,,on                       ,,the        
,,indian ,,sect                         
,,of                         ,,the      
,,jainas                                
,,by         ,,johann ,,georg ,b,,hler  
,c4,i4,e41 ,,lld41 ,,ph4,d4  ,member of 
the ,imperial ,academy of ,sciences1    
,vienna4              ,,translated      
,,from ,,the ,,german4      ,,edited    
with an ,,outline of ,,jaina ,,mythology
                                  ,,by  
,,jas4 ,,burgess1 ,c4,i4,e41 ,,ll4,d41  
,f4,r4,s4,e4                            
#aijc4     ,,preface4         99        
99       99       99       99  ,the late
 ,dr4 ,georg ,bhler's essay ,ueber die  
,indische ,secte der ,jaina1 read at the
 anniversary meeting of the ,imperial   
,academy of ,sciences of ,vienna on the 
#bfth ,may #ahhg1 has been for some time
 out of print in the separate form4 ,its
 value as a succinct account of the     
rvaka sect1 by a scholar conversant with
 them and their religious literature is 
well known to ,european scholars2 but to

 nearly all educated natives of ,india  
works published in ,german and other    
continental languages are practically   
sealed books1 and thus the fresh        
information which they are well able to 
contribute is not elicited4 ,it is hoped
 that the translation of this small work
 may meet with their acceptance and that
 of ,europeans in ,india and elsewhere  
to whom the original is either unknown  
or who do not find a foreign language so
 easy to read as their own4  ,the       
translation has been prepared under my  
supervision1 and with a few short       
footnotes4 ,professor ,bhler's long note
 on the authenticity of the ,jaina      
tradition ,i have transferred to an     
appendix 7p4 #dh7 incorporating with it 
a summary of what he subsequently       
expanded in proof of his thesis4  ,to   
,colebrooke's account of the            
,tirthakaras reverenced by the ,jainas1 
but little has been added since its     
publication in the ninth volume of the  
,asiatic ,researches2 and as these are  

the centre of their worship1 always     
represented in their temples1 and       
surrounded by attendant figures1--,i    
have ventured to add a somewhat fuller  
account of them and a summary of the    
general mythology of the sect1 which may
 be useful to the archaeologist and the 
student of their iconography4           
,edinburgh1 ,april #aijc4  ,j4          
,,burgess4     ,,contents4  ,,the       
,,indian ,,sect ,,of ,,the ,,jainas1 by 
,dr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,b,,hler4                  
,appendix3--,epigraphic testimony to the
 continuity of the ,jaina tradition     
,,sketch ,,of ,,jaina ,,mythology1 by   
,j4 ,,burgess4     ,,the ,,indian ,,sect
 ,,of ,,the ,,jainas4  ,the ,jaina sect 
is a religious society of modern ,india1
 at variance to ,brahmanism1 and        
possesses undoubted claims on the       
interest of all friends of ,indian      
history4 ,this claim is based partly on 
the peculiarities of their doctrines and
 customs1 which present several         
resemblances to those of ,buddhism1 but1

 above all1 on the fact that it was     
founded in the same period as the       
latter4  ,larger and smaller communities
 of ,jainas or ,arhata1--that is        
followers of the prophet1 who is        
generally called simply the ,jina--'the 
conqueror of the world'1--or the        
,arhat--'the holy one'1--are to be found
 in almost every important ,indian town1
 particularly among the merchant class4 
,in some provinces of the ,west and     
,north-west1 in ,gujart1 ,rjputna1 and  
the ,panjb1 as also in the ,dravidian   
districts in the south1--especially in  
,kanara1--they are numerous2 and1 owing 
to the influence of their wealth1 they  
take a prominent place4 ,they do not1   
however1 present a compact mass1 but are
 divided into two rival branches--the   
,digambara and vetmbara ,footnote3 ,in  
notes on the ,jainas1 one often finds   
the view expressed1 that the ,digambaras
 belong only to the south1 and the      
vetmbaras to the north4 ,this is by no  
means the case4 ,the former in the      

,panjb1 in eastern ,rjputna and in the  
,north ,west ,provinces1 are just as    
numerous1 if not more so1 than the      
latter1 and also appear here and there  
in western ,rjputna and ,gujart3 see    
,indian ,antiquary1 vol4 ,,vii1 p4      
#bh4--;each of which is split up into   
several subdivisions4 ,the ,digambara1  
that is1 those whose robe is the        
atmosphere1 owe their name to the       
circumstance that they regard absolute  
nudity as the indispensable sign of     
holiness1 ,footnote3 ,the ascetics of   
lower rank1 now called ,pait1 now-a-days
 wear the costume of the country4 ,the  
,bharaka1 the heads of the sect1 usually
 wrap themselves in a large cloth       
7chadr74 ,they lay it off during meals4 
,a disciple then rings a bell as a sign 
that entrance is forbidden 7,ind4 ,ant4 
loc4 cit474 ,when the present custom    
first arose cannot be ascertained4 ,from
 the description of the ,chinese pilgrim
 ,hiuen ,tsiang 7,st4 ,julien1 ,vie4 p4 
#bbd71 who calls them ,li-hi1 it appears

 that they were still faithful to their 
principles in the beginning of the      
seventh century ,a4,d4 ,the ,li-hi      
7,nirgranthis7 distinguish themselves by
 leaving their bodies naked and pulling 
out their hair4 ,their skin is all      
cracked1 their feet are hard and        
chapped3 like rotting trees that one    
sees near rivers4--though the advance of
 civilization has compelled them to     
depart from the practice of their       
theory4 ,the vetmbara1 that is1 they who
 are clothed in white--do not claim this
 doctrine1 but hold it as possible that 
the holy ones1 who clothe themselves1   
may also attain the highest goal4 ,they 
allow1 however1 that the founder of the 
,jaina religion and his first disciples 
disdained to wear clothes4 ,they are    
divided1 not only by this quarrel1 but  
also by differences about dogmas and by 
a different literature4 ,the separation 
must therefore be of old standing4      
,tradition1 too1 upholds this--though   
the dates given do not coincide4 ,from  

inscriptions it is certain that the     
split occurred before the first century 
of our era4 ,footnote3 ,see below p4    
#dd4 ,their opposing opinions are       
manifested in the fact that they do not 
allow each other the right of           
intermarriage or of eating at the same  
table1--the two chief marks of social   
equality4 ,in spite of the age of the   
schism1 and the enmity that divides the 
two branches1 they are at one as regards
 the arrangement of their communities1  
doctrine1 discipline1 and cult1--at     
least in the more important points2 and1
 thus1 one can always speak of the      
,jaina religion as a whole4  ,the       
characteristic feature of this religion 
is its claim to universality1 which it  
holds in common with ,buddhism1 and in  
opposition to ,brahmanism4 ,it also     
declares its object to be to lead all   
men to salvation1 and to open its       
arms--not only to the noble ,aryan1 but 
also to the low-born dra and even to the
 alien1 deeply despised in ,india1 the  

,mlechcha4 ,footnote3 ,in the           
stereotyped introductions to the sermons
 of ,jina it is always pointed out that 
they are addressed to the ,aryan and    
non-,aryan4 ,thus in the ,aupaptika     
,stra  #ef4 7,leumann7 it runs as       
follows3 tesi savvesi iyamanriyana agile
 dhammat ikkhai to all these1 ,aryans   
and non-,aryans1 he taught the law      
untiringly4 ,in accordance with this    
principle1 conversions of people of low 
caste1 such as gardeners1 dyers1 etc41  
are not uncommon even at the present    
day4 ,muhammadans too1 regarded as      
,mlechcha1 are still received among the 
,jaina communities4 ,some cases of the  
kind were communicated to me in ,amadbd 
in the year #ahgf1 as great triumphs of 
the ,jainas4 ,tales of the conversion of
 the emperor ,akbar1 through the        
patriarch ,hravijaya 7,ind4 ,antiq4     
,vol4 ,,xi1 p4 #bef71 and of the spread 
of the ,digambara sect in an island     
,jainabhadri1 in the ,indian ,ocean     
7,ind4 ,ant4 ,vol4 ,,vii1 p4 #bh7 and in

 ,arabia1 shew that the ,jainas are     
familiar with the idea of the conversion
 of non-,indians4 ,hiuen ,tsiang's note 
on the appearance of the ,nirgrantha or 
,digambara in ,kiapishi 7,beal1         
,si-yu-ki1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ee71 points    
apparently to the fact that they had1 in
 the ,north ,west at least1 spread their
 missionary activity beyond the borders 
of ,india4 ,as their doctrine1 like     
,buddha's1 is originally a philosophical
 ethical system intended for ascetics1  
the disciples1 like the ,buddhists1 are1
 divided into ecclesiastics and laity4  
,at the head stands an order of         
ascetics1 originally ,nirgrantha they1  
who are freed from all bands1 now       
usually called ,yatis--,ascetics1 or    
,sdhus--,holy1 which1 among the vetmbara
 also admits women1 ,footnote3 ,even the
 canonical works of the vetmbara1 as for
 example1 the chrga 7,sacred ,books of  
the ,east1 ,vol4 ,,xxii1 p4 #hh-ahf7    
contain directions for nuns4 ,it seems1 
however1 that they have never played    

such an important part as in ,buddhism4 
,at the present time1 the few female    
orders among the vetmbara consist       
entirely of virgin widows1 whose        
husbands have died in childhood1 before 
the beginning of their life together4   
,it is not necessary to look upon the   
admission of nuns among the vetmbara as 
an imitation of ,buddhist teaching1 as  
women were received into some of the old
 ,brahmanical orders2 see my note to    
,manu1 ,,viii1 #cfc1 7,sac4 ,bks4 of the
 ,east1 ,vol4 ,,xxv1 p4 #cag74 ,among   
the ,digambaras1 exclusion of women was 
demanded from causes not far to seek4   
,they give as their reason for it1 the  
doctrine that women are not capable of  
attaining ,nirva2 see ,peterson1 ,second
 ,report1 in ,jour4 ,bom4 ,br4 ,r4 ,as4 
,soc4 ,vol4 ,,xvii1 p4 #hd4 and under   
them the general community of the       
,upsaka the ,worshippers1 or the rvaka1 
the hearers4  ,the ascetics alone are   
able to penetrate into the truths which 
,jina teaches1 to follow his rules and  

to attain to the highest reward which he
 promises4 ,the laity1 however1 who do  
not dedicate themselves to the search   
after truth1 and cannot renounce the    
life of the world1 still find a refuge  
in ,jainism4 ,it is allowed to them as  
hearers to share its principles1 and to 
undertake duties1 which are a faint copy
 of the demands made on the ascetics4   
,their reward is naturally less4 ,he who
 remains in the world cannot reach the  
highest goal1 but he can still tread the
 way which leads to it4 ,like all       
religions of the ,hinds founded on      
philosophical speculation1 ,jainism sees
 this highest goal in ,nirvna or        
,moksha1 the setting free of the        
individual from the ,sasra1--the        
revolution of birth and death4 ,the     
means of reaching it are to it1 as to   
,buddhism1 the three ,jewels--the right 
,faith1 the right ,knowledge1 and the   
right ,walk4 ,by the right ,faith it    
understands the full surrender of       
himself to the teacher1 the ,jina1 the  

firm conviction that he alone has found 
the way of salvation1 and only with him 
is protection and refuge to be found4   
,ask who ,jina is1 and the ,jaina will  
give exactly the same answer as the     
,buddhist with respect to ,buddha4 ,he  
is originally an erring man1 bound with 
the bonds of the world1 who1--not by the
 help of a teacher1 nor by the          
revelation of the ,vedas--which1 he     
declares1 are corrupt--but by his own   
power1 has attained to omniscience and  
freedom1 and out of pity for suffering  
mankind preaches and declares the way of
 salvation1 which he has found4 ,because
 he has conquered the world and the     
enemies in the human heart1 he is called
 ,jina the ,victor1 ,mahvra1 the great  
hero2 because he possesses the highest  
knowledge1 he is called ,sarvaja or     
,kevalin1 the omniscient1 ,buddha1 the  
enlightened2 because he has freed       
himself from the world he receives the  
names of ,mukta the delivered one1      
,siddha and ,tathgata1 the perfected1   

,arhat the holy one2 and as the         
proclaimer of the doctrine1 he is the   
,trthakara the finder of the ford1      
through the ocean of the ,sasra4 ,in    
these epithets1 applied to the founder  
of their doctrine1 the ,jainas agree    
almost entirely with the ,buddhists1 as 
the likeness of his character to that of
 ,buddha would lead us to expect4 ,they 
prefer1 however1 to use the names ,jina 
and ,arhat1 while the ,buddhists prefer 
to speak of ,buddha as ,tathgata or     
,sugata4 ,the title ,trthakara is       
peculiar to the ,jainas4 ,among the     
,buddhists it is a designation for false
 teachers4 ,footnote3 ,the titles       
,siddha1 ,buddha and ,mukta are         
certainly borrowed by both sects from   
the terminology of the ,brhmas1 which   
they used1 even in olden times1 to      
describe those saved during their       
lifetimes and used in the aivite        
doctrine to describe a consecrated one  
who is on the way to redemption4 ,an    
,arhat1 among the ,brhmas1 is a man     

distinguished for his knowledge and     
pious life 7comp4 for example pastamba1 
,dharmastra4 ,i1 #ac1 #ac2 ,,ii1 #aj1   
,i47 and this idea is so near that of   
the ,buddhists and the ,jainas that it  
may well be looked upon as the          
foundation of the latter4 ,the meaning  
of ,trthakara prophet1 founder of       
religion1 is derived from the ,brhmanic 
use of trtha in the sense of doctrine4  
,comp4 also ,h4 ,jacobi's ,article on   
the ,title of ,buddha and ,jina1 ,sac4  
,books of the ,east4 ,vol4 ,,xxii1 pp4  
xix1 xx4  ,the ,jaina says further1     
however1 that there was more than one   
,jina4 ,four and twenty have1 at long   
intervals1 appeared and have again and  
again restored to their original purity 
the doctrines darkened by evil          
influences4 ,they all spring from noble1
 warlike tribes4 ,only in such1 not     
among the low ,brhmas1 can a ,jina see  
the light of the world4 ,the first ,jina
 ishabha1--more than #ajj billion oceans
 of years ago1--periods of unimaginable 

length1 ,footnote3 ,a ,sgara or         
,sgaropam of years is                   
#ajj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,palya or          
,palyopama4 ,a ,palya is a period in    
which a well1 of one or1 according to   
some1 a hundred yojana1 i4e4 of one or a
 hundred geographical square miles1     
stuffed full of fine hairs1 can be      
emptied1 if one hair is pulled out every
 hundred years3 ,wilson1 ,select4       
,works1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cji2 ,colebrooke1 
,essays1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aid4 ed4       
,cowell4--was born as the son of a king 
of ,ayodhy and lived eight million four 
hundred thousand years4 ,the intervals  
between his successors and the durations
 of their lives became shorter and      
shorter4 ,between the twenty third1     
,prva and the twenty fourth ,vardhamna1 
were only #bej years1 and the age of the
 latter is given as only seventy-two    
years4 ,he appeared1 according to some1 
in the last half of the sixth century1  
according to others in the first half of
 the fifth century ,b4,c4 ,he is of     

course the true1 historical prophet of  
the ,jainas and it is in his doctrine1  
that the ,jainas should believe4 ,the   
dating back of the origin of the ,jaina 
religion again1 agrees with the         
pretensions of the ,buddhists1 who      
recognise twenty-five ,buddhas who      
taught the same system one after the    
other4 ,even with ,brahmanism1 it seems 
to be in some distant manner connected1 
for the latter teaches in its cosmogony1
 the successive appearance of           
,demiurges1 and wise men--the fourteen  
,manus1 who1 at various periods helped  
to complete the work of creation and    
proclaimed the ,brahmanical law4 ,these 
,brahmanical ideas may possibly have    
given rise to the doctrines of the      
twenty-five ,buddhas and twenty-four    
,jinas1 ,footnote3 ,for the list of     
these ,jinas1 see below4 which1         
certainly1 are later additions in both  
systems4  ,the undoubted and absolutely 
correct comprehension of the nine truths
 which the ,jina gives expression to1 or

 of the philosophical system which the  
,jina taught1 represents the second     
,jewel--the true ,knowledge4 ,its       
principal features are shortly as       
follows4 ,footnote3 ,more complete      
representations are to be found in      
,colebrooke's ,misc4 ,essays4 ,vol4 ,i1 
pp4 #djd1 #dac1 with ,cowell's ,appendix
 p4 #ddd-deb2 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aid1     
#aif1 #aih-bja2 ,h4 ,h4 ,wilson's       
,select ,works1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #big-cjb1 
#cje-cag2 ,j4 ,stevenson1 ,kalpastra1   
pp4 xix-xxv2 ,a4 ,barth1 ,religions de  
l',inde1 pp4 #hd-ia4  ,the world 7by    
which we are to understand1 not only the
 visible1 but also imaginary continents 
depicted with the most extravagant      
fancy1 heavens and hells of the         
,brahmanical ,cosmology1 extended by new
 discoveries7 is uncreated4 ,it exists1 
without ruler1 only by the power of its 
elements1 and is everlasting4 ,the      
elements of the world are six           
substances--souls1 ,dharma or moral     
merit1 ,adharma or sin1 space1 time1    

particles of matter4 ,from the union of 
the latter spring four elements--earth1 
fire1 water1 wind--and further1 bodies  
and all other appearances of the world  
of sense and of the supernatural worlds4
 ,the forms of the appearances are      
mostly unchangeable4 ,only the bodies of
 men and their age increase or decrease 
in consequence of the greater or less   
influence of sin or merit1 during       
immeasurably long periods1--the         
,avasarpii and the ,utsarpii4 ,souls    
are1 each by itself1 independent1 real  
existences whose foundation is pure     
intelligence1 and who possess an impulse
 to action4 ,in the world they are      
always chained to bodies4 ,the reason of
 this confinement is that they give     
themselves up to the stress of activity1
 to passions1 to influences of the      
senses and objects of the mind1 or      
attach themselves to a false belief4    
,the deeds which they perform in the    
bodies are ,karman1 merit and sin4 ,this
 drives them--when one body has passed  

away1 according to the conditions of its
 existence--into another1 whose quality 
depends on the character of the ,karman1
 and will be determined especially by   
the last thoughts springing from it     
before death4 ,virtue leads to the      
heavens of the gods or to birth among   
men in pure and noble races4 ,sin       
consigns the souls to the lower regions1
 in the bodies of animals1 in plants1   
even into masses of lifeless matter4    
,for--according to the ,jaina           
doctrine--souls exist not only in       
organic structures1 but also in         
apparently dead masses1 in stones1 in   
lumps of earth1 in drops of water1 in   
fire and in wind4 ,through union with   
bodies the nature of the soul is        
affected4 ,in the mass of matter the    
light of its intelligence is completely 
concealed2 it loses consciousness1 is   
immovable1 and large or small1 according
 to the dimensions of its abode4 ,in    
organic structures it is always         
conscious2 it depends however1 on the   

nature of the same1 whether it is       
movable or immovable and possessed of   
five1 four1 three1 two1 or one organ of 
sense4  ,the bondage of souls1 if they  
inhabit a human body1 can be abolished  
by the suppression of the causes which  
lead to their confinement and by the    
destruction of the ,karman4 ,the        
suppression of the causes is            
accomplished by overcoming the          
inclination to be active and the        
passions1 by the control of the senses1 
and by steadfastly holding to the right 
faith4 ,in this way will be hindered the
 addition of new ,karman1 new merit or  
new guilt4 ,the destruction of ,karman  
remaining from previous existences can  
be brought about either spontaneously by
 the exhaustion of the supply or by     
asceticism4 ,in the latter case the     
final state is the attainment to a      
knowledge which penetrates the universe1
 to ,kevala1 ,jna and ,nirva or ,moksha3
 full deliverance from all bonds4 ,these
 goals may be reached even while the    

soul is still in its body4 ,if however  
the body is destroyed then the soul     
wanders into the ,no-,world 7alka7 as   
the ,jain says1 i4e4 into the heaven of 
,jina 'the delivered'1 lying outside the
 world4 ,footnote3 ,on the ,jaina       
,paradise see below4 ,dr4 ,bhler seems  
here to have confounded the ,alka or    
,non-world1 'the space where only things
 without life are found'1 with the      
heaven of the ,siddhas2 but these are   
living beings who have crossed the      
boundary ,there it continues eternally  
in its pure intellectual nature4 ,its   
condition is that of perfect rest which 
nothing disturbs4 ,these fundamental    
ideas are carried out in the particulars
 with a subtilness and fantasy          
unexampled1 even in subtile and         
fantastic ,india1 in a scholarly style1 
and defended by the sydvda--the doctrine
 of ,it may be so1--a mode of reasoning 
which makes it possible to assert and   
deny the existence of one and the same  
thing4 ,if this be compared with the    

other ,indian systems1 it stands nearer 
the ,brhma than the ,buddhist1 with     
which it has the acceptance in common of
 only four1 not five elements4 ,jainism 
touches all the ,brhma religions and    
,buddhism in its cosmology and ideas of 
periods1 and it agrees entirely with    
regard to the doctrines of ,karman1 of  
the bondage1 and the deliverance of     
souls4 ,atheism1 the view that the world
 was not created1 is common to it with  
,buddhism and the ,skhya philosophy4    
,its psychology approaches that of the  
latter in that both believe in the      
existence of innumerable independent    
souls4 ,but the doctrine of the activity
 of souls and their distribution into   
masses of matter is in accordance with  
the ,vednta1 according to which the     
principle of the soul penetrates every  
thing existing4 ,in the further         
development of the soul doctrine1 the   
conceptions 'individual soul' and       
'living being' to which the ,jaina and  
the ,brhma give the same name1--jva1    

seem to become confounded4 ,the ,jaina  
idea of space and time as real          
substances is also found in the         
,vaieshika system4 ,in placing ,dharma  
and ,adharma among substances ,jainism  
stands alone4  ,the third jewel1 the    
right ,walk which the ,jaina ethics     
contains1 has its kernel in the five    
great oaths which the ,jaina ascetic    
takes on his entrance into the order4   
,he promises1 just as the ,brhma        
penitent1 and almost in the same words1 
not to hurt1 not to speak untruth1 to   
appropriate nothing to himself without  
permission1 to preserve chastity1 and to
 practice self-sacrifice4 ,the contents 
of these simple rules become most       
extraordinarily extended on the part of 
the ,jainas by the insertion of five    
clauses1 in each of which are three     
separate active instruments of sin1 in  
special relation to thoughts1 words1 and
 deeds4 ,thus1 concerning the oath not  
to hurt1 on which the ,jaina lays the   
greatest emphasis3 it includes not only 

the intentional killing or hurting of   
living beings1 plants1 or the souls     
existing in dead matter1 it requires    
also the utmost carefulness in the whole
 manner of life1 in all movements1 a    
watchfulness over all functions of the  
body by which anything living might be  
hurt4 ,footnote3 ,the ,digambara sect1  
at least in southern ,india1 do not seem
 to be all quite so punctiliously       
careful in this as the vetmbara of      
western ,india4--,ed4 ,it demands       
finally strict watch over the heart and 
tongue1 and the avoidance of all        
thoughts and words which might lead to  
dispute and quarrel and thereby to harm4
 ,in like manner the rule of sacrifice  
means not only that the ascetic has no  
house or possessions1 it teaches also   
that a complete unconcern toward        
agreeable and disagreeable impressions  
is necessary1 as also the sacrifice of  
every attachment to anything living or  
dead4 ,footnote3 ,on the five great vows
 see the chrga ,stra1 ,,ii1 #ae3        

,s4,b4,e4 ,vol4 ,,xxii1 pp4 #bjb-baj4   
,the ,sanskrit terms of the ,jains are3 
#a4 ahis1 #b4 snrita1 #c4 asteya1 #d4   
brahmchrya1 #e4 aparigraha2 those of the
 ,brahmanical ascetics3 #a4 ahisa1 #b4  
satya1 #c4 asteya1 #d4 brahmchrya1 #e4  
tyga4  ,beside the conscientious        
observance of these rules1              
,tapas--,asceticism1 is most important  
for the right walk of those1 who strive 
to attain ,nirva4 ,asceticism is inward 
as well as outward4 ,the former is      
concerned with self-discipline1 the     
cleansing and purifying of the mind4 ,it
 embraces repentance of sin1 confession 
of the same to the teacher1 and penance 
done for it1 humility before teachers   
and all virtuous ones1 and the service  
of the same1 the study and teaching of  
the faith or holy writing1 pious        
meditations on the misery of the world1 
the impurity of the body1 etc4 and      
lastly1 the stripping off of every thing
 pertaining to the world4 ,on the other 
hand1 under the head of exterior        

,asceticism1 the ,jaina understands     
temperance1 begging1 giving up all      
savoury food1 different kinds of        
self-mortification such as sitting in   
unnatural and wearying positions1       
hindering the action of the organs1     
especially by fasts1 which1 under       
certain circumstances may be continued  
to starvation4 ,voluntary death by the  
withdrawal of nourishment is1 according 
to the strict doctrine of the           
,digambara1 necessary for all ascetics1 
who have reached the highest step of    
knowledge4 ,the ,kevalin1 they say1 eats
 no longer4 ,the milder vetmbara do not 
demand this absolutely1 but regard it1  
as a sure entrance to ,nirva4 ,in order1
 however1 that this death may bear its  
fruits1 the ascetic must keep closely to
 the directions for it1 otherwise he    
merely lengthens the number of rebirths4
 ,footnote3 ,with reference to          
asceticism1 comp4 ,leumann1 ,aupaptika  
,stra  #cj4 ,the death of the wise ones 
by starvation is described1 ,weber1     

,bhagavat ,stra1 ,,ii1 #bff-bfg2        
,hoernle ,upsakadaa ,stra1 pp4 #dd-fb2  
chrga ,stra1 in ,s4,b4,e4 ,vol4 ,,xxii1 
pp4 #gj-gc4 ,among the ,digambara the   
heads of schools still1 as a rule1 fall 
victims to this fate4 ,even among the   
vetmbara1 cases of this kind occur1 see 
,k4 ,forbes1 ,rs ,ml1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4   
#cca-ccb1 or #bnd ed4 pp4 #faj-faa4     
,from these general rules follow        
numerous special ones1 regarding the    
life of the disciple of ,jina4 ,the duty
 of sacrifice forces him1 on entrance   
into the order1 to give up his          
possessions and wander homeless in      
strange lands1 alms-vessel in hand1 and1
 if no other duty interferes1 never to  
stay longer than one night in the same  
place4 ,the rule of wounding nothing    
means that he must carry three articles 
with him1 a straining cloth1 for his    
drinking water1 a broom1 and a veil     
before his mouth1 in order to avoid     
killing insects4 ,it also commands him  
to avoid all cleansing and washing1 and 

to rest in the four months of the rainy 
season1 in which animal and plant life  
displays itself most abundantly4 ,in    
order to practice asceticism1 it is the 
rule to make this time of rest a period 
of strictest fasts1 most diligent study 
of the holy writings1 and deepest       
meditation4 ,this duty also necessitates
 the ascetic to pluck out in the most   
painful manner his hair which1 according
 to oriental custom1 he must do away    
with at his consecration--a peculiar    
custom of the ,jainas1 which is not     
found among other penitents of ,india4  
,like the five great vows1 most of the  
special directions for the discipline of
 the ,jain ascetic are copies1 and often
 exaggerated copies1 of the ,brhmanic   
rules for penitents4 ,the outward marks 
of the order closely resemble those of  
the ,sannysin4 ,the life of wandering   
during eight months and the rest during 
the rainy season agree exactly2 and in  
many other points1 for example in the   
use of confession1 they agree with the  

,buddhists4 ,they agree with ,brhmas    
alone in ascetic self-torture1 which    
,buddhism rejects2 and specially        
characteristic is the fact that ancient 
,brhmanism recommends starvation to its 
penitents as beneficial4 ,footnote3 ,an 
example may be found in ,jacobi's       
careful comparison of the customs of the
 ,brhmanic and ,jaina ascetics1 in the  
beginning of his translation of the     
chrga ,stra1 ,s4,b4,e41 ,vol4 ,,xxii1   
pp4 xxi--xxix4 ,in relation to the death
 by starvation of ,brahmanical hermits  
and ,sannysin1 see pastamba1            
,dharmastra1 in ,s4,b4,e4 ,vol4 ,,ii1   
pp4 #aed1 #aef1 where 7,,it1 #bb1 #d and
 ,,ii1 #bc1 #b7 it1 says of the         
penitents who have reached the highest  
grade of asceticism3 ,next he shall live
 on water 7then7 on air1 then on ether4 
,the doctrine of the right way for the  
,jaina laity differs from that for the  
ascetics4 ,in place of the five great   
vows appear mere echoes4 ,he vows to    
avoid only serious injury to living     

beings1 i4e4 men and animals2 only the  
grosser forms of untruth--direct lies2  
only the most flagrant forms of taking1 
what is not given1 that is1 theft and   
robbery4 ,in place of the oath of       
chastity there is that of conjugal      
fidelity4 ,in place of that of          
self-denial1 the promise is not greedily
 to accumulate possessions and to be    
contented4 ,to these copies are added   
seven other vows1 the miscellaneous     
contents of which correspond to the     
special directions for the discipline of
 ascetics4 ,their object is1 partly to  
bring the outward life of the laity into
 accordance with the ,jaina teaching1   
especially with regard to the protection
 of living creatures from harm1 and     
partly to point the heart to the highest
 goal4 ,some contain prohibitions       
against certain drinks1 such as spirits2
 or meats1 such as flesh1 fresh butter1 
honey1 which cannot be enjoyed without  
breaking the vow of preservation of     
animal life4 ,others limit the choice of

 businesses which the laity may enter2  
for example1 agriculture is forbidden1  
as it involves the tearing up of the    
ground and the death of many animals1 as
 ,brhmanism also holds4 ,others have to 
do with mercy and charitableness1 with  
the preserving of inward peace1 or with 
the necessity of neither clinging too   
much to life and its joys nor longing   
for death as the end of suffering4 ,to  
the laity1 however1 voluntary starvation
 is also recommended as meritorious4    
,these directions 7as might be expected 
from the likeness of the circumstances7 
resemble in many points the ,buddhist   
directions for the laity1 and indeed are
 often identical with regard to the     
language used4 ,much is however         
specially in accordance with ,brhmanic  
doctrines4 ,footnote3 ,the ,upsakada    
,stra treats of the right life of the   
laity1 ,hoernle1 pp4 #aa-cg 7,bibl4     
,ind471 and ,hemachandra1 ,yogastra1    
,praksa ii and iii2 ,windisch1          
,zeitschrift der ,deutsch ,morg4 ,ges4  

,bd4 ,,xxviii1 pp4 #bbf-bdf4 ,both      
scholars have pointed out in the notes  
to their translations1 the relationship 
between the precepts and terms1 of the  
,jainas and ,buddhists4 ,the ,jainas    
have borrowed a large number of rules   
directly from the law books of the      
,brhmas4 ,the occupations forbidden to  
the ,jaina laity are almost all those   
forbidden by the ,brhmanic law to the   
,brhma1 who in time of need lives like a
 ,vaya4 ,hemachandra1 ,yogastra1 ,,iii1 
#ih--aab and ,upsakada ,stra1 pp4       
#bi-cj1 may be compared with ,manu1 ,x1 
#hc-hi1 ,,xi1 #fd and #fe1 and the      
parallel passages quoted in the synopsis
 to my translation 7,s4,b4,e4 ,vol4     
,,xxv74 ,in practical life ,jainism     
makes of its laity earnest men who      
exhibit a stronger trait of resignation 
than other ,indians and excel in an     
exceptional willingness to sacrifice    
anything for their religion4 ,it makes  
them also fanatics for the protection of
 animal life4 ,wherever they gain       

influence1 there is an end of bloody    
sacrifices and of slaughtering and      
killing the larger animals4  ,the union 
of the laity with the order of ascetics 
has1 naturally1 exercised a powerful    
reaction on the former and its          
development1 as well as on its teaching1
 and is followed by similar results in  
,jainism and ,buddhism4 ,then1 as       
regards the changes in the teaching1 it 
is no doubt to be ascribed to the       
influence of the laity that the         
atheistic ,jaina system1 as well as the 
,buddhist1 has been endowed with a cult4
 ,the ascetic1 in his striving for      
,nirva1 endeavours to suppress the      
natural desire of man to worship higher 
powers4 ,in the worldly hearer1 who does
 not strive after this goal exclusively1
 this could not succeed4 ,since the     
doctrine gave no other support1 the     
religious feeling of the laity clung to 
the founder of it3 ,jina1 and with him  
his mythical predecessors1 became gods4 
,monuments and temples ornamented with  

their statues were built1 especially at 
those places1 where the prophets1       
according to legends1 had reached their 
goal4 ,to this is added a kind of       
worship1 consisting of offerings of     
flowers and incense to ,jina1 of        
adoration by songs of praise in         
celebration of their entrance into      
,nirva1 of which the ,jaina makes a     
great festival by solemn processions and
 pilgrimages to the places where it has 
been attained4 ,footnote3 ,for the      
,jaina ritual1 see ,indian ,antiquary4  
,vol4 ,,xiii1 pp4 #aia-aif4 ,the        
principal sacred places or ,tirthas     
are--,sameta ikhara in ,western ,bengal1
 where twenty of the ,jinas are said to 
have attained ,nirva2 atrujaya and      
,girnr in ,kthiw sacred respectively to 
ishabhantha and ,nemintha2 ,chandrapuri 
where ,vsupjya died2 and ,pw in ,bengal 
at which ,vardhamna died4--,ed4 ,this   
influence of the laity has become1 in   
course of time1 of great importance to  
,indian art1 and ,india is indebted to  

it for a number of its most beautiful   
architectural monuments1 such as the    
splendid temples of bu1 ,girnr and      
atrujaya in ,gujart4 ,it has also       
brought about a change in the mind of   
the ascetics4 ,in many of their hymns in
 honour of ,jina1 they appeal to him    
with as much fervour as the ,brhma to   
his gods2 and there are often           
expressions in them1 contrary1 to the   
original teaching1 ascribing to ,jina a 
creative power4 ,indeed a ,jaina        
description of the six principal systems
 goes so far as to number ,jainism--as  
also ,buddhism--among the theistic      
religions4 ,footnote3 ,the latter       
assertion is to be found ,in the        
,shadaranasamuchchaya ,vers4 #de1       
#gg-gh4 ,a creative activity is         
attributed to the ,jinas even in the    
,kuhon inscription which is dated       
#dfj-dfa ,a4,d4 7,ind4 ,antiq4 ,vol4 ,x1
 p4 #abf74 ,there they are called       
dikartri the 'original creators'4 ,the  
cause of the development of a worship   

among the ,jainas was first rightly     
recognised by ,jacobi1 ,s4,b4,e4 ,vol4  
,,xxii1 p4 xxi4 ,the ,jaina worship     
differs in one important point from that
 of the ,buddhists4 ,it recognised no   
worship of relics4  ,but in other       
respects also the admission of the laity
 has produced decisive changes in the   
life of the clergy4 ,in the education of
 worldly communities1 the ascetic--whose
 rules of indifference toward all and   
every thing1 make him a being           
concentrated entirely upon himself and  
his goal--is united again to humanity   
and its interests4 ,the duty of         
educating the layman and watching over  
his life1 must of necessity change the  
wandering penitents into settled        
monks--who dedicate themselves to the   
care of souls1 missionary activity1 and 
the acquisition of knowledge1 and who   
only now and again fulfil the duty of   
changing their place of residence4 ,the 
needs of the lay communities required   
the continual presence of teachers4     

,even should these desire to change from
 time to time1 it was yet necessary to  
provide a shelter for them4 ,thus the   
,upraya or places of refuge1 the ,jaina 
monasteries came into existence1 which  
exactly correspond to the ,buddhist     
,sanghrma4 ,with the monasteries and the
 fixed residence in them appeared a     
fixed membership of the order1 which1 on
 account of the ,jaina principle of     
unconditional obedience toward the      
teacher1 proved to be much stricter than
 in ,buddhism4 ,on the development of   
the order and the leisure of monastic   
life1 there followed further1 the       
commencement of a literary and          
scientific activity4 ,the oldest        
attempt1 in this respect1 limited itself
 to bringing their doctrine into fixed  
forms4 ,their results were1 besides     
other lost works1 the so-called         
,aga1--the members of the body of the   
law1 which was perhaps originally       
produced in the third century ,b4,c4 ,of
 the ,aga eleven are no doubt preserved 

among the vetmbaras from a late edition 
of the fifth or sixth century ,a4,d4    
,these works are not written in         
,sanskrit1 but in a popular ,prkrit     
dialect3 for the ,jina1 like ,buddha1   
used the language of the people when    
teaching4 ,they contain partly legends  
about the prophet and his activity as a 
teacher1 partly fragments of a doctrine 
or attempts at systematic               
representations of the same4 ,though the
 dialect is different they present1 in  
the form of the tales and in the manner 
of expression1 a wonderful resemblance  
to the sacred writings of the           
,buddhists4 ,footnote3 ,a complete      
review of the ,aga and the canonical    
works which were joined to it later1 is 
to be found in ,a4 ,weber's fundamental 
treatise on the sacred writings of the  
,jainas in the ,indische ,studien1 ,bd4 
,,xvi1 ,,ss4 #baa-dgi and ,bd4 ,,xviii1 
,,ss4 #a-ij4 ,the chrga and the         
,kalpastra are translated by ,h4 ,jacobi
 in the ,s4,b4,e ,vol4 ,,xxii1 and a    

part of the ,upsakadas ,stra by ,r4     
,hoernle in the ,bibl4 ,ind4 ,in the    
estimates of the age of the ,aga ,i     
follow ,h4 ,jacobi1 who has throughly   
discussed the question ,s4,b4,e4 ,vol4  
,,xxii1 pp4 xxxix-xlvii4 ,the           
,digambaras1 on the other hand1 have    
preserved nothing of the ,aga but the   
names4 ,they put in their place later   
systematic works1 also in ,prkrit1 and  
assert1 in vindication of their         
different teaching1 that the canon of   
their rivals is corrupted4 ,in the      
further course of history1 however1 both
 branches of the ,jainas have1 like the 
,buddhists1 in their continual battles  
with the ,brhmas1 found it necessary to 
make themselves acquainted with the     
ancient language of the culture of the  
latter4 ,first the ,digambara and later 
the vetmbara began to use ,sanskrit4    
,they did not rest content with         
explaining their own teaching in        
,sanskrit works3 they turned also to the
 secular sciences of the ,brhmas4 ,they 

have accomplished so much of importance1
 in grammar1 in astronomy1 as well as in
 some branches of letters1 that they    
have won respect even from their        
enemies1 and some of their works are    
still of importance to ,european        
science4 ,in southern ,india1 where they
 worked among the ,draviian tribes1 they
 also advanced the development of these 
languages4 ,the ,kanarese literary      
language and the ,tamil and ,telugu rest
 on the foundations laid by the ,jaina  
monks4 ,this activity led them1 indeed1 
far from their proper goal1 but it      
created for them an important position  
in the history of literature and        
culture4  ,the resemblance between the  
,jainas and the ,buddhists1 which ,i    
have had so often cause to bring        
forward1 suggests the question1 whether 
they are to be regarded as a branch of  
the latter1 or whether they resemble the
 ,buddhists merely because1 as their    
tradition asserts1 ,footnote3 ,the later
 tradition of the ,jainas gives for the 

death of their prophet the dates #ede1  
#ebg and #dfg ,b4,c4 7see ,jacobi1      
,kalpastra introd4 pp4 vii--ix and xxx74
 ,none of the sources in which these    
announcements appear are older than the 
twelfth century ,a4,d4 ,the latest is   
found in ,hemachandra who died in the   
year #aagb ,a4,d4 ,the last is certainly
 false if the assertion1 accepted by    
most authorities1 that ,buddha's death  
falls between the years #dhb and #dgb   
,b4,c4 is correct4 ,for the ,buddhist   
tradition maintains that the last ,jaina
 ,trhakara died during ,buddha's        
lifetime 7see p4 #cd74 they sprang from 
the same period and the same religious  
movement in opposition to ,brhmanism4   
,this question1 was formerly1 and is    
still sometimes1 answered in agreement  
with the first theory1 pointing out the 
undoubted defects in it1 to justify the 
rejection of the ,jaina tradition1 and  
even declaring it to be a late and      
intentional fabrication4 ,in spite of   
this the second explanation is the right

 one1 because the ,buddhists themselves 
confirm the statements of the ,jainas   
about their prophet4 ,old historical    
traditions and inscriptions prove the   
independent existence of the sect of the
 ,jainas even during the first five     
centuries after ,buddha's death1 and    
among the inscriptions are some which   
clear the ,jaina tradition not only from
 the suspicion of fraud but bear        
powerful witness to its honesty4        
,footnote3 ,apart from the ill-supported
 supposition of ,colebrooke1 ,stevenson 
and ,thomas1 according to which ,buddha 
was a disloyal disciple of the founder  
of the ,jainas1 there is the view held  
by ,h4 ,h4 ,wilson1 ,a4 ,weber1 and     
,lassen1 and generally accepted till    
twenty-five years ago1 that the ,jainas 
are an old sect of the ,buddhists4 ,this
 was based1 on the one hand1 upon the   
resemblance of the ,jaina doctrines1    
writings1 and traditions to those of the
 ,buddhists1 on the other1 on the fact  
that the canonical works of the ,jainas 

show a more modern dialect than those of
 the ,buddhists1 and that authentic     
historical proofs of their early        
existence are wanting4 ,i was myself    
formerly persuaded of the correctness of
 this view and even thought ,i          
recognised the ,jainas in the ,buddhist 
school of the ,sammatya4 ,on a more     
particular examination of ,jaina        
literature1 to which ,i was forced on   
account of the collection undertaken for
 the ,english ,government in the        
seventies1 ,i found that the ,jainas had
 changed their name and were always1 in 
more ancient times1 called ,nirgrantha  
or ,nigaha4 ,the observation that the   
,buddhists recognise the ,nigaha and    
relate of their head and founder1 that  
he was a rival of ,buddha's and died at 
,pv where the last ,trthakara is said to
 have attained ,nirva1 caused me to     
accept the view that the ,jainas and the
 ,buddhists sprang from the same        
religious movement4 ,my supposition was 
confirmed by ,jacobi1 who reached the   

like view by another course1            
independently of mine 7see ,zeitschrift 
der ,deutsch ,morg4 ,ges4 ,bd4 ,,xxxv1  
,s4 #ffi4 ,note #a71 pointing out that  
the last ,trthakara in the ,jaina canon 
bears the same name as among the        
,buddhists4 ,since the publication of   
our results in the ,ind4 ,ant4 ,vol4    
,,vii1 p4 #adc and in ,jacobi's         
introduction to his edition of the      
,kalpastra1 which have been further     
verified by ,jacobi with great          
penetration1 views on this question have
 been divided4 ,oldenberg1 ,kern1       
,hoernle1 and others have accepted this 
new view without hesitation1 while ,a   
,weber 7,indische ,studien ,bd4 ,,xvi1  
,s4 #bdj7 and ,barth 7,revue de         
l',histoire des ,religions1 tom4 ,,iii1 
p4 #ij7 keep to their former standpoint4
 ,the latter do not trust the ,jaina    
tradition and believe it probable that  
the statements in the same are          
falsified4 ,there are certainly great   
difficulties in the way of accepting    

such a position especially the          
improbability that the ,buddhists should
 have forgotten the fact of the         
defection of their hated enemy4         
,meanwhile1 this is not absolutely      
impossible as the oldest preserved      
,jaina canon had its first authentic    
edition only in the fifth or sixth      
century of our era1 and as yet the proof
 is wanting that the ,jainas1 in ancient
 times1 possessed a fixed tradition4    
,the belief that ,i am able to insert   
this missing link in the chain of       
argument and the hope of removing the   
doubts of my two honoured friends has   
caused me to attempt a connected        
statement of the whole question although
 this necessitates the repetition of    
much that has already been said1 and is 
in the first part almost entirely a     
recapitulation of the results of        
,jacobi's researches4  ,the oldest      
canonical books of the ,jaina1 apart    
from some mythological additions and    
evident exaggerations1 contain the      

following important notes on the life of
 their last prophet4 ,footnote3 ,the    
statement that ,vardhamna's father was a
 mighty king belongs to the manifest    
exaggerations4 ,this assertion is       
refuted by other statements of the      
,jainas themselves4 ,see ,jacobi1       
,s4,b4,e4 ,vol4 ,,xxii1 pp4 xi-xii4     
,vardhamna was the younger son of       
,siddhrtha a nobleman who belonged to   
the ,kshatriya race1 called in ,sanskrit
 ,jti or ,jta1 in ,prakrit ,nya1 and1   
according to the old custom of the      
,indian warrior caste1 bore the name of 
a ,brhmanic family the ,kyapa4 ,his     
mother1 who was called ,trial1 belonged 
to the family of the governors of       
,videha4 ,siddhrtha's residence was     
,kuapura1 the ,basukund of to-day1 a    
suburb of the wealthy town of ,vail1 the
 modern ,besarh1 in ,videha or ,tirhut4 
,footnote3 ,dr4 ,bhler by a slip had    
here ,magadha oder ,bihr4--,j4 ,b4      
,siddhrtha was son-in-law to the king of
 ,vail4 ,thirty years1 it seems1        

,vardhamna led a worldly life in his    
parents' house4 ,he married1 and his    
wife ,yaod bore him a daughter ,anojj1  
who was married to a noble of the name  
of ,jamli1 and in her turn had a        
daughter4 ,in his thirty-first year his 
parents died4 ,as they were followers of
 ,prva the twenty-third ,jina1 they     
chose1 according to the custom of the   
,jainas1 the death of the wise by       
starvation4 ,immediately after this     
,vardhamna determined to renounce the   
world4 ,he got permission to take this  
step from his elder brother             
,nandivardhana1 and the ruler of his    
land divided his possessions and became 
a homeless ascetic4 ,he wandered more   
than twelve years1 only resting during  
the rainy season1 in the lands of the   
,lha1 in ,vajjabhmi and ,subbhabhmi1 the
 ,rrh of to-day in ,bengal1 and learned 
to bear with equanimity great hardships 
and cruel ill treatment at the hands of 
the inhabitants of those districts4     
,besides these he imposed upon himself  

the severest mortifications2 after the  
first year he discarded clothes and     
devoted himself to the deepest          
meditation4 ,in the thirteenth year of  
this wandering life he believed he had  
attained to the highest knowledge and to
 the dignity of a holy one4 ,he then    
appeared as a prophet1 taught the       
,nirgrantha doctrine1 a modification of 
the religion of ,prva1 and organised the
 order of the ,nirgrantha ascetics4     
,from that time he bore the name of the 
venerable ascetic ,mahvra4 ,his career  
as a teacher lasted not quite thirty    
years1 during which he travelled about1 
as formerly1 all over the country1      
except during the rainy seasons4 ,he won
 for himself numerous followers1 both of
 the clergy and the lay class1 among    
whom1 however1 in the fourteenth year of
 his period of teaching1 a split        
arose--caused by his son-in-law ,jamli4 
,the extent of his sphere of influence  
almost corresponds with that of the     
kingdoms of ,srvast or ,kosala1 ,vidcha1

 ,magadha1 and ,aga1--the modern ,oudh1 
and the provinces of ,tirhut and ,bihr  
in ,western ,bengal4 ,very frequently he
 spent the rainy season in his native   
place ,vail and in ,rjagiha4 ,among his 
contemporaries were1 a rival teacher    
,gosla the son of ,makhali--whom he     
defeated in a dispute1 the ,king of     
,videha--,bhambhasra or ,bibbhisra      
called ,sreika1 and his sons            
,abhayakumra and the parricide ,ajtaatru
 or ,kika1 who protected him or accepted
 his doctrine1 and also the nobles of   
the ,lichchhavi and ,mallaki races4 ,the
 town of ,pp or ,pv1 the modern         
,padraona ,footnote3 ,this is ,general  
,cunningham's identification and a      
probable one4--,ed4 is given as the     
place of his death1 where he dwelt      
during the rainy season of the last year
 of his life1 in the house of the scribe
 of king ,hastipla4 ,immediately after  
his death1 a second split took place in 
his community4 ,footnote3 ,notes on     
,mahvra's life are to be found          

especially in chrga ,stra in ,s4,b4,e4  
,vol4 ,,xxii1 pp4 #hd-hg1 #ahi-bjb2     
,kalpastra1 ibid4 pp4 #bag-bgj4 ,the    
above may be compared with ,jacobi's    
representation1 ibid4 pp4 x-xviii4 where
 most of the identifications of the     
places named are given1 and ,kalpastra  
introd4 p4 ii4 ,we have to thank ,dr4   
,hoernle for the important information  
that ,vardhamna's birthplace ,kuapura is
 still called ,vasukund3 ,upsakada ,stra
 p4 #d4 ,note #c4 ,the information on   
the schisms of the ,jainas is collected 
by ,lemmann in the ,indische ,studien1  
,bd4 ,,xvii1 ,s4 #ie ff4  ,on           
consideration of this information1 it   
immediately strikes one1 that the scene 
of ,vardhamna's activity is laid in the 
same part of ,india as ,buddha laboured 
in1 and that several of the             
personalities which play a part in the  
history of ,buddha also appear in the   
,jaina legend4 ,it is through the       
kingdoms of ,kosala1 ,videha and        
,magadha1 that ,buddha is said to have  

wandered preaching1 and their capitals  
rvast and ,rjagiha are just the places  
named1 where he founded the largest     
communities4 ,it is also told of the    
inhabitants of ,vail that many turned to
 his doctrine4 ,many legends are told of
 his intercourse and friendship with    
,bimbisra or reika1 king of ,videha1    
also of the murder of the latter by his 
son ,ajtaatru1 who1 tortured with       
remorse1 afterwards approached ,buddha2 
mention is also made of his brother     
,abhayakumra1 likewise ,makkhali ,gosla 
is mentioned among ,buddha's opponents  
and rivals4 ,it is thus clear that the  
oldest ,jaina legend makes ,vardhamna a 
fellow countryman and contemporary of   
,buddha1 and search might be suggested  
in the writings of the ,buddhists for   
confirmation of these assumptions4 ,such
 indeed are to be found in no small     
number4  ,even the oldest works of the  
,singalese ,canon1--which date          
apparently from the beginning of the    
second century after ,buddha's death1 or

 the fourth century ,b4,c41 and which at
 any rate had their final edition in the
 third1--frequently mention an opposing 
sect of ascetics1 the ,nigaha1 which the
 northern texts1 written in ,sanskrit1  
recognise among the opponents of        
,buddha1 under the name ,nirgrantha1    
whom an old ,stra ,footnote3 ,the       
,mahparinibba ,sutta1 in ,s4,b4,e4 ,vol4
 ,,xi1 p4 #ajf4 describes as heads of   
companies of disciples and students1    
teachers of students1 well known1       
renowned1 founders of schools of        
doctrine1 esteemed as good men by the   
multitude4 ,their leader is also named2 
he is called in ,pli ,ntaputta1 in      
,sanskrit ,jtiputra1 that is the son of 
,jti or ,nta4 ,the similarity between   
these words and the names of the family 
,jti1 ,jta or ,naya1 to which ,vardhamna
 belonged is apparent4 ,now since in    
older ,buddhist literature1 the title   
'the son of the man of the family ,n4   
,n4' is very often used instead of the  
individual's name1 as for example1 'the 

son of the ,skiya' is put for           
,buddha-,skiyaputta1 so that it is      
difficult not to suppose that ,ntaputta 
or ,jtiputra1 the leader of the ,nigaha 
or ,nirgrantha sect1 is the same person 
as ,vardhamna1 the descendant of the    
,jti family and founder of the          
,nirgrantha or ,jaina sect4 ,if we      
follow up this idea1 and gather together
 the different remarks of the ,buddhists
 about the opponents of ,buddha1 then it
 is apparent that his identity with     
,vardhamna is certain4 ,a number of     
rules of doctrine are ascribed to him1  
which are also found among the ,jainas1 
and some events in his life1 which we   
have already found in the accounts of   
the life of ,vardhamna1 are related4    
,in one place in the oldest part of the 
,singalese canon1 the assertion is put  
into the mouth of ,nigaha ,ntaputta1    
that the ,kiriyvda--the doctrine of     
activity1 separates his system from     
,buddha's teaching4 ,we shall certainly 
recognise in this doctrine1 the rule of 

the ,kiriy1 the activity of souls1 upon 
which ,jainism places so great          
importance4 ,footnote3 ,jacobi1         
,zeitschrift der ,deutsch4 ,morg4 ,ges4 
,bd4 ,,xxxiv1 ,s4 #ahg2 ,ind4 ,antiq4   
,vol4 ,,ix1 p4 #aei4 ,two other rules   
from the doctrine of souls are quoted in
 a later work1 not canonical3 there it  
is stated1 in a collection of false     
doctrines which ,buddha's rivals taught1
 that ,nigaha asserts that cold water   
was living4 ,little drops of water      
contained small souls1 large drops1     
large souls4 ,therefore he forbade his  
followers1 the use of cold water4 ,it is
 not difficult1 in these curious rules  
to recognise the ,jaina dogma1 which    
asserts the existence of souls1 even in 
the mass of lifeless elements of earth1 
water1 fire1 and wind4 ,this also       
proves1 that the ,nigaha admitted the   
classification of souls1 so often       
ridiculed by the ,brhmas1 which         
distinguishes between great and small4  
,this work1 like others1 ascribes to    

,nigaha the assertion1 that the         
so-called three daa--the three          
instruments by which man can cause      
injury to creatures--thought1 word1 and 
body1 are separate active causes of sin4
 ,the ,jaina doctrine agrees also in    
this case1 which always specially       
represents the three and prescribes for 
each a special control4 ,footnote3      
,jacobi1 ,ind4 ,antiq4 ,vol4 ,,ix1 p4   
#aei4  ,besides these rules1 which      
perfectly agree with one another1 there 
are still two doctrines of the ,nigaha  
to be referred to which seem to1 or     
really do1 contradict the ,jainas2      
namely1 it is stated that ,ntaputta     
demanded from his disciples the taking  
of four1 not as in ,vardhamna's case1 of
 five great vows4 ,although this        
difficulty may seem very important at   
first glance1 it is1 however1 set aside 
by an oft repeated assertion in the     
,jaina works4 ,they repeatedly say that 
,prva1 the twenty-third ,jina only      
recognised four vows1 and ,vardhamna    

added the fifth4 ,the ,buddhists have   
therefore handed down a dogma which     
,jainism recognises4 ,the question is   
merely whether they or the ,jainas are  
the more to be trusted4 ,if the latter1 
and it is accepted that ,vardhamna was  
merely the reformer of an old religion1 
then the ,buddhists must be taxed with  
an easily possible confusion between the
 earlier and later teachers4 ,if1 on the
 other hand1 the ,jaina accounts of     
their twenty-third prophet are regarded 
as mythical1 and ,vardhamna is looked   
upon as the true founder of the         
sect1--then the doctrine of the four    
vows must be ascribed to the latter1 and
 we must accept as a fact that he had   
changed his views on this point4 ,in any
 case1 however1 the ,buddhist statement 
speaks for1 rather than against1 the    
identity of ,nigaha with ,jina4         
,footnote3 ,jacobi1 loc4 cit44 p4 #afj1 
and ,leumann1 ,actes du ,vlime ,congrs  
,int4 des ,or4 ,sect4 ,ary4 p4 #eje4 ,as
 the ,jaina accounts of the teaching of 

,prva and the existence of communities  
of his disciples1 sound trustworthy1 we 
may perhaps accept1 with ,jacobi1 that  
they rest on a historical foundation4   
,vardhamna's system1 on the other hand1 
is quite irreconcilable with ,ntaputta's
 assertion that virtue as well as sin1  
happiness as well as unhappiness is     
unalterably fixed for men by fate1 and  
nothing in their destiny can be altered 
by the carrying out of the holy law4 ,it
 is1 however1 just as irreconcilable    
with the other ,buddhist accounts of the
 teaching of their opponent2 because it 
is absolutely unimaginable1 that the    
same man1 who lays vows upon his        
followers1 the object of which is to    
avoid sin1 could nevertheless make      
virtue and sin purely dependent upon the
 disposition of fate1 and preach the    
uselessness of carrying out the law4    
,the accusation that ,ntaputta embraced 
fatalism must therefore be regarded as  
an invention and an outcome of sect     
hatred as well as of the wish to throw  

discredit on their opponents4 ,footnote3
 ,jacobi loc4 cit44 p4 #aei-afj4  ,the  
,buddhist remarks on the personality and
 life of ,ntaputta are still more       
remarkable4 ,they say repeatedly that he
 laid claim to the dignity of an ,arhat 
and to omniscience which the ,jainas    
also claim for their prophet1 whom they 
prefer simply to call 'the ,arhat' and  
who possesses the universe-embracing    
',kevala' knowledge4 ,footnote3 ,see for
 example the account in the             
,chullavagga1 in ,s4,b4,e4 ,vol4 ,,xx4  
p4 #gh-gi2 ,ind4 ,antiq4 ,vol4 ,,viii1  
p4 #cac4 ,a history of conversions1     
tells us further that ,ntaputta and his 
disciples disdained to cover their      
bodies2 we are told just the same of    
,vardhamna4 ,footnote3 ,spence ,hardy1  
,manual of ,budhism1 p4 #bbe4 ,a story  
in the oldest part of the ,singalese    
canon gives an interesting and important
 instance of his activity in teaching4  
,buddha1 so the legend runs1 once came  
to the town ,vail1 the seat of the      

,kshatriya of the ,lichchhavi race4 ,his
 name1 his law1 his community were      
highly praised by the nobles of the     
,lichchhavi in the senate-house4 ,sha1  
their general1 who was a follower of the
 ,nigaha1 became anxious to know the    
great teacher4 ,he went to his master   
,ntaputta1 who happened to be staying in
 ,vail just then1 and asked permission  
to pay the visit4 ,twice ,ntaputta      
refused him4 ,then ,sha determined to   
disobey him4 ,he sought ,buddha out1    
heard his teaching and was converted by 
him4 ,in order to show his attachment to
 his new teacher he invited ,buddha and 
his disciples to eat with him4 ,on the  
acceptance of the invitation1 ,sha      
commanded his servants to provide flesh 
in honour of the occasion4 ,this fact   
came to the ears of the followers of the
 ,nigaha4 ,glad to have found an        
occasion to damage ,buddha1 they hurried
 in great numbers through the town1     
crying out1 that ,sha had caused a great
 ox to be killed for ,buddha's          

entertainment2 that ,buddha had eaten of
 the flesh of the animal although he    
knew it had been killed on his account1 
and was1 therefore guilty of the death  
of the animal4 ,the accusation was      
brought to ,siha's notice and was       
declared by him to be a calumny4        
,buddha1 however preached a sermon after
 the meal1 in which he forbade his      
disciples to partake of the flesh of    
such animals as had been killed on their
 account4 ,the legend also corroborates 
the account in the ,jaina works1        
according to which ,vardhamna often     
resided in ,vail and had a strong       
following in that town4 ,it is probably 
related to show that his sect was       
stricter1 as regards the eating of      
flesh1 than the ,buddhists1 a point1    
which again agrees with the statutes of 
the ,jainas4 ,footnote3 ,s4,b4,e4 ,vol4 
,,xvii1 pp4 #ajh-aag4  ,the account of  
,ntaputta's death is still more         
important4 ,thus ,i heard it1 says an   
old book of the ,singalese canon1 the   

,smagma ,sutta1 once the ,venerable one 
lived in ,smagma in the land of the     
,skya4 ,at that time1 however1 certainly
 the ,nigaha ,ntaputta had died in ,pv4 
,after his death the ,nigaha wandered   
about disunited1 separate1 quarrelling1 
fighting1 wounding each other with      
words4 ,footnote3 ,the passage is given 
in the original by ,oldenberg1 ,leitsch4
 der ,d4 ,morg4 ,ges4 ,bd4 ,,xxxiv1 ,s4 
#gdi4 ,its significance in connection   
with the ,jaina tradition as to their   
schisms has been overlooked until now4  
,it has also been unnoticed that the    
assertion1 that ,vardhamna died during  
,buddha's lifetime1 proves that the     
latest account of this occurrence given 
by traditions #dfg ,b4,c4 is false3     
,later ,buddhist legends 7,spence       
,hardy1 ,manual of ,budhism1 pp4        
#bff-bga7 treat of ,ntaputta's death in 
more detail4 ,in a lengthy account they 
give as the cause of the same the       
apostacy of one of his disciples1 ,upli 
who was converted by ,buddha4 ,after    

going over to ,buddhism1 ,upli treated  
his former master with scorn1 and       
presumed to relate a parable which      
should prove the foolishness of those   
who believed in false doctrines4        
,thereupon the ,nigaha fell into        
despair4 ,he declared his alms-vessel   
was broken1 his existence destroyed1    
went to ,pva1 and died there4 ,naturally
 no importance is to be given to this   
account and its details4 ,they are      
apparently the outcome of sect-hatred4  
,here we have complete confirmation of  
the statement of the ,jaina canon as to 
the place where ,vardhamna entered      
,nirva1 as well as of the statement that
 a schism occurred immediately after his
 death4  ,the harmony between the       
,buddhist and ,jaina tradition1 as to   
the person of the head of the           
,nirgrantha is meanwhile imperfect4 ,it 
is disturbed by the description of      
,ntaputta as a member of the ,brhmanic  
sect of the gniveyyana1 whilst          
,vardhamna belonged to the ,kyapa4 ,the 

point is however so insignificant1 that 
an error on the part of the ,buddhists  
is easily possible4 ,footnote3          
,according to ,jacobi's supposition1    
,s4,b4,e4 ,vol4 ,,xxii1 p4 xvi1 the     
error was caused1 by the only disciple  
of ,vardhamna1 who outlived his master1 
,sudharman being an gniveyyana4 ,it is  
quite to be understood that perfect     
exactness is not to be expected among   
the ,buddhists or any other sect in     
describing the person of a hated enemy4 
,enmity and scorn1 always present1      
forbid that4 ,the most that one can     
expect is that the majority and most    
important of the facts given may agree4 
,this condition is undoubtedly fulfilled
 in the case on hand4 ,it cannot1       
therefore be denied1 that1 in spite of  
this difference1 in spite also of the   
absurdity of one article of the creed   
ascribed to him1 ,vardhamna ,jtiputra1  
the founder of the ,nirgrantha--or      
,jaina community is none other than     
,buddha's rival4 ,from ,buddhist        

accounts in their canonical works as    
well as in other books1 it may be seen  
that this rival was a dangerous and     
influential one1 and that even in       
,buddha's time his teaching had spread  
considerably4 ,their legends about      
conversions from other sects very often 
make mention of ,nirgrantha sectarians1 
whom ,buddha's teaching or that of his  
disciples had alienated from their      
faith4 ,also they say in their          
descriptions of other rivals of ,buddha1
 that these1 in order to gain esteem1   
copied the ,nirgrantha and went         
unclothed1 or that they were looked upon
 by the people as ,nirgrantha holy ones1
 because they happened to have lost     
their clothes4 ,such expressions would  
be inexplicable if ,vardhamna's         
community had not become of great       
importance4 ,footnote3 ,see for the     
history of ,sha related above1 ,spence  
,hardy1 ,manual of ,budhism1 pp4 #bbf1  
#bff1 and ,jacobi1 ,ind4 ,antiq4 ,vol4  
,,viii1 p4 #afa  ,this agrees with      

several remarks in the ,buddhist        
chronicles1 which assert the existence  
of the ,jainas in different districts of
 ,india during the first century after  
,buddha's death4 ,in the memoirs of the 
,chinese ,buddhist and pilgrim ,hiuen   
,tsiang1 who visited ,india in the      
beginning of the seventh century of our 
era1 is to be found an extract from the 
ancient annals of ,magadha1 which proves
 the existence of the ,nirgrantha or    
,jainas in their original home from a   
very early time4 ,footnote3 ,beal1      
,si-yu-ki4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #afh4 ,this   
extract relates to the building of the  
great monastry at ,nland1 the high      
school of ,buddhism in eastern ,india1  
which was founded shortly after         
,buddha's ,nirva1 and mentions          
incidentally that a ,nirgrantha who was 
a great astrologer and prophet had      
prophesied the future success of the new
 building4 ,at almost as early a period 
the ,mahvansa1 composed in the fifth    
century ,a4,d41 fixes the appearance of 

the ,nirgrantha in the island of        
,ceylon4 ,it is said that the king      
,paukbhaya1 who ruled in the beginning  
of the second century after ,buddha1    
from #cfg-cjg ,b4,c4 built a temple and 
a monastery for two ,nirgranthas4 ,the  
monastery is again mentioned in the same
 work in the account of the reign of a  
later king ,vagmini1 cir4 #ch-aj ,b4,c4 
,it is related that ,vagmini being      
offended by the inhabitants1 caused it  
to be destroyed after it had existed    
during the reigns of twenty one kings1  
and erected a ,buddhist ,saghrma in its 
place4 ,the latter piece of information 
is found also in the ,dpavansa of more  
than a century earlier4 ,footnote3      
,turnour1 ,mahvasa1 pp4 #ff-fg and p4   
#bjc1 #bjf3 ,dpavansa ,,xix #ad2 comp4  
also ,kern1 ,buddhismus1 ,bd4 ,i1 ,s4   
#dbb4 ,in the first passage in the      
,mahva sa1 three ,nighaas are introduced
 by name1 ,jotiya1 ,giri1 and ,kumbhaa4 
,the translation incorrectly makes the  
first a ,brhma and chief engineer4      

,none of these works can indeed be      
looked upon as a truly historical       
source4 ,there are1 even in those       
paragraphs which treat of the oldest    
history after ,buddha's death1 proofs   
enough that they simply hand down a     
faulty historical tradition4 ,in spite  
of this1 their statements on the        
,nirgrantha1 cannot be denied a certain 
weight1 because they are closely        
connected on the one side with the      
,buddhist canon1 and on the other they  
agree with the indisputable sources of  
history1 which relate to a slightly     
later period4  ,the first authentic     
information on ,vardhamna's sect is     
given by our oldest inscriptions1 the   
religious edicts of the ,maurya king    
,aoka1 who1 according to tradition was  
anointed in the year #bai after         
,buddha's death1 and--as the reference  
to his ,grecian contemporaries1         
,antiochos1 ,magas1 ,alexander1         
,ptolemaeus and ,antigonas              
confirms1--ruled1 during the second half

 of the third century ,b4,c4 over the   
whole of ,india with the exception of   
the ,dekhan4 ,this prince interested    
himself not only in ,buddhism1 which he 
professed in his later years1 but he    
took care1 in a fatherly way1 as he     
repeatedly relates1 of all other        
religious sects in his vast kingdom4 ,in
 the fourteenth year of his reign1 he   
appointed officials1 called             
law-superintendents1 whose duty it was  
to watch over the life of the different 
communities1 to settle their quarrels1  
to control the distribution of their    
legacies and pious gifts4 ,he says of   
them in the second part of the seventh  
'pillar' edict1 which he issued in the  
twenty-ninth year of his reign1 ,my     
superintendents are occupied with       
various charitable matters1 they are    
also engaged with all sects of ascetics 
and householders2 ,i have so arranged   
that they will also be occupied with the
 affairs of the ,sagha2 likewise ,i have
 arranged that they will be occupied    

with the jvika ,brhmas2 ,i have arranged
 it that they will also be occupied with
 the ,nigaha4 ,footnote3 ,see ,senart1  
,inscriptions de ,piyadasi1 tom4 ,,ii1  
p4 #hb4 ,ed4 ,,viii1 l4 #d4 ,my         
translation differs from ,senart's in   
some points especially in relation to   
the construction4 ,conf4 ,epigraphia    
,indiea1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bgb;f4 ,the    
word ,sagha serves here as usual for the
 ,buddhist monks4 ,the jvikas1 whose    
name completely disappears later1 are   
often named in the sacred writings of   
the ,buddhists and the ,jainas as an    
influential sect4 ,they enjoyed the     
special favour of ,aoka1 who1 as other  
inscriptions testify1 caused several    
caves at ,barbar to be made into        
dwellings for their ascetics4 ,footnote3
 ,see ,ind4 ,antiquary1 vol4 ,,xx1 pp4  
#cfa ff4 ,as in the still older writings
 of the ,buddhist canon1 the name       
,nigaha here can refer only to the      
followers of ,vardhamna4 ,as they are   
here1 along with the other two          

favourites1 counted worthy of special   
mention1 we may certainly conclude that 
they were of no small importance at the 
time4 ,had they been without influence  
and of small numbers ,aoka would hardly 
have known of them1 or at least would   
not have singled them out from the other
 numerous nameless sects of which he    
often speaks4 ,it may also be supposed  
that they were specially numerous in    
their old home1 as ,aoka's capital      
,paliputra lay in this land4 ,whether   
they spread far over these boundaries1  
cannot be ascertained4  ,on the other   
hand we possess two documents from the  
middle of the next century which prove  
that they advanced into south-eastern   
,india as far as ,kaliga4 ,these are the
 inscriptions at ,khaagiri in ,orissa1  
of the great ,king ,khravela and his    
first wife1 who governed the east coast 
of ,india from the year #aeb to #afe of 
the ,maurya era that is1 in the first   
half of second century ,b4,c4  ,the     
larger inscription1 unfortunately very  

much disfigured1 contains an account of 
the life of ,khravela from his childhood
 till the thirteenth year of his reign4 
,it begins with an appeal to the ,arhat 
and ,siddha1 which corresponds to the   
beginning of the five-fold form of      
homage still used among the ,jainas1 and
 mentions the building of temples in    
honour of the ,arhat as well as an image
 of the first ,jina1 which was taken    
away by a hostile king4 ,the second and 
smaller inscription asserts that        
,khravela's wife caused a cave to be    
prepared for the ascetics of ,kalinga1  
who believed on the ,arhat4 ,footnote3  
,the meaning of these inscriptions1     
which were formerly believed to be      
,buddhist1 was first made clear by ,dr4 
,bhangvnll's ,indrji's careful          
discussion in the ,actes du ,vlime      
,congrs ,internat4 des ,orientalistes   
,sect4 ,ary4 pp4 #ace-aei4 ,h2 first    
recognised the true names of the ,king  
,khravela and his predecessors and      
shewed that ,khravela and his wife were 

patrons of the ,jainas4 ,we have to     
thank him for the information that the  
inscription contains a date in the      
,maurya ,era4 ,i have thoroughly        
discussed his excellent article in the  
,oesterreichischen ,monatsschrift1 ,bd4 
,x1 ,s4 #bca ff4 and have there given my
 reasons for differing from him on an   
important point1 namely1 the date of the
 beginning of the ,maurya ,era1 which1  
according to his view begins with the   
conquest of ,kaliga by ,aoka about #bee 
,b4 ,c4 ,even yet ,i find it impossible 
to accept that the expression1 in the   
hundred and sixty fifth year of the era 
of the ,maurya ,kings1 can mean anything
 else than that #afd years have passed  
between the thirteenth year of the rule 
of ,khravela and the anointing of the   
first ,maurya ,king ,chandrugupta4      
,unfortunately it is impossible to fix  
the year of the latter occurrence1 or to
 say more than that it took place       
between the years #cbb and #cab ,b4,c4  
,the date given in ,khravela's          

inscription cannot therefore be more    
closely fixed than that it lies between 
#aef and #adg ,b4,c4 ,i now add to my   
former remarks--that appeals to the     
,arhat and ,siddha appear also in ,jaina
 inscriptions from ,mathur and may be   
taken as a certain mark of the sect4    
,thus it is worthy of note that even in 
,hiuen ,tsiang's time1 7,beal1          
,si-yu-ki1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bje7 ,kalinga
 was one of the chief seats of the      
,jainas4  ,from a somewhat later period1
 as the characters show1 from the first 
century ,b4,c4 comes a dedicatory       
inscription which has been found far to 
the west of the original home of the    
,jainas1 in ,mathur on the ,jamn4 ,it   
tells of the erection of a small temple 
in honour of the ,arhat ,vardhamna1 also
 of the dedication of seats for the     
teachers1 a cistern1 and a stone table4 
,the little temple1 it says1 stood      
beside the temple of the guild of       
tradesmen1 and this remark proves1 that 
,mathur1 which1 according to the        

tradition of the ,jainas1 was one of the
 chief scats of their religion1         
possessed a community of ,jainas even   
before the time of this inscription4    
,footnote3 ,this inscription also was   
first made known by ,dr ,bhagwanlal     
,indiaji1 loc4 cit4 p4 #adc4  ,a large  
member of dedicatory inscriptions have  
come to light1 which are dated from the 
year #e to #ih of the era of the        
,indo-,skythian kings1 ,kanishka1       
,huvishka1 and ,vsudeva 7,bazodeo7 and  
therefore belong at latest to the end of
 the first and to the second century    
,a4,d4 ,they are all on the pedestals of
 statues1 which are recognisable partly 
by the special mention of the names of  
,vardhamna and the ,arhat ,mahvra1      
partly by absolute nudity and other     
marks4 ,they show1 that the ,jaina      
community continued to flourish in      
,mathur and give besides extraordinarily
 important information1 as ,i found in a
 renewed research into the ancient      
history of the sect4 ,in a number of    

them1 the dedicators of the statues give
 not only their own names1 but also     
those of the religious teachers to whose
 communities they belonged4 ,further1   
they give these teachers their official 
titles1 still used among the ,jainas3   
vchaka1 'teacher'1 and gain1 'head of a 
school'4 ,lastly they specify the names 
of the schools to which the teachers    
belonged1 and those of their            
subdivisions4 ,the schools are called1  
gaa1 'companies'2 the subdivisions1     
kula1 'families' and kh1 'branches'4    
,exactly the same division into gaa1 kh1
 and kula is found in a list in one of  
the canonical works1 of the vetmbaras1  
the ,kalpastra1 which gives the number  
of the patriarchs and of the schools    
founded by them1 and it is of the       
highest importance1 that1 in spite of   
mutilation and faulty reproduction of   
the inscriptions1 nine of the names1    
which appear in the ,kalpastra are      
recognisable in them1 of which part     
agree exactly1 part1 through the fault  

of the stone-mason or wrong reading by  
the copyist1 are somewhat defaced4      
,according to the ,kalpastra1 ,sushita1 
the ninth successor to ,vardhamna ,in   
the position of patriarch1 together with
 his companion ,supratibuddha1 founded  
the ',koiya' or ',kautika gaa1 which    
split up into four 'skh1 and four       
'kula'4 ,inscription ,no4 #d4 which is  
dated in the year #i of the king        
,kanishka or #hg4 ,a4,d4 787 gives us a 
somewhat ancient form of the name of the
 gaa ,koiya and that of one of its      
branches exactly corresponding to the   
,vairi kh4 ,mutilated or wrongly        
written1 the first word occurs also in  
inscriptions ,nos4 #b1 #f and #i as     
koto-1 keiya1 and ka 4441 the second in 
,no4 #f as ,vor4 ,one of the families of
 this gaa1 the ,viya kula is mentioned  
in ,no4 #f1 and perhaps in ,no4 #d4 ,the
 name of a second1 the ,pranavhaaka1    
seems to have appeared in ,no4 #ai4 ,the
 last inscription mentions also another 
branch of the ,koiya gaa1 the ,majhim   

skh1 which1 according to the ,kalpastra1
 was founded by ,priyagantha the second 
disciple of ,susthita4 ,two still older 
schools which1 according to tradition1  
sprang from the fourth disciple of the  
eighth patriarch1 along with some of    
their divisions appear in inscriptions  
,nos4 #bj and #aj4 ,these are the       
,aryya-,udehikya gaa1 called the school 
of the rya-,rohaa in the ,kalpastra1 to 
which belonged the ,parihsaka kula and  
the ,prnaptrik kh1 as also the ,chara   
gaa with the ,prtidharmika kula4 ,each  
of these names is1 however1 somewhat    
mutilated by one or more errata in      
writing4 ,footnote3 ,dr4 ,bhler's long  
note 7p4 #dh7 on these inscriptions was 
afterwards expanded in the ,wiener      
,zeitschrift fur die ,kunde des         
,morgenlandes ,bd4 ,i1 ,s4 #afe-ahj2    
,bd4 ,,ii1 ,s4 #ada-adf4 ,bd4 ,,iii1 ,s4
 #bcc-bdj2 and ,bd4 ,,iv1 ,s4 #afi-agc4 
,the argument of these papers is        
summarised in4 ,appendix4 ,a1 pp4 #dh   
ff4--,ed4 ,the statements in the        

inscriptions about the teachers and     
their schools are of no small importance
 in themselves for the history of the   
,jainas4 ,if1 at the end of the first   
century ,a4,d4787 many separate schools 
of ,jaina ascetics existed1 a great age 
and lively activity1 as well as great   
care as regards the traditions of the   
sect1 may be inferred4 ,the agreement of
 the inscriptions with the ,kalpastra   
leads still further however3 it proves  
on the one side that the ,jainas of     
,mathur were vetmbara1 and that the     
schism1 which split the sect into two   
rival branches occurred long before the 
beginning of our era4 ,on the other hand
 it proves that the tradition of the    
,svetmbara really contains ancient      
historic elements1 and by no means      
deserves to be looked upon with         
distrust4 ,it is quite probable that1   
like all traditions1 it is not          
altogether free from error4 ,but it can 
no longer be declared to be the result  
of a later intentional                  

misrepresentation1 made in order to     
conceal the dependence of ,jainism on   
,buddhism4 ,it is no longer possible to 
dispute its authenticity with regard to 
those points which are confirmed by     
independent statements of other sects1  
and to assert1 for example1 that the    
,jaina account of the life of           
,vardhamna1 which agrees with the       
statements of the ,buddists1 proves     
nothing as regards the age of ,jainism  
because in the late fixing of the canon 
of the vetmbaras in the sixth century   
after ,christ it may have been drawn    
from ,buddhist works4 ,such an assertion
 which1 under all circumstances1 is a   
bold one1 becomes entirely untenable    
when it is found that the tradition in  
question states correctly facts which   
lie not quite three centuries distant   
from ,vardhamna's time1 and that the    
sect1 long before the first century of  
our era kept strict account of their    
internal affairs4 ,footnote3 ,see       
,weber's and ,barth's opinions quoted   

above in note ,i1 p4 #bc4               
,unfortunately the testimony to the     
ancient history of the ,jainas1 so far  
as made known by means of inscriptions1 
terminates here4 ,interesting as it     
would be to follow the traces of their  
communities in the later inscriptions1  
which become so numerous from the fifth 
century ,a4,d4 onwards and in the       
description of his travels by ,hiuen    
,tsiang1 who found them spread through  
the whole of ,india and even beyond its 
boundaries1 it would be apart from our  
purpose4 ,the documents quoted suffice1 
however1 to confirm the assertion that  
during the first five centuries after   
,buddha's death both the statements of  
,buddhist tradition and real historical 
sources give evidence to the existence  
of the ,jainas as an important religious
 community independent of ,buddhism1 and
 that there are among the historical    
sources some which entirely clear away  
the suspicion that the tradition of the 
,jainas themselves is intentionally     

falsified4  ,the advantage gained for   
,indian history from the conclusion that
 ,jainism and ,buddhism are two         
contemporary sects--having arisen in the
 same district1--is no small one4       
,first1 this conclusion shows that the  
religious movement of the sixth and     
fifth centuries ,b4,c4 in eastern ,india
 must have been a profound one4 ,if not 
only one1 but certainly two1 and perhaps
 more reformers1 appeared at the same   
time1 preaching teachers1 who opposed   
the existing circumstances in the same  
manner1 and each of whom gained no small
 number of followers for their          
doctrines1 the desire to overthrow the  
,brahmanical order of things must have  
been generally and deeply felt4 ,this   
conclusion shows then that the          
transformation of the religious life in 
,india was not merely the work of a     
religious community4 ,many strove to    
attain this object although separated   
from one another4 ,it is now            
recognisable1 though preliminarily1 in  

one point only1 that the religious      
history of ,india from the fifth century
 ,b4,c4 to the eighth or ninth ,a4,d4   
was not made up of the fight between    
,brahmanism and ,buddhism alone4 ,this  
conclusion allows us1 lastly1 to hope   
that the thorough investigation of the  
oldest writings of the ,jainas and their
 relations with ,buddhism on the one    
hand and with ,brahmanism on the other  
will afford many important ways of      
access to a more exact knowledge        
concerning the religious ideas which    
prevailed in the sixth and fifth        
centuries ,b4,c41 and to the            
establishment of the boundaries of      
originality between the different       
systems4     ,,appendix ,a4  ,copies of 
the mutilated inscriptions referred to1 
were published by ,general ,sir ,a4     
,cunningham in his ,archaeological      
,survey ,reports1 vol4 ,,iii1 plates    
xiii-xv4 ,unfortunately they have been  
presented from 'copies' and are         
therefore full of errors1 which are due 

for the most part1 doubtless1 to the    
copyist and not to the sculptor4 ,it is 
not difficult1 however1 in most cases   
under consideration here1 to restore the
 correct reading4 ,usually only vowel   
signs are omitted or misread and1 here1 
and there1 consonants closely resembling
 one another as va and cha1 va1 and dha1
 ga and a1 la and na are interchanged4  
,the formulae of the inscriptions are   
almost universally the same4 ,first     
comes the date1 then follows the name of
 a reverend teacher1 next1 the mention  
of the school and the subdivision of it 
to which he belonged4 ,then the persons1
 who dedicated the statues are named    
7mostly women71 and who belonged to the 
community of the said teacher4 ,the     
description of the gift forms the       
conclusion4 ,the dialect of the         
inscriptions shows that curious mixture 
of ,sanskt and ,prkt which is found in  
almost all documents of the             
,indo-,skythian kings1 and whichas ,dr4 
,hoernle was the first to recognise--was

 one of the literary languages of       
northern and northwestern ,india during 
the first centuries before and after the
 commencement of our era4  ,in the      
calculation of dates1 ,i use the        
favourite starting point for the era of 
the ,indo-,skythian kings1 which        
unfortunately1 is not certainly         
determined1 and assume that it is       
identical with the ,saka era of #gh-a_/d
 ,a4,d4 ,the rule of these princes could
 not have fallen later3 in my opinion it
 was somewhat earlier4 ,footnote3 ,what 
follows is from the author's later and  
fuller paper in ,wiener ,zeitschrift fr 
die ,kunde des ,morgenlandes1 ,bd4 ,i1  
,s4 #agj f41 but abridged4--,ed4 ,i give
 here transcripts and restorations of   
such inscriptions as mention ,jaina     
schools or titles4  #a4 ,the inscription
 which is the most important for my     
purpose and at the same time one of the 
best preserved1 is ,sir ,a4             
,cunningham's ,no4 #f1 plate xiii1 which
 was found on the base of a ,jaina image

 7,arch4 ,sur4 ,rep4 vol4 ,,iii1 p4     
#ca74 ,the copy compared with a rubbing 
gives the following reading1 7the       
letters within parentheses are damaged73
    ,l4 #a4 ,siddha sa #bj gram #a di   
#aj  #e ko7i7yato gaato   7,v7iyato     
kulato ,v7ai7r7i7to kto irikto    #b4   
7bha7ttito vchakasya                    
,aryya-,saghasihasya nir7v7varttana     
,dattilasya4444 ,vi4-    #c4 lasya      
ko7hu7bi7ki7ya ,jayavlasya ,devadsasya  
,ngadinasya cha   ,ngadinye cha 7m7tu4  
#d4 r7vi7kye 7,d7i-    #e4 7n7ye dna4 i 
#f4 ,varddhamna pra-    #g4 tim  ,the   
lacuna in line #b1 after ,dattilasya1   
probably contained the word duhituye or 
dhtuye and part of a male name of which 
only the letter vi is visible4 ,in l4   
#c1 possibly kohabiniye is to be read   
instead of kohubikiye4 ,as there is room
 for one more letter at the end of the  
line1 ,i propose to read mtuye4 ,in l4  
#e1 ,dinye would stand for ,datty and be
 the genitive of a female name ,dinn or 
,datt1 which has been shortened bhmvat4 

,there can be no doubt that the word r1 
or iri1 which is required1 has stood    
before ,vardhamna4 ,with these          
restorations the translation is as      
follows3    ,success6 ,the year #bj1    
summer 7month7 ,i1 day #ae4 ,an image of
   glorious ,vardhamna1 the gift of the 
female lay-disciple ,din   i4 e4 ,dinn  
or ,datt1 the daughter of ,attila1 the  
wife   of ,vi44la1 the mother of        
,jayavla ,jayapla1 of ,devadsa and      
,ngadina   i4 e4 ,ngadinna or ,ngadatta 
and of ,ngadina i4e4 of   ,ngadinn or   
,ngadatt--7this statue being7 the       
nirvartana   ,footnote3 ,the word       
nirvartana has the meaning of 'in       
obedience   to the order'1 or 'in       
consequence of the request'4 ,it occurs 
again in   the ,prakrit form nivatana   
below1 in ,no4 #aj 7pl4 xiv7 and it     
has stood in ,no4 #d1 and at the end of 
l4 #b of ,no4 #g1 where the rubbing     
has nirva4 ,it is also found in the     
next3 ,arch4 ,sur4 ,rep4   vol4 ,,xx1   
pl4 v1 ,no4 #f4 of the preacher         

,aryya-,saghasiha i4e4   rya-,saghasiha1
 out of the ,koiya school1 the ,vniya   
race1   the ,vairi branch1 the irik     
division4  ,the inscription given ,arch4
 ,sur4 ,rep4 vol4 ,,xx1 plate v1 ,no4 #f
 reads1 according to an excellent       
rubbing3    ,l4 #a4 ,namo ,arahatnain   
namo ,siddhna sa #fj ,footnote3   ,in   
reading the first figure as #fj1 ,i     
follow ,sir ,a4 ,cunningham4 ,i have    
never seen the sign1 in another         
inscription4 ,the characters of the     
inscription are so archaic that this    
date may refer to an earlier   epoch    
than the ,indo-,skythian4  #b    #b4 gra
 #c di #e etye purvye ,rrakasya         
,aryakakasaghastasya    #c4 ishy        
tapikogahabaryasya nirvartana           
chatnuvarnasya   saghasya    #d4 y dinn 
paibhbho8ga #a 787  787 ,vaihikya datti 
,adoration to the ,arhats1 adoration to 
the ,siddhas6 ,the year #fb1 the        
summer 7month7 #c1 the day #e2 on the   
above date a y4 was   given to the      
community1 which includes four classes1 

as an enjoyment   7or one share for     
each7 7this being7 the nirvartana   of  
,atapikogahabarya1 the pupil of         
,arya-,kakasaghasta                     
7rya-,karkaagharshita71 a native of ,rr 
7,rh74 ,the gift of   ,vaihik 7or1      
,vaihit74  #b4 ,with the inscription    
,no4 #f of the year #bj1 ,no4 #d 7plate 
xiii7 agrees2 it was also found on a    
,jaina pedestal4 ,with better readings  
from a rubbing of the first side only1  
,i propose for the other portions1 of   
which ,i have no rubbings1 the following
 emendations1--l4 #a1 ,vniyato kulato1  
skhto2 l4 #b1 kuumbimye2 ,i also note   
that the lacuna in line #b1 #cth and    
#dth sides1 would be filled exactly by  
ye r-,vardhamnasya pratim krit          
sarvasattv4 ,the former existence of the
 first and last seven letters may be    
considered certain4 ,my restoration of  
the whole is1--    ,l4 #a 7#ast side7   
,siddha mahrjasya ,kanishkasya rjye     
savatsare navame ,footnote3 ,sac4 ,bks4 
,east1 vol4 ,,xxii   p4 #bib4 7#bnd     

side744 msc pratha #a divase #e         
a-7#crd7sy purvvye ,koiyato gaato       
,vniyato   7#dth7 kulato ,vairito kto   
vchaka-    #b4 7#ast side7 sya          
,nganadisa nirvartana ,brahma 444       
dh-7#bnd7tuye ,bhaumitasa kuubiniye     
,vika-7#crd7ye r ,vardhamnasya pratim   
krit sarva-7#dth7   satvna hita-    #c4 
sukhye2  and the translation3--         
,success6 ,during the reign of the great
 king ,kanishka1 in the ninth   year1   
#i1 in the first month1 #a1 of 4441 on  
the day #e1--on the above   date an     
image of glorious ,vardhamna has been   
caused to be made for   the welfare and 
happiness of all created beings by      
,vikat1 the   house-wife of ,bhaimita   
7,bhatimitra7 and daughter of   ,brhma  
444--7this statue being7 the nirvartana 
of the preacher   ,nganaidi1 out of the 
,koiya school 7gaa71 the   ,viya line   
7kula71 7and7 the ,vairi branch 7kh74   
,if we now turn to the ,kalpastra1 we   
find that ,suhiya or ,susthita1 the     
eighth successor of ,vardhamna1 founded 

the ,kauika or ,koiya gaa1 which split  
up into four khs and four kulas4 ,the   
third of the former was the ,vajr or    
,vair1 and the third of the latter was  
the ,vya or ,vijja4 ,it is evident that 
the names of the gaa1 kula1 and kh agree
 with those mentioned in the two        
inscriptions1 ,koiya being a somewhat   
older form of ,koiya4 ,but it is        
interesting to note that the further    
subdivision of the ,vair kh--the irik   
bhatti 7,srik bhakti7 which inscription 
,no4 #f mentions1 is not known to the   
,kalpastra4 ,this is a gap such as may  
by be expected to occur in a list handed
 down by oral tradition4  #c4 ,the      
,koika gaa is again mentioned in the    
badly mutilated inscription ,no4 #ai1   
plate xv4 ,a complete restoration is    
impossible4    ,l4 #a4 ,savalsare #ij   
va444sya kuubani4 vadnasya vodhuya444   
#b4 ,koiyato gaato ,pranavhanakato      
kulato   ,majhamto khto444sa nikye bhati
 gle thabni444  ,it may1 however1 be    
inferred from the fragments of the first

 line that the dedication was made by a 
woman who was described as the wife     
7kuumbin7 of one person and as the      
daughter-in-law 7vadhu7 of another4 ,the
 first part of line #b1 restored as     
above gives--in the congregation of 444 
out of the ,koiya school1 the           
,pranavhanaka line and the ,majham      
branch4444 ,the restoration of the two  
names ,koiya and ,pranavhanaka seems to 
me absolutely certain1 because they     
exactly fill the blanks in the          
inscription1 and because the information
 in the ,kalpastra 7,s4 ,b4 ,e4 vol4    
,,xxii1 p4 #bic7 regarding the          
,madhyamkh points in that direction4    
,the latter work tells us that          
,priyagantha1 the second pupil of       
,susthita and ,supratibuddha1 founded a 
kh1 called ,madhyam or ,majhim4  ,as our
 inscriptions show that ,professor      
,jacobi's explanation of the terms gaa1 
kula and kh ,footnote3 ,s4 ,b4 ,e4 vol4 
,,xxii1 p4 #bhh1 note #b4 is correct and
 that the first denotes the school1 the 

second the line of teachers1 and the    
third a branch which separated from such
 a line1 it follows that the khs named  
in the ,kalpastra without the mention of
 a gaa and kula1 must belong to the last
 preceding gaa and derive their origin  
from one of its kulas4 ,hence the       
,madhyam kh doubtless was included in   
the ,kauika gaa1 and an offshoot of one 
of its kulas1 the fourth of which is    
called ,pranavhanaka or ,pahavhaaya4    
,the correctness of these inferences is 
proved by ,rjackhara's statement        
regarding his spiritual descent at the  
end of the ,prabandha kosha1 which he   
composed in ,vik4 sa #adje4 ,he informs 
us that he belonged to the ,koika gaa1  
the ,pranavhana kula1 the ,madhyam kh1  
the ,harshapurya gachha and the         
,maladhri samtna1 founded by the        
illustrious ,abhayasri4  ,for the last  
words of l4 #b ,i do not dare to propose
 an emendation2 ,i merely note that the 
gift seems to have consisted of pillars1
 thabni1 i4 e4 stambh4  #d4 ,the ,koiya 

gaa seems finally to be mentioned in pl4
 xiii1 ,no4 #b1 where the copy of line  
#a1 #bnd side may be corrected as1--    
,siddha--sa #e he #a di #aj  #b asy     
purvvye ,ko7iya74  #e4  ,names of an    
older gaa and of one of its kulas occur 
in ,no4 #aj plate xiv1 where the copy1  
which is faulty1 may allow the following
 partial restoration1---    ,l4 #a4 ,sa 
#dj  #g gra #b di #bj etasy purvvye     
,vrae gae ,petidhamikakulavchakasya     
,rohanadisya   ssasya ,senasya nivatanam
 svaka-,da    #b4 444pashavadhaya       
,giha44ka4bha44   prap din44m ta444     
which ,i translate--    ,the year #dg1  
the summer 7month7 #b1 the day #bj1--on 
the above date a   drinking fountain was
 given by 4441 the 444 of the           
lay-disciple ,da 444   7this being7 the 
nivatana of ,sena the pupil of ,rohanadi
   7,rohanandi7 and preacher of the     
,petidhamika 7,praitidharmika7 line1 in 
the ,vraa school4  ,varane must be a    
mistake for the very similar word       
,chrane4 ,the second kula of this gaa   

which1 according to the ,kalpastra      
7,s4,b4,e4 vol4 ,,xxii1 p4 #bia7 was    
founded by rgupta1 the fifth pupil of   
rya ,suhastin1 is the ,prtidharmika 7p4 
#bib74 ,it is easy to see that a similar
 name is hidden in the compound         
,petivamikakutavchakasya 'of the        
preacher of the ,petivmika line'2 and an
 inscription excavated by ,dr4 ,fuhrer  
at ,mathur mentions the ,petivmika      
7kula7 of the ,vrana gaa4 ,with the     
second line little can be done3 if the  
letters prap are correct and form a     
word1 one of the objects dedicated must 
have been a drinking fountain4  #f4 ,the
 inscription ,no4 #bj1 plate xv offers  
likewise slightly corrupt and mutilated 
names of a gaa1 a kula and a skh1       
mentioned in the ,kalpastra4 ,in the    
lithographed copy lines #c-g are        
hopeless and there is no rubbing to     
help4 ,the word thitu 'of a daughter' in
 line #f1 and the following ma4uya which
 is probably a misreading of mtuye 'of  
the mother' show that this dedication   

also was made by a female4 ,the last    
four syllables vato maho are probably   
the remnant of another namaskra--namo   
bhagavato ,mahvrasya4 ,as regards the   
proper names1 ,aryya ,rehiniya is an    
impossible form2 but on comparison with 
the next inscription to be mentioned1 it
 is evident that the stone must have    
read ,aryvodchikiyto or ,aryyadehikiyto 
gato4 ,footnote3 ,wiener ,zeitshe4 f4 d4
 ,kunde der ,morgenl41 ,bd4 ,,ii1 ,s4   
#adb f4 ,according to the ,kalpastra    
7,s4,b4,e4 vol4 ,,xxii1 p4 #bia7        
rya-,rohaa was the first pupil of rya   
,suhastin and founded the ,uddeha gaa4  
,the latter split up into four khs and  
into six kulas4 ,the name of its fourth 
kh1 ,prapatrik1 closely                 
resembles--especially in its consonantal
 elements--that of the inscription1     
,petaputrik1 and ,i do not hesitate in  
correcting the latter to ,ponapatrik    
which would be the equivalent of ,sansk4
 ,paurapatrik4 ,among the six kulas is  
the ,parihsaka1 and considering the     

other agreements1 ,i believe it probable
 that the mutilated name read as        
,puridha4ka is a misreading of ,parihka1
 ,we may emend the first two times and  
read as follows1--    ,l4 #a4 ,siddham  
namo arahato ,mahvirasya devanasya      
rja  ,vsudevasya savatsare #ij  #h      
varshamse  divase #aj  #a etasy4    #b4 
purvvye ,aryyo-,dehikiyto gato          
,pavihsakakulato ,pouapatrikto kto      
gaisya   ,aryya-,devadattasya na444 444 
#c4 ryya-,kshemasya    #d4 prakagirie   
#e4 kihadiye praj    #f4 tasya          
,pravarakasya dhitu ,varaasya gatvakasya
   matuya ,mitra787sa 444datta g    #g4 
ye44namo bhagavato mahvrasya  and the   
translation 7so far7 will be1--         
,success6 ,adoration to the ,arhat      
,mahvir1 the destroyer787 of the gods4  
,in the year of king ,vsudeva1 #ih1 in  
the month #d of the rainy season1 on    
the day #aa--on the above date 444 of   
the chief of the school   7gain7        
,aryya-,devadata 7,devadatta7 out of the
 school   7gaa7 of the ,aryya-,udehikya 

7rya-,uddehikiya71 out of the           
,parihsaka line 7kula71 out of the      
,ponapatrik 7,paurapatrik7   branch     
7kh74 ,footnote3 ,at a later date ,dr4  
,bhler added   other proofs from        
inscriptions of the authenticity of the 
,jaina   tradition1 in the ,vienna      
,oriental ,journal1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4      
#ada-adf2   vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #bcc-bdj2   
vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #afi-agc1 #cac-cah2 vol4 
,v1 pp4   #age-ahj2 and in ,epigraphia  
,indica1 vol4 ,i pp4 #cga-cig2 vol4     
,,ii1   pp4 #aie-bab1 #caa4 ,the        
paragraphs given above are chiefly from 
his first   paper in the ,vienna        
,oriental ,journal 7vol4 ,i1 pp4        
#afe-ahj71 which   appears to be an     
extended revision of the long footnote  
in the original   paper on the ,jainas1 
but it is here corrected in places from 
readings in   his later papers4--,j4 ,b4
  ,these and many other statements in   
the inscriptions1 about the teachers and
 their schools are of no small          
importance in themselves for the early  

history of the ,jainas4 ,the agreement  
of the above with the ,kalpastra can    
best be shown by placing the statements 
in question against one another4 ,the   
inscriptions prove the actual existence 
of twenty of the subdivisions mentioned 
in the ,sthavirvali of the ,kalpastra4  
,among its eight gaas we can certainly  
trace three1 possibly four--the         
,uddchika1 ,vraa1 ,veaviya787 and       
,koiya4                                 
,inscriptions3--                #a4     
,koiya 7,koiya7 ,gana                   
4--------------------------------------4
                                        
,bramadsika kula                        
,uchchengar kh        ,thniya kula      
,vair1 ,vairiy kh                       
,pahavahuayakula        ,majham kh      
,the ,sthavirval of the ,kalpastra      
7,sac4 ,bks4 of the ,east1 vol4 ,,xxii1 
p4 #bib7 states that ,sushita and       
,supratibuddha founded the--            
,koiya or ,kauaka ,gaa                  
4---------------------------------------

---------4                              
kulas                                   
khs   #a4 ,bambhalijja                  
#a4 ,uchchangar   #b4 ,vachchhalijja    
#b4 ,vijjhar   #c4 ,vya or ,vjja        
#c4 ,vajr   #d4 ,panhavhanaya           
#d4 ,majjhimka      or ,pranavhanaka    
#e4 ,majjhma                            
7scholar of the two                     
teachers4                               
founded by                              
,priyagantha the second7                
,inscriptions3--                        
#b4 ,vraa ,gaa                          
4------------------------------4        
kulas                        khs        
,petivamika                ,vjangar     
ryya ,hikiya          ,hartamlakah      
,puyamitrya             ,aryya-,cheiya  
,kaniyasika   ,the ,kalpastra states    
that rgupta of the ,hritagotra founded  
the ,chraa gaa1 which was divided into  
four khs and into seven kulas3          
,chraa-gaa                              
4-----------------------------4         

kulas                       khs         
#a4 ,vachchhalijja           ,sakik     
#b4 ,pdhammiya           #c4 ,hlijja    
,vajjangar           #d4 ,psamittijja   
,gavedhuk           #e4 ,mlijja         
#f4 rya-,cheaya       ,hriyamlagr       
#g4 ,kahasaha                           
,inscriptions3--                    #c4 
,aryya-,udekiya ,gaa                    
4--------------------------4            
kulas                                   
,ngabhatikiya    ,petaputrik kh4        
,puridha44   ,the ,kalpastra says       
rya-,rohana of the ,kyapa gotra founded 
the                         ,uddeha     
,gana                                   
4---------------------------------------
---------4                              
kulas                                   
khs   #a4 ,ngabhya                      
,udumbarijjiy   #b4 ,somabhta           
,msaprik   #c4 ,ullagachchha 7or        
rdrakachchha87 ,matipatrik   #d4        
,ilatthilijja   #e4 ,nandijja           
,puapattiy   #f4 ,parihsaka             

,inscriptions3--                 #d4    
,veavdiya ,gaa                          
,mehika kula  ,footnote3 ,epigraphia    
,indica1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #chb1 #chh4   ,the
 ,kalpastra3--,kmarddhi of the          
,kualagotra founded the ,veavika gaa    
which was divided into four khs1 and    
into four kulas3--                      
,veavika ,gaa                           
4---------------------------------------
-4                                      
kulas                                   
khs   ,gaika                            
rvastik   ,maighika                     
,rajjapliy   ,kmarddhika                
,antarijjiy   ,indrapuraka              
,khemalijjiy  ,footnote3 ,for the above 
lists see ,wiener ,zeitschi4 ,bd4 ,,iv1 
,s4 #caf ff4 and ,kalpastra in ,s4 ,b4  
,e4 vol4 ,,xxii1 pp4 #bij f4  ,the      
resemblance of most of these names is so
 complete that no explanation is        
necessary4     ,,jaina ,,mythology4     
,the mythology of the ,jainas1 whilst   
including many of the ,hindu divinities1

 to which it accords very inferior      
positions1 is altogether different in   
composition4 ,it has all the appearance 
of a purely constructed system4 ,the    
gods are classified and subdivided into 
orders1 genera1 and species2 all are    
mortal1 have their ages fixed1 as well  
as their abodes1 and are mostly         
distinguished by cognizances chihnas or 
lchhaas4 ,their ,trthakaras1            
,trthamkaras1 or perfected saints1 are  
usually known as twenty-four belonging  
to the present age4 ,but the mythology  
takes account also of a past and a      
future age or renovation of the world1  
and to each of these aeons are assigned 
twenty-four ,trthakaras4 ,but this is   
not all3 in their cosmogony they lay    
down other continents besides           
,jambdvpa-,bharata or that which we     
dwell in4 ,these are separated from     
,jambdvpa by impassable seas1 but       
exactly like it in every respect and are
 called ,dhtuki-kanda and ,pushkarrddha2
 and of each of these there are eastern1

 and western ,bharata and ,airvata      
regions1 whilst of ,jambdvpa there is   
also a ,bharata and an ,airvata region3 
these make the following ten regions or 
worlds3--   #a4                         
,jambdvpa-bharata-kshetra4  #b4         
,dhtuk-khaa prva-bharata4  #c4          
,dhtuk-khaa pachima-bharata4  #d4       
,pushkarrddha prva-bharata4  #e4        
,pushkaravaradvpa pachima-bharata4  #f4 
,jambdvpa airvata-kshetra4  #g4         
,dhtuk-khaa prva-airvata4  #h4          
,dhtuk-khaa pachima-airvata4  #i4       
,pushkarrdhadvpa prva-airvata4 #aj4     
,puskarrddha pachima-airvata4  ,to each 
of these is allotted twenty four past1  
present and future ,atts or             
,jinas1--making in all #gbj of this     
class1 for which they have invented     
names3 but they are only names4         
,footnote3  ,see ,ratnasgara1 bh4 ,,ii1 
pp4 #fif--gje4  ,of the ,trthakaras of  
the present age or avasarpini in the    
,bharata-varsha of ,jambdvpa1 however1  
we are supplied with minute             

details3--their names1 parents1         
stations1 reputed ages1 complexions1    
attendants1 cognizances 7chihna7 or     
characteristics1 etc4 and these details 
are useful for the explanation of the   
iconography we meet with in the shrines 
of ,jaina temples4 ,there the images of 
the ,trthakaras are placed on highly    
sculptured thrones and surrounded by    
other smaller attendant figures4 ,in    
temples of the vetmbara sect the images 
are generally of marble--white in most  
cases1 but often black for images of the
 #aith1 #b,oth1 #bbnd and #bcrd ,jinas4 
,on the front of the throne or sana are 
usually carved three small figures3 at  
the proper right of the ,jina is a male 
figure representing the ,yaksha         
attendant or servant of that particular 
,jina2 at the left end of the throne is 
the corresponding female--or ,yakshin1  
,yaksh or sanadev2 whilst in a panel in 
the middle there is often another dev4  
,at the base of the seat also1 are      
placed nine very small figures          

representing the navagraha or nine      
planets2 that is the sun1 moon1 five    
planets1 and ascending and descending   
nodes4  ,in the ,jaina ,purnas1 legends 
are given to account for the connexion  
of the ,yakshas and ,yakshs with their  
respective ,trthakaras3 thus1 in the    
case of ,prvantha1 we have a story of   
two brothers ,marubhti and ,kamaha1 who 
in eight successive incarnations were   
always enemies1 and were finally born as
 ,prvantha and ,sambaradeva             
respectively4 ,a ,pshaa or unbeliever1  
engaged in the panchgni rite1 when      
felling a tree for his fire1 against the
 remonstrance of ,prvantha1 cut in      
pieces two snakes that were in it2 the  
,jina1 however restored them to life by 
means of the pachamantra4 ,they were    
then re-born in ,ptla-loka as           
,dharaendra or ,ngendra-,yaksha and     
,padmvat-,yakshi4 ,when ,sambaradeva or 
,meghakumra afterwards attacked the     
,arbat with a great storm1 whilst he was
 engaged in the ,kyotsarga              

austerity--standing immovable1 exposed  
to the weather--much in the way that    
,mra attacked kya ,buddha at ,bodh-gay1 
,dharaendra's throne in ,ptla thereupon 
shook1 and the ,nga or ,yaksha with his 
consort at once sped to the protection  
of his former benefactor4 ,dharaendra   
spread his many hoods over the head of  
the ,arhata and the ,yaksh ,padmvat held
 a white umbrella 7veta chhatri7 over   
him for protection4 ,ever after they    
became his constant attendants1 just as 
akra was to ,buddha4 ,the legend is     
often represented in old-sculptures1 in 
the cave-temples at ,bdmi1 ,elura1 etc41
 and the figure of ,prva is generally   
carved with the snake-hoods 7eshaphai7  
over him4 ,footnote3 ,cave ,temples1 pp4
 #dia1 #dif2 ,arch4 ,sur4 ,westn4       
,india1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #be and pl4 xxxvii2 
vol4 ,v1 p4 #di2 ,transactions1 ,r4 ,as4
 ,soc41 vol4 ,i1 p4 #dce4 ,at ,rnpur in 
,godwr1 in the temple of ,rishabhantha  
is a finely carved slab representing    
,prvantha in the ,kyotsarga position1   

attended by snake divinities1--,archit4 
and ,scenery in ,gujart and ,rjputna1 p4
 #ba4 ,the story has variants3 conf4    
,ind4 ,ant4 vol4 ,,xxx1 p4 #cjb4  ,other
 legends account for the attachment of  
each pair of sanadevats to their        
respective ,jinas4  ,the vetmbaras and  
,digambaras agree generally in the      
details respecting the different        
,trthakaras2 but1 from information      
furnished from ,maisur1 they seem to    
differ as to the names of the ,yakshiis 
attached to the several ,trthakaras1    
except the first and last two2 they     
differ also in the names of several of  
the ,jinas of the past and the future   
aeons4 ,the ,digambaras enlist most of  
the sixteen ,vidydevis or goddesses of  
knowledge among the ,yakshis1 whilst the
 other sect include scarcely a third of 
them4  ,these ,vidydevs1 as given by    
,hemachandra1 are--7#a7 ,rohi2 7#b7     
,prajapt2 7#c7 ,vajrasikhal2 7#d7       
,kulinkuc--probably the ,ankua-,yaksh of
 the vetmbra fourteenth ,jina2 7#e7     

,chakrevar2 7#f7 ,naradatt or           
,purushadatt2 7#g7 ,kli or ,klk2 7#h7   
,mahkl2 7#i7 ,gaur2 7#aj7 ,gndhr2 7#aa7 
,sarvstramahjvl2 7#ab7 ,mnav2 7#ac7     
,vairoy2 7#ad7 ,achchhupt2 7#ae7 ,mnas2 
and 7#af7 ,mahmnasik4  ,the images of   
the ,trthakaras are always represented  
seated with their legs crossed in       
front--the toes of one foot resting     
close upon the knee of the other2 and   
the right hand lies over the left in the
 lap4 ,all are represented exactly alike
 except that ,prvantha1 the             
twenty-third1 has the snake-hoods over  
him2 and1 with the ,digambaras1         
,suprva--the seventh1 has also a smaller
 group of snake hoods4 ,the ,digambara  
images are all quite nude2 those of the 
vetmbaras are represented as clothed1   
and they decorate them with crowns and  
ornaments4 ,they are distinguished from 
one another by their attendant ,yakshas 
and ,yakshis as well as by their        
respective chihnas or cognizances which 
are carved on the cushion of the throne4

  ,all the ,jinas are ascribed to the   
,ikshvku family 7kula7except the        
twentieth ,munisuvrata and twenty-second
 ,nemintha1 who were of the ,harivaa    
race4  ,all received dksh or            
consecration at their native places2 and
 all obtained jna or complete           
enlightenment at the same1 except       
ishabha who became a ,kevalin at        
,purimatla1 ,nemi at ,girnr1 and ,mahvra
 at the ,rijupluk river2 and twenty of  
them died or obtained moksha            
7deliverance in bliss7 on ,sameta-ikhara
 or ,mount ,prvantha in the west of     
,bengal4 ,but ishabha1 the first1 died  
on ,ashpada--supposed to be atruljaya in
 ,gujart2 ,vsupjya died at ,champpuri in
 north ,bengal2 ,nemintha on mount      
,girnr2 and ,mahvra1 the last1 at       
,pvpur4  ,twenty-one of the ,trthakaras 
are said to have attained ,moksha in the
 ,kyotsarga 7,guj4 ,ksagga7 posture1 and
 ishabha1 ,nemi1 and ,mahvira on the    
padmsana or lotus throne4  ,for sake of 
brevity the following particulars for   

each ,arhat are given below in serial   
order viz43--   7#a7 ,the  vimna or     
vhana 7heaven7 from which he            
descended for incarnation4   7#b7       
,birthplace1 and place of consecration  
or dksh4   7#c7 ,names of father and    
mother4   7#d7 ,complexion4   7#e7      
,cognizance--chihna or lchhaa4   7#f7   
,height2 and   7#g7 ,age4   7#h7        
,dksha-vriksha or ,bodhi tree4   7#i7   
,yaksha and ,yakshi1 or attendant       
spirits4  7#aj7 ,first ,ganadhara or    
leading disciple1 and first      ry or  
leader of the female converts4  ,i4     
ishabhadeva1 ,vishabha1 dinth or        
,adivara ,bhagavn3--7,i7                
,sarvrthasiddha2 7#b7 ,vinittanagar in  
,koal and ,purimatla2 7#c7 ,nbhrj by    
,marudev2 7#d7 golden--vara-1 7#e7the   
bull1--visha1 balada2 7#f7 #ejj poles or
 dhanusha2 7#g7 #h1djj1jjj prva or great
 years2 7#h7 the ,vaa or banyan tree2   
7#i7 ,gomukha and ,chakrevar2 7#aj7     
,pundarka and ,brahm4  ,,ii4            
,ajitantha3 7#a7 ,vijayavimna2 7#b7     

,ayodhy2 7#c7 ,jitaatru by ,vijaymt2    
7#d7 golden2 7#e7 the elephant--gaja or 
hasti2 7#f7 #dej poles2 7#g7g1bjj1jjj   
prva years2 7#h7 la--the ,shorea        
robusta2 7#i7 ,mahyaksha and ,ajitabal3 
with the ,digambaras1 the ,yakshi is    
,rohi-yaksh2 7#aj7 ihasena and ,phlgu4  
,,iii4 ,sambhavantha3 7#a7              
,uvarmagraiveka27#b7 ,svathi or rvasti2 
7#c7 ,jitri by ,senmt2 7#d7 golden2 7#e7
 the horse1--ava1 ghoa2 7#f7 #djj poles2
 7#g7 #f1jjj1jjj prva years2 7#h7 the   
,prayla--,buchanania latifolia2 7#i7    
,trimukha and ,duritr                   
7,digambara--,prajapt72 7#aj7 ,chru and 
ym4  ,,iv4 ,abhinandana3 7#a7           
,jayantavimna2 7#b7 ,ayodhy2 7#c7       
,sambararj by ,siddhrth2 7#d7 golden2   
7#e7 the ape1--plavaga1 vnara or kapi2  
7#f7 #cej poles2 7#g7 #e1jjj1jjj prva   
years2 7#h7 the ,priyagu or ,panicum    
italicum2 7#i7 ,nyaka and ,klk1 and     
,digambara--,yakshevara and ,vajraikhal2
 7#aj7 ,vajranbha and ,ajit4  ,v4       
,sumatintha3 7#a7 ,jayantavimna2 7#b7   

,ayodhy2 7#c7 ,megharaj by ,magal2 7#d7 
golden2 7#e7 the curlew1--kraucha1      
7,dig4 chakravakapksh--the ,brhmani or  
red goose72 7#f7 #cjj poles2 7#g7       
#d1jjj1jjj prva years2 7#h7 la tree2    
7#i7 ,tuburu and ,mahkal 7,dig4         
,purushadatt72 7#aj7 ,charama and ,kyap4
  ,,vi4 ,padmaprabha3 7#a7              
,uvarmagraiveka2 7#b7 ,kauamb2 7#c7     
rdhara by ,susm2 7#d7 red 7rakta72 7#e7 
a lotus bud--padma1 abja1 or kamala2    
7#f7 #bej poles2 7#g7 #c1jjj1jjj prva   
years2 7#h7 the ,chhatr --7,anethum     
sowa872 7#i7 ,kusuma and ym 7,dig4      
,manoveg or ,manogupt72 7#aj7           
,pradyotana and ,rat4  ,,vii4           
,suprvantha3 7#a7 ,madhyamagraiveka2    
7#b7 ,vara2 7#c7 ,pratishharj by ,pithv2
 7#d7 golden2 ,footnote3 ,the ,digambara
 describe the colours of the seventh and
 twenty-first ,jinas as marakada or     
emerald coloured4 7#e7 the swastika     
symbol2 7#f7 #bjj poles2 7#g7 #b1jjj1jjj
 prva years2 7#h7 the irsha or ,acacia  
sirisha2 7#i7 ,mtaga and                

nt2--,digambara1 ,varanandi and ,kl2    
7#aj7 ,vidirbha and ,som4  ,,viii4      
,chandraprabha3 7#a7 ,vijayanta2 7#b7   
,chandrapura2 7#c7 ,mahsenarj by        
,lakshma2 7#d7 white--dhavala1 ubhra2   
7#e7 the moon--chandr or a2 7#f7 #aej   
poles2 7#g7 #a1jjj1jjj prva years2 7#h7 
the ,nga tree2 7#i7 ,vijaya and ,bhiku3 
,digambara--yma or ,vijaya and ,jvlmlin2
 7#aj7 ,dinn and ,suman4  ,,ix4         
,suvidhintha or ,pushpadanta3 7#a7      
natadevaloka2 7#b7 ,knanagar2 7#c7      
,sugrvarja by ,rmr2 7#d7 white2 7#e7 the
 ,makara 7,dig4 the crab--i72 7#f7 #ajj 
poles2 7#g7 #bjj1jjj prva years2 7#h7   
the l2 7#i7 ,ajit and ,sutrak3          
,digambara--,ajit and ,mahkl or ,ajit2  
7#aj7 ,varhaka  and ,vru4  ,x4          
italantha3 7#a7 ,achyutadevaloka2       
7#b7;,bhadrapur or ,bhadilapura2 7#c7   
,diharatha-rj by ,nand2 7#d7 golden2    
7#e7 the rvatsa figure3 7,dig4          
ri-vriksha the ficus religiosa72 7#f7   
#ij poles2 7#g7 #ajj1jjj prva years2    
7#h7 the ,priyagu tree2 7#i7 ,brahm and 

,aok 7,dig4 ,mnav72 7#aj7 ,nand and     
,sujas4  ,,xi4 reyantha or reyasa3 7#a7 
,achyutadevaloka2 7#b7 ,sihapur2 7#c7   
,vishurj by ,vish2 7#d7 golden2 7#e7 the
 rhinoceros--khaga1 ge3 7,dig4 ,garua72 
7#f7 #hj poles2 7#g7 #h1djj1jjj common  
years2 7#h7 the ,tauka tree2 7#i7       
,yakshe and ,mnav3 ,digambara--vara and 
,gauri2 7#aj7 ,kayapa and ,dhra4  ,,xii4
 ,vsupjya3 7#a7 ,pratadevaloka2 7#b7    
,champpur2 7#c7 ,vasupjya by ,jay2 7#d7 
ruddy--rakta1 ,guj4 rtu2 7#e7 the female
 buffalo--mahish1 pd2 7#f7 #gj poles2   
7#g7 #g1bjj1jjj common years2 7#h7 the  
,pala or ,bignonia suaveolens2 7#i7     
,kumra and ,cha 7,dig4 ,gndhr72 7#aj7   
,subhuma and ,dhara4  ,,xiii4           
,vimalantha3 7#a7 ,mahasradevaloka2 7#b7
 ,kamplyapura2 7#c7 ,kitavarmarja by ym2
 7#d7 golden2 7#e7 a boar--kara1 varha2 
7#f7 #fj poles2 7#g7 #f1jjj1jjj years2  
7#h7 the ,jmbu or ,eugenia jambolana2   
7#i7 ,shmukha and ,vidit 7,dig4 ,vair72 
7#aj7 ,mandara and ,dhar4  ,,xiv4       
,anantantha or ,anantajit3 7#a7         

,pratadevaloka2 7#b7 ,ayodhy2 7#c7      
,sihasena by ,suya or ,sujas2 7#d7      
golden2 7#e7 a falcon--yena 7,dig4      
bhallka a bear72 7#f7 #ej poles2 7#g7   
#c1jjj1jjj years2 7#h7 the ,aoka or     
,jonesia asoka2 7#i7 ,ptla and ,anku    
7,dig4 ,anantamat72 7#aj7 ,jasa and     
,padm4  ,,xv4  ,dharmantha3 7#a7        
,vijayavimna2 7#b7 ,ratnapur2 7#c7      
,bhnurj by ,suvrit2 7#d7 golden2 7#e7   
the thunderbolt--vajra2 7#f7 #de poles2 
7#g7 #a1jjj1jjj years2 7#h7 ,dadhpara   
tree 7,clitoria ternatea872 7#i7        
,kinnara and ,kandarp 7,dig4 ,mnas72    
7#aj7 ,arisha and rthaiv4  ,,xvi4       
ntinth3 7#a7 ,sarvrthasiddha2 7#b7      
,gajapura or ,hastinapur2 7#c7 ,vivasena
 by ,achir2 7#d7 golden2 7#e7 an        
antelope--miga1 haraa1 hull1 7#f7dj     
poles2 7#g7 #ajj1jjj years2 7#h7 the    
,nand or ,cedrela toona2 7#i7 ,garua and
 ,nirv 7,dig4 ,kimpurusha and ,mahmnas72
 7#aj7 ,chakryuddha and ,such4  ,,xvii4 
,kunthtintha3 7#a7 ,sarvrthasiddha2 7#b7
 ,gajapura2 7#c7 ,srarj by rrn2 7#d7    

golden2 7#e7 a goat--chhga or aja2 7#f7 
#ce poles2 7#g7 #ie1jjj years2 7#h7 the 
,bhilaka tree2 7#i7 ,gandharva and ,bal 
7,dig4 ,vijay72 7#aj7 ,smba and ,dmin4  
,,xviii4 ,arantha3 7#a7 ,sarvrthasiddha2
 7#b7 ,gajapura2 7#c7 ,sudarana by      
,devr2 7#d7 golden2 7#e7 the ,nandyvarta
 diagram1 7,dig4 ,mina--the zodiacal    
,pisces72 7#f7 #cj poles2 7#g7 #hd1jjj  
years2 7#h7 mb or ,mango tree2 7#i7     
,yakshea and ,dha 7,dig4 ,kendra and    
,ajit72 7#aj7 ,kumbha and ,rakshit4     
,,xix4  ,mallintha3 7#a7                
,jayantadevaloka2 7#b7 ,mathur2 7#c7    
,kumbharj by ,prabhvat2 7#d7 blue--nla2 
7#e7 a jar--kumbham1 kalaa or ghaa2 7#f7
 #be poles2 7#g7 #ee1jjj years2 7#h7    
,aoka tree2 7#i7 ,kubera and ,dharaapriy
 7,dig4 ,aparjit72 7#aj7 ,abhikshaka and
 ,bandhumat4  ,,xx4  ,munisuvrata1      
,suvrata or ,muni3 7#a7                 
,aparjita-devaloka2 7#b7 ,rajagiha2 7#c7
 ,sumitraraj by ,padmvat2 7#d7          
black--yma1 asita2 7#e7 a               
tortoise--krma2 7#f7 #bj poles2 7#g7    

#cj1jjj years2 7#h7 the ,champaka1      
,michelia champaka2 7#i7 ,varua and     
,naradatt1 7,dig4 ,bahurpi72 7#aj7      
,malli and ,pushpavat4  ,,xxi4          
,namintha1 ,nimi or ,nimevara3 7#a7     
,pratadevaloka2 7#b7 ,mathur2 7#c7      
,vijayarj by ,viprr2 7#d7 yellow2 7#e7  
the blue water-lily--nlotpala1 with the 
,digambaras1 sometimes the ,aoka tree2  
7#f7 #ae poles2 7#g7 #aj1jjj years2 7#h7
 the ,bakula or ,mimusops elengi2 7#i7  
,bhikui and ,gandhr1 7,dig4 ,chmu72     
7#aj7 ubha and ,anil4  ,,xxii4 ,nemintha
 or ,arishanemi3 7#a7 ,aparjita2 7#b7   
,sauripura 7,prkrit--,soriyapura7 and   
,ujjinta or ,mount ,girnr2 7#c7         
,samudravijaya by ivdevi2 7#d7          
black--yma2 7#e7 a conch1--akha2 7#f7   
#aj poles2 7#g7 #ajjj years2 7#h7 the   
,veasa2 7#i7 ,gomedha and ,ambik3 with  
the ,digambaras1 ,sarvha and ,kshmin2   
7#aj7 ,varadatta and ,yakshadinn4       
,,xxiii4 ,prvantha3 7#a7 ,pratadevaloka2
 7#b7 ,varas and ,sameta-ikhara2 7#c7   
,avasenarja by ,vmdev2 7#d7 blue--nla2  

7#e7 a serpent--sarpa2 7#f7 #i hands2   
7#g7 #ajj years2 7#h7 the ,dhtak or     
,grislea tomentosa2 7#i7 ,prvayaksha or 
,dharaendra and ,padmvat2 7#aj7 ryadinna
 and ,pushpach4  ,,xxiv4 ri-,mahvra1    
,vardhamna or ,vra1 the ramaa3 7#a7 ,pr 
atadevaloka2 7#b7 ,kuagrma or ,chitraka1
 and ijupluk2 7#c7 ,siddhrtharja1 reyna 
or ,yaasvin by ,trial ,vidchadinn or    
,priyakri2 7#d7 yellow2 7#e7 a          
lion--kear-simha2 7#f7 #g hands or      
cubits2 7#g7 #gb years2 7#h7 the ala or 
teak tree2 7#i7 ,mtaga and ,siddhyik2   
7#aj7 ,indrabhti and ,chandrabl4  ,the  
,tirthakuras may be regarded as the dii 
majores of the ,jainas1 ,footnote3 ,for 
an account of the ritual of the         
,svetmbara sect of ,jainas1 see my      
account in the ,indian ,antiquary1 vol4 
,,xiii1 pp4 #aia-aif4 though1 having    
become ,siddhas1 emancipated from all   
concern1 they can have no interest in   
mundane affairs4 ,they and such beings  
as are supposed to have reached         
perfection are divided into fifteen     

species3   #a4 ,trthakarasiddhas2  #b4  
,atrthakarasiddhas2  #c4 ,trthasiddhas2 
#d4 ,svaligasiddas2  #e4                
,anyaligasiddhas2  #f4 ,striligasiddhas2
  #g4 ,purushaligasiddhas2  #h4         
,napusakaligasiddhas2  #i4              
,gihaligasiddhas2 #aj4                  
,trthavyavachchhedasiddhas2 #aa4        
,pratyekabuddhasiddhas2 #ab4            
,svayambuddhasiddhas2 #ac4 ,ekasiddas2  
#ad4 ,anekasiddhas2 #ae4                
,buddhabodhietasiddllas4 ,footnote3     
,jour4 ,asiat4  ,i,xme ,ser4 tom4 ,,xix1
 p4 #bfj4  ,but the gods are divided    
into four classes1 and each class into  
several orders3 the four classes are3-- 
,i4 ,bhavandhipatis1 ,bhavanavsins or   
,bhaumeyikas1 of which there are ten    
orders1 viz4--       #a4 ,asurakumras2  
#b4 ,ngakumras2      #c4 ,taitkumras or 
,vidyutkumras2      #d4 ,suvara- or     
,suparnaka-kumras2      #e4 ,agnikumras2
      #f4 ,dvpakumras 7,dvakumras72     
#g4 ,udadhikumras2      #h4 ,dikkumras2 
#i4 ,pavana- or ,vta-kumras2     #aj4   

,ghaika- or ,sanitakumras4    ,,ii4     
,vyantaras or ,vamantaras1 who live   in
 woods are of eight classes3--       #a4
 ,pichas2      #b4 ,bhtas2      #c4     
,yakshas2      #d4 ,rkshasas2      #e4  
,kimnaras2      #f4 ,kimpurushas2       
#g4 ,mahoragas2      #h4 ,gandharvas4   
,,iii4 ,the ,jyotishkas are the         
inhabitants of2       #a4 ,chandras or  
the moons2      #b4 ,sryas or the suns2 
#c4 ,grahas or the planets2      #d4    
,nakshatras or the constellations2      
#e4 ,trs or the hosts of stars4    ,and 
,,iv4 ,the ,vaimnika gods are of two    
orders3 7#a7 the ,kalpabhavas1 who   are
 born in the heavenly ,kalpas2 and 7#b7 
the ,kalpttas1 born in the   regions    
above the ,kalpas4  7#a7 ,the           
,kalpabhavas again are subdivided into  
twelve genera who live in the ,kalpas   
after which they are named2 viz1--   #a4
 ,saudharma2  #b4 na2  #c4 ,sanatkumra2 
#d4 ,mhendra2  #e4 ,brahmaloka2  #f4    
,lntaka2  #g4 ukra or ,mahukla2  #h4    
,sahasrra2  #i4  nata 7aya72 #aj4 ,prata

 7,paya72 #aa4 raa2 #ab4 ,achyuta4  7#b7
 ,the ,kalpttas are subdivided into--7a7
 the ,graiveyakas1 living on the upper  
part of the universe2 and 7b7 the       
,anuttaras or those above whom there are
 no others4    7a7 ,the ,graiveyakas are
 of nine species1 viz4--     #a4        
,sudarsaas2    #b4 ,supratipandhas2     
#c4 ,maoramas2    #d4 ,sarvabhadras2    
#e4 ,suvilas2    #f4 ,somaasas2    #g4  
,sumakasas2    #h4 ,pryakaras2    #i4   
dityas or ,nandikaras4     7b7 the      
,anuttara gods are of five orders3      
viz4--     #a4 ,vijayas2    #b4         
,vaijayantas2    #c4 ,jayantas2    #d4  
,aparjitas2 and    #e4 ,sarvrthasiddhas4
  ,footnote3 ,conf4 ,ratnasgara1 bh4    
,,ii1 pp4 #faf1 #fag2 ,jour4 ,asiat4    
,i,xme ,ser4 tome ,,xix1 p4 #bei2 ,sac4 
,bks4 ,e4 vol4 ,,xlv1 p4 #bbf f4 ,see   
also ,rev4 de l',histoire des ,relig4   
tom4 ,,xlvii1 pp4 #cd-ej1 which has     
appeared since the above was written1   
for ,la doctrine des tres vivants dans  
la ,religion ,jaina4  ,these ,anuttara  

gods inhabit the highest heavens where  
they live for varying lengths of time as
 the heavens ascend2 and in the fifth or
 highest--the great ,vimna called       
,sarvrthasiddha--they all live          
thirty-three ,sgaropamas or periods of  
unimagiable duration4 ,still all the    
gods are mortal or belong to the sasra4 
,above these is the paradise of the     
,siddhas or perfected souls1 and the    
,uttardhyana ,stra gives the following  
details of this realm of the perfected1 
or the paradise of the                  
,jainas3--,footnote3 ,see ante1 p4 #aa1 
note #aj2 ,the following extract is from
 ,sac4 ,books of the ,east1 vol4 ,,xlv1 
pp4 #baa-bac4    ,the perfected souls   
are those of women1 men1 hermaphrodites1
 of   orthodox1 heterodox1 and          
householders4 ,perfection is reached by 
people   of the greatest1 smallest and  
middle size2 ,footnote3 ,the greatest   
size--ogha--of men is #ejj dhanush or   
#bjjj cubits1 the   smallest is one     
cubit4 on high places1 underground1 on  

the surface of   the earth1 in the      
ocean1 and in waters 7of rivers1 etc474 
,ten hermaphrodites reach perfection at 
the same time1 twenty women1   one      
hundred and eight men2 four             
householders1 ten heterodox1 and one    
hundred and eight orthodox monks4       
,two individuals of the greatest size   
reach perfection   7simultaneously71    
four of the smallest size1 and one      
hundred and eight   of the middle size4 
,four individuals reach perfection      
7simultaneously7   on high places1 two  
in the ocean1 three in water1 twenty    
underground2   and where do they go on  
reaching perfection8 ,perfected souls   
are   debarred from the non-world       
7,aloka72 they reside on the top of the 
world2 they leave their bodies here     
7below7 and go there1 on reaching       
perfection4    ,twelve yojanas above the
 7,vimna7 ,sarvrtha is the place called 
shatpragbhra1 which has the form of an  
umbrella2 7there the   perfected souls  
go74 ,it is forty-five hundred thousand 

yojanas   long1 and as many broad1 and  
it is somewhat more than three times as 
many in circumference4 ,its thickness is
 eight yojanas1 it is   greatest in the 
middle1 and decreases towards the       
margin1 till it is   thinner than the   
wing of a fly4 ,this place1 by nature   
pure1 consisting   of white gold1       
resembles in form an open umbrella1 as  
has been said by   the best of ,jinas4  
7,above it7 is a pure blessed place     
7called t71 which is white   like a     
conch-shell1 the anka-stone1 and        
,kunda-flowers2 ,footnote3   ,the gourd 
,lagenaria vulgaris4 a yojana thence is 
the end of the   world4 ,the perfected  
souls penetrate the sixth part of the   
uppermost   kroa of the                 
7above-mentioned7 yojana4 ,there1 at the
   top of the world reside the blessed  
perfected souls1 rid of all             
transmigration1 and arrived at the      
excellent state of perfection4 ,the     
dimension of a perfected soul is        
two-thirds of the height which the      

individual had in his last existence4   
,the perfected souls considered         
singly--gatta 7as   individuals7--have a
 beginning but no end1 considered       
collectively--puhutta 7as a class7--they
 have neither a   beginning nor an end4 
,they have no 7visible7 form1 they      
consist of   life throughout1 they are  
developed into knowledge and faith1 they
   have crossed the boundary of the     
,sasra1 and reached the excellent       
state of perfection4         99       99
       99       99       99  ,like both 
the ,brhmas and ,buddhists1 the ,jainas 
have a series of hells--,nrakas1        
numbering even which they name--   #a4  
,ratnaprabh2  #b4 arkarprabh2  #c4      
,vlukprabh2  #d4 ,pakaprabh2  #e4       
,dhmaprabh2  #f4 ,tamaprabh2  #g4       
,tamatamaprabh4  ,footnote3 ,ratnasgara1
 bh4 ,,ii1 p4 #fjg2 ,jour4 ,as4 u4s4 p4 
#bfc4  ,those who inhabit the seventh   
hell have a stature of #ejj poles1 and  
in each above that they are half the    
height of the one below it4  ,everything

 in the system as to stature of gods and
 living beings1 their ages and periods  
of transmigration is reduced to         
artificial numbers4   ,the ,jaina       
,gachhas4  ,about the middle of the     
tenth century there flourished a ,jaina 
high priest named ,uddyotana1 with whose
 pupils the eighty four gachhas         
originated4 ,this number is still spoken
 of by the ,jainas1 but the lists that  
have been hitherto published are very   
discordant4 ,the following was obtained 
from a member of the sect as being their
 recognised list1--and allowing for     
differences of spelling1 nearly every   
name may be recognised in those         
previously published by ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4    
,briggs or ,colonel ,miles4  ,the       
,eighty four ,gachchhas of the ,jainas4 
,footnote3 ,those names marked 99 are   
found in ,col4 ,miles's list ,tr4 ,r4   
,a4 ,s4 vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #ceh f4 #cfc1   
#cfe1 #cgj4 ,those marked  are included 
in ,h4 ,g4 ,brigg's list1--,cities of   
,gujarashtra1 p4 #cci4   #a4 8 99       

#dc4 ,sopry99  #b4 ,osvla99             
#dd4 ,maly99  #c4 chala99               
#de4 ,kochhpan99  #d4 ,jirval99         
#df4 ,jgana99  #e4 ,khaatara or         
,kharatara     #dg4 ,lparavla99  #f4    
,lonk or ,richmati99       #dh4         
,vosara99  #g4 ,tap99                   
#di4 ,dvadany99  #h4 ,gagevara99        
#ej4 ,chitrvla99  #i4 ,koraavla         
#ea4 ,vega #aj4 nandapura               
#eb4 ,vpa #aa4 ,bharaval                
#ec4 ,vjahar1 ,vjhar99 #ab4 ,uhavy99    
#ed4 ,kpur #ac4 ,gudv99                 
#ee4 ,kchala #ad4 ,dekp or ,dekw99      
#ef4 ,hadaly #ae4 ,bh nml               
#eg4 ,mahukar #af4 ,mahuy99             
#eh4 ,putaliy99 #ag4 ,gachhapla99       
#ei4 ,kanarsey #ah4 ,goshavla           
#fj4 ,revariy99 #ai4 ,magatragagad      
#fa4 ,dhandhuk #bj4 ,vihmny             
#fb4 ,thabhanpa99 #ba4 ,tlr99           
#fc4 ,pachvla #bb4 ,vkay99              
#fd4 ,plapur99 #bc4 ,mujhy99            
#fe4 ,gadhry99 #bd4 ,chitro             
#ff4 ,vely #be4 ,schor99                

#fg4 ,shapunamy #bf4 ,jachay            
#fh4 ,nagarakoy99 #bg4 ,sdhlav99        
#fi4 ,hsor99 #bh4 ,myy                  
#gj4 ,bhaaner99 #bi4 gamy               
#ga4 ,jaahar99 #cj4 ,maladhr99          
#gb4 ,jagyana99 #ca4 ,bhvary            
#gc4 ,bhmasena99 #cb4 ,palvla99         
#gd4 ,takay #cc4 ,ngadgevara            
#ge4 ,kaboja99 #cd4 ,dharmaghosha       
#gf4 ,senat #ce4 ,ngapur99              
#gg4 ,vagher99 #cf4 ,uchatavla          
#gh4 ,vahey99 #cg4 ,nvla99         #gi4 
,siddhapura99 #ch4 ,ser99               
#hj4 ,ghoghar99 #ci4 ,maovar99          
#ha4 ,ngamy #dj4 ur99                   
#hb4 ,punamy #da4 ,khabhvat99           
#hc4 ,varhay #db4 ,pchada               
#hd4 ,nml4