,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,conflict ,,betwe5    
,,religion ,,& ,,sci5ce    ,by ,john    
,william ,drap]1 ,m4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d4     
,,pr(essor ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,new
 ,,york1         ,,au?or ,,( ,a         
,,treatise ,,on ,,human ,,physiology1   
,,hi/ory ,,( ,,!       ,,intellectual   
,,developm5t ,,( ,,europe1 ,,hi/ory ,,( 
,,! ,,am]ican       ,,civil ,,w>1 ,,&   
,,( ,,_m ,,exp]im5tal ,,memoirs ,,on    
,,*emical ,,&       ,,o!r ,,sci5tific   
,,subjects          ,,preface4          
,,:oev] has _h an opportunity ( becom+  
acqua9t$ ) ! m5tal  condition ( !       
intellig5t classes 9 ,europe & ,am]ica1 
mu/ h  p]ceiv$ t !re is a great &       
rapidly-increas+ dep>ture f  ! public   
religi\s fai?1 & t1 :ile among ! m frank
 ?is  div]g5ce is n conceal$1 !re is a  
f> m ext5sive & f> m  dang]\s secession1
 private & unackn[l$g$4    ,s           
wide-spread & s p[]ful is ?is secession1
 t x c nei!r be  treat$ ) contempt nor )
 puni%m5t4 ,x _c be ext+ui%$ by         
d]ision1 by vitup]ation1 or by =ce4 ,!  

"t is rapidly approa*+  :5 x w give rise
 to s]i\s political results4            
,ecclesia/ical _s no long] inspires !   
policy ( ! _w4  ,milit>y f]vor 9 behalf 
( fai? has disappe>$4 ,its only s\v5irs 
are ! m>ble effigies ( crusad+ knights1 
repos+ 9 ! sil5t  crypts ( *ur*es on _! 
tombs4    ,t a crisis is imp5d+ is %[n  
by ! attitude ( ! great p[]s  t[>d !    
papacy4 ,! papacy repres5ts ! ideas &   
aspirations  ( two-?irds ( ! population 
( ,europe4 ,x insi/s on a political     
supremacy 9 accordance ) its claims to a
 div9e orig9 & mission1  & a re/oration 
( ! m$iaeval ord] ( ?+s1 l\dly decl>+  t
 x w accept no reconciliation ) mod]n   
civilization4    ,! antagonism we ?us   
witness betwe5 ,religion & ,sci5ce is ! 
cont9uation ( a /ruggle t comm5c$ :5    
,*ri/ianity began  to atta9 political   
p[]4 ,a div9e revelation mu/ necess>ily 
be  intol]ant ( contradiction2 x mu/    
repudiate all improvem5t 9  itself1 &   
view ) disda9 t aris+ f ! progressive   
intellectual developm5t ( man4 ,b our   

op9ions on e subject are  cont9ually    
liable to modification1 f ! irresi/ible 
advance (  human k4    ,c we exagg]ate !
 importance ( a cont5tion 9 :i* e       
?\ghtful p]son mu/ take "p :e!r he w or 
n8 ,9 a matt] s  solemn z t ( religion1 
all m51 ^: temporal int]e/s are n       
involv$ 9 exi/+ in/itutions1 e>ne/ly    
desire to f9d ! tru?4  ,!y seek         
in=mation z to ! subjects 9 dispute1 & z
 to !  conduct ( ! disputants4    ,!    
hi/ory ( ,sci5ce is n a m]e record (    
isolat$ discov]ies2 x  is a n>rative ( !
 conflict ( two cont5d+ p[]s1 !         
expansive  =ce ( ! human intellect on "o
 side1 & ! compression aris+  f         
tradition>y fai? & human int]e/s on !   
o!r4    ,no "o has hi!rto treat$ !      
subject f ?is po9t ( view4 ,yet  f ?is  
po9t x pres5ts itself to u z a liv+     
issue--9 fact1 z  ! mo/ important ( all 
liv+ issues4    ,a few ye>s ago1 x 0 !  
politic & !re=e ! prop] c\rse to  ab/a9 
f all allusion to ?is controv]sy1 & to  
keep x z f> z  possible 9 ! backgr\nd4  

,! tranquillity ( society dep5ds s  mu* 
on ! /ability ( its religi\s            
convictions1 t no "o c  be ju/ifi$ 9    
wantonly di/urb+ !m4 ,b fai? is 9 its   
nature  un*angeable1 /ation>y2 ,sci5ce  
is 9 its nature progressive2 &          
ev5tually a div]g5ce betwe5 !m1         
impossible to conceal1 mu/ take  place4 
,x !n becomes ! duty ( ^? ^: lives h    
made !m  famili> ) bo? modes ( ?\ght1 to
 pres5t mode/ly1 b  firmly1 _! views2 to
 comp>e ! antagoni/ic pret5sions calmly1
  imp>tially1 philosophically4 ,hi/ory  
%[s t1 if ?is be n done1  social        
mis=tunes1 disa/r\s & endur+1 w ensue4  
,:5 ! old  my?ological religion (       
,europe broke d[n "u ! weight ( its own 
inconsi/5cies1 nei!r ! ,roman emp]ors   
nor ! philosoph]s (  ^? times did any ?+
 adequate = ! guidance ( public op9ion4 
,!y left religi\s affairs to take _!    
*ance1 & accord+ly ^?  affairs fell into
 ! h&s ( ignorant & infuriat$           
ecclesia/ics1  p>asites1 eunu*s1 &      
slaves4    ,! intellectual night :i*    

settl$ on ,europe1 9 consequ5ce ( t     
great neglect ( duty1 is pass+ away2 we 
live 9 ! daybreak (  bett] ?+s4 ,society
 is anxi\sly expect+ light1 to see 9 :at
  direction x is drift+4 ,x pla9ly      
disc]ns t ! track along :i*  ! voyage ( 
civilization has ?us f> be5 made1 has   
be5 left2 &  t a new dep>ture1 on all   
unkn[n sea1 has be5 tak54    ,?\gh      
deeply impress$ ) su* ?\ghts1 ,i %\ld n 
h presum$  to write ?is book1 or to     
intrude on ! public ! ideas x pres5ts1  
_h ,i n made ! facts ) :i* x deals a    
subject ( long &  e>ne/ m$itation4 ,& ,i
 h ga!r$ a /rong inc5tive to und]take   
?is duty f ! circum/ance t a ,hi/ory ( !
 ,intellectual  ,developm5t ( ,europe1  
publi%$ by me sev]al ye>s ago1 :i* has  
pass$ ?r\gh _m editions 9 ,am]ica1 & has
 be5 repr9t$ 9  num]\s ,european        
languages1 ,engli%1 ,fr5*1 ,g]man1      
,russian1 ,poli%1  ,s]vian1 etc41 is    
ev]y:]e receiv$ ) favor4    ,9 collect+ 
& arrang+ ! mat]ials = ! volumes ,i     
publi%$  "u ! title ( ,a ,hi/ory ( !    

,am]ican ,civil ,w>1 a "w ( v  great    
labor1 ,i _h become accu/om$ to !       
comp>ison ( conflict+  /atem5ts1 !      
adju/m5t ( conflict+ claims4 ,! approval
 )  :i* t book has be5 receiv$ by !     
,am]ican public1 a critical  judge ( !  
ev5ts consid]$1 has inspir$ me )        
additional  confid5ce4 ,i _h also devot$
 mu* att5tion to ! exp]im5tal           
inve/igation ( natural ph5om5a1 & _h    
publi%$ _m well-kn[n  memoirs on su*    
subjects4 ,& p]haps no "o c give himself
 to ^!  pursuits1 & sp5d a l>ge "p ( 8  
life 9 ! public tea*+ (  sci5ce1 )\t    
p>tak+ ( t love ( imp>tiality & tru? :i*
  ,philosophy incites4 ,%e inspires u ) 
a desire to d$icate our days  to ! good 
( our race1 s t 9 ! fad+ light ( life's 
ev5+  we may n1 on look+ back1 be =c$ to
 ackn[l$ge h[ unsub/antial  & useless   
are ! objects t we h pursu$4    ,?\gh ,i
 h sp>$ no pa9s 9 ! composition ( ?is   
book1 ,i am  v s5sible h[ unequal x is  
to ! subject1 to d ju/ice to :i*  a k ( 
sci5ce1 hi/ory1 !ology1 politics1 is    

requir$2 e  page %\ld be alive )        
intellig5ce & gli/5+ ) facts4 ,b  !n ,i 
h rememb]$ t ?is is only z x 7 !        
preface1 or  =]unn]1 ( a body (         
lit]ature1 :i* ! ev5ts & wants ( our    
times w call =?4 ,we h come to ! br9k ( 
a great intellectual  *ange4 ,mu* ( !   
frivol\s read+ ( ! pres5t w be supplant$
  by a ?\ghtful & au/]e lit]ature1      
vivifi$ by endang]$  int]e/s1 & made    
f]vid by ecclesia/ical passion4    ,:at 
,i h s\ght to d is1 to pres5t a cle> &  
imp>tial /atem5t  ( ! views & acts ( !  
two cont5d+ p>ties4 ,9 "o s5se ,i h     
tri$ to id5tify myself ) ea*1 s z to    
compreh5d ?or\ghly _!  motives2 b 9     
ano!r & high] s5se ,i h endeavor$ to /& 
alo(1 & relate ) imp>tiality _! actions4
    ,i !re=e tru/ t ^?1 :o may be       
dispos$ to criticise ?is  book1 w be> 9 
m9d t its object is n to advocate !     
views  & pret5sions ( ei!r p>ty1 b to   
expla9 cle>ly1 & )\t  %r9k+ ^? ( bo?4 ,9
 ! managem5t ( ea* *apt] ,i h  usually  
set =? ! or?odox view fir/1 & !n foll[$ 

x )  t ( its oppon5ts4    ,9 ?us treat+ 
! subject x has n be5 necess>y to pay   
mu*  reg>d to m mod]ate or int]m$iate   
op9ions1 =1 ?\gh !y may  be intr9sically
 ( great value1 9 conflicts ( ?is k9d x 
is n  ) ! mod]ates b ) ! extremi/s t !  
imp>tial read] is  ma9ly conc]n$4 ,_!   
movem5ts det]m9e ! issue4    ,= ?is     
reason ,i h _h little to say respect+ ! 
two great  ,*ri/ian confessions1 !      
,prote/ant & ,greek ,*ur*es4 ,z to !    
latt]1 x has nev]1 s9ce ! re/oration (  
sci5ce1 array$ itself  9 opposition to !
 advancem5t ( k4 ,on ! contr>y1 x has   
always met x ) welcome4 ,x has obs]v$ a 
rev]5tial attitude to  tru?1 f :atev]   
qu>t] x might come4 ,recogniz+ ! app>5t 
discrepancies betwe5 its int]pretations 
( reveal$ tru? & !  discov]ies ( sci5ce1
 x has always expect$ t satisfactory    
explanations & reconciliations w\ld     
ensue1 & 9 ?is x has n  be5 disappo9t$4 
,x w\ld h be5 well = mod]n civilization 
if  ! ,roman ,*ur* _h done ! same4    ,9
 speak+ ( ,*ri/ianity1 ref]5ce is       

g5]ally made to !  ,roman ,*ur*1 p>tly  
because its adh]5ts compose ! majority (
  ,*ri/5dom1 p>tly because its dem&s are
 ! mo/ pret5ti\s1 &  p>tly because x has
 commonly s\ght to en=ce ^? dem&s by  ! 
civil p[]4 ,none ( ! ,prote/ant ,*ur*es 
has ev] occupi$ a  position s           
imp]i\s--none has ev] _h su* wide-spread
 political  influ5ce4 ,= ! mo/ "p !y h  
be5 av]se to con/ra9t1 &  except 9 v few
 in/ances _! opposition has n pass$     
beyond !  excit+ ( !ological odium4     
,z to ,sci5ce1 %e has nev] s\ght to ally
 h]self to civil p[]4 ,%e  has nev]     
attempt$ to ?r[ odium or inflict social 
ru9 on any human  be+4 ,%e has nev]     
subject$ any "o to m5tal torm5t1        
physical  torture1 lea/ ( all to dea?1 =
 ! purpose ( uphold+ or  promot+ h]     
ideas4 ,%e pres5ts h]self un/a9$ by     
cruelties &  crimes4 ,b 9 ! ,vatican--we
 h only to recall ! ,inquisition--!  h&s
 t are n[ rais$ 9 appeals to ! ,mo/     
,m]ciful are crimson$4  ,!y h be5 /eep$ 
9 blood6    ,!re are two modes (        

hi/orical composition1 ! arti/ic & !    
sci5tific4 ,! =m] implies t m5 give     
orig9 to ev5ts2 x  !re=e selects "s     
prom95t individual1 pictures him "u  a  
fanciful =m1 & makes him ! h]o ( a      
romance4 ,! latt]1  insi/+ t human      
affairs pres5t an unbrok5 *a91 9 :i* ea*
  fact is ! (fspr+ ( "s prec$+ fact1 & !
 p>5t ( "s  subsequ5t fact1 decl>es t m5
 d n control ev5ts1 b t  ev5ts control  
m54 ,! =m] gives orig9 to compositions1 
:i*1  h[ev] mu* !y may int]e/ or delight
 u1 are b a grade above  novels2 ! latt]
 is au/]e1 p]haps ev5 repulsive1 = x    
/]nly  impresses u ) a conviction ( !   
irresi/ible dom9ion ( law1 &  !         
insignificance ( human ex]tions4 ,9 a   
subject s solemn z t to  :i* ?is book is
 devot$1 ! romantic & ! popul> are      
altoge!r  out ( place4 ,he :o presumes  
to treat ( x mu/ fix 8 eyes  /eadfa/ly  
on t *a9 ( de/9y :i* univ]sal hi/ory    
displays2  he mu/ turn ) disda9 f !     
phantom impo/ures ( pontiffs &  /atesm5 
& k+s4    ,if any ?+ 7 ne$$ to %[ u !   

untru/wor?9ess ( arti/ic  hi/orical     
compositions1 our p]sonal exp]i5ce w\ld 
furni% x4 ,h[  (t5 d our mo/ intimate   
fri5ds fail to p]ceive ! real motives ( 
our e-day actions2 h[ frequ5tly !y      
mis9t]pret our int5tions6  ,if ?is be ! 
case 9 :at is pass+ be=e our eyes1 may  
we n  be satisfi$ t x is impossible to  
compreh5d ju/ly ! do+s (  p]sons :o liv$
 _m ye>s ago1 & :om we h nev] se54    ,9
 select+ & arrang+ ! topics n[ to be    
pres5t$1 ,i h be5  guid$ 9 "p by !      
,confession ( ! late ,vatican ,c\ncil1 &
 9  "p by ! ord] ( ev5ts 9 hi/ory4 ,n   
)\t int]e/ w !  read] rem>k t ! subjects
 (f] !mselves to u n[ z !y did  to ! old
 philosoph]s ( ,greece4 ,we /ill deal ) 
! same que/ions  ab\t :i* !y disput$4   
,:at is ,god8 ,:at is ! s\l8 ,:at is !  
_w8 ,h[ is x gov]n$8 ,h we any /&>d or  
crit]ion ( tru?8  ,& ! ?\ghtful read] w 
e>ne/ly ask1 ,are our solutions (  ^!   
problems any bett] ?an !irs8    ,! g5]al
 argum5t ( ?is book1 !n1 is z foll[s3   
,i fir/ direct att5tion to ! orig9 (    

mod]n sci5ce z  di/+ui%$ f anci5t1 by   
dep5d+ on obs]vation1 exp]im5t1  &      
ma!matical discussion1 in/ead ( m]e     
speculation1 & %all %[  t x 0 a         
consequ5ce ( ! ,mac$onian campaigns1 :i*
 br\ght  ,asia & ,europe into contact4  
,a brief sket* ( ^? campaigns1 & (  !   
,museum ( ,alex&ria1 illu/rates its "*4 
,!n ) brevity ,i recall ! well-kn[n     
orig9 ( ,*ri/ianity1 &  %[ its advance  
to ! atta9m5t ( imp]ial p[]1 !          
trans=mation  x und]w5t by its          
incorporation ) paganism1 ! exi/+       
religion  ( ! ,roman ,empire4 ,a cle>   
conception ( its incompatibility )      
sci5ce caus$ x to suppress =cibly !     
,s*ools ( ,alex&ria4 ,x 0  con/ra9$ to  
?is by ! political necessities ( its    
position4    ,! p>ties to ! conflict ?us
 plac$1 ,i next relate ! /ory (  _! fir/
 op5 /ruggle2 x is ! fir/ or ,s\!rn     
,re=mation4 ,!  po9t 9 dispute _h       
respect to ! nature ( ,god4 ,x involv$ !
 rise  ( ,mohamm$anism4 ,its result 01 t
 mu* ( ,asia & ,africa1 ) !  hi/oric    

cities ,j]usalem1 ,alex&ria1 & ,c>?age1 
7 wr5*$ f  ,*ri/5dom1 & ! doctr9e ( !   
,unity ( ,god e/abli%$ 9 !  l>g] portion
 ( :at _h be5 ! ,roman ,empire4    ,?is 
political ev5t 0 foll[$ by ! re/oration 
( sci5ce1 !  e/abli%m5t ( colleges1     
s*ools1 libr>ies1 ?r\gh\t ! dom9ions  ( 
! ,arabians4 ,^? conqu]ors1 press+ =w>d 
rapidly 9 _!  intellectual developm5t1  
reject$ ! an?ropomorphic ideas ( !      
nature ( ,god rema9+ 9 _! popul> belief1
 & accept$ o!r m  philosophical ones1   
ak9 to ^? t _h long previ\sly be5 atta9$
  to 9 ,india4 ,! result ( ?is 0 a      
second conflict1 t respect+  ! nature ( 
! s\l4 ,"u ! designation ( ,av]roism1   
!re came  into prom95ce ! !ories (      
,emanation & ,absorption4 ,at !  close (
 ! middle ages ! ,inquisition succe$$ 9 
exclud+ ^?  doctr9es f ,europe1 & n[ !  
,vatican ,c\ncil has =mally &  solemnly 
ana!matiz$ !m4    ,meantime1 ?r\gh !    
cultivation ( a/ronomy1 geography1 & o!r
  sci5ces1 correct views _h be5 ga9$ z  
to ! position & relations  ( ! e>?1 & z 

to ! /ructure ( ! _w2 & s9ce ,religion1 
re/+ itself on :at 0 assum$ to be !     
prop] int]pretation  ( ! ,scriptures1   
insi/$ t ! e>? is ! c5tral & mo/        
important "p ( ! univ]se1 a ?ird        
conflict broke out4 ,9 ?is  ,galileo l$ 
! way on ! "p ( ,sci5ce4 ,its issue 0 ! 
ov]?r[  ( ! ,*ur* on ! "q 9 dispute4    
,subsequ5tly a subord9ate  controv]sy   
arose respect+ ! age ( ! _w1 ! ,*ur*    
insi/+  t x is only ab\t six ?\s& ye>s  
old4 ,9 ?is %e 0 aga9  ov]?r[n ,! light 
( hi/ory & ( sci5ce _h be5 gradually    
spread+ ov] ,europe4 ,9 ! sixte5? c5tury
 ! pre/ige ( ,roman  ,*ri/ianity 0      
greatly dim9i%$ by ! intellectual       
rev]ses x  _h exp]i5c$1 & also by its   
political & moral condition4 ,x 0       
cle>ly se5 by _m pi\s m5 t ,religion 0 n
 acc\ntable =  ! false position 9 :i* %e
 0 f\nd1 b t ! mis=tune 0  directly     
traceable to ! alliance %e _h ( old     
contract$ ) ,roman  paganism4 ,! obvi\s 
rem$y1 !re=e1 0 a return to primitive   
purity4 ,?us arose ! f\r? conflict1 kn[n

 to u z !  ,re=mation--! second or      
,nor!rn ,re=mation4 ,! special =m x     
assum$ 0 a conte/ respect+ ! /&>d or    
crit]ion (  tru?1 :e!r x is to be f\nd 9
 ! ,*ur* or 9 ! ,bible4 ,!  det]m9ation 
( ?is involv$ a settlem5t ( ! rights (  
reason1 or  intellectual fre$om4 ,lu!r1 
:o is ! conspicu\s man ( ! epo*1  c>ri$ 
into effect 8 int5tion ) no             
inconsid]able success2 & at  ! close ( !
 /ruggle x 0 f\nd t ,nor!rn ,europe 0   
lo/ to  ,roman ,*ri/ianity4    ,we are  
n[ 9 ! mid/ ( a controv]sy respect+ !   
mode (  gov]nm5t ( ! _w1 :e!r x be by   
incessant div9e int]v5tion1  or by !    
op]ation ( primordial & un*angeable law4
 ,! intellectual  movem5t ( ,*ri/5dom   
has rea*$ t po9t :i* ,arabism _h  atta9$
 to 9 ! t5? & elev5? c5turies2 &        
doctr9es :i*  7 !n discuss$ are pres5t+ 
!mselves aga9 = review2 su* are  ^? (   
,evolution1 ,creation1 ,developm5t4     
,(f]$ "u ^! g5]al titles1 ,i ?9k x w be 
f\nd t all  ! ess5tial po9ts ( ?is great
 controv]sy are includ$4 ,by gr\p+  "u  

^! compreh5sive heads ! facts to be     
consid]$1 & deal+  ) ea* gr\p sep>ately1
 we %all d\btless acquire cle> views (  
_! int]-connection & _! hi/orical       
succession4    ,i h treat$ ( ^!         
conflicts z ne>ly z ,i conv5i5tly c\ld 9
  _! prop] *ronological ord]1 &1 = !    
sake ( complet5ess1  h add$ *apt]s on-- 
,an exam9ation ( :at ,lat9 ,*ri/ianity  
has done = mod]n  civilization4    ,a   
correspond+ exam9ation ( :at ,sci5ce has
 done4    ,! attitude ( ,roman          
,*ri/ianity 9 ! imp5d+ conflict1 z def9$
  by ! ,vatican ,c\ncil4    ,! att5tion 
( _m tru?-seek+ p]sons has be5 s        
exclusively  giv5 to ! details (        
sect>ian diss5sions1 t ! long /rife1 to 
! hi/ory ( :i* ^! pages are devot$1 is  
popul>ly b little  kn[n4 ,hav+ tri$ to  
keep /eadfa/ly 9 view ! det]m9ation to  
write ?is "w 9 an imp>tial _s1 to speak 
) respect ( !  cont5d+ p>ties1 b nev] to
 conceal ! tru?1 ,i commit x to !       
consid]ate judgm5t ( ! ?\ghtful read]4  
,,john ,,william ,,drap]    ,,univ]sity1

 ,,new ,,york1 ,decemb]1 #ahgc4         
,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,conflict ,,betwe5    
,,religion ,,& ,,sci5ce4        ,,*apt] 
,i4         ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,sci5ce4   
,religi\s condition ( ! ,greeks 9 ! f\r?
 c5tury       be=e ,*ri/4--,_! invasion 
( ! ,p]sian ,empire br+s       !m 9     
contact ) new aspects ( ,nature1 &      
famili>izes       !m ) new religi\s     
sy/ems4--,! milit>y1       eng9e]+1 &   
sci5tific activity1 /imulat$ by !       
,mac$onian campaigns1 leads to !        
e/abli%m5t 9       ,alex&ria ( an       
in/itute1 ! ,museum1 = ! cultivation    
( k by exp]im5t1 obs]vation1 &          
ma!matical       discussion4--,x is !   
orig9 ( ,sci5ce4    ,,greek ,,my?ology4 
,no spectacle c be pres5t$ to ! ?\ghtful
  m9d m solemn1 m m\rnful1 ?an t ( ! dy+
 ( an anci5t  religion1 :i* 9 its day   
has giv5 consolation to _m g5]ations (  
m54    ,f\r c5turies be=e ! bir? (      
,*ri/1 ,greece 0 fa/ outgr[+  h] anci5t 
fai?4 ,h] philosoph]s1 9 _! /udies ( !  
_w1 _h  be5 pr(\ndly impress$ ) !       

contra/ betwe5 ! maje/y ( !  op]ations (
 ,nature & ! wor?lessness ( ! div9ities 
( ,olympus4  ,h] hi/orians1 consid]+ !  
ord]ly c\rse ( political affairs1  !    
manife/ uni=mity 9 ! acts ( m51 & t !re 
0 no ev5t  occurr+ be=e _! eyes = :i* !y
 c\ld n f9d an obvi\s  cause 9 "s prec$+
 ev5t1 began to suspect t ! miracles &  
cele/ial int]v5tions1 ) :i* ! old annals
 7 fill$1 7  only fictions4 ,!y dem&$1  
:5 ! age ( ! sup]natural _h  ceas$1 :y  
oracles _h become mute1 & :y !re 7 n[ no
 m  prodigies 9 ! _w4    ,traditions1   
desc5d+ f immemorial antiquity1 & =m]ly 
accept$  by pi\s m5 z unque/ionable     
tru?s1 _h fill$ ! isl&s (  !            
,m$it]ranean & ! cont]m9\s c\ntries )   
sup]natural  wond]s--en*antresses1      
sorc]]s1 giants1 ogres1 h>pies1 gorgons1
  c5taurs1 cyclops4 ,! azure vault 0 !  
floor ( heav52 !re ,zeus1  surr\nd$ by !
 gods ) _! wives & mi/resses1 held 8    
c\rt1  engag$ 9 pursuits l ^? ( m51 & n 
refra9+ f acts (  human passion & crime4
    ,a sea-coa/ brok5 by num]\s         

ind5tations1 an ar*ipelago ) "s (  ! mo/
 lovely isl&s 9 ! _w1 inspir$ ! ,greeks 
) a ta/e  = m>itime life1 = geographical
 discov]y1 & colonization4  ,_! %ips    
w&]$ all ov] ! ,black & ,m$it]ranean    
,seas4 ,!  "t-honor$ wond]s t _h be5    
glorifi$ 9 ! ,odyssey1 &  sacr$ 9 public
 fai?1 7 f\nd to h no exi/5ce4 ,z a     
bett]  k ( ,nature 0 obta9$1 ! sky 0 %[n
 to be an illusion2  x 0 discov]$ t !re 
is no ,olympus1 no?+ above b space &    
/>s4 ,) ! vani%+ ( _! habitation1 ! gods
 disappe>$1  bo? ^? ( ! ,ionian type (  
,hom] & ^? ( ! ,doric ( ,hesiod4        
,,effects ,,( ,,discov]y ,,&            
,,criticism4 ,b ?is did n take place )\t
  resi/ance4 ,at fir/1 ! public1 &      
p>ticul>ly its religi\s  portion1 d5\nc$
 ! ris+ d\bts z a!ism4 ,!y despoil$ "s  
( ! (f5d]s ( _! goods1 exil$ o!rs2 "s !y
 put to dea?4  ,!y ass]t$ t :at _h be5  
believ$ by pi\s m5 9 ! old times1  & _h 
/ood ! te/ ( ages1 mu/ necess>ily be    
true4 ,!n1 z !  oppos+ evid5ce became   
irresi/ible1 !y 7 cont5t to admit t  ^! 

m>vels 7 allegories "u :i* ! wisdom ( ! 
anci5ts _h  conceal$ _m sacr$ & my/]i\s 
?+s4 ,!y tri$ to reconcile1  :at n[ 9 _!
 misgiv+s !y fe>$ might be my?s1 ) _!   
advanc+ intellectual /ate4 ,b _! ef=ts 7
 9 va91 = !re  are pr$e/9$ phases ?r\gh 
:i* on su* an occasion public op9ion    
mu/ pass4 ,:at x has receiv$ ) v5]ation 
x beg9s to d\bt1 !n  x (f]s new         
int]pretations1 !n subsides into diss5t1
 & ends )  a rejection ( ! :ole z a m]e 
fable4    ,9 _! secession ! philosoph]s 
& hi/orians 7 foll[$ by  ! poets4       
,euripides incurr$ ! odium ( h]esy4     
,aes*ylus n>r[ly  escap$ be+ /on$ to    
dea? = blasphemy4 ,b ! frantic ef=ts  ( 
^? :o are int]e/$ 9 support+ delusions  
mu/ always end 9  defeat4 ,!            
demoralization resi/lessly ext5d$ ?r\gh 
e bran* (  lit]ature1 until at l5g? x   
rea*$ ! common p4    ,,! ,,p]sian       
,,empire4 ,greek philosophical criticism
 _h l5t its aid to  ,greek philosophical
 discov]y 9 ?is de/ruction ( ! national 
fai?4  ,x su/a9$ by _m argum5ts !       

wide-spread+ unbelief4 ,x comp>$  !     
doctr9es ( ! diff]5t s*ools ) ea* o!r1 &
 %[$ f  _! contradictions t man has no  
crit]ion ( tru?2 t1 s9ce 8  ideas ( :at 
is good & :at is evil diff] accord+ to !
 c\ntry  9 :i* he lives1 !y c h no      
f\ndation 9 ,nature1 b mu/ be  altoge!r 
! result ( education2 t "r & wrong are  
no?+  m ?an fictions creat$ by society =
 its own purposes4 ,9 ,a!ns1  "s ( ! m  
advanc$ classes _h rea*$ su* a pass t !y
 n  only d5i$ ! unse51 ! sup]natural1 !y
 ev5 affirm$ t !  _w is only a          
day-dream1 a phantasm1 & t no?+ at all  
exi/s4    ,! topographical configuration
 ( ,greece gave an impress to h]        
political condition4 ,x divid$ h] p into
 di/9ct communities  hav+ conflict+     
int]e/s1 & made !m incapable (          
c5tralization4  ,incessant dome/ic w>s  
betwe5 ! rival /ates *eck$ h]           
advancem5t4 ,%e 0 poor1 h] lead+ m5 _h  
become corrupt4 ,!y 7  ev] ready to b>t]
 patriotic consid]ations = =eign gold1  
to sell  !mselves = ,p]sian bribes4     

,possess+ a p]ception ( ! beautiful  z  
manife/$ 9 sculpture & ar*itecture to a 
degree nev]  atta9$ else:]e ei!r be=e or
 s9ce1 ,greece _h lo/ a practical       
appreciation ( ! ,good & ! ,true4       
,:ile ,european ,greece1 full ( ideas ( 
lib]ty & indep5d5ce1  reject$ !         
sov]eignty ( ,p]sia1 ,asiatic ,greece   
ackn[l$g$ x  )\t reluctance4 ,at t "t ! 
,p]sian ,empire 9 t]ritorial  ext5t 0   
equal to half ( mod]n ,europe4 ,x t\*$ !
 wat]s (  ! ,m$it]ranean1 ! ,aegean1 !  
,black1 ! ,caspian1 ! ,indian1 !        
,p]sian1 ! ,r$ ,seas4 ,?r\gh its        
t]ritories !re fl[$ six ( !  gr&e/ riv]s
 9 ! _w--! ,euphrates1 ! ,tigris1 !     
,indus1 !  ,jax>tes1 ! ,oxus1 ! ,nile1  
ea* m ?an a ?\s& miles 9 l5g?4  ,its    
surface rea*$ f ?irte5 hundr$ feet bel[ 
! sea-level to  tw5ty ?\s& feet above4  
,x yield$1 !re=e1 e agricultural        
product4 ,its m9]al weal? 0 b\ndless4 ,x
 inh]it$ ! pre/ige (  ! ,m$ian1 !       
,babylonian1 ! ,assyrian1 ! ,*aldean    
,empires1 ^:  annals rea*$ back ?r\gh m 

?an tw5ty c5turies4    ,,! ,,p]sian     
,,empire4 ,p]sia _h always look$ ^u     
,european ,greece z  politically        
insignificant1 = x _h sc>cely half !    
t]ritorial  ext5t ( "o ( h] satrapies4  
,h] exp$itions = compell+ its  ob$i5ce  
_h1 h[ev]1 taught h] ! milit>y qualities
 ( its p4  ,9 h] =ces 7 incorporat$     
,greek m]c5>ies1 e/eem$ ! v  be/ ( h]   
troops4 ,%e did n hesitate sometimes to 
give ! comm&  ( h] armies to ,greek     
g5]als1 ( h] fleets to ,greek capta9s4  
,9 !  political convulsions ?r\gh :i* %e
 _h pass$1 ,greek soldi]s _h  (t5 be5   
us$ by h] cont5d+ *iefs4 ,^! milit>y    
op]ations 7  att5d$ by a mom5t\s result4
 ,!y reveal$1 to ! quick eye (  ^!      
w>like m]c5>ies1 ! political weakness ( 
! empire &  ! possibility ( rea*+ its   
c5tre4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,cyrus on !       
battle-field ( ,cunaxa1 x 0 demon/rat$1 
by ! immortal retreat (  ! t5 ?\s& "u   
,x5ophon1 t a ,greek army c\ld =ce its  
way  to & f ! he>t ( ,p]sia4    ,t      
rev]5ce = ! milit>y abilities ( ,asiatic

 g5]als1 s  pr(\ndly impress$ on !      
,greeks by su* eng9e]+ exploits z !     
bridg+ ( ! ,hellespont1 & ! cutt+ ( !   
i/hmus at ,m\nt  ,a?os by ,x]xes1 _h be5
 oblit]at$ at ,salamis1 ,platea1        
,mycale4 ,to  plund] ri* ,p]sian        
prov9ces _h become an irresi/ible       
temptation4  ,su* 0 ! exp$ition (       
,agesilaus1 ! ,sp>tan k+1 ^: brilliant  
successes 71 h[ev]1 *eck$ by ! ,p]sian  
gov]nm5t resort+ to  its "t-prov$ policy
 ( brib+ ! neighbors ( ,sp>ta to attack 
h]4  ,i h be5 conqu]$ by ?irty ?\s&     
,p]sian ar*]s1 bitt]ly  exclaim$        
,agesilaus1 z he re-emb>k$1 allud+ to ! 
,p]sian co91  ! ,d>ic1 :i* 0 /amp$ ) !  
image ( an ar*]4    ,,! ,,invasion ,,(  
,,p]sia ,,by ,,greece4 ,at l5g? ,philip1
 ! ,k+ ( ,mac$on1  project$ a r5ewal (  
^! attempts1 "u a f> m =midable         
organization1 & ) a gr&] object4 ,he    
manag$ to h himself  appo9t$            
capta9-g5]al ( all ,greece n = ! purpose
 ( a m]e  =ay into ! ,asiatic satrapies1
 b = ! ov]?r[ ( ! ,p]sian  dyna/y 9 ! v 

c5tre ( its p[]4 ,assass9at$ :ile 8     
prep>ations 7 incomplete1 he 0 succe$$  
by 8 son ,alex&]1  !n a y\?4 ,a g5]al   
assembly ( ,greeks at ,cor9? _h         
unanim\sly  elect$ him 9 8 fa!r's /ead4 
,!re 7 "s di/urbances 9  ,illyria2      
,alex&] _h to m>* 8 army z f> nor? z !  
,danube to  quell !m4 ,dur+ 8 abs5ce !  
,!bans ) "s o!rs conspir$  aga9/ him4   
,on 8 return he took ,!bes by assault4  
,he massacr$  six ?\s& ( its            
inhabitants1 sold ?irty ?\s& = slaves1 &
  utt]ly demoli%$ ! city4 ,! milit>y    
wisdom ( ?is sev]ity 0  app>5t 9 8      
,asiatic campaign4 ,he 0 n tr\bl$ by any
 revolt 9  8 re>4    ,,! ,,mac$onian    
,,campaign4 ,9 ! spr+ ,b4,c4 #ccd       
,alex&] cross$ !  ,hellespont into      
,asia4 ,8 army consi/$ ( ?irty-f\r ?\s& 
foot  & f\r ?\s& horse4 ,he _h ) him    
only sev5ty tal5ts 9 money4  ,he m>*$   
directly on ! ,p]sian army1 :i*1 va/ly  
exce$+ him 9  /r5g?1 0 hold+ ! l9e ( !  
,granicus4 ,he =c$ ! passage (  ! riv]1 
r\t$ ! enemy1 & ! possession ( all ,asia

 ,m9or1 )  its treasures1 0 ! fruit ( ! 
victory4 ,! rema9d] ( t  ye> he sp5t 9 !
 milit>y organization ( ! conqu]$       
prov9ces4  ,meantime ,d>ius1 ! ,p]sian  
k+1 _h advanc$ an army ( six hundr$     
?\s& m5 to prev5t ! passage ( !         
,mac$onians into ,syria4 ,9  a battle t 
ensu$ among ! m\nta9-defiles at ,issus1 
! ,p]sians  7 aga9 ov]?r[n4 ,s great 0 !
 slaught] t ,alex&]1 &  ,ptolemy1 "o ( 8
 g5]als1 cross$ ov] a rav9e *ok$ ) dead 
bodies4 ,x 0 e/imat$ t ! ,p]sian loss 0 
n less ?an n9ety  ?\s& foot & t5 ?\s&   
horse4 ,! royal pavilion fell into !    
conqu]or's h&s1 & ) x ! wife & sev]al ( 
! *ildr5 (  ,d>ius4 ,syria 0 ?us add$ to
 ! ,greek conque/s4 ,9 ,damascus 7  f\nd
 _m ( ! concub9es ( ,d>ius & 8 *ief     
(fic]s1 toge!r  ) a va/ treasure4       
,be=e v5tur+ into ! pla9s ( ,mesopotamia
 = ! f9al /ruggle1  ,alex&]1 to secure 8
 re> & pres]ve 8 communications ) !     
sea1 m>*$ s\?w>d d[n ! ,m$it]ranean     
coa/1 r$uc+ ! cities  9 8 way4 ,9 8     
spee* be=e ! c\ncil ( w> aft] ,issus1 he

 told  8 g5]als t !y mu/ n pursue ,d>ius
 ) ,tyre unsubdu$1 &  ,p]sia 9          
possession ( ,egypt & ,cyprus1 =1 if    
,p]sia %\ld rega9  h] seaports1 %e w\ld 
transf] ! w> into ,greece1 & t x 0      
absolutely necess>y = him to be sov]eign
 at sea4 ,) ,cyprus &  ,egypt 9 8       
possession he felt no solicitude ab\t   
,greece4 ,! siege  ( ,tyre co/ him m ?an
 half a ye>4 ,9 rev5ge = ?is delay1  he 
crucifi$1 x is said1 two ?\s& ( 8       
prison]s4 ,j]usalem  volunt>ily         
surr5d]$1 & !re=e 0 treat$ l5i5tly3 b ! 
passage ( ! ,mac$onian army into ,egypt 
be+ ob/ruct$ at ,gaza1 !  ,p]sian       
gov]nor ( :i*1 ,betis1 made a mo/       
ob/9ate def5se1 t  place1 aft] a siege (
 two mon?s1 0 c>ri$ by assault1 t5 ?\s& 
( its m5 7 massacr$1 & ! re/1 ) _! wives
 & *ildr51  sold into slav]y4 ,betis    
himself 0 dragg$ alive r\nd ! city at ! 
*>iot-:eels ( ! conqu]or4 ,!re 0 n[ no  
fur!r ob/acle4 ,!  ,egyptians1 :o dete/$
 ! ,p]sian rule1 receiv$ _! invad] )    
op5 arms4 ,he organiz$ ! c\ntry 9 8 own 

int]e/1 intru/+  all its milit>y comm&s 
to ,mac$onian (fic]s1 & leav+ ! civil   
gov]nm5t 9 ! h&s ( native ,egyptians4   
,,conque/ ,,( ,,egypt4 ,:ile prep>ations
 = ! f9al campaign 7 be+  made1 he      
und]took a j\rney to ! temple ( ,jupit] 
,ammon1 :i* 0  situat$ 9 an oasis ( !   
,libyan ,des]t1 at a di/ance ( two      
hundr$  miles4 ,! oracle decl>$ him to  
be a son ( t god :o1 "u  ! =m ( a s]p5t1
 _h beguil$ ,olympias1 8 "m4 ,immaculate
  conceptions & cele/ial desc5ts 7 s    
curr5tly receiv$ 9 ^?  days1 t :oev] _h 
greatly di/+ui%$ himself 9 ! affairs (  
m5 0 ?\ght to be ( sup]natural l9eage4  
,ev5 9 ,rome1 c5turies  lat]1 no "o c\ld
 ) safety h d5i$ t ! city ow$ its       
f\nd]1 ,romulus1 to an accid5tal meet+ (
 ! god ,m>s ) !  virg9 ,rhea ,sylvia1 z 
%e w5t ) h] pit*] = wat] to !  spr+4 ,! 
,egyptian disciples ( ,plato w\ld h     
look$ ) ang] on  ^? :o reject$ ! leg5d t
 ,p]ictione1 ! "m ( t  great philosoph]1
 a pure virg91 _h suff]$ an immaculate  
conception  ?r\gh ! influ5ces ( ,apollo1

 & t ! god _h decl>$ to  ,ari/on1 to :om
 %e 0 betro!d1 ! p>5tage ( ! *ild4 ,:5  
,alex&] issu$ 8 lett]s1 ord]s1 &        
decrees1 /yl+ himself ,k+  ,alex&]1 !   
son ( ,jupit] ,ammon1 !y came to !      
inhabitants (  ,egypt & ,syria ) an     
au?ority t n[ c h>dly be realiz$4 ,!    
free-?9k+ ,greeks1 h[ev]1 put on su* a  
sup]natural p$igree its  prop] value4   
,olympias1 :o1 ( c\rse1 bett] ?an all   
o!rs knew !  facts ( ! case1 us$ je/+ly 
to say1 t %e wi%$ ,alex&]  w\ld cease f 
incessantly embroil+ h] ) ,jupit]'s     
wife4  ,arrian1 ! hi/orian ( !          
,mac$onian exp$ition1 obs]ves1 ,i _c    
condemn him = endeavor+ to draw 8       
subjects into ! belief ( 8  div9e orig91
 nor c ,i be induc$ to ?9k x any great  
crime1 = x  is v reasonable to imag9e t 
he int5d$ no m by x ?an m]ely  to       
procure ! great] au?ority among 8       
soldi]s4    ,,greek ,,conque/ ,,(       
,,p]sia4 ,all ?+s be+ ?us secur$ 9 8    
re>1  ,alex&]1 hav+ return$ into ,syria1
 direct$ ! m>* ( 8 army1  n[ consi/+ (  

fifty ?\s& vet]ans1 ea/w>d4 ,aft] cross+
 !  ,euphrates1 he kept close to !      
,masian hills1 to avoid ! int5se heat  (
 ! m s\!rly ,mesopotamian pla9s2 m      
abundant =age c\ld  also ?us be procur$ 
= ! cavalry4 ,on ! left bank ( !        
,tigris1  ne> ,arbela1 he enc\nt]$ !    
great army ( elev5 hundr$ ?\s&  m5      
br\ght up by ,d>ius f ,babylon4 ,! dea? 
( ! ,p]sian mon>*1  :i* soon foll[$ !   
defeat he suff]$1 left ! ,mac$onian     
g5]al  ma/] ( all ! c\ntries f ! ,danube
 to ! ,indus4 ,ev5tually he  ext5d$ 8   
conque/ to ! ,ganges4 ,! treasures he   
seiz$ are almo/  beyond belief4 ,at     
,susa alone he f\nd--s ,arrian          
says--fifty ?\s&  tal5ts 9 money4       
,,ev5ts ,,( ,,! ,,campaigns4 ,! mod]n   
milit>y /ud5t _c look  ^u ^! wond]ful   
campaigns )\t admiration4 ,! passage ( !
  ,hellespont2 ! =c+ ( ! ,granicus2 !   
w9t] sp5t 9 a political  organization ( 
conqu]$ ,asia ,m9or2 ! m>* ( ! "r w+ &  
c5tre ( ! army along ! ,syrian          
,m$it]ranean coa/2 ! eng9e]+            

difficulties ov]come at ! siege ( ,tyre2
 ! /orm+ ( ,gaza2 !  isolation ( ,p]sia 
f ,greece2 ! absolute exclusion ( h]    
navy f  ! ,m$it]ranean2 ! *eck on all h]
 attempts at intrigu+ )  or brib+       
,a!nians or ,sp>tans1 h]et(ore s (t5    
resort$ to )  success2 ! submission (   
,egypt2 ano!r w9t] sp5t 9 ! political   
organization ( t v5]able c\ntry2 !      
conv]g5ce ( ! :ole  army f ! ,black &   
,r$ ,seas t[>d ! nitre-cov]$ pla9s (    
,mesopotamia 9 ! ensu+ spr+2 ! passage (
 ! ,euphrates fr+$  ) its weep+-will[s  
at ! brok5 bridge ( ,?apsacus2 ! cross+ 
( ! ,tigris2 ! nocturnal reconnaissance 
be=e ! great &  memorable battle (      
,arbela2 ! oblique movem5t on ! field2 !
  pi]c+ ( ! enemy's c5tre--a manoeuvre  
de/9$ to be repeat$  _m c5turies        
subsequ5tly at ,au/]litz2 ! en]getic    
pursuit (  ! ,p]sian mon>*2 ^! are      
exploits n surpass$ by any soldi] (     
lat] times4    ,a prodigi\s /imulus 0   
?us giv5 to ,greek intellectual         
activity4  ,!re 7 m5 :o _h m>*$ ) !     

,mac$onian army f ! ,danube  to ! ,nile1
 f ! ,nile to ! ,ganges4 ,!y _h felt !  
hyp]borean  bla/s ( ! c\ntries beyond ! 
,black ,sea1 ! simooms &  s&-tempe/s ( !
 ,egyptian des]ts4 ,!y _h se5 !         
,pyramids :i*  _h already /ood = tw5ty  
c5turies1 ! hi]oglyph-cov]$ obelisks  ( 
,luxor1 av5ues ( sil5t & my/]i\s        
sph9xes1 colossi ( mon>*s  :o reign$ 9 !
 morn+ ( ! _w4 ,9 ! halls ( ,es>-haddon 
!y _h /ood be=e ! ?rones ( grim old     
,assyrian k+s1 gu>d$ by  w+$ bulls4 ,9  
,babylon !re /ill rema9$ its walls1 once
 m ?an  sixty miles 9 compass1 &1 aft] !
 ravages ( ?ree c5turies &  ?ree        
conqu]ors1 /ill m ?an eighty feet 9     
height2 !re 7  /ill ! ru9s ( ! temple ( 
cl\d encompass$ ,bel1 on its top 0      
plant$ ! obs]vatory :]e9 ! weird        
,*aldean a/ronom]s _h held  nocturnal   
communion ) ! />s2 /ill !re 7 ve/iges ( 
! two  palaces ) _! hang+ g>d5s 9 :i* 7 
great trees gr[+ 9  mid-air1 & ! wreck (
 ! hydraulic ma*9]y t _h suppli$  !m )  
wat] f ! riv]4 ,into ! artificial lake )

 its va/  app>atus ( aqu$ucts & sluices 
! melt$ sn[s ( ! ,arm5ian  m\nta9s f\nd 
_! way1 & 7 conf9$ 9 _! c\rse ?r\gh  !  
city by ! embankm5ts ( ! ,euphrates4    
,mo/ wond]ful ( all1  p]haps1 0 ! tunnel
 "u ! riv]-b$4    ,,effect ,,on ,,!     
,,greek ,,army4 ,if ,*aldea1 ,assyria1  
,babylon1 pres5t$  /up5d\s & v5]able    
antiquities rea*+ f> back into ! night (
  "t1 ,p]sia 0 n )\t h] wond]s ( a lat] 
date4 ,! pill>$  halls ( ,p]sepolis 7   
fill$ ) miracles ( art--c>v+s1          
sculptures1 enamels1 alaba/] libr>ies1  
obelisks1 sph9xes1 colossal  bulls4     
,ecbatana1 ! cool summ] retreat ( !     
,p]sian k+s1 0  def5d$ by sev5 encircl+ 
walls ( hewn & poli%$ blocks1 !  int]ior
 ones 9 succession ( increas+ height1 & 
( diff]5t  colors1 9 a/rological        
accordance ) ! sev5 planets4 ,! palace  
0 ro($ ) silv] tiles1 its beams 7 plat$ 
) gold4 ,at  midnight1 9 its halls !    
sunlight 0 rival$ by _m a r[ ( naph?a   
cressets4 ,a p>adise--t luxury ( !      
mon>*s ( ! ,ea/--0  plant$ 9 ! mid/ ( ! 

city4 ,! ,p]sian ,empire1 f !           
,hellespont to ! ,indus1 0 truly ! g>d5 
( ! _w4    ,,effects ,,on ,,! ,,greek   
,,army4 ,i h devot$ a few pages to !    
/ory (  ^! m>vel\s campaigns1 = !       
milit>y tal5t !y fo/]$ l$  to !         
e/abli%m5t ( ! ma!matical & practical   
s*ools (  ,alex&ria1 ! true orig9 (     
sci5ce4 ,we trace back all our exact  k 
to ! ,mac$onian campaigns4 ,humboldt has
 well obs]v$ t  an introduction to new &
 gr& objects ( ,nature enl>ges ! human  
m9d4 ,! soldi]s ( ,alex&] & ! ho/s ( 8  
camp-foll[]s  enc\nt]$ at e m>*         
unexpect$ & picturesque sc5]y4 ,( all   
m51 ! ,greeks 7 ! mo/ obs]vant1 ! mo/   
readily & pr(\ndly  impress$4 ,"h !re 7 
int]m9able s&y pla9s1 !re m\nta9s  ^:   
peaks 7 lo/ above ! cl\ds4 ,9 ! des]ts 7
 mirages1  on ! hill-sides %ad[s (      
fleet+ cl\ds sweep+ ov] ! =e/s4  ,!y 7 9
 a l& ( amb]-color$ date-palms &        
cypresses1 (  tam>isks1 gre5 myrtles1 & 
ole&]s4 ,at ,arbela !y _h f\ght  aga9/  
,indian elephants2 9 ! ?ickets ( !      

,caspian !y _h r\s$  f 8 lair ! lurk+   
royal tig]4 ,!y _h se5 animals :i*1     
comp>$ ) ^? ( ,europe1 7 n only /range1 
b colossal--!  rh9oc]os1 ! hippopotamus1
 ! camel1 ! crocodiles ( ! ,nile  & !   
,ganges4 ,!y _h enc\nt]$ m5 ( _m        
complexions & _m  co/umes3 ! sw>?y      
,syrian1 ! olive-color$ ,p]sian1 ! black
  ,african4 ,ev5 ( ,alex&] himself x is 
relat$ t on 8 dea?-b$  he caus$ 8       
admiral1 ,ne>*us1 to sit by 8 side1 &   
f\nd  consolation 9 li/5+ to ! adv5tures
 ( t sailor--! /ory (  8 voyage f !     
,indus up ! ,p]sian ,gulf4 ,! conqu]or  
_h se5  ) a/oni%m5t ! ebb+ & fl[+ ( !   
tides4 ,he _h built  %ips = !           
exploration ( ! ,caspian1 suppos+ t x & 
! ,black ,sea might be gulfs ( a great  
ocean1 su* z ,ne>*us _h  discov]$ !     
,p]sian & ,r$ ,seas to be4 ,he _h =m$ a 
resolution  t 8 fleet %\ld attempt !    
circumnavigation ( ,africa1 & come  into
 ! ,m$it]ranean ?r\gh ! ,pill>s (       
,h]cules--a feat :i*1 x  0 affirm$1 _h  
once be5 accompli%$ by ! ,ph>aohs4      

,,intellectual ,,condition ,,( ,,p]sia4 
,n only h] greate/ soldi]s1 b  also h]  
greate/ philosoph]s1 f\nd 9 ! conqu]$   
empire mu* t  might excite ! admiration 
( ,greece4 ,calli/h5es obta9$ 9 ,babylon
  a s]ies ( ,*aldean a/ronomical        
obs]vations rang+ back ?r\gh  #a1ijc    
ye>s2 ^! he s5t to ,ari/otle4 ,p]haps1  
s9ce !y 7 on  burnt bricks1 duplicates (
 !m may be recov]$ by mod]n rese>*  9 ! 
clay libr>ies ( ! ,assyrian k+s4        
,ptolemy1 ! ,egyptian  a/ronom]1        
possess$ a ,babylonian record (         
eclipses1 go+ back  #gdg ye>s be=e our  
era4 ,long-cont9u$ & close obs]vations 7
  necess>y1 be=e "s ( ^! a/ronomical    
results t h rea*$  our times c\ld h be5 
asc]ta9$4 ,?us ! ,babylonians _h fix$  !
 l5g? ( a tropical ye> )9 tw5ty-five    
seconds ( ! tru?2  _! e/imate ( !       
sid]eal ye> 0 b>ely two m9utes 9 excess4
  ,!y _h detect$ ! precession ( !       
equ9oxes4 ,!y knew ! causes  ( eclipses1
 &1 by ! aid ( _! cycle call$ ,s>os1    
c\ld pr$ict  !m4 ,_! e/imate ( ! value (

 t cycle1 :i* is m ?an  #f1ehe days1 0  
)9 n9ete5 & a half m9utes ( ! tru?4     
,,intellectual ,,condition ,,( ,,p]sia4 
,su* facts furni% incontrov]tible  pro( 
( ! pati5ce & skill ) :i* a/ronomy _h   
be5 cultivat$  9 ,mesopotamia1 & t1 ) v 
inadequate in/rum5tal means1 x  _h rea*$
 no inconsid]able p]fection4 ,^! old    
obs]v]s _h made  a catalogue ( ! />s1 _h
 divid$ ! zodiac into twelve signs2 !y  
_h p>t$ ! day into twelve h\rs1 ! night 
into twelve4 ,!y _h1  z ,ari/otle says1 
= a long "t devot$ !mselves to          
obs]vations (  />-occultations by !     
moon4 ,!y _h correct views ( ! /ructure 
( ! sol> sy/em1 & knew ! ord] ( !       
emplacem5t ( !  planets4 ,!y con/ruct$  
sundials1 clepsydras1 a/rolabes1        
gnomons4    ,n )\t int]e/ d we /ill look
 on specim5s ( _! me?od (  pr9t+4 ,^u a 
revolv+ roll] !y engrav$1 9 cunei=m     
lett]s1  _! records1 &1 runn+ ?is ov]   
pla/ic clay =m$ into blocks1  produc$   
ineffaceable pro(s4 ,f _! tile-libr>ies 
we are /ill  to reap a lit]>y &         

hi/orical h>ve/4 ,!y 7 n )\t "s  k (    
optics4 ,! convex l5s f\nd at ,nimr\d   
%[s t !y  7 n unacqua9t$ ) magnify+     
in/rum5ts4 ,9 ari?metic !y  _h detect$ !
 value ( position 9 ! digits1 ?\gh !y   
miss$ !  gr& ,indian inv5tion ( ! ciph]4
    ,:at a spectacle = ! conqu]+        
,greeks1 :o1 up to ?is "t1 _h  nei!r    
exp]im5t$ nor obs]v$6 ,!y _h cont5t$    
!mselves )  m]e m$itation & useless     
speculation4    ,,its ,,religi\s        
,,condition4 ,b ,greek intellectual     
developm5t1 due ?us  9 "p to a m ext5d$ 
view ( ,nature1 0 p[]fully aid$ by !  k 
!n acquir$ ( ! religion ( ! conqu]$     
c\ntry4 ,!  idolatry ( ,greece _h always
 be5 a horror to ,p]sia1 :o1 9 h]       
invasions1 _h nev] fail$ to de/roy !    
temples & insult ! fanes  ( ! be/ial    
gods4 ,! impunity ) :i* ^! sacrileges _h
  be5 p]petrat$ _h made a pr(\nd        
impression1 & did no little to  und]m9e 
,hell5ic fai?4 ,b n[ ! wor%ip] ( ! vile 
,olympian  div9ities1 ^: obsc5e lives   
mu/ h be5 %ock+ to e  pi\s man1 0 br\ght

 9 contact ) a gr&1 a solemn1 a consi/5t
  religi\s sy/em hav+ its f\ndation on a
 philosophical basis4 ,p]sia1  z is !   
case ) all empires ( long duration1 _h  
pass$ ?r\gh  _m *anges ( religion4 ,%e  
_h foll[$ ! ,mono!ism ( ,zoroa/]2  _h !n
 accept$ ,dualism1 & ex*ang$ t =        
,magianism4 ,at ! "t  ( ! ,mac$onian    
exp$ition1 %e recogniz$ "o univ]sal     
,intellig5ce1  ! ,creator1 ,pres]v]1 &  
,gov]nor ( all ?+s1 ! mo/ holy  ess5ce (
 tru?1 ! giv] ( all good4 ,he 0 n to be 
repres5t$ by  any image1 or any grav5   
=m4 ,&1 s9ce1 9 e ?+ "h bel[1 we  see ! 
resultant ( two oppos+ =ces1 "u him 7   
two coequal &  coet]nal pr9ciples1      
repres5t$ by ! imag]y ( ,light &        
,d>kness4  ,^! pr9ciples are 9 nev]-end+
 conflict4 ,! _w is _!  battle-gr\nd1   
man is _! prize4    ,9 ! old leg5ds (   
,dualism1 ! ,evil ,_s 0 said to h s5t  a
 s]p5t to ru9 ! p>adise :i* ! ,good ,_s 
_h made4 ,^!  leg5ds became kn[n to !   
,jews dur+ _! ,babylonian captivity4    
,! exi/5ce ( a pr9ciple ( evil is !     

necess>y incid5t ( !  exi/5ce ( a       
pr9ciple ( good1 z a %ad[ is ! necess>y 
incid5t  ( ! pres5ce ( light4 ,9 ?is    
mann] c\ld be expla9$ !  occurr5ce (    
evil 9 a _w1 ! mak] & rul] ( :i* is     
supremely  good4 ,ea* ( ! p]sonifi$     
pr9ciples ( light & d>kness1 ,ormuzd  & 
,ahriman1 _h 8 subord9ate angels1 8     
c\nselors1 8 armies4 ,x  is ! duty ( a  
good man to cultivate tru?1 purity1 &   
indu/ry4 ,he  may look =w>d1 :5 ?is life
 is ov]1 to a life 9 ano!r _w1  & tru/  
to a resurrection ( ! body1 !           
immortality ( ! s\l1  & a consci\s      
future exi/5ce4    ,9 ! lat] ye>s ( !   
empire1 ! pr9ciples ( ,magianism _h     
gradually prevail$ m & m ov] ^? (       
,zoroa/]4 ,magianism 0  ess5tially a    
wor%ip ( ! elem5ts4 ,( ^!1 fire 0       
consid]$ z  ! mo/ wor?y repres5tative ( 
! ,supreme ,be+4 ,on alt>s erect$1  n 9 
temples1 b "u ! blue canopy ( ! sky1    
p]petual fires  7 kept burn+1 & ! ris+  
sun 0 reg>d$ z ! noble/ object  ( human 
adoration4 ,9 ! society ( ,asia1 no?+ is

 visible b !  mon>*2 9 ! expanse (      
heav51 all objects vani% 9 pres5ce ( !  
sun4    ,,dea? ,,( ,,alex&]4            
,prematurely cut (f 9 ! mid/ ( _m great 
projects ,alex&] di$ at ,babylon be=e he
 _h complet$ 8  ?irty-?ird ye> 7,b4,c4  
#cbc74 ,!re 0 a suspicion t he _h be5   
poison$4 ,8 temp] _h become s unbridl$1 
8 passion s f]oci\s1  t 8 g5]als & ev5 8
 intimate fri5ds liv$ 9 cont9ual  dread4
 ,clitus1 "o ( ! latt]1 he 9 a mom5t (  
fury _h /abb$ to  ! he>t4 ,calli/h5es1 !
 int]m$ium betwe5 himself & ,ari/otle1  
he _h caus$ to be hang$1 or1 z 0        
positively ass]t$ by "s :o  knew !      
facts1 _h _h him put ^u ! rack & !n     
crucifi$4 ,x  may h be5 9 self-def5se t 
! conspirators resolv$ on 8             
assass9ation4 ,b surely x 0 a calumny to
 associate ! "n (  ,ari/otle ) ?is      
transaction4 ,he w\ld h r borne ! wor/  
t ,alex&] c\ld inflict1 ?an h jo9$ 9 !  
p]petration ( s  great a crime4    ,a   
sc5e ( confusion & blood%$ la/+ _m ye>s 
ensu$1 nor did x  cease ev5 aft] !      

,mac$onian g5]als _h divid$ ! empire4   
,among  its vicissitudes "o incid5t     
ma9ly claims our att5tion4 ,ptolemy1 :o 
0 a son ( ,k+ ,philip by ,ars9oe1 a     
beautiful concub9e1 & :o  9 8 boyhood _h
 be5 driv5 into exile ) ,alex&]1 :5 !y  
incurr$ _! fa!r's displeasure1 :o _h be5
 ,alex&]'s comrade  9 _m ( 8 battles &  
all 8 campaigns1 became gov]nor &       
ev5tually k+ ( ,egypt4    ,,f\ndation   
,,( ,,alex&]4 ,at ! siege ( ,rhodes1    
,ptolemy _h be5 (  su* signal s]vice to 
its citiz5s t 9 gratitude !y paid div9e 
honors to him1 & salut$ him ) ! title ( 
,sot] 7! ,savior74  ,by t               
designation--,ptolemy ,sot]--he is      
di/+ui%$ f succe$+  k+s ( ! ,mac$onian  
dyna/y 9 ,egypt4    ,he e/abli%$ 8 seat 
( gov]nm5t n 9 any ( ! old capitals  ( !
 c\ntry1 b 9 ,alex&ria4 ,at ! "t ( !    
exp$ition to  ! temple ( ,jupit] ,ammon1
 ! ,mac$onian conqu]or _h caus$ !       
f\ndations ( t city to be laid1 =esee+ t
 x might be  made ! comm]cial entrepot  
betwe5 ,asia & ,europe4 ,x is to be     

p>ticul>ly rem>k$ t n only did ,alex&]  
himself deport _m  ,jews f ,pale/9e to p
 ! city1 & n only did ,ptolemy ,sot]    
br+ "o hundr$ ?\s& m aft] 8 siege (     
,j]usalem1 b  ,philadelphus1 8          
successor1 r$eem$ f slav]y "o hundr$ &  
n9ety-eight ?\s& ( t p1 pay+ _!         
,egyptian own]s a  j money equival5t =  
ea*4 ,to all ^! ,jews ! same privileges 
7 accord$ z to ! ,mac$onians4 ,9        
consequ5ce ( ?is consid]ate  treatm5t1  
va/ numb]s ( _! compatriots & _m        
,syrians  volunt>ily came into ,egypt4  
,to !m ! designation ( ,hell5i/ical     
,jews 0 giv54 ,9 l mann]1 tempt$ by !   
b5ign gov]nm5t (  ,sot]1 multitudes (   
,greeks s\ght refuge 9 ! c\ntry1 & !    
invasions ( ,p]diccas & ,antigonus %[$ t
 ,greek soldi]s w\ld  des]t f o!r       
,mac$onian g5]als to jo9 is armies4     
,! population ( ,alex&ria 0 !re=e ( ?ree
 di/9ct  nationalities3 #a4 ,native     
,egyptians #b4 ,greeks2 #c4 ,jews--a    
fact t has  left an impress on !        
religi\s fai? ( mod]n ,europe4    ,greek

 ar*itects & ,greek eng9e]s _h made     
,alex&ria ! mo/  beautiful city ( !     
anci5t _w4 ,!y _h fill$ x ) magnific5t  
palaces1 temples1 !atres4 ,9 its c5tre1 
at ! int]section ( its  two gr& av5ues1 
:i* cross$ ea* o!r at "r angles1 & 9 !  
mid/ ( g>d5s1 f\nta9s1 obelisks1 /ood ! 
mausoleum1 9  :i*1 embalm$ aft] ! mann] 
( ! ,egyptians1 re/$ ! body (  ,alex&]4 
,9 a fun]eal j\rney ( two ye>s x _h be5 
br\ght )  great pomp f ,babylon4 ,at    
fir/ ! c(f9 0 ( pure gold1 b  ?is hav+  
l$ to a violation ( ! tomb1 x 0 replac$ 
by "o (  alaba/]4 ,b n ^!1 n ev5 ! great
 light-h\se1 ,ph>os1 built  ( blocks (  
:ite m>ble & s high t ! fire cont9ually 
burn+  on its top c\ld be se5 _m miles  
(f at sea--! ,ph>os c\nt$  z "o ( ! sev5
 wond]s ( ! _w--x is n ^! magnific5t    
a*ievem5ts ( ar*itecture t arre/ our    
att5tion2 ! true1 !  mo/ glori\s monum5t
 ( ! ,mac$onian k+s ( ,egypt is !       
,museum4  ,its influ5ces w la/ :5 ev5 ! 
,pyramids h pass$ away4    ,,!          
,,alex&rian ,,museum4 ,! ,alex&rian     

,museum 0 comm5c$ by ,ptolemy  ,sot]1 & 
0 complet$ by 8 son ,ptolemy            
,philadelphus4 ,x 0  situat$ 9 !        
,bru*ion1 ! ari/ocratic qu>t] ( ! city1 
adjo9+ ! k+'s palace4 ,built ( m>ble1 x 
0 surr\nd$ )  a piazza1 9 :i* ! resid5ts
 might walk & conv]se toge!r4 ,its      
sculptur$ ap>tm5ts conta9$ !            
,philadelphian libr>y1 & 7  cr[d$ ) !   
*oice/ /atues & pictures4 ,?is libr>y   
ev5tually  compris$ f\r hundr$ ?\s&     
volumes4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "t1 probably  on  
acc\nt ( inadequate accommodation = s _m
 books1 an additional  libr>y 0 e/abli%$
 9 ! adjac5t qu>t] ,rhacotis1 & plac$  9
 ! ,s]apion or temple ( ,s]apis4 ,!     
numb] ( volumes 9 ?is  libr>y1 :i* 0    
call$ ! ,daught] ( t 9 ! ,museum1 0     
ev5tually ?ree hundr$ ?\s&4 ,!re 71     
!re=e1 sev5 hundr$  ?\s& volumes 9 ^!   
royal collections4    ,alex&ria 0 n     
m]ely ! capital ( ,egypt1 x 0 !         
intellectual  metropolis ( ! _w4 ,"h x 0
 truly said ! ,g5ius ( ! ,ea/  met !    
,g5ius ( ! ,we/1 & ?is ,p>is ( antiquity

 became a focus  ( fa%ionable           
dissipation & univ]sal skepticism4 ,9 ! 
allurem5ts  ( its bewit*+ society ev5 ! 
,jews =got _! patriotism4 ,!y  ab&on$ ! 
language ( _! =efa!rs1 & adopt$ ,greek4 
,9 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,museum1 ,ptolemy   
,sot] & 8 son  ,philadelphus _h ?ree    
objects 9 view3 #a4 ,! p]petuation ( su*
  k z 0 !n 9 ! _w2 #b4 ,its increase2   
#c4 ,its diffusion4    #a4 ,= !         
p]petuation ( k4 ,ord]s 7 giv5 to ! *ief
  libr>ian to buy at ! k+'s exp5se      
:atev] books he c\ld4 ,a body  (        
transcrib]s 0 ma9ta9$ 9 ! ,museum1 ^:   
duty x 0 to make  correct copies ( su*  
works z _! own]s 7 n dispos$ to sell4   
,any books br\ght by =eign]s into ,egypt
 7 tak5 at once to !  ,museum1 &1 :5    
correct copies _h be5 made1 ! transcript
 0 giv5  to ! own]1 & ! orig9al plac$ 9 
! libr>y4 ,(t5 a v l>ge  pecuni>y       
indemnity 0 paid4 ,?us x is said (      
,ptolemy ,eu]getes  t1 hav+ obta9$ f    
,a!ns ! works ( ,euripides1 ,sophocles1 
& ,aes*ylus1 he s5t to _! own]s         

transcripts1 toge!r ) ab\t  fifte5 ?\s& 
doll>s1 z an indemnity4 ,on 8 return f !
 ,syrian  exp$ition he c>ri$ back 9     
triumph all ! ,egyptian monum5ts f      
,ecbatana & ,susa1 :i* ,cambyses & o!r  
invad]s _h remov$ f  ,egypt4 ,^! he     
replac$ 9 _! orig9al seats1 or add$ z   
adornm5ts  to 8 museums4 ,:5 works 7    
translat$ z well z transcrib$1 sums  :i*
 we %\ld consid] z almo/ incr$ible 7    
paid1 z 0 !  case ) ! ,septuag9t        
translation ( ! ,bible1 ord]$ by        
,ptolemy  ,philadelphus4    #b4 ,= !    
increase ( k4 ,"o ( ! *ief objects ( !  
,museum  0 t ( s]v+ z ! home ( a body ( 
m5 :o devot$ !mselves  to /udy1 & 7     
lodg$ & ma9ta9$ at ! k+'s exp5se4       
,occasionally he himself sat at _!      
table4 ,anecdotes connect$ )  ^? fe/ive 
occasions h desc5d$ to our times4 ,9 !  
orig9al  organization ( ! ,museum !     
resid5ts 7 divid$ into f\r              
faculties--lit]ature2 ma!matics1        
a/ronomy1 m$ic9e4 ,m9or bran*es  7      
appropriately classifi$ "u "o ( ^! g5]al

 heads2 ?us  natural hi/ory 0 consid]$  
to be a bran* ( m$ic9e4 ,an (fic] (  v  
great di/9ction presid$ ov] !           
e/abli%m5t1 & _h g5]al  *>ge ( its      
int]e/s4 ,demetrius ,phal>eus1 p]haps ! 
mo/ le>n$  man ( 8 age1 :o _h be5       
gov]nor ( ,a!ns = _m ye>s1 0 !  fir/ s  
appo9t$4 ,"u him 0 ! libr>ian1 an (fice 
sometimes  held by m5 ^: names h desc5d$
 to our times1 z ,erato/h5es1  &        
,apollonius ,rhodius4    ,,organization 
,,( ,,! ,,museum4 ,9 connection ) !     
,museum 7 a  botanical & a zoological   
g>d54 ,^! g>d5s1 z _! names import1  7 =
 ! purpose ( facilitat+ ! /udy ( plants 
& animals4  ,!re 0 also an a/ronomical  
obs]vatory conta9+ armill>y sph]es1     
globes1 sol/itial & equatorial armils1  
a/rolabes1 p>allactic  rules1 & o!r     
app>atus !n 9 use1 ! graduation on !    
divid$  in/rum5ts be+ into degrees &    
six?s4 ,on ! floor ( ?is  obs]vatory a  
m]idian l9e 0 drawn4 ,! want ( correct  
means (  measur+ "t & temp]ature 0      
sev]ely felt2 ! clepsydra (  ,ctesibius 

answ]$ v imp]fectly = ! =m]1 ! hydromet]
  float+ 9 a cup ( wat] = ! latt]2 x    
measur$ v>iations (  temp]ature by      
v>iations ( d5sity4 ,philadelphus1 :o   
t[>d ! close  ( 8 life 0 haunt$ ) an    
intol]able dread ( dea?1 devot$ mu*  ( 8
 "t to ! discov]y ( an elixir4 ,= su*   
pursuits ! ,museum  0 provid$ ) a       
*emical laboratory4 ,9 spite ( !        
prejudices (  ! age1 & especially 9     
spite ( ,egyptian prejudices1 !re 0  9  
connection ) ! m$ical dep>tm5t an       
anatomical room = !  dissection1 n only 
( ! dead1 b actually ( ! liv+1 :o =     
crimes _h be5 condemn$4    #c4 ,= !     
diffusion ( k4 ,9 ! ,museum 0 giv51 by  
lectures1  conv]sation1 or o!r          
appropriate me?ods in/ruction 9 all !   
v>i\s dep>tm5ts ( human k4 ,!re flock$  
to ?is great  intellectual c5tre1 /ud5ts
 f all c\ntries4 ,x is said t at "o  "t 
n few] ?an f\rte5 ?\s& 7 9 att5dance4   
,subsequ5tly  ev5 ! ,*ri/ian *ur*       
receiv$ f x "s ( ! mo/ em95t (  its     
,fa!rs1 z ,clem5s ,alex&r9us1 ,orig51   

,a?anasius4    ,! libr>y 9 ! ,museum 0  
burnt dur+ ! siege ( ,alex&ria by       
,julius ,caes>4 ,to make am5ds = ?is    
great loss1 t collect$  by ,eum5es1 ,k+ 
( ,p]gamus1 0 pres5t$ by ,m>k ,antony to
 ,que5  ,cleopatra4 ,orig9ally x 0 f\nd$
 z a rival to t ( !  ,ptolemies4 ,x 0   
add$ to ! collection 9 ! ,s]apion4      
,,sci5tific ,,s*ool ,,( ,,! ,,museum4 ,x
 rema9s n[ to describe briefly !        
philosophical basis ( ! ,museum1 & "s ( 
its contributions to !  /ock ( human k4 
,9 memory ( ! illu/ri\s f\nd] ( ?is mo/ 
noble in/itution--an  in/itution :i*    
antiquity delight$ to call ,! div9e     
s*ool (  ,alex&ria--we mu/ m5tion 9 !   
fir/ rank 8 ,hi/ory ( !  ,campaigns (   
,alex&]4 ,great z a soldi] & z a        
sov]eign1 ,ptolemy  ,sot] add$ to 8     
glory by be+ an au?or4 ,"t1 :i* has n   
be5  able to de/roy ! memory ( our      
obligations to him1 has dealt unju/ly   
by 8 "w4 ,x is n n[ extant4    ,z might 
be expect$ f ! fri5d%ip t exi/$ betwe5  
,alex&]1  ,ptolemy1 & ,ari/otle1 !      

,ari/otelian philosophy 0 ! intellectual
  corn]-/one on :i* ! ,museum re/$4 ,k+ 
,philip _h committ$ !  education (      
,alex&] to ,ari/otle1 & dur+ ! ,p]sian  
campaigns  ! conqu]or contribut$        
mat]ially1 n only 9 money1 b o!rwise1   
t[>d ! ,natural ,hi/ory !n 9 prep>ation4
    ,! ess5tial pr9ciple ( !            
,ari/otelian philosophy 01 to rise  f ! 
/udy ( p>ticul>s to a k ( g5]al         
pr9ciples or  univ]sals1 advanc+ to !m  
by induction4 ,! induction is !  m c]ta9
 z ! facts on :i* x is bas$ are m       
num]\s2 its  correctness is e/abli%$ if 
x %\ld enable u to pr$ict o!r facts     
until !n unkn[n4 ,?is sy/em implies     
endless toil 9 ! collection  ( facts1   
bo? by exp]im5t & obs]vation2 x implies 
also a close  m$itation on !m4 ,x is1   
!re=e1 ess5tially a me?od ( labor  & (  
reason1 n a me?od ( imag9ation4 ,!      
failures t ,ari/otle  himself s (t5     
exhibits are no pro( ( its              
unreliability1 b  r ( its tru/wor?9ess4 
,!y are failures aris+ f want ( a       

suffici5cy ( facts4    ,,e?ical ,,s*ool 
,,( ,,! ,,museum4 ,"s ( ! g5]al results 
at :i*  ,ari/otle arriv$ are v gr&4     
,?us1 he conclud$ t e ?+ is  ready to   
bur/ into life1 & t ! v>i\s organic =ms 
pres5t$  to u by ,nature are ^? :i*     
exi/+ conditions p]mit4 ,%\ld  !        
conditions *ange1 ! =ms w also *ange4   
,h5ce !re is an  unbrok5 *a9 f ! simple 
elem5t ?r\gh plants & animals up to     
man1 ! diff]5t gr\ps m]g+ by ins5sible  
%ades into ea* o!r4    ,! inductive     
philosophy ?us e/abli%$ by ,ari/otle is 
a me?od (  great p[]4 ,to x all ! mod]n 
advances 9 sci5ce are due4 ,9  its mo/  
improv$ =m x rises by inductions f      
ph5om5a to _!  causes1 & !n1 imitat+ !  
me?od ( ! ,academy1 x desc5ds by        
d$uctions f ^? causes to ! detail (     
ph5om5a4    ,:ile ?us ! ,sci5tific      
,s*ool ( ,alex&ria 0 f\nd$ on ! maxims  
( "o great ,a!nian philosoph]1 ! ,e?ical
 ,s*ool 0 f\nd$ on !  maxims ( ano!r1 = 
,z5o1 ?\gh a ,cypriote or ,pho5ician1 _h
 =  _m ye>s be5 e/abli%$ at ,a!ns4 ,8   

disciples took ! "n (  ,/oics4 ,8       
doctr9es long surviv$ him1 &1 9 times :5
 !re 0 no  o!r consolation = man1 (f]$ a
 support 9 ! h\r ( trial1 &  an unwav]+ 
guide 9 ! vicissitudes ( life1 n only to
 illu/ri\s  ,greeks1 b also to _m ( !   
great philosoph]s1 /atesm51 g5]als1  &  
emp]ors ( ,rome4    ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( 
,,/oicism4 ,! aim ( ,z5o 01 to furni% a 
guide  = ! daily practice ( life1 to    
make m5 virtu\s4 ,he insi/$ t  education
 is ! true f\ndation ( virtue1 =1 if we 
"k :at is  good1 we %all incl9e to d x4 
,we mu/ tru/ to s5se1 to furni% !  data 
( k1 & reason w suitably comb9e !m4 ,9  
?is !  aff9ity ( ,z5o to ,ari/otle is   
pla9ly se54 ,e appetite1 lu/1  desire1  
spr+s f imp]fect k4 ,our nature is      
impos$ ^u  u by ,fate1 b we mu/ le>n to 
control our passions1 & live free1      
intellig5t1 virtu\s1 9 all ?+s 9        
accordance ) reason4 ,our  exi/5ce %\ld 
be intellectual1 we %\ld survey )       
equanimity all  pleasures & all pa9s4   
,we %\ld nev] =get t we are freem51 n  !

 slaves ( society4 ,i possess1 said !   
,/oic1 a treasure :i*  n all ! _w c rob 
me (--no "o c deprive me ( dea?4 ,we    
%\ld rememb] t ,nature 9 h] op]ations   
aims at ! univ]sal1 &  nev] sp>es       
individuals1 b uses !m z means = !      
accompli%m5t  ( h] ends4 ,x is1 !re=e1 =
 u to submit to ,de/9y1 cultivat+1  z ! 
?+s necess>y to virtue1 k1 temp]ance1   
=titude1  ju/ice4 ,we mu/ rememb] t e ?+
 ar\nd u is 9 mutation2  decay foll[s   
reproduction1 & reproduction decay1 & t 
x is  useless to rep9e at dea? 9 a _w   
:]e e ?+ is dy+4 ,z a  cat>act %[s f ye>
 to ye> an inv>iable %ape1 ?\gh ! wat]  
compos+ x is p]petually *ang+1 s !      
aspect ( ,nature is no?+  m ?an a fl[ ( 
matt] pres5t+ an imp]man5t =m4 ,!       
univ]se1  consid]$ z a :ole1 is         
un*angeable4 ,no?+ is et]nal b  space1  
atoms1 =ce4 ,! =ms ( ,nature t we see   
are ess5tially  transitory1 !y mu/ all  
pass away4    ,,/oicism ,,9 ,,!         
,,museum4 ,we mu/ be> 9 m9d t ! majority
 ( m5  are imp]fectly educat$1 & h5ce we

 mu/ n ne$lessly (f5d !  religi\s ideas 
( our age4 ,x is en\gh = u ourselves to 
"k t1  ?\gh !re is a ,supreme ,p[]1 !re 
is no ,supreme ,be+4 ,!re is an         
invisible pr9ciple1 b n a p]sonal ,god1 
to :om x w\ld be n  s mu* blasphemy z   
absurdity to impute ! =m1 ! s5tim5ts1 ! 
passions ( man4 ,all revelation is1     
necess>ily1 a m]e fiction4 ,t  :i* m5   
call *ance is only ! effect ( an unkn[n 
cause4 ,ev5 (  *ances !re is a law4 ,!re
 is no su* ?+ z ,provid5ce1 = ,nature   
proce$s "u irresi/ible laws1 & 9 ?is    
respect ! univ]se is  only a va/        
automatic eng9e4 ,! vital =ce :i*       
p]vades ! _w  is :at ! illit]ate call   
,god4 ,! modifications ?r\gh :i* all    
?+s are runn+ take place 9 an           
irresi/ible way1 & h5ce x may  be said t
 ! progress ( ! _w is1 "u ,de/9y1 l a   
se$1  x c evolve only 9 a pr$et]m9$     
mode4    ,! s\l ( man is a sp>k ( !     
vital flame1 ! g5]al vital  pr9ciple4 ,l
 heat1 x passes f "o to ano!r1 & is     
f9ally  reabsorb$ or reunit$ 9 !        

univ]sal pr9ciple f :i* x came4  ,h5ce  
we mu/ n expect annihilation1 b reunion2
 &1 z ! tir$  man looks =w>d to !       
ins5sibility ( sleep1 s ! philosoph]1   
we>y ( ! _w1 %\ld look =w>d to !        
tranquillity (  ext9ction4 ,( ^! ?+s1   
h[ev]1 we %\ld ?9k d\bt+ly1 s9ce  ! m9d 
c produce no c]ta9 k f its int]nal      
res\rces  alone4 ,x is unphilosophical  
to inquire into fir/ causes2 we mu/ deal
  only ) ph5om5a4 ,above all1 we mu/    
nev] =get t man _c  asc]ta9 absolute    
tru?1 & t ! f9al result ( human inquiry 
into ! matt] is1 t we are incapable (   
p]fect k2 t1  ev5 if ! tru? be 9 our    
possession1 we _c be sure ( x4    ,:at1 
!n1 rema9s = u8 ,is x n ?is--!          
acquisition (  k1 ! cultivation ( virtue
 & ( fri5d%ip1 ! obs]vance  ( fai? &    
tru?1 an unrep9+ submission to :atev]   
befalls u1 a  life l$ 9 accordance )    
reason8    ,,platonism ,,9 ,,! ,,museum4
 ,b1 ?\gh ! ,alex&rian ,museum 0        
especially int5d$ = ! cultivation ( !   
,ari/otelian philosophy1  x mu/ n be    

suppos$ t o!r sy/ems 7 exclud$4         
,platonism 0  n only c>ri$ to its full  
developm5t1 b 9 ! end x supplant$       
,p]ipateticism1 & ?r\gh ! ,new ,academy 
left a p]man5t impress on  ,*ri/ianity4 
,! philosophical me?od ( ,plato 0 !     
inv]se ( t  ( ,ari/otle4 ,its />t+-po9t 
0 univ]sals1 ! v exi/5ce (  :i* 0 a     
matt] ( fai?1 & f ^! x desc5d$ to       
p>ticul>s1  or details4 ,ari/otle1 on ! 
contr>y1 rose f p>ticul>s to  univ]sals1
 advanc+ to !m by inductions4    ,plato1
 !re=e1 tru/$ to ! imag9ation1 ,ari/otle
 to reason4  ,! =m] desc5d$ f !         
decomposition ( a primitive idea into   
p>ticul>s1 ! latt] unit$ p>ticul>s into 
a g5]al conception4  ,h5ce ! me?od (    
,plato 0 capable ( quickly produc+ :at  
seem$  to be spl5did1 ?\gh 9 reality    
unsub/antial results2 t (  ,ari/otle 0 m
 t>dy 9 its op]ation1 b mu* m solid4 ,x 
impli$ endless labor 9 ! collection (   
facts1 a t$i\s resort  to exp]im5t &    
obs]vation1 ! application (             
demon/ration4 ,!  philosophy ( ,plato is

 a gorge\s ca/le 9 ! air2 t ( ,ari/otle 
a solid /ructure1 labori\sly1 & ) _m    
failures1 f\nd$ on !  solid rock4    ,an
 appeal to ! imag9ation is mu* m allur+ 
?an ! employm5t  ( reason4 ,9 !         
intellectual decl9e ( ,alex&ria1 indol5t
 me?ods  7 pref]r$ to labori\s          
obs]vation & sev]e m5tal ex]cise4 ,!    
s*ools ( ,neo-,platonism 7 cr[d$ )      
speculative my/ics1 su*  z ,ammonius    
,saccas & ,plot9us4 ,^! took ! place ( !
 sev]e  geomet]s ( ! old ,museum4       
,,physical ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,museum4 ,!
 ,alex&rian s*ool (f]s ! fir/  example (
 t sy/em :i*1 9 ! h&s ( mod]n physici/s1
 has  l$ to su* wond]ful results4 ,x    
reject$ imag9ation1 & made its  !ories !
 expression ( facts obta9$ by exp]im5t &
 obs]vation1  aid$ by ma!matical        
discussion4 ,x en=c$ ! pr9ciple t !     
true me?od ( /udy+ ,nature is by        
exp]im5tal int]rogation4 ,!  rese>*es ( 
,ar*im$es 9 specific gravity1 & ! works 
(  ,ptolemy on optics1 resemble our     
pres5t inve/igations 9 exp]im5tal       

philosophy1 & /& 9 /rik+ contra/ ) !    
speculative vag>ies  ( ! old] writ]s4   
,laplace says t ! only obs]vation :i* ! 
hi/ory ( a/ronomy (f]s u1 made by !     
,greeks be=e ! s*ool  ( ,alex&ria1 is t 
( ! summ] sol/ice ( ! ye> ,b4,c4 #dcb4  
by ,meton & ,euctemon4 ,we h1 = ! fir/  
"t1 9 t s*ool1  a comb9$ sy/em (        
obs]vations made ) in/rum5ts = !        
measurem5t ( angles1 & calculat$ by     
trigonometrical me?ods4  ,a/ronomy !n   
took a =m :i* subsequ5t ages c\ld only  
p]fect4      ,x does n accord ) !       
compass or ! int5tion ( ?is "w to  give 
a detail$ acc\nt ( ! contributions ( !  
,alex&rian ,museum  to ! /ock ( human k4
 ,x is suffici5t t ! read] %\ld  obta9 a
 g5]al impression ( _! "*4 ,= p>ticul>s1
 ,i  may ref] him to ! six? *apt] ( my  
,hi/ory ( ! ,intellectual  ,developm5t (
 ,europe4    ,,euclid--,,ar*im$es4 ,x   
has j be5 rem>k$ t ! ,/oical  philosophy
 d\bt$ :e!r ! m9d c asc]ta9 absolute    
tru?4 ,:ile  ,z5o 0 indulg+ 9 su* d\bts1
 ,euclid 0 prep>+ 8 great "w1  de/9$ to 

*all5ge contradiction f ! :ole human    
race4 ,aft]  m ?an tw5ty-two c5turies x 
/ill survives1 a model ( accuracy1      
p]spicuity1 & a /&>d ( exact            
demon/ration4 ,?is great geomet]  n only
 wrote on o!r ma!matical topics1 su* z  
,conic ,sections &  ,prisms1 b !re are  
imput$ to him treatises on ,h>monics &  
,optics1  ! latt] subject be+ discuss$  
on ! hypo!sis ( rays issu+  f ! eye to !
 object4    ,) ! ,alex&rian ma!maticians
 & physici/s mu/ be class$  ,ar*im$es1  
?\gh he ev5tually resid$ 9 ,sicily4     
,among 8  ma!matical works 7 two books  
on ! ,sph]e & ,cyl9d]1 9  :i* he gave ! 
demon/ration t ! solid cont5t ( a sph]e 
is  two-?irds t ( its circumscrib+      
cyl9d]4 ,s highly did he e/eem  ?is1 t  
he direct$ ! diagram to be engrav$ on 8 
tomb/one4 ,he  also treat$ ( !          
quadrature ( ! circle & ( ! p>abola2 he 
wrote on ,conoids & ,sph]oids1 & on !   
spiral t be>s 8 "n1  ! g5esis ( :i* 0   
sugge/$ to him by 8 fri5d ,conon !      
,alex&rian4 ,z a ma!matician1 ,europe   

produc$ no equal to him =  ne>ly two    
?\s& ye>s4 ,9 physical sci5ce he laid ! 
f\ndation  ( hydro/atics2 inv5t$ a me?od
 = ! det]m9ation ( specific  gravities2 
discuss$ ! equilibrium ( float+ bodies2 
discov]$ !  true !ory ( ! lev]1 & inv5t$
 a screw1 :i* /ill be>s  8 "n1 = rais+ !
 wat] ( ! ,nile4 ,to him also are to be 
attribut$ ! endless screw1 & a peculi>  
=m ( burn+-mirror1 by  :i*1 at ! siege (
 ,syracuse1 x is said t he set ! ,roman 
fleet  on fire4                         
,,erato/h5es--,,apollonius--,,hipp>*us4 
,erato/h5es1 :o at "o "t _h  *>ge ( !   
libr>y1 0 ! au?or ( _m important works4 
,among  !m may be m5tion$ 8 det]m9ation 
( ! int]val betwe5  ! tropics1 & an     
attempt to asc]ta9 ! size ( ! e>?4 ,he  
consid]$ ! articulation & expansion (   
cont95ts1 ! position  ( m\nta9-*a9s1 !  
action ( cl\ds1 ! geological subm]sion (
  l&s1 ! elevation ( anci5t sea-b$s1 !  
op5+ ( ! ,d>danelles  & ! /raits (      
,gibralt>1 & ! relations ( ! ,eux9e     
,sea4  ,he compos$ a complete sy/em ( ! 

e>?1 9 ?ree books--physical1            
ma!matical1 hi/orical--accompani$ by a  
map ( all ! p>ts !n  kn[n4 ,x is only ( 
late ye>s t ! fragm5ts rema9+ ( 8       
,*ronicles ( ! ,!ban ,k+s h be5 ju/ly   
appreciat$4 ,=  _m c5turies !y 7 ?r[n   
into discr$it by ! au?ority ( our  exi/+
 absurd !ological *ronology4    ,x is   
unnecess>y to adduce ! argum5ts reli$ ^u
 by !  ,alex&rians to prove ! globul> =m
 ( ! e>?4 ,!y _h correct  ideas respect+
 ! doctr9e ( ! sph]e1 its poles1 axis1  
equator1  arctic & ant>ctic circles1    
equ9octial po9ts1 sol/ices1 !           
di/ribution ( climates1 etc4 ,i _c d m  
?an m]ely allude to  ! treatises on     
,conic ,sections & on ,maxima & ,m9ima  
by ,apollonius1  :o is said to h be5 !  
fir/ to introduce ! words ellipse &     
hyp]bola4 ,9 l mann] ,i mu/ pass !      
a/ronomical obs]vations  ( ,ali/yllus & 
,timo*>is4 ,x 0 to ^? ( ! latt] on      
,spica  ,virg9is t ,hipp>*us 0 indebt$ =
 8 great discov]y ( !  precession ( !   
eqn9oxes4 ,hipp>*us also det]m9$ ! fir/ 

inequality ( ! moon1 ! equation ( !     
c5tre4 ,he adopt$ !  !ory ( epicycles & 
ecc5trics1 a geometrical conception = ! 
purpose ( resolv+ ! app>5t motions ( !  
heav5ly bodies on !  pr9ciple ( circul> 
movem5t4 ,he also und]took to make a    
catalogue  ( ! />s by ! me?od (         
al9eations--t is1 by indicat+ ^?  t are 
9 ! same app>5t /raight l9e4 ,! numb] ( 
/>s s  catalogu$ 0 #a1jhj4 ,if he ?us   
attempt$ to depict ! aspect (  ! sky1 he
 endeavor$ to d ! same = ! surface ( !  
e>?1 by  m>k+ ! position ( t[ns & o!r   
places by l9es ( latitude &  longitude4 
,he 0 ! fir/ to con/ruct tables ( ! sun 
& moon4    ,,! ,,syntaxis ,,( ,,ptolemy4
 ,9 ! mid/ ( su* a brilliant            
con/ellation  ( geomet]s1 a/ronom]s1    
physici/s1 conspicu\sly %9es =?         
,ptolemy1 ! au?or ( ! great "w1         
,syntaxis1 a ,treatise on !  ,ma!matical
 ,con/ruction ( ! ,heav5s4 ,x ma9ta9$   
its gr\nd  = ne>ly fifte5 hundr$ ye>s1 &
 inde$ 0 only displac$ by !  immortal   
,pr9cipia ( ,newton4 ,x comm5ces ) !    

doctr9e t !  e>? is globul> & fix$ 9    
space1 x describes ! con/ruction ( a    
table ( *ords1 & in/rum5ts = obs]v+ !   
sol/ices1 x d$uces  ! obliquity ( !     
ecliptic1 x f9ds t]re/rial latitudes by 
!  gnomon1 describes climates1 %[s h[   
ord9>y may be conv]t$ into  sid]eal "t1 
gives reasons = pref]r+ ! tropical to ! 
sid]eal  ye>1 furni%es ! sol> !ory on ! 
pr9ciple ( ! sun's orbit  be+ a simple  
ecc5tric1 expla9s ! equation ( "t1      
advances to !  discussion ( ! motions ( 
! moon1 treats ( ! fir/ inequality1  (  
h] eclipses1 & ! motion ( h] nodes4 ,x  
!n gives ,ptolemy's  own great          
discov]y--t :i* has made 8 "n           
immortal--!  discov]y ( ! moon's        
evection or second inequality1 r$uc+ x  
to  ! epicyclic !ory4 ,x attempts !     
det]m9ation ( ! di/ances (  ! sun & moon
 f ! e>?--)1 h[ev]1 only p>tial success4
 ,x  consid]s ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1
 ! discov]y ( ,hipp>*us1  ! full p]iod (
 :i* is tw5ty-five ?\s& ye>s4 ,x gives a
  catalogue ( #a1jbb />s1 treats ( !    

nature ( ! milky-way1 &  discusses 9 !  
mo/ ma/]ly mann] ! motions ( ! planets4 
,?is  po9t con/itutes ano!r ( ,ptolemy's
 claims to sci5tific fame4 ,8           
det]m9ation ( ! planet>y orbits 0       
accompli%$ by comp>+  8 own obs]vations 
) ^? ( =m] a/ronom]s1 among !m !        
obs]vations ( ,timo*>is on ! planet     
,v5us4    ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,!            
,,/eam-,,eng9e4 ,9 ! ,museum (          
,alex&ria1 ,ctesibius  inv5t$ !         
fire-eng9e4 ,8 pupil1 ,h]o1 improv$ x by
 giv+ x two  cyl9d]s4 ,!re1 too1 ! fir/ 
/eam-eng9e work$4 ,?is also 0 !         
inv5tion ( ,h]o1 & 0 a reaction eng9e1  
on ! pr9ciple (  ! eolipile4 ,! sil5ce (
 ! halls ( ,s]apis 0 brok5 by !         
wat]-clocks ( ,ctesibius & ,apollonius1 
:i* drop by drop measur$  "t4 ,:5 !     
,roman cal5d> _h fall5 into su*         
confusion t x  _h become absolutely     
necess>y to rectify x1 ,julius ,caes>   
br\ght  ,sosig5es ! a/ronom] f          
,alex&ria4 ,by 8 advice ! lun> ye>  0   
aboli%$1 ! civil ye> regulat$ entirely  

by ! sun1 & !  ,julian cal5d> introduc$4
    ,! ,mac$onian rul]s ( ,egypt h be5  
blam$ = ! mann] 9 :i*  !y dealt ) !     
religi\s s5tim5t ( _! "t4 ,!y pro/itut$ 
x to ! purpose ( /ate-craft1 f9d+ 9 x a 
means ( gov]n+  _! l[] classes4 ,to !   
intellig5t !y gave philosophy4          
,,policy ,,( ,,! ,,ptolemies4 ,b        
d\btless !y def5d$ ?is policy by !      
exp]i5ce ga!r$ 9 ^? great campaigns :i* 
_h made ! ,greeks  ! =emo/ nation ( !   
_w4 ,!y _h se5 ! my?ological            
conceptions ( _! ance/ral c\ntry dw9dle 
into fables2 ! wond]s  ) :i* ! old poets
 adorn$ ! ,m$it]ranean _h be5 discov]$  
to be baseless illusions4 ,f ,olympus   
its div9ities _h disappe>$2  inde$1     
,olympus itself _h prov$ to be a phantom
 ( ! imag9ation4  ,hades _h lo/ its     
t]rors2 no place c\ld be f\nd = x4    ,f
 ! woods & grottoes & riv]s ( ,asia     
,m9or ! local gods &  goddesses _h      
dep>t$2 ev5 _! devotees began to d\bt   
:e!r !y  _h ev] be5 !re4 ,if /ill !     
,syrian damsels lam5t$1 9 _!  amor\s    

ditties1 ! fate ( ,adonis1 x 0 only z a 
recollection1 n  z a reality4 ,aga9 &   
aga9 _h ,p]sia *ang$ h] national fai?4  
,=  ! revelation ( ,zoroa/] %e _h       
sub/itut$ ,dualism2 !n "u new  political
 influ5ces %e _h adopt$ ,magianism4 ,%e 
_h wor%ip$ fire1  & kept h] alt>s burn+ 
on m\nta9-tops4 ,%e _h ador$ ! sun4  ,:5
 ,alex&] came1 %e 0 fa/ fall+ into      
pan!ism4    ,on a c\ntry to :i* 9 its   
political extremity ! indig5\s gods  h  
be5 f\nd unable to give any protection1 
a *ange ( fai? is  imp5d+4 ,! v5]able   
div9ities ( ,egypt1 to ^: glory obelisks
  _h be5 rais$ & temples d$icat$1 _h    
aga9 & aga9 submitt$  to ! sword ( a    
=eign conqu]or4 ,9 ! l& ( ! ,pyramids1 !
  ,colossi1 ! ,sph9x1 ! images ( ! gods 
_h ceas$ to repres5t  liv+ realities4   
,!y _h ceas$ to be objects ( fai?4 ,o!rs
 ( m  rec5t bir? 7 ne$ful1 & ,s]apis    
confront$ ,osiris4 ,9 ! %ops  & /reets (
 ,alex&ria !re 7 ?\s&s ( ,jews :o _h    
=gott5  ! ,god t _h made 8 habitation   
beh9d ! veil ( ! temple4    ,tradition1 

revelation1 "t1 all _h lo/ _! influ5ce4 
,!  traditions ( ,european my?ology1 !  
revelations ( ,asia1 !  "t-consecrat$   
dogmas ( ,egypt1 all _h pass$ or 7 fa/  
pass+  away4 ,& ! ,ptolemies recogniz$  
h[ ephem]al are =ms ( fai?4    ,b !     
,ptolemies also recogniz$ t !re is      
some?+ m durable  ?an =ms ( fai?1 :i*1 l
 ! organic =ms ( geological ages1  once 
gone1 are clean gone =ev]1 & h no       
re/oration1 no return4  ,!y recogniz$ t 
)9 ?is _w ( transi5t delusions &        
unrealities !re is a _w ( et]nal tru?4  
,t _w is n to be discov]$ ?r\gh ! va9   
traditions t  h br\ght d[n to u !       
op9ions ( m5 :o liv$ 9 ! morn+ (        
civilization1 nor 9 ! dreams ( my/ics :o
 ?\ght t !y 7  inspir$4 ,x is to be     
discov]$ by ! inve/igations ( geometry1 
& by ! practical int]rogation ( ,nature4
 ,^! conf] on humanity  solid1 &        
innum]able1 & ine/imable bless+s4    ,! 
day w nev] come :5 any "o ( !           
propositions ( ,euclid w  be d5i$2 no "o
 h5ce=? w call 9 "q ! globul> %ape (  ! 

e>?1 z recogniz$ by ,erato/h5es2 ! _w w 
n p]mit  ! great physical inv5tions &   
discov]ies made 9 ,alex&ria &  ,syracuse
 to be =gott54 ,! names ( ,hipp>*us1 (  
,apollonius1 (  ,ptolemy1 ( ,ar*im$es1 w
 be m5tion$ ) rev]5ce by m5 ( e         
religi\s pr(ession1 z long z !re are m5 
to speak4    ,,! ,,museum ,,& ,,mod]n   
,,sci5ce4 ,! ,museum ( ,alex&ria 0 ?us  
! bir?place ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,x is true  
t1 long be=e its  e/abli%m5t1           
a/ronomical obs]vations _h be5 made 9   
,*9a &  ,mesopotamia2 ! ma!matics also  
_h be5 cultivat$ ) a c]ta9  degree (    
success 9 ,india4 ,b 9 none ( ^!        
c\ntries _h  inve/igation assum$ a      
connect$ & consi/5t =m2 9 none 0        
physical exp]im5tation resort$ to4 ,!   
*>act]i/ic feature (  ,alex&rian1 z (   
mod]n sci5ce1 is1 t x did n re/rict     
itself  to obs]vation1 b reli$ on a     
practical int]rogation ( ,nature4       
,,*apt] ,,ii4         ,,! ,,orig9 ,,(   
,,*ri/ianity4--,,its ,,trans=mation ,,on
 ,,atta9+       ,,imp]ial ,,p[]4--,,its 

,,relations ,,to ,,sci5ce4              
,religi\s condition ( ! ,roman          
,republic4--,! adoption (               
imp]ialism leads to                     
mono!ism4--,*ri/ianity spreads ov]      
! ,roman ,empire4--,! circum/ances "u   
:i* x       atta9$ imp]ial p[] make its 
union ) ,paganism a       political     
necessity4--,t]tullian's description (  
its       doctr9es & practices4--,debas+
 effect ( ! policy (       ,con/ant9e on
 x4--,its alliance ) ! civil p[]4--,its 
incompatibility ) sci5ce4--,de/ruction (
 !       ,alex&rian ,libr>y &           
prohibition ( philosophy4--             
,exposition ( ! ,augu/9ian philosophy & 
,patri/ic       sci5ce g5]ally4--,!     
,scriptures made ! /&>d (       sci5ce4 
,,9 a political s5se1 ,*ri/ianity is !  
beque/ ( ! ,roman ,empire to  ! _w4     
,at ! epo* ( ! transition ( ,rome f !   
republican to !  imp]ial =m ( gov]nm5t1 
all ! indep5d5t nationalities ar\nd  !  
,m$it]ranean ,sea _h be5 br\ght "u !    
control ( t c5tral  p[]4 ,! conque/ t _h

 befall5 !m 9 succession _h be5 by no   
means a disa/]4 ,! p]petual w>s !y _h   
ma9ta9$ ) ea*  o!r came to an end2 !    
mis]ies _! conflicts _h eng5d]$ 7       
ex*ang$ = univ]sal peace4    ,n only z a
 tok5 ( ! conque/ %e _h made b also z a 
gratification to h] pride1 ! conqu]+    
republic br\ght ! gods  ( ! vanqui%$    
peoples to ,rome4 ,) disda9ful          
tol]ation1 %e  p]mitt$ ! wor%ip ( !m    
all4 ,t p>am\nt au?ority ex]cis$ by  ea*
 div9ity 9 8 orig9al seat disappe>$ at  
once 9 ! cr[d (  gods & goddesses among 
:om he _h be5 br\ght4 ,already1 z we h  
se51 ?r\gh geographical discov]ies &    
philosophical criticism1  fai? 9 !      
religion ( ! old days _h be5 pr(\ndly   
%ak54 ,x  01 by ?is policy ( ,rome1     
br\ght to an end4    ,,mono!ism ,,9 ,,! 
,,roman ,,empire4 ,! k+s ( all ! conqu]$
 prov9ces  _h vani%$2 9 _! /ead "o      
emp]or _h come4 ,! gods also _h         
disappe>$4 ,consid]+ ! connection :i* 9 
all ages has exi/$  betwe5 political &  
religi\s ideas1 x 0 !n n at all /range  

t poly!ism %\ld manife/ a t5d5cy to pass
 into mono!ism4  ,accord+ly1 div9e      
honors 7 paid at fir/ to ! deceas$ & at 
l5g? to ! liv+ emp]or4    ,! facility ) 
:i* gods 7 ?us call$ into exi/5ce _h a  
p[]ful moral effect4 ,! manufacture ( a 
new "o ca/ ridicule on  ! orig9 ( ! old 
,inc>nation 9 ! ,ea/ & apo!osis 9 ! ,we/
  7 fa/ fill+ ,olympus ) div9ities4 ,9 !
 ,ea/1 gods desc5d$  f heav51 & 7 made  
inc>nate 9 m52 9 ! ,we/1 m5 asc5d$  f   
e>?1 & took _! seat among ! gods4 ,x 0 n
 !  importation ( ,greek skepticism t   
made ,rome skeptical4 ,! excesses  (    
religion itself sapp$ ! f\ndations (    
fai?4    ,n ) equal rapidity did all    
classes ( ! population adopt  mono!i/ic 
views4 ,! m]*ants & lawy]s & soldi]s1 :o
 by !  nature ( _! pursuits are m       
famili> ) ! vicissitudes (  life1 & h   
l>g] intellectual views1 7 ! fir/ to be 
affect$1  ! l& labor]s & f>m]s ! la/4   
,,! ,,rise ,,( ,,*ri/ianity ,:5 ! empire
 9 a milit>y & political  s5se _h rea*$ 
its culm9ation1 9 a religi\s & social   

aspect  x _h atta9$ its height (        
immorality4 ,x _h become ?or\ghly       
epicurean2 its maxim 01 t life %\ld be  
made a fea/1 t  virtue is only ! season+
 ( pleasure1 & temp]ance ! means (      
prolong+ x4 ,d9+-rooms glitt]+ ) gold & 
incru/$ )  gems1 slaves 9 sup]b app>el1 
! fasc9ations ( female society :]e  all 
! wom5 7 dissolute1 magnific5t ba?s1    
!atres1 gladiators1  su* 7 ! objects (  
,roman desire4 ,! conqu]ors ( ! _w _h   
discov]$ t ! only ?+ wor? wor%ip+ is    
,=ce4 ,by x all  ?+s might be secur$1   
all t toil & trade _h labori\sly        
obta9$4 ,! confiscation ( goods & l&s1 !
 taxation (  prov9ces1 7 ! rew>d (      
successful w>f>e2 & ! emp]or  0 ! symbol
 ( =ce4 ,!re 0 a social spl5dor1 b x 0 !
  phosphoresc5t corruption ( ! anci5t   
,m$it]ranean _w4    ,9 "o ( ! ,ea/]n    
prov9ces1 ,syria1 "s p]sons 9 v humble  
life _h associat$ !mselves toge!r =     
b5evol5t & religi\s  purposes4 ,!       
doctr9es !y held 7 9 h>mony ) t s5tim5t 
( univ]sal bro!rhood aris+ f !          

coalesc5ce ( ! conqu]$  k+doms4 ,!y 7   
doctr9es inculcat$ by ,jesus4    ,!     
,jewi% p at t "t ent]ta9$ a belief1     
f\nd$ on old  traditions1 t a deliv]]   
w\ld arise among !m1 :o w\ld re/ore  !m 
to _! anci5t spl5dor4 ,! disciples (    
,jesus reg>d$ him  z ?is long-expect$   
,messiah4 ,b ! prie/hood1 believ+ t !   
doctr9es he taught 7 prejudicial to _!  
int]e/s1 d5\nc$  him to ! ,roman        
gov]nor1 :o1 to satisfy _! clamors1     
reluctantly  deliv]$ him ov] to dea?4   
,8 doctr9es ( b5evol5ce & human         
bro!rhood outla/$ t  ev5t4 ,! disciples1
 in/ead ( scatt]+1 organiz$4 ,!y        
associat$  !mselves on a pr9ciple (     
communism1 ea* ?r[+ into ! common  /ock 
:atev] prop]ty he possess$1 & all 8     
ga9s4 ,! wid[s  & orphans ( ! community 
7 ?us support$1 ! poor & ! sick  su/a9$4
 ,f ?is g]m 0 develop$ a new1 & z !     
ev5ts prov$1  all-p[]ful society--!     
,*ur*2 new1 = no?+ ( ! k9d _h  exi/$ 9  
antiquity2 p[]ful1 = ! local *ur*es1 at 
fir/  isolat$1 soon began to conf$]ate =

 _! common int]e/4 ,?r\gh  ?is          
organization ,*ri/ianity a*iev$ all h]  
political triumphs4    ,z we h said1 !  
milit>y dom9ation ( ,rome _h br\ght ab\t
  univ]sal peace1 & _h g5]at$ a s5tim5t 
( bro!rhood among !  vanqui%$ nations4  
,?+s 71 !re=e1 propiti\s = ! rapid      
diffusion ( ! newly-e/abli%$--!         
,*ri/ian--pr9ciple  ?r\gh\t ! empire4 ,x
 spread f ,syria ?r\gh all ,asia ,m9or1 
& successively rea*$ ,cyprus1 ,greece1  
,italy1 ev5tually ext5d+  we/w>d z f> z 
,gaul & ,brita94    ,its propagation 0  
ha/5$ by mission>ies :o made x kn[n 9   
all  directions4 ,none ( ! anci5t       
classical philosophies _h ev] tak5      
advantage ( su* a means4    ,political  
conditions det]m9$ ! b\nd>ies ( ! new   
religion4 ,its  limits 7 ev5tually ^? ( 
! ,roman ,empire2 ,rome1 d\btfully !    
place ( dea? ( ,pet]1 n ,j]usalem1      
indisputably ! place ( !  dea? ( our    
,savior1 became ! religi\s capital4 ,x 0
 bett] to h  possession ( ! imp]ial sev5
 hill$ city1 ?an ( ,ge?semane &  ,calv>y

 ) all _! holy s\v5irs4    ,,x ,,ga!rs  
,,political ,,p[]4 ,= _m ye>s           
,*ri/ianity manife/$  itself z a sy/em  
enjo9+ ?ree ?+s--t[>d ,god v5]ation1 9  
p]sonal life purity1 9 social life      
b5evol5ce4 ,9 its e>ly days (  feebl5ess
 x made proselytes only by p]suasion1 b1
 z x increas$  9 numb]s & influ5ce1 x   
began to exhibit political t5d5cies1 a  
disposition to =m a gov]nm5t )9 !       
gov]nm5t1 an empire )9  ! empire4 ,^!   
t5d5cies x has nev] s9ce lo/4 ,!y are1 9
  tru?1 ! logical result ( its          
developm5t4 ,! ,roman emp]ors1  discov]+
 t x 0 absolutely incompatible ) !      
imp]ial  sy/em1 tri$ to put x d[n by    
=ce4 ,?is 0 9 accordance ) !  _s ( _!   
milit>y maxims1 :i* _h no o!r means b   
=ce =  ! e/abli%m5t ( con=mity4    ,9 ! 
w9t] ,a4,d4 #cjb-'c1 ! ,*ri/ian soldi]s 
9 "s ( ! legions  refus$ to jo9 9 !     
"t-honor$ solemnities = propitiat+ !    
gods4 ,! mut9y spread s quickly1 !      
em]g5cy became s press+1  t ! ,emp]or   
,diocletian 0 compell$ to hold a c\ncil 

= !  purpose ( det]m9+ :at %\ld be done4
 ,! difficulty ( !  position may p]haps 
be appreciat$ :5 x is und]/ood t ! wife 
& ! daught] ( ,diocletian himself 7     
,*ri/ians4 ,he 0 a man  ( great capacity
 & l>ge political views2 he recogniz$ 9 
!  opposition t mu/ be made to ! new    
p>ty a political necessity1  yet he     
expressly enjo9$ t !re %\ld be no       
blood%$4 ,b :o c  control an infuriat$  
civil commotion8 ,! *ur* ( ,nicom$ia 0  
raz$  to ! gr\nd2 9 retaliation !       
imp]ial palace 0 set on fire1 an  edict 
0 op5ly insult$ & torn d[n4 ,! ,*ri/ian 
(fic]s 9 !  army 7 ca%i]$2 9 all        
directions1 m>tyrdoms & massacres 7     
tak+ place4 ,s resi/less 0 ! m>* (      
ev5ts1 t n ev5 !  emp]or himself c\ld   
/op ! p]secution4    ,,! ,,fir/         
,,*ri/ian ,,emp]or4 ,x _h n[ become     
evid5t t !  ,*ri/ians con/itut$ a p[]ful
 p>ty 9 ! /ate1 animat$ )  indignation  
at ! atrocities !y _h suff]$1 & det]m9$ 
to  endure !m no long]4 ,aft] !         
abdication ( ,diocletian 7,a4,d4 #cje71 

,con/ant9e1 "o ( ! competitors = !      
purple1 p]ceiv+ !  advantages t w\ld    
accrue to him f su* a policy1 put       
himself  =? z ! head ( ! ,*ri/ian p>ty4 
,?is gave him1 9 e "p  ( ! empire1 m5 & 
wom5 ready to enc\nt] fire & sword 9 8  
behalf2 x gave him unwav]+ adh]5ts 9 e  
legion ( ! armies4  ,9 a decisive       
battle1 ne> ! ,milvian bridge1 victory  
cr[n$ 8  s*emes4 ,! dea? ( ,maxim91 &   
subsequ5tly t ( ,lic9ius1  remov$ all   
ob/acles4 ,he asc5d$ ! ?rone ( !        
,caes>s--! fir/  ,*ri/ian emp]or4       
,place1 pr(it1 p[]--^! 7 9 view ( :oev] 
n[ jo9$ !  conqu]+ sect4 ,cr[ds (       
worldly p]sons1 :o c>$ no?+ ab\t its    
religi\s ideas1 became its w>me/        
support]s4 ,pagans at he>t1 _!  influ5ce
 0 soon manife/$ 9 ! paganization (     
,*ri/ianity t  =?) ensu$4 ,! emp]or1 no 
bett] ?an !y1 did no?+ to *eck  _!      
proce$+s4 ,b he did n p]sonally con=m to
 ! c]emonial  requirem5ts ( ! ,*ur*     
until ! close ( 8 evil life1 ,a4,d4     
#ccg4    ,,t]tullian',s ,,exposition ,,(

 ,,*ri/ianity4 ,t we may cle>ly         
appreciate  ! modifications n[ impress$ 
on ,*ri/ianity--modifications :i*       
ev5tually br\ght x 9 conflict )         
sci5ce--we mu/ h1 z a  means (          
comp>ison1 a /atem5t ( :at x 0 9 its    
pur] days4  ,su*1 =tunately1 we f9d 9 ! 
,apology or ,def5se ( ! ,*ri/ians  aga9/
 ! ,accusations ( ! ,g5tiles1 writt5 by 
,t]tullian1 at  ,rome1 dur+ ! p]secution
 ( ,sev]us4 ,he address$ x1 n to !      
emp]or1 b to ! magi/rates :o sat 9      
judgm5t on ! accus$4 ,x  is a solemn &  
mo/ e>ne/ expo/ulation1 sett+ =? all t  
c\ld  be said 9 explanation ( ! subject1
 a repres5tation ( ! belief  & cause ( !
 ,*ri/ians made 9 ! imp]ial city 9 !    
face ( !  :ole _w1 n a qu]ul\s or       
passionate ecclesia/ical appeal1 b  a   
grave hi/orical docum5t4 ,x has ev] be5 
look$ ^u z "o ( !  able/ ( ! e>ly       
,*ri/ian works4 ,its date is ab\t ,a4,d4
 #bjj4    ,) no inconsid]able skill     
,t]tullian op5s 8 argum5t4 ,he tells  ! 
magi/rates t ,*ri/ianity is a /rang] ^u 

e>?1 & t %e  expects to meet ) enemies 9
 a c\ntry :i* is n h] own4 ,%e only     
asks t %e may n be condemn$ unhe>d1 & t 
,roman magi/rates  w p]mit h] to def5d  
h]self2 t ! laws ( ! empire w  ga!r     
lu/re1 if judgm5t be pass$ ^u h] aft] %e
 has be5 tri$  b n if %e is s5t5c$ )\t a
 he>+ ( h] cause2 t x is  unju/ to hate 
a ?+ ( :i* we are ignorant1 ev5 ?\gh x  
may be a  ?+ wor?y ( hate2 t ! laws (   
,rome deal ) actions1 n )  m]e names2 b 
t1 not)/&+ ?is1 p]sons h be5 puni%$     
because !y 7 call$ ,*ri/ians1 & t )\t   
any accusation (  crime4    ,he !n      
advances to an exposition ( ! orig91 !  
nature1 & !  effects ( ,*ri/ianity1 /at+
 t x is f\nd$ on ! ,hebrew  ,scriptures1
 :i* are ! mo/ v5]able ( all books4 ,he 
says to !  magi/rates3 ,! books (       
,moses1 9 :i* ,god has inclos$1 z 9  a  
treasure1 all ! religion ( ! ,jews1 &   
consequ5tly all !  ,*ri/ian religion1   
rea* f> beyond ! olde/ y h1 ev5 beyond  
all y\r public monum5ts1 ! e/abli%m5t ( 
y\r /ate1 !  f\ndation ( _m great       

cities--all t is mo/ advanc$ by y 9 all 
ages ( hi/ory1 & memory ( times2 !      
inv5tion ( lett]s1 :i*  are ! int]pret]s
 ( sci5ces & ! gu>dians ( all excell5t  
?+s4 ,i ?9k ,i may say m--beyond y\r    
gods1 y\r temples1 y\r  oracles &       
sacrifices4 ,! au?or ( ^? books liv$ a  
?\s& ye>s  be=e ! siege ( ,troy1 & m ?an
 fifte5 hundr$ be=e ,hom]4  ,"t is !    
ally ( tru?1 & wise m5 believe no?+ b   
:at is  c]ta91 & :at has be5 v]ifi$ by  
"t4 ,! pr9cipal au?ority  ( ^!          
,scriptures is d]iv$ f _! v5]able       
antiquity4 ,! mo/  le>n$ ( ! ,ptolemies1
 :o 0 surnam$ ,philadelphus1 an         
accompli%$  pr9ce1 by ! advice (        
,demetrius ,phal>eus1 obta9$ a copy ( ^!
  holy books4 ,x may be f\nd at ?is day 
9 8 libr>y4 ,! div9ity (  ^! ,scriptures
 is prov$ by ?is1 t all t is done 9 our 
days  may be f\nd pr$ict$ 9 !m2 !y      
conta9 all t has s9ce pass$  9 ! view ( 
m54    ,is n ! accompli%m5t ( a prophecy
 a te/imony to its tru?8 ,see+  t ev5ts 
:i* are pa/ h v9dicat$ ^! prophecies1   

%all we be  blam$ = tru/+ !m 9 ev5ts t  
are to come8 ,n[1 z we believe  ?+s t h 
be5 prophesi$ & h come to pass1 s we    
believe  ?+s t h be5 told u1 b n yet    
come to pass1 because !y  h all be5     
=etold by ! same ,scriptures1 z well ^? 
t are  v]ifi$ e day z ^? t /ill rema9 to
 be fulfill$4    ,^! ,holy ,scriptures  
tea* u t !re is "o ,god1 :o made ! _w   
out ( no?+1 :o1 ?\gh daily se51 is      
invisible2 8 inf9it5ess  is kn[n only to
 himself2 8 imm5sity conceals1 b at !   
same  "t discov]s him4 ,he has orda9$ = 
m51 accord+ to _! lives1  rew>ds &      
puni%m5ts2 he w raise all ! dead t h ev]
 liv$  f ! creation ( ! _w1 w comm& !m  
to reassume _!  bodies1 & !reupon       
adjudge !m to felicity t has s end1 or  
to  et]nal flames4 ,! fires ( hell are  
^? hidd5 flames :i* !  e>? %uts up 9 h] 
bosom4 ,he has 9 pa/ times s5t into ! _w
  prea*]s or prophets4 ,! prophets ( ^? 
old times 7 ,jews2 !y  address$ _!      
oracles1 = su* !y 71 to ! ,jews1 :o  h  
/or$ !m up 9 ! ,scriptures4 ,on !m1 z   

has be5 said1  ,*ri/ianity is f\nd$1    
?\gh ! ,*ri/ian diff]s 9 8 c]emonies  f 
! ,jew4 ,we are accus$ ( wor%ip+ a man1 
& n ! ,god (  ! ,jews4 ,n s4 ,! honor we
 be> to ,*ri/ does n d]ogate f !  honor 
we be> to ,god4    ,on acc\nt ( ! m]it (
 ^! anci5t patri>*s1 ! ,jews 7 !  only  
belov$ p ( ,god2 he delight$ to be 9    
communication )  !m by 8 own m\?4 ,by   
him !y 7 rais$ to admirable greatness4  
,b ) p]v]sity !y wick$ly ceas$ to reg>d 
him2 !y *ang$  8 laws into a pr(ane     
wor%ip4 ,he w>n$ !m t he w\ld take to   
himself s]vants m fai?ful ?an !y1 &1 =  
_! crime1 puni%$  !m by driv+ !m =? f _!
 c\ntry4 ,!y are n[ spread all  ov] !   
_w2 !y w&] 9 all p>ts2 !y _c enjoy ! air
 !y  brea!d at _! bir?2 !y h nei!r man  
nor ,god = _! k+4  ,z he ?reat5$ !m1 s  
he has done4 ,he has tak51 9 all nations
  & c\ntries ( ! e>?1 p m fai?ful ?an   
!y4 ,?r\gh 8  prophets he _h decl>$ t ^!
 %\ld h great] favors1 & t  a ,messiah  
%\ld come1 to publi% a new law among !m4
 ,?is ,messiah 0  ,jesus1 :o is also    

,god4 ,= ,god may be d]iv$ f ,god1 z !  
light  ( a c&le may be d]iv$ f ! light (
 ano!r c&le4 ,god & 8  ,son are !       
self-same ,god--a light is ! same light 
z t f :i*  x 0 tak54    ,! ,scriptures  
make kn[n two com+s ( ! ,son ( ,god2 !  
fir/ 9  humility1 ! second at ! day (   
judgm5t1 9 p[]4 ,! ,jews might  h kn[n  
all ?is f ! prophets1 b _! s9s h s bl9d$
  !m t !y did n recognize him at 8 fir/ 
com+1 & are /ill  va9ly expect+ him4 ,!y
 believ$ t all ! miracles wr\ght by  him
 7 ! "w ( magic4 ,! doctors ( ! law & ! 
*ief prie/s  7 envi\s ( him2 !y d5\nc$  
him to ,pilate4 ,he 0 crucifi$1  di$1 0 
buri$1 & aft] ?ree days rose aga94 ,=   
=ty days he  rema9$ among 8 disciples4  
,!n he 0 environ$ 9 a cl\d1 &  rose up  
to heav5--a tru? f> m c]ta9 ?an any     
human te/imonies  t\*+ ! asc5sion (     
,romulus or ( any o!r ,roman pr9ce m\nt+
  up to ! same place4    ,t]tullian !n  
describes ! orig9 & nature ( devils1 :o1
 "u  ,satan1 _! pr9ce1 produce diseases1
 irregul>ities ( ! air1  plagues1 & !   

blight+ ( ! blossoms ( ! e>?1 :o s$uce  
m5  to (f] sacrifices1 t !y may h !     
blood ( ! victims1 :i*  is _! food4 ,!y 
are z nimble z ! birds1 & h5ce "k e  ?+ 
t is pass+ ^u e>?2 !y live 9 ! air1 &   
h5ce c  spy :at is go+ on 9 heav52 = ?is
 reason !y c impose on m5  reign$       
prophecies1 & deliv] oracles4 ,?us !y   
ann\nc$ 9 ,rome  t a victory w\ld be    
obta9$ ov] ,k+ ,p]seus1 :5 9 tru? !y    
knew t ! battle 0 already won4 ,!y      
falsely cure diseases2 =1  tak+         
possession ( ! body ( a man1 !y produce 
9 him a di/emp]1  & !n orda9+ "s rem$y  
to be us$1 !y cease to afflict him1  &  
m5 ?9k t a cure has tak5 place4    ,?\gh
 ,*ri/ians d5y t ! emp]or is a god1 !y  
nev]!less pray  = 8 prosp]ity1 because !
 g5]al dissolution t ?reat5s !  univ]se1
 ! conflagration ( ! _w1 is ret>d$ s    
long z !  glori\s maje/y ( ! triumphant 
,roman ,empire %all la/4 ,!y desire  n  
to be pres5t at ! subv]sion ( all       
,nature4 ,!y ackn[l$ge  only "o         
republic1 b x is ! :ole _w2 !y con/itute

 "o body1  wor%ip "o ,god1 & all look   
=w>d to et]nal happ9ess4 ,n only d  !y  
pray = ! emp]or & ! magi/rates1 b also =
 peace4 ,!y  read ! ,scriptures to n\ri%
 _! fai?1 lift up _! hope1 &  /r5g!n !  
confid5ce !y h 9 ,god4 ,!y assemble to  
exhort "o  ano!r2 !y remove s9n]s f _!  
societies2 !y h bi%ops :o  preside ov]  
!m1 approv$ by ! suffrages ( ^? :om !y  
are to  conduct4 ,at ! end ( ea* mon? e 
"o contributes if he w1 b  no "o is     
con/ra9$ to give2 ! money ga!r$ 9 ?is   
mann] is  ! pl$ge ( piety2 x is n       
consum$ 9 eat+ & dr9k+1 b  9 fe$+ !     
poor1 & bury+ !m1 9 com=t+ *ildr5 t are 
de/itute ( p>5ts & goods1 9 help+ old m5
 :o h sp5t !  be/ ( _! days 9 ! s]vice (
 ! fai?ful1 9 assi/+ ^?  :o h lo/ by    
%ipwreck :at !y _h1 & ^? :o are condemn$
  to ! m9es1 or h be5 bani%$ to isl&s1  
or %ut up 9 prisons1  because !y pr(ess$
 ! religion ( ! true ,god4 ,!re is b "o 
?+ t ,*ri/ians h n 9 common1 & t "o ?+  
is _!  wives4 ,!y d n fea/ z if !y %\ld 
die to-morr[1 nor build  z if !y %\ld   

nev] die4 ,! objects ( _! life are      
innoc5ce1  ju/ice1 pati5ce1 temp]ance1  
*a/ity4    ,to ?is noble exposition (   
,*ri/ian belief & life 9 8 day1         
,t]tullian does n hesitate to add an    
om9\s w>n+ to !  magi/rates he is       
address+--om9\s1 = x 0 a =eca/ ( a great
  ev5t soon to come to pass3 ,our orig9 
is b rec5t1 yet already we  fill all t  
y\r p[] ackn[l$ges--cities1 =tresses1   
isl&s1  prov9ces1 ! assemblies ( ! p1 ! 
w>ds ( ,rome1 ! palace1  ! s5ate1 !     
public places1 & especially ! armies4   
,we h  left y no?+ b y\r temples4       
,reflect :at w>s we are able to         
und]take6 ,) :at promptitude might we n 
arm ourselves 7 we n  re/ra9$ by our    
religion1 :i* tea*es u t x is bett] to  
be  kill$ ?an to kill6    ,be=e he      
closes 8 def5se1 ,t]tullian r5ews an    
ass]tion :i*1  c>ri$ into practice1 z x 
subsequ5tly 01 affect$ ! intellectual   
developm5t ( all ,europe4 ,he decl>es t 
! ,holy ,scriptures are a  treasure f   
:i* all ! true wisdom 9 ! _w has be5    

drawn2  t e philosoph] & e poet is      
indebt$ to !m4 ,he labors  to %[ t !y   
are ! /&>d & measure ( all tru?1 & t    
:atev] is inconsi/5t ) !m mu/ necess>ily
 be false4    ,f ,t]tullian's able "w we
 see :at ,*ri/ianity 0 :ile x 0  suff]+ 
p]secution & /ruggl+ = exi/5ce4 ,we h n[
 to  see :at x became :5 9 possession ( 
imp]ial p[]4 ,great is !  diff]5ce      
betwe5 ,*ri/ianity "u ,sev]us &         
,*ri/ianity aft]  ,con/ant9e4 ,_m ( !   
doctr9es :i* at ! latt] p]iod 7         
preem95t1 9 ! =m] 7 unkn[n4             
,,paganization ,,( ,,*ri/ianity4 ,two   
causes l$ to ! amalgamation (           
,*ri/ianity ) paganism3 #a4 ,! political
 necessities ( ! new  dyna/y2 #b4 ,!    
policy adopt$ by ! new religion to      
insure its spread4    #a4 ,?\gh !       
,*ri/ian p>ty _h prov$ itself           
suffici5tly /rong to  give a ma/] to !  
empire1 x 0 nev] suffici5tly /rong to   
de/roy  its antagoni/1 paganism4 ,!     
issue ( ! /ruggle betwe5 !m 0 an        
amalgamation ( ! pr9ciples ( bo?4 ,9    

?is1 ,*ri/ianity diff]$  f              
,mohamm$anism1 :i* absolutely annihilat$
 its antagoni/1 &  spread its own       
doctr9es )\t adult]ation4    ,con/ant9e 
cont9ually %[$ by 8 acts t he felt he   
mu/ be !  imp>tial sov]eign ( all 8 p1 n
 m]ely ! repres5tative  ( a successful  
faction4 ,h5ce1 if he built ,*ri/ian    
*ur*es1 he also  re/or$ pagan temples2  
if he li/5$ to ! cl]gy1 he also consult$
  ! h>uspices2 if he summon$ ! ,c\ncil (
 ,nicea1 he also honor$ !  /atue (      
,=tune2 if he accept$ ! rite ( baptism1 
he also /ruck  a m$al be>+ 8 title (    
,god4 ,8 /atue1 on ! top ( ! great      
porphyry pill> at ,con/ant9ople1 consi/$
 ( an anci5t image (  ,apollo1 ^:       
features 7 replac$ by ^? ( ! emp]or1 &  
its head surr\nd$ by ! nails feign$ to h
 be5 us$ at !  crucifixion ( ,*ri/1     
arrang$ s z to =m a cr[n ( glory4       
,feel+ t !re mu/ be concessions to !    
defeat$ pagan p>ty1  9 accordance ) its 
ideas1 he look$ ) favor on ! idolatr\s  
movem5ts ( 8 c\rt4 ,9 fact1 ! lead]s (  

^! movem5ts 7  p]sons ( 8 own family4   
,,*ri/ianity ,,"u ,,con/ant9e4 #b4 ,to !
 emp]or--a m]e worldl+--a  man )\t any  
religi\s convictions1 d\btless x appe>$ 
be/ =  himself1 be/ = ! empire1 & be/ = 
! cont5d+ p>ties1  ,*ri/ian & pagan1 to 
promote _! union or amalgamation z mu* z
  possible4 ,ev5 s9c]e ,*ri/ians d n    
seem to h be5 av]se to  ?is2 p]haps !y  
believ$ t ! new doctr9es w\ld diffuse   
mo/  ?or\ghly by incorporat+ 9 !mselves 
ideas borr[$ f ! old1  t ,tru? w\ld     
ass]t h] self 9 ! end1 & ! impurity be  
ca/  (f4 ,9 accompli%+ ?is amalgamation1
 ,hel5a1 ! empress-"m1  aid$ by ! c\rt  
ladies1 l$ ! way4 ,= h] gratification   
!re 7  discov]$1 9 a cav]n at ,j]usalem1
 :]e9 !y _h la9 buri$ =  m ?an ?ree     
c5turies1 ! ,savior's cross1 & ^? ( !   
two  ?ieves1 ! inscription1 & ! nails t 
_h be5 us$4 ,!y 7  id5tifi$ by miracle4 
,a true relic-wor%ip set 94 ,!          
sup]/ition (  ! old ,greek times        
reappe>$2 ! times :5 ! tools ) :i* !    
,trojan horse 0 made might /ill be se5  

at ,metapontum1 ! sceptre (  ,pelops at 
,*a]oneia1 ! spe> ( ,a*illes at         
,phaselis1 ! sword  ( ,memnon at        
,nicom$ia1 :5 ! ,tegeates c\ld %[ ! hide
 ( !  ,calydonian bo> & v _m cities     
boa/$ _! possession ( !  true palladium 
( ,troy2 :5 !re 7 /atues ( ,m9]va t c\ld
  br&i% spe>s1 pa9t+s t c\ld blu%1      
images t c\ld sweat1  & endless %r9es & 
sanctu>ies at :i* miracle-cures c\ld be 
p]=m$4    ,z ye>s pass$ on1 ! fai?      
describ$ by ,t]tullian 0 transmut$  into
 "o m fa%ionable & m debas$4 ,x 0       
incorporat$ )  ! old ,greek my?ology4   
,olympus 0 re/or$1 b ! div9ities pass$  
"u o!r names4 ,! m p[]ful prov9ces      
insi/$ on ! adoption  ( _! "t-honor$    
conceptions4 ,views ( ! ,tr9ity1 9      
accordance  ) ,egyptian traditions1 7   
e/abli%$4 ,n only 0 ! adoration  ( ,isis
 "u a new "n re/or$1 b ev5 h] image1 /&+
 on !  cresc5t moon1 reappe>$4 ,!       
well-kn[n effigy ( t goddess1  ) !      
infant ,horus 9 h] arms1 has desc5d$ to 
our days 9  ! beautiful1 arti/ic        

creations ( ! ,madonna & ,*ild4 ,su*    
re/orations ( old conceptions "u novel  
=ms 7 ev]y:]e  receiv$ ) delight4 ,:5 x 
0 ann\nc$ to ! ,ephesians t !  ,c\ncil (
 t place1 head$ by ,cyril1 _h decre$ t !
 ,virg9  %\ld be call$ ! ,"m ( ,god1 )  
te>s ( joy !y embrac$  ! knees ( _!     
bi%op2 x 0 ! old in/9ct peep+ out2 _!   
ance/ors w\ld h done ! same = ,diana4   
,?is attempt to conciliate worldly      
conv]ts1 by adopt+ _! ideas  &          
practices1 did n pass )\t remon/rance f 
^? ^:  intellig5ce disc]n$ ! motive4 ,y 
h1 says ,fau/us to  ,augu/9e1 sub/itut$ 
y\r agapae = ! sacrifices ( ! pagans2  =
 _! idols y\r m>tyrs1 :om y s]ve ) ! v  
same honors4  ,y appease ! %ades ( !    
dead ) w9e & fea/s2 y celebrate  !      
solemn fe/ivities ( ! ,g5tiles1 _!      
cal5ds1 & _!  sol/ices2 &1 z to _!      
mann]s1 ^? y h reta9$ )\t any           
alt]ation4 ,no?+ di/+ui%es y f ! pagans1
 except t y  hold y\r assemblies ap>t f 
!m4 ,pagan obs]vances 7 ev]y:]e         
introduc$4 ,at w$d+s x 0 ! cu/om to s+  

hymns to ,v5us4    ,,introduction ,,(   
,,roman ,,rites4 ,let u pause "h a      
mom5t1 & see1 9  anticipation1 to :at a 
dep? ( intellectual degradation ?is     
policy (  paganization ev5tually l$4    
,hea!n rites 7 adopt$1 a pomp\s  &      
spl5did ritual1 gorge\s robes1 mitres1  
ti>as1 wax-tap]s1  processional s]vices1
 lu/rations1 gold & silv] vases1 7      
introduc$4 ,! ,roman lituus1 ! *ief     
ensign ( ! augurs1 became !  crozi]4    
,*ur*es 7 built ov] ! tombs ( m>tyrs1 & 
consecrat$  ) rites borr[$ f ! anci5t   
laws ( ! ,roman pontiffs4  ,fe/ivals &  
commemorations ( m>tyrs multipli$ ) !   
numb]less  fictiti\s discov]ies ( _!    
rema9s4 ,fa/+ became ! gr& means  (     
repell+ ! devil & appeas+ ,god2 celibacy
 ! greate/ (  ! virtues4 ,pilgrimages 7 
made to ,pale/9e & ! tombs ( !  m>tyrs4 
,quantities ( du/ & e>? 7 br\ght f !    
,holy ,l&  & sold at enorm\s prices1 z  
antidotes aga9/ devils4 ,! virtues  (   
consecrat$ wat] 7 upheld4 ,images &     
relics 7 introduc$ into  ! *ur*es1 &    

wor%ip$ aft] ! fa%ion ( ! hea!n gods4 ,x
  0 giv5 out t prodigies & miracles 7 to
 be se5 9 c]ta9  places1 z 9 ! hea!n    
times4 ,! happy s\ls ( dep>t$ ,*ri/ians 
7 invok$2 x 0 believ$ t !y 7 w&]+ ab\t !
 _w1  or haunt+ _! graves4 ,!re 0 a     
multiplication ( temples1 alt>s1  &     
p5it5tial g>m5ts4 ,! fe/ival ( !        
purification ( ! ,virg9  0 inv5t$ to    
remove ! uneas9ess ( hea!n conv]ts on   
acc\nt (  ! loss ( _! ,lup]calia1 or    
fea/s ( ,pan4 ,! wor%ip ( images1  (    
fragm5ts ( ! cross1 or bones1 nails1 &  
o!r relics1 a true  feti* wor%ip1 0     
cultivat$4 ,two argum5ts 7 reli$ on = ! 
au!nticity ( ^! objects--! au?ority ( ! 
,*ur*1 & !  work+ ( miracles4 ,ev5 !    
worn-out clo?+ ( ! sa9ts & !  e>? ( _!  
graves 7 v5]at$4 ,f ,pale/9e 7 br\ght   
:at  7 affirm$ to be ! skeletons ( ,/4  
,m>k & ,/4 ,james1 & o!r  anci5t        
wor?ies4 ,! apo!osis ( ! old ,roman     
times 0 replac$ by  canonization2       
tutel>y sa9ts succe$ to local           
my?ological div9ities4  ,!n came ! my/]y

 ( transub/antiation1 or ! conv]sion (  
bread  & w9e by ! prie/ into ! fle% &   
blood ( ,*ri/4 ,z c5turies  pass$1 !    
paganization became m & m complete4     
,fe/ivals sacr$  to ! memory ( ! lance )
 :i* ! ,savior's side 0 pi]c$1  ! nails 
t fa/5$ him to ! cross1 & ! cr[n (      
?orns1 7  in/itut$4 ,?\gh !re 7 sev]al  
abbeys t possess$ ?is la/  pe]less      
relic1 no "o d>$ to say t x 0 impossible
 !y c\ld  all be au!ntic4    ,we may    
read ) advantage ! rem>ks made by ,bi%op
 ,newton on ?is  paganization (         
,*ri/ianity4 ,he asks3 ,is n ! wor%ip ( 
sa9ts &  angels n[ 9 all respects ! same
 t ! wor%ip ( demons 0 9  =m] times8 ,! 
"n only is diff]5t1 ! ?+ is id5tically  
! same1444 ! deifi$ m5 ( ! ,*ri/ians are
 sub/itut$ = !  deifi$ m5 ( ! hea!ns4 ,!
 promot]s ( ?is wor%ip 7 s5sible  t x 0 
! same1 & t ! "o succe$$ to ! o!r2 &1  z
 ! wor%ip is ! same1 s likewise x is    
p]=m$ ) ! same  c]emonies4 ,! burn+ (   
inc5se or p]fumes on sev]al alt>s at "o 
& ! same "t2 ! spr9kl+ ( holy wat]1 or a

 mixture ( salt  & common wat]1 at go+  
into & com+ out ( places ( public       
wor%ip2 ! light+ up ( a great numb] (   
lamps & wax-c&les 9  broad daylight be=e
 alt>s & /atues ( ^! deities2 ! hang+   
up ( votive (f]+s & ri* pres5ts z       
atte/ations ( s _m  miracul\s cures &   
deliv]ances f diseases & dang]s2 !      
canonization or deification ( deceas$   
wor?ies2 ! assign+ (  di/9ct prov9ces or
 prefectures to dep>t$ h]oes & sa9ts2 ! 
wor%ip+ & ador+ ( ! dead 9 _! sepul*res1
 %r9es1 &  relics2 ! consecrat+ & b[+   
d[n to images2 ! attribut+  ( miracul\s 
p[]s & virtues to idols2 ! sett+ up (   
little  oratories1 alt>s1 & /atues 9 !  
/reets & highways1 & on  ! tops (       
m\nta9s2 ! c>ry+ ( images & relics 9    
pomp\s  procession1 ) num]\s lights & ) 
music & s++2  flagellations at solemn   
seasons "u ! notion ( p5ance2 a great   
v>iety ( religi\s ord]s & frat]nities ( 
prie/s2 ! %av+ (  prie/s1 or ! tonsure z
 x is call$1 on ! cr[n ( _! heads2  !   
impos+ ( celibacy & v[s ( *a/ity on !   

religi\s ( bo?  sexes--all ^! & _m m    
rites & c]emonies are equally p>ts (    
pagan & popi% sup]/ition4 ,nay1 ! v same
 temples1 ! v same  images1 :i* 7 once  
consecrat$ to ,jupit] & ! o!r demons1   
are  n[ consecrat$ to ! ,virg9 ,m>y & ! 
o!r sa9ts4 ,! v same  rites &           
inscriptions are ascrib$ to bo?1 ! v    
same prodigies &  miracles are relat$ ( 
^! z ( ^?4 ,9 %ort1 almo/ ! :ole  (     
paganism is conv]t$ & appli$ to pop]y2 !
 "o is manife/ly  =m$ ^u ! same plan &  
pr9ciples z ! o!r2 s t !re is  n only a 
con=mity1 b ev5 a uni=mity1 9 ! wor%ip (
 anci5t  & mod]n1 ( hea!n & ,*ri/ian    
,rome4    ,,debasem5t ,,( ,,*ri/ianity4 
,?us f> ,bi%op ,newton2 b to return to !
  times ( ,con/ant9e3 ?\gh ^!           
concessions to old & popul> ideas  7    
p]mitt$ & ev5 enc\rag$1 ! dom9ant       
religi\s p>ty nev]  = a mom5t hesitat$  
to en=ce its decisions by ! aid ( !     
civil  p[]--an aid :i* 0 freely giv54   
,con/ant9e ?us c>ri$ into  effect ! acts
 ( ! ,c\ncil ( ,nicea4 ,9 ! affair (    

,arius1 he ev5  ord]$ t :oev] %\ld f9d a
 book ( t h]etic1 & n burn  x1 %\ld be  
put to dea?4 ,9 l mann] ,ne/or 0 by     
,!odosius !  ,y\ng] bani%$ to an        
,egyptian oasis4    ,! pagan p>ty       
includ$ _m ( ! old ari/ocratic families 
( !  empire2 x c\nt$ among its adh]5ts  
all ! disciples ( ! old  philosophical  
s*ools4 ,x look$ d[n on its antagoni/ ) 
contempt4  ,x ass]t$ t k is to be obta9$
 only by ! labori\s  ex]cise ( human    
obs]vation & human reason4    ,!        
,*ri/ian p>ty ass]t$ t all k is to be   
f\nd 9 !  ,scriptures & 9 ! traditions (
 ! ,*ur*2 t1 9 ! writt5  revelation1    
,god _h n only giv5 a crit]ion ( tru?1 b
 _h  furni%$ u all t he int5d$ u to "k4 
,! ,scriptures1 !re=e1  conta9 ! sum1 ! 
end ( all k4 ,! cl]gy1 ) ! emp]or  at _!
 back1 w\ld endure no intellectual      
competition4    ,?us came into prom95ce 
:at 7 t]m$ sacr$ & pr(ane k2  ?us came  
into pres5ce ( ea* o!r two oppos+       
p>ties1 "o rely+  on human reason z its 
guide1 ! o!r on revelation4 ,paganism   

lean$  = support on ! le>n+ ( its       
philosoph]s1 ,*ri/ianity on !           
inspiration ( its ,fa!rs4    ,! ,*ur*   
?us set h]self =? z ! depository &      
arbit] (  k2 %e 0 ev] ready to resort to
 ! civil p[] to compel  ob$i5ce to h]   
decisions4 ,%e ?us took a c\rse :i*     
det]m9$ h]  :ole future c>e]3 %e became 
a /umbl+-block 9 ! intellectual         
advancem5t ( ,europe = m ?an a ?\s&     
ye>s4    ,! reign ( ,con/ant9e m>ks !   
epo* ( ! trans=mation (  ,*ri/ianity f a
 religion into a political sy/em2 &     
?\gh1 9  "o s5se1 t sy/em 0 degrad$ into
 an idolatry1 9 ano!r x _h  ris5 into a 
developm5t ( ! old ,greek my?ology4 ,!  
maxim holds  good 9 ! social z well z 9 
! me*anical _w1 t1 :5 two  bodies /rike1
 ! =m ( bo? is *ang$4 ,paganism 0       
modifi$ by  ,*ri/ianity2 ,*ri/ianity by 
,paganism4    ,,! ,,tr9it>ian ,,dispute4
 ,9 ! ,tr9it>ian controv]sy1 :i* fir/   
broke out 9 ,egypt--,egypt1 ! l& (      
,tr9ities--! *ief po9t 9  discussion 0  
to def9e ! position ( ! ,son4 ,!re liv$ 

9  ,alex&ria a presbyt] ( ! "n ( ,arius1
 a disappo9t$ c&idate  = ! (fice (      
bi%op4 ,he took ! gr\nd t !re 0 a "t :51
  f ! v nature ( son%ip1 ! ,son did n   
exi/1 & a "t at  :i* he comm5c$ to be1  
ass]t+ t x is ! necess>y condition  ( ! 
filial relation t a fa!r mu/ be old] ?an
 8 son4 ,b  ?is ass]tion evid5tly d5i$ !
 coet]nity ( ! ?ree p]sons (  ! ,tr9ity2
 x sugge/$ a subord9ation or inequality 
among !m1  & inde$ impli$ a "t :5 !     
,tr9ity did n exi/4 ,h]eupon1 !  bi%op1 
:o _h be5 ! successful competitor aga9/ 
,arius1 display$  8 rhetorical p[]s 9   
public debates on ! "q1 &1 ! /rife      
spread+1 ! ,jews & pagans1 :o =m$ a v   
l>ge portion (  ! population (          
,alex&ria1 amus$ !mselves ) !atrical    
repres5tations ( ! conte/ on ! /age--!  
po9t ( _!  burlesques be+ ! equality (  
age ( ! ,fa!r & 8 ,son4    ,su* 0 !     
viol5ce ! controv]sy at l5g? assum$1 t !
 matt]  _h to be ref]r$ to ! emp]or4 ,at
 fir/ he look$ ^u ! dispute  z altoge!r 
frivol\s1 & p]haps 9 tru? incl9$ to !   

ass]tion  ( ,arius1 t 9 ! v nature ( !  
?+ a fa!r mu/ be old]  ?an 8 son4 ,s    
great1 h[ev]1 0 ! pressure laid ^u him1 
t  he 0 ev5tually compell$ to summon !  
,c\ncil ( ,nicea1 :i*1 to  dispose ( !  
conflict1 set =? a =mul>y or cre$1 &    
atta*$ to  x ?is ana!ma3 ,! ,holy       
,ca?olic & ,apo/olic ,*ur* ana!matizes  
^? :o say t !re 0 a "t :5 ! ,son ( ,god 
0 n1 &  t1 be=e he 0 begott51 he 0 n1 & 
t he 0 made out (  no?+1 or out ( ano!r 
sub/ance or ess5ce1 & is creat$1 or     
*angeable1 or alt]able4 ,con/ant9e at   
once en=c$ ! decision (  ! c\ncil by !  
civil p[]4    ,a few ye>s subsequ5tly ! 
,emp]or ,!odosius prohibit$ sacrifices1 
made ! inspection ( ! entrails ( animals
 a capital (f5se1 &  =bade any "o ent]+ 
a temple4 ,he in/itut$ ,inquisitors (   
,fai?1  & orda9$ t all :o did n accord )
 ! belief ( ,damasus1 !  ,bi%op ( ,rome1
 & ,pet]1 ! ,bi%op ( ,alex&ria1 %\ld be 
driv5  into exile1 & depriv$ ( civil    
rights4 ,^? :o presum$ to  celebrate    
,ea/] on ! same day z ! ,jews1 he       

condemn$ to dea?4  ,! ,greek language 0 
n[ ceas+ to be kn[n 9 ! ,we/1 & true    
le>n+ 0 becom+ ext9ct4    ,at ?is "t !  
bi%opric ( ,alex&ria 0 held by "o       
,!ophilus4 ,an  anci5t temple ( ,osiris 
hav+ be5 giv5 to ! ,*ri/ians ( ! city  =
 ! site ( a *ur*1 x happ5$ t1 9 digg+ ! 
f\ndation  = ! new edifice1 ! obsc5e    
symbols ( ! =m] wor%ip *anc$  to be     
f\nd4 ,^!1 ) m zeal ?an mode/y1         
,!ophilus exhibit$  9 ! m>ket-place to  
public d]ision4 ,) less =be>ance ?an !  
,*ri/ian p>ty %[$ :5 x 0 insult$ 9 !    
!atre dur+ !  ,tr9it>ian dispute1 !     
pagans resort$ to viol5ce1 & a riot     
ensu$4  ,!y held ! ,s]apion z _!        
headqu>t]s4 ,su* 7 ! disord] &  blood%$ 
t ! emp]or _h to int]f]e4 ,he dispat*$ a
 rescript to  ,alex&ria1 enjo9+ ! bi%op1
 ,!ophilus1 to de/roy ! ,s]apion2  & !  
great libr>y1 :i* _h be5 collect$ by !  
,ptolemies1 &  _h escap$ ! fire (       
,julius ,caes>1 0 by t fanatic disp]s$4 
,,! ,,murd] ,,( ,,hypatia4 ,! bi%opric  
?us held by ,!ophilus 0 9 due  "t       

occupi$ by 8 nephew ,/4 ,cyril1 :o _h   
comm5d$ himself to  ! approval ( !      
,alex&rian congregations z a successful 
&  fa%ionable prea*]4 ,x 0 he :o _h s   
mu* to d ) !  introduction ( ! wor%ip ( 
! ,virg9 ,m>y4 ,8 hold ^u !  audi5ces ( 
! giddy city 01 h[ev]1 mu* weak5$ by    
,hypatia1 !  daught] ( ,!on1 !          
ma!matician1 :o n only di/+ui%$ h]self  
by h] expositions ( ! doctr9es ( ,plato 
& ,ari/otle1 b also by  h] comm5ts on ! 
writ+s ( ,apollonius & o!r geomet]s4    
,ea* day  be=e h] academy /ood a long   
tra9 ( *>iots2 h] lecture-room 0  cr[d$ 
) ! weal? & fa%ion ( ,alex&ria4 ,!y came
 to li/5  to h] disc\rses on ^? que/ions
 :i* man 9 all ages has ask$1  b :i*    
nev] yet h be5 answ]$3 ,:at am ,i8 ,:]e 
am ,i8 ,:at c  ,i "k8    ,hypatia &     
,cyril6 ,philosophy & bigotry4 ,!y _c   
exi/ toge!r4  ,s ,cyril felt1 & on t    
feel+ he act$4 ,z ,hypatia repair$ to h]
  academy1 %e 0 assault$ by ,cyril's    
mob--a mob ( _m monks4 ,/ripp$  nak$ 9 !
 /reet1 %e 0 dragg$ into a *ur*1 & !re  

kill$ by  ! club ( ,pet] ! ,read]4 ,!   
corpse 0 cut to pieces1 ! fle%  0 scrap$
 f ! bones ) %ells1 & ! remnants ca/    
into a  fire4 ,= ?is frightful crime    
,cyril 0 nev] call$ to acc\nt4 ,x  seem$
 to be admitt$ t ! end sanctifi$ !      
means4    ,s end$ ,greek philosophy 9   
,alex&ria1 s came to an untimely close  
! le>n+ t ! ,ptolemies _h done s mu* to 
promote4 ,!  ,daught] ,libr>y1 t ( !    
,s]apion1 _h be5 disp]s$4 ,! fate  (    
,hypatia 0 a w>n+ to all :o w\ld        
cultivate pr(ane k4  ,h5ce=? !re 0 to be
 no fre$om = human ?\ght4 ,e "o mu/  ?9k
 z ! ecclesia/ical au?ority ord]$ him1  
,a4,d4 #dad4 ,9 ,a!ns  itself philosophy
 await$ its doom4 ,ju/9ian at l5g?      
prohibit$ its  tea*+1 & caus$ all its   
s*ools 9 t city to be clos$4            
,,pelagius4 ,:ile ^! ev5ts 7 transpir+ 9
 ! ,ea/]n prov9ces  ( ! ,roman ,empire1 
! _s t _h produc$ !m 0 display+  itself 
9 ! ,we/4 ,a ,briti% monk1 :o _h assum$ 
! "n (  ,pelagius1 pass$ ?r\gh ,we/]n   
,europe & ,nor!rn ,africa1 tea*+  t dea?

 0 n introduc$ into ! _w by ! s9 (      
,adam2 t  on ! contr>y he 0 necess>ily &
 by nature mortal1 & _h he n  s9n$ he   
w\ld nev]!less h di$2 t ! consequ5ces ( 
8  s9s 7 conf9$ to himself1 & did n     
affect 8 po/]ity4 ,f  ^! premises       
,pelagius drew c]ta9 important !ological
 conclusions4    ,at ,rome1 ,pelagius _h
 be5 receiv$ ) favor2 at ,c>?age1 at !  
in/igation ( ,/4 ,augu/9e1 he 0 d5\nc$4 
,by a synod1 held at  ,diospolis1 he 0  
acquitt$ ( h]esy1 b1 on ref]r+ ! matt]  
to  ! ,bi%op ( ,rome1 ,innoc5t ,i41 he  
01 on ! contr>y1 condemn$4 ,x  happ5$ t 
at ?is mom5t ,innoc5t di$1 & 8          
successor1 ,zosimus1  annull$ 8 judgm5t 
& decl>$ ! op9ions ( ,pelagius to be    
or?odox4 ,^! contradictory decisions are
 /ill (t5 ref]r$ to  by ! oppon5ts (    
papal infallibility4 ,?+s 7 9 ?is /ate (
  confusion1 :5 ! wily ,african bi%ops1 
?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ,c\nt  ,val]ius1     
procur$ f ! emp]or an edict d5\nc+      
,pelag9s z  a h]etic2 he & 8 accomplices
 7 condemn$ to exile & !  =feiture ( _! 

goods4 ,to affirm t dea? 0 9 ! _w be=e  
! fall ( ,adam1 0 a /ate crime4         
,,condemnation ,,( ,,pelagius4 ,x is v  
in/ructive to consid] !  pr9ciples on   
:i* ?is /range decision 0 f\nd$4 ,s9ce !
  "q 0 purely philosophical1 "o might   
suppose t x w\ld  h be5 discuss$ on     
natural pr9ciples2 in/ead ( t1 !ological
  consid]ations alone 7 adduc$4 ,!      
att5tive read] w h  rem>k$1 9           
,t]tullian's /atem5t ( ! pr9ciples (    
,*ri/ianity1  a complete abs5ce ( !     
doctr9es ( orig9al s91 total depravity1 
pr$e/9ation1 grace1 & atonem5t4 ,!      
int5tion ( ,*ri/ianity1  z set =? by    
him1 has no?+ 9 common ) ! plan (       
salvation  upheld two c5turies          
subsequ5tly4 ,x is to ,/4 ,augu/9e1 a   
,c>?ag9ian1 t we are indebt$ = !        
precision ( our views on  ^! important  
po9ts4    ,9 decid+ :e!r dea? _h be5 9 !
 _w be=e ! fall ( ,adam1  or :e!r x 0 ! 
p5alty inflict$ on ! _w = 8 s91  ! c\rse
 tak5 0 to asc]ta9 :e!r ! views (       
,pelagius 7  accordant or discordant n )

 ,nature b ) ! !ological  doctr9es ( ,/4
 ,augu/9e4 ,& ! result has be5 su* z    
might  be expect$4 ,! doctr9e decl>$ to 
be or?odox by ecclesia/ical  au?ority is
 ov]?r[n by ! unque/ionable discov]ies (
 mod]n  sci5ce4 ,long be=e a human be+  
_h appe>$ ^u e>?1 millions (            
individuals--nay1 m1 ?\s&s ( species &  
ev5 g5]a--_h di$2  ^? :i* rema9 ) u are 
an insignificant fraction ( ! va/  ho/s 
t h pass$ away4    ,a consequ5ce ( great
 importance issu$ f ! decision ( !      
,pelagian controv]sy4 ,! book ( ,g5esis 
_h be5 made ! basis (  ,*ri/ianity4 ,if1
 9 a !ological po9t ( view1 to its      
acc\nt ( !  s9 9 ! g>d5 ( ,ed51 & !     
transgression & puni%m5t ( ,adam1  s mu*
 weight _h be5 atta*$1 x also 9 a       
philosophical po9t  ( view became ! gr& 
au?ority ( ,patri/ic sci5ce4 ,a/ronomy1 
geology1 geography1 an?ropology1        
*ronology1 & inde$ all ! v>i\s          
dep>tm5ts ( human k1 7 made to con=m to 
x4    ,,/4 ,,augu/9e4 ,z ! doctr9es (   
,/4 ,augu/9e h _h ! effect (  ?us plac+ 

!ology 9 antagonism ) sci5ce1 x may be  
int]e/+  to exam9e briefly "s ( ! m     
purely philosophical views ( t  great   
man4 ,= ?is purpose1 we may             
appropriately select portions (  8 /udy 
( ! fir/ *apt] ( ,g5esis1 z conta9$ 9 ! 
elev5?1  twelf?1 & ?irte5? books ( 8    
,confessions4    ,^! consi/ (           
philosophical discussions1 l>gely       
int]sp]s$  ) rhapsodies4 ,he prays t    
,god w give him to und]/& !             
,scriptures1 & w op5 _! mean+ to him2 he
 decl>es t 9  !m !re is no?+ sup]flu\s1 
b t ! words h a manifold  mean+4    ,!  
face ( creation te/ifies t !re has be5 a
 ,creator2 b at  once arises ! "q1 ,h[ &
 :5 did he make heav5 & e>?8  ,!y c\ld n
 h be5 made ,,9 heav5 & e>?1 ! _w c\ld n
  h be5 made ,,9 ! _w1 nor c\ld !y h be5
 made :5 !re  0 no?+ to make !m (4 ,!   
solution ( ?is fundam5tal inquiry  ,/4  
,augu/9e f9ds 9 say+1 ,?\ spake/1 & !y 7
 made4    ,b ! difficulty does n end "h4
 ,/4 ,augu/9e goes on to rem>k  t !     
syllables ?us utt]$ by ,god came =? 9   

succession1 &  !re mu/ h be5 "s creat$  
?+ to express ! words4 ,?is  creat$ ?+  
mu/1 !re=e1 h exi/$ be=e heav5 & e>?1 & 
yet !re c\ld h be5 no corporeal ?+ be=e 
heav5 & e>?4 ,x  mu/ h be5 a creature1  
because ! words pass$ away & came to an 
end b we "k t ! ^w ( ! ,"l endure? =ev]4
    ,moreov]1 x is pla9 t ! words ?us   
spok5 c\ld n h be5  spok5 successively1 
b simultane\sly1 else !re w\ld h be5 "t 
& *ange--succession 9 its nature imply+ 
"t2 :]eas !re 0  !n no?+ b et]nity &    
immortality4 ,god kn[s & says et]nally  
:at takes place 9 "t4    ,,criticism ,,(
 ,,/4 ,,augu/9e4 ,/4 ,augu/9e !n def9es1
 n )\t  mu* my/icism1 :at is meant by ! 
op5+ words ( ,g5esis3 ,9  ! beg9n+4 ,he 
is guid$ to 8 conclusion by ano!r       
scriptural  passage3 ,h[ wond]ful are ?y
 works1 ,o ,"l6 9 wisdom ha/ ?\ made  !m
 all4 ,?is wisdom is ! beg9n+1 & 9 t    
beg9n+ !  ,"l creat$ ! heav5 & ! e>?4   
,b1 he adds1 "s "o may ask1 ',:at 0 ,god
 do+ be=e he made  ! heav5 & ! e>?8 =1  
if at any p>ticul> mom5t he began  to   

employ himself1 t means "t1 n et]nity4  
,9 et]nity no?+  transpires--! :ole is  
pres5t4' ,9 answ]+ ?is "q1 he  _c =be>  
"o ( ^? t\*es ( rhetoric = :i* he 0 s   
celebrat$3 ,i w n answ] ?is "q by say+ t
 he 0  prep>+ hell = pri]s into 8       
my/]ies4 ,i say t1 be=e ,god  made heav5
 & e>?1 he did n make any ?+1 = no      
creature c\ld  be made be=e any creature
 0 made4 ,"t itself is a creature1 &    
h5ce x c\ld n possibly exi/ be=e        
creation4    ,:at1 !n1 is "t8 ,! pa/ is 
n1 ! future is n1 !  pres5t--:o c tell  
:at x is1 unless x be t :i* has no      
duration betwe5 two non5tities8 ,!re is 
no su* ?+ z 'a long  "t1' or 'a %ort    
"t1' = !re are no su* ?+s z ! pa/ &  !  
future4 ,!y h no exi/5ce1 except 9 !    
s\l4    ,! /yle 9 :i* ,/4 ,augu/9e      
convey$ 8 ideas is t ( a  rhapsodical   
conv]sation ) ,god4 ,8 works are an     
incoh]5t dream4  ,t ! read] may         
appreciate ?is rem>k1 ,i might copy     
almo/ at  r&om any ( 8 p>agraphs4 ,!    
foll[+ is f ! twelf? book3    ,?is !n1  

is :at ,i conceive1 ,o my ,god1 :5 ,i   
he> ?y ,scripture  say+1 ,9 ! beg9n+    
,god made heav5 & e>?3 & ! e>? 0        
invisible & )\t =m1 & d>kness 0 ^u !    
deep1 & n  m5tion+ :at day ?\ creat$/   
!m2 ?is is :at ,i conceive1  t because (
 ! heav5 ( heav5s--t intellectual heav51
 ^:  intellig5ces "k all at once1 n 9   
"p1 n d>kly1 n ?r\gh a  glass1 b z a    
:ole1 9 manife/ation1 face to face2 n   
?is ?+  n[1 & t ?+ anon2 b 7z ,i said7  
"k all at once1 )\t any  succession (   
times2 & because ( ! e>?1 invisible &   
)\t  =m1 )\t any succession ( times1 :i*
 succession pres5ts '?is  ?+ n[1 t ?+   
anon2' because1 :]e !re is no =m1 !re   
is no di/9ction ( ?+s2 x is1 !n1 on     
acc\nt ( ^! two1 a  primitive =m$1 & a  
primitive =mless2 ! "o1 heav51 b !      
heav5 ( heav5s2 ! o!r1 e>?1 b ! e>?     
movable & )\t  =m2 because ( ^! two d ,i
 conceive1 did ?y ,scripture say )\t    
m5tion ( days1 ,9 ! beg9n+ ,god creat$ !
 heav5 & ! e>?4  ,=1 =?) x subjo9$ :at  
e>? x spake (2 & also 9 t !  firmam5t is

 record$ to be creat$ ! second day1 &   
call$ heav51  x conveys to u ( :i* heav5
 he be=e spake1 )\t m5tion (  days4     
,wondr\s dep? ( ?y words6 ^: surface    
behold6 is be=e u1  invit+ to little    
ones2 yet are !y a wondr\s dep?1 ,o my  
,god1 a  wondr\s dep?6 ,x is awful to   
look !re92 an awfulness ( honor1 &  a   
trembl+ ( love4 ,! enemies !re( ,i hate 
vehem5tly2 ,o t ?\  w\ld/ slay !m ) ?y  
two-edg$ sword1 t !y might no long] be  
enemies to x3 = s d ,i love to h !m sla9
 unto !mselves1 t  !y may live unto !e4 
,z an example ( ! h]m5eutical mann] 9   
:i* ,/4 ,augu/9e  unfold$ ! conceal$    
facts ( ! ,scriptures1 ,i may cite !    
foll[+  f ! ?irte5? book ( !            
,confessions2 8 object is to %[  t !    
doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity is conta9$ 9 !      
,mosaic n>rative (  ! creation3    ,lo1 
n[ ! ,tr9ity appe>s unto me 9 a glass   
d>kly1 :i* is ?\ my  ,god1 because ?\1  
,o ,fa!r1 9 him :o is ! beg9n+ ( our    
wisdom1  :i* is ?y wisdom1 born (       
?yself1 equal unto !e & coet]nal1  t is1

 9 ?y ,son1 creat$/ heav5 & e>?4 ,mu* n[
 h we said  ( ! heav5 ( heav5s1 & ( !   
e>? invisible & )\t =m1  & ( ! d>ksome  
deep1 9 ref]5ce to ! w&]+ in/ability (  
its spiritual de=mity1 unless x _h be5  
conv]t$ unto him1 f  :om x _h its !n    
degree ( life1 & by 8 enlight5+ became a
  beaute\s life1 & ! heav5 ( t heav51   
:i* 0 aft]w>d  set betwe5 wat] & wat]4  
,& "u ! "n ( ,god1 ,i n[ held !  ,fa!r1 
:o made ^! ?+s2 & "u ! "n ( ! beg9n+1 ! 
,son1 9 :om he made ^! ?+s2 & believ+1 z
 ,i did1 my ,god z  ! ,tr9ity1 ,i se>*$ 
fur!r 9 8 holy words1 & lo6 ?y ,_s  mov$
 ^u ! wat]s4 ,behold ! ,tr9ity1 my      
,god6--,fa!r1 & ,son1 &  ,holy ,gho/    
,creator ( all creation4    ,t ,i might 
convey to my read] a j impression ( ! "*
 (  ,/4 ,augu/9e's philosophical writ+s1
 ,i h1 9 ! two quotations  "h giv51     
sub/itut$ = my own translation t ( !    
,rev4 ,dr4  ,pusey1 z conta9$ 9 ,vol4   
,i4 ( ! ,libr>y ( ,fa!rs ( ! ,holy      
,ca?olic ,*ur*1 publi%$ at ,ox=d1 #ahdj4
    ,consid]+ ! em95t au?ority :i* has  

be5 attribut$ to !  writ+s ( ,/4        
,augu/9e by ! religi\s _w = ne>ly fifte5
  c5turies1 x is prop] to speak ( !m )  
respect4 ,& inde$ x  is n necess>y to d 
o!rwise4 ,! p>agraphs "h quot$ criticise
  !mselves4 ,no "o did m ?an ?is ,fa!r  
to br+ sci5ce &  religion into          
antagonism2 x 0 ma9ly he :o div]t$ !    
,bible  f its true (fice--a guide to    
purity ( life--& plac$ x 9 !  p]il\s    
position ( be+ ! arbit] ( human k1 an   
audaci\s  tyranny ov] ! m9d ( man4 ,!   
example once set1 !re 0 no want (       
foll[]s2 ! works ( ! great ,greek       
philosoph]s 7 /igmatiz$  z pr(ane2 !    
transc5d5tly glori\s a*ievem5ts ( !     
,museum (  ,alex&ria 7 hidd5 f sight by 
a cl\d ( ignorance1 my/icism1  &        
un9telligible j>gon1 out ( :i* !re too  
(t5 fla%$ !  de/roy+ lightn+s (         
ecclesia/ical v5geance4      ,a div9e   
revelation ( sci5ce admits ( no         
improvem5t1 no *ange1 no  advance4 ,x   
disc\rages z ne$less1 & inde$ z         
presumptu\s1 all new  discov]y1 consid]+

 x z an unlawful pry+ into ?+s :i* x 0  
! int5tion ( ,god to conceal4    ,:at1  
!n1 is t sacr$1 t reveal$ sci5ce1 decl>$
 by !  ,fa!rs to be ! sum ( all k8    ,x
 lik5$ all ph5om5a1 natural & spiritual1
 to human acts4 ,x saw  9 ! ,almighty1 !
 ,et]nal1 only a gigantic man4    ,,!   
,,patri/ic ,,philosophy4 ,z to ! e>?1 x 
affirm$ t x is a flat  surface1 ov] :i* 
! sky is spread l a dome1 or1 z ,/4     
,augu/9e  tells u1 is /ret*$ l a sk94 ,9
 ?is ! sun & moon & />s  move1 s t !y   
may give light by day & by night to man4
 ,! e>?  0 made ( matt] creat$ by ,god  
out ( no?+1 &1 ) all !  tribes ( animals
 & plants inhabit+ x1 0 f9i%$ 9 six     
days4  ,above ! sky or firmam5t is      
heav52 9 ! d>k & fi]y space  b5ea? ! e>?
 is hell4 ,! e>? is ! c5tral & mo/      
important  body ( ! univ]se1 all o!r ?+s
 be+ int5d$ = &  subs]vi5t to x4    ,z  
to man1 he 0 made out ( ! du/ ( ! e>?4  
,at fir/ he 0  alone1 b subsequ5tly     
woman 0 =m$ f "o ( 8 ribs4 ,he is !     
greate/ & *oice/ ( ! works ( ,god4 ,he 0

 plac$ 9 a p>adise  ne> ! banks ( !     
,euphrates1 & 0 v wise & v pure2 b1     
hav+ ta/$ ( ! =bidd5 fruit1 & !reby     
brok5 ! comm&m5t  giv5 to him1 he 0     
condemn$ to labor & to dea?4    ,!      
desc5dants ( ! fir/ man1 undet]r$ by 8  
puni%m5t1 pursu$  su* a c>e] ( wick$ness
 t x became necess>y to de/roy !m4 ,a   
deluge1 !re=e1 flood$ ! face ( ! e>?1 & 
rose ov] ! tops  ( ! m\nta9s4 ,hav+     
accompli%$ its purpose1 ! wat] 0 dri$   
up by a w9d4    ,f ?is cata/rophe ,noah 
& 8 ?ree sons1 ) _! wives1 7  sav$ 9 an 
ark4 ,( ^! sons1 ,%em rema9$ 9 ,asia &  
repeopl$ x4  ,ham peopl$ ,africa2       
,japhet1 ,europe4 ,z ! ,fa!rs 7 n       
acqua9t$  ) ! exi/5ce ( ,am]ica1 !y did 
n provide an ance/or = its  p4    ,let u
 li/5 to :at "s ( ^! au?orities say 9   
support ( _!  ass]tions4 ,?us           
,lactantius1 ref]r+ to ! h]etical       
doctr9e ( !  globul> =m ( ! e>?1 rem>ks3
 ,is x possible t m5 c be s  absurd z to
 believe t ! crops & ! trees on ! o!r   
side (  ! e>? hang d[nw>d1 & t m5 h _!  

feet high] ?an _!  heads8 ,if y ask !m  
h[ !y def5d ^! mon/rosities1 h[ ?+s  d n
 fall away f ! e>? on t side1 !y reply t
 ! nature  ( ?+s is su* t heavy bodies  
t5d t[>d ! c5tre1 l !  spokes ( a :eel1 
:ile light bodies1 z cl\ds1 smoke1 fire1
 t5d f  ! c5tre to ! heav5s on all      
sides4 ,n[1 ,i am really at a loss :at  
to say ( ^? :o1 :5 !y h once gone wrong1
 /eadily p]sev]e  9 _! folly1 & def5d "o
 absurd op9ion by ano!r4 ,on !  "q ( !  
antipodes1 ,/4 ,augu/9e ass]ts t x is   
impossible  !re %\ld be inhabitants on !
 opposite side ( ! e>?1 s9ce  no su*    
race is record$ by ,scripture among !   
desc5dants ( ,adam4  ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 !  
mo/ unansw]able argum5t aga9/ !         
sph]icity  ( ! e>? 0 ?is1 t 9 ! day (   
judgm5t1 m5 on ! o!r  side ( a globe    
c\ld n see ! ,"l desc5d+ ?r\gh ! air4   
,x is unnecess>y = me to say any ?+     
respect+ ! introduction (  dea? into !  
_w1 ! cont9ual int]v5tions ( spiritual  
ag5cies  9 ! c\rse ( ev5ts1 ! (fices (  
angels & devils1 ! expect$              

conflagration ( ! e>?1 ! t[] ( ,babel1 !
 confusion (  tongues1 ! disp]sion (    
mank9d1 ! int]pretation ( natural       
ph5om5a1 z eclipses1 ! ra9b[1 etc4      
,above all1 ,i ab/a9 f  comm5t+ on !    
,patri/ic conceptions ( ! ,almighty2 !y 
are too  an?ropomorphic1 & want+ 9      
sublimity4    ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ,i may    
quote f ,cosmas ,indicopleu/es ! views  
t 7 ent]ta9$ 9 ! six? c5tury4 ,he wrote 
a "w entitl$  ,*ri/ian ,topography1 !   
*ief int5t ( :i* 0 to confute !         
h]etical op9ion ( ! globul> =m ( ! e>?1 
& ! pagan  ass]tion t !re is a temp]ate 
zone on ! s\!rn side ( !  torrid4 ,he   
affirms t1 accord+ to ! true or?odox    
sy/em (  geography1 ! e>? is a          
quadrangul> plane1 ext5d+ f\r hundr$    
days' j\rney ea/ & we/1 & exactly half z
 mu* nor? & s\?2  t x is inclos$ by     
m\nta9s1 on :i* ! sky re/s2 t "o on  !  
nor? side1 hug] ?an ! o!rs1 by int]cept+
 ! rays ( !  sun1 produces night2 & t ! 
plane ( ! e>? is n set exactly          
horizontally1 b ) a little incl9ation f 

! nor?3 h5ce !  ,euphrates1 ,tigris1 &  
o!r riv]s1 runn+ s\?w>d1 are rapid2 b  !
 ,nile1 hav+ to run up-hill1 has        
necess>ily a v sl[ curr5t4    ,!        
,v5]able ,b$e1 writ+ 9 ! sev5? c5tury1  
tells u t !  creation 0 accompli%$ 9 six
 days1 & t ! e>? is its c5tre  & its    
prim>y object4 ,! heav5 is ( a fi]y &   
subtile nature1  r\nd1 & equidi/ant 9 e 
"p1 z a canopy f ! c5tre ( !  e>?4 ,x   
turns r\nd e day ) ineffable rapidity1  
only mod]at$  by ! resi/ance ( ! sev5   
planets1 ?ree above ! sun--,saturn1     
,jupit]1 ,m>s--!n ! sun2 ?ree           
bel[--,v5us1 ,m]cury1 ! moon4 ,!  />s g 
r\nd 9 _! fix$ c\rses1 ! nor!rn p]=m !  
%orte/  circle4 ,! highe/ heav5 has its 
prop] limit2 x conta9s ! angelic        
virtues :o desc5d ^u e>?1 assume e!real 
bodies1 p]=m human  functions1 & return4
 ,! heav5 is temp]$ ) glacial wat]s1 le/
  x %\ld be set on fire4 ,! inf]ior     
heav5 is call$ ! firmam5t1  because x   
sep>ates ! sup]9cumb5t wat]s f ! wat]s  
bel[4  ,! firmam5tal wat]s are l[] ?an !

 spiritual heav51 high] ?an  all        
corporeal be+s1 res]v$1 "s say1 = a     
second deluge2 o!rs1  m truly1 to temp] 
! fire ( ! fix$ />s4    ,0 x = ?is      
prepo/]\s s*eme--?is product ( ignorance
 &  audacity--t ! works ( ! ,greek      
philosoph]s 7 to be giv5  up8 ,x 0 none 
too soon t ! great critics :o appe>$ at 
!  ,re=mation1 by comp>+ ! works ( ^!   
writ]s ) "o ano!r1  br\ght !m to _!     
prop] level1 & taught u to look ^u !m   
all  ) contempt4    ,( ?is presumptu\s  
sy/em1 ! /range/ "p 0 its logic1 !      
nature ( its pro(s4 ,x reli$ ^u         
miracle-evid5ce4 ,a fact 0  suppos$ to  
be demon/rat$ by an a/\nd+ illu/ration (
 some?+  else6 ,an ,arabian writ]1      
ref]r+ to ?is1 says3 ,if a conjur] %\ld 
say to me1 ',?ree are m ?an t51 & 9 pro(
 ( x ,i w *ange  ?is /ick into a s]p5t1'
 ,i might be surpris$ at 8 leg]dema91  b
 ,i c]ta9ly %\ld n admit 8 ass]tion4    
,yet1 = m ?an  a ?\s& ye>s1 su* 0 !     
accept$ logic1 & all ov] ,europe        
propositions equally absurd 7 accept$ on

 equally ridicul\s pro(4    ,s9ce ! p>ty
 t _h become dom9ant 9 ! empire c\ld n  
furni%  works capable ( intellectual    
competition ) ^? ( ! great pagan        
au?ors1 & s9ce x 0 impossible = x to    
accept a position (  inf]iority1 !re    
arose a political necessity = !         
disc\ragem5t1  & ev5 p]secution1 (      
pr(ane le>n+4 ,! p]secution ( !         
,platoni/s "u ,val5t9ian 0 due to t     
necessity4 ,!y 7  accus$ ( magic1 & _m (
 !m 7 put to dea?4 ,! pr(ession  (      
philosophy _h become dang]\s--x 0 a /ate
 crime4 ,9 its /ead  !re arose a passion
 = ! m>vel\s1 a _s ( sup]/ition4 ,egypt 
ex*ang$ ! great m51 :o _h made h]       
,museum immortal1 = b&s (  solit>y monks
 & seque/]$ virg9s1 ) :i* %e 0 ov]run4  
,,*apt] ,,iii4         ,,conflict       
,,respect+ ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,! ,,unity
 ,,( ,,god4--,,!       ,,fir/ ,,or      
,,s\!rn ,,re=mation4         ,!         
,egyptians insi/ on ! introduction ( !  
wor%ip (       ! ,virg9 ,m>y--,!y are   
resi/$ by ,ne/or1 ! ,patri>*       (    

,con/ant9ople1 b ev5tually1 ?r\gh _!    
influ5ce       ) ! emp]or1 cause        
,ne/or's exile & ! disp]sion (       8  
foll[]s4         ,prelude to ! ,s\!rn   
,re=mation--,! ,p]sian attack2 its      
moral effects4         ,! ,arabian      
,re=mation4--,mohamm$ is br\ght 9       
contact       ) ! ,ne/orians--,he adopts
 & ext5ds _! pr9ciples1       reject+ ! 
wor%ip ( ! ,virg91 ! doctr9e ( !        
,tr9ity1 & e ?+ 9 opposition to ! unity 
( ,god4--       ,he ext+ui%es idolatry 9
 ,arabia1 by =ce1 & prep>es       to    
make w> on ! ,roman ,empire4--,8        
successors conqu]       ,syria1 ,egypt1 
,asia ,m9or1 ,nor? ,africa1 ,spa91 &    
invade       ,france4         ,z !      
result ( ?is conflict1 ! doctr9e ( !    
unity (       ,god 0 e/abli%$ 9 ! great]
 "p ( ! ,roman ,empire--       ,!       
cultivation ( sci5ce 0 re/or$1 &        
,*ri/5dom       lo/ _m ( h] mo/         
illu/ri\s capitals1 z ,alex&ria1        
,c>?age1 &1 above all1 ,j]usalem4       
,,! policy ( ! ,byzant9e c\rt _h giv5 to

 primitive ,*ri/ianity a  paganiz$ =m1  
:i* x _h spread ov] all ! idolatr\s     
populations  con/itut+ ! empire4 ,!re _h
 be5 an amalgamation ( ! two  p>ties4   
,*ri/ianity _h modifi$ paganism1        
paganism _h modifi$  ,*ri/ianity4 ,!    
limits ( ?is adult]at$ religion 7 !     
conf9es  ( ! ,roman ,empire4 ,) ?is     
great ext5sion !re _h come to !         
,*ri/ian p>ty political influ5ce &      
weal?4 ,no insignificant portion  ( !   
va/ public rev5ues f\nd _! way into !   
treasuries ( !  ,*ur*4 ,z "u su*        
circum/ances mu/ ev] be ! case1 !re 7   
_m competitors = ! spoils--m5 :o1 "u !  
mask ( zeal = !  pr$om9ant fai?1 s\ght  
only ! enjoym5t ( its emolum5ts4        
,,ecclesia/ical ,,disputes4 ,"u ! e>ly  
emp]ors1 conque/ _h rea*$  its          
culm9ation2 ! empire 0 complet$2 !re    
rema9$ no adequate  objects = milit>y   
life2 ! days ( w>-peculation1 & !       
plund]+ ( prov9ces1 7 ov]4 ,= !         
ambiti\s1 h[ev]1 ano!r  pa? 0 op52 o!r  
objects pres5t$4 ,a successful c>e] 9 ! 

,*ur* l$ to results n unwor?y (         
comp>ison ) ^? t 9  =m] days _h be5     
atta9$ by a successful c>e] 9 ! army4   
,! ecclesia/ical1 & inde$1 x may be     
said1 mu* ( ! political  hi/ory ( t "t1 
turns on ! /ruggles ( ! bi%ops ( !  ?ree
 great metropolitan                     
cities--,con/ant9ople1 ,alex&ria1       
,rome--=  supremacy3 ,con/ant9ople bas$ 
h] claims on ! fact t %e 0  ! exi/+     
imp]ial city2 ,alex&ria po9t$ to h]     
comm]cial  & lit]>y position2 ,rome1 to 
h] s\v5irs4 ,b ! ,patri>* (             
,con/ant9ople labor$ "u ! disadvantage t
 he 0 too closely  "u ! eye1 &1 z he    
f\nd to 8 co/1 too (t5 "u ! h&1  ( !    
emp]or4 ,di/ance gave security to !     
episcopates ( ,alex&ria  & ,rome4       
,,ecclesia/ical ,,disputes4 ,religi\s   
disputations 9 ! ,ea/ h  g5]ally turn$  
on div]sities ( op9ion respect+ ! nature
 &  attributes ( ,god2 9 ! ,we/1 on !   
relations & life ( man4 ,?is  peculi>ity
 has be5 /rik+ly manife/$ 9 !           
trans=mations t  ,*ri/ianity has        

und]gone 9 ,asia & ,europe respectively4
 ,accord+ly1  at ! "t ( :i* we are      
speak+1 all ! ,ea/]n prov9ces (  !      
,roman ,empire exhibit$ an intellectual 
an>*y4 ,!re 7 fi]ce  qu>rels respect+ ! 
,tr9ity1 ! ess5ce ( ,god1 ! position ( !
  ,son1 ! nature ( ! ,holy ,_s1 !       
influ5ces ( ! ,virg9 ,m>y4  ,!          
triumphant clamor fir/ ( "o !n ( ano!r  
sect 0 confirm$1  sometimes by          
miracle-pro(1 sometimes by blood%$4 ,no 
attempt 0 ev]  made to submit ! rival   
op9ions to logical exam9ation4 ,all     
p>ties1  h[ev]1 agre$ 9 ?is1 t !        
impo/ure ( ! old classical pagan  =ms ( 
fai? 0 demon/rat$ by ! facility ) :i* !y
 _h be5  ov]?r[n4 ,! triumphant         
ecclesia/ics proclaim$ t ! images (  !  
gods _h fail$ to def5d !mselves :5 ! "t 
( trial came4    ,poly!i/ic ideas h     
always be5 held 9 repute by ! s\!rn     
,european races1 ! ,semitic h ma9ta9$ ! 
unity ( ,god4 ,p]haps  ?is is due to !  
fact1 z a rec5t au?or has sugge/$1 t a  
div]sifi$ l&scape ( m\nta9s & valleys1  

isl&s1 & riv]s1 &  gulfs1 pr$isposes man
 to a belief 9 a multitude ( div9ities4 
,a va/  s&y des]t1 ! illimitable ocean1 
impresses him ) an idea ( !  on5ess (   
,god4    ,political reasons _h l$ !     
emp]ors to look ) favor on !  admixture 
( ,*ri/ianity & paganism1 & d\btless by 
?is means !  bitt]ness ( ! rivalry      
betwe5 ^? antagoni/s 0 some:at abat$4   
,! heav5 ( ! popul>1 ! fa%ionable       
,*ri/ianity 0 ! old  ,olympus1 f :i* !  
v5]able ,greek div9ities _h be5 remov$4 
,!re1 on a great :ite ?rone1 sat ,god ! 
,fa!r1 on 8 "r !  ,son1 & !n ! bless$   
,virg91 clad 9 a gold5 robe1 & cov]$  ) 
v>i\s female adornm5ts2 on ! left sat   
,god ! ,holy ,gho/4  ,surr\nd+ ^! ?rones
 7 ho/s ( angels ) _! h>ps4 ,!  va/     
expanse beyond 0 fill$ ) tables1 seat$  
at :i* ! happy  spirits ( ! j enjoy$ a  
p]petual banquet4    ,if1 satisfi$ ) ?is
 picture ( happ9ess1 illit]ate p]sons   
nev]  inquir$ h[ ! details ( su* a heav5
 7 c>ri$ out1 or h[ mu*  pleasure !re   
c\ld be 9 ! ennui ( su* an et]nally     

un*ang+1  unmov+ sc5e1 x 0 n s ) !      
intellig5t4 ,z we are soon to  see1 !re 
7 among ! high] ecclesia/ics ^? :o      
reject$ )  s5tim5ts ( horror ^! c>nal1  
^! mat]iali/ic conceptions1 &  rais$ _! 
prote/+ voices 9 v9dication ( !         
attributes ( !  ,omnipres5t1 ! ,almighty
 ,god4    ,,egyptian ,,doctr9es4 ,9 !   
paganization ( religion1 n[ 9 all       
directions tak+ place1 x became ! int]e/
 ( e bi%op to  procure an adoption ( !  
ideas :i*1 "t out ( m9d1 _h be5  curr5t 
9 ! community "u 8 *>ge4 ,! ,egyptians  
_h already  ?us =c$ on ! ,*ur* _!       
peculi> ,tr9it>ian views2 & n[ !y  7    
resolv$ t1 "u ! =m ( ! adoration ( !    
,virg9 ,m>y1  ! wor%ip ( ,isis %\ld be  
re/or$4    ,,! ,,ne/orians4 ,x s happ5$ 
t ,ne/or1 ! ,bi%op ( ,antio*1 :o        
ent]ta9$ ! philosophical views ( ,!odore
 ( ,mopsue/ia1 _h  be5 call$ by !       
,emp]or ,!odosius ! ,y\ng] to !         
,episcopate  ( ,con/ant9ople 7,a4,d4    
#dbg74 ,ne/or reject$ ! base popul>     
an?ropomorphism1 look+ ^u x z little    

bett] ?an blasphem\s1  & pictur$ to     
himself an awful et]nal ,div9ity1 :o    
p]vad$ !  univ]se1 & _h none ( ! aspects
 or attributes ( man4 ,ne/or  0 deeply  
imbu$ ) ! doctr9es ( ,ari/otle1 &       
attempt$ to  coord9ate !m ) :at he      
consid]$ to be or?odox ,*ri/ian t5ets4  
,betwe5 him & ,cyril1 ! ,bi%op or       
,patri>* ( ,alex&ria1 a  qu>rel         
accord+ly arose4 ,cyril repres5t$ !     
paganiz+1 ,ne/or !  philosophiz+ p>ty ( 
! ,*ur*4 ,?is 0 t ,cyril :o _h murd]$   
,hypatia4 ,cyril 0 det]m9$ t ! wor%ip ( 
! ,virg9 z !  ,"m ( ,god %\ld be        
recogniz$1 ,ne/or 0 det]m9$ t x %\ld  n4
 ,9 a s]mon deliv]$ 9 ! metropolitan    
*ur* at ,con/ant9ople1  he v9dicat$ !   
attributes ( ! ,et]nal1 ! ,almighty     
,god4 ,& c  ?is ,god h a "m8 he         
exclaim$4 ,9 o!r s]mons & writ+s1  he   
set =? ) m precision 8 ideas t ! ,virg9 
%\ld be  consid]$ n z ! ,"m ( ,god1 b z 
! "m ( ! human  portion ( ,*ri/1 t      
portion be+ z ess5tially di/9ct f !     
div9e z is a temple f its conta9$ deity4

    ,,p]secution ,,& ,,dea? ,,( ,,ne/or4
 ,in/igat$ by ! monks ( ,alex&ria1  !   
monks ( ,con/ant9ople took up arms 9    
behalf ( ! ,"m (  ,god4 ,! qu>rel rose  
to su* a pit* t ! emp]or 0 con/ra9$  to 
summon a c\ncil to meet at ,ephesus4 ,9 
! mean "t ,cyril _h  giv5 a bribe ( _m  
p\nds ( gold to ! *ief eunu* ( ! imp]ial
  c\rt1 & _h !reby obta9$ ! influ5ce ( !
 emp]or's si/]4  ,! holy virg9 ( ! c\rt 
( heav5 ?us f\nd an ally ( h] own  sex 9
 ! holy virg9 ( ! emp]or's c\rt4 ,cyril 
ha/5$ to !  c\ncil1 att5d$ by a mob ( m5
 & wom5 ( ! bas] sort4 ,he  at once     
assum$ ! presid5cy1 & 9 ! mid/ ( a      
tumult _h !  emp]or's rescript read be=e
 ! ,syrian bi%ops c\ld arrive4 ,a s+le  
day s]v$ to complete 8 triumph4 ,all    
(f]s ( accommodation on !  "p ( ,ne/or 7
 refus$1 8 explanations 7 n read1 he 0  
condemn$ unhe>d4 ,on ! arrival ( !      
,syrian ecclesia/ics1 a meet+  ( prote/ 
0 held by !m4 ,a riot1 ) mu* blood%$1   
ensu$ 9 !  ca!dral ( ,/4 ,john4 ,ne/or 0
 ab&on$ by ! c\rt1 & ev5tually  exil$ to

 an ,egyptian oasis4 ,8 p]secutors      
torm5t$ him z long z  he liv$1 by e     
means 9 _! p[]1 & at 8 dea? gave out t  
8 blasphem\s tongue _h be5 dev\r$ by    
worms1 & t f !  heats ( an ,egyptian    
des]t he _h escap$ only into ! hott]    
torm5ts  ( hell6    ,! ov]?r[ & puni%m5t
 ( ,ne/or1 h[ev]1 by no means de/roy$  8
 op9ions4 ,he & 8 foll[]s1 insi/+ on !  
pla9 inf]5ce (  ! la/ v]se ( ! fir/     
*apt] ( ,/4 ,mat!w1 toge!r ) !          
fifty-fif? & fifty-six? v]ses ( !       
?irte5? ( ! same gospel1  c\ld nev] be  
br\ght to an ackn[l$gm5t ( ! p]petual   
virg9ity  ( ! new que5 ( heav54 ,_!     
philosophical t5d5cies 7 soon  indicat$ 
by _! actions4 ,:ile _! lead] 0 torm5t$ 
9 an  ,african oasis1 _m ( !m emigrat$  
to ! ,euphrates1 & e/abli%$  ! ,*aldean 
,*ur*4 ,"u _! auspices ! college (      
,edessa 0  f\nd$4 ,f ! college (        
,nisibis issu$ ^? doctors :o spread     
,ne/or's t5ets ?r\gh ,syria1 ,arabia1   
,india1 ,t>t>y1 ,*9a1 ,egypt4  ,!       
,ne/orians1 ( c\rse1 adopt$ ! philosophy

 ( ,ari/otle1 &  translat$ ! works ( t  
great writ] into ,syriac & ,p]sian4 ,!y 
also made simil> translations ( lat]    
works1 su* z ^? (  ,pl9y4 ,9 connection 
) ! ,jews !y f\nd$ ! m$ical college  (  
,djondesab\r4 ,_! mission>ies dissem9at$
 ! ,ne/orian =m (  ,*ri/ianity to su* an
 ext5t ov] ,asia1 t its wor%ip]s        
ev5tually  outnumb]$ all ! ,european    
,*ri/ians ( ! ,greek & ,roman ,*ur*es   
comb9$4 ,x may be p>ticul>ly rem>k$ t 9 
,arabia !y _h a  bi%op4    ,,! ,,p]sian 
,,campaign4 ,! diss5sions betwe5        
,con/ant9ople &  ,alex&ria _h ?us fill$ 
all ,we/]n ,asia ) sect>ies1 f]oci\s  9 
_! conte/s ) ea* o!r1 & _m ( !m burn+ ) 
hatr$  aga9/ ! imp]ial p[] = !          
p]secutions x _h inflict$ on  !m4 ,a    
religi\s revolution1 ! consequ5ces ( :i*
 are felt 9 our  own times1 0 ! result4 
,x affect$ ! :ole _w4    ,we %all ga9 a 
cle> view ( ?is great ev5t1 if we       
consid]  sep>ately ! two acts into :i* x
 may be decompos$3 #a4 ,!  tempor>y     
ov]?r[ ( ,asiatic ,*ri/ianity by !      

,p]sians2 #b4 ,!  decisive & f9al       
re=mation "u ! ,arabians4    #a4 ,x     
happ5$ 7,a4,d4 #eij7 t1 by "o ( ^?      
revolutions s frequ5t  9 ,ori5tal c\rts1
 ,*osroes1 ! lawful heir to ! ,p]sian   
?rone1 0  compell$ to seek refuge 9 !   
,byzant9e ,empire1 & implore ! aid  ( ! 
,emp]or ,maurice4 ,t aid 0 *e]fully     
giv54 ,a brief &  successful campaign   
re/or$ ,*osroes to ! ?rone ( 8 ance/ors4
    ,b ! glories ( ?is g5]\s campaign   
c\ld n pres]ve ,maurice  himself4 ,a    
mut9y broke out 9 ! ,roman army1 head$  
by ,phocas1 a  c5turion4 ,! /atues ( !  
emp]or 7 ov]?r[n4 ,! ,patri>*  (        
,con/ant9ople1 hav+ decl>$ t he _h      
assur$ himself ( !  or?odoxy ( ,phocas1 
consecrat$ him emp]or4 ,! un=tunate     
,maurice  0 dragg$ f a sanctu>y1 9 :i*  
he _h s\ght refuge2 8 five  sons 7      
behead$ be=e 8 eyes1 & !n he 0 put to   
dea?4 ,8  empress 0 inveigl$ f ! *ur* ( 
,/4 ,sophia1 tortur$1 &  ) h] ?ree "y   
daught]s behead$4 ,! adh]5ts ( !        
massacr$  family 7 pursu$ ) f]oci\s     

v9dictiv5ess2 ( "s ! eyes 7  bl9d$1 (   
o!rs ! tongues 7 torn out1 or ! feet &  
h&s cut  (f1 "s 7 :ipp$ to dea?1 o!rs 7 
burnt4    ,:5 ! news rea*$ ,rome1 ,pope 
,gregory receiv$ x ) exultation1  pray+ 
t ! h&s ( ,phocas might be /r5g!n$ aga9/
 all 8  enemies4 ,z an equival5t = ?is  
subs]vi5cy1 he 0 greet$ ) !  title (    
,univ]sal ,bi%op4 ,! cause ( 8 action1 z
 well z ( t  ( ! ,patri>* (             
,con/ant9ople1 0 d\btless ! fact t      
,maurice  0 suspect$ ( ,magrian         
t5d5cies1 into :i* he _h be5 lur$ by !  
,p]sians4 ,! mob ( ,con/ant9ople _h     
hoot$ aft] him 9 ! /reets1  br&+ him z a
 ,m>cionite1 a sect :i* believ$ 9 !     
,magian  doctr9e ( two conflict+        
pr9ciples4    ,) v diff]5t s5tim5ts     
,*osroes he>d ( ! murd] ( 8  fri5d4     
,phocas _h s5t him ! heads ( ,maurice & 
8 sons4 ,!  ,p]sian k+ turn$ f ! gha/ly 
spectacle ) horror1 & at once  made     
ready to av5ge ! wrongs ( 8 b5efactor by
 w>4    ,,! ,,exp$ition ,,( ,,h]aclius4 
,! ,ex>* ( ,africa1 ,h]aclius1 "o (  !  

*ief (fic]s ( ! /ate1 also receiv$ !    
%ock+ tid+s )  indignation4 ,he 0       
det]m9$ t ! imp]ial purple %\ld n be    
usurp$ by an obscure c5turion ( disgu/+ 
aspect4 ,! p]son (  ?is ,phocas 0       
dim9utive & de=m$2 ! clos5ess ( 8 %aggy 
eyebr[s1 8 r$ hair1 8 be>dless *91 7 9  
keep+ ) 8  *eek1 disfigur$ & discolor$  
by a =midable sc>4 ,ignorant (  lett]s1 
( laws1 & ev5 ( arms1 he indulg$ 9 an   
ample privilege (  lu/ & drunk5ness4 ,at
 fir/ ,h]aclius refus$ tribute & ob$i5ce
  to him2 !n1 admoni%$ by age &         
infirmities1 he committ$ !  dang]\s     
ent]prise ( resi/ance to 8 son ( ! same 
"n4 ,a  prosp]\s voyage f ,c>?age soon  
br\ght ! y\ng] ,h]aclius 9  front (     
,con/ant9ople4 ,! incon/ant cl]gy1      
s5ate1 & p (  ! city jo9$ him1 ! usurp] 
0 seiz$ 9 8 palace & behead$4           
,,invasion ,,( ,,*osroes4 ,b !          
revolution t _h tak5 place 9            
,con/ant9ople did n arre/ ! movem5ts ( !
 ,p]sian k+4 ,8  ,magian prie/s _h w>n$ 
him to act indep5d5tly ( ! ,greeks1  ^: 

sup]/ition1 !y decl>$1 0 devoid ( all   
tru? & ju/ice4  ,*osroes1 !re=e1 cross$ 
! ,euphrates2 8 army 0 receiv$ )        
transport by ! ,syrian sect>ies1        
insurrections 9 8 favor ev]y:]e  break+ 
out4 ,9 succession1 ,antio*1 ,caes>ea1  
,damascus fell2 ,j]usalem  itself 0 tak5
 by /orm2 ! sepul*re ( ,*ri/1 ! *ur*es (
  ,con/ant9e & ( ,hel5a 7 giv5 to !     
flames2 ! ,savior's cross  0 s5t z a    
trophy to ,p]sia2 ! *ur*es 7 rifl$ ( _! 
ri*es2 ! sacr$ relics1 collect$ by      
sup]/ition1 7 disp]s$4  ,egypt 0 invad$1
 conqu]$1 & annex$ to ! ,p]sian ,empire2
 !  ,patri>* ( ,alex&ria escap$ by      
flight to ,cyprus2 ! ,african coa/  to  
,tripoli 0 seiz$4 ,on ! nor?1 ,asia     
,m9or 0 subdu$1 & =  t5 ye>s ! ,p]sian  
=ces encamp$ on ! %ores ( ! ,bosporus1 9
  front ( ,con/ant9ople4    ,9 8        
extremity ,h]aclius begg$ = peace4 ,i w 
nev] give peace  to ! ,emp]or ( ,rome1  
repli$ ! pr\d ,p]sian1 till he has      
abjur$  8 crucifi$ ,god1 & embrac$ !    
wor%ip ( ! sun4 ,aft] a long  delay t]ms

 71 h[ev]1 secur$1 & ! ,roman ,empire 0 
ransom$ at  ! price ( a ?\s& tal5ts (   
gold1 a ?\s& tal5ts ( silv]1  a ?\s&    
silk robes1 a ?\s& horses1 & a ?\s&     
virg9s4    ,b ,h]aclius submitt$ only = 
a mom5t4 ,he f\nd means n only  to      
re/ore 8 affairs b to retaliate on !    
,p]sian ,empire4 ,!  op]ations by :i* he
 a*iev$ ?is result 7 wor?y ( ! mo/      
brilliant days ( ,rome4    ,,invasion   
,,( ,,*osroes ,?\gh h] milit>y r5[n 0   
?us recov]$1  ?\gh h] t]ritory 0 rega9$1
 !re 0 some?+ t ! ,roman  ,empire _h    
irrecov]ably lo/4 ,religi\s fai? c\ld   
nev] be re/or$4  ,9 face ( ! _w         
,magianism _h insult$ ,*ri/ianity1 by   
pr(an+  h] mo/ sacr$ places--,be?lehem1 
,ge?semane1 ,calv>y--by burn+  !        
sepul*re ( ,*ri/1 by rifl+ & de/roy+ !  
*ur*es1 by  scatt]+ to ! w9ds priceless 
relics1 by c>ry+ (f1 ) %\ts  ( laught]1 
! cross4    ,miracles _h once ab\nd$ 9  
,syria1 9 ,egypt1 9 ,asia ,m9or2 !re 0  
n a *ur* :i* _h n its long catalogue (  
!m4 ,v (t5 !y  7 display$ on unimportant

 occasions & 9 insignificant cases4 ,9  
?is supreme mom5t1 :5 su* aid 0 mo/     
urg5tly dem&$1 n a  miracle 0 work$4    
,amazem5t fill$ ! ,*ri/ian populations (
 ! ,ea/ :5 !y  witness$ ^! ,p]sian      
sacrileges p]petrat$ ) impunity4 ,!     
heav5s %\ld h roll$ asund]1 ! e>? %\ld h
 op5$ h]  abysses1 ! sword ( ! ,almighty
 %\ld h fla%$ 9 ! sky1 !  fate (        
,s5na*]ib %\ld h be5 repeat$4 ,b x 0 n  
s4 ,9 !  l& ( miracles1 amazem5t 0      
foll[$ by con/]nation--con/]nation  di$ 
out 9 disbelief4    #b4 ,b1 dreadful z x
 01 ! ,p]sian conque/ 0 b a prelude to  
! great ev5t1 ! /ory ( :i* we h n[ to   
relate--! ,s\!rn  revolt aga9/          
,*ri/ianity4 ,its issue 0 ! loss (      
n9e-t5?s (  h] geographical             
possessions--,asia1 ,africa1 & "p (     
,europe4    ,,mohamm$4 ,9 ! summ] ( #eha
 ( ! ,*ri/ian era1 !re came to  ,bozrah1
 a t[n on ! conf9es ( ,syria1 s\? (     
,damascus1 a c>avan  ( camels4 ,x 0 f   
,mecca1 & 0 lad5 ) ! co/ly products (   
,s\? ,arabia--,arabia ! ,happy4 ,!      

conductor ( ! c>avan1 "o ,ab\  ,taleb1 &
 8 nephew1 a lad ( twelve ye>s1 7       
hospitably receiv$  & ent]ta9$ at !     
,ne/orian conv5t ( ! t[n4    ,! monks ( 
?is conv5t soon f\nd t _! "y visitor1   
,halibi or  ,mohamm$1 0 ! nephew ( !    
gu>dian ( ! ,caaba1 ! sacr$ temple  ( ! 
,arabs4 ,"o ( !m1 by "n ,bahira1 sp>$ no
 pa9s to secure 8  conv]sion f !        
idolatry 9 :i* he _h be5 br\ght up4 ,he 
f\nd  ! boy n only precoci\sly          
intellig5t1 b eag]ly desir\s (          
in=mation1 especially on matt]s relat+  
to religion4    ,9 ,mohamm$'s own c\ntry
 ! *ief object ( ,meccan wor%ip 0 a     
black meteoric /one1 kept 9 ! ,caaba1 ) 
?ree hundr$ & sixty  subord9ate idols1  
repres5t+ ! days ( ! ye>1 z ! ye> 0  !n 
c\nt$4    ,at ?is "t1 z we h se51 !     
,*ri/ian ,*ur*1 ?r\gh !  ambition &     
wick$ness ( its cl]gy1 _h be5 br\ght    
into a condition  ( an>*y4 ,c\ncils _h  
be5 held on v>i\s pret5ses1 :ile ! real 
motives 7 conceal$4 ,too (t5 !y 7 sc5es 
( viol5ce1 brib]y1  corruption4 ,9 !    

,we/1 su* 7 ! temptations ( ri*es1      
luxury1  & p[]1 pres5t$ by !            
episcopates1 t ! election ( a bi%op  0  
(t5 disgrac$ by frightful murd]s4 ,9 !  
,ea/1 9 consequ5ce (  ! policy ( ! c\rt 
( ,con/ant9ople1 ! ,*ur* _h be5 torn 9  
pieces by cont5tions & s*isms4 ,among a 
c\ntless ho/ ( disputants  may be       
m5tion$ ,arians1 ,basilidians1          
,c>pocratians1 ,collyridians1           
,euty*ians1 ,gno/ics1 ,jacobites1       
,m>cionites1 ,m>ionites1 ,ne/orians1    
,sabellians1 ,val5t9ians4 ,( ^!1 !      
,m>ionites reg>d$ ! ,tr9ity  z consi/+ (
 ,god ! ,fa!r1 ,god ! ,son1 & ,god !    
,virg9 ,m>y2  ! ,collyridians wor%ip$ ! 
,virg9 z a div9ity1 (f]+ h]  sacrifices 
( cakes2 ! ,ne/orians1 z we h se51 d5i$ 
t ,god  _h a "m4 ,!y prid$ !mselves on  
be+ ! inh]itors1 !  possessors ( !      
sci5ce ( old ,greece4    ,b1 ?\gh !y 7  
irreconcilable 9 matt]s ( fai?1 !re 0 "o
  po9t 9 :i* all ^! sects agre$--f]oci\s
 hatr$ & p]secution  ( ea* o!r4 ,arabia1
 an unconqu]$ l& ( lib]ty1 /ret*+ f  !  

,indian ,ocean to ! ,des]t ( ,syria1    
gave !m all1 z ! tide  ( =tune          
successively turn$1 a refuge4 ,x _h be5 
s f ! old  times4 ,?i!r1 aft] ! ,roman  
conque/ ( ,pale/9e1 va/ numb]s (  ,jews 
escap$2 ?i!r1 imm$iately aft] 8         
conv]sion1 ,/4 ,paul  tells ! ,galatians
 t he retir$4 ,! des]ts 7 n[ fill$ )    
,*ri/ian an*orites1 & among ! *ief      
tribes ( ! ,arabs _m  proselytes _h be5 
made4 ,"h & !re *ur*es _h be5 built4 ,! 
,*ri/ian pr9ces ( ,abyss9ia1 :o 7       
,ne/orians1 held ! s\!rn  prov9ce (     
,arabia--,yem5--9 possession4    ,by !  
monk ,bahira1 9 ! conv5t at ,bozrah1    
,mohamm$ 0 taught !  t5ets ( !          
,ne/orians2 f !m ! "y ,arab le>n$ ! /ory
 (  _! p]secutions4 ,x 0 ^! int]views   
:i* eng5d]$ 9 him a  hatr$ ( ! idolatr\s
 practices ( ! ,ea/]n ,*ur*1 & inde$ (  
all idolatry2 t taught him1 9 8 wond]ful
 c>e]1 nev] to speak  ( ,jesus z ! ,son 
( ,god1 b always z ,jesus1 ! son ( ,m>y4
 ,8  untutor$ b active m9d c\ld n fail  
to be pr(\ndly impress$ n  only ) !     

religi\s b also ) ! philosophical ideas 
(  8 in/ructors1 :o glori$ 9 be+ ! liv+ 
repres5tatives (  ,ari/otelian sci5ce4  
,8 subsequ5t c>e] %[s h[ completely _!  
religi\s ?\ghts _h tak5 possession (    
him1 & repeat$ acts  manife/ 8          
affectionate reg>d = !m4 ,8 own life 0  
devot$ to  ! expansion & ext5sion ( _!  
!ological doctr9e1 &1 t  once           
effectually e/abli%$1 8 successors      
en]getically adopt$ &  diffus$ _!       
sci5tific1 _! ,ari/otelian op9ions4     
,z ,mohamm$ grew to manhood1 he made o!r
 exp$itions to ,syria4  ,p]haps1 we may 
suppose1 t on ^! occasions ! conv5t &   
its  hospitable 9 mates 7 n =gott54 ,he 
_h a my/]i\s rev]5ce  = t c\ntry4 ,a    
weal?y ,meccan wid[ ,*adizah1 _h intru/$
 him  ) ! c>e ( h] ,syrian trade4 ,%e 0 
*>m$ ) 8 capacity  & fidelity1 & 7s9ce  
he is said to h be5 *>act]iz$ by !      
possession ( s+ul> manly beauty & a mo/ 
c\rte\s demeanor7  *>m$ ) 8 p]son4 ,!   
female he>t 9 all ages & c\ntries is  ! 
same4 ,%e caus$ a slave to intimate to  

him :at 0 pass+ 9 h]  m9d1 &1 = ! rema9+
 tw5ty-f\r ye>s ( h] life1 ,mohamm$ 0   
h] fai?ful husb&4 ,9 a l& ( polygamy1 he
 nev] insult$ h] by  ! pres5ce ( a      
rival4 ,_m ye>s subsequ5tly1 9 ! height 
( 8  p[]1 ,aye%a1 :o 0 "o ( ! mo/       
beautiful wom5 9 ,arabia1 said  to him3 
,0 %e n old8 ,did n ,god give y 9 me a  
bett] wife 9  h] place8 ,no1 by ,god6   
exclaim$ ,mohamm$1 & ) a bur/ ( hone/   
gratitude1 !re nev] c be a bett]4 ,%e   
believ$ 9 me :5 m5  despis$ me1 %e      
reliev$ me :5 ,i 0 poor & p]secut$ by ! 
_w4    ,8 m>riage ) ,*adizah plac$ him 9
 circum/ances ( ease1 & gave  him an    
opportunity ( indulg+ 8 incl9ation to   
religi\s m$itation4  ,x s happ5$ t h]   
c\s9 ,w>aka1 :o 0 a ,jew1 _h turn$      
,*ri/ian4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to translate !   
,bible into ,arabic4 ,by 8  conv]sation 
,mohamm$'s dete/ation ( idolatry 0      
confirm$4    ,aft] ! example ( !        
,*ri/ian an*orites 9 _! h]mitages 9  !  
des]t1 ,mohamm$ retir$ to a grotto 9    
,m\nt ,h]a1 a few miles f  ,mecca1 giv+ 

himself up to m$itation & pray]4 ,9 ?is 
seclusion1  contemplat+ ! awful         
attributes ( ! ,omnipot5t & ,et]nal     
,god1 he  address$ to 8 consci5ce !     
solemn inquiry1 :e!r he c\ld adopt  !   
dogmas !n held 9 ,asiatic ,*ri/5dom     
respect+ ! ,tr9ity1 !  son%ip ( ,jesus z
 begott5 by ! ,almighty1 ! "* ( ,m>y z  
at once a virg91 a "m1 & ! que5 ( heav51
 )\t incurr+  ! guilt & ! p]il (        
blasphemy4    ,by 8 solit>y m$itations 9
 ! grotto ,mohamm$ 0 drawn to !         
conclusion t1 ?r\gh ! cl\d ( dogmas &   
disputations ar\nd  him1 "o great tru?  
might be disc]n$--! unity ( ,god4 ,lean+
  aga9/ ! /em ( a palm-tree1 he unfold$ 
8 views on ?is subject  to 8 neighbors &
 fri5ds1 & ann\nc$ to !m t he %\ld      
d$icate 8 life to ! prea*+ ( t tru?4    
,aga9 & aga91 9  8 s]mons & 9 ! ,koran1 
he decl>$3 ,i am no?+ b a public        
prea*]4444 ,i prea* ! on5ess ( ,god4    
,su* 0 8 own conception  ( 8 s-call$    
apo/le%ip4 ,h5ce=?1 to ! day ( 8 dea?1  
he  wore on 8 f+] a seal-r+ on :i* 0    

engrav$1 ,mohamm$1 !  mess5g] ( ,god4   
,,victories ,,( ,,mohamm$4 ,x is well   
kn[n among physicians t prolong$  fa/+ &
 m5tal anxiety inevitably give rise to  
halluc9ation4  ,p]haps !re nev] has be5 
any religi\s sy/em introduc$ by         
self-d5y+1 e>ne/ m5 t did n (f] examples
 ( sup]natural  temptations &           
sup]natural comm&s4 ,my/]i\s voices     
enc\rag$ !  ,arabian prea*] to p]si/ 9 8
 det]m9ation2 %ad[s ( /range  =ms pass$ 
be=e him4 ,he he>d s\nds 9 ! air l ^? ( 
a  di/ant bell4 ,9 a nocturnal dream he 
0 c>ri$ by ,gabriel f ,mecca  to        
,j]usalem1 & !nce 9 succession ?r\gh !  
six heav5s4 ,into !  sev5? ! angel fe>$ 
to intrude & ,mohamm$ alone pass$ into !
  dread cl\d t =ev] en%r\ds ! ,almighty4
 ,a %iv] ?rill$ 8  he>t z he felt ^u 8  
%\ld] ! t\* ( ! cold h& ( ,god4    ,8   
public m9i/rations met ) mu* resi/ance &
 little success at  fir/4 ,expell$ f    
,mecca by ! uphold]s ( ! preval5t       
idolatry1  he s\ght refuge 9 ,m$9a1 a   
t[n 9 :i* !re 7 _m ,jews &  ,ne/orians2 

! latt] at once became proselytes to 8  
fai?4 ,he _h  already be5 compell$ to   
s5d 8 daught] & o!rs ( 8 disciples  to  
,abyss9ia1 ! k+ ( :i* 0 a ,ne/orian     
,*ri/ian4 ,at ! end (  six ye>s he _h   
made only fifte5 hundr$ conv]ts4 ,b 9   
?ree little  skirmi%es1 magnifi$ 9      
subsequ5t times by ! designation ( !    
battles ( ,b$]1 ( ,ohud1 & ( ! ,nations1
 ,mohamm$ discov]$ t  8 mo/ conv9c+     
argum5t 0 8 sword4 ,aft]w>d1 ) ,ori5tal 
eloqu5ce1 he said1 ,p>adise w be f\nd 9 
! %ad[ ( !  cross+ ( swords4 ,by a s]ies
 ( well-conduct$ milit>y op]ations1  8  
enemies 7 completely ov]?r[n4 ,arabian  
idolatry 0 absolutely  ext]m9at$2 !     
doctr9e he proclaim$1 t !re is b "o     
,god1  0 univ]sally adopt$ by 8         
c\ntrym51 & 8 own apo/le%ip  accept$4   
,,dea? ,,( ,,mohamm$4 ,let u pass ov] 8 
/ormy life1 & he> :at  he says :51 on ! 
p9nacle ( e>?ly p[] & glory1 he 0       
approa*+ its close4    ,/eadfa/ 9 8     
decl>ation ( ! unity ( ,god1 he dep>t$ f
  ,m$9a on 8 la/ pilgrimage to ,mecca1  

at ! head ( "o hundr$  & f\rte5 ?\s&    
devotees1 ) camels decorat$ ) g>l&s (   
fl[]s & flutt]+ /ream]s4 ,:5 he approa*$
 ! holy city1 he  utt]$ ! solemn        
invocation3 ,"h am ,i 9 ?y s]vice1 ,o   
,god6 ,?\  ha/ no companion4 ,to !e     
alone belonge? wor%ip4 ,?9e alone is !  
k+dom4 ,!re is none to %>e x ) !e4    ,)
 8 own h& he (f]$ up ! camels 9         
sacrifice4 ,he consid]$  t primeval     
in/itution to be equally sacr$ z pray]1 
& t no  reason c be alleg$ 9 support ( !
 "o :i* is n equally /rong  9 support ( 
! o!r4    ,f ! pulpit ( ! ,caaba he     
reit]at$1 ,o my he>]s1 ,i am only a  man
 l y\rselves4 ,!y rememb]$ t he _h once 
said to "o :o  approa*$ him ) timid     
/eps3 ,( :at do/ ?\ /& 9 awe8 ,i am  no 
k+4 ,i am no?+ b ! son ( an ,arab woman1
 :o ate fle% dri$  9 ! sun4    ,he      
return$ to ,m$9a to die4 ,9 8 f>ewell to
 8 congregation1 he  said3 ,e ?+ happ5s 
accord+ to ! w ( ,god1 & has its        
appo9t$ "t1 :i* c nei!r be ha/5$ nor    
avoid$4 ,i return to  him :o s5t me1 &  

my la/ comm& to y is1 t ye love1 honor1 
&  uphold ea* o!r1 t ye exhort ea* o!r  
to fai? & con/ancy 9  belief1 & to !    
p]=mance ( pi\s de$s4 ,my life has be5 =
 y\r  good1 & s w be my dea?4    ,9 8   
dy+ agony1 8 head 0 recl9$ on ! lap (   
,aye%a4 ,f  "t to "t he _h dipp$ 8 h& 9 
a vase ( wat]1 & moi/5$  8 face4 ,at la/
 he ceas$1 &1 gaz+ /eadfa/ly upw>d1     
said1 9  brok5 acc5ts3 ,o ,god--=give my
 s9s--be x s4 ,i come4    ,%all we speak
 ( ?is man ) disrespect8 ,8 precepts    
are1 at ?is  day1 ! religi\s guide (    
"o-?ird ( ! human race4    ,,doctr9es   
,,( ,,mohamm$4 ,9 ,mohamm$1 :o _h       
already brok5 away f !  anci5t idolatr\s
 wor%ip ( 8 native c\ntry1 prep>ation _h
 be5  made = ! rejection ( ^? t5ets :i* 
8 ,ne/orian tea*]s  _h communicat$ to   
him1 inconsi/5t ) reason & consci5ce4   
,&1  ?\gh1 9 ! fir/ pages ( ! ,koran1 he
 decl>es 8 belief 9 :at  0 deliv]$ to   
,moses & ,jesus1 & 8 rev]5ce = !m       
p]sonally1  8 v5]ation = ! ,almighty is 
p]petually display$4 ,he is             

horror-/rick5 at ! doctr9e ( ! div9ity (
 ,jesus1 ! ,wor%ip (  ,m>y z ! "m (     
,god1 ! adoration ( images & pa9t+s1 9  
8 eyes a base idolatry4 ,he absolutely  
rejects ! ,tr9ity1 ( :i*  he seems to h 
ent]ta9$ ! idea t x c\ld n be int]pret$ 
o!rwise ?an z pres5t+ ?ree di/9ct ,gods4
    ,8 fir/ & rul+ idea 0 simply        
religi\s re=m--to ov]?r[  ,arabian      
idolatry1 & put an end to ! wild        
sect>ianism (  ,*ri/ianity4 ,t he       
propos$ to set up a new religion 0 a    
calumny  inv5t$ aga9/ him 9             
,con/ant9ople1 :]e he 0 look$ ^u )      
dete/ation1 l t ) :i* 9 aft] ages ,lu!r 
0 reg>d$ 9  ,rome4    ,b1 ?\gh he       
reject$ ) indignation :atev] might seem 
to  disp>age ! doctr9e ( ! unity ( ,god1
 he 0 n able to  emancipate himself f   
an?ropomorphic conceptions4 ,! ,god ( ! 
,koran is altoge!r human1 bo?           
corporeally & m5tally1 if su*           
expressions may ) propriety be us$4 ,v  
soon1 h[ev]1 !  foll[]s ( ,mohamm$      
dive/$ !mselves ( ^! base ideas & rose  

to nobl] ones4    ,! view "h pres5t$ ( !
 primitive "* ( ,mohamm$anism  has long 
be5 adopt$ by _m compet5t au?orities4   
,sir ,william  ,jones1 foll[+ ,locke1   
reg>ds ! ma9 po9t 9 ! div]g5ce (        
,mohamm$anism f ,*ri/ianity to consi/ 9 
d5y+ vehem5tly !  "* ( our ,savior z !  
,son1 & 8 equality z ,god ) !  ,fa!r1 ( 
^: unity & attributes ! ,mohamm$ans     
ent]ta9 &  express ! mo/ awful ideas4   
,?is op9ion has be5 l>gely ent]ta9$  9  
,italy4 ,dante reg>d$ ,mohamm$ only z ! 
au?or ( a s*ism1 &  saw 9 ,islamism only
 an ,arian sect4 ,9 ,engl&1 ,:ately     
views x z a  corruption ( ,*ri/ianity4  
,x 0 an (f%oot ( ,ne/orianism1 & n      
until x _h ov]?r[n ,greek ,*ri/ianity 9 
_m great battles1 0  spread+ rapidly ov]
 ,asia & ,africa1 & _h become intoxicat$
  ) its wond]ful successes1 did x       
repudiate its primitive limit$          
int5tions1 & ass]t itself to be f\nd$ on
 a sep>ate & di/9ct  revelation4    ,,! 
,,fir/ ,,khalif4 ,mohamm$'s life _h be5 
almo/ entirely consum$  9 ! conv]sion or

 conque/ ( 8 native c\ntry4 ,t[>d its   
close1  h[ev]1 he felt himself /rong    
en\gh to ?reat5 ! invasion ( ,syria  &  
,p]sia4 ,he _h made no provision = !    
p]petuation ( 8 own  dom9ion1 & h5ce x 0
 n )\t a /ruggle t a successor 0        
appo9t$4 ,at l5g? ,abubek]1 ! fa!r (    
,aye%a1 0 select$4 ,he  0 proclaim$ !   
fir/ khalif1 or successor ( ! ,prophet4 
,!re is a v important diff]5ce betwe5 ! 
spread ( ,mohamm$anism  & ! spread (    
,*ri/ianity4 ,! latt] 0 nev] suffici5tly
  /rong to ov] ?r[ & extirpate idolatry 
9 ! ,roman ,empire4 ,z x  advanc$1 !re 0
 an amalgamation1 a union4 ,! old =ms ( 
! "o  7 vivifi$ by ! new _s ( ! o!r1 & t
 paganization to  :i* ref]5ce has       
already be5 made 0 ! result4    ,,!     
,,mohamm$an ,,heav54 ,b1 9 ,arabia1     
,mohamm$ ov]?rew & absolutely           
annihilat$ ! old idolatry4 ,no trace ( x
 is f\nd 9 ! doctr9es  prea*$ by him & 8
 successors4 ,! black /one t _h fall5 f 
heav5--! meteorite ( ! ,caaba--& its    
encircl+ idols1 pass$  totally out (    

view4 ,! ess5tial dogma ( ! new         
fai?--,!re is b  "o ,god--spread )\t any
 adult]ation4 ,milit>y successes _h1 9 a
  worldly s5se made ! religion ( !      
,koran pr(itable2 &1 no matt]  :at      
dogmas may be1 :5 t is ! case1 !re w be 
pl5ty (  conv]ts4    ,z to ! popul>     
doctr9es ( ,mohamm$anism1 ,i %all "h h  
no?+  to say4 ,! read] :o is int]e/$ 9 t
 matt] w f9d an acc\nt  ( !m 9 a review 
( ! ,koran 9 ! elev5? *apt] ( my ,hi/ory
  ( ! ,intellectual ,developm5t (       
,europe4 ,x is en\gh n[ to rem>k  t _!  
heav5 0 arrang$ 9 sev5 /ories1 & 0 only 
a palace  ( ,ori5tal c>nal delight4 ,x 0
 fill$ ) black-ey$ concub9es  & s]vants4
 ,! =m ( ,god 01 p]haps1 m awful ?an t  
( paganiz$ ,*ri/ianity4 ,an?ropomorphism
 w1 h[ev]1 nev] be  oblit]at$ f ! ideas 
( ! un9tellectual4 ,_! ,god1 at !  be/1 
w nev] be any ?+ m ?an ! gigantic %ad[ (
 a man--a  va/ phantom ( humanity--l "o 
( ^? ,alp9e spectres se5 9 !  mid/ ( !  
cl\ds by him :o turns 8 back on ! sun4  
,abubek] _h sc>cely seat$ himself 9 !   

khalifate1 :5 he put =?  ! foll[+       
proclamation3    ,9 ! "n ( ! mo/ m]ciful
 ,god6 ,abubek] to ! re/ ( ! true       
believ]s1 heal? & happ9ess4 ,! m]cy &   
bless+ ( ,god be ^u  y4 ,i praise ! mo/ 
high ,god4 ,i pray = 8 prophet ,mohamm$4
    ,,invasion ,,( ,,syria4 ,?is is to  
in=m y t ,i int5d to s5d ! true         
believ]s into ,syria1 to take x out ( ! 
h&s ( ! infidels4 ,&  ,i w\ld h y "k t !
 fight+ = religion is an act (  ob$i5ce 
to ,god4    ,on ! fir/ enc\nt]1 ,khal$1 
! ,s>ac5 g5]al1 h>d press$1  lift$ up 8 
h&s 9 ! mid/ ( 8 army & said3 ,o ,god6  
^!  vile wret*es pray ) idolatr\s       
expressions & take to !mselves  ano!r   
,god besides !e1 b we ackn[l$ge ?y unity
 & affirm t  !re is no o!r ,god b !e    
alone4 ,help u1 we besee* !e1 = !  sake 
( ?y prophet ,mohamm$1 aga9/ ^!         
idolat]s4 ,on ! "p (  ! ,s>ac5s !       
conque/ ( ,syria 0 conduct$ ) f]oci\s   
piety4  ,! belief ( ! ,syrian ,*ri/ians 
ar\s$ 9 _! antagoni/s  s5tim5ts ( horror
 & indignation4 ,i w cleave ! skull (   

any  blasphem+ idolat] :o says t ! ,mo/ 
,holy ,god1 ! ,almighty  & ,et]nal1 has 
begott5 a son4 ,! ,khalif ,om>1 :o took 
,j]usalem1  comm5ces a lett] to         
,h]aclius1 ! ,roman emp]or3 ,9 ! "n ( ! 
mo/ m]ciful ,god6 ,praise be to ,god1 ! 
,"l ( ?is & ( ! o!r  _w1 :o has nei!r   
female consort nor son4 ,! ,s>ac5s      
nicknam$  ! ,*ri/ians ,associators1     
because !y jo9$ ,m>y & ,jesus z  p>tn]s 
) ! ,almighty & ,mo/ ,holy ,god4    ,x 0
 n ! int5tion ( ! khalif to comm& 8     
army2 t duty  0 devolv$ on ,ab\ ,obeidah
 nom9ally1 on ,khal$ 9 reality4 ,9 a    
p>t+ review ! khalif enjo9$ on 8 troops 
ju/ice1 m]cy1 & !  obs]vance ( fidelity 
9 _! engagem5ts he comm&$ !m to ab/a9  f
 all frivol\s conv]sation & f w9e1 &    
rigor\sly to obs]ve  ! h\rs ( pray]2 to 
be k9d to ! common p among :om !y       
pass$1 b to %[ no m]cy to _! prie/s4    
,,fall ,,( ,,bozrah4 ,ea/w>d ( ! riv]   
,jordan is ,bozrah1 a /rong t[n  :]e    
,mohamm$ _h fir/ met 8 ,ne/orian        
,*ri/ian in/ructors4 ,x 0  "o ( ! ,roman

 =ts ) :i* ! c\ntry 0 dott$ ov]4 ,be=e  
?is place ! ,s>ac5 army encamp$4 ,!     
g>rison 0 /rong1 !  ramp>ts 7 cov]$ )   
holy crosses & consecrat$ bann]s4 ,x    
might h made a long def5se4 ,b its      
gov]nor1 ,romanus1 betray$ 8  tru/1 &   
/eal?ily op5$ its gates to ! besieg]s4  
,8 conduct  %[s to :at a deplorable     
condition ! population ( ,syria _h come4
  ,aft] ! surr5d]1 9 a spee* he made to 
! p he _h betray$1  he said3 ,i r5\nce  
y\r society1 bo? 9 ?is _w & t to come4  
,& ,i d5y him t 0 crucifi$1 & :osoev]   
wor%ips him4 ,& ,i  *oose ,god = my ,"l1
 ,islam = my fai?1 ,mecca = my temple1 !
  ,moslems = my bre?r51 ,mohamm$ = my   
prophet1 :o 0 s5t to lead  u 9 ! "r way1
 & to exalt ! true religion 9 spite ( ^?
  :o jo9 p>tn]s ) ,god4 ,s9ce ! ,p]sian 
invasion1 ,asia ,m9or1  ,syria1 & ev5   
,pale/9e1 7 full ( traitors & apo/ates1 
ready to  jo9 ! ,s>ac5s4 ,romanus 0 b "o
 ( _m ?\s&s :o _h fall5  into disbelief 
?r\gh ! victories ( ! ,p]sians4         
,,fall ,,( ,,damascus4 ,f ,bozrah x 0   

only sev5ty miles nor?w>d to  ,damascus1
 ! capital ( ,syria4 ,?i!r1 )\t delay1 !
 ,s>ac5 army  m>*$4 ,! city 0 at once   
summon$ to take its option--conv]sion1  
tribute1 or ! sword4 ,9 8 palace at     
,antio*1 b>ely "o hundr$ &  fifty miles 
/ill f>!r nor?1 ! ,emp]or ,h]aclius     
receiv$ tid+s  ( ! al>m+ advance ( 8    
assailants4 ,he at once dispat*$ an army
  ( sev5ty ?\s& m54 ,! ,s>ac5s 7        
compell$ to raise !  siege4 ,a battle   
took place 9 ! pla9s ( ,aiznad91 !      
,roman army  0 ov]?r[n & disp]s$4 ,khal$
 reappe>$ be=e ,damascus ) 8  /&>d ( !  
black eagle1 & aft] a r5ew$ inve/m5t (  
sev5ty  days ,damascus surr5d]$4    ,f !
 ,arabian hi/orians ( ^! ev5ts we may   
ga!r t ?us f>  ! ,s>ac5 armies 7 little 
bett] ?an a fanatic mob4 ,_m ( !  m5    
f\ght nak$4 ,x 0 n unusual = a w>rior to
 /& =? 9  front & *all5ge an antagoni/  
to mortal duel4 ,nay1 m1 ev5 !  wom5    
engag$ 9 ! combats4 ,picturesque        
n>ratives h be5  h&$ d[n to u relat+ !  
gallant mann] 9 :i* !y acquitt$         

!mselves4    ,,fall ,,( ,,j]usalem4 ,f  
,damascus ! ,s>ac5 army advanc$ nor?w>d1
  guid$ by ! sn[-clad peaks ( ,libanus &
 ! beautiful riv]  ,orontes4 ,x captur$ 
on its way ,baalbec1 ! capital ( !      
,syrian  valley1 & ,emesa1 ! *ief city (
 ! ea/]n pla94 ,to resi/ its  fur!r     
progress1 ,h]aclius collect$ an army (  
"o hundr$ & =ty  ?\s& m54 ,a battle took
 place at ,y]muck2 ! "r w+ ( !  ,s>ac5s 
0 brok51 b ! soldi]s 7 driv5 back to !  
field by  ! fanatic expo/ulations ( _!  
wom54 ,! conflict end$ 9  ! complete    
ov]?r[ ( ! ,roman army4 ,=ty ?\s& 7 tak5
  prison]s1 & a va/ numb] kill$4 ,! :ole
 c\ntry n[ lay op5 to  ! victors4 ,!    
advance ( _! army _h be5 ea/ ( !        
,jordan4  ,x 0 cle> t1 be=e ,asia ,m9or 
c\ld be t\*$1 ! /rong &  important      
cities ( ,pale/9e1 :i* 0 n[ 9 _! re>1   
mu/ be  secur$4 ,!re 0 a diff]5ce (     
op9ion among ! g5]als 9 !  field z to   
:e!r ,caes>ea or ,j]usalem %\ld be      
assail$ fir/4 ,!  matt] 0 ref]r$ to !   
khalif1 :o1 rightly pref]r+ ! moral     

advantages ( ! capture ( ,j]usalem to ! 
milit>y advantages ( !  capture (       
,caes>ea1 ord]$ ! ,holy ,city to be     
tak51 & t at any  co/4 ,close siege 0   
!re=e laid to x4 ,! inhabitants1        
rememb]+  ! atrocities inflict$ by !    
,p]sians1 & ! indignities t _h  be5 (f]$
 to ! ,savior's sepul*re1 prep>$ n[ = a 
vigor\s  def5se4 ,b1 aft] an inve/m5t ( 
f\r mon?s1 ! ,patri>*  ,sophronius      
appe>$ on ! wall1 ask+ t]ms (           
capitulation4 ,!re _h  be5 misund]/&+s  
among ! g5]als at ! capture ( ,damascus1
  foll[$ by a massacre ( ! flee+        
inhabitants4 ,sophronius1  !re=e1       
/ipulat$ t ! surr5d] ( ,j]usalem %\ld   
take place  9 pres5ce ( ! khalif himself
 ,accord+ly1 ,om>1 ! khalif1 came  f    
,m$9a = t purpose4 ,he j\rney$ on a r$  
camel1 c>ry+  a bag ( corn & "o ( dates1
 a wood5 di%1 & a lea!rn  wat]-bottle4  
,! ,arab conqu]or ent]$ ! ,holy ,city   
rid+ by !  side ( ! ,*ri/ian patri>* & !
 transf]5ce ( ! capital (  ,*ri/ianity  
to ! repres5tative ( ,mohamm$anism 0    

effect$ )\t  tumult or outrage4 ,hav+   
ord]$ t a mosque %\ld be built on !     
site ( ! temple ( ,solomon1 ! khalif    
return$ to ! tomb ( !  ,prophet at      
,m$9a4    ,h]aclius saw pla9ly t !      
disa/]s :i* 7 fa/ settl+ on  ,*ri/ianity
 7 due to ! diss5sions ( its conflict+  
sects2 &  h5ce1 :ile he endeavor$ to    
def5d ! empire ) 8 armies1 he  s$ul\sly 
tri$ to compose ^? diff]5ces4 ,) ?is    
view he press$  = acceptance !          
,mono!lite doctr9e ( ! nature ( ,*ri/4  
,b x  0 n[ too late4 ,aleppo & ,antio* 7
 tak54 ,no?+ c\ld prev5t  ! ,s>ac5s f   
ov]runn+ ,asia ,m9or4 ,h]aclius himself 
_h to seek  safety 9 flight4 ,syria1 :i*
 _h be5 add$ by ,pompey ! ,great1  !    
rival ( ,caes>1 to ! prov9ces ( ,rome1  
sev5 hundr$ ye>s  previ\sly--,syria1 !  
bir?place ( ,*ri/ianity1 ! sc5e ( its   
mo/  sacr$ & preci\s s\v5irs1 ! l& f :i*
 ,h]aclius himself _h  once expell$ !   
,p]sian intrud]--0 irretrievably lo/4   
,apo/ates  & traitors _h wr\ght ?is     
calamity4 ,we are told t1 z ! %ip  :i*  

bore him to ,con/ant9ople p>t$ f ! %ore1
 ,h]aclius  gaz$ int5tly on ! rec$+     
hills1 & 9 ! bitt]ness ( angui%         
exclaim$1 ,f>ewell1 ,syria1 =ev]        
f>ewell6    ,x is ne$less to dwell on ! 
rema9+ details ( ! ,s>ac5  conque/3 h[  
,tripoli & ,tyre 7 betray$2 h[ ,caes>ea 
0 captur$2  h[ ) ! trees ( ,libanus & ! 
sailors ( ,pho5icia a ,s>ac5  fleet 0   
equipp$1 :i* drove ! ,roman navy into ! 
,hellespont2 h[  ,cyprus1 ,rhodes1 & !  
,cyclades1 7 ravag$1 & ! ,colossus1 :i* 
0 c\nt$ z "o ( ! wond]s ( ! _w1 sold to 
a ,jew1 :o  load$ n9e hundr$ camels )   
its brass2 h[ ! armies ( ! khalif       
advanc$ to ! ,black ,sea1 & ev5 lay 9   
front ( ,con/ant9ople--all  ?is 0 z no?+
 aft] ! fall ( ,j]usalem4    ,,ov]?r[   
,,( ,,! ,,p]sians4 ,! fall ( ,j]usalem6 
! loss (  ! metropolis ( ,*ri/ianity6 ,9
 ! ideas ( t age ! two  antagoni/ic =ms 
( fai? _h submitt$ !mselves to ! ordeal 
(  ! judgm5t ( ,god4 ,victory _h aw>d$ !
 prize ( battle1 ,j]usalem1  to !       
,mohamm$an2 &1 not)/&+ ! tempor>y       

successes ( !  ,crusad]s1 aft] mu* m ?an
 a ?\s& ye>s 9 8 h&s x rema9s  to ?is   
day4 ,! ,byzant9e hi/orians are n )\t   
excuse = !  c\rse !y are condemn$ =     
tak+3 ,!y h :olly neglect$ !  great     
topic ( ! ru9 ( ! ,ea/]n ,*ur*4 ,& z = !
 ,we/]n  ,*ur*1 ev5 ! debas$ popes ( !  
middle ages--! ages ( !  ,crusades--c\ld
 n see )\t indignation t !y 7 compell$  
to re/ ! claims ( ,rome z ! metropolis (
 ,*ri/5dom on a false  leg5d>y /ory ( a 
visit ( ,/4 ,pet] to t city2 :ile ! true
  metropolis1 ! gr&1 ! sacr$ place ( !  
bir?1 ! life1 !  dea? ( ,*ri/ himself1 0
 9 ! h&s ( ! infidels6 ,x has n  be5 !  
,byzant9e hi/orians alone :o h tri$ to  
conceal ?is great  cata/rophe4 ,!       
,*ri/ian writ]s ( ,europe on all mann] (
 subjects1  :e!r ( hi/ory1 religion1 or 
sci5ce1 h foll[$ a simil>  c\rse aga9/  
_! conqu]+ antagoni/s4 ,x has be5 _!    
con/ant  practice to hide :at !y c\ld n 
depreciate1 & depreciate :at  !y c\ld n 
hide4    ,,invasion ,,( ,,egypt4 ,i h n 
space1 nor inde$ does x comport ) !     

int5tion ( ?is "w1 to relate1 9 su*     
detail z ,i h giv5 to  ! fall (         
,j]usalem1 o!r conque/s ( !             
,s>ac5s--conque/s :i*  ev5tually        
e/abli%$ a ,mohamm$an empire f> exce$+ 9
 geographical  ext5t t ( ,alex&]1 & ev5 
t ( ,rome4 ,b1 devot+ a few  words to   
?is subject1 x may be said t ,magianism 
receiv$ a worse  bl[ ?an t :i* _h be5   
inflict$ on ,*ri/ianity2 ,! fate (      
,p]sia 0 settl$ at ! battle ( ,cadesia4 
,at ! sack ( ,ctesiphon1  ! treasury1 ! 
royal arms1 & an unlimit$ spoil1 fell   
into !  h&s ( ! ,s>ac5s4 ,n )\t reason d
 !y call ! battle (  ,nehav5d ! victory 
( victories4 ,9 "o direction !y advanc$ 
to  ! ,caspian1 9 ! o!r s\?w>d along !  
,tigris to ,p]sepolis4  ,! ,p]sian k+   
fl$ = 8 life ov] ! great ,salt ,des]t1 f
 !  columns & /atues ( t city :i* _h la9
 9 ru9s s9ce ! night  ( ! riot\s banquet
 ( ,alex&]4 ,"o division ( ! ,arabian   
army  =c$ ! ,p]sian mon>* ov] ! ,oxus4  
,he 0 assass9at$ by !  ,turks4 ,8 son 0 
driv5 into ,*9a1 & became a capta9 9 !  

,*9ese emp]or's gu>ds4 ,! c\ntry beyond 
! ,oxus 0 r$uc$4  ,x paid a tribute (   
two million pieces ( gold4 ,:ile !      
emp]or  at ,pek+ 0 dem&+ ! fri5d%ip ( ! 
khalif at ,m$9a1 !  /&>d ( ! ,prophet 0 
display$ on ! banks ( ! ,indus4         
,among ! g5]als :o _h greatly di/+ui%$  
!mselves 9 !  ,syrian w>s 0 ,amr\1 de/9$
 to be ! conqu]or ( ,egypt2 = !         
khalifs1 n cont5t ) _! victories on !   
,nor? & ,ea/1 n[  turn$ _! eyes to !    
,we/1 & prep>$ = ! annexation (         
,africa4 ,z 9 ! =m] cases1 s 9 ?is1     
sect>ian treason assi/$  !m4 ,! ,s>ac5  
army 0 hail$ z ! deliv]] ( ! ,jacobite  
,*ur*2 ! ,monophysite ,*ri/ians (       
,egypt1 t is1 !y :o1 9 !  language ( !  
,a?anasian ,cre$1 conf\nd$ ! sub/ance ( 
!  ,son1 proclaim$1 ?r\gh _! lead]1     
,mokaukas1 t !y desir$ no  communion ) !
 ,greeks1 ei!r 9 ?is _w or ! next1 t !y 
abjur$ =ev] ! ,byzant9e tyrant & 8 synod
 ( ,*alc$on4 ,!y  ha/5$ to pay tribute  
to ! khalif1 to repair ! roads &        
bridges1  & to supply provisions &      

intellig5ce to ! invad+ army4    ,,fall 
,,( ,,alex&ria4 ,memphis1 "o ( ! old    
,ph>aonic capitals1 soon  fell1 &       
,alex&ria 0 inve/$4 ,! op5 sea beh9d    
gave opportunity  to ,h]aclius to re5=ce
 ! g>rison cont9ually4 ,on 8 "p1 ,om>1  
:o 0 n[ khalif s5t to ! succor ( !      
besieg+ army ! vet]an  troops ( ,syria4 
,!re 7 _m assaults & _m sallies4 ,9 "o  
,amr\  himself 0 tak5 prison] by !      
besieg$1 b1 ?r\gh ! dext]ity  ( a slave1
 made 8 escape4 ,aft] a siege ( f\rte5  
mon?s1 & a  loss ( tw5ty-?ree ?\s& m51 !
 ,s>ac5s captur$ ! city4 ,9  8 dispat*  
to ! ,khalif1 ,amr\ enum]at$ ! spl5dors 
( ! great  city ( ! ,we/ its f\r ?\s&   
palaces1 f\r ?\s& ba?s1 f\r  hundr$     
!atres1 twelve ?\s& %ops = ! sale (     
vegetable food1  & =ty ?\s& tribut>y    
,jews4    ,s fell ! second great city ( 
,*ri/5dom--! fate ( ,j]usalem _h  fall5 
on ,alex&ria1 ! city ( ,a?anasius1 &    
,arius1 & ,cyril2 !  city t _h impos$   
,tr9it>ian ideas & ,m>iolatry on !      
,*ur*4  ,9 8 palace at ,con/ant9ople    

,h]aclius receiv$ ! fatal tid+s4  ,he 0 
ov]:elm$ ) grief4 ,x seem$ z if 8 reign 
0 to be  disgrac$ by ! d[nfall (        
,*ri/ianity4 ,he liv$ sc>cely a mon?    
aft] ! loss ( ! t[n4    ,b if ,alex&ria 
_h be5 ess5tial to ,con/ant9ople 9 !    
supply  ( or?odox fai?1 %e 0 also       
ess5tial 9 ! supply ( daily food4       
,egypt 0 ! gran>y ( ! ,byzant9es4 ,= ?is
 reason two attempts  7 made by p[]ful  
fleets & armies = ! recov]y ( ! place1  
& twice _h ,amr\ to r5ew 8 conque/4 ,he 
saw ) :at facility  ^! attacks c\ld be  
made1 ! place be+ op5 to ! sea2 he saw  
t !re 0 b "o & t a fatal rem$y4 ,by !   
liv+ ,god1 if  ?is ?+ be repeat$ a ?ird 
"t ,i w make ,alex&ria z op5 to  anybody
 z is ! h\se ( a pro/itute6 ,he 0 bett] 
?an 8 ^w1  = he =?) dismantl$ its       
=tifications1 & made x an unt5able      
place4    ,,fall ,,( ,,c>?age4 ,x 0 n ! 
int5tion ( ! khalifs to limit _!        
conque/ to ,egypt4 ,o?man contemplat$ ! 
annexation ( ! entire  ,nor?-,african   
coa/4 ,8 g5]al1 ,abdallah1 set out f    

,memphis )  =ty ?\s& m51 pass$ ?r\gh !  
des]t ( ,b>ca1 & besieg$  ,tripoli4 ,b1 
! plague break+ out 9 8 army1 he 0      
compell$ to  retreat to ,egypt4    ,all 
attempts 7 n[ susp5d$ = m ?an tw5ty     
ye>s4 ,!n ,akbah  =c$ 8 way f ! ,nile to
 ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,9 front ( !       
,can>y ,isl&s he rode 8 horse into !    
sea1 exclaim+3 ,great ,god6  if my c\rse
 7 n /opp$ by ?is sea1 ,i w\ld /ill g on
 to !  unkn[n k+doms ( ! ,we/1 prea*+ ! 
unity ( ?y holy "n1 &  putt+ to ! sword 
! rebelli\s nations :o wor%ip any o!r   
gods  ?an !e4    ,^! ,s>ac5 exp$itions  
_h be5 ?r\gh ! int]ior ( ! c\ntry1  = ! 
,byzant9e emp]ors1 controll+ = ! "t !   
,m$it]ranean1  _h reta9$ possession ( ! 
cities on ! coa/4 ,! ,khalif            
,abdalmalek at l5g? resolv$ on !        
r$uction ( ,c>?age1 ! mo/  important (  
^? cities1 & inde$ ! capital ( ,nor?    
,africa4  ,8 g5]al1 ,hassan1 c>ri$ x by 
escalade2 b re5=cem5ts f  ,con/ant9ople1
 aid$ by "s ,sicilian & ,go?ic troops1  
compell$  him to retreat4 ,! relief 01  

h[ev]1 only tempor>y4 ,hassan1 9 !      
c\rse ( a few mon?s r5ew$ 8 attack4 ,x  
prov$ successful1 & he  deliv]$ ,c>?age 
to ! flames4    ,j]usalem1 ,alex&ria1   
,c>?age1 ?ree out ( ! five great        
,*ri/ian  capitals1 7 lo/4 ,! fall (    
,con/ant9ople 0 only a "q (  "t4 ,aft]  
its fall1 ,rome alone rema9$4    ,9 !   
developm5t ( ,*ri/ianity1 ,c>?age _h    
play$ no insignificant  "p4 ,x _h giv5  
to ,europe its ,lat9 =m ( fai?1 & "s (  
its  greate/ !ologians4 ,x 0 ! home (   
,/4 ,augu/9e4    ,nev] 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w
 _h !re be5 s rapid & ext5sive  a       
propagation ( any religion z            
,mohamm$anism4 ,x 0 n[ dom9at+  f !     
,altai ,m\nta9s to ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 f
 ! c5tre ( ,asia  to ! we/]n v]ge (     
,africa4    ,,conque/ ,,( ,,spa94 ,!    
,khalif ,alwalid next au?oriz$ !        
invasion (  ,europe1 ! conque/ (        
,&alusia1 or ! ,region ( ! ,ev5+4       
,musa1 8 g5]al1 f\nd1 z _h s (t5 be5 !  
case else:]e1 two  effective allies     
sect>ianism & treason--! ,ar*bi%op (    

,tol$o &  ,c\nt ,julian ! ,go?ic g5]al4 
,"u _! lead1 9 ! v crisis  ( ! battle ( 
,x]es1 a l>ge portion ( ! army w5t ov]  
to !  invad]s2 ! ,spani% k+ 0 compell$  
to flee f ! field1 & 9  ! pursuit he 0  
dr[n$ 9 ! wat]s ( ! ,guadalquivir4    ,)
 great rapidity ,t>ik1 ! lieut5ant (    
,musa1 pu%$ =w>d f  ! battle-field to   
,tol$o1 & !nce nor?w>d4 ,on ! arrival ( 
,musa  ! r$uction ( ! ,spani% p59sula 0 
complet$1 & ! wreck (  ! ,go?ic army    
driv5 beyond ! ,pyr5ees into ,france4   
,consid]+ !  conque/ ( ,spa9 z only !   
fir/ /ep 9 8 victories1 he ann\nc$  8   
int5tion ( =c+ 8 way into ,italy1 &     
prea*+ ! unity (  ,god 9 ! ,vatican4    
,!nce he w\ld m>* to ,con/ant9ople1 &1  
hav+  put all end to ! ,roman ,empire & 
,*ri/ianity1 w\ld pass into ,asia  & lay
 8 victori\s sword on ! foot/ool ( !    
khalif at ,damascus4    ,b ?is 0 n to   
be4 ,musa1 envi\s ( 8 lieut5ant1 ,t>ik1 
_h  treat$ him ) great indignity4 ,!    
fri5ds ( ,t>ik at ! c\rt (  ! khalif    
f\nd means ( retaliation4 ,an envoy f   

,damascus arre/$  ,musa 9 8 camp2 he 0  
c>ri$ be=e 8 sov]eign1 disgrac$ by a    
public :ipp+1 & di$ ( a brok5 he>t4     
,,invasion ,,( ,,france4 ,"u o!r lead]s1
 h[ev]1 ! ,s>ac5 conque/  ( ,france 0   
attempt$4 ,9 a prelim9>y campaign !     
c\ntry f !  m\? ( ! ,g>onne to t ( !    
,loire 0 secur$4 ,!n ,abd]ahman1  !     
,s>ac5 comm&]1 divid+ 8 =ces into two   
columns1 ) "o  on ! ea/ pass$ ! ,rhone1 
& laid siege to ,arles4 ,a ,*ri/ian     
army1  attempt+ ! relief ( ! place1 0   
defeat$ ) heavy loss4  ,8 we/]n column1 
equally successful1 pass$ ! ,dordogne1  
defeat$  ano!r ,*ri/ian army1 inflict+  
on x su* dreadful loss t1  accord+ to   
its own fugitives1 ,god alone c\ld numb]
 ! sla94 ,all  ,c5tral ,france 0 n[     
ov]run2 ! banks ( ! ,loire 7 rea*$2  !  
*ur*es & mona/]ies 7 despoil$ ( _!      
treasures2 &  ! tutel> sa9ts1 :o _h     
work$ s _m miracles :5 !re 0 no         
necessity1 7 f\nd to want ! requisite   
p[] :5 x 0 s greatly  ne$$4    ,!       
progress ( ! invad]s 0 at l5g? /opp$ by 

,*>les ,m>tel  7,a4,d4 #gcb74 ,betwe5   
,t\rs & ,poicti]s1 a great battle1 :i*  
la/$  sev5 days1 0 f\ght4 ,abd]ahman 0  
kill$1 ! ,s>ac5s retreat$1  & soon      
aft]w>d 7 compell$ to recross !         
,pyr5ees4    ,! banks ( ! ,loire1 !re=e1
 m>k ! b\nd>y ( ! ,mohamm$an  advance 9 
,we/]n ,europe4 ,gibbon1 9 8 n>rative ( 
^! great  ev5ts1 makes ?is rem>k3 ,a    
victori\s l9e ( m>* _h be5  prolong$    
above a ?\s& miles f ! rock ( ,gibralt> 
to ! banks  ( ! ,loire--a repetition (  
an equal space w\ld h c>ri$ !  ,s>ac5s  
to ! conf9es ( ,pol& & ! ,highl&s (     
,scotl&4    ,,insult ,,to ,,rome4 ,x is 
n necess>y = me to add to ?is sket* ( ! 
milit>y diffusion ( ,mohamm$anism1 !    
op]ations ( ! ,s>ac5s on  ! ,m$it]ranean
 ,sea1 _! conque/ ( ,crete & ,sicily1 _!
 insult  to ,rome4 ,x w be f\nd1 h[ev]1 
t _! pres5ce 9 ,sicily  & ! s\? ( ,italy
 ex]t$ a m>k$ influ5ce on ! intellectual
  developm5t ( ,europe4    ,_! insult to
 ,rome6 ,:at c\ld be m humiliat+ ?an !  
circum/ances "u :i* x took place 7,a4,d4

 #hdf78 ,an insignificant  ,s>ac5       
exp$ition ent]$ ! ,tib] & appe>$ be=e ! 
walls (  ! city4 ,too weak to =ce an    
entrance1 x insult$ & plund]$ !         
prec9cts1 sacrilegi\sly violat+ ! tombs 
( ,/4 ,pet] & ,/4 ,paul4  ,_h ! city    
itself be5 sack$1 ! moral effect c\ld n 
h be5  great]4 ,f ! *ur* ( ,/4 ,pet] its
 alt> ( silv] 0 torn  away & s5t to     
,africa--,/4 ,pet]'s alt>1 ! v emblem ( 
,roman  ,*ri/ianity6    ,con/ant9ople _h
 already be5 besieg$ by ! ,s>ac5s m ?an 
once2  its fall 0 pr$e/9$1 & only       
po/pon$4 ,rome _h receiv$ !  dire/      
insult1 ! greate/ loss t c\ld be        
inflict$ ^u x2  ! v5]able *ur*es ( ,asia
 ,m9or _h pass$ out ( exi/5ce2 no       
,*ri/ian c\ld set 8 foot 9 ,j]usalem )\t
 p]mission2 ! ,mosque  ( ,om> /ood on ! 
site ( ! ,temple ( ,solomon4 ,among !   
ru9s (  ,alex&ria ! ,mosque ( ,m]cy m>k$
 ! spot :]e a ,s>ac5 g5]al1  satiat$ )  
massacre1 _h1 9 contemptu\s compassion1 
sp>$ !  fugitive relics ( ! enemies (   
,mohamm$2 no?+ rema9$ ( ,c>?age  b h]   

black5$ ru9s4 ,! mo/ p[]ful religi\s    
empire t !  _w _h ev] se5 _h sudd5ly    
come into exi/5ce4 ,x /ret*$ f  !       
,atlantic ,ocean to ! ,*9ese ,wall1 f ! 
%ores ( ! ,caspian  to ^? ( ! ,indian   
,ocean1 & yet1 9 "o s5se1 x _h n rea*$  
its culm9ation4 ,! day 0 to come :5 x 0 
to expel ! successors  ( ! ,caes>s f _! 
capital1 & hold ! p59sula ( ,greece 9   
subjection1 to dispute ) ,*ri/ianity !  
empire ( ,europe 9 !  v c5tre ( t       
cont95t1 & 9 ,africa to ext5d its dogmas
 &  fai? across burn+ des]ts & ?r\gh    
pe/il5tial =e/s f !  ,m$it]ranean to    
regions s\?w>d f> beyond ! equ9octial   
l9e4    ,,diss5sions ,,( ,,! ,,arabs4   
,b1 ?\gh ,mohamm$anism _h n rea*$ its   
culm9ation1 ! dom9ion ( ! khalifs _h4 ,n
 ! sword ( ,*>les  ,m>tel1 b ! int]nal  
diss5sion ( ! va/ ,arabian ,empire1 0 ! 
salvation ( ,europe4 ,?\gh ! ,ommiade   
,khalifs 7 popul> 9 ,syria1  else:]e !y 
7 look$ ^u z intrud]s or usurp]s2 !     
k9dr$  ( ! apo/le 0 consid]$ to be !    
rightful repres5tative ( 8  fai?4 ,?ree 

p>ties1 di/+ui%$ by _! colors1 tore !   
khalifate  asund] ) _! disputes1 &      
disgrac$ x by _! atrocities4 ,!  color (
 ! ,ommiades 0 :ite1 t ( ! ,fatimites   
gre51 t (  ! ,abassides black2 ! la/    
repres5t$ ! p>ty ( ,abbas1 ! uncle  (   
,mohamm$4 ,! result ( ^! discords 0 a   
trip>tite division  ( ! ,mohamm$an      
,empire 9 ! t5? c5tury into ! khalifates
 (  ,bagdad1 ( ,cairoan1 & ( ,cordova4  
,unity 9 ,mohamm$an political action  0 
at an end1 & ,*ri/5dom f\nd its         
safegu>d1 n 9 sup]natural  help1 b 9 !  
qu>rels ( ! rival pot5tates4 ,to int]nal
  animosities =eign pressures 7         
ev5tually add$ & ,arabism1 :i*  _h done 
s mu* = ! intellectual advancem5t ( !   
_w1 came to  an end :5 ! ,turks & !     
,b]b]s atta9$ to p[]4    ,! ,s>ac5s _h  
become totally reg>dless ( ,european    
opposition--!y  7 :olly tak5 up ) _!    
dome/ic qu>rels4 ,ockley says )  tru?1 9
 8 hi/ory3 ,! ,s>ac5s _h sc>ce a deputy 
lieut5ant or  g5]al t w\ld n h ?\ght x !
 greate/ affront1 & su*  z ought to     

/igmatize him ) indelible disgrace1 if  
he %\ld h  suff]$ himself to h be5      
insult$ by ! unit$ =ces ( all  ,europe4 
,& if any "o asks :y ! ,greeks did n    
ex]t !mselves  m1 9 ord] to !           
extirpation ( ^! insol5t invad]s1 x is a
  suffici5t answ] to any p]son t is     
acqua9t$ ) ! *>act]s  ( ^? m5 to say t  
,amr\ kept 8 resid5ce at ,alex&ria1 &   
,moawyah at ,damascus4    ,z to _!      
contempt1 ?is in/ance may suffice3      
,nicephorus1 ! ,roman  emp]or1 _h s5t to
 ! ,khalif ,h>\n-al-,ras*id a ?reat5+   
lett]1 & ?is 0 ! reply3 ,9 ! "n ( ! mo/ 
m]ciful ,god1  ,h>\n-al-,ras*id1 comm&] 
( ! fai?ful1 to ,nicephorus1 ! ,roman   
dog6 ,i h read ?y lett]1 ,o ?\ son ( an 
unbeliev+ "m4 ,?\  %alt n he>1 ?\ %alt  
behold my reply6 ,x 0 writt5 9 lett]s  (
 blood & fire on ! pla9s ( ,phrygia4    
,,political ,,effect ,,( ,,polygamy4 ,a 
nation may recov] ! confiscation  ( its 
prov9ces1 ! confiscation ( its weal?2 x 
may survive !  imposition ( enorm\s     
w>-f9es2 b x nev] c recov] f t  mo/     

frightful ( all w>-acts1 ! confiscation 
( its wom54 ,:5  ,ab\ ,obeidah s5t to   
,om> news ( 8 capture ( ,antio*1 ,om>   
g5tly  upbraid$ him t he _h n let !     
troops h ! wom54 ,if !y  want to m>ry 9 
,syria1 let !m2 & let !m h z _m female  
slaves z !y h occasion =4 ,x 0 !        
in/itution ( polygamy1  bas$ ^u !       
confiscation ( ! wom5 9 ! vanqui%$      
c\ntries1  t secur$ =ev] ! ,mohamm$an   
rule4 ,! *ildr5 ( ^! unions  glori$ 9 _!
 desc5t f _! conqu]+ fa!rs4 ,no bett]   
pro(  c be giv5 ( ! efficacy ( ?is      
policy ?an t :i* is furni%$  by ,nor?   
,africa4 ,! irresi/ible effect (        
polygamy 9 consolidat+  ! new ord] ( ?+s
 0 v /rik+4 ,9 little m ?an a s+le      
g5]ation1 ! ,khalif 0 in=m$ by 8 (fic]s 
t ! tribute  mu/ cease1 = all ! *ildr5  
born 9 t region 7 ,mohamm$ans1  & all   
spoke ,arabic4    ,,mohamm$anism4       
,mohamm$anism1 z left by its f\nd]1 0 an
  an?ropomorphic religion4 ,its ,god 0  
only a gigantic man1 its heav5  a       
mansion ( c>nal pleasures4 ,f ^!        

imp]fect ideas its m  intellig5t classes
 v soon fre$ !mselves1 sub/itut+ = !m   
o!rs m philosophical1 m correct4        
,ev5tually !y atta9$ to an  accordance )
 ^? t h be5 pron\nc$ 9 our own times by 
!  ,vatican ,c\ncil z or?odox4 ,?us     
,al-,gazzali says3 ,a k ( ,god  _c be   
obta9$ by means ( ! k a man has (       
himself1 or  ( 8 own s\l4 ,! attributes 
( ,god _c be det]m9$ f  ! attributes (  
man4 ,8 sov]eignty & gov]nm5t c nei!r be
  comp>$ nor measur$4        ,,*apt]    
,,iv4         ,,! ,,re/oration ,,(      
,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,s\?4         ,by !   
influ5ce ( ! ,ne/orians & ,jews1 !      
,arabians       are turn$ to !          
cultivation ( ,sci5ce4--,!y modify      
_! views z to ! de/9y ( man1 & obta9    
true       conceptions respect+ !       
/ructure ( ! _w4--,!y       asc]ta9 !   
size ( ! e>?1 & det]m9e its %ape4--     
,_! khalifs collect great libr>ies1     
patronize e       dep>tm5t ( sci5ce &   
lit]ature1 e/abli% a/ronomical          
obs]vatories4--,!y develop ! ma!matical 

sci5ces1       inv5t algebra1 & improve 
geometry & trigonometry4--,!y           
collect & translate ! old ,greek        
ma!matical &       a/ronomical works1 & 
adopt ! inductive me?od (               
,ari/otle4--,!y e/abli% _m colleges1 &1 
) ! aid       ( ! ,ne/orians1 organize a
 public-s*ool sy/em4--,!y               
introduce ! ,arabic num]als & ari?metic1
 & catalogue       & give names to !    
/>s4--,!y lay ! f\ndation (       mod]n 
a/ronomy1 *emi/ry1 & physics1 &         
introduce       great improvem5ts 9     
agriculture & manufactures4      ,,9 !  
c\rse ( my long life1 said ! ,khalif    
,ali1 ,i h (t5  obs]v$ t m5 are m l !   
times !y live 9 ?an !y  are l _! fa!rs4 
,?is pr(\ndly philosophical rem>k ( !   
son-9-law ( ,mohamm$ is /rictly true2 =1
 ?\gh ! p]sonal1 !  bodily l9eam5ts ( a 
man may indicate 8 p>5tage1 !           
con/itution  ( 8 m9d1 & !re=e !         
direction ( 8 ?\ghts1 is det]m9$  by !  
environm5t 9 :i* he lives4    ,:5 ,amr\1
 ! lieut5ant ( ! ,khalif ,om>1 conqu]$  

,egypt1 &  annex$ x to ! ,s>ac5ic       
,empire1 he f\nd 9 ,alex&ria a ,greek   
gramm>ian1 ,john surnam$ ,philoponus1 or
 ! ,labor-lov]4 ,presum+ on  ! fri5d%ip 
:i* _h aris5 betwe5 !m1 ! ,greek        
solicit$ z a  gift ! remnant ( ! great  
libr>y--a remnant :i* w> & "t &  bigotry
 _h sp>$4 ,amr\1 !re=e1 s5t to ! khalif 
to asc]ta9  8 pleasure4 ,if1 repli$ !   
khalif1 ! books agree ) ! ,koran1  ! ,^w
 ( ,god1 !y are useless1 & ne$ n be     
pres]v$2 if  !y disagree ) x1 !y are    
p]nici\s4 ,let !m be de/roy$4           
,accord+ly1 !y 7 di/ribut$ among ! ba?s 
( ,alex&ria1 & x  is said t six mon?s 7 
b>ely suffici5t to consume !m4          
,al?\gh ! fact has be5 d5i$1 !re c be   
little d\bt t ,om>  gave ?is ord]4 ,!   
khalif 0 an illit]ate man2 8 environm5t 
0 an environm5t ( fanaticism &          
ignorance4 ,om>'s act 0 an  illu/ration 
( ,ali's rem>k4    ,,! ,,alex&rian      
,,libr>y ,,burnt4 ,b x mu/ n be suppos$ 
t !  books :i* ,john ! ,labor-lov]      
covet$ 7 ^? :i* con/itut$  ! great      

libr>y ( ! ,ptolemies1 & t ( ,eum5es1   
,k+ (  ,p]gamus4 ,ne>ly a ?\s& ye>s _h  
elaps$ s9ce ,philadelphus began  8      
collection4 ,julius ,caes> _h burnt m   
?an half2 ! ,patri>*s  ( ,alex&ria _h n 
only p]mitt$ b sup]9t5d$ ! disp]sion  ( 
almo/ all ! re/4 ,orosius expressly     
/ates t he saw ! empty  cases or %elves 
( ! libr>y tw5ty ye>s aft] ,!ophilus1 ! 
uncle  ( ,/4 ,cyril1 _h procur$ f !     
,emp]or ,!odosius a rescript =  its     
de/ruction4 ,ev5 _h ?is once noble      
collection nev] endur$ su*  acts (      
viol5ce1 ! m]e we> & te>1 & p]haps1 ,i  
may add1 !  pilf]+ ( a ?\s& ye>s1 w\ld h
 dim9i%$ x sadly4  ,?\gh ,john1 z !     
surname he receiv$ indicates1 might     
rejoice 9 a  sup]fluity ( occupation1 we
 may be c]ta9 t ! c>e ( a libr>y  ( half
 a million books w\ld transc5d ev5 8    
well-tri$ p[]s2 &  ! co/ ( pres]v+ &    
support+ x1 t _h dem&$ ! ample  res\rces
 ( ! ,ptolemies & ! ,caes>s1 0 beyond ! 
means ( a  gramm>ian4 ,nor is ! "t      
requir$ = its combu/ion or de/ruction   

any indication ( ! ext5t ( ! collection4
 ,( all articles (  fuel1 p>*m5t is1    
p]haps1 ! mo/ wret*$4 ,pap] & papyrus d 
excell5tly well z k9dl+-mat]ials1 b we  
may be sure t !  ba?-m5 ( ,alex&ria did 
n resort to p>*m5t s long z !y c\ld  f9d
 any ?+ else1 & ( p>*m5t a v l>ge       
portion ( ^!  books 0 compos$4    ,!re  
c1 !n1 be no m d\bt t ,om> did ord] !   
de/ruction (  ?is libr>y1 "u an         
impression ( its uselessness or its     
irreligi\s  t5d5cy1 ?an t ! ,crusad]s   
burnt ! libr>y ( ,tripoli1  fancifully  
said to h consi/$ ( ?ree million        
volumes4 ,! fir/  ap>tm5t ent]$ be+ f\nd
 to conta9 no?+ b ! ,koran1 all !  o!r  
books 7 suppos$ to be ! works ( !       
,arabian impo/or1  & 7 consequ5tly      
committ$ to ! flames4 ,9 bo? cases !    
/ory  conta9s "s tru? & mu* exagg]ation4
 ,bigotry1 h[ev]1 has (t5  di/+ui%$     
itself by su* exploits4 ,! ,spani>ds    
burnt 9 ,mexico  va/ piles ( ,am]ican   
picture-writ+s1 an irretrievable loss2 &
  ,c>d9al ,xim5es deliv]$ to ! flames1 9

 ! squ>es ( ,granada1  eighty ?\s&      
,arabic manuscripts1 _m ( !m            
translations (  classical au?ors4    ,we
 h se5 h[ eng9e]+ tal5t1 /imulat$ by    
,alex&]'s ,p]sian  campaign1 l$ to a    
wond]ful developm5t ( pure sci5ce "u !  
,ptolemies2 a simil> effect may be not$ 
z ! result ( ! ,s>ac5ic  milit>y        
op]ations4    ,! fri5d%ip contract$ by  
,amr\1 ! conqu]or ( ,egypt1 ) ,john  !  
,gramm>ian1 indicates h[ mu* ! ,arabian 
m9d 0 pr$ispos$ to  lib]al ideas4 ,its  
/ep f ! idolatry ( ! ,caaba to !        
mono!ism  ( ,mohamm$ prep>$ x to        
expatiate 9 ! wide & pleas+ fields  (   
lit]ature & philosophy4 ,!re 7 two      
influ5ces to :i* x  0 cont9ually expos$4
 ,!y conspir$ 9 det]m9+ its pa?4 ,^!    
7--#a4 ,t ( ! ,ne/orians 9 ,syria2 #b4  
,t ( ! ,jews 9 ,egypt4    ,,influ5ce ,,(
 ,,! ,,ne/orians ,,& ,,jews4 ,9 ! la/   
*apt] ,i h briefly  relat$ ! p]secution 
( ,ne/or & 8 disciples4 ,!y bore        
te/imony  to ! on5ess ( ,god1 ?r\gh _m  
suff]+s & m>tyrdoms4 ,!y  utt]ly        

repudiat$ an ,olympus fill$ ) gods &    
goddesses4 ,away f  u a que5 ( heav56   
,su* be+ _! special views1 ! ,ne/orians 
f\nd no difficulty 9  affiliat+ ) _!    
,s>ac5 conqu]ors1 by :om !y 7 treat$  n 
only ) ! highe/ respect1 b intru/$ ) "s 
( ! mo/  important (fices ( ! /ate4     
,mohamm$1 9 ! /ronge/ mann]1  prohibit$ 
8 foll[]s f committ+ any injuries aga9/ 
!m4  ,jesuiabbas1 _! pontiff1 conclud$  
treaties bo? ) ! ,prophet &  ) ,om>1 &  
subsequ5tly ! ,khalif ,h>\n-al-,ras*id  
plac$ all 8  public s*ools "u !         
sup]9t5d5ce ( ,john ,masue1 a ,ne/orian4
    ,to ! influ5ce ( ! ,ne/orians t ( ! 
,jews 0 add$4 ,:5  ,*ri/ianity display$ 
a t5d5cy to unite itself ) paganism1 !  
conv]sion ( ! ,jews 0 arre/$2 x totally 
ceas$ :5 ,tr9it>ian  ideas 7 introduc$4 
,! cities ( ,syria & ,egypt 7 full (    
,jews4  ,9 ,alex&ria alone1 at ! "t (   
its capture by ,amr\1 !re 7  =ty ?\s& :o
 paid tribute4 ,c5turies ( mis=tune &   
p]secution  _h s]v$ only to confirm !m 9
 _! mono!ism1 & to /r5g!n  t implacable 

hatr$ ( idolatry :i* !y _h *]i%$ ev]    
s9ce ! ,babylonian captivity4 ,associat$
 ) ! ,ne/orians1 !y  translat$ into     
,syriac _m ,greek & ,lat9 philosophical 
works1 :i*  7 retranslat$ into ,arabic4 
,:ile ! ,ne/orian 0 occupi$ )  !        
education ( ! *ildr5 ( ! great          
,mohamm$an families1 ! ,jew  f\nd 8 way 
into !m 9 ! "* ( a physician4           
,,fatalism ,,( ,,! ,,arabians4 ,"u ^!   
influ5ces ! f]oci\s  fanaticism ( !     
,s>ac5s abat$1 _! mann]s 7 poli%$1 _!   
?\ghts elevat$4 ,!y ov]ran ! realms (   
,philosophy & ,sci5ce  z quickly z !y _h
 ov]run ! prov9ces ( ! ,roman ,empire4  
,!y  ab&on$ ! fallacies ( vulg>         
,mohamm$anism1 accept+ 9 _!  /ead       
sci5tific tru?4    ,9 a _w devot$ to    
idolatry1 ! sword ( ! ,s>ac5 _h v9dicat$
  ! maje/y ( ,god4 ,! doctr9e (         
fatalism1 inculcat$ by ! ,koran1  _h    
p[]fully contribut$ to t result4 ,no man
 c anticipate or  po/pone 8 pr$et]m9$   
end4 ,dea? w ov]take u ev5 9 l(ty  t[]s4
 ,f ! beg9n+ ,god ha? settl$ ! place 9  

:i* ea* man  %all die4 ,9 8 figurative  
language ! ,arab said3 ,no man c by     
flight escape 8 fate4 ,! ,de/9ies ride  
_! horses by night4444  ,:e!r asleep 9  
b$ or 9 ! /orm ( battle1 ! angel ( dea? 
w  f9d !e4 ,i am conv9c$1 said ,ali1 to 
^: wisdom we h already  ref]r$--,i am   
conv9c$ t ! affairs ( m5 g by div9e     
decree1  & n by our adm9i/ration4 ,!    
,mussulm5 are ^? :o submissively  resign
 !mselves to ! w ( ,god4 ,!y reconcil$  
fate & free-w  by say+1 ,! outl9e is    
giv5 u1 we color ! picture ( life z we  
w4 ,!y said t1 if we w\ld ov]come ! laws
 ( ,nature1 we mu/  n resi/1 we mu/     
balance !m aga9/ ea* o!r4    ,?is d>k   
doctr9e prep>$ its devotees = !         
accompli%m5t ( great  ?+s--?+s su* z !  
,s>ac5s did accompli%4 ,x conv]t$       
despair  into resignation1 & taught m5  
to disda9 hope4 ,!re 0 a prov]b  among  
!m t ,despair is a freeman1 ,hope is a  
slave4    ,b _m ( ! incid5ts ( w> %[$   
pla9ly t m$ic9es  may assuage pa91 t    
skill may close w\nds1 t ^? :o are      

inconte/ably dy+ may be snat*$ f !      
grave4 ,! ,jewi% physician  became a    
liv+1 an accept$ prote/ aga9/ ! fatalism
 ( ! ,koran4  ,by degrees ! /]nness (   
pr$e/9ation 0 mitigat$1 & x 0  admitt$ t
 9 individual life !re is an effect due 
to free-w2  t by 8 volunt>y acts man may
 )9 c]ta9 limits det]m9e 8  own c\rse4  
,b1 s f> z nations are conc]n$1 s9ce !y 
c yield  no p]sonal acc\ntability to    
,god1 !y are plac$ "u ! control (       
immutable law4    ,9 ?is respect !      
contra/ betwe5 ! ,*ri/ian & ! ,mohamm$an
  nations 0 v /rik+3 ,! ,*ri/ian 0      
conv9c$ ( incessant  provid5tial        
int]v5tions2 he believ$ t !re 0 no su*  
?+ z  law 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ! _w4 ,by      
pray]s & entreaties he might  prevail ) 
,god to *ange ! curr5t ( affairs1 or1 if
 t fail$1  he might succe$ ) ,*ri/1 or  
p]haps ) ! ,virg9 ,m>y1 or  ?r\gh !     
int]cession ( ! sa9ts1 or by ! influ5ce 
( _!  relics or bones4 ,if 8 own        
supplications 7 unavail+1 he might      
obta9 8 desire ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( 8   

prie/1 or ?r\gh  t ( ! holy m5 ( !      
,*ur*1 & especially if oblations or     
gifts  ( money 7 add$4 ,*ri/5dom believ$
 t %e c\ld *ange !  c\rse ( affairs by  
influ5c+ ! conduct ( sup]ior be+s4      
,islam  re/$ 9 a pi\s resignation to !  
un*angeable w ( ,god4 ,!  pray] ( !     
,*ri/ian 0 ma9ly an e>ne/ int]cession = 
b5efits  hop$ =1 t ( ! ,s>ac5 a dev\t   
expression ( gratitude = !  pa/4 ,bo?   
sub/itut$ pray] = ! ec/atic m$itation ( 
,india4  ,to ! ,*ri/ian ! progress ( !  
_w 0 an exhibition (  disconnect$       
impulses1 ( sudd5 surprises4 ,to !      
,mohamm$an t  progress pres5t$ a v      
diff]5t aspect4 ,e corporeal motion 0   
due to "s prec$+ motion2 e ?\ght to "s  
prec$+ ?\ght2  e hi/orical ev5t 0 !     
(fspr+ ( "s prec$+ ev5t2 e  human action
 0 ! result ( "s =egone & accompli%$    
action4 ,9  ! long annals ( our race1   
no?+ has ev] be5 abruptly introduc$4    
,!re has be5 an ord]ly1 an inevitable   
sequ5ce f ev5t to ev5t4  ,!re is an iron
 *a9 ( de/9y1 ( :i* ! l9ks are facts2   

ea*  /&s 9 its preorda9$ place--n "o has
 ev] be5 di/urb$1 n  "o has ev] be5     
remov$4 ,e man came into ! _w )\t 8 own 
k1 he is to dep>t f x p]haps aga9/ 8 own
 wi%es4 ,!n  let him calmly fold 8 h&s1 
& expect ! issues ( fate4    ,co9cid5tly
 ) ?is *ange ( op9ion z to ! gov]nm5t ( 
individual life1 !re came a *ange z     
respects ! me*anical  con/ruction ( !   
_w4 ,accord+ to ! ,koran1 ! e>? is a    
squ>e  plane1 edg$ ) va/ m\nta9s1 :i*   
s]ve ! d\ble purpose (  balanc+ x 9 its 
seat1 & ( su/a9+ ! dome ( ! sky4 ,our   
dev\t admiration ( ! p[] & wisdom ( ,god
 %\ld be excit$ by  ! spectacle ( ?is   
va/ cry/all9e brittle expanse1 :i* has  
be5  safely set 9 its position )\t s mu*
 z a crack or any o!r  injury4 ,above ! 
sky1 & re/+ on x1 is heav51 built 9 sev5
  /ories1 ! upp]mo/ be+ ! habitation (  
,god1 :o1 "u ! =m  ( a gigantic man1    
sits on a ?rone1 hav+ on ei!r side w+$  
bulls1  l ^? 9 ! palaces ( old ,assyrian
 k+s4    ,,!y ,,measure ,,! ,,e>?4 ,^!  
ideas1 :i* inde$ are n peculi> to       

,mohamm$anism1 b are ent]ta9$ by all m5 
9 a c]ta9 /age (  _! intellectual       
developm5t z religi\s revelations1 7  v 
quickly ex*ang$ by ! m advanc$          
,mohamm$ans = o!rs  sci5tifically       
correct4 ,yet1 z has be5 ! case 9       
,*ri/ian  c\ntries1 ! advance 0 n made  
)\t resi/ance on ! "p  ( ! def5d]s (    
reveal$ tru?4 ,?us :5 ,al-,mamun1 hav+  
become  acqua9t$ ) ! globul> =m ( ! e>?1
 gave ord]s to 8  ma!maticians &        
a/ronom]s to measure a degree ( a great 
circle  ^u x1 ,takyudd91 "o ( ! mo/     
celebrat$ doctors ( div9ity  ( t "t1    
d5\nc$ ! wick$ khalif1 decl>+ t ,god    
w\ld  assur$ly puni% him = presumptu\sly
 int]rupt+ ! devotions  ( ! fai?ful by  
enc\rag+ & diffus+ a false & a!i/ical   
philosophy among !m4 ,al-,mamun1 h[ev]1 
p]si/$4 ,on ! %ores (  ! ,r$ ,sea1 9 !  
pla9s ( ,%9>1 by ! aid ( an a/rolabe1 ! 
elevation ( ! pole above ! horizon 0    
det]m9$ at two /ations  on ! same       
m]idian1 exactly "o degree ap>t4 ,!     
di/ance betwe5  ! two /ations 0 !n      

measur$1 & f\nd to be two hundr$ ?\s&   
,ha%emite cubits2 ?is gave = ! entire   
circumf]5ce ( ! e>?  ab\t tw5ty-f\r ?\s&
 ( our miles1 a det]m9ation n f>  f !   
tru?4 ,b1 s9ce ! sph]ical =m c\ld n be  
positively  ass]t$ f "o su* measurem5t1 
! khalif caus$ ano!r to be made  ne>    
,cufa 9 ,mesopotamia4 ,8 a/ronom]s      
divid$ !mselves into two  p>ties1 &1    
/>t+ f a giv5 po9t1 ea* p>ty measur$ an 
arc  ( "o degree1 ! "o nor?w>d1 ! o!r   
s\?w>d4 ,_! result  is giv5 9 cubits4   
,if ! cubit employ$ 0 t kn[n z ! royal  
cubit1 ! l5g? ( a degree 0 asc]ta9$ )9  
"o-?ird ( a mile  ( its true value4 ,f  
^! measures ! khalif conclud$ t !       
globul> =m 0 e/abli%$4    ,,_! ,,passion
 ,,= ,,sci5ce4 ,x is rem>kable h[       
quickly ! f]oci\s  fanaticism ( !       
,s>ac5s 0 trans=m$ into a passion =     
intellectual pursuits4 ,at fir/ ! ,koran
 0 an ob/acle to  lit]ature & sci5ce4   
,mohamm$ _h extoll$ x z ! gr&e/ ( all   
compositions1 & _h adduc$ its           
unapproa*able excell5ce z a pro(  ( 8   

div9e mission4 ,b1 9 little m ?an tw5ty 
ye>s aft] 8  dea?1 ! exp]i5ce t _h be5  
acquir$ 9 ,syria1 ,p]sia1 ,asia  ,m9or1 
,egypt1 _h produc$ a /rik+ effect1 &    
,ali ! khalif  reign+ at t "t1 av[$ly   
enc\rag$ all k9ds ( lit]>y  pursuits4   
,moawyah1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,ommiade dyna/y1  
:o foll[$ 9  #ffa1 revolutioniz$ !      
gov]nm5t4 ,x _h be5 elective1 he made x 
h]$it>y4 ,he remov$ its seat f ,m$9a to 
a m c5tral position  at ,damascus1 &    
ent]$ on a c>e] ( luxury & magnific5ce4 
,he  broke ! bonds ( a /]n fanaticism1 &
 put himself =? z a  cultivator & patron
 ( lett]s4 ,?irty ye>s _h wr\ght a      
wond]ful  *ange4 ,a ,p]sian satrap :o _h
 occasion to pay homage to ,om>1 !      
second khalif1 f\nd him asleep among !  
begg>s on ! /eps ( !  ,mosque ( ,m$9a2 b
 =eign envoys :o _h occasion to seek    
,moawyah1  ! six? khalif1 7 pres5t$ to  
him 9 a magnific5t palace1  decorat$ )  
exquisite arabesques1 & adorn$ )        
fl[]-g>d5s &  f\nta9s4    ,,_!          
,,lit]ature4 ,9 less ?an a c5tury aft] !

 dea? ( ,mohamm$1  translations ( ! *ief
 ,greek philosophical au?ors _h be5 made
 into  ,arabic2 poems su* z ! ,iliad & !
 ,odyssey1 be+ consid]$  to h an        
irreligi\s t5d5cy f _! my?ological      
allusions1 7  r5d]$ into ,syriac1 to    
gratify ! curiosity ( ! le>n$4          
,almansor1  dur+ 8 khalifate 7,a4,d4    
#gec-gge71 transf]r$ ! seat ( gov]nm5t  
to ,bagdad1 :i* he conv]t$ into a       
spl5did metropolis2 he gave mu*  ( 8 "t 
to ! /udy & promotion ( a/ronomy1 &     
e/abli%$  s*ools ( m$ic9e & law4 ,8     
gr&son1 ,h>\n-al-,ras*id 7,a4,d4 #ghf71 
foll[$ 8 example1 & ord]$ t to e mosque 
9 8 dom9ions  a s*ool %\ld be atta*$4 ,b
 ! ,augu/an age ( ,asiatic le>n+  0 dur+
 ! khalifate ( ,al-,mamun 7,a4,d4       
#hac-hcb74 ,he made ,bagdad !  c5tre (  
sci5ce1 collect$ great libr>ies1 &      
surr\nd$ himself  ) le>n$ m54    ,!     
elevat$ ta/e ?us cultivat$ cont9u$ aft] 
! division ( !  ,s>ac5 ,empire by       
int]nal diss5sions into ?ree p>ts4 ,!   
,abasside  dyna/y 9 ,asia1 ! ,fatimite 9

 ,egypt1 & ! ,ommiade 9 ,spa91 became   
rivals n m]ely 9 politics1 b also 9     
lett]s & sci5ce4    ,,!y ,,orig9ate     
,,*emi/ry4 ,9 lett]s ! ,s>ac5s embrac$ e
 topic  t c amuse or edify ! m9d4 ,9    
lat] times1 x 0 _! boa/  t !y _h produc$
 m poets ?an all o!r nations comb9$4 ,9 
sci5ce _! great m]it consi/s 9 ?is1 t !y
 cultivat$ x  aft] ! mann] ( !          
,alex&rian ,greeks1 n aft] ! mann] ( !  
,european ,greeks4 ,!y p]ceiv$ t x c    
nev] be advanc$ by m]e  speculation2 its
 only sure progress is by ! practical   
int]rogation (  ,nature4 ,! ess5tial    
*>act]i/ics ( _! me?od are exp]im5t &   
obs]vation4 ,geometry & ! ma!matical    
sci5ces !y look$ ^u  z in/rum5ts (      
reason+4 ,9 _! num]\s writ+s on         
me*anics1  hydro/atics1 optics1 x is    
int]e/+ to rem>k t ! solution (  a      
problem is always obta9$ by p]=m+ an    
exp]im5t1 or by an  in/rum5tal          
obs]vation4 ,x 0 ?is t made !m !        
orig9ators (  *emi/ry1 t l$ !m to !     
inv5tion ( all k9ds ( app>atus =        

di/illation1 sublimation1 fusion1       
filtration1 etc42 t 9 a/ronomy  caus$ !m
 to appeal to divid$ in/rum5ts1 z       
quadrants &  a/rolabes2 9 *emi/ry1 to   
employ ! balance1 ! !ory ( :i*  !y 7    
p]fectly famili> )2 to con/ruct tables (
 specific  gravities & a/ronomical      
tables1 z ^? ( ,bagdad1 ,spa91 ,sam>c&2 
t produc$ _! great improvem5ts 9        
geometry1 trigonometry1 !  inv5tion (   
algebra1 & ! adoption ( ! ,indian       
num]ation 9  ari?metic4 ,su* 7 ! results
 ( _! pref]5ce ( ! inductive  me?od (   
,ari/otle1 _! decl9+ ! rev]ies ( ,plato4
    ,,_! ,,great ,,libr>ies4 ,= !       
e/abli%m5t & ext5sion ( ! public        
libr>ies1 books 7 s$ul\sly collect$4    
,?us ! khalif ,al-,mamun  is report$ to 
h br\ght into ,bagdad hundr$s (         
camel-loads (  manuscripts4 ,9 a treaty 
he made ) ! ,greek emp]or1 ,mi*ael      
,,iii41  he /ipulat$ t "o ( !           
,con/ant9ople libr>ies %\ld be giv5  up 
to him4 ,among ! treasures he ?us       
acquir$ 0 ! treatise (  ,ptolemy on !   

ma!matical con/ruction ( ! heav5s4 ,he  
_h x  =?) translat$ into ,arabic1 "u !  
title ( ,al-mage/4 ,!  collections ?us  
acquir$ sometimes became v l>ge2 ?us !  
,fatimite  ,libr>y at ,cairo conta9$ "o 
hundr$ ?\s& volumes1 elegantly          
transcrib$ & b\nd4 ,among ^!1 !re 7 six 
?\s& five hundr$  manuscripts on        
a/ronomy & m$ic9e alone4 ,! rules ( ?is 
libr>y  p]mitt$ ! l5d+ out ( books to   
/ud5ts resid5t at ,cairo4 ,x  also      
conta9$ two globes1 "o ( massive silv] &
 "o ( brass2 !  latt] 0 said to h be5   
con/ruct$ by ,ptolemy1 ! =m] co/  ?ree  
?\s& gold5 cr[ns4 ,! great libr>y ( !   
,spani% khalifs  ev5tually numb]$ six   
hundr$ ?\s& volumes2 its catalogue alone
  occupi$ =ty-f\r4 ,besides ?is1 !re 7  
sev5ty public libr>ies  9 ,&alusia4 ,!  
collections 9 ! possession ( individuals
 7  sometimes v ext5sive4 ,a private    
doctor refus$ ! invitation ( a  ,sultan 
( ,bokh>a because ! c>riage ( 8 books   
w\ld h requir$  f\r hundr$ camels4      
,!re 0 9 e great libr>y a dep>tm5t = !  

copy+ or  manufacture ( translations4   
,su* manufactures 7 also (t5 an  affair 
( private ent]prise4 ,honian1 a         
,ne/orian physician1 _h an  e/abli%m5t (
 ! k9d at ,bagdad 7,a4,d4 #hej74 ,he    
issu$ v]sions (  ,ari/otle1 ,plato1     
,hippocrates1 ,gal51 etc4 ,z to orig9al 
works1 x 0  ! cu/om ( ! au?orities (    
colleges to require _! pr(essors  to    
prep>e treatises on prescrib$ topics4 ,e
 khalif _h 8 own  hi/orian4 ,books (    
romances & tales1 su* z ,! ,?\s& & ,"o  
,arabian ,nights' ,ent]ta9m5ts1 be>     
te/imony to ! creative fancy  ( !       
,s>ac5s4 ,besides ^!1 !re 7 works on all
 k9ds (  subjects--hi/ory1 jurisprud5ce1
 politics1 philosophy1 biographies n    
only ( illu/ri\s m51 b also ( celebrat$ 
horses & camels4 ,^!  7 issu$ )\t any   
c5sor%ip or re/ra9t1 ?\gh1 9 lat] times1
  works on !ology requir$ a lic5se =    
publication4 ,books ( ref]5ce  ab\nd$1  
geographical1 /ati/ical1 m$ical1        
hi/orical diction>ies1  & ev5 abridgm5ts
 or cond5sations ( !m1 z ! ,encyclop$ic 

,diction>y ( all ! ,sci5ces1 by ,mohamm$
 ,abu ,abdallah4 ,mu* pride  0 tak5 9 ! 
purity & :it5ess ( ! pap]1 9 ! skillful 
int]mixture ( v>i\sly-color$ inks1 & 9 !
 illum9ation (  titles by gild+ & o!r   
adornm5ts4    ,! ,s>ac5 ,empire 0 dott$ 
all ov] ) colleges4 ,!y 7  e/abli%$ 9   
,mongolia1 ,t>t>y1 ,p]sia1 ,mesopotamia1
 ,syria1 ,egypt1  ,nor? ,africa1        
,morocco1 ,fez1 ,spa94 ,at "o extremity 
( ?is va/ region1  :i* f> exce$$ !      
,roman ,empire 9 geographical ext5t1 7 !
  college & a/ronomical obs]vatory (    
,sam>c&1 at ! o!r !  ,giralda 9 ,spa94  
,gibbon1 ref]r+ to ?is patronage (      
le>n+1 says3  ,! same royal pr]ogative 0
 claim$ by ! indep5d5t emirs ( !        
prov9ces1 & _! emulation diffus$ ! ta/e 
& ! rew>ds (  sci5ce f ,sam>c& & ,bokh>a
 to ,fez & ,cordova4 ,! vizi] ( a       
sultan consecrat$ a sum ( two hundr$    
?\s& pieces ( gold to  ! f\ndation ( a  
college at ,bagdad1 :i* he end[$ ) an   
annual  rev5ue ( fifte5 ?\s& d9>s4 ,!   
fruits ( in/ruction 7  communicat$1     

p]haps1 at diff]5t times1 to six ?\s&   
disciples  ( e degree1 f ! son ( ! noble
 to t ( ! me*anic2 a  suffici5t all[ance
 0 provid$ = ! indig5t s*ol>s1 & !  m]it
 or indu/ry ( ! pr(essors 0 repaid )    
adequate /ip5ds4  ,9 e city !           
productions ( ,arabic lit]ature 7 copi$ 
&  collect$1 by ! curiosity ( ! /udi\s &
 ! vanity ( ! ri*4  ,! sup]9t5d5ce ( ^! 
s*ools 0 committ$ ) noble lib]ality     
sometimes to ,ne/orians1 sometimes to   
,jews4 ,x matt]$ n 9 :at  c\ntry a man 0
 born1 nor :at 7 8 religi\s op9ions2 8  
atta9m5t 9 le>n+ 0 ! only ?+ to be      
consid]$4 ,! great  ,khalif ,al-,mamun  
_h decl>$ t !y are ! elect ( ,god1 8 be/
  & mo/ useful s]vants1 ^: lives are    
devot$ to ! improvem5t  ( _! rational   
faculties2 t ! tea*]s ( wisdom are !    
true  lum9>ies & legislators ( ?is _w1  
:i*1 )\t _! aid1  w\ld aga9 s9k into    
ignorance & b>b>ism4    ,aft] ! example 
( ! m$ical college ( ,cairo1 o!r m$ical 
colleges requir$ _! /ud5ts to pass a    
rigid exam9ation4 ,!  c&idate !n receiv$

 au?ority to ent] on ! practice ( 8     
pr(ession4 ,! fir/ m$ical college       
e/abli%$ 9 ,europe 0 t  f\nd$ by !      
,s>ac5s at ,sal]no1 9 ,italy4 ,! fir/   
a/ronomical  obs]vatory 0 t erect$ by !m
 at ,seville1 9 ,spa94    ,,! ,,arabian 
,,sci5tific ,,movem5t4 ,x w\ld f>       
transc5d ! limits (  ?is book to give an
 adequate /atem5t ( ! results ( ?is     
impos+  sci5tific movem5t4 ,! anci5t    
sci5ces 7 greatly ext5d$--new  ones 7   
br\ght into exi/5ce4 ,! ,indian me?od ( 
ari?metic 0  introduc$1 a beautiful     
inv5tion1 :i* expresses all numb]s by t5
  *>act]s1 giv+ !m an absolute value1 & 
a value by position1  & furni%+ simple  
rules = ! easy p]=mance ( all k9ds  (   
calculations4 ,algebra1 or univ]sal     
ari?metic--! me?od (  calculat+         
indet]m9ate quantities1 or inve/igat+ ! 
relations  t subsi/ among quantities (  
all k9ds1 :e!r ari?metical or           
geometrical--0 develop$ f ! g]m t       
,diophantus _h left4  ,mohamm$ ,b5 ,musa
 furni%$ ! solution ( quadratic         

equations1  ,om> ,b5 ,ibra him t ( cubic
 equations4 ,! ,s>ac5s also gave to     
trigonometry its mod]n =m1 sub/itut+    
s9es = *ords1 :i* _h  be5 previ\sly us$2
 !y elevat$ x into a sep>ate sci5ce4    
,musa1 above m5tion$1 0 ! au?or ( a     
,treatise on ,sph]ical  ,trigonometry4  
,al-,baghadadi left "o on l&-survey+1 s 
excell5t1  t by "s x has be5 decl>$ to  
be a copy ( ,euclid's lo/ "w on  t      
subject4    ,,arabian ,,a/ronomy4 ,9    
a/ronomy1 !y n only made catalogues1 b  
maps ( ! />s visible 9 _! skies1 giv+ to
 ^? ( ! l>g]  magnitudes ! ,arabic names
 !y /ill be> on our cele/ial globes4    
,!y asc]ta9$1 z we h se51 ! size ( ! e>?
 by !  measurem5t ( a degree on h]      
surface1 det]m9$ ! obliquity (  !       
ecliptic1 publi%$ correct$ tables ( !   
sun & moon fix$  ! l5g? ( ! ye>1 v]ifi$ 
! precession ( ! equ9oxes4 ,!  treatise 
( ,albategnius on ,! ,sci5ce ( ! ,/>s is
 spok5 ( by  ,laplace ) respect2 he also
 draws att5tion to an important fragm5t 
( ,ibn-,junis1 ! a/ronom] ( ,hakem1 !   

,khalif ( ,egypt1 ,a4,d4 #ajjj1  z      
conta9+ a long s]ies ( obs]vations f !  
"t ( ,almansor1  ( eclipses1 equ9oxes1  
sol/ices1 conjunctions ( planets1       
occultations  ( />s--obs]vations :i* h  
ca/ mu* light on ! great  v>iations ( ! 
sy/em ( ! _w4 ,! ,arabian a/ronom]s also
  devot$ !mselves to ! con/ruction &    
p]fection ( a/ronomical  in/rum5ts1 to !
 measurem5t ( "t by clocks ( v>i\s k9ds1
 by  clepsydras & sun-dials4 ,!y 7 !    
fir/ to introduce1 = ?is  purpose1 ! use
 ( ! p5dulum4    ,9 ! exp]im5tal        
sci5ces1 !y orig9at$ *emi/ry2 !y        
discov]$  "s ( its mo/ important        
reag5ts--sulphuric acid1 nitric acid1   
alcohol4 ,!y appli$ t sci5ce 9 !        
practice ( m$ic9e1 be+  ! fir/ to publi%
 ph>macopoeias or disp5satories1 & to   
include 9  !m m9]al prep>ations4 ,9     
me*anics1 !y _h det]m9$ ! laws  ( fall+ 
bodies1 _h ideas1 by no means indi/9ct1 
( ! nature (  gravity2 !y 7 famili> ) ! 
!ory ( ! me*anical p[]s4 ,9  hydro/atics
 !y con/ruct$ ! fir/ tables ( ! specific

 gravities  ( bodies1 & wrote treatises 
on ! flotation & s9k+ ( bodies  9 wat]4 
,9 optics1 !y correct$ ! ,greek         
misconception1 t a  ray proce$s f ! eye1
 & t\*es ! object se51 introduc+  !     
hypo!sis t ! ray passes f ! object to ! 
eye4 ,!y  und]/ood ! ph5om5a ( !        
reflection & refraction ( light4        
,alhaz5 made ! great discov]y ( !       
curvil9e> pa? ( a ray (  light ?r\gh !  
atmosph]e1 & prov$ t we see ! sun & moon
  be=e !y h ris51 & aft] !y h set4      
,,agriculture ,,& ,,manufacture4 ,!     
effects ( ?is sci5tific activity are    
pla9ly p]ceiv$ 9 ! great improvem5ts t  
took place 9 _m  ( ! indu/rial arts4    
,agriculture %[s x 9 bett] me?ods (     
irrigation1 ! skillful employm5t (      
manures1 ! rais+ ( improv$  bre$s (     
cattle1 ! enactm5t ( wise codes ( rural 
laws1 !  introduction ( ! culture (     
rice1 & t ( sug> & c(fee4 ,!            
manufactures %[ x 9 ! great ext5sion ( !
 indu/ries ( silk1  cotton1 wool2 9 !   
fabrication ( cordova & morocco lea!r1 &

  pap]2 9 m9+1 ca/+1 & v>i\s metallurgic
 op]ations2 9 !  mak+ ( ,tol$o blades4  
,passionate lov]s ( poetry & music1 !y  
d$icat$ mu* ( _!  leisure "t to ^?      
elegant pursuits4 ,!y taught ,europe !  
game (  *ess2 !y gave x its ta/e = works
 ( fiction--romances & novels4  ,9 !    
grav] doma9s ( lit]ature !y took        
delight3 !y _h _m  admirable            
compositions on su* subjects z !        
in/ability ( human  greatness2 !        
consequ5ces ( irreligion2 ! rev]ses (   
=tune2 !  orig91 duration1 & end ( ! _w4
 ,sometimes1 n )\t surprise1  we meet ) 
ideas :i* we flatt] ourselves h orig9at$
 9 our  own times4 ,?us our mod]n       
doctr9es ( evolution & developm5t 7     
taught 9 _! s*ools4 ,9 fact1 !y c>ri$ !m
 mu* f>!r ?an we  are dispos$ to d1     
ext5d+ !m ev5 to inorganic or m9]al     
?+s4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( al*emy 0 !
 natural process (  developm5t (        
metall9e bodies4 ,:5 common p1 says     
,al-,khaz9i1  writ+ 9 ! twelf? c5tury1  
he> f natural philosoph]s t  gold is a  

body :i* has atta9$ to p]fection (      
maturity1 to !  goal ( complet5ess1 !y  
firmly believe t x is some?+ :i* has    
gradually come to t p]fection by pass+  
?r\gh ! =ms ( all  o!r metallic bodies1 
s t its gold nature 0 orig9ally lead1   
aft]w>d x became t91 !n brass1 !n silv]1
 & f9ally rea*$  ! developm5t ( gold2 n 
kn[+ t ! natural philosoph]s mean1  9   
say+ ?is1 only some?+ l :at !y mean :5  
!y speak (  man1 & attribute to him a   
complet5ess & equilibrium 9 nature &    
con/itution--n t man 0 once a bull1 & 0 
*ang$ into an  ass1 & aft]w>d into a    
horse1 & aft] t into an ape1 & f9ally   
became a man4        ,,*apt] ,v4        
,,conflict ,,respect+ ,,! ,,nature ,,(  
,,! ,,s\l4--,,doctr9e ,,(               
,,emanation ,,& ,,absorption4           
,european ideas respect+ ! s\l4--,x     
resembles ! =m       ( ! body4          
,philosophical views ( ! ,ori5tals4--,! 
,v$ic !ology       & ,buddhism ass]t !  
doctr9e ( emanation &                   
absorption4--,x is advocat$ by          

,ari/otle1 :o is foll[$       by !      
,alex&rian s*ool1 & subsequ5tly by !    
,jews &       ,arabians4--,x is f\nd 9 !
 writ+s ( ,erig5a4         ,connection (
 ?is doctr9e ) ! !ory ( cons]vation     
& correlation ( =ce4--,p>allel betwe5 ! 
orig9 &       de/9y ( ! body & !        
s\l4--,! necessity ( f\nd+       human  
on comp>ative psy*ology4                
,av]roism1 :i* is bas$ on ^! facts1 is  
br\ght into       ,*ri/5dom ?r\gh ,spa9 
& ,sicily4         ,hi/ory ( !          
repression ( ,av]roism4--,revolt (      
,islam       aga9/ x4--,antagonism ( !  
,jewi% synagogues4--,its                
de/ruction und]tak5 by !                
papacy4--,in/itution ( !                
,inquisition 9 ,spa94--,frightful       
p]secutions & _!                        
results4--,expulsion ( ! ,jews &        
,moors4--,ov]?r[ (       ,av]roism 9    
,europe4--,decisive action ( ! late     
,vatican       ,c\ncil4      ,,! pagan  
,greeks & ,romans believ$ t ! _s ( man  
resembles  8 bodily =m1 v>y+ its        

appe>ance ) 8 v>iations1 & gr[+  ) 8    
gr[?4 ,h]oes1 to :om x _h be5 p]mitt$ to
 desc5d into  ,hades1 _h !re=e )\t      
difficulty recogniz$ _! =m] fri5ds4  ,n 
only _h ! corporeal aspect be5 reta9$1 b
 ev5 ! cu/om>y  raim5t4    ,,! ,,s\l4 ,!
 primitive ,*ri/ians1 ^: conceptions ( a
 future life  & ( heav5 & hell1 ! abodes
 ( ! bless$ & ! s9ful1 7  f> m vivid ?an
 ^? ( _! pagan pr$ecessors1 accept$ &   
int5sifi$ ^! anci5t ideas4 ,!y did n    
d\bt t 9 ! _w  to come !y %\ld meet _!  
fri5ds1 & hold conv]se ) !m1 z  !y _h   
done "h ^u e>?--an expectation t gives  
consolation to  ! human he>t1 reconcil+ 
x to ! mo/ sorr[ful b]eavem5ts1 &       
re/or+ to x its dead4    ,9 ! unc]ta9ty 
z to :at becomes ( ! s\l 9 ! int]val    
betwe5 its sep>ation f ! body & !       
judgm5t-day1 _m  diff]5t op9ions 7 held4
 ,"s ?\ght t x hov]$ ov] !  grave1 "s t 
x w&]$ disconsolate ?r\gh ! air4 ,9 !   
popul> belief1 ,/4 ,pet] sat z a        
door-keep] at ! gate ( heav54 ,to  him x
 _h be5 giv5 to b9d or to loose4 ,he    

admitt$ or exclud$ !  ,spirits ( m5 at 8
 pleasure4 ,_m p]sons1 h[ev]1 7 dispos$ 
to  d5y him ?is p[]1 s9ce 8 decisions   
w\ld be anticipatory ( !  judgm5t-day1  
:i* w\ld ?us be r5d]$ ne$less4 ,aft] !  
"t  ( ,gregory ! ,great1 ! doctr9e (    
purgatory met ) g5]al  acceptance4 ,a   
re/+-place 0 provid$ = dep>t$ spirits4  
,t ! spirits ( ! dead occasionally      
revisit ! liv+1 or haunt  _! =m] abodes1
 has be5 9 all ages1 9 all ,european    
c\ntries1  a fix$ belief1 n conf9$ to   
ru/ics1 b p>ticipat$ 9 by !  intellig5t4
 ,a pleas+ t]ror ga!rs r\nd !           
w9t]'s-ev5+  fireside at ! /ories (     
app>itions1 gobl9s1 gho/s4 ,9 ! old     
times ! ,romans _h _! l>es1 or spirits (
 ^? :o _h l$  virtu\s lives2 _! l>vae or
 lemures1 ! spirits ( ! wick$2  _!      
manes1 ! spirits ( ^? ( :om ! m]its 7   
d\btful4 ,if  human te/imony on su*     
subjects c be ( any value1 !re is a body
  ( evid5ce rea*+ f ! remote/ ages to ! 
pres5t "t1 z  ext5sive & unimpea*able z 
is to be f\nd 9 support ( any ?+        

:atev]1 t ^! %ades ( ! dead congregate  
ne> tomb/ones1  or take up _! secret    
abode 9 ! gloomy *amb]s ( dilapidat$    
ca/les1 or walk by moonlight 9 moody    
solitude4    ,,asiatic ,,psy*ological   
,,views4 ,:ile ^! op9ions h univ]sally  
f\nd  popul> acceptance 9 ,europe1 o!rs 
( a v diff]5t nature h  prevail$        
ext5sively 9 ,asia1 & inde$ v g5]ally 9 
! high]  regions ( ?\ght4 ,ecclesia/ical
 au?ority succe$$ 9 repress+  !m 9 !    
sixte5? c5tury1 b !y nev] altoge!r      
disappe>$4  ,9 our own times s sil5tly &
 ext5sively h !y be5 diffus$ 9  ,europe1
 t x 0 f\nd exp$i5t 9 ! papal ,syllabus 
to draw  !m 9 a v conspicu\s mann] into 
! op5 light2 & ! ,vatican  ,c\ncil1     
agree+ 9 t view ( _! obnoxi\s t5d5cy &  
secret  spread1 has 9 an equally prom95t
 & signal mann] among its fir/  canons  
ana!matiz$ all p]sons :o hold !m4 ,let  
him be ana!ma :o  says t spiritual ?+s  
are emanations ( ! div9e sub/ance1 or  t
 ! div9e ess5ce by manife/ation or      
developm5t becomes all  ?+s4 ,9 view (  

?is au?oritative action1 x is necess>y  
n[ to  consid] ! "* & hi/ory ( ^!       
op9ions4    ,ideas respect+ ! nature (  
,god necess>ily influ5ce ideas  respect+
 ! nature ( ! s\l4 ,! ea/]n ,asiatics _h
 adopt$ !  conception ( an imp]sonal    
,god1 &1 z reg>ds ! s\l1 its necess>y   
consequ5ce1 ! doctr9e ( emanation &     
absorption4    ,,emanation ,,&          
,,absorption4 ,?us ! ,v$ic !ology is    
bas$ on !  ackn[l$gm5t ( a univ]sal _s  
p]vad+ all ?+s4 ,!re is 9  tru? b "o    
,deity1 ! supreme ,_s2 he is ( ! same   
nature z !  s\l ( man4 ,bo? ! ,v$as & ! 
,in/itutes ( ,m5u affirm t  ! s\l is an 
emanation ( ! all-p]vad+ ,intellect1 & t
 x is  necess>ily de/9$ to be reabsorb$4
 ,!y consid] x to be )\t  =m1 & t       
visible ,nature1 ) all its beauties &   
h>monies1 is  only ! %ad[ ( ,god4       
,v$aism develop$ itself into ,buddhism1 
:i* has become ! fai? (  a majority ( ! 
human race4 ,?is sy/em ackn[l$ges t !re 
is a  supreme ,p[]1 b d5ies t !re is a  
supreme ,be+4 ,x contemplates  ! exi/5ce

 ( ,=ce1 giv+ rise z its manife/ation to
 matt]4 ,x  adopts ! !ory ( emanation & 
absorption4 ,9 a burn+ tap] x  sees an  
effigy ( man--an embodim5t ( matt]1 & an
 evolution (  =ce4 ,if we int]rogate x  
respect+ ! de/9y ( ! s\l1 x  dem&s ( u  
:at has become ( ! flame :5 x is bl[n   
out1 & 9  :at condition x 0 be=e ! tap] 
0 light$4 ,0 x a non5tity8  ,has x be5  
annihilat$8 ,x admits t ! idea (        
p]sonality :i*  has delud$ u ?r\gh life 
may n be in/antane\sly ext+ui%$ at      
dea?1 b may be lo/ by sl[ degrees4 ,on  
?is is f\nd$ ! doctr9e  (               
transmigration4 ,b at l5g? reunion ) !  
univ]sal ,intellect  takes place1       
,nirwana is rea*$1 oblivion is atta9$1 a
 /ate t has  no relation to matt]1      
space1 or "t1 ! /ate into :i* ! dep>t$  
flame ( ! ext+ui%$ tap] has gone1 ! /ate
 9 :i* we 7  be=e we 7 born4 ,?is is !  
end t we ought to hope =2 x is          
reabsorption 9 ! univ]sal ,=ce--supreme 
bliss1 et]nal re/4    ,?r\gh ,ari/otle  
^! doctr9es 7 fir/ introduc$ into ,ea/]n

  ,europe2 inde$1 ev5tually1 z we %all  
see1 he 0 reg>d$ z !  au?or ( !m4 ,!y   
ex]t$ a dom9at+ influ5ce 9 ! lat] p]iod 
( ! ,alex&rian s*ool4 ,philo1 ! ,jew1 :o
 liv$ 9 ! "t (  ,caligula1 bas$ 8       
philosophy on ! !ory ( emanation4       
,plot9us  n only accept$ t !ory z       
applicable to ! s\l ( man1 b z  af=d+ an
 illu/ration ( ! nature ( ! ,tr9ity4 ,=1
 z a beam  ( light emanates f ! sun1 & z
 w>m? emanates f ! beam  :5 x t\*es     
mat]ial bodies1 s f ! ,fa!r ! ,son      
emanates1  & !nce ! ,holy ,gho/4 ,f ^!  
views ,plot9us d]iv$ a practical        
religi\s sy/em1 tea*+ ! dev\t h[ to pass
 into a condition (  ec/asy1 a =eta/e ( 
absorption into ! univ]sal mundane s\l4 
,9 t condition ! s\l loses its          
individual consci\sness4 ,9 l  mann]    
,porphyry s\ght absorption 9 or union ) 
,god4 ,he 0 a ,tyrian  by bir?1 e/abli%$
 a s*ool at ,rome1 & wrote aga9/        
,*ri/ianity2  8 treatise on t subject 0 
answ]$ by ,eusebius & ,/4 ,j]ome1  b !  
,emp]or ,!odosius sil5c$ x m effectually

 by caus+ all  ! copies to be burnt4    
,porphyry bewails 8 own unwor?9ess1 say+
  t he _h be5 unit$ to ,god 9 ec/asy b  
once 9 eighty-six ye>s1  :]eas 8 ma/]   
,plot9us _h be5 s unit$ six times 9     
sixty ye>s4  ,a complete sy/em ( !ology1
 bas$ on ! !ory ( emanation1 0          
con/ruct$ by ,proclus1 :o speculat$ on !
 mann] 9 :i* absorption  takes place3   
:e!r ! s\l is in/antly reabsorb$ &      
reunit$ 9  ! mom5t ( dea?1 or :e!r x    
reta9s ! s5tim5t ( p]sonality  = a "t1 &
 subsides into complete reunion by      
successive /eps4    ,,arabic            
,,psy*ology4 ,f ! ,alex&rian ,greeks ^! 
ideas pass$ to  ! ,s>ac5 philosoph]s1 :o
 v soon aft] ! capture ( ! great        
,egyptian city ab&on$ to ! l[] ord]s _! 
an?ropomorphic  notions ( ! nature (    
,god & ! simula*ral =m ( ! _s (  man4 ,z
 ,arabism develop$ itself into a di/9ct 
sci5tific sy/em1  ! !ories ( emanation &
 absorption 7 among its *>act]i/ic      
features4 ,9 ?is ab&onm5t ( vulg>       
,mohamm$anism1 ! example (  ! ,jews     

greatly assi/$4 ,!y1 too1 _h giv5 up !  
an?ropomorphism  ( _! ance/ors2 !y _h   
ex*ang$ ! ,god :o ( old liv$ beh9d  !   
veil ( ! temple = an inf9ite            
,intellig5ce p]vad+ !  univ]se1 &1 av[+ 
_! inability to conceive t any ?+  :i*  
_h on a sudd5 be5 call$ into exi/5ce    
%\ld be capable (  immortality1 !y      
affirm$ t ! s\l ( man is connect$ ) a   
pa/  ( :i* !re 0 no beg9n+1 & ) a future
 to :i* !re is no  end4    ,9 !         
intellectual hi/ory ( ,arabism ! ,jew & 
! ,s>ac5 are  cont9ually se5 toge!r4 ,x 
0 ! same 9 _! political hi/ory1  :e!r we
 consid] x 9 ,syria1 9 ,egypt1 or 9     
,spa94 ,f !m  conjo9tly ,we/]n ,europe  
d]iv$ its philosophical ideas1 :i* 9  ! 
c\rse ( "t culm9at$ 9 ,av]roism2        
,av]roism is philosophical  ,islamism4  
,europeans g5]ally reg>d$ ,av]roes z !  
au?or ( ^!  h]esies1 & ! or?odox br&$   
him accord+ly1 b he 0 no?+  m ?an _!    
collector & comm5tator4 ,8 works invad$ 
,*ri/5dom  by two r\tes3 f ,spa9 ?r\gh  
,s\!rn ,france !y rea*$ ,upp]  ,italy1  

eng5d]+ num]\s h]esies on _! way2 f     
,sicily !y  pass$ to ,naples & ,s\?     
,italy1 "u ! auspices ( ,fr$]ick ,,ii4  
,b1 long be=e ,europe suff]$ ?is great  
intellectual invasion1 !re  7 :at might1
 p]haps1 be t]m$ sporadic in/ances (    
,ori5talism4  ,z an example ,i may quote
 ! views ( ,john ,erig5a 7,a4,d4 #hjj7  
,he _h  adopt$ & taught ! philosophy (  
,ari/otle _h made a pilgrimage  to !    
bir?place ( t philosoph]1 & indulg$ a   
hope ( unit+  philosophy & religion 9 ! 
mann] propos$ by ! ,*ri/ian             
ecclesia/ics :o 7 !n /udy+ 9 !          
,mohamm$an univ]sities (  ,spa94 ,he 0 a
 native ( ,brita94    ,9 a lett] to     
,*>les ! ,bald1 ,ana/asius expresses 8  
a/oni%m5t  h[ su* a b>b>ian man1 com+ f 
! v ends ( ! e>?1 &  remote f human     
conv]sation1 c\ld compreh5d ?+s s       
cle>ly1 &  transf] !m into ano!r        
language s well4 ,! g5]al int5tion (  8 
writ+s 01 z we h said1 to unite         
philosophy ) religion1  b 8 treatm5t (  
^! subjects br\ght him "u ecclesia/ical 

c5sure1 & "s ( 8 works 7 adjudg$ to !   
flames4 ,8 mo/  important book is       
entitl$ ,de ,divisione ,nature4         
,erig5a's philosophy re/s ^u ! obs]v$ & 
admitt$ fact t  e liv+ ?+ comes f some?+
 t _h previ\sly liv$4 ,!  visible _w1   
be+ a _w ( life1 has !re=e emanat$      
necess>ily  f "s primordial exi/5ce1 & t
 exi/5ce is ,god1 :o is ?us  ! orig9ator
 & cons]vator ( all4 ,:atev] we see     
ma9ta9s itself  z a visible ?+ ?r\gh =ce
 d]iv$ f him1 &1 7 t =ce  )drawn1 x mu/ 
necess>ily disappe>4 ,erig5a ?us        
conceives (  ! ,deity z an unceas+      
p>ticipator 9 ,nature1 be+ its pres]v]1 
ma9ta9]1 uphold]1 & 9 t respect answ]+  
to ! s\l ( !  _w ( ! ,greeks4 ,!        
p>ticul> life ( individuals is !re=e a  
"p ( g5]al exi/5ce1 t is1 ( ! mundane   
s\l4    ,if ev] !re 7 a )drawal ( !     
ma9ta9+ p[]1 all ?+s  mu/ return to !   
s\rce f :i* !y issu$--t is1 !y mu/      
return to ,god1 & be absorb$ 9 him4 ,all
 visible ,nature mu/ ?us  pass back into
 ! ,intellect at la/4 ,! dea? ( ! fle%  

is !  auspices ( ! re/itution ( ?+s1 & (
 a return to _! anci5t  cons]vation4 ,s 
s\nds rev]t back to ! air 9 :i* !y 7    
born1  & by :i* !y 7 ma9ta9$1 & !y are  
he>d no m2 no man  kn[s :at has become (
 !m4 ,9 t f9al absorption :i*1 aft]  a  
lapse ( "t1 mu/ necess>ily come1 ,god w 
be all 9 all1 &  no?+ exi/ b him alone4 
,i contemplate him z ! beg9n+ &  cause (
 all ?+s2 all ?+s t are & ^? t h be51 b 
n[ are n1 7 creat$ f him1 & by him1 & 9 
him4 ,i also view  him z ! end &        
intransgressible t]m ( all ?+s4444 ,!re 
is a  f\rfold conception ( univ]sal     
,nature--two views ( div9e ,nature1 z   
orig9 & end2 two also ( fram$ ,nature1  
causes & effects4 ,!re is  no?+ et]nal b
 ,god4    ,! return ( ! s\l to !        
univ]sal ,intellect is designat$ by     
,erig5a z ,!osis1 or ,deification4 ,9 t 
f9al absorption all  remembrance ( its  
pa/ exp]i5ces is lo/4 ,! s\l rev]ts to !
  condition 9 :i* x 0 be=e x animat$ !  
body4 ,necess>ily1  !re=e1 ,erig5a fell 
"u ! displeasure ( ! ,*ur*4    ,x 0 9   

,india t m5 fir/ recogniz$ ! fact t =ce 
is  inde/ructible & et]nal4 ,?is implies
 ideas m or less di/9ct  ( t :i* we n[  
t]m its correlation & cons]vation4      
,consid]ations connect$ ) ! /ability ( !
 univ]se give  /r5g? to ?is view1 s9ce x
 is cle> t1 7 !re ei!r  an increase or a
 dim9ution1 ! ord] ( ! _w mu/ cease4 ,! 
def9ite & inv>iable am\nt ( en]gy 9 !   
univ]se mu/ !re=e  be accept$ z a       
sci5tific fact4 ,! *anges we witness are
 9 its  di/ribution4    ,b1 s9ce ! s\l  
mu/ be reg>d$ z an active pr9ciple1 to  
call a  new "o into exi/5ce out ( no?+  
is necess>ily to add to ! =ce  previ\sly
 9 ! _w4 ,&1 if ?is has be5 done 9 !    
case ( e  individual :o has be5 born1 & 
is to be repeat$ = e individual         
h]eaft]1 ! totality ( =ce mu/ be        
cont9ually increas+4    ,moreov]1 to _m 
dev\t p]sons !re is some?+ v revolt+ 9  
! sugge/ion t ! ,almighty is a s]vitor  
to ! caprices & lu/s  ( man1 & t1 at a  
c]ta9 t]m aft] its orig91 x is necess>y 
= him to create = ! embryo a s\l4       

,consid]+ man z compos$ ( two portions1 
a s\l & a body1 !  obvi\s relations ( ! 
latt] may ca/ mu* light on ! my/]i\s1  !
 obscure relations ( ! =m]4 ,n[1 !      
sub/ance ( :i* !  body consi/s is obta9$
 f ! g5]al mass ( matt] ar\nd u1  & aft]
 dea? to t g5]al mass x is re/or$4 ,has 
,nature1 !n1  display$ be=e our eyes 9 !
 orig91 mutations1 & de/9y ( !  mat]ial 
"p1 ! body1 a revelation t may guide u  
to a k  ( ! orig9 & de/9y ( ! companion1
 ! spiritual "p1 !  s\l8    ,let u li/5 
= a mom5t to "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful (        
,mohamm$an  writ]s3    ,god has creat$ !
 _s ( man out ( a drop ( 8 own light2   
its de/9y is to return to him4 ,d n     
deceive y\rself ) ! va9  imag9ation t x 
w die :5 ! body dies4 ,! =m y _h on  y\r
 entrance into ?is _w1 & y\r pres5t =m1 
are n !  same2 h5ce !re is no necessity 
( y\r p]i%+1 on acc\nt ( !  p]i%+ ( y\r 
body4 ,y\r _s came into ?is _w a /rang]1
 x  is only soj\rn+1 9 a tempor>y home4 
,f ! trials & tempe/s  ( ?is tr\blesome 
life1 our refuge is 9 ,god4 ,9 reunion )

 him we  %all f9d et]nal re/--a re/ )\t 
sorr[1 a joy )\t pa91 a  /r5g? )\t      
infirmity1 a k )\t d\bt1 a tranquil &   
yet an ec/atic vision ( ! s\rce ( life &
 light & glory1 !  s\rce f :i* we came4 
,s says ! ,s>ac5 philosoph]1            
,al-,gazzali  7,a4,d4 #ajaj74    ,9 a   
/one ! mat]ial p>ticles are 9 a /ate (  
/able equilibrium2  x may1 !re=e1 endure
 =ev]4 ,an animal is 9 reality only a =m
  ?r\gh :i* a /ream ( matt] is          
incessantly fl[+4 ,x receives its       
supplies1 & dismisses its wa/es4 ,9 ?is 
x resembles a cat>act1  a riv]1 a flame4
 ,! p>ticles t compose x at "o in/ant h 
dep>t$ f x ! next4 ,x dep5ds = its      
cont9uance on ext]ior  supplies4 ,x has 
a def9ite duration 9 "t1 & an inevitable
 mom5t  comes 9 :i* x mu/ die4    ,9 !  
great problem ( psy*ology we _c expect  
to rea* a  sci5tific result1 if we p]si/
 9 re/rict+ ourselves to !              
contemplation ( "o fact4 ,we mu/ avail  
ourselves ( all accessible  facts4      
,human psy*ology c nev] be completely   

resolv$ except ?r\gh  comp>ative        
psy*ology4 ,) ,desc>tes1 we mu/ inquire 
:e!r !  s\ls ( animals be relations ( ! 
human s\l1 less p]fect memb]s 9  ! same 
s]ies ( developm5t4 ,we mu/ take acc\nt 
( :at we discov]  9 ! intellig5t        
pr9ciple ( ! ant1 z well z :at we disc]n
 9  ! intellig5t pr9ciple ( man4 ,:]e   
w\ld human physiology be1 if  x 7 n     
illum9at$ by ! bright irradiations (    
comp>ative  physiology8    ,brodie1 aft]
 an exhau/ive consid]ation ( ! facts1   
affirms t  ! m9d ( animals is ess5tially
 ! same z t ( man4 ,e "o  famili> ) !   
dog w admit t t creature kn[s "r f      
wrong1 & is consci\s :5 he has committ$ 
a fault4 ,_m dome/ic  animals h reason+ 
p[]s1 & employ prop] means = !  atta9m5t
 ( ends4 ,h[ num]\s are ! anecdotes     
relat$ ( !  int5tional actions ( !      
elephant & ! ape6 ,nor is ?is app>5t    
intellig5ce due to imitation1 to _!     
association ) man1 =  wild animals t h  
no su* relation exhibit simil>          
prop]ties4 ,9  diff]5t species1 !       

capacity & "* greatly v>y4 ,?us ! dog   
is n only m intellig5t1 b has social &  
moral qualities t  ! cat does n possess2
 ! =m] loves 8 ma/]1 ! latt] h]  home4  
,du ,bois-,reymond makes ?is /rik+      
rem>k3 ,) awe & wond] mu/  ! /ud5t (    
,nature reg>d t microscopic molecule (  
n]v\s  sub/ance :i* is ! seat ( !       
labori\s1 con/ructive1 ord]ly1  loyal1  
dauntless s\l ( ! ant4 ,x has develop$  
itself to its pres5t  /ate ?r\gh a      
c\ntless s]ies ( g5]ations4 ,:at an     
impressive  inf]5ce we may draw f !     
/atem5t ( ,hub]1 :o has writt5 s  well  
on ?is subject3 ,if y w wat* a s+le ant 
at "w1 y c  tell :at he w next d6 ,he is
 consid]+ ! matt]1 & reason+  z y are   
do+4 ,li/5 to "o ( ! _m anecdotes :i*   
,hub]1 at  once tru?ful & artless1      
relates3 ,on ! visit ( an ov]se] ant to 
! works1 :5 ! labor]s _h begun ! ro( too
 soon1 he exam9$ x  & _h x tak5 d[n1 !  
wall rais$ to ! prop] height1 & a new   
ceil+ con/ruct$ ) ! fragm5ts ( ! old "o4
 ,surely ^!  insects are n automata1 !y 

%[ int5tion4 ,!y recognize _! old       
companions1 :o h be5 %ut up f !m = _m   
mon?s1 & exhibit  s5tim5ts ( joy at _!  
return4 ,_! ant5nal language is capable 
( manifold expression2 x suits ! int]ior
 ( ! ne/1 :]e all is  d>k4    ,:ile     
solit>y insects d n live to raise _! "y1
 social insects  h a long] t]m1 !y      
exhibit moral affections & educate  _!  
(fspr+4 ,patt]ns ( pati5ce & indu/ry1 "s
 ( ^!  insignificant creatures w "w     
sixte5 or eighte5 h\rs a day4 ,few  m5  
are capable ( su/a9$ m5tal application m
 ?an f\r or five  h\rs4    ,simil>ity ( 
effects indicates simil>ity ( causes2   
simil>ity (  actions dem&s simil>ity (  
organs4 ,i w\ld ask ! read] ( ^!        
p>agraphs1 :o is famili> ) ! habits (   
animals1 & especially  ) ! social       
relations ( t wond]ful insect to :i*    
ref]5ce  has be5 made1 to turn to !     
n9ete5? *apt] ( my "w on  !             
,intellectual ,developm5t ( ,europe1 9  
:i* he w f9d a  description ( ! social  
sy/em ( ! ,incas ( ,p]u4 ,p]haps1 !n1 9 

view ( ! simil>ity ( ! social           
in/itutions & p]sonal conduct  ( !      
insect1 & ! social in/itutions & p]sonal
 conduct ( !  civiliz$ ,indian--! "o an 
insignificant speck1 ! o!r a man--he  w 
n be dispos$ to disagree ) me 9 ! op9ion
 t f bees1  & wasps1 & ants1 & birds1 f 
all t l[ animal life on :i*  he looks ) 
sup]cili\s contempt1 man is de/9$ "o day
 to le>n  :at 9 tru? he really is4    ,!
 views ( ,desc>tes1 :o reg>d$ all       
insects z automata1 c  sc>cely be       
accept$ )\t modification4 ,insects are  
automata only  s f> z ! action ( _!     
v5tral cord1 & t portion ( _!  cephalic 
ganglia :i* deals ) contemporane\s      
impressions1 is  conc]n$4    ,x is "o ( 
! functions ( vesicul>-n]v\s mat]ial to 
reta9  traces or relics ( impressions   
br\ght to x by ! organs ( s5se2  h5ce1  
n]v\s ganglia1 be+ compos$ ( t mat]ial1 
may be  consid]$ z regi/]+ app>atus4 ,!y
 also introduce ! elem5t  ( "t into !   
action ( ! n]v\s me*anism4 ,an          
impression1 :i*  )\t !m might h =?) end$

 9 reflex action1 is delay$1  & ) ?is   
duration come all ^? important effects  
aris+ ?r\gh  ! int]action ( _m          
impressions1 old & new1 ^u ea* o!r4     
,!re is no su* ?+ z a spontane\s1 or    
self-orig9at$1 ?\ght4  ,e intellectual  
act is ! consequ5ce ( "s prec$+ act4 ,x 
comes into exi/5ce 9 virtue ( some?+ t  
has gone be=e4 ,two  m9ds con/itut$     
precisely alike1 & plac$ "u ! influ5ce (
  precisely ! same environm5t1 mu/ give 
rise to precisely ! same  ?\ght4 ,to su*
 sam5ess ( action we allude 9 ! popul>  
expression  common-s5se--a t]m full (   
mean+4 ,9 ! orig9ation ( a  ?\ght !re   
are two di/9ct conditions3 ! /ate ( !   
organism  z dep5d5t on antec$5t         
impressions1 & on ! exi/+ physical      
circum/ances4    ,9 ! cephalic ganglia (
 insects are /or$ up ! relics (         
impressions t h be5 made ^u ! common    
p]iph]al n]ves1 &  9 !m are kept ^? :i* 
are br\ght 9 by ! organs ( special      
s5se--! visual1 olfactive1 auditory4 ,! 
int]action ( ^! raises  insects above   

m]e me*anical automata1 9 :i* ! reaction
 in/antly  foll[s ! impression4    ,9   
all cases ! action ( e n]ve-c5tre1 no   
matt] :at its /age  ( developm5t may be1
 high or l[1 dep5ds ^u an ess5tial      
*emical  condition--oxidation4 ,ev5 9   
man1 if ! supply ( art]ial blood  be    
/opp$ b = a mom5t1 ! n]ve-me*anism loses
 its p[]2 if  dim9i%$1 x correspond+ly  
decl9es2 if1 on ! contr>y1 x  be        
increas$--z :5 nitrog5 monoxide is      
brea!d--!re is m  en]getic action4 ,h5ce
 !re arises a ne$ ( repair1 a necessity 
=  re/ & sleep4    ,two fundam5tal ideas
 are ess5tially atta*$ to all our       
p]ceptions  ( ext]nal ?+s3 !y are       
,,space & ,,"t1 & = ^! provision is     
made 9 ! n]v\s me*anism :ile x is yet 9 
an almo/ rudim5t>y  /ate4 ,! eye is !   
organ ( space1 ! e> ( "t2 ! p]ceptions  
( :i* by ! elaborate me*anism ( ^!      
/ructures become  inf9itely m precise   
?an w\ld be possible if ! s5se ( t\*    
alone 7 resort$ to4    ,!re are "s      
simple exp]im5ts :i* illu/rate ! ve/iges

 (  ganglionic impressions4 ,if on a    
cold1 poli%$ metal1 z a new razor1  any 
object1 su* z a waf]1 be laid1 & ! metal
 be !n brea!d  ^u1 &1 :5 ! moi/ure has  
_h "t to disappe>1 ! waf] be  ?r[n (f1  
?\gh n[ ! mo/ critical inspection ( !   
poli%$  surface c discov] no trace ( any
 =m1 if we brea! once m ^u  x1 a        
spectral image ( ! waf] comes pla9ly    
into view2 & ?is may  be done aga9 &    
aga94 ,nay1 m1 if ! poli%$ metal be     
c>efully  put aside :]e no?+ c          
det]iorate its surface1 & be s kept =   
_m mon?s1 on brea?+ aga9 ^u x ! %ad[y =m
 em]ges4    ,su* an illu/ration %[s h[  
trivial an impression may be ?us        
regi/]$ & pres]v$4 ,b1 if1 on su* an    
inorganic surface1 an  impression may   
?us be indelibly m>k$1 h[ mu* m likely 9
 !  purposely-con/ruct$ ganglion6 ,a    
%ad[ nev] falls ^u a wall )\t  leav+    
!reupon a p]man5t trace1 a trace :i*    
might be made visible  by resort+ to    
prop] processes4 ,photographic op]ations
 are cases 9  po9t4 ,! portraits ( our  

fri5ds1 or l&scape views1 may be hidd5  
on ! s5sitive surface f ! eye1 b !y are 
ready to make _!  appe>ance z soon z    
prop] develop]s are resort$ to4 ,a      
spectre is  conceal$ on a silv] or      
glassy surface until1 by our necromancy1
 we  make x come =? into ! visible _w4  
,^u ! walls ( our mo/  private ap>tm5ts1
 :]e we ?9k ! eye ( intrusion is        
altoge!r  %ut out & our retirem5t c nev]
 be pr(an$1 !re exi/ !  ve/iges ( all   
our acts1 silh\ettes ( :atev] we h done4
    ,if1 aft] ! eyelids h be5 clos$ = "s
 "t1 z :5 we  fir/ awake 9 ! morn+1 we  
sudd5ly & /eadfa/ly gaze at a           
brightly-illum9at$ object & !n quickly  
close ! lids aga91 a  phantom image is  
p]ceiv$ 9 ! indef9ite d>kness beyond u4 
,we may  satisfy ourselves t ?is is n a 
fiction1 b a reality1 = _m  details t we
 _h n "t to id5tify 9 ! mom5t>y glance  
may  be contemplat$ at our leisure 9 !  
phantom4 ,we may ?us make out !  patt]n 
( su* an object z a lace curta9 hang+ 9 
! w9d[1 or  ! bran*es ( a tree beyond4  

,by degrees ! image becomes less &  less
 di/9ct2 9 a m9ute or two x has         
disappe>$4 ,x seems to h a  t5d5cy to   
float away 9 ! vacancy be=e u4 ,if we   
attempt to foll[  x by mov+ ! eyeball1 x
 sudd5ly vani%es4    ,su* a duration (  
impressions on ! ret9a proves t ! effect
 (  ext]nal influ5ces on n]ve-vesicles  
is n necess>ily transitory4  ,9 ?is !re 
is a correspond5ce to ! duration1 !     
em]g5ce1 !  ext9ction1 ( impressions on 
photographic prep>ations4 ,?us1 ,i h    
se5 l&scapes & ar*itectural views tak5 9
 ,mexico develop$1 z  arti/s say1 mon?s 
subsequ5tly 9 ,new ,york--! images com+ 
out1  aft] ! long voyage1 9 all _! prop]
 =ms & 9 all _! prop]  contra/ ( light &
 %ade4 ,! photograph _h =gott5 no?+4 ,x 
_h equally pres]v$ ! cont\r ( ! ev]la/+ 
m\nta9s & !  pass+ smoke ( a b&it-fire4 
,are !re1 !n1 conta9$ 9 ! bra9 m        
p]man5tly1 z 9 !  ret9a m transi5tly1 ! 
ve/iges ( impressions t h be5  ga!r$ by 
! s5sory organs8 ,is ?is ! explanation (
 memory--!  ,m9d contemplat+ su*        

pictures ( pa/ ?+s & ev5ts z h  be5     
committ$ to h] cu/ody4 ,9 h] sil5t      
gall]ies are !re hung  micrographs ( !  
liv+ & ! dead1 ( sc5es t we h  visit$1 (
 incid5ts 9 :i* we h borne a "p8 ,are ^!
 abid+  impressions m]e signal-m>ks1 l !
 lett]s ( a book1 :i* imp>t  ideas to ! 
m9d8 or are !y actual picture-images1   
inconceivably  small] ?an ^? made = u by
 arti/s1 9 :i*1 by ! aid ( a            
microscope1 we c see1 9 a space n bigg] 
?an a p9hole1 a :ole  family gr\p at a  
glance8    ,! phantom images ( ! ret9a  
are n p]ceptible 9 ! light ( !  day4 ,^?
 t exi/ 9 ! s5sorium 9 l mann] d n      
attract our  att5tion s long z ! s5sory 
organs are 9 vigor\s op]ation1 &        
occupi$ 9 br++ new impressions 94 ,b1 :5
 ^? organs become  we>y or dull1 or :5  
we exp]i5ce h\rs ( great anxiety1 or are
  9 twilight rev]ies1 or are asleep1 !  
lat5t app>itions h _!  vividness        
increas$ by ! contra/1 & obtrude        
!mselves on !  m9d4 ,= ! same reason !y 
occupy u 9 ! delirium ( fev]s1 &        

d\btless also 9 ! solemn mom5ts ( dea?4 
,dur+ a ?ird "p (  our life1 9 sleep1 we
 are )drawn f ext]nal influ5ces2 he>+  &
 sight & ! o!r s5ses are inactive1 b !  
nev]-sleep+ ,m9d1  t p5sive1 t veil$    
en*antress1 9 h] my/]i\s retirem5t1     
looks ov] ! ambrotypes %e has           
collect$--ambrotypes1 = !y are  truly   
unfad+ impressions--&1 comb9+ !m toge!r1
 z !y *ance  to occur1 con/ructs f !m ! 
panorama ( a dream4    ,nature has ?us  
implant$ 9 ! organization ( e man means 
:i*  impressively sugge/ to him !       
immortality ( ! s\l & a future  life4   
,ev5 ! b5ight$ savage ?us sees 9 8      
visions ! fad+  =ms ( l&scapes1 :i* are1
 p]haps1 connect$ ) "s ( 8  mo/ pleasant
 recollections2 & :at o!r conclusion c  
be possibly  extract f ^? unreal        
pictures ?an t !y are ! =e%ad[+s  (     
ano!r l& beyond t 9 :i* 8 lot is ca/8   
,at int]vals he is  visit$ 9 8 dreams by
 ! resemblances ( ^? :om he has lov$  or
 hat$ :ile !y 7 alive2 & ^!             
manife/ations are to him                

incontrov]tible pro(s ( ! exi/5ce &     
immortality ( ! s\l4  ,9 our mo/ ref9$  
social conditions we are nev] able to   
%ake (f !  impressions ( ^! occurr5ces1 
& are p]petually draw+ f  !m ! same     
conclusions t our unciviliz$ ance/ors   
did4 ,our m  elevat$ condition ( life 9 
no respect relieves u f ! inevitable    
op]ation ( our own organization1 any m  
?an x relieves u f  infirmities &       
disease4 ,9 ^! respects1 all ov] ! globe
 m5 are  on an equality4 ,savage or     
civiliz$1 we c>ry )9 u a me*anism  :i*  
pres5ts u ) mem5toes ( ! mo/ solemn     
facts ) :i* we  c be conc]n$4 ,x wants  
only mom5ts ( repose or sickness1 :5 !  
influ5ce ( ext]nal ?+s is dim9i%$1 to   
come into full play1 &  ^! are precisely
 ! mom5ts :5 we are be/ prep>$ = ! tru?s
  x is go+ to sugge/4 ,t me*anism is no 
respect] ( p]sons4 ,x  nei!r p]mits !   
haughtie/ to be free f ! monitions1 nor 
leaves  ! humble/ )\t ! consolation ( a 
k ( ano!r life4  ,op5 to no             
opportunities ( be+ tamp]$ ) by !       

design+ or  int]e/$1 requir+ no         
extrane\s human ag5cy = its effect1  out
 always pres5t ) e man :]ev] he may g1 x
 m>vel\sly  extracts f ve/iges ( !      
impressions ( ! pa/ ov]:elm+  pro(s ( ! 
realities ( ! future1 &1 ga!r+ its p[] f
  :at w\ld seem to be a mo/ unlikely    
s\rce1 x ins5sibly leads u1 no  matt] :o
 or :]e we may be1 to a pr(\nd belief 9 
! immortal &  imp]i%able1 f phantoms :i*
 h sc>cely made _! appe>ance  be=e !y   
are ready to vani% away4    ,! insect   
diff]s f a m]e automaton 9 ?is1 t x is  
influ5c$  by old1 by regi/]$            
impressions4 ,9 ! high] =ms ( animat$   
life  t regi/ration becomes m & m       
complete1 memory becomes m  p]fect4 ,!re
 is n any necess>y resemblance betwe5 an
 ext]nal =m  & its ganglionic           
impression1 any m ?an !re is betwe5 !   
words  ( a message deliv]$ 9 a          
telegraphic (fice & ! signals :i*  !    
telegraph may give to ! di/ant /ation2  
any m ?an !re  is betwe5 ! lett]s ( a   
pr9t$ page & ! acts or sc5es !y         

describe1 b ! lett]s call up ) cle>ness 
to ! m9d ( !  read] ! ev5ts & sc5es4    
,an animal )\t any app>atus = ! ret5tion
 ( impressions mu/  be a pure           
automaton--x _c h memory4 ,f            
insignificant &  unc]ta9 beg9n+s1 su* an
 app>atus is gradually evolv$1 &1 z  its
 developm5t advances1 ! intellectual    
capacity increases4 ,9 man1  ?is        
ret5tion or regi/ration rea*es          
p]fection2 he guides1 himself by  pa/ z 
well z by pres5t impressions2 he is     
influ5c$ by exp]i5ce2  8 conduct is     
det]m9$ by reason4    ,a mo/ important  
advance is made :5 ! capability is      
acquir$ by any  animal ( imp>t+ a k ( ! 
impressions /or$ up 9 its own           
n]ve-c5tres to ano!r ( ! same k9d4 ,?is 
m>ks ! ext5sion (  individual into      
social life1 & inde$ is ess5tial !reto4 
,9 !  high] insects x is accompli%$ by  
ant5nal contacts1 9 man by  spee*4      
,humanity1 9 its e>li]1 its savage      
/ages1 0 limit$ to  ?is3 ! k ( "o p]son 
c\ld be transmitt$ to ano!r by          

conv]sation4 ,! acts & ?\ghts ( "o      
g5]ation c\ld be imp>t$  to ano!r1 &    
influ5ce its acts & ?\ghts4    ,b       
tradition has its limit4 ,! faculty (   
spee* makes society  possible--no?+ m4  
,n )\t int]e/ d we rem>k ! progress (   
developm5t (  ?is function4 ,! inv5tion 
( ! art ( writ+ gave ext5sion &         
durability to ! regi/ration or record ( 
impressions4 ,^!1 :i*  _h hi!rto be5    
/or$ up 9 ! bra9 ( "o man1 might n[ be  
imp>t$ to ! :ole human race1 & be made  
to endure =ev]4  ,civilization became   
possible--= civilization _c exi/ )\t    
writ+1 or ! means ( record 9 "s %ape4   
,f ?is psy*ological po9t ( view we      
p]ceive ! real significance  ( !        
inv5tion ( pr9t+--a developm5t ( writ+  
:i*1 by  increas+ ! rapidity ( !        
diffusion ( ideas1 & insur+ _!          
p]man5ce1 t5ds to promote civilization &
 to unify ! human race4    ,9 ! =ego+   
p>agraphs1 relat+ to n]v\s impressions1 
_!  regi/ry1 & ! consequ5ces1 t spr+ f  
!m1 ,i h giv5 an  ab/ract ( views       

pres5t$ 9 my "w on ,human ,physiology1  
publi%$  9 #ahef1 & may1 !re=e1 ref] !  
read] to ! *apt] on ,inv]se  ,vision1 or
 ,c]ebral ,sight2 to ,*apt] ,,xiv41     
,book ,i42 & to ,*apt]  ,,viii41 ,book  
,,ii42 ( t "w1 = o!r p>ticul>s4      ,! 
only pa? to sci5tific human psy*ology is
 ?r\gh comp>ative  psy*ology4 ,x is a   
long & we>isome pa?1 b x leads to tru?4 
,is !re1 !n1 a va/ spiritual exi/5ce    
p]vad+ ! univ]se1 ev5  z !re is a va/   
exi/5ce ( matt] p]vad+ x--a _s :i*1  z a
 great ,g]man au?or tells u1 sleeps 9 ! 
/one1 dreams 9 !  animal1 awakes 9 man8 
,does ! s\l arise f ! "o z ! body       
arises f ! o!r8 ,d !y 9 l mann] return1 
ea* to ! s\rce  f :i* x has come8 ,if s1
 we c int]pret human exi/5ce1 & our     
ideas may /ill be 9 unison ) sci5tific  
tru?1 & 9 accord )  our conception ( !  
/ability1 ! un*angeability ( ! univ]se4 
,to ?is spiritual exi/5ce ! ,s>ac5s1    
foll[+ ,ea/]n nations1  gave !          
designation ! ,active ,intellect4 ,!y   
believ$ t ! s\l  ( man emanat$ f x1 z a 

ra9-drop comes f ! sea1 &1 aft] a       
season1 returns4 ,s arose among !m !    
impos+ doctr9es ( emanation  &          
absorption4 ,! active intellect is ,god4
    ,9 "o ( its =ms1 z we h se51 ?is    
idea 0 develop$ by ,*akia  ,m\ni1 9     
,india1 9 a mo/ ma/]ly mann]1 & embodi$ 
9 ! va/  practical sy/em ( ,buddhism2 9 
ano!r1 x 0 ) less p[]  pres5t$ among !  
,s>ac5s by ,av]roes4    ,b1 p]haps we   
ought r to say t ,europeans hold        
,av]roes z  ! au?or ( ?is doctr9e1      
because !y saw him isolat$ f 8          
antec$5ts4 ,b ,mohamm$ans gave him      
little cr$it = orig9ality4  ,he /ood to 
!m 9 ! light ( a comm5tator on          
,ari/otle1 & z  pres5t+ ! op9ions ( !   
,alex&rian & o!r philosophical  s*ools  
up to 8 "t4 ,! foll[+ exc]pts f !       
,hi/orical  ,essay on ,av]roism1 by ,m4 
,r5an1 w %[ h[ closely ! ,s>sc5ic  ideas
 approa*$ ^? pres5t$ above3    ,?is     
sy/em supposes t1 at ! dea? ( an        
individual1 8  intellig5t pr9ciple or   
s\l no long] possesses a sep>ate        

exi/5ce1  b returns to or is absorb$ 9 !
 univ]sal m9d1 ! active  intellig5ce1 ! 
mundane s\l1 :i* is ,god2 f :om1 inde$1 
x _h  orig9ally emanat$ or issu$ =?4    
,! univ]sal1 or active1 or objective    
intellect1 is uncreat$1  impassible1    
incorruptible1 has nei!r beg9n+ nor end2
 nor does x  increase z ! numb] (       
individual s\ls increases4 ,x is        
altoge!r  sep>ate f matt]4 ,x is1 z x 71
 a cosmic pr9ciple4 ,?is  on5ess ( !    
active intellect1 or reason1 is !       
ess5tial pr9ciple  ( ! ,av]roi/ic !ory1 
& is 9 h>mony ) ! c>d9al doctr9e  (     
,mohamm$anism--! unity ( ,god4    ,!    
individual1 or passive1 or subjective   
intellect1 is an emanation  f !         
univ]sal1 & con/itutes :at is t]m$ ! s\l
 ( man4 ,9  "o s5se x is p]i%able & ends
 ) ! body1 b 9 a high]  s5se x endures2 
=1 aft] dea?1 x returns to or is absorb$
 9 !  univ]sal s\l1 & ?us ( all human   
s\ls !re rema9s at la/  b "o--!         
aggregate ( !m all1 life is n ! prop]ty 
( !  individual1 x belongs to ,nature4  

,! end (1 man is to ent] into union  m &
 m complete ) ! active                  
intellect--reason4 ,9 t !  happ9ess ( ! 
s\l consi/s4 ,our de/9y is quietude4 ,x 
0 !  op9ion ( ,av]roes t ! transition f 
! individual to !  univ]sal is          
in/antane\s at dea?1 b ! ,buddhi/s      
ma9ta9 t  human p]sonality cont9ues 9 a 
decl9+ mann] = a c]ta9 t]m  be=e        
non5tity1 or ,nirwana1 is atta9$4       
,philosophy has nev] propos$ b two      
hypo!ses to expla9 ! sy/em  ( ! _w3     
fir/1 a p]sonal ,god exi/+ ap>t1 & a    
human s\l  call$ into exi/5ce or creat$1
 & !nce=? immortal2 second1 an          
imp]sonal intellig5ce1 or indet]m9ate   
,god1 & a s\l em]g+ f  & return+ to him4
 ,z to ! orig9 ( be+s1 !re are two      
opposite  op9ions3 fir/1 t !y are creat$
 f no?+2 second1 t !y  come by          
developm5t f pre-exi/+ =ms4 ,! !ory (   
creation  belongs to ! fir/ ( ! above   
hypo!ses1 t ( evolution to !  la/4      
,philosophy among ! ,arabs ?us took !   
same direction t x _h  tak5 9 ,*9a1 9   

,india1 & inde$ ?r\gh\t ! ,ea/4 ,its    
:ole  _s dep5d$ on ! admission ( !      
inde/ructibility ( matt] &  =ce4 ,x saw 
an analogy betwe5 ! ga!r+ ( ! mat]ial ( 
:i*  ! body ( man consi/s f ! va/ /ore (
 matt] 9 ,nature1 &  its f9al re/oration
 to t /ore1 & ! emanation ( ! _s  ( man 
f ! univ]sal ,intellect1 ! ,div9ity1 &  
its f9al  reabsorption4      ,hav+ ?us  
indicat$ 9 suffici5t detail !           
philosophical  *>act]i/ics ( ! doctr9e (
 emanation & absorption1 ,i h 9  ! next 
place to relate its hi/ory4 ,x 0        
introduc$ into ,europe by  ! ,spani%    
,arabs4 ,spa9 0 ! focal po9t f :i*1     
issu+ =?1  x affect$ ! ranks (          
intellig5ce & fa%ion all ov] ,europe1 & 
9 ,spa9 x _h a melan*oly end4    ,!     
,spani% khalifs _h surr\nd$ !mselves )  
all ! luxuries  ( ,ori5tal life4 ,!y _h 
magnific5t palaces1 en*ant+ g>d5s1      
s]aglios fill$ ) beautiful wom54 ,europe
 at ! pres5t day does  n (f] m ta/e1 m  
ref9em5t1 m elegance1 ?an might h  be5  
se51 at ! epo* ( :i* we are speak+1 9 ! 

capitals ( !  ,spani% ,arabs4 ,_! /reets
 7 light$ & solidly pav$4 ,! h\ses  7   
fresco$ & c>pet$2 !y 7 w>m$ 9 w9t] by   
furnaces1 &  cool$ 9 summ] ) p]fum$ air 
br\ght by und]gr\nd pipes f  fl[]-b$s4  
,!y _h ba?s1 & libr>ies1 & d9+-halls1   
f\nta9s  ( quicksilv] & wat]4 ,city &   
c\ntry 7 full ( conviviality1  & ( danc+
 to ! lute & m&ol94 ,in/ead ( ! drunk5 &
  glutton\s wassail orgies ( _! ,nor!rn 
neighbors1 ! fea/s ( !  ,s>ac5s 7 m>k$  
by sobriety4 ,w9e 0 prohibit$4 ,!       
en*ant+  moonlight ev5+s ( ,&alusia 7   
sp5t by ! ,moors 9 seque/]$1  fairy-l   
g>d5s or 9 orange-groves1 li/5+ to !    
romances (  ! /ory-tell]1 or engag$ 9   
philosophical disc\rse2 consol+         
!mselves = ! disappo9tm5ts ( ?is life by
 su* reflections  z t1 if virtue 7      
rew>d$ 9 ?is _w1 we %\ld be )\t         
expectations 9 ! life to come2 &        
reconcil+ !mselves to _!  daily toil by 
! expectation t re/ w be f\nd aft]      
dea?--a  re/ nev] to be succe$$ by      
labor4    ,9 ! t5? c5tury ! ,khalif     

,hake9 ,,ii4 _h made beautiful ,&alusia 
! p>adise ( ! _w4 ,*ri/ians1 ,mussulm51 
,jews1 mix$ toge!r  )\t re/ra9t4 ,!re1  
among _m celebrat$ names t h  desc5d$ to
 our times1 0 ,g]b]t1 de/9$ subsequ5tly 
to  become pope4 ,!re1 too1 0 ,pet] !   
,v5]able1 & _m ,*ri/ian  ecclesia/ics4  
,pet] says t he f\nd le>n$ m5 ev5 f     
,brita9  pursu+ a/ronomy4 ,all le>n$ m51
 no matt] f :at c\ntry !y  came1 or :at 
_! religi\s views1 7 welcom$4 ,! khalif 
_h 9  8 palace a manufactory ( books1 & 
copyi/s1 b9d]s1 illum9ators4  ,he kept  
book-buy]s 9 all ! great cities ( ,asia 
& ,africa4 ,8  libr>y conta9$ f\r hundr$
 ?\s& volumes1 sup]bly b\nd &           
illum9at$4    ,?r\gh\t ! ,mohamm$an     
dom9ions 9 ,asia1 9 ,africa1 & 9 ,spa91 
! l[] ord] ( ,mussulm5 ent]ta9$ a       
fanatical hatr$ aga9/  le>n+4 ,among ! m
 dev\t--^? :o claim$ to be or?odox--!re 
7 pa9ful d\bts z to ! salvation ( !     
great ,khalif  ,al-,mamun--! wick$      
khalif1 z !y call$ him--= he _h n only  
di/urb$ ! p by introduc+ ! writ+s (     

,ari/otle & o!r  ,greek hea!ns1 b _h ev5
 /ruck at ! exi/5ce ( heav5 &  hell by  
say+ t ! e>? is a globe1 & pret5d+ t he 
c\ld  measure its size4 ,^! p]sons1 f _!
 numb]s1 con/itut$ a  political p[]4    
,almansor1 :o usurp$ ! khalifate to !   
prejudice ( ,hakem's son1  ?\ght t 8    
usurpation w\ld be su/a9$ if he put     
himself at  ! head ( ! or?odox p>ty4 ,he
 !re=e _h ! libr>y ( ,hakem  se>*$1 &   
all works ( a sci5tific or philosophical
 nature c>ri$  into ! public places &   
burnt1 or ?r[n into ! ci/]ns ( !        
palace4 ,by a simil> c\rt revolution    
,av]roes1 9 8 old age--he di$  ,a4,d4   
#aaic--0 expell$ f ,spa92 ! religi\s    
p>ty _h triumph$  ov] ! philosophical4  
,he 0 d5\nc$ z a traitor to religion4   
,an opposition to philosophy _h be5     
organiz$ all ov] ! ,mussulman  _w4 ,!re 
0 h>dly a philosoph] :o 0 n puni%$4 ,"s 
7 put to dea?1 & ! consequ5ce 01 t      
,islam 0 full (  hypocrites4    ,into   
,italy1 ,g]many1 ,engl&1 ,av]roism _h   
sil5tly made its way4  ,x f\nd favor 9 !

 eyes ( ! ,franciscans1 & a focus 9 !   
,univ]sity ( ,p>is4 ,by v _m ( ! lead+  
m9ds x _h be5  accept$4 ,b at l5g? !    
,dom9icans1 ! rivals ( ! ,franciscans1  
s\nd$ an al>m4 ,!y said x de/roys all   
p]sonality1 conducts  to fatalism1 &    
r5d]s inexplicable ! diff]5ce & progress
  ( individual intellig5ces4 ,!         
decl>ation t !re is b "o  intellect is  
an error subv]sive ( ! m]its ( ! sa9ts1 
x is  an ass]tion t !re is no diff]5ce  
among m54 ,:at6 is !re no  diff]5ce     
betwe5 ! holy s\l ( ,pet] & ! damn$ s\l 
( ,judas8  are !y id5tical8 ,av]roes 9  
?is 8 blasphem\s doctr9e d5ies          
creation1 provid5ce1 revelation1 !      
,tr9ity1 ! efficacy ( pray]s1  ( alms1 &
 ( litanies2 he disbelieves 9 !         
resurrection &  immortality2 he places !
 summum bonum 9 m]e pleasure4    ,s1    
too1 among ! ,jews :o 7 !n ! lead+      
intellects ( !  _w1 ,av]roism _h be5    
l>gely propagat$4 ,_! great writ]       
,maimonides _h ?or\ghly accept$ x2 8    
s*ool 0 spread+ x 9  all directions4 ,a 

furi\s p]secution arose on ! "p ( !     
or?odox  ,jews4 ,( ,maimonides x _h be5 
=m]ly _! delight to decl>e t  he 0 !    
,eagle ( ! ,doctors1 ! ,great ,sage1 !  
,glory ( ! ,we/1  ! ,light ( ! ,ea/1    
second only to ,moses4 ,n[1 !y proclaim$
 t  he _h ab&on$ ! fai? ( ,abraham2 _h  
d5i$ ! possibility (  creation1 believ$ 
9 ! et]nity ( ! _w2 _h giv5 himself up  
to  ! manufacture ( a!i/s2 _h depriv$   
,god ( 8 attributes2 made a  vacuum (   
him2 _h decl>$ him inaccessible to      
pray]1 & a /rang]  to ! gov]nm5t ( ! _w4
 ,! works ( ,maimonides 7 committ$  to !
 flames by ! synagogues ( ,montpelli]1  
,b>celona1 & ,tol$o4    ,sc>cely _h !   
conqu]+ arms ( ,f]d9& & ,isabella       
ov]?r[n  ! ,arabian dom9ion 9 ,spa91 :5 
measures 7 tak5 by ! papacy  to ext+ui% 
^! op9ions1 :i*1 x 0 believ$1 7 und]m9+ 
,european ,*ri/ianity4    ,until        
,innoc5t ,,iv4 7#abdc71 !re 0 no special
 tribunal aga9/  h]etics1 di/9ct f ^? ( 
! bi%ops4 ,! ,inquisition1 !n           
introduc$1 9 accordance ) !             

c5tralization ( ! times1 0  a g5]al &   
papal tribunal1 :i* displac$ ! old local
 ones4  ,! bi%ops1 !re=e1 view$ !       
innovation ) great dislike1  consid]+ x 
z an intrusion on _! rights4 ,x 0       
e/abli%$ 9  ,italy1 ,spa91 ,g]many1 & ! 
s\!rn prov9ces ( ,france4    ,! temporal
 sov]eigns 7 only too desir\s to make   
use ( ?is  p[]ful eng9e = _! own        
political purposes4 ,aga9/ ?is ! popes  
/rongly prote/$4 ,!y 7 n will+ t its use
 %\ld pass out  ( ! ecclesia/ical h&4   
,! ,inquisition1 hav+ already be5 tri$ 9
 ! s\? ( ,france1 _h  !re prov$ to be v 
effective = ! suppression ( h]esy4 ,x _h
  be5 introduc$ into ,aragon4 ,n[ 0     
assign$ to x ! duty ( deal+  ) ! ,jews4 
,9 ! old times "u ,visigo?ic rule ^! p  
_h greatly  prosp]$1 b ! l5i5cy t _h be5
 %[n to !m 0 succe$$ by  atroci\s       
p]secution1 :5 ! ,visigo?s ab&on$ _!    
,arianism &  became or?odox4 ,! mo/     
inhuman ord9ances 7 issu$ aga9/ !m--a   
law 0 enact$ condemn+ !m all to be      
slaves4 ,x 0 n to be  wond]$ at t1 :5 ! 

,s>ac5 invasion took place1 ! ,jews did 
:atev] !y c\ld to promote its success4  
,!y1 l ! ,arabs1 7  an ,ori5tal p1 bo?  
trac$ _! l9eage to ,abraham1 _! common  
ance/or2 bo? 7 believ]s 9 ! unity (     
,god4 ,x 0 _!  def5se ( t doctr9e t _h  
br\ght ^u !m ! hatr$ ( _!  ,visigo?ic   
ma/]s4    ,"u ! ,s>ac5 rule !y 7 treat$ 
) ! highe/ consid]ation4  ,!y became    
di/+ui%$ = _! weal? & _! le>n+4 ,=  !   
mo/ "p !y 7 ,ari/otelians4 ,!y f\nd$ _m 
s*ools &  colleges4 ,_! m]cantile       
int]e/s l$ !m to travel all ov] !  _w4  
,!y p>ticul>ly /udi$ ! sci5ce ( m$ic9e4 
,?r\gh\t !  middle ages !y 7 !          
physicians & bank]s ( ,europe4 ,( all m5
  !y saw ! c\rse ( human affairs f ! mo/
 elevat$ po9t (  view4 ,among ! special 
sci5ces !y became pr(ici5t 9 ma!matics  
& a/ronomy2 !y compos$ ! tables (       
,alfonso1 & 7 ! cause  ( ! voyage ( ,de 
,gama4 ,!y di/+ui%$ !mselves greatly 9  
light  lit]ature4 ,f ! t5? to ! f\rte5? 
c5tury _! lit]ature  0 ! fir/ 9 ,europe4
 ,!y 7 to be f\nd 9 ! c\rts ( pr9ces  z 

physicians1 or z treasur]s manag+ !     
public f9ances4    ,! or?odox cl]gy 9   
,nav>re _h excit$ popul> prejudices     
aga9/  !m4 ,to escape ! p]secutions t   
arose1 _m ( !m feign$ to  turn          
,*ri/ians1 & ( ^! _m apo/atiz$ to _! =m]
  fai?4 ,! papal nuncio at ! c\rt (     
,ca/ile rais$ a cry = !  e/abli%m5t ( ! 
,inquisition4 ,! poor] ,jews 7 accus$ ( 
sacrific+ ,*ri/ian *ildr5 at ! ,passov]1
 9 mock]y ( !  crucifixion2 ! ri*] 7    
d5\nc$ z ,av]roi/s4 ,"u !  influ5ce (   
,torquemada1 a ,dom9ican monk1 !        
confessor ( ,que5  ,isabella1 t pr9cess 
solicit$ a bull f ! pope = !  e/abli%m5t
 ( ! ,holy ,(fice4 ,a bull 0 accord+ly  
issu$ 9  ,novemb]1 #adgh1 = ! detection 
& suppression ( h]esy4 ,9 !  fir/ ye> ( 
! op]ation ( ! ,inquisition1 #adha1 two 
?\s&  victims 7 burnt 9 ,&alusia2       
besides ^!1 _m ?\s&s 7 dug  up f _!     
graves & burnt2 sev5te5 ?\s& 7 f9$ or   
imprison$ = life4 ,:oev] ( ! p]secut$   
race c\ld flee1 escap$  = 8 life4       
,torquemada1 n[ appo9t$ inquisitor-g5]al

 = ,ca/ile  & ,leon1 illu/rat$ 8 (fice  
by 8 f]ocity4 ,anonym\s accusations  7  
receiv$1 ! accus$ 0 n confront$ by      
witnesses1 torture 0  reli$ ^u =        
conviction2 x 0 inflict$ 9 vaults :]e no
 "o  c\ld he> ! cries ( ! torm5t$4 ,z1 9
 pret5d$ m]cy1 x 0  =bidd5 to inflict   
torture a second "t1 ) horrible         
duplicity x  0 affirm$ t ! torm5t _h n  
be5 complet$ at fir/1 b _h  only be5    
susp5d$ out ( *>ity until ! foll[+ day6 
,! families  ( ! convict$ 7 plung$ into 
irretrievable ru94 ,llor5te1 !  hi/orian
 ( ! ,inquisition1 computes t           
,torquemada & 8  collaborators1 9 !     
c\rse ( eighte5 ye>s1 burnt at ! /ake t5
  ?\s& two hundr$ & tw5ty p]sons1 six   
?\s& eight hundr$ &  sixty 9 effigy1 &  
o!rwise puni%$ n9ety-sev5 ?\s& ?ree     
hundr$ & tw5ty-"o4 ,?is frantic prie/   
de/roy$ ,hebrew ,bibles  :]ev] he c\ld  
f9d !m1 ,& burnt six ?\s& volumes (     
,ori5tal  lit]ature at ,salamanca1 "u an
 imputation t !y inculcat$  ,judaism4 ,)
 unutt]able disgu/ & indignation1 we    

le>n t !  papal gov]nm5t realiz$ mu*    
money by sell+ to ! ri*  disp5sations to
 secure !m f ! ,inquisition4    ,b all  
^! frightful atrocities prov$ failures4 
,! conv]sions  7 few4 ,torquemada1      
!re=e1 insi/$ on ! imm$iate bani%m5t  ( 
e unbaptiz$ ,jew4 ,on ,m>* #cj1 #adib1 !
 edict ( expulsion 0  sign$4 ,all       
unbaptiz$ ,jews1 ( :atev] age1 sex1 or  
condition1 7  ord]$ to leave ! realm by 
! end ( ! foll[+ ,july4 ,if !y  revisit$
 x1 !y %\ld suff] dea?4 ,!y might sell  
_! effects  & take ! proce$s 9 m]*&ise  
or bills ( ex*ange1 b n 9  gold or      
silv]4 ,exil$ ?us sudd5ly f ! l& ( _!   
bir?1 !  l& ( _! ance/ors = hundr$s (   
ye>s1 !y c\ld n 9  ! glutt$ m>ket t     
arose sell :at !y possess$4 ,nobody w\ld
  pur*ase :at c\ld be got = no?+ aft]   
,july4 ,! ,spani% cl]gy  occupi$        
!mselves by prea*+ 9 ! public squ>es    
s]mons fill$  ) d5unciations aga9/ _!   
victims1 :o1 :5 ! "t =  expatriation    
came1 sw>m$ 9 ! roads & fill$ ! air ) _!
  cries ( despair4 ,ev5 ! ,spani%       

onlook]s wept at ! sc5e ( agony4        
,torquemada1 h[ev]1 en=c$ ! ord9ance t  
no "o %\ld af=d  !m any help4    ,( !   
bani%$ p]sons "s made _! way into       
,africa1 "s into  ,italy2 ! latt] c>ri$ 
) !m to ,naples %ip-fev]1 :i*  de/roy$ n
 few] ?an tw5ty ?\s& 9 t city1 &        
deva/at$  t p59sula2 "s rea*$ ,turkey1 a
 few ,engl&4 ,?\s&s1  especially mo!rs )
 nurs+ *ildr51 infants1 & old p1 di$  by
 ! way2 _m ( !m 9 ! agonies ( ?ir/4     
,?is action aga9/ ! ,jews 0 soon foll[$ 
by "o aga9/ ! ,moors4  ,a pragmatica 0  
issu$ at ,seville1 ,febru>y1 #aejb1     
sett+ =? !  obligations ( ! ,ca/ilians  
to drive ! enemies ( ,god f ! l&1  &    
ord]+ t all unbaptiz$ ,moors 9 ! k+doms 
( ,ca/ile &  ,leon above ! age ( infancy
 %\ld leave ! c\ntry by ! end (  ,april4
 ,!y might sell _! prop]ty1 b n take    
away any gold or  silv]2 !y 7 =bidd5 to 
emigrate to ! ,mohamm$an dom9ions2 !    
p5alty ( disob$i5ce 0 dea?4 ,_!         
condition 0 ?us worse ?an  t ( ! ,jews1 
:o _h be5 p]mitt$ to g :]e !y *ose4 ,su*

  0 ! fi5di% intol]ance ( ! ,spani>ds1 t
 !y ass]t$ !  gov]nm5t w\ld be ju/ifi$ 9
 tak+ ! lives ( all ! ,moors =  _!      
%ameless infidelity4    ,:at an         
ungrateful return = ! tol]ation t !     
,moors 9 _!  day ( p[] _h giv5 to !     
,*ri/ians6 ,no fai? 0 kept ) !  victims4
 ,granada _h surr5d]$ "u ! solemn       
gu>antee ( ! full  enjoym5t ( civil &   
religi\s lib]ty4 ,at ! in/igation (     
,c>d9al ,xim5es t pl$ge 0 brok51 &1 aft]
 a resid5ce ( eight  c5turies1 !        
,mohamm$ans 7 driv5 out ( ! l&4      ,! 
coexi/5ce ( ?ree religions 9 ,&alusia--!
 ,*ri/ian1 !  ,mohamm$an1 ! ,mosaic--_h 
giv5 opportunity = ! developm5t (       
,av]roism or philosophical ,arabism4    
,?is 0 a repetition ( :at _h  occurr$ at
 ,rome1 :5 ! gods ( all ! conqu]$       
c\ntries 7  confront$ 9 t capital1 &    
univ]sal disbelief 9 !m all ensu$4      
,av]roes himself 0 accus$ ( hav+ be5    
fir/ a ,mussulman1 !n a  ,*ri/ian1 !n a 
,jew1 & f9ally a misbeliev]4 ,x 0       
affirm$ t  he 0 ! au?or ( ! my/]i\s book

 ,de ,tribus ,impo/oribus4    ,9 !      
middle ages !re 7 two celebrat$ h]etical
 books1 ,!  ,ev]la/+ ,gospel1 & ! ,de   
,tribus ,impo/oribus4 ,! latt] 0        
v>i\sly imput$ to ,pope ,g]b]t1 to      
,fr$]ick ,,ii41 & to ,av]roes4  ,9 _!   
unrel5t+ hatr$ ! ,dom9icans fa/5$ all ! 
blasphemies  curr5t 9 ^? times on       
,av]roes2 !y nev] tir$ ( recall+ !      
celebrat$ & outrage\s "o respect+ !     
eu*>i/4 ,8 writ+s _h  fir/ be5 g5]ally  
made kn[n to ,*ri/ian ,europe by !      
translation  ( ,mi*ael ,scot 9 ! beg9n+ 
( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 b long  be=e 8 "t ! 
lit]ature ( ! ,we/1 l t ( ,asia1 0 full 
( ^! ideas4 ,we h se5 h[ broadly !y 7   
set =? by ,erig5a4  ,! ,arabians1 f _!  
fir/ cultivation ( philosophy1 _h be5   
infect$ by !m2 !y 7 curr5t 9 all !      
colleges ( ! ?ree  khalifates4 ,consid]$
 n z a mode ( ?\ght1 t w spontane\sly   
occur to all m5 at a c]ta9 /age (       
intellectual developm5t1 b z  hav+      
orig9at$ ) ,ari/otle1 !y cont9ually f\nd
 favor ) m5  ( ! highe/ culture4 ,we see

 !m 9 ,rob]t ,gro/ete1 9 ,rog] ,bacon1  
& ev5tually 9 ,sp9oza4 ,av]roes 0 n _!  
inv5tor1 he m]ely  gave !m cle>ness &   
expression4 ,among ! ,jews ( ! ?irte5?  
c5tury1 he _h completely supplant$ 8    
imput$ ma/]4 ,ari/otle _h  pass$ away f 
_! eyes2 8 great comm5tator1 ,av]roes1  
/ood 9  8 place4 ,s num]\s 7 ! conv]ts  
to ! doctr9e ( emanation  9 ,*ri/5dom1 t
 ,pope ,alex&] ,,iv4 7#abee7 f\nd x     
necess>y to  int]f]e4 ,by 8 ord]1       
,alb]tus ,magnus compos$ a "w aga9/ !   
,unity ( ! ,intellect4 ,treat+ ( ! orig9
 & nature ( !  s\l1 he attempt$ to prove
 t ! !ory ( a sep>ate intellect1        
enlight5+ man by irradiation ant]ior to 
! individual & surviv+  ! individual1 is
 a dete/able error4 ,b ! mo/ illu/ri\s  
antagoni/ ( ! great comm5tator 0 ,/4    
,?omas ,aqu9as1 !  de/roy] ( all su*    
h]esies z ! unity ( ! intellect1 ! d5ial
  ( ,provid5ce1 ! impossibility (       
creation2 ! victories ( !  ,angelic     
,doctor 7 celebrat$ n only 9 !          
disputations ( !  ,dom9icans1 b also 9 !

 works ( art ( ! pa9t]s ( ,flor5ce  &   
,pisa4 ,! indignation ( t sa9t knew no  
b\nds :5 ,*ri/ians  became ! disciples (
 an infidel1 :o 0 worse ?an a           
,mohamm$an4  ,! wra? ( ! ,dom9icans1 !  
ord] to :i* ,/4 ,?omas belong$1 0  %>p5$
 by ! fact t _! rivals1 ! ,franciscans1 
incl9$ to  ,av]roi/ic views2 & ,dante1  
:o lean$ to ! ,dom9icans1 d5\nc$        
,av]roes z ! au?or ( a mo/ dang]\s      
sy/em4 ,! !ological odium  ( all ?ree   
dom9ant religions 0 put ^u him2 he 0    
po9t$ out  z ! orig9ator ( ! atroci\s   
maxim t all religions are false1  al?\gh
 all are probably useful4 ,an attempt 0 
made at ! ,c\ncil  ( ,vi5ne to h 8      
writ+s absolutely suppress$1 & to =bid  
all  ,*ri/ians read+ !m4 ,! ,dom9icans1 
arm$ ) ! weapons (  ! ,inquisition1     
t]rifi$ ,*ri/ian ,europe ) _! unrel5t+  
p]secutions4 ,!y imput$ all ! infidelity
 ( ! times to !  ,arabian philosoph]4 ,b
 he 0 n )\t support4 ,9 ,p>is & 9 !     
cities ( ,nor!rn ,italy ! ,franciscans  
su/a9$ 8 views1 & all  ,*ri/5dom 0      

agitat$ ) ^! disputes4    ,"u !         
inspiration ( ! ,dom9icans1 ,av]roes    
became to ! ,italian  pa9t]s ! emblem ( 
unbelief4 ,_m ( ! ,italian t[ns _h      
pictures  or frescoes ( ! ,day (        
,judgm5t & ( ,hell4 ,9 ^! ,av]roes n    
unfrequ5tly appe>s4 ,?us1 9 "o at ,pisa1
 he figures ) ,arius1  ,mohamm$1 &      
,anti*ri/4 ,9 ano!r he is repres5t$ z   
ov]?r[n by  ,/4 ,?omas4 ,he _h become an
 ess5tial elem5t 9 ! triumphs ( !  great
 ,dom9ican doctor4 ,he cont9u$ ?us to be
 famili> to ! ,italian  pa9t]s until !  
sixte5? c5tury4 ,8 doctr9es 7 ma9ta9$ 9 
! ,univ]sity ( ,padua until ! sev5te5?4 
,su* is1 9 brief1 ! hi/ory ( ,av]roism z
 x invad$ ,europe f  ,spa94 ,"u !       
auspices ( ,fr$]ick ,,ii41 x1 9 a less  
impos+  mann]1 issu$ f ,sicily4 ,t      
sov]eign bad adopt$ x fully4 ,9 8       
,sicilian ,que/ions he _h dem&$ light on
 ! et]nity ( ! _w1  & on ! nature ( !   
s\l1 & suppos$ he _h f\nd x 9 !  replies
 ( ,ibn ,sab91 an uphold] ( ^! doctr9es4
 ,b 9 8  conflict ) ! papacy be 0       

ov]?r[n1 & ) him ^! h]esies  7 de/roy$4 
,9 ,upp] ,italy1 ,av]roism long ma9ta9$ 
its gr\nd4 ,x 0 s  fa%ionable 9 high    
,v5etian society t e g5tleman felt      
con/ra9$ to pr(ess x4 ,at l5g? ! ,*ur*  
took decisive action  aga9/ x4 ,!       
,lat]an ,c\ncil1 ,a4,d4 #aeab1 condemn$ 
! abettors (  ^! dete/able doctr9es to  
be held z h]etics & infidels4 ,z  we h  
se51 ! late ,vatican ,c\ncil has        
ana!matiz$ !m4  ,not)/&+ t /igma1 x is  
to be borne 9 m9d t ^!  op9ions are held
 to be true by a majority ( ! human     
race4        ,,*apt] ,,vi4              
,,conflict ,,respect+ ,,! ,,nature ,,(  
,,! ,,_w4         ,scriptural view ( !  
_w3 ! e>? a flat surface2       location
 ( heav5 & hell4         ,sci5tific     
view3 ! e>? a globe2 its size det]m9$2  
its       position 9 & relations to !   
sol> sy/em4--,! ?ree       great        
voyages4--,columbus1 ,de ,gama1         
,magellan4--       ,circumnavigation ( !
 e>?4--,det]m9ation ( its               
curvature by ! measurem5t ( a degree &  

by !       p5dulum4         ,!          
discov]ies ( ,cop]nicus4--,inv5tion ( ! 
telescope4--       ,galileo br\ght be=e 
! ,inquisition4--,8 puni%m5t4--         
,victory ov] ! ,*ur*4         ,attempts 
to asc]ta9 ! dim5sions ( ! sol> sy/em4--
       ,det]m9ation ( ! sun's p>allax by
 ! transits (                           
,v5us4--,insignificance1 ( ! e>? & man4 
,ideas respect+ ! dim5sions ( !         
univ]se4--,p>allax       ( ! />s4--,!   
plurality ( worlds ass]t$ by ,bruno4--  
,he is seiz$ & murd]$ by ! ,inquisition4
      ,i ,,h n[ to pres5t ! discussions 
t arose respect+ ! ?ird  great          
philosophical problem--! nature ( ! _w4 
,an uncritical obs]vation ( ! aspect (  
,nature p]suades u t !  e>? is an ext5d$
 level surface :i* su/a9s ! dome ( !    
sky1  a firmam5t divid+ ! wat]s above f 
! wat]s b5ea?2 t !  heav5ly bodies--!   
sun1 ! moon1 ! />s--pursue _! way1  mov+
 f ea/ to we/1 _! insignificant size &  
motion r\nd !  motionless e>? proclaim+ 
_! inf]iority4 ,( ! v>i\s organic  =ms  

surr\nd+ man none rival him 9 dignity1 &
 h5ce he seems  ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+ t e  
?+ has be5 creat$ = 8  use--! sun = !   
purpose ( giv+ him light by day1 ! moon 
&  />s by night4    ,comp>ative !ology  
%[s u t ?is is ! conception ( ,nature   
univ]sally adopt$ 9 ! e>ly phase (      
intellectual life4 ,x is !  belief ( all
 nations 9 all p>ts ( ! _w 9 ! beg9n+ ( 
_! civilization3 geoc5tric1 = x makes ! 
e>? ! c5tre ( !  univ]se2 an?ropoc5tric1
 = x makes man ! c5tral object ( !  e>?4
 ,& n only is ?is ! conclusion          
spontane\sly come to f  inconsid]ate    
glimpses ( ! _w1 x is also !            
philosophical basis  ( v>i\s religi\s   
revelations1 v\*saf$ to man f "t to "t4 
,^! revelations1 moreov]1 decl>e to him 
t above ! cry/all9e  dome ( ! sky is a  
region ( et]nal light &                 
happ9ess--heav5--!  abode ( ,god & !    
angelic ho/s1 p]haps also 8 own abode   
aft]  dea?2 & b5ea? ! e>? a region (    
et]nal d>kness & mis]y1  ! habitation ( 
^? t are evil4 ,9 ! visible _w is ?us   

se5  a picture ( ! invisible4    ,on !  
basis ( ?is view ( ! /ructure ( ! _w    
great religi\s  sy/ems h be5 f\nd$1 &   
h5ce p[]ful mat]ial int]e/s h  be5      
engag$ 9 its support4 ,^! h resi/$1     
sometimes by resort+  to blood%$1       
attempts t h be5 made to correct its    
inconte/able  errors--a resi/ance gr\nd$
 on ! suspicion t ! localization (      
heav5 & hell & ! supreme value ( man 9 !
 univ]se might be  affect$4    ,t su*   
attempts w\ld be made 0 inevitable4 ,z  
soon z m5 began  to reason on ! subject 
at all1 !y c\ld n fail to discr$it !    
ass]tion t ! e>? is an indef9ite plane4 
,no "o c d\bt t  ! sun we see to-day is 
! self-same sun t we saw ye/]day4 ,8    
reappe>ance ea* morn+ irresi/ibly       
sugge/s t he has pass$ on  ! und]side ( 
! e>?4 ,b ?is is incompatible ) ! reign 
(  night 9 ^? regions4 ,x pres5ts m or  
less di/9ctly ! idea (  ! globul> =m ( !
 e>?4    ,! e>? _c ext5d indef9itely    
d[nw>d2 = ! sun _c g  ?r\gh x1 nor ?r\gh
 any crevice or passage 9 x1 ,s9ce he   

rises &  sets 9 diff]5t positions at    
diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>4 ,! />s  also   
move "u x 9 c\ntless c\rses4 ,!re mu/1  
!re=e1 be a  cle> way b5ea?4    ,to     
reconcile revelation ) ^! innovat+      
facts1 s*emes1 su*  z t ( ,cosmas       
,indicopleu/es 9 8 ,*ri/ian ,topography1
 7  d\btless (t5 adopt$4 ,to ?is 9      
p>ticul> we h _h occasion on a  =m] page
 to ref]4 ,x ass]t$ t 9 ! nor!rn p>ts ( 
! flat  e>? !re is an imm5se m\nta91    
beh9d :i* ! sun passes1 &  ?us produces 
night4    ,at a v remote hi/orical p]iod
 ! me*anism ( eclipses _h be5  discov]$4
 ,^? ( ! moon demon/rat$ t ! %ad[ ( !   
e>?  is always circul>4 ,! =m ( ! e>?   
mu/ !re=e be globul>4  ,a body :i* 9 all
 positions ca/s a circul> %ad[ mu/      
itself be  sph]ical4 ,o!r consid]ations1
 ) :i* e "o is n[ famili>1  c\ld n fail 
to e/abli% t su* is h] figure4    ,b !  
det]m9ation ( ! %ape ( ! e>? by no means
 depos$  h] f h] position ( sup]iority4 
,app>5tly va/ly l>g] ?an all  o!r ?+s1 x
 0 fitt+ t %e %\ld be consid]$ n m]ely z

  ! c5tre ( ! _w1 b1 9 tru?1 z--! _w4   
,all o!r objects  9 _! aggregate seem$  
utt]ly unimportant 9 comp>ison ) h]4    
,?\gh ! consequ5ces fl[+ f an admission 
( ! globul> figure  ( ! e>? affect$ v   
pr(\ndly exi/+ !ological ideas1 !y  7 ( 
mu* less mom5t ?an ^? dep5d+ on a       
det]m9ation ( h]  size4 ,x ne$$ b an    
elem5t>y k ( geometry to p]ceive t      
correct ideas on ?is po9t c\ld be       
readily obta9$ by measur+ a  degree on  
h] surface4 ,probably !re 7 e>ly        
attempts to accompli%  ?is object1 !    
results ( :i* h be5 lo/4 ,b ,erato/h5es 
execut$ "o betwe5 ,sy5e & ,alex&ria1 9  
,egypt1 ,sy5e be+  suppos$ to be exactly
 "u ! tropic ( ,canc]4 ,! two places    
are1  h[ev]1 n on ! same m]idian1 & !   
di/ance betwe5 !m 0  e/imat$1 n measur$4
 ,two c5turies lat]1 ,posidonius made   
ano!r  attempt betwe5 ,alex&ria &       
,rhodes2 ! bright /> ,canopus j  graz$ !
 horizon at ! latt] place1 at ,alex&ria 
x rose #g #a_/b  degrees4 ,9 ?is        
in/ance1 also1 s9ce ! direction lay     

across ! sea1  ! di/ance 0 e/imat$1 n   
measur$4 ,f9ally1 z we h already        
relat$1 ! ,khalif ,al-,mamun made two   
sets ( measures1 "o on ! %ore  ( ! ,r$  
,sea1 ! o!r ne> ,cufa1 9 ,mesopotamia4  
,! g5]al result  ( ^! v>i\s obs]vations 
gave = ! e>?'s diamet] betwe5  sev5 &   
eight ?\s& miles4    ,?is approximate   
det]m9ation ( ! size ( ! e>? t5d$ to    
depose h] f h] dom9at+ position1 & gave 
rise to v s]i\s  !ological results4 ,9  
?is ! anci5t inve/igations ( ,ari/>*us  
( ,samos1 "o ( ! ,alex&rian s*ool1 #bhj 
,b4,c41 p[]fully aid$4  ,9 8 treatise on
 ! magnitudes & di/ances ( ! sun & moon1
 he  expla9s ! +5i\s ?\gh imp]fect me?od
 to :i* he _h resort$  = ! solution ( t 
problem4 ,_m ages previ\sly a           
speculation _h  be5 br\ght f ,india to  
,europe by ,py?agoras4 ,x pres5t$ ! sun 
z ! c5tre ( ! sy/em4 ,ar\nd him !       
planets revolv$ 9 circul>  orbits1 _!   
ord] ( position be+ ,m]cury1 ,v5us1     
,e>?1 ,m>s1  ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 ea* ( !m 
be+ suppos$ to rotate on its axis z x   

revolv$ r\nd ! sun4 ,accord+ to ,cic]o1 
,nicetas sugge/$ t1  if x 7 admitt$ t ! 
e>? revolves on h] axis1 ! difficulty   
pres5t$ by ! inconceivable velocity ( ! 
heav5s w\ld be avoid$4    ,!re is reason
 to believe t ! works ( ,ari/>*us1 9 !  
,alex&rian ,libr>y1 7 burnt at ! "t ( ! 
fire ( ,caes>4 ,!  only treatise ( 8 t  
has come d[n to u is t above m5tion$1   
on ! size & di/ance ( ! sun & moon4     
,ari/>*us adopt$ ! ,py?agorean sy/em z  
repres5t+ ! actual  facts4 ,?is 0 !     
result ( a recognition ( ! sun's amaz+  
di/ance1 & !re=e ( 8 enorm\s size4 ,!   
helioc5tric sy/em1  ?us reg>d+ ! sun z !
 c5tral orb1 degrad$ ! e>? to a v       
subord9ate rank1 mak+ h] only "o ( a    
company ( six revolv+  bodies4    ,b ?is
 is n ! only contribution conf]r$ on    
a/ronomy by  ,ari/>*us1 =1 consid]+ t ! 
movem5t ( ! e>? does n  s5sibly affect !
 app>5t position ( ! />s1 he inf]r$ t   
!y are incomp>ably m di/ant f u ?an !   
sun4 ,he1 !re=e1  ( all ! anci5ts1 z    
,laplace rem>ks1 _h ! mo/ correct ideas 

(  ! gr&eur ( ! univ]se4 ,he saw t ! e>?
 is ( absolutely  insignificant size1 :5
 comp>$ ) ! /ell> di/ances4 ,he saw1    
too1 t !re is no?+ above u b space &    
/>s4    ,b ! views ( ,ari/>*us1 z       
respects ! emplacem5t ( !  planet>y     
bodies1 7 n accept$ by antiquity2 !     
sy/em propos$ by  ,ptolemy1 &           
incorporat$ 9 8 ,syntaxis1 0 univ]sally 
pref]r$4  ,! physical philosophy ( ^?   
times 0 v imp]fect--"o (  ,ptolemy's    
objections to ! ,py?agorean sy/em be+ t1
 if ! e>?  7 9 motion1 x w\ld leave !   
air & o!r light bodies beh9d x4  ,he    
!re=e plac$ ! e>? 9 ! c5tral position1 &
 9 succession  revolv$ r\nd h] ! ,moon1 
,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ! ,sun1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1  
,saturn2 beyond ! orbit ( ,saturn came !
 firmam5t ( ! fix$  />s4 ,z to ! solid  
cry/all9e sph]es1 "o mov+ f ea/ to  we/1
 ! o!r f nor? to s\?1 ^! 7 a fancy (    
,eudoxus1 to  :i* ,ptolemy does n       
allude4    ,! ,ptolemaic sy/em is1      
!re=e1 ess5tially a geoc5tric sy/em4 ,x 
left ! e>? 9 h] position ( sup]iority1 &

 h5ce gave no cause  ( umbrage to       
religi\s op9ions1 ,*ri/ian or           
,mohamm$an4 ,! imm5se  reputation ( its 
au?or1 ! signal ability ( 8 great "w on 
!  me*anism ( ! heav5s1 su/a9$ x = almo/
 f\rte5 hundr$  ye>s--t is1 f ! second  
to ! sixte5? c5tury4    ,9 ,*ri/5dom1 ! 
great] "p ( ?is long p]iod 0 consum$  9 
disputes respect+ ! nature ( ,god1 & 9  
/ruggles =  ecclesia/ical p[]4 ,!       
au?ority ( ! ,fa!rs1 & ! prevail+       
belief t ! ,scriptures conta9 ! sum1 (  
all k1  disc\rag$ any inve/igation (    
,nature4 ,if by *ance a pass+ int]e/  0 
tak5 9 "s a/ronomical "q1 x 0 at once   
settl$ by  a ref]5ce to su* au?orities z
 ! writ+s ( ,augu/9e or  ,lactantius1 n 
by an appeal to ! ph5om5a ( ! heav5s4 ,s
  great 0 ! pref]5ce giv5 to sacr$ ov]  
pr(ane le>n+ t  ,*ri/ianity _h be5 9    
exi/5ce fifte5 hundr$ ye>s1 & _h n      
produc$ a s+le a/ronom]4    ,!          
,mohamm$an nations did mu* bett]4 ,_!   
cultivation ( sci5ce  dates f ! capture 
( ,alex&ria1 ,a4,d4 #fch4 ,?is 0 only   

six ye>s  aft] ! dea? ( ! ,prophet4 ,9  
less ?an two c5turies !y _h  n only     
become acqua9t$ )1 b correctly          
appreciat$1 ! ,greek  sci5tific writ]s4 
,z we h already m5tion$1 by 8 treaty )  
,mi*ael ,,iii41 ! khalif ,al-,mamun _h  
obta9$ a copy ( ! ,syntaxis  ( ,ptolemy4
 ,he _h x =?) translat$ into ,arabic4 ,x
 became at  once ! great au?ority (     
,s>ac5 a/ronomy4 ,f ?is basis !  ,s>ac5s
 _h advanc$ to ! solution ( "s ( ! mo/  
important  sci5tific problems4 ,!y _h   
asc]ta9$ ! dim5sions ( ! e>?2  !y _h    
regi/]$ or catalogu$ all ! />s visible 9
 _!  heav5s1 giv+ to ^? ( ! l>g]        
magnitudes ! names !y /ill  be> on our  
maps & globes2 !y det]m9$ ! true l5g? ( 
!  ye>1 discov]$ a/ronomical refraction1
 inv5t$ ! p5dulum-clock1  improv$ !     
photometry ( ! />s1 asc]ta9$ ! curvil9e>
  pa? ( a ray ( light ?r\gh ! air1      
expla9$ ! ph5om5a ( !  horizontal sun & 
moon1 & :y we see ^? bodies be=e !y h   
ris5 & aft] !y h set2 measur$ ! height (
 ! atmosph]e1  det]m9+ x to be          

fifty-eight miles2 giv5 ! true !ory ( ! 
twilight1 & ( ! tw9kl+ ( ! />s4 ,!y _h  
built ! fir/  obs]vatory 9 ,europe4 ,s  
accurate 7 !y 9 _! obs]vations1 t  !    
able/ mod]n ma!maticians h made use ( _!
 results4  ,?us ,laplace1 9 8 ,sy/eme du
 ,monde1 adduces ! obs]vations (        
,al-,batagni z af=d+ inconte/able pro( (
 ! dim9ution ( !  ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s 
orbit4 ,he uses ^? ( ,ibn-,junis 9 8    
discussion ( ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic1 &
 also 9 ! case ( !  problems ( ! great] 
inequalities ( ,jupit] & ,saturn4    ,^!
 repres5t b a "p1 & inde$ b a small "p1 
( ! s]vices  r5d]$ by ! ,arabian        
a/ronom]s1 9 ! solution ( ! problem (  !
 nature ( ! _w4 ,mean:ile1 su* 0 !      
b5ight$ condition (  ,*ri/5dom1 su* its 
deplorable ignorance1 t x c>$ no?+  ab\t
 ! matt]4 ,its att5tion 0 engross$ by   
image-wor%ip1  transub/antiation1 !     
m]its ( ! sa9ts1 miracles1 %r9e-cures4  
,?is indiff]5ce cont9u$ until ! close ( 
! fifte5? c5tury4  ,ev5 !n !re 0 no     
sci5tific inducem5t4 ,! incit+ motives 7

  altoge!r ( a diff]5t k9d4 ,!y orig9at$
 9 comm]cial rivalries1  & ! "q ( ! %ape
 ( ! e>? 0 f9ally settl$ by ?ree        
sailors1 ,columbus1 ,de ,gama1 &1 above 
all1 by ,f]d9& ,magellan4    ,! trade ( 
,ea/]n ,asia has always be5 a s\rce (   
imm5se weal? to  ! ,we/]n nations :o 9  
succession h obta9$ x4 ,9 ! middle  ages
 x _h c5tr$ 9 ,upp] ,italy4 ,x 0        
conduct$ along two l9es--a  nor!rn1 by  
way ( ! ,black & ,caspian ,seas1 &      
camel-c>avans  beyond--! headqu>t]s (   
?is 7 at ,g5oa2 & a s\!rn1 ?r\gh  !     
,syrian & ,egyptian ports1 & by !       
,arabian ,sea1 ! headqu>t]s  ( ?is be+  
at ,v5ice4 ,! m]*ants engag$ 9 ! latt]  
traffic _h  also made great ga9s 9 !    
transport s]vice ( ! ,crusade-w>s4    ,!
 ,v5etians _h manag$ to ma9ta9 amicable 
relations ) !  ,mohamm$an p[]s ( ,syria 
& ,egypt2 !y 7 p]mitt$ to h  consulates 
at ,alex&ria & ,damascus1 &1 not)/&+ !  
milit>y  commotions ( :i* ^? c\ntries _h
 be5 ! sc5e1 ! trade 0  /ill ma9ta9$ 9 a
 comp>atively fl\ri%+ condition4 ,b !   

nor!rn or ,g5oese l9e _h be5 completely 
brok5 up by !  irruptions ( ! ,t>t>s & !
 ,turks1 & ! milit>y & political        
di/urbances ( ! c\ntries ?r\gh :i* x    
pass$4 ,! ,ea/]n trade  ( ,g5oa 0 n     
m]ely 9 a prec>i\s condition--x 0 on !  
br9k  ( de/ruction4    ,! circul>       
visible horizon & its dip at sea1 !     
gradual appe>ance  & disappe>ance ( %ips
 9 ! (f+1 _c fail to incl9e  intellig5t 
sailors to a belief 9 ! globul> figure (
 ! e>?4  ,! writ+s ( ! ,mohamm$an       
a/ronom]s & philosoph]s _h giv5  curr5cy
 to t doctr9e ?r\gh\t ,we/]n ,europe1 b1
 z might be  expect$1 x 0 receiv$ )     
disfavor by !ologians4 ,:5 ,g5oa 0  ?us 
on ! v br9k ( ru91 x occurr$ to "s ( h] 
m>9]s  t1 if ?is view 7 correct1 h]     
affairs might be re-e/abli%$4  ,a %ip   
sail+ ?r\gh ! /raits ( ,gibralt> we/w>d1
 across !  ,atlantic1 w\ld n fail to    
rea* ! ,ea/ ,indies4 ,!re 7 app>5tly    
o!r great advantages4 ,heavy c>goes     
might be transport$ )\t  t$i\s &        
exp5sive l&-c>riage1 & )\t break+ bulk4 

,among ! ,g5oese sailors :o ent]ta9$ ^! 
views 0 ,*ri/oph]  ,columbus4    ,he    
tells u t 8 att5tion 0 drawn to ?is     
subject by ! writ+s  ( ,av]roes1 b among
 8 fri5ds he numb]$ ,toscanelli1 a      
,flor5t9e1  :o _h turn$ 8 att5tion to   
a/ronomy1 & _h become a /rong  advocate 
( ! globul> =m4 ,9 ,g5oa itself         
,columbus met ) b  little enc\ragem5t4  
,he !n sp5t _m ye>s 9 try+ to int]e/    
diff]5t pr9ces 9 8 propos$ attempt4 ,its
 irreligi\s t5d5cy 0  po9t$ out by !    
,spani% ecclesia/ics1 & condemn$ by !   
,c\ncil  ( ,salamanca2 its or?odoxy 0   
confut$ f ! ,p5tateu*1 !  ,psalms1 !    
,prophecies1 ! ,gospels1 ! ,epi/les1 & !
 writ+s (  ! ,fa!rs--,/4 ,*ryso/om1 ,/4 
,augu/9e1 ,/4 ,j]ome1 ,/4 ,gregory1 ,/4 
,basil1 ,/ ,ambrose4    ,at l5g?1 h[ev]1
 enc\rag$ by ! ,spani% ,que5 ,isabella1 
&  sub/antially aid$ by a weal?y seaf>+ 
family1 ! ,p9zons ( ,palos1  "s ( :om   
jo9$ him p]sonally1 he sail$ on ,augu/  
#c1 #adib1 )  ?ree small %ips1 f ,palos1
 c>ry+ ) him a lett] f ,k+  ,f]d9& to ! 

,gr&-,khan ( ,t>t>y1 & also a *>t1 or   
map1  con/ruct$ on ! basis ( t (        
,toscanelli4 ,a little be=e  midnight1  
,octob] #aa1 #adib1 he saw f ! =eca/le (
 8 %ip a  mov+ light at a di/ance4 ,two 
h\rs subsequ5tly a signal-gun f  ano!r (
 ! %ips ann\nc$ t !y _h descri$ l&4 ,at 
sunrise  ,columbus l&$ 9 ! ,new ,_w4    
,on 8 return to ,europe x 0 univ]sally  
suppos$ t he _h rea*$  ! ea/]n p>ts (   
,asia1 & t !re=e 8 voyage _h be5        
!oretically successful4 ,columbus       
himself di$ 9 t belief4 ,b  num]\s      
voyages :i* 7 soon und]tak5 made kn[n ! 
g5]al  cont\r ( ! ,am]ican coa/-l9e1 & !
 discov]y ( ! ,great ,s\?  ,sea by      
,balboa reveal$ at l5g? ! true facts ( !
 case1 & !  mi/ake into :i* bo?         
,toscanelli & ,columbus _h fall51 t 9 a 
voyage to ! ,we/ ! di/ance f ,europe to 
,asia c\ld n exce$  ! di/ance pass$ ov] 
9 a voyage f ,italy to ! ,gulf (        
,gu9ea--a  voyage t ,columbus _h        
repeat$ly made4    ,9 8 fir/ voyage1 at 
nightfall on ,septemb] #ac1 #adib1 be+  

!n two  & a half degrees ea/ ( ,corvo1  
"o ( ! ,azores1 ,columbus obs]v$  t !   
compass ne$les ( ! %ips no long] po9t$ a
 little to !  ea/ ( nor?1 b 7 v>y+ to ! 
we/4 ,! deviation became m  & m m>k$ z !
 exp$ition advanc$4 ,he 0 n ! fir/ to   
detect ! fact ( v>iation1 b he 0        
inconte/ably ! fir/ to  discov] ! l9e ( 
no v>iation4 ,on ! return-voyage !      
rev]se  0 obs]v$2 ! v>iation we/w>d     
dim9i%$ until ! m]idian 9  "q 0 rea*$1  
:5 ! ne$les aga9 po9t$ due nor?4 ,!nce1 
z ! coa/ ( ,europe 0 approa*$1 !        
v>iation 0 to !  ea/4 ,columbus1 !re=e1 
came to ! conclusion t ! l9e (  no      
v>iation 0 a fix$ geographical l9e1 or  
b\nd>y1 betwe5  ! ,ea/]n & ,we/]n       
,hemisph]es4 ,9 ! bull ( ,may1 #adic1   
,pope  ,alex&] ,,vi4 accord+ly adopt$   
?is l9e z ! p]petual b\nd>y  betwe5 !   
possessions ( ,spa9 & ,portugal1 9 8    
settlem5t ( !  disputes ( ^? nations4   
,subsequ5tly1 h[ev]1 x 0 discov]$ t  !  
l9e 0 mov+ ea/w>d4 ,x co9cid$ ) !       
m]idian ( ,london  9 #affb4    ,by !    

papal bull ! ,portuguese possessions 7  
limit$ to ! ea/ (  ! l9e ( no v>iation4 
,in=mation d]iv$ f c]ta9 ,egyptian      
,jews _h rea*$ t gov]nm5t1 t x 0        
possible to sail r\nd !  cont95t (      
,africa1 !re be+ at its extreme s\? a   
cape :i* c\ld  be easily d\bl$4 ,an     
exp$ition ( ?ree %ips "u ,vasco de ,gama
 set  sail1 ,july #i1 #adig2 x d\bl$ !  
cape on ,novemb] #bj?1 & rea*$          
,calicut1 on ! coa/ ( ,india1 ,may #ai1 
#adih4 ,"u ! bull1 ?is  voyage to ! ,ea/
 gave to ! ,portuguese ! "r to ! ,india 
trade4    ,until ! cape 0 d\bl$1 ! c\rse
 ( ,de ,gama's %ips 0 9 a  g5]al mann]  
s\?w>d4 ,v soon1 x 0 notic$ t !         
elevation  ( ! pole-/> above ! horizon 0
 dim9i%+1 &1 soon aft] !  equator 0     
rea*$1 t /> _h ceas$ to be visible4     
,meantime o!r  />s1 "s ( !m =m+         
magnific5t con/ellations1 _h come into  
view--! />s ( ! ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e4 ,all 
?is 0 9 con=mity  to !oretical          
expectations f\nd$ on ! admission ( !   
globul>  =m ( ! e>?4    ,! political    

consequ5ces t at once ensu$ plac$ !     
,papal  ,gov]nm5t 9 a position ( great  
emb>rassm5t4 ,its traditions &  policy  
=bade x to admit any o!r ?an ! flat     
figure ( ! e>?1  z reveal$ 9 !          
,scriptures4 ,concealm5t ( ! facts 0    
impossible1  sophi/ry 0 unavail+4       
,comm]cial prosp]ity n[ left ,v5ice z   
well  z ,g5oa4 ,! front ( ,europe 0     
*ang$4 ,m>itime p[] _h dep>t$  f !      
,m$it]ranean c\ntries1 & pass$ to ^? ^u 
! ,atlantic  coa/4    ,b ! ,spani%      
,gov]nm5t did n submit to ! advantage   
?us  ga9$ by its comm]cial rival )\t an 
ef=t4 ,x li/5$ to !  repres5tations ( "o
 ,f]d9& ,magellan1 t ,india & ! ,spice  
,isl&s c\ld be rea*$ by sail+ to ! we/1 
if only a /rait or  passage ?r\gh :at _h
 n[ be5 recogniz$ z ! ,am]ican ,cont95t 
c\ld be discov]$2 &1 if ?is %\ld be     
accompli%$1 ,spa91  "u ! papal bull1    
w\ld h z good a "r to ! ,india trade z  
,portugal4 ,"u ! comm& ( ,magellan1 an  
exp$ition ( five %ips1  c>ry+ two hundr$
 & ?irty-sev5 m51 0 dispat*$ f ,seville1

  ,augu/ #aj1 #aeai4    ,magellan at    
once /ruck boldly = ! ,s\? ,am]ican     
coa/1 hop+ to  f9d "s cleft or passage  
?r\gh ! cont95t by :i* he might rea*  ! 
great ,s\? ,sea4 ,= sev5ty days he 0    
becalm$ on ! l9e2 8  sailors 7 appall$  
by ! appreh5sion t !y _h drift$ into a  
region :]e ! w9ds nev] blew1 & t x 0    
impossible = !m  to escape4 ,calms1     
tempe/s1 mut9y1 des]tion1 c\ld n %ake 8 
resolution4 ,aft] m ?an a ye> he        
discov]$ ! /rait :i*  n[ be>s 8 "n1 &1 z
 ,pigafetti1 an ,italian1 :o 0 ) him1   
relates1 he %$ fe>s ( joy :5 he f\nd t x
 _h pleas$ ,god at  l5g? to br+ him :]e 
he might grapple ) ! unkn[n dang]s (  ! 
,s\? ,sea1 ! ,great & ,pacific ,ocean4  
,driv5 by fam9e to eat scraps ( sk9 &   
lea!r ) :i* 8  rigg+ 0 "h & !re b\nd1 to
 dr9k wat] t _h gone putrid1  8 crew dy+
 ( hung] & scurvy1 ?is man1 firm 9 8    
belief ( !  globul> figure ( ! e>?1 /e]$
 /eadily to ! nor?we/1 & =  ne>ly f\r   
mon?s nev] saw inhabit$ l&4 ,he e/imat$ 
t he _h  sail$ ov] ! ,pacific n less ?an

 twelve ?\s& miles4 ,he cross$  !       
equator1 saw once m ! pole-/>1 & at l5g?
 made l&--!  ,ladrones4 ,"h he met )    
adv5tur]s f ,sumatra4 ,among ^! isl&s   
he 0 kill$1 ei!r by ! savages or by 8   
own m54 ,8 lieut5ant1  ,seba/ian        
d',elcano1 n[ took comm& ( ! %ip1       
direct+ h] c\rse  = ! ,cape ( ,good     
,hope1 & enc\nt]+ frightful h>d%ips4 ,he
  d\bl$ ! cape at la/1 & !n = ! f\r? "t 
cross$ !  equator4 ,on ,septemb] #g1    
#aebb1 aft] a voyage ( m ?an ?ree ye>s1 
he br\ght 8 %ip1 ! ,san ,vittoria1 to   
an*or 9 ! port ( ,/4  ,luc>1 ne>        
,seville4 ,%e _h accompli%$ ! greate/   
a*ievem5t 9  ! hi/ory ( ! human race4   
,%e _h circumnavigat$ ! e>?4    ,! ,san 
,vittoria1 sail+ we/w>d1 _h come back to
 h] />t+-po9t4  ,h5ce=? ! !ological     
doctr9e ( ! flatness ( ! e>? 0          
irretrievably ov]?r[n4    ,five ye>s    
aft] ! completion ( ! voyage (          
,magellan1 0 made !  fir/ attempt 9     
,*ri/5dom to asc]ta9 ! size ( ! e>?4    
,?is  0 by ,f]nel1 a ,fr5* physician1   

:o1 hav+ obs]v$ ! height (  ! pole at   
,p>is1 w5t !nce nor?w>d until he came to
 a place :]e  ! height ( ! pole 0       
exactly "o degree m ?an at t city4  ,he 
measur$ ! di/ance betwe5 ! two /ations  
by ! numb] (  revolutions ( "o ( ! :eels
 ( 8 c>riage1 to :i* a prop]  indicator 
bad be5 atta*$1 & came to ! conclusion t
 ! e>?'s  circumf]5ce is ab\t tw5ty-f\r 
?\s& f\r hundr$ & eighty  ,italian      
miles4    ,measures execut$ m & m       
c>efully 7 made 9 _m c\ntries3  by      
,snell 9 ,holl&2 by ,norwood betwe5     
,london & ,york 9 ,engl&2 by  ,pic>d1 "u
 ! auspices ( ! ,fr5* ,academy (        
,sci5ces1 9 ,france4  ,pic>d's plan 0 to
 connect two po9ts by a s]ies (         
triangles1  &1 ?us asc]ta9+ ! l5g? ( !  
arc ( a m]idian int]cept$  betwe5 !m1 to
 comp>e x ) ! diff]5ce ( latitudes f\nd 
f  cele/ial obs]vations4 ,! /ations 7   
,malvois9e 9 ! vic9ity  ( ,p>is1 &      
,s\rdon ne> ,ami5s4 ,! diff]5ce (       
latitudes 0  det]m9$ by obs]v+ !        
z5i?-di/ances1 ( delta ,cassiopeia4 ,!re

  are two po9ts ( int]e/ connect$ )     
,pic>d's op]ation3 x 0 !  fir/ 9 :i*    
in/rum5ts furni%$ ) telescopes 7        
employ$2  & its result1 z we %all %ortly
 see1 0 to ,newton ! fir/  confirmation 
( ! !ory ( univ]sal gravitation4    ,at 
?is "t x _h become cle> f me*anical     
consid]ations1 m  especially su* z _h   
be5 d$uc$ by ,newton1 t1 s9ce ! e>? is  
a rotat+ body1 h] =m _c be t ( a p]fect 
sph]e1 b  mu/ be t ( a sph]oid1 oblate  
or flatt5$ at ! poles4 ,x w\ld  foll[1 f
 ?is1 t ! l5g? ( a degree mu/ be great] 
ne> !  poles ?an at ! equator4    ,!    
,fr5* ,academy resolv$ to ext5d ,pic>d's
 op]ation1 by prolong+  ! measures 9 ea*
 direction1 & mak+ ! result ! basis ( a 
m accurate map ( ,france4 ,delays1      
h[ev]1 took place1 & x 0 n  until #agah 
t ! measures1 f ,dunkirk on ! nor? to ! 
s\!rn  extremity ( ,france1 7 complet$4 
,a discussion arose z to !              
int]pretation ( ^! measures1 "s affirm+ 
t !y indicat$ a  prolate1 o!rs an oblate
 sph]oid2 ! =m] figure may be popul>ly  

repres5t$ by a lemon1 ! latt] by an     
orange4 ,to settle ?is1 !  ,fr5*        
,gov]nm5t1 aid$ by ! ,academy1 s5t out  
two exp$itions to  measure degrees ( !  
m]idian--"o "u ! equator1 ! o!r z  f>   
nor? z possible2 ! =m] w5t to ,p]u1 !   
latt] to ,sw$i%  ,lapl&4 ,v great       
difficulties 7 enc\nt]$ by bo? p>ties4  
,!  ,lapl& commission1 h[ev]1 complet$  
its obs]vations long be=e !  ,p]uvian1  
:i* consum$ n less ?an n9e ye>s4 ,!     
results ( !  measures ?us obta9$        
confirm$ ! !oretical expectation ( !    
oblate =m4 ,s9ce t "t _m ext5sive &     
exact repetitions ( !  obs]vation h be5 
made1 among :i* may be m5tion$ ^? ( !   
,engli% 9 ,engl& & 9 ,india1 &          
p>ticul>ly t ( ! ,fr5*  on ! occasion ( 
! introduction ( ! metric sy/em (       
weights  & measures4 ,x 0 begun by      
,delambre & ,me*a91 f ,dunkirk to       
,b>celona1 & !nce ext5d$1 by ,biot &    
,arago1 to ! isl&  ( ,=m5t]a ne>        
,m9orea4 ,its l5g? 0 ne>ly twelve & a   
half  degrees4    ,besides ?is me?od (  

direct measurem5t1 ! figure ( ! e>?  may
 be det]m9$ f ! obs]v$ numb] (          
oscillations made by a  p5dulum (       
inv>iable l5g? 9 diff]5t latitudes4 ,^!1
 ?\gh !y  confirm ! =ego+ results1 give 
a some:at great] ellipticity  to ! e>?  
?an t f\nd by ! measurem5t ( degrees4   
,p5dulums  vibrate m sl[ly ! ne>] !y are
 to ! equator4 ,x foll[s1  !re=e1 t !y  
are !re f>!r f ! c5tre ( ! e>?4    ,f ! 
mo/ reliable measures t h be5 made1 !   
dim5sions (  ! e>? may be ?us /at$3     
,great] or equatorial                   
diamet]44444444444444#g1ibe miles4      
,less or pol>                           
diamet]4444444444444444444444#g1hii     
,diff]5ce or pol>                       
compression4444444444444   #bf          
,su* 0 ! result ( ! discussion respect+ 
! figure & size  ( ! e>?4 ,:ile x 0 yet 
undet]m9$1 ano!r controv]sy arose1      
fraught ) ev5 m s]i\s consequ5ces4 ,?is 
0 ! conflict  respect+ ! e>?'s position 
) reg>d to ! sun & ! planet>y  bodies4  
,cop]nicus1 a ,prussian1 ab\t ! ye>     

#aejg1 _h complet$ a book ,on  !        
,revolutions ( ! ,heav5ly ,bodies4 ,he  
_h j\rney$ to ,italy  9 8 y\?1 _h devot$
 8 att5tion to a/ronomy1 & _h taught    
ma!matics at ,rome4 ,f a pr(\nd /udy ( !
 ,ptolemaic &  ,py?agorean sy/ems1 he _h
 come to a conclusion 9 favor ( ! latt]1
  ! object ( 8 book be+ to su/a9 x4     
,aw>e t 8 doctr9es  7 totally oppos$ to 
reveal$ tru?1 & =esee+ t !y w\ld  br+ ^u
 him ! puni%m5ts ( ! ,*ur*1 he express$ 
himself 9  a cauti\s & apologetic mann]1
 say+ t he _h only tak5 !  lib]ty ( try+
 :e!r1 on ! supposition ( ! e>?'s       
motion1 x  0 possible to f9d bett]      
explanations ?an ! anci5t ones ( !      
revolutions ( ! cele/ial orbs2 t 9 do+  
?is he _h only  tak5 ! privilege t _h   
be5 all[$ to o!rs1 ( feign+ :at         
hypo!sis !y *ose4 ,! preface 0 address$ 
to ,pope ,paul ,,iii4    ,full (        
misgiv+s z to :at might be ! result1 he 
refra9$ f  publi%+ 8 book = ?irty-six   
ye>s1 ?9k+ t p]haps x  might be bett] to
 foll[ ! examples ( ! ,py?agoreans &    

o!rs1  :o deliv]$ _! doctr9e only by    
tradition & to fri5ds4 ,at !  entreaty (
 ,c>d9al ,s*omb]g he at l5g? publi%$ x 9
 #aedc4 ,a copy  ( x 0 br\ght to him on 
8 dea?-b$4 ,its fate 0 su* z he _h      
anticipat$4 ,! ,inquisition condemn$ x z
 h]etical4 ,9 _! decree1  prohibit+ x1 !
 ,congregation ( ! ,index d5\nc$ 8 sy/em
  z t false ,py?agorean doctr9e utt]ly  
contr>y to ! ,holy  ,scriptures4        
,a/ronom]s ju/ly affirm t ! book (      
,cop]nicus1 ,de  ,revolutionibus1 *ang$ 
! face ( _! sci5ce4 ,x inconte/ably     
e/abli%$ ! helioc5tric !ory4 ,x %[$ t ! 
di/ance ( !  fix$ />s is inf9itely      
great1 & t ! e>? is a m]e po9t 9  !     
heav5s4 ,anticipat+ ,newton1 ,cop]nicus 
imput$ gravity to ! sun1  ! moon1 &     
heav5ly bodies1 b he 0 l$ a/ray by      
assum+ t  ! cele/ial motions mu/ be     
circul>4 ,obs]vations on ! orbit (      
,m>s1 & 8 diff]5t diamet]s at diff]5t   
times1 _h l$ ,cop]nicus  to 8 !ory4     
,9 ?us d5\nc+ ! ,cop]nican sy/em z be+ 9
 contradiction to  revelation1 !        

ecclesia/ical au?orities 7 d\btless     
deeply mov$  by inf]5tial consid]ations4
 ,to de?rone ! e>? f h] c5tral  dom9at+ 
position1 to give h] _m equals & n a few
 sup]iors1  seem$ to dim9i% h] claims ^u
 ! ,div9e reg>d4 ,if ea* ( !  c\ntless  
myriads ( />s 0 a sun1 surr\nd$ by      
revolv+ globes1  peopl$ ) responsible   
be+s l ourselves1 if we _h fall5 s      
easily & _h be5 r$eem$ at s /up5d\s a   
price z ! dea? (  ! ,son ( ,god1 h[ 0 x 
) !m8 ,( !m 7 !re none :o _h  fall5 or  
might fall l u8 ,:]e1 !n1 = !m c\ld a   
,savior be  f\nd8    ,dur+ ! ye> #afjh  
"o ,lipp]%ey1 a ,holl&]1 discov]$ t1 by 
look+ ?r\gh two glass l5ses1 comb9$ 9 a 
c]ta9 mann] toge!r1  di/ant objects 7   
magnifi$ & r5d]$ v pla94 ,he _h inv5t$  
! telescope4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> ,galileo1 a
 ,flor5t9e1 greatly  di/+ui%$ by 8      
ma!matical & sci5tific writ+s1 he>+  ( !
 circum/ance1 b )\t kn[+ ! p>ticul>s ( !
  con/ruction1 inv5t$ a =m ( ! in/rum5t 
= himself4 ,improv+  x gradually1 he    
succe$$ 9 mak+ "o t c\ld magnify ?irty  

times4 ,exam9+ ! moon1 he f\nd t %e _h  
valleys l ^? (  ! e>?1 & m\nta9s ca/+   
%ad[s4 ,x _h be5 said 9 ! old  times t 9
 ! ,pleiades !re 7 =m]ly sev5 />s1 b a  
leg5d  relat$ t "o ( !m _h my/]i\sly    
disappe>$4 ,on turn+ 8  telescope t[>d  
!m1 ,galileo f\nd t he c\ld easily c\nt 
n  few] ?an =ty4 ,9 :atev] direction he 
look$1 he discov]$ />s  t 7 totally     
invisible to ! nak$ eye4    ,on ! night 
( ,janu>y #g1 #afaj1 he p]ceiv$ ?ree    
small />s 9  a /raight l9e1 adjac5t to !
 planet ,jupit]1 &1 a few ev5+s  lat]1 a
 f\r?4 ,he f\nd t ^! 7 revolv+ 9 orbits 
r\nd !  body ( ! planet1 &1 ) transport1
 recogniz$ t !y pres5t$  a m9iature     
repres5tation ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em4     
,! ann\ncem5t ( ^! wond]s at once       
attract$ univ]sal att5tion4  ,!         
spiritual au?orities 7 n sl[ to detect  
_! t5d5cy1 z  endang]+ ! doctr9e t !    
univ]se 0 made = man4 ,9 !  creation (  
myriads ( />s1 hi!rto invisible1 !re mu/
 surely h  be5 "s o!r motive ?an t (    
illum9at+ ! nights = him4    ,x _h be5  

object$ to ! ,cop]nican !ory t1 if !    
planets  ,m]cury & ,v5us move r\nd ! sun
 9 orbits int]ior to t ( !  e>?1 !y     
ought to %[ phases l ^? ( ! moon2 & t 9 
! case ( ,v5us1 :i* is s brilliant &    
conspicu\s1 ^! phases  %\ld be v obvi\s4
 ,cop]nicus himself _h admitt$ ! =ce (  
! objection1 & _h va9ly tri$ to f9d an  
explanation4 ,galileo1 on  turn+ 8      
telescope to ! planet1 discov]$ t !     
expect$ phases  actually exi/2 n[ %e 0 a
 cresc5t1 !n half-moon1 !n gibb\s1  !n  
full4 ,previ\sly to ,cop]nicus1 x 0     
suppos$ t ! planets  %9e by _! own      
light1 b ! phases ( ,v5us & ,m>s prov$ t
  _! light is reflect$4 ,! ,ari/otelian 
notion1 t cele/ial diff]  f t]re/rial   
bodies 9 be+ incorruptible1 receiv$ a   
rude %ock  f ! discov]ies ( ,galileo1 t 
!re are m\nta9s & valleys 9  ! moon l ^?
 ( ! e>?1 t ! sun is n p]fect1 b has    
spots on 8 face1 & t he turns on 8 axis 
in/ead ( be+ 9 a  /ate ( maje/ic re/4 ,!
 app>ition ( new />s _h already ?r[n    
s]i\s d\bts on ?is !ory (               

incorruptibility4    ,^! & _m o!r       
beautiful telescopic discov]ies t5d$ to 
!  e/abli%m5t ( ! tru? ( ! ,cop]nican   
!ory & gave unb\nd$  al>m to ! ,*ur*4   
,by ! l[ & ignorant ecclesia/ics !y 7   
d5\nc$ z deceptions or frauds4 ,"s      
affirm$ t ! telescope  might be reli$ on
 well en\gh = t]re/rial objects1 b ) !  
heav5ly bodies x 0 altoge!r a diff]5t   
affair4 ,o!rs decl>$  t its inv5tion 0 a
 m]e application ( ,ari/otle's rem>k t  
/>s c\ld be se5 9 ! daytime f ! bottom (
 a deep well4  ,galileo 0 accus$ (      
impo/ure1 h]esy1 blasphemy1 a!ism4 ,) a 
view ( def5d+ himself1 he address$ a    
lett] to ! ,abbe ,ca/elli1  sugge/+ t ! 
,scriptures 7 nev] int5d$ to be a       
sci5tific  au?ority1 b only a moral     
guide4 ,?is made matt]s worse4 ,he 0    
summon$ be=e ! ,holy ,inquisition1 "u an
 accusation ( hav+  taught t ! e>? moves
 r\nd ! sun1 a doctr9e utt]ly contr>y   
to ! ,scriptures4 ,he 0 ord]$ to r5\nce 
t h]esy1 on pa9 (  be+ imprison$4 ,he 0 
direct$ to desi/ f tea*+ & advocat+  !  

,cop]nican !ory1 & pl$ge himself t he   
w\ld nei!r publi%  nor def5d x = !      
future4 ,kn[+ well t ,tru? has no ne$ ( 
m>tyrs1 he ass5t$ to ! requir$          
recantation1 & gave ! promise  dem&$4   
,= sixte5 ye>s ! ,*ur* _h re/4 ,b 9     
#afcb ,galileo v5tur$  on ! publication 
( 8 "w entitl$ ,! ,sy/em ( ! ,_w1 its   
object be+ ! v9dication ( ! ,cop]nican  
doctr9e4 ,he 0 aga9  summon$ be=e !     
,inquisition at ,rome1 accus$ ( hav+    
ass]t$  t ! e>? moves r\nd ! sun4 ,he 0 
decl>$ to h br\ght  ^u himself !        
p5alties ( h]esy4 ,on 8 knees1 ) 8 h& on
 !  ,bible1 he 0 compell$ to abjure &   
curse ! doctr9e ( ! movem5t  ( ! e>?4   
,:at a spectacle6 ,?is v5]able man1 !   
mo/ illu/ri\s  ( 8 age1 =c$ by ! ?reat (
 dea? to d5y facts :i* 8 judges  z well 
z himself knew to be true6 ,he 0 !n     
committ$ to prison1  treat$ )           
remorseless sev]ity dur+ ! rema9+ t5    
ye>s (  8 life1 & 0 d5i$ burial 9       
consecrat$ gr\nd4 ,mu/ n t  be false :i*
 requires = its support s mu* impo/ure1 

s mu*  b>b>ity8 ,! op9ions ?us def5d$ by
 ! ,inquisition are n[ objects  (       
d]ision to ! :ole civiliz$ _w4    ,"o ( 
! greate/ ( mod]n ma!maticians1 ref]r+  
to ?is subject1  says t ! po9t "h       
conte/$ 0 "o :i* is = mank9d ( !  highe/
 int]e/1 because ( ! rank x assigns to !
 globe t we  inhabit4 ,if ! e>? be      
immovable 9 ! mid/ ( ! univ]se1 man has 
a "r to reg>d himself z ! pr9cipal      
object ( ! c>e ( ,nature4  ,b if ! e>?  
be only "o ( ! planets revolv+ r\nd !   
sun1 an  insignificant body 9 ! sol>    
sy/em1 %e w disappe> entirely  9 !      
imm5sity ( ! heav5s1 9 :i* ?is sy/em1   
va/ z x may  appe> to u1 is no?+ b an   
ins5sible po9t4    ,! triumphant        
e/abli%m5t ( ! ,cop]nican doctr9e dates 
f !  inv5tion ( ! telescope4 ,soon !re 0
 n to be f\nd 9 all ,europe  an a/ronom]
 :o _h n accept$ ! helioc5tric !ory )   
its  ess5tial po/ulate1 ! d\ble motion (
 ! e>?--movem5t (  rotation on h] axis1 
& a movem5t ( revolution r\nd ! sun4    
,if additional pro( ( ! latt] 7 ne$$1 x 

0 furni%$ by  ,bradley's great discov]y 
( ! ab]ration ( ! fix$ />s1 an          
ab]ration dep5d+ p>tly on ! progressive 
motion ( light1 &  p>tly on ! revolution
 ( ! e>?4 ,bradley's discov]y rank$  9  
importance ) t ( ! precession ( !       
equ9oxes4 ,roem]'s  discov]y ( !        
progressive motion ( light1 ?\gh d5\nc$ 
by  ,font5elle z a s$uctive error1 & n  
admitt$ by ,cass9i1 at l5g?  =c$ its way
 to univ]sal acceptance4      ,next x 0 
necess>y to obta9 correct ideas ( !     
dim5sions ( !  sol> sy/em1 or1 putt+ !  
problem "u a m limit$ =m1 to  det]m9e ! 
di/ance ( ! e>? f ! sun4    ,9 ! "t (   
,cop]nicus x 0 suppos$ t ! sun's di/ance
 c\ld  n exce$ five million miles1 &    
inde$ !re 7 _m :o ?\ght  t e/imate v    
extravagant4 ,f a review ( ! obs]vations
 (  ,ty*o ,brahe1 ,kepl]1 h[ev]1        
conclud$ t ! error 0 actually 9  !      
opposite direction1 & t ! e/imate mu/ be
 rais$ to at  lea/ ?irte5 million4 ,9   
#afgj ,cass9i %[$ t ^! numb]s 7         
altoge!r inconsi/5t ) ! facts1 & gave z 

8 conclusion  eighty-five million4    ,!
 transit ( ,v5us ov] ! face ( ! sun1    
,june #c1 #agfi1 _h be5  =ese51 & its   
great value 9 ! solution ( ?is          
fundam5tal  problem 9 a/ronomy          
appreciat$4 ,) comm5dable alacrity v>i\s
  gov]nm5ts contribut$ _! assi/ance 9   
mak+ obs]vations1 s t  9 ,europe !re 7  
fifty /ations1 9 ,asia six1 9 ,am]ica   
sev5te54  ,x 0 = ?is purpose t ! ,engli%
 ,gov]nm5t dispat*$ ,capta9  ,cook on 8 
celebrat$ fir/ voyage4 ,he w5t to       
,otaheite4 ,8 voyage  0 cr[n$ ) success4
 ,! sun rose )\t a cl\d1 & ! sky        
cont9u$ equally cle> ?r\gh\t ! day4 ,!  
transit at ,cook's  /ation la/$ f ab\t  
half-pa/ n9e 9 ! morn+ until ab\t       
half-pa/ ?ree 9 ! aft]noon1 & all !     
obs]vations 7 made 9  a satisfactory    
mann]4    ,b1 on ! discussion ( !       
obs]vations made at ! diff]5t  /ations1 
x 0 f\nd t !re 0 n ! accordance t c\ld h
  be5 desir$--! result v>y+ f           
eighty-eight to "o hundr$ &  n9e        
million4 ,! celebrat$ ma!matician1      

,encke1 !re=e review$  !m 9 #ahbb-'bd1 &
 came to ! conclusion t ! sun's         
horizontal  p>allax1 t is1 ! angle "u   
:i* ! semi-diamet] ( ! e>?  is se5 f !  
sun1 is #h #egf_/ajjj seconds2 ?is gave 
z ! di/ance  #ie1bgd1jjj miles4         
,subsequ5tly ! obs]vations 7 reconsid]$ 
by ,hans51 :o gave z _! result          
#ia1fei1jjj miles4 ,/ill lat]1  ,lev]ri]
 made x #ia1gei1jjj4 ,airy & ,/one1 by  
ano!r me?od1 made  x #ia1djj1jjj2 ,/one 
alone1 by a revision ( ! old            
obs]vations1  #ia1gcj1jjj2 & f9ally1    
,f\cault & ,fizeau1 f physical          
exp]im5ts1  det]m9+ ! velocity ( light1 
& !re=e 9 _! nature  altoge!r diff]+ f  
transit obs]vations1 #ia1djj1jjj4 ,until
 !  results ( ! transit ( next ye>      
7#ahgd7 are asc]ta9$1 x mu/  !re=e be   
admitt$ t ! di/ance ( ! e>? f ! sun is  
some:at less ?an n9ety-two million      
miles4    ,?is di/ance once det]m9$1 !  
dim5sions ( ! sol> sy/em may  be        
asc]ta9$ ) ease & precision4 ,x is en\gh
 to m5tion t  ! di/ance ( ,neptune f !  

sun1 ! mo/ remote ( ! planets at  pres5t
 kn[n1 is ab\t ?irty times t ( ! e>?4   
,by ! aid ( ^! numb]s we may beg9 to ga9
 a j appreciation (  ! doctr9e ( ! human
 de/9y ( ! univ]se--! doctr9e t all  ?+s
 7 made = man4 ,se5 f ! sun1 ! e>?      
dw9dles away to  a m]e speck1 a m]e     
du/-mote gli/5+ 9 8 beams4 ,if ! read]  
wi%es a m precise valuation1 let him    
hold a page ( ?is book a  c\ple ( feet f
 8 eye2 !n let him consid] "o ( its dots
 or  full /ops2 t dot is sev]al hundr$  
times l>g] 9 surface ?an is  ! e>? z se5
 f ! sun6    ,( :at consequ5ce1 !n1 c   
su* an almo/ imp]ceptible p>ticle be8   
,"o might ?9k t x c\ld be remov$ or ev5 
annihilat$1 & yet  nev] be miss$4 ,( :at
 consequ5ce is "o ( ^? human monads1 (  
:om m ?an a ?\s& millions sw>m on !     
surface ( ?is all  b invisible speck1 & 
( a million ( :om sc>cely "o w leave  a 
trace t he has ev] exi/$8 ,( :at        
consequ5ce is man1 8  pleasures or 8    
pa9s8    ,among ! argum5ts br\ght =w>d  
aga9/ ! ,cop]nican sy/em at !  "t ( its 

promulgation1 0 "o by ! great ,dani%    
a/ronom]1 ,ty*o  ,brahe1 orig9ally urg$ 
by ,ari/>*us aga9/ ! ,py?agorean sy/em1 
to ! effect t1 if1 z 0 alleg$1 ! e>?    
moves r\nd ! sun1  !re ought to be a    
*ange ( ! direction 9 :i* ! fix$ />s    
appe>4 ,at "o "t we are ne>] to a       
p>ticul> region ( ! heav5s  by a di/ance
 equal to ! :ole diamet] ( ! e>?'s orbit
 ?an we  7 six mon?s previ\sly1 & h5ce  
!re ought to be a *ange 9  ! relative   
position ( ! />s2 !y %\ld seem to       
sep>ate z we  approa* !m1 & to close    
toge!r z we rec$e f !m2 or1 to use  !   
a/ronomical expression1 ^! />s %\ld h a 
ye>ly p>allax4    ,! p>allax ( a /> is !
 angle conta9$ betwe5 two l9es drawn  f 
x--"o to ! sun1 ! o!r to ! e>?4    ,at t
 "t1 ! e>?'s di/ance f ! sun 0 greatly  
"u-e/imat$4 ,_h x be5 kn[n1 z x is n[1 t
 t di/ance  exce$s n9ety million miles1 
or t ! diamet] ( ! orbit is m  ?an "o   
hundr$ & eighty million1 t argum5t w\ld 
d\btless h  _h v great weight4    ,9    
reply to ,ty*o1 x 0 said t1 s9ce !      

p>allax ( a body  dim9i%es z its di/ance
 increases1 a /> may be s f> (f t its   
p>allax may be imp]ceptible4 ,?is answ] 
prov$ to be correct4 ,!  detection ( !  
p>allax ( ! />s dep5d$ on ! improvem5t (
  in/rum5ts = ! measurem5t ( angles4    
,! p>allax ( alpha ,c5tauri1 a f9e d\ble
 /> ( ! ,s\!rn  ,hemisph]e1 at pres5t   
consid]$ to be ! ne>e/ ( ! fix$ />s1  0 
fir/ det]m9$ by ,h5d]son & ,macle> at ! 
,cape ( ,good ,hope  9 #ahcb-'cc4 ,x is 
ab\t n9e-t5?s ( a second4 ,h5ce ?is />  
is  almo/ two hundr$ & ?irty ?\s& times 
z f> f u z ! sun4  ,se5 f x1 if ! sun 7 
ev5 l>ge en\gh to fill ! :ole orbit  ( !
 e>?1 or "o hundr$ & eighty million     
miles 9 diamet]1  he w\ld be a m]e po9t4
 ,) its companion1 x revolves r\nd _!   
common c5tre ( gravity 9 eighty-"o ye>s1
 & h5ce x w\ld seem  t _! conjo9t mass  
is less ?an t ( ! sun4    ,! /> #fa     
,cygni is ( ! six? magnitude4 ,its      
p>allax 0 fir/  f\nd by ,bessel 9 #ahch1
 & is ab\t "o-?ird ( a second4 ,!       
di/ance f u is1 !re=e1 mu* m ?an five   

hundr$ ?\s&  times t ( ! sun4 ,) its    
companion1 x revolves r\nd _!  common   
c5tre ( gravity 9 five hundr$ & tw5ty   
ye>s4 ,_!  conjo9t weight is ab\t       
"o-?ird t ( ! sun4    ,!re is reason to 
believe t ! great /> ,sirius1 ! brighte/
  9 ! heav5s1 is ab\t six times z f> (f 
z alpha ,c5tauri4 ,8  probable diamet]  
is twelve million miles1 & ! light he   
emits two  hundr$ times m brilliant ?an 
t ( ! sun4 ,yet1 ev5 ?r\gh !  telescope1
 he has no measurable diamet]2 he looks 
m]ely l a v  bright sp>k4    ,! />s1 !n1
 diff] n m]ely 9 visible magnitude1 b   
also 9  actual size4 ,z ! spectroscope  
%[s1 !y diff] greatly 9 *emical  &      
physical con/itution4 ,t in/rum5t is    
also reveal+ to u !  duration ( ! life (
 a />1 ?r\gh *anges 9 ! refrangibility (
  ! emitt$ light4 ,?\gh1 z we h se51 !  
ne>e/ to u is at  an enorm\s & all b    
immeasurable di/ance1 ?is is b ! fir/   
/ep--!re are o!rs ! rays ( :i* h tak5   
?\s&s1 p]haps  millions1 ( ye>s to rea* 
u6 ,! limits ( our own sy/em are f>     

beyond ! range ( our greate/ telescopes2
 :at1 !n1 %all we say (  o!r sy/ems     
beyond8 ,worlds are scatt]$ l du/ 9 !   
abysses 9  space4    ,h ^! gigantic     
bodies--myriads ( :i* are plac$ at s va/
 a  di/ance t our unassi/$ eyes _c      
p]ceive !m--h ^! no  o!r purpose ?an t  
assign$ by !ologians1 to give light to  
u8  ,does n _! enorm\s size demon/rate  
t1 z !y are c5tres (  =ce1 s !y mu/ be  
c5tres ( motion--suns = o!r sy/ems (    
worlds8    ,:ile yet ^! facts 7 v       
imp]fectly kn[n--inde$1 7 r             
speculations ?an facts--,giordano       
,bruno1 an ,italian1 born sev5 ye>s     
aft] ! dea? ( ,cop]nicus1 publi%$ a "w  
on ! ,inf9ity (  ! ,univ]se & ( ,worlds2
 he 0 also ! au?or ( ,ev5+              
,conv]sations on ,a%-,w$nesday1 an      
apology = ! ,cop]nican sy/em1  & ( ,!   
,"o ,sole ,cause ( ,?+s4 ,to ^! may be  
add$ an allegory  publi%$ 9 #aehd1 ,!   
,expulsion ( ! ,triumphant ,bea/4 ,he _h
 also  collect$1 = ! use ( future       
a/ronom]s1 all ! obs]vations he  c\ld   

f9d respect+ ! new /> t sudd5ly appe>$ 9
 ,cassiopeia1  ,a4,d4 #aegb1 & increas$ 
9 brilliancy1 until x surpass$ all ! o!r
  />s4 ,x c\ld be pla9ly se5 9 !        
daytime4 ,on a sudd51 ,novemb]  #aa?1 x 
0 z bright z ,v5us at h] brighte/4 ,9 ! 
foll[+ ,m>*  x 0 ( ! fir/ magnitude4 ,x 
exhibit$ v>i\s hues ( color 9 a  few    
mon?s1 & disappe>$ 9 ,m>*1 #aegd4    ,! 
/> t sudd5ly appe>$ 9 ,s]p5t>ius1 9     
,kepl]'s "t  7#afjd71 0 at fir/ bright] 
?an ,v5us4 ,x la/$ m ?an a ye>1  &1     
pass+ ?r\gh v>i\s t9ts ( purple1 yell[1 
r$1 became  ext+ui%$4    ,orig9ally1    
,bruno 0 int5d$ = ! ,*ur*4 ,he _h become
 a  ,dom9ican1 b 0 l$ into d\bt by 8    
m$itations on ! subjects (              
transub/antiation & ! immaculate        
conception4 ,n c>+ to  conceal 8        
op9ions1 he soon fell "u ! c5sure ( !   
spiritual  au?orities1 & f\nd x necess>y
 to seek refuge successively 9          
,switz]l&1 ,france1 ,engl&1 ,g]many4 ,! 
cold-sc5t$ sleu?-h\nds (  ! ,inquisition
 foll[$ 8 track remorselessly1 &        

ev5tually hunt$  him back to ,italy4 ,he
 0 arre/$ 9 ,v5ice1 & conf9$ 9 ! ,piombi
  = six ye>s1 )\t books1 or pap]1 or    
fri5ds4    ,9 ,engl& he _h giv5 lectures
 on ! plurality ( worlds1 & 9 t  c\ntry 
_h writt51 9 ,italian1 8 mo/ important  
works4 ,x add$  n a little to !         
exasp]ation aga9/ him1 t he 0 p]petually
  declaim+ aga9/ ! ins9c]ity2 !         
impo/ures1 ( 8  p]secutors--t :]ev] he  
w5t he f\nd skepticism v>ni%$ ov]  &    
conceal$ by hypocrisy2 & t x 0 n aga9/ !
 belief (  m51 b aga9/ _! pret5d$       
belief1 t he 0 fight+2 t he  0 /ruggl+ )
 an or?odoxy t _h nei!r morality nor    
fai?4    ,9 8 ,ev5+ ,conv]sations he _h 
insi/$ t ! ,scriptures 7  nev] int5d$ to
 tea* sci5ce1 b morals only2 & t !y _c  
be receiv$ z ( any au?ority on          
a/ronomical & physical subjects4        
,especially mu/ we reject ! view !y     
reveal to u ( ! con/itution  ( ! _w1 t !
 e>? is a flat surface1 support$ on     
pill>s2  t ! sky is a firmam5t--! floor 
( heav54 ,on ! contr>y1 we  mu/ believe 

t ! univ]se is inf9ite1 & t x is fill$ )
  self-lum9\s & opaque worlds1 _m ( !m  
inhabit$2 t !re  is no?+ above & ar\nd u
 b space & />s4 ,8 m$itations  on ^!    
subjects _h br\ght him to ! conclusion t
 ! views (  ,av]roes are n f> f !       
tru?--t !re is an ,intellect :i*        
animates ! univ]se1 & ( ?is ,intellect !
 visible _w is only  an emanation or    
manife/ation1 orig9at$ & su/a9$ by =ce  
d]iv$  f x1 &1 7 t =ce )drawn1 all ?+s  
w\ld disappe>4  ,?is ev]-pres5t1        
all-p]vad+ ,intellect is ,god1 :o lives 
9 all  ?+s1 ev5 su* z seem n to live2 t 
e ?+ is ready to  become organiz$1 to   
bur/ into life4 ,god is1 !re=e1 ! ,"o   
,sole  ,cause ( ,?+s1 ! ,all 9 ,all4    
,bruno may h5ce be consid]$ among       
philosophical writ]s z  int]m$iate      
betwe5 ,av]roes & ,sp9oza4 ,! latt] held
 t ,god &  ! ,univ]se are ! same1 t all 
ev5ts happ5 by an immutable law  (      
,nature1 by an unconqu]able necessity2 t
 ,god is ! ,univ]se1  produc+ a s]ies ( 
necess>y movem5ts or acts1 9 consequ5ce 

(  intr9sic1 un*angeable1 & irresi/ible 
en]gy4    ,on ! dem& ( ! spiritual      
au?orities1 ,bruno 0 remov$ f  ,v5ice to
 ,rome1 & conf9$ 9 ! prison ( !         
,inquisition1 accus$  n only ( be+ a    
h]etic1 b also a h]esi>*1 :o _h writt5  
?+s unseemly conc]n+ religion2 ! special
 *>ge aga9/ him  be+ t he _h taught !   
plurality ( worlds1 a doctr9e repugnant 
to ! :ole t5or ( ,scripture & inimical  
to reveal$ religion1  especially z      
reg>ds ! plan ( salvation4 ,aft] an     
imprisonm5t (  two ye>s he 0 br\ght be=e
 8 judges1 decl>$ guilty ( !  acts      
alleg$1 excommunicat$1 &1 on 8 nobly    
refus+ to recant1 0  deliv]$ ov] to !   
secul> au?orities to be puni%$ z        
m]cifully  z possible1 & )\t ! %$d+ ( 8 
blood1 ! horrible  =mula = burn+ a      
prison] at ! /ake4 ,kn[+ well t ?\gh  8 
torm5tors might de/roy 8 body1 8 ?\ghts 
w\ld /ill live  among m51 he said to 8  
judges1 ,p]haps x is ) great] fe>  t y  
pass ! s5t5ce ^u me ?an ,i receive x4 ,!
 s5t5ce 0  c>ri$ into effect1 & he 0    

burnt at ,rome1 ,febru>y #af?1 ,a4,d4   
#afjj4    ,no "o c recall )\t s5tim5ts (
 pity ! suff]+s ( ^?  c\ntless m>tyrs1  
:o fir/ by "o p>ty1 & !n by ano!r1 h    
be5 br\ght = _! religi\s op9ions to !   
/ake4 ,b ea* (  ^! _h 9 8 supreme mom5t 
a p[]ful & unfail+ support4 ,!  passage 
f ?is life to ! next1 ?\gh ?r\gh a h>d  
trial1 0 !  passage f a transi5t tr\ble 
to et]nal happ9ess1 an escape f  !      
cruelty ( e>? to ! *>ity ( heav54 ,on 8 
way ?r\gh !  d>k valley ! m>tyr believ$ 
t !re 0 an invisible h& t  w\ld lead    
him1 a fri5d t w\ld guide him all ! m   
g5tly &  firmly because ( ! t]rors ( !  
flames4 ,= ,bruno !re 0 no  su* support4
 ,! philosophical op9ions1 = ! sake (   
:i* he  surr5d]$ 8 life1 c\ld give him  
no consolation4 ,he mu/ fight !  la/    
fight alone4 ,is !re n some?+ v gr& 9 ! 
attitude (  ?is solit>y man1 some?+ :i* 
human nature _c help admir+1 z  he /&s 9
 ! gloomy hall be=e 8 inexorable judges8
 ,no accus]1  no witness1 no advocate is
 pres5t1 b ! famili>s ( ! ,holy  ,(fice1

 clad 9 black1 are /eal?ily mov+ ab\t4  
,! torm5tors &  ! rack are 9 ! vaults   
bel[4 ,he is simply told t he has br\ght
  ^u himself /rong suspicions ( h]esy1  
s9ce he has said t !re  are o!r worlds  
?an ours4 ,he is ask$ if he w recant &  
abjure  8 error4 ,he _c & w n d5y :at he
 kn[s to be true1 &  p]haps--= he _h (t5
 done s be=e--he tells 8 judges t !y1   
too1 9 _! he>ts are ( ! same belief4    
,:at a contra/ betwe5  ?is sc5e ( manly 
honor1 ( un%ak5 firmness1 ( inflexible  
adh]5ce  to ! tru?1 & t o!r sc5e :i*    
took place m ?an fifte5  c5turies       
previ\sly by ! fireside 9 ! hall (      
,caiaphas !  high-prie/1 :5 ! cock crew1
 & ! ,"l turn$ & look$ ^u  ,pet] 7,luke 
xxii4 #fa76 ,& yet x is ^u ,pet] t !    
,*ur* has  gr\nd$ h] "r to act z %e did 
to ,bruno4 ,b p]haps ! day  approa*es :5
 po/]ity w (f] an expiation = ?is great 
ecclesia/ical crime1 & a /atue ( ,bruno 
be unveil$ "u ! dome  ( ,/4 ,pet]'s at  
,rome4        ,,*apt] ,,vii4            
,,controv]sy ,,respect+ ,,! ,,age ,,(   

,,! ,,e>?4         ,scriptural view t ! 
,e>? is only six ?\s& ye>s       old1 & 
t x 0 made 9 a week4--,patri/ic         
*ronology       f\nd$ on ! ages ( !     
patri>*s4--,difficulties aris+       f  
diff]5t e/imates 9 diff]5t v]sions ( !  
,bible4         ,leg5d ( ! ,deluge4--,! 
repeopl+4--,! ,t[] ( ,babel2       !    
confusion ( tongues4--,! primitive      
language4         ,discov]y by ,cass9i (
 ! oblat5ess ( ! planet                 
,jupit]4--,discov]y by ,newton ( !      
oblat5ess ( !       ,e>?4--,d$uction t  
%e has be5 model$ by me*anical          
causes4--,confirmation ( ?is by         
geological discov]ies       respect+    
aque\s rocks2 corroboration by organic  
rema9s4--       ,! necessity ( admitt+  
enorm\sly long p]iods (                 
"t4--,displacem5t ( ! doctr9e (         
,creation by t (                        
,evolution--,discov]ies respect+ !      
,antiquity ( ,man4         ,! "t-scale &
 space-scale ( ! _w are inf9ite4--      
,mod]ation ) :i* ! discussion ( ! ,age (

 ! ,_w       has be5 conduct$4      ,,! 
true position ( ! e>? 9 ! univ]se 0     
e/abli%$ only  aft] a long & sev]e      
conflict4 ,! ,*ur* us$ :atev] p[] %e    
_h1 ev5 to ! infliction ( dea?1 = su/a9+
 h] ideas4 ,b  x 0 9 va94 ,! evid5ce 9  
behalf ( ! ,cop]nican !ory became       
irresi/ible4 ,x 0 at l5g? univ]sally    
admitt$ t ! sun is !  c5tral1 ! rul+    
body ( our sy/em2 ! e>? only "o1 & by no
  means ! l>ge/1 ( a family ( encircl+  
planets4 ,taught by !  issue ( t        
dispute1 :5 ! "q ( ! age ( ! _w  pres5t$
 itself = consid]ation1 ! ,*ur* did n   
exhibit !  active resi/ance %e _h       
display$ on ! =m] occasion4 ,=1  ?\gh h]
 traditions 7 aga9 put 9 jeop>dy1 !y 7  
n1 9 h]  judgm5t1 s vitally assail$4 ,to
 de?rone ! ,e>? f h] dom9at+  position  
01 s ! spiritual au?orities decl>$1 to  
und]m9e !  v f\ndation ( reveal$ tru?2 b
 discussions respect+ ! date  ( creation
 might )9 c]ta9 limits be p]mitt$4 ,^?  
limits 71  h[ev]1 v quickly ov]pass$1 & 
?us ! controv]sy became z  dang]\s z !  

=m] "o _h be54    ,x 0 n possible to    
adopt ! advice giv5 by ,plato 9 8       
,timaeus1  :5 treat+ ( ?is subject--!   
orig9 ( ! univ]se3 ,x is prop]  t bo? ,i
 :o speak & y :o judge %\ld rememb] t we
 are b  m51 & !re=e1 receiv+ ! probable 
my?ological tradition1 x  is meet t we  
inquire no fur!r into x4 ,s9ce ! "t (   
,/4  ,augu/9e ! ,scriptures _h be5 made 
! great & f9al au?ority 9  all matt]s ( 
sci5ce1 & !ologians _h d$uc$ f !m s*emes
 (  *ronology & cosmogony :i* _h prov$  
to be /umbl+-blocks to !  advance ( real
 k4    ,x is n necess>y = u to d m ?an  
to allude to "s ( !  lead+ features ( ^!
 s*emes2 _! peculi>ities w be easily    
disc]n$ ) suffici5t cle>ness4 ,?us1 f ! 
six days ( creation  & ! ,sabba?-day (  
re/1 s9ce we are told t a day is ) !    
,"l z a ?\s& ye>s1 x 0 inf]r$ t !       
duration ( !  _w w be ?r\gh six ?\s&    
ye>s ( suff]+1 & an additional  ?\s&1 a 
mill5nium ( re/4 ,x 0 g5]ally admitt$ t 
!  e>? 0 ab\t f\r ?\s& ye>s old at !    
bir? ( ,*ri/1 b1 s  c>eless _h ,europe  

be5 9 ! /udy ( its annals1 t n ,until   
,a4,d4 #fbg _h x a prop] *ronology ( its
 own4 ,a ,roman abbot1 ,dionysius       
,exiguus1 or ,d5nis ! ,less1 !n fix$ !  
vulg> era1 & gave ,europe  its pres5t   
,*ri/ian *ronology4    ,! me?od foll[$ 9
 obta9+ ! e>lie/ *ronological dates 0   
by computations1 ma9ly f\nd$ on ! lives 
( ! patri>*s4 ,mu*  difficulty 0        
enc\nt]$ 9 reconcil+ num]ical           
discrepancies4 ,ev5  if1 z 0 tak5 =     
grant$ 9 ^? uncritical ages1 ,moses 0 ! 
au?or ( ! books imput$ to him1 due      
weight 0 n giv5 to ! fact  t he relat$  
ev5ts1 _m ( :i* took place m ?an two    
?\s&  ye>s be=e he 0 born4 ,x sc>cely   
seem$ necess>y to reg>d !  ,p5tateu* z (
 pl5>y inspiration1 s9ce no means _h be5
 provid$  to p]petuate its correctness4 
,! diff]5t copies :i* _h escap$  !      
*ances ( "t v>i$ v mu*2 ?us ! ,sam>itan 
made ?irte5  hundr$ & sev5 ye>s f !     
,creation to ! ,deluge1 ! ,hebrew       
sixte5 hundr$ & fifty-six1 ! ,septuag9t 
tw5ty-two hundr$ &  sixty-?ree4 ,!      

,septuag9t c\nt$ fifte5 hundr$ ye>s m f 
!  ,creation to ,abraham ?an ! ,hebrew4 
,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 !re 0  an incl9ation to
 ! supposition t ! ,deluge took place   
ab\t two  ?\s& ye>s aft] ! ,creation1 &1
 aft] ano!r int]val ( two  ?\s& ye>s1   
,*ri/ 0 born4 ,p]sons :o _h giv5 mu*    
att5tion  to ! subject affirm$ t !re 7 n
 less ?an "o hundr$  & ?irty-two diff]5t
 op9ions z to ! ye> 9 :i* ! ,messiah    
appe>$1 & h5ce !y decl>$ t x 0 inexp$i5t
 to press =  acceptance ! ,scriptural   
numb]s too closely1 s9ce x 0 pla91  f ! 
great diff]5ces 9 diff]5t copies1 t !re 
_h be5 no  provid5tial int]v5tion to    
p]petuate a correct read+1 nor 0 !re    
any m>k by :i* m5 c\ld be guid$ to !    
only au!ntic v]sion4  ,ev5 ^? held 9 !  
highe/ e/eem conta9$ und5iable errors4  
,?us  ! ,septuag9t made ,me?uselah live 
until aft] ! ,deluge4    ,x 0 ?\ght t1 9
 ! ant$iluvian _w1 ! ye> consi/$  ( ?ree
 hundr$ & sixty days4 ,"s ev5 affirm$ t 
?is 0  ! orig9 ( ! division ( ! circle  
into ?ree hundr$ & sixty  degrees4 ,at !

 "t ( ! ,deluge1 s _m !ologians decl>$1 
!  motion ( ! sun 0 alt]$1 & ! ye>      
became five days & six  h\rs long]4 ,!re
 0 a preval5t op9ion t t /up5d\s ev5t   
occurr$ on ,novemb] #b;d1 9 ! ye> ( ! _w
 #afef4 ,dr4 ,:i/on1  h[ev]1 dispos$ to 
great] precision1 incl9$ to po/pone x to
  ,novemb] #bh?4 ,"s ?\ght t ! ra9b[ 0 n
 se5 until aft]  ! flood2 o!rs1 app>5tly
 ) bett] reason1 inf]r$ t x 0  !n fir/  
e/abli%$ z a sign4 ,on com+ =? f ! ark1 
m5  receiv$ p]mission to use fle% z     
food1 ! ant$iluvians hav+ be5           
h]bivor\s6 ,x w\ld seem t ! ,deluge _h n
 occasion$ any great  geographical      
*anges1 = ,noah1 rely+ on 8 ant$iluvian 
k1  proce$$ to divide ! e>? among 8 ?ree
 sons1 giv+ to ,japhet  ,europe1 to ,%em
 ,asia1 to ,ham ,africa4 ,no provision 0
 made = ,am]ica1  z he did n "k ( its   
exi/5ce4 ,^! patri>*s1 undet]r$ by !    
t]rible solitudes to :i* !y 7 go+1 by ! 
undra9$ swamps  & untrack$ =e/s1 j\rney$
 to _! allott$ possessions1 &  comm5c$ !
 settlem5t ( ! cont95ts4    ,9 sev5ty   

ye>s ! ,asiatic family _h increas$ to   
sev]al hundr$4  ,!y _h f\nd _! way to ! 
pla9s ( ,mesopotamia1 & !re1 =  "s      
motive t we _c div9e1 began build+ a t[]
 ^: top  might rea* to heav54 ,eusebius 
in=ms u t ! "w cont9u$ =  =ty ye>s4 ,!y 
did n ab&on x until a miracul\s         
confusion (  _! language took place &   
disp]s$ !m all ov] ! e>?4 ,/4  ,ambrose 
%[s t ?is confusion c\ld n h be5 br\ght 
ab\t by  m54 ,orig5 believes t n ev5 !  
angels accompli%$ x4    ,! confusion (  
tongues has giv5 rise to _m curi\s      
speculations  among div9es z to !       
primitive spee* ( man4 ,"s h ?\ght  t ! 
language ( ,adam consi/$ altoge!r (     
n\ns1 t !y 7  monosyllables1 & t !      
confusion 0 occasion$ by ! introduction 
( polysyllables4 ,b ^! le>n$ m5 mu/     
surely h ov]look$ !  num]\s conv]sations
 report$ 9 ,g5esis1 su* z ^? betwe5 !   
,almighty & ,adam1 ! s]p5t & ,eve1 etc4 
,9 ^! all ! v>i\s  p>ts ( spee* occur4  
,!re 01 h[ev]1 a co9cid5ce ( op9ion  t !
 primitive language 0 ,hebrew4 ,on !    

g5]al pr9ciples (  patri/icism1 x 0     
fitt+ t ?is %\ld be ! case4    ,! ,greek
 ,fa!rs comput$ t1 at ! "t ( !          
disp]sion1  sev5ty-two nations 7 =m$1 & 
9 ?is conclusion ,/4 ,augu/9e  co9cides4
 ,b difficulties seem to h be5 recogniz$
 9 ^!  computations2 ?us ! le>n$ ,dr4   
,%uck=d1 :o has treat$ v  elaborately on
 all ! =ego+ po9ts 9 8 excell5t "w ,on !
  ,sacr$ & ,pr(ane ,hi/ory ( ! ,_w      
connect$1 demon/rates t  !re c\ld n h   
be5 m ?an tw5ty-"o or tw5ty-two m51     
wom51  & *ildr51 9 ea* ( ^? k+doms4     
,a v vital po9t 9 ?is sy/em (           
*ronological computation1 bas$  ^u !    
ages ( ! patri>*s1 0 ! great l5g? ( life
 to :i*  ^? wor?ies atta9$4 ,x 0 g5]ally
 suppos$ t be=e ! ,flood  !re 0 a       
p]petual equ9ox1 & no vicissitudes 9    
,nature4 ,aft]  t ev5t ! /&>d ( life    
dim9i%$ "o-half1 & 9 ! "t (  ! ,psalmi/ 
x _h sunk to sev5ty ye>s1 at :i* x /ill 
rema9s4  ,au/]ities ( climate 7 affirm$ 
to h aris5 ?r\gh ! %ift+  ( ! e>?'s axis
 at ! ,flood1 & to ?is ill effect 7 add$

 !  noxi\s influ5ces ( t univ]sal       
cata/rophe1 :i*1 conv]t+ !  surface ( ! 
e>? into a va/ swamp1 gave rise to      
f]m5tations (  ! blood & a weak5+ ( !   
fibres4    ,) a view ( avoid+           
difficulties aris+ f ! extraord9>y  l5g?
 ( ! patri>*al lives1 c]ta9 div9es      
sugge/$ t !  ye>s spok5 ( by ! sacr$    
p5man 7 n ord9>y b lun> ye>s4  ,?is1    
?\gh x might br+ ! age ( ^? v5]able m5  
)9  ! rec5t t]m ( life1 introduc$1      
h[ev]1 ano!r insup]able  difficulty1    
s9ce x made !m h *ildr5 :5 only five or 
six ye>s  old4    ,sacr$ sci5ce1 z      
int]pret$ by ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur*1        
demon/rat$ ^! facts3 #a4 ,t ! date (    
,creation 0 comp>atively  rec5t1 n m ?an
 f\r or five ?\s& ye>s be=e ,*ri/2 #b4  
,t  ! act ( ,creation occupi$ ! space ( 
six ord9>y days2 #c4 ,t  ! ,deluge 0    
univ]sal1 & t ! animals :i* surviv$ x 7 
pres]v$ 9 an ark2 #d4 ,t ,adam 0 creat$ 
p]fect 9 morality &  intellig5ce1 t he  
fell1 & t 8 desc5dants h %>$ 9 8  s9 & 8
 fall4    ,( ^! po9ts & o!rs t might be 

m5tion$ !re 7 two on  :i* ecclesia/ical 
au?ority felt t x mu/ insi/4 ,^! 73  #a4
 ,! rec5t date ( ,creation2 =1 ! remot] 
t ev5t1 ! m  urg5t ! necessity (        
v9dicat+ ! ju/ice ( ,god1 :o app>5tly   
_h left ! majority ( our race to its    
fate1 & _h res]v$  salvation = ! few :o 
7 liv+ 9 ! clos+ ages ( !  _w2 #b4 ,!   
p]fect condition ( ,adam at 8 creation1 
s9ce ?is 0  necess>y to ! !ory ( ! fall1
 & ! plan ( salvation4    ,!ological    
au?orities 7 !re=e con/ra9$ to look )   
disfavor  on any attempt to c>ry back ! 
orig9 ( ! e>?1 to an epo*  indef9itely  
remote1 & on ! ,mohamm$an !ory ( !      
evolution  ( man f l[] =ms1 or 8 gradual
 developm5t to 8 pres5t  condition 9 !  
long lapse ( "t4      ,f ! pu]ilities1  
absurdities1 & contradictions ( ! =ego+ 
/atem5t1 we may ga!r h[ v unsatisfactory
 ?is s-call$ sacr$  sci5ce 04 ,& p]haps 
we may be br\ght to ! conclusion to  :i*
 ,dr4 ,%uck=d1 above quot$1 0 con/ra9$  
to come1 aft] 8  we>isome & unavail+    
attempt to coord9ate its v>i\s p>ts3 ,z 

to  ! ,fa!rs ( ! fir/ ages ( ! ,*ur*1 !y
 7 good m51 b n  m5 ( univ]sal le>n+4   
,sacr$ cosmogony reg>ds ! =mation &     
model+ ( ! e>? z !  direct act ( ,god2 x
 rejects ! int]v5tion ( second>y causes 
9  ^? ev5ts4    ,sci5tific cosmogony    
dates f ! telescopic discov]y made by   
,cass9i--an ,italian a/ronom]1 "u ^: c>e
 ,l\is ,,xiv4 plac$ !  ,obs]vatory (    
,p>is--t ! planet ,jupit] is n a sph]e1 
b  an oblate sph]oid1 flatt5$ at !      
poles4 ,me*anical philosophy  demon/rat$
 t su* a figure is ! necess>y result ( !
 rotation  ( a yield+ mass1 & t ! m     
rapid ! rotation ! great] !  flatt5+1   
or1 :at comes to ! same ?+1 ! great] !  
equatorial  bulg+ mu/ be4    ,f         
consid]ations--purely ( a me*anical     
k9d--,newton _h =ese5  t su* likewise1  
?\gh to a less /rik+ ext5t1 mu/ be !    
figure  ( ! e>?4 ,to ! protub]ant mass  
is due ! precession ( !  equ9oxes1 :i*  
requires tw5ty-five ?\s& eight hundr$ & 
sixty-eight ye>s = its completion1 &    
also ! nutation ( !  e>?'s axis1        

discov]$ by ,bradley4 ,we h already _h  
occasion to  rem>k t ! e>?'s equatorial 
diamet] exce$s ! pol> by ab\t  tw5ty-six
 miles4    ,two facts are reveal$ by !  
oblat5ess ( ! e>?3 #a4 ,t %e has  =m]ly 
be5 9 a yield+ or pla/ic condition2 #b4 
,t %e has be5  model$ by a me*anical &  
!re=e a second>y cause4    ,b ?is       
influ5ce ( me*anical causes is manife/$ 
n only 9  ! ext]ior configuration ( !   
globe ( ! e>? z a sph]oid (  revolution1
 x also pla9ly appe>s on an exam9ation (
 ! arrangem5t  ( h] sub/ance4    ,if we 
consid] ! aque\s rocks1 _! aggregate is 
_m miles 9  ?ickness2 yet !y und5iably h
 be5 ( sl[ deposit4 ,! mat]ial  ( :i* !y
 consi/ has be5 obta9$ by !             
dis9tegration ( anci5t  l&s2 x has f\nd 
its way into ! wat]-c\rses1 & by !m be5 
di/ribut$ anew4 ,effects ( ?is k9d1 tak+
 place be=e our eyes1  require a v      
consid]able lapse ( "t to produce a     
well-m>k$  result--a wat] deposit may 9 
?is mann] measure 9 ?ickness a few      
in*es 9 a c5tury--:at1 !n1 %all we say z

 to ! "t consum$ 9  ! =mation ( deposits
 ( _m ?\s& y>ds8    ,! position ( !     
coa/-l9e ( ,egypt has be5 kn[n = mu* m  
?an two ?\s& ye>s4 ,9 t "t x has made1  
by reason ( !  detritus br\ght d[n by ! 
,nile1 a di/9ctly-m>k$ encroa*m5t on  ! 
,m$it]ranean4 ,b all ,l[] ,egypt has _h 
a simil> orig94 ,!  coa/-l9e ne> ! m\? (
 ! ,mississippi has be5 well kn[n  =    
?ree hundr$ ye>s1 & dur+ t "t has       
sc>cely made a  p]ceptible advance on ! 
,gulf ( ,mexico2 b !re 0 a "t :5 !      
delta ( t riv] 0 at ,/4 ,l\is1 m ?an    
sev5 hundr$ miles  f its pres5t         
position4 ,9 ,egypt & 9 ,am]ica--9 fact1
 9 all  c\ntries--! riv]s h be5 in* by  
in* prolong+ ! l& into  ! sea2 ! sl[ness
 ( _! "w & ! va/ness ( its ext5t        
satisfy u t we mu/ conc$e = ! op]ation  
enorm\s p]iods (  "t4    ,to ! same     
conclusion we are br\ght if we consid] !
 fill+ (  lakes1 ! deposit ( trav]t9es1 
! d5udation ( hills1 !  cutt+ action ( !
 sea on its %ores1 ! und]m9+ ( cliffs1 !
  wea!r+ ( rocks by atmosph]ic wat] &   

c>bonic acid4    ,s$im5t>y /rata mu/ h  
be5 orig9ally deposit$ 9 planes ne>ly   
horizontal4 ,va/ numb]s ( !m h be5 =c$1 
ei!r by p>oxysms  at int]vals or by     
gradual movem5t1 into all mann] ( angul>
  incl9ations4 ,:atev] explanations we  
may (f] ( ^! innum]able  & imm5se tilts 
& fractures1 !y w\ld seem to dem& = _!  
completion an inconceivable l5g? ( "t4  
,! coal-be>+ /rata 9 ,wales1 by _!      
gradual subm]g5ce1 h  atta9$ a ?ickness 
( #ab1jjj feet2 9 ,nova ,scotia (       
#ad1egj feet4  ,s sl[ & s /eady 0 ?is   
subm]g5ce1 t erect trees /& "o  above   
ano!r on successive levels2 sev5te5 su* 
repetitions may be  c\nt$ 9 a ?ickness (
 #d1eae feet4 ,! age ( ! trees is prov$ 
by _! size1 "s be+ f\r feet 9 diamet]4  
,r\nd !m1 z !y  gradually w5t d[n ) !   
subsid+ soil1 calamites grew1 at "o     
level aft] ano!r4 ,9 ! ,sydney          
coal-field fifty-n9e fossil =e/s  occur 
9 sup]position4    ,m>9e %ells1 f\nd on 
m\nta9-tops f> 9 ! int]ior ( cont95ts1  
7 reg>d$ by !ological writ]s z an       

indisputable illu/ration (  ! ,deluge4  
,b :51 z geological /udies became m     
exact1 x 0  prov$ t 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>? va/
 fre%-wat] =mations are  repeat$ly      
int]calat$ ) va/ m>9e ones1 l ! leaves (
 a  book1 x became evid5t t no s+le     
cataclysm 0 suffici5t  to acc\nt = su*  
results2 t ! same region1 ?r\gh gradual 
v>iations ( its level & *anges 9 its    
topographical surr\nd+s1  _h sometimes  
be5 dry l&1 sometimes cov]$ ) fre% &    
sometimes  ) sea wat]4 ,x became evid5t 
also t1 = ! completion ( ^!  *anges1 t5s
 ( ?\s&s ( ye>s 7 requir$4    ,to ?is   
evid5ce ( a remote orig9 ( ! e>?1 d]iv$ 
f ! va/  sup]ficial ext5t1 ! enorm\s    
?ickness1 & ! v>i$ *>act]s (  its /rata1
 0 add$ an impos+ body ( pro( dep5d+ on 
its fossil  rema9s4 ,! relative ages (  
=mations hav+ be5 asc]ta9$1 x  0 %[n t  
!re has be5 an advanc+ physiological    
progression (  organic =ms1 bo?         
vegetable & animal1 f ! olde/ to ! mo/  
rec5t2 t ^? :i* inhabit ! surface 9 our 
times are b an  insignificant fraction (

 ! prodigi\s multitude t h inhabit$  x  
h]et(ore2 t = ea* species n[ liv+ !re   
are ?\s&s  t h become ext9ct4 ,?\gh     
special =mations are s /rik+ly          
*>act]iz$ by "s pr$om9at+ type ( life z 
to ju/ify su*  expressions z ! age (    
mollusks1 ! age ( reptiles1 ! age (     
mammals1 ! introduction ( ! new-com]s   
did n take place abruptly4  z by sudd5  
creation4 ,!y gradually em]g$ 9 an      
antec$5t age1  rea*$ _! culm9ation 9 !  
"o :i* !y *>act]ize1 & !n  gradually di$
 out 9 a succe$+4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z a 
sudd5 creation1 a sudd5 /range          
appe>ance--b !re is a sl[               
metamorphosis1 a sl[ developm5t f a     
preexi/+ =m4 ,"h aga9  we enc\nt] !     
necessity ( admitt+ = su* results long  
p]iods  ( "t4 ,)9 ! range ( hi/ory no   
well-m>k$ in/ance ( su*  developm5t has 
be5 witness$1 & we speak ) hesitation ( 
d\btful  in/ances ( ext9ction4 ,yet 9   
geological times myriads ( evolutions  &
 ext9ctions h occurr$4    ,s9ce ?us1 )9 
! exp]i5ce ( man1 no case (             

metamorphosis  or developm5t has be5    
obs]v$1 "s h be5 dispos$ to d5y its     
possibility altoge!r1 affirm+ t all !   
diff]5t species h  come into exi/5ce by 
sep>ate creative acts4 ,b surely x is   
less  unphilosophical to suppose t ea*  
species has be5 evolv$ f a  pr$ecessor  
by a modification ( its p>ts1 ?an t x   
has sudd5ly  />t$ into exi/5ce out (    
no?+4 ,nor is !re mu* weight 9  ! rem>k 
t no man has ev] witness$ su* a         
trans=mation tak+  place4 ,let x be     
rememb]$ t no man has ev] witness$ an   
act  ( creation1 ! sudd5 appe>ance ( an 
organic =m1 )\t any  prog5itor4         
,abrupt1 arbitr>y1 disconnect$ creative 
acts may s]ve to illu/rate  ! ,div9e    
p[]2 b t cont9u\s unbrok5 *a9 (         
organisms :i*  ext5ds f palaeozoic      
=mations to ! =mations ( rec5t times1 a 
*a9 9 :i* ea* l9k hangs on a prec$+ &   
su/a9s a succe$+  "o1 demon/rates to u n
 only t ! production ( animat$ be+s  is 
gov]n$ by law1 b t x is by law t has    
und]gone no *ange4  ,9 its op]ation1    

?r\gh myriads ( ages1 !re has be5 no    
v>iation1  no susp5sion4    ,! =ego+    
p>agraphs may s]ve to indicate ! "* ( a 
portion ( ! evid5ce ) :i* we mu/ deal 9 
consid]+ !  problem ( ! age ( ! e>?4    
,?r\gh ! un9t]mitt+ labors (  geologi/s1
 s imm5se a mass has be5 accumulat$1 t  
_m volumes  w\ld be requir$ to conta9 ! 
details4 ,x is drawn f ! ph5om5a        
pres5t$ by all k9ds ( rocks1 aque\s1    
igne\s1 metamorphic4 ,(  aque\s rocks x 
inve/igates ! ?ickness1 ! incl9$        
positions1  & h[ !y re/ uncon=mably on  
"o ano!r2 h[ ^? t are (  fre%-wat] orig9
 are int]calat$ ) ^? t are m>9e2 h[  va/
 masses ( mat]ial h be5 remov$ by       
sl[-act+ causes (  d5udation1 & ext5sive
 geographical surfaces h be5 remodel$2  
h[  cont95ts h und]gone movem5ts (      
elevation & depression1 _!  %ores sunk  
"u ! ocean1 or sea-bea*es & sea-cliffs  
c>ri$ f>  into ! int]ior4 ,x consid]s ! 
zoological & botanical facts1 !  fauna &
 flora ( ! successive ages1 & h[ 9 an   
ord]ly mann] !  *a9 ( organic =ms1      

plants1 & animals1 has be5 ext5d$1 f its
  dim & d\btful beg9n+s to our own      
times4 ,f facts pres5t$ by  ! deposits (
 coal-coal :i*1 9 all its v>ieties1 has 
orig9at$  f ! decay ( plants--x n only  
demon /rates ! *anges t  h tak5 place 9 
! e>?'s atmosph]e1 b also univ]sal      
*anges  ( climate4 ,f o!r facts x proves
 t !re h be5 oscillations  ( temp]ature1
 p]iods 9 :i* ! mean heat has ris51 &   
p]iods  9 :i* ! pol> ices & sn[s h cov]$
 l>ge portions ( !  exi/+               
cont95ts--glacial p]iods1 z !y are t]m$4
    ,"o s*ool ( geologi/s1 re/+ its     
argum5t on v impos+  evid5ce1 tea*es t !
 :ole mass ( ! e>?1 f be+ 9 a  molt51 or
 p]haps a vapor\s condition1 has cool$  
by radiation 9 !  lapse ( millions (    
ages1 until x has rea*$ its pres5t      
equilibrium  ( temp]ature4 ,a/ronomical 
obs]vations give great weight to ?is    
int]pretation1 especially s f> z !      
planet>y bodies ( ! sol>  sy/em are     
conc]n$4 ,x is also support$ by su*     
facts z ! small  mean d5sity ( ! e>?1 ! 

increas+ temp]ature at increas+  dep?s1 
! ph5om5a ( volcanoes & inject$ ve9s1 & 
^? (  igne\s & metamorphic rocks4 ,to   
satisfy ! physical *anges :i*  ?is s*ool
 ( geologi/s contemplates1 myriads (    
c5turies are  requir$4    ,b1 ) ! views 
t ! adoption ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em has   
giv5  u1 x is pla9 t we _c consid] !    
orig9 & biography ( !  e>? 9 an isolat$ 
way2 we mu/ include ) h] all ! o!r      
memb]s  ( ! sy/em or family to :i* %e   
belongs4 ,nay1 m1 we _c  re/rict        
ourselves to ! sol> sy/em2 we mu/       
embrace 9 our  discussions ! />ry       
worlds4 ,&1 s9ce we h become famili>iz$ 
) _! almo/ immeasurable di/ances f "o   
ano!r1 we are  prep>$ to accept = _!    
orig9 an immeasurably remote "t4 ,!re   
are />s s f> (f t _! light1 fa/ z x     
travels1 has tak5  ?\s&s ( ye>s to rea* 
u1 & h5ce !y mu/ h be5 9  exi/5ce _m    
?\s&s ( ye>s ago4    ,geologi/s hav+    
unanim\sly agre$--= p]haps !re is n a   
s+le  diss5t+ voice--t ! *ronology ( !  
e>? mu/ be greatly  ext5d$1 attempts h  

be5 made to give precision to x4 ,"s (  
^! h be5 bas$ on a/ronomical1 "s on     
physical pr9ciples4 ,?us  calculations  
f\nd$ on ! kn[n *anges ( ! ecc5tricity (
 !  e>?'s orbit1 ) a view ( det]m9+ !   
lapse ( "t s9ce !  beg9n+ ( ! la/       
glacial p]iod1 h giv5 two hundr$ &  =ty 
?\s& ye>s4 ,?\gh ! g5]al po/ulate ( !   
imm5sity (  geological times may be     
conc$$1 su* calculations are on too     
unc]ta9  a !oretical basis to furni%    
inconte/able results4    ,b1 consid]+ ! 
:ole subject f ! pres5t sci5tific       
/&-po9t1 x is v cle> t ! views pres5t$  
by !ological  writ]s1 z d]iv$ f !       
,mosaic record1 _c be admitt$4 ,attempts
  h be5 repeat$ly made to reconcile !   
reveal$ ) ! discov]$  facts1 b !y h     
prov$ to be unsatisfactory4 ,! ,mosaic  
"t is  too %ort1 ! ord] ( creation      
incorrect1 ! div9e int]v5tions  too     
an?ropomorphic2 &1 ?\gh ! pres5tm5t ( ! 
subject is 9  h>mony ) ! ideas t m5 h   
ent]ta9$1 :5 fir/ _!  m9ds 7 turn$ to ! 
acquisition ( natural k1 x is n 9       

accordance ) _! pres5t conceptions ( !  
insignificance ( !  e>? & ! gr&eur ( !  
univ]se4      ,among late geological    
discov]ies is "o ( special int]e/2 x is 
!  detection ( human rema9s & human     
works 9 =mations :i*1 ?\gh  geologically
 rec5t1 are hi/orically v remote4    ,! 
fossil rema9s ( m51 ) rude implem5ts (  
r\gh or *ipp$  fl9t1 ( poli%$ /one1 (   
bone1 ( bronze1 are f\nd 9 ,europe 9    
caves1 9 drifts1 9 peat-b$s4 ,!y        
indicate a savage life1 sp5t 9  hunt+ & 
fi%+4 ,rec5t rese>*es give reason to    
believe t1  "u l[ & base grades1 !      
exi/5ce ( man c be trac$ back into  !   
t]ti>y times4 ,he 0 contempor>y ) !     
s\!rn elephant1  ! rh9oc]os leptorh9us1 
! great hippopotamus1 p]haps ev5 9 !    
mioc5e contempor>y ) ! ma/odon4    ,at !
 close ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 f causes n yet
 det]m9$1 !  ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e und]w5t 
a great depression ( temp]ature4 ,f  a  
torrid x pass$ to a glacial condition4  
,aft] a p]iod ( prodigi\s  l5g?1 !      
temp]ature aga9 rose1 & ! glaci]s t _h s

  ext5sively cov]$ ! surface rec$$4     
,once m !re 0 a decl9e  9 ! heat1 & !   
glaci]s aga9 advanc$1 b ?is "t n s f>  z
 =m]ly4 ,?is u%]$ 9 ! ,quat]n>y p]iod1  
dur+ :i* v  sl[ly ! temp]ature came to  
its pres5t degree4 ,! wat] deposits  t 7
 be+ made requir$ ?\s&s ( c5turies = _! 
completion4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,quat]n>y  
p]iod !re 7  alive ! cave-be>1 !        
cave-lion1 ! amphibi\s hippopotamus1 !  
rh9oc]os ) *amb]$ no/rils1 ! mammo?4 ,9 
fact1 ! mammo?  sw>m$4 ,he delight$ 9 a 
boreal climate4 ,by degrees ! re9de]1 ! 
horse1 ! ox1 ! bison1 multipli$1 &      
disput$ ) him 8 food4  ,p>tly = ?is     
reason1 & p>tly because ( ! increas+    
heat1 he  became ext9ct4 ,f middle      
,europe1 also1 ! re9de] retir$4 ,8      
dep>ture m>ks ! end ( ! ,quat]n>y p]iod4
    ,s9ce ! adv5t ( man on ! e>?1 we h1 
!re=e1 to deal )  p]iods ( incalculable 
l5g?4 ,va/ *anges 9 ! climate & fauna  7
 produc$ by ! sl[ op]ation ( causes su* 
z are 9 action at  ! pres5t day4        
,figures _c enable u to appreciate ^!   

enorm\s  lapses ( "t4    ,x seems to be 
satisfactorily e/abli%$1 t a race alli$ 
to !  ,basques may be trac$ back to !   
,neoli?ic age4 ,at t "t !  ,briti%      
,isl&s 7 und]go+ a *ange ( level1 l t at
 pres5t  occurr+ 9 ! ,sc&9avian         
,p59sula4 ,scotl& 0 ris+1 ,engl&  0     
s9k+4 ,9 ! ,plei/oc5e age !re exi/$ 9   
,c5tral ,europe a  rude race ( hunt]s & 
fi%]s closely alli$ to ! ,esquimaux4    
,9 ! old glacial drift ( ,scotl& !      
relics ( man are f\nd along  ) ^? ( !   
fossil elephant4 ,?is c>ries u back to t
 "t  above ref]r$ to1 :5 a l>ge portion 
( ,europe 0 cov]$ ) ice1  :i* _h edg$   
d[n f ! pol> regions to s\!rly          
latitudes1 &1  z glaci]s1 desc5d$ f !   
summits ( ! m\nta9-*a9s into !  pla9s4  
,c\ntless species ( animals p]i%$ 9 ?is 
cataclysm ( ice  & sn[1 b man surviv$4  
,9 8 primitive savage condition1 liv+ = 
! mo/ "p on fruits1  roots1 %ell-fi%1   
man 0 9 possession ( a fact :i* 0 c]ta9 
ev5tually to insure 8 civilization4 ,he 
knew h[ to make a fire4 ,9  peat-b$s1 "u

 ! rema9s ( trees t 9 ^? localities h   
long ago become ext9ct1 8 relics are    
/ill f\nd1 ! implem5ts  t accompany him 
indicat+ a di/9ct *ronological ord]4    
,ne> !  surface are ^? ( bronze1 l[] d[n
 ^? ( bone or horn1 /ill  l[] ^? (      
poli%$ /one1 & b5ea? all ^? ( *ipp$ or  
r\gh  /one4 ,! date ( ! orig9 ( "s ( ^! 
b$s _c be e/imat$  at less ?an =ty or   
fifty ?\s& ye>s4    ,! caves t h be5    
exam9$ 9 ,france & else:]e h furni%$  = 
! ,/one age axes1 knives1 lance & arr[  
po9ts1 scrap]s1  hamm]s4 ,! *ange f :at 
may be t]m$ ! *ipp$ to ! poli%$  /one   
p]iod is v gradual4 ,x co9cides ) !     
dome/ication ( !  dog1 an epo* 9        
hunt+-life4 ,x embraces ?\s&s (         
c5turies4 ,!  appe>ance ( arr[-heads    
indicates ! inv5tion ( ! b[1 &  ! rise (
 man f a def5sive to an (f5sive mode (  
life4 ,!  introduction ( b>b$ arr[s %[s 
h[ inv5tive tal5t 0 display+  itself2   
bone & horn tips1 t ! huntsman 0 includ+
 small]  animals1 & p]haps birds1 9 8   
*ase2 bone :i/les1 8  companion%ip ) o!r

 huntsm5 or ) 8 dog4 ,! scrap+-knives  (
 fl9t indicate ! use ( sk9 = clo?+1 &   
rude bodk9s &  ne$les its manufacture4  
,%ells p]=at$ = bracelets & necklaces   
prove h[ soon a ta/e = p]sonal adornm5t 
0 acquir$2 !  implem5ts necess>y = !    
prep>ation ( pigm5ts sugge/ !  pa9t+ ( !
 body1 & p]haps tattoo+2 & batons ( rank
 be>  witness to ! beg9n+ ( a social    
organization4    ,) ! utmo/ int]e/ we   
look ^u ! fir/ g]ms ( art among ^!      
primitive m54 ,!y h left its rude       
sket*es on pieces ( ivory &  flakes (   
bone1 & c>v+s1 ( ! animals contempor>y )
 !m4 ,9  ^! prehi/oric del9eations1     
sometimes n )\t _s1 we h  mammo?s1      
combats ( re9de]4 ,"o pres5ts u ) a man 
h>poon+ a  fi%1 ano!r a hunt+-sc5e (    
nak$ m5 arm$ ) ! d>t4 ,man is  ! only   
animal :o has ! prop5sity ( depict+     
ext]nal =ms1 &  ( avail+ himself ( ! use
 ( fire4    ,%ell-m\nds1 consi/+ ( bones
 & %ells1 "s ( :i* may be  ju/ly        
describ$ z ( va/ ext5t1 & ( a date      
ant]ior to ! ,bronze  age1 & full ( /one

 implem5ts1 be> 9 all _! p>ts           
indications  ( ! use ( fire4 ,^! are (t5
 adjac5t to ! exi/+ coa/s  sometimes1   
h[ev]1 !y are f> inl&1 9 c]ta9 in/ances 
z f>  z fifty miles4 ,_! cont5ts &      
position indicate = !m a date  po/]ior  
to t ( ! great ext9ct mammals1 b prior  
to !  dome/icat$4 ,"s ( ^!1 x is said1  
_c be less ?an "o hundr$  ?\s& ye>s old4
    ,! lake-dwell+s 9 ,switz]l&--huts   
built on piles or logs1 wattl$  )       
b\ghs--71 z may be inf]r$ f ! accompany+
 implem5ts1  begun 9 ! ,/one age1 &     
cont9u$ into t ( ,bronze4 ,9 ! latt]    
p]iod ! evid5ces become num]\s ( !      
adoption ( an agricultural  life4    ,x 
mu/ n be suppos$ t ! p]iods into :i*    
geologi/s h  f\nd x conv5i5t to divide !
 progress ( man 9 civilization are      
abrupt epo*s1 :i* hold good             
simultane\sly = ! :ole human race4  ,?us
 ! w&]+ ,indians ( ,am]ica are only at !
 pres5t mom5t  em]g+ f ! ,/one age4 ,!y 
are /ill to be se5 9 _m places  arm$ )  
arr[s1 tipp$ ) flakes ( fl9t4 ,x is b z 

ye/]day  t "s h obta9$1 f ! :ite man1   
iron1 fire-arms1 & !  horse4    ,s f> z 
inve/igations h gone1 !y indisputably   
ref] !  exi/5ce ( man to a date remote f
 u by _m hundr$s ( ?\s&s  ( ye>s4 ,x mu/
 be borne 9 m9d t ^! inve/igations are q
  rec5t1 & conf9$ to a v limit$         
geographical space4 ,no rese>*es  h yet 
be5 made 9 ^? regions :i* might         
reasonably be reg>d$  z ! primitive     
habitat ( man4    ,we are ?us c>ri$ back
 immeasurably beyond ! six ?\s& ye>s (  
,patri/ic *ronology4 ,x is difficult to 
assign a %ort] date = !  la/ glaciation 
( ,europe ?an a qu>t] ( a million (     
ye>s1 &  human exi/5ce ant$ates t4 ,b n 
only is x ?is gr& fact t  confronts u1  
we h to admit also a primitive animaliz$
 /ate1 & a  sl[1 a gradual developm5t4  
,b ?is =lorn1 ?is savage condition  (   
humanity is 9 /rong contra/ to !        
p>adisiacal happ9ess ( !  g>d5 ( ,ed51  
&1 :at is f> m s]i\s1 x is inconsi/5t ) 
! !ory ( ! ,fall4      ,i h be5 induc$  
to place ! subject ( ?is *apt] out ( its

  prop] *ronological ord]1 = ! sake (   
pres5t+ :at ,i _h to  say respect+ !    
nature ( ! _w m completely by itself4 ,!
  discussions t arose z to ! age ( ! e>?
 7 long aft] !  conflict z to ! crit]ion
 ( tru?--t is1 aft] ! ,re=mation2       
inde$1 !y 7 sub/antially includ$ 9 !    
pres5t c5tury4 ,!y  h be5 conduct$ ) s  
mu* mod]ation z to ju/ify ! t]m  ,i h   
us$ 9 ! title ( ?is *apt]1 ,controv]sy1 
r ?an  ,conflict4 ,geology has n _h to  
enc\nt] ! v9dictive opposition  ) :i*   
a/ronomy 0 assail$1 &1 ?\gh1 on h] "p1  
%e has  insi/$ on a concession ( great  
antiquity = ! e>?1 %e has  h]self po9t$ 
out ! unreliability ( all num]ical      
e/imates ?us  f> (f]$4 ,! att5tive read]
 ( ?is *apt] _c h fail$ to  obs]ve      
inconsi/5cies 9 ! numb]s quot$4 ,?\gh   
want+ !  m]it ( exactness1 ^? numb]s1   
h[ev]1 ju/ify ! claim ( va/  antiquity1 
& draw u to ! conclusion t ! "t-scale ( 
!  _w answ]s to ! space-scale 9         
magnitude4        ,,*apt] ,,viii4       
,,conflict ,,respect+ ,,! ,,crit]ion ,,(

 ,,tru?4         ,anci5t philosophy     
decl>es t man has no means (            
asc]ta9+ ! tru?4         ,diff]5ces (   
belief arise among ! e>ly ,*ri/ians--,an
       ineffectual attempt is made to   
rem$y !m by ,c\ncils4--       ,miracle &
 ordeal pro( introduc$4         ,!      
papacy resorts to auricul> confession & 
!       ,inquisition4--,x p]petrates    
frightful atrocities = !                
suppression ( diff]5ces ( op9ion4       
,effect ( ! discov]y ( ! ,p&ects (      
,ju/9ian &       developm5t ( ! canon   
law on ! nature ( evid5ce4--,x          
becomes m sci5tific4         ,!         
,re=mation e/abli%es ! rights (         
individual       reason4--,ca?olicism   
ass]ts t ! crit]ion ( tru? is       9 ! 
,*ur*4 ,x re/ra9s ! read+ ( books by !  
,index ,expurgatorius1 & combats diss5t 
by su* means z       ! massacre ( ,/4   
,b>?olomew's ,eve4         ,exam9ation (
 ! au!nticity ( ! ,p5tateu* z !         
,prote/ant crit]ion4--,spuri\s "* ( ^?  
books4         ,= ,sci5ce ! crit]ion (  

tru? is to be f\nd 9 !       revelations
 ( ,nature3 = ! ,prote/ant1 x is 9 !    
,scriptures2 = ! ,ca?olic1 9 an         
infallible ,pope4      ,,:at is tru?8 0 
! passionate dem& ( a ,roman procurator 
on "o  ( ! mo/ mom5t\s occasions 9      
hi/ory4 ,& ! ,div9e ,p]son :o  /ood be=e
 him1 to :om ! int]rogation 0 address$1 
made no  reply--unless1 inde$1 sil5ce   
conta9$ ! reply4    ,(t5 & va9ly _h t   
dem& be5 made be=e--(t5 & va9ly has  x  
be5 made s9ce4 ,no "o has yet giv5 a    
satisfactory answ]4    ,:51 at ! dawn ( 
sci5ce 9 ,greece1 ! anci5t religion 0   
disappe>+ l a mi/ at sunrise1 ! pi\s &  
?\ghtful m5 (  t c\ntry 7 ?r[n into a   
condition ( intellectual despair4       
,anaxagoras pla9tively exclaims1 ,no?+ c
 be kn[n1 no?+ c be  le>n$1 no?+ c be   
c]ta91 s5se is limit$1 intellect is     
weak1  life is %ort4 ,x5ophanes tells u 
t x is impossible = u to be  c]ta9 ev5  
:5 we utt] ! tru?4 ,p>m5ides decl>es t !
  v con/itution ( man prev5ts him f     
asc]ta9+ absolute tru?4  ,emp$ocles     

affirms t all philosophical & religi\s  
sy/ems mu/  be unreliable1 because we h 
no crit]ion by :i* to te/ !m4           
,democritus ass]ts t ev5 ?+s t are true 
_c imp>t  c]ta9ty to u2 t ! f9al result 
( human inquiry is ! discov]y  t man is 
incapable ( absolute k2 t1 ev5 if ! tru?
 be  9 8 possession1 he _c be c]ta9 ( x4
 ,pyrrho bids u reflect  on ! necessity 
( susp5d+ our judgm5t ( ?+s1 s9ce we h  
no  crit]ion ( tru?2 s deep a di/ru/ did
 he imp>t to 8 foll[]s1  t !y 7 9 !     
habit ( say+1 ,we ass]t no?+2 no1 n ev5 
t we ass]t no?+4 ,epicurus taught 8     
disciples t tru? c  nev] be det]m9$ by  
reason4 ,arcesilaus1 d5y+ bo?           
intellectual &  s5su\s k1 publicly av[$ 
t he knew no?+1 n ev5 8  own ignorance6 
,! g5]al conclusion to :i* ,greek       
philosophy came 0  ?is--t1 9 view ( !   
contradiction ( ! evid5ce ( !  s5ses1 we
 _c di/+ui% ! true f ! false2 & su* is !
  imp]fection ( reason1 t we _c affirm !
 correctness ( any  philosophical       
d$uction4    ,x might be suppos$ t a    

revelation f ,god to man w\ld come )    
su* =ce & cle>ness z to settle all      
unc]ta9ties & ov]:elm  all opposition4  
,a ,greek philosoph]1 less despair+ ?an 
o!rs1 _h  v5tur$ to affirm t ! coexi/5ce
 ( two =ms ( fai?1 bo?  claim+ to be    
reveal$ by ! omnipot5t ,god1 proves t   
nei!r (  !m is true4 ,b let u rememb] t 
x is difficult = m5 to come  to ! same  
conclusion z reg>ds ev5 mat]ial &       
visible ?+s1  unless !y /& at ! same    
po9t ( view4 ,if discord & di/ru/  7 !  
condition ( philosophy ?ree hundr$ ye>s 
be=e ! bir?  ( ,*ri/1 discord & di/ru/ 7
 ! condition ( religion ?ree  hundr$    
ye>s aft] 8 dea?4 ,?is is :at ,hil>y1 ! 
,bi%op (  ,poicti]s1 9 8 well-kn[n      
passage writt5 ab\t ! "t ( !  ,nic5e    
,c\ncil1 says3    ,x is a ?+ equally    
deplorable & dang]\s t !re are1 z _m    
cre$s z op9ions among m51 z _m doctr9es 
z incl9ations1 & z  _m s\rces (         
blasphemy z !re are faults among u1     
because we make  cre$s arbitr>ily &     
expla9 !m z arbitr>ily4 ,e ye>1 nay1  e 

moon1 we make new cre$s to describe     
invisible my/]ies2 we  rep5t ( :at we h 
done2 we def5d ^? :o rep5t2 we          
ana!matize  ^? :om we def5d2 we condemn 
ei!r ! doctr9es ( o!rs 9  ourselves1 or 
our own 9 t ( o!rs2 &1 reciprocally te>+
 ea*  o!r to pieces1 we h be5 ! cause ( 
ea* o!r's ru94    ,^! are n m]e words2 b
 ! import ( ?is self-accusation c  be   
realiz$ fully only by su* z are famili> 
) ! ecclesia/ical  hi/ory ( ^? times4 ,z
 soon z ! fir/ f]vor ( ,*ri/ianity z a  
sy/em ( b5evol5ce _h decl9$1 diss5sions 
appe>$4 ,ecclesia/ical  hi/orians ass]t 
t z e>ly z ! second c5tury began !      
conte/  betwe5 fai? & reason1 religion &
 philosophy1 piety & g5ius4 ,to  compose
 ^! diss5sions1 to obta9 "s au?oritative
 expression1 "s  crit]ion ( tru?1       
assemblies = consultation 7 resort$ to1 
:i*  ev5tually took ! =m ( c\ncils4 ,= a
 long "t !y _h no?+  m ?an an advisory  
au?ority2 b1 :51 9 ! f\r? c5tury1       
,*ri/ianity _h atta9$ to imp]ial rule1  
_! dictates became  compulsory1 be+     

en=c$ by ! civil p[]4 ,by ?is ! :ole    
face  ( ! ,*ur* 0 *ang$4 ,oecum5ical    
c\ncils--p>liam5ts (                    
,*ri/ianity--consi/+ ( delegates f all !
 *ur*es 9 !  _w1 7 summon$ by ! au?ority
 ( ! emp]or2 he presid$ ei!r  p]sonally 
or nom9ally 9 !m--compos$ all diff]5ces1
 & 01 9  fact1 ! ,pope ( ,*ri/5dom4     
,mo%eim1 ! hi/orian1 to :om ,i h  m     
p>ticul>ly ref]r$ above1 speak+ ( ^!    
times1 rem>ks  t !re 0 no?+ to exclude !
 ignorant f ecclesia/ical  pref]m5t2 !  
savage & illit]ate p>ty1 :o look$ on all
 k9ds  ( le>n+1 p>ticul>ly philosophy1 z
 p]nici\s to piety1 0  increas+2 &1     
accord+ly1 ! disputes c>ri$ on 9 !      
,c\ncil  ( ,nicea (f]$ a rem>kable      
example ( ! greate/ ignorance &  utt]   
confusion ( ideas1 p>ticul>ly 9 !       
language & explanations  ( ^? :o approv$
 ( ! decisions ( t c\ncil4 ,va/ z its   
influ5ce has be51 ! anci5t critics are  
nei!r agre$ conc]n+  ! "t nor place 9   
:i* x 0 assembl$1 ! numb] ( ^? :o  sat 9
 x1 nor ! bi%op :o presid$4 ,no au!ntic 

acts ( its fam\s  s5t5ce h be5 committ$ 
to writ+1 or1 at lea/1 none h be5       
transmitt$ to our times4 ,! ,*ur* _h n[ 
become :at1 9 !  language ( mod]n       
politicians1 w\ld be call$ a conf$]at$  
republic4 ,! w ( ! c\ncil 0 det]m9$ by a
 majority vote1  &1 to secure t1 all    
mann] ( intrigues & impositions 7       
resort$ to2 ! influ5ce ( c\rt females1  
brib]y1 & viol5ce1 7  n sp>$4 ,! ,c\ncil
 ( ,nicea _h sc>cely adj\rn$1--:5 x 0   
pla9 to all imp>tial m5 t1 z a me?od (  
e/abli%+ a crit]ion  ( tru? 9 religi\s  
matt]s1 su* c\ncils 7 a total failure4  
,!  m9ority _h no rights :i* ! majority 
ne$ respect4 ,! prote/ (  _m good m51 t 
a m]e majority vote giv5 by delegates1  
^: "r  to vote _h nev] be5 exam9$ &     
au?oriz$1 c\ld n be receiv$  z asc]ta9+ 
absolute tru?1 0 pass$ ov] ) contempt1 &
 !  consequ5ce 01 t c\ncil 0 assembl$   
aga9/ c\ncil1 & _!  j>r+ & contradictory
 decrees spread p]plexity & confusion   
?r\gh\t ! ,*ri/ian _w4 ,9 ! f\r? c5tury 
alone !re 7  ?irte5 c\ncils adv]se to   

,arius1 fifte5 9 8 favor1 & sev5te5  = !
 semi-,arians--9 all1 =ty-five4         
,m9orities 7 p]petually  attempt+ to use
 ! weapon :i* majorities _h abus$4    ,!
 imp>tial ecclesia/ical hi/orian above  
quot$1 moreov]1 says  t two mon/r\s &   
calamit\s errors 7 adopt$ 9 ?is f\r?    
c5tury3 #a4 ,t x 0 an act ( virtue to   
deceive & lie :51 by  t means1 ! int]e/s
 ( ! ,*ur* might be promot$4 #b4 ,t     
errors 9 religion1 :5 ma9ta9$ & adh]$ to
 aft] prop]  admonition1 7 puni%able )  
civil p5alties & corporal tortures4     
,n )\t a/oni%m5t c we look back at :at1 
9 ^? times1 7  popul>ly reg>d$ z crit]ia
 ( tru?4 ,doctr9es 7 consid]$  z        
e/abli%$ by ! numb] ( m>tyrs :o _h      
pr(ess$ !m1 by  miracles1 by !          
confession ( demons1 ( lunatics1 or (   
p]sons  possess$ ( evil spirits3 ?us1   
,/4 ,ambrose1 9 8 disputes ) !  ,arians1
 produc$ m5 possess$ by devils1 :o1 on !
 approa* ( !  relics ( c]ta9 m>tyrs1    
ackn[l$g$1 ) l\d cries1 t !  ,nicean    
doctr9e ( ! ?ree p]sons ( ! ,godhead 0  

true4 ,b  ! ,arians *>g$ him ) suborn+  
^! inf]nal witnesses ) a  weighty bribe4
 ,already1 ordeal tribunals 7 mak+ _!   
appe>ance4  ,dur+ ! foll[+ six c5turies 
!y 7 held z a f9al resort =  e/abli%+   
guilt or innoc5ce1 "u ! =ms ( trial by  
cold wat]1  by duel1 by ! fire1 by !    
cross4    ,:at an utt] ignorance ( !    
nature ( evid5ce & its laws h we  "h6   
,an accus$ man s9ks or swims :5 ?r[n    
into a pond ( wat]2  he is burnt or     
escapes unh>m$ :5 he holds a piece (    
r$-hot iron  9 8 h&2 a *ampion :om he   
has hir$ is vanqui%$ or vanqui%es 9     
s+le fight2 he c keep 8 arms out/ret*$ l
 a cross1 or fails  to d s long] ?an 8  
accus]1 & 8 innoc5ce or guilt ( "s      
imput$ crime is e/abli%$6 ,are ^!       
crit]ia ( tru?8    ,is x surpris+ t all 
,europe 0 fill$ ) impo/ure miracles     
dur+ ^? ages8--miracles t are a disgrace
 to ! common-s5se (  man6    ,b !       
inevitable day came at l5g?4 ,ass]tions 
& doctr9es bas$  ^u su* prepo/]\s       
evid5ce 7 involv$ 9 ! discr$it t fell   

^u ! evid5ce itself4 ,z ! ?irte5? c5tury
 is approa*$1 we  f9d unbelief 9 all    
directions sett+ 94 ,fir/1 x is pla9ly  
se5  among ! mona/ic ord]s1 !n x spreads
 rapidly among ! common  p4 ,books1 su* 
z ,! ,ev]la/+ ,gospel1 appe> among !    
=m]2 sects1 su* z ! ,ca?>i/s1 ,wald5ses1
 ,petrobrussians1 arise  among ! latt]4 
,!y agre$ 9 ?is1 t ! public & e/abli%$  
religion 0 a motley sy/em ( errors &    
sup]/itions1 & t !  dom9ion :i* ! pope  
_h usurp$ ov] ,*ri/ians 0 unlawful &    
tyrannical2 t ! claim put =? by ,rome1 t
 ! ,bi%op ( ,rome is  ! supreme "l ( !  
univ]se1 & t nei!r pr9ces nor bi%ops1   
civil gov]nors nor ecclesia/ical rul]s1 
h any lawful p[] 9  *ur* or /ate b :at  
!y receive f him1 is utt]ly )\t         
f\ndation1 & a usurpation ( ! rights (  
man4    ,to )/& ?is flood ( impiety1 !  
papal gov]nm5t e/abli%$ two             
in/itutions3 #a4 ,! ,inquisition2 #b4   
,auricul> confession--! latt] z  a means
 ( detection1 ! =m] z a tribunal =      
puni%m5t4    ,9 g5]al t]ms1 ! commission

 ( ! ,inquisition 01 to extirpate       
religi\s diss5t by t]rorism1 & surr\nd  
h]esy ) ! mo/  horrible associations2   
?is necess>ily impli$ ! p[] ( det]m9+   
:at con/itutes h]esy4 ,! crit]ion ( tru?
 0 ?us 9 possession  ( ?is tribunal1 :i*
 0 *>g$ to discov] & br+ to judgm5t     
h]etics lurk+ 9 t[ns1 h\ses1 cell>s1    
woods1 caves1 & fields4  ,) su* savage  
alacrity did x c>ry out its object (    
protect+ !  int]e/s ( religion1 t betwe5
 #adha & #ahjh x _h puni%$ ?ree  hundr$ 
& =ty ?\s& p]sons1 & ( ^! ne>ly         
?irty-two  ?\s& _h be5 burnt6 ,9 its    
e>li] days1 :5 public op9ion c\ld  f9d  
no means ( prote/+ aga9/ its atrocities1
 x (t5 put to  dea?1 )\t appeal1 on ! v 
day t !y 7 accus$1 nobles1  cl]ks1      
monks1 h]mits1 & lay p]sons ( e rank4 ,9
 :atev]  direction ?\ghtful m5 look$1 ! 
air 0 full ( fe>ful %ad[s4 ,no  "o c\ld 
indulge 9 fre$om ( ?\ght )\t expect+    
puni%m5t4 ,s  dreadful 7 ! proce$+s ( ! 
,inquisition1 t ! exclamation  (        
,pagli>ici 0 ! exclamation ( ?\s&s3 ,x  

is h>dly possible  = a man to be a      
,*ri/ian1 & die 9 8 b$4    ,!           
,inquisition de/roy$ ! sect>ies ( ,s\!rn
 ,france 9 !  ?irte5? c5tury4 ,its      
unscrupul\s atrocities extirpat$        
,prote/antism  9 ,italy & ,spa94 ,nor   
did x conf9e itself to religi\s affairs2
 x  engag$ 9 ! suppression ( political  
discont5t4 ,nicolas ,eym]ic1 :o  0      
inquisitor-g5]al ( ! k+dom ( ,aragon =  
ne>ly fifty ye>s1  & :o di$ 9 #acii1 has
 left a frightful /atem5t ( its conduct 
&  appall+ cruelties 9 8 ,directorium   
,inquisitorum4    ,?is disgrace (       
,*ri/ianity1 & inde$ ( ! human race1 _h 
diff]5t con/itutions 9 diff]5t c\ntries4
 ,! papal ,inquisition  cont9u$ !       
tyranny1 & ev5tually sup]s$$ ! old      
episcopal  inquisitions4 ,! au?ority ( !
 bi%ops 0 unc]emoni\sly put aside  by ! 
(fic]s ( ! pope4    ,by ! action ( !    
f\r? ,lat]an ,c\ncil1 ,a4,d4 #abae1 !   
p[] (  ! ,inquisition 0 frightfully     
increas$1 ! necessity ( private         
confession to a prie/--auricul>         

confession--be+ at t "t  =mally         
e/abli%$4 ,?is1 s f> z dome/ic life 0   
conc]n$1 gave  omnipres5ce & omnisci5ce 
to ! ,inquisition4 ,n a man 0 safe4  ,9 
! h&s ( ! prie/1 :o1 at ! confessional1 
c\ld extract or  extort f !m _! mo/     
secret ?\ghts1 8 wife & 8 s]vants  7    
turn$ into spies4 ,summon$ be=e ! dread 
tribunal1 he 0  simply in=m$ t he lay "u
 /rong suspicions ( h]esy4 ,no  accus] 0
 nam$2 b ! ?umb-screw1 ! /ret*+-rope1 ! 
boot  & w$ge1 or o!r eng9]y ( torture1  
soon suppli$ t defect1 &1  innoc5t or   
guilty1 he accus$ himself6    ,not)/&+  
all ?is p[]1 ! ,inquisition fail$ ( its 
purpose4  ,:5 ! h]etic c\ld no long]    
confront x1 he evad$ x4 ,a dismal       
disbelief /eal?ily p]vad$ all           
,europe1--a d5ial ( ,provid5ce1  ( !    
immortality ( ! s\l1 ( human free-w1 & t
 man c  possibly resi/ ! absolute       
necessity1 ! de/9y :i* envelops him4    
,ideas su* z ^! 7 *]i%$ 9 sil5ce by     
multitudes ( p]sons  driv5 to !m by !   
tyrannical acts ( ecclesia/icism4 ,9    

spite (  p]secution1 ! ,wald5ses /ill   
surviv$ to propagate _! decl>ation  t ! 
,roman ,*ur*1 s9ce ,con/ant9e1 _h       
deg5]at$ f its  purity & sanctity2 to   
prote/ aga9/ ! sale ( indulg5ces1 :i*   
!y said _h ne>ly aboli%$ pray]1 fa/+1   
alms2 to affirm t x  0 utt]ly useless to
 pray = ! s\ls ( ! dead1 s9ce !y mu/    
already h gone ei!r to heav5 or hell4   
,?\gh x 0 g5]ally  believ$ t philosophy 
or sci5ce 0 p]nici\s to ! int]e/s (     
,*ri/ianity or true piety1 ! ,mohamm$an 
lit]ature !n prevail+  9 ,spa9 0 mak+   
conv]ts among all classes ( society4 ,we
 see v  pla9ly its influ5ce 9 _m ( !    
sects t !n arose2 ?us1 !  ,bre?r5 &     
,si/]s ( ! ,free4 ,_s held t ! univ]se  
came  by emanation f ,god1 & w\ld f9ally
 return to him by absorption2  t        
rational s\ls are s _m portions ( !     
,supreme ,deity2 & t  ! univ]se1        
consid]$ z "o great :ole1 is ,god4 ,^!  
are ideas  t c only be ent]ta9$ 9 an    
advanc$ intellectual condition4 ,(  ?is 
sect x is said t _m suff]$ burn+ )      

uncl\d$ s]5ity1  ) triumphant feel+s (  
*e]fulness & joy4 ,_! or?odox enemies   
accus$ !m ( gratify+ _! passions at     
midnight assemblages 9  d>k5$ rooms1 to 
:i* bo? sexes 9 a condition ( nudity    
repair$4 ,a  simil> accusation1 z is    
well kn[n1 0 br\ght aga9/ ! primitive   
,*ri/ians by ! fa%ionable society (     
,rome4    ,! influ5ces ( ! ,av]roi/ic   
philosophy 7 app>5t 9 _m (  ^! sects4 ,t
 ,mohamm$an sy/em1 consid]$ f a ,*ri/ian
 po9t  ( view1 l$ to ! h]etical belief t
 ! end ( ! precepts (  ,*ri/ianity is ! 
union ( ! s\l ) ! ,supreme ,be+2 t ,god 
& ,nature h ! same relations to ea* o!r 
z ! s\l & !  body2 t !re is b "o        
individual intellig5ce2 & t "o s\l      
p]=ms all ! spiritual & rational        
functions 9 all ! human race4  ,:51     
subsequ5tly1 t[>d ! "t ( ! ,re=mation1 !
 ,italian  ,av]roi/s 7 requir$ by !     
,inquisition to give an acc\nt (        
!mselves1 !y attempt$ to %[ t !re is a  
wide di/9ction  betwe5 philosophical &  
religi\s tru?2 t ?+s may be             

philosophically true1 & yet !ologically 
false--an exculpatory device  condemn$  
at l5g? by ! ,lat]an ,c\ncil 9 ! "t (   
,leo ,x4    ,b1 9 spite ( auricul>      
confession1 & ! ,inquisition1 ^!        
h]etical t5d5cies surviv$4 ,x has be5   
truly said t1 at !  epo* ( ! ,re=mation1
 !re lay conceal$1 9 _m p>ts ( ,europe1 
p]sons :o ent]ta9$ ! mo/ virul5t enmity 
aga9/ ,*ri/ianity4  ,9 ?is p]nici\s     
class 7 _m ,ari/otelians1 su* z         
,pomponatius2  _m philosoph]s & wits1   
su* z ,bod91 ,rabelais1 ,montaigne2 _m  
,italians1 z ,leo ,x41 ,bembo1 ,bruno4  
,miracle-evid5ce began to fall into     
discr$it dur+ ! elev5? &  twelf?        
c5turies4 ,! s>casms ( !                
,hispano-,moori% philosoph]s  _h =cibly 
drawn ! att5tion ( _m ( ! m enlight5$   
ecclesia/ics to its illusory nature4 ,! 
discov]y ( ! ,p&ects  ( ,ju/9ian1 at    
,amalfi1 9 #aacj1 d\btless ex]t$ a v    
p[]ful  influ5ce 9 promot+ ! /udy (     
,roman jurisprud5ce1 &  dissem9at+ bett]
 notions z to ! "* ( legal or           

philosophical evid5ce4 ,hallam has ca/  
"s d\bt on ! well-kn[n  /ory ( ?is      
discov]y1 b he admits t ! celebrat$ copy
 9 !  ,laur5tian libr>y1 at ,flor5ce1 is
 ! only "o conta9+ ! entire  fifty      
books4 ,tw5ty ye>s subsequ5tly1 ! monk  
,gratian collect$  toge!r ! v>i\s papal 
edicts1 ! canons ( c\ncils1 !           
decl>ations ( ! ,fa!rs & ,doctors ( !   
,*ur*1 9 a volume  call$ ,! ,decretum1  
consid]$ z ! e>lie/ au?ority 9 canon    
law4 ,9 ! next c5tury ,gregory ,,ix4    
publi%$ five books ( ,decretals1  &     
,boniface ,,viii4 subsequ5tly add$ a    
six?4 ,to ^! foll[$ !  ,clem5t9e        
,con/itutions1 a sev5? book (           
,decretals1 & ,a ,book (  ,in/itutes1   
publi%$ toge!r1 by ,gregory ,,xiii41 9  
#aehj1 "u !  title ( ,corpus ,juris     
,canonici4 ,! canon law _h gradually    
ga9$  enorm\s p[] ?r\gh ! control x _h  
obta9$ ov] wills1 !  gu>dian%ip (       
orphans1 m>riages1 & divorces4    ,!    
rejection ( miracle-evid5ce1 & !        
sub/itution ( legal  evid5ce 9 its /ead1

 accel]at$ ! approa* ( ! ,re=mation4 ,no
  long] 0 x possible to admit !         
requirem5t :i*1 9 =m] days1  ,anselm1 ! 
,ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury1 9 8 treatise1   
,cur ,deus ,homo1  _h en=c$1 t we mu/   
fir/ believe )\t exam9ation1 &  may     
aft]w>d endeavor to und]/& :at we h ?us 
believ$4 ,:5  ,cajetan said to ,lu!r1   
,?\ mu/ believe t "o s+le drop (        
,*ri/'s blood is suffici5t to r$eem !   
:ole human race1 & !  rema9+ quantity t 
0 %$ 9 ! g>d5 & on ! cross 0 left  z a  
legacy to ! pope1 to be a treasure f :i*
 indulg5ces 7  to be drawn1 ! s\l ( !   
/urdy ,g]man monk revolt$ aga9/ su*  a  
mon/r\s ass]tion1 nor w\ld he h believ$ 
x ?\gh a ?\s&  miracles _h be5 work$ 9  
its support4 ,?is %ameful practice (    
sell+ indulg5ces = ! commission ( s9    
orig9at$ among !  bi%ops1 :o1 :5 !y _h  
ne$ ( money = _! private pleasures1     
obta9$ x 9 t way4 ,abbots & monks1 to   
:om ?is ga9ful comm]ce  0 d5i$1 rais$   
funds by c>ry+ ab\t relics 9 solemn     
procession1  & *>g+ a fee = t\*+ !m4 ,! 

popes1 9 _! pecuni>y  /raits1 p]ceiv+ h[
 lucrative ! practice might become1     
depriv$  ! bi%ops ( ! "r ( mak+ su*     
sales1 & appropriat$ x to  !mselves1    
e/abli%+ ag5cies1 *iefly among !        
m5dicant ord]s1  = ! traffic4 ,among ^! 
ord]s !re 0 a %>p competition1 ea*      
boa/+ ( ! sup]ior value ( its indulg5ces
 ?r\gh its great]  influ5ce at ! c\rt ( 
heav51 its famili> connection ) !       
,virg9 ,m>y & ! sa9ts 9 glory4 ,ev5     
aga9/ ,lu!r himself1 :o  _h be5 an      
,augu/9ian monk1 a calumny 0 circulat$ t
 he 0  fir/ ali5at$ f ! ,*ur* by a      
traffic ( ?is k9d hav+ be5  conf]r$ on !
 ,dom9icans1 in/ead ( on 8 own ord]1 at 
! "t  :5 ,leo ,x4 0 rais+ funds by ?is  
means = build+ ,/4 ,pet]'s1 at  ,rome1  
,a4,d4 #aeag4 & !re is reason to ?9k t  
,leo himself1 9 !  e>li] /ages ( !      
,re=mation1 atta*$ weight to t          
allegation4    ,indulg5ces 7 ?us !      
imm$iate incit+ cause ( ! ,re=mation1  b
 v soon !re came into light ! real      
pr9ciple t 0  animat+ ! controv]sy4 ,x  

lay 9 ! "q1 ,does ! ,bible owe  its     
au!nticity to ! ,*ur*8 or does ! ,*ur*  
owe h] au!nticity  to ! ,bible8 ,:]e is 
! crit]ion ( tru?8    ,x is n necess>y =
 me "h to relate ! well kn[n p>ticul>s (
  t controv]sy1 ! desolat+ w>s & sc5es (
 blood to :i* x  gave rise3 h[ ,lu!r    
po/$ on ! door ( ! ca!dral ( ,wittemb]g 
n9ety-five !ses1 & 0 summon$ to ,rome to
 answ] = 8 (f5se2  h[ he appeal$ f !    
pope1 ill-in=m$ at ! "t1 to ! pope  :5  
he %\ld h be5 bett] in/ruct$2 h[ he 0   
condemn$ z a  h]etic1 & !reupon appeal$ 
to a g5]al c\ncil2 h[1 ?r\gh !  disputes
 ab\t purgatory1 transub/antiation1     
auricul> confession1  absolution1 !     
fundam5tal idea :i* lay at ! bottom ( ! 
:ole  movem5t came into relief1 ! "r (  
individual judgm5t2 h[ ,lu!r  0 n[      
excommunicat$1 ,a4,d4 #aebj1 & 9        
defiance burnt ! bull (  excommunication
 & ! volumes ( ! canon law1 :i* he      
d5\nc$ z  aim+ at ! subv]sion ( all     
civil gov]nm5t1 & ! exaltation (  !     
papacy2 h[ by ?is skillful manoeuvre he 

br\ght ov] _m ( !  ,g]man pr9ces to 8   
views2 h[1 summon$ be=e ! ,imp]ial ,diet
 at  ,worms1 he refus$ to retract1 &1   
:ile he 0 bidd5 9 ! ca/le (  ,w>tburg1 8
 doctr9es 7 spread+1 & a re=mation "u   
,zw+li  broke out 9 ,switz]l&2 h[ !     
pr9ciple ( sect>ian decomposition       
emb$d$ 9 ! movem5t gave rise to         
rivalries & diss5sions betwe5  ! ,g]mans
 & ! ,swiss1 & ev5 divid$ ! latt] among 
!mselves  "u ! lead]%ip ( ,zw+li & (    
,calv92 h[ ! ,conf]5ce (  ,m>burg1 !    
,diet ( ,spires1 & t at ,augsburg1 fail$
 to compose  ! tr\bles1 & ev5tually !   
,g]man ,re=mation assum$ a political    
organization at ,smalcalde4 ,! qu>rels  
betwe5 ! ,lu!rans & !  ,calv9i/s gave   
hopes to ,rome t %e might recov] h]     
losses4    ,leo 0 n sl[ to disc]n t !   
,lu!ran ,re=mation 0 some?+  m s]i\s ?an
 a squabble among "s monks ab\t ! pr(its
 (  indulg5ce-sales1 & ! papacy set     
itself s]i\sly at "w to  ov]come !      
revolt]s4 ,x in/igat$ ! frightful w>s t 
= s  _m ye>s desolat$ ,europe1 & left   

animosities :i* nei!r !  ,treaty (      
,we/phalia1 nor ! ,c\ncil ( ,tr5t aft]  
eighte5 ye>s (  debate1 c\ld compose4   
,no "o c read )\t a %udd] ! attempts  t 
7 made to ext5d ! ,inquisition 9 =eign  
c\ntries4 ,all  ,europe1 ,ca?olic &     
,prote/ant1 0 horror-/rick5 at !        
,hugu5ot  massacre ( ,/4 ,b>?olomew's   
,eve 7,a4,d4 #aegb74 ,= p]fidy &        
atrocity  x has no equal 9 ! annals ( ! 
_w4    ,! desp]ate attempt 9 :i* !      
papacy _h be5 engag$ to put d[n  its    
oppon5ts by in/igat+ civil w>s1         
massacres1 & assass9ations1  prov$ to be
 altoge!r abortive4 ,nor _h ! ,c\ncil ( 
,tr5t any  bett] result4 ,o/5sibly      
summon$ to correct1 illu/rate1 & fix )  
p]spicacity ! doctr9e ( ! ,*ur*1 to     
re/ore ! vigor (  its discipl9e1 & to   
re=m ! lives ( its m9i/]s1 x 0 s        
manipulat$ t a l>ge majority ( its      
memb]s 7 ,italians1 &  "u ! influ5ce ( !
 pope4 ,h5ce ! ,prote/ants c\ld n       
possibly accept its decisions4    ,!    
issue ( ! ,re=mation 0 ! acceptance by  

all ! ,prote/ant  ,*ur*es ( ! dogma t ! 
,bible is a suffici5t guide = e         
,*ri/ian man4 ,tradition 0 reject$1 & ! 
"r ( private  int]pretation assur$4 ,x 0
 ?\ght t ! crit]ion ( tru? _h  at l5g?  
be5 obta9$4    ,! au?ority ?us imput$ to
 ! ,scriptures 0 n re/rict$  to matt]s (
 a purely religi\s or moral k9d2 x      
ext5d$ ov]  philosophical facts & to !  
int]pretation ( ,nature4 ,_m w5t z  f> z
 9 ! old times ,epiphanius _h done3 he  
believ$ t ! ,bible  conta9$ a complete  
sy/em ( m9]alogy6 ,! ,re=m]s w\ld       
tol]ate  no sci5ce t 0 n 9 accordance ) 
,g5esis4 ,among !m !re  7 _m :o ma9ta9$ 
t religion & piety c\ld nev] fl\ri%     
unless sep>at$ f le>n+ & sci5ce4 ,!     
fatal maxim t !  ,bible conta9$ ! sum & 
sub/ance ( all k1 useful or  possible to
 man--a maxim employ$ ) su* p]nici\s    
effect ( old by  ,t]tullian & by ,/4    
,augu/9e1 & :i* _h s (t5 be5 en=c$  by  
papal au?ority--0 /ill /rictly insi/$   
^u4 ,! lead]s (  ! ,re=mation1 ,lu!r &  
,melan*?on1 7 det]m9$ to bani%          

philosophy f ! ,*ur*4 ,lu!r decl>$ t !  
/udy ( ,ari/otle  is :olly useless2 8   
vilification ( t ,greek philosoph] knew 
no  b\nds4 ,he is1 says ,lu!r1 truly a  
devil1 a horrid calumniator1 a  wick$   
sycophant1 a pr9ce ( d>kness1 a real    
,apollyon1 a bea/1 a  mo/ horrid impo/or
 on mank9d1 "o 9 :om !re is sc>cely any 
philosophy1 a public & pr(ess$ li>1 a   
goat1 a complete epicure1  ?is twice    
execrable ,ari/otle4 ,! s*oolm5 71 s    
,lu!r said1  locu/s1 cat]pill>s1 frogs1 
lice4 ,he ent]ta9$ an abhorr5ce  = !m4  
,^! op9ions1 ?\gh n s emphatically      
express$1 7  ent]ta9$ by ,calv94 ,s f> z
 sci5ce is conc]n$1 no?+ is ow$  to !   
,re=mation4 ,! ,procru/ean b$ ( !       
,p5tateu* 0 /ill  be=e h]4    ,9 !      
annals ( ,*ri/ianity ! mo/ ill-om5$ day 
is t 9 :i*  %e sep>at$ h]self f sci5ce4 
,%e compell$ ,orig51 at t "t  7,a4,d4   
#bca7 its *ief repres5tative & support] 
9 ! ,*ur*1 to  ab&on 8 *>ge 9 ,alex&ria1
 & retire to ,caes>ea4 ,9 va9  ?r\gh _m 
subsequ5t c5turies did h] lead+ m5 sp5d 

!mselves  9--z ! phrase !n w5t--draw+ =?
 ! int]nal juice &  m>r[ ( ! ,scriptures
 = ! expla9+ ( ?+s4 ,univ]sal  hi/ory f 
! ?ird to ! sixte5? c5tury %[s ) :at    
result4  ,! d>k ages owe _! d>kness to  
?is fatal policy4 ,"h & !re1  x is true1
 !re 7 great m51 su* z ,fr$]ick ,,ii4 & 
,alphonso ,x41  :o1 /&+ at a v elevat$ &
 g5]al po9t ( view1 _h detect$  ! value 
( le>n+ to civilization1 &1 9 ! mid/ ( !
 dre>y  prospect t ecclesia/icism _h    
creat$ ar\nd !m1 _h recogniz$  t sci5ce 
alone c improve ! social condition (    
man4    ,! infliction ( ! dea?-puni%m5t 
= diff]5ce ( op9ion 0  /ill resort$ to4 
,:5 ,calv9 caus$ ,s]vetus to be burnt at
 ,g5eva1 x  0 obvi\s to e "o t ! _s (   
p]secution 0 unimpair$4  ,! (f5se ( t   
philosoph] lay 9 8 belief4 ,?is 01 t !  
g5u9e doctr9es ( ,*ri/ianity _h be5 lo/ 
ev5 be=e ! "t (  ! ,c\ncil ( ,nicea2 t !
 ,holy ,gho/ animates ! :ole sy/em (    
,nature1 l a s\l ( ! _w1 & t1 ) ! ,*ri/1
 x w  be absorb$1 at ! end ( all ?+s1   
into ! sub/ance ( ! ,deity1  f :i* !y _h

 emanat$4 ,= ?is he 0 roa/$ to dea? ov] 
a  sl[ fire4 ,0 !re any di/9ction betwe5
 ?is ,prote/ant auto-da-fe  & ! ,ca?olic
 "o ( ,van9i1 :o 0 burnt at ,t\l\se1 by 
!  ,inquisition1 9 #afbi1 = 8 ,dialogues
 conc]n+ ,nature8    ,! inv5tion (      
pr9t+1 ! dissem9ation ( books1 _h       
introduc$  a class ( dang]s :i* !       
p]secution ( ! ,inquisition c\ld n      
rea*4 ,9 #aeei1 ,pope ,paul ,,iv4       
in/itut$ ! ,congregation ( ! ,index     
,expurgatorius4 ,its duty is to exam9e  
books & manuscripts int5d$  =           
publication1 & to decide :e!r ! p may be
 p]mitt$ to  read !m2 to correct ^?     
books ( :i* ! errors are n num]\s1  &   
:i* conta9 c]ta9 useful & salut>y tru?s1
 s z to br+  !m into h>mony ) ! doctr9es
 ( ! ,*ur*2 to condemn ^?  ( :i* !      
pr9ciples are h]etical & p]nici\s2 & to 
grant !  peculi> privilege ( p]us+      
h]etical books to c]ta9 p]sons4  ,?is   
congregation1 :i* is sometimes held 9   
pres5ce ( ! pope1 b  g5]ally 9 ! palace 
( ! ,c>d9al-presid5t1 has a m ext5sive  

jurisdiction ?an t ( ! ,inquisition1 z x
 n only takes  cognizance ( ^? books t  
conta9 doctr9es contr>y to ! ,roman     
,ca?olic fai?1 b ( ^? t conc]n ! duties 
( morality1 !  discipl9e ( ! ,*ur*1 !   
int]e/s ( society4 ,its "n is d]iv$  f !
 alphabetical tables or indexes (       
h]etical books & au?ors  compos$ by its 
appo9tm5t4    ,! ,index ,expurgatorius (
 prohibit$ books at fir/ indicat$  ^?   
works :i* x 0 unlawful to read2 b1 on   
?is be+ f\nd  insuffici5t1 :atev] 0 n   
p]mitt$ 0 prohibit$--an audaci\s        
attempt to prev5t all k1 except su* z   
suit$ ! purposes (  ! ,*ur*1 f rea*+ !  
p4    ,! two rival divisions ( !        
,*ri/ian ,*ur*--,prote/ant &            
,ca?olic--7 ?us 9 accord on "o po9t3 to 
tol]ate no sci5ce  except su* z !y      
consid]$ to be agreeable to !           
,scriptures4 ,!  ,ca?olic1 be+ 9        
possession ( c5traliz$ p[]1 c\ld make   
its  decisions respect$ :]ev] its sway 0
 ackn[l$g$1 & en=ce !  monitions ( !    
,index ,expurgatorius2 ! ,prote/ant1 ^: 

influ5ce  0 diffus$ among _m foci 9     
diff]5t nations1 c\ld n act 9 su*  a    
direct & resolute mann]4 ,its mode (    
proc$ure 01 by rais+ a  !ological odium 
aga9/ an (f5d]1 to put him "u a social  
ban--a  c\rse p]haps n less effectual   
?an ! o!r4    ,z we h se5 9 =m] *apt]s1 
an antagonism betwe5 religion &  sci5ce 
_h exi/$ f ! e>lie/ days ( ,*ri/ianity4 
,on e  occasion p]mitt+ its display x   
may be detect$ ?r\gh successive         
c5turies4 ,we witness x 9 ! d[nfall ( ! 
,alex&rian ,museum1 9  ! cases ( ,erig5a
 & ,wiclif1 9 ! contemptu\s rejection by
 !  h]etics ( ! ?irte5? c5tury ( !      
,scriptural acc\nt ( !  ,creation2 b x 0
 n until ! epo* ( ,cop]nicus1 ,kepl]1 & 
,galileo1 t ! ef=ts ( ,sci5ce to bur/ f 
! ?raldom 9 :i*  %e 0 fett]$ became     
uncontrollable4 ,9 all c\ntries !       
political  p[] ( ! ,*ur* _h greatly     
decl9$2 h] lead+ m5 p]ceiv$  t ! cl\dy  
f\ndation on :i* %e _h /ood 0 dissolv+  
away4  ,repressive measures aga9/ h]    
antagoni/s1 9 old times resort$  to )   

effect1 c\ld be no long] advantage\sly  
employ$4 ,to h]  int]e/s ! burn+ ( a    
philosoph] "h & !re did m h>m ?an  good4
 ,9 h] great conflict ) a/ronomy1 a     
conflict 9 :i* ,galileo  /&s z ! c5tral 
figure1 %e receiv$ an utt] ov]?r[2 &1 z 
we h se51 :5 ! immortal "w ( ,newton 0  
pr9t$1 %e c\ld  (f] no resi/ance1 ?\gh  
,leibnitz affirm$1 9 ! face ( ,europe1  
t ,newton _h robb$ ! ,deity ( "s ( 8 mo/
 excell5t  attributes1 & _h sapp$ !     
f\ndation ( natural religion4    ,f ! "t
 ( ,newton to our own "t1 ! div]g5ce (  
sci5ce f  ! dogmas ( ! ,*ur* has        
cont9ually increas$4 ,! ,*ur* decl>$  t 
! e>? is ! c5tral & mo/ important body 9
 ! univ]se2  t ! sun & moon & />s are   
tribut>y to x4 ,on ^! po9ts  %e 0 wor/$ 
by a/ronomy4 ,%e affirm$ t a univ]sal   
deluge _h  cov]$ ! e>?2 t ! only surviv+
 animals 7 su* z _h  be5 sav$ 9 an ark4 
,9 ?is h] error 0 e/abli%$ by geology4  
,%e  taught t !re 0 a fir/ man1 :o1 "s  
six or eight ?\s& ye>s  ago1 0 sudd5ly  
creat$ or call$ into exi/5ce 9 a        

condition (  physical & moral p]fection1
 & f t condition he fell4 ,b            
an?ropology has %[n t human be+s exi/$  
f> back 9 geological  "t1 & 9 a savage  
/ate b little bett] ?an t ( ! brute4    
,_m good & well-mean+ m5 h attempt$ to  
reconcile !  /atem5ts ( ,g5esis ) !     
discov]ies ( sci5ce1 b x is 9  va94 ,!  
div]g5ce has increas$ s mu*1 t x has    
become an  absolute opposition4 ,"o ( ! 
antagoni/s mu/ give way4    ,may we n1  
!n1 be p]mitt$ to exam9e ! au!nticity ( 
?is book1  :i*1 s9ce ! second c5tury1   
has be5 put =? z ! crit]ion (  sci5tific
 tru?8 ,to ma9ta9 itself 9 a position s 
exalt$1 x mu/  *all5ge human criticism4 
,9 ! e>ly ,*ri/ian ages1 _m ( ! mo/     
em95t ,fa!rs ( !  ,*ur* _h s]i\s d\bts  
respect+ ! au?or%ip ( ! entire          
,p5tateu*4 ,i h n space1 9 ! limit$     
compass ( ^! pages1 to  pres5t 9 detail 
! facts & argum5ts t 7 !n & h s9ce  be5 
adduc$4 ,! lit]ature ( ! subject is n[ v
 ext5sive4 ,i  may1 h[ev]1 ref] ! read] 
to ! "w ( ! pi\s & le>n$ ,dean          

,prideaux1 on ,! ,old & ,new ,te/am5t   
connect$1 a "w :i* is "o  ( ! lit]>y    
ornam5ts ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,he w also f9d 
!  subject m rec5tly & exhau/ively      
discuss$ by ,bi%op ,col5so4 ,!  foll[+  
p>agraphs w convey a suffici5tly di/9ct 
impression (  ! pres5t /ate ( !         
controv]sy3    ,! ,p5tateu* is affirm$  
to h be5 writt5 by ,moses1 "u !         
influ5ce ( div9e inspiration4 ,consid]$ 
?us1 z a record v\*saf$  & dictat$ by ! 
,almighty1 x comm&s n only sci5tific b  
univ]sal cons5t4    ,b "h1 9 ! fir/     
place1 x may be dem&$1 ,:o or :at is x t
  has put =? ?is great claim 9 its      
behalf8    ,n ! "w itself4 ,x n[h]e     
claims ! au?or%ip ( "o man1 or  makes ! 
impi\s decl>ation t x is ! writ+ (      
,almighty ,god4    ,n until aft] !      
second c5tury 0 !re any su* extravagant 
dem& on human cr$ulity4 ,x orig9at$1 n  
among ! high] ranks (  ,*ri/ian         
philosoph]s1 b among ! m f]vid ,fa!rs ( 
! ,*ur*1  ^: own writ+s prove !m to h   
be5 unle>n$ & uncritical  p]sons4    ,e 

age1 f ! second c5tury to our times1 has
 (f]$ m5 (  great ability1 bo? ,*ri/ian 
& ,jewi%1 :o h altoge!r repudiat$  ^!   
claims4 ,_! decision has be5 f\nd$ ^u ! 
intr9sic  evid5ce ( ! books !mselves4   
,^! furni% pla9 indications ( at  lea/  
two di/9ct au?ors1 :o h be5 respectively
 t]m$ ,elohi/ic  & ,jehovi/ic4 ,hupfeld 
ma9ta9s t ! ,jehovi/ic n>rative be>s    
m>ks ( hav+ be5 a second orig9al record1
 :olly indep5d5t ( !  ,elohi/ic4 ,! two 
s\rces f :i* ! n>ratives h be5 d]iv$    
are1 9 _m respects1 contradictory ( ea* 
o!r4 ,moreov]1 x is  ass]t$ t ! books ( 
! ,p5tateu* are nev] ascrib$ to ,moses  
9 ! inscriptions ( ,hebrew manuscripts1 
or 9 pr9t$ copies ( !  ,hebrew ,bible1  
nor are !y /yl$ ,books ( ,moses 9 !     
,septuag9t or  ,vulgate1 b only 9 mod]n 
translations4    ,x is cle> t !y _c be  
imput$ to ! sole au?or%ip ( ,moses1     
s9ce !y record 8 dea?4 ,x is cle> t !y 7
 n writt5  until _m hundr$ ye>s aft] t  
ev5t1 s9ce !y conta9 ref]5ces  to facts 
:i* did n occur until aft] ! e/abli%m5t 

( !  gov]nm5t ( k+s among ! ,jews4      
,no man may d>e to impute !m to !       
inspiration ( ,almighty ,god--_!        
inconsi/5cies1 incongruities1           
contradictions1 & impossibilities1 z    
expos$ by _m le>n$ & pi\s mod]ns1 bo?   
,g]man & ,engli%1  are s great4 ,x is ! 
decision ( ^! critics t ,g5esis is a    
n>rative bas$ ^u leg5ds2 t ,exodus is n 
hi/orically true2 t  ! :ole ,p5tateu* is
 unhi/oric & non-,mosaic2 x conta9s !   
mo/  extraord9>y contradictions &       
impossibilities1 suffici5t to involve  !
 cr$ibility ( ! :ole--imp]fections s _m 
& s conspicu\s  t !y w\ld de/roy !      
au!nticity ( any mod]n hi/orical "w4    
,h5g/5b]g1 9 8 ,diss]tations on !       
,g5u95ess ( !  ,p5tateu*1 says3 ,x is ! 
unavoidable fate ( a spuri\s hi/orical  
"w ( any l5g? to be involv$ 9           
contradictions4 ,?is mu/ be !  case to a
 v great ext5t ) ! ,p5tateu*1 if x be n 
g5u9e4  ,if ! ,p5tateu* is spuri\s1 its 
hi/ories & laws h be5  fabricat$ 9      
successive portions1 & 7 committ$ to    

writ+ 9 !  c\rse ( _m c5turies by       
diff]5t individuals4 ,f su* a mode (    
orig9ation1 a mass ( contradictions is  
insep>able1 & ! improv+  h& ( a lat]    
editor c\ld nev] be capable ( entirely  
oblit]at+  !m4    ,to ! above           
conclusions ,i may add t we are         
expressly told by ,ezra  7,esdras ii4   
#ad7 t he himself1 aid$ by five o!r     
p]sons1 wrote  ^! books 9 ! space ( =ty 
days4 ,he says t at ! "t ( !            
,babylonian captivity ! anci5t sacr$    
writ+s ( ! ,jews 7 burnt1  & gives a    
p>ticul> detail ( ! circum/ances "u :i* 
^!  7 compos$4 ,he sets =? t he und]took
 to write all t _h  be5 done 9 ! _w s9ce
 ! beg9n+4 ,x may be said t !  books (  
,esdras are apocryphal1 b 9 return x may
 be dem&$1 ,has  t conclusion be5 rea*$ 
on evid5ce t w )/& mod]n  criticism8 ,9 
! e>ly ages ( ,*ri/ianity1 :5 ! /ory ( !
 fall  ( man 0 n consid]$ z ess5tial to 
! ,*ri/ian sy/em1 & !  doctr9e ( !      
atonem5t _h n atta9$ t precision :i*    
,anselm  ev5tually gave x1 x 0 v g5]ally

 admitt$ by ! ,fa!rs ( !  ,*ur* t ,ezra 
probably did s compose ! ,p5tateu*4 ,?us
 ,/4 ,j]ome  says1 ,sive ,mosem dic]e   
volu]is auctorem ,p5tateu*i1 sive       
,esdram  ejusdem in/auratorem op]is1 non
 recuso4 ,clem5s ,alex&r9us  says t :5  
^! books _h be5 de/roy$ 9 ! captivity ( 
,nebu*adnezz>1 ,esdras1 hav+ become     
inspir$ prophetically1 reproduc$  !m4   
,ir5aeus says ! same4    ,! incid5ts    
conta9$ 9 ,g5esis1 f ! fir/ to ! t5?    
*apt]s  inclusive 7*apt]s :i*1 9 _! be>+
 ^u sci5ce1 are ( m  importance ?an o!r 
portions ( ! ,p5tateu*71 h be5 obvi\sly 
compil$ f %ort1 fragm5t>y leg5ds ( v>i\s
 au?or%ip4 ,to !  critical eye !y all1  
h[ev]1 pres5t peculi>ities :i*          
demon/rate  t !y 7 writt5 on ! banks ( !
 ,euphrates1 & n 9 !  ,des]t ( ,arabia4 
,!y conta9 _m ,*aldaisms4 ,an ,egyptian 
w\ld n  speak ( ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea z   
be+ we/ ( him1 an ,assyrian w\ld4  ,_!  
sc5]y & ma*9]y1 if su* expressions may )
 propriety be  us$1 are altoge!r        
,assyrian1 n ,egyptian4 ,!y 7 su*       

records z  "o might expect to meet ) 9 !
 cunei=m impressions ( !  tile libr>ies 
( ! ,mesopotamian k+s4 ,x is affirm$ t  
"o su*  leg5d1 t ( ! ,deluge1 has       
already be5 exhum$1 & x is n  beyond !  
b\nds ( probability t ! rema9d] may 9 l 
mann]  be obta9$4    ,f su* ,assyrian   
s\rces1 ! leg5ds ( ! creation ( ! e>? & 
heav51 ! g>d5 ( ,ed51 ! mak+ ( man f    
clay1 & ( woman  f "o ( 8 ribs1 !       
temptation by ! s]p5t1 ! nam+ (         
animals1 ! *]ubim & flam+ sword1 !      
,deluge & ! ark1 !  dry+ up ( ! wat]s by
 ! w9d1 ! build+ ( ! ,t[] (  ,babel1 & !
 confusion ( tongues1 7 obta9$ by ,ezra4
 ,he comm5ces  abruptly ! prop] hi/ory (
 ! ,jews 9 ! elev5? *apt]4 ,at t  po9t 8
 univ]sal hi/ory ceases2 he occupies    
himself ) ! /ory  ( "o family1 !        
desc5dants ( ,%em4    ,x is ( ?is       
re/riction t ! ,duke ( ,argyll1 9 8 book
 on  ,primeval ,man1 v graphically says3
    ,9 ! g5ealogy ( ! family ( ,%em we h
 a li/ ( names :i* are  names1 & no?+ m 
to u4 ,x is a g5ealogy :i* nei!r does1  

nor  pret5ds to d1 m ?an to trace ! ord]
 ( succession among a few  families     
only1 out ( ! millions !n already exi/+ 
9 ! _w4  ,no?+ b ?is ord] ( succession  
is giv51 nor is x at all c]ta9  t ?is   
ord] is consecutive or complete4 ,no?+  
is told u ( all  t lay beh9d t curta9 ( 
?ick d>kness1 9 front ( :i*  ^! names   
are made to pass2 & yet !re are1 z x 71 
mom5t>y  lift+s1 ?r\gh :i* we h glimpses
 ( great movem5ts :i* 7  go+ on1 & _h   
be5 long go+ on beyond4 ,no %apes are   
di/9ctly  se54 ,ev5 ! direction ( ^?    
movem5ts c only be guess$4 ,b  voices   
are he>d :i* are z ! voices ( _m wat]s4 
,i agree 9  ! op9ion ( ,hupfeld1 t !    
discov]y t ! ,p5tateu* is put  toge!r   
out ( v>i\s s\rces1 or orig9al docum5ts1
 is beyond  all d\bt n only "o ( ! mo/  
important & mo/ pregnant )  consequ5ces 
= ! int]pretation ( ! hi/orical books ( 
! ,old  ,te/am5t1 or r = ! :ole ( !ology
 & hi/ory1 b x is  also "o ( ! mo/ c]ta9
 discov]ies :i* h be5 made 9  ! doma9 ( 
criticism & ! hi/ory ( lit]ature4       

,:atev] !  anticritical p>ty may br+    
=w>d to ! contr>y1 x w ma9ta9  itself1 &
 n retrograde aga9 ?r\gh any ?+1 s long 
z !re  exi/s su* a ?+ z criticism2 & x w
 n be easy = a read]  ^u ! /age (       
culture on :i* we /& 9 ! pres5t day1 if 
he  goes to ! exam9ation unprejudic$1 & 
) an uncorrupt$ p[] (  appreciat+ !     
tru?1 to be able to w>d (f its influ5ce4
    ,:at !n8 %all we give up ^! books8  
,does n ! admission t !  n>rative ( !   
fall 9 ,ed5 is leg5d>y c>ry ) x !       
surr5d]  ( t mo/ solemn & sacr$ (       
,*ri/ian doctr9es1 ! atonem5t8    ,let u
 reflect on ?is6 ,*ri/ianity1 9 its     
e>lie/ days1 :5 x 0  conv]t+ & conqu]+ !
 _w1 knew little or no?+ ab\t t         
doctr9e4 ,we h se5 t1 9 8 ,apology1     
,t]tullian did n  ?9k x wor? 8 :ile to  
m5tion x4 ,x orig9at$ among ! ,gno/ic   
h]etics4 ,x 0 n admitt$ by ! ,alex&rian 
!ological s*ool4 ,x  0 nev] prom95tly   
advanc$ by ! ,fa!rs4 ,x 0 n br\ght into 
its pres5t comm&+ position until ! "t ( 
,anselm ,philo ,judaeus  speaks ( ! /ory

 ( ! fall z symbolical2 ,orig5 reg>d$ x 
z an  allegory4 ,p]haps "s ( !          
,prote/ant *ur*es may1 ) reason1 be     
accus$ ( inconsi/5cy1 s9ce 9 "p !y      
consid] x z my?ical1 9  "p real4 ,b1 if1
 ) !m1 we admit t ! s]p5t is symbolical 
( ,satan1 does n t ca/ an air ( allegory
 ov] ! :ole  n>rative8    ,x is to be   
regrett$ t ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* has burd5$  
itself )  ! def5se ( ^! books1 &        
volunt>ily made itself answ]able =  _!  
manife/ contradictions & errors4 ,_!    
v9dication1 if x  7 possible1 %\ld h be5
 resign$ to ! ,jews1 among :om !y       
orig9at$1 & by :om !y h be5 transmitt$  
to u4 ,/ill m1 x  is to be deeply       
regrett$ t ! ,p5tateu*1 a production s  
imp]fect  z to be unable to /& ! t\* (  
mod]n criticism1 %\ld be put  =? z !    
arbit] ( sci5ce4 ,let x be rememb]$ t ! 
exposure  ( ! true "* ( ^! books has be5
 made1 n by capti\s  enemies1 b by pi\s 
& le>n$ *ur*m51 "s ( !m ( ! highe/      
dignity4    ,:ile ?us ! ,prote/ant      
*ur*es h insi/$ on ! ackn[l$gm5t  ( !   

,scriptures z ! crit]ion ( tru?1 !      
,ca?olic has1 9 our  own times1 decl>$ !
 infallibility ( ! pope4 ,x may be said 
t  ?is infallibility applies only to    
moral or religi\s ?+s2 b :]e  %all ! l9e
 ( sep>ation be drawn8 ,onmisci5ce _c be
 limit$  to a re/rict$ gr\p ( que/ions2 
9 its v nature x implies !  k ( all1 &  
infallibility means omnisci5ce4         
,d\btless1 if ! fundam5tal pr9ciples (  
,italian ,*ri/ianity be  admitt$1 _!    
logical issue is an infallible pope4    
,!re is no ne$ to  dwell on !           
unphilosophical nature ( ?is conception2
 x is de/roy$  by an exam9ation ( !     
political hi/ory ( ! papacy1 & !        
biography ( ! popes4 ,! =m] exhibits all
 ! errors & mi/akes  to :i* in/itutions 
( a confess$ly human "* h be5 f\nd      
liable2 ! latt] is only too frequ5tly a 
/ory ( s9 & %ame4    ,x 0 n possible t !
 au?oritative promulgation ( ! dogma (  
papal infallibility %\ld meet among     
enlight5$ ,ca?olics univ]sal            
acceptance4 ,s]i\s & wide-spread diss5t 

has be5 produc$4 ,a  doctr9e s revolt+  
to common-s5se c\ld n f9d any o!r       
result4  ,!re are _m :o affirm t1 if    
infallibility exi/s any:]e1 x is  9     
oecum5ical c\ncils1 & yet su* c\ncils h 
n always agre$  ) ea* o!r4 ,!re are also
 _m :o rememb] t c\ncils  h depos$      
popes1 & h pass$ judgm5t on _! clamors &
  cont5tions4 ,n )\t reason d           
,prote/ants dem&1 ,:at pro( c  be giv5 t
 infallibility exi/s 9 ! ,*ur* at all8  
:at pro( is  !re t ! ,*ur* has ev] be5  
fairly or ju/ly repres5t$ 9  any c\ncil8
 & :y %\ld ! tru? be asc]ta9$ by ! vote 
( a  majority r ?an by t ( a m9ority8   
,h[ (t5 x has happ5$  t "o man1 /&+ at !
 "r po9t ( view1 has descri$ !  tru?1 &1
 aft] hav+ be5 d5\nc$ & p]secut$ by all 
o!rs1  !y h ev5tually be5 con/ra9$ to   
adopt 8 decl>ations6 ,( _m  great       
discov]ies1 has n ?is be5 ! hi/ory8     
,x is n = ,sci5ce to compose ^! conte/+ 
claims2 x is n =  h] to det]m9e :e!r !  
crit]ion ( tru? = ! religi\s man  %all  
be f\nd 9 ! ,bible1 or 9 ! oecum5ical   

c\ncil1 or 9 !  pope4 ,%e only asks !   
"r1 :i* %e s will+ly accords to o!rs1  (
 adopt+ a crit]ion ( h] own4 ,if %e     
reg>ds unhi/orical  leg5ds ) disda92 if 
%e consid]s ! vote ( a majority 9 !     
asc]ta9m5t ( tru? ) supreme indiff]5ce2 
if %e leaves !  claim ( infallibility 9 
any human be+ to be v9dicat$ by ! /]n   
logic ( com+ ev5ts--! cold impassiv5ess 
:i* 9 ^! matt]s  %e ma9ta9s is :at %e   
displays t[>d h] own doctr9es4 ,)\t     
hesitation %e w\ld give up ! !ories (   
gravitation or undulations1  if %e f\nd 
t !y 7 irreconcilable ) facts4 ,= h] !  
volume ( inspiration is ! book (        
,nature1 ( :i* ! op5 scroll  is ev]     
spread =? be=e ! eyes ( e man4          
,confront+ all1 x  ne$s no societies =  
its dissem9ation4 ,inf9ite 9 ext5t1     
et]nal  9 duration1 human ambition &    
human fanaticism h nev] be5 able  to    
tamp] ) x4 ,on ! e>? x is illu/rat$ by  
all t is  magnific5t & beautiful1 on !  
heav5s its lett]s are suns &  worlds4   
,,*apt] ,,ix4         ,,controv]sy      

,,respect+ ,,! ,,gov]nm5t ,,( ,,!       
,,univ]se4         ,!re are two         
conceptions ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! _w3 #a4    
,by ,provid5ce2 #b4 ,by ,law4--,! =m]   
ma9ta9$ by !       prie/hood4--,sket* ( 
! introduction ( ! latt]4         ,kepl]
 discov]s ! laws t preside ov] ! sol>   
sy/em4--,8 works are d5\nc$ by papal    
au?ority4--,!       f\ndations (        
me*anical philosophy are laid by ,da    
,v9ci4--       ,galileo discov]s !      
fundam5tal laws ( ,dynamics4--,newton   
applies !m to ! movem5ts ( ! cele/ial   
bodies1 &       %[s t ! sol> sy/em is   
gov]n$ by ma!matical                    
necessity4--,h]s*el ext5ds t conclusion 
to !       univ]se4--,! nebul>          
hypo!sis4--,!ological exceptions        
to x4         ,evid5ces ( ! control (   
law 9 ! con/ruction ( !       e>?1 & 9 !
 developm5t ( ! animal & plant          
s]ies4--,!y arose by ,evolution1 n by   
,creation4         ,! reign ( law is    
exhibit$ by ! hi/oric c>e] (       human
 societies1 & 9 ! case ( individual man4

         ,p>tial adoption ( ?is view by 
"s ( ! ,re=m$       ,*ur*es4      ,two  
int]pretations may be giv5 ( ! mode (   
gov]nm5t ( ! _w4  ,x may be by incessant
 div9e int]v5tions1 or by ! op]ation (  
unv>y+ law4    ,to ! adoption ( ! =m] a 
prie/hood w always incl9e1 s9ce  x mu/  
desire to be consid]$ z /&+ betwe5 !    
pray] ( !  vot>y & ! provid5tial act4   
,its importance is magnifi$ by !  p[] x 
claims ( det]m9+ :at t act %all be4 ,9 !
 pre  ,*ri/ian 7,roman7 religion1 ! gr& 
(fice ( ! prie/hood 0 !  discov]y (     
future ev5ts by oracles1 om5s1 or an    
inspection ( !  entrails ( animals1 & by
 ! (f]+ ( sacrifices to propitiate !    
gods4 ,9 ! lat]1 ! ,*ri/ian times1 a    
high] p[] 0 claim$2 !  cl]gy ass]t+ t1  
by _! int]cessions1 !y c\ld regulate !  
c\rse ( affairs1 av]t dang]s1 secure    
b5efits1 "w miracles1 &  ev5 *ange !    
ord] ( ,nature4    ,n )\t reason1 !re=e1
 did !y look ^u ! doctr9e (  gov]nm5t by
 unv>y+ law ) disfavor4 ,x seem$ to     
depreciate  _! dignity1 to less5 _!     

importance4 ,to !m !re 0 some?+  %ock+ 9
 a ,god :o _c be sway$ by human         
entreaty1 a cold1  passionless          
div9ity--some?+ frightful 9 fatalism1   
de/9y4    ,b ! ord]ly movem5t ( ! heav5s
 c\ld n fail 9 all ages to  make a deep 
impression on ?\ghtful obs]v]s--! ris+ &
 sett+  ( ! sun2 ! increas+ or dim9i%+  
light ( ! day2 ! wax+  & wan+ ( ! moon2 
! return ( ! seasons 9 _! prop]  c\rses2
 ! measur$ m>* ( ! w&]+ planets 9 !     
sky--:at  are all ^!1 & a ?\s& su*1 b   
manife/ations ( an ord]ly &  un*ang+    
procession ( ev5ts8 ,! fai? ( e>ly      
obs]v]s 9 ?is  int]pretation may p]haps 
h be5 %ak5 by ! occurr5ce ( su* a       
ph5om5on z an eclipse1 a sudd5 & my/]i\s
 brea* ( ! ord9>y  c\rse ( natural      
ev5ts2 b x w\ld be resum$ 9 t5fold /r5g?
 z  soon z ! discov]y 0 made t eclipses 
!mselves recur1 & may  be pr$ict$4      
,a/ronomical pr$ictions ( all k9ds dep5d
 ^u ! admission ( ?is  fact--t !re nev] 
has be5 & nev] w be any int]v5tion 9  ! 
op]ation ( natural laws4 ,! sci5tific   

philosoph] affirms t  ! condition ( ! _w
 at any giv5 mom5t is ! direct result  (
 its condition 9 ! prec$+ mom5t1 & !    
direct cause ( its  condition 9 !       
subsequ5t mom5t4 ,law & *ance are only  
diff]5t  names = me*anical necessity4   
,ab\t fifty ye>s aft] ! dea? (          
,cop]nicus1 ,john ,kepl]1 a native  (   
,wurtemb]g1 :o _h adopt$ ! helioc5tric  
!ory1 & :o 0  deeply impress$ ) ! belief
 t relation%ips exi/ 9 !  revolutions ( 
! planet>y bodies r\nd ! sun1 & t ^! if 
correctly exam9$ w\ld reveal ! laws "u  
:i* ^? movem5ts  take place1 devot$     
himself to ! /udy ( ! di/ances1 times1 &
  velocities ( ! planets1 & ! =m ( _!   
orbits4 ,8 me?od  01 to submit !        
obs]vations to :i* he _h access1 su* z  
^?  ( ,ty*o ,brahe1 to computations bas$
 fir/ on "o & !n on ano!r  hypo!sis1    
reject+ ! hypo!sis if he f\nd t !       
calculations  did n accord ) !          
obs]vations4 ,! incr$ible labor he _h   
und]gone 7he says1 ,i consid]$1 & ,i    
comput$1 until ,i almo/ w5t  mad7 0 at  

l5g? rew>d$1 & 9 #afji he publi%$ 8     
book1 ,on !  ,motions ( ! ,planet ,m>s4 
,9 ?is he _h attempt$ to reconcile !    
movem5ts ( t planet to ! hypo!sis (     
ecc5trics & epicycles1  b ev5tually     
discov]$ t ! orbit ( a planet is n a    
circle b  an ellipse1 ! sun be+ 9 "o ( !
 foci1 & t ! areas swept  ov] by a l9e  
drawn f ! planet to ! sun are           
proportional to !  times4 ,^! con/itute 
:at are n[ kn[n z ! fir/ & second laws  
( ,kepl]4 ,eight ye>s subsequ5tly1 he 0 
rew>d$ by ! discov]y  ( a ?ird law1     
def9+ ! relation betwe5 ! mean di/ances 
( !  planets f ! sun & ! times ( _!     
revolutions2 ! squ>es (  ! p]iodic times
 are proportional to ! cubes ( !        
di/ances4 ,9  ,an ,epitome ( !          
,cop]nican ,sy/em1 publi%$ 9 #afah1 he  
ann\nc$  ?is law1 & %[$ t x holds good =
 ! satellites ( ,jupit] z  reg>ds _!    
prim>y4 ,h5ce x 0 inf]r$ t ! laws :i*   
preside  ov] ! gr& movem5ts ( ! sol>    
sy/em preside also ov] ! less  movem5ts 
( its con/itu5t p>ts4    ,! conception (

 law :i* is unmi/akably convey$ by      
,kepl]'s  discov]ies1 & ! evid5ce !y    
gave 9 support ( ! helioc5tric  z aga9/ 
! geoc5tric !ory1 c\ld n fail to incur !
  repreh5sion ( ! ,roman au?orities4 ,! 
congregation ( ! ,index1  !re=e1 :5 !y  
d5\nc$ ! ,cop]nican sy/em z utt]ly      
contr>y  to ! ,holy ,scriptures1        
prohibit$ ,kepl]'s ,epitome ( t sy/em4  
,x  0 on ?is occasion t ,kepl] submitt$ 
8 celebrat$ remon/rance3  ,eighty ye>s h
 elaps$ dur+ :i* ! doctr9es ( ,cop]nicus
  reg>d+ ! movem5t ( ! e>? & !          
immobility ( ! sun h  be5 promulgat$ )\t
 h9d]ance1 because x 0 deem$ all[able to
  dispute conc]n+ natural ?+s1 & to     
elucidate ! works ( ,god1  & n[ t new   
te/imony is discov]$ 9 pro( ( ! tru? (  
^?  doctr9es--te/imony :i* 0 n kn[n to !
 spiritual judges--ye  w\ld prohibit !  
promulgation ( ! true sy/em ( ! /ructure
 (  ! univ]se4    ,none ( ,kepl]'s      
contempor>ies believ$ ! law ( ! areas1  
nor 0  x accept$ until ! publication ( !
 ,pr9cipia ( ,newton4 ,9 fact1  no "o 9 

^? times und]/ood ! philosophical mean+ 
( ,kepl]'s  laws4 ,he himself did n     
=esee :at !y mu/ inevitably lead to4 ,8 
mi/akes %[$ h[ f> he 0 f p]ceiv+ _!     
result4 ,?us he  ?\ght t ea* planet is !
 seat ( an intellig5t pr9ciple1 &  t !re
 is a relation betwe5 ! magnitudes ( !  
orbits ( !  five pr9cipal planets & !   
five regul> solids ( geometry4 ,at fir/ 
he incl9$ to believe t ! orbit ( ,m>s is
 oval1 nor 0 x until  aft] a we>isome   
/udy t he detect$ ! gr& tru?1 its       
elliptical  =m4 ,an idea ( !            
incorruptibility ( ! cele/ial objects _h
  l$ to ! adoption ( ! ,ari/otelian     
doctr9e ( ! p]fection (  circul>        
motions1 & to ! belief t !re 7 none b   
circul>  motions 9 ! heav5s4 ,he bitt]ly
 compla9s ( ?is z hav+ be5 a  fatal ?ief
 ( 8 "t4 ,8 philosophical d>+ is        
illu/rat$ 9  8 break+ ?r\gh ?is         
"t-honor$ tradition4    ,9 "s mo/       
important p>ticul>s ,kepl] anticipat$   
,newton4 ,he 0 !  fir/ to give cle>     
ideas respect+ gravity4 ,he says e      

p>ticle (  matt] w re/ until x is       
di/urb$ by "s o!r p>ticle--t !  e>?     
attracts a /one m ?an ! /one attracts ! 
e>?1 & t  bodies move to ea* o!r 9      
proportion to _! masses2 t ! e>?  w\ld  
asc5d to ! moon "o-fifty-f\r? ( !       
di/ance1 & ! moon  w\ld move t[>d ! e>? 
! o!r fifty-?ree4 ,he affirms t !       
moon's attraction causes ! tides1 & t ! 
planets mu/ impress  irregul>ities on ! 
moon's motions4    ,! progress (        
a/ronomy is obvi\sly divisible into ?ree
 p]iods3    #a4 ,! p]iod ( obs]vation ( 
! app>5t motions ( ! heav5ly  bodies4   
#b4 ,! p]iod ( discov]y ( _! real       
motions1 & p>ticul>ly (  ! laws ( !     
planet>y revolutions2 ?is 0 signally    
illu/rat$ by  ,cop]nicus & ,kepl]4      
#c4 ,! p]iod ( ! asc]ta9m5t ( ! causes (
 ^? laws4 ,x 0  ! epo* ( ,newton4    ,! 
passage ( ! second into ! ?ird p]iod    
dep5d$ on !  developm5t ( ! ,dynamical  
bran* ( me*anics1 :i* _h be5 9  a       
/agnant condition f ! "t ( ,ar*im$es or 
! ,alex&rian  ,s*ool4    ,9 ,*ri/ian    

,europe !re _h n be5 a cultivator (     
me*anical  philosophy until ,leon>do da 
,v9ci1 :o 0 born ,a4,d4 #adeb4 ,to him1 
&  n to ,"l ,bacon1 mu/ be attribut$ !  
r5aissance ( sci5ce4 ,bacon  0 n only   
ignorant ( ma!matics1 b depreciat$ its  
application  to physical inquiries4 ,he 
contemptu\sly reject$ ! ,cop]nican      
sy/em1  alleg+ absurd objections to x4  
,:ile ,galileo 0 on ! br9k (  8 great   
telescopic discov]ies1 ,bacon 0 publi%+ 
d\bts z to  ! utility ( in/rum5ts 9     
sci5tific inve/igations4 ,to ascribe !  
inductive me?od to him is to ignore     
hi/ory4 ,8 fanciful philosophical       
sugge/ions h nev] be5 ( ! slighte/      
practical use4 ,no "o has  ev] ?\ght (  
employ+ !m4 ,except among ,engli%       
read]s1 8 "n  is almo/ unkn[n4    ,to   
,da ,v9ci ,i %all h occasion to allude m
 p>ticul>ly on a  subsequ5t page4 ,( 8  
works /ill rema9+ 9 manuscript1 two     
volumes  are at ,milan1 & "o 9 ,p>is1   
c>ri$ !re by ,napoleon4 ,aft] an        
int]val ( ab\t sev5ty ye>s1 ,da ,v9ci 0 

foll[$ by ! ,dut*  eng9e]1 ,/ev9us1 ^:  
"w on ! pr9ciples ( equilibrium 0       
publi%$ 9 #aehf4 ,six ye>s aft]w>d      
appe>$ ,galileo's treatise on  me*anics4
    ,to ?is great ,italian is due !     
e/abli%m5t ( ! ?ree fundam5tal  laws (  
dynamics1 kn[n z ! ,laws ( ,motion4     
,! consequ5ces ( ! e/abli%m5t ( ^! laws 
7 v important4    ,x _h be5 suppos$ t   
cont9u\s movem5ts1 su*1 = in/ance1 z  ^?
 ( ! cele/ial bodies1 c\ld only be      
ma9ta9$ by a p]petual  consumption &    
p]petual application ( =ce1 b ! fir/ (  
,galileo's laws decl>$ t e body w       
p]sev]e 9 its /ate (  re/1 or ( uni=m   
motion 9 a "r l9e1 until x is compell$  
to  *ange t /ate by di/urb+ =ces4 ,a    
cle> p]ception ( ?is  fundam5tal        
pr9ciple is ess5tial to a compreh5sion (
 ! elem5t>y  facts ( physical a/ronomy4 
,s9ce all ! motions t we witness  tak+  
place on ! surface ( ! e>? soon come to 
an end1 we are  l$ to inf] t re/ is !   
natural condition ( ?+s4 ,we h made1    
!n1 a v great advance :5 we h become    

satisfi$ t a body is  equally indiff]5t 
to re/ z to motion1 & t x equally       
p]sev]es  9 ei!r /ate until di/urb+ =ces
 are appli$4 ,su* di/urb+  =ces 9 ! case
 ( common movem5ts are friction & !     
resi/ance  ( ! air4 ,:5 no su*          
resi/ances exi/1 movem5t mu/ be         
p]petual1  z is ! case ) ! heav5ly      
bodies1 :i* are mov+ 9 a void4    ,=ces1
 no matt] :at _! diff]5ce ( magnitude   
may be1 w ex]t  _! full influ5ce        
conjo9tly1 ea* z ?\gh ! o!r did n exi/4 
,?us1 :5 a ball is suff]$ to drop f !   
m\? ( a cannon1 x  falls to ! gr\nd 9 a 
c]ta9 int]val ( "t ?r\gh ! influ5ce  (  
gravity ^u x4 ,if1 !n1 x be fir$ f !    
cannon1 ?\gh n[  x may be project$ "s   
?\s&s ( feet 9 a second1 ! effect  (    
gravity ^u x w be precisely ! same z    
be=e4 ,9 !  int]m+l+ ( =ces !re is no   
det]ioration2 ea* produces its own      
specific effect4    ,9 ! latt] half ( ! 
sev5te5? c5tury1 ?r\gh ! works (        
,borelli1 ,hooke1 & ,huygh5s1 x _h      
become pla9 t circul> motions  c\ld be  

acc\nt$ = by ! laws ( ,galileo4         
,borelli1 treat+ ( !  motions (         
,jupit]'s satellites1 %[s h[ a circul>  
movem5t may arise  "u ! influ5ce ( a    
c5tral =ce4 ,hooke exhibit$ ! inflection
  ( a direct motion into a circul> by a 
sup]v5+ c5tral attraction4    ,! ye>    
#afhg pres5ts1 n only an epo* 9         
,european sci5ce1 b also  9 !           
intellectual developm5t ( man4 ,x is    
m>k$ by ! publication  ( ! ,pr9cipia (  
,newton1 an incomp>able1 an immortal "w4
    ,on ! pr9ciple t all bodies attract 
ea* o!r ) =ces directly  z _! masses1 & 
inv]sely z ! squ>es ( _! di/ances1      
,newton  %[$ t all ! movem5ts ( !       
cele/ial bodies may be acc\nt$  =1 & t  
,kepl]'s laws might all h be5 pr$ict$--!
 elliptic  motions--! describ$ areas !  
relation ( ! times & di/ances4 ,z  we h 
se51 ,newton's contempor>ies _h p]ceiv$ 
h[ circul> motions  c\ld be expla9$2 t 0
 a special case1 b ,newton furni%$ !    
solution ( ! g5]al problem1 conta9+ all 
special cases ( motion  9 circles1      

ellipses1 p>abolas1 hyp]bolas--t is1 9  
all ! conic  sections4    ,! ,alex&rian 
ma!maticians _h %[n t ! direction (     
movem5t  ( fall+ bodies is t[>d ! c5tre 
( ! e>?4 ,newton prov$ t  ?is mu/       
necess>ily be ! case1 ! g5]al effect ( !
 attraction  ( all ! p>ticles ( a sph]e 
be+ ! same z if !y 7 all  conc5trat$ 9  
its c5tre4 ,to ?is c5tral =ce1 ?us      
det]m9+ !  fall ( bodies1 ! designation 
( gravity 0 giv54 ,up to ?is "t1  no "o1
 except ,kepl]1 _h consid]$ h[ f> its   
influ5ce rea*$4 ,x  seem$ to ,newton    
possible t x might ext5d z f> z ! moon1 
&  be ! =ce t deflects h] f a rectil9e> 
pa?1 & makes h]  revolve 9 h] orbit r\nd
 ! e>?4 ,x 0 easy to compute1 on !      
pr9ciple ( ! law ( inv]se squ>es1 :e!r !
 e>?'s attraction  0 suffici5t to       
produce ! obs]v$ effect4 ,employ+ !     
measures  ( ! size ( ! e>? accessible at
 ! "t1 ,newton f\nd t !  moon's         
deflection 0 only ?irte5 feet 9 a m9ute2
 :]eas1 if 8  hypo!sis ( gravitation 7  
true1 x %\ld be fifte5 feet4 ,b 9  #affi

 ,pic>d1 z we h se51 execut$ !          
measurem5t ( a degree m  c>efully ?an _h
 previ\sly be5 done2 ?is *ang$ ! e/imate
 (  ! magnitude ( ! e>?1 &1 !re=e1 ( !  
di/ance ( ! moon2  &1 ,newton's att5tion
 hav+ be5 direct$ to x by "s discussions
  t took place at ! ,royal ,society 9   
#afgi1 he obta9$ ,pic>d's  results1 w5t 
home1 took out 8 old pap]s1 & resum$ 8  
calculations4 ,z !y drew to a close1 he 
became s mu* agitat$  t he 0 oblig$ to  
desire a fri5d to f9i% !m4 ,! expect$   
co9cid5ce 0 e/abli%$4 ,x 0 prov$ t !    
moon is reta9$  9 h] orbit & made to    
revolve r\nd ! e>? by ! =ce (  t]re/rial
 gravity4 ,! g5ii ( ,kepl] _h giv5 place
 to ! vortices  ( ,desc>tes1 & ^! 9 _!  
turn to ! c5tral =ce ( ,newton4    ,9 l 
mann] ! e>?1 & ea* ( ! planets1 are made
 to move  9 an elliptic orbit r\nd ! sun
 by 8 attractive =ce1 &  p]turbations   
arise by reason ( ! di/urb+ action ( !  
planet>y  masses on "o ano!r4 ,kn[+ !   
masses & ! di/ances1 ^!  di/urbances may
 be comput$4 ,lat] a/ronom]s h ev5      

succe$$ )  ! inv]se problem1 t is1 kn[+ 
! p]turbations or di/urbances1  to f9d !
 place & ! mass ( ! di/urb+ body4 ,?us1 
f !  deviations ( ,uranus f 8 !oretical 
position1 ! discov]y (  ,neptune 0      
accompli%$4    ,newton's m]it consi/$ 9 
?is1 t he appli$ ! laws ( dynamics  to !
 movem5ts ( ! cele/ial bodies1 & insi/$ 
t sci5tific  !ories mu/ be sub/antiat$  
by ! agreem5t ( obs]vations )           
calculations4    ,:5 ,kepl] ann\nc$ 8   
?ree laws1 !y 7 receiv$ )  condemnation 
by ! spiritual au?orities1 n because (  
any error !y  7 suppos$ to pres5t or to 
conta91 b p>tly because !y gave  support
 to ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 & p>tly because 
x 0 judg$  inexp$i5t to admit !         
preval5ce ( law ( any k9d z oppos$ to   
provid5tial int]v5tion4 ,! _w 0 reg>d$ z
 ! !atre 9  :i* ! div9e w 0 daily       
display$2 x 0 consid]$ d]ogatory  to !  
maje/y ( ,god t t w %\ld be fett]$ 9 any
 way4 ,!  p[] ( ! cl]gy 0 *iefly        
manife/$ 9 ! influ5ce ! 7  alleg$ to    
possess 9 *ang+ 8 arbitr>y det]m9ations4

 ,x 0 ?us  t !y c\ld abate ! baleful    
action ( comets1 secure f9e wea!r  or   
ra91 prev5t eclipses1 &1 arre/+ ! c\rse 
( ,nature1 "w all  mann] ( miracles2 x 0
 ?us t ! %ad[ _h be5 made to g back  on 
! dial1 & ! sun & ! moon /opp$ 9        
mid-c>e]4    ,9 ! c5tury prec$+ ! epo* (
 ,newton1 a great religi\s &  political 
revolution _h tak5 place--! ,re=mation4 
,?\gh its  effect _h n be5 ! secur+ (   
complete lib]ty = ?\ght1 x _h  weak5$ _m
 ( ! old ecclesia/ical bonds4 ,9 ! re=m$
 c\ntries  !re 0 no p[] to express a    
condemnation ( ,newton's works1 &  among
 ! cl]gy !re 0 no disposition to give   
!mselves any conc]n  ab\t ! matt]4 ,at  
fir/ ! att5tion ( ! ,prote/ant 0        
engross$  by ! movem5ts ( 8 great enemy 
! ,ca?olic1 & :5 t s\rce  ( disquietude 
ceas$1 & ! inevitable p>titions ( !     
,re=mation  arose1 t att5tion 0 fa/5$ ^u
 ! rival & antagoni/ic  ,*ur*es4 ,!     
,lu!ran1 ! ,calv9i/1 ! ,episcopalian1 ! 
,presbyt]ian1 _h some?+ m urg5t on h&   
?an ,newton's  ma!matical demon/rations4

    ,s1 uncondemn$1 & inde$ unobs]v$1 9 
?is clamor ( fight+  sects1 ,newton's   
gr& !ory solidly e/abli%$ itself4 ,its  
philosophical significance 0 inf9itely m
 mom5t\s ?an ! dogmas  t ^! p]sons 7    
qu>rel+ ab\t4 ,x n only accept$ !       
helioc5tric !ory & ! laws discov]$ by   
,kepl]1 b x prov$  t1 no matt] :at might
 be ! weight ( oppos+ ecclesia/ical     
au?ority1 ! sun ,,mu/ be ! c5tre ( our  
sy/em1 & t ,kepl]'s  laws are ! result (
 a ma!matical necessity4 ,x is          
impossible t  !y %\ld be o!r ?an !y are4
    ,b :at is ! mean+ ( all ?is8 ,pla9ly
 t ! sol> sy/em  is n int]rupt$ by      
provid5tial int]v5tions1 b is "u !      
gov]nm5t ( irrev]sible law--law t is    
itself ! issue (  ma!matical necessity4 
,! telescopic obs]vations ( ,h]s*el ,i4 
satisfi$ him t !re are  v _m d\ble      
/>s--d\ble n m]ely because !y are       
accid5tally  9 ! same l9e ( view1 b     
because !y are connect$ physically1     
revolv+ r\nd ea* o!r4 ,^! obs]vations 7 
cont9u$ &  greatly ext5d$ by ,h]s*el    

,,ii4 ,! elem5ts ( ! elliptic orbit (  !
 d\ble /> zeta ( ! ,great ,be> 7 det]m9$
 by ,sav>y1 its  p]iod be+ fifty-eight &
 "o-qu>t] ye>s2 ^? ( ano!r1 sigma       
,coronae1 7 det]m9$ by ,h9d1 its p]iod  
be+ m ?an sev5  hundr$ & ?irty-six ye>s4
 ,! orbital movem5t ( ^! d\ble suns  9  
ellipses compels u to admit t ! law (   
gravitation holds good  f> beyond !     
b\nd>ies ( ! sol> sy/em2 inde$1 z f> z !
  telescope c rea*1 x demon/rates !     
reign ( law4 ,d',alemb]t1 9  !          
,introduction to ! ,encyclopa$ia1 says3 
,! univ]se is b a  s+le fact2 x is only 
"o great tru?4    ,%all we1 !n1 conclude
 t ! sol> & ! />ry sy/ems h be5  call$  
into exi/5ce by ,god1 & t he has !n     
impos$ ^u !m by  8 arbitr>y w laws "u ! 
control ( :i* x 0 8 pleasure  t _!      
movem5ts %\ld be made8    ,or are !re   
reasons = believ+ t ^! sev]al sy/ems    
came into  exi/5ce n by su* an arbitr>y 
fiat1 b ?r\gh ! op]ation (  law8    ,!  
foll[+ are "s peculi>ities display$ by !
 sol> sy/em z  enum]at$ by ,laplace4    

,all ! planets & _! satellites move 9   
ellipses ( su* small ecc5tricity t !y   
are ne>ly circles4 ,all  ! planets move 
9 ! same direction & ne>ly 9 ! same     
plane4 ,!  movem5ts ( ! satellites are 9
 ! same direction z ^? ( !  planets4 ,! 
movem5ts ( rotation ( ! sun1 ( !        
planets1 & !  satellites1 are 9 ! same  
direction z _! orbital motions1 & 9     
planes little diff]5t4    ,x is         
impossible t s _m co9cid5ces c\ld be !  
result (  *ance6 ,is x n pla9 t !re mu/ 
h be5 a common tie among  all ^! bodies1
 t !y are only p>ts ( :at mu/ once h be5
 a  s+le mass8    ,b if we admit t !    
sub/ance ( :i* ! sol> sy/em consi/s     
once exi/$ 9 a nebul\s condition1 & 0 9 
rotation1 all ! above  peculi>ities     
foll[ z necess>y me*anical consequ5ces4 
,nay1 m1  ! =mation ( planets1 ! =mation
 ( satellites & ( a/]oids1  is acc\nt$  
=4 ,we see :y ! out] planets &          
satellites are l>g]  ?an ! int]ior ones2
 :y ! l>g] planets rotate rapidly1 & !  
small ones sl[ly2 :y ( ! satellites !   

out] planets h m1  ! inn] few]4 ,we are 
furni%$ ) indications ( ! "t (          
revolution ( ! planets 9 _! orbits1 & ( 
! satellites 9  !irs2 we p]ceive ! mode 
( =mation ( ,saturn's r+s4 ,we f9d an   
explanation ( ! physical condition ( !  
sun1 & ! transitions (  condition ?r\gh 
:i* ! e>? & moon h pass$1 z indicat$ by 
_! geology4    ,b two exceptions to !   
above peculi>ities h be5 not$2 !y are  9
 ! cases ( ,uranus & ,neptune4    ,!    
exi/5ce ( su* a nebul\s mass once       
admitt$1 all ! re/  foll[s z a matt] (  
necessity4 ,is !re n1 h[ev]1 a mo/ s]i\s
  objection 9 ! way8 ,is n ?is to       
exclude ,almighty ,god f !  worlds he   
has made8    ,fir/1 we mu/ be satisfi$  
:e!r !re is any solid evid5ce =  admitt+
 ! exi/5ce ( su* a nebul\s mass4    ,!  
nebul> hypo!sis re/s prim>ily on !      
telescopic discov]y made  by ,h]s*el    
,i41 t !re are scatt]$ "h & !re 9 !     
heav5s  pale1 gleam+ pat*es ( light1 a  
few ( :i* are l>ge en\gh to be  visible 
to ! nak$ eye4 ,( ^!1 _m may be resolv$ 

by a suffici5t  telescopic p[] into a   
cong]ies ( />s1 b "s1 su* z ! great     
nebula 9 ,orion1 h resi/$ ! be/         
in/rum5ts hi!rto made4    ,x 0 ass]t$ by
 ^? :o 7 indispos$ to accept ! nebul>   
hypo!sis1 t ! non-resolution 0 due to   
imp]fection 9 !  telescopes us$4 ,9 ^!  
in/rum5ts two di/9ct functions may be   
obs]v$3 _! light-ga!r+ p[] dep5ds on !  
diamet] ( _!  object mirror or l5s1 _!  
def9+ p[] dep5ds on ! exquisite         
correctness ( _! optical surfaces4 ,gr& 
in/rum5ts may possess  ! =m] quality 9  
p]fection by reason ( _! size1 b ! latt]
  v imp]fectly1 ei!r ?r\gh want (       
orig9al configuration1 or  di/ortion    
aris+ f flexure ?r\gh _! own weight4 ,b1
 unless an  in/rum5t be p]fect 9 ?is    
respect1 z well z adequate 9 ! o!r1  x  
may fail to decompose a nebula into     
discrete po9ts4    ,=tunately1 h[ev]1   
o!r means = ! settlem5t ( ?is "q  are   
available4 ,9 #ahdf1 x 0 discov]$ by !  
au?or ( ?is book  t ! spectrum ( an     
ignit$ solid is cont9u\s--t is1 has     

nei!r d>k nor bright l9es4 ,fraunh(] _h 
previ\sly made kn[n t  ! spectrum (     
ignit$ gases is discont9u\s4 ,"h1 !n1 is
 ! means  ( det]m9+ :e!r ! light emitt$ 
by a giv5 nebula comes f an  inc&esc5t  
gas1 or f a cong]ies ( ignit$ solids1   
/>s1 or  suns4 ,if its spectrum be      
discont9u\s1 x is a true nebula or gas2 
if  cont9u\s1 a cong]ies ( />s4    ,9   
#ahfd1 ,mr4 ,hugg9s made ?is exam9ation 
9 ! case ( a nebula 9  ! con/ellation   
,draco4 ,x prov$ to be gase\s4          
,subsequ5t obs]vations h %[n t1 ( sixty 
nebulae exam9$1  n9ete5 give discont9u\s
 or gase\s spectra--! rema9d] cont9u\s  
ones4    ,x may1 !re=e1 be admitt$ t    
physical evid5ce has at l5g?  be5       
obta9$1 demon/rat+ ! exi/5ce ( va/      
masses ( matt] 9 a  gase\s condition1 & 
at a temp]ature ( inc&esc5ce4 ,!        
hypo!sis  ( ,laplace has ?us a firm     
basis4 ,9 su* a nebul> mass1 cool+ by   
radiation is a necess>y incid5t1 &      
cond5sation & rotation !  inevitable    
results4 ,!re mu/ be a sep>ation ( r+s  

all ly+ 9  "o plane1 a g5]ation (       
planets & satellites all rotat+ alike1  
a c5tral sun & engirdl+ globes4 ,f a    
*aotic mass1 ?r\gh !  op]ation ( natural
 laws1 an organiz$ sy/em has be5        
produc$4 ,an  integration ( matt] into  
worlds has tak5 place ?r\gh a decl9e (  
heat4    ,if su* be ! cosmogony ( ! sol>
 sy/em1 su* ! g5esis ( !  planet>y      
worlds1 we are con/ra9$ to ext5d our    
views ( ! dom9ion  ( law1 & to recognize
 its ag5cy 9 ! creation z well z 9 !    
cons]vation ( ! innum]able orbs t ?rong 
! univ]se4    ,b1 aga91 x may be ask$3  
,is !re n some?+ pr(\ndly impi\s  9 ?is8
 ,are we n exclud+ ,almighty ,god f ! _w
 he has made8    ,we h (t5 witness$ !   
=mation ( a cl\d 9 a s]5e sky4 ,a hazy  
po9t1 b>ely p]ceptible--a little wrea? (
 mi/--increases 9 volume1  & becomes    
d>k] & d5s]1 until x obscures a l>ge    
portion ( !  heav5s4 ,x ?r[s itself into
 fanta/ic %apes1 x ga!rs a glory  f !   
sun1 is borne onw>d by ! w9d1 &1 p]haps1
 z x gradually  came1 s x gradually     

disappe>s1 melt+ away 9 ! untr\bl$ air4 
,n[1 we say t ! little vesicles ( :i*   
?is cl\d 0 compos$  arose f !           
cond5sation ( wat]-vapor preexi/+ 9 !   
atmosph]e1 ?r\gh r$uction ( temp]ature2 
we %[ h[ !y assum$  ! =m !y pres5t4 ,we 
assign optical reasons = ! brightness   
or blackness ( ! cl\d2 we expla91 on    
me*anical pr9ciples1 its  drift+ be=e ! 
w9d2 = its disappe>ance we acc\nt on  ! 
pr9ciples ( *emi/ry4 ,x nev] occurs to u
 to invoke !  int]position ( ! ,almighty
 9 ! production & fa%ion+ ( ?is         
fugitive =m4 ,we expla9 all ! facts     
connect$ ) x by physical  laws1 & p]haps
 %\ld rev]5tially hesitate to call into 
op]ation  ! f+] ( ,god4    ,b ! univ]se 
is no?+ m ?an su* a cl\d--a cl\d ( suns 
&  worlds4 ,supremely gr& ?\gh x may    
seem to u1 to ! ,inf9ite &  ,et]nal     
,intellect x is no m ?an a fleet+ mi/4  
,if !re be a  multiplicity ( worlds 9   
inf9ite space1 !re is also a succession 
(  worlds 9 inf9ite "t4 ,z "o aft] ano!r
 cl\d replaces cl\d 9  ! skies1 s ?is   

/>ry sy/em1 ! univ]se1 is ! successor ( 
c\ntless o!rs t h prec$$ x--! pr$ecessor
 ( c\ntless  o!rs t w foll[4 ,!re is an 
unceas+ metamorphosis1 a sequ5ce  (     
ev5ts1 )\t beg9n+ or end4    ,if1 on    
physical pr9ciples1 we acc\nt = m9or    
meteorological  incid5ts1 mi/s & cl\ds1 
is x n p]missible = u to appeal to  !   
same pr9ciple 9 ! orig9 ( _w-sy/ems &   
univ]ses1 :i*  are only cl\ds on a      
space-scale some:at l>g]1 mi/s on a     
"t-scale  some:at less transi5t8 ,c any 
man place ! l9e :i* b\nds  ! physical on
 "o side1 ! sup]natural on ! o!r8 ,d n  
our  e/imates ( ! ext5t & ! duration (  
?+s dep5d altoge!r  on our po9t ( view8 
,7 we set 9 ! mid/ ( ! great nebula  (  
,orion1 h[ transc5d5tly magnific5t !    
sc5e6 ,! va/  trans=mations1 !          
cond5sations ( a fi]y mi/ into worlds1  
might  seem wor?y ( ! imm$iate pres5ce1 
! sup]vision ( ,god2 "h1 at  our di/ant 
/ation1 :]e millions ( miles are        
inappreciable to our  eyes1 & suns seem 
no bigg] ?an motes 9 ! air1 t nebula is 

m  insignificant ?an ! fa9te/ cl\d4     
,galileo1 9 8 description (  !          
con/ellation ( ,orion1 did n ?9k x wor? 
:ile s mu* z to  m5tion x4 ,! mo/       
rigor\s !ologian ( ^? days w\ld h se5   
no?+ to blame 9 imput+ its orig9 to     
second>y causes1 no?+  irreligi\s 9     
fail+ to invoke ! arbitr>y int]f]5ce (  
,god 9  its metamorphoses4 ,if su* be ! 
conclusion to :i* we come respect+  x1  
:at w\ld be ! conclusion to :i* an      
,intellig5ce seat$ 9 x  might come      
respect+ u8 ,x occupies an ext5t ( space
 millions (  times great] ?an t ( our   
sol> sy/em2 we are invisible f x1  &    
!re=e absolutely insignificant4 ,w\ld   
su* an ,intellig5ce ?9k  x necess>y to  
require = our orig9 & ma9t5ance !       
imm$iate  int]v5tion ( ,god8      ,f !  
sol> sy/em let u desc5d to :at is /ill m
  insignificant--a little portion ( x2  
let u desc5d to our own e>?4  ,9 ! lapse
 ( "t x has exp]i5c$ great *anges4 ,h ^!
 be5  due to incessant div9e            
int]v5tions1 or to ! cont9u\s op]ation (

  unfail+ law8 ,! aspect ( ,nature      
p]petually v>ies "u our eyes1  /ill m   
gr&ly & /rik+ly has x alt]$ 9 geological
  times4 ,b ! laws guid+ ^? *anges nev] 
exhibit ! slighte/  v>iation4 ,9 ! mid/ 
( imm5se vicissitudes !y are immutable4 
,! pres5t ord] ( ?+s is only a l9k 9 a  
va/ connect$ *a9  rea*+ back to an      
incalculable pa/1 & =w>d to an inf9ite  
future4    ,!re is evid5ce1 geological &
 a/ronomical1 t ! temp]ature (  ! e>? & 
h] satellite 0 9 ! remote pa/ v mu*     
high] ?an  x is n[4 ,a decl9e s sl[ z to
 be imp]ceptible at %ort int]vals1  b   
manife/ en\gh 9 ! c\rse ( _m ages1 has  
occurr$4 ,! heat  has be5 lo/ by        
radiation into space4    ,! cool+ ( a   
mass ( any k9d1 no matt] :e!r l>ge or   
small1 is  n discont9u\s2 x does n g on 
by fits & />ts2 x takes  place "u !     
op]ation ( a ma!matical law1 ?\gh = su* 
mighty  *anges z are "h contemplat$     
nei!r ! =mula ( ,newton1 nor t  (       
,dulong & ,petit1 may apply4 ,x         
signifies no?+ t p]iods (  p>tial       

decl9e1 glacial p]iods1 or o!rs (       
tempor>y elevation1 h  be5 int]calat$2 x
 signifies no?+ :e!r ^! v>iations may  h
 aris5 f topographical v>iations1 z ^? (
 level1 or f  p]iodicities 9 ! radiation
 ( ! sun4 ,a p]iodical sun w\ld act z  a
 m]e p]turbation 9 ! gradual decl9e (   
heat4 ,! p]turbations (  ! planet>y     
motions are a confirmation1 n a dispro(1
 ( gravity4    ,n[1 su* a decl9e (      
temp]ature mu/ h be5 att5d$ by          
innum]able *anges ( a physical "* 9 our 
globe4 ,h] dim5sions  mu/ h dim9i%$     
?r\gh contraction1 ! l5g? ( h] day mu/  
h less5$1 h] surface mu/ h collaps$1 &  
fractures tak5  place along ! l9es (    
lea/ resi/ance2 ! d5sity ( ! sea mu/  h 
increas$1 its volume mu/ h become less2 
! con/itution (  ! atmosph]e mu/ h v>i$1
 especially 9 ! am\nt ( wat]-vapor  &   
c>bonic acid t x conta9$2 ! b>ometric   
pressure mu/ h  decl9$4    ,^! *anges1 &
 v _m m t might be m5tion$1 mu/ h  tak5 
place n 9 a discont9u\s b 9 an ord]ly   
mann]1 s9ce !  ma/]-fact1 ! decl9e (    

heat1 t 0 caus+ !m1 0 itself  foll[+ a  
ma!matical law4    ,b n alone did       
lifeless ,nature submit to ^! inevitable
 mutations2  liv+ ,nature 0 also        
simultane\sly affect$4    ,an organic =m
 ( any k9d1 vegetable or animal1 w rema9
 un*ang$  only s long z ! environm5t 9  
:i* x is plac$ rema9s un*ang$4  ,%\ld an
 alt]ation 9 ! environm5t occur1 !      
organism w ei!r  be modifi$ or de/roy$4 
,de/ruction is m likely to happ5 z !    
*ange 9 ! environm5t  is m sudd52       
modification or trans=mation is m       
possible z t  *ange is m gradual4       
,s9ce x is demon/rably c]ta9 t lifeless 
,nature has 9 ! lapse  ( ages und]gone  
va/ modifications2 s9ce ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 
&  ! sea1 & ! atmosph]e1 are no long]   
su* z !y once 72 s9ce  ! di/ribution ( !
 l& & ! ocean & all mann] ( physical    
conditions h v>i$2 s9ce !re h be5 su*   
gr& *anges 9  ! environm5t ( liv+ ?+s on
 ! surface ( our planet--x  necess>ily  
foll[s t organic ,nature mu/ h pass$    
?r\gh  de/ructions & trans=mations 9    

correspond5ce !reto4    ,t su*          
ext9ctions1 su* modifications1 h tak5   
place1 h[  copi\s1 h[ conv9c+1 is !     
evid5ce6    ,"h1 aga91 we mu/ obs]ve t1 
s9ce ! di/urb+ ag5cy  0 itself foll[+ a 
ma!matical law1 ^! its results mu/ be   
consid]$ z foll[+ t law too4    ,su*    
consid]ations1 !n1 pla9ly =ce ^u u !    
conclusion t  ! organic progress ( ! _w 
has be5 guid$ by ! op]ation (  immutable
 law--n det]m9$ by discont9u\s1         
disconnect$1 arbitr>y  int]v5tions (    
,god4 ,!y incl9e u to view favorably !  
idea (  transmutations ( "o =m into     
ano!r1 r ?an t ( sudd5  creations4      
,creation implies an abrupt appe>ance1  
trans=mation a gradual *ange4    ,9 ?is 
mann] is pres5t$ to our contemplation ! 
great !ory (  ,evolution4 ,e organic be+
 has a place 9 a *a9 ( ev5ts4 ,x is  n  
an isolat$1 a caprici\s fact1 b an      
unavoidable ph5om5on4 ,x  has its place 
9 t va/1 ord]ly conc\rse :i* has        
successively  ris5 9 ! pa/1 has         
introduc$ ! pres5t1 & is prep>+ ! way  =

 a pr$e/9$ future4 ,f po9t to po9t 9 ?is
 va/ progression  !re has be5 a gradual1
 a def9ite1 a cont9u\s unfold+1 a       
resi/less ord] ( evolution4 ,b 9 ! mid/ 
( ^! mighty *anges  /& =? immutable !   
laws t are dom9at+ ov] all4    ,if we   
exam9e ! introduction ( any type ( life 
9 ! animal s]ies1  we f9d t x is 9      
accordance ) trans=mation1 n ) creation4
  ,its beg9n+ is "u an imp]fect =m 9 !  
mid/ ( o!r =ms1  ( :i* ! "t is ne>ly    
complete1 & :i* are pass+ into          
ext9ction4 ,by degrees1 "o species aft] 
ano!r 9 succession m &  m p]fect arises1
 until1 aft] _m ages1 a culm9ation is   
rea*$4  ,f t !re is1 9 l mann]1 a long1 
a gradual decl9e4    ,?us1 ?\gh ! mammal
 type ( life is ! *>act]i/ic ( !        
,t]ti>y & po/-,t]ti>y p]iods1 x does n  
sudd5ly make its  appe>ance )\t         
premonition 9 ^? p]iods4 ,f> back1 9 !  
,second>y1 we f9d x "u imp]fect =ms1    
/ruggl+1 z x 71 to  make good a foo?old4
 ,at l5g? x ga9s a pr$om9ance "u high] &
  bett] models4    ,s1 too1 ( reptiles1 

! *>act]i/ic type ( life ( ! ,second>y  
p]iod4 ,z we see 9 a dissolv+ view1 out 
( ! fad+ outl9es (  a sc5e t is pass+   
away1 ! dim =m ( a new "o em]g+1 :i*    
gradually ga9s /r5g?1 rea*es its        
culm9ation1 & !n melts  away 9 "s o!r t 
is displac+ x1 s reptile-life d\btfully1
  appe>s1 rea*es its culm9ation1 &      
gradually decl9es4 ,9 all ?is  !re is   
no?+ abrupt2 ! *anges %ade into ea* o!r 
by ins5sible  degrees4    ,h[ c\ld x be 
o!rwise8 ,! hot-blood$ animals c\ld n   
exi/ 9  an atmosph]e s lad5 ) c>bonic   
acid z 0 t ( ! primitive  times4 ,b !   
removal ( t noxi\s +r$i5t f ! air by !  
leaves ( plants "u ! influ5ce (         
sunlight1 ! envelop+ ( its  c>bon 9 !   
e>? "u ! =m ( coal1 ! dis5gagem5t ( its 
oxyg51 p]mitt$ _! life4 ,z ! atmosph]e 0
 ?us modifi$1  ! sea 0 involv$ 9 !      
*ange2 x surr5d]$ a l>ge "p ( its       
c>bonic acid1 & ! lime/one hi!rto held 9
 solution by x 0  deposit$ 9 ! solid =m4
 ,= e equival5t ( c>bon buri$ 9  ! e>?1 
!re 0 an equival5t ( c>bonate ( lime    

sep>at$ f  ! sea--n necess>ily 9 an     
amorph\s condition1 mo/ frequ5tly  "u an
 organic =m4 ,! sun%9e kept up its "w   
day by day1 b  !re 7 dem&$ myriads (    
days = ! "w to be complet$4 ,x 0  a sl[ 
passage f a noxi\s to a purifi$         
atmosph]e1 & an equally  sl[ passage f a
 cold-blood$ to a hot-blood$ type (     
life4 ,b !  physical *anges 7 tak+ place
 "u ! control ( law1 & !  organic       
trans=mations 7 n sudd5 or arbitr>y     
provid5tial acts4  ,!y 7 ! imm$iate1 !  
inevitable consequ5ces ( ! physical     
*anges1 & !re=e1 l !m1 ! necess>y issue 
( law4    ,= a m detail$ consid]ation ( 
?is subject1 ,i may ref] !  read] to    
,*apt]s ,i1 ,,ii41 ,,vii1 ( ! second    
book ( my ,treatise on  ,human          
,physiology1 publi%$ 9 #ahef4      ,is !
 _w1 !n1 gov]n$ by law or by provid5tial
 int]v5tions1  abruptly break+ ! prop]  
sequ5ce ( ev5ts8    ,to complete our    
view ( ?is "q1 we turn f9ally to :at1 9 
"o  s5se1 is ! mo/ insignificant1 9     
ano!r ! mo/ important1 case  t c be     

consid]$4 ,d human societies1 9 _!      
hi/oric c>e]1  exhibit ! m>ks ( a       
pr$et]m9$ progress 9 an unavoidable     
track8  ,is !re any evid5ce t ! life (  
nations is "u ! control (  immutable    
law8    ,may we conclude t1 9 society1 z
 9 ! individual man1 p>ts nev]  spr+ f  
no?+1 b are evolv$ or develop$ f p>ts t 
are  already 9 exi/5ce8    ,if any "o   
%\ld object to or d]ide ! doctr9e ( !   
evolution  or successive developm5t ( ! 
animat$ =ms :i* con/itute t  unbrok5    
organic *a9 rea*+ f ! beg9n+ ( life on !
 globe  to ! pres5t times1 let him      
reflect t he has himself pass$ ?r\gh    
modifications ! c\nt]p>t ( ^? he        
disputes4 ,= n9e mon?s  8 type ( life 0 
aquatic1 & dur+ t "t he assum$1 9       
succession1 _m di/9ct b correlat$ =ms4  
,at bir? 8 type (  life became a]ial2 he
 began respir+ ! atmosph]ic air2 new    
elem5ts  ( food 7 suppli$ to him2 ! mode
 ( 8 nutrition *ang$2 b  z yet he c\ld  
see no?+1 he> no?+1 notice no?+4 ,by    
degrees  consci\s exi/5ce 0 assum$2 he  

became aw>e t !re is an  ext]nal _w4 ,9 
due "t organs adapt$ to ano!r *ange (   
food1  ! tee?1 appe>$1 & a *ange ( food 
ensu$4 ,he !n pass$ ?r\gh  ! /ages (    
*ildhood & y\?1 8 bodily =m develop+1 & 
)  x 8 intellectual p[]s4 ,at ab\t      
fifte5 ye>s1 9 consequ5ce (  ! evolution
 :i* special p>ts ( 8 sy/em _h atta9$1 8
 moral  "* *ang$4 ,new ideas1 new       
passions1 influ5c$ him4 ,& t  t 0 !     
cause1 & ?is ! effect1 is demon/rat$ :51
 by !  skill ( ! surgeon1 ^? p>ts h be5 
int]f]$ )4 ,nor does  ! developm5t1 !   
metamorphosis1 end "h2 x requires _m    
ye>s  = ! body to rea* its full         
p]fection1 _m ye>s = ! m9d4 ,a          
culm9ation is at l5g? rea*$1 & !n !re is
 a decl9e4 ,i ne$  n picture its m\rnful
 incid5ts--! corporeal1 ! intellectual  
enfeeblem5t4 ,p]haps !re is little      
exagg]ation 9 say+ t 9  less ?an a      
c5tury e human be+ on ! face ( ! globe1 
if n  cut (f 9 an untimely mann]1 has   
pass$ ?r\gh all ^! *anges4    ,is !re = 
ea* ( u a provid5tial int]v5tion z we   

?us pass  f /age to /age ( life8 or %all
 we n r believe t !  c\ntless myriads ( 
human be+s :o h peopl$ ! e>? h be5  "u !
 guidance ( an un*ang+1 a univ]sal law8 
,b individuals are ! elem5t>y con/itu5ts
 ( communities--nations4  ,!y ma9ta9    
!re9 a relation l t :i* ! p>ticles ( !  
body ma9ta9 to ! body itself4 ,^!1      
introduc$ into x1 comm5ce  & complete _!
 function2 !y die1 & are dismiss$4    ,l
 ! individual1 ! nation comes into      
exi/5ce )\t its own  k1 & dies )\t its  
own cons5t1 (t5 aga9/ its own w4        
,national life diff]s 9 no p>ticul> f   
individual1 except 9 ?is1  t x is spread
 ov] a long] span1 b no nation c escape 
its  inevitable t]m4 ,ea*1 if its hi/ory
 be well consid]$1 %[s its  "t (        
infancy1 its "t ( y\?1 its "t (         
maturity1 its "t (  decl9e1 if its      
phases ( life be complet$4    ,9 !      
phases ( exi/5ce ( all1 s f> z ^? phases
 are  complet$1 !re are common          
*>act]i/ics1 &1 z l accordances 9       
individuals po9t out t all are liv+ "u a

 reign ( law1 we  are ju/ifi$ 9 inf]r+ t
 ! c\rse ( nations1 & inde$ !  progress 
( humanity1 does n take place 9 a *ance 
or r&om way1  t sup]natural int]v5tions 
nev] break ! *a9 ( hi/oric acts1  t e   
hi/oric ev5t has its w>rant 9 "s prec$+ 
ev5t1 &  gives w>rant to o!rs t are to  
foll[44    ,b ?is conclusion is !       
ess5tial pr9ciple ( ,/oicism--t ,grecian
  philosophical sy/em :i*1 z ,i h       
already said1 (f]$ a support 9  _! h\r (
 trial & an unwav]+ guide 9 !           
vicissitudes (  life1 n only to _m      
illu/ri\s ,greeks1 b also to "s ( !     
great  philosoph]s1 /atesm51 g5]als1 &  
emp]ors ( ,rome2 a sy/em :i*  exclud$   
*ance f e ?+1 & ass]t$ ! direction ( all
  ev5ts by irresi/ible necessity1 to !  
promotion ( p]fect good2 a  sy/em (     
e>ne/ness1 /]nness1 au/]ity1 virtue--a  
prote/ 9 favor  ( ! common-s5se (       
mank9d4 ,& p]haps we %all n diss5t f  ! 
rem>k ( ,montesquieu1 :o affirms t !    
de/ruction ( !  ,/oics 0 a great        
calamity to ! human race2 = !y alone    

made great  citiz5s1 great m54    ,to ! 
pr9ciple ( gov]nm5t by law1 ,lat9       
,*ri/ianity1 9 its papal  =m1 is 9      
absolute contradiction4 ,! hi/ory ( ?is 
bran* (  ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* is almo/ a    
di>y ( miracles & sup]natural           
int]v5tions4 ,^! %[ t ! supplications ( 
holy m5 h (t5  arre/$ ! c\rse (         
,nature--if1 inde$1 !re be any su*      
c\rse2  t images & pictures h work$     
wond]s2 t bones1 hairs1 &  o!r sacr$    
relics1 h wr\ght miracles4 ,! crit]ion  
or pro( (  ! au!nticity ( _m ( ^!       
objects is1 n an un*all5geable  record (
 _! orig9 & hi/ory1 b an exhibition ( _!
  miracle-work+ p[]s4    ,is n t a      
/range logic :i* f9ds pro( ( an ass]t$  
fact 9 an  inexplicable illu/ration (   
some?+ else8    ,ev5 9 ! d>ke/ ages     
intellig5t ,*ri/ian m5 mu/ h _h         
misgiv+s z to ^! alleg$ provid5tial or  
miracul\s int]v5tions4  ,!re is a solemn
 gr&eur 9 ! ord]ly progress ( ,nature   
:i*  pr(\ndly impresses u2 & su* is ! "*
 ( cont9uity 9 !  ev5ts ( our individual

 life t we in/9ctively d\bt ! occurr5ce 
( ! sup]natural 9 t ( our neighbor4 ,!  
intellig5t man kn[s  well t1 = 8 p]sonal
 beho(1 ! c\rse ( ,nature has nev] be5  
*eck$2 = him no miracle has ev] be5     
work$2 he attributes ju/ly  e ev5t ( 8  
life to "s antec$5t ev5t2 ?is he looks  
^u  z ! cause1 t z ! consequ5ce4 ,:5 x  
is affirm$ t1 9 8  neighbor's behalf1   
su* gr& int]v5tions h be5 v\*saf$1 he   
_c d o!rwise ?an believe t 8 neighbor is
 ei!r deceiv$1  or practis+ deception4  
,z might1 !n1 h be5 anticipat$1 !       
,ca?olic doctr9e (  miracul\s int]v5tion
 receiv$ a rude %ock at ! "t ( !        
,re=mation1 :5 pr$e/9ation & election 7 
upheld by "s ( !  greate/ !ologians1 &  
accept$ by "s ( ! greate/ ,prote/ant    
,*ur*es4 ,) /oical au/]ity ,calv9       
decl>es3 ,we 7 elect$ f  et]nity1 be=e !
 f\ndation ( ! _w1 f no m]it ( our own1 
b accord+ to ! purpose ( ! div9e        
pleasure4 ,9 affirm+ ?is1  ,calv9 0 re/+
 on ! belief t ,god has f all et]nity   
decre$  :atev] comes to pass4 ,?us1 aft]

 ! lapse ( _m ages1 7 aga9  em]g+ into  
prom95ce ! ideas ( ! ,basilidians wad   
,val5t9ians1  ,*ri/ian sects ( ! second 
c5tury1 ^: ,gno/ical views l$ to !      
engraftm5t ( ! great doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity
 ^u ,*ri/ianity4 ,!y  ass]t$ t all !    
actions ( m5 are necess>y1 t ev5 fai? is
  a natural gift1 to :i* m5 are =cibly  
det]m9$1 & mu/ !re=e  be sav$1 ?\gh _!  
lives be ev] s irregul>4 ,f ! ,supreme  
,god  all ?+s proce$$4 ,?us1 also1 came 
into prom95ce ! views :i*  7 develop$ by
 ,augu/9e 9 8 "w1 ,de dono p]sev]antiae4
 ,^!  73 t ,god1 by 8 arbitr>y w1 has   
select$ c]ta9 p]sons  )\t respect to    
=ese5 fai? or good works1 & has         
infallibly  orda9$ to be/[ ^u !m et]nal 
happ9ess2 o!r p]sons1 9 l  mann]1 he has
 condemn$ to et]nal reprobation4 ,!     
,sublaps>ians  believ$ t ,god p]mitt$ ! 
fall ( ,adam2 ! ,supralaps>ians t  he   
pr$e/9at$ x1 ) all its p]nici\s         
consequ5ces1 f all  et]nity1 & t our    
fir/ p>5ts _h no lib]ty f ! beg9n+4  ,9 
?is1 ^! sect>ians disreg>d$ ! rem>k (   

,/4 ,augu/9e3  ,nefas e/ dic]e ,deum    
aliquid nisi bonum pr$e/9>e4    ,is x   
true1 !n1 t pr$e/9ation to et]nal       
happ9ess is !  ev]la/+ purpose ( ,god1  
:]eby1 be=e ! f\ndations ( ! _w  7 laid1
 he ha? con/antly decre$ by 8 c\ncil1   
secret to u1  to deliv] f curse &       
damnation ^? :om he ha? *os5 out (      
mank9d8 ,is x true t ( ! human family   
!re are "s :o1 9  view ( no fault ( _!  
own1 ,almighty ,god has condemn$ to     
un5d+  torture1 et]nal mis]y8    ,9     
#aeie ! ,lambe? ,articles ass]t$ t ,god 
f et]nity ha?  pr$e/9at$ c]ta9 m5 unto  
life2 c]ta9 he ha? reprobat$4 ,9  #afah 
! ,synod ( ,dort decid$ 9 favor ( ?is   
view4 ,x condemn$ !  remon/rants aga9/  
x1 & treat$ !m ) su* sev]ity1 t _m  ( !m
 _h to flee to =eign c\ntries4 ,ev5 9 ! 
,*ur* ( ,engl&1  z is manife/$ by its   
sev5te5? ,article ( ,fai?1 ^! doctr9es  
h f\nd favor4    ,probably !re 0 no po9t
 :i* br\ght d[n f ! ,ca?olics on !      
,prote/ants sev]] condemnation ?an ?is1 
_! p>tial acceptance  ( ! gov]nm5t ( !  

_w by law4 ,9 all ,re=m$ ,europe        
miracles  ceas$4 ,b1 ) ! cessation (    
%r9e-cure1 relic-cure1 great  pecuni>y  
pr(its end$4 ,inde$1 z is well kn[n1 x 0
 ! sale  ( indulg5ces t provok$ !       
,re=mation--indulg5ces :i* are          
ess5tially a p]mit f ,god = ! practice (
 s91 condition$ on  ! paym5t ( a c]ta9  
sum ( money to ! prie/4                 
,philosophically1 ! ,re=mation impli$ a 
prote/ aga9/ ! ,ca?olic  doctr9e (      
incessant div9e int]v5tion 9 human      
affairs1 invok$ by  sac]dotal ag5cy2 b  
?is prote/ 0 f> f be+ fully made by  all
 ! ,re=m+ ,*ur*es4 ,! evid5ce 9 behalf (
 gov]nm5t by law1  :i* has ( late ye>s  
be5 (f]$ by sci5ce1 is receiv$ by _m (  
!m ) suspicion1 p]haps ) dislike2       
s5tim5ts :i*1 h[ev]1  mu/ ev5tually give
 way be=e ! h\rly-increas+ weight (     
evid5ce4    ,%all we n1 !n1 conclude )  
,cic]o1 :o1 quot$ by ,lactantius1  says3
 ,"o et]nal & immutable law embraces all
 ?+s & all times8        ,,*apt] ,x4    
,,lat9 ,,*ri/ianity ,,9 ,,relation ,,to 

,,mod]n ,,civilization4         ,= m ?an
 a ?\s& ye>s ,lat9 ,*ri/ianity controll$
       ! intellig5ce ( ,europe1 & is    
responsible = !       result4         ,t
 result is manife/$ by ! condition ( !  
city (       ,rome at ! ,re=mation1 & by
 ! condition ( !       ,cont95t (       
,europe 9 dome/ic & social              
life4--,european       nations suff]$ "u
 ! coexi/5ce ( a dual gov]nm5t1       a 
spiritual & a temporal4--,!y 7 imm]s$ 9 
ignorance1 sup]/ition1                  
discom=t4--,explanation ( !             
failure ( ,ca?olicism--,political hi/ory
 ( ! papacy3 x       0 transmut$ f a    
spiritual conf$]acy into an absolute    
mon>*y4--,action ( ! ,college ( ,c>d9als
 & ! ,curia--       ,demoralization t   
ensu$ f ! necessity ( rais+       l>ge  
rev5ues4         ,! advantages accru+ to
 ,europe dur+ ! ,ca?olic rule           
arose n f direct int5tion1 b 7          
incid5tal4         ,! g5]al result is1 t
 ! political influ5ce (                 
,ca?olicism 0 prejudicial to mod]n      

civilization4      ,,lat9 ,*ri/ianity is
 responsible = ! condition & progress ( 
,europe f ! f\r? to ! sixte5? c5tury4   
,we h n[ to exam9e  h[ x dis*>g$ its    
tru/4    ,x w be conv5i5t to limit to ! 
case ( ,europe :at has "h to  be        
pres5t$1 ?\gh1 f ! claim ( ! papacy to  
sup]human orig91  & its dem& = univ]sal 
ob$i5ce1 x %\ld /rictly be held to      
acc\nt = ! condition ( all mank9d4 ,its 
inefficacy aga9/ !  great & v5]able     
religions ( ,s\!rn & ,ea/]n ,asia w\ld  
furni%  an important & in/ructive !me = 
consid]ation1 & lead u to  ! conclusion 
t x has impress$ itself only :]e ,roman 
imp]ial  influ5ces h prevail$2 a        
political conclusion :i*1 h[ev]1 x      
contemptu\sly rejects4    ,d\btless at !
 inception ( ! ,re=mation !re 7 _m      
p]sons  :o comp>$ ! exi/+ social        
condition ) :at x _h be5 9  anci5t      
times4 ,morals _h n *ang$1 intellig5ce  
_h n advanc$1  society _h little        
improv$4 ,f ! ,et]nal ,city itself its  
spl5dors  _h vani%$4 ,! m>ble /reets1 ( 

:i* ,augu/us _h once boa/$1  _h         
disappe>$4 ,temples1 brok5 columns1 & ! 
long1 arcad$ vi/as  ( gigantic aqu$ucts 
be/rid+ ! desolate ,campagna1 pres5t$ a 
m\rnful sc5e4 ,f ! uses to :i* !y _h be5
 respectively put1  ! ,capitol _h be5   
kn[n z ,goats' ,hill1 & ! site ( !      
,roman  ,=um1 :5ce laws _h be5 issu$ to 
! _w1 z ,c[s' ,field4 ,!  palace ( !    
,caes>s 0 hidd5 by m\nds ( e>?1 cre/$ ) 
fl[]+ %rubs4 ,! ba?s ( ,c>acalla1 ) _!  
porticoes1 g>d5s1  res]voirs1 _h long   
ago become useless ?r\gh ! de/ruction ( 
_!  supply+ aqu$ucts4 ,on ! ru9s ( t gr&
 edifice1 fl[]y glades  & ?ickets (     
odorif]\s trees ext5d$ 9 ev]-w9d+       
labyr9?s  ^u imm5se plat=ms1 & dizzy    
ar*es susp5d$ 9 ! air4 ,(  ! ,coliseum1 
! mo/ colossal ( ,roman ru9s1 only ab\t 
"o-?ird  rema9$4 ,once capable (        
accommodat+ ne>ly n9ety ?\s&            
spectators1 x _h1 9 succession1 be5     
turn$ into a =tress 9 !  middle ages1 & 
!n into a /one-qu>ry to furni% mat]ial =
 !  palaces ( deg5]ate ,roman pr9ces4   

,"s ( ! popes _h occupi$ x  z a         
wooll5-mill1 "s z a saltpetre factory2  
"s _h plann$ !  conv]sion ( its         
magnific5t arcades into %ops = tradesm54
 ,! iron  clamps :i* b\nd its /ones     
toge!r _h be5 /ol54 ,! walls 7  fissur$ 
& fall+4 ,ev5 9 our own times botanical 
works h be5  compos$ on ! plants :i* h  
made ?is noble wreck _! home4 ,!  ,flora
 ( ! ,coliseum conta9s f\r hundr$ &     
tw5ty species4  ,among ! ru9s (         
classical build+s might be se5 brok5    
columns1  cypresses1 & m\ldy frescoes1  
dropp+ f ! walls4 ,ev5 !  vegetable _w  
p>ticipat$ 9 ! melan*oly *ange3 !       
myrtle1 :i*  once fl\ri%$ on ! ,av5t9e1 
_h ne>ly become ext9ct2 ! laurel1  :i*  
once gave its leaves to encircle ! br[s 
( emp]ors1 _h be5  replac$ by ivy--!    
companion ( dea?4    ,b p]haps x may be 
said ! popes 7 n responsible = all ?is4 
,let x be rememb]$ t 9 less ?an "o      
hundr$ & =ty ye>s !  city _h be5        
successively tak5 by ,al>ic1 ,g5s]ic1   
,rieim]1 ,vitiges1  ,totila2 t _m ( its 

great edifices _h be5 conv]t$ into      
def5sive works4 ,! aqu$ucts 7 de/roy$ by
 ,vitiges1 :o ru9$ !  ,campagna2 !      
palace ( ! ,caes>s 0 ravag$ by ,totila2 
!n !re  _h be5 ! ,lomb>d sieges2 !n     
,rob]t ,guisc>d & 8 ,normans _h  burnt !
 city f ! ,anton9e ,column to !         
,flam9ian ,gate1 f  ! ,lat]an to !      
,capitol2 !n x 0 sack$ & mutilat$ by !  
,con/able ,b\rbon2 aga9 & aga9 x 0      
flood$ by inundations ( !  ,tib] &      
%att]$ by e>?quakes4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 be>
 9 m9d !  accusation ( ,ma*iavelli1 :o  
says1 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ,flor5ce1 t  ne>ly  
all ! b>b>ian invasions ( ,italy 7 by ! 
invitations (  ! pontiffs1 :o call$ 9 ^?
 hordes6 ,x 0 n ! ,go?1 nor  ! ,v&al1   
nor ! ,norman1 nor ! ,s>ac51 b ! popes &
 _!  nephews1 :o produc$ ! dilapidation 
( ,rome6 ,lime-kilns _h be5 f$  f !     
ru9s1 classical build+s _h become       
/one-qu>ries = !  palaces ( ,italian    
pr9ces1 & *ur*es 7 decorat$ f ! old     
temples4    ,*ur*es decorat$ f !        
temples6 ,x is = ?is & su* z ?is  t !   

popes mu/ be held responsible4 ,sup]b   
,cor9?ian columns bad  be5 *isel$ into  
images ( ! sa9ts4 ,magnific5t ,egyptian 
obelisks  _h be5 di%onor$ by papal      
inscriptions4 ,! ,septizonium ( ,sev]us 
_h be5 demoli%$ to furni% mat]ials = !  
build+ ( ,/4  ,pet]'s2 ! bronze ro( ( ! 
,pan!on _h be5 melt$ into columns to    
ornam5t ! apo/le's tomb4    ,! great    
bell ( ,vit]bo1 9 ! t[] ( ! ,capitol1 _h
 ann\nc$  ! dea? ( _m a pope1 & /ill    
desecration ( ! build+s  &              
demoralization ( ! p w5t on4 ,papal     
,rome manife/$ no  consid]ation1 b r    
hatr$1 = classical ,rome1 ,! pontiffs _h
  be5 subord9ates ( ! ,byzant9e         
sov]eigns1 !n lieut5ants ( !  ,franki%  
k+s1 !n arbit]s ( ,europe2 _! gov]nm5t  
_h *ang$ z  mu* z ^? ( any ( ! surr\nd+ 
nations2 !re _h be5 complete            
metamorphoses 9 its maxims1 objects1    
claims4 ,9 "o po9t only x _h  nev]      
*ang$--intol]ance4 ,claim+ to be ! c5tre
 ( ! religi\s  life ( ,europe1 x        
/eadfa/ly refus$ to recognize any       

religi\s  exi/5ce outside ( itself1 yet 
bo? 9 a political & !ological  s5se x 0 
rott5 to ! core4 ,erasmus & ,lu!r he>d )
 amazem5t  ! blasphemies & witness$ ) a 
%udd] ! a!ism ( ! city4    ,! hi/orian  
,ranke1 to :om ,i am indebt$ = _m ( ^!  
facts1  has depict$ 9 a v graphic mann] 
! demoralization ( ! great  metropolis4 
,! popes 71 = ! mo/ "p1 at _! election1 
ag$  m54 ,p[] 01 !re=e1 incessantly     
pass+ into new h&s4 ,e  election 0 a    
revolution 9 prospects & expectations4  
,9 a community  :]e all might rise1 :]e 
all might aspire to all1 x necess>ily   
foll[$ t e man 0 occupi$ 9 ?ru/+ "s o!r 
into !  backgr\nd4 ,?\gh ! population ( 
! city at ! inception ( !  ,re=mation _h
 sunk to eighty ?\s&1 !re 7 va/ cr[ds ( 
placem51 & /ill great] ones ( aspirants 
= place4 ,!  successful occupant ( !    
pontificate _h ?\s&s ( (fices to give   
away--(fices f _m ( :i* ! incumb5ts _h  
be5 remorselessly  eject$2 _m _h be5    
creat$ = ! purpose ( sale4 ,! integrity 
& capacity ( an applicant 7 nev] inquir$

 into2 ! po9ts  consid]$ 71 :at s]vices 
has he r5d]$ or c he r5d] to !  p>ty8 h[
 mu* c he pay = ! pref]m5t8 ,an ,am]ican
 read] c  ?or\ghly realize ?is /ate (   
?+s4 ,at e presid5tial election  he     
witnesses simil> acts4 ,! election ( a  
pope by ! ,conclave is n  unlike !      
nom9ation ( an ,am]ican presid5t by a   
conv5tion4 ,9 bo?  cases !re are _m     
(fices to give away4    ,william (      
,malmesbury says t 9 8 day ! ,romans    
made a sale (  :atev] 0 righte\s & sacr$
 = gold4 ,aft] 8 "t !re 0  no           
improvem5t2 ! ,*ur* deg5]at$ into an    
in/rum5t = !  exploitation ( money4 ,va/
 sums 7 collect$ 9 ,italy2 va/ sums  7  
drawn "u all mann] ( pret5ses f surr\nd+
 & reluctant  c\ntries4 ,( ^! ! mo/     
nef>i\s 0 ! sale ( indulg5ces  = !      
p]petration ( s94 ,italian religion _h  
become ! art (  plund]+ ! p4    ,= m ?an
 a ?\s& ye>s ! sov]eign pontiffs _h be5 
rul]s  ( ! city4 ,true1 x _h witness$ _m
 sc5es ( deva/ation = :i*  !y 7 n       
responsible2 b !y 7 responsible = ?is1 t

 !y  _h nev] made any vigor\s1 any      
p]si/5t ef=t = its mat]ial1 its  moral  
improvem5t4 ,in/ead ( be+ 9 ^! respects 
an exempl> =  ! imitation ( ! _w1 x     
became an exempl> ( a condition t  ought
 to be %unn$4 ,?+s /eadily w5t on f bad 
to worse1 until  at ! epo* ( !          
,re=mation no pi\s /rang] c\ld visit x  
)\t  be+ %ock$4    ,! papacy1 repudiat+ 
sci5ce z absolutely incompatible ) its  
pret5sions1 _h 9 lat] ye>s address$     
itself to ! enc\ragem5t (  art4 ,b music
 & pa9t+1 ?\gh !y may be exquisite      
adornm5ts  ( life1 conta9 no liv+ =ce t 
c develop a weak nation into a  /rong   
"o2 no?+ t c p]man5tly assure ! mat]ial 
well-be+  or happ9ess ( communities2 &  
h5ce at ! "t ( ! ,re=mation1  to "o :o  
?\ghtfully consid]$ h] condition1 ,rome 
_h lo/ all  liv+ en]gy4 ,%e 0 no long] !
 arbit] ( ! physical or !  religi\s     
progress ( ! _w4 ,= ! progressive maxims
 ( !  republic & ! empire1 %e _h        
sub/itut$ ! /ation>y maxims (  ! papacy4
 ,%e _h ! appe>ance ( piety & !         

possession ( art4  ,9 ?is %e resembl$ "o
 ( ^? fri>-corpses :i* we /ill see 9  _!
 br[n c[ls 9 ! vaults ( ! ,cappucc9i1 ) 
a brevi>y or  "s )]$ fl[]s 9 its h&s4   
,f ?is view ( ! ,et]nal ,city1 ?is      
survey ( :at ,lat9  ,*ri/ianity _h done 
= ,rome itself1 let u turn to ! :ole    
,european  ,cont95t4 ,let u try to      
det]m9e ! true value ( ! sy/em t 0      
guid+ society2 let u judge x by its     
fruits4    ,! condition ( nations z to  
_! well-be+ is mo/ precisely  repres5t$ 
by ! v>iations ( _! population4 ,=ms (  
gov]nm5t  h v little influ5ce on        
population1 b policy may control x      
completely4    ,x has be5 v             
satisfactorily %[n by au?ors :o h giv5  
att5tion to ! subject1 t ! v>iations (  
population dep5d  ^u ! int]balanc+ ( !  
g5]ative =ce ( society & !  resi/ances  
to life4    ,by ! g5]ative =ce ( society
 is meant t in/9ct :i*  manife/s itself 
9 ! multiplication ( ! race4 ,to "s     
ext5t x  dep5ds on climate2 b1 s9ce !   
climate ( ,europe did n s5sibly  *ange  

betwe5 ! f\r? & ! sixte5? c5turies1 we  
may reg>d  ?is =ce z hav+ be51 on t     
cont95t1 dur+ ! p]iod "u  consid]ation1 
inv>iable4    ,by ! resi/ances to life  
is meant :atev] t5ds to make individual 
exi/5ce m difficult ( support4 ,among   
su* may be enum]at$  insuffici5t food1  
inadequate clo?+1 imp]fect %elt]4    ,x 
is also kn[n t1 if ! resi/ances become  
inappreciable1 !  g5]ative =ce w d\ble a
 population 9 tw5ty-five ye>s4    ,!    
resi/ances op]ate 9 two modes3 #a4      
,physically2 s9ce !y dim9i%  ! numb] (  
bir?s1 & %ort5 ! t]m ( ! life ( all4 #b4
  ,intellectually2 s9ce1 9 a moral1 &   
p>ticul>ly 9 a religi\s  community1 !y  
po/pone m>riage1 by caus+ individuals to
 decl9e  its responsibilities until !y  
feel t !y are compet5t to meet  ! *>ges 
& c>es ( a family4 ,h5ce ! explanation (
 a  long-recogniz$ fact1 t ! numb] (    
m>riages dur+ a giv5 p]iod  has a       
connection ) ! price ( food4    ,!      
increase ( population keeps pace ) !    
increase ( food2 &1  inde$1 su* be+ !   

p[] ( ! g5]ative =ce1 x ov]passes !     
means ( subsi/5ce1 e/abli%+ a con/ant   
pressure ^u !m4 ,"u  ^! circum/ances1 x 
necess>ily happ5s t a c]ta9 am\nt (     
de/itution mu/ occur4 ,individuals h    
come into exi/5ce :o mu/ be  />v$4    ,z
 illu/rations ( ! v>iations t h occurr$ 
9 ! population  ( diff]5t c\ntries1 may 
be m5tion$ ! imm5se dim9ution ( t  (    
,italy 9 consequ5ce ( ! w>s ( ,ju/9ian2 
! depopulation (  ,nor? ,africa 9       
consequ5ce ( !ological qu>rels2 its     
re/oration  ?r\gh ! e/abli%m5t (        
,mohamm$anism2 ! increase ( t ( all     
,europe ?r\gh ! feudal sy/em1 :5 e/ates 
became m valuable 9  proportion to !    
numb] ( reta9]s !y c\ld supply4 ,!      
crusades  caus$ a s5sible dim9ution1 n  
only ?r\gh ! enorm\s army losses1  b    
also by reason ( ! )drawal ( s _m       
able-bodi$ m5  f m>riage-life4 ,simil>  
v>iations h occurr$ on ! ,am]ican       
,cont95t4 ,! population ( ,mexico 0 v   
quickly dim9i%$ by two  million ?r\gh ! 
rapacity & atroci\s cruelty ( !         

,spani>ds1 :o  drove ! civiliz$ ,indians
 to despair4 ,! same happ5$ 9 ,p]u4     
,! population ( ,engl& at ! ,norman     
conque/ 0 ab\t two million4  ,9 five    
hundr$ ye>s x _h sc>cely d\bl$4 ,x may  
be suppos$ t  ?is /ation>y condition 0  
to "s ext5t induc$ by ! papal policy  ( 
! en=cem5t ( celibacy 9 ! cl]gy4 ,!     
legal g5]ative  =ce 0 d\btless affect$  
by t policy1 ! actual g5]ative  =ce 0 n4
 ,= ^? :o h made ?is subject _! /udy h  
long ago be5 satisfi$ t public celibacy 
is private wick$ness4 ,?is  ma9ly       
det]m9$ ! laity1 z well z ! gov]nm5t 9  
,engl&1 to  suppress ! mona/]ies4 ,x 0  
op5ly ass]t$ t !re 7 "o  hundr$ ?\s&    
wom5 9 ,engl& made dissolute by ! cl]gy4
    ,9 my hi/ory ( ! ,am]ican ,civil    
,w>1 ,i h pres5t$ "s  reflections on ?is
 po9t1 :i* ,i w take ! lib]ty ( quot+   
"h3 ,:at1 !n1 does ?is /ation>y         
condition ( ! population  mean8 ,x      
means1 food obta9$ ) h>d%ip1 insuffici5t
 clo?+1  p]sonal uncleanness1 cab9s t   
c\ld n keep out ! wea!r1  ! de/ructive  

effects ( cold & heat1 miasm1 want (    
sanit>y  provisions1 abs5ce (           
physicians1 uselessness ( %r9e-cure1 !  
deceptiv5ess ( miracles1 9 :i* society 0
 putt+ its tru/2 or1  to sum up a long  
catalogue ( sorr[s1 wants1 & suff]+s1 9 
"o  t]m--x means a high dea?-rate4    ,b
 m2 x means defici5t bir?s4 ,& :at does 
t po9t out8  ,m>riage po/pon$1 lic5ti\s 
life1 private wick$ness1 demoraliz$     
society4    ,to an ,am]ican1 :o lives 9 
a c\ntry t 0 ye/]day an  int]m9able &   
imp5etrable des]t1 b :i* to-day is fill+
 )  a population d\bl+ itself e         
tw5ty-five ye>s at ! prescrib$  rate1   
?is awful wa/e ( actual & cont+5t life  
_c b be a  mo/ surpris+ fact4 ,8        
curiosity w lead him to inquire :at k9d 
( sy/em t c\ld h be5 :i* 0 pret5d+ to   
guide &  develop society1 b :i* mu/ be  
held responsible = ?is prodigi\s        
de/ruction1 excell+1 9 its insidi\s     
result1 w>1 pe/il5ce1 &  fam9e comb9$2  
insidi\s1 = m5 7 actually believ+ t x   
secur$ _! highe/ temporal int]e/s4 ,h[  

diff]5t n[6 ,9 ,engl&1  ! same          
geographical surface is su/a9+ t5 times 
! population  ( t day1 & s5d+ =? its    
emigrat+ sw>ms4 ,let him1 :o looks      
back1 ) v5]ation on ! pa/1 settle 9 8   
own m9d :at su* a  sy/em c\ld h be5     
wor?4    ,^! v>iations 9 ! population ( 
,europe h be5 att5d$ )  *anges 9        
di/ribution4 ,! c5tre ( population has  
pass$ nor?w>d  s9ce ! e/abli%m5t (      
,*ri/ianity 9 ! ,roman ,empire4 ,x  has 
s9ce pass$ we/w>d1 9 consequ5ce ( !     
developm5t (  manufactur+ indu/ry4      
,we may n[ exam9e some:at m m9utely ! "*
 ( !  resi/ances :i* ?us1 = a ?\s& ye>s1
 kept ! population (  ,europe /ation>y4 
,! surface ( ! ,cont95t 0 = ! mo/  "p   
cov]$ ) pa?less =e/s2 "h & !re x 0 dott$
 )  mona/]ies & t[ns4 ,9 ! l[l&s & along
 ! riv]-c\rses 7  f5s1 sometimes hundr$s
 ( miles 9 ext5t1 exhal+ _! pe/if]\s    
miasms1 & spread+ agues f> & wide4 ,9   
,p>is & ,london1 !  h\ses 7 ( wood daub$
 ) clay1 & ?at*$ ) /raw or re$s4  ,!y _h
 no w9d[s1 &1 until ! inv5tion ( !      

saw-mill1 v  few _h wood5 floors4 ,!    
luxury ( a c>pet 0 unkn[n2 "s /raw1     
scatt]$ 9 ! room1 suppli$ its place4    
,!re 7 no *imneys2 !  smoke ( ! ill-f$1 
*e]less fire escap$ ?r\gh a hole 9 !    
ro(4  ,9 su* habitations !re 0 sc>cely  
any protection f ! wea!r4  ,no attempt 0
 made at dra9age1 b ! putrefy+ g>bage & 
rubbi%  7 simply ?r[n out ( ! door4 ,m51
 wom51 & *ildr51 slept  9 ! same        
ap>tm5t2 n unfrequ5tly1 dome/ic animals 
7 _!  companions2 9 su* a confusion ( ! 
family1 x 0 impossible t  mode/y or     
morality c\ld be ma9ta9$4 ,! b$ 0       
usually a bag (  /raw1 a wood5 log s]v$ 
z a pill[4 ,p]sonal cleanl9ess 0 utt]ly 
unkn[n2 great (fic]s ( /ate1 ev5        
dignit>ies s high z !  ,ar*bi%op (      
,cant]bury1 sw>m$ ) v]m92 su*1 x is     
relat$1 0  ! condition ( ,?omas a       
,becket1 ! antagoni/ ( an ,engli% k+4   
,to  conceal p]sonal impurity1 p]fumes 7
 necess>ily & pr(usely  us$4 ,! citiz5  
clo!d himself 9 lea!r1 a g>m5t :i*1 )   
its  ev]-accumulat+ impurity1 might la/ 

= _m ye>s4 ,he 0 consid]$  to be 9      
circum/ances ( ease1 if he c\ld procure 
fre% meat once  a week = 8 d9n]4 ,!     
/reets _h no sew]s2 !y 7 )\t  pavem5t or
 lamps4 ,aft] nightfall1 ! *amb]-%att]s 
7 ?r[n  op51 & slops unc]emoni\sly      
empti$ d[n1 to ! discomfiture ( !       
wayf>] track+ 8 pa? ?r\gh ! n>r[ /reets1
 ) 8 dismal  lant]n 9 8 h&4    ,a5eas   
,sylvius1 :o aft]w>d became ,pope ,pius 
,,ii41 & 0 !re=e a  v compet5t &        
imp>tial writ]1 has left u a graphic    
acc\nt (  a j\rney he made to ! ,briti% 
,isl&s1 ab\t #adcj4 ,he describes !     
h\ses ( ! peasantry z con/ruct$ ( /ones 
put toge!r )\t  mort>2 ! ro(s 7 ( turf1 
a /iff5$ bull's-hide s]v$ = a  door4 ,! 
food consi/$ ( co>se vegetable products1
 su* z peas1  & ev5 ! b>k ( trees4 ,9 "s
 places !y 7 unacqua9t$ )  bread4       
,cab9s ( re$s pla/]$ ) mud1 h\ses (     
wattl$ /akes1  *imneyless peat-fires f  
:i* !re 0 sc>cely an escape = !  smoke1 
d5s ( physical & moral pollution sw>m+ )
 v]m91 wisps  ( /raw twi/$ r\nd ! limbs 

to keep (f ! cold1 ! ague-/rick5        
peasant1 ) no help except %r9e-cure6 ,h[
 0 x possible t !  population c\ld      
increase8 ,%all we1 !n1 wond] t1 9 !    
fam9e (  #ajcj1 human fle% 0 cook$ &    
sold2 or t1 9 t ( #abeh1 fifte5  ?\s&   
p]sons di$ ( hung] 9 ,london8 ,%all we  
wond] t1 9 "s  ( ! invasions ( ! plague1
 ! dea?s 7 s frightfully num]\s  t !    
liv+ c\ld h>dly bury ! dead8 ,by t (    
#acdh1 :i* came  f ! ,ea/ along ! l9es (
 comm]cial travel1 & spread all ov]     
,europe1 "o-?ird ( ! population (       
,france 0 de/roy$4    ,su* 0 ! condition
 ( ! peasantry1 & ( ! common inhabitants
  ( cities4 ,n mu* bett] 0 t ( ! nobles4
 ,william (  ,malmesbury1 speak+ ( !    
degrad$ mann]s ( ! ,anglo-,saxons1 says3
  ,_! nobles1 devot$ to gluttony &      
voluptu\sness1 nev] visit$ !  *ur*1 b ! 
mat9s & ! mass 7 read ov] to !m by a    
hurry+  prie/ 9 _! b$*amb]s1 be=e !y    
rose1 !mselves n li/5+4  ,! common p 7 a
 prey to ! m p[]ful2 _! prop]ty 0       
seiz$1 _! bodies dragg$ away to di/ant  

c\ntries2 _! maid5s  7 ei!r ?r[n into a 
bro!l1 or sold = slaves4 ,dr9k+ day  &  
night 0 ! g5]al pursuit2 vices1 !       
companions ( inebriety1  foll[$1        
effem9at+ ! manly m9d4 ,! b>onial ca/les
 7 d5s  ( robb]s4 ,! ,saxon *ronicl]    
records h[ m5 & wom5 7 caught  & dragg$ 
into ^? /rongholds1 hung up by _! ?umbs 
or feet1  fire appli$ to !m1 knott$ /r+s
 twi/$ r\nd _! heads1 &  _m o!r torm5ts 
inflict$ to extort ransom4    ,all ov]  
,europe1 ! great & pr(itable political  
(fices 7 fill$  by ecclesia/ics4 ,9 e   
c\ntry !re 0 a dual gov]nm5t3 #a4  ,t ( 
a local k9d1 repres5t$ by a temporal    
sov]eign2 #b4 ,t (  a =eign k9d1        
ackn[l$g+ ! au?ority ( ! pope1 ,?is     
,roman  influ5ce 01 9 ! nature ( ?+s1   
sup]ior to ! local2 x  express$ !       
sov]eign w ( "o man ov] all ! nations ( 
! cont95t conjo9tly1 & ga!r$ ov]:elm+   
p[] f its  compactness & unity4 ,! local
 influ5ce 0 necess>ily ( a feeble       
nature1 s9ce x 0 commonly weak5$ by !   
rivalries ( cont]m9\s  /ates1 & !       

diss5sions dext]\sly provok$ by its     
competitor4 ,on  n a s+le occasion c\ld 
! v>i\s ,european /ates =m a coalition  
aga9/ _! common antagoni/4 ,:5ev] a "q  
arose1 !y 7  skillfully tak5 9 detail1 &
 commonly ma/]$4 ,! o/5sible  object (  
papal intrusion 0 to secure = ! diff]5t 
peoples moral  well-be+2 ! real object 0
 to obta9 l>ge rev5ues1 & give  support 
to va/ bodies ( ecclesia/ics4 ,! rev5ues
 ?us ab/ract$  7 n infrequ5tly _m times 
great] ?an ^? pass+ into !  treasury ( !
 local p[]4 ,?us1 on ! occasion (       
,innoc5t ,,iv4  dem&+ provision to be   
made = ?ree hundr$ additional ,italian  
cl]gy by ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&1 & t "o ( 8   
nephews--a m]e  boy--%\ld h a /all 9    
,l9coln ,ca!dral1 x 0 f\nd t ! sum      
already annually ab/ract$ by =eign      
ecclesia/ics f ,engl& 0  ?rice t :i* w5t
 into ! c(f]s ( ! k+4    ,:ile ?us !    
high] cl]gy secur$ e political appo9tm5t
  wor? hav+1 & abbots vi$ ) c\nts 9 !   
h]ds ( slaves  !y possess$--"s1 x is    
said1 own$ n few] ?an tw5ty  ?\s&--begg+

 fri>s p]vad$ society 9 all directions1 
pick+  up a %>e ( :at /ill rema9$ to !  
poor4 ,!re 0 a va/ body (  non-produc]s1
 liv+ 9 idl5ess & own+ a =eign          
allegiance1 :o  7 subsi/+ on ! fruits ( 
! toil ( ! labor]s4 ,x c\ld n  be       
o!rwise ?an t small f>ms %\ld be        
unceas+ly m]g$ into  ! l>g] e/ates2 t ! 
poor %\ld /eadily become poor]2 t       
society1 f> f improv+1 %\ld exhibit a   
cont9ually increas+  demoralization4    
,outside ! mona/ic in/itutions no       
attempt at  intellectual advancem5t 0   
made2 inde$1 s f> z ! laity 7  conc]n$1 
! influ5ce ( ! ,*ur* 0 direct$ to an    
opposite  result1 = ! maxim univ]sally  
receiv$ 01 t ignorance is !  "m (       
devotion4    ,! settl$ practice (       
republican & imp]ial ,rome 0 to h swift 
communication ) all h] outly+ prov9ces1 
by means ( sub/antial  bridges & roads4 
,"o ( ! prime duties ( ! legions 0 to   
con/ruct !m & keep !m 9 repair4 ,by ?is1
 h] milit>y au?ority  0 assur$4 ,b !    
dom9ion ( papal ,rome1 dep5d+ ^u a      

diff]5t  pr9ciple1 _h no exig5cies ( t  
k9d1 & ?is duty accord+ly  0 left = !   
local p[]s to neglect4 ,& s1 9 all      
directions1  ! roads 7 almo/ impassable 
= a l>ge "p ( ! ye>4 ,a common  means ( 
transportation 0 9 clumsy c>ts drawn by 
ox51 go+ at !  mo/ b ?ree or f\r miles  
an h\r4 ,:]e boat-conveyance along      
riv]s c\ld n be _h1 pack-horses & mules 
7 resort$ to =  ! transportation (      
m]*&ise1 an adequate means = ! sl5d]    
comm]ce ( ! times4 ,:5 l>ge bodies ( m5 
_h to be mov$1 !  difficulties became   
almo/ insup]able4 ,( ?is1 p]haps1 "o ( !
  be/ illu/rations may be f\nd 9 ! /ory 
( ! m>* ( ! fir/  ,crusad]s4 ,^!        
re/ra9ts ^u int]communication t5d$      
p[]fully to  promote ! g5]al b5ight$    
condition4 ,j\rneys by individuals c\ld 
n be und]tak5 )\t mu* risk1 = !re 0     
sc>cely a moor or a  =e/ t _h n its     
highwaym54    ,an illit]ate condition   
ev]y:]e prevail+1 gave opportunity = !  
developm5t ( sup]/ition4 ,europe 0 full 
( disgraceful miracles4 ,on  all ! roads

 pilgrims 7 w5d+ _! way to ! %r9es (    
sa9ts1  r5[n$ = ! cures !y _h wr\ght4 ,x
 _h always be5 ! policy  ( ! ,*ur* to   
disc\rage ! physician & 8 art2 he       
int]f]$ too  mu* ) ! gifts & pr(its ( ! 
%r9es4 ,"t has br\ght ?is  once         
lucrative impo/ure to its prop] value4  
,h[ _m %r9es are !re  n[ 9 successful   
op]ation 9 ,europe8    ,= pati5ts too   
sick to move or be mov$1 !re 7 no       
rem$ies except  ^? ( a gho/ly k9d--!    
,pat]-no/] or ! ,ave4 ,= ! prev5tion  ( 
diseases1 pray]s 7 put up 9 ! *ur*es1 b 
no sanit>y  measures 7 resort$ to4 ,f   
cities reek+ ) putrefy+ fil?  x 0 ?\ght 
t ! plague might be /ay$ by ! pray]s ( !
  prie/s1 by !m ra9 & dry wea!r might be
 secur$1 & deliv]ance  obta9$ f !       
baleful influ5ces ( eclipses & comets4  
,b :5  ,halley's comet came1 9 #adef1 s 
trem5d\s 0 its app>ition t  x 0 necess>y
 = ! pope himself to int]f]e4 ,he       
exorcis$ &  expell$ x f ! skies4 ,x     
slunk away into ! abysses ( space1      
t]ror-/rick5 by ! mal$ictions (         

,calixtus ,,iii41 & did n  v5ture back =
 sev5ty-five ye>s6    ,! physical value 
( %r9e-cures & gho/ly rem$ies is measur$
  by ! dea?-rate4 ,9 ^? days x 01       
probably1 ab\t "o 9  tw5ty-?ree1 "u !   
pres5t m mat]ial practice x is ab\t "o  
9 =ty4    ,! moral condition ( ,europe 0
 signally illu/rat$ :5 syphilis 0       
introduc$ f ! ,we/ ,indies by !         
companions ( ,columbus4 ,x spread  )    
wond]ful rapidity2 all ranks ( p]sons1 f
 ! ,holy ,fa!r ,leo  ,x4 to ! begg> by !
 wayside1 contract+ ! %ameful disease4  
,_m  excus$ _! mis=tune by decl>+ t x 0 
an epidemic proce$+  f a c]ta9 malignity
 9 ! con/itution ( ! air1 b 9 tru?  its 
spread 0 due to a c]ta9 infirmity 9 !   
con/itution ( man--an  infirmity :i* _h 
n be5 remov$ by ! spiritual guidance "u 
:i* he _h be5 liv+4    ,to ! m$ical     
efficacy ( %r9es mu/ be add$ t ( special
 relics4  ,^! 7 sometimes ( ! mo/       
extraord9>y k9d4 ,!re 7 sev]al  abbeys t
 possess$ our ,savior's cr[n ( ?orns4   
,elev5 _h !  lance t _h pi]c$ 8 side4   

,if any p]son 0 adv5tur\s en\gh  to     
sugge/ t ^! c\ld n all be au!ntic1 he   
w\ld h be5  d5\nc$ z an a!i/4 ,dur+ !   
holy w>s ! ,templ>-,knights _h  driv5 a 
pr(itable comm]ce by br++ f ,j]usalem to
 ! ,crusad+  armies bottles ( ! milk ( !
 ,bless$ ,virg91 :i* !y sold =  enorm\s 
sums2 ^! bottles 7 pres]v$ ) pi\s c>e 9 
_m (  ! great religi\s e/abli%m5ts4 ,b  
p]haps none ( ^! impo/ures  surpass$ 9  
audacity t (f]$ by a mona/]y 9          
,j]usalem1 :i*  pres5t$ to ! behold] "o 
( ! f+]s ( ! ,holy ,gho/6 ,mod]n        
society has sil5tly r5d]$ its v]dict on 
^! sc&al\s objects4  ,?\gh !y once      
n\ri%$ ! piety ( ?\s&s ( e>ne/ p1  !y   
are n[ consid]$ too vile to h a place 9 
any public museum4    ,h[ %all we acc\nt
 = ! great failure we ?us detect 9 !    
gu>dian%ip ( ! ,*ur* ov] ,europe8 ,?is  
is n ! result t  mu/ h occurr$ _h !re   
be5 9 ,rome an unremitt+ c>e = !        
spiritual & mat]ial prosp]ity ( !       
cont95t1 _h ! univ]sal  pa/or1 !        
successor ( ,pet]1 occupi$ himself )    

s+l5ess (  purpose = ! hol9ess &        
happ9ess ( 8 flock4    ,! explanation is
 n difficult to f9d4 ,x is conta9$ 9 a  
/ory  ( s9 & %ame4 ,i pref]1 !re=e1 9 ! 
foll[+ p>agraphs1 to  (f] explanatory   
facts d]iv$ f ,ca?olic au?ors1 &1 inde$1
 to  pres5t !m z ne>ly z ,i c 9 ! words 
( ^? writ]s4      ,! /ory ,i am ab\t to 
relate is a n>rative ( ! trans=mation ( 
a  conf$]acy into an absolute mon>*y4   
,9 ! e>ly times e *ur*1 )\t prejudice to
 its agreem5t )  ! ,*ur* univ]sal 9 all 
ess5tial po9ts1 manag$ its own affairs  
) p]fect fre$om & indep5d5ce1 ma9ta9+   
its own traditional  usages & discipl9e1
 all que/ions n conc]n+ ! :ole ,*ur*1 or
  ( prim>y importance1 be+ settl$ on !  
spot4    ,until ! beg9n+ ( ! n9? c5tury1
 !re 0 no *ange 9 !  con/itution ( !    
,roman ,*ur*4 ,b ab\t #hde ! ,isidorian 
,decretals  7 fabricat$ 9 ! we/ (       
,gaul--a =g]y conta9+ ab\t "o  hundr$   
pret5d$ decrees ( ! e>ly popes1 toge!r )
 c]ta9  spuri\s writ+s ( o!r *ur*       
dignit>ies & acts ( synods4 ,?is  =g]y  

produc$ an imm5se ext5sion ( ! papal    
p[]1 x displac$  ! old sy/em ( *ur*     
gov]nm5t1 dive/+ x ( ! republican       
attributes x _h possess$1 & trans=m+ x  
into an absolute  mon>*y4 ,x br\ght !   
bi%ops into subjection to ,rome1 & made 
!  pontiff ! supreme judge ( ! cl]gy ( !
 :ole ,*ri/ian _w4 ,x  prep>$ ! way = ! 
great attempt1 subsequ5tly made by      
,hildebr&1  to conv]t ! /ates ( ,europe 
into a !ocratic prie/-k+dom1 )  ! pope  
at its head4    ,gregory ,,vii41 ! au?or
 ( ?is great attempt1 saw t 8 plans     
w\ld be be/ c>ri$ out ?r\gh ! ag5cy (   
synods4 ,he1 !re=e1  re/rict$ ! "r (    
hold+ !m to ! popes & _! legates4 ,to   
aid 9 ! matt]1 a new sy/em ( *ur* law 0 
devis$ by ,anselm  ( ,lucca1 p>tly f !  
old ,isidorian =g]ies1 & p>tly f new    
inv5tions4 ,to e/abli% ! supremacy (    
,rome1 n only _h a new  civil & a new   
canon law to be produc$1 a new hi/ory _h
 also to  be inv5t$4 ,?is furni%$ ne$ful
 in/ances ( ! deposition  &             
excommunication ( k+s1 & prov$ t !y _h  

always be5  subord9ate to ! popes4 ,!   
decretal lett]s ( ! popes 7 put on  a p>
 ) ,scripture4 ,at l5g? x came to be    
receiv$1 ?r\gh\t  ! ,we/1 t ! popes _h  
be51 f ! beg9n+ ( ,*ri/ianity1          
legislators = ! :ole ,*ur*4 ,z absolute 
sov]eigns 9 lat] times  _c endure       
repres5tative assemblies1 s ! papacy1 :5
 x wi%$  to become absolute1 f\nd t !   
synods ( p>ticul> national  *ur*es mu/  
be put an end to1 & ^? only "u !        
imm$iate  control ( ! pontiff p]mitt$4  
,?is1 9 itself1 con/itut$ a great       
revolution4    ,ano!r fiction concoct$ 9
 ,rome 9 ! eigh? c5tury l$ to important 
consequ5ces4 ,x feign$ t ! ,emp]or      
,con/ant9e1 9 gratitude =  8 cure f     
leprosy1 & baptism by ,pope ,sylve/]1 _h
 be/[$  ,italy & ! ,we/]n prov9ces on ! 
pope1 & t1 9 tok5 ( 8  subord9ation1 he 
_h s]v$ ! pope z 8 groom1 & l$ 8 horse  
"s di/ance4 ,?is =g]y 0 int5d$ to "w on 
! ,franki% k+s1  to impress !m ) a      
correct idea ( _! inf]iority1 & to %[   
t1 9 ! t]ritorial concessions !y made to

 ! ,*ur*1 !y 7  n giv+ b only re/or+ :at
 rightfully belong$ to x4    ,! mo/     
pot5t in/rum5t ( ! new papal sy/em 0    
,gratian's  ,decretum1 :i* 0 issu$ ab\t 
! middle ( ! twelf? c5tury4 ,x  0 a mass
 ( fabrications4 ,x made ! :ole ,*ri/ian
 _w1 ?r\gh  ! papacy1 ! doma9 ( !       
,italian cl]gy4 ,x inculcat$ t x is     
lawful to con/ra9 m5 to goodness1 to    
torture & execute h]etics1  & to        
confiscate _! prop]ty2 t to kill an     
excommunicat$ p]son  is n murd]2 t !    
pope1 9 8 unlimit$ sup]iority to all    
law1  /&s on an equality ) ! ,son (     
,god6    ,z ! new sy/em ( c5tralization 
develop$1 maxims1 t 9 ! old5  times w\ld
 h be5 held to be %ock+1 7 boldly       
av[$--! :ole  ,*ur* is ! prop]ty ( !    
pope to d ) z he w2 :at is simony  9    
o!rs is n simony 9 him2 he is above all 
law1 & c be call$  to acc\nt by none2   
:oev] disobeys him mu/ be put to dea?2 e
  baptiz$ man is 8 subject1 & mu/ = life
 rema9 s1 :e!r he  w or n4 ,up to ! end 
( ! twelf? c5tury1 ! popes 7 !  vic>s ( 

,pet]2 aft] ,innoc5t ,,iii4 !y 7 ! vic>s
 ( ,*ri/4    ,b an absolute sov]eign has
 ne$ ( rev5ues1 & to ?is ! popes  7 no  
exception4 ,! in/itution ( legates 0    
br\ght 9 f  ,hildebr&'s "t4 ,sometimes  
_! duty 0 to visit *ur*es1 sometimes  !y
 7 s5t on special bus9ess1 b always     
inve/$ ) unlimit$  p[]s to br+ back     
money ov] ! ,alps4 ,& s9ce ! pope c\ld n
  only make laws1 b c\ld susp5d _!      
op]ation1 a legislation 0  introduc$ 9  
view to ! pur*ase ( disp5sations4       
,mona/]ies 7  exempt$ f episcopal       
jurisdiction on paym5t ( a tribute to   
,rome4  ,! pope _h n[ become ! univ]sal 
bi%op2 he _h a concurr5t  jurisdiction 9
 all ! dioceses1 & c\ld br+ any cases   
be=e  8 own c\rts4 ,8 relation to !     
bi%ops 0 t ( an absolute  sov]eign to 8 
(ficials4 ,a bi%op c\ld resign only by 8
  p]mission1 & sees vacat$ by           
resignation laps$ to him4 ,appeals to   
him 7 enc\rag$ 9 e way = ! sake ( !     
disp5sations2  ?\s&s ( processes came   
be=e ! ,curia1 br++ a ri* h>ve/ to      

,rome4 ,(t5 :5 !re 7 disput+ claimants  
to b5efices1 !  pope w\ld ou/ !m all1 & 
appo9t a creature ( 8 own4 ,(t5 !       
c&idates _h to wa/e ye>s 9 ,rome1 & ei!r
 di$ !re1 or c>ri$  back a vivid        
impression ( ! dom9ant corruption4      
,g]many suff]$  m ?an o!r c\ntries f ^! 
appeals & processes1 & h5ce  ( all      
c\ntries 0 be/ prep>$ = ! ,re=mation4   
,dur+ !  ?irte5? & f\rte5? c5turies !   
popes made gigantic /rides 9  !         
acquisition ( p[]4 ,in/ead ( recomm5d+  
_! favorites =  b5efices1 n[ !y issu$   
m&ates4 ,_! ,italian p>tisans mu/  be   
rew>d$2 no?+ c\ld be done to satisfy _! 
clamors1 b to  provide = !m 9 =eign     
c\ntries4 ,%oals ( conte/+ claimants    
di$ 9 ,rome2 &1 :5 dea? took place 9 t  
city1 ! ,pope claim$  ! "r ( giv+ away !
 b5efices4 ,at l5g? x 0 affirm$ t  he _h
 ! "r ( dispos+ ( all *ur*-(fices )\t   
di/9ction1  & t ! oa? ( ob$i5ce ( a     
bi%op to him impli$ political z  well z 
ecclesia/ical subjection4 ,9 c\ntries   
hav+ a dual gov]nm5t  ?is increas$ ! p[]

 ( ! spiritual elem5t prodigi\sly4      
,rights ( e k9d 7 remorselessly ov]?r[n 
to complete ?is  c5tralization4 ,9 ?is !
 m5dicant ord]s 7 mo/ effici5t aids4  ,x
 0 ! pope & ^? ord]s on "o side1 !      
bi%ops & !  p>o*ial cl]gy on ! o!r4 ,!  
,roman c\rt _h seiz$ ! rights  ( synods1
 metropolitans1 bi%ops1 national *ur*es4
 ,incessantly  int]f]$ ) by ! legates1 !
 bi%ops lo/ all desire to  discipl9e _! 
dioceses2 incessantly int]f]$ ) by !    
begg+  monks1 ! p>i% prie/ _h become    
p[]less 9 8 own village2 8  pa/oral     
influ5ce 0 utt]ly de/roy$ by ! papal    
indulg5ces &  absolutions !y sold4 ,!   
money 0 c>ri$ (f to ,rome4    ,pecuni>y 
necessities urg$ _m ( ! popes to resort 
to su* petty  exp$i5ts z to require f a 
pr9ce1 a bi%op1 or a gr&-ma/]1 :o  _h a 
cause p5d+ 9 ! c\rt1 a pres5t ( a gold5 
cup fill$  ) ducats4 ,su* necessities   
also gave orig9 to jubilees4 ,sixtus    
,,iv4  e/abli%$ :ole colleges1 & sold ! 
places at ?ree or f\r hundr$  ducats4   
,innoc5t ,,viii4 pawn$ ! papal ti>a4 ,( 

,leo ,x4 x 0 said  t he squ&]$ ! rev5ues
 ( ?ree popes1 he wa/$ ! sav+s  ( 8     
pr$ecessor1 he sp5t 8 own income1 he    
anticipat$ t ( 8  successor1 he creat$  
tw5ty-"o hundr$ & fifty new (fices &    
sold  !m2 !y 7 consid]$ to be a good    
inve/m5t1 z !y produc$  twelve p] c5t4  
,! int]e/ 0 extort$ f ,ca?olic c\ntries4
  ,n[h]e 9 ,europe c\ld capital be s    
well inve/$ z at ,rome4 ,l>ge  sums 7   
rais$ by ! =eclos+ ( mortgages1 & n only
 by !  sale b ! resale ( (fices4 ,m5 7  
promot$1 = ! purpose (  sell+ _! (fices 
aga94    ,?\gh aga9/ ! papal !ory1 :i*  
d5\nc$ usuri\s practices1  an imm5se    
papal bank+ sy/em _h sprung up1 9       
connection ) !  ,curia1 & sums at       
usuri\s int]e/ 7 advanc$ to prelates1   
place-hunt]s1 & litigants4 ,! papal     
bank]s 7 privileg$2 all  o!rs 7 "u !    
ban4 ,! ,curia _h discov]$ t x 0 = _!   
int]e/ to h ecclesia/ics all ov] ,europe
 9 _! debt4 ,!y c\ld  make !m pliant1 & 
excommunicate !m = non-paym5t ( int]e/4 
,9 #acbg x 0 reckon$ t half ! ,*ri/ian  

_w 0 "u  excommunication3 bi%ops 7      
excommunicat$ because !y c\ld n  meet ! 
extortions ( legates2 & p]sons 7        
excommunicat$1  "u v>i\s pret5ses1 to   
compel !m to pur*ase absolution at an   
exorbitant price4 ,! ecclesia/ical      
rev5ues ( all ,europe 7 fl[+  into      
,rome1 a s9k ( corruption1 simony1      
usury1 brib]y1 extortion4 ,!  popes1    
s9ce #ajff1 :5 ! great c5traliz+ movem5t
 began1 _h no  "t to pay att5tion to !  
int]nal affairs ( _! own special  flock 
9 ! city ( ,rome4 ,!re 7 ?\s&s ( =eign  
cases1 ea*  br++ 9 money4 ,:5ev]1 says !
 ,bi%op ,alv>o ,pelayo1 ,i ent]$  !     
ap>tm5ts ( ! ,roman c\rt cl]gy1 ,i f\nd 
!m occupi$ 9  c\nt+ up ! gold-co91 :i*  
lay ab\t ! rooms 9 heaps4 ,e            
opportunity ( ext5d+ ! jurisdiction ( ! 
,curia 0 welcome4  ,exemptions 7 s      
manag$ t fre% grants 7 con/antly        
necess>y4  ,bi%ops 7 privileg$ aga9/    
ca!dral *apt]s1 *apt]s aga9/  _! bi%ops2
 bi%ops1 conv5ts1 & individuals1 aga9/ !
  extortions ( legates4    ,! two pill>s

 on :i* ! papal sy/em n[ re/$ 7 !       
,college (  ,c>d9als & ! ,curia4 ,!     
c>d9als1 9 #ajei1 _h become electors (  
! popes4 ,up to t "t elections 7 made by
 ! :ole body ( !  ,roman cl]gy1 & !     
concurr5ce ( ! magi/rates & citiz5s  0  
necess>y4 ,b ,nicolas ,,ii4 re/rict$    
elections to ! ,college (  ,c>d9als by a
 two-?irds vote1 & gave to ! ,g]man     
emp]or !  "r ( confirmation4 ,= almo/   
two c5turies !re 0 a /ruggle  = ma/]y   
betwe5 ! c>d9al olig>*y & papal         
absolutism4 ,!  c>d9als 7 will+ en\gh t 
! pope %\ld be absolute 9 8  =eign rule1
 b !y nev] fail$ to attempt1 be=e giv+  
him  _! votes1 to b9d him to accord to  
!m a recogniz$ %>e 9 !  gov]nm5t4 ,aft] 
8 election1 & be=e 8 consecration1 he   
swore  to obs]ve c]ta9 capitulations1   
su* z a p>ticipation ( rev5ues  betwe5  
himself & ! c>d9als2 an obligation t he 
w\ld n  remove !m1 b w\ld p]mit !m to   
assemble twice a ye> to discuss  :e!r he
 _h kept 8 oa?4 ,repeat$ly ! popes broke
 _! oa?4 ,on  "o side1 ! c>d9als want$ a

 l>g] %>e 9 ! *ur* gov]nm5t  &          
emolum5ts2 on ! o!r1 ! popes refus$ to  
surr5d] rev5ues or  p[]4 ,! c>d9als     
want$ to be conspicu\s 9 pomp &         
extravagance1  & = ?is va/ sums 7       
requisite4 ,9 "o in/ance1 n few] ?an    
five hundr$ b5efices 7 held by "o ( !m2 
_! fri5ds &  reta9]s mu/ be suppli$1 _! 
families enri*$4 ,x 0 affirm$  t ! :ole 
rev5ues ( ,france 7 insuffici5t to meet 
_!  exp5ditures4 ,9 _! rivalries x      
sometimes happ5$ t no pope  0 elect$ =  
sev]al ye>s4 ,x seem$ z if !y want$ to  
%[ h[  easily ! ,*ur* c\ld get on )\t ! 
,vic> ( ,*ri/4    ,t[>d ! close ( !     
elev5? c5tury ! ,roman ,*ur* became !   
,roman c\rt4 ,9 place ( ! ,*ri/ian %eep 
g5tly foll[+ _!  %eph]d 9 ! holy        
prec9cts ( ! city1 !re _h aris5 a       
*anc]y ( writ]s1 not>ies1 tax-ga!r]s1   
:]e transactions ab\t  privileges1      
disp5sations1 exemptions1 7 c>ri$ on2 & 
suitors  w5t ) petitions f door to door4
 ,rome 0 a rally+-po9t =  place-hunt]s (
 e nation4 ,9 pres5ce ( ! enorm\s mass (

  bus9ess-processes1 graces1 indulg5ces1
 absolutions1 comm&s1 &  decisions1     
address$ to all p>ts ( ,europe & ,asia1 
! functions  ( ! local *ur* sank into   
insignificance4 ,sev]al hundr$ p]sons1  
^: home 0 ! ,curia1 7 requir$4 ,_! aim 0
 to rise 9 x by  enl>g+ ! pr(its ( !    
papal treasury4 ,! :ole ,*ri/ian  _w _h 
become tribut>y to x4 ,"h e ve/ige (    
religion _h  disappe>$2 its memb]s 7    
busy ) politics1 litigations1 &         
processes2 n a ^w c\ld be he>d ab\t     
spiritual conc]ns4 ,e  /roke ( ! p5 _h  
its price4 ,b5efices1 disp5sations1     
lic5ses1  absolutions1 indulg5ces1      
privileges1 7 b\ght & sold l  m]*&ise4  
,! suitor _h to bribe e "o1 f !         
doorkeep]  to ! pope1 or 8 case 0 lo/4  
,poor m5 c\ld nei!r atta9  pref]m5t1 nor
 hope = x2 & ! result 01 t e cl]ic felt 
he _h a "r to foll[ ! example he _h se5 
at ,rome1 & t  he might make pr(its out 
( 8 spiritual m9i/ries & sacram5ts1     
hav+ b\ght ! "r to d s at ,rome1 & hav+ 
no o!r way to  pay (f 8 debt4 ,!        

transf]5ce ( p[] f ,italians to ,fr5*m51
  ?r\gh ! removal ( ! ,curia to         
,avignon1 produc$ no *ange--only  !     
,italians felt t ! enri*m5t ( ,italian  
families _h slipp$  out ( _! grasp4 ,!y 
_h le>n$ to consid] ! papacy z _!       
appanage1 & t !y1 "u ! ,*ri/ian         
disp5sation1 7 ,god's  *os5 p1 z ! ,jews
 _h be5 "u ! ,mosaic4    ,at ! end ( !  
?irte5? c5tury a new k+dom 0 discov]$1  
capable ( yield+ imm5se rev5ues4 ,?is 0 
,purgatory4 ,x 0 %[n  t ! pope c\ld     
empty x by 8 indulg5ces4 ,9 ?is !re 0 no
  ne$ ( hypocrisy4 ,?+s 7 done op5ly4 ,!
 orig9al g]m ( !  apo/olic primacy _h n[
 exp&$ into a colossal mon>*y4    ,,ne$ 
,,( ,a ,,g5]al ,,c\ncil4 ,! ,inquisition
 _h made ! papal sy/em  irresi/ible4    
,all opposition mu/ be puni%$ ) dea? by 
fire4 ,a m]e  ?\ght1 )\t hav+ betray$   
itself by outw>d sign1 0 consid]$  z    
guilt4 ,z "t w5t on1 ?is practice ( !   
,inquisition became  m & m atroci\s4    
,torture 0 resort$ to on m]e suspicion4 
,! accus$ 0 n all[$ to "k ! "n ( 8      

accus]4 ,he 0  n p]mitt$ to h any legal 
advis]4 ,!re 0 no appeal4 ,!            
,inquisition 0 ord]$ n to lean to pity4 
,no recantation 0 (  avail4 ,! innoc5t  
family ( ! accus$ 0 depriv$ ( its       
prop]ty by confiscation2 half w5t to !  
papal treasury1 half to !  inquisitors4 
,life only1 said ,innoc5t ,,iii41 0 to  
be left to ! sons  ( misbeliev]s1 & t   
m]ely z an act ( m]cy4 ,! consequ5ce  01
 t popes1 su* z ,nicolas ,,iii41 enri*$ 
_! families ?r\gh  plund] acquir$ by ?is
 tribunal4 ,inquisitors did ! same      
habitually4    ,! /ruggle betwe5 ! ,fr5*
 & ,italians = ! possession ( !  papacy 
inevitably l$ to ! s*ism ( ! f\rte5?    
c5tury4 ,= m  ?an =ty ye>s two rival    
popes 7 n[ ana!matiz+ ea* o!r1  two     
rival ,curias 7 squeez+ ! nations =     
money4 ,ev5tually1 !re  7 ?ree ob$i5ces1
 & triple rev5ues to be extort$4        
,nobody1 n[1  c\ld gu>antee ! validity (
 ! sacram5ts1 = nobody c\ld be  sure :i*
 0 ! true pope4 ,m5 7 ?us compell$ to   
?9k =  !mselves4 ,!y c\ld n f9d :o 0 !  

legitimate ?9k] = !m4  ,!y began to see 
t ! ,*ur* mu/ rid h]self ( ! curiali/ic 
*a9s1 & resort to a ,g5]al ,c\ncil4 ,t  
attempt 0 aga9 &  aga9 made1 ! int5tion 
be+ to raise ! ,c\ncil into a ,p>liam5t 
( ,*ri/5dom1 & make ! pope its *ief     
executive (fic]4 ,b !  va/ int]e/s t _h 
gr[n out ( ! corruption ( ages c\ld n  s
 easily be ov]come2 ! ,curia aga9       
recov]$ its asc5d5cy1 &  ecclesia/ical  
trad+ 0 resum$4 ,! ,g]mans1 :o _h nev]  
be5  p]mitt$ to %>e 9 ! ,curia1 took !  
lead+ "p 9 ^! attempts  at re=m4 ,z ?+s 
w5t on f bad to worse1 ev5 !y at la/    
f\nd  out t all hope ( re=m+ ! ,*ur* by 
means ( c\ncils 0  delusive4 ,erasmus   
exclaim$1 ,if ,*ri/ does n deliv] 8 p  f
 ?is multi=m ecclesia/ical tyranny1 !   
tyranny ( ! ,turk w  become less        
intol]able4 ,c>d9als' hats 7 n[ sold1 & 
"u ,leo  ,x4 ecclesia/ical & religi\s   
(fices 7 actually put up to auction4  ,!
 maxim ( life _h become1 int]e/ fir/1   
honor aft]w>d4 ,among  ! (ficials1 !re 0
 n "o :o c\ld be hone/ 9 ! d>k1 &       

virtu\s )\t a witness4 ,! violet-color$ 
velvet cloaks & :ite  erm9e capes ( !   
c>d9als 7 truly a cov] = wick$ness4     
,! unity ( ! ,*ur*1 & !re=e its p[]1    
requir$ ! use (  ,lat9 z a sacr$        
language4 ,?r\gh ?is1 ,rome _h /ood 9 an
 attitude  /rictly ,european1 & 0 enabl$
 to ma9ta9 a g5]al int]national         
relation4 ,x gave h] f> m p[] ?an h]    
ass]t$ cele/ial  au?ority1 &1 mu* z %e  
claims to h done1 %e is op5 to          
condemnation t1 ) su* a signal advantage
 9 h] h&s1 nev]  aga9 to be enjoy$ by   
any successor1 %e did n accompli% mu*   
m4 ,_h n ! sov]eign pontiffs be5 s      
completely occupi$ )  ma9ta9+ _!        
emolum5ts & temporalities 9 ,italy1 !y  
might h  made ! :ole cont95t advance l  
"o man4 ,_! (ficials c\ld  pass )\t     
difficulty into e nation1 & communicate 
)\t  emb>rassm5t ) ea* o!r1 f ,irel& to 
,bohemia1 f ,italy to  ,scotl&4 ,!      
possession ( a common tongue gave !m !  
adm9i/ration  ( int]national affairs )  
intellig5t allies ev]y:]e1 speak+  !    

same language4    ,n )\t cause 0 ! hatr$
 manife/$ by ,rome to ! re/oration  (   
,greek & introduction ( ,hebrew1 & !    
al>m ) :i* %e  p]ceiv$ ! mod]n languages
 =m+ out ( ! vulg> dialects4  ,n )\t    
reason did ! ,faculty ( ,!ology 9 ,p>is 
re-e*o !  s5tim5t t1 0 preval5t 9 ! "t (
 ,xim5es1 ,:at w  become ( religion if !
 /udy ( ,greek & ,hebrew be p]mitt$8 ,! 
preval5ce ( ,lat9 0 ! condition ( h]    
p[]2 its det]ioration1  ! measure ( h]  
decay2 its disuse1 ! signal ( h]        
limitation to  a little pr9cipality 9   
,italy4 ,9 fact1 ! developm5t (         
,european  languages 0 ! in/rum5t ( h]  
ov]?r[4 ,!y =m$ an effectual            
communication betwe5 ! m5dicant fri>s & 
! illit]ate populace1  & !re 0 n "o ( !m
 t did n display 9 its e>lie/           
productions a sov]eign contempt = h]4   
,! rise ( ! _m-tongu$ ,european         
lit]ature 0 !re=e  co9cid5t ) ! decl9e (
 papal ,*ri/ianity2 ,european lit]ature 
0 impossible "u ,ca?olic rule4 ,a gr&1 a
 solemn1 an impos+  religi\s unity en=c$

 ! lit]>y unity :i* is impli$ 9 ! use  (
 a s+le tongue4    ,:ile ?us !          
possession ( a univ]sal language s      
signally secur$  h] p[]1 ! real secret (
 mu* ( ! influ5ce ( ! ,*ur* lay  9 !    
control %e _h s skillfully obta9$ ov]   
dome/ic life4 ,h]  influ5ce dim9i%$ z t 
decl9$4 ,co9cid5t ) ?is 0 h]            
displacem5t 9 ! guidance ( int]national 
relations by diplomacy4    ,,ca?olicity 
,,& ,,civilization4 ,9 ! old times (    
,roman dom9ation !  encampm5ts ( !      
legions 9 ! prov9ces _h always prov$ to 
be foci  ( civilization4 ,! indu/ry &   
ord] exhibit$ 9 !m pres5t$ an  example n
 lo/ on ! surr\nd+ b>b>ians ( ,brita91  
,gaul1 &  ,g]many4 ,&1 ?\gh x 0 no "p ( 
_! duty to occupy !mselves  actively 9 !
 bett]m5t ( ! conqu]$ tribes1 b r to    
keep  !m 9 a depress$ condition t aid$ 9
 ma9ta9+ subjection1  a /eady improvem5t
 bo? 9 ! individual & social condition  
took  place4    ,"u ! ecclesia/ical     
dom9ation ( ,rome simil> effects        
occurr$4 ,9  ! op5 c\ntry ! mona/]y     

replac$ ! legion>y encampm5t2 9 !       
village or t[n1 ! *ur* 0 a c5tre (      
light4 ,a p[]ful effect  0 produc$ by ! 
elegant luxury ( ! =m]1 & by ! sacr$ &  
solemn monitions ( ! latt]4    ,9       
extoll+ ! papal sy/em = :at x did 9 !   
organization ( !  family1 ! def9ition ( 
civil policy1 ! con/ruction ( ! /ates  (
 ,europe1 our praise mu/ be limit$ by ! 
recollection t ! *ief  object (         
ecclesia/ical policy 0 ! aggr&izem5t ( !
 ,*ur*1  n ! promotion ( civilization4  
,! b5efit obta9$ by ! laity 0  n ?r\gh  
any special int5tion1 b incid5tal or    
collat]al4    ,!re 0 no f>-rea*+1 no    
p]si/5t plan to ameliorate ! physical   
condition ( ! nations4 ,no?+ 0 done to  
favor _! intellectual  developm5t2      
inde$1 on ! contr>y1 x 0 ! settl$ policy
 to keep  !m n m]ely illit]ate1 b       
ignorant4 ,c5tury aft] c5tury pass$     
away1 & left ! peasantry b little bett] 
?an ! cattle 9 !  fields4               
,int]communication & locomotion1 :i* t5d
 s p[]fully to  exp& ! ideas1 receiv$ no

 enc\ragem5t2 ! majority ( m5 di$  )\t  
ev] hav+ v5tur$ out ( ! neighborhood 9  
:i* !y 7  born4 ,= !m !re 0 no hope (   
p]sonal improvem5t1 none ( !  bett]+ (  
_! lot2 !re 7 no compreh5sive s*emes = !
  avoidance ( individual want1 none = ! 
resi/ance ( fam9es4  ,pe/il5ces 7       
p]mitt$ to /alk =? un*eck$1 or at be/   
oppos$  only by mumm]ies4 ,bad food1    
wret*$ clo?+1 inadequate %elt]1 7       
suff]$ to produce _! result1 & at ! end 
( a ?\s& ye>s !  population ( ,europe _h
 n d\bl$4    ,if policy may be held     
acc\ntable z mu* = ! bir?s x prev5ts z  
= ! dea?s x occasions1 :at a great      
responsibility !re is "h6    ,9 ?is     
inve/igation ( ! influ5ce ( ,ca?olicism1
 we mu/ c>efully  keep sep>ate :at x did
 = ! p & :at x did = itself4  ,:5 we ?9k
 ( ! /ately mona/]y1 an embodim5t (     
luxury1 )  its closely-m[n lawns1 its   
g>d5s & b[]s1 its f\nta9s & _m  murmur+ 
/reams1 we mu/ connect x n ) !          
ague-/rick5 peasant  dy+ )\t help 9 !   
f5s1 b ) ! abbot1 8 ambl+ palfrey1  8   

hawk & h\nds1 8 well-/ock$ cell> & l>d]4
 ,he is "p (  a sy/em t has its c5tre ( 
au?ority 9 ,italy44 ,to t 8  allegiance 
is due4 ,= its beho( are all 8 acts4 ,:5
 we survey1 z  /ill we may1 ! magnific5t
 *ur*es & ca!drals ( ^?  times1 miracles
 ( ar*itectural skill--! only real      
miracles (  ,ca?olicism--:5 9 imag9ation
 we re/ore ! transc5d5tly  impos+1 !    
noble s]vices ( :i* !y 7 once ! sc5e1 ! 
dim1 religi\s-light /ream+ 9 ?r\gh !    
_m-color$ w9d[s1 !  s\nds ( voices n    
inf]ior 9 _! melody to ^? ( heav51  !   
prie/s 9 _! sacr$ ve/m5ts1 & above all !
 pro/rate  wor%ip]s li/5+ to litanies & 
pray]s 9 a =eign & unkn[n  tongue1 %all 
we n ask ourselves1 ,0 all ?is = ! sake 
( ^?  wor%ip]s1 or = ! glory ( ! great1 
! ov]%ad[+ au?ority  at ,rome8    ,b    
p]haps "s "o may say1 ,are !re n limits 
to human  ex]tion--?+s :i* no political 
sy/em1 no human p[]1 no matt]  h[       
excell5t its int5tion1 c accompli%8 ,m5 
_c be rais$ f  b>b>ism1 a cont95t _c be 
civiliz$1 9 a day6    ,! ,ca?olic p[] is

 n1 h[ev]1 to be tri$ by any su* /&>d4  
,x scornfully reject$ & /ill rejects a  
human orig94 ,x claims to  be accr$it$  
sup]naturally4 ,! sov]eign pontiff is ! 
,vic> ( ,god  ^u e>?4 ,infallible 9     
judgm5t1 x is giv5 to him to accompli%  
all ?+s by miracle if ne$ be4 ,he _h    
ex]cis$ an autocratic tyranny  ov] !    
intellect ( ,europe = m ?an a ?\s& ye>s2
 &1 ?\gh  on "s occasions he _h enc\nt]$
 ! resi/ances ( disob$i5t  pr9ces1 ^!1 9
 ! aggregate1 7 ( s little mom5t1 t !   
physical1 ! political p[] ( ! cont95t   
may be affirm$ to h  be5 at 8 disposal4 
,su* facts z h be5 pres5t$ 9 ?is *apt]  
71 d\btless1  well weigh$ by !          
,prote/ant ,re=m]s ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 &
  br\ght !m to ! conclusion t           
,ca?olicism _h altoge!r fail$ 9  its    
mission2 t x _h become a va/ sy/em (    
delusion & impo/ure1  & t a re/oration (
 true ,*ri/ianity c\ld only be          
accompli%$  by return+ to ! fai? &      
practices ( ! primitive times4 ,?is 0   
no decision sudd5ly arriv$ at2 x _h long

 be5 ! op9ion ( _m  religi\s & le>n$ m54
 ,! pi\s ,fratricelli 9 ! middle ages _h
  l\dly express$ _! belief t ! fatal    
gift ( a ,roman emp]or _h  be5 ! doom ( 
true religion4 ,x want$ no?+ m ?an !    
voice (  ,lu!r to br+ m5 ?r\gh\t ! nor? 
( ,europe to ! det]m9ation  t ! wor%ip (
 ! ,virg9 ,m>y1 ! invocation ( sa9ts1 ! 
work+ ( miracles1 sup]natural cures ( ! 
sick1 ! pur*ase (  indulg5ces = !       
p]petration ( s91 & all o!r evil        
practices1  lucrative to _! abettors1   
:i* _h be5 fa/5$ on ,*ri/ianity1  b :i* 
7 no "p ( x1 %\ld come to an end4       
,ca?olicism1 z  a sy/em = promot+ !     
well-be+ ( man1 _h pla9ly fail$ 9       
ju/ify+ its alleg$ orig92 its p]=mance  
_h n correspond$ to  its great          
pret5sions2 &1 aft] an opportunity ( m  
?an a  ?\s& ye>s' duration1 x _h left ! 
masses ( m5 submitt$ to  its influ5ces1 
bo? z reg>ds physical well-be+ &        
intellectual  culture1 9 a condition f> 
l[] ?an :at x ought to h be54           
,,*apt] ,,xi4         ,,sci5ce ,,9      

,,relation ,,to ,,mod]n ,,civilization4 
,illu/ration ( ! g5]al influ5ces (      
,sci5ce f !       hi/ory ( ,am]ica4     
,,! ,,introduction ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,into  
,,europe4--,x pass$ f       ,moori%     
,spa9 to ,upp] ,italy1 & 0 favor$ by !  
abs5ce       ( ! popes at ,avignon4--,! 
effects ( pr9t+1 (       m>itime        
adv5ture1 & ( ! ,re=mation--,e/abli%m5t 
(       ! ,italian sci5tific societies4 
,,! ,,intellectual ,,influ5ce ,,(       
,,sci5ce4--,x *ang$ ! mode       & !    
direction ( ?\ght 9 ,europe4--,!        
transactions (       ! ,royal ,society (
 ,london1 & o!r sci5tific societies1    
furni% an illu/ration ( ?is4         ,,!
 ,,economical ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,sci5ce is
 illu/rat$ by !       num]\s me*anical &
 physical inv5tions1 made s9ce !        
f\rte5? c5tury4--,_! influ5ce on heal? &
 dome/ic       life1 on ! arts ( peace &
 ( w>4         ,answ] to ! "q1 ,:at has 
,sci5ce done = humanity8      ,,europe1 
at ! epo* ( ! ,re=mation1 furni%es u ) !
 result (  ! influ5ces ( ,roman         

,*ri/ianity 9 ! promotion (             
civilization4  ,am]ica1 exam9$ 9 l mann]
 at ! pres5t "t1 furni%es u )  an       
illu/ration ( ! influ5ces ( sci5ce4     
,,sci5ce ,,& ,,civilization4 ,9 ! c\rse 
( ! sev5te5? c5tury a  sp>se ,european  
population _h settl$ along ! we/]n      
,atlantic coa/4  ,attract$ by !         
cod-fi%]y ( ,newf\ndl&1 ! ,fr5* _h a    
little  colony nor? ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce2 ! 
,engli%1 ,dut*1 & ,sw$es1  occupi$ !    
%ore ( ,new ,engl& & ! ,middle ,/ates2  
"s ,hugu5ots  7 liv+ 9 ! ,c>ol9as4      
,rumors ( a spr+ t c\ld conf]  p]petual 
y\?--a f\nta9 ( life--_h br\ght a few   
,spani>ds into  ,florida4 ,beh9d ! fr+e 
( villages :i* ^! adv5tur]s _h  built1  
lay a va/ & unkn[n c\ntry1 inhabit$ by  
w&]+ ,indians1  ^: numb]s f ! ,gulf (   
,mexico to ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce did n exce$   
"o hundr$ & eighty ?\s&4 ,f !m !        
,european /rang]s _h  le>n$ t 9 ^?      
solit>y regions !re 7 fre%-wat] seas1  &
 a great riv] :i* !y call$ !            
,mississippi4 ,"s said t x  fl[$ ?r\gh  

,virg9ia into ! ,atlantic1 "s t x pass$ 
?r\gh  ,florida1 "s t x empti$ into !   
,pacific1 & "s t x rea*$  ! ,gulf (     
,mexico4 ,p>t$ f _! native c\ntries by !
 /ormy  ,atlantic1 to cross :i* impli$ a
 voyage ( _m mon?s1 ^! refugees  seem$  
lo/ to ! _w4    ,b be=e ! close ( !     
n9ete5? c5tury ! desc5dants ( ?is       
feeble p _h become "o ( ! great p[]s ( !
 e>?4 ,!y  _h e/abli%$ a republic ^:    
sway ext5d$ f ! ,atlantic to  !         
,pacific4 ,) an army ( m ?an a million  
m51 n on pap]1 b  actually 9 ! field1 !y
 _h ov]?r[n a dome/ic assailant4  ,!y _h
 ma9ta9$ at sea a w>-fleet ( ne>ly sev5 
hundr$ %ips1  c>ry+ five ?\s& guns1 "s (
 !m ! heavie/ 9 ! _w4 ,!  tonnage ( ?is 
navy am\nt$ to half a million4 ,9 !     
def5se ( _!  national life !y _h exp5d$ 
9 less ?an five ye>s m ?an f\r  ?\s&    
million doll>s4 ,_! c5sus1 p]iodically  
tak51 %[$ t  ! population 0 d\bl+ itself
 e tw5ty-five ye>s2 x ju/ifi$  !        
expectation t at ! close ( t c5tury x   
w\ld numb] ne>ly  "o hundr$ million     

s\ls4    ,,k ,,is ,,p[]4 ,a sil5t       
cont95t _h be5 *ang$ into a sc5e (      
indu/ry2 x 0 full ( ! d9 ( ma*9]y & !   
re/less mov+  ( m54 ,:]e !re _h be5 an  
unbrok5 =e/1 !re 7 hundr$s (  cities &  
t[ns4 ,to comm]ce 7 furni%$ 9 pr(usion  
"s ( !  mo/ important /aples1 z cotton1 
tobacco1 bread/uffs4 ,! m9es  yield$    
incr$ible quantities ( gold1 iron1 coal4
 ,c\ntless *ur*es1  colleges1 & public  
s*ools1 te/ifi$ t a moral influ5ce      
vivifi$  ?is mat]ial activity4          
,locomotion 0 effectually provid$ =4 ,! 
railways exce$$ 9 aggregate l5g? ^? (   
all ,europe comb9$4  ,9 #ahgc !         
aggregate l5g? ( ! ,european railways 0 
sixty-?ree  ?\s& ?ree hundr$ & sixty    
miles1 t ( ! ,am]ican 0 sev5ty  ?\s& six
 hundr$ & fifty miles4 ,"o ( !m1 built  
across !  cont95t1 connect$ ! ,atlantic 
& ,pacific ,oceans4    ,b n alone are ^!
 mat]ial results wor?y ( notice4 ,o!rs (
 a  moral & social k9d =ce !mselves on  
our att5tion4 ,f\r million  negro slaves
 _h be5 set free4 ,legislation1 if x    

incl9$ to !  advantage ( any class1     
incl9$ to t ( ! poor4 ,its int5tion 0   
to raise !m f pov]ty1 & bett] _! lot4 ,a
 c>e] 0 op5  to tal5t1 & t )\t any      
re/ra9t4 ,e ?+ 0 possible to            
intellig5ce & indu/ry4 ,_m ( ! mo/      
important public (fices  7 fill$ by m5  
:o _h ris5 f ! humble/ walks ( life4    
,if !re 0 n social equality1 z !re nev] 
c be 9 ri* &  prosp]\s communities1 !re 
0 civil equality1 rigor\sly ma9ta9$4    
,x may p]haps be said t mu* ( ?is       
mat]ial prosp]ity arose f  special      
conditions1 su* z _h nev] occurr$ 9 !   
case ( any p  be=e1 ,!re 0 a va/1 an op5
 !atre ( action1 a :ole cont95t  ready =
 any :o *ose to take possession ( x4    
,no?+ m ?an  c\rage & indu/ry 0 ne$$ to 
ov]come ,nature1 & to seize !  ab\nd+   
advantages %e (f]$4    ,,illu/rations   
,,f ,,am]ican ,,hi/ory4 ,b mu/ n m5 be  
animat$ by a  great pr9ciple :o         
successfully trans=m ! primeval         
solitudes into  an abode ( civilization1
 :o are n dismay$ by gloomy =e/s1 or    

riv]s1 m\nta9s1 or frightful des]ts1 :o 
pu% _! conqu]+  way 9 ! c\rse ( a c5tury
 across a cont95t1 & hold x 9           
subjection8 ,let u contra/ ) ?is !      
results ( ! invasion (  ,mexico & ,p]u  
by ! ,spani>ds1 :o 9 ^? c\ntries ov]?rew
  a wond]ful civilization1 9 _m respects
 sup]ior to _! own--a  civilization t _h
 be5 accompli%$ )\t iron & gunp[d]--a   
civilization re/+ on an agriculture t _h
 nei!r horse1 nor  ox1 nor pl\gh4 ,!    
,spani>ds _h a cle> base to />t f1 &  no
 ob/ruction :atev] 9 _! advance4 ,!y    
ru9$ all t !  aborig9al *ildr5 ( ,am]ica
 _h accompli%$4 ,millions ( ^?          
un=tunates 7 de/roy$ by _! cruelty4     
,nations t =  _m c5turies _h be5 liv+ 9 
cont5tm5t & prosp]ity1 "u  in/itutions  
%[n by _! hi/ory to be suitable to !m1 7
 plung$  into an>*y2 ! p fell into a    
baneful sup]/ition1 & a  great] "p ( _! 
l&$ & o!r prop]ty f\nd its way into !   
possession ( ! ,roman ,*ur*4    ,i h    
select$ ! =ego+ illu/ration1 drawn f    
,am]ican hi/ory1  9 pref]5ce to _m o!rs 

t might h be5 tak5 f ,european1  because
 x furni%es an in/ance ( ! op]ation ( ! 
act+  pr9ciple lea/ int]f]$ ) by        
extrane\s conditions4 ,european         
political progress is less simple ?an   
,am]ican4    ,,qu>rel ,,betwe5 ,,france 
,,& ,,! ,,papacy4 ,be=e consid]+ its    
mann]  ( action1 & its results1 ,i w    
briefly relate h[ ! sci5tific  pr9ciple 
f\nd an introduction into ,europe4      
,,introduction ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,into      
,,europe4 ,n only _h ! ,crusades1 = _m  
ye>s1 br\ght va/ sums to ,rome1 extort$ 
f ! fe>s or ! piety  ( e ,*ri/ian       
nation2 !y _h also increas$ ! papal p[] 
to a  mo/ dang]\s ext5t4 ,9 ! dual      
gov]nm5ts ev]y:]e prevail+ 9  ,europe1 !
 spiritual _h obta9$ ! ma/]y2 ! temporal
 0 little  bett] ?an its s]vant4    ,f  
all qu>t]s1 & "u all k9ds ( pret5ses1   
/reams ( money  7 /eadily fl[+ into     
,italy4 ,! temporal pr9ces f\nd t !re  7
 left = !m inadequate & impov]i%$       
rev5ues4 ,philip !  ,fair1 ,k+ ( ,france
 7,a4,d4 #acjj71 n only det]m9$ to *eck 

?is  dra9 f 8 dom9ions1 by prohibit+ !  
export ( gold &  silv] )\t 8 lic5se2 he 
also resolv$ t ! cl]gy & !              
ecclesia/ical e/ates %\ld pay _! %>e (  
taxes to him4  ,?is br\ght on a mortal  
conte/ ) ! papacy4 ,! k+ 0              
excommunicat$1 &1 9 retaliation1 he     
accus$ ! pope1 ,boniface  ,,viii41 (    
a!ism2 dem&+ t he %\ld be tri$ by a     
g5]al  c\ncil4 ,he s5t "s tru/y p]sons  
into ,italy1 :o seiz$ ,boniface 9  8    
palace at ,anagni1 & treat$ him ) s mu* 
sev]ity1 t 9 a  few days he di$4 ,!     
succe$+ pontiff1 ,b5$ict ,,xi41 0       
poison$4    ,! ,fr5* k+ 0 det]m9$ t !   
papacy %\ld be purifi$ &  re=m$2 t x    
%\ld no long] be ! appanage ( a few     
,italian  families1 :o 7 dext]\sly      
transmut+ ! cr$ulity ( ,europe into     
co9--t ,fr5* influ5ce %\ld prevail 9 x4 
,he ,!re=e came to  an und]/&+ ) !      
c>d9als2 a ,fr5* ar*bi%op 0 elevat$  to 
! pontificate2 he took ! "n ( ,clem5t   
,v4 ,! papal c\rt 0  remov$ to ,avignon1
 9 ,france1 & ,rome 0 ab&on$ z !        

metropolis  ( ,*ri/ianity4    ,,moori%  
,,sci5ce ,,introduc$ ,,?r\gh ,,france4  
,sev5ty ye>s elaps$ be=e  ! papacy 0    
re/or$ to ! ,et]nal ,city 7,a4,d4       
#acgf74 ,! dim9ution  ( its influ5ce 9 !
 p59sula1 t _h ?us occurr$1 gave        
opportunity = ! memorable intellectual  
movem5t :i* soon  manife/$ itself 9 !   
great comm]cial cities ( ,upp] ,italy4  
,contemporane\sly1 also1 !re 7 o!r      
propiti\s ev5ts4 ,! result  ( !         
,crusades _h %ak5 ! fai? ( all          
,*ri/5dom4 ,9 an age :5  ! te/ ( !      
ordeal ( battle 0 univ]sally accept$1 ^?
 w>s  _h end$ 9 leav+ ! ,holy ,l& 9 !   
h&s ( ! ,s>ac5s2 !  _m ?\s& ,*ri/ian    
w>riors :o _h return$ f !m did n        
hesitate to decl>e t !y _h f\nd _!      
antagoni/s n su* z  _h be5 pictur$ by ! 
,*ur*1 b valiant1 c\rte\s1 j4 ,?r\gh  ! 
gay cities ( ! ,s\? ( ,france a love (  
romantic lit]ature  _h be5 spread+2 !   
w&]+ tr\bad\rs _h be5 s++ _!            
songs--songs f> f be+ re/rict$ to       
ladye-love & feats ( w>2  (t5 _! burd5 0

 ! awful atrocities t _h be5 p]petrat$  
by papal au?ority--! religi\s massacres 
( ,langu$oc2 (t5 _!  burd5 0 ! illicit  
am\rs ( ! cl]gy4 ,f ,moori% ,spa9 !     
g5tle & gallant idea ( *ivalry _h be5   
br\ght1 & ) x !  noble s5tim5t ( p]sonal
 honor1 de/9$ 9 ! c\rse ( "t to  give a 
code ( its own to ,europe4    ,,effect  
,,( ,,! ,,great ,,s*ism4 ,! return ( !  
papacy to ,rome 0 f>  f re/or+ !        
influ5ce ( ! popes ov] ! ,italian       
,p59sula4  ,m ?an two g5]ations _h pass$
 away s9ce _! dep>ture1 &1  _h !y come  
back ev5 9 _! orig9al /r5g?1 !y c\ld n  
h resi/$ ! intellectual progress t _h   
be5 made dur+ _!  abs5ce4 ,! papacy1    
h[ev]1 came back n to rule1 b to be     
divid$  aga9/ itself1 to enc\nt] !      
,great ,s*ism4 ,out ( its diss5sions    
em]g$ two rival popes2 ev5tually !re 7  
?ree1 ea* press+  8 claims ^u !         
religi\s1 ea* curs+ 8 rival4 ,a s5tim5t 
( indignation soon spread all ov]       
,europe1 a det]m9ation t !  %ameful     
sc5es :i* 7 !n enact+ %\ld be end$4 ,h[ 

c\ld !  dogma ( a ,vic> ( ,god ^u e>?1 !
 dogma ( an infallible pope1  be su/a9$ 
9 pres5ce ( su* sc&als8 ,h]e9 lay !     
cause ( t  resolution ( ! able/         
ecclesia/ics ( ^? times 7:i*1 alas =    
,europe6 c\ld n be c>ri$ into effect71 t
 a g5]al c\ncil %\ld  be made ! p]man5t 
religi\s p>liam5t ( ! :ole cont95t1  ) !
 pope z its *ief executive (fic]4 ,_h t 
int5tion be5  accompli%$1 !re w\ld h be5
 at ?is day no conflict betwe5  sci5ce &
 religion2 ! convulsion ( ! ,re=mation  
w\ld h be5  avoid$2 !re w\ld h be5 no   
j>r+ ,prote/ant sects4 ,b !  ,c\ncils ( 
,con/ance & ,basle fail$ to %ake (f !   
,italian yoke1  fail$ to atta9 t noble  
result4    ,ca?olicism 0 ?us weak5+2 z  
its lead5 pressure lift$1 !  intellect (
 man exp&$4 ,! ,s>ac5s _h inv5t$ ! me?od
 (  mak+ pap] f l95 rags & f cotton4 ,! 
,v5etians _h br\ght  f ,*9a to ,europe !
 art ( pr9t+4 ,! =m] ( ^! inv5tions  0  
ess5tial to ! latt]4 ,h5ce =?1 )\t !    
possibility ( a  *eck1 !re 0            
intellectual int]communication among all

 m54    ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,pr9t+4 ,!      
inv5tion ( pr9t+ 0 a sev]e bl[ to       
,ca?olicism1 :i* _h1 previ\sly1 enjoy$ !
 inappreciable advantage  ( a monopoly (
 int]communication4 ,f its c5tral seat1 
ord]s c\ld  be dissem9at$ ?r\gh all !   
ecclesia/ical ranks1 & fulm9at$  ?r\gh !
 pulpits4 ,?is monopoly & ! amaz+ p[] x 
conf]r$  7 de/roy$ by ! press4 ,9 mod]n 
times1 ! influ5ce ( !  pulpit has become
 insignificant4 ,! pulpit has be5       
?or\ghly  supplant$ by ! newspap]4      
,yet1 ,ca?olicism did n yield its anci5t
 advantage )\t a /ruggle4  ,z soon z !  
inevitable t5d5cy ( ! new art 0 detect$1
 a  re/ra9t ^u x1 "u ! =m ( a c5sor%ip1 
0 attempt$4 ,x 0  made necess>y to h a  
p]mit1 9 ord] to pr9t a book4 ,= ?is1 x 
0 ne$ful t ! "w %\ld h be5 read1 exam9$1
 & approv$  by ! cl]gy4 ,!re mu/ be a   
c]tificate t x 0 a godly &  or?odox     
book4 ,a bull ( excommunication 0 issu$ 
9 #aeja1 by  ,alex&] ,,vi41 aga9/ pr9t]s
 :o %\ld publi% p]nici\s doctr9es4  ,9  
#aeae ! ,lat]an ,c\ncil ord]$ t no books

 %\ld be pr9t$ b  su* z _h be5 inspect$ 
by ! ecclesia/ical c5sors1 "u pa9 (     
excommunication & f9e2 ! c5sors be+     
direct$ to take ! utmo/  c>e t no?+ %\ld
 be pr9t$ contr>y to ! or?odox fai?4    
,!re 0 ?us a dread ( religi\s           
discussion2 a t]ror le/ tru?  %\ld      
em]ge4    ,b ^! frantic /ruggles ( !    
p[]s ( ignorance 7 unavail+4            
,intellectual int]communication among m5
 0 secur$4 ,x culm9at$ 9  ! mod]n       
newspap]1 :i* daily gives its           
contemporane\s intellig5ce  f all p>ts (
 ! _w4 ,read+ became a common           
occupation4 ,9  anci5t society t art 0  
possess$ by comp>atively few p]sons4    
,mod]n society owes "s ( its mo/ /rik+  
*>act]i/ics to ?is  *ange4    ,,effects 
,,( ,,m>itime ,,ent]prise4 ,su* 0 !     
result ( br++ into  ,europe !           
manufacture ( pap] & ! pr9t+-press4 ,9 l
 mann]  ! introduction ( ! m>9]'s       
compass 0 foll[$ by impos+  mat]ial &   
moral effects4 ,^! 7--! discov]y (      
,am]ica 9  consequ5ce ( ! rivalry ( !   

,v5etians & ,g5oese ab\t ! ,india       
trade2 ! d\bl+ ( ,africa by ,de ,gama2 &
 ! circumnavigation (  ! e>? by         
,magellan4 ,) respect to ! la/1 ! gr&e/ 
(  all human und]tak+s1 x is to be      
rememb]$ t ,ca?olicism _h  irrevocably  
committ$ itself to ! dogma ( a flat e>?1
 ) !  sky z ! floor ( heav51 & hell 9 ! 
"u-_w4 ,"s ( !  ,fa!rs1 ^: au?ority 0   
held to be p>am\nt1 _h1 z we h          
previ\sly said1 furni%$ philosophical & 
religi\s argum5ts aga9/  ! globul> =m4  
,! controv]sy _h n[ sudd5ly come to an  
end--!  ,*ur* 0 f\nd to be 9 error4     
,! correction ( t geographical error 0  
by no means ! only  important result t  
foll[$ ! ?ree great voyages4 ,! _s (    
,columbus1 ,de ,gama1 ,magellan1 diffus$
 itself among all ! ent]pris+  m5 (     
,we/]n ,europe4 ,society _h be5 hi!rto  
liv+ "u ! dogma  ( loyalty to ! k+1     
ob$i5ce to ! ,*ur*4 ,x _h !re=e be5     
liv+ = o!rs1 n = itself4 ,! political   
effect ( t dogma  _h culm9at$ 9 !       
,crusades4 ,c\ntless ?\s&s _h p]i%$ 9   

w>s t c\ld br+ !m no rew>d1 & ( :i* !   
result _h be5  conspicu\s failure4      
,exp]i5ce _h reveal$ ! fact t ! only    
ga9]s 7 ! pontiffs1 c>d9als1 & o!r      
ecclesia/ics 9 ,rome1  & ! %ipma/]s (   
,v5ice4 ,b1 :5 x became kn[n t !  weal? 
( ,mexico1 ,p]u1 & ,india1 might be %>$ 
by any "o :o _h  ent]prise & c\rage1 !  
motives t _h animat$ ! re/less          
populations ( ,europe sudd5ly *ang$4 ,! 
/ory ( ,cortez & ,piz>ro  f\nd          
en?usia/ic li/5]s ev]y:]e4 ,m>itime     
adv5ture supplant$  religi\s en?usiasm4 
,if we attempt to isolate ! pr9ciple t  
lay at ! basis ( !  wond]ful social     
*anges t n[ took place1 we may recognize
 x  )\t difficulty4 ,h]et(ore ea* man _h
 d$icat$ 8 s]vices to  8 sup]ior--feudal
 or ecclesia/ical2 n[ he _h resolv$ to  
ga!r  ! fruits ( 8 ex]tions himself4    
,individualism 0 becom+  pr$om9ant1     
loyalty 0 decl9+ into a s5tim5t4 ,we    
%all n[ see  h[ x 0 ) ! ,*ur*4          
,,individualism4 ,individualism re/s on 
! pr9ciple t a man %all  be 8 own ma/]1 

t he %all h lib]ty to =m 8 own op9ions1 
fre$om to c>ry into effect 8 resolves4  
,he is1 !re=e1 ev]  br\ght into         
competition ) 8 fell[-m54 ,8 life is a  
display (  en]gy4    ,to remove !       
/agnation ( c5turies front ,european    
life1 to vivify  sudd5ly :at _h hi!rto  
be5 an in]t mass1 to imp>t to x         
individualism1 0 to br+ x into conflict 
) ! influ5ces  t _h be5 oppress+ x4 ,all
 ?r\gh ! f\rte5? & fifte5?  c5turies    
uneasy /ruggl+s gave a premonition ( :at
 0 com+4  ,9 ! e>ly "p ( ! sixte5?      
7#aeag71 ! battle 0 jo9$4               
,individualism f\nd its embodim5t 9 a   
/urdy ,g]man monk1 &  !re=e1 p]haps     
necess>ily1 ass]t$ its rights "u        
!ological  =ms4 ,!re 7 "s prelim9>y     
skirmi%es ab\t indulg5ces &  o!r m9or   
matt]s1 b v soon ! real cause ( dispute 
came  pla9ly into view4 ,m>t9 ,lu!r     
refus$ to ?9k z he 0 ord]$ to  d by 8   
ecclesia/ical sup]iors at ,rome2 he     
ass]t$ t he _h an  inali5able "r to     
int]pret ! ,bible = himself4    ,at h]  

fir/ glance1 ,rome saw no?+ 9 ,m>t9     
,lu!r b a vulg>1  insubord9ate1         
qu>relsome monk4 ,c\ld ! ,inquisition h 
laid hold (  him1 x w\ld h spe$ily      
dispos$ ( 8 affair2 b1 z ! conflict  w5t
 on1 x 0 discov]$ t ,m>t9 0 n /&+ alone4
 ,_m  ?\s&s ( m51 z resolute z himself1 
7 com+ up to 8 support2  &1 :ile he     
c>ri$ on ! combat ) writ+s & words1 !y  
made  good 8 propositions ) ! sword4    
,,! ,,re=mation4 ,! vilification :i* 0  
p\r$ on ,lu!r & 8  do+s 0 s bitt] z to  
be ludicr\s4 ,x 0 decl>$ t 8 fa!r  0 n 8
 "m's husb&1 b an impi% incubus1 :o _h  
delud$  h]2 t1 aft] t5 ye>s' /ruggl+ ) 8
 consci5ce1 he _h  become an a!i/2 t he 
d5i$ ! immortality ( ! s\l2 t  he _h    
compos$ hymns 9 honor ( drunk5ness1 a   
vice to :i* he  0 unceas+ly addict$2 t  
he blasphem$ ! ,holy ,scriptures1 &     
p>ticul>ly ,moses2 t he did n believe a 
^w ( :at he prea*$2  t he _h call$ !    
,epi/le ( ,/4 ,james a ?+ ( /raw2 &1    
above  all1 t ! ,re=mation 0 no "w ( 81 
b1 9 reality1 0 due  to a c]ta9         

a/rological position ( ! />s4 ,x 01     
h[ev]1 a  vulg> say+ among ! ,roman     
ecclesia/ics t ,erasmus laid ! egg (  ! 
,re=mation1 & ,lu!r hat*$ x4    ,rome at
 fir/ made ! mi/ake ( suppos+ t ?is 0   
no?+ m  ?an a casual outbreak2 %e fail$ 
to disc]n t x 01 9 fact1 !  culm9ation (
 an int]nal movem5t :i* = two c5turies  
_h be5  go+ on 9 ,europe1 & :i* _h be5  
h\rly ga!r+ =ce2 t1  _h !re be5 no?+    
else1 ! exi/5ce ( ?ree popes--?ree      
ob$i5ces--w\ld h compell$ m5 to ?9k1 to 
delib]ate1 to  conclude = !mselves4 ,!  
,c\ncils ( ,con/ance & ,basle taught !m 
t !re 0 a high] p[] ?an ! popes4 ,! long
 & bloody w>s  t ensu$ 7 clos$ by !     
,peace ( ,we/phalia2 & !n x 0  f\nd t   
,c5tral & ,nor!rn ,europe _h ca/ (f !   
intellectual  tyranny ( ,rome1 t        
individualism _h c>ri$ its po9t1 & _h   
e/abli%$ ! "r ( e man to ?9k = himself4 
,,decomposition ,,( ,,prote/antism4 ,b x
 0 impossible t !  e/abli%m5t ( ?is "r (
 private judgm5t %\ld end ) !  rejection
 ( ,ca?olicism4 ,e>ly 9 ! movem5t "s ( !

 mo/  di/+ui%$ m51 su* z ,erasmus1 :o _h
 be5 among its fir/  promot]s1 ab&on$ x4
 ,!y p]ceiv$ t _m ( ! ,re=m]s  ent]ta9$ 
a bitt] dislike ( le>n+1 & !y 7 afraid (
  be+ br\ght "u bigot$ caprice4 ,!      
,prote/ant p>ty1 hav+ ?us  e/abli%$ its 
exi/5ce by diss5t & sep>ation1 mu/1 9   
its turn1  submit to ! op]ation ( ! same
 pr9ciples4 ,a decomposition into  _m   
subord9ate sects 0 inevitable4 ,& ^!1 n[
 t !y _h no  long] any ?+ to fe> f _!   
great ,italian adv]s>y1 comm5c$  p>tisan
 w>f>es on ea* o!r4 ,z1 9 diff]5t       
c\ntries1 fir/ "o  & !n ano!r sect rose 
to p[]1 x /a9$ itself ) cruelties       
p]petrat$ ^u its competitors4 ,! mortal 
retaliations t _h  ensu$1 :51 9 ! *ances
 ( ! times1 ! oppress$ got ! bett]  ( _!
 oppressors1 conv9c$ ! cont5d+ sect>ians
 t !y mu/  conc$e to _! competitors :at 
!y claim$ = !mselves2 & ?us1  f _!      
broils & _! crimes1 ! great pr9ciple (  
tol]ation  extricat$ itself4 ,b         
tol]ation is only an int]m$iate /age2 &1
  z ! intellectual decomposition (      

,prote/antism keeps go+ on1 t           
transitional condition w lead to a high]
 & nobl] /ate--! hope  ( philosophy 9   
all pa/ ages ( ! _w--a social /ate 9 :i*
  !re %all be unfett]$ fre$om = ?\ght4  
,tol]ation1 except  :5 extort$ by fe>1 c
 only come f ^? :o are capable (        
ent]ta9+ & respect+ o!r op9ions ?an _!  
own4 ,x c  !re=e only come f philosophy4
 ,hi/ory tea*es u only too pla9ly  t    
fanaticism is /imulat$ by religion1 &   
neutraliz$ or eradicat$  by philosophy4 
,,tol]ation4 ,! av[$ object ( !         
,re=mation 01 to remove f  ,*ri/ianity !
 pagan ideas & pagan rites engraft$ ^u x
 by  ,con/ant9e & 8 successors1 9 _!    
attempt to reconcile ! ,roman  ,empire  
to x4 ,! ,prote/ants design$ to br+ x   
back to its primitive  purity2 & h5ce1  
:ile re/or+ ! anci5t doctr9es1 !y ca/   
out  ( x all su* practices z ! adoration
 ( ! ,virg9 ,m>y &  ! invocation (      
sa9ts4 ,! ,virg9 ,m>y1 we are assur$ by 
!  ,evangeli/s1 _h accept$ ! duties (   
m>ri$ life1 & borne to h]  husb& sev]al 

*ildr54 ,9 ! prevail+ idolatry1 %e _h   
ceas$ to  be reg>d$ z ! c>p5t]'s wife2  
%e _h become ! que5 ( heav51  & ! "m (  
,god4    ,,da ,,v9ci4 ,! sci5ce ( !     
,arabians foll[$ ! invad+ track (  _!   
lit]ature1 :i* _h come into ,*ri/5dom by
 two r\tes--!  s\? ( ,france1 & ,sicily4
 ,favor$ by ! exile ( ! popes to        
,avignon1 & by ! ,great ,s*ism1 x made  
good its foo?old 9 ,upp]  ,italy4 ,!    
,ari/otelian or ,inductive philosophy1  
clad 9 ! ,s>ac5ic  co/ume t ,av]roes _h 
giv5 x1 made _m secret & n a few op5    
fri5ds4 ,x f\nd _m m9ds eag] to receive 
& able to appreciate  x4 ,among ^! 7    
,leon>do da ,v9ci1 :o proclaim$ !       
fundam5tal  pr9ciple t exp]im5t &       
obs]vation are ! only reliable          
f\ndations ( reason+ 9 sci5ce1 t        
exp]im5t is ! only  tru/wor?y int]pret] 
( ,nature1 & is ess5tial to ! asc]ta9m5t
  ( laws4 ,he %[$ t ! action ( two      
p]p5dicul> =ces ^u a  po9t is ! same z t
 d5ot$ by ! diagonal ( a rectangle1 (   
:i* !y repres5t ! sides4 ,f ?is !       

passage to ! proposition  ( oblique =ces
 0 v easy4 ,?is proposition 0 r$iscov]$ 
by  ,/ev9us1 a c5tury lat]1 & appli$ by 
him to ! explanation ( !  me*anical     
p[]s4 ,da ,v9ci gave a cle> exposition (
 ! !ory (  =ces appli$ obliquely on a   
lev]1 discov]$ ! laws ( friction        
subsequ5tly demon/rat$ by ,amontons1 &  
und]/ood ! pr9ciple (  virtual          
velocities4 ,he treat$ ( ! conditions ( 
desc5t ( bodies  along incl9$ planes &  
circul> arcs1 inv5t$ ! cam]a-obscura1   
discuss$ correctly sev]al physiological 
problems1 & =e%ad[$  "s ( ! great       
conclusions ( mod]n geology1 su* z !    
nature  ( fossil rema9s1 & ! elevation (
 cont95ts4 ,he expla9$ !  e>?-light     
reflect$ by ! moon4 ,) surpris+         
v]satility ( g5ius  he excell$ z a      
sculptor1 ar*itect1 eng9e]2 0 ?or\ghly  
v]s$ 9  ! a/ronomy1 anatomy1 & *emi/ry (
 8 times4 ,9 pa9t+1 he  0 ! rival (     
,mi*el ,angelo2 9 a competition betwe5  
!m1 he 0  consid]$ to h e/abli%$ 8      
sup]iority4 ,8 ,la/ ,supp]1 on  ! wall (

 ! refectory ( ! ,dom9ican conv5t ( ,/a4
 ,m>ia delle  ,grazie1 is well kn[n1 f !
 num]\s engrav+s & copies t h  be5 made 
( x4    ,,italian ,,sci5tific           
,,societies4 ,once firmly e/abli%$ 9 !  
nor? (  ,italy1 ,sci5ce soon ext5d$ h]  
sway ov] ! entire p59sula4 ,!  increas+ 
numb] ( h] devotees is indicat$ by !    
rise & rapid  multiplication ( le>n$    
societies4 ,^! 7 reproductions ( !      
,moori% ones t _h =m]ly exi/$ 9 ,granada
 & ,cordova4 ,z if  to m>k by a monum5t 
! track ?r\gh :i* civiliz+ influ5ces _h 
come1 ! ,academy ( ,t\l\se1 f\nd$ 9     
#acde1 has surviv$ to our  own times4 ,x
 repres5t$1 h[ev]1 ! gay lit]ature ( !  
s\? (  ,france1 & 0 kn[n "u ! fanciful  
title ( ! ,academy ( ,floral  ,games4 ,!
 fir/ society = ! promotion ( physical  
sci5ce1 !  ,academia ,secretorum        
,naturae1 0 f\nd$ at ,naples1 by        
,bapti/a  ,porta4 ,x 01 z ,tirabos*i    
relates1 dissolv$ by ! ecclesia/ical    
au?orities4 ,! ,lyncean 0 f\nd$ by      
,pr9ce ,fr$]ic ,cesi at ,rome2  its     

device pla9ly indicat$ its int5tion3 a  
lynx1 ) its eyes turn$  upw>d t[>d      
heav51 te>+ a triple-head$ ,c]b]us ) its
 claws4  ,! ,accademia del ,cim5to1     
e/abli%$ at ,flor5ce1 #afeg1 held its   
meet+s 9 ! ducal palace4 ,x la/$ t5     
ye>s1 & 0 !n  suppress$ at ! in/ance ( !
 papal gov]nm5t2 z an equival5t1  !     
bro!r ( ! gr&-duke 0 made a c>d9al4 ,x  
numb]$ _m  great m51 su* z ,torricelli &
 ,ca/elli1 among its memb]s4 ,!         
condition ( admission into x 0 an       
abjuration ( all fai?1 & a  resolution  
to inquire into ! tru?4 ,^! societies   
extricat$ !  cultivators ( sci5ce f !   
isolation 9 :i* !y _h hi!rto  liv$1 &1  
by promot+ _! int]communication & union1
 imp>t$  activity & /r5g? to !m all4    
,return+ n[ f ?is digression1 ?is       
hi/orical sket* ( !  circum/ances "u :i*
 sci5ce 0 introduc$ into ,europe1 ,i    
pass to  ! consid]ation ( its mann] (   
action & its results4    ,,intellectual 
,,influ5ce ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,! influ5ce (  
sci5ce on mod]n  civilization has be5   

tw(old3 #a4 ,intellectual2 #b4          
,economical4 ,"u  ^! titles we may      
conv5i5tly consid] x4    ,intellectually
 x ov]?rew ! au?ority ( tradition4 ,x   
refus$ to  accept1 unless accompani$ by 
pro(1 ! dicta ( any ma/]1 no matt]  h[  
em95t or honor$ 8 "n4 ,! conditions (   
admission into  ! ,italian ,accademia   
del ,cim5to1 & ! motto adopt$ by !      
,royal  ,society ( ,london1 illu/rate ! 
position x took 9 ?is respect4    ,x    
reject$ ! sup]natural & miracul\s z     
evid5ce 9 physical  discussions4 ,x     
ab&on$ sign-pro( su* z ! ,jews 9 old    
days  requir$1 & d5i$ t a demon/ration c
 be giv5 ?r\gh an  illu/ration ( some?+ 
else1 ?us ca/+ aside ! logic t _h  be5 9
 vogue = _m c5turies4    ,9 physical    
inquiries1 its mode ( proc$ure 01 to te/
 ! value (  any propos$ hypo!sis1 by    
execut+ computations 9 any special case 
on ! basis or pr9ciple ( t hypo!sis1 &  
!n1 by p]=m+ an  exp]im5t or mak+ an    
obs]vation1 to asc]ta9 :e!r ! result  ( 
^! agre$ ) ! result ( ! computation4 ,if

 x did n1 !  hypo!sis 0 to be reject$4  
,we may "h introduce an illu/ration or  
two ( ?is mode ( proc$ure3    ,,!ories  
,,( ,,gravitation ,,& ,,phlogi/on4      
,newton1 suspect+ t !  influ5ce ( !     
e>?'s attraction1 gravity1 may ext5d z  
f> z !  moon1 & be ! =ce t causes h] to 
revolve 9 h] orbit r\nd !  e>?1         
calculat$ t1 by h] motion 9 h] orbit1 %e
 0 deflect$  f ! tang5t ?irte5 feet e   
m9ute2 b1 by asc]ta9+ !  space ?r\gh :i*
 bodies w\ld fall 9 "o m9ute at ! e>?'s 
surface1 & suppos+ x to be dim9i%$ 9 !  
ratio ( ! inv]se  squ>e1 x appe>$ t !   
attraction at ! moon's orbit w\ld draw  
a body ?r\gh m ?an fifte5 feet4 ,he1    
!re=e1 = ! "t1  consid]$ 8 hypo!sis z   
unsu/a9$4 ,b x s happ5$ t ,pic>d  %ortly
 aft]w>d execut$ m correctly a new      
measurem5t ( a degree2  ?is *ang$ !     
e/imat$ magnitude ( ! e>?1 & ! di/ance (
  ! moon1 :i* 0 measur$ 9               
e>?-semidiamet]s4 ,newton n[ r5ew$  8   
computation1 &1 z ,i h relat$ on a      
previ\s page1 z x drew  to a close1     

=esee+ t a co9cid5ce 0 ab\t to be       
e/abli%$1  0 s mu* agitat$ t he 0 oblig$
 to ask a fri5d to complete x4  ,!      
hypo!sis 0 su/a9$4    ,a second in/ance 
w suffici5tly illu/rate ! me?od "u      
consid]ation4 ,x is pres5t$ by ! *emical
 !ory ( phlogi/on4  ,/ahl1 ! au?or ( ?is
 !ory1 ass]t$ t !re is a pr9ciple (     
inflammability1 to :i* he gave ! "n     
phlogi/on1 hav+ ! quality  ( unit+ )    
sub/ances4 ,?us1 :5 :at we n[ t]m a     
metallic oxide  0 unit$ to x1 a metal 0 
produc$2 &1 if ! phlogi/on 7  )drawn1 ! 
metal pass$ back into its e>?y or       
oxidiz$ /ate4 ,on  ?is pr9ciple1 !n1 !  
metals 7 comp\nd bodies1 e>?s comb9$  ) 
phlogi/on4    ,,sci5ce ,,&              
,,ecclesia/icism4 ,b dur+ ! eighte5?    
c5tury !  balance 0 introduc$ z an      
in/rum5t ( *emical rese>*4 ,n[1 if  !   
phlogi/ic hypo!sis be true1 x w\ld foll[
 t a metal %\ld  be ! heavi]1 its oxide 
! light] body1 = ! =m] conta9s          
some?+--phlogi/on--t has be5 add$ to !  
latt]4 ,b1 on  weigh+ a portion ( any   

metal1 & also ! oxide producible f x1  !
 latt] proves to be ! heavi]1 & "h !    
phlogi/ic hypo!sis  fails4 ,/ill fur!r1 
on cont9u+ ! inve/igation1 x may be %[n 
t ! oxide or calx1 z x us$ to be call$1 
has become heavi] by  comb9+ ) "o ( !   
+r$i5ts ( ! air4    ,to ,lavoisi] is    
usually attribut$ ?is te/ exp]im5t2 b ! 
fact  t ! weight ( a metal increases by 
calc9ation 0 e/abli%$  by e>li]         
,european exp]im5t]s1 &1 inde$1 0 well  
kn[n to !  ,arabian *emi/s4 ,lavoisi]1  
h[ev]1 0 ! fir/ to recognize its  great 
importance4 ,9 8 h&s x produc$ a        
revolution 9 *emi/ry4    ,! ab&onm5t ( !
 phlogi/ic !ory is an illu/ration ( !   
read9ess ) :i* sci5tific hypo!ses are   
surr5d]$1 :5 f\nd  to be want+ 9        
accordance ) facts4 ,au?ority &         
tradition pass =  no?+4 ,e ?+ is settl$ 
by an appeal to ,nature4 ,x is assum$  t
 ! answ]s %e gives to a practical       
int]rogation w ev] be  true4    ,comp>+ 
n[ ! philosophical pr9ciples on :i*     
sci5ce 0  proce$+1 ) ! pr9ciples on :i* 

ecclesia/icism re/$1 we see  t1 :ile !  
=m] repudiat$ tradition1 to ! latt] x 0 
!  ma9 support :ile ! =m] insi/$ on !   
agreem5t ( calculation  & obs]vation1 or
 ! correspond5ce ( reason+ & fact1 !    
latt]  lean$ ^u my/]ies2 :ile ! =m]     
summ>ily reject$ its own  !ories1 if x  
saw t !y c\ld n be coord9at$ ) ,nature1 
!  latt] f\nd m]it 9 a fai? t bl9dly    
accept$ ! inexplicable1 a  satisfi$     
contemplation ( ?+s above reason4 ,!    
ali5ation betwe5  ! two cont9ually      
increas$4 ,on "o side !re 0 a s5tim5t ( 
disda91 on ! o!r a s5tim5t ( hatr$4     
,imp>tial witnesses on all  h&s p]ceiv$ 
t sci5ce 0 rapidly und]m9+              
ecclesia/icism4    ,,ma!matics4         
,ma!matics _h ?us become ! great        
in/rum5t (  sci5tific rese>*1 x _h      
become ! in/rum5t ( sci5tific  reason+4 
,9 "o respect x may be said t x r$uc$ ! 
op]ations  ( ! m9d to a me*anical       
process1 = its symbols (t5 sav$ !  labor
 ( ?9k+4 ,! habit ( m5tal exactness x   
enc\rag$ ext5d$  to o!r bran*es ( ?\ght1

 & produc$ an intellectual revolution4  
,no long] 0 x possible to be satisfi$ ) 
miracle-pro(1 or !  logic t _h be5 reli$
 ^u ?r\gh\t ! middle ages4 ,n only did  
x ?us influ5ce ! mann] ( ?9k+1 x also   
*ang$ ! direction  ( ?\ght4 ,( ?is we   
may be satisfi$ by comp>+ ! subjects    
consid]$ 9 ! transactions ( ! v>i\s     
le>n$ societies ) !  discussions t _h   
occupi$ ! att5tion ( ! middle ages4     
,b ! use ( ma!matics 0 n limit$ to !    
v]ification (  !ories2 z above indicat$1
 x also furni%$ a means ( pr$ict+  :at  
_h hi!rto be5 unobs]v$4 ,9 ?is x (f]$ a 
c\nt]p>t  to ! prophecies (             
ecclesia/icism4 ,! discov]y ( ,neptune  
is  an in/ance ( ! k9d furni%$ by       
a/ronomy1 & t ( conical  refraction by !
 optical !ory ( undulations4    ,b1 :ile
 ?is great in/rum5t l$ to su* a wond]ful
 developm5t 9  natural sci5ce1 x 0      
itself und]go+ developm5t--improvem5t4  
,let  u 9 a few l9es recall its         
progress4    ,! g]m ( algebra may be    
disc]n$ 9 ! works ( ,diophantus (       

,alex&ria1 :o is suppos$ to h liv$ 9 !  
second c5tury ( our  era4 ,9 t ,egyptian
 s*ool ,euclid _h =m]ly collect$ ! great
  tru?s ( geometry1 & arrang$ !m 9      
logical sequ5ce4 ,ar*im$es1  9          
,syracuse1 _h attempt$ ! solution ( !   
high] problems by !  me?od ( exhau/ions4
 ,su* 0 ! t5d5cy ( ?+s t1 _h !          
patronage ( sci5ce be5 cont9u$1 algebra 
w\ld inevitably h be5  inv5t$4    ,to ! 
,arabians we owe our k ( ! rudim5ts (   
algebra2 we  owe to !m ! v "n "u :i* ?is
 bran* ( ma!matics passes4  ,!y _h      
c>efully add$1 to ! rema9s ( !          
,alex&rian ,s*ool1  improvem5ts obta9$ 9
 ,india1 & _h communicat$ to ! subject  
a c]ta9 consi/5cy & =m4 ,! k ( algebra1 
z !y  possess$ x1 0 fir/ br\ght into    
,italy ab\t ! beg9n+ ( !  ?irte5?       
c5tury4 ,x attract$ s little att5tion1 t
 ne>ly ?ree  hundr$ ye>s elaps$ be=e any
 ,european "w on ! subject appe>$4  ,9  
#adif ,paccioli publi%$ 8 book entitl$  
,arte ,maggiore1 or  ,alghebra4 ,9      
#aeja1 ,c>dan1 ( ,milan1 gave a me?od = 

! solution (  cubic equations2 o!r      
improvem5ts 7 contribut$ by ,scipio     
,f]reo1  #aejh1 by ,t>talea1 by ,vieta4 
,! ,g]mans n[ took up ! subject4 ,at    
?is "t ! notation 0 9 an imp]fect /ate4 
,! publication ( ! ,geometry (          
,desc>tes1 :i* conta9s !  application ( 
algebra to ! def9ition & inve/igation ( 
curve  l9es 7#afcg71 con/itutes an epo* 
9 ! hi/ory ( ! ma!matical  sci5ces4 ,two
 ye>s previ\sly1 ,cavali]i's "w on      
,indivisibles _h  appe>$4 ,?is me?od 0  
improv$ by ,torricelli & o!rs4 ,! way 0 
n[ op51 = ! developm5t ( ! ,inf9itesimal
 ,calculus1 ! me?od  ( ,fluxions (      
,newton1 & ! ,diff]5tial & ,integral    
,calculus  ( ,leibnitz4 ,?\gh 9 8       
possession _m ye>s previ\sly1 ,newton   
publi%$ no?+ on ,fluxions until #agjd2 !
 imp]fect notation he  employ$ ret>d$ v 
mu* ! application ( 8 me?od4 ,meantime1 
on  ! ,cont95t1 v l>gely ?r\gh !        
brilliant solutions ( "s (  ! high]     
problems1 accompli%$ by ! ,b]n\illis1 ! 
,calculus (  ,leibnitz 0 univ]sally     

accept$1 & improv$ by _m ma!maticians4  
,an extraord9>y developm5t ( ! sci5ce n[
 took place1 &  cont9u$ ?r\gh\t !       
c5tury4 ,to ! ,b9omial !orem1 previ\sly 
discov]$ by ,newton1 ,taylor n[ add$1 9 
8 ,me?od ( ,increm5ts1  ! celebrat$     
!orem t be>s 8 "n4 ,?is 0 9 #agae4 ,!   
,calculus ( ,p>tial ,diff]5ces 0        
introduc$ by ,eul] 9 #agcd4 ,x 0  ext5d$
 by ,d',alemb]t1 & 0 foll[$ by t (      
,v>iations1 by ,eul]  & ,lagrange1 & by 
! me?od ( ,d]ivative ,functions1 by     
,lagrange1 9  #aggb4    ,b x 0 n only 9 
,italy1 9 ,g]many1 9 ,engl&1 9 ,france1 
t  ?is great movem5t 9 ma!matics 0      
witness$2 ,scotl& _h add$ a  new gem to 
! intellectual diadem ) :i* h] br[ is   
encircl$1  by ! gr& inv5tion (          
,log>i?ms1 by ,napi] ( ,m]*i/on4 ,x is  
impossible to give any adequate         
conception ( ! sci5tific importance  (  
?is incomp>able inv5tion4 ,! mod]n      
physici/ & a/ronom]  w mo/ cordially    
agree ) ,briggs1 ! ,pr(essor (          
,ma!matics 9  ,gre%am ,college1 9 8     

exclamation3 ,i nev] saw a book t pleas$
  me bett]1 & t made ,i me m wond]6 ,n  
)\t reason did !  immortal ,kepl] reg>d 
,napi] to be ! greate/ man ( 8 age1 9 ! 
dep>tm5t to :i* he _h appli$ 8          
abilities4 ,napi] di$ 9 #afag4  ,x is no
 exagg]ation to say t ?is inv5tion1 by  
%ort5+ !  labors1 d\bl$ ! life ( !      
a/ronom]4    ,b "h ,i mu/ *eck myself4  
,i mu/ rememb] t my pres5t purpose is  n
 to give ! hi/ory ( ma!matics1 b to     
consid] :at sci5ce has  done = !        
advancem5t ( human civilization4 ,& n[1 
at once1 recurs  ! "q1 ,h[ is x t !     
,*ur* produc$ no geomet] 9 h]           
autocratic reign ( twelve hundr$ ye>s8  
,) respect to pure ma!matics ?is rem>k  
may be made3 ,its  cultivation does n   
dem& appliances t are beyond ! rea* (   
mo/ individuals4 ,a/ronomy mu/ h its    
obs]vatory1 *emi/ry its  laboratory2 b  
ma!matics asks only p]sonal disposition 
& a  few books4 ,no great exp5ditures   
are call$ =1 nor ! s]vices  ( assi/ants4
 ,"o w\ld ?9k t no?+ c\ld be m cong5ial1

  no?+ m delightful1 ev5 9 ! retirem5t (
 mona/ic life4    ,%all we answ] )      
,eusebius1 ,x is ?r\gh contempt ( su*   
useless  labor t we ?9k s little ( ^!   
matt]s2 we turn our s\ls to  ! ex]cise (
 bett] ?+s8 ,bett] ?+s6 ,:at c be bett] 
?an  absolute tru?8 ,are my/]ies1       
miracles1 ly+ impo/ures1 bett]8 ,x  0 ^!
 t /ood 9 ! way6    ,! ecclesia/ical    
au?orities _h recogniz$1 f ! outset (   
?is  sci5tific invasion1 t ! pr9ciples x
 0 dissem9at+ 7  absolutely             
irreconcilable ) ! curr5t !ology4       
,directly &  indirectly1 !y /ruggl$     
aga9/ x4 ,s great 0 _! dete/ation  (    
exp]im5tal sci5ce1 t !y ?\ght !y _h ga9$
 a great  advantage :5 ! ,accademia del 
,cim5to 0 suppress$4 ,nor 0 !  s5tim5t  
re/rict$ to ,ca?olicism4 ,:5 ! ,royal   
,society ( ,london  0 f\nd$1 !ological  
odium 0 direct$ aga9/ x ) s mu*  rancor 
t1 d\btless1 x w\ld h be5 ext+ui%$1 _h n
 ,k+  ,*>les ,,ii4 giv5 x 8 op5 & av[$  
support4 ,x 0 accus$ (  an int5tion (   
de/roy+ ! e/abli%$ religion1 ( injur+ ! 

univ]sities1 & ( upsett+ anci5t & solid 
le>n+4    ,,! ,,royal ,,society ,,(     
,,london4 ,we h only to turn ov] ! pages
 ( its  ,transactions to disc]n h[ mu*  
?is society has done = ! progress  (    
humanity4 ,x 0 incorporat$ 9 #affb1 &   
has int]e/$ itself 9  all ! great       
sci5tific movem5ts & discov]ies t h s9ce
 be5  made4 ,x publi%$ ,newton's        
,pr9cipia2 x promot$ ,halley's voyage1  
! fir/ sci5tific exp$ition und]tak5 by  
any gov]nm5t2 x made  exp]im5ts on !    
transfusion ( blood1 & accept$ ,h>vey's 
discov]y  ( ! circulation4 ,!           
enc\ragem5t x gave to inoculation l$    
,que5  ,c>ol9e to beg six condemn$      
crim9als = exp]im5t1 & !n to  submit h] 
own *ildr5 to t op]ation4 ,?r\gh its    
enc\ragem5t  ,bradley accompli%$ 8 great
 discov]y1 ! ab]ration ( ! fix$  />s1 & 
t ( ! nutation ( ! e>?'s axis2 to ^! two
  discov]ies1 ,delambre says1 we owe !  
exactness ( mod]n a/ronomy4 ,x  promot$ 
! improvem5t ( ! !rmomet]1 ! measure (  
temp]ature1  & 9 ,h>rison's wat*1 !     

*ronomet]1 ! measure ( "t4 ,?r\gh  x !  
,gregorian ,cal5d> 0 introduc$ into     
,engl&1 9 #ageb1 aga9/  a viol5t        
religi\s opposition4 ,"s ( its ,fell[s 7
 pursu$ ?r\gh  ! /reets by an ignorant &
 infuriat$ mob1 :o believ$ x _h  robb$  
!m ( elev5 days ( _! lives2 x 0 f\nd    
necess>y to  conceal ! "n ( ,fa!r       
,walmesley1 a le>n$ ,jesuit1 :o _h tak5 
deep int]e/ 9 ! matt]2 &1 ,bradley      
happ5+ to die dur+ !  commotion1 x 0    
decl>$ t he _h suff]$ a judgm5t f ,heav5
  = 8 crime6    ,,! ,,royal ,,society   
,,( ,,london4 ,if ,i 7 to attempt to d  
ju/ice to !  m]its ( ?is great society1 
,i %\ld h to devote _m pages1 to  su*   
subjects z ! a*romatic telescope (      
,dollond2 ! divid+  eng9e ( ,ramsd51 :i*
 fir/ gave precision to a/ronomical     
obs]vations1 ! measurem5t ( a degree on 
! e>?'s surface by  ,mason & ,dixon2 !  
exp$itions ( ,cook 9 connection ) !     
transit  ( ,v5us2 8 circumnavigation ( !
 e>?2 8 pro( t scurvy1  ! curse ( long  
sea-voyages1 may be avoid$ by ! use (   

vegetable  sub/ances2 ! pol> exp$itions2
 ! det]m9ation ( ! d5sity (  ! e>? by   
,maskelyne's exp]im5ts at ,s*eliallion1 
& by ^?  ( ,cav5di%2 ! discov]y ( !     
planet ,uranus by ,h]s*el2 !            
composition ( wat] by ,cav5di% & ,watt2 
! det]m9ation ( !  diff]5ce ( longitude 
betwe5 ,london & ,p>is2 ! inv5tion (  ! 
voltaic pile2 ! surveys ( ! heav5s by ! 
,h]s*els2  ! developm5t ( ! pr9ciple (  
int]f]5ce by ,"y1 & 8  e/abli%m5t ( !   
undulatory !ory ( light2 ! v5tilation  (
 jails & o!r build+s2 ! introduction (  
gas = city  illum9ation2 ! asc]ta9m5t ( 
! l5g? ( ! seconds-p5dulum2  !          
measurem5t ( ! v>iations ( gravity 9    
diff]5t latitudes2 !  op]ations to      
asc]ta9 ! curvature ( ! e>?2 ! pol>     
exp$ition  ( ,ross2 ! inv5tion ( !      
safety-lamp by ,davy1 & 8 decomposition 
( ! alkalies & e>?s2 ! electro-magnetic 
discov]ies ( ,o]/$  & ,f>aday2 !        
calculat+-eng9es ( ,babbage2 ! measures 
tak5  at ! in/ance ( ,humboldt = !      
e/abli%m5t ( _m magnetic  obs]vatories2 

! v]ification ( contemporane\s magnetic 
di/urbances  ov] ! e>?'s surface4 ,b x  
is impossible1 9 ! limit$ space at  my  
disposal1 to give ev5 s little z a      
catalogue ( its ,transactions4  ,its _s 
0 id5tical ) t :i* animat$ ! ,accademia 
del  ,cim5to1 & its motto accord+ly 0   
,nullius 9 ,v]ba4 ,x proscrib$          
sup]/ition1 & p]mitt$ only calculation1 
obs]vation1 &  exp]im5t4    ,,influ5ce  
,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,n = a mom5t mu/ x be     
suppos$ t 9 ^!  great attempts1 ^! great
 ,successes1 ! ,royal ,society /ood     
alone4  ,9 all ! capitals ( ,europe !re 
7 ,academies1 ,in/itutes1 or            
,societies1 equal 9 di/9ction1 & equally
 successful 9 promot+  human k & mod]n  
civilization4      ,,! ,,economical     
,,influ5ces ,,( ,,sci5ce4    ,!         
sci5tific /udy ( ,nature t5ds n only to 
correct & ennoble  ! intellectual       
conceptions ( man2 x s]ves also to      
ameliorate 8  physical condition4 ,x    
p]petually sugge/s to him ! inquiry1 h[ 
he  may make1 by _! economical          

application1 asc]ta9$ facts subs]vi5t   
to 8 use4    ,! inve/igation ( pr9ciples
 is quickly foll[$ by practical         
inv5tions4 ,?is1 inde$1 is ! *>act]i/ic 
feature ( our times4 ,x  has produc$ a  
great revolution 9 national policy4     
,9 =m] ages w>s 7 made = ! procur+ (    
slaves4 ,a conqu]or  transport$ entire  
populations1 & extort$ f !m =c$ labor1 =
  x 0 only by human labor t human labor 
c\ld be reliev$4 ,b :5  x 0 discov]$ t  
physical ag5ts & me*anical comb9ations  
c\ld  be employ$ to incomp>ably great]  
advantage1 public policy und]w5t a      
*ange2 :5 x 0 recogniz$ t ! application 
( a new pr9ciple1  or ! inv5tion ( a new
 ma*9e1 0 bett] ?an ! acquisition ( an  
additional slave1 peace became pref]able
 to w>4 ,& n only s1 b  nations possess+
 great slave or s]f populations1 z 0 !  
c>e 9  ,am]ica & ,russia1 f\nd t        
consid]ations ( humanity 7 support$  by 
consid]ations ( int]e/1 & set _! bondm5 
free4    ,,sci5tific ,,inv5tions4 ,?us  
we live 9 a p]iod ( :i* a  *>act]i/ic is

 ! supplant+ ( human & animal labor by  
ma*9es4  ,its me*anical inv5tions h     
wr\ght a social revolution4 ,we appeal  
to ! natural1 n to ! sup]natural1 = !   
accompli%m5t ( our  ends4 ,x is ) !     
mod]n civilization ?us aris+ t          
,ca?olicism  refuses to be reconcil$4 ,!
 papacy l\dly proclaims its inflexible  
repudiation ( ?is /ate ( affairs1 &     
insi/s on a re/oration (  ! m$ieval     
condition ( ?+s4    ,t a piece ( amb]1  
:5 rubb$1 w attract & !n repel light    
bodies1 0 a fact kn[n six hundr$ ye>s   
be=e ,*ri/4 ,x rema9$ an  isolat$1      
uncultivat$ fact1 a m]e trifle1 until   
sixte5 hundr$ ye>s  aft] ,*ri/4 ,!n     
dealt ) by ! sci5tific me?ods (         
ma!matical  discussion & exp]im5t1 &    
practical application made ( ! result1  
x has p]mitt$ m5 to communicate         
in/antane\sly ) ea* o!r  across cont95ts
 & "u oceans4 ,x has c5traliz$ ! _w4 ,by
  enabl+ ! sov]eign au?ority to transmit
 its m&ates )\t  reg>d to di/ance or to 
"t1 x has revolutioniz$ /atesman%ip &   

cond5s$ political p[]4    ,9 ! ,museum (
 ,alex&ria !re 0 a ma*9e inv5t$ by ,h]o1
 !  ma!matician1 a little m ?an "o      
hundr$ ye>s be=e ,*ri/4 ,x  revolv$ by !
 ag5cy ( /eam1 & 0 ( ! =m t we %\ld  n[ 
call a reaction-eng9e4 ,?is1 ! g]m ( "o 
( ! mo/ important  inv5tions ev] made1 0
 rememb]$ z a m]e curiosity = sev5te5   
hundr$ ye>s4    ,*ance _h no?+ to d ) ! 
inv5tion ( ! mod]n /eam-eng9e4  ,x 0 !  
product ( m$itation & exp]im5t4 ,9 !    
middle ( !  sev5te5? c5tury sev]al      
me*anical eng9e]s attempt$ to utilize  !
 prop]ties ( /eam2 _! labors 7 br\ght to
 p]fection by ,watt  9 ! middle ( !     
eighte5?4    ,! /eam-eng9e quickly      
became ! drudge ( civilization4 ,x p]=m$
  ! "w ( _m millions ( m54 ,x gave1 to  
^? :o w\ld h be5  condemn$ to a life (  
brutal toil1 ! opportunity ( bett]      
pursuits4  ,he :o =m]ly labor$ might n[ 
?9k4    ,its e>lie/ application 0 9 su* 
op]ations z pump+1 :]e9 m]e  =ce is     
requir$4 ,soon1 h[ev]1 x v9dicat$ its   
delicacy ( t\*  9 ! indu/rial arts (    

sp9n+ & weav+4 ,x creat$ va/            
manufactur+ e/abli%m5ts1 & suppli$ clo?+
 = ! _w4 ,x  *ang$ ! indu/ry ( nations4 
,9 its application1 fir/ to ! navigation
 ( riv]s1 & !n to !  navigation ( !     
ocean1 x m ?an quadrupl$ ! spe$ t _h    
h]et(ore be5 atta9$4 ,in/ead ( =ty days 
be+ requisite =  ! passage1 ! ,atlantic 
might n[ be cross$ 9 eight4 ,b1 9 l&    
transportation1 its p[] 0 mo/ /rik+ly   
display$4 ,! admirable  inv5tion ( !    
locomotive enabl$ m5 to travel f>!r 9   
less ?an  an h\r ?an !y =m]ly c\ld h    
done 9 m ?an a day4    ,! locomotive has
 n only enl>g$ ! field ( human activity1
 b1  by dim9i%+ space1 x has increas$ ! 
capabilities ( human life4  ,9 ! swift  
transportation ( manufactur$ goods &    
agricultural  products1 x has become a  
mo/ effici5t inc5tive to human indu/ry  
,! p]fection ( ocean /eam-navigation 0  
greatly promot$ by !  inv5tion ( !      
*ronomet]1 :i* r5d]$ x possible to f9d  
) accuracy ! place ( a %ip at sea4 ,!   
great drawback on !  advancem5t ( sci5ce

 9 ! ,alex&rian ,s*ool 0 ! want ( an    
in/rum5t = ! measurem5t ( "t1 & "o = !  
measurem5t (  temp]ature--! *ronomet] & 
! !rmomet]2 inde$1 ! inv5tion  ( ! latt]
 is ess5tial to t ( ! =m]4 ,clepsydras1 
or  wat]-clocks1 _h be5 tri$1 b !y 7    
defici5t 9 accuracy4 ,(  "o ( !m1       
ornam5t$ ) ! signs ( ! zodiac1 & de/roy$
 by  c]ta9 primitive ,*ri/ians1 ,/4     
,polyc>p significantly rem>k$1 ,9  all  
^! mon/r\s demons is se5 an art ho/ile  
to ,god4 ,n until  ab\t #afhj did !     
*ronomet] beg9 to approa* accuracy4     
,hooke1 !  contempor>y ( ,newton1 gave x
 ! balance-:eel1 ) ! spiral  spr+1 &    
v>i\s escapem5ts 9 succession 7 devis$1 
su* z !  an*or1 ! dead-beat1 ! duplex1 !
 remontoir4 ,provisions = !  v>iation ( 
temp]ature 7 introduc$4 ,x 0 br\ght to  
p]fection  ev5tually by ,h>rison &      
,arnold1 9 _! h&s becom+ an accurate    
measure ( ! flight ( "t4 ,to ! inv5tion 
( ! *ronomet]  mu/ be add$ t ( !        
reflect+ sextant by ,godfrey4 ,?is      
p]mitt$  a/ronomical obs]vations to be  

made1 not)/&+ ! motion ( a  %ip4        
,improvem5ts 9 ocean navigation are     
ex]cis+ a p[]ful influ5ce on  !         
di/ribution ( mank9d4 ,!y are increas+ !
 am\nt & alt]+  ! "* ( colonization4    
,,dome/ic ,,improvem5t4 ,b n alone h ^! 
great discov]ies &  inv5tions1 ! (fspr+ 
( sci5tific inve/igation1 *ang$ !  lot (
 ! human race2 v _m m9or ones1 p]haps   
individually  insignificant1 h 9 _!     
aggregate accompli%$ surpris+ effects4  
,! comm5c+ cultivation ( sci5ce 9 !     
f\rte5? c5tury gave  a wond]ful /imulus 
to inv5tive tal5t1 direct$ ma9ly to     
useful  practical results2 & ?is1       
subsequ5tly1 0 greatly enc\rag$ by !    
sy/em ( pat5ts1 :i* secure to !         
orig9ator a reasonable portion  ( !     
b5efits ( 8 skill4 ,x is suffici5t to   
ref] 9 ! mo/  cursory mann] to a few (  
^! improvem5ts2 we appreciate at once h[
  mu* !y h done4 ,! introduction ( !    
saw-mill gave wood5 floors  to h\ses1   
bani%+ ^? ( gypsum1 tile1 or /one2      
improvem5ts  *eap5+ ! manufacture (     

glass gave w9d[s1 mak+ possible !  w>m+ 
( ap>tm5ts4 ,h[ev]1 x 0 n until !       
sixte5? c5tury  t glaz+ c\ld be well    
done4 ,! cutt+ ( glass by ! diamond  0  
!n introduc$4 ,! addition ( *imneys     
purifi$ ! atmosph]e  ( dwell+s1 smoky & 
sooty z ! huts ( savages2 x gave t      
indescribable bless+ ( nor!rn homes--a  
*e]ful fireside4 ,hi!rto  a hole 9 ! ro(
 = ! escape ( ! smoke1 a pit 9 ! mid/ ( 
! floor to conta9 ! fuel1 & to be cov]$ 
) a lid :5 !  curfew-bell s\nd$ or night
 came1 su* _h be5 ! *e]less &           
inadequate means ( w>m+4    ,,municipal 
,,improvem5ts4 ,?\gh n )\t a bitt]      
resi/ance on  ! "p ( ! cl]gy1 m5 began  
to ?9k t pe/il5ces are n  puni%m5ts     
inflict$ by ,god on society = its       
religi\s %ortcom+s1  b ! physical       
consequ5ces ( fil? & wret*$ness2 t !    
prop]  mode ( avoid+ !m is n by pray+ to
 ! sa9ts1 b by insur+  p]sonal &        
municipal cleanl9ess4 ,9 ! twelf? c5tury
 x 0  f\nd necess>y to pave ! /reets (  
,p>is1 ! /5* 9 !m 0 s  dreadful ,at once

 dys5t]ies & spott$ fev] dim9i%$2 a     
sanit>y  condition approa*+ t ( !       
,moori% cities ( ,spa91 :i* _h  be5 pav$
 = c5turies1 0 atta9$4 ,9 t n[ beautiful
 metropolis  x 0 =bidd5 to keep sw9e1 an
 ord9ance res5t$ by ! monks  ( ! abbey (
 ,/4 ,an?ony1 :o dem&$ t ! pigs ( t sa9t
  %\ld g :]e !y *ose2 ! gov]nm5t 0      
oblig$ to compromise !  matt] by requir+
 t bells %\ld be fa/5$ to ! animals'    
necks4  ,k+ ,philip1 ! son ( ,l\is !    
,fat1 _h be5 kill$ by 8 horse  /umbl+   
ov] a s[4 ,prohibitions 7 publi%$ aga9/ 
?r[+ slops  out ( ! w9d[s4 ,9 #ahgj an  
eye-witness1 ! au?or ( ?is book1  at !  
close ( ! pontifical rule 9 ,rome1 f\nd 
t1 9 walk+ !  ordure-defil$ /reets ( t  
city1 x 0 m necess>y to inspect  ! e>?  
?an to contemplate ! heav5s1 9 ord] to  
pres]ve p]sonal  purity4 ,until ! beg9n+
 ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 ! /reets (  ,b]l9 
7 nev] swept4 ,!re 0 a law t e          
c\ntryman1 :o came  to m>ket ) a c>t1   
%\ld c>ry back a load ( dirt6    ,pav+ 0
 foll[$ by attempts1 (t5 ( an imp]fect  

k9d1 at  ! con/ruction ( dra9s & sew]s4 
,x _h become obvi\s to all  reflect+ m5 
t ^! 7 necess>y to ! pres]vation (      
heal?1  n only 9 t[ns1 b 9 isolat$      
h\ses4 ,!n foll[$ ! light+  ( ! public  
?or\ghf>es4 ,at fir/ h\ses fac+ ! /reets
 7  compell$ to h c&les or lamps 9 _!   
w9d[s2 next ! sy/em  t _h be5 foll[$ ) s
 mu* advantage 9 ,cordova & ,granada--( 
hav+ public lamps--0 tri$1 b ?is 0 n    
br\ght to p]fection  until ! pres5t     
c5tury1 :5 light+ by gas 0 inv5t$4      
,contemporane\sly ) public lamps 7      
improv$ organizations =  night-wat*m5 & 
police4    ,by ! sixte5? c5tury1        
me*anical inv5tions & manufactur+       
improvem5ts 7 ex]cis+ a conspicu\s      
influ5ce on dome/ic &  social life4 ,!re
 7 look+-glasses & clocks on ! walls1   
mantels  ov] ! fireplaces4 ,?\gh 9 _m   
di/ricts ! kit*5-fire 0 /ill  suppli$ ) 
turf1 ! use ( coal began to prevail4 ,! 
table 9 !  d9+-room (f]$ new delicacies2
 comm]ce 0 br++ to x =eign  products2 ! 
co>se dr9ks ( ! ,nor? 7 supplant$ by !  

delicate  w9es ( ! ,s\?4 ,ice-h\ses 7   
con/ruct$4 ,! bolt+ ( fl\r1  introduc$  
at ! w9dmills1 _h giv5 :it] & f9] bread4
 ,by  degrees ?+s t _h be5 r>ities      
became common--,indian-corn1 !  potato1 
! turkey1 &1 conspicu\s 9 ! long li/1   
tobacco4 ,=ks1  an ,italian inv5tion1   
displac$ ! fil?y use ( ! f+]s4 ,x may be
  said t ! diet ( civiliz$ m5 n[ und]w5t
 a radical *ange4 ,tea  came f ,*9a1    
c(fee f ,arabia1 ! use ( sug> f ,india1 
&  ^! to no insignificant degree        
supplant$ f]m5t$ liquors4 ,c>pets       
replac$ on ! floors ! lay] ( /raw2 9 !  
*amb]s  !re appe>$ bett] b$s1 9 !       
w>drobes clean] & m  frequ5tly-*ang$    
clo?+4 ,9 _m t[ns ! aqu$uct 0 sub/itut$ 
= ! public f\nta9 & ! /reet-pump4       
,ceil+s :i* 9 ! old  days w\ld h be5 d+y
 ) soot & dirt1 7 n[ decorat$ )         
ornam5tal frescoes4 ,ba?s 7 m commonly  
resort$ to2 !re 0  less ne$ to use      
p]fum]y = ! concealm5t ( p]sonal odors4 
,an increas+ ta/e = ! innoc5t pleasures 
( horticulture  0 manife/$1 by !        

introduction ( _m =eign fl[]s 9 !       
g>d5s--! tub]ose1 ! auricula1 ! cr[n    
imp]ial1 ! ,p]sian  lily1 ! ranunculus1 
& ,african m>igolds4 ,9 ! /reets !re    
appe>$ s$ans1 !n close c>riages1 & at   
l5g? hackney-coa*es4    ,among ! dull   
ru/ics me*anical improvem5ts =c$ _! way1
 &  gradually atta9$1 9 ! implem5ts =   
pl\gh+1 s[+1 m[+1  reap+1 ?ra%+1 !      
p]fection ( our own times4              
,,m]cantile ,,inv5tions4 ,x began to be 
recogniz$1 9 spite ( !  prea*+ ( !      
m5dicant ord]s1 t pov]ty is ! s\rce (   
crime1  ! ob/ruction to k2 t ! pursuit (
 ri*es by comm]ce is  f> bett] ?an !    
acquisition ( p[] by w>4 ,=1 ?\gh x may 
be true1 z ,montesquieu says1 t1 :ile   
comm]ce unites nations1 x  antagonizes  
individuals1 & makes a traffic (        
morality1 x alone c  give unity to ! _w2
 its dream1 its hope1 is univ]sal peace4
    ,,m$ical ,,improvem5ts4 ,?\gh1      
in/ead ( a few pages1 x w\ld require    
volumes to record adequately !          
ameliorations t took place 9  dome/ic & 

social life aft] sci5ce began to ex]t   
its b5efic5t  influ5ces1 & inv5tive     
tal5t came to ! aid ( indu/ry1 !re  are 
"s ?+s :i* _c be pass$ 9 sil5ce4 ,f !   
port (  ,b>celona ! ,spani% khalifs _h  
c>ri$ on an enorm\s comm]ce1 &  !y ) _! 
coadjutors--,jewi% m]*ants--_h adopt$ or
 orig9at$  _m comm]cial inv5tions1 :i*1 
) matt]s ( pure sci5ce1  !y _h          
transmitt$ to ! trad+ communities (     
,europe4 ,! art (  book-keep+ by d\ble  
entry 0 ?us br\ght into ,upp] ,italy4 ,!
  diff]5t k9ds ( insurance 7 adopt$1    
?\gh /r5u\sly resi/$  by ! cl]gy4 ,!y   
oppos$ fire & m>9e insurance1 on ! gr\nd
  t x is a tempt+ ( ,provid5ce4 ,life   
insurance 0 reg>d$ z  an act ( int]f]5ce
 ) ! consequ5ces ( ,god's w4 ,h\ses  =  
l5d+ money on int]e/ & on pl$ges1 t is1 
bank+ &  pawnbrok+ e/abli%m5ts1 7       
bitt]ly d5\nc$1 & especially 0          
indignation excit$ aga9/ ! tak+ ( high  
rates ( int]e/1  :i* 0 /igmatiz$ z      
usury--a feel+ exi/+ 9 "s backw>d       
communities up to ! pres5t day4 ,bills (

 ex*ange 9 ! pres5t =m  & t]ms 7 adopt$1
 ! (fice ( ! public not>y e/abli%$1 &   
prote/s = di%onor$ obligations resort$  
to4 ,inde$1 x may be said1  ) b little  
exagg]ation1 t ! comm]cial ma*9]y n[ us$
  0 ?us introduc$4 ,i h already rem>k$  
t1 9 consequ5ce ( !  discov]y ( ,am]ica1
 ! front ( ,europe _h be5 *ang$4 ,_m ri*
  ,italian m]*ants & _m ent]pris+ ,jews1
 _h settl$ 9 ,holl&  ,engl&1 ,france1 & 
br\ght into ^? c\ntries v>i\s m]cantile 
devices4 ,! ,jews1 :o c>$ no?+ ab\t     
papal mal$ictions1 7  enri*$ by !       
pontifical action 9 relation to ! l5d+ (
 money at  high int]e/2 b ,pius ,,ii41  
p]ceiv+ ! mi/ake t _h be5  made1 )drew 8
 opposition4 ,pawnbrok+ e/abli%m5ts 7   
f9ally  au?oriz$ by ,leo ,x41 :o ?reat5$
 excommunication ( ^? :o wrote  aga9/   
!m4 ,9 _! turn ! ,prote/ants n[ exhibit$
 a dislike  aga9/ e/abli%m5ts ?us       
au?oriz$ by ,rome4 ,z ! !ological       
dogma1 t ! plague1 l ! e>?quake1 is an  
unavoidable  visitation f ,god = ! s9s (
 m51 began to be d\bt$1 attempts  7 made

 to resi/ its progress by ! e/abli%m5t (
 qu>ant9es4  ,:5 ! ,mohamm$an discov]y (
 inoculation 0 br\ght f  ,con/ant9ople 9
 #agba1 by ,lady ,m>y ,wortley ,montagu1
 x 0 s  /r5u\sly resi/$ by ! cl]gy1 t   
no?+ %ort ( its adoption  by ! royal    
family ( ,engl& br\ght x into use4 ,a   
simil> resi/ance  0 exhibit$ :5 ,j5n]   
introduc$ 8 great improvem5t1           
vacc9ation2  yet a c5tury ago x 0 !     
exception to see a face unpitt$ by      
smallpox--n[ x is ! exception to see "o 
s disfigur$4 ,9 l  mann]1 :5 ! great    
,am]ican discov]y ( anae/hetics 0 appli$
  9 ob/etrical cases1 x 0 disc\rag$1 n s
 mu* = physiological  reasons1 z "u !   
pret5se t x 0 an impi\s attempt to      
escape  f ! curse d5\nc$ aga9/ all wom5 
9 ,g5esis iii4 #af4    ,,magic ,,&      
,,miracles4 ,inv5tive +5uity did n      
re/rict itself to !  production ( useful
 contrivances1 x add$ amus+ ones4 ,soon 
aft] !  introduction ( sci5ce into      
,italy1 ! h\ses ( ! virtuosi began to   
ab\nd 9 all k9ds ( curi\s me*anical     

surprises1 &1 z !y  7 t]m$1 magical     
effects4 ,9 ! latt] ! inv5tion ( !      
magic-lant]n greatly assi/$4 ,n )\t     
reason did ! ecclesia/ics  dete/        
exp]im5tal philosophy1 = a result ( no  
little importance  ensu$--! juggl]      
became a successful rival to !          
miracle-work]4 ,!  pi\s frauds enact$ 9 
! *ur*es lo/ _! wond] :5 br\ght  into   
competition ) ! tricks ( ! conjur] 9 !  
m>ket-place3 he  brea!d flame1 walk$ on 
burn+ coals1 held r$-hot iron 9 8  tee?1
 drew basketfuls ( eggs out ( 8 m\?1    
work$ miracles by  m>ionettes4 ,yet !   
old idea ( ! sup]natural 0 ) difficulty 
de/roy$4 ,a horse1 ^: ma/] _h taught him
 _m tricks1 0 tri$  at ,lisbon 9 #afja1 
f\nd guilty ( be+1 possess$ by ! devil1 
&  0 burnt4 ,/ill lat] ?an t _m wit*es 7
 br\ght to ! /ake4    ,,discov]ies ,,9  
,,a/ronomy ,,& ,,*emi/ry4 ,once fairly  
introduc$1  discov]y & inv5tion h       
unceas+ly advanc$ at an accel]at$  pace4
 ,ea* cont9ually react$ on ! o!r1       
cont9ually !y sapp$  sup]naturalism4 ,de

 ,dom9is comm5c$1 & ,newton complet$1 ! 
explanation ( ! ra9b[2 !y %[$ t x 0 n ! 
weapon (  w>f>e ( ,god1 b ! accid5t (   
rays ( light 9 drops ( wat]4 ,de        
,dom9is 0 decoy$ to ,rome ?r\gh !       
promise ( an ar*bi%opric1  & ! hope ( a 
c>d9al's hat4 ,he 0 lodg$ 9 a f9e       
resid5ce1 b  c>efully wat*$4 ,accus$ (  
hav+ sugge/$ a concord betwe5 ,rome  &  
,engl&1 he 0 imprison$ 9 ! ca/le ( ,/   
,angelo1 & !re  di$4 ,he 0 br\ght 9 8   
c(f9 be=e an ecclesia/ical tribunal1    
adjudg$ guilty ( h]esy1 & 8 body1 ) a   
heap ( h]etical books1  0 ca/ into !    
flames4 ,frankl91 by demon/rat+ !       
id5tity (  lightn+ & electricity1       
depriv$ ,jupit] ( 8 ?und]-bolt4 ,!      
m>vels ( sup]/ition 7 displac$ by !     
wond]s ( tru?4 ,! two  telescopes1 !    
reflector & ! a*romatic1 inv5tions ( !  
la/  c5tury1 p]mitt$ man to p5etrate    
into ! inf9ite gr&eurs (  ! univ]se1 to 
recognize1 z f> z su* a ?+ is possible1 
its  illimitable spaces1 its measureless
 times2 & a little lat] !  a*romatic    

microscope plac$ be=e 8 eyes ! _w ( !   
inf9itely  small4 ,! air-balloon c>ri$  
him above ! cl\ds1 ! div+-bell  to !    
bottom ( ! sea4 ,! !rmomet] gave him    
true measures (  ! v>iations ( heat2 !  
b>omet]1 ( ! pressure ( ! air4 ,!       
introduction ( ! balance imp>t$         
exactness to *emi/ry1 x prov$  !        
inde/ructibility ( matt]4 ,! discov]y ( 
oxyg51 hydrog51 &  _m o!r gases1 !      
isolation ( alum9um1 calcium1 & o!r     
metals1  %[$ t e>? & air & wat] are n   
elem5ts4 ,) an ent]prise  t c nev] be   
too mu* comm5d$1 advantage 0 tak5 ( !   
transits ( ,v5us1 &1 by s5d+ exp$itions 
to diff]5t regions1  ! di/ance ( ! e>? f
 ! sun 0 det]m9$4 ,! /ep t  ,european   
intellect _h made betwe5 #adef & #agei 0
 illu/rat$ by  ,halley's comet4 ,:5 x   
appe>$ 9 ! =m] ye>1 x 0 consid]$  z !   
h>b+] ( ! v5geance ( ,god1 ! disp5s] ( !
 mo/  dreadful ( 8 retributions1 w>1    
pe/il5ce1 fam9e4 ,by ord] ( !  pope1 all
 ! *ur*-bells 9 ,europe 7 rung to sc>e x
 away1 !  fai?ful 7 comm&$ to add ea*   

day ano!r pray]2 &1 z _!  pray]s _h (t5 
9 s m>k$ a mann] be5 answ]$ 9 eclipses &
  dr\ghts & ra9s1 s on ?is occasion x 0 
decl>$ t a victory  ov] ! comet _h be5  
v\*saf$ to ! pope4 ,b1 9 ! mean "t1     
,halley1 guid$ by ! revelations ( ,kepl]
 & ,newton1 _h discov]$  t its motions1 
s f> f be+ controll$ by ! supplications 
(  ,*ri/5dom1 7 guid$ 9 an elliptic     
orbit by de/9y4 ,kn[+ t  ,nature bad    
d5i$ to him an opportunity ( witness+ ! 
fulfillm5t  ( 8 d>+ prophecy1 he bes\ght
 ! a/ronom]s ( ! succe$+  g5]ation to   
wat* = its return 9 #agei1 & 9 t ye> x  
came4    ,,inv5tions ,,& ,,discov]ies4  
,:oev] w 9 a _s ( imp>tiality  exam9e   
:at _h be5 done by ,ca?olicism = !      
intellectual &  mat]ial advancem5t (    
,europe1 dur+ h] long reign1 & :at has  
be5  done by sci5ce 9 its brief p]iod ( 
action1 c1 ,i am p]suad$1 come  to no   
o!r conclusion ?an ?is1 t1 9 in/itut+ a 
comp>ison1 he  has e/abli%$ a contra/4  
,& yet1 h[ imp]fect1 h[ inadequate is  !
 catalogue ( facts ,i h furni%$ 9 !     

=ego+ pages6 ,i h  said no?+ ( ! spread 
( in/ruction by ! diffusion ( ! arts  ( 
read+ & writ+1 ?r\gh public s*ools1 & ! 
consequ5t  creation ( a read+ community2
 ! modes ( manufactur+ public  op9ion by
 newspap]s & reviews1 ! p[] ( j\rnalism1
 !  diffusion ( in=mation public &      
private by ! po/-(fice & *eap  mails1 ! 
individual & social advantages (        
newspap] adv]tisem5ts4  ,i h said no?+ (
 ! e/abli%m5t ( hospitals1 ! fir/       
exempl> ( :i* 0 ! ,invalides ( ,p>is2   
no?+ ( ! improv$  prisons1 re=matories1 
p5it5ti>ies1 asylums1 ! treatm5t (      
lunatics1 paup]s1 crim9als2 no?+ ( !    
con/ruction ( canals1 (  sanit>y        
eng9e]+1 or ( c5sus reports2 no?+ ( !   
inv5tion (  /]eotyp+1 blea*+ by *lor9e1 
! cotton-g91 or ( ! m>vel\s             
contrivances ) :i* cotton-mills are     
fill$--contrivances :i* h  giv5 u *eap  
clo?+1 & !re=e add$ to cleanl9ess1      
com=t1  heal?2 no?+ ( ! gr& advancem5t (
 m$ic9e & surg]y1 or  ( ! discov]ies 9  
physiology1 ! cultivation ( ! f9e arts1 

! improvem5t ( agriculture & rural      
economy1 ! introduction  ( *emical      
manures & f>m-ma*9]y4 ,i h n ref]r$ to !
  manufacture ( iron & its va/ affiliat$
 indu/ries2 to ^? (  textile fabrics2 to
 ! collection ( museums ( natural       
hi/ory1  antiquities1 curiosities4 ,i h 
pass$ unnotic$ ! great subject (  !     
manufacture ( ma*9]y by itself--!       
inv5tion ( ! slide-re/1  ! plan+-ma*9e1 
& _m o!r contrivances by :i* eng9es c   
be con/ruct$ ) almo/ ma!matical         
correctness4 ,i h said no?+  adequate   
ab\t ! railway sy/em1 or ! electric     
telegraph1 nor ab\t  ! calculus1 or     
li?ography1 ! airpump1 or ! voltaic     
batt]y2 !  discov]y ( ,uranus or        
,neptune1 & m ?an a hundr$ a/]oids2 !   
relation ( meteoric /reams to comets2   
no?+ ( ! exp$itions by  l& & sea t h be5
 s5t =? by v>i\s gov]nm5ts = !          
det]m9ation ( important a/ronomical or  
geographical que/ions2  no?+ ( ! co/ly &
 accurate exp]im5ts !y h caus$ to be    
made = ! asc]ta9m5t ( fundam5tal        

physical data4 ,i h be5 s  unju/ to our 
own c5tury t ,i h made no allusion to "s
 ( its  greate/ sci5tific triumphs3 its 
gr& conceptions 9 natural hi/ory2  its  
discov]ies 9 magnetism & electricity2   
its inv5tion ( !  beautiful art (       
photography2 its applications ( spectrum
 analysis2 its  attempts to br+ *emi/ry 
"u ! ?ree laws ( ,avogadro1 ( ,boyle  & 
,m>iotte1 & ( ,*>les2 its artificial    
production ( organic  sub/ances f       
inorganic mat]ial1 ( :i* ! philosophical
  consequ5ces are ( ! utmo/ importance2 
its recon/ruction (  physiology by lay+ 
! f\ndation ( t sci5ce on *emi/ry2 its  
improvem5ts & advances 9 topographical  
survey+ & 9 ! correct  repres5tation ( !
 surface ( ! globe4 ,i h said no?+ ab\t 
rifl$-guns & armor$ %ips1 nor ( !       
revolution t has be5 made  9 ! art ( w>2
 no?+ ( t gift to wom51 ! sew+-ma*9e2   
no?+ ( ! noble cont5tions & triumphs ( !
 arts ( peace--!  indu/rial exhibitions 
& _w's fairs4    ,:at a catalogue h we  
"h1 & yet h[ imp]fect6 ,x gives m]ely a 

r&om glimpse at an ev]-increas+         
intellectual commotion--a m5tion  ( ?+s 
z !y casually pres5t !mselves to view4  
,h[ /rik+  ! contra/ betwe5 ?is lit]>y1 
?is sci5tific activity1 & !  /agnation (
 ! middle ages6    ,! intellectual      
enlight5m5t t surr\nds ?is activity has 
imp>t$  unnumb]$ bless+s to ! human     
race4 ,9 ,russia x has emancipat$ a  va/
 s]f-population2 9 ,am]ica x has giv5   
fre$om to f\r million  negro slaves4 ,9 
place ( ! sp>se dole ( ! mona/]y-gate1 x
 has  organiz$ *>ity & direct$          
legislation to ! poor4 ,x has %[n       
m$ic9e its true function1 to prev5t r   
?an to cure disease4 ,9  /atesman%ip x  
has introduc$ sci5tific me?ods1 displac+
 r&om  & empirical legislation by a     
labori\s asc]ta9m5t ( social facts      
previ\s to ! application ( legal        
rem$ies4 ,s conspicu\s1 s  impressive is
 ! mann] 9 :i* x is elevat+ m51 t ! ho>y
  nations ( ,asia seek to p>ticipate 9 !
 boon4 ,let u n =get t  our action on !m
 mu/ be att5d$ by _! reaction on u4 ,if 

!  de/ruction ( paganism 0 complet$ :5  
all ! gods 7 br\ght  to ,rome &         
confront$ !re1 n[1 :5 by our wond]ful   
facilities (  locomotion /range nations 
& conflict+ religions are br\ght into   
common pres5ce--! ,mohamm$an1 !         
,buddhi/1 ! ,brahman-modifications  ( !m
 all mu/ ensue4 ,9 t conflict sci5ce    
alone w /&  secure2 = x has giv5 u gr&] 
views ( ! univ]se1 m awful  views (     
,god4    ,,am]ican ,,& ,,fr5*           
,,revolutions4 ,! _s t has imp>t$ life  
to  ?is movem5t1 t has animat$ ^!       
discov]ies & inv5tions1 is              
,individualism2 9 "s m9ds ! hope ( ga91 
9 o!r & nobl] ones  ! expectation (     
honor4 ,x is1 !n1 n to be wond]$ at t   
?is pr9ciple f\nd a political embodim5t1
 & t1 dur+ ! la/  c5tury1 on two        
occasions1 x gave rise to social        
convulsions--!  ,am]ican & ! ,fr5*      
,revolutions4 ,! =m] has end$ 9 !       
d$ication ( a cont95t to                
,individualism--!re1 "u republican  =ms1
 be=e ! close ( ! pres5t c5tury1 "o     

hundr$ million  p1 ) no m re/ra9t ?an _!
 common security requires1 w  be pursu+ 
an unfett]$ c>e]4 ,! latt]1 ?\gh x has  
modifi$  ! political aspect ( all       
,europe1 & ?\gh illu/rat$ by surpris+   
milit>y successes1 has1 ?us f>1 n       
consummat$ its int5tions2 aga9  & aga9 x
 has br\ght ^u ,france fe>ful disa/]s4  
,h] dual =m (  gov]nm5t--h] allegiance  
to h] two sov]eigns1 ! political & !    
spiritual--has made h] at once ! lead] &
 ! antagoni/ ( mod]n  progress4 ,) "o h&
 %e has en?ron$ ,reason1 ) ! o!r %e  has
 re-e/abli%$ & su/a9$ ! pope4 ,nor w ?is
 anomaly 9 h]  conduct cease until %e   
be/[s a true education on all h] *ildr51
  ev5 on ^? ( ! humble/ ru/ic4          
,,sci5ce ,,& ,,civilization4 ,!         
intellectual attack made on exi/+       
op9ions by ! ,fr5* ,revolution 0 n ( a  
sci5tific1 b ( a  lit]>y "*2 x 0        
critical & aggressive4 ,b ,sci5ce has   
nev] be5 an aggressor4 ,%e has always   
act$ on ! def5sive1 & left  to h]       
antagoni/ ! mak+ ( wanton attacks4      

,nev]!less1 lit]>y  diss5t is n ( su*   
om9\s import z sci5tific2 = lit]ature   
is1  9 its nature1 local--sci5ce is     
cosmopolitan4    ,if1 n[1 we dem&1 ,:at 
has sci5ce done = ! promotion ( mod]n   
civilization2 :at has x done = !        
happ9ess1 ! well-be+ (  society8 we %all
 f9d our answ] 9 ! same mann] t we rea*$
  a j e/imate ( :at ,lat9 ,*ri/ianity _h
 done4 ,! read] ( !  =ego+ p>agraphs    
w\ld und\bt$ly inf] t !re mu/ h  be5 an 
amelioration 9 ! lot ( our race2 b1 :5  
we apply !  t\*/one ( /ati/ics1 t       
inf]5ce ga!rs precision4 ,sy/ems (      
philosophy & =ms ( religion f9d a       
measure ( _! influ5ce on  humanity 9    
c5sus-returns4 ,lat9 ,*ri/ianity1 9 a   
?\s& ye>s1  c\ld n d\ble ! population ( 
,europe2 x did n add p]ceptibly  to !   
t]m ( individual life4 ,b1 z ,dr4       
,j>vis1 9 8 report to  ! ,massa*usetts  
,bo>d ( ,heal?1 has /at$1 at ! epo* ( ! 
,re=mation ! av]age longevity 9 ,g5eva 0
 #ba4ba ye>s1 betwe5  #ahad & #ahcc x 0 
#dj4fh2 z l>ge a numb] ( p]sons n[ live 

to  sev5ty ye>s z liv$ to =ty1 ?ree     
hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,9 #afic !  ,briti%    
,gov]nm5t borr[$ money by sell+         
annuities on lives f  infancy upw>d1 on 
! basis ( ! av]age longevity4 ,!        
contract  0 pr(itable4 ,n9ety-sev5 ye>s 
lat] ano!r tont9e1 or scale  (          
annuities1 on ! basis ( ! same          
expectation ( life z 9 !  previ\s       
c5tury1 0 issu$4 ,^! latt] annuitants1  
h[ev]1 liv$ s  mu* long] ?an _!         
pr$ecessors1 t x prov$ to be a v co/ly  
loan = ! gov]nm5t4 ,x 0 f\nd t1 :ile t5 
?\s& ( ea*  sex 9 ! fir/ tont9e di$ "u !
 age ( tw5ty-eight1 only five  ?\s& sev5
 hundr$ & sev5ty-two males & six ?\s&   
f\r  hundr$ & sixte5 females 9 ! second 
tont9e di$ at ! same age1  "o hundr$    
ye>s lat]4    ,we h be5 comp>+ !        
spiritual ) ! practical1 ! imag9>y  ) ! 
real4 ,! maxims t h be5 foll[$ 9 ! e>li]
 & !  lat] p]iod produc$ _! inevitable  
result4 ,9 ! =m] t maxim  01 ,ignorance 
is ! "m ( ,devotion 9 ! latt]1 ,k is    
,p[]4        ,,*apt] ,,xii4         ,,! 

,,imp5d+ ,,crisis4 ,,indications ,,( ,,!
 ,,approa* ,,( ,a       ,,religi\s      
,,crisis4--,,! ,,pr$om9at+ ,,*ri/ian    
,,*ur*1 ,,!       ,,roman1 ,,p]ceives   
,,?is1 ,,& ,,makes ,,prep>ation ,,=     
,,x4--,,pius       ,,ix ,,convokes ,,an 
,,oecum5ical ,,c\ncil--,,relations ,,(  
,,!       ,,diff]5t ,,european          
,,gov]nm5ts ,,to ,,!                    
,,papacy4--,,relations ,,(       ,,!    
,,*ur* ,,to ,,sci5ce1 ,,z ,,indicat$    
,,by ,,! ,,encyclical ,,lett]       ,,& 
,,! ,,syllabus4         ,acts ( !       
,vatican ,c\ncil 9 relation to !        
infallibility       ( ! pope1 & to      
,sci5ce4--,ab/ract ( decisions arriv$   
at4         ,controv]sy betwe5 !        
,prussian ,gov]nm5t & ! papacy4--       
,x is a conte/ betwe5 ! ,/ate & ! ,*ur* 
=       supremacy--,effect ( dual       
gov]nm5t 9 ,europe--,decl>ation       by
 ! ,vatican ,c\ncil ( its position z to 
,sci5ce--,!       dogmatic con/itution (
 ! ,ca?olic fai?4--,its       def9itions
 respect+ ,god1 ,revelation1 ,fai?1     

,reason4--,!       ana!mas x            
pron\nces4--,its d5unciation ( mod]n    
civilization4         ,! ,prote/ant     
,evangelical ,alliance & its acts4      
,g5]al review ( ! =ego+ def9itions1 &   
acts4--       ,pres5t condition ( !     
controv]sy1 & its future                
prospects4      ,,pr$om9ance ,,(        
,,ca?olicity4 ,no "o :o is acqua9t$ ) ! 
pres5t  tone ( ?\ght 9 ,*ri/5dom c hide 
f himself ! fact t an  intellectual1 a  
religi\s crisis is imp5d+4    ,9 all    
directions we see ! l[]+ skies1 we he> !
 mutt]+s  ( ! com+ /orm4 ,9 ,g]many1 !  
national p>ty is array+ itself  aga9/ ! 
ultramontane2 9 ,france1 ! m5 ( progress
 are /ruggl+  aga9/ ! unprogressive1 & 9
 _! conte/ ! political supremacy  ( t   
great c\ntry is wellnigh neutraliz$ or  
lo/4 ,9 ,italy1 ,rome  has pass$ into ! 
h&s ( an excommunicat$ k+4 ,! sov]eign  
pontiff1 feign+ t he is a prison]1 is   
fulm9at+ f ! ,vatican  8 ana!mas1 &1 9 !
 mid/ ( ! mo/ conv9c+ pro(s ( 8         
manifold errors1 ass]t+ 8 own           

infallibility4 ,a ,ca?olic ar*bi%op  )  
tru? decl>es t ! :ole civil society (   
,europe seems to be  )draw+ itself 9 its
 public life f ,*ri/ianity4 ,9 ,engl& & 
,am]ica1 religi\s p]sons p]ceive )      
dismay t ! intellectual  basis ( fai?   
has be5 und]m9$ by ! _s ( ! age4 ,!y    
prep>e = ! approa*+ disa/] 9 ! be/ mann]
 !y c4    ,! mo/ s]i\s trial ?r\gh :i*  
society c pass is enc\nt]$ 9  !         
exuviation ( its religi\s re/ra9ts4 ,!  
hi/ory ( ,greece &  ! hi/ory ( ,rome    
exhibit to u 9 an impressive mann] h[   
great are  ! p]ils4 ,b x is n giv5 to   
religions to endure =ev]4 ,!y           
necess>ily und]go trans=mation ) !      
intellectual developm5t (  man4 ,h[ _m  
c\ntries are !re pr(ess+ ! same religion
 n[ t  !y did at ! bir? ( ,*ri/8    ,x  
is e/imat$ t ! entire population (      
,europe is ab\t ?ree  hundr$ & "o       
million4 ,( ^!1 "o hundr$ & eighty-five 
million  are ,roman ,ca?olics1          
?irty-?ree million are ,greek ,ca?olics4
 ,(  ,prote/ants !re are sev5ty-"o      

million1 sep>at$ into _m sects4 ,(      
,jews1 five million2 ( ,mohamm$ans1 sev5
 million4    ,( ! religi\s subdivisions 
( ,am]ica an accurate num]ical /atem5t  
_c be giv54 ,! :ole ( ,*ri/ian ,s\?     
,am]ica is ,roman ,ca?olic1  ! same may 
be said ( ,c5tral ,am]ica & ( ,mexico1 z
 also ( !  ,spani% & ,fr5* ,we/ ,india  
possessions4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates &       
,canada ! ,prote/ant population         
pr$om9ates4 ,to ,au/ralia ! same  rem>k 
applies4 ,9 ,india ! sp>se ,*ri/ian     
population s9ks into  insignificance 9  
pres5ce ( two hundr$ million ,mohamm$ans
 & o!r  ,ori5tal d5om9ations4 ,! ,roman 
,ca?olic ,*ur* is ! mo/ widely  diffus$ 
& ! mo/ p[]fully organiz$ ( all mod]n   
societies4 ,x  is f> m a political ?an a
 religi\s comb9ation4 ,its pr9ciple is  
t all p[] is 9 ! cl]gy1 & t = laym5 !re 
is only !  privilege ( ob$i5ce4 ,!      
republican =ms "u :i* ! ,*ur*es  exi/$ 9
 primitive ,*ri/ianity h gradually m]g$ 
into an absolute  c5tralization1 ) a man
 z vice-,god at its head4 ,?is ,*ur*    

ass]ts t ! div9e commission "u :i* x    
acts comprises civil  gov]nm5t2 t x has 
a "r to use ! /ate = its own purposes1  
b t ! /ate has no "r to int]m$dle ) x2 t
 ev5 9  ,prote/ant c\ntries x is n m]ely
 a coord9ate gov]nm5t1 b !  sov]eign    
p[]4 ,x insi/s t ! /ate has no rights   
ov] any ?+  :i* x decl>es to be 9 its   
doma91 & t ,prote/antism1 be+  a m]e    
rebellion1 has no rights at all2 t ev5 9
 ,prote/ant  communities ! ,ca?olic     
bi%op is ! only lawful spiritual pa/or4 
,x is pla91 !re=e1 t ( pr(ess+ ,*ri/ians
 ! va/ majority  are ,ca?olic2 & su* is 
! au?oritative dem& ( ! papacy =        
supremacy1 t1 9 any survey ( ! pres5t   
religi\s condition (  ,*ri/5dom1 reg>d  
mu/ be ma9ly _h to its acts4 ,its       
movem5ts are  guid$ by ! highe/         
intellig5ce & skill4 ,ca?olicism obeys !
  ord]s ( "o man1 & has !re=e a unity1 a
 compactness1 a p[]1  :i* ,prote/ant    
d5om9ations d n possess4 ,moreov]1 x    
d]ives  ine/imable /r5g? f ! s\v5irs ( !
 great "n ( ,rome4    ,unemb>rass$ by   

any hesitat+ s5tim5t1 ! papacy has      
contemplat$  ! com+ intellectual crisis4
 ,x has pron\nc$ its decision1 &        
occupi$ :at seems to x to be ! mo/      
advantage\s gr\nd4    ,?is def9ition (  
position we f9d 9 ! acts ( ! late       
,vatican  ,c\ncil4    ,,! ,,oecum5ical  
,,c\ncil4 ,pius ,,ix41 by a bull dat$   
,june #bi1 #ahfh1  convok$ an           
,oecum5ical ,c\ncil1 to meet 9 ,rome1 on
 ,decemb] #h1 #ahfi4  ,its sessions end$
 9 ,july1 #ahgj4 ,among o!r matt]s      
submitt$ to its  consid]ation1 two /& =?
 9 conspicu\s prom95ce--!y are !        
ass]tion ( ! infallibility ( ! ,roman   
pontiff1 & ! def9ition  ( ! relations ( 
religion to sci5ce4    ,b ! convocation 
( ! ,c\ncil 0 f> f meet+ ) g5]al        
approval4    ,! views ( ! ,ori5tal      
,*ur*es 71 = ! mo/ "p1 unfavorable4  ,!y
 affirm$ t !y saw a desire 9 ! ,roman   
pontiff to set himself  up z ! head (   
,*ri/ianity1 :]eas !y recogniz$ ! ,"l   
,jesus  ,*ri/ alone z ! head ( ! ,*ur*4 
,!y believ$ t ! ,c\ncil  w\ld only lead 

to new qu>rels & sc&als4 ,! s5tim5t ( ^!
  v5]able ,*ur*es is well %[n by !      
incid5t t1 :51 9  #ahfg1 ! ,ne/orian    
,patri>* ,simeon _h be5 invit$ by !     
,*aldean  ,patri>* to return to ,roman  
,ca?olic unity1 he1 9 8 reply1 %[$  t   
!re 0 no prospect = h>moni\s action     
betwe5 ! ,ea/ &  ! ,we/3 ,y invite me to
 kiss humbly ! slipp] ( ! ,bi%op (      
,rome2 b is he n1 9 e respect1 a man l  
y\rself--is 8  dignity sup]ior to y\rs8 
,we w nev] p]mit to be introduc$ into   
our holy temples ( wor%ip images &      
/atues1 :i* are no?+ b  abom9able &     
impure idols4 ,:at6 %all we attribute to
 ,almighty ,god a  "m1 z y d>e to d8    
,away f u1 su* blasphemy6               
,,expectations ,,( ,,! ,,papacy4        
,ev5tually1 ! patri>*s1 ar*bi%ops1 &    
bi%ops1 f all regions ( ! _w1 :o took "p
 9 ?is ,c\ncil1  7 sev5 hundr$ & f\r4   
,rome _h se5 v pla9ly t ,sci5ce 0 n only
 rapidly und]m9+  ! dogmas ( ! papacy1 b
 0 ga!r+ great political p[]4 ,%e       
recogniz$ t all ov] ,europe !re 0 a     

fa/-spread+ secession  among p]sons (   
education1 & t its true focus 0 ,nor?   
,g]many4    ,%e look$1 !re=e1 ) deep    
int]e/ on ! ,prusso-,au/rian ,w>1  giv+ 
to ,au/ria :atev] enc\ragem5t %e c\ld4  
,! battle ( ,sad[a  0 a bitt]           
disappo9tm5t to h]4    ,) satisfaction  
aga9 %e look$ ^u ! break+ out ( !       
,franco-,prussian ,w>1 n d\bt+ t its    
issue w\ld be favorable to  ,france1 &  
!re=e favorable to h]4 ,"h1 aga91 %e 0  
doom$ to  disappo9tm5t at ,s$an4        
,hav+ n[ no fur!r hope1 = _m ye>s to    
come1 f ext]nal w>1  %e resolv$ to see  
:at c\ld be done by int]nal             
insurrection1 & !  pres5t movem5t 9 !   
,g]man ,empire is ! result ( h]         
ma*9ations4    ,_h ,au/ria or _h ,france
 succe$$1 ,prote/antism w\ld h be5      
ov]?r[n along ) ,prussia4    ,b1 :ile ^!
 milit>y movem5ts 7 be+ c>ri$ on1 a     
movem5t (  a diff]5t1 an intellectual   
k9d1 0 engag$ 94 ,its pr9ciple 01 to    
re/ore ! worn-out m$iaeval doctr9es &   
practices1 c>ry+ !m to  an extreme1 no  

matt] :at ! consequ5ces might be4       
,,encyclical ,,lett] ,,& ,,syllabus4 ,n 
only 0 x ass]t$ t ! papacy  has a div9e 
"r to p>ticipate 9 ! gov]nm5t ( all     
c\ntries1  coord9ately ) _! temporal    
au?orities1 b t ! supremacy (  ,rome 9  
?is matt] mu/ be recogniz$2 & t 9 any "q
 betwe5  !m ! temporal au?ority mu/     
con=m itself to h] ord]4    ,&1 s9ce !  
endang]+ ( h] position _h be5 ma9ly     
br\ght ab\t  by ! progress ( sci5ce1 %e 
presum$ to def9e its b\nd>ies1 &        
prescribe limits to its au?ority4 ,/ill 
m1 %e und]took to d5\nce  mod]n         
civilization4    ,^! measures 7         
contemplat$ soon aft] ! return ( 8      
,hol9ess  f ,gaeta 9 #ahdh1 & 7 und]tak5
 by ! advice ( ! ,jesuits1  :o1 l+]+ 9 !
 hope t ,god w\ld "w ! impossible1      
suppos$  t ! papacy1 9 its old age1     
might be re9vigorat$4 ,! organ (  !     
,curia proclaim$ ! absolute indep5d5ce (
 ! ,*ur* z reg>ds  ! /ate2 ! dep5d5ce ( 
! bi%ops on ! pope2 ( ! diocesan  cl]gy 
on ! bi%ops2 ! obligation ( !           

,prote/ants to ab&on  _! a!ism1 & return
 to ! fold2 ! absolute condemnation (   
all  k9ds ( tol]ation4 ,9 ,decemb]1     
#ahed1 9 an assembly ( bi%ops1 !  pope  
_h proclaim$ ! dogma ( ! immaculate     
conception4 ,t5 ye>s  subsequ5tly he put
 =? ! celebrat$ ,encyclical ,lett] & !  
,syllabus4    ,! ,encyclical ,lett] is  
dat$ ,decemb] #h1 #ahfd4 ,x 0 drawn up  
by  le>n$ ecclesia/ics1 & subsequ5tly   
debat$ at ! ,congregation (  ! ,holy    
,(fice1 !n =w>d$ to prelates1 & f9ally  
gone ov] by  ! pope & c>d9als4          
,,encyclical ,,lett] ,,& ,,syllabus4 ,_m
 ( ! cl]gy object$ to its  condemnation 
( mod]n civilization4 ,"s ( ! c>d9als 7 
reluctant to concur 9 x4 ,! ,ca?olic    
press accept$ x1 n1 h[ev]1  )\t misgiv+s
 & regrets4 ,! ,prote/ant gov]nm5ts put 
no  ob/acle 9 its way2 ! ,ca?olic 7     
emb>rass$ by x4 ,france all[$  !        
publication only ( t portion proclaim+ !
 jubilee2 ,au/ria  & ,italy p]mitt$ its 
introduction1 b )held _! approval4  ,!  
political press & legislatures (        

,ca?olic c\ntries gave x an  unfavorable
 reception4 ,_m deplor$ x z likely to   
wid5 ! brea*  betwe5 ! ,*ur* & mod]n    
society4 ,! ,italian press reg>d$ x z   
det]m9+ a w>1 )\t truce or armi/ice1    
betwe5 ! papacy &  mod]n civilization4  
,ev5 9 ,spa9 !re 7 j\rnals t regrett$  !
 ob/9acy & bl9dness ( ! c\rt ( ,rome1 9 
br&+ &  condemn+ mod]n civilization4    
,x d5\nces t mo/ p]nici\s & insane      
op9ion1 t lib]ty (  consci5ce & ( wor%ip
 is ! "r ( e man1 & t ?is "r  ought1 9 e
 well-gov]n$ /ate1 to be proclaim$ &    
ass]t$ by  law2 & t ! w ( ! p1 manife/$ 
by public op9ion 7z  x is call$71 or by 
o!r means1 con/itutes a supreme law1    
indep5d5t  ( all div9e & human rights4  
,x d5ies ! "r ( p>5ts to  educate _!    
*ildr5 outside ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,x     
d5\nces !  impud5ce ( ^? :o presume to  
subord9ate ! au?ority ( !  ,*ur* & ( !  
,apo/olic ,see1 conf]r$ ^u x by ,*ri/   
our ,"l1  to ! judgm5t ( ! civil        
au?ority4 ,8 ,hol9ess comm5ds1 to  !    
v5]able bro!rs to :om ! ,encyclical is  

address$1 incessant  pray]1 &1 9 ord] t 
,god may acc$e ! m easily to our &  y\r 
pray]s1 let u employ 9 all confid5ce1 z 
our m$iatrix )  him1 ! ,virg9 ,m>y1 "m (
 ,god1 :o sits z a que5 ^u !  "r h& ( h]
 only-begott5 ,son1 our ,"l ,jesus      
,*ri/1 9 a gold5  ve/m5t1 clo!d ar\nd ) 
v>i\s adornm5ts4 ,!re is no?+ %e  _c    
obta9 f him4    ,,convocation ,,( ,,!   
,,c\ncil4 ,pla9ly1 ! pr9ciple n[ av[$ by
 !  papacy mu/ br+ x into collision ev5 
) gov]nm5ts :i* _h  h]et(ore ma9ta9$    
amicable relations ) x4 ,great          
dissatisfaction  0 manife/$ by ,russia1 
& ! incid5ts t ensu$ drew =? f  8       
,hol9ess an allocution 7,novemb]1 #ahff7
 condemnatory ( ! c\rse  ( t gov]nm5t4  
,to ?is1 ,russia repli$1 by decl>+ !    
,concordat  ( #ahfg abrogat$4           
,undet]r$ by ! result ( ! battle (      
,sad[a 7,july1 #ahff71 ?\gh  x 0 pla9 t 
! political condition ( ,europe 0 n[    
pr(\ndly  affect$1 & especially !       
relations ( ! papacy1 ! pope deliv]$  an
 allocution 7,june #bg1 #ahfg71 confirm+

 ! ,encyclical & ,syllabus4  ,he ann\nc$
 8 int5tion ( convok+ an ,oecum5ical    
,c\ncil4    ,accord+ly1 z we h already  
m5tion$1 9 ! foll[+ ye> 7,june  #bi1    
#ahfh71 a bull 0 issu$ convok+ t        
,c\ncil4 ,misund]/&+s1  h[ev]1 _h n[    
sprung up ) ,au/ria4 ,! ,au/rian        
,rei*sra?  _h adopt$ laws introduc+     
equality ( civil rights = all !         
inhabitants ( ! empire1 & re/rict+ !    
influ5ce ( ! ,*ur*4  ,?is produc$ on !  
"p ( ! papal gov]nm5t an expo/ulation4  
,act+ z ,russia _h done1 ! ,au/rian     
,gov]nm5t f\nd x necess>y to  abrogate !
 ,concordat ( #ahee4    ,9 ,france1 z   
above /at$1 ! publication ( ! entire    
,syllabus 0  n p]mitt$2 b ,prussia1     
desir\s ( keep+ on good t]ms ) !        
papacy1 did n disall[ x4 ,! exact+      
disposition ( ! papacy  increas$4 ,x 0  
op5ly decl>$ t ! fai?ful mu/ n[         
sacrifice  to ! ,*ur*1 prop]ty1 life1 & 
ev5 _! intellectual convictions4  ,!    
,prote/ants & ! ,greeks 7 invit$ to t5d]
 _! submission4    ,,! ,,vatican        

,,c\ncil4 ,on ! appo9t$ day1 ! ,c\ncil  
op5$4 ,its  objects 71 to translate !   
,syllabus into practice1 to e/abli% !   
dogma ( papal infallibility1 & def9e !  
relations ( religion to  sci5ce4 ,e     
prep>ation _h be5 made t ! po9ts det]m9$
 on  %\ld be c>ri$4 ,! bi%ops 7 in=m$ t 
!y 7 com+ to  ,rome n to delib]ate1 b to
 sanction decrees previ\sly made by  an 
infallible pope4 ,no idea 0 ent]ta9$ (  
any su* ?+ z  free discussion4 ,! m9utes
 ( ! meet+s 7 n p]mitt$ to be  inspect$2
 ! prelates ( ! opposition 7 h>dly all[$
 to speak4  ,on ,janu>y #bb1 #ahgj1 a   
petition1 reque/+ t ! infallibility (  !
 pope %\ld be def9$1 0 pres5t$2 an      
opposition petition ( !  m9ority 0 (f]$4
 ,h]eupon1 ! delib]ations ( ! m9ority 7 
=bidd51 & _! publications prohibit$4 ,&1
 ?\gh ! ,curia _h  provid$ a compact    
majority1 x 0 f\nd exp$i5t to issue an  
ord]  t to c>ry any proposition x 0 n   
necess>y t ! vote %\ld  be ne>          
unanimity1 a simple majority suffic$4 ,!
 remon/rances ( !  m9ority 7 altoge!r   

unhe$$4    ,z ! ,c\ncil press$ =w>d to  
its object1 =eign au?orities  became    
al>m$ at its reckless det]m9ation4 ,a   
petition drawn up by !  ,ar*bi%op (     
,vi5na1 & sign$ by sev]al c>d9als &     
ar*bi%ops1  entreat$ 8 ,hol9ess n to    
submit ! dogma ( infallibility =        
consid]ation1 because ! ,*ur* has to    
su/a9 at pres5t a /ruggle  unkn[n 9 =m] 
times1 aga9/ m5 :o oppose religion      
itself z  an in/itution baneful to human
 nature1 & t x is inopportune  to impose
 ^u ,ca?olic nations1 l$ into temptation
 by s _m  ma*9ations1 m dogmas ?an !    
,c\ncil ( ,tr5t proclaim$4 ,x  add$ t ! 
def9ition dem&$ w\ld furni% fre% arms to
  ! enemies ( religion1 to excite aga9/ 
! ,ca?olic ,*ur* !  res5tm5t ( m5 av[$ly
 ! be/4 ,! ,au/rian prime-m9i/]         
address$ a prote/ to ! papal gov]nm5t1  
w>n+ x aga9/ any  /eps t might lead to  
encroa*m5ts on ! rights ( ,au/ria4 ,!   
,fr5* ,gov]nm5t also address$ a note1   
sugge/+ t a ,fr5* bi%op  %\ld expla9 to 
! ,c\ncil ! condition & ! rights (      

,france4 ,to  ?is ! papal gov]nm5t      
repli$ t a bi%op c\ld n reconcile !     
d\ble duties ( an ambassador & a ,fa!r (
 ! ,c\ncil4 ,h]eupon1  ! ,fr5*          
,gov]nm5t1 9 a v respectful note1 rem>k$
 t1  to prev5t ultra op9ions f becom+   
dogmas1 x reckon$ on !  mod]ation ( !   
bi%ops1 & ! prud5ce ( ! ,holy ,fa!r2 &1 
to def5d its civil & political laws     
aga9/ ! encroa*m5ts ( !  !ocracy1 x _h  
c\nt$ on public reason & ! patriotism ( 
,fr5*  ,ca?olics4 ,9 ^! remon/rances !  
,nor?-,g]man ,conf$]ation jo9$1  s]i\sly
 press+ !m on ! consid]ation ( ! papal  
gov]nm5t4    ,on ,april #bc;d1 ,von     
,arnim1 ! ,prussian embassador1 unit$ ) 
,d>u1 !  ,fr5* m9i/]1 9 sugge/+ to !    
,curia ! inexp$i5cy ( reviv+  m$iaeval  
ideas4 ,! m9ority bi%ops1 ?us enc\rag$1 
dem&$ n[  t ! relations ( ! spiritual to
 ! secul> p[] %\ld be  det]m9$ be=e !   
pope's infallibility 0 discuss$1 & t x  
%\ld be settl$ :e!r ,*ri/ _h conf]r$ on 
,/4 ,pet] & 8  successors a p[] ov] k+s 
& emp]ors4    ,,infallibility ,,( ,,!   

,,pope4 ,no reg>d 0 paid to ?is1 n ev5  
delay  0 cons5t$ to4 ,! ,jesuits1 :o 7  
at ! bottom ( ! movem5t1  c>ri$ _!      
measures ?r\gh ! pack$ assembly ) a high
 h&4 ,!  ,c\ncil omitt$ no device to    
scre5 itself f popul> criticism4 ,its   
proce$+s 7 conduct$ ) ! utmo/ secrecy2  
all :o took "p 9  !m 7 b\nd by a solemn 
oa? to obs]ve sil5ce4    ,on ,july #ac?1
 ! votes 7 tak54 ,( #fja votes1 #dea 7  
affirmative4  ,"u ! majority rule1 !    
measure 0 pron\nc$ c>ri$1 &1 five  days 
subsequ5tly1 ! pope proclaim$ ! dogma ( 
8 infallibility4  ,x has (t5 be5 rem>k$ 
t ?is 0 ! day on :i* ! ,fr5*  decl>$ w> 
aga9/ ,prussia4 ,eight days aft]w>d !   
,fr5* troops  7 )drawn f ,rome4 ,p]haps 
bo? ! /atesman & ! philosoph]  w admit t
 an infallible pope w\ld be a great     
h>moniz+ elem5t1  if only common-s5se   
c\ld ackn[l$ge him4    ,h]eupon1 ! ,k+ (
 ,italy address$ an autograph lett] to !
 pope1  sett+ =? 9 v respectful t]ms !  
necessity t 8 troops  %\ld advance &    
occupy positions indisp5sable to !      

security (  8 ,hol9ess1 & ! ma9t5ance ( 
ord]2 t1 :ile satisfy+  ! national      
aspirations1 ! *ief ( ,ca?olicity1      
surr\nd$ by !  devotion ( ! ,italian    
populations1 might pres]ve on ! banks ( 
!  ,tib] a glori\s seat1 indep5d5t ( all
 human sov]eignty4    ,to ?is 8 ,hol9ess
 repli$ 9 a brief & cau/ic lett]3 ,i    
give  ?anks to ,god1 :o has p]mitt$ y\r 
maje/y to fill ! la/ days (  my life )  
bitt]ness4 ,= ! re/1 ,i _c grant c]ta9  
reque/s1  nor con=m ) c]ta9 pr9ciples   
conta9$ 9 y\r lett]4 ,aga91 ,i  call ^u 
,god1 & into 8 h&s commit my cause1 :i* 
is 8 cause4  ,i pray ,god to grant y\r  
maje/y _m graces1 to free y f dang]s1  &
 to disp5se to y 8 m]cy :i* y s mu* ne$4
    ,,! ,,italian ,,gov]nm5t4 ,!        
,italian troops met ) b little          
resi/ance4 ,!y occupi$ ,rome on         
,septemb] #bj1 #ahgj4 ,a manife/o 0     
issu$1 sett+ =? ! details ( a           
plebiscitum1 ! vote to be by  ballot1 ! 
"q1 ! unification ( ,italy4 ,its result 
%[$ h[  completely ! popul> m9d 9 ,italy

 is emancipat$ f !ology4 ,9  ! ,roman   
prov9ces ! numb] ( votes on ! li/s 0    
#afg1edh2 !  numb] :o vot$1 #ace1bia2 ! 
numb] :o vot$ = annexation1 #acc1fha2  !
 numb] :o vot$ aga9/ x1 #a1ejg2 votes   
annull$1 #ajc4 ,!  ,p>liam5t ( ,italy   
ratifi$ ! vote ( ! ,roman p = annexation
  by a vote ( #bci to #bj4 ,a royal     
decree n[ ann\nc$ ! annexation (  !     
,papal ,/ates to ! k+dom ( ,italy1 & a  
manife/o 0 issu$  indicat+ ! details ( !
 arrangem5t4 ,x decl>$ t by ^!          
concessions ! ,italian ,gov]nm5t seeks  
to prove to ,europe t ,italy  respects !
 sov]eignty ( ! pope 9 con=mity ) !     
pr9ciple (  a free ,*ur* 9 a free /ate4 
,,affairs ,,9 ,,prussia4 ,9 !           
,prusso-,au/rian ,w> x _h be5 ! hope (  
! papacy1 to re/ore ! ,g]man ,empire "u 
,au/ria1 & make  ,g]many a ,ca?olic     
nation4 ,9 ! ,franco-,g]man ,w> ! ,fr5* 
expect$  ultramontane sympa?ies 9       
,g]many4 ,no means 7 sp>$ to excite     
,ca?olic s5tim5t aga9/ ! ,prote/ants4   
,no vilification 0 sp>$4  ,!y 7 spok5 ( 

z a!i/s2 !y 7 decl>$ incapable ( be+    
hone/ m52 _! sects 7 po9t$ out z        
indicat+ t _!  secession 0 9 a /ate (   
dissolution4 ,! foll[]s ( ,lu!r are  !  
mo/ ab&on$ m5 9 all ,europe4 ,ev5 ! pope
 himself1 presum+  t ! :ole _w _h =gott5
 all hi/ory1 did n hesitate to say1     
,let ! ,g]man p und]/& t no o!r ,*ur* b 
t ( ,rome  is ! ,*ur* ( fre$om &        
progress4    ,meantime1 among ! cl]gy ( 
,g]many a p>ty 0 organiz$ to  remon/rate
 aga9/1 & ev5 resi/1 ! papal usurpation4
 ,x prote/$  aga9/ a man be+ plac$ on ! 
?rone ( ,god1 aga9/ a vice-,god  ( any  
k9d1 nor w\ld x yield its sci5tific     
convictions to  ecclesia/ical au?ority4 
,"s did n hesitate to accuse !  pope    
himself ( be+ a h]etic4 ,aga9/ ^!       
insubord9ates  excommunications began to
 be fulm9at$1 & at l5g? x 0 dem&$  t    
c]ta9 pr(essors & tea*]s %\ld be remov$ 
f _!  (fices1 & infallibili/s sub/itut$4
 ,) ?is dem& ! ,prussian  ,gov]nm5t     
decl9$ to comply4    ,! ,prussian       
,gov]nm5t _h e>ne/ly desir$ to rema9 on 

amicable  t]ms ) ! papacy2 x _h no wi%  
to ent] on a !ological qu>rel2  b       
gradually ! conviction 0 =c$ ^u x t ! "q
 0  n a religi\s b a political "o--:e!r 
! p[] ( ! /ate  %\ld be us$ aga9/ !     
/ate4 ,a tea*] 9 a gymnasium _h be5     
excommunicat$2 ! gov]nm5t1 on be+       
requir$ to dismiss him1  refus$4 ,!     
,*ur* au?orities d5\nc$ ?is z an attack 
^u fai?4  ,! emp]or su/a9$ 8 m9i/]4 ,!  
organ ( ! infallible p>ty  ?reat5$ !    
emp]or ) ! opposition ( all good        
,ca?olics1 &  told him t1 9 a cont5tion 
) ! pope1 sy/ems ( gov]nm5t c  & mu/    
*ange4 ,x 0 n[ pla9 to e "o t ! "q _h   
become1 ,:o is to be ma/] 9 ! /ate1 !   
gov]nm5t or ! ,roman  ,*ur*8 ,x is      
pla9ly impossible = m5 to live "u two   
gov]nm5ts1  "o ( :i* decl>es to be wrong
 :at ! o!r comm&s4 ,if !  gov]nm5t w n  
submit to ! ,roman ,*ur*1 ! two are     
enemies4 ,a  conflict 0 ?us =c$ ^u      
,prussia by ,rome--a conflict 9 :i* !   
latt]1 impell$ by h] antagonism to mod]n
 civilization1 is cle>ly  ! aggressor4  

,,action ,,( ,,! ,,prussian ,,gov]nm5t4 
,! gov]nm5t1 n[ recogniz+ its           
antagoni/1 def5d$ itself by aboli%+ !   
,ca?olic dep>tm5t 9  ! m9i/ry ( ,public 
,wor%ip4 ,?is 0 ab\t midsumm]1 #ahga4 ,9
  ! foll[+ ,novemb] ! ,imp]ial ,p>liam5t
 pass$ a law t  ecclesia/ics abus+ _!   
(fice1 to ! di/urbance ( ! public       
peace1 %\ld be crim9ally puni%$4 ,&1    
guid$ by ! pr9ciple t  ! future belongs 
to him to :om ! s*ool belongs1 a movem5t
 arose  = ! purpose ( sep>at+ ! s*ools f
 ! ,*ur*4    ,,! ,,*ur* ,a ,,political  
,,p[]4 ,! ,jesuit p>ty 0 ext5d+ &       
/r5g!n+ an organization all ov] ,g]many1
 bas$ on ! pr9ciple  t /ate legislation 
9 ecclesia/ical matt]s is n b9d+4 ,"h  0
 an act ( op5 insurrection4 ,c\ld !     
gov]nm5t all[ itself to be  intimidat$8 
,! ,bi%op ( ,ermel& decl>$ t he w\ld n  
obey !  laws ( ! /ate if !y t\*$ !      
,*ur*4 ,! gov]nm5t /opp$ !  paym5t ( 8  
sal>y2 &1 p]ceiv+ t !re c\ld be no peace
  s long z ! ,jesuits 7 p]mitt$ to rema9
 9 ! c\ntry1 _!  expulsion 0 resolv$ on1

 & c>ri$ into effect4 ,at ! close (     
#ahgb 8 ,hol9ess deliv]$ an allocution1 
9 :i* he t\*$ on !  p]secution ( ! ,*ur*
 9 ! ,g]man ,empire1 & ass]t$ t !  ,*ur*
 alone has a "r to fix ! limits betwe5  
its doma9 & t  ( ! /ate--a dang]\s &    
inadmissible pr9ciple1 s9ce "u !  t]m   
morals ! ,*ur* comprises all ! relations
 ( m5 to ea* o!r1  & ass]ts t :atev]    
does n assi/ h] oppresses h]4 ,h]eupon1 
a  few days subsequ5tly 7,janu>y #i1    
#ahgc71 f\r laws 7 br\ght =w>d  by !    
gov]nm5t3 #a4 ,regulat+ ! means by :i* a
 p]son might  sev] 8 connection ) !     
,*ur*2 #b4 ,re/rict+ ! ,*ur* 9 !        
ex]cise ( ecclesia/ical puni%m5ts2 #c4  
,regulat+ ! ecclesia/ical  p[] (        
discipl9e1 =bidd+ bodily *a/isem5t1     
regulat+ f9es  & bani%m5ts grant+ !     
privilege ( an appeal to ! ,royal ,c\rt 
( ,ju/ice = ,ecclesia/ical ,affairs1 !  
decision ( :i* is f9al2  #d4 ,orda9+ !  
prelim9>y education & appo9tm5t (       
prie/s4 ,!y  mu/ h _h a satisfactory    
education1 pass$ a public exam9ation    

conduct$ by ! /ate1 & h a k (           
philosophy1 hi/ory1  & ,g]man lit]ature4
 ,in/itutions refus+ to be sup]9t5d$ by 
!  /ate are to be clos$4    ,^! laws    
demon/rate t ,g]many is resolv$ t %e w  
no long]  be dictat$ to nor emb>rass$ by
 a few ,italian noble families2 t %e  w 
be ma/] ( h] own h\se4 ,%e sees 9 !     
conflict1 n an affair  ( religion or (  
consci5ce1 b a /ruggle betwe5 !         
sov]eignty  ( /ate legislation & !      
sov]eignty ( ! ,*ur*4 ,%e treats !      
papacy n 9 ! aspect ( a religi\s1 b ( a 
political p[]1 &  is resolv$ t !        
decl>ation ( ! ,prussian ,con/itution   
%all be  ma9ta9$1 t ! ex]cise ( religi\s
 fre$om mu/ n int]f]e  ) ! duties ( a   
citiz5 t[>d ! community & ! /ate4       
,,dual ,,gov]nm5t ,,9 ,,europe4 ,) tru? 
x is affirm$ t ! papacy is  adm9i/]$ n  
oecum5ically1 n z a univ]sal ,*ur*1 =   
all  ! nations1 b = ! b5efit ( "s       
,italian families4 ,look at its         
composition6 ,x consi/s ( pope1 c>d9al  
bi%ops1 c>d9al deacons1  :o at ! pres5t 

mom5t are all ,italians2 c>d9al prie/s1 
ne>ly all  ,italians2 m9i/]s &          
secret>ies ( ! ,sacr$ ,congregation 9   
,rome1  all ,italians4 ,france has n    
giv5 a pope s9ce ! middle ages4 ,x  is !
 same ) ,au/ria1 ,portugal1 ,spa94 ,9   
spite ( all attempts to  *ange ?is sy/em
 ( exclusion1 to op5 ! dignities ( !    
,*ur* to  all ,ca?olicism1 no =eign] c  
rea* ! holy *air4 ,x is recogniz$  t !  
,*ur* is a doma9 giv5 by ,god to !      
pr9cely ,italian  families4 ,(          
fifty-five memb]s ( ! pres5t ,college ( 
,c>d9als1  =ty are ,italians--t is1     
?irty-two beyond _! prop] %>e4    ,!    
/umbl+-block to ! progress ( ,europe has
 be5 its dual sy/em  ( gov]nm5t4 ,s long
 z e nation _h two sov]eigns1 a temporal
  "o at home & a spiritual "o 9 a =eign 
l&--!re be+ diff]5t  temporal ma/]s 9   
diff]5t nations1 b only "o =eign ma/]  =
 all1 ! pontiff at ,rome--h[ 0 x        
possible t hi/ory %\ld  pres5t u ) any  
?+ m ?an a n>rative ( ! /rifes ( ^!     
rival p[]s8 ,:oev] w reflect on ?is /ate

 ( ?+s w see  h[ x is t ^? nations :i* h
 %ak5 (f ! dual =m (  gov]nm5t are ^?   
:i* h made ! greate/ advance4 ,he w     
disc]n :at is ! cause ( ! p>alysis :i*  
has befall5 ,france4 ,on  "o h& %e wi%es
 to be ! lead] ( ,europe1 on ! o!r %e   
cl+s  to a dead pa/4 ,= ! sake (        
propitiat+ h] ignorant classes1 %e      
ent]s ^u l9es ( policy :i* h]           
intellig5ce mu/ condemn4 ,s  ev5ly      
balanc$ are ! two sov]eignties "u :i* %e
 lives1 t  sometimes "o1 sometimes !    
o!r1 prevails2 & n unfrequ5tly !  "o    
uses ! o!r z an eng9e = ! accompli%m5t (
 its ends4    ,,int5tions ,,( ,,!       
,,pope4 ,b ?is dual sy/em approa*es its 
close4 ,to  ! nor!rn nations1 less      
imag9ative & less sup]/iti\s1 x _h  long
 ago become intol]able2 !y reject$ x    
summ>ily at ! epo* (  ! ,re=mation1     
not)/&+ ! prote/ations & pret5sions  (  
,rome1 ,russia1 happi] ?an ! re/1 has   
nev] ackn[l$g$ !  influ5ce ( any =eign  
spiritual p[]4 ,%e glori$ 9 h] atta*m5t 
to ! anci5t ,greek rite1 & saw 9 !      

papacy no?+ m ?an a  tr\blesome diss5t] 
f ! primitive fai?4 ,9 ,am]ica !        
temporal  & ! spiritual h be5 absolutely
 divorc$--! latt] is n  p]mitt$ to h any
 ?+ to d ) affairs ( /ate1 ?\gh 9 all   
o!r respects lib]ty is conc$$ to x4 ,!  
condition ( ! ,new  ,_w also satisfies u
 t bo? =ms ( ,*ri/ianity1 ,ca?olic &    
,prote/ant1 h lo/ _! expansive p[]2     
nei!r c pass beyond its  long-e/abli%$  
b\nd>y-l9e--! ,ca?olic republics rema9  
,ca?olic1  ! ,prote/ant ,prote/ant4 ,&  
among ! latt] ! disposition to  sect>ian
 isolation is disappe>+2 p]sons (       
diff]5t d5om9ations  consort )\t        
hesitation toge!r4 ,!y ga!r _! curr5t   
op9ions  f newspap]s1 n f ! ,*ur*4      
,pius ,,ix41 9 ! movem5ts we h be5      
consid]+1 has _h two objects  9 view3   
#a4 ,! m ?or\gh c5tralization ( !       
papacy1 ) a  spiritual autocrat assum+ !
 pr]ogatives ( ,god at its head2 #b4    
,control ov] ! intellectual developm5t (
 ! nations pr(ess+  ,*ri/ianity4    ,!  
logical consequ5ce ( ! =m] ( ^! is      

political  int]v5tion4 ,he insi/s t 9   
all cases ! temporal mu/ subord9ate     
itself to ! spiritual p[]2 all laws     
inconsi/5t ) ! int]e/s  ( ! ,*ur* mu/ be
 repeal$4 ,!y are n b9d+ on ! fai?ful4  
,9 ! prec$+ pages ,i h briefly relat$ "s
 ( ! complications  t h already occurr$ 
9 ! attempt to ma9ta9 ?is policy4    ,,!
 ,,syllabus4 ,i n[ come to !            
consid]ation ( ! mann] 9 :i* !  papacy  
proposes to e/abli% its intellectual    
control2 h[ x def9es  its relation to   
its antagoni/1 ,sci5ce1 &1 seek+ a      
re/oration  ( ! m$iaeval condition1     
opposes mod]n civilization1 & d5\nces   
mod]n society4    ,! ,encyclical &      
,syllabus pres5t ! pr9ciples :i* x 0 !  
object ( ! ,vatican ,c\ncil to c>ry into
 practical effect4 ,!  ,syllabus        
/igmatizes pan!ism1 naturalism1 &       
absolute rationalism1  d5\nc+ su*       
op9ions z t ,god is ! _w2 t !re is no   
,god  o!r ?an ,nature2 t !ological      
matt]s mu/ be treat$ 9 ! same  mann] z  
philosophical ones1 t ! me?ods &        

pr9ciples by :i*  ! old s*ola/ic doctors
 cultivat$ !ology are no long] suitable 
to ! dem&s ( ! age & ! progress (       
sci5ce2 t e man  is free to embrace &   
pr(ess ! religion he may believe to be  
true1  guid$ by ! light ( 8 reason2 t x 
app]ta9s to ! civil  p[] to def9e :at   
are ! rights & limits 9 :i* ! ,*ur*  may
 ex]cise au?ority2 t ! ,*ur* has n ! "r 
( avail+  h]self ( =ce or any direct or 
indirect temporal p[]2 t !  ,*ur* ought 
to be sep>at$ f ! /ate & ! /ate f !     
,*ur*2 t x is no long] exp$i5t t !      
,ca?olic religion %all  be held z ! only
 religion ( ! /ate1 to ! exclusion ( all
 o!r  modes ( wor%ip2 t p]sons com+ to  
reside 9 ,ca?olic c\ntries  h a "r to ! 
public ex]cise ( _! own wor%ip2 t !     
,roman pontiff c & ought to reconcile   
himself to1 & agree )1 !  progress (    
mod]n civilization4 ,! ,syllabus claims 
! "r ( !  ,*ur* to control public       
s*ools1 & d5ies ! "r ( ! /ate 9  t      
respect2 x claims ! control ov] m>riage 
& divorce4    ,su* ( ^! pr9ciples z !   

,c\ncil f\nd exp$i5t at pres5t to       
=mul>ize1 7 set =? by x 9 ,! ,dogmatic  
,con/itution (  ! ,ca?olic ,fai?4 ,!    
ess5tial po9ts ( ?is con/itution1 m     
especially z reg>ds ! relations (       
religion to sci5ce1 we h n[  to exam9e4 
,x w be und]/ood t ! foll[+ does n      
pres5t  ! entire docum5t1 b only an     
ab/ract ( :at appe> to be its m         
important p>ts4    ,,con/itution ,,(    
,,ca?olic ,,fai?4 ,?is def9ition op5s ) 
a sev]e  review ( ! pr9ciples &         
consequ5ces ( ! ,prote/ant ,re=mation3  
,! rejection ( ! div9e au?ority ( !     
,*ur* to tea*1 & !  subjection ( all ?+s
 belong+ to religion to ! judgm5t ( ea* 
individual1 h l$ to ! production ( _m   
sects1 &1 z ^!  diff]$ & disput$ ) ea*  
o!r1 all belief 9 ,*ri/ 0  ov]?r[n 9 !  
m9ds ( n a few1 & ! ,holy ,scriptures   
began to  be c\nt$ z my?s & fables4     
,*ri/ianity has be5 reject$1 &  ! reign 
( m]e ,reason z !y call x1 or ,nature1  
sub/itut$2 _m  fall+ into ! abyss (     
pan!ism1 mat]ialism1 & a!ism1 &1        

repudiat+ ! reason+ nature ( man1 & e   
rule ( "r &  wrong1 !y are labor+ to    
ov]?r[ ! v f\ndations ( human  society4 
,z ?is impi\s h]esy is spread+ ev]y:]e1 
n a few  ,ca?olics h be5 inveigl$ by x4 
,!y h conf\nd$ human sci5ce  & div9e    
fai?4    ,b ! ,*ur*1 ! ,"m & ,mi/ress ( 
nations1 is ev] ready to  /r5g!n ! weak1
 to take to h] bosom ^? t return1 & c>ry
  !m on to bett] ?+s4 ,&1 n[ ! bi%ops ( 
! :ole _w  be+ ga!r$ toge!r 9 ?is       
,oecum5ical ,c\ncil1 & ! ,holy ,gho/    
sitt+ !re91 & judg+ ) u1 we h det]m9$ to
 decl>e f  ?is *air ( ,/4 ,pet] ! sav+  
doctr9e ( ,*ri/1 & proscribe &  condemn 
! oppos+ errors4    ,,( ,,god1 ,,!      
,,creator ,,( ,,all ,,?+s4--,! ,holy    
,ca?olic ,apo/olic ,roman  ,*ur*        
believes t !re is "o true & liv+ ,god1  
,creator &  ,"l ( ,heav5 & ,e>?1        
,almighty1 ,et]nal1 ,imm5se1            
,incompreh5sible1  ,inf9ite 9 und]/&+ & 
w1 & 9 all p]fection4 ,he is  di/9ct f !
 _w4 ,( 8 own mo/ free c\nsel he made   
alike out  ( no?+ two creat$ creatures1 

a spiritual & a temporal1 angelic  &    
e>?ly4 ,aft]w>d he made ! human nature1 
compos$ ( bo?4  ,moreov]1 ,god by 8     
provid5ce protects & gov]ns all ?+s1    
rea*+ f end to end mightily1 & ord]+ all
 ?+s h>moni\sly4  ,e ?+ is op5 to 8     
eyes1 ev5 ?+s t come to pass by !  free 
action ( 8 creatures4    ,,(            
,,revelation4--,! ,holy ,"m ,*ur* holds 
t ,god c be kn[n )  c]ta9ty by ! natural
 light ( human reason1 b t x has also   
pleas$ him to reveal himself & ! et]nal 
decrees ( 8 w 9 a  sup]natural way4 ,?is
 sup]natural revelation1 z decl>$ by !  
,holy ,c\ncil ( ,tr5t1 is conta9$ 9 !   
books ( ! ,old & ,new  ,te/am5t1 z      
enum]at$ 9 ! decrees ( t ,c\ncil1 & z   
are to  be _h 9 ! old ,vulgate ,lat9    
edition4 ,^! are sacr$ because !y  7    
writt5 "u ! inspiration ( ! ,holy ,gho/4
 ,!y h ,god =  _! au?or1 & z su* h be5  
deliv]$ to ! ,*ur*4    ,&1 9 ord] to    
re/ra9 re/less spirits1 :o may give     
errone\s  explanations1 x is            
decre$--r5ew+ ! decision ( ! ,c\ncil (  

,tr5t--t no "o may int]pret ! sacr$     
,scriptures contr>y to !  s5se 9 :i* !y 
are int]pret$ by ,holy ,"m ,*ur*1 to :om
 su*  int]pretation belongs4    ,,(     
,,fai?4--,inasmu* z man dep5ds on ,god z
 8 ,"l1 & creat$  reason is :olly       
subject to uncreat$ tru?1 he is b\nd :5 
,god makes  a revelation to obey x by   
fai?4 ,?is fai? is a sup]natural virtue1
  & ! beg9n+ ( man's salvation :o       
believes reveal$ ?+s to  be true1 n = _!
 intr9sic tru? z se5 by ! natural light 
( reason1 b = ! au?ority ( ,god 9       
reveal+ !m4 ,b1  nev]!less t fai? might 
be agreeable to reason1 ,god will$ to   
jo9 miracles & prophecies1 :i*1 %[+ =? 8
 omnipot5ce &  k1 are pro(s suit$ to !  
und]/&+ ( all4 ,su* we h  9 ,moses & !  
prophets1 & above all 9 ,*ri/4 ,n[1 all 
^?  ?+s are to be believ$ :i* are writt5
 9 ! ^w ( ,god1 or  h&$ d[n by          
tradition1 :i* ! ,*ur* by h] tea*+ has  
propos$  = belief4    ,no "o c be       
ju/ifi$ )\t ?is fai?1 nor %all any "o1  
unless  he p]sev]e !re9 to ! end1 atta9 

ev]la/+ life4 ,h5ce ,god1  ?r\gh 8      
only-begott5 ,son1 has e/abli%$ ! ,*ur* 
z !  gu>dian & tea*] ( 8 reveal$ ^w4 ,= 
only to ! ,ca?olic  ,*ur* d all ^? signs
 belong :i* make evid5t ! cr$ibility (  
! ,*ri/ian fai?4 ,nay1 m1 ! v ,*ur*     
h]self1 9 view (  h] wond]ful           
propagation1 h] em95t hol9ess1 h]       
exhau/less  fruitfulness 9 all t is     
good1 h] ,ca?olic unity1 h] un%ak5      
/ability1 (f]s a great & evid5t claim to
 belief1 & an und5iable  pro( ( h] div9e
 mission4 ,?us ! ,*ur* %[s to h] *ildr5 
t  ! fai? !y hold re/s on a mo/ solid   
f\ndation4 ,:]e=e1 totally  unlike is ! 
condition ( ^? :o1 by ! heav5ly gift (  
fai?1  h embrac$ ! ,ca?olic tru?1 & ( ^?
 :o1 l$ by human  op9ions1 are foll[+1 a
 false religion4    ,,( ,,fai? ,,&      
,,reason4--,moreov]1 ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*   
has ev] held &  n[ holds t !re exi/s a  
tw(old ord] ( k1 ea* ( :i*  is di/9ct f 
! o!r1 bo? z to its pr9ciple & its      
object4 ,z  to its pr9ciple1 because 9 !
 "o we "k by natural reason1 9 !  o!r by

 div9e fai?2 z to ! object1 because1    
besides ^? ?+s  :i* our natural reason c
 atta91 !re are propos$ to our belief   
my/]ies hidd5 9 ,god1 :i*1 unless by him
 reveal$1 _c come to  our k4    ,reason1
 inde$1 enlight5$ by fai?1 & seek+1 )   
dilig5ce &  godly sobriety1 may1 by     
,god's gift1 come to "s und]/&+1 limit$ 
9 degree1 b mo/ :olesome 9 its effects1 
( my/]ies1 bo? f  ! analogy ( ?+s :i*   
are naturally kn[n & f ! connection  ( !
 my/]ies !mselves ) "o ano!r & ) man's  
la/ end4  ,b nev] c reason be r5d]$     
capable ( ?or\ghly und]/&+  my/]ies z x 
does ^? tru?s :i* =m its prop] object4  
,=  ,god's my/]ies1 9 _! v nature1 s f> 
surpass ! rea* (  creat$ intellect1 t1  
ev5 :5 taught by revelation & receiv$ by
  fai?1 !y rema9 cov]$ by fai? itself1 z
 by a veil1 & %r\d$1  z x 71 9 d>kness z
 long z 9 ?is mortal life4    ,b1 al?\gh
 fai? be above reason1 !re nev] c be a  
real  disagreem5t betwe5 !m1 s9ce ! same
 ,god :o reveals my/]ies &  infuses fai?
 has giv5 man's s\l ! light ( reason1 & 

,god _c  d5y himself1 nor c "o tru? ev] 
contradict ano!r4 ,:]e=e !  empty %ad[ (
 su* contradiction arises *iefly f ?is1 
t ei!r  ! doctr9es ( fai? are n und]/ood
 & set =? z ! ,*ur*  really holds !m1 or
 t ! va9 devices & op9ions ( m5 are     
mi/ak5 = ! dictates ( reason4 ,we !re=e 
pron\nce false e  ass]tion :i* is       
contr>y to ! enlight5$ tru? ( fai?4     
,moreov]1  ! ,*ur*1 :i*1 toge!r ) h]    
apo/olic (fice ( tea*+1  is *>g$ also ) 
! gu>dian%ip ( ! deposits ( fai?1 holds 
likewise f ,god ! "r & ! duty to condemn
 'k1 falsely  s call$1' 'le/ any man be 
*eat$ by philosophy & va9 deceit4'      
,h5ce all ! ,*ri/ian fai?ful are n only 
=bidd5 to def5d1 z  legitimate          
conclusions ( sci5ce1 ^? op9ions :i* are
 kn[n to  be contr>y to ! doctr9e (     
fai?1 especially :5 condemn$ by !       
,*ur*1 b are r absolutely b\nd to hold  
!m = errors we>+  ! deceitful appe>ance 
( tru?4    ,,! ,,vatican ,,ana!mas4 ,n  
only is x impossible = fai? & reason    
ev] to contradict ea* o!r1 b !y r af=d  

ea* o!r mutual  assi/ance4 ,= "r reason 
e/abli%es ! f\ndation ( fai?1 &1  by !  
aid ( its light1 cultivates ! sci5ce (  
div9e ?+s2 &  fai?1 on ! o!r h&1 frees &
 pres]ves reason f errors1 &  enri*es x 
) k ( _m k9ds4 ,s f>1 !n1 is ! ,*ur*  f 
oppos+ ! culture ( human arts & sci5ces1
 t %e r  aids & promotes x 9 _m ways4 ,=
 %e is n ignorant ( nor does  %e despise
 ! advantages :i* fl[ f !m to ! life (  
man2 on  ! contr>y1 %e ackn[l$ges t1 z  
!y sprang f ,god1 ! ,"l  ( k1 s1 if !y  
be rightly pursu$1 !y w1 ?r\gh ! aid  ( 
8 grace1 lead to ,god4 ,nor does %e =bid
 any ( ^? sci5ces  ! use ( its own      
pr9ciples & its own me?od )9 its own    
prop]  sph]e2 b1 recogniz+ ?is          
reasonable fre$om1 %e takes c>e t  !y   
may n1 by contradict+ ,god's tea*+1 fall
 into errors1 or1  ov]/epp+ ! due       
limits1 invade or ?r[ into confusion !  
doma9  ( fai?4    ,= ! doctr9e ( fai?   
reveal$ by ,god has n be5 propos$1 l  "s
 philosophical discov]y1 to be made     
p]fect by human +5uity1 b  x has be5    

deliv]$ to ! sp\se ( ,*ri/ z a div9e    
deposit1 to be  fai?fully gu>d$ &       
un]r+ly set =?4 ,h5ce1 all t5ets ( holy 
fai? are to be expla9$ always accord+ to
 ! s5se & mean+ (  ! ,*ur*2 nor is x ev]
 lawful to dep>t !refrom "u pret5se or  
color ( a m enlight5$ explanation4      
,!re=e1 z g5]ations &  c5turies roll on1
 let ! und]/&+1 k1 & wisdom ( ea*  & e  
"o1 ( individuals & ( ! :ole ,*ur*1 gr[ 
apace &  increase exce$+ly1 yet only 9  
its k9d2 t is to say reta9+  pure &     
inviolate ! s5se & mean+ & belief ( !   
same  doctr9e4    ,among o!r canons !   
foll[+ 7 promulgat$4    ,let him be     
ana!ma--    ,:o d5ies ! "o true ,god1   
,creator & ,"l ( all ?+s1 visible  &    
invisible4    ,:o unblu%+ly affirms t1  
besides matt]1 no?+ else exi/s4    ,:o  
says t ! sub/ance or ess5ce ( ,god1 & ( 
all ?+s1 is  "o & ! same4    ,:o says t 
f9ite ?+s1 bo? corporeal & spiritual1 or
 at lea/  spiritual ?+s1 are emanations 
( ! div9e sub/ance2 or t !  div9e       
ess5ce1 by manife/ation or developm5t ( 

itself1 becomes all  ?+s4    ,:o does n 
ackn[l$ge t ! _w & all ?+s :i* x        
conta9s 7 produc$ by ,god out ( no?+4   
,:o %all say t man c & ought to1 ( 8 own
 ef=ts1 by means  (1 con/ant progress1  
arrive1 at la/1 at ! possession ( all   
tru?  & goodness4    ,:o %all refuse to 
receive1 = sacr$ & canonical1 ! books ( 
,holy ,scripture 9 _! integrity1 ) all  
_! p>ts1 accord+ z  !y 7 enum]at$ by !  
holy ,c\ncil ( ,tr5t1 or %all d5y t  !y 
are ,inspir$ by ,god4    ,:o %all say t 
human reason is 9 su* wise indep5d5t1 t 
fai?  _c be dem&$ ( x by ,god4    ,:o   
%all say t div9e revelation _c be r5d]$ 
cr$ible by  ext]nal evid5ces4    ,:o    
%all say t no miracles c be wr\ght1 or t
 !y c nev]  be kn[n ) c]ta9ty1 & t !    
div9e orig9 ( ,*ri/ianity  _c be prov$  
by !m4    ,:o %all say t div9e          
revelation includes no my/]ies1 b t  all
 ! dogmas ( fai? may be und]/ood &      
demon/rat$ by reason  duly cultivat$4   
,:o %all say t human sci5ces ought to be
 pursu$ 9 su* a _s  ( fre$om t "o may be

 all[$ to hold z true _! ass]tions1  ev5
 :5 oppos$ to reveal$ doctr9e4    ,:o   
%all say t x may at any "t come to pass1
 9 ! progress  ( sci5ce1 t ! doctr9es   
set =? by ! ,*ur* mu/ be tak5 9  ano!r  
s5se ?an t 9 :i* ! ,*ur* has ev] receiv$
 & yet  receives !m4    ,,!             
,,evangelical ,,alliance4 ,! extraord9>y
 &1 inde$1 x may be said1  arrogant     
assumptions conta9$ 9 ^! decisions 7 f> 
f be+  receiv$ ) satisfaction by educat$
 ,ca?olics4 ,on ! "p ( !  ,g]man        
univ]sities !re 0 resi/ance2 &1 :51 at !
 close ( !  ye>1 ! decrees ( ! ,vatican 
,c\ncil 7 g5]ally acquiesc$ 91  x 0 n   
?r\gh conviction ( _! tru?1 b ?r\gh a   
discipl9>y  s5se ( ob$i5ce4    ,by _m ( 
! mo/ pi\s ,ca?olics ! entire movem5t & 
! results  to :i* x _h l$ 7 look$ ^u ) !
 s9c]e/ sorr[4 ,p]e  ,hyac9!1 9 a lett] 
to ! sup]ior ( 8 ord]1 says3 ,i prote/  
aga9/ ! divorce1 z impi\s z x is        
ins5sate1 s\ght to be  effect$ betwe5 ! 
,*ur*1 :i* is our et]nal "m1 & !        
society ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ( :i* we are

 ! temporal  *ildr51 & t[>d :i* we h    
also duties & reg>ds4 ,x is my  mo/     
pr(\nd conviction t1 if ,france 9       
p>ticul>1 & ! ,lat9  race 9 g5]al1 are  
giv5 up to social1 moral1 & religi\s    
an>*y1  ! pr9cipal cause und\bt$ly is n 
,ca?olicism itself1 b !  mann] 9 :i*    
,ca?olicism has = a long "t be5 und]/ood
 &  practis$4    ,not)/&+ 8             
infallibility1 :i* implies omnisci5ce1 8
  ,hol9ess did n =esee ! issue ( !      
,franco-,prussian ,w>4 ,_h !            
prophetical tal5t be5 v\*saf$ to him1 he
 w\ld h detect$ !  inopportun5ess ( !   
acts ( 8 ,c\ncil4 ,8 reque/ to ! ,k+ (  
,prussia = milit>y aid to support 8     
temporal p[] 0 d5i$4 ,!  excommunicat$  
,k+ ( ,italy1 z we h se51 took          
possession ( ,rome4  ,a bitt] papal     
encyclical1 /rangely contra/+ ) !       
c\rte\s  polit5ess ( mod]n /ate-pap]s1 0
 issu$1 ,novemb] #a1 #ahgj1  d5\nc+ !   
acts ( ! ,pi$montese c\rt1 :i* _h foll[$
 !  c\nsel ( ! sects ( p]dition4 ,9 ?is 
8 ,hol9ess decl>es t  he is 9 captivity1

 & t he w h no agreem5t ) ,belial4 ,he  
pron\nces ! great] excommunication1 )   
c5sures & p5alties1  aga9/ 8 antagoni/s1
 & prays = ! int]cession ( !  immaculate
 ,virg9 ,m>y1 "m ( ,god1 & t ( ! bless$ 
apo/les  ,pet] & ,paul4    ,( ! v>i\s   
,prote/ant d5om9ations1 sev]al _h       
associat$  !mselves1 = ! purposes (     
consultation1 "u ! designation (  !     
,evangelical ,alliance4 ,_! la/ meet+ 0 
held 9 ,new ,york1 9  ! autumn ( #ahgc4 
,?\gh1 9 ?is meet+1 7 ga!r$ toge!r _m   
pi\s repres5tatives ( ! ,re=m$ ,*ur*es1 
,european & ,am]ican1  x _h n ! pre/ige 
nor ! au?ority ( ! ,great ,c\ncil t _h  
j previ\sly clos$ its sessions 9 ,/4    
,pet]s1 at ,rome4 ,x c\ld  n appeal to  
an unbrok5 ance/ry ( f> m ?an a ?\s&    
ye>s2  x c\ld n speak ) ! au?ority ( an 
equal &1 inde$1 (  a sup]ior to emp]ors 
& k+s4 ,:ile pr(\nd intellig5ce & a     
/atesmanlike1 worldly wisdom gleam$ 9 e 
?+ t ! ,vatican  ,c\ncil _h done1 !     
,evangelical ,alliance met )\t a cle> & 
precise view ( its objects1 )\t any     

def9itely-m>k$ int5tions4  ,its wi% 0 to
 draw into clos] union ! v>i\s          
,prote/ant ,*ur*es1  b x _h no          
well-gr\nd$ hope ( accompli%+ t         
desirable result4  ,x illu/rat$ !       
necess>y work+1 ( ! pr9ciple on :i*  ^? 
,*ur*es orig9at$4 ,!y 7 f\nd$ on diss5t 
& exi/ by  sep>ation4    ,yet 9 ! action
 ( ! ,evangelical ,alliance may be      
disc]n$  c]ta9 v impressive facts4 ,x   
av]t$ its eyes f its anci5t             
antagoni/--t antagoni/ :i* _h s rec5tly 
load$ ! ,re=mation  ) contumely &       
d5unciation--x fa/5$ !m1 z ! ,vatican   
,c\ncil _h done1 on ,sci5ce4 ,"u t      
dread$ "n !re /ood be=e  x :at seem$ to 
be a spectre ( unc]ta9 =m1 (            
h\rly-dilat+  proportions1 ( ?reat5+    
aspect4 ,sometimes ! ,alliance address$ 
?is /up5d\s app>ition 9 words ( c\rtesy1
 sometimes 9 tones (  d5unciation4      
,,! ,,vatican ,,con/itution ,,criticis$4
 ,! ,alliance fail$ to p]ceive  t mod]n 
,sci5ce is ! legitimate si/]--inde$1 x  
is !  tw9-si/]--( ! ,re=mation4 ,!y 7   

begott5 toge!r &  7 born toge!r4 ,x     
fail$ to p]ceive t1 ?\gh !re is an      
impossibility ( br++ into coalition ! _m
 conflict+ sects1  !y may all f9d 9     
sci5ce a po9t ( connection2 & t1 n a    
di/ru/ful attitude t[>d x1 b a cordial  
union ) x1 is _!  true policy4    ,x    
rema9s n[ to (f] "s reflections on ?is  
,con/itution ( !  ,ca?olic ,fai?1 z     
def9$ by ! ,vatican ,c\ncil4    ,=      
objects to pres5t !mselves "u id5tical  
relations to diff]5t  p]sons1 !y mu/ be 
se5 f ! same po9t ( view4 ,9 ! in/ance  
we are n[ consid]+1 ! religi\s man has 8
 own especial /ation2  ! sci5tific man  
ano!r1 a v diff]5t "o4 ,x is n = ei!r   
to dem& t 8 co-obs]v] %all admit t !    
panorama ( facts  spread be=e !m is     
actually su* z x appe>s to him to be4   
,! ,dogmatic ,con/itution insi/s on !   
admission ( ?is po/ulate1  t ! ,roman   
,*ur* acts "u a div9e commission1       
specially &  exclusively deliv]$ to x4  
,9 virtue ( t great au?ority1 x         
requires ( all m5 ! surr5d] ( _!        

intellectual convictions1 &  ( all      
nations ! subord9ation ( _! civil p[]4  
,b a claim s impos+ mu/ be sub/antiat$  
by ! mo/ decisive &  unimpea*able       
cr$5tials2 pro(s1 n only ( an impli$ &  
indirect  k9d1 b cle>1 emphatic1 & to ! 
po9t2 pro(s t x w\ld be  impossible to  
call 9 "q4    ,! ,*ur*1 h[ev]1 decl>es1 
t %e w n submit h] claim to  !          
arbitram5t ( human reason2 %e dem&s t x 
%all be at once  conc$$ z an article (  
fai?4    ,if ?is be admitt$1 all b>     
requirem5ts mu/ necess>ily be ass5t$    
to1 no matt] h[ exorbitant !y may be4   
,) /range inconsi/5cy ! ,dogmatic       
,con/itution deprecates reason1  affirm+
 t x _c det]m9e ! po9ts "u consid]ation1
 &  yet submits to x argum5ts =         
adjudication4 ,9 tru?1 x might be said  
t ! :ole composition is a passionate    
plea to ,reason to /ultify  itself 9    
favor ( ,roman ,*ri/ianity4    ,) po9ts 
( view s widely asund]1 x is impossible 
t ,religion  & ,sci5ce %\ld accord 9 _! 
repres5tation ( ?+s4 ,nor c  any        

conclusion 9 common be rea*$1 except by 
an appeal to ,reason z a  supreme & f9al
 judge4    ,!re are _m religions 9 ! _w1
 "s ( !m ( m v5]able  antiquity1 "s hav+
 f> m num]\s adh]5ts1 ?an ! ,roman4 ,h[ 
c a selection be made among !m1 except  
by su* an appeal to ,reason8  ,religion 
& ,sci5ce mu/ bo? submit _! claims & _! 
diss5sions  to its arbitram5t4    ,aga9/
 ?is ! ,vatican ,c\ncil prote/s4 ,x     
exalts fai? to a  sup]iority ov] reason2
 x says t !y con/itute two sep>ate      
ord]s ( k1 hav+ respectively = _!       
objects my/]ies  & facts4 ,fai? deals ) 
my/]ies1 reason ) facts4 ,ass]t+ !      
dom9at+ sup]iority ( fai?1 x tries to   
satisfy ! reluctant m9d  ) miracles &   
prophecies4    ,on ! o!r h&1 ,sci5ce    
turns away f ! incompreh5sible1 &  re/s 
h]self on ! maxim ( ,wiclif3 ,god =ce? n
 a man to believe  t :i* he _c und]/&4  
,9 ! abs5ce ( an exhibition (           
satisfactory cr$5tials on ! "p ( h]     
oppon5t1 %e consid]s  :e!r !re be 9 !   
hi/ory ( ! papacy1 & 9 ! biography (  ! 

popes1 any ?+ t c adequately su/a9 a    
div9e commission1  any ?+ t c ju/ify    
pontifical infallibility1 or extort t   
unhesitat+ ob$i5ce :i* is due to !      
vice-,god4    ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ & yet   
contradictory features ( ! ,dogmatic    
,con/itution is1 ! reluctant homage x   
pays to ! intellig5ce (  man4 ,x pres5ts
 a def9ition ( ! philosophical basis (  
,ca?olicism1  b x veils f view !        
repulsive features ( ! vulg> fai?4 ,x   
sets =? ! attributes ( ,god1 ! ,creator 
( all ?+s1 9 words  fitly designat+ its 
sublime conception1 b x ab/a9s f affirm+
  t ?is mo/ awful & et]nal ,be+ 0 born (
 an e>?ly "m1  ! wife ( a ,jewi% c>p5t]1
 :o has s9ce become ! que5 (  heav54 ,! 
,god x depicts is n ! ,god ( ! middle   
ages1 seat$  on 8 gold5 ?rone1 surr\nd$ 
by *oirs ( angels1 b ! ,god (           
,philosophy4 ,! ,con/itution has no?+ to
 say ab\t ! ,tr9ity1  no?+ ( ! wor%ip   
due to ! ,virg9--on ! contr>y1 t is by  
implication /]nly condemn$2 no?+ ab\t   
transub/antiation1 or  ! mak+ ( ! fle% &

 blood ( ,god by ! prie/2 no?+ ( !      
invocation ( ! sa9ts4 ,x be>s on its    
face subord9ation to !  ?\ght ( ! age1 !
 impress ( ! intellectual progress (    
man4    ,,! ,,passage ,,( ,,europe ,,to 
,,llamaism4 ,su* be+ ! exposition r5d]$ 
to  u respect+ ! attributes ( ,god1 x   
next in/ructs u z to 8  mode ( gov]nm5t 
( ! _w4 ,! ,*ur* ass]ts t %e possesses a
  sup]natural control ov] all mat]ial & 
moral ev5ts4 ,! prie/hood1  9 its v>i\s 
grades1 c det]m9e issues ( ! future1    
ei!r by !  ex]cise ( its inh]5t         
attributes1 or by its influ5tial        
invocation (  ! cele/ial p[]s4 ,to !    
sov]eign pontiff x has be5 giv5 to b9d  
or loose at 8 pleasure4 ,x is unlawful  
to appeal f 8 judgm5ts  to an           
,oecum5ical ,c\ncil1 z if to an e>?ly   
arbit] sup]ior to him4  ,p[]s su* z ^!  
are consi/5t ) arbitr>y rule1 b !y are  
inconsi/5t ) ! gov]nm5t ( ! _w by       
immutable law4 ,h5ce  ! ,dogmatic       
,con/itution plants itself firmly 9     
behalf ( incessant  provid5tial         

int]v5tions2 x w n = a mom5t admit t 9  
natural ?+s !re is an irresi/ible       
sequ5ce ( ev5ts1 or 9 !  affairs ( m5 an
 unavoidable c\rse ( acts4    ,b has n !
 ord] ( civilization 9 all p>ts ( ! _w  
be5 !  same8 ,does n ! gr[? ( society   
resemble individual gr[?8 ,d n  bo?     
exhibit to u phases ( y\?1 ( maturity1 (
 decrepitude8 ,to  a p]son :o has       
c>efully consid]$ ! progressive         
civilization (  gr\ps ( m5 9 regions ( !
 e>? f> ap>t1 :o has obs]v$ !  id5tical 
=ms "u :i* t advanc+ civilization has   
manife/$  itself1 is x n cle> t !       
proc$ure is det]m9$ by law8 ,!  religi\s
 ideas ( ! ,incas ( ,p]u & ! emp]ors (  
,mexico1 & !  c]emonials ( _! c\rt-life1
 7 ! same z ^? 9 ,europe--!  same z ^? 9
 ,asia4 ,! curr5t ( ?\ght _h be5 ! same4
 ,a sw>m  ( bees c>ri$ to "s di/ant l& w
 build its combs & regulate  its social 
in/itutions z o!r unkn[n sw>ms w\ld d1 &
 s )  sep>at$ & disconnect$ sw>ms ( m54 
,s inv>iable is ?is sequ5ce  ( ?\ght &  
act1 t !re are philosoph]s :o1 transf]r+

 !  pa/ example (f]$ by ,asiatic hi/ory 
to ! case ( ,europe1 w\ld  n hesitate to
 su/a9 ! proposition--giv5 a bi%op (    
,rome & "s  c5turies1 & y w h an        
infallible pope3 giv5 an infallible     
pope & a little m "t1 & y w h           
,llamaism--,llamaism to  :i* ,asia has  
long1 ago atta9$4    ,z to ! orig9 (    
corporeal & spiritual ?+s1 ! ,dogmatic  
,con/itution adds a solemn emphasis to  
its decl>ations1 by  ana!matiz+ all ^?  
:o hold ! doctr9e ( emanation1 or :o    
believe t visible ,nature is only a     
manife/ation ( ! ,div9e  ,ess5ce4 ,9 ?is
 its au?ors _h a task ( no ord9>y       
difficulty be=e  !m4 ,!y mu/ enc\nt] ^? 
=midable ideas1 :e!r old or new1  :i* 9 
our times are s /rongly =c+ !mselves on 
?\ghtful m54  ,! doctr9e ( ! cons]vation
 & correlation ( ,=ce yields z its      
logical issue ! "t-worn ,ori5tal        
emanation !ory2 ! doctr9es (  ,evolution
 & ,developm5t /rike at t ( successive  
creative acts4  ,! =m] re/s on !        
fundam5tal pr9ciple t ! quantity (  =ce 

9 ! univ]se is inv>iable4 ,?\gh t       
quantity c nei!r be  increas$ nor       
dim9i%$1 ! =ms "u :i* ,=ce expresses    
itself  may be transmut$ into ea* o!r4  
,z yet ?is doctr9e has n receiv$        
complete sci5tific demon/ration1 b s    
num]\s & s cog5t are !  argum5ts adduc$ 
9 its behalf1 t x /&s 9 an impos+1 almo/
  9 an au?oritative attitude4 ,n[1 !    
,asiatic !ory ( emanation &  absorption 
is se5 to be 9 h>mony ) ?is gr& idea4 ,x
 does n  hold t1 at ! conception ( a    
human be+1 a s\l is creat$ by  ,god out 
( no?+ & giv5 to x1 b t a portion ( !   
already  exi/+1 ! div9e1 ! univ]sal     
intellig5ce1 is imp>t$1 &1 :5  life is  
ov]1 ?is returns to & is absorb$ 9 !    
g5]al s\rce f  :i* x orig9ally came4 ,! 
au?ors ( ! ,con/itution =bid ^!  ideas  
to be held1 "u pa9 ( et]nal puni%m5t4   
,9 l mann] !y dispose ( ! doctr9es (    
,evolution &  ,developm5t1 bluntly      
insi/+ t ! ,*ur* believes 9 di/9ct      
creative acts4 ,! doctr9e t e liv+ =m is
 d]iv$ f "s  prec$+ =m is sci5tifically 

9 a mu* m advanc$ position ?an  t       
conc]n+ ,=ce1 & probably may be consid]$
 z e/abli%$1  :atev] may become ( !     
additions ) :i* x has rec5tly be5       
ov]laid4    ,9 h] condemnation ( !      
,re=mation1 ! ,*ur* c>ries into effect  
h] ideas ( ! subord9ation ( reason to   
fai?4 ,9 h] eyes !  ,re=mation is an    
impi\s h]esy1 lead+ to ! abyss (        
pan!ism1  mat]ialism1 & a!ism1 & t5d+ to
 ov]?r[ ! v f\ndations  ( human society4
 ,%e !re=e w\ld re/ra9 ^? re/less       
spirits  :o1 foll[+ ,lu!r1 h upheld ! "r
 ( e man to int]pret  ! ,scriptures =   
himself4 ,%e ass]ts t x is a wick$ error
 to  admit ,prote/ants to equal         
political privileges ) ,ca?olics1 & t   
to co]ce !m & suppress !m is a sacr$    
duty2 t x is abom9able  to p]mit !m to  
e/abli% educational in/itutions4        
,gregory ,,xvi4  d5\nc$ fre$om (        
consci5ce z an insane folly1 & ! fre$om 
(  ! press a pe/il5t error1 :i* _c be   
suffici5tly dete/$4    ,b h[ is x       
possible to recognize an inspir$ &      

infallible oracle on  ! ,tib]1 :5 x is  
rememb]$ t aga9 & aga9 successive popes 
h contradict$ ea* o!r2 t popes h d5\nc$ 
c\ncils1 &  c\ncils h d5\nc$ popes2 t ! 
,bible ( ,sixtus ,v4 _h s _m  admitt$   
errors--ne>ly two ?\s&--t its own au?ors
 _h to recall  x8 ,h[ is x possible = ! 
*ildr5 ( ! ,*ur* to reg>d z  delusive   
errors ! globul> =m ( ! e>?1 h] position
 z a  planet 9 ! sol> sy/em1 h] rotation
 on h] axis1 h] movem5t r\nd  ! sun8 ,h[
 c !y d5y t !re are antipodes1 & o!r    
worlds  ?an ours8 ,h[ c !y believe t !  
_w 0 made out ( no?+1  complet$ 9 a     
week1 f9i%$ j z we see x n[2 t x has    
und]gone no *ange1 b t its p>ts h work$ 
s indiff]5tly z  to require incessant   
int]v5tions8    ,,! ,,errors ,,(        
,,ecclesia/icism4 ,:5 ,sci5ce is ?us    
comm&$ to  surr5d] h] intellectual      
convictions1 may %e n ask ! ecclesia/ic 
to rememb] ! pa/8 ,! conte/ respect+ !  
figure ( ! e>?1  & ! location ( heav5 & 
hell1 end$ adv]sely to him4 ,he affirm$ 
t ! e>? is an ext5d$ plane1 & t ! sky is

 a firmam5t1  ! floor ( heav51 ?r\gh :i*
 aga9 & aga9 p]sons h be5  se5 to asc5d4
 ,! globul> =m demon/rat$ beyond any    
possibility  ( contradiction by         
a/ronomical facts1 & by ! voyage (      
,magellan's  %ip1 he !n ma9ta9$ t x is !
 c5tral body ( ! univ]se1  all o!rs be+ 
9 subord9ation to x1 & x ! gr& object ( 
,god's reg>d4 ,=c$ f ?is position1 he   
next affirm$ t x is  motionless1 ! sun &
 ! />s actually revolv+1 z !y app>5tly  
d1 ar\nd x4 ,! inv5tion ( ! telescope   
prov$ t "h aga9  he 0 9 error4 ,!n he   
ma9ta9$ t all ! motions ( ! sol>  sy/em 
are regulat$ by provid5tial int]v5tion2 
! ,pr9cipia  ( ,newton demon/rat$ t !y  
are due to irresi/ible law4 ,he !n      
affirm$ t ! e>? & all ! cele/ial bodies 
7 creat$ ab\t  six ?\s& ye>s ago1 & t 9 
six days ! ord] ( ,nature 0  settl$1 &  
plants & animals 9 _! v>i\s tribes      
introduc$4  ,con/ra9$ by ! accumulat+   
mass ( adv]se evid5ce1 he enl>g$  8 days
 into p]iods ( indef9ite l5g?--only1    
h[ev]1 to f9d t  ev5 ?is device 0       

inadequate4 ,! six ages1 ) _! six       
special  creations1 c\ld no long] be    
ma9ta9$1 :5 x 0 discov]$ t  species1    
sl[ly em]g$ 9 "o age1 rea*$ a culm9ation
 9 a second1  & gradually di$ out 9 a   
?ird3 ?is ov]lapp+ f age to age  w\ld n 
only h dem&$ creations1 b re-creations  
also4 ,he  affirm$ t !re _h be5 a       
deluge1 :i* cov]$ ! :ole e>?  above !   
tops ( ! highe/ m\nta9s1 & t ! wat]s (  
?is  flood 7 remov$ by a w9d4 ,correct  
ideas respect+ ! dim5sions  ( !         
atmosph]e1 & ( ! sea1 & ( ! op]ation (  
evaporation1  prov$ h[ unt5able ^!      
/atem5ts are4 ,( ! prog5itors ( !  human
 race1 he decl>$ t !y _h come f _!      
,mak]'s h&  p]fect1 bo? 9 body & m9d1 & 
_h subsequ5tly exp]i5c$ a fall4  ,he is 
n[ consid]+ h[ be/ to dispose ( !       
evid5ce cont9ually  accumulat+ respect+ 
! savage condition ( prehi/oric man4    
,is x at all surpris+ t ! numb] ( ^? :o 
hold ! op9ions  ( ! ,*ur* 9 light e/eem 
%\ld s rapidly increase8 ,h[ c t  be    
receiv$ z a tru/wor?y guide 9 !         

invisible1 :i* falls into s  _m errors 9
 ! visible8 ,h[ c t give confid5ce 9 !  
moral1  ! spiritual1 :i* has s signally 
fail$ 9 ! physical8 ,x is n  possible to
 dispose ( ^! conflict+ facts z empty   
%ad[s1 va9  devices1 fictions com+ f k  
falsely s call$1 errors  we>+ !         
deceitful appe>ance ( tru?1 z ! ,*ur*   
/igmatizes  !m4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y are   
/]n witnesses1 be>+ emphatic  &         
unimpea*able te/imony aga9/ !           
ecclesia/ical claim to  infallibility1 &
 fa/5+ a conviction ( ignorance &       
bl9dness  ^u h]4    ,convict$ ( s _m    
errors1 ! papacy makes no attempt at    
explanation4  ,x ignores ! :ole matt]   
,nay1 m1 rely+ on ! efficacy  (         
audacity1 ?\gh confront$ by ^! facts1 x 
lays claim to  infallibility4           
,,sep>ation ,,( ,,ca?olicism ,,&        
,,civilization4 ,b1 to ! pontiff1 no    
o!r rights c be conc$$ ?an ^? he c      
e/abli% at ! b> (  ,reason4 ,he _c claim
 infallibility 9 religi\s affairs1 &    
decl9e x 9 sci5tific4 ,infallibility    

embraces all ?+s4 ,x implies            
omnisci5ce4 ,if x holds good = !ology1 x
 necess>ily holds good  = sci5ce4 ,h[ is
 x possible to coord9ate ! infallibility
 ( !  papacy ) ! well-kn[n errors into  
:i* x has fall58    ,does x n1 !n1      
become ne$ful to reject ! claim ( !     
papacy  to ! employm5t ( co]cion 9 !    
ma9t5ance ( its op9ions2 to  repudiate  
utt]ly ! decl>ation t ! ,inquisition is 
an urg5t  necessity 9 view ( ! unbelief 
( ! pres5t age1 & 9 ! "n  ( human nature
 to prote/ l\dly aga9/ ! f]ocity &      
t]rorism (  t in/itution8 ,has n        
consci5ce inali5able rights8    ,an     
impassable & h\rly-wid5+ gulf int]v5es  
betwe5 ,ca?olicism  & ! _s ( ! age4     
,ca?olicism insi/s t bl9d fai? is       
sup]ior to reason2 t my/]ies are ( m    
importance ?an facts4  ,%e claims to be 
! sole int]pret] ( ,nature & revelation1
 !  supreme arbit] ( k2 %e summ>ily     
rejects all mod]n criticism  ( !        
,scriptures1 & ord]s ! ,bible to be     
accept$ 9 accordance  ) ! views ( !     

!ologians ( ,tr5t2 %e op5ly av[s h]     
hatr$  ( free in/itutions &             
con/itutional sy/ems1 & decl>es t ^?    
are 9 damnable error :o reg>d !         
reconciliation ( ! pope )  mod]n        
civilization z ei!r possible or         
desirable4    ,,sci5ce ,,&              
,,prote/antism4 ,b ! _s ( ! age         
dem&s--is !  human intellect to be      
subord9at$ to ! ,trid5t9e ,fa!rs1 or to 
!  fancy ( illit]ate & uncritical p]sons
 :o wrote 9 ! e>li] ages  ( ! ,*ur*8 ,x 
sees no m]it 9 bl9d fai?1 b r di/ru/s x4
  ,x looks =w>d to an improvem5t 9 !    
popul> canon ( cr$ibility  = a decision 
betwe5 fact & fiction4 ,x does n consid]
 itself  b\nd to believe fables &       
falsehoods t h be5 inv5t$ =             
ecclesia/ical ends4 ,x f9ds no argum5t 9
 behalf ( _! tru?1 t  traditions &      
leg5ds h be5 long-liv$2 9 ?is respect1  
^? (  ! ,*ur* are greatly inf]ior to !  
fables ( paganism4 ,! longevity  ( !    
,*ur* itself is n due to div9e          
protection or int]v5tion1  b to ! skill 

) :i* x has adapt$ its policy to exi/+  
circum/ances4 ,if antiquity be !        
crit]ion ( au!nticity1 ! claims  (      
,buddhism mu/ be respect$2 x has !      
sup]ior w>rant ( _m  c5turies4 ,!re c be
 no def5se ( ^? delib]ate falsifications
 (  hi/ory1 t concealm5t ( hi/orical    
facts1 ( :i* ! ,*ur* has  s (t5 tak5    
advantage4 ,9 ^! ?+s ! end does n ju/ify
 !  means4    ,!n has x 9 tru? come to  
?is1 t ,roman ,*ri/ianity & ,sci5ce  are
 recogniz$ by _! respective adh]5ts z   
be+ absolutely  incompatible2 !y _c exi/
 toge!r2 "o mu/ yield to ! o!r2  mank9d 
mu/ make its *oice--x _c h bo?4         
,,sci5ce ,,& ,,fai?4 ,:ile su* is1      
p]haps1 ! issue z reg>ds  ,ca?olicism1 a
 reconciliation ( ! ,re=mation ) ,sci5ce
 is n  only possible1 b w\ld easily take
 place1 if ! ,prote/ant ,*ur*es  w\ld   
only live up to ! maxim taught by ,lu!r1
 & e/abli%$ by s  _m ye>s ( w>4 ,t maxim
 is1 ! "r ( private int]pretation (  !  
,scriptures4 ,x 0 ! f\ndation (         
intellectual lib]ty4 ,b1 if  a p]sonal  

int]pretation ( ! book ( ,revelation is 
p]missible1  h[ c x be d5i$ 9 ! case ( !
 book ( ,nature8 ,9 !  misund]/&+s t h  
tak5 place1 we mu/ ev] be> 9 m9d  !     
infirmities ( m54 ,! g5]ations t        
imm$iately foll[$  ! ,re=mation may     
p]haps be excus$ = n compreh5d+ ! full  
significance ( _! c>d9al pr9ciple1 & = n
 on all occasions  c>ry+ x into effect4 
,:5 ,calv9 caus$ ,s]vetus1 to be burnt1 
he  0 animat$1 n by ! pr9ciples ( !     
,re=mation1 b by ^?  ( ,ca?olicism1 f   
:i* he _h n be5 able to emancipate      
himself  completely4 ,& :5 ! cl]gy (    
influ5tial ,prote/ant confessions  h    
/igmatiz$ ! inve/igators ( ,nature z    
infidels & a!i/s1  ! same may be said4  
,= ,ca?olicism to reconcile itself to   
,sci5ce1  !re are =midable1 p]haps      
insup]able ob/acles 9 ! way4 ,=         
,prote/antism to a*ieve t great result  
!re are n4 ,9 ! "o  case !re is a bitt]1
 a mortal animosity to be ov]come2 9 !  
o!r1  a fri5d%ip1 t misund]/&+s h       
ali5at$1 to be re/or$4    ,,civilization

 ,,& ,,religion4 ,b1 :atev] may be !    
prep>atory  incid5ts ( t great imp5d+   
intellectual crisis :i* ,*ri/5dom  mu/  
soon inevitably witness1 ( ?is we may   
re/ assur$1 t !  sil5t secession f !    
public fai?1 :i* 9 s om9\s a mann]      
*>act]izes ! pres5t g5]ation1 w f9d at  
l5g? political  expression4 ,x is n )\t 
significance t ,france re5=ces !        
ultramontane t5d5cies ( h] l[]          
population1 by ! promotion (            
pilgrimages1 ! p]petration ( miracles1 !
 exhibition ( cele/ial  app>itions4     
,con/ra9$ to d ?is by h] de/9y1 %e does 
x )  a blu%4 ,x is n )\t significance t 
,g]many resolves to rid  h]self ( !     
incubus ( a dual gov]nm5t1 by !         
exclusion ( !  ,italian elem5t1 & to    
c>ry to its completion t ,re=mation :i* 
?ree c5turies ago %e left unf9i%$4 ,! "t
 approa*es :5  m5 mu/ take _! *oice     
betwe5 quiesc5t1 immobile fai? &        
ev]-advanc+ ,sci5ce--fai?1 ) its        
m$iaeval consolations1 ,sci5ce1  :i* is 
incessantly scatt]+ its mat]ial bless+s 

9 ! pa?way  ( life1 elevat+ ! lot ( man 
9 ?is _w1 & unify+ !  human race4 ,its  
triumphs are solid & endur+4 ,b ! glory 
:i*  ,ca?olicism might ga9 f a conflict 
) mat]ial ideas is at !  be/ only l t ( 
o!r cele/ial meteors :5 !y t\* !        
atmosph]e ( ! e>?--transitory & useless4
    ,?\gh ,guizot's affirmation t !     
,*ur* has always sid$ )  despotism is   
only too true1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t 9 !  
policy  %e foll[s !re is mu* ( political
 necessity4 ,%e is urg$ on by  !        
pressure ( n9ete5 c5turies4 ,b1 if !    
irresi/ible indicates  itself 9 h]      
action1 ! inevitable manife/s itself 9  
h] life4 ,=  x is ) ! papacy z ) a man4 
,x has pass$ ?r\gh ! /ruggles  (        
infancy1 x has display$ ! en]gies (     
maturity1 &1 its "w  complet$1 x mu/ s9k
 into ! feebl5ess & qu]ul\sness ( old   
age4 ,its y\? c nev] be r5ew$4 ,!       
influ5ce ( its s\v5irs  alone w rema94  
,z pagan ,rome ?rew h] dep>t+ %ad[ ov] !
  empire & t9ctur$ all its ?\ghts1 s    
,*ri/ian ,rome ca/s h]  p>t+ %ad[ ov]   

,europe4    ,,inadmissible ,,claims ,,( 
,,ca?olicism4 ,w mod]n civilization     
cons5t to  ab&on ! c>e] ( advancem5t :i*
 has giv5 x s mu* p[] &  happ9ess8 ,w x 
cons5t to retrace its /eps to !         
semi-b>b>ian  ignorance & sup]/ition ( !
 middle ages8 ,w x submit to !          
dictation ( a p[]1 :i*1 claim+ div9e    
au?ority1 c pres5t  no adequate         
cr$5tials ( its (fice2 a p[] :i* kept   
,europe 9 a  /agnant condition = _m     
c5turies1 f]oci\sly suppress+ by !  /ake
 & ! sword e attempt at progress2 a p[] 
t is f\nd$  9 a cl\d ( my/]ies2 t sets  
itself above reason & common-s5se2  t   
l\dly proclaims ! hatr$ x ent]ta9s aga9/
 lib]ty (  ?\ght & fre$om 9 civil       
in/itutions2 t pr(esses its int5tion  ( 
repress+ ! "o & de/roy+ ! o!r :5ev] x c 
f9d !  opportunity2 t d5\nces z mo/     
p]nici\s & insane ! op9ion  t lib]ty (  
consci5ce & ( wor%ip is ! "r ( e man2  t
 prote/s aga9/ t "r be+ proclaim$ &     
ass]t$ by law 9  e well-gov]n$ /ate2 t  
contemptu\sly repudiates ! pr9ciple  t !

 w ( ! p1 manife/$ by public op9ion 7z x
 is  call$7 or by o!r means1 %all       
con/itute law2 t refuses to e  man any  
title to op9ion 9 matt]s ( religion1 b  
holds t x is  simply 8 duty to believe  
:at he is told by ! ,*ur*1 & to obey  h]
 comm&s2 t w n p]mit any temporal       
gov]nm5t to def9e  ! rights & prescribe 
limits to ! au?ority ( ! ,*ur*2  t      
decl>es x n only may b w resort to =ce  
to discipl9e  disob$i5t individuals2 t  
invades ! sanctify ( private life1 by   
mak+1 at ! confessional1 ! wife &       
daught]s & s]vants ( "o  suspect$1 spies
 & in=m]s aga9/ him2 t tries him )\t an 
accus]1 & by torture makes him be>      
witness aga9/ himself2 t  d5ies ! "r (  
p>5ts to educate _! *ildr5 outside ( its
 own  ,*ur*1 & insi/s t to x alone      
belongs ! sup]vision ( dome/ic  life & !
 control ( m>riages & divorces2 t       
d5\nces !  impud5ce ( ^? :o presume to  
subord9ate ! au?ority ( !  ,*ur* to !   
civil au?ority1 or :o advocate !        
sep>ation ( !  ,*ur* f ! /ate2 t        

absolutely repudiates all tol]ation1 &  
affirms t ! ,ca?olic religion is entitl$
 to be held z ! only  religion 9 e      
c\ntry1 to ! exclusion ( all o!r modes (
  wor%ip2 t requires all laws /&+ 9 !   
way ( its int]e/s  to be repeal$1 &1 if 
t be refus$1 ord]s all its foll[]s to   
disobey !m8    ,,issue ,,( ,,!          
,,conflict4 ,?is p[]1 consci\s t x c "w 
no miracle  to s]ve itself1 does n      
hesitate to di/urb society by its       
intrigues  aga9/ gov]nm5ts1 & seeks to  
accompli% its ends by alliances )       
despotism4    ,claims su* z ^! mean a   
revolt aga9/ mod]n civilization1 an     
int5tion ( de/roy+ x1 no matt] at :at   
social co/4 ,to submit to  !m )\t       
resi/ance1 m5 mu/ be slaves inde$6    ,z
 to ! issue ( ! com+ conflict1 c any "o 
d\bt8 ,:atev]  is re/+ on fiction &     
fraud w be ov]?r[n4 ,in/itutions t      
organize impo/ures & spread delusions   
mu/ %[ :at "r !y h  to exi/4 ,fai? mu/  
r5d] an acc\nt ( h]self to ,reason4     
,my/]ies  mu/ give place to facts4      

,religion mu/ rel9qui% t imp]i\s1 t     
dom9e]+ position :i* %e has s long      
ma9ta9$ aga9/ ,sci5ce4  ,!re mu/ be     
absolute fre$om = ?\ght4 ,! ecclesia/ic 
mu/ le>n  to keep himself )9 ! doma9 he 
has *os51 & cease to tyrannize  ov] !   
philosoph]1 :o1 consci\s ( 8 own /r5g? &
 ! purity  ( 8 motives1 w be> su*       
int]f]5ce no long]4 ,:at 0  writt5 by   
,esdras ne> ! will[-fr+$ riv]s (        
,babylon1 m ?an  tw5ty-?ree c5turies    
ago1 /ill holds good3 ,z = ,tru? x      
endure?  & is always /rong2 x live? &   
conqu]e? = ev]more4