjj           
enumerators1 #b1jjj  clerks1 from #hjj  
to #ijj special agents1 #age supervisors
 and #be experts4    ,in addition to    
these eight bureaus1 the department has 
charge of various  other branches of    
government4 ,all of the territories come
 under the  ,secretary's supervision1   
and look to him in case of any          
difficulty4 ,the  ,secretary also has   
charge of the ,yellowstone ,national    
,park1 the ,hot  ,springs ,reservation  
in ,arkansas1 and of certain hospitals  
and  eleemosynary institutions in the   
,district of ,columbia4 ,a              
,superintendent  of ,public ,documents  
looks after the receipt1 distribution1  
and sale of  government publications4   
,the most important subjects of recent  

legislation concerning this  department 
have been the dependent pension act1 the
 act providing for  the survey of       
,western lands suitable for irrigation1 
and the land  forfeiture act4 ,by this  
act over #h1jjj1jjj acres of lands were 
forfeited  by the railroads for failure 
to fulfill the conditions under which   
the  land was originally granted to     
them4    ,the ,post ,office             
,department4--,the ,post ,office        
,department was  established in #aghi1  
but the ,postmaster-,general did not    
become a cabinet  officer until #ahbi4  
,the ,postmaster-,general has charge and
 management of  the department1 and of  
the domestic and foreign mail service4  
,he can  establish post offices and     
appoint postmasters of the fourth and   
fifth  classes1 i4e4 those whose        
salaries are less than #a1jjj4 ,these   
number  over #ej1jjj4 ,the total number 
of postoffices is about #ef1jjj4 ,the   
,president appoints to those of the     
first three classes4 ,other officers    

besides the ,assistant                  
,postmasters-,general are1 the          
,superintendents of  the ,money ,order  
,division1 of ,foreign ,mails1 and of   
the ,railway ,service1  and an          
,assistant ,attorney-,general for the   
department4    ,the ,united ,states is a
 member of the ,universal ,postal       
,union1 of which  most1 if not all1 of  
the civilized countries are members4    
,the central  office is known as the    
,international ,bureau of the ,universal
 ,postal  ,union1 and is conducted under
 the superintendence of the ,swiss      
,postal  ,administration1 and its       
expenses are borne by all the nations   
composing  the ,union4 ,the revenues of 
the ,post ,office ,department nearly    
equal the  expenditures1 and would have 
exceeded them before this but for the   
fact  that as soon as the amount of     
receipts has warranted1 improvements    
have  been made in the service1 through 
the reduction of postage rates and  the 
extension of the free delivery system4  

,it has never been the policy  of the   
government to make this department a    
source of revenue4    ,the patronage of 
the postoffice department is the most   
important of any  of the departments1   
and it is very largely for this reason  
that the  ,postmaster-,general is a     
member of the ,cabinet4 ,crawford of    
,south  ,carolina secured in #ahbj the  
passage of an act limiting the term of  
office of postmasters to four years4    
,the appointment of postmasters does    
not come under the ,civil ,service ,act4
 ,it is the principal aim of civil      
service reformers1 that postmasters     
should be appointed under its           
provisions4 ,the most important         
questions of public policy concerning   
this department1 are the reduction of   
postage rates on letters to one  cent2  
the advisability of the establishment of
 a postal telegraph  service2 the       
extension of the free delivery system1  
and the relation of  the department to  
the civil service regulations4    ,the  

,department of ,justice4--,the office of
 the ,attorney-,general of  the ,united 
,states was established in #aghi2 the   
,department of ,justice not  until      
#ahgj4 ,the ,attorney-,general gives    
advice upon legal points to the         
,president and also1 when requested to  
do so1 to the heads of  departments4 ,he
 directs the cases of the ,united       
,states and sometimes  appears in them1 
especially in the ,supreme ,court4 ,he  
supervises the  ,united ,states         
,marshals and ,district ,attorneys4 ,his
 substitute and  principal assistant is 
the ,solicitor-,general4 ,there are two 
,assistant-,attorneys-,general1 the     
business of the one being connected     
with the ,supreme ,court1 and of the    
other with the ,court of ,claims4 ,there
  are also1 as mentioned before1 certain
 legal officers attached to the  other  
departments4 ,additional counsel is     
frequently employed to assist  in the   
argument of important cases4 ,to the    
,attorney-,general belongs the  duty of 

recommending persons to the office of   
judges1 etc41 in the  ,united ,states   
,circuit and ,district ,courts4    ,the 
,department of ,agriculture4--,the      
,department of ,agriculture was         
organized as a separate department in   
the year #ahfb4 ,in #ahhi its head      
became a cabinet officer4 ,there is one 
,assistant ,secretary4 ,the duties  of  
the ,secretary are to promote in every  
way the agricultural interests  of the  
country4 ,for this purpose the          
department is separated into  thirteen  
bureaus1 under the following officers   
7#a7 the ,entomologist1 7#b7  ,chief of 
the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 7#c7  
,chemist1 7#d7 ,botanist1 7#e7  ,chief  
of the ,section of ,vegetable           
,pathology1 7#f7 ,statistician1 7#g7    
,ornithologist1 7#h7 ,director of the   
,office of ,experiment ,stations1 7#i7  
,microscopist1 7#aj7 ,pomologist1 7#aa7 
,chief of the ,forestry ,division1 7#ab7
  ,chief of the ,seed ,division1 and    
7#ac7 ,weather ,bureau4 ,the enumeration

 of  these titles indicates the general 
nature of the work of the department4   
,here are investigated the habits of    
injurious insects and birds and the     
best means for their destruction2 the   
causes of and remedies for  vegetable   
and fruit diseases4 ,the ,chief of the  
,bureau of ,animal ,industry  inspects  
herds of cattle and causes to be        
slaughtered those suffering  from a     
contagious disease4 ,under a law passed 
in #ahij1 he also inspects  all cattle  
and meat intended for export to foreign 
countries4 ,he  investigates causes of  
and remedies for cattle diseases1 the   
best method  of breeding1 etc4 ,the     
,statistician publishes monthly and     
annual reports  concerning statistics of
 the condition1 prospects and harvests  
of the  principal crops1 the wages of   
farm labor1 etc4 ,the ,chemist analyzes 
fertilizers1 soils1 etc4 ,by the act of 
,march #b1 #ahhg1 #ae1jjj per annum  was
 appropriated by ,congress to each of   
the ,states and ,territories which  have

 established an agricultural college or 
an agricultural college  department1 for
 the establishment of experiment        
stations4 ,the ,department  of          
,agriculture has general oversight over 
these stations4    ,the ,department     
carries on experiments regarding the    
feasibility of  profitable silk reeling 
in this country1 for which purpose there
 is a  separate division2 it also makes 
experiments in the manufacture of sugar 
from sorghum and from beets grown in    
this country4 ,the best qualities of    
seeds are tested and distributed        
gratuitously among the farmers4 ,efforts
  are made to introduce and foster the  
cultivation of new kinds of             
agricultural products1 and in various   
ways to advance agricultural  interests4
    ,congress1 by an act passed during  
its last session1 #ahij1 created a      
weather bureau under the ,agricultural  
,department and transferred to it  the  
business of weather prognostication     
which had been tinder the ,chief        

,signal officer in the ,war ,department4
 ,the service remains unchanged4 ,it    
has stations at the military stations in
 the interior of the continent1  at     
life-saving stations1 and at other      
points in the ,states and  ,territories4
 ,meteorological observations are taken 
at each station1 and  the information   
forwarded to the central office at      
,washington1 where  weather predictions 
for the succeeding day or days are made4
 ,the  predictions are given            
gratuitously to the public through a    
system of  flag signals1 by the         
distribution of weather maps1 and by    
publication in  the daily papers4 ,the  
percentage of successful forecasts of   
the weather  during #ahij was #hd4d4    
,the ,department publishes the result of
 the scientific investigations  carried 
on by its officers in ,annual ,reports  
of the ,secretary and  ,chiefs of       
,divisions2 in a series of ,circulars on
 special subjects1 in  regular          
,bulletins2 and in a series of studies  

on ,insect ,life4 ,these  documents are 
distributed gratuitously4    ,the       
,department of ,labor4--,the ,department
 of ,labor was created in  #ahhd1 as a  
bureau under the ,interior ,department4 
,in #ahhh1 it became a  separate        
department4 ,it is a purely statistical 
bureau4 ,it collects and  publishes     
statistics on the cost of production1 on
 wages1 labor  statistics1 etc4 ,its six
 published reports are on 7#a7          
,industrial  ,depressions1 7#b7 ,convict
 ,labor1 7#c7 ,strikes and ,lockouts1   
7#d7 ,working  ,women in ,large ,cities1
 7#e7 ,marriage and ,divorce1 and 7#f7  
,railroad  ,employs4    ,had all the    
executive departments been created at   
one time by a  constitutional           
convention1 we should be justified in   
expecting a greater  symmetry and       
uniformity in the naming and grouping of
 chief officials4  ,an inspection of the
 various executive officers shows that  
not a few are  under departments other  
than would be expected2 and the naming  

of  officials is often misleading as to 
their importance4 ,within recent  years 
there has appeared a strong tendency to 
depart yet more from a  systematic      
grouping of executive duties under      
departments4 ,executive  functions have 
been given to bodies entirely           
independent of the  departments4 ,to    
complete our survey of the federal      
executive we must  consider the         
following3 7#a7 the ,interstate         
,commerce ,commission1 7#b7 the  ,fish  
,commission1 7#c7 the ,civil ,service   
,commission1 7#d7 the ,government       
,printing ,office1 7#e7 the ,national   
,museum1 ,smithsonian ,institution1 the 
,bureau of ,ethnology1 7#f7 the         
,congressional ,library4    ,the        
,interstate ,commerce                   
,commission4--,with the growth of our   
railroad  system have come various      
abuses4 ,roads have discriminated in    
favor of  one shipper over others1 and  
of one locality over others4            
,combinations  have been formed to keep 

up railroad passenger and freight       
charges4  ,their influence has been used
 in political offices through the       
issuing  of free passenger tickets1 etc4
 ,various other minor abuses have       
centered  around these corporations4    
,the ,states have been powerless to     
provide a  remedy for the roads have    
been mostly engaged in interstate       
commerce  with which the ,states are    
forbidden by the constitution to        
interfere4 ,to  provide a remedy for the
 principal of these abuses ,congress    
passed the  act of ,february #d1 #ahhg1 
regulating the practice of railroads and
  creating the ,interstate ,commerce    
,commission to enforce the provisions4  
,the ,commission is composed of five    
commissioners appointed by the          
,president4 ,the ,commission sits as a  
court and adjudicates complaints        
arising between railroads or between    
citizens and railroads1 involving       
principles covered by the act4 ,it has  
rapidly attained its present  position  

as one of the most important courts in  
the ,united ,states4 ,a  statistician1  
attached to the ,commission1 publishes  
annual statistics of  railroads1        
covering the extent1 the amount1 and    
value of their stock and  bonds1        
expenses of management1 receipts1 c4    
,the act1 of course1  applies only to   
those railroads lying in more than one  
,state4    ,the ,fish ,commission4--,the
 ,fish ,commission was created by act of
  ,congress in #ahgj4 ,its chief is the 
,commissioner of ,fish and ,fisheries4  
,there is also an ,assistant            
,commissioner4 ,this ,commission stands 
in the  same relation to the fishery    
interests of the country as does the    
,department of ,agriculture to          
agricultural interests4 ,both are       
scientific  and practical departments4  
,the former investigates the food1      
habits and  enemies of fishes2          
experiments concerning the best methods 
of their  capture1 the best kind of     
baits1 apparatus1 etc4 ,it collects     

statistics  of fish and fisheries of the
 whole country4 ,probably its most      
important  service is the propagation   
and distribution of food fishes4 ,under 
its  direction are hatched and liberated
 millions of the young of the best  food
 fishes in the various inland waters of 
the ,united ,states4 ,rivers  suitable  
for black bass1 shad1 carp1 or other    
food fishes1 but not  having them in    
their waters1 are supplied4 ,for these  
purposes the  ,commission owns and      
manages various fish hatcheries1 fish   
distributing  vessels and cars1         
propagating ponds1 etc4    ,the yearly  
appropriation for carrying on this work 
amounts to nearly a  quarter of a       
million of dollars4    ,the ,civil      
,service ,commission4--,to correct the  
wasteful and  demoralizing spoils       
system1 in vogue ever since the first   
administration  of ,jackson1 ,congress  
passed1 ,january #af1 #ahhc1 an act to  
regulate and  improve the ,civil        
,service of the ,united ,states4 ,under 

the provisions of  this act1 the        
,president appoints three commissioners1
 only two of whom  may be of the same   
political party1 to administer the act4 
,it is one of  the duties of this       
,commission to provide examinations for 
testing the  fitness of applicants for  
public service4 ,appointments in those  
branches  of the government coming under
 this act can only be made from persons 
who have passed the civil service       
examination successfully4 ,adherence to 
one or the other political parties has  
little weight in the selection  of      
employs4 ,under the regulation of this  
act are3 the nine executive  departments
 at ,washington1 the ,civil ,service    
,commission itself1 the  customs        
districts1 eleven in number1 in each of 
which there are fifty or  more employs1 
all postoffices in which there are fifty
 or more  employs1 and the ,railway     
,mail ,service2 including altogether    
about  #bh1ejj clerks4    ,the          
,government ,printing ,office4--,in     

order that there may be  intelligent    
legislation and administration1 an      
extensive system of  reports is         
required4 ,the publications of the      
federal government are of  course very  
numerous4 ,each department1 bureau1 and 
division makes an  annual report4 ,the  
proceedings of ,congress are reported   
verbatim and  published4 ,this printing 
and binding are done by the government  
through  the government printing office1
 established for that purpose4 ,the     
,bureau  of ,printing and ,engraving1   
which is under the ,treasury            
,department1 does  no part of this4 ,its
 duties are limited to those of         
engraving and  printing banknotes1 etc4 
,the chief of the ,government ,printing 
,office is  styled the ,government      
,printer1 and is appointed by the       
,president4    ,the ,national ,museum1  
,smithsonian ,institution and ,bureau of
  ,ethnology4--,in #ahbi ,james         
,smithson1 bequeathed by his will the   
whole  of his property1 something over  

half a million dollars1 to the ,united  
,states of ,america to found at         
,washington1 under the name of the      
,smithsonian ,institution1 an           
establishment for the increase and      
diffusion  of knowledge among men4 ,this
 fund held by the ,united ,states now   
amounts  to #gjb1jjj yielding six per   
cent1 per annum4 ,in #ahdf ,congress    
determined to devote this gift of       
,smithson to the founding and support   
of a museum4 ,the ,national ,museum was 
established in #ahdf1 and is  supported 
by annual appropriations by ,congress4  
,in #ahgi ,congress created a special   
bureau under the ,secretary of the      
,smithsonian ,institution1 to be called 
the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 to make      
researches in ,north ,american          
anthropology4 ,this work is supported by
  annual appropriations4 ,the ,national 
,museum1 ,smithsonian ,institution and  
,bureau of ,ethnology1 though distinct  
institutions#a are under  substantially 
the same management4 ,their reports are 

of great scientific  value4    ,the     
,librarian of ,congress4--,the          
,librarian of ,congress is an           
independent officer and reports directly
 to ,congress4 ,he has complete  control
 of the ,congressional ,library1 now    
situated in the ,capitol  building4 ,the
 books now collected in this library    
have been purchased  from time to time  
by ,congress4 ,there is a law requiring 
that two copies  of every book1         
pamphlet1 newspaper1 photograph1 etc41  
copyrighted in the  ,united ,states1    
shall be sent to the ,congressional     
,library4 ,it thus  receives large and  
valuable additions yearly4 ,the ,library
 now numbers  over half a million       
volumes4 ,a new building for the library
 is in  process of construction1 and it 
will have cost when completed between   
seven and eight million dollars4        
,footnote #a3 ,a valuable and suggestive
 paper on ,the ,origin of the  ,national
 ,scientific and ,educational           
,institutions of the ,united ,states1   

by ,dr4 ,g4 ,brown ,goode1 ,assistant   
,secretary of the ,smithsonian          
,institution1 was published by the      
,american ,historical ,association4     
,vol4  ,,iv1 ,part #b4 ,g4,p4 ,putnam's 
,sons1 ,new ,york1 #ahij4               
,,chapter ,,xi4    ,the ,federal        
,judiciary4      ,in forming the        
,constitution the framers of our        
government were  controlled by the      
principle that the powers which belong  
to all  governments can be most safely  
and satisfactorily exercised by dividing
  them according to their nature among  
three separate branches1 the  executive1
 the legislative1 and the judicial4     
,under the ,articles of  ,confederation 
this maxim of government had been       
disregarded4 ,the old  ,continental     
,congress had been given under that     
plan1 not only  legislative powers1 but 
also those executive and judicial powers
 which  the ,states had yielded to the  
central government4    ,the lack of a   
,federal judiciary was1 as ,justice     

,story says1 one of the  vital defects  
of the old confederation4 ,hamilton1 the
 expounder of the  ,constitution1 said3 
,laws are a dead letter without courts  
to enforce  and apply them4    ,the     
reasons why a national system of courts 
was necessary were in order  that there 
might be some power3--    #a4 ,to give  
to laws an interpretation that would be 
uniform throughout  the land4 ,if there 
were thirteen independent courts1 each  
giving ,federal  decisions on the same  
causes arising under the same national  
laws1 what  but confusion and           
contradiction could arise8    #b4 ,to   
settle disputes between the ,states and 
citizens of different  ,states4    #c4  
,to construe and interpret the          
,constitution itself1 and decide all    
disputes arising under it act of either 
,congress or of a ,state  legislature   
contrary to the ,constitution can       
therefore be valid4 ,hence1  the        
necessity of some power which should    
have authority to determine the         

constitutionality of an act when brought
 into question1 and--    #e4 ,there     
should be the power of determining the  
constitutionality of any  act of a      
,state legislature1 and thus enforce    
upon ,state legislatures the            
restrictions laid upon them1 such as1   
for example1 the inability to lay       
impost duties1 to pass laws violating   
the obligation of contracts1 etc41  or  
to regulate objects given exclusively to
 ,congress4 ,the manifest  necessity of 
such a power may be best stated by using
 ,hamilton's own  words 7,federalist1   
#cj73    ,what would avail restrictions 
on the authority of the ,state          
legislatures without some constitutional
 mode of enforcing the  observance of   
them8 ,the ,states1 by the plan of the  
,constitution1 are  prohibited from     
doing a variety of things1 some of which
 are  incompatible with the interests of
 the ,union2 others with the principles 
of good government4 ,the imposition of  
duties on imported articles1 and  the   

emission of paper money are specimens of
 this kind4 ,no man of sense  will      
believe that such prohibition would be  
scrupulously regarded1  without some    
effectual power in the government to    
restrain or correct  infractions of     
them4 ,this power must be either a      
direct negative on the  ,state laws1 or 
an authority in the ,federal courts to  
annul such as might  be in manifest     
contravention of the articles of ,union4
 99 99 99 ,these  courts are to be the  
bulwarks of a limited constitution      
against  legislative encroachments4     
,these reasons were so strong that there
 was little or no objection in  the     
constitutional convention to the        
creation of a national judiciary1  but  
difficulty arose in determining its     
precise nature and powers4 ,as we  have 
learned1 the difficulty to be overcome  
in drafting our new scheme  of          
government was to satisfy ,state        
jealousies and interests1 and  preserve 
,state rights of government1 and yet to 

obtain a strong central  government2 and
 to harmonize ,state rights with        
,federal strength4    ,in forming the   
national judiciary1 the objects to be   
obtained1 difficult  of achievement1    
were1 to use the words of ,judge ,curtis
 7,federal ,courts  of ,united ,states73
 ,to construct a judicial power within  
the ,federal  ,government1 and to clothe
 it with attributes which would enable  
it to  secure the supremacy of the      
general constitution and all of its     
provisions2 to give to it exact         
authority that would maintain the       
dividing line between the powers of the 
,nation and the ,states1 and to  give to
 it no more3 and to add to these a      
faculty of dispensing justice  to       
foreigners1 to citizens of different    
,states and among the sovereign  ,states
 themselves1 with a more even hand and  
with a more assured  certainty of the   
great ends of justice than any ,state   
power could  furnish--these were objects
 not readily or easily to be obtained1  

and  yet they were obtained with        
wonderful success4    ,the establishment
 of the federal judiciary is given in a 
few words in  the ,constitution3 ,the   
judicial powers of the ,united ,states  
shall be  vested in one ,supreme ,court 
and in such inferior courts as ,congress
 may  from time to time ordain and      
establish4    ,in pursuance of this     
clause1 ,congress passed in #aghi1 what 
is known as  the ,judiciary ,act1 the   
first section of which reads3 ,the      
,supreme  ,court of the ,united ,states 
shall consist of one chief justice and  
five  associate justices4 ,this act also
 established the inferior federal       
courts1 the circuit and district courts1
 and also defined and fixed  their      
fields of jurisdiction1 i4e41 the class 
of cases which these  courts could have 
power to try4    ,the ,supreme ,court   
stands at the head of our national      
judiciary4 ,its  field of jurisdiction  
is the construction and exposition of   
the  ,constitution of the ,united       

,states4 ,hon4 ,s4,f4 ,miller1 senior   
justice of  this court1 speaking of the 
high character of the duties performed  
by  this court1 said3 ,this court1      
whether we take the character of the    
suitors that are brought before it1 or  
the importance of the subjects  of      
litigation over which it has final      
jurisdiction1 may be considered  the    
highest the world has ever seen4 ,it has
 power to bring ,states before  it1     
,states which some of our politicians   
have been in the habit of  considering  
sovereign1 not only when they come      
voluntarily1 but by  ,federal process   
they are subjected1 in certain cases1 to
 the judgment of  the court4 ,whatever  
these ,states may have been at the time 
of the  formation of the ,constitution1 
they now number their inhabitants by the
  millions1 and in wealth and           
civilization are equal to many of the   
independent sovereignties of ,europe4   
,there have been considerable changes in
 the structure and duties of the        

,supreme ,court since its formation4 ,at
 present there are nine justices1       
instead of six4 ,there is now one annual
 term of the court held1  beginning on  
the #b;d ,monday of ,october and        
continuing until about ,may #a4  ,of the
 nine justices six constitute a quorum4 
,the ,supreme ,court first met in       
,february1 #agij4 ,since its            
organization it  has had eight chief    
justices1 in the following order4       
,john ,jay1 #aghi-agie4       ,oliver   
,ellsworth1 #agie-ahja4       ,john     
,marshall1 #ahja-ahce4       ,r4,b4     
,taney1 #ahcf-ahfd4       ,s4,p4 ,chase1
 #ahfd-ahgc4       ,m4,r4 ,waite1       
#ahgc-ahhh4       ,m4 ,fuller1 #ahhh4   
,in #agie ,john ,rutledge was appointed 
to succeed ,jay1 received his           
commission1 and held one term of the    
court1 but was not confirmed by the     
,senate4    ,during the early years of  
the existence of the ,supreme ,court few
 cases  arose requiring its             
jurisdiction4 ,during the first term    

there was no  business to be transacted4
 ,in #ahja there were only ten cases on 
the  docket1 and for some years the     
average annual number of cases was      
twenty-four2 but in later years the     
number rapidly increased4 ,from #ahej   
the average number of cases decided was 
seventy-one1 while from #ahge to  #ahhj 
the average was three hundred and       
ninety-one per annum1 and now  there are
 more than a thousand cases awaiting a  
hearing1 and the court  is so far       
behindhand in its work that it takes    
from three to four years  for a case to 
come up for trial after having been     
entered upon the  docket4 ,at present   
there are about four hundred cases      
granted a hearing  yearly4    ,almost   
immediately after the adoption of the   
,constitution began  struggles and      
disputes between the ,states and the    
,federal ,government4 ,in  this contest 
the ,supreme ,court steadily upheld the 
central power1 and  did much by its     
decisions to enforce and establish the  

power of the  ,constitution4 ,especially
 was the court powerful during the years
 #ahja to  #ahce1 when ,marshall was    
chief justice1 to whose wisdom and      
prudence it  is difficult to ascribe too
 much influence in fixing the present   
stability of our government4    ,the    
,supreme ,court has been an invariable  
supporter of the ,federal               
,constitution4 ,during the early years  
of our government it was our  firmest   
barrier against the efforts of the      
,states to lessen the federal  power4   
,it has always maintained the balance of
 power between the ,states  and the     
,union4    ,the annual term of the      
,supreme ,court begins the second       
,monday of ,october  and lasts until    
about ,may4 ,daily sessions1 with the   
exceptions of  ,saturdays and ,sundays1 
are held1 beginning at #ab o'clock1 in  
the ,capitol  building at ,washington4  
,the present justices are ,fuller1 chief
 justice1  and ,lamar1 ,bradley1 ,field1
 ,harlan1 ,gray1 ,blatchford and        

,brewer1  associate justices4 ,every    
,saturday morning the justices meet in  
consultation and decide cases argued    
during the week4 ,the decisions are     
announced on ,monday mornings4 ,the     
justices are appointed by the           
,president1 hold office for life1 and   
are removable only by impeachment4      
,the following are a few cases decided  
by the ,supreme ,court with which it  is
 important that we should be acquainted 
owing to the influence which  their     
decision has had upon our history3      
#a4 ,in #agic the case of ,chisolm vs4  
,georgia came before this court4        
,chisolm1 a citizen of ,north ,carolina1
 sued the ,state of ,georgia for a  sum 
of money1 and under the second section  
of ,article ,,iii of the  ,constitution1
 which says that the judicial power of  
the ,united ,states  shall extend to    
disputes between a ,state and citizens  
of another ,state1  the court gave      
judgment in his favor4 ,this decision   
that a ,state  government could be sued 

against its will created so much        
dissatisfaction that the ,eleventh      
,amendment was adopted1 which says1  the
 judicial power of the ,united ,states  
shall not be construed to  extend to any
 suit in law or equity commenced or     
prosecuted against one  of the ,united  
,states by citizens of another ,state1  
or by citizens or  subjects of any      
foreign ,state4 ,the effect of this     
amendment has been to  enable a ,state  
to repudiate its just debts4    #b4 ,in 
#ahai was decided the very important    
case of ,mc,culloch vs4  ,maryland4 ,the
 ,united ,states had established a      
national bank1 which was  objectionable 
to many of the ,states4 ,maryland       
attempted to destroy the  bank by       
levying a very high tax upon a branch   
bank within the ,state4 ,the  question  
as to her right to do this was brought  
before the ,supreme  ,court4 ,to have   
allowed ,maryland this right would have 
been to give to a  ,state ,government   
the power to oppose and render useless  

an institution  created by the ,federal 
,government4 ,the court sustained the   
,federal  power1 and it was declared    
unconstitutional for any ,state to pass 
laws  opposing the operation of any     
,federal statute4    #c4 ,in the case of
 ,dartmouth ,college vs4 ,new ,hampshire
 was declared  the unconstitutionally of
 a state law which impaired the         
obligation of  contracts4    #d4 ,a very
 important case decided by ,chief       
,justice ,taney was that of  ,dred      
,scott vs4 ,sandford in #aheg4 ,dred    
,scott1 a negro slave in  ,missouri1 had
 been carried into the ,territory of    
,minnesota1 where1 by  the ,missouri    
,compromise of #ahbj1 slavery did not   
exist4 ,upon being  carried back into   
,missouri by his master1 ,scott claimed 
his freedom upon  the ground that he had
 been voluntarily carried into a        
,territory where  slavery was not       
allowed4 ,the ,supreme ,court in its    
decision declared that  ,congress had   
never had the power to pass any law     

which would forbid  slave-owners        
settling in ,territories and still      
retaining control of  their slaves4 ,the
 whole country was at this time in great
 excitement in  regard to the question  
whether or not1 in the organization of  
the  ,territories of ,kansas and        
,nebraska into ,states1 slavery should  
be  prohibited1 and this decision1      
whereby the ,missouri ,compromise ,act  
was  practically annulled1 and which    
pointed directly forward to an          
establishment of slavery in the new     
,territories1 raised public  excitement 
to a fever heat4 ,it was in this        
decision that the statement  was made   
that at the time of the formation of the
 ,constitution the  general opinion had 
been that the colored man had no rights 
which the  white man was bound to       
respect4 ,as a direct result of this    
case a more  determined stand was taken 
at the ,north against slavery2 the      
,anti-,slavery ,republican party was    
strengthened1 and their candidate for   

,president1 ,abraham ,lincoln1 elected  
in #ahfa1 and the catastrophe of  civil 
war precipitated4    #e4 ,the           
,legal-,tender decisions1 given in      
several cases soon after the  civil war1
 are important4 ,during the progress of 
the war the ,government1  in order to   
raise funds to meet its extraordinary   
expenses1 had been  forced to issue     
slips of paper which represented no     
deposits of coin in  the ,treasury1 but 
only promises to pay certain sums by the
 ,government4  ,these were declared     
legal tender1 that is1 made by law as   
good as gold  and silver1 and the people
 were forced to receive them in payment 
of  debts and for commodities4 ,it was  
questioned whether the ,government had  
by the ,constitution power to do this4  
,the legal-tender decisions  declared   
that it had4 ,judicial ,system and      
,jurisdiction of the ,united  ,states   
,courts4    ,district ,courts4--,the    
,united ,states is divided into judicial
  districts4 ,many single ,states form a

 judicial district1 while others are    
divided into two and others into three  
districts4 ,the number of  districts has
 varied4 ,at present there are about    
sixty4 ,to each of these  districts is  
given a court and a district judge4     
,these form the lowest  grade of        
,federal courts4    ,circuit            
,courts4--,these judicial districts are 
grouped into nine  circuits4 ,for       
example1 the ,fourth circuit includes   
the districts of  ,maryland1 ,virginia1 
,west ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 and  
,south ,carolina4  ,for each circuit is 
appointed one circuit judge4 ,one of the
 justices of  the ,supreme ,court is    
also allotted to each of the circuits1  
who1 after  the expiration of the       
,supreme ,court term1 visits his        
circuit1 and tries  the more important  
cases which may arise in that circuit4  
,the ,circuit  ,court may be held by the
 circuit judge1 the ,supreme ,court     
justice1 or  the district judge of that 
district in which the court is sitting1 

or by  any two of them1 or all of them1 
sitting together4 ,the ,circuit ,courts 
form the next series of the ,federal    
courts higher than the ,district        
,courts4    ,jurisdiction4--,the        
relation between the ,supreme1 ,circuit 
and  ,district courts is easy to        
explain4 ,their jurisdiction is upon    
federal  questions2 that is1 over those 
cases mentioned in the ,constitution    
over  which judicial power has been     
granted to the ,united ,states1 viz41   
questions arising under the             
,constitution1 federal laws1 or         
treaties1  between citizens of different
 ,states1 between citizens and          
foreigners1  between ,states themselves1
 etc41 and all crimes punishable under  
the  ,united ,states laws4    ,the      
,circuit ,court is higher than the      
,district ,court1 and to it cases       
involving #ejj and over may be appealed 
from the ,district courts4 ,the         
,supreme ,court is the court of last    
resort1 and to it all appeals from  the 

,circuit ,courts come1 with the         
limitation that #e1jjj be involved4     
,the cases decided by the ,supreme      
,court are then of two classes3 7#a7    
those over which it has original        
jurisdiction1 7see ,constitution72 i4e41
  those cases which originate or begin  
in that court2 and 7#b7 those cases     
over which it has appellate             
jurisdiction1 i4e41 those cases which   
come  thither by appeal from the lower  
,circuit ,courts1 and which form the    
larger part of its work1 and also by    
appeal from the highest ,state  courts  
in cases involving certain ,federal     
questions4 ,the ,district of  ,columbia 
being directly governed by the ,united  
,states1 its courts are  ,federal       
courts1 and hence1 cases may be appealed
 from such courts to the  ,supreme      
,court2 likewise for the same reason    
appeals may be had to the  ,supreme     
,court from the territorial courts4     
,we must remember that these courts deal
 only with ,federal questions  arising  

under ,united ,states laws1 and1 that   
besides these courts1 all of  the       
,states have their own judicial systems 
of courts to interpret state  laws and  
to try the great majority of cases4     
,these courts are entirely  separate    
from the ,united ,states courts1 and    
with different judges1  though cases may
 begin in them and be transferred to the
 ,united ,states  ,courts1 if the       
interpretation of a ,federal law is     
brought into question4    ,there are    
four grades of law in the ,united       
,states4 ,first and highest is  the     
,united ,states ,constitution2 second1  
,united ,states laws1 or statutes  as   
they are called1 passed by ,congress2   
third1 ,state constitutions2 and        
fourth1 ,state laws1 passed by the      
,state legislatures4 ,in case of        
conflict of laws the lower must yield to
 the higher4    ,for the purpose of     
settling claims of private persons      
against the ,united  ,states1 there has 
been established at ,washington a ,court

 of ,claims1 held  by five judges4 ,from
 it appeals lie1 in some cases1 to the  
,supreme  ,court1 and1 in others1 they  
are referred to ,congress for action4   
,,chapter ,,xii4    ,the ,ordinance for 
the ,government of the ,northwest       
,territory4      ,when the colonies     
joined in union under the ,articles of  
,confederation1  in #agha1 they ceded to
 the ,general government their claims to
 unoccupied  western territory4 ,the    
largest land grant was that by the      
,state of  ,virginia1 which occupied    
that part of the ,united ,states lying  
north of  the ,ohio ,river and east of  
the ,mississippi ,river4    ,the problem
 of management of public lands was thus 
early presented to  our ,federal        
,government for solution4 ,the manner in
 which ,congress dealt  with this       
question has proven eminently wise and  
successful1 and has  been largely       
influential in making the ,united       
,states the nation that it  is to-day4  
,the feature that has characterized the 

plan followed from the  beginning1 and  
which still obtains1 is the formation of
 ,states from such  territory as soon as
 there is sufficient population4 ,such  
,states have  similar forms and powers  
of government as the original ,states1  
are on an  equal footing with them1 and 
are bound by the ,constitution of the   
,united  ,states4 ,congress has absolute
 control of the ,territories4 7,for     
,territorial government see ,article on 
,territories47    ,the ordinance which  
the ,continental ,congress adopted in   
#aghg for the  government of the        
,northwest ,territory is of great       
importance3 it  provides for the        
establishment of our territorial system2
 it contains  many of those features of 
management which have been used from    
that date  until now2 and it is also of 
interest because of the influence it has
  had upon the history of slavery in our
 country4    ,this ordinance provided   
that the whole of this territory should 
form one  district4 ,at first ,congress 

appointed the governor1 secretary1      
judges1  and military generals4 ,the    
governor was to make the laws1 subject  
to the  approval of ,congress4 ,when the
 population reached five thousand the   
inhabitants were to have a legislature  
of their own1 and to have a  delegate   
who should sit in ,congress1 but have no
 vote4 ,there was a bill  of rights4    
,public education was encouraged4 ,not  
less than three nor more  than five     
,states were to be formed from it4      
,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,illinois1  ,michigan1 
and ,wisconsin have been the five       
,states formed from this  territory4    
,the transformation of the territory    
into ,states was promised  as soon as   
the population should reach sixty       
thousand4    ,slavery was forever       
prohibited in all this territory4 ,we   
shall see the  tremendous importance of 
this clause1 which guaranteed to this   
large  tract freedom from the curse of  
slavery1 when we come to consider the   
struggles which were made for many years

 to keep slavery from the  territories4 
,,chapter ,,xiii4    ,government of the 
,territories4      ,there are at present
 four areas1 situated outside of the    
,states1 and  organized under           
territorial governments4 ,these are     
,utah1 ,arizona1 ,new  ,mexico and      
,oklahoma4 ,besides these there are the 
two unorganized  territories1 ,indian   
,territory1 and ,alaska1 and the        
,district of ,columbia1  which last     
tract contains sixty-four square miles4 
,government of ,territories4--,the      
fundamental law of a ,territory is  the 
,federal ,constitution1 just as in a    
,state4 ,unlike the ,state1 however1  it
 has no constitution of its own1 but is 
regulated entirely by  ,congress4 ,in   
,section #c1 ,article ,,iv1 of the      
,constitution1 it is declared  that     
,congress shall have power to dispose of
 and make all needful  regulations      
respecting the territory or other       
property belonging to the  ,united      
,states4 ,in pursuance of this clause   

,congress has in the four  organized    
,territories instituted governments as  
follows3 ,the executive  of the         
,territory is a ,governor appointed by  
the ,president for a four  years' term4 
,there is also a secretary and          
treasurer4 ,the legislature  consists of
 two houses1 a council of #ab1 and a    
,house of ,representatives  of #bd4     
,these are elected by the people of the 
,territories1 and have a  term of two   
years4 ,the ,legislature meets every    
other year4 ,all its acts  require      
approval by ,congress before becoming   
law4    ,the judiciary consists of three
 or more judges appointed by the        
,president1 together with a district    
attorney and ,united ,states marshal4   
,territories send neither ,senators nor 
,representatives to ,congress1 but  have
 one delegate apiece in the ,united     
,states ,house of ,representatives1  who
 may speak1 but not vote4    ,admission 
of a ,territory as a ,state4--,a        
,territory is an embryo  ,state4 ,as    

soon as a ,territory becomes            
sufficiently populated it applies  for  
admission into the ,union as a ,state1  
and such admission is  accomplished in  
the following manner4 ,when an          
application by a ,territory  for        
,statehood is made1 it is considered by 
,congress1 and1 if approved1  the       
inhabitants of the ,territory are       
authorized to form for themselves  out  
of such ,territory a ,state government1 
and thus prepare themselves  for        
admission into the ,union4    ,a ,state 
government is formed as follows3 ,the   
,governor of the ,territory  issues a   
proclamation declaring that on a certain
 date there shall be an  election of    
delegates to a convention2 such         
convention is to be held on  a certain  
date4 ,these delegates are elected by a 
popular vote4 ,the  members of the      
convention thus formed declare that     
they1 on behalf of  the people of the   
,territory1 adopt the ,constitution of  
the ,united  ,states1 and then proceed  

to draft a ,state constitution and      
government4  ,it is provided that this  
constitution shall be ,republican in    
form1 and  make no distinction in civil 
and political rights on account of race 
or  color1 except for ,indians not      
taxed3 that it shall not be repugnant to
  the ,constitution of the ,united      
,states and the principles of the       
,declaration of ,independence4 ,perfect 
religious toleration must be            
guaranteed1 all right or title to the   
unappropriated public lands lying       
within the ,territory must be disclaimed
 and given over to the ,united  ,states4
 ,provision must be made by the         
constitution for the establishment  and 
maintenance of the system of public     
schools4    ,after adoption by the      
convention the constitution is offered  
to the  people for ratification4 ,if it 
is ratified1 the ,governor certifies the
  fact to the ,president of the ,united 
,states4 ,provided the constitution is  
found to comply with all the conditions 

just mentioned1 the ,president  issues  
his proclamation declaring the          
ratification of the constitution1  and  
upon the same day that the proclamation 
is issued the territory is  deemed      
admitted by ,congress into the ,union as
 a ,state1 on an equal  footing with the
 original ,states1 and entitled to      
representation in both  houses of the   
,federal ,congress4 ,the representatives
 and the ,governor and  other ,state    
officers are elected on the same day as 
that upon which the  constitution is    
ratified by the people4        ,,chapter
 ,,xiv4    ,state ,governments4         
,the ,united ,states is a nation of     
forty-four federated ,states4 ,each     
,state  has its own separate government1
 which is sovereign1 except as to a few 
powers which have been granted to the   
,united ,states government for  general 
purposes4 ,citizens of ,states are also 
citizens of the ,united  ,states1 and   
thus owe a double allegiance1 namely1 to
 the ,state in which  they reside and to

 the ,united ,states4    ,these ,states 
vary in size from that of ,texas1 the   
largest1 with an area  of #bfe1ghj      
square miles1 to that of ,rhode ,island1
 the smallest1 with  #a1bej2 and in     
population from that of ,new ,york1 with
 nearly six  millions1 to that of       
,nevada1 with about forty-five thousand4
 ,the largest  ,state is greater than   
either ,france or the ,german ,empire4  
,state governments are older than the   
,federal government1 for it was by a    
grant by the ,states of certain of their
 powers that the ,united ,states        
government was created4 ,each ,state is 
represented in ,congress by two  members
 in the ,senate4 ,members of the lower  
branch of the ,federal  legislature are 
apportioned among the ,states according 
to population4 ,as  in the case of the  
,united ,states1 the powers of          
government are divided  among three     
departments--the executive1 legislative1
 and judicial4    ,in the ,united       
,states ,constitution it is expressly   

declared that the  powers not granted to
 the ,united ,states by the             
,constitution1 nor  prohibited by it to 
the ,states1 are reserved to the ,states
 respectively1  or to the people4 ,it   
would require considerable space to     
enumerate the  duties of ,state         
governments4 ,with the exception of the 
few acts which  the constitution forbids
 them to perform1 most of which they    
would not  care to perform if allowed1  
and the few general powers coming within
 the  province of the ,federal          
,government1 the ,states can do whatever
 their  legislatures sanction4 ,they can
 go to the extremes of ,state socialism4
  ,all ,states have a complete judicial 
system4 ,they regulate all legal        
relations of their citizens1 the laws of
 husband and wife1 principal and  agent1
 and of contract4 ,they provide for the 
detection and punishment of  crime4     
,they control and mainly support the    
militia of the county4  ,railroad1      
banking1 insurance1 and other           

corporations1 are chartered and         
controlled by them4 ,the construction   
and maintenance of roads1 the care  of  
the public health1 the inspection of    
factories1 the determination of  the    
right of suffrage1 and the control of   
its own elections are among  the        
exclusive powers of ,state governments4 
,our extensive system of  public schools
 are under the dual management of the   
,state and local  governments1 and under
 the superintendence of ,state officers4
 ,the ,state  takes care of the         
defective classes1 of the insane1       
paupers1 etc42 and1  in general1        
performs all those ordinary duties      
concerning internal  affairs which are  
exercised by central governments4       
,each ,state government has--        #a4
 ,a ,constitution4        #b4 ,a        
,legislature of two ,houses4        #c4 
,an executive1 composed of a ,governor1 
,lieutenant-,governor 7in      almost   
all cases71 ,secretary of ,state1       
,auditor1 and a few other      officers4

        #d4 ,a system of local          
government in counties1 towns1 cities1  
etc4        #e4 ,a body of ,state laws4 
#f4 ,a judicial system of courts1 from  
which no appeal can be had to           
,united ,states courts1 except upon     
,federal questions4        #g4 ,a system
 of local taxation4        ,each ,state 
government has all the rights usually   
pertaining to a      sovereign ,state1  
except--,those powers which the ,federal
      ,constitution expressly forbids to
 the ,states4        #c4 ,those powers  
which have in the ,constitution been    
exclusively      given to the ,united   
,states4    ,all ,states have public    
debts1 which they may1 and sometimes do1
  repudiate4 ,they can be sued only by  
other ,states4 ,the ,eleventh ,amendment
  declared that a citizen could not     
maintain a suit against a ,state4 ,state
  laws are binding only within the      
boundaries of the ,state enacting them4 
,state ,constitutions4--,as the ,federal
 ,constitution is the supreme law  of   

the ,united ,states1 so the ,state      
constitution is the highest law of  the 
,states4 ,the ,constitutions of the     
original thirteen ,states were          
naturally formed after the model of the 
charters enjoyed by the ,new  ,england  
colonies4 ,in the colonies of ,rhode    
,island1 ,connecticut1 and              
,massachusetts their charters were      
adopted as constitutions without any    
change1 except1 of course1 the annulment
 of obedience to the ,english  king4    
,all subsequent constitutions have been 
closely modeled after these  first      
thirteen4 ,the ,federal ,constitution   
provides that all ,state  constitutions 
must be ,republican in form4 7,for other
 conditions of  admission of territories
 as ,states1 see subject ,territories47 
,the  modes of amendment of             
constitutions differ in different       
,states1 but in  all1 amendment is much 
easier of accomplishment than in the    
case of the  ,federal ,constitution4    
,this is shown by the fact that since   

#aggf there  have been adopted by the   
,states one hundred and five complete   
constitutions1 and two hundred and      
fourteen partial amendments2 while1     
since the passage of the first ten      
,federal amendments in #aghi1 there     
have been but five additional           
amendments4 ,some ,states provide that  
the  constitution shall be submitted to 
the people for amendment at the end  of 
certain intervals of time4 ,in the      
larger number of cases a majority  of   
the popular vote is required for        
ratification of a constitutional        
amendment4 ,state constitutions show a  
tendency to become longer1 and to       
regulate a constantly increasing number 
of subjects4        ,a normal ,state    
constitution has the following          
provisions3        #a4 ,a definition of 
the ,state boundaries4        #b4 ,a    
bill of rights 7guaranteeing private    
rights1 such as freedom of      the     
press and speech1 trial by jury in      
criminal cases1 right to      assemble  

and petition1 etc474        #c4 ,a frame
 of government1 an enumeration of       
officers and powers of      legislature1
 executive1 courts of justice1 etc4     
#d4 ,miscellaneous provisions1 relating 
to administration of schools1           
militia1 taxation1 debts1 local         
government1 corporations1               
amendments1 etc4    ,state              
,legislatures4--,the legislature in all 
,states consists of two  ,houses1 of    
which the upper and smaller branch is   
called the ,senate1 and  the lower and  
more numerous branch usually the ,house 
of ,representatives1  though in six     
,states it is termed the ,assembly1 and 
in three the ,house  of ,delegates4 ,the
 members of both houses are elected by  
popular vote1  but ,senators usually for
 a longer time1 and frequently higher   
qualifications for them are required4   
,states are divided into districts  for 
election purposes1 and1 though members  
of the legislature may offer  themselves
 for election from any district1 it has 

become the invariable  custom for them  
to be elected only from the districts in
 which they  reside4 ,universal manhood 
suffrage1 that is1 the right of all male
  citizens over #ba years of age to     
vote1 is the rule1 though in eight      
,states paupers have no vote1 and in a  
few1 a certain amount of education  is  
required 7generally enough to read the  
,state constitution74 ,the  number of   
members in the ,state legislatures      
varies greatly4 ,in the  ,senate1       
,delaware has the smallest number 7#i71 
and ,illinois the largest  7#ea74 ,in   
the lower ,house1 ,delaware has likewise
 the smallest number  7#ba71 while ,new 
,hampshire has the greatest 7#cba74     
,the ,lieutenant-,governor of the ,state
 is ex officio ,president of the        
,senate4 ,in all ,states1 except six1   
sessions of the legislature are held    
only once every other year1 and even    
then the length of the session is       
limited to a fixed number of days4 ,as  
in ,congress1 business is conducted  by 

means of committees1 but are in both    
,houses elected by ballot4 ,the  ,state 
legislatures have full charge and       
control of all local  governments within
 their individual ,states4 ,the ,senate 
has the power of  trying impeachments of
 ,state officials4 ,it also ratifies    
appointments of  the ,governor4 ,in all 
,states1 except four1 acts of the       
legislature  require the signature of   
the ,governor before they become laws4  
,to pass a  bill over a veto requires in
 twenty-three ,states a two-thirds vote 
in  both ,houses2 in two1 a three-fifths
 vote1 and in nine1 a majority vote  of 
the total number of members4 ,a ,state  
legislature can enact no law  which will
 be effective beyond its own boundaries4
    ,state ,executive4--,the chief      
executive of the ,state is the          
,governor4  ,other chief officials are  
the ,lieutenant-,governor1 ,treasurer1  
,attorney  ,general1 ,secretary of      
,state1 ,auditor1 and ,superintendent of
 ,public  ,instruction4 ,the term of    

office of the ,governor varies in       
different  ,states from one to four     
years4 ,he has but small powers of      
appointment1  most of the ,state        
officials being elected by the people4  
,in all but four  ,states he has a veto 
on legislation4 ,he has the power of    
pardoning4 ,the  ,lieutenant-,governor  
is ,president of the ,senate4    ,state 
,judiciary4--,the ,state judiciary      
includes three sets of courts3          
#a4 ,a ,supreme ,court of ,appeals1 the 
highest court1 from which cases         
involving ,federal questions may be     
appealed to the ,supreme ,court of      
the ,united ,states4        #b4         
,superior courts of record4        #c4  
,various local courts1 such as county   
courts1 corporation courts1      etc4   
,each ,state recognizes the judgments of
 other ,states1 and gives credit to     
their public acts and records1 and      
delivers up to justice1 on demand of    
the executive1 any criminal fleeing from
 other ,states into her borders4  ,in   

most of the ,states the judges are      
elected by the people1 though in  eight 
they are appointed by the ,governor1 and
 in five by the  legislature4 ,the      
,attorney-,general conducts cases in    
which the ,state is a  party1 and       
manages other legal business in which   
the ,state is  interested4              
,,chapter ,,xv4    ,local ,government4  
,in the chapter on ,government we       
learned that the people of the ,united  
,states owe allegiance to two systems of
 government2 the one a central  national
 government1 the other the state        
governments4 ,we have now to  mention a 
third system of governments1 namely1    
local governments2 for  citizens of the 
,united ,states live1 in reality1 under 
three distinct  governments3 first and  
highest1 the ,national ,united ,states  
,government2  second1 ,state            
governments1 and third1 local           
governments4 ,it is  concerning local   
governments in the ,united ,states that 
we shall learn in  this chapter4        

,just as the whole ,united ,states is   
divided into forty-eight sections1  each
 section being a ,state or ,territory1  
so each ,state is in turn1 for          
convenience in the administration of its
 government1 divided into small  local  
areas1 each division managing those     
affairs which appertain to its  own     
area4 ,many of these divisions were not 
formed by dividing up the  ,states4 ,the
 divisions came first1 or sprang up     
naturally within the  ,states as soon as
 the colonies were settled4 ,social     
governments were the  first governments 
formed in the settlement of our ,western
 territory4 ,dr4  ,edward ,bemis has    
described the beginnings of government  
in a new ,state  in the following       
interesting manner3    ,the genesis of  
local government in ,western hamlets is 
very simple4  ,first comes the settler  
who1 ax in hand1 clears the ground for  
his  humble dwelling1 and plants        
whatever seed he has brought with him4  
,then  comes another settler and another

 until perhaps a dozen families are     
established near4 ,two wants are now    
felt3 roads1 or at least paths from     
house to house1 from hamlet to market   
town1 and a school-house for the        
multiplying children4 ,there is no      
strong central authority to provide     
these things1 but the settlers meet and 
vote to tax themselves4 ,the  services  
of a supervisor1 collector1 clerk1      
constable and justice of the  peace are 
required4#a ,this is the beginning of   
the township and  county4 ,as population
 increases1 other wants arise which only
 a stronger  government can supply4 ,a  
territorial1 and then a ,state          
government are  consequently formed4    
,footnote #a3 ,local ,government in     
,michigan and the ,northwest4 ,j4,h4,u4 
,studies in ,history and ,political     
,science4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #e1 p4 #aa4    
,the principal duties of local          
governments are those of education1     
police1 sanitation1 charity1 the        
construction and maintenance of public  

roads1 the administration of justice1   
the assessment and collection of  taxes1
 etc4    ,there are three types of local
 government in the ,united ,states3     
,first1  the ,new ,england type1 in     
which the unit of government is the town
 or  township2 second1 the ,southern    
type1 in which the unit is the county2  
and third1 the ,western system1 in which
 the ,new ,england and ,southern        
systems are combined4    #ast4 ,local   
,government ,new ,england4--,here the   
unit of government is  the township1 or 
town1 as it is usually called4 ,there   
are few towns  exceeding five square    
miles in area1 and the population is    
generally  less than #c1jjj4 ,the ,new  
,england township is therefore not a    
thickly  settled area4 ,when a town     
becomes closely settled it is           
incorporated as  a city4    ,in the ,new
 ,england towns the people govern       
themselves directly4 ,in the  ,state and
 ,federal governments the people are    
governed not by themselves1  but through

 representatives chosen by themselves4  
,the town or township  form of          
government is that of a pure democracy2 
the ,states and ,federal  governments   
are representative governments or       
republics4    ,the supreme governing    
power of a town is in the town meeting1 
composed  of all qualified voters of the
 town4 ,the town meeting is held in the 
,spring of each year4 ,after the choice 
of a ,moderator1 officers are  elected  
for the ensuing year1 reports of        
officers for the past year  read1 and   
the amount of taxes to be raised and    
expenditures to be made  during the     
year1 determined upon4 ,the officers are
 the ,selectmen1 three1  five1 seven or 
nine in number1 who constitute the      
executive officers of  the town1 and    
administer the ordinances passed by the 
town meeting2 a  town clerk1 who keeps a
 record of the proceedings of the town  
meeting1  and a record of births1       
deaths1 marriages1 etc42 a treasurer1   
assessors  and collectors of taxes1     

constables1 and various other petty     
officers4  ,several offices are         
frequently given to the same individual4
    ,the county also exists in ,new     
,england1 and is formed by the union of 
several towns1 but it is of very little 
importance1 and has but few  duties4    
,the township system is found in the    
,middle ,states1 but in a  modified     
form4 ,it is less democratic as a       
rule--officers being elected  by ballot1
 the town meeting generally absent1 and 
county government more  important4      
#b;d4 ,local ,government in the         
,south4--,here the town 7township7 does 
not exist1 except in a few instances4   
,the unit of government for  performing 
local duties is the county1 which is    
much larger than the ,new  ,england     
townships4 ,the county government is    
managed by a ,board of ,county          
,commissioners4 ,these are elected not  
in open meeting as are the town         
officers1 but by ballot4 ,county        
government is therefore a representative

  or republican government4 ,the county1
 wherever found1 is primarily a         
judicial district4 ,the chief officer   
for executing the decrees of the  county
 judiciary is the sheriff4 ,other county
 officers are the  treasurer1 assessor1 
etc4    ,local ,government in the       
,west4--,here1 as before stated1 we find
 the ,new  ,england and the ,southern   
systems combined1 but combined in       
different  ,states in such various      
degrees as to make impracticable any    
attempt to  describe them more          
particularly4#a ,in consequence of the  
grants of land  by the ,federal         
,government to ,western ,states for     
education1 local areas  for the         
administration of these funds have been 
formed4 ,these are called  school       
districts4 ,local government has tended 
to center around these  districts1 and  
they have in many cases become important
 administrative  districts4 ,their      
boundaries coincide with the boundaries 
of the  townships and counties1 though a

 number of school districts may be in   
one county or township4    ,footnote #a3
 ,more detailed accounts of the various 
systems of ,local  ,government in the   
,united ,states may be found in the     
early numbers of the  ,johns ,hopkins   
,university ,studies1 and also in       
,professor ,george ,e4  ,howard's ,local
 ,constitutional ,history1 an extra     
volume in the same  series4             
,,chapter ,,xvi4    ,city ,government4  
,the proportion of people in the ,united
 ,states who reside in cities is        
increasing4 ,in #agij there were only   
thirteen cities of #e1jjj inhabitants   
and none with #dj1jjj4 ,now there are   
over #ejj that have a population        
exceeding #e1jjj and #bh with a         
population of #ajj1jjj4 ,in #agij #cc   
per  cent4 of the total population lived
 in cities of over #h1jjj inhabitants1  
while to-day over #be per cent live in  
cities of this size or over4    ,when   
any small area becomes thickly and      
permanently settled1 and a  certain     

population is reached 7which varies in  
different ,states71 the  state          
legislature is appealed to1 and a       
charter of incorporation as a  city is  
granted4 ,this enables the incorporated 
district to act  independently of the   
county or township1 to levy municipal   
taxes and  carry out public             
improvements4 ,rapid as has been the    
growth of cities1  the duties required  
of city governments have increased still
 faster4    ,the government of our large
 cities has become a question of vital  
importance4 ,it would be difficult to   
give a complete list of the duties      
devolving upon them4 ,the principal     
duties are 7#a7 the collection of       
municipal and state taxes1 7#b7 the     
establishment and care of public        
schools1 7#c7 the administration of     
justice1 7#d7 police supervision1 7#e7  
the support of a fire department1 7#f7  
the care of the streets1 7#g7 of  street
 gas and electric lighting1 7#h7 of     
sewerage1 7#i7 of the water  supply1    

7#aj7 of public parks1 7#aa7 of         
sanitation and public health1 7#ab7  of 
prisons1 7#ac7 the supervision of the   
liquor traffic1 7#ad7 the  regulation of
 street railways1 7#ae7 the enforcement 
of building  regulations1 7#af7 the     
supervision of charities1 hospitals1    
asylums1  etc4    ,the form of          
government of all our large cities is   
much the same4 ,it is  substantially a  
reproduction1 in form1 of the state     
governments4 ,first1  there is a mayor1 
who is the chief executive1 and is      
elected directly by  the people of the  
city4 ,his term of office is sometimes  
only one year1  though more often two1  
three1 or four years4 ,in almost all    
cases he has  a veto on acts of the city
 legislature1 which veto may1 however1  
be  overridden by a two-thirds vote4    
,other subordinate officials are1 the   
treasurer1 collector of taxes1  chief of
 police1 health officer1 etc4 ,they are 
in part elected by the  people1 in part 
appointed by the mayor1 or appointed by 

the city  legislature4 ,practice varies 
in different cities4    ,city           
legislatures are of one or two houses4  
,the larger cities usually  have two    
houses1 and the smaller cities one      
house4    ,the legislature is usually   
called the ,city ,council1 the upper    
branch the  ,board of ,aldermen1 and the
 lower and more numerous branch1 the    
,common  ,council4 ,the members of the  
city council are elected by the people4 
,the  acts of the council are called    
ordinances4 ,they are not sufficiently  
general to merit the designation of     
laws4    ,city judges are usually       
elected by the people4 ,the             
administration of the  various duties of
 municipal government are generally     
given to special  boards of officers1 as
 the police department1 fire department1
 etc4 ,for  election purposes1 cities   
are divided into wards1 and the wards   
into  voting precincts4    ,our methods 
of municipal government have proved the 
least successful of  any of our         

institutions4 ,corruption and grave     
abuses exist in almost  every one of the
 larger cities4 ,problems connected with
 city government  are among the most    
important questions of our time4        
,,chapter ,,xvii4    ,government        
,revenue and ,expenditure4              
,government is an enormous business     
enterprise1 maintained and operated  by 
its citizens1 that certain duties of a  
general interest and benefit  may be    
performed4 ,the magnitude of the work   
performed necessarily  requires the     
expenditure of vast sums of money4 ,the 
chief source from  which these sums are 
derived is taxation4 ,taxes have been   
defined to be  the legally determined   
and legally collected contributions of  
individuals for meeting the necessary   
and general expenses of the  ,state4#a  
,in the large majority of cases this is 
a good definition1 but  in a few        
instances it is too narrow4 ,there are  
some taxes that are  levied not         
primarily for the purpose of raising an 

income to meet the  expenses of the     
government1 but to subserve some other  
purpose4 ,for  instance1 the maintenance
 of our high duties on articles imported
 into  the ,united ,states from foreign 
countries has for its main purpose the  
protection of our industries from       
,european competition4 ,the large       
revenues that are derived therefrom are 
incidental4 ,high liquor  licenses1     
also1 are maintained for the express    
purpose of lessening the  consumption of
 intoxicating beverages4    ,footnote   
#a3 ,carl ,knies4    ,the aim of every  
good government is to distribute its    
burdens of  taxation1 as well as its    
benefits1 fairly and equitably among its
  citizens4 ,it is the duty of every    
citizen to assist in the realization  of
 this aim1 by an intelligent1 honest and
 disinterested vote4 ,equality  of      
taxation means equality of sacrifice4   
,each person should contribute  towards 
the support of the government in        
proportion to his means and the         

benefits enjoyed4 ,it is the duty of    
every citizen1 first to see that  just  
and expedient tax laws are passed1 then 
to pay his proper  proportion1 and      
lastly1 to see that his neighbors       
likewise contribute  their share4 ,to   
obtain an equitable system of government
 revenue and  expenditure has been the  
great motive force which1 in the past1  
has  urged the people forward in their  
efforts to secure popular forms of      
government4    ,the power to tax is     
legislative1 and1 according to our      
theory1 can be  exercised only by       
representatives directly elected by the 
people4 ,the  refusal of ,england in the
 last century to extend this principle  
of no  taxation without representation  
to her colonies in ,america1 lost her   
these possessions4 ,a government to be  
stable and efficient must possess       
adequate powers for the collection of   
its revenue4 ,the miserable  condition  
to which the old ,confederation was     
reduced by reason of the  inadequacy of 

its powers in this respect1 has already 
been discussed4  ,says ,fiske3 ,between 
the old ,continental ,congress and the  
government  under which we have lived   
since #aghi1 the differences were many2 
but by  far the most essential          
difference was that the new government  
could  raise money by taxation1 and was 
thus enabled properly to carry on the   
work of governing4#a    ,footnote #a3   
,civil ,government1 p4 #gg4    ,the     
sources of government revenue other than
 taxes1 are various1 and  differ in     
different countries4 ,in our            
consideration of the revenues and       
expenditures of our national1 state1 and
 local governments we shall have        
occasion to notice the various means by 
which their treasuries are  filled4     
,the ,federal ,government raises its    
revenues independently of the  other    
governing bodies1 from different        
sources1 and by a different set  of     
officials4 ,besides taxation1 the       
principal source of revenue is from  the

 sale of public lands4 ,federal taxes   
are of two kinds3         #a4 ,customs  
duties4         #b4 ,excise or internal 
revenue duties4    ,of these1 much the  
greater sum is raised from customs      
duties4 ,for the  year #ahhi1a the total
 net receipts were #chg1jej1jeh4 ,of    
this  #bbc1hcb1gda was derived from     
customs1 and #acj1hid1dcd from the      
internal revenue duties4 ,the sale of   
public lands yielded in that year       
#h1jch1fea4 ,the miscellaneous revenues 
amounted to #bd1big1aea4    ,footnote   
#a3 ,for fiscal purposes the year begins
 ,july #ast4    ,customs or tariff      
duties are taxes which have to be paid  
on a large  class of goods imported into
 this country from foreign countries4   
,these  charges are collected by        
,government collectors1 stationed in all
 our  principal seaport cities1 who     
inspect all incoming vessels and        
determine  the amount to be paid1       
according to the rate determined by     
,congress4  ,this system constitutes the

 so-called protective tariff policy of  
our  country4 ,those commodities not so 
taxed are said to be on the free  list4 
,how much1 and on what articles these   
duties shall be levied1 is  the question
 upon which the ,republican and         
,democratic parties differ2  the former 
favoring high1 and the latter low rates1
 that is to say  merely enough to       
support the ,government1 or1 as it is   
termed1 a tariff  for revenue only4     
,internal revenue duties are those taxes
 collected by the government from  its  
own citizens upon a small class of      
articles produced in this  country4 ,the
 chief items of this class are distilled
 liquors1 tobacco1  and oleomargarine4  
,in #ahhi1 out of the #acj1hid1dcd      
received from  internal revenue1 there  
was derived from spirits and fermented  
liquor  #ih1jcf1jda2 tobacco1           
#ca1hff1hfa2 oleomargarine and          
miscellaneous1  #iia1ecb4 ,these duties 
are collected by ,government collectors 
stationed  in every ,united ,states     

district1 who visit the distilleries1   
collect the  taxes1 and see that the law
 is enforced4 ,in several ,southern     
,states  attempts to evade the law are  
very frequent and difficult of          
detection4  ,the expenses of the vast   
postal system conducted by the ,federal 
,government are very nearly defrayed by 
the charges made for postage1 and  the  
amount received by fees more than equals
 the expense of the ,patent  ,office4   
,the ,state and ,local ,taxes are       
generally1 for convenience1 collected   
at the same time1 and by the same       
officials1 but independently of the     
,federal government4 ,the ,constitution 
of the ,united ,states forbids the      
,states to derive a revenue from duty   
upon goods imported or exported4  ,the  
,states are1 therefore1 for the most    
part1 restricted to a direct tax  on    
property for the support of their       
governments4    ,the general method for 
raising this tax is as follows3 ,the    
legislature  of the ,state1 having      

determined what income is needed1       
apportion this  sum among the counties1 
or1 in ,new ,england1 directly among the
  townships1 in proportion to the value 
of the property situated within  them1  
or establish a certain percentage tax on
 all property1 to be  collected in the  
same manner4 ,so1 similarly1 the        
counties apportion  among the cities and
 townships within their areas1 in       
proportion to the  value of their       
taxable property1 not only what they    
have to pay to the  ,state1 but also the
 sums they have to raise for county     
purposes4 ,thus  when the township or   
city authorities assess and collect     
taxes from the  individual citizens1    
they collect at one and the same time   
three  distinct taxes--the ,state tax1  
the county tax1 and the city or township
  tax4 ,retaining the last for local    
purposes1 they hand on the two former   
to the county authorities1 who1 in turn1
 retain the county tax1 handing  on to  
the ,state what it requires4 ,thus      

trouble and expense are saved in  the   
process of collection1 and the citizen  
sees on one tax paper all  that he has  
to pay4 ,the chief tax is the property  
tax1 based on a  valuation of property1 
and generally of all property1 real and 
personal4  ,of this1 by far the greater 
sum is realized from the tax on real    
property1 7land and buildings on it74   
,cities and other local  subdivisions1  
as has been stated1 are raising their   
revenues more and  more from the sale1  
taxation1 or operation of such public   
franchises and  rights as street-car    
lines1 gas and waterworks4 ,those who   
fix the value  of taxable property and  
thus determine the amount the owners are
 to pay1  are called assessors4 ,those  
collecting taxes are called collectors4 
,the  revenue of the ,states is seldom  
large in proportion to the wealth and   
number of the inhabitants1 because the  
chief burden of administration is  borne
 not by the ,states1 but by the ,federal
 government1 on the one hand1  and the  

local subdivisions of the ,states on the
 other4 ,the total revenue  of all the  
,states is barely one-third that of the 
,federal government4    ,the            
,expenditures of all the governing      
bodies1 ,federal1 ,state1 and  local1   
are kept entirely independent of each   
other4 ,those of the ,federal           
government are for the benefit of all   
the ,states1 while those of the  other  
bodies are only for their own individual
 benefit4 ,the ,federal  government     
receives much more than it expends1 and 
has yearly a surplus  on hand in the    
,treasury4 ,the ,states and local bodies
 have in the past  expended more than   
their revenues1 making up their         
deficiency by loans  on their credit4   
,the chief objects of ,federal          
expenditure 7in addition to the postal  
system already considered and for the   
most part supported by its own  revenue7
 are3 #ast1 interest on the public debt2
 #b;d1 pensions to disabled  soldiers2  
#c;d1 for the support of the civil      

branch of the government2  #dth1 war and
 naval expenditures4    ,total          
expenditures for the year #ahhi were    
#bii1bhh1ihh4 ,the chief items  were3   
#a4 ,interest on the public debt1       
#da1jjj1dhd       #b4 ,pensions1        
#hg1fbd1ggi       #c4 ,civil service1   
#hj1ffd1jfd       #d4 ,war and ,navy1   
#fe1hae1jgi       #e4 ,indians1         
#f1hib1bjg    ,money can be expended by 
the government only after it has been   
appropriated by ,congress in its annual 
appropriation bills4 ,the  appropriation
 of supplies by ,congress is the most   
important business  that it transacts4  
,every year the heads of all the        
different departments  frame estimates  
of the amounts of money needed to       
support their  departments during the   
following year1 which estimates they    
send to the  ,secretary of the          
,treasury1 who1 after considering and   
revising them1  transmits them to       
,congress in his ,annual ,letter4 ,this 
letter is  considered by the            

,appropriation ,committee1 whose duty it
 is to consider  and frame bills for the
 appropriation of moneys4 ,though guided
 by these  estimates1 supplies          
frequently depart widely from them4     
,after being  reported to the ,house and
 passed1 money bills are sent to the    
,senate1  where they are invariably     
amended by increasing the appropriations
 and  are returned to the ,house4 ,a    
conference committee is then appointed  
from  the ,house and ,senate ,committees
 on ,appropriations1 who1 after mutual  
concessions1 agree upon such            
appropriations as will be passed by both
  houses4 ,the ,house then amends the   
bill as agreed upon1 passes it1 and     
sends it to the ,senate again1 which in 
turn passes it1 and sends it to  the    
,president for his signature4 ,all bills
 for raising money must1 by  the        
,constitution1 originate in the ,house4 
,besides the appropriations for  the    
expenses of government there is annually
 authorized a large  expenditure for    

improvement of rivers and harbors4 ,many
 of the  expenditures authorized by     
these bills are undoubtedly unnecessary1
 but  they are passed by general consent
 of the members1 each of whom desires   
to increase his popularity at home by   
getting public money spent in his       
district4    ,the expenses of the ,state
 governments are not heavy1 and are     
devoted to  but few objects4 ,the chief 
expenditures are for3--7#a7 the salaries
 of  officials2 7#b7 judicial           
expenditures2 7#c7 the ,state volunteer 
militia2  7#d7 grants to public schools2
 7#e7 public charities and institutions1
 as  prisons1 insane asylums1 etc41 7#f7
 interest on ,state debts2 7#g7 internal
  improvements and public buildings4    
,the methods of appropriations are      
similar to those employed by the        
,federal government4    ,the            
expenditures of the local bodies1 and   
particularly cities1 are much  larger1  
in proportion to their population1 than 
those of the ,states1 and  are          

increasing at a greater rate than the   
increase of population4 ,the  objects of
 expenditure are numerous and very      
important4 ,the chief ones  are3 7#a7   
,interest on local debts2 7#b7          
maintenance and care of the  streets and
 roads2 7#c7 lighting of streets2 7#d7  
police2 7#e7 salaries of  officials4    
,the following are outlines of the      
receipts and expenditures of the ,state 
of ,maryland for #ahhh1 and for the     
,city of ,baltimore for #ahhg4 ,these   
figures are given not because they of   
themselves possess any especial         
importance1 but because from them can be
 obtained an idea of the  activity of a 
typical ,state and city4                
,maryland4#a--,the total receipts from  
all sources were #b1edb1acj2  and there 
was paid out #b1jaf1jfj4 ,the chief     
receipts were from3         ,general    
,taxes1                      #gic1cja   
,licenses1                              
#dhg1ifi       ,corporation ,tax1       
#gc1eec       ,railroad ,tax1           

#eh1dee       ,inheritance ,tax1        
#eg1gfg       ,income from ,stocks and  
,bonds owned1  #bjf1age       ,fees1    
#ag1ehe    ,baltimore4#b--,the gross    
receipts into the treasury for the year 
ending ,december #ca1 #ahhg1 were       
#h1ddf1dci1 and were chiefly from the   
following sources3         ,taxes1      
#d1baj1aab       ,public schools1       
tuition fees1 etc41        #f1gff       
,market houses1 rent of stalls1         
#eh1bhg       ,wharfage and rent of     
wharves1             #cc1efa            
,general licenses1                      
#dd1fji       ,auction duties1          
#g1dca       ,dividends on stock in ,b4 
,o4 ,r4,r41    #acj1jjj       ,water    
rents1                                  
#gde1ddf       ,passenger railway       
companies1           #acb1afg           
,from the ,state for public schools1    
#adg1djc       ,temporary loan1         
#a1eaj1jjj       ,receipts to pay       
interest on loans1     #hif1gjd         
,sale of stock1                         

#bdc1bhe    ,the total disbursements    
were #h1djc1icj4 ,of this #d1eda1ceg was
 spent on  account of expenses of city  
government1 the following being the     
principal items of expense3             
,interest on the public debt1           
#iae1ihg       ,expenses of law courts1 
#aah1ijf       ,expenses of jail1       
magistrates1 c41 4 4     #ajc1ehg       
,public schools 7less amount paid by    
,state71  #eid1jhi       ,expenses of   
poor1                                   
#baj1gci       ,police department1      
#gjb1hhb       ,street-cleaning         
department1                  #bfc1icd   
,fire department1                       
#bad1bbf       ,street lighting1        
#bba1bjc       ,parks1 c41              
#eb1jhj       ,salaries1                
#gb1fbd       ,city council1            
#eb1ibe    ,footnote #a3 ,finance       
,statistics of the ,american            
,commonwealths3 ,e4,e4  ,seligman4      
,publications of ,am4 ,statistical      
,asso41 ,dec41 #ahhi4    ,footnote #b3  

,r4,t4 ,ely1 ,taxation in ,am4 ,states  
and ,cities4    ,nearly all of our      
,state and local governments1 as well as
 the national  government1 have         
contracted large public debts1 the      
interest payments  upon which constitute
 one of the chief items in their lists  
of  expenditures4 ,the present debt of  
the ,federal ,government is largely the 
result of the enormous expenditures     
occasioned by the ,civil ,war4 ,in      
#ahfe1 ,august #ca1 it reached its      
highest point #b1cha1ecj1bid1 with an   
annual interest charge of #aej1igg1fig4 
,since then it has been steadily        
reduced until in #ahhi the total        
interest-bearing debt was but           
#hbi1hec1iij1 with an annual interest   
charge of #cc1geb1ced4 ,the  principal  
of the national debt is mainly in the   
form of interest-bearing  bonds held by 
the ,national banks and private         
individuals4 ,these bonds  are of       
various denominations and are promises  
of the government to pay  the sums named

 on their face1 at the expiration of a  
certain period4 ,the  bonds at present  
unpaid1 and as such constituting the    
major portion of  our national debt1 are
 principally of two kinds2 those bearing
 four and  one-half per cent1 annual    
interest and falling due in #ahia1 and  
those  bearing four per cent1 interest  
and falling due in #aijg4    ,the debts 
of most of the ,states were contracted  
by ill-advised and  untimely systems of 
internal improvements4 ,the total state 
indebtedness  ,june ,i1 #ahij1 as shown 
by the ,eleventh ,census1 was           
#bch1cif1eij1 a  decrease of slightly   
over #eh1jjj1jjj in ten years4 ,the     
tendency now  seems to be for ,states to
 withdraw from the money market as      
borrowers1  and for the county and city 
governments to take their place4    ,the
 local debts are very large1 and have   
shown a marked increase during  the last
 twenty years4 ,they have been for the  
most part incurred in  improvements and 
construction of public works1 which have

 in most  instances well repaid the     
debts incurred4        ,,chapter        
,,xviii4    ,money4#a      ,no man by   
himself produces everything he wants to 
use1 but devotes his  time to the       
production of some few things1 and the  
surplus that he does  not use1 he       
exchanges for other things made by other
 men4 ,in rude stages  of society this  
is done by a direct exchange of one     
commodity for  another1 e4g4 so much    
wheat or corn for a gun or plow4 ,this  
is a very  imperfect and cumbersome     
method1 which cannot be employed in our 
present  complicated transactions of    
buying and selling4 ,there thus early   
developed the use of money1 or the      
practice of referring the value of  all 
things to one standard1 usually the     
precious metals3 so that1  instead of   
trading #bj bushels of corn for a plow1 
where it would be  necessary to go to   
the great trouble of finding a man who  
had a plow1  and also wanted your corn1 
you sell it for so much money1 and with 

this  money you buy a plow4 ,money is   
thus but a medium of exchange and a     
standard of value4    ,in the ,united   
,states1 as in most nations1 money has  
always been made by  the ,government1   
and the ,government alone1 so that one  
certain fixed  system may prevail4 ,for 
the sake of convenience1 money is made  
of  various kinds and denominations1 and
 ,united ,states money may  conveniently
 be regarded under the five following   
divisions3 #a4 ,gold  ,coin1 ,gold      
,bullion1 and ,gold                     
,certificates4--,there are six gold     
coins3  7#a7 the eagle1 #aj piece2 7#b7 
the double eagle1 #bj piece2 7#c7 the   
half  eagle1 #e2 7#d7 the quarter eagle1
 #b4ej2 7#e7 the #c piece1 and 7#f7 the 
#a piece4 ,the three last are but little
 used4 ,the gold bullion1 or gold  in   
bars and blocks uncoined1 is for all    
practical purposes as good as  the coin1
 and in foreign trade is much used1 it  
being more convenient to  handle4       
,besides the gold coin and bullion there

 are in circulation gold  certificates4 
,these are paper1 the same in general   
appearance as the  ordinary bank-note1  
and certify that an equivalent amount of
 gold has  been deposited with the      
,treasurer of the ,united ,states1 and  
that the  holder of the certificate has 
the right to obtain the gold for it at  
any  time4 ,this does not increase the  
amount of money in circulation1 as for  
every one issued just so much coin is   
withdrawn and stowed away in the        
,treasury4 ,the certificates are used   
simply for convenience1 and in order  to
 avoid the necessary wear of the coin if
 in constant use4 ,these  certificates  
are of the denomination of #bj4    #b4  
,silver ,dollars and ,silver            
,certificates4--,there is no silver     
bullion circulating as money1 for a     
silver dollar does not contain a        
dollar's worth of silver1 as the gold   
dollar does of gold1 and the  silver    
bullion is thus of different value 7less
 value71 according to  weight1 than the 

silver dollar4 ,the silver certificates 
are similar to  the gold certificates1  
already described1 and certify that an  
equivalent  amount of silver has been   
deposited in the ,treasury4    #c4      
,subsidiary and ,minor ,coins4--,all    
coins of a lower denomination  than #a  
belong to one or the other of these two 
classes4 ,there are three  subsidiary   
coins1 the fifty cent1 the twenty-five  
cent1 and the ten cent  pieces4 ,the    
three cent piece is no longer coined4   
,all other coins are  minor coins4 ,the 
peculiarity of the subsidiary and minor 
coins is that  they are1 as compared    
with the standard coins 7gold and silver
 dollars71  of a greater value than the 
value of the metal they contain4 ,the   
subsidiary coins are legal-tender to the
 amount of #aj1 the minor to  the extent
 of twenty-five cents4 ,by legal-tender 
is meant that the  government has       
ordered that it must be received in     
payment of all debts  and articles      
bought4 ,gold coin and the silver       

dollars and certificates  are           
legal-tender to any amount4    #d4      
,treasury ,notes4--,under this head are 
included that form of money  ordinarily 
known as greenbacks1 from the color of  
their backs4 ,they  were originally     
issued during the civil war1 and are    
promissory notes on  the part of the    
government1 and as such constitute a    
portion of the debt  of the government4 
,they are paper1 which of itself is of  
no value1 and  no coin is deposited in  
the ,treasury which they represent1 as  
in the  case of the gold and silver     
certificates4 ,they thus cost the       
government  nothing1 and1 as they are   
made legal-tender1 and paid out by the  
government1 they were just so much clear
 gain to it4 ,at first they were  not   
redeemable1 i4e41 exchangeable for coin 
at the ,treasury1 but since  #ahgi they 
are1 and are therefore just as valuable 
now as any other form  of money1 though 
formerly worth much less than their face
 value4 ,one  hundred million dollars in

 gold is kept on deposit in the         
,treasury for  their redemption4    #e4 
,notes of ,national ,banks4--,this is   
the one form of money that is  not      
issued directly by the ,federal         
government1 but through the agency of   
what is called our ,national ,banking   
,system1 which may be thus  described3  
,a national bank can be organized by any
 number of men1  provided the capital   
stock of the bank is at least #ajj1jjj4 
,one-third  of the capital must then be 
invested in government bonds and        
deposited  in the ,united ,states       
,treasury4 ,the bank may then issue     
notes to the  extent of #ij per cent1 of
 such deposit4 ,such notes are thus     
amply  secured by the deposits with the 
government4 ,the government guarantees  
their payment1 and so they circulate as 
well as the certificates issued         
directly by the government4 ,thus a     
great deal of the paper money in        
circulation is issued by the national   
banks1 which must1 on demand1 be        

redeemed with coin1 and1 in case of     
failure of the banks1 are paid by  the  
government1 which reimburses itself from
 the deposits4 ,a bank-note  differs    
from a ,treasury note in two            
particulars4 ,the ,treasury note or     
greenback is a promise of the           
government1 and is legal-tender in      
payment of all private debts2 the       
bank-note is the promise of a private   
company1 and is not legal-tender4 ,a    
bank-note is said to be paid when  the  
bank gives a greenback or coin for it4  
,a greenback is said to be  paid or     
redeemed when the government gives gold 
for it4    ,the following figures1 taken
 from the report of the ,secretary of   
the  ,treasury for #ahhi1 give the      
amounts of the various sorts of money   
described in the foregoing1 which were  
then in the ,treasury1 in the  banks1   
and in the hands of the people3         
,gold coin and gold bullion1            
#fhj1jfc1eje       ,silver coin and     
silver bullion1     #cdc1idg1jic        

,u4,s4 ,treasury notes1                 
#cdf1fha1jjj       ,national            
,bank-notes1                #baa1cgh1ifc
       ,subsidiary coins1               
#gf1fja1hcf    ,it will be noticed that 
gold and silver certificates are not    
included1  for1 as explained1 they      
merely represent an equal amount of coin
 or  bullion on deposit4    ,the total  
amount of money is thus approximately   
#a1ffj1jjj1jjj1 which1  divided by the  
total population1 gives about #bg per   
capita4 ,it should  be borne in mind in 
connection with these figures that other
 devices1  such as checks1 drafts1 bills
 of exchange1 and other forms of credit1
  are used side by side with money in   
carrying on trade and serving the  same 
purposes4    ,by the ,compromise ,silver
 ,bill of ,july #ad1 #ahij1 provision   
was made for a  new kind of paper money4
 ,by this act the ,secretary of the     
,treasury was  directed to purchase1    
from time to time1 silver bullion to the
 amount of  #d1ejj1jjj ounces each      

month1 and to issue in payment for such 
purchases  ,treasury notes2 these notes 
so issued to be redeemable on demand in 
coin1 and to be a legal tender in       
payment of all debts1 public and        
private1 except where otherwise         
expressly stipulated4    ,footnote #a3  
,in the preparation of this article1    
much assistance has  been derived from  
an article by ,h4,c4 ,adams contributed 
to the  ,chautauquan4        ,,chapter  
,,xix4    ,public ,lands of the ,united 
,states4      ,prior to #agha but six of
 the original thirteen ,states--,new    
,hampshire1  ,rhode ,island1 ,maryland1 
,pennsylvania1 ,new ,jersey1 and        
,delaware--had  exactly defined         
boundaries4 ,the others claimed lands of
 various extents1  stretching to the    
,mississippi ,river1 or even to the     
,pacific ,ocean4 ,the  title to all this
 land was then in the individual        
,states1 and the  ,national ,government1
 as such1 had no land of its own4 ,this 
question of  the ownership of the       

western land was one of the subjects of 
controversy  and discontent between the 
,states4 ,it delayed the adoption of the
  ,articles of ,confederation for some  
time4 ,those ,states with little or no  
land regarded with jealousy their more  
fortunate neighbors1 and would  not     
consent to a union until a settlement or
 understanding was reached4    ,the     
,articles of ,confederation were adopted
 only after assurance was made  that all
 the public lands would be ceded to the 
,federal ,government4 ,this  was finally
 done by the ,states4    ,the           
,government formed under the            
,constitution succeeded to all this     
land1  and in addition1 to further      
cessions made by the ,states1 the last  
being  that of ,georgia in #ahjb4 ,the  
subsequent additions of territory were  
made  directly to the ,united ,states1  
and not to the ,states1 and all land    
thus  gained was held as public land to 
be disposed of by ,congress4    ,while  
the area of the ,united ,states is      

#c1fjc1hhd square miles1 the  public    
domain which has been acquired by       
cession1 purchase1 or conquest1  to be  
disposed of by the ,government as it    
desires1 has amounted to  #b1gjh1chh    
square miles1 or about two-thirds of the
 total area of the  country4    ,the    
absolute title to this land1 as before  
stated1 became vested in the  ,united   
,states ,government4 ,the disposal of   
these lands has always been  under the  
sole power and control of ,congress4    
,this land was all thinly populated by  
,indian tribes1 who merely hunted  over 
it1 leaving unimproved its natural      
fertility and vast mineral  resources4  
,these tribes1 being actual occupants1  
were recognized to have  a sort of half 
interest in the land4 ,this half        
ownership was always  first extinguished
 by the ,united ,states by purchase for 
small sums1 or  by the granting of      
certain privileges1 etc41 before it was 
opened up for  settlement and occupation
 by the white man4 ,land is still held1 

to a  considerable extent1 in this way  
by the ,indians4 ,this right of the     
,indians can be extinguished only by the
 ,united ,states1 as they are not       
allowed to sell or treat at all with    
individuals or ,states or foreign       
nations4    ,until #ahab the affairs of 
the public domain were managed by the   
,secretary of the ,treasury4 ,in that   
year the office of ,commissioner of  the
 ,general ,land ,office was created1    
which remained a bureau under the       
,treasury ,department until #ahdf4 ,on  
the creation of the ,interior           
,department in that year1 ,indian       
affairs were transferred to it1 and have
  remained under the same management    
until the present time4 ,this bureau    
has complete charge of all matters      
relating to the management and  disposal
 of the public lands1 subject to the    
direction of ,congress4    ,almost every
 conceivable method of disposing of this
 land has been  followed4 ,the          
,government has1 however1 never assumed 

the position of  landlord and rented the
 land1 except in one case of some       
mineral land1  and this experiment      
resulted disastrously4 ,before the land 
could be  disposed of1 it was necessary 
that it should be surveyed by the       
,government4 ,to do this there was      
adopted as early as #aggf1 the so-called
  rectangular system1 which1 with slight
 changes1 has been continued  until the 
present time4 ,by this system there are 
first surveyed a base  and a meridian   
line1 crossing each other at right      
angles1 running north  and south and    
east and west4 ,from these fixed lines  
the land is surveyed  and marked off    
into rectangles of six miles square1    
each thus containing  thirty-six square 
miles4 ,this is called a township4 ,this
 is again  divided up into sections of  
one square mile each or #fdj acres1 and 
this  again into quarter sections of    
#afj acres each4 ,in some cases these   
are  still further subdivided4    ,the  
regulation and disposition of the public

 lands has been one of the  chief duties
 imposed upon ,congress4    ,the chief  
methods by which the public lands have  
been disposed of are as  follows3    #a4
 ,educational ,grants4--,congress from  
the very first provided  liberally for  
the establishment of common schools     
through grants of  public lands for this
 purpose4 ,as each township is surveyed 
one quarter  section of #fdj acres is   
set apart for common schools4 ,this has 
continued  from the beginning down to   
the present time4 ,in addition1 large   
grants  have been made specially for the
 endowment of universities4 ,within     
later  years land has been given to     
every ,state to found ,state military   
and  agricultural colleges4 ,up to the  
year #ahhh1 there had thus been granted 
for educational purposes #gg1ddh1aib    
acres4    #b4 ,land ,bounties for       
,military and ,naval ,service4--,there  
have been  granted by different acts    
bounties of public land1 in the nature  
of  pensions1 to the soldiers and       

sailors of the ,united ,states ,army1 on
  their honorable discharge1 for their  
service to the ,government4 ,the  amount
 of land thus granted 7#ahhj7 has been  
#fa1jbh1dcj acres4    #c4 ,to the       
,states for ,internal                   
,improvement4--,there was granted to the
  ,states during the years from #ahbh to
 #ahdf1 for the improvement of  rivers1 
building of canals1 wagon roads1        
railroads1 etc41 #afb1bcj1jii  acres4   
#d4 ,sale of ,public ,land4--,under this
 head there are two classes of  public  
land--first1 that which may be bought   
for the minimum rate of  #a4be2 and1    
secondly1 the alternate sections along  
the railroads 7the  other alternate     
sections being granted to the           
railroads71 the minimum  price of which 
is #b4ej4 ,there have been sold in all  
#aib1ehd1aaf acres1  realizing          
#bcc1jjj1jjj4    #e4 ,under the         
,pre-emption ,acts4--,these acts1 passed
 at various times1  provide that where a
 man1 a citizen of the ,united ,states1 

settles upon  and cultivates for a      
certain length of time1 a tract of land 
not greater  than #afj acres1 the       
,united ,states will give him such      
tract4    #f4 ,under the ,homestead     
,acts4--,the homestead laws have created
 a  better and more certain manner for  
settlers to acquire land than under  the
 pre-emption acts4 ,by these acts it is 
provided that any citizen who  will     
select either #afj acres of the #a4be   
land1 or #hj of the #b4ej land1  can    
then get a permit from the land office1 
settle on his land1 and  acquire a title
 to it4    #g4 ,under the ,timber       
,culture ,act4--,this act gives to any  
one the  right to #afj acres of the     
#a4be land if he will plant #aj acres in
  timber1 or #hj acres of the #b4ej land
 if he will plant #e acres in  timber4  
#h4 ,certain ,lands to ,states4--,quite 
a large quantity of the public  land has
 been given to the ,states on account of
 its quality1 as swamp or  overflowed   
land1 and for various reasons1 to the   

extent of #aeh1dag1ead  acres4    #i4   
,grants to ,pacific and other ,railroad 
,companies4--,the nature of  these      
grants have already been spoken of in   
another chapter4 ,from #ahej  to #ahgb a
 total of #aej1ejd1iid acres was given  
for railroad  construction4        ,,xx4
    ,reconstruction4      ,the          
conclusion of the civil war in #ahfe did
 not relieve the ,united  ,states       
,government of its extraordinary        
difficulties4 ,there was the whole      
,south1 a conquered territory1 occupying
 the anomalous position of a  district1 
still within the ,union1 yet possessing 
no legal state  governments4 ,the       
,confederate government had now been    
destroyed by the  ,north1 and the ,south
 was thus without a government4 ,four   
million slaves  had been liberated1 who 
were uneducated1 without money1 and     
living among  people hostile to them4   
,congress had to provide for and protect
 these  freedmen in their rights4 ,the  
work to be done by ,congress1 was       

then3--#a4  ,to decide upon what terms  
and upon what conditions the seceded    
,states  should be re-admitted into the 
,union1 and to provide for them a       
government until such re-admission4 #b4 
,to protect the negro4    ,the ,south1  
though in the ,union1 had at this time1 
of course1 no  representation in        
,congress1 and consequently1 the        
,republicans were in  great majority4   
,unfortunately1 ,johnson1 who succeeded 
to the ,presidency  at the death of     
,lincoln1 though a ,republican1         
disagreed with his party1  and          
legislation upon this subject was only  
secured by passing all acts  over his   
veto by a two-thirds vote4    ,after    
much discussion1 the first              
,reconstruction ,bill1 to provide for   
the more efficient government of the    
rebel ,states1 was passed in #ahfg1     
vetoed by the ,president1 and passed    
over his veto4 ,its principal           
provisions were--#a4 ,the               
insurrectionary ,states were to be put  

under  ,united ,states control1 and for 
this purpose divided into five military 
districts1 over each of which the       
,president was to appoint a commanding  
officer4 #b4 ,the people of the various 
,states might hold a delegate           
convention1 elected by the citizens who 
had not been deprived of the  right to  
vote for participation in the rebellion4
 ,the convention was to  prepare a new  
constitution1 which constitution was to 
be then submitted  to the vote of the   
people1 and when ratified by them and   
approved by  ,congress1 should go into  
force1 and the ,state be entitled to    
representation in ,congress4 ,before    
approval by ,congress the  constitutions
 adopted by the rebel ,states had to    
agree in all the  following particulars3
 7#a7 abolishing slavery2 7#b7 declaring
 null and  void all debts created by    
,states in aid of the rebellion2 7#c7   
renouncing  all right of secession2 7#d7
 declaring the ordinance of secession   
which  they had passed null and void2   

7#e7 giving the right to vote to all    
male  citizens1 without regard to color2
 7#f7 prohibiting the passing of any    
law to limit or abridge the rights of   
any class of citizens4    ,in #ahfh the 
,fourteenth ,amendment was adopted by a 
sufficient number of  ,states1 and was  
declared a part of the ,constitution4   
,in #ahga all the ,states were1 for the 
first time since #ahfa1 represented  in 
both houses of ,congress4               
,reconstruction by ,congress was then   
completed4        ,,chapter ,,xxi4      
,party ,machinery4      ,in all the     
,states1 counties1 cities1 and even in  
the smaller  subdivisions of wards1     
political parties are thoroughly        
organized1 with  acknowledged leaders1  
and under systems of rules or party     
government4  ,this party government1 or 
machine1 as it is called1 has been      
created  by no law or constitution1 but 
is one which has been gradually formed  
by  the voters themselves1 and under    
which they have voluntarily placed      

themselves1 in order better to succeed  
in their elections1 well  realizing that
 the best chance of success is by having
 all the voters of  their party united  
on certain principles embodied in a     
party platform1  and having candidates  
so nominated that the whole party will  
recognize  them as their choice4    ,the
 aims of party organization are3 ,first1
 union1 that is1 having all  voters     
united as to candidates and platform2   
and second1 recruiting or  the gaining  
of new adherents4    ,there are at      
present two opposing political parties1 
both striving for  the control of the   
,government4 ,both have very nearly the 
same system of  party government1 but   
their organizations are totally distinct
 and  separate one from the other4      
,there are two distinct parts of party  
government4 ,they are2 first1 sets  of  
committees1 whose business it is to do  
all the work of managing  elections1    
such as raising and applying funds for  
election purposes1  organizing meetings1

 providing speakers1 publishing and     
distributing  political tracts and other
 information1 and stirring up enthusiasm
 by  parades and fireworks1 etc4 ,they  
have also the important duty of  calling
 together nominating conventions4       
,the second part of the machine embraces
 the nominating conventions1  which     
propose the names of the candidates whom
 their party are to  support for        
election4 ,these assemblies are called  
together by the  committees             
periodically1 for the purpose of        
specific nominations1 and  cease to     
exist as soon as their work is done4    
,besides nominating  candidates1 the    
conventions draw up the platform1 which 
is a statement  of party principles1    
beliefs1 and pledges4 ,to provide for   
their  reassembling next time1 they also
 elect a new committee1 for the next    
term2 and also send delegates to the    
next higher convention4 ,thus are  found
 committees and a nominating convention1
 managing not only national  and state  

elections1 but even arranging and       
managing elections in the  smaller      
electoral subdivisions4    ,there is a  
committee and a nominating convention   
for every city1 for  every county1 for  
every district1 and for every ,state4   
,there are1 then1  throughout the whole 
,united ,states1 such committees1 each  
controlling  its own local affairs1 but 
yet all related to each other1 thus     
forming  one vast organized system4     
,beginning with the smallest and lowest1
 let us show their mutual  connections  
and workings4 ,starting1 then1 with the 
township convention1  or convention of a
 city ward1 we find that all the voters 
of the party  are called together on a  
certain day by a committee 7which was   
chosen at  the preceding meeting7 for   
the purpose of nominating candidates for
  local affairs1 and naming delegates to
 represent them at the city or  county  
convention4 ,the city or county         
convention1 composed of these men1  is  
called together by the city or county   

committee4 ,it first nominates          
candidates for the city or county       
offices1 and selects delegates to the   
state convention1 and also provides for 
the next meeting by the election  of a  
new committee for the ensuing year4 ,in 
similar manner1 just before  every state
 election1 the state convention1        
composed of city and county  delegates1 
is called together by the state central 
committee4 ,here are  nominated men for 
state officers2 a new committee is      
appointed to manage  state elections2   
and also1 once every four years1 the    
important duty of  selecting            
,presidential electors is performed4    
,the ,democrats also select1  in this   
state convention1 their delegates to the
 ,national ,presidential  ,nominating   
,convention4 ,the ,republicans select   
but four delegates from  each ,state in 
state conventions1 the remainder being  
appointed in  district conventions4     
,following the same method the ,national
 ,central  ,committee calls together a  

,national ,convention of all the        
delegates  which have been appointed by 
the ,state1 for the purpose of 7#a7     
nominating candidates for their party   
for ,president and ,vice ,president2    
7#b7 drawing up and accepting a party   
platform2 7#c7 selecting a new          
,national ,central ,committee for the   
next four years1 which committee is  to 
manage the election campaign and call   
the next ,national ,convention4         
,,chapter ,,xxii4    ,national          
,conventions and ,presidential          
,campaigns4      ,history and           
,development of the ,national           
,convention4--,in the  ,presidential    
elections of #aghi and #agib there was  
no necessity for  regular party         
nominations1 as the whole people were   
practically  unanimous in favor of      
,washington4 ,likewise in #agif it was  
so well  understood that ,adams was the 
man desired by the ,federalists1 and    
,jefferson by the ,democrats1 that      
formal nominations were not required4   

,but1 commencing with #ahjj1 political  
parties were more divided in their      
choice1 and some method was demanded by 
which it might be decided on  whom the  
party should unite4 ,from #ahjj to #ahbj
 this demand was met by  nominations    
made by ,congressmen1 in caucuses1 or   
private meetings1 of  the members of    
each party4 ,this method finally proved 
unsatisfactory to  the country1 but from
 #ahbd-ahce no new and better method was
 invented1  and nominations were made   
rather irregularly1 each ,state         
legislature  proposing the name of its  
favorite4 ,this method of nomination    
naturally  failed to unite the voters of
 the party1 in all the different        
,states1 on  one man1 and had to be     
abandoned4 ,after a failure to revive   
nomination  for ,president by           
,congressional caucuses1 a new method   
was developed and  adopted1 which was by
 ,national ,nominating ,conventions1    
such as we have  to-day4 ,the           
introduction of this last plan may      

fairly be dated at #ahdj4  ,national    
,conventions were first held at ,eastern
 cities1 but are now held  further      
,west1 to accommodate the shifting      
center of population1 ,chicago  being   
the favorite city4 ,the ,national       
,convention is composed of  delegates   
from all the ,states4 ,each ,state sends
 twice as many delegates  as it has     
representatives in the ,national ,senate
 and ,house of  ,representatives1 thus  
making a total now of #hjb4 ,in addition
 to these1  the ,republicans allow two  
delegates from each of the ,territories4
    ,method of ,procedure4--,as soon as 
the ,state and ,territorial  delegations
 arrive in the city they each elect a   
member for the new  ,national ,central  
,committee for the next term4 ,inside of
 this committee  is chosen an executive 
committee1 which1 in reality1 does all  
the work  of conducting the campaign4   
,the members of this committee are      
almost  always men of wealth1 and are   
expected to contribute liberally to the 

campaign fund4    ,the business of the  
,national ,convention is commenced by   
the chairman of  the ,national ,central 
,committee calling the convention to    
order4 ,a  temporary chairman is then   
chosen1 who appoints a committee on     
credentials1 whose duty it is to decide 
which delegation shall be  admitted in  
case two delegations are sent from the  
same ,state1 both  claiming admittance  
as representing the party in that       
,state4 ,a  committee on resolutions is 
also appointed to prepare the party     
platform4 ,the next day the permanent   
chairman is appointed4 ,the platform  is
 then read and adopted1 or amended and  
adopted4 ,there is next an  alphabetical
 roll-call of the ,states1 when names   
are proposed and  seconded for          
nomination as candidates for ,president4
 ,the average number  of names proposed 
is seven or eight1 though sometimes as  
many as twelve  are offered4 ,as each   
man is proposed the delegate presenting 
his name  extols him in a laudatory     

speech1 and gives reasons why his man   
will  make a strong candidate and an    
able ,president4 ,voting then commences4
  ,each delegate has one vote4 ,in the  
,republican convention a majority of    
the whole number of the delegates voting
 for one man is required before  a      
nomination is reached1 while the        
,democrats require a two-thirds vote4   
,sometimes a nomination is made on the  
first ballot1 while at other  times the 
convention has been so divided that as  
many as #ec ballots have  been required1
 as was the case when the ,whigs        
nominated ,scott4  ,forty-nine ballots  
were needed when ,pierce was nominated  
by the  ,democrats4 ,in #ahhh ,cleveland
 was nominated by the ,democrats by     
acclamation1 no vote being necessary to 
show the wishes of the  delegates4      
,harrison was nominated by the          
,republicans on the eighth  ballot4     
,a candidate for ,president having been 
selected1 a ,vice ,president is         
nominated in a similar manner1 though   

generally with much less trouble1  and  
the work of the convention is ended4    
,the candidates are now put before the  
people by their respective  parties4    
,the people1 of course1 do not vote     
directly for them1 but what  amounts to 
the same thing1 vote for electors1 who  
are pledged to vote  for them4 ,a       
vigorous campaign of four months then   
follows1 until  election day1 in the    
first week in ,november4    ,each       
candidate1 a short time after his       
nomination1 is expected to  publish a   
letter of acceptance1 in which he       
expresses his full  confidence and      
belief in the platform which his party  
has adopted1  discloses his views1 and  
outlines what his future policy will be 
if he  is elected4    ,to recapitulate1 
then1 in a few words1 let us see how a  
,president is  nominated and elected4   
,in nominating the ,president each voter
 in caucus or primary meeting  shares in
 choosing delegates to the ward         
convention1 which chooses  delegates to 

the city or county convention1 which in 
turn sends  delegates to the district   
conventions4 ,in these1 delegates are   
chosen  for the ,state conventions1     
where ,presidential electors are        
appointed1  and also the delegates sent 
to the ,national ,convention4    ,in the
 ,national ,convention1 composed of     
delegates sent from the ,state          
conventions and ,territories1 the       
,presidential candidate is nominated4   
,the electors are elected by the people1
 who in turn elect the nominees  of     
their ,national ,convention4 ,if ,state 
officers1 as ,governor1                 
,attorney-,general1 ,secretary of       
,state1 ,treasurer1 etc41 are to be     
elected1 they are nominated in the      
,state conventions and elected by the   
people4    ,besides counties1 townships1
 and cities1 ,states have other         
subdivisions  for political purposes4   
,thus the whole ,state is divided into  
senatorial  districts1 each one of which
 sends one ,senator to the ,state       

legislature1  and also into smaller     
districts1 each one of which sends one  
member to  the lower house of the ,state
 legislature4 ,usually a senatorial     
district  is one or more counties1      
except in the case of large cities1     
which may  in itself contain two or more
 senatorial districts4        ,,chapter 
,,xxiii4    ,introduction to the ,study 
of the ,history of ,political ,parties  
in the  ,united ,states4      ,a        
knowledge of the nature of our federal  
government1 and its relations  to the   
,state ,governments1 of which it is     
composed1 is a prerequisite to  an      
understanding of the history of our     
political parties4    ,the government of
 the ,united ,states is a federal       
republic1 first formed  by the voluntary
 union of thirteen commonwealths4 ,at   
present it is  composed of forty-four   
united ,states4 ,it is a government of  
enumerated  powers1 and in this respect 
differs radically from the governments  
of  the individual ,states4 ,as all     

agree1 the ,federal ,government         
possesses  only those powers            
specifically granted to it by the       
constitution4 ,the  ,states possess all 
powers except those granted to the      
,national  ,government1 and those not   
prohibited to them by the terms of the  
constitution4 ,when the government of   
the ,united ,states desires to  exercise
 a power1 it must be proven that it was 
the intention of the  framers of the    
constitution1 and so expressed in that  
instrument1 that  it should possess such
 a power4 ,the ,states in the exercise  
of their  powers need only show that    
they have not resigned that power4 ,if  
there  be any dispute as to the         
constitutionality of an act of either   
,congress  or a ,state legislature1 the 
point is decided in the final instance  
by  the ,supreme ,court of the ,united  
,states4    ,in the political history of
 our country since the adoption of the  
constitution1 there have been ever      
present two great constitutional        

questions1 in the conflicting answers to
 which we must seek the origin  and     
creeds of our great political parties4  
,if we can gain a proper  conception of 
the character of these two questions1 we
 shall have taken  a long step towards  
the understanding of the reasons for the
 conduct of  the various opposing       
parties1 and the basis of the disputes  
arising  between them4 ,these have been 
the two questions4 ,first1 ,what is the 
extent of the powers granted by the     
constitution to the ,national           
,government8 ,second1 ,what is the real 
nature of our ,union2 and1 arising      
under this problem1 ,what is the extent 
to which the ,states are justified  in  
opposing what they believe to be        
unconstitutional acts on the part of    
the ,national ,government2 and1 ,can a  
,state or ,states1 as a last resort1    
withdraw from the ,union8 ,the remainder
 of this chapter will be mainly  devoted
 to a more particular examination of    
these questions4    ,what are the       

legitimate powers of the ,united ,states
 ,government8    ,the ,united ,states   
government was the result of the union  
of thirteen  independent colonies--a    
union voluntary on the part of the      
colonies1 yet  forced upon them by the  
evident need of some central power      
strong enough  to enforce obedience at  
home and demand respect abroad4 ,the    
determination of what and how many the  
national powers should be1 was  the work
 of the ,constitutional ,convention4 ,of
 the difficulties of this  task we have 
already spoken4    ,in forming a scheme 
for a central government1 there was the 
double  necessity of creating a         
government strong enough to perform the 
duties  for which it was established1   
and yet not so strong as to endanger the
  free self-government of the ,states4  
,the delicate point to be adjusted  was 
to give to the ,federal ,government only
 such powers as were necessary  for the 
establishment of an effective ,national 
,government1 and1 as far  as possible1  

to retain in the ,states their full     
governmental powers2 in  other words1 to
 harmonize federal strength with ,state 
sovereignty4    ,the fear exhibited by  
the ,states in the debates preceding the
 adoption  and ratification of the      
constitution of #aghg1 that the         
,national  ,government might become too 
strong at the expense of their own      
powers of  government1 was not set at   
rest by the compromises obtained in the 
convention1 nor by the eleven amendments
 adopted soon after the  inauguration of
 the new government4 ,the reason for the
 continuance of  this fear is that the  
constitution is so worded that the      
powers of the  general government are   
not precisely fixed4    ,the statement  
sometimes loosely made that a           
description of our  government is       
contained in the constitution1 is apt to
 be misleading4  ,the constitution has  
served rather as a foundation upon which
 to build  the government1 than as an   
entire framework4 ,as a distinguished   

writer  has termed it1 ,the constitution
 was meant only as a scheme in outline1 
to be filled up afterwards1 and from    
time to time1 by legislation4    ,a     
description of our present form of      
government is far from being  contained 
in the instrument adopted in #aghh4 ,for
 example1 the  constitution makes no    
mention of how business shall be        
transacted by the  legislature4         
,committee ,government in ,congress owes
 its existence to no  provision of the  
constitution4 ,the only mention made in 
the constitution  of the ,speaker of the
 ,house1 to-day the most powerful       
officer in the  legislature1 is where it
 is provided that ,the ,house of        
,representatives  shall choose their    
speaker and other officers4 ,all        
executive  departments--the ,state1     
,war1 ,navy1 ,treasury1 ,post ,office1  
,interior1  ,justice1 ,agriculture1 and 
,labor--have been created from time to  
time by  act of ,congress4 ,regarding   
the structure and number of federal     

courts1  the constitution merely        
provides that ,the judicial power of the
 ,united  ,states shall be vested in one
 ,supreme ,court1 and in such inferior  
courts  as ,congress may from time to   
time ordain and establish4 ,our         
elaborate  system of district1 circuit1 
and territorial courts1 rests solely    
upon  congressional enactments4 ,so1    
too1 the constitution gives to ,congress
  the control of territories1 but does  
not provide how that control shall  be  
exercised4    ,the framers of our       
constitution were wise in not attempting
 to specify  more particularly than they
 did1 the manner in which the several   
powers  granted to the ,federal         
,government should be exercised4 ,they  
realized  that they were forming a      
scheme that was to endure for many      
years1 and  that if it was to be capable
 of meeting the needs of a changing and 
rapidly growing country1 it would have  
to be elastic1 and contain within       
itself the power of adapting itself to  

new needs and conditions4 ,to  secure   
the beneficial execution of the powers  
granted1 ,congress was  given the power 
of selecting appropriate means4 ,to have
 refused the  grant of this power1 would
 have been to attempt to provide by     
unchangeable rule for emergencies that  
could by no possibilities be  foreseen4 
,or1 as ,chief ,justice ,marshall has   
put it1 ,it would have been  to deprive 
the legislature of the capacity to avail
 itself of  experience1 to exercise its 
reason1 and to accommodate its          
legislation  to circumstances4    ,after
 enumerating the various particular     
powers given to the ,federal            
,legislature1 the constitution further  
says 7,art4 ,i1 ,sec4 #h7 and shall     
have power to make all laws which shall 
be necessary and proper for  carrying   
into execution the foregoing powers1 and
 all other powers  vested by this       
constitution in the government of the   
,united ,states1 or  in any department  
or officer thereof4 ,this is the clause 

under whose  authorization all those    
powers have been assumed1 and functions 
exercised1 that have made the ,united   
,states government of to-day so         
different from that of #aghi4    ,the   
general rule is1 as has been said1 that 
the ,united ,states government          
possesses only those powers granted to  
it by the constitution4 ,but here1  in  
this clause just quoted1 is a general   
grant of all powers necessary  or proper
 for carrying into effect any of the    
powers particularly  granted4 ,who or   
what is to decide just what powers are  
necessary and  proper for the           
accomplishment of this object8          
,naturally people have not  been able to
 agree upon the question of just what   
powers are  constitutional or expedient 
as implied under this title of necessary
  and proper and this question has been 
largely instrumental in dividing  the   
people in opposing political parties4   
,there has always been a party1  the    
members of which1 favoring great powers 

for the ,states rather than  for the    
,federal ,government1 have been strict  
constructionists1 and  have advocated a 
close and narrow interpretation of this 
clause of  implied powers4 ,from their  
desire to retain in the ,state          
governments  as many powers as possible1
 they have been known as the ,states'   
,rights  ,party4 ,opposing them has been
 the party of loose constructionists1   
the members of which have held to a     
free1 liberal interpretation of the     
constitution1 and have endeavored to    
increase the power of the ,federal      
,government4 ,there have never been     
political parties styling themselves    
,strict ,constructionists and ,loose    
,constructionists1 for these are  terms 
that have been used not as titles1 but  
as definitions of different  principles 
of constitutional interpretation4 ,but  
by whatever name they  may have been    
known1 there have been1 during the      
greater part of our  history1 these two 
political parties1 the one holding to   

the principle  of strict construction   
and ,states' ,rights1 and the other to  
that of  loose construction and federal 
power4    ,the second fundamental       
question spoken of in the beginning of  
this  chapter as underlying national    
politics1 is concerning the nature of   
our  union and the rights of state      
nullification and secession4    ,a final
 answer to these questions cannot of    
course be here attempted1  but that     
which can be done1 is to state in a few 
words just what their  meaning is1 and  
the points upon which they have turned4 
,when we come to  the consideration of  
the course of politics in the ,united   
,states we  shall see the answers that  
history has given to them4    ,the      
government of the ,united ,states is the
 judge of its own powers1 for  it is in 
its own supreme judicial tribunal that  
the constitutionality of  both ,state   
and ,federal laws is finally determined4
 ,more than once has a  practical answer
 been demanded to the question ,what is 

to be done by a  ,state or ,states when1
 in their estimation1 the ,national     
,government has  transcended its powers 
and legislated in an unconstitutional   
manner8  ,obedience1 nullification1 or1 
in the last resort1 secession from the  
,union1 have been the various           
alternatives that have offered          
themselves  to the ,states4 ,different  
views of the nature of our ,union have  
sustained  the propriety of the         
selection of different ones of these    
alternatives4    ,according to the      
nullification theory1 the constitution  
is held to be of  the nature of a       
compact between the ,states as one party
 and the ,federal  ,government as the   
other2 and that1 as in all contracts1 if
 the  agreements contained therein are  
broken by the one party1 the other      
party has the right to refuse its assent
 thereto4 ,therefore1 if the  ,united   
,states government attempts the exercise
 of powers not granted in  the compact1 
the ,states have the right to interpose 

the rightful  remedy of nullification4  
,that is to say1 that each ,state has   
the  right to determine for itself when 
an unwarranted power has been assumed   
by the general government1 and in such a
 case to declare the obnoxious  law null
 and of no force within her own         
boundaries4    ,in considering the      
question of nullification1 it is        
necessary to  distinguish between the   
theory or rather method of nullification
  propounded by ,madison and ,jefferson 
in the ,virginia and ,kentucky          
,resolutions1 from that of ,calhoun     
brought forward at the time of ,south   
,carolina's resistance to1 and attempted
 nullification of1 the ,tariff  laws of 
#ahbh1 and #ahcb4 ,in the ,virginia and 
,kentucky ,resolutions the  ,alien and  
,sedition ,acts were solemnly declared  
to be unconstitutional1  that the ,union
 was a compact1 and the ,states had the 
right to interpose  the remedy of       
nullification2 but open resistance was  
not proposed4 ,by  the ,jeffersonian    

theory1 it was proposed to obtain the   
opinion of  three-fourths of the ,states
 that the acts were unconstitutional1   
and  thus to nullify them after the     
manner of a constitutional amendment4   
,until such nullification1 the laws were
 to be obeyed4    ,the ,calhoun doctrine
 was something entirely different from  
this4  ,according to his doctrine1 any  
single ,state might order at once a     
suspension of the law within her        
borders1 and not until three-fourths of 
the ,states in national convention had  
overruled the nullification could  the  
,state be forced to obey the obnoxious  
law4 ,to use ,calhoun's own  words1 his 
theory was1 that it belongs to the      
,state1 as a member of the  ,union1 in  
her sovereign capacity in convention1 to
 determine definitely1  as far as her   
citizens are concerned1 the extent of   
the obligation which  she has           
contracted2 and if1 in her opinion1 the 
act exercising the  power in dispute be 
unconstitutional1 to declare it null and

 void1 which  declaration would be      
obligatory on her citizens4 ,the sum and
 substance  of this was1 as ,von ,holst 
has pointed out1#a to give to one-fourth
 of  the ,states the power if they saw  
fit to deprive the ,federal ,government 
of every power entrusted to it1 that is1
 to alter the constitution at  will4    
,footnote #a3 ,constitutional ,history  
of the ,united ,states1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4    
#dgd1 note4    ,the right of secession  
follows as a logical outcome of the     
theory of  nullification rigidly carried
 out4 ,federal laws are general in their
  nature1 and if binding anywhere1 must 
be binding everywhere4 ,if then1 a      
minority of ,states insist on their     
right of nullification1 the federal     
government will be obliged either to    
admit that every act of ,congress is    
without any force in a ,state until it  
has obtained the tacit approval of  the 
people of that ,state1 or else it will  
be driven to the necessity of  obtaining
 the enforcement of the law by arms4    

,such employment of force  would of     
course be but the prelude to secession4 
,indeed1 ,south ,carolina1  in her      
,ordinance of ,nullification1 declared  
that she would secede1 if  the ,united  
,states did not repeal the obnoxious    
laws1 or if she should  attempt to      
enforce the collections of the tariff   
duties provided for by  the acts in     
dispute4 ,according to the ,unionist    
view1 it is held that in  no case has   
the individual ,state the right to      
resist the operation of a  federal law1 
much less does it possess the actual    
power to pass a law  affecting its      
relation to1 or continuance in1 the     
,union4 ,this view is  supported by an  
interpretation of the constitution that 
denies to that  instrument the character
 of a compact between the ,states and   
the  ,national ,government4 ,the        
constitutional theory of this school is 
that  the ,national ,government was     
formed by the people as a whole1 and not
  by the ,states4 ,that the ,states     

accepted this government1 but were in no
  sense parties to an agreement between 
them and the ,nation4 ,according to     
this view1 the ,union began with the    
first acts of resistance taken in       
common by the colonies1 and is thus1 in 
a sense1 older than the state           
governments1 which were not formed until
 after the ,declaration of              
,independence4 ,also1 that when the     
,states gave in #aghh their consent to  
the constitution1 their consent was     
irrevocable4 ,two quotations from       
decisions rendered by the ,supreme      
,court of the ,united ,states will make 
clear the arguments and theory of the   
,unionists4    ,said ,chief ,justice    
,marshall3#a ,the convention which      
promulgated the  constitution was indeed
 elected by the state legislatures1 but 
the  instrument when it came from their 
hands1 was a mere proposal1 without     
obligations or pretentious to it4 ,it   
was reported to the then existing       
,congress of the ,united ,states1 with a

 request that it might 'be  submitted to
 a convention of delegates chosen in    
each ,state by the  people thereof1     
under recommendation of its legislature 
for their assent  and ratification4'    
,this mode of proceeding was adopted1   
and by the  conventions1 by ,congress1  
and by the state legislatures1 the      
instrument  was submitted to the people4
 ,they acted upon it in the only way in 
which  they can act safely1 effectually1
 and wisely on such a subject1 by       
assenting in convention4 ,it is true    
they assembled in their several         
,states1 an where could they have       
assembled8 ,from these conventions the  
constitution derives its whole          
authority4 ,the government proceeds     
directly from the people4 ,the assent of
 the ,states in their sovereign         
capacity is implied in calling the      
convention1 and thus submitting that    
instrument to the people4 ,but the      
people were at perfect liberty to       
accept or reject it1 and their decision 

was final4 ,it required not the         
affirmance of1 and could not be         
negatived by1 the state governments4    
,the  constitution when adopted was of  
complete obligation1 and bound the      
state sovereignties4 ,the government of 
the ,union then1 is emphatically  and   
truly a government of the people4 ,in   
form and in substance it  emanates from 
them4 ,its powers are granted by them1  
and are to be  exercised directly on    
them1 and for their benefit4            
,footnote #a3 ,mc,culloch v4 ,md41 #d   
,dall41 #caf4    ,said ,chief ,justice  
,chase3#a ,the union of the ,states     
never was a purely  artificial and      
arbitrary relation4 ,it began among the 
colonies1 and grew  out of common       
origin1 mutual sympathies1 kindred      
principles1 and  geographical relations4
 ,it was confirmed and strengthened by  
the  necessities of war1 and received   
definite form and character and         
sanction from the articles of           
,confederation4 ,by these the union was 

solemnly declared to 'be perpetual4'    
,and when the articles were found to  be
 inadequate to the exigencies of the    
country1 the constitution was  ordained 
'to form a more perfect union4' ,it is  
difficult to convey the  idea of        
indissoluble unity more clearly than by 
these words4 ,what can be  more         
indissoluble if a perpetual union made  
more perfect1 is not8 ,but  the         
perpetuity and indissolubility of the   
union1 by no means implies the  loss of 
distinct and individual existence1 or of
 the right of  self-government by the   
,states4444 ,without the ,states in     
,union1 there  could be no such         
political body as the ,united ,states4  
,not only1  therefore1 can there be no  
loss of separate and independent        
autonomy to  the ,states1 through their 
union under the constitution1 but it may
 be  not unreasonably said that the     
preservation of the ,states1 and the    
maintenance of their governments are as 
much within the design and care  of the 

constitution1 as the preservation of the
 ,union and the  maintenance of the     
,national ,government4 ,the constitution
 in all its  provisions looks to an     
indestructible ,union composed of       
indestructible  ,states4    ,footnote   
#a3 ,texas v4 ,white1 #g ,wall41 #gej4  
,a civil war of four years' duration has
 decided the ,unionist theory of  our   
government to be the one under which the
 ,nation is to be governed4  ,whether or
 not1 in point of fact1 the ,nation was 
older than the ,states1  and the        
constitution not a compact1 but an      
indissoluble ,union1 will  always remain
 a question to be discussed4 ,the       
dispute turns upon a point  that does   
not admit of final determination4 ,we   
can only theorize4 ,to  maintain the    
view that the ,union is older than the  
,states it is  necessary to show that   
the ,continental ,congress was of such a
 character1  and its powers of such a   
nature1 that a true national government 
may be  said to have existed before     

,july #d1 #aggf1 and therefore1 that the
  ,declaration of ,independence and the 
consequent transformation of the        
colonies into ,states were not the      
result of the individual action of      
separate colonies1 but of the whole     
people united in a nation4 ,and1        
following from this1 that the ,states   
were never out of the union1 but  that  
the individual colonies became ,states1 
only as belonging to the  ,united       
,states4 ,consequently that the theory  
of a 'compact' between the  ,states and 
the ,united ,states is untenable1 for at
 the time the ,united  ,states was born1
 the ,states did not exist4#a           
,footnote #a3 ,as ,lincoln expressed it 
in his message of ,july #d1 #ahfa3  ,the
 ,states have their status in the       
,union1 and they have no other  legal   
status4444 ,the ,union is older than any
 of the ,states1 and in fact1  it       
created them as ,states4    ,to maintain
 the ,compact ,theory it is necessary to
 show that the  ,continental ,congress  

had no properly delegated national      
powers1 and  to it the character of a   
national government could not fitly be  
applied1  and that the colonies when    
they separated from ,england remained   
independent of each other1 because as   
colonies they had been  independent4    
,therefore1 that the initial clause of  
the ,preamble to the  ,constitution ,we 
the people of the ,united ,states       
referred not to all  the people of the  
,united ,states in their collective     
capacity1 but to the  people of the     
several ,states4    ,in fine1 admitting1
 as all do1 the ,continental ,congress  
to have been a  revolutionary body1     
exercising undelegated powers1 the      
question is1 ,was  it1 or was it not1 a 
de jure1 as well as de facto national   
government1 and this is a question that 
cannot be answered absolutely4    ,these
 opposing views of the character of our 
constitution have been  stated not with 
the idea of proving either of them to be
 the correct  one1 but solely to        

indicate the lines along which political
 parties have  fought their battles4    
,thus1 it is hoped1 the student will be 
prepared  for an intelligent            
consideration of the various political  
parties that  have existed in the course
 of his country's history4    ,to       
complete the statement of the underlying
 causes and fundamental  principles that
 have directed the course of our        
national politics1 it is  necessary to  
give at least some short account of the 
natural causes that  have operated      
irresistibly to divide the ,north and   
the ,south in their  political thoughts 
and actions4    ,why is it that slavery 
flourished in the ,south1 but languished
 and was  gradually abolished in the    
,north8 ,why is it that the stronghold  
of the  ,states' ,rights doctrine of    
nullification and of secession was in   
the  ,south1 and the citadel of the     
,unionists in the ,north8 ,why is it    
that  to-day the debate between high and
 low customs duties1 is1 to a very      

considerable extent1 a discussion       
between the ,new ,england and ,middle   
,states and the ,southern ,states8      
,to all these questions a very          
satisfactory answer can be found in the 
different physical characteristics of   
the ,north and ,south4 ,the nature  of  
the soil and climate1 as well as the    
character of the settlers1              
predetermined for the ,southern colonies
 an agricultural character1 and  for the
 colonies of the ,north a commercial and
 industrial character2  and1 already by 
the end of the eighteenth century we    
find in them a  marked difference of    
political and social life4    ,from the 
very start1 the ,south1 favored by a    
mild climate1 rich soil1  and broad1    
low-lying valleys1 developed an         
agricultural life4 ,slavery  was        
introduced at an early date1 and        
flourished1 the warm climate being      
congenial to the negro1 and the rude    
manual labor of the field suited to  his
 meagre capabilities4 ,the result of    

these influences was to develop  in the 
,south a system of large ill-worked     
manors or estates4 ,the  predominance of
 slave labor1 discouraged the           
immigration of free labor1  and the     
,south remained comparatively thinly    
settled4 ,the moral effect of  slavery  
upon the white population was bad4      
,habits of thriftlessness and  laziness 
were engendered among the free          
population1 and their social  relations 
corrupted4    ,in the ,north1 an        
indented coast with many good harbors1 a
 rugged soil1  and a wintry climate1    
encouraged the development of a         
commercial and  manufacturing life4     
,slave labor here proved itself scarcely
 profitable1  neither the climate nor   
the nature of the work required1 being  
suited to  the frames and abilities of  
the ,african4 ,as compared with the     
,south1 the  ,north soon became thickly 
settled1 and largely as a result of     
this1  adopted the small area of the    
town or township as its most important  

unit of local government1 instead of the
 larger area1 the county1 used  in the  
,south4 ,this essential difference in   
the system of local  government in the  
,north1 from that of the ,south1 has    
remained unchanged  to this day1 and has
 exercised great influence upon the     
political habits  of the peoples of     
these two sections4    ,at the time of  
the adoption of the constitution1 these 
differences  between the northern and   
southern colonies were not so great as  
they  were soon to become4 ,as          
contrasted with the ,north1 the         
agricultural  character of the ,south   
was already marked1 but the designation 
of these  two sections as free and slave
 states had not yet come into use4 ,it  
was the remarkable development of the   
cultivation of cotton consequent  upon  
the invention of ,whitney's cotton gin  
in #agic1 that gave the  tremendous     
impetus to the increase of slavery in   
the ,south4 ,while prior  to the        
introduction of this machine1 scarcely a

 single pound of cotton  could be       
separated from the seed by a man in a   
day1 ,whitney's gin made  it possible to
 prepare for market three hundred and   
fifty pounds per  day4 ,the nature of   
the cotton plant rendered it peculiarly 
fitted to the  climate and soil of the  
,south1 and the ease with which it could
 be  cultivated and prepared for market1
 made the application of slave labor    
extremely profitable4 ,in #aghi many of 
the southern states exhibited  evidences
 of a desire and intention to ultimately
 abolish slavery1 but  from this time we
 hear nothing more of this4 ,after #ahjj
 the number of  slaves increased        
rapidly4 ,the census of #agij showed in 
the southern  colonies #fej1jjj1 while  
that of #ahbj showed the number to be   
over  #a1ehj1jjj4 ,from #ahjj to #ahfe  
the political life of the ,south is     
largely  explainable by the interest of 
its people in1 and devotion to1 the     
institution of slavery4    ,the         
promptness with which1 irrespective of  

party affiliations1 the  people of the  
,north assumed the anti-slavery attitude
 and those of the  ,south placed        
themselves under the pro-slavery banner1
 at the time of the  ,missouri contest  
in #ahbj1 shows the extent to which     
these two sections  of the ,united      
,states were already divided upon this  
great question4 ,the  ,south1 retarded  
in its growth by the employment of slave
 labor1 as  compared with the ,north    
already exhibited an example of arrested
  development1 and her politicians saw  
that if the balance of power  between   
the slave-holding and the               
non-slave-holding ,states was to be     
maintained1 a wider field for the       
extension of their favorite  institution
 would have to be provided4 ,it is in   
the light of this motive  that the      
desire of the ,south for the annexation 
of ,cuba and of ,texas1  even at the    
expense of a war with ,mexico1 is to be 
interpreted4 ,the  compromise of #ahbj  
satisfied the demands of the slavocracy 

for a time1  but only for a time4 ,in   
#ahej the ,south again demanded1 and    
obtained  concessions4 ,it required a   
civil war to demonstrate to us the      
futility  of endeavoring to avert by    
compromise the conflict that was        
irrepressible between the ,north and    
,south so long as slavery existed in    
the one1 and was reprobated in the      
other4    ,the different attitudes      
assumed at the present day by the ,north
 and  ,south in regard to the ,tariff   
question1 is explainable by the         
difference  in the industrial life of   
these two sections4 ,the ,north is      
essentially a  manufacturing centre1    
and1 as such1 demands high import duties
 as a  protection to her manufacturers  
and merchants4 ,the ,south is1 as a     
whole1  agricultural1 and favors low    
duties with the idea of thus extending  
foreign trade1 and affording a larger   
market for the sale of her raw          
products4 ,a striking proof of the      
influence of the industrial life of a   

section in determining its attitude     
towards the tariff1 is seen in the      
change of front of ,massachusetts after 
#ahbd from free-trade to  protection1   
this change being wholly due to the     
predominating influence  acquired by her
 manufactures over her commerce and     
agriculture4      ,,finis4              
,,notes4      ,for the assistance of    
those who may desire a fuller           
acquaintance with  the administrative   
methods of our ,federal and ,state      
,governments than is  to be obtained    
from this book1 these bibliographical   
notes are appended4  ,not only the      
authorities actually consulted in the   
preparation of this  monograph are      
given1 but mention is also made of the  
most reliable and  accessible sources of
 information upon the more important    
topics germane  to the study of         
,government and ,administration4 ,in    
arrangement1 the notes  follow the order
 of topics used in the text4            
,general ,works upon ,united ,states    

,government4    ,worthy of first mention
 is the admirable work of ,james ,bryce1
 ,the  ,american ,commonwealth1 #b      
vols41 #ahhh4 ,to the student of        
,american  institutions and             
administration these two volumes are    
indispensable4 ,in  them is contained   
the best and latest scientific          
exposition of our  political            
institutions as they exist to-day4 ,the 
only criticism that can  be made        
regarding the work is that the executive
 departments have not  received         
sufficient attention as regards the     
details of their  administration1 nor   
the practical and scientific value of   
the work  performed by their numerous   
bureaus4 ,interesting from an historical
  point of view is ,de ,tocqueville's   
,democracy in ,america1 now fifty  years
 old4 ,lalor's ,encyclopaedia of        
,political ,science1 ,political         
,economy and ,american ,history is by   
far the best work for reference4 ,the   
principal articles in the field of      

political science are contributed by    
,dr4 ,j4,c4 ,bluntschli1 those upon     
,united ,states ,history by the late    
,prof4  ,alexander ,johnston1 and those 
upon ,federal ,administration by ,a4,r4 
,spofford1 ,librarian of ,congress4     
,bannatyne's ,hand-book of ,republican  
,institutions in the ,united ,states  is
 an authoritative work based upon       
federal and state laws1 and other       
authoritative sources of information4   
,it is entirely descriptive and  very   
complete4 ,other general works are      
,mulford's ,the ,nation3 the            
,foundation of ,civil ,order and        
,political ,life in the ,united ,states2
  ,laboulaye's ,histoire ,politique des 
,etats-,unis1 #c vols42 and ,lamphere's 
,the ,united ,states ,government3 ,its  
,organization and ,practical ,workings1 
this last being chiefly valuable for its
 statistical and tabulated  information4
    ,among foreign works that consider  
the theory and practice of the ,united  
,states ,government1 are ,bagehot's     

,english ,constitution2 ,sir ,henry     
,maine's chapter on the ,constitution of
 the ,united ,states in his  ,popular   
,government2 ,e4,a4 ,freeman's article  
,presidential ,government  contained in 
his ,historical ,essays 7#ahga72 ,lord  
,brougham's chapter on  the ,government 
of the ,united ,states in his ,political
 ,philosophy1  ,vol4 #c2 and ,e4        
,boutmy's ,etudes de droit              
,constitutionel4 ,for current  political
 information ,mc,pherson's ,hand-book of
 ,politics1 issued every  two years     
since #ahgj1 is valuable4 ,besides      
statistical information  regarding      
government revenues and expenditures1   
public debts1 votes1  population1 names 
of congressmen1 c42 these hand-books    
contain  ,presidential and              
,gubernatorial messages1 transcripts    
from the  ,congressional ,record        
relating to leading matters discussed in
  ,congress2 and decisions of the       
,supreme ,court that are of general     
importance4 ,the ,statesman's           

,year-,book1 published annually by      
,macmillan   ,co41 is valuable for      
reference in matters concerning both    
foreign and  ,american governments4     
,bibliographical references are also    
given to each  existing government4     
,john ,fiske's recent volume on ,civil  
,government in the ,united ,states1     
stands in merit far above other manuals 
bearing this name1 most of which  are   
simply running commentaries on the      
constitution4 ,an excellent  feature of 
,mr4 ,fiske's book is the addition of   
bibliographical notes at  the ends of   
the chapters4    ,the following are     
manuals that may be recommended as of   
comparative  merit3 ,macy1 ,our         
,government3 ,how it ,grew1 ,what it    
,does1 and ,how it ,does  it2 ,cocker's 
,civil ,government2 ,thorpe's           
,government of the ,people of  the      
,united ,states2 ,martin's ,civil       
,government1 and ,ford's ,american      
,citizens' ,manual4    ,the most        
complete collection of bibliographical  

references to the  ,constitution of the 
,united ,states is that prepared by     
,w4,e4 ,foster1 and  published as       
,economic ,tract ,no4 xxix1 by the      
,society for ,political  ,education1    
,new ,york4      ,government4    ,dr4   
,j4,c4 ,bluntschli's ,lehre vom         
,modernen ,stat1 in three volumes1 gives
  the finest treatment of the various   
forms and general principles of         
governments4 ,a portion of ,dr4         
,bluntschli's work has been translated  
into  ,english and published under the  
title ,the ,theory of the ,state4 ,there
  is also a ,french translation of this 
work4 ,other authorities under this     
head are3 ,bluntschli's                 
,staatswrterbuch2 ,woolsey's ,political 
,science1  or the ,state ,theoretically 
and ,practically ,considered2 and       
,montesquieu's ,de l',esprit des ,lois4 
,interesting from an historical  point  
of view1 are the theories contained in  
the works of political  philosophers in 
the past4 ,see ,plato's ,republic2      

,aristotle's  ,politics1 ,cicero's ,de  
,republica2 ,thomas ,aquinas' ,of the   
,government  of ,principles2 ,dante's   
,de ,monarchia2 ,machiavelli's ,prince2 
,jean  ,bodin's ,of the ,commonwealth2  
,hobbes' ,leviathan2 ,filmer's          
,patriarcha2 ,hooker's ,ecclesiastical  
,polity2 ,locke's ,civil  ,government2  
,j4,j4 ,rousseau's ,social ,contract2   
,bentham's ,fragment on  ,government2   
,j4,s4 ,mills' ,representative          
,government4    ,pollock's ,history of  
the ,science of ,politics1 published in 
the  ,humboldt ,library1 contains an    
admirable summary of the views of these 
political philosophers4    ,the works of
 several of these authors 7,hobbes1     
,hooker1 ,locke1 ,filmer1  ,machiavelli7
 are contained in ,morley's ,universal  
,library1 published by  ,routledge at   
one shilling per volume4    ,for        
theories regarding the origin and       
development of government1 see  ,maine's
 ,ancient ,law1 ,early ,history of      
,institutions1 and ,early ,law and      

,custom2 ,spencer's ,principles of      
,sociology1 ,vol4 ,i2 ,morgan's ,ancient
  ,society2 ,mc,lennan's ,studies in    
,ancient ,history1 and ,the ,patriarchal
  ,theory2 and ,bagehot's ,physics and  
,politics1 published in the ,humbolt    
,library4 ,the contract theory of       
government is presented in various forms
  in the works of ,hobbes1 ,hooker1     
,locke and ,rousseau4      ,functions of
 ,government4    ,the proper limits of  
state action are discussed in ,mill's   
,essay on  ,liberty2 ,huxley's          
,administrative ,nihilism 7,humboldt    
,lib472 ,spencer's  ,social ,statics1   
,man versus the ,state1 ,the ,coming    
,slavery1 and ,the  ,sins of            
,legislators 7,humboldt ,lib472         
,stephen's ,liberty1 ,equality1         
,fraternity2 ,humboldt's ,sphere and    
,duties of ,government2 and ,h4,c4      
,adams' ,state in ,relation to          
,industrial ,action1 published by the   
,american ,economic ,association4       
,wilson's ,the ,state contains a        

valuable  chapter upon the functions of 
government4 ,for a description of       
existing  forms of government1 ,prof4   
,woodrow ,wilson's ,the ,state is very  
valuable4 ,see also ,statesmen's ,year  
,books4      ,colonial ,governments4    
,volumes ,,iii1 ,,iv1 and ,v of         
,winsor's ,narrative and ,critical      
,history of  ,america1 #h vols41 contain
 excellent monographs upon the founding1
  history and nature of government of   
the various colonies4 ,doyle's two      
volumes1 entitled ,the ,english         
,colonies in ,america1 present an       
exhaustive study of the ,american       
colonies from an ,european point of     
view4 ,a handy digest of this work is   
contained in his small ,history of  the 
,united ,states1 published as one of the
 volumes in ,freeman's  ,historical     
,course for ,schools4 ,lodge's ,short   
,history of the ,english  ,colonies in  
,america is chiefly devoted to colonial 
social life4 ,in the  preparation of the
 chapter upon ,colonial ,governments1 we

 have obtained  the most assistance from
 the first volume of ,story's           
,commentaries upon  the ,constitution4  
,pages #ae to #ej of ,hannis ,taylor's  
,origin and ,growth  of the ,english    
,constitution are important4 ,fiske's   
,beginnings of ,new  ,england is an     
extremely interesting description of the
 early history of  a single section4    
,steps ,toward ,union and ,independence4
    ,see especially ,story's            
,commentaries2 ,frothingham's ,rise of  
the  ,republic of the ,united ,states2  
,scott's ,development of ,constitutional
  ,liberty in the ,english ,colonies in 
,america2 ,fiske's ,critical ,period of 
,american ,history2 and ,a4,b4 ,hart's  
,formation of the ,union1 #agfc-ahbi1   
to appear in the series1 ,epochs of     
,american ,history4 ,for the ,albany    
plan of union see ,franklin's ,life and 
,letters1 ,vol4 #d4 ,for an account  of 
the causes leading to revolution written
 from an essentially ,english           
standpoint1 see ,lecky's ,history of    

,england in the ,eighteenth ,century1   
,vol4 ,,iv4      ,articles of           
,confederation4    ,best upon this      
subject are3 ,curtis' ,history of the   
,constitution2  ,marshall's ,life of    
,washington2 ,bancroft's ,history of the
 ,united  ,states2 and ,winsor's        
,narrative and ,critical ,history of    
,america1 ,vol4  ,,vii1 article ,the    
,confederation by the ,editor4 ,see also
 ,secret  ,journals of ,congress1 and   
authorities cited above4                
,constitutional ,convention and the     
,adoption of the ,constitution4    ,see 
authorities cited above1 and ,j4,a4     
,jameson's ,treatise on  ,constitutional
 ,conventions4 ,the official sources of 
information are3  the meagre ,journal1  
,acts1 and ,proceedings of the          
,convention2 and  ,elliot's ,debates in 
the ,several ,state ,conventions on the 
,adoption of  the ,federal              
,constitution1 99 99 99 99 together with
 the ,journal of the  ,federal          
,convention1 the last volume of which   

contains ,madison's notes  of ,debates  
in the ,federal ,convention1 frequently 
called ,the ,madison  ,papers4      ,the
 ,constitution4    ,the number of       
valuable works concerned more or less   
directly with a  study of the           
,constitution is very great4 ,only a    
very few can be  mentioned4 ,a very     
complete list of references to the      
,constitution1 is  that by ,w4,e4       
,foster1 already referred to4 ,the      
leading works upon  ,constitutional ,law
 are ,cooley's ,general ,principles of  
,constitutional  ,law1 and              
,constitutional ,limitations2 ,von      
,holst's1 ,hare's and  ,pomeroy's       
treatises on ,constitutional ,law4      
,story's ,commentaries on the           
,constitution are invaluable4 ,the      
character and value of ,the  ,federalist
 have been noticed in the text 7p4 #be74
 ,on ,constitutional  ,amendments1 see  
,johnston's article on ,amendments in   
,lalor's  ,encyclopaedia4 ,concerning   
,constitutional developments1 due to    

judicial  construction1 see             
,willoughby's ,supreme ,court of the    
,united ,states3 its  ,history and      
,influence in our ,constitutional       
,system1 published in the  ,johns       
,hopkins ,studies1 ,extra ,vol4 ,,vii2  
and ,the ,constitutional ,history  of   
the ,united ,states as ,seen in the     
,development of ,american ,law1 by      
,judge ,cooley and others1 edited by    
,h4,w4 ,rogers4 ,the ,unwritten         
,constitution of the ,united ,states1 is
 the title of a very recent book  by    
,c4,g4 ,tiedeman4    ,for constitutional
 development due to war experiences1 see
 ,dunning's  ,united ,states in ,civil  
,war and in ,reconstruction4 ,w4,e4     
,foster has in  press a pamphlet of     
references on ,the ,united ,states      
,constitution in  ,civil ,war4    ,on   
,federal ,government1 see ,jellinek's   
,die ,lehre von den                     
,staatenverbindungen2 and ,hart's       
,introduction to the ,study of ,federal 
,government1 ,harvard ,historical       

,monographs1 ,no4 #b4 ,besides giving an
  outline of the political history of   
the successive federations in the       
world's history1 with an account of the 
literature upon each1 ,mr4 ,hart's      
monograph contains a very excellent     
bibliographical note on ,federal        
,government in general1 and the ,united 
,states ,constitution in particular4    
,the laws of the ,united ,states are    
known as ,united ,states ,statutes at   
,large4 ,in #ahgh was published a large 
volume containing all ,federal laws  in 
force in #ahgd4 ,in #ahha was published 
a ,supplement 7known as  ,richardson's  
,supplement7 containing congressional   
legislation during  the years           
#ahgd--ahha4      ,congressional        
,government4    ,the official reports of
 the debates of ,congress have been     
published  under the following titles3  
,annals of ,congress 7#aghi--ahbc71     
,congressional ,debates 7#ahbd-ahcg71   
,congressional ,globe 7#ahcc-ahgc71     
,congressional ,record 7#ahgc to the    

present time74 ,benton's ,abridgment  of
 ,debates in #af volumes covers the     
period #aghi to #ahej4    ,mc,pherson's 
,handbook of ,politics1 already cited1  
contains accounts of  the more important
 debates in ,congress4 ,printed copies  
of bills and  reports of committees can 
be obtained upon application4 ,for the  
best  descriptions of the practical     
working of ,congress1 see ,bryce's      
,american  ,commonwealth1 and ,woodrow  
,wilson's ,congressional ,government4   
,in both  of these works our committee  
method of congressional legislation is  
compared with the ,english method of    
,parliamentary legislation under the    
leadership of a responsible ministry4   
,the conclusions obtained from this     
comparison by the latter author1 are    
especially unfavorable to the  ,united  
,states4 ,other references to works     
comparing ,english and ,american        
methods of legislation1 are ,snow's     
,defence of ,congressional  ,government1
 published in the papers of the         

,american ,historical  ,association1    
,vol4 ,,iv2 ,a4,l4 ,lowell's ,essays on 
,government2 ,bagehot's  ,english       
,constitution2 ,bourinot's article1     
,canada and the ,united  ,states1       
,scottish ,review1 ,july1 #ahij1 and    
,annals of the ,american ,academy  of   
,social ,science1 ,no4 ,i2 and an       
article by ,hon4 ,joseph ,chamberlain1  
,shall ,we ,americanize ,our            
,institutions8 ,nineteenth ,century1    
,december1  #ahij4 ,the ,congressional  
,directory1 published annually1 contains
 much  handy information regarding the  
constitution and officers of ,congress1 
and of the various federal departments  
at ,washington4 ,for an account of  the 
work done during the last session       
7#ahhi-ij71 see ,north ,american        
,review1 ,november1 #ahij4 ,regarding   
the recent controversy on the power  of 
the ,speaker of the ,house of           
,representatives to count as present    
members in the hall1 but not answering  
to the roll-call1 see the ,north        

,american ,review for ,october1 #ahhi2  
the ,nos4 for ,march1 ,may1 ,july1      
,august and ,october1 #ahij1 also       
contain interesting articles on the same
  subject4      ,executive ,departments4
    ,of especial and authoritative value
 is the report of a select committee  of
 the ,senate to ,enquire into and       
,examine the ,methods of ,business and  
,work in the ,executive ,departments1 in
 #c vols41 known as ,cockrell's         
,report1 or ,senate ,report #ejg1 #ejth 
,cong41 #ast ,sess41 and also a         
supplementary report in one volume1     
dated ,march #bh1 #ahhi4 ,for other     
official sources of information1 see the
 annual reports of the various          
departments1 and of the individual      
bureaus4 ,see also special reports      
mentioned in the text4 ,on diplomatic   
relations1 see the annual report of  the
 ,secretary of ,state ,on ,foreign      
,relations1 and ,treaties and           
,conventions between the ,united ,states
 and ,other ,powers 7#aggf-ahhg71       

published by the same department4 ,the  
,consular ,reports1 issued from  time to
 time by the ,state ,department1 are of 
value as furnishing  economic           
information regarding foreign countries4
 ,the reports of the  ,secretary of the 
,treasury are of extreme statistical and
 financial  value4 ,for handy use the   
,statistical ,abstract is issued        
annually by  the ,treasury ,department4 
,the reports published by the           
,department of  ,state1 of the          
,international ,conferences of #ahgh1   
and of #ahha1 and  that of ,edward      
,atkinson on ,the ,present ,status of   
,bimetalism in ,europe  7#ahhg71 are of 
especial value upon monetary topics4 ,in
 #ahhf the ,treasury  ,department issued
 a volume of ,laws ,relating to ,loans1 
and the ,currency1  ,coinage and        
,banking4 ,besides his annual report the
 ,director of the ,mint  publishes      
annually a report on the ,production of 
,gold and ,silver in the  ,united       
,states4 ,for an account of the         

,sub-,treasury system1 see ,bolle's     
,financial ,history of the ,united      
,states4 ,concerning the evils of this  
system1 see an article by ,prof4 ,j4,l4 
,laughlin in the ,north ,american       
,review1 ,vol4 #acg1 p4 #eeb4           
,regarding the ,silver ,question and    
other important public questions  coming
 within the province of the ,treasury   
,department1 information can  be derived
 from recent periodicals4 ,poole's      
,index to ,periodical  ,literature      
should also be consulted4 ,an           
interesting account of the  ,pension    
,office is contained in the ,atlantic   
,monthly1 ,january1 #ahij4  ,regarding  
the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission1  
see the book by ,don ,passes  in        
,putnam's ,questions of the ,day series4
 ,see also ,political ,science          
,quarterly1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bbc and    
#cfi4    ,the ,eleventh ,census is now  
being compiled1 and ,bulletins are      
issued from  time to time by the        
superintendent4 ,postmaster-,general    

,wanamaker has  recently issued a       
pamphlet in support of a ,limited ,post 
and ,telegraph4    ,concerning the      
constitutional powers possessed by      
executive officers1  see ,a4 ,conkling's
 ,powers of the ,executive ,departments2
 de ,chambrun's  ,the ,executive ,power1
 and chapter ,,vii of ,willoughby's     
,supreme ,court of  the ,united ,states4
 ,the ,official ,register of the ,united
 ,states1 issued  annually in two large 
volumes1 contains the names and         
positions of all  persons in federal    
employment4 ,the second volume is       
devoted exclusively  to the ,postal     
,service4 ,very many of the government  
reports mentioned in  this note will be 
sent to any address upon application4   
,a descriptive catalogue of all         
government publications arranged in     
chronological order1 from #aggd to      
#ahha1 was prepared by ,b4,p4 ,poore and
  published by the government4          
,federal ,judiciary4    ,among the      
treatises upon the practical working of 

the ,federal ,judiciary  are3 ,b4,r4    
,curtis' ,federal ,courts2 ,bryce's     
,american ,commonwealth2 and            
,willoughby's ,supreme ,court of the    
,united ,states1 already referred to4   
,for an excellent description of the    
relations between the ,federal and      
,state courts1 see ,chamberlain's       
lecture published in ,the               
,constitutional  ,history of the ,united
 ,states as seen in the ,development of 
its ,law4 ,the  reports of decisions of 
cases tried in the ,supreme ,court are  
contained  in one hundred and           
thirty-three volumes4 ,until #ahge1     
these volumes were  known by the names  
of the reporters1 viz43 ,dallas1        
,cranch1 ,wheaton1  ,peters1 ,howard1   
,black1 and ,wallace4 ,since #ahge they 
have been designated  simply as ,united 
,states ,reports4      ,ordinance of    
#aghg4    ,for text and comments see    
,old ,south ,leaflet ,no #ac 7,heath    
,co41 price  five cents74 ,for ,the     
,united ,states ,constitution and the   

,ordinance of  #aghg in ,relation to    
,education1 see ,magazine of ,american  
,history1  ,september1 #ahhh4 ,see also 
,papers of the ,american ,historical    
,association1  ,vol4 ,,iii2 pamphlets by
 ,dr4 ,poole and ,f4,d4 ,stone1 and     
,sato's ,history of  the ,land ,question
 in the ,united ,states1 ,johns ,hopkins
 ,university  ,studies1 ,series ,,iv4   
,territories4    ,the reports of the    
,governors of the various territories to
 the ,secretary  of the ,interior       
furnish an official source of           
information4 ,regarding the  government 
of1 and conditions of admission of      
territories as ,states1 see  especially 
,bannatyne's ,republican ,institutions  
in the ,united ,states4      ,state     
,governments4    ,for the text of ,state
 constitutions see ,b4,p4 ,poore's      
,federal and ,state  ,constitutions1    
,colonial ,charters1 and ,other ,organic
 ,lows of the ,united  ,states1 in two  
vols4 7#ahgg71 published by the         
government4 ,for further  information   

regarding ,state constitutions consult  
,davis' ,american  ,constitutions1 in   
the ,johns ,hopkins ,university         
,studies1 ,series ,,iii2  ,jameson's    
,introduction to the ,constitutional and
 ,political ,history of  the ,states1   
,johns ,hopkins ,university ,studies1   
,series ,,iv2 and  ,hitchcock's         
,american ,state ,constitutions         
7,putnam's ,questions of the  ,day      
series74 ,see also of course ,bryce's   
,american ,commonwealth4 ,for  ,recent  
,tendencies in ,state ,activities1 see  
paper by ,w4,f4 ,willoughby1  to be     
published in the ,papers of the         
,american ,historical ,association1     
,vol4 ,v41 and articles by ,dr4 ,albert 
,shaw1 entitled ,american ,state        
,legislatures1 in ,contemporary ,review1
 ,october1 #ahhi1 and ,the ,american    
,state and the ,american ,man1 in the   
same review for ,may1 #ahhg4 ,the       
,forum for ,november1 #ahij1 contains an
 interesting description of the  ,six   
,new ,states1 by ,senator ,cullom4 ,for 

histories of the individual  ,states1   
see the series of ,american             
,commonwealths1 edited by ,h4,e4        
,scudder1 and published by ,houghton1   
,mifflin  ,co4 ,those for ,connecticut1 
,indiana1 ,michigan1 ,missouri1 ,kansas1
 ,california1 ,maryland1 ,kentucky1 ,new
  ,york1 ,ohio1 ,colorado1 ,oregon1 and 
,virginia1 have already appeared4       
,local ,government4    ,among           
authorities on ,local ,government are   
various monographs upon this  subject in
 the several ,states1 contributed to the
 ,johns ,hopkins  ,university ,studies  
in ,historical and ,political ,science4 
,see also ,bryce  and ,bannatyne4       
,city ,government4    ,see ,j4,h4,u4    
,studies1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,nos4 #d1 #aj2    
,vol4 ,v1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d2 ,vol4   
,,vii1 ,nos4 #a1 #c1 #d4 ,also          
supplementary volume1 ,philadelphia1    
#afha-ahhg3  a ,history of ,municipal   
,development1 by ,allinson and ,penrose4
 ,simon  ,sterne has an able article on 
,cities in ,lalor's ,encyclopaedia4 ,see

  also chapters in ,bryce's great work1 
and articles in the ,political  ,science
 ,quarterly for ,june1 #ahhg1 and ,june1
 #ahhi2 ,forum1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4  #bfj1  
#eci2 and ,quarterly ,journal of        
,economics1 ,january1 #ahij4    ,the    
report of the ,new ,york ,commission on 
,a ,plan for a ,new ,government  of ,new
 ,york1 #ahgf1 is valuable1 as are also 
several of ex-,mayor  ,hewitt's         
messages4 ,prof4 ,gniest has a          
suggestive article on ,berlin1 the  best
 governed city in the world1 in the     
,contemporary ,review1 ,vol4 #df4       
,shaw's article on ,glasgow in the      
,century1 ,march1 #ahij1 is likewise    
instructive4 ,spofford's ,city of       
,washington and ,growth of ,united      
,states  ,cities is interesting4 ,ely's 
,taxation in ,american ,states and      
,cities  contains many excellent        
suggestions for improvements in our     
methods of  municipal administration4   
,see also ,ely's ,problems of ,to-day4  
,putnam is  publishing a series entitled

 ,great ,cities of the ,republic4 ,the  
,stories  of ,new ,york1 ,boston and    
,washington have thus far appeared4     
,government ,revenue and ,expenditure4  
,federal and ,state finance reports     
furnish official information4           
,seligman's ,finances of ,american      
,states and ,cities1 published by the   
,american ,statistical ,association1    
#ahij1 is valuable1 and furnishes       
excellent statistical and tabulated     
information4 ,ely's ,taxation in        
,american ,states and ,cities contains  
much information4 ,spofford's  article  
on ,the ,budget in ,lalor's             
,encyclopaedia is extremely             
instructive4 ,h4,c4 ,adams' ,public     
,debts is one of the ablest financial   
works in the ,english language4 ,the    
proper administration of ,federal and   
,state finances is discussed1 and the   
subject of national and local debts     
considered4 ,bolle's ,financial ,history
 of the ,united ,states1 in three  large
 volumes1 is an able work1 and can be   

consulted with profit4    ,census       
,bulletins1 ,nos4 #f and #g1 describe   
respectively ,the ,indebtedness  of     
,states in #ahhj and #ahij1 and ,the    
,financial ,condition of ,counties4     
,money4    ,see reports of the ,director
 of the ,mint1 and of the ,comptroller  
of the  ,currency4 ,see also ,knox's    
,united ,states ,notes2 ,simmer's       
,history of  ,american ,currency1 and   
text-books on ,political ,economy4      
,public ,lands of the ,united ,states4  
,sato's ,history of the ,land ,question 
in the ,united ,states1 ,johns  ,hopkins
 ,university ,studies1 ,series ,,iv1 is 
the best book for reference4  ,the      
official source of information regarding
 the public lands is  ,donaldson's      
enormous report of #acda pages on ,the  
,public ,domain3 its  ,history with     
,statistics 7#ahhd71 published by the   
government 7,house  ,executive          
,documents #dg1 ,part #d1 #dfth         
,congress1 #c;d ,session47 ,for a short 
account of ,the ,disposition of ,our    

,public ,lands1 see an article by ,a4,b4
  ,hart1 in the ,quarterly ,journal of  
,economics1 ,january1 #ahhg4            
,statistical  tables are appended to    
this article4      ,reconstruction4     
,see ,johnston's article in ,lalor's    
,encyclopaedia1 and authorities there   
cited4 ,also ,mc,pherson's ,history of  
,reconstruction1 ,dunning's ,united     
,stales ,constitution in ,civil ,war and
 in ,reconstruction1 and ,w4,e4         
,foster's ,references on the ,united    
,states ,constitution in ,civil ,war1   
about to be published 7#ahia74          
,party ,machinery and ,national         
,conventions4    ,see especially        
,bryce's ,american ,commonwealth1 and   
,ostrogorski's  ,organisation des       
parties politiques aux ,etats-,unis4 ,on
 the ,caucus see  ,whitridge's ,the     
,caucus ,system1 published as ,economic 
,tract ,no4 #h1 by  the ,society for    
,political ,education1 ,new ,york4      
,political ,parties4    ,winsor's       
,narrative and ,critical ,history of    

,america contains a short  history of   
political parties by ,professor         
,alexander ,johnston4 ,see also         
,johnston's admirable manual1 ,history  
of ,american ,politics1 a book          
especially adapted for school use4 ,von 
,holst's ,constitutional and  ,political
 ,history of the ,united ,states1 six   
volumes1 contains the most              
comprehensive treatment of the history  
of political parties4 ,schouler's       
,history of the ,united ,states under   
the ,constitution1 is an exceedingly    
able and interesting work4 ,four volumes
 bring this history down to #ahdg4  ,the
 fifth volume soon to appear1 will bring
 the narrative down to the  ,civil ,war4
    ,the first volume of ,von ,holst is 
especially interesting1 as giving       
statements of the various theories held 
regarding the origin and nature  of our 
constitution4 ,upon ,nullification and  
,secession1 see ,von ,holst's  ,life of 
,calhoun2 ,stephens' ,war between the   
,states2 ,greeley's  ,american          

,conflict2 ,mc,pherson's ,political     
,history of the ,rebellion2  and        
articles in ,lalor's ,encyclopaedia4    
,the ,american ,statesman  ,series1 now 
being published by ,houghton1 ,mifflin  
,co41 contains  valuable biographies of 
leading ,american statesmen4 ,see       
especially in  this series ,schurz's    
,henry ,clay2 ,morse's ,jefferson2      
,lodge's  ,webster2 and ,von ,holst's   
,calhoun4 ,upon the ,economic contrasts 
between the ,north and ,south1 see ,von 
,holst's ,constitutional ,history1      
,vol4 ,i1 ,chapters ,,ix and ,x4        
,taussig's ,history of the ,tariff1     
gives the  best history of this much    
debated subject4