,illustration3 ,radha and ,krishna in the ,grove ,kangra 7,punjab ,hills71 c4 #aghe ,,the ,,loves ,,of ,,krishna ,,in ,,indian ,,painting ,,and ,,poetry ,by ,w4 ,g4 ,,archer ,to ,,mr4 ,,and ,,mrs4 ,h4 ,n4 ,,with ,,love ,,and ,,admiration ,,acknowledgments ,i am deeply indebted to ,dr4 ,a4,l4 ,basham for generous guidance throughout the preparation of this book1 to ,george ,keyt for permitting me to quote extensively from his brilliant translation of the ,gita ,govinda1 and to ,deben ,bhattacharya who supplied me with new translations of later poems and discussed a number of important points4 ,i must also express my deep gratitude to ,mildred ,archer and to ,gopi ,krishna ,kanoria for valued criticism and advice1 to ,messrs4 ,faber and ,faber1 the ,harvill ,press1 ,messrs4 ,macmillan1 the ,oxford ,university ,press1 the ,phoenix ,house and ,messrs4 ,sidgwick and ,jackson for permitting me to quote passages from works still copyright1 to ,professor ,j4 ,brough for an informative note on ,bhanu ,datta's ,rasamanjari and to all those owners of collections who have either allowed me to reproduce pictures in their possession or have kindly supplied me with photographs4 ,part of the material for this book was delivered as lectures to the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 the ,royal ,india1 ,pakistan and ,ceylon ,society and at the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,,contents ,,acknowledgments ,i ,,introduction ,,ii ,,the ,,mahabharata3 ,,krishna ,,the ,,hero ,,iii ,,the ,,bhagavata ,,purana3 ,,the ,,cowherd i ,birth and ,early ,adventures ii ,the ,loves of the ,cowgirls iii ,the ,death of the ,tyrant ,,iv ,,the ,,bhagavata ,,purana3 ,,the ,,prince i ,the ,return to ,court ii ,marriages and ,offspring iii ,last ,phases iv ,the ,purana ,re-considered ,v ,,the ,,krishna ,,of ,,poetry i ,the ,triumph of ,radha ii ,the ,gita ,govinda iii ,later ,poetry iv ,the ,rasika ,priya ,,vi ,,the ,,krishna ,,of ,,painting ,,notes ,,bibliography ,,index ,,plates ,,and ,,commentary ,,sources ,i ,,introduction ,during the twentieth century1 a certain type of ,indian painting began to fascinate the ,west4 ,unlike ,mughal art1 it was a product of ,hindu courts in ,rajasthan and the ,punjab ,hills and unlike ,mughal painting1 its chief concern was with the varied phases of romance4 ,ladies would be shown brooding in their chambers as storm clouds mounted in the sky4 ,a girl might be portrayed desperately fondling a plantain tree1 gripping a pet falcon1 the symbol of her lover1 or hurrying through the rainy darkness intent only on reaching a longed-for tryst4 ,a prince would appear lying on a terrace1 his outstretched arms striving vainly to detain a calm beauty or welcoming with delight a bashful girl as she slowly advanced4 ,in all these pictures1 romantic love was treated as the highest good and physical passion was interpreted with a freshness and innocence unequalled in the world's art4 ,such paintings were1 at first sight1 easy to appreciate4 ,although they alternated between two methods of expression--the first a style of savage distortion1 the second a style of the softest grace--each manner enlivened the common subject4#a ,yet in two respects elucidation was vitally necessary4 ,just as in ,japan1 the lover might express his longings by cryptic references to ,nature1 the ,indian artist employed poetic symbols to charge his subjects with romantic ardour4 ,flowers were never merely flowers nor clouds clouds4 ,the symbols of ,indian poetry--the lotus swaying in a stream1 the flowering creeper embracing a trunk--were intended to suggest passion-haunted ladies4 ,the mingling of clouds1 rain and lightning symbolized the embraces of lovers1 and commonplace objects such as dishes1 vases1 ewers and lamps were brought into subtle conjunction to hint at 'the right true end of love4' ,what1 in fact1 might seem at first sight to be a simple portrait1 proved on closer understanding to be a study in despair1 a revelation of delight or a clue to rapture1 each image with its sexual implications contriving to express some nuance of longing4 ,in these pictures1 only a part of the meaning was apparent and without a comprehension of the poetry1 much of its true significance was lost4 ,such an obstacle to understanding was real enough but1 as the eye ranged over this new kind of love-painting1 a second difficulty appeared4 ,in many pictures1 the lover had special characteristics4 ,he was shown with a crown of peacock's feathers1 clad in a golden dhoti and in every case his skin was mauve or slate-blue4#b ,in certain cases1 the lady of his choice appeared bowing at his feet1 her pose suggesting the deepest adoration2 yet1 in other pictures1 his role was quite different4 ,he was then a resolute warrior1 fighting and destroying demons4 ,it was clear1 in fact1 that here was no ordinary lover but one who might also be a god4 ,at the same time1 other perplexing circumstances were present4 ,the lover's appearance was that of an aristocratic youth and the ladies whom he loved had the bearing of elegant princesses4 ,yet often the scene of their encounters was a forest thick with flowering trees4 ,his companions were cowherds and the objects of his love were not the ladies of a court but cowgirls4 ,other activities betrayed the same lowly sphere4 ,in certain pictures1 he was shown eating with cowherds1 sharing in their sports1 grazing the cattle and himself milking cows4 ,that such a lover should dominate the paintings was perplexing in the extreme and just as cultured ,indians would be baffled by ,italian and ,flemish painting unless they already knew the life of ,christ1 it was clear that part1 even the majority1 of these pictures would remain obscure unless the character of their central figure was first explained4 ,one further point remained4 ,in many cases1 the pictures were not intended to be viewed in isolation but were illustrations of a text4 ,many were inscribed with ,sanskrit or ,hindi verses and in each case there was an intimate connection between the content of the picture and the poem's subject4 ,to understand the pictures1 therefore1 some acquaintance with these texts was necessary for only in this way could the identity and role of the blue-skinned lover be appreciated4 ,he was1 in fact1 ,krishna--an incarnation of ,god--and in his worship some of the deepest requirements of the ,indian spirit found ecstatic release4 ,the purpose of this book is to throw some light on ,indian painting by presenting the story of ,krishna in the clearest possible terms4 ,it might be supposed that1 of all ,indian gods1 ,krishna was already the one best known to the ,west and therefore1 perhaps1 the one least requiring explanation4 ,among modern poets1 ,sacheverell ,sitwell devotes a whole poem in ,canons of ,giant ,art to describing ,krishna's effect4 ,rain falls and ceases1 all the forest trembles3 ,mystery walks the woods once more1 ,we hear a flute4 ,it moves on earth1 it is the god who plays ,with the flute to his lips and music in his breath3 ,the god is ,krishna in his lovely youth4 ,louis ,mac,neice in ,ten ,burnt ,offerings describes a much-loved cat1 ,fluid as ,krishna chasing the milkmaids4 ,and the same ,krishna1 flute player and lover of milkmaids1 is familiar to ,british audiences from the dancing of ,ram ,gopal4 ,yet side by side with this magnetic figure1 a second1 strangely different ,krishna is also known4 ,this second ,krishna is the preacher of the ,bhagavad ,gita1 the great sermon delivered on the battle-field of ,kurukshetra4 ,it is a cardinal document of ,indian ethics1 and consoled ,mahatma ,gandhi during his work for ,indian independence4 ,it has for many years been known in the ,west but has recently attracted fresh attention through a modern translation by ,christopher ,isherwood and ,swami ,prabhavananda4 ,this ,krishna of the ,gita is clearly quite different in character from the ,krishna of the milkmaids and1 without some effort at reconciliation1 the two must obviously present a baffling enigma4 ,indeed so great is the contrast that many ,englishmen1 entranced by the lover1 might be astonished to hear of a more didactic role1 while those who value the ,gita might easily be disturbed on finding its author so daringly identified with the theory and practice of romantic love4 ,the truth1 if we are to admit it1 is that despite considerable acquaintance with ,krishna as a name1 few educated people in the ,west have intimate knowledge of his story4 ,in fact1 we have only to ask some basic questions to realize how slender is general understanding4 ,what1 for example1 were the circumstances in which ,krishna was born and why did he enter the world8 ,of which ,indian god is he an incarnation8 ,who were his parents and how did he come to live among cowherds8 ,who were ,radha and ,rukmini8 ,in what ways did he love the milkmaids and why has this aspect of his story assumed such big proportions in ,indian religion8 ,why1 in fact1 is ,god a romantic lover8 ,just as few ,indians1 even highly educated ,indians1 could survive a friendly cross-examination on details of the ,new ,testament1 the majority of cultured ,englishmen would find it hard to answer even a few of these simple questions4 ,it is to remedy in part this situation that ,i have marshalled the material given in this book4 ,with certain types of issue ,i have made no attempt to deal4 ,i have not1 for example1 discussed statements such as ',krishna was not a god but a hero of a rough tribe of cowherds4' ',the ,gita is an interpolation4' ',there is general agreement on the historicity of ,krishna4' ',radha appears to be a late addition4' ,higher ,criticism1 whether applied to the ,bible or to the classics of ,indian religion must necessarily remain a small scholars' preserve--of vital importance to the few but of little account to the main body of believers or to artists illustrating adored themes4 ,i have rather been concerned to present information about ,krishna in the form in which it has actually reached ,indian minds and has influenced belief and worship4 ,during the last two thousand years1 various texts have dealt with ,krishna1 emphasizing first one and then another aspect of his character and in the process assembling more and more details4 ,these texts are still revered by ,indians and although they are the product of widely separated eras1 all of them have still an air of contemporary authority4 ,by considering them in historical sequence1 we can understand not only the subject-matter of romantic ,indian painting but realize why ,krishna1 the adored lover1 should still enchant religious ,india4 ,footnote #a3 ,note #a4 ,footnote #b3 ,note #b4 ,,ii ,,the ,,mahabharata3 ,,krishna ,,the ,,hero ,the first reference to ,krishna occurs in the ,chandogya ,upanishad of perhaps the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,upanishads were 'forest sittings' or 'sessions with teachers4' ,sages and their disciples discussed the nature of life and strove to determine the soul's exact relationship to ,god4 ,the starting-point was the theory of re-incarnation4 ,death1 it was believed1 did not end the soul4 ,death was merely a stepping-stone to another life1 the soul moving from existence to existence in one long effort to escape re-birth4 ,from this cycle1 only one experience could bring release and that was consciousness or actual knowledge of the supreme ,spirit4 ,when that state was achieved1 the soul blended with the ,godhead and the cycle ended4 ,the problem of problems1 therefore1 was how to attain such knowledge4 ,the ,chandogya ,upanishad does not offer any startling solution to this matter4 ,the teacher who conducts the session is a certain ,ghora of the ,angirasa family and it is the person of his disciple rather than his actual message which concerns us4 ,the disciple is called ,krishna and his mother has the name ,devaki4 ,devaki is the later ,krishna's mother and there is accordingly every reason to suppose that the two ,krishnas are the same4 ,nothing1 however1 is stated of this early ,krishna's career and although parts of the sage's teachings have been compared to passages in the ,gita1#c ,krishna himself remains a vague and dim name4 ,for the next few centuries1 knowledge of ,krishna remains in this fragmentary state4 ,nothing further is recorded and not until the great ,indian epic1 the ,mahabharata1 crystallizes out between the fourth century ,b4,c4 and the fourth century ,a4,d4 does a more detailed ,krishna make his appearance4#d ,by the end of this period1 many vital changes had taken place4 ,the ,indian world-view had become much clearer and it is possible not only to connect ,krishna with a definite character but to see him in clear relation to cosmic events4 ,the supreme ,spirit was now envisaged as a single all-powerful ,god1 known according to his functions as ,brahma1 ,vishnu and ,siva4 ,as ,brahma1 he brought into existence three worlds--heaven1 earth and the nether regions--and also created gods or lesser divinities1 earth and nature spirits1 demons1 ogres and men themselves4 ,siva1 for his part1 was ,god the final dissolver or destroyer1 the source of reproductive energy and the inspirer of asceticism4 ,he was thought of in many forms--as a potent ascetic1 a butcher wild for blood1 a serene dancer--and in his character of regenerator was represented by his symbol1 the lingam or phallus4 ,the third aspect1 ,vishnu1 was ,god in his character of loving protector and preserver4 ,this great ,trinity was ultimately supreme but under it were a number of lesser powers4 ,those that represented the forces of good were called devas or gods4 ,they were led by their king1 ,indra1 lord of clouds1 and associated with him were gods such as ,agni 7fire71 ,varuna 7water71 ,surya the sun and ,kama the god of passion4 ,these gods lived in ,indra's heaven1 a region above the world but lower than ,vaikuntha1 the heaven of ,vishnu4 ,dancing-girls and musicians lived with them and the whole heaven resembled a majestic court on earth4 ,from this heaven the gods issued from time to time intervening in human affairs4 ,demons1 on the other hand1 were their exact opposites4 ,they represented powers of evil1 were constantly at war with the gods and took vicious pleasure in vexing or annoying the good4 ,below gods and demons were men themselves4 ,in this three-tiered universe1 transmigration of souls was still the basic fact but methods of obtaining release were now much clearer4 ,a man was born1 died and then was born again4 ,if he acted well1 did his duty and worked ceaselessly for good1 he followed what was known as the path of dharma or righteousness4 ,this ensured that at each succeeding birth he would start a stage more favourably off than in his previous existence till1 by sheer goodness of character1 he qualified for admission to ,indra's heaven and might even be accounted a god4 ,the achievement of this status1 however1 did not complete his cycle1 for the ultimate goal still remained4 ,this was the same as in earlier centuries--release from living by union with or absorption into the supreme ,spirit2 and only when the individual soul had reached this stage was the cycle of birth and re-birth completed4 ,the reverse of this process was illustrated by the fate of demons4 ,if a man lapsed from right living1 his second state was always worse than his first4 ,he might then be born in humble surroundings or if his crimes were sufficiently great1 he became a demon4 ,as such1 his capacity for evil was greatly increased and his chances of ultimate salvation correspondingly worsened4 ,yet even for demons1 the ultimate goal was the same--release from living and blissful identification with the ,supreme4 ,dharma alone1 however1 could not directly achieve this end4 ,this could be done by the path of yoga or self-discipline--a path which involved penances1 meditation and asceticism4 ,by ridding his mind of all desires and attachments1 by concentrating on pure abstractions1 the ascetic 'obtained insight which no words could express4 ,gradually plumbing the cosmic mystery1 his soul entered realms far beyond the comparatively tawdry heavens where the great gods dwelt in light and splendour4 ,going from darkness to darkness deeper yet1 he solved the mystery beyond all mysteries2 he understood1 fully and finally1 the nature of the universe and of himself and he reached a realm of truth and bliss1 beyond birth and death4 ,and with this transcendent knowledge came another realization--he was completely1 utterly1 free4 ,he had found ultimate salvation1 the final triumph of the soul4'#e ,such a complete identification with the supreme ,spirit1 however1 was not easily come by and often many existences were required before the yogi could achieve this sublime end4 ,there remained a third way--the path of bhakti or devotion to ,god4 ,if a man loved ,god not as an abstract spirit but as a loving ,person1 if he loved with intensity and singleness of heart1 adoration itself might obtain for him the same reward as a succession of good lives4 ,vishnu as protector might reward love with love and confer immediately the blessing of salvation4 ,the result1 then1 was that three courses were now open to a man and whether he followed one or other depended on his own particular cast of mind1 the degree of his will-power1 the strength of his passions and finally1 his capacity for renunciation1 righteousness and love4 ,on these qualifications the upshot would largely depend4 ,but they were not the only factors4 ,since gods and demons were part of the world1 a man could be aided or frustrated according as gods or demons chose to intervene4 ,life could1 in fact1 be viewed from two angles4 ,on the one hand it was one long effort to blend with the ,godhead--an effort which only the individual could make4 ,on the other hand1 it was a war between good and evil1 gods and demons2 and to such a contest1 ,god as ,vishnu could not remain indifferent4 ,while the forces of evil might properly be allowed to test or tax the good1 they could never be permitted completely to win the day4 ,when1 therefore1 evil appeared to be in the ascendant1 ,vishnu intervened and corrected the balance4 ,he took flesh and entering the world1 slew demons1 heartened the righteous and from time to time conferred salvation by directly exempting individuals from further re-births4 ,it is these beliefs which govern the ,mahabharata epic and provide the clue to ,krishna's role4 ,its prime subject is a feud between two families1 a feud which racks and finally destroys them4 ,at the same time1 it is very much more4 ,prior to the events narrated in the text1 ,vishnu has already undergone seven incarnations1 taking the forms of a fish1 tortoise1 boar and man-lion and later those of ,vamana the dwarf1 ,parasurama 7',rama with the ,axe'71 and finally1 the princely ,rama4 ,in each of these incarnations he has intervened and1 for the time being1 rectified the balance4 ,during the period covered by the epic1 he undergoes an eighth incarnation and it is in connection with this supremely vital intervention that ,krishna appears4 ,to understand the character which now unfolds1 we must briefly consider the central story of the ,mahabharata4 ,this is narrated in the most baffling and stupendous detail4 ,cumbrous names confront us on every side while digressions and sub-plots add to the general atmosphere of confusion and complexity4 ,it is idle to hope that this vast panorama can arouse great interest in the ,west and even in ,india it is unlikely that many would now approach its gigantic recital with premonitions of delight4 ,it is rather as a necessary background that its main outlines must be grasped1 for without them ,krishna's character and career can hardly be explained4 ,the epic begins with two rival families each possessed of a common ancestor1 ,kuru1 but standing in bitter rivalry to each other4 ,kuru is succeeded by his second son1 ,pandu1 and later by ,dhritarashtra1 his first son but blind4 ,pandu has five sons1 who are called ,pandavas after him1 while ,dhritarashtra has a hundred sons called ,kauravas after ,kuru1 their common grandfather4 ,as children the two families grow up at the same court1 but almost immediately jealousies arise which are to have a deadly outcome4 ,hatred begins when in boyish contests the ,pandavas outdo the ,kauravas4 ,the latter resent their arrogance and presently their father1 the blind king1 is persuaded to approve a plot by which the five ,pandavas will be killed4 ,they are to sleep in a house which during the night will be burnt down4 ,the plot1 however1 miscarries4 ,the house is burnt1 but unbeknown to the ,kauravas1 the five brothers escape and taking with them their mother1 ,kunti1 go for safety to the forest4 ,here they wander for a while disguised as ,brahmans or priests but reach at last the kingdom of ,panchala4 ,the ,king of ,panchala has a daughter1 ,draupadi1 whose husband is to be chosen by a public archery competition4 ,arjuna1 one of the five brothers1 wins the contest and gains her as bride4 ,the ,pandavas1 however1 are polyandrous and thus1 on being married to one brother1 ,draupadi is also married to the other four4 ,at the wedding the ,pandavas disclose their identities4 ,the ,kauravas learn that they are still alive and in due course are reconciled4 ,they reinstate the ,pandavas and give them half the kingdom4 ,before ,arjuna1 however1 can profit from the truce1 he infringes by accident his elder brother's privacy by stumbling on him while he is with their common wife4 ,as a consequence he violates a standing agreement and has no alternative but to go into exile for twelve years4 ,arjuna leaves the court1 visits other lands1 acquires a new wife and makes a new alliance4 ,in other respects1 all is well and the two families look forward to many years of peaceful co-existence4 ,the fates1 however1 seem determined on their destruction4 ,the leader of the ,pandavas is their eldest brother1 ,yudhisthira4 ,he conquers many other lands and is encouraged to claim the title1 'ruler of the world4' ,the claim is made at a great sacrifice accompanied by a feast4 ,the claim incenses the ,kauravas and once again the ancient feud revives4 ,themselves expert gamblers1 they challenge ,yudhisthira to a contest by dice4 ,yudhisthira stupidly agrees and wagering first his kingdom1 then his brothers and finally his wife1 loses all and goes again into exile4 ,with him go the other ,pandavas1 including ,arjuna who has since returned4 ,for twelve years they roam the forests1 brooding on their fate and planning revenge4 ,when their exile ends1 they at once declare war4 ,both sides seek allies1 efforts at peacemaking are foiled and the two clash on the battle-field of ,kurukshetra4 ,for eighteen days the battle rages till finally the ,pandavas are victorious4 ,their success1 however1 is at an appalling cost4 ,during the contest all five ,pandavas lose their sons4 ,the hundred sons of their rival1 the blind king ,dhritarashtra1 are dead and with a sense of tragic futility1 the epic ends4 ,it is as an actor in this tangled drama that ,krishna appears4 ,alongside the ,pandavas and the ,kauravas in ,northern ,india is a powerful people1 the ,yadavas4 ,they live by grazing cattle but possess towns including a capital1 the city of ,dwarka in ,western ,india4 ,at this capital resides their ruler or king and with him is a powerful prince1 ,krishna4 ,this ,krishna is related to the rival families1 for his father1 ,vasudeva1 is brother of ,kunti1 the ,pandavas' mother4 ,from the outset1 therefore1 he is placed in intimate proximity to the chief protagonists4 ,for the moment1 however1 he himself is not involved and it is only after the ,pandavas have gone into exile and reached the kingdom of ,panchala that he makes his entrance4 ,the occasion is the archery contest for the hand of ,draupadi4 ,krishna is there as an honoured guest and when ,arjuna makes the winning shot1 he immediately recognizes the five ,pandavas as his kinsmen although as refugees they are still disguised as ,brahmans4 ,when the assembled princes angrily protest at ,draupadi's union with a ,brahman1 and seem about to fight1 ,krishna intervenes and persuades them to accept the decision4 ,later he secretly meets the ,pandavas and sends them wedding presents4 ,already1 therefore1 he is fulfilling a significant role4 ,he is a powerful leader1 a relative of the central figures and if only because the feud is not his own1 he is above the conflict and to some extent capable of influencing its outcome4 ,his next appearance brings him closer still to the ,pandavas4 ,when ,arjuna is exiled for his breach of marriage etiquette1 he visits ,krishna in his city of ,dwarka4 ,a great festival is held and in the course of it ,arjuna falls in love with ,krishna's sister1 ,subhadra4 ,krishna favours the marriage but advises ,arjuna to marry her by capture4 ,arjuna does so and by becoming ,krishna's brother-in-law cements still further their relationship4 ,this friendship has one further consequence1 for1 after ,arjuna has completed his exile and returned to the ,pandava court1 ,krishna visits him and the two go into the country for a picnic4 ',after a few days1 ,arjuna said to ,krishna1 ,the summer days have come4 ,let us go to the ,river ,jumna1 amuse ourselves with some friends and come back in the evening4 ,krishna replied1 ,i would like that very much4 ,let us go for a bathe4 ,so ,arjuna and ,krishna set out with their friends4 ,reaching a fine spot fit for pleasure and overgrown with trees1 where several tall houses had been built1 the party went inside4 ,food and wine1 wreaths of flowers and fragrant perfumes were laid out and at once they began to frolic at their will4 ,the girls in the party with delightful rounded haunches1 large breasts and handsome eyes began to flirt as ,arjuna and ,krishna commanded4 ,some played about in the woods1 some in the water1 some inside the houses4 ,and ,draupadi and ,subhadra who were also in the party gave the girls and women costly dresses and garments4 ,then some of them began to dance1 some to sing1 some laughed and joked1 some drank wine4 ,and the houses and woods1 filled with the noise of flutes and drums1 became the very seat of pleasure4'#f ,a little later1 ,krishna is accorded special status4 ,at the sacrifice performed by ,yudhisthira as 'ruler of the world1' gifts of honour are distributed4 ,krishna is among the assembled guests and is proposed as first recipient4 ,only one person objects1 a certain king ,sisupala1 who nurses a standing grievance against him4 ,a quarrel ensues and during it ,krishna kills him4 ,krishna's priority is then acclaimed but the incident serves also to demonstrate his ability as a fighter4 ,one other aspect of ,krishna's character remains to be noted4 ,besides being a bold warrior1 he is above all an astute and able ally4 ,during the ,pandavas' final exile in the forest1 he urges them to repudiate their banishment and make war4 ,when the exile is over and war is near1 he acts as peace-maker1 urging the ,kauravas to make concessions4 ,when he is foiled by ,duryodhana1 the blind king's son1 he attempts to have him kidnapped4 ,finally1 once the great battle is joined1 he offers both sides a choice4 ,each may have the help either of himself alone or of his immediate kinsmen1 the ,vrishnis4 ,the ,vrishnis will fight in the battle1 while ,krishna himself will merely advise from a distance4 ,the ,kauravas choose the fighters1 the ,pandavas ,krishna4 ,krishna accordingly aids the ,pandavas with counsel4 ,he accompanies ,arjuna as his charioteer and during the battle is a constant advocate of treachery4 ,as ,kama1 a leading ,kaurava1 fights ,arjuna1 his chariot gets stuck and he dismounts to see to it4 ,the rules of war demand that ,arjuna should now break off but ,krishna urges him to continue and ,kama is killed unresisting4 ,similarly when ,bhima1 one of the five ,pandava brothers1 is fighting ,duryodhana with his club1 ,krishna eggs him on to deal a foul blow4 ,bhima does so and ,duryodhana dies from a broken thigh4 ,in all these encounters1 ,krishna shows himself completely amoral1 achieving his ends by the very audacity of his means4 ,so far1 ,krishna's character is merely that of a feudal magnate1 and there is nothing in his views or conduct to suggest that he is ,vishnu or ,god4 ,two incidents in the epic1 however1 suddenly reveal his true role4 ,the first is when ,yudhisthira has gambled away ,draupadi and the ,kauravas are intent on her dishonour4 ,they attempt to make her naked4 ,as one of them tries to remove her clothes1 ,draupadi beseeches ,krishna as ,vishnu to intervene and save her4 ,krishna does so and by his help she remains clothed2 however many times her dress is removed4 ,the second occasion is on the final battle-field of ,kurukshetra4 ,arjuna1 seeing so many brothers1 uncles and cousins ranged on either side is moved to pity at the senseless nature of the strife and confides his anguished doubts in ,krishna4 ,krishna seems1 at first1 to be only his friend1 his brother-in-law and adviser4 ,he points out that to a warrior nothing is nobler than a righteous war and declares1 ',do your duty always but without attachment4' ,he then advocates the two paths of yoga7knowledge7 and dharma 7righteousness74 ',even if a man falls away from the practice of yoga1 he will still win the heaven of the doers of good deeds and dwell there many long years4 ,after that1 he will be reborn into the home of pure and prosperous parents4 ,he will then regain that spiritual discernment which he acquired in his former body2 and so he will strive harder than ever for perfection4 ,because of his practices in the previous life1 he will be driven on toward union with the ,spirit1 even in spite of himself4 ,for the man who has once asked the way to the ,spirit goes farther than any mere fulfiller of the ,vedic rituals4 ,by struggling hard1 that yogi will move gradually towards perfection through many births and reach the highest goal at last#g4 ,but it is the path of bhakti or devotion to a personal ,god which commands ,krishna's strongest approval and leads him to make his startling revelation4 ',have your mind in ,me1 be devoted to ,me4 ,to ,me shall you come4 ,what is true ,i promise4 ,dear are you to ,me4 ,they who make ,me their supreme object1 they to ,me are dear4 ,though ,i am the unborn1 the changeless ,self1 ,i condition my nature and am born by my power4 ,to save the good and destroy evildoers1 to establish the right1 ,i am born from age to age4 ,he who knows this when he comes to die is not reborn but comes to ,me4' ,he speaks1 in fact1 as ,vishnu himself4 ,this declaration is to prove the vital clue to ,krishna's character4 ,it is to be expanded in later texts and is to account for the fervour with which he is soon to be adored4 ,for the present1 however1 his claim is in the nature of an aside4 ,after the battle1 he resumes his life as a prince and it is more for his shrewdness as a councillor than his teaching as ,god that he is honoured and revered4 ,yet special majesty surrounds him and when1 thirty-six years after the conflict1 a hunter mistakes him for a deer and kills him by shooting him in the right foot#h1 the ,pandavas are inconsolable4 ,they retreat to the ,himalayas1 die one by one and are translated to ,indra's heaven#i4 ,such an account is obviously a great advance on the ,chandogya ,upanishad4 ,yet1 as we ponder its intricate drama1 we are faced with several intractable issues4 ,it is true that a detailed character has emerged1 a figure who is identified with definite actions and certain clear-cut principles4 ,it is true also that his character as ,vishnu has been asserted4 ,but it is ,krishna the feudal hero who throughout the story takes1 by far1 the leading part4 ,between this hero and ,krishna the ,god1 there is no very clear connection4 ,the circumstances in which ,vishnu has taken form as ,krishna are nowhere made plain4 ,except on the two occasions mentioned1 ,krishna is apparently not recognized as ,god by others and does not himself claim this status4 ,indeed it is virtually only as an afterthought that the epic is used to transmit his great sermon1 and almost by accident that he becomes the most significant figure in the story4 ,even the sermon at first sight seems at variance with his actions as a councillor--his repeated recourse to treachery ill consorting with the paramountcy of duty4 ,in point of fact1 such a conflict can be easily reconciled for if ,god is supreme1 he is above and beyond morals4 ,he can act in any way he pleases and yet1 as ,god1 can expect and receive the highest reverence4 ,god1 in fact1 is superior to ethics4 ,and this viewpoint is1 in fact1 to prove a basic assumption in later versions of the story4 ,here it is sufficient to note that while the ,mahabharata describes these two contrasting modes of behaviour1 no attempt is made to face the exact issue4 ,krishna as ,god has been introduced rather than explained and we are left with the feeling that much more than has been recorded remains to be said4 ,this feeling may well have dogged the writers who put the ,mahabharata into its present shape for1 a little later1 possibly during the sixth century ,a4,d41 an appendix was added4 ,this appendix was called the ,harivansa or ,genealogy of ,krishna#aj and in it were provided all those details so manifestly wanting in the epic itself4 ,the exact nature of ,krishna is explained--the circumstances of his birth1 his youth and childhood1 the whole being welded into a coherent scheme4 ,in this story ,krishna the feudal magnate takes a natural place but there is no longer any contradiction between his character as a prince and his character as ,god4 ,he is1 above all1 an incarnation of ,vishnu and his immediate purpose is to vanquish a particular tyrant and hearten the righteous4 ,this viewpoint is maintained in the ,vishnu ,purana1 another text of about the sixth century and is developed and illustrated in the tenth and eleventh books of the ,bhagavata ,purana4 ,it is this latter text--a vast compendium of perhaps the ninth or tenth century--which affords the fullest account in literature of ,krishna's story4 ,footnote #c3 ,note #c4 ,footnote #d3 ,note #d4 ,footnote #e3 ,a4,l4 ,basham1 ,the ,wonder that was ,india1 #bde4 ,footnote #f3 ,mahabharata1 ,adi ,parva1 ,section #bbd 7,roy1 ,i1 #fae-af74 ,footnote #g3 ,c4 ,isherwood and ,s4 ,prabhavananda1 ,the ,song of ,god1 ,bhagavad-,gita1 #hf-g4 ,footnote #h3 ,plate #b4 ,footnote #i3 ,note #e4 ,footnote #aj3 ,note #f4 ,,iii ,,the ,,bhagavata ,,purana3 ,,the ,,cowherd 7i7 ,birth and ,early ,adventures ,the ,bhagavata ,purana is couched in the form of a dialogue between a sage and a king4 ,the king is the successor of the ,pandavas but is doomed to die within a week for having by accident insulted a holy ascetic4 ,to ensure his salvation1 he spends the week listening to the ,bhagavata ,purana and concentrating his mind on ,krishna whom he declares to be his helper4#aa ,book ,ten begins by describing the particular situation which leads to ,krishna's birth4 ,the scene is ,mathura1 a town in northern ,india1 adjoining the kingdom of the ,kauravas4 ,the surrounding country is known as ,braj and its ruling families are the ,yadavas4 ,just outside ,mathura is the district of ,gokula which is inhabited by cowherds4 ,these are on friendly terms with the ,yadavas1 but are inferior to them in caste and status4 ,the time is some fifty years or more before the battle of ,kurukshetra and the ruling king is ,ugrasena4 ,ugrasena's queen is ,pavanarekha and a mishap to her sets in train a series of momentous events4 ,one day she is taking the air in a park1 when she misses her way and finds herself alone4 ,a demon1 ,drumalika1 is passing and1 entranced by her grace1 decides to ravish her4 ,he takes the form of her husband1 ,ugrasena1 and despite ,pavanarekha's protests proceeds to enjoy her4 ,afterwards he assumes his true shape4 ,pavanarekha is dismayed but the demon tells her that he has given her a son who will 'vanquish the nine divisions of the earth1 rule supreme and fight ,krishna4' ,pavanarekha tells her maids that a monkey has been troubling her4 ,ten months later a son is born4 ,he is named ,kansa and the court rejoices4 ,as ,kansa grows up he reveals his demon's nature4 ,he ignores his father's words1 murders children and defeats in battle ,king ,jarasandha of ,magadha4#ab ,the latter gives him two daughters in marriage4 ,he then deposes his father1 throws him into prison1 assumes his powers and bans the worship of ,vishnu4 ,as his crimes increase1 he extends his conquests4 ,at last ,earth can bear the burden no longer and appeals to the gods to approach the supreme ,deity1 ,brahma1 to rid her of the load4 ,brahma as ,creator can hardly do this1 but ,vishnu as ,preserver agrees to intervene and plans are laid4 ,among the ,yadava nobility are two upright persons4 ,the first is ,devaka1 the younger brother of ,king ,ugrasena and thus an uncle to the tyrant4 ,the second is a certain ,vasudeva4 ,devaka has six daughters1 all of whom he marries to ,vasudeva4 ,the seventh is called ,devaki4 ,vishnu announces that ,devaki will also be married to ,vasudeva1 and plucking out two of his hairs--one black and one white--he declares that these will be the means by which he will ease ,earth's burden4 ,the white hair is part of ,sesha1 the great serpent1 which is itself a part of ,vishnu and this will be impersonated as ,devaki's seventh child4 ,the black hair is ,vishnu's own self which will be impersonated as ,devaki's eighth child4 ,the child from the white hair will be known as ,balarama and the child from the black hair as ,krishna4 ,as ,krishna1 ,vishnu will then kill ,kansa4 ,earth is gratified and retires and the stage is set for ,krishna's coming4 ,devaki1 with ,kansa's approval1 is now married to ,vasudeva4 ,the wedding is being celebrated in the grandest manner when a voice from heaven is heard saying1 ',kansa1 the eighth son of her whom you are now escorting will cause your destruction4 ,you shall die at his hand4' ,kansa is greatly alarmed and is about to slay ,devaki when ,vasudeva agrees to yield him all their sons4 ,kansa accordingly spares her4 ,each of ,devaki's first six sons1 however1 is delivered up at birth and each is slaughtered4 ,as the time for fulfilling the prophecy approaches1 ,kansa grows fearful4 ,he learns that gods and goddesses are being born as cowherds and cowgirls and1 interpreting this as a sign that ,krishna's birth is near1 he commands his men to slaughter every cowherd in the city4 ,a great round-up ensues and many cowherds are killed4 ,the leading cowherd is a wealthy herdsman named ,nanda1 who lives with his wife ,yasoda in the country district of ,gokula4 ,although of lower caste1 he is ,vasudeva's chief friend and in view of the imminent dangers confronting his family1 it is to ,nanda that ,vasudeva now sends one of his other wives1 ,rohini4 ,devaki has meanwhile conceived her seventh son1 the white hair of ,vishnu1 and soon to be recognized as ,krishna's brother4 ,to avoid his murder by ,kansa1 ,vishnu has the foetus transferred from ,devaki's womb to that of ,rohini1 and the child1 named ,balarama1 is born to ,rohini1 ,kansa being informed that ,devaki has miscarried4 ,the eighth pregnancy now occurs4 ,kansa increases his precautions4 ,devaki and ,vasudeva are handcuffed and manacled4 ,guards are mounted and besides these1 elephants1 lions and dogs are placed outside4 ,the unborn child1 however1 tells them not to fear and ,devaki and ,vasudeva compose their minds4 ,krishna is now born1 dark as a cloud and with eyes like lotuses4 ,he is clad in a yellow vest and wears a crown4 ,he takes the form of ,vishnu and commands ,vasudeva to bear him to ,nanda's house in ,gokula and substitute him for the infant daughter who has just been born to ,yasoda1 ,nanda's wife4 ,devaki and ,vasudeva worship him4 ,the vision then fades and they discover the new-born child crying at their side4 ,they debate what to do--,devaki urging ,vasudeva to take the baby to ,nanda's house where ,rohini1 his other wife1 is still living and where ,yasoda will receive it4 ,vasudeva is wondering how to escape when his handcuffs and chains fall off1 the doors open and the guards are seen to be asleep4 ,placing ,krishna in a basket1 he puts it on his head and sets out for ,gokula4 ,as he goes1 lions roar1 the rain pours down and the river ,jumna faces him4 ,there is no help but to ford it and ,vasudeva accordingly enters the stream4 ,the water gets higher and higher until it reaches his nose4 ,when he can go no farther1 the infant ,krishna stretches out a foot1 calms the river and the water subsides4 ,vasudeva now arrives at ,nanda's house where he finds that ,yasoda has borne a girl and is in a trance4 ,vasudeva puts ,krishna beside her1 takes up the baby girl1 recrosses the river and joins ,devaki in her prison4 ,the doors shut1 the handcuffs and fetters close on them again and as the baby starts to cry1 the guards awake4 ,a sentry then carries ,kansa the news4 ,kansa hurries to the spot1 seizes the child and tries to dash it on a stone4 ,as he does so the child becomes the goddess ,devi and exclaiming that ,kansa's enemy is born elsewhere and nothing can save him1 vanishes into heaven4#ac ,kansa is greatly shaken and orders all male children to be killed1#ad but releases ,vasudeva and ,devaki4 ,meanwhile ,nanda1 the rich herdsman1 is celebrating the birth4 ,pandits and astrologers are sent for1 the child's horoscope is cast and his destiny foretold4 ,he will be a second deity like ,brahma himself4 ,he will destroy demons1 relieve the land of ,braj of all its cares1 be called the lord of the cowgirls and be praised the whole world over4 ,nanda promises to dedicate cows1 loads the ,brahmans with presents1 and summons all the musicians and singers of the city4 ,singing1 dancing and music break forth1 the courtyards throng with people1 and the cowherds of ,gokula come in with their wives4 ,on their heads are pitchers full of curd and as a magical means of ensuring prosperity1 they proceed to throw it over the gathering4 ,nanda presents them with cloth and betel and they depart elated at the news4 ,some days later ,nanda learns of ,kansa's order to seize all male children and1 deeming it prudent to offer presents1 he collects the cowherds in a body and goes to ,mathura to pay tribute4 ,kansa receives him and on his way back ,vasudeva meets him at the river4 ,he dare not disclose his secret that ,krishna is not ,nanda's son but his own4 ,at the same time he cannot suppress his anxiety as a father4 ,he contents himself by telling ,nanda that demons and evil spirits are abroad seeking to destroy young children and urges him to return to ,gokula as quickly as possible4 ,the ,purana now concentrates on two main themes3 on ,krishna's infancy in ,gokula1 dilating on his baby pranks1 his capacity for mischief1 the love he arouses in the hearts of his foster-mother1 ,yasoda1 and of all the married cowgirls and1 secondly1 on his supernatural powers and skill in ridding the country of troublesome demons4 ,these are at first shown as hostile to ,krishna only1 but as the story unfolds1 his role gradually widens and we see him acting as the cowherds' ally1 protecting them from harm1 attacking the forces of evil and thus fulfilling the supreme purpose for which he has been born4 ,from time to time the cowherds realize that ,krishna is ,vishnu and adore him as ,god4 ,then amnesia intervenes4 ,they retain no recollection of the vision and see him simply as a youthful cowherd1 charming in manner1 whose skill in slaying demons arouses their love4 ,in this way ,krishna lives among them--in fact1 ,god1 but in the eyes of the people1 a young boy4#ae ,the first demon to threaten ,krishna's life is a huge ogress named ,putana4 ,her role is that of child-killer--any child who is suckled in the night by ,putana instantly dying4 ,putana assumes the form of a sweet and charming girl1 dabs her breasts with poison and while ,nanda is still at ,mathura1 comes gaily to his house4 ,entranced by her appearance1 ,yasoda allows her to hold the baby ,krishna and then to suckle him4 ,krishna1 however1 is impervious to the poison1 and fastening his mouth to her breast1 he begins to suck her life out with the milk4 ,putana1 feeling her life going1 rushes wildly from the village1 but to no avail4 ,krishna continues sucking and the ogress dies4 ,when ,yasoda and ,rohini catch up with her1 they find her huge carcass lying on the ground with ,krishna still sucking her breast4 ',taking him up quickly and kissing him1 they pressed him to their bosoms and hurried home4' ,nanda now arrives from ,mathura and congratulates the cowherds on their escape--so great was ,putana's size that her body might have crushed and overwhelmed the whole colony4 ,he then arranges for her burning but as her flesh is being consumed1 a strange perfume is noticed for ,krishna1 when killing her1 had granted her salvation4 ,a second demon now intervenes4 ,it is twenty-seven days since ,krishna's birth4 ,brahmans and cowherds have been summoned to a feast1 the cowgirls are singing songs and everyone is laughing and eating4 ,krishna for the time being is out of their minds1 having been put to sleep beneath a heavy cart loaded with pitchers4 ,a little later he wakes up1 begins to cry for the breast and finding no one there wriggles about and starts to suck a toe4 ,at this moment the demon1 ,saktasura1 is flying through the sky4 ,he notices the child and alights on the cart4 ,his weight cracks it but before the cart can collapse1 ,krishna kicks out so sharply that the demon dies and the cart falls to pieces4 ,hearing a great crash1 the cowgirls dash to the spot1 marvelling that although the cart is in splinters and all the pots broken1 ,krishna has survived4 ,the third attack occurs when ,krishna is five months old4 ,yasoda is sitting with him in her lap when she notices that he has suddenly become very heavy4 ,at the same time1 the whirlwind demon1 ,trinavarta1 raises a great storm4 ,the sky darkens1 trees are uprooted and thatch dislodged4 ,as ,yasoda sets ,krishna down1 ,trinavarta seizes him and whirls him into the air4 ,yasoda finds him suddenly gone and calls out1 ',krishna1 ,krishna4' ,the cowgirls and cowherds join her in the search1 peering for him in the gusty gloom of the dark storm4 ,full of misery1 they search the forest and can find him nowhere4 ,krishna1 riding through the air1 however1 can see their distress4 ,he twists ,trinavarta round1 forces him down and dashes him to death against a stone4 ,as he does so1 the storm lightens1 the wind drops and the cowherds and cowgirls regain their homes4 ,there they discover a demon lying dead with ,krishna playing on its chest4 ,filled with relief1 ,yasoda picks him up and hugs him to her breast4 ,vasudeva now instructs his family priest1 ,garga the sage1 to go to ,gokula1 meet ,nanda and give ,krishna and ,balarama proper names4 ,rohini1 he points out1 has had a son1 ,balarama1 and ,nanda has also had a son1 ,krishna4 ,it is time that each should be formally named4 ,the sage is delighted to receive the commission and on arriving is warmly welcomed4 ,he declines1 however1 to announce the children's names in public1 fearing that his connection with ,vasudeva will cause ,raja ,kansa to connect ,krishna with the eighth child--his fated enemy4 ,nanda accordingly takes him inside his house and there the sage names the two children4 ,balarama is given seven names1 but ,krishna's names1 he declares1 are numberless4 ,since1 however1 ,krishna was once born in ,vasudeva's house1 he is called ,vasudeva4 ,as to their qualities1 the sage goes on1 both are gods4 ,it is impossible to understand their state1 but having killed ,kansa1 they will remove the burdens of the world4 ,he then goes silently away4 ,this is the first time that ,nanda and ,yasoda are told the true facts of ,krishna's birth4 ,they do not1 however1 make any comment and for the time being it is as if they are still quite ignorant of ,krishna's destiny4 ,they continue to treat him as their son and no hint escapes them of his true identity4 ,meanwhile ,krishna1 along with ,rohini's son1 ,balarama1 is growing up as a baby4 ,he crawls about the courtyard1 lisps his words1 plays with toys and pulls the calves' tails1 ,yasoda and ,rohini all the time showering upon him their doting love4 ,when he can walk1 ,krishna starts to go about with other children and there then ensues a series of naughty pranks4 ,his favourite pastime is to raid the houses of the cowgirls1 pilfer their cream and curds1 steal butter and upset milk pails4 ,when1 as sometimes happens1 the butter is hung from the roof1 they pile up some of the household furniture4 ,one of the boys then mounts upon it1 another climbs on his shoulders1 and in this way gets the butter down4#af ,as the pilfering increases1 the married cowgirls learn that ,krishna is the ringleader and contrive one day to catch him in the act4 ',you little thief1' they say1 ',at last we've caught you4 ,so it's you who took our butter and curds4 ,you won't escape us now4' ,and taking him by the hand they march him to ,yasoda4 ,krishna1 however1 is not to be outwitted4 ,employing his supernatural powers1 he substitutes the cowgirls' own sons for himself and while they go to ,yasoda1 himself slips off and joins his playmates in the fields4 ,when the cowgirls reach ,yasoda1 they complain of ,krishna's thefts and tell her that at last they have caught him and here he is4 ,yasoda answers1 ',but this is not ,krishna4 ,these are your own sons4' ,the cowgirls look at the children1 discover the trick1 are covered in confusion and burst out laughing4 ,yasoda then sends for ,krishna and forbids him to steal from other people's houses4 ,krishna pretends to be highly indignant4 ,he calls the cowgirls liars and accuses them of always making him do their work4 ,if he is not having to hold a milk pail or a calf1 he says1 he is doing a household chore or even keeping watch for them while they neglect their work and gossip4 ,the cowgirls listen in astonishment and go away4 ,another day ,krishna is playing in a courtyard and takes it into his head to eat some dirt4 ,yasoda is told of it and in a fit of anger runs towards him with a stick4 ',why are you eating mud8' she cries4 ',what mud8' says ,krishna4 ',the mud one of your friends has just told me you have eaten4 ,if you haven't eaten it1 open your mouth4' ,krishna opens it and looking inside1 ,yasoda sees the three worlds4 ,in a moment of perception1 she realizes that ,krishna is ,god4 ',what am ,i doing in looking upon the ,lord of the three worlds as my son8' she cries4 ,then the vision fades and she picks up ,krishna and kisses him4 ,another day1 ,yasoda asks the married cowgirls to assist her in churning milk4 ,they clean the house1 set up a large vessel1 prepare the churning staff and string1 and start to churn4 ,krishna is awakened by the noise and finding no one about comes crying to ,yasoda4 ',i am hungry1 mother1' he says4 ',why have you not given me anything to eat8' ,and in a fit of petulance he starts to throw the butter about and kick over the pitchers4 ,yasoda tells him not to be so naughty1 sits him on her lap and gives him some milk4 ,while she is doing this1 a cowgirl tells her that the milk has boiled over and ,yasoda jumps up leaving ,krishna alone4 ,while she is away he breaks the pots1 scatters the curds1 makes a mess of all the rooms and1 taking a pot full of butter1 runs away with it into the fields4 ,there he seats himself on an upturned mortar1 assembles the other boys and vastly pleased with himself1 laughingly shares the butter out4 ,when ,yasoda returns and sees the mess1 she seizes a stick and goes to look for ,krishna4 ,she cannot find it in her heart1 however1 to be angry for long and when ,krishna says1 ',mother1 let me go4 ,i did not do it1' she laughs and throws the stick away4 ,then pretending to be still very angry1 she takes him home and ties him to a mortar4 ,a little later a great crash is heard4 ,two huge trees have fallen and when the cowherds hurry to the spot1 they find that ,krishna has dragged the mortar between the trunks1 pulled them down and is quietly sitting between them4#ag ,two youths--by name ,nala and ,kuvara--have been imprisoned in the trees and ,krishna's action has released them4 ,when she sees that ,krishna is safe1 ,yasoda unties him from the mortar and hugs him to her4 ,this incident of the trees now forces ,nanda to make a decision4 ,the various happenings have been profoundly unnerving and he feels that it is no longer safe to stay in ,gokula4 ,he decides therefore to move a day's march farther on1 to cross the river and settle in the forests of ,brindaban4 ,the cowherds accordingly load up their possessions on carts and the move ensues4#ah ,the story now enters its second phase4 ,krishna is no longer a mischievous baby1 indulging in tantrums yet wringing the heart with his childish antics4 ,he is now five years old and of an age to make himself useful4 ,he asks to be allowed to graze the calves4 ,at first ,yasoda is unwilling4 ',we have got so many servants1' she says4 ',it is their job to take the calves out4 ,why go yourself8 ,you are the protection of my eye-lids and dearer to me than my eyes4' ,krishna1 however1 insists and in the end she entrusts him and ,balarama to the other young cowherds1 telling them on no account to leave them alone in the forest1 but to bring them safely home4 ,her words are1 in fact1 only too necessary1 for ,kansa1 the tyrant king1 is still in quest of the child who is to kill him4 ,his demon minions are still on the alert1 attacking any likely boy1 and as ,krishna plays with the cowherds and tends the calves1 he suffers a further series of attacks4 ,a cow demon1 ,vatsasura1 tries to mingle with the herd4 ,the calves sense its presence and as it sidles up1 ,krishna seizes it by the hind leg1 whirls it round his head and dashes it to death4 ,a crane demon1 ,bakasura1 then approaches4 ,the cowherds recognize it1 but while they are wondering how to escape1 the crane opens its beak and engulfs ,krishna4 ,krishna1 however1 becomes so hot that the crane cannot retain him4 ,it lets him go4 ,krishna then tears its beak in two1 rounds up the calves and taking the cowherd boys with him1 returns home4 ,another day ,krishna is out in the forest with the cowherds and the calves1 when a snake demon1 ,ugrasura1 sucks them into its mouth4 ,krishna expands his body to such an extent that the snake bursts4 ,the calves and cowherd children come tumbling out and all praise ,krishna for saving them4 ,on the way back1 ,krishna suggests that they should have a picnic and choosing a great kadam tree1 they sweep the place clean1 set out their food and proceed to enjoy it4 ,as they eat1 the gods look down1 noting how handsome the young ,krishna has grown4 ,among the gods is ,brahma1 who decides to tease ,krishna by hiding the calves while the cowherd children are eating4#ai ,he takes them to a cave and when ,krishna goes in search of them1 hides the cowherd children as well4 ,krishna1 however1 is not to be deterred4 ,creating duplicates of every calf and boy he brings them home4 ,no one detects that anything is wrong and for a year they live as if nothing has happened4 ,brahma has meanwhile sunk himself in meditation1 but suddenly recalls his prank and hurries out to set matters right4 ,he is astonished to find the original calves and children still sleeping in the cave1 while their counterparts roam the forest4 ,he humbly worships ,krishna1 restores the original calves and children and returns to his abode4 ,when the cowherd children awake1 ,krishna shows them the calves4 ,no one realizes what has happened4 ,the picnic continues and laughing and playing they go home4 ,we now enter the third phase of ,krishna's childhood4 ,he is eight years old and is therefore competent to graze not merely the calves but the cows as well4#bj ,nanda accordingly performs the necessary ritual and ,krishna goes with the cowherds to the forest4 ,an idyllic phase in ,krishna's life now starts4 ',at this time ,krishna and ,balarama1 accompanied by the cow-boys1 traversed the forests1 that echoed with the hum of bees and the peacock's cry4 ,sometimes they sang in chorus or danced together2 sometimes they sought shelter from the cold beneath the trees2 sometimes they decorated themselves with flowery garlands1 sometimes with peacocks' feathers2 sometimes they stained themselves of various hues with the minerals of the mountain2 sometimes weary they reposed on beds of leaves1 and sometimes imitated in mirth the muttering of the thundercloud2 sometimes they excited their juvenile associates to sing1 and sometimes they mimicked the cry of the peacock with their pipes4 ,in this manner participating in various feelings and emotions1 and affectionately attached to each other1 they wandered1 sporting and happy1 through the wood4 ,at eveningtide came ,krishna and ,balarama1 like to cowboys1 along with the cows and the cowherds4 ,at eveningtide the two immortals1 having come to the cow-pens1 joined heartily in whatever sports amused the sons of the herdsmen4'#ba ,one day as they are grazing the cows1 they play a game4 ,krishna divides the cows and cowherds into two sides and collecting flowers and fruits pretends that they are weapons4 ,they then stage a mock battle1 pelting each other with the fruits4 ,a little later ,balarama takes them to a grove of palm trees4 ,the ass demon1 ,dhenuka1 guards it4 ,balarama1 however1 seizes it by its hind legs1 twists it round and hurls it into a high tree4 ,from the tree the demon falls down dead4 ,when ,dhenuka's companion asses hasten to the spot1 ,krishna kills them also4 ,the cowherds then pick the coconuts to their hearts' content1 fill a quantity of baskets and having grazed the cows1 go strolling home4 ,the next morning ,krishna rises early1 calls the cowherds and takes the cows to the forest4 ,as they are grazing them by the ,jumna1 they reach a dangerous whirlpool4 ,in this whirlpool lives the giant snake1 ,kaliya1 whose poison has befouled the water1 curdling it into a great froth4 ,the cowherds and the cattle drink some of it1 are taken ill1 but revive at ,krishna's glance4 ,they then play ball4 ,a solitary kadam tree is on the bank4 ,krishna climbs it and a cowherd throws the ball up to him4 ,the ball goes into the water and ,krishna1 thinking this the moment for quelling the great snake1 plunges in after it4 ,kaliya detects that an intruder has entered the pool1 begins to spout poison and fire and encircles ,krishna in its coils4 ,in their alarm the cowherds send word to ,nanda and along with ,yasoda1 ,rohini and the other cowgirls1 he hastens to the scene4 ,krishna can no longer be seen and in her agitation ,yasoda is about to throw herself in4 ,krishna1 however1 is merely playing with the snake4 ,in a moment he expands his body1 jumps from the coils and begins to dance on the snake's heads4 ',having the weight of three worlds1' the ,purana says1 ',krishna was very heavy4' ,the snake fails to sustain this dancing burden1 its heads droop and blood flows from its tongues4 ,it is about to die when the snake-queens bow at ,krishna's feet and implore his mercy4 ,krishna relents1 spares the snake's life but banishes it to a distant island4#bb ,he then leaves the river1 but the exhaustion of the cowherds and cowgirls is so great that they decide to stay in the forest for the night and return to ,brindaban next morning4 ,their trials1 however1 are far from over4 ,at midnight there is a heavy storm and a huge conflagration4 ,scarlet flames leap up1 dense smoke engulfs the forest and many cattle are burnt alive4 ,finding themselves in great danger1 ,nanda1 ,yasoda and the cowherds call on ,krishna to save them4 ,krishna quietly rises up1 sucks the fire into his mouth and ends the blaze4 ,the hot weather now comes4 ,trees are heavy with blossom1 peacocks strut in the glades and a general lethargy seizes the cowherds4 ,one day ,krishna and his friends are out with the cattle when ,pralamba1 a demon in human form1 comes to join them4 ,krishna warns ,balarama of the demon's presence and tells him to await an opportunity to kill him4 ,he then divides the cowherds into two groups and starts them on the game of guessing fruits and flowers4 ,krishna's side loses and as a penalty they have to run a certain distance carrying ,balarama's side on their shoulders4 ,pralamba carries ,balarama4 ,he runs so fast that he quickly outstrips the others4 ,as he reaches the forest1 he changes size1 becoming 'large as a black hill4' ,he is about to kill ,balarama when ,balarama himself rains blows upon him and kills him instead4#bc ,while this is happening1 the cows get lost1 another forest fire ensues and ,krishna has once again to intervene4 ,he extinguishes the fire1 regains the cattle and escorts the cowherds to their homes4#bd ,when the others hear what has happened1 they are filled with wonder 'but obtain no clue to the actions of ,krishna4' ,during all this time1 ,krishna as 'son' of the wealthiest and most influential cowherd1 ,nanda1 has been readily accepted by the cowherd children as their natural leader4 ,his lack of fear1 his bravery in coping with demons1 his resourcefulness in extricating the cowherds from awkward situations1 his complete self-confidence and finally his princely bearing have revealed him as someone altogether above the ordinary4 ,from time to time he has disclosed his true nature as ,vishnu but almost immediately has exercised his 'illusory' power and prevented the cowherds from remembering it4 ,he has consequently lived among them as ,god but their love and admiration are still for him as a boy4 ,it is at this point that the ,purana now moves to what is perhaps its most significant phase--a description of ,krishna's effects on the cowgirls4 ,footnote #aa3 ,note #g4 ,footnote #ab3 ,magadha--a region corresponding to present-day ,south ,bihar4 ,footnote #ac3 ,plate #c4 ,footnote #ad3 ,note #h4 ,footnote #ae3 ,note #i4 ,footnote #af3 ,plate #d4 ,footnote #ag3 ,plate #e4 ,footnote #ah3 ,plate #f4 ,in the ,harivansa1 the cause of the migration is given as a dangerous influx of wolves4 ,footnote #ai3 ,note #aj4 ,footnote #bj3 ,plate #g4 ,footnote #ba3 ,note #g4 ,footnote #bb3 ,plate #h4 ,footnote #bc3 ,plate #i4 ,footnote #bd3 ,plate #aj4 7ii7 ,the ,loves of the ,cowgirls ,we have seen how during his infancy ,krishna's pranks have already made him the darling of the women4 ,as he grows up1 he acquires a more adult charm4 ,in years he is still a boy but we are suddenly confronted with what is to prove the very heart of the story--his romances with the cowgirls4 ,although all of them are married1 the cowgirls find his presence irresistible and despite the warnings of morality and the existence of their husbands1 each falls utterly in love with him4 ,as ,krishna wanders in the forest1 the cowgirls can talk of nothing but his charms4 ,they do their work but their thoughts are on him4 ,they stay at home but all the time each is filled with desperate longing4 ,one day ,krishna plays on his flute in the forest4 ,playing the flute is the cowherds' special art and ,krishna has1 therefore1 learnt it in his childhood4 ,but1 as in everything else1 his skill is quite exceptional and ,krishna's playing has thus a beauty all its own4 ,from where they are working the cowgirls hear it and at once are plunged in agitation4 ,they gather on the road and say to each other1 ',krishna is dancing and singing in the forest and will not be home till evening4 ,only then shall we see him and be happy4' ,one cowgirl says1 ',that happy flute to be played on by ,krishna6 ,little wonder that having drunk the nectar of his lips the flute should trill like the clouds4 ,alas6 ,krishna's flute is dearer to him than we are for he keeps it with him night and day4 ,the flute is our rival4 ,never is ,krishna parted from it4' ,a second cowgirl speaks4 ',it is because the flute continually thought of ,krishna that it gained this bliss4' ,and a third says1 ',oh6 why has ,krishna not made us into flutes that we might stay with him day and night8' ,the situation in fact has changed overnight for far from merely appealing to the cowgirls' maternal instincts1 ,krishna is now the darling object of their most intense passion4 ,faced with this situation1 the cowgirls discuss how best to gain ,krishna as their lover4 ,they recall that bathing in the early winter is believed to wipe out sin and fulfil the heart's desires4 ,they accordingly go to the river ,jumna1 bathe in its waters and after making clay images of ,parvati1 ,siva's consort1 pray to her to make ,krishna theirs4 ,they go on doing this for many days4 ,one day they choose a part of the river where there is a steep bank4 ,taking off their clothes they leave them on the grass verge1 enter the water and swim around calling out their love for ,krishna4 ,unknown to them1 ,krishna is in the vicinity and is grazing the cows4 ,he steals quietly up1 sees them in the river1 makes their clothes into a bundle and then climbs up with it into a tree4 ,when the cowgirls come out of the water1 they cannot find their clothes until at last one of them spies ,krishna sitting in the tree4 ,the cowgirls hurriedly squat down in the water entreating ,krishna to return their clothes4 ,krishna1 however1 tells them to come up out of the water and ask him one by one4 ,the cowgirls say1 ',but this will make us naked4 ,you are making an end of our friendship4' ,krishna says1 ',then you shall not have your clothes back4' ,the cowgirls answer1 ',why do you treat us so8 ,it is only for you that we have bathed all these days4' ,krishna answers1 ',if that is really so1 then do not be bashful or deceive me4 ,come and take your clothes4' ,finding no alternative1 the cowgirls argue amongst themselves that since ,krishna already knows the secrets of their minds and bodies1 there is no point in being ashamed before him1 and they come up out of the water shielding their nakedness with their hands4#be ,krishna tells them to raise their hands and then he will return their clothes4 ,the cowgirls do so begging him not to make fun of them and to give them at least something in return4 ,krishna now hands the clothes back giving as excuse for his conduct the following somewhat specious reason4 ',i was only giving you a lesson1' he says4 ',the god ,varuna lives in water1 so if anyone goes naked into it he loses his character4 ,this was a secret1 but now you know it4' ,then he relents4 ',i have told you this because of your love4 ,go home now but come back in the early autumn and we will dance together4' ,hearing this the cowgirls put on their clothes and wild with love return to their village4 ,at this point the cowgirls' love for ,krishna is clearly physical4 ,although precocious in his handling of the situation1 ,krishna is still the rich herdsman's handsome son and it is as this rather than as ,god that they regard him4 ,yet the position is never wholly free from doubt for in loving ,krishna as a youth1 it is as if they are from time to time aware of adoring him as ,god4 ,no precise identifications are made and yet so strong are their passions that seemingly only ,god himself could evoke them4 ,and although no definite explanation is offered1 it is perhaps this same idea which underlies the following incident4 ,one day ,krishna is in the forest when his cowherd companions complain of feeling hungry4 ,krishna observes smoke rising from the direction of ,mathura and infers that the ,brahmans are cooking food preparatory to making sacrifice4 ,he asks the cowherds to tell them that ,krishna is hungry and would like some of this food4 ,the ,brahmans of ,mathura angrily spurn the request1 saying ',who but a low cowherd would ask for food in the midst of a sacrifice8' ',go and ask their wives1' ,krishna says1 'for being kind and virtuous they will surely give you some4' ,krishna's power with women is then demonstrated once more4 ,his fame as a stealer of hearts has preceded him and the cowherds have only to mention his name for the wives of the ,brahmans to run to serve him4 ,they bring out gold dishes1 load them with food1 brush their husbands aside and hurry to the forest4 ,one husband stops his wife1 but rather than be left behind the woman leaves her body and reaches ,krishna before the others4 ,when the women arrive they marvel at ,krishna's beauty4 ',he is ,nanda's son1' they say4 ',we heard his name and everything else was driven from our minds4 ,let us gaze on this darling object of our lives4 ,o ,krishna1 it is due to you that we have seen you and thus got rid of all our sins4 ,those stupid ,brahmans1 our husbands1 mistook you for a mere man4 ,but you are ,god4 ,as ,god they offer to you prayers1 penance1 sacrifice and love4 ,how then can they deny you food8' ,krishna replies that they should not worship him for he is only the child of the cowherd1 ,nanda4 ,he was hungry and they took pity on him1 and he only regrets that being far from home he cannot return their hospitality4 ,they must now go home as their presence is needed for the sacrifices and their husbands must still be waiting4 ,so cool an answer dismays the women and they say1 ',great king1 we loved your lotus-like face4 ,we came to you despite our families4 ,they tried to stop us but we ignored them4 ,if they do not take us back1 where shall we go8 ,and one of us1 prevented by her husband1 gave her life rather than not see you4' ,at this ,krishna smiles1 reveals the woman and says1 ',whoever loves ,god never dies4 ,she was here before you4' ,krishna then eats the food and assuring them that their husbands will say nothing1 sends them back to ,mathura4 ,when they arrive1 they find the ,brahmans chastened and contrite--cursing their folly in having failed to recognize ,krishna as ,god and envious of their wives for having seen him and given him food4 ,having humbled the ,brahmans1 ,krishna now turns to the gods1 choosing ,indra1 their chief1 for attack4 ,the moment is his annual worship when the cowherds offer sweets1 rice1 saffron1 sandal and incense4 ,seeing them busy1 ,krishna asks ,nanda what is the point of all their preparations4 ,what good can ,indra really do8 he asks4 ,he is only a god1 not ,god himself4 ,he is often worsted by demons and abjectly put to flight4 ,in fact he has no power at all4 ,men prosper because of their virtues or their fates1 not because of ,indra4 ,as cowherds1 their business is to carry on agriculture and trade and to tend cows and ,brahmans4 ,their earliest books1 the ,vedas1 require them not to abandon their family customs and ,krishna then cites as an ancient practice the custom of placating the spirits of the forests and hills4 ,this custom1 he says1 they have wrongly superseded in favour of ,indra and they must now revive it4 ,nanda sees the force of ,krishna's remarks and holds a meeting4 ',do not brush aside his words as those of a mere boy1' he says4 ',if we face the facts1 we have really nothing to do with the ruler of the gods4 ,it is on the forests1 rivers and the great hill1 ,govardhana1 that we really depend4' ,the cowherds applaud this advice1 resolve to abandon the gods and in their place to worship the mountain1 ,govardhana4 ,the worship of the hill is then performed4 ,krishna advises the cowherds to shut their eyes and the spirit of the hill will then show itself4 ,he then assumes the spirit's form himself1 telling ,nanda and the cowherds that in response to their worship the mountain spirit has appeared4 ,the cowherds' eyes are easily deceived4 ,beholding1 as they think1 ,govardhana himself1 they make offerings and go rejoicing home4 ,such an act of defiance greatly enrages ,indra and he assembles all the gods4 ,he forgets that earlier in the story it was the gods themselves who begged ,vishnu to be born on earth and that many of their number have even taken birth as cowherds and cowgirls in order to delight in ,krishna as his incarnation4 ,instead he sees ,krishna as 'a great talker1 a silly unintelligent child and very proud4' ,he scoffs at the cowherds for regarding ,krishna as a god1 and in order to reinstate himself he orders the clouds to rain down torrents4 ,the cowherds1 faced with floods on every side1 appeal to ,krishna4 ,krishna1 however1 is fully alive to the position4 ,he calms their fears and raising the hill ,govardhana1 supports it on his little finger4#bf ,the cowherds and cattle take shelter under it and although ,indra himself comes and pours down rain for seven days1 ,braj and its inhabitants stay dry4 ,indra is compelled to admit that ,vishnu has indeed descended in the form of ,krishna and retires to his abode4 ,krishna then sets the hill down in its former place4 ,following this discomfiture1 ,indra comes down from the sky accompanied by his white elephant and by ,surabhi1 the cow of plenty4 ,he offers his submission to ,krishna1 is pardoned and returns4 ,all these events bring to a head the problem which has been exercising the cowherds for long--who and what is ,krishna8 ,obviously no simple boy could lift the mountain on his finger4 ,he must clearly be someone much greater and they conclude that ,krishna can only be ,vishnu himself4 ,they accordingly beseech him to show them the paradise of ,vishnu4 ,krishna agrees1 creates a paradise and shows it to them4 ,the cowherds see it and praise his name4 ,yet it is part of the story that these flashes of insight should be evanescent--that having realized one instant that ,krishna is ,god1 the cowherds should regard him the next instant as one of themselves4 ,having revealed his true nature1 therefore1 ,krishna becomes a cowherd once again and is accepted by the cowherds as being only that4 ,one further incident must be recorded4 ,in compliance with a vow1 ,nanda assembles the cowherds and cowgirls and goes to the shrine of ,devi1 the ,earth ,mother1 to celebrate ,krishna's twelfth birthday4 ,there they make lavish offerings of milk1 curds and butter and thank the goddess for protecting ,krishna for so long4 ,night comes on and they camp near the shrine4 ,as ,nanda is sleeping1 a huge python begins to swallow his foot4#bg ,nanda calls to ,krishna1 who hastens to his rescue4 ,logs are taken from a fire1 but as soon as the snake is touched by ,krishna1 a handsome young man emerges and stands before him with folded hands4 ,he explains that he was once the celestial dancer1 ,sudarsana who in excess of pride drove his chariot backwards and forwards a hundred times over the place where a holy man was meditating4 ,as a consequence he was cursed and told to become a python until ,krishna came and released him4 ,to attract ,krishna's attention he has seized the foot of ,nanda4 ,krishna bids him go and1 ascending his chariot1 ,sudarsana returns to the gods4 ,the ,purana now returns to ,krishna's encounters with the cowgirls1 their passionate longings and ardent desire to have him as their lover4 ,since the incident at the river1 they have been waiting for him to keep his promise4 ,krishna1 however1 has appeared blandly indifferent--going to the forest1 playing with the cowherds but coldly ignoring the cowgirls themselves4 ,when autumn comes1 however1 the beauty of the nights stirs his feelings4 ,belatedly he recalls his promise and decides to fulfil it4 ,that night his flute sounds in the forest1 its notes reaching the ears of the cowgirls and thrilling them to the core4 ,like girls in tribal ,india today1 they know it is a call to love4 ,they put on new clothes1 brush aside their husbands1 ignore the other members of their families and hurry to the forest4 ,as they arrive1 ,krishna stands superbly before them4 ,he wears a crown of peacocks' feathers and a yellow dhoti and his blue-black skin shines in the moonlight4 ,as the cowgirls throng to see him1 he twits them on their conduct4 ,are they not frightened at coming into the dark forest8 ,what are they doing abandoning their families8 ,is not such wild behaviour quite unbefitting married girls8 ,should not a married girl obey her husband in all things and never for a moment leave him8 ,having enjoyed the deep forest and the moonlight1 let them return at once and soothe their injured spouses4 ,the cowgirls are stunned to hear such words1 hang their heads1 sigh and dig their toes into the ground4 ,they begin to weep and at last turn on ,krishna1 saying ',oh6 why have you deceived us so8 ,it was your flute that made us come4 ,we have left our husbands for you4 ,we live for your love4 ,where are we to go8' ',if you really love me1' ,krishna answers ',dance and sing with me4' ,his words fill the cowgirls with delight and surrounding ,krishna 'like golden creepers growing on a dark-coloured hill1' they go with him to the banks of the ,jumna4 ,here ,krishna has conjured up a golden circular terrace ornamented with pearls and diamonds and cooled by sprouting plantains4 ,the moon pours down1 saturating the forest4 ,the cowgirls' joy increases4 ,they beautify their bodies and then1 wild with love1 join with ,krishna in singing and dancing4 ,modesty deserts them and they do whatever pleases them1 regarding ,krishna as their lover4 ,as the night goes on1 ,krishna 'appears as beautiful as the moon amidst the stars4' ,as the cowgirls' ecstasies proceed1 ,krishna feels that they are fast exceeding themselves4 ,they think that he is in their power and are already swelling with pride4 ,he decides therefore to leave them suddenly1 and taking a single girl with him vanishes from the dance4#bh ,when they find him gone1 the cowgirls are at a loss to know what to do4 ',only a moment ago1' one of them says1 ',krishna's arms were about my neck1 and now he has gone4' ,they begin to comb the forest1 anxiously asking the trees1 birds and animals1 for news4 ,as they go1 they recall ,krishna's many winning ways1 his sweetnesses of character1 his heart-provoking charms and begin to mimic his acts--the slaying of ,putana1 the quelling of ,kaliya1 the lifting of the hill ,govardhana4 ,one girl imitates ,krishna dancing and another ,krishna playing4 ,in all these ways they strive to evoke his passionately-desired presence4 ,at length they discover ,krishna's footprints and a little farther on those of a woman beside them4 ,they follow the trail which leads them to a bed of leaves and on the leaves they find a looking-glass4 ',what was ,krishna doing with this8' they ask4 ',he must have taken it with him1' a cowgirl answers1 'so that while he braided his darling's hair1 she could still perceive his lovely form4' ,and burning with love1 they continue looking4 ,while they are searching1 the particular cowgirl who has gone with ,krishna is tempted to take liberties4 ,thinking ,krishna is her slave1 she complains of feeling tired and asks him to carry her on his shoulders4 ,krishna smiles1 sits down and asks her to mount4 ,but as she puts out her hands1 he vanishes and she remains standing with hands outstretched4#bi ,tears stream from her eyes4 ,she is filled with bitter grief and cries ',o ,krishna6 best of lovers1 where have you gone8 ,take pity4' ,as she is bemoaning her fate1 her companions arrive4#cj ,they put their arms around her1 comfort her as best they can1 and then1 taking her with them1 continue through the moonlight their vain and anguished search4 ,krishna still evades them and they return to the terrace where the night's dancing had begun4 ,there they once again implore ,krishna to have pity1 declaring that there is none like him in charm1 that he is endlessly fascinating and that in all of them he has aroused extremities of passionate love4 ,but the night is empty1 their cries go unanswered1 and moaning for the ,krishna they adore1 they toss and writhe on the ground4 ,at last1 ,krishna relents4 ,he stands among them and seeing him1 their cares vanish 'as creepers revive when sprinkled with the water of life4' ,some of the cowgirls hardly dare to be angry but others upbraid him for so brusquely deserting them4 ,to all1 ,krishna gives the same answer4 ,he is not to be judged by ordinary standards4 ,he is a constant fulfiller of desire4 ,it was to test the strength of their love that he left them in the forest4 ,they have survived this stringent test and convinced him of their love4 ,the girls are in no mood to query his explanation and 'uniting with him' they overwhelm him with frantic caresses4 ,krishna now uses his 'delusive power' in order to provide each girl with a semblance of himself4 ,he asks them to dance and then projects a whole series of ,krishnas4 ',the cowgirls in pairs joined hands and ,krishna was in their midst4 ,each thought he was at her side and did not recognize him near anyone else4 ,they put their fingers in his fingers and whirled about with rapturous delight4 ,krishna in their midst was like a lovely cloud surrounded by lightning4 ,singing1 dancing1 embracing and loving1 they passed the hours in extremities of bliss4 ,they took off their clothes1 their ornaments and jewels and offered them to ,krishna4 ,the gods in heaven gazed on the scene and all the goddesses longed to join4 ,the singing mounted in the night air4 ,the winds were stilled and the streams ceased to flow4 ,the stars were entranced and the water of life poured down from the great moon4 ,so the night went on--on and on--and only when six months were over did the dancers end their joy4' ,as1 at last1 the dance concludes1 ,krishna takes the cowgirls to the ,jumna1 bathes with them in the water1 rids himself of fatigue and then after once again gratifying their passions1 bids them go home4 ,when they reach their houses1 no one is aware that they have not been there all the time4 ,footnote #be3 ,plate #aa4 ,footnote #bf3 ,plate #ab4 ,footnote #bg3 ,note #aa4 ,footnote #bh3 ,plate #ac4 ,footnote #bi3 ,plate #ad4 ,footnote #cj3 ,plate #ae4 7iii7 ,the ,death of the ,tyrant ,this scene with its crescendos of excitement1 its delight in physical passion and ecstatic exploration of sexual desire is1 in many ways1 the climax of ,krishna's pastoral career4 ,it expresses the devotion felt for him by the cowgirls4 ,it stresses his loving delight in their company4 ,it suggests the blissful character of the ultimate union4 ,no further revelation1 in fact1 is necessary for this is the crux of ,krishna's life4 ,none the less the ostensible reason for his birth remains--to rid the earth of the vicious tyrant ,kansa--and to this the ,purana now returns4 ,we have seen how in his anxious quest for the child who is to kill him1 ,kansa has dispatched his demon warriors on roving commissions1 authorizing them to attack and kill all likely children4 ,many children have in this way been slaughtered but ,kansa is still uncertain whether his prime purpose has been fulfilled4 ,he has no certain knowledge that among the dead children is his dreaded enemy4 ,he is still unaware that ,krishna is destined to be his foe and he therefore continues the hunt1 his demon emissaries pouncing like commandos on youthful stragglers and hounding them to their deaths4 ,among such youths ,krishna is still an obvious target and although unaware that this is the true object of their quest1 demons continue to harry him4 ,one night ,krishna and ,balarama are in the forest with the cowgirls when a yaksha demon1 ,sankhasura1 a jewel flashing in his head1 comes among them4 ,he drives the cowgirls off but hearing their cries1 ,krishna follows after4 ,balarama stays with the girls while ,krishna catches and beheads the demon4 ,on another occasion1 ,krishna and ,balarama are returning at evening with the cows when a bull demon careers amongst them4 ,he runs amok scattering the cattle in all directions4 ,krishna1 however1 is not at all daunted and after wrestling with the bull1 catches its horns and breaks its neck4 ,to such blind attacks there is no immediate end4 ,one day1 however1 a sage discloses to ,kansa the true identity of his enemy4 ,he tells him in what manner ,balarama and ,krishna were born1 how ,balarama was transferred from ,devaki's womb to that of ,rohini1 and how ,krishna was transported to ,nanda's house in ,gokula4 ,kansa is now confronted with the ghastly truth--how ,vasudeva's willingness to surrender his first six sons has lulled his suspicions1 how his confidence in ,vasudeva has been entirely misplaced1 and how completely he has been deceived4 ,he sends for ,vasudeva and is on the point of killing him when the sage interposes1 advising ,kansa to imprison ,vasudeva for the present and meanwhile make an all-out attempt to kill or capture ,balarama and ,krishna4 ,kansa sees the force of his remarks1 spares ,vasudeva for the moment1 throws him and ,devaki into jail and dispatches a special demon1 the horse ,kesi1 on a murderous errand4 ,as the horse speeds on its way1 ,kansa assembles his demon councillors1 explains the situation to them and asks for their advice4 ,if ,krishna should not be killed in the forest1 the only alternative1 the demons suggest1 is to decoy him to ,mathura4 ,let a handsome theatre be built1 a sacrifice to ,siva held and a special festival of arms proclaimed4 ,all the cowherds will naturally come to see it4 ,nanda1 the rich herdsman1 will bring presents1 ,krishna and ,balarama will come with other cowherds4 ,when they have arrived the wrestler ,chanura can throw them down and kill them4 ,kansa is delighted at the suggestion1 adding only that a savage elephant should be stationed at the gate ready to tear ,krishna and ,balarama to pieces immediately they enter4 ,he then dismisses his demon advisers and sends for ,akrura1 the chief of the ,yadavas and a leading member of his court4 ,akrura1 he judges1 will be the best person to decoy ,krishna to ,mathura4 ,he accordingly briefs him as to his intentions and instructs him to await orders4 ,akrura deems it politic to express compliance but secretly is overjoyed that he will thus obtain access to the ,krishna he adores4 ,the first stage of ,kansa's master plan is now brought into effect4 ,the horse demon1 ,kesi1 reaches ,brindaban and begins to paw the ground and kick up its heels4 ,the cowherds are frightened but ,krishna dares it to attack4 ,the horse tries to bite him but ,krishna plunges his hand down its throat and expands it to a vast size until the demon bursts4 ,its remains litter the ground but ,krishna is so unmoved that he merely summons the cowherd children to play a game4 ,squatting with them under a fig tree1 he names one of them a general1 another a minister1 a third a councillor and himself pretending to be a raja plays with them at being king4 ,a little later they join him in a game of blind man's bluff4 ,this unexpected dnouement enrages ,kansa but instead of desisting from the attempt and bringing into force the second part of his plan1 he decides to make one further effort to murder his hated foe4 ,he accordingly summons the wolf demon1 ,vyamasura1 gives him detailed instructions and dispatches him to ,brindaban4 ,the demon hies to the forest1 arriving while ,krishna and the children are still at blind man's buff4 ,he has dressed himself as a beggar and going humbly up to ,krishna asks if he may join in4 ,krishna tells him to choose whatever game he likes and the demon says1 ',what about the game of wolf and rams8' ',very well1' ,krishna answers1 ',you be the wolf and the cowherd boys the rams4' ,they start to play and the demon rounds up all the children and keeps them in a cave4 ,then1 assuming true wolf's form he pounces on ,krishna4 ,krishna1 however1 is quite prepared and seizing the wolf by the throat1 strangles it to death4 ,akrura is now sent for and instructed to go to ,brindaban and return with ,krishna to ,mathura4 ,he sets out and as he journeys allows his thoughts to dwell on the approaching meeting4 ',now1' he muses 'has my life borne fruit2 my night is followed by the dawn of day2 since ,i shall see the countenance of ,vishnu1 whose eyes are like the expanded leaf of the lotus4 ,i shall behold that lotus-eyed aspect of ,vishnu1 which1 when seen only in imagination1 takes away the sins of men4 ,i shall today behold that glory of glories1 the mouth of ,vishnu1 whence proceeded the ,vedas1 and all their dependent sciences4 ,i shall see the sovereign of the world1 by whom the world is sustained2 who is worshipped as the best of males1 as the male sacrifice in sacrificial rites4 ,i shall see ,vishnu1 who is without beginning or end2 by worshipping whom with a hundred sacrifices1 ,indra obtained the sovereignty over the gods4 ,the soul of all1 the knower of all1 he who is all and is present in all1 he who is permanent1 undecaying1 all-pervading will converse with me4 ,he1 the unborn1 who has preserved the world in the various forms of a fish1 tortoise1 a boar1 a horse1 a lion will this day speak to me4 ,now the lord of the earth1 who assumes shapes at will1 has taken upon him the condition of humanity1 to accomplish some object cherished in his heart4 ,glory to that being whose deceptive adoption of father1 son1 brother1 friend1 mother1 and relative1 the world is unable to penetrate4 ,may he in whom cause and effect1 and the world itself1 is comprehended1 be propitious to me1 through his truth2 for always do ,i put my trust in that unborn1 eternal ,vishnu2 by meditation on whom man becomes the repository of all good things4'#ca ,he goes on to think of how he will kneel before ,krishna with folded hands and afterwards put on his head the dust of ,krishna's feet--the same feet which 'have come to destroy crime1 which fell on the snake ,kaliya's head and which have danced with the cowgirls in the forest4' ,krishna1 he believes1 will know at once that he is not ,kansa's envoy and will receive him with kindness4 ,and this is what actually ensues4 ,meeting ,krishna outside ,brindaban1 he falls at his feet1 ,krishna lifts him up1 embraces him and brings him into ,nanda's house4 ,akrura tells ,nanda and ,krishna how ,kansa has oppressed the people of ,mathura1 imprisoned ,vasudeva and ,devaki and has now sent him to invite them to attend the festival of arms4 ,krishna listens and at once agrees to go1 while ,nanda sends out a town-crier to announce by beat of drum that all the cowherds should get ready to leave the next day4 ,when morning comes1 ,krishna leaves in a chariot1 accompanied by the cowherds and their children4 ,the news of his sudden departure devastates the cowgirls4 ,since the circular dance in which their love was consummated1 they have been meeting ,krishna every evening and delighting in his company4 ,and during the daytime their passionate longings have centred solely on him4 ,that he should leave them so abruptly causes them complete dismay and they are only comforted when ,krishna assures them that he will return after a few days4 ,on the way to ,mathura ,akrura bathes in the ,jumna and is granted a vision of ,krishna as ,vishnu himself4 ,reaching ,mathura1 ,nanda and the cowherds pitch their tents outside the city walls#cb while ,krishna with ,balarama and the cowherd children go inside the city for a walk4 ,as they wander through the streets1 the news of their arrival precedes them and women1 excited by ,krishna's name1 throng the rooftops1 balconies and windows4 ',some ran off in the middle of their dinner3 others while bathing and others while engaged in plaiting their hair4 ,they forgot all dalliance with their husbands and went to look at ,krishna4' ,as ,krishna proceeds1 he meets some of ,kansa's washermen carrying with them bundles of clothes4 ,he asks them to give him some and when they refuse1 he attacks one of them and strikes off his head4 ,the others drop their bundles and run for their lives4 ,the cowherd children try to dress themselves up but not knowing how to wear the clothes1 some of them put their arms into trousers and their legs into coats4 ,krishna laughs at their mistakes until a tailor1 a servant of ,kansa1 repudiates his master1 glorifies ,krishna and sets the clothes right4 ,a little later1 a gardener takes them to his house and places garlands round their necks4 ,as they are leaving1 they meet a young woman1 a hunchback1 carrying a pot of scented ointment4 ,krishna cannot resist flirting with her and asks her for whom she is carrying the ointment4 ,the girl1 ,kubja1 sees the amorous look in his eyes and being greatly taken by his beauty answers ',dear one1 do you not know that ,i am a servant of ,raja ,kansa and though a hunchback am entrusted with making his perfumes8' ',lovely one1' ,krishna answers1 ',give us a little of this ointment1 just enough to rub on our bodies4' ',take some1' says ,kubja1 and giving it to ,krishna and ,balarama1 she allows them to rub it on their bodies4 ,when they have finished1 ,krishna takes her under the chin1 lifts her head and at the same time1 presses her feet down with his toes4 ,in this way he straightens her back1 thereby changing her into the loveliest of girls4 ,filled with love and gratitude1 ,kubja catches ,krishna by the dress and begs him to come and visit her4 ,krishna promises to go later and smilingly dismisses her4 ,krishna now reaches the gate where the bow of ,siva 'as long as three palm trees' and very heavy1 is being guarded by soldiers4 ,he picks it up1 bends it to the full and breaks it in pieces4 ,when the guards attack him1 he kills them and presently slaughters all the reinforcements which ,kansa sends4 ,when the battle is over1 he strolls calmly back to the cowherds' tents4#cc ,next day1 ,krishna and the cowherds enter ,mathura to attend the sports4 ,krishna is obstructed by a giant elephant1 attacks it and after a great fight kills it4 ,he and ,balarama then extract the tusks and parade with them in the arena4 ,it is now the turn of ,kansa's wrestlers4 ,their leader1 ,chanura1 dares ,krishna to give ,kansa a little amusement by wrestling with him4 ,krishna takes him at his word and again after a fierce combat leaves the wrestler dead on the ground4#cd ,at the same time1 ,balarama attacks and kills a second wrestler1 ,mustaka4 ,when other wrestlers strive to kill ,krishna and ,balarama1 they also are dispatched4 ,seeing first one and then another plan go astray1 ,kansa orders his remaining demons to fetch ,vasudeva1 ,devaki and ,ugrasena1 declaring that after he has killed them he will put the two young men to death4 ,this declaration seals his fate4 ,in a flash ,krishna slays ,kansa's demons and then1 leaping on the dais where ,kansa is sitting1 he seizes him by the hair and hurls him to the ground4 ,kansa is killed and all ,mathura rejoices4 ,kansa's eight demon brothers are then slain and only when ,krishna has dragged ,kansa's body to the river ,jumna and is sure that not a single demon is left do he and ,balarama desist from fighting4 ,footnote #ca3 ,note #g4 ,footnote #cb3 ,plate #af4 ,footnote #cc3 ,plate #af4 ,footnote #cd3 ,plate #ag4 ,,iv ,,the ,,bhagavata ,,purana3 ,,the ,,prince 7i7 ,the ,return to ,court ,the death of ,kansa brings to a close the first phase of ,krishna's career4 ,his primary aim has now been accomplished4 ,the tyrant whose excesses have for so long vexed the righteous is dead4 ,earth's prayer has been granted4 ,krishna has reached1 in fact1 a turning-point in his life and on what he now decides the rest of his career depends4 ,if he holds that his earthly mission is ended1 he must quit his mortal body1 resume his sublime celestial state and once again become the ,vishnu whose attributes have been praised by ,akrura when journeying to ,brindaban4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he regards his mission as still unfulfilled1 is he to return to ,brindaban or should he remain instead at ,mathura8 ,at ,brindaban1 his foster parents1 ,nanda and ,yasoda1 his friends the cowherds and his loves the cowgirls long for his return4 ,he has spent idyllic days in their company4 ,he has saved them from the dangers inherent in forest life4 ,he has kept a host of demon marauders at bay4 ,at the same time1 his magnetic charms have aroused the most intense devotion4 ,if he returns1 it will be to dwell with people who have doted on him as a child1 adored him as a youth and who love him as a man4 ,on the other hand1 ,mathura1 it is clear1 has also strong claims4 ,although reared and bred among the cowherds1 ,krishna is1 in fact1 a child of ,mathura4 ,although smuggled from the prison immediately afterwards1 it was in ,mathura that he left his mother's womb4 ,his true father is ,vasudeva1 a leader of the ,yadava nobility and member of the ,mathura ruling caste4 ,his true mother1 ,devaki1 is related to the ,mathura royal family4 ,if his youth and infancy have been passed among the cowherds1 this was due to special reasons4 ,his father's substitution of him at birth for ,yasoda's baby daughter was dictated by the dire perils which would have confronted him had he remained with his mother4 ,it was1 at most1 a desperate expedient for saving his life and although the tyrant's unremitting search for the child who was to kill him prolonged his stay in ,brindaban1 his transportation there was never intended as a permanent arrangement4 ,a deception has been practised4 ,nanda and ,yasoda regard and believe ,krishna to be their son4 ,none the less there has been no formal adoption and it is ,vasudeva and ,devaki who are his parents4 ,it is this which decides the issue4 ,as one who by birth and blood belongs to ,mathura1 ,krishna can hardly desert it now that the main obstacle to his return--the tyrant ,kansa--has been removed4 ,his plain duty is to his parents and his castemen4 ,painful therefore as the severance must be1 he decides to abandon the cowherds and see them no more4 ,he is perhaps fortified in his decision by the knowledge that even in his relations with the cowgirls a climax has been reached4 ,a return would merely repeat their nightly ecstasies1 not achieve a fresh experience4 ,finally although ,kansa himself has been killed1 his demon allies are still at large4 ,mathura and ,krishna's kinsmen1 the ,yadavas1 are far from safe4 ,he can hardly desert them until their interests have been permanently safeguarded and by then he will have become a feudal princeling1 the very reverse of the young cowherd who night after night has thrilled the cowgirls with his flute4 ,following the tyrant's death1 then1 a train of complicated adjustments are set in motion4 ,the first step is to re-establish ,krishna with his true parents who are still in jail where the tyrant has confined them4 ,krishna accordingly goes to visit them1 frees them from their shackles and stands before them with folded hands4 ,for an instant ,vasudeva and ,devaki know that ,krishna is ,god and that in order to destroy demons he has come on earth4 ,they are about to worship him when ,krishna dispels this knowledge and they look on him and ,balarama as their sons4 ,then ,krishna addresses them4 ,for all these long years ,vasudeva and ,devaki have known that ,krishna and ,balarama were their children and have suffered accordingly4 ,it was not ,krishna's fault that he and ,balarama were placed in ,nanda's charge4 ,yet although parted from their mother1 they have never forgotten her4 ,it pains them to think that they have done so little to make her happy1 that they have never had her society and have wasted their time with strangers4 ,and he reminds them that in the world only those who serve their fathers and mothers obtain power4 ,vasudeva and ,devaki are greatly touched by ,krishna's words4 ,their former woe vanishes and they embrace ,krishna and ,balarama fondly4 ,having acknowledged ,vasudeva and ,devaki as his true parents1 ,krishna has now to adjust his social position4 ,since ,nanda and the cowherds belong to a lower caste than that of ,vasudeva and the other ,yadavas1 ,krishna and ,balarama1 who have eaten and drunk with the cowherds and have been brought up with them1 are not true members of the ,yadava community4 ,the family priest is accordingly consulted and it is decided that a ceremony for admitting them into caste must be performed4 ,this is done and ,krishna and ,balarama are given the customary sacred threads4 ,they are now no longer cowherds but true ,yadavas4 ,at the same time they are given a spiritual preceptor who instructs them in the sacred texts and manuals of learning4 ,when they have finished the course1 they express their gratitude by restoring to him his dead son who has been drowned in the sea4 ,one further obligation springs from their new position4 ,we have seen how in the epic1 the ,mahabharata1 ,krishna stands in a special relation to the ,pandavas1 the faction which emerges victorious from the great feud4 ,the mother of the ,pandavas is called ,kunti and it is ,kunti who is the sister of ,krishna's father1 ,vasudeva4 ,since he is now with his true father1 rumours concerning ,kunti reach ,krishna and he learns that along with her sons1 the five ,pandavas1 she is being harassed by the ,kaurava king1 the blind ,dhritarashtra1 egged on by his son1 the evil ,duryodhana4 ,being now a part of his father's family1 ,krishna can hardly be indifferent to the fate of so intimate a relative4 ,akrura1 the leading ,yadava diplomat1 whom the tyrant had employed to bring ,krishna to ,mathura1 is accordingly despatched on yet another mission4 ,he is to visit the ,kauravas and ,pandavas1 ascertain the facts1 console ,krishna's aunt1 ,kunti1 and then return and report4 ,akrura reaches the ,kauravas' capital and discovers that the rumours are only too correct4 ,relations between the two families are strained to breaking point4 ,the blind king is at the mercy of his son1 ,duryodhana1 and it is the latter who is ceaselessly harrying ,kunti and her sons4 ,a little later1 as we have already seen1 a final attempt on their lives will be made1 they will be induced to sleep in a new house1 the house will be fired and only by a fortunate chance will the ,pandavas escape to the forest and dwell in safety4 ,this1 however1 is in the future and for the moment ,kunti and her sons are still at court4 ,akrura assures ,kunti of ,krishna's abiding concern and returns to ,mathura4 ,krishna and ,balarama are perturbed to hear his news1 deliberate on whether to intervene1 but decide for the moment to do nothing4 ,the second adjustment which ,krishna has now to make is to reconcile the cowherds to his permanent departure from them and to wean them from their passionate adherence to his presence4 ,this is much more difficult4 ,we have seen how on the journey to ,mathura1 ,krishna has been accompanied by ,nanda and the cowherds and how during the closing struggle with the tyrant they also have been present4 ,when the fight is finally over1 they prepare to depart1 taking it for granted that ,krishna and ,balarama will come with them4 ,krishna has therefore to disillusion ,nanda4 ,he breaks the news to him that it is not he and ,yasoda who are actually his parents but ,vasudeva and ,devaki4 ,he loads ,nanda with jewels and costly dresses and thanks him again and again for all his loving care4 ,he then explains that he has now to stay in ,mathura for a time to meet his castemen1 the ,yadavas4 ,nanda is greatly saddened by the news4 ,the cowherds strive to dissuade him but ,krishna is adamant4 ,he retains a few cowherds with him1 but the rest return to ,brindaban1 ,krishna promising that after a time he will visit them4 ,on arrival ,nanda strives in vain to console ,yasoda and is forced to tell her that ,krishna has now acknowledged ,vasudeva as his true father1 that he has probably left ,brindaban for good and that his own early intuition that ,krishna was ,god is correct4 ,yasoda1 as she thinks of her lost 'son1' is overwhelmed with grief1 but recovers when she realizes that actually he is ,god4 ,as to the cowgirls1 their grief is endless as they recall ,krishna's heart-ensnaring charms4 ,such a step is obviously only the first move in what must necessarily be a long and arduous operation4 ,finding it impossible to say outright that he will never see them again1 ,krishna has committed himself to paying the cowherds a visit4 ,yet he realizes that nothing can be gained by such a step since1 if his future lies with the princely ,yadavas1 any mingling with the cowherds will merely disrupt this final role4 ,yet clearly he cannot just abandon his former associates without any regard at all for their proper feelings4 ,weaning is necessary1 and it must above all be gradual4 ,he decides1 therefore1 that since he himself cannot go1 someone must be sent on his behalf4 ,accordingly1 he instructs a friend1 ,udho1 to go to ,brindaban1 meet the cowherds and make excuses for his absence4 ,at the same time1 he must urge the cowgirls to give up regarding ,krishna as their lover but worship him as ,god4 ,udho is accordingly dressed in ,krishna's clothes1 thereby making him appear a real substitute and is despatched in ,krishna's chariot4 ,when ,udho arrives1 he finds ,nanda and ,yasoda still lamenting ,krishna's absence and the cowgirls still longing for him as their lover4 ,he begs them to regard ,krishna as ,god--as someone who is constantly near those who love him even if he cannot be seen4 ,krishna1 he says1 has forbidden them to hope for any further impassioned ecstasies and now requires them to offer him their devotion only4 ,if they do penance and meditate1 ,krishna will never leave them4 ,from the day they commenced thinking of him1 none have been so much loved as they4 ',as earth1 wind1 water1 fire1 rain dwell in the body1 so ,krishna dwells in you2 but through the influence of his delusive power seems to be apart4' ,udho's pleading shocks and embitters the cowgirls4 ',how can he talk to us like that8' they ask4 ',it is ,krishna's body that we adore1 not some invisible idea high up in the sky4 ,how has ,krishna suddenly become invisible and imperceptible1 a being without qualities and form1 when all along he has delighted us with his physical charms4 ,as to penance and meditation1 these concern widows4 ,what woman does penance while her husband is alive8 ,it is all the doing of ,kubja1 the girl of ,mathura whose charms have captivated ,krishna4 ,were it not for ,kubja and other beauties of ,mathura1 ,krishna would now be with us in ,brindaban4 ,had we known he would not return1 we would never have let him go4' ,in such words they repudiate ,udho's message1 upbraid ,krishna for his fickle conduct and demonstrate with what intensity they still adore him4 ,udho is reduced to silence and can only marvel at the cowgirls' bliss in abandoning everything to think only of ,krishna4 ,finally they send ,krishna the message--that if he really desires them to abandon loving him with their bodies and resort to penance1 he himself must come and show them how to do it4 ,unless he comes1 they will die of neglect4 ,a few days later1 ,udho returns to ,mathura bringing with him milk and butter as presents to ,krishna from ,nanda and ,yasoda and escorting ,rohini1 ,vasudeva's other wife and ,balarama's mother4 ,he gives ,krishna the cowgirls' message and reports how all ,brindaban longs for his return4 ',great ,king1' he says1 ',i cannot tell you how they love you4 ,you are their life4 ,night and day they think of you4 ,their love for you is complete as perfect worship4 ,i gave them your advice concerning penance1 but ,i have learnt from them perfect adoration4 ,they will only be content when they see and touch you again4' ,krishna listens and is silent4 ,it is clear that efforts at weaning the cowgirls from him have so far failed and something further must be attempted4 ,yet his resolve to sever all connections with his former life remains and it is perhaps symbolic of his purpose that he now recalls the hunch-back girl1 ,kubja1 takes ,udho with him and in a single ecstatic visit becomes her lover4 ,as he reaches her house1 the girl greets him with delight1 takes him inside and seats him on a couch of flowers4 ,udho stays outside and then while ,krishna waits1 the girl quickly bathes1 scents herself1 combs her hair and changes her dress4 ,then 'with gaiety and endearment' she approaches ,krishna4 ,krishna1 however1 takes her by the hand and places her near him4 ,their passions rise and the two achieve the utmost bliss4 ,krishna then leaves her1 rejoins ,udho and 'blushing and smiling' returns home4 ,the third step which ,krishna must take is to deal with the political and military situation which has arisen from the slaying of the tyrant4 ,we have seen how ,kansa1 although actually begotten by a demon was officially a son of ,ugrasena1 the king of ,mathura1 and as one of his many demon acts1 had dethroned his father and seized the kingdom for himself4 ,ugrasena is still alive and the obvious course1 therefore1 is to reinstate him on the throne4 ,ugrasena1 however1 is unwilling to assume power and he and the other ,yadavas implore ,krishna to accept the title for himself4 ,krishna1 however1 has no desire to become king4 ,he therefore overcomes ,ugrasena's hesitations and in due course the latter is enthroned4 ,this settles the succession problem1 but almost immediately a graver issue arises4 ,during his reign of terror1 ,kansa had made war on ,jarasandha1 king of ,magadha4 ,he had defeated him but as part of the peace terms had taken two of his daughters as queens4 ,these have now been widowed by his death and repairing to their father's court1 they rail bitterly against ,krishna and beg their father to avenge their husband's death4 ,jarasandha1 although a former rival of ,kansa1 is also a demon and can therefore summon to his aid a number of demon allies4 ,great armies are accordingly mobilized4 ,mathura is surrounded and the ,yadavas are in dire peril4 ,krishna and ,balarama1 however1 are undismayed4 ,they attack the foes single-handed and by dint of their supernatural powers1 utterly rout them4 ,jarasandha is captured but released so that he may return to the attack and even more demons may then be slaughtered4 ,he returns in all seventeen times1 is vanquished on each occasion but returns once more4 ,this time he is aided by another demon1 ,kalayavana1 and seeing the constant strain of such attacks1 ,krishna decides to evacuate the ,yadavas and settle them at a new base4 ,he commissions the divine architect1 ,visvakarma1 to build a new city in the sea4 ,this is done in one night1 the city is called ,dwarka#ce and there the ,yadavas with all their goods are transported4 ,when this has been done1 ,krishna and ,balarama trick the demons4 ,they pretend to be utterly defeated1 retreat from ,mathura and in despair ascend a tall hill4 ,the demon armies surround them and there appears to be no possible way of escape4 ,jarasandha orders wood to be brought from the surrounding towns and villages1 piled up round the hill1 saturated with oil and then set fire to4 ,a vast flame shoots up4 ,the whole hill is ablaze but ,krishna and ,balarama slip out unseen1 take the road to ,mathura and finally reach ,dwarka4 ,when the hill is reduced to ashes1 ,jarasandha concludes that ,krishna and ,balarama have perished4 ,he advances to ,mathura1 occupies the empty town1 proclaims his authority and returns to ,magadha4 ,footnote #ce3 ,dwarka is sited on the western seaboard1 #cjj miles north-west of ,bombay4 7ii7 ,marriages and ,offspring ,the immediate position1 then1 is that ,krishna has abandoned his life among the cowherds1 has been accepted as a ,yadava1 has coped with the difficult and dangerous situation arising from the tyrant king's death and finally has saved the ,yadavas from extinction by demons4 ,this1 however1 has meant the abandonment of ,mathura and the movement of the ,yadavas to a new city1 ,dwarka4 ,the same problem1 therefore1 which faced him earlier1 confronts him once again4 ,having obtained immunity for the ,yadavas and brought them to a new land1 can ,krishna now regard his mission as accomplished8 ,or must he linger on earth still longer8 ,the answer can hardly be in doubt2 for although the ,yadavas appear to be installed in good surroundings1 demon hordes still range the world4 ,the tyrant ,kansa was only the worst and most powerful member of the demon hosts4 ,the war with ,jarasandha has rid the world of many demons1 but vast numbers remain and until their ranks have been appreciably reduced1 ,krishna's mission will be unfulfilled4 ,only one course of action1 therefore1 is possible4 ,he must accept a permanent position in ,yadava society1 live as an honoured noble1 a prince of the blood royal and as occasion warrants continue to intervene in the struggle between the good and the bad4 ,such a decision is taken and ,krishna installs himself at ,dwarka4 ,before he can fulfil his duties as an adult member of the race1 however1 certain preliminaries are necessary and among them is the important issue of his marriage4 ,both he and ,balarama require wives and the question is how are they to get them4 ,balarama's problem is easily settled by a marriage to ,revati1 a princess4 ,krishna's1 on the other hand1 is less straightforward and he is still undecided when news is brought that the ,raja of ,kundulpur has a daughter of matchless loveliness1 her name ,rukmini4 ,her eyes1 it was said1 were like a doe's1 her complexion like a flower1 her face dazzling as the moon4 ,rukmini in turn has overheard some beggars reciting ,krishna's exploits1 has fallen in love with his image and is at once delighted and disturbed4 ,in this way each is fascinated by the other4 ,almost immediately1 however1 a crisis occurs4 ,rukmini's brother1 ,rukma1 urges her father to marry her to a rival1 ,sisupala4 ,krishna's claims as ,vishnu incarnate are advanced in vain and he is ridiculed as being just a cowherd4 ,against his better judgment her father acquiesces and arrangements for a wedding with ,sisupala go forward4 ,rukmini now takes the daring step of sending a message to ,krishna1 declaring her love and asking him to save her4 ,krishna reads it with delight4 ,he at once leaves for ,kundulpur1 finding it gay with flags and banners1 golden spires and wreaths of flowers4 ,sisupala has arrived1 but in addition1 there is ,krishna's old enemy1 ,jarasandha1 encamped with an army of demons4 ,rukmini is in despair until she learns that ,krishna also has arrived4 ,a little later ,balarama reaches the scene1 bringing with him an army4 ,sisupala is dismayed at his arrival and both sides watch each other's movements4 ,the wedding day now dawns and ,rukmini1 guarded by ,sisupala's soldiers1 goes outside the city to worship at a shrine to ,devi4#cf ,as she nears the shrine1 ,krishna suddenly appears4 ,rukmini gazes with adoration at him4 ,he springs among the soldiers1 lifts her into his chariot and rushes her away4 ,this summary abduction is more than ,sisupala can bear4 ,troops career after ,krishna4 ,armies engage4 ,a vast battle ensues4 ,as they fight1 ,rukmini looks timorously on4 ,at last1 ,balarama vanquishes the demon hosts1 'as a white elephant scatters lotuses4' ,sisupala and ,jarasandha flee1 but ,rukmini's evil brother1 ,rukma1 returns to the fray1 strives feverishly to kill ,krishna1 fails and is taken captive4 ,his life is spared at ,rukmini's behest1 but he is led away1 his hands tied behind his back and his moustaches shaven off4 ,balarama intercedes and effects his release and ,rukma goes away to brood on his discomfiture and plot revenge4 ,krishna now returns to ,dwarka in triumph1 is given a rapturous welcome and a little later celebrates his marriage with full ritual4 ',priests recited the ,vedas1 ,krishna circled round with ,rukmini4 ,drums resounded4 ,the delighted gods rained down flowers2 demi-gods1 saints1 bards and celestial musicians were all spectators from the sky4' ,having married ,rukmini1 ,krishna has now the full status of a grown prince4 ,but he is nothing if not supernormal2 and just as earlier in his career he has showered his affection on a host of cowgirls1 he now acquires a whole succession of further wives4 ,the first is ,jambhavati1 the second ,satyabhama4 ,satyabhama's father is a certain ,sattrajit who has obtained from the sun the boon of a jewel4 ,the jewel flashes with light and ,krishna advises him to surrender it to ,king ,ugrasena4 ,the man refuses2 whereupon his brother seizes it and goes away to the forest4 ,here a lion pounces upon him1 devours the man and his horse and hides the jewel4 ,the lion is then killed by a bear who centuries earlier had served with ,vishnu's earlier incarnation1 ,rama1 during his campaign against the demon king of ,lanka4#cg ,the bear carries away the jewel and gives it to its mate4 ,when ,sattrajit hears that his brother is missing1 he concludes that ,krishna has caused his death and starts a whispering campaign1 accusing ,krishna of making away with the jewel4 ,krishna hears of the slander and at once decides to search for the missing man1 recover the jewel and thus silence his accuser for ever4 ,as he goes through the forest1 ,krishna finds a cave where the dead lion is lying4 ,he enters it1 grapples with the bear but is quickly recognized by the bear as ,krishna himself4 ,the bear bows before him and begs him to accept his daughter ,jambhavati in marriage4 ,he includes the jewel as part of the dowry4 ,krishna marries the girl and returns4 ,back at the court he upbraids ,sattrajit for falsely accusing him4 ',i did not take the jewel1' he says4 ',the bear took it4 ,now he has given the jewel to me and also his daughter4 ,take back your jewel and be silent4' ,sattrajit is overwhelmed with shame and by way of amends gives ,krishna his own daughter1 ,satyabhama4 ,krishna marries her and ,sattrajit begs him to take the jewel also4 ,krishna refuses and the jewel remains with its owner4 ,a little later1 ,sattrajit is murdered and the jewel once again stolen4 ,the murderer thief is tracked down by ,krishna and killed1 but only after many delays is the jewel at last recovered from ,akrura--the leading ,yadava who earlier in the story has acted first as ,raja ,kansa's envoy to ,krishna and later as ,krishna's envoy to ,kunti4 ,krishna orders him to return it to its owner1 ,sattrajit's grandson4 ,akrura places it at ,krishna's feet and ,krishna gives it to ,satyabhama4 ,the upshot1 then1 is that the slander is ended1 the jewel is regained and in the process ,krishna acquires two further wives4 ,these extra marriages1 however1 by no means end the tally of his consorts1 for during a visit to his relatives1 the ,pandavas1 now returned from exile and for the moment safely reinstalled in their kingdom1 he sees a lovely girl1 ,kalindi1 wandering in the forest4 ,she is the daughter of the sun and has been sent to dwell by a river until her appointed bridegroom1 ,krishna1 arrives to claim her4 ,krishna is delighted with her youth1 places her in his chariot and on his return to ,dwarka1 celebrates their wedding4 ,a little later other girls are married to him1 in many cases only after a fierce struggle with demons4 ,in this way1 he obtains eight queens1 at the same time advancing his prime purpose of ridding the world of demons4 ,at this point1 the ,purana embarks on an episode which1 at first sight1 appears to have very little to do with its main subject4 ,in fact1 however1 its relevance is great for1 as a consequence1 ,krishna the prince acquires as many female companions as he had enjoyed as a youth4 ,the episode begins with ,earth again appearing in heaven4 ,having successfully engineered ,krishna's birth1 she does special penance and again beseeches the supreme ,trinity to grant her a boon4 ,this boon is a son who will never be equalled and who will never die4 ,brahma1 ,vishnu and ,siva agree to give her a son1 ,naraka1 but on the following conditions3 he will conquer all the kings of the earth1 rout the gods in the sky1 carry off the earrings of ,aditi 7the mother of the gods71 wear them himself1 take the canopy of ,indra and place it over his own head and finally1 collect together but not marry sixteen thousand one hundred virgin daughters of different kings4 ,krishna will then attack him and at ,earth's own behest1 will kill ,naraka and take to ,dwarka all the imprisoned girls4 ,earth says1 ',why should ,i ever tell anyone to kill my own son8' and is silent4 ,none the less the boon is granted1 the conditions are in due course fulfilled and after a furious encounter with ,naraka at his city of ,pragjyotisha1#ch ,krishna is once again victorious4 ,during the battle1 ,muru or ,mura1 the arch demon1 aided by seven sons1 strenuously defends the city4 ,krishna kills him by cutting off his five heads but has then to resist whole armies of demons assembled by the sons4 ,when these also have been destroyed1 ,krishna meets ,naraka and after a vicious contest finally kills him1 recovering in consequence the earrings of ,aditi and the canopy of ,indra4 ,naraka's palace is then opened and reveals the bevy of imprisoned girls4 ,as they gaze on ,krishna1 their reactions are reminiscent of the cowgirls'4 ,they implore ,krishna to take them away and allow them to lavish on him their impassioned love4 ,krishna agrees1 chariots are sent for and the vast concourse of passion-stricken girls is transported to ,dwarka4 ,here ,krishna marries them1 showering affection on each of the sixteen thousand and one hundred 'and displaying unceasing love for his eight queens4' ,such an incident revives an aspect of ,krishna's early character which up to the present has been somewhat obscured by other events4 ,besides slaying demons he has all along been sensitive to feminine needs1 arousing in women passionate adoration and at the same time fulfilling the most intense of their physical desires4 ,it is these qualities which characterize his later career4 ,having on one occasion given ,rukmini1 his first consort1 a flower of the heavenly wishing tree1#ci ,krishna finds that he has aroused the jealousy of his third consort1 ,satyabhama4 ,to please her1 he accordingly undertakes to get for her not merely a flower or branch but the tree itself4 ,he therefore goes to ,vaikuntha1 the paradise of ,vishnu1 and takes the opportunity to return the earrings of ,aditi and place the canopy over the lord of the gods4 ,he then sends a message to ,indra asking for the tree4 ,indra as the tree's custodian recalls his former discomfiture in ,brindaban when ,krishna had abolished his worship and venerated the hill ,govardhana in his place4 ,despite his subsequent surrender to ,krishna1 and abject worship of him1 ,indra is still incensed and bluntly refuses4 ,krishna then goes to the tree1 wounds its guardians and bears the tree away4 ,indra is tempted to do battle but realizing ,krishna's superior power calls off his hosts4 ,back in ,dwarka1 ,krishna instals the tree in ,satyabhama's palace but returns it to ,indra a year later4 ,on another occasion1 ,krishna and ,rukmini are making love on a golden bed in a palace bedecked with gems4 ,the sheets are white as foam and are decorated with flowers4 ,pictures have been painted on the walls and every aid to pleasure has been provided4 ,rukmini is lovelier than ever1 while ,krishna1 'the root of joy1' dazzles her with a face lovely as the moon1 a skin the colour of clouds1 a peacock crown1 a long garland of flowers and a scarf of yellow silk4 ,as he lies1 he is 'the sea of beauty1 the light of the three worlds4' ,after making love1 ,krishna suddenly asks ,rukmini why she preferred him to ,sisupala4 ,he points out that he is not a king and is therefore quite unworthy of her1 that since he has rescued her from ,sisupala1 her wish has been accomplished and it is best that she should now leave him and marry a prince of the royal blood who will be worthy of her name4 ,rukmini is stunned at the suggestion4 ,she collapses on the floor1 her hair obscuring her lovely face4 ,krishna raises her up1 sits her on his knees1 and strokes her cheeks4 ,when at length ,rukmini revives1 ,krishna hastens to explain that he was only jesting and that in view of her deep love he will never abandon her4 ,rukmini assures him that nowhere in the world is there ,krishna's equal4 ,the beggars who recited his praises and from whom she first heard his name1 were in fact ,brahma and ,siva4 ,all the gods revere him4 ,to adore him is the only joy4 ,those who love ,krishna alone are happy4 ,if blinded by pride a man forgets him1 ,krishna abases him4 ,it was because ,rukmini besought his compassion that ,krishna has loved her4 ,hearing her simple sincerity1 ,krishna is greatly moved and says1 ',love of my heart1 you know me through and through4 ,you have given yourself to me1 adored me and known my love4 ,i shall love you always4' ,rukmini hears him with deep contentment and the two make love4 ,such a declaration however is not intended to imply a cold neglect of his other wives for it is part of ,krishna's role that he should please and satisfy all4 ,accordingly1 when ,narada1 the sage1 makes one of his recurring appearances--this time in order to investigate how ,krishna contrives to keep happy so vast a concourse of women--he finds ,krishna everywhere4 ,with ,rukmini he reclines at ease1 with ,jambhavati he plays dice1 at ,satyabhama's house1 he is having his body rubbed with oil1 at ,kalindi's1 he is asleep4 ,in this way1 wherever ,narada goes1 he finds ,krishna with one or other of his queens4 ,in fact1 the same 'delusive' powers which he had earlier employed when dancing with the cowgirls--making each believe he was dancing with her and her alone--are now being used to satisfy his wives4 ,in this way ,krishna continues to live4 ,sometimes his wives caress his body1 ply him with delicacies or swathe him in perfumed garments4 ,sometimes to ease their passion they make little figures of him or let themselves be dressed by him4 ,one night they go with him to a tank and there make love in the water4 ,everything in the scene reminds them of their love and they address first a chakai bird4 ',o chakai bird1 when you are parted from your mate1 you spend the whole night sadly calling and never sleeping4 ,speak to us of your beloved4 ,we are ,krishna's slave-girls4' ,they speak to the sea4 ',o sea1 you lie awake night and day1 heaving sighs4 ,do you grieve for a loved one who is far away8' ,then they see the moon4 ',o moon1 why do you grow thin8 ,are you also filled with longing8 ,are you fascinated by ,krishna8' ,in this way they address birds1 hills and rivers1 seeking from each some consolation for their frenzied love4 ,in due course1 each of the sixteen thousand one hundred and eight bears ,krishna ten sons and one daughter and each is beautiful as himself4 ,footnote #cf3 ,plate #ah4 ,footnote #cg3 ,lanka--modern ,ceylon4 ,footnote #ch3 ,note #ab4 ,footnote #ci3 ,a sight of the heavenly wishing-tree1 the kalpa or parijata1 which grew in ,indra's heaven1 was believed to make the old young4 7iii7 ,last ,phases ,this gradual expansion of his marital state takes ,krishna even farther from the adoring loves of his youth1 the cowgirls of ,brindaban4 ,indeed for months on end it is as if he has dismissed them from his mind4 ,one day he and ,balarama are sitting together when ,balarama reminds him of their promise that after staying for a time in ,mathura they will assuredly visit them4 ,krishna1 it is clear1 cannot go himself1 but ,balarama is less impeded and with ,krishna's approval1 he takes a ploughshare and pestle1 mounts a chariot and speeds on his way4 ,as he nears ,brindaban1 the familiar scenes greet him4 ,the cowherds and cowgirls come into view1 but instead of joy there is general despair4 ,the cows low and pant1 rejecting the grass4 ,the cowherds are still discussing ,krishna's deeds and the cowgirls cannot expel him from their minds4 ,as ,balarama enters their house1 ,nanda and ,yasoda weep with joy4 ,balarama is plied with questions about ,krishna's welfare and when he answers that all is well1 ,yasoda describes the darkness that has descended on them since the joy of their hearts left4 ,balarama now meets the cowgirls4 ,their hair is disordered1 they are no longer neat and smart4 ,their minds are not in their work and despite ,krishna's absence1 they are filled with passionate longings and frenzied desires4 ,some of them marvel at ,krishna's love and count it good even to have known him4 ,others bitterly upbraid ,krishna for deserting them4 ,balarama explains that his visit is to show them that ,krishna has not entirely forgotten them and as proof he offers to re-enact the circular dance and himself engage with them as lover4 ,in this way the circular dance is once again performed4 ,the full moon pours down1 the cowgirls deck themselves and songs rise in the air4 ,flutes and drums play and in the midst of the throng ,balarama sings and dances1 clasping the cowgirls to him1 making love and rousing them to ecstasy4 ,night after night the dance is performed1 while each day ,balarama comforts ,nanda and ,yasoda with news of ,krishna4 ,one night as his visit is ending1 he feels exhausted and commands the river ,jumna to change its course and bathe him with its water4 ,the ,jumna fails to comply1 so ,balarama draws the river towards him with his plough and bathes in its stream4 ,from that time on1 the ,jumna's course is changed4 ,his exhaustion now leaves him and he gratifies the cowgirls with fresh passion4 ,with this incident his visit ends4 ,he bids farewell to ,nanda1 ,yasoda and the cowgirls and leaving the forest returns to ,dwarka4 ,krishna's relations with the cowgirls are now completely ended1 but on one last occasion he happens to meet them4 ,news has come that the sun will soon be eclipsed and accordingly1 ,krishna and ,balarama take the ,yadavas on pilgrimage4 ,they choose a certain holy place1 ,kurukshetra1 and assembling all their queens and wives1 make the slow journey to it4 ,when they arrive1 a festival is in progress4 ,they bathe and make offerings4 ,while they are still encamped1 other kings come in1 including the ,pandavas and ,kauravas4 ,with them are their wives and families and ,kunti1 the mother of the ,pandavas1 is thus enabled to meet once more her brother1 ,vasudeva1 the father of ,krishna4 ,a little later1 ,nanda and ,yasoda along with the cowherds and cowgirls also arrive4 ,they have come on the same pilgrimage and finding ,krishna there1 at once throng to see him4 ,vasudeva greets his old friend1 ,nanda1 and recalls the now long-distant days when ,krishna had lived with him in his house4 ,krishna and ,balarama greet ,nanda and ,yasoda with loving respect1 while the cowgirls are excited beyond description4 ,krishna however refuses to regard them and faced with their ardent looks and impassioned adoration1 addresses to them the following sermon4 ',whoever believes in me shall be fearlessly carried across the sea of life4 ,you gave me your bodies1 minds and wealth4 ,you loved me with a love that knew no limit4 ,no one has been so fortunate as you--neither ,brahma nor ,indra1 neither any other god nor any man4 ,for all along ,i have been living in you1 loving you with a love that has never faltered4 ,i live in everyone4 ,what ,i say to you cannot easily be understood1 but as light1 water1 fire1 earth and air abide in the body1 so does my glory4' ,to the cowgirls such words strike chill4 ,but there is nothing they can say and when the festival is over1 ,krishna and the ,yadavas return to ,dwarka1 while ,nanda with the cowherds and cowgirls go back to ,brindaban4 ,this is the last time ,krishna sees them4 ,this dismissal reveals how final is ,krishna's severance from his former life1 yet provided the cowherds are not involved1 he is quick to honour earlier relationships4 ,one day in ,dwarka his mother1 ,devaki1 tells him that she has a private grief--grief at the loss of the six elder brothers of ,krishna slain by the tyrant ,kansa4 ,krishna tells her not to mourn1 descends to the third of the three worlds1 interviews its ruler1 ,raja ,bali1 and effects the release of the six brothers4 ,returning with them1 he gives them to his mother and her joy is great4 ,on another occasion he is visited by ,sudama1 a ,brahman who had lived with him1 when1 after slaying the tyrant1 he and ,balarama had gone for instruction to their spiritual preceptor4 ,since then ,sudama has grown thin and poor4 ,the thatch on his hut has tumbled down4 ,he has nothing to eat4 ,his wife is alarmed at their abject state and advises him to seek out ,krishna1 his chief friend4 ',if you go to him1' she says1 'our poverty will end because it is he who grants wealth and virtue1 fulfils desires and bestows final happiness4' ,sudama replies that even ,krishna does not give anyone anything without that person giving him something first4 ,as he has not given1 how can he hope to receive8 ,his wife then ties up a little rice in an old white cloth and gives it to ,sudama as a present to ,krishna4 ,sudama sets out4 ,on reaching ,dwarka1 he is admitted to ,krishna's presence1 is immediately recognized and is treated with the utmost kindness and respect4 ,krishna himself washes his feet and reveres him as a ,brahman4#dj ',brother1' he says1 'from the time you quitted our preceptor's house1 ,i have heard nothing of you4 ,your coming has purified my house and made me happy4' ,krishna then notices the rice and laughingly asks ,sudama what present his wife has sent him and why it is hidden under his arm4 ,sudama is greatly abashed but allows ,krishna to take the bundle4 ,on taking it1 ,krishna eats the rice4 ,he then conducts ,sudama within1 feasts him on delicacies and puts him to bed4 ,during the night he sends ,visvakarma1 the divine architect1 to ,sudama's home1 with instructions to turn it into a palace4 ,the next morning ,sudama takes leave of ,krishna1 congratulating himself on not having asked ,krishna for anything4 ,as he nears home1 he is dismayed to find no trace of his hut1 but instead a golden palace4 ,he approaches the gate-keeper and is told it belongs to ,sudama1 the friend of ,krishna4 ,his wife comes out and he finds her dressed in fine clothes and jewels and attended by maid-servants4 ,she takes him in and at first he is abashed at so much wealth4 ,krishna1 he reflects1 can only have given it to him because he doubted his affection4 ,he did not ask ,krishna for wealth and cannot fathom why he has been given it4 ,his wife assures him that ,krishna knows the thoughts of everyone4 ,sudama did not ask for wealth1 but she herself desired it and that is why ,krishna has given it to them4 ,sudama is convinced and says no more4 ,all these incidents provide a clue to ,krishna's nature4 ,they illustrate his attitudes1 confirm him in his role as protector and preserver and show him in a new light--that of a guardian and upholder of morality4 ,he is still a fervent lover1 but his love is sanctioned and formalized by legal marriage4 ,moreover1 a new respect characterizes his dealings with ,brahmans and his approach to festivals4 ,instead of the young revolutionary1 we now meet a sage conservative4 ,these changes colour his final career4 ,as life at ,dwarka runs its course1 ,krishna's activities centre more and more on wars with demons and his relations with the ,pandavas4 ,despite his prowess and renown1 demons trouble the ,yadavas from time to time1 but all are killed either by ,krishna wielding a magic quoit or by ,balarama plying his plough or pestle4 ,on one occasion1 a monkey demon runs amok1 harassing the people and ravaging the country4 ,he surprises ,balarama bathing in a tank with his wives1 despoils their clothes and defiles their pitchers4 ,a great combat then ensues1 the monkey hurling trees and hills while ,balarama counters with his plough and pestle4 ,but the outcome is hardly in doubt and at last the monkey is killed4 ,on another occasion1 ,krishna is compelled to intervene in force4 ,following his marriage with his first queen1 ,rukmini1 a son1 ,pradyumna has been born4 ,he is no less a person than ,kama1 the god of love1 whom ,siva has burnt for disturbing his meditations4 ,when grown up1 ,pradyumna is married to a cousin1 the daughter of his uncle1 ,rukma4 ,rukma has never forgiven ,krishna for abducting and marrying his sister1 ,rukmini1 and despite their intimate alliance is sworn to kill him4 ,his plot is discovered and in a final contest1 ,balarama kills him4 ,meanwhile1 ,pradyumna has had a son1 ,aniruddha1 who grows up into a charming youth1 while at the same time ,vanasura1 a demon with a thousand arms1 has a lovely daughter1 ,usa4 ,when ,usa is twelve years old1 she longs for a husband and in a dream sees and embraces ,aniruddha4 ,she does not know who he is1 but describes him to a confidante4 ,the latter draws pictures of all the leading royalty1 and among the ,yadavas1 ,usa recognizes her love1 ,aniruddha4 ,the confidante agrees to bring him to her and going through the air to ,dwarka1 finds him sleeping1 dreaming of ,usa4 ,she transports him to ,usa's palace and on waking4 ,aniruddha finds himself alone with his love4 ,usa conceals him1 but the news reaches her father and he surrounds the palace with his demon army4 ,aniruddha routs the army but is caught by ,vanasura1 who then imprisons the two young lovers4 ,news now reaches ,krishna who rushes an army to the scene4 ,a battle ensues during which ,vanasura loses all his arms save four4 ,he then worships ,krishna1 and ,aniruddha and ,usa are married4 ,meanwhile ,krishna is carefully maintaining relations with the ,pandavas4 ,we have seen how immediately after the slaying of the tyrant he sends an envoy to inquire after his aunt ,kunti1 the sister of his father1 and mother of the five ,pandavas4 ,we have also noticed how during a visit to the ,pandava court1 he has acquired a new queen1 ,kalindi4 ,he now embarks on several courses of action1 each of which is designed to cement their relations4 ,during a visit to his court1 ,arjuna1 the brother whose lucky shot won ,draupadi for the ,pandavas1 falls in love with ,subhadra1 ,krishna's sister4 ,krishna is delighted to have him as a brother-in-law and as already narrated in the epic1 he advises ,arjuna to marry her by capture4 ,a little later ,krishna learns that ,yudhisthira will shortly proclaim himself a 'ruler of the world' and decides to visit the ,pandava court to assist at the sacrifice4 ,he takes a vast army with him and advances on the court with massive splendour4 ,as he arrives1 he learns that ,jarasandha whose feud is unabated has now imprisoned twenty thousand rajas1 all of whom cry to be released4 ,krishna decides that ,jarasandha's demon activities must be ended once for all and taking two of the ,pandavas with him1 ,bhima and ,arjuna1 he sets out to destroy him4 ,jarasandha elects to engage ,bhima in single-handed combat and for twenty-seven days the fight proceeds1 each wielding a club and neither securing the advantage4 ,krishna now learns that ,jarasandha can only be killed if he is split in two4 ,he directs ,bhima1 therefore1 to throw him down1 place a foot on one of his thighs and catching the other leg with his hand1 tear him asunder4 ,bhima does so and in this way ,jarasandha is destroyed4 ,the captive rajas are now released and after returning home they foregather at the ,pandavas' court to assist at the sacrifice4 ,as arrangements proceed an incident occurs which illustrates yet again the complex situation arising from ,krishna's dual character4 ,krishna is ,god1 yet he is also man4 ,being a man1 it is normally as a man that he is regarded4 ,yet from time to time particular individuals sense his ,godhead and then he is no longer man but ,god himself4 ,even those1 however1 who view him as ,god do so only for brief periods of time and hence the situation is constantly arising in which ,krishna is one moment honoured as ,god and then a moment later is treated as a man4 ,and it is this situation which now recurs4 ,as we have already seen in the epic1 part of the custom at imperial sacrifices was to offer presents to distinguished guests1 and according to the epic the person chosen to receive the first present was ,krishna himself4 ,the ,purana changes this by substituting gods for guests4 ,yudhisthira is uncertain who should be worshipped first4 ',who is the great lord of the gods1' he asks1 'to whom we should bow our heads8' ,to this a ,pandava gives a clear answer4 ,krishna1 he says1 is god of gods4 ',no one understands his nature4 ,he is lord of ,brahma1 ,siva and ,indra4 ,it is he who creates1 preserves and destroys4 ,his work is endless4 ,he is the unseen and imperishable4 ,he descends upon the earth continually for the sake of his worshippers and assuming mortal form appears and acts like a mortal4 ,he sits in our houses and calls us 'brothers4' ,we are deluded by his power and consider him a brother4 ,yet never have we seen one as great as him4' ,he speaks in fact as one who1 knowing ,krishna1 has seen1 for the moment1 the god beyond the man4 ,his vision is shared by the others present4 ,krishna is therefore placed on a throne and before the vast concourse of rajas1 ,yudhisthira worships him4 ,among the guests1 however1 is one raja to whom the vision is denied4 ,he is ,sisupala1 ,krishna's rival for the hand of ,rukmini1 and since ,rukmini's abduction1 his deadly enemy4 ,krishna's elevation as a god is more than he can stomach and he utters an angry protest4 ,krishna1 he says1 is not god at all4 ,he is a mere cowherd's son of low caste who has debased himself by eating the leavings of the cowherds' children and has even been the lover of the cowgirls4 ,as a child he was an arrant pilferer1 stealing milk and butter from every house1 while as a youth he has trifled with other men's wives4 ,he has also slighted ,indra4 ,krishna quietly listens to this outburst4 ,then1 deeming ,sisupala's enmity to have reached its furthest limit1 he allows his patience to be exhausted4 ,he reaches for his quoit and hurling it through the air1 slays ,sisupala on the spot4 ,the ceremonies are then completed and ,krishna leaves for ,dwarka4 ,as he nears the city1 he discovers the ,yadavas hard pressed by an army of demons4 ,he and ,balarama intervene4 ,the demons are either killed or put to flight and the ,yadavas are rescued4 ,when a little later ,sisupala's two brothers bring an army against him1 they too are vanquished4 ,twelve years now intervene4 ,yudhisthira in the moment of triumph has gambled away his kingdom4 ,the ,pandavas have once again been driven into exile and the old feud has broken out afresh4 ,as the exile ends1 both sides prepare for war and ,krishna also leaves for the battle4 ,balarama is loath to intervene so goes away on pilgrimage4 ,after various adventures1 however1 he also arrives on the scene4 ,as he comes1 a series of single-handed combats is in progress with ,krishna and other ,rajas looking on4 ,duryodhana1 the son of blind ,dhritarashtra1 the king of the ,kauravas is fighting ,bhima1 the powerful ,pandava and just as ,balarama arrives he is dealt a foul blow and wounded in the thigh4 ,balarama is shocked to see so many uncles and cousins involved in strife and begs them to desist4 ,duryodhana replies that it is ,krishna who has willed the war and that they are as puppets in his hands4 ,it is ,krishna who is actively aiding the ,pandavas and the war is only being carried on because of his advice4 ,it is ,krishna also who has sponsored foul play4 ,balarama is pained at such accusations and strongly criticizes ,krishna4 ,krishna1 however1 is ready with an answer4 ,the ,kauravas1 he says1 cheated the ,pandavas of their kingdom by the game of dice4 ,duryodhana had told ,draupadi to sit on his thigh and so he deserved to have it broken4 ,so unjust and tyrannical are the ,kauravas that any methods used against them are fair4 ,balarama keeps silent and a little later returns to ,dwarka4 ,this incident concludes the ,purana's references to the war4 ,nothing is said of ,krishna's sermon--the ,bhagavad ,gita4 ,no mention is made of ,krishna's role as charioteer to ,arjuna4 ,nothing further is said of its deadly outcome4 ,krishna's career as a warrior1 in fact1 is ended and with this episode the ,purana enters its final phase4 ,as ,krishna lives at ,dwarka1 surrounded by his wives and huge progeny1 he wearies of his earthly career4 ,by now his mission has been accomplished4 ,hordes of demons have been slain1 cruel monarchs killed and much of ,earth's burden lifted4 ,there is no longer any pressing need for him to stay and he decides to quit his body and 're-enter with all his emanations the sphere of ,vishnu4' ,to do this1 however1 the whole of the ,yadava race must first be ended4#da ,one1 day some ,yadava boys make fun of certain ,brahmans4 ,they dress up one of their company as a pregnant girl1 take him to the ,brahmans and innocently inquire what kind of child the woman will bring forth4 ,the ,brahmans immediately penetrate the disguise and angered at the youth's impertinence1 they reply1 ',a club that will crush the whole ,yadava race4' ,the boys run to ,king ,ugrasena1 relate what has happened and are even more alarmed when an iron club is brought forth from the boy's belly4 ,ugrasena has the club ground to dust and thrown into the sea1 where its particles become rushes4 ,one part of the club1 however1 is like a lance and does not break4 ,when thrown into the sea1 it is swallowed by a fish4 ,a hunter catches it and taking the iron spike from its stomach lays it aside for future use4 ,it is an arrow made from this particular spike which a little later will bring about ,krishna's death4 ,similarly it is the iron rushes which will cause the death of the ,yadavas4 ,already1 therefore1 a chain of sinister happenings has been started and from now onwards the action moves relentlessly to its grim and tragic close4 ,as the final scene unfolds1 the gods1 headed by ,brahma and ,siva1 approach ,krishna begging him to return4 ,krishna tells them that everything is now in train and within seven nights he will complete the destruction of the ,yadavas and return to his everlasting home4 ,signs portending the destruction of ,dwarka now appear4 ',a dreadful figure1 death personified1 haunts every house1 coming and going no one knows how and being invulnerable to weapons by which he is assailed4 ,strong hurricanes blow2 large rats multiply and infest the roads and houses and attack persons in their sleep2 starlings scream in their cages1 storks imitate the hooting of owls and goats the howling of jackals2 cows bring forth foals and camels mules2 food in the moment of being eaten is filled with worms2 fire burns with discoloured flames and at sunset and sunrise the air is traversed by headless and hideous spirits4'#db ,krishna draws the ,yadavas' attention to these omens and advises them to leave ,dwarka and move to ,prabhasa1 a site farther inland4 ,udho1 who earlier in the story has acted as ,krishna's envoy to the cowgirls quickly realizes that the end is near and approaches ,krishna for advice4 ',tell me1 ,o ,lord1 what it is proper ,i should do4 ,for it is clear that shortly you will destroy the ,yadavas4' ,krishna then tells him to go to a shrine high up in the mountains and by meditating on ,krishna obtain release4 ,he adds minute instructions on the technique of penance and ends with some definitions of the yoga of devotion4 ,he concludes by telling ,udho that when all the ,yadavas have perished1 he himself will go to heaven and ,dwarka will be swallowed by the ocean4 ,udho bows low and leaves for the mountains4 ,krishna now assembles the leading ,yadavas and leaving behind only the elders1 the women and children1 escorts them to ,prabhasa1 a town inland1 assuring them that by proper worship they may yet avert their fate4 ,at ,prabhasa the ,yadavas bathe and purify themselves1 anoint the gods' statues and make offerings4 ,they appease the ,brahmans with costly gifts--'thereby countering evil omens1 gaining the road to happiness and ensuring rebirth at a higher level4' ,their worship however1 is of no avail for almost immediately they fall to drinking4 ',as they drank1 the destructive flame of dissension was kindled amongst them by mutual collision1 and fed with the fuel of abuse4 ,infuriated by the divine influence1 they fell upon one another with missile weapons and when these were expended1 they had recourse to the rushes growing high4 ,the rushes in their hands became like thunderbolts and they struck one another with them fatal blows4 ,krishna interposed to prevent them but they thought that he was taking part with each severally1 and continued the conflict4 ,krishna then1 enraged1 took up a handful of rushes to destroy them1 and the rushes became a club of iron and with this he slew many of the murderous ,yadavas2 whilst others1 fighting fiercely1 put an end to one another4 ,in a short time1 there was not a single ,yadava left alive1 except the mighty ,krishna and ,daruka1 his charioteer4'#dc ,with the slaughter thus completed1 ,krishna feels free to leave the earth4 ,such ,yadavas who have been left behind in ,dwarka have been spared1 but the greater part of the race is dead4 ,he therefore makes ready for his own departure4 ,balarama1 who has helped ,krishna in the brawl1 goes to the sea-shore1 performs yoga and1 leaving his body1 joins the ,supreme ,spirit4 ,sesha1 the white serpent of eternity1 issues from his mouth and hymned by snakes and other serpents proceeds to the ocean4 ',bringing an offering of respect1 ,ocean came to meet him2 and then the majestic being1 adored by attendant snakes entered into the waters of the deep4'#dd ,krishna then seats himself by a fig tree1 lays his left leg across his right thigh1 turns the sole of his foot outwards and assumes one of the postures in which abstraction is practised4 ,as he meditates he appears lovelier than ever4 ,his eyes flash4 ,the four arms of ,vishnu spring from his body4 ,he wears his crown1 his sacred thread and garland of flowers4 ,as he sits1 glorious and beautiful1 the same hunter1 who earlier had salvaged the iron spike from the fish1 chances to pass by4 ,his arrow is tipped with a piece of the iron and mistaking ,krishna's foot for part of a deer1 he shoots his arrow and hits it4 ,approaching the mark1 he sees ,krishna's four arms and is horrified to discover whom he has wounded4 ,as he begs forgiveness1 ,krishna grants him liberation and dispatches him to heaven4 ,daruka1 ,krishna's charioteer1 now comes in search of his master4 ,finding him wounded1 he is overwhelmed with grief4 ,krishna tells him to go to ,dwarka and inform the surviving ,yadavas what has happened4 ,on receiving the news they must leave ,dwarka immediately1 for the sea will shortly engulf it4 ,they must also place themselves under ,arjuna's protection and go to ,indraprastha4 ',then the illustrious ,krishna having united himself with his own pure1 spiritual1 inexhaustible and universal spirit abandoned his mortal body4'#de ,daruka goes mournfully to ,dwarka where he breaks the news4 ,vasudeva with his two wives1 ,devaki and ,rohini1 die of grief4 ,arjuna recovers the bodies of ,krishna and ,balarama and places them on a funeral pyre4 ,rukmini along with ,krishna's seven other queens throw themselves on the flames4 ,balarama's wives1 as well as ,king ,ugrasena1 also die4 ,arjuna then appoints ,krishna's great grandson1 ,parikshit1 to rule over the survivors and1 after assembling the remaining women and children1 removes them from ,dwarka and travels slowly away4 ,as they leave1 the ocean comes up1 swallowing the city and engulfing everything except the temple4 ,footnote #dj3 ,plate #ai4 ,footnote #da3 ,note #ac4 ,footnote #db3 ,note #ad4 ,footnote #dc3 ,note #g4 ,footnote #dd3 ,plate #a and ,note #g4 ,footnote #de3 ,plate #b and ,note #g4 7iv7 ,the ,purana ,re-considered ,such an account gives us what the ,mahabharata epic did not give--a detailed description of ,krishna's career4 ,it confirms the epic's view of ,krishna as a hero and fills in many gaps concerning his life at ,dwarka1 his relations with the ,pandavas1 his life as a feudal prince and finally1 his death4 ,it makes clear that throughout the story ,krishna is an incarnation of ,vishnu and that his main reason for being born is to aid the good and kill demons4 ,at the same time1 it shows him in two important new lights--firstly1 as one whose youth was spent among cowherds1 in circumstances altogether different from those of a prince and secondly1 as a delightful lover of women1 who explores to the full the joys of sexual love4 ,the second role characterizes him both as cowherd and prince but with important differences of attitude and behaviour4 ,as a prince1 ,krishna is wedded first to ,rukmini and then to seven other wives1 observing on each occasion the requisite formalities4 ,even the sixteen thousand one hundred girls whom he rescues from imprisonment receive this formal status4 ,with all of them ,krishna enjoys a variety of sexual pleasures and their love is moral1 respectable and approved4 ,krishna the prince1 in fact1 is ,krishna the husband4 ,krishna the cowherd1 on the other hand1 is essentially a lover4 ,the cowgirls whose impassioned love he inspires are all married and in consorting with them he is breaking one of the most solemn requirements of the moral code4 ,the first relationship has the secure basis of conjugal duty1 the second the daring adventurousness of romantic passion4 ,the same abrupt contrast appears between his character as a cowherd and his character as a prince4 ,as a youth he mixes freely with the cowherds1 behaving with an easy naturalness of manner and obtaining from them an intense devotion4 ,this devotion is excited by everything he does and whether as a baby crying for the breast1 a little boy pilfering butter or a young man teasing the married girls1 he exerts a magnetic charm4 ,at no time does he neglect his prime duty of killing demons but this is subordinated to his innocent delight in living4 ,he is shown as impatient with old and stereotyped forms of worship1 as scorning ordinary morality and treating love as paramount4 ,although he acts continually with princely dignity and is always aware of his true character as ,vishnu1 his impact on others is based more on the understanding of their needs than on their recognition of him as ,god4 ,when1 at times1 ,krishna the cowherd is adored as ,god1 he has already been loved as a boy and a young man4 ,in the later story1 this early charm is missing4 ,krishna is frequently recognized to be ,god and is continually revered and respected as a man4 ,his conduct is invariably resolute but there is a kind of statesmanlike formality about his actions4 ,he is respectful towards ritual1 formal observances and ,brahmans while in comparison with his encounters with the cowgirls his relations with women have an air of slightly stagnant luxury4 ,his wives and consorts lavish on him their devotion but the very fact that they are married removes the romantic element from their relationship4 ,such vital differences are only partially resolved in the ,bhagavata ,purana4 ,representing as they do two different conceptions of ,krishna's character1 it is inevitable that the resulting account should be slightly biased in one direction or the other4 ,the ,bhagavata ,purana records both phases in careful detail blending them into a single organic whole4 ,but there can be little doubt that its ,brahman authors were in the main more favourably inclined towards the hero prince than towards the cowherd lover4 ,there is a tendency for the older ,krishna to disparage the younger4 ,krishna the prince's subsequent meetings with the cowgirls are shown as very different from his rapturous encounters with them in the forest and the fact that his later career involves so sharp a separation from them indicates that the whole episode was somewhat frowned upon4 ,this is especially evident from the manner in which ,krishna addresses the cowgirls when they meet him during the eclipse of the sun4 ,by this time he has become an ardent husband constantly satisfying his many wives4 ,he is very far from having abjured the delights of the flesh4 ,yet for all his former loves who long for him so passionately he has only one message4 ,they must meditate upon him in their minds4 ,no dismissal could be colder1 no treatment more calculatingly callous4 ,and even the accounts of ,krishna's love-making reflects this bias4 ,the physical charms of the cowgirls are minimized and it is only the beauty of ,rukmini which is stressed4 ,it is clear1 in fact1 that however much the one tradition involved a break with morals1 the second tradition shrank from countenancing adultery and it was this latter tradition which commanded the authors' approval4 ,finally1 on one important issue1 the ,purana as a whole is in no doubt4 ,krishna's true consort is ,rukmini4 ,that ,krishna's nature should be complemented by a cowgirl is not so much as even considered4 ,the cowgirls are shown as risking all for ,krishna1 as loving him above all else but none is singled out for mention and none emerges as a rival4 ,in this long account of ,krishna's life what is overwhelmingly significant is that the name of his supreme cowgirl love is altogether omitted4 ,v ,,the ,,krishna ,,of ,,poetry 7i7 ,the ,triumph of ,radha ,during the next two hundred years1 from the tenth to the twelfth century1 the ,krishna story completely alters4 ,it is not that the facts as given in the ,bhagavata ,purana are disputed4 ,it is rather that the emphasis and view-point are changed4 ,krishna the prince and his consort ,rukmini are relegated to the background and ,krishna the cowherd lover brought sharply to the fore4 ,krishna is no longer regarded as having been born solely to kill a tyrant and rid the world of demons4 ,his chief function now is to vindicate passion as the symbol of final union with ,god4 ,we have already seen that to ,indians this final union was the sole purpose of life and only one experience was at all comparable to it4 ,it was the mutual ecstasy of impassioned lovers4 ',in the embrace of his beloved1 a man forgets the whole world--everything both within and without2 in the same way1 he who embraces the ,self knows neither within nor without4'#df ,the function of the new ,krishna was to defend these two premises--that romantic love was the most exalted experience in life and secondly1 that of all the roads to salvation1 the impassioned adoration of ,god was the one most valid4 ,god must be adored4 ,krishna himself was ,god and since he had shown divine love in passionately possessing the cowgirls1 he was best adored by recalling these very encounters4 ,as a result1 ,krishna's relations with the cowgirls were now enormously magnified and as part of this fresh appraisal1 a particular married cowgirl1 ,radha1 enters the story as the enchanting object of his passions4 ,we have seen how on one occasion in the ,bhagavata ,purana1 ,krishna disappears taking with him a single girl1 how they then make love together in a forest bower and how when the girl tires and begs ,krishna to carry her1 he abruptly leaves her4 ,the girl's name is not mentioned but enough is said to suggest that she is ,krishna's favourite4 ,this hint is now developed4 ,radha1 for this is the girl's name1 is recognized as the loveliest of all the cowgirls4 ,she is the daughter of the cowherd ,vrishabhanu and his wife1 ,kamalavati1 and is married to ,ayana1 a brother of ,yasoda4 ,like other cowgirls1 her love for ,krishna is all-consuming and compels her to ignore her family honour and disregard her husband4 ,krishna1 for his part1 regards her as his first love4 ,in place1 therefore1 of courtly adventures and battles with demons1 ,krishna's adulterous romance is now presented as all in all4#dg ,it is the moods1 feelings and emotions of a great love-affair which are the essence of the story and this1 in turn1 is to serve as a sublime allegory expressing and affirming the love of ,god for the soul4 ,with this dramatic revolution in the story1 we begin to approach the ,krishna of ,indian painting4 ,such a change can hardly have come about without historical reasons and although the exact circumstances must perhaps remain obscure1 we can see in this sharp reversal of roles a clear response to certain ,indian needs4 ,from early times1 romantic love had been keenly valued1 ,sanskrit poets such as ,kalidasa1 ,amaru and ,bhartrihari celebrating the charms of womanly physique and the raptures of sex4 ,what1 in fact1 in other cultures had been viewed with suspicion or disquiet was here invested with nobility and grandeur4 ,although fidelity had been demanded in marriage1 romantic liaisons had not been entirely excluded and thus there was a sense in which the love-poetry of the early ,indian middle ages had been partly paralleled by actual courtly or village practice4 ,from the tenth century onwards1 however1 a tightening of domestic morals had set in1 a tightening which was further intensified by the ,muslim invasions of the twelfth and thirteen centuries4 ,romance as an actual experience became more difficult of attainment and this was exacerbated by standard views of marriage4 ,in early ,india1 marriage had been regarded as a contract between families and romantic love between husband and wife as an accidental1 even an unexpected product of what was basically a utilitarian agreement4 ,with the seclusion of women and the laying of even greater stress on wifely chastity1 romantic love was increasingly denied4 ,yet the need for romance remained and we can see in the prevalence of love-poetry a substitute for wishes repressed in actual life4#dh ,it is precisely this role which the story of ,krishna the cowherd lover now came to perform4 ,krishna1 being ,god1 had been beyond morals and hence had practised conduct which1 if indulged in by men1 might well have been wrong4 ,he had given practical expression to romantic longings and had behaved with all the passionate freedom normally stifled by social duty1 conjugal ethics and family morals4 ,from this point of view1 ,krishna the prince was a mere pillar of boring respectability4 ,nothing in his conduct could arouse delight for everything he did was correct and proper4 ,krishna the cowherd on the other hand1 was spontaneous1 irresponsible and free4 ,his love for the cowgirls had had a lively freedom4 ,the love between them was nothing if not voluntary4 ,his whole life among the cowherds was simple1 natural and pleasing and as their rapturous lover nothing was more obvious than that the cowgirls should adore him4 ,in dwelling1 then1 on ,krishna1 it was natural that the worshipper should tend to disregard the prince and should concentrate instead on the cowherd4 ,the prince had revered ,brahmans and supported established institutions4 ,the cowherd had shamed the ,brahmans of ,mathura and discredited ceremonies and festivals4 ,he had loved and been loved and in his contemplation lay nothing but joy4 ,the loves of ,krishna1 in fact1 were an intimate fulfilment of ,indian desires1 an exact sublimation of intense romantic needs and while other factors must certainly have played their part1 this is perhaps the chief reason why1 at this juncture1 they now enchanted village and courtly ,india4 ,the results of this new approach are apparent in two distinct ways4 ,the ,bhagavata ,purana continues to be the chief chronicle of ,krishna's acts but the last half of ,book ,ten and all of ,book ,eleven fall into neglect4#di ,in their place1 the story of ,krishna's relations with the cowgirls is given new poignancy and precision4 ,radha is constantly mentioned and in all the incidents in the ,purana involving cowgirls1 it is she who is given pride of place4 ,at the river ,jumna1 when ,krishna removes the cowgirls' clothes1 ,radha begs him to restore them4 ,at the circular dance in which he joins with all the cowgirls1 ,radha receives his first attentions1 dancing with him in the centre4 ,when ,krishna is about to leave for ,mathura1 it is ,radha who heads the cowgirls and strives to detain him4 ,she serves1 in fact1 as a symbol of all the cowgirls' love4 ,at the same time1 she is very far from being merely their spokesman or leader and while the later texts dwell constantly on her rapturous love-making with ,krishna1 they also describe her jealousy when ,krishna makes love to other girls4 ,indeed the essence of their romance is that it includes a temporary estrangement and only after ,krishna has neglected ,radha1 flirted with other cowgirls and then returned to her is their understanding complete4 ,the second result is the allegorical interpretation which ,krishna's romances now received4 ,in ,christian literature1 the longing of the soul for ,god was occasionally expressed in terms of sexual imagery--the works of the ,spanish mystic1 ,st4 ,john of the ,cross1 including 'songs of the soul in rapture at having arrived at the height of perfection which is union with ,god4' ,oh night that was my guide6 ,oh darkness dearer than the morning's pride1 ,oh night that joined the lover ,to the beloved bride ,transfiguring them each into the other4 ,within my flowering breast ,which only for himself entire ,i save ,he sank into his rest ,and all my gifts ,i gave ,lulled by the airs with which the cedars wave4#ej ,this same approach was now to clarify ,radha's romance with ,krishna4 ,radha1 it was held1 was the soul while ,krishna was ,god4 ,radha's sexual passion for ,krishna symbolized the soul's intense longing and her willingness to commit adultery expressed the utter priority which must be accorded to love for ,god4 ,if ultimate union was symbolized by romantic love1 then clearly nothing could approach such love in ultimate significance4 ,in deserting their husbands and homes and wilfully committing adultery1 ,radha and the cowgirls were therefore illustrating a profound religious truth4 ,not only was their adultery proof of ,krishna's charm1 it was vital to the whole story4 ,by worldly standards1 they were committing the gravest of offences but they were doing it for ,krishna who was ,god himself4 ,they were therefore setting ,god above home and duty1 they were leaving everything for love of ,god and in surrendering their honour1 were providing the most potent symbol of what devotion meant4 ,this approach explained other details4 ,krishna's flute was the call of ,god which caused the souls of men1 the cowgirls1 to forsake their worldly attachments and rush to love him4 ,in removing the clothes of the cowgirls and requiring them to come before him naked1 he was demonstrating the innocent purity with which the soul should wait on ,god4 ,in himself neglecting ,radha and toying with the cowgirls1 he was proving1 on one level1 the power of worldly pleasures to seduce the soul but on another level1 the power of ,god to love every soul irrespective of its character and status4 ,from this point of view1 the cowgirls were as much the souls of men as ,radha herself and to demonstrate ,god's all-pervasive love1 ,krishna must therefore love not only ,radha but every cowgirl4 ,equally1 in the circular dance1 by inducing every cowgirl to think that she and she alone was his partner1 ,krishna was proving how ,god is available to all4 ,finally it was realized that even those portions of the story which1 at first sight1 seemed cruel and callous were also susceptible of religious interpretation4 ,when ,radha has been loved in the forest and then is suddenly deserted1 the reason is her pride--pride that because ,krishna has loved her1 she can assert herself by asking to be carried4 ,such assertiveness is incompatible with the kind of humble adoration necessary for communion with ,god4 ,to prove this1 therefore1 ,radha's pride must be destroyed and ,krishna resorts to this seemingly brusque desertion4 ,action1 in fact1 which by human standards would be reprehensible is once again a means for imparting spiritual wisdom4 ,in a similar way1 ,krishna's departure for ,mathura and final abandonment of the cowgirls was accorded a religious interpretation4 ,at one level1 his departure symbolized 'the dark night of the soul1' the experience which comes to every devotee when1 despite the most ardent longing1 the vision fades4 ,at another level1 it illustrated how life must be lived when ,god or ,vishnu was no longer on earth4 ,if ,krishna's love-making was intended to symbolize the ultimate rapture1 his physical absence corresponded to conditions as they normally existed4 ,in instructing the cowgirls to meditate upon him in their minds1 ,krishna was only attuning them to life as it must necessarily appear after he has left the human stage4 ,it was these conceptions which governed the cult of ,krishna from the twelfth century onwards and1 as we shall shortly see1 informed the poems which were now to celebrate his love for ,radha4 ,footnote #df3 ,note #ae4 ,footnote #dg3 ,note #af4 ,footnote #dh3 ,note #ag4 ,footnote #di3 ,i4e4 the whole of ,krishna's career after his destruction of the tyrant4 ,footnote #ej3 ,roy ,campbell1 ,the ,poems of ,st4 ,john of the ,cross 7,london1 #aiea71 #aa-ab4 7ii7 ,the ,gita ,govinda ,the first poem to express this changed conception is the ,gita ,govinda--the ,song of the ,cowherd--a ,sanskrit poem written by the ,bengali poet1 ,jayadeva1 towards the close of the twelfth century4 ,its subject is the estrangement of ,radha and ,krishna caused by ,krishna's love for other cowgirls1 ,radha's anguish at ,krishna's neglect and lastly the rapture which attends their final reunion4 ,jayadeva describes ,radha's longing and ,krishna's love-making with glowing sensuality yet the poem reverts continually to praise of ,krishna as ,god4 ,if in recalling ,krishna to mind there is flavour ,or if there is interest in love's art ,then to this necklace of words--sweetness1 tenderness1 brightness-- ,the words of ,jayadeva1 listen4 ,he aims1 in fact1 at inducing 'recollection of ,krishna in the minds of the good' and adds a description of the forest in springtime solely1 he says1 in order once again to recall ,krishna4#ea ,when1 at last1 the poem has come triumphantly to its close1 ,jayadeva again exhorts people to adore ,krishna and 'place him for ever in their hearts1 ,krishna the source of all merit4' ,the poem begins with a preface of four lines describing how ,krishna's romance with ,radha first began4 ,the sky1 it says1 was dark with clouds4 ,all around lay the vast forest4 ,night was coming up and ,nanda who had taken the youthful ,krishna with him is alarmed lest in the gathering gloom the boy should get lost4 ,radha1 who is somewhat older1 is with them1 so ,nanda desires her to take ,krishna home4 ,radha leads him away but as they wander by the river1 passion mounts in their hearts4 ,they forget that ,nanda has told them to hurry home4 ,radha ignores the motherly character of her mission and loitering in the trees1 the two commence their dalliance4#eb ,in this way the love of ,radha and ,krishna arises--the love which is to dominate their hearts with ever-growing fervour4 ,the poem then leaps a period of time and when the drama opens1 a crisis has occurred4 ,radha1 after long enjoying ,krishna's passionate embraces1 finds herself abruptly neglected4 ,charming but faithless1 ,krishna is now pursuing other girls and the jilted ,radha wanders alone4 ,meanwhile spring has come to the forest and the thought that others are enjoying ,krishna's love tortures her to the point of madness4 ,as she broods on her lost joys1 a friend describes to her what is happening4#ec ,sandal and garment of yellow and lotus garlands upon his body of blue1 ,in his dance the jewels of his ears in movement dangling over his smiling cheeks1 ,krishna here disports himself with charming women given to love4 ,he embraces one woman1 he kisses another1 and fondles another beautiful one4 ,he looks at another one lovely with smiles1 and starts in pursuit of another woman4 ,krishna here disports himself with charming women given to love4#ed ,suddenly ,radha sees ,krishna#ee and going into the midst of the cowgirls1 she kisses him violently and clasps him to her2 but ,krishna is so inflamed by the other girls that he abandons her in a thicket4 ,as ,radha broods on his behaviour1 she is filled with bitter sadness4#ef ,yet her love is still so strong that she cannot bring herself to blame him and instead calls to mind his charm4 ,i remember ,krishna1 the jests he made1 who placed his sport in the pastoral dance1 ,the sweet of whose nectar of lips kept flowing with notes of his luring melodious flute1 ,with the play of whose eyes and the toss of whose head the earrings kept dangling upon his cheeks4 ,i remember ,krishna1 the jests he made1 who placed his sport in the pastoral dance1 ,whose brow had a perfect sandal spot1 as among dark clouds the disc of the moon1 ,whose door-like heart was without pity when crushing the bosoms of swelling breasts4 ,desire even now in my foolish mind for ,krishna1 ,for ,krishna--without me--lusting still for the herd-girls4 ,seeing only the good in his nature1 what shall ,i do8 ,agitated ,i feel no anger4 ,pleased without cause1 ,i acquit him4 ,and she continues3 ,o make him enjoy me1 my friend1 that ,krishna so fickle1 ,i who am shy like a girl on her way to the first of her trysts of love1 ,he who is charming with flattering words1 ,i who am tender ,in speech and smiling1 he on whose hip the garment lies loosely worn4 ,o make him enjoy me1 my friend1 that ,krishna so fickle1 ,me who sweated and moistened all over my body with love's exertion1 ,that ,krishna whose cheeks were lovely with down all standing on end as he thrilled1 ,whose half-closed eyes were languid1 and restless with brimming desire4 ,o make him enjoy me1 my friend1 that ,krishna so fickle1 ,me whose masses of curls were like loose-slipping flowers1 whose amorous words ,were vague as of doves1 that ,krishna whose bosom is marked ,with scratches1 surpassing all in his love that the science of love could teach4 ,o make him enjoy me1 my friend1 that ,krishna so fickle1 ,to whose act of desire accomplished the anklets upon my feet bejewelled ,vibrated sounding1 who gave his kisses seizing the hair of the head1 ,and to whom in his passionate love my girdle sounded in eloquence sweet4 ,as ,radha sits longing for him in lonely sadness1 ,krishna suddenly repents1 is filled with remorse and abruptly goes in quest of her4 ,he does not know1 however1 where to find her and as he wanders1 he expresses his sorrow4 ,radha so deeply wronged1 troubled to see me surrounded by women1 ,she went1 and ,i1 in fear of my guilt1 made no attempt to stop her1 ,alas1 alas1 she is gone in anger1 her love destroyed4 ,o my slender one1 ,i imagine your heart is dejected1 ,i cannot console you kneeling in homage1 ,i know not where to find you4 ,if you pardon me now ,i shall never repeat this neglect of you ever-- ,o beautiful1 give me your pleasure again4 ,i burn with desire4 ,as ,krishna searches unavailingly1 ,radha's friend lights upon him and conveys news of her love-tormented state4 ,armour she makes of tender lotus garlands to hide her bosom from you1 ,large garlands1 as if to protect you from heavy showers of shafts from the god of love4 ,she fears an attack of ,love upon you1 and lies away hidden2 ,she wastes away1 ,krishna1 parted from you4 ,as he hears this1 ,krishna is torn with longing4 ,he does not1 however1 go immediately to ,radha but instead asks the friend to bring ,radha to him4 ,the girl departs1 meets ,radha and gives her ,krishna's message4 ,she then describes ,krishna's love-lorn state3 ,when he hears the noise of swarms of bees1 he covers his ears from their humming2 ,pain he feels1 night after night1 of a heart in love that is parted4 ,he droops1 separated from you1 ,o friend1 the wearer of garlands4 ,the girl assures ,radha that ,krishna is contrite and urges her to delay no longer4 ,he has gone into the trysting place1 full of all desired bliss1 ,o you with lovely hips delay no more ,o go forth now and seek him out1 him the master of your heart1 him endowed with passion's lovely form4 ,on fallen feathers of the birds1 on leaves about the forest floor1 he lies excited making there his bed1 ,and he gazes out upon the path1 looks about with trembling eyes1 anxious1 looking out for your approach4 ,there on that bed of tender leaves1 ,o lotus-eyed1 embrace his hips1 his naked hips from whence the girdle drops1 ,those hips from whence the garment falls1 those loins which are a treasure heap1 the fountain and the source of all delight4 ,radha would willingly go but she is now so sick with love that she can no longer move4 ,the girl has1 therefore1 to go once more to ,krishna and describe ,radha's state4 ,in secret on every side she sees you ,drinking the honied sweet of her lips4 ,where ,radha stays now she wilts away1 ,she may live no longer without your skill1 ,again and again she keeps telling her friend1 ',o why must ,krishna delay to come8' ,of her jewels abundant her limbs she adorns and spreads out her bed-- ,imagining you on her fluttering couch of leaves-- ,and so to indulge1 in a hundred ways1 in the sport of love ,she is fully resolved1 arranging her bed with every adornment2 ,not another night may that beautiful girl endure without you4 ,why so much apathy1 ,krishna1 beside the fig tree8 ,o brother1 why not go to the pasture of eyes1 the abode of bliss8 ,despite this message1 however1 ,krishna still delays and ,radha1 who has half expected him1 endures still greater anguish4 ,my lover has failed to come to the trysting place1 ,it is perhaps that his mind is dazed1 or perhaps that he went to another woman ,or lured perhaps by festive folk1 that he delays1 ,or perhaps along the dark fringe of the forest he wanders lost4 ,she imagines him toying with another cowgirl4 ,a certain girl1 excelling in her charms unrivalled1 dallies with the sportive ,krishna ,her face1 a moon1 is fondled by the fluttering petals in her hair1 ,the exciting moisture of his lips induces langour in her limbs1 ,her earrings bruise her cheeks while dancing with the motion of her head1 ,her girdle by the tremor of her moving hips is made to tinkle1 ,she utters senseless sounds1 through fever of her love1 ,he decorates with crimson flowers her curly tresses1 curls which are upon her lively face a mass of clouds1 ,flowers with crimson flashings lovely in the forest of her tresses1 haunt of that wild creature love's desire4 ,and thinking of her own hapless state1 ,radha contrasts it bitterly with that of the fortunate girl4 ,she who with the wearer of the garland lies in dalliance4 ,with him whose lovely mouth is like a lotus that is opening1 ,with him whose words are nectar in their sweetness and their tenderness1 ,with him who wears a garment streaked with gold1 all white and beautiful ,not made to sigh is she1 my friend1 derided by her girls6 ,next morning ,radha is standing with her girls when ,krishna tries to approach her4 ,now1 however1 he has come too late4 ,radha has suffered too greatly4 ,her patience is at an end and although ,krishna implores her to forgive him1 she rounds on him in anger1 ordering him to return to the other girl whom he has just left4#eg ,your mouth1 ,o ,krishna1 darkened1 enhances the crimson beauty of your lovely body1 ,enhances with a1 darkness1 a blackness that arises from the kissing of eyes coloured with black unguent4 ,go1 ,krishna1 go4 ,desist from uttering these deceitful words4 ,follow her1 you lotus-eyed1 she who can dispel your trouble1 go to her4 ,i who follow you devoted--how can you deceive me1 so tortured by love's fever as ,i am8 ,o ,krishna1 like the look of you1 your body which appears so black1 that heart of yours a blackness shall assume4 ,follow her1 you lotus-eyed1 she who can dispel your trouble1 go to her4 ,faced with these reproaches1 ,krishna slinks away4 ,radha's friend knows1 however1 that despite her bitter anger1 ,radha desires nothing more than his love4 ,she attempts1 therefore1 to instil in her a calmer frame of mind1 urging her to end her pride and take ,krishna back4 ,she goes to look for ,krishna and while she is absent1 ,krishna returns4 ,standing before ,radha1 he implores her once again to end her anger4 ,if you speak but a little the moon-like gleam of your teeth will destroy the darkness frightful1 so very terrible1 come over me2 ,your moon of a face which glitters upon my eye1 the moon-bird's eye1 now makes me long for the sweet of your lips4 ,o loved one1 ,o beautiful1 give up that baseless pride against me1 ,my heart is burnt by the fire of longing2 give me that drink so sweet of your lotus face4 ,o you with beautiful teeth1 if you are in anger against me1 strike me then with your finger nails1 sharp and like arrows1 ,bind me1 entwining1 with the cords of your arms1 and bite me then with your teeth1 and feel happy punishing4 ,o loved one1 ,o beautiful1 give up that baseless pride against me4 ,at these words1 ,radha's anger leaves her2 and when ,krishna withdraws1 it is to go to the forest and await her coming4 ,radha's joy returns4 ,she decks herself in the loveliest of her ornaments and then1 accompanied by her maids1 moves slowly to the tryst4#eh ,as they reach the bower which ,krishna has constructed1 her friend urges her to enter4 ,o you who bear on your face the smile that comes of the ardour of passion ,sport with him whose love-abode is the floor of the beautiful bower4 ,radha approaches and their love strains to its height4 ,she looked at ,krishna who desired only her1 on him who for long wanted dalliance1 ,whose face with his pleasure was overwhelmed and who was possessed with desire ,after embracing her long and ardently1 ,krishna with his necklace of pearls ,krishna like the ,jumna in a mighty flood with its necklace of specks of foam4#ei ,the cowgirls go and ,krishna speaks to ,radha4 ,o woman with desire1 place on this patch of flower-strewn floor your lotus foot1 ,and let your foot through beauty win1 ,to me who am the ,lord of ,all1 ,o be attached1 now always yours4 ,o follow me1 my little ,radha4 ,o lovely woman1 give me now the nectar of your lips1 infuse new life into this slave of yours1 so dead1 ,this slave1 whose heart is placed in you1 whose body burned in separation1 this slave denied the pleasure of your love4 ,radha yields and as the night passes they achieve height upon height of sexual bliss4 ,their love play grown great was very delightful1 the love play where thrills were a hindrance to firm embraces1 ,where their helpless closing of eyes was a hindrance to longing looks at each other1 and their secret talk to their drinking of each the other's nectar of lips1 and where the skill of their love was hindered by boundless delight4 ,she loved as never before throughout the course of the conflict of love1 to win1 lying over his beautiful body1 to triumph over her lover2 ,and so through taking the active part her thighs grew lifeless1 and languid her vine-like arms1 and her heart beat fast1 and her eyes grew heavy and closed4 ,in the morning most wondrous1 the heart of her lord was smitten with arrows of ,love1 arrows which went through his eyes1 ,arrows which were her nailed-scratched bosom1 her reddened sleep-denied eyes1 her crimson lips from a bath of kisses1 her hair disarranged with the flowers awry1 and her girdle all loose and slipping4 ,with hair knot loosened and stray locks waving1 her cheeks perspiring1 her glitter of lips impaired1 ,and the necklace of pearls not appearing fair because of her jar-shaped breast being denuded1 ,and her belt1 her glittering girdle1 dimmed in beauty1 ,the happy one drank of the face where the lips were washed with the juice of his mouth1 ,his mouth half open uttering amorous noises1 vague and delirious1 the rows of teeth in the breath of an indrawn sigh delightedly chattering4 ,drank of the face of that deer-eyed woman whose body lay helpless1 released of excessive delight1 the thrilling delight of embraces4 ,when their passion is at last ended1 ,radha begs ,krishna to help her with her toilet4 ,she said to the joy of her heart1 ,adorn the curl on my brow which puts the lotus to shame1 my spotless brow1 ,make a beautiful spot on my forehead1 a spot with the paste of the sandal1 ,o giver of pride1 on my tresses1 untidy now on account of desire1 place flowers1 ,place on my hips the girdle1 the clothes and the jewels1 ,cover my beautiful loins1 luscious and firm1 the cavern of ,love to be feared4 ,make a pattern upon my breasts and a picture on my cheeks and fasten over my loins a girdle1 ,bind my masses of hair with a beautiful garland and place many bracelets upon my hands and jewelled anklets upon my feet4 ,krishna does so and with a final celebration of ,krishna as ,god and of the song itself--its words 'sweeter than sugar1 like love's own glorious flavour'--the poem ends4 ,footnote #ea3 ,note #ah4 ,footnote #eb3 ,plate #bj4 ,footnote #ec3 ,plates #ba and #bb4 ,footnote #ed3 ,note #ai4 ,footnote #ee3 ,plate #bc4 ,footnote #ef3 ,plate #bd4 ,footnote #eg3 ,plate #be4 ,footnote #eh3 ,plate #bf4 ,footnote #ei3 ,plate #bg4 7iii7 ,later ,poetry ,jayadeva's poem quickly achieved renown in ,northern and ,western ,india and from the early thirteenth century became a leading model for all poets who were enthralled by ,krishna as ,god and lover4 ,in ,western ,india1 ,bilvamangala1 a poet of ,malabar1 composed a whole galaxy of ,krishna songs1 his poem1 the ,balagopala ,stuti 7,the ,childhood of ,krishna7 earning for him the title 'the ,jayadeva of the ,south4' ,but it is during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries that the most important developments occurred4 ,in ,bengal1 the poets ,vidyapati and ,chandi ,das flourished in about the year #adbj1 while in ,western ,india1 ,mira ,bai1 a local princess1 began a wide-spread popular movement4 ,mira ,bai was followed by ,vallabhacharya 7born #adgh7 who in turn inspired four poet disciples--,krishna ,das1 ,sur ,das1 ,parmanand ,das and ,kumbhan ,das4 ,all these were at their height in the middle of the sixteenth century1 writing ,hindi poems in which ,radha's adventures with ,krishna and their rapturous love-making were devotedly described4#fj ,the work of ,sur ,das was of special importance for in one of his compositions he took each of the thirty-six traditional modes of ,indian music-the ,ragas and ,raginis--but instead of celebrating them as separate 'musical characters1' appended to each a love-poem about ,krishna4 ,sur ,das was followed by ,keshav ,das of ,orchha 7fl4 #aehj71 ,govind ,das 7fl4 #aeij71 ,bihari ,lai 7fl4 #afej7 and ,kali ,das 7fl4 #agjj7--;all poets in whom religious ecstasy was blended with a feeling for passionate romance4 ,of these poets ,bihari ,lai is famous for the ,sat ,sai in which he celebrated ,krishna's romance in seven hundred verses4 ,all this later poetry differed from the ,gita ,govinda in one important respect4 ,instead of dwelling on the temporary rupture in ,radha and ,krishna's relationship1 it roved freely over the many phases of their love-making1 subjecting every incident to delighted analysis4 ,a poet thought and felt himself into ,radha's mind when as a young girl about to become a woman she discovered for the first time the exquisite sensations of awakening love4 ,or he imagined he was ,krishna stumbling on ,radha by accident and being stirred to ecstasy by his first glimpse of her glowing charms4 ,sometimes he even became the unseen viewer of their rapturous exchanges1 comforting ,radha with sage remarks or egging her on to appease her hungry lover4 ,in this way many incidents not recorded of any cowgirl in the ,bhagavata ,purana1 though possibly preserved in oral tradition1 came gradually into prominence1 thereby confirming ,radha as ,krishna's greatest love4 ,the following incidents will illustrate this process4 ,radha would be described as one day taking her curds and milk to a village the farther side of the river ,jumma4 ,krishna hears of her expedition and along with other cowherd boys waylays ,radha and her friends and claims a toll4 ,radha refuses to pay but at last offers to make a token gift provided he ferries them over4 ,meanwhile a cowherd boy has hidden the boat and night is coming on4 ,it is now too late to return so the girls have no alternative but to stay with ,krishna4 ,they lie down by the bank but in the darkness give ,krishna not only the toll but also their souls and bodies4 ,in another poem1 ,krishna is shown pestering the cowgirls for curds4 ,radha decides to stand this no longer and partly in jest dresses herself up as a constable4 ,when ,krishna next teases the girls1 she descends upon him1 catches him by the wrist and 'arrests' him as a thief4#fa ,it is in the poems of ,chandi ,das1 however1 that ,krishna's most daring ruses are described4 ,having once gained admittance to ,radha's house by dressing himself as a cowgirl1 he is shown pretending to be a flower-seller4 ,he strings some flowers into a bunch of garlands1 dangles them on his arm and strolls blandly down the village street4 ,when he reaches ,radha's house1 he goes boldly in and is taken by ,radha into a corner where she starts to bargain4 ,krishna asks her to let him first adorn her with a garland and then she can pay him4 ,radha agrees and as he slips a garland over her head1 ,krishna kisses her4 ,radha suddenly sees who it is and holds his hand4 ,on another occasion1 ,radha is ill from love and is lying at home on her bed4 ,krishna thereupon becomes a doctor and goes from house to house curing the sick4 ,so successful are his cures that ,radha also is tempted to consult the new doctor and sends a maid to call him1 ,krishna comes but before entering adopts a wild disguise--putting his clothes on inside out1 matting his hair with mud1 and slinging a bag of roots and plants over his shoulder4 ,as he enters1 he sits on ,radha's bed1 lifts her veil1 gazes intently at her face and declares that certainly she is very ill indeed4 ,he then takes her pulse and says1 'it is the water of love that is rotting her heart like a poison4' ,radha is elated at this diagnosis1 rouses herself and stretches her limbs4 ',you have understood my trouble1' she says4 ',now tell me what ,i am to do4' ',i feel somewhat diffident at explaining my remedy1' replies the doctor1 ',but if ,i had the time and place1 ,i could ease your fever and cure you utterly4' ,as he says this1 ,radha knows that he is ,krishna and this is only another of his reckless wiles designed to bring him near her4 ,but it was less in the recording of new incidents than in lyrical descriptions of ,radha and ,krishna1 their physical charms and ecstatic meetings1 that the poets excelled4 i ,krishna is dancing in a medley of moods and poses4 ,his crown sways1 his eye-brows move1 ,displaying the arts of a clever dancer4 ,the swing of his waist makes his girdle sing ,and the anklets jingle4 ,one fancies one is listening to the sweet voice of a pair of geese as they touch each other in dalliance4 ,the bangles glitter and the rings and armlets shoot their rays4 ,when with passion he moves his arms1 what grace the movements bless6 ,now he dances after the gait of ladies and now in a manner of his own4 ,the poet's lord is the jewel of the passionate ,and builds his dance in the depths of ecstasy4#fb 7,sur ,das7 ii ,with ,krishna in their midst the cowherds come to their homes4 ,the calves and cows are ahead1 frisking and playing as they go4 ,all the pipes and horns go forth1 each his own notes playing4 ,the sound of the flute moves the cows to low as they raise a cloud of dust4 ,the crown of peacocks' feathers glistens on the head like a young moon4 ,the cowherd boys frolic on the path and ,krishna in the centre sings his song4 ,ravished by the sight1 the cowgirls pour out their minds and bodies1 ,gazing on ,krishna1 quenching their heart's desire4 7,sur ,das7 iii ,radha's glances dart from side to side4 ,her restless body and clothes are heavy with dust4 ,her glistening smile shines again and again4 ,shy1 she raises her skirt to her lips4 ,startled1 she stirs and once again is calm1 ,as now she enters the ways of love4 ,sometimes she gazes at her blossoming breasts ,hiding them quickly1 then forgetting they are there4 ,childhood and girlhood melt in one ,and young and old are both forgotten4 ,says ,vidyapati3 ,o ,lord of life1 ,do you not know the signs of youth8#fc 7,vidyapati7 iv ,each day the breasts of ,radha swelled4 ,her hips grew shapely1 her waist more slender4 ,love's secrets stole upon her eyes4 ,startled her childhood sought escape4 ,her plum-like breasts grew large1 ,harder and crisper1 aching for love4 ,krishna soon saw her as she bathed ,her filmy dress still clinging to her breasts1 ,her tangled tresses falling on her heart1 ,a golden image swathed in yak's tail plumes4 ,says ,vidyapati3 ,o wonder of women1 ,only a handsome man can long for her4 7,vidyapati7 v ,there was a shudder in her whispering voice4 ,she was shy to frame her words4 ,what has happened tonight to lovely ,radha8 ,now she consents1 now she is scared4 ,when asked for love1 she closes up her eyes1 ,eager to reach the ocean of desire4 ,he begs her for a kiss4 ,she turns her mouth away ,and then1 like a night lily1 the moon seized her4 ,she felt his touch startling her girdle4 ,she knew her love treasure was being robbed4 ,with her dress she covered up her breasts4 ,the treasure was left uncovered4 ,vidyapati wonders at the neglected bed4 ,lovers are busy in each other's arms4 7,vidyapati7 vi ,awake1 ,radha1 awake ,calls the parrot and its love ,for how long must you sleep1 ,clasped to the heart of your ,dark-stone8 ,listen4 ,the dawn has come ,and the red shafts of the sun ,are making us shudder4 7,vidyapati7 vii ,startled1 the parrot calls4 ,see those young lovers are still asleep4 ,on a bed of tender leaves ,his dark figure is lying still4 ,she1 the fair one1 ,looks like a piece of jewelled gold4 ,they have emptied their quivers4 ,all their flower-arrows are discharged1 ,drowning each other in the joy of love4 ,o lovely ,radha1 awake4 ,your friends are going to the temple4 ,asks ,govind ,das3 ,whose business is it ,to interrupt the ways of love8 7,govind ,das7 ,in another kind of poem1 ,radha and ,krishna are themselves made to speak--,krishna1 for example1 describing his first glimpses of ,radha and ,radha struggling to evoke in words the ecstasies of their love4 viii ,like stilled lightning her fair face4 ,i saw her by the river1 ,her hair dressed with jasmine1 ,plaited like a coiled snake4 ,o friend1 ,i will tell you ,the secret of my heart4 ,with her darting glances ,and gentle smiles ,she made me wild with love4 ,throwing and catching a ball of flowers1 ,she showed me to the full ,her youthful form4 ,uptilted breasts ,peeped from her dress4 ,her face was bright ,with taunting smiles4 ,with anklet bells ,her feet shone red4 ,says ,chandi ,das3 ,will you see her again8 7,chandi ,das7 ix ,listen1 ,o lovely darling1 ,cease your anger4 ,i promise by the golden pitchers of your breasts ,and by your necklace-snake1 ,which now ,i gather in my hands1 ,if ever ,i touch anyone but you ,may your necklace-snake bite me2 ,and if my words do not ring true1 ,punish me as ,i deserve4 ,bind me in your arms1 hit me with your thighs1 ,choke my heart with your milk-swollen breasts1 ,lock me day and night in the prison of your heart4 7,vidyapati7 x ,never have ,i seen such love nor heard of it4 ,even the eyelids' flutter ,holds eternity4 ,clasped to my breasts1 you are far from me4 ,i would keep you as a veil close to my face4 ,i shudder with fright when you turn your eyes away1 ,as one body1 we spend the night1 ,sinking in the deeps of delight4 ,as dawn comes1 we see with anxious hearts ,life desert us4 ,the very thought breaks my heart4 ,says ,chandi ,das3 ,o sweet girl1 how ,i understand4 7,chandi ,das7 xi ,o friend1 ,i cannot tell you ,whether he was near or far1 real or a dream4 ,like a vine of lightning1 ,as ,i chained the dark one1 felt a river flooding in my heart4 ,like a shining moon1 ,i devoured that liquid face4 ,i felt stars shooting around me4 ,the sky fell with my dress ,leaving my ravished breasts4 ,i was rocking like the earth4 ,in my storming breath ,i could hear my ankle-bells1 ,sounding like bees4 ,drowned in the last-waters of dissolution ,i knew that this was not the end4 ,says ,vidyapati3 ,how can ,i possibly believe such nonsense8 7,vidyapati7 ,footnote #fj3 ,plate #bi4 ,footnote #fa3 ,plate #ce4 ,footnote #fb3 ,note #bj4 ,footnote #fc3 ,note #bj4 7iv7 ,the ,rasika ,priya ,it is a third development1 however1 which reveals the insistent attractions of ,krishna the divine lover4 ,from about the seventh century onwards ,indian thinkers had been fascinated by the great variety of possible romantic experiences4 ,writers had classified feminine beauty and codified the different situations which might arise in the course of a romance4 ,a woman1 for example1 would be catalogued according as she was 'one's own1 another's or anyone's' and whether she was young1 adolescent or adult4 ,beauties with adult physiques were divided into unmarried and married1 while cutting across such divisions was yet another based on the particular circumstances in which a woman might find herself4 ,such circumstances were normally eight in number--when her husband or lover was on the point of coming and she was ready to receive him2 when she was parted from him and was filled with longing2 when he was constant and she was thus enjoying the calm happiness of stable love2 when1 for the time being1 she was estranged due to some quarrel or tiff2 when she had been deceived2 when she had gone to meet her lover but had waited in vain1 thereby being jilted2 when her husband or lover had gone abroad and she was faced with days of lonely waiting2 and finally1 when she had left the house and gone to meet him4 ,ladies in situations such as these were known as nayikas and the text embodying the standard classification was the ,sanskrit treatise1 the ,bharatiya ,natya ,sastra4 ,a similar analysis was made of men--lovers or nayakas being sometimes divided into fourteen different types4 ,until the fourteenth century1 such writings were studies in erotics rather than in literature--the actual situations rather than their literary treatment being the authors' prime concern4 ,during the fourteenth century1 however1 questions of literary taste began to be discussed and there arose a new type of ,sanskrit treatise1 showing how different kinds of lover should be treated in poetry and illustrating the correct attitudes by carefully chosen verses4 ,in all these writings the standard of reference was human passion4 ,the lovers of poetry might bear only a slight relation to lovers in real life4 ,many of the situations envisaged might rarely1 if ever1 occur4 ,it was sufficient that granted some favourable accident1 some chance suspension of normal circumstances1 lovers could be imagined as acting in these special ways4 ,it is out of this critical literature that our new development springs4 ,as vernacular languages were used for poetry1 problems of ,hindi composition began to dwarf those of ,sanskrit4 ,it was necessary to discuss how best to treat each nayika and nayaka not only in ,sanskrit but in ,hindi poetry also1 and to meet this situation ,keshav ,das1 the poet of ,orchha in ,bundelkhand1 produced in #aeia his ,rasika ,priya4 ,here all the standard situations were once again examined1 nayikas and nayakas were newly distinguished and verses illustrating their appropriate treatments were systematically included4 ,the book differed1 however1 in two important ways from any of its predecessors4 ,it was written in ,hindi1 ,keshav ,das himself supplying both poems and commentary and what was even more significant1 the nayaka or lover was portrayed not as any ordinary well-bred young man but as ,krishna himself4#fd ,as a girl waits at the tryst it is not for an ordinary lover but for ,krishna that ,keshav ,das depicts her as longing4 ',is he detained by work8 ,is he loath to leave his friends8 ,has he had a quarrel8 ,is his body uneasy8 ,is he afraid when he sees the rainy dark8 ,o ,krishna1 ,giver of ,bliss1 why do you not come8'#fe ,as a girl waits by her bed looking out through her door1 it is the prospect of ,krishna's arrival--not of an ordinary lover's--that makes her happy4 ',as she runs1 her blue dress hides her limbs4 ,she hears the wind ruffling the trees and the birds shifting in the night4 ,she thinks it must be he4 ,how she longs for love1 watching for ,krishna like a bird in a cage4' ,when the lover arrives at dawn1 having failed to come in the night1 the girl 7another nayika1 'one who has been deceived'7 upbraids ,krishna for wandering about like a crow1 picking up worthless grains of rice1 wasting his hours in bad company and ruining houses by squatting in them like an owl4 ,similarly when a married girl sits longing for her husband's return1 her companion comments not on an ordinary husband's conduct but on that of ,krishna4 ',he said he would not be long4 ,i shall be back1 he said1 as soon as ,i have had my meal4 ,but now it is hours since he went4 ,why does he sit beside them and no one urge him to go8 ,does he know that her eyes are wet with tears1 that she is crying her heart out because he does not come8' ,krishna1 in fact1 is here regarded as resuming in himself all possible romantic experiences4 ,he is no longer merely the cowherd lover or the hero prince1 the central figure of a sacred narrative4 ,neither is he merely or only the lover of ,radha4 ,he is deemed to know love from every angle and thus to sanctify all modes of passionate behaviour4 ,he is love itself4 ,such a development concludes the varied phases through which the character of ,krishna has passed4 ,the cowherd lover supersedes the hero prince4 ,radha becomes all in all1 yet touches of ,krishna's princely majesty remain throughout4 ,even as a cowherd ,krishna shows an elegance and poise which betrays his different origin4 ,and in the ,rasika ,priya it is once again his courtly aura which determines his new role4 ,a blend of prince and cowherd1 ,krishna ousts from poetry the courtly lovers who previously had seemed the acme of romance4 ,adoration of ,god acquires the grace and charm of courtly loving1 passionate sensuality all the refinement and nobility of a spiritual religion4 ,it is out of all these varied texts that the ,krishna of ,indian painting now emerges4 ,footnote #fd3 ,plate #bh4 ,footnote #fe3 ,note #ba4 ,,vi ,,the ,,krishna ,,of ,,painting ,indian pictures of ,krishna confront us with a series of difficult problems4 ,the most exalted expressions of the theme are mainly from ,kangra1 a large ,hindu state within the ,punjab ,hills4#ff ,it was here that ,krishna1 the cowherd lover1 was most fully celebrated4 ,pictures were produced in large numbers and the ,kangra style with its delicate refinement exactly mirrored the enraptured poetry of the later cult4 ,this painting was due entirely to a particular ,kangra ruler1 ,raja ,sansar ,chand 7#agge-ahbc7--;his delight in painting causing him to spare no cost in re-creating the ,krishna idyll in exquisite terms4 ,elsewhere1 however1 conditions varied4 ,at the end of the sixteenth century1 it was not a ,hindu but a ,muslim ruler who commissioned the greatest illustrations of the story4 ,in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 ,hindu patrons were the rule but in certain states it was junior members of the ruling family rather than the ,raja himself who worshipped ,krishna4 ,sometimes it was not the ruling family but members of the merchant community who sponsored the artists and1 occasionally1 it was even a pious lady or devout princess who served as patron4 ,such differences of stimulus had vital effects and1 as a consequence1 while the cult of ,krishna came increasingly to enthrall the northern half of ,india1 its expression in art was the reverse of neat and orderly4 ,where a patron was so imbued with love for ,krishna that adoration of the cowherd lover preceded all1 the intensity of his feeling itself evoked a new style4 ,there then resulted the ,indian equivalent of pictures by ,el ,greco1 ,grunewald or ,altdorfer--paintings in which the artist's own religious emotions were the direct occasion of a new manner4 ,in other cases1 the patron might adhere to ,krishna1 pay him nominal respect or take a moderate pleasure in his story but not evince a burning enthusiasm4 ,in such cases1 paintings of ,krishna would still be produced but the style would merely repeat existing conventions4 ,the pictures which resulted would then resemble ,german paintings of the ,danube or ,cologne schools--pictures in which the artist applied an already mature style to a religious theme but did not originate a fresh mode of expression4 ,whether the greatest art resulted from the first or second method was problematical for the outcome depended as much on the nature of the styles as on the artist's powers4 ,in considering ,indian pictures of ,krishna1 then1 we must be prepared for sudden fluctuations in expression and abrupt differences of style and quality4 ,adoration of ,krishna was to prove one of the most vital elements in village and courtly life4 ,it was to capture the imagination of ,rajput princes and to lead to some of the most intimate revelations of the ,indian mind4 ,yet in art its expression was to hover between the crude and the sensitive1 the savage and the exquisite4 ,it was to stimulate some of the most delicate ,indian pictures ever painted and1 at the same time1 some of the most forceful4 ,the first pictures of ,krishna to be painted in ,india fall within this second category4 ,in about #adej1 one version of the ,gita ,govinda and two of the ,balagopala ,stuti were produced in ,western ,india4#fg ,they were doubtless made for middle-class patrons and were executed in ,western ,india for one important reason4 ,dwarka1 the scene of ,krishna's life as a prince1 and ,prabhasa1 the scene of the final slaughter1 were both in ,western ,india4 ,both had already become centres of pilgrimage and although ,jayadeva had written his great poem far to the ,east1 on the other side of ,india1 pilgrims had brought copies with them while journeying from ,bengal on visits to the sites4 ,the ,gita ,govinda of ,jayadeva had become in fact as much a ,western ,indian text as the ,balagopala ,stuti of ,bilvamangala4 ,with manuscript illustrations being already produced in ,western ,india--but not1 so far as we know1 elsewhere--it was not unnatural that the first illustrated versions of these poems should be painted here4 ,and it is these circumstances which determined their style4 ,until the fifteenth century the chief manuscripts illustrated in ,western ,india were ,jain scriptures commissioned by members of the merchant community4 ,jainism had originated in the sixth century ,b4,c4 as a parallel movement to ,buddhism4 ,it had proved more accommodating to ,hinduism1 and when ,buddhism had collapsed in ,western ,india in the ninth century ,a4,d41 ,jainism had continued as a local variant of ,hinduism proper4 ,jain manuscripts had at first consisted of long rectangular strips made of palm-leaves on which the scriptures were written in heavy black letters4 ,each slip was roughly three inches wide and ten long and into the text had been inserted lean diagrammatic paintings either portraying ,mahavira1 the founder of the cult1 or illustrating episodes in his earthly career4 ,about #adjj1 palm-leaf was superseded by paper and from then onwards manuscripts were given slightly larger pages4 ,owing partly to their association with the same religious order and partly to their constant duplication1 ,jain manuscripts had early conformed to a certain rigid type4 ,the painting was marked by lean and wiry outlines1 brilliant red and blue and above all by an air of savage ferocity expressed through the idiom of faces shown three-quarter view with the farther eye detached and projecting into space4 ,this style was exercised almost exclusively on ,jain subjects and in the year #adjj it was the main style of painting in ,western ,india and ,raj as than4 ,during the fifteenth century1 this exclusive character gradually weakened4 ,there arose the idea that besides ,jain scriptures1 secular poetry might also be illustrated and along with the growing devotion to ,krishna as ,god came the demand for illustrated versions of ,krishna texts4 ,the three texts we have just mentioned are due to this tendency4 ,all three are illustrated in the prevailing ,jain style with its spiky angular idioms and all three have the same somewhat sinister air of barbarous frenzy4 ,at the same time1 all disclose a partial loosening of the rigid wiry convention1 a more boisterous rhythm and a slightly softer treatment of trees and animals2 and1 although no very close correlation is possible1 the theme itself may well have helped to precipitate these important changes4 ,between #adej and #aege1 ,western ,indian painting continued to focus on ,jain themes1 adulterated to only a very slight extent by subjects drawn from poetry4 ,it is possible that the ,krishna story was also illustrated1 but no examples have survived2 and it is not until the very end of the sixteenth century that the ,krishna theme again appears in painting and then in two distinct forms4 ,the first is represented by a group of three manuscripts--two of them dated respectively #aeihfh and #afajfi and consisting of the tenth book of the ,bhagavata ,purana1 the third being yet another illustration of the ,gita ,govinda#gj4 ,all three sets of illustrations are in a closely similar style--a style which1 while possessing roots in ,jain painting is now considerably laxer and more sprawling4 ,the faces are no longer shown three-quarter view1 the detached obtruding eye has gone and in place of the early sharpness there is now a certain slovenly crudity4 ,we do not know for whom these manuscripts were made nor even in what particular part of ,western ,india or ,rajasthan they were executed4 ,they were clearly not produced in any great centre of painting and can hardly have been commissioned by a prince or merchant of much aesthetic sensibility4 ,they prove1 however1 that a demand for illustrated versions of the ,krishna story was persisting and suggest that even prosperous traders may perhaps have acted as patrons4 ,the second type is obviously the product of far more sophisticated influences4 ,it is once again a copy of the ,gita ,govinda and was probably executed in about #aeij in or near ,jaunpur in ,eastern ,india4 ,as early as #adfe1 a manuscript of the leading ,jain scripture1 the ,kalpasutra1 had been executed at ,jaunpur for a wealthy merchant4#ga ,its style was basically ,western ,indian1 yet being executed in an area so far to the east1 it also possessed certain novelties of manner4 ,the heads were more squarely shaped1 the eyes larger in proportion to the face1 the ladies' drapery fanning out in great angular swirls4 ,the bodies' contours were also delineated with exquisitely sharp precision4 ,the court at the time was that of ,hussain ,shah1 a member of the marauding ,muslim dynasties which since the twelfth century had enveloped ,northern ,india2 and it is possibly due to persistent ,muslim influence that painting revived in the last two decades of the sixteenth century4 ,illustrated versions of passionate love poetry were executed#gb and as part of the same vogue for poetic romance1 the ,gita ,govinda may once again have been illustrated4#gc ,between the style of these later pictures and that of the ,jain text of #adfe1 there are such clear affinities that the same local tradition is obviously responsible4 ,yet the new group of paintings has a distinctive elegance all its own4 ,as in the previous group1 the detached projecting eye has gone4 ,each situation is treated with a slashing boldness4 ,there is no longer a sense of cramping detail and the flat red backgrounds of ,western ,indian painting infuse the settings with hot passion4 ,but it is the treatment of the feminine form which charges the pictures with sophisticated charm4 ,the large breasts1 the sweeping dip in the back1 the proud curve of the haunches1 the agitated jutting-out of the skirts1 all these convey an air of vivid sensual charm4 ,that ,radha and ,krishna should be portrayed in so civilized a manner is evidence of the power which the ,krishna story had come to exercise on courtly minds4 ,krishna is portrayed not as ,god but as the most elegant of lovers1 ,radha and the cowgirls as the very embodiment of fashionable women4 ,jaunpur painting does not seem to have survived the sixteenth century and for our next illustrations of the theme1 we must turn to the school of painting fostered by the ,mughals4 ,during the sixteenth century at least three ,muslim states other than ,jaunpur itself had possessed schools of painting--,malwa in ,central ,india and ,bijapur and ,ahmadnagar in the ,deccan4 ,their styles can best be regarded as ,indian offshoots of a ,persian mode of painting which was current in the ,persian province of ,shiraz in about the year #aejj4 ,in this style1 known as ,turkman1 the flat figures of previous ,persian painting were set in landscapes of rich and glowing herbage1 plants and trees being rendered with wild and primitive vigour4 ,in each case the style was probably brought to ,india by ,persian artists who communicated it to ,indian painters or themselves adjusted it to local conditions4 ,and it is this process which was repeated but on an altogether grander scale by the ,muslim dynasty of the ,mughals4 ,under the emperor ,akbar 7#aeef-afje71 the ,mughals absorbed the greater part of ,northern ,india1 concentrating in one imperial court more power and wealth than had probably been amassed at any previous time in ,india4 ,among ,akbar's cultural institutions was a great imperial library for which a colony of artists was employed in illustrating manuscripts in ,persian4 ,the founders of this colony were ,persian and it is once again a local style of ,persian painting which forms the starting point4 ,this style is no longer the ,turkman style of ,shiraz but a later style--a local version of ,safavid painting as current in ,khurasan4 ,with its lively and delicate naturalism it not only corresponded to certain predilections of the emperor ,akbar himself1 but seems also to have appealed to ,indian artists recruited to the colony4 ,its representational finesse made it an ideal medium for transcribing the ,indian scene and the appearance at the court of ,european miniatures1 themselves highly naturalistic1 stimulated this character still further4 ,the result was the sudden rise in ,india1 between #aegj and #afje1 of a huge new school of painting1 exquisitely representational in manner and committed to a new kind of ,indian naturalism4 ,such a school1 the creation of an alien ,muslim dynasty1 would at first sight seem unlikely to produce illustrations of ,hindu religion4 ,its main function was to illustrate works of literature1 science and contemporary history--a function which resulted in such grandiose productions as the ,akbarnama or ,annals of ,akbar1 now preserved in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4#gd ,none the less there are two ways in which ,mughal painting1 as developed under ,akbar1 contributed to the ,krishna story4 ,akbar1 although a ,muslim by birth1 was keenly interested in all religions and in his dealings with the ,rajputs had shown himself markedly tolerant4 ,he desired to minimise the hatred of ,muslims for ,hindus and believing it to arise from mutual ignorance1 ordained that certain ,hindu texts should be translated into ,persian and thus rendered more accessible4 ,the texts chosen were the two epics1 the ,ramayana and the ,mahabharata1 and of these ,persian abridgements were duly prepared4 ,the abridgement of the ,mahabharata1 known as the ,razmnama1 was probably completed in #aehh but illustrated copies1 including the great folios now in the palace library at ,jaipur1 were probably not completed before #aeie4 ,as part of the project1 its appendix1 the ,harivansa was also summarized and a separate volume with fourteen illustrations all concerned with ,krishna is part of the great version now at ,jaipur4#ge ,in these illustrations1 it is ,krishna the prince who is chiefly shown1 all the pictures illustrating his career after he has left the cowherds4 ,there is no attempt to stress his romantic qualities or to present him as a lover4 ,he appears rather as the great fighter1 the slayer of demons4 ,such a portrayal is what we might perhaps expect from a ,mughal edition4 ,none the less the paintings are remarkable interpretations1 investing ,krishna with an air of effortless composure1 and exalting his princely grace4 ,the style is notable for its use of smoothly flowing outlines and gentle shading1 and although there is no direct connection1 it is these characteristics which were later to be embodied in the ,hindu art of the ,punjab ,hills4 ,such interest by the ,emperor may well have spurred ,hindu members of the court to have other texts illustrated for1 ten to fifteen years later1 in perhaps #afae1 a manuscript of the ,gita ,govinda was produced1 its illustrations possessing a certain fairy-like refinement4#gf ,krishna in a flowing dhoti wanders in meadows gay with feathered trees while ,radha and her confidante appear in ,mughal garb4 ,romance is hardly evident for it is the scene itself with its rustic prettiness which is chiefly stressed4 ,yet the patron by whom this version was commissioned may well have felt that it was sensitively rendered and within its minor compass expressed to some extent the magical enchantment distilled by the verses4 ,that the ,emperor's stimulus survived his death is plain2 for in about the year #afbj1 two manuscripts of the ,bhagavata ,purana appeared--both in a style of awkward crudity in which the idioms of ,akbar's school of artists were consciously aped4#gg ,the manuscripts in question are at ,bikaner and it is possible that one or two inferior ,mughal artists1 deprived of work at the central court1 travelled out to this northerly ,rajput state1 daring the desert1 and there produced these vapid works4 ,it is likely that in the early years of the seventeenth century1 many areas of ,india possessed no artists whatsoever and if a ,hindu ruler was to copy ,mughal fashion1 the only artists available to him might be those of an inferior rank4 ,and although exact data are wanting1 such circumstances may well explain another document of ,krishna1 the first illustrated version of ,keshav ,das's ,rasika ,priya4#gh ,as we have seen1 this poem was composed at ,orchha in ,bundelkhand in #aeia1 at a time when both poet and court were in close association with ,akbar4 ,yet the version in question shows the same poverty-stricken manner with its crude aping of imperial idioms and utter lack of sensitive expression4 ,there is no evidence that at this time ,bundelkhand possessed its own school of painting and in consequence the most likely explanation is that yet another inferior artist trained in the early ,mughal manner1 migrated to the court and there produced this crude prosaic version4 ,in none of these provincial ,mughal pictures is there any feeling for ,krishna as ,god or even as a character4 ,the figures have a wooden doll-like stiffness1 parodying by their evident jerkiness the exquisite emotions intended by the poet and we can only assume that impressed by the imperial example minor rulers or nobles encouraged struggling practitioners but in an atmosphere far removed from that of the great emperor4 ,such paintings in a broken-down ,akbari manner characterize the period #afae to #afcj4 ,from then onwards ,mughal painting1 as it developed under the emperor ,shah ,jahan1 concentrated on more courtly themes4 ,the early interest in dramatic action disappeared and the demand for costly manuscripts1 sumptuously illustrated1 withered up4 ,under ,aurangzeb1 tolerant understanding gave way to a vicious proselytism and it was only in remote centres such as ,bikaner that later ,mughal artists exercised their style on ,krishna themes4 ,it is significant that at ,bikaner their leader was a ,muslim1 ,ruknuddin1 and that his chief work was a series of pictures illustrating the ,rasika ,priya4#gi ,his figures have a shallow prettiness of manner1 stamping them once again as products of a style which1 in its earliest phases1 was admirably suited to recording dramatic action but which had little relevance to either religion or romance4 ,for these a more poetic and symbolic manner was necessary and such a style appeared in the city of ,udaipur in the ,rajput ,state of ,mewar4 ,painting at ,udaipur is inseparably associated with the influence of two great rulers--,rana ,jagat ,singh 7#afbh-afeb7 and ,rana ,raj ,singh 7#afeb-afha7 ,as early as #afje pictures had been produced at the ,state's former capital1 ,chawand--the artist being a ,muhammadan named ,nasiruddin4 ,his style was obviously quite independent of any ,mughal influence and it is rather to the separate tradition of painting which had grown up in ,malwa that we must look for its salient qualities--a tensely rhythmical line1 a flamboyant use of strong emphatic colours1 vigorous simplifications and boldly primitive idioms for plants and trees4 ,it is this style which thirty or forty years later comes to luxuriant maturity in a series of illustrations executed at ,udaipur4#hj ,although the artists responsible included a ,muslim1 ,shahabaddin1 and a ,hindu1 ,manohar1 it is the ,krishna theme itself which seems to have evoked this marvellous efflorescence4 ,rana ,jagat ,singh was clearly a devout worshipper whose faithful adhesion to ,rajput standards found exhilarating compensations in ,krishna's role as lover4 ,keshav ,das's ,rasika ,priya achieved the greatest popularity at his court--its blend of reverent devotion and ecstatic passion fulfilling some of the deepest ,rajput needs4 ,between the years #afde and #affj there accordingly occurred a systematic production not only of pictures illustrating this great poetic text but of the various books in the ,bhagavata ,purana most closely connected with ,krishna's career4 ,krishna is shown as a ,rajput princeling dressed in fashionable garb1 threading his way among the cowgirls1 pursuing his amorous inclinations and practising with artless guile the seductive graces of a courtly lover4 ,each picture has a passionate intensity--its rich browns and reds1 greens and blues endowing its characters with glowing fervour1 while ,krishna and the cowgirls1 with their sharp robust forms and great intent eyes1 display a brusque vitality and an eager rapturous vigour4 ,a certain simplification of structure--each picture possessing one or more rectangular compartments--enhances this effect while the addition of swirling trees studded with flowers imbues each wild encounter with a surging vegetative rhythm4 ,krishna is no longer the tepid well-groomed youth of ,mughal tradition1 but a vigorous ,rajput noble expressing with decorous vehemence all the violent longings denied expression by the ,rajput moral code4 ,such pictures have a lyrical splendour1 a certain wild elation quite distinct from previous ,indian painting and we can only explain these new stylistic qualities by reference to the cult of ,krishna himself4 ,the realization that ,krishna was adorable1 that his practice of romantic love was a sublime revelation of ,godhead and that in his worship lay release is the motive force behind these pictures and the result is a new style transcending in its rhythmical assurance and glowing ardour all previous achievements4 ,such an outburst of painting could hardly leave other areas unaffected and in the closing quarter of the seventeenth century1 not only ,bundi1 the ,rajput ,state immediately adjoining ,udaipur to the east1 but ,malwa1 the wild hilly area farther south east1 witnessed a renaissance of painting4 ,at ,bundi1 the style was obviously a direct development from that of ,udaipur itself--the idioms for human figures and faces as well as the glowing colours being clearly based on ,udaipur originals4 ,at the same time1 a kind of sumptuous luxuriance1 a predilection for greens and oranges in brilliant juxtaposition1 a delight in natural profusion and the use of recessions1 shading and round volumes give each picture a distinctive aura4#ha ,in ,malwa1 on the other hand1 the earlier tradition seems to have undergone a new resuscitation4 ,following various wars in ,middle ,india1 the former ,muslim kingdom had been divided into fiefs--some being awarded to ,rajput nobles of loyalty and valour4 ,the result was yet another style of painting--comparable in certain ways to that of ,bundi and ,udaipur yet markedly original in its total effect4 ,in place of tightly geometrical compositions1 ,malwa artists preferred a more fluid grouping1 their straining luxuriant trees blending with swaying creepers to create a soft meandering rhythm and only the human figures1 with their sharply cut veils and taut intense faces1 expressing the prevailing cult of frenzied passion4#hb ,such schools of painting reflected the ,rajput need for passionate romance rather than any specially strong adhesion to ,krishna1 the divine lover4 ,although one copy of the ,rasika ,priya and one of the ,bhagavata ,purana were executed at both these centres1 their chief subjects were the ragas and raginis 7the thirty-six modes of ,indian music7 nayakas and nayikas 7the ideal lovers7 and barahmasas 7the twelve months7 while in the case of ,malwa1 there was the added theme of ,sanskrit love-poetry4 ,krishna the god was rarely celebrated and it was rather as 'the best of lovers' that he was sometimes introduced into pictures4 ,in a ,bundi series depicting the twelve months1 courtly lovers are shown sitting in a balcony watching a series of rustic incidents proceeding below4 ,the lover1 however1 is not an ordinary prince but ,krishna himself1 his blue skin and royal halo leaving no possible doubt as to his real identity4#hc ,similarly in paintings illustrating the character and personality of musical modes1 ,krishna was often introduced as the perfect embodiment of passionate loving4 ,none of the poems accompanying the modes make any allusion to him4 ,indeed1 their prime purpose is to woo the presiding genius of the melody and suggest the visual scene most likely to evoke its spirit4 ,the musical mode1 ,bhairava ,raga1 for example1 was actually associated with ,siva1 yet because the character of the music suggested furious passion the central figure of the lover dallying with a lady was depicted as ,krishna4#hd ,in ,hindola ,raga1 a mode connected with swinging1 a similar result ensued4 ,swinging in ,indian sentiment was normally associated with the rains and these in turn evoked 'memory and desire4' ,the character of the music was therefore visualized as that of a young prince swinging in the rain--his very movements symbolizing the act of love4 ,since ,krishna1 however1 was the perfect lover1 nothing was easier than to portray ,hindola ,raga as ,krishna himself4 ,hindola might be invoked in the poem1 but it was ,krishna who appeared seated on the swing4#he ,an exactly similar process occurred in the case of ,megh ,mallar ,raga4 ,this was connected with the rainy season1 yet because rain and storm were symbolic of sex1 ,megh ,mallar was portrayed not as a separate figure1 but as ,krishna once again dancing in the rain with ladies accompanying him4 ,even feminine modes of music suffered the same kind of transformation4 ,vasanta ,ragini1 'the music of springtime1' was normally apostrophized as a lovely lady1 yet because springtime suggested lovers1 she was shown in painting as if she were ,krishna dancing with a vase of flowers1 holding a wand in his hand or celebrating the spring fertility festival4 ,the mode1 ,pancham ,ragini1 was also feminine in character and was conceived of as a beauty enjoying her lover's advances4 ,the lady herself was portrayed1 yet once again ,krishna was introduced1 this time as her lover4 ,in all these cases the celebration of ,krishna was incidental to the main theme and only in one instance--a ,malwa ,rasika ,priya--is there a trace of undisguised adoration4 ,in this lovely series1#hf ,krishna's enchantment is perfectly suggested by the flowering trees which wave above him1 the style acquiring an even more intense lyricism on account of its divine subject4 ,during the eighteenth century1 painting in ,rajasthan became increasingly secular1 even artists of ,udaipur devoting themselves almost exclusively to scenes of court life4 ,the ,ranas and the ,mewar nobility were depicted hunting in the local landscape1 watching elephant fights or moving in procession4 ,similar fashions prevailed in ,jodhpur1 ,jaisalmer1 ,bikaner1 ,bundi and ,kotah4 ,only1 in fact1 in two ,rajasthan ,states and then for only brief periods was there any major celebration of the ,krishna theme4 ,at ,kishangarh1 a small ,state midway between ,ajmer and ,jaipur1 a series of intensely poetic paintings were produced between the years #agej and #agfj--the prime stimulus being the delight of ,raja ,sawant ,singh in ,krishna's romance4#hg ,born in #afii1 ,sawant ,singh had ascended the throne in #agdh and given all his time to three activities1 the rapturous re-living of ,krishna's romance with ,radha1 the composition of ecstatic poems and the daily worship of ,krishna as lover god4 ,so great was his devotion that in #ageg he abandoned the throne and taking with him his favourite maid of honour1 the beautiful poetess1 ,bani ,thani1 retired to ,brindaban where he died in #agfd4 ,sawant ,singh's delight seems to have been shared by a local artist1 ,nihal ,chand1 for under the ,raja's direction he produced a number of pictures in which ,radha and ,krishna sustained the leading roles4 ,the pictures were mainly illustrations of ,sawant ,singh's own poems--the lovers being portrayed at moments of blissful wonder1 drifting on a lake in a scarlet boat1 watching fireworks cascading down the sky or gently dallying in a marble pavilion4 ,here is ,love's enchanted zone ,here ,time and the ,firmament stand still ,here the ,bride and ,bridegroom ,never can grow old4 ,here the fountains never cease to play ,and the night is ever young4#hh ,nihal ,chand's style was eminently fitted to express this mood of sensitive adoration4 ,originally trained in the later ,mughal style1 he was able to render appearances with exquisite delicacy but was also acutely aware of rhythmical elegance4 ,and it is this which constantly characterized his work1 his greatest achievement being the creation of a local manner for portraying ,radha and ,krishna4#hi ,radha was endowed with great arched eyebrows and long eyes--the end of the eye being tilted so as to join the downward sweeping line of the eyebrow while ,krishna was given a slender receding forehead and narrow waist4 ,each was made to seem the acme of elegance and the result was a conception of ,krishna and his love as the very embodiment of aristocratic breeding4 ,the same sense of aristocratic loveliness is conveyed by a scene of dancing figures almost life size in the palace library at ,jaipur4#ij ,painted under ,raja ,pratap ,singh 7#aggi-ahjc7 the picture shows ladies of the palace impersonating ,radha and ,krishna dancing together attended by girl musicians4#ia ,against a pale green background1 the figures1 dressed in greenish yellow1 pale greyish blue and the purest white1 posture with calm assured grace1 while the pure tones and exquisite line-work invest the scene with gay and luminous clarity4 ,we do not know the circumstances in which this great picture was painted but the existence of another large-scale picture portraying the circular dance--the lines of cowgirls revolving like flowers1 with ,radha and ,krishna swaying in their midst--suggests that the ,krishna theme had once again inflamed a ,rajput ruler's imagination4#ib ,such groups of paintings are1 at most1 exquisite exceptions and it is rather in the ,rajput states of the ,punjab ,hills--an area remote and quite distinct from ,rajasthan--that the theme of ,krishna the divine lover received its most enraptured expression in the eighteenth century4 ,until the second half of the seventeenth century this stretch of country bordering the ,western ,himalayas seems to have had no kind of painting whatsoever4 ,in #afgh1 however1 ,raja ,kirpal ,pal inherited the tiny state of ,basohli and almost immediately a new artistic urge became apparent4 ,pictures were produced on a scale comparable to that of ,udaipur thirty years earlier and at the same time a local style of great emotional intensity makes its sudden appearance4#ic ,this new ,basohli style1 with its flat planes of brilliant green1 brown1 red1 blue and orange1 its savage profiles and great intense eyes has obvious connections with ,udaipur paintings of the #afej-fj period4 ,and although exact historical proof is still wanting1 the most likely explanation is that under ,rana ,raj ,singh some ,udaipur artists were persuaded to migrate to ,basohli4 ,we know that ,rajput rulers in the ,punjab ,hills were often connected by marriage with ,rajput families in ,rajasthan and it is therefore possible that during a visit to ,udaipur1 ,raja ,kirpal ,pal recruited his atelier4 ,udaipur painting1 however1 can hardly have been the only source for even in its earliest examples ,basohli painting has a smooth polish1 a savage sophistication and a command of shading which suggests the influence of the ,mughal style of ,delhi4 ,we must assume1 in fact1 a series of influences determined to a great extent by ,raja ,kirpal ,pal's political contacts1 his private journeys and individual taste1 but perhaps above all by an urge to express his feelings for ,krishna in a novel and personal manner4 ,the result is not only a new style but a special choice of subject-matter4 ,the ,rasika ,priya and the ,bhagavata ,purana1 the texts so greatly favoured at ,udaipur1 were discarded and in their place ,basohli artists produced a series of isolated scenes from ,krishna's life--the child ,krishna stealing butter1#id ,krishna the gallant robbing the cowgirls or exacting toll1 ,krishna extinguishing the forest-fire1#ie ,krishna the violent lover devouring ,radha with hungry eyes4 ,their greatest achievements1 however1 were two versions of ,bhanu ,datta's ,rasamanjari1 one of them completed in #afie1if shortly after ,raja ,kirpal ,pal's death1 the other almost certainly fifteen years earlier4#ig ,the text in question is a treatise on poetics illustrating how romantic situations should best be treated in ,sanskrit poetry--the conduct of mature mistresses1 experienced lovers1 sly go-betweens1 clowns or jokers being all subjected to analysis4#ih ,the subject of the text is secular romantic poetry and ,krishna himself is never mentioned4 ,none the less1 in producing their illustrations1 the artists made ,krishna the central figure and we can only conclude that eschewing the obvious ,rasika ,priya1 ,raja ,kirpal ,pal had directed his artists to do for ,sanskrit what ,keshav ,das had done for ,hindi poetry--to celebrate ,krishna as the most varied and skilled of lovers and as a corollary show him in a whole variety of romantic and poetic situations4 ,as a result ,krishna was portrayed in a number of highly conflicting roles--as husband1 rake1 seducer1 paramour and gallant4 ,in one picture he is 'a gallant whose word cannot be trusted' and we see him in the act of delicately disengaging a lady's dress and gazing at her with passion-haunted eyes4 ,the poem on the reverse runs as follows3 ,showing her a beautiful girdle ,drawing on a fair panel with red chalk ,putting a bracelet on her wrists ,and laying a necklace on her breasts ,winning the confidence of the fawn-eyed lady of fair brows ,he slyly loosens the knot of her skirt ,below the girdle-stead1 with naughty hand4#ii ,in another picture1 he appears as 'a gallant well versed in the ways of courtesans1' the dreaded seducer of inexperienced girls4 ,he is now shown approaching a formal pavilion1 set in a lonely field4 ,inside the pavilion is the lovely object of his attack1 sitting with a companion1 knowing that willy-nilly she must shortly yield yet timidly making show of maidenly reserve4 ,his swollen heart ,knows neither shame nor pity ,nor any fear of anger ,how can such a tender bud as ,i ,be cast into his hands today8#ajj ,in yet a third picture1 he is portrayed standing outside a house while the lady1 the subject of his passions1 sits within4 ,he is once again 'a false gallant1' his amorous intentions being shown by the orange1 a conventional symbol for the breasts1 poised lightly in his hand4 ,as the lady turns to greet him1 she puts a dot in the circle which she has just drawn on the wall--a gesture which once again contains a hint of sex4 ,on the picture's reverse the poem records a conversation galante4 ',beloved1 what are you doing ,with a golden orange in your hand8' ,so said the moon-faced one ,placing a dot ,on the bright circles ,painted in the house4 #aja ,in other pictures1 a clown or jester appears1 introducing a witty joking element into the scene and thus presenting ,krishna's attitude to love as all-inclusive4 ,from #afic1 the year of ,raja ,kirpal's death1 painting at ,basohli concentrated mainly on portraying rulers and on illustrating ragas and raginis--the poems which interpreted the moods and spirit of music4 ,the style maintained its fierce intensity but there was now a gradual rounding of faces and figures1 leading to a slight softening of the former brusque vigour4 ,devotion to ,krishna does not seem to have bulked quite so largely in the minds of later ,basohli rulers1 although the cult itself may well have continued to exert a strong emotional appeal4 ,in #agcj1 a ,basohli princess1 the lady ,manaku1 commissioned a set of illustrations to the ,gita ,govinda and ,krishna's power to enchant not only the male but also the female mind was once again demonstrated4#ajb ,this series of illustrations is in some ways a turning point in ,indian painting for not only was it to serve as a model and inspiration to later artists but its production brings to a close the most creative phase in ,basohli art4 ,after #agcj1 painting continued to be practised there but no longer with the same fervour4 ,basohli artists seem to have carried the style to other states--to ,guler1 ,jammu1 ,chamba1 ,kulu1 ,nurpur and ,bilaspur--but it is not until #aggj that the ,krishna theme again comes into prominence4 ,in about this year1 artists from ,guler migrated to the distant ,garhwal1 a large and straggling state at the far south of the ,punjab ,hills1 taking with them a style of exquisite naturalism which had gradually reached maturity under the ,guler ruler1 ,raja ,govardhan ,singh4#ajc ,during his reign1 a family of ,kashmiri ,brahmans skilled in the ,mughal technique had joined his court and had there absorbed a new romantic outlook4 ,on at least three occasions they had illustrated scenes from the ,bhagavata ,purana--,nanda celebrating ,krishna's birth1#ajd ,krishna rescuing ,nanda from the python which had started to devour his foot1#aje and finally the game of blind man's bluff#ajf--;but their chief subject had been the tender enchantments of courtly love4 ,ladies were portrayed longing for their lovers4 ,the greatest emphasis was placed on elegance of pose4 ,fierce distortions were gradually discarded and the whole purpose of painting was to dwell on exquisite figures and to suggest a rapt devotion to the needs of love4 ,it is this suavely delicate art which now appears in ,garhwal4 ,among the ,guler painters was a master-artist and although his first ,garhwal pictures are concerned with passionate romance1 devotion to ,krishna quickly becomes apparent4#ajg ,the great ,alaknanda ,river which roared through ,srinagar1 the capital1 had a special fascination for him and just as ,leonardo da ,vinci evinced at one time a passionate interest in springing curls1 the ,guler artist found a special excitement in winding eddies and dashing water4 ,the result was a sudden new interpretation of the ,krishna theme4 ,in two pictures where ,krishna is shown quelling the snake ,kaliya1#ajh all the ,guler qualities of elegant naturalism are abundantly present4 ,each figure has a smooth suavity and in every face there appears a look of calm adoration4 ,it is the swirling1 curling water1 however1 which gives the pictures their special ,garhwal quality4 ,the play of water evokes a melody of line and the result is a sense of upsurging joy4 ,a similar religious exaltation marks other pictures by this master4 ,at some time he appears to have been commissioned to illustrate the tale of ,sudama the poor ,brahman whose tattered hovel is changed by ,krishna into a golden palace4 ,he was evidently assisted by a weaker painter but in the pictures which are clearly his own work1 the same quality of lyrical incantation appears4 ,as ,sudama journeys to ,dwarka ,krishna's golden city1 his heart swoons with adoration1 the hills1 trees and ocean appear to dance about him and once again1 the linear music of the composition engenders a feeling of supreme ecstasy4#aji ,we do not know which member of the ,garhwal court acted as his patron--it is even possible that it was not the ruler himself but his consort1 the ,guler princess whom he had married in about the year #aggj4 ,what1 at any rate1 is clear is that at least one lively adorer of ,krishna existed at the ,garhwal court and that until the ,gurkha invasions of #ahjc1 there were other painters1 besides the master-artist1 who were similarly encouraged to interpret the ,krishna theme4#aaj ,their style was clearly influenced by that of the master but in their use of slender leafless branches and towering spikes of blossom1 they developed a special ,garhwal imagery designed to suggest the slender beauty of love-enchanted girls4 ,after the expulsion of the ,gurkhas in #ahaf1 a new ,raja revived ,garhwal painting4 ,krishna the lover was once again portrayed and until the middle of the nineteenth century1 pictures continued to be produced blending the delights of courtly passion with adoration of ,god4 ,it was in the state of ,kangra1 however1 that the greatest developments occurred4 ,in #agge1 the young ,sansar ,chand became ,raja1 and despite his extreme youth1 quickly acquired mastery of the ,kangra court4 ,it is unlikely that artists were immediately summoned1 but certainly by #aghj a flourishing school of painters had come into existence4#aaa ,as at ,garhwal1 the artists of ,kangra came originally from ,guler and thus a similar phenomenon arises--the ,guler manner providing the basis for yet a second great style4 ,sansar ,chand was obviously quite exceptional1 for not only was he successful in politics and war1 but from his early manhood was devoted to ,krishna as lover god4 ,and it is this all-absorbing interest which explains the vast expansion of painting which now occurred4 ,under ,sansar ,chand's stimulus artists began to portray every situation involving ,krishna1 the cowherd4 ,he was shown as a baby crying for the moon1 being washed by his foster-mother1 ,yasoda1 or mischievously breaking pitchers full of curds4 ,he would be painted strolling with the cowherds1 playing on his flute1 or bringing the cattle home at evening4 ,but the main theme to which the artists constantly returned was his main cowgirl love4 ,radha would be shown standing with ,krishna in the forest1 gazing trustfully into his eyes1 seeking shelter with him from the rain or sitting with him by a stream4#aab ,sometimes she and the cowgirls were shown celebrating the spring festival of ,holi1 ,krishna syringing them with tinted water while they themselves strove to return his onslaughts by throwing red powder4#aac ,often the scene would shift from the forest to the village1 and ,krishna would then be shown gazing at ,radha as she dried herself after bathing or squatted in a courtyard cooking food4 ,at other times he appeared assisting her at her toilet1 helping her to dress her hair or applying a beauty mark to her forehead4 ,if the scene was night itself1 ,radha would be shown sitting in her chamber1 while far away across the courtyards and gardens would loom the small figure of ,krishna waiting lonely on a bed4 ,occasionally the lovers would be portrayed expressing their rapture by means of simple gestures4 ,krishna's arm would be shown placed lovingly around ,radha's shoulders1 or ,radha herself would be portrayed hiding her head on ,krishna's breast4#aad ,in all these pictures1 the style had an innocent and exquisite clarity1 suggesting by its simple unaffected naturalism the artists' delight in ,krishna's character1 their appreciation of the feminine mind1 their sense of sex as inherently noble and their association of romance with ,god himself4 ,it is in a series of illustrations to certain texts1 however1 that ,kangra painting reaches its greatest heights4 ,among the many artists employed by ,sansar ,chand1 a certain ,purkhu was notable for his 'remarkable clearness of tone and delicacy of handling1'#aae and though none of his pictures are signed it is these qualities which characterize one of the two most famous sets of illustrations executed in ,kangra4 ,the subject was the tenth book of the ,bhagavata ,purana and the scenes illustrated ranged from ,krishna's birth and adventures with demons to his frolics with the cowgirls and final slaughter of ,kansa4 ,purkhu's style--if ,purkhu is indeed the master responsible--is remarkable for its luminous clarity1 its faint suggestions of modelling1 and above all for its natural use of rhythm4 ,in every scene1#aaf cowherds appear engaged in different tasks1 yet throughout there is a sense of oneness with ,krishna himself4 ,krishna is shown delighting all by his simple friendliness and dignified charm and the style itself endows each scene with gentle harmony4 ,purkhu was clearly one of the greatest artists ever to practise in the ,punjab ,hills1 but it is a certain ,kushala who is supposed to have been ,sansar ,chand's special favourite4 ,we do not know which pictures are by his hand but there exist two series of illustrations of such distinctive quality that ,kushala may well have been responsible4#aag ,one is a series of paintings illustrating part of ,bihari's ,sat ,sai--the seven-hundred poems in which he extolled ,krishna's love-making4#aah ,the other is yet another version of the ,gita ,govinda where ,krishna is shown consorting with the cowgirls in blissful abandon4#aai ,in both these series1 the inherent loveliness of ,radha and the cowgirls is expressed by supple flowing line1 a flair for natural posture and the inclusion of poetic images4 ,the scarlet of a cowgirl's skirt is echoed by the redness of a gathering storm1 the insertion of ,krishna into the background suggesting the passionate nature of their imminent embraces4#abj ,in a similar way1 the forest itself is 'threaded with phases of passion' and slender trees in flower parallel the slim romantic girls who long for ,krishna's love4 ,one other ,kangra master remains to be mentioned4 ,besides the pictures already noted1 there exists a further series illustrating the tenth book of the ,bhagavata ,purana4 ,the artist's identity is once again uncertain1 but just as the ,garhwal master was fascinated by the swirl of curling water1 the ,kangra artist in question delighted in the blonde pallor of the ,indian moon4#aba ,each incident in the text is rendered as if in moonlight--a full moon riding in the sky1 its pale reflection shining in water1 the countryside itself bathed throughout in frosty whiteness4 ,as a result the figures of ,radha and the cowgirls seem imbued with pallid glamour1 their love for ,krishna with an almost unearthly radiance4 ,kangra painting continued throughout the nineteenth century but it was only during ,sansar ,chand's own reign 7#agge-ahbc7 that the style achieved great lyrical glory4 ,similarly it was only towards the end of the eighteenth century that other states in the ,punjab ,hills developed their own interpretations of the great impassioned theme4 ,at ,nurpur1 ,chamba1 ,kulu and ,bilaspur#abb pictures of ,krishna had temporary vogues and at all these places artists created new modes of expression4 ,none of the local styles1 however1 possessed the same prestige as that of ,kangra and all were subsequently obliterated by the general ,kangra manner4 ,by the mid-nineteenth century1 the ,rajput order in the ,punjab ,hills foundered before the ,british and while lesser nobles and merchants continued to purchase pictures of ,krishna the cult as a whole declined in princely favour4 ,only in ,eastern ,india and then mainly in the villages did delight in ,krishna continue to evoke new painting4 ,from the twelfth century onwards ,bengal had constantly celebrated the loves of ,krishna--the poets ,jayadeva1 ,chandi ,das and ,vidyapati being all natives of this part of ,india4 ,hymns to ,krishna were sung in the villages and as part of this fervid adhesion1 local manuscripts of the ,bhagavata ,purana and the ,gita ,govinda were often produced4 ,such manuscripts were normally not illustrated but were preserved between wooden covers1 on which scenes of ,krishna dancing with the cowgirls or with male devotees were painted4#abc ,book covers of this kind were produced in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the resulting pictures have something of the savage elation associated with the ,basohli style and its derivatives4 ,during the nineteenth century1 painted book-covers ceased to be produced but three other kinds of painting continued to celebrate the ,krishna theme4 ,frescoes of ,hindu gods and goddesses including ,krishna were often executed on the mud walls of village houses in ,mithila1 the birthplace of the poet ,vidyapati1 and the style of painting with its brilliant colours and brusque distortions testified to the great excitement still engendered by ,krishna's name4#abd ,at ,kalighat near ,calcutta1 a special type of water-colour picture was mass-produced for sale to pilgrims and although the stock subjects included almost every ,hindu god1 many incidents from ,krishna's life were boldly portrayed4#abe ,the style with its curving sumptuous forms is more a clue to general ,bengali interests than to any special attitudes to ,krishna1 but the pictures1 strangely parallel in style to the work of the modern artist ,fernand ,lger1 have a robust gaiety and bounding vigour1 not inappropriate to the ,krishna theme4 ,the third type of painting is the work of professional village minstrels known as jadupatuas4 ,as a means of livelihood1 jadupatuas travel from village to village in ,west ,bengal1 entertaining the people by singing ballads and illustrating their songs with long painted scrolls4 ,as each ballad proceeds1 the scroll is slowly unwound1 one scene leading to another until the whole is concluded4 ,among the ballads thus intoned1 the romance of ,krishna is among the most common and the style of painting with its crude exuberance suggests the strength of popular devotion4#abf ,there remains one last form of painting4 ,during the twentieth century1 the modern movement in ,indian art has produced at least four major artists--,rabindranath ,tagore1 ,amrita ,sher-,gil1 ,jamini ,roy and ,george ,keyt4 ,of these four1 the first two did not illustrate the ,krishna theme4 ,jamini ,roy1 on the other hand1 has often painted ,krishna as flute-player and dancer4#abg ,it would be unrealistic to suggest that these pictures spring from a lively sense of ,krishna as ,god--,jamini ,roy has1 in fact1 resorted to themes of ,christ with equal1 if not greater1 frequency but has shown no signs of becoming a ,christian4 ,it is rather that in painting these pictures1 he has treated ,krishna as a symbol of rural vitality1 a figure whose boisterous career among the cowherds is an exact reflection of his own attitudes and enthusiasms4 ,to ,jamini ,roy1 the ,bengali village with its sense of rude health is infinitely to be preferred to a city such as ,calcutta with its artificiality and disease and in a style of bold simplifications1 he has constantly celebrated the natural vigour and inherent dignity of simple unsophisticated men4 ,such pictures stress a comparatively unimportant side of ,krishna's character and it is rather in the paintings of ,george ,keyt that ,krishna the lover is proudly portrayed4 ,born in ,ceylon of mixed ancestry1 ,keyt has1 for many years1 been acutely responsive to ,indian poetry4 ,in #aidg1 he published the translation of the ,gita ,govinda1 excerpts from which have been quoted in the text1 and throughout his career his work has been distinguished by a poet's delight in feminine form and sensuous rapture4 ,to ,keyt such a delight is a vital component of adult minds and in the romance of ,radha and ,krishna he found a subject subtly expressive of his own most intimate beliefs4 ,his paintings and line-drawings of ,radha1 ,krishna and the cowgirls--at once modern yet vitally ,indian in spirit--have the same qualities as those in the ,gita ,govinda4#abh ,radha and ,krishna are shown luxuriating in each other's elegance1 a certain ineffable tenderness characterizing their gestures and movements4 ,their love is gentle rather than brusque1 an air of glamorous wonder broods above them and we meet once more that blend of romantic sensuality and loving innocence which is perhaps the chief ,indian contribution to cultured living4 ,it is this quality which gives to ,indian paintings of ,krishna and his loves their incomparable fervour1 and makes them enduring expressions of ,indian religion4 ,footnote #ff3 ,plates #c1 #e1 #f1 #h1 #i1 #aa1 #ac-ag1 #ba and #cf4 ,footnote #fg3 ,m4,r4 ,mazumdar1 ',the ,gujarati ,school of ,painting1' ,journal of the ,indian ,society of ,oriental ,art1 #aidb1 ,vol4 ,x1 plates #c and #d4 ,footnote #fh3 ,collection ,maharaja of ,jaipur1 ,pothikhana1 ,jaipur4 ,footnote #fi3 ,collection ,maharaja of ,jodhpur1 ,pustakaprakash1 ,jodhpur ,fort4 ,footnote #gj3 ,plate #bb4 ,collection ,n4,c4 ,mehta1 ,bombay4 ,for reproductions of #b and #c1 see ,karl ,khandalavala1 ',leaves from ,rajasthan1' ,marg1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #c4 ,figs4 #h and #aj4 ,footnote #ga3 ,moti ,chandra1 ,jain ,miniature ,paintings from ,western ,india 7,ahmedabad1 #aidi71 ,figs4 #ii-aje4 ,footnote #gb3 ,khandalavala1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #ad2 ,the ,art of ,india and ,pakistan1 ,pls4 #ha and #hb4 ,footnote #gc3 ,plates #bc and #bd4 ,footnote #gd3 ,for reproductions1 see ,e4 ,wellesz1 ,akbar's ,religious ,thought reflected in ,mogul ,painting 7,london1 #aieb71 ,pls4 #a-cg4 ,footnote #ge3 ,reproduced ,hendley1 ,memorials1 ,the ,razm ,namah2 see also ,plates #a and #b below4 ,footnote #gf3 ,the ,art of ,india and ,pakistan1 ,plate #hh4 ,footnote #gg3 ,h4 ,goetz1 ,the ,art and ,architecture of ,bikaner ,state 7,oxford1 #aiej71 ,fig4 #ia4 ,footnote #gh3 ,coomaraswamy1 ,boston ,catalogue1 ,,vi1 ,mughal ,painting1 ,plates #h-ai4 ,footnote #gi3 ,goetz1 op4 cit41 ,figs4 #gh and #ic4 ,footnote #hj3 ,plate #bi4 ,see also ,b4 ,gray1 ,treasures of ,indian ,miniatures from the ,bikaner ,palace ,collection 7,oxford1 #aiea71 ,plate #f4 ,footnote #ha3 ,plates #bh and #cb4 ,see also ,archer1 ,indian ,painting1 ,plate #g4 ,footnote #hb3 ,the ,art of ,india and ,pakistan1 ,plate #he4 ,footnote #hc3 ,plate #cb4 ,footnote #hd3 ,plate #cd4 ,footnote #he3 ,plate #cc4 ,footnote #hf3 ,bharat ,kala ,bhawan1 ,banaras4 ,footnote #hg3 ,eric ,dickinson1 ',the ,way of ,pleasure3 the ,kishangarh ,paintings'1 #b ,marg1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,no4 #d1 #bi-ce4 ,footnote #hh3 ,ibid41 #ca4 ,footnote #hi3 ,plate #ci4 ,footnote #ij3 ,for cartoons of this picture1 see ,a4,k4 ,coomaraswamy1 ,indian ,drawings 7,london1 #aiab71 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,plate #b and ,rajput ,painting1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,plates #i and #aj4 ,footnote #ia3 ,note #bb4 ,footnote #ib3 ,gangoly1 ,masterpieces of ,rajput ,painting1 ,plate #aj4 ,footnote #ic3 ,plates #d1 #aj1 #bf1 #bg1 #cj and #ca4 ,the ,art of ,india and ,pakistan1 ,plates #ajj-ajb4 ,footnote #id3 ,plate #d4 ,footnote #ie3 ,plate #aj4 ,footnote #if3 ,archer1 ,indian ,painting in the ,punjab ,hills1 ,fig4 #f4 ,footnote #ig3 ,plate #cj4 ,coomaraswamy1 ,boston ,catalogue1 ,v1 ,rajput ,painting1 ,plates #ib-ie4 ,footnote #ih3 ,note #bc4 ,footnote #ii3 ,coomaraswamy1 ,boston ,catalogue1 ,v1 ,rajput ,painting1 #aga4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,ibid41 #agb4 ,footnote #aja3 ,ibid41 #agc4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,plates #bf and #bg4 ,the ,art of ,india and ,pakistan1 ,plate #ajb4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,archer1 ,garhwal ,painting1 #a-d4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,gangoly1 op4 cit41 ,plate #ce4 ,footnote #aje3 ,archer1 ,indian ,painting in the ,punjab ,hills1 ,fig4 #bc4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,mehta1 ,studies in ,indian ,painting1 ,plate #ba4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,plates #ai1 #bj and #ce4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,coomaraswamy1 ,rajput ,painting1 ,plates #ec and #ed4 ,footnote #aji3 ,archer1 ,garhwal ,painting1 ,plate #a4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,plates #g1 #ab and #be4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,archer1 ,kangra ,painting1 #b-e4 ,footnote #aab3 ,ibid41 ,plate #b4 ,footnote #aac3 ,ibid41 ,plate #a4 ,footnote #aad3 ,ibid41 ,plate #b4 ,footnote #aae3 ,b4,h4 ,baden ,powell1 ,handbook of the ,manufactures and ,arts of the ,punjab 7,lahore1 #ahgb71 #cee4 ,purkhu must now1 most probably1 be connected with the first of the two ,kangra masters described in ,kangra ,painting 7p4 #d7--,plates #c and #d being examples of his work4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,plates #c1 #e1 #f1 #h1 #i1 #aa and #af4 ,footnote #aag3 ,archer1 ,kangra ,painting1 ,plates #a and #b2 also p4 #d where the second of the two ,kangra masters is described4 ,footnote #aah3 ,plate #cf2 ,mehta1 op4 cit41 ,plates #be and #bf4 ,footnote #aai3 ,plate #ba4 ,footnote #abj3 ,mehta1 op4 cit41 ,plate #bb4 ,footnote #aba3 ,plates #ac-ae4 ,footnote #abb3 ,plate #ah4 ,footnote #abc3 ,the ,art of ,india and ,pakistan1 ,plate #gi ,footnote #abd3 ,w4,g4 ,archer1 ',maithil ,painting1' ,marg1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,no4 #b4 ,footnote #abe3 ,w4,g4 ,archer1 ,bazaar ,paintings of ,calcutta 7,london1 #aiec71 ,plates #h1 #i1 #ad1 #ai1 #cj1 #ca and #da4 ,footnote #abf3 ,ajit ,mookerjee1 ,art of ,india1 7,calcutta1 #aieb7 ,fig4 #id4 ,footnote #abg3 ,b4 ,dey and ,j4 ,irwin1 ',jamini ,roy1' ,journal of the ,indian ,society of ,oriental ,art 7#aidd71 ,vol4 ,,xii1 ,plate #f4 ,footnote #abh3 ,for reproductions of ,keyt's work1 see ,martin ,russell1 ,george ,keyt 7,bombay1 #aiej71 ,plates #a-aja4 ,,notes ,note #a1 p4 #ac4 ,for a further discussion of these two main kinds of ,indian expression1 see my ,indian ,painting 7,iris1 ,batsford1 ,london1 #aief74 ,note #b1 p4 #ad4 ,in ,indian painting1 ,krishna is normally blue or mauve in colour1 though cases occur in which he is black1 green or dark brown4 ,black would seem to follow from ,krishna's name--the word ',krishna' meaning 'black'--and may have been applied either because he sprang from a black hair of ,vishnu or because he was born at midnight1 'black as a thundercloud4' ,it has been suggested that his dark complexion proves a ,dravidian or even an aboriginal origin since both the ,dravidian races and the aboriginal tribes are dark brown in colour in contrast to the paler ,aryans4 ,none of the texts1 however1 appears to corroborate this theory4 ,so far as 'blue' and 'mauve' are concerned1 'blue' is the colour of ,vishnu and characterizes most of his incarnations4 ,as the colour of the sky1 it is appropriate to a deity who was originally associated with the sun--the sun with its life-giving rays according well with ,vishnu's role as loving protector4 ',blue' is also supposed to be the colour of the ocean on which ,vishnu is said to recline at the commencement of each age4 ,in view of the variations in colour in the pictures1 it is perhaps significant that 'blue1' 'mauve' and 'green' are commonly regarded in village ,india as variants of 'black'--many ,indians making no distinction between them4 ,in ,indian painting1 the fact that ,krishna is blue makes it easy to identify him1 his only serious rival being another and earlier incarnation of ,vishnu1 the princely ,rama4 ,the latter can usually be distinguished from ,krishna by the fact that he carries a bow 7never a cowherd's stick7 and is often accompanied by ,hanuman1 the monkey leader4 ,note #c1 p4 #ag4 ,for a comparison of ,ghora ,angirasa's teaching in the ,chandogya ,upanishad with ,krishna's precepts in the ,gita1 see ,mazumdar1 ,the ,age of ,imperial ,unity 7#dcb-d7 and ,basham1 ,the ,wonder that was ,india 7#bdb-g1 #cjd-e7 ,note #d1 p4 #ag4 ,although the actual date of the ,mahabharata war has been variously assessed--'between #adjj and #ajjj ,b4,c4' 7,m4,a4 ,mehendale in ,the ,age of ,imperial ,unity1 #bea7 'the beginning of the ninth century ,b4,c4 7,basham1 op4 cit41 #ci7--the epic itself is generally recognized as being a product of many centuries of compilation4 ,the portions relating to ,krishna the hero may well date from the third century ,b4,c4 ,the ,gita1 on the other hand1 was possibly composed in the second century ,b4,c4 'but assumed the form in which it appears in the ,mahabharata today in the early centuries ,a4,d4' 7,mehendale1 op4 cit41 #bdi74 ,note #e1 p4 #bd4 ,the implication is that the ,pandavas have not been granted ultimate salvation i4e4 final release from living but have reached the important transitional level of 'the heaven of the doers of good deeds4' ,they have also been granted the limited status of petty gods4 ,note #f1 p4 #be4 ,harivansa1 'the ,genealogy of ,krishna' but more literally1 'the ,genealogy of ,hari1' a synonym for ,vishnu4 ,for the sake of clearness and to avoid burdening the text with too much periphrasis1 ,i have throughout referred to ,krishna as such4 ,in the texts themselves1 however1 he is constantly invoked under other names--,hari 7or ,vishnu71 ,govinda 7the cowherd71 ,keshava 7the hairy or radiant one71 ,janarddana 7the most worshipful71 ,damodara 7'bound with a rope1' referring to the incident 7p4 #cb7 when having been tied by ,yasoda to a mortar1 ,krishna uproots the two trees71 ,murari 7'foe of ,mura1 the arch demon' p4 #eh7 or in phrases such as 'queller of ,kaliya the snake1' 'destroyer of ,kesi1 the demon horse1' 'slayer of ,madhu--the demon who sprang from the ear of ,vishnu and was killed by him4' ,a similar use of periphrasis occurs in ,anglo-,saxon kennings 7'world-candle' for sun1 'battle-adders' for arrows74 ,in the same way1 ,abul ,fazl's chronicle1 the ,akbarnama1 never names the emperor ,akbar but refers to him in terms such as ',his ,majesty1' 'the holy soul1' 'lord of the age1' 'fountain of generosity1' 'the sacred heart1' 'the world-adorning mind1' 'the decorated mansion of sports4' ,note #g1 p4 #bf1 #cd1 #df1 #fh1 #fi4 ,in ,chapters #c and #d ,i have1 in the main1 strictly followed the ,bhagavata ,purana1 incorporating1 however1 a few important details and passages either not given in this text but included in the ,vishnu ,purana or if given1 not so vividly expressed4 ,the details and passages in question are page #bg concerning the white and black hairs of ,vishnu1 page #cd--the lyrical description of ,krishna's life in the forest1 page #df--;,akrura's meditation as he goes to visit ,krishna1 page #fh--the drunken brawl and page #fi the deaths of ,balarama and ,krishna4 ,all extracts are from ,h4,h4 ,wilson1 ,the ,vishnu ,purana 7pages #dih1 #eaa1 #eda-b1 #fji-fab74 ,note #h1 p4 #bh4 ,the resemblance between ,kansa's order to kill all male infants and ,herod's slaughter of the innocents has often been remarked4 ,note #i1 p4 #bi4 ,krishna's constant alterations of role1 appearing sometimes as ,god but more often as boy or man1 have been commented on by ,isherwood and ,prabhavananda in connection with ,arjuna's dilemma in the ,mahabharata4 ',krishna is the divine incarnation of ,vishnu1 ,arjuna's chosen deity4 ,arjuna knows this--yet1 by a merciful ignorance1 he sometimes forgets4 ,indeed1 it is ,krishna who makes him forget1 since no ordinary man could bear the strain of constant companionship with ,god4 ,after the vision of ,krishna's divine aspect1 ,arjuna is appalled by the realization that he has been treating the ,lord of the universe as 'friend and fellow-mortal4' ,he humbly begs ,krishna's pardon1 but his awe soon leaves him4 ,again1 he has forgotten4 ,we may infer the same relationship between ,jesus and his disciples after the vision of the transfiguration4' 7,the ,song of ,god1 ,bhagavad-,gita1 #bi-cj74 ,note #aj1 p4 #cc4 ,although part of the supreme ,trinity1 ,brahma was often treated in literature as an ordinary god who ambled gently about the world1 was often rather absent-minded1 sometimes behaved as if he were a priest1 and was prone1 as on the present occasion1 to act a trifle misguidedly4 ,note #ab1 p4 #dj4 ,the scene is illustrated in two ,kangra and ,guler paintings 7,archer1 ,indian ,painting in the ,punjab ,hills1 ,figs4 #aj and #bc74 ,note #ab1 p4 #eh4 ,pragjyotisha--a city situated in the east1 in ,kamarupa on the borders of ,assam4 ,according to the ,vishnu ,purana 7,wilson1 #ehb71 its environs were defended by 'nooses1 constructed by the demon ,mura 7,naraka's ally71 the edges of which were as sharp as razors4' ,mura had seven thousand sons 7not seven1 as stated in the ,bhagavata74 ,all1 however1 were 'burnt like moths with the flame of the edge of ,krishna's discus4' ,note #ac1 p4 #fg4 ,basham 7op4 cit41 #cje7 points out that elements in the ,krishna story such as the destruction of the ,yadavas and the death of the god are 'quite un-,indian in their tragic character4 ,the themes of the drunken brawl leading to a general slaughter1 of the hero slain by an arrow piercing his one vulnerable spot1 and of the great city engulfed by the sea1 are well-known in ,european epic literature1 but do not occur elsewhere in that of ,india and are not hinted at in the ,vedas4 ,the concept of the dying god1 so widespread in the ancient ,near ,east1 is found nowhere else in ,indian mythology4' ,it is unfortunate that ,krishna's reasons for destroying the ,yadava race are nowhere made very clear4 ,the affront to the ,brahmans is the immediate occasion for the slaughter but hardly its actual cause2 and1 if it is argued that the ,yadavas must first be destroyed in order to render ,krishna's withdrawal from the world complete1 we must then assume that the ,yadavas are in some mysterious way essential parts of ,krishna himself4 ,such a status1 however1 does not seem to be claimed for them and none of the texts suggest that this is so4 ,the slaughter1 therefore1 remains an enigma4 ,note #ad1 p4 #fh4 ,wilson 7op4 cit41 #fjh7 summarizing the portents listed in the ,mahabharata but not included in the ,vishnu or ,bhagavata ,puranas4 ,note #ae1 p4 #gb4 ,from the ,brihadaranyaka1 quoted ,a4 ,danielou1 ',an ,approach to ,hindu ,erotic ,sculpture1' ,marg1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 i1 #hh4 ,for a ,western expression of this point of view1 compare ,eric ,gill1 ',art and ,love1' ,rupam 7,calcutta1 #aibe71 ,no4 #ba1 #e4 ',if the trees and rocks1 the thunder and the sea1 the frightful avidity of animal life and the loveliness of flowers are so many hints of the ,god who made them1 how much more obviously are the things of humanity analogues of the things of ,god8 ,and among all such things1 the union of man and woman takes the highest place and is the most potent symbol4 ,therefore it is that outside the commercial civilizations of the western world1 love and marriage take their place as types of divine union and everywhere love and marriage are the subject matter1 the theme of religious writers1 singers1 painters and sculptors4 ,it is true that love is the theme of western writers also but with them the idea of love is entirely free from divine signification4 7,as a corollary71 the more the divine background disappears1 the more the prudishness of the police becomes the standard of ethics and aesthetics alike4 ,under such an aegis the arts are necessarily degraded to the level of the merely sentimental or the merely sensual and while the sentimental is everywhere applauded1 the sensual is a source of panic4' ,note #af1 p4 #gc4 ,in later poetry as well as in popular worship1 ,radha's position is always that of an adored mistress--never that of a beloved wife4 ,and it is outside or rather in the teeth of marriage that her romance with ,krishna is prosecuted4 ,such a position clearly involved a sharp conflict with conventional morals and in the fourteenth century1 an attempt was made1 in the ,brahma ,vaivarta ,purana1 to re-write the ,bhagavata ,purana1 magnifying ,radha as leader of the cow-girls1 disguising or rather denying her adultery and finally presenting her as ,krishna's eternal consort4 ,for this purpose1 three hypotheses were adopted4 ,radha was throughout assumed to be ,krishna's spouse and it is only on account of a curse that she takes human form as a cowgirl and comes to live in ,brindaban4 ,radha herself does not marry ,ayana the cowherd--his wedding being only with her shadow4 ,thirdly1 ,krishna comes to ,brindaban and goes through a secret marriage with her4 ,their love-making is1 therefore1 no longer adulterous but strictly conjugal4 ,it is not perhaps surprising that the ,brahma ,vaivarta ,purana failed to capture the ,indian imagination and indeed is nowadays hardly ever heard of4 ,it is of interest mainly on account of the prolific information given about ,radha1 the fact that it sets her firmly in the centre1 dethroning the hapless ,rukmini1 and its baroque descriptions of sexual union4 ,note #ag1 p4 #gc4 ,during the eleventh and twelfth centuries1 a parallel situation seems to have arisen in feudal ,france and ,germany where local love-poetry also treated adultery as a sine qua non of romance4 ',two things prevented the men of that age from connecting their ideal of romantic and passionate love with marriage4 ,the first is1 of course1 the actual practice of feudal society4 ,marriages had nothing to do with love and no 'nonsense' about marriage was tolerated4 ,all marriages were matches of interest and1 worse still1 of an interest that was continually changing4 ,when the alliance which had answered would answer no longer1 the husband's object was to get rid of the lady as quickly as possible4 ,marriages were frequently dissolved4 ,the same woman who was the lady and 'the dearest dread' of her vassals was often little better than a piece of property to her husband4 ,he was master in his own house4 ,so far from being a natural channel for the new kind of love1 marriage was rather the drab background against which that love stood out in all the contrast of its new tenderness and delicacy4 ,the situation is indeed a very simple one1 and not peculiar to the ,middle ,ages4 ,any idealization of sexual love1 in a society where marriage is purely utilitarian1 must begin by being an idealization of adultery4' 7,c4,s4 ,lewis1 ,the ,allegory of ,love 7,london1 #aicf71 #ac47 ,note #ah1 p4 #gg4 ,much of the ,gita ,govinda's power arises from the endowment of ,nature with romantic ardour1 the forest itself being presented as a highly sensitive and symbolic setting for the behaviour of lovers4 ,the following passage from ,tess of the ,d',urbervilles is perhaps the nearest approach in ,english to this kind of treatment4 ',amid the oozing fatness and warm ferments of the ,var ,vale1 at a season when the rush of juices could almost be heard below the hiss of fertilization1 it was impossible that the most fanciful love should not grow passionate4 ,the ready bosoms existing there were impregnated by their surroundings4 ,july passed over their heads and the weather which came in its wake seemed an effort on the part of ,nature to match the state of hearts at ,talbothays ,dairy4 ,the air of the place1 so fresh in the spring and early summer1 was stagnant and enervating now4 ,its heavy scents weighed upon them1 and at mid-day the landscape seemed lying in a swoon4 ,ethiopic scorchings browned the upper slopes of the pastures1 but there was still bright herbage here where the water courses purled4 ,and as ,clare was oppressed by the outward heats1 so was he burdened inwardly by waxing fervour of passion for the soft and silent ,tess4' ,note #ai1 p4 #gg4 ,the ,gita ,govinda was one of the first ,sanskrit poems to be rendered into ,english--,sir ,william ,jones publishing a mellifluous version in ,asiatick ,researches in #agib4 ,later in the nineteenth century it was translated into ,victorian verse by ,sir ,edwin ,arnold4 ,the present translation from which all the extracts are taken is by ,george ,keyt1 the foremost modern artist of ,ceylon4 ,it is greatly to be hoped that the entire translation1 hitherto available only in an ,indian edition1 will one day be published in ,england4 ,note #bj1 p4 #hf4 ,poems #a and #b are based on versions by ,o4,c4 ,gangoly 7,masterpieces of ,rajput ,painting1 #bi1 #eh72 poems #c-aa are from new translations by ,deben ,bhattacharya4 ,note #ba1 p4 #ia4 ,for the originals of certain poems in the ,rasika ,priya and their literal translation1 see ,coomaraswamy1 ',the ,eight ,nayikas4' ,note #bb1 p4 #ajd4 ,the first scholar to draw attention to this fact1 i4e4 that the subjects are not ,radha and ,krishna but palace ladies impersonating them1 is ,dr4 ,joan van ,lohuizen de ,leeuw1 whose paper on this and kindred problems is under preparation4 ,note #bc1 p4 #aje4 ,for a detailed discussion of ,bhanu ,datta's ,rasamanjari and of similar treatises by other ,sanskrit authors1 see ,v4 ,raghavan1 ,srngaramanjari of ,saint ,akbar ,shah 7,hyderabad1 #aiea74 ,,bibliography ,,agrawala1 ,v4,s43 ',the ,romance of ,himachal ,paintings1' ,roopa-,lekha ,,xx1 #b1 7#aidh-i71 #hg-ic4 ,,archer1 ,w4,g43 ,indian ,painting in the ,punjab ,hills 7,london1 #aieb74 ,kangra ,painting 7,london1 #aieb74 ,garhwal ,painting 7,london1 #aied74 ,indian ,painting 7,london1 #aief74 ,,basham1 ,a4,l43 ,the ,wonder that was ,india 7,london1 #aied74 ,,burnouf1 ,e4 7trans473 ,le ,bhagavata ,purana 7,paris1 #ahdj-ih74 ,,coomaraswamy1 ,a4,c43 ',the ,eight ,nayikas1' ,journal of ,indian ,art and ,industry1 ,,xvi 7,new ,series71 ,no4 #abh 7#aiad71 #ii-aaf4 ,rajput ,painting 7,oxford1 #aiaf74 ,catalogue of the ,indian ,collections in the ,museum of ,fine ,arts1 ,boston3 ,part ,v1 ,rajput ,painting2 ,part ,,vi1 ,mughal ,painting 7,cambridge1 ,mass4 #aibf1 #aicj74 7trans47 ,the ,taking of ,toll 7,london1 #aiae74 ,,gangoly1 ,o4,c43 ,masterpieces of ,rajput ,painting 7,calcutta1 #aibf74 ,ragas and ,raginis 7,calcutta1 #aicd74 ,,gray1 ,b43 ,rajput ,painting 7,london1 #aidh74 ',painting1' ,the ,art of ,india and ,pakistan1 ed4 ,l4 ,ashton 7,london1 #aiej74 ,,grierson1 ,g4,a43 ,the ,modern ,vernacular ,literature of ,hindustan 7,calcutta1 #ahhi74 ,,hendley1 ,t4,h43 ,memorials of the ,jeypore ,exhibition4 ,,iv1 the ,razm ,namah 7,london1 #ahhc74 ,,hollings1 ,w4 7trans473 ,the ,prem ,sagar 7,lucknow1 #ahhj74 ,,isherwood1 ,c4 and ,,prabhavananda1 ,s4 7trans473 ,the ,song of ,god1 ,bhagavad-,gita 7,london1 #aidg74 ,,jones1 ,w4 7trans473 ',gitagovinda or ,songs of ,jayadeva1' ,asiatick ,researches 7,calcutta1 #agib74 ,,keyt1 ,g4 7trans473 ,sri ,jayadeva's ,gita ,govinda 7,bombay1 #aidg74 ,,mathers1 ,e4 ,,powys 7trans473 ,eastern ,love 7,london1 #aibg-cj74 7trans47 ,love ,songs of ,asia 7,london1 #aidd74 ,,mazumdar1 ,r4,c4 7ed473 ,the ,history and ,culture of the ,indian ,people1 ,i1 ,the ,vedic ,age 7,london1 #aiea72 ,,ii1 ,the ,age of ,imperial ,unity 7,bombay1 #aiea74 ,,mehta1 ,n4,c43 ,studies in ,indian ,painting 7,bombay1 #aibf74 ,gujarati ,painting in the ,fifteenth ,century 7,london1 #aica74 ,,randhawa1 ,m4,s43 ,kangra ,valley ,painting 7,new ,delhi1 #aied74 ,the ,krishna ,legend in ,pahari ,painting 7,new ,delhi1 #aief74 ,,roy1 ,p4,c4 7trans473 ,the ,mahabharata 7,calcutta1 #ahhc74 ,,sen1 ,d4,c43 ,history of ,bengali ,language and ,literature 7,calcutta1 #aiaa74 ,,sen1 ,r4,n4 7trans473 ,the ,brahma ,vaivarta ,purana 7,allahabad1 #aibj74 ,,stchoukine1 ,i43 ,la ,peinture ,indienne 7,paris1 #aibi74 ,,winternitz1 ,m43 ,a ,history of ,indian ,literature 7,calcutta1 ,i1 #aibg2 ,,ii1 #aicc74 ,,wilson1 ,h4,h4 7trans473 ,the ,vishnu ,purana 7,london1 #ahdj74 ,,index ,abul ,fazl1 #aaf1 pl4 #a 7comment7 ,aditi1 mother of the gods1 #eh1 #ei ,age of ,imperial ,unity1 ,the1 #aae1 #aba ,agni1 god of fire1 #ah ,agrawala1 ,v4,s41 #aba ,ahmadnagar1 ,deccan1 #ig ,ajmer1 ,rajasthan1 #ajc ,akbar1 ,mughal ,emperor1 #ig-ii1 #aaf1 pl4 #a 7comment7 ,akbarnama1 #ih1 #aaf ,akrura1 chief of the ,yadavas1 #de-dg1 #di1 #ea1 #eg1 #aaf ,allegory of ,love1 ,the1 #aai ,altdorfer1 #ic ,amaru1 ,sanskrit poet1 #gc ,aniruddha1 son of ,pradyumna and grandson of ,krishna1 #fd ,archer1 ,mildred1 #d1 #i ,archer1 ,w4,g41 #d1 #aja1 #aje1 #ajg-aab1 #aae1 #aag1 #aba ,arjuna1 leading ,pandava1 husband of ,draupadi1 husband of ,krishna's sister1 ,subhadra1 #bj-bb1 #fd1 #fe1 #fg1 #fi1 #aaf1 #aag ,arnold1 ,sir ,edwin1 #aai ,art of ,india and ,pakistan1 ,the1 #if1 #ih1 #aja1 #ajd1 #ajg1 #aaa1 #aba ,asiatick ,researches1 #aai ,assam1 #aag ,aurangzeb1 ,mughal ,emperor1 #ii ,ayana1 husband of ,radha1 brother of ,yasoda1 #gb1 #aah ,baden ,powell1 ,b4,h41 #aaj ,bakasura1 crane demon1 #cc ,balagopala ,stuti1 poem by ,bilvamangala1 #hd1 #id ,balarama1 brother of ,krishna1 #bg1 #cj1 #ca1 #cd-cf1 #dd-dh1 #ej-ef1 #fa-fd1 #ff1 #fg1 #fi1 #aaf1 pls4 #a1 #e1 #f1 #i1 #ab1 #af1 #ag ,bali1 ruler of the underworld1 #fb ,bani ,thani1 poetess of ,kishangarh1 #ajc ,barahmasa1 poems of the twelve months1 #ajb1 pl4 #cb ,basawan1 ,mughal artist1 pls4 #a1 #b 7comment71 #c 7comment7 ,basham1 ,a4,l41 #i1 #ai1 #aae1 #aag1 #aba ,basohli1 ,punjab ,hills1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajg1 #aaa1 pls4 #ah 7comment71 #bf 7comment71 #cj 7comment7 ,beatty1 ,sir ,chester1 pls4 #ag1 #ai ,bhagavad ,gita1 #ae-ag1 #bd1 #fg1 #aae1 #aag ,bhagavata ,purana1 #aa1 #be-ga1 #gb1 #gd1 #he1 #he1 #ii1 #aja1 #aje1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aaf-ah1 #aba1 pls4 #c-ai ,bhakti1 devotion to ,god1 #ai1 #bd ,bhanu ,datta1 author of ,rasamanjari1 #i1 #aje1 #abj1 pls4 #cj1 #ca ,bharat ,kala ,bhawan1 ,banaras1 #ajc1 pl4 #cg ,bharatiya ,natya ,sastra1 ,sanskrit treatise1 #ij ,bhartrihari1 ,sanskrit poet1 #gc ,bhattacharya1 ,deben1 #i1 #hg-ij1 #aai ,bhima1 strongest of the five ,pandavas1 #bd1 #fe1 #ff ,bihari ,lai1 poet1 #hd1 #aaj1 pl4 #cf ,bijapur1 ,deccan1 #ig ,bikaner1 ,rajasthan1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajc ,bilaspur1 ,punjab ,hills1 #ajg1 #aaa1 pl4 #ah ,bilvamangala1 poet1 #hd1 #id ,blue1 colour of ,krishna1 #ad1 #aae ,book covers1 ,bengali1 #aaa ,brahma1 #ag1 #bg1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd1 #eh1 #ei1 #fe1 #fg1 #aag1 pl4 #b ,brahma ,vaivarta ,purana1 #aah1 #aba ,brahmans1 #bb1 #bh1 #cj1 #ch1 #ci1 #fb1 #fc1 #fg1 #fh1 #ga1 #gd1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aag ,wives of1 #ch1 #ci ,braj1 country around ,mathura1 #bf1 #bh1 #dj ,brihadaranyaka1 #aag ,brindaban1 forest near ,gokula1 #cc1 #ce1 #de1 #df1 #di1 #eb1 #ec1 #ei-fb1 #ajc1 pl4 #f ,british ,museum1 pl4 #ah ,brough1 ,j41 #i ,buddhism1 #id ,bull demon1 #dd ,bundelkhand1 #ia1 #ii ,bundi1 ,rajasthan1 #aja-ajc ,burnouf1 ,e41 #aba ,calcutta1 #aaa1 #aab ,campbell1 ,roy1 #ge ,ceylon1 #eg1 #aab ,chamba1 ,punjab ,hills1 #ajg1 #aaa ,chandi ,das1 ,bengali poet1 #hd1 #he1 #hi1 #aaa ,chandigarh ,art ,gallery1 ,east ,punjab1 pl4 #bg ,chandogya ,upanishad1 #ag1 #bd1 #aae ,chanura1 wrestler1 #de1 #dh ,chawand1 ,mewar1 #ajj ,christ1 #ad1 #aab1 #aag ,clothes1 stealing of cowgirls'1 #cg1 #ch1 #gd1 #ge1 pl4 #aa ,coomaraswamy1 ,a4,k41 #ii1 #ajd-f1 #ajh1 #abj1 #aba1 pl4 #h 7comment7 ,cowgirls1 loves of the1 #bi1 #cf-ch1 #da-dd1 #df1 #di1 #ej1 #eb1 #ec1 #eh1 #fj-fb1 #ff1 #gj-hb1 #he1 #hf1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aac1 pls4 #aa1 #ac-ae1 #bj-bc4 ,cowherds1 abandonment of1 by ,krishna1 ,krishna's life with1 #di-ec1 #fa1 #fb ,damodara1 pseudonym for ,krishna1 #aaf ,dance1 circular1 #ch1 #da1 #dc1 #df1 #gd1 #ge1 p4 #ac 7comment7 ,danielou1 ,a41 #aag ,daruka1 charioteer to ,krishna1 #fh1 #fi ,demons1 combats with1 #bi1 #cj1 #cc-cf1 #dd1 #de1 #ed1 #ee1 #eh1 #fd1 #aaf1 #aag1 pl4 #i role of1 #ah1 #ai ,devaka1 younger brother of ,king ,ugrasena1 #bg ,devaki1 mother of ,krishna1 #ag1 #bg1 #bh1 #dd1 #df1 #dh-ej1 #eb1 #fc1 #fi1 pl4 #c ,devi1 goddess1 ,earth ,mother1 #bh1 #dj1 #ef1 pls4 #c1 #ah ,dey1 ,b41 #aab ,dharma1 #ah1 #bc ,dhenuka1 ass demon1 #cd ,dhritarashtra1 blind son of ,kuru1 father of ,kauravas1 #bj1 #ba1 #ea1 #ff ,dice1 contest by1 #ba ,dickinson1 ,eric1 #ajc ,draupadi1 daughter of ,king of ,panchal1 common wife of the five ,pandavas1 #bj-bc1 #fd1 #fg ,drumalika1 demon1 #bf ,duryodhana1 leading ,kaurava and son of ,dhritarashtra1 #bc1 #ea1 #ff1 #fg ,dwarka1 ,krishna's capital in ,western ,india1 #ba1 #bb1 #ed-ei1 #fa-fd1 #ff-gj1 #id1 #ajh1 pls4 #b 7comment71 #ai ,earth1 #bg1 #di1 #eh1 #fg ,eastern ,love1 #aba ,el ,greco1 #ic ,flute playing1 #ae1 #cf1 #cg1 #da1 #fa1 #gh1 #hf1 #aji1 #aab1 pl4 #ba ,forest fires1 #ce1 #cf1 pl4 #aj ,france1 feudal1 #aah ,games with cowherds1 ,krishna's1 #ca-ce1 #de1 pls4 #d-i ,gandhi1 ,mahatma1 #ae ,gangoly1 ,o4,c41 #ajd1 #aai1 #aba ,garga1 sage1 #cj1 #ca ,garhwal1 ,punjab ,hills1 #ajg-aaj1 pl4 #ch ,garhwal ,painting1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aba ,germany1 feudal1 #aah ,ghora ,angirasa1 #ag1 #aae ,gill1 ,eric1 #aah ,gita ,govinda1 ,sanskrit poem by ,jayadeva1 #i1 #aa1 #gf-hd1 #id-if1 #ih1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aac1 #aai1 #aba1 pls4 #bj-bg ,gods1 role of1 #ah1 #ai ,goetz1 ,h41 #ii1 #ajj ,gokula1 district near ,mathura1 #bf1 #cj1 #cc1 #dd ,govardhan ,singh1 ,raja of ,guler1 #ajg ,govardhana1 greatest of the hills1 #ci1 #dj1 #db1 #ei1 pl4 #ab ,govind ,das1 poet1 #hd1 #hh ,govinda1 pseudonym for ,krishna1 #aaf ,gray1 ,basil1 #ajj1 #aba ,grierson1 ,sir ,g4,a41 #aba ,grunewald1 #ic ,gujarati ,painting in the ,fifteenth ,century1 #aba ,guler1 ,punjab ,hills1 #ajg-aji1 pl4 #ah 7comment7 ,hari1 pseudonym for ,krishna1 #aaf ,harivansa1 appendix to ,mahabharata epic1 #be1 #cb1 #ih1 #aaf ,hendley1 ,t4,h41 #ih1 #aba ,herod1 #aaf ,holi festival1 #aji ,hollings1 ,w41 #aba ,hunter1 slayer of ,krishna1 see ,jara4 ,hussain ,shah1 ruler of ,jaunpur1 #if ,india ,office ,library1 ,london1 pl4 #cd 7comment7 ,indian ,museum1 ,calcutta1 pl4 #ce ,indian ,painting1 #aae1 #aba ,indian ,painting in the ,punjab ,hills1 #aje1 #ajg ,indra1 king of the gods1 lord of the clouds1 #ah1 #bd1 #ci1 #dj1 #df1 #eh1 #ei1 #fe1 #ff1 pls4 #b1 #ab ,irwin1 ,j41 #aab ,isherwood1 ,christopher1 #ae1 #bd1 #aaf ,jadupatuas1 minstrel artists of ,bengal1 #aab ,jaipur1 ,rajasthan1 #ie1 #ih1 #ajc1 #ajd1 pls4 #a 7comment71 #b 7comment7 ,jaisalmer1 ,rajasthan1 #ajc ,jambhavati1 a queen of ,krishna1 #ef1 #eg1 #fj ,jammu1 ,punjab ,hills1 #ajg ,janarddana1 pseudonym for ,krishna1 #aaf ,japan1 #ac ,jara1 ,bhil hunter1 slayer of ,krishna1 #bd1 #fg1 #fi1 pl4 #b ,jarasandha1 demon king of ,magadha1 #bf1 #ed-ef1 #fe ,jaunpur1 ,eastern ,india1 #if1 #ig ,jayadeva1 ,sanskrit poet1 #gf1 #gg1 #hd1 #id1 #aaa1 #aba ,jodhpur1 ,rajasthan1 #ie1 #ajc ,jones1 ,sir ,william1 #aai1 #aba ,jumna1 river1 #bb1 #bh1 #ce1 #cg1 #da1 #dc1 #dg1 #dh1 #fa1 #gd1 #hb1 #he1 pls4 #h1 #ac-ae ,kalidasa1 ,sanskrit poet1 #gc ,kalindi1 a queen of ,krishna1 #eg1 #fj1 #fd ,kaliya1 giant hydra-headed snake1 #ce1 #db1 #df1 #ajh1 #aaf1 pls4 #h1 #aj 7comment7 ,kaliyavana1 #ed ,kalpasutra1 ,jain ,scripture1 #if ,kama1 god of passion1 #ah1 #fd ,kamalavati1 mother of ,radha1 #gb ,kangra1 ,punjab ,hills1 #ic1 #ajh-aa1 pl4 #c 7comment7 ,kangra ,painting1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aba ,kangra ,valley ,painting1 #aba ,kanoria1 ,gopi ,krishna1 #i1 pls4 #g1 #bi1 #ci ,kansa1 tyrant king of ,mathura1 son of ,pavanarekha by the demon ,drumalika1 #bf-i1 #ca1 #cc1 #dc-ej1 #ed1 #ee1 #eg1 #fb1 #aaj1 #aaf1 pls4 #c1 #i 7comment71 #af 7comment71 #ag1 #ce 7comment7 ,karna1 leading ,kaurava killed by ,arjuna at ,kurukshetra1 #bc ,kauravas1 the #ajj sons of ,dhritarashtra1 rivals 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,roopa-lekha1 ,indian art journal1 #aba ,roy1 ,jamini1 #aab ,roy1 ,p4,c41 #aba ,rukma1 brother of ,rukmini1 #ef1 #fd ,rukmini1 ,krishna's first queen1 #ae1 #ee1 #ef1 #ei1 #fj1 #fd1 #ff1 #fi-gb1 #aah1 pl4 #ah ,ruknuddin1 ,bikaner artist1 #ii ,rupam1 ,indian art journal1 #aah ,russell1 ,m41 #aac ,saktasura1 demon1 #cj ,sankhasura1 yaksha demon1 #dd ,sansar ,chand1 ,raja of ,kangra1 #ac1 #ajh-aaa ,sat ,sat1 poems by ,bihari ,lal1 #aaj1 pl4 #cf ,sattrajit1 father of ,satyabhama1 #ef1 #eg ,satyabhama1 a queen of ,krishna1 #ef1 #eg1 #ei1 #fj ,sawant ,singh1 ,raja of ,kishangarh1 #ajc ,scroll paintings1 #aab ,sen1 ,d4,c41 #aba ,sen1 ,r4,n41 #aba ,sesha1 serpent of eternity1 a part of ,vishnu1 #bg1 #fi1 pl4 #a ,shah ,jahan1 ,mughal emperor1 #ii ,shahabaddin1 ,mewar artist1 #ajj ,sher-,gil1 ,amrita1 #aab ,shiraz1 #ig ,sirmur1 ,punjab ,hills1 pl4 #ch 7comment7 ,sisupala1 claimant to ,rukmini1 rival of ,krishna1 #bb1 #ef1 #ei1 #ff1 pl4 #ah 7comment7 ,sitwell1 ,sacheverell1 #ad ,siva1 #ag1 #ah1 #cg1 #dd1 #eh1 #ei1 #fd1 #fe1 #fg1 pl4 #b ,srinagar1 ,garhwal1 #ajh ,st4 ,john of the ,cross1 #gd1 #ge ,stchoukine1 ,i1 #aba ,studies in ,indian ,painting1 #aba ,subhadra1 sister of ,krishna1 #bb1 #fd1 #fe ,sudama1 brahman1 early friend of ,krishna1 #fb1 #fc1 #ajh1 pl4 #ai ,sudarsana1 ,celestial dancer1 #dj1 #da ,sur ,das1 poet1 #hd1 #hf1 pl4 #bi ,surabhi1 cow of plenty1 #dj ,sursagar1 ,hindi poem1 pl4 #bi ,surya1 sun god1 #ah ,tagore1 ,rabindranath1 #aab ,taking of ,toll1 ,the1 #aba ,ten ,burnt ,offerings1 #ae ,tess of the ,d',urbervilles1 #aai ,trinavarta1 whirlwind demon1 #cj ,udaipur1 chief city1 ,mewar1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ajc-aje1 pl4 #bi 7comment7 ,udho1 friend of ,krishna1 #eb-ed1 #fh ,ugrasena1 king of ,mathura1 #bf1 #dh1 #ed1 #eg1 #fg1 #fi ,ugrasura1 snake demon1 #cc ,upanishads1 #ag ,usa1 daughter of demon ,vanasura1 #fd ,vaikuntha1 heaven of ,vishnu1 #ah1 #ei ,vallabhacharya1 poet1 #hd ,vamana1 dwarf incarnation of ,vishnu1 #bj ,vanasura1 demon with a thousand arms1 #fd ,varuna1 god of water1 #ah1 #ch1 pl4 #a ,vasudeva1 ,yadava prince1 father of ,krishna1 husband of ,devaki1 brother of ,kunti1 #ba1 #bg-ca1 #dd1 #df1 #dh-ec1 #fb1 #fi1 pl4 #c ,vatsasura1 cow demon1 #cc ,vedas1 #ci1 #df1 #ef1 #aag ,vedic ,age1 ,the1 #aba ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 #ih1 pls4 #cj1 #cc1 #cd ,vidyapati1 poet1 #hd1 #hg1 #ij1 #aaa ,vishnu1 #ag-bj1 #bf-bi1 #cf1 #ci1 #dj1 #de-dg1 #di1 #ef-eh1 #fg1 #fi1 #gj1 #gf1 #aae1 #aaf1 pl4 #b 7comment7 ,vishnu ,purana1 #be1 #aaf1 #aag1 pl4 #h 7comment7 ,visvakarma1 divine architect1 #ed1 #fc ,vrishabhanu1 father of ,radha1 #gb ,vrishnis1 kinsmen of ,krishna1 #bc ,vyamasura1 wolf demon1 #de ,wellesz1 ,e41 #ih ,williams1 ,r4,h4,b41 pl4 #cj 7comment7 ,wilson1 ,h4,h41 #aaf1 #aag ,winternitz1 ,m41 #aba ,wonder that was ,india1 ,the1 #ai1 #aae1 #aag1 #aba ,wrestlers1 ,krishna's conflict with1 #dd1 #de1 #dh1 pl4 #ag ,yadavas1 pastoral caste1 ,krishna's castemen1 #ba1 #bf1 #bg1 #de1 #di-eg1 #fa1 #fb1 #ed1 #ff-fi1 #aag1 pls4 #a 7comment71 #b 7comment7 ,yasoda1 wife of ,nanda1 foster-mother of ,krishna1 #bg-cc1 #ce1 #di1 #ea-ec1 #fa1 #fb1 #gb1 #aji ,yoga1 #ai1 #bc ,yudhisthira1 leader of the ,pandavas1 husband of ,draupadi1 #ba-bc1 #fe1 #ff ,,the ,,plates ,illustration ,,plate #a ,the ,death of ,balarama ,illustration to the ,persian abridgement of the ,mahabharata1 the ,razmnama 7or ,book of the ,wars7 ,by ,basawan ,mughal 7,akbar period71 c4 #aeie ,collection ,h4,h4 the ,maharaja of ,jaipur1 ,jaipur ,although illustrations of the ,hindu epic1 the ,mahabharata1 were rarely commissioned by ,hindu patrons1 the gigantic text possessed a unique appeal to ,indian minds and for this reason the ,mughal emperor1 ,akbar1 chose it for translation into ,persian4 ',having observed the fanatical hatred prevailing between ,hindus and ,muslims1' writes his biographer1 ,abul ,fazl1 'and convinced that it arose only from their mutual ignorance1 the enlightened monarch wished to dispel the same by rendering the books of the former accessible to the latter4' ,the work of translation was begun in #aehb and was probably concluded in #aehh when ,abul ,fazl wrote the preface4 ,it is unlikely1 however1 that the illustrations were completed before #aeie4 ,the present picture by one of ,akbar's greatest ,hindu artists illustrates the sensitive naturalism which from antecedents in ,khurasan came to elegant maturity in ,mughal ,india between #aehe and #afjj4 ,certain details--the drapery with its shaded folds1 the steeples rising in the distance--are modelled on the ,european ,renaissance pictures which by #aehj had already reached the court4 ,other details such as the lithe squirrels gambolling in the tree1 the rearing snakes and dense luxuriant foliage can only have been painted by an artist devoted to the ,indian scene4 ,in subject1 the picture represents what ,krishna saw on his return from destroying the ,yadavas at ,prabhasa4 ,balarama1 his half-brother1 has gone down to the sea and has there yielded up his spirit4 ,sesha1 the great serpent1 who is part of ,vishnu himself1 is now issuing from the body ,balarama having been his incarnation4 ,snakes come to greet him while ,varuna1 the god of water1 stands as 'an old man of the sea' ready to escort him to his long home4 ,illustration ,,plate #b ,the ,death of ,krishna ,illustration to the ,persian abridgement of the ,mahabharata1 the ,razmuama 7or ,book of the ,wars7 ,by ,mukund ,mughal 7,akbar period71 c4 #aeie ,collection ,h4,h4 the ,maharaja of ,jaipur1 ,jaipur ,following the death of ,balarama1 ,krishna prepares to leave the world4 ,he sits in meditation and is shot in the sole of his right foot by ,jara1 a ,bhil hunter--the arrow which kills him being tipped with part of the iron which has caused the destruction of the ,yadavas4 ,the picture shows ,krishna reclining on a platform of the kind still constructed in ,india at the base of sacred trees4 ,an arrow transfixes his right foot while the hunter1 dressed as a courtier in ,mughal dress1 is shown releasing the bow4 ,in front of ,krishna stand four awe-struck figures1 representing the celestial sages and devotees of ,vishnu who have come to attend his passing4 ,in the sky four gods look down4 ,to the right is ,siva4 ,then1 a little to the left1 is four-headed ,brahma1 below him1 ,indra1 his body spotted with a thousand eyes and finally a fourth god of uncertain identity4 ,around the platform surges the snarling sea as if impatiently awaiting ,krishna's death before engulfing the doomed ,dwarka4 ,the painting is by a colleague of ,basawan 7,plate #a7 and illustrates the same great text4 ,illustration ,,plate #c ,the ,slaughter of an ,innocent ,illustration to the ,bhagavata ,purana ,kangra1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,j4,k4 ,mody collection1 ,bombay ,following the expansion of ,indian miniature painting in the early seventeenth century1 illustrated versions of the tenth book of the ,bhagavata ,purana began to be produced in parts of ,hindu ,india4 ,it was in the ,punjab ,hills1 at the end of the eighteenth century1 however1 that romance and religion achieved their most delicate expression4 ,the artist chiefly responsible was a certain ,nainsukh who had arrived at the ,state of ,guler in about #agdj4 ,his way of painting had marked affinities with that of ,basawan 7,plate #a7 and represents a blend of early ,mughal naturalism with later ,hindu sentiment4 ,the style founded by him influenced members of his own family1 including his nephew ,kushala and ultimately spread to ,kangra and ,garhwal where it reached its greatest heights4 ,the present picture1 together with ,plates #e1 #f1 #h1 #i1 #aa and #af1 is possibly by the ,kangra artist ,purkhu and with others of the series illustrates perhaps the greatest interpretation of the ,bhagavata ,purana ever produced in ,indian painting4 ,in the picture1 the tyrant ruler ,kansa is sleeping on a bed as a courtier prepares to break the fateful news of ,krishna's birth4 ,to the right1 ,devaki1 ,krishna's mother1 nurses the baby girl whom her husband1 ,vasudeva1 has substituted for the infant ,krishna4 ,kansa is wresting the baby from her in order to dash its head against a boulder4 ,as he does so1 she eludes his grasp and ascends to heaven in a flash1 being1 in fact1 the eight-armed goddess ,devi4 ,illustration ,,plate #d ,krishna stealing ,butter ,illustration to an incident from the ,bhagavata ,purana ,basohli1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agjj ,n4,c4 ,mehta collection1 ,bombay ,besides illustrating the tenth book of the ,bhagavata ,purana as a whole1 ,indian artists sometimes chose isolated episodes and composed their pictures around them4 ,the present picture is an instance of this practice1 its subject being the baby ,krishna pilfering butter4 ,as ,yasoda1 ,krishna's foster-mother1 goes inside the house1 ,krishna and the cowherd children stage an impudent raid4 ,a cowherd boy mounts a wooden mortar and then1 balanced on his shoulders1 the young ,krishna helps himself to the butter which is kept stored in a pot suspended by strings from the roof4 ,a second cowherd boy reaches up to lift the butter down while edging in from the right1 a monkey1 emblematic of mischievous thieving1 shares in the spoil4 ,the picture illustrates the wild and vehemently expressive style of painting which suddenly appeared at ,basohli1 a tiny ,state in the ,punjab ,hills1 towards the end of the seventeenth century4 ,the jagged form of ,yasoda1 cut in two by the lintel of the doorway1 the stabbing lines of the churning pole1 grazing sticks and cords1 as well as the sharp angles of the house and its furniture1 all contribute to a state of taut excitement4 ,illustration ,,plate #e ,the ,felling of the ,trees ,illustration to the ,bhagavata ,purana ,kangra1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,state ,museum1 ,lucknow ,from the same great series as ,plate #c1 here attributed to the ,kangra artist ,purkhu4 ,the young ,krishna1 tied to a mortar to keep him out of mischief1 has dragged it between two trees and thereby uprooted them4 ,the cowherds1 led by the bearded ,nanda1 ,krishna's foster-father1 have hurried to the scene and ,balarama1 ,krishna's half-brother1 is excitedly pointing out that ,krishna is safe4 ,in the foreground1 emerging from the earth are two crowned figures--,nala and ,kuvara1 the sons of the yaksha king1 ,kubera1 who1 as a consequence of a curse had been turned into the two trees4 ,doomed to await ,krishna's intervention1 they have now been released4 ,reclining on the trunks1 still tied to the mortar1 the young ,krishna surveys the scene with pert satisfaction4 ,illustration ,,plate #f ,the ,road to ,brindaban ,illustration to the ,bhagavata ,purana ,kangra1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,national ,museum1 ,new ,delhi ,with ,plates #c and #e1 part of the series attributed to ,purkhu4 ,led by ,nanda1 the majestic figure in the front bullock-cart1 the cowherds are moving a day's march across the ,river ,jumna to enjoy the larger freedom of ,brindaban4 ,their possessions--bundles of clothes1 spinning-wheels1 baskets of grain and pitchers--are being taken with them and mounted with ,yasoda on a second cart go the children1 ,balarama and ,krishna4 ,with its great variety of stances1 simple naturalism and air of innocent calm1 the picture exactly expresses the terms of tender familiarity on which the cowherds lived with ,krishna4 ,illustration ,,plate #g ,krishna milking ,illustration to the ,bhagavata ,purana ,garhwal1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #ahjj ,g4,k4 ,kanoria collection1 ,calcutta ,like ,plate #d1 an illustration of an isolated episode4 ,krishna1 having graduated from tending the calves1 is milking a cow1 his mind filled with brooding thoughts4 ,a cowgirl restrains the calf by tugging at its string while the cow licks its restive offspring with tender care4 ,other details--the tree clasped by a flowering creeper1 the peacock perched in its branches--suggest the cowgirls' growing love4 ,the image of tree and creeper was a common symbol in poetry for the lover embraced by his beloved and peacocks1 thirsting for rain1 were evocative of desire4 ,in style1 the picture represents the end of the first great phase of ,garhwal painting 7c4 #aggj-ahjd7 when romantic themes were treated with glowing ardour4 ,illustration ,,plate #h ,the ,quelling of the ,snake ,kaliya ,illustration to the ,bhagavata ,purana ,kangra1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,j4,k4 ,mody collection1 ,bombay ,with ,plates #c1 #e and #f1 an example of ,kangra painting in its most serene form4 ,krishna1 having defied the hydra-headed snake whose poison has befouled the ,river ,jumna1 is dancing in triumph on its sagging heads4 ,the snake's consorts plead for mercy--one of them holding out bunches of lotus flowers1 the others folding their hands or stretching out their arms in mute entreaty4 ,the river is once again depicted as a surging flood but it is the master-artist's command of sinuous line and power of suffusing a scene of turmoil with majestic calm which gives the picture greatness4 ,although the present study is true to the ,bhagavata ,purana where the snake is explicitly described as vacating the water and meeting its end on dry land1 other pictures1 notably those from ,garhwal#abi follow the ,vishnu ,purana and show the final struggle taking place in the river itself4 ,footnote #abi3 ,reproduced ,a4,k4 ,coomaraswamy1 ,rajput ,painting 7,oxford1 #aiaf71 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,plates #ec and #ed4 ,illustration ,,plate #i ,balarama killing the ,demon ,pralamba ,illustration to the ,bhagavata ,purana ,kangra1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,national ,museum1 ,new ,delhi ,a further example from the ,kangra series1 here attributed to ,purkhu4 ,as part of his war on ,krishna and young boys1 the tyrant ,kansa sends various demons to harry and kill them1 the present picture showing four stages in one such attack4 ,to the right1 the cowherd children1 divided into two parties1 face each other by an ant-hill1 ,krishna with arms crossed heading the right-hand group and ,balarama the left4 ,concealed as a cowherd in ,krishna's party1 the demon ,pralamba awaits an opportunity of killing ,balarama4 ,the second stage1 in the right-hand bottom corner1 shows ,balarama's party giving the other side 'pick-a-backs1' after having been vanquished in a game of guessing flowers and fruit4 ,the third stage is reached in the top left-hand corner4 ,here ,pralamba has regained his demon form and is hurrying off with ,balarama4 ,balarama's left hand is tightly clutched but with his right he beats at the demon's head4 ,the fourth and final stage is illustrated in the bottom left-hand corner where ,balarama has subdued the demon and is about to slay him4 ,the picture departs from the normal version1 as given in the ,bhagavata ,purana1 by showing ,balarama's side1 instead of ,krishna's1 carrying out the forfeits4 ,according to the ,purana1 it was ,krishna's side that lost and since ,pralamba was among the defeated1 he was in a position to take ,balarama for a ride4 ,it is likely1 however1 that in view of the other episode in the ,purana in which ,krishna humbles his favourite cowgirl when she asks to be carried 7,plate #ad71 the artist shrank from showing ,krishna in this servile posture so changed the two sides round4 ,illustration ,,plate #aj ,the ,forest ,fire ,illustration to an incident from the ,bhagavata ,purana ,basohli1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #afhj ,karl ,khandalavala collection1 ,bombay ,under ,raja ,kirpal ,pal 7c4 #afhj-afic71 painting at ,basohli attained a savage intensity of expression--the present picture illustrating the style in its earliest and greatest phase4 ,surrounded by a ring of fire and with cowherd boys and cattle stupefied by smoke1 ,krishna is putting out the blaze by sucking the flames into his cheeks4 ,deer and pig are bounding to safety while birds and wild bees hover distractedly overhead4 ,during his life among the cowherds1 ,krishna was on two occasions confronted with a forest fire--the first1 on the night following his struggle with ,kaliya the snake when ,nanda1 ,yasoda and other cowherds and cowgirls were also present and the second1 following ,balarama's encounter with the demon ,pralamba 7,plate #aj71 when only cowherd boys were with him4 ,since ,nanda and the cowgirls are absent from the present picture1 it is probably the second of these two occasions which is illustrated4 ,for a reproduction in colour of this passionately glowing picture1 see ,karl ,khandalavala1 ,indian ,sculpture and ,painting 7,bombay1 #aich7 7,plate #aj74 ,illustration ,,plate #aa ,the ,stealing of the ,clothes ,illustration to the ,bhagavata ,purana ,kangra1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,j4,k4 ,mody collection1 ,bombay ,despite the ,indian delight in sensuous charm1 the nude was only rarely depicted in ,indian painting--feelings of reverence and delicacy forbidding too unabashed a portrayal of the feminine physique4 ,the present picture with its band of nude girls is therefore an exception--the facts of the ,purana rendering necessary their frank inclusion4 ,the scene illustrated concerns the efforts of the cowgirls to win ,krishna's love4 ,bathing naked in the river at dawn in order to rid themselves of sin1 they are surprised by ,krishna who takes their clothes up into a tree4 ,when they beg him to return them1 he insists that each should freely expose herself before him1 arguing that only in this way can they convince him of their love4 ,in the picture1 the girls are shyly advancing while ,krishna looks down at them from the tree4 ,illustration ,,plate #ab ,the ,raising of ,mount ,govardhana ,illustration to an incident from the ,bhagavata ,purana ,garhwal1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,national ,museum1 ,new ,delhi ,with ,plate #g1 an example of ,garhwal painting and its use of smoothly curving line4 ,krishna is lifting ,mount ,govardhana on his little finger and ,nanda1 the cowherds and cowgirls are sheltering underneath4 ,the occasion is ,krishna's slight to ,indra1 king of the gods and lord of the clouds1 whose worship he has persuaded the cowherds to abandon4 ,incensed at ,krishna's action1 ,indra has retaliated by sending storms of rain4 ,in the picture1 ,indra1 a tiny figure mounted on a white elephant careers across the sky1 goading the clouds to fall in torrents4 ,lightning flickers wildly and on ,govardhana itself1 the torn and shattered trees bespeak the gale's havoc4 ,below all is calm as the cowherds acclaim ,krishna's power4 ,illustration ,,plate #ac ,krishna with his ,favourite after leaving the ,dance ,illustration to the ,bhagavala ,purana ,kangra1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,j4,k4 ,mody collection1 ,bombay ,besides ,purkhu1 at least two other master-artists worked at ,kangra towards the end of the eighteenth century--one1 responsible for the present picture and ,plates #ad and #ae1 being still unknown4 ,he is here referred to as 'the master of the moonlight' on account of his special preoccupation with moonlight effects4 ,the present picture shows ,krishna and a girl standing by an inlet of the ,river ,jumna4 ,the girl is later to be identified as ,radha but in the ,bhagavata ,purana she is merely referred to as one who has been particularly favoured1 her actual name being suppressed4 ,the moment is some time after they have left the circular dance and before their sudden separation4 ,krishna1 whose hand rests on the girl's shoulder1 is urging her forward but the girl is weary and begs him to carry her4 ,the incident illustrates one of the vicissitudes in ,radha and ,krishna's romance and was later to be endowed with deep religious meaning4 ,illustration ,,plate #ad ,krishna's ,favourite deserted ,illustration to the ,bhagavata ,purana ,kangra1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,national ,museum1 ,new ,delhi ,from the same series as ,plates #ac and #ae by 'the master of the moonlight4' ,the girl's request 7,plate #ac7 that ,krishna should carry her brings to a head the question of ,krishna's proper status4 ,to an adoring lover1 the request is not unreasonable4 ,made to ,god1 it implies an excess of pride4 ,despite their impassioned love-making1 therefore1 the girl must be humbled and as she puts out her arms and prepares to mount1 ,krishna vanishes4 ,in the picture1 the great woods overhanging the rolling ,jumna are tilting forward as if to join the girl in her agonized advances while around her rise the bleak and empty slopes1 their eerie loneliness intensified by frigid moonlight4 ,illustration ,,plate #ae ,the ,quest for ,krishna ,illustration to the ,bhagavata ,purana ,kangra1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,j4,k4 ,mody collection1 ,bombay ,by the same 'master of the moonlight' as ,plates #ac and #ad4 ,krishna's favourite1 stunned by his brusque desertion1 has now been met by a party of cowgirls4 ,their plight is similar to her own1 for1 after enjoying his enchanting love1 they also have been deserted when ,krishna left the dance taking his favourite with him4 ,in the picture1 ,radha holds her head in anguish while to the right the cowgirls look at her in mute distress4 ,drooping branches echo their stricken love while a tree in the background1 its branches stretching wanly against the sky1 suggests their plaintive yearning4 ,illustration ,,plate #af ,the ,eve of the final ,encounter ,illustration to the ,bhagavata ,purana ,kangra1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,j4,k4 ,mody collection1 ,bombay ,from the same series as ,plates #c1 #e1 #f1 #h1 #i and #aa1 here attributed to the ,kangra artist ,purkhu4 ,invited by ,kansa1 the tyrant king1 to attend a festival of arms1 ,nanda and the cowherds have arrived at ,mathura and pitched their tents outside the walls4 ,krishna and ,balarama are eating their evening meal by candle-light1 a cowherd1 wearing a dark cloak to keep off the night air1 is attending to the bullocks while three cowherd boys1 worn out by the day's march1 rest on string-beds under the night sky4 ,in the background1 ,krishna and ,balarama1 having finished their meal1 are peacefully sleeping1 serenely indifferent to the struggle which awaits them the next day4 ,the moon waning in the sky parallels the tyrant's declining fortunes4 ,illustration ,,plate #ag ,the ,end of the ,tyrant ,illustration to the ,bhagavata ,purana ,kangra1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,chester ,beatty ,library1 ,dublin ,in the same style as ,plate #af1 but perhaps from a different series4 ,the festival of arms is now in progress but has already taken an unexpected turn4 ,set on by the savage elephant1 ,krishna and ,balarama have killed it and taken out the tusks4 ,they have then engaged two giant wrestlers1 ,krishna killing his opponent outright4 ,in the picture ,balarama is about to kill the other wrestler and ,krishna1 holding an elephant tusk under his arm1 looks at the king with calm defiance4 ,the king's end is now in sight for a little later ,krishna will spring on the platform and hurl him to his death4 ,gathered in the wide arena1 townspeople from ,mathura await the outcome1 while cowherd boys delightedly encourage the two heroes4 ,illustration ,,plate #ah ,the ,rape of ,rukmini ,illustration to the ,bhagavata ,purana ,bilaspur1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agde ,british ,museum4 ,london ,compared with ,krishna's life among the cowherds1 his adventures as a prince were only scantily illustrated in ,indian painting--his consort ,rukmini being totally eclipsed in courtly favour by the adored cowgirl1 ,radha4 ,the present picture--one of the very few to represent the theme--shows ,rukmini and her maids worshipping at the shrine to ,devi1 the earth mother1 on the morning of her wedding4 ,her proposed husband is ,sisupala and already he and his party have arrived to claim her hand4 ,in despair ,rukmini has apprised ,krishna of her fate but does not know that he will intervene4 ,as she worships1 ,krishna suddenly appears1 places her on his chariot and1 in the teeth of ,sisupala's forces1 carries her away4 ,the picture illustrates the dramatic moment when after descending on the shrine1 ,krishna effects her rescue4 ,the picture is in an eighteenth-century style of painting which1 from antecedents in ,kashmir and the ,punjab ,plains1 developed at ,bilaspur4 ,this small ,rajput ,state adjoined ,guler in the ,punjab ,hills and shared in the general revival of painting caused by the diffusion of artists from ,basohli4 ,illustration ,,plate #ai ,krishna welcoming the ,brahman ,sudama ,illustration to the ,sudama episode in the ,bhagavata ,purana ,garhwal1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #aghe ,chester ,beatty ,library1 ,dublin ,sudama is a poor ,brahman whose devotion leads him to go to ,dwarka1 and seek out ,krishna4 ,krishna remembers the time when they had shared the same preceptor and warmly welcomes him to his princely palace4 ,the picture shows ,sudama in rags seated on a stool while ,krishna washes his feet and hails him as a ,brahman4 ,in close attendance are various ladies of the court1 their graceful forms transcribed with sinuous delicacy and suave poetic charm4 ,although an episode in ,krishna's later career as a prince and one designed to buttress the priestly caste of ,brahmans1 the story--with its emphasis on loving devotion--is actually in close accord with ,krishna's life among the cowherds4 ,for this reason1 it probably continued to excite interest long after other aspects of his courtly life had been ignored4 ,in this respect4 ,sudama's visit to ,krishna is as much a parable of divine love as ,krishna's dances with the cowgirls4 ,illustration ,,plate #bj ,the ,beginnings of ,romance ,illustration to the ,gita ,govinda ,garhwal4 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,national ,museum1 ,new ,delhi ,the first poem to celebrate ,radha as ,krishna's supreme love is the ,gita ,govinda of ,jayadeva1 written at the end of the twelfth century4 ,the poem recounts ,radha's anguish at ,krishna's fickleness1 his subsequent repentance and finally their passionate re-union4 ,the present picture with its glamorous interpretation of the forest in spring illustrates the poem's opening verse and re-creates the setting in terms of which the drama will proceed4 ,nanda1 the tall figure towering above the cowherd children1 is commanding ,radha to take ,krishna home4 ,the evening sky is dark with clouds1 the wind has risen and already the flower-studded branches are swaying and bending in the breeze4 ,krishna is still a young boy and ,radha a girl a few years older4 ,as ,radha takes him home1 they loiter by the river1 passion suddenly flares and they fall into each other's arms4 ,in this way1 the verse declares1 the loves of ,radha and ,krishna began4 ,the left-hand side of the picture shows the two lovers embracing--the change in their attitudes being reflected in their altered heights4 ,krishna who originally was shorter than ,radha is now the taller of the two1 the change suggesting the mature character of their passionate relations4 ,the picture with its graceful feminine forms and twining lines has the same quality of rhythmical exaltation as ,plates #ai and #ce1 a quality typical of the ,garwhal master-artist in his greatest phase4 ,illustration ,,plate #ba ,krishna playing on the ,flute ,illustration to the ,gita ,govinda ,kangra1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,n4,c4 ,mehta collection1 ,bombay ,as ,radha wilts in lonely anguish1 a friend describes how ,krishna is behaving4 ',the wife of a certain herdsman sings as ,krishna sounds a tune of love ,krishna here disports himself with charming women given to love4' ,in the picture1 ,radha sits beneath a flowering tree1 conversing with the friend while1 to the right1 ,krishna plays the flute to a circle of adoring girls4 ,the painting is by a ,kangra master1 perhaps ,kushala1 the nephew of the ,guler artist1 ,nainsukh1 and illustrates the power of ,kangra painters to imbue with innocent delicacy the most intensely emotional of situations4 ,it was the investment of passion with dignity which was one of the chief contributions of ,kangra painting to ,indian art4 ,illustration ,,plate #bb ,krishna dancing with the ,cowgirls ,illustration to the ,gita ,govinda ,western ,rajasthan1 c4 #afaj ,n4,c4 ,mehta collection1 ,bombay ,besides describing ,krishna's flute-playing1 ,radha's friend gives her an account of his love-making4 ',an artless woman looks with ardour on ,krishna's lotus face4' ',another on the bank of the ,jumna1 when ,krishna goes to a bamboo thicket1 ,pulls at his garment to draw him back1 so eager is she for amorous play4' ',krishna praises another woman1 lost with him in the dance of love1 ,the dance where the sweet low flute is heard in the clamour of bangles on hands that clap4 ,he embraces one woman1 he kisses another1 and fondles another beautiful one4' ',krishna here disports himself with charming women given to love4' ,the present picture illustrates phases of this glamorous love-making--,krishna embracing one woman1 dancing with another and conversing with a third4 ,the background is a diagram of the forest as it might appear in spring--the slack looseness of treatment befitting the freedom of conduct adumbrated by the verse4 ,the large insects hovering in the branches are the black bees of ,indian love-poetry whose quest for flowers was regarded as symbolic of urgent lovers pestering their mistresses4 ,in style the picture illustrates the ,jain painting of ,western ,india after its early angular rigidity had been softened by application to tender and more romantic themes4 ,illustration ,,plate #bc ,krishna seated with the ,cowgirls ,illustration to the ,gita ,govinda ,jaunpur1 ,eastern ,india1 c4 #aeij ,prince of ,wales ,museum1 ,bombay ,after flute-playing and dancing 7,plates #ba and #bb71 ,krishna sits with the cowgirls4 ',with his limbs1 tender and dark like rows of clumps of blue lotus flowers4 ,by herd girls surrounded1 who embrace at pleasure any part of his body1 ,friend1 in spring1 beautiful ,krishna plays like ,love's own self ,conducting the love sport1 with love for all1 bringing delight into being4' ,and it is here that ,radha finds him4 ',may the smiling captivating ,krishna protect you1 whom ,radha1 blinded by love1 ,violently kissed as she made as if singing a song of welcome saying1 ,your face is nectar1 excellent1 ardently clasping his bosom ,in the presence of the fair-browed herdgirls dazed in the sport of love4' ,the picture shows ,krishna surrounded by a group of cowgirls1 one of whom is caressing his leg4 ,to the right1 ,radha and the friend are approaching through the trees4 ,the style with its sharp curves and luxuriating smartness illustrates a vital development of the ,jain manner in the later sixteenth century4#acj ,footnote #acj3 ,for a first discussion of this important series1 see a contribution by ,karl ,khandalavala1 ',a ,gita ,govinda ,series in the ,prince of ,wales ,museum1' ,bulletin of the ,prince of ,wales ,museum4 ,bombay 7#aief71 ,no4 #d4 ,illustration ,,plate #bd ,the neglected ,radha ,illustration to the ,gita ,govinda ,jaunpur1 ,eastern ,india1 c4 #aeij ,prince of ,wales ,museum1 ,bombay ,following his revels with the cowgirls1 ,krishna is smitten with remorse4 ,he roams the forest1 searching for the lovely ,radha but finding her nowhere4 ,as he pursues his quest1 he encounters the friend and learns of ,radha's dejected state4 ',her body is wholly tormented by the heat of the flame of desire2 ,but only of you1 so loved1 she thinks in her langour1 ,your extinguishing body2 secluded she waits1 all wasted-- ,a short while1 perhaps1 surviving she lives4 ,formerly even a moment when weary she closed her eyes4 ,the moment's parting she could not endure1 from the sight of you2 ,and now in this long separation1 ,o how does she breathe ,having seen the flowery branch of the mango1 the shaft of ,love8' ,in the picture1 ,radha is sitting in the forest1 lonely and neglected4 ,trees surround her1 suggesting by their rank luxuriance the upward surge of spring while cranes1 slowly winging their way in pairs across the blackening sky1 poignantly remind her of her former love4 ,illustration ,,plate #be ,krishna repentant ,illustration to the ,gita ,govinda ,garhwal1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,learning of ,radha's plight1 ,krishna longs to comfort her4 ,before approaching her1 however1 he spends a night passionately dallying with another cowgirl and only in the morning tenders his submission4 ,by this time1 ,radha's mood has turned to bitter anger and although ,krishna begs to be forgiven1 ,radha tells him to return to his latest love4 ',go1 ,krishna1 go4 ,desist from uttering these deceitful words4 ,follow her1 you lotus-eyed1 she who can dispel your trouble1 go to her4' ,in the picture1 ,krishna is striving to calm her ruffled feelings while ,radha1 'cruel to one who loves you1 unbending to one who bows1 angry with one who desires1 averting your face from this your lover1' has none of him4 ,according to the poem1 the scene of this tense encounter is not a palace terrace but the forest--the ,garhwal artist deeming a courtly setting more appropriate for ,radha's exquisite physique4 ,the suavely curving linear rhythm1 characteristic of ,garhwal painting at its best1 is once again the means by which a mood of still adoration is sensitively conveyed4 ,illustration ,,plate #bf ,the last ,tryst ,illustration to the ,gita ,govinda ,basohli4 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agcj ,state ,museum1 ,lahore ,having brusquely dismissed ,krishna1 ,radha is overcome with longing and when he once again approaches her she showers on him her adoring love4 ,the friend urges her to delay no longer4 ',your friends are all aware that you are ready for love's conflict ,go1 your belt aloud with bells1 shameless1 amorous1 to the meeting4' ,radha succumbs to her advice and slowly approaches ,krishna's forest bower4 ,in the picture1 ,krishna is impatiently awaiting her while ,radha1 urged onward by the friend1 pauses for a moment to shed her shyness4 ,the picture is part of an illustrated edition of the poem executed in ,basohli in #agcj for a local princess1 the lady ,manaku4 ,as in other ,basohli paintings1 trees are shown as small and summary symbols1 the horizon is a streak of clouds and there is a deliberate shrinkage from physical refinement4 ,the purpose of the picture is rather to express with the maximum of power the savagery of passion and the stark nature of lovers' encounters4 ,illustration ,,plate #bg ,the closing ,scene ,illustration to the ,gita ,govinda ,basohli1 ,punjab ,hills4 c4 #agcj ,art ,gallery1 ,chandigarh1 ,east ,punjab ,from the same series as ,plate #bf4 ,after agonies of 'love unsatisfied1' ,radha and ,krishna are at last reconciled4 ',she looked on ,krishna who desired only her1 on him who for long wanted dalliance1 ,whose face with his pleasure was overwhelmed and who was possessed with ,desire1 ,who engendered passion with his face made lovely through tremblings of glancing eyes1 ,like a pond in autumn with a pair of wagtails at play in a fullblown lotus4 ,like the gushing of the shower of sweat in the effort of her travel to come to his hearing1 ,radha's eyes let fall a shower of tears when she met her beloved1 ,tears of delight which went to the ends of her eyes and fell on her flawless necklace4 ,when she went near the couch and her friends left the bower1 scratching their faces to hide their smiles1 ,and she looked on the mouth of her loved one1 lovely with longing1 under the power of love1 ,the modest shame of that deer-eyed one departed4' ,in the picture1 ,radha and ,krishna are again united4 ,krishna has drawn ,radha to him and is caressing her cheek while friends of ,radha gossip in the courtyard4 ,as in ,plate #be1 the artist has preferred a house to the forest--the sharp thrust of the angular walls exactly expressing the fierceness of the lovers' desires4 ,illustration ,,plate #bh ,krishna awaiting ,radha ,illustration to the ,rasika ,priya of ,keshav ,das ,bundi 7,rajasthan71 c4 #agjj ,national ,museum1 ,new ,delhi ,following the ,sanskrit practice of discussing poetic taste1 ,keshav ,das produced in #aeib a ,hindi manual of poetics4 ,in this book1 poems on love were analysed with special reference to ,krishna--,krishna himself sustaining the role of nayaka or ideal lover4 ,during the seventeenth century1 illustrated versions of the manual were produced--poems appearing at the top of the picture and the subjects being illustrated beneath4 ,the present picture treats ,radha as the nayika or ideal mistress and shows her about to visit ,krishna1 ,she is1 at first1 seated on a bed but a little later1 is leaning against a pillar as a maid or friend induces her to descend4 ,in the left-hand bottom corner1 ,krishna sits quietly waiting4 ,the bower is hung with garlands and floored with lotus petals while lightning twisting in the sky and torches flickering in the courtyard suggest the storm of love4 ,the figures with their neat line and eager faces are typical of ,bundi painting after it had broken free from the parent style of ,udaipur4 ,illustration ,,plate #bi ,radha and ,krishna making ,love ,illustration to the ,sursagar of ,sur ,das ,udaipur1 ,rajasthan1 c4 #afej ,g4,k4 ,kanoria collection1 ,calcutta ,like ,plate #bh1 an illustration to a ,hindi poem analysing ,krishna's conduct as ideal lover4 ,krishna is here embracing ,radha while outside two of ,radha's friends await the outcome4 ,above them1 two girls are watching peacocks--the strained advances of the birds and the ardent gazes of the girls hinting at the tense encounter proceeding in the room below4 ,the ,udaipur style of painting with its vehement figures1 geometrical compositions and brilliant colouring was admirably suited to interpreting scenes of romantic violence4 ,illustration ,,plate #cj ,the ,lover approaching ,illustration to the ,rasamanjari of ,bhanu ,datta ,basohli1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #afhj ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london 7,i4,s4 #eb-aiec7 ,although the ,rasika ,priya of ,keshav ,das was the manual of poetry most frequently illustrated by ,indian artists1 an earlier ,sanskrit treatise1 the ,rasamanjari of ,bhanu ,datta1 excited a particular raja's interest and resulted in the production at ,basohli of a vividly illustrated text4 ,the original poem discusses the conventions of ordinary lovers4 ,under this ,basohli ruler's stimulus1 however1 the lover was deemed to be ,krishna and although the verses make no allusion to him1 it is ,krishna who monopolizes the illustrations4 ,in the present instance1 ,krishna the lover1 carrying a lotus-bud1 is about to visit his mistress4 ,the lady sits within1 a pair of lotus-leaves protecting her nude bust1 her hair falling in strands across her thighs4 ,a maid explains to ,krishna that her mistress is still at her toilet and chides him for arriving so abruptly4 ,the poem expresses the sentiments which a lover1 denied early access1 might fittingly address to his mistress4 ',longing to behold your path1 my inmost heart--like a lotus-leaf when a new rain-cloud has appeared--mounts to your neck4 ,my eye1 too1 takes wing1 soaring in the guise of a lotus-bird1 to regard the moon of your face4'#aca ,footnote #aca3 ,translation ,r4,h4,b4 ,williams4 ,in the picture1 the lotus imagery is retained but is given a subtle twist--the lotus-leaves themselves1 rather than the lover's inmost heart1 being shown as mounting to the lady's neck4 ,illustration ,,plate #ca ,radha extinguishing the ,lamp ,basohli1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #afij ,bharat ,kala ,bhawan1 ,benares ,although no inscription has so far been published1 it is likely that this picture is an illustration to the ,rasamanjari of ,bhanu ,datta4 ,the lover is once again ,krishna and the girl most probably ,radha4 ,krishna is inviting her to extinguish the lamp so that they may better enjoy the excitements of darkness4 ,with its air of violent frenzy1 the picture is typical of ,basohli painting at the end of the seventeenth century--the girl's wide-flung legs and rushing movements symbolizing the frantic nature of passionate desire4 ,illustration ,,plate #cb ,the ,month of ,asarh 7,june-,july7 ,illustration to a ,barahmasa 7or ,cycle of the ,months7 ,bundi1 ,rajasthan1 c4 #agej ,prince of ,wales ,museum1 ,bombay ,in ,hindi poetry1 lovers were sometimes described against a background of the twelve months--each month suggesting a different kind of mood or behaviour4 ,such poems known as ,barahmasa 7barah1 twelve2 masa1 month7 were sometimes illustrated--a princely lover and his lady being shown seated on a terrace with the sights and scenes appropriate to the month going on around4 ,when this lover was identified with ,krishna1 any aspect of love was regarded as1 in some degree1 expressive of his character4 ,the present picture portrays the beginning of the ,rains4 ,the sky is black with clouds4 ,on a lake lovers dally in a tiny pavilion1 while in the background two princes consult a hermit before leaving on their travels4 ,the rainy season was associated in poetry with love in separation and for this reason a lonely girl is shown walking in a wood4 ,in a garden pavilion ,krishna dallies with ,radha1 the approaching rain augmenting their desire4 ,illustration ,,plate #cc ,radha and ,krishna swinging ,illustration to the musical mode4 ,hindola ,raga 7'the swinging music'7 ,malwa1 ,middle ,india1 c4 #agej ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london ,a poem celebrating one of the main modes of ,indian music is here represented by ,radha and ,krishna seated on a swing4 ,the mode itself is called 'the swinging music' but since swinging was symbolical of love-making and also took place during the rains1 the season of longing1 its spirit was sometimes impersonated not by an ordinary prince but by ,krishna himself4 ,in the picture1 peacocks1 which were common symbols for the lover1 are shown against a storm-tossed sky--the battered clouds and writhing lightning being symbolic references to 'the strife of love4' ,at the foot1 lotus plants1 their flowers symbolizing the male1 their leaves the female1 rise from a rain-filled river4 ,the picture represents one of the more poetic traditions of ,indian painting but at a comparatively late stage of its development4 ,during the sixteenth century the ,malwa style had played a decisive part in the evolution of ,rajput painting1 but by the eighteenth century had shed something of its early ardour4 ,illustration ,,plate #cd ,krishna attended by ,ladies ,illustration to the musical mode1 ,bhairava ,raga ,hyderabad4 ,deccan1 c4 #agej ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london ,like ,plate #cc1 an illustration to a poem accompanying a leading mode of ,indian music4 ,krishna is sitting on a bed while ,radha is rubbing his right arm with sandal preparatory to making love4 ,in the foreground a maid is grinding the sandalwood into a paste4 ,although the poem itself contains no mention of ,krishna1 it speaks of ,bhairava--a form of ,siva--as a raging lover1 'insensate in a whirlwind of desire4' ,on this account ,krishna--identified by his blue skin--has been inserted in the picture1 his character as a lover according with the frenzied character of the poem4 ,in the background a bullock is lifting water from a well and a gardener is bending over a bed of poppies4 ,ducks and fishes sport in the water4 ,illustrations to modes of music were common features of the ,muslim art of the ,deccan--the association of certain modes with ,krishna being carefully preserved4 ,one of the finest series of raga and ragini pictures executed at ,hyderabad and now in the ,india ,office ,library1 ,london1 contains exquisite versions with ,krishna themes4 ,illustration ,,plate #ce ,radha disguised as a ,constable arresting ,krishna as a ,thief ,garhwal1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #aghe ,indian ,museum1 ,calcutta ,tired of ,krishna's attempts to waylay the cowgirls1 ,radha dons a turban1 brandishes a constable's heavy staff and seizes ,krishna by the wrist4 ',i am a policeman of ,raja ,kansa1 come to take you to gaol1' she says4 ,the picture shows the cowgirls standing with their pitchers of curd1 while cowherd boys--,krishna's accomplices--take to their heels4 ,krishna himself stands limply by1 as if uncertain who the constable is4 ,the incident is unrecorded in the ,bhagavata ,purana but appears in later poetry as an instance of ,radha and ,krishna's mutual fun--teasing being an essential part of their love-making4 ,the picture is by the same master artist as ,plate #ai4 ,illustration ,,plate #cf ,krishna meeting ,radha ,illustration to a poem from the ,sat ,sai of ,bihari ,kangra1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #agij ,n4,c4 ,mehta collection4 ,bombay ,an example of ,krishna's meetings with ,radha4 ,appearing as if by accident ,krishna is lolling on his cowherd's stick while ,radha1 encouraged by a friend1 has come to meet him4 ,as she stands1 there ensues that idyllic 'meeting of eyes' which ,indian sentiment regarded as one of the most electrifying experiences in romance4 ,in the picture1 a tree pushes its flowering branches across open rolling slopes1 suggesting by its fresh upsurgence the exquisite emotions stirring in ,radha's and ,krishna's hearts4 ,the picture is most probably by the ,kangra artist1 ,kushala1 to whom ,plate #ba may also be assigned4 ,illustration ,,plate #cg ,radha's ,longing ,guler1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #ahaj ,bharat ,kala ,bhawan1 ,banaras ,in ,indian painting and poetry1 it was women driven to distraction by unappeased longing rather than men hungry with desire who formed the chief subject of romantic art4 ,pictures focussed on woman in all her varied moods and flattered the male mind by portraying her wilting with sadness when deprived of husband or lover4 ,the present picture shows ,radha frenziedly contemplating her lonely state4 ,ornaments grown too hot for wearing--from the passion burning in her heart--are strewn about the bed1 while hands tightly clasped suggest her wild unhappy torment4 ,the vast and barren hills1 empty angular buildings1 tiny guttering candles and lonely flowering tree provide a sympathetic setting4 ,with its sinuous line and innocent delight in feminine form1 the picture is typical of ,guler painting at the start of the nineteenth century4 ,illustration ,,plate #ch ,radha and ,krishna returning in the ,rain ,nahan1 ,punjab ,hills1 c4 #ahbj ,state ,museum1 ,lahore4 ,a scene from ,radha and ,krishna's idyllic life together4 ,caught by a gale of wind and rain1 the lovers are hurrying to shelter1 ,krishna carrying a leaf umbrella while cows and cowherds bend before the storm4 ,in the distance1 small figures wearing hooded cloaks hasten towards the village4 ,although keenly evocative of actual landscapes in the ,punjab ,hills--where palaces were usually set on rocky hill-tops with nearby villages clustering at their feet--the picture's main concern is to illustrate and interpret the lovers' feelings4 ,the black clouds lit by eerie lightning and the trees tossing and swaying in the wind symbolize the passion raging in their hearts and suggest its ultimate outcome4 ,the picture represents a style of painting which is thought to have grown up at ,nahan1 the capital of ,sirmur1 after its neighbour1 ,garhwal1 had been overrun by ,gurkhas in #ahjd4 ,garhwal artists probably sought asylum at the ,sirmur court and there developed a distinctive offshoot of the ,garhwal manner4 ,illustration ,,plate #ci ,the ,triumph of ,radha ,kishangarh1 ,rajasthan1 c4 #aggj ,c4,k4 ,kanoria collection1 ,calcutta ,during the eighteenth century1 ,radha was often regarded as ,krishna's permanent consort and was accorded divine honours--the present picture illustrating her final apotheosis4 ,seated together1 their heads surrounded by haloes1 the two lovers display their courtly charms4 ,krishna has now the mannered luxury of a high-born prince and ,radha1 no longer the simple cowgirl1 is the very embodiment of aristocratic loveliness4 ,as the lovers sit together1 their forms offset by a carpet of lotus petals1 ,krishna attempts to put betel-nut in ,radha's mouth--the gesture subtly indicating their loving intimacy4 ,,sources ,frontispiece4 ,by courtesy of ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london1 and of ,messrs ,faber and ,faber4 #a1 #b4 ,hendley1 ,memorials of the ,jeypore ,exhibition1 ,,iv1 the ,razm ,namah4 #e4 ,by courtesy of ,state ,museum1 ,lucknow and of ,mr4 ,m4,m4 ,nagar4 #f1 #ab1 #bj1 #bh4 ,archeological ,survey of ,india1 ,new ,delhi4 #aj1 #ai1 #cj1 #cc1 #cd4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london4 #ah4 ,stchoukine1 ,la ,peinture ,indienne4 #bb1 #bf1 #ca1 #ch4 ,messrs4 ,a4,c4 ,cooper ,ltd1 ,london4 #bc1 #bd4 ,by courtesy of the ,prince of ,wales ,museum1 ,bombay and of ,dr4 ,moti ,chandra4 #be4 ,journal of ,indian ,art1 ,vol4 ,,xvi1 #aaf4 #bg4 ,by courtesy of ,mr4 ,m4,s4 ,randhawa1 ,i4,c4,s4 #ci4 ,by courtesy of ,mr4 ,gopi ,krishna ,kanoria4 #c1 #d1 #g-i1 #aa1 #ac-ag1 #ba1 #bi1 #cb1 #ce-cg4 ,author's photographs4