,,composition-,,rhetoric ,,by ,,stratton ,d4 ,,brooks ,superintendent of ,schools1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,and ,,marietta ,,hubbard ,formerly ,english ,department1 ,high ,school ,la ,salle1 ,illinois 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,york - ,,cincinnati - ,,chicago ,,american ,,book ,,company #aije ,,stratton ,d4 ,,brooks4 ,entered at ,stationers' ,hall1 ,london4 99 99 99 99 99 ,brooks's ,rhet4 ,w4,p4 #aj ,to ,,marcia ,,stuart ,,brooks ,whose teaching first demonstrated to the authors that composition could become a delight and pleasure1 this book is dedicated444444 ,,preface ,the aim of this book is not to produce critical readers of literature1 nor to prepare the pupil to answer questions about rhetorical theory1 but to enable every pupil to express in writing1 freely1 clearly1 and forcibly1 whatever he may find within him worthy of expression4 ,three considerations of fundamental importance underlie the plan of the book3-- ,first1 improvement in the performance of an act comes from the repetition of that act accompanied by a conscious effort to omit the imperfections of the former attempt4 ,therefore1 the writing of a new theme in which1 the pupil attempts to avoid the error which occurred in his former theme is of much greater educational value than is the copying of the old theme for the purpose of correcting the errors in it4 ,to copy the old theme is to correct a result1 to write a new theme correctly is to improve a process2 and it is this improvement of process that is the real aim of composition teaching4 ,second1 the logical arrangement of material should be subordinated to the needs of the pupils4 ,a theoretical discussion of the four forms of discourse would require that each be completely treated in one place4 ,such a treatment would ignore the fact that a high school pupil has daily need to use each of the four forms of discourse1 and that some assistance in each should be given him as early in his course as possible4 ,the book1 therefore1 gives in ,part #a the elements of description1 narration1 exposition1 and argument1 and reserves for ,part ,,ii a more complete treatment of each4 ,in each part the effort has been made to adapt the material presented to the maturity and power of thought of the pupil4 ,third1 expression cannot be compelled2 it must be coaxed4 ,only under favorable conditions can we hope to secure that reaction of intellect and emotion which renders possible a full expression of self4 ,one of the most important of these favorable conditions is that the pupil shall write something he wishes to write1 for an audience which wishes to hear it4 ,the authors have1 therefore1 suggested subjects for themes in which high school pupils are interested and about which they will wish to write4 ,it is hoped that the work will be so conducted by the teacher that every theme will be read aloud before the class4 ,it is essential that the criticism of a theme so read shall1 in the main1 be complimentary1 pointing out and emphasizing those things which the pupil has done well2 and that destructive criticism be largely impersonal and be directed toward a single definite point4 ,only thus may we avoid personal embarrassment to the pupil1 give him confidence in himself1 and assure him of a sympathetic audience--conditions essential to the effective teaching of composition4 ,the plan of the book is as follows3-- #a4 ,part #a provides a series of themes covering description1 narration1 exposition1 and argument4 ,the purpose is to give the pupil that inspiration and that confidence in himself which come from the frequent repetition of an act4 #b4 ,each theme differs from the preceding usually by a single point1 and the teaching effort should be confined to that point4 ,only a false standard of accuracy demands that every error be corrected every time it appears4 ,such a course loses sight of the main point in a multiplicity of details1 renders instruction ineffective by scattering effort1 produces hopeless confusion in the mind of the pupil1 and robs composition of that inspiration without which it cannot succeed4 ,in composition1 as in other things1 it is better to do but one thing at a time4 #c4 ,accompanying the written themes is a series of exercises1 each designed to emphasize the point presented in the text1 but more especially intended to provide for frequent drills in oral composition4 #d4 ,throughout the first four chapters the paragraph is the unit of composition1 but for the sake of added interest some themes of greater length have been included4 ,chapter ,v1 on the ,whole ,composition1 serves as a review and summary of the methods of paragraph development1 shows how to make the transition from one paragraph to another1 and discusses the more important rhetorical principles underlying the union of paragraphs into a coherent and unified whole4 #e4 ,the training furnished by ,part #a should result in giving to the pupil some fluency of expression1 some confidence in his ability to make known to others that which he thinks and feels1 and some power to determine that the theme he writes1 however rough-hewn and unshapely it may be1 yet in its major outlines follows closely the thought that is within his mind4 ,if the training has failed to give the pupil this power1 it will be of little advantage to him to have mastered some of the minor matters of technique1 or to have learned how to improve his phrasing1 polish his sentences1 and distribute his commas4 #f4 ,part ,,ii provides a series of themes covering the same ground as ,part ,i1 but the treatment of these themes is more complete and the material is adapted to the increased maturity and thought power of the pupils4 ,by means of references the pupils are directed to all former treatments of the topics they are studying4 #g4 ,part ,,ii discusses some topics usually treated in college courses in rhetoric4 ,these have been included for three reasons3 first1 because comparatively few high school pupils go to college2 second1 because the increased amount of time now given to composition enables the high school to cover a wider field than formerly2 and third1 because such topics can be studied with profit by pupils in the upper years of the high school course4 #h4 ,it is not intended that the text shall be recited4 ,its purpose is to furnish a basis for discussion between teacher and pupils before the pupils attempt to write4 ,the real test of the pupils' mastery of a principle discussed in the text will be their ability to put it into practice4 ,any judgment of the success or failure of the book should be based upon the quality of the themes which the pupils write4 ,criticisms and suggestions will be welcomed from those who use the book4 ,the authors wish to express their obligation for advice and assistance to ,professor ,edward ,fulton1 ,department of ,rhetoric1 ,university of ,illinois2 ,messrs4 ,gilbert ,s4 ,blakely and ,h4 ,e4 ,foster1 ,instructors in ,english1 ,morris ,high ,school1 ,new ,york2 ,miss ,elizabeth ,richardson1 ,girls' ,high ,school1 ,boston2 ,miss ,katherine ,h4 ,shute1 ,boston ,normal ,school2 ,miss ,e4 ,marguerite ,strauchon1 ,kansas ,city ,high ,school4 ,the selections from ,hawthorne1 ,longfellow1 ,lowell1 ,holmes1 ,whittier1 ,warner1 ,burroughs1 ,howells1 and ,trowbridge are used by permission of and by special arrangement with ,hoaghton1 ,mifflin1 and ,company1 publishers of their works4 ,grateful acknowledgment is made to ,harper and ,brothers2 ,the ,century ,company2 ,doubleday1 ,page1 and ,company2 and ,charles ,scribner's ,sons for permission to use the selections to which their names are attached3 to the publishers of the ,forum1 ,century1 ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,mc,clure's1 ,harper's1 ,scribner's1 and the ,outlook for permission to use extracts3 and to ,scott1 ,foresman1 and ,company2 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company2 ,henry ,holt and ,company2 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons2 ,thomas ,y4 ,crowell and ,company2 and ,benjamin ,h4 ,sanborn and ,company for permission to use copyrighted material4 ,,contents ,,part ,i #a4 ,expression of ,ideas arising from ,experience ,,ii4 ,expression of ,ideas furnished by ,imagination ,,iii4 ,expression of ,ideas acquired through ,language ,,iv4 ,the ,purpose of ,expression ,v4 ,the ,whole ,composition ,,vi4 ,letter ,writing ,,vii4 ,poetry ,,part ,,ii ,,viii4 ,description ,,ix4 ,narration ,x4 ,exposition ,,xi4 ,argument ,appendix ,i4 ,elements of ,form ,,ii4 ,review of ,grammar ,,iii4 ,figures of ,speech ,,iv4 ,the ,rhetorical ,features of the ,sentence ,v4 ,list of ,synonyms ,,vi4 ,list of ,words for ,exercise in ,word ,usage ,index ,,part #a #a4 ,,expression ,,of ,,ideas ,,arising ,,from ,,experience #a4 ,pleasure in ,expressing ,ideas4--,though we all enjoy talking1 we cannot write so easily as we talk1 nor with the same pleasure4 ,we seldom talk about topics in which we are not interested and concerning which we know little or nothing1 but we often have such topics assigned to us as subjects for compositions4 ,under such conditions it is no wonder that there is little pleasure in writing4 ,the ideas that we express orally are those with which we are familiar and in which we are interested1 and we tell them because we wish to tell them to some one who is likewise interested and who desires to hear what we have to say4 ,such expression of ideas is enjoyed by all4 ,if we but choose to express the same kinds of ideas and for the same reason1 there is an equal or even greater pleasure to be derived from the expression of ideas in writing4 ,the purpose of this book is to show you how to express ideas clearly1 effectively1 and with pleasure4 #b4 ,sources of ,ideas4--,we must have ideas before we can express them4 ,there are three sources from which ideas arise4 ,we may gain them from experience2 we may recombine them into new forms by the imagination2 and we may receive them from others through the medium of language1 either by conversation or by reading4 ,every day we add to our knowledge through our senses4 ,we see and hear and do1 and thus1 through experience1 acquire ideas about things4 ,by far the greater part of expression has to do with ideas that have originated in this way4 ,the first chapter in this book is concerned with the expression of ideas gained through experience4 ,we may1 however1 think about things that have not actually occurred4 ,we may allow our minds to picture a football game that we have not seen1 or to plan a story about a boy who never existed4 ,nearly every one takes pleasure in such an exercise of the imagination4 ,the second chapter has to do with the expression of ideas of this kind4 ,we also add to our knowledge through the medium of language4 ,through conversation and reading we learn what others think1 and it is often of value to restate these ideas4 ,the expression of ideas so acquired is treated in the third chapter4 #c4 ,advantages of ,expressing ,ideas ,gained from ,experience4--,young people sometimes find difficulty in writing because they have nothing to say4 ,such a reason will not hold in regard to ideas gained from experience4 ,every one has a multitude of experiences every day1 and wishes to tell about some of them4 ,many of the things which happen to you or to your friends1 especially some which occur outside of the regular routine of school work1 are interesting and worth telling about4 ,thus experience furnishes an abundance of material suitable for composition purposes1 and this material is of the best because the ideas are sure to be your own4 ,the first requisite of successful composition is to have thoughts of your own4 ,the expressing of ideas that are not your own is mere copy work1 and seldom worth doing4 ,ideas acquired through experience are not only interesting and your own1 but they are likely to be clear and definite4 ,you know what you do and what you see2 or1 if you do not1 the effort to express your ideas so that they will be clear to others will make you observe closely for yourself4 ,still another advantage comes from the fact that your experiences are not presented to you through the medium of language4 ,when experience furnishes the ideas1 you are left free to choose for yourself the words that best set forth what you wish to tell4 ,the things of your experience are the things with which you are most familiar1 and therefore the words that best apply to them are those which you most often use and whose meanings are best known to you4 ,because experience supplies an abundance of interesting1 clear1 and definite ideas1 which are your own and which may be expressed in familiar language1 it furnishes better material for training in expression than does either imagination or reading4 #d4 ,essentials of ,expression4--,the proper expression of ideas depends upon the observance of two essentials3 first1 you should say what you mean2 and second1 you should say it clearly4 ,without these1 what you say may be not only valueless1 but positively misleading4 ,if you wish your hearer to understand what occurred at a certain time and place1 you must first of all know yourself exactly what did occur4 ,then you must express it in language that shall make him understand it as clearly as you do4 ,you will learn much about clearness1 later2 but even now you can tell whether you know what is meant by each sentence which you hear or read4 ,it is not so easy to tell whether what you say will convey clearly to another the meaning you intend to convey1 but you will be helped in this if you ask yourself the questions3 ,do ,i know exactly what happened8 ,have ,i said what ,i intended to say8 ,have ,i said it so that it will be clear to the listener8 ,oral ,composition #a4--,report orally on one of the following3-- #a4 ,were you so interested in anything yesterday that you told it to your parents or friends8 ,tell the class about it4 #b4 ,tell about something that you have done this week1 so that the class may know exactly what you did4 #c4 ,name some things in which you have been interested within the last two or three months4 ,tell the class about one of them4 #d4 ,tell the class about something that happened during vacation4 ,have you told the event exactly as it occurred8 #e4 ,interest4--,in order to enjoy listening to a story we must take an interest in it1 and the story should be so told as to arouse and maintain this interest4 ,as you have listened to the reports of your classmates you have been more pleased with some than with others4 ,even though the meaning of each was clear1 yet the interest aroused was in each case different4 ,since the purpose of a story is to entertain1 any story falls short of its purpose when it ceases to be interesting4 ,we must at all times say what we mean and say it clearly2 but in story telling especially we must also take care that what we say shall arouse and maintain interest4 #f4 ,the ,introduction4--,the story of an event should be introduced in such a manner as to enable the hearer to understand the circumstances that are related4 ,such an introduction contributes to clearness and has an important bearing upon the interest of the entire composition4 ,in order to render our account of an event clear and interesting it is usually desirable to tell the hearers when and where the event occurred and who were present4 ,their understanding of it may be helped further by telling such of the attendant circumstances as will answer the question1 ,why8 ,if ,i begin my story by saying1 ,last summer ,john ,anderson and ,i were on a camping trip in the ,adirondacks1 ,i have told when1 where1 and who2 and the addition of the words on a camping trip tells why we were in the ,adirondacks1 and may serve to explain some of the events that are to follow4 ,even the statement of the place indicates in some degree the trend of the story1 for many things that might occur in the ,adirondacks could not occur in a country where there are no mountains4 ,certainly the story that would follow such an introduction would be expected to differ from one beginning with the words1 ,last summer ,john ,anderson and ,i went to visit a friend in ,new ,york4 ,it is not always necessary to tell when1 where1 who1 and why in the introduction1 but it is desirable to do so in most cases of oral story telling4 ,these four elements may not always be stated in incidents taken from books1 for the reader may be already familiar with them from the preceding portions of the book4 ,the title of a printed or written story may serve as an introduction and give us all needed information4 ,in relating personal incidents the time element is seldom omitted1 though it may be stated indirectly or indefinitely by such expressions as once or 'lately4' ,in many stories the interest depends upon the plot1 and the time is not definitely stated4 ,,exercise ,notice what elements are included in each of the following introductions3-- #a4 ,saturday last at ,mount ,holly1 about eight miles from this place1 nearly three hundred people were gathered together to see an experiment or two tried on some persons accused of witchcraft4 #b4 ,on the morning of the #ajth instant at sunrise1 they were discovered from ,put-in-,bay1 where ,i lay at anchor with the squadron under my command4 #c4 ,it was on ,sunday when ,i awoke to the realization that ,i had quitted civilization and was afloat on an unfamiliar body of water in an open boat4 #d4 ,up and down the long corn rows ,pap ,overholt guided the old mule and the small1 rickety1 inefficient plow1 whose low handles bowed his tall1 broad shoulders beneath the mild heat of a mountain ,june sun4 ,as he went--ever with a furtive eye upon the cabin--he muttered to himself1 shaking his head4 #e4 ,after breakfast1 ,i went down to the ,saponey ,indian town1 which is about a musket shot from the fort4 #f4 ,the lonely stretch of uphill road1 upon whose yellow clay the midsummer sun beat vertically down1 would have represented a toilsome climb to a grown and unencumbered man4 ,to the boy staggering under the burden of a brimful carpet bag1 it seemed fairly unscalable2 wherefore he stopped at its base and looked up in dismay to its far-off1 red-hot summit4 #g4 ,one afternoon last summer1 three or four people from ,new ,york1 two from ,boston1 and a young man from the ,middle ,west were lunching at one of the country clubs on the south shore of ,long ,island1 and there came about a mild discussion of the ,american universities4 #h4 ,but where is the station8 inquired the ,judge4 ,ain't none1 boss4 ,dis heah is jes a crossing4 ,train's about due now1 sah2 you-all won't hab long fer to wait4 ,thanky1 sah2 good-by2 sorry you-all didn't find no birds4 ,the ,judge picked up his gun case and grip and walked toward his two companions waiting on the platform a few yards away4 ,silhouetted against the moonlight they made him think of the figure #aj1 for ,mr4 ,appleton was tall and erect1 and the little ,doctor short and circular4 #i4 ,i sprang to the stirrup1 and ,joris and he2 ,i galloped1 ,dirck galloped1 we galloped all three2 ,good speed6 cried the watch1 as the gate bolts undrew1 ,speed6 echoed the wall to us galloping through4 ,behind shut the postern1 the lights sank to rest1 ,and into the midnight we galloped abreast4 --,browning4 ,oral ,composition ,,ii4--,relate orally to the class some incident in which you were personally concerned4 ,the following may suggest a subject3-- #a4 ,how ,i made friends with the squirrels4 #b4 ,a trick of a tame crow4 #c4 ,why ,i missed the train4 #d4 ,how a horse was rescued4 #e4 ,lost and found4 #f4 ,my visit to a menagerie4 7,when preparing to relate this incident ask yourself first whether you know exactly what happened4 ,consider then how to begin the story so that your hearer will know when and where it happened and who were there4 ,include in the beginning any statement that will assist the reader in understanding the events which follow47 #g4 ,the ,point of a ,story4--,it is not necessary that a story be concerned with a thrilling event in order to be interesting4 ,even a most commonplace occurrence may be so told that it is worth listening to4 ,it is more important that a story have a point and be so told that this point will be readily appreciated than that it deal with important or thrilling events4 ,the story should lead easily and rapidly to its point1 and when this is reached the end of the story should not be far distant4 ,the beginning of a story will contain statements that will assist us in appreciating the point when we come to it1 but if the point is plainly stated near the beginning1 or even if it is too strongly suggested1 our story will drag4 ,at what point in the following selection is the interest greatest8 ,during the ,civil ,war1 ,i lived in that portion of ,tennessee which was alternately held by the conflicting armies4 ,my father and brothers were away1 as were all the other men in the neighborhood1 except a few very old ones and some half-grown boys4 ,mother and ,i were in constant fear of injury from stragglers from both armies4 ,we had never been disturbed1 for our farm was a mile or more back from the road along which such detachments usually moved4 ,we had periods of comparative quiet in which we felt at ease1 and then would come reports of depredation near at hand1 or rumors of the presence of marauding bands in neighboring settlements4 ,one evening such a rumor came to us1 and we were consequently anxious4 ,early next morning1 before the fog had lifted1 ,i caught sight of two men crossing the road at the far end of the orchard4 ,they jumped over the fence into the orchard and disappeared among the trees4 ,i had but a brief glimpse of them1 but it was sufficient to show me that one had a gun over his shoulder1 while the other carried a saber4 ,quick1 ,mother1 quick6 ,i cried4 ,come to the window4 ,there are soldiers in the orchard4 ,keeping out of sight1 we watched the progress of the men through the orchard4 ,our brief glimpses of them through the trees showed that they were not coming directly to the house1 but were headed for the barn and sheds1 and in order to keep out of sight1 were following a slight ravine which ran across the orchard and led to the back of the barns4 ,mother and ,i were very much excited and hardly knew what to do4 ,finally it was determined to hide upstairs in hopes that the men were bent on stealing chickens or pigs1 and might leave without disturbing the house4 ,we locked the doors and went upstairs1 taking with us the old musket and the butcher knife4 ,we could hear the men about the barn1 and after what seemed an interminable time we heard them coming towards the house4 ,though shaking all over1 ,i summoned courage enough to go to the window and look out of a hole in the shade4 ,as the men came into sight around the corner1 ,i screamed outright1 but from relief rather than fear1 for the men were not soldiers1 but ,grandpa ,smith and his fourteen-year-old grandson4 ,they stopped at the well to get a drink1 and when we opened the window1 the old man said1 ,we're just on our way to mow the back lot and stopped to grind the scythe on your stone4 ,we broke ours yesterday4 ,then he picked up the scythe which in the fog ,i had taken for a saber1 while the grandson again shouldered his pitchfork musket4 ,what effect would it have on the interest aroused by the preceding story to begin it as follows8 ,one morning during the ,civil ,war1 ,i saw two of my neighbors1 ,grandpa ,smith and his grandson1 crossing our orchard1 one carrying a scythe and the other a pitchfork4 ,why is the expression1 before the fog had lifted1 used near the beginning of the story8 ,would a description of the appearance of the house1 the barn1 or the persons add to the interest aroused by the story8 ,is it necessary to add anything to the story8 ,,exercise ,in each of the following selections decide where the interest reaches its climax4 ,has anything been said in the beginning of any of them which suggests what the point will be1 or which helps you to appreciate it when you come to it8 #a4 ,the next evening our travelers encamped on a sand bar1 or rather a great bank of sand1 that ran for miles along one side of the river4 ,they kept watch as usual1 ,leon taking the first turn4 ,he seated himself on a pile of sand and did his best to keep awake2 but in about an hour after the rest were asleep1 he felt very drowsy and fell into a nap that lasted nearly half an hour1 and might have continued longer had he not slid down the sand hill and tumbled over on his side4 ,this awoke him4 ,feeling vexed with himself1 he rubbed his eyes and looked about to see if any creature had ventured near4 ,he first looked towards the woods1 for of course that was the direction from which the tigers would come2 but he had scarcely turned himself when he perceived a pair of eyes glancing at him from the other side of the fire4 ,close to them another pair1 then another and another1 until1 having looked on every side1 he saw himself surrounded by a complete circle of glancing eyes4 ,it is true they were small ones1 and some of the heads which he could see by the blaze were small4 ,they were not jaguars1 but they had an ugly look4 ,they looked like the heads of serpents4 ,was it possible that a hundred serpents could have surrounded the camp8 ,brought suddenly to his feet1 ,leon stood for some moments uncertain what to do4 ,he believed that the eyes belonged to snakes which had just crept out of the river2 and he feared that any movement on his part would lead them to attack him4 ,having risen to his feet1 his eyes were above the level of the blaze1 and he was able in a little while to see more clearly4 ,he now saw that the snakelike heads belonged to creatures with large oval bodies1 and that1 besides the fifty or more which had come up to look at the fire1 there were whole droves of them upon the sandy beach beyond4 ,as far as he could see on all sides1 the bank was covered with them4 ,a strange sight it was1 and most fearful4 ,for his life he could not make out what it meant1 or by what sort of wild animals he was surrounded4 ,he could see that their bodies were not larger than those of small sheep2 and1 from the way in which they glistened in the moonlight1 he was sure they had come out of the river4 ,he called to the ,indian guide1 who awoke and started to his feet in alarm4 ,the movement frightened the creatures round the fire2 they rushed to the shore1 and were heard plunging by hundreds into the water4 ,the ,indian's ear caught the sounds1 and his eye took in the whole thing at a glance4 ,turtles1 he said4 ,oh1 said the lad2 turtles1 are they8 ,yes1 master1 answered the guide4 ,i suppose this is one of their great hatching places4 ,they are going to lay their eggs in the sand4 --,captain ,mayne ,reid4 ,would the preceding incident be interesting if we were told at the beginning that the boy and the ,indian had encamped near a hatching place of turtles8 #b4 ,not every story that reads like fiction is fact1 but the ,brooklyn ,eagle assures its readers that the one here quoted is quite true4 ,the man who told it was for many years an officer of the ,chicago1 ,burlington ,quincy ,railroad ,company in ,illinois1 and had annual passes over all the important railroads in the country4 ,his duties took him to ,springfield1 the state capital1 and as he generally went by the ,chicago1 ,alton ,st4 ,louis road1 the conductors on that line knew him so well that they never asked to see his pass4 ,one day ,i received a telegram summoning me to meet one of the officers of my company at ,aurora the next morning4 ,i had only a short time to catch my train to ,chicago1 and in my haste left my passbook behind4 ,i did not find this out until ,i reached ,chicago1 and was about to take the last train for ,aurora that night4 ,then ,i saw that the conductor1 a man brought over from the ,iowa division1 was a stranger1 and the fact that ,i would need my pass reminded me that ,i did not have it4 ,i told the conductor the situation1 but he said he could not carry me on my mere representation that ,i had a pass4 ,why1 man1 said ,i1 ,i am an officer of the company1 going to ,aurora on company business1 and this is the last train that will get me there in time4 ,you must take me4 ,he was polite1 but firm4 ,he said he was a new man on this division1 and could not afford to make any mistakes4 ,when ,i saw that he was determined1 ,i rushed off to the telegraph office2 but it was too late to catch anybody authorized to issue passes1 so ,i settled it in my mind that ,i must go by carriage1 and the prospect of an all-night ride over bad roads through the dark was anything but inviting4 ,indeed1 it was so forbidding that ,i resolved to make one more appeal to the conductor4 ,you simply must take me to ,aurora6 ,i said1 with intense earnestness4 ,i can't do it1 he answered4 ,but ,i believe you are what you represent yourself to be1 and ,i will lend you the money personally4 ,it is only one dollar and twelve cents4 ,well1 sir1 you could have knocked me down with the flat side of a palm-leaf fan4 ,i had more than two thousand dollars in currency in my pocket1 but it had never for an instant occurred to me that ,i could pay my fare and ride on that train4 ,i showed the conductor a wad of money that made his eyes stick out4 ,i thought it was funny1 said he1 that a man in your position couldn't raise one dollar and twelve cents4 ,it was that that made me believe you were playing a trick to see if ,i would violate the rule4 ,the simple truth was1 ,i had ridden everywhere on passes so many years1 that it did not occur to me that ,i could ride in any other way4 ,oral ,composition ,,iii4,footnote3 ,oral compositions should be continued throughout the course4 ,a few minutes may be profitably used once or twice each week in having each member of the class stand before the class and relate briefly some incident which he has witnessed since the last meeting of the class4 ,exercises like those on page #ec also will furnish opportunities for oral work4--,relate to the class some personal incident suggested by one of the following subjects3-- #a4 ,a day with my cousin4 #b4 ,caught in the act4 #c4 ,a joke on me4 #d4 ,my peculiar mistake4 #e4 ,my experience on a farm4 #f4 ,my experience in a strange ,sunday school4 #g4 ,what ,i saw when ,i was coming to school4 7,in preparation for this exercise1 consider the point of your story4 ,what must you tell first in order to enable the hearers to understand the point8 ,can you say anything that will make them want to know what the point is without really telling them8 ,can you lead up to it without too long a delay8 ,can you stop when the point has been made87 #h4 ,theme ,writing and ,correcting4--,any written exercise1 whether long or short1 is called a theme throughout this book4 ,just as one learns to skate by skating1 so one learns to write by writing2 therefore many themes will be required4 ,since the clear expression of thought is one of the essential characteristics of every theme1 theme correction should be primarily directed to improvement in clearness4 ,the teacher will need to assist in this correction1 but the really valuable part is that which you do for yourself4 ,after you leave school you will need to decide for yourself what is right and what is best1 and it is essential that you now learn how to make such decisions4 ,to aid you in acquiring a habit of self-correction1 questions or suggestions follow the directions for writing each theme4 ,in ,theme ,i you are to express clearly to others something that is already clear to you4 ,theme ,i4-,write a short theme on one of the subjects that you have used for an oral composition4 7,after writing this theme1 read it aloud to yourself4 ,does it read smoothly8 ,have you told what actually happened8 ,have you told it so that the hearers will understand you8 ,have you said what you meant to say8 ,consider the introduction4 ,has the story a point87 #i4 ,the ,conclusion4--,since the point of a story marks the climax of interest1 it is evident that the conclusion must not be long delayed after the point has been reached4 ,if the story has been well told1 the point marks the natural conclusion1 and a sentence or two will serve to bring the story to a satisfactory end4 ,if a suitable ending does not suggest itself1 it is better to omit the conclusion altogether than to construct a forced or flowery one4 ,notice the conclusion of the incident of the ,civil ,war related on page #ah4 ,theme ,,ii4-,write a short theme suggested by one of the following subjects3-- #a4 ,a school picnic4 #b4 ,a race4 #c4 ,the largest fire ,i have seen4 #d4 ,a skating accident4 #e4 ,a queer mistake4 #f4 ,an experience with a tramp4 7,correct with reference to meaning and clearness4 ,consider the introduction2 the point2 the conclusion47 #aj4 ,observation of ,actions4--,many of our most interesting experiences arise from observing the actions of others4 ,a written description of what we have observed will gain in interest to the reader1 if1 in addition to telling what was done1 we give some indication of the way in which it was done4 ,a list of tools a carpenter uses and the operations he performs during the half hour we watch him1 may be dull and uninteresting2 but our description may have an added value if it shows his manner of working so that the reader can determine whether the carpenter is an orderly1 methodical1 and rapid worker or a mere putterer who is careless1 haphazard1 and slow4 ,two persons will perform similar actions in very different ways4 ,our description should be so worded as to show what the differences are4 ,theme ,,iii4--,write a theme relating actions4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,a mason1 blacksmith1 painter1 or other mechanic at work4 #b4 ,how my neighbor mows his lawn4 #c4 ,what a man does when his automobile breaks down4 #d4 ,describe the actions of a cat1 dog1 rabbit1 squirrel1 or other animal4 #e4 ,watch the push-cart man a half-hour and report what he did4 7,have you told exactly what was done8 ,can you by the choice of suitable words show more plainly the way in which it was done8 ,does this theme need to have an introduction8 ,a point8 ,a conclusion87 #aa4 ,selection of ,details4--,you are at present concerned with telling events that actually happen2 but this does not mean that you need to include everything that occurs4 ,if you wish to tell a friend about some interesting or exciting incident at a picnic1 he will not care to hear everything that took place during the day4 ,he may listen politely to a statement of what train you took and what you had in your lunch basket1 but he will be little interested in such details4 ,in order to maintain interest1 the point of your story must not be too long delayed4 ,brevity is desirable1 and details that bear little relation to the main point1 and that do not prepare the listener to understand and appreciate this point1 are better omitted4 ,theme ,,iv4--,write about something that you have done4 ,use any of the following subjects1 or one suggested by them3-- #a4 ,my first hunt4 #b4 ,why ,i was tardy4 #c4 ,my first fishing trip4 #d4 ,my narrow escape4 #e4 ,a runaway4 #f4 ,what ,i did last ,saturday4 7,read the theme aloud to yourself4 ,does it read smoothly8 ,have you said what you meant to say8 ,have you expressed it clearly8 ,consider the introduction2 the point2 the conclusion4 ,reject unnecessary details47 #ab4 ,order of ,events4--,the order in which events occur will assist in establishing the order in which to relate them4 ,if you are telling about only one person1 you can follow the time order of the events as they actually happened2 but if you are telling about two or more persons who were doing different things at the same time1 you will need to tell first what one did and then what another did4 ,you must1 however1 make it clear to the reader that1 though you have told one event after the other1 they really happened at the same time4 ,in the selection below notice how the italicized portions indicate the relation in time that the different events bear to one another4 ,at the beach yesterday a fat woman and her three children caused a great commotion4 ,they had rigged themselves out in hired suits which might be described as an average fit1 for that of the mother was as much too small as those of the children were too large4 ,they trotted gingerly out into the surf1 wholly unconscious that the crowd of beach loungers had1 for the time1 turned their attention from each other to the quartet in the water4 ,by degrees the four worked out farther and farther until a wave larger than usual washed the smallest child entirely off his feet1 and caused the mother to scream lustily for help4 ,the people on the beach started up1 and two or three men hastened to the rescue1 but their progress was impeded by the crowd of frightened girls and women who were scrambling and splashing towards the shore4 ,the mother's frantic efforts to reach the little boy were rendered ineffectual by the two girls1 who at the moment of the first alarm had been strangled by the salt water and were now clinging desperately to her arms and attempting to climb up to her shoulders4 ,meanwhile1 the lifeboat man was rowing rapidly towards the scene1 but it seemed to the onlookers who had rushed to the platform railing that he would never arrive4 ,at the same time a young man1 who had started from the diving raft some time before1 was swimming towards shore with powerful strokes4 ,he now reached the spot1 caught hold of the boy1 and lifted him into the lifeboat1 which had at last arrived4 ,such expressions as meanwhile1 in the meantime1 during1 at last1 while1 etc41 are regularly used to denote the kind of time relations now under discussion4 ,they should be used when they avoid confusion1 but often a direct transition from one set of actions to another can be made without their use4 ,notice also the use of the relative clause to indicate time relations4 ,theme ,v4-,write a short theme1 using some one of the subjects named under the preceding themes or one suggested by them4 ,select one which you have not already used4 7,have you told enough to enable the reader to follow easily the thread of the story and to understand what you meant to tell8 ,if your theme is concerned with more than one set of activities1 have you made the transition from one to another in such a way as to be clear to the reader8 ,have you expressed the transitions with the proper time relations8 ,what other questions should you ask yourself while correcting this theme87 ,,summary #a4 ,there is a pleasure to be derived from the expression of ideas4 #b4 ,there are three sources of ideas3 experience1 imagination1 language4 #c4 ,ideas gained from experience may be advantageously used for composition purposes because-- a4 ,they are interesting4 b4 ,they are your own4 c4 ,they are likely to be clear and definite4 d4 ,they offer free choice of language4 #d4 ,the two essentials of expression are-- a4 ,to say what you mean4 b4 ,to say it clearly4 #e4 ,a story should be told so as to arouse and maintain interest4 ,therefore1-- a4 ,the introduction usually tells when1 where1 who1 and why4 b4 ,every story worth telling has a point4 c4 ,only such details are included as are essential to the development of the point4 d4 ,the conclusion is brief4 ,the story comes to an end shortly after the point is told4 #f4 ,care must be taken to indicate the time order1 especially when two or more events occur at the same time4 #g4 ,the correction of one's own theme is the most valuable form of correction4 ,,ii4 ,,expression ,,of ,,ideas ,,furnished ,,by ,,imagination #ac4 ,relation of ,imagination to ,experience4--,all ideas are based upon and spring from experience1 and the imagination merely places them in new combinations4 ,for the purpose of this book1 however1 it is convenient to distinguish those themes that relate real events as they actually occurred from those themes that relate events that did not happen4 ,that body of writing which we call literature is largely composed of works of an imaginative character1 and for this reason it has sometimes been carelessly assumed that in order to write one must be possessed of an excellent imagination4 ,such an assumption loses sight of the fact that imaginative writings cover but one small part of the whole field4 ,the production of literature is the business of a few1 while every one has occasion every day to express ideas4 ,it is evident that by far the greater part of the ideas we are called upon to express do not require the use of the imagination1 but exercises in writing themes of an imaginative character are given here because there is pleasure in writing such themes and because practice in writing them will aid us in stating clearly and effectively the many ideas arising from our daily experiences4 #ad4 ,advantages and ,disadvantages of ,imaginative ,theme ,writing4--,ideas furnished by the imagination are no less your own than are those furnished by experience1 and the same freedom in the choice of language prevails4 ,such ideas are1 however1 not likely to be so clear and definite4 ,at the time of their occurrence they do not make so deep and vital an impression upon you4 ,if not recorded as they occur1 they can seldom be recalled in the original form4 ,even though you attempt to write these imaginary ideas as you think them1 you can and do change and modify them as you go along4 ,this lack of clearness and permanent form1 while it seems to give greater freedom1 carries with it disadvantages4 ,in the first place the ideas are less likely to be worth recording1 and in the second place it is more difficult to give them a unity and directness of statement that will hold the attention and interest of the reader until the chief point is reached4 #ae4 ,probability4--,not everything that the imagination may furnish is equally worth expressing4 ,if you choose to write about something for which imagination supplies the ideas1 you may create for yourself such ideas as you wish4 ,their order of occurrence and their time and place are not determined by outward events1 but solely by the mind itself4 ,the events are no longer real and actual1 but may be changed and rearranged without limit4 ,an imaginative series of events may conform closely to the real and probable1 or it may be manifestly improbable4 ,which will be of greater interest will depend upon the reader1 but it will be found that the story which comes nearest to reality is most satisfactory4 ,in relating fairy tales we confessedly attempt to tell events not possible in the real world1 but in relating tales of real life1 however imaginary1 we should tell the events so that everything seems both possible and probable4 ,an imaginative story1 in which the persons seem to be real persons who do and say the things that real persons do and say1 will be found much more satisfactory than a story that depends for its outcome on something manifestly impossible4 ,he who really does the best in imaginative writing is the one who has most closely observed the real events of everyday life1 and states his imaginary events so that they seem real4 ,theme ,,vi4--,write a short theme1 using one of the subjects below4 ,you need not tell something that actually happened1 but what you tell should be so told that your readers will think it might have happened4 #a4 ,a trip in a sailboat4 #b4 ,the travels of a penny4 #c4 ,how ,i was lost4 #d4 ,a cat's account of a mouse hunt4 #e4 ,the mouse's account of the same hunt4 #f4 ,my experience with a burglar4 #g4 ,the burglar's story4 #af4 ,euphony4--,besides clearness in a composition there are other desirable qualities4 ,to one of these1 various names have been applied1 as euphony1 ease1 elegance1 beauty1 etc4 ,of two selections equally clear in meaning one may be more pleasing than the other4 ,one may seem harsh and rough1 while the other flows along with a satisfying ease and smoothness4 ,if the thought that is in our mind fails to clothe itself in suitable language and appropriate figures1 we can do little by conscious effort toward improving the beauty of the language2 but by avoiding choppy sentences and inharmonious combinations of words and phrases1 we may remove from our compositions much that is harsh and rough4 ,that quality which we call ease or euphony is better detected by the ear than by the eye1 and for this reason it has been suggested that you read each theme aloud to yourself before presenting it to the class4 ,such a reading will assist you to determine whether you have made your meaning clear and to eliminate some of the more disagreeable combinations4 #ag4 ,variety4--,of the many elements which affect the euphony of a theme none is more essential than variety4 ,the constant repetition of the same thing grows monotonous and distasteful1 while a pleasing variety maintains interest and improves the story4 ,for the sake of this variety we avoid the continual use of the same words and phrases1 substituting synonyms and equivalent expressions if we have need to repeat the same idea many times4 ,most children begin every sentence of a story with and1 or perhaps it is better to say that they conclude many sentences with and-uh1 leaving the thought in suspense while they are trying to think of what to say next4 ,high school pupils are not wholly free from this habit1 and it is sometimes retained in their written work4 ,this excessive use of and needs to be corrected4 ,an examination of our language habits will show that nearly every one has one or more words which he uses to excess4 ,a professor of rhetoric1 after years of correcting others1 discovered by underscoring the word that each time it occurred in his own writing that he was using it twice as often as necessary4 ,got is one of the words used too frequently1 and often incorrectly4 ,,exercises #a4 ,in the following selection notice how each sentence begins4 ,compare it with one of your own themes4 ,i was witness to events of a less peaceful character4 ,one day when ,i went out to my woodpile1 or rather my pile of stumps1 ,i observed two large ants1 the one red1 and the other much larger1 nearly half an inch long1 and black1 fiercely contending with each other4 ,having once got hold1 they never let go1 but struggled and wrestled and rolled on the chips incessantly4 ,looking farther1 ,i was surprised to find that the chips were covered with such combatants2 that it was not a duellum1 but a bellum1--a war between two races of ants1 the red always pitted against the black1 and frequently two red ones to one black4 ,the legions of these ,myrmidons covered all the hills and vales in my woodyard1 and the ground was already strewn with the dead and the dying1 both red and black4 ,it was the only battle which ,i have ever witnessed--the only battlefield ,i ever trod while the battle was raging4444 ,on every side they were engaged in deadly combat1 yet without any noise that ,i could hear1 and human soldiers never fought so resolutely4--,thoreau4 #b4 ,examine one of your own themes4 ,if some word occurs frequently1 underscore it each time1 and then substitute words or expressions for it in as many places as you can4 ,if necessary1 reconstruct the sentences so as to avoid using the word in some cases4 ,notice how these substitutions give a variety to your expression and improve the euphony of your composition4 ,theme ,,vii4--,write a short story suggested by one of the following subjects3-- #a4 ,the trout's revenge4 #b4 ,a sparrow's mistake4 #c4 ,a fortunate shot4 #d4 ,the freshman and the professor4 #e4 ,what the bookcase thought about it4 7,correct with reference to meaning and clearness4 ,cross out unnecessary ands4 ,consider the beginnings of the sentences4 ,can you improve the euphony by a different choice of words87 #ah4 ,sentence ,length4--,euphony is aided by securing a variety in the length of sentences4 ,in endeavoring to avoid the excessive use of and1 some pupils obtain results illustrated by the following example3-- ,jean passed through the door of the church4 ,he saw a child sitting on one of the stone steps4 ,she was fast asleep in the midst of the snow4 ,the child was thinly clad4 ,her feet1 cold as it was1 were bare4 ,a theme composed wholly of such a succession of short sentences is tedious4 ,especially when read aloud does its monotony become apparent4 ,though the thought in each sentence is complete1 the effect is not satisfactory to the reader1 because the thought of the whole does not come to him as fast as his mind can act4 ,such an arrangement of sentences might be satisfactory to young children1 because it would agree with their habits of thought2 but as one grows in ability to think more rapidly1 he finds that longer and more complicated sentences best express his thoughts and are best understood by those for whom he writes4 ,we introduce sentences of different length and different structure1 because they more clearly express the thought of the whole and state it in a form more in accordance with the mental activity of the hearer4 ,when we have done this1 we at the same time secure a variety that avoids monotony4 ,in attempting to avoid a series of short sentences1 care should be taken not to go to the other extreme4 ,sentences should not be overloaded4 ,too many adjectives or participles or subordinate clauses will render the meaning obscure4 ,the number of phrases and clauses that may safely be introduced will be determined by the ability of the mind to grasp the meaning readily and accurately4 ,it is sometimes quite as important to separate a long sentence into shorter ones as it is to combine short ones into those of greater length4 ,notice in the following selection the different ways in which several ideas have been brought into the same sentence without rendering the meaning obscure3-- ,loki made his way across a vast desert moorland1 and came1 after three days1 into the barren hill country and among the rugged mountains of the ,south4 ,there an earthquake had split the rocks asunder1 and opened dark and bottomless gorges1 and hollowed out many a low-walled cavern1 where the light of day was never seen4 ,along deep1 winding ways1 ,loki went1 squeezing through narrow crevices1 creeping under huge rocks1 and gliding through crooked clefts1 until he came at last into a great underground hall1 where his eyes were dazzled by a light that was stronger and brighter than the day2 for on every side were glowing fires1 roaring in wonderful little gorges1 and blown by wonderful little bellows4 ,theme ,,viii4--,write a story suggested by one of the following subjects3-- #a4 ,school in the year #bjjj4 #b4 ,the lost door key4 #c4 ,our big bonfire4 #d4 ,kidnapped4 #e4 ,a bear hunt4 #f4 ,a mistake in the telegram4 #g4 ,how ,fido rescued his master4 7,can you render the meaning more clear by uniting short sentences into longer ones1 or by separating long sentences into shorter ones8 ,can you omit any ands8 ,how many of the sentences begin with the same word8 ,can you change any of those words8 ,pick out the words which show the subordinate relation of some parts to others4 ,do all of the incidents in your story seem probable87 #ai4 ,conversation4--,it must not be inferred from the preceding section that short sentences are never to be used4 ,they are quite as necessary as long ones1 and in some cases1 such as the portraying of strong emotion1 are more effective4 ,even a succession of short sentences may be used with good results to describe rapid action4 ,in conversation1 also1 sentences are generally short1 and often grammatically incomplete1 though they may be understood by the hearer4 ,sometimes this incompleteness is justified by the idiom of the language1 but more often it is the result of carelessness on the part of the speaker4 ,the hearer understands what is said either because he knows about what to expect1 or because the expression is a familiar one4 ,such carelessness not only causes the omission of words grammatically necessary1 but brings about the incorrect pronunciation of words and their faulty combination into sentences4 ,you speak much more often than you write4 ,your habits of speech are likely to become permanent and your errors of speech will creep into your written work4 ,it is important therefore that you watch your spoken language4 ,occasions will arise when the slang expressions that you so freely use will seem inappropriate1 and it will be unfortunate indeed if you find that you have used the slang so long that you have no other words to take their place4 ,an abbreviated form of gymnasium or of mathematics may not attract attention among your schoolmates1 but there are circles where such abbreviations are not used4 ,by watching your own speech you will find that some incorrect forms are very common4 ,improvement can be made by giving your attention to one of them1 such as the use of guess1 or of got1 or of don't and doesn't4 ,in making a written report of conversation you should remember that short sentences predominate4 ,a conversation composed of long sentences would seem stilted and made to order4 ,what each person says1 however short1 is put into a separate division and indented4 ,explanatory matter accompanying the conversation is placed with the spoken part to which it most closely relates4 ,notice the indentations and the use of quotation marks in several printed reports of conversation4 #bj4 ,ideas from ,pictures4--,if you look at a picture and then attempt to tell some one else what you see1 you will express ideas gained by experience4 ,a picture may1 however1 cause a very different set of ideas to arise4 ,look at the picture on page #ch4 ,can you imagine the circumstances that preceded the situation shown by the picture8 ,or again1 can you not begin with that situation and imagine what would be done next8 ,if you write out either of the series of events1 the theme1 though suggested by the picture1 will be composed of ideas furnished by the imagination4 ,in the writing of a story suggested by a picture1 the situation given in the picture should be made the point of greatest interest1 and should be accounted for by relating a series of events supposed to have preceded it4 ,theme ,,ix4--,write a story that will account for the condition shown in the picture on page #ch4 7,correct with reference to clearness and meaning4 ,do you need to change the sentence length either for the sake of clearness or for the sake of variety8 ,cross out unnecessary ands4 ,underscore got and then each time you have used them4 ,can the reader follow the thread of your story to its chief point87 ,illustration #ba4 ,vocabulary4--,a word is the symbol of an idea1 and the addition of a word to one's vocabulary usually means that a new idea has been acquired4 ,the more we see and hear and read1 the greater our stock of ideas becomes4 ,as our life experiences increase1 so should our supply of words increase4 ,we may have ideas without having the words with which to express them1 and we may meet with words whose meanings we do not know4 ,in either case there is chance for improvement4 ,when you have a new idea1 find out how best to express it1 and when you meet with a new word1 add it to your vocabulary4 ,it is necessary to distinguish between our reading vocabulary and our writing vocabulary4 ,there are many words that belong only to the first4 ,we know what they mean when we meet them in our reading1 but we do not use them in our writing4 ,our speaking vocabulary also differs from that which we employ in writing4 ,we use words and phrases on paper that seldom appear in our speech1 and1 on the other hand1 many of the words that we speak do not appear in our writing4 ,there is1 however1 a constant shifting of words from one to another of these three groups4 ,when we meet an unknown word1 it usually becomes a part of our reading vocabulary4 ,later it may appear in our written work1 and finally we may use it in speaking4 ,we add a word to our reading vocabulary when we determine its meaning1 but we must use it in order to add it to our writing and speaking vocabulary4 ,a conscious effort to aid in this acquisition of words is highly desirable4 ,a limited vocabulary indicates limited ideas4 ,if one is limited to awfully in order to express a superlative2 if his use of adjectives is restricted to nice1 jolly1 lovely1 and elegant2 if he must always abominate and never abhor1 detest1 dislike1 or loathe2 if he can only adore and not admire1 respect1 revere1 or venerate1--then he has failed1 indeed1 to know the possibilities and beauties of ,english4 ,such a language habit shows a mind that has failed to distinguish between ideas4 ,the best way to study the shades of meaning and the choice of words is in the actual production of a theme wherein there is need to bring out these differences in meaning by the use of words2 but some help may be gained from a formal study of synonyms and antonyms and of the distinction in use and meaning between words which are commonly confused with each other4 ,for this purpose such exercises are given in the ,appendix4 #bb4 ,choice of ,words4--,even though our words may express the proper meaning1 the effect may not be a desirable one unless we use words suited to the occasion described and to the person writing4 ,pupils of high school age know the meaning of many words which are too bookish for daily use by them4 ,edward ,everett ,hale might use expressions which would not be suitable for a freshman's composition4 ,taste and good judgment will help you to avoid the unsuitable or grandiloquent4 ,the proper selection of words not only implies that we shall avoid the wrong word1 but also that we shall choose the right one4 ,a suitable adjective may give a clearer image than is expressed by a whole sentence2 a single verb may tell better how some one acted than can be told by a lengthy explanation4 ,since narration has to do with action1 we need in story telling to be especially careful in our choice of verbs4 ,what can you say of the suitability of the words in the following selection1 taken from an old school reader8 ,mrs4 ,lismore4 ,you are quite breathless1 ,charles2 where have you been running so violently8 ,charles4 ,from the poultry yard1 mamma1 where ,i have been diverting myself with the bravado of the old gander4 ,i did not observe him till he came toward me very fiercely1 when1 to induce him to pursue me1 ,i ran from him4 ,he followed1 till1 supposing he had beaten me1 he returned to the geese1 who appeared to receive him with acclamations of joy1 cackling very loud1 and seeming actually to laugh1 and to enjoy the triumph of their gallant chief4 ,emma4 ,i wish ,i had been with you1 ,charles2 ,i have often admired the gambols of these beautiful birds1 and wondered how they came by the appellation of silly1 which is generally bestowed on them4 ,i remember ,martha1 our nursery maid1 used often to call me a silly goose4 ,how came they to deserve that term1 mamma8 they appear to me to have as much intelligence as any of the feathered tribe4 ,mrs4 ,lismore4 ,i have often thought with you1 ,emma1 and supposed that term1 like many others1 misapplied1 for want of examining into the justice of so degrading an epithet4 #bc4 ,improbability4--,up to this point we have been concerned with relating events that could exist1 though we knew that they did not4 ,we may1 however1 imagine a series of events that are manifestly impossible4 ,there is a pleasure in inventing improbable stories1 and if we know from the beginning that they are to be so1 we enjoy listening to them4 ,such tales are more satisfactory to young persons than to older ones1 as is shown by our declining interest in fairy stories as we grow older4 ,by limiting the improbability to a part of the story1 it is possible to give an air of reality to the whole4 ,though the conditions described in a story about a trip to the moon might be wholly impossible1 yet the reader for the time being might feel that the events were actually happening if the characters in the story were acting as real men would act under similar circumstances4 ,in stories such as those of ,thompson-,seton1 where the animals are personified1 the impossibilities are forgotten1 because the actions and situations are so real4 ,in fairy stories and similar tales neither characters nor actions are in any way limited by probability4 ,theme ,x4--,write a short story suggested by one of the subjects below4 ,make either the characters or their surroundings seem real4 #a4 ,a week in ,mars4 #b4 ,exploring the lake bottom4 #c4 ,the cat's defense of her kittens4 7a7 ,as told by the cat4 7b7 ,as told by the dog4 #d4 ,how the fox fooled the hound4 #e4 ,diary of a donkey4 #f4 ,a biography of ,jack ,frost4 7,correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to be assigned by the teacher47 #bd4 ,how to ,increase ,one's ,vocabulary4--,in your daily work do what you can to add words to your reading vocabulary1 and especially to increase your writing vocabulary4 ,in the conversation of others and in reading you will meet with many new words1 and you should attempt to make them your own4 ,to do this1 four things must be attended to3-- #a4 ,spelling4 ,definite attention should be given to each new word until its form both as written and as printed is indelibly stamped upon the mind4 ,in your general reading and in each of the subjects that you will study in the high school you will meet unfamiliar words4 ,it is only by mastering the spelling of each new word when you first meet it that you can insure yourself against future chagrin from bad spelling4 ,a part of the time in each high school subject may well be devoted to the mastering of the words peculiar to that subject4 #b4 ,pronunciation4 ,the complete acquisition of a word includes its pronunciation4 ,in reading aloud and in speaking1 we have need to know it1 and faulty pronunciation is considered an indication of lack of culture4 #c4 ,meaning4 ,this includes more than the ability to give the definition as found in the dictionary4 ,it is possible to recite such definitions glibly without in reality knowing the meaning of the word defined4 ,it is necessary to connect the word definitely and permanently in our mind with the idea for which it is the symbol and to be able to distinguish the idea clearly from others closely related to it4 #d4 ,use4 ,the actual use of a word is very important4 ,if a word is to come into our speaking and writing vocabulary1 we must use it4 ,it is important that the spelling1 pronunciation1 and meaning be determined when you first meet the word1 and it is equally important that the word be used soon and often4 ,theme ,,xi4--,write a short story suggested by one of the following subjects4 ,it may be wholly improbable1 if you choose4 #a4 ,the good fairy4 #b4 ,mary's luck4 #c4 ,the man in the moon4 #d4 ,the golden apple4 #e4 ,a wonderful fountain pen4 #f4 ,the goobergoo and the kantan4 7,correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to be assigned by the teacher47 ,,summary #a4 ,the clear expression of the ideas connected with our daily experiences is of greater importance to most of us than is the production of literature4 #b4 ,ideas furnished by imagination may be advantageously used for composition purposes1 because-- a4 ,they are your own4 b4 ,they offer free choice of language4 ,they are less desirable than those gained from experience1 because-- a4 ,they generally lack clearness and permanency4 b4 ,they are less likely to be worth recording4 c4 ,it is more difficult to give them that unity and directness of statement that will keep the interest of the reader4 #c4 ,an imaginative series of events may seem probable or improbable4 ,he who most closely observes real life and states his imaginary events so that they seem real will succeed best in imaginative writing4 #d4 ,euphony is a desirable quality in a composition4 #e4 ,variety aids euphony4 ,it is gained by-- a4 ,avoiding the repetition of the same words and phrases4 b4 ,beginning our sentences in various ways4 c4 ,using sentences of different lengths4 #f4 ,conversation is usually composed of short sentences4 #g4 ,pictures may suggest ideas suitable for use in compositions4 #h4 ,our reading1 writing1 and speaking vocabularies differ4 ,each should be increased4 ,with each new word attention should be given to-- a4 ,spelling4 b4 ,pronunciation4 c4 ,meaning4 d4 ,use4 ,,iii4 ,,expression ,,of ,,ideas ,,acquired ,,through ,,language #be4 ,language as a ,medium through ,which ,ideas are ,acquired4--,we have been considering language as a means of expression1 an instrument by which we can convey to others the ideas which come to us from experience and imagination4 ,we shall now consider it from a different point of view4 ,language is not merely a means of expressing ideas1 but it is also a medium through which ideas are acquired4 ,it has a double use3 the writer must put thought into language2 the reader must get it out4 ,a large part of your schooling has been devoted to acquiring ideas from language1 and these ideas may be used for purposes of composition4 ,since it is absolutely necessary to have ideas before you can express them1 it will be worth while to consider for a time how to get them from language4 #bf4 ,image ,making4--,read the following selection from ,hawthorne and form a clear mental image of each scene3-- ,at first1 my fancy saw only the stern hills1 lonely lakes1 and venerable woods4 ,not a tree1 since their seeds were first scattered over the infant soil1 had felt the ax1 but had grown up and flourished through its long generation1 had fallen beneath the weight of years1 been buried in green moss1 and nourished the roots of others as gigantic4 ,hark6 ,a light paddle dips into the lake1 a birch canoe glides around the point1 and an ,indian chief has passed1 painted and feather-crested1 armed with a bow of hickory1 a stone tomahawk1 and flint-headed arrows4 ,but the ripple had hardly vanished from the water1 when a white flag caught the breeze1 over a castle in the wilderness1 with frowning ramparts and a hundred cannon4444 ,a war party of ,french and ,indians were issuing from the gate to lay waste some village of ,new ,england4 ,near the fortress there was a group of dancers4 ,the merry soldiers footing it with the swart savage maids2 deeper in the wood1 some red men were growing frantic around a keg of the fire-water2 and elsewhere a ,jesuit preached the faith of high cathedrals beneath a canopy of forest boughs4 ,did you form clear mental images8 ,can you picture them all at the same time1 or must you turn your attention from one image to another8 ,the formation of the proper mental images will be aided by making a persistent effort to create them4 ,many words do not cause us to form images2 for example1 goodness1 innocence1 position1 insurance2 but when the purpose of a word is to set forth an image1 we should take care to get the correct one4 ,in this the dictionary will not always help us4 ,we must distinguish between the ability to repeat a definition and the power to form an accurate image of the thing defined4 ,the difficulty of forming correct images by the use of dictionary definitions is so great that the definitions are frequently accompanied by pictures4 ,,exercises ,notice the different mental images that come to you as you read each of the following selections4 ,distinguish words that cause images to arise from those that do not4 #a4 ,before these fields were shorn and tilled1 ,full to the brim our rivers flowed2 ,the melody of waters filled ,the fresh and boundless wood2 ,and torrents dashed1 and rivulets played1 ,and fountains spouted in the shade4 --,bryant3 ,an ,indian at the ,burial ,place of his ,fathers4 #b4 ,at that moment the woods were filled with another burst of cries1 and at the signal four savages sprang from the cover of the driftwood4 ,heyward felt a burning desire to rush forward to meet them1 so intense was the delirious anxiety of the moment2 but he was restrained by the deliberate examples of the scout and ,uncas4 ,when their foes1 who leaped over the black rocks that divided them1 with long bounds1 uttering the wildest yells1 were within a few rods1 the rifle of ,hawkeye slowly rose among the shrubs and poured out its fatal contents4 ,the foremost ,indian bounded like a stricken deer and fell headlong among the clefts of the island4 --,cooper3 ,last of the ,mohicans4 #c4 ,the towering flames had now surmounted every obstruction1 and rose to the evening skies1 one huge and burning beacon1 seen far and wide through the adjacent country4 ,tower after tower crashed down1 with blazing roof and rafter2 and the combatants were driven from the courtyard4 ,the vanquished of whom very few remained1 scattered and escaped into the neighboring wood4 ,the victors1 assembling in large bands1 gazed with wonder1 not unmixed with fear1 upon the flames1 in which their own ranks and arms glanced dusky red4 ,the maniac figure of the ,saxon ,ulrica was for a long time visible on the lofty stand she had chosen1 tossing her arms abroad with wild exaltation as if she reigned empress of the conflagration which she had raised4 ,at length1 with a terrific crash1 the whole turret gave way and she perished in the flames which had consumed her tyrant4 --,scott3 ,ivanhoe4 #d4 ,under a spreading chestnut tree ,the village smithy stands2 ,the smith1 a mighty man is he1 ,with large and sinewy hands2 ,and the muscles of his brawny arms ,are strong as iron bands4 --,longfellow3 ,the ,village ,blacksmith4 #e4 ,once upon a midnight dreary1 while ,i pondered weak and weary1 ,over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore-- ,while ,i nodded1 nearly napping1 suddenly there came a tapping1 ,as of some one gently rapping1 rapping at my chamber door2 ',tis some visitor1 ,i muttered1 tapping at my chamber door-- ,only this1 and nothing more4 --,edgar ,a4 ,poe3 ,the ,raven4 #f4 ,where with black cliffs the torrents toil1 ,he watch'd the wheeling eddies boil1 ,till1 from their foam1 his dazzled eyes ,beheld the ,river ,demon rise2 ,the mountain mist took form and limb ,of noontide hag or goblin grim4 --,scott3 ,lady of the ,lake4 #g4 ,on nearer approach he was still more surprised at the singularity of the stranger's appearance4 ,he was a short1 square-built old fellow1 with thick1 bushy hair and a grizzled beard4 ,his dress was of the antique ,dutch fashion--a cloth jerkin strapped around the waist--several pairs of breeches1 the outer ones of ample volume1 decorated with rows of buttons down the sides and bunches at the knees4 ,he bore on his shoulder a stout keg that seemed full of liquor1 and made signs for ,rip to approach and assist him with his load4 --,washington ,irving3 ,rip ,van ,winkle4 #bg4 ,complete and ,incomplete ,images4--,some sentences have for their purpose the presentation of an image1 but in order to form that image correctly and completely1 we must be familiar with the words used4 ,if an unfamiliar word is introduced1 the mind may omit entirely the image represented1 or may substitute some other for it4 ,notice the image presented by this sentence from ,henry ,james3 ,her dress was dark and rich2 she had pearls around her neck and an old rococo fan in her hand4 ,if the meaning of rococo is unknown to you1 the image which you form will not be exactly the one that ,mr4 ,james had in mind4 ,the pearls and the dress may stand out clearly in your image1 but the fan will be lacking or indistinct4 ,the whole may be compared to a photograph of which a part is blurred4 ,if your attention is directed to the fan1 you may recall the word rococo1 but not the image represented by it4 ,if your attention is not called to the fan1 the mind is satisfied with the indistinct image1 or substitutes for it an image of some other fan4 ,such an image is therefore either incomplete or inaccurate4 ,an oath in court provides that we shall tell the truth1 the whole truth1 and nothing but the truth1 but1 in forming images1 it is not always possible to hold our minds to such exactness4 ,we are prone to picture more or less than the words convey4 ,in fact1 in some forms of prose1 and often in poetry1 the author purposely takes advantage of this habit of the mind and wishes us to enlarge with creations of our own imagination the bare image that his words convey4 ,such writing1 however1 aims to give pleasure or to arouse our emotions4 ,it calls out something in the reader even more strongly than it sets forth something in the writer4 ,this suggestiveness in writing will be considered later1 but for the present it will be well for you to bear in mind that most language has for its purpose the exact expression of a definite idea4 ,much of the failure in school work arises from the careless substitution of one image for another1 and from the formation of incomplete and inaccurate images4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,make a list of the words in the following selections whose meanings you need to look up in order to make the images exact and complete4 ,do not attempt to memorize the language of the definition1 but to form a correct image4 #a4 ,the sun stared brazenly down on a gray farmhouse1 on ranges of whitewashed outbuildings1 and on a goodly array of dark-thatched ricks4 #b4 ,in his shabby frieze jacket and mud-laden brogans1 he was scarcely an attractive object4 #c4 ,in a sunlit corner of an old coquina fort they came suddenly face to face with a familiar figure4 #d4 ,somewhat back from the village street ,stands the old-fashioned country seat4 ,across its antique portico ,tall poplar trees their shadows throw1 ,and from its station in the hall ,an ancient timepiece says to all3 ,forever--never6 ,never--forever6 --,longfellow3 ,the ,old ,clock on the ,stairs4 #e4 ,there was a room which bore the appearance of a vault4 ,four spandrels from the corners ran up to join a sharp cup-shaped roof4 ,the architecture was rough1 but very strong4 ,it was evidently part of a great building4 #f4 ,the officer proceeded1 without affecting to hear the words which escaped the sentinel in his surprise2 nor did he again pause1 until he had reached the low strand1 and in a somewhat dangerous vicinity to the western water bastion of the fort4 #g4 ,she stood on the top step under the porte-cochre1 on the extreme edge1 so that the toes of her small slippers extended a little over it4 ,she bent forward1 and then tipped back on the high1 exiguous heels again4 #h4 ,before the caryatides of the fireplace1 under the ancestral portraits1 a valet moves noiselessly about1 arranging the glistening silver service on the long table and putting in order the fruits1 sweets1 and ices4 #i4 ,no sooner is the heavy gate of the portal passed than one sees from afar among the leafage the court of honor1 to which one comes along an alley decorated uniformly with upright square shafts like classic termae in stone and bronze4 ,the impression of the antique lines is striking3 it springs at once to the eyes1 at first in this portico with columns and a heavy entablature1 but lacking a pediment4 ,b4 ,read again the selections beginning on page #df4 ,do you form complete images in every case8 ,c4 ,notice in each of your lessons for to-day what images are incomplete4 ,bring to class a list of the words you would need to look up in order to form complete images4 ,do not include all the words whose meanings are not clear1 but only those that assist in forming images4 ,theme ,,xii4--,form a clear mental image of some incident1 person1 or place4 ,write about it1 using such words as will give your classmates complete and accurate images4 ,the following may suggest a subject3-- #a4 ,a party dress ,i should like4 #b4 ,my room4 #c4 ,a cozy glen4 #d4 ,in the apple orchard4 #e4 ,going to the fire4 #f4 ,the hand-organ man4 #g4 ,a hornets' nest4 #h4 ,the last inning4 #i4 ,an exciting race4 7,consider what you have written with reference to the images which the reader will form4 ,do you think that when the members of the class hear your theme1 each will form the same images that you had in mind when writing8 ,notice how many of your sentences begin in the same way4 ,can you rewrite them so as to give variety87 #bh4 ,reproduction of ,images4--,if we were asked to tell about an accident which we had seen1 we could recall the various incidents in the order of their occurrence4 ,if the accident had occurred recently1 or had made a vivid impression upon us1 we could easily form mental images of each scene4 ,if we had only read a description of the accident1 it would be more difficult to recall the image2 because that which we gain through language is less vitally a part of ourselves than is that which comes to us through experience4 ,when called upon to reproduce the images suggested to us by language1 our memory is apt to concern itself with the words that suggested the image1 and our expression is hampered rather than aided by this remembrance4 ,the author has made1 or should have made1 the best possible selection of words and phrases4 ,if we repeat his language1 we have but memory drill or copy work2 and if we do not1 we are limited to such second-class language as we may be able to find4 ,word memory has its uses1 but it is less valuable than image memory4 ,it is necessary to distinguish carefully between the images that a writer presents and the words that he uses4 ,if a botany lesson should consist of a description of fifteen different leaves1 a pupil deficient in image memory will attempt to memorize the language of the book4 ,a better-trained pupil1 on meeting such a term as serrated1 will ask himself3 ,have ,i ever seen such a leaf8 ,can ,i form an image of it8 ,if so1 his only task will be to give the new name1 serrated1 to the idea that he already has4 ,in a similar way he will form images for each of the fifteen leaves described in the lesson4 ,the language of the book may help him form these images1 but he will make no attempt to commit the language to memory4 ,with him1 getting the lesson means forming images and naming them1 and reciting the lesson will be but talking about an image that he has clearly in mind4 ,try this in your own lessons4 ,if we are called upon to reproduce the incidents and scenes of some story that has been read to us1 our success will depend upon the clearness of the images that we have formed4 ,our efforts should be directed to making the images as definite and vivid as possible1 and our memory will be concerned with the recalling of these images in their proper order1 and not with the language that first caused them to appear4 ,,exercises #a4 ,report orally some interesting incident taken from a book which you have recently read4 ,do not reread the story4 ,use such language as will cause the class to form clear mental images4 #b4 ,report orally upon some chapter selected from ,cooper's ,last of the ,mohicans or ,scott's ,ivanhoe4 #c4 ,read a portion of ,scott's ,lady of the ,lake1 and report orally what happened4 #d4 ,report orally some incident that you have read about in a magazine4 ,select one that caused you to form images1 and tell it so that the hearers will form like images4 ,theme ,,xiii4--,reproduce a story read to you by the teacher4 7,before writing1 picture to yourself the scenes and recall the order of their occurrence4 ,if it is necessary to condense1 omit events of the least importance47 #bi4 ,comparison4--,writing which contains unfamiliar words fails to call up complete and definite images4 ,it is often difficult to form the correct mental picture1 even though the words in themselves are familiar4 ,definitions1 explanations1 and descriptions may cause us to understand correctly1 but our understanding usually can be improved by means of a comparison4 ,we can form an image of an object as soon as we know what it is like4 ,if ,i wished you to form an image of an okapi1 a lengthy description would give you a less vivid picture than the statement that it was a horselike animal1 having stripes similar to those of a zebra4 ,if an okapi were as well known to you as is a horse1 the name alone would call up the proper image1 and no comparison would be necessary4 ,by means of it we are enabled to picture the unfamiliar4 ,in this case the comparison is literal4 ,if the comparison is imaginative rather than literal1 our language becomes figurative1 and usually takes the form of a simile or metaphor4 ,similes and metaphors are of great value in rendering thought clear4 ,they make language forceful and effective1 and they may add much to the beauty of expression4 ,we may speak of an object as being like another1 or as acting like another4 ,if the comparison is imaginative rather than literal1 and is directly stated1 the expression is a simile4 ,similes are introduced by like1 as1 etc4 ,he fought like a lion4 ,the river wound like a serpent around the mountains4 ,if two things are essentially different1 but yet have a common quality1 their implied comparison is a metaphor4 ,a metaphor takes the form of a statement that one is the other4 ,he was a lion in the fight4 ,the river wound its serpent course4 ,sometimes inanimate objects1 abstract ideas1 or the lower animals are given the attributes of human beings4 ,such a figure is called personification1 and is in fact a modified metaphor1 since it is based upon some resemblance of the lower to the higher4 ,this music crept by me upon the waters4 ,time is a very bankrupt1 and owes more than he is worth to season4 ,nay1 he's a thief1 too2 have you not heard men say1 ,that time comes stealing on by night and day8 --,shakespeare4 #cj4 ,use of ,figures of ,speech4--,the three figures of speech1 simile1 metaphor1 and personification1 are more frequently used than are the others4 ,figures of speech are treated in a later chapter1 but some suggestions as to their use will be of value to beginners4 #a4 ,never write for the purpose of using figures of speech4 ,nearly everything that we need to say can be well expressed in plain1 bare ,english1 and the ability to express our thoughts in this way is the essential thing4 ,if a figure that adds to the force and clearness of your expression occurs to you1 use it without hesitation4 ,a figure may also add to the beauty of our expression4 ,the examples to be found in literature are largely of this character4 ,if well used1 they are effective1 but the beginner should beware of a figure that is introduced for decorative purposes only4 ,an attempt to find figures of speech in ordinary prose writing will show how rarely they are used4 #b4 ,the figures should fit the subject in hand4 ,some comparisons are appropriate and some are not4 ,if the writer is familiar with his subject and deeply in earnest1 the appropriate figures will rise spontaneously in his mind4 ,if they do not1 little is gained by seeking for them4 #c4 ,the effectiveness of a comparison1 whether literal or figurative1 depends upon the familiarity of the reader with one of the two things compared4 ,to say that a petrel resembled a kite would be of no value to one who knew nothing of either bird4 ,similarly a figure is defective if neither element of the comparison is familiar to the readers4 #d4 ,suitable figures give picturesqueness and vivacity to language1 but hackneyed figures are worse than none4 #e4 ,elaborate and long-drawn-out figures1 or an overabundance of short ones1 should be avoided4 #f4 ,a figure must be consistent throughout4 ,a comparison once begun must be carried through without change2 mixing figures often produces results which are ridiculous4 ,the mixed metaphor is a common blunder of beginners4 ,this fault may arise either from confusing different metaphors in the same sentence1 or from blending literal language with metaphorical4 ,the following will serve to illustrate3-- #a4 ,confused metaphor4 ,let us pin our faith to the rock of perseverance and honest toil1 where it may sail on to success on the wings of hope4 #b4 ,literal and figurative blended4 ,washington was the father of his country and a surveyor of ability4 #c4 ,when the last awful moment came1 the star of liberty went down with all on board4 #d4 ,the glorious work will never be accomplished until the good ship ,temperance shall sail from one end of the land to the other1 and with a cry of ,victory6 at each step she takes1 shall plant her banner in every city1 town1 and village in the ,united ,states4 #e4 ,all along the untrodden paths of the future we see the hidden footprints of an unseen hand4 #f4 ,the ,british lion1 whether it is roaming the deserts of ,india1 or climbing the forests of ,canada1 will never draw in its horns nor retire into its shell4 #g4 ,young man1 if you have the spark of genius in you1 water it4 ,,exercises ,are the images which you form made more vivid by the use of the figures in the following selections8 #a4 ,she began to screech as wild as ocean birds4 #b4 ,and when its force expended1 ,the harmless storm was ended2 ,and as the sunrise splendid ,came blushing o'er the sea-- #c4 ,as a demon is hurled by an angel's spear1 ,heels over head1 to his proper sphere-- ,heels over head and head over heels1-- ,dizzily down the abyss he wheels1-- ,so fell ,darius4 --,j4,t4 ,trowbridge4 #d4 ,in this republican country1 amid the fluctuating waves of our social life1 somebody is always at the drowning point4 --,hawthorne4 #e4 ,poverty1 treading close at her heels for a lifetime1 has come up with her at last4 --,hawthorne4 #f4 ,friendships begin with liking or gratitude--roots that can be pulled up4 --,george ,eliot4 #g4 ,nearing the end of the narrative1 ,ben paced up and down the narrow limits of the tent in great excitement1 running his fingers through his hair1 and barking out a question now and then4 #h4 ,a sky above1 ,where one white cloud like a stray lamb doth move4 --,lowell4 #i4 ,in days of public commotion every faction1 like an ,oriental army1 is attended by a crowd of camp followers1 a useless and heartless rabble1 who prowl round its line of march in the hope of picking up something under its protection1 but desert it in the day of battle1 and often join to exterminate it after a defeat4 --,macaulay4 #aj4 ,it is to be regretted that the prose writings of ,milton should1 in our time1 be so little read4 ,as compositions1 they deserve the attention of every man who wishes to become acquainted with the full power of the ,english language4 ,they abound with passages compared with which the finest declamations of ,burke sink into insignificance4 ,they are a perfect field of cloth of gold4 ,the style is stiff with gorgeous embroidery4 --,macaulay4 #aa4 ,and close behind her stood ,eight daughters of the plow1 stronger than men1 ,huge women blowzed with health1 and wind1 and rain1 ,and labor4 ,each was like a ,druid rock1 ,or like a spire of land that stands apart ,cleft from the main and wall'd about with mews4 --,tennyson4 #ab4 ,but bland the smile that1 like a wrinkling wind ,on glassy water1 drove his cheek in lines4 --,tennyson4 #ac4 ,the rush of affairs drifts words from their original meanings1 as ships drag their anchors in a gale1 but terms sheltered from common use hold to their moorings forever4 --,mill4 ,theme ,,xiv4--,write a story suggested by the picture on page #ei or by one of the following subjects3-- #a4 ,a modern fable4 #b4 ,the willow whistle4 #c4 ,how ,i baked a cake4 #d4 ,the delayed picnic4 #e4 ,the missing slipper4 #f4 ,a misdirected letter4 #g4 ,a ride on a raft4 #h4 ,the rescue of ,ezekiel4 #i4 ,a railway experience4 #aj4 ,a soldier's soldier4 7,do you think the reader will form the images you wish him to form8 ,consider what you have written with reference to climax4 7,see ,section #g47 ,have you needed to use figures8 ,if so1 have you used them in accordance with the suggestions on page #ee8 ,if you have used the word only1 is it placed so as to give the correct meaning87 #ca4 ,determination of ,meaning ,requires ,more than ,image ,making4--,the emphasis laid upon image making should not lead to the belief that this is all that is necessary in order to determine what is meant by the language we hear or read4 ,image making is important1 but much of our language is concerned with presenting ideas of which no mental pictures can be formed4 ,illustration ,this very paragraph will serve as an illustration of such language4 ,our understanding of language of this kind depends upon our knowledge of the meanings of words1 upon our understanding of the relations between word groups1 or parts of sentences1 and especially upon our appreciation of the relations in thought that sentences bear to one another4 ,each of these will be discussed in the following pages4 ,later it will be necessary to consider the relations in thought existing among paragraphs4 #cb4 ,word ,relations4--,in order to get the thought of a sentence1 we must understand the relations that exist between the words and word groups 7phrases and clauses7 that compose it4 ,if the thought is simple1 and expressed in straightforward terms1 we grasp it readily and without any conscious effort to determine these relations4 ,if the thought is complex1 the relations become more complicated1 and before we are sure that we know what the writer intends to say it may be necessary to note with care which is the main clause and which are the subordinate clauses4 ,in either case our acquiring the thought depends upon our understanding the relations between words and word groups4 ,we may understand them without any knowledge of the names that have been applied to them in grammar1 but a knowledge of the names will assist somewhat4 ,these relations are treated in the grammar review in the ,appendix and need not be repeated here4 #cc4 ,incomplete ,thoughts4--,we have learned 7,section #bg7 that the introduction of unfamiliar words may cause us to form incomplete images4 ,when the language is not designed to present images1 we may1 in a similar way1 fail to get its real meaning if we are unfamiliar with the words used4 ,if you do not know the meaning of fluent and viscous1 you will fail to understand correctly the statement1 ,fluids range from the peculiarly fluent to the peculiarly viscous4 ,if we wish to think precisely what the writer intended us to think1 we must know the meanings of the words he uses4 ,many of us are inclined to substitute other ideas than those properly conveyed by the words of the writer1 and so get confused or incomplete or inaccurate ideas4 ,the ability to determine exactly what images the writer suggests1 and what ideas his language expresses1 is the first requisite of scholarship and an important element of success in life4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,the first step in acquiring knowledge is to determine what it is that we do not know4 ,just which word or words in each of the following sentences keep you from understanding the full meaning of the sentence8 ,notice that a dictionary definition will not always make the meaning clear4 #a4 ,it is really more scientific to repeat a quotation from a political speech correctly1 or to pass on a story undistorted1 than it is to know of the rings of ,saturn or the striation of diatoms4 #b4 ,the process of testing a hypothesis requires great caution in order to prevent mistakes4 #c4 ,the arial foliage stem is the most favorable for studying stem structure4 #d4 ,taken collectively1 isotherms indicate the distribution of mean temperature over the region embraced in the map4 #e4 ,vibrations of the membrane of the tympanum are damped by the ossicles of the middle ear1 which also receive and pass on the auditory tremors to the membrane closing the oval window4 #f4 ,in the battle which followed1 the mobile ,roman legion1 arranged in open order three ranks deep1 proved its superiority over the massive ,macedonian phalanx4 #g4 ,the narrow and dissected forms have been attributed to the scarcity of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the water4 ,b4 ,make a list of words in your lessons in other subjects for to-day that you need to look up in order to understand the lessons4 ,this should be done daily1 whether assigned or not4 #cd4 ,choice of ,words ,adapted to the ,reader4--,words familiar to the reader should be used4 ,since the reader's ability to understand the thought of a paragraph depends to some extent upon his understanding of the words employed1 it is necessary for the writer to choose words that will be understood by those whom he addresses4 ,of course we cannot tell whether a particular word will be understood by our readers1 but1 in case there is doubt1 it is well to substitute one that is more likely to be understood4 ,when you have written anything1 it is well to ask yourself the question1 ,have ,i used words with which the reader is probably familiar8 ,theme ,,xv4---,write a theme about one of the following subjects1 using words that you think will be understood by your readers3-- #a4 ,how we breathe4 #b4 ,how to make a kite4 #c4 ,the causes of the seasons4 #d4 ,why wood floats on water4 #e4 ,the use of baking powder4 #f4 ,the difference between arithmetic and algebra4 7,have you said what you meant to say8 ,have you used words that your reader will understand8 ,find your longest sentence4 ,is its meaning clear8 ,notice the short sentences4 ,should some of them be united into a longer one87 #ce4 ,word ,selection4--,there are many shades of meaning which differ but little1 and a careful writer will select just the word that best conveys his thought4 ,the reader needs to be no less careful in determining the exact meaning that the writer intends to convey4 ,exercises in synonyms are thus of double importance 7,section #ba74 ,another source of error1 both in acquiring and expressing thought1 arises from the confusion of similar words4 ,some similarity of spelling causes one word to be substituted for another4 ,there are many words and expressions that are so often interchanged that some time may be spent with profit upon exercises in determining their correct usage4 ,these usually consist of brief reports to the class that set forth the meanings of the words1 show their uses1 and illustrate their differences4 ,in preparing such reports1 determine the meaning of the words from as many sources as are available4 ,the usual meaning can be determined from the dictionary4 ,a fuller treatment is given in some dictionaries in a chapter on faulty diction4 ,additional material may be found in many of the text-books on rhetoric1 and in special books treating of word usage4 ,after you are sure that you know the correct use1 prepare a report for the class that shall make that use clear to others4 ,in the simplest form this will consist of definitions and sentences in which the words are correctly used4 ,the following examples1 handed in by pupils1 will serve to illustrate such reports3-- #a4 ,a council is an assembly of persons convened for consultation or deliberation4 ,counsel is used to indicate either 7#a7 an opinion as the result of consultation or 7#b7 a lawyer engaged to give advice or to act as advocate in court4 ,lewis furnishes the following example of the use of these two words3 ,the plaintiff's counsel held a council with his partners in law1 and finally gave him as his best counsel the advice that he should drop the suit2 but1 as ,swift says1 ',no man will take counsel1 but every man will take money1' and the plaintiff refused to accept the advice unless the counsel could persuade the defendant to settle the case out of court by paying a large sum4 #b4 ,the correct meaning of transpire may perhaps be best understood by considering its derivations4 ,it comes from trans1 through1 and spiro1 to breathe1 from which it gets its meaning1 to escape gradually from secrecy4 ,it is frequently used incorrectly in the sense of to happen1 but both ,webster and the ,standard dictionary condemn this use of the word4 ,the latter says that it is often so misused especially in carelessly edited newspapers1 as in ,comments on the heart-rending disaster which transpired yesterday are unnecessary1 but1 etc4 ,when transpire is correctly used1 it is not a synonym of happen4 ,a thing that happened a year ago may transpire to-day1 that is1 it may become known through unnoticed channels1 exhale1 as it were1 through invisible pores like a vapor or a gas disengaging itself4 ,many things which happen in school1 thus become known by being passed along in a semi-secret manner until nearly all know of them though few can tell just how the information was spread4 ,transpire may properly be applied to such a diffusion of knowledge4 ,theme ,,xvi4--,report as suggested above on any one of the following groups of words3-- #a4 ,allude1 mention4 #b4 ,beside1 besides4 #c4 ,character1 reputation4 #d4 ,degrade1 demean1 debase4 #e4 ,last1 latest1 preceding4 #f4 ,couple1 pair4 #g4 ,balance1 rest1 remainder4 7,have you made clear the correct use of the words under discussion8 ,can you give examples which do not follow the dictionaries so closely as do the illustrative reports above87 ,,note4--,lists of words suitable for exercises similar to the above are given in the ,appendix4 ,the teacher will assign them to such an extent and at such times as seems desirable4 ,one such lesson a week will be found profitable4 #cf4 ,sentence ,relations4--,what we read or hear usually consists of several sentences written or spoken together4 ,the meaning of any particular sentence may depend upon the sentence or sentences preceding4 ,in order to determine accurately the meaning of the whole1 we must understand the relation in thought that each sentence bears to the others4 ,notice the two sentences3 ,guns are dangerous4 ,boys should not use them4 ,though the last sentence is independent1 it gets its meaning from the first4 ,in the following selection consider each sentence apart from the others4 ,notice that the meaning of the whole becomes intelligible only when the sentences are considered in their relations to each other4 ,once upon a time1 a notion was started1 that if all the people in the world would shout at once1 it might be heard in the moon4 ,so the projectors agreed it should be done in just ten years4 ,some thousand shiploads of chronometers were distributed to the selectmen and other great folks of all the different nations4 ,for a year beforehand1 nothing else was talked about but the awful noise that was to be made on the great occasion4 ,when the time came1 everybody had his ears so wide open1 to hear the universal ejaculation of ,boo1--the word agreed upon1--that nobody spoke except a deaf man in one of the ,fiji ,islands1 and a woman in ,pekin1 so that the world was never so still since the creation4--,holmes4 ,gutenberg did a great deal of his work in secret1 for he thought it was much better that his neighbors should know nothing of what he was doing4 ,so he looked for a workshop where no one would be likely to find him4 ,he was now living in ,strasburg1 and there was in that city a ruined old building where1 long before his time1 a number of monks had lived4 ,there was one room in the building which needed only a little repairing to make it fit to be used4 ,so he got the right to repair the room and use it as his workshop4 ,in all good writing we find a similar dependence in thought4 ,each sentence takes a meaning because of its relation to some other4 ,the personal pronouns and pronominal adjectives1 adverbial phrases indicating time or place1 conjunctions1 and such expressions as certainly1 however1 on the other hand1 etc41 are used to indicate more or less directly a relation in thought between the phrase or sentence in which they occur and some preceding one4 ,if the reader cannot readily determine to what they refer1 the meaning becomes obscure or ambiguous4 ,the pronominal adjectives and the personal pronouns are especially likely to be used in such a way as to cause ambiguity4 ,care must be taken to use them so as to keep the meaning clear1 and your own good sense will help you in this more than rules4 ,notice in your reading how frequently expressions similar to those mentioned above are used4 ,theme ,,xvii4--,write a theme suggested by one of the following subjects3-- #a4 ,the last quarter4 #b4 ,an excursion with the physical geography class4 #c4 ,what ,i saw while riding to town4 #d4 ,the broken bicycle4 #e4 ,an hour in the study hall4 #f4 ,seen from my study window4 7,are your sentences so arranged that the relation in thought is clear8 ,are the personal pronouns and pronominal adjectives used so as to avoid ambiguity8 ,does your story relate real events or imaginary ones8 ,if imaginary events are related1 have you made them seem probable87 #cg4 ,getting the ,main ,thought4--,in many cases the relation in thought is not directly indicated1 and we are left to determine it from the context1 just as we decide upon the meaning of a word because of what precedes or follows it4 ,in this case the meaning of a particular sentence may be made clear if we have in mind the main topic under discussion4 ,many pupils fail in recitations because they do not distinguish that which is more important from that which is less so4 ,if a dozen pages of history are assigned1 they cannot master the lesson because it is too long to be memorized1 and they are not able to select the three or four things of importance with which it is really concerned4 ,thirty or forty minor details are jumbled together without any clear knowledge of the relations that they bear either to one another or to the main thoughts of the lesson4 ,in the following selection but three things are discussed4 ,determine what they are1 but not what is said about them4 ,in all the ages the extent and value of flood plains have been increased by artificial means4 ,dikes or levees are built to regulate the spread and flow of the water and to protect the land from destructive floods4 ,dams and reservoirs are constructed for the storage of water1 which is led by a system of canals and ditches to irrigate large tracts of land which would be otherwise worthless4 ,by means of irrigation1 the farmer has control of his water supply and is able to get larger returns than are possible where he depends upon the irregular and uncertain rainfall4 ,it is estimated that in the arid regions of western ,united ,states there are #aej1jjj square miles of land which may be made available for agriculture by irrigation4 ,perhaps in the future the valley of the lower ,colorado may become as productive as that of the ,nile4 ,streams are the easiest routes of travel and commerce4 ,a river usually furnishes from its mouth well up toward its source a smooth1 graded highway1 upon which a cargo may be transported with much less effort than overland4 ,if obstructions occur in the form of rapids or falls1 boat and cargo are carried around them4 ,it is often easy to pass by a short portage or carry from one stream system across the divide to another4 ,in regions which are not very level the easiest grades in every direction are found along the streams1 and the main routes of land travel follow the stream valleys4 ,in traversing a mountainous region1 a railroad follows the windings of some river up to the crest of the divide1 which it crosses through a pass1 or often by a tunnel1 and descends the valley of some stream on the other side4 ,man is largely indebted to streams for the variety and beauty of scenery4 ,running water itself is attractive to young and old4 ,a landscape without water lacks its chief charm4 ,a child instinctively finds its way to the brook1 and the man seeks beside the river the pleasure and recreation which no other place affords4 ,streams have carved the surface of the land into an endless variety of beautiful forms1 and a land where stream valleys are few or shallow is monotonous and tiresome4 ,the most common as well as the most celebrated beauty of scenery in the world1 from the tiny meanders of a meadow brook to the unequaled grandeur of the ,colorado canyons1 is largely due to the presence and action of streams4 --,dryer3 ,lessons in ,physical ,geography4 ,in the above selection we find that each group of sentences is related to some main topic4 ,a more extended observation of good writing will give the same result4 ,men naturally think in sentence groups4 ,a group of sentences related to each other and to the central idea is called a paragraph4 #ch4 ,topic ,statement4--,in the three paragraphs of the selection on page #fg1 notice that the first sentence in each tells what the paragraph is about4 ,in a well-written paragraph it is possible to select the phrase or sentence that states the main thought4 ,if such a sentence does not occur in the paragraph itself1 one can be framed that will express clearly and concisely the chief idea of the paragraph4 ,this brief1 comprehensive summary of the contents of a paragraph is called the topic statement4 ,in order to master the thought of what we read we must be able to select or to make the successive topic statements1 and in order to express our own thoughts clearly we must write our paragraphs so that our readers may easily grasp the topic statement of each4 ,when expressed in the paragraph1 the topic statement may be a part of a sentence1 a whole sentence1 or it may extend through two sentences4 ,it is usual to place the topic statement first1 but it may be preceded by one or more introductory sentences1 or even withheld until the end of the paragraph4 ,for emphasis it may be repeated1 though usually in a slightly different form4 ,,exercises ,determine the topic statements of the following paragraphs4 ,if one is not expressed1 make one4 #a4 ,no less valuable is the mental stimulus of play4 ,the child is trained by it to quick perception1 rapid judgment1 prompt decision4 ,his imagination cunningly suggests a thousand things to be done1 and then trains the will and every power of body and mind in the effort to do them4 ,the sports of childhood are admirably adapted to quicken the senses and sharpen the wits4 ,nature has effective ways in her school of securing the exercise which is needed to develop every mental and every bodily power4 ,she fills the activity brimful of enjoyment1 and then gives her children freedom1 assured that they will be their own best teachers4 --,bradley #b4 ,our ,common ,law comes from ,england1 and originated there in custom4 ,it is often called the unwritten law1 because unwritten in origin1 though there are now many books describing it4 ,its principles originated as habits of the people1 five hundred1 eight hundred1 years ago1 perhaps some of them back in the time when the half-savage ,saxons landed on the shores of ,england4 ,when the time came that the government1 through its courts1 punished the breach of a custom1 from that time the custom was a law4 ,and so the ,english people acquired these laws1 one after another1 just as they were acquiring at the same time the habits of making roads1 using forks at table1 manufacturing1 meeting in ,parliament1 using firearms1 and all the other habits of civilization4 ,when the colonists came to ,america1 they brought the ,english ,common ,law with them1 not in a book1 but in their minds1 a part of their life1 like their religion4 --,clark3 ,the ,government4 #c4 ,accuracy is always to be striven for but it can never be attained4 ,this fact is only fully realized by scientific workers4 ,the banker can be accurate because he only counts or weighs masses of metal which he assumes to be exactly equal4 ,the ,master of the ,mint knows that two coins are never exactly equal in weight1 although he strives by improving machinery and processes to make the differences as small as possible4 ,when the utmost care is taken1 the finest balances which have been constructed can weigh #a lb4 of a metal with an uncertainty less than the hundredth part of a grain4 ,in other words1 the weight is not accurate1 but the inaccuracy is very small4 ,no person is so stupid as not to feel sure that the height of a man he sees is between #c ft4 and #i ft42 some are able by the eye to estimate the height as between #e ft4 #f in4 and #e ft4 #h in42 measurement may show it to be between #e ft4 #f in4 and #e ft4 #g in41 but to go closer than that requires many precautions4 ,training in observation and the use of delicate instruments thus narrow the limits of approximation4 ,similarly with regard to space and time1 there are instruments with which one millionth of an inch1 or of a second1 can be measured1 but even this approximation1 although far closer than is ever practically necessary1 is not accuracy4 ,in the statement of measurements there is no meaning in more than six significant figures1 and only the most careful observations can be trusted so far4 ,the height of ,mount ,everest is given as #bi1jjb feet2 but here the fifth figure is meaningless1 the height of that mountain not being known so accurately that two feet more or less would be detected4 ,similarly1 the radius of the earth is sometimes given as #cifc4biehcc miles1 whereas no observation can get nearer the truth than #cifc4cj miles4 --,mill3 ,the ,realm of ,nature4 7,copyright1 #ahib1 by ,charles ,scribner's ,sons47 #d4 ,the chief cause which made the fusion of the different elements of society so imperfect was the extreme difficulty which our ancestors found in passing from place to place4 ,of all the inventions1 the alphabet and the printing press alone excepted1 those inventions which abridge distance have done most for the civilization of our species4 ,every improvement of the means of locomotion benefits mankind morally and intellectually as well as materially1 and not only facilitates the interchange of the various productions of nature and art1 but tends to remove national and provincial prejudices1 and to bind together all the branches of the great human family4 ,in the seventeenth century the inhabitants of ,london were for almost every practical purpose farther from ,reading than they are now from ,edinburgh1 and farther from ,edinburgh than they are now from ,vienna4 --,macaulay3 ,history of ,england4 #e4 ,he touched ,new ,england at every point4 ,he was born a frontiersman4 ,he was bred a farmer4 ,he was a fisherman in the mountain brooks and off the shore4 ,he never forgot his origin1 and he never was ashamed of it4 ,amid all the care and honor of his great place here he was homesick for the company of his old neighbors and friends4 ,whether he stood in ,washington1 the unchallenged prince and chief in the ,senate1 or in foreign lands1 the kingliest man of his time in the presence of kings1 his heart was in ,new ,england4 ,when the spring came1 he heard far off the fife bird and the bobolink calling him to his ,new ,hampshire mountains1 or of the waves on the shore at ,marshfield alluring him with a sweeter than siren's voice to his home by the summer sea4 --,george ,f4 ,hoar3 ,daniel ,webster4 #f4 ,nor must ,i forget the suddenly changing seasons of the northern clime4 ,there is no long and lingering spring1 unfolding leaf and blossom one by one2 no long and lingering autumn1 pompous with many-colored leaves and the glow of ,indian summer4 ,but winter and summer are wonderful1 and pass into each other4 ,the quail has hardly ceased piping in the corn when winter1 from the folds of trailing clouds1 sows broadcast over the land snow1 icicles1 and rattling hail4 ,the days wane apace4 ,erelong the sun hardly rises above the horizon1 or does not rise at all4 ,the moon and the stars shine through the day2 only at noon they are pale and wan1 and in the southern sky a red1 fiery glow1 as of a sunset1 burns along the horizon and then goes out4 ,and pleasantly under the silver moon1 and under the silent1 solemn stars1 ring the steel shoes of the skaters on the frozen sea1 and voices1 and the sound of bells4 --,longfellow3 ,rural ,life in ,sweden4 #g4 ,extreme busyness1 whether at school or college1 kirk or market1 is a symptom of deficient vitality2 and a faculty for idleness implies a catholic appetite and a strong sense of personal identity4 ,there is a sort of dead-alive1 hackneyed people about1 who are scarcely conscious of living except in the exercise of some conventional occupation4 ,bring these fellows into the country1 or set them aboard ship1 and you will see how they pine for their desk or their study4 ,they have no curiosity2 they cannot give themselves over to random provocations2 they do not take pleasure in the exercise of their faculties for its own sake2 and unless ,necessity lays about them with a stick1 they will even stand still4 ,it is no good speaking to such folk3 they cannot be idle1 their nature is not generous enough2 and they pass those hours in a sort of coma1 which are not dedicated to furious moiling in the gold mill4 ,when they do not require to go to the office1 when they are not hungry and have no mind to drink1 the whole breathing world is a blank to them4 ,if they have to wait an hour or so for a train1 they fall into a stupid trance1 with their eyes open4 ,to see them1 you would suppose there was nothing to look at and no one to speak with2 you would imagine they were paralyzed or alienated2 and yet very possibly they are hard workers in their own way1 and have good eyesight for a flaw in a deed or a turn of the market4 ,they have been to school and college1 but all the time they had their eye on the medal2 they have gone about in the world and mixed with clever people1 but all the time they were thinking of their own affairs4 ,as if a man's soul were not too small to begin with1 they have dwarfed and narrowed theirs by a life of all work and no play2 until here they are at forty1 with a listless attention1 a mind vacant of all material amusement1 and not one thought to rub against another while they wait for the train4 ,before he was breeched1 he might have clambered on the boxes2 when he was twenty1 he would have stared at the girls2 but now the pipe is smoked out1 the snuffbox is empty1 and my gentleman sits bolt upright on a bench1 with lamentable eyes4 ,this does not appeal to me as being ,success in ,life4 --,robert ,louis ,stevenson4 7,copyright1 by ,charles ,scribner's ,sons47 ,b4 ,examine the themes which you have written4 ,does each paragraph have a topic statement8 ,have you introduced sentences which do not bear upon this topic statement8 ,are the paragraphs real ones treating of a single topic1 or are they merely groups of sentences written together without any close connection in thought8 ,theme ,,xviii4--,state two or three advantages of public high schools over private boarding schools4 ,use each as a topic statement and develop it into a short paragraph4 7,add to each topic statement such sentences as will prove to a pupil of your own age that the topic statement states a real advantage4 ,include in each paragraph only that which bears upon the topic statement4 ,consider the definition of a paragraph on page #fh4 ,does this definition apply to your paragraphs87 #ci4 ,reproduction of the ,thought of a ,paragraph4--,our ability to reproduce the thought of what we read will depend largely upon our ability to select the topic statements4 ,in preparing a lesson for recitation it is evident that we must first determine definitely the topic statement of each paragraph4 ,these may bear upon one general subject or upon different subjects4 ,the three paragraphs on page #fg are all concerned with one subject1 the uses of rivers4 ,a pupil preparing to recite them would have in mind1 when he went to class1 an outline about as follows3-- ,general subject3 ,the uses of rivers4 ,first topic statement3 ,the fertility of flood plains is improved by irrigation4 ,second topic statement3 ,streams are the easiest routes of travel and commerce4 ,third topic statement3 ,man is indebted to streams for beauty of scenery4 ,while such a clear statement is the first step toward a proper understanding of the lesson1 it is not enough4 ,in order to understand thoroughly a topic statement1 we need explanation or illustration4 ,the idea is not really our own until we have thought about it in its relations to other knowledge already in our possession4 ,in order to know whether you understand the topic statements1 the teacher will ask you to discuss them4 ,this may be done by telling what the writer said about them1 or by giving thoughts and illustrations of your own1 but best of all1 by doing both4 ,it is necessary1 then1 to know in what way the writer develops each topic statement4 ,read the following paragraph3-- ,the most productive lands in the world are flood plains4 ,at every period of high water1 a stream brings down mantle rock from the higher grounds1 and deposits it as a layer of fine sediment over its flood plain4 ,a soil thus frequently enriched and renewed is literally inexhaustible4 ,in a rough1 hilly1 or mountainous country the finest farms and the densest population are found on the bottom lands along the streams4 ,the flood plain most famous in history is that of the river ,nile in ,egypt4 ,for a distance of #aejj miles above its mouth this river flows through a rainless desert1 and has no tributary4 ,the heavy spring rains which fall upon the highlands about its sources produce in summer a rise of the water1 which overflows the valley on either side4 ,thus the lower ,nile valley became one of the earliest centers of civilization1 and has supported a dense population for #gjjj years4 ,the conditions in ,mesopotamia1 along the ,tigris and ,euphrates rivers1 are similar to those along the lower ,nile1 and in ancient times this region was the seat of a civilization perhaps older than that of ,egypt4 ,the flood plains of the ,ganges in ,india1 and the ,hoang in ,china1 are the most extensive in the world1 and in modern times the most populous4 ,the alluvial valley of the ,mississippi is extremely productive of corn1 cotton1 and sugar cane4 --,dryer3 ,lessons in ,physical ,geography4 ,notice that the first sentence gives the topic statement1 flood plains are productive4 ,the second and third sentences tell why this is so1 and the rest of the paragraph is given up to illustrations4 ,in preparing this paragraph for recitation the pupil should have in mind an outline about as follows3-- ,topic statement3 ,flood plains are the most productive lands in the world4 #a4 ,reasons4 #b4 ,examples3 7a7 ,bottom lands4 7b7 ,nile4 7c7 ,tigris and ,euphrates4 7d7 ,ganges4 7e7 ,hoang4 7f7 ,mississippi4 ,in order to make such an outline1 the relative importance of the ideas in the paragraph must be mastered4 ,a recitation that omitted the topic statement or the reasons would be defective1 while one that omitted one or more of the examples might be perfect1 especially if the pupil could furnish other examples from his own knowledge4 ,the illustration about bottom lands is a general one1 and should suggest specific cases that could be included in the recitation4 ,the details in regard to the ,nile might be included if they happened to be recalled at the time of the recitation1 but even the omission of all mention of the ,nile might not materially detract from the value of the recitation4 ,the effort to remember minor details hinders real thought-getting power4 ,it is better not to write this outline4 ,the use of notes or written outlines at the time of the recitation soon establishes a habit of dependence that renders real scholarship an impossibility4 ,with such an analysis of the thought clearly in mind1 the pupil need not attempt to remember the language of the writer4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,complete the partial outline given for the paragraph below4 ,which of the illustrations might be omitted from a recitation8 ,for which can you furnish different illustrations8 ,mountain ranges have great influence upon climate1 political geography1 and commerce4 ,many of them form climatic boundaries4 ,the ,cordilleras of western ,america and the ,scandinavian mountains arrest the warm1 moist1 western winds which rise along those great rock barriers to cooler altitudes1 where their water vapor is condensed and falls as rain1 so that the country on the windward side of the mountains is wet and that on the leeward side is dry4 ,mountain chains stretching east and west across central ,asia protect the southern part of the continent from frigid arctic winds4 ,the large winter tourist traffic of the ,riviera is due to the mountains that shield this favored ,french-,italian coast from the north and northeast continental winds1 giving it a considerably warmer winter's temperature than that of ,rome1 two and a half degrees farther south4 ,as ,north ,america has no mountain barriers across the pathway of polar winds1 they sweep southward even to the ,gulf of ,mexico and have twice destroyed ,florida's orange groves within a decade4 ,mountain ranges are conspicuous in political geography because they are the natural boundary between many nations and languages1 as the ,pyrenees between ,france and ,spain1 the ,alps between ,austria and ,italy1 and the ,himalayas between ,tibet and ,india4 ,mountains sometimes guard nations from attack by the isolation they give1 and therefore promote national unity4 ,thus the ,swiss are among the few peoples in ,europe who have maintained the integrity of their state4 ,commercially1 mountains are of great importance as a source of water1 which they store in snow1 glaciers1 and lakes4 ,snow and ice1 melting slowly on the mountains1 are an unfailing source of supply for perennial rivers1 and thus promote navigation4 ,mountains are the largest source of water-power1 which is more valuable than ever now that electricity is employed to transmit it to convenient centers for use in the industries4 ,a large part of the mining machinery in the ,united ,states is run by water power4 ,switzerland1 which has no coal1 turns the wheels of its mills with water4 ,mountains supply most of the metals and minerals1 and are therefore the scene of the largest mining industry4 ,they are also among the greatest sources of forest wealth4 ,though the slopes are not favorable for agriculture they afford good pasturage1 and the dbris of the rocks washed into the valleys and plains by mountain torrents supplies good soil4 ,thus the ,appalachians have been worn down to a comparatively low level1 and the soil formed from their rock particles is the basis of large husbandry4 ,the scenic attractions of many mountain regions is a source of large revenue4 ,the ,alps attract crowds of tourists1 who spend about twenty million dollars a year in ,switzerland and ,austria1 and give to many thousands of persons4 --,adams3 ,commercial ,geography4 ,,outline 7to be completed7 ,mountain ranges have great influence upon-- ,i4 ,climate4 ,why8 ,where8 a1 b1 etc4 ,,ii4 ,political geography4 ,why8 ,where8 a1 b1 etc4 ,,iii4 ,commerce4 ,why8 ,where8 a1 b1 etc4 ,b4 ,make an outline of the following paragraph3-- #a4 ,the armor of the different classes was also accurately ordered by the law4 ,the first class was ordered to wear for the defense of the body1 brazen helmets1 shields1 and coats of mail1 and to bear spears and swords1 excepting the mechanics1 who were to carry the necessary military engines and to serve without arms4 ,the members of the second class1 excepting that they had bucklers instead of shields and wore no coats of mail1 were permitted to bear the same armor and to carry the sword and spear4 ,the third class had the same armor as the second1 excepting that they could not wear greaves for the protection of their legs4 ,the fourth had no arms excepting a spear and a long javelin4 ,the fifth merely carried slings and stones for use in them4 ,to this class belonged the trumpeters and horn blowers4 --,gilman3 ,story of ,rome4 ,c4 ,in preparing your other lessons for to-day1 make outlines of the paragraphs4 ,theme ,,xix4--,reproduce the thought of some paragraph read to you by the teacher4 7,do not attempt to remember the language4 ,try to get the main thought of what is read and then write a paragraph which sets forth that same idea4 ,use different illustrations if you can47 ,,note4--,this theme may be repeated as many times as seems desirable4 #dj4 ,importance of the ,paragraph4--,emphasis needs to be laid upon the importance of the paragraph4 ,our ability to express our thoughts clearly depends1 to a large extent1 upon our skill in constructing paragraphs4 ,the writing of correct sentences is not sufficient4 ,though each of a series of sentences may be correct1 they may1 as a whole1 say but little1 and that very poorly2 while another set of sentences1 which cluster around some central idea1 may set it forth most effectively4 ,it is only by giving our sentence groups that unity of thought which combines them into paragraphs that we make them most effective4 ,a well-constructed paragraph will make clear some idea1 and a series of such paragraphs1 related to each other and properly arranged1 will set forth the sum of our thoughts on any subject4 #da4 ,paragraph ,length4--,the proper length of a paragraph cannot be determined by rule4 ,sometimes the thought to be presented will require several sentences2 sometimes two or three will be sufficient4 ,a single illustration may make a topic statement clear1 or several illustrations may be required4 ,the writer must judge when he has included enough to make his meaning understood1 and must avoid including so much that the reader will become weary4 ,usually a paragraph that exceeds three hundred words will be found too long1 or else it will contain more than one main idea1 each of which could have been presented more effectively in a separate paragraph4 #db4 ,indentation4--,in written and printed matter the beginning of a paragraph is indicated by an indentation4 ,indentation does not make a paragraph1 but we indent because we are beginning a new paragraph4 ,indentation thus serves the same purpose as punctuation4 ,it helps the reader to determine when we have finished one main thought and are about to begin another4 ,beginners are apt to use indentations too frequently4 ,there are some special uses of indentation in letter writing1 printed conversation1 and other forms1 but for ordinary paragraph division the indentation is determined by the thought1 and its correct use depends upon clear thinking4 ,can the following selection be improved by reparagraphing8 ,outside in the darkness1 gray with whirling snowflakes1 he saw the wet lamps of cabs shining1 and he darted along the line of hansoms and coups in frantic search for his own4 ,oh1 there you are1 he panted1 flinging his suit case up to a snow-covered driver4 ,do your best now2 we're late6 ,and he leaped into the dark coup1 slammed the door1 and sank back on the cushions1 turning up the collar of his heavy overcoat4 ,there was a young lady in the farther corner of the cab1 buried to her nose in a fur coat4 ,at intervals she shivered and pressed a fluffy muff against her face4 ,a glimmer from the sleet-smeared lamps fell across her knees4 ,down town flew the cab1 swaying around icy corners1 bumping over car tracks1 lurching1 rattling1 jouncing1 while its silent occupants1 huddled in separate corners1 brooded moodily at their respective windows4 ,snow blotted the glass1 melting and running down2 and over the watery panes yellow light from shop windows played fantastically1 distorting vision4 ,presently the young man pulled out his watch1 fumbled for a match box1 struck a light1 and groaned as he read the time4 ,at the sound of the match striking1 the young lady turned her head4 ,then1 as the bright flame illuminated the young man's face1 she sat bolt upright1 dropping the muff to her lap with a cry of dismay4 ,he looked up at her4 ,the match burned his fingers2 he dropped it and hurriedly lighted another2 and the flickering radiance brightened upon the face of a girl whom he had never before laid eyes on4 ,good heavens6 he said1 where's my sister8 ,the young lady was startled but resolute4 ,you have made a dreadful mistake1 she said2 you are in the wrong cab-- ,theme ,,xx4--,write a theme using one of the subjects below3-- #a4 ,a personal incident4 #b4 ,the advantages and disadvantages of recesses4 #c4 ,complete the story commenced in the selection just preceding4 7,make a note of the different ideas you may discuss4 ,which are important enough to become topic statements8 ,which may be grouped together in one paragraph8 ,in what order shall they occur8 ,after your theme is written1 consider the paragraphs4 ,does the definition apply to them8 ,are any of them too short or too long87 #dc4 ,reasons for ,studying ,paragraph ,structure4--,a knowledge of the way in which a paragraph is constructed will aid us in determining the thought it contains4 ,there are several methods of developing paragraphs1 and usually one of these is better suited than another to the expression of our thought4 ,attention given to the methods used by others will enable us both to understand better what we read1 and to employ more effectively in our own writing that kind of paragraph which best expresses our thought4 ,hence we shall give attention to the more common forms of paragraph development4 #dd4 ,development by ,giving ,specific ,instances4--,if you hear a general statement1 such as1 ,dogs are useful animals1 you naturally think at once of some of the ways in which they are useful1 or of some particular occasion on which a dog was of use4 ,if a friend should say1 ,my dog1 ,fido1 knows many amusing tricks1 you would expect the friend to tell you some of them4 ,a large part of our thinking consists of furnishing specific instances to illustrate general ideas which arise4 ,since the language we use is but the expression of the thoughts we have1 it happens that many of our paragraphs are made up of general statements and the specific instances used to illustrate these statements4 ,when the topic sentence is a general statement1 we naturally seek to supply specific instances1 and the writer will most readily make his meaning clear by furnishing such illustrations4 ,either one or many instances may be used4 ,the object is to explain the topic statement or to prove its truth1 and a good writer will use that number of instances which best accomplishes his purpose4 ,in the following selection notice how the topic statement1 set forth and repeated in the first part of the paragraph1 is illustrated in the last part by means of several specific instances3-- ,nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one does not mind his business4 ,when a terrible accident occurs1 the first cry is that the means of prevention were not sufficient4 ,everybody declares we must have a new patent fire escape1 an automatic engine switch1 or a high-proof non-combustible sort of lamp oil4 ,but a little investigation will usually show that all the contrivances were on hand and in good working order2 the real trouble was that somebody didn't mind his business2 he didn't obey orders2 he thought he knew a better way than the way he was told2 he said1 ,just this once ,i'll take the risk1 and in so doing1 he made other people take the risk too2 and the risk was too great4 ,at ,toronto1 ,canada1 not long ago1 a conductor1 against orders1 ran his train on a certain siding1 which resulted in the death of thirty or forty people4 ,the engineer of a mill1 at ,rochester1 ,n4,y41 thought the engine would stand a higher pressure than the safety valve indicated1 so he tied a few bricks to the valve to hold it down2 result--four workmen killed1 a number wounded1 and a mill blown to pieces4 ,the ,city of ,columbus1 an iron vessel fitted out with all the means of preservation and escape in use on shipboard1 was wrecked on the best-known portion of the ,atlantic coast1 on a moonlight night1 at the cost of one hundred lives1 because the officer in command took it into his head to save a few ship-lengths in distance by hugging the shore1 in direct disobedience to the captain's parting orders4 ,the best-ventilated mine in ,colorado was turned into a death trap for half a hundred miners because one of the number entered with a lighted lamp the gallery he had been warned against4 ,nobody survived to explain the explosion of the dynamite-cartridge factory in ,pennsylvania1 but as that type of disaster almost always is due to heedlessness1 it is probable that this instance is not an exception to the rule4 --,wolstan ,dixey3 ,mind ,your ,business4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,which sentences make the general statements1 and which furnish specific instances1 in the following paragraphs8 ,my contemplations were often interrupted by strangers who came down from ,forsyth's to take their first view of the falls4 ,a short1 ruddy1 middle-aged gentleman1 fresh from ,old ,england1 peeped over the rock1 and evinced his approbation by a broad grin4 ,his spouse1 a very robust lady1 afforded a sweet example of maternal solicitude1 being so intent on the safety of her little boy that she did not even glance at ,niagara4 ,as for the child1 he gave himself wholly to the enjoyment of a stick of candy4 ,another traveler1 a native ,american1 and no rare character among us1 produced a volume of ,captain ,hall's tour1 and labored earnestly to adjust ,niagara to the captain's description1 departing1 at last1 without one new idea or sensation of his own4 ,the next comer was provided1 not with a printed book1 but with a blank sheet of foolscap1 from top to bottom of which1 by means of an ever pointed pencil1 the cataract was made to thunder4 ,in a little talk which we had together1 he awarded his approbation to the general view1 but censured the position of ,goat ,island1 observing that it should have been thrown farther to the right1 so as to widen the ,american falls1 and contract those of the ,horseshoe4 ,next appeared two traders of ,michigan1 who declared that1 upon the whole1 the sight was worth looking at2 there certainly was an immense water power here2 but that1 after all1 they would go twice as far to see the noble stone works of ,lockport1 where the ,grand ,canal is locked down a descent of sixty feet4 ,they were succeeded by a young fellow1 in a homespun cotton dress1 with a staff in his hand1 and a pack over his shoulders4 ,he advanced close to the edge of the rock1 where his attention1 at first wavering among the different components of the scene1 finally became fixed in the angle of the ,horseshoe falls1 which is1 indeed1 the central point of interest4 ,his whole soul seemed to go forth and be transported thither1 till the staff slipped from his relaxed grasp1 and falling down--down-- down--struck upon the fragment of the ,table ,rock4 --,hawthorne3 ,my ,visit to ,niagara4 ,no wonder he learned ,english quickly1 for he was ever on the alert--no strange word escaped him1 no unusual term4 ,he would say it over and over till he met a friend1 and then demand its meaning4 ,one day he came to me with a very troubled face4 ,madame1 he said1 please tell me why shall a man1 like me1 like any man1 be a 'bluenose'8 ,a what8 ,i asked4 ,a 'bluenose4' ,so he was called in the restaurant1 but he seemed not offended about it4 ,i have looked in my books2 ,i can't find any disease of that name4 ,with ill-suppressed laughter ,i asked1 ,do you know ,nova ,scotia and ,newfoundland8 ,i hear the laugh in your voice1 he said2 then added1 ,yes1 ,i know both these places4 ,they are very cold and foggy and wet1 ,i explained4 ,but with brightening eyes he caught up the sentence and continued3 ,and the people have blue noses1 eh8 ,ha6 ha6 ,excuse me1 then1 but is a milksop a man from some state1 or some country1 too8 ,at tea some one used the word claptrap4 ,what's that8 quickly demanded the student in our midst4 ',claptrap'--'clap' is so 7he struck his hands together72 'trap' is for rats--what is1 then1 'claptrap'8 ,it is a vulgar or unworthy bid for applause1 ,i explained4 ,bah6 he contemptuously exclaimed4 ,i know him1--that cheap actor who plays at the gallery4 ,he is1 then1 in ,english a 'clap-trapper1' is he not8 ,it was hardly possible to meet him without having a word or a term offered thus for explanation4 --,clara ,morris3 ,alessandro ,salvini 7,mc,clure's74 ,b4 ,write six sentences which might be developed into paragraphs by giving specific instances4 ,theme ,,xxi4--,write a paragraph by furnishing specific instances for one of the following topic statements3-- #a4 ,nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one does not mind his business4 #b4 ,it requires a man of courage and perseverance to become a pioneer4 #c4 ,even the wisest teacher does not always punish the boy who is most at fault4 #d4 ,it is impossible to teach a dog many amusing tricks4 #e4 ,even so stupid a creature as a chicken may sometimes exhibit much intelligence4 #f4 ,carelessness often leads into difficulty4 #g4 ,our school clock must see many interesting things4 #h4 ,our first impressions are not always our best ones4 #i4 ,i am a very busy lead pencil1 for my duties are numerous4 #aj4 ,dickens's characters are taken from the lower classes of people4 #aa4 ,some portions of the book ,i am reading are very interesting4 7,do your specific instances really illustrate the topic statement8 ,have you said what you intended to say8 ,can you omit any words or sentences8 ,have you used and or got unnecessarily874 #de4 ,development by ,giving ,details4--,many general statements lead to a desire to know the details1 and the writer may make his idea clearer by giving them4 ,the statement1 ,the wedding ceremony was impressive1 at once arouses a desire to know the details4 ,if a friend should say1 ,i enjoyed my trip to the city1 we wish him to relate that which pleased him4 ,these details assist us in understanding the topic statement1 and increase our interest in it4 ,notice in the paragraphs below how much is added to our understanding of the topic statement by the sentences that give the details3-- #a4 ,i left my garden for a week1 just at the close of a dry spell4 ,a season of rain immediately set in1 and when ,i returned the transformation was wonderful4 ,in one week every vegetable had fairly jumped forward4 ,the tomatoes1 which ,i left slender plants1 eaten of bugs and debating whether they would go backward or forward1 had become stout and lusty1 with thick stems and dark leaves1 and some of them had blossomed4 ,the corn waved like that which grows so rank out of the ,french-,english mixture at ,waterloo4 ,the squashes--,i will not speak of the squashes4 ,the most remarkable growth was the asparagus4 ,there was not a spear above ground when ,i went away2 and now it had sprung up1 and gone to seed1 and there were stalks higher than my head4 --,warner3 ,my ,summer in a ,garden4 #b4 ,the wedding ceremony was solemn and beautiful1 in the church on the estate4 ,at the door of the palace stood the mother of the bride1 to greet her return from the ceremony with the blessing1 ,may you always have bread and salt1 as she served her from a loaf of black bread1 with a salt cellar in the center1 as is the ,russian custom for prince and peasant4 ,just at this dramatic moment a courier dashed up with a telegram from the ,czar and ,czarina1 and their gifts for the bride1--a magnificent tiara and necklace of diamonds4 ,the other presents were already displayed in a magnificent room2 but we saw their splendor through the glass of locked cases1--a precaution surprising to an ,englishwoman4 ,the large swan of forcemeat was the only reminder of boyar customs at the rather ,parisian feast4 ,wine was served between the courses1 with a toast2 while guests in turn left their seats to express their sentiments to bride and groom1 who stood to receive them4 --,mary ,louise ,dunbar3 ,the ,household of a ,russian ,prince 7,atlantic ,monthly 74 ,theme ,,xxii4--,write a paragraph by giving details for one of the following topic statements3-- #a4 ,there were many interesting things on the farm where ,i spent my summer vacation4 #b4 ,the sounds heard in the forest at night are somewhat alarming to one who is not used to the language of the woods4 #c4 ,i am always much amused when the ,sewing ,circle meets at my mother's house4 #d4 ,good roads are of advantage to farmers in many ways4 #e4 ,a baseball game furnishes abundant opportunity to exercise good judgment4 #f4 ,i remember well the first time that ,i visited a large city4 #g4 ,i shall never forget my first attempt at milking a cow4 #h4 ,the haunted house is a square1 old-fashioned one of the colonial type4 #i4 ,a mouse suddenly entering the class room caused much disturbance4 #aj4 ,a freshman's trials are numerous4 7,do the details bear upon the main idea8 ,if the paragraph is long and rambling1 condense by omitting the least important parts4 ,by changing the order of the sentences1 can you improve the paragraph87 #df4 ,details ,related in ,time-,order4--,the experiences of daily life follow each other in time1 and when we read of a series of events we at once think of them as having occurred in a certain time-order4 ,to assist in establishing the correct time-order1 the writer should generally state the details of his story in the order in which they occurred4 ,the method of showing time relations for simultaneous events has been discussed in ,section #aa4 ,if the narrative is of considerable length1 it may be divided into paragraphs1 each dealing with some particular stage of its progress4 ,the time relations among the sentences within the paragraph and among the paragraphs themselves should be such that the reader may readily follow the thread of the story to its main point4 ,narrative paragraphs often do not have topic sentences4 ,in the following selection from ,black ,beauty notice how the time relations give unity of thought both to the paragraphs and to the whole selection3-- ,he hung my rein on one of the iron spikes1 and was soon hidden among the trees4 ,lizzie was standing quietly by the side of the road1 a few paces off1 with her back to me4 ,my young mistress was sitting easily1 with a loose rein1 humming a little song4 ,i listened to my rider's footsteps until he reached the house1 and heard him knock at the door4 ,there was a meadow on the opposite side of the road1 the gate of which stood open4 ,as ,i looked1 some cart horses and several young colts came trotting out in a very disorderly manner1 while a boy behind was cracking a great whip4 ,the colts were wild and frolicsome4 ,one of them bolted across the road and blundered up against ,lizzie4 ,whether it was the stupid colt or the loud cracking of the whip1 or both together1 ,i cannot say1 but she gave a violent kick and dashed off into a headlong gallop4 ,it was so sudden that ,lady ,anne was nearly unseated1 but she soon recovered herself4 ,i gave a long1 shrill neigh for help4 ,again and again ,i neighed1 pawing the ground impatiently1 and tossing my head to get the rein loose4 ,i had not long to wait4 ,blantyre came running to the gate4 ,he looked anxiously about1 and just caught sight of the flying figure now far away on the road4 ,in an instant he sprang to the saddle4 ,i needed no whip1 no spur1 for ,i was as eager as my rider4 ,he saw it2 and giving me a free rein1 and leaning a little forward1 we dashed after them4 ,for about a mile and a half the road ran straight1 then bent to the right2 after this it divided into two roads4 ,long before we came to the bend my mistress was out of sight4 ,which way had she turned8 ,a woman was standing at her garden gate1 shading her eyes with her hand1 and looking eagerly up the road4 ,scarcely drawing rein1 ,lord ,blantyre shouted1 ,which way8 ,to the right6 cried the woman1 pointing with her hand1 and away we went up the right-hand road4 ,for a moment we caught sight of ,lady ,anne2 another bend1 and she was hidden again4 ,several times we caught glimpses of the flying rider1 only to lose her again4 ,we scarcely seemed to gain ground upon her at all4 ,an old road mender was standing near a heap of stones1 his shovel dropped and his hands raised4 ,as we came near he made a sign to speak4 ,lord ,blantyre drew the rein a little4 ,to the common1 to the common1 sir6 ,she has turned off there4 ,i knew this common very well4 ,it was1 for the most part1 very uneven ground1 covered with heather and dark-green bushes1 with here and there a scrubby thorn tree4 ,there were also open spaces of fine1 short grass1 with ant-hills and mole turns everywhere--the worst place ,i ever knew for a headlong gallop4 ,we had just turned on to the common1 when we caught sight again of the green habit flying on before us4 ,my mistress's hat was gone1 and her long brown hair was streaming behind her4 ,her head and body were thrown back1 as if she were pulling with all her remaining strength1 and as if that strength were nearly exhausted4 ,it was clear that the roughness of the ground had very much lessened ,lizzie's speed1 and there seemed a chance that we might overtake her4 ,while we were on the highroad1 ,lord ,blantyre had given me my head2 but now1 with a light hand and a practiced eye1 he guided me over the ground in such a masterly manner that my pace was scarcely slackened1 and we gained on them every moment4 ,about halfway across the common a wide dike had recently been cut and the earth from the cutting cast up roughly on the other side4 ,surely this would stop them6 ,but no2 scarcely pausing1 ,lizzie took the leap1 stumbled among the rough clods1 and fell4 --,anne ,sewell3 ,black ,beauty4 ,theme ,,xxiii4--,write a brief narrative giving unity to the paragraphs by means of the time relations4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,an adventure on horseback4 #b4 ,a trip with the engineer4 #c4 ,a day on the river4 #d4 ,fido's mishaps4 #e4 ,an inquisitive crow4 #f4 ,the unfortunate letter carrier4 #g4 ,teaching a calf to drink4 #h4 ,the story of a silver dollar4 #i4 ,a narrow escape4 #aj4;,an afternoon at the circus4 #aa4;,a story accounting for the situation shown in the picture on page #ij4 7,do you need more than one paragraph8 ,if so1 is each a group of sentences treating of a single topic8 ,can the reader follow the thread of your story8 ,leave out details not essential to the main point47 #dg4 ,order of ,details ,determined by ,position in ,space4--,the order of presentation of details may be determined by the position that the details themselves occupy in space4 ,in description we wish both to give a correct general impression of the thing described1 and to make certain details clear4 ,the general impression should be given in the first sentence or two and the details should follow4 ,the effectiveness of the details will depend upon their order of presentation4 ,when one looks at a scene the eye passes from one object to another near it2 similarly when one is recalling the scene the image of one thing naturally recalls that of an adjoining one4 ,a skillful writer takes advantage of this habit of thinking1 and states the details in his description in the order in which we would naturally see them if we were actually looking at them4 ,by so doing he most easily presents to our minds the image he wishes to convey4 ,illustration ,in the following paragraphs notice that we get first an impression of the general appearance1 to which we are enabled to add new details as the description proceeds4 ,the companion of the church dignitary was a man past forty1 thin1 strong1 tall1 and muscular2 an athletic figure1 which long fatigue and constant exercise seemed to have left none of the softer part of the human form1 having reduced the whole to brawn1 bones1 and sinews1 which had sustained a thousand toils1 and were ready to dare a thousand more4 ,his head was covered with a scarlet cap1 faced with fur1 of that kind which the ,french call mortier1 from its resemblance to the shape of an inverted mortar4 ,his countenance was therefore fully displayed1 and its expression was calculated to impress a degree of awe1 if not of fear1 upon strangers4 ,high features1 naturally strong and powerfully expressive1 had been burnt almost into negro blackness by constant exposure to the tropical sun1 and might1 in their ordinary state1 be said to slumber after the storm of passion had passed away2 but the projection of the veins of the forehead1 the readiness with which the upper lip and its thick black mustache quivered upon the slightest emotion1 plainly intimated that the tempest might be again and easily awakened4 ,his keen1 piercing1 dark eyes told in every glance a history of difficulties subdued and dangers dared1 and seemed to challenge opposition to his wishes1 for the pleasure of sweeping it from his road by a determined exertion of courage and of will2 a deep scar on his brow gave additional sternness to his countenance and a sinister expression to one of his eyes1 which had been slightly injured on the same occasion1 and of which the vision1 though perfect1 was in a slight and partial degree distorted4 ,the upper dress of this personage resembled that of his companion in shape1 being a long monastic mantle2 but the color1 being scarlet1 showed that he did not belong to any of the four regular orders of monks4 ,on the right shoulder of the mantle there was cut1 in white cloth1 a cross of a peculiar form4 ,this upper robe concealed what at first view seemed rather inconsistent with its form1 a shirt1 namely1 of linked mail1 with sleeves and gloves of the same1 curiously plaited and interwoven1 as flexible to the body as those which are now wrought in the stocking loom out of less obdurate materials4 ,the fore part of his thighs1 where the folds of his mantle permitted them to be seen1 were also covered with linked mail2 the knees and feet were defended by splints1 or thin plates of steel1 ingeniously jointed upon each other2 and mail hose1 reaching from the ankle to the knee1 effectually protected the legs1 and completed the rider's defensive armor4 ,in his girdle he wore a long and double-edged dagger1 which was the only offensive weapon about his person4 ,he rode1 not a mule1 like his companion1 but a strong hackney for the road1 to save his gallant war horse1 which a squire led behind1 fully accoutered for battle1 with a chamfron or plaited headpiece upon his head1 having a short spike projecting from the front4 ,on one side of the saddle hung a short battle-ax1 richly inlaid with ,damascene carving2 on the other the rider's plumed headpiece and hood of mail1 with a long two-handed sword1 used by the chivalry of the period4 ,a second squire held aloft his master's lance1 from the extremity of which fluttered a small banderole1 or streamer1 bearing a cross of the same form with that embroidered upon his cloak4 ,he also carried his small triangular shield1 broad enough at the top to protect the breast1 and from thence diminishing to a point4 ,it was covered with a scarlet cloth1 which prevented the device from being seen4 --,scott3 ,ivanhoe4 ,notice also how the description proceeds in an orderly way from one thing to another1 placing together in the description those which occur together in the person described4 ,just as we turn our eyes naturally from one thing to another near it in space1 so in a paragraph should our attention be called from one thing to that which naturally accompanies it4 ,if the first sentence describes a man's eyes1 the second his feet1 and a third his forehead1 our mental image is likely to become confused4 ,if a description covers several paragraphs1 each may be given a unity by placing in it those things which are associated in space4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,if you were to write three paragraphs describing a man1 which of the following details should be included in each paragraph8 7a7 eyes1 7b7 shoes1 7c7 size1 7d7 complexion1 7e7 general appearance1 7f7 hair1 7g7 carriage1 7h7 trousers17i7 mouth1 7j7 coat1 7k7 nose4 ,b4 ,make a list of the details which might be mentioned in describing the outside of a church4 ,arrange them in appropriate groups4 ,c4 ,in the following paragraphs which sentences give the general outline and which give details8 ,are the details arranged with reference to their position in space8 ,can the paragraph be improved by rearranging them8 #a4 ,we came finally to a brook more wild and mysterious than the others4 ,there were a half dozen stepping-stones between the path we were on and the place where it began again on the opposite side4 ,after a few missteps and much laughter we were landed at last1 but several of the party had wet feet to remember the experience by4 ,we found ourselves in a space that had once been a clearing4 ,a tumbledown chimney overgrown with brambles and vines told of an abandoned hearthstone4 ,the blackened remnants of many a picnic camp fire strewed the ground4 ,a slight turn brought us to the spot where the ,indian ,spring welled out of the hillside4 ,the setting was all that we could have hoped for1--great moss-grown rocks wet and slippery1 deep shade which almost made us doubt the existence of the hot ,august sunshine at the edge of the forest1 cool water dripping and tinkling4 ,a half-dozen great trees had been so undermined by the action of the water long ago that they had tumbled headlong into the stream bed4 ,there they lay1 heads down1 crisscross--one completely spanning the brook just below the spring--their tangled roots like great dragons twisting and thrusting at the shadows4 ,the water trickled slowly over the smooth rocky bottom as if reluctant to leave a spot enchanted4 ,a few yards below1 the overflow from ,indian ,spring joined the main stream1 and their waters mingled in a pretty little cataract4 ,we went below and looked back at it4 ,how it wrinkled and paused over the level spaces1 played with the bubbles in the eddies1 and ran laughing and turning somersaults wherever the ledges were abrupt4 --,mary ,rodgers ,miller3 ,the ,brook ,book4 7,copyright1 #aijb1 by ,doubleday1 ,page ,co47 #b4 ,rowena was tall in stature1 yet not so much so as to attract observation on account of superior height4 ,her complexion was exquisitely fair1 but the noble cast of her head and features prevented the insipidity which sometimes attaches to fair beauties4 ,her clear blue eyes1 which sat enshrined beneath a graceful eyebrow of brown1 sufficiently marked to give expression to the forehead1 seemed capable to kindle as well as to melt1 to command as well as to beseech4 ,her profuse hair1 of a color betwixt brown and flaxen1 was arranged in a fanciful and graceful manner in numerous ringlets1 to form which art had probably been aided by nature4 ,these locks were braided with gems1 and being worn at full length1 intimated the noble birth and free-born condition of the maiden4 ,a golden chain1 to which was attached a small reliquary of the same metal1 hung around her neck4 ,she wore bracelets on her arms1 which were bare4 ,her dress was an under gown and kirtle of pale sea-green silk1 over which hung a long loose robe1 which reached to the ground1 having very wide sleeves1 which came down1 however1 very little below the elbow4 ,this robe was crimson1 and manufactured out of the very finest wool4 ,a veil of silk1 interwoven with gold1 was attached to the upper part of it1 which could be1 at the wearer's pleasure1 either drawn over the face and bosom after the ,spanish fashion1 or disposed as a sort of drapery round the shoulders4 --,scott3 ,ivanhoe4 ,theme ,,xxiv4--,write a paragraph and arrange the details with reference to their association in space4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,ichabod ,crane4 #b4 ,rip ,van ,winkle4 #c4 ,the man who lives near us4 #d4 ,a minister ,i met yesterday4 #e4 ,our family doctor4 #f4 ,the gymnasium4 #g4 ,a fire engine4 #h4 ,the old church4 #i4 ,the shoe factory4 #aj4 ,some character in the book you are reading4 7,which sentence gives the general impression and which sentences give the details8 ,are the details arranged with reference to their real space order8 ,should others be added8 ,can any be omitted8 ,will the reader form the mental image you wish him to form87 #dh4 ,development by ,comparison4--,in ,section #bi we found that comparison1 whether literal or figurative1 aided us in forming mental images of objects4 ,in a similar way events and general principles may be explained by making suitable comparisons4 ,we are continually comparing one thing with another4 ,every idea tends to recall other ideas that are similar to it or in contrast with it4 ,when an unfamiliar idea is presented to us we at once seek to associate it with similar ideas already known to us4 ,a writer1 therefore1 will make his meaning clear by furnishing1 the desired comparisons4 ,if these are familiar to us1 they enable us to understand the new ideas presented4 ,even when both ideas in the comparison are unfamiliar1 each may gain in clearness by comparison with the other4 ,in comparing two objects1 events1 or principles we may point out that they are not alike in certain respects4 ,a comparison that thus emphasizes differences1 rather than likenesses1 becomes a contrast4 ,the contrast may be given in a single sentence or in a single paragraph1 but often a paragraph or more may be required for each of the two ideas contrasted4 ,,exercise ,notice how comparisons and contrasts are used in the following paragraphs3-- #a4 ,niagara is the largest cataract in the world1 while ,yosemite is the highest2 it is the volume that impresses you at ,niagara1 and it is the height of ,yosemite and the grand surroundings that make its beauty4 ,niagara is as wide as ,yosemite is high1 and if it had no more water than ,yosemite has1 it would not be of much consequence4 ,the sound of the two falls is quite different3 ,niagara makes a steady roar1 deep and strong1 though not oppressive1 while ,yosemite is a crash and rattle1 owing to the force of the water as it strikes the solid rock after its immense leap4 #b4 ,it is not only in appearance that ,london and ,new ,york differ widely4 ,they also speak with different accents1 for cities have distinctive accents as well as people4 ,tennyson wrote about streaming ,london's central roar2 the roar is a gentle hum compared with the din which tingles the ears of visitors to ,new ,york4 ,the accent of ,new ,york is harsh1 grating1 jarring4 ,the rattle of the elevated railroad1 the whir of the cable cars1 the ringing of electric-car bells1 the rumble of vehicles over the hard stones1 the roar of the traffic as it rechoes through the narrow canyons of down-town streets1 produce an appalling combination of discords4 ,the streets of ,new ,york are not more crowded than those of ,london1 but the noise in ,london is subdued4 ,it is more regular1 less jarring and piercing4 ,the muffled sounds in ,london are due partly to the wooden and asphalt pavements1 which deaden the sounds4 ,london must be soothing to the ,new ,yorker1 as the noise of ,new ,york is at first disconcerting to the ,londoner4--,outlook4 #c4 ,now their separate characters are briefly these4 ,the man's power is active1 progressive1 defensive4 ,he is eminently the doer1 the creator1 the discoverer1 the defender4 ,his intellect is for speculation and invention2 his energy for adventure1 for war1 and for conquest wherever war is just1 wherever conquest necessary4 ,but the woman's power is for rule1 not for battle1 and her intellect is not for invention or creation1 but for sweet ordering1 arrangement1 and decision4 ,she sees the qualities of things1 their claims1 and their places4 --,ruskin3 ,sesame and ,lilies4 ,theme ,,xxv4--,write a paragraph using comparison or contrast4 ,suggested topics3-- #a4 ,the school1 a beehive4 #b4 ,the body1 a steam engine4 #c4 ,two generals about whom you have read4 #d4 ,girls1 boys4 #e4 ,two of your studies4 #f4 ,graded school work1 high school work4 #g4 ,animal life1 plant life4 #h4 ,two of your classmates4 7,have you used comparison or contrast8 ,have you introduced any of the other methods of development8 ,have you developed the paragraph so that the reader will understand fully your topic statement8 ,omit sentences not really needed47 #di4 ,development by ,stating ,cause and ,effect4--,we are better satisfied with our understanding of a thing if we know the causes which have produced it or the effects which follow it4 ,likewise we feel that another has mastered the topic statement of a paragraph if he can answer the question1 ,why is this so8 or1 ,what will result from this8 ,when either is stated1 we naturally begin to think about the other4 ,the idea of a topic statement may1 therefore1 be satisfactorily developed by stating its causes or its effects4 ,a cause may be stated and the effects given or the effects may be made the topic statement for which we account by giving its causes4 ,the importance of the relation of cause and effect to scientific study is discussed in the following paragraph from ,mill3-- ,the relation of cause and effect is the fundamental law of nature4 ,there is no recorded instance of an effect appearing without a previous cause1 or of a cause acting without producing its full effect4 ,every change in nature is the effect of some previous change and the cause of some change to follow2 just as the movement of each carriage near the middle of a long train is a result of the movement of the one in front and a precursor of the movement of the one behind4 ,facts or effects are to be seen everywhere1 but causes have usually to be sought for4 ,it is the function of science or organized knowledge to observe all effects1 or phenomena1 and to seek for their causes4 ,this twofold purpose gives richness and dignity to science4 ,the observation and classifying of facts soon become wearisome to all but the specialist actually engaged in the work4 ,but when reasons are assigned1 and classification explained1 when the number of causes is reduced and the effects begin to crystallize into essential and clearly related parts of one whole1 every intelligent student finds interest1 and many1 more fortunate1 even fascination in the study4 --,mill3 ,the ,realm of ,nature4 7,copyright1 #ahib1 by ,charles ,scribner's ,sons47 ,,exercises ,a4 ,in your reading1 notice how often the effects are indicated by the use of some one of the following expressions3 as a result1 accordingly1 consequently1 for1 hence1 so1 so that1 thus4 ,b4 ,which sentences state causes and which state effects in the following paragraphs8 #a4 ,the power of water to dissolve most minerals increases with its temperature and the amount of gases it contains4 ,percolating water at great depths1 therefore1 generally dissolves more mineral matter than it can hold in solution when it reaches the surface1 where it cools1 and1 being relieved of pressure1 much of its carbonic acid gas escapes to the atmosphere or is absorbed by aquatic plants or mosses4 ,hence1 deep-seated springs are usually surrounded by a deposit of the minerals with which the water is impregnated4 ,sometimes this deposit may even form large hills2 sometimes it forms a mound around the spring1 over the sides of which the water falls1 while the spray1 evaporating from surrounding objects1 leaves them also incrusted with a mineral deposit4 ,percolating water evaporating on the sides and roof of limestone caverns1 leaves the walls incrusted with carbonate of lime in beautiful masses of crystals4 ,water slowly evaporating as it drips from the roof of caverns to the floor beneath leaves a deposit on both places1 which gradually grows downward from the roof as a stalactite1 and upward from the floor as a stalagmite1 until these meet and form one continuous column of stone4 --,hinman3 ,eclectic ,physical ,geography4 #b4 ,the frequent use of cigars or cigarettes by the young seriously affects the quality of the blood4 ,the red blood corpuscles are not fully developed and charged with their normal supply of life-giving oxygen4 ,this causes paleness of the skin1 often noticed in the face of the young smoker4 ,palpitation of the heart is also a common result1 followed by permanent weakness1 so that the whole system is enfeebled1 and mental vigor is impaired as well as physical strength4 ,observant teachers can usually tell which of the boys under their care are addicted to smoking1 simply by the comparative inferiority of their appearance1 and by their intellectual and bodily indolence and feebleness4 ,after full maturity is attained the evil effects of commencing the use of tobacco are less apparent2 but competent physicians assert that it cannot be safely used by those under the age of forty4 --,macy-,norris3 ,physiology for ,high ,schools4 #c4 ,in many other ways1 too1 the ,norman ,conquest affected ,england4 ,for example1 before long all the best places in the ,church were filled with foreigners4 ,but most of the new bishops and abbots were far superior in morals and education to the ,englishmen whom they succeeded4 ,they were also devoted to the ,pope of ,rome1 and soon made the ,english ,national ,church a part of the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,but ,william1 while willing to bow to the ,pope as his chief in religious matters1 refused to give way to him in things which concerned only this world4 ,no former ,english king had done that1 he knew1 and no more would he4 ,this union with the ,roman ,catholic ,church was of the greatest benefit to ,england1 as it brought her once more into connection with the educated men of ,europe4 ,indeed1 ,lanfranc1 the ,conqueror's ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 was one of the best and wisest men of his day4 --,higginson and ,channing3 ,english ,history for ,american ,readers4 ,theme ,,xxvi4--,develop one of the following topic statements into paragraphs by stating causes or effects3-- #a4 ,a government which had no soldiers to call upon in an emergency would not last long4 #b4 ,one of the first needs of a new country is roads4 #c4 ,the number of people receiving public support is smaller in this country than in ,europe4 #d4 ,an efficient postal system is a great aid to civilization4 #e4 ,a straight stream is an impossibility in nature4 #f4 ,mountain ranges have great influence upon climate4 #g4 ,the ,united ,states holds first place as a manufacturing nation4 #h4 ,there are many swift rivers in ,new ,england4 #i4 ,towns or cities are located at the mouths of navigable rivers4 7,which sentences state causes and which state effects8 ,would the effects which you have stated really follow the given causes87 #ej4 ,development by ,repetition4--,the repetition of a thought in different form will often make plain that which we do not at first understand4 ,this is especially true if the repetitions are accompanied by new comparisons4 ,in every school the teacher makes daily use of repetition in her efforts to explain to the pupils that which they do not understand4 ,in a similar way a writer makes use of this tendency of ours1 and develops the idea of the topic sentence by repetition4 ,each sentence should1 however1 do more than merely repeat4 ,it should add something to the central idea1 making this idea clearer1 more definite1 or more emphatic4 ,if repetition is excessive and purposeless1 it becomes a fault4 ,repetition may extend through the whole paragraph1 or it may be used to explain any sentence or any part of a sentence4 ,it may tell what the thing is or what it is not1 and in effect becomes a definition setting limits to the original idea4 ,,exercise ,notice how the idea in the topic statement of each of the following paragraphs is repeated in those which follow3-- #a4 ,no man ever made a complete new system of law and gave it to a people4 ,no monarch1 however absolute or powerful1 ever had the power to change the habits of a people to that extent4 ,revolution generally means1 not a change of law1 but merely a change of government officials2 even when it is a change from monarchy to democracy4 ,our ,revolution made practically no changes in the criminal and civil laws of the colonies4 --,clark3 ,the ,government4 #b4 ,people talk of liberty as if it meant the liberty to do just what a man likes4 ,i call that man free who fears doing wrong1 but fears nothing else4 ,i call that man free who has learned the most blessed of all truths1--that liberty consists in obedience to the power1 and to the will1 and to the law that his higher soul reverences and approves4 ,he is not free because he does what he likes2 but he is free because he does what he ought1 and there is no protest in his soul against the doing4 --,frederick ,william ,robertson4 #c4 ,this dense forest was to the ,indians a home in which they had lived from childhood1 and where they were as much at ease as a farmer on his own acres4 ,to their keen eyes1 trained for generations to more than a wild beast's watchfulness1 the wilderness was an open book4 ,nothing at rest or in motion escaped them4 ,they had begun to track game as soon as they could walk2 a scrape on a tree trunk1 a bruised leaf1 a faint indentation of the soil1 which no white man could see1 all told them a tale as plainly as if it had been shouted in their ears4 --,theodore ,roosevelt3 ,the ,winning of the ,west4 #d4 ,public enterprises1 whether conducted by the municipality or committed to the public service corporation1 exist to render public services4 ,streets are public highways4 ,they exist for the people's use4 ,nothing should be placed in them unless required to facilitate their use by or for the people4 ,only the general need of water1 gas1 electricity1 and transportation justifies the placing of pipes and wires and tracks in the streets4 ,the public need is the sole test and measure of such occupation4 ,to look upon the streets as a source of private gain1 or even municipal revenue1 except as incidents of their public use1 is to disregard their public character4 ,adequate service at the lowest practicable rates1 not gain or revenue1 is the test4 ,the question is1 not how much the public service corporation may gain1 but what can be saved to the people by its employment4 --,edwin ,burrett ,smith3 ,the ,next ,step in ,municipal ,reform 7,atlantic ,monthly74 ,theme ,,xxvii4--,develop one of the following topic statements into a paragraph1 using the method1 of repetition as far as possible3-- #a4 ,it is difficult to become angry with one who is always good-natured4 #b4 ,it is gloomy in the woods on a rainy day4 #c4 ,the government is always in need of honest men4 #d4 ,rural free delivery of mail will have a great effect on country life4 #e4 ,not every boy in school uses his time to the best advantage4 #f4 ,haste is waste4 #g4 ,regular exercise is one of the essentials of good health4 7,have the repetitions really made the idea of the topic sentence clearer or more emphatic or more definite8 ,what other methods of development have you used87 #ea4 ,development by a ,combination of ,methods4--,a paragraph should have unity of thought1 and1 so long as this unity of thought is kept1 it does not matter what methods of development are used4 ,a dozen paragraphs taken at random will show that combinations are very frequent4 ,often it will be difficult to determine just how a paragraph has been developed4 ,in general1 however1 it may be said that an indiscriminate mixture of methods is confusing and interferes with unity of thought4 ,if more than one is used1 it requires skillful handling to maintain such a relation between them that both contribute to the clear and emphatic statement of the main thought4 ,the paragraph from ,dryer1 page #gd1 shows a combination of cause and effect with specific illustrations2 that from ,wolstan ,dixey1 page #ha1 shows a combination of repetition with specific instances4 ,,exercises ,what methods of paragraph development1 or what combinations of methods1 are used in the following selections8 #a4 ,i believe the first test of a truly great man is his humility4 ,i do not mean1 by humility1 doubt of his power1 or hesitation in speaking of his opinions2 but a right understanding of the relation between what he can do and say and the rest of the world's sayings and doings4 ,all great men not only know their business1 but usually know that they know it2 and are not only right in their main opinions1 but they usually know that they are right in them2 only they do not think much of themselves on that account4 ,arnolfo knows he can build a good dome at ,florence2 ,albert ,drer writes calmly to one who had found fault with his work1 ,it cannot be better done2 ,sir ,isaac ,newton knows that he has worked out a problem or two that would have puzzled anybody else2 only they do not expect their fellow-men therefore to fall down and worship them2 they have a curious undersense of powerlessness1 feeling that the greatness is not in them1 but through them2 that they could not do or be anything else than ,god made them4 ,and they see something divine and ,god-made in every other man they meet1 and are endlessly1 foolishly1 and incredibly merciful4 --,ruskin4 #b4 ,the first thing to be noted about the dress of the ,romans is that its prevalent material was always woolen4 ,sheep raising for wool was practiced among them on an extensive scale1 from the earliest historic times1 and the choice breeds of that animal1 originally imported from ,greece or ,asia ,minor1 took so kindly to the soil and climate of ,italy that home-grown wool came even to be preferred to the foreign for fineness and softness of quality4 ,foreign wools were1 however1 always imported more or less1 partly because the supply of native wools seems never to have been quite sufficient1 partly because the natural colors of wools from different parts varied so considerably as to render the art of the dyer to some extent unnecessary4 ,thus1 the wools of ,canusium were brown or reddish1 those of ,pollentia in ,liguria were black1 those from the ,spanish ,baetica1 which comprised ,andalusia and a part of ,granada1 had either a golden brown or a grayish hue2 the wools of ,asia were almost red2 and there was a ,grecian fleece1 called the crow colored1 of which the natural tint was a peculiarly deep and brilliant black4 --,preston and ,dodge3 ',the ,private ,life of the ,romans4 #c4 ,art has done everything for ,munich4 ,it lies on a large flat plain sixteen hundred feet above the sea and continually exposed to the cold winds from the ,alps4 ,at the beginning of the present century it was but a third-rate city1 and was rarely visited by foreigners2 since that time its population and limits have been doubled1 and magnificent edifices in every style of architecture erected1 rendering it scarcely secondary in this respect to any capital in ,europe4 ,every art that wealth or taste could devise seems to have been spent in its decoration4 ,broad1 spacious streets and squares have been laid out2 churches1 halls1 and colleges erected1 and schools of painting and sculpture established which drew artists from all parts of the world4 --,taylor3 ,views ,afoot4 #d4 ,in all excursions to the woods or to the shore the student of ornithology has an advantage over his companions4 ,he has one more1 avenue of delight4 ,he1 indeed1 kills two birds with one stone and sometimes three4 ,if others wander1 he can never get out of his way4 ,his game is everywhere4 ,the cawing of a crow makes him feel at home1 while a new note or a new song drowns all care4 ,audubon1 on the desolate coast of ,labrador1 is happier than any king ever was2 and on shipboard is nearly cured of his seasickness when a new gull appears in sight4 --,burroughs3 ,wake ,robin4 ,theme ,,xxviii4--,write a paragraph1 using any method or combination of methods which best suits your thought4 ,use any of the subjects hitherto suggested that you have not already used4 7,is every sentence related to the topic statement so that your paragraph possesses unity8 ,what methods of development have you used87 #eb4 ,the ,topical ,recitation4--,in conducting a recitation the teacher may ask direct questions about each part of a paragraph or she may ask a pupil to discuss some topic4 ,such a topical recitation should be an exercise in clear thinking rather than in word memory1 and in order to prepare for it1 the pupil should have made a careful analysis of the thought in each paragraph similar to that discussed on page #gd4 ,when this analysis has been made he will have clearly in mind the topic statement and the way it has been developed1 and will be able to distinguish the essential from the non-essential elements4 ,a topical recitation demands that the pupil know the main idea and be able to develop it in one of the following methods1 or by a combination of them3 7#a7 by giving specific instances1 7#b7 by giving details1 7#c7 by giving comparisons or contrasts1 7#d7 by giving causes or effects1 and 7#e7 by repetition4 ,thoughts so mastered are our own4 ,we understand them and believe them2 and consequently we can explain them1 or describe them1 or prove them to others4 ,we can furnish details or instances1 originate comparisons1 or state causes and effects4 ,when ideas gained from language have thus become our own1 we do not need to remember the language in which they were expressed1 and not until then do they become proper material for composition purposes4 #ec4 ,outlining ,paragraphs4--,making an outline of a paragraph that we have read brings the thought clearly before our mind4 ,in a similar way we may make our own thoughts clear and definite by attempting to prepare in advance an outline of a paragraph that we are about to write4 ,arranging the material that we have in mind and deciding upon the order in which we shall present it1 will both help us to understand the thought ourselves1 and enable us to present it more effectively to others4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,prepare for recitation the following selection from ,newcomer's introduction to ,macaulay's ,milton and ,addison3-- ,there were two faculties of ,macaulay's mind that set his work far apart from other work in the same field1--the faculties of organization and illustration4 ,he saw things in their right relation and he knew how to make others see them thus4 ,if he was describing1 he never thrust minor details into the foreground4 ,if he was narrating1 he never got ahead of his story4 ,the importance of this is not sufficiently recognized4 ,many writers do not know what organization means4 ,they do not know that in all great and successful literary work it is nine tenths of the labor4 ,yet consider a moment4 ,history is a very complex thing3 divers events may be simultaneous in their occurrence2 or one crisis may be slowly evolving from many causes in many places4 ,it is no light task to tell these things one after another and yet leave a unified impression1 to take up a dozen new threads in succession without tangling them and without losing the old ones1 and to lay them all down at the right moment and without confusion4 ,such is the narrator's task1 and it was at this task that ,macaulay proved himself a past master4 ,he could dispose of a number of trivial events in a single sentence4 ,thus1 for example1 runs his account of the dramatist ,wycherley's naval career3 ,he embarked1 was present at a battle1 and celebrated it1 on his return1 in a copy of verses too bad for the bellman4 ,on the other hand1 when it is a question of a great crisis1 like the impeachment of ,warren ,hastings1 he knew how to prepare for it with elaborate ceremony and to portray it in a scene of the highest dramatic power4 ,this faculty of organization shows itself in what we technically name structure2 and logical and rhetorical structure may be studied at their very best in his work4 ,his essays are perfect units1 made up of many parts1 systems within systems1 that play together without clog or friction4 ,you can take them apart like a watch and put them together again4 ,but try to rearrange the parts and the mechanism is spoiled4 ,each essay has its subdivisions1 which in turn are groups of paragraphs4 ,and each paragraph is a unit4 ,take the first paragraph of the essay on ,milton3 the word manuscript appears in the first sentence1 and it reappears in the last2 clearly the paragraph deals with a single very definite topic4 ,and so with all4 ,of course the unity manifests itself in a hundred ways1 but it is rarely wanting4 ,most frequently it takes the form of an expansion of a topic given in the first sentence1 or a preparation for a topic to be announced only in the last4 ,these initial and final sentences-- often in themselves both aphoristic and memorable--serve to mark with the utmost clearness the different stages in the progress of the essay4 ,illustration is of more incidental service1 but as used by ,macaulay becomes highly organic4 ,for his illustrations are not farfetched or laboriously worked out4 ,they seem to be of one piece with his story or his argument4 ,his mind was quick to detect resemblances and analogies4 ,he was ready with a comparison for everything1 sometimes with half a dozen4 ,for example1 ,addison's essays1 he has occasion to say1 were different every day of the week1 and yet1 to his mind1 each day like something--like ,horace1 like ,lucian1 like the ,tales of ,scheherezade4 ,he draws long comparisons between ,walpole and ,townshend1 between ,congreve and ,wycherley1 between ,essex and ,villiers1 between the fall of the ,carlovingians and the fall of the ,moguls4 ,he follows up a general statement with swarms of instances4 ,have historians been given to exaggerating the villainy of ,machiavelli8 ,macaulay can name you half a dozen who did so4 ,did the writers of ,charles's faction delight in making their opponents appear contemptible8 ,they have told us that ,pym broke down in a speech1 that ,ireton had his nose pulled by ,hollis1 that the ,earl of ,northumberland cudgeled ,henry ,marten1 that ,st4 ,john's manners were sullen1 that ,vane had an ugly face1 that ,cromwell had a red nose4 ,do men fail when they quit their own province for another8 ,newton failed thus2 ,bentley failed2 ,inigo ,jones failed2 ,wilkie failed4 ,in the same way he was ready with quotations4 ,he writes in one of his letters3 ,it is a dangerous thing for a man with a very strong memory to read very much4 ,i could give you three or four quotations this moment in support of that proposition2 but ,i will bring the vicious propensity under subjection1 if ,i can4 ,thus we see his mind doing instantly and involuntarily what other minds do with infinite pains1 bringing together all things that have a likeness or a common bearing4 ,it is precisely these talents that set ,macaulay among the simplest and clearest of writers1 and that accounts for much of his popularity4 ,people found that in taking up one of his articles they simply read on and on1 never puzzling over the meaning of a sentence1 getting the exact force of every statement1 and following the trend of thought with scarcely a mental effort4 ,and his natural gift of making things plain he took pains to support by various devices4 ,he constructed his sentences after the simplest normal fashion1 subject and verb and object1 sometimes inverting for emphasis1 but rarely complicating1 and always reducing expression to the barest terms4 ,he could write1 for example1 ,one advantage the chaplain had1 but it is impossible to conceive of his writing1 ,now1 amid all the discomforts and disadvantages with which the unfortunate chaplain was surrounded1 there was one thing which served to offset them1 and which1 if he chose to take the opportunity of enjoying it1 might well be regarded as a positive advantage4 ,one will search his pages in vain for loose1 trailing clauses and involved constructions4 ,his vocabulary was of the same simple nature4 ,he had a complete command of ordinary ,english and contented himself with that4 ,he rarely ventured beyond the most abridged dictionary4 ,an occasional technical term might be required1 but he was shy of the unfamiliar4 ,he would coin no words and he would use no archaisms4 ,foreign words1 when fairly naturalized1 he employed sparingly4 ,we shall have no disputes about diction1 he wrote to ,napier1 ,jeffrey's successor2 the ,english language is not so poor but that ,i may very well find in it the means of contenting both you and myself4 ,b4 ,recite upon some topic taken from your other lessons for the day4 ,let the class tell what method of development you have used4 ,c4 ,make a collection of well-written paragraphs illustrating each of the methods of development4 ,theme ,,xxix4--,write two paragraphs using the same topic statement1 but developing each by a different method4 ,suggested topic statements3-- #a4 ,the principal tools of government are buildings1 guns1 and money4 #b4 ,the civilized world was never so orderly as now4 #c4 ,law suits take time1 especially in cities2 sometimes they take years4 #d4 ,there is a difference between law and justice4 #e4 ,we cry for a multitude of reasons of surprising variety4 #f4 ,in the growth of a child nothing is more surprising than his ceaseless activity4 #g4 ,education for the children of a nation is a benefit to the whole nation4 7,have you said what you intended to say8 ,what methods of development have you used8 ,is the main thought of the two paragraphs the same even though they begin with the same sentence87 ,,summary #a4 ,language is 7#a7 a means of expressing ideas1 and 7#b7 a medium through which ideas are acquired4 #b4 ,the acquisition of ideas by means of language requires3-- a4 ,that we know the meanings of words1 and so avoid forming incomplete images 7,section #bg7 and incomplete thoughts 7,section #cc74 b4 ,that we understand the relations in thought existing among words1 phrases1 clauses1 sentences1 and paragraphs 7,section #cb74 #c4 ,ideas acquired through language may be used for composition purposes-- a4 ,provided we form complete and accurate images and do not confuse the image with the language that suggested it 7,section #bh74 b4 ,provided we make the main thoughts so thoroughly our own that we can furnish details and instances1 originate comparisons1 or state causes and effects1 and thus become able to describe them or explain them1 or prove them to others 7,section #eb74 ,until both a and b as stated above are done1 ideas acquired through language are undesirable for composition purposes4 #d4 ,comparisons aid in the forming of correct images4 ,they may be literal or imaginative4 ,if imaginative1 they become figures of speech4 #e4 ,figures of speech4 7,complete list in the ,appendix47 a4 ,a simile is a direct comparison4 b4 ,a metaphor is an implied comparison4 c4 ,personification is a modified metaphor1 assigning human attributes to objects1 abstract ideas1 or the lower animals4 #f4 ,suggestions as to the use of figures of speech4 a4 ,never write for the purpose of using them4 b4 ,they should be appropriate to the subject4 c4 ,one of the two things compared must be familiar to the reader4 d4 ,avoid hackneyed figures4 e4 ,avoid long figures4 f4 ,avoid mixed metaphors4 #g4 ,choice of words4 a4 ,use words presumably familiar to the reader4 b4 ,use words that express your exact meaning4 ,do not confuse similar words4 e4 ,avoid the frequent use of the same word 7,section #ag74 #h4 ,ambiguity of thought must be avoided4 ,care must be exercised in the use of the forms which show relations in thought between sentences1 especially with pronouns and pronominal adjectives 7,section #cf74 #i4 ,a paragraph is a group of sentences related to each other and to one central idea4 #aj4 ,the topic statement of a paragraph is a brief comprehensive summary of the contents of the paragraph4 #aa4 ,methods of paragraph development4 ,a paragraph may be developed-- a4 ,by giving specific instances 7,section #dd74 b4 ,by giving details 7,section #de74 ,the order in which the details are told may be determined by-- 7#a7 ,the order of their occurrence in time 7,section #df74 7#b7 ,their position in space 7,section #dg74 c4 ,by comparison or contrast 7,section #dh74 d4 ,by stating cause and effect 7,section #di74 e4 ,by repetition 7,section #ej74 f4 ,by any suitable combination of the methods stated above4 #ab4 ,the topical recitation demands-- a4 ,that the pupil get the central idea of the paragraph and be able to make the topic statement4 b4 ,that he be able to determine the relative importance of the remaining ideas in the paragraph4 c4 ,that he know by which of the five methods named above the paragraph has been developed4 d4 ,that he be able to furnish details1 instances1 and comparisons of his own4 7,see ,sections #cg1 #ch1 #ci1 #eb1 #ec47 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,expression #ed4 ,kinds of ,composition4--,when considered with reference to the purpose in the mind of the writer1 there are two general classes of writing1--that which informs1 and that which entertains4 ,the language that we use should make our meaning clear1 arouse interest1 and give vividness4 ,writing that informs will lay greatest emphasis on clearness1 though it may at the same time be interesting and vivid4 ,we do not add to the value of an explanation by making it dull4 ,on the other hand1 writing that entertains1 though it must be clear1 will lay greater emphasis on interest and vividness4 ,that language is best which combines all three of these characteristics4 ,the writer's purpose will determine to which the emphasis shall be given4 ,composition is also divided into description1 narration1 exposition1 and argument 7including persuasion74 ,these are called forms of discourse4 ,it will be found that this division is also based upon the purpose for which the composition is written4 ,you have occasion to use each of these forms of discourse daily2 you describe1 you narrate1 you explain1 you argue1 you persuade4 ,you have used language for these purposes from your infancy1 and you are now studying composition in order to acquire facility and effectiveness in that use4 ,when this chapter is completed1 you will have considered each of the four forms of discourse in an elementary way4 ,a more extended treatment is given in later chapters4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,to which of the two general classes of composition would each of the following belong8 #a4 ,a business letter4 #b4 ,the story of a runaway4 #c4 ,a description of a lake written by a geologist4 #d4 ,a description of a lake written by a boy who was camping near it4 #e4 ,a letter to a friend describing a trip4 #f4 ,a text-book on algebra4 #g4 ,an application for a position as stenographer4 #h4 ,a recipe for making cake4 #i4 ,how ,i made a cake4 #aj4 ,how to make a kite4 #aa4 ,a political speech4 #ab4 ,a debate4 ,b4 ,could a description be written for the purpose of entertaining8 ,could the same object be described for the purpose of giving information8 ,c4 ,to which general class do narratives belong8 ,explanations8 ,arguments8 #ee4 ,discourse ,presupposes an ,audience4--,the object of composition is communication1 and communication is not concerned with one's self alone4 ,it always involves two1--the one who gives and the one who receives4 ,if its purpose is to inform1 it must inform somebody2 if to entertain1 it must entertain somebody4 ,to be sure1 discourse may be a pleasure to us1 because it is a means of self-expression1 but it is useful to us because it conveys ideas to that other somebody who hears or reads it4 ,we describe in order that another may picture that which we have experienced2 we narrate1 events for the entertainment of others2 we explain to others that which we understand2 and we argue in order to prove to some one the truth of a proposition or to persuade him to action4 ,thus all discourse1 to be useful1 demands an audience4 ,its effective use requires that the writer shall give quite as much attention to the way in which that reader will receive his ideas as he gives to the ideas themselves4 ,speaking or writing is1 therefore1 a double-ended process4 ,it springs from me1 it penetrates him2 and both of these ends need watching4 ,is what ,i say precisely what ,i mean8 ,that is an important question4 ,is what ,i say so shaped that it can readily be assimilated by him who hears8 ,this is a question of quite as great consequence and much more likely to be forgotten4444 ,as ,i write ,i must unceasingly study what is the line of least intellectual resistance along which my thought may enter the differently constituted mind2 and to that line ,i must subtly adjust1 without enfeebling my meaning4 ,will this combination of words or that make the meaning clear8 ,will this order of presentation facilitate swiftness of apprehension or will it clog the movement8,footnote3 ,professor ,george ,herbert ,palmer3 ,self-cultivation in ,english4 ,in the preceding chapters emphasis has been laid upon the care that a writer must give to saying exactly what he means4 ,this must never be neglected1 but we need to add to it a consideration of how best to adapt what we say to the interest and intelligence of our readers4 ,it will become clear in writing the following theme that the discussion of paragraph development in ,chapter ,,iii was in reality a discussion of methods of adapting our discourse to the mental habits of our readers4 ,theme ,,xxx4--,write a theme showing which one of the five methods of paragraph development proceeds most nearly in accordance with the way the mind usually acts4 7,this theme will furnish a review of the methods of paragraph development treated in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,if possible1 write your theme without consulting the chapter4 ,think it out for yourself4 ,after the theme has been written1 review paragraph development treated in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,can you improve your theme8 ,what methods of development have you used87 #ef4 ,selecting a ,subject4--,sometimes our theme subjects are chosen for us1 but usually we shall need to choose our own subjects4 ,what we should choose depends both upon ourselves and upon those for whom we write4 ,the elements which make a subject suitable for the reader will be considered later4 ,in so far as the writer is concerned1 two things determine the suitableness of a subject3-- ,first1 the writer's knowledge of the subject4 ,we cannot make ideas clear to others unless they are clear to us4 ,our information must be clearly and definitely our own before we can hope to present it effectively4 ,this is one of the advantages possessed by subjects arising from experience4 ,any subject about which we know little or nothing1 should be rejected4 ,we must not1 however1 reject a subject too soon4 ,when it is first thought of we may find that we have but few ideas about it1 but by thinking we may discover that our information is greater than it at first seemed4 ,we may be able to assign reasons or to give instances or to originate comparisons or to add details1 and by these processes to amplify our knowledge4 ,even if we find that we know but little about the subject from our own experience1 we may still be able to use it for a composition subject by getting our information from others4 ,we may from conversation or from reading gain ideas that we can make our own and consequently be able to write intelligently4 ,care must be taken that this reading up on a subject does not fill our minds with smatterings of ideas that we think we understand because we can remember the language in which they were expressed2 but reading1 supplemented by thinking1 may enable us to write well about a subject concerning which on first thought we seem to know but little4 ,second1 the writer's interest in the subject4 ,it will be found difficult for the writer to present vividly a subject in which he himself has no special interest4 ,enthusiasm is contagious1 and if the writer has a real interest in his subject1 he is likely to present his material in such a manner as to arouse interest in others4 ,in our earlier years we are more interested in the material presented by experience and imagination than in that presented by reading1 but as we grow older our interest in thoughts conveyed to us by language increases4 ,as we enlarge our knowledge of a subject by reading and by conversation1 so we are likely to increase our interest in that subject4 ,a boy may know but little about ,napoleon1 but the effort to inform himself may cause him to become greatly interested4 ,this interest will lead him to a further search for information about ,napoleon1 and will at the same time aid in making what he writes entertaining to others4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,about which of the following subjects do you now possess a sufficient knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph8 ,in which of them are you interested8 ,which would you need to read up about8 #a4 ,golf4 #b4 ,examinations4 #c4 ,warships4 #d4 ,wireless telegraphy4 #e4 ,radium4 #f4 ,tennis4 #g4 ,automobiles4 #h4 ,picnics4 #i4 ,printing4 #aj4 ,bees4 #aa4 ,birds4 #ab4 ,pyrography4 #ac4 ,photography4 #ad4 ,beavers4 #ae4 ,making calls4 #af4 ,stamp collecting4 #ag4 ,the manufacture of tacks4 #ah4 ,the manufacture of cotton4 #ai4 ,the smelting of zinc4 #bj4 ,the silver-plating process4 ,b4 ,make a list of thirty things about which you know something4 ,c4 ,bring to class a list of five subjects in which you are interested4 ,d4 ,make a list of five subjects about which you now possess a sufficient knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph4 ,theme ,,xxxi4--,write a short theme3 ,select a suitable subject from the lists in the preceding exercise4 7,what method or methods of paragraph development have you used8 ,have your paragraphs unity of thought87 #eg4 ,subject ,adapted to ,reader4--,we may be interested in a subject and possess sufficient knowledge to enable us to treat it successfully1 but it may still be unsuitable because it is not adapted to the reader4 ,some knowledge of a subject and some interest in it are quite as necessary on the part of the reader as on that of the writer1 though in the beginning this knowledge and interest may be meager4 ,the possibility of developing both knowledge and interest must exist1 however1 or the writing will be a failure4 ,it would be difficult to make ,imperialism interesting to third grade pupils1 or ,kant's ,philosophy to high school pupils4 ,even if you know enough to write a valuable ,criticism of ,silas ,marner1 or a real ,review of the ,vicar of ,wakefield1 the work is time wasted if your readers do not have a breadth of knowledge sufficient to insure a vital and appreciative interest in the subject4 ,you must take care to select a subject that is of present1 vital interest to your readers4 #eh4 ,sources of ,subjects4--,thought goes everywhere1 and human interest touches everything4 ,the sources of subjects are therefore unlimited2 for anything about which we think and in which we are interested may become a suitable subject for a paragraph1 an essay1 or a book4 ,such subjects are everywhere--in what we see and do1 in what we think and feel1 in what we hear and read4 ,we relate to our parents what a neighbor said2 we discuss for the teacher an event in history1 or a character in literature2 we show a companion how to make a kite or work a problem in algebra2 we consider the advantages of a commercial course or relate the pleasures of a day's outing1--in each case we are interested1 we think1 we express our thoughts1 and so are practicing oral composition with subjects that may be used for written exercises4 #ei4 ,subjects should be ,definite4--,both the writer and the reader are more interested in definite and concrete subjects than in the general and abstract ones1 and we shall make our writing more interesting by recognizing this fact4 ,one might write about ,birds1 or ,the ,intelligence of ,birds1 or ,how ,birds ,protect their ,young1 or ,a ,family of ,robins4 ,the last is a specific subject1 while the other three are general subjects4 ,of these1 the first includes more than the second2 and the second1 more than the third4 ,a person with sufficient knowledge might write about any one of these general subjects1 but it would be difficult to give such a subject adequate treatment in a short theme4 ,though a general subject may suggest more lines of thought1 our knowledge about a specific subject is less vague1 and consequently more usable4 ,we really know more about the specific subject1 and we have a greater interest in it4 ,the subject1 ,a ,family of ,robins1 indicates that the writer knows something interesting that he intends to tell4 ,such a subject compels expectant attention from the reader and aids in arousing an appreciative interest on his part4 ,on first thought1 it would seem easier to write about a general subject than about a specific one1 but this is not the case4 ,a general subject presents so many lines of thought that the writer is confused1 rather than aided1 by the abundance of material4 ,a skilled and experienced writer possessing a large fund of information may treat general subjects successfully1 but for the beginner safety lies only in selecting definite subjects and in keeping within the limits prescribed4 ,the ,women of ,shakespeare might be an interesting subject for a book by a ,shakespearean scholar1 but it is scarcely suitable for a high school pupil's theme4 #fj4 ,narrowing the ,subject4--,it is often necessary to narrow a subject in order to bring it within the range of the knowledge and interest of ourselves and of our readers4 ,a description of the transportation of milk on the electric roads around ,toledo would probably be more interesting than an essay on ,freight ,transportation by ,electricity1 or on ,transportation4 ,the purpose that the writer has in mind1 and the length of the article he intends to write1 will affect the selection of a subject4 ,transportation might be the subject of a book in which a chapter was given to each important subdivision of it2 but it would be quite as difficult to treat such a subject in three hundred words as it would be to make use of three hundred pages for ,the ,transportation of ,milk at ,toledo4 ,a general subject may suggest many lines of thought4 ,it is the task of the writer to select one about which he knows something or can learn something1 in which both he and his readers are interested1 or can become interested1 and for which the time and space at his disposal are adequate4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,arrange the subjects in each of the following groups so that the most general ones shall come first3-- #a4 ,the intelligence of wild animals4 ,how a fox escaped from the hounds4 ,how animals escape destruction by their enemies4 ,animals4 #b4 ,the benefits that arise from war4 ,the defeat of the ,cimbri and ,teutons by ,marius4 ,war4 ,the value of military strength to the ,romans4 #c4 ,pleasure4 ,a summer outing in the ,adirondacks4 ,value of vacations4 ,catching bass4 ,b4 ,narrow ten of the following subjects until the resulting subject may be treated in a single paragraph3-- #a4 ,fishing4 #b4 ,engines4 #c4 ,literature4 #d4 ,heroes of fiction4 #e4 ,cooking4 #f4 ,houses4 #g4 ,games4 #h4 ,basketball4 #i4 ,cats4 #aj4 ,canaries4 #aa4 ,sympathy4 #ab4 ,sailboats4 #ac4 ,baseball4 #ad4 ,rivers4 #ae4 ,trees4 ,c4 ,a general subject may suggest several narrower subjects1 each of which would be of interest to a different class of persons2 for example-- ,general subject1--,education4 ,specific subjects1-- #a4 ,methods of conducting recitations4 7,teachers47 #b4 ,school taxes4 7,farmers47 #c4 ,ventilation of school buildings4 7,architects47 ,in a similar way1 narrow each of the following subjects so that the resulting subjects will be of interest to two or more classes of persons3-- ,subjects ,classes #a4 ,vacations4 #a4 ,farmers4 #b4 ,mathematics4 #b4 ,high ,school ,pupils4 #c4 ,picnics4 #c4 ,ministers4 #d4 ,civil service4 #d4 ,merchants4 #e4 ,elections4 #e4 ,sailors4 #f4 ,botany4 #f4 ,girls4 #g4 ,fish4 #g4 ,boys4 ,theme ,,xxxii4--,write a paragraph about one of narrowed subjects4 7,does your paragraph have unity of thought8 ,what methods of development have you used8 ,have you selected a subject which will be of interest to your readers87 #fa4 ,selecting a ,title4--,the subject and the title may be the same1 but not necessarily so4 ,the statement of the subject may require a sentence of considerable length1 while a title is best if short4 ,in selecting this brief title1 it is well to get one which will attract the attention and arouse the curiosity of a reader without appearing obviously to do so4 ,a peculiar or unusual title is not at all necessary1 though if properly selected such a title may be of value4 ,care must be taken not to have the title make a promise that the theme cannot fulfill4 ,if it does1 the effect is unsatisfactory4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,discuss the appropriateness of the titles for the subjects in the following3-- #a4 ,title3 ,my ,kingdom for a ,horse4 ,subject3 ,an account of a breakdown of an automobile at an inconvenient time4 #b4 ,title3 ,a ,blaze of ,brilliance4 ,subject3 ,description of a coaching parade4 #c4 ,title3 ,a ,brave ,defense4 ,subject3 ,an account of how a pair of birds drove a snake away from their nest4 #d4 ,title3 ,the ,banquet ,book4 ,subject3 ,quotations designed for general reference1 and also as an aid in the preparation of the toast list1 the after-dinner speech1 and the occasional address4 #e4 ,title3 ,dragons of the ,air4 ,subject3 ,an account of extinct flying reptiles4 #f4 ,title3 ,rugs and ,rags4 ,subject3 ,a comparison of the rich and the poor1 from a socialistic point of view4 #g4 ,title3 ,lives of the ,hunted4 ,subject3 ,a true account of the doings of five quadrupeds and three birds4 #h4 ,title3 ,the ,children of the ,nations4 ,subject3 ,a discussion of colonies and the problems of colonization4 ,b4 ,supply an appropriate title for a story read by the teacher4 ,c4 ,suggest a title1 other than the one given it1 for each magazine article you have read this month4 #fb4 ,language ,adapted to the ,reader4--,a writer may select a subject with reference to the knowledge and interest of his readers2 he may develop his paragraphs in accordance with the methods studied in ,chapter ,,iii1 and yet he may fail to make his meaning clear1 because he has not used language suited to the reader4 ,fortunately1 the language that we understand and use is that which is most easily understood by those of equal attainments with ourselves4 ,it therefore happens that when writing for those of our own age and attainments1 or for those of higher attainments1 we usually best express for them that which we make most clear and pleasing to ourselves4 ,but if we write for younger people1 or for those of different interests in life1 we must give much attention to adapting what we write to our readers4 ,before writing it is well to ask1 ,for whom am ,i writing8 ,then1 if necessary1 you should modify your language so that it will be adapted to your readers4 ,can you tell for what kind of an audience each of the following is intended8 ,in the field both teams played faultless ball1 not the semblance of an error being made4 ,besides backing up their pitchers in this fashion1 both local and visiting athletes turned sensational plays4 ,the element of luck figured largely in the result4 ,in the first inning ,dougherty walked and ,collins singled4 ,dougherty had third base sure on the drive1 but stumbled and fell down between second and third1 and he was an easy out4 ,boston got its only run in the second4 ,parent sent the ball to extreme left for two bases4 ,he stole third nattily when catcher ,sugden tried to catch him napping at the middle station4 ,ferris scored him with a drive to left4 ,st4 ,louis promptly tied the score in its half4 ,wallace opened with a screeching triple to the bulletin board4 ,at that he would not have scored if ,j4 ,stahl had not contributed a passed ball1 ,heidrick1 ,friel1 and ,sugden1 the next three batters1 expiring on weak infield taps4 ,the ,browns got the winning run in the sixth on ,martin's triple and ,hill's swift cut back of first4 ,lachance knocked the ball down and got his man at the initial sack1 but could not prevent the tally4 --,boston ,herald4 ,his name was ,riley1 and although his parents had called him ,thomas1 to the boys he had always been ,dennis1 and by the time he had reached his senior year in college he was quite ready to admit that his name was ,dennis1 with all that slang implied4 ,he had tried for several things1 athletics particularly1 and had been substitute on the ball nine1 one of the immortal second eleven backs of the football squad1 and at one time had been looked upon as promising material for a mile runner on the track team4 ,but it was always his luck not quite to make anything4 ,he couldn't bat up to 'varsity standard1 he wasn't quite heavy enough for a ,varsity back1 and in the mile run he always came in fresh enough but could not seem to get his speed up so as to run himself out1 and the result was that1 although he finished strong and with lots of running in him1 the other fellows always reached the tape first1 even though just barely getting over and thoroughly exhausted4 ,now ,dennis had made up his mind at ,christmas time that he actually would have one more trial on the track1 and that his family1 consisting of his mother and a younger brother1 both of them great believers in and very proud of ,thomas1 should yet see him possessed of a long-coveted ,y4 ,so he went out with the first candidates in the spring1 and the addition of the two-mile event to the programme of track contests gave him a distance better suited to his endurance4 ,there were a half-dozen other men running in his squad1 and ,dennis1 from his former failures1 was not looked upon with much favor1 or as a very likely man4 ,but he kept at it4 ,when the first reduction of the squad was made1 some one said1 ,denny's kept on just to pound the track4 ,with the middle of ,march came some class games1 and ,dennis was among the also rans1 getting no better than fourth place in the two-mile4 ,the worst of it was that he knew he could have run it faster1 for he felt strong at the finish1 but had no burst of speed when the others went up on the last lap4 ,but in ,april he did better1 and it soon developed that he was improving4 ,the week before the ,yale-,harvard games he was notified that he was to run in the two-mile as pace maker to ,lang and ,early1 the two best distance men on the squad4 ,nobody believed that ,yale would win this event1 although it was understood that ,lang stood a fair chance if ,dennis and ,early could carry the ,harvard crack1 ,richards1 along at a fast gait for the first mile4 ,so it was all arranged that ,early should set the pace for the first half mile1 and ,dennis should then go up and carry the field along for a fast second half4 ,then1 after the first mile was over1 ,early and ,dennis should go out as fast as they could1 and stay as long as they could in the attempt to force the ,harvard man and exhaust him so that ,lang could come up1 and1 having run the race more to his liking1 be strong enough to finish first4 ,the day of the games came1 and with it a drenching rain1 making the track heavy and everybody uncomfortable4 ,but as the inter-collegiates were the next week1 it was almost impossible to postpone the games1 and consequently it was decided to run them off4 ,as the contest progressed1 it developed that the issue would hang on the two-mile event1 and interest grew intense4 ,when the call for starters came1 ,dennis felt the usual trepidation of a man who is before the public for the first time in a really important position4 ,but the feeling did not last long1 and by the time he went to his mark he had made up his mind that that ,harvard runner should go the mile and a half fast at any rate1 or else be a long way behind4 ,at the crack of the pistol the six men went off1 and1 according to orders1 during the first mile ,early and ,dennis set the pace well up4 ,richards1 the ,harvard man1 let them open up a gap on him in the first half-mile1 and1 being more or less bothered by the conditions of the wet track1 he seemed uncertain whether the ,yale runners were setting the pace too high or not1 and in the second half commenced to move up4 ,in doing this his team mates gradually fell back until they were out of it1 and the order was ,dennis1 ,early1 ,richards1 and ,lang4 ,at the beginning of the second mile1 ,early1 whose duty it was to have gone up and helped ,dennis make the pace at the third half-mile1 had manifestly had enough of it1 and1 after two or three desperate struggles to keep up1 was passed by ,richards4 ,when1 therefore1 they came to the mile and a half1 ,dennis was leading ,richards by some fifteen yards1 and those who knew the game expected to see the ,harvard man try to overtake ,dennis1 and in so doing exhaust himself1 so that ,lang1 who was running easily in the rear1 could come up and in the last quarter finish out strong4 ,dennis1 too1 was expecting to hear the ,harvard man come up with him pretty soon1 and knew that this would be the signal for him to make his dying effort in behalf of his comrade1 ,lang4 ,as they straightened out into the back stretch ,richards did quicken up somewhat1 and ,dennis let himself out4 ,in fact1 he did this so well that as they entered upon the last quarter ,richards had not decreased the distance1 and indeed it had opened up a little wider4 ,but where was ,lang8 ,dennis was beginning to expect one or the other of these two men to come up1 and1 as he turned into the back stretch for the last time1 it began to dawn upon him1 as it was dawning upon the crowd1 that the pace had been too hot for ,lang1 and1 moreover1 that ,yale's chance depended on the despised ,dennis1 and that the ,harvard runner was finding it a big contract to overhaul the sturdy pounder on the wet track4 ,but ,richards was game1 and commenced to cut the gap down4 ,as they turned into the straight1 he was within eight yards of ,dennis4 ,but ,dennis knew it1 and he ran as he had never run before4 ,he could fairly feel the springing tread of ,richards behind him1 and knew it was coming nearer every second4 ,but into the straight they came1 and the crowd sprang to its feet with wild yells for ,dennis4 ,twenty yards from home ,richards1 who had picked up all but two yards of the lead1 began to stagger and waver1 while ,dennis hung to it true and steady1 and breasted the tape three yards in advance1 winning his ,y at last6 --,walter ,camp3 ,winning a ,y 7,outlook7 ,in which of the preceding accounts were you more interested8 ,which made the more vivid impression8 ,which would be better suited for a school class composed of boys and girls8 ,which for a newspaper report8 ,in attempting to relate a contest it is essential that the writer know what really happened1 and in what order it happened1 but his successful presentation will depend to some extent upon the consideration given to adapting the story to the audience4 ,a person thoroughly conversant with the game will understand the technical terms1 and may prefer the first account to the second1 but those to whom the game is not familiar would need to have so much explanation of the terms used that the narration would become tedious to those already familiar with the terms4 ,in order to make an account of a game interesting to persons unfamiliar with that game1 we must introduce enough of explanation to make clear the meaning of the terms we use4 ,theme ,,xxxiii4--,write a theme telling some one who does not understand the game about some contest which you have seen4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,a basket ball game4 #b4 ,a football game4 #c4 ,a tennis match4 #d4 ,a baseball game4 #e4 ,a croquet match4 #f4 ,a golf tournament4 #g4 ,a yacht race4 #h4 ,a relay race4 7,have you introduced technical terms without making the necessary explanations8 ,have you explained so many terms that your narrative is rendered tedious8 ,have you related what really happened1 and in the proper time order8 ,have your paragraphs unity8 ,can you shorten the theme without affecting the clearness or interest8 ,does then occur too frequently87 ,theme ,,xxxiv4--,write a theme1 using the same subject that you used for ,theme ,,xxxiii4 ,assume that the reader understands the game4 7,will the reader get the whole contest clearly in mind8 ,can you shorten the account8 ,compare this theme with ,theme ,,xxxiii47 #fc4 ,explanation of ,terms4--,any word that alone or with its modifiers calls to mind a single idea1 is a term4 ,when applied to a particular object1 quality1 or action1 it is a specific term2 but when applied to any one of a class of objects1 qualities1 or actions1 it is a general term4 ,for example3 ,the ,lake1 referring to a lake near at hand1 is a specific term2 but a lake1 referring to any lake1 is a general term4 ,in ,theme ,,xxxiii you had occasion to explain some of the terms used4 ,if1 in telling about a baseball game1 you mentioned a particular fly1 your statement was description or narration2 but if some one should ask what you meant by a fly1 your answer would be general in character2 that is1 it would apply to all flies1 and would belong to that division of composition called exposition4 ,exposition is but another name for explanation4 ,it is always concerned with that which is general1 while description and narration deal with particular cases4 ,we may describe a particular lake2 but if we answer the question1 ,what is a lake8 the answer would apply to any lake1 and would be exposition4 ,explanation of the meaning of general terms is one form of exposition4 #fd4 ,definition by ,synonyms4--,if we are asked to explain the meaning of a general term1 our reply in many cases will be a brief definition4 ,often it is sufficient to give a synonym4 ,for example1 in answer to the question1 ,what is exposition8 we make its meaning clearer by saying1 ,exposition is explanation4 ,definition by synonym is frequently used because of its brevity4 ,in the smaller dictionaries the definitions are largely of this kind4 ,for example3 to desert1 to abandon2 despot1 tyrant2 contemptible1 mean or vile2 to fuse1 to blend2 inviolable1 sacred4 ,synonyms are1 however1 seldom exact1 but a fair understanding of a term may be gained by comparing it with its synonyms and discussing the different shades of meaning4 ,such a discussion1 especially if supplemented by examples showing the correct use of each term1 is a profitable exercise in exposition4 ,for example3-- ,both discovery and invention denote generally something new that is found out in the arts and sciences4 ,but the term discovery involves in the thing discovered not merely novelty1 but curiosity1 utility1 difficulty1 and consequently some degree of importance4 ,all this is less strongly involved in invention4 ,but there are yet wider differences4 ,one can only discover what has in its integrity existed before the discovery1 while invention brings a thing into existence4 ,america was discovered4 ,printing was invented4 ,fresh discoveries in science often lead to new inventions in the industrial arts4 ,indeed1 discovery belongs more to science2 invention1 to art4 ,invention increases the store of our practical resources1 and is the fruit of search4 ,discovery extends the sphere of our knowledge1 and has often been made by accident4 --,smith3 ,synonyms ,discriminated4 ,if exactness is desired1 this is obtained by means of the logical definition1 which will be discussed in a later chapter4 ,theme ,,xxxv4--,explain the meaning of the words in one of the following groups3-- #a4 ,caustic1 satirical1 biting4 #b4 ,imply1 signify1 involve4 #c4 ,martial1 warlike1 military1 soldierlike4 #d4 ,wander1 deviate1 err1 stray1 swerve1 diverge4 #e4 ,abate1 decrease1 diminish1 lessen1 moderate4 #f4 ,emancipation1 freedom1 independence1 liberty4 #g4 ,old1 ancient1 antique1 antiquated1 obsolete4 #h4 ,adorn1 beautify1 bedeck1 decorate1 ornament1 #i4 ,active1 alert1 brisk1 lively1 spry4 #fe4 ,use of ,simpler ,words4--,in defining terms by giving a synonym we must be careful to choose a synonym which will be most likely to be understood by our listeners1 or our explanation will be of no avail4 ,for instance1 in explaining the term abate to a child1 if we say it means to diminish1 and he is unfamiliar with that word1 he is made none the wiser by our explanation4 ,if we tell him that it means to grow less1 he will1 in all probability1 understand our explanation4 ,very many words in our language have equivalents that may be substituted1 the one for the other4 ,much of our explanation to children and to those whose attainments are less than our own consists in substituting common1 everyday words for less familiar ones4 ,,exercise ,give familiar equivalents for the following words3-- #a4 emancipate4 #b4 procure4 #c4 opportunity4 #d4 peruse4 #e4 elapsed4 #f4 approximately4 #g4 abbreviate4 #h4 constitute4 #i4 simultaneous4 #aj4 familiar4 #aa4 deceased4 #ab4 oral4 #ac4 adhere4 #ad4 edifice4 #ae4 collide4 #af4 suburban4 #ag4 repugnance4 #ah4 grotesque4 #ai4 equipage4 #bj4 exaggerate4 #ba4 ascend4 #bb4 financial4 #bc4 nocturnal4 #bd4 maternal4 #be4 vision4 #bf4 affinity4 #bg4 cohere4 #bh4 athwart4 #bi4 clavicle4 #cj4 omnipotent4 #ca4 enumerate4 #cb4 eradicate4 #cc4 application4 #cd4 constitute4 #ce4 employer4 #cf4 rendezvous4 #cg4 obscure4 #ch4 indicate4 #ci4 prevaricate4 #ff4 ,definitions ,need to be ,supplemented4--,the purpose of exposition is to make clear to others that which we understand ourselves4 ,if the mere statement of a definition does not accomplish this result1 we may often make our meaning clear by supplementing the definition with suitable comparisons and examples4 ,in making use of comparisons and examples we must choose those with which our readers are familiar1 and we must be sure that they fairly represent the term that we wish to illustrate4 ,theme ,,xxxvi4--,explain any one of the following terms4 ,begin with as exact a definition as you can frame4 #a4 ,a fly in baseball4 #b4 ,a foul in basket ball4 #c4 ,a sneak4 #d4 ,a hero4 #e4 ,a spitfire4 #f4 ,a laborer4 #g4 ,a capitalist4 #h4 ,a coward4 #i4 ,a freshman4 #aj4 ,a header4 7,is your definition exact1 or only approximately so8 ,how have you made its meaning clear8 ,can you think of a better comparison or a better example8 ,can your meaning be made clearer1 or be more effectively presented1 by arranging your material in a different order87 #fg4 ,general ,description4--,we may often make clear the meaning of a term by giving details4 ,in describing a ,new ,england village we might enumerate the streets1 the houses1 the town pump1 the church1 and other features4 ,this would be specific description if the purpose was to have the reader picture some particular village2 but if the purpose was to give the reader a clear conception of the general characteristics of all ,new ,england villages1 the paragraph would become a general description4 ,such a general description would include all the characteristics common to all the members of the class under discussion1 but would omit any characteristic peculiar to some of them4 ,for example1 a general description of a windmill includes the things common to all windmills4 ,if an object is described more for the purpose of giving a clear conception of the class of which it is a type than for the purpose of picturing the object described1 we have a general description4 ,such a description is in effect an enlarged definition1 and is exposition rather than description4 ,it is sometimes called scientific description because it is so commonly employed by writers of scientific books4 ,notice the following examples of general description3-- #a4 ,around every house in ,broeck are buckets1 benches1 rakes1 hoes1 and stakes1 all colored red1 blue1 white1 or yellow4 ,the brilliancy and variety of colors and the cleanliness1 brightness1 and miniature pomp of the place are wonderful4 ,at the windows there are embroidered curtains with rose-colored ribbons4 ,the blades1 bands1 and nails of the gayly painted windmills shine like silver4 ,the houses are brightly varnished and surrounded with red and white railings and fences4 ,the panes of glass in the windows are bordered by many lines of different hues4 ,the trunks of all the trees are painted gray from root to branch4 ,across the streams are many little wooden bridges1 each painted as white as snow4 ,the gutters are ornamented with a sort of wooden festoon perforated like lace4 ,the pointed faades are surmounted with a small weathercock1 a little lance1 or something resembling a bunch of flowers4 ,nearly every house has two doors1 one in front and one behind1 the last for everyday entrance and exit1 the former opened only on great occasions1 such as births1 deaths1 and marriages4 ,the gardens are as peculiar as the houses4 ,the paths are hardly wide enough to walk in4 ,one could put his arms around the flower beds4 ,the dainty arbors would barely hold two persons sitting close together4 ,the little myrtle hedges would scarcely reach to the knees of a four-year-old child4 #b4 ,ginseng has a thick1 soft1 whitish1 bulbous root1 from one to three inches long1--generally two or three roots to a stalk1--with wrinkles running around it1 and a few small fibers attached4 ,it has a peculiar1 pleasant1 sweetish1 slightly bitter1 and aromatic taste4 ,the stem or stalk grows about a foot high1 is smooth1 round1 of a reddish green color1 divided at the top into three short branches1 with three to five leaves to each branch1 and a flower stem in the center of the branches4 ,the flower is small and white1 followed by a large1 red berry4 ,it is found growing in most of the states in rich1 shady soils4 #c4 ,as a general proposition1 the ,scottish hotel is kept by a benevolent-looking old lady1 who knows absolutely nothing about the trains1 nothing about the town1 nothing about anything outside of the hotel1 and is non-committal regarding matters even within her jurisdiction4 ,upon arrival you do not register1 but stand up at the desk and submit to a cross-examination1 much as if you were being sentenced in an ,american police court4 ,your hostess always wants twelve hours' notice of your departure1 so that she can make out your bill--a very arduous1 formidable undertaking4 ,the bill is of prodigious dimensions1 about the size of a sheet of foolscap paper1 lined and cross-lined for a multitude of entries4 ,when the account finally reaches you1 it closely resembles a design for a cobweb factory4 ,any attempt to decipher the various hieroglyphics is useless--it can't be done4 ,the only thing that can be done is to read the total at the foot of the page and pay it4 --,hotels in ,scotland 7,kansas ,city ,star74 ,theme ,,xxxvii4--,write a general description of one of the following3-- #a4 ,a bicycle4 #b4 ,a country hay barn4 #c4 ,a dog4 #d4 ,a summer cottage4 #e4 ,an ,indian wigwam4 #f4 ,a ,dutch windmill4 #g4 ,a muskrat's house4 #h4 ,a robin's nest4 #i4 ,a blacksmith's shop4 #aj4 ,a chipmunk4 #aa4 ,a threshing machine4 #ab4 ,a sewing circle4 7,the purpose is not to picture a particular object1 but to give a general notion of a class of objects4 ,cross out everything in your theme that applies only to some particular object4 ,have you included enough to make your meaning clear87 ,theme ,,xxxviii4--,using the same title as for ,theme ,,xxxvii1 write a specific description of some particular object4 7,how does it differ from the general description8 ,what elements have you introduced which you did not have in the other8 ,which sentence gives the general outline8 ,are your details arranged with regard to their proper position in space8 ,will the reader form a vivid picture--just the one you mean him to have87 #fh4 ,general ,narration4--,explanations of a process of manufacture1 methods of playing a game1 and the like1 often take the form of generalized narration4 ,just as we gain a notion of the appearance of a sod house from a general description1 so may we gain a notion of a series of events from a general narration4 ,such a narration will not tell what some one actually did1 but will relate the things that are characteristic of the process or action under discussion whenever it happens4 ,such general narration is really exposition4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,notice that the selection below is a generalized narration1 showing what a hare does when hunted4 ,in it no incident peculiar to some special occasion is introduced4 ,she the hare generally returns to the beat from which she was put up1 running1 as all the worlds knows1 in a circle1 or sometimes something like it1 we had better say1 that we may keep on good terms with the mathematical4 ,at starting1 she tears away at her utmost speed for a mile or more1 and distances the dogs halfway2 she then turns1 diverging a little to the right or left1 that she may not run into the mouths of her enemies--a necessity which accounts for what we call the circularity of her course4 ,her flight from home is direct and precipitate2 but on her way back1 when she has gained a little time for consideration and stratagem1 she describes a curious labyrinth of short turnings and windings as if to perplex the dogs by the intricacy of her track4 --,richard ,atton4 ,b4 ,the selection below narrates an actual hunt4 ,notice in what respects it differs from the preceding selection4 ,sir ,roger is so keen at this sport that he has been out almost every day since ,i came down2 and upon the chaplain's offering to lend me his easy pad1 ,i was prevailed on yesterday morning to make one of the company4 ,i was extremely pleased1 as we rid along1 to observe the general benevolence of all the neighborhood towards my friend4 ,the farmers' sons thought themselves happy if they could open a gate for the good old knight as he passed by2 which he generally requited with a nod or a smile1 and a kind inquiry after their fathers and uncles4 ,after we had rid about a mile from home1 we came upon a large heath1 and the sportsmen began to beat4 ,they had done so for some time1 when1 as ,i was at a little distance from the rest of the company1 ,i saw a hare pop out from a small furze brake almost under my horse's feet4 ,i marked the way she took1 which ,i endeavored to make the company sensible of by extending my arm2 but to no purpose1 till ,sir ,roger1 who knows that none of my extraordinary motions are insignificant1 rode up to me and asked me if puss was gone that way8 ,upon my answering ,yes1 he immediately called in the dogs1 and put them upon the scent4 ,as they were going off1 ,i heard one of the country fellows muttering to his companion1 that 'twas a wonder they had not lost all their sport1 for want of the silent gentleman's crying1 ,stole away4 ,this1 with my aversion to leaping hedges1 made me withdraw to a rising ground1 from whence ,i could have the pleasure of the whole chase1 without the fatigue of keeping in with the hounds4 ,the hare immediately threw them above a mile behind her2 but ,i was pleased to find1 that instead of running straight forwards1 or1 in hunter's language1 flying the country1 as ,i was afraid she might have done1 she wheeled about1 and described a sort of circle round the hill1 where ,i had taken my station1 in such manner as gave me a very distinct view of the sport4 ,i could see her first pass by1 and the dogs some time afterwards1 unraveling the whole track she had made1 and following her through all her doubles4 ,i was at the same time delighted in observing that deference which the rest of the pack paid to each particular hound1 according to the character he had acquired among them3 if they were at a fault1 and an old hound of reputation opened but once1 he was immediately followed by the whole cry2 while a raw dog1 or one who was a noted liar1 might have yelped his heart out without being taken notice of4 ,the hare now1 after having squatted two or three times1 and been put up again as often1 came still nearer to the place where she was at first started4 ,the dogs pursued her1 and these were followed by the jolly knight1 who rode upon a white gelding1 encompassed by his tenants and servants1 and cheering his hounds with all the gayety of five and twenty4 ,one of the sportsmen rode up to me1 and told me that he was sure the chase was almost at an end1 because the old dogs1 which had hitherto lain behind1 now headed the pack4 ,the fellow was in the right4 ,our hare took a large field just under us1 followed by the full cry in view4 ,i must confess the brightness of the weather1 the cheerfulness of everything around me1 the chiding of the hounds1 which was returned upon us in a double echo from two neighboring hills1 with the hallooing of the sportsmen1 and the sounding of the horn1 lifted my spirits into a most lively pleasure1 which ,i freely indulged because ,i was sure it was innocent4 ,if ,i was under any concern1 it was on account of the poor hare1 that was now quite spent1 and almost within the reach of her enemies2 when the huntsman getting forward1 threw down his pole before the dogs4 ,they were now within eight yards of that game which they had been pursuing for almost as many hours2 yet on the signal before mentioned they all made a sudden stand1 and though they continued opening as much as before1 durst not once attempt to pass beyond the pole4 ,at the same time ,sir ,roger rode forward1 and alighting1 took up the hare in his arms2 which he soon after delivered up to one of his servants with an order1 if she could be kept alive1 to let her go in his great orchard2 where it seems he has several of these prisoners of war1 who live together in a very comfortable captivity4 ,i was highly pleased to see the discipline of the pack1 and the good nature of the knight1 who could not find in his heart to murder a creature that had given him so much diversion4 --,budgell3 ,sir ,roger de ,coverley ,papers4 ,theme ,,xxxix4--,explain one of the following by the use of general narration3-- #a4 ,baking bread4 #b4 ,how paper is made4 #c4 ,how to play tennis 7or some other game74 #d4 ,catching trout4 #e4 ,life at school4 #f4 ,how to pitch curves4 7,have you arranged your details with reference to their proper time-order8 ,have you introduced unnecessary details8 ,have your paragraphs unity8 ,underscore then each time you have used it47 #fi4 ,argument4--,especially in argument is it evident that language presupposes an audience4 ,the fact that we argue implies that some one does not agree with us4 ,the purpose of our argument is to convince some one else of the truth of a proposition which we ourselves believe1 and he who wishes to succeed in this must give careful attention to his audience4 ,the question which must always be in the mind of the writer is1 ,what facts shall ,i select and in what order shall ,i present them in order to convince my reader8 ,the various ways of arguing are more fully treated in a later chapter1 but a few of them are given here4 #gj4 ,the ,use of ,explanation in ,argument4--,in preparing an argument we must consider first the amount of explanation that it will be necessary to make4 ,we cannot expect one to believe a proposition the meaning of which he does not understand4 ,often the explanation alone is sufficient to convince the hearer4 ,suppose you are trying to gain your parents' consent to take some course of study4 ,they ask for an explanation of the different courses1 and when they know what each contains they are already convinced as to which is best for you4 ,if you are trying to convince a member of your school board that it would be well to introduce domestic science into the high school1 and he already understands what is meant by the term domestic science1 you not only waste time in explaining it1 but you make him appear ignorant of what he already understands4 ,with him you should proceed at once to give your reasons for the advisability of the introduction of this branch into your school4 ,on the other hand1 if you are talking with a member who does not understand the term1 an explanation will be the first thing necessary4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the amount of explanation that we shall make depends upon the previous knowledge of the audience addressed4 ,if we explain too much1 we prejudice our case2 and if we explain too little1 the reader may fail to appreciate the arguments that follow4 ,the point of the whole matter1 then1 is that explanation is the first step in argument1 and that in order to determine the amount necessary we must consider carefully the audience for which our argument is intended4 #ga4 ,statement of ,advantages and ,disadvantages4 ,an argument is often concerned with determining whether it is expedient to do one thing or another4 ,such an argument frequently takes the form of a statement of the advantages that will follow the adoption of the course we recommend1 or of the disadvantages that the following of the opposite course will cause4 ,if a corporation should ask for a franchise for a street railway1 the city officials might hold the opinion that a double track should be laid4 ,in support of this opinion they would name the advantageous results that would follow from the use of a double track1 such as the avoidance of delays on turnouts1 the lessening of the liability of accidents1 the greater rapidity in transportation1 etc4 ,on the other hand1 the persons seeking the franchise might reply that a double track would occupy too much of the street and become a hindrance to teams1 or that the advantages were not sufficient to warrant the extra expense4 ,concerning such a question there can be no absolute decision4 ,we are not discussing what is right1 but what is expedient1 and the determination of what is expedient is based upon a consideration of advantages or disadvantages4 ,in deciding1 we must balance the advantages against the disadvantages and determine which has the greater weight4 ,if called upon to take one side or the other1 we must consider carefully the value of the facts counting both for and against the proposition before we can make up our mind which side we favor4 ,you must bear in mind that a thing may not be an advantage because you believe it to be4 ,that which seems to you to be the reason why you should take some high school subject1 may seem to your father or your teacher to be the very reason why you should not4 ,in writing arguments of this kind you must take care to select facts that will appeal to your readers as advantages4 ,notice the following editorial which appeared in the ,boston ,latin ,school ,register shortly after a change was made whereby the pupils instead of the teachers moved from room to room for their various recitations3-- ,the new system of having the classes move about from room to room to their recitations has been in use for nearly a month1 and there has been sufficient opportunity for testing its practicability and its advantages4 ,there is no doubt that the new system alters the old form of recesses1 shortening the two regular ones1 but giving three minutes between recitations as a compensation for this loss4 ,although theoretically we have more recess time than formerly1 in the practical working out of the system we find that the three minutes between recitations is occupied in gathering up one's books1 and reaching the next recitation room2 besides this1 that there is often some confusion in reaching the various classrooms1 and that there are many little inconveniences which would not occur were we sitting at our own desks4 ,on the other hand1 as an offset to these disadvantages1 there is the advantage of a change of position1 and a respite from close attention1 with a breathing spell in which to get the mind as well as the books ready for another lesson4 ,the masters have in every recitation their own maps and reference books1 with which they can often make their instruction much more forceful and interesting4 ,besides that1 they have entire control of their own blackboards1 and can leave work there without fear of its being erased to make room for that of some other master4 ,the confusion will doubtless be lessened as time goes on and we become more used to the system4 ,even the first disadvantage is more or less offset by the fact that the short three-minute periods1 although they cannot be used like ordinary recesses1 yet serve to give us breathing space between recitations and to lessen the strain of continuous application2 so that1 on the whole1 the advantages seem to counterbalance the disadvantages4 ,,exercises ,what advantages and disadvantages can you think of for each of the following propositions8 ,state them orally4 #a4 ,all telephone and telegraph wires in cities should be put under ground4 #b4 ,the speed of bicycles and automobiles should be limited to eight miles per hour4 #c4 ,high school football teams should not play match games on regular school days4 #d4 ,high school pupils should not attend evening parties excepting on ,fridays and ,saturdays4 #e4 ,monday would be a better day than ,saturday for a school holiday4 #f4 ,the school session should be lengthened4 ,theme ,,xl4--,write two paragraphs1 one of which shall give the advantages and the other the disadvantages that would arise from the adoption of any one of the following3 #a4 ,this school should have a longer recess4 #b4 ,this school should have two hours for the noon recess4 #c4 ,this school should be in session from eight o'clock until one o'clock4 #d4 ,all the pupils in this school should be seated in one room4 #e4 ,the public library should be in the high school building4 #f4 ,the football team should be excused early in order to practice4 #g4 ,this school should have a greater number of public entertainments4 #gb4 ,explanation and ,argument by ,specific ,instances4--,often we may make the meaning of a general proposition clear by citing specific instances4 ,if these instances are given for the purpose of explanation merely1 the paragraph is exposition4 ,if1 however1 the aim is not merely to cause the reader to understand the proposition1 but also to believe that it is true1 we have argument4 ,in either case we have a paragraph developed by specific instances as discussed in ,section #dd4 ,notice how in the following paragraph the author brings forward specific cases in order to prove the proposition3-- ,nearly everything that an animal does is the result of an inborn instinct acted upon by an outward stimulus4 ,the margin wherein intelligent choice plays a part is very small4444 ,instinct is undoubtedly often modified by intelligence1 and intelligence is as often guided or prompted by instinct1 but one need not hesitate long as to which side of the line any given act of man or beast belongs4 ,when the fox resorts to various tricks to outwit and delay the hound 7if he ever consciously does so71 he exercises a kind of intelligence--the lower form of which we call cunning--and he is prompted to this by an instinct of self-preservation4 ,when the birds set up a hue and cry about a hawk1 or an owl1 or boldly attack him1 they show intelligence in its simpler form1 the intelligence that recognizes its enemies1 prompted again by the instinct of self-preservation4 ,when a hawk does not know a man on horseback from a horse1 it shows a want of intelligence4 ,when a crow is kept away from a corn-field by a string stretched around it1 the fact shows how masterful is its fear and how shallow its wit4 ,when a cat or a dog or a horse or a cow learns to open a gate or a door1 it shows a degree of intelligence--power to imitate1 to profit by experience4 ,a machine could not learn to do it4 ,if the animal were to close the door or gate behind it1 that would be another step in intelligence4 ,but its direct wants have no relation to the closing of the door1 only to the opening of it4 ,to close the door involves an afterthought that an animal is not capable of4 ,a horse will hesitate to go upon thin ice or frail bridges4 ,this1 no doubt1 is an inherited instinct which has arisen in its ancestors from their fund of general experience with the world4 ,how much with them has depended upon a secure footing6 ,a pair of house-wrens had a nest in my well-curb2 when the young were partly grown and heard any one enter the curb1 they would set up a clamorous calling for food4 ,when ,i scratched against the sides of the curb beneath them like some animal trying to climb up1 their voices instantly hushed2 the instinct of fear promptly overcame the instinct of hunger6 ,instinct is intelligence1 but it is not the same as acquired individual intelligence2 it is untaught4 ,john ,burroughs3 ,some ,natural ,history ,doubts 7,harper's74 ,,exercises ,what facts or instances do you know which would lead you to believe either the following propositions or their opposites8 #a4 ,dogs are intelligent4 #b4 ,only excellent pupils can pass the seventh grade examination4 #c4 ,some teachers do not ask fair questions on examination4 #d4 ,oak trees grow to be larger than maples4 #e4 ,strikes increase the cost to the consumer4 #f4 ,a college education pays4 #g4 ,department stores injure the trade of smaller stores4 #h4 ,advertising pays4 ,theme ,,xli4--,write a paragraph1 proving by one or more examples one of the propositions in the preceding exercise3 7,do your examples really illustrate what you are trying to prove8 ,do they show that the proposition is always true or merely that it is true for certain cases8 ,would your argument cause another to believe the proposition87 #gc4 ,the ,value of ,debate4--,participation in oral debate furnishes excellent practice in accurate and rapid thinking4 ,we may choose one side of a question and may write out an argument which1 considered alone1 and from our point of view1 seems convincing1 but when this is submitted to the criticism of some one of opposite views1 or when the arguments in favor of the other side of the question are brought forward1 we are not so sure that we have chosen the side which represents the truth4 ,the ability to think on one's feet1 to present arguments concisely and effectively1 and to reply to opposing arguments1 giving due weight to those that are true1 and detecting and pointing out those that are false1 is an accomplishment of great practical value4 ,such ability comes only from practice1 and the best preparation for it is the careful writing out of arguments4 #gd4 ,statement of the ,question4--,the subject of debate may be stated in the form of a resolution1 a declarative sentence1 or a question2 as1 ,resolved that the recess should be lengthened1 or ,the recess should be lengthened1 or1 ,should the recess be lengthened8 ,in any case1 the affirmative must show why the recess should be lengthened1 and the negative why it should not be lengthened4 ,in a formal debate the statement of the question and its meaning should be definitely determined in advance4 ,care must be taken to state it so that no mere quibbling over the meanings of terms can take the place of real arguments4 ,even if the subject of debate is so stated that this is possible1 any self-respecting debater will meet the question at issue fairly and squarely1 preferring defeat to a victory won by juggling with the meanings of terms4 #ge4 ,is ,belief ,necessary in ,debate8--,if we are really arguing for a purpose1 we should believe in the truth of the proposition which we support4 ,if the members of the school board were discussing the desirability of building a new schoolhouse1 each would speak in accordance with his belief4 ,but if a class in school should debate such a question1 having in mind not the determination of the question1 but merely the selection and arrangement of the arguments for and against the proposition in the most effective way1 each pupil might present the side in which he did not really believe4 ,,exercises ,consider each of the following propositions4 ,do you believe the affirmative or the negative8 #a4 ,this city needs a new high school building4 #b4 ,all the pupils in the high school should be members of the athletic association4 #c4 ,the school board should purchase an inclosed athletic field4 #d4 ,the street railway should carry pupils to and from school for half fare4 #e4 ,there should be a lunch room in this school4 #f4 ,fairy stories should not be told to children4 ,theme ,,xlii4--,write a paragraph telling why you believe one of the propositions in the preceding exercise3 7,what questions should you ask yourself while correcting your theme87 #gf4 ,order of ,presentation4--,if you were preparing to debate one of the propositions in the preceding exercise1 you would need to have in mind both the reasons for and against it4 ,next you would consider the order in which these reasons should be discussed4 ,this will be determined by the circumstances of each debate1 but generally the emphatic positions1 that is1 the first and the last1 will be given to those arguments that seem to you to have the greatest weight1 while those of less importance will occupy the central portion of your theme4 #gg4 ,the ,brief4--,if1 after making a note of the various advantages1 examples1 and other arguments that you wish to use in support of one of the propositions in ,section #ge1 you arrange these in the order in which you think they can be most effectively presented1 the outline so formed is called a brief4 ,its preparation requires clear thinking1 but when it is made1 the task of writing out the argument is not difficult4 ,when the debate is to be spoken1 not read1 the brief1 if kept in mind1 will serve to suggest the arguments we wish to make in the order in which we wish to present them4 ,the brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is composed of complete sentences4 ,notice the following brief3-- ,manual ,training should be substituted for school athletics4 ,affirmative #a4 ,the exercise furnished by manual training is better adapted to the developing of the whole being both physical and mental2 for-- a4 ,it requires the mind to act in order to determine what to do and how to do it4 b4 ,it trains the muscles to carry out the ideal of the mind4 #b4 ,the effect of manual training on health is better2 for-- a4 ,excessive exercise1 harmful to growing children1 is avoided4 b4 ,dangerous contests are avoided4 #c4 ,the final results of manual training are more valuable2 for-- a4 ,the objects made are valuable4 b4 ,the skill of hand and eye may become of great practical value in after life4 #d4 ,the moral effect of manual training is better2 for-- a4 ,athletics develops the anything to win spirit1 while manual training creates a wholesome desire to excel in the creation of something useful or beautiful4 b4 ,dishonesty in games may escape notice1 but dishonesty in workmanship cannot be concealed4 c4 ,athletics fosters slovenliness of dress and manners1 while manual training cultivates the love of the beautiful4 #e4 ,the beneficial results of manual training have a wider effect upon the school2 for-- a4 ,but comparatively few pupils make the team and receive the maximum athletic drill1 while all pupils can take manual training4 #gh4 ,refutation or ,indirect ,argument4--,in debate we need to consider not only the arguments in favor of our own side1 but also those presented by our opponents4 ,that part of our theme which states our own arguments is called direct argument1 and that part in which we reply to our opponents is called indirect argument or refutation4 ,it is often very important to show that the opposing argument is false or1 if true1 has been given an exaggerated importance that it does not really possess4 ,if1 however1 the argument is true and of weight1 the fact should be frankly acknowledged4 ,our desire for victory should not cause us to disregard the truth4 ,if the argument of our opponent has been so strong that it seems to have taken possession of the audience1 we must reply to it in the beginning4 ,if it is of less weight1 each separate point may be discussed as we take up related points in our own argument4 ,often it will be found best to give the refutation a place just preceding our own last and strongest argument4 ,from the foregoing it will be seen that each case cannot be determined by rule1 but must be determined for itself1 and it is because of the exercise of judgment required1 that practice in debating is so valuable4 ,a dozen boys or girls may1 with much pleasure and profit1 spend an evening a week as a debating club4 ,theme ,,xliii4--,prepare a written argument for or against one of the propositions in ,section #ge4 7,make a brief4 ,re-arrange the arguments that you intend to use until they have what seems to you the best order4 ,consider the probable arguments on the other side and what reply can be made4 ,answer one or two of the strongest ones4 ,if you have any trivial arguments for your own side1 either omit them or make their discussion very brief47 #gi4 ,cautions in ,debating4--,when we have made a further study of argument we shall need to consider again the subject of debating4 ,in the meantime a few cautions will be helpful4 #a4 ,be fair4 ,a debate is in the nature of a contest1 and is quite as interesting as any other contest4 ,the desire to win should never lead you to take any unfair advantage or to descend to mere quibbling over the statement of the proposition or the meanings of the terms4 ,win fairly or not at all4 #b4 ,be honest with yourself4 ,do not present arguments which you know to be false1 in the hope that your opponent cannot prove their falsity4 ,this does not mean that you cannot present arguments in favor of a proposition unless you believe it to be true1 but that those you do present should be real arguments for the side that you uphold1 even though you believe that there are weightier ones on the other side4 ,do not use an example that seems to apply if you know that it does not4 ,you are to tell the truth and nothing but the truth1 but in debate you may tell only that part of the whole truth which favors your side of the proposition4 #c4 ,do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your desire for truth4 ,do not argue for the sake of winning1 nor develop the habit of arguing in season and out4 ,in the school and outside there are persons who1 like ,will ,carleton's ,uncle ,sammy1 were born for arguing4 ,they use their own time in an unprofitable way1 and what is worse1 they waste the time of others4 ,they are not seeking for truth1 but for controversy4 ,it is quite as bad to doubt everything you hear as it is to believe everything4 #d4 ,remember that mere statement is not argument4 ,the fact that you believe a proposition does not make it true4 ,in order to carry weight1 a statement must be based on principles and theories that the audience believes4 #e4 ,remember that exhortation is not argument4 ,entreaty may persuade one to action1 but in debate you should aim to convince the intellect4 ,clear1 accurate thinking on your own part1 so that you may present sound1 logical arguments1 is the first essential4 ,theme ,,xliv4--,prepare a written argument for or against one of the following propositions3-- #a4 ,boys who cannot go to college should take a commercial course in the high school4 #b4 ,novel reading is a waste of time4 #c4 ,asphalt paving is more satisfactory than brick4 #d4 ,foreign skilled labor should be kept out of the ,united ,states4 #e4 ,our own town should be lighted by electricity4 #f4 ,athletic contests between high schools should be prohibited4 7,consider your argument with reference to the cautions given in ,section #gi47 ,,summary #a4 ,the purpose of discourse may be to inform or to entertain4 #b4 ,the forms of discourse are-- a4 ,description4 b4 ,narration4 c4 ,exposition4 d4 ,argument 7,persuasion74 #c4 ,discourse presupposes an audience1 and we must select a subject and use language adapted to that audience4 #d4 ,the suitableness of a subject is determined-- a4 ,by the writer's knowledge of the subject4 7#a7 ,this may be based on experience1 or 7#b7 ,it may be gained from others through conversation and reading4 b4 ,by the writer's interest in the subject4 7#a7 ,this may exist from the first1 or 7#b7 ,it may be aroused by our search for information4 c4 ,by adaptability of the subject to the reader4 ,it should be of present1 vital interest to him4 #e4 ,subjects4 a4 ,the sources of subjects are unlimited4 b4 ,subjects should be definite4 ,they often need to be narrowed in order to be made definite4 c4 ,the title should be brief and should be worded so as to arouse a desire to hear the theme4 #f4 ,exposition is explanation4 #g4 ,we may make clear the meaning of a term-- a4 ,by using synonyms4 b4 ,by using simpler words4 c4 ,by supplementing our definitions with examples or comparisons4 #h4 ,general description includes the characteristics common to all members of a class of objects4 #i4 ,general narration is one form of exposition4 ,it relates the things that characterize a process or action whenever it occurs4 #aj4 ,argument4 a4 ,explanation is the first step in argument4 b4 ,a statement of advantages and disadvantages may assist us to determine which side of a question we believe4 c4 ,specific instances may be used either for explanation or argument4 #aa4 ,debate4 a4 ,the subject of the debate may be stated in the form of a resolution1 a declarative sentence1 or a question4 b4 ,the most important arguments should be given the first and last positions4 c4 ,a brief will assist us in arranging our arguments in the most effective order4 d4 ,the refutation of opposing arguments should usually be placed just before our own last and strongest argument4 e4 ,cautions in debating4 7#a7 ,be fair4 7#b7 ,be honest with yourself4 7#c7 ,do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your desire for truth4 7#d7 ,remember that mere statement is not argument4 7#e7 ,remember that exhortation is not argument4 ,v4 ,,the ,,whole ,,composition #hj4 ,general ,principles of ,composition4--,there are three important principles to be considered in every composition3 unity1 coherence1 and emphasis4 ,though not always named1 each of these has been considered and used in our writing of paragraphs4 ,the consideration of methods of securing unity1 coherence1 and emphasis in the composition as a whole is the purpose of this chapter4 ,it will serve also as a review and especially as an enlarged view of paragraph development as treated in ,chapter ,,iii1 for the methods discussed with regard to the whole composition are the same that are used in applying the three principles to single paragraphs4 #ha4 ,unity4--,a composition possesses unity if all that it contains bears directly upon the subject4 ,it is evident that the title of the theme determines in a large degree the matter that should be included4 ,much that is appropriate to a theme on ,bass ,fishing will be found unnecessary in a theme entitled ,how ,i caught a ,bass4 ,it is easier to secure unity in a theme treating of a narrow1 limited subject than in one treating of a broad1 general subject4 ,the first step toward unity is1 therefore1 the selection of a limited subject and a suitable title 7see ,sections #eh-fa72 the second is the collection of all facts1 illustrations1 and other material which may appropriately be used in a theme having the chosen title4 #hb4 ,coherence4--,a composition is given coherence by placing the ideas in such an order that each naturally suggests the one which follows4 ,if the last paragraph is more closely related in thought to the first paragraph than it is to the intervening ones1 the composition lacks coherence4 ,similarly1 that paragraph is coherent in which the thought moves forward in an orderly way with each sentence growing out of the preceding one4 ,in describing the capture of a large trout a boy might state that he broke his pole4 ,then he might tell what kind of pole he had1 why he did not have a better one1 what poles are best adapted to trout fishing1 etc4 ,though each of these ideas is suggested by the preceding1 the story still lacks coherence because the boy will need later to go back and tell us what happened to him or to the trout when the pole broke4 ,if a description of the kind of pole is necessary in order to make the point of the story clear1 it should have been introduced earlier4 ,stopping at the moment of vital interest to discuss fishing poles1 spoils the effect of the story4 ,good writers are very skillful in the early introducing of details that will enable the reader to appreciate the events as they happen1 and they are equally skillful in omitting unnecessary details4 ,the proper selection of these details gives unity1 and their introduction at the proper place gives coherence to a narrative4 ,by saying1 ,i am getting ahead of my story1 the narrator confesses that coherence is lacking4 ,read again the selection on page #ajf4 #hc4 ,emphasis4--,if we desire to make one part of a theme more emphatic than another1 we may do so by giving a prominent position to that part4 ,in debating we give the first place and the last to the strongest arguments4 ,in simple narration the order in which incidents must be related is fixed by the time-order of their occurrence1 but even in a story the point gains in force if it is near the close4 ,because these two positions are the ones of greatest emphasis1 a poor beginning or a bad ending will ruin an otherwise good story4 ,emphasis may also be affected by the proportional amount of attention and space given to the different parts of a theme4 ,the extent to which any division of a theme should be developed depends upon the purpose and the total length of the theme4 ,a biography of ,grant might appropriately devote two or three chapters to his boyhood1 while a short sketch of his life would treat his boyhood in a single paragraph4 ,in determining the amount of space to be given to the different parts of a composition1 care must be taken that the space assigned to each shall be proportional to its importance1 the largest amount of space being devoted to the part which is of greatest worth4 ,emphasis is sometimes given by making a single sentence into a paragraph4 ,this method should be used with care1 for such a paragraph may be too short for unity because it does not include all that should be said about the topic statement1 and though it makes that statement emphatic1 fails to make its meaning clear4 ,clearness1 unity1 and coherence are of more importance than emphasis1 and usually1 if a theme possesses the first three qualities1 it will possess the fourth in sufficient measure4 #hd4 ,the ,outline4--,an outline will assist us in securing unity1 coherence1 and emphasis4 #a4 ,the first step in making an outline has relation to unity4 ,unity requires that a theme include only that which pertains to the subject4 ,there are always many more ideas that seem to bear upon a subject than can be included in the theme4 ,we may therefore jot down brief notes that will suggest our ideas on the subject1 and then we should reject from this list all that seem irrelevant or trivial4 ,we should also reject the less important ideas which pertain directly to the subject if without them we have all that are needed in order to fulfill the purpose of the theme4 ,which items in the following should be omitted as not necessary to the complete treatment of the subject indicated by the title8 ,should anything be added8 ,my ,first ,partridge ,where ,i lived ten years ago4 ,kinds of game3 partridge1 quail1 squirrels4 ,partridge drumming4 ,my father went hunting often4 ,how he was injured4 ,birch brush near hemlock2 partridge often found in such localities4 ,loading the gun4 ,going to the woods4 ,why partridge live near birch brush4 ,fall season4 ,hunting for partridge allowed from ,september to ,december4 ,tramping through the woods4 ,something moving4 ,creeping up4 ,how ,i felt2 excited2 hand shook4 ,partridge on log4 ,gun failed to go off2 cocking it properly4 ,the shot2 the recoil4 ,the flurry of the bird4 ,how partridges fly4 ,how they taste when cooked4 ,getting the bird4 ,going home4 ,partridges are found in the woods2 quail in the fields4 ,what my sister said4 ,my brother's interest4 ,my father's story about shooting three partridges with one shot4 ,what mother did4 #b4 ,the second step in outline making has relation to coherence4 ,after we have rejected from our notes all items which would interfere with the unity of our theme1 we next arrange the remaining items in a coherent order4 ,one method of securing coherence is illustrated by a simple narrative which follows the time-order4 ,we naturally group together in our memory those events which occurred at a given time1 and in recalling a series of events we pass in order from one such group to another4 ,these groups form natural paragraph units1 and the placing of them in their actual time-order gives coherence to the composition4 ,after rejecting the unnecessary items in the preceding list1 re-arrange the remaining ones in a coherent order4 ,how many paragraphs would you make and what would you include in each8 #c4 ,the third step in making an outline has relation to emphasis4 ,in some outlines emphasis is secured by placing the more important points first1 in others by placing them last4 ,in this particular outline we have a natural time-order to follow1 and emphasis will be determined mainly by the relative proportion to be given to different paragraphs4 ,do not give unimportant paragraphs too much space4 ,be sure that the introduction and the conclusion are short4 ,theme ,,xlv4--,write a personal narrative at least three paragraphs in length4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,how ,i was saved from drowning4 #b4 ,the largest string of fish ,i ever caught4 #c4 ,an incident of the skating season4 #d4 ,what ,i did on ,christmas day4 #e4 ,a ,saturday with my grandmother4 #f4 ,to the city and back4 7,make an outline4 ,keep in mind unity1 coherence1 and emphasis4 ,consider each paragraph with reference to unity1 coherence1 and emphasis47 #he4 ,development of a ,composition with ,reference to the ,time-,order4-- ,of the several methods of developing a composition let us consider first that of giving details in the natural time-order4 7,see ,section #df47 ,if a composition composed of a series of paragraphs possesses coherence1 each paragraph is so related to the preceding ones that the thought goes steadily forward from one to another4 ,often the connection in thought is so evident that no special indication needs to be made1 but if the paragraphs are arranged with reference to a time-order1 this time-order is usually indicated4 ,notice how the relation in time of each paragraph to the preceding is shown by the following sentences of parts of sentences taken in order from a magazine article entitled ,yachting at ,kiel1 by ,james ,b4 ,connolly3-- #a4 ,it was slow waiting in ,travemunde4 ,the long-enduring twilight of a summer's day at fifty-four north began to settle down444 #b4 ,the dusk comes on1 and on the ships of war they seem to be getting nervous444 #c4 ,the dusk deepens444 #d4 ,it is getting chilly in the night air1 with the rations running low1 and the charterers of some of the fishing boats decide to go home444 #e4 ,it is eleven o'clock--dark night--and the breeze is freshening1 when the first of the fleet heaves in sight444 #f4 ,after that they arrive rapidly444 #g4 ,at midnight there is still no ,meteor444 #h4 ,through the entire night they keep coming444 #i4 ,next morning444 ,theme ,,xlvi4--,write a narrative1 four or more paragraphs in length1 showing the time-order4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,the race up the river4 #b4 ,the life of some well-known man4 #c4 ,the cake that fell4 #d4 ,retell some incident that you have recently read4 #e4 ,relate some personal experience4 #f4 ,a story suggested by the picture on page #afj4 7,make an outline4 ,consider the unity1 coherence1 and emphasis of each paragraph separately4 ,then consider the unity1 coherence1 and emphasis of the whole composition4 ,notice what expressions you have used to indicate the relations in time4 ,have you used the same expression too often87 #hf4 ,development of a ,composition with ,reference to ,position in ,space4-- ,a second method of development is to relate details with reference to their position in space4 ,illustration ,just as we may give either a paragraph or a whole theme coherence by following a given time-order1 so may we make a paragraph or a whole theme coherent by arranging the parts in an order determined by their position in space4 ,in developing a theme by this method we simply apply to the whole theme the principles discussed for the development of a paragraph 7,section #dg74 ,in a description composed of several paragraphs1 each paragraph should contain a group of details closely related to one another in space4 ,the paragraphs should be constructed so that each shall possess unity and coherence within itself1 and they should be so arranged that we may pass most easily from the group of images presented by one paragraph to the images presented by the next4 ,in narration1 the space arrangement may supplement time-order in giving coherence4 ,if the most attractive features of an art room are its wall decorations1 five paragraphs describing the room may be as follows3-- #a4 ,point of view3 general impression4 #b4 ,the north wall3 general impression2 details4 #c4 ,the east wall3 general impression2 details4 #d4 ,the south wall3 general impression2 details4 #e4 ,the west wall3 general impression2 details4 ,it is easy to imagine a room in the description of which the following paragraphs would be appropriate3-- #a4 ,point of view4 #b4 ,the fireplace4 #c4 ,the easy-chair4 #d4 ,the table4 #e4 ,the bookcase4 #f4 ,the cozy nook4 ,such an arrangement of paragraphs would give coherence4 ,unity would be secured by including in each only that which properly belonged to it4 ,there are many words and expressions which indicate the relative position of objects4 ,the paragraph below is an illustration of the method of development described in ,section #dg4 ,notice the words which indicate the location of the different details in the scene4 ,if each of these details should be developed into a paragraph the italicized expressions would serve to introduce these paragraphs and would show the relative positions of the objects described4 ,the beauty of the sea and shore was almost indescribable3 on one side rose ,point ,loma1 grim1 gloomy as a fortress wall2 before me stretched away to the horizon the ocean with its miles of breakers curling into foam2 between the surf and the city1 wrapped in its dark blue mantle1 lay the sleeping bay2 eastward the mingled yellow1 red1 and white of ,san ,diego's buildings glistened in the sunlight like a bed of coleus2 beyond the city heaved the rolling plains rich in their garb of golden brown1 from which rose the distant mountains1 tier on tier1 wearing the purple veil which ,nature here loves oftenest to weave for them2 while in the foreground1 like a jewel in a brilliant setting1 stood the ,coronado4 --,stoddard3 ,california4 ,theme ,,xlvii4--,write a description three or more paragraphs in length4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,some well-known building 7exterior74 #b4 ,a prominent person4 #c4 ,an attractive room4 #d4 ,the interior of a church4 7,consider your outline with reference to unity1 coherence1 and proportion of parts4 ,when the theme is completed1 consider the unity1 coherence1 and emphasis of each paragraph and of the composition as a whole47 #hg4 ,paragraph ,relations4--,relations in thought other than those of time and space may be indicated by the use of certain words and phrases4 ,such expressions as1 however1 nevertheless1 consequently1 indeed1 moreover1 at all events1 etc41 are often used to indicate a relation in thought between paragraphs4 ,notice how nevertheless1 at the beginning of the selection below1 serves to connect it in thought with a preceding paragraph not printed here4 ,notice also the relations in thought shown by the italicized words4 ,these and similar words are used to make the transition from one paragraph to the next4 ,nevertheless1 ,howe was at last in possession of ,philadelphia1 the object of his campaign1 and with his communications by water open4 ,he had consumed four months in this business since he left ,new ,york1 three months since he landed near the ,elk ,river4 ,his prize1 now that he had got it1 was worth less than nothing in a military point of view1 and he had been made to pay a high price for it1 not merely in men1 but in precious time1 for while he was struggling sluggishly for ,philadelphia1 ,burgoyne1 who really meant something very serious1 had gone to wreck and sunk out of sight in the northern forests4 ,indeed1 ,howe did not even hold his dearly bought town in peace4 ,after the fall of the forts1 ,greene1 aided by ,lafayette1 who had joined the army on its way to the ,brandywine1 made a sharp dash and broke up an outlying party of ,hessians4 ,such things were intolerable1 they interfered with personal comfort1 and they emanated from the ,american army which ,washington had now established in strong lines at ,whitemarsh4 ,so ,howe announced that in order to have a quiet winter1 he would drive ,washington beyond the mountains4 ,howe did not often display military intelligence1 but that he was profoundly right in this particular intention must be admitted4 ,in pursuit of his plan1 therefore1 he marched out of ,philadelphia on ,december #dth1 drove off some ,pennsylvania militia on the #eth1 considered the ,american position for four days1 did not dare to attack1 could not draw his opponent out1 returned to the city1 and left ,washington to go into winter quarters at ,valley ,forge1 whence he could easily strike if any move was made by the ,british army4 --,henry ,cabot ,lodge4 #hh4 ,the ,transition ,paragraph4--,just as a word or phrase may serve to denote the relation in thought between paragraphs1 so may a whole paragraph be used to carry over the thought from one group of paragraphs to another in the same theme4 ,such a paragraph makes a transition from one general topic or method of treating the subject of the theme to some other general topic or to the consideration of the subject from a different point of view4 ,this transitional paragraph may summarize the thought of the preceding paragraph in addition to announcing a change of topic2 or it may mark the transition to the new topic and set it forth in general terms4 #hi4 ,the ,summarizing ,paragraph4--,frequently we give emphasis to our thought by a final paragraph summarizing the main points of the theme4 ,such a summary is in effect a restatement of the topic sentences of our paragraphs4 ,if our theme has been coherent1 these sentences stated in order will need but little changing to make a coherent paragraph4 ,in a similar way1 it is of advantage to close a long paragraph with a sentence which repeats the topic statement or summarizes the thought of the paragraph4 ,see the last sentence in ,section #eg4 #ij4 ,development of a ,composition by ,comparison or ,contrast4--,the third method of development is that of comparison or contrast4 ,nearly every idea which we have suggests one that is similar to it or in contrast with it4 ,we are thus led to make comparisons or to state contrasts4 ,when these are few and brief1 they may make a single paragraph 7,section #dh74 ,if our comparisons or contrasts are extended1 they may make several paragraphs1 and thus a whole theme may be developed by this method4 ,in such a theme no fixed order of presentation is determined by the actual occurrence in time or space of that which we present4 ,consequently1 in outlining a theme of this kind1 we must devote special attention to arranging our paragraphs in an order that shall give coherence and emphasis4 ,theme ,,xlviii4--,write a theme of three or more paragraphs developed by comparison4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,compare men with verbs 7active1 passive1 transitive1 intransitive1 defective1 redundant1 auxiliary1 copulative1 etc474 #b4 ,show that the body resembles a machine4 #c4 ,in what way is the school like a factory8 #d4 ,how do two books that you have read differ8 #e4 ,compare ,lincoln and ,mc,kinley4 ,how alike8 ,how different8 #f4 ,how can you tell an oak tree from an elm tree8 #g4 ,without naming them1 compare two of your friends with each other4 #h4 ,compare the advantages and disadvantages of public high schools with those of private academies4 #ia4 ,development of a ,composition by ,use of ,generalization and ,facts4-- ,using the fourth method of development1 we may give an entire composition to the explanation of the meaning of a general proposition or to the demonstration of the truth of such a proposition4 ,to accomplish this purpose we state facts or instances that illustrate the meaning of the proposition or that show it to be true4 ,in such a composition each important fact or instance may be given a separate paragraph1 while several minor facts or illustrations may be properly combined in the same paragraph4 7,see ,section #dd47 ,greater emphasis may also be given the more important facts by assigning them to the emphatic positions4 ,notice how by specific instances the following selection illustrates the truth of the generalization set forth in the second sentence and restated in the last sentence4 ,,degeneration ,,through ,,quiescence ,while parasitism is the principal cause of degeneration among animals1 yet it is not the sole cause4 ,it is evident that if for any other reason animals should become fixed1 and live inactive lives1 they would degenerate4 ,there are not a few instances of degeneration due simply to a quiescent life1 unaccompanied by parasitism4 ,the ,tunicata1 or sea squirts1 are animals which have become simple through degeneration1 due to the adoption of a sedentary life1 the withdrawal from the crowd of animals and from the struggle which it necessitates4 ,the young tunicate is a free-swimming1 active1 tadpolelike1 or fishlike creature1 which possesses organs very like those of the adult of the simplest fishes or fishlike forms4 ,that is1 the sea squirt begins life as a primitively simple vertebrate4 ,it possesses in its larval stage a notochord1 the delicate structure which precedes the formation of a backbone1 extending along the upper part of the body below the spinal cord4 ,the other organs of the young tunicate are all of vertebral type4 ,but the young sea squirt passes a period of active and free life as a little fish1 after which it settles down and attaches itself to a shell or wooden pier by means of suckers1 and remains for the rest of its life fixed4 ,instead of going on and developing into a fishlike creature1 it loses its notochord1 its special sense organs1 and other organs2 it loses its complexity and high organization1 and becomes a mere rooted bag with a double neck1 a thoroughly degenerate animal4 ,a barnacle is another example of degeneration through quiescence4 ,the barnacles are crustaceans related most nearly to the crabs and shrimps4 ,the young barnacle just from the egg is a six-legged1 free-swimming nauplius1 very like a young prawn or crab1 with a single eye4 ,in its next larval stage it has six pairs of swimming feet1 two compound eyes1 and two antennae or feelers1 and still lives an independent free-swimming life4 ,when it makes its final change to the adult condition1 it attaches itself to some stone1 or shell1 or pile1 or ship's bottom1 loses its compound eyes and feelers1 develops a protecting shell1 and gives up all power of locomotion4 ,its swimming feet become changed into grasping organs1 and it loses most of its outward resemblance to the other members of its class4 ,certain insects live sedentary or fixed lives4 ,all the members of the family of scale insects 7,coccidae71 in one sex at least1 show degeneration that has been caused by quiescence4 ,one of these coccids1 called the red orange scale1 is very abundant in ,florida and ,california and in other fruit-growing regions4 ,the male is a beautiful1 tiny1 two-winged midge1 but the female is a wingless1 footless1 little sack1 without eyes or other organs of special sense1 which lies motionless under a flat1 thin1 circular1 reddish scale composed of wax and two or three cast skins of the insect itself4 ,the insect has a long1 slender1 flexible1 sucking beak1 which is thrust into the leaf or stem or fruit of the orange on which the scale bug lives1 and through which the insect sucks the orange sap1 which is its only food4 ,it lays eggs under its body1 and thus also under the protecting wax scale1 and dies4 ,from the eggs hatch active little larval scale bugs1 with eyes and feelers1 and six legs4 ,they crawl from under the wax scale and roam about over the orange tree4 ,finally1 they settle down1 thrusting their sucking beak into the plant tissue1 and cast their skin4 ,the females lose at this molt their legs and eyes and feelers4 ,each becomes a mere motionless sack capable only of sucking up sap and laying eggs4 ,the young males1 however1 lose their sucking beak and can no longer take food1 but they gain a pair of wings and an additional pair of eyes4 ,they fly about and fertilize the sacklike females1 which then molt again and secrete the thin wax scale over them4 ,throughout the animal kingdom loss of the need of movement is followed by the loss of the power to move and of all structures related to it4 --,jordon and ,kellogg3 ,animal ,life4 ,has the principle of unity been observed in the above selection2 that is1 of the many things that might be told about a sea squirt1 a barnacle1 or a scale bug1 have the authors selected only those which serve to illustrate degeneration through quiescence8 ,instead of one generalization supported by a series of facts to each of which a paragraph is given1 we may have several subordinate generalizations relating to the subject of the theme4 ,each of these subordinate generalizations may become the topic statement of a paragraph which is further developed by giving specific instances or by some other method of paragraph development4 ,such an order1 that is1 generalization followed by the facts which illustrate it1 is coherent2 but care must be taken to give each fact under the generalization to which it is most closely related4 ,on the other hand1 our theme may be made coherent by giving the facts first1 and then the generalization that they establish4 ,theme ,,xlix4--,write a theme of three or more paragraphs illustrating or proving some general statement by means of facts or specific instances4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,young persons should not drink coffee4 #b4 ,reasons for the curfew bell4 #c4 ,girls wear their hair in a variety of ways4 #d4 ,there are several kinds of boys in this school4 #e4 ,civilization increases as the facilities for transportation increase4 #f4 ,trolley roads are of great benefit to the country4 #g4 ,presence of mind often averts danger4 #ib4 ,development of a ,composition by ,stating ,cause and ,effect4--,the statement of the causes of an event or condition may be used as a fifth method of development4 ,the principle1 however1 is not different from that applied to the development of a paragraph by stating cause and effect 7,section #di74 ,if several causes contribute to the same effect1 each may be given a separate paragraph1 or several minor ones may be combined in one paragraph4 ,for the sake of unity we must include each fact1 principle1 or statement in the paragraph to which it really belongs4 ,the coherent order is usually that which proceeds from causes to effects rather than that which traces events backward from effects to causes4 ,theme ,l4--,write a theme of three or more paragraphs1 stating causes and effects4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,why hospitals are necessary4 #b4 ,why cigarette smoking is dangerous4 #c4 ,why girls should take music lessons4 #d4 ,the effect of climate upon health4 #e4 ,the effect of rainfall upon the productivity and industries of a country4 #f4 ,the effect of mountains1 lakes1 or rivers upon exploration and travel4 #g4 ,what connection is there between occupation and height above the sea level1 and why8 #h4 ,why our city is located where it is4 #i4 ,why ,i came late to school4 #ic4 ,combination of ,methods of ,development4--,frequently the presentation of our thought is made most effective by using some combination of the methods of development discussed in this chapter4 ,time and place are often interwoven1 comparisons and contrasts flash into mind1 general statements need specific illustration1 or results demand immediate explanation--all in the same theme4 ,sometimes the order of coherence will be in doubt1 for cause and effect demand a different order of statement from that which would be given were we to follow either time-order or position in space4 ,in such cases we must choose whether it is most important to tell first why or when or where4 ,the only rule that can be suggested is to do that which will make our meaning most clear1 because it is for the sake of the clear presentation of our thought that we seek unity1 coherence1 and emphasis4 ,theme ,,li4--,write a theme of several paragraphs4 ,use any method of development or any combination of methods4 7,choose your own subject4 ,after the theme is written make a list of all the questions you should ask yourself about it4 ,correct the theme with reference to each point in your list of questions47 ,,summary #a4 ,general principles of composition4 a4 ,unity4 b4 ,coherence4 c4 ,emphasis4 7#a7 ,by position4 7#b7 ,by proportion of parts4 #b4 ,an outline assists in securing unity1 coherence1 and emphasis4 #c4 ,methods of composition development3 ,a composition may be developed-- a4 ,with reference to time-order4 b4 ,with reference to position in space4 c4 ,by use of comparison and contrast4 d4 ,by stating generalization and facts4 e4 ,by stating cause and effect4 f4 ,by any suitable combination of the above methods4 #d4 ,transition and summary paragraphs may occur in compositions4 ,,vi4 ,,letter ,,writing #id4 ,importance of ,good ,letter ,writing4--,letter writing is the form of written language used by most of us more frequently than any other form4 ,the importance of good letter writing is therefore obvious4 ,business1 personal1 and social relations necessitate the writing of letters4 ,we are judged by those letters2 and in order that we may be considered businesslike1 educated1 and cultured1 it is necessary that we should be able to write good letters1 not only as regards the form but also as regards the subject-matter4 ,the writing of good letters is often the means of securing desirable positions and of keeping up pleasant and helpful friendships4 ,since this form of composition plays so important a part in our lives and the lives of those about us1 it is worthy of careful study4 ,the subject-matter is the most important part of the letter1 but adherence to usages generally adopted is essential to successful letter writing4 ,some of these usages may seem trivial in themselves1 but a lack of attention to them shows either ignorance or carelessness on the part of the writer1 and the consequences resulting from this inattention are often anything but trivial4 ,applicants for good positions have been rejected either because they did not know the correct usages of letter writing1 or because they did not heed them4 ,in no other form of composition are the rules concerning form so rigid2 hence the need of knowledge and carefulness concerning them4 #ie4 ,paper4--,the nature of the letter determines to some extent our choice of paper4 ,business letters are usually written on large paper1 about ten by eight inches in size1 while letters of friendship and notes of various kinds are written on paper of smaller size4 ,white or delicately tinted paper is always in good taste for all kinds of letters4 ,the use of highly tinted paper is occasionally in vogue with some people1 but failure to use it is never an offense against the laws of good taste4 ,it is customary now to use unruled paper for all kinds of letters as well as for other forms of compositions4 ,for letters of friendship four-page paper is preferred to that in tablet form4 ,the order in which the pages are used may vary2 but whatever the order is1 it should not be confusing to the reader4 ,black ink should always be used4 ,the writing should be neat and legible4 ,attention should be paid to margin1 paragraphs1 and indentation4 ,in fact1 all the rules of theme writing apply to letter writing1 and to these are added several others4 #if4 ,the ,beginning of a ,letter4--,certain forms for the beginning of letters have been agreed upon1 and these forms should be followed4 ,the beginning of a letter usually includes the heading1 the address of the person or persons to whom the letter is sent1 and the salutation4 ,notice the following examples3-- 7#a7 #aga ,miles ,ave41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,oct4 #ba1 #aije4 ,marshall ,field ,co41 ,state ,st41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,gentlemen3 7#b7 ,ottawa1 ,ill4 ,nov4 #i1 #aije4 ,dear ,harold1 7#c7 #ajbh ,jackson ,boulevard1 ,chicago ,ill4 ,nov4 #aj1 #aije4 ,messrs4 ,johnson ,foote1 #abj ,main ,st41 ,pittsfield1 ,mass4 ,dear ,sirs1 7#d7 #abj ,p ,street1 ,lincoln1 ,neb4 ,oct4 #ag1 #aije4 ,my dear ,mrs4 ,scott1 7#e7 ,boston1 ,mass41 ,nov4 #bc1 #aije4 ,dear ,mother1 7#f7 #cc ,front ,st41 ,adrian1 ,mich4 ,nov4 #cj1 #aije4 ,miss ,gertrude ,brown1 #bbh ,warren ,ave41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,dear ,madam3 7#g7 ,new ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,nov4 #c1 #aije4 ,my dear ,henry1 ,the heading of a letter includes the address of the writer and the date of the writing4 ,when numerous letters are sent from one place to another1 the street and number may after a time be omitted from the heading4 ,example 7#e7 illustrates this4 ,a son living in ,boston has written to his mother frequently and no longer considers it necessary to write the street and number in every letter4 ,if there is any doubt in the writer's mind as to whether his address will be remembered or not1 he should include it in the letter4 ,if the writer lives in a small place where the street and number will not be needed in a reply sent to him1 it is unnecessary for him to make use of it in his letter4 ,when the street and number are omitted1 the heading may be written on one line1 as in example 7#e71 but the use of two lines is preferable4 ,custom has decreed that the proper place for the heading is in the right-hand upper corner of the first page4 ,sometimes1 especially in business letters1 we find the writer's address at the close of the letter1 but for the sake of convenience it is preferably placed at the beginning4 ,the first line should be about one inch and a half from the top of the page4 ,the second line should begin a little to the right of the first line1 and the third line1 a little to the right of the second line4 ,attention should be paid to proper punctuation in each line4 ,in a comparatively few cases we may find that the omission of the date of the letter will make no difference to the recipient1 but in most cases it will cause annoyance at least1 and in many cases result in serious trouble both to ourselves and to those who receive our letters4 ,we should not allow ourselves to neglect the date even in letters of apparently no great importance4 ,if we allow the careless habit of omitting dates to develop1 we may some day omit a date when the omission will affect affairs of great importance4 ,this date should include the day1 month1 and year4 ,it is better to write out the entire year1 as #aije1 not '#je4 ,in business letters it is customary to write the address of the person or persons addressed at the left side of the page4 ,either two or three lines may be used4 ,the first line of this address should be one line lower than the last line of the heading4 ,notice examples 7#a71 7#c71 and 7#f74 ,when the address is thus written1 the salutation is commonly written one line below it4 ,sometimes the salutation is commenced at the margin1 and sometimes a little to the right of the address4 ,where there is no address1 the salutation is written a line below the date and begins with the margin1 as in examples 7#b71 7#d71 7#e71 and 7#g74 ,the form of salutation naturally depends upon the relations existing between the correspondents4 ,the forms ,dear ,sir1 ,my dear ,sir1 ,madam1 ,my dear ,madam1 ,dear ,sirs1 ,gentlemen1 are used in formal business letters4 ,the forms ,dear ,miss ,robinson1 ,my dear ,mrs4 ,hobart1 ,dear ,mr4 ,fraser1 ,my dear ,mr4 ,scott1 are used in business letters when the correspondents are acquainted with each other4 ,the same forms are also used in letters of friendship when the correspondents are not well enough acquainted with each other to warrant the use of the more familiar forms1 ,my dear ,mary1 ,dear ,edmund1 ,my dear ,friend1 ,dear ,cousin1 ,my dear little ,niece4 ,there is no set rule concerning the punctuation of the salutation4 ,the comma1 the colon1 or the semicolon may be used either alone or in connection with the dash4 ,the comma alone seems to be the least formal of all1 and the colon the most so4 ,hence the former is used more frequently in letters of friendship1 and the latter more frequently in business letters4 #ig4 ,body of the ,letter4--,the body of the letter is the important part2 in fact1 it is the letter itself1 since it contains the subject-matter4 ,it will be discussed under another head later1 and is only mentioned here in order to show its place in connection with the beginning of a letter4 ,as a rule1 it is best to begin the body of our letters one line below1 and either directly underneath or to the right of the salutation4 ,it is not improper1 however1 especially in business letters1 to begin it on the same line with the salutation4 ,a few examples will be sufficient to show the variations of the place for beginning the main part of the letter4 7#a7 #afid ,cedar ,ave41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,june #bc1 #aije4 ,messrs4 ,hanna1 ,scott ,co41 ,aurora1 ,ill4 ,gentlemen3--,i inclose a money order for #aj4jj1 etc4 7#b7 ,everett1 ,washington4 ,oct4 #bj1 #aije4 ,my dear ,robert1 ,we are very glad that you have decided to make us a visit1 etc4 7#c7 ,greenwich1 ,n4,y4 ,sept4 #ai1 #aije4 ,my dear ,miss ,russ1 ,since ,i have been ,miss ,clark's assistant1 etc4 7#d7 #b ,university ,ave41 ,nashville1 ,tenn4 ,april #ai1 #aije4 ,the ,american ,book ,company1 #cjj ,pike ,st41 ,cinncinnati1 ,o4 ,dear ,sirs3--,please send me by express two copies of ,halleck's ,english ,literature1 etc4 #ih4 ,conclusion of a ,letter4--,the conclusion of a letter includes what is termed the complimentary close and the signature4 ,certain forms have been agreed upon1 which should be closely followed4 ,our choice of a complimentary close1 like that of a salutation1 depends upon the relations existing between us and those to whom we are writing4 ,such forms as ,your loving daughter1 ,with love1 ,ever your friend1 ,your affectionate mother1 should be used only when intimate relations exist between correspondents4 ,in letters where existing relations are not so intimate and in some kinds of business letters the forms ,sincerely yours1 ,yours very sincerely1 may be used appropriately4 ,the most common forms in business letters are ,yours truly and ,very truly yours4 ,the forms ,respectfully yours1 or ,yours very respectfully1 should be used only when there is occasion for some special respect1 as in writing to a person of high rank or position4 ,the complimentary close should be written one line below the last line of the main part of the letter1 and toward the right-hand side of the page4 ,its first word should commence with a capital1 and a comma should be placed at its close4 ,the signature properly belongs below and a little to the right of the complimentary close4 ,except in cases of familiar relationship1 the name should be signed in full4 ,it is difficult to determine the spelling of unfamiliar proper names if they are carelessly written4 ,it is therefore important in writing to strangers that the signature should be made plainly legible in order that they may know how to address the writer in their reply4 ,a lady should make it plain whether she is to be addressed as ,miss or ,mrs4 ,this can be done either by placing the title ,miss or ,mrs4 in parentheses before the name1 or by writing the whole address below and to the left of the signature4 ,boys and men may often avoid confusion by signing their first name instead of using only initials4 ,notice the following examples of the complimentary close and signature3-- 7#a7 ,appleton1 ,wisconsin4 ,sept4 #c1 #aije4 ,my dear ,cousin1 7,body of letter47 ,yours with love1 ,gertrude ,edmonds4 7#b7 #aib ,lincoln ,ave41 ,worcester1 ,mass4 ,nov4 #be1 #aije4 ,l4,b4 ,bliss ,co41 #aji ,summer ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,dear ,sirs2 7,body of letter47 ,very truly yours1 ,walter ,a4 ,cutler4 7#c7 ,paxton1 ,ill4 ,july #c1 #aije4 ,american ,typewriter ,co41 #bfc ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 ,gentlemen3 7,body of letter47 ,very truly yours1 7,miss7 ,jennie ,r4 ,mc,allister4 7#d7 ,may #e1 #aije4 ,daniel ,low ,co41 #bcb ,essex ,st41 ,salem1 ,mass4 ,dear ,sirs2 7,body of letter47 ,mary ,e4 ,ball ,mrs4 ,george ,w4 ,ball1 #dae ,fourth ,st41 ,la ,salle1 ,ill4 7#e7 ,marshalltown1 ,iowa4 ,oct4 #c1 #aije4 ,my dear ,miss ,meyer1 7,body of letter47 ,sincerely yours1 ,dorothy ,doddridge4 ,,exercise ,write suitable headings1 salutations1 complimentary endings1 and signatures for the following letters3-- #a4 ,to ,spaulding ,co41 ,wabash ,ave41 ,chicago1 ,ill41 ordering their rules for basket ball4 #b4 ,to your older brother4 #c4 ,to the school board1 asking for a gymnasium4 #d4 ,to some business house1 making application for a position4 #e4 ,to the governor of your state4 #f4 ,from one stranger to another4 #g4 ,from an older brother to his little sister4 #h4 ,from a boy living in ,new ,orleans to the father of his most intimate friend4 #ii4 ,the ,envelope4--,the direction on the envelope1 commonly called the superscription1 consists of the name and address of the person or persons to whom the letter is sent4 ,this direction should be written in a careful and courteous manner1 and should include all that is necessary to insure the prompt delivery of the letter to the proper destination4 ,the superscription may be arranged in three or four lines1 each line beginning a little to the right of the preceding line4 ,the name should be written about midway between the upper and lower edges of the envelope1 and there should be nearly an equal amount of space left at each side4 ,if there is any difference1 there should be less space at the right than at the left4 ,the street and number may be written below the name1 and the city or town and state below4 ,the street and number may be properly written in the lower left-hand corner4 ,this is also the place for any special direction that may be necessary for the speedy transmission of the letter2 for example1 ,in care of ,mr4 ,charles ,r4 ,brown4 ,women should be addressed as ,miss or ,mrs4 ,in case the woman is married1 her husband's first name and middle initial are commonly used1 unless it is known that she prefers to have her own first name used4 ,men should be addressed as ,mr41 and a firm may in many cases be addressed as ,messrs4 ,it is considered proper to use the titles ,dr41 ,rev41 etc41 in directing an envelope to a man bearing such a title1 but it would be entirely out of place to address the wife of a physician or clergyman as ,mrs4 ,dr4 or ,mrs4 ,rev4 ,the names of states may be abbreviated1 but care should be taken that these abbreviations be plainly written1 especially when there are other similar abbreviations4 ,in compound names1 as ,north ,dakota and ,west ,virginia1 do not abbreviate one part of the compound and write out the other4 ,either abbreviate both or write out both4 ,if any punctuation besides the period after abbreviations is used1 it consists of a comma after each line4 ,it is the custom now to omit such punctuation4 ,either form is in good taste1 but whichever form is adopted1 it should be employed throughout the entire superscription4 ,the comma should not be used in one line and omitted in another4 ,notice the following forms of correct superscriptions3-- 7#a7 ,mr4 ,milo ,r4 ,maltbie #he ,west #aahth ,st4 ,new ,york4 7#b7 ,mr4 ,john ,d4 ,clark ,new ,york ,n4,y4 ,teachers ,college ,columbia ,university4 7#c7 ,mrs4 ,edgar ,n4 ,foster ,south ,haven ,mich4 ,avery ,beach ,hotel4 7#d7 ,miss ,louise ,m4 ,baker ,nottingham ,ohio4 ,box #abi4 7#e7 ,dr4 ,james ,m4 ,postle ,de ,kalb ,ill4 7#f7 ,miss ,ida ,morrison ,chicago ,ill4 #ajdh ,warren ,ave4 ,,exercise ,write proper superscriptions to letters written to the following3-- #a4 ,thaddeus ,bolton1 living at #ebd ,q ,street1 ,lincoln1 ,nebraska4 #b4 ,the wife of a physician of your acquaintance4 #c4 ,james ,b4 ,angell1 ,president of the ,university of ,michigan1 ,ann ,arbor1 ,michigan4 #d4 ,your mother1 visiting some relative or friend4 #e4 ,the publishers ,allyn and ,bacon1 #hgh ,wabash ,avenue1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #f4 ,edward ,harrington1 living at #aifb ,seventh ,avenue1 ,new ,york4 #g4 ,to a friend at a seaside resort4 #h4 ,to a friend visiting your uncle in ,oakland1 ,california4 #ajj4 ,the ,great ,rule of ,letter ,writing4--,the great rule of letter writing is1 ,never write a letter which you would not be willing to see in print over your own signature4 ,that which you say in anger may be discourteous and of little credit to you1 but it may in time be forgotten2 that which you write1 however1 may be in existence an untold number of years4 ,thousands of letters are now on exhibition whose authors never had such a use of them in mind4 ,if you ever feel like writing at the end of a letter1 ,burn this as soon as you read it1 do not send it1 but burn the letter yourself4 ,before you sign your name to any letter read it over and ask yourself1 ,is this letter in form and contents one which would do me credit if it should be published8 #aja4 ,business ,letters4--,since the purpose of business letters is to inform1 they should1 first of all1 be characterized by clearness4 ,in asking for information1 be sure that you state your questions so that there shall be no doubt in the mind of the recipient concerning the information that you desire4 ,in giving information1 be equally sure to state facts so clearly that there can be no possibility of a mistake4 ,brevity is the soul of business letters as well as of wit4 ,business men are busy men4 ,they have no time to waste in reading long letters1 but wish to gain their information quickly4 ,hence we should aim to state the desired facts in as concise a manner as possible1 and we should give only pertinent facts4 ,short explanations may sometimes be necessary1 but nothing foreign to the subject-matter should ever be introduced4 ,while we should aim to make our letters short1 they should not be so brief as to appear abrupt and discourteous4 ,it shows lack of courtesy to omit important words or to make too frequent use of abbreviations4 ,we should answer a business letter as soon as possible4 ,this answer1 besides giving the desired information1 should include a reference to the letter received and an acknowledgment of inclosures1 if there were any4 ,all questions should receive courteous replies4 ,the facts should be arranged in a form that will be convenient for the recipient4 ,as a rule it is best to follow the order which the writer has used in his letter1 but in some cases we may be able to state our facts more definitely and concisely if we follow some other order4 ,what has been said in general about attention to forms in letter writing might well be emphasized here1 for business men are keen critics concerning letters received4 ,be careful to use the correct forms already suggested4 ,also pay attention to punctuation1 spelling1 and grammar4 ,write only on one side of the paper and fold the letter correctly4 ,in fact1 be businesslike in everything connected with the writing of business letters4 ,a few examples are here given for your notice3-- 7#a7 ,ypsilanti1 ,mich4 ,april #d1 #aije4 ,mr4 ,william ,wylie1 #hjg ,linn ,st41 ,peoria1 ,ill4 ,dear ,mr4 ,wylie2 ,inclosed is a letter from ,superintendent ,rogers of ,rockford1 ,ill4 ,the position of teacher of mathematics is vacant4 ,the salary may not be so much as you now receive1 but in many respects the position is a desirable one4 ,i advise you to apply for it4 ,sincerely yours1 ,charles ,m4 ,gates4 7#b7 #ehf ,state ,st41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,july #bj1aije4 ,mrs4 ,charles ,h4 ,mc,nett1 #bcde ,franklin ,st41 ,denver1 ,colorado4 ,dear ,madam3--,your card of ,july #ith is at hand4 ,we beg to say that we sent you the books by express1 prepaid1 ,july #ith1 and they have probably reached you by this time4 ,if you have not received them1 please notify us1 and we will send a tracer after them4 ,very truly yours1 ,brown and ,sherman4 7#c7 ,elgin ,high ,school1 ,elgin1 ,ill4 ,sept4 #d1 #aije4 ,miss ,ella ,b4 ,walker1 ,herkimer1 ,new ,york4 ,my dear ,miss ,walker3 ,i am very sorry to have to trouble you1 but ,i am desirous of obtaining some information concerning the ,high ,school ,library4 ,will you kindly let me know whether the card catalogue was kept up to date prior to your departure and also whether the accession book was in use up to that time8 ,i shall be greatly indebted to you if you will give me this information4 ,very sincerely yours1 ,edward ,j4 ,taylor4 ,,exercise ,write at least three of the following suggested letters1 paying attention to the rules for writing business letters3-- #a4 ,write to a dry goods firm1 asking them to send you one of their catalogues4 #b4 ,write to the manager of a football team of some town near yours1 proposing a game4 #c4 ,write the reply4 #d4 ,in reply to an advertisement1 write an application for the position of clerk or bookkeeper4 #e4 ,write to the publishers of some magazine1 asking them to change your address from #bg ,k ,street1 ,toledo1 ,ohio1 to #bjaa ,prospect ,avenue1 ,beatrice1 ,nebraska4 #f4 ,suppose yourself doing postgraduate work in your high school4 ,write to the president of some college1 asking him concerning advanced credit4 #ajb4 ,letters of ,friendship4--,while a great deal of information may be obtained from some letters of friendship1 the real purpose of such letters is1 usually1 not to give information1 but to entertain4 ,you will notice that the information derived from letters of friendship differs from that found in business letters4 ,its nature is such that of itself it gives pleasure4 ,our letters to our relatives1 friends1 and acquaintances are but visits on paper1 and it should be our purpose to make these visits as enjoyable as possible4 ,so much depends upon the circumstances attendant upon the writing of letters of friendship1 that it is impossible to make any definite statement as to what they should contain4 ,we may say in general that they should contain matter interesting to the recipient1 and that they should be characterized by vividness and naturalness4 ,interesting material is a requisite1 but that of itself is not sufficient to make an entertaining letter4 ,interesting material may be presented in so unattractive and lifeless a manner that much of its power to please is lost4 ,let your letters be full of life and spirit4 ,in your descriptions1 narrations1 and explanations1 express yourself so clearly and so vividly that those who read your letters will be able to understand exactly what you mean4 ,,exercises #a4 ,write a letter to a classmate who has moved to another town1 telling him of the school of which he was once a member4 #b4 ,write to a friend1 describing your visit to the ,world's ,fair at ,st4 ,louis4 #c4 ,suppose yourself away from home4 ,write a letter to your little brother or sister at home4 #d4 ,if you have ever been abroad1 describe in a letter some place of interest that you have visited4 #e4 ,write to a friend who is fond of camping1 about your camping experience4 #f4 ,suppose your mother is away from home on a visit4 ,write her about the home life4 #g4 ,write to a friend1 describing a party that you recently attended4 #h4 ,suppose you have moved from one town to another4 ,in a letter compare the two towns4 #ajc4 ,adaptation to the ,reader4--,the golden rule of letter writing is1 ,adapt the letter to the reader4 ,although the letter is an expression of yourself1 yet it should be that kind of expression which shall most interest and please your correspondent4 ,in business letters the necessity of brevity and clearness forces attention to the selection and arrangement of details4 ,in letters to members of the family or to intimate friends we must include many very minor things1 because we know that our correspondent will be interested in them1 but a rambling1 disjointed jumble of poorly selected and ill-arranged details becomes tedious4 ,what we should mention is determined by the interests of the readers1 and the successful letter writer will endeavor to know what they wish to have mentioned4 ,in writing letters to our friends we ought to show that sympathetic interest in them and their affairs which we should have if we were visiting with them4 ,on occasion1 our congratulations should be prompt and sincere4 ,in reading letters we must not be hasty to take offense4 ,many good friendships have been broken because some statement in a letter was misconstrued4 ,the written words convey a meaning very different from that which would have been given by the spoken word1 the tone of voice1 the smile1 and the personal presence4 ,so in our writing we must avoid all that which even borders on complaint1 or which may seem critical or fault-finding to the most sensitive4 #ajd4 ,notes4--,notes may be divided in a general way into two classes1 formal and informal4 ,formal notes include formal invitations1 replies1 requests1 and announcements4 ,informal notes include informal invitations and replies1 and also other short communications of a personal nature on almost every possible subject4 #aje4 ,formal ,notes4--,a formal invitation is always written in the third person4 ,the lines may be of the same length1 or they may be so arranged that the lines shall be of different lengths1 thus giving the page a somewhat more pleasing appearance4 ,the heading1 salutation1 complimentary close1 and signature are all omitted4 ,the address of the sender may be written below the body of the letter4 ,many prefer it a little to the left1 and the date is sometimes written below it4 ,others1 however1 prefer it directly below or a little to the right4 ,replies to formal invitations should always be written in the third person1 and should in general follow the style of the invitation4 ,the date and the hour of the invitation should be repeated in the reply1 and this reply should be sent immediately after receiving the invitation4 ,a few examples are here given to show the correct forms of both invitations and replies3-- 7#a7 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,frederick ,william ,thompson request the pleasure of your company on ,monday evening1 ,december thirtieth1 at half-past eight o'clock4 7#b7 ,miss ,barrows accepts with pleasure ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,thompson's invitation for ,monday evening1 ,december thirtieth1 at half-past eight o'clock4 7#c7 ,mr4 ,morris regrets that a previous engagement prevents his accepting ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,thompson's kind invitation for ,monday evening1 ,december the thirtieth4 7#d7 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,albert ,w4 ,elliott request the pleasure of ,mr4 ,john ,barker's company at dinner on ,wednesday1 ,december sixth1 at seven o'clock4 #ajfh ,euclid ,ave4 7#e7 ,mr4 ,barker regrets his inability to accept ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,albert ,w4 ,elliott's invitation to dinner at seven o'clock1 ,wednesday1 ,december sixth4 ,,exercise #a4 ,write an invitation to a golden wedding4 #b4 ,mrs4 ,homer ,a4 ,payne invites ,miss ,eva ,milton to dine with her next week ,thursday at eight o'clock4 ,write out a formal invitation4 #c4 ,write regrets to ,mrs4 ,payne's invitation4 #d4 ,write an acceptance of the same invitation4 #e4 ,write a formal invitation to a party to be given in honor of your guest1 ,miss ,grace ,mason4 #ajf4 ,informal ,notes4--,informal invitations and replies may contain the same subject-matter as formal invitations and replies4 ,the only difference is in the form in which they are written4 ,the informal invitation is in form similar to a letter except that the same exactness about the heading is not required4 ,sometimes the heading is written and sometimes it is omitted entirely4 ,the address of the one sending the invitation and the date may be written below the body of the note to the left of the signature4 ,the reply to an informal invitation should always be informal1 but the date and hour should be repeated as in replies to formal invitations4 ,a great many informal notes not included in invitations and replies are constantly written4 ,these are simply brief letters of friendship1 and the purposes for which they are written are exceedingly varied4 ,when we write congratulations or words of condolence1 when we introduce one friend to another1 when we thank some one for a gift1 and when we give words of advice1 and in many other instances1 we make use of informal notes4 ,they should be simple1 personal1 and as a rule confined to but one subject4 ,notice the following examples of informal notes3-- 7#a7 ,my dear ,mrs4 ,lathrop1 ,will you not give us the pleasure of your company at dinner1 on next ,friday evening at seven o'clock8 ,miss ,todd of ,philadelphia is visiting us1 and we wish our friends to meet her4 ,very sincerely yours1 ,ethel ,m4 ,trainor4 #hdj ,forest ,avenue1 ,dec4 #e1 #aije4 7#b7 ,dec4 #f1 #aije4 ,my dear ,mrs4 ,trainor1 ,i sincerely regret that ,i cannot accept your invitation to dinner next ,friday evening1 for ,i have made a previous engagement which it will be impossible for me to break4 ,yours most sincerely1 ,emma ,lathrop4 7#c7 ,my dear ,blanche1 ,mr4 ,gilmore and ,i are planning for a little party ,thursday evening of this week4 ,i hope you have no other engagement for that evening1 as we shall be pleased to have you with us4 ,very cordially yours1 ,margaret ,gilmore4 7#d7 ,my dear ,margaret1 ,fortunately ,i have no other engagement for this week ,thursday evening1 and ,i shall be delighted to spend an evening with you and your friends4 ,very sincerely yours1 ,blanche ,a4 ,church4 ,,exercise ,write the following informal notes3-- #a4 ,write to a friend1 asking him or her to lend you a book4 #b4 ,write an invitation to an informal trolley1 tennis1 or golf party4 #c4 ,write the reply4 #d4 ,invite one of your friends to spend his or her vacation with you4 #e4 ,write a note to your sister1 asking her to send you your theme that you left at home this morning4 #f4 ,mrs4 ,edgar ,a4 ,snow invites ,miss ,mabel ,minard to dine with her4 ,write out the invitation4 #g4 ,write the acceptance4 ,,vii4 ,,poetry ,footnote3 ,to the ,teacher4--,since the expression of ideas in metrical form is seldom the one best suited to the conditions of modern life1 it has not seemed desirable to continue the themes throughout this chapter4 ,the study of this chapter1 with suitable illustrations from the poems to which the pupils have access1 may serve to aid them in their appreciation of poetry4 ,this appreciation of poetry will be increased if the pupils attempt some constructive work4 ,it is recommended1 therefore1 that one or more of the simpler kinds of metrical composition be tried4 ,for example1 one or two good ballads may be read and the pupils asked to write similar ones4 ,some pupils may be able to write blank verse4 #ajg4 ,purpose of ,poetry4--,all writing aims to give information or to furnish entertainment 7,section #ed74 ,often the same theme may both inform and entertain1 though one of these purposes may be more prominent than the other4 ,prose may merely entertain1 or it may so distinctly attempt to set forth ideas clearly that the giving of pleasure is entirely neglected4 ,in poetry the entertainment side is never thus subordinated4 ,poetry always aims to please by the presentation of that which is beautiful4 ,all real poetry produces an aesthetic effect by appealing to our aesthetic sense2 that is1 to our love of the beautiful4 ,in making this appeal to our love of the beautiful1 poetry depends both upon the ideas it contains and upon the forms it uses4 ,like prose1 it may increase its aesthetic effect by appropriate phrasing1 effective arrangement1 and subtle suggestiveness1 but it also makes use of certain devices of language such as rhythm1 rhyme1 etc41 which1 though they may occur in writings that would be classed as prose1 are characteristic of poetry4 ,much depends upon the ideas that poetry contains2 for mere nonsense1 though in perfect rhyme and rhythm1 is not poetry4 ,but it is not the idea alone which makes a poem beautiful2 it is the form as well4 ,the merely trivial cannot be made beautiful by giving it poetical form1 but there are many poems containing ideas of small importance which please us because of the perfection of form4 ,we enjoy them as we do the singing of the birds or the murmuring of the brooks4 ,in fact1 poetry is inseparable from its characteristic forms4 ,to sort out1 re-arrange1 and paraphrase into second-class prose the ideas which a poem contains is a profitless and harmful exercise1 because it emphasizes the intellectual side of a work which was created for the purpose of appealing to our aesthetic sense4 #ajh4 ,rhythm4--,there are several forms characteristic of poetry1 by the use of which its beauty and effectiveness are enhanced4 ,of these1 rhythm is the most prominent one1 without which no poetry is possible4 ,in its widest sense1 rhythm indicates a regular succession of motions1 impulses1 sounds1 accents1 etc41 producing an agreeable effect4 ,rhythm in poetry consists of the recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables in regular succession4 ,in poetry1 care must be taken to make the accented syllable of a word come at the place where the rhythm demands an accent4 ,the regular recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables produces a harmony which appeals to our aesthetic sense and thus enhances for us the beauty of poetry4 ,read the following selections so as to show the rhythm3-- #a4 ,we were crowded in the cabin2 ,not a soul would dare to speak2 ,it was midnight on the waters ,and a storm was on the deep4 --,james ,t4 ,fields4 #b4 ,break1 break1 break1 ,at the foot of thy crags1 ,o sea6 ,but the tender grace of a day that is dead ,will never come back to me4 --,tennyson4 #c4 ,ah1 distinctly ,i remember1 it was in the bleak ,december1 ,and each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor --,poe4 #d4 ,sweet and low1 sweet and low1 ,wind of the western sea1 ,low1 low1 breathe and blow1 ,wind of the western sea6 ,over the rolling waters go1 ,come from the dying moon and blow1 ,blow him again to me2 ,while my little one1 while my pretty one sleeps4 --,tennyson4 #e4 ,stone walls do not a prison make1 ,nor iron bars a cage2 ,minds innocent and quiet take ,that for a hermitage4 --,lovelace4 #f4 ,merrily swinging on brier and weed1 ,near to the nest of his little dame1 ,over the mountain side or mead1 ,robert of ,lincoln is telling his name3 ,bob-o'-link1 bob-o'-link1 ,spink1 spank1 spink1 ,snug and safe is this nest of ours1 ,hidden among the summer flowers4 ,chee1 chee1 chee4 --,bryant4 #g4 ,grow old along with me6 ,the best is yet to be1 ,the last of life1 for which the first was made3 ,our times are in ,his hand ,who saith1 ,a whole ,i planned1 ,youth shows but half2 trust ,god3 see all1 nor be afraid6 --,browning4 #aji4 ,feet4--,the metrical effect of the preceding selections is produced by the regular recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables4 ,a group of accented and unaccented syllables is called a foot4 ,there are four regular feet in ,english verse1 the iambus1 the anapest1 the trochee1 and the dactyl4 ,three irregular feet1 the pyrrhic1 the spondee1 the amphibrach1 are occasionally found in lines1 but not in entire poems1 and are often considered merely as substitutes for regular feet4 ,for the sake of convenience the accented syllables are indicated thus3 1 and the unaccented syllables thus3 ,u4 ,an iambus is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the last4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,let not ambition mock their useful toil4 --,gray4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,he prayeth best who loveth best ,u ,u ,u ,all things both great and small2 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,for the dear ,god who loveth us1 ,u ,u ,u ,he made and loveth all4 --,coleridge4 ,an anapest is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on the last4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,i am monarch of all ,i survey4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,i would hide with the beasts of the chase4 ,a trochee is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the first4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,double1 double1 toil and trouble4 --,shakespeare4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,let us then be up and doing1 ,u ,u ,u ,with a heart for any fate1 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,still achieving1 still pursuing1 ,u ,u ,u ,learn to labor and to wait4 --,longfellow4 ,a dactyl is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on the first4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,cannon to right of them1 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,cannon to left of them1 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,cannon in front of them1 ,u ,u ,u ,volleyed and thundered4 --,tennyson4 ,it will be convenient to remember that two of these1 the iambus and the anapest1 have the accent on the last syllable1 and that two1 the trochee and the dactyl1 have the accent on the first syllable4 ,a spondee is a foot consisting of two syllables1 both of which are accented about equally4 ,it is an unusual foot in ,english poetry4 ,u ,u ,u ,come now1 blow1 ,wind1 and waft us o'er4 ,a pyrrhic is a foot consisting of two syllables both of which are unaccented4 ,it is frequently found at the end of a line4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,life is so full of misery4 ,an amphibrach is a foot consisting of three syllables1 with the accent on the second4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,creator1 ,preserver1 ,redeemer and friend4 #aaj4 ,names of ,verse4--,a single line of poetry is called a verse4 ,a stanza is composed of several verses4 ,when a verse consists of one foot1 it is called a monometer2 of two feet1 a dimeter2 of three feet1 a trimeter2 of four feet1 a tetrameter2 of five feet1 a pentameter2 and of six feet1 a hexameter4 ,u ,monometer4 ,slowly4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,dimeter4 ,emblem of happiness4 ,u ,u ,u ,trimeter4 ,like a poet hidden4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,tetrameter4 ,tell me not in mournful numbers4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,pentameter4 ,o1 what a goodly outside falsehood hath4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,hexameter4 ,this is the forest primeval2 the murmuring pines and ,u ,u the hemlocks4 ,when we say that a verse is of any particular kind1 we do not mean that every foot in that line is necessarily of the same kind4 ,verse is named by stating first the prevailing foot which composes it1 and second the number of feet in a line4 ,a verse having four iambic feet is called iambic tetrameter4 ,so we have dactylic hexameter1 trochaic pentameter1 iambic trimeter1 anapestic dimeter1 etc4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,mark the accented and unaccented syllables in the following selections1 and name the kind of verse3-- #a4 ,build me straight1 ,o worthy ,master6 ,stanch and strong1 a goodly vessel ,that shall laugh at all disaster ,and with wave and whirlwind wrestle4 --,longfellow4 #b4 ,i know not where ,his islands lift ,their fronded palms in air1 ,i only know ,i cannot drift ,beyond ,his love and care4 --,whittier4 #c4 ,for tho' from out our bourne of ,time and ,place ,the flood may bear me far1 ,i hope to see my ,pilot face to face ,when ,i have crossed the bar4 --,tennyson4 #d4 ,chanting of labor and craft1 and of ,wealth in the pot and the garner2 ,chanting of valor and fame1 and the man who can1 fall with the foremost1 ,fighting for children and wife1 and the field which his father bequeathed him1 ,sweetly and solemnly sang she1 and planned new lessons for mortals4 --,kingsley4 #e4 ,have you read in the ,talmud of old1 ,in the ,legends the ,rabbins have told1 ,of the limitless realms of the air1 ,have you read it1--the marvelous story ,of ,sandalphon1 the ,angel of ,glory1 ,of ,sandalphon1 the ,angel of ,prayer8 --,longfellow4 ,b4 #a4 ,find three poems written in iambic verse1 and three written in trochaic verse4 #b4 ,write at least one stanza1 using iambic verse4 #c4 ,write at least one stanza1 using the same kind of verse that you find in ,tennyson's ,charge of the ,light ,brigade4 #d4 ,write two anapestic lines4 #aaa4 ,variation in ,rhythm4--,the name given to a verse is determined by the foot which prevails1 but not every foot in the line needs to be of the same kind4 ,just as in music we may substitute a quarter for two eighth notes1 so may we in poetry substitute one foot for another1 provided it is given the same amount of time4 ,notice in the following that the rhythm is perfect and the beat regular1 although a three-syllable anapest has been substituted in the second line for a two-syllable iambus3-- ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,beneath those rugged elms1 that yew tree's shade1 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,where heaves the turf in many a moldring heap1 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,each in his narrow cell for ever laid1 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,the rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep4 ,the following from ,evangeline illustrates the substitution of trochees for dactyls3-- ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,waste are those pleasant farms1 and the farmers forever departed4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,scattered like dust and leaves1 when the mighty blasts of ,october ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,seize them and whirl them aloft1 and sprinkle them far o'er the ocean4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,naught but tradition remains of the beautiful village of ,grand-,pre4 ,it is evident that one foot can be substituted for another if the accent is not changed4 ,since both the iambus and the anapest are accented on the last syllable1 they may be interchanged4 ,the trochee and the dactyl are both accented on the first syllable and may1 therefore1 be interchanged4 ,there are some exceptions to the general rule that in substituting one foot for another the accented syllable must be kept in the same part of the foot4 ,occasionally a poem in which the prevailing foot is iambic has a trochee for the first foot of a line in order that it may begin with an accented syllable4 ,at the beginning of a line the change of accent is scarcely noticeable4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,over the rail my hand ,i trail4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,silent the crumbling bridge we cross6 ,but if the reader has once fallen into the swing of iambic verse1 the substitution of a trochee will bring the accent at an unexpected place1 interrupt the smooth flow of the rhythm1 and produce a harsh and jarring effect4 ,such a change of accent is justified only when the sense of the verse leads the reader to expect the changed accent1 or when the emphasis thus given to the sense of the poem more than compensates for the break in the rhythm produced by the change of accent4 ,another form of metrical variation is that in which there are too few or too many syllables in a foot4 ,this generally occurs at the end of a line1 but may occur at the beginning4 ,if a syllable is added or omitted skillfully1 the rhythm will be unbroken4 ,when the feet are accented on the last syllable1--that is1 when the verse is iambic or anapestic1--an extra syllable may be added at the end of a line4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,i stood on the bridge at midnight1 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,as the clocks were striking the hour2 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,and the ,moon rose o'er the city1 ,u ,u ,u ,behind the dark church tower4 --,longfellow4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,girt round with rugged mountains1 the fair ,lake ,constance lies1 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,in her blue heart reflected shine back the starry skies2 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,and watching each white cloudlet float silently and slow1 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,you think a piece of heaven lies on our earth below4 --,adelaide ,a4 ,procter4 ,in the second illustration the extra syllables have the same relative position in the metrical scheme as in the first1 though they appear to be in the middle of the line4 ,the pauses fill in the time and preserve the rhythm unbroken4 ,when the feet are accented on the first syllable--as in trochaic or dactylic verse--a syllable may be omitted from the end of a line as in the second and fourth below4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,up with the lark in the first flush of morning1 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,ere the world wakes to its work or its play2 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,off for a spin to the wide-stretching country1 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,far from the close1 stifling city away4 ,sometimes we find it necessary to suppress a syllable in order to make the rhythm more nearly perfect4 ,syllables may be suppressed in two ways3 by suppressing a vowel at the end of a word when the next word commences with a vowel2 by suppressing a vowel within a word4 ,the former method is termed elision1 and the latter1 slurring4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,thou glorious mirror where the ,almighty's form ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,glasses itself in tempests4 --,byron4 ,an accented syllable often takes the place of an entire foot4 ,this occurs most frequently at the end of a line1 but it is sometimes found at the beginning4 ,occasionally whole lines are formed in this way4 ,if a pause or rest is made1 the rhythm will be unbroken4 u u u ,break1 break1 break1 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,on thy cold gray stones1 ,o sea6 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,and ,i would that my tongue could utter ,u ,u ,u ,u ,the thoughts that arise in me4 --,tennyson4 ,we frequently find verses in which a syllable is lacking at the close of the line2 we also find many verses in which an extra syllable is added4 ,verse that contains the number of syllables required by its meter is said to be acatalectic2 if it contains more than the required number of syllables1 it is said to be hypercatalectic2 and if it lacks a syllable1 it is termed catalectic4 ,it is difficult to tell whether a line has the required number of syllables or not when it is taken by itself2 but by comparing it with the line prevailing in the rest of the stanza we are enabled to tell whether it is complete or not4 ,shakespeare's ,julius ,caesar is written in iambic pentameter verse4 ,knowing this1 we can detect the hypercatalectic and catalectic lines4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,you all did see that on the ,lupercal ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,i thrice presented him a kingly crown ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,which he did thrice refuse4 ,was this ambition8 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,yet ,brutus says he was ambitious4 --,shakespeare4 #aab4 ,cesura4--,besides the pauses caused by rests or silences there is the cesural pause which needs to be considered in reading verse4 ,a cesura is a pause determined by the sense4 ,it coincides with some break in the sense4 ,it is found in different parts of the verse and may be entirely lacking4 ,its observance does not noticeably interfere with the rhythm4 ,in the following selection it is marked thus3 4 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,the sun came up upon the left1 ,u ,u ,u ,out of the sea came he2 ,u ,u ,u ,u ,and he shone bright1 and on the right ,u ,u ,u ,went down into the sea --,coleridge4 ,lives of great men all remind us ,we can make our lives sublime1 ,and1 departing1 leave behind us1 ,footprints on the sands of time4 --,longfellow4 ,read the selections on page #aig so as to indicate the position of the cesural pauses4 #aac4 ,scansion4--,scansion is the separation of a line into the feet which compose it4 ,in order to scan a line we must determine the rhythmic movement of it4 ,the rhythmic movement determines the accented syllables4 ,sometimes in scanning1 merely the accented syllables are marked4 ,usually the whole metrical scheme is indicated1 as in the examples on page #aii4 ,,exercise ,scan the following selections4 ,note substitutions and elusions4 #a4 ,the night has a thousand eyes1 ,and the day but one2 ,yet the light of the bright world dies ,with the dying sun4 ,the mind has a thousand eyes1 ,and the heart but one2 ,yet the light of a whole life dies ,when love is gone4 --,francis ,w4 ,bourdillon4 #b4 ,laugh1 and the world laughs with you1 ,weep1 and you weep alone2 ,for the sad old earth must borrow its mirth1 ,but has trouble enough of its own4 --,ella ,wheeler ,wilcox4 #c4 ,hear the robin in the rain1 ,not a note does he complain4 ,but he fills the storm refrain ,with music of his own4 --,charles ,coke ,woode4 #d4 ,the mistletoe hung in the castle hall1 ,the holly branch shone on the old back wall ,and the baron's retainers are blithe and gay1 ,and keeping their ,christmas holiday4 --,thomas ,haynes ,bagley4 #aad4 ,rhyme4--,rhyme is a regular recurrence of similar sounds4 ,in a broad sense1 it may include sounds either terminal or not1 but as here used it refers to terminal sounds4 ,just as we expect a recurrence of accent in a line1 so may we expect a recurrence of similar sounds at the end of certain lines of poetry4 ,the interval between the rhymes may be of different lengths in different poems1 but when the interval is once established1 it should be followed throughout the poem4 ,a rhyme out of place jars upon the rhythmic perfection of a stanza just as an accent out of place interferes with the rhythm of the verse4 ,not only should the rhymes occur at expected places1 but they should be the expected rhymes2 that is1 real rhymes4 ,if we are expecting a word which will rhyme with blossom and find bosom1 or if we are expecting a rhyme for breath and find beneath1 the effect is unpleasant4 ,the rhymes named above are based on spelling1 while a real rhyme is based on sound4 ,a correct rhyme should have precisely the same vowel sounds and the final consonants should be the same1 but the initial consonant should be different4 ,for example3 death1 breath2 home1 roam2 tongue1 young2 debating1 relating4 ,notice the arrangement of the rhymes in the following selections3-- #a4 ,my soul to-day is far away1 ,sailing the ,vesuvian ,bay2 ,my winged boat1 a bird afloat1 ,swims round the purple peaks remote4 --,t4 ,buchanan ,read4 #b4 ,i come from haunts of coot and hern1 ,i make a sudden sally1 ,and sparkle out among the fern1 ,to bicker down the valley4 ,by thirty hills ,i hurry down1 ,or slip between the ridges1 ,by twenty thorps1 a little town1 ,and half a hundred bridges4 --,tennyson4 #c4 ,i know it is a sin ,for me to sit and grin ,at him here2 ,but the old three-cornered hat ,and the breeches1 and all that1 ,are so queer6 --,holmes4 #d4 ,the splendor falls on castle walls ,and snowy summits old in story2 ,the long light shakes across the lakes ,and the wild cataract leaps in glory4 ,blow1 bugle1 blow1 set the wild echoes flying2 ,blow1 bugle2 answer1 echoes1 dying1 dying1 dying4 --,tennyson4 #e4 ,breathes there a man with soul so dead ,who never to himself hath said1 ,this is my own1 my native land6 ,whose heart hath ne'er within him burned ,as home his footsteps he hath turned ,from wandering in a foreign strand6 ,if such there be1 go mark him well3 ,for him no minstrel raptures swell2 ,high though his titles1 proud his name1 ,boundless his wealth as wish can claim3 ,despite those titles1 power1 and pelf1 ,the wretch concentered all in self1 ,living1 shall forfeit fair renown ,and1 doubly dying1 shall go down ,to the vile dust from whence he sprung1 ,unwept1 unhonored1 and unsung4 --,scott4 #aae4 ,blank ,verse4--,when rhyme is omitted1 we have blank verse4 ,this is the most dignified of all kinds of verse1 and is1 therefore1 appropriate for epic and dramatic poetry1 where it is chiefly found4 ,most blank verse makes use of the iambic pentameter measure1 but we find many exceptions4 ,read the following examples of blank verse so as to show the rhythm3-- #a4 ,so live1 that when thy summons comes to join ,the innumerable caravan that moves ,to the pale realms of shade1 where each shall take ,his chamber in the silent halls of death1 ,thou go not like the quarry slave at night ,scourged to his dungeon1 but1 sustained and soothed ,by an unfaltering trust1 approach the grave ,like one who wraps the drapery of his couch ,about him1 and lies down to pleasant dreams4 --,bryant4 #b4 ,i stood upon the steps-- ,the last who left the door--and there ,i found ,the lady and her friend4 ,the elder turned ,and with a cordial greeting took my hand1 ,and rallied me on my forgetfulness4 ,her eyes1 her smile1 her manner1 and her voice4 ,touched the quick springs of memory1 and ,i spoke ,her name4 ,she was my mother's early friend ,whose face ,i had not seen in all the years ,that had flown over us1 since1 from her door1 ,i chased her lamb to where ,i found--myself4 --,holland4 #aaf4 ,the ,stanza4--,some of our verse is continuous like ,milton's ,paradise ,lost or ,shakespeare's plays1 but much of it is divided into groups called stanzas4 ,the lines or verses composing a stanza are bound together by definite principles of rhythm and rhyme4 ,usually stanzas of the same poem have the same structure1 but stanzas of different poems show a variety of structure4 ,two of the most simple forms are the couplet and the triplet4 ,they often form a part of a continuous poem1 but they are occasionally found in divided poems4 #a4 ,the western waves of ebbing day ,roll'd o'er the glen their level way4 --,scott4 #b4 ,a chieftain's daughter seemed the maid2 ,her satin snood1 her silken plaid1 ,her golden brooch such birth betray'd4 --,scott4 ,a stanza of four lines is called a quatrain4 ,the lines of quatrains show a variety in the arrangement of their rhymes4 ,the first two lines may rhyme with each other and the last two with each other2 the first and fourth may rhyme and the second and third2 or the rhymes may alternate4 ,notice the example on page #bjh1 and also the following3-- #a4 ,i ask not wealth1 but power to take ,and use the things ,i have aright4 ,not years1 but wisdom that shall make ,my life a profit and delight4 --,phoebe ,cary4 #b4 ,i count this thing to be grandly true3 ,that a noble deed is a step toward ,god1-- ,lifting the soul from the common sod ,to a purer air and a broader view4 --,holland4 ,a quatrain consisting of iambic pentameter verse with alternate rhymes is called an elegiac stanza4 ,now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight1 ,and all the air a solemn stillness holds1 ,save where the beetle wheels his droning flight1 ,and drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds4 --,gray4 ,the ,tennysonian stanza consists of four iambic tetrameter lines in which the first line rhymes with the fourth1 and the second with the third4 ,let knowledge grow from more to more1 ,but more of reverence in us dwell2 ,that mind and soul1 according well1 ,may make one music as before4 --,tennyson4 ,five and six line stanzas are found in a great variety4 ,the following are examples3-- #a4 ,we look before and after1 ,and pine for what is not2 ,our sincerest laughter ,with some pain is fraught2 ,our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought4 --,shelley4 #b4 ,and if ,i should live to be ,the last leaf upon the tree ,in the spring4 ,let them smile as ,i do now1 ,at the old forsaken bough ,where ,i cling4 --,holmes4 #c4 ,the upper air burst into life2 ,and a hundred fire flags sheen1 ,to and fro they were hurried about2 ,and to and fro1 and in and out1 ,the wan stars danced between4 --,coleridge4 ,the ,spenserian stanza consists of nine lines3 the first eight are iambic pentameters1 and the last line is an iambic hexameter or ,alexandrine4 ,burns makes use of this stanza in ,the ,cotter's ,saturday ,night4 ,the following stanza from that poem shows the plan of the rhymes3-- ,o ,scotia6 my dear1 my native soil6 ,for whom my warmest wish to ,heaven is sent6 ,long may thy hardy sons of rustic toil ,be blest with health1 and peace1 and sweet content6 ,and oh6 may ,heaven their simple lives prevent ,from luxury's contagion1 weak and vile6 ,then1 howe'er crowns and coronets be rent1 ,a virtuous populace may rise the while1 ,and stand a wall of fire around their much beloved isle4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,scan the following3-- ,our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting3 ,the soul that rises with us1 our life's star1 ,hath had elsewhere its setting1 ,and cometh from afar3 ,not in entire forgetfulness1 ,and not in utter nakedness1 ,but trailing clouds of glory do we come ,from ,god1 who is our home4 --,wordsworth4 ,into the sunshine1 ,full of light1 ,leaping and flashing ,from morn to night6 --,lowell4 ,b4 ,name each verse in the following stanza3-- ,hear the sledges with the bells-- ,silver bells6 ,what a world of merriment their melody foretells6 ,how they tinkle1 tinkle1 tinkle1 ,in the icy air of night6 ,while the stars that oversprinkle ,all the heavens seem to twinkle ,with a crystalline delight-- ,keeping time1 time1 time1 ,in a sort of ,runic rhyme ,to the tintinnabulation that so musically wells ,from the bells1 bells1 bells1 bells1 ,bells1 bells1 bells-- ,from the jingling and the tinkling of the bells4 --,poe4 #aag4 ,kinds of ,poetry4-,there are three general classes of poetry3 narrative1 lyric1 and dramatic4 ,a4 ,narrative poetry1 as may be inferred from its name1 relates events which may be either real or imaginary4 ,its chief varieties are the epic1 the metrical romance or lesser epic1 the tale1 and the ballad4 ,an epic poem is an extended narrative of an elevated character that deals with heroic exploits which are frequently under supernatural control4 ,this kind of poetry is characterized by the intricacy of plot1 by the delineation of noble types of character1 by its descriptive effects1 by its elevated language1 and by its seriousness of tone4 ,the epic is considered as the highest effort of man's poetic genius4 ,it is so difficult to produce an epic that but few literatures contain more than one4 ,homer's ,iliad and ,odyssey1 ,virgil's ,aeneid1 the ,german ,nibelungenlied1 the ,spanish ,cid1 ,dante's ,divine ,comedy1 and ,milton's ,paradise ,lost are important epics found in different literatures4 ,a metrical romance or lesser epic is a narrative poem1 shorter and less dignified than the epic4 ,longfellow's ,evangeline and ,scott's ,marmion and ,lady of the ,lake are examples of this kind of poetry4 ,a metrical tale is a narrative poem somewhat simpler and shorter than the metrical romance1 but more complex than the ballad4 ,longfellow's ,tales of a ,wayside ,inn1 ,tennyson's ,enoch ,arden1 and ,lowell's ,vision of ,sir ,launfal are examples of the tale4 ,a ballad is the shortest and most simple of all narrative poems4 ,it relates but a single incident and has a very simple structure4 ,in this kind of poetry the interest centers upon the incident rather than upon any beauty or elegance of language4 ,many of the ,robin ,hood ,ballads are well known4 ,macaulay's ,lays of ,ancient ,rome and ,longfellow's ,wreck of the ,hesperus are other examples of the ballad4 ,it may be well to note here that it is not always possible to draw definite lines between two different kinds of narrative poetry4 ,in fact1 there will sometimes be a difference of opinion as regards the classification4 ,b4 ,lyric poetry was the name originally applied to poetry that was to be sung to the accompaniment of the lyre1 but now the name is often applied to poems that are not intended to be sung at all4 ,lyric poetry deals primarily with the feelings and emotions4 ,love1 hate1 jealousy1 grief1 hope1 and praise are emotions that may be expressed in lyric poetry4 ,its chief varieties are the song1 the ode1 the elegy1 and the sonnet4 ,a song is a short poem intended to be sung4 ,songs may be divided into sacred and secular4 ,jerusalem1 the ,golden1 and ,lead1 ,kindly ,light1 are examples of sacred songs4 ,secular songs may be patriotic1 convivial1 or sentimental4 ,an ode expresses exalted emotion and is more complex in structure than the song4 ,some of the best odes in our language are ,dryden's ,ode to ,st4 ,cecilia1 ,wordsworth's ,ode on ,intimations of ,immortality1 ,keats's ,ode on a ,grecian ,urn1 ,shelley's ,ode to a ,skylark1 and ,lowell's ,commemoration ,ode4 ,an elegy is a lyric pervaded by the feeling of grief or melancholy4 ,milton's ,lycidas1 ,tennyson's ,in ,memoriam1 and ,gray's ,elegy in a ,country ,churchyard are all noted elegies4 ,a sonnet is a lyric poem of fourteen lines which deals with a single idea or sentiment4 ,it is not a stanza taken from a poem1 but is a complete poem itself4 ,in the ,italian sonnet and those modeled after it1 the emotional feeling rises through the first two quatrains1 reaching its climax at or near the end of the eighth line1 and then subsides through the two tercets which make up the remaining six lines4 ,if the sentiment expressed does not adjust itself to this ebb and flow1 it is not suitable for a sonnet4 ,milton's sonnet on his blindness is one of the best4 ,notice the emotional transition in the middle of the eighth line4 ,this sonnet will also illustrate the fixed rhyme scheme3-- ,when ,i consider how my light is spent ,ere half my days1 in this dark world and wide1 ,and that one talent1 which is death to hide1 ,lodged with me useless1 though my soul more bent ,to serve therewith my ,maker1 and present ,my true account1 lest he1 returning1 chide2 ,doth ,god exact day labor1 light denied8 ,i fondly ask4 ,but ,patience1 to prevent ,that murmur1 soon replies1 ,god doth not need1 ,either man's work or his own gifts4 ,who best ,bear his mild yoke1 they serve him best4 ,his state ,is kingly2 thousands at his bidding speed1 ,and post o'er land and ocean without rest2 ,they also serve who only stand and wait4 ,there is a form of sonnet called the ,shakespearean which differs in its arrangement from the ,italian sonnet4 ,c4 ,dramatic poetry relates the occurrence of human events1 and is designed to be spoken on the stage4 ,if the drama has an unhappy ending1 it is a tragedy4 ,as is becoming in such a theme1 the language is dignified and impressive1 and the whole appeals to our deeper emotions4 ,if the drama has a happy conclusion1 it is a comedy4 ,here the movement is quicker1 the language less dignified1 and the effort is to make the whole light and amusing4 ,,part ,,ii ,description1 ,narration1 ,exposition1 and ,argument have been treated in an elementary way in ,part ,i4 ,a more extensive treatment of each is given in ,part ,,ii4 ,it has been deemed undesirable to repeat in ,part ,,ii many things which have been previously treated4 ,the treatment of any one of the forms of discourse as given in ,part ,,ii is not complete4 ,by reference to the index all the sections treating of any phase of any one subject may be found4 ,illustration3 ,see page #bbd1 ,c4 ,,viii4 ,,description #aah4 ,description ,defined4--,by means of our senses we gain a knowledge of the world4 ,we see1 hear1 taste1 smell1 and feel2 and the ideas so acquired are the fundamental elements of our knowledge1 without which thinking would be impossible4 ,it1 therefore1 happens that much of the language that we use has for its purpose the transmission to others of such ideas4 ,such writing is called description4 ,we may1 therefore1 define description as that form of discourse which has for its purpose the formation of an image4 ,as here used1 the term image applies to any idea presented by the senses4 ,in a more limited sense it means the mental picture which is formed by aid of sight4 ,it is for the purpose of presenting images of this kind that description is most often employed4 ,it is most frequently concerned with images of objects seen1 less frequently with sounds1 and seldom with ideas arising through touch1 taste1 and smell4 ,in this chapter1 therefore1 we shall consider chiefly the methods of using language for the purpose of arousing images of objects seen4 #aai4 ,order of ,observation4--,in description we shall find it of advantage to use such language that the reader will form the image in the same way as he would form an image from actual observation4 ,there is a customary and natural order of observation1 and if we present our material in that same order1 the mind more easily forms the desired image4 ,our first need in the study of description is to determine what this natural order of observation is4 ,look at the building across the street4 ,your first impression is that of size1 shape1 and color4 ,almost instantly1 but nevertheless secondly1 you add certain details as to roof1 door1 windows1 and surroundings4 ,further observation adds to the number of details1 such as the size of the window panes or the pattern of the lattice work4 ,our first glance may assure us that we see a train1 our second will tell us how many cars1 our third will show us that each car is marked ,michigan ,central4 ,the oftener we look or the longer we look1 the greater is the number of details of which we become conscious4 ,any number of illustrations will show that we first see the general outline1 and after that the details4 ,we do not observe the details one by one and then combine them into an object1 but we first see the object as a whole1 and our first impression becomes more vivid as we add detail after detail4 ,following this natural order of observation a description should begin with a sentence that will give the reader a general impression of the whole4 ,notice the beginnings of the following selections4 ,after reading the italicized sentence in each1 consider the image that it has caused you to form4 ,the door opened upon the main or living room4 ,it was a long apartment with low ceiling and walls of hewn logs chinked and plastered and all beautifully whitewashed and clean4 ,the tables1 chairs1 and benches were all homemade4 ,on the floor were magnificent skins of wolf1 bear1 musk ox1 and mountain goat4 ,the walls were decorated with heads and horns of deer and mountain sheep1 eagle's wings1 and a beautiful breast of a loon1 which ,gwen had shot and of which she was very proud4 ,at one end of the room a huge stone fireplace stood radiant in its summer decorations of ferns and grasses and wildflowers4 ,at the other end a door opened into another room1 smaller1 and richly furnished with relics of former grandeur4 --,connor3 ,the ,sky ,pilot4 ,the stranger was of middle height1 loosely knit and thin1 with a cunning1 brutal face4 ,he had a bullet-shaped head1 with fine1 soft1 reddish brown hair2 a round1 stubbly beard shot with gray2 and small1 beady eyes set close together4 ,he was clothed in an old1 black1 grotesquely fitting cutaway coat1 with coarse trousers tucked into his boot tops4 ,a worn visored cloth cap was on his head4 ,in his right hand he carried an old muzzle-loading shotgun4 --,george ,kibbe ,turner3 ,across the ,state 7,mc,clure's74 #abj4 ,the ,fundamental ,image4--,the first impression of the object as a whole is called the fundamental image4 ,the beginning of a description should cause the reader to form a correct general outline1 which will include the main characteristics of the object described4 ,while the fundamental image lacks definiteness and exactness1 yet it must be such that it shall not need to be revised as we add the details4 ,if one should begin a description by saying1 ,opposite the church there is a large two-story1 brick house with a conservatory on the left1 the reader would form at once a mental picture including the essential features of the house4 ,further statements about the roof1 the windows1 the doors1 the porch1 the yard1 and the fence1 would each add something to the picture until it was complete4 ,the impression with which the reader started would be added to1 but not otherwise changed4 ,but if we should conclude the description with the statement1 ,this house was distinguished from its neighbors by the fact that it was not of the usual rectangular form1 but was octagonal in shape1 the reader would find that the image which he had formed would need to be entirely changed4 ,it is evident that if the word octagonal is to appear at all1 it must be at the beginning4 ,care must be taken to place all the words that affect the fundamental image in the sentence that gives the general characteristics of that which we are describing4 ,hawthorne begins ,the ,house of the ,seven ,gables as follows3-- ,halfway down a by-street of one of our ,new ,england towns stands a rusty wooden house1 with seven acutely peaked gables1 facing towards various points of the compass1 and a huge1 clustered chimney in the midst4 ,the street is ,pyncheon street2 the house is the old ,pyncheon house2 and an elm tree1 of wide circumference1 rooted before the door1 is familiar to every town-born child by the title of the ,pyncheon elm4 ,on my occasional visits to the town aforesaid1 ,i seldom failed to turn down ,pyncheon street1 for the sake of passing through the shadow of these two antiquities1--the great elm tree and the weather-beaten edifice4 ,later he gives a detailed description of the house on the morning of its completion as follows3-- ,maule's lane1 or ,pyncheon street1 as it were now more decorous to call it1 was thronged1 at the appointed hour1 as with a congregation on its way to church4 ,all1 as they approached1 looked upward at the imposing edifice1 which was henceforth to assume its rank among the habitations of mankind4 ,there it rose1 a little withdrawn from the line of the street1 but in pride1 not modesty4 ,its whole visible exterior was ornamented with quaint figures1 conceived in the grotesqueness of a ,gothic fancy1 and drawn or stamped in the glittering plaster1 composed of lime1 pebbles1 and bits of glass1 with which the woodwork of the walls was overspread4 ,on every side the seven gables pointed sharply towards the sky1 and presented the aspect of a whole sisterhood of edifices1 breathing through the spiracles of one great chimney4 ,the many lattices1 with their small1 diamond-shaped panes1 admitted the sunlight into hall and chamber1 while1 nevertheless1 the second story1 projecting far over the base1 and itself retiring beneath the third1 threw a shadowy and thoughtful gloom into the lower rooms4 ,carved globes of wood were affixed under the jutting stories4 ,little spiral rods of iron beautified each of the seven peaks4 ,on the triangular portion of the gable1 that fronted next the street1 was a dial1 put up that very morning1 and on which the sun was still marking the passage of the first bright hour in a history that was not destined to be all so bright4 ,all around were scattered shavings1 chips1 shingles1 and broken halves of bricks2 these1 together with the lately turned earth1 on which the grass had not begun to grow1 contributed to the impression of strangeness and novelty proper to a house that had yet its place to make among men's daily interests4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,select the sentence or part of a sentence which gives the fundamental image in each of the following selections3-- #a4 ,it was a big1 smooth-stone-faced house1 product of the ',seventies1 frowning under an outrageously insistent ,mansard1 capped by a cupola1 and staring out of long windows overtopped with ornamental slabs4 ,two cast-iron deer1 painted death-gray1 twins of the same mold1 stood on opposite sides of the front walk1 their backs toward it and each other1 their bodies in profile to the street1 their necks bent1 however1 so that they gazed upon the passer-by--yet gazed without emotion4 ,two large1 calm dogs guarded the top of the steps leading to the front door2 they also were twins and of the same interesting metal1 though honored beyond the deer by coats of black paint and shellac4 --,booth ,tarkington3 ,the ,conquest of ,canaan 7,harper's74 #b4 ,at the first glance1 ,phoebe saw an elderly personage1 in an old-fashioned dressing gown of faded damask1 and wearing his gray or almost white hair of an unusual length4 ,it quite overshadowed his forehead1 except when he thrust it back1 and stared vaguely about the room4 ,after a very brief inspection of his face1 it was easy to conceive that his footstep must necessarily be such an one as that which1 slowly1 and with as indefinite an aim as a child's first journey across a floor1 had just brought him hitherward4 ,yet there were no tokens that his physical strength might not have sufficed for a free and determined gait4 ,it was the spirit of a man that could not walk4 ,the expression of his countenance--while1 notwithstanding1 it had the light of reason in it-- seemed to waver1 and glimmer1 and nearly to die away1 and feebly to recover itself again4 ,it was like a flame which we see twinkling among half-extinguished embers2 we gaze at it more intently than if it were a positive blaze1 gushing vividly upward--more intently1 but with a certain impatience1 as if it ought either to kindle itself into satisfactory splendor1 or be at once extinguished4 --,hawthorne3 ,the ,house of the ,seven ,gables4 #c4 ,one of the best known of the flycatchers all over the country is the kingbird4 ,he is a little smaller than a robin1 and all in brownish black1 with white breast4 ,he has also white tips to his tail feathers1 which look very fine when he spreads it out wide in flying4 ,among the head feathers of the kingbird is a small spot of orange color4 ,this is called in the books a concealed patch1 because it is seldom seen1 it is so hidden by the dark feathers4 --,mary ,rogers ,miller3 ,the ,brook ,book4 7,copyright1 #aijb1 by ,doubleday1 ,page and ,co47 ,notice the use of a comparison in establishing a correct fundamental image in example #c4 ,b4 ,select five buildings with which the members of the class are familiar4 ,write a single sentence for each1 giving the fundamental image4 ,read these sentences to the class4 ,let them determine for which building each is written4 ,c4 ,notice the pictures on page #bah4 ,write a single sentence for each1 giving the fundamental image4 ,theme ,,lii4--,write a paragraph1 describing something with which you are familiar4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,the county court house4 #b4 ,the new church4 #c4 ,my neighbor's house4 #d4 ,where we go fishing4 #e4 ,a neighboring lake4 #f4 ,a cozy nook4 7,underscore the sentence that gives the fundamental image4 ,will the reader get from it at once a correct general outline of the object to be described8 ,will he need to change the fundamental image as your description proceeds87 #aba4 ,point of ,view4--,what we shall see first depends upon the point of view4 ,seen from one position1 an object or a landscape will present a different appearance from that which it will present when viewed from another position4 ,a careful writer will give that fundamental image that would come from actual observation if the reader were looking at the scene described from the point of view chosen by the writer4 ,he will not include details that cannot be seen from that position even though he knows that they exist4 ,notice that the following descriptions include only that which can be seen from the place indicated in the italicized phrases3-- ,forward from the bridge he beheld a landscape of wide valleys and irregular heights1 with groves and lakes and fanciful houses linked together by white paths and shining streams4 ,the valleys were spread below1 that the river might be poured upon them for refreshment in day of drought1 and they were as green carpets figured with beds and fields of flowers and flecked with flocks of sheep white as balls of snow2 and the voices of shepherds following the flocks were heard afar4 ,as if to tell him of the pious inscription of all he beheld1 the altars out under the open sky seemed countless1 each with a white-gowned figure attending it1 while processions in white went slowly hither and thither between them2 and the smoke of the altars half risen hung collected in pale clouds over the devoted places4 ,wallace3 ,ben-,hur4 7,copyright1 #ahhj4 ,harper and ,bros47 ,the house stood unusually near the river1 facing eastward1 and standing four-square1 with an immense veranda about its sides1 and a flight of steps in front1 spreading broadly downward1 as we open our arms to a child4 ,from the veranda nine miles of river were seen2 and in their compass near at hand1 the shady garden full of rare and beautiful flowers2 farther away broad fields of cane and rice1 and the distant quarters of the slaves1 and on the horizon everywhere a dark belt of cypress forest4 --,cable3 ,old ,creole ,days4 #abb4 ,selection of ,details ,affected by ,point of ,view4--,a skillful writer will not ask his reader to perform impossible feats4 ,we cannot see the leaves upon a tree a mile away1 and so should not describe them4 ,the finer effects and more minute details should be included only when our chosen point of view brings us near enough to appreciate them4 ,in the selection below1 ,stevenson tells only as much about ,swanston cottage as can be seen at a distance of six miles4 ,so saying she carried me around the battlements towards the opposite or southern side of the fortress and indeed to a bastion almost immediately overlooking the place of our projected flight4 ,thence we had a view of some foreshortened suburbs at our feet1 and beyond of a green1 open1 and irregular country rising towards the ,pentland ,hills4 ,the face of one of these summits 7say two leagues from where we stood7 is marked with a procession of white scars4 ,and to this she directed my attention4 ,you see those marks8 she said4 ,we call them the ,seven ,sisters4 ,follow a little lower with your eye1 and you will see a fold of the hill1 the tops of some trees1 and a tail of smoke out of the midst of them4 ,that is ,swanston cottage1 where my brother and ,i are living4 --,stevenson3 ,st4 ,ives4 7,copyright1 #ahig4 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons47 ,notice in the selection below that for objects near at hand details so small as the lizard's eye are given1 but that these details are not given1 when we are asked to observe things far away4 ,slow though their march had been1 by this time they had come to the end of the avenue1 and were in the wide circular sweep before the castle4 ,they stopped here and stood looking off over the garden1 with its somber cypresses and bright beds of geranium1 down upon the valley1 dim and luminous in a mist of gold4 ,great1 heavy1 fantastic-shaped clouds1 pearl-white with pearl-gray shadows1 piled themselves up against the scintillant dark blue of the sky4 ,in and out among the rose trees near at hand1 where the sun was hottest1 heavily flew1 with a loud bourdonnement1 the cockchafers promised by ,annunziata1--big1 blundering1 clumsy1 the scorn of their light-winged and businesslike competitors1 the bees4 ,lizards lay immobile as lizards cast in bronze1 only their little glittering1 watchful pin heads of eyes giving sign of life4 ,and of course the blackcaps never for a moment left off singing4 --,henry ,habland3 ,my ,friend ,prospero 7,mc,clure's74 ,we round a corner of the valley1 and beyond1 far below us1 looms the town of ,sorata4 ,from this distance the red tile roofs1 the soft blue1 green1 and yellow of its stuccoed walls1 look indescribably fresh and grateful4 ,a closer inspection will probably dissipate this impression2 it will be squalid and dirty1 the river-stone paving of its street will be deep in the accumulation of filth1 dirty ,indian children will swarm in them with mangy dogs and bedraggled ducks1 the gay frescoes of its walls will peel in ragged patches1 revealing the 'dobe of their base1 and the tile roofs will be cracked and broken4 ,but from the heights at this distance and in the warm glow of the afternoon sun it looks like a dainty fairy village glistening in a magic splendor against the ,titanic setting of the ,andes4 --,charles ,johnson ,post3 ,across the ,highlands of the ,world 7,harper's74 ,come on1 sir2 here's the place4 ,stand still4 ,how fearful ,and dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low6 ,the crows and choughs that wing the midway air ,show scarce so gross as beetles4 ,halfway down ,hangs one that gathers sampire1 dreadful trade6 ,methinks he seems no bigger than his head4 ,the fishermen that walk upon the beach ,appear like mice2 and yond tall anchoring bark ,diminish'd to her cock2 her cock1 a buoy ,almost too small for sight4 ,the murmuring surge ,that on the unnumber'd idle pebble chafes1 ,cannot be heard so high4 ,i'll look no more1 ,lest my brain turn and the deficient sight ,topple down headlong4 --,shakespear3 ,king ,lear #abc4 ,implied ,point of ,view4--,often the point of view is not specifically stated1 but the language of the description shows where the observer is located4 ,often such an implied point of view gives a delicate touch to a description that could not be obtained by direct statements4 ,in which of the following selections is the point of view merely implied8 #a4 ,thus pondering and dreaming1 he came by the road down a gentle hill with close woods on either hand2 and so into the valley with a swift river flowing through it2 and on the river a mill4 ,so white it stood among the trees1 and so merrily whirred the wheel as the water turned it1 and so bright blossomed the flowers in the garden1 that ,martimor had joy of the sight1 for it reminded him of his own country4 --,henry ,van ,dyke3 ,the ,blue ,flower4 7,copyright1 #aijb4 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons47 #b4 ,there is an island off a certain part of the coast of ,maine1--a little rocky island1 heaped and tumbled together as if ,dame ,nature had shaken down a heap of stones at random from her apron1 when she had finished making the larger islands1 which lie between it and the mainland4 ,at one end1 the shoreward end1 there is a tiny cove1 and a bit of silver sand beach1 with a green meadow beyond it1 and a single great pine2 but all the rest is rocks1 rocks4 ,at the farther end the rocks are piled high1 like a castle wall1 making a brave barrier against the ,atlantic waves2 and on top of this cairn rises the lighthouse1 rugged and sturdy as the rocks themselves2 but painted white1 and with its windows shining like great1 smooth diamonds4 ,this is ,light ,island4 --,laura ,e4 ,richards3 ,captain ,january4 #abd4 ,changing ,point of ,view4--,we cannot see the four sides of a house from the same place1 though we may wish to have our reader know how each side looks4 ,it is1 therefore1 necessary to change our point of view4 ,it is immaterial whether the successive points of view are named or merely implied1 providing the reader has due notice that we have changed from one to the other1 and that for each we describe only what can be seen from that position4 ,a description of a cottage that by its wording leads us to think ourselves inside of the building and then tells about the yard would be defective4 ,notice the changing point of view in the following3-- ,at long distance1 looking over the blue waters of the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence in clear weather1 you might think that you saw a lonely sea gull1 snow-white1 perching motionless on a cobble of gray rock4 ,then1 as your boat drifted in1 following the languid tide and the soft southern breeze1 you would perceive that the cobble of rock was a rugged hill with a few bushes and stunted trees growing in the crevices1 and that the gleaming speck near the summit must be some kind of a building1--if you were on the coast of ,italy or ,spain you would say a villa or a farmhouse4 ,then as you floated still farther north and drew nearer to the coast1 the desolate hill would detach itself from the mainland and become a little mountain isle1 with a flock of smaller islets clustering around it as a brood of wild ducks keep close to their mother1 and with deep water1 nearly two miles wide1 flowing between it and the shore2 while the shining speck on the seaward side stood clearly as a low1 whitewashed dwelling with a sturdy1 round tower at one end1 crowned with a big eight-sided lantern--a solitary lighthouse4 --,henry ,van ,dyke3 ,the ,keeper of the ,light4 7,copyright1 #aije4 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons47 #abe4 ,place of ,point of ,view in ,paragraph4--,the point of view may be expressed or only implied or wholly omitted1 but in any case the reader must assume one in order to form a clear and accurate image4 ,beginners will find that they can best cause their readers to form the desired images by stating a point of view4 ,when the point of view is stated it must of necessity come early in the paragraph4 ,we have already learned that the beginning of a description should present the fundamental image4 ,for this reason the first sentence of a description frequently includes both the point of view and the fundamental image4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,consider the following selections with reference to-- 7a7 ,the point of view4 7b7 ,the fundamental image4 7c7 ,the completeness of the images which you have formed 7see ,sections #bf1 #bg74 #a4 ,the ,lunardi balloon1 mounting through a stagnant calm in a line almost vertical1 had pierced the morning mists1 and now swam emancipated in a heaven of exquisite blue4 ,below us by some trick of eyesight1 the country had grown concave1 its horizon curving up like the rim of a shallow bowl--a bowl heaped1 in point of fact1 with sea fog1 but to our eyes with a froth delicate and dazzling as a whipped syllabub of snow4 ,upon it the traveling shadow of the balloon became no shadow1 but a stain2 an amethyst 7you might call it7 purged of all grosser properties than color and lucency4 ,at times thrilled by no perceptible wind1 rather by the pulse of the sun's rays1 the froth shook and parted2 and then behold1 deep in the crevasses vignetted and shining1 an acre or two of the earth of man's business and fret--tilled slopes of the ,lothians1 ships dotted on the ,firth1 the capital like a hive that some child had smoked--the ear of fancy could almost hear it buzzing4 --,stevenson3 ,st4 ,ives4 7,copyright1 #ahig4 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons47 #b4 ,when ,aswald and ,corinne had gained the top of the ,capitol1 she showed him the ,seven ,hills and the city1 bound first by ,mount ,palatinus1 then by the walls of ,servius ,tullius1 which inclose the hills1 and by those of ,aurelian1 which still surround the greatest part of ,rome4 ,mount ,palatinus once contained all ,rome1 but soon did the imperial palace fill the space that had sufficed for a nation4 ,the ,seven ,hills are far less lofty now than when they deserted the title of steep mountains1 modern ,rome being forty feet higher than its predecessor1 and the valleys which separated them almost filled up by ruins2 but what is still more strange1 two heaps of shattered vases have formed new hills1 ,cestario and ,testacio4 ,thus1 in time1 the very refuse of civilization levels the rock with the plain1 effacing in the moral1 as in the material world1 all the pleasing inequalities of nature4 --,madame ,de ,stal3 ,corinne3 ,italy4 ,b4--,select five descriptions from the following books and note whether each has a point of view expressed or implied3-- ,cooper3 ,last of the ,mohicans4 ,scott3 ,ivanhoe4 ,scott3 ,lady of the ,lake4 ,irving3 ,sketch ,book4 ,burroughs3 ,wake ,robin4 ,van ,dyke3 ,the ,blue ,flower4 ,howells3 ,the ,rise of ,silas ,lapham4 ,muir3 ,our ,national ,parks4 ,kate ,douglas ,wiggin3 ,rebecca of ,sunnybrook ,farm4 ,theme ,,liii4--,write a descriptive paragraph beginning with a point of view and a fundamental image4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,the crossroads inn4 #b4 ,a historical building4 #c4 ,the shoe factory4 #d4 ,the gristmill4 #e4 ,the largest store in town4 #f4 ,the union station4 7,in your description underscore the sentence giving the point of view4 ,can you improve the description by using a different point of view8 ,will the reader form at once a correct general outline8 ,will the entire description enable the reader to form a clear and accurate image87 #abf4 ,clear ,seeing4-,clear statement depends upon clear seeing4 ,not only must we choose an advantageous point of view1 but we must be able to reproduce what can be seen from that location4 ,we may write a description while we are looking at the object1 but it is frequently convenient to do the writing when the object is not visible4 ,oral descriptions are nearly always made without having the object at hand4 ,when we attempt to describe we examine not the object itself1 but our mental image of it4 ,it is evident that at least the essential features of this mental picture must stand out clearly and definitely1 or we shall be unable to make our description accurate4 ,the habit of accurate observation is a desirable acquisition1 and our ability in this direction can be improved by effort4 ,it is not the province of this book to provide a series of exercises which shall strengthen habits of accurate observation4 ,many of your studies1 particularly the sciences1 devote much attention to training the observing powers1 and will furnish many suitable exercises4 ,a few have been suggested below merely to emphasize the point that every successful effort in description must be preceded by a definite exercise in clear seeing4 ,,exercise #a4 ,walk rapidly past a building4 ,form a mental picture of it4 ,write down as many of the details as you can4 ,now look at the building again and determine what you have left out4 #b4 ,call to mind some building with which you are familiar4 ,write a list of the details that you recall4 ,now visit the building and see what important ones you have omitted4 #c4 ,while looking at some scene make a note of the important details4 ,lay this list away for a day4 ,then recall the scene4 ,after picturing the scene as vividly as you can1 read your notes4 ,do they add anything to your picture8 #d4 ,make a list of the things on some desk that you cannot see but with which you are familiar2 for example1 the teacher's desk4 ,at the first opportunity notice how accurate your list is4 #e4 ,look for some time at the stained glass windows of a church or at the wall paper of the room4 ,what patterns do you notice that you did not see at first8 ,what colors8 #f4 ,make a list of the objects visible from your bedroom window4 ,when you go home notice what you have omitted4 #g4 ,practice observation contests similar to the following3 ,let two or more persons pass a store window4 ,each shall then make a list of what the window contains4 ,compare lists with one another4 ,theme ,,liv4--,write a description of some dwelling4 7,select a house that you can see on the way home4 ,choose a point of view and notice carefully what can be seen from it4 ,when you are ready to write1 form as vivid a mental picture of the house as you can4 ,write the sentence that gives the fundamental image4 ,add such of the details as will enable the reader to form an accurate image47 #abg4 ,selection of ,essential ,details4--,after deciding upon a point of view and such general characteristics as are essential to the forming of a correct outline of the object to be described1 we must next give our attention to the selection of the details4 ,if our description has been properly begun1 this general outline will not be changed1 but each succeeding phrase or sentence will add to the clearness and distinctness of the picture4 ,our first impression of a house may include windows1 but the mention of them later will bring them out clearly on our mental picture much as the details appear when one is developing a negative in photography4 ,if the peculiarities of an object are such as to effect its general form1 they need to be stated in the opening sentence2 but when the peculiar or distinguishing characteristic does not affect the form1 it may be introduced later4 ,if we say1 ,on the corner across the street from the post office there is a large1 two-story1 red brick store1 the reader can form at once a general picture of such a store4 ,only those things which give a general outline have been included4 ,as yet nothing has been mentioned to distinguish the store from any other similar one4 ,if some following sentence should be1 ,though not wider1 it yet presents a more imposing appearance than its neighbors1 because the door is placed at one side1 thus making room for a single wide display window instead of two stuffy1 narrow ones1 a detail has been added which1 though not changing the general outline1 makes the picture clearer and at the same time emphasizes the distinguishing feature of this particular store4 ,,exercises #a4 ,observe your neighbor's barn4 ,what would you select as its characteristic feature8 #b4 ,take a rapid glance at some stranger whom you meet4 ,what did you notice most vividly8 #c4 ,in what respect does the ,methodist church in your city differ from the other church buildings8 #d4 ,does your pet dog differ from others of the same breed in appearance8 ,in actions8 ,theme ,,lv4--,write a descriptive paragraph1 using one of the following subjects3-- #a4 ,a mountain view4 #b4 ,an omnibus4 #c4 ,a fort4 #d4 ,a lighthouse4 #e4 ,a ,dutch windmill4 #f4 ,a bend in the river4 #g4 ,a peculiar structure4 #h4 ,the picture on this page4 7,underscore the sentence that pictures the details most essential to the description4 ,consider the unity of your paragraph4 ,section #ha47 ,illustration #abh4 ,selection and ,subordination of ,minor ,details4--,in many descriptions the minor details are wholly omitted1 and in all descriptions many that might have been included have been omitted4 ,a proper number of such details adds interest and clearness to the images2 too many but serve to render the whole obscure4 ,if properly selected and effectively presented1 minor details add much to the beauty or usefulness of a description1 but if strung together in short sentences1 the effect may be both tiresome and confusing4 ,a mere catalogue of facts is not a good description4 ,they must be arranged so that those which are the more important shall have the greater prominence1 while those of less importance shall be properly subordinated4 ,often minor details may be stated in a word or phrase inserted in the sentence which gives the general view4 ,notice the italicized portion of the following3 ,opposite the church1 and partly screened by the scraggly evergreens of a broad1 unkempt lawn1 there is a large1 octagonal1 brick house1 with a conservatory on the left4 ,this arrangement adds to the general view and gives a better result than would be obtained by describing the lawn in a separate sentence4 ,often a single adjective adds some element to a description more effectively than can be done with a whole sentence4 ,notice how much is added by the use of scraggly and unkempt4 ,,exercises ,make a careful study of the following selections with reference to the way in which the minor details are presented4 ,can any of them be improved by re-arranging them8 #a4 ,at night1 as ,i look from my windows over ,kassim ,pasha1 ,i never tire of that dull1 soft coloring1 green and brown1 in which the brown of roofs and walls is hardly more than a shading of the green of the trees4 ,there is the lonely curve of the hollow1 with its small1 square1 flat houses of wood2 and above1 a sharp line of blue-black cypresses on the spine of the hill2 then the long desert plain1 with its sandy road1 shutting in the horizon4 ,mists thicken over the valley1 and wipe out its colors before the lights begin to glimmer out of it4 ,below1 under my windows1 are the cypresses of the ,little ,field of the ,dead1 vast1 motionless1 different every night4 ,last night each stood clear1 tall1 apart2 to-night they huddle together in the mist1 and seem to shudder4 ,the sunset was brief1 and the water has grown dull1 like slate4 ,stamboul fades to a level mass of smoky purple1 out of which a few minarets rise black against a gray sky with bands of orange fire4 ,last night1 after a golden sunset1 a fog of rusty iron came down1 and hung poised over the jagged level of the hill4 ,the whole mass of ,stamboul was like black smoke2 the water dim gray1 a little flushed1 and then like pure light1 lucid1 transparent1 every ship and every boat sharply outlined in black on its surface2 the boats seemed to crawl like flies on a lighted pane4 --,arthur ,symons3 ,constantinople3 ,an ,impression 7,harper's74 #b4 ,the boy was advancing up the road1 carrying a half-filled pail of milk4 ,he was a child of perhaps ten years1 exceedingly frail and thin1 with a drawn1 waxen face1 and sick1 colorless lips and ears4 ,on his head he wore a thick plush cap1 and coarse1 heavy shoes upon his feet4 ,a faded coat1 too long in the arms1 drooped from his shoulders1 and long1 loose overalls of gray jeans broke and wrinkled about his slender ankles4 --,george ,kibbe ,turner3 ,across the ,state 7,mc,clure's74 #c4 ,they met few people abroad1 even on passing from the retired neighborhood of the ,house of the ,seven ,gables into what was ordinarily the more thronged and busier portion of the town4 ,glistening sidewalks1 with little pools of rain1 here and there1 along their unequal surface2 umbrellas displayed ostentatiously in the shop windows1 as if the life of trade had concentered itself in that one article2 wet leaves of the horse-chestnut or elm trees1 torn off untimely by the blast1 and scattered along the public way2 an unsightly accumulation of mud in the middle of the street1 which perversely grew the more unclean for its long and laborious washing2--these were the more definable points of a very somber picture4 ,in the way of movement1 and human life1 there was the hasty rattle of a cab or coach1 its driver protected by a water-proof cap over his head and shoulders2 the forlorn figure of an old man1 who seemed to have crept out of some subterranean sewer1 and was stooping along the kennel1 and poking the wet rubbish with a stick1 in quest of rusty nails2 a merchant or two1 at the door of the post office1 together with an editor1 and a miscellaneous politician1 awaiting a dilatory mail2 a few visages of retired sea captains at the window of an insurance office1 looking out vacantly at the vacant street1 blaspheming at the weather1 and fretting at the dearth as well of public news as local gossip4 ,what a treasure trove to these venerable quidnuncs1 could they have guessed the secret which ,hepzibah and ,clifford were carrying along with them6 --,hawthorne3 ,the ,house of the ,seven ,gables4 ,theme ,,lvi4--,write a description of one of the following3-- #a4 ,a steamboat4 #b4 ,an orchard4 #c4 ,a colonial mansion4 #d4 ,a wharf4 #e4 ,a stone quarry4 #f4 ,a shop4 7,consider what you have written with reference to the point of view1 fundamental image1 and essential details4 ,after these have been arranged to suit you1 notice the way in which the minor details have been introduced4 ,have you given undue prominence to any8 ,can a single adjective or phrase be substituted for a whole sentence8 ,think of the image which your words will produce in the mind of the reader4 ,consider your theme with reference to unity4 ,section #ha47 #abi4 ,arrangement of ,details4--,the quality of a description depends as much upon the arrangement of the material as upon the selection4 ,under paragraph development we have discussed the necessity of arranging the details with reference to their natural position in space 7see ,sections #dg and #hf74 ,such an arrangement is the most desirable one and should be departed from only with good reason4 ,such departures may1 however1 be made1 as shown in the following selection3-- ,a pretty picture the lad made as he lay there dreaming over his earthly possessions--a pretty picture in the shade of the great elm1 that sultry morning of ,august1 three quarters of a century ago4 ,the presence of the crutch showed there was something sad about it2 and so there was2 for if you had glanced at the little bare brown foot1 set toes upward on the curbstone1 you would have discovered that the fellow to it was missing-- cut off about two inches above the ankle4 ,and if this had caused you to throw a look of sympathy at his face1 something yet sadder must long have held your attention4 ,set jauntily on the back of his head was a weather-beaten dark blue cloth cap1 the patent leather frontlet of which was gone2 and beneath the ragged edge of this there fell down over his forehead and temples and ears a tangled mass of soft yellow hair1 slightly curling4 ,his eyes were large and of a blue to match the depths of a calm sky above the treetops3 the long lashes which curtained them were brown2 his lips were red1 his nose delicate and fine1 and his cheek tanned to the color of ripe peaches4 ,it was a singularly winning face1 intelligent1 frank1 not describable4 ,on it now rested a smile1 half joyous1 half sad1 as though his mind was full of bright hopes1 the realization of which was far away4 ,from the neck fell the wide collar of a white cotton shirt1 clean but frayed at the elbows1 and open and buttonless down to his bosom4 ,over this he wore an old-fashioned satin waistcoat of a man1 also frayed and buttonless4 ,his dress was completed by a pair of baggy tow breeches1 held up by a single tow suspender fastened to big brown horn buttons4 --,james ,lane ,allen3 ,flute and ,violin4 7,copyright1 #ahib1 ,harper and ,brothers47 ,the details are not stated with reference to their natural position in space1 but they are given in the probable order of observation4 ,if we were to look upon such a boy1 the crutch would attract our attention and would lead us to look at once for the reason why a crutch was needed4 ,the writer skillfully uses the sympathy thus aroused as a means of transition to the face4 ,in the remainder of the description the natural position in space is closely followed4 ,theme ,,lvii4-,write a description of one of the following3-- #a4 ,the bayou4 #b4 ,looking down the mountain4 #c4 ,looking up the mountain4 #d4 ,the floorwalker4 #e4 ,an old-fashioned rig4 #f4 ,a house said to be haunted4 #g4 ,the deacon4 7,consider the arrangement of details with reference to their position in space4 ,consider your paragraphs with reference to coherence and emphasis4 ,sections #hb and #hc47 #acj4 ,effectiveness in ,description4--,every part of a description should aid in rendering it effective1 and this effectiveness is as much the purpose of the principles previously discussed as it is of those which follow4 ,this paragraph is inserted here to separate more or less definitely those things which can be done under direction from those which cannot be determined by rule4 ,up to this point emphasis has been laid upon the clear presentation of a mental image as the object of description4 ,but the clear presentation of mental images is not all there is to description4 ,a point of view1 a fundamental image1 a judicious selection of essential and minor details and the relating of them with reference to their natural position in space1 may set forth an image clearly and yet fail to be satisfactory as a description4 ,for the practical affairs of life it may be sufficient to limit ourselves to clear images set forth barely and sparely1 but there is a pleasure and a profit in using the subtler arts of language1 in placing a word here or a phrase there that shall give a touch of beauty or a flash of suggestiveness and so save our descriptions from the commonplace4 ,it is to these less easily demonstrated methods of giving strength and beauty that we wish now to turn our attention4 #aca4 ,word ,selection4--,the effectiveness of our description will depend largely upon our right choice of words4 ,if our range of vocabulary is limited1 the possibility of effective description is correspondingly limited4 ,only when our working vocabulary contains many words may we hope to choose with ease the one most suitable for the effective expression of the idea we wish to convey4 ,to prepare a list of words that may apply and then attempt to write a theme that shall make use of them is a mechanical process of little value4 ,the idea we wish to express should call up the word that exactly expresses it4 ,if our ideas are not clear or our vocabulary is limited1 we may be satisfied with the trite and commonplace2 but if our experience has been broad or our reading extended1 we may have at command the word which1 because it is just the right one1 gives individuality and force to our phrasing4 ,every one is familiar with dogs1 and has in his vocabulary many words which he applies to them1 but a reading of one or two good dog stories1 such as ,bob1 ,son of ,battle1 or ,the ,call of the ,wild1 will show how wide is the range of such words and how much the description is enhanced by their careful use4 ,,exercise ,consider the following selections with reference to the choice of words which add to the effectiveness of the descriptions3-- #a4 ,she was a little1 brown1 thin1 almost skinny woman with big1 rolling1 violet-blue eyes and the sweetest manners in the world4 #b4 ,the sounds and the straits and the sea with its plump1 sleepy islands lay north and east and south4 #c4 ,the mists of the ,cuchullins are not fat1 dull1 and still1 like lowland and inland mists1 but haggard1 and streaming from the black peaks1 and full of gusty lines4 ,we saw them first from the top of ,beimna-,caillach1 a red1 round-headed mountain hard by ,bradford1 in the isle of ,skye4 ,shortly after noon the rain came up from the sea and drew long delicate gray lines against the cliffs4 ,it came up licking and lisping over the surface of ,cornisk1 and drove us to the lee of rocks and the shelter of our ponchos1 to watch the mists drifting1 to listen to the swell and lull of the wind and the patter of the cold rain4 ,there were glimpses now and then of the inner ,cuchullins1 a fragment of ragged sky line1 the sudden jab of a black pinnacle through the mist1 the open mouth of a gorge steaming with mist4 ,we climbed the great ridge1 at length1 of rock and wet heath that separates ,cornisk from ,glen ,sligachan1 slowly through the fitful rain and driving cloud1 and saw ,sgurr-nan-,gillian1 sharp1 black1 and pitiless1 the northernmost peak and sentinel of the ,cuchullins4 ,the yellow trail could be seen twisting along the flat1 empty glen4 ,seven miles away was a white spot1 the ,sligachan ,hotel4 ,i think it must be the dreariest glen in ,scotland4 ,the trail twists in a futile manner1 and1 after all1 is mainly bog holes and rolling rocks4 ,the ,red ,hills are on the right1 rusty1 reddish1 of the color of dried blood1 and gashed with sliding bowlders4 ,their heads seem beaten down1 a ,helot population1 and the ,cuchullins stand back like an army of iron conquerors4 ,the ,red ,hills will be a vanished race one day1 and the ,cuchullins remain4 ,arthur ,colton3 ,the ,mists o' ,skye 7,harper's74 #acb4 ,additional ,aids to ,effectiveness4--,comparison and figures of speech not only aid in making our picture clear and vivid1 but they may add a spice and flavor to our language1 which counts for much in the effectiveness and beauty of our description4 ,notice the following descriptions3-- ,he was a mongoose1 rather like a little cat in his fur and his tail1 but quite like a weasel in his head and his habits4 ,his eyes and the end of his restless nose were pink2 he could scratch himself anywhere he pleased1 with any leg1 front or back1 that he chose to use2 he could fluff up his tail till it looked like a bottle brush1 and his war cry as he scuttled through the long grass was ,rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tikk4 --,kipling3 ,jungle ,book4 ,ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed4 ,he rode with short stirrups1 which brought his knees nearly up to the pommel of his saddle2 his sharp elbows stuck out like grasshoppers' legs2 he carried his whip perpendicularly in his hand1 like a scepter1 and1 as his horse jogged on1 the motion of his arms was not unlike the flapping of a pair of wings4 ,a small wool hat rested on the top of his nose1 for so his scanty strip of forehead might be called2 and the skirts of his black coat fluttered out almost to the horse's tail4 ,such was the appearance of ,ichabod and his steed1 as they shambled out of the gate of ,hans ,van ,ripper1 and it was altogether such an apparition as is seldom to be met with in broad daylight4 --,irving3 ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow4 ,theme ,,lviii4--,write a description of one of the following3-- #a4 ,my cat4 #b4 ,the pony at the farm4 #c4 ,the glen4 #d4 ,the prairie4 #e4 ,the milldam4 #f4 ,the motorman4 #g4 ,the picture on this page4 ,illustration 7,consider the effectiveness of your description4 ,can you improve your choice of words8 ,have you used comparisons or figures1 and if so1 do they improve your description8 ,consider your theme with reference to euphony4 ,section #af47 #acc4 ,classes of ,objects ,frequently ,described4--,there is no limit to the things that we may wish to describe1 but there are certain general classes of objects that are described more frequently than others4 ,we have greater occasion to describe men or places than we have to describe pictures or trees4 ,a person may be an accurate observer having a large vocabulary applicable to one class of objects1 and thus be able to describe objects of that class clearly and effectively2 though at the same time1 on account of limited experience and small vocabulary1 he cannot well describe objects belonging to some other class4 ,the ability to observe accurately the classes of objects named below1 and to appreciate descriptions of such objects when made by others1 is a desirable acquisition4 ,every effort should be made to master as many as possible of the words applicable to each class of objects4 ,a slight investigation will show how great is the number of such words with which we are unfamiliar4 #a4 ,descriptions of buildings or portions of buildings4 ,in most buildings the basement story is heaviest1 and each succeeding story increases in lightness2 in the ,ducal palace this is reversed1 making it unique amongst buildings4 ,the outer walls rest upon the pillars of open colonnades1 which have a more stumpy appearance than was intended1 owing to the raising of the pavement in the piazza4 ,they had1 however1 no base1 but were supported by a continuous stylobate4 ,the chief decorations of the palace were employed upon the capitals of these thirty-six pillars1 and it was felt that the peculiar prominence and importance given to its angles rendered it necessary that they should be enriched and softened by sculpture1 which is interesting and often most beautiful4 ,the throned figure of ,venice above bears a scroll inscribed3 ,fortis1 justa1 trono furias1 mare sub pede1 pono4 7,strong and just1 ,i put the furies beneath my throne1 and the sea beneath my foot47 ,one of the corners of the palace joined the irregular buildings connected with ,st4 ,mark's1 and is not generally seen4 ,there remained1 therefore1 only three angles to be decorated4 ,the first main sculpture may be called the ,fig-tree angle1 and its subject is the ,fall of ,man4 ,the second is the ,vine angle1 and represents the ,drunkenness of ,noah4 ,the third sculpture is the ,judgment angle1 and portrays the ,judgment of ,solomon4 --,hare3 ,venice4 ,theme ,,lix4--,write a description of the exterior of some building4 ,theme ,,lx4--,write a description of some room4 ,theme ,,lxi4--,write a description of some portion of a building1 such as an entrance1 spire1 window1 or stairway4 7,consider each description with reference to-- a4 ,point of view4 b4 ,fundamental image4 c4 ,selection of essential details4 d4 ,selection and subordination of minor details4 e4 ,arrangement of details with reference to their natural positions in space4 f4 ,effective choice of words and comparisons47 #b4 ,natural features3 valleys1 rivers1 mountains1 etc4 ,beyond the great prairies and in the shadow of the ,rockies lie the ,foothills4 ,for nine hundred miles the prairies spread themselves out in vast level reaches1 and then begin to climb over softly rounded mounds that ever grow higher and sharper1 till here and there1 they break into jagged points and at last rest upon the great bases of the mighty mountains4 ,these rounded hills that join the prairies to the mountains form the ,foothill ,country4 ,they extend for about a hundred miles only1 but no other hundred miles of the great ,west are so full of interest and romance4 ,the natural features of the country combine the beauties of prairie and of mountain scenery4 ,there are valleys so wide that the farther side melts into the horizon1 and uplands so vast as to suggest the unbroken prairie4 ,nearer the mountains the valleys dip deep and ever deeper till they narrow into canyons through which mountain torrents pour their blue-gray waters from glaciers that lie glistening between the white peaks far away4 --,connor3 ,the ,sky ,pilot4 ,long lines of cliff breaking have left a chasm2 ,and in the chasm are foam and yellow sands2 ,beyond1 red roofs about a narrow wharf ,in cluster2 then a molder'd church2 and higher ,a long street climbs to one tall tower'd mill2 ,and high in heaven behind it a gray down ,with ,danish barrows1 and a hazelwood1 ,by autumn nutters haunted1 flourishes ,green in a cuplike hollow of the down4 --,tennyson3 ,enoch ,arden4 ,theme ,,lxii4--,write a description of some valley1 mountain1 field1 woods1 or prairie4 ,theme ,,lxiii4--,write a description of some stream1 pond1 lake1 dam1 or waterfall4 7,consider especially your choice of words47 #c4 ,sounds or the use of sounds4 ,and the noise of ,niagara8 ,alarming things have been said about it1 but they are not true4 ,it is a great and mighty noise1 but it is not1 as ,hennepin thought1 an outrageous noise4 ,it is not a roar4 ,it does not drown the voice or stun the ear4 ,even at the actual foot of the falls it is not oppressive4 ,it is much less rough than the sound of heavy surf-- steadier1 more homogeneous1 less metallic1 very deep and strong1 yet mellow and soft2 soft1 ,i mean1 in its quality4 ,as to the noise of the rapids1 there is none more musical4 ,it is neither rumbling nor sharp4 ,it is clear1 plangent1 silvery4 ,it is so like the voice of a steep brook-- much magnified1 but not made coarser or more harsh--that1 after we have known it1 each liquid call from a forest hillside will seem1 like the odor of grapevines1 a greeting from ,niagara4 ,it is an inspiriting1 an exhilarating sound1 like freshness1 coolness1 vitality itself made audible4 ,and yet it is a lulling sound4 ,when we have looked out upon the ,american rapids for many days1 it is hard to remember contented life amid motionless surroundings2 and so1 when we have slept beside them for many nights1 it is hard to think of happy sleep in an empty silence4 --,mrs4 ,van ,rensselaer3 ,niagara 7,century74 ,yell'd on the view the opening pack2 ,rock1 glen1 and cavern1 paid them back2 ,to many a mingled sound at once ,the awaken'd mountain gave response4 ,a hundred dogs bay'd deep and strong1 ,clatter'd a hundred steeds along1 ,their peal the merry horns rung out1 ,a hundred voices join'd the shout2 ,with hark1 and whoop1 and wild halloo1 ,no rest ,benvoirlich's echoes knew4 ,far from the tumult fled the roe1 ,close in her covert cower'd the doe2 ,the falcon1 from her cairn on high1 ,cast on the rout a wondering eye1 ,till far beyond her piercing ken ,the hurricane had swept the glen4 ,faint1 and more faint1 its failing din ,return'd from cavern1 cliff1 and linn1 ,and silence settled1 wide and still1 ,on the lone wood and mighty hill4 --,,scott3 ,lady of the ,lake4 ,theme ,,lxiv4--,describe some sound or combination of sounds1 or write a description introducing sounds4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,alone in the house4 #b4 ,in the woods at night4 #c4 ,beside the brook4 #d4 ,in the factory4 #e4 ,a day at the beach4 #f4 ,before the ,fourth4 #g4 ,on the seashore4 7,notice especially the words that indicate sound47 #d4 ,color or the use of color4 ,a gray day6 soft gray sky1 like the breast of a dove2 sheeny gray sea with gleams of steel running across2 trailing skirts of mist shutting off the mainland1 leaving ,light ,island alone with the ocean2 the white tower gleaming spectral among the folding mists2 the dark pine tree pointing a somber finger to heaven2 the wet1 black rocks1 from which the tide had gone down1 huddling together in fantastic groups as if to hide their nakedness4 --,laura ,e4 ,richards3 ,captain ,january4 ,the large branch of the ,po we crossed came down from the mountains which we were approaching4 ,as we reached the post road again they were glowing in the last rays of the sun1 and the evening vapors that settled over the plain concealed the distant ,alps1 although the snowy top of the ,jungfrau and her companions the ,wetterhorn and ,schreckhorn rose above it like the hills of another world4 ,a castle or church of brilliant white marble glittered on the summit of one of the mountains near us1 and1 as the sun went down without a cloud1 the distant summits changed in hue to a glowing purple1 mounting almost to crimson1 which afterwards darkened into a deep violet4 ,the western half of the sky was of a pale orange and the eastern a dark red1 which blended together in the blue of the zenith1 that deepened as twilight came on4 --,taylor3 ,views ,afoot4 ,theme ,,lxv4--,write a description in which the color element enters largely4 #e4 ,animals1 birds1 fishes1 etc4 ,the ,tailless ,tyke had now grown into an immense dog1 heavy of muscle and huge of bone4 ,a great bull head2 undershot jaw1 square and lengthy and terrible2 vicious yellow gleaming eyes2 cropped ears2 and an expression incomparably savage4 ,his coat was a tawny lionlike yellow1 short1 harsh1 dense2 and his back running up from shoulder to loins ended abruptly in a knoblike tail4 ,he looked like the devil of a dog's hell1 and his reputation was as bad as his looks4 ,he never attacked unprovoked2 but a challenge was never ignored and he was greedy of insults4 --,alfred ,ollivant3 ,bob1 ,son of ,battle4 7,copyright1 ,doubleday and ,mc,clure47 ,read the description of the kingbird 7page #bbd71 and of the mongoose 7page #bdb74 ,theme ,,lxvi4--,write a description of some animal1 bird1 or fish4 7,what questions should you ask yourself about each description you write87 #f4 ,trees and plants4 ,how shall kinnikinnick be told to them who know it not8 ,to a ,new ,englander it might be said that a whortleberry bush changed its mind one day and decided to be a vine1 with leaves as glossy as laurel1 bells pink-striped and sweet like the arbutus1 and berries in clusters and of scarlet instead of black4 ,the ,indians call it kinnikinnick1 and smoke it in their pipes4 ,white men call it bearberry1 ,i believe2 and there is a ,latin name for it1 no doubt1 in the books4 ,but kinnikinnick is the best1--dainty1 sturdy1 indefatigable kinnikinnick1 green and glossy all the year round1 lovely at ,christmas and lovely among flowers at midsummer1 as content and thrifty on bare1 rocky hillsides as in grassy nooks1 growing in long1 trailing wreaths1 five feet long1 or in tangled mats1 five feet across1 as the rock or the valley may need1 and living bravely many weeks without water1 to make a house beautiful4 ,i doubt if there be in the world a vine ,i should hold so precious1 indoors and out4 --,helen ,hunt ,jackson3 ,bits of ,travel at ,home4 ,a mango tree is beautiful and attractive4 ,it grows as large as the oak1 and has a rich and glossy foliage4 ,the fruit is shaped something like a short1 thick cucumber1 and is as large as a large pear4 ,it has a thick1 tough skin1 and a delicious1 juicy pulp4 ,when ripe it is a golden color4 ,a tree often bears a hundred bushels of mangoes4 --,marian ,m4 ,george4 ,theme ,,lxvii4--,write a description of some tree that you have seen4 7,consider your theme with reference to the general principles of composition treated in ,chapter ,v47 #acd4 ,description of ,persons3 ,character ,sketches4--,the general principles of description are applicable to the description of a person1 and should be followed for the purpose of presenting a clear and vivid image4 ,our interest1 however1 so naturally runs beyond the appearance and is concerned with the character1 that most descriptions of persons become character sketches4 ,even the commonest terms of description1 such as keen gray eyes1 square chin1 rugged countenance1 are interpreted as showing character1 and depart to some degree from pure description4 ,often the sole purpose of description is to show character1 and only those details are introduced which accomplish this purpose4 ,in life we judge a man's character by his actions1 and so in the character sketch we are led to infer his character from what he does4 ,the character indicated by his appearance is corroborated by a statement of his actions and especially by showing how he acts4 7,see ,section #aj47 ,sometimes no descriptive matter is given1 but we are left to make our own picture to fit the character indicated by the actions4 ,in many books the descriptive elements which would enable us to form an image of some person are distributed over several pages1 each being introduced where it supplements and emphasizes the character shown by the actions4 ,notice the following examples3-- ,the ,rev4 ,daniel ,true stood beside the holy table4 ,for such a scene1 perhaps for any scene1 he was a memorable figure4 ,he had the dignity of early middle life1 but none of its signs of advancing age4 ,his hair was quite black1 and curled on his temples boyishly2 his mustache1 not without a worldly cut1 was as dark as his hair1 and concealed a mouth so clean and fine that it was an ethical mistake to cover it4 ,he had sturdy shoulders1 although not quite straight2 they had the scholar's stoop2 his hands were thin1 with long fingers2 his gestures were sparing and significant2 his expression was so sincere that its evident devoutness commanded respect2 so did his voice1 which was authoritative enough to be a little priestly and lacking somewhat in elocutionary finish as the voices of ministers are apt to be1 but genuine1 musical1 persuasive1 at moments vibrant with oratorical power4 ,he had a warm eye and a lovable smile4 ,he was every inch a minister1 but he was every nerve a man4 --,elizabeth ,stuart ,phelps3 ,a ,sacrament 7,harper's74 ,she was not more than fifteen4 ,her form1 voice1 and manner belonged to the period of transition from girlhood4 ,her face was perfectly oval1 her complexion more pale than fair4 ,the nose was faultless2 the lips1 slightly parted1 were full and ripe1 giving to the lines of the mouth warmth1 tenderness1 and trust2 the eyes were blue and large1 and shaded by drooping lids and long lashes2 and1 in harmony with all1 a flood of golden hair1 in the style permitted to ,jewish brides1 fell unconfined down her back to the pillion on which she sat4 ,the throat and neck had the downy softness sometimes seen which leaves the artist in doubt whether it is an effect of contour or color4 ,to these charms of feature and person were added others more--an indefinable air of purity which only the soul can impart1 and of abstraction natural to such as think much of things impalpable4 ,often1 with trembling lips1 she raised her eyes to heaven1 itself not more deeply blue2 often she crossed her hands upon her breast1 as in adoration and prayer2 often she raised her head like one listening eagerly for a calling voice4 ,now and then midst his slow utterance1 ,joseph turned to look at her1 and1 catching the expression kindling her face as with light1 forgot his theme1 and with bowed head1 wondering1 plodded on4 --,lew ,wallace3 ,ben-,hur4 7,copyright1 #ahhj1 ,harper and ,bros47 ,when ,washington was elected general of the army he was forty-three years of age4 ,in stature he a little exceeded six feet2 his limbs were sinewy and well proportioned2 his chest broad1 his figure stately1 blending dignity of presence with ease of manner4 ,his robust constitution had been tried and invigorated by his early life in the wilderness1 his habit of occupation out of doors1 and his rigid temperance1 so that few equalled him in strength of arm or power of endurance4 ,his complexion was florid1 his hair dark brown1 his head in shape perfectly round4 ,his broad nostrils seemed formed to give expression and escape to scornful anger4 ,his dark blue eyes1 which were deeply set1 had an expression of resignation and an earnestness that was almost sad4 --,bancroft4 ,there were many ,englishmen of great distinction there1 and ,tennyson was the most conspicuous among the guests4 ,tennyson's appearance was very striking and his figure might have been taken as a living illustration of romantic poetry4 ,he was tall and stately1 wore a great mass of thick1 long hair--long hair was then still worn even by men who did not affect originality2 his frame was slightly stooping1 his shoulders were bent as if with the weight of thought2 there was something entirely out of the common and very commanding in his whole presence1 and a stranger meeting him in whatever crowd would probably have assumed at once that he must be a literary king4 --,justin ,mc,carthy3 ,literary ,portraits from the ,sixties 7,harper's74 ,the door opened and there appeared to these two a visitor4 ,he was a young man1 and tall1--so tall that1 even with his hat off1 his head barely cleared the ceiling of the low-studded room4 ,he was slim and fair-haired and round-shouldered4 ,he had the pink and white complexion of a girl2 soft1 fair hair2 dark1 serious eyes2 the high1 white brow of a thinker2 the nose of an aristocrat2 and he was in clerical garb4 --,sewall ,ford3 ,the ,renunciation of ,petruo 7,harper's74 ,,exercise ,notice the pictures on page #bec4 ,can you determine from the picture anything about the character of the person8 ,just what feature in each helps you in this8 ,theme ,,lxviii4--,describe some person known to most of the class4 7,do not name the person1 but combine description and character sketching so that the class may be able to tell whom you mean47 ,illustrations #ace4 ,impression of a ,description4--,often the effectiveness of a description is determined more by the impression which it makes upon our feelings than by the vividness of the picture which it presents4 ,read the following description of the ,battery in ,new ,york by ,howells4 ,notice how the details which have been selected emphasize the impression of forlornness4 ,the sickly trees1 the decrepit shade1 the mangy grass plots1 hungry-eyed and hollow children1 the jaded women1 silent and hopeless1 the shameless houses1 the hard-looking men1 unite to give the one impression4 ,even the fresh blue water of the bay1 which laughs and dances beyond1 by its very contrast gives greater emphasis to the melancholy and forlorn appearance of the ,battery4 ,all places that fashion has once loved and abandoned are very melancholy2 but of all such places1 ,i think the ,battery is the most forlorn4 ,are there some sickly locust trees there that cast a tremulous and decrepit shade upon the mangy grass plots8 ,i believe so1 but ,i do not make sure2 ,i am certain only of the mangy grass plots1 or rather the spaces between the paths1 thinly overgrown with some kind of refuse and opprobrious weed1 a stunted and pauper vegetation proper solely to the ,new ,york ,battery4 ,at that hour of the summer morning when our friends1 with the aimlessness of strangers who are waiting to do something else1 saw the ancient promenade1 a few scant and hungry-eyed little boys and girls were wandering over this weedy growth1 not playing1 but moving listlessly to and fro1 fantastic in the wild inaptness of their costumes4 ,one of these little creatures wore1 with an odd1 involuntary jauntiness1 the cast-off best dress of some happier child1 a gay little garment cut low in the neck and short in the sleeves1 which gave her the grotesque effect of having been at a party the night before4 ,presently came two jaded women1 a mother and a grandmother1 that appeared1 when they crawled out of their beds1 to have put on only so much clothing as the law compelled4 ,they abandoned themselves upon the green stuff1 whatever it was1 and1 with their lean hands clasped outside their knees1 sat and stared1 silent and hopeless1 at the eastern sky1 at the heart of the terrible furnace1 into which in those days the world seemed cast to be burnt up1 while the child which the younger woman had brought with her feebly wailed unheeded at her side4 ,on one side of the women were the shameless houses out of which they might have crept1 and which somehow suggested riotous maritime dissipation2 on the other side were those houses in which had once dwelt rich and famous folk1 but which were now dropping down to the boarding-house scale through various unhomelike occupations to final dishonor and despair4 ,down nearer the water1 and not far from the castle that was once a playhouse and is now the depot of emigration1 stood certain express wagons1 and about these lounged a few hard-looking men4 ,beyond laughed and danced the fresh blue water of the bay1 dotted with sails and smokestacks4 --,howells3 ,their ,wedding ,journey4 ,the successive images of the preceding selection are clear enough1 but they are bound together by a common purpose1 which is the creation of a single impression4 ,often1 however1 a description may present1 not a single impression1 but a series of such impressions1 to which a unity is given by the fact that they are all connected with one event1 or occur at the same time1 or in the same place4 ,such a series of impressions is illustrated in the following3-- ,it is a phenomenon whose commonness alone prevents it from being most impressive1 that departure of the night-express4 ,the two hundred miles it is to travel stretch before it1 traced by those slender clews1 to lose which is ruin1 and about which hang so many dangers4 ,the drawbridges that gape upon the way1 the trains that stand smoking and steaming on the track1 the rail that has borne the wear so long that it must soon snap under it1 the deep cut where the overhanging mass of rocks trembles to its fall1 the obstruction that a pitiless malice may have placed in your path1 you think of these after the journey is done1 but they seldom haunt your fancy while it lasts4 ,the knowledge of your helplessness in any circumstances is so perfect that it begets a sense of irresponsibility1 almost of security2 and as you drowse upon the pallet of the sleeping car and feel yourself hurled forward through the obscurity1 you are almost thankful that you can do nothing1 for it is upon this condition only that you can endure it2 and some such condition as this1 ,i suppose1 accounts for many heroic acts in the world4 ,to the fantastic mood which possesses you equally1 sleeping or waking1 the stoppages of the train have a weird character1 and ,worcester1 ,springfield1 ,new ,haven1 and ,stamford are rather points in dreamland than well-known towns of ,new ,england4 ,as the train stops you drowse if you have been waking1 and wake if you have been in a doze2 but in any case you are aware of the locomotive hissing and coughing beyond the station1 of flaring gas-jets1 of clattering feet of passengers getting on and off2 then of some one1 conductor or station master1 walking the whole length of the train2 and then you are aware of an insane satisfaction in renewed flight through the darkness4 ,you think hazily of the folk in their beds in the town left behind1 who stir uneasily at the sound of your train's departing whistle2 and so all is blank vigil or a blank slumber4 --,howells3 ,their ,wedding ,journey4 #acf4 ,impression as the ,purpose of ,description4--,the impression that it gives may become the central purpose of a description4 ,it is evident in ,howells's description of the ,battery that the purpose was the creating of an impression of forlornness1 and that the author kept this purpose in mind when choosing the details4 ,if his aim had been to enable us to form a clear picture of the ,battery in its physical outlines1 he would have chosen different details and would have presented them in different language4 ,the same scene or object may present a different appearance to two different observers because each may discover a different set of likenesses or resemblances and so select different essential characteristics4 ,an artist will paint a picture that centers around some one feature4 ,each added detail seems but to set forth and increase the effect of this central element of the picture4 ,similarly the observer will in his description lay emphasis on the central point and will select details that bear a helpful relation to it4 ,if he wishes to present the picture of a valley1 he will lay emphasis on its fundamental image and essential details with reference to its appearance2 but if his desire is to present the impression of fertility or of rural simplicity and quiet1 the elements that are important for the producing of the desired impression may not be at all the ones essential to his former picture4 ,when the presentation of a picture is our central purpose1 we attempt to present it as it appears to us1 and select details that will enable others to form the desired image2 but if we desire to set forth how a scene affected us1 we must choose details that will make our reader feel as we felt4 #acg4 ,necessity of ,observing our ,impressions4--,in order to write a description which shall give our impression of an object or scene1 we must know definitely what that impression is4 ,just as clear seeing is necessary for the reproduction of definite images1 so is the clear perception of our impressions necessary to their reproduction4 ,furthermore1 we may know what our impressions are without being able to select those elements in a scene that have produced them2 but in order to write a description that shall affect others as the scene itself affected us1 we must know what these elements are and emphasize them in the description4 ,thus it becomes necessary to pay attention both to our impression and to the selection of those details which create that impression4 ,one glance at a room may cause us to believe that the housekeeper is untidy4 ,if we wish to convey this impression to our reader1 our description must include the details that give that impression of untidiness to us4 ,nor are we limited to sight alone1 for our impressions may be made stronger by the aid of the other senses4 ,sound and smell and taste may supplement the sight1 and though they add little to the clearness1 yet they add much to the impression which we get4 ,within the cabin1 through which ,basil and ,isabel now slowly moved1 there were numbers of people lounging about on the sofas1 in various attitudes of talk or vacancy2 and at the tables there were others reading ,lothair1 a new book in the remote epoch of which ,i write1 and a very fashionable book indeed4 ,there was in the air that odor of paint and carpet which prevails on steamboats2 the glass drops of the chandeliers ticked softly against each other1 as the vessel shook with her respiration1 like a comfortable sleeper1 and imparted a delicious feeling of coziness and security to our travelers4 --,howells3 ,their ,wedding ,journey4 #ach4 ,impression ,limited to ,experience4--,if we attempt to write a description for the sake of giving an impression1 it must be an impression that we have ourselves experienced4 ,if the sight of the gorge of ,niagara has filled us with a feeling of sublimity and awe1 we shall find it hard to write a humorous account of it4 ,if we see the humorous elements of a situation1 we cannot easily make our description give the impression of grief4 ,neither can we successfully imitate the impressions of others4 ,no two persons are affected in the same way by the same thing4 ,our age1 our temperament1 our emotional attitude1 and all of our past experiences affect our way of looking at things and modify the impressions which we get4 ,the successful presentation of our impression will depend largely upon the definite perception of our feelings4 #aci4 ,impression ,affected by ,mood4--,not only is our impression affected by details in the scene observed1 but it is even more largely influenced by our mood at the time of the observation4 ,the same landscape may cheer at one time and dishearten at another4 ,to-day we see the ridiculous2 to-morrow1 the sad and sorrowful4 ,a thousand things may change our mood1 but under certain general conditions1 certain impressions are likely to arise4 ,there is something in the air of spring1 or the heat of summer1 which affects us all4 ,the weather1 too1 has its effect4 ,sunshine and shadow find answering attitudes in our feelings1 and the skillful writer takes advantage of these emotional tendencies4 ,not far we fared-- ,the river left behind--when1 looking back1 ,i saw the mountain in the searching light ,of the low sun4 ,surcharged with youthful pride ,in my adventure1 ,i can ne'er forget ,the disappointment and chagrin which fell ,upon me2 for a change had passed4 ,the steep ,which in the morning sprang to kiss the sun1 ,had left the scene2 and in its place ,i saw ,a shrunken pile1 whose paths my steps had climbed1 ,whose proudest height my humble feet had trod4 ,its grand impossibilities and all ,its store of marvels and of mysteries ,were flown away1 and would not be recalled4 --,holland3 ,katrina4 #adj4 ,union of ,image and ,impression4--,because we have discussed image making and impression giving separately1 it must not be judged that they necessarily occur separately4 ,they are in fact always united4 ,no image1 however clear1 can fail to make some impression1 and no description1 however strong the impression it gives1 fails to create some image4 ,it is rather the placing of the emphasis that counts4 ,some descriptions have for their purpose the giving of an image1 and the impression is of little moment4 ,other descriptions aim at producing impressions1 and the images are of less importance4 ,in the description of the ,battery 7page #bed7 the images are clear enough1 but they are subordinate to the impression4 ,this subordination may even go farther4 ,often the impression is made prominent and we are led by suggestion to form images which fit it1 while in reality few definite images have been set4 ,notice in the following selection that the impression of desolation is given without attempting to picture exactly what was seen3-- ,the country at the foot of ,vesuvius is the most fertile and best cultivated of the kingdom1 most favored by ,heaven in all ,europe4 ,the celebrated ,lacrym ,christi vine flourishes beside land totally devastated by lava1 as if nature here made a last effort1 and resolved to perish in her richest array4 ,as you ascend1 you turn to gaze on ,naples1 and on the fair laud around it--the sea sparkles in the sun as if strewn with jewels2 but all the splendors of creation are extinguished by degrees1 as you enter the region of ashes and smoke1 that announces your approach to the volcano4 ,the iron waves of other years have traced their large black furrows in the soil4 ,at a certain height birds are no longer seen2 further on1 plants become very scarce2 then even insects find no nourishment4 ,at last all life disappears4 ,you enter the realm of death and the slain earth's dust alone sleeps beneath your unassured feet4 --,madame ,de ,stal3 ,corinne3 ,italy4 ,,exercises ,discuss the following selections with reference to the impression given by each3-- ,the third of the flower vines is ,wood-,magic4 ,it bears neither flowers nor fruit4 ,its leaves are hardly to be distinguished from the leaves of the other vines4 ,perhaps they are a little rounder than the ,snowberry's1 a little more pointed than the ,partridge-berry's2 sometimes you might mistake them for the one1 sometimes for the other4 ,no marks of warning have been written upon them4 ,if you find them1 it is your fortune2 if you taste them1 it is your fate4 ,for as you browse your way through the forest1 nipping here and there a rosy leaf of young wintergreen1 a fragrant emerald tip of balsam fir1 a twig of spicy birch1 if by chance you pluck the leaves of ,wood-,magic and eat them1 you will not know what you have done1 but the enchantment of the treeland will enter your heart and the charm of the wildwood will flow through your veins4 ,you will never get away from it4 ,the sighing of the wind through the pine trees and the laughter of the stream in its rapids will sound through all your dreams4 ,on beds of silken softness you will long for the sleep-song of whispering leaves above your head1 and the smell of a couch of balsam boughs4 ,at tables spread with dainty fare you will be hungry for the joy of the hunt1 and for the angler's sylvan feast4 ,in proud cities you will weary for the sight of a mountain trail2 in great cathedrals you will think of the long1 arching aisles of the woodland3 and in the noisy solitude of crowded streets you will hone after the friendly forest4 --,henry ,van ,dyke3 ,the ,blue ,flower4 7,copyright1 #aijb1 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons47 ,running your eye across the map of the ,state1 you see two slowly converging lines of railroad writhing out between the hills to the sea-coast4 ,three other lines come down from north to south by the river valleys and the jagged shore4 ,along these1 huddled in the corners of the hills and the sea line1 lie the cities and the larger towns4 ,a great majority of mankind1 swarming in these little spots1 or scuttling to and fro along the valleys on those slender lines1 fondly dream they are acquainted with the land in which they live4 ,but beyond and around all this rises the wide1 bare face of the country1 which they will never know-- the great patches of second-growth woods1 the mountain pastures sown thick with stones1 the barren acres of the hillside farmer--a desolate land1 latticed with gray ,new ,england roads1 dotted with commonplace or neglected houses1 and pitted with the staring cellars of the abandoned homes of disheartened and defeated men4 ,out here in this semi-obscurity1 where the regulating forces of society grow tardy and weak1 strange and dangerous beings move to and fro1 avoiding the apprehension of the law4 ,occasionally we hear of them--of some shrewd and desperate city fugitives brought to bay in a corner of the woods1 or some brutal farmhouse murderer still lurking uncaptured among the hills4 ,often they pass through the country and out beyond1 where they are never seen again4 ,in the extreme southwestern corner of the ,state the railroads do not come2 the vacant spaces grow between the country roads1 and the cities dwindle down to half-deserted crossroads hamlets4 ,here the surface of the map is covered up with the tortuous wrinkles of the hills4 ,it is a beautiful but useless place4 ,as far as you can see1 low1 unformed lumps of mountains lie jumbled aimlessly together between the ragged sky lines1 or little silent cups of valleys stare up between them at their solitary patch of sky4 ,it seems a sort of waste yard of creation1 flung full of the remnants of the making of the earth4 --,george ,kibbe ,turner3 ,across the ,state 7,mc,clure's74 ,when once the shrinking dizzy spell was gone1 ,i saw below me1 like a jeweled cup1 ,the valley hollowed to its heaven-kissed lip-- ,the serrate green against the serrate blue-- ,brimming with beauty's essence2 palpitant ,with a divine elixir--lucent floods ,poured from the golden chalice of the sun1 ,at which my spirit drank with conscious growth1 ,and drank again with still expanding scope ,of comprehension and of faculty4 ,i felt the bud of being in me burst ,with full1 unfolding petals to a rose1 ,and fragrant breath that flooded all the scene4 ,by sudden insight of myself ,i knew ,that ,i was greater than the scene1--that deep ,within my nature was a wondrous world1 ,broader than that ,i gazed on1 and informed ,with a diviner beauty1--that the things ,i saw were but the types of those ,i held1 ,and that above them both1 ,high ,priest and ,king1 ,i stood supreme1 to choose and to combine1 ,and build from that within me and without ,new forms of life1 with meaning of my own1 ,and then alone upon the mountain top1 ,kneeling beside the lamb1 ,i bowed my head ,beneath the chrismal light and felt my soul ,baptized and set apart for poetry4 --,holland3 ,katrina4 ,theme ,,lxix4--,write a description the purpose of which is to give an impression that you have experienced4 ,,summary #a4 ,description is that form of discourse which has for its purpose the creation of an image4 #b4 ,the essential characteristics of a description are3-- a4 ,a point of view1 7#a7 ,it may be fixed or changing4 7#b7 ,it may be expressed or implied4 7#c7 ,only those details should be included that can be seen from the point of view chosen4 b4 ,a correct fundamental image4 c4 ,a few characteristic and essential details 7#a7 ,close observation on the part of the writer is necessary in order to select the essential details4 d4 ,a proper selection and subordination of minor details4 e4 ,a suitable arrangement of details with reference to their natural position in space4 f4 ,that additional effectiveness which comes from 7#a7 ,proper choice of words4 7#b7 ,suitable comparisons and figures4 7#c7 ,variety of sentence structures4 #c4 ,the foregoing principles of description apply in the describing of many classes of objects4 ,a description of a person usually gives some indication of his character and so becomes to some extent a character sketch4 #d4 ,a description may also have for its purpose the giving of an impression4 a4 ,the writer must select details which will aid in conveying the impression he desires his readers to receive4 b4 ,the writer must observe his own impressions accurately1 because he cannot convey to others that which he has not himself experienced4 c4 ,the impression received is affected by the mood of the person4 d4 ,impression and image are never entirely separated4 ,,ix4 ,,narration #ada4 ,kinds of ,narration4--,narration consists of an account of happenings1 and1 for this reason1 it is1 without doubt1 the most interesting of all forms of discourse4 ,it is natural for us all to be interested in life1 movement1 action2 hence we enjoy reading and talking about them4 ,to be convinced that there is everywhere a great interest in narration we need only to listen to conversations1 notice what constitutes the subject-matter of letters of friendship1 read newspapers and magazines1 and observe what classes of books are most frequently drawn from our libraries4 ,narration assumes a variety of forms4 ,since it relates happenings1 it must include anecdotes1 incidents1 short stories1 letters1 novels1 dramas1 histories1 biographies1 and stories of travel and exploration4 ,it also includes many newspaper articles such as those that give accounts of accidents and games and reports of various kinds of meetings4 ,evidently the field of narration is a broad one1 for wherever life or action may be found or imagined1 a subject for a narrative exists4 ,,exercises #a4 ,name four different events that have actually taken place in your school in which you think your classmates are interested4 #b4 ,name three events that have taken place in other schools that may be of interest to members of your school4 #c4 ,name four events of general interest that have occurred in your city during the last two or three years4 #d4 ,from a daily paper1 pick out a narrative that is interesting to you4 #e4 ,select one that you think ought to interest the most of your classmates4 #f4 ,name three national events of recent occurrence4 #g4 ,name three or four strange or mysterious events of which you have heard4 #h4 ,name an actual occurrence that interested you because you wanted to see how it turned out4 #i4 ,would an ordinary account of a bicycle or automobile trip be interesting8 ,if not1 why not8 ,theme ,,lxx4--4,write a letter to a pupil in a neighboring high school1 telling about something interesting that has happened in your own school4 7,review forms of letter writing4 ,consider your use of paragraphs47 #adb4 ,plot4--,by plot we mean the outline of the story told in a few words4 ,all narratives consist of accounts of connected happenings1 in which action on the part of the characters is naturally implied4 ,the principal action briefly told constitutes the plot4 ,the simple plot of ,tennyson's ,princess is as follows3-- ,a prince of the ,north1 after being affianced as a child to a princess of the ,south1 has fallen in love with her portrait and a lock of her hair4 ,when1 however1 the embassy appears to fetch home the bride1 she sends back the message that she is not disposed to be married4 ,upon receipt of this word the ,prince and two friends1 ,florian and ,cyril1 steal away to seek the ,princess1 and learn on reaching her father's court that she has established a ,woman's ,college on a distant estate4 ,having got letters authorizing them to visit the ,princess1 they ride into her domain1 where they determine to go dressed like girls and apply for admission as students in the ,college4 ,they arrive in disguise1 and are admitted4 ,on the first day the young men enroll themselves as students of ,lady ,psyche1 who recognizes ,florian as her brother and agrees not to expose them1 since--by a law of the ,college inscribed above the gates1 which darkness has kept them from seeing--the penalty of their discovery would be death4 ,melissa1 a student1 overhears them1 and is bound over to keep the secret4 ,lady ,blanche1 mother of ,melissa and rival to ,lady ,psyche1 also learns of the alarming invasion1 and remains silent for sinister reasons of her own4 ,on the second day the principal personages picnic in a wood4 ,at dinner ,cyril sings a song that is better fit for the smoking room than for the ears of ladies2 the ,prince1 in his anger1 betrays his sex by a too masculine reproof2 and dire confusion is the result4 ,the ,princess in her flight falls into the river1 from which she is rescued by the ,prince4 ,cyril and ,lady ,psyche escape together1 but the ,prince and ,florian are brought before the ,princess4 ,at this important moment despatches are brought from her father saying that the ,prince's father has surrounded her palace with soldiers1 taken him prisoner1 and holds him as a hostage4 ,the ,prince1 after pleading to deaf ears1 is sent away at dawn with ,florian1 and goes with him to the camp4 ,meantime during the night1 the ,princess's three brothers have come to her aid with an army4 ,an agreement is reached to decide the case and end the war by a tournament between the brothers1 with fifty men1 on one side2 the ,prince and his two friends1 with fifty men1 on the other4 ,this happens on the third day4 ,the ,prince and his men are vanquished1 and he himself is badly wounded4 ,but the ,princess is now gradually to discover that she has overthrown more than her enemy1--that she has defeated yet saved herself4 ,she has said of ,lady ,psyche's little child3-- ,i took it for an hour in mine own bed ,this morning3 there the tender orphan hands ,felt at my heart1 and seem'd to charm from thence ,the wrath ,i nursed against the world4 ,when ,cyril pleads with her to give the child back to its mother1 she kisses it and feels that her heart is barren4 ,when she passes near the wounded ,prince1 and is shown by his father--his beard wet with his son's blood--her hair and picture on her lover's heart1 ,her iron will was broken in her mind1 ,her noble heart was broken in her breast4 ,from the ,princess's cry then1 ,grant me your son to nurse1 it is but a natural result that she should bring the ,prince's wounded men with him into the ,college1 now a hospital4 ,through ministering to her lover1 she comes to love him2 and theories yield to the lord of all4 --,copeland-,rideout3 ,introduction to ,tennyson's ,princess4 ,theme ,,lxxi4--,write the plot of one of the following3-- #a4 ,lochinvar1 ,scott4 #b4 ,rip ,van ,winkle1 ,irving4 #c4 ,one story from ,a ,tale of ,two ,cities1 ,dickens4 #d4 ,silas ,marner1 ,george ,eliot4 #e4 ,the last magazine story you have read4 #f4 ,some story assigned by the teacher4 ,theme ,,lxxii4--,write three brief plots4 ,have the class choose the one that will make the most interesting story4 ,theme ,,lxxiii4--,write a story1 using the plot selected by the class in the preceding theme4 7,are the events related in your story probable or improbable87 #adc4 ,the ,introduction4--,our pleasure in a story depends upon our clear understanding of the various situations1 and this understanding may often be best given by an introduction that states something of the time1 place1 characters1 and circumstances as shown in ,section #f4 ,the purpose of the introduction is to make the story more effective1 and what it shall contain is determined by the needs of the story itself4 ,the last half of a well-written story will not be interesting to one who has not read the first half1 because the first half will contain much that is essential to the complete understanding of the main point of the story4 ,a story begun with conversation at once arouses interest1 but care must be taken to see that the reader gets sufficient descriptive and explanatory matter to enable him to understand the story as the plot develops1 or the interest will begin to lag4 ,theme ,,lxxiv4--,write a narrative4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,the ,christmas surprise4 #b4 ,how the mortgage was paid4 #c4 ,the race between the steam roller and the traction engine4 #d4 ,the new girl in the boarding school4 #e4 ,the ,boss1 and how he won his title4 7,be sure that your introduction is such that the entire situation is understood4 ,name different points in the story that led you to say what you have in the introduction4 ,have you mentioned any unnecessary points87 #add4 ,the ,incentive ,moment4--,the chief business of a story-teller is to arouse the interest of his readers1 and the sooner he succeeds1 the better4 ,usually he tries to arouse interest from the very beginning of his story4 ,he therefore places in the introduction or near it a statement designed to stimulate the curiosity of his readers4 ,the point at which interest begins has been termed the incentive moment4 ,in the following selection notice that the first sentence tells who1 when1 and where4 7,section #f47 ,the second sentence causes us to ask1 what was it8 and by the time that is answered we are curious to know what happened and how the adventure ended4 ,on a mellow moonlight evening a cyclist was riding along a lonely road in the northern part of ,mashonaland4 ,as he rode1 enjoying the somber beauty of the ,african evening1 he suddenly became conscious of a soft1 stealthy1 heavy tread on the road behind him4 ,it seemed like the jog trot of some heavy1 cushion-footed animal following him4 ,turning round1 he was scared very badly to find himself looking into the glaring eyes of a large lion4 ,the puzzled animal acted very strangely1 now raising his head1 now lowering it1 and all the time sniffling the air in a most perplexed manner4 ,here was a surprise for the lion4 ,he could not make out what kind of animal it was that could roll1 walk1 and sit still all at the same time2 an animal with a red eye on each side1 and a brighter one in front4 ,he hesitated to pounce upon such an outlandish being--a being whose blood smelled so oily4 ,i believe no cyclist ever scorched with more honesty and single-mindedness of purpose4 ,but although he pedaled and pedaled1 although he perspired and panted1 his effort to get away did not seem to place any more space between him and the lion2 the animal kept up his annoyingly calm jog trot1 and never seemed to tire4 ,the poor rider was finally so exhausted from terror and exertion that he decided to have the matter settled right away4 ,suddenly slowing down1 he jumped from his wheel1 and1 facing abruptly about1 thrust the brilliant headlight full into the face of the lion4 ,this was too much for the beast4 ,the sudden glare destroyed the lion's nerve1 for at this fresh evidence of mystery on the part of the strange rider-animal1 who broke himself into halves and then cast his big eye in any direction he pleased1 the monarch of the forest turned tail1 and with a wild rush retreated in a very hyena-like manner into the jungle1 evidently thanking his stars for his miraculous escape from that awful being4 ,thereupon the bicyclist1 with new strength returning and devoutly blessing his acetylene lamp1 pedaled his way back to civilization4 --,p4,l4 ,wessels4 ,theme ,,lxxv4--,write a short imaginative story4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,a bicycle race with an unfriendly dog4 #b4 ,an unpleasant experience4 #c4 ,a story told by the school clock4 #d4 ,disturbing a hornet's nest4 #e4 ,the fate of an ,easter bonnet4 #f4 ,chased by a wolf4 7,where is the incentive moment8 ,is it introduced naturally87 #ade4 ,climax4--,you have already noticed in your reading that usually somewhere near the close of the story1 there is a turning point4 ,that turning point is called the climax4 ,at this point1 the suspense of mind is greatest1 for the fate of the principal character is being decided4 ,if the story is well written as regards the plot1 our interest will continually increase from the incentive moment to the climax4 ,in the novel and the drama1 both of which may have a complicated plot1 several minor climaxes or crises may be found4 ,there may be a crisis to each single event or episode1 yet they should all be a part of and lead up to the principal or final climax4 ,instead of detracting from1 they add to the interest of a carefully woven plot4 ,for example1 in the ,merchant of ,venice1 we have a crisis in both the casket story and the ,lorenzo and ,jessica episode2 but so skillfully are the stories interwoven that the minor climaxes do not lessen our interest in the principal one4 ,in short stories1 the turning point should come near the close4 ,there should be but little said after that point is reached4 ,in novels1 and especially in dramas1 we find that the climax is not right at the close1 and considerable action sometimes takes place after the climax has been reached4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,point out the climax in each of five stories that you have read4 ,b4 ,where is the climax in the following selection8 ,we spoke1 and ,sohrab kindled at his taunts1 ,and he too drew his sword2 at once they rushed ,together1 as two eagles on one prey ,come rushing down together from the clouds1 ,one from the east1 one from the west2 their shields ,dashed with a clang together1 and a din ,rose1 such as that the sinewy woodcutters ,make often in the forest's heart at morn1 ,of hewing axes1 crashing trees--such blows ,rustum and ,sohrab on each other hailed4 ,and you would say that sun and stars took part ,in that unnatural conflict2 for a cloud ,grew suddenly in heaven1 and darked the sun ,over the fighters' heads2 and a wind rose ,under their feet1 and moaning swept the plain1 ,and in a sandy whirlwind wrapped the pair4 ,in gloom they twain were wrapped1 and they alone2 ,for both the onlooking hosts on either hand ,stood in broad daylight1 and the sky was pure1 ,and the sun sparkled on the ,oxus stream4 ,but in the gloom they fought1 with bloodshot eyes ,and laboring breath2 first ,rustum struck the shield ,which ,sohrab held stiff out2 the steel-spiked spear ,rent the tough plates1 but failed to reach the skin1 ,and ,rustum plucked it back with angry groan4 ,then ,sohrab with his sword smote ,rustum's helm1 ,nor clove its steel quite through2 but all the crest ,he shore away1 and that proud horsehair plume1 ,never till now denied1 sank to the dust2 ,and ,rustum bowed his head2 but then the gloom ,grew blacker1 thunder rumbled in the air1 ,and lightnings rent the cloud2 and ,ruksh1 the horse1 ,who stood at hand1 uttered a dreadful cry2-- ,no horse's cry was that1 most like the roar ,of some pained desert lion1 who all day ,hath trailed the hunter's javelin in his side1 ,and comes at night to die upon the sand4 ,the two hosts heard that cry1 and quaked for fear1 ,and ,oxus curdled as it crossed his stream4 ,but ,sohrab heard1 and quailed not1 but rushed on1 ,and struck again2 and again ,rustum bowed ,his head2 but this time all the blade1 like glass1 ,sprang in a thousand shivers on the helm1 ,and in the hand the hilt remained alone4 ,then ,rustum raised his head2 his dreadful eyes ,glared1 and he shook on high his menacing spear1 ,and shouted3 ,rustum6--,sohrab heard that shout1 ,and shrank amazed3 back he recoiled one step1 ,and scanned with blinking eyes the advancing form2 ,and then he stood bewildered2 and he dropped ,his covering shield1 and the spear pierced his side4 ,he reeled1 and1 staggering back1 sank to the ground1 ,and then the gloom dispersed1 and the wind fell1 ,and the bright sun broke forth1 and melted all ,the cloud2 and the two armies saw the pair-- ,saw ,rustum standing1 safe upon his feet1 ,and ,sohrab wounded1 on the bloody sand4 --,matthew ,arnold3 ,sohrab and ,rustum4 ,theme ,,lxxvi4--,write a story and give special attention to the climax4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,the immigrant's error4 #b4 ,a critical moment4 #c4 ,an intelligent dog4 #d4 ,the lost key4 #e4 ,catching a burglar4 #f4 ,a hard test4 #g4 ,won by the last hit4 #h4 ,a story suggested by a picture you have seen4 7,name the incidents leading up to the climax4 ,is the mind held in suspense until the climax is reached8 ,are any unnecessary details introduced87 #adf4 ,conversation in ,narration4--,when introduced into narration1 a conversation is briefer than when actually spoken4 ,it is necessary to have the conversation move quickly1 for we read with less patience than we listen4 ,the sentences must be for the most part short1 and the changes from one speaker to another frequent1 or the dialogue will have a made to order effect4 ,notice the conversation in as many different stories as possible4 ,observe how variation is secured in indicating the speaker4 ,how many substitutes for ,he said can you name8 ,in relating conversation orally1 we are less likely to secure such variety4 ,notice in your own speech and that of others how often ,i said and ,he said occur4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,notice the indentation and sentence length in the following selection3-- ,louden looked up calmly at the big figure towering above him4 ,it won't do1 ,judge1 he said2 that was all1 but there was a significance in his manner and a certainty in his voice which caused the uplifted hand to drop limply4 ,have you any business to set foot upon my property8 he demanded4 ,yes1 answered ,joe4 ,that's why ,i came4 ,what business have you got with me8 ,enough to satisfy you1 ,i think4 ,but there's one thing ,i don't want to do--,joe glanced at the open door--and that is to talk about it here--for your own sake and because ,i think ,miss ,tabor should be present4 ,i called to ask you to come to her house at eight o'clock to-night4 ,you did6 ,martin ,pike spoke angrily1 but not in the bull bass of yore4 ,my accounts with her estate are closed1 he said harshly4 ,if she wants anything let her come here4 ,joe shook his head4 ,no4 ,you must be there at eight o'clock4 --,booth ,tarkington3 ,the ,conquest of ,canaan 7,harper's74 ,b4 ,notice the conversation in the following narrative4 ,consider also the incentive moment and the climax4 ,suggest improvements4 ,when ,widow ,perkins saw ,widower ,parsons coming down the road she looked as mad as a hornet and stepped to the back door4 ,william ,henry1 she called to the lank youth chopping wood1 you've worked hard enough for one day4 ,come in and rest4 ,guess that's the first time you ever thought ,i needed a rest since ,i was born4 ,i'll keep right on chopping till you get through acceptin' old ,hull1 he replied1 whereupon the widow slammed the door and looked twice as mad as before4 ,mornin'1 widdy1 remarked the widower1 stalking into the room1 taking a chair without an invitation1 and hanging his hat on his knee4 ,cold day1 he added cheerfully4 ,the widow nodded shortly1 at the same time inwardly prophesying a still colder day for him before he struck the weather again4 ,been buyin' a new cow1 resumed the caller1 impressively4 ,have1 eh8 returned the widow1 with a jerk1 bringing out the ironing board and slamming it down on the table4 ,an' two hogs1 went on the widower1 wishing the widow would glance at him just once and see how affectionate he looked4 ,they'll make pork enough for all next winter and spring4 ,will1 eh8 responded the widow1 with a bang of the iron that nearly wrecked the table4 ,an' a--a--lot o' odd things 'round the house2 an' the fact is1 widdy1 you see--that is1 you know--was going to say if you'll agree--the widower lost his words1 and in his desperation hung his hat on the other knee and hitched a trifle nearer the ironing board4 ,no1 ,hull ,parsons1 ,i don't see a single mite1 nor ,i don't know a particle1 an' ,i ain't agreein' the least bit1 snapped the widow1 pounding the creases out of the tablecloth4 ,but say1 widdy1 don't get riled so soon1 again ventured ,parsons4 ,i was jest goin' to tell you that ,i've been proposing to ,carpenter ,brown to build a new-- ,by this time the widow was glancing at him in a way he wished she wouldn't4 ,is that all the proposin' you've done in the last five mouths1 ,hull ,parsons8 she demanded stormily4 ,you ain't asked every old maid for miles around to marry you1 have you1 ,hull ,parsons8 ,an' you didn't tell the last one you proposed to that if she didn't take you there would be only one more chance left--that old pepper-box of a ,widow ,perkins8 ,you didn't say that1 now1 did you1 ,hull ,parsons8 and the widow's eyes and voice snapped fire all at once4 ,the caller turned several different shades of red and realized that he had struck the biggest snag he'd ever struck in any courting career1 past or present4 ,he laughed violently for a second or two1 tried to hang his hat on both knees at the same time1 and finally sank his voice to a confidential undertone3-- ,now1 widdy1 that's the woman's way o' puttin' it4 ,they've been jealous o' you all 'long1 fur they knew where my mind was sot4 ,i wouldn't married one o' them women for nothing1 added the widower1 with another hitch toward the ironing board4 ,huh6 responded the widow1 losing a trifle of her warlike cast of countenance4 ,s'pose all them women hadn't refused you1 ,hull ,parsons1 what then8 ,they didn't refuse me1 widdy1 returned the widower1 trying to look sheepish1 and dropping his voice an octave lower4 ,s'pose ,i hadn't oughter tell on 'em1 but--er--can you keep a secret1 widdy8 ,i ain't like the woman who can't1 remarked the widow1 shortly4 ,well1 then1 ,i was the one who did the refusin'--the hull gang went fer me right heavy1 guess 'cause 'twas leap year1 or they was tryin' on some o' them new women's ways1 or somethin' like that4 ,but my mind was sot all along1 d'ye see1 widdy8 ,and the ,widow ,perkins invited ,widower ,parsons to stay to dinner1 because she thought she saw4 ,theme ,,lxxvii4--,complete the story on pages #gi-hj1 or one of the following3-- ,,the ,,audacious ,,reporter ,soon after ,fenimore ,dayton became a reporter his city editor sent him to interview ,james ,mountain4 ,that famous financier was then approaching the zenith of his power over ,wall ,street and ,lombard ,street4 ,it had just been announced that he had absorbed the ,great ,eastern and ,western ,railway ,system--of course1 by the methods which have made some men and some newspapers habitually speak of him as the ,royal ,bandit4 ,the city editor had two reasons for sending ,dayton--first because he did not like him2 second1 because any other man on the staff would walk about for an hour and come back with the report that ,mountain had refused to receive him1 while ,dayton would make an honest effort4 ,seeing ,dayton saunter down ,nassau ,street--tall1 slender1 calm1 and cheerful--you would never have thought that he was on his way to interview one of the worst-tempered men in ,new ,york1 for a newspaper which that man peculiarly detested1 and on a subject which he did not care to discuss with the public4 ,dayton turned in at the ,equitable ,building and went up to the floor occupied by ,mountain1 ,ranger1 ,blakehill4 ,he nodded to the attendant at the door of ,mountain's own suite of offices1 strolled tranquilly down the aisle between the several rows of desks at which sat ,mountain's personal clerks1 and knocked at the glass door on which was printed ,mr4 ,mountain in small gilt letters4 ,come6 ,it was an angry voice--,mountain's at its worst4 ,dayton opened the door4 ,mountain glanced up from a mass of papers before him4 ,his red forehead became a network of wrinkles and his scant white eyebrows bristled4 ,and who are you8 he snarled4 ,my name is ,dayton--,fenimore ,dayton1 replied the reporter1 with a gracefully polite bow4 ,mr4 ,mountain1 ,i believe8 ,it was impossible for ,mr4 ,mountain altogether to resist the impulse to bow in return4 ,dayton's manner was compelling4 ,and what the dev--what can ,i do for you8 ,i'm a reporter from the ---- ,what6 roared ,mountain1 leaping to his feet in a purple1 swollen veined fury4444 --,david ,graham ,philips 7,mc,clure's74 ,,caught ,,masquerading ,when ,i took my aunt and sister to the ,pequot hotel1 the night before the ,yale-,harvard boat race1 ,i found a gang of ,harvard boys there4 ,they celebrated a good deal that night1 in the usual ,harvard way4 ,some of the ,harvard men had a room next to mine4 ,about three a4m4 things quieted down4 ,when ,i woke up next morning1 it was broad daylight1 and ,i was utterly alone4 ,the race was to be at eleven o'clock4 ,i jumped out of bed and looked at my watch--it was nearly ten6 ,i looked for my clothes4 ,my valise was gone6 ,i rang the bell1 but in the excitement downstairs1 ,i suppose1 no one answered it4 ,what was ,i to do8 ,those ,harvard friends of mine thought it a good joke on me to steal my clothes and take themselves off to the race without waking me up4 ,i don't know what ,i should have done in my anguish1 when1 thank goodness1 ,i heard a tap at my door1 and went to it4 ,well1 do hurry6 7,it was my sister's voice47 ,aunt won't go to the race2 we'll have to go without her4 ,they've stolen my clothes1 ,mollie--those ,harvard fellows4 ,haven't you anything8 she asked through the keyhole4 ,not a thing1 dear4 ,oh1 well6 it's a just punishment to you after last night6 ,that ---- noise was dreadful6 ,perhaps it is1 ,i said1 but don't preach now1 sister dear--get me something to put on4 ,i want to see the race4 ,i haven't anything except some dresses and one of aunt's4 ,get me ,aunt ,sarah's black silk1 ,i cried4 ,i will wear anything rather than not see the race1 and it's half-past ten nearly now4 7,correct your theme with reference to the points mentioned in ,section #adf47 #adg4 ,number and ,choice of ,details--,unity4--,in relating experiences the choice of details will be determined by the purpose of the narrative and by the person or persons for whom we are writing4 ,a brief account of an accident for a newspaper will need to include only a clear and concise statement of a few important facts4 ,a traveling experience may be made interesting and vivid if we select several facts and treat each quite fully4 ,this is especially true if the experience took place in a country or part of a country not familiar to our readers4 ,if we are writing for those with whom we are acquainted1 we can easily decide what will interest them4 ,if we write to different persons an account of the same event1 we find that these accounts differ from one another4 ,we know what each person will enjoy1 and we try to adapt our writing to each individual taste4 ,our narrative will be improved by adapting it to an imaginary audience in case we do not know exactly who our readers will be4 ,in your high school work you know your readers and can select your facts accordingly4 ,to summarize3 a narration should possess unity1 that is1 it should say all that should be said about the subject and not more than needs to be said4 ,the length of the theme1 the character of the audience to which it is addressed1 and the purpose for which it is written1 determine what facts are necessary and how many to choose in order to give unity4 7,see ,section #ha47 #adh4 ,arrangement of ,details--,coherence4--,we should use an arrangement of our facts that will give coherence to our theme4 ,in a coherent theme each sentence or paragraph is naturally suggested by the preceding one4 ,it has been pointed out in ,sections #hb-he that in narration we gain coherence by relating our facts in the order of their occurrence4 ,when a single series of events is set forth1 we can follow the real time-order1 omitting such details as are not essential to the unity of the story4 ,if1 however1 more than one series of events are given1 we cannot follow the exact time-order1 for1 though two events occur at the same time1 one must be told before the other4 ,here1 the actual time relations must be carefully indicated by the use of expressions2 as1 at the same time1 meanwhile1 already1 etc4 7,see ,section #ab47 ,two or more series of events belong in the same story only if they finally come together at some time1 usually at the point of the story4 ,they should be carried along together so that the reader shall have in mind all that is necessary for the understanding of the point when it is reached4 ,in short stories the changes from one series to another are close together4 ,in a long book one or more chapters may give one series of incidents1 while the following chapters may be concerned with a parallel series of incidents4 ,notice the introductory paragraph of each chapter in ,scott's ,ivanhoe or ,cooper's ,the ,last of the ,mohicans4 ,many of these indicate that a new series of events is to be related4 ,it will be of advantage in writing a narrative to construct an outline as indicated in ,section #hd4 ,such an outline will assist us in making our narrative clear by giving it unity1 coherence1 and emphasis4 ,,exercises #a4 ,name events that have occurred in your school or city which could be related in their exact time-order4 ,relate one of them orally4 #b4 ,name two accidents that could not be related in their exact time-order4 ,relate one of them orally4 #c4 ,name subjects for real narratives that would need to be written in the first person2 in the third person4 #d4 ,in telling about a runaway accident1 what points would you mention if you were writing a short account for a newspaper8 #e4 ,what points would you add if you were writing to some one who was acquainted with the persons in the accident8 #f4 ,consider the choice and arrangement of details in the next magazine story that you read4 ,theme ,,lxxviii4--,write a personal narrative in which the time-order can be carefully followed4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,the irate conductor4 #b4 ,a personal adventure with a window4 #c4 ,an interrupted nap4 #d4 ,lost in the woods4 #e4 ,in a runaway4 #f4 ,an amusing adventure4 #g4 ,a day at grandfather's4 7,consider the unity and coherence of the theme47 ,theme ,,lxxix4--,write in the third person a true narrative in which different events are going on at the same time4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,a skating accident4 #b4 ,the hunters hunted4 #c4 ,capsized on the river4 #d4 ,how he won the race4 #e4 ,an experience with a balky horse4 #f4 ,the search for a lost child4 #g4 ,how they missed each other4 #h4 ,a strange adventure4 #i4 ,a tip over in a bobsleigh4 7,how many series of events have you in your narrative8 ,are they well connected8 ,what words have you used to show the time-order of the different events87 #adi4 ,interrelation of ,plot and ,character4--,though in narration the interest centers primarily in the action1 yet in the higher types of narration interest in character is closely interwoven with interest in plot4 ,in reading1 our attention is held by the plot2 we follow its development1 noticing the addition of incidents1 their relation to one another and to the larger elements of action in the story1 and their union in the final disentanglement of the plot2 but our complete appreciation of the story runs far beyond the plot and depends to a large extent upon our interpretation of the character of the individuals concerned4 ,the mere story may be exciting and interesting1 but its effect will be of little permanent value if it does not stir within us some appreciation of character1 which we shall find reflected in our own lives or in the lives of those about us4 ,we may read the ,merchant of ,venice for its story1 but a deeper study of the play sets forth and renforces the character of ,portia1 ,shylock1 and the others4 ,with many of the celebrated characters of literature this interest has grown quite apart from interest in the plot1 and they stand to-day as the embodiment of phases of human nature4 ,thus by means of action does the skillful author portray his conception of human life and human character4 ,on the other hand1 when we write we shall need to distinguish action that indicates character from that which is merely incidental to the plot4 ,in order to develop a story to its climax we may need to have the persons concerned perform certain actions4 ,if by skillful wording we can show not only what was done but also to some extent the way in which it was done1 we may give our readers some notion of the character of the individuals in our story4 7,see ,section #aj47 ,this portrayal of character may be aided by the use of description4 7,see ,section #acd47 ,notice that the purpose of the following selection is to indicate the character of ,pitkin rather than to relate the incident4 ,if the author were to relate other doings of ,pitkin1 he would need to make the actions of ,pitkin in each case consistent with the character indicated by this sketch4 ,it was the day of our great football game with ,harvard1 and when ,i heard my friend ,pitkin returning to the room we shared in common1 ,i knew that he was mad4 ,and when ,i say mad ,i mean it1--not angry1 nor exasperated1 nor aggravated1 nor provoked1 but mad3 not mad according to the dictionary1 that is1 crazy1 but mad as we common folk use the term4 ,so ,i say my friend ,pitkin was mad4 ,i thought so when ,i heard the angry click-clack of his heels on the cement walk1 and ,i carefully put all the chairs against the wall2 ,i was sure of it when the door slammed1 and ,i set the coal scuttle in the corner behind the stove4 ,there was no doubt of it when he mounted the stairs three steps at a time1 and ,i hastily cleared his side of the desk4 ,you may wonder why ,i did all these things1 but you have never seen ,pitkin mad4 ,why was ,pitkin mad8 ,i did not then know4 ,i had not seen him yet1 for ,i was so busy--so very1 very busy--that ,i did not look up when he slammed his books on the desk with a resounding whack which caused the ink bottle to tremble and the lampshade to clatter as though chattering its teeth with fear1 while the pens and pencils1 tumbling from the holder1 scurried away to hide themselves under the desk4 ,i was still busily engaged with my books while he threw his wet overcoat and dripping hat on the white bedspread and kicked his rubbers under the stove1 the smell of which soon warned me to rescue them before they melted4 ,pitkin must be very mad this time4 ,he was taking off his collar and even his shoes4 ,pitkin always took off his collar when very mad1 and if especially so1 put on his slippers1 even if he had to change them again in fifteen minutes4 ,what are you doing8 ,why don't you say something8 ,you are a pretty fellow not to speak or even look up4 ,such was ,pitkin's first remark4 ,sometimes he was talkative and would insist on giving his opinion of things in general4 ,at other times he preferred to be left alone to bury himself and his wrath in his books4 ,since he had failed to poke the fire1 though the room was very warm1 ,i had decided that he would dive into his books and be heard no more until a half hour past his suppertime1 but ,i had made a mistake4 ,today he was in a talkative mood1 and knowing that work was impossible1 ,i devoted the next half hour to listening to a dissertation on the general perverseness of human nature1 and to an elaborate description of my friend ,pitkin's scheme for endowing a rival institution with a hundred million1 and making things so cheap and attractive that our university would have to go out of business4 ,when ,pitkin reached this point1 ,i knew that ,i could safely ask the special reason of his anger and that1 having answered1 he would settle down to his regular work4 ,i gently insinuated that ,i was still ignorant of the matter1 and received the reply quite in keeping with ,pitkin's nature1 ,i bet on ,harvard and won4 ,,exercises #a4 ,read one of ,dickens's books and bring to class selections that will show how ,dickens portrays character by use of action4 #b4 ,what kind of man is ,silas ,marner8 ,what leads you to think as you do8 #c4 ,select three persons from ,ivanhoe and state your opinion of their character4 #d4 ,notice the relative importance of plot and character in three magazine stories4 #e4 ,select some person from a magazine story4 ,tell the class what makes you form the estimate of his character that you do4 ,to what extent does the descriptive matter help you determine his character8 ,theme ,,lxxx4--,write a character sketch or a story which shows character by means of action4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,the girl from ,texas4 #b4 ,the ,chinese cook4 #c4 ,taking care of the baby4 #d4 ,nathan's temptation4 #e4 ,the small boy's triumph4 #f4 ,a village character4 #g4 ,the meanest man ,i ever knew4 7,consider the development of the plot4 ,to what extent have you shown character by action8 ,can you make the impression of character stronger by adding some description87 #aej4 ,history and ,biography4--,historical and biographical narratives may be highly entertaining and at the same time furnish us with much valuable information4 ,such writings often contain much that is not pure narration4 ,a historian may set forth merely the program of events1 but most histories contain besides a large amount of description and explanation4 ,frequently1 too1 all of this is but the basis of either a direct or an implied argument4 ,likewise a biographer may be chiefly concerned with the acts of a man1 but he usually finds that the introduction of description and explanation aids him in making clear the life purpose of the man about whom he writes4 ,in shorter histories and biographies1 the expository and descriptive matter often displaces the narrative matter to such an extent that the story ceases to be interesting4 ,the actual time-order of events need not be followed4 ,it will often make our account clearer to discuss the literary works of a man at one time1 his education at another1 and his practical achievements at a third4 ,certain portions of his life may need to be emphasized while others are neglected4 ,what we include in a biography and what we emphasize will be determined by the purpose for which it is written4 ,for pure information1 a short account is desirable1 but a long account is of greater interest4 ,if a man is really great1 the most insignificant events in his life will be read with interest1 but a good biographer will select such events with good taste and then will present them so that they will have a bearing upon the more important phases of the man's life and character4 ,hundreds of the stories told about ,lincoln would be trivial but for the fact that they help us better to understand the real character of the man4 ,,exercise #a4 ,select some topic briefly mentioned in the history text you study4 ,look up a more extended account of it and come to the class prepared to recite the topic orally4 ,make your report clear1 concise1 and interesting4 ,decide beforehand just what facts you will relate and in what order4 7,see ,sections #ci1 #eb1 #ec47 ,theme ,,lxxxi4--,come to class prepared to write upon some topic assigned by the teacher1 or upon one of the following3-- #a4 ,pontiac's conspiracy4 #b4 ,the battle of ,marathon4 #c4 ,the ,boston tea party4 #d4 ,the battle of ,bannockburn4 #e4 ,sherman's march to the sea4 #f4 ,passage of the ,alps by ,napoleon4 7,is your narrative told in an interesting way8 ,are any facts necessary to the clear understanding of it omitted87 ,,exercises #a4 ,name an ,english orator1 an ,english statesman1 and an ,english writer about each of whom an interesting biography might be written4 #b4 ,with the same purpose in view name two ,american orators1 two ,american writers1 and two ,american statesmen4 ,theme ,,lxxxii4--,write a short biography of some prominent person4 ,include only well-known and important facts1 but do not give his name4 ,read the biography before the class and have them tell whose biography it is4 #aea4 ,description in ,narration4--,the descriptive elements1 of narration should always have for their purpose something more than the mere creating of images4 ,if a house is described1 the description should enable us to bring to mind more vividly the events that take place within or around it4 ,if the description aids us in understanding how or why the events occur1 it is helpful2 but if it fails to do this1 it has no place in the narrative4 ,description when thus used serves as a background for the actions told in the story1 and has for its purpose the explanation of how or why they occur4 ,sometimes the descriptions are given before the incident and sometimes the two are intermixed4 ,in the following incident from the ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow1 notice how the description prepares the mind for the action that follows4 ,we are told that the brook which ,ichabod must cross runs into a marshy and thickly wooded glen2 that the oaks and chestnuts matted with grapevines throw a gloom over the place1 and already we feel that it is a dreadful spot after dark4 ,the fact that ,andr was captured here adds to the feeling4 ,we are prepared to have some exciting action take place1 and had ,ichabod ridden quietly across the bridge1 we should have been disappointed4 ,about two hundred yards from the tree a small brook crossed the road1 and ran into a marshy and thickly wooded glen1 known by the name of ,wiley's swamp4 ,a few rough logs1 laid side by side1 served for a bridge over this stream4 ,on that side of the road where the brook entered the woods1 a group of oaks and chestnuts1 matted thick with wild grapevines1 threw a cavernous gloom over it4 ,to pass this bridge was the severest trial4 ,it was at this identical spot that the unfortunate ,andr was captured1 and under covert of those vines were the sturdy yeomen concealed who surprised him4 ,this has ever since been considered a haunted stream1 and fearful are the feelings of the schoolboy who has to pass it alone after dark4 ,as he approached the stream his heart began to thump2 he summoned up1 however1 all his resolution1 gave his horse half a score of kicks in the ribs1 and attempted to dash briskly across the bridge2 but instead of starting forward1 the perverse old animal made a lateral movement1 and ran broadside against the fence4 ,ichabod1 whose fears increased with the delay1 jerked the reins on the other side1 and kicked lustily with the contrary foot4 ,it was all in vain2 his steed started1 it is true1 but it was only to plunge to the opposite side of the road into a thicket of brambles and alder bushes4 ,the schoolmaster now bestowed both whip and heel upon the starveling ribs of old ,gunpowder1 who dashed forward1 snuffling and snorting1 but came to a stand just by the bridge1 with a suddenness that had nearly sent his rider sprawling over his head4 ,just at this moment a plashy tramp1 by the side of the bridge caught the sensitive ear of ,ichabod4 ,in the dark shadow of the grove1 on the margin of the brook1 he beheld something huge1 misshapen1 black1 and towering4 ,it stirred not1 but seemed gathered up in the gloom like some gigantic monster ready to spring upon the traveler4 --,irving3 ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow4 ,the most important use of description in connection with narration is that of portraying character4 ,though it is by their actions that the character of persons is most strongly brought out1 yet the descriptive matter may do much to strengthen the impression of character which we form4 7,section #acd47 ,much of the description found in literature is of this nature4 ,stripped of its context such a description may fail to satisfy our ideals as judged by the principles of description discussed in ,chapter ,,viii4 ,nevertheless1 in its place it may be perfectly adapted to its purpose and give just the impression the author wished to give4 ,such descriptions must be judged in their settings1 and the sole standard of judgment is not their beauty or completeness as descriptions1 but how well they give the desired impressions4 ,theme ,,lxxxiii4--,write a short personal narrative containing some description which explains how or why events occur4 7,is there anything in the descriptive part that does not bear on the narration87 ,theme ,,lxxxiv4--,write a narrative containing description that aids in giving an impression of character4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,holding the fort4 #b4 ,a steamer trip4 #c4 ,how ,i played truant4 #d4 ,kidnapped4 #e4 ,the misfortunes of our circus4 #f4 ,account for the situation shown in a picture that you have seen4 7,will the reader form the impression of character which you wish him to form8 ,consider your theme with reference to its introduction1 incentive moment1 selection and arrangement of details1 and climax47 ,,summary #a4 ,narration assumes a variety of forms1--incidents1 anecdotes1 stories1 letters1 novels1 histories1 biographies1 etc41--all concerned with the relation of events4 #b4 ,the essential characteristics of a narration are1-- a4 ,an introduction which tells the characters1 the time1 the place1 and enough of the attendant circumstances to make clear the point of the narrative4 b4 ,the early introduction of an incentive moment4 c4 ,a climax presented in such a way as to maintain the interest of the reader4 d4 ,the selection of details essential to the climax in accordance with the principle of unity4 e4 ,the arrangement of these details in a coherent order4 f4 ,the skillful introduction of minor details which will assist in the appreciation of the point4 g4 ,the introduction of all necessary description and explanation4 h4 ,that additional effectiveness which comes from 7#a7 ,proper choice of words4 7#b7 ,suitable comparisons and figures4 7#c7 ,variety of sentence structure4 i4 ,a brief conclusion4 ,x4 ,,exposition #aeb4 ,purpose of ,exposition4--,it is the purpose of exposition to make clear to others that which we ourselves understand4 ,its primary object is to give information4 ,herein lies one of the chief differences between the two forms of discourse just studied and the one that we are about to study4 ,the primary object of most description and narration is to please1 while that of exposition is to inform4 ,exposition answers such questions as how8 why8 what does it mean8 what is it used for8 and by these answers attempts to satisfy demands for knowledge4 ,in the following selections notice that the first tells us how to burnish a photograph2 the second1 how to split a sheet of paper3-- #a4 ,when the prints are almost dry they can be burnished4 ,the burnishing iron should be heated and kept hot during the burnishing1 about the same heat as a flatiron in ironing clothes4 ,care must be taken to keep the polished surface of the burnisher bright and clean4 ,when the iron is hot enough the prints should be rubbed with a glac polish1 which is sold for this purpose1 and is applied with a small wad of flannel4 ,then the prints should be passed through the burnisher two or three times1 the burnisher being so adjusted that the pressure on the prints is rather light2 the degree of pressure will be quickly learned by experience1 more pressure being required if the prints have been allowed to become dry before being polished4 ,white castile soap will do very well as a lubricator for the prints before burnishing1 and is applied in the same manner as above4 --,the ,amateur ,photographer's ,handbook4 #b4 ,paper can be split into two or even three parts1 however thin the sheet4 ,it may be convenient to know how to do this sometimes2 as1 for instance1 when one wishes to paste in a scrapbook an article printed on both sides of the paper4 ,get a piece of plate glass and place it on a sheet of paper4 ,then let the paper be thoroughly soaked4 ,with care and a little skill the sheet can be split by the top surface being removed4 ,the best plan1 however1 is to paste a piece of cloth or strong paper to each side of the sheet to be split4 ,when dry1 quickly1 and without hesitation1 pull the two pieces asunder1 when one part of the sheet will be found to have adhered to one1 and part to the other4 ,soften the paste in water1 and the two pieces can easily be removed from the cloth4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,explain orally any two of the following3-- #a4 ,how to fly a kite4 #b4 ,how a robin builds her nest4 #c4 ,how oats are harvested4 #d4 ,how tacks are made4 #e4 ,how to make a popgun4 #f4 ,how fishes breathe4 #g4 ,how to swim4 #h4 ,how to hemstitch a handkerchief4 #i4 ,how to play golf4 #aj4 ,how salt is obtained4 ,b4 ,name several subjects with the explanation of which you are unfamiliar4 ,theme ,,lxxxv4--,select for a subject something that you know how to do4 ,write a theme on the subject chosen4 7,have you made use of either general description or general narration8 ,see ,sections #fg and #fh47 ,very frequently explanations of how and why anything is done are combined1 as in the following3-- ,in cases of sunstroke1 place the person attacked in a cool1 airy place4 ,do not allow a crowd to collect closely about him4 ,remove his clothing1 and lay him flat upon his back4 ,dash him all over with cold water--ice-water1 if it can be obtained--and rub the entire body with pieces of ice4 ,this treatment is used to reduce the heat of the body1 for in all cases of sunstroke the temperature of the body is greatly increased4 ,when the body has become cooler1 wipe it dry and remove the person to a dry locality4 ,if respiration ceases1 or becomes exceedingly slow1 practice artificial respiration4 ,after the patient has apparently recovered1 he should be kept quiet in bed for some time4 --,baldwin3 ,essential ,lessons in ,human ,physiology and ,hygiene4 ,notice that the following selection answers neither the question how8 nor why8 but explains what journalism is3-- ,,journalism ,what is a journal8 ,what is a journalist8 ,what is journalism8 ,is it a trade1 a commercial business1 or a profession8 ,our word journal comes from the ,french4 ,it has different forms in the several ,romantic languages1 and all go back to the ,latin diurnalis1 daily1 from dies1 a day4 ,diurnal and diary are derived from the same source4 ,the first journals were in fact diaries1 daily records of happenings1 compiled often for the pleasure and use of the compiler alone1 sometimes for monarchs or statesmen or friends2 later to be circulated for the information of a circle of readers1 or distributed in copies to subscribers among the public at large4 ,these were the first newspapers4 ,while we still in a specific sense speak of daily newspapers as journals1 the term is often enlarged to comprise nearly all publications that are issued periodically and distributed to subscribers4 ,a journalist is one whose business is publishing a journal 7or more than one71 or editing a journal1 or writing for journals1 especially a person who is regularly employed in some responsible directing or creative work on a journal1 as a publisher1 editor1 writer1 reporter1 critic1 etc4 ,this use of the word is comparatively modern1 and it is commonly restricted to persons connected with daily or weekly newspapers4 ,many older newspaper men scout it1 preferring to be known as publishers1 editors1 writers1 or contributors4 ,journalism1 however1 is a word that is needed for its comprehensiveness4 ,it includes the theory1 the business1 and the art of producing newspapers in all departments of the work4 ,hence1 any school of professional journalism must be presumed to comprise in its scope and detail of instruction the knowledge that is essential to the making and conduct of newspapers4 ,it must have for its aim the ideal newspaper which is ideally perfect in every department4 ,journalism1 so far as it is more than mere reporting and mere money making1 so far as it undertakes to frame and guide opinion1 to educate the thought and instruct the conscience of the community1 by editorial comment1 interpretation and homily1 based on the news1 is under obligation to the community to be truthful1 sincere1 and uncorrupted2 to enlighten the understanding1 not to darken counsel2 to uphold justice and honor with unfailing resolution1 to champion morality and the public welfare with intelligent zeal1 to expose wrong and antagonize it with unflinching courage4 ,if journalism has any mission in the world besides and beyond the dissemination of news1 it is a mission of maintaining a high standard of thought and life in the community it serves1 strengthening all its forces that make for righteousness and beauty and fair growth4 ,this is not solely1 nor peculiarly1 the office of what is called the editorial page4 ,to be most influential1 it must be a consistent expression in all departments1 giving the newspaper a totality of power in such aim4 ,this is the right ideal of journalism whenever it is considered as more than a form of commercialism4 ,no newspaper attains its ideal in completeness4 ,if it steadfastly works toward attainment1 it gives proof of its right to be4 ,the advancing newspaper1 going on from good to better in the substance of its character and the ability of its endeavor1 is the type of journalism which affords hope for the future4 ,and one strong encouragement to fidelity in a high motive is public appreciation4 --,the ,boston ,herald4 ,,exercises ,give as complete an answer as possible to any two of the following questions3-- #a4 ,why do fish bite better on a cloudy day than on a bright one8 #b4 ,why should we study history8 #c4 ,why does a baseball curve8 #d4 ,why did the ,american colonies revolt against ,england8 #e4 ,why did the early settlers of ,new ,england persecute the ,quakers8 #f4 ,why should trees be planted either in early spring or late autumn8 #g4 ,why do we lose a day in going from ,america to ,china8 #h4 ,in laying a railroad track1 why is there a space left between the ends of the rails8 ,theme ,,lxxxvi4--,choose one of the above or a similar question as a subject for a theme4 ,write out as complete and exact an explanation as possible4 ,,exercise ,write out a list of subjects the explanation of which would not answer the questions why8 or how8 ,how many of them can you explain8 ,theme ,,lxxxvii4--,write out the explanation of one of the subjects in the above list4 7,read what you have written and consider it with reference to clearness1 unity1 and coherence47 #aec4 ,importance of ,exposition4--,this form of discourse is important because it deals so extensively with important subjects1 such as questions of government1 facts in science1 points in history1 methods in education1 and processes of manufacture4 ,it enters vitally into our lives1 no matter what our occupation may be4 ,business men make constant use of this kind of discourse4 ,in fact1 it would be impossible for business to be transacted with any degree of success without explanations4 ,loans of money would not be made if men did not understand how they could have security for the sums loaned4 ,a manufacturer cannot expect to have good articles produced if he is unable to give needful explanations concerning their manufacture4 ,in order that a merchant be successful he must be able to explain the relative merits of his goods to his customers4 ,very much of the work done in our schools is of an expository nature4 ,the text-books used are expositions4 ,when they of themselves are not sufficient for the clear understanding of the subject1 it is necessary to consult reference books4 ,then1 if the subject is still lacking in clearness1 the teacher is called upon for additional explanation4 ,on the other hand1 the greater part of the pupil's recitations consists simply in explaining the subjects under discussion4 ,much of the class-room work in our schools consists of either receiving or giving explanations4 ,,exercises #a4 ,name anything outside of school work that you have been called upon to explain during the last week or two4 #b4 ,name anything outside of school work that you have recently learned through explanation4 #c4 ,name three topics in each of your studies for to-day that call for explanation4 #d4 ,name some topic in which the text-book did not seem to make the explanation clear4 ,theme ,,lxxxviii4--,write out one of the topics mentioned in number three of the preceding exercise4 7,have you included everything that is necessary to make your explanation clear8 ,can anything be omitted without affecting the clearness87 #aed4 ,clear ,understanding4--,the first requisite of a good explanation is a clear understanding on the part of the one who is giving the explanation4 ,it is evident that if we do not understand a subject ourselves we cannot make our explanations clear to others4 ,if the ideas in our mind are in a confused state1 our explanation will be equally confused4 ,if you do not understand a problem in algebra1 your attempt to explain it to others will prove a failure4 ,if you attempt to explain how a canal boat is taken through a lock without thoroughly understanding the process yourself1 you will give your listeners only a confused idea of how it is done4 ,the principal reason why pupils fail in their recitations and examinations is that in preparing their lessons1 they do not make themselves thoroughly acquainted with the topics that they are studying4 ,they often go over the lessons hurriedly and carelessly and come to class with confused ideas4 ,consequently when the pupils attempt to recite1 there is1 if anything1 an additional confusion of ideas1 and the recitation proves a failure4 ,carelessness in the preparation of daily recitations1 negligence in asking for additional explanations1 and inattention to the explanations that are given1 inevitably cause failure when tests or examinations are called for4 ,,exercises #a4 ,name five subjects about which you know so little that it would be useless to attempt an explanation4 #b4 ,name five about which you know something1 but not enough to give clear explanations of them4 #c4 ,name four about which you know but little1 but concerning which you feel sure that you can obtain information4 #d4 ,name six that you think you clearly understand4 ,report orally on one of them4 ,theme ,,lxxxiv4--,write out an explanation of one of the subjects named in number four of the preceding exercise4 7,read your theme and criticise it as to clearness4 ,in listening to the themes read by other members of the class consider them as to clearness4 ,call for further explanation of any part not perfectly clear to you47 #aee4 ,selection of ,facts--,unity4--,after we have been given a subject for explanation or have chosen one for ourselves1 we must decide concerning the facts to be presented4 ,in some kinds of exposition this selection is rather difficult4 ,since the purpose is to make our meaning clear to the person addressed1 we secure unity by including all that is necessary to that purpose and by omitting all that is not necessary4 ,it is evident that selection of facts to secure unity depends to some extent upon the audience4 ,if a child asks us to explain what a trust is1 our explanation will differ very much from that which we would give if we were addressing a body of men who were familiar with the term trusts1 but do not understand the advantages and disadvantages arising from their existence4 ,examine the following as to selection of facts4 ,for what class of people do you think it was written8 ,what seems to be the purpose of it8 ,,the ,,feudal ,,system ,this connection of king as sovereign1 with his princes and great men as vassals1 must be attended to and understood1 in order that you may comprehend the history which follows4 ,a great king1 or sovereign prince1 gave large provinces1 or grants of land1 to his dukes1 earls1 and noblemen2 and each of these possessed nearly as much power1 within his own district1 as the king did in the rest of his dominions4 ,but then the vassal1 whether duke1 earl1 or lord1 or whatever he was1 was obliged to come with a certain number of men to assist the sovereign1 when he was engaged in war2 and in time of peace1 he was bound to attend on his court when summoned1 and do homage to him1 that is1 acknowledge that he was his master and liege lord4 ,in like manner1 the vassals of the crown1 as they were called1 divided the lands which the king had given them into estates1 which they bestowed on knights1 and gentlemen1 whom they thought fitted to follow them in war1 and to attend them in peace2 for they1 too1 held courts1 and administered justice1 each in his own province4 ,then the knights and gentlemen1 who had these estates from the great nobles1 distributed the property among an inferior class of proprietors1 some of whom cultivated the land themselves1 and others by means of husbandmen and peasants1 who were treated as a sort of slaves1 being bought and sold like brute beasts1 along with the farms which they labored4 ,thus1 when a great king1 like that of ,france or ,england1 went to war1 he summoned all his crown vassals to attend him1 with the number of armed men corresponding to his fief1 as it was called1 that is1 territory which had been granted to each of them4 ,the prince1 duke1 or earl1 in order to obey the summons1 called upon all the gentlemen to whom he had given estates1 to attend his standard with their followers in arms4 ,the gentlemen1 in their turn1 called on the franklins1 a lower order of gentry1 and upon the peasants2 and thus the whole force of the kingdom was assembled in one array4 ,this system of holding lands for military service1 that is1 for fighting for the sovereign when called upon1 was called the feudal system4 ,it was general throughout all ,europe for a great many ages4 --,scott3 ,tales of a ,grandfather4 ,theme ,,lxxxv4--,write a theme on one of the following3-- #a4 ,tell your younger brother how to make a whistle4 #b4 ,explain some game to a friend of your own age4 #c4 ,give an explanation of the heating system of your school to a member of the school board of an adjoining city4 #d4 ,explain to a city girl how butter is made4 #e4 ,explain to a city boy how hay is cured4 #f4 ,explain to a friend how to run an automobile4 7,consider the selection of facts as determined by the person addressed47 #aef4 ,arrangement--,coherence4--,some expositions are of such a nature that there is but little question concerning the proper arrangement of the topics composing them4 ,in order to be coherent1 all we do is to follow the natural order of occurrence in time and place4 ,this is especially true of general narrations and of some general descriptions4 ,in explaining the circulation of the blood1 for instance1 it is most natural for us to follow the course which the blood takes in circulating through the body4 ,in explaining the manufacture of articles we naturally begin with the material as it comes to the factory1 and trace the process of manufacture in order through its successive stages4 ,in other kinds of exposition a coherent arrangement is somewhat difficult4 ,we should not1 however1 fail to pay attention to it4 ,a clear understanding of the subject1 on the part of the listener1 depends largely upon the proper arrangement of topics4 ,as you study examples of expositions of some length1 you will notice that there are topics which naturally belong together4 ,these topics form groups1 and the groups are treated separately4 ,if the expositions are good ones1 the related facts will not only be united into groups1 but the groups will also be so arranged and the transition from one group to another be so naturally made that it will cause no confusion4 ,in brief explanations of but one paragraph there should be but one group of facts4 ,even these facts need to be so arranged as to make the whole idea clear4 ,the writer may have a clear understanding of the whole idea1 but in order to give the reader the same clear understanding1 certain facts must be presented before others are4 ,in order to make an explanation clear1 the facts must be so arranged that those which are necessary to the understanding of others shall come first4 ,examine the following expositions as to the grouping of related facts and the arrangement of those groups3-- ,fresh1 pure air at all times is essential to bodily comfort and good health4 ,air may become impure from many causes4 ,poisonous gases may be mixed with it2 sewer gas is especially to be guarded against2 coal gas which is used for illuminating purposes is very poisonous and dangerous if inhaled2 the air arising from decaying substances1 foul cellars1 or stagnant pools1 is impure and unhealthy1 and breeds diseases2 the foul and poisonous air which has been expelled from the lungs1 if breathed again1 will cause many distressing symptoms4 ,ventilation has for its object the removal of impure air and the supplying of fresh1 wholesome air in its place4 ,proper ventilation should be secured in all rooms and buildings1 and its importance cannot be overestimated4 ,in the summer time and in climates which permit of it with comfort1 ventilation may be secured by having the doors and windows open1 thus allowing the fresh air to circulate freely through the house4 ,in stormy and cold weather1 however1 some other means of ventilation must be supplied4 ,if open fires or grates are used for heating purposes1 good ventilation exists1 for under such circumstances1 the foul and impure air is drawn out of the rooms through the chimneys1 and the fresh air enters through the cracks of the doors and windows4 ,where open fireplaces are not used1 several plans of ventilation may be used1 as they all operate on the same principle4 ,two openings should be in the room1 one of them near the floor1 through which the fresh air may enter1 the other higher up1 and connected with a shaft or chimney1 which producing a draft1 may serve to free the room from impure air4 ,the size of these openings may be regulated according to the size of the room4 --,baldwin3 ,essential ,lessons in ,human ,physiology4 ,,the ,,queen ,,bee ,it is a singular fact1 also1 that the queen is made1 not born4 ,if the entire population of ,spain or ,great ,britain were the offspring of one mother1 it might be found necessary to hit upon some device by which a royal baby could be manufactured out of an ordinary one1 or else give up the fashion of royalty4 ,all the bees in the hive have a common parentage1 and the queen and the worker are the same in the egg and in the chick2 the patent of royalty is in the cell and in the food2 the cell being much larger1 and the food a peculiar stimulating kind of jelly4 ,in certain contingencies1 such as the loss of the queen with no eggs in the royal cells1 the workers take the larva of an ordinary bee1 enlarge the cell by taking in the two adjoining ones1 and nurse it and stuff it and coddle it1 till at the end of sixteen days it comes out a queen4 ,but ordinarily1 in the natural course of events1 the young queen is kept a prisoner in her cell till the old queen has left with the swarm4 ,not only kept1 but guarded against the mother queen1 who only wants an opportunity to murder every royal scion in the hive4 ,both the queens1 the one a prisoner and the other at large1 pipe defiance at each other at this time1 a shrill1 fine1 trumpetlike note that any ear will at once recognize4 ,this challenge1 not being allowed to be accepted by either party1 is followed1 in a day or two1 by the abdication of the old queen2 she leads out the swarm1 and her successor is liberated by her keepers1 who1 in her turn1 abdicates in favor of the next younger4 ,when the bees have decided that no more swarms can issue1 the reigning queen is allowed to use her stiletto upon her unhatched sisters4 ,cases have been known where two queens issued at the same time1 when a mortal combat ensued1 encouraged by the workers1 who formed a ring about them1 but showed no preference1 and recognized the victor as the lawful sovereign4 ,for these and many other curious facts we are indebted to the blind ,huber4 ,it is worthy of note that the position of the queen cells is always vertical1 while that of the drones and workers is horizontal2 majesty stands on its head1 which fact may be a part of the secret4 ,the notion has always very generally prevailed that the queen of the bees is an absolute ruler1 and issues her royal orders to willing subjects4 ,hence ,napoleon the ,first sprinkled the symbolic bees over the imperial mantle that bore the arms of his dynasty2 and in the country of the ,pharaohs the bee was used as the emblem of a people sweetly submissive to the orders of its king4 ,but the fact is1 a swarm of bees is an absolute democracy1 and kings and despots can find no warrant in their example4 ,the power and authority are entirely vested in the great mass1 the workers4 ,they furnish all the brains and foresight of the colony1 and administer its affairs4 ,their word is law1 and both king and queen must obey4 ,they regulate the swarming1 and give the signal for the swarm to issue from the hive2 they select and make ready the tree in the woods and conduct the queen to it4 ,the peculiar office and sacredness of the queen consists in the fact that she is the mother of the swarm1 and the bees love and cherish her as a mother and not as a sovereign4 ,she is the sole female bee in the hive1 and the swarm clings to her because she is their life4 ,deprived of their queen1 and of all brood from which to rear one1 the swarm loses all heart and soon dies1 though there be an abundance of honey4 ,the common bees will never use their sting upon the queen1--if she is to be disposed of they starve her to death2 and the queen herself will sting nothing but royalty--nothing but a rival queen4 --,john ,burroughs3 ,birds and ,bees4 ,theme ,,lxxxvi4--,write an expository theme4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,duties of the sheriff4 #b4 ,how a motor works4 #c4 ,how wheat is harvested4 #d4 ,why the tide exists4 #e4 ,how our schoolhouse is ventilated4 #f4 ,what is meant by the theory of evolution4 #g4 ,the manufacture of ----4 #h4 ,how to make a ----4 7,consider the arrangement of your statements47 #aeg4 ,use of an ,outline4--,before beginning to write an explanation we need to consider what we know about the subject and what our purpose is2 we need to select facts that will make our explanations clear to our readers2 and we need to decide what arrangement of these facts will best show their relation to each other4 ,we shall find it of advantage1 especially in lengthy explanations1 to express our thoughts in the form of an outline4 ,an outline helps us to see clearly whether our facts are well chosen1 and it also helps us to see whether the arrangement is orderly or not4 ,clearness is above all the essential of exposition1 and outlines aid clearness by giving unity and coherence4 ,,exercises ,select three of the following subjects and make lists of facts that you know about them4 ,from these select those which would be necessary in making a clear explanation of each4 ,after making out these lists of facts1 arrange them in what seems to you the best possible order for making the explanation clear to your classmates4 #a4 ,the value of a school library4 #b4 ,sponges4 #c4 ,the manufacture of clocks4 #d4 ,drawing4 #e4 ,athletics in the high school4 #f4 ,examinations4 #g4 ,debating societies4 ,theme ,,lxxxvii4--,following the outline1 write an exposition on one of the subjects chosen4 7,notice the transition from one paragraph to another4 ,see ,section #hg47 #aeh4 ,exposition of ,terms--,definition4--,explanation of the meaning of general terms is one form of exposition 7,section #fc74 ,the first step in the exposition of a term is the giving of a definition4 ,this may be accomplished by the use of a synonym 7,section #fd74 ,we make a term intelligible to the reader by the use of a synonym with which he is familiar2 and though such a definition is inexact1 it gives a rough idea of the meaning of the term in question1 and so serves a useful purpose4 ,if1 however1 we wish exactness1 we shall need to make use of the logical definition4 #aei4 ,the ,logical ,definition4--,the logical definition sets exact limits to the meaning of a term4 ,an exact definition must include all the members of a class indicated by the term defined1 and it must exclude everything that does not belong to that class4 ,a logical definition is composed of two parts4 ,it first names the class to which the term to be defined belongs1 and then it names the characteristic that distinguishes that term from all other members of the same class4 ,the class is termed the genus1 and the distinguishing characteristics of the different members of the class are termed the differentia4 ,notice the following division into genus and differentia4 ,,term ,,to ,,be ,,class ,,distinguishing ,,defined 7,genus7 ,,characteristic 7,differentia7 ,a parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel ,exposition is that form of which seeks to explain discourse the meaning of a term4 ,each definition includes three elements3 the term to be defined1 the genus1 and the differentia2 but these are not necessarily arranged in the order named4 ,,exercise ,select the three elements 7the term to be defined1 the genus1 and the differentia7 in each of the following3-- #a4 ,a polygon of three sides is called a triangle4 #b4 ,a square is an equilateral rectangle4 #c4 ,a rectangle whose sides are equal is a square4 #d4 ,description is that form of discourse which aims to present a picture4 #e4 ,the characters composing written words are called letters4 #f4 ,the olfactory nerves are the first pair of cranial nerves4 #g4 ,person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the speaker1 the person spoken to1 or the person or things spoken of4 #h4 ,the diptera1 or true flies1 are readily distinguishable from other insects by their having a single pair of wings instead of two pairs1 the hind wings being transformed into small knob-headed pedicles called balancers or halters4 #afj4 ,difficulty of ,framing ,exact ,definitions4--,in order to frame a logical definition1 exactness of thought is essential4 ,even when the thought is exact1 it will be found difficult and often impossible to frame a satisfactory definition4 ,usually there is little difficulty in selecting the genus1 still care should be taken to select one that includes the term to be defined4 ,we might begin the definition of iron by saying1 ,iron is a metal1 since all iron is metal1 but it would be incorrect to begin the definition of rodent by saying1 ,a rodent is a beaver1 because the term beaver does not include all rodents4 ,we must also take care to choose for the genus some term familiar to the reader1 because the object of the definition is to make the meaning clear to him4 ,the chief difficulty of framing logical definitions arises in the selection of differentia4 ,in many cases it is not easy to decide just what characteristics distinguish one member of a class from all other members of that class4 ,we all know that iron is a metal1 but most of us would find it difficult to add to the definition just those things which distinguish iron from other metals4 ,we may say1 ,a flute is a musical instrument2 so much of the definition is easily given4 ,the difficulty lies in distinguishing it from all other musical instruments4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,select proper differentia for the following3-- ,,term ,,to ,,be ,,defined ,,class 7,genus7 ,,distinguishing ,,characteristic 7,differentia7 #a4 ,narration is that form of discourse 8 #b4 ,a circle is a portion of a plane 8 #c4 ,a dog is an animal 8 #d4 ,a hawk is a bird 8 #e4 ,physiography is the science 8 #f4 ,a sneak is a person 8 #g4 ,a quadrilateral is a plane figure 8 #h4 ,a barn is a building 8 #i4 ,a bicycle is a machine 8 #aj4 ,a lady is a woman 8 ,b4 ,give logical definitions for at least four words in the list below4 #a4 ,telephone4 #b4 ,square4 #c4 ,hammer4 #d4 ,novel #e4 ,curiosity4 #f4 ,door4 #g4 ,camera4 #h4 ,brick4 #i4 ,microscope4 #afa4 ,inexact ,definitions4--,if the distinguishing characteristics are not properly selected1 the definition though logical in form may be inexact1 because the differentia do not exclude all but the term to be defined4 ,if we say1 ,exposition is that form of discourse which gives information1 the definition is inexact because there are other forms of discourse that give information4 ,many definitions given in text-books are inexact4 ,care should be taken to distinguish them from those which are logically exact4 ,,exercise ,which of the following are exact8 #a4 ,a sheep is a gregarious animal that produces wool4 #b4 ,a squash is a garden plant much liked by striped bugs4 #c4 ,a pronoun is a word used for a noun4 #d4 ,the diaphragm is a sheet of muscle and tendon1 convex on its upper side1 and attached by bands of striped muscle to the lower ribs at the side1 to the sternum1 and to the cartilage of the ribs which join it in front1 and at the back by very strong bands to the lumbar vertebrae4 #e4 ,a man is a two-legged animal without feathers4 #f4 ,argument is that form of discourse which has for its object the proof of the truth or falsity of a proposition4 #g4 ,the base of an isosceles triangle is that side which is equal to no other4 #h4 ,zinc is a metal used under stoves4 #i4 ,the epidermis of a leaf is a delicate1 transparent skin which covers the whole leaf4 ,theme ,,lxxxviii4--,write an expository paragraph about one of the following3-- ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,household science and arts4 #b4 ,architecture4 #c4 ,aesthetics4 #d4 ,poetry4 #e4 ,fiction4 #f4 ,half tones4 #g4 ,steam fitting4 #h4 ,swimming4 7,consider the definitions you have used47 #afb4 ,division4--,the second step in the exposition of a term is division4 ,definition establishes the limits of the term4 ,division separates into its parts that which is included by the term4 ,by definition we distinguish triangles from squares1 circles1 and other plane figures4 ,by division we may separate them into scalene1 isosceles1 and equilateral1 or if we divide them according to a different principle into right and oblique triangles4 ,in either case the division is complete and exact4 ,by completeness is meant that every object denoted by the term explained is included in the division given1 thus making the sum of these divisions equal to the whole4 ,by exactness is meant that but a single principle has been used1 and so no object denoted by the term explained will be included in more than one of the divisions made4 ,there are no triangles which are neither right nor oblique1 so the division is complete2 and no triangle can be both right and oblique1 so the division is exact4 ,such a complete and exact division is called classification4 ,nearly every term may be divided according to more than one principle4 ,we may divide the term books into ancient and modern1 or into religious and secular1 or in any one of a dozen other ways4 ,which principle of division we shall choose will depend upon our purpose4 ,if we wish to discuss sponges with reference to their shapes1 our division will be different from what it would be if we were to discuss them with reference to their uses4 ,when a principle of division has once been chosen it is essential that it be followed throughout4 ,the use of two principles causes an overlapping of divisions1 thus producing what is called cross division4 ,using the principle of use1 a tailor may sort his bolts of cloth into cloth for overcoats1 cloth for suits1 and cloth for trousers2 using the principle of weight1 into heavy weight and light weight2 or he may sort them with reference to color or price4 ,in any case but a single principle is used4 ,it would not do to divide them into cloth for suits1 light weight goods1 and brown cloth4 ,such a division would be neither complete nor exact2 for some of the cloth would belong to none of the classes while other pieces might properly be placed in all three4 ,in the exact sciences complete exposition is the aim1 and classification is necessary2 but in other writing the purpose in hand is often better accomplished by omitting minor divisions4 ,a writer of history might consider the political growth1 the wars1 and the religion of a nation and omit its domestic life and educational progress1 especially if these did not greatly influence the result that he wishes to make plain4 ,if we wished to explain the plan of the organization of a high school1 it would be satisfactory to divide the pupils into freshmen1 sophomores1 juniors1 and seniors1 even though1 in any particular school1 there might be a few special and irregular pupils who belonged to none of these classes4 ,an exposition of the use of hammers would omit many occasional and unimportant uses4 ,such a classification though exact is incomplete and is called partition4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,can you tell which of the following are classifications8 ,which are partitions8 ,which are defective8 #a4 ,the inhabitants of the ,united ,states are ,americans1 ,indians1 and negroes4 #b4 ,lines are straight1 curved1 and crooked4 #c4 ,literature is composed of prose1 poetry1 and fiction4 #d4 ,the political parties in the last campaign were ,republican and ,democrat4 #e4 ,the ,united ,states ,government has control of states and territories #f4 ,plants are divided into two groups3 7#a7 the phanerogams1 or flowering plants1 and 7#b7 cryptogams1 or flowerless plants4 #g4 ,all phanerogamous plants consist of 7#a7 root and 7#b7 shoot2 the shoot consisting of 7a7 stem and 7b7 leaf4 ,it is true that some exceptional plants1 in maturity1 lack leaves1 or lack root4 ,these exceptions are few4 #h4 ,we may divide the activities of the government into3 keeping order1 making law1 protecting individual rights1 providing public schools1 providing and mending roads1 caring for the destitute1 carrying the mail1 managing foreign relations1 making war1 and collecting taxes4 ,b4 ,notice the following paragraphs1 ,state briefly the divisions made4 #a4 ,plan of the ,book4--,what is government8 ,who is the government8 ,we shall begin by considering the ,american answers to these questions4 ,what does ,the ,government do8 ,that will be our next inquiry4 ,and with regard to the ordinary practical work of government1 we shall see that government in the ,united ,states is not very different from government in the other civilized countries of the world4 ,then we shall inquire how government officials are chosen in the ,united ,states1 and how the work of government is parceled out among them4 ,this part of the book will show what is meant by self-government and local self-government1 and will show that our system differs from ,european systems chiefly in these very matters of self-government and local self-government4 ,coming then to the details of our subject1 we shall consider the names and duties of the principal officials in the ,united ,states2 first1 those of the township1 county1 and city1 then those of the state1 and then those of the federal government4 ,finally1 we shall examine certain operations in the ,american system1 such as a trial in court1 and nominations for office1 and conclude with an outline of international relations1 and a summary of the commonest laws of business and property4 --,clark3 ,the ,government4 #b4 ,zology and its ,divisions4--,what things we do know about the dog1 however1 and about its relatives1 and what things others know can be classified into several groups2 namely1 things or facts about what a dog does or its behavior1 things about the make-up of its body1 things about its growth and development1 things about the kind of dog it is and the kinds of relatives it has1 and things about its relations to the outer world and its special fitness for life4 ,all that is known of these different kinds of facts about the dog constitutes our knowledge of the dog and its life4 ,all that is known by scientific men and others of these different kinds of facts about all the #ejj1jjj or more kinds of living animals1 constitutes our knowledge of animals and is the science zology4 ,names have been given to these different groups of facts about animals4 ,the facts about the bodily make-up or structure of animals constitute that part of zology called animal anatomy or morphology2 the facts about the things animals do1 or the functions of animals1 compose animal physiology2 the facts about the development of animals from young to adult condition are the facts of animal development2 the knowledge of the different kinds of animals and their relationships to each other is called systematic zology or animal classification2 and finally the knowledge of the relations of animals to their external surroundings1 including the inorganic world1 plants and other animals1 is called animal ecology4 ,any study of animals and their life1 that is1 of zology1 may include all or any of these parts of zology4 --,kellogg3 ,elementary ,zology4 #c4 ,are not these outlines of ,american destiny in the near-by future rational8 ,in these papers an attempt has been made3-- ,first1 to picture the physical situation and equipment of the ,american in the modern world4 ,second1 to outline the large and fundamental elements of ,american character1 which are3-- 7a7 ,conservatism--moderation1 thoughtfulness1 and poise4 7b7 ,thoroughness--conscientious performance1 to the minutest detail1 of any work which we as individuals or people may have in hand4 7c7 ,justice--that spirit which weighs with the scales of righteousness our conduct toward each other and our conduct as a nation toward the world4 7d7 ,religion--the sense of dependence upon and responsibility to the ,higher ,power2 the profound ,american belief that our destiny is in ,his hands4 7e7 ,the minor elements of ,american character--such as the tendency to organize1 the element of humor1 impatience with frauds1 and the movement in ,american life toward the simple and sincere4 --,beveridge3 ,americans of ,to-day and ,to-morrow4 ,c4 ,consult the table of contents or opening chapters of any text-book and notice the main divisions4 ,d4 ,find in text-books five examples of classification or division4 ,e4 ,make one or more divisions of each of the following3-- #a4 ,the pupils in your school4 #b4 ,your neighbors4 #c4 ,the books in the school library4 #d4 ,the buildings you see on the way to school4 #e4 ,the games you know how to play4 #f4 ,dogs4 #g4 ,results of competition4 ,theme ,,lxxxix4--,write an introductory paragraph showing what divisions you1 would make if called upon1 to write about one of the following topics3-- #a4 ,mathematics4 #b4 ,the school system of our city4 #c4 ,the churches of our town4 #d4 ,methods of transportation4 #e4 ,our manufacturing interests4 #f4 ,games that girls like4 #g4 ,the inhabitants of the ,united ,states4 7,have you mentioned all important divisions of your subject8 ,have you included any minor and unimportant divisions8 ,consider other possible principles of division of your subject4 ,have you chosen the one best suited to your purpose87 #afc4 ,exposition of a ,proposition4--,two terms united into a sentence so that one is affirmed of the other become a proposition4 ,propositions1 like terms1 may be either specific or general4 ,napoleon was ambitious is a specific proposition2 ,politicians are ambitious is a general one4 ,when a proposition is presented to the mind1 its meaning may not at once be clear4 ,the obscurity may arise from the fact that some of the terms in the proposition are unfamiliar1 or are obscure1 or misleading4 ,in this case the first step1 and often the only step necessary1 is the explanation of the terms in the proposition4 ,the following selection taken from ,dewey's ,psychology illustrates the exposition of a proposition by explaining its terms3-- ,the habitual act thus occurs automatically and mechanically4 ,when we say that it occurs automatically1 we mean that it takes place1 as it were1 of itself1 spontaneously1 without the intervention of the will4 ,by saying that it is mechanical1 we mean that there exists no consciousness of the process involved1 nor of the relation of the means1 the various muscular adjustments1 to the end1 locomotion4 ,it is possible for our listeners or readers to understand each term in a proposition and yet not be able to understand the meaning of the proposition as a whole4 ,when this is the case1 we shall find it necessary to make use of methods of exposition discussed later4 ,,exercises ,explain orally the following propositions by explaining any of the terms likely to be unfamiliar or misunderstood3 #a4 ,the purpose of muscular contraction is the production of motion4 #b4 ,ping-pong is lawn tennis in miniature1 with a few modifications4 #c4 ,an inevitable dualism bisects nature4 #d4 ,never inflict corporal chastisement for intellectual faults4 #e4 ,children should be led to make their own investigations and to draw their own inferences4 #f4 ,the black willow is an excellent tonic as well as a powerful antiseptic4 #g4 ,give the ,anglo-,saxon equivalent for nocturnal4 #h4 ,a negative exponent signifies the reciprocal of what the expression would be if the exponent were positive4 ,theme ,,xc4--,write an explanation of one of the following3 #a4 ,birds of a feather flock together4 #b4 ,truths and roses have thorns about them4 #c4 ,where there's a will1 there's a way4 #d4 ,who keeps company with a wolf will learn to howl4 #e4 ,he gives nothing but worthless gold1 who gives from a sense of duty4 #f4 ,all things that are1 ,are with more spirit chased than enjoyed4 #g4 ,be not simply good--be good for something4 #h4 ,he that hath light within his own clear breast1 ,may sit i' the center1 and enjoy bright day2 ,but he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts ,benighted walks under the midday sun2 ,himself is his own dungeon4 7,select the sentence that seems most difficult to you1 determine what it means1 and then attempt to make an explanation that will show that you thoroughly understand its meaning47 #afd4 ,exposition by ,repetition4--,in discussing paragraph development 7,section #ej7 we have already learned that the meaning of a proposition may be made clearer by the repetition of the topic statement4 ,this repetition may be used to supplement the definition of terms1 or it may by itself make clear both the meaning of the terms and of the proposition4 ,each repetition of the proposition presents it to the reader in a new light or in a stronger light4 ,each time the idea is presented it seems more definite1 more familiar1 more clear4 ,such statements of a proposition take advantage of the fact that the reader is thinking1 and we merely attempt to direct his thought in such a way that he will turn the proposition over and over in his mind until it is understood4 ,notice how the following propositions are explained largely by means of repetitions1 each of which adds a little to the original statement4 ,how to live8--that is the essential question for us4 ,not how to live in the mere material sense only1 but in the widest sense4 ,the general problem1 which comprehends every special problem1 is the right ruling of conduct in all directions under all circumstances4 ,in what way to treat the body2 in what way to treat the mind2 in what way to manage our affairs2 in what way to bring up a family2 in what way to behave as a citizen2 in what way to utilize all those sources of happiness which nature supplies--how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of ourselves and others--how to live completely8 ,and this being the great thing needful for us to learn1 is1 by consequence1 the great thing which education has to teach4 ,to prepare us for complete living is the function which education has to discharge3 and the only radical mode of judging of any educational course1 is1 to judge in what degree it discharges such functions4 --,herbert ,spencer3 ,education4 ,the gray squirrel is remarkably graceful in all his movements4 ,it seems as though some subtle curve was always produced by the line of the back and tail at every light bound of the athletic little creature4 ,he never moves abruptly or jerks himself impatiently1 as the red squirrel is continually doing4 ,on the contrary1 all his movements are measured and deliberate1 but swift and sure4 ,he never makes a bungling leap1 and his course is marked by a number of sinuous curves almost equal to those of a snake4 ,he is here one minute1 and the next he has slipped away almost beyond the ability of our eyes to follow4 --,f4 ,schuyler ,matthews3 ,american ,nut ,gatherers4 ,theme ,,xci4--,write a paragraph explaining one of the propositions below by means of repetition4 #a4 ,physical training should be made compulsory in the high school4 #b4 ,some people who seem to be selfish are not really so4 #c4 ,the dangers of athletic contests are overestimated4 #d4 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine is a warning to ,european powers to keep their hands off territory in ,north and ,south ,america4 #e4 ,by the treadmill of life we mean the daily routine of duties4 #f4 ,the thirst for novelty is one of the most powerful incentives that take a man to distant countries4 #g4 ,there are unquestionably increasing opportunities for an honorable and useful career in the civil service of the ,united ,states4 7,have you used any method besides that of repetition8 ,does your paragraph really explain the proposition87 #afe4 ,exposition by ,use of ,examples4--,exposition treats of general subjects1 and the topic statement of a paragraph is1 therefore1 a general statement4 ,in order to understand what such a general statement means1 the reader may need to think of a concrete case4 ,the writer may develop his paragraph by furnishing concrete cases4 7,see ,section #dd47 ,in many cases no further explanation is necessary4 ,the following paragraph illustrates this method of explanation3-- ,the lower portions of stream valleys which have sunk below sea level are called drowned valleys4 ,the lower ,st4 ,lawrence is perhaps the greatest example of a drowned valley in the world1 but many other rivers are in the same condition4 ,the old channel of the ,hudson ,river may be traced upon the sea bottom about #abe miles beyond its present mouth1 and its valley is drowned as far up as ,troy1 #aej miles4 ,the sea extends up the ,delaware ,river to ,trenton1 and ,chesapeake ,bay with its many arms is the drowned valleys of the ,susquehanna and its former tributaries4 ,many of the most famous harbors in the world1 as ,san ,francisco ,bay1 ,puget ,sound1 the estuaries of the ,thames and the ,mersey1 and the ,scottish firths1 are drowned valleys4 --,dryer3 ,lessons in ,physical ,geography4 ,theme ,,xcii4--,develop one of the following topic statements into an expository paragraph by use of examples3-- #a4 ,weather depends to a great extent upon winds4 #b4 ,progress in civilization has been materially aided by the use of nails4 #c4 ,habit is formed by the repetition of the same act4 #d4 ,men become criminals by a gradual process4 #e4 ,men's lives are affected by small things4 #f4 ,defeat often proves to be real success4 7,have you made your meaning clear8 ,does your example really illustrate the topic statement8 ,can you think of other illustrations87 #aff4 ,exposition by ,comparison or ,contrast4--,we can frequently make our explanations clear by comparing the subject under discussion with something that is already familiar to the reader4 ,in such a case we shall need to show in what respect the subject we are explaining is similar to or differs from that with which it is compared4 7,section #dh47 ,though customary it is not necessary to compare the term under discussion with some well-known term4 ,in the example below the term socialism is probably no more familiar than the term anarchism4 ,both are explained in the selection1 and the explanations are made clearer by contrasting the one with the other4 ,socialism1 which is curiously confounded by the indiscriminating with ,anarchism1 is its exact opposite4 ,anarchy is the doctrine that there should be no government control2 ,socialism--that is1 ,state ,socialism--is the doctrine that government should control everything4 ,state ,socialism affirms that the state--that is1 the government--should own all the tools and implements of industry1 should direct all occupations1 and should give to every man according to his need and require from every man according to his ability4 ,state ,socialism points to the evils of overproduction in some fields and insufficient production in others1 under our competitive system1 and proposes to remedy these evils by assigning to government the duty of determining what shall be produced and what each worker shall produce4 ,if there are too many preachers and too few shoemakers1 the preacher will be taken from the pulpit and assigned to the bench2 if there are too many shoemakers and too few preachers1 the shoemaker will be taken from the bench and assigned to the pulpit4 ,anarchy says1 no government2 ,socialism says1 all government2 ,anarchy leaves the will of the individual absolutely unfettered1 ,socialism leaves nothing to the individual will2 ,anarchism would have no social organism which is not dependent on the entirely voluntary assent of each individual member of the organism at every instant of its history2 ,socialism would have every individual of the social organism wholly subordinate in all his lifework to the authority of the whole body expressed through its properly constituted officers4 ,it is true that there are some writers who endeavor to unite these two antagonistic doctrines by teaching that society should be organized wholly for industry1 not at all for government4 ,but how a coperative industry can be carried on without a government which controls as well as counsels1 no writer1 so far as ,i have been able to discover1 has ever even suggested4 --,lyman ,abbott3 ,anarchism3 ,its ,cause and ,cure4 ,theme ,,xciii4--,write an exposition that makes use of comparison3-- ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,a bad habit is a tyrant4 #b4 ,typewritten letters4 #c4 ,the muskrat's house4 #d4 ,compare ,shylock with ,barabas in ,marlowe's ,jew of ,malta4 #e4 ,methods of reading4 #f4 ,all the world's a stage4 #g4 ,compare life to a flower4 7,can you suggest any other comparisons which you might have used8 ,have you been careful in your selection of facts and arrangement87 #afg4 ,exposition by ,obverse ,statements4--,in explaining an idea it is necessary to distinguish it from any related or similar idea with which it may be confused in the minds of our readers4 ,clearness is added by the statement that one is not the other4 ,to say that socialism is not anarchy is a good preparation for the explanation of what socialism really is4 ,in the following selection ,burke excludes different kinds of peace and by this exclusion emphasizes the kind of peace which he has in mind4 ,the proposition is peace4 ,not peace through the medium of war2 not peace to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations2 not peace to arise out of universal discord1 fomented from principle1 in all parts of the empire2 not peace to depend on the juridical determination of perplexing questions1 or the precise marking the shadowy boundaries of a complex government4 ,it is simple peace2 sought in its natural course1 and in its ordinary haunts4--,it is peace sought in the spirit of peace2 and laid in principles purely pacific4 ,i propose1 by removing the ground of the difference1 and by restoring the former unsuspecting confidence of the colonies in the ,mother ,country1 to give permanent satisfaction to your people2 and 7far from a scheme of ruling by discord7 to reconcile them to each other in the same act1 and by the bond of the very same interest which reconciles them to ,british government4 #afh4 ,exposition by ,giving ,particulars or ,details4--,one of the most natural methods of explaining is to give particulars or details4 ,after a general statement has been made1 our minds naturally look for details to make the meaning of that statement clearer4 7,see ,sections #de-dg47 ,this method is used very largely in generalized descriptions and narrations4 ,notice the use of particulars or details in the following examples3-- ,happy the boy who knows the secret of making a willow whistle6 ,he must know the best kind of willow for the purpose1 and the exact time of year when the bark will slip4 ,the country boy seems to know these things by instinct4 ,when the day for whistles arrives he puts away marbles and hunts the whetstone4 ,his jackknife must be in good shape1 for the making of a whistle is a delicate piece of handicraft4 ,the knife has seen service in mumblepeg and as nut pick since whistle-making time last year4 ,surrounded by a crowd of spectators1 some admiring1 some skeptical1 the boy selects his branch4 ,there is an air of mystery about the proceeding4 ,with a patient indulgent smile he rejects all offers of assistance4 ,he does not attempt to explain why this or that branch will not do4 ,when finally he raises his shining knife and cuts the branch on which his choice has fallen1 all crowd round and watch4 ,from the large end between two twigs he takes a section about six inches long4 ,its bark is light green and smooth4 ,he trims one end neatly and passes his thumb thoughtfully over it to be sure it is finished to his taste4 ,he then cuts the other end of the stick at an angle of about #de1 making a clean single cut4 ,the sharp edge of this is now cut off to make a mouthpiece4 ,this is a delicate operation1 for the bark is apt to crush or split if the knife is dull1 or the hand is unskillful4 ,the boy holds it up1 inspecting his own work critically4 ,sometimes he is dissatisfied and cuts again4 ,if he makes a third cut and is still unsuccessful he tosses the spoiled piece away4 ,it is too short now4 ,a half dozen eager hands reach for the discarded stick1 and the one who gets it fondles it lovingly4 ,i once had such a treasure and cherished it until ,i learned the secret of the whistle-maker's art4 ,he next places the knife edge about half an inch back from the end of the mouthpiece and cuts straight towards the center of the branch about one-fourth the way through4 ,a three-cornered piece is now cut out1 and the chip falls to the ground unheeded4 ,when this is finished the boy's eye runs along the stick with a calculating squint4 ,the knife edge is placed at the middle1 then moved a short distance towards the mouthpiece4 ,with skillful hand he cuts through the bark in a perfect circle round the stick4 ,while we watch in fascinated silence1 he takes the knife by the blade and resting the unfinished whistle on his knees he strikes firmly but gently the part of the stick between the ring and the mouthpiece4 ,only the wooden part of the handle touches the bark4 ,he goes over and over it until every spot on its surface has felt his light blow4 ,now he lays the knife aside1 and grasping the stick with a firm hand below the ring in the bark1 with the right hand he holds the pounded end4 ,he tries it with a careful twist4 ,it sticks4 ,back to his knees it goes and the tap1 tap1 begins again4 ,when he twists it again it slips1 and the bark comes off smoothly in one piece1 while we breathe a sigh of relief4 ,how white the stick is under the bark6 ,it shines and looks slippery4 ,now the boy takes his knife again4 ,he cuts towards the straight jog where the chip was taken out1 paring the wood away1 sloping up to within an inch of the end of the bark4 ,now he cuts a thin slice of the wood between the edge of the vertical cut and the mouthpiece4 ,the whistle is nearly finished4 ,we have all seen him make them before and know what comes next4 ,our tongues seek over moist lips sympathetically1 for we know the taste of peeled willow4 ,he puts the end of the stick into his mouth and draws it in and out until it is thoroughly wet4 ,then he lifts the carefully guarded section of bark and slips it back into place1 fitting the parts nicely together4 ,the willow whistle is finished4 ,there remains but to try it4 ,will it go8 ,does he dare blow into it and risk our jeers if it is dumb8 ,with all the fine certainty of the ,pied ,piper the boy lifts the humble instrument to his lips4 ,his eyes have a far-off look1 his face changes2 while we strain eyes and ears1 he takes his own time4 ,the silence is broken by a note1 so soft1 so tender1 yet so weird and unlike other sounds6 ,our hands quiver1 our hearts beat faster4 ,it is as if the spirit of the willow tree had joined with the spirit of childhood in the natural song of earth4 ,it goes6 --,mary ,rogers ,miller3 ,the ,brook ,book4 7,copyright1 #aijb1 ,doubleday1 ,page and ,co47 ,theme ,,xciv4--,write an exposition on one of the following subjects1 making use of particulars or details3-- #a4 ,how ice cream is made4 #b4 ,the cultivation of rice4 #c4 ,greek architecture4 #d4 ,how paper is made4 #e4 ,a tornado4 #f4 ,description of a steam engine4 #g4 ,the circulatory system of a frog4 #h4 ,a western ranch4 #i4 ,street furniture4 #aj4 ,a street fair4 7,have you used particulars sufficient to make your meaning clear8 ,have you used any unnecessary particulars8 ,why is the arrangement of your topics easy in this theme87 #afi4 ,exposition by ,cause and ,effect4--,when our general statement is in the form of a cause or causes1 the question naturally arises in our mind as to the effects resulting from those causes4 ,in like manner1 when the general statement takes the form of an effect1 we want to know what the causes are that produce such an effect4 ,from the very nature of exposition we may expect to find much of this kind of discourse relating to causes and effects4 7,see ,section #di47 ,notice the following example3-- ,the effect of the polar whirls may be seen in the rapid rotation of water in a pan or bowl4 ,the centrifugal force throws the water away from the center1 where the surface becomes depressed1 and piles it up around the sides1 where the surface becomes elevated4 ,the water being deeper at the sides than at the center1 its pressure upon the bottom is proportionately greater4 ,a similar effect is produced by the whirl of the air around the polar regions4 ,it is thrown away from the polar regions and piled up around the circumference of the whirl4 ,there is less air above the polar regions than above latitude #cj-dj1 and the atmospheric pressure is correspondingly low at one place and high at the other4 ,thus the centrifugal force of the polar whirl makes the pressure low in spite of the low temperature4 ,the position of the tropical belts of high pressure is a resultant of the high temperature of the equatorial regions on one side and the polar whirls on the other4 --,dryer3 ,lessons in ,physical ,geography4 ,theme ,,xcv4--,write an expository theme using cause or effect4 ,suggested subjects3-- #a4 ,the causes of the ,french ,revolution4 #b4 ,how ravines are formed4 #c4 ,irrigation4 #d4 ,effects of smoking4 #e4 ,lack of exercise4 #f4 ,volcanic eruptions4 7,did you find it necessary to make use of any other method of explanation8 ,did you make use of description in any place87 ,,summary #a4 ,exposition is that form of discourse the purpose of which is to explain4 #b4 ,the essential characteristics of an exposition are-- a4 ,that it possess unity because it contains only those facts essential to its purpose4 b4 ,that the facts used be arranged in a coherent order4 #c4 ,exposition is concerned with 7a7 general terms or 7b7 general propositions4 #d4 ,the steps in the exposition of a term are-- a4 ,definition4 ,this may be-- 7#a7 ,by synonym 7inexact74 7#b7 ,by use of the logical definition 7exact74 b4 ,division4 ,this may be-- 7#a7 ,complete 7classification74 7#b7 ,incomplete 7partition74 ,the same principle of division should be followed throughout4 #e4 ,exposition of a proposition may use any one of the following methods-- a4 ,by repetition4 b4 ,by giving examples4 c4 ,by stating comparisons and contrasts4 d4 ,by making obverse statements4 e4 ,by relating particulars or details4 f4 ,by stating cause or effect4 g4 ,by any suitable combination of these methods4 ,,xi4 ,,argument #agj4 ,difference between ,argument and ,exposition4--,argument differs from exposition in its purpose4 ,by exposition we endeavor to make clear the meaning of a proposition2 by argument we attempt to prove its truth4 ,if a person does not understand what we mean1 we explain2 if1 after he does understand1 he does not believe1 we argue4 ,often a simple explanation is sufficient to convince4 ,as soon as the reader understands the real meaning of a proposition1 he accepts our view of the case4 ,a heated discussion may end with the statement1 ,oh1 if that is what you mean1 ,i agree with you4 ,in ,section #gj1 we have learned that the first step in argument is explanation1 by which we make clear the meaning of the proposition the truth of which we wish to establish4 ,this explanation may include both the expounding of the terms in the proposition and the explanation of the proposition as a whole4 ,there is another difference between exposition and argument4 ,we cannot argue about single terms1 though we may explain them4 ,we may explain what is meant by the term elective studies1 or civil service2 but an argument requires a proposition such as1 ,pupils should be allowed to choose their own studies1 or1 ,civil ,service should be established4 ,even with such a topic as ,expansion or ,restricted ,immigration1 which seems to be a subject of argument1 there is really an implied proposition under discussion2 as1 ,the ,united ,states should acquire control of territory outside of its present boundaries2 or1 ,it should be the policy of our government to restrict immigration4 ,we may explain the meaning of single terms or of propositions1 but in order to argue1 we must have a proposition either expressed or implied4 #aga4 ,proposition of ,fact and ,proposition of ,theory4--,some propositions state facts and some propositions state theories4 ,every argument therefore aims either to prove the occurrence of a fact or the truth of a theory4 ,the first would attempt to show the actual or probable truth of a specific proposition2 for example3-- ,nero was guilty of burning ,rome4 ,joan of ,arc was burned at the stake4 ,barbara ,frietchie actually existed4 ,sheridan never made the ride from ,winchester4 ,homer was born at ,chios4 ,the second would try to establish the probable truth of a general theory2 for example3-- ,a college education is a profitable investment4 ,light is caused by a wave motion of ether4 #agb4 ,statement of the ,proposition4--,the subject about which we argue may be stated in any one of the three forms discussed in ,section #gd2 that is1 as a declarative sentence1 a resolution1 or a question4 ,the statement does not necessarily appear first in the argument1 but it must be clearly formulated in the mind of the writer before he attempts to argue4 ,before trying to convince others he must know exactly what he himself believes1 and the attempt to state his belief in the form of a proposition will assist in making his own thought clear and definite4 ,if we are going to argue concerning elective studies1 we should first of all be sure that we understand the meaning of the term ourselves4 ,then we must consider carefully what we believe about it1 and state our proposition so that it shall express exactly this belief4 ,on first thought we may believe the proposition that pupils should be allowed to choose their own studies4 ,but is this proposition true of pupils in the grades as well as in the high schools8 ,or is it true only of the upper classes in the high school or only of college students8 ,can you state this proposition so that it will express your own belief on the subject8 ,,exercises ,a4 ,use the following terms in expressed propositions3-- #a4 ,immigration4 #b4 ,elevated railways4 #c4 ,american history4 #d4 ,military training4 #e4 ,single session4 #f4 ,athletics4 ,b4 ,explain the following propositions3-- #a4 ,the ,united ,states should adopt a free-trade policy4 #b4 ,is vivisection justifiable8 #c4 ,the author has greater influence than the orator4 #d4 ,the civil service system should be abolished4 #e4 ,the best is always cheapest4 ,c4 ,can you restate the following propositions so that the meaning of each will be made more definite8 #a4 ,athletics should be abolished4 7,should all athletic exercises be abolished87 #b4 ,latin is better than algebra4 7,better for what purpose8 ,better for whom87 #c4 ,training in domestic arts and sciences should be provided for high school pupils4 7,define domestic arts and sciences4 ,should they be taught to all high school pupils87 #d4 ,punctuality is more important than efficiency4 #e4 ,the commercial course is better than the classical course4 #f4 ,a city should control the transportation facilities within its limits4 ,theme ,,xcvi4--,write out an argument favoring one of the propositions as restated in ,exercise ,c above4 7,before writing1 make a brief as indicated in ,section #gg4 ,consider the arrangement of your argument47 #agc4 ,clear ,thinking ,essential to ,argument4--,having clearly in mind the proposition which we wish to prove1 we next proceed to give arguments in its support4 ,the very fact that we argue at all assumes that there are two sides to the question4 ,if we hope to have another accept our view we must present good reasons4 ,we cannot convince another that a proposition is true unless we can tell him why it is true2 and certainly we cannot tell him why until we know definitely our own reasons for believing the statement4 ,in order to present a good argument we must be clear logical thinkers ourselves2 that is1 we must be able to state definite reasons for our beliefs and to draw the correct conclusions4 #agd4 ,inductive ,reasoning4--,one of the best preparations for trying to convince others is for us to consider carefully our own reasons for believing as we do4 ,minds act in a similar manner1 and what leads you and me to believe certain truths will be likely to cause others to believe them also4 ,a brief consideration of how our belief in the truth of a proposition has been established will indicate the way in which we should present our material in order to cause others to believe the same proposition4 ,if you ask yourself the question1 ,what leads me to believe as ,i do8 the answer will undoubtedly be effective in convincing others4 ,are the following propositions true or false8 ,why do you believe or refuse to believe each8 #a4 ,maple trees shed their leaves in winter4 #b4 ,dogs bark4 #c4 ,kettles are made of iron4 #d4 ,grasshoppers jump4 #e4 ,giraffes have long necks4 #f4 ,raccoons sleep in the daytime4 #g4 ,the sun will rise to-morrow4 #h4 ,examinations are not fair tests of a pupil's knowledge4 #i4 ,honest people are respected4 #aj4 ,water freezes at #cb ,fahrenheit4 #aa4 ,boys get higher standings in mathematics than girls do4 ,it is at once evident that we believe a proposition such as one of these1 because we have known of many examples4 ,if we reject any of the propositions it is because we know of exceptions 7we have seen kettles not made of iron71 or because we do not know of instances 7we may never have seen a raccoon1 and so not know what he does in the daytime74 ,the greater the number of cases which have occurred without presenting an exception1 the stronger our belief in the truth of the proposition 7we expect the sun to rise because it has never failed74 ,the process by which1 from many individual cases1 we establish the truth of a proposition is called inductive reasoning4 #age4 ,establishing a ,general ,theory4--,a general theory is established by showing that for all known particular cases it will offer an acceptable explanation4 ,by investigation or experiment we note that a certain fact is true in one particular instance1 and1 after a large number of individual cases have been noted1 and the same fact found to be true in each1 we assume that such is true of all like cases1 and a general law is established4 ,this is the natural scientific method and is constantly being made use of in pursuing scientific studies4 ,by experiment1 it was found that one particular kind of acid turned blue litmus red4 ,this1 of course1 was not sufficient proof to establish a general law1 but when1 upon further investigation1 it was found to be true of all known acids1 scientists felt justified in stating the general law that acids turn blue litmus red4 ,in establishing a new theory in science it is necessary to bring forward many facts which seem to establish it1 and the argument will consist in pointing out these facts4 ,frequently the general principle is assumed to be true1 and the argument then consists in showing that it will apply to and account for all the facts of a given kind4 ,theories which have been for a time believed have1 as the world progressed in learning1 been found unable to account for all of a given class of conditions4 ,they have been replaced1 therefore1 by other theories1 just as the ,copernican theory of astronomy has displaced the ,ptolemaic theory4 ,our belief may be based upon the absence of facts proving the contrary as well as upon the presence of facts proving the proposition4 ,if ,a has never told an untruth1 that fact is an argument in favor of his truthfulness on the present occasion4 ,a man who has never been dishonest may point to this as an argument in favor of placing him in a position of trust4 ,often the strongest evidence that we can offer in favor of a proposition is the absence of any fact that would support the negative conclusion4 ,the point of the whole matter is that from the observation of a large number of cases1 we may establish the probable truth of a proposition1 but emphasis needs to be laid upon the probability4 ,we cannot be sure4 ,not all crows are black1 though you may never have seen a white one4 ,the sun may not rise to-morrow1 though it has never failed up to this time4 ,still it is by this observation of many individual cases that the truth of the propositions that men do believe has been established4 ,we realize that our inductions are often imperfect1 but the general truths so established will be found to underlie every process of reasoning1 and will be either directly or indirectly the basis upon which we build up all argument4 ,we may then redefine inductive reasoning as the process by which from many individual cases we establish the probable truth of a general proposition4 ,,exercises ,notice in the following selections that the truth of the conclusion is shown by giving particular examples3-- #a4 ,it is curious enough that we always remember people by their worst points1 and still more curious that we always suppose that we ourselves are remembered by our best4 ,i once knew a hunchback who had a well-shaped hand1 and was continually showing it4 ,he never believed that anybody noticed his hump1 but lived and died in the conviction that the whole town spoke of him no otherwise than as the man with the beautiful hand1 whereas1 in fact1 they only looked at his hump1 and never so much as noticed whether he had a hand at all4 ,this young lady1 so pretty and so clever1 is simply the girl who had that awkward history with ,so-and-so2 that man1 who has some of the very greatest qualities1 is nothing more than the one who behaved so badly on such an occasion4 ,it is a terrible thing to think that we are all always at watch one upon the other1 to catch the false step in order that we may have the grateful satisfaction of holding our neighbor for one who cannot walk straight4 ,no regard is paid to the better qualities and acts1 however numerous2 all the attention is fixed upon the worst1 however slight4 ,if ,st4 ,peter were alive he would be known as the man who denied his ,master2 ,st4 ,paul would be the man who stoned ,stephen2 and ,st4 ,thomas would never be mentioned in any decent society without allusions to that unfortunate request for further evidence4 ,probably this may be the reason why we all have so much greater a contempt for and distrust of each other than would be warranted by a correct balance between the good and the evil that are in each4 --,thomas ,gibson ,bowles3 ,flotsam and ,jetsam4 #b4 ,in the first place1 #bbg withered leaves of various kinds1 mostly of ,english plants1 were pulled out of worm burrows in several places4 ,of these1 #aha had been drawn into the burrows by or near their tips1 so that the footstalk projected nearly upright from the mouth of the burrow2 #bj had been drawn in by their bases1 and in this case the tips projected from the burrows2 and #bf had been seized near the middle1 so that these had been drawn in transversely and were much crumpled4 ,therefore #hj per cent 7always using the nearest whole number7 had been drawn in by the tip1 #i per cent by the base or footstalk1 and #aa per cent transversely or by the middle4 ,this alone is almost sufficient to show that chance does not determine the manner in which leaves are dragged into the burrows4 --,darwin3 ,vegetable ,mold and ,earthworms4 #c4 ,the catastrophe of every play is caused always by the folly or fault of a man2 the redemption1 if there be any1 is by the wisdom and virtue of a woman1 and1 failing that1 there is none4 ,the catastrophe of ,king ,lear is owing to his own want of judgment1 his impatient vanity1 his misunderstanding of his children2 the virtue of his one true daughter would have saved him from all the injuries of the others1 unless he had cast her away from him2 as it is1 she all but saves him4 ,of ,othello1 ,i need not trace the tale2 nor the one weakness of his so mighty love2 nor the inferiority of his perceptive intellect to that even of the second woman character in the play1 the ,emilia who dies in wild testimony against his error3-- ,oh1 murderous coxcomb6 what should such a fool ,do with so good a wife8 ,in ,romeo and ,juliet1 the wise and brave stratagem of the wife is brought to ruinous issue by the reckless impatience of her husband4 ,in ,the ,winter's ,tale1 and in ,cymbeline1 the happiness and existence of two princely households1 lost through long years1 and imperiled to the death by the folly and obstinacy of the husbands1 are redeemed at last by the queenly patience and wisdom of the wives4 ,in ,measure for ,measure1 the foul injustice of the judge1 and the foul cowardice of the brother1 are opposed to the victorious truth and adamantine purity of a woman4 ,in ,coriolanus1 the mother's counsel1 acted upon in time1 would have saved her son from all evil2 his momentary forgetfulness of it is his ruin2 her prayer1 at last1 granted1 saves him--not1 indeed1 from death1 but from the curse of living as the destroyer of his country4 --,ruskin3 ,sesame and ,lilies4 #d4 ,bas4 ,so may the outward shows be least themselves2 ,the world is still deceived with ornament4 ,in law1 what plea so tainted and corrupt ,but1 being season'd with a gracious voice1 ,obscures the show of evil8 ,in religion1 ,what damned error1 but some sober brow ,will bless it and approve it with a text1 ,hiding the grossness with fair ornament8 ,there is no vice so simple but assumes ,some mark of virtue on his outward parts3 ,how many cowards1 whose hearts are all as false ,as stairs of sand1 wear yet upon their chins ,the beards of ,hercules and frowning ,mars1 ,who1 inward search'd1 have livers white as milk2 ,and these assume but valor's excrement ,to render them redoubted6 ,look on beauty1 ,and you shall see 'tis purchased by the weight2 ,which therein works a miracle in nature1 ,making them lightest that wear most of it3 ,so are those crisped snaky golden locks ,which make such wanton gambols with the wind1 ,upon supposed fairness1 often known ,to be the dowry of a second head1 ,the skull that bred them in the sepulcher4 ,thus ornament is but the guiled shore ,to a most dangerous sea2 the beauteous scarf ,veiling an ,indian beauty2 in a word1 ,the seeming truth which cunning times put on ,to entrap the wisest4 ,therefore1 thou gaudy gold1 ,hard food for ,midas1 ,i will none of thee2 ,nor none of thee1 thou pale and common drudge ',tween man and man3 but thou1 though meager lead1 ,which rather threatenest than dost promise aught1 ,thy paleness moves me more than eloquence2 ,and here choose ,i3 joy be the consequence6 --,shakespeare3 ,the ,merchant of ,venice4 ,theme ,,xcvii4--,write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the following statements3-- #a4 ,it is a distinct advantage to a large town to be connected with the smaller towns by electric car lines4 #b4 ,vertical penmanship should be taught in all elementary schools4 #c4 ,examinations develop dishonesty4 #d4 ,novel reading is a waste of time4 #e4 ,tramps ought not to be fed4 7,make a brief4 ,consider the arrangement of your arguments4 ,read ,section #gb47 #agf4 ,errors of ,induction4--,a common error is that of too hasty generalization4 ,we conclude that something is always so because it happened to be so in the few cases that have come under our observation4 ,a broader experience frequently shows that the hastily made generalization will not hold4 ,some people are led to lose faith in all humanity because one or two of their acquaintances have shown themselves unworthy of their trust4 ,others are ready to pronounce a merchant dishonest because some article purchased at his store has not proved to be so good as it was expected to be4 ,there are those who are superstitious concerning the wearing of opals1 claiming that these jewels bring the wearer ill luck1 because they have heard of some instances where misfortune seemed to follow the wearing of that particular stone4 ,what may seem to be causes and effects at first may1 upon further investigation or inquiry1 prove to be merely chance coincidences4 ,in your work in argument1 whether for the class room or outside1 be careful about this point4 ,remember that your induction will be weak or even worthless if you draw conclusions from too few examples4 ,often one example seems sufficient to cause belief4 ,we might believe that all giraffes have long necks1 even though we had seen but one2 but such a belief would exist because1 by many examples of other animals1 we have learned that a single specimen will fairly represent all other specimens of the same class4 ,on the other hand1 if this one giraffe should possess one brown eye and one white eye1 we should not expect all other giraffes to have such eyes1 for our observation of many hundreds of animals teaches us that the eyes of an animal are usually alike in color4 ,in order to establish a true generalization1 the essential characteristics must be selected1 and these cannot be determined by rule1 but rather by common sense4 #agg4 ,deductive ,reasoning4--,when once a general principle has been established1 we may demonstrate the truth of a specific proposition by showing that the general principle applies to it4 ,we see a gold ring and say1 ,this ring is valuable1 because we believe the general proposition1 ,all articles made of gold are valuable4 ,expressed in full1 the process of reasoning would be-- ,a4 ,all articles made of gold are valuable4 ,b4 ,this ring is made of gold4 ,c4 ,therefore this ring is valuable4 ,a series of statements such as the above is called a syllogism4 ,it consists of a major premise 7,a71 a minor premise 7,b71 and a conclusion 7,c74 ,of course we shall not be called upon to prove so simple a proposition as the one given1 but with more difficult ones the method of reasoning is the same4 ,the process which applies a general proposition 7,a7 to a specific instance 7,c71 is called deductive reasoning4 #agh4 ,relation between ,inductive and ,deductive ,reasoning4--,deductive reasoning is shorter and seems more convincing than inductive reasoning1 for if the premises are true and the statement is made in correct form1 the conclusions are irresistible4 ,each conclusion carries with it1 however1 the weakness of the premises on which it is based1 and as these premises are general principles that have been themselves established by inductive reasoning1 the conclusions of deductive reasoning can be no more sure than those of inductive reasoning4 ,each may prove only that the proposition is probably true rather than that it is surely true1 though in many cases this probability becomes almost a certainty4 #agi4 ,the ,enthymeme4--,we seldom need to state our argument in the syllogistic form4 ,one of the premises is usually omitted1 and we pass directly from one premise to the conclusion4 ,if we say1 ,henry will not succeed as an engineer1 and when asked why he will not1 we reply1 ,because he is not good in mathematics1 we have omitted the premise1 ,a knowledge of mathematics is necessary for success in engineering4 ,a shortened syllogism1 that is1 a syllogism with one premise omitted1 is called an enthymeme4 ,thus in ordinary matters our thought turns at once to the conclusion in connection with but one premise4 ,we make a thousand statements which a moment's thought will show that we believe because we believe some unexpressed general principle4 ,if ,i should say of my dog1 ,fido will die sometime1 no sensible person would doubt the truth of the statement4 ,if asked to prove it1 ,i would say1 ,because he is a dog1 and all dogs die sometime4 ,thus ,i apply to a specific proposition1 ,fido will die1 the general one1 ,all dogs die1 a proposition about which there is no doubt4 ,frequently the suppressed premise is not so well established as in this case1 and the belief or nonbelief of the proposition will be determined by the individuals addressed1 each in accordance with his experience4 ,suppose that in reading we find the statement1 ,a boy of fourteen ought not to be allowed to choose his own subjects of study1 because he will choose all the easy ones and avoid the more difficult though more valuable ones4 ,the omitted premise that all boys will choose easy studies1 needs to be established by induction4 ,if a high school principal had noticed that out of five hundred boys1 four hundred elected the easy studies1 he would admit the truth of the omitted premise1 and so of the conclusion4 ,but if only one hundred had chosen the easy subjects1 he would reject the major premise and likewise the conclusion4 ,it is evident that in order to be sure of the truth of a proposition we must determine the truth of the premises upon which it is based4 ,an argument therefore is frequently given over wholly to establishing the premises4 ,if their truth can be demonstrated1 the conclusion inevitably follows4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,supply the missing premise for the following3-- #a4 ,john will succeed because he has a college education4 #b4 ,henry is happy because he has plenty of money4 #c4 ,candy is nutritious because it is made of sugar4 #d4 ,these biscuits will make me ill because they are heavy4 #e4 ,this dog must be angry because he is growling4 #f4 ,this fish can swim4 #g4 ,the plural of the ,german noun der ,garten is die ,grten4 #h4 ,it will hurt to have this tooth filled4 ,b4 ,supply the reasons and complete the syllogism for each of the following3-- #a4 ,this book should not be read4 #b4 ,this hammer is useful4 #c4 ,that dog will bite4 #d4 ,this greyhound can run rapidly4 #e4 ,the leaves have fallen from the trees4 #f4 ,that boy ought to be punished4 #g4 ,it is too early to go nutting4 #h4 ,this boy should not study4 #i4 ,you ought not to vote for this man for mayor4 ,theme ,,xcviii4--,write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the following propositions3-- #a4 ,labor-saving machinery is of permanent advantage to mankind4 #b4 ,new ,orleans will some day be a greater shipping port than ,new ,york4 #c4 ,poetry has a greater influence on the morals of a nation than prose writing4 #d4 ,boycotting injures innocent persons and should never be employed4 #e4 ,ireland should have ,home ,rule4 #f4 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states should be elected by the direct vote of the people4 7,consider your argument with reference to the suppressed premises47 #ahj4 ,errors of ,deduction4--,the deductive method of reasoning1 if properly used1 is effective1 but much care needs to be taken to avoid false conclusions4 ,a complete exposition of the variations of the syllogism is not necessary here1 but it will be of value to consider briefly three chief errors4 ,if the terms are not used with the same meaning throughout1 the conclusion is valueless4 ,a person might agree with you that domestic arts should be taught to girls in school1 but if you continued by saying that scrubbing the floor is a form of domestic art1 therefore the girls should be taught to scrub the floor1 he would reject your conclusion because the meaning of the term domestic art as he understood it in the first statement1 is not that used in the second4 ,it will be noticed that each syllogism includes three terms4 ,for example1 the syllogism1-- ,all hawks eat flesh2 ,this bird is a hawk2 ,therefore this bird eats flesh1-- contains the three terms1 hawk1 eats flesh1 this bird2 of these but two appear in the conclusion4 ,the one which does not 7in this case hawk7 is called the middle term4 ,if the major premise does not make a statement about every member of the class denoted by the middle term1 the conclusion may not be valid even though the premises are true4 ,for example3-- ,all hawks are birds2 ,this chicken is a bird2 ,therefore this chicken is a hawk4 ,in this case the middle term is birds1 and the major premise1 ,all hawks are birds1 does not make a statement which applies to all birds4 ,the conclusion is therefore untrue4 ,such an argument is a fallacy4 ,the validity of the conclusion is impaired if either premise is false4 ,in the enthymeme1 ,henry is a coward2 he dare not run away from school1 the suppressed premise1 ,all persons who will not run away from school1 are cowards1 is not true1 and so invalidates the conclusion4 ,it is well to test the validity of your own argument and that of your opponent by seeking for the suppressed premise and stating it1 for this may reveal a fatal weakness in the thought4 ,,exercises ,which of the following are incorrect8 #a4 ,the government should pay for the education of its people2 ,travel is a form of education2 ,therefore the government should pay the traveling expenses of the people4 #b4 ,all horses are useful2 ,this animal is useful2 ,therefore this animal is a horse4 #c4 ,i ought not to study algebra because it is a very difficult subject4 #d4 ,pupils ought not to write notes because note writing interferes with the rights of others4 #e4 ,all fish can swim2 ,charles can swim2 ,therefore ,charles is a fish4 #f4 ,henry is a fool because he wears a white necktie4 #g4 ,all dogs bark2 ,this animal barks2 ,therefore this animal is a dog4 ,theme ,,xcix4--,write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the following propositions3-- #a4 ,the government should establish a parcels post4 #b4 ,the laws of mind determine the forms of composition4 #c4 ,training for citizenship should be given greater attention in the public schools4 #d4 ,the members of the school board should be appointed by the mayor of the city4 #e4 ,in the estimation of future ages ---- will be considered the greatest ,president since ,lincoln4 7,state your premises4 ,have you shown that they are true87 #aha4 ,evidence4--,we may reach belief in the truth of a specific statement by means of deductive reasoning4 ,commonly1 however1 when dealing with an actual state or occurrence1 we present other facts or circumstances that show its existence4 ,the facts presented may be those of experience1 the testimony of witnesses1 the opinion of those considered as experts in the subject1 or a combination of circumstances known to have existed4 ,to be of any value as arguments1 they must be true1 and they must be related to the fact that we are trying to prove4 ,these true and pertinent facts we term evidence4 ,evidence may be direct or indirect4 ,if a man sees a boy steal a bag of apples from the orchard across the way1 his evidence is direct4 ,if instead1 he only sees him with an empty bag and later with a full one1 the evidence will be indirect4 ,if you testify that early in the evening you saw a tramp enter a barn which later in the evening caught fire1 your testimony as regards the cause of the fire would be indirect evidence against the tramp4 ,if you can testify that you saw sparks fall from his lighted pipe and ignite a pile of hay in the barn1 the evidence which you give will be direct4 ,direct evidence has more weight than indirect1 but often the latter is nearly equal to the former and is sufficient to convince us4 ,even the direct testimony of eye-witnesses must be carefully considered4 ,several persons may see the same thing and yet make very different reports1 even though they may all desire to tell the truth4 ,the weight that we shall give to a person's testimony will depend upon his ability to observe and to report accurately what he has experienced1 and upon his desire to tell the truth4 ,notice in the following selection what facts1 specific instances1 and circumstances are advanced in support of the proposition4 ,assuming that they are true1 are they pertinent to the proposition8 ,certain species of these army ants which inhabit tropical ,america1 ,mr4 ,belt considered to be the most intelligent of all the insects of that part of the world4 ,on one occasion he noticed a wide column of them trying to pass along a nearly perpendicular slope of crumbling earth1 on which they found great difficulty in obtaining a foothold4 ,a number succeeded in retaining their positions1 and further strengthened them by laying hold of their neighbors4 ,they then remained in this position1 and allowed the column to march securely and easily over their bodies4 ,on another occasion a column was crossing a stream of water by a very narrow branch of a tree1 which only permitted them to go in single file4 ,the ants widened the bridge by a number clinging to the sides and to each other1 and this allowed the column to pass over three or four deep4 ,these ants1 having no permanent nests1 carry their larvae and pupae with them when marching4 ,the prey they capture is cut up and carried to the rear of the army to be distributed as food4 --,robert ,brown3 ,science for ,all4 ,theme ,c4--,present all the evidence you can either to prove or disprove one of the following propositions3-- ,select some question of local interest as3-- #a4 ,the last fire in our town was of incendiary origin4 #b4 ,the football team from ---- indulged in slugging at the last game4 #c4 ,our heating system is inadequate4 #d4 ,it rained last night4 ,if you prefer1 choose one of the following subjects3-- #a4 ,the ,stuart kings were arbitrary rulers4 #b4 ,the climate of our country is changing4 #c4 ,gutenberg did not invent the printing press4 #d4 ,the ,american ,indians have been unjustly treated by the whites4 #e4 ,nations have their periods of rise and decay4 7,are the facts you use true8 ,are they pertinent8 ,do you know of facts that would tend to show that your proposition is not true87 #ahb4 ,number and ,value of ,reasons4--,although a statement may be true and pertinent it is seldom sufficient for proof4 ,we need1 as a rule1 several such statements4 ,if you are trying to convince a friend that one kind of automobile is superior to another1 and can give only one reason for its superiority1 you no doubt will fail in your attempt4 ,if1 however1 you can give several reasons1 you may succeed in convincing him4 ,suppose you go to your principal and ask permission to take an extra study4 ,you may give as a reason the fact that your parents wish you to take it4 ,he may not think that is a sufficient reason for your doing so1 but when he finds that with your present studies you do not need to study evenings1 that one of them is a review1 and that you have been standing well in all your studies1 he may be led to think that it will be wise for you to take the desired extra study4 ,while we must guard against insufficiency of reasons1 we must not forget that numbers alone do not convince4 ,one good reason is more convincing than several weak ones4 ,two or three good reasons1 clearly and definitely stated1 will have much more weight than a large number of less important ones4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,give a reason or two in addition to the reasons already given in each of the following3-- #a4 ,it is better to attend a large college than a small one1 because the teachers are as a rule greater experts in their lines of work4 #b4 ,the school board ought to give us a field for athletics as the school ground is not large enough for practice4 #c4 ,gymnasium work ought to be made compulsory4 ,otherwise many who need physical training will neglect it4 #d4 ,the game of basket ball is an injury to a school1 since it detracts from interest in studies4 #e4 ,rudolph ,horton will make a good class president because he has had experience4 ,b4 ,be able to answer orally any two of the following3 #a4 ,prove to a timid person that there is no more danger in riding in an automobile than there is in riding in a carriage drawn by horses4 ,use but one argument1 but make it as strong as possible4 #b4 ,give two good reasons why the superstition concerning ,friday is absurd4 #c4 ,what1 in your mind1 is the strongest reason why you wish to graduate from a high school8 ,for your wishing to go into business after leaving the high school8 ,for your wishing to attend college8 #d4 ,what are two or three of the strong arguments in favor of woman suffrage8 ,name two or three arguments in opposition to woman suffrage4 ,c4 ,name all the points that you can in favor of the following4 ,select the one that you consider the most important4 #a4 ,try to convince a friend that he ought to give up the practice of cigarette smoking4 #b4 ,show that athletics in a high school ought to be under the management of the faculty4 #c4 ,show that athletics should be under the management of the pupils themselves4 #d4 ,macbeth's ambition and not his wife was the cause of his ruin4 #e4 ,macbeth's wife was the cause of his ruin4 ,theme ,,ci4--,select one of the subjects in the exercise above1 and write out two or three of the strongest arguments in its favor4 7,consider the premises1 especially those which are not expressed4 ,is your argument deductive or inductive87 #ahc4 ,the ,basis of ,belief4--,if you ask yourself1 ,why do ,i believe this8 the answer will in many cases show that your belief in the particular case under consideration arises because you believe some general principle or theory which applies to it4 ,one person may believe that political economy should be taught in high schools because he believes that it is the function of the high school to train its pupils for citizenship1 and that the study of political economy will furnish this training4 ,another person may oppose the teaching of political economy because he believes that pupils of high school age are not sufficiently mature in judgment to discuss intelligently the principles of political economy1 and that the study of these principles at that age does not furnish desirable training for citizenship4 ,it is evident that an argument between these two concerning the teaching of political economy in any particular school would consist in a discussion of the conflicting general theories which each believed to be true4 ,we have shown in ,section #agi that one high school principal might believe that boys should be allowed to choose their own studies because he believed that they would not generally select the easy ones2 while another principal would oppose free electives because he believes that boys would choose the less difficult studies4 ,the proposition that ,the ,united ,states should retain its hold on the ,philippines involves conflicting theories of the function of this government4 ,so it will be found with many of our beliefs that either consciously or unconsciously they are based on general theories4 ,it is important in argument to know what these theories are1 and especially to consider what may be the general theories of those whom we wish to convince4 #ahd4 ,appeals to ,general ,theory1 ,authority1 and ,maxims4--,a successful argument in deductive form must be based upon principles and theories that the audience believes4 ,a minister in preaching to the members of his church may with success proceed by deductive methods1 because the members believe the general principles upon which he bases his arguments4 ,but in addressing a mixed audience1 many of whom are not church members1 such an argument might not be convincing1 because his hearers might deny the validity of the premises from which his conclusions were drawn4 ,in such a case he must either keep to general theories which his auditors do believe1 or by inductive methods seek to prove the truth of the general principles themselves4 ,if in support of our view we quote the opinion of some one whom we believe competent to speak with weight and authority upon the question1 we must remember that it will have weight with our audience only if they too look upon the person as an authority4 ,it proves nothing to a body of teachers to say that some educational expert believes as you do unless they have confidence in him as a man of sound judgment4 ,on the other hand1 it may count against a proposition to show that it has not been endorsed by any one of importance or prominence4 ,in a similar way a maxim or proverb may be quoted in support of a proposition4 ,if a boy associates with bad company1 we may offer the maxim1 ,birds of a feather flock together1 in proof that he is probably bad too4 ,such maxims or proverbs are brief statements of principles generally believed1 and the use of them in an argument is in effect the presentation of a general theory in a form which appeals to the mind of the hearer and causes him to believe our proposition4 #ahe4 ,argument by ,inference4--,the statement of a fact may be introduced into an argument1 not because the fact itself applies directly to the proposition we wish to prove1 but because it by inference suggests a general theory which does so apply4 ,though the reader may not be conscious of it1 the presence of this general theory may influence his decision even more than the explicit statement of the general theory would4 ,an argument implies that there are two sides to a question4 ,which you shall take depends on the way you look on it1 that is1 on what may be called your mental point of view4 ,therefore any fact1 allusion1 maxim1 comparison1 or other statement which may cause you to look at the question in a different light or from a different point of view may be used as an argument4 ,in effect1 it calls up a general theory whose presence affects your decision4 ,notice how brief the argument is in the following selection from ,macaulay3-- ,many politicians of our time are in the habit of laying it down as a self-evident proposition1 that no people ought to be free till they are fit to use their freedom4 ,the maxim is worthy of the fool in the old story1 who resolved not to go into the water till he had learned to swim4 ,if men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery1 they may indeed wait forever4 --,macaulay3 ,milton4 #ahf4 ,summary4--,to summarize the preceding paragraphs1 the authority we quote1 the maxims we state1 the facts we adduce become valuable because they appeal to general theories already believed by the reader4 ,success in argument demands1 therefore1 that we consider carefully what theories may probably be in the mind of our audience1 and that we present our argument in such a way as to appeal to those theories4 ,theme ,,cii4--,write a short argument1 using one of the following3-- #a4 ,a young boy is urging his father to permit him to attend an entertainment4 ,give his reasons as he would give them to his father4 #b4 ,suppose the father refuses the request4 ,write out his reasons4 #c4 ,try to convince a companion just entering high school to take the college preparatory course instead of the commercial course4 7,are your reasons true and pertinent8 ,to what general theories have you appealed8 ,consider the coherence of each paragraph47 #ahg4 ,arrangement of ,arguments4--,we have learned that in arguing we need to consider how those whom we address arrive at the belief they hold1 and that it will assist us to this knowledge of others if we consider our own beliefs and the manner of their establishing4 ,we must present our material in the order that convinces4 ,each case may differ so from every other that no general rule can be followed1 but the consideration of some general principles of arrangement will be of assistance4 ,it is the purpose of the following paragraphs to point out in so far as possible the most effective order of arrangement4 #ahh4 ,possibility1 ,probability1 and ,actuality4--,it has been stated1 in ,section #age1 that reasoning leads to probable truth1 and that this probability may become so strong as to be accepted as certainty4 ,in common speech this difference is borne in mind1 and we distinguish a fact or event that is only possible from one that is probable2 and likewise one that is only probable from one in which the probability approaches so near to certainty as to convince us that it actually did exist or occur4 ,our arguments may therefore be directed to proving possibility1 probability1 or actuality4 ,if we believe that an event actually occurred1 the belief implies both possibility and probability4 ,therefore1 if we wish a person to believe in the actual occurrence of an event1 we must first be sure that he does not question the possibility of its existence1 and then we must show him that it probably did take place4 ,only when we have shown that an event is extremely probable have we the right to say that we have shown its actual occurrence4 ,a mother finding some damage done to one of the pictures on the wall could not justly accuse her young son unless by the presence of a chair or stepladder it had been possible for him to reach the picture4 ,this possibility1 renforced by a knowledge of his tendency to mischief1 and by the fact that he was in the house at the time the damage was done1 would lead to the belief that he probably was guilty4 ,proof that he was actually responsible for the damage would still be lacking1 and it might later be discovered that the injury had been done accidentally by one of the servants4 ,possibility1 probability1 and actuality merge into one another so gradually that no sharply defined distinctions can be observed4 ,it is impossible to say that a certain argument establishes possibility1 another probability1 and a third the actuality of an event4 ,one statement may do all three1 but any proof of actuality must include arguments showing both possibility and probability4 ,a person accused of murder attempts to demonstrate his innocence by proving an alibi2 that is1 he attempts to show that he was at some other place at the time the murder was committed and so cannot possibly be guilty4 ,such an alibi1 established by reliable witnesses1 is positive proof of innocence1 no matter how strong the evidence pointing to probable guilt may be4 #ahi4 ,argument from ,cause4--,we have learned1 in ,section #di1 that the relation of cause and effect is one which is ingrained in our nature4 ,we accept a proposition as plausible if a cause which we consider adequate has been assigned4 ,our belief in a proposition often depends upon our belief in some other proposition which may be accepted as a cause4 ,thus1 in the following statements1 the truth of one proposition leads to the belief that the other is also true3-- a4 ,henry has studied hard this year2 therefore he will pass his college entrance examinations4 b4 ,the man has severed an artery2 therefore he will probably bleed to death before the physician arrives4 c4 ,it will soon grow warmer1 because the sun has risen4 ,an argument from cause may be of itself conclusive evidence of the fact4 ,but1 for the most part1 such arguments merely establish the possibility or probability of the proposition and so render it ready for proof4 ,in our arrangement of material1 we therefore place such arguments first4 #aij4 ,argument from ,sign4--,cause and effect are so closely united that when an effect is observed we assume that there has been a cause1 and we direct our argument to proving what it is4 ,an effect is so associated with its cause that the existence of an effect is a sign of the existence of a cause1 and such an argument is called an argument from sign4 ,reasoning from sign is very common in our daily life4 ,the wild geese flying south indicate the approach of cold weather4 ,the baby's toys show that the baby has been in the room4 ,a man's hat found beside a rifled safe will convict the man of the crime4 ,a dog's track in the garden is proof that a dog has been there4 ,if the effect observed is always associated with the same cause1 the argument is conclusive4 ,if ,i observe as an effect that the river has frozen over during the night1 ,i have no doubt that it has been caused by a lowering of the temperature4 ,if two or three possible causes exist1 our argument becomes conclusive only by considering them all and by showing that all but one did not produce the observed effect4 ,if the principal of a school knows that one of three boys broke a window light1 he may be able to prove which one did it by finding out the two who did not4 ,if a man is found shot to death1 the coroner's jury may prove that he was murdered by showing that he did not commit suicide4 ,if there are many possible causes1 the method of elimination becomes too tedious and must be abandoned4 ,if you find that your horse is lame1 it would be difficult to prove which of the many possible causes actually operated to produce the lameness1 though the attendant circumstances might point to some one cause and so lead you to assume that it was the one4 ,under arguments from sign should be included also those cases when we pass directly from one effect to another that arises from the same cause2 as1 ,i hear the windmill turning1 it will be a good day to sail2 or1 ,these beans are thrifty1 therefore if ,i plant potatoes here ,i shall get a good crop4 ,in these sentences the wind and the fertile soil are not mentioned1 but we pass directly from one effect to another4 ,as used by rhetoricians1 arguments from sign include also arguments from attendant circumstances4 ,if we have observed that two events have happened near together in time1 we accept the occurrence of one as a sign that the other will follow4 ,when we hear the factory whistle blow1 we conclude that in a few minutes the workmen will pass our window on their way home4 ,such a conclusion is based upon a belief established by an inductive process4 ,the degree of probability that it gives depends upon the number of times that it has been observed to act without failure4 ,if we have seen two boys frequently together1 the presence of one is a sign of the probable presence of the other4 ,a camp fire would point to the recent presence of some one who kindled it4 ,in using an argument from sign care must be taken not to confuse the relation of cause and effect with that of contiguity in time or place4 ,do not allege that which happened at the same time or near the same place as a cause4 ,if you do use an attendant circumstance1 be sure that it adds something to the probability4 #aia4 ,argument from ,example4--,it has been pointed out in the study of inductive reasoning 7,section #agf7 that a single example may suffice to establish a general notion of a class4 ,in dealing with objects of the physical world1 if essential and invariable qualities of the object are considered1 they may be asserted to be qualities of each member of the class1 and such an argument from an individual to all the members of the class is convincing4 ,they thus rank with arguments from sign as effective in proving the certainty of a proposition4 ,in dealing with human actions1 on the other hand1 examples are seldom proofs of fact4 ,we cannot say that all men will act in a certain way under given circumstances because one man has so acted4 ,nevertheless1 arguments by examples are frequently used and are especially powerful when we wish not only to convince a man1 but also to persuade him to action4 ,this persuasion to action must be based on conviction1 and in such a case the argument from sign that convinces the man of the truth of a proposition should precede the example that urges him to action4 ,after convincing a friend that there are advantages to be derived from joining a society1 we may persuade him to join by naming those who have joined4 #aib4 ,argument from ,analogy4--,analogy is very much relied upon in practical life4 ,reasoning from analogy depends upon the recognition of similarity in regard to some particulars followed by the inference that the similarity extends to other particulars4 ,as soon as it was known that the atmospheric conditions of the planet ,mars are similar to those of the earth1 it was argued by analogy that ,mars must also1 be inhabited4 ,an analogy is seldom conclusive and1 though it is often effective in argument1 it must not be taken as proof of fact4 ,the mind very readily observes likenesses1 and when directed toward the establishing of a proposition easily overlooks the differences4 ,in order to determine the strength of an argument from analogy1 attention should be given to the differences existing between the two propositions considered4 ,false analogies are very common4 ,we must guard against using them1 and especially against allowing ourselves to be convinced by them4 ,even when the resemblance is so slight as to render analogy impossible1 it may serve to produce a metaphor that often has the effect of argument4 ,it is much easier to captivate the fancy with a pretty or striking figure than to move the judgment with sound reason4444 ,his 7the speaker's7 picture appeals to the mind's visible sense1 hence his power over us1 though his analogies are more apt to be false than true4444 ,the use of metaphor1 comparison1 analogy1 is twofold--to enliven and to convince2 to illustrate and enforce an accepted truth1 and to press home and clinch one in dispute4 ,an apt figure may put a new face upon an old and much worn truism1 and a vital analogy may reach and move the reason4 ,thus when ,renan1 referring to the decay of the old religious beliefs1 says that the people are no poorer for being robbed of false bank notes and bogus shares1 his comparison has a logical validity4444 ,the accidental analogies or likenesses are limitless1 and are the great stock in trade of most writers and speakers4 ,an ingenious mind finds types everywhere1 but real analogies are not so common4 ,the likeness of one thing to another may be valid and real1 but the likeness of a thought with a thing is often merely fanciful4444 ,i recently have met with the same fallacy in a leading article in one of the magazines4 ,the fact revealed by the spectroscope1 says the writer1 that the physical elements of the earth exist also in the stars1 supports the faith that a moral nature like our own inhabits the universe4 ,a tremendous leap--a leap from the physical to the moral4 ,we know that these earth elements are found in the stars by actual observation and experience2 but a moral nature like our own--this is assumed1 and is not supported by the analogy4 ,john ,burroughs3 ,analogy1 ,true and ,false4 ,notice the use of analogy in the argument below4 ,there is only one cure for the evils which newly acquired freedom produces2 and that cure is freedom4 ,when a prisoner first leaves his cell he cannot bear the light of day3 he is unable to discriminate colors1 or recognize faces4 ,but the remedy is1 not to remand him into his dungeon1 but to accustom him to the rays of the sun4 ,the blaze of truth and liberty may at first dazzle and bewilder nations which have become blind in the house of bondage4 ,but1 let them gaze on1 and they will soon be able to bear it4 ,in a few years men learn to reason4 ,the extreme violence of opinions subsides4 ,hostile theories correct each other4 ,the scattered elements of truth cease to contend and begin to coalesce1 and at length a system of justice and order is educed out of the chaos4 --,macaulay3 ,milton4 #aic4 ,summary of ,arrangement4--,the necessity of argument arises because some one does not believe the truth of a proposition4 ,to establish in his mind a belief1 we must present our arguments in an orderly and convincing way4 ,the order will usually be to show him first the possibility and then the probability1 and finally to lead him as near to certainty as we can4 ,we may say1 therefore1 that we should use arguments from cause1 arguments from sign1 and arguments from example in the order named4 ,another principle of arrangement is that inductive argument will usually precede deductive argument4 ,we naturally proceed by induction to establish general truths which1 when established1 we may apply4 ,if our audience already believe the general theories1 the inductive part may be omitted4 ,both of these principles of arrangement should be considered with reference to that of a third1 namely1 climax4 ,climax means nothing more than the orderly progression of our argument to the point where it convinces our hearer4 ,we call that argument which finally convinces him the strongest1 and naturally this should be the end of the argument4 ,of several proofs of equal grade1 one that will attract the attention of the hearer should come first1 while the most convincing one should come last4 ,in arranging arguments attention needs also to be given to coherence4 ,one proof may be so related to another that the presentation of one naturally suggests the other4 ,sometimes1 for the sake of climax1 the coherent order must be abandoned4 ,more often the climax is made more effective by following the order which gives the greatest coherence4 ,theme ,,cii4--,prove one of the following propositions3 #a4 ,the ,presidential term should be extended4 #b4 ,bookkeeping is of greater practical value than any other high school study4 #c4 ,in cities all buildings should be restricted to three stories in height4 #d4 ,sumptuary laws are never desirable4 #e4 ,no pupil should carry more than four studies4 #f4 ,this school should have a debating society4 7,have you proved possibility1 probability1 or actuality8 ,have you used arguments from cause1 sign1 or example8 ,consider the arrangement of your arguments4 ,consider the analogies you have used1 if any4 ,can you shorten your theme without weakening it87 #aid4 ,the ,brief4--,arrangement is of very great importance in argument4 ,in fact1 it is so important that much more care and attention needs to be given to the outline in argument1 and the outline itself may be more definitely known to the hearer than in the other forms of discourse4 ,in description and narration especially1 it detracts from the value of the impressions if the reader becomes aware of the plan of composition4 ,in exposition a view of the framework may not hinder clear understanding1 but in argument it may be of distinct advantage to have the orderly arrangements of our arguments definitely known to him whom we seek to convince4 ,the brief not only assists us in making our own thought orderly and exact1 but enables us to exclude that which is trivial or untrue4 ,an explanation may fail to make every point clear and yet retain some valuable elements1 but an argument fails of its purpose if it does not establish a belief4 ,a single false argument or even a trivial one may so appeal to a mind prejudiced against the proposition that all the valid proofs fail to convince4 ,this single weakness is at once used by our opponent to show that our other arguments are false because this one is4 ,a committee once endeavored to persuade the governor of a state not to sign a certain bill1 but they defeated themselves because their opponents pointed out to the governor that two of the ten reasons which they presented were false and that the committee presenting them knew they were false4 ,this cast a doubt upon the honesty of the committee and the validity of their whole argument1 and the governor signed the bill4 ,the brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is composed of complete sentences rather than of topics4 ,notice the following example4 ,term examinations should be abolished4 ,,affirmative ,i4 ,there is no necessity for such examinations4 #a4 ,the teacher knows the pupil's standing from his daily recitations4 #b4 ,monthly reviews or tests may be substituted if desirable4 ,,ii4 ,the evils arising from examinations more than offset any advantages that may be derived from them4 #a4 ,the best pupils are likely to work hardest1 and to overtax their strength4 #b4 ,pupils often aim to pass rather than to know their subject4 #c4 ,a temptation to cheat is placed before them4 ,,iii4 ,examinations are not a fair test of a pupil's ability4 #a4 ,a pupil may know his subject as a whole and yet not be able to answer one or two of the questions given him4 #b4 ,a pupil who has done poor work during the term may cram for an examination and pass very creditably4 #c4 ,pupils are likely to be tired out at the end of the term and often are not able to do themselves justice4 ,,negative ,if the writer should choose to defend the negative of the above proposition1 the brief might be as follows3-- ,i4 ,examinations are indispensable to school work4 #a4 ,in no other way can teachers find out so well what their pupils know about their subjects1 especially in large classes4 #b4 ,they are essential as an incentive to pupils who are inclined to let their work lag4 ,,ii4 ,as a rule they are fair tests of a pupil's ability4 #a4 ,pupils who prepare the daily recitations well are almost sure to pass a good examination4 #b4 ,pupils who cram are likely to write a hurried1 faulty examination4 #c4 ,it seldom happens that many in a class are too worn out to take a term examination4 ,,iii4 ,they prepare the pupils for later examinations4 7#a7 ,for college entrance examinations4 7#b7 ,for examinations at college4 7#c7 ,for civil service examinations4 7#d7 ,for examinations for teachers' certificates4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,write out subordinate propositions proving the main subdivisions4 ,also change the arrangement when you think it desirable to do so4 #a4 ,two sessions are preferable to one in a high school4 7#a7 ,one long session is too fatiguing to both teachers and pupils4 7#b7 ,boys and girls as a rule study better at school than they do at home4 7#c7 ,the time after school is long enough for recreation4 #b4 ,the pupils of this high school should be granted a holiday during the street 7county or state7 fair4 7#a7 ,they will all go at least one day4 7#b7 ,it will cause less interruption in the school work if they all go the same day4 #c4 ,women should be allowed to vote4 7#a7 ,they are now taxed without representation4 7#b7 ,whenever they have been allowed to take part in the affairs of the government1 it has been an advantage to that government4 7#c7 ,many of them are much more intelligent than some men who vote4 ,b4 ,write out briefs for the following propositions 7affirmative or negative73-- #a4 ,high school studies should be made elective in the last two years of the course4 #b4 ,the government should own and control the railroads of our country4 #c4 ,the old building on the corner of ---- ,street ought to be removed4 #d4 ,latin should not be made a compulsory study4 #e4 ,reading newspapers is unprofitable4 #f4 ,laws should be made to prohibit all adulteration of foods4 #g4 ,we are all selfish4 #h4 ,a system of self-government should be introduced into our school4 ,theme ,,civ4--,write out the argument for one of the preceding propositions4 7,examine the brief carefully before beginning to write4 ,can you improve it8 7 ,theme ,,cv4--,write a theme proving one of the following propositions3-- #a4 ,immigration is detrimental to the ,united ,states4 #b4 ,the descriptions in ,ivanhoe are better than those in the ,house of the ,seven ,gables4 #c4 ,argument is of greater practical value than exposition4 #d4 ,the ,mexican ,indians were a civilized race when ,america was discovered4 #e4 ,the standing army of the ,united ,states should be increased4 #f4 ,all police officers should be controlled by the state and not by the city4 7,have you used arguments from cause1 sign1 or example8 ,are they arranged with reference to the principles of arrangement8 7,section #aib47 ,consider each paragraph and the whole theme with reference to unity47 ,theme ,,cvi4--,write a debate on some question assigned by the teacher4 7,to what points should you give attention in correcting your theme8 ,read ,section #gi47 #aie4 ,difference between ,persuasion and ,argument4--,up to this point we have considered argument as having for its aim the proof of the truth of a proposition4 ,if we consider the things about which we argue most frequently1 we shall find that in many cases we attempt to do more than merely to convince the hearer4 ,we wish to convince him in order to cause him to act4 ,we argue with him in order to persuade him to do something4 ,such an argument tries to establish the wisdom of a course of action and is termed persuasion4 ,persuasion differs from argument in its aim4 ,in argument by an appeal principally to the reason1 we endeavor to convince2 in persuasion by an appeal mainly to the feelings1 we endeavor to move to action4 #aif4 ,importance of ,persuasion4--,persuasion deals with the practical affairs of life1 and for that reason the part that it performs is a large and important one4 ,all questions of advantage1 privilege1 and duty are included in the sphere of persuasion4 ,since such questions are so directly related to our business interests1 to our happiness1 and to our mode of conduct and action1 we are constantly making use of persuasion and quite as constantly are being influenced by it4 ,our own welfare and happiness depends to so great an extent upon the actions of others that our success in life is often measured by our ability to persuade others to act in accordance with our desires4 #aig4 ,necessity of ,persuasion4--,it is frequently not enough to convince our hearer of the truth of a proposition4 ,often a person believes a proposition1 yet does not act4 ,if we wish action1 persuasion must be added to argument4 ,if we always acted at the time we were convinced1 and in accordance with our convictions1 there would be no need of persuasion4 ,strange as it seems1 we often believe one thing and do just the opposite1 or we are indifferent and do nothing at all4 ,we all know that disobedience to the laws of health brings its punishment--yet how many of us act as if we did not believe it at all6 ,the indifferent pupil is positive that he will fail if he does not study4 ,he knows that he ought to apply himself diligently to his work4 ,there is no excuse for doing otherwise1 yet he neglects to act and failure is the result4 #aih4 ,motive in ,persuasion4--,the motive of persuasion depends upon the nature of the question4 ,the motives that we have in mind may be selfish1 or1 on the other hand1 they may be supremely unselfish4 ,we may urge others to act in order to bring about our own pleasure or profit2 we may urge them to act for their own self-interest or for the interest of others4 ,we may appeal to private or public interest1 to social or religious duty4 ,when a boy urges his father to buy him a bicycle1 he has his own pleasure in mind4 ,when we urge people to take care of their health1 we have their interest in view2 and when we urge city improvements or reforms in politics1 we are thinking of the welfare of people in general4 #aii4 ,the ,material of ,persuasion4--,persuasion aims to produce action and may make use of any of the forms of discourse that will fit that purpose4 ,we may describe the beauty of the ,adirondacks or narrate our experiences there in order to persuade a friend to accompany us on a camping trip4 ,we may explain the workings of a new invention in order to persuade a capitalist to invest money in its manufacture4 ,or we may by argument demonstrate that there is a great opportunity for young men in ,new ,orleans1 hoping to persuade an acquaintance to move there4 ,when thus used1 description1 narration1 exposition1 and argument may become persuasion2 but their effectiveness depends upon their appeal to some fundamental belief or feeling in the person addressed4 ,our description and narration would not bring to the ,adirondacks a man who cared nothing for scenery and who disliked camp life4 ,the explanation of our invention would not interest a capitalist unless he was seeking a profitable investment4 ,our argument would not induce a man to move to ,new ,orleans if his prejudice against the ,south was greater than his desire for profit and position4 ,in each case there has been an appeal to some belief or sentiment or desire of the person whom we seek to persuade4 #bjj4 ,appeal to the ,feelings4--,persuasion1 therefore1 in order to produce action must appeal largely to the feelings4 ,but all persons are not affected in the same way4 ,in order to bring about the same result we may need to make a different appeal to different individuals4 ,one person may be led to act by an appeal made to his sense of justice1 another by an appeal made to his patriotism1 while still another1 unmoved by either of these appeals1 may be led to act by an appeal made to his pride or to his love of power4 ,if we would be successful in persuading others1 we ought to be able to understand what to appeal to in individual cases4 ,children may be enticed by candy1 and older persons may be quite as readily influenced if we but choose the proper incentive4 ,it is our duty to see that we are persuaded only by the presentation of worthy motives1 and that in our own efforts to persuade others we do not appeal to envy1 jealousy1 religious prejudices1 race hatred1 or lower motives4 ,,exercises ,show how an appeal to the feelings could be made in the following4 ,to what particular feeling or feelings would you appeal in each case8 #a4 ,try to gain your parents' permission to attend college4 #b4 ,urge a friend to give up card playing4 #c4 ,try to persuade your teachers not to give so long lessons4 #d4 ,persuade others to aid an unfortunate family living in our community4 #e4 ,induce the school board to give you a good gymnasium4 #f4 ,persuade a tramp to give up his mode of life4 #g4 ,try to get some one to buy your old bicycle4 #h4 ,urge your country to act in behalf of some oppressed people4 #i4 ,urge a resident of your town to give something for a public park4 ,theme ,,cvii4--,write out one of the preceding4 7,consider what you have written with reference to coherence and climax47 #bja4 ,argument with ,persuasion4--,in some cases we are sure that our hearers are already convinced as to the truth of a proposition4 ,then there is no need of argument and persuasion is used alone1 but more frequently both are used4 ,argument naturally precedes persuasion1 but with few exceptions the two are intermixed and even so blended as to be scarcely distinguishable1 the one from the other4 ,a good example of the use of both forms is found in the speech of ,antony over the dead body of ,caesar in ,shakespeare's ,julius ,caesar4 ,read the speech and note the argument and persuasion given in it4 ,what three arguments does ,antony advance to prove that ,caesar was not ambitious8 ,does he draw conclusions or leave that for his listeners to do8 ,where is there an appeal to their pity8 ,to their curiosity8 ,to their gratitude8 ,what is the result in each case of the various appeals8 ,in the following examples note the argument and persuasion4 ,remember that persuasion commences when we begin to urge to action4 ,notice what feelings are appealed to in the persuasive parts of the speeches4 ,they tell us1 ,sir1 that we are weak1 unable to cope with so formidable an adversary4 ,but1 when shall we be stronger8 ,will it be the next week1 or the next year8 ,will it be when we are totally disarmed and when a ,british guard shall be stationed in every house8 ,shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction8 ,shall we acquire the means of effectual resistance1 by lying supinely on our backs and hugging the delusive phantom of hope1 until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot8 ,sir1 we are not weak1 if we make a proper use of the means which the ,god of nature hath placed in our power4 ,three millions of people1 armed in the holy cause of liberty1 and in such a country as that which we possess1 are invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us4 ,besides1 ,sir1 we shall not fight our battles alone4 ,there is a just ,god who presides over the destinies of nations2 and who will raise up friends to fight our battles for us4 ,the battle1 ,sir1 is not to the strong alone2 it is to the vigilant1 the active1 the brave4 ,besides1 ,sir1 we have no election4 ,if we were base enough to desire it1 it is now too late to retire from the contest4 ,there is no retreat1 but in submission and slavery4 ,our chains are forged6 ,their clanking may be heard on the plains of ,boston6 ,the war is inevitable--and let it come6 ,i repeat it1 ,sir1 let it come6--,it is vain1 sir1 to extenuate the matter4 ,gentlemen may cry peace1 peace--but there is no peace4 ,the war is actually begun6 ,the next gale that sweeps from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms6 ,our brethren are already in the field4 ,why stand we here1 idle8 ,is life so dear1 is peace so sweet1 as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery8 ,forbid it1 ,almighty ,god6 ,i know not what course others may take2 but as for me1 give me liberty1 or give me death4 --,patrick ,henry4 ,the pictures in the ,american newspapers of the starving reconcentrados are true4 ,they can all be duplicated by the thousands4 ,i never before saw1 and please ,god1 ,i may never again see1 so deplorable a sight as the reconcentrados in the suburbs of ,matanzas4 ,i can never forget to my dying day the hopeless anguish in their despairing eyes4 ,huddled about their little bark huts1 they raised no voice of appeal to us for alms as we went among them4444 ,men1 women1 and children stand silent1 famishing with hunger4 ,their only appeal comes from their sad eyes1 through which one looks as through an open window into their agonizing souls4 ,the ,government of ,spain has not appropriated and will not appropriate one dollar to save these people4 ,they are now being attended and nursed and administered to by the charity of the ,united ,states4 ,think of the spectacle6 ,we are feeding the citizens of ,spain2 we are nursing their sick2 we are saving such as can be saved1 and yet there are those who still say it is right for us to send food1 but we must keep hands off4 ,i say that the time has come when muskets ought to go with the food4444 ,the time for action has1 then1 come4 ,no greater reason for it can exist to-morrow than exists to-day4 ,every hour's delay only adds another chapter to the awful story of misery and death4 ,only one power can intervene--the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,ours is the one great nation of the ,new ,world1 the mother of ,american republics4 ,she holds a position of trust and responsibility toward the peoples and the affairs of the whole ,western ,hemisphere4 ,mr4 ,president1 there is only one action possible1 if any is taken--that is1 intervention for the independence of the island4 ,but we cannot intervene and save ,cuba without the exercise of force1 and force means war2 war means blood4 ,the lowly ,nazarene on the shores of ,galilee preached the divine doctrine of love1 ,peace on earth1 good will toward men4 ,not peace on earth at the expense of liberty and humanity4 ,not good will toward men who despoil1 enslave1 degrade1 and starve to death their fellow-men4 ,i believe in the doctrine of ,christ1 ,i believe in the doctrine of peace2 but1 ,mr4 ,president1 men must have liberty before there can come abiding peace4 ,intervention means force4 ,force means war4 ,war means blood4 ,but it will be ,god's force4 ,when has a battle for humanity and liberty ever been won except by force8 ,what barricade of wrong1 injustice1 and oppression has ever been carried except by force8 ,force compelled the signature of unwilling royalty to the great ,magna ,charta2 force put life into the ,declaration of ,independence and made effective the ,emancipation ,proclamation2 force beat with naked hands upon the iron gateway of the ,bastile and made reprisal in one awful hour for centuries of kingly crime2 force waved the flag of revolution over ,bunker ,hill and marked the snows of ,valley ,forge with blood-stained feet2 force held the broken line at ,shiloh1 climbed the flame-swept hill at ,chattanooga1 and stormed the clouds on ,lookout heights2 force marched with ,sherman to the sea1 rode with ,sheridan in the valley of ,shenandoah1 and gave ,grant victory at ,appomattox2 force saved the ,union1 kept the stars in the flag1 made niggers men4 ,others may hesitate1 others may procrastinate1 others may plead for further diplomatic negotiations1 which means delay2 but for me1 ,i am ready to act now1 and for my action ,i am ready to answer to my conscience1 my country1 and my ,god4 --,john ,mellen ,thurston3 ,speech in ,united ,states ,senate1 ,march1 #ahih4 ,,exercises #a4 ,a young boy is trying to gain his father's permission to attend an evening entertainment with some other boys4 ,make a list of his appeals to his father's reason2 to his father's feelings4 ,make a list of his father's objections4 ,is there any appeal to his son's feelings8 #b4 ,suppose you are about to address the voters of your city on the question of granting saloon licenses4 ,make a list of appeals to their reason2 to their intellect4 ,remember that appeals to the feelings are made more forcible by descriptive and narrative examples than by direct general appeals4 #c4 ,urge your classmates to vote for some member of your class for president4 ,what qualifications should a good class president have8 ,theme ,,cviii4--,select one of the subjects1 concerning which you have written an argument2 either add persuasion to the argument or intermix them4 7,what part of your theme is argument and what part persuasion8 ,does the introduction of persuasion affect the order of arrangement87 ,theme ,,cix4--,select one of the subjects given on page #cfa of which you have not yet made use4 ,write a theme appealing to both feeling and intellect4 7,are your facts true and pertinent8 ,consider the arrangement47 ,theme ,,cx4--,write a letter to a friend who went to work instead of entering the high school4 ,urge him to come to the high school4 7,what arguments have you made8 ,to what feelings have you appealed87 ,theme ,,cxi4--,use one of the following as a subject for a persuasive theme3-- #a4 ,induce your friends not to play ball on ,memorial ,day4 #b4 ,ask permission to be excused from writing your next essay4 #c4 ,persuade one of your friends to play golf4 #d4 ,induce your friends not to wear birds on their hats4 #e4 ,write an address to young children1 trying to persuade them not to be cruel to the lower animals4 #bjb4 ,questions of ,right and ,questions of ,expediency4--,arguments that aim to convince us of the wisdom of an action are very common4 ,in our home life and in our social and religious life these questions are always arising4 ,they may be classified into two kinds3 7#a7 those which answer the question1 ,is it right8 and 7#b7 those which answer the question1 ,is it expedient8 ,the moral element enters into questions of right4 ,it is always wise for us to do that which is morally right1 but sometimes we are in doubt as to what course of action is morally right4 ,opinions differ concerning what is right1 and for that reason we spend much time in defending our opinions or in trying to make others believe as we do4 ,in answering such a question honestly1 we must lose sight of all advantage or disadvantage to ourselves4 ,when asked to do something we should at once ask ourselves1 ,is it right8 and when once that is determined one line of action should be clear4 ,an argument which aims to answer the question1 ,is it expedient8 presupposes that there are at least two lines of action each of which is right4 ,it aims to prove that one course of action will bring greater advantages than any other4 ,taking all classes of people into consideration we shall find that they are arguing more questions of expediency than of any other kind4 ,every one is looking for advantages either to himself or to those in whom he is interested4 ,a question of expediency should never be separated from the question of right4 ,in determining either our own course of action or that which we attempt to persuade another to follow1 we should never forget the presupposition of a question of expediency that either course is right4 ,,exercises #a4 ,name five questions the right or wrong of which you have been called upon to decide4 #b4 ,name five similar questions that are likely to arise in every one's experience4 #c4 ,name five questions of right concerning which opinions very often differ4 #d4 ,is an action that is right for one person ever wrong for another8 ,theme ,,cxii4--,write out the reasons for or against one of the following3-- #a4 ,should two pupils ever study together8 #b4 ,is a lie ever justifiable8 #c4 ,was ,shylock's punishment too severe8 #d4 ,woman's suffrage should be established4 #e4 ,the regular party nominee should not always be supported4 ,,exercises ,give reasons for or against the following3-- #a4 ,we should abolish class-day exercises4 #b4 ,the study of science is more beneficial than the study of language4 #c4 ,foreign skilled laborers should be excluded from the ,united ,states4 #d4 ,hypnotic entertainments should not be allowed4 #e4 ,the study of algebra should not be made compulsory in a high school4 #f4 ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin should be excluded from school libraries4 #g4 ,physical training should be compulsory in public schools4 #h4 ,high school secret societies should not be allowed4 ,theme ,,cxiii4--,write an argument of expediency using one of the subjects named in the preceding exercise4 7,what advantages have you made most prominent8 ,to what feelings have you appealed87 ,theme ,,cxiv4--,write a narration in which the hero is called upon to decide whether some course of action is right or wrong4 7,consider the theme as a narration4 ,does it fulfill the requirements of ,chapter ,,ix8 7,see ,summary47 ,consider just the arguments used4 ,are the arguments sufficient to bring conviction to the reader that the hero decided rightly87 #bjc4 ,refutation4--,no question is worth argument unless there are two sides to it--unless there is a chance for some doubt in the mind of the hearer as to which side seems most reasonable4 ,many questions are of such a nature that in trying to convince our hearers of some truth1 we often find it necessary to show them1 not only the truth of a proposition or the expediency of a course of action1 but also the falsity of some opposing proposition or the inexpediency of the opposite course of action4 ,this tearing to pieces another's argument1 is called refutation1 or destructive argument4 ,a successful debater shows nearly if not equal skill in tearing down his opponent's arguments as in building up his own4 ,even in arguments in which no one takes the opposite side at the given time1 we must not forget that there are points on the opposite side which are likely to arise in the minds of our hearers4 ,just as the skillful teacher must know the difficulties that will arise in the minds of the pupils even though they are not expressed1 so must the skillful debater consider the objections that his hearer will mentally set up against his argument4 ,it is well1 however1 for the debater to avoid overemphasizing objections4 ,sometimes his discussion gives the objections a weight that they would not otherwise have4 ,it is not wise to set up a man of straw for the purpose of knocking him down4 ,notice the refutation in the following argument3-- ,in no respect is the difference of opinion as to the methods of fishing so pronounced and disturbing among anglers as the diverse ones of fishing up and down stream4 ,fishing up stream has many advocates who assert that as trout always lie with their heads up current1 they are less likely to see the fisherman or the glint of his rod when the casts are made2 that the discomfort and fatigue accompanying wading against strong rapids is amply repaid by the increased scores secured2 that the flies deftly thrown a foot or two above the head of a feeding trout float more life-like down the current than those drawn against it by the line1 when they are apt to exhibit a muscular power which in the live insect would be exaggerated and unnatural4 ,on the other hand1 the down stream fisherman is equally assertive as to the value of his method4 ,he feels the charm of gurgling waters around his limbs1 a down current that aids rather than retards or fatigues him in each successive step of enjoyment in his pastime2 as he casts his fifty or more feet of line adown the stream1 he is assured that he is beyond the ken of the most keen-sighted and wary trout2 that his artificial bugs1 under the tension of the current seaming it from right to left1 reaches every square inch of the swim1 as ,english rodsters term a likely water1 and coming naturally down stream1 just the direction from whence a hungry trout is awaiting it1 are much more likely to be taken1 than those thrown against the current1 with1 doubtless1 a foot or more of the leader drooping and bagging before the nose of a trout1 with a dead bug1 soaked and bedraggled1 following slowly behind4 ,by wading down stream its advocates do not mean splashing and lifting the feet above the surface1 sending the water hither and yon on to the banks1 into the pools1 with the soil of silt or mud or fine gravel from the bottom1 polluting the stream many yards ahead1 and causing every fish to scurry to the shelter of a hole in the bank or under a shelving rock4 ,they intend that the rodster shall enter the water quietly1 and1 after a few preliminary casts to get the water gear in good working order to proceed down stream by sliding rather than lifting his feet from the bottom1 noiselessly and cautiously approaching the most likely pools or eddies behind the roots in mid stream1 or still stretches close to the banks1 where the quiet reaches broaden down stream1 where nine chances in ten1 on a good trout water1 one or more fish will be seen lazily rising and feeding4 ,again1 the down-stream angler contends that when a fish is fastened on a hook1 taking the lure in a current1 that he is more likely to be well hooked1 hence more certain of capture when the line is tense1 than when rising to a floating bug at the end of a looping line and leader4 ,certainly it is very difficult when casting against the current to keep the line sufficiently taut to strike quickly and effectively a rising trout1 which as a rule ejects the artificial lure the instant he feels the gritty impact of the steel4 ,in fishing down stream1 the advocate of the principle that the greater the surface commotion made by the flies used1 the surer the rise and catch1 has an advantage over his brother who always fishes fine and with flies that do not make a ripple4 ,drawing the artificial bugs across and slightly up stream over the mirrored bosom of a pool is apt to leave a wake behind them which may not inaptly be compared with the one created by a small stern-wheel steamer2 an unnatural condition of things1 but of such is a trout's make-up4 --,w4,c4 ,,harris3 ,fishing ,up or ,down ,stream4 ,theme ,,cxv4--,persuade a friend1 to choose some sport from one of the following pairs3-- #a4 ,canoeing or sailing4 #b4 ,bicycling or automobiling4 #c4 ,golf or polo4 #d4 ,basket ball or tennis4 #e4 ,football or baseball4 ,theme ,,cxvi4--,choose one side of a proposition4 ,name the probable points on the other side and write out a refutation of them4 ,theme ,,cxvii4--,state a proposition and write the direct argument4 ,theme ,,cxviii4--,exchange theme ,,cxvii for one written by a classmate and write the refutation of the arguments in the theme you receive4 7,theme ,,cxvii and the corresponding ,theme ,,cxviii should be read before the class47 ,,summary #a4 ,argument is that form of discourse which attempts to prove the truth of a proposition4 #b4 ,inductive reasoning is that process by which from many individual cases we establish the probable truth of a general proposition4 #c4 ,the establishing of a general truth by induction requires-- a4 ,that there be a large number of facts1 circumstances1 or specific instances supporting it4 b4 ,that these facts be true4 c4 ,that they be pertinent4 d4 ,that there be no facts proving the truth of the contrary proposition4 #d4 ,deductive reasoning is that process which attempts to prove the truth of a specific proposition by showing that a general theory applies to it4 #e4 ,the establishing of the truth of a specific proposition by deductive reasoning requires-- a4 ,a major premise that makes an affirmation about all the members of a class4 b4 ,a minor premise that states that the individual under consideration belongs to the class named4 c4 ,a conclusion that states that the affirmation made about the class applies to the individual4 ,these three statements constitute a syllogism4 #f4 ,an enthymeme is a syllogism with but one premise expressed4 #g4 ,errors of deduction arise-- a4 ,if terms are not used throughout with the same meaning4 b4 ,if the major premise does not make a statement about every member of the class denoted by the middle term4 c4 ,if either premise is false4 #h4 ,belief in a specific proposition may arise-- a4 ,because of the presentation of evidence which is true and pertinent4 b4 ,because of a belief in some general principle or theory which applies to it4 ,in arguing therefore we-- a4 ,present true and pertinent facts1 or evidence2 or b4 ,appeal directly to general theories1 or by means of facts1 maxims1 allusions1 inferences1 or the quoting of authorities1 seek to call up such theories4 #i4 ,classes of arguments3-- a4 ,arguments from cause4 b4 ,arguments from sign and attendant circumstances4 c4 ,arguments from example and analogy4 #aj4 ,arrangement4 a4 ,arguments from cause should precede arguments from sign1 and arguments from sign should precede arguments from example4 b4 ,inductive arguments usually precede deductive arguments4 c4 ,arguments should be arranged with reference to climax4 d4 ,arguments should be arranged1 when possible1 in a coherent order4 #aa4 ,in making a brief the above principles of arrangement should be observed4 ,attention should be given to unity so that the trivial and false may be excluded4 #ab4 ,persuasion is argument that aims to establish the wisdom of a course of action4 #ac4 ,persuasion appeals largely to the feelings4 a4 ,those feelings of satisfaction resulting from approval1 commendation1 or praise1 or the desire to avoid blame1 disaster1 or loss of self-esteem4 b4 ,those feelings resulting from the proper and legitimate use of one's powers4 c4 ,those feelings which arise from possession1 either actual or anticipated4 #ad4 ,persuasion is concerned with-- a4 ,questions of right4 b4 ,questions of expediency4 ,,appendix ,i4 ,,elements ,,of ,,form #a4 ,importance of ,form4--,the suggestions which have been made for the correction of the ,themes have laid emphasis upon the thought4 ,though the thought side is the more important1 yet careful attention must also be given to the form in which it is stated4 ,if we wish to express our thoughts so that they will be understood by others1 we shall be surer to succeed if we use the forms to which our hearers are accustomed4 ,the great purpose of composition is the clear expression of thought1 and this is aided by the use of the forms which are conventional and customary4 ,wrong habits of speech indicate looseness and carelessness of thought1 and if not corrected show a lack of training4 ,in speaking1 our language goes directly to the listener without revision4 ,it is1 therefore1 essential that we pay much attention to the form of the expression so that it may be correct when we use it4 ,our aim should be to avoid an error rather than to correct it4 ,similarly in writing1 your effort should be given to avoiding errors rather than to correcting those already made4 ,a misspelled word or an incorrect grammatical form in the letter that you send to a business man may show you to be so careless and inaccurate that he will not wish to have you in his employ4 ,in such a case it is only the avoidance of the error that is of value4 ,you must determine for yourself that the letter is correct before you send it4 ,this same condition should prevail with reference to your school themes4 ,the teacher may return these for correction1 but you must not forget that the purpose of this correction is merely to emphasize the correct form so that you will use it in your next theme4 ,it will be helpful to have some one point out your individual mistakes1 but it is only by attention to them on your own part and by a definite and long-continued effort to avoid them that you will really accomplish much toward the establishing of correct language habits4 ,in this1 as in other things1 the most rapid progress will be made by doing but one thing at a time4 ,many matters of form are already familiar to you4 ,a brief statement of these is made in order to serve as a review and to secure uniformity in class work4 #a4 ,neatness4--,all papers should be free from blots and finger marks4 ,corrections should be neatly done4 ,care in correcting or interlining will often render copying unnecessary4 #b4 ,legibility4--,excellence of thought is not dependent upon penmanship1 and the best composition may be the most difficult to read4 ,a poorly written composition is1 however1 more likely to be considered bad than one that is well written4 ,a plain1 legible1 and rapid handwriting is so valuable an accomplishment that it is well worth acquiring4 #c4 ,paper4--,white1 unruled paper1 about #h-a_/b by #aa inches1 is best for composition purposes4 ,the ability to write straight across the page without the aid of lines can be acquired by practice4 ,it is customary to write on only one side of the paper4 #d4 ,margins4--,leave a margin of about one inch at the left of the sheet4 ,except in formal notes and special forms there will be no margin at the right4 ,care should be taken to begin the lines at the left exactly under each other1 but the varying length of words makes it impossible to end the lines at the right at exactly the same place4 ,a word should not be crowded into a space too small for it1 nor should part of it be put on the next line1 as is customary in printing1 unless it is a compound one1 such as steam-boat4 ,spaces of too great length at the end of a line may be avoided by slightly lengthening the preceding words or the spaces between them4 #e4 ,spacing4--,each theme should have a title4 ,it should be placed in the center of the line above the composition1 and should have all important words capitalized4 ,titles too long for a single line may be written as follows3-- ,,my ,,trip ,,to ,,chicago ,,on ,a ,,bicycle ,with unruled paper some care must be taken to keep the lines the same distance apart4 ,the spaces between sentences should be somewhat greater than those between words4 ,paragraphs are indicated by indentations4 #f4 ,corrections4--,these are best made by using a sharp knife or an ink eraser4 ,sometimes1 if neatly done1 a line may be drawn through an incorrect word and the correct one written above it4 ,omitted words may be written between the lines and the place where they belong indicated by a caret4 ,if a page contains many corrections1 it should be copied4 #g4 ,inscription and ,folding4--,the teacher will give directions as to inscription and folding4 ,he will indicate what information he wishes1 such as name1 class1 date1 etc41 and where it is to be written4 ,each page should be numbered4 ,if the paper is folded1 it should be done with neatness and precision4 #b4 ,capitals4--,the use of capitals will serve to illustrate the value of using conventional forms4 ,we are so accustomed to seeing a proper name1 such as ,mr4 ,brown1 written with capitals that we should be puzzled if we should find it written without capitals4 ,the sentence1 ,ben-,hur was written by ,lew ,wallace1 would look unfamiliar if written without capitals4 ,we are so used to our present forms that beginning sentences with small letters would hinder the ready comprehension of the thought4 ,everybody agrees that capitals should be used to begin sentences1 direct questions1 names of deity1 days of the week1 the months1 each line of poetry1 the pronoun ,i1 the interjection ,o1 etc41 and no good writer will fail to use them4 ,usage varies somewhat in regard to capitals in some other places4 ,such expressions as ,ohio river1 ,lincoln school1 ,jackson county1 state of ,illinois1 once had both names capitalized4 ,the present tendency is to write them as above4 ,even titles of honor are not capitalized unless they are used with a proper name2 for example1 ,he introduced ,general ,grant ,the general then spoke4 #c4 ,rules of ,capitalization4--#a4 ,every sentence and every line of poetry begin with capitals4 #b4 ,every direct quotation1 except brief phrases and subordinate parts of sentences1 begins with a capital4 #c4 ,proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capitals4 ,some adjectives1 though derived from proper nouns1 are no longer capitalized2 e4g4 voltaic4 #d4 ,titles of honor when used with the name of a person begin with capitals4 #e4 ,the first word and every important word in the titles of books1 etc41 begin with capitals4 #f4 ,the pronoun ,i and the interjection ,o are always capitalized4 #g4 ,names applied to the ,deity are capitalized and pronouns referring thereto1 especially if personal1 are usually capitalized4 #h4 ,important words are often capitalized for emphasis1 especially words in text-books indicating topics4 #d4 ,punctuation4--,the meaning of a sentence depends largely on the grouping of words that are related in sense to each other4 ,when we are reading aloud we make the sense clear by bringing out to the hearer this grouping4 ,this is accomplished by the use of pauses and by emphasis and inflection4 ,in writing we must do for the eye what inflection and pauses do for the ear4 ,we therefore use punctuation marks to indicate inflection and emphasis1 and especially to show word grouping4 ,punctuation marks are important because their purpose is to assist in making the sense clear4 ,there are many special rules more or less familiar to you1 but they may all be included under the one general statement3 ,use such marks and only such marks as will assist the reader in getting the sense4 ,what marks we shall use and how we shall use them will be determined by custom4 ,in order to benefit a reader1 marks must be used in ways with which he is familiar4 ,punctuation changes from time to time4 ,the present tendency is to omit all marks not absolutely necessary to the clear understanding of the sentence4 ,there are some very definite rules1 but there are others that cannot be made so definite1 and the application of them requires care and judgment on the part of the writer4 ,improvement will come only by practice4 ,sentences should not be written for the purpose of illustrating punctuation4 ,the meaning of what you are writing ought to be clear to you1 and the punctuation marks should be put in as you write1 not inserted afterward4 #e4 ,rules for the ,use of the ,comma4--#a4 ,the comma is used to separate words or phrases having the same construction1 used in a series4 ,judges1 senators1 and representatives were imprisoned4 ,the country is a good place to be born in1 a good place to die in1 a good place to live in at least part of the year4 ,if any conjunctions are used to connect the last two members1 the comma may or may not be used in connection with the conjunction4 ,the cabbage palmetto affords shade1 kindling1 bed1 and food4 #b4 ,words or expressions in apposition should be separated by a comma4 ,the native ,indian dress is an evolution1 a survival from long years of wild life4 #c4 ,commas are used to separate words in direct address from the rest of the sentence4 ,bow down1 dear ,land1 for thou hast found release4 ,o1 ,sohrab1 an unquiet heart is thine6 #d4 ,introductory and parenthetical words or expressions are set off by commas4 ,however1 the current is narrow and very shallow here4 ,this1 in a general way1 describes the scope of the small parks or playgrounds4 ,if the parenthetical expression is long and not very closely related to the rest of the sentence1 dashes or marks of parenthesis are frequently used4 ,some writers use them even when the connection is somewhat close4 #e4 ,the comma is frequently used to separate the parts of a long compound predicate4 ,pine torches have no glass to break1 and are within the reach of any man who can wield an ax4 #f4 ,a comma is often used to separate a subject with several modifiers1 or with a long modifier1 from the predicate verb4 ,one of the mistakes often made in beginning the study of birds with small children1 is in placing stress upon learning by sight and name as many species of birds as possible4 #g4 ,participial and adjective phrases and adverb phrases out of their natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas4 ,a knight1 clad in armor1 was the most conspicuous figure of all4 ,to the mind of the writer1 this explanation has much to commend it4 #h4 ,when negative expressions are used in order to show a contrast1 they are set off by commas4 ,they believed in men1 not in mere workers in the great human workshop4 #i4 ,commas are used in complex sentences to separate the dependent clause from the rest of the sentence4 ,the great majority of people would be better off1 if they had more money and spent it4 ,while the flour is being made1 samples are sent every hour to the testing department4 ,if the connection is close1 the comma is usually omitted1 especially when the dependent clause comes last4 ,i will be there when the train arrives4 #aj4 ,when a relative clause furnishes an additional thought1 it should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma4 ,hiram ,watts1 who has been living in ,new ,york for six years1 has just returned to ,england4 ,if the relative clause is restrictive1 that is1 if it restricts or limits the meaning of the antecedent1 the comma is unnecessary4 ,this is the best article that he ever wrote4 #aa4 ,commas are used to separate the members of a compound sentence when they are short or closely connected4 ,ireland is rich in minerals1 yet there is but little mining done there4 ,breathe it1 exult in it1 ,all the day long1 ,glide in it1 leap in it1 ,thrill it with song4 #ab4 ,short quotations should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma4 ,there must be a beaver dam here1 he called4 #ac4 ,the omissions of important words in a sentence should be indicated by commas4 ,if you can1 come to-morrow2 if not1 come next week4 #f4 ,rules for the ,use of the ,semicolon4--#a4 ,when the members of a compound sentence are long or are not closely connected1 semicolons should be used to separate them4 ,webster could address a bench of judges2 ,everett could charm a college2 ,choate could delude a jury2 ,clay could magnetize a senate1 and ,tom ,corwin could hold the mob in his right hand2 but no one of these men could do more than this one thing4 --,wendell ,phillips4 ,we might as well decide the question now2 for we shall surely be obliged to soon4 #b4 ,when the members of a compound sentence themselves contain commas1 they should be separated from one another by semicolons4 ,as ,caesar loved me1 ,i weep for him2 as he was fortunate1 ,i rejoice at it2 as he was valiant1 ,i honor him2 but1 as he was ambitious1 ,i slew him4 --,shakespeare4 #c4 ,the semicolon should be used to precede as1 namely1 i4e41 e4g41 viz4 ,some adjectives are compared irregularly2 as1 good1 bad1 and little4 #d4 ,when a series of distinct statements all have a common dependence on what precedes or follows them1 they may be separated from each other by semicolons4 ,when subject to the influence of cold we eat more2 we choose more heat-producing foods1 as fatty foodstuffs2 we take more vigorous exercise2 we put on more clothing1 especially of the non-conducting kinds--woolens4 #g4 ,rules for the ,use of the ,colon4--#a4 ,the colon is used before long or formal quotations1 before enumerations1 and before the conclusion of a previous statement4 ,old ,sir ,thomas ,browne shrewdly observes3 ,every man is not only himself4 ,there have been many ,diogeneses and many ,timons though but few of the name4 ,men are lived over again4 ,the world is now as it was in ages past4 ,there were none then1 but there has been one since1 that parallels him1 and is1 as it were1 revived self4 --,george ,dana ,boardman4 ,adjectives are divided into two general classes3 descriptive and definitive adjectives4 ,the following members sent in their resignations3 ,mrs4 ,william ,m4 ,murphy1 ,mrs4 ,ralph ,b4 ,wiltsie1 and ,mrs4 ,john ,c4 ,clark4 #b4 ,the colon is used to separate the different members of a compound sentence1 when they themselves are divided by semicolons4 ,it is too warm to-day2 the sunshine is too bright2 the shade1 too pleasant3 we will wait until to-morrow or we will have some one else do it when the busy time is over4 #h4 ,rules for the ,use of the ,period4--#a4 ,the period is used at the close of imperative and declarative sentences4 #b4 ,all abbreviations should be followed by a period4 #i4 ,rule for the ,use of the ,interrogation ,mark4--,the interrogation mark should be used after all direct questions4 #aj4 ,rule for the ,use of the ,exclamation ,mark4--,interjections and exclamatory words and expressions should be followed by the exclamation mark4 ,sometimes the exclamatory word is only a part of the whole exclamation4 ,in this case1 the exclamatory word should be followed by a comma1 and the entire exclamation by an exclamation mark4 ,see1 how the lightning flashes6 #aa4 ,rules for the ,use of the ,dash4--#a4 ,the dash is used to show sudden changes in thought or breaks in speech4 ,i can speak of this better when temptation comes my way--if it ever does4 #b4 ,the dash is often used in the place of commas or marks of parenthesis to set off parenthetical expressions4 ,in the mountains of ,new ,york ,state this most valuable tree--the spruce-- abounds4 #c4 ,the dash1 either alone or in connection with the comma1 is used to point out that part of a sentence on which special stress is to be placed4 ,i saw unpruned fruit trees1 broken fences1 and farm implements1 rusting in the rain--all evidences of wasted time4 #d4 ,the dash is sometimes used with the colon before long quotations1 before an enumeration of things1 or before a formally introduced statement4 #ab4 ,rules for the ,use of ,quotation ,marks4--#a4 ,quotation marks are used to inclose direct quotations4 ,in all the great affairs of life one must run some risk1 she remarked4 #b4 ,a quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single quotation marks4 ,can you tell me where ,i can find ',rienzi's ,address'8 asked a young lady of a clerk in ,brooklyn4 #c4 ,when a quotation is interrupted by parenthetical expressions1 the different parts of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks4 ,bring forth1 cried the monarch1 the vessels of gold4 #d4 ,when the quotation consists of several paragraphs1 the quotation marks are placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the close of the last one4 #ac4 ,rule for the ,use of the ,apostrophe4--,the apostrophe is used to denote the possessive case1 to indicate the omission of letters1 and to form the plural of signs1 figures1 and letters4 ,in the teacher's copy book you will find several fancy ,a's and #c's which can't be distinguished from engravings4 ,,ii4 ,,review ,,of ,,grammar ,,the ,,sentence #ad4 ,english grammar is the study of the forms of ,english words and their relationship to one another as they appear in sentences4 ,a sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought4 #ae4 ,elements of a ,sentence4--,the elements of a sentence1 as regards the office that they perform1 are the subject and the predicate4 ,the subject is that about which something is asserted1 and the predicate is that which asserts something about the subject4 ,some predicates may consist of a single word or word-group1 able in itself to complete a sentence3 ,the thrush sings4 ,the thrush has been singing4 ,some require a following word or words3 ,william struck ,john 7object complement1 or object74 ,edward became king 7attribute complement74 ,the people made ,edward king 7objective complement74 ,the necessary parts of a sentence are3 some name for the object of thought 7to which the general term substantive may be given72 some word or group of words to make assertion concerning the substantive 7general term1 assertive72 and1 in case of an incomplete assertive1 one of the above given completions of its meaning 7object complement1 attribute complement1 objective complement74 ,in addition to these necessary elements of the sentence1 words or groups of words may be added to make the meaning of any one of the elements more exact4 ,such additions are known as modifiers4 ,the word-groups which are used as modifiers are the phrase and the clause4 ,the thrush1 sings in the pine woods 7phrase74 ,the wayfarer who hears the thrush is indeed fortunate 7clause74 ,both the subject and the predicate may be unmodified3 ,bees buzz2 both may be modified3 ,the honey bees buzz in the clover2 one may be modified and the other unmodified3 ,bees buzz in the clover4 ,the unmodified subject may be called the simple subject1 or1 merely1 the subject4 ,if modified1 it becomes the complete subject4 ,the assertive element1 together with the attribute complement1 if one is present1 may be called the simple predicate4 ,if modified1 it becomes the complete predicate4 ,some grammarians call the assertive element1 alone1 the simple predicate2 modified or completed1 the complete predicate4 #af4 ,classification of ,sentences as to ,purpose4--,sentences are classified according to purpose into three classes3 declarative1 interrogative1 and imperative sentences4 ,a declarative sentence is one that makes a statement or declares something3 ,columbus crossed the ,atlantic4 ,an interrogative sentence is one that asks a question3 ,who wrote ,mother ,goose84 ,an imperative sentence is one that expresses a command or entreaty3 ,fling away ambition4 ,each kind of sentence may be of an exclamatory nature1 and then the sentence is said to be an exclamatory sentence3 ,how happy all the children are6 7exclamatory declarative74 ,who so base as be a slave8 7exclamatory interrogative74 ,heap high the farmer's wintry hoard6 7exclamatory imperative74 ,notice that the exclamation point follows the declarative and imperative forms1 but the interrogative form is followed by the question mark4 ,,words ,,and ,,their ,,offices #ag4 ,the ,individual ,elements of which every sentence is composed are words4 ,every word is the sign of some idea4 ,each of the words horse1 he1 blue1 speaks1 merrily1 at1 and because1 has a certain naming value1 more or less definite1 for the mind of the reader4 ,of these1 horse1 blue1 he1 merrily1 have a fairly vivid descriptive power4 ,in the case of at and because1 the main office is1 evidently1 to express a relation between other ideas3 ,i am at my post1 ,i go because ,i must4 ,the word speaks is less clearly a relational word2 at first thought it would seem to have only the office of picturing an activity4 ,that it also fills the office of a connective will be evident if we compare the following sentences3 ,he speaks in public4 ,he is a public speaker4 ,it is evident that speaks contains in itself the naming value represented in the word speaker1 but also has the connecting office fulfilled in the second sentence by is4 ,all words have1 therefore1 a naming office1 and some have in addition a connecting or relational office4 ,,parts ,,of ,,speech #ah4 ,parts of ,speech4--,when we examine the different words in sentences we find that1 in spite of these fundamentally similar qualities1 the words are serving different purposes4 ,this difference in purpose or use serves as the basis for dividing words into eight classes1 called ,parts of ,speech4 ,use alone determines to which class a word in any given sentence shall belong4 ,not only are single words so classified1 but any part of speech may be represented by a group of words4 ,such a group is either a phrase or a clause4 ,a phrase is a group of words1 containing neither subject nor predicate1 that is used as a single part of speech4 ,a clause is a group of words1 containing both subject and predicate1 that is used as part of a sentence4 ,if used as a single part of speech1 it is called a subordinate1 or dependent1 clause4 ,some grammarians use the word clause for a subordinate statement only4 #ai4 ,classification4--,the eight parts of speech may be classified as follows3-- ,i4 ,substantives3 nouns1 pronouns4 ,,ii4 ,assertives3 verbs4 ,,iii4 ,modifiers3 adjectives1 adverbs4 ,,iv4 ,connectives3 prepositions1 conjunctions4 ,v4 ,interjections4 #bj4 ,definitions4--,the parts of speech may be defined as follows3-- 7#a7 ,a noun is a word used as a name4 7#b7 ,a pronoun is a word used in place of a noun1 designating a person1 place1 or thing without naming it4 7#c7 ,an adjective is a word that modifies a substantive4 7#d7 ,a verb is a word that asserts something--action1 state1 or being--- concerning a substantive4 7#e7 ,an adverb is a word that modifies a verb1 adjective1 or another adverb4 7#f7 ,a preposition is a word that shows the relation of the substantive that follows it to some other word or words in the sentence4 7#g7 ,a conjunction is a word that connects words or groups of words used in the same way4 7#h7 ,an interjection is a cry expressing emotion1 but not forming part of the sentence4 ,,nouns #ba4 ,classes of ,nouns4--,nouns are divided into two general classes3 proper nouns ,esther and common nouns girl4 ,common nouns include abstract nouns happiness and collective nouns army4 ,any word mentioned merely as a word is a noun3 ,and is a conjunction4 #bb4 ,inflection4--,a change in the form of a word to denote a change in its meaning is termed inflection4 #bc4 ,number4--,the most common inflection of the noun is that which shows us whether the name denotes one or more than one4 ,the power of the noun to denote one or more than one is termed number4 ,a noun that denotes but one object is singular in number4 ,a noun that denotes more than one object is plural in number4 ,the plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s and es to the singular bank1 banks2 box1 boxes4 ,other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows3-- #a4 ,the irregular plural in en child1 children4 #b4 ,formation of the plural by internal change goose1 geese4 #c4 ,fourteen nouns ending in f or fe change the f or fe into yes leaf1 leaves4 #d4 ,nouns ending in y1 preceded by a consonant1 change the y to i and add es enemy1 enemies4 #e4 ,letters1 figures1 signs1 etc41 form their plural by adding 's3,you have used too many i's4 #f4 ,nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according to the laws of those languages phenomenon1 phenomena4 #g4 ,a few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number4 7a7 ,some nouns have the same form1 for both the singular and the plural sheep1 deer4 7b7 ,some nouns are used only in the plural scissors1 thanks4 7c7 ,some nouns have no plurals pride1 flesh4 7d7 ,some nouns1 plural in form1 have a singular meaning measles1 news1 politics4 #h4 ,compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part of the compound sister-in-law1 sisters-in-law4 ,if the words of the compound are both nouns1 and are of equal importance1 both are given a plural ending manservant1 menservants4 ,when the compound is thought of as a whole1 the last part only is made plural spoonful1 spoonfuls4 #i4 ,proper names usually form their plurals regularly4 ,if they are preceded by titles1 they form their plurals either by pluralizing the title or by pluralizing the name ,the ,misses ,hunter or the ,miss ,hunters4 ,the ,messrs4 ,keene or the two ,mr4 ,keenes4 ,the ,masters ,burke4 ,the ,mrs4 ,harrisons4 #aj4 ,a few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use cloth1 cloths1 clothes2 penny1 pennies1 pence4 #bd4 ,case4--,case is the relation that a noun or pronoun bears to some other word in the sentence4 ,inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting case is termed declension4 ,there are three cases in the ,english language3 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective2 but nouns show only two forms for each number1 as the nominative and objective cases have the same form4 #be4 ,formation of the ,possessive4--,nouns in the singular1 and those in the plural not already ending in s1 form the possessive regularly by adding 's to the nominative finger1 finger's2 geese1 geese's4 ,in case the plural already ends in s1 the possessive case adds only the apostrophe girls'4 ,a few singular nouns add only the apostrophe1 when the addition of the 's would make an unpleasant sound ,moses'4 ,compound nouns form the possessive case by adding 's to the last word4 ,this is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used3 ,bradbury and ,emery's ,algebra4 ,notice that in the following expression the 's is affixed to the second noun only3 ,my sister ,martha's book4 ,names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to denote possession3 ,the hardness of the rock1 not ,the rock's hardness4 #bf4 ,gender4--,gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex4 ,nouns or pronouns denoting males are of the masculine gender2 those denoting females are of the feminine gender2 and those denoting things without animal life are of the neuter gender4 #bg4 ,person4--,person is the power of one class of pronouns to show whether the speaker1 the person spoken to1 or the person or thing spoken of is designated4 ,according to the person denoted1 the pronoun is said to be in the first1 second1 or third person4 ,nouns and many pronouns are not inflected for person1 but most grammarians attribute person to them because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what persons they represent4 #bh4 ,constructions of ,nouns4--,the following are the usual constructions of nouns3-- 7a7 ,the possessive case of the noun denotes possession4 7b7 ,nouns in the nominative case are used as follows3-- #a4 ,as the subject of a verb3 ,the western sky is all aflame #b4 ,as an attribute complement3 ,autumn is the most gorgeous season of the year4 #c4 ,in an exclamation3 ,alas1 poor soul1 it could not be64 #d4 ,in direct address3 ,o hush thee1 my baby64 #e4 ,absolutely3 ,the rain being over1 the grass twinkled in the sunshine4 #f4 ,as a noun in apposition with a nominative3 ,columbus2 a native of ,genoa1 discovered ,america4 7c7 ,nouns in the objective case are used as follows3-- #a4 ,as the direct object of a verb1 termed either the direct object or the object complement3 ,i saw a host of golden daffodils4 #b4 ,as the objective complement3 ,they crowned him king4 #c4 ,as the indirect object of a verb3 ,we gave ,ethel a ring4 #d4 ,as the object of a preposition3 ,john ,smith explored the coast of ,new ,england4 #e4 ,as the subject of an infinitive3 ,he commanded the man 7him7to go without delay4 #f4 ,as the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive to be3 ,i thought it to be ,john 7him74 #g4 ,as an adverbial noun3 ,he came last week4 #h4 ,as a noun in apposition with an object3 ,stanley found ,livingstone1 the great explorer4 #bi4 ,equivalents for ,nouns4 #a4 ,pronoun3 ,john gave his father a book for ,christmas4 #b4 ,adjective3 ,the good alone are truly great4 #c4 ,adverb3 ,i do not understand the whys and wherefores of the process4 #d4 ,a gerund1 or infinitive in ing3 ,seeing is believing4 #e4 ,an infinitive or infinitive phrase3 ,with him1 to think is to act4 #f4 ,clause3 ,it is hard for me to believe that she took the money4 ,noun clauses may be used as subject1 object1 attribute complement1 and appositive4 #g4 ,a prepositional phrase3 ,over the fence is out4 ,,pronouns #cj4 ,antecedent4--,the most common equivalent for a noun is the pronoun4 ,the substantive for which the pronoun is an equivalent is called the antecedent1 and with this antecedent the pronoun must agree in person1 number1 and gender1 but not necessarily in case4 #ca4 ,classes of ,pronouns4--,pronouns are commonly divided into five classes1 and sometimes a sixth class is added3 7#a7 personal pronouns1 7#b7 relative pronouns1 7#c7 interrogative pronouns1 7#d7 demonstrative pronouns1 7#e7 adjective pronouns17#f7 indefinite pronouns 7not always added74 #cb4 ,personal ,pronouns4--,personal pronouns are so called because they show by their form whether they refer to the first1 the second1 or the third person4 ,there are five personal pronouns in common use3 ,i1 you1 he1 she1 and it4 #cc4 ,constructions of ,personal ,pronouns4--,the personal pronouns are used in the same ways in which nouns are used4 ,besides the regular uses that the personal pronoun has1 there are some special uses that should be understood4 #a4 ,the word it is often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a sentence3 ,it snows4 ,when so used1 it has no antecedent1 and we say it is used impersonally4 #b4 ,the pronoun it is often used as the grammatical subject of a sentence in which the logical subject is found after the predicate verb3 ,it is impossible for us to go4 ,when so used the pronoun it is called an expletive4 ,there is used in the same way4 #cd4 ,cautions and ,suggestions4 #a4 ,be careful not to use the apostrophe in the possessive forms its1 yours1 ours1 and theirs4 #b4 ,be careful to use the nominative form of a pronoun used as an attribute complement3 ,it is ,i2 it is they4 #c4 ,be sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent4 ,one of the most common violations of this rule is in using their in such sentences as the following3--,every boy and girl must arrange his desk4 ,who has lost his book8 ,the use of every and the form has obliges us to make the possessive pronouns singular4 ,his may be regarded as applying to females as well as males1 where it is convenient not to use the expression his or her4 #d4 ,the so-called subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case3 ,i asked him to go4 #e4 ,the attribute complement will agree in case with the subject of the verb4 ,hence the attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective case3 ,i knew it 7obj47 to be him2 but the attribute complement of the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case3 ,i knew it 7nom47 was he4 #f4 ,words should be so arranged in a sentence that there will be no doubt in the mind concerning the antecedent of the pronoun4 #g4 ,do not use the personal pronoun form them for the adjective those3 ,those books are mine4 #ce4 ,compound ,personal ,pronouns4--,to the personal pronouns my1 our1 your1 him1 her1 it1 and them1 the syllables self 7singular7 and selves 7plural7 may be added1 thus forming what are termed compound personal pronouns4 ,these pronouns have only two uses3-- #a4 ,they are used for emphasis3 ,he himself is an authority on the subject4 #b4 ,they are also used reflexively3 ,the boy injured himself4 #cf4 ,the ,relative or ,conjunctive ,pronouns4--,the pronouns who1 which1 what 7 that which71 that1 and as 7after such7 are more than equivalents for nouns1 inasmuch as they serve as connectives4 ,they are often named relative pronouns because they relate to some antecedent either expressed or implied2 they are equally well named conjunctive pronouns because they are used as connectives4 ,they introduce subordinate clauses only2 these clauses are called relative clauses1 and since they modify substantives1 are also called adjective clauses4 #cg4 ,uses of ,relative ,pronouns4--,who is used to represent persons1 and objects or ideas personified2 which is used to represent things2 that and as are used to represent both persons and things4 ,when a clause is used for the purpose of pointing out some particular person1 object1 or idea1 it is usually introduced by that2 but when the clause supplies an additional thought1 who or which is more frequently used4 ,the former is called a restrictive clause1 and the latter1 a non-restrictive clause4 ,the boy that broke his leg has fully recovered 7restrictive74 ,note the omission of the comma before that4 ,my eldest brother1 who is now in ,england1 will return by ,june 7non-restrictive74 ,note the inclosure of the clause in commas4 ,see ,appendix #e1 rule #aj4 ,in the first sentence it is evident that the intent of the writer is to separate1 in thought1 the boy that broke his leg from all other boys4 ,although the clause does indeed describe the boy's condition1 it does so for the purpose of limiting or restricting thought to one especial boy among many4 ,in the second sentence the especial person meant is indicated by the word eldest4 ,the clause1 who is now in ,england1 is put in for the sake of giving an additional bit of information4 #ch4 ,constructions of ,relative ,pronouns4--,relative pronouns may be used as subject1 object1 object of a preposition1 subject of an infinitive1 and possessive modifier4 ,the relative pronoun is regarded as agreeing in person with its antecedent4 ,its verb1 therefore1 takes the person of the antecedent3 ,i1 who am your friend1 will assist you4 ,the case of the relative is determined by its construction in the clause in which it is found3 ,he whom the president appointed was fitted for the position4 #ci4 ,compound ,relative ,pronouns4--,the compound relative pronouns are formed by adding ever and soever to the relative pronouns who1 which1 and what4 ,these have the constructions of the simple relatives1 and the same rules hold about person and case3 ,give it to whoever wishes it4 ,give it to whomever you see4 #dj4 ,interrogative ,pronouns4--,the pronouns who1 which1 and what are used to ask questions1 and when so used1 are called interrogative pronouns4 ,who refers to persons2 what1 to things2 and which1 to persons or things4 ,like the relatives who has three case forms2 which and what are uninflected4 ,the implied question in the sentence1 ,i know whom you saw1 is1 ,whom did you see8 ,the introductory whom is an interrogative pronoun1 and the clause itself is called an indirect question4 ,the words which1 what1 and whose may also be used as modifiers of substantives1 and when so used they are called interrogative adjectives3 ,what manner of man is this8 ,whose child is this8 ,which book did you choose84 #da4 ,demonstrative ,pronouns4--,this and that1 with their plurals these and those1 are called demonstrative pronouns1 because they point out individual persons or things4 #db4 ,indefinite ,pronouns4--,some pronouns1 as each1 either1 some1 any1 many1 such1 etc41 are indefinite in character4 ,many indefinites may be used either as pronouns or adjectives4 ,of the indefinites only two1 one and other1 are inflected4 ,,singular ,,plural ,,singular ,,plural ,,nom4 ,,and ,,obj4 one ones other others ,,poss4 one's ones' other's others' #dc4 ,adjective ,pronouns or ,pronominal ,adjectives4--,many words1 as has been noted already1 are either pronouns or adjectives according to the office that they perform4 ,if the noun is expressed1 the word in question is called a pronominal adjective2 but if the noun is omitted so that the word in question takes its place1 it is called an adjective pronoun4 ,that house is white 7adjective74 ,that is the same house 7pronoun74 ,,adjectives #dd4 ,classes of ,adjectives4--,there are two general classes of adjectives3 the descriptive blue1 high1 etc41 so called because they describe1 and the limiting or definitive adjectives yonder1 three1 that1 etc41 so called because they limit or define4 ,it is1 of course1 true that any adjective which describes a noun limits its meaning2 but the adjective is named from its descriptive power1 not from its limiting power4 ,a very large per cent of all adjectives belong to the first class1--descriptive adjectives4 ,proper adjectives and participial adjectives form a small part of this large class3 ,european countries4 ,a running brook4 #de4 ,limiting or ,definitive ,adjectives4--,the limiting adjectives include the various classes of pronominal adjectives 7all of which have been mentioned under pronouns71 the articles 7a1 an1 and the71 and adjectives denoting place and number4 #df4 ,comparison of ,adjectives4--,with the exception of the words this and that1 adjectives are not inflected for number1 and none are inflected for case4 ,many of them1 however1 change their form to express a difference in degree4 ,this change of form is called comparison4 ,there are three degrees of comparison3 the positive1 the comparative1 and the superlative4 ,adjectives are regularly compared by adding the syllables er and est to the positive to form the comparative and superlative degrees4 ,in some cases1 especially in the case of adjectives of more than one syllable1 the adverbs more and most are placed before the positive degree in order to form the other two degrees long1 longer1 longest2 beautiful1 more beautiful1 most beautiful4 #dg4 ,irregular ,comparison of ,adjectives4--,a few adjectives are compared irregularly4 ,these adjectives are in common use and we should be familiar with the correct forms4 ,,positive ,,comparative ,,superlative bad evil worse worst ill far farther farthest good better best well fore former foremost first late later latest latter last little less least many more most much near nearer nearest next old older oldest elder eldest ,the following words are used as adverbs or prepositions in the positive degree1 and as adjectives in the other two degrees3-- 7forth7 further furthest 7in7 inner innermost inmost 7out7 outer outermost utter utmost uttermost 7up7 upper upmost uppermost #dh4 ,cautions concerning the ,use of ,adjectives4 #a4 ,when two or more adjectives modify the same noun1 the article is placed only before the first1 unless emphasis is desired3 ,he is an industrious1 faithful pupil4 #b4 ,if the adjectives refer to different things1 the article should be repeated before each adjective3 ,she has a white and a blue dress4 #c4 ,when two or more nouns are in apposition1 the article is placed only before the first3 ,i received a telegram from ,mr4 ,richards1 the broker and real estate agent4 #d4 ,this1 these1 that1 and those must agree in number with the noun they modify3 ,this kind of flowers2 those sorts of seeds4 #e4 ,when but two things are compared1 the comparative degree is used3 ,this is the more complete of the two4 #f4 ,when than is used after a comparative1 whatever is compared should be excluded from the class with which it is compared3 ,i like this house better than any other house2 not1 ,i like this house better than any house4 #g4 ,do not use a after kind of1 sort of1 etc43 ,what kind of man is he8 7not1 ,what kind of a man74 ,one man does not constitute a class consisting of many kinds4 #di4 ,constructions of ,adjectives4--,adjectives that merely describe or limit are said to be attributive in construction4 ,when the adjective limits or describes1 and1 at the same time1 adds to the predicate1 it is called a predicate adjective4,predicate adjectives may be used either as attribute or objective complements3 ,the sea is rough to-day 7attribute complement71 ,he painted the boat green 7objective complement74 #ej4 ,equivalents for ,adjectives4--,the following are used as equivalents for the typical adjective3-- #a4 ,a noun used in apposition3 ,barrie's story of his mother1 ,margaret ,ogilvy1 is very beautiful4 #b4 ,a noun used as an adjective3 ,a campaign song4 #c4 ,a prepositional phrase3 ,his little1 nameless1 unremember'd acts of kindness and of love4 #d4 ,participles or participial phrases3 ,we saw a brook running between the alders4 ,soldiers hired to serve a foreign country are called mercenaries4 #e4 ,relative clauses3 ,this is the house that ,jack built4 #f4 ,an adverb 7sometimes called the locative adjective73 ,the book here is the one ,i want4 ,,verbs #ea4 ,uses of ,verbs4--,a verb is the word or word-group that makes an assertion or statement1 and it is therefore the most important part of the whole sentence4 ,it has been already shown that such a verb as speaks serves the double purpose of suggesting an activity and showing relation4 ,the most purely relational verb is the verb to be1 which is called the copula or linking verb1 for the very reason that it joins predicate words to the subject3 ,the lake is beautiful4 ,to be1 however1 is not always a pure copula4 ,in such a sentence as1 ,he that cometh to ,god must believe that ,he is1 the word is means exists4,verbs that are like the copula1 such as1 appear1 become1 seem1 etc41 are called copulative verbs4 ,verbs that not only are relational but have descriptive power1 such as sings1 plays1 runs1 etc41 are called attributive verbs4 ,they attribute some quality or characteristic to the subject4 #eb4 ,classes of ,verbs4--,according to their uses in a sentence verbs are divided into two classes3 transitive and intransitive4 ,a transitive verb is one that takes a following substantive1 expressed or implied1 called the object1 to designate the receiver or the product of the action3 ,they seized the city4 ,they built a city4 ,the transitive verb may sometimes be used absolutely3,the horse eats4 ,here the object is implied4 ,an intransitive verb is one that does not take an object to complete its meaning2 or1 in other words1 an intransitive verb is one that denotes an action1 state1 or feeling that involves the subject only3 ,he ran away4 ,they were standing at the water's edge4 ,a few verbs in our language are always transitive1 and a few others are always intransitive4 ,the verbs lie and lay1 rise and raise1 sit and set1 are so frequently misused that attention is here called to them4 ,the verbs lie1 rise1 and sit 7usually7 are intransitive in meaning1 while the verbs lay1 raise1 and set are transitive4 ,the word sit may sometimes take a reflexive object3 ,they sat themselves down to rest4 ,the majority of verbs in our language are either transitive or intransitive1 according to the sense in which they are used4 ,the fire burns merrily 7intransitive74 ,the fire burned the building 7transitive74 ,the bird flew swiftly 7intransitive74 ,the boy flew his kite 7transitive74 ,some intransitive verbs take what is known as a cognate object3 ,he died a noble death4 ,here the object repeats the meaning of the verb4 #ec4 ,complete and ,incomplete ,verbs4--,some intransitive verbs make a complete assertion or statement without the aid of any other words4 ,such verbs are said to be of complete predication3 ,the snow melts4 ,all transitive verbs and some intransitive verbs require one or more words to complete the meaning of the predicate4 ,such verbs are said to be incomplete4 ,whatever is added to complete the meaning of the predicate is termed a complement4 ,the complement of a transitive verb is called the object complement1 or simply the object3 ,she found the book4 ,some transitive verbs1 from the nature of their meaning1 take also an indirect object3 ,i gave her the book4 ,when a word belonging to the subject is added to an intransitive verb in order to complete the predicate1 it is termed an attribute complement4 ,this complement may be either a noun or an adjective3 ,he is our treasurer 7noun74 ,this rose is fragrant 7adjective74 ,among the incomplete intransitive verbs the most conspicuous are the copula and the copulative verbs4 #ed4 ,auxiliary ,verbs4--,english verbs have so few changes of form to express differences in meaning that it is often necessary to use the so-called auxiliary verbs4 ,the most common are3 do1 be1 have1 may1 must1 might1 can1 shall1 will1 should1 would1 could1 and ought4 ,some of these may be used as principal verbs4 ,a few notes and cautions are added4 ,can is used to denote the ability of the subject4 ,may is used to denote permission1 possibility1 purpose1 or desire4 ,thus the request for permission should be1 ,may ,i8 not ,can ,i8 ,must indicates necessity4 ,ought expresses obligation4 ,had should never be used with ought4 ,to express a moral obligation in past time1 combine ought with the perfect infinitive3 ,i ought to have done it4 ,should sometimes expresses duty3 ,you should not go4 ,would sometimes denotes a custom3 ,he would sit there for hours4 ,sometimes it expresses a wish3 ,would he were here64 ,for other uses of should and would1 see ,appendix #fj4 #ee4 ,principal ,parts4--,the main forms of the verb--so important as to be called the principal parts because the other parts are formed from them-- are the root infinitive1 the preterite 7past7 indicative1 and the past participle move1 moved1 moved2 sing1 sang1 sung2 be1 was1 been4 ,the present participle is sometimes given with the principal parts4 #ef4 ,inflection4--,as is evident from the preceding paragraph1 verbs have certain changes of form to indicate change of meaning4 ,such a change or inflection1 in the case of the noun1 is called declension2 in the case of the verb it is called conjugation4 ,nouns are declined2 verbs are conjugated4 #eg4 ,person and ,number4--,in ,latin1 or any other highly inflected language1 there are many terminations to indicate differences in person and number1 but in ,english there is but one in common use1 s in the third person singular3 ,he runs1 ,st or est is used after thou in the second person singular3 ,thou lovest4 #eh4 ,agreement4--,verbs must agree with their subjects in person and number4 ,the following suggestions concerning agreement may be helpful3-- #a4 ,a compound subject that expresses a single idea takes a singular verb3 ,bread and milk is wholesome food4 #b4 ,when the members of a compound subject1 connected by neither 444 nor1 differ as regards person and number1 the verb should agree with the nearer of the two3 ,neither they nor ,i am to blame4 #c4 ,when the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by or1 either 444 or1 neither 444 nor1 the verb is singular3 ,either this book or that is mine4 #d4 ,words joined to the subject by with1 together with1 as well as1 etc41 do not affect the number of the verb4 ,the same is true of any modifier of the subject3 ,john1 as well as the girls1 is playing house4 ,one of my books is lying on the table4 ,neither of us is to blame4 #e4 ,when the article the precedes the word number1 used as a subject1 the verb should be in the singular2 otherwise the verb is plural3 ,the number of pupils in our schools is on the increase4 ,a number of children have been playing in the sand pile4 #f4 ,the pronoun you always takes a plural verb1 even if its meaning is singular3 ,you were here yesterday4 #g4 ,a collective noun takes a singular or plural verb1 according as the collection is thought of as a whole or as composed of individuals4 #ei4 ,tense4--,the power of the verb to show differences of time is called tense4 ,tense shows also the completeness or incompleteness of an act or condition at the time of speaking4 ,there are three primary tenses3 present1 preterite 7past71 and future2 and three secondary tenses for completed action3present perfect1 past perfect 7pluperfect71 and future perfect4 ,english has only two simple tenses1 the present and the preterite3 ,i love1 ,i loved4 ,all other tenses are formed by the use of the auxiliary verbs4 ,by combining the present and past tenses of will1 shall1 have1 be1 or do with those parts of the verb known as infinitives and participles1 the various tenses of the complete conjugation of the verb are built up4 ,the formation of the preterite tense1 and the consequent division of verbs into strong and weak1 will be discussed later4 #fj4 ,the ,future ,tense4--,the future tense is formed by combining shall or will with the root infinitive1 without to4 ,the correct form of the future tense in assertions is here given3-- ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i shall fall #a4 ,we shall fall #b4 ,thou wilt fall #b4 ,you will fall #c4 ,he will fall #c4 ,they will fall ,will1 in the first person1 denotes not simple futurity1 but determination3 ,i will 7 am determined to7 go4 ,shall1 in the second and third persons1 is not simply the sign of the future tense in declarative sentences4 ,it is used to denote the determination of the speaker with reference to others4 ,notice3-- #a4 ,in clauses introduced by that1 expressed or understood1 if the noun clause and the principal clause have different subjects1 the same auxiliary is used that would be used were the subordinate clause used independently3 ,i fear we shall be late4 ,my friend is determined that her son shall not be left alone4 #b4 ,in all other subordinate clauses1 shall1 for all persons1 denotes simple futurity2 will1 an expression of willingness or determination3 ,he thinks that he shall be there4 ,he promises that he will be there4 #c4 ,in questions1 shall is always used in the first person2 in the second and third persons the same auxiliary is used which is expected in the answer4 7,,note4--,should and would follow the rules for shall and will47 #fa4 ,tenses for the ,completed ,action4 #a4 ,to represent an action as completed at the present time1 the past participle is used with have 7hast1 has74 ,this forms the present perfect tense3 ,i have finished4 #b4 ,to represent an action as completed in past time1 the past participle is combined with had 7hadst74 ,this forms the past perfect1 or pluperfect1 tense3 ,i had finished4 #c4 ,to represent action that will be completed in future time1 shall have or will have is combined with the past participle4 ,this forms the future perfect tense3 ,i shall have finished4 #fb4 ,sequence of ,tenses4--,it is1 in general1 true that the tense of a subordinate clause changes when the tense of the main verb changes4 ,this is known as the ,law of the ,sequence 7or following7 of ,tenses3 ,i know he means well4 ,i knew he meant well4 ,the verb in the main clause and the verb in the subordinate clause are not necessarily in the same tense4 ,i think he is there4 ,i thought he was there4 ,i think he was there4 ,i thought he had been there4 ,i think he will be there4 ,i thought he would be there4 ,in general1 the principle may be laid down that in a complex sentence the tense for both principal and subordinate clauses is that which the sense requires4 ,general truths and present facts should be expressed in the present tense1 whatever the tense of the principal verb3 ,he believed that truth is unchangeable4 ,who did you say is president of your society84 ,the perfect infinitive is used to denote action completed at the time of the main verb3 ,i am sorry to have wounded you4 #fc4 ,mode4--,a statement may be regarded as the expression of a fact1 of a doubt or supposition1 or of a command4 ,the power of the verb to show how an action should be regarded is called mode 7mood74 ,in our language there is but a slight change of form for this purpose4 ,the distinction of mode which we must make is a distinction that has regard to the thought or attitude of mind of the speaker rather than to the form of the verb4 ,the indicative mode is used to state a fact or to ask questions of fact3 ,i shall write a letter4 ,shall ,i write a letter84 ,the subjunctive mode indicates uncertainty1 unreality1 and some forms of condition3 ,if she were here1 ,i should be glad4 ,the imperative mode expresses a command or entreaty3 ,come here4 #fd4 ,the ,subjunctive ,mode4--,the subjunctive is disappearing from colloquial speech1 and the indicative form is used almost entirely4 ,the verb to be has the following indicative and subjunctive forms in the present and preterite3-- ,,ind4 ,,subj4 ,,ind4 ,,subj4 ,i am ,i be ,i was ,i were ,thou art ,thou be ,thou wast ,thou were ,,present ,he is ,he be ,,preterite ,he was ,he were ,we are ,we be ,we were ,we were ,you are ,you be ,you were ,you were ,they are ,they be ,they were ,they were ,in other verbs the indicative and subjunctive forms are the same1 except that the second and third persons singular subjunctive have no personal endings4 ,,indicative ,thou learnest ,he learns ,,subjunctive ,thou learn ,he learn ,the subjunctive idea is sometimes expressed by verb phrases1 containing the auxiliary verbs may 7might71 would1 or should4 ,may1 would1 and should are not1 however1 always subjunctive4 ,in ,i may go 7may am allowed to71 may is indicative4 ,in you should go 7 ought to71 should is indicative4 ,the subjunctive mode is used most frequently to express3-- #a4 ,a wish3 ,the ,lord be with you4 #b4 ,a condition regarded as doubtful3 ,if it be true1 what shall we think81 or a condition regarded as untrue3 ,if ,i were you1 ,i should go4 ,when condition is expressed by the subjunctive without if1 the verb precedes the subject3 ,were my brother here1 he could go with me4 #c4 ,a purpose3 ,he studies that he may learn4 #d4 ,exhortations3 ,sing we the song of freedom4 #e4 ,a concession1--supposed1 not given as a fact3 ,though he be my enemy1 ,i shall pity him4 #f4 ,a possibility3 ,we fear lest he be too late4 ,the tenses of the subjunctive require especial notice4 ,in conditional clauses1 the present refers either to present or future time3 ,though the earth be removed1 we shall not fear4 ,the preterite refers to present time4 ,it implies that the supposed case is not a fact3 ,if he were here1 ,i should be much pleased4 ,the pluperfect subjunctive expresses a false supposition in past time3 ,if you had been here1 this would not have happened4 ,the phrases with may1 might1 can1 must1 could1 would1 and should are sometimes called the potential mode1 but the constructions all fall within either the indicative or the subjunctive uses1 and a fourth mode is only an incumbrance4 #fe4 ,the ,imperative ,mode4--,the imperative is the mode of command and entreaty4 ,it has but one form for both singular and plural1 and but one tense1--the present4 ,it has but one person1--the second4 ,the subject is usually omitted4 ,the case of direct address1 frequently used with the imperative1 should not be confused with the subject4 ,in1 ,john1 hold my books1 the subject is you1 understood4 ,were ,john the subject1 the verb must be holds4 ,john is1 here1 a compellative1 or vocative4 #ff4 ,voice4--,verbs are said to be in the active voice when they represent the subject as acting1 and in the passive voice when they represent the subject as being acted upon4 ,intransitive verbs1 from their very nature1 have no passive voice4 ,transitive verbs may have both voices1 for they may represent the subject either as acting or as being acted upon4 ,the direct object in the active voice generally becomes the subject in the passive2 if the subject of the active appears in the passive1 it is the object of the preposition by3 ,my dog loves me 7active74 ,i am loved by my dog 7passive74 ,verbs of calling1 naming1 making1 and thinking may take two objects referring to the same person or thing4 ,the first of these is the direct object and the second is called the objective complement3 ,john called him a coward4 ,the objective complement becomes an attribute complement when the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice3 ,he was called a coward by ,john4 ,certain verbs take both a direct and an indirect object in the active3 ,john paid him nine dollars4 ,if the indirect object becomes the subject in the passive voice1 the direct object is known as the retained object3 ,he was paid nine dollars by ,john4 #fg4 ,infinitives4--,the infinitive form of the verb is often called a verbal noun1 because it partakes of the nature both of the verb and of the noun4 ,it is distinguished from the finite1 or true1 verb because it does not make an assertion1 and yet it assumes one4 ,while it has the modifiers and complements of a verb1 it at the same time has the uses of a noun4 ,there are two infinitives3 the root infinitive 7commonly preceded by to1 the so-called sign of the infinitive71 and the gerund1 or infinitive in -ing4 #a4 ,root infinitive3 ,to write a theme requires practice4 #b4 ,gerund3 ,riding rapidly is dangerous4 ,in each of these sentences the infinitive1 in its capacity as noun1 stands as the subject of the sentence4 ,in #a1 to write shows its verb nature by governing the object theme2 in #b1 riding shows its verb nature by taking as a modifier the adverb rapidly4 ,each form of the infinitive is found as the subject of a verb1 as its object1 as an attribute complement1 and as the object of a preposition4 ,the root infinitive1 together with its subject in the objective case1 is used as the object of verbs of knowing1 telling1 etc43 ,i know him to be a good boy4 ,see also ,appendix #he for adjective and adverbial uses4 ,the infinitive has two tenses3 the present and the perfect4 ,the present tense denotes action which is not completed at the time of the principal verb3 ,he tries to write4 ,he tried to write4 ,he will try to write4 ,the perfect infinitive denotes action complete with reference to the time of the principal verb3 ,i am glad to have known her4 #fh4 ,participles4--,participles are verbal adjectives3 ,the girl playing the piano is my cousin4 ,playing1 as an adjective1 modifies the noun girl2 it shows its verbal nature by taking the object piano4 ,the present participle ends in -ing4 ,when the past participle has an ending1 it is either -d1 -ed1 -t1 or -en4 ,the perfect participle is formed by combining having with a past participle2 as1 having gone4 ,there is danger of confusing the present participle with the gerund1 or infinitive in -ing1 unless the adjective character of the one and the noun character of the other are clearly distinguished3 ,the boy1 driving the cows to pasture1 was performing his daily task 7participle74 ,driving the cows to pasture was his daily task 7gerund74 ,participles are used to form verb-phrases4 ,the present participle is used for the formation of the progressive conjugation2 the past participle1 for the formation of the compound or perfect tenses4 ,participles are also used in all the adjective constructions4 ,one especial construction requires notice1--the absolute construction1 or the nominative absolute1 as it is called3 ,the ceremony having been finished1 the people dispersed4 ,the construction here is equivalent to a clause denoting time or cause or some circumstance attendant on the main action of the sentence4 ,the participle is sometimes omitted1 but the substantive must not be1 lest the participle be left apparently belonging to the nearest substantive2 as1 ,walking home1 the rain began to fall4 ,as the sentence stands1 walking modifies rain4 #fi4 ,conjugation4--,the complete and orderly arrangement of the various forms of a verb is termed its conjugation4 ,complete conjugations will be found in any text-book on ,english grammar4 ,the passive voice must not be confused with such a form as the progressive conjugation of the verb4 ,the passive consists of a form of to be and a past participle3 ,i am instructed4 ,the progressive tenses combine some form of to be with a present participle3 ,i am instructing4 ,it may be well to distinguish here between the passive voice and a past participle used as an attribute complement of the verb be4 ,both have the same form1 but there is a difference of meaning4 ,the passive voice always shows action received by the subject1 while the participle is used only as an adjective denoting condition3 ,james was tired by his day's work 7passive voice74 ,james was tired 7attribute complement74 #gj4 ,weak and ,strong ,conjugations4--,verbs are divided into two classes as regards their conjugations4 ,it has been the custom to call all verbs which form the preterite and past participle by adding -d or -ed to the present1 regular verbs love1 loved1 loved1 and to call all others irregular4 ,a better classification1 based on more careful study of the history of the ,english verb1 divides verbs into those of the weak and those of the strong conjugations4 ,the weak verbs are those which form the preterite by adding -ed1 -d1 or -t to the present3 love1 loved4 ,there is also infrequently a change of vowel3 sell1 sold2 teach1 taught4 ,all verbs which form the preterite without the addition of an ending are strong verbs4 ,there is usually a change of vowel4 ,the termination of the past participle in -n or -en is a sure indication that a verb is strong4 ,some verbs show forms of both conjugations4 ,a complete list of strong verbs cannot be given here1 but a few of the most common will be given1 together with a few weak verbs1 in the use of which mistakes occur4 ,,present ,,preterite ,,past ,,participle am was been arise rose arisen bear bore borne1 born#a begin began begun bid 7command7 bade bidden bite bit bitten blow blew blown break broke broken bring brought brought burst burst burst catch caught caught choose chose chosen climb climbed climbed come came come do did done drink drank drunk#b drive drove driven drown drowned drowned eat ate eaten fall fell fallen fly flew flown freeze froze frozen get got got give gave given go went gone grow grew grown have had had hide hid hidden hurt hurt hurt know knew known lay laid laid lie 7recline7 lay lain lead led led read read read ride rode ridden ring rang rung run ran run see saw seen shake shook shaken show showed shown sing sang sung sink sank sunk sit sat sat slay slew slain speak spoke spoken spring sprang sprung steal stole stolen swell swell swelled swollen swim swam swum take took taken tear tore torn throw threw thrown wear wore worn wish wished wished write wrote written ,footnote #a3 ,used only in the passive sense of born into the world4 ,footnote #b3 ,drunken is an adjective4 ,,caution4--,do not confuse the preterite with the past participle4 ,always use the past participle form in the compound tenses4 ,,adverbs #ga4 ,classes of ,adverbs4--,adverbs vary much as to their use and meaning4 ,it is therefore impossible to make a very accurate classification1 but we may divide them1 according to use1 into limiting1 interrogative1 and conjunctive adverbs4 ,limiting adverbs modify the meaning of verbs1 etc43 ,he rows well4 ,interrogative adverbs are used to ask questions3 ,when shall you come8 ,he asked where we were going 7indirect question74 ,conjunctive adverbs introduce clauses3 ,we went to the seashore1 where we stayed a month4 ,here where is used as a connective and also as a modifier of stayed4 ,conjunctive adverbs introduce the following kinds of clauses3 #a4 ,adverbial clauses3 ,go where duty calls4 #b4 ,adjective clauses3 ,this is the very spot where ,i put them4 #c4 ,noun clause3 ,i do not know how he will succeed4 ,adverbs may also be classified1 according to meaning1 into adverbs of manner1 time1 place1 and degree4 ,the classification is not1 however1 a rigid one4 ,adverbs of manner answer the question ,how8 ,most of these terminate in -ly4 ,a few1 however1 are identical in form with adjectives of like meaning3 ,she sang very loud4 ,adverbs of time answer the question ,when8 ,adverbs of place answer the question ,where8 ,this class1 together with the preceding two classes1 usually modify verbs4 ,adverbs of degree answer the question ,to what extent8 ,these adverbs modify verbs1 adjectives1 and other adverbs4 #gb4 ,phrasal ,adverbs4--,certain phrases1 adverbial in character1 cannot easily be separated into parts4 ,they have been called phrased adverbs2 as1 arm-in-arm1 now-a-days1 etc4 #gc4 ,inflection4--,some adverbs1 like adjectives1 are compared for the purpose of showing different degrees of quality or quantity4 ,the comparative and superlative degrees may be formed by adding the syllables er and est to the positive degree4 ,the great majority of adverbs1 however1 make use of the words more and most or less and least to show a difference in degree3 ,fast1 faster1 fastest2 skillfully1 more skillfully1 most skillfully2 carefully1 less carefully1 least carefully4 ,some adverbs are compared irregularly3-- badly worse worst ill 7evil7 far farther farthest forth further furthest late later latest last little less least much more most nigh nigher nigher next well better best #gd4 ,suggestions and ,cautions concerning the ,use of ,adverbs4 #a4 ,some words1 as fast1 little1 much1 more1 and others1 have the same form for both adjective and adverb1 and use alone can determine what part of speech each is4 7,adjective7 ,he is a fast driver4 ,she looks well 7in good health74 7,adverb7 ,how fast he walks6 ,i learned my lesson well4 #b4 ,corresponding adjectives and adverbs usually have different forms which should not be confused4 7,adjective7 ,she is a good student4 7,adverb7 ,he works well4 #c4 ,the adjective1 and not the adverbial1 form should be used after a copulative verb1 since adverbs cannot modify substantives3 ,i feel bad2 not1 ,i feel badly4 #d4 ,two negatives imply an affirmative4 ,hence only one should be used to denote negation3 ,i have nothing to say4 ,i have no patience with him4 #ge4 ,equivalents for ,adverbs4 #a4 ,a phrase3 ,the child ran away with great glee4 #b4 ,a clause3 ,i will go canoeing when the lake is calm4 #c4 ,a noun3 ,please come home4 ,i will stay five minutes4 ,,prepositions #gf4 ,classes of ,prepositions4--,the simple prepositions are3 at1 after1 against1 but1 by1 down1 for1 from1 in1 of1 off1 over1 on1 since1 through1 till1 to1 under1 up1 and with4 ,other prepositions are either derived or compound3 such as1 underneath1 across1 between1 concerning1 and notwithstanding4 #gg4 ,suggestions concerning the ,use of ,prepositions4--,mistakes are frequently made in the use of the preposition4 ,this use cannot be fully discussed here1 but a partial list of words with the required preposition will be given4 afraid of4 agree with a person4 agree to a proposal4 bestow upon4 compare to 7to show similarity74 compare with 7to show similarity or difference74 comply with4 conform to4 convenient for or to4 correspond to or with 7a thing74 correspond with 7a person74 dependent on4 differ from 7a person or thing74 differ from or with 7an opinion74 different from4 disappointed in4 frightened at or by4 glad of4 need of4 profit by4 scared by4 taste of 7food74 taste for 7art74 thirst for or after4 ,like1 originally an adjective or adverb1 is often1 in some of its uses1 called a preposition4 ,it governs the objective case1 and should not be used as a conjunction3 ,she looks like me2 not1 ,she looks like ,i do4 ,the appropriate conjunction here would be as3 ,she speaks as ,i do4 ,the prepositions in and at denote rest or motion in a place2 into denotes motion toward a place3 ,he is in the garden4 ,he went into the garden4 #gh4 ,prepositional ,phrases4--,the preposition1 with its object1 forms what is termed a prepositional phrase4 ,this phrase is adjective in force when it modifies a substantive2 and adverbial1 when it modifies a verb1 adjective1 or other adverb3 ,in the cottage by the sea 7adjective74 ,he sat on the bench 7adverb74 ,some prepositions were originally adverbs2 such as1 in1 on1 off1 up1 and to4 ,many of them are still used adverbially or as adverbial suffixes3 ,the ship lay to4 ,a storm came on4 ,,conjunctions #gi4 ,classes of ,conjunctions4--,conjunctions are divided according to their use into two general classes3 the cordinate and the subordinate conjunctions4 ,cordinate conjunctions are used to connect words1 phrases1 and clauses of equal rank2 subordinate conjunctions connect clauses of unequal rank4 ,the principal cordinate conjunctions are and1 but1 or1 nor1 and for4 ,and is said to be copulative because it merely adds something to what has just been said4 ,other conjunctions having a copulative use are also1 besides1 likewise1 moreover1 and too2 and the correlative conjunctions1 both 444 and1 not only 444 but also1 etc4 ,these are termed correlative because they occur together4 ,but is termed the adversative cordinate conjunction because it usually introduces something adverse to what has already been said4 ,other words of an adversative nature are yet1 however1 nevertheless1 only1 notwithstanding1 and still4 ,or is alternative in its force4 ,this conjunction implies that there is a choice to be made4 ,other similar conjunctions are either 444 or1 neither 444 nor1 or1 else4 ,either 444 or and neither 444 nor are termed correlative conjunctions1 and they introduce alternatives4 ,for1 because1 such1 and as are cordinate conjunctions only in such a case as the following3 ,she has been running1 for she is out of breath4 ,some of the most common conjunctions of the subordinate type are those of place and time1 cause1 condition1 purpose1 comparison1 concession1 and result4 ,that introducing a subordinate clause may be called a substantive conjunction3 ,i knew that ,i ought to go4 ,there are a number of subordinate conjunctions used in pairs which are called correlatives4 ,the principal pairs are as 444 so1 as 444 as1 so 444 as1 if 444 then1 though 444 yet4 #hj4 ,simple and ,compound ,sentences4--,in the first section of this review the parts of a sentence were named as the subject and predicate4 ,the subject may itself consist of two parts joined by one of the cordinating conjunctions3 ,alice and her cousin are here4 ,the predicate may be formed in a similar fashion3 ,john played and made merry all day long4 ,both subject and predicate may be so compounded3 ,john and ,richard climbed the ladder and jumped on the hay4 ,in all these cases the sentence1 consisting as it does of but one subject and one predicate1 is said to be simple4 ,when two clauses--that is1 two groups of words containing each a subject and predicate--are united by a cordinate conjunction1 the sentence is said to be compound3 ,john wished to play ,indian1 but ,richard preferred to play railroad4 ,the cordinating conjunction need not actually appear in the sentence4 ,its omission is then indicated by the punctuation3 ,john wished to play ,indian2 ,richard preferred another game4 #ha4 ,subordinate ,conjunctions and ,complex ,sentences4--,a subordinate conjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to a principal clause1 thus forming a complex sentence4 ,the test to be applied to a clause in order to ascertain whether it is a subordinate clause1 is this3 if any group of words in a sentence1 containing a subject and predicate1 fulfills the office of some single part of speech1 it is a subordinate clause4 ,in the sentence1 ,i went because ,i knew that ,i must1 the clause1 because ,i knew that ,i must states the reason for the action named in the main clause4 ,it1 therefore1 stands in adverbial relation to the verb went4 ,that ,i must is the object of knew4 ,it1 therefore1 stands in a substantive relation to the verb4 ,subordinate clauses are often introduced by subordinate conjunctions 7sometimes by relative pronouns or adverbs72 but1 whenever such a clause appears in a sentence1 otherwise simple1 the sentence is complex4 ,if it appears in a sentence otherwise compound1 the sentence is compound-complex4 ,the different types of subordinate clauses will be discussed later4 ,,sentence ,,structure #hb4 ,phrases4--,phrases are classified both as to structure and use4 ,from the standpoint of structure1 a phrase is classified from its introductory word or words1 as3-- #a4 ,prepositional3 ,they were in the temple4 #b4 ,infinitive3 ,he tried to make us hear4 #c4 ,participial3 ,having finished my letter4 ,classified as to use1 a phrase may be-- #a4 ,a noun3 ,to be good is to be truly great4 #b4 ,an adjective3 ,the horse is an animal of much intelligence4 #c4 ,an adverb3 ,he lives in the city4 #hc4 ,clauses4--,it has been already shown that clauses may be either principal or subordinate4 ,a principal clause is sometimes defined as one that can stand alone1 and is therefore independent of the rest of the sentence4 ,this statement is misleading1 for1 although true in most cases1 it does not hold in cases like the following3-- #a4 ,as the tree falls1 so it must lie4 #b4 ,that sunshine is cheering1 cannot be denied4 ,the genuine test for the subordinate clause is the one already given in connection with the study of the subordinate conjunction4 ,it must serve the purpose of some single part of speech4 ,all other clauses are principal clauses4 #hd4 ,classification of ,subordinate ,clauses4--,a4 ,subordinate clauses may be classified into substantive and modifying clauses4 ,substantive clauses show the various substantive constructions4 ,thus3-- #a4 ,subject3 ,thou shalt not covet1 is the tenth commandment4 #b4 ,object3 ,i know what you wish4 #c4 ,appositive3 ,the truth that the earth is spherical is generally believed4 #d4 ,attribute complement3 ,the truth is that she is not well4 ,modifying clauses show adjective and adverbial constructions4 ,thus3-- #a4 ,adjective3 ,the house which you see is mine4 #b4 ,adverb3 ,i will go when it is possible4 ,b4 ,subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the introductory word4 7a7 ,clauses introduced by relative or interrogative pronouns3 who1 which1 what1 that 7 who or which71 as 7after such71 and the compound relatives1 whoever1 whichever1 whatever 7the first three are both relative and interrogative73 ,the school that stands on the hillside is painted white4 ,i know whom you mean4 7b7 ,clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adjective3 ,the man whose library is well furnished is rich4 ,i see which way ,i ought to take4 7c7 ,clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adverb1 such as when1 whenever1 since 7referring to time71 until1 before1 after1 where1 whence1 whither1 wherever1 why1 as1 how3 ,i know the house where lie lives4 7d7 ,clauses introduced by a subordinate conjunction1 such as because1 since 7 because71 though1 although1 if1 unless1 that 7 in order that71 as1 as if1 as though1 then3 ,i will go since you wish it4 ,c4 ,subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the nature of the thought expressed4 7a7 ,general description3 ,the house1 which stands on the hill1 has a fine view4 7b7 ,place3 ,the house where he was born is torn down4 7c7 ,time3 ,he works whenever he can4 7d7 ,cause3 ,since you wish it1 ,i will go4 7e7 ,concession3 ,although he is my friend1 ,i can see his faults4 7f7 ,purpose3 ,run1 that you may obtain the prize4 7g7 ,result3 ,she was so tired that she stumbled4 7h7 ,condition3 ,if it rains1 we shall not go4 7i7 ,comparison3 ,you look as if you were tired4 ,note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are modifying clauses4 7j7 ,direct quotation3 ,she said1 ,i will go4 7k7 ,indirect statement3 ,she said that she would go4 7l7 ,indirect question3 ,i knew where his house was4 ,note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are substantive clauses4 #he4 ,the ,framework of a ,sentence has been already described as consisting of the subject1 the verb1 and1 if the verb be incomplete1 of some completing element1 object or attribute complement4 ,occasionally an objective complement must be added4 ,besides these elementary parts1 both subject and predicate may have modifiers4 ,the usual modifiers of the subject are3-- #a4 ,adjective3 ,the golden bowl is broken4 #b4 ,adjective phrase3 ,the house on the hill is beautiful4 #c4 ,adjective clause3 ,the house which stands on the hill is beautiful4 #d4 ,noun or pronoun in possessive case3 ,helen's paint box is lost4 #e4 ,noun in apposition3 ,mr4 ,merrill1 the president of the club1 will open the debate4 #f4 ,adverb used as an adjective3 ,my sometime friend4 #g4 ,infinitive used adjectively3 ,work to do is a blessing4 #h4 ,participle3 ,the child1 lagging behind1 lost her way4 ,the modifiers of the predicate are3-- #a4 ,adverb3 ,the snow melted very quickly4 #b4 ,noun used adverbially3 ,i walked a mile4 #c4 ,infinitive used adverbially3 ,we were called together to decide an important question4 #d4 ,adverbial phrase3 ,she ran along the road4 #e4 ,adverbial clause3 ,go when you can4 #f4 ,nominative absolute3 ,the speeches being over1 the audience dispersed4 ,occasionally1 adverbs and phrases of adverbial character modify the entire thought in a sentence1 rather than some single word3 ,to speak plainly1 ,i cannot go4 ,perhaps ,i may help you4 ,,list ,,of ,,special ,,words #hf4 ,special ,words4--,a list is here given of words which appear as various parts of speech3--- a 7#a7 ,adjective3 ,a book4 7#b7 ,preposition3 ,i go a-fishing4 about 7#a7 ,preposition3 ,walk about the house4 7#b7 ,adverb3 ,we walked about for an hour4 ,by1 over1 up1 etc41 are used in the same way4 above 7#a7 ,preposition3 ,the sun is above the horizon4 7#b7 ,adverb3 ,go above4 7#c7 ,noun3 ,every good gift is from above4 7#d7 ,adjective3 ,the above remarks are discredited4 ,below has the same uses4 after 7#a7 ,preposition3 ,after our sail4 7#b7 ,conjunctive adverb3 ,he came after she went away4 all 7#a7 ,pronoun3 ,all went merry as a marriage bell4 7#b7 ,noun3 ,i gave my all4 7#c7 ,adjective3 ,all hands to the rescue4 7#d7 ,adverb3 ,the work is all right4 as 7#a7 ,conjunctive pronoun3 ,i give such as ,i have4 7#b7 ,conjunctive adverb3 ,i am not so old as she4 7#c7 ,adverb3 ,what other grief is as hard to bear8 7#d7 ,conjunction3 ,as it was hot1 we did not go4 7#e7 ,preposition3 ,i warned her as a friend4 7#f7 ,compound ,conjunction3 ,he looks as if he were not well4 before 7#a7 ,preposition3 ,he stood before the door4 7#b7 ,conjunctive ,adverb3 ,i will do it before ,i go4 7#c7 ,adverb3 ,she has never been here before4 both 7#a7 ,adjective3 ,both white and red pines are beautiful4 7#b7 ,pronoun3 ,both are yours4 7#c7 ,conjunction3 ,she is both good and beautiful4 but 7#a7 ,conjunction3 ,john reads but ,richard plays4 7#b7 ,preposition3 ,all but him are at home4 7#c7 ,adverb3 ,we can but fail4 either 7#a7 ,adjective3 ,either dress is becoming4 7#b7 ,conjunction3 ,either this dress or the other is becoming4 7#c7 ,pronoun3 ,either is right4 fast 7#a7 ,noun3 ,a long fast4 7#b7 ,verb3 ,they fast often4 7#c7 ,adverb3 ,the rain fell fast4 7#d7 ,adjective3 ,he is a fast walker4 for 7#a7 ,subordinate ,conjunction3 ,i must go1 for ,i promised4 7#b7 ,cordinate ,conjunction3 ,she stayed at home1 for ,i saw her4 7#c7 ,preposition3 ,i have nothing for you4 hard 7#a7 ,adjective3 ,hard labor4 7#b7 ,adverb3 ,he works hard4 like 7#a7 ,noun3 ,we may never see her like again4 7#b7 ,adjective3 ,this process gives like results4 7#c7 ,adverb3 ,like as a father pitieth his children4 7#d7 ,preposition3 ,she looks like me4 7,by some grammarians like in this case is considered a adjective with the preposition to omitted47 7#e7 ,verb3 ,you like your work4 little 7#a7 ,adjective3 ,a little bread4 7#b7 ,noun3 ,i wish a little4 7#c7 ,adverb3 ,he laughs little4 ,much has the same uses4 many a 7#a7 ,adjective3 ,many a tree4 notwithstanding 7#a7 ,preposition3 ,notwithstanding the rain1 we were content4 7#b7 ,conjunction or ,preposition3 ,she is happy1 notwithstanding 7the fact that7 she is an invalid4 only 7#a7 ,adjective3 ,this is the only way4 7#b7 ,adverb3 ,only experienced persons need apply4 7#c7 ,conjunction3 ,i should go1 only it is stormy4 since 7#a7 ,preposition3 ,since that day ,i have not seen her4 7#b7 ,conjunction3 ,since you lost it1 you must replace it4 7#c7 ,adverb3 ,i have not seen her since4 7#d7 ,conjunctive ,adverb3 ,you have been here since ,i have4 still 7#a7 ,adjective3 ,the lake is still4 7#b7 ,adverb3 ,the tree is still lying where it fell4 7#c7 ,conjunction3 ,he is entertaining2 still he talks too much4 7#d7 ,verb3 ,oil is said to still the waves4 7#e7 ,noun3 ,in the still of noonday the song of the locust was loud4 than 7#a7 ,conjunction3 ,i am older than she4 7#b7 ,preposition3 ,than whom there is none wiser4 that 7#a7 ,demonstrative ,pronoun3 ,that is right4 7#b7 ,conjunctive ,pronoun3 ,he that lives nobly is happy4 7#c7 ,adjective3 ,that book is mine4 7#d7 ,conjunction3 ,i say this that you may understand my position4 7#e7 ,substantive ,conjunction3 ,that this is true is evident4 the 7#a7 ,adjective 7article73 ,the lake4 7#b7 ,adverb3 ,the more 444 the merrier4 then 7#a7 ,adverb3 ,i shall know then4 7#b7 ,conjunction3 ,if you so decide1 then we may go4 there 7#a7 ,adverb3 ,the stream runs there4 7#b7 ,expletive3 ,there are many points to be considered4 7#c7 ,interjection3 ,there6 there6 it makes no difference6 what 7#a7 ,conjunctive ,interrogative ,pronoun3 ,i heard what you said4 ,pronoun3 ,what shall ,i do8 7#c7 ,interrogative ,adjective3 ,what game do you prefer8 7#d7 ,conjunctive ,adjective3 ,i know what books he enjoys4 7#e7 ,adverb3 ,what with this and what with that1 he finally got his wish4 7#f7 ,interjection3 ,what6 what6 while 7#a7 ,noun3 ,a long while4 7#b7 ,verb3 ,to while away the time4 7#c7 ,conjunctive ,adverb3 ,i stay in while it snows4 ,,iii4 ,,figures ,,of ,,speech #hg4 ,figures of ,speech4--,a figure of speech is a change from the usual form of expression for the purpose of producing a greater effect4 ,these changes may be effective either because they are more pleasing to us or because they are more forcible1 or for both reasons4 ,while figurative language is a change from the usual mode of expression1 we are not to think of it as being unnatural4 ,it is1 in fact1 as natural as plain language1 and nearly every one1 from the illiterate to the most learned1 makes use of it1 more or less1 in his ordinary conversation4 ,this arises from1 the fact that we all enjoy comparisons and substitutions4 ,when we say that we have been pegging away all day at our work1 or that the wind howls1 or that the man has a heart of steel1 we are making use of figures of speech4 ,figurative language ranges from these very simple expressions to the beautiful figures of speech found in so much of our poetry4 ,written prose contains many beautiful and forcible examples1 but it is in poetry that we find most of them4 #hh4 ,simile4--,a simile is an expressed comparison between objects belonging to different classes4 ,we must remember1 however1 that all resemblances do not constitute similes4 ,if we compare two trees1 or two beehives1 or two rivers1 our comparison is not a simile4 ,if we compare a tree to a person1 a beehive to a schoolroom1 or time to a river1 we may form a good simile1 since the things compared do not belong to the same class4 ,the best similes are those in which the ideas compared have one strong point of resemblance1 and are unlike in all other respects4 #a4 ,how far that little candle throws its beams6 ,so shines a good deed in a naughty world4 --,shakespeare4 #b4 ,for very young he seemed1 tenderly reared2 ,like some young cypress1 tall1 and dark1 and straight4 --,matthew ,arnold4 #c4 ,in the primrose-tinted sky ,the wan little moon ,hangs like a jewel dainty and rare4 --,francis ,c4 ,rankin4 #hi4 ,metaphor4--,a metaphor differs from a simile in that the comparison is implied rather than expressed4 ,they are essentially the same as far as the comparison is concerned1 and usually the one kind may be easily changed to the other4 ,in a simile we say that one object is like another1 in a metaphor we say that one object is another4 ,,exercises ,select the metaphors in the following and change them to similes3-- #a4 ,in arms the ,austrian phalanx stood1 ,a living wall1 a human wood4 --,james ,montgomery4 #b4 ,the familiar lines ,are footpaths for the thoughts of ,italy4 --,longfellow4 #c4 ,life is a leaf of paper white1 ,whereon each one of us may write ,his word or two1 and then comes night4 --,lowell4 #ij4 ,personification4--,personification is a special form of the metaphor in which life is attributed to inanimate objects or the characteristics of persons are attributed to objects1 animals1 or even to abstract ideas4 ,,exercises ,explain why the following quotations are examples of personifications3-- #a4 ,the day is done2 and slowly from the scene ,the stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts ,and puts them back into his golden quiver4 --,longfellow4 #b4 ,time is a cunning workman and no man can detect his joints4 --,charles ,pierce ,burton4 #c4 ,the sun is couched1 the seafowl gone to rest1 ,and the wild storm hath somewhere found a nest4 --,wordsworth4 #d4 ,see the mountains kiss high heaven1 ,and the waves clasp one another2 ,no sister flower would be forgiven ,if it disdained its brother4 --,shelley4 #ia4 ,apostrophe4--,apostrophe is like personification1 but has an additional characteristic4 ,when we directly address inanimate objects or the absent as if they were present1 we call the figure of speech thus formed apostrophe4 ,the following are examples of apostrophe3-- #a4 ,break1 break1 break1 ,at the foot of thy crags1 ,o ,sea6 --,tennyson4 #b4 ,backward1 turn backward1 ,o ,time1 in your flight1 ,make me a child again just for to-night6 ,mother1 come back from the echoless shore1 ,take me again to your heart as of yore4 --,elizabeth ,akers ,allen4 #ib4 ,metonymy4--,metonymy consists in substituting one object for another1 the two being so closely associated that the mention of one suggests the other4 #a4 ,the pupils are reading ,george ,eliot4 #b4 ,each hamlet heard the call4 #c4 ,strike for your altars and your fires4 #d4 ,gray hairs should be respected4 #ic4 ,synecdoche4--,synecdoche consists in substituting a part of anything for the whole or a whole for the part4 #a4 ,a babe1 two summers old4 #b4 ,give us this day our daily bread4 #c4 ,ring out the thousand years of woe1 ,ring in the thousand years of peace4 #d4 ,fifty mast are on the ocean4 #id4 ,other ,figures of ,speech4--,sometimes1 especially in older rhetorics1 the following so-called figures of speech are added to the list already given3 irony1 hyperbole1 antithesis1 climax1 and interrogation4 ,the two former pertain rather to style1 in fact1 are qualities of style1 while the last two might properly be placed along with kinds of sentences or paragraph development4 ,since these so-called figures are not all mentioned elsewhere in this text1 a brief explanation and example of each will be given here4 #a4 ,irony consists in saying just the opposite of the intended meaning1 but in such a way that it emphasizes that meaning4 ,what has the gray-haired prisoner done8 ,has murder stained his hands with gore8 ,not so2 his crime is a fouler one-- ,god made the old man poor4 --,whittier4 #b4 ,hyperbole is an exaggerated expression used to increase the effectiveness of a statement4 ,he was a man of boundless knowledge4 #c4 ,antithesis consists merely of contrasted statements4 ,this contrast may be found in a single sentence or it may be extended through an entire paragraph4 ,look like the innocent flower1 ,but be the serpent under it4 --,shakespeare4 #d4 ,climax consists of an ascendant arrangement of words or ideas4 ,i came1 ,i saw1 ,i conquered4 #e4 ,when a question is asked1 not for the purpose of obtaining information but in order to make speech more effective1 it is called the figure of interrogation4 ,an affirmative question denies and a negative question affirms4 #a4 ,am ,i my brother's keeper8 #b4 ,am ,i not free8 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,rhetorical ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,sentence #ie4 ,unity1 ,coherence1 and ,emphasis in ,sentences4--,on pages #aec-aee we have considered the principles of unity1 coherence1 and emphasis as applied to the whole composition4 ,in much the same way these principles are applicable to the sentence4 ,a sentence possesses unity if all that it contains makes one complete statement1 and no more2 and if all minor ideas are made subordinate to one main idea4 ,the effect must be single4 ,a sentence exhibits coherence when the relation of all of its parts is perfectly clear4 ,we secure emphasis in the sentence by placing ideas that deserve distinction in conspicuous positions2 by arranging the members of a series in the order of climax2 by using specific rather than general terms2 by expressing thoughts with directness and simplicity2 and by employing the devices of balance and contrast4 ,we must remember that1 in the sentence as well as in the whole composition and the paragraph1 if coherence and unity are secured1 emphasis is quite likely to follow naturally4 ,on the other hand1 a violation of coherence or unity often results in a lack of emphasis4 #if4 ,unity in the sentence is affected unfavorably by-- #a4 ,the presence of more than one main thought4 7,stonewall ,jackson was a general in the ,confederate ,army1 and he is said to have been a very religious man47 ,in this sentence two distinct thoughts are embodied1 and in such a way that their relation to each other is altogether illogical4 ,the effect is not that of a single thought4 ,to possess unity the two or more thoughts of a compound sentence should sustain some particular relation1 like cause and effect1 contrast1 series1 details of a picture4 ,we can unite the two thoughts in a perfectly logical sentence1 thus3 7,stonewall ,jackson1 the ,confederate general1 is said to have been a very religious man47 #b4 ,the addition of too many dependent clauses4 7,the boy was startled when he awoke1 for he heard the plan of his captors1 who were preparing to seize the boat1 which had been left by his friends who had so mysteriously deserted him at a time when he needed them most47 ,here1 the numerous dependent clauses tacked on obscure the main thought4 ,the sentence should be broken up and1 where possible1 clauses should be reduced to phrases and words4 7,the boy was startled when he awoke1 for he heard the plan of his captors4 ,they were preparing to seize the boat left by his friends1 who had deserted him in the hour of greatest need47 #c4 ,the presence of incongruous ideas4 7,with his hair combed and his shoes blacked1 he gave the impression of being a very strong man47 ,the ideas of this sentence have no logical relation to each other4 ,there is little likelihood1 too1 of making them more congruous by any change in the sentence4 ,blacking one's shoes and combing one's hair do not make one look strong4 ,the remedy for such a sentence is to separate the incongruous ideas4 #d4 ,a needless change of construction4 7,silas was kindly received by the men in the tavern2 and when they had listened to his story and his answers to their questions had been noted1 they began to think of catching the thief47 ,confusion arises from such sudden and needless changes of the subject4 ,by keeping the same subject throughout1 we secure unity of impression4 7,the men in the tavern received ,silas kindly2 and when they had listened to his story and had noted his answers to their questions1 they began to think of catching the thief47 #e4 ,making the sentence too short and fragmentary to serve as a logical unit of the paragraph4 7,i went to the park yesterday4 ,it was a pleasant day4 ,i saw many animals4 ,i had a good time1 etc47 ,each of these sentences1 when considered in its relation to the others1 and to the development of the thought1 is altogether too incomplete and unimportant in ideas expressed to stand alone4 ,unity of impression and dignity of thought are gained by combining the sentences4 7,yesterday was a pleasant day2 so ,i went to the park1 where ,i saw many animals1 and had a good time47 #ig4 ,coherence in the sentence is affected unfavorably by-- #a4 ,the wrong placing of modifiers4 7,the victorious general was returning to his native city after many hard-fought campaigns with his staff officers47 ,it is not likely that the campaigns here referred to were waged against the staff officers4 ,by changing the position of phrases we express the thought that the writer had in mind4 7,after many hard-fought campaigns1 the victorious general1 with his staff officers1 was approaching his native city47 ,especial care should be taken in placing the correlatives either1 or2 neither1 nor2 not only1 but also2 and the word only4 ,incoherence frequently arises through the wrong placing of these words4 #b4 ,the careless use of pronouns4 7,argument plays a very little part in that work1 and those that do occur are not interesting47 7,he repeated to his father what he had told him the night before when he was in his room47 ,in both sentences1 the relation between pronouns and antecedents is not clear1 and incoherence results4 ,with the ambiguity in the use of the pronouns remedied1 the sentences are entirely coherent4 7,argument plays a very little part in that work1 and whatever argumentative material is found is not interesting47 7,he repeated to his father what he had told this parent the night before in his room47 #c4 ,careless participial and infinitive relations4 7,after carefully preparing my lessons1 a friend came in47 7,standing on ,brooklyn ,bridge1 a great many ferryboats can be seen47 ,the relation of the parts is manifestly illogical and absurd4 ,the sentences should read3 7,after ,i had carefully prepared my lessons1 a friend came in47 7,while standing on ,brooklyn ,bridge1 one can see a great many ferryboats47 #d4 ,the use of wrong connectives4 7,it rained yesterday1 and ,i went to school47 ,we assume that the pupil wishes to convey the thought that he went to school yesterday in spite of the rain4 ,but by his use of the coordinating conjunction1 and1 he has failed to establish a logical relation between the two clauses4 ,in this case unity is violated as well as coherence4 ,use different connectives and note the result1 7,although it rained yesterday1 ,i went to school7 or1 7,it rained yesterday1 but ,i went to school74 #e4 ,failure to observe parallelism in form4 7,the stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and to have a solicitude for my welfare47 ,although this sentence is grammatically correct1 the shift in structure from the adjective and its phrase to the infinitive phrase leads to confusion in thought4 ,how much clearer and smoother this rendering3 7,the stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and solicitous for my welfare47 #ih4 ,emphasis in the sentence is affected unfavorably by-- #a4 ,weak beginnings and endings4 7,a fire in the city is an exciting event to the average boy47 7,it seemed that the unprincipled fellow had forged his father's name47 ,in the first sentence1 the important words are exciting event1 and they should occupy the most conspicuous position1-- at the end of the sentence4 ,the effectiveness is much improved by this order3 7,to the average boy1 a fire in the city is an exciting event47 ,in the second sentence the weak place is the beginning4 ,the subject and its modifiers are striking enough to demand their rightful position1--as the introductory words2 in forged his father's name we have ideas startling enough for a place at the end of the sentence4 ,it seemed that can be reduced to one word1 apparently1 and this can be made parenthetical4 7,the unprincipled fellow1 apparently1 had forged his father's name47 ,this sentence1 it will be observed1 illustrates the periodic or suspended structure1 a type particularly effective to employ for sustaining interest as well as for securing emphasis4 #b4 ,failure to observe the order of climax4 7,dazed1 broken-hearted1 hungry1 the poor mother resumed her daily tasks47 ,clearly1 the strongest idea is suggested by broken-hearted4 ,a better order would be3 7,hungry1 dazed1 broken-hearted1 the poor mother resumed her daily tasks47 #c4 ,the use of superfluous words4 7,i rushed hurriedly into the burning house and hastily snatched my few possessions47 ,in this sentence1 rushed and snatched lose rather than gain force by adding hurriedly and hastily4 ,look up definitions of rush and snatch4 ,when we wish to express strong emotion or to describe action resulting from excitement1 we only weaken the impression by using unnecessary words4 ,simple1 direct sentences are most forceful4 ,in aiming to secure sentence emphasis1 then1 we should avoid circumlocution1 redundancy1 tautology1 and verbosity4 7,look up these terms in the ,century ,dictionary47 #d4 ,the use of general rather than specific terms4 7,he approached the brook cautiously1 and concealing himself in the bushes1 began fishing47 ,a consideration of the choice of words in the sentence belongs strictly to the study of diction2 however1 force in the sentence is dependent in a large measure on the words employed4 ,observe how forceful the following sentence is as contrasted with the first example3 7,he crept noiselessly to the fishing hole1 and hiding in the willows1 threw his hook into the stream47 #e4 ,failure to employ balance and contrast4 7,worth makes the man2 but the fellow is made by the want of it47 7,his life was spent in repenting of past misdeeds2 in doing what was wrong1 while he inculcated principles of righteousness47 ,compare these with3 7,worth makes the man2 the want of it1 the fellow47 7,his life was spent in sinning and repenting2 in inculcating what was right1 and doing what was wrong47 ,here the regularity of form gives pleasure to the taste1 while the position of balanced and parallel parts adds clearness1 coherence1 and emphasis to the thoughts expressed4 ,this method of sentence structure1 if employed too frequently1 however1 will lead to a mannerism difficult to overcome4 ,the caution to be heeded in the case of this type of sentence as well as in the case of every other is1 ,nothing too much4 ,observe the law of variety4 ,,exercises ,point out the specific faults and correct3-- #a4 ,he neither gave satisfaction as butler nor as coachman4 #b4 ,elaine deserves our sympathy from the beginning to the end of the novel4 #c4 ,john only played once and won2 and then1 after watching the other players for a time1 he got up and left the room4 #d4 ,the boy had an unconquerable fear of reptiles which no reasoning could overcome4 #e ,the ,vicar's son ,moses was a good student of the classics1 but he made a bad bargain in his purchase of the green spectacles4 #f4 ,in all of his behavior toward ,lynette1 ,gareth was patient and courteous1 which reflected much credit on his knightly character4 #g4 ,johnson was a man with a heroic soul1 a wonderful intellect1 and a kind heart4 #h4 ,after they had all assembled and come together1 ,odysseus addressed them4 #i4 ,he had reached the age of seventy1 and his death was due to a nervous disorder4 #aj4 ,the boys were only injured a little4 #aa4 ,george ,eliot's writings are filled with the philosophy of life1 if we are wise enough to discover it4 #ab4 ,addison was sincere and kindly in his attitude toward men1 and ,pope was hypocritical and spiteful4 #ac4 ,with reputation1 character1 and wealth gone1 the poor man had little to live for4 #ad4 ,lancelot loved ,queen ,guinevere dearly1 and he was ,arthur's most valorous knight4 #ae4 ,we are at peace with all the world and the rest of mankind4 #af4 ,cedric lived with two great ends in view1--the union of ,athelstane and ,rowena and to see a restored ,saxon monarchy4 #ag4 ,james was walking backward and forward on the mountain side1 which at this place was very precipitous and from which a little silvery stream issued to begin its rapid descent to the quiet hamlet that lay far below4 #ah4 ,in our efforts to succeed in life we work hard that we may make names for ourselves and to acquire property4 #ai4 ,he is a good hunter1 but his wife is a ,methodist4 #bj4 ,going up the street ,i saw the strangest-looking man4 #ba4 ,james speaks ,german fluently1 and he did not begin to study it until last year4 #bb4 ,on returning to the deck1 the sea assumed a very different aspect4 ,v4 ,,list ,,of ,,synonyms ,abandon1 cast off1 desert1 forswear1 quit1 renounce1 withdraw from4 ,abate1 decrease1 diminish1 mitigate1 moderate4 ,abhor1 abominate1 detest1 dislike1 loathe4 ,abiding1 enduring1 lasting1 permanent1 perpetual4 ,ability1 capability1 capacity1 competency1 efficacy1 power4 ,abolish1 annul1 eradicate1 exterminate1 obliterate1 root out1 wipe out4 ,abomination1 curse1 evil1 iniquity1 nuisance1 shame4 ,absent1 absent-minded1 absorbed1 abstracted1 oblivious1 preoccupied4 ,absolve1 acquit1 clear4 ,abstemiousness1 abstinence1 frugality1 moderation1 sobriety1 temperance4 ,absurd1 ill-advised1 ill-considered1 ludicrous1 monstrous1 paradoxical1 preposterous1 unreasonable1 wild4 ,abundant1 adequate1 ample1 enough1 generous1 lavish1 plentiful4 ,accomplice1 ally1 colleague1 helper1 partner4 ,active1 agile1 alert1 brisk1 bustling1 energetic1 lively1 supple4 ,actual1 authentic1 genuine1 real4 ,address1 adroitness1 courtesy1 readiness1 tact4 ,adept1 adroit1 deft1 dexterous1 handy1 skillful4 ,adequate1 adjoining1 bordering1 near1 neighboring4 ,admire1 adore1 respect1 revere1 venerate4 ,admit1 allow1 concede1 grant1 suffer1 tolerate4 ,admixture1 alloy4 ,adverse1 disinclined1 indisposed1 loath1 reluctant1 slow1 unwilling4 ,aerial1 airy1 animated1 ethereal1 frolicsome4 ,affectation1 cant1 hypocrisy1 pretense1 sham4 ,affirm1 assert1 avow1 declare1 maintain1 state4 ,aged1 ancient1 antiquated1 antique1 immemorial1 old1 venerable4 ,air1 bearing1 carriage1 demeanor4 ,akin1 alike1 identical4 ,alert1 on the alert1 sleepless1 wary1 watchful4 ,allay1 appease1 calm1 pacify4 ,alliance1 coalition1 compact1 federation1 union1 fusion4 ,allude1 hint1 imply1 insinuate1 intimate1 suggest4 ,allure1 attract1 cajole1 coax1 inveigle1 lure4 ,amateur1 connoisseur1 novice1 tyro4 ,amend1 better1 mend1 reform1 repair4 ,amplify1 develop1 expand1 extend1 unfold1 widen4 ,amusement1 diversion1 entertainment1 pastime4 ,anger1 exasperation1 petulance1 rage1 resentment4 ,animal1 beast1 brute1 living creature1 living organism4 ,answer1 rejoinder1 repartee1 reply1 response1 retort4 ,anticipate1 forestall1 preclude1 prevent4 ,apiece1 individually1 severally1 separately4 ,apparent1 clear1 evident1 obvious1 tangible1 unmistakable4 ,apprehend1 comprehend1 conceive1 perceive1 understand4 ,arraign1 charge1 cite1 impeach1 indict1 prosecute1 summon4 ,arrogance1 haughtiness1 presumption1 pride1 self-complacency1 superciliousness1 vanity4 ,artist1 artificer1 artisan1 mechanic1 operative1 workman4 ,artless1 boorish1 clownish1 hoidenish1 rude1 uncouth1 unsophisticated4 ,assent1 agree1 comply4 ,assurance1 effrontery1 hardihood1 impertinence1 impudence1 incivility1 insolence1 officiousness1 rudeness4 ,atom1 grain1 scrap1 particle1 shred1 whit4 ,atrociousness1 barbaric1 barbarous1 brutal1 merciless4 ,attack1 assault1 infringement1 intrusion1 onslaught4 ,attain1 accomplish1 achieve1 arrive at1 compass1 reach1 secure4 ,attempt1 endeavor1 essay1 strive1 try1 undertake4 ,attitude1 pose1 position1 posture4 ,attribute1 ascribe1 assign1 charge1 impute4 ,axiom1 truism4 ,baffle1 balk1 bar1 check1 embarrass1 foil1 frustrate1 hamper1 hinder1 impede1 retard1 thwart4 ,banter1 burlesque1 drollery1 humor1 jest1 raillery1 wit1 witticism4 ,beg1 plead1 press1 urge4 ,beguile1 divert1 enliven1 entertain1 occupy4 ,bewilderment1 confusion1 distraction1 embarrassment1 perplexity4 ,bind1 fetter1 oblige1 restrain1 restrict4 ,blaze1 flame1 flare1 flash1 flicker1 glare1 gleam1 gleaming1 glimmer1 glitter1 light1 luster1 shimmer1 sparkle4 ,blessed1 hallowed1 holy1 sacred1 saintly4 ,boasting1 display1 ostentation1 pomp1 pompousness1 show4 ,brave1 adventurous1 bold1 courageous1 daring1 dauntless1 fearless1 gallant1 heroic1 undismayed4 ,bravery1 coolness1 courage1 gallantry1 heroism4 ,brief1 concise1 pithy1 sententious1 terse4 ,bring over1 convince1 induce1 influence1 persuade1 prevail upon1 win over4 ,calamity1 disaster1 misadventure1 mischance1 misfortune1 mishap4 ,candid1 impartial1 open1 straightforward1 transparent1 unbiased1 unprejudiced1 unreserved4 ,candor1 frankness1 truth1 veracity4 ,caprice1 humor1 vagary1 whim4 ,caricature1 burlesque1 parody1 travesty4 ,catch1 capture1 clasp1 clutch1 grip1 secure4 ,cause1 consideration1 design1 end1 ground1 motive1 object1 reason1 purpose4 ,caution1 discretion1 prudence4 ,censure1 criticism1 rebuke1 reproof1 reprimand1 reproach4 ,character1 constitution1 disposition1 reputation1 temper1 temperament4 ,characteristic1 peculiarity1 property1 singularity1 trait4 ,chattering1 garrulous1 loquacious1 talkative4 ,cheer1 comfort1 delight1 ecstasy1 gayety1 gladness1 gratification1 happiness1 jollity1 satisfaction4 ,churlish1 crusty1 gloomy1 gruff1 ill-natured1 morose1 sour1 sullen1 surly4 ,class1 circle1 clique1 coterie4 ,cloak1 cover1 gloss over1 mitigate1 palliate1 screen4 ,cloy1 sate1 satiate1 satisfy1 surfeit4 ,commit1 confide1 consign1 intrust1 relegate4 ,compassion1 forbearance1 lenience1 mercy4 ,compassionate1 gracious1 humane4 ,complete1 consummate1 faultless1 flawless1 perfect4 ,confirm1 corroborate4 ,conflicting1 discordant1 discrepant1 incongruous1 mismated4 ,confused1 discordant1 miscellaneous1 various4 ,conjecture1 guess1 suppose1 surmise4 ,conscious1 aware1 certain4 ,consequence1 issue1 outcome1 outgrowth1 result1 sequel1 upshot4 ,continual1 continuous1 incessant1 unbroken1 uninterrupted4 ,credible1 conceivable1 likely1 presumable1 probable1 reasonable4 ,customary1 habitual1 normal1 prevailing1 usual1 wonted4 ,damage1 detriment1 disadvantage1 harm1 hurt1 injury1 prejudice4 ,dangerous1 formidable1 terrible4 ,defame1 deprecate1 disparage1 slander1 vilify4 ,defile1 infect1 soil1 stain1 sully1 taint1 tarnish4 ,deleterious1 detrimental1 hurtful1 harmful1 mischievous1 pernicious1 ruinous4 ,delicate1 fine1 minute1 refined1 slender4 ,delightful1 grateful1 gratifying1 refreshing1 satisfying4 ,difficult1 hard1 laborious1 toilsome1 trying4 ,digress1 diverge1 stray1 swerve1 wander4 ,disown1 disclaim1 disavow1 recall1 renounce1 repudiate1 retract4 ,dispose1 draw1 incline1 induce1 influence1 move1 prompt1 stir4 ,earlier1 foregoing1 previous1 preliminary4 ,effeminate1 feminine1 womanish1 womanly4 ,emergency1 extremity1 necessity4 ,empty1 fruitless1 futile1 idle1 trifling1 unavailing1 useless1 vain1 visionary4 ,erudition1 knowledge1 profundity1 sagacity1 sense1 wisdom4 ,eternal1 imperishable1 interminable1 perennial1 perpetual1 unfailing4 ,excuse1 pretense1 pretext1 subterfuge4 ,exemption1 immunity1 liberty1 license1 privilege4 ,explicit1 express4 ,faint1 faint-hearted1 faltering1 half-hearted1 irresolute1 languid1 listless1 purposeless4 ,faithful1 loyal1 stanch1 trustworthy1 trusty4 ,fanciful1 fantastic1 grotesque1 imaginative1 visionary4 ,fling1 gibe1 jeer1 mock1 scoff1 sneer1 taunt4 ,flock1 bevy1 brood1 covey1 drove1 herd1 litter1 pack4 ,fluctuate1 hesitate1 oscillate1 vacillate1 waver4 ,folly1 imbecility1 senselessness1 stupidity4 ,grief1 melancholy1 regret1 sadness1 sorrow4 ,hale1 healthful1 healthy1 salutary1 sound1 vigorous4 ,ignorant1 illiterate1 uninformed1 uninstructed1 unlettered1 untaught4 ,impulsive1 involuntary1 spontaneous1 unbidden1 voluntary1 willing4 ,indispensable1 inevitable1 necessary1 requisite1 unavoidable4 ,inquisitive1 inquiring1 intrusive1 meddlesome1 peeping1 prying4 ,intractable1 perverse1 petulant1 ungovernable1 wayward1 willful4 ,irritation1 offense1 pique1 resentment4 ,probably1 presumably4 ,reliable1 trustworthy1 trusty4 ,remnant1 trace1 token1 vestige4 ,requite1 repay1 retaliate1 satisfy4 ,,vi4 ,,list ,,of ,,words ,,for ,,exercises ,,in ,,word ,,usage ,ability1 capacity4 ,accept1 except4 ,acceptance1 acceptation4 ,access1 accession4 ,accredit1 credit4 ,act1 action4 ,admire1 like4 ,admittance1 admission4 ,advance1 advancement1 progress1 progression4 ,affect1 effect4 ,after1 afterward4 ,aggravating1 irritating1 provoking1 exasperating4 ,allege1 maintain ,allow1 guess1 think4 ,allusion1 illusion1 delusion4 ,almost1 most1 mostly4 ,alone1 only4 ,alternate1 choice4 ,among1 between4 ,amount1 number1 quantity4 ,angry1 mad4 ,apparently1 evidently4 ,apt1 likely1 liable4 ,arise1 rise4 ,at1 in4 ,avocation1 vocation4 ,awfully1 very4 ,balance1 rest1 remainder4 ,begin1 commence4 ,beside1 besides4 ,both1 each1 every4 ,bring1 fetch4 ,by1 with4 ,calculate1 intend4 ,carry1 bring1 fetch4 ,casuality1 casualty4 ,character1 reputation4 ,claim1 assert4 ,clever1 pleasant4 ,college1 university1 school4 ,completeness1 completion4 ,compliment1 complement4 ,confess1 admit4 ,construe1 construct4 ,contemptible1 contemptuous4 ,continual1 continuous4 ,convince1 convict4 ,council1 counsel4 ,couple1 pair4 ,credible1 creditable1 credulous4 ,custom1 habit4 ,deadly1 deathly4 ,decided1 decisive4 ,decimate1 destroy4 ,declare1 assert4 ,degrade1 demean4 ,depot1 station1 ,r4,r4 ,discover1 invent4 ,drive1 ride4 ,each other1 any other1 one another4 ,emigration1 immigration1 migration4 ,enormity1 enormousness4 ,estimate1 esteem4 ,exceptional1 exceptionable4 ,expect1 suppose4 ,falseness1 falsity4 ,fly1 flee4 ,funny1 odd4 ,grant1 give4 ,habit1 practice4 ,haply1 happily4 ,healthy1 healthful1 wholesome4 ,human1 humane4 ,lady1 woman4 ,last1 latest1 preceding4 ,learn1 teach4 ,lease1 hire4 ,less1 fewer4 ,lie1 lay4 ,loan1 lend4 ,love1 like4 ,mad1 angry4 ,majority1 plurality4 ,manly1 mannish4 ,may1 can4 ,mutual1 common4 ,necessities1 necessaries4 ,nice1 pleasant1 attractive4 ,noted1 notorious4 ,observation1 observance4 ,official1 officious4 ,oral1 verbal4 ,part1 portion4 ,partly1 partially4 ,persecute1 prosecute4 ,person1 party4 ,practicable1 practical4 ,prescribe1 proscribe4 ,prominent1 predominant4 ,purpose1 propose4 ,quite1 very1 rather4 ,relation1 relative4 ,repair1 mend4 ,requirement1 requisite4 ,rise1 raise4 ,scholar1 pupil1 student4 ,sensible of1 sensitive to4 ,series1 succession4 ,settle1 locate4 ,sewage1 sewerage4 ,shall1 will4 ,should1 would4 ,sit1 set4 ,splendid1 elegant4 ,statement1 assertion4 ,statue1 statute1 stature4 ,stay1 stop4 ,team1 carriages4 ,transpire1 happen4 ,verdict1 testimony4 ,without1 unless4 ,womanly1 womanish4 ,,index ,abbott4 ,action3 observation of4 ,actuality3 in argument4 ,adams4 ,adjectives4 ,advantages3 of expressing ideas gained from experience2 of imaginative theme writing4 ,adverbs4 ,agreement4 ,allen1 ,elizabeth ,a4 ,allen1 ,james ,lane4 ,ambiguity4 ,analogy3 argument from4 ,antithesis4 ,apostrophe3 rule for2 as figure of speech4 ,argument3 purpose of2 use of explanation in2 by stating advantages and disadvantages2 by use of specific instances2 refutation or indirect2 differs from exposition2 clear thinking essential2 by inference2 from cause2 from sign2 from example2 from analogy2 differs from persuasion2 with persuasion4 ,argumentative themes4 ,arnold4 ,arrangement3 see coherence2 in argument2 summary of4 ,attendant circumstances3 argument from4 ,authority3 appeals to in argument4 ,auxiliary verbs4 ,ayton4 ,bagley4 ,baldwin4 ,ballad4 ,bancroft4 ,belief3 necessity in debate2 establishing a general theory2 basis of4 ,beveridge4 ,biography4 ,blank verse4 ,boardman4 ,bourdillon4 ,bowles4 ,bradley4 ,brief4 ,brown4 ,browning4 ,bryant4 ,budgell4 ,burke4 ,burns4 ,burroughs4 ,byron4 ,cable4 ,camp4 ,capitals4 ,cary4 ,case4 ,cause and effect3 development of paragraph by use of2 development of composition by use of2 use in exposition2 use in argument4 ,cautions and suggestions3 use of figures of speech2 in debating2 use of pronouns2 use of adjectives2 use of verbs2 use of adverbs2 prepositions4 ,character sketch4 ,choice of words3 adapted to reader2 as to meaning2 simple4 ,clark4 ,classification4 ,clauses3 restrictive and non-restrictive4 ,clearness4 ,climax3 in narration2 in argument2 as figure of speech4 ,coherence3 definition2 in outline2 in composition2 arrangement of details2 arrangement of facts in exposition2 aided by outline2 in argument2 in sentences4 ,coleridge4 ,colon3 rules for4 ,colton4 ,comma3 rules for4 ,comparison3 as an aid to formation of images2 development of a paragraph by2 definitions supplemented by2 as a method of developing a composition2 as an aid in establishing fundamental image2 as an aid to effectiveness in description2 use in exposition2 analogy2 of adjectives2 of adverbs4 ,complete and incomplete verbs4 ,composition3 kinds of2 general principles of4 ,conclusion4 ,conjugation4 ,conjunctions4 ,connolly4 ,connor4 ,constructions3 of nouns2 of personal pronouns2 of relative pronouns2 of adjectives4 ,contrast3 development of a paragraph by2 development of a composition by2 use in exposition4 ,conversation4 ,cooper4 ,copeland-,rideout4 ,correction of themes4 ,darwin4 ,dash3 rules for4 ,debate3 value of2 statement of question2 necessity of belief2 order of presentation2 cautions4 ,deductive reasoning3 errors of4 ,definition3 by synonym2 by use of simpler words2 definitions to be supplemented2 first step in exposition2 logical2 difficulty in framing2 inexact4 ,description3 ,chapter ,,viii 7see also descriptive themes72 defined2 effectiveness in2 classes of objects frequently described3 buildings2 natural features2 sounds2 color2 animals2 plants2 persons2 impression of2 impression as purpose of2 in narration2 general description4 ,descriptive themes4 ,details3 selection of2 paragraph developed by2 related in time-order2 related with reference to position in space2 used in general description2 in general narration2 composition developed by giving details in time-order2 by giving details with reference to position in space2 selection of1 affected by point of view2 selection of essential2 selection and subordination of minor2 arrangement of2 in narration2 arrangement2 selection of facts in exposition2 exposition by use of4 ,dewey4 ,diction4 ,discourse3 forms of presupposes an audience4 ,division4 ,dixey4 ,dramatic poetry4 ,dryer4 ,dunbar1 ,mary ,louise4 ,ease4 ,effectiveness in description comparison and figures of speech1 as aids to4 ,elegance4 ,elegy4 ,eliot1 ,george4 ,emphasis in sentences4 ,enthymeme4 ,epic4 ,equivalents3 for nouns for adjectives4 for adverbs ,essentials of expression4 ,euphony4 ,evidence4 ,examples3 use in exposition argument from 7see also specific instances74 ,exclamation mark3 rule for4 ,expediency3 questions of4 ,experience3 ideas gained from1 ,chapter ,i2 relation to imagination impressions limited to4 ,exposition3 ,chapter ,x 7see also expository themes72 purpose of importance of clear understanding necessary of terms of propositions by repetition by examples by comparison and contrast by obverse statements by details by cause and effect by general description by general narration by use of specific instances4 ,expository themes4 ,expression3 essentials of4 ,fallacy4 ,feelings3 appeal to1 in persuasion4 ,feet4 ,fields4 ,figures of speech use of as an aid to effectiveness in description4 ,ford4 ,form3 importance of directions as to4 ,forms of discourse4 ,fundamental image4 ,gender4 ,general theory3 how established1 basis of appeals to4 ,george1 ,marian ,m4 ,gilman4 ,grammar review4 ,gray4 ,hare4 ,harland4 ,harris4 ,hawthorne4 ,henry4 ,higginson and ,channing4 ,hinman4 ,history3 writing of4 ,hoar4 ,holland4 ,holmes4 ,howells4 ,hyperbole4 ,ideas3 from experience1 ,chapter ,i2 from imagination1 ,chapter ,,ii2 from language1 ,chapter ,,iii4 pleasure in expressing sources of advantages of expressing ideas gained from experience from imagination ideas from pictures acquired through language4 ,images3 making of complete and incomplete reproduction of other requirements to determine meaning fundamental union with impression4 ,imagination1 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,impression3 of description1 as purpose of description1 necessity of observing impressions1 limited to experience1 affected by mood1 union with image4 ,improbability4 ,incentive moment4 ,indentation4 ,inductive reasoning3 errors of4 ,inference3 use in argument4 ,infinitives4 ,interrogation4 ,interrogation mark3 rule for4 ,introduction4 ,invitations4 ,irony4 ,irving4 ,jackson1 ,helen ,hunt4 ,jordan and ,kellogg4 ,kellogg4 ,kingsley4 ,kipling4 ,language3 as a medium through which ideas are acquired1 adapted to reader1 ,letter writing3 ,chapter ,,vi2 importance of1 paper1 beginning1 body1 conclusion1 envelope1 rule of1 business letters1 letters of friendship1 adaptation to reader1 notes4 ,lodge4 ,longfellow4 ,lovelace4 ,lowell4 ,lyric poetry4 ,macaulay4 ,macy-,norris4 ,madame de ,stael4 ,matthews4 ,maxims3 appeals to in argument4 ,mc,carthy1 ,justin4 ,meaning of words4 ,memory4 ,metaphor3 mixed4 ,methods of developing a composition3 with reference to time-order1 with reference to position in space1 by use of comparison or contrast1 by use of generalization and facts1 by stating cause and effect1 by a combination of methods4 ,metonymy4 ,metrical romance4 ,metrical tale4 ,mill4 ,mill1 ,j4 ,s4 ,miller1 ,mary ,rogers4 ,milton4 ,mode4 ,montgomery4 ,morris1 ,clara4 ,motive1 in persuasion4 ,narration3 ,chapter ,,ix 7see also narrative themes below72 kinds of1 use of description in1 general narration1 narrative poetry4 ,narrative themes4 ,newcomer4 ,notes3 formal1 informal4 ,nouns4 ,number4 ,observation3 of actions1 order of1 accuracy in1 observation of impression4 ,obverse statements4 ,ode4 ,ollivaut4 ,oral compositions4 ,order of events4 ,outline3 of a paragraph4 the brief4 making of4 use of in exposition4 ,palmer4 ,paragraph3 defined1 topic statement1 importance of1 length1 indentation1 reasons for studying1 methods of development-- by specific instances1 by giving details1 in time-order1 as determined by position in space1 by comparison1 by cause and effect1 by repetition1 by a combination of methods4 ,paraphrasing4 ,participles4 ,partition4 ,parts of speech4 ,period3 rules for4 ,person4 ,personification4 ,persuasion3 differs from argument1 importance and necessity of1 motive in1 material of1 appeal to feelings1 with argument4 ,phelps1 ,elizabeth ,stuart4 ,philips1 ,david ,graham4 ,phillips1 ,wendell4 ,phrases4 ,plot3 interrelation with character4 ,poe4 ,poetry3 ,chapter ,,vii2 aim of1 kinds of4 ,point3 of a story1 see also climax4 ,point of view3 selection of details effected by1 implied1 changing1 place in paragraph4 ,possibility3 in argument4 ,post4 ,prepositions4 ,preston and ,dodge4 ,principal parts of verbs4 ,probability3 in narration1 in argument4 ,procter1 ,adelaide4 ,pronouns4 ,pronunciation4 ,proportion of parts3 for emphasis4 ,propositions3 specific1 general1 exposition of1 necessary to argument1 of fact and of theory1 statement of4 ,proverbs3 use in argument4 ,punctuation4 ,quotation marks3 rules for4 ,rankin4 ,read4 ,reasoning3 inductive1 errors of induction1 deductive1 relation between inductive and deductive1 errors of deduction4 ,reasons3 number and value of4 ,recitations3 preparation for1 topical4 ,refutation4 ,reid1 ,captain ,mayne4 ,repetition3 developing a paragraph by1 exposition by use of4 ,reproduction3 of a story1 of the thought of a paragraph4 ,restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses4 ,rhyme4 ,rhythm3 variation in4 ,richards1 ,laura ,e4 ,right3 questions of4 ,robertson4 ,roosevelt4 ,ruskin4 ,scansion4 ,scott4 ,semicolon3 rules for4 ,sentences3 length1 in conversation1 relations1 rhetorical features4 ,sewell1 ,anna4 ,shakespeare4 ,shelley4 ,sign3 argument from4 ,simile4 ,slang4 ,smith4 ,song4 ,sonnet4 ,sources of ideas4 ,specific instances3 development of a paragraph by use of1 use in argument and exposition1 development of a composition by use of1 use in exposition4 ,spelling4 ,spencer4 ,stanza4 ,stevenson4 ,stoddard4 ,strong verbs4 ,subject3 selection of1 adapted to reader1 sources1 should be definite1 narrowing4 ,suggestions1 see cautions4 ,summaries1 at the end of the chapters4 ,summarizing paragraph4 ,syllogism4 ,symons4 ,synecdoche4 ,synonyms4 ,tarkington4 ,taylor4 ,tennyson4 ,tense4 ,terms3 specific1 general1 explanation of1 exposition of1 use in argument and exposition4 ,themes3 see descriptive1 narrative1 expository1 argumentative1 and reproduction themes4 ,thoreau4 ,thurston4 ,time-order4 ,title3 selecting of4 ,topic statement4 ,transition from one paragraph to another4 ,transition paragraph4 ,trowbridge4 ,turner4 ,unity3 aided by time relations1 aided by position in space1 definition1 in life2 in outline1 in composition1 in sentences1 selection of details giving1 selection of facts in exposition1 aided by outline4 ,van ,dyke4 ,van ,rensselaer 7,mrs474 ,variety4 ,verbs4 ,verse3 names of4 ,vocabulary3 how to increase1 words applicable to classes of objects4 ,voice4 ,wallace4 ,warner4 ,wessels4 ,whittier4 ,wilcox1 ,ella ,wheeler4 ,woode4 ,words3 choice of1 spelling1 pronunciation1 meaning1 use1 relations of1 adapted to reader1 selection1 use of simpler words1 selection1 applicable to classes of objects1 offices of1 special list of4 ,wordsworth4