,,html file produced by ,david ,widger  
,,essays ,,of ,,schopenhauer3           
,,translated ,,by ,,mrs4 ,,rudolf       
,,dircks4    ,,with ,,an ,,introduction4
          ,,contents      ,,on          
,,authorship ,,and ,,style  ,,on ,,noise
  ,,on ,,education  ,,on ,,reading ,,and
 ,,books  ,,the ,,emptiness ,,of        
,,existence  ,,on ,,women  ,,thinking   
,,for ,,oneself  ,,short ,,dialogue ,,on
 ,,the ,,indestructibility ,,of ,,our   
,,true ,,being ,,by ,,death             
,,religion--,a ,,dialogue               
,,psychological ,,observations          
,,metaphysics ,,of ,,love  ,,physiognomy
  ,,on ,,suicide          ,,preliminary4
      ,when ,schopenhauer was asked     
where he wished to be buried1 he        
answered1  ,anywhere2 they will find me2
 and the stone that marks his grave at  
,frankfort bears merely the inscription 
,arthur ,schopenhauer1 without  even the
 date of his birth or death4            
,schopenhauer1 the pessimist1 had a     
sufficiently optimistic conviction that 

his message to the world would          
ultimately be listened to--a conviction 
that never failed him during a  lifetime
 of disappointments1 of neglect in      
quarters where perhaps he  would have   
most cherished appreciation2 a          
conviction that only showed  some signs 
of being justified a few years before   
his death4 ,schopenhauer  was no        
opportunist2 he was not even            
conciliatory2 he never hesitated to     
declare his own faith in himself1 in his
 principles1 in his philosophy2  he did 
not ask to be listened to as a matter of
 courtesy but as a  right--a right for  
which he would struggle1 for which he   
fought1 and  which has in the course of 
time1 it may be admitted1 been conceded 
to  him4    ,although everything that   
,schopenhauer wrote was written more or 
less as  evidence to support his main   
philosophical thesis1 his unifying      
philosophical principle1 the essays in  
this volume have an interest1 if  not   
altogether apart1 at least of a         

sufficiently independent interest to    
enable them to be considered on their   
own merits1 without relation to  his    
main idea4 ,and in dissociating them1 if
 one may do so for a moment  7their     
author would have scarcely permitted    
it671 one feels that one  enters a field
 of criticism in which opinions can     
scarcely vary4 ,so far  as his          
philosophy is concerned1 this unanimity 
does not exist2 he is one  of the best  
abused amongst philosophers2 he has many
 times been  explained and condemned    
exhaustively1 and no doubt this will be 
as many  times repeated4 ,what the trend
 of his underlying philosophical        
principal  was1 his metaphysical        
explanation of the world1 is indicated  
in almost  all the following essays1 but
 chiefly in the ,metaphysics of ,love1  
to  which the reader may be referred4   
,these essays are a valuable criticism  
of life by a man who had a wide         
experience of life1 a man of the world1 
who possessed an almost inspired        

faculty of observation4 ,schopenhauer1  
of all men1 unmistakably observed  life 
at first hand4 ,there is no academic    
echo in his utterances2 he is  not one  
of a school2 his voice has no formal    
intonation2 it is deep1  full-chested1  
and rings out its words with all the    
poignancy of  individual emphasis1      
without bluster1 but with unfailing     
conviction4 ,he  was for his time1 and  
for his country1 an adept at literary   
form2 but he  used it only as a means4  
,complicated as his sentences           
occasionally are1  he says many sharp1  
many brilliant1 many epigrammatic       
things1 he has the  manner of the famous
 essayists1 he is paradoxical 7how many 
of his  paradoxes are now truisms672 one
 fancies at times that one is almost    
listening to a creation of ,molire1 but 
these fireworks are not merely a        
literary display1 they are used to      
illumine what he considers to be the    
truth4 ,rien n'est beau que le vrai2 le 
vrai seul est aimable1 he  quotes2 he   

was a deliberate and diligent searcher  
after truth1 always  striving to attain 
the heart of things1 to arrive at a     
knowledge of  first principles4 ,it is1 
too1 not without a sort of grim humour  
that  this psychological vivisectionist 
attempts to lay bare the skeleton of    
the human mind1 to tear away all the    
charming little sentiments and          
hypocrisies which in the course of time 
become a part and parcel of  human life4
 ,a man influenced by such motives1 and 
possessing a frank and  caustic tongue1 
was not likely to attain any very large 
share of popular  favour or to be       
esteemed a companionable sort of person4
 ,the fabric of  social life is         
interwoven with a multitude of delicate 
evasions1 of  small hypocrisies1 of     
matters of tinsel sentiment2 social     
intercourse  would be impossible1 if it 
were not so4 ,there is no sort of social
  existence possible for a person who is
 ingenuous enough to say always  what he
 thinks1 and1 on the whole1 one may be  

thankful that there is  not4 ,one       
naturally enough objects to form the    
subject of a critical  diagnosis and    
exposure2 one chooses for one's friends 
the agreeable  hypocrites of life who   
sustain for one the illusions in which  
one wishes  to live4 ,the mere          
conception of a plain-speaking world is 
calculated to  reduce one to the last   
degree of despair2 it is the conception 
of the  intolerable4 ,nevertheless it is
 good for mankind now and again to have 
a  plain speaker1 a mar feast1 on the   
scene2 a wizard who devises for us  a   
spectacle of disillusionment1 and lets  
us for a moment see things as  he       
honestly conceives them to be1 and not  
as we would have them to be4  ,but in   
estimating the value of a lesson of this
 sort1 we must not be  carried too far1 
not be altogether convinced4 ,we may    
first take into  account the temperament
 of the teacher2 we may ask1 is his     
vision  perfect8 ,we may indulge in a   
trifling diagnosis on our own account4  

,and  in an examination of this sort we 
find that ,schopenhauer stands the test 
pretty well1 if not with complete       
success4 ,it strikes us that he suffers 
perhaps a little from a hereditary      
taint1 for we know that there is an     
unmistakable predisposition to          
hypochondria in his family2 we know1 for
  instance1 that his paternal           
grandmother became practically insane   
towards the end of her life1 that two of
 her children suffered from some  sort  
of mental incapacity1 and that a third1 
,schopenhauer's father1 was  a man of   
curious temper and that he probably     
ended his own life4 ,he  himself would  
also have attached some importance1 in a
 consideration of  this sort1 to the    
fact1 as he might have put it1 that his 
mother1 when  she married1 acted in the 
interests of the individual instead of  
unconsciously fulfilling the will of the
 species1 and that the offspring  of the
 union suffered in consequence4 ,still1 
taking all these things  into account1  

and attaching to them what importance   
they may be worth1  one is amazed at the
 clearness of his vision1 by his        
vigorous and at  moments subtle         
perception4 ,if he did not see life     
whole1 what he did see  he saw with his 
own eyes1 and then told us all about it 
with  unmistakable veracity1 and for the
 most part simply1 brilliantly4 ,too    
much importance cannot be attached to   
this quality of seeing things for       
oneself2 it is the stamp of a great and 
original mind2 it is the  principal     
quality of what one calls genius4    ,in
 possessing ,schopenhauer the world     
possesses a personality the richer2  a  
somewhat garrulous personality it may   
be2 a curiously whimsical and  sensitive
 personality1 full of quite ordinary    
superstitions1 of  extravagant vanities1
 selfish1 at times violent1 rarely      
generous2 a man  whom during his        
lifetime nobody quite knew1 an isolated 
creature1  self-absorbed1 solely        
concerned in his elaboration of the     

explanation of  the world1 and          
possessing subtleties which for the most
 part escaped the  perception of his    
fellows2 at once a hermit and a         
boulevardier4 ,his was  essentially a   
great temperament2 his whole life was a 
life of ideas1 an  intellectual life4   
,and his work1 the fruit of his life1   
would seem to be  standing the test of  
all great work--the test of time4 ,it is
 not a  little curious that one so      
little realised in his own day1 one so  
little  lovable and so little loved1    
should now speak to us from his pages   
with  something of the force of personal
 utterance1 as if he were actually  with
 us and as if we knew him1 even as we   
know ,charles ,lamb and ,izaak  ,walton1
 personalities of such a different      
calibre4 ,and this man whom we  realise 
does not impress us unfavourably2 if he 
is without charm1 he is  surely         
immensely interesting and attractive2 he
 is so strong in his  intellectual      
convictions1 he is so free from         

intellectual affectations1  he is such  
an ingenuous egotist1 so navely human2  
he is so mercilessly  honest and        
independent1 and1 at times 7one may be  
permitted to think71  so mistaken4      
,r4,d4          ,,biographical ,,note4  
,arthur ,schopenhauer was born at ,no4  
#aag of the ,heiligengeist ,strasse1 at 
,dantzic1 on ,february #bb1 #aghh4 ,his 
parents on both sides traced their      
descent from ,dutch ancestry1 the       
great-grandfather of his mother having  
occupied some ecclesiastical position at
 ,gorcum4 ,dr4 ,gwinner in his  ,life   
does not follow the ,dutch ancestry on  
the father's side1 but  merely states   
that the great-grandfather of           
,schopenhauer at the  beginning of the  
eighteenth century rented a farm1 the   
,stuthof1 in the  neighbourhood of      
,dantzic4 ,this ancestor1 ,andreas      
,schopenhauer1 received  here on one    
occasion an unexpected visit from ,peter
 the ,great and  ,catherine1 and it is  
related that there being no stove in the

 chamber  which the royal pair selected 
for the night1 their host1 for the      
purpose  of heating it1 set fire to     
several small bottles of brandy which   
had  been emptied on the stone floor4   
,his son ,andreas followed in the       
footsteps of his father1 combining a    
commercial career with country          
pursuits4 ,he died in #agid at ,ohra1   
where he had purchased an estate1 and   
to which he had retired to spend his    
closing years4 ,his wife 7the           
grandmother of ,arthur7 survived him for
 some years1 although shortly  after his
 death she was declared insane and      
incapable of managing her  affairs4     
,this couple had four sons3 the eldest1 
,michael ,andreas1 was  weak-minded2 the
 second1 ,karl ,gottfried1 was also     
mentally weak and had  deserted his     
people for evil companions2 the youngest
 son1 ,heinrich  ,floris1 possessed1    
however1 in a considerable degree the   
qualities which  his brothers lacked4   
,he possessed intelligence1 a strong    

character1 and  had great commercial    
sagacity2 at the same time1 he took a   
definite  interest in intellectual      
pursuits1 reading ,voltaire1 of whom he 
was more  or less a disciple1 and other 
,french authors1 possessing a keen      
admiration for ,english political and   
family life1 and furnishing his  house  
after an ,english fashion4 ,he was a man
 of fiery temperament and  his          
appearance was scarcely prepossessing2  
he was short and stout2 he  had a broad 
face and turned-up nose1 and a large    
mouth4 ,this was the  father of our     
philosopher4    ,when he was            
thirty-eight1 ,heinrich ,schopenhauer   
married1 on ,may #af1  #aghe1 ,johanna  
,henriette ,trosiener1 a young lady of  
eighteen1 and  daughter of a member of  
the ,city ,council of ,dantzic4 ,she was
 at this  time an attractive1 cultivated
 young person1 of a placid disposition1 
who seems to have married more because  
marriage offered her a  comfortable     
settlement and assured position in life1

 than from any  passionate affection for
 her wooer1 which1 it is just to her to 
say1 she  did not profess4 ,heinrich    
,schopenhauer was so much influenced by 
,english  ideas that he desired that his
 first child should be born in ,england2
  and thither1 some two years after     
their marriage1 the pair1 after making  
a dtour on the ,continent1 arrived4 ,but
 after spending some weeks in  ,london  
,mrs4 ,schopenhauer was seized with     
home-sickness1 and her husband  acceded 
to her entreaties to return to ,dantzic1
 where a child1 the  future philosopher1
 was shortly afterwards born4 ,the first
 five years of  the child's life were   
spent in the country1 partly at the     
,stuthof which  had formerly belonged to
 ,andreas ,schopenhauer1 but had        
recently come  into the possession of   
his maternal grandfather4    ,five years
 after the birth of his son1 ,heinrich  
,schopenhauer1 in  consequence of the   
political crisis1 which he seems to have
 taken keenly  to heart1 in the affairs 

of the ,hanseatic town of ,dantzic1     
transferred  his business and his home  
to ,hamburg1 where in #agie a second    
child1  ,adele1 was born4 ,two years    
later1 ,heinrich1 who intended to train 
his  son for a business life1 took him1 
with this idea1 to ,havre1 by way of    
,paris1 where they spent a little time1 
and left him there with ,m4  ,grgoire1 a
 commercial connection4 ,arthur remained
 at ,havre for two  years1 receiving    
private instruction with this man's son 
,anthime1 with  whom he struck up a     
strong friendship1 and when he returned 
to ,hamburg  it was found that he       
remembered but few words of his         
mother-tongue4 ,here  he was placed in  
one of the principal private schools1   
where he remained  for three years4     
,both his parents1 but especially his   
mother1 cultivated  at this time the    
society of literary people1 and         
entertained at their  house ,klopstock  
and other notable persons4 ,in the      
summer following his  return home from  

,havre he accompanied his parents on a  
continental tour1  stopping amongst     
other places at ,weimar1 where he saw   
,schiller4 ,his  mother1 too1 had       
considerable literary tastes1 and a     
distinct literary  gift which1 later1   
she cultivated to some advantage1 and   
which brought  her in the production of 
accounts of travel and fiction a not    
inconsiderable reputation4 ,it is1      
therefore1 not surprising that  literary
 tendencies began to show themselves in 
her son1 accompanied by  a growing      
distaste for the career of commerce     
which his father wished  him to follow4 
,heinrich ,schopenhauer1 although       
deprecating these  tendencies1          
considered the question of purchasing a 
canonry for his son1  but ultimately    
gave up the idea on the score of        
expense4 ,he then  proposed to take him 
on an extended trip to ,france1 where he
 might meet  his young friend ,anthime1 
and then to ,england1 if he would give  
up the  idea of a literary calling1 and 

the proposal was accepted4    ,in the   
spring of #ahjc1 then1 he accompanied   
his parents to ,london1  where1 after   
spending some time in sight-seeing1 he  
was placed in the  school of ,mr4       
,lancaster at ,wimbledon4 ,here he      
remained for three months1  from ,july  
to ,september1 laying the foundation of 
his knowledge of the  ,english language1
 while his parents proceeded to         
,scotland4 ,english  formality1 and what
 he conceived to be ,english hypocrisy1 
did not  contrast favourably with his   
earlier and gayer experiences in        
,france1  and made an extremely         
unfavourable impression upon his mind2  
which found  expression in letters to   
his friends and to his mother4    ,on   
returning to ,hamburg after this        
extended excursion abroad1              
,schopenhauer was placed in the office  
of a ,hamburg senator called  ,jenisch1 
but he was as little inclined as ever to
 follow a commercial  career1 and       
secretly shirked his work so that he    

might pursue his  studies4 ,a little    
later a somewhat unexplainable calamity 
occurred4 ,when  ,dantzic ceased to be a
 free city1 and ,heinrich ,schopenhauer 
at a  considerable cost and monetary    
sacrifice transferred his business to   
,hamburg1 the event caused him much     
bitterness of spirit4 ,at ,hamburg his  
business seems to have undergone        
fluctuations4 ,whether these further    
affected his spirit is not sufficiently 
established1 but it is certain1         
however1 that he developed peculiarities
 of manner1 and that his temper  became 
more violent4 ,at any rate1 one day in  
,april #ahje it was found  that he had  
either fallen or thrown himself into the
 canal from an upper  storey of a       
granary2 it was generally concluded that
 it was a case of  suicide4             
,schopenhauer was seventeen at the time 
of this catastrophe1 by which he  was   
naturally greatly affected4 ,although by
 the death of his father the  influence 
which impelled him to a commercial      

career was removed1 his  veneration for 
the dead man remained with him through  
life1 and on one  occasion found        
expression in a curious tribute to his  
memory in a  dedication 7which was not1 
however1 printed7 to the second edition 
of  ,die ,welt als ,wille und           
,vorstellung4 ,that ,i could make use of
 and  cultivate in a right direction the
 powers which nature gave me1 he        
concludes1 that ,i could follow my      
natural impulse and think and work  for 
countless others without the help of any
 one2 for that ,i thank thee1  my       
father1 thank thy activity1 thy         
cleverness1 thy thrift and care for  the
 future4 ,therefore ,i praise thee1 my  
noble father4 ,and every one who  from  
my work derives any pleasure1           
consolation1 or instruction shall  hear 
thy name and know that if ,heinrich     
,floris ,schopenhauer had not been  the 
man he was1 ,arthur ,schopenhauer would 
have been a hundred times  ruined4      
,the year succeeding her husband's      

death1 ,johanna ,schopenhauer removed   
with her daughter to ,weimar1 after     
having attended to the settlement of    
her husband's affairs1 which left her in
 possession of a considerable  income4  
,at ,weimar she devoted herself to the  
pursuit of literature1 and  held twice a
 week a sort of salon1 which was        
attended by ,goethe1 the two            
,schlegels1 ,wieland1 ,heinrich ,meyer1 
,grimm1 and other literary persons of   
note4 ,her son meanwhile continued for  
another year at the dead timber  of the 
desk1 when his mother1 acting under the 
advice of her friend  ,fernow1          
consented1 to his great joy1 to his     
following his literary bent4    ,during 
the next few years we find ,schopenhauer
 devoting himself  assiduously to       
acquiring the equipment for a learned   
career2 at first at  the ,gymnasium at  
,gotha1 where he penned some satirical  
verses on one of  the masters1 which    
brought him into some trouble4 ,he      
removed in  consequence to ,weimar1     

where he pursued his classical studies  
under the  direction of ,franz ,passow1 
at whose house he lodged4 ,unhappily1   
during  his sojourn at ,weimar his      
relations with his mother became        
strained4 ,one  feels that there is a   
sort of autobiographical interest in his
 essay on  women1 that his view was     
largely influenced by his relations with
 his  mother1 just as one feels that his
 particular argument in his essay on    
education is largely influenced by the  
course of his own training4    ,on his  
coming of age ,schopenhauer was entitled
 to a share of the  paternal estate1 a  
share which yielded him a yearly income 
of about  #aej4 ,he now entered himself 
at the ,university of ,gttingen         
7,october  #ahji71 enrolling himself as 
a student of medicine1 and devoting     
himself  to the study of the natural    
sciences1 mineralogy1 anatomy1          
mathematics1  and history2 later1 he    
included logic1 physiology1 and         
ethnography4 ,he  had always been       

passionately devoted to music and found 
relaxation in  learning to play the     
flute and guitar4 ,his studies at this  
time did not  preoccupy him to the      
extent of isolation2 he mixed freely    
with his  fellows1 and reckoned amongst 
his friends or acquaintances1 ,f4,w4    
,kreise1  ,bunsen1 and ,ernst ,schulze4 
,during one vacation he went on an      
expedition  to ,cassel and to the ,hartz
 ,mountains4 ,it was about this time1   
and partly  owing to the influence of   
,schulze1 the author of ,aenesidemus1   
and then  a professor at the ,university
 of ,gttingen1 that ,schopenhauer came  
to  realise his vocation as that of a   
philosopher4    ,during his holiday at  
,weimar he called upon ,wieland1 then   
seventy-eight  years old1 who1 probably 
prompted by ,mrs4 ,schopenhauer1 tried  
to  dissuade him from the vocation which
 he had chosen4 ,schopenhauer in  reply 
said1 ,life is a difficult question2 ,i 
have decided to spend my  life in       
thinking about it4 ,then1 after the     

conversation had continued  for some    
little time1 ,wieland declared warmly   
that he thought that he  had chosen     
rightly4 ,i understand your nature1 he  
said2 keep to  philosophy4 ,and1 later1 
he told ,johanna ,schopenhauer that he  
thought  her son would be a great man   
some day4    ,towards the close of the  
summer of #ahaa ,schopenhauer removed to
 ,berlin  and entered the ,university4  
,he here continued his study of the     
natural  sciences2 he also attended the 
lectures on the ,history of ,philosophy 
by  ,schleiermacher1 and on ,greek      
,literature and ,antiquities by ,f4,a4  
,wolf1  and the lectures on ,facts of   
,consciousness and ,theory of ,science  
by  ,fichte1 for the last of whom1 as we
 know indeed from frequent references   
in his books1 he had no little contempt4
 ,a year or so later1 when the  news of 
,napoleon's disaster in ,russia arrived1
 the ,germans were thrown  into a state 
of great excitement1 and made speedy    
preparations for war4  ,schopenhauer    

contributed towards equipping volunteers
 for the army1 but  he did not enter    
active service2 indeed1 when the result 
of the battle  of ,ltzen was known and  
,berlin seemed to be in danger1 he fled 
for  safety to ,dresden and thence to   
,weimar4 ,a little later we find him at 
,rudolstadt1 whither he had proceeded in
 consequence of the recurrence of       
differences with his mother1 and        
remained there from ,june to ,november  
#ahac1 principally engaged in the       
composition of an essay1 ,a             
,philosophical ,treatise on the         
,fourfold ,root of the ,principle of    
,sufficient ,reason1 which he offered to
 the ,university of ,jena as an         
exercise to qualify for the degree of   
,doctor of ,philosophy1 and for  which a
 diploma was granted4 ,he published this
 essay at his own cost  towards the end 
of the year1 but it seems to have fallen
 flatly from the  press1 although its   
arguments attracted the attention and   
the sympathy  of ,goethe1 who1 meeting  

him on his return to ,weimar in         
,november1  discussed with him his own  
theory of colour4 ,a couple of years    
before1  ,goethe1 who was opposed to the
 ,newtonian theory of light1 had brought
  out his ,farbenlehre 7colour theory74 
,in ,goethe's diary ,schopenhauer's     
name frequently occurs1 and on the #bdth
 ,november #ahac he wrote to  ,knebel3  
,young ,schopenhauer is a remarkable and
 interesting man4444 ,i  find him       
intellectual1 but ,i am undecided about 
him as far as other  things go4 ,the    
result of this association with ,goethe 
was his ,ueber  das ,sehn und die       
,farben 7,on ,vision and ,colour71      
published at ,leipzig  in #ahaf1 a copy 
of which he forwarded to ,goethe 7who   
had already seen  the ,,ms47 on the #dth
 ,may of that year4 ,a few days later   
,goethe wrote to  the distinguished     
scientist1 ,dr4 ,seebeck1 asking him to 
read the work4  ,in ,gwinner's ,life we 
find the copy of a letter written in    
,english to  ,sir ,c4,l4 ,eastlake3 ,in 

the year #ahcj1 as ,i was going to      
publish in ,latin  the same treatise    
which in ,german accompanies this       
letter1 ,i went to ,dr4  ,seebeck of the
 ,berlin ,academy1 who is universally   
admitted to be the  first natural       
philosopher 7in the ,english sense of   
the word meaning  physiker7 of ,germany2
 he is the discoverer of                
thermo-electricity and of  several      
physical truths4 ,i questioned him on   
his opinion on the  controversy between 
,goethe and ,newton2 he was extremely   
cautious and  made me promise that ,i   
should not print and publish anything of
 what he  might say1 and at last1 being 
hard pressed by me1 he confessed that   
indeed ,goethe was perfectly right and  
,newton wrong1 but that he had no       
business to tell the world so4 ,he has  
died since1 the old coward6    ,in ,may 
#ahad ,schopenhauer removed from ,weimar
 to ,dresden1 in consequence  of the    
recurrence of domestic differences with 
his mother4 ,this was the  final break  

between the pair1 and he did not see her
 again during the  remaining twenty-four
 years of her life1 although they       
resumed  correspondence some years      
before her death4 ,it were futile to    
attempt to  revive the dead bones of the
 cause of these unfortunate differences 
between ,johanna ,schopenhauer and her  
son4 ,it was a question of opposing     
temperaments2 both and neither were at  
once to blame4 ,there is no reason  to  
suppose that ,schopenhauer was ever a   
conciliatory son1 or a  companionable   
person to live with2 in fact1 there is  
plenty to show that  he possessed trying
 and irritating qualities1 and that he  
assumed an  attitude of criticism       
towards his mother that could not in any
  circumstances be agreeable4 ,on the   
other hand1 ,anselm ,feuerbach in his   
,memoirs furnishes us with a scarcely   
prepossessing picture of ,mrs4          
,schopenhauer3 ,madame ,schopenhauer1 he
 writes1 a rich widow4 ,makes           
profession of erudition4 ,authoress4    

,prattles much and well1  intelligently2
 without heart and soul4                
,self-complacent1 eager after           
approbation1 and constantly smiling to  
herself4 ,god preserve us from  women   
whose mind has shot up into mere        
intellect4    ,schopenhauer meanwhile   
was working out his philosophical       
system1 the  idea of his principal      
philosophical work4 ,under my hands1 he 
wrote in  #ahac1 and still more in my   
mind grows a work1 a philosophy which   
will  be an ethics and a metaphysics in 
one3--two branches which hitherto have  
been separated as falsely as man has    
been divided into soul and body4  ,the  
work grows1 slowly and gradually        
aggregating its parts like the  child in
 the womb4 ,i became aware of one       
member1 one vessel1 one part  after     
another4 ,in other words1 ,i set each   
sentence down without anxiety  as to how
 it will fit into the whole2 for ,i know
 it has all sprung from  a single       
foundation4 ,it is thus that an organic 

whole originates1 and  that alone will  
live4444 ,chance1 thou ruler of this    
sense-world6 ,let me  live and find     
peace for yet a few years1 for ,i love  
my work as the  mother her child4 ,when 
it is matured and has come to birth1    
then exact  from me thy duties1 taking  
interest for the postponement4 ,but1 if 
,i sink  before the time in this iron   
age1 then grant that these miniature    
beginnings1 these studies of mine1 be   
given to the world as they are and  for 
what they are3 some day perchance will  
arise a kindred spirit1 who  can frame  
the members together and 'restore' the  
fragment of  antiquity4#a    ,by ,march 
#ahag he had completed the preparatory  
work of his system1 and  began to put   
the whole thing together2 a year later  
,die ,welt als ,wille  und ,vorstellung3
 vier ,bcher1 nebst einem ,anhange1 der 
die ,kritik der  ,kantischen            
,philosophie enthlt 7,the ,world as     
,will and ,idea2 four  books1 with an   
appendix containing a criticism on the  

philosophy of  ,kant74 ,some delay      
occurring in the publication1           
,schopenhauer wrote one  of his         
characteristically abusive letters to   
,brockhaus1 his publisher1  who retorted
 that he must decline all further       
correspondence with one  whose letters1 
in their divine coarseness and          
rusticity1 savoured more  of the cabman 
than of the philosopher1 and concluded  
with a hope that  his fears that the    
work he was printing would be good for  
nothing but  waste paper1 might not be  
realised4#b ,the work appeared about the
 end  of ,december #ahah with #ahai on  
the title-page4 ,schopenhauer had       
meanwhile  proceeded in ,september to   
,italy1 where he revised the final      
proofs4 ,so  far as the reception of the
 work was concerned there was reason to 
believe that the fears of ,brockhaus    
would be realised1 as1 in fact1 they    
came practically to be4 ,but in the face
 of this general want of  appreciation1 
,schopenhauer had some crumbs of        

consolation4 ,his sister  wrote to him  
in ,march 7he was then staying at       
,naples7 that ,goethe had  received it  
with great joy1 immediately cut the     
thick book1 and began  instantly to read
 it4 ,an hour later he sent me a note to
 say that he  thanked you very much and 
thought that the whole book was good4   
,he  pointed out the most important     
passages1 read them to us1 and was      
greatly delighted4444 ,you are the only 
author whom ,goethe has ever read       
seriously1 it seems to me1 and ,i       
rejoice4 ,nevertheless the book did not 
sell4 ,sixteen years later ,brockhaus   
informed ,schopenhauer that a large     
number of copies had been sold at waste 
paper price1 and that he had  even then 
a few in stock4 ,still1 during the years
 #ahdb-dc1 ,schopenhauer  was           
contemplating the issue of a second     
edition and making revisions for  that  
purpose2 when he had completed the work 
he took it to ,brockhaus1  and agreed to
 leave the question of remuneration     

open4 ,in the following  year the second
 edition was issued 7#ejj copies of the 
first volume1 and  #gej of the second71 
and for this the author was to receive  
no  remuneration4 ,not to my            
contemporaries1 says ,schopenhauer with 
fine  conviction in his preface to this 
edition1 not to my compatriots--to      
mankind ,i commit my now completed work1
 in the confidence that it will  not be 
without value for them1 even if this    
should be late recognised1  as is       
commonly the lot of what is good4 ,for  
it cannot have been for the  passing    
generation1 engrossed with the delusion 
of the moment1 that my  mind1 almost    
against my will1 has uninterruptedly    
stuck to its work  through the course of
 a long life4 ,and while the lapse of   
time has not  been able to make me doubt
 the worth of my work1 neither has the  
lack of  sympathy2 for ,i constantly saw
 the false and the bad1 and finally the 
absurd and senseless1 stand in universal
 admiration and honour1 and ,i          

bethought myself that if it were not the
 case1 those who are capable of         
recognising the genuine and right are so
 rare that we may look for them  in vain
 for some twenty years1 then those who  
are capable of producing  it could not  
be so few that their works afterwards   
form an exception to  the perishableness
 of earthly things2 and thus would be   
lost the  reviving prospect of posterity
 which every one who sets before himself
 a  high aim requires to strengthen     
him4#c    ,when ,schopenhauer started   
for ,italy ,goethe had provided him with
 a  letter of introduction to ,lord     
,byron1 who was then staying at ,venice1
  but ,schopenhauer never made use of   
the letter2 he said that he hadn't  the 
courage to present himself4 ,do you     
know1 he says in a letter1  three great 
pessimists were in ,italy at the same   
time--,byron1 ,leopardi1  and myself6   
,and yet not one of us has made the     
acquaintance of the  other4 ,he remained
 in ,italy until ,june #ahai1 when he   

proceeded to  ,milan1 where he received 
distressing news from his sister to the 
effect  that a ,dantzic firm1 in which  
she and her mother had invested all     
their  capital1 and in which he himself 
had invested a little1 had become       
bankrupt4 ,schopenhauer immediately     
proposed to share his own income with   
them4 ,but later1 when the defaulting   
firm offered to its creditors a         
composition of thirty per cent1         
,schopenhauer would accept nothing less 
than seventy per cent in the case of    
immediate payment1 or the whole if  the 
payment were deferred2 and he was so    
indignant at his mother and  sister     
falling in with the arrangement of the  
debtors1 that he did not  correspond    
with them again for eleven years4 ,with 
reference to this  affair he wrote3 ,i  
can imagine that from your point of view
 my  behaviour may seem hard and unfair4
 ,that is a mere illusion which         
disappears as soon as you reflect that  
all ,i want is merely not to have  taken

 from me what is most rightly and       
incontestably mine1 what1  moreover1 my 
whole happiness1 my freedom1 my learned 
leisure depend  upon2--a blessing which 
in this world people like me enjoy so   
rarely  that it would be almost as      
unconscientious as cowardly not to      
defend it  to the uttermost and maintain
 it by every exertion4 ,you say1        
perhaps1  that if all your creditors    
were of this way of thinking1 ,i too    
should  come badly off4 ,but if all men 
thought as ,i do1 there would be much   
more  thinking done1 and in that case   
probably there would be neither         
bankruptcies1 nor wars1 nor gaming      
tables4#d    ,in ,july #ahai1 when he   
was at ,heidelberg1 the idea occurred to
 him of  turning university lecturer1   
and took practical shape the following  
summer1 when he delivered a course of   
lectures on philosophy at the  ,berlin  
,university4 ,but the experiment was not
 a success2 the course was  not         
completed through the want of           

attendance1 while ,hegel at the same    
time and place was lecturing to a       
crowded and enthusiastic audience4      
,this failure embittered him1 and during
 the next few years there is  little of 
any moment in his life to record4 ,there
 was one incident1  however1 to which   
his detractors would seem to have       
attached more  importance than it was   
worth1 but which must have been         
sufficiently  disturbing to             
,schopenhauer--we refer to the ,marquet 
affair4 ,it appears  on his returning   
home one day he found three women       
gossiping outside his  door1 one of whom
 was a seamstress who occupied another  
room in the  house4 ,their presence     
irritated ,schopenhauer 7whose          
sensitiveness in  such matters may be   
estimated from his essay ,on ,noise71   
who1 finding  them occupying the same   
position on another occasion1 requested 
them to  go away1 but the seamstress    
replied that she was an honest person   
and  refused to move4 ,schopenhauer     

disappeared into his apartments and     
returned with a stick4 ,according to his
 own account1 he offered his arm  to the
 woman in order to take her out2 but she
 would not accept it1 and  remained     
where she was4 ,he then threatened to   
put her out1 and carried  his threat    
into execution by seizing her round the 
waist and putting her  out4 ,she        
screamed1 and attempted to return4      
,schopenhauer now pushed her  out2 the  
woman fell1 and raised the whole house4 
,this woman1 ,caroline  ,luise ,marquet1
 brought an action against him for      
damages1 alleging that  he had kicked   
and beaten her4 ,schopenhauer defended  
his own case1 with  the result that the 
action was dismissed4 ,the woman        
appealed1 and  ,schopenhauer1 who was   
contemplating going to ,switzerland1 did
 not alter  his plans1 so that the      
appeal was heard during his absence1 the
 judgment  reversed1 and he was mulcted 
in a fine of twenty thalers4 ,but the   
unfortunate business did not end here4  

,schopenhauer proceeded from            
,switzerland to ,italy1 and did not     
return to ,berlin until ,may #ahbe4     
,caroline ,marquet renewed her          
complaints before the courts1 stating   
that  his ill-usage had occasioned a    
fever through which she had lost the    
power of one of her arms1 that her whole
 system was entirely shaken1 and        
demanding a monthly allowance as        
compensation4 ,she won her case2 the    
defendant had to pay three hundred      
thalers in costs and contribute sixty   
thalers a year to her maintenance while 
she lived4 ,schopenhauer on  returning  
to ,berlin did what he could to get the 
judgment reversed1 but  unsuccessfully4 
,the woman lived for twenty years2 he   
inscribed on her  death certificate1    
,obit anus1 obit onus    ,the idea of   
marriage seems to have more or less     
possessed ,schopenhauer  about this     
time1 but he could not finally determine
 to take the step4  ,there is sufficient
 to show in the following essays in what

 light he  regarded women4 ,marriage was
 a debt1 he said1 contracted in youth   
and  paid off in old age4 ,married      
people have the whole burden of life to 
bear1 while the unmarried have only     
half1 was a characteristically  selfish 
apothegm4 ,had not all the true         
philosophers been                       
celibates--,descartes1 ,leibnitz1       
,malebranche1 ,spinoza1 and ,kant8 ,the 
classic writers were of course not to be
 considered1 because with them  woman   
occupied a subordinate position4 ,had   
not all the great poets  married1 and   
with disastrous consequences8 ,plainly1 
,schopenhauer was not  the person to    
sacrifice the individual to the will of 
the species4    ,in ,august #ahca he    
made a fortuitous expedition to         
,frankfort-on-the-,main--an expedition  
partly prompted by the outbreak of      
cholera at ,berlin at the time1 and     
partly by the portent of a dream 7he    
was credulous in such matters7 which at 
the beginning of the year had  intimated

 his death4 ,here1 however1 he          
practically remained until his  death1  
leading a quiet1 mechanically regular   
life and devoting his  thoughts to the  
development of his philosophic ideas1   
isolated at first1  but as time went on 
enjoying somewhat greedily the success  
which had  been denied him in his       
earlier days4 ,in ,february #ahci he had
 a moment of  elation when he heard from
 the ,scientific ,society of ,drontheim 
that he  had won the prize for the best 
essay on the question1 ,whether free    
will  could be proved from the evidence 
of consciousness1 and that he had  been 
elected a member of the ,society2 and a 
corresponding moment of  despondency    
when he was informed by the ,royal      
,danish ,academy of the  ,sciences at   
,copenhagen1 in a similar competition1  
that his essay on  ,whether the source  
and foundation of ethics was to be      
sought in an  intuitive moral idea1 and 
in the analysis of other derivative     
moral  conceptions1 or in some other    

principle of knowledge1 had failed1     
partly on the ground of the want of     
respect which it showed to the  opinions
 of the chief philosophers4 ,he         
published these essays in #ahda  under  
the title of ,the ,two ,fundamental     
,problems of ,ethics1 and ten  years    
later ,parerga und ,paralipomena the    
composition of which had  engaged his   
attention for five or six years4 ,the   
latter work1 which  proved to be his    
most popular1 was refused by three      
publishers1 and when  eventually it was 
accepted by ,hayn of ,berlin1 the author
 only received  ten free copies of his  
work as payment4 ,it is from this book  
that all  except one of the following   
essays have been selected2 the exception
 is  ,the ,metaphysics of ,love1 which  
appears in the supplement of the third  
book of his principal work4 ,the second 
edition of ,die ,welt als ,wille  und   
,vorstellung appeared in #ahdd1 and was 
received with growing  appreciation4    
,hitherto he had been chiefly known in  

,frankfort as the son  of the celebrated
 ,johanna ,schopenhauer2 now he came to 
have a following  which1 if at first    
small in numbers1 were sufficiently     
enthusiastic1 and  proved1 indeed1 so   
far as his reputation was concerned1    
helpful4 ,artists  painted his portrait2
 a bust of him was made by ,elizabeth   
,ney4 ,in the  ,april number of the     
,westminster ,review for #ahec ,john    
,oxenford1 in an  article entitled      
,iconoclasm in ,german ,philosophy1     
heralded in ,england  his recognition as
 a writer and thinker2 three years later
 ,saint-,ren  ,taillandier1 in the      
,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 did a similar 
service for  him in ,france4 ,one of his
 most enthusiastic admirers was ,richard
 ,wagner1  who in #ahed sent him a copy 
of his ,der ,ring der ,nibelungen1 with 
the  inscription ,in admiration and     
gratitude4 ,the ,philosophical ,faculty 
of  the ,university of ,leipzic offered 
a prize for an exposition and  criticism
 of his philosophical system4 ,two      

,frenchmen1 ,m4 ,foucher de  ,careil and
 ,m4 ,challemel ,lacour1 who visited    
,schopenhauer during his last  days1    
have given an account of their          
impressions of the interview1 the       
latter in an article entitled1 ,un      
,bouddhiste ,contemporain en            
,allemagne1 which appeared in the ,revue
 des ,deux ,mondes for ,march  #aeth1   
#ahgj4 ,m4 ,foucher de ,careil gives a  
charming picture of him3--,quand je le  
vis1 pour la premire fois1 en #ahei1  la
 table de      l'htel d',angleterre1    
,francfort1 c'tait dj un vieillard1     
l'oeil d'un bleu vif et limpide1  la    
lvre mince et lgrement      sarcastique1
 autour de laquelle errait un fin       
sourire1 et dont le      vaste front1   
estomp de deux touffes de cheveux blancs
 sur les      cts1 relevait d'un cachet 
de noblesse et de distinction la        
physionomie petillante d'esprit et de   
malice4 ,les habits1 son jabot      de  
dentelle1 sa cravate blanche rappelaient
 un vieillard de la fin      du rgne de 

,louis ,,xv2 ses manires taient celles  
d'un homme de      bonne compagnie4     
,habituellement rserv et d'un naturel   
craintif      jusqu' la mfiance1 il ne  
se livrait qu'avec ses intimes ou les   
trangers de passage  ,francfort4 ,ses   
mouvements taient vifs et               
devenaient d'une ptulance extraordinaire
 dans la conversation2 il      fuyait   
les discussions et les vains combats de 
paroles1 mais c'tait      pour mieux    
jouir du charme d'une causerie intime4  
,il possdait et      parlait avec une   
gale perfection quatre langues3 le      
franais1      l'anglais1 l'allemand1    
l'italien et passablement l'espagnol4   
,quand      il causait1 la verve du     
vieillard brodait sur le canevas un peu 
lourd de l'allemand ses brilliantes     
arabesques latines1 grecques1           
franaises1 anglaises1 italiennes4       
,c'tait un entrain1 une prcision      et
 des sailles1 une richesse de citations1
 une exactitude de dtails      qui      
faisait couler les heures2 et           

quelquefois le petit cercle de ses      
intimes l'coutait jusqu' minuit1 sans   
qu'un moment de fatigue se      ft peint
 sur ses traits ou que le feu de son    
regard se ft un      instant amorti4 ,sa
 parole nette et accentue captivait     
l'auditoire3      elle peignait et      
analysait tout ensemble2 une sensibilit 
dlicate      en augmentait le feu2 elle 
tait exacte et prcise sur toutes sortes 
de sujets4    ,schopenhauer died on the 
#bjth ,september #ahfj1 in his          
seventy-third year1  peacefully1 alone  
as he had lived1 but not without        
warning4 ,one day in  ,april1 taking his
 usual brisk walk after dinner1 he      
suffered from  palpitation of the heart1
 he could scarcely breathe4 ,these      
symptoms  developed during the next few 
months1 and ,dr4 ,gwinner advised him to
  discontinue his cold baths and to     
breakfast in bed2 but ,schopenhauer1    
notwithstanding his early medical       
training1 was little inclined to  follow
 medical advice4 ,to ,dr4 ,gwinner1 on  

the evening of the #ahth  ,september1   
when he expressed a hope that he might  
be able to go to  ,italy1 he said that  
it would be a pity if he died now1 as he
 wished to  make several important      
additions to his ,parerga2 he spoke     
about his  works and of the warm        
recognition with which they had been    
welcomed in  the most remote places4    
,dr4 ,gwinner had never before found him
 so eager  and gentle1 and left him     
reluctantly1 without1 however1 the least
  premonition that he had seen him for  
the last time4 ,on the second  morning  
after this interview ,schopenhauer got  
up as usual1 and had his  cold bath and 
breakfast4 ,his servant had opened the  
window to let in the  morning air and   
had then left him4 ,a little later ,dr4 
,gwinner arrived  and found him         
reclining in a corner of the sofa2 his  
face wore its  customary expression2    
there was no sign of there having been  
any  struggle with death4 ,there had    
been no struggle with death2 he had     

died1  as he had hoped he would die1    
painlessly1 easily4      ,in preparing  
the above notice the writer has to      
acknowledge her  indebtedness to ,dr4   
,gwinner's ,life and ,professor         
,wallace's little work  on the same     
subject1 as well as to the few other    
authorities that have  been             
available4--,,the ,,translator4         
,,footnotes3    #a ,wallace's ,life1 pp4
 #ie1 #if4    #b ,wallace1 p4 #ajh4     
#c ,haldane and ,kemp's ,the ,world as  
,will and ,idea4    #d ,wallace1 p4     
#ade4          ,,essays ,,of            
,,schopenhauer4          ,,on           
,,authorship ,,and ,,style4      ,there 
are1 first of all1 two kinds of authors3
 those who write for the  subject's     
sake1 and those who write for writing's 
sake4 ,the first kind  have had thoughts
 or experiences which seem to them worth
 communicating1  while the second kind  
need money and consequently write for   
money4 ,they  think in order to write1  
and they may be recognised by their     

spinning  out their thoughts to the     
greatest possible length1 and also by   
the way  they work out their thoughts1  
which are half-true1 perverse1 forced1  
and  vacillating2 then also by their    
love of evasion1 so that they may seem  
what they are not2 and this is why their
 writing is lacking in  definiteness and
 clearness4    ,consequently1 it is soon
 recognised that they write for the sake
 of  filling up the paper1 and this is  
the case sometimes with the best        
authors2 for example1 in parts of       
,lessing's ,dramaturgie1 and even in    
many of ,jean ,paul's romances4 ,as soon
 as this is perceived the book  should  
be thrown away1 for time is precious4   
,as a matter of fact1 the  author is    
cheating the reader as soon as he writes
 for the sake of  filling up paper2     
because his pretext for writing is that 
he has  something to impart4 ,writing   
for money and preservation of copyright 
are1 at bottom1 the ruin of literature4 
,it is only the man who writes          

absolutely for the sake of the subject  
that writes anything worth  writing4    
,what an inestimable advantage it would 
be1 if1 in every branch  of literature1 
there existed only a few but excellent  
books6 ,this can  never come to pass so 
long as money is to be made by writing4 
,it seems  as if money lay under a      
curse1 for every author deteriorates    
directly he  writes in any way for the  
sake of money4 ,the best works of great 
men all  come from the time when they   
had to write either for nothing or for  
very  little pay4 ,this is confirmed by 
the ,spanish proverb3 honra y provecho  
no caben en un saco 7,honour and money  
are not to be found in the same  purse74
 ,the deplorable condition of the       
literature of to-day1 both in  ,germany 
and other countries1 is due to the fact 
that books are written  for the sake of 
earning money4 ,every one who is in want
 of money sits  down and writes a book1 
and the public is stupid enough to buy  
it4 ,the  secondary effect of this is   

the ruin of language4    ,a great number
 of bad authors eke out their existence 
entirely by the  foolishness of the     
public1 which only will read what has   
just been  printed4 ,i refer to         
journalists1 who have been appropriately
 so-called4  ,in other words1 it would  
be day labourer4           99       99  
99       99       99    ,again1 it may  
be said that there are three kinds of   
authors4 ,in the  first place1 there are
 those who write without thinking4 ,they
 write from  memory1 from reminiscences1
 or even direct from other people's     
books4  ,this class is the most         
numerous4 ,in the second1 those who     
think whilst  they are writing4 ,they   
think in order to write2 and they are   
numerous4  ,in the third place1 there   
are those who have thought before they  
begin  to write4 ,they write solely     
because they have thought2 and they are 
rare4    ,authors of the second class1  
who postpone their thinking until they  
begin to write1 are like a sportsman who

 goes out at random--he is not  likely  
to bring home very much4 ,while the     
writing of an author of the  third1 the 
rare class1 is like a chase where the   
game has been captured  beforehand and  
cooped up in some enclosure from which  
it is afterwards  set free1 so many at a
 time1 into another enclosure1 where it 
is not  possible for it to escape1 and  
the sportsman has now nothing to do but 
to aim and fire--that is to say1 put his
 thoughts on paper4 ,this is the  kind  
of sport which yields something4    ,but
 although the number of those authors   
who really and seriously think  before  
they write is small1 only extremely few 
of them think about the  subject itself2
 the rest think only about the books    
written on this  subject1 and what has  
been said by others upon it1 ,i mean4   
,in order to  think1 they must have the 
more direct and powerful incentive of   
other  people's thoughts4 ,these become 
their next theme1 and therefore they    
always remain under their influence and 

are never1 strictly speaking1  original4
 ,on the contrary1 the former are roused
 to thought through the  subject itself1
 hence their thinking is directed       
immediately to it4 ,it  is only among   
them that we find the authors whose     
names become immortal4  ,let it be      
understood that ,i am speaking here of  
writers of the higher  branches of      
literature1 and not of writers on the   
method of distilling  brandy4    ,it is 
only the writer who takes the material  
on which he writes direct  out of his   
own head that is worth reading4 ,book   
manufacturers1  compilers1 and the      
ordinary history writers1 and others    
like them1 take  their material straight
 out of books2 it passes into their     
fingers  without its having paid transit
 duty or undergone inspection when it   
was  in their heads1 to say nothing of  
elaboration4 7,how learned many a man   
would be if he knew everything that was 
in his own books67 ,hence their  talk is
 often of such a vague nature that one  

racks one's brains in vain  to          
understand of what they are really      
thinking4 ,they are not thinking  at    
all4 ,the book from which they copy is  
sometimes composed in the same  way3 so 
that writing of this kind is like a     
plaster cast of a cast of a  cast1 and  
so on1 until finally all that is left is
 a scarcely  recognisable outline of the
 face of ,antinous4 ,therefore1         
compilations  should be read as seldom  
as possible3 it is difficult to avoid   
them  entirely1 since compendia1 which  
contain in a small space knowledge that 
has been collected in the course of     
several centuries1 are included in      
compilations4    ,no greater mistake can
 be made than to imagine that what has  
been  written latest is always the more 
correct2 that what is written later on  
is an improvement on what was written   
previously2 and that every change  means
 progress4 ,men who think and have      
correct judgment1 and people who  treat 
their subject earnestly1 are all        

exceptions only4 ,vermin is the  rule   
everywhere in the world3 it is always at
 hand and busily engaged in  trying to  
improve in its own way upon the mature  
deliberations of the  thinkers4 ,so that
 if a man wishes to improve himself in  
any subject he  must guard against      
immediately seizing the newest books    
written upon it1  in the assumption that
 science is always advancing and that   
the older  books have been made use of  
in the compiling of the new4 ,they have1
 it  is true1 been used2 but how8 ,the  
writer often does not thoroughly        
understand the old books2 he will1 at   
the same time1 not use their exact      
words1 so that the result is he spoils  
and bungles what has been said in  a    
much better and clearer way by the old  
writers2 since they wrote from  their   
own lively knowledge of the subject4 ,he
 often leaves out the best  things they 
have written1 their most striking       
elucidations of the  matter1 their      
happiest remarks1 because he does not   

recognise their  value or feel how      
pregnant they are4 ,it is only what is  
stupid and  shallow that appeals to him4
 ,an old and excellent book is          
frequently  shelved for new and bad     
ones2 which1 written for the sake of    
money1 wear  a pretentious air and are  
much eulogised by the authors' friends4 
,in  science1 a man who wishes to       
distinguish himself brings something new
 to  market2 this frequently consists in
 his denouncing some principle that  has
 been previously held as correct1 so    
that he may establish a wrong  one of   
his own4 ,sometimes his attempt is      
successful for a short time1  when a    
return is made to the old and correct   
doctrine4 ,these innovators  are serious
 about nothing else in the world than   
their own priceless  person1 and it is  
this that they wish to make its mark4   
,they bring this  quickly about by      
beginning a paradox2 the sterility of   
their own heads  suggests their taking  
the path of negation2 and truths that   

have long  been recognised are now      
denied--for instance1 the vital power1  
the  sympathetic nervous system1        
generatio equivoca1 ,bichat's           
distinction  between the working of the 
passions and the working of             
intelligence1 or  they return to crass  
atomism1 etc41 etc4 ,hence the course of
 science is  often retrogressive4    ,to
 this class of writers belong also those
 translators who1 besides  translating  
their author1 at the same time correct  
and alter him1 a  thing that always     
seems to me impertinent4 ,write books   
yourself which  are worth translating   
and leave the books of other people as  
they are4  ,one should read1 if it is   
possible1 the real authors1 the founders
 and  discoverers of things1 or at any  
rate the recognised great masters in    
every branch of learning1 and buy       
second-hand books rather than read      
their contents in new ones4    ,it is   
true that inventis aliquid addere facile
 est1 therefore a man1  after having    

studied the principles of his subject1  
will have to make  himself acquainted   
with the more recent information written
 upon it4 ,in  general1 the following   
rule holds good here as elsewhere1      
namely3 what  is new is seldom good2    
because a good thing is only new for a  
short  time4    ,what the address is to 
a letter the title should be to a       
book--that  is1 its immediate aim should
 be to bring the book to that part of   
the  public that will be interested in  
its contents4 ,therefore1 the title     
should be effective1 and since it is    
essentially short1 it should be         
concise1 laconic1 pregnant1 and if      
possible express the contents in a      
word4 ,therefore a title that is prolix1
 or means nothing at all1 or that  is   
indirect or ambiguous1 is bad2 so is one
 that is false and  misleading3 this    
last may prepare for the book the same  
fate as that  which awaits a wrongly    
addressed letter4 ,the worst titles are 
those that  are stolen1 such titles that

 is to say that other books already     
bear2  for in the first place they are a
 plagiarism1 and in the second a most   
convincing proof of an absolute want of 
originality4 ,a man who has not  enough 
originality to think out a new title for
 his book will be much  less capable of 
giving it new contents4 ,akin to these  
are those titles  which have been       
imitated1 in other words1 half stolen2  
for instance1 a  long time after ,i had 
written ,on ,will in ,nature1 ,oersted  
wrote ,on  ,mind in ,nature4            
99       99       99       99       99  
,a book can never be anything more than 
the impression of its author's          
thoughts4 ,the value of these thoughts  
lies either in the matter about  which  
he has thought1 or in the form in which 
he develops his  matter--that is to say1
 what he has thought about it4    ,the  
matter of books is very various1 as also
 are the merits conferred on  books on  
account of their matter4 ,all matter    
that is the outcome of  experience1 in  

other words everything that is founded  
on fact1 whether  it be historical or   
physical1 taken by itself and in its    
widest sense1  is included in the term  
matter4 ,it is the motif that gives its 
peculiar character to the book1 so that 
a book can be important whoever  the    
author may have been2 while with form   
the peculiar character of a  book rests 
with the author of it4 ,the subjects may
 be of such a nature  as to be          
accessible and well known to everybody2 
but the form in which  they are         
expounded1 what has been thought about  
them1 gives the book  its value1 and    
this depends upon the author4 ,therefore
 if a book1 from  this point of view1 is
 excellent and without a rival1 so also 
is its  author4 ,from this it follows   
that the merit of a writer worth reading
 is  all the greater the less he is     
dependent on matter--and the better     
known  and worn out this matter1 the    
greater will be his merit4 ,the three   
great  ,grecian tragedians1 for         

instance1 all worked at the same        
subject4    ,so that when a book becomes
 famous one should carefully distinguish
  whether it is so on account of its    
matter or its form4    ,quite ordinary  
and shallow men are able to produce     
books of very great  importance because 
of their matter1 which was accessible to
 them  alone4 ,take1 for instance1 books
 which give descriptions of foreign     
countries1 rare natural phenomena1      
experiments that have been made1        
historical events of which they were    
witnesses1 or have spent both time  and 
trouble in inquiring into and specially 
studying the authorities for  them4     
,on the other hand1 it is on form that  
we are dependent1 where the  matter is  
accessible to every one or very well    
known2 and it is what has  been thought 
about the matter that will give any     
value to the  achievement2 it will only 
be an eminent man who will be able to   
write  anything that is worth reading4  
,for the others will only think what is 

possible for every other man to think4  
,they give the impress of their  own    
mind2 but every one already possesses   
the original of this  impression4       
,however1 the public is very much more  
interested in matter than in form1  and 
it is for this very reason that it is   
behindhand in any high degree  of       
culture4 ,it is most laughable the way  
the public reveals its liking  for      
matter in poetic works2 it carefully    
investigates the real events or         
personal circumstances of the poet's    
life which served to give the  motif of 
his works2 nay1 finally1 it finds these 
more interesting than  the works        
themselves2 it reads more about ,goethe 
than what has been  written by ,goethe1 
and industriously studies the legend of 
,faust in  preference to ,goethe's      
,faust itself4 ,and when ,brger said    
that people  would make learned         
expositions as to who ,leonora really   
was1 we see  this literally fulfilled in
 ,goethe's case1 for we now have many   

learned  expositions on ,faust and the  
,faust legend4 ,they are and will remain
 of a  purely material character4 ,this 
preference for matter to form is the    
same as a man ignoring the shape and    
painting of a fine ,etruscan vase in    
order to make a chemical examination of 
the clay and colours of which it  is    
made4 ,the attempt to be effective by   
means of the matter used1  thereby      
ministering to this evil propensity of  
the public1 is absolutely  to be        
censured in branches of writing where   
the merit must lie expressly  in the    
form2 as1 for instance1 in poetical     
writing4 ,however1 there are  numerous  
bad dramatic authors striving to fill   
the theatre by means of  the matter they
 are treating4 ,for instance1 they place
 on the stage any  kind of celebrated   
man1 however stripped of dramatic       
incidents his life  may have been1 nay1 
sometimes without waiting until the     
persons who  appear with him are dead4  
,the distinction between matter and     

form1 of which ,i am here speaking1 is  
true also in regard to conversation4 ,it
 is chiefly intelligence1  judgment1    
wit1 and vivacity that enable a man to  
converse2 they give  form to the        
conversation4 ,however1 the matter of   
the conversation must  soon come into   
notice--in other words1 that about which
 one can talk  to the man1 namely1 his  
knowledge4 ,if this is very small1 it   
will only  be his possessing the        
above-named formal qualities in a quite 
exceptionally high degree that will make
 his conversation of any value1  for his
 matter will be restricted to things    
concerning humanity and  nature1 which  
are known generally4 ,it is just the    
reverse if a man is  wanting in these   
formal qualities1 but has1 on the other 
hand1 knowledge  of such a kind that it 
lends value to his conversation2 this   
value1  however1 will then entirely rest
 on the matter of his conversation1 for1
  according to the ,spanish proverb1 mas
 sabe el necio en su casa1 que el  sabio

 en la agena4    ,a thought only really 
lives until it has reached the boundary 
line of  words2 it then becomes         
petrified and dies immediately2 yet it  
is as  everlasting as the fossilised    
animals and plants of former ages4 ,its 
existence1 which is really momentary1   
may be compared to a crystal the        
instant it becomes crystallised4    ,as 
soon as a thought has found words it no 
longer exists in us or is  serious in   
its deepest sense4    ,when it begins to
 exist for others it ceases to live in  
us2 just as a  child frees itself from  
its mother when it comes into existence4
 ,the  poet has also said3      ,ihr    
msst mich nicht durch ,widerspruch      
verwirren6    ,sobald man spricht1      
beginnt man schon zu irren4    ,the pen 
is to thought what the stick is to      
walking1 but one walks most  easily     
without a stick1 and thinks most        
perfectly when no pen is at  hand4 ,it  
is only when a man begins to get old    
that he likes to make use  of a stick   

and his pen4    ,a hypothesis that has  
once gained a position in the mind1 or  
been born  in it1 leads a life          
resembling that of an organism1 in so   
far as it  receives from the outer world
 matter only that is advantageous and   
homogeneous to it2 on the other hand1   
matter that is harmful and              
heterogeneous to it is either rejected1 
or if it must be received1 cast  off    
again entirely4    ,abstract and        
indefinite terms should be employed in  
satire only as they  are in algebra1 in 
place of concrete and specified         
quantities4 ,moreover1  it should be    
used as sparingly as the dissecting     
knife on the body of a  living man4 ,at 
the risk of forfeiting his life it is an
 unsafe  experiment4    ,for a work to  
become immortal it must possess so many 
excellences that  it will not be easy to
 find a man who understands and values  
them all2  so that there will be in all 
ages men who recognise and appreciate   
some  of these excellences2 by this     

means the credit of the work will be    
retained throughout the long course of  
centuries and ever-changing  interests1 
for1 as it is appreciated first in this 
sense1 then in that1  the interest is   
never exhausted4    ,an author like     
this1 in other words1 an author who has 
a claim to live  on in posterity1 can   
only be a man who seeks in vain his like
 among his  contemporaries over the wide
 world1 his marked distinction making   
him a  striking contrast to every one   
else4 ,even if he existed through       
several  generations1 like the wandering
 ,jew1 he would still occupy the same   
position2 in short1 he would be1 as     
,ariosto has put it1 lo fece natura1  e 
poi ruppe lo stampo4 ,if this were not  
so1 one would not be able to  understand
 why his thoughts should not perish like
 those of other men4    ,in almost every
 age1 whether it be in literature or    
art1 we find that if  a thoroughly wrong
 idea1 or a fashion1 or a manner is in  
vogue1 it is  admired4 ,those of        

ordinary intelligence trouble themselves
 inordinately  to acquire it and put it 
in practice4 ,an intelligent man sees   
through it  and despises it1            
consequently he remains out of the      
fashion4 ,some years  later the public  
sees through it and takes the sham for  
what it is  worth2 it now laughs at it1 
and the much-admired colour of all these
  works of fashion falls off like the   
plaster from a badly-built wall3 and    
they are in the same dilapidated        
condition4 ,we should be glad and not   
sorry when a fundamentally wrong notion 
of which we have been secretly          
conscious for a long time finally gains 
a footing and is proclaimed both  loudly
 and openly4 ,the falseness of it will  
soon be felt and eventually  proclaimed 
equally loudly and openly4 ,it is as if 
an abscess had burst4    ,the man who   
publishes and edits an article written  
by an anonymous  critic should be held  
as immediately responsible for it as if 
he had  written it himself2 just as one 

holds a manager responsible for bad work
  done by his workmen4 ,in this way the 
fellow would be treated as he  deserves 
to be--namely1 without any ceremony4    
,an anonymous writer is a literary fraud
 against whom one should  immediately   
cry out1 ,wretch1 if you do not wish to 
admit what it is you  say against other 
people1 hold your slanderous tongue4    
,an anonymous criticism carries no more 
weight than an anonymous letter1  and   
should therefore be looked upon with    
equal mistrust4 ,or do we wish  to      
accept the assumed name of a man1 who in
 reality represents a  socit anonyme1 as
 a guarantee for the veracity of his    
friends8    ,the little honesty that    
exists among authors is discernible in  
the  unconscionable way they misquote   
from the writings of others4 ,i find    
whole passages in my works wrongly      
quoted1 and it is only in my  appendix1 
which is absolutely lucid1 that an      
exception is made4 ,the  misquotation is
 frequently due to carelessness1 the pen

 of such people  has been used to write 
down such trivial and banal phrases that
 it goes  on writing them out of force  
of habit4 ,sometimes the misquotation is
 due  to impertinence on the part of    
some one who wants to improve upon my   
work2 but a bad motive only too often   
prompts the misquotation--it is  then   
horrid baseness and roguery1 and1 like a
 man who commits forgery1  he loses the 
character for being an honest man for   
ever4    ,style is the physiognomy of   
the mind4 ,it is a more reliable key to 
character than the physiognomy of the   
body4 ,to imitate another person's      
style is like wearing a mask4 ,however  
fine the mask1 it soon becomes  insipid 
and intolerable because it is without   
life2 so that even the  ugliest living  
face is better4 ,therefore authors who  
write in ,latin and  imitate the style  
of the old writers essentially wear a   
mask2 one  certainly hears what they    
say1 but one cannot watch their         
physiognomy--that is to say their style4

 ,one observes1 however1 the  style in  
the ,latin writings of men who think for
 themselves1 those who  have not deigned
 to imitate1 as1 for instance1 ,scotus  
,erigena1 ,petrarch1  ,bacon1           
,descartes1 ,spinoza1 etc4              
,affectation in style is like making    
grimaces4 ,the language in which a  man 
writes is the physiognomy of his nation2
 it establishes a great many            
differences1 beginning from the language
 of the ,greeks down to that of  the    
,caribbean islanders4    ,we should seek
 for the faults in the style of another 
author's works1 so  that we may avoid   
committing the same in our own4    ,in  
order to get a provisional estimate of  
the value of an author's  productions it
 is not exactly necessary to know the   
matter on which he  has thought or what 
it is he has thought about it1--this    
would compel  one to read the whole of  
his works1--but it will be sufficient to
 know  how he has thought4 ,his style is
 an exact expression of how he has      

thought1 of the essential state and     
general quality of his thoughts4  ,it   
shows the formal nature--which must     
always remain the same--of all  the     
thoughts of a man1 whatever the subject 
on which he has thought or  what it is  
he has said about it4 ,it is the dough  
out of which all his  ideas are kneaded1
 however various they may be4 ,when     
,eulenspiegel was  asked by a man how   
long he would have to walk before       
reaching the next  place1 and gave the  
apparently absurd answer ,walk1 his     
intention was  to judge from the man's  
walking how far he would go in a given  
time4 ,and  so it is when ,i have read a
 few pages of an author1 ,i know about  
how far  he can help me4    ,in the     
secret consciousness that this is the   
condition of things1 every  mediocre    
writer tries to mask his own natural    
style4 ,this instantly  necessitates his
 giving up all idea of being nave1 a    
privilege which  belongs to superior    
minds sensible of their superiority1 and

 therefore  sure of themselves4 ,for    
instance1 it is absolutely impossible   
for men of  ordinary intelligence to    
make up their minds to write as they    
think2  they resent the idea of their   
work looking too simple4 ,it would      
always  be of some value1 however4 ,if  
they would only go honestly to work and 
in  a simple way express the few and    
ordinary ideas they have really         
thought1 they would be readable and even
 instructive in their own  sphere4 ,but 
instead of that they try to appear to   
have thought much more  deeply than is  
the case4 ,the result is1 they put what 
they have to say  into forced and       
involved language1 create new words and 
prolix periods  which go round the      
thought and cover it up4 ,they hesitate 
between the  two attempts of            
communicating the thought and of        
concealing it4 ,they  want to make it   
look grand so that it has the appearance
 of being  learned and profound1 thereby
 giving one the idea that there is much 

more in it than one perceives at the    
moment4 ,accordingly1 they sometimes    
put down their thoughts in bits1 in     
short1 equivocal1 and paradoxical       
sentences which appear to mean much more
 than they say 7a splendid  example of  
this kind of writing is furnished by    
,schelling's treatises on  ,natural     
,philosophy72 sometimes they express    
their thoughts in a crowd of  words and 
the most intolerable diffuseness1 as if 
it were necessary to  make a sensation  
in order to make the profound meaning of
 their phrases  intelligible--while it  
is quite a simple idea if not a trivial 
one  7examples without number are       
supplied in ,fichte's popular works and 
in  the philosophical pamphlets of a    
hundred other miserable blockheads that 
are not worth mentioning71 or else they 
endeavour to use a certain style  in    
writing which it has pleased them to    
adopt--for example1 a style that  is so 
thoroughly ,kat' e'xochae'u profound and
 scientific1 where one is  tortured to  

death by the narcotic effect of         
long-spun periods that are  void of all 
thought 7examples of this are specially 
supplied by those  most impertinent of  
all mortals1 the ,hegelians in their    
,hegel newspaper  commonly known as     
,jahrbcher der wissenschaftlichen       
,literatur72 or  again1 they aim at an  
intellectual style where it seems then  
as if they  wish to go crazy1 and so on4
 ,all such efforts whereby they try to  
postpone the nascetur ridiculus mus make
 it frequently difficult to  understand 
what they really mean4 ,moreover1 they  
write down words1 nay1  whole periods1  
which mean nothing in themselves1 in the
 hope1 however1  that some one else will
 understand something from them4        
,nothing else is  at the bottom of all  
such endeavours but the inexhaustible   
attempt which  is always venturing on   
new paths1 to sell words for thoughts1  
and by  means of new expressions1 or    
expressions used in a new sense1 turns  
of  phrases and combinations of all     

kinds1 to produce the appearance of     
intellect in order to compensate for the
 want of it which is so  painfully felt4
 ,it is amusing to see how1 with this   
aim in view1 first  this mannerism and  
then that is tried2 these they intend to
 represent  the mask of intellect3 this 
mask may possibly deceive the           
inexperienced  for a while1 until it is 
recognised as being nothing but a dead  
mask1  when it is laughed at and        
exchanged for another4    ,we find a    
writer of this kind sometimes writing in
 a dithyrambic style1  as if he were    
intoxicated2 at other times1 nay1 on the
 very next page1  he will be            
high-sounding1 severe1 and deeply       
learned1 prolix to the last  degree of  
dulness1 and cutting everything very    
small1 like the late  ,christian ,wolf1 
only in a modern garment4 ,the mask of  
unintelligibility  holds out the        
longest2 this is only in ,germany1      
however1 where it was  introduced by    
,fichte1 perfected by ,schelling1 and   

attained its highest  climax finally in 
,hegel1 always with the happiest        
results4 ,and yet  nothing is easier    
than to write so that no one can        
understand2 on the  other hand1 nothing 
is more difficult than to express       
learned ideas so  that every one must   
understand them4 ,all the arts ,i have  
cited above are  superfluous if the     
writer really possesses any intellect1  
for it allows  a man to show himself as 
he is and verifies for all time what    
,horace  said3 ,scribendi recte sapere  
est et principium et fons4    ,but this 
class of authors is like certain workers
 in metal1 who try a  hundred different 
compositions to take the place of gold1 
which is the  only metal that can never 
have a substitute4 ,on the contrary1    
there is  nothing an author should guard
 against more than the apparent         
endeavour  to show more intellect than  
he has2 because this rouses the         
suspicion in  the reader that he has    
very little1 since a man always affects 

something1 be its nature what it may1   
that he does not really possess4  ,and  
this is why it is praise to an author to
 call him nave1 for it  signifies that  
he may show himself as he is4 ,in       
general1 navet  attracts1 while anything
 that is unnatural everywhere repels4   
,we also  find that every true thinker  
endeavours to express his thoughts as   
purely1 clearly1 definitely1 and        
concisely as ever possible4 ,this is why
  simplicity has always been looked upon
 as a token1 not only of truth1  but    
also of genius4 ,style receives its     
beauty from the thought  expressed1     
while with those writers who only       
pretend to think it is  their thoughts  
that are said to be fine because of     
their style4 ,style is  merely the      
silhouette of thought2 and to write in a
 vague or bad style  means a stupid or  
confused mind4    ,hence1 the first     
rule--nay1 this in itself is almost     
sufficient for a  good style--is this1  
that the author should have something to

 say4 ,ah6  this implies a great deal4  
,the neglect of this rule is a          
fundamental  characteristic of the      
philosophical1 and generally speaking of
 all the  reflective authors in         
,germany1 especially since the time of  
,fichte4 ,it  is obvious that all these 
writers wish to appear to have something
 to  say1 while they have nothing to    
say4 ,this mannerism was introduced by  
the pseudo-philosophers of the          
,universities and may be discerned      
everywhere1 even among the first        
literary notabilities of the age4 ,it is
  the mother of that forced and vague   
style which seems to have two1 nay1     
many meanings1 as well as of that prolix
 and ponderous style1 le stile  empes2  
and of that no less useless bombastic   
style1 and finally of  that mode of     
concealing the most awful poverty of    
thought under a babble  of inexhaustible
 chatter that resembles a clacking mill 
and is just as  stupefying3 one may read
 for hours together without getting hold

 of a  single clearly defined and       
definite idea4 ,the ,halleschen1        
afterwards  called the ,deutschen       
,jahrbcher1 furnishes almost throughout 
excellent  examples of this style of    
writing4 ,the ,germans1 by the way1 from
 force  of habit read page after page of
 all kinds of such verbiage without     
getting any definite idea of what the   
author really means3 they think it  all 
very proper and do not discover that he 
is writing merely for the  sake of      
writing4 ,on the other hand1 a good     
author who is rich in ideas  soon gains 
the reader's credit of having really and
 truly something to  say2 and this gives
 the intelligent reader patience to     
follow him  attentively4 ,an author of  
this kind will always express himself in
 the  simplest and most direct manner1  
for the very reason that he really has  
something to say2 because he wishes to  
awaken in the reader the same  idea he  
has in his own mind and no other4       
,accordingly he will be able to  say    

with ,boileau--      ,ma pense au grand 
jour partout s'offre et s'expose1    ,et
 mon vers1 bien ou mal1 dit toujours    
quelque chose2    while of those        
previously described writers it may be  
said1 in the words  of the same poet1 et
 qui parlant beaucoup ne disent jamais  
rien4 ,it is  also a characteristic of  
such writers to avoid1 if it is         
possible1  expressing themselves        
definitely1 so that they may be always  
able in  case of need to get out of a   
difficulty2 this is why they always     
choose  the more abstract expressions3  
while people of intellect choose the    
more concrete2 because the latter bring 
the matter closer to view1  which is the
 source of all evidence4 ,this          
preference for abstract  expressions may
 be confirmed by numerous examples3 a   
specially  ridiculous example is the    
following4 ,throughout ,german          
literature of the  last ten years we    
find to condition almost everywhere used
 in place of  to cause or to effect4    

,since it is more abstract and          
indefinite it  says less than it        
implies1 and consequently leaves a      
little back door  open to please those  
whose secret consciousness of their own 
incapacity  inspires them with a        
continual fear of all definite          
expressions4 ,while  with other people  
it is merely the effect of that national
 tendency to  immediately imitate       
everything that is stupid in literature 
and wicked  in life2 this is shown in   
either case by the quick way in which it
  spreads4 ,the ,englishman depends on  
his own judgment both in what he  writes
 and what he does1 but this applies less
 to the ,german than to any  other      
nation4 ,in consequence of the state of 
things referred to1 the  words to cause 
and to effect have almost entirely      
disappeared from  the literature of the 
last ten years1 and people everywhere   
talk of to  condition4 ,the fact is     
worth mentioning because it is          
characteristically ridiculous4 ,everyday

 authors are only half conscious  when  
they write1 a fact which accounts for   
their want of intellect and  the        
tediousness of their writings2 they do  
not really themselves  understand the   
meaning of their own words1 because they
 take ready-made  words and learn them4 
,hence they combine whole phrases more  
than  words--phrases banales4 ,this     
accounts for that obviously             
characteristic want of clearly defined  
thought2 in fact1 they lack the  die    
that stamps their thoughts1 they have no
 clear thought of their own2  in place  
of it we find an indefinite1 obscure    
interweaving of words1  current phrases1
 worn-out terms of speech1 and          
fashionable expressions4  ,the result is
 that their foggy kind of writing is    
like print that has  been done with old 
type4 ,on the other hand1 intelligent   
people really  speak to us in their     
writings1 and this is why they are able 
to both  move and entertain us4 ,it is  
only intelligent writers who place      

individual words together with a full   
consciousness of their use and  select  
them with deliberation4 ,hence their    
style of writing bears the  same        
relation to that of those authors       
described above1 as a picture  that is  
really painted does to one that has been
 executed with stencil4  ,in the first  
instance every word1 just as every      
stroke of the brush1 has  some special  
significance1 while in the other        
everything is done  mechanically4 ,the  
same distinction may be observed in     
music4 ,for it is  the omnipresence of  
intellect that always and everywhere    
characterises  the works of the genius2 
and analogous to this is ,lichtenberg's 
observation1 namely1 that ,garrick's    
soul was omnipresent in all the  muscles
 of his body4 ,with regard to the       
tediousness of the writings  referred to
 above1 it is to be observed in general 
that there are two  kinds of            
tediousness--an objective and a         
subjective4 ,the objective  form of     

tediousness springs from the deficiency 
of which we have been  speaking--that is
 to say1 where the author has no        
perfectly clear  thought or knowledge to
 communicate4 ,for if a writer possesses
 any clear  thought or knowledge it will
 be his aim to communicate it1 and he   
will  work with this end in view2       
consequently the ideas he furnishes are 
everywhere clearly defined1 so that he  
is neither diffuse1 unmeaning1  nor     
confused1 and consequently not tedious4 
,even if his fundamental idea  is wrong1
 yet in such a case it will be clearly  
thought out and well  pondered2 in other
 words1 it is at least formally correct1
 and the  writing is always of some     
value4 ,while1 for the same reason1 a   
work that  is objectively tedious is at 
all times without value4 ,again1        
subjective tediousness is merely        
relative3 this is because the reader  is
 not interested in the subject of the   
work1 and that what he takes an         
interest in is of a very limited nature4

 ,the most excellent work may  therefore
 be tedious subjectively to this or that
 person1 just as1 vice  vers1 the worst 
work may be subjectively diverting to   
this or that  person3 because he is     
interested in either the subject or the 
writer of  the book4    ,it would be of 
general service to ,german authors if   
they discerned that  while a man should1
 if possible1 think like a great mind1  
he should  speak the same language as   
every other person4 ,men should use     
common  words to say uncommon things1   
but they do the reverse4 ,we find them  
trying to envelop trivial ideas in grand
 words and to dress their very  ordinary
 thoughts in the most extraordinary     
expressions and the most  outlandish1   
artificial1 and rarest phrases4 ,their  
sentences perpetually  stalk about on   
stilts4 ,with regard to their delight in
 bombast1 and to  their writing         
generally in a grand1 puffed-up1 unreal1
 hyperbolical1 and  acrobatic style1    
their prototype is ,pistol1 who was once

 impatiently  requested by ,falstaff1   
his friend1 to say what you have to say1
 like a  man of this world6#e    ,there 
is no expression in the ,german language
 exactly corresponding to  stile empes2 
but the thing itself is all the more    
prevalent4 ,when  combined with         
unnaturalness it is in works what       
affected gravity1  grandness1 and       
unnaturalness are in social intercourse2
 and it is just  as intolerable4        
,poverty of intellect is fond of wearing
 this dress2 just  as stupid people in  
everyday life are fond of assuming      
gravity and  formality4    ,a man who   
writes in this prezis style is like a   
person who dresses  himself up to avoid 
being mistaken for or confounded with   
the mob2 a  danger which a gentleman1   
even in his worst clothes1 does not run4
  ,hence just as a plebeian is          
recognised by a certain display in his  
dress  and his tir  quatre pingles1 so  
is an ordinary writer recognised by  his
 style4    ,if a man has something to   

say that is worth saying1 he need not   
envelop  it in affected expressions1    
involved phrases1 and enigmatical       
innuendoes2 but he may rest assured that
 by expressing himself in a  simple1    
clear1 and nave manner he will not fail 
to produce the right  effect4 ,a man who
 makes use of such artifices as have    
been alluded to  betrays his poverty of 
ideas1 mind1 and knowledge4             
,nevertheless1 it is a mistake to       
attempt to write exactly as one speaks4 
,every style of writing should bear a   
certain trace of relationship with  the 
monumental style1 which is1 indeed1 the 
ancestor of all styles2 so  that to     
write as one speaks is just as faulty as
 to do the reverse1 that  is to say1 to 
try and speak as one writes4 ,this makes
 the author  pedantic1 and at the same  
time difficult to understand4           
,obscurity and vagueness of expression  
are at all times and everywhere a  very 
bad sign4 ,in ninety-nine cases out of a
 hundred they arise from  vagueness of  

thought1 which1 in its turn1 is almost  
always fundamentally  discordant1       
inconsistent1 and therefore wrong4 ,when
 a right thought  springs up in the mind
 it strives after clearness of          
expression1 and it  soon attains it1 for
 clear thought easily finds its         
appropriate  expression4 ,a man who is  
capable of thinking can express himself 
at all  times in clear1 comprehensible1 
and unambiguous words4 ,those writers   
who  construct difficult1 obscure1      
involved1 and ambiguous phrases most    
certainly do not rightly know what it is
 they wish to say3 they have  only a    
dull consciousness of it1 which is still
 struggling to put itself  into thought2
 they also often wish to conceal from   
themselves and other  people that in    
reality they have nothing to say4 ,like 
,fichte1 ,schelling1  and ,hegel1 they  
wish to appear to know what they do not 
know1 to think  what they do not think1 
and to say what they do not say4        
,will a man1 then1 who has something    

real to impart endeavour to say it  in a
 clear or an indistinct way8 ,quintilian
 has already said1 plerumque  accidit ut
 faciliora sint ad intelligendum et     
lucidiora multo1 quae a  doctissimo     
quoque dicuntur4444 ,erit ergo etiam    
obscurior1 quo quisque  deterior4    ,a 
man's way of expressing himself should  
not be enigmatical1 but he  should know 
whether he has something to say or      
whether he has not4 ,it is  an          
uncertainty of expression which makes   
,german writers so dull4 ,the  only     
exceptional cases are those where a man 
wishes to express something  that is in 
some respect of an illicit nature4 ,as  
anything that is  far-fetched generally 
produces the reverse of what the writer 
has aimed  at1 so do words serve to make
 thought comprehensible2 but only up to 
a  certain point4 ,if words are piled up
 beyond this point they make the        
thought that is being communicated more 
and more obscure4 ,to hit that  point is
 the problem of style and a matter of   

discernment2 for every  superfluous word
 prevents its purpose being carried out4
 ,voltaire means  this when he says3    
l'adjectif est l'ennemi du substantif4  
7,but1 truly1  many authors try to hide 
their poverty of thought under a        
superfluity of  words47    ,accordingly1
 all prolixity and all binding together 
of unmeaning  observations that are not 
worth reading should be avoided4 ,a     
writer must  be sparing with the        
reader's time1 concentration1 and       
patience2 in this  way he makes him     
believe that what he has before him is  
worth his  careful reading1 and will    
repay the trouble he has spent upon it4 
,it is  always better to leave out      
something that is good than to write    
down  something that is not worth       
saying4 ,hesiod's   #f  finds its right 
application4 ,in fact1 not to say       
everything6 ,le secret  pour tre        
ennuyeux1 c'est de tout dire4           
,therefore1 if possible1 the            
quintessence only6 the chief matter     

only6 nothing that the reader would     
think for himself4 ,the use of many     
words in order to express little        
thought is everywhere the infallible    
sign of mediocrity2 while to clothe     
much thought in a few words is the      
infallible sign of distinguished  minds4
    ,truth that is naked is the most    
beautiful1 and the simpler its          
expression the deeper is the impression 
it makes2 this is partly because  it    
gets unobstructed hold of the hearer's  
mind without his being  distracted by   
secondary thoughts1 and partly because  
he feels that here  he is not being     
corrupted or deceived by the arts of    
rhetoric1 but that  the whole effect is 
got from the thing itself4 ,for         
instance1 what  declamation on the      
emptiness of human existence could be   
more impressive  than ,job's3 ,homo1    
natus de muliere1 brevi vivit tempore1  
repletus  multis miseriis1 qui1 tanquam 
flos1 egreditur et conteritur1 et fugit 
velut umbra4 ,it is for this very reason

 that the nave poetry of ,goethe  is so 
incomparably greater than the rhetorical
 of ,schiller4 ,this is also  why many  
folk-songs have so great an effect upon 
us4 ,an author should  guard against    
using all unnecessary rhetorical        
adornment1 all useless  amplification1  
and in general1 just as in architecture 
he should guard  against an excess of   
decoration1 all superfluity of          
expression--in other  words1 he must aim
 at chastity of style4 ,everything that 
is redundant  has a harmful effect4 ,the
 law of simplicity and navet applies to 
all  fine art1 for it is compatible with
 what is most sublime4    ,true brevity 
of expression consists in a man only    
saying what is worth  saying1 while     
avoiding all diffuse explanations of    
things which every  one can think out   
for himself2 that is1 it consists in his
 correctly  distinguishing between what 
is necessary and what is superfluous4   
,on the  other hand1 one should never   
sacrifice clearness1 to say nothing of  

grammar1 for the sake of being brief4   
,to impoverish the expression of a      
thought1 or to obscure or spoil the     
meaning of a period for the sake of     
using fewer words shows a lamentable    
want of judgment4 ,and this is          
precisely what that false brevity       
nowadays in vogue is trying to do1 for  
writers not only leave out words that   
are to the purpose1 but even            
grammatical and logical essentials4#g   
,subjectivity1 which is an error of     
style in ,german literature1 is1        
through the deteriorated condition of   
literature and neglect of old           
languages1 becoming more common4 ,by    
subjectivity ,i mean when a writer      
thinks it sufficient for himself to know
 what he means and wants to say1  and it
 is left to the reader to discover what 
is meant4 ,without  troubling himself   
about his reader1 he writes as if he    
were holding a  monologue2 whereas it   
should be a dialogue1 and1 moreover1 a  
dialogue in  which he must express      

himself all the more clearly as the     
questions of  the reader cannot be      
heard4 ,and it is for this very reason  
that style  should not be subjective but
 objective1 and for it to be objective  
the  words must be written in such a way
 as to directly compel the reader to    
think precisely the same as the author  
thought4 ,this will only be the  case   
when the author has borne in mind that  
thoughts1 inasmuch as they  follow the  
law of gravity1 pass more easily from   
head to paper than from  paper to head4 
,therefore the journey from paper to    
head must be helped  by every means at  
his command4 ,when he does this his     
words have a purely  objective effect1  
like that of a completed oil painting2  
while the  subjective style is not much 
more certain in its effect than spots on
  the wall1 and it is only the man whose
 fantasy is accidentally aroused  by    
them that sees figures2 other people    
only see blurs4 ,the difference         
referred to applies to every style of   

writing as a whole1 and it is also      
often met with in particular instances2 
for example1 ,i read in a book  that has
 just been published3 ,i have not       
written to increase the number  of      
existing books4 ,this means exactly the 
opposite of what the writer  had in     
view1 and is nonsense into the bargain4 
,a man who writes carelessly at once    
proves that he himself puts no great    
value on his own thoughts4 ,for it is   
only by being convinced of the  truth   
and importance of our thoughts that     
there arises in us the  inspiration     
necessary for the inexhaustible patience
 to discover the  clearest1 finest1 and 
most powerful expression for them2 just 
as one  puts holy relics or priceless   
works of art in silvern or golden       
receptacles4 ,it was for this reason    
that the old writers--whose  thoughts1  
expressed in their own words1 have      
lasted for thousands of  years and hence
 bear the honoured title of             
classics--wrote with  universal care4   

,plato1 indeed1 is said to have written 
the introduction  to his ,republic seven
 times with different modifications4 ,on
 the other  hand1 the ,germans are      
conspicuous above all other nations for 
neglect of  style in writing1 as they   
are for neglect of dress1 both kinds of 
slovenliness which have their source in 
the ,german national character4  ,just  
as neglect of dress betrays contempt for
 the society in which a man  moves1 so  
does a hasty1 careless1 and bad style   
show shocking disrespect  for the       
reader1 who then rightly punishes it by 
not reading the book4    ,,footnotes3   
#e ,schopenhauer here gives an example  
of this bombastic style which  would be 
of little interest to ,english          
readers4--,,translator4    #f ,opera et 
dies1 v4 #dj4    #g ,schopenhauer here  
at length points out various common     
errors in the  writing and speaking of  
,german which would lose significance in
 a  translation4--,,tr4          ,,on   
,,noise4      ,kant has written a       

treatise on ,the ,vital ,powers2 but ,i 
should like to  write a dirge on them1  
since their lavish use in the form of   
knocking1  hammering1 and tumbling      
things about has made the whole of my   
life a  daily torment4 ,certainly there 
are people1 nay1 very many1 who will    
smile at this1 because they are not     
sensitive to noise2 it is precisely     
these people1 however1 who are not      
sensitive to argument1 thought1  poetry 
or art1 in short1 to any kind of        
intellectual impression3 a fact  to be  
assigned to the coarse quality and      
strong texture of their brain  tissues4 
,on the other hand1 in the biographies  
or in other records of  the personal    
utterances of almost all great writers1 
,i find complaints  of the pain that    
noise has occasioned to intellectual    
men4 ,for example1  in the case of      
,kant1 ,goethe1 ,lichtenberg1 ,jean     
,paul2 and indeed when no  mention is   
made of the matter it is merely because 
the context did not  lead up to it4 ,i  

should explain the subject we are       
treating in this way3  ,if a big diamond
 is cut up into pieces1 it immediately  
loses its value  as a whole2 or if an   
army is scattered or divided into small 
bodies1 it  loses all its power2 and in 
the same way a great intellect has no   
more  power than an ordinary one as soon
 as it is interrupted1 disturbed1       
distracted1 or diverted2 for its        
superiority entails that it             
concentrates all its strength on one    
point and object1 just as a concave     
mirror concentrates all the rays of     
light thrown upon it4 ,noisy            
interruption prevents this              
concentration4 ,this is why the most    
eminent  intellects have always been    
strongly averse to any kind of          
disturbance1  interruption and          
distraction1 and above everything to    
that violent  interruption which is     
caused by noise2 other people do not    
take any  particular notice of this sort
 of thing4 ,the most intelligent of all 

the  ,european nations has called ,never
 interrupt the eleventh commandment4    
,but noise is the most impertinent of   
all interruptions1 for it not only      
interrupts our own thoughts but         
disperses them4 ,where1 however1 there  
is  nothing to interrupt1 noise         
naturally will not be felt particularly4
  ,sometimes a trifling but incessant   
noise torments and disturbs me for a    
time1 and before ,i become distinctly   
conscious of it ,i feel it merely as    
the effort of thinking becomes more     
difficult1 just as ,i should feel a     
weight on my foot2 then ,i realise what 
it is4    ,but to pass from genus to    
species1 the truly infernal cracking of 
whips in the narrow resounding streets  
of a town must be denounced as  the most
 unwarrantable and disgraceful of all   
noises4 ,it deprives life  of all peace 
and sensibility4 ,nothing gives me so   
clear a grasp of the  stupidity and     
thoughtlessness of mankind as the       
tolerance of the  cracking of whips4    

,this sudden1 sharp crack which         
paralyses the brain1  destroys all      
meditation1 and murders thought1 must   
cause pain to any one  who has anything 
like an idea in his head4 ,hence every  
crack must  disturb a hundred people    
applying their minds to some activity1  
however  trivial it may be2 while it    
disjoints and renders painful the       
meditations of the thinker2 just like   
the executioner's axe when it  severs   
the head from the body4 ,no sound cuts  
so sharply into the brain  as this      
cursed cracking of whips2 one feels the 
prick of the whip-cord  in one's brain1 
which is affected in the same way as the
 mimosa pudica  is by touch1 and which  
lasts the same length of time4 ,with all
 respect  for the most holy doctrine of 
utility1 ,i do not see why a fellow who 
is  removing a load of sand or manure   
should obtain the privilege of killing  
in the bud the thoughts that are        
springing up in the heads of about ten  
thousand people successively4 7,he is   

only half-an-hour on the road47         
,hammering1 the barking of dogs1 and the
 screaming of children are  abominable2 
but it is only the cracking of a whip   
that is the true  murderer of thought4  
,its object is to destroy every         
favourable moment  that one now and then
 may have for reflection4 ,if there were
 no other  means of urging on an animal 
than by making this most disgraceful of 
all  noises1 one would forgive its      
existence4 ,but it is quite the         
contrary3  this cursed cracking of whips
 is not only unnecessary but even       
useless4  ,the effect that it is        
intended to have on the horse mentally  
becomes  quite blunted and ineffective2 
since the constant abuse of it has      
accustomed the horse to the crack1 he   
does not quicken his pace for it4  ,this
 is especially noticeable in the        
unceasing crack of the whip which  comes
 from an empty vehicle as it is being   
driven at its slowest rate to  pick up a
 fare4 ,the slightest touch with the    

whip would be more  effective4          
,allowing1 however1 that it were        
absolutely necessary to  remind the     
horse of the presence of the whip by    
continually cracking it1  a crack that  
made one hundredth part of the noise    
would be sufficient4  ,it is well known 
that animals in regard to hearing and   
seeing notice the  slightest            
indications1 even indications that are  
scarcely perceptible to  ourselves4     
,trained dogs and canary birds furnish  
astonishing examples of  this4          
,accordingly1 this cracking of whips    
must be regarded as something  purely   
wanton2 nay1 as an impudent defiance1 on
 the part of those who  work with their 
hands1 offered to those who work with   
their heads4 ,that  such infamy is      
endured in a town is a piece of         
barbarity and injustice1  the more so as
 it could be easily removed by a police 
notice requiring  every whip cord to    
have a knot at the end of it4 ,it would 
do no harm to  draw the proletariat's   

attention to the classes above him who  
work with  their heads2 for he has      
unbounded fear of any kind of head work4
 ,a  fellow who rides through the narrow
 streets of a populous town with        
unemployed post-horses or cart-horses1  
unceasingly cracking with all his       
strength a whip several yards long1     
instantly deserves to dismount and      
receive five really good blows with a   
stick4 ,if all the philanthropists  in  
the world1 together with all the        
legislators1 met in order to bring      
forward their reasons for the total     
abolition of corporal punishment1 ,i    
would not be persuaded to the contrary4 
,but we can see often enough something  
that is even still worse4 ,i mean a     
carter walking alone1 and without any   
horses1 through the streets  incessantly
 cracking his whip4 ,he has become so   
accustomed to the crack  in consequence 
of its unwarrantable toleration4 ,since 
one looks after  one's body and all its 
needs in a most tender fashion1 is the  

thinking  mind to be the only thing that
 never experiences the slightest        
consideration or protection1 to say     
nothing of respect8 ,carters1           
sack-bearers 7porters71 messengers1 and 
such-like1 are the beasts of  burden of 
humanity2 they should be treated        
absolutely with justice1  fairness1     
forbearance and care1 but they ought not
 to be allowed to  thwart the higher    
exertions of the human race by wantonly 
making a  noise4 ,i should like to know 
how many great and splendid thoughts    
these  whips have cracked out of the    
world4 ,if ,i had any authority1 ,i     
should  soon produce in the heads of    
these carters an inseparable nexus      
idearum between cracking a whip and     
receiving a whipping4    ,let us hope   
that those nations with more            
intelligence and refined  feelings will 
make a beginning1 and then by force of  
example induce the  ,germans to do the  
same4#h ,meanwhile1 hear what ,thomas   
,hood says of them  7,up the ,rhine73   

,for a musical people they are the most 
noisy ,i ever  met with ,that they are  
so is not due to their being more prone 
to  making a noise than other people1   
but to their insensibility1 which       
springs from obtuseness2 they are not   
disturbed by it in reading or  thinking1
 because they do not think2 they only   
smoke1 which is their  substitute for   
thought4 ,the general toleration of     
unnecessary noise1 for  instance1 of the
 clashing of doors1 which is so         
extremely ill-mannered  and vulgar1 is a
 direct proof of the dulness and poverty
 of thought that  one meets with        
everywhere4 ,in ,germany it seems as    
though it were planned  that no one     
should think for noise2 take the inane  
drumming that goes on  as an instance4  
,finally1 as far as the literature      
treated of in this  chapter is          
concerned1 ,i have only one work to     
recommend1 but it is an  excellent one3 
,i mean a poetical epistle in terzo rimo
 by the famous  painter ,bronzino1      

entitled ,de' ,romori3 a ,messer ,luca  
,martini ,it  describes fully and       
amusingly the torture to which one is   
put by the  many kinds of noises of a   
small ,italian town4 ,it is written in  
tragicomic style4 ,this epistle is to be
 found in ,opere burlesche del  ,berni1 
,aretino ed altri1 vol4 ii4 p4 #beh1    
apparently published in  ,utrecht in    
#agga4    ,the nature of our intellect  
is such that ideas are said to spring by
  abstraction from observations1 so that
 the latter are in existence  before the
 former4 ,if this is really what takes  
place1 as is the case  with a man who   
has merely his own experience as his    
teacher and book1 he  knows quite well  
which of his observations belong to and 
are represented  by each of his ideas2  
he is perfectly acquainted with both1   
and  accordingly he treats everything   
correctly that comes before his notice4 
,we might call this the natural mode of 
education4    ,on the other hand1 an    
artificial education is having one's    

head crammed  full of ideas1 derived    
from hearing others talk1 from learning 
and  reading1 before one has anything   
like an extensive knowledge of the      
world as it is and as one sees it4 ,the 
observations which produce all  these   
ideas are said to come later on with    
experience2 but until then  these ideas 
are applied wrongly1 and accordingly    
both things and men are  judged wrongly1
 seen wrongly1 and treated wrongly4 ,and
 so it is that  education perverts the  
mind2 and this is why1 after a long     
spell of  learning and reading1 we enter
 the world1 in our youth1 with views    
that  are partly simple1 partly         
perverted2 consequently we comport      
ourselves  with an air of anxiety at one
 time1 at another of presumption4 ,this 
is  because our head is full of ideas   
which we are now trying to make use  of1
 but almost always apply wrongly4 ,this 
is the result of    7putting the cart   
before the horse71 since we are directly
  opposing the natural development of   

our mind by obtaining ideas first  and  
observations last2 for teachers1 instead
 of developing in a boy his  faculties  
of discernment and judgment1 and of     
thinking for himself1  merely strive to 
stuff his head full of other people's   
thoughts4  ,subsequently1 all the       
opinions that have sprung from          
misapplied ideas  have to be rectified  
by a lengthy experience2 and it is      
seldom that they  are completely        
rectified4 ,this is why so few men of   
learning have such  sound common sense  
as is quite common among the illiterate4
           99       99       99       99
       99    ,from what has been said1  
the principal point in education is that
 one's  knowledge of the world begins at
 the right end2 and the attainment of   
which might be designated as the aim of 
all education4 ,but1 as has been        
pointed out1 this depends principally on
 the observation of each thing          
preceding the idea one forms of it2     
further1 that narrow ideas precede      

broader2 so that the whole of one's     
instruction is given in the order  that 
the ideas themselves during formation   
must have followed4 ,but  directly this 
order is not strictly adhered to1       
imperfect and  subsequently wrong ideas 
spring up2 and finally there arises a   
perverted  view of the world in keeping 
with the nature of the individual--a    
view  such as almost every one holds for
 a long time1 and most people to the    
end of their lives4 ,if a man analyses  
his own character1 he will find  that it
 was not until he reached a very ripe   
age1 and in some cases  quite           
unexpectedly1 that he was able to       
rightly and clearly understand  many    
matters of a quite simple nature4       
,previously1 there had been an obscure  
point in his knowledge of the  world    
which had arisen through his omitting   
something in his early  education1      
whether he had been either artificially 
educated by men or  just naturally by   
his own experience4 ,therefore one      

should try to find  out the strictly    
natural course of knowledge1 so that by 
keeping  methodically to it children may
 become acquainted with the affairs of  
the world1 without getting false ideas  
into their heads1 which  frequently     
cannot be driven out again4 ,in carrying
 this out1 one must  next take care that
 children do not use words with which   
they connect no  clear meaning4 ,even   
children have1 as a rule1 that unhappy  
tendency of  being satisfied with words 
instead of wishing to understand things1
 and  of learning words by heart1 so    
that they may make use of them when they
  are in a difficulty4 ,this tendency   
clings to them afterwards1 so that  the 
knowledge of many learned men becomes   
mere verbosity4    ,however1 the        
principal thing must always be to let   
one's observations  precede one's ideas1
 and not the reverse as is usually and  
unfortunately  the case2 which may be   
likened to a child coming into the world
 with its  feet foremost1 or a rhyme    

begun before thinking of its reason4    
,while the  child's mind has made a very
 few observations one inculcates it with
  ideas and opinions1 which are1        
strictly speaking1 prejudices4 ,his     
observations and experience are         
developed through this ready-made       
apparatus instead of his ideas being    
developed out of his own  observations4 
,in viewing the world one sees many     
things from many sides1  consequently   
this is not such a short or quick way of
 learning as that  which makes use of   
abstract ideas1 and quickly comes to a  
decision about  everything2 therefore   
preconceived ideas will not be rectified
 until  late1 or it may be they are     
never rectified4 ,for1 when a man's view
  contradicts his ideas1 he will reject 
at the outset what it renders  evident  
as one-sided1 nay1 he will deny it and  
shut his eyes to it1 so  that his       
preconceived ideas may remain           
unaffected4 ,and so it happens  that    
many men go through life full of        

oddities1 caprices1 fancies1 and        
prejudices1 until they finally become   
fixed ideas4 ,he has never  attempted to
 abstract fundamental ideas from his own
 observations and  experience1 because  
he has got everything ready-made from   
other people2  and it is for this very  
reason that he and countless others are 
so  insipid and shallow4 ,instead of    
such a system1 the natural system of    
education should be employed in         
educating children4 ,no idea should be  
impregnated but what has come through   
the medium of observations1 or at  any  
rate been verified by them4 ,a child    
would have fewer ideas1 but they  would 
be well-grounded and correct4 ,it would 
learn to measure things  according to   
its own standard and not according to   
another's4 ,it would  then never acquire
 a thousand whims and prejudices which  
must be  eradicated by the greater part 
of subsequent experience and education4 
,its mind would henceforth be accustomed
 to thoroughness and clearness2  the    

child would rely on its own judgment1   
and be free from prejudices4  ,and1 in  
general1 children should not get to know
 life1 in any aspect  whatever1 from the
 copy before they have learnt it from   
the original4  ,instead1 therefore1 of  
hastening to place mere books in their  
hands1 one  should make them gradually  
acquainted with things and the          
circumstances  of human life1 and above 
everything one should take care to guide
 them  to a clear grasp of reality1 and 
to teach them to obtain their ideas     
directly from the real world1 and to    
form them in keeping with it--but  not  
to get them from elsewhere1 as from     
books1 fables1 or what others  have     
said--and then later to make use of such
 ready-made ideas in real  life4 ,the   
result will be that their heads are full
 of chimeras and that  some will have a 
wrong comprehension of things1 and      
others will  fruitlessly endeavour to   
remodel the world according to those    
chimeras1  and so get on to wrong paths 

both in theory and practice4 ,for it is 
incredible how much harm is done by     
false notions which have been  implanted
 early in life1 only to develop later on
 into prejudices2 the  later education  
which we get from the world and real    
life must be  employed in eradicating   
these early ideas4 ,and this is why1 as 
is  related by ,diogenes ,laertius1     
,antisthenes gave the following answer3 
1 1   4  7,interrogatus quaenam esset   
disciplina maxime necessaria1 ,mala1    
inquit1  dediscere47           99       
99       99       99       99           
,children should be kept from all kinds 
of instruction that may make  errors    
possible until their sixteenth year1    
that is to say1 from  philosophy1       
religion1 and general views of every    
description2 because it  is the errors  
that are acquired in early days that    
remain1 as a rule1  ineradicable1 and   
because the faculty of judgment is the  
last to arrive  at maturity4 ,they      
should only be interested in such things

 that make  errors impossible1 such as  
mathematics1 in things which are not    
very  dangerous1 such as languages1     
natural science1 history1 and so forth2 
in  general1 the branches of knowledge  
which are to be taken up at any age     
must be within reach of the intellect at
 that age and perfectly  comprehensible 
to it4 ,childhood and youth are the time
 for collecting  data and getting to    
know specially and thoroughly individual
 and  particular things4 ,on the other  
hand1 all judgment of a general nature  
must at that time be suspended1 and     
final explanations left alone4 ,one     
should leave the faculty of judgment    
alone1 as it only comes with  maturity  
and experience1 and also take care that 
one does not anticipate  it by          
inculcating prejudice1 when it will be  
crippled for ever4    ,on the contrary1 
the memory is to be specially exercised1
 as it has its  greatest strength and   
tenacity in youth2 however1 what has to 
be  retained must be chosen with the    

most careful and scrupulous             
consideration4 ,for as it is what we    
have learnt well in our youth that      
lasts1 we should take the greatest      
possible advantage of this precious     
gift4 ,if we picture to ourselves how   
deeply engraven on our memory the       
people are whom we knew during the first
 twelve years of our life1 and  how     
indelibly imprinted are also the events 
of that time1 and most of  the things   
that we then experienced1 heard1 or     
learnt1 the idea of  basing education on
 this susceptibility and tenacity of the
 youthful  mind will seem natural2 in   
that the mind receives its impressions  
according to a strict method and a      
regular system4 ,but because the years  
of youth that are assigned to man are   
only few1 and the capacity for          
remembering1 in general1 is always      
limited 7and still more so the  capacity
 for remembering of the individual71    
everything depends on the  memory being 
filled with what is most essential and  

important in any  department of         
knowledge1 to the exclusion of          
everything else4 ,this  selection should
 be made by the most capable minds and  
masters in every  branch of knowledge   
after the most mature consideration1 and
 the result  of it established4 ,such a 
selection must be based on a sifting of 
matters which are necessary and         
important for a man to know in general1 
and also for him to know in a particular
 profession or calling4  ,knowledge of  
the first kind would have to be divided 
into graduated  courses1 like an        
encyclopdia1 corresponding to the degree
 of general  culture which each man has 
attained in his external circumstances2 
from  a course restricted to what is    
necessary for primary instruction up to 
the matter contained in every branch of 
the philosophical faculty4  ,knowledge  
of the second kind would1 however1 be   
reserved for him who had  really        
mastered the selection in all its       
branches4 ,the whole would give  a canon

 specially devised for intellectual     
education1 which naturally  would       
require revision every ten years4 ,by   
such an arrangement the  youthful power 
of the memory would be put to the best  
advantage1 and it  would furnish the    
faculty of judgment with excellent      
material when it  appeared later on4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,what is meant by maturity of knowledge 
is that state of perfection to  which   
any one individual is able to bring it1 
when an exact  correspondence has been  
effected between the whole of his       
abstract ideas  and his own personal    
observations3 whereby each of his ideas 
rests  directly or indirectly on a basis
 of observation1 which alone gives it   
any real value2 and likewise he is able 
to place every observation that  he     
makes under the right idea corresponding
 to it4    ,maturity of knowledge is the
 work of experience alone1 and          
consequently of time4 ,for the knowledge
 we acquire from our own  observation   

is1 as a rule1 distinct from that we get
 through abstract  ideas2 the former is 
acquired in the natural way1 while the  
latter comes  through good and bad      
instruction and what other people have  
told to us4  ,consequently1 in youth    
there is generally little harmony and   
connection  between our ideas1 which    
mere expressions have fixed1 and our    
real  knowledge1 which has been acquired
 by observation4 ,later they both       
gradually approach and correct each     
other2 but maturity of knowledge  does  
not exist until they have become quite  
incorporated4 ,this maturity  is quite  
independent of that other kind of       
perfection1 the standard of  which may  
be high or low1 ,i mean the perfection  
to which the capacities  of an          
individual may be brought2 it is not    
based on a correspondence  between the  
abstract and intuitive knowledge1 but on
 the degree of  intensity of each4      
,the most necessary thing for the       
practical man is the attainment of an   

exact and thorough knowledge of what is 
really going on in the world2  but it is
 also the most irksome1 for a man may   
continue studying until  old age without
 having learnt all that is to be learnt2
 while one can  master the most         
important things in the sciences in     
one's youth4 ,in  getting such a        
knowledge of the world1 it is as a      
novice that the boy  and youth have the 
first and most difficult lessons to     
learn2 but  frequently even the matured 
man has still much to learn4 ,the study 
is of  considerable difficulty in       
itself1 but it is made doubly difficult 
by  novels1 which depict the ways of the
 world and of men who do not exist  in  
real life4 ,but these are accepted with 
the credulity of youth1 and  become     
incorporated with the mind2 so that now1
 in the place of purely  negative       
ignorance1 a whole framework of wrong   
ideas1 which are  positively wrong1     
crops up1 subsequently confusing the    
schooling of  experience and            

representing the lesson it teaches in a 
false light4 ,if  the youth was         
previously in the dark1 he will now be  
led astray by a  will-o'-the-wisp3 and  
with a girl this is still more          
frequently the  case4 ,they have been   
deluded into an absolutely false view of
 life by  reading novels1 and           
expectations have been raised that can  
never be  fulfilled4 ,this generally has
 the most harmful effect on their whole 
lives4 ,those men who had neither time  
nor opportunity to read novels in  their
 youth1 such as those who work with     
their hands1 have decided  advantage    
over them4 ,few of these novels are     
exempt from reproach--nay1  whose effect
 is contrary to bad4 ,before all others1
 for instance1 ,gil  ,blas and the other
 works of ,le ,sage 7or rather their    
,spanish  originals72 further1 ,the     
,vicar of ,wakefield1 and to some extent
 the  novels of ,walter ,scott4 ,don    
,quixote may be regarded as a satirical 
presentation of the error in question4  

,,footnotes3    #h ,according to a      
notice from the ,munich ,society for the
 ,protection of  ,animals1 the          
superfluous whipping and cracking were  
strictly forbidden  in ,nuremberg in    
,december #aheh4          ,,on ,,reading
 ,,and ,,books4      ,ignorance is      
degrading only when it is found in      
company with riches4  ,want and penury  
restrain the poor man2 his employment   
takes the place of  knowledge and       
occupies his thoughts3 while rich men   
who are ignorant  live for their        
pleasure only1 and resemble a beast2 as 
may be seen  daily4 ,they are to be     
reproached also for not having used     
wealth and  leisure for that which lends
 them their greatest value4    ,when we 
read1 another person thinks for us3 we  
merely repeat his mental  process4 ,it  
is the same as the pupil1 in learning to
 write1 following  with his pen the     
lines that have been pencilled by the   
teacher4  ,accordingly1 in reading1 the 
work of thinking is1 for the greater    

part1  done for us4 ,this is why we are 
consciously relieved when we turn to    
reading after being occupied with our   
own thoughts4 ,but1 in reading1 our     
head is1 however1 really only the arena 
of some one else's thoughts4 ,and  so it
 happens that the person who reads a    
great deal--that is to say1  almost the 
whole day1 and recreates himself by     
spending the intervals in  thoughtless  
diversion1 gradually loses the ability  
to think for himself2  just as a man who
 is always riding at last forgets how to
 walk4 ,such1  however1 is the case with
 many men of learning3 they have read   
themselves stupid4 ,for to read in every
 spare moment1 and to read  constantly1 
is more paralysing to the mind than     
constant manual work1  which1 at any    
rate1 allows one to follow one's own    
thoughts4 ,just as a  spring1 through   
the continual pressure of a foreign     
body1 at last loses  its elasticity1 so 
does the mind if it has another person's
 thoughts  continually forced upon it4  

,and just as one spoils the stomach by  
overfeeding and thereby impairs the     
whole body1 so can one overload and     
choke the mind by giving it too much    
nourishment4 ,for the more one reads    
the fewer are the traces left of what   
one has read2 the mind is like a  tablet
 that has been written over and over4   
,hence it is impossible to  reflect2 and
 it is only by reflection that one can  
assimilate what one  has read if one    
reads straight ahead without pondering  
over it later1  what has been read does 
not take root1 but is for the most part 
lost4  ,indeed1 it is the same with     
mental as with bodily food3 scarcely the
  fifth part of what a man takes is     
assimilated2 the remainder passes off   
in evaporation1 respiration1 and the    
like4    ,from all this it may be       
concluded that thoughts put down on     
paper are  nothing more than footprints 
in the sand3 one sees the road the man  
has  taken1 but in order to know what he
 saw on the way1 one requires his  eyes4

           99       99       99       99
       99    ,no literary quality can be
 attained by reading writers who possess
 it3  be it1 for example1               
persuasiveness1 imagination1 the gift of
 drawing  comparisons1 boldness or      
bitterness1 brevity or grace1 facility  
of  expression or wit1 unexpected       
contrasts1 a laconic manner1 navet1 and 
the like4 ,but if we are already gifted 
with these qualities--that is to  say1  
if we possess them potentia--we can call
 them forth and bring  them to          
consciousness2 we can discern to what   
uses they are to be put2  we can be     
strengthened in our inclination1 nay1   
may have courage1 to use  them2 we can  
judge by examples the effect of their   
application and so  learn the correct   
use of them2 and it is only after we    
have accomplished  all this that we actu
 possess these qualities4 ,this is the  
only way in  which reading can form     
writing1 since it teaches us the use to 
which we  can put our own natural gifts2

 and in order to do this it must be     
taken  for granted that these qualities 
are in us4 ,without them we learn       
nothing from reading but cold1 dead     
mannerisms1 and we become mere          
imitators4           99       99        
99       99       99    ,the health     
officer should1 in the interest of one's
 eyes1 see that the  smallness of print 
has a fixed minimum1 which must not be  
exceeded4 ,when  ,i was in ,venice in   
#ahah1 at which time the genuine        
,venetian chain was  still being made1 a
 goldsmith told me that those who made  
the catena  fina turned blind at thirty4
           99       99       99       99
       99    ,as the strata of the earth
 preserve in rows the beings which lived
 in  former times1 so do the shelves of 
a library preserve in a like manner  the
 errors of the past and expositions     
concerning them4 ,like those  creatures1
 they too were full of life in their    
time and made a great  deal of noise2   
but now they are stiff and fossilised1  

and only of  interest to the literary   
palaeontologist4           99       99  
99       99       99    ,according to   
,herodotus1 ,xerxes wept at the sight of
 his army1 which was  too extensive for 
him to scan1 at the thought that a      
hundred years hence  not one of all     
these would be alive4 ,who would not    
weep at the thought  in looking over a  
big catalogue that of all these books   
not one will be  in existence in ten    
years' time8    ,it is the same in      
literature as in life4 ,wherever one    
goes one  immediately comes upon the    
incorrigible mob of humanity4 ,it exists
  everywhere in legions2 crowding1      
soiling everything1 like flies in       
summer4 ,hence the numberless bad books1
 those rank weeds of literature  which  
extract nourishment from the corn and   
choke it4    ,they monopolise the time1 
money1 and attention which really belong
 to  good books and their noble aims2   
they are written merely with a view to  
making money or procuring places4 ,they 

are not only useless1 but they do       
positive harm4 ,nine-tenths of the whole
 of our present literature aims  solely 
at taking a few shillings out of the    
public's pocket1 and to  accomplish     
this1 author1 publisher1 and reviewer   
have joined forces4    ,there is a more 
cunning and worse trick1 albeit a       
profitable one4  ,littrateurs1          
hack-writers1 and productive authors    
have succeeded1  contrary to good taste 
and the true culture of the age1 in     
bringing the  world elegante into       
leading-strings1 so that they have been 
taught to  read a tempo and all the same
 thing--namely1 the newest books order  
that they may have material for         
conversation in their social circles4   
,bad novels and similar productions from
 the pen of writers who were once       
famous1 such as ,spindler1 ,bulwer1     
,eugne ,sue1 and so on1 serve this      
purpose4 ,but what can be more miserable
 than the fate of a reading  public of  
this kind1 that feels always impelled to

 read the latest  writings of extremely 
commonplace authors who write for money 
only1 and  therefore exist in numbers8  
,and for the sake of this they merely   
know by  name the works of the rare and 
superior writers1 of all ages and       
countries4    ,literary newspapers1     
since they print the daily smatterings  
of  commonplace people1 are especially a
 cunning means for robbing from the     
aesthetic public the time which should  
be devoted to the genuine  productions  
of art for the furtherance of culture4  
,hence1 in regard to our subject1 the   
art of not reading is highly  important4
 ,this consists in not taking a book    
into one's hand merely  because it is   
interesting the great public at the     
time--such as  political or religious   
pamphlets1 novels1 poetry1 and the like1
 which  make a noise and reach perhaps  
several editions in their first and last
  years of existence4 ,remember rather  
that the man who writes for fools       
always finds a large public3 and only   

read for a limited and definite  time   
exclusively the works of great minds1   
those who surpass other men  of all     
times and countries1 and whom the voice 
of fame points to as  such4 ,these alone
 really educate and instruct4    ,one   
can never read too little of bad1 or too
 much of good books3 bad  books are     
intellectual poison2 they destroy the   
mind4    ,in order to read what is good 
one must make it a condition never to   
read  what is bad2 for life is short1   
and both time and strength limited4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,books are written sometimes about this1
 sometimes about that great  thinker of 
former times1 and the public reads these
 books1 but not the  works of the man   
himself4 ,this is because it wants to   
read only what has  just been printed1  
and because similis simili gaudet1 and  
it finds the  shallow1 insipid gossip of
 some stupid head of to-day more        
homogeneous  and agreeable than the     
thoughts of great minds4 ,i have to     

thank fate1  however1 that a fine       
epigram of ,a4,b4 ,schlegel1 which has  
since been my  guiding star1 came before
 my notice as a youth3      ,leset      
fleizig die ,alten1 die wahren          
eigentlich ,alten    ,was die ,neuen    
davon sagen bedeutet nicht viel4    ,oh1
 how like one commonplace mind is to    
another6 ,how they are all  fashioned in
 one form6 ,how they all think alike    
under similar  circumstances1 and never 
differ6 ,this is why their views are so 
personal  and petty4 ,and a stupid      
public reads the worthless trash written
 by  these fellows for no other reason  
than that it has been printed to-day1   
while it leaves the works of great      
thinkers undisturbed on the             
bookshelves4    ,incredible are the     
folly and perversity of a public that   
will leave  unread writings of the      
noblest and rarest of minds1 of all     
times and all  countries1 for the sake  
of reading the writings of commonplace  
persons  which appear daily1 and breed  

every year in countless numbers like    
flies2 merely because these writings    
have been printed to-day and are  still 
wet from the press4 ,it would be better 
if they were thrown on one  side and    
rejected the day they appeared1 as they 
must be after the lapse  of a few years4
 ,they will then afford material for    
laughter as  illustrating the follies of
 a former time4    ,it is because people
 will only read what is the newest      
instead of what  is the best of all     
ages1 that writers remain in the narrow 
circle of  prevailing ideas1 and that   
the age sinks deeper and deeper in its  
own  mire4           99       99        
99       99       99    ,there are at   
all times two literatures which1        
although scarcely known to  each other1 
progress side by side--the one real1 the
 other merely  apparent4 ,the former    
grows into literature that lasts4       
,pursued by  people who live for science
 or poetry1 it goes its way earnestly   
and  quietly1 but extremely slowly2 and 

it produces in ,europe scarcely a  dozen
 works in a century1 which1 however1 are
 permanent4 ,the other  literature is   
pursued by people who live on science or
 poetry2 it goes  at a gallop amid a    
great noise and shouting of those taking
 part1 and  brings yearly many thousand 
works into the market4 ,but after a few 
years  one asks1 ,where are they8 where 
is their fame1 which was so great       
formerly8 ,this class of literature may 
be distinguished as fleeting1 the  other
 as permanent4           99       99    
99       99       99    ,it would be a  
good thing to buy books if one could    
also buy the time to  read them2 but one
 usually confuses the purchase of books 
with the  acquisition of their contents4
 ,to desire that a man should retain    
everything he has ever read1 is the same
 as wishing him to retain in his        
stomach all that he has ever eaten4 ,he 
has been bodily nourished on what  he   
has eaten1 and mentally on what he has  
read1 and through them become  what he  

is4 ,as the body assimilates what is    
homogeneous to it1 so will a  man retain
 what interests him2 in other words1    
what coincides with  his system of      
thought or suits his ends4 ,every one   
has aims1 but very  few have anything   
approaching a system of thought4 ,this  
is why such  people do not take an      
objective interest in anything1 and why 
they learn  nothing from what they read3
 they remember nothing about it4        
,repetitio est mater studiorum4 ,any    
kind of important book should           
immediately be read twice1 partly       
because one grasps the matter in its    
entirety the second time1 and only      
really understands the beginning when   
the end is known2 and partly because in 
reading it the second time one's  temper
 and mood are different1 so that one    
gets another impression2 it  may be that
 one sees the matter in another light4  
,works are the quintessence of a mind1  
and are therefore always of by far      
greater value than conversation1 even if

 it be the conversation of the  greatest
 mind4 ,in every essential a man's works
 surpass his conversation  and leave it 
far behind4 ,even the writings of an    
ordinary man may be  instructive1 worth 
reading1 and entertaining1 for the      
simple reason that  they are the        
quintessence of that man's mind--that is
 to say1 the  writings are the result   
and fruit of his whole thought and      
study2 while  we should be dissatisfied 
with his conversation4 ,accordingly1 it 
is  possible to read books written by   
people whose conversation would give  us
 no satisfaction2 so that the mind will 
only by degrees attain high  culture by 
finding entertainment almost entirely in
 books1 and not in  men4    ,there is   
nothing that so greatly recreates the   
mind as the works of the  old classic   
writers4 ,directly one has been taken   
up1 even if it is only  for             
half-an-hour1 one feels as quickly      
refreshed1 relieved1 purified1          
elevated1 and strengthened as if one had

 refreshed oneself at a mountain        
stream4 ,is this due to the perfections 
of the old languages1 or to the         
greatness of the minds whose works have 
remained unharmed and untouched  for    
centuries8 ,perhaps to both combined4   
,this ,i know1 directly we stop         
learning the old languages 7as is at    
present threatening7 a new class of     
literature will spring up1 consisting of
 writing that is more barbaric1  stupid1
 and worthless than has ever yet        
existed2 that1 in particular1  the      
,german language1 which possesses some  
of the beauties of the old  languages1  
will be systematically spoilt and       
stripped by these worthless             
contemporary scribblers1 until1 little  
by little1 it becomes  impoverished1    
crippled1 and reduced to a miserable    
jargon4    ,half a century is always a  
considerable time in the history of the 
universe1 for the matter which forms it 
is always shifting2 something is  always
 taking place4 ,but the same length of  

time in literature often  goes for      
nothing1 because nothing has happened2  
unskilful attempts don't  count2 so that
 we are exactly where we were fifty     
years previously4    ,to illustrate     
this3 imagine the progress of knowledge 
among mankind in  the form of a planet's
 course4 ,the false paths the human race
 soon  follows after any important      
progress has been made represent the    
epicycles in the ,ptolemaic system2     
after passing through any one of them   
the planet is just where it was before  
it entered it4 ,the great minds1        
however1 which really bring the race    
further on its course1 do not  accompany
 it on the epicycles which it makes     
every time4 ,this explains  why         
posthumous fame is got at the expense of
 contemporary fame1 and  vice vers4 ,we 
have an instance of such an epicycle in 
the philosophy  of ,fichte and          
,schelling1 crowned by ,hegel's         
caricature of it4 ,this  epicycle issued
 from the limit to which philosophy had 

been finally  brought by ,kant1 where ,i
 myself took it up again later to carry 
it  further4 ,in the interim the false  
philosophers ,i have mentioned1 and     
some others1 passed through their       
epicycle1 which has just been           
terminated2 hence the people who        
accompanied them are conscious of being 
exactly at the point from which they    
started4    ,this condition of things   
shows why the scientific1 literary1 and 
artistic spirit of the age is declared  
bankrupt about every thirty  years4     
,during that period the errors have     
increased to such an extent  that they  
fall under the weight of their          
absurdity2 while at the same  time the  
opposition to them has become stronger4 
,at this point there is  a crash1 which 
is followed by an error in the opposite 
direction4 ,to  show the course that is 
taken in its periodical return would be 
the true  practical subject of the      
history of literature2 little notice is 
taken  of it1 however4 ,moreover1       

through the comparative shortness of    
such  periods1 the data of remote times 
are with difficulty collected2 hence    
the matter can be most conveniently     
observed in one's own age4 ,an  example 
of this taken from physical science is  
found in ,werter's  ,neptunian geology4 
,but let me keep to the example already 
quoted above1  for it is nearest to us4 
,in ,german philosophy ,kant's brilliant
 period  was immediately followed by    
another period1 which aimed at being    
imposing rather than convincing4        
,instead of being solid and clear1 it   
aimed at being brilliant and            
hyperbolical1 and1 in particular1       
unintelligible2 instead of seeking      
truth1 it intrigued4 ,under these       
circumstances philosophy could make no  
progress4 ,ultimately the whole  school 
and its method became bankrupt4 ,for the
 audacious1 sophisticated  nonsense on  
the one hand1 and the unconscionable    
praise on the other of  ,hegel and his  
fellows1 as well as the apparent object 

of the whole  affair1 rose to such a    
pitch that in the end the charlatanry of
 the  thing was obvious to everybody2   
and when1 in consequence of certain     
revelations1 the protection that had    
been given it by the upper classes  was 
withdrawn1 it was talked about by       
everybody4 ,this most miserable of  all 
the philosophies that have ever existed 
dragged down with it into  the abyss of 
discredit the systems of ,fichte and    
,schelling1 which had  preceded it4 ,so 
that the absolute philosophical futility
 of the first  half of the century      
following upon ,kant in ,germany is     
obvious2 and yet  the ,germans boast of 
their gift for philosophy compared with 
foreigners1  especially since an        
,english writer1 with malicious irony1  
called them a  nation of thinkers4      
,those who want an example of the       
general scheme of epicycles taken from  
the history of art need only look at the
 ,school of ,sculpture which  flourished
 in the last century under ,bernini1 and

 especially at its  further cultivation 
in ,france4 ,this school represented    
commonplace  nature instead of antique  
beauty1 and the manners of a ,french    
minuet  instead of antique simplicity   
and grace4 ,it became bankrupt when1    
under  ,winckelmann's direction1 a      
return was made to the antique school4  
,another example is supplied in the     
painting belonging to the first  quarter
 of this century4 ,art was regarded     
merely as a means and  instrument of    
mediaeval religious feeling1 and        
consequently  ecclesiastical subjects   
alone were chosen for its themes4       
,these1  however1 were treated by       
painters who were wanting in earnestness
 of  faith1 and in their delusion they  
took for examples ,francesco ,francia1  
,pietro ,perugino1 ,angelico da         
,fiesole1 and others like them1 even    
holding  them in greater esteem than the
 truly great masters who followed4 ,in  
view of this error1 and because in      
poetry an analogous effort had at the   

same time met with favour1 ,goethe wrote
 his parable ,pfaffenspiel4 ,this       
school1 reputedly capricious1 became    
bankrupt1 and was followed by a  return 
to nature1 which made itself known in   
genre pictures and scenes  of life of   
every description1 even though it       
strayed sometimes into  vulgarity4      
,it is the same with the progress of the
 human mind in the history of           
literature1 which is for the most part  
like the catalogue of a cabinet  of     
deformities2 the spirit in which they   
keep the longest is pigskin4 ,we  do not
 need to look there for the few who have
 been born shapely2 they  are still     
alive1 and we come across them in every 
part of the world1  like immortals whose
 youth is ever fresh4 ,they alone form  
what ,i have  distinguished as real     
literature1 the history of which1       
although poor  in persons1 we learn from
 our youth up out of the mouths of      
educated  people1 and not first of all  
from compilations4 ,as a specific       

against  the present prevailing         
monomania for reading literary          
histories1 so that  one may be able to  
chatter about everything without really 
knowing  anything1 let me refer you to a
 passage from ,lichtenberg which is well
  worth reading 7vol4 ii4 p4 #cjb of the
 old edition74    ,but ,i wish some one 
would attempt a tragical history of     
literature1  showing how the greatest   
writers and artists have been treated   
during  their lives by the various      
nations which have produced them and    
whose  proudest possessions they are4   
,it would show us the endless fight     
which  the good and genuine works of all
 periods and countries have had to      
carry on against the perverse and bad4  
,it would depict the martyrdom of       
almost all those who truly enlightened  
humanity1 of almost all the great       
masters in every kind of art2 it would  
show us how they1 with few  exceptions1 
were tormented without recognition1     
without any to share  their misery1     

without followers2 how they existed in  
poverty and misery  whilst fame1 honour1
 and riches fell to the lot of the      
worthless2 it  would reveal that what   
happened to them happened to ,esau1 who1
 while  hunting the deer for his father1
 was robbed of the blessing by ,jacob   
disguised in his brother's coat2 and how
 through it all the love of  their      
subject kept them up1 until at last the 
trying fight of such a  teacher of the  
human race is ended1 the immortal laurel
 offered to him1  and the time come when
 it can be said of him      ,der schwere
 ,panzer wird zum ,flgelkleide    ,kurz 
ist der ,schmerz1 unendlich ist die     
,freude4          ,,the ,,emptiness ,,of
 ,,existence4      ,this emptiness finds
 its expression in the whole form of    
existence1 in  the infiniteness of ,time
 and ,space as opposed to the finiteness
 of the  individual in both2 in the     
flitting present as the only manner of  
real  existence2 in the dependence and  
relativity of all things2 in constantly 

,becoming without ,being2 in continually
 wishing without being satisfied2  in an
 incessant thwarting of one's efforts1  
which go to make up life1  until victory
 is won4 ,time1 and the transitoriness  
of all things1  are merely the form     
under which the will to live1 which as  
the  thing-in-itself is imperishable1   
has revealed to ,time the futility of   
its efforts4 ,time is that by which at  
every moment all things become as       
nothing in our hands1 and thereby lose  
all their true value4           99      
99       99       99       99    ,what  
has been exists no more2 and exists just
 as little as that which  has never     
been4 ,but everything that exists has   
been in the next  moment4 ,hence        
something belonging to the present1     
however unimportant it  may be1 is      
superior to something important         
belonging to the past2 this  is because 
the former is a reality and related to  
the latter as  something is to nothing4 
,a man to his astonishment all at once  

becomes conscious of existing  after    
having been in a state of non-existence 
for many thousands of  years1 when1     
presently again1 he returns to a state  
of non-existence for  an equally long   
time4 ,this cannot possibly be true1    
says the heart2 and  even the crude     
mind1 after giving the matter its       
consideration1 must  have some sort of  
presentiment of the ideality of time4   
,this ideality of  time1 together with  
that of space1 is the key to every true 
system of  metaphysics1 because it finds
 room for quite another order of things 
than is to be found in nature4 ,this is 
why ,kant is so great4    ,of every     
event in our life it is only for a      
moment that we can say that  it is2     
after that we must say for ever that it 
was4 ,every evening  makes us poorer by 
a day4 ,it would probably make us angry 
to see this  short space of time        
slipping away1 if we were not secretly  
conscious in  the furthest depths of our
 being that the spring of eternity      

belongs to  us1 and that in it we are   
always able to have life renewed4       
,reflections of the nature of those     
above may1 indeed1 establish the  belief
 that to enjoy the present1 and to make 
this the purpose of one's  life1 is the 
greatest wisdom2 since it is the present
 alone that is  real1 everything else   
being only the play of thought4 ,but    
such a purpose  might just as well be   
called the greatest folly1 for that     
which in the  next moment exists no     
more1 and vanishes as completely as a   
dream1 can  never be worth a serious    
effort4           99       99       99  
99       99    ,our existence is based  
solely on the ever-fleeting present4    
,essentially1  therefore1 it has to take
 the form of continual motion without   
there  ever being any possibility of our
 finding the rest after which we are    
always striving4 ,it is the same as a   
man running downhill1 who falls if  he  
tries to stop1 and it is only by his    
continuing to run on that he  keeps on  

his legs2 it is like a pole balanced on 
one's finger-tips1 or  like a planet    
that would fall into its sun as soon as 
it stopped  hurrying onwards4 ,hence    
unrest is the type of existence4    ,in 
a world like this1 where there is no    
kind of stability1 no  possibility of   
anything lasting1 but where everything  
is thrown into a  restless whirlpool of 
change1 where everything hurries on1    
flies1 and is  maintained in the balance
 by a continual advancing and moving1 it
 is  impossible to imagine happiness4   
,it cannot dwell where1 as ,plato says1 
continual ,becoming and never ,being is 
all that takes place4 ,first of  all1 no
 man is happy2 he strives his whole life
 long after imaginary  happiness1 which 
he seldom attains1 and if he does1 then 
it is only to  be disillusioned2 and as 
a rule he is shipwrecked in the end and 
enters  the harbour dismasted4 ,then it 
is all the same whether he has been     
happy  or unhappy in a life which was   
made up of a merely ever-changing       

present  and is now at an end4          
,meanwhile it surprises one to find1    
both in the world of human beings  and  
in that of animals1 that this great1    
manifold1 and restless motion  is       
sustained and kept going by the medium  
of two simple impulses--hunger  and the 
instinct of sex1 helped perhaps a little
 by boredom--and that  these have the   
power to form the primum mobile of so   
complex a  machinery1 setting in motion 
the variegated show6    ,looking at the 
matter a little closer1 we see at the   
very outset that  the existence of      
inorganic matter is being constantly    
attacked by  chemical forces which      
eventually annihilates it4 ,while       
organic existence  is only made possible
 by continual change of matter1 to keep 
up a  perpetual supply of which it must 
consequently have help from without4    
,therefore organic life is like         
balancing a pole on one's hand2 it must 
be kept in continual motion1 and have a 
constant supply of matter of  which it  

is continually and endlessly in need4   
,nevertheless it is only  by means of   
this organic life that consciousness is 
possible4    ,accordingly this is a     
finite existence1 and its antithesis    
would be an  infinite1 neither exposed  
to any attack from without nor in want  
of  help from without1 and hence   1 in 
eternal rest2   1  1 without change1    
without time1 and without  diversity2   
the negative knowledge of which is the  
fundamental note of  ,plato's           
philosophy4 ,the denial of the will to  
live reveals the way to  such a state as
 this4           99       99       99   
99       99    ,the scenes of our life  
are like pictures in rough mosaic1 which
 have no  effect at close quarters1 but 
must be looked at from a distance in    
order  to discern their beauty4 ,so that
 to obtain something we have desired is 
to find out that it is worthless2 we are
 always living in expectation of  better
 things1 while1 at the same time1 we    
often repent and long for  things that  

belong to the past4 ,we accept the      
present as something that  is only      
temporary1 and regard it only as a means
 to accomplish our aim4  ,so that most  
people will find if they look back when 
their life is at an  end1 that they have
 lived their lifelong ad interim1 and   
they will be  surprised to find that    
something they allowed to pass by       
unnoticed and  unenjoyed was just their 
life--that is to say1 it was the very   
thing in  the expectation of which they 
lived4 ,and so it may be said of man in 
general that1 befooled by hope1 he      
dances into the arms of death4    ,then 
again1 there is the insatiability of    
each individual will2 every  time it is 
satisfied a new wish is engendered1 and 
there is no end to  its eternally       
insatiable desires4    ,this is because 
the ,will1 taken in itself1 is the lord 
of worlds2 since  everything belongs to 
it1 it is not satisfied with a portion  
of  anything1 but only with the whole1  
which1 however1 is endless4 ,meanwhile  

it must excite our pity when we consider
 how extremely little this lord  of the 
world receives1 when it makes its       
appearance as an individual2  for the   
most part only just enough to maintain  
the body4 ,this is why man  is so very  
unhappy4    ,in the present age1 which  
is intellectually impotent and          
remarkable for  its veneration of what  
is bad in every form--a condition of    
things which  is quite in keeping with  
the coined word ,jetztzeit 7present     
time71 as  pretentious as it is         
cacophonic--the pantheists make bold to 
say that  life is1 as they call it1 an  
end-in itself4 ,if our existence in this
  world were an end-in-itself1 it would 
be the most absurd end that was  ever   
determined2 even we ourselves or any one
 else might have imagined  it4    ,life 
presents itself next as a task1 the     
task1 that is1 of subsisting  de gagner 
sa vie4 ,if this is solved1 then that   
which has been won  becomes a burden1   
and involves the second task of its     

being got rid of  in order to ward off  
boredom1 which1 like a bird of prey1 is 
ready to  fall upon any life that is    
secure from want4    ,so that the first 
task is to win something1 and the       
second1 after the  something has been   
won1 to forget about it1 otherwise it   
becomes a  burden4    ,that human life  
must be a kind of mistake is            
sufficiently clear from the  fact that  
man is a compound of needs1 which are   
difficult to satisfy2  moreover1 if they
 are satisfied1 all he is granted is a  
state of  painlessness1 in which he can 
only give himself up to boredom4 ,this  
is a  precise proof that existence in   
itself has no value1 since boredom is   
merely the feeling of the emptiness of  
life4 ,if1 for instance1 life1 the      
longing for which constitutes our very  
being1 had in itself any positive  and  
real value1 boredom could not exist2    
mere existence in itself would  supply  
us with everything1 and therefore       
satisfy us4 ,but our existence  would   

not be a joyous thing unless we were    
striving after something2  distance and 
obstacles to be overcome then represent 
our aim as  something that would satisfy
 us--an illusion which vanishes when our
 aim  has been attained2 or when we are 
engaged in something that is of a       
purely intellectual nature1 when1 in    
reality1 we have retired from the       
world1 so that we may observe it from   
the outside1 like spectators at a       
theatre4 ,even sensual pleasure itself  
is nothing but a continual  striving1   
which ceases directly its aim is        
attained4 ,as soon as we are  not       
engaged in one of these two ways1 but   
thrown back on existence  itself1 we are
 convinced of the emptiness and         
worthlessness of it2 and  this it is we 
call boredom4 ,that innate and          
ineradicable craving for  what is out of
 the common proves how glad we are to   
have the natural and  tedious course of 
things interrupted4 ,even the pomp and  
splendour of the  rich in their stately 

castles is at bottom nothing but a      
futile attempt  to escape the very      
essence of existence1 misery4           
99       99       99       99       99  
,that the most perfect manifestation of 
the will to live1 which  presents itself
 in the extremely subtle and complicated
 machinery of the  human organism1 must 
fall to dust and finally deliver up its 
whole being  to dissolution1 is the nave
 way in which ,nature1 invariably true  
and  genuine1 declares the whole        
striving of the will in its very essence
 to  be of no avail4 ,if it were of any 
value in itself1 something              
unconditioned1 its end would not be     
non-existence4 ,this is the dominant    
note of ,goethe's beautiful song3       
,hoch auf dem alten ,thurme steht       
,des ,helden edler ,geist4    ,that man 
is nothing but a phenomenon1 that he is 
not-the-thing-in-itself--,i mean that he
 is not  --is proved by  the fact that  
death is a necessity4    ,and how       
different the beginning of our life is  

to the end6 ,the former is  made up of  
deluded hopes1 sensual enjoyment1 while 
the latter is pursued  by bodily decay  
and the odour of death4    ,the road    
dividing the two1 as far as our         
well-being and enjoyment of  life are   
concerned1 is downhill2 the dreaminess  
of childhood1 the  joyousness of youth1 
the troubles of middle age1 the         
infirmity and  frequent misery of old   
age1 the agonies of our last illness1   
and finally  the struggle with death--do
 all these not make one feel that       
existence  is nothing but a mistake1 the
 consequences of which are becoming     
gradually more and more obvious8    ,it 
would be wisest to regard life as a     
desengao1 a delusion2 that  everything  
is intended to be so is sufficiently    
clear4    ,our life is of a             
microscopical nature2 it is an          
indivisible point which1  drawn out by  
the powerful lenses of ,time and ,space1
 becomes considerably  magnified4       
,time is an element in our brain which  

by the means of duration gives a        
semblance of reality to the absolutely  
empty existence of things and           
ourselves4    ,how foolish it is for a  
man to regret and deplore his having    
made no use  of past opportunities1     
which might have secured him this or    
that  happiness or enjoyment6 ,what is  
there left of them now8 ,only the ghost 
of a remembrance6 ,and it is the same   
with everything that really falls  to   
our lot4 ,so that the form of time      
itself1 and how much is reckoned  on it1
 is a definite way of proving to us the 
vanity of all earthly  enjoyment4       
,our existence1 as well as that of all  
animals1 is not one that lasts1 it  is  
only temporary1 merely an existentia    
fluxa1 which may be compared  to a      
water-mill in that it is constantly     
changing4    ,it is true that the form  
of the body lasts for a time1 but only  
on  condition that the matter is        
constantly changing1 that the old matter
 is  thrown off and new added4 ,and it  

is the chief work of all living         
creatures to secure a constant supply of
 suitable matter4 ,at the same  time1   
they are conscious that their existence 
is so fashioned as to last  only for a  
certain time1 as has been said4 ,this is
 why they attempt1  when they are taking
 leave of life1 to hand it over to some 
one else who  will take their place4    
,this attempt takes the form of the     
sexual  instinct in self-consciousness1 
and in the consciousness of other things
  presents itself objectively--that is1 
in the form of genital instinct4  ,this 
instinct may be compared to the         
threading of a string of pearls2  one   
individual succeeding another as rapidly
 as the pearls on the  thread4 ,if we1  
in imagination1 hasten on this          
succession1 we shall see  that the      
matter is constantly changing in the    
whole row just as it is  changing in    
each pearl1 while it retains the same   
form3 we will then  realise that we have
 only a quasi-existence4 ,that it is    

only ,ideas which  exist1 and the       
shadow-like nature of the thing         
corresponding to them1 is  the basis of 
,plato's teachings4    ,that we are     
nothing but phenomena as opposed to the 
thing-in-itself is  confirmed1          
exemplified1 and made clear by the fact 
that the conditio  sine qua non of our  
existence is a continual flowing off and
 flowing to  of matter which1 as        
nourishment1 is a constant need4 ,so    
that we resemble  such phenomena as     
smoke1 fire1 or a jet of water1 all of  
which die out  or stop directly there is
 no supply of matter4 ,it may be said   
then that  the will to live presents    
itself in the form of pure phenomena    
which  end in nothing4 ,this            
nothingness1 however1 together with the 
phenomena1 remain within the boundary of
 the will to live and are  based on it4 
,i admit that this is somewhat obscure4 
,if we try to get a general view of     
humanity at a glance1 we shall see      
everywhere a constant fighting and      

mighty struggling for life and          
existence2 that mental and bodily       
strength is taxed to the utmost1 and    
opposed by threatening and actual       
dangers and woes of every kind4    ,and 
if we consider the price that is paid   
for all this1 existence1 and  life      
itself1 it will be found that there has 
been an interval when  existence was    
free from pain1 an interval1 however1   
which was  immediately followed by      
boredom1 and which in its turn was      
quickly  terminated by fresh cravings4  
,that boredom is immediately followed by
 fresh needs is a fact which is  also   
true of the cleverer order of animals1  
because life has no true  and genuine   
value in itself1 but is kept in motion  
merely through the  medium of needs and 
illusion4 ,as soon as there are no needs
 and illusion  we become conscious of   
the absolute barrenness and emptiness of
  existence4    ,if one turns from      
contemplating the course of the world at
 large1 and in  particular from the     

ephemeral and mock existence of men as  
they follow  each other in rapid        
succession1 to the detail of life1 how  
like a  comedy it seems6    ,it         
impresses us in the same way as a drop  
of water1 crowded with  infusoria1 seen 
through a microscope1 or a little heap  
of cheese-mites  that would otherwise be
 invisible4 ,their activity and         
struggling with  each other in such     
little space amuse us greatly4 ,and it  
is the same in  the little span of      
life--great and earnest activity        
produces a comic  effect4    ,no man has
 ever felt perfectly happy in the       
present2 if he had it would  have       
intoxicated him4          ,,on ,,women4 
,these few words of ,jouy1 ,sans les    
femmes le commencement de notre vie     
seroit priv de secours1 le milieu de    
plaisirs et la fin de  consolation1 more
 exactly express1 in my opinion1 the    
true praise of  woman than ,schiller's  
poem1 ,wrde der ,frauen1 which is the   
fruit of  much careful thought and      

impressive because of its antithesis and
 use of  contrast4 ,the same thing is   
more pathetically expressed by ,byron in
  ,sardanapalus1 ,act i1 ,sc4 #b3--     
,the very first    ,of human life must  
spring from woman's breast1    ,your    
first small words are taught you from   
her lips1    ,your first tears quench'd 
by her1 and your last sighs    ,too     
often breathed out in a woman's hearing1
    ,when men have shrunk from the      
ignoble care    ,of watching the last   
hour of him who led them4    ,both      
passages show the right point of view   
for the appreciation of  women4    ,one 
need only look at a woman's shape to    
discover that she is not  intended for  
either too much mental or too much      
physical work4 ,she pays  the debt of   
life not by what she does but by what   
she suffers--by the  pains of           
child-bearing1 care for the child1 and  
by subjection to man1 to  whom she      
should be a patient and cheerful        
companion4 ,the greatest  sorrows and   

joys or great exhibition of strength are
 not assigned to  her2 her life should  
flow more quietly1 more gently1 and less
  obtrusively than man's1 without her   
being essentially happier or  unhappier4
           99       99       99       99
       99    ,women are directly adapted
 to act as the nurses and educators of  
our  early childhood1 for the simple    
reason that they themselves are         
childish1 foolish1 and short-sighted--in
 a word1 are big children all  their    
lives1 something intermediate between   
the child and the man1 who  is a man in 
the strict sense of the word4 ,consider 
how a young girl will  toy day after day
 with a child1 dance with it and sing to
 it2 and then  consider what a man1 with
 the very best intentions in the world1 
could  do in her place4           99    
99       99       99       99    ,with  
girls1 ,nature has had in view what is  
called in a dramatic sense a  striking  
effect1 for she endows them for a few   
years with a richness  of beauty and a1 

fulness of charm at the expense of the  
rest of their  lives2 so that they may  
during these years ensnare the fantasy  
of a man  to such a degree as to make   
him rush into taking the honourable care
 of  them1 in some kind of form1 for a  
lifetime--a step which would not  seem  
sufficiently justified if he only       
considered the matter4  ,accordingly1   
,nature has furnished woman1 as she has 
the rest of her  creatures1 with the    
weapons and implements necessary for the
 protection  of her existence and for   
just the length of time that they will  
be of  service to her2 so that ,nature  
has proceeded here with her usual       
economy4 ,just as the female ant after  
coition loses her wings1 which  then    
become superfluous1 nay1 dangerous for  
breeding purposes1 so for  the most part
 does a woman lose her beauty after     
giving birth to one or  two children2   
and probably for the same reasons4      
,then again we find that young girls in 
their hearts regard their  domestic or  

other affairs as secondary things1 if   
not as a mere jest4  ,love1 conquests1  
and all that these include1 such as     
dressing1 dancing1  and so on1 they give
 their serious attention4           99  
99       99       99       99    ,the   
nobler and more perfect a thing is1 the 
later and slower is it in  reaching     
maturity4 ,man reaches the maturity of  
his reasoning and mental  faculties     
scarcely before he is eight-and-twenty2 
woman when she is  eighteen2 but hers is
 reason of very narrow limitations4     
,this is why  women remain children all 
their lives1 for they always see only   
what is  near at hand1 cling to the     
present1 take the appearance of a thing 
for  reality1 and prefer trifling       
matters to the most important4 ,it is by
  virtue of man's reasoning powers that 
he does not live in the present  only1  
like the brute1 but observes and ponders
 over the past and future2  and from    
this spring discretion1 care1 and that  
anxiety which we so  frequently notice  

in people4 ,the advantages1 as well as  
the  disadvantages1 that this entails1  
make woman1 in consequence of her       
weaker reasoning powers1 less of a      
partaker in them4 ,moreover1 she is     
intellectually short-sighted1 for       
although her intuitive understanding    
quickly perceives what is near to her1  
on the other hand her circle of  vision 
is limited and does not embrace anything
 that is remote2 hence  everything that 
is absent or past1 or in the future1    
affects women in a  less degree than    
men4 ,this is why they have greater     
inclination for  extravagance1 which    
sometimes borders on madness4 ,women in 
their hearts  think that men are        
intended to earn money so that they may 
spend it1 if  possible during their     
husband's lifetime1 but at any rate     
after his  death4    ,as soon as he has 
given them his earnings on which to keep
 house they  are strengthened in this   
belief4 ,although all this entails many 
disadvantages1 yet it has this          

advantage--that a woman lives more in   
the  present than a man1 and that she   
enjoys it more keenly if it is at all   
bearable4 ,this is the origin of that   
cheerfulness which is peculiar to  woman
 and makes her fit to divert man1 and in
 case of need1 to console  him when he  
is weighed down by cares4 ,to consult   
women in matters of  difficulty1 as the 
,germans used to do in old times1 is by 
no means a  matter to be overlooked2 for
 their way of grasping a thing is quite 
different from ours1 chiefly because    
they like the shortest way to the       
point1 and usually keep their attention 
fixed upon what lies nearest2  while we1
 as a rule1 see beyond it1 for the      
simple reason that it lies  under our   
nose2 it then becomes necessary for us  
to be brought back to  the thing in     
order to obtain a near and simple view4 
,this is why women  are more sober in   
their judgment than we1 and why they see
 nothing more  in things than is really 
there2 while we1 if our passions are    

roused1  slightly exaggerate or add to  
our imagination4    ,it is because      
women's reasoning powers are weaker that
 they show more  sympathy for the       
unfortunate than men1 and consequently  
take a kindlier  interest in them4 ,on  
the other hand1 women are inferior to   
men in  matters of justice1 honesty1 and
 conscientiousness4 ,again1 because     
their  reasoning faculty is weak1 things
 clearly visible and real1 and          
belonging to the present1 exercise a    
power over them which is rarely         
counteracted by abstract thoughts1 fixed
 maxims1 or firm resolutions1 in        
general1 by regard for the past and     
future or by consideration for what  is 
absent and remote4 ,accordingly they    
have the first and principal  qualities 
of virtue1 but they lack the secondary  
qualities which are  often a necessary  
instrument in developing it4 ,women may 
be compared in  this respect to an      
organism that has a liver but no        
gall-bladder4#i ,so  that it will be    

found that the fundamental fault in the 
character of  women is that they have no
 sense of justice4 ,this arises from    
their  deficiency in the power of       
reasoning already referred to1 and      
reflection1 but is also partly due to   
the fact that ,nature has not  destined 
them1 as the weaker sex1 to be dependent
 on strength but on  cunning2 this is   
why they are instinctively crafty1 and  
have an  ineradicable tendency to lie4  
,for as lions are furnished with claws  
and  teeth1 elephants with tusks1 boars 
with fangs1 bulls with horns1 and the   
cuttlefish with its dark1 inky fluid1 so
 ,nature has provided woman for  her    
protection and defence with the faculty 
of dissimulation1 and all  the power    
which ,nature has given to man in the   
form of bodily strength  and reason has 
been conferred on woman in this form4   
,hence1  dissimulation is innate in     
woman and almost as characteristic of   
the  very stupid as of the clever4      
,accordingly1 it is as natural for women

 to  dissemble at every opportunity as  
it is for those animals to turn to      
their weapons when they are attacked2   
and they feel in doing so that in  a    
certain measure they are only making use
 of their rights4 ,therefore a  woman   
who is perfectly truthful and does not  
dissemble is perhaps an  impossibility4 
,this is why they see through           
dissimulation in others so  easily2     
therefore it is not advisable to attempt
 it with them4 ,from the  fundamental   
defect that has been stated1 and all    
that it involves1  spring falseness1    
faithlessness1 treachery1               
ungratefulness1 and so on4  ,in a court 
of justice women are more often found   
guilty of perjury than  men4 ,it is     
indeed to be generally questioned       
whether they should be  allowed to take 
an oath at all4 ,from time to time there
 are repeated  cases everywhere of      
ladies1 who want for nothing1 secretly  
pocketing and  taking away things from  
shop counters4           99       99    

99       99       99    ,nature has made
 it the calling of the young1 strong1   
and handsome men to  look after the     
propagation of the human race2 so that  
the species may  not degenerate4 ,this  
is the firm will of ,nature1 and it     
finds its  expression in the passions of
 women4 ,this law surpasses all others  
in  both age and power4 ,woe then to the
 man who sets up rights and interests   
in such a way as to make them stand in  
the way of it2 for whatever he  may do  
or say1 they will1 at the first         
significant onset1 be  unmercifully     
annihilated4 ,for the secret1           
unformulated1 nay1 unconscious  but     
innate moral of woman is3 ,we are       
justified in deceiving those who1       
because they care a little for us1--that
 is to say for the  individual1--imagine
 they have obtained rights over the     
species4 ,the  constitution1 and        
consequently the welfare of the species1
 have been put  into our hands and      
entrusted to our care through the medium

 of the next  generation which proceeds 
from us2 let us fulfil our duties       
conscientiously4    ,but women are by no
 means conscious of this leading        
principle in  abstracto1 they are only  
conscious of it in concreto1 and have no
  other way of expressing it than in the
 manner in which they act when the      
opportunity arrives4 ,so that their     
conscience does not trouble them so     
much as we imagine1 for in the darkest  
depths of their hearts they are         
conscious that in violating their duty  
towards the individual they have  all   
the better fulfilled it towards the     
species1 whose claim upon them  is      
infinitely greater4 7,a fuller          
explanation of this matter may be found 
in vol4 ii41 ch4 #dd1 in my chief work1 
,die ,welt als ,wille und               
,vorstellung47    ,because women in     
truth exist entirely for the propagation
 of the race1  and their destiny ends   
here1 they live more for the species    
than for the  individual1 and in their  

hearts take the affairs of the species  
more  seriously than those of the       
individual4 ,this gives to their whole  
being  and character a certain          
frivolousness1 and altogether a certain 
tendency  which is fundamentally        
different from that of man2 and this it 
is which  develops that discord in      
married life which is so prevalent and  
almost  the normal state4    ,it is     
natural for a feeling of mere           
indifference to exist between men1  but 
between women it is actual enmity4 ,this
 is due perhaps to the fact  that odium 
figulinum in the case of men1 is limited
 to their everyday  affairs1 but with   
women embraces the whole sex2 since they
 have only one  kind of business4 ,even 
when they meet in the street1 they look 
at each  other like ,guelphs and        
,ghibellines4 ,and it is quite evident  
when two  women first make each other's 
acquaintance that they exhibit more     
constraint and dissimulation than two   
men placed in similar  circumstances4   

,this is why an exchange of compliments 
between two women  is much more         
ridiculous than between two men4        
,further1 while a man will1  as a rule1 
address others1 even those inferior to  
himself1 with a  certain feeling of     
consideration and humanity1 it is       
unbearable to see  how proudly and      
disdainfully a lady of rank will1 for   
the most part1  behave towards one who  
is in a lower rank 7not employed in her 
service7  when she speaks to her4 ,this 
may be because differences of rank are  
much  more precarious with women than   
with us1 and consequently more quickly  
change their line of conduct and elevate
 them1 or because while a  hundred      
things must be weighed in our case1     
there is only one to be  weighed in     
theirs1 namely1 with which man they have
 found favour2 and  again1 because of   
the one-sided nature of their vocation  
they stand in  closer relationship to   
each other than men do2 and so it is    
they try to  render prominent the       

differences of rank4           99       
99       99       99       99    ,it is 
only the man whose intellect is clouded 
by his sexual instinct  that could give 
that stunted1 narrow-shouldered1        
broad-hipped1 and  short-legged race the
 name of the fair sex2 for the entire   
beauty of  the sex is based on this     
instinct4 ,one would be more justified  
in  calling them the unaesthetic sex    
than the beautiful4 ,neither for  music1
 nor for poetry1 nor for fine art have  
they any real or true sense  and        
susceptibility1 and it is mere mockery  
on their part1 in their  desire to      
please1 if they affect any such thing4  
,this makes them incapable of taking a  
purely objective interest in  anything1 
and the reason for it is1 ,i fancy1 as  
follows4 ,a man strives  to get direct  
mastery over things either by           
understanding them or by  compulsion4   
,but a woman is always and everywhere   
driven to indirect  mastery1 namely     
through a man2 all her direct mastery   

being limited to  him alone4 ,therefore 
it lies in woman's nature to look upon  
everything  only as a means for winning 
man1 and her interest in anything else  
is  always a simulated one1 a mere      
roundabout way to gain her ends1        
consisting of coquetry and pretence4    
,hence ,rousseau said1 ,les femmes1  en 
gnral1 n'aiment aucun art1 ne se        
connoissent  aucun et n'ont aucun  gnie 
7,lettre  d',alembert1 note xx474 ,every
 one who can see through a  sham must   
have found this to be the case4 ,one    
need only watch the way  they behave at 
a concert1 the opera1 or the play2 the  
childish  simplicity1 for instance1 with
 which they keep on chattering during   
the  finest passages in the greatest    
masterpieces4 ,if it is true that the   
,greeks forbade women to go to the play1
 they acted in a right way2 for  they   
would at any rate be able to hear       
something4 ,in our day it would be  more
 appropriate to substitute taceat mulier
 in theatro for taceat  mulier in       

ecclesia2 and this might perhaps be put 
up in big letters on  the curtain4      
,nothing different can be expected of   
women if it is borne in mind that  the  
most eminent of the whole sex have never
 accomplished anything in  the fine arts
 that is really great1 genuine1 and     
original1 or given to  the world any    
kind of work of permanent value4 ,this  
is most striking in  regard to painting1
 the technique of which is as much      
within their reach  as within ours2 this
 is why they pursue it so industriously4
 ,still1 they  have not a single great  
painting to show1 for the simple reason 
that  they lack that objectivity of mind
 which is precisely what is so  directly
 necessary in painting4 ,they always    
stick to what is subjective4  ,for this 
reason1 ordinary women have no          
susceptibility for painting at  all3 for
 natura non facet saltum4 ,and ,huarte1 
in his book which has  been famous for  
three hundred years1 ,examen de ingenios
 para las  scienzias1 contends that     

women do not possess the higher         
capacities4  ,individual and partial    
exceptions do not alter the matter2     
women are and  remain1 taken altogether1
 the most thorough and incurable        
philistines2  and because of the        
extremely absurd arrangement which      
allows them to  share the position and  
title of their husbands they are a      
constant  stimulus to his ignoble       
ambitions4 ,and further1 it is because  
they are  philistines that modern       
society1 to which they give the tone and
 where  they have sway1 has become      
corrupted4 ,as regards their position1  
one  should be guided by ,napoleon's    
maxim1 ,les femmes n'ont pas de rang2   
and regarding them in other things1     
,chamfort says very truly3 ,elles  sont 
faites pour commercer avec nos          
faiblesses avec notre folie1 mais  non  
avec notre raison4 ,il existe entre     
elles et les hommes des  sympathies     
d'piderme et trs-peu de sympathies      
d'esprit d'me et de  caractre4 ,they are

 the sexus sequior1 the second sex in   
every  respect1 therefore their         
weaknesses should be spared1 but to     
treat women  with extreme reverence is  
ridiculous1 and lowers us in their own  
eyes4  ,when nature divided the human   
race into two parts1 she did not cut it 
exactly through the middle6 ,the        
difference between the positive and     
negative poles1 according to polarity1  
is not merely qualitative but  also     
quantitative4 ,and it was in this light 
that the ancients and people  of the    
,east regarded woman2 they recognised   
her true position better  than we1 with 
our old ,french ideas of gallantry and  
absurd veneration1  that highest product
 of ,christian-,teutonic stupidity4     
,these ideas have  only served to make  
them arrogant and imperious1 to such an 
extent as to  remind one at times of the
 holy apes in ,benares1 who1 in the     
consciousness of their holiness and     
inviolability1 think they can do        
anything and everything they please4    

,in the ,west1 the woman1 that is to say
 the lady1 finds herself in a  fausse   
position2 for woman1 rightly named by   
the ancients sexus  sequior1 is by no   
means fit to be the object of our honour
 and  veneration1 or to hold her head   
higher than man and to have the same    
rights as he4 ,the consequences of this 
fausse position are  sufficiently clear4
 ,accordingly1 it would be a very       
desirable thing if  this ,number ,two of
 the human race in ,europe were assigned
 her natural  position1 and the         
lady-grievance got rid of1 which is not 
only ridiculed  by the whole of ,asia1  
but would have been equally ridiculed by
 ,greece  and ,rome4 ,the result of this
 would be that the condition of our     
social1  civil1 and political affairs   
would be incalculably improved4 ,the    
,salic  law would be unnecessary2 it    
would be a superfluous truism4 ,the     
,european  lady1 strictly speaking1 is a
 creature who should not exist at all2  
but  there ought to be housekeepers1 and

 young girls who hope to become such2   
and they should be brought up not to be 
arrogant1 but to be domesticated  and   
submissive4 ,it is exactly because there
 are ladies in ,europe that  women of a 
lower standing1 that is to say1 the     
greater majority of the  sex1 are much  
more unhappy than they are in the ,east4
 ,even ,lord ,byron  says 7,letters and 
,papers1 by ,thomas ,moore1 vol4 ii4 p4 
#cii71 ,thought  of the state of women  
under the ancient ,greeks--convenient   
enough4  ,present state1 a remnant of   
the barbarism of the chivalric and      
feudal  ages--artificial and unnatural4 
,they ought to mind home--and be well   
fed  and clothed--but not mixed in      
society4 ,well educated1 too1 in        
religion--but to read neither poetry nor
 politics--nothing but books of  piety  
and cookery4                            
,music--drawing--dancing--also a little 
gardening and  ploughing now and then4  
,i have seen them mending the roads in  
,epirus  with good success4 ,why not1 as

 well as hay-making and milking8        
99       99       99       99       99  
,in our part of the world1 where        
monogamy is in force1 to marry means to 
halve one's rights and to double one's  
duties4 ,when the laws granted  woman   
the same rights as man1 they should also
 have given her a  masculine power of   
reason4 ,on the contrary1 just as the   
privileges and  honours which the laws  
decree to women surpass what ,nature has
 meted out  to them1 so is there a      
proportional decrease in the number of  
women who  really share these           
privileges2 therefore the remainder are 
deprived of  their natural rights in so 
far as the others have been given more  
than  ,nature accords4    ,for the      
unnatural position of privilege which   
the institution of  monogamy1 and the   
laws of marriage which accompany it1    
assign to the  woman1 whereby she is    
regarded throughout as a full equivalent
 of the  man1 which she is not by any   
means1 cause intelligent and prudent men

 to  reflect a great deal before they   
make so great a sacrifice and consent   
to so unfair an arrangement4 ,therefore1
 whilst among polygamous nations  every 
woman finds maintenance1 where monogamy 
exists the number of  married women is  
limited1 and a countless number of women
 who are  without support remain over2  
those in the upper classes vegetate as  
useless old maids1 those in the lower   
are reduced to very hard work of a      
distasteful nature1 or become           
prostitutes1 and lead a life which is as
  joyless as it is void of honour4 ,but 
under such circumstances they  become a 
necessity to the masculine sex2 so that 
their position is  openly recognised as 
a special means for protecting from     
seduction those  other women favoured by
 fate either to have found husbands1 or 
who hope  to find them4 ,in ,london     
alone there are #hj1jjj prostitutes4    
,then what  are these women who have    
come too quickly to this most terrible  
end but  human sacrifices on the altar  

of monogamy8 ,the women here referred to
  and who are placed in this wretched   
position are the inevitable             
counterbalance to the ,european lady1   
with her pretensions and arrogance4     
,hence polygamy is a real benefit to the
 female sex1 taking it as a  whole4     
,and1 on the other hand1 there is no    
reason why a man whose wife  suffers    
from chronic illness1 or remains barren1
 or has gradually become  too old for   
him1 should not take a second4 ,many    
people become converts  to ,mormonism   
for the precise reasons that they       
condemn the unnatural  institution of   
monogamy4 ,the conferring of unnatural  
rights upon women  has imposed unnatural
 duties upon them1 the violation of     
which1 however1  makes them unhappy4    
,for example1 many a man thinks marriage
 unadvisable  as far as his social      
standing and monetary position are      
concerned1  unless he contracts a       
brilliant match4 ,he will then wish to  
win a woman  of his own choice under    

different conditions1 namely1 under     
those which  will render safe her future
 and that of her children4 ,be the      
conditions  ever so just1 reasonable1   
and adequate1 and she consents by giving
 up  those undue privileges which       
marriage1 as the basis of civil society1
  alone can bestow1 she must to a       
certain extent lose her honour and lead 
a life of loneliness2 since human nature
 makes us dependent on the  opinion of  
others in a way that is completely out  
of proportion to its  value4 ,while1 if 
the woman does not consent1 she runs the
 risk of being  compelled to marry a man
 she dislikes1 or of shrivelling up into
 an old  maid2 for the time allotted to 
her to find a home is very short4 ,in   
view  of this side of the institution of
 monogamy1 ,thomasius's profoundly      
learned treatise1 de ,concubinatu1 is   
well worth reading1 for it shows  that1 
among all nations1 and in all ages1 down
 to the ,lutheran  ,reformation1        
concubinage was allowed1 nay1 that it   

was an institution1  in a certain       
measure even recognised by law and      
associated with no  dishonour4 ,and it  
held this position until the ,lutheran  
,reformation1  when it was recognised as
 another means for justifying the       
marriage of  the clergy2 whereupon the  
,catholic party did not dare to remain  
behindhand in the matter4    ,it is     
useless to argue about polygamy1 it must
 be taken as a fact  existing           
everywhere1 the mere regulation of which
 is the problem to be  solved4 ,where   
are there1 then1 any real monogamists8  
,we all live1 at any  rate for a time1  
and the majority of us always1 in       
polygamy4  ,consequently1 as each man   
needs many women1 nothing is more just  
than to  let him1 nay1 make it incumbent
 upon him to provide for many women4 ,by
  this means woman will be brought back 
to her proper and natural place as  a   
subordinate being1 and the lady1 that   
monster of ,european  civilisation and  
,christian-,teutonic stupidity1 with her

 ridiculous claim  to respect and       
veneration1 will no longer exist2 there 
will still be  women1 but no unhappy    
women1 of whom ,europe is at present    
full4 ,the  ,mormons' standpoint is     
right4           99       99       99   
99       99    ,in ,india no woman is   
ever independent1 but each one stands   
under the  control of her father or her 
husband1 or brother or son1 in          
accordance  with the law of ,manu4      
,it is certainly a revolting idea that  
widows should sacrifice themselves  on  
their husband's dead body2 but it is    
also revolting that the money  which the
 husband has earned by working          
diligently for all his life1 in  the    
hope that he was working for his        
children1 should be wasted on her       
paramours4 ,medium tenuere beati4 ,the  
first love of a mother1 as that  of     
animals and men1 is purely instinctive1 
and consequently ceases  when the child 
is no longer physically helpless4 ,after
 that1 the first  love should be        

reinstated by a love based on habit and 
reason2 but this  often does not appear1
 especially where the mother has not    
loved the  father4 ,the love of a father
 for his children is of a different     
nature  and more sincere2 it is founded 
on a recognition of his own inner self  
in the child1 and is therefore          
metaphysical in its origin4    ,in      
almost every nation1 both of the new and
 old world1 and even among  the         
,hottentots1 property is inherited by   
the male descendants alone2 it  is only 
in ,europe that one has departed from   
this4 ,that the property  which men have
 with difficulty acquired by            
long-continued struggling and  hard work
 should afterwards come into the hands  
of women1 who1 in their  want of reason1
 either squander it within a short time 
or otherwise  waste it1 is an injustice 
as great as it is common1 and it should 
be  prevented by limiting the right of  
women to inherit4 ,it seems to me that  
it would be a better arrangement if     

women1 be they widows or daughters1     
only inherited the money for life       
secured by mortgage1 but not the        
property itself or the capital1 unless  
there lacked male descendants4 ,it  is  
men who make the money1 and not women2  
therefore women are neither  justified  
in having unconditional possession of it
 nor capable of  administrating it4     
,women should never have the free       
disposition of  wealth1 strictly        
so-called1 which they may inherit1 such 
as capital1  houses1 and estates4 ,they 
need a guardian always2 therefore they  
should  not have the guardianship of    
their children under any circumstances  
whatever4 ,the vanity of women1 even if 
it should not be greater than  that of  
men1 has this evil in it1 that it is    
directed on material  things--that is to
 say1 on their personal beauty and then 
on tinsel1  pomp1 and show4 ,this is why
 they are in their right element in     
society4  ,this it is which makes them  
inclined to be extravagant1 especially  

since they possess little reasoning     
power4 ,accordingly1 an ancient  writer 
says1      4#aj ,men's vanity1 on  the  
other hand1 is often directed on        
non-material advantages1 such as        
intellect1 learning1 courage1 and the   
like4 ,aristotle explains in the        
,politics#aa the great disadvantages    
which the ,spartans brought upon        
themselves by granting too much to their
 women1 by allowing them the  right of  
inheritance and dowry1 and a great      
amount of freedom2 and how  this        
contributed greatly to the fall of      
,sparta4 ,may it not be that the        
influence of women in ,france1 which has
 been increasing since ,louis  ,,xiii4's
 time1 was to blame for that gradual    
corruption of the court and  government 
which led to the first ,revolution1 of  
which all subsequent  disturbances have 
been the result8 ,in any case1 the false
 position of  the female sex1 so        
conspicuously exposed by the existence  
of the lady1  is a fundamental defect in

 our social condition1 and this defect1 
proceeding from the very heart of it1   
must extend its harmful influence  in   
every direction4 ,that woman is by      
nature intended to obey is shown by  the
 fact that every woman who is placed in 
the unnatural position of  absolute     
independence at once attaches herself to
 some kind of man1 by  whom she is      
controlled and governed2 this is because
 she requires a  master4 ,if she1 is    
young1 the man is a lover2 if she is    
old1 a priest4    ,,footnotes3    #i    
,let me refer to what ,i have said in my
 treatise on ,the ,foundation  of       
,morals1 #ga4    #aj ,brunck's ,gnomici 
poetae graeci v4 #aae4    #aa ,bk4 ,i41 
ch4 #i4          ,,thinking ,,for       
,,oneself4      ,the largest library in 
disorder is not so useful as a smaller  
but  orderly one2 in the same way the   
greatest amount of knowledge1 if it has 
not been worked out in one's own mind1  
is of less value than a much  smaller   
amount that has been fully considered4  

,for it is only when a man  combines    
what he knows from all sides1 and       
compares one truth with  another1 that  
he completely realises his own knowledge
 and gets it into  his power4 ,a man can
 only think over what he knows1         
therefore he should  learn something2   
but a man only knows what he has        
pondered4    ,a man can apply himself of
 his own free will to reading and       
learning1  while he cannot to thinking4 
,thinking must be kindled like a fire by
 a  draught and sustained by some kind  
of interest in the subject4 ,this       
interest may be either of a purely      
objective nature or it may be merely    
subjective4 ,the latter exists in       
matters concerning us personally1 but   
objective interest is only to be found  
in heads that think by nature1  and to  
whom thinking is as natural as          
breathing2 but they are very rare4      
,this is why there is so little of it in
 most men of learning4    ,the          
difference between the effect that      

thinking for oneself and that  reading  
has on the mind is incredibly great2    
hence it is continually  developing that
 original difference in minds which     
induces one man to  think and another to
 read4 ,reading forces thoughts upon the
 mind which  are as foreign and         
heterogeneous to the bent and mood in   
which it may be  for the moment1 as the 
seal is to the wax on which it stamps   
its  imprint4 ,the mind thus suffers    
total compulsion from without2 it has   
first this and first that to think      
about1 for which it has at the time     
neither instinct nor liking4    ,on the 
other hand1 when a man thinks for       
himself he follows his own  impulse1    
which either his external surroundings  
or some kind of  recollection has       
determined at the moment4 ,his visible  
surroundings do  not leave upon his mind
 one single definite thought as reading 
does1  but merely supply him with       
material and occasion to think over what
 is  in keeping with his nature and     

present mood4 ,this is why much reading 
robs the mind of all elasticity2 it is  
like keeping a spring under a           
continuous1 heavy weight4 ,if a man does
 not want to think1 the safest  plan is 
to take up a book directly he has a     
spare moment4    ,this practice accounts
 for the fact that learning makes most  
men more  stupid and foolish than they  
are by nature1 and prevents their       
writings  from being a success2 they    
remain1 as ,pope has said1      ,for    
ever reading1 never to be               
read4--,dunciad iii4 #aid4    ,men of   
learning are those who have read the    
contents of books4 ,thinkers1  geniuses1
 and those who have enlightened the     
world and furthered the  race of men1   
are those who have made direct use of   
the book of the  world4           99    
99       99       99       99           
,indeed1 it is only a man's own         
fundamental thoughts that have truth and
  life in them4 ,for it is these that he
 really and completely understands4  ,to

 read the thoughts of others is like    
taking the remains of some one  else's  
meal1 like putting on the discarded     
clothes of a stranger4    ,the thought  
we read is related to the thought which 
rises in us1 as the  fossilised impress 
of a prehistoric plant is to a plant    
budding out in  spring4           99    
99       99       99       99           
,reading is merely a substitute for     
one's own thoughts4 ,a man allows his   
thoughts to be put into leading-strings4
    ,further1 many books serve only to  
show how many wrong paths there are1    
and how widely a man may stray if he    
allows himself to be led by them4  ,but 
he who is guided by his genius1 that is 
to say1 he who thinks for  himself1 who 
thinks voluntarily and rightly1         
possesses the compass  wherewith to find
 the right course4 ,a man1 therefore1   
should only read  when the source of his
 own thoughts stagnates2 which is often 
the case  with the best of minds4    ,it
 is sin against the ,holy ,spirit to    

frighten away one's own original        
thoughts by taking up a book4 ,it is the
 same as a man flying from ,nature  to  
look at a museum of dried plants1 or to 
study a beautiful landscape  in         
copperplate4 ,a man at times arrives at 
a truth or an idea after  spending much 
time in thinking it out for himself1    
linking together his  various thoughts1 
when he might have found the same thing 
in a book2 it  is a hundred times more  
valuable if he has acquired it by       
thinking it  out for himself4 ,for it is
 only by his thinking it out for himself
 that  it enters as an integral part1 as
 a living member into the whole system  
of his thought1 and stands in complete  
and firm relation with it2 that  it is  
fundamentally understood with all its   
consequences1 and carries  the colour1  
the shade1 the impress of his own way of
 thinking2 and comes  at the very       
moment1 just as the necessity for it is 
felt1 and stands  fast and cannot be    
forgotten4 ,this is the perfect         

application1 nay1  interpretation of    
,goethe's      ,was du ererbt von deinen
 ,vtern hast     ,erwirb es um es zu    
besitzen4    ,the man who thinks for    
himself learns the authorities for his  
opinions  only later on1 when they serve
 merely to strengthen both them and     
himself2 while the book-philosopher     
starts from the authorities and  other  
people's opinions1 therefrom            
constructing a whole for himself2 so    
that he resembles an automaton1 whose   
composition we do not understand4  ,the 
other man1 the man who thinks for       
himself1 on the other hand1 is  like a  
living man as made by nature4 ,his mind 
is impregnated from  without1 which then
 bears and brings forth its child4      
,truth that has  been merely learned    
adheres to us like an artificial limb1 a
 false  tooth1 a waxen nose1 or at best 
like one made out of another's flesh2   
truth which is acquired by thinking for 
oneself is like a natural  member3 it   
alone really belongs to us4 ,here we    

touch upon the difference  between the  
thinking man and the mere man of        
learning4 ,therefore the  intellectual  
acquirements of the man who thinks for  
himself are like a  fine painting that  
stands out full of life1 that has its   
light and shade  correct1 the tone      
sustained1 and perfect harmony of       
colour4 ,the  intellectual attainments  
of the merely learned man1 on the       
contrary1  resemble a big palette       
covered with every colour1 at most      
systematically  arranged1 but without   
harmony1 relation1 and meaning4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,reading is thinking with some one      
else's head instead of one's own4  ,but 
to think for oneself is to endeavour to 
develop a coherent whole1 a  system1    
even if it is not a strictly complete   
one4 ,nothing is more  harmful than1 by 
dint of continual reading1 to strengthen
 the current of  other people's         
thoughts4 ,these thoughts1 springing    
from different minds1  belonging to     

different systems1 bearing different    
colours1 never flow  together of        
themselves into a unity of thought1     
knowledge1 insight1 or  conviction1 but 
rather cram the head with a ,babylonian 
confusion of  tongues2 consequently the 
mind becomes overcharged with them and  
is  deprived of all clear insight and   
almost disorganised4 ,this condition of 
things may often be discerned in many   
men of learning1 and it makes them      
inferior in sound understanding1 correct
 judgment1 and practical tact to  many  
illiterate men1 who1 by the aid of      
experience1 conversation1 and a  little 
reading1 have acquired a little         
knowledge from without1 and made  it    
always subordinate to and incorporated  
it with their own thoughts4    ,the     
scientific thinker also does this to a  
much greater extent4  ,although he      
requires much knowledge and must read a 
great deal1 his mind  is nevertheless   
strong enough to overcome it all1 to    
assimilate it1 to  incorporate it with  

the system of his thoughts1 and to      
subordinate it to  the organic relative 
unity of his insight1 which is vast and 
ever-growing4 ,by this means his own    
thought1 like the bass in an organ1     
always takes the lead in everything1 and
 is never deadened by other  sounds1 as 
is the case with purely antiquarian     
minds2 where all sorts of  musical      
passages1 as it were1 run into each     
other1 and the fundamental  tone is     
entirely lost4           99       99    
99       99       99    ,the people who 
have spent their lives in reading and   
acquired their  wisdom out of books     
resemble those who have acquired exact  
information  of a country from the      
descriptions of many travellers4 ,these 
people can  relate a great deal about   
many things2 but at heart they have no  
connected1 clear1 sound knowledge of the
 condition of the country4 ,while  those
 who have spent their life in thinking  
are like the people who have  been to   
that country themselves2 they alone     

really know what it is they  are saying1
 know the subject in its entirety1 and  
are quite at home in  it4           99  
99       99       99       99    ,the   
ordinary book-philosopher stands in the 
same relation to a man who  thinks for  
himself as an eye-witness does to the   
historian2 he speaks  from his own      
direct comprehension of the subject4    
,therefore all who think for themselves 
hold at bottom much the same  views2    
when they differ it is because they hold
 different points of  view1 but when    
these do not alter the matter they all  
say the same  thing4 ,they merely       
express what they have grasped from an  
objective  point of view4 ,i have       
frequently hesitated to give passages to
 the  public because of their           
paradoxical nature1 and afterwards to my
 joyful  surprise have found the same   
thoughts expressed in the works of great
  men of long ago4    ,the              
book-philosopher1 on the other hand1    
relates what one man has said  and      

another man meant1 and what a third has 
objected to1 and so on4 ,he  compares1  
weighs1 criticises1 and endeavours to   
get at the truth of the  thing1 and in  
this way resembles the critical         
historian4 ,for instance1  he will try  
to find out whether ,leibnitz was not   
for some time in his  life a follower of
 ,spinoza1 etc4 ,the curious student    
will find striking  examples of what ,i 
mean in ,herbart's ,analytical          
,elucidation of ,morality  and ,natural 
,right1 and in his ,letters on ,freedom4
 ,it surprises us  that such a man      
should give himself so much trouble2 for
 it is evident  that if he had fixed his
 attention on the matter he would soon  
have  attained his object by thinking a 
little for himself4    ,but there is a  
small difficulty to overcome2 a thing of
 this kind does  not depend upon our own
 will4 ,one can sit down at any time and
 read1 but  not--think4 ,it is with     
thoughts as with men3 we cannot always  
summon  them at pleasure1 but must wait 

until they come4 ,thought about a       
subject  must come of its own accord by 
a happy and harmonious union of external
  motive with mental temper and         
application2 and it is precisely that   
which never seems to come to these      
people4    ,one has an illustration of  
this in matters that concern our        
personal  interest4 ,if we have to come 
to a decision on a thing of this kind we
  cannot sit down at any particular     
moment and thrash out the reasons and   
arrive at a decision2 for often at such 
a time our thoughts cannot be  fixed1   
but will wander off to other things2 a  
dislike to the subject is  sometimes    
responsible for this4 ,we should not use
 force1 but wait until  the mood appears
 of itself2 it frequently comes         
unexpectedly and even  repeats itself2  
the different moods which possess us at 
the different  times throwing another   
light on the matter4 ,it is this long   
process  which is understood by a ripe  
resolution4 ,for the task of making up  

our mind must be distributed2 much that 
has been previously overlooked  occurs  
to us2 the aversion also disappears1    
for1 after examining the  matter closer1
 it seems much more tolerable than it   
was at first sight4    ,and in theory it
 is just the same3 a man must wait for  
the right moment2  even the greatest    
mind is not always able to think for    
itself at all  times4 ,therefore it is  
advisable for it to use its spare       
moments in  reading1 which1 as has been 
said1 is a substitute for one's own     
thought2  in this way material is       
imported to the mind by letting another 
think  for us1 although it is always in 
a way which is different from our own4  
,for this reason a man should not read  
too much1 in order that his mind  does  
not become accustomed to the substitute1
 and consequently even  forget the      
matter in question2 that it may not get 
used to walking in  paths that have     
already been trodden1 and by following a
 foreign course  of thought forget its  

own4 ,least of all should a man for the 
sake of  reading entirely withdraw his  
attention from the real world3 as the   
impulse and temper which lead one to    
think for oneself proceed oftener  from 
it than from reading2 for it is the     
visible and real world in its           
primitiveness and strength that is the  
natural subject of the thinking  mind1  
and is able more easily than anything   
else to rouse it4 ,after  these         
considerations it will not surprise us  
to find that the thinking  man can      
easily be distinguished from the        
book-philosopher by his marked          
earnestness1 directness1 and            
originality1 the personal conviction of 
all  his thoughts and expressions3 the  
book-philosopher1 on the other hand1    
has everything second-hand2 his ideas   
are like a collection of old rags       
obtained anyhow2 he is dull and         
pointless1 resembling a copy of a copy4 
,his style1 which is full of            
conventional1 nay1 vulgar phrases and   

current terms1 resembles a small state  
where there is a circulation of  foreign
 money because it coins none of its own4
           99       99       99       99
       99    ,mere experience can as    
little as reading take the place of     
thought4 ,mere  empiricism bears the    
same relation to thinking as eating to  
digestion  and assimilation4 ,when      
experience boasts that it alone1 by its 
discoveries1 has advanced human         
knowledge1 it is as though the mouth    
boasted that it was its work alone to   
maintain the body4    ,the works of all 
really capable minds are distinguished  
from all other  works by a character of 
decision and definiteness1 and1 in      
consequence1  of lucidity and clearness4
 ,this is because minds like these know 
definitely and clearly what they wish to
 express--whether it be in  prose1 in   
verse1 or in music4 ,other minds are    
wanting in this decision  and clearness1
 and therefore may be instantly         
recognised4    ,the characteristic sign 

of a mind of the highest standard is the
  directness of its judgment4           
,everything it utters is the result of  
thinking for itself2 this is shown      
everywhere in the way it gives          
expression to its thoughts4 ,therefore  
it is1 like a prince1 an imperial       
director in the realm of intellect4 ,all
 other minds are mere delegates1  as may
 be seen by their style1 which has no   
stamp of its own4    ,hence every true  
thinker for himself is so far like a    
monarch2 he is  absolute1 and recognises
 nobody above him4 ,his judgments1 like 
the  decrees of a monarch1 spring from  
his own sovereign power and proceed     
directly from himself4 ,he takes as     
little notice of authority as a  monarch
 does of a command2 nothing is valid    
unless he has himself  authorised it4   
,on the other hand1 those of vulgar     
minds1 who are swayed  by all kinds of  
current opinions1 authorities1 and      
prejudices1 are like  the people which  
in silence obey the law and commands4   

99       99       99       99       99  
,the people who are so eager and        
impatient to settle disputed questions1 
by bringing forward authorities1 are    
really glad when they can place the     
understanding and insight of some one   
else in the field in place of  their    
own1 which are deficient4 ,their number 
is legion4 ,for1 as ,seneca  says1      
,unusquisque mavult credere1 quam       
judicare4    ,the weapon they commonly  
use in their controversies is that of   
authorities3 they strike each other with
 it1 and whoever is drawn into  the fray
 will do well not to defend himself with
 reason and arguments2  for against a   
weapon of this kind they are like horned
 ,siegfrieds1  immersed in a flood of   
incapacity for thinking and judging4    
,they will  bring forward their         
authorities as an argumentum ad         
verecundiam and  then cry victoria4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,in the realm of reality1 however fair1 
happy1 and pleasant it may prove  to be1

 we always move controlled by the law of
 gravity1 which we must be  unceasingly 
overcoming4 ,while in the realm of      
thought we are disembodied  spirits1    
uncontrolled by the law of gravity and  
free from penury4    ,this is why there 
is no happiness on earth like that which
 at the  propitious moment a fine and   
fruitful mind finds in itself4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,the presence of a thought is like the  
presence of our beloved4 ,we  imagine we
 shall never forget this thought1 and   
that this loved one  could never be     
indifferent to us4 ,but out of sight out
 of mind6 ,the  finest thought runs the 
risk of being irrevocably forgotten if  
it is not  written down1 and the dear   
one of being forsaken if we do not marry
 her4           99       99       99    
99       99    ,there are many thoughts 
which are valuable to the man who thinks
 them2  but out of them only a few which
 possess strength to produce either     
repercussion or reflex action1 that is1 

to win the reader's sympathy  after they
 have been written down4 ,it is what a  
man has thought out  directly for       
himself that alone has true value4      
,thinkers may be  classed as follows3   
those who1 in the first place1 think for
 themselves1  and those who think       
directly for others4 ,the former        
thinkers are the  genuine1 they think   
for themselves in both senses of the    
word2 they  are the true philosophers2  
they alone are in earnest4 ,moreover1   
the  enjoyment and happiness of their   
existence consist in thinking4 ,the     
others are the sophists2 they wish to   
seem1 and seek their happiness  in what 
they hope to get from other people2     
their earnestness consists  in this4 ,to
 which of these two classes a man       
belongs is soon seen by his  whole      
method and manner4 ,lichtenberg is an   
example of the first class1  while      
,herder obviously belongs to the second4
           99       99       99       99
       99    ,when one considers how    

great and how close to us the problem of
  existence is1--this equivocal1        
tormented1 fleeting1 dream-like         
existence--so great and so close that as
 soon as one perceives it1 it           
overshadows and conceals all other      
problems and aims2--and when one sees   
how all men--with a few and rare        
exceptions--are not clearly conscious   
of the problem1 nay1 do not even seem to
 see it1 but trouble themselves  about  
everything else rather than this1 and   
live on taking thought only  for the    
present day and the scarcely longer span
 of their own personal  future1 while   
they either expressly give the problem  
up or are ready to  agree with it1 by   
the aid of some system of popular       
metaphysics1 and are  satisfied with    
this2--when one1 ,i say1 reflects upon  
this1 so may one be  of the opinion that
 man is a thinking being only in a very 
remote  sense1 and not feel any special 
surprise at any trait of thoughtlessness
  or folly2 but know1 rather1 that the  

intellectual outlook of the normal  man 
indeed surpasses that of the            
brute1--whose whole existence resembles 
a continual present without any         
consciousness of the future or the      
past--but1 however1 not to such an      
extent as one is wont to suppose4       
,and corresponding to this1 we find in  
the conversation of most men that  their
 thoughts are cut up as small as chaff1 
making it impossible for  them to spin  
out the thread of their discourse to any
 length4 ,if this  world were peopled by
 really thinking beings1 noise of every 
kind would  not be so universally       
tolerated1 as indeed the most horrible  
and aimless  form of it is4#ab ,if      
,nature had intended man to think she   
would not  have given him ears1 or1 at  
any rate1 she would have furnished them 
with  air-tight flaps like the bat1     
which for this reason is to be envied4  
,but1 in truth1 man is like the rest1 a 
poor animal1 whose powers are           
calculated only to maintain him during  

his existence2 therefore he  requires to
 have his ears always open to announce  
of themselves1 by  night as by day1 the 
approach of the pursuer4    ,,footnotes3
    #ab ,see ,essay on ,noise1 p4 #bh4  
,,short ,,dialogue ,,on    ,,the        
,,indestructibility ,,of ,,our ,,true   
,,being ,,by ,,death4                   
,thrasymachos4 ,tell me briefly1 what   
shall ,i be after my death8 ,be  clear  
and precise4    ,philalethes4           
,everything and nothing4    ,thras4     
,that is what ,i expected4 ,you solve   
the problem by a  contradiction4 ,that  
trick is played out4    ,phil4 ,to      
answer transcendental questions in      
language that is made for  immanent     
knowledge must assuredly lead to a      
contradiction4    ,thras4 ,what do you  
call transcendental knowledge1 and what 
immanent8  ,it is true these expressions
 are known to me1 for my professor used 
them1 but only as predicates of ,god1   
and as his philosophy had  exclusively  
to do with ,god1 their use was quite    

appropriate4 ,for  instance1 if ,god was
 in the world1 ,he was immanent2 if ,he 
was somewhere  outside it1 ,he was      
transcendent4 ,that is clear and        
comprehensible4 ,one  knows how things  
stand4 ,but your old-fashioned ,kantian 
doctrine is no  longer understood4      
,there has been quite a succession of   
great men in the  metropolis of ,german 
learning----    ,phil4 7aside74 ,german 
philosophical nonsense6                 
,thras4----such as the eminent          
,schleiermacher and that gigantic mind  
,hegel2 and to-day we have left all that
 sort of thing behind1 or rather  we are
 so far ahead of it that it is out of   
date and known no more4  ,therefore1    
what good is it8    ,phil4              
,transcendental knowledge is that which1
 going beyond the  boundary of possible 
experience1 endeavours to determine the 
nature of  things as they are in        
themselves2 while immanent knowledge    
keeps itself  within the boundary of    
possible experience1 therefore it can   

only apply  to phenomena4 ,as an        
individual1 with your death there will  
be an end of  you4 ,but your            
individuality is not your true and final
 being1 indeed it  is rather the mere   
expression of it2 it is not the         
thing-in-itself but  only the phenomenon
 presented in the form of time1 and     
accordingly has  both a beginning and an
 end4 ,your being in itself1 on the     
contrary1  knows neither time1 nor      
beginning1 nor end1 nor the limits of a 
given  individuality2 hence no          
individuality can be without it1 but it 
is there  in each and all4 ,so that1 in 
the first sense1 after death you become 
nothing2 in the second1 you are and     
remain everything4 ,that is why ,i  said
 that after death you would be all and  
nothing4 ,it is difficult to  give you a
 more exact answer to your question than
 this and to be brief  at the same time2
 but here we have undoubtedly another   
contradiction2  this is because your    
life is in time and your immortality in 

eternity4  ,hence your immortality may  
be said to be something that is         
indestructible and yet has no           
endurance--which is again contradictory1
  you see4 ,this is what happens when   
transcendental knowledge is brought     
within the boundary of immanent         
knowledge2 in doing this some sort of   
violence is done to the latter1 since it
 is used for things for which it  was   
not intended4    ,thras4 ,listen2       
without ,i retain my individuality ,i   
shall not give a  sou for your          
immortality4    ,phil4 ,perhaps you will
 allow me to explain further4 ,suppose  
,i  guarantee that you will retain your 
individuality1 on condition1  however1  
that you spend three months in absolute 
unconsciousness before  you awaken4     
,thras4 ,i consent to that4    ,phil4   
,well then1 as we have no idea of time  
when in a perfectly  unconscious state1 
it is all the same to us when we are    
dead whether  three months or ten       
thousand years pass away in the world of

  consciousness4 ,for in the one case1  
as in the other1 we must accept on      
faith and trust what we are told when we
 awake4 ,accordingly it will be  all the
 same to you whether your individuality 
is restored to you after  the lapse of  
three months or ten thousand years4     
,thras4 ,at bottom1 that cannot very    
well be denied4    ,phil4 ,but if1 at   
the end of those ten thousand years1    
some one has  quite forgotten to waken  
you1 ,i imagine that you would have     
become  accustomed to that long state of
 non-existence1 following such a very   
short existence1 and that the misfortune
 would not be very great4  ,however1 it 
is quite certain that you would know    
nothing about it4 ,and  again1 it would 
fully console you to know that the      
mysterious power  which gives life to   
your present phenomenon had never ceased
 for one  moment during the ten thousand
 years to produce other phenomena of a  
like nature and to give them life4      
,thras4 ,indeed6 ,and so it is in this  

way that you fancy you can  quietly1 and
 without my knowing1 cheat me of my     
individuality8 ,but you  cannot cozen me
 in this way4 ,i have stipulated for the
 retaining of my  individuality1 and    
neither mysterious forces nor phenomena 
can console  me for the loss of it4 ,it 
is dear to me1 and ,i shall not let it  
go4    ,phil4 ,that is to say1 you      
regard your individuality as something  
so  very delightful1 excellent1 perfect1
 and incomparable that there is  nothing
 better than it2 would you not exchange 
it for another1 according  to what is   
told us1 that is better and more        
lasting8    ,thras4 ,look here1 be my   
individuality what it may1 it is myself1
      ,for ,god is ,god1 and ,i am ,i4  
,i--,i--,i want to exist6 ,that is what 
,i care about1 and not an existence     
which has to be reasoned out first in   
order to show that it is mine4    ,phil4
 ,look what you are doing6 ,when you    
say1 ,i--,i--,i want to exist  you alone
 do not say this1 but everything1       

absolutely everything1 that  has only a 
vestige of consciousness4 ,consequently 
this desire of yours  is just that which
 is not individual but which is common  
to all  without distinction4 ,it does   
not proceed from individuality1 but from
  existence in general2 it is the       
essential in everything that exists1    
nay1 it is that whereby anything has    
existence at all2 accordingly it  is    
concerned and satisfied only with       
existence in general and not with  any  
definite individual existence2 this is  
not its aim4 ,it has the  appearance of 
being so because it can attain          
consciousness only in an  individual    
existence1 and consequently looks as if 
it were entirely  concerned with that4  
,this is nothing but an illusion which  
has entangled  the individual2 but by   
reflection1 it can be dissipated and we 
ourselves  set free4 ,it is only        
indirectly that the individual has this 
great  longing for existence2 it is the 
will to live in general that has this   

longing directly and really1 a longing  
that is one and the same in  everything4
 ,since1 then1 existence itself is the  
free work of the will1  nay1 the mere   
reflection of it1 existence cannot be   
apart from will1 and  the latter will be
 provisionally satisfied with existence 
in general1 in  so far1 namely1 as that 
which is eternally dissatisfied can be  
satisfied4 ,the will is indifferent to  
individuality2 it has nothing to  do    
with it1 although it appears to1 because
 the individual is only  directly       
conscious of will in himself4 ,from this
 it is to be gathered  that the         
individual carefully guards his own     
existence2 moreover1 if  this were not  
so1 the preservation of the species     
would not be assured4  ,from all this it
 follows that individuality is not a    
state of perfection  but of limitation2 
so that to be freed from it is not loss 
but rather  gain4 ,don't let this       
trouble you any further1 it will1       
forsooth1 appear  to you both childish  

and extremely ridiculous when you       
completely and  thoroughly recognise    
what you are1 namely1 that your own     
existence is  the universal will to     
live4    ,thras4 ,you are childish      
yourself and extremely ridiculous1 and  
so are  all philosophers2 and when a    
sedate man like myself lets himself in  
for  a quarter of an hour's talk with   
such fools1 it is merely for the sake   
of amusement and to while away the time4
 ,i have more important matters  to look
 to now2 so1 adieu6          ,,religion4
    ,a ,,dialogue4      ,demopheles4    
,between ourselves1 dear old friend1 ,i 
am sometimes  dissatisfied with you in  
your capacity as philosopher2 you talk  
sarcastically about religion1 nay1      
openly ridicule it4 ,the religion of    
every one is sacred to him1 and so it   
should be to you4    ,philalethes4 ,nego
 consequentiam6 ,i don't see at all why 
,i should have  respect for lies and    
frauds because other people are stupid4 
,i respect  truth everywhere1 and it is 

precisely for that reason that ,i cannot
  respect anything that is opposed to   
it4 ,my maxim is1 ,vigeat veritas1 et   
pereat mundus1 the same as the lawyer's 
,fiat justitia1 et pereat  mundus4      
,every profession ought to have an      
analogous device4    ,demop4 ,then that 
of the medical profession would be1     
,fiant pilulae1  et pereat mundus1 which
 would be the easiest to carry out4     
,phil4 ,heaven forbid6 ,everything must 
be taken cum grano salis4    ,demop4    
,exactly2 and it is just for that reason
 that ,i want you to  accept religion   
cum grano salis1 and to see that the    
needs of the  people must be met        
according to their powers of            
comprehension4 ,religion  affords the   
only means of proclaiming and making the
 masses of crude  minds and awkward     
intelligences1 sunk in petty pursuits   
and material  work1 feel the high import
 of life4 ,for the ordinary type of man1
  primarily1 has no thought for anything
 else but what satisfies his  physical  

needs and longings1 and accordingly     
affords him a little  amusement and     
pastime4 ,founders of religion and      
philosophers come into  the world to    
shake him out of his torpidity and show 
him the high  significance of existence3
 philosophers for the few1 the          
emancipated2  founders of religion for  
the many1 humanity at large4 ,for     1 
as your friend ,plato has said1 and you 
should not  forget it4 ,religion is the 
metaphysics of the people1 which by all 
means  they must keep2 and hence it must
 be eternally respected1 for to         
discredit it means taking it away4 ,just
 as there is popular poetry1  popular   
wisdom in proverbs1 so too there must be
 popular metaphysics2  for mankind      
requires most certainly an              
interpretation of life1 and it  must be 
in keeping with its power of            
comprehension4 ,so that this            
interpretation is at all times an       
allegorical investiture of the truth1   
and it fulfils1 as far as practical life

 and our feelings are  concerned--that  
is to say1 as a guidance in our affairs1
 and as a  comfort and consolation in   
suffering and death--perhaps just as    
much as  truth itself could1 if we      
possessed it4 ,don't be hurt at its     
unpolished1  baroque1 and apparently    
absurd form1 for you1 with your         
education and  learning1 cannot imagine 
the roundabout ways that must be used in
 order  to make people in their crude   
state understand deep truths4 ,the      
various  religions are only various     
forms in which the people grasp and     
understand the truth1 which in itself   
they could not grasp1 and which is      
inseparable from these forms4           
,therefore1 my dear fellow1 don't be    
displeased if ,i tell you that to       
ridicule these forms is both            
narrow-minded and unjust4    ,phil4 ,but
 is it not equally narrow-minded and    
unjust to require that  there shall be  
no other metaphysics but this one cut   
out to meet the  needs and comprehension

 of the people8 that its teachings shall
 be the  boundary of human researches   
and the standard of all thought1 so that
  the metaphysics of the few1 the       
emancipated1 as you call them1 must aim 
at confirming1 strengthening1 and       
interpreting the metaphysics of the     
people8 ,that is1 that the highest      
faculties of the human mind must  remain
 unused and undeveloped1 nay1 be nipped 
in the bud1 so that their  activity may 
not thwart the popular metaphysics8 ,and
 at bottom are not  the claims that     
religion makes just the same8 ,is it    
right to have  tolerance1 nay1 gentle   
forbearance1 preached by what is        
intolerance and  cruelty itself8 ,let me
 remind you of the heretical tribunals1 
inquisitions1 religious wars and        
crusades1 of ,socrates' cup of poison1  
of ,bruno's and ,vanini's death in the  
flames4 ,and is all this to-day         
something belonging to the past8 ,what  
can stand more in the way of  genuine   
philosophical effort1 honest inquiry    

after truth1 the noblest  calling of the
 noblest of mankind1 than this          
conventional system of  metaphysics     
invested with a monopoly from the       
,state1 whose principles  are inculcated
 so earnestly1 deeply1 and firmly into  
every head in  earliest youth as to make
 them1 unless the mind is of miraculous 
elasticity1 become ineradicable8 ,the   
result is that the basis of healthy     
reasoning is once and for all           
deranged--in other words1 its feeble    
capacity for thinking for itself1 and   
for unbiassed judgment in regard  to    
everything to which it might be applied1
 is for ever paralysed and  ruined4     
,demop1 ,which really means that the    
people have gained a conviction  which  
they will not give up in order to accept
 yours in its place4    ,phil4 ,ah6 if  
it were only conviction based on        
insight1 one would then  be able to     
bring forward arguments and fight the   
battle with equal  weapons4 ,but        
religions admittedly do not lend        

themselves to conviction  after argument
 has been brought to bear1 but to belief
 as brought about  by revelation4 ,the  
capacity for belief is strongest in     
childhood2  therefore one is most       
careful to take possession of this      
tender age4 ,it  is much more through   
this than through threats and reports of
 miracles  that the doctrines of belief 
take root4 ,if in early childhood       
certain  fundamental views and doctrines
 are preached with unusual solemnity and
  in a manner of great earnestness1 the 
like of which has never been seen       
before1 and if1 too1 the possibility of 
a doubt about them is either  completely
 ignored or only touched upon in order  
to show that doubt is  the first step to
 everlasting perdition2 the result is   
that the  impression will be so profound
 that1 as a rule1 that is to say in     
almost  every case1 a man will be almost
 as incapable of doubting the truth of  
those doctrines as he is of doubting his
 own existence4 ,hence it is  scarcely  

one in many thousands that has the      
strength of mind to honestly  and       
seriously ask himself--is that true8    
,those who are able to do this  have    
been more appropriately styled strong   
minds1 esprits forts1 than  is imagined4
 ,for the commonplace mind1 however1    
there is nothing so  absurd or revolting
 but what1 if inoculated in this way1   
the firmest  belief in it will take     
root4 ,if1 for example1 the killing of a
 heretic  or an infidel were an         
essential matter for the future         
salvation of the  soul1 almost every one
 would make it the principal object of  
his life1  and in dying get consolation 
and strength from the remembrance of his
  having succeeded2 just as1 in truth1  
in former times almost every  ,spaniard 
looked upon an auto da f as the most    
pious of acts and one  most pleasing to 
,god4    ,we have an analogy to this in 
,india in the ,thugs1 a religious body  
quite recently suppressed by the        
,english1 who executed numbers of them4 

,they showed their regard for religion  
and veneration for the goddess  ,kali by
 assassinating at every opportunity     
their own friends and                   
fellow-travellers1 so that they might   
obtain their possessions1 and they  were
 seriously convinced that thereby they  
had accomplished something  that was    
praiseworthy and would contribute to    
their eternal welfare4 ,the  power of   
religious dogma1 that has been          
inculcated early1 is so great  that it  
destroys conscience1 and finally all    
compassion and sense of  humanity4 ,but 
if you wish to see with your own eyes1  
and close at hand1  what early          
inoculation of belief does1 look at the 
,english4 ,look at this  nation1        
favoured by nature before all others1   
endowed before all others  with reason1 
intelligence1 power of judgment1 and    
firmness of character2  look at these   
people degraded1 nay1 made despicable   
among all others by  their stupid       
ecclesiastical superstition1 which among

 their other  capacities appears like a 
fixed idea1 a monomania4 ,for this they 
have to  thank the clergy in whose hands
 education is1 and who take care to     
inculcate all the articles1 of belief at
 the earliest age in such a way  as to  
result in a kind of partial paralysis of
 the brain2 this then  shows itself     
throughout their whole life in a silly  
bigotry1 making even  extremely         
intelligent and capable people among    
them degrade themselves  so that they   
become quite an enigma to us4 ,if we    
consider how essential  to such a       
masterpiece is inoculation of belief in 
the tender age of  childhood1 the system
 of missions appears no longer merely as
 the height  of human importunity1      
arrogance1 and impertinence1 but also of
  absurdity2 in so far as it does not   
confine itself to people who are  still 
in the stage of childhood1 such as the  
,hottentots1 ,kaffirs1  ,south ,sea     
,islanders1 and others like them1 among 
whom it has been really  successful4    

,while1 on the other hand1 in ,india the
 ,brahmans receive the  doctrines of    
missionaries either with a smile of     
condescending approval  or refuse them  
with a shrug of their shoulders2 and    
among these people  in general1         
notwithstanding the most favourable     
circumstances1 the  missionaries'       
attempts at conversion are usually      
wrecked4 ,an authentic  report in vol4  
xxi4 of the ,asiatic ,journal of #ahbf  
shows that after so  many years of      
missionary activity in the whole of     
,india 7of which the  ,english          
possessions alone amount to one hundred 
and fifteen million  inhabitants7 there 
are not more than three hundred living  
converts to be  found2 and at the same  
time it is admitted that the ,christian 
converts  are distinguished for their   
extreme immorality4 ,there are only     
three  hundred venal and bribed souls   
out of so many millions4 ,i cannot see  
that it has gone better with            
,christianity in ,india since then1     

although  the missionaries are now      
trying1 contrary to agreement1 to work  
on the  children's minds in schools     
exclusively devoted to secular ,english 
instruction1 in order to smuggle in     
,christianity1 against which1  however1 
the ,hindoos are most jealously on their
 guard4 ,for1 as has been  said1        
childhood is the time1 and not manhood1 
to sow the seeds of  belief1 especially 
where an earlier belief has taken root4 
,an acquired  conviction1 however1 that 
is assumed by matured converts serves1  
generally1 as only the mask for some    
kind of personal interest4 ,and it  is  
the feeling that this could hardly be   
otherwise that makes a man1 who  changes
 his religion at maturity1 despised by  
most people everywhere2 a  fact which   
reveals that they do not regard religion
 as a matter of  reasoned conviction but
 merely as a belief inoculated in early 
childhood1 before it has been put to any
 test4 ,that they are right in  looking 
at religion in this way is to be        

gathered from the fact that it  is not  
only the blind1 credulous masses1 but   
also the clergy of every  religion1 who1
 as such1 have studied its sources1     
arguments1 dogmas and  differences1 who 
cling faithfully and zealously as a body
 to the  religion of their fatherland2  
consequently it is the rarest thing in  
the  world for a priest to change from  
one religion or creed to another4 ,for  
instance1 we see that the ,catholic     
clergy are absolutely convinced of  the 
truth of all the principles of their    
,church1 and that the  ,protestants are 
also of theirs1 and that both defend the
 principles of  their confession with   
like zeal4 ,and yet the conviction is   
the outcome  merely of the country in   
which each is born3 the truth of the    
,catholic  dogma is perfectly clear to  
the clergy of ,south ,germany1 the      
,protestant  to the clergy of ,north    
,germany4 ,if1 therefore1 these         
convictions rest on  objective reasons1 
these reasons must be climatic and      

thrive like  plants1 some only here1    
some only there4 ,the masses everywhere1
 however1  accept on trust and faith the
 convictions of those who are locally   
convinced4    ,demop4 ,that doesn't     
matter1 for essentially it makes no     
difference4  ,for instance1             
,protestantism in reality is more suited
 to the north1  ,catholicism to the     
south4    ,phil4 ,so it appears4 ,still1
 ,i take a higher point of view1 and    
have  before me a more important object1
 namely1 the progress of the knowledge  
of truth among the human race4 ,it is a 
frightful condition of things  that1    
wherever a man is born1 certain         
propositions are inculcated in his      
earliest youth1 and he is assured that  
under penalty of forfeiting  eternal    
salvation he may never entertain any    
doubt about them2 in so  far1 that is1  
as they are propositions which influence
 the foundation of  all our other       
knowledge and accordingly decide for    
ever our point of  view1 and if they are

 false1 upset it for ever4 ,further1 as 
the  influences drawn from these        
propositions make inroads everywhere    
into  the entire system of our          
knowledge1 the whole of human knowledge 
is  through and through affected by     
them4 ,this is proved by every          
literature1 and most conspicuously by   
that of the ,middle ,age1 but also1  in 
too great an extent1 by that of the     
fifteenth and sixteenth  centuries4 ,we 
see how paralysed even the minds of the 
first rank of all  those epochs were by 
such false fundamental conceptions2 and 
how  especially all insight into the    
true substance and working of ,nature   
was  hemmed in on every side4 ,during   
the whole of the ,christian period      
,theism  lay like a kind of oppressive  
nightmare on all intellectual effort1   
and  on philosophical effort in         
particular1 hindering and arresting all 
progress4 ,for the men of learning of   
those epochs1 ,god1 devil1 angels1      
demons1 hid the whole of ,nature2 no    

investigation was carried out to the    
end1 no matter sifted to the bottom2    
everything that was beyond the most     
obvious causal nexus was immediately    
attributed to these2 so that1 as        
,pomponatius expressed himself at the   
time1 ,certe philosophi nihil           
verisimile habent ad haec1 quare necesse
 est1 ad ,deum1 ad angelos et  daemones 
recurrere4 ,it is true that there is a  
suspicion of irony in  what this man    
says1 as his malice in other ways is    
known1 nevertheless  he has expressed   
the general way of thinking of his age4 
,if any one1 on  the other hand1        
possessed that rare elasticity of mind  
which alone  enabled him to free himself
 from the fetters1 his writings1 and he 
himself with them1 were burnt2 as       
happened to ,bruno and ,vanini4 ,but how
  absolutely paralysed the ordinary mind
 is by that early metaphysical          
preparation may be seen most strikingly1
 and from its most ridiculous  side1    
when it undertakes to criticise the     

doctrines of a foreign belief4  ,one    
finds the ordinary man1 as a rule1      
merely trying to carefully prove  that  
the dogmas of the foreign belief do not 
agree with those of his  own2 he labours
 to explain that not only do they not   
say the same1 but  certainly do not mean
 the same thing as his4 ,with that he   
fancies in his  simplicity that he has  
proved the falsity of the doctrines of  
the alien  belief4 ,it really never     
occurs to him to ask the question which 
of the  two is right2 but his own       
articles of belief are to him as  priori
  certain principles4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4   
,morrison has furnished an amusing      
example of this kind in vol4 xx4 of the 
,asiatic ,journal wherein he  criticises
 the religion and philosophy of the     
,chinese4    ,demop4 ,so that's your    
higher point of view4 ,but ,i assure you
 that  there is a higher still4 ,primum 
vivere1 deinde philosophari is of more  
comprehensive significance than one     
supposes at first sight4 ,before        

everything else1 the raw and wicked     
tendencies of the masses ought to be    
restrained1 in order to protect them    
from doing anything that is  extremely  
unjust1 or committing cruel1 violent1   
and disgraceful deeds4  ,if one waited  
until they recognised and grasped the   
truth one would  assuredly come too     
late4 ,and supposing they had already   
found truth1 it  would surpass their    
powers of comprehension4 ,in any case it
 would be a  mere allegorical           
investiture of truth1 a parable1 or a   
myth that would  be of any good to them4
 ,there must be1 as ,kant has said1 a   
public  standard of right and virtue1   
nay1 this must at all times flutter     
high4  ,it is all the same in the end   
what kind of heraldic figures are       
represented on it1 if they only indicate
 what is meant4 ,such an  allegorical   
truth is at all times and everywhere1   
for mankind at large1  a beneficial     
substitute for an eternally unattainable
 truth1 and in  general1 for a          

philosophy which it can never grasp2 to 
say nothing of  its changing its form   
daily1 and not having as yet attained   
any kind of  general recognition4       
,therefore practical aims1 my good      
,philalethes1 have  in every way the    
advantage of theoretical4    ,phil4     
,this closely resembles the ancient     
advice of ,timaeus of ,locrus1  the     
,pythagorean3     1      4#ac ,and ,i   
almost suspect that it is your wish1    
according to the  fashion of to-day1 to 
remind me--      ,good friend1 the time 
is near    ,when we may feast off what  
is good in peace4    ,and your          
recommendation means that we should take
 care in time1 so that  the waves of the
 dissatisfied1 raging masses may not    
disturb us at  table4 ,but the whole of 
this point of view is as false as it is 
nowadays  universally liked and praised2
 this is why ,i make haste to put in a  
protest against it4 ,it is false that   
state1 justice1 and law cannot be       
maintained without the aid of religion  

and its articles of belief1 and  that   
justice and police regulations need     
religion as a complement in  order to   
carry out legislative arrangements4 ,it 
is false if it were  repeated a hundred 
times4 ,for the ancients1 and especially
 the ,greeks1  furnish us with striking 
instantia in contrarium founded on fact4
 ,they  had absolutely nothing of what  
we understand by religion4 ,they had no 
sacred documents1 no dogma to be learnt1
 and its acceptance advanced by  every  
one1 and its principles inculcated early
 in youth4 ,the servants of  religion   
preached just as little about morals1   
and the ministers  concerned themselves 
very little about any kind of morality  
or in  general about what the people    
either did or left undone4 ,no such     
thing4  ,but the duty of the priests was
 confined merely to temple ceremonies1  
prayers1 songs1 sacrifices1 processions1
 lustrations1 and the like1 all  of     
which aimed at anything but the moral   
improvement of the individual4  ,the    

whole of their so-called religion       
consisted1 and particularly in the      
towns1 in some of the deorum majorum    
gentium having temples here and  there1 
in which the aforesaid worship was      
conducted as an affair of  state1 when  
in reality it was an affair of police4  
,no one1 except the  functionaries      
engaged1 was obliged in any way to be   
present1 or even to  believe in it4 ,in 
the whole of antiquity there is no trace
 of any  obligation to believe in any   
kind of dogma4 ,it was merely any one   
who  openly denied the existence of the 
gods or calumniated them that was       
punished2 because by so doing he        
insulted the state which served these   
gods2 beyond this every one was allowed 
to think what he chose of them4  ,if any
 one wished to win the favour of these  
gods privately by prayer or  sacrifice  
he was free to do so at his own cost and
 risk2 if he did not  do it1 no one had 
anything to say against it1 and least of
 all the  ,state4 ,every ,roman had his 

own ,lares and ,penates at home1 which  
were1  however1 at bottom nothing more  
than the revered portraits of his       
ancestors4 ,the ancients had no kind of 
decisive1 clear1 and least of all       
dogmatically fixed ideas about the      
immortality of the soul and a life      
hereafter1 but every one in his own way 
had lax1 vacillating1 and  problematical
 ideas2 and their ideas about the gods  
were just as  various1 individual1 and  
vague4 ,so that the ancients had really 
no  religion in our sense of the word4  
,was it for this reason that anarchy    
and lawlessness reigned among them8 ,is 
not law and civil order rather so  much 
their work1 that it still constitutes   
the foundation of ours8 ,was  not       
property perfectly secure1 although it  
consisted of slaves for the  greater    
part8 ,and did not this condition of    
things last longer than a  thousand     
years8    ,so ,i cannot perceive1 and   
must protest against the practical aims 
and  necessity of religion in the sense 

which you have indicated1 and in such   
general favour to-day1 namely1 as an    
indispensable foundation of all         
legislative regulations4 ,for from such 
a standpoint the pure and sacred        
striving after light and truth1 to say  
the least1 would seem quixotic  and     
criminal if it should venture in its    
feeling of justice to denounce  the     
authoritative belief as a usurper who   
has taken possession of the  throne of  
truth and maintained it by continuing   
the deception4    ,demop4 ,but religion 
is not opposed to truth2 for it itself  
teaches  truth4 ,only it must not allow 
truth to appear in its naked form1      
because  its sphere of activity is not a
 narrow auditory1 but the world and     
humanity at large1 and therefore it must
 conform to the requirements and        
comprehension of so great and mixed a   
public2 or1 to use a medical  simile1 it
 must not present it pure1 but must as a
 medium make use of a  mythical vehicle4
 ,truth may also be compared in this    

respect to certain  chemical stuffs     
which in themselves are gaseous1 but    
which for official  uses1 as also for   
preservation or transmission1 must be   
bound to a firm1  palpable base1 because
 they would otherwise volatilise4 ,for  
example1  chlorine is for all such      
purposes applied only in the form of    
chlorides4  ,but if truth1 pure1        
abstract1 and free from anything of a   
mythical  nature1 is always to remain   
unattainable by us all1 philosophers    
included1 it might be compared to       
fluorine1 which cannot be presented by  
itself alone1 but only when combined    
with other stuffs4 ,or1 to take a       
simpler simile1 truth1 which cannot be  
expressed in any other way than  by myth
 and allegory1 is like water that cannot
 be transported without a  vessel2 but  
philosophers1 who insist upon possessing
 it pure1 are like a  person who breaks 
the vessel in order to get the water by 
itself4 ,this  is perhaps a true        
analogy4 ,at any rate1 religion is truth

 allegorically  and mythically          
expressed1 and thereby made possible and
 digestible to  mankind at large4 ,for  
mankind could by no means digest it pure
 and  unadulterated1 just as we cannot  
live in pure oxygen but require an      
addition of four-fifths of nitrogen4    
,and without speaking figuratively1  the
 profound significance and high aim of  
life can only be revealed and  shown to 
the masses symbolically1 because they   
are not capable of  grasping life in its
 real sense2 while philosophy should be 
like the  ,eleusinian mysteries1 for the
 few1 the elect4    ,phil4 ,i           
understand4 ,the matter resolves itself 
into truth putting on  the dress of     
falsehood4 ,but in doing so it enters   
into a fatal alliance4  ,what a         
dangerous weapon is given into the hands
 of those who have the  authority to    
make use of falsehood as the vehicle of 
truth6 ,if such is  the case1 ,i fear   
there will be more harm caused by the   
falsehood than  good derived from the   

truth4 ,if the allegory were admitted to
 be such1 ,i  should say nothing against
 it2 but in that case it would be       
deprived of  all respect1 and           
consequently of all efficacy4 ,therefore
 the allegory  must assert a claim1     
which it must maintain1 to be true in   
sensu  proprio while at the most it is  
true in sensu allegorico4 ,here lies    
the incurable mischief1 the permanent   
evil2 and therefore religion is  always 
in conflict1 and always will be with the
 free and noble striving  after pure    
truth4    ,demop4 ,indeed1 no4 ,care has
 been taken to prevent that4 ,if        
religion  may not exactly admit its     
allegorical nature1 it indicates it at  
any  rate sufficiently4    ,phil4 ,and  
in what way does it do that8    ,demop4 
,in its mysteries4 ,mystery is at bottom
 only the theological  terminus         
technicus for religious allegory4 ,all  
religions have their  mysteries4 ,in    
reality1 a mystery is a palpably absurd 
dogma which  conceals in itself a lofty 

truth1 which by itself would be         
absolutely  incomprehensible to the     
ordinary intelligence of the raw masses4
 ,the  masses accept it in this disguise
 on trust and faith1 without allowing   
themselves to be led astray by its      
absurdity1 which is palpable to them2   
and thereby they participate in the     
kernel of the matter so far as they  are
 able4 ,i may add as an explanation that
 the use of mystery has been  attempted 
even in philosophy2 for example1 when   
,pascal1 who was pietest1               
mathematician1 and philosopher in one1  
says in this threefold character3  ,god 
is everywhere centre and nowhere        
periphery4 ,malebranche has also  truly 
remarked1 ,la libert est un mystre4 ,one
 might go further1 and  maintain that in
 religions everything is really mystery4
 ,for it is  utterly impossible to      
impart truth in sensu proprio to the    
multitude  in its crudity2 it is only a 
mythical and allegorical reflection of  
it  that can fall to its share and      

enlighten it4 ,naked truth must not     
appear  before the eyes of the profane  
vulgar2 it can only appear before them  
closely veiled4 ,and it is for this     
reason that it is unfair to demand of  a
 religion that it should be true in     
sensu proprio1 and that1 en  passant4   
,rationalists and ,supernaturalists of  
to-day are so absurd4  ,they both start 
with the supposition that religion must 
be the truth2  and while the former     
prove that it is not1 the latter        
obstinately  maintain that it is2 or    
rather the former cut up and dress the  
allegory  in such a way that it could be
 true in sensu proprio but would in that
  case become a platitude4 ,the latter  
wish to maintain1 without further       
dressing1 that it is true in sensu      
proprio1 which1 as they should  know1   
can only be carried into execution by   
inquisitions and the stake4  ,while in  
reality1 myth and allegory are the      
essential elements of  religion1 but    
under the indispensable condition       

7because of the  intellectual           
limitations of the great masses7 that it
 supplies enough  satisfaction to meet  
those metaphysical needs of mankind     
which are  ineradicable1 and that it    
takes the place of pure philosophical   
truth1  which is infinitely difficult1  
and perhaps never attainable4    ,phil4 
,yes1 pretty much in the same way as a  
wooden leg takes the place  of a natural
 one4 ,it supplies what is wanting1 does
 very poor service  for it1 and claims  
to be regarded as a natural leg1 and is 
more or less  cleverly put together4    
,there is a difference1 however1 for1 as
 a rule1  the natural leg was in        
existence before the wooden one1 while  
religion  everywhere has gained the     
start of philosophy4    ,demop4 ,that   
may be2 but a wooden leg is of great    
value to those who  have no natural leg4
 ,you must keep in view that the        
metaphysical  requirements of man       
absolutely demand satisfaction2 because 
the horizon  of his thoughts must be    

defined and not remain unlimited4 ,a    
man1 as a  rule1 has no faculty of      
judgment for weighing reasons1 and      
distinguishing between what is true and 
what is false4 ,moreover1 the  work     
imposed upon him by nature and her      
requirements leaves him no time  for    
investigations of that kind1 or for the 
education which they  presuppose4       
,therefore it is entirely out of the    
question to imagine he  will be         
convinced by reasons2 there is nothing  
left for him but belief  and authority4 
,even if a really true philosophy took  
the place of  religion1 at least        
nine-tenths of mankind would only accept
 it on  authority1 so that it would be  
again a matter of belief2 for ,plato's  
will always hold good4 ,authority1      
however1 is only established by time and
 circumstances1 so that we  cannot      
bestow it on that which has only reason 
to commend it2  accordingly1 we must    
grant it only to that which has attained
 it in the  course of history1 even if  

it is only truth represented            
allegorically4  ,this kind of truth1    
supported by authority1 appeals directly
 to the  essentially metaphysical       
temperament of man--that is1 to his need
 of a  theory concerning the riddle of  
existence1 which thrusts itself upon    
him1 and arises from the consciousness  
that behind the physical in the  world  
there must be a metaphysical1 an        
unchangeable something1 which  serves as
 the foundation of constant change4 ,it 
also appeals to the  will1 fears1 and   
hopes of mortals living in constant     
need2 religion  provides them with gods1
 demons1 to whom they call1 appease1 and
  conciliate4 ,finally1 it appeals to   
their moral consciousness1 which is     
undeniably present1 and lends to it that
 authenticity and support from          
without--a support without which it     
would not easily maintain itself in  the
 struggle against so many temptations4  
,it is exactly from this side  that     
religion provides an inexhaustible      

source of consolation and  comfort in   
the countless and great sorrows of life1
 a comfort which does  not leave men in 
death1 but rather then unfolds its full 
efficacy4 ,so  that religion is like    
some one taking hold of the hand of a   
blind person  and leading him1 since he 
cannot see for himself2 all that the    
blind  person wants is to attain his    
end1 not to see everything as he walks  
along4    ,phil4 ,this side is certainly
 the brilliant side of religion4 ,if it 
is  a fraus it is indeed a pia fraus2   
that cannot be denied4 ,then  priests   
become something between deceivers and  
moralists4 ,for they dare  not teach the
 real truth1 as you yourself have quite 
correctly  explained1 even if it were   
known to them2 which it is not4 ,there  
can1 at  any rate1 be a true philosophy1
 but there can be no true religion3 ,i  
mean true in the real and proper        
understanding of the word1 not merely   
in that flowery and allegorical sense   
which you have described1 a sense  in   

which every religion would be true only 
in different degrees4 ,it is  certainly 
quite in harmony with the inextricable  
admixture of good and  evil1 honesty and
 dishonesty1 goodness and wickedness1   
magnanimity and  baseness1 which the    
world presents everywhere1 that the most
 important1  the most lofty1 and the    
most sacred truths can make their       
appearance  only in combination with a  
lie1 nay1 can borrow strength from a lie
 as  something that affects mankind more
 powerfully2 and as revelation must  be 
introduced by a lie4 ,one might regard  
this fact as the monogram of  the moral 
world4 ,meanwhile let us not give up the
 hope that mankind will  some day attain
 that point of maturity and education at
 which it is able  to produce a true    
philosophy on the one hand1 and accept  
it on the  other4 ,simplex sigillum     
veri3 the naked truth must be so simple 
and  comprehensible that one can impart 
it to all in its true form without  any 
admixture of myth and fable 7a pack of  

lies7--in other words1  without masking 
it as religion4    ,demop4 ,you have not
 a sufficient idea of the wretched      
capacities of  the masses4    ,phil4 ,i 
express it only as a hope2 but to give  
it up is impossible4 ,in  that case1 if 
truth were in a simpler and more        
comprehensible form1 it  would surely   
soon drive religion from the position of
 vicegerent which  it has so long held4 
,then religion will have fulfilled her  
mission and  finished her course2 she   
might then dismiss the race which she   
has  guided to maturity and herself     
retire in peace4 ,this will be the      
euthanasia of religion4 ,however1 as    
long as she lives she has two  faces1   
one of truth and one of deceit4         
,according as one looks  attentively at 
one or the other one will like or       
dislike her4 ,hence  religion must be   
regarded as a necessary evil1 its       
necessity resting on  the pitiful       
weak-mindedness of the great majority of
 mankind1 incapable  of grasping the    

truth1 and consequently when in         
extremity requires a  substitute for    
truth4    ,demop4 ,really1 one would    
think that you philosophers had truth   
lying  in readiness1 and all that one   
had to do was to lay hold of it4        
,phil4 ,if we have not got it1 it is    
principally to be ascribed to the       
pressure under which philosophy1 at all 
periods and in all countries1  has been 
held by religion4 ,we have tried to make
 not only the expression  and           
communication of truth impossible1 but  
even the contemplation and  discovery of
 it1 by giving the minds of children in 
earliest childhood  into the hands of   
priests to be worked upon2 to have the  
groove in which  their fundamental      
thoughts are henceforth to run so firmly
 imprinted1 as  in principal matters1 to
 become fixed and determined for a      
lifetime4 ,i  am sometimes shocked to   
see when ,i take into my hand the       
writings of  even the most intelligent  
minds of the sixteenth and seventeenth  

centuries1 and especially if ,i have    
just left my oriental studies1 how      
paralysed and hemmed in on all sides    
they are by ,jewish notions4  ,prepared 
in this way1 one cannot form any idea of
 the true philosophy6    ,demop4 ,and   
if1 moreover1 this true philosophy were 
discovered1  religion would not cease to
 exist1 as you imagine4 ,there cannot be
 one  system of metaphysics for         
everybody2 the natural differences of   
intellectual power in addition to those 
of education make this  impossible4 ,the
 great majority of mankind must         
necessarily be engaged in  that arduous 
bodily labour which is requisite in     
order to furnish the  endless needs of  
the whole race4 ,not only does this     
leave the majority  no time for         
education1 for learning1 or for         
reflection2 but by virtue of  the strong
 antagonism between merely physical and 
intellectual  qualities1 much excessive 
bodily labour blunts the understanding  
and  makes it heavy1 clumsy1 and        

awkward1 and consequently incapable of  
grasping any other than perfectly simple
 and palpable matters4 ,at least        
nine-tenths of the human race comes     
under this category4 ,people require  a 
system of metaphysics1 that is1 an      
account of the world and our  existence1
 because such an account belongs to the 
most natural  requirements of mankind4  
,they require also a popular system of  
metaphysics1 which1 in order for it to  
be this1 must combine many rare         
qualities2 for instance1 it must be     
exceedingly lucid1 and yet in the  right
 places be obscure1 nay1 to a certain   
extent1 impenetrable2 then a  correct   
and satisfying moral system must be     
combined with its dogmas2  above        
everything1 it must bring inexhaustible 
consolation in suffering  and death4 ,it
 follows from this that it can only be  
true in sensu  allegorico and not in    
sensu proprio4 ,further1 it must have   
the  support of an authority which is   
imposing by its great age1 by its       

general recognition1 by its documents1  
together with their tone and            
statements--qualities which are so      
infinitely difficult to combine that    
many a man1 if he stopped to reflect1   
would not be so ready to help to        
undermine a religion1 but would consider
 it the most sacred treasure of  the    
people4 ,if any one wants to criticise  
religion he should always bear  in mind 
the nature of the great masses for which
 it is destined1 and  picture to himself
 their complete moral and intellectual  
inferiority4 ,it  is incredible how far 
this inferiority goes and how steadily a
 spark of  truth will continue to       
glimmer even under the crudest veiling  
of  monstrous fables and grotesque      
ceremonies1 adhering indelibly1 like the
  perfume of musk1 to everything which  
has come in contact with it4 ,as an     
illustration of this1 look at the       
profound wisdom which is revealed in    
the ,upanishads1 and then look at the   
mad idolatry in the ,india of  to-day1  

as is revealed in its pilgrimages1      
processions1 and festivities1  or at the
 mad and ludicrous doings of the        
,saniassi of the present time4          
,nevertheless1 it cannot be denied that 
in all this madness and absurdity  there
 yet lies something that is hidden from 
view1 something that is in  accordance  
with1 or a reflection of the profound   
wisdom that has been  mentioned4 ,it    
requires this kind of dressing-up for   
the great brute  masses4 ,in this       
antithesis we have before us the two    
poles of  humanity3--the wisdom of the  
individual and the bestiality of the    
masses1 both of which1 however1 find    
their point of harmony in the moral     
kingdom4 ,who has not thought of the    
saying from the ,kurral--,vulgar  people
 look like men2 but ,i have never seen  
anything like them4 ,the  more highly   
cultured man may always explain religion
 to himself cum  grano salis2 the man of
 learning1 the thoughtful mind1 may1 in 
secret1  exchange it for a philosophy4  

,and yet one philosophy would not do for
  everybody2 each philosophy by the laws
 of affinity attracts a public to  whose
 education and mental capacities it is  
fitted4 ,so there is always  an inferior
 metaphysical system of the schools for 
the educated  plebeians1 and a higher   
system for the lite4 ,kant's lofty      
doctrine1  for example1 was degraded to 
meet the requirements of the schools1   
and  ruined by ,fries1 ,krug1 ,salat1   
and similar people4 ,in short1 ,goethe's
  dictum is as applicable here as       
anywhere3 ,one does not suit all4 ,pure 
belief in revelation and pure           
metaphysics are for the two extremes2   
and  for the intermediate steps mutual  
modifications of both in countless      
combinations and gradations4 ,the       
immeasurable differences which nature   
and education place between men have    
made this necessary4    ,phil4 ,this    
point of view reminds me seriously of   
the mysteries of the  ancients which you
 have already mentioned2 their aim at   

bottom seems to  have lain in remedying 
the evil arising out of the differences 
of mental  capacities and education4    
,their plan was to single out of the    
great  multitude a few people1 to whom  
the unveiled truth was absolutely       
incomprehensible1 and to reveal the     
truth to them up to a certain point2    
then out of these they singled out      
others to whom they revealed more1 as   
they were able to grasp more2 and so on 
up to the ,epopts4 ,and so we got  1  1 
4 ,the plan was based on a  correct     
knowledge of the intellectual inequality
 of mankind4    ,demop4 ,to a certain   
extent the education in our lower1      
middle1 and  high schools represents the
 different forms of initiation into the 
mysteries4    ,phil4 ,only in a very    
approximate way1 and this only in so far
 as  subjects of higher knowledge were  
written about exclusively in ,latin4    
,but since that has ceased to be so all 
the mysteries are profaned4    ,demop4  
,however that may be1 ,i wish to remind 

you1 in speaking of  religion1 that you 
should grasp it more from the practical 
and less from  the theoretical side4    
,personified metaphysics may be         
religion's enemy1  yet personified      
morality will be its friend4 ,perhaps   
the metaphysics in  all religions is    
false2 but the morality in all is true4 
,this is to be  surmised from the fact  
that in their metaphysics they          
contradict each  other1 while in their  
morality they agree4    ,phil4 ,which   
furnishes us with a proof of the rule of
 logic1 that a  true conclusion may     
follow from false premises4    ,demop4  
,well1 stick to your conclusion1 and be 
always mindful that  religion has two   
sides4 ,if it can't stand when looked at
 merely from the  theoretical--in other 
words1 from its intellectual side1 it   
appears1 on  the other hand1 from the   
moral side as the only means of         
directing1  training1 and pacifying     
those races of animals gifted with      
reason1 whose  kinship with the ape does

 not exclude a kinship with the tiger4  
,at the  same time religion is1 in      
general1 a sufficient satisfaction for  
their  dull metaphysical needs4 ,you    
appear to me to have no proper idea of  
the  difference1 wide as the heavens    
apart1 of the profound breach between   
your learned man1 who is enlightened and
 accustomed to think1 and the  heavy1   
awkward1 stupid1 and inert consciousness
 of mankind's beasts of  burden1 whose  
thoughts have taken once and for all the
 direction of fear  about their         
maintenance1 and cannot be put in motion
 in any other2 and  whose muscular power
 is so exclusively exercised that the   
nervous power  which produces           
intelligence is thereby greatly reduced4
 ,people of this  kind must absolutely  
have something that they can take hold  
of on the  slippery and thorny path of  
their life1 some sort of beautiful fable
 by  means of which things can be       
presented to them which their crude     
intelligence could most certainly only  

understand in picture and  parable4 ,it 
is impossible to approach them with     
subtle explanations and  fine           
distinctions4 ,if you think of religion 
in this way1 and bear in  mind that its 
aims are extremely practical and only   
subordinately  theoretical1 it will seem
 to you worthy of the highest respect4  
,phil4 ,a respect which would finally   
rest on the principle that the end      
sanctifies the means4 ,however1 ,i am   
not in favour of a compromise on a      
basis of that sort4 ,religion may be an 
excellent means of curbing and          
controlling the perverse1 dull1 and     
malicious creatures of the biped  race2 
in the eyes of the friend of truth every
 fraus1 be it ever so  pia1 must be     
rejected4 ,it would be an odd way to    
promote virtue  through the medium of   
lies and deception4 ,the flag to which  
,i have sworn  is truth4 ,i shall remain
 faithful to it everywhere1 and         
regardless of  success1 ,i shall fight  
for light and truth4 ,if ,i see religion

 hostile1 ,i  shall--    ,demop4 ,but   
you will not6 ,religion is not a        
deception2 it is true1 and  the most    
important of all truths4 ,but because1  
as has already been said1  its doctrines
 are of such a lofty nature that the    
great masses cannot  grasp them         
immediately2 because1 ,i say1 its light 
would blind the  ordinary eye1 does it  
appear concealed in the veil of allegory
 and teach  that which is not exactly   
true in itself1 but which is true       
according to  the meaning contained in  
it3 and understood in this way religion 
is the  truth4    ,phil4 ,that would be 
very probable1 if it were allowed to be 
true only  in an allegorical sense4 ,but
 it claims to be exactly true1 and true 
in  the proper sense of the word3 herein
 lies the deception1 and it is here     
that the friend of truth must oppose it4
    ,demop4 ,but this deception is a    
conditio sine qua non4 ,if religion     
admitted that it was merely the         
allegorical meaning in its doctrines    

that was true1 it would be deprived of  
all efficacy1 and such rigorous         
treatment would put an end to its       
invaluable and beneficial influence on  
the morals and feelings of mankind4     
,instead of insisting on that with      
pedantic obstinacy1 look at its great   
achievements in a practical way  both as
 regards morality and feelings1 as a    
guide to conduct1 as a  support and     
consolation to suffering humanity in    
life and death4 ,how  greatly you should
 guard against rousing suspicion in the 
masses by  theoretical wrangling1 and   
thereby finally taking from them what is
 an  inexhaustible source of consolation
 and comfort to them2 which in their    
hard lot they need very much more than  
we do3 for this reason alone1  religion 
ought not to be attacked4    ,phil4     
,with this argument ,luther could have  
been beaten out of the  field when he   
attacked the selling of indulgences2 for
 the letters of  indulgence have        
furnished many a man with irreparable   

consolation and  perfect tranquillity1  
so that he joyfully passed away with    
perfect  confidence in the little packet
 of them which he firmly held in his    
hand  as he lay dying1 convinced that in
 them he had so many cards of  admission
 into all the nine heavens4 ,what is the
 use of grounds of  consolation and     
peacefulness over which is constantly   
hanging the  ,damocles-sword of         
deception8 ,the truth1 my friend1 the   
truth alone holds  good1 and remains    
constant and faithful2 it is the only   
solid  consolation2 it is the           
indestructible diamond4    ,demop4 ,yes1
 if you had truth in your pocket to     
bless us with whenever  we asked for it4
 ,but what you possess are only         
metaphysical systems in  which nothing  
is certain but the headaches they cost4 
,before one takes  anything away one    
must have something better to put in its
 place4    ,phil4 ,i wish you would not 
continually say that4 ,to free a man    
from  error does not mean to take       

something from him1 but to give him     
something4 ,for knowledge that something
 is wrong is a truth4 ,no error1        
however1 is harmless2 every error will  
cause mischief sooner or later to  the  
man who fosters it4 ,therefore do not   
deceive any one1 but rather  admit you  
are ignorant of what you do not know1   
and let each man form  his own dogmas   
for himself4 ,perhaps they will not turn
 out so bad1  especially as they will   
rub against each other and mutually     
rectify  errors2 at any rate the various
 opinions will establish tolerance4     
,those  men who possess both knowledge  
and capacity may take up the study of   
philosophy1 or even themselves advance  
the history of philosophy4    ,demop4   
,that would be a fine thing6 ,a whole   
nation of naturalised  metaphysicians   
quarrelling with each other1 and        
eventualiter striking  each other4      
,phil4 ,well1 a few blows here and there
 are the sauce of life1 or at  least a  
very slight evil compared with priestly 

government--prosecution  of heretics1   
plundering of the laity1 courts of      
inquisition1 crusades1  religious wars1 
massacres of ,st4 ,bartholomew1 and the 
like4 ,they have  been the results of   
chartered popular metaphysics3 therefore
 ,i still  hold that one cannot expect  
to get grapes from thistles1 or good    
from  lies and deception4    ,demop4    
,how often must ,i repeat that religion 
is not a lie1 but the  truth itself in a
 mythical1 allegorical dress8 ,but with 
respect to your  plan of each man       
establishing his own religion1 ,i had   
still something to  say to you1 that a  
particularism like this is totally and  
absolutely  opposed to the nature of    
mankind1 and therefore would abolish all
 social  order4 ,man is an animal       
metaphysicum--in other words1 he has    
surpassingly great metaphysical         
requirements2 accordingly he conceives  
life above all in its metaphysical      
sense1 and from that standpoint  wishes 
to grasp everything4 ,accordingly1 odd  

as it may sound with regard  to the     
uncertainty of all dogmas1 accord in the
 fundamental elements of  metaphysics is
 the principal thing1 in so much as it  
is only among  people who hold the same 
views on this question that a genuine   
and  lasting fellowship is possible4 ,as
 a result of this1 nations resemble  and
 differ from each other more in religion
 than in government1 or even  language4 
,consequently1 the fabric of society1   
the ,state1 will only be  perfectly firm
 when it has for a basis a system of    
metaphysics  universally acknowledged4  
,such a system1 naturally1 can only be a
  popular metaphysical one--that is1 a  
religion4 ,it then becomes  identified  
with the government1 with all the       
general expressions of the  national    
life1 as well as with all sacred acts of
 private life4 ,this was  the case in   
ancient ,india1 among the ,persians1    
,egyptians1 ,jews1 also the  ,greeks and
 ,romans1 and it is still the case among
 the ,brahman1 ,buddhist1  and          

,mohammedan nations4 ,there1 are three  
doctrines of faith in ,china1 it  is    
true1 and the one that has spread the   
most1 namely1 ,buddhism1 is  exactly the
 doctrine that is least protected by the
 ,state2 yet there is  a saying in      
,china that is universally appreciated  
and daily applied1  the three doctrines 
are only one--in other words1 they agree
 in the  main thing4 ,the ,emperor      
confesses all three at the same time1   
and agrees  with them all4 ,europe is   
the confederacy of ,christian ,states2  
,christianity is the basis of each of   
its members and the common bond of  all2
 hence ,turkey1 although it is in       
,europe1 is really not to be  reckoned  
in it4 ,similarly the ,european princes 
are such by the grace of  ,god1 and the 
,pope is the delegate of ,god2          
accordingly1 as his throne  was the     
highest1 he wished all other thrones to 
be looked upon only as  held in fee from
 him4 ,similarly ,archbishops and       
,bishops1 as such1 had  temporal        

authority1 just as they have still in   
,england a seat and voice  in the ,upper
 ,house2 ,protestant rulers are1 as     
such1 heads of their  churches2 in      
,england a few years ago this was a girl
 of eighteen4 ,by the  revolt from the  
,pope1 the ,reformation shattered the   
,european structure1  and1 in           
particular1 dissolved the true unity of 
,germany by abolishing  its common      
faith2 this unity1 which had as a matter
 of fact come to  grief1 had accordingly
 to be replaced later by artificial and 
purely  political bonds4 ,so you see how
 essentially connected is unity of faith
  with common order and every state4 ,it
 is everywhere the support of the  laws 
and the constitution--that is to say1   
the foundation of the social  structure1
 which would stand with difficulty if   
faith did not lend power  to the        
authority of the government and the     
importance of the ruler4    ,phil4 ,oh1 
yes1 princes look upon ,god as a goblin1
 wherewith to  frighten grown-up        

children to bed when nothing else is of 
any avail2 it  is for this reason that  
they depend so much on ,god4 ,all right2
 meanwhile  ,i should like to advise    
every ruling lord to read through1 on a 
certain  day every six months1 the      
fifteenth chapter of the ,first ,book of
 ,samuel1  earnestly and attentively2 so
 that he may always have in mind what it
  means to support the throne on the    
altar4 ,moreover1 since burning at the  
stake1 that ultima ratio theologorum1 is
 a thing of the past1 this  mode of     
government has lost its efficacy4 ,for1 
as you know1 religions  are like        
glowworms3 before they can shine it must
 be dark4 ,a certain  degree of general 
ignorance is the condition of every     
religion1 and is  the element in which  
alone it is able to exist4 ,while1 as   
soon as  astronomy1 natural science1    
geology1 history1 knowledge of countries
 and  nations have spread their light   
universally1 and philosophy is finally  
allowed to speak1 every faith which is  

based on miracle and revelation  must   
perish1 and then philosophy will take   
its place4 ,in ,europe the day  of      
knowledge and science dawned towards the
 end of the fifteenth century  with the 
arrival of the modern ,greek            
philosophers1 its sun rose higher  in   
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1
 which were so productive1  and         
scattered the mists of the ,middle ,age4
 ,in the same proportion1 both  ,church 
and ,faith were obliged to gradually    
disappear2 so that in the  eighteenth   
century ,english and ,french            
philosophers became direct  antagonists1
 until finally1 under ,frederick the    
,great1 ,kant came and  took away from  
religious belief the support it had     
formerly received  from philosophy1 and 
emancipated the ancilla theologiae in   
that he  attacked the question with     
,german thoroughness and perseverance1  
whereby  it received a less frivolous1  
that is to say1 a more earnest tone4 ,as
 a  result of this we see in the        

nineteenth century ,christianity very   
much  weakened1 almost stripped entirely
 of serious belief1 nay1 fighting for   
its own existence2 while apprehensive   
princes try to raise it up by an        
artificial stimulant1 as the doctor     
tries to revive a dying man by the  aid 
of a drug4 ,there is a passage from     
,condorcet's ,des ,progrs de  l'esprit  
humain1 which seems to have been written
 as a warning to our  epoch3 ,le zle    
religieux des philosophes et des grands 
n'tait qu'une  dvotion politique3 et    
toute religion1 qu'on se permet de      
dfendre comme  une croyance qu'il est   
utile de laisser au peuple1 ne peut plus
 esprer  qu'une agonie plus ou moins    
prolonge4 ,in the whole course of the   
events which ,i have pointed out you may
 always observe that belief and         
knowledge bear the same relation to each
 other as the two scales of a  balance3 
when the one rises the other must fall4 
,the balance is so  sensitive that it   
indicates momentary influences4 ,for    

example1 in the  beginning of this      
century the predatory excursions of     
,french robbers  under their leader     
,buonaparte1 and the great efforts that 
were requisite  to drive them out and to
 punish them1 had led to a temporary    
neglect of  science1 and in consequence 
to a certain decrease in the general    
propagation of knowledge2 the ,church   
immediately began to raise her head     
again and ,faith to be revived1 a       
revival partly of a poetical nature1 in 
keeping with the spirit of the times4   
,on the other hand1 in the more  than   
thirty years' peace that followed1      
leisure and prosperity promoted  the    
building up of science and the spread of
 knowledge in an exceptional  degree1 so
 that the result was what ,i have said1 
the dissolution and  threatened fall of 
religion4 ,perhaps the time which has   
been so often  predicted is not far     
distant1 when religion will depart from 
,european  humanity1 like a nurse whose 
care the child has outgrown2 it is now  

placed in the hands of a tutor for      
instruction4 ,for without doubt         
doctrines of belief that are based only 
on authority1 miracles1 and  revelation 
are only of use and suitable to the     
childhood of humanity4  ,that a race1   
which all physical and historical data  
confirm as having  been in existence    
only about a hundred times the life of a
 man sixty  years old1 is still in its  
first childhood is a fact that every one
 will  admit4    ,demop4 ,if instead of 
prophesying with undisguised pleasure   
the  downfall of ,christianity1 you     
would only consider how infinitely      
indebted ,european humanity is to it1   
and to the religion which1 after  the   
lapse of some time1 followed            
,christianity from its old home in the  
,east6 ,europe received from it a drift 
which had hitherto been unknown to      
it--it learnt the fundamental truth that
 life cannot be an  end-in-itself1 but  
that the true end of our existence lies 
beyond it4  ,the ,greeks and ,romans had

 placed this end absolutely in life     
itself1 so  that1 in this sense1 they   
may most certainly be called blind      
heathens4  ,correspondingly1 all their  
virtues consist in what is serviceable  
to the  public1 in what is useful2 and  
,aristotle says quite navely1 ,those    
virtues must necessarily be the greatest
 which are the most useful to  others 7 
1  ,rhetor4 ,i4 c4 #i74 ,this is why the
 ancients considered love for one's     
country the greatest virtue1 although it
 is a very doubtful one1 as it  is made 
up of narrowness1 prejudice1 vanity1 and
 an enlightened  self-interest4         
,preceding the passage that has just    
been quoted1  ,aristotle enumerates all 
the virtues in order to explain them    
individually4 ,they are ,justice1       
,courage1 ,moderation1 ,magnificence    
771 ,magnanimity1 ,liberality1          
,gentleness1 ,reasonableness1  and      
,wisdom4 ,how different from the        
,christian virtues6 ,even ,plato1       
without comparison the most             

transcendental philosopher of           
pre-,christian  antiquity1 knows no     
higher virtue than ,justice2 he alone   
recommends it  unconditionally and for  
its own sake1 while all the other       
philosophers  make a happy life--vita   
beata--the aim of all virtue2 and it is 
acquired through the medium of moral    
behaviour4 ,christianity released       
,european humanity from its superficial 
and crude absorption in an  ephemeral1  
uncertain1 and hollow existence4        
444 coelumque tueri    ,jussit1 et      
erectos ad sidera tollere vultus4       
,accordingly1 ,christianity does not    
only preach ,justice1 but the ,love of  
,mankind1 ,compassion1 ,charity1        
,reconciliation1 ,love of one's         
,enemies1  ,patience1 ,humility1        
,renunciation1 ,faith1 and ,hope4       
,indeed1 it went even  further3 it      
taught that the world was of evil and   
that we needed  deliverance2            
consequently it preached contempt of the
 world1  self-denial1 chastity1 the     

giving up of one's own will1 that is to 
say1  turning away from life and its    
phantom-like pleasures2 it taught       
further  the healing power of suffering1
 and that an instrument of torture is   
the  symbol of ,christianity1 ,i        
willingly admit that this serious and   
only  correct view of life had spread in
 other forms throughout ,asia thousands 
of years previously1 independently of   
,christianity as it is still2 but  this 
view of life was a new and tremendous   
revelation to ,european  humanity4 ,for 
it is well known that the population of 
,europe consists of  ,asiatic races who1
 driven out from their own country1     
wandered away1 and  by degrees hit upon 
,europe3 on their long wanderings they  
lost the  original religion of their    
homes1 and with it the correct view of  
life2  and this is why they formed in   
another climate religions for themselves
  which were somewhat crude2 especially 
the worship of ,odin1 the ,druidic  and 
the ,greek religions1 the metaphysical  

contents of which were small  and       
shallow4 ,meanwhile there developed     
among the ,greeks a quite special1  one 
might say an instinctive1 sense of      
beauty1 possessed by them alone  of all 
the nations of the earth that have ever 
existed--a peculiar1  fine1 and correct 
sense of beauty1 so that in the mouths  
of their poets  and in the hands of     
their artists1 their mythology took an  
exceptionally  beautiful and delightful 
form4 ,on the other hand1 the earnest1  
true1 and  profound import of life was  
lost to the ,greeks and ,romans2 they   
lived  like big children until          
,christianity came and brought them back
 to the  serious side of life4    ,phil4
 ,and to form an idea of the result we  
need only compare antiquity  with the   
,middle ,age that followed--that is1 the
 time of ,pericles with  the fourteenth 
century4 ,it is difficult to believe    
that we have the same  kind of beings   
before us4 ,there1 the finest           
development of humanity1  excellent     

constitutional regulations1 wise laws1  
cleverly distributed  offices1          
rationally ordered freedom1 all the     
arts1 as well as poetry and  philosophy1
 at their best2 the creation of works   
which after thousands  of years have    
never been equalled and are almost works
 of a higher order  of beings1 whom we  
can never approach2 life embellished by 
the noblest  fellowship1 as is portrayed
 in the ,banquet of ,xenophon4 ,and now 
look  at this side1 if you can4 ,look at
 the time when the ,church had          
imprisoned the minds1 and violence the  
bodies of men1 whereby knights  and     
priests could lay the whole weight of   
life on the common beast of  burden--the
 third estate4 ,there you have club-law1
 feudalism1 and  fanaticism in close    
alliance1 and in their train shocking   
uncertainty  and darkness of mind1 a    
corresponding intolerance1 discord of   
faiths1  religious wars1 crusades1      
persecution of heretics and             
inquisitions2 as  the form of           

fellowship1 chivalry1 an amalgam of     
savagery and  foolishness1 with its     
pedantic system of absurd affectations1 
its  degrading superstitions1 and apish 
veneration for women2 the survival of   
which is gallantry1 deservedly requited 
by the arrogance of women2 it  affords  
to all ,asiatics continual material for 
laughter1 in which the  ,greeks would   
have joined4 ,in the golden ,middle ,age
 the matter went as  far as a formal and
 methodical service of women and        
enjoined deeds of  heroism1 cours       
d'amour1 bombastic ,troubadour songs and
 so forth1  although it is to be        
observed that these last absurdities1   
which have an  intellectual side1 were  
principally at home in ,france2 while   
among the  material phlegmatic ,germans 
the knights distinguished themselves    
more by  drinking and robbing4 ,drinking
 and hoarding their castles with plunder
  were the occupations of their lives2  
and certainly there was no want of      
stupid love-songs in the courts4 ,what  

has changed the scene so8  ,migration   
and ,christianity4    ,demop4 ,it is a  
good thing you reminded me of it4       
,migration was the  source of the evil1 
and ,christianity the dam on which it   
broke4  ,christianity was the means of  
controlling and taming those raw1 wild  
hordes who were washed in by the flood  
of migration4 ,the savage man must      
first of all learn to kneel1 to         
venerate1 and to obey2 it is only after 
that1 that he can be civilised4 ,this   
was done in ,ireland by ,st4 ,patrick1  
in ,germany by ,winifred the ,saxon1 who
 was a genuine ,boniface4 ,it was       
migration of nations1 this last movement
 of ,asiatic races towards  ,europe1    
followed only by their fruitless        
attempts under ,attila1 ,gengis  ,khan1 
and ,timur1 and1 as a comic after-piece1
 by the gipsies3 it was  migration of   
nations which swept away the humanity of
 the ancients4  ,christianity was the   
very principle which worked against this
 savagery1  just as later1 through the  

whole of the ,middle ,age1 the ,church  
and its  hierarchy were extremely       
necessary to place a limit to the       
savagery and  barbarism of those lords  
of violence1 the princes and knights3 it
 was  the ice-breaker of this mighty    
flood4 ,still1 the general aim of       
,christianity is not so much to make    
this life pleasant as to make us  worthy
 of a better4 ,it looks beyond this span
 of time1 this fleeting  dream1 in order
 to lead us to eternal salvation4 ,its  
tendency is ethical  in the highest     
sense of the word1 a tendency which had 
hitherto been  unknown in ,europe2 as ,i
 have already pointed out to you by     
comparing the  morality and religion of 
the ancients with those of              
,christianity4    ,phil4 ,that is right 
so far as theory is concerned2 but look 
at the  practice4 ,in comparison with   
the ,christian centuries that followed1 
the  ancient world was undoubtedly less 
cruel than the ,middle ,age1 with its   
deaths by frightful torture1 its        

countless burnings at the stake2        
further1 the ancients were very patient1
 thought very highly of justice1  and   
frequently sacrificed themselves for    
their country1 showed traits of         
magnanimity of every kind1 and such     
genuine humanity1 that1 up to the       
present time1 an acquaintance with their
 doings and thoughts is called  the     
study of ,humanity4 ,religious wars1    
massacres1 crusades1  inquisitions1 as  
well as other persecutions1 the         
extermination of the  original          
inhabitants of ,america and the         
introduction of ,african slaves  in     
their place1 were the fruits of         
,christianity1 and among the ancients   
one cannot find anything analogous to   
this1 anything to counterpoise it2  for 
the slaves of the ancients1 the familia1
 the vernae1 were a  satisfied race and 
faithfully devoted to their masters1 and
 as widely  distinct from the miserable 
negroes of the sugar plantations1 which 
are  a disgrace to humanity1 as they    

were in colour4 ,the censurable         
toleration of pederasty1 for which one  
chiefly reproaches the morality  of the 
ancients1 is a trifle compared with the 
,christian horrors ,i have  cited1 and  
is not so rare among people of to-day as
 it appears to be4  ,can you then1      
taking everything into consideration1   
maintain that  humanity has really      
become morally better by ,christianity8 
,demop4 ,if the result has not          
everywhere corresponded with the purity 
and accuracy of the doctrine1 it may be 
because this doctrine has been  too     
noble1 too sublime for humanity1 and its
 aim set too high3 to be  sure1 it was  
much easier to comply with heathen      
morality or with the  ,mohammedan4 ,it  
is precisely what is most elevated that 
is the most open  to abuse and          
deception--abusus optimi pessimus2 and  
therefore those  lofty doctrines have   
sometimes served as a pretext for the   
most  disgraceful transactions and      
veritable crimes4 ,the downfall of the  

ancient institutions1 as well as of the 
arts and sciences of the old  world1 is1
 as has been said1 to be ascribed to the
 invasion of foreign  barbarians4       
,accordingly1 it was inevitable that    
ignorance and savagery  got the upper   
hand2 with the result that violence and 
fraud usurped  their dominion1 and      
knights and priests became a burden to  
mankind4 ,this  is partly to be         
explained by the fact that the new      
religion taught the  lesson of eternal  
and not temporal welfare1 that          
simplicity of heart was  preferable to  
intellectual knowledge1 and it was      
averse to all worldly  pleasures which  
are served by the arts and sciences4    
,however1 in so far  as they could be   
made serviceable to religion they were  
promoted1 and so  flourished to a       
certain extent4    ,phil4 ,in a very    
narrow sphere4 ,the sciences were       
suspicious  companions1 and as such were
 placed under restrictions2 while fond  
ignorance1 that element so necessary to 

the doctrines of faith1 was  carefully  
nourished4    ,demop4 ,and yet what     
humanity had hitherto acquired in the   
shape of  knowledge1 and handed down in 
the works of the ancients1 was saved    
from  ruin by the clergy1 especially by 
those in the monasteries4 ,what would   
have happened if ,christianity had not  
come in just before the migration  of   
nations8    ,phil4 ,it would really be  
an extremely useful inquiry if some one1
 with  the greatest frankness and       
impartiality1 tried to weigh exactly and
  accurately the advantages and         
disadvantages derived from religions4   
,to  do this1 it would be necessary to  
have a much greater amount of           
historical and psychological data than  
either of us has at our command4        
,academies might make it a subject for a
 prize essay4    ,demop4 ,they will take
 care not to do that4    ,phil4 ,i am   
surprised to hear you say that1 for it  
is a bad look-out  for religion4        
,besides1 there are also academies which

 make it a secret  condition in         
submitting their questions that the     
prize should be given  to the competitor
 who best understands the art of        
flattering them4 ,if  we1 then1 could   
only get a statistician to tell us how  
many crimes are  prevented yearly by    
religious motives1 and how many by other
 motives4  ,there would be very few of  
the former4 ,if a man feels himself     
tempted to  commit a crime1 certainly   
the first thing which presents itself to
 his  mind is the punishment he must    
suffer for it1 and the probability that 
he will be punished2 after that comes   
the second consideration1 that his      
reputation is at stake4 ,if ,i am not   
mistaken1 he will reflect by the  hour  
on these two obstacles before religious 
considerations ever come  into his mind4
 ,if he can get away from these two     
first safeguards  against crime1 ,i am  
convinced that religion alone will very 
rarely  keep him back from it4          
,demop4 ,i believe1 however1 that it    

will do so very often2 especially  when 
its influence works through the medium  
of custom1 and thereby  immediately     
makes a man shrink from the idea of     
committing a crime4  ,early impressions 
cling to him4 ,as an illustration of    
what ,i mean1  consider how many a man1 
and especially if he is of noble birth1 
will  often1 in order to fulfil some    
promise1 make great sacrifices1 which   
are  instigated solely by the fact that 
his father has often impressed it  upon 
him in childhood that a man of honour1  
or a gentleman1 or a  cavalier1 always  
keeps his word inviolate4    ,phil4 ,and
 that won't work unless there is a      
certain innate probitas4  ,you must not 
ascribe to religion what is the result  
of innate goodness  of character1 by    
which pity for the one who would be     
affected by the  crime prevents a man   
from committing it4 ,this is the genuine
 moral  motive1 and as such it is       
independent of all religions4    ,demop4
 ,but even this moral motive has no     

effect on the masses unless  it is      
invested with a religious motive1 which1
 at any rate1 strengthens  it4 ,however1
 without any such natural foundation1   
religious motives  often in themselves  
alone prevent crime3 this is not a      
matter of  surprise to us in the case of
 the multitude1 when we see that even   
people of good education sometimes come 
under the influence1 not indeed  of     
religious motives1 which fundamentally  
are at least allegorically  true1 but of
 the most absurd superstitions1 by which
 they are guided  throughout the whole  
of their lives2 as1 for instance1       
undertaking  nothing on a ,friday1      
refusing to sit down thirteen at table1 
obeying  chance omens1 and the like3 how
 much more likely are the masses to be  
guided by such things4 ,you cannot      
properly conceive the great  limitations
 of the raw mind2 its interior is       
entirely dark1 especially  if1 as is    
often the case1 a bad1 unjust1 and      
wicked heart is its  foundation4 ,men   

like these1 who represent the bulk of   
humanity1 must be  directed and         
controlled meanwhile1 as well as        
possible1 even if it be by  really      
superstitious motives1 until they become
 susceptible to truer and  better ones4 
,of the direct effect of religion1 one  
may give as an  instance a common       
occurrence in ,italy1 namely1 that of a 
thief being  allowed to replace what he 
has stolen through the medium of his    
confessor1 who makes this the condition 
of his absolution4 ,then think of  the  
case of an oath1 where religion shows a 
most decided influence3  whether it be  
because a man places himself expressly  
in the position of  a mere moral being1 
and as such regards himself as solemnly 
appealed  to1--as seems to be the case  
in ,france1 where the form of the oath  
is  merely je le jure2 and among the    
,quakers1 whose solemn yea or  nay takes
 the place of the oath2--or whether it  
is because a man  really believes he is 
uttering something that will forfeit his

 eternal  happiness1--a belief which is 
obviously only the investiture of the   
former feeling4 ,at any rate1 religious 
motives are a means of awakening  and   
calling forth his moral nature4 ,a man  
will frequently consent to  take a false
 oath1 but suddenly refuse to do so when
 it comes to the  point2 whereby truth  
and right come off victorious4    ,phil4
 ,but false oaths are still oftener     
sworn1 whereby truth and right  are     
trodden underfoot with the clear        
knowledge of all the witnesses of  the  
act4 ,an oath is the jurist's           
metaphysical pons asinorum1 and like    
this should be used as seldom as ever   
possible4 ,when it cannot be  avoided1  
it should be taken with great solemnity1
 always in the presence  of the         
clergy--nay1 even in a church or in a   
chapel adjoining the court  of          
justice4444 ,this is precisely why the  
,french abstract formulary of  the oath 
is of no value4 ,by the way1 you are    
right to cite the oath as  an undeniable

 example of the practical efficacy of   
religion4 ,i must1 in  spite of         
everything you have said1 doubt whether 
the efficacy of  religion goes much     
beyond this4 ,just think1 if it were    
suddenly declared  by public            
proclamation that all criminal laws were
 abolished2 ,i believe  that neither you
 nor ,i would have the courage to go    
home from here alone  under the         
protection of religious motives4 ,on the
 other hand1 if in a  similar way all   
religions were declared to be untrue2 we
 would1 under  the protection of the    
laws alone1 live on as formerly1 without
 any  special increase in our fears and 
measures of precaution4 ,but ,i will    
even go further3 religions have very    
frequently a decidedly demoralising     
influence4 ,it may be said generally    
that duties towards ,god are the        
reverse of duties towards mankind2 and  
that it is very easy to make up  for    
lack of good behaviour towards men by   
adulation of ,god4 ,accordingly1  we see

 in all ages and countries that the     
great majority of mankind find  it much 
easier to beg admission into ,heaven by 
prayers than to deserve  it by their    
actions4 ,in every religion it soon     
comes to be proclaimed  that it is not  
so much moral actions as faith1         
ceremonies1 and rites of  every kind    
that are the immediate objects of the   
,divine will2 and indeed  the latter1   
especially if they are bound up with the
 emoluments of the  clergy1 are         
considered a substitute for the former4 
,the sacrifice of  animals in temples1  
or the saying of masses1 the erection of
 chapels or  crosses by the roadside1   
are soon regarded as the most           
meritorious  works2 so that even a great
 crime may be expiated by them1 as also 
by  penance1 subjection to priestly     
authority1 confessions1 pilgrimages1    
donations to the temple and its priests1
 the building of monasteries and  the   
like2 until finally the clergy appear   
almost only as mediators in  the        

corruption of the gods4 ,and if things  
do not go so far as that1  where is the 
religion whose confessors do not        
consider prayers1 songs of  praise1 and 
various kinds of devotional exercise1 at
 any rate1 a partial  substitute for    
moral conduct8 ,look at ,england1 for   
instance1 where the  audacious          
priestcraft has mendaciously identified 
the ,christian ,sunday  with the ,jewish
 ,sabbath1 in spite of the fact that it 
was ordained by  ,constantine the ,great
 in opposition to the ,jewish ,sabbath1 
and even took  its name1 so that        
,jehovah's ordinances for the           
,sabbath--i4e41 the day  on which the   
,almighty rested1 tired after ,his six  
days' work1 making it  therefore        
essentially the last day of the         
week--might be conferred on  the        
,christian ,sunday1 the dies solis1 the 
first day of the week which  the sun    
opens in glory1 the day of devotion and 
joy4 ,the result of this  fraud is that 
in ,england ,sabbath breaking1 or the   

desecration of the  ,sabbath1 that is1  
the slightest occupation1 whether it be 
of a useful  or pleasurable nature1 and 
any kind of game1 music1 knitting1 or   
worldly  book1 are on ,sundays regarded 
as great sins4 ,must not the ordinary   
man  believe that if1 as his spiritual  
guides impress upon him1 he never  fails
 in a strict observance of the holy     
,sabbath and a regular  attendance on   
,divine ,service1--in other words1 if he
 invariably whiles  away his time on a  
,sunday1 and never fails to sit two     
hours in church to  listen to the same  
,litany for the thousandth time1 and to 
babble it with  the rest a tempo1 he may
 reckon on indulgence in here and there 
little  sins which he at times allows   
himself8 ,those devils in human form1   
the  slave-owners and slave-traders in  
the ,free ,states of ,north ,america    
7they  should be called the ,slave      
,states71 are1 in general1 orthodox1    
pious  ,anglicans1 who look upon it as a
 great sin to work on ,sundays2 and     

confident in this1 and their regular    
attendance at church1 they expect  to   
gain eternal happiness4 ,the            
demoralising influence of religion is   
less problematical than its moral       
influence4 ,on the other hand1 how      
great and how certain that moral        
influence must be to make amends for    
the horrors and misery which religions1 
especially the ,christian and           
,mohammedan religions1 have occasioned  
and spread over the earth6 ,think  of   
the fanaticism1 of the endless          
persecutions1 the religious wars1 that  
sanguinary frenzy of which the ancients 
had no idea2 then1 think of the         
,crusades1 a massacre lasting two       
hundred years1 and perfectly            
unwarrantable1 with its war-cry1 ,it is 
,god's will1 so that it might  get into 
its possession the grave of one who had 
preached love and  endurance2 think of  
the cruel expulsion and extermination of
 the ,moors  and ,jews from ,spain2     
think of the massacres1 of the          

inquisitions and  other heretical       
tribunals1 the bloody and terrible      
conquests of the  ,mohammedans in three 
different parts of the world1 and the   
conquest of  the ,christians in         
,america1 whose inhabitants were for the
 most part1 and  in ,cuba entirely1     
exterminated2 according to ,las ,casas1 
within forty  years twelve million      
persons were murdered--of course1 all in
 majorem  ,dei gloriam1 and for the     
spreading of the ,gospel1 and because1  
moreover1 what was not ,christian was   
not looked upon as human4 ,it is  true  
,i have already touched upon these      
matters2 but when in our day the        
,latest ,news from the ,kingdom of ,god 
is printed1 we shall not be tired  of   
bringing older news to mind4 ,and in    
particular1 let us not forget  ,india1  
that sacred soil1 that cradle of the    
human race1 at any rate of  the race to 
which we belong1 where first            
,mohammedans1 and later  ,christians1   
were most cruelly infuriated against the

 followers of the  original belief of   
mankind2 and the eternally lamentable1  
wanton1 and  cruel destruction and      
disfigurement of the most ancient       
temples and  images1 still show traces  
of the monotheistic rage of the         
,mohammedans1  as it was carried on from
 ,marmud the ,ghaznevid of accursed     
memory1 down  to ,aureng ,zeb1 the      
fratricide1 whom later the ,portuguese  
,christians  faithfully tried to imitate
 by destroying the temples and the auto 
da  f of the inquisition at ,goa4 ,let  
us also not forget the chosen people  of
 ,god1 who1 after they had1 by          
,jehovah's express and special command1 
stolen from their old and faithful      
friends in ,egypt the gold and silver   
vessels which had been lent to them1    
made a murderous and predatory          
excursion into the ,promised ,land1 with
 ,moses at their head1 in order to  tear
 it from the rightful owners1 also at   
,jehovah's express and repeated         
commands1 knowing no compassion1 and    

relentlessly murdering and              
exterminating all the inhabitants1 even 
the women and children 7,joshua  x41    
xi472 just because they were not        
circumcised and did not know  ,jehovah1 
which was sufficient reason to justify  
every act of cruelty  against them4 ,for
 the same reason1 in former times the   
infamous roguery  of the patriarch      
,jacob and his chosen people against    
,hamor1 ,king of  ,shalem1 and his      
people is recounted to us with glory1   
precisely because  the people were      
unbelievers4 ,truly1 it is the worst    
side of religions  that the believers of
 one religion consider themselves       
allowed  everything against the sins of 
every other1 and consequently treat them
  with the utmost viciousness and       
cruelty2 the ,mohammedans against the   
,christians and ,hindoos2 the           
,christians against the ,hindoos1       
,mohammedans1  ,americans1 ,negroes1    
,jews1 heretics1 and the like4 ,perhaps 
,i go too far  when ,i say all          

religions2 for in compliance with truth1
 ,i must add  that the fanatical        
horrors1 arising from religion1 are only
 perpetrated  by the followers of the   
monotheistic religions1 that is1 of     
,judaism and  its two branches1         
,christianity and ,islamism4 ,the same  
is not reported of  the ,hindoos and    
,buddhists1 although we know1 for       
instance1 that ,buddhism  was driven out
 about the fifth century of our era by  
the ,brahmans from  its original home in
 the southernmost part of the ,indian   
peninsula1 and  afterwards spread over  
the whole of ,asia2 yet we have1 so far 
as ,i know1  no definite information of 
any deeds of violence1 of wars and      
cruelties  by which this was brought    
about4 ,this may1 most certainly1 be    
ascribed  to the obscurity in which the 
history of those countries is veiled2   
but  the extremely mild character of    
their religion1 which continually       
impresses upon us to be forbearing      
towards every living thing1 as well  as 

the circumstance that ,brahmanism       
properly admits no proselytes by  reason
 of its caste system1 leads us to hope  
that its followers may  consider        
themselves exempt from shedding blood to
 any great extent1 and  from cruelty in 
any form4 ,spence ,hardy1 in his        
excellent book on  ,eastern ,monachism1 
p4 #dab1 extols the extraordinary       
tolerance of the  ,buddhists1 and adds  
his assurance that the annals of        
,buddhism furnish  fewer examples of    
religious persecution than those of any 
other  religion4 ,as a matter of fact1  
intolerance is only essential to        
monotheism3 an only god is by his nature
 a jealous god1 who cannot  permit any  
other god to exist4 ,on the other hand1 
polytheistic gods are  by their nature  
tolerant3 they live and let live2 they  
willingly  tolerate their colleagues as 
being gods of the same religion1 and    
this  tolerance is afterwards extended  
to alien gods1 who are1 accordingly1    
hospitably received1 and later on       

sometimes attain even the same rights   
and privileges2 as in the case of the   
,romans1 who willingly accepted and     
venerated ,phrygian1 ,egyptian1 and     
other foreign gods4 ,hence it is the    
monotheistic religions alone that       
furnish us with religious wars1         
persecutions1 and heretical tribunals1  
and also with the breaking of  images1  
the destruction of idols of the gods2   
the overthrowing of ,indian  temples and
 ,egyptian colossi1 which had looked on 
the sun three thousand  years2 and all  
this because a jealous ,god had said3   
,thou shalt make no  graven image1 etc4 
,to return to the principal part of the 
matter3 you  are certainly right in     
advocating the strong metaphysical needs
 of  mankind2 but religions appear to me
 to be not so much a satisfaction as  an
 abuse of those needs4 ,at any rate we  
have seen that1 in view of the  progress
 of morality1 its advantages are for the
 most part  problematical1 while its    
disadvantages1 and especially the       

enormities  which have appeared in its  
train1 are obvious4 ,of course the      
matter  becomes quite different if we   
consider the utility of religion as a   
mainstay of thrones2 for in so far as   
these are bestowed by the grace  of     
,god1 altar and throne are closely      
related4 ,accordingly1 every wise       
prince who loves his throne and his     
family will walk before his people  as a
 type of true religion2 just as even    
,machiavelli1 in the eighteenth  chapter
 of his book1 urgently recommended      
religion to princes4 ,moreover1  it may 
be added that revealed religions are    
related to philosophy1  exactly as the  
sovereigns by the grace of ,god are to  
the sovereignty of  the people2 and     
hence the two former terms of the       
parallel are in  natural alliance4      
,demop4 ,oh1 don't adopt that tone6 ,but
 consider that in doing so you  are     
blowing the trumpet of ochlocracy and   
anarchy1 the arch-enemy of all          
legislative order1 all civilisation1 and

 all humanity4    ,phil4 ,you are right4
 ,it was only a sophism1 or what the    
fencing-master  calls a feint4 ,i       
withdraw it therefore4 ,but see how     
disputing can make  even honest men     
unjust and malicious4 ,so let us cease4 
,demop4 ,it is true ,i regret1 after all
 the trouble ,i have taken1 that ,i     
have not altered your opinion in regard 
to religion2 on the other hand1  ,i can 
assure you that everything you have     
brought forward has not shaken  my      
conviction of its high value and        
necessity4    ,phil4 ,i believe you2 for
 as it is put in ,hudibras3      ,he    
that complies against his will    ,is of
 his own opinion still4    ,i find      
consolation1 however1 in the fact that  
in controversies and in  taking mineral 
waters1 it is the after-effects that are
 the true ones4    ,demop4 ,i hope the  
after-effect may prove to be beneficial 
in your  case4    ,phil4 ,that might be 
so if ,i could only digest a ,spanish   
proverb4    ,demop4 ,and that is8       

,phil4 ,detras de la cruz est el        
,diablo4    ,demop4 ,which means8       
,phil ,wait--,behind the cross stands   
the devil4    ,demop4 ,come1 don't let  
us separate from each other with        
sarcasms1 but  rather let us allow that 
religion1 like ,janus1 or1 better still1
 like  the ,brahman god of death1 ,yama1
 has two faces1 and like him1 one very  
friendly and one very sullen4 ,each of  
us1 however1 has only fixed his  eyes on
 one4    ,phil4 ,you are right1 old     
fellow4    ,,footnotes3    #ac ,de      
,anim4 ,mundi1 p4 #ajd1 d4 ,steph4      
,,psychological ,,observations4         
,every animal1 and especially man1      
requires1 in order to exist and get on  
in the world1 a certain fitness and     
proportion between his will and his     
intellect4 ,the more exact and true this
 fitness and proportion are by  nature1 
the easier1 safer1 and pleasanter it    
will be for him to get  through the     
world4 ,at the same time1 a mere        
approximation to this exact  point will 

protect him from destruction4 ,there is1
 in consequence1 a  certain scope within
 the limits of exactness and fitness of 
this  so-called proportion4 ,the normal 
proportion is as follows4 ,as the object
  of the intellect is to be the light   
and guide of the will on its path1  the 
more violent1 impetuous1 and passionate 
the inner force of the will1  the more  
perfect and clear must be the intellect 
which belongs to it2 so  that the ardent
 efforts of the will1 the glow of       
passion1 the vehemence  of affection1   
may not lead a man astray or drive him  
to do things that  he has not given his 
consideration or are wrong or will ruin 
him2 which  will infallibly be the case 
when a very strong will is combined with
 a  very weak intellect4 ,on the other  
hand1 a phlegmatic character1 that is   
to say1 a weak and feeble will1 can     
agree and get on with little  intellect2
 a moderate will only requires a        
moderate intellect4 ,in  general1 any   
disproportion between the will and      

intellect--that is to  say1 any         
deviation from the normal proportion    
referred to--tends to make  a man       
unhappy2 and the same thing happens when
 the disproportion is  reversed4 ,the   
development of the intellect to an      
abnormal degree of  strength and        
superiority1 thereby making it out of   
all proportion to the  will1 a condition
 which constitutes the essence of true  
genius1 is not  only superfluous but    
actually an impediment to the needs and 
purposes of  life4 ,this means that1 in 
youth1 excessive energy in grasping the 
objective world1 accompanied by a lively
 imagination and little  experience1    
makes the mind susceptible to           
exaggerated ideas and a prey  even to   
chimeras2 and this results in an        
eccentric and even fantastic  character4
 ,and when1 later1 this condition of    
mind no longer exists and  succumbs to  
the teaching of experience1 the genius  
will never feel so  much at home or take
 up his position in the everyday world  

or in civic  life1 and move with the    
ease of a man of normal intellect2      
indeed1 he is  often more apt to make   
curious mistakes4 ,for the ordinary mind
 is so  perfectly at home in the narrow 
circle of its own ideas and way of      
grasping things that no one can control 
it in that circle2 its  capacities      
always remain true to their original    
purpose1 namely1 to look  after the     
service of the will2 therefore it       
applies itself unceasingly  to this end 
without ever going beyond it4 ,while the
 genius1 as ,i have  stated1 is at      
bottom a monstrum per excessum2 just as 
conversely the  passionate1 violent1 and
 unintelligent man1 the brainless       
savage1 is a  monstrum per dejectum4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,the will to live1 which forms the      
innermost kernel of every living  being1
 is most distinctly apparent in the     
highest1 that is to say in the          
cleverest1 order of animals1 and        
therefore in them we may see and        

consider the nature of the will most    
clearly4 ,for below this order of       
animals the will is not so prominent1   
and has a less degree of  objectivation2
 but above the higher order of animals1 
,i mean in men1  we get reason1 and with
 reason reflection1 and with this the   
faculty for  dissimulation1 which       
immediately throws a veil over the      
actions of the  will4 ,but in outbursts 
of affection and passion the will       
exhibits itself  unveiled4 ,this is     
precisely why passion1 when it speaks1  
always carries  conviction1 whatever the
 passion may be2 and rightly so4 ,for   
the same  reason1 the passions are the  
principal theme of poets and the        
stalking-horse of actors4 ,and it is    
because the will is most striking in    
the lower class of animals that we may  
account for our delight in dogs1  apes1 
cats1 etc42 it is the absolute navet of 
all their expressions  which charms us  
so much4    ,what a peculiar pleasure it
 affords us to see any free animal      

looking  after its own welfare          
unhindered1 finding its food1 or taking 
care of  its young1 or associating with 
others of its kind1 and so on6 ,this is 
exactly what ought to be and can be4 ,be
 it only a bird1 ,i can look at it  for 
some time with a feeling of pleasure2   
nay1 a water-rat or a frog1  and with   
still greater pleasure a hedgehog1 a    
weazel1 a roe1 or a deer4  ,the         
contemplation of animals delights us so 
much1 principally because we  see in    
them our own existence very much        
simplified4    ,there is only one       
mendacious creature in the world--man4  
,every other is  true and genuine1 for  
it shows itself as it is1 and expresses 
itself  just as it feels4 ,an           
emblematical or allegorical expression  
of this  fundamental difference is to be
 found in the fact that all animals go  
about in their natural state2 this      
largely accounts for the happy          
impression they make on us when we look 
at them2 and as far as ,i myself  am    

concerned1 my heart always goes out to  
them1 particularly if they are  free    
animals4 ,man1 on the other hand1 by his
 silly dress becomes a  monster2 his    
very appearance is objectionable1       
enhanced by the unnatural  paleness of  
his complexion1--the nauseating effect  
of his eating meat1  of his drinking    
alcohol1 his smoking1 dissoluteness1 and
 ailments4 ,he  stands out as a blot on 
,nature4 ,and it was because the ,greeks
 were  conscious of this that they      
restricted themselves as far as possible
 in  the matter of dress4           99  
99       99       99       99    ,much  
that is attributed to force of habit    
ought rather to be put down  to the     
constancy and immutability of original1 
innate character1 whereby  we always do 
the same thing under the same           
circumstances2 which  happens the first 
as for the hundredth time in consequence
 of the same  necessity4 ,while force of
 habit1 in reality1 is solely due to    
indolence seeking to save the intellect 

and will the work1 difficulty1  and     
danger of making a fresh choice2 so that
 we are made to do to-day  what we did  
yesterday and have done a hundred times 
before1 and of which  we know that it   
will gain its end4    ,but the truth of 
the matter lies deeper2 for it can be   
explained more  clearly than appears at 
first sight4 ,the power of inertia      
applied to  bodies which may be moved by
 mechanical means only1 becomes force of
  habit when applied to bodies which are
 moved by motives4 ,the actions  which  
we do out of sheer force of habit occur1
 as a matter of fact1  without any      
individual separate motive exercised for
 the particular  case2 hence we do not  
really think of them4 ,it was only when 
each action  at first took place that it
 had a motive2 after that it became a   
habit2  the secondary after-effect of   
this motive is the present habit1 which 
is  sufficient to carry on the action2  
just as a body1 set in motion by a      
push1 does not need another push in     

order to enable it to continue its      
motion2 it will continue in motion for  
ever if it is not obstructed in  any    
way4 ,the same thing applies to animals2
 training is a habit which is  forced   
upon them4 ,the horse draws a cart along
 contentedly without being  urged to do 
so2 this motion is still the effect of  
those lashes with the  whip which       
incited him at first1 but which by the  
law of inertia have  become perpetuated 
as habit4 ,there is really something    
more in all this  than a mere parable2  
it is the identity of the thing in      
question1 that  is to say of the will1  
at very different degrees of its        
objectivation1  by which the same law of
 motion takes such different forms4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,viva muchos aos6 is the ordinary       
greeting in ,spain1 and it is usual     
throughout the whole world to wish      
people a long life4 ,it is not a        
knowledge of what life is that explains 
the origin of such a wish1 but  rather  

knowledge of what man is in his real    
nature3 namely1 the will to  live4      
,the wish which every one has1 that he  
may be remembered after his  death1 and 
which those people with aspirations have
 for posthumous  fame1 seems to me to   
arise from this tenacity to life4 ,when 
they see  themselves cut off from every 
possibility of real existence they      
struggle after a life which is still    
within their reach1 even if it is  only 
an ideal--that is to say1 an unreal one4
           99       99       99       99
       99    ,we wish1 more or less1 to 
get to the end of everything we are     
interested  in or occupied with2 we are 
impatient to get to the end of it1 and  
glad  when it is finished4 ,it is only  
the general end1 the end of all ends1   
that we wish1 as a rule1 as far off as  
possible4           99       99       99
       99       99    ,every separation 
gives a foretaste of death1 and every   
meeting a  foretaste of the             
resurrection4 ,this explains why even   

people who were  indifferent to each    
other1 rejoice so much when they meet   
again after  the lapse of twenty or     
thirty years4           99       99     
99       99       99    ,the deep sorrow
 we feel on the death of a friend       
springs from the  feeling that in every 
individual there is a something which we
 cannot  define1 which is his alone and 
therefore irreparable4 ,omne individuum 
ineffabile4 ,the same applies to        
individual animals4 ,a man who has by   
accident fatally wounded a favourite    
animal feels the most acute sorrow1  and
 the animal's dying look causes him     
infinite pain4           99       99    
99       99       99    ,it is possible 
for us to grieve over the death of our  
enemies and  adversaries1 even after the
 lapse of a long time1 almost as much as
 over  the death of our friends--that is
 to say1 if we miss them as witnesses   
of our brilliant success4           99  
99       99       99       99    ,that  
the sudden announcement of some good    

fortune may easily have a  fatal effect 
on us is due to the fact that our       
happiness and unhappiness  depend upon  
the relation of our demands to what we  
get2 accordingly1 the  good things we   
possess1 or are quite sure of           
possessing1 are not felt to  be such1   
because the nature of all enjoyment is  
really only negative1  and has only the 
effect of annulling pain2 whilst1 on the
 other hand1  the nature of pain or evil
 is really positive and felt            
immediately4 ,with  the possession1 or  
the certain prospect of it1 our demands 
instantly  rise and increase our desire 
for further possession and greater      
prospects4 ,but if the mind is depressed
 by continual misfortune1 and the       
claims reduced to a minimum1 good       
fortune that comes suddenly finds no    
capacity for its acceptance4            
,neutralised by no previous claims1 it  
now  has apparently a positive effect1  
and accordingly its whole power is      
exercised2 hence it may disorganise the 

mind--that is to say1 be fatal  to it4  
,this is why1 as is well known1 one is  
so careful to get a man  first to hope  
for happiness before announcing it1 then
 to suggest the  prospect of it1 then   
little by little make it known1 until   
gradually all  is known to him2 every   
portion of the revelation loses the     
strength of  its effect because it is   
anticipated by a demand1 and room is    
still left  for more4 ,in virtue of all 
this1 it might be said that our stomach 
for  good fortune is bottomless1 but the
 entrance to it is narrow4 ,what has    
been said does not apply to sudden      
misfortunes in the same way4 ,since     
hope always resists them1 they are for  
this reason rarely fatal4 ,that  fear   
does not perform an analogous office in 
cases of good fortune is  due to the    
fact that we are instinctively more     
inclined to hope than to  fear2 just as 
our eyes turn of themselves to light in 
preference to  darkness4           99   
99       99       99       99    ,hope  

is to confuse the desire that something 
should occur with the  probability that 
it will4 ,perhaps no man is free from   
this folly of the  heart1 which deranges
 the intellect's correct estimation of  
probability  to such a degree as to make
 him think the event quite possible1    
even if  the chances are only a thousand
 to one4 ,and still1 an unexpected      
misfortune is like a speedy             
death-stroke2 while a hope that is      
always  frustrated1 and yet springs into
 life again1 is like death by slow      
torture4    ,he who has given up hope   
has also given up fear2 this is the     
meaning of  the expression desperate4   
,it is natural for a man to have faith  
in  what he wishes1 and to have faith in
 it because he wishes it4 ,if this      
peculiarity of his nature1 which is both
 beneficial and comforting1 is          
eradicated by repeated hard blows of    
fate1 and he is brought to a  converse  
condition1 when he believes that        
something must happen because  he does  

not wish it1 and what he wishes can     
never happen just because he  wishes it2
 this is1 in reality1 the state which   
has been called  desperation4           
99       99       99       99       99  
,that we are so often mistaken in others
 is not always precisely due to  our    
faulty judgment1 but springs1 as a rule 
as ,bacon says1 from  intellectus       
luminis sicci non est1 sec recipit      
infusionem a voluntate  et affectibus3  
for without knowing it1 we are          
influenced for or against  them by      
trifles from the very beginning4 ,it    
also often lies in the fact  that we do 
not adhere to the qualities which we    
really discover in them1  but conclude  
from these that there are others which  
we consider  inseparable from1 or at any
 rate incompatible with1 them4 ,for     
instance1  when we discern generosity1  
we conclude there is honesty2 from lying
 we  conclude there is deception2 from  
deception1 stealing1 and so on2 and     
this opens the door to many errors1     

partly because of the peculiarity of    
human nature1 and partly because of the 
one-sidedness of our point of  view4 ,it
 is true that character is always       
consistent and connected2 but  the roots
 of all its qualities lies too deep to  
enable one to decide  from special data 
in a given case which qualities can1 and
 which cannot  exist together4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,the use of the word person in every    
,european language to signify a  human  
individual is unintentionally           
appropriate2 persona really means  a    
player's mask1 and it is quite certain  
that no one shows himself as he  is1 but
 that each wears a mask and plays a rle4
 ,in general1 the whole  of social life 
is a continual comedy1 which the worthy 
find insipid1  whilst the stupid delight
 in it greatly4           99       99   
99       99       99    ,it often       
happens that we blurt out things that   
may in some kind of way  be harmful to  
us1 but we are silent about things that 

may make us look  ridiculous2 because in
 this case effect follows very quickly  
on cause4           99       99       99
       99       99    ,the ordinary man 
who has suffered injustice burns with a 
desire for  revenge2 and it has often   
been said that revenge is sweet4 ,this  
is  confirmed by the many sacrifices    
made merely for the sake of enjoying    
revenge1 without any intention of making
 good the injury that one has  suffered4
 ,the centaur ,nessus utilised his last 
moments in devising an  extremely clever
 revenge1 and the fact that it was      
certain to be  effective sweetened an   
otherwise bitter death4 ,the same idea1 
presented  in a more modern and         
plausible way1 occurs in ,bertolotti's  
novel1 ,le  due ,sorelle which has been 
translated into three languages4 ,walter
  ,scott expresses mankind's proneness  
to revenge in words as powerful as  they
 are true3 ,vengeance is the sweetest   
morsel to the mouth that ever  was      
cooked in hell6 ,i shall now attempt a  

psychological explanation of  revenge4  
,all the suffering that nature1 chance1 
or fate have assigned to  us does not1  
ceteris paribus1 pain us so much as     
suffering which is  brought upon us by  
the arbitrary will of another4 ,this is 
due to the  fact that we regard nature  
and fate as the original rulers of the  
world2  we look upon what befalls us1   
through them1 as something that might   
have  befallen every one else4          
,therefore in a case of suffering which 
arises  from this source1 we bemoan the 
fate of mankind in general more than we 
do our own4 ,on the other hand1         
suffering inflicted on us through the   
arbitrary will of another is a          
peculiarly bitter addition to the pain  
or  injury caused1 as it involves the   
consciousness of another's  superiority1
 whether it be in strength or cunning1  
as opposed to our own  weakness4 ,if    
compensation is possible1 it wipes out  
the injury2 but that  bitter addition1  
,i must submit to that from you1 which  

often hurts  more than the injury       
itself1 is only to be neutralised by    
vengeance4 ,for  by injuring the man who
 has injured us1 whether it be by force 
or  cunning1 we show our superiority1   
and thereby annul the proof of his4     
,this gives that satisfaction to the    
mind for which it has been  thirsting4  
,accordingly1 where there is much pride 
or vanity there will  be a great desire 
for revenge4 ,but as the fulfilment of  
every wish  proves to be more or less a 
delusion1 so is also the wish for       
revenge4  ,the expected enjoyment is    
mostly embittered by pity2 nay1         
gratified  revenge will often lacerate  
the heart and torment the mind1 for the 
motive which prompts the feeling of it  
is no longer active1 and what is  left  
is the testimony of our wickedness4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,the pain of an ungratified desire is   
small compared with that of  repentance2
 for the former has to face the         
immeasurable1 open future2  the latter  

the past1 which is closed irrevocably4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,money is human happiness in abstracto2 
so that a man who is no longer  capable 
of enjoying it in concrete gives up his 
whole heart to it4           99       99
       99       99       99             
,moroseness and melancholy are very     
opposite in nature2 and melancholy is   
more nearly related to happiness than to
 moroseness4 ,melancholy  attracts2     
moroseness repels4 ,hypochondria not    
only makes us unreasonably  cross and   
angry over things concerning the        
present2 not only fills us  with        
groundless fears of imaginative mishaps 
for the future2 but also  causes us to  
unjustly reproach ourselves concerning  
our actions in the  past4               
,hypochondria causes a man to be always 
searching for and racking his  brain    
about things that either irritate or    
torment him4 ,the cause of it  is an    
internal morbid depression1 combined    
often with an inward  restlessness which

 is temperamental2 when both are        
developed to their  utmost1 suicide is  
the result4           99       99       
99       99       99    ,what makes a   
man hard-hearted is this1 that each man 
has1 or fancies he  has1 sufficient in  
his own troubles to bear4 ,this is why  
people placed  in happier circumstances 
than they have been used to are         
sympathetic and  charitable4 ,but people
 who have always been placed in happy   
circumstances are often the reverse2    
they have become so estranged to        
suffering that they have no longer any  
sympathy with it2 and hence it  happens 
that the poor sometimes show themselves 
more benevolent than the  rich4    ,on  
the other hand1 what makes a man so very
 curious1 as may be seen in  the way he 
will spy into other people's affairs1 is
 boredom1 a condition  which is         
diametrically opposed to                
suffering2--though envy also often      
helps in creating curiosity4            
99       99       99       99       99  

,at times1 it seems as though we wish   
for something1 and at the same time  do 
not wish for it1 so that we are at once 
both pleased and troubled  about it4    
,for instance1 if we have to undergo    
some decisive test in some  affair or   
other1 in which to come off victorious  
is of great importance  to us2 we both  
wish that the time to be tested were    
here1 and yet dread  the idea of its    
coming4 ,if it happens that the time1   
for once in a way1  is postponed1 we are
 both pleased and sorry1 for although   
the  postponement was unexpected1 it1   
however1 gives us momentary relief4 ,we 
have the same kind of feeling when we   
expect an important letter  containing  
some decision of moment1 and it fails to
 come4    ,in cases like these we are   
really controlled by two different      
motives2  the stronger but more remote  
being the desire to stand the test1 and 
to  have the decision given in our      
favour2 the weaker1 which is closer at  
hand1 the desire to be left in peace and

 undisturbed for the present1  and      
consequently in further enjoyment of the
 advantage that hoping on in            
uncertainty has over what might possibly
 be an unhappy issue4  ,consequently1 in
 this case the same happens to our moral
 vision as to  our physical1 when a     
smaller object near at hand conceals    
from view a  bigger object some distance
 away4           99       99       99   
99       99    ,the course and affairs  
of our individual life1 in view of their
 true  meaning and connection1 are like 
a piece of crude work in mosaic4 ,so    
long as one stands close in front of it1
 one cannot correctly see the  objects  
presented1 or perceive their importance 
and beauty2 it is only  by standing some
 distance away that both come into view4
 ,and in the same  way one often        
understands the true connection of      
important events in  one's own life1 not
 while they are happening1 or even      
immediately after  they have happened1  
but only a long time afterwards4    ,is 

this so1 because we require the         
magnifying power of imagination1 or     
because a general view can only be got  
by looking from a distance8 or  because 
one's emotions would otherwise carry one
 away8 or because it is  only the school
 of experience that ripens our judgment8
 ,perhaps all  these combined4 ,but it  
is certain that it is only after many   
years that  we see the actions of       
others1 and sometimes even our own1 in  
their true  light4 ,and as it is in     
one's own life1 so it is in history4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,why is it1 in spite of all the mirrors 
in existence1 no man really knows  what 
he looks like1 and1 therefore1 cannot   
picture in his mind his own  person as  
he pictures that of an acquaintance8    
,this is a difficulty  which is thwarted
 at the very outset by gnothi           
sauton--know thyself4    ,this is       
undoubtedly partly due to the fact that 
a man can only see  himself in the glass
 by looking straight towards it and     

remaining quite  still2 whereby the play
 of the eye1 which is so important1 and 
the real  characteristic of the face is1
 to a great extent1 lost4 ,but          
co-operating  with this physical        
impossibility1 there appears to be an   
ethical  impossibility analogous to it4 
,a man cannot regard the reflection of  
his  own face in the glass as if it were
 the face of some one else--which  is   
the condition of his seeing himself     
objectively4 ,this objective  view rests
 with a profound feeling on the egoist's
 part1 as a moral  being1 that what he  
is looking at is not himself2 which is  
requisite  for his perceiving all his   
defects as they really are from a purely
  objective point of view2 and not      
until1 then can he see his face         
reflected as it really and truly is4    
,instead of that1 when a man sees  his  
own person in the glass the egoistic    
side of him always whispers1  ,it is not
 somebody else1 but ,i myself1 which has
 the effect of a noli  me tangere1 and  

prevents his taking a purely objective  
view4 ,without  the leaven of a grain of
 malice1 it does not seem possible to   
look at  oneself objectively4           
99       99       99       99       99  
,no one knows what capacities he        
possesses for suffering and doing until 
an opportunity occurs to bring them into
 play2 any more than he imagines  when  
looking into a perfectly smooth pond    
with a mirror-like surface1  that it can
 tumble and toss and rush from rock to  
rock1 or leap as high  into the air as a
 fountain2--any more than in ice-cold   
water he suspects  latent warmth4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,that line of ,ovid's1      ,pronaque   
cum spectent animalia cetera terram1    
is only applicable in its true physical 
sense to animals2 but in a  figurative  
and spiritual sense1 unfortunately1 to  
the great majority of  men too4 ,their  
thoughts and aspirations are entirely   
devoted to physical  enjoyment and      
physical welfare1 or to various personal

 interests which  receive their         
importance from their relation to the   
former2 but they  have no interests     
beyond these4 ,this is not only shown in
 their way of  living and speaking1 but 
also in their look1 the expression of   
their  physiognomy1 their gait and      
gesticulations2 everything about them   
proclaims in terram prona6 ,consequently
 it is not to them1 but only to  those  
nobler and more highly endowed natures1 
those men who really think  and observe 
things round them1 and are the          
exceptions in the human race1  that the 
following lines are applicable3      ,os
 homini sublime dedit coelumque tueri   
,jussitt et erectos ad sidera tollere   
vultus4           99       99       99  
99       99    ,why is common an        
expression of contempt8 ,and why are    
uncommon1  extraordinary1 distinguished1
 expressions of approbation8 ,why is    
everything that is common contemptible8 
,common1 in its original sense1 means   
that which is peculiar and common  to   

the whole species1 that is to say that  
which is innate in the  species4        
,accordingly1 a man who has no more     
qualities than those of the  human      
species in general is a common man      
,ordinary man is a much  milder         
expression1 and is used more in         
reference to what is  intellectual1     
while common is used more in a moral    
sense4    ,what value can a being have  
that is nothing more than like millions 
of  its kind8 ,millions8 ,nay1 an       
infinitude1 an endless number of beings1
  which ,nature in secula seculorum     
unceasingly sends bubbling forth from   
her inexhaustible source2 as generous   
with them as the smith with the  dross  
that flies round his anvil4    ,so it is
 evidently only right that a being which
 has no other qualities  than those of  
the species1 should make no claim to any
 other existence  than that confined to 
and conditioned by the species4    ,i   
have already several times explained#ad 
that whilst animals have only  the      

generic character1 it falls to man's    
share alone to have an  individual      
character4 ,nevertheless1 in most men   
there is in reality very  little        
individual character2 and they may be   
almost all classified4 ,ce  sont des    
espces4 ,their desires and thoughts1    
like their faces1 are  those of the     
whole species--at any rate1 those of the
 class of men to  which they belong1 and
 they are therefore of a trivial1 common
 nature1  and exist in thousands4       
,moreover1 as a rule one can tell pretty
 exactly  beforehand what they will say 
and do4 ,they have no individual stamp3 
they are like manufactured goods4 ,if1  
then1 their nature is absorbed in  that 
of the species1 must not their existence
 be too8 ,the curse of  vulgarity       
reduces man to the level of animals1 for
 his nature and  existence are merged in
 that of the species only4 ,it is taken 
for  granted that anything that is high1
 great1 or noble by its very nature     
stands isolated in a world where no     

better expression can be found to       
signify what is base and paltry than the
 term which ,i have mentioned as  being 
generally used--namely1 common4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,according as our intellectual energy is
 strained or relaxed will life  appear  
to us either so short1 petty1 and       
fleeting1 that nothing can  happen of   
sufficient importance to affect our     
feelings2 nothing is of  any importance 
to us--be it pleasure1 riches1 or even  
fame1 and however  much we may have     
failed1 we cannot have lost much2 or    
vice vers1 life  will appear so long1 so
 important1 so all in all1 so grave1 and
 so  difficult that we throw ourselves  
into it with our whole soul1 so that  we
 may get a share of its possessions1    
make ourselves sure of its  prizes1 and 
carry out our plans4 ,the latter is the 
immanent view of  life2 it is what      
,gracian means by his expression1 tomar 
muy de veras el  vivir 7life is to be   
taken seriously72 while for the former1 

the  transcendental view1 ,ovid's non   
est tanti is a good expression2         
,plato's a still better1      1         
7nihil1 in rebus humanis1 magno studio  
dignum est74    ,the former state of    
mind is the result of the intellect     
having gained  ascendency over          
consciousness1 where1 freed from the    
mere service of the  will1 it grasps the
 phenomena of life objectively1 and so  
cannot fail to  see clearly the         
emptiness and futility of it4 ,on the   
other hand1 it is  the will that rules  
in the other condition of mind1 and it  
is only  there to lighten the way to the
 object of its desires4 ,a man is great 
or  small according to the predominance 
of one or the other of these views  of  
life4           99       99       99    
99       99    ,it is quite certain that
 many a man owes his life's happiness   
solely to  the circumstance that he     
possesses a pleasant smile1 and so wins 
the  hearts of others4 ,however1 these  
hearts would do better to take care to  

remember what ,hamlet put down in his   
tablets--that one may smile1 and  smile1
 and be a villain4           99       99
       99       99       99    ,people  
of great and brilliant capacities think 
little of admitting or  exposing their  
faults and weaknesses4 ,they regard them
 as something for  which they have paid1
 and even are of the opinion that these 
weaknesses1  instead of being a disgrace
 to them1 do them honour4 ,this is      
especially  the case when they are      
errors that are inseparable from their  
brilliant  capacities--conditiones sine 
quibus non1 or1 as ,george ,sand        
expressed  it1 chacun a les dfauts de   
ses vertus4    ,on the contrary1 there  
are people of good character and        
irreproachable  minds1 who1 rather than 
admit their few little weaknesses1      
carefully  conceal them1 and are very   
sensitive if any reference is made to   
them2  and this just because their whole
 merit consists in the absence of       
errors and defects2 and hence when these

 errors come to light they are          
immediately held in less esteem4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,modesty1 in people of moderate ability1
 is merely honesty1 but in people  of   
great talent it is hypocrisy4 ,hence it 
is just as becoming in the  latter to   
openly admit the regard they have for   
themselves1 and not to  conceal the fact
 that they are conscious of possessing  
exceptional  capabilities1 as it is in  
the former to be modest4 ,valerius      
,maximus  gives some very good examples 
of this in his chapter de fiducia sui4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,man even surpasses all the lower order 
of animals in his capacity for  being   
trained4 ,mohammedans are trained to    
pray five times a day with  their faces 
turned towards ,mecca2 and they do it   
regularly4 ,christians  are trained to  
make the sign of the ,cross on certain  
occasions1 and to  bow1 and so forth2 so
 that religion on the whole is a real   
masterpiece  of training--that is to    

say1 it trains people what they are to  
think2  and the training1 as is well    
known1 cannot begin too early4 ,there is
 no  absurdity1 however palpable it may 
be1 which may not be fixed in the  minds
 of all men1 if it is inculcated before 
they are six years old by  continual and
 earnest repetition4 ,for it is the same
 with men as with  animals1 to train    
them with perfect success one must begin
 when they are  very young4    ,noblemen
 are trained to regard nothing more     
sacred than their word of  honour1 to   
believe earnestly1 rigidly1 and firmly  
in the inane code of  knight-errantry1  
and if necessary to seal their belief by
 death1 and to  look upon a king as a   
being of a higher order4 ,politeness and
  compliments1 and particularly our     
courteous attitude towards ladies1 are  
the result of training2 and so is our   
esteem for birth1 position1 and  title4 
,and so is our displeasure at certain   
expressions directed against  us1 our   
displeasure being proportionate to the  

expression used4 ,the  ,englishman has  
been trained to consider his being      
called no gentleman a  crime worthy of  
death--a liar1 a still greater crime2   
and so1 the  ,frenchman1 if he is called
 a coward2 a ,german1 if he is called a 
stupid4  ,many people are trained to be 
honest in some particular direction1    
whilst in everything else they exhibit  
very little honesty2 so that many  a man
 will not steal money1 but he will steal
 everything that will  afford him       
enjoyment in an indirect way4 ,many a   
shopkeeper will deceive  without        
scruple1 but he will on no condition    
whatever steal4           99       99   
99       99       99    ,the doctor sees
 mankind in all its weakness2 the lawyer
 in all its  wickedness2 the theologian 
in all its stupidity4           99      
99       99       99       99           
,opinion obeys the same law as the swing
 of the pendulum3 if it goes  beyond the
 centre of gravity on one side1 it must 
go as far beyond on  the other4 ,it is  

only after a time that it finds the true
 point of rest  and remains stationary4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,distance in space decreases the size of
 things1 for it contracts them  and so  
makes their defects and deficiencies    
disappear4 ,this is why  everything     
looks so much finer in a contracting    
mirror or in a camera  obscura than it  
is in reality2 and the past is affected 
in the same way  in the course of time4 
,the scenes and events that happened    
long ago1 as  well as the persons who   
took part in them1 become a delight to  
the  memory1 which ignores everything   
that is immaterial and disagreeable4    
,the present possesses no such          
advantage2 it always seems to be        
defective4 ,and in space1 small objects 
near at hand appear to be big1  and if  
they are very near1 they cover the whole
 of our field of vision2  but as soon as
 we stand some little distance away they
 become minute and  finally invisible4  
,and so it is with time3 the little     

affairs and  misfortunes of everyday    
life excite in us emotion1 anxiety1     
vexation1  passion1 for so long as they 
are quite near us1 they appear big1     
important1 and considerable2 but as soon
 as the inexhaustible stream of  time   
has carried them into the distance they 
become unimportant2 they  are not worth 
remembering and are soon forgotten1     
because their  importance merely        
consisted in being near4           99   
99       99       99       99    ,it is 
only now and then that a man learns     
something2 but he forgets the  whole day
 long4    ,our memory is like a sieve1  
that with time and use holds less and   
less2  in so far1 namely1 as the older  
we get1 the quicker anything we have    
entrusted to our memory slips through   
it1 while anything that was fixed       
firmly in it1 when we were young1       
remains4 ,this is why an old man's      
recollections are the clearer the       
further they go back1 and the less      
clear the nearer they approach the      

present2 so that his memory1 like his   
eyes1 becomes long-sighted 774    ,that 
sometimes1 and apparently without any   
reason1 long-forgotten scenes  suddenly 
come into the memory1 is1 in many cases1
 due to the recurrence  of a scarcely   
perceptible odour1 of which we were     
conscious when those  scenes actually   
took place2 for it is well known that   
odours more easily  than anything else  
awaken memories1 and that1 in general1  
something of  an extremely trifling     
nature is all that is necessary to call 
up a  nexus idearum4    ,and by the way1
 ,i may say that the sense of sight has 
to do with the  understanding1#ae the   
sense of hearing with reason1#af and the
 sense  of smell with memory1 as we see 
in the present case4 ,touch and taste   
are  something real1 and dependent on   
contact2 they have no ideal side4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,memory has also this peculiarity       
attached to it1 that a slight state of  
intoxication very often enhances the    

remembrance of past times and  scenes1  
whereby all the circumstances connected 
with them are recalled  more distinctly 
than they could be in a state of        
sobriety2 on the other  hand1 the       
recollection of what one said or did    
while in a state of  intoxication is    
less clear than usual1 nay1 one does not
 recollect at  all if one has been very 
drunk4 ,therefore1 intoxication enhances
 one's  recollection of the past1 while1
 on the other hand1 one remembers little
  of the present1 while in that state4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,that arithmetic is the basest of all   
mental activities is proved by the  fact
 that it is the only one that can be    
accomplished by means of a  machine4    
,take1 for instance1 the reckoning      
machines that are so commonly  used in  
,england at the present time1 and solely
 for the sake of  convenience4 ,but all 
analysis finitorum et infinitorum is    
fundamentally based on calculation4     
,therefore we may gauge the profound    

sense of the mathematician1 of whom     
,lichtenberg has made fun1 in that  he  
says3 ,these so-called professors of    
mathematics have taken advantage  of the
 ingenuousness of other people1 have    
attained the credit of  possessing      
profound sense1 which strongly resembles
 the theologians'  profound sense of    
their own holiness4           99        
99       99       99       99    ,as a  
rule1 people of very great capacities   
will get on better with a man  of       
extremely limited intelligence than with
 a man of ordinary  intelligence2 and it
 is for the same reason that the despot 
and the  plebeians1 the grandparents and
 the grandchildren1 are natural allies4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,i am not surprised that people are     
bored when they are alone2 they  cannot 
laugh when they are alone1 for such a   
thing seems foolish to  them4 ,is       
laughter1 then1 to be regarded as merely
 a signal for others1 a  mere sign1 like
 a word8 ,it is a want of imagination   

and dulness of mind  generally 7   71 as
 ,theophrastus puts it1 that  prevents  
people from laughing when they are      
alone4 ,the lower animals  neither laugh
 when they are alone nor in company4    
,nyson1 the misanthropist1 was surprised
 as he was laughing to himself by  one  
of these people1 who asked him why he   
laughed when he was alone4  ,that is    
just why ,i was laughing1 was the       
answer4           99       99       99  
99       99    ,people who do not go to 
the theatre are like those who make     
their toilet  without a                 
looking-glass2--but it is still worse to
 come to a decision  without seeking the
 advice of a friend4 ,for a man may have
 the most  correct and excellent        
judgment in everything else but in his  
own  affairs2 because here the will at  
once deranges the intellect4 ,therefore 
a man should seek counsel4 ,a doctor can
 cure every one but himself2 this  is   
why he calls in a colleague when he is  
ill4           99       99       99     

99       99    ,the natural             
gesticulation of everyday life1 such as 
accompanies any kind  of lively         
conversation1 is a language of its own1 
and1 moreover1 is much  more universal  
than the language of words2 so far as it
 is independent  of words1 and the same 
in all nations2 although each nation    
makes use of  gesticulation in          
proportion to its vivacity1 and in      
individual nations1  the ,italian1 for  
instance1 it is supplemented by some few
 gesticulations  which are merely       
conventional1 and have therefore only   
local value4    ,its universal use is   
analogous to logic and grammar1 since it
 expresses  the form and not the matter 
of conversation4 ,however1 it is to be  
distinguished from them since it has not
 only an intellectual relation  but also
 a moral--that is1 it defines the       
movements of the will4 ,and so  it      
accompanies conversation1 just as a     
correctly progressive bass  accompanies 
a melody1 and serves in the same way to 

enhance the effect4  ,the most          
interesting fact about gesticulation is 
that as soon as  conversation assumes   
the same form there is a repetition of  
the same  gesture4 ,this is the case1   
however varied the matter1 that is to   
say1  the subject-matter1 may be4 ,so   
that ,i am able to understand quite well
  the general nature of a               
conversation--in other words1 the mere  
form and  type of it1 while looking out 
of a window--without hearing a word     
spoken4 ,it is unmistakably evident that
 the speaker is arguing1  advancing his 
reasons1 then modifying them1 then      
urging them1 and  drawing his conclusion
 in triumph2 or it may be he is relating
 some  wrong that he has suffered1      
plainly depicting in strong and         
condemnatory  language the stupidity and
 stubbornness of his opponents2 or he is
  speaking of the splendid plan he has  
thought out and put in execution1       
explaining how it became a success1 or  
perhaps failed because fate was         

unfavourable2 or perhaps he is          
confessing that he was powerless to act 
in the matter in question2 or recounting
 that he noticed and saw  through1 in   
good time1 the evil schemes that had    
been organised against  him1 and by     
asserting his rights or using force     
frustrated them and  punished their     
author2 and a hundred other things of a 
similar kind4 ,but  what gesticulation  
alone really conveys to me is the       
essential  matter--be it of a moral or  
intellectual nature--of the whole       
conversation in abstracto4 ,that is to  
say the quintessence1 the true          
substance of the conversation1 remains  
identical whatever has brought  about   
the conversation1 and consequently      
whatever the subject-matter of  it may  
be4    ,the most interesting and amusing
 part of the matter1 as has been said1  
is the complete identity of the gestures
 for denoting the same kind of          
circumstances1 even if they are used by 
most diverse people2 just as the  words 

of a language are alike for every one   
and liable to such  modifications as are
 brought about by a slight difference in
 accent or  education4 ,and yet these   
standing forms of gesticulation which   
are  universally observed are certainly 
the outcome of no convention2 they  are 
natural and original1 a true language of
 nature1 which may have been            
strengthened by imitation and custom4   
,it is incumbent on an actor1 as is     
well known1 and on a public speaker1 to 
a less extent1 to make a careful  study 
of gesture--a study which must          
principally consist in the  observation 
and imitation of others1 for the matter 
cannot very well be  based on abstract  
rules2 with the exception of some quite 
general  leading principles--as1 for    
instance1 that the gesture must not     
follow  the word1 but rather immediately
 precede it1 in order to announce it and
  thereby rouse attention4    ,the      
,english have a peculiar contempt for   
gesticulation1 and regard it as         

something undignified and common2 this  
seems to me to be only one of  those    
silly prejudices of ,english            
fastidiousness4 ,for it is a language   
which nature has given to every one and 
which every one understands2  therefore 
to abolish and forbid it for no other   
reason than to gratify  that so much    
extolled1 gentlemanly feeling1 is a very
 dubious thing to  do4           99     
99       99       99       99    ,the   
state of human happiness1 for the most  
part1 is like certain groups  of trees1 
which seen from a distance look         
wonderfully fine2 but if we go  up to   
them and among them1 their beauty       
disappears2 we do not know  wherein it  
lay1 for it is only trees that surround 
us4 ,and so it happens  that we often   
envy the position of others4            
,,footnotes3    #ad ,grundpr4 der       
,ethik1 p4 #dh2 ,welt als ,wille und    
,vorstellung1 vol4  i4 p4 #cch4    #ae  
,vierfache ,wurzel1  #ba4    #af        
,pererga1 vol4 ii4  #caa4               

,,metaphysics ,,of ,,love4      ,we are 
accustomed to see poets principally     
occupied with describing the  love of   
the sexes4 ,this1 as a rule1 is the     
leading idea of every  dramatic work1 be
 it tragic or comic1 romantic or        
classic1 ,indian or  ,european4 ,it in  
no less degree constitutes the greater  
part of both  lyric and epic poetry1    
especially if in these we include the   
host of  romances which have been       
produced every year for centuries in    
every  civilised country in ,europe as  
regularly as the fruits of the earth4   
,all  these works are nothing more than 
many-sided1 short1 or long  descriptions
 of the passion in question4 ,moreover1 
the most successful  delineations of    
love1 such1 for example1 as ,romeo and  
,juliet1 ,la  ,nouvelle ,hloise1 and    
,werther1 have attained immortal fame4  
,rochefoucauld says that love may be    
compared to a ghost since it is         
something we talk about but have never  
seen1 and ,lichtenberg1 in his  essay   

,ueber die ,macht der ,liebe1 disputes  
and denies its reality and              
naturalness--but both are in the wrong4 
,for if it were foreign to and          
contradicted human nature--in other     
words1 if it were merely an  imaginary  
caricature1 it would not have been      
depicted with such zeal by  the poets of
 all ages1 or accepted by mankind with  
an unaltered  interest2 for anything    
artistically beautiful cannot exist     
without  truth4      ,rien n'est beau   
que le vrai2 le vrai seul est           
aimable4--,,boil4    ,experience1       
although not that of everyday1 verifies 
that that which as a  rule begins only  
as a strong and yet controllable        
inclination1 may  develop1 under certain
 conditions1 into a passion1 the ardour 
of which  surpasses that of every other4
 ,it will ignore all considerations1    
overcome all kinds of obstacles with    
incredible strength and  persistence4 ,a
 man1 in order to have his love         
gratified1 will  unhesitatingly risk his

 life2 in fact1 if his love is          
absolutely  rejected1 he will sacrifice 
his life into the bargain4 ,the         
,werthers and  ,jacopo ,ortis do not    
only exist in romances2 ,europe produces
 every year  at least half-a-dozen like 
them3 sed ignotis perierunt mortibus    
illi3  for their sufferings are         
chronicled by the writer of official    
registers  or by the reporters of       
newspapers4 ,indeed1 readers of the     
police news in  ,english and ,french    
newspapers will confirm what ,i have    
said4    ,love drives a still greater   
number of people into the lunatic       
asylum4  ,there is a case of some sort  
every year of two lovers committing     
suicide  together because material      
circumstances happen to be unfavourable 
to  their union4 ,by the way1 ,i cannot 
understand how it is that such people1  
who are confident of each other's love1 
and expect to find their  greatest      
happiness in the enjoyment of it1 do not
 avoid taking extreme  steps1 and prefer

 suffering every discomfort to          
sacrificing with their  lives a         
happiness which is greater than any     
other they can conceive4 ,as  far as    
lesser phases and passages of love are  
concerned1 all of us have  them daily   
before our eyes1 and1 if we are not old1
 the most of us in  our hearts4         
,after what has been brought to mind1   
one cannot doubt either the reality  or 
importance of love4 ,instead1 therefore1
 of wondering why a  philosopher for    
once in a way writes on this subject1   
which has been  constantly the theme of 
poets1 rather should one be surprised   
that love1  which always plays such an  
important rle in a man's life1 has      
scarcely ever been considered at all by 
philosophers1 and that it still  stands 
as material for them to make use of4    
,plato has devoted himself more than any
 one else to the subject of love1       
especially in the ,symposium and the    
,phaedrus2 what he has said about  it1  
however1 comes within the sphere of     

myth1 fable1 and raillery1 and  only    
applies for the most part to the love of
 a ,greek youth4 ,the little  that      
,rousseau says in his ,discours sur     
l'ingalit is neither true nor           
satisfactory4 ,kant's disquisition on   
love in the third part of his  treatise1
 ,ueber das ,gefhl des ,schnen und      
,erhabenen1 is very  superficial2 it    
shows that he has not thoroughly gone   
into the subject1  and therefore it is  
somewhat untrue4 ,finally1 ,platner's   
treatment of it  in his ,anthropology   
will be found by every one to be insipid
 and  shallow4    ,to amuse the reader1 
on the other hand1 ,spinoza's definition
 deserves to  be quoted because of its  
exuberant navet3 ,amor est titillatio1  
concomitante idea causae externae 7,eth4
 iv41 prop4 #dd74 ,it is not my         
intention to be either influenced or to 
contradict what has been written  by my 
predecessors2 the subject has forced    
itself upon me objectively1  and has of 
itself become inseparable from my       

consideration of the world4  ,moreover1 
,i shall expect least approval from     
those people who are for  the moment    
enchained by this passion1 and in       
consequence try to express  their       
exuberant feelings in the most sublime  
and ethereal images4 ,my  view will seem
 to them too physical1 too material1    
however metaphysical1  nay1 transcendent
 it is fundamentally4    ,first of all  
let them take into consideration that   
the creature whom  they are idealising  
to-day in madrigals and sonnets would   
have been  ignored almost entirely by   
them if she had been born eighteen years
  previously4    ,every kind of love1   
however ethereal it may seem to be1     
springs entirely  from the instinct of  
sex2 indeed1 it is absolutely this      
instinct1 only  in a more definite1     
specialised1 and perhaps1 strictly      
speaking1 more  individualised form4    
,if1 bearing this in mind1 one considers
 the  important rle which love plays in 
all its phases and degrees1 not  only in

 dramas and novels1 but also in the real
 world1 where next to  one's love of    
life it shows itself as the strongest   
and most active of  all motives2 if one 
considers that it constantly occupies   
half the  capacities and thoughts of the
 younger part of humanity1 and is the   
final goal of almost every human effort2
 that it influences adversely  the most 
important affairs2 that it hourly       
disturbs the most earnest  occupations2 
that it sometimes deranges even the     
greatest intellects for  a time2 that it
 is not afraid of interrupting the      
transactions of  statesmen or the       
investigations of men of learning2 that 
it knows how to  leave its love-letters 
and locks of hair in ministerial        
portfolios and  philosophical           
manuscripts2 that it knows equally well 
how to plan the  most complicated and   
wicked affairs1 to dissolve the most    
important  relations1 to break the      
strongest ties2 that life1 health1      
riches1 rank1  and happiness are        

sometimes sacrificed for its sake2 that 
it makes the  otherwise honest1         
perfidious1 and a man who has been      
hitherto faithful a  betrayer1 and1     
altogether1 appears as a hostile demon  
whose object is to  overthrow1 confuse1 
and upset everything it comes across3 if
 all this is  taken into consideration  
one will have reason to ask--,why is    
there all  this noise8 ,why all this    
crowding1 blustering1 anguish1 and want8
 ,why  should such a trifle play so     
important a part and create disturbance 
and  confusion in the well-regulated    
life of mankind8 ,but to the earnest    
investigator the spirit of truth        
gradually unfolds the answer3 it is not 
a trifle one is dealing with2 the       
importance of love is absolutely in     
keeping with the seriousness and zeal   
with which it is prosecuted4 ,the       
ultimate aim of all love-affairs1       
whether they be of a tragic or comic    
nature1 is really more important than   
all other aims in human life1 and       

therefore is perfectly deserving of that
 profound seriousness with which  it is 
pursued4    ,as a matter of fact1 love  
determines nothing less than the        
establishment of the next generation4   
,the existence and nature of the        
dramatis personae who come on to the    
scene when we have made our exit  have  
been determined by some frivolous       
love-affair4 ,as the being1 the         
existentia of these future people is    
conditioned by our instinct of  sex in  
general1 so is the nature1 the essentia1
 of these same people  conditioned by   
the selection that the individual makes 
for his  satisfaction1 that is to say1  
by love1 and is thereby in every respect
  irrevocably established4 ,this is the 
key of the problem4 ,in applying it1  we
 shall understand it more fully if we   
analyse the various degrees of  love1   
from the most fleeting sensation to the 
most ardent passion2 we  shall then see 
that the difference arises from the     
degree of  individualisation of the     

choice4 ,all the love-affairs of the    
present  generation taken altogether are
 accordingly the meditatio compositionis
  generationis futurae1 e qua iterum    
pendent innumerae generationes of       
mankind4 ,love is of such high import1  
because it has nothing to do with  the  
weal or woe of the present individual1  
as every other matter has2 it  has to   
secure the existence and special nature 
of the human race in  future times2     
hence the will of the individual appears
 in a higher  aspect as the will of the 
species2 and this it is that gives a    
pathetic  and sublime import to         
love-affairs1 and makes their raptures  
and  troubles transcendent1 emotions    
which poets for centuries have not tired
  of depicting in a variety of ways4    
,there is no subject that can rouse  the
 same interest as love1 since it        
concerns both the weal and woe of  the  
species1 and is related to every other  
which only concerns the  welfare of the 
individual as body to surface4    ,this 

is why it is so difficult to make a     
drama interesting if it  possesses no   
love motive2 on the other hand1 the     
subject is never  exhausted1 although it
 is constantly being utilised4    ,what 
manifests itself in the individual      
consciousness as instinct of sex  in    
general1 without being concentrated on  
any particular individual1 is  very     
plainly in itself1 in its generalised   
form1 the will to live4 ,on  the other  
hand1 that which appears as instinct of 
sex directed to a  certain individual1  
is in itself the will to live as a      
definitely  determined individual4 ,in  
this case the instinct of sex very      
cleverly  wears the mask of objective   
admiration1 although in itself it is a  
subjective necessity1 and is1 thereby1  
deceptive4 ,nature needs these          
stratagems in order to accomplish her   
ends4 ,the purpose of every man in      
love1 however objective and sublime his 
admiration may appear to be1 is  to     
beget a being of a definite nature1 and 

that this is so1 is verified  by the    
fact that it is not mutual love but     
possession that is the  essential4      
,without possession it is no consolation
 to a man to know that  his love is     
requited4 ,in fact1 many a man has shot 
himself on finding  himself in such a   
position4 ,on the other hand1 take a man
 who is very  much in love2 if he cannot
 have his love returned he is content   
simply  with possession4 ,compulsory    
marriages and cases of seduction        
corroborate  this1 for a man whose love 
is not returned frequently finds        
consolation  in giving handsome presents
 to a woman1 in spite of her dislike1 or
  making other sacrifices1 so that he   
may buy her favour4    ,the real aim of 
the whole of love's romance1 although   
the persons  concerned are unconscious  
of the fact1 is that a particular being 
may  come into the world2 and the way   
and manner in which it is accomplished  
is a secondary consideration4 ,however  
much those of lofty sentiments1  and    

especially of those in love1 may refute 
the gross realism of my  argument1 they 
are nevertheless in the wrong4 ,for is  
not the aim of  definitely determining  
the individualities of the next         
generation a much  higher and nobler aim
 than that other1 with its exuberant    
sensations and  transcendental          
soap-bubbles8 ,among all earthly aims is
 there one that is  either more         
important or greater8 ,it alone is in   
keeping with that  deep-rooted feeling  
inseparable from passionate love1 with  
that  earnestness with which it appears1
 and the importance which it attaches   
to the trifles that come within its     
sphere4 ,it is only in so far as we     
regard this end as the real one that the
 difficulties encountered1 the  endless 
troubles and vexations endured1 in order
 to attain the object we  love1 appear  
to be in keeping with the matter4 ,for  
it is the future  generation in its     
entire individual determination which   
forces itself  into existence through   

the medium of all this strife and       
trouble4  ,indeed1 the future generation
 itself is already stirring in the      
careful1  definite1 and apparently      
capricious selection for the            
satisfaction of  the instinct of sex    
which we call love4 ,that growing       
affection of two  lovers for each other 
is in reality the will to live of the   
new being1  of which they shall become  
the parents2 indeed1 in the meeting of  
their  yearning glances the life of a   
new being is kindled1 and manifests     
itself as a well-organised individuality
 of the future4 ,the lovers have  a     
longing to be really united and made one
 being1 and to live as such  for the    
rest of their lives2 and this longing is
 fulfilled in the  children born to     
them1 in whom the qualities inherited   
from both1 but  combined and united in  
one being1 are perpetuated4 ,contrarily1
 if a man  and woman mutually1          
persistently1 and decidedly dislike each
 other1 it  indicates that they could   

only bring into the world a badly       
organised1  discordant1 and unhappy     
being4 ,therefore much must be attached 
to  ,calderon's words1 when he calls the
 horrible ,semiramis a daughter of the  
air1 yet introduces her as a daughter of
 seduction1 after which follows  the    
murder of the husband4    ,finally1 it  
is the will to live presenting itself in
 the whole species1  which so forcibly  
and exclusively attracts two individuals
 of different  sex towards each other4  
,this will anticipates in the being1 of 
which  they shall become the parents1 an
 objectivation of its nature            
corresponding to its aims4 ,this        
individual will inherit the father's    
will and character1 the mother's        
intellect1 and the constitution of      
both4 ,as a rule1 however1 an individual
 takes more after the father in  shape  
and the mother in stature1 corresponding
 to the law which applies  to the       
offspring of animals4444 ,it is         
impossible to explain the  individuality

 of each man1 which is quite exceptional
 and peculiar to  him alone2 and it is  
just as impossible to explain the       
passion of two  people for each other1  
for it is equally individual and        
uncommon in  character2 indeed1         
fundamentally both are one and the same4
 ,the former  is explicite what the     
latter was implicite4    ,we must       
consider as the origin of a new         
individual and true punctum  saliens of 
its life the moment when the parents    
begin to love each  other--to fancy each
 other1 as the ,english appropriately   
express it4  ,and1 as has been said1 in 
the meeting of their longing glances    
originates the first germ of a new      
being1 which1 indeed1 like all germs1   
is generally crushed out4 ,this new     
individual is to a certain extent a  new
 7,platonic7 ,idea2 now1 as all ,ideas  
strive with the greatest  vehemence to  
enter the phenomenal sphere1 and to do  
this1 ardently seize  upon the matter   
which the law of causality distributes  

among them all1  so this particular     
,idea of a human individuality struggles
 with the  greatest eagerness and       
vehemence for its realisation in the    
phenomenal4  ,it is precisely this      
vehement desire which is the passion of 
the future  parents for one another4    
,love has countless degrees1 and its two
  extremes may be indicated as   and 2  
nevertheless1 in essentials it is the   
same everywhere4    ,according to the   
degree1 on the other hand1 it will be   
the more powerful  the more             
individualised it is--that is to say1   
the more the loved  individual1 by      
virtue of all her qualities1 is         
exclusively fit to  satisfy the lover's 
desire and needs determined by her own  
individuality4 ,if we investigate       
further we shall understand more        
clearly what this involves4 ,all amorous
 feeling immediately and  essentially   
concentrates itself on health1 strength1
 and beauty1 and  consequently on youth2
 because the will above all wishes to   

exhibit the  specific character of the  
human species as the basis of all       
individuality4 ,the same applies pretty 
well to everyday courtship  7 74 ,with  
this are bound up more special          
requirements1  which we will consider   
individually later on1 and with which1  
if there  is any prospect of            
gratification1 there is an increase of  
passion4  ,intense love1 however1       
springs from a fitness of both          
individualities  for each other2 so that
 the will1 that is to say the father's  
character  and the mother's intellect   
combined1 exactly complete that         
individual  for which the will to live  
in general 7which exhibits itself in the
  whole species7 has a longing--a       
longing proportionate to this its       
greatness1 and therefore surpassing the 
measure of a mortal heart2 its  motives 
being in a like manner beyond the sphere
 of the individual  intellect4 ,this1   
then1 is the soul of a really great     
passion4 ,the more  perfectly two       

individuals are fitted for each other in
 the various  respects which we shall   
consider further on1 the stronger will  
be their  passion for each other4 ,as   
there are not two individuals exactly   
alike1  a particular kind of woman must 
perfectly correspond with a particular  
kind of man--always in view of the child
 that is to be born4 ,real1  passionate 
love is as rare as the meeting of two   
people exactly fitted  for each other4  
,by the way1 it is because there is a   
possibility of real  passionate love in 
us all that we understand why poets have
 depicted it  in their works4           
,because the kernel of passionate love  
turns on the anticipation of the  child 
to be born and its nature1 it is quite  
possible for friendship1  without any   
admixture of sexual love1 to exist      
between two young1  good-looking people 
of different sex1 if there is perfect   
fitness of  temperament and intellectual
 capacity4 ,in fact1 a certain aversion 
for  each other may exist also4 ,the    

reason of this is that a child begotten 
by them would physically or mentally    
have discordant qualities4 ,in  short1  
the child's existence and nature would  
not be in harmony with the  purposes of 
the will to live as it presents itself  
in the species4    ,in an opposite case1
 where there is no fitness of           
disposition1  character1 and mental     
capacity1 whereby aversion1 nay1 even   
enmity for  each other exists1 it is    
possible for love to spring up4 ,love of
 this  kind makes them blind to         
everything2 and if it leads to marriage 
it is a  very unhappy one4    ,and now  
let us more thoroughly investigate the  
matter4 ,egoism is a  quality so deeply 
rooted in every personality that it is  
on egotistical  ends only that one may  
safely rely in order to rouse the       
individual to  activity4    ,to be sure1
 the species has a prior1 nearer1 and   
greater claim on the  individual than   
the transient individuality itself2 and 
yet even when  the individual makes some

 sort of conscious sacrifice for the    
perpetuation and future of the species1 
the importance of the matter  will not  
be made sufficiently comprehensible to  
his intellect1 which is  mainly         
constituted to regard individual ends4  
,therefore ,nature attains her ends by  
implanting in the individual a  certain 
illusion by which something which is in 
reality advantageous to  the species    
alone seems to be advantageous to       
himself2 consequently he  serves the    
latter while he imagines he is serving  
himself4 ,in this  process he is carried
 away by a mere chimera1 which floats   
before him  and vanishes again          
immediately1 and as a motive takes the  
place of  reality4 ,this illusion is    
instinct4 ,in most instances instinct   
may be  regarded as the sense of the    
species which presents to the will      
whatever  is of service to the species4 
,but because the will has here become   
individual it must be deceived in such a
 manner for it to discern by the  sense 

of the individual what the sense of the 
species has presented to  it2 in other  
words1 imagine it is pursuing ends      
concerning the  individual1 when in     
reality it is pursuing merely general   
ends 7using  the word general in its    
strictest sense74    ,outward           
manifestation of instinct can be best   
observed in animals1 where  the part it 
plays is most significant2 but it is in 
ourselves alone that  we can get to know
 its internal process1 as of everything 
internal4 ,it  is true1 it is thought   
that man has scarcely any instinct at   
all1 or at  any rate has only sufficient
 instinct when he is born to seek and   
take  his mother's breast4 ,but as a    
matter of fact man has a very decided1  
clear1 and yet complicated              
instinct--namely1 for the selection1    
both  earnest and capricious1 of another
 individual1 to satisfy his instinct  of
 sex4 ,the beauty or ugliness of the    
other individual has nothing  whatever  
to do with this satisfaction in itself1 

that is in so far as it  is a matter of 
pleasure based upon a pressing desire of
 the individual4  ,the regard1 however1 
for this satisfaction1 which is so      
zealously  pursued1 as well as the      
careful selection it entails1 has       
obviously  nothing to do with the       
chooser himself1 although he fancies    
that it has4  ,its real aim is the child
 to be born1 in whom the type of the    
species is  to be preserved in as pure  
and perfect a form as possible4 ,for    
instance1  different phases of          
degeneration of the human form are the  
consequences  of a thousand physical    
accidents and moral delinquencies2 and  
yet the  genuine type of the human form 
is1 in all its parts1 always restored2  
further1 this is accomplished under the 
guidance of the sense of beauty1  which 
universally directs the instinct of sex1
 and without which the  satisfaction of 
the latter would deteriorate to a       
repulsive necessity4    ,accordingly1   
every one in the first place will       

infinitely prefer and  ardently desire  
those who are most beautiful--in other  
words1 those in  whom the character of  
the species is most purely defined2 and 
in the  second1 every one will desire in
 the other individual those perfections 
which he himself lacks1 and he will     
consider imperfections1 which are  the  
reverse of his own1 beautiful4 ,this is 
why little men prefer big  women1 and   
fair people like dark1 and so on4 ,the  
ecstasy with which a  man is filled at  
the sight of a beautiful woman1 making  
him imagine that  union with her will be
 the greatest happiness1 is simply the  
sense of  the species4 ,the preservation
 of the type of the species rests on    
this  distinct preference for beauty1   
and this is why beauty has such power4  
,we will later on more fully state the  
considerations which this  involves4 ,it
 is really instinct aiming at what is   
best in the species  which induces a man
 to choose a beautiful woman1 although  
the man  himself imagines that by so    

doing he is only seeking to increase his
 own  pleasure4 ,as a matter of fact1 we
 have here an instructive solution of   
the secret nature of all instinct which 
almost always1 as in this case1  prompts
 the individual to look after the       
welfare of the species4 ,the  care with 
which an insect selects a certain flower
 or fruit1 or piece of  flesh1 or the   
way in which the ichneumon seeks the    
larva of a strange  insect so that it   
may lay its eggs in that particular     
place only1 and  to secure which it     
fears neither labour nor danger1 is     
obviously very  analogous to the care   
with which a man chooses a woman of a   
definite  nature individually suited to 
him4 ,he strives for her with such      
ardour  that he frequently1 in order to 
attain his object1 will sacrifice his   
happiness in life1 in spite of all      
reason1 by a foolish marriage1 by  some 
love-affair which costs him his fortune1
 honour1 and life1 even by  committing  
crimes4 ,and all this in accordance with

 the will of nature  which is everywhere
 sovereign1 so that he may serve the    
species in the  most efficient manner1  
although he does so at the expense of   
the  individual4    ,instinct everywhere
 works as with the conception of an end1
 and yet it  is entirely without one4   
,nature implants instinct where the     
acting  individual is not capable of    
understanding the end1 or would be      
unwilling to pursue it4 ,consequently1  
as a rule1 it is only given  prominently
 to animals1 and in particular to those 
of the lowest order1  which have the    
least intelligence4 ,but it is only in  
such a case as the  one we are at       
present considering that it is also     
given to man1 who  naturally is capable 
of understanding the end1 but would not 
pursue it  with the necessary zeal--that
 is to say1 he would not pursue it at   
the  cost of his individual welfare4 ,so
 that here1 as in all cases of          
instinct1 truth takes the form of       
illusion in order to influence the      

will4444    ,all this1 however1 on its  
part throws light upon the instinct of  
animals4 ,they1 too1 are undoubtedly    
carried away by a kind of illusion1     
which represents that they are working  
for their own pleasure1 while it  is for
 the species that they are working with 
such industry and  self-denial4 ,the    
bird builds its nest2 the insect seeks a
 suitable place  wherein to lay its     
eggs1 or even hunts for prey1 which it  
dislikes  itself1 but which must be     
placed beside the eggs as food for the  
future  larvae2 the bee1 the wasp1 and  
the ant apply themselves to their       
skilful  building and extremely complex 
economy4 ,all of them are undoubtedly   
controlled by an illusion which conceals
 the service of the species  under the  
mask of an egotistical purpose4    ,this
 is probably the only way in which to   
make the inner or subjective  process1  
from which spring all manifestations of 
instinct1 intelligible  to us4 ,the     
outer or objective process1 however1    

shows in animals  strongly controlled by
 instinct1 as insects for instance1 a   
preponderance of the ganglion--i4e41    
subjective nervous system over  the     
objective or cerebral system4 ,from     
which it may be concluded that  they are
 controlled not so much by objective and
 proper apprehension as  by subjective  
ideas1 which excite desire and arise    
through the influence  of the ganglionic
 system upon the brain2 accordingly they
 are moved by a  certain illusion4444   
,the great preponderance of brain in man
 accounts for his having fewer          
instincts than the lower order of       
animals1 and for even these few easily  
being led astray4 ,for instance1 the    
sense of beauty which instinctively     
guides a man in his selection of a mate 
is misguided when it degenerates  into  
the proneness to pederasty4 ,similarly1 
the blue-bottle 7,musca  vomitoria71    
which instinctively ought to place its  
eggs in putrified  flesh1 lays them in  
the blossom of the ,arum dracunculus1   

because it is  misled by the decaying   
odour of this plant4 ,that an absolutely
 generic  instinct is the foundation of 
all love of sex may be confirmed by a   
closer analysis of the subject--an      
analysis which can hardly be avoided4   
,in the first place1 a man in love is by
 nature inclined to be  inconstant1     
while a woman constant4 ,a man's love   
perceptibly decreases  after a certain  
period2 almost every other woman charms 
him more than  the one he already       
possesses2 he longs for change3 while a 
woman's love  increases from the very   
moment it is returned4 ,this is because 
nature  aims at the preservation of the 
species1 and consequently at as great an
  increase in it as possible4444 ,this  
is why a man is always desiring  other  
women1 while a woman always clings to   
one man2 for nature compels  her        
intuitively and unconsciously to take   
care of the supporter and  protector of 
the future offspring4 ,for this reason  
conjugal fidelity is  artificial with   

the man but natural to a woman4 ,hence a
 woman's  infidelity1 looked at         
objectively on account of the           
consequences1 and  subjectively on      
account of its unnaturalness1 is much   
more unpardonable  than a man's4    ,in 
order to be quite clear and perfectly   
convinced that the delight we  take in  
the other sex1 however objective it may 
seem to be1 is  nevertheless merely     
instinct disguised1 in other words1 the 
sense of the  species striving to       
preserve its type1 it will be necessary 
to  investigate more closely the        
considerations which influence us in    
this1  and go into details1 strange as  
it may seem for these details to figure 
in a philosophical work4 ,these         
considerations may be classed in the    
following way3--    ,those that         
immediately concern the type of the     
species1 id est1  beauty2 those that    
concern other physical qualities2 and   
finally1 those  that are merely relative
 and spring from the necessary          

correction or  neutralisation of the    
one-sided qualities and abnormities of  
the two  individuals by each other4 ,let
 us look at these considerations        
separately4    ,the first consideration 
that influences our choice and feelings 
is  age4444    ,the second consideration
 is that of health3 a severe illness may
 alarm  us for the time being1 but an   
illness of a chronic nature or even     
cachexy frightens us away1 because it   
would be transmitted4    ,the third     
consideration is the skeleton1 since it 
is the foundation of  the type of the   
species4 ,next to old age and disease1  
nothing disgusts  us so much as a       
deformed shape2 even the most beautiful 
face cannot make  amends for it--in     
fact1 the ugliest face combined with a  
well-grown  shape is infinitely         
preferable4 ,moreover1 we are most      
keenly sensible of  every malformation  
of the skeleton2 as1 for instance1 a    
stunted1  short-legged form1 and the    
like1 or a limping gait when it is not  

the  result of some extraneous accident3
 while a conspicuously beautiful  figure
 compensates for every defect4 ,it      
delights us4 ,further1 the great        
importance which is attached to small   
feet6 ,this is because the size of  the 
foot is an essential characteristic of  
the species1 for no animal  has the     
tarsus and metatarsus combined so small 
as man2 hence the  uprightness of his   
gait3 he is a plantigrade4 ,and ,jesus  
,sirach has  said#ag 7according to the  
improved translation by ,kraus71 ,a     
woman that  is well grown and has       
beautiful feet is like pillars of gold  
in sockets  of silver4 ,the teeth1 too1 
are important1 because they are         
essential  for nourishment1 and quite   
peculiarly hereditary4    ,the fourth   
consideration is a certain plumpness1 in
 other words1 a  superabundance of the  
vegetative function1 plasticity4444     
,hence  excessive thinness strikingly   
repels us4444 ,the last consideration   
that  influences us is a beautiful face4

 ,here1 too1 the bone parts are taken   
into account before everything else4 ,so
 that almost everything depends  on a   
beautiful nose1 while a short retrouss  
one will mar all4 ,a  slight upward or  
downward turn of the nose has often     
determined the  life's happiness of a   
great many maidens2 and justly so1 for  
the type of  the species is at stake4   
,a small mouth1 by means of small       
maxillae1 is very essential1 as it is   
the specific characteristic of the human
 face as distinguished from the  muzzle 
of the brutes4 ,a receding1 as it were1 
a cut-away chin is  particularly        
repellent1 because mentum prominulum is 
a characteristic  belonging exclusively 
to our species4    ,finally1 we come to 
the consideration of beautiful eyes and 
a beautiful  forehead2 they depend upon 
the psychical qualities1 and in         
particular1  the intellectual1 which are
 inherited from the mother4 ,the        
unconscious  considerations which1 on   
the other hand1 influence women in their

 choice  naturally cannot be so         
accurately specified4 ,in general1 we   
may say the  following3--,that the age  
they prefer is from thirty to           
thirty-five4 ,for  instance1 they prefer
 men of this age to youths1 who in      
reality possess  the highest form of    
human beauty4 ,the reason for this is   
that they are  not guided by taste but  
by instinct1 which recognises in this   
particular  age the acme of generative  
power4 ,in general1 women pay little    
attention  to beauty1 that is1 to beauty
 of face2 they seem to take it upon     
themselves alone to endow the child with
 beauty4 ,it is chiefly the  strength of
 a man and the courage that goes with it
 that attract them1  for both of these  
promise the generation of robust        
children and at the  same time a brave  
protector for them4 ,every physical     
defect in a man1  any deviation from the
 type1 a woman may1 with regard to the  
child1  eradicate if she is faultless in
 these parts herself or excels in a     

contrary direction4 ,the only exceptions
 are those qualities which are  peculiar
 to the man1 and which1 in consequence1 
a mother cannot bestow  on her child2   
these include the masculine build of the
 skeleton1 breadth  of shoulder1 small  
hips1 straight legs1 strength of muscle1
 courage1  beard1 and so on4 ,and so it 
happens that a woman frequently loves an
  ugly man1 albeit she never loves an   
unmanly man1 because she cannot         
neutralise his defects4    ,the second  
class of considerations that are the    
source of love are those  depending on  
the psychical qualities4 ,here we shall 
find that a woman  universally is       
attracted by the qualities of a man's   
heart or character1  both of which are  
inherited from the father4 ,it is mainly
 firmness of  will1 determination and   
courage1 and may be honesty and goodness
 of  heart too1 that win a woman over2  
while intellectual qualifications       
exercise no direct or instinctive power 
over her1 for the simple reason  that   

these are not inherited from the father4
 ,a lack of intelligence  carries no    
weight with her2 in fact1 a             
superabundance of mental power or  even 
genius1 as abnormities1 might have an   
unfavourable effect4 ,and so  we        
frequently find a woman preferring a    
stupid1 ugly1 and ill-mannered  man to  
one who is well-educated1 intellectual1 
and agreeable4 ,hence1  people of       
extremely different temperament         
frequently marry for  love--that is to  
say1 he is coarse1 strong1 and          
narrow-minded1 while  she is very       
sensitive1 refined1 cultured1 and       
aesthetic1 and so on2 or  he is genial  
and clever1 and she is a goose4         
,sic visum ,veneri2 cui placet impares  
,formas atque animos sub juga anea      
,saevo mittere cum joco4    ,the reason 
for this is1 that she is not influenced 
by intellectual  considerations1 but by 
something entirely different1 namely1   
instinct4  ,marriage is not regarded as 
a means for intellectual entertainment1 

but  for the generation of children2 it 
is a union of hearts and not of  minds4 
,when a woman says that she has fallen  
in love with a man's mind1  it is either
 a vain and ridiculous pretence on her  
part or the  exaggeration of a          
degenerate being4 ,a man1 on the other  
hand1 is not  controlled in instinctive 
love by the qualities of the woman's    
character2 this is why so many a        
,socrates has found his ,xantippe1 as   
for instance1 ,shakespeare1 ,albrecht   
,drer1 ,byron1 and others4 ,but here  we
 have the influence of intellectual     
qualities1 because they are  inherited  
from the mother2 nevertheless their     
influence is easily  overpowered by     
physical beauty1 which concerns more    
essential points1  and therefore has a  
more direct effect4 ,by the way1 it is  
for this  reason that mothers who have  
either felt or experienced the former   
influence have their daughters taught   
the fine arts1 languages1 etc41 so  that
 they may prove more attractive4 ,in    

this way they hope by artificial  means 
to pad the intellect1 just as they do   
their bust and hips if it is  necessary 
to do so4 ,let it be understood that    
here we are simply  speaking of that    
attraction which is absolutely direct   
and instinctive1  and from which springs
 real love4 ,that an intelligent and    
educated woman  esteems intelligence and
 brains in a man1 and that a man after  
deliberate reasoning criticises and     
considers the character of his  fiance1 
are matters which do not concern our    
present subject4 ,such  things influence
 a rational selection in marriage1 but  
they do not  control passionate love1   
which is our matter4    ,up to the      
present ,i have taken into consideration
 merely the absolute  considerations--id
 est1 such considerations as apply to   
every one4 ,i  now come to the relative 
considerations1 which are individual1   
because  they aim at rectifying the type
 of the species which is defectively    
presented and at correcting any         

deviation from it existing in the person
  of the chooser himself1 and in this   
way lead back to a pure presentation  of
 the type4 ,hence each man loves what he
 himself is deficient in4 ,the  choice  
that is based on relative               
considerations--that is1 has in view    
the constitution of the individual--is  
much more certain1 decided1 and         
exclusive than the choice that is made  
after merely absolute  considerations2  
consequently real passionate love will  
have its origin1  as a rule1 in these   
relative considerations1 and it will    
only be the  ordinary phases of love    
that spring from the absolute4 ,so that 
it is not  stereotyped1 perfectly       
beautiful women who are wont to kindle  
great  passions4 ,before a truly        
passionate feeling can exist1 something 
is  necessary that is perhaps best      
expressed by a metaphor in              
chemistry--namely1 the two persons must 
neutralise each other1 like acid  and   
alkali to a neutral salt4 ,before this  

can be done the following  conditions   
are essential4 ,in the first place1 all 
sexuality is  one-sided4 ,this          
one-sidedness is more definitely        
expressed and exists in  a higher degree
 in one person than in another2 so that 
it may be better  supplemented and      
neutralised in each individual by one   
person than by  another of the opposite 
sex1 because the individual requires a  
one-sidedness opposite to his own in    
order to complete the type of  humanity 
in the new individual to be generated1  
to the constitution of  which everything
 tends4444    ,the following is         
necessary for this neutralisation of    
which we are  speaking4 ,the particular 
degree of his manhood must exactly      
correspond  to the particular degree of 
her womanhood in order to exactly       
balance  the one-sidedness of each4     
,hence the most manly man will desire   
the most  womanly woman1 and vice vers1 
and so each will want the individual    
that exactly corresponds to him in      

degree of sex4 ,inasmuch as two  persons
 fulfil this necessary relation towards 
each other1 it is  instinctively felt by
 them and is the origin1 together with  
the other  relative considerations1 of  
the higher degrees of love4 ,while1     
therefore1 two lovers are pathetically  
talking about the harmony of  their     
souls1 the kernel of the conversation is
 for the most part the  harmony         
concerning the individual and its       
perfection1 which obviously is  of much 
more importance than the harmony of     
their souls--which  frequently turns out
 to be a violent discord shortly after  
marriage4    ,we now come to those other
 relative considerations which depend on
 each  individual trying to eradicate1  
through the medium of another1 his      
weaknesses1 deficiencies1 and deviations
 from the type1 in order that  they may 
not be perpetuated in the child that is 
to be born or develop  into absolute    
abnormities4 ,the weaker a man is in    
muscular power1 the  more will he desire

 a woman who is muscular2 and the same  
thing applies  to a woman4444           
,nevertheless1 if a big woman choose a  
big husband1 in order1 perhaps1 to      
present a better appearance in society1 
the children1 as a rule1 suffer  for her
 folly4 ,again1 another very decided    
consideration is complexion4  ,blonde   
people fancy either absolutely dark     
complexions or brown2 but it  is rarely 
the case vice vers4 ,the reason for it  
is this3 that fair  hair and blue eyes  
are a deviation from the type and almost
 constitute  an abnormity1 analogous to 
white mice1 or at any rate white horses4
 ,they  are not indigenous to any other 
part of the world but ,europe1--not even
  to the polar regions1--and are        
obviously of ,scandinavian origin4 ,en  
passant1 it is my conviction that a     
white skin is not natural to man1  and  
that by nature he has either a black or 
brown skin like our  forefathers1 the   
,hindoos1 and that the white man was    
never originally  created by nature2 and

 that1 therefore1 there is no race of   
white  people1 much as it is talked     
about1 but every white man is a bleached
  one4 ,driven up into the north1 where 
he was a stranger1 and where he  existed
 only like an exotic plant1 in need of a
 hothouse in winter1 man  in the course 
of centuries became white4 ,the gipsies1
 an ,indian tribe  which emigrated only 
about four centuries ago1 show the      
transition of  the ,hindoo's complexion 
to ours4 ,in love1 therefore1 nature    
strives to  return to dark hair and     
brown eyes1 because they are the        
original type2  still1 a white skin has 
become second nature1 although not to   
such an  extent as to make the dark skin
 of the ,hindoo repellent to us4        
,finally1 every man tries to find the   
corrective of his own defects and       
aberrations in the particular parts of  
his body1 and the more  conspicuous the 
defect is the greater is his            
determination to correct  it4 ,this is  
why snub-nosed persons find an aquiline 

nose or a  parrot-like face so          
indescribably pleasing2 and the same    
thing applies  to every other part of   
the body4 ,men of immoderately long and 
attenuated  build delight in a stunted  
and short figure4 ,considerations of    
temperament also influence a man's      
choice4 ,each prefers a temperament  the
 reverse of his own2 but only in so far 
as his is a decided one4    ,a man who  
is quite perfect in some respect himself
 does not1 it is true1  desire and love 
imperfection in this particular respect1
 yet he can be  more easily reconciled  
to it than another man1 because he      
himself saves  the children from being  
very imperfect in this particular4 ,for 
instance1  a man who has a very white   
skin himself will not dislike a         
yellowish  complexion1 while a man who  
has a yellowish complexion will consider
 a  dazzlingly white skin divinely      
beautiful4 ,it is rare for a man to fall
  in love with a positively ugly woman1 
but when he does1 it is because  exact  

harmony in the degree of sex exists     
between them1 and all her  abnormities  
are precisely the opposite to1 that is  
to say1 the  corrective of his4 ,love in
 these circumstances is wont to attain a
 high  degree4    ,the profoundly       
earnest way in which we criticise and   
narrowly consider  every part of a      
woman1 while she on her part considers  
us2 the  scrupulously careful way we    
scrutinise1 a woman who is beginning to 
please us2 the fickleness of our choice2
 the strained attention with  which a   
man watches his fiance2 the care he     
takes not to be deceived  in any trait2 
and the great importance he attaches to 
every more or less  essential           
trait1--all this is quite in keeping    
with the importance of  the end4 ,for   
the child that is to be born will have  
to bear a similar  trait through its    
whole life2 for instance1 if a woman    
stoops but a  little1 it is possible for
 her son to be inflicted with a         
hunchback2 and  so in every other       

respect4 ,we are not conscious of all   
this1 naturally4  ,on the contrary1 each
 man imagines that his choice is made in
 the  interest of his own pleasure      
7which1 in reality1 cannot be interested
 in  it at all72 his choice1 which we   
must take for granted is in keeping     
with his own individuality1 is made     
precisely in the interest of the        
species1 to maintain the type of which  
as pure as possible is the secret  task4
 ,in this case the individual           
unconsciously acts in the interest of   
something higher1 that is1 the species4 
,this is why he attaches so much        
importance to things to which he might1 
nay1 would be otherwise  indifferent4   
,there is something quite singular in   
the unconsciously  serious and critical 
way two young people of different sex   
look at each  other on meeting for the  
first time2 in the scrutinising and     
penetrating  glances they exchange1 in  
the careful inspection which their      
various  traits undergo4 ,this scrutiny 

and analysis represent the meditation of
  the genius of the species on the      
individual which may be born and the    
combination of its qualities2 and the   
greatness of their delight in and       
longing for each other is determined by 
this meditation4 ,this longing1         
although it may have become intense1 may
 possibly disappear again if  something 
previously unobserved comes to light4   
,and so the genius of the  species      
meditates concerning the coming race in 
all who are yet not too  old4 ,it is    
,cupid's work to fashion this race1 and 
he is always busy1  always speculating1 
always meditating4 ,the affairs of the  
individual in  their whole ephemeral    
totality are very trivial compared with 
those of  this divinity1 which concern  
the species and the coming race2        
therefore  he is always ready to        
sacrifice the individual regardlessly4  
,he is  related to these ephemeral      
affairs as an immortal being is to a    
mortal1  and his interests to theirs as 

infinite to finite4 ,conscious1         
therefore1  of administering affairs of 
a higher order than those that concern  
merely the weal and woe of the          
individual1 he administers them with    
sublime indifference amid the tumult of 
war1 the bustle of business1 or  the    
raging of a plague--indeed1 he pursues  
them into the seclusion of  the         
cloisters4    ,it has been seen that the
 intensity of love grows with its       
individuation2 we have shown that two   
individuals may be so physically        
constituted1 that1 in order to restore  
the best possible type of the  species1 
the one is the special and perfect      
complement of the other1  which1 in     
consequence1 exclusively desires it4 ,in
 a case of this kind1  passionate love  
arises1 and as it is bestowed on one    
object1 and one  only--that is to say1  
because it appears in the special       
service of the  species--it immediately 
assumes a nobler and sublimer nature4   
,on the  other hand1 mere sexual        

instinct is base1 because1 without      
individuation1 it is directed to all1   
and strives to preserve the  species    
merely as regards quantity with little  
regard for quality4  ,intense love      
concentrated on one individual may      
develop to such a  degree1 that unless  
it is gratified all the good things of  
this world1  and even life itself1 lose 
their importance4 ,it then becomes a    
desire1  the intensity of which is like 
none other2 consequently it will make   
any  kind of sacrifice1 and should it   
happen that it cannot be gratified1 it  
may lead to madness or even suicide4    
,besides these unconscious              
considerations which are the source of  
passionate love1 there must be  still   
others1 which we have not so directly   
before us4 ,therefore1 we  must take it 
for granted that here there is not only 
a fitness of  constitution but also a   
special fitness between the man's will  
and the  woman's intellect1 in          
consequence of which a perfectly        

definite  individual can be born to them
 alone1 whose existence is contemplated 
by  the genius of the species for       
reasons to us impenetrable1 since they  
are  the very essence of the            
thing-in-itself4 ,or more strictly      
speaking1 the  will to live desires to  
objectivise itself in an individual     
which is  precisely determined1 and can 
only be begotten by this particular     
father  and this particular mother4     
,this metaphysical yearning of the will 
in  itself has immediately1 as its      
sphere of action in the circle of human 
beings1 the hearts of the future        
parents1 who accordingly are seized     
with this desire4 ,they now fancy that  
it is for their own sakes they are      
longing for what at present has purely a
 metaphysical end1 that is to  say1 for 
what does not come within the range of  
things that exist in  reality4 ,in other
 words1 it is the desire of the future  
individual to  enter existence1 which   
has first become possible here1 a       

longing which  proceeds from the primary
 source of all being and exhibits itself
 in the  phenomenal world as the intense
 love of the future parents for each    
other1 and has little regard for        
anything outside itself4 ,in fact1 love 
is an illusion like no other2 it will   
induce a man to sacrifice  everything he
 possesses in the world1 in order to    
obtain this woman1 who  in reality will 
satisfy him no more than any other4 ,it 
also ceases to  exist when the end1     
which was in reality metaphysical1 has  
been  frustrated perhaps by the woman's 
barrenness 7which1 according to         
,hufeland1 is the result of nineteen    
accidental defects in the               
constitution71 just as it is frustrated 
daily in millions of crushed  germs in  
which the same metaphysical             
life-principle struggles to exist2      
there is no other consolation in this   
than that there is an infinity of       
space1 time1 and matter1 and            
consequently inexhaustible opportunity1 

at  the service of the will to live4    
,although this subject has not been     
treated by ,theophrastus ,paracelsus1   
and my entire train of thought is       
foreign to him1 yet it must have        
presented itself to him1 if even in a   
cursory way1 when he gave  utterance to 
the following remarkable words1 written 
in quite a  different context and in his
 usual desultory style3 ,hi sunt1 quos  
,deus  copulavit1 ut eam1 quae fuit     
,uriae et ,david2 quamvis ex diametro   
7sic  enim sibi humana mens persuadebat7
 cum justo et legitimo matrimonio       
pugnaret hoc 444 sed propter ,salomonem1
 qui aliunde nasci non potuit1  nisi ex 
,bathseba1 conjuncto ,david semine1     
quamvis meretrice1 conjunxit  eos       
,deus4#ah    ,the yearning of love1 the 
1 which has been expressed in countless 
ways and forms by the poets of all ages1
 without their exhausting the  subject  
or even doing it justice2 this longing  
which makes us imagine  that the        
possession of a certain woman will bring

 interminable  happiness1 and the loss  
of her1 unspeakable pain2 this longing  
and this  pain do not arise from the    
needs of an ephemeral individual1 but   
are1 on  the contrary1 the sigh of the  
spirit of the species1 discerning       
irreparable means of either gaining or  
losing its ends4 ,it is the  species    
alone that has an interminable          
existence3 hence it is capable of       
endless desire1 endless gratification1  
and endless pain4 ,these1 however1  are 
imprisoned in the heart of a mortal2 no 
wonder1 therefore1 if it  seems like to 
burst1 and can find no expression for   
the announcements of  endless joy or    
endless pain4 ,this it is that forms the
 substance of all  erotic poetry that is
 sublime in character1 which1           
consequently1 soars  into transcendent  
metaphors1 surpassing everything        
earthly4 ,this is the  theme of         
,petrarch1 the material for the ,st4    
,preuxs1 ,werthers1 and ,jacopo  ,ortis1
 who otherwise could be neither         

understood nor explained4 ,this         
infinite regard is not based on any kind
 of intellectual1 nor1 in  general1 upon
 any real merits of the beloved one2    
because the lover  frequently does not  
know her well enough2 as was the case   
with ,petrarch4    ,it is the spirit of 
the species alone that can see at a     
glance of what  value the beloved one is
 to it for its purposes4 ,moreover1     
great  passions1 as a rule1 originate at
 first sight3      ,who ever lov'd1 that
 lov'd not at first sight4              
--,,shakespeare1 ,as ,you ,like ,it1    
iii4 #e4    ,curiously enough1 there is 
a passage touching upon this in ,guzmann
 de  ,alfarache1 a well-known romance   
written two hundred and fifty years ago 
by ,mateo ,aleman3 ,no es necessario    
para que uno ame1 que pase distancia  de
 tiempo1 que siga discurso1 in haga     
eleccion1 sino que con aquella  primera 
y sola vista1 concurran juntamente      
cierta correspondencia   consonancia1   
lo que ac solemos vulgarmente decir1 una

 confrontacion  de sangre1  que por     
particular influxo suelen mover las     
estrellas4  7,for a man to love there is
 no need for any length of time to pass 
for  him to weigh considerations or make
 his choice1 but only that a certain    
correspondence and consonance is        
encountered on both sides at the first  
and only glance1 or that which is       
ordinarily called a sympathy of  blood1 
to which a peculiar influence of the    
stars generally impels47  ,accordingly1 
the loss of the beloved one through a   
rival1 or through  death1 is the        
greatest pain of all to those           
passionately in love2 just  because it  
is of a transcendental nature1 since it 
affects him not  merely as an           
individual1 but also assails him in his 
essentia aeterna1  in the life of the   
species1 in whose special will and      
service he was  here called4 ,this is   
why jealousy is so tormenting and       
bitter1 and the  giving up of the loved 
one the greatest of all sacrifices4 ,a  

hero is  ashamed of showing any kind of 
emotion but that which may be the       
outcome  of love2 the reason for this   
is1 that when he is in love it is not   
he1  but the species which is grieving4 
,in ,calderon's ,zenobia the ,great     
there is a scene in the second act      
between ,zenobia and ,decius where the  
latter says1 ,cielos1 luego tu me       
quieres8 ,perdiera cien mil victorias1  
,volvirame1 etc4 7,heavens6 then you    
love me8 ,for this ,i would  sacrifice a
 thousand victories1 etc47 ,in this case
 honour1 which has  hitherto outweighed 
every other interest1 is driven out of  
the field  directly love--i4e41 the     
interest of the species--comes into play
 and  discerns something that will be of
 decided advantage to itself2 for the   
interest of the species1 compared with  
that of the mere individual1  however   
important this may be1 is infinitely    
more important4 ,honour1  duty1 and     
fidelity succumb to it after they have  
withstood every other  temptation--the  

menace of death even4 ,we find the same 
going on in  private life2 for instance1
 a man has less conscience when in love 
than  in any other circumstances4       
,conscience is sometimes put on one side
 even  by people who are otherwise      
honest and straightforward1 and         
infidelity  recklessly committed if they
 are passionately in love--i4e41 when   
the  interest of the species has taken  
possession of them4 ,it would seem1     
indeed1 as if they believed themselves  
conscious of a greater authority  than  
the interests of individuals could ever 
confer2 this is simply  because they are
 concerned in the interest of the       
species4 ,chamfort's  utterance in this 
respect is remarkable3 ,quand un homme  
et une femme  ont l'un pour l'autre une 
passion violente1 il me semble toujours 
que  quelque soient les obstacles qui   
les sparent1 un mari1 des parens1  etc42
 les deux amans sont l'un  l'autre1 de  
par la ,nature1 qu'ils  s'appartiennent 
de droit devin1 malgr les lois et les   

conventions  humaines4444 ,from this    
standpoint the greater part of the      
,decameron  seems a mere mocking and    
jeering on the part of the genius of the
  species at the rights and interests of
 the individual which it treads         
underfoot4 ,inequality of rank and all  
similar relations are put on one  side  
with the same indifference and          
disregarded by the genius of the        
species1 if they thwart the union of two
 people passionately in love  with one  
another3 it pursues its ends pertaining 
to endless generations1  scattering     
human principles and scruples abroad    
like chaff4    ,for the same reason1 a  
man will willingly risk every kind of   
danger1 and  even become courageous1    
although he may otherwise be            
faint-hearted4 ,what  a delight we take 
in watching1 either in a play or novel1 
two young  lovers fighting for each     
other--i4e41 for the interest of the    
species--and their defeat of the old    
people1 who had only in view the        

welfare of the individual6 ,for the     
struggling of a pair of lovers seems  to
 us so much more important1 delightful1 
and consequently justifiable  than any  
other1 as the species is more important 
than the individual4    ,accordingly1 we
 have as the fundamental subject of     
almost all comedies  the genius of the  
species with its purposes1 running      
counter to the  personal interests of   
the individuals presented1 and1 in      
consequence1  threatening to undermine  
their happiness4 ,as a rule it carries  
out its  ends1 which1 in keeping with   
true poetic justice1 satisfies the      
spectator1 because the latter feels that
 the purposes of the species  widely    
surpass those of the individual4 ,hence 
he is quite consoled when  he finally   
takes leave of the victorious lovers1   
sharing with them the  illusion that    
they have established their own         
happiness1 while1 in  truth1 they have  
sacrificed it for the welfare of the    
species1 in  opposition to the will of  

the discreet old people4    ,it has been
 attempted in a few out-of-the-way      
comedies to reverse this  state of      
things and to effect the happiness of   
the individuals at the  cost of the ends
 of the species2 but here the spectator 
is sensible of  the pain inflicted on   
the genius of the species1 and does not 
find  consolation in the advantages that
 are assured to the individuals4    ,two
 very well-known little pieces occur to 
me as examples of this kind3  ,la reine 
de #af ans1 and ,le mariage de raison4  
,in the love-affairs that are treated in
 tragedies the lovers1 as a rule1       
perish together3 the reason for this is 
that the purposes of the  species1 whose
 tools the lovers were1 have been       
frustrated1 as1 for  instance1 in ,romeo
 and ,juliet1 ,tancred1 ,don ,carlos1   
,wallenstein1 ,the  ,bride of ,messina1 
and so on4    ,a man in love frequently 
furnishes comic as well as tragic       
aspects2 for  being in the possession of
 the spirit of the species and          

controlled by  it1 he no longer belongs 
to himself1 and consequently his line of
  conduct is not in keeping with that of
 the individual4 ,it is  fundamentally  
this that in the higher phases of love  
gives such a  poetical and sublime      
colour1 nay1 transcendental and         
hyperphysical turn  to a man's thoughts1
 whereby he appears to lose sight of his
 essentially  material purpose4 ,he is  
inspired by the spirit of the species1  
whose  affairs are infinitely more      
important than any which concern mere   
individuals1 in order to establish by   
special mandate of this spirit the      
existence of an indefinitely long       
posterity with this particular and      
precisely determined nature1 which it   
can receive only from him as  father and
 his loved one as mother1 and which1    
moreover1 as such never  comes into     
existence1 while the objectivation of   
the will to live  expressly demands this
 existence4 ,it is the feeling that he  
is engaged  in affairs of such          

transcendent importance that exalts the 
lover above  everything earthly1 nay1   
indeed1 above himself1 and gives such a 
hyperphysical clothing to his physical  
wishes1 that love becomes1 even  in the 
life of the most prosaic1 a poetical    
episode2 and then the affair  often     
assumes a comical aspect4 ,that mandate 
of the will which  objectifies itself in
 the species presents itself in the     
consciousness  of the lover under the   
mask of the anticipation of an infinite 
happiness1 which is to be found in his  
union with this particular woman4  ,this
 illusion to a man deeply in love       
becomes so dazzling that if it  cannot  
be attained1 life itself not only loses 
all charm1 but appears to  be so        
joyless1 hollow1 and uninteresting as to
 make him too disgusted  with it to be  
afraid of the terrors of death2 this is 
why he sometimes  of his own free will  
cuts his life short4 ,the will of a man 
of this kind  has become engulfed in    
that of the species1 or the will of the 

species  has obtained so great an       
ascendency over the will of the         
individual that  if such a man cannot be
 effective in the manifestation of the  
first1 he  disdains to be so in the     
last4 ,the individual in this case is   
too weak a  vessel to bear the infinite 
longing of the will of the species      
concentrated upon a definite object4    
,when this is the case suicide is  the  
result1 and sometimes suicide of the two
 lovers2 unless nature1 to  prevent     
this1 causes insanity1 which then       
enshrouds with its veil the             
consciousness of so hopeless a          
condition4 ,the truth of this is        
confirmed  yearly by various cases of   
this description4    ,however1 it is not
 only unrequited love that leads        
frequently to a  tragic end2 for        
requited love more frequently leads to  
unhappiness than  to happiness4 ,this is
 because its demands often so severely  
clash with  the personal welfare of the 
lover concerned as to undermine it1     

since  the demands are incompatible with
 the lover's other circumstances1 and   
in consequence destroy the plans of life
 built upon them4 ,further1 love        
frequently runs counter not only to     
external circumstances but to the       
individuality itself1 for it may fling  
itself upon a person who1 apart  from   
the relation of sex1 may become hateful1
 despicable1 nay1 even  repulsive4 ,as  
the will of the species1 however1 is so 
very much stronger  than that of the    
individual1 the lover shuts his eyes to 
all  objectionable qualities1 overlooks 
everything1 ignores all1 and unites     
himself for ever to the object of his   
passion4 ,he is so completely  blinded  
by this illusion that as soon as the    
will of the species is  accomplished the
 illusion vanishes and leaves in its    
place a hateful  companion for life4    
,from this it is obvious why we often   
see very  intelligent1 nay1             
distinguished men married to dragons and
 she-devils1  and why we cannot         

understand how it was possible for them 
to make such a  choice4 ,accordingly1   
the ancients represented ,amor as blind4
 ,in fact1  it is possible for a lover  
to clearly recognise and be bitterly    
conscious of horrid defects in his      
fiance's disposition and                
character--defects which promise him a  
life of misery--and yet for him  not to 
be filled with fear3      ,i ask not1 ,i
 care not1      ,if guilt's in thy      
heart2    ,i know that ,i love thee1    
,whatever thou art4    ,for1 in truth1  
he is not acting in his own interest but
 in that of a  third person1 who has yet
 to come into existence1 albeit he is   
under the  impression that he is acting 
in his own ,but it is this very acting  
in  some one else's interest which is   
everywhere the stamp of greatness and   
gives to passionate love the touch of   
the sublime1 making it a worthy  subject
 for the poet4 ,finally1 a man may both 
love and hate his beloved  at the same  
time4 ,accordingly1 ,plato compares a   

man's love to the love  of a wolf for a 
sheep4 ,we have an instance of this kind
 when a  passionate lover1 in spite of  
all his exertions and entreaties1 cannot
  obtain a hearing upon any terms4      
,i love and hate her4--,,shakespeare1   
,cymb4 iii4 #e4    ,when hatred is      
kindled1 a man will sometimes go so far 
as to first kill  his beloved and then  
himself4 ,examples of this kind are     
brought before  our notice yearly in the
 newspapers4 ,therefore ,goethe says    
truly3      ,bei aller verschmhten      
,liebe1 beim hllichen ,elemente6    ,ich
 wollt'1 ich wsst' was rger's1 das ich  
fluchen knnte6    ,it is in truth no    
hyperbole on the part of a lover when he
 calls his  beloved's coldness1 or the  
joy of her vanity1 which delights in his
  suffering1 cruelty4 ,for he has come  
under the influence of an impulse       
which1 akin to the instinct of animals1 
compels him in spite of all  reason to  
unconditionally pursue his end and      
discard every other2 he  cannot give it 

up4 ,there has not been one but many a  
,petrarch1 who1  failing to have his    
love requited1 has been obliged to drag 
through life  as if his feet were either
 fettered or carried a leaden weight1   
and give  vent to his sighs in a lonely 
forest2 nevertheless there was only one 
,petrarch who possessed the true poetic 
instinct1 so that ,goethe's  beautiful  
lines are true of him3      ,und wenn   
der ,mensch in seiner ,quaal verstummt1 
,gab mir ein ,gott1 zu sagen1 wie ich   
leide4    ,as a matter of fact1 the     
genius of the species is at continual   
warfare  with the guardian genius of    
individuals2 it is its pursuer and      
enemy2 it  is always ready to           
relentlessly destroy personal happiness 
in order to  carry out its ends2 indeed1
 the welfare of whole nations has       
sometimes  been sacrificed to its       
caprice4 ,shakespeare furnishes us with 
such an  example in ,henry ,,vi ,part   
,,iii41 ,act iii41 ,scenes #b and #c4   
,this is  because the species1 in which 

lies the germ of our being1 has a nearer
  and prior claim upon us than the      
individual1 so that the affairs of the  
species are more important than those of
 the individual4 ,sensible of  this1 the
 ancients personified the genius of the 
species in ,cupid1  notwithstanding his 
having the form of a child1 as a hostile
 and cruel  god1 and therefore one to be
 decried as a capricious and despotic   
demon1  and yet lord of both gods and   
men4       '    ' 1 4    7,tu1 deorum   
hominumque tyranne1 ,amor67             
,murderous darts1 blindness1 and wings  
are ,cupid's attributes4 ,the latter    
signify inconstancy1 which as a rule    
comes with the disillusion  following   
possession4    ,because1 for instance1  
love is based on an illusion and        
represents what  is an advantage to the 
species as an advantage to the          
individual1 the  illusion necessarily   
vanishes directly the end of the species
 has been  attained4 ,the spirit of the 
species1 which for the time being has   

got  the individual into its possession1
 now frees him again4 ,deserted by the  
spirit1 he relapses into his original   
state of narrowness and want2 he  is    
surprised to find that after all his    
lofty1 heroic1 and endless  attempts to 
further his own pleasure he has obtained
 but little2 and  contrary to his       
expectation1 he finds that he is no     
happier than he was  before4 ,he        
discovers that he has been the dupe of  
the will of the  species4 ,therefore1 as
 a rule1 a ,theseus who has been made   
happy will  desert his ,ariadne4 ,if    
,petrarch's passion had been gratified  
his song  would have become silent from 
that moment1 as that of the birds as    
soon  as the eggs are laid4    ,let it  
be said in passing that1 however much my
 metaphysics of love may  displease     
those in love1 the fundamental truth    
revealed by me would  enable them more  
effectually than anything else to       
overcome their  passion1 if             
considerations of reason in general     

could be of any avail4  ,the words of   
the comic poet of ancient times remain  
good3 ,quae res in  se neque consilium1 
neque modum habet ullum1 eam consilio   
regere non  potes4 ,people who marry for
 love do so in the interest of the      
species  and not of the individuals4 ,it
 is true that the persons concerned     
imagine they are promoting their own    
happiness2 but their real aim1  which is
 one they are unconscious of1 is to     
bring forth an individual  which can be 
begotten by them alone4 ,this purpose   
having brought them  together1 they     
ought henceforth to try and make the    
best of things4 ,but  it very frequently
 happens that two people who have been  
brought  together by this instinctive   
illusion1 which is the essence of       
passionate love1 are in every other     
respect temperamentally different4      
,this becomes apparent when the illusion
 wears off1 as it necessarily  must4    
,accordingly1 people who marry for love 
are generally unhappy1 for such  people 

look after the welfare of the future    
generation at the expense of  the       
present4 ,quien se casa por amores1 ha  
de vivir con dolores 7,he who  marries  
for love must live in grief71 says the  
,spanish proverb4  ,marriages de        
convenance1 which are generally arranged
 by the parents1  will turn out the     
reverse4 ,the considerations in this    
case which control  them1 whatever their
 nature may be1 are at any rate real and
 unable to  vanish of themselves4 ,a    
marriage of this kind attends to the    
welfare of  the present generation to   
the detriment of the future1 it is true2
 and  yet this remains problematical4   
,a man who marries for money1 and not   
for love1 lives more in the  interest of
 the individual than in that of the     
species2 a condition  exactly opposed to
 truth2 therefore it is unnatural and   
rouses a certain  feeling of contempt4  
,a girl who against the wish of her     
parents refuses  to marry a rich man1   
still young1 and ignores all            

considerations of  convenance1 in order 
to choose another instinctively to her  
liking1  sacrifices her individual      
welfare to the species4 ,but it is for  
this  very reason that she meets with a 
certain approval1 for she has given     
preference to what was more important   
and acted in the spirit of nature  7of  
the species7 more exactly2 while the    
parents advised only in the  spirit of  
individual egoism4    ,as the outcome of
 all this1 it seems that to marry means 
that either the  interest of the        
individual or the interest of the       
species must suffer4  ,as a rule one or 
the other is the case1 for it is only by
 the rarest and  luckiest accident that 
convenance and passionate love go hand  
in hand4  ,the wretched condition of    
most persons physically1 morally1 and   
intellectually may be partly accounted  
for by the fact that marriages  are not 
generally the result of pure choice and 
inclination1 but of all  kinds of       
external considerations and accidental  

circumstances4 ,however1  if inclination
 to a certain degree is taken into      
consideration1 as well  as convenience1 
this is as it were a compromise with the
 genius of the  species4 ,as is well    
known1 happy marriages are few and far  
between1  since marriage is intended to 
have the welfare of the future          
generation  at heart and not the        
present4    ,however1 let me add for the
 consolation of the more tender-hearted 
that  passionate love is sometimes      
associated with a feeling of quite      
another  kind--namely1 real friendship  
founded on harmony of sentiment1 but    
this1  however1 does not exist until the
 instinct of sex has been extinguished4 
,this friendship will generally spring  
from the fact that the physical1  moral1
 and intellectual qualities which       
correspond to and supplement  each other
 in two individuals in love1 in respect 
of the child to be  born1 will also     
supplement each other in respect of the 
individuals  themselves as opposite     

qualities of temperament and            
intellectual  excellence1 and thereby   
establish a harmony of sentiment4       
,the whole metaphysics of love which has
 been treated here is closely  related  
to my metaphysics in general1 and the   
light it throws upon this  may be said  
to be as follows4    ,we have seen that 
a man's careful choice1 developing      
through innumerable  degrees to         
passionate love1 for the satisfaction of
 his instinct of sex1  is based upon the
 fundamental interest he takes in the   
constitution of  the next generation4   
,this overwhelming interest that he     
takes verifies  two truths which have   
been already demonstrated4    ,first3   
,man's immortality1 which is perpetuated
 in the future race4 ,for  this interest
 of so active and zealous a nature1     
which is neither the  result of         
reflection nor intention1 springs from  
the innermost  characteristics and      
tendencies of our being1 could not exist
 so  continuously or exercise such great

 power over man if the latter were      
really transitory and if a race really  
and totally different to himself        
succeeded him merely in point of time4  
,second3 ,that his real nature is more  
closely allied to the species than  to  
the individual4 ,for this interest that 
he takes in the special nature  of the  
species1 which is the source of all     
love1 from the most fleeting  emotion to
 the most serious passion1 is in reality
 the most important  affair in each     
man's life1 the successful or           
unsuccessful issue of which  touches him
 more nearly than anything else4 ,this  
is why it has been  pre-eminently called
 the affair of the heart4 ,everything   
that merely  concerns one's own person  
is set aside and sacrificed1 if the case
  require it1 to this interest when it  
is of a strong and decided nature4      
,therefore in this way man proves that  
he is more interested in the  species   
than in the individual1 and that he     
lives more directly in the  interest of 

the species than in that of the         
individual4    ,why1 then1 is a lover so
 absolutely devoted to every look and   
turn of  his beloved1 and ready to make 
any kind of sacrifice for her8 ,because 
the immortal part of him is yearning for
 her2 it is only the mortal  part of him
 that longs for everything else4 ,that  
keen and even intense  longing for a    
particular woman is accordingly a direct
 pledge of the  immortality of the      
essence of our being and of its         
perpetuity in the  species4    ,to      
regard this perpetuity as something     
unimportant and insufficient is  an     
error1 arising from the fact that in    
thinking of the continuity of  the      
species we only think of the future     
existence of beings similar to          
ourselves1 but in no respect1 however1  
identical with us2 and again1  starting 
from knowledge directed towards without1
 we only grasp the  outer form of the   
species as it presents itself to us1 and
 do not take  into consideration its    

inner nature4 ,it is precisely this     
inner nature  that lies at the          
foundation of our own consciousness as  
its kernel1 and  therefore is more      
direct than our consciousness itself1   
and as  thing-in-itself exempt from the 
principium individuationis--is in       
reality identical and the same in all   
individuals1 whether they exist at  the 
same or at different times4    ,this1   
then1 is the will to live--that is to   
say1 it is exactly that  which so       
intensely desires both life and         
continuance1 and which  accordingly     
remains unharmed and unaffected by      
death4 ,further1 its  present state     
cannot be improved1 and while there is  
life it is certain  of the unceasing    
sufferings and death of the individual4 
,the denial of  the will to live is     
reserved to free it from this1 as the   
means by which  the individual will     
breaks away from the stem of the        
species1 and  surrenders that existence 
in it4    ,we are wanting both in ideas 

and all data as to what it is after     
that4  ,we can only indicate it as      
something which is free to be will to   
live or  not to live4 ,buddhism         
distinguishes the latter case by the    
word  ,nirvana4 ,it is the point which  
as such remains for ever impenetrable   
to all human knowledge4    ,looking at  
the turmoil of life from this standpoint
 we find all occupied  with its want and
 misery1 exerting all their strength in 
order to  satisfy its endless needs and 
avert manifold suffering1 without1      
however1 daring to expect anything else 
in return than merely the  preservation 
of this tormented individual existence  
for a short span of  time4 ,and yet1    
amid all this turmoil we see a pair of  
lovers exchanging  longing glances--yet 
why so secretly1 timidly1 and           
stealthily8 ,because  these lovers are  
traitors secretly striving to perpetuate
 all this  misery and turmoil that      
otherwise would come to a timely end4   
,,footnotes3    #ag ,ch4 xxvi4 #bc4     

#ah ,de vita longa i4 #e4               
,,physiognomy4      ,that the outside   
reflects the inner man1 and that the    
face expresses his  whole character1 is 
an obvious supposition and accordingly a
 safe one1  demonstrated as it is in the
 desire people have to see on all       
occasions a man who has distinguished   
himself by something good or evil1  or  
produced some exceptional work2 or if   
this is denied them1 at any  rate to    
hear from others what he looks like4    
,this is why1 on the one  hand1 they go 
to places where they conjecture he is to
 be found2 and on  the other1 why the   
press1 and especially the ,english      
press1 tries to  describe him in a      
minute and striking way2 he is soon     
brought visibly  before us either by a  
painter or an engraver2 and finally1    
photography1  on that account so highly 
prized1 meets this necessity in a most  
perfect  way4    ,it is also proved in  
everyday life that each one inspects the
  physiognomy of those he comes in      

contact with1 and first of all secretly 
tries to discover their moral and       
intellectual character from their       
features4 ,this could not be the case   
if1 as some foolish people state1  the  
outward appearance of a man is of no    
importance2 nay1 if the soul is  one    
thing and the body another1 and the     
latter related to the soul as  the coat 
is to the man himself4    ,rather is    
every human face a hieroglyph1 which1 to
 be sure1 admits of  being              
deciphered--nay1 the whole alphabet of  
which we carry about with  us4 ,indeed1 
the face of a man1 as a rule1 bespeaks  
more interesting  matter than his       
tongue1 for it is the compendium of all 
which he will  ever say1 as it is the   
register of all his thoughts and        
aspirations4  ,moreover1 the tongue only
 speaks the thoughts of one man1 while  
the face  expresses a thought of nature4
 ,therefore it is worth while to observe
  everybody attentively2 even if they   
are not worth talking to4 ,every        

individual is worthy of observation as a
 single thought of nature2 so is  beauty
 in the highest degree1 for it is a     
higher and more general  conception of  
nature3 it is her thought of a species4 
,this is why we are  so captivated by   
beauty4 ,it is a fundamental and        
principal thought of  ,nature2 whereas  
the individual is only a secondary      
thought1 a corollary4    ,in secret1    
everybody goes upon the principle that a
 man is what he  looks2 but the         
difficulty lies in its application4 ,the
 ability to  apply it is partly innate  
and partly acquired by experience2 but  
no one  understands it thoroughly1 for  
even the most experienced may make a    
mistake4 ,still1 it is not the face that
 deceives1 whatever ,figaro may  say1   
but it is we who are deceived in reading
 what is not there4 ,the  deciphering of
 the face is certainly a great and      
difficult art4 ,its  principles can     
never be learnt in abstracto4 ,its first
 condition is  that the man must be     

looked at from a purely objective point 
of view2  which is not so easy to do4   
,as soon as1 for instance1 there is the 
slightest sign of dislike1 or affection1
 or fear1 or hope1 or even the  thought 
of the impression which we ourselves are
 making on him--in  short1 as soon as   
anything of a subjective nature is      
present1 the  hieroglyphics become      
confused and falsified4 ,the sound of a 
language is  only heard by one who does 
not understand it1 because in thinking  
of the  significance one is not         
conscious of the sign itself2 and       
similarly the  physiognomy of a man is  
only seen by one to whom it is still    
strange--that is to say1 by one who has 
not become accustomed to his  face      
through seeing him often or talking to  
him4 ,accordingly it is1  strictly      
speaking1 the first glance that gives   
one a purely objective  impression of a 
face1 and makes it possible for one to  
decipher it4 ,a  smell only affects us  
when we first perceive it1 and it is the

 first  glass of wine which gives us its
 real taste2 in the same way1 it is only
  when we see a face for the first time 
that it makes a full impression  upon   
us4 ,therefore one should carefully     
attend to the first impression2  one    
should make a note of it1 nay1 write it 
down if the man is of  personal         
importance--that is1 if one can trust   
one's own sense of  physiognomy4        
,subsequent acquaintance and intercourse
 will erase that  impression1 but it    
will be verified one day in the future4 
,en passant1 let us not conceal from    
ourselves the fact that this first      
impression is as a rule extremely       
disagreeable3 but how little there is   
in the majority of faces6 ,with the     
exception of those that are  beautiful1 
good-natured1 and intellectual--that is1
 the very few and  exceptional1--,i     
believe a new face for the most part    
gives a sensitive  person a sensation   
akin to a shock1 since the disagreeable 
impression is  presented in a new and   

surprising combination4    ,as a rule it
 is indeed a sorry sight4 ,there are    
individuals whose  faces are stamped    
with such nave vulgarity and lowness of 
character1  such an animal limitation of
 intelligence1 that one wonders how they
  care to go out with such a face and do
 not prefer to wear a mask4 ,nay1  there
 are faces a mere glance at which makes 
one feel contaminated4 ,one  cannot     
therefore blame people1 who are in a    
position to do so1 if they  seek        
solitude and escape the painful         
sensation of seeing new faces4  ,the    
metaphysical explanation of this rests  
on the consideration that  the          
individuality of each person is exactly 
that by which he should be  reclaimed   
and corrected4    ,if any one1 on the   
other hand1 will be content with a      
psychological  explanation1 let him ask 
himself what kind of physiognomy can be 
expected in those whose minds1 their    
whole life long1 have scarcely ever     
entertained anything but petty1 mean1   

and miserable thoughts1 and  vulgar1    
selfish1 jealous1 wicked1 and spiteful  
desires4 ,each one of  these thoughts   
and desires has left its impress on the 
face for the  length of time it existed2
 all these marks1 by frequent           
repetition1 have  eventually become     
furrows and blemishes1 if one may say   
so4 ,therefore  the appearance of the   
majority of people is calculated to give
 one a  shock at first sight1 and it is 
only by degrees that one becomes        
accustomed to a face--that is to say1   
becomes so indifferent to the           
impression as to be no longer affected  
by it4    ,but that the predominating   
facial expression is formed by countless
  fleeting and characteristic           
contortions is also the reason why the  
faces  of intellectual men only become  
moulded gradually1 and indeed only      
attain their sublime expression in old  
age2 whilst portraits of them in  their 
youth only show the first traces of it4 
,but1 on the other hand1  what has just 

been said about the shock one receives  
at first sight  coincides with the above
 remark1 that it is only at first sight 
that a  face makes its true and full    
impression4 ,in order to get a purely   
objective and true impression of it1 we 
must stand in no kind of  relation to   
the person1 nay1 if possible1 we must   
not even have spoken  to him4           
,conversation makes one in some measure 
friendly disposed1 and  brings us into a
 certain rapport1 a reciprocal          
subjective relation1  which immediately 
interferes with our taking an objective 
view4 ,as  everybody strives to win     
either respect or friendship for        
himself1 a man  who is being observed   
will immediately resort to every art of 
dissembling1 and corrupt us with his    
airs1 hypocrisies1 and flatteries2  so  
that in a short time we no longer see   
what the first impression had  clearly  
shown us4 ,it is said that most people  
gain on further  acquaintance but what  
ought to be said is that they delude us 

on  further acquaintance4 ,but when     
these bad traits have an opportunity of 
showing themselves later on1 our first  
impression generally receives its       
justification4 ,sometimes a further     
acquaintance is a hostile one1 in  which
 case it will not be found that people  
gain by it4 ,another reason  for the    
apparent advantage of a further         
acquaintance is1 that the man  whose    
first appearance repels us1 as soon as  
we converse with him no  longer shows   
his true being and character1 but his   
education as  well--that is to say1 not 
only what he really is by nature1 but   
what he  has appropriated from the      
common wealth of mankind2 three-fourths 
of  what he says does not belong to him1
 but has been acquired from without2  so
 that we are often surprised to hear    
such a minotaur speak so humanly4  ,and 
on a still further acquaintance1 the    
brutality of which his face  gave       
promise1 will reveal itself in all its  
glory4 ,therefore a man who  is gifted  

with a keen sense of physiognomy should 
pay careful attention  to those verdicts
 prior to a further acquaintance1 and   
therefore  genuine4 ,for the face of a  
man expresses exactly what he is1 and if
 he  deceives us it is not his fault but
 ours4 ,on the other hand1 the words  of
 a man merely state what he thinks1 more
 frequently only what he has  learnt1 or
 it may be merely what he pretends to   
think4 ,moreover1 when we  speak to him1
 nay1 only hear others speak to him1 our
 attention is taken  away from his real 
physiognomy2 because it is the          
substance1 that which  is given         
fundamentally1 and we disregard it2 and 
we only pay attention  to its           
pathognomy1 its play of feature while   
speaking4 ,this1 however1 is  so        
arranged that the good side is turned   
upwards4    ,when ,socrates said to a   
youth who was introduced to him so that 
he might  test his capabilities1 ,speak 
so that ,i may see you 7taking it for   
granted that he did not simply mean     

hearing by seeing71 he was right  in so 
far as it is only in speaking that the  
features and especially the  eyes of a  
man become animated1 and his            
intellectual powers and  capabilities   
imprint their stamp on his features3 we 
are then in a  position to estimate     
provisionally the degree and capacity of
 his  intelligence2 which was precisely 
,socrates' aim in that case4 ,but1 on   
the other hand1 it is to be observed1   
firstly1 that this rule does not  apply 
to the moral qualities of a man1 which  
lie deeper2 and secondly1  that what is 
gained from an objective point of view  
by the clearer  development of a man's  
countenance while he is speaking1 is    
again from a  subjective point of view  
lost1 because of the personal relation  
into  which he immediately enters with  
us1 occasioning a slight fascination1   
does not leave us unprejudiced          
observers1 as has already been          
explained4  ,therefore1 from this last  
standpoint it might be more correct to  

say3  ,do not speak in order that ,i may
 see you4    ,for to obtain a pure and  
fundamental grasp of a man's physiognomy
 one  must observe him when he is alone 
and left to himself4 ,any kind of       
society and conversation with another   
throw a reflection upon him which  is   
not his own1 mostly to his advantage2   
for he thereby is placed in a  condition
 of action and reaction which exalts    
him4 ,but1 on the contrary1  if he is   
alone and left to himself immersed in   
the depths of his own  thoughts and     
sensations1 it is only then that he is  
absolutely and  wholly himself4 ,and any
 one with a keen1 penetrating eye for   
physiognomy can grasp the general       
character of his whole being at a       
glance4 ,for on his face1 regarded in   
and by itself1 is indicated the  ground 
tone of all his thoughts and efforts1   
the arrt irrevocable of  his future1 and
 of which he is only conscious when     
alone4    ,the science of physiognomy is
 one of the principal means of a        

knowledge  of mankind3 arts of          
dissimulation do not come within the    
range of  physiognomy1 but within that  
of mere pathognomy and mimicry4 ,this is
  precisely why ,i recommend the        
physiognomy of a man to be studied when 
he  is alone and left to his own        
thoughts1 and before he has been        
conversed  with2 partly because it is   
only then that his physiognomy can be   
seen  purely and simply1 since in       
conversation pathognomy immediately     
steps  in1 and he then resorts to the   
arts of dissimulation which he has      
acquired2 and partly because personal   
intercourse1 even of the slightest      
nature1 makes us prejudiced1 and in     
consequence impairs our judgment4       
,concerning our physiognomy in general1 
it is still to be observed that  it is  
much easier to discover the intellectual
 capacities of a man than  his moral    
character4 ,the intellectual capacities 
take a much more  outward direction4    
,they are expressed not only in the face

 and play of  his features1 but also in 
his walk1 nay1 in every movement1       
however  slight it may be4 ,one could   
perhaps discriminate from behind between
 a  blockhead1 a fool1 and a man of     
genius4 ,a clumsy awkwardness           
characterises every movement of the     
blockhead2 folly imprints its mark  on  
every gesture1 and so do genius and a   
reflective nature4 ,hence the  outcome  
of ,la ,bruyere's remark3 ,il n'y a rien
 de si dli1 de si  simple1 et de si     
imperceptible o il n'y entrent des      
manires1 qui nous  dclent3 un sot ni    
n'entre1 ni ne sort1 ni ne s'assied1 ni 
ne se lve1  ni ne se tait1 ni n'est sur 
ses jambes1 comme un homme d'esprit4    
,this  accounts for1 by the way1 that   
instinct stir et prompt which1          
according to ,helvetius1 ordinary people
 have of recognising people of  genius  
and of running away from them4 ,this is 
to be accounted for by the  fact that   
the larger and more developed the brain1
 and the thinner1 in  relation to it1   

the spine and nerves1 the greater not   
only is the  intelligence1 but also at  
the same time the mobility and pliancy  
of all  the limbs2 because they are     
controlled more immediately and         
decisively  by the brain2 consequently  
everything depends more on a single     
thread1  every movement of which        
precisely expresses its purpose4 ,the   
whole  matter is analogous to1 nay      
dependent on1 the fact that the higher  
an  animal stands in the scale of       
development1 the easier can it be killed
  by wounding it in a single place4     
,take1 for instance1 batrachia3 they    
are as heavy1 clumsy1 and slow in their 
movements as they are  unintelligent1   
and at the same time extremely tenacious
 of life4 ,this is  explained by the    
fact that with a little brain they have 
a very thick  spine and nerves4 ,but    
gait and movement of the arms are for   
the most  part functions of the brain2  
because the limbs receive their motion1 
and  even the slightest modification of 

it1 from the brain through the medium   
of the spinal nerves2 and this is       
precisely why voluntary movements tire  
us4 ,this feeling of fatigue1 like that 
of pain1 has its seat in the  brain1 and
 not as we suppose in the limbs1 hence  
motion promotes sleep2  on the other    
hand1 those motions that are not excited
 by the brain1 that  is to say1 the     
involuntary motions of organic life1 of 
the heart and  lungs1 go on without     
causing fatigue3 and as thought as well 
as motion  is a function of the brain1  
the character of its activity is denoted
 in  both1 according to the nature of   
the individual4 ,stupid people move like
  lay figures1 while every joint of     
intellectual people speaks for itself4  
,intellectual qualities are much better 
discerned1 however1 in the face  than in
 gestures and movements1 in the shape   
and size of the forehead1  in the       
contraction and movement of the         
features1 and especially in the  eye2   
from the little1 dull1 sleepy-looking   

eye of the pig1 through all  gradations1
 to the brilliant sparkling eye of the  
genius4 ,the look of  wisdom1 even of   
the best kind1 is different from that of
 genius1  since it bears the stamp of   
serving the will2 while that of the     
latter  is free from it4 ,therefore the 
anecdote which ,squarzafichi relates in 
his life of ,petrarch1 and has taken    
from ,joseph ,brivius1 a contemporary1  
is quite credible--namely1 that when    
,petrarch was at the court of           
,visconti1 and among many men and titled
 people1 ,galeazzo ,visconti asked  his 
son1 who was still a boy in years and   
was afterwards the first ,duke  of      
,milan1 to pick out the wisest man of   
those present4 ,the boy looked  at every
 one for a while1 when he seized        
,petrarch's hand and led him to  his    
father1 to the great admiration of all  
present4 ,for nature imprints  her stamp
 of dignity so distinctly on the        
distinguished among mankind  that a     
child can perceive it4 ,therefore ,i    

should advise my sagacious  countrymen1 
if they ever again wish to trumpet a    
commonplace person as a  genius for the 
period of thirty years1 not to choose   
for that end such  an inn-keeper's      
physiognomy as was possessed by ,hegel1 
upon whose face  nature had written in  
her clearest handwriting the familiar   
title1  commonplace person4 ,but what   
applies to intellectual qualities does  
not apply to the moral character of     
mankind2 its physiognomy is much  more  
difficult to perceive1 because1 being of
 a metaphysical nature1 it  lies much   
deeper1 and although moral character is 
connected with the  constitution and    
with the organism1 it is not so         
immediately connected1  however1 with   
definite parts of its system as is      
intellect4 ,hence1 while  each one makes
 a public show of his intelligence1 with
 which he is in  general quite          
satisfied1 and tries to display it at   
every opportunity1  the moral qualities 
are seldom brought to light1 nay1 most  

people  intentionally conceal them2 and 
long practice makes them acquire great  
mastery in hiding them4    ,meanwhile1  
as has been explained above1 wicked     
thoughts and worthless  endeavours      
gradually leave their traces on the     
face1 and especially the  eyes4         
,therefore1 judging by physiognomy1 we  
can easily guarantee that a  man will   
never produce an immortal work2 but not 
that he will never  commit a great      
crime4          ,,on ,,suicide4      ,as
 far as ,i can see1 it is only the      
followers of monotheistic1 that is  of  
,jewish1 religions that regard suicide  
as a crime4 ,this is the more  striking 
as there is no forbiddance of it1 or    
even positive disapproval  of it1 to be 
found either in the ,new ,testament or  
the ,old2 so that  teachers of religion 
have to base their disapprobation of    
suicide on  their own philosophical     
grounds2 these1 however1 are so bad that
 they  try to compensate for the        
weakness of their arguments by strongly 

expressing their abhorrence of the      
act--that is to say1 by abusing it4  ,we
 are told that suicide is an act of the 
greatest cowardice1 that it is  only    
possible to a madman1 and other         
absurdities of a similar nature2 or     
they make use of the perfectly senseless
 expression that it is  wrong1 while it 
is perfectly clear that no one has such 
indisputable  right over anything in the
 world as over his own person and life4 
,suicide1 as has been said1 is computed 
a crime1 rendering                      
inevitable--especially in vulgar1       
bigoted ,england--an ignominious  burial
 and the confiscation of the property2  
this is why the jury almost  always     
bring in the verdict of insanity4 ,let  
one's own moral feelings  decide the    
matter for one4 ,compare the impression 
made upon one by the  news that a friend
 has committed a crime1 say a murder1 an
 act of  cruelty or deception1 or theft1
 with the news that he has died a       
voluntary death4 ,whilst news of the    

first kind will incite intense          
indignation1 the greatest displeasure1  
and a desire for punishment or  revenge1
 news of the second will move us to     
sorrow and compassion2  moreover1 we    
will frequently have a feeling of       
admiration for his  courage rather than 
one of moral disapproval1 which         
accompanies a wicked  act4 ,who has not 
had acquaintances1 friends1 relatives1  
who have  voluntarily left this world8  
,and are we to think of them with horror
 as  criminals8 ,nego ac pernego6 ,i am 
rather of the opinion that the clergy   
should be challenged to state their     
authority for stamping--from the  pulpit
 or in their writings--as a crime an act
 which has been  committed by many      
people honoured and loved by us1 and    
refusing an  honourable burial to those 
who have of their own free will left the
  world4 ,they cannot produce any kind  
of ,biblical authority1 nay1 they  have 
no philosophical arguments that are at  
all valid2 and it is  reasons that we   

want2 mere empty phrases or words of    
abuse we cannot  accept4 ,if the        
criminal law forbids suicide1 that is   
not a reason that  holds good in the    
church2 moreover1 it is extremely       
ridiculous1 for what  punishment can    
frighten those who seek death8 ,when a  
man is punished for  trying to commit   
suicide1 it is his clumsy failure that  
is punished4    ,the ancients were also 
very far from looking at the matter in  
this  light4 ,pliny says3 ,vitam quidem 
non adeo expetendam censemus1 ut  quoque
 modo trahenda sit4 ,quisquis es talis1 
aeque moriere1 etiam cum  obscoenus     
vixeris1 aut nefandus4 ,quapropter hoc  
primum quisque in  remediis animi sui   
habeat3 ex omnibus bonis1 quae homini   
tribuit natura1  nullum melius esse     
tempestiva morte3 idque in ea optimum1  
quod illam  sibi quisque praestare      
poterit4 ,he also says3 ,ne ,deum quidem
 posse  omnia4 ,namque nec sibi potest  
mortem consciscere1 si velit1 quod      
homini  dedit optimum in taniis vitae   

poenis1 etc4    ,in ,massilia and on the
 island of ,ceos a hemlock-potion was   
offered in  public by the magistrate to 
those who could give valid reasons for  
quitting this life4 ,and how many heroes
 and wise men of ancient times  have not
 ended their lives by a voluntary death6
 ,to be sure1 ,aristotle  says ,suicide 
is a wrong against the ,state1 although 
not against the  person2 ,stobus1       
however1 in his treatise on the         
,peripatetic ethics  uses this sentence3
                     4 7,vitam  autem   
relinquendam esse bonis in nimiis quidem
 miseriis pravis vero in  nimium quoque 
secundis7 ,and similarly3   1   1  1    
etc42           1  1  1     1  1 etc4   
7,ideoque et uxorem ducturum1 et        
liberos procreaturum1 et ad civitatem   
accessurum1 etc42 atque omnino  virtutem
 colendo tum vitam servaturum1 tum      
iterum1 cogente necessitate1            
relicturum1 etc47 ,and we find that     
suicide was actually praised by the     
,stoics as a noble and heroic act1 this 

is corroborated by hundreds of          
passages1 and especially in the works of
 ,seneca4 ,further1 it is well  known   
that the ,hindoos often look upon       
suicide as a religious act1 as1  for    
instance1 the self-sacrifice of widows1 
throwing oneself under the  wheels of   
the chariot of the god at ,juggernaut1  
or giving oneself to the  crocodiles in 
the ,ganges or casting oneself in the   
holy tanks in the  temples1 and so on4  
,it is the same on the stage--that      
mirror of life4  ,for instance1 in the  
famous ,chinese play1 ,l',orphelin de la
 ,chine1#ai  almost all the noble       
characters end by suicide1 without      
indicating  anywhere or it striking the 
spectator that they were committing a   
crime4  ,at bottom it is the same on our
 own stage2 for instance1 ,palmira in   
,mahomet1 ,mortimer in ,maria ,stuart1  
,othello1 ,countess ,terzky4 ,is        
,hamlet's monologue the meditation of a 
criminal8 ,he merely states that        
considering the nature of the world1    

death would be certainly  preferable1 if
 we were sure that by it we should be   
annihilated4 ,but  there lies the rub6  
,but the reasons brought to bear against
 suicide by  the priests of             
monotheistic1 that is of ,jewish        
religions1 and by those  philosophers   
who adapt themselves to it1 are weak    
sophisms easily  contradicted4#bj ,hume 
has furnished the most thorough         
refutation of  them in his ,essay on    
,suicide1 which did not appear until    
after his  death1 and was immediately   
suppressed by the shameful bigotry and  
gross  ecclesiastical tyranny existing  
in ,england4 ,hence1 only a very few    
copies of it were sold secretly1 and    
those at a dear price2 and for this  and
 another treatise of that great man we  
are indebted to a reprint  published at 
,basle4 ,that a purely philosophical    
treatise originating  from one of the   
greatest thinkers and writers of        
,england1 which refuted  with cold      
reason the current arguments against    

suicide1 must steal about  in that      
country as if it were a fraudulent piece
 of work until it found  protection in a
 foreign country1 is a great disgrace to
 the ,english  nation4 ,at the same time
 it shows what a good conscience the    
,church has  on a question of this kind4
 ,the only valid moral reason against   
suicide  has been explained in my chief 
work4 ,it is this3 that suicide prevents
  the attainment of the highest moral   
aim1 since it substitutes a real        
release from this world of misery for   
one that is merely apparent4 ,but  there
 is a very great difference between a   
mistake and a crime1 and it  is as a    
crime that the ,christian clergy wish to
 stamp it4 ,christianity's  inmost truth
 is that suffering 7the ,cross7 is the  
real purpose of life2  hence it condemns
 suicide as thwarting this end1 while   
the ancients1  from a lower point of    
view1 approved of it1 nay1 honoured it4 
,this  argument against suicide is      
nevertheless ascetic1 and only holds    

good  from a much higher ethical        
standpoint than has ever been taken by  
moral  philosophers in ,europe4 ,but if 
we come down from that very high        
standpoint1 there is no longer a valid  
moral reason for condemning  suicide4   
,the extraordinarily active zeal with   
which the clergy of  monotheistic       
religions attack suicide is not         
supported either by the  ,bible or by   
any valid reasons2 so it looks as if    
their zeal must be  instigated by some  
secret motive4 ,may it not be that the  
voluntary  sacrificing of one's life is 
a poor compliment to him who said1      
8#ba    ,in that case it would be       
another example of the gross optimism of
 these  religions denouncing suicide1 in
 order to avoid being denounced by it4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,as a rule1 it will be found that as    
soon as the terrors of life outweigh    
the terrors of death a man will put an  
end to his life4 ,the resistance  of the
 terrors of death is1 however1          

considerable2 they stand like a         
sentinel at the gate that leads out of  
life4 ,perhaps there is no one  living  
who would not have already put an end to
 his life if this end had  been         
something that was purely negative1 a   
sudden cessation of  existence4 ,but    
there is something positive about it1   
namely1 the  destruction of the body4   
,and this alarms a man simply because   
his body  is the manifestation of the   
will to live4    ,meanwhile1 the fight  
as a rule with these sentinels is not so
 hard as it  may appear to be from a    
distance2 in consequence1 it is true1 of
 the  antagonism between mental and     
physical suffering4 ,for instance1 if we
  suffer very great bodily pain1 or if  
the pain lasts a long time1 we  become  
indifferent to all other troubles3 our  
recovery is what we desire  most dearly4
 ,in the same way1 great mental         
suffering makes us insensible  to bodily
 suffering3 we despise it4 ,nay1 if it  
outweighs the other1 we  find it a      

beneficial distraction1 a pause in our  
mental suffering4 ,and  so it is that   
suicide becomes easy2 for the bodily    
pain that is bound up  with it loses all
 importance in the eyes of one who is   
tormented by  excessive mental          
suffering4 ,this is particularly obvious
 in the case of  those who are driven to
 commit suicide through some purely     
morbid and  discordant feeling4 ,they   
have no feelings to overcome2 they do   
not need  to rush at it1 but as soon as 
the keeper who looks after them leaves  
them for two minutes they quickly put an
 end to their life4           99        
99       99       99       99    ,when  
in some horrid and frightful dream we   
reach the highest pitch of  terror1 it  
awakens us1 scattering all the monsters 
of the night4 ,the  same thing happens  
in the dream of life1 when the greatest 
degree of  terror compels us to break it
 off4           99       99       99    
99       99    ,suicide may also be     
looked upon as an experiment1 as a      

question which  man puts to ,nature and 
compels her to answer4 ,it asks1 what   
change a  man's existence and knowledge 
of things experience through death8 ,it 
is  an awkward experiment to make2 for  
it destroys the very consciousness  that
 awaits the answer4    ,,footnotes3     
#ai ,translated by ,st4 ,julien1 #ahcd4 
#bj ,see my treatise on the ,foundation 
of ,morals1  #e4    #ba ,bd4 ,i4 p4 #fi4