,,history ,,of ,,the ,,conflict         
,,between ,,religion ,,and ,,science    
,by ,john ,william ,draper1 ,m4 ,d41    
,,ll4 ,d4    ,,professor ,,in ,,the     
,,university ,,of ,,new ,,york1         
,,author ,,of ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,human
 ,,physiology1 ,,history ,,of ,,the     
,,intellectual ,,development ,,of       
,,europe1 ,,history ,,of ,,the          
,,american       ,,civil ,,war1 ,,and   
,,of ,,many ,,experimental ,,memoirs    
,,on ,,chemical ,,and       ,,other     
,,scientific ,,subjects                 
,,preface4    ,,whoever has had an      
opportunity of becoming acquainted with 
the mental  condition of the intelligent
 classes in ,europe and ,america1 must  
have  perceived that there is a great   
and rapidly-increasing departure from   
the public religious faith1 and that1   
while among the more frank this         
divergence is not concealed1 there is a 
far more extensive and far more         
dangerous secession1 private and        
unacknowledged4    ,so wide-spread and  

so powerful is this secession1 that it  
can neither be  treated with contempt   
nor with punishment4 ,it cannot be      
extinguished by  derision1 by           
vituperation1 or by force4 ,the time is 
rapidly approaching  when it will give  
rise to serious political results4      
,ecclesiastical spirit no longer        
inspires the policy of the world4       
,military fervor in behalf of faith has 
disappeared4 ,its only souvenirs  are   
the marble effigies of crusading        
knights1 reposing in the silent  crypts 
of churches on their tombs4    ,that a  
crisis is impending is shown by the     
attitude of the great powers  toward the
 papacy4 ,the papacy represents the     
ideas and aspirations  of two-thirds of 
the population of ,europe4 ,it insists  
on a political  supremacy in accordance 
with its claims to a divine origin and  
mission1  and a restoration of the      
mediaeval order of things1 loudly       
declaring  that it will accept no       
reconciliation with modern civilization4

    ,the antagonism we thus witness     
between ,religion and ,science is the   
continuation of a struggle that         
commenced when ,christianity began  to  
attain political power4 ,a divine       
revelation must necessarily be          
intolerant of contradiction2 it must    
repudiate all improvement in  itself1   
and view with disdain that arising from 
the progressive  intellectual           
development of man4 ,but our opinions on
 every subject are  continually liable  
to modification1 from the irresistible  
advance of  human knowledge4    ,can we 
exaggerate the importance of a          
contention in which every  thoughtful   
person must take part whether he will or
 not8 ,in a matter so  solemn as that of
 religion1 all men1 whose temporal      
interests are not  involved in existing 
institutions1 earnestly desire to find  
the truth4  ,they seek information as to
 the subjects in dispute1 and as to the 
conduct of the disputants4    ,the      
history of ,science is not a mere record

 of isolated discoveries2 it  is a      
narrative of the conflict of two        
contending powers1 the expansive  force 
of the human intellect on one side1 and 
the compression arising  from           
traditionary faith and human interests  
on the other4    ,no one has hitherto   
treated the subject from this point of  
view4 ,yet  from this point it presents 
itself to us as a living issue--in fact1
 as  the most important of all living   
issues4    ,a few years ago1 it was the 
politic and therefore the proper course 
to  abstain from all allusion to this   
controversy1 and to keep it as far as   
possible in the background4 ,the        
tranquillity of society depends so  much
 on the stability of its religious      
convictions1 that no one can  be        
justified in wantonly disturbing them4  
,but faith is in its nature             
unchangeable1 stationary2 ,science is in
 its nature progressive2 and  eventually
 a divergence between them1 impossible  
to conceal1 must take  place4 ,it then  

becomes the duty of those whose lives   
have made them  familiar with both modes
 of thought1 to present modestly1 but   
firmly1 their views2 to compare the     
antagonistic pretensions calmly1        
impartially1 philosophically4 ,history  
shows that1 if this be not done1  social
 misfortunes1 disastrous and enduring1  
will ensue4 ,when the old  mythological 
religion of ,europe broke down under the
 weight of its own  inconsistencies1    
neither the ,roman emperors nor the     
philosophers of  those times did any    
thing adequate for the guidance of      
public opinion4  ,they left religious   
affairs to take their chance1 and       
accordingly those  affairs fell into the
 hands of ignorant and infuriated       
ecclesiastics1  parasites1 eunuchs1 and 
slaves4    ,the intellectual night which
 settled on ,europe1 in consequence of  
that  great neglect of duty1 is passing 
away2 we live in the daybreak of  better
 things4 ,society is anxiously expecting
 light1 to see in what  direction it is 

drifting4 ,it plainly discerns that the 
track along which  the voyage of        
civilization has thus far been made1 has
 been left2 and  that a new departure1  
on all unknown sea1 has been taken4     
,though deeply impressed with such      
thoughts1 ,i should not have presumed   
to write this book1 or to intrude on the
 public the ideas it presents1  had ,i  
not made the facts with which it deals a
 subject of long and  earnest           
meditation4 ,and ,i have gathered a     
strong incentive to undertake  this duty
 from the circumstance that a ,history  
of the ,intellectual  ,development of   
,europe1 published by me several years  
ago1 which has  passed through many     
editions in ,america1 and has been      
reprinted in  numerous ,european        
languages1 ,english1 ,french1 ,german1  
,russian1 ,polish1  ,servian1 etc41 is  
everywhere received with favor4    ,in  
collecting and arranging the materials  
for the volumes ,i published  under the 
title of ,a ,history of the ,american   

,civil ,war1 a work of very  great      
labor1 ,i had become accustomed to the  
comparison of conflicting  statements1  
the adjustment of conflicting claims4   
,the approval with  which that book has 
been received by the ,american public1 a
 critical  judge of the events          
considered1 has inspired me with        
additional  confidence4 ,i had also     
devoted much attention to the           
experimental  investigation of natural  
phenomena1 and had published many       
well-known  memoirs on such subjects4   
,and perhaps no one can give himself to 
these  pursuits1 and spend a large part 
of his life in the public teaching of   
science1 without partaking of that love 
of impartiality and truth which         
,philosophy incites4 ,she inspires us   
with a desire to dedicate our days  to  
the good of our race1 so that in the    
fading light of life's evening  we may  
not1 on looking back1 be forced to      
acknowledge how unsubstantial  and      
useless are the objects that we have    

pursued4    ,though ,i have spared no   
pains in the composition of this book1  
,i am  very sensible how unequal it is  
to the subject1 to do justice to which  
a knowledge of science1 history1        
theology1 politics1 is required2 every  
page should be alive with intelligence  
and glistening with facts4 ,but  then ,i
 have remembered that this is only as it
 were the preface1 or  forerunner1 of a 
body of literature1 which the events and
 wants of our  times will call forth4   
,we have come to the brink of a great   
intellectual  change4 ,much of the      
frivolous reading of the present will be
 supplanted  by a thoughtful and austere
 literature1 vivified by endangered     
interests1 and made fervid by           
ecclesiastical passion4    ,what ,i have
 sought to do is1 to present a clear and
 impartial statement  of the views and  
acts of the two contending parties4 ,in 
one sense ,i have  tried to identify    
myself with each1 so as to comprehend   
thoroughly their  motives2 but in       

another and higher sense ,i have        
endeavored to stand  aloof1 and relate  
with impartiality their actions4    ,i  
therefore trust that those1 who may be  
disposed to criticise this  book1 will  
bear in mind that its object is not to  
advocate the views  and pretensions of  
either party1 but to explain clearly1   
and without  shrinking those of both4   
,in the management of each chapter ,i   
have  usually set forth the orthodox    
view first1 and then followed it with   
that of its opponents4    ,in thus      
treating the subject it has not been    
necessary to pay much  regard to more   
moderate or intermediate opinions1 for1 
though they may  be intrinsically of    
great value1 in conflicts of this kind  
it is not  with the moderates but with  
the extremists that the impartial reader
 is  mainly concerned4 ,their movements 
determine the issue4    ,for this reason
 ,i have had little to say respecting   
the two great  ,christian confessions1  
the ,protestant and ,greek ,churches4   

,as to the  latter1 it has never1 since 
the restoration of science1 arrayed     
itself  in opposition to the advancement
 of knowledge4 ,on the contrary1 it has 
always met it with welcome4 ,it has     
observed a reverential attitude to      
truth1 from whatever quarter it might   
come4 ,recognizing the apparent         
discrepancies between its               
interpretations of revealed truth and   
the  discoveries of science1 it has     
always expected that satisfactory       
explanations and reconciliations would  
ensue1 and in this it has not  been     
disappointed4 ,it would have been well  
for modern civilization if  the ,roman  
,church had done the same4    ,in       
speaking of ,christianity1 reference is 
generally made to the  ,roman ,church1  
partly because its adherents compose the
 majority of  ,christendom1 partly      
because its demands are the most        
pretentious1 and  partly because it has 
commonly sought to enforce those demands
 by  the civil power4 ,none of the      

,protestant ,churches has ever occupied 
a  position so imperious--none has ever 
had such wide-spread political          
influence4 ,for the most part they have 
been averse to constraint1 and  except  
in very few instances their opposition  
has not passed beyond the  exciting of  
theological odium4    ,as to ,science1  
she has never sought to ally herself to 
civil power4 ,she  has never attempted  
to throw odium or inflict social ruin on
 any human  being4 ,she has never       
subjected any one to mental torment1    
physical  torture1 least of all to      
death1 for the purpose of upholding or  
promoting her ideas4 ,she presents      
herself unstained by cruelties and      
crimes4 ,but in the ,vatican--we have   
only to recall the ,inquisition--the    
hands that are now raised in appeals to 
the ,most ,merciful are crimsoned4      
,they have been steeped in blood6       
,there are two modes of historical      
composition1 the artistic and the       
scientific4 ,the former implies that men

 give origin to events2 it  therefore   
selects some prominent individual1      
pictures him under  a fanciful form1 and
 makes him the hero of a romance4 ,the  
latter1  insisting that human affairs   
present an unbroken chain1 in which each
  fact is the offspring of some         
preceding fact1 and the parent of some  
subsequent fact1 declares that men do   
not control events1 but that  events    
control men4 ,the former gives origin to
 compositions1 which1  however much they
 may interest or delight us1 are but a  
grade above  novels2 the latter is      
austere1 perhaps even repulsive1 for it 
sternly  impresses us with a conviction 
of the irresistible dominion of law1 and
  the insignificance of human exertions4
 ,in a subject so solemn as that to     
which this book is devoted1 the romantic
 and the popular are altogether  out of 
place4 ,he who presumes to treat of it  
must fix his eyes  steadfastly on that  
chain of destiny which universal history
 displays2  he must turn with disdain   

from the phantom impostures of pontiffs 
and  statesmen and kings4    ,if any    
thing were needed to show us the        
untrustworthiness of artistic           
historical compositions1 our personal   
experience would furnish it4 ,how  often
 do our most intimate friends fail to   
perceive the real motives of  our       
every-day actions2 how frequently they  
misinterpret our intentions6  ,if this  
be the case in what is passing before   
our eyes1 may we not  be satisfied that 
it is impossible to comprehend justly   
the doings of  persons who lived many   
years ago1 and whom we have never seen4 
,in selecting and arranging the topics  
now to be presented1 ,i have been       
guided in part by the ,confession of the
 late ,vatican ,council1 and in  part by
 the order of events in history4 ,not   
without interest will the  reader remark
 that the subjects offer themselves to  
us now as they did  to the old          
philosophers of ,greece4 ,we still deal 
with the same questions  about which    

they disputed4 ,what is ,god8 ,what is  
the soul8 ,what is the  world8 ,how is  
it governed8 ,have we any standard or   
criterion of truth8  ,and the thoughtful
 reader will earnestly ask1 ,are our    
solutions of  these problems any better 
than theirs8    ,the general argument of
 this book1 then1 is as follows3    ,i  
first direct attention to the origin of 
modern science as  distinguished from   
ancient1 by depending on observation1   
experiment1  and mathematical           
discussion1 instead of mere speculation1
 and shall show  that it was a          
consequence of the ,macedonian          
campaigns1 which brought  ,asia and     
,europe into contact4 ,a brief sketch of
 those campaigns1 and of  the ,museum of
 ,alexandria1 illustrates its character4
    ,then with brevity ,i recall the    
well-known origin of ,christianity1 and 
show its advance to the attainment of   
imperial power1 the transformation  it  
underwent by its incorporation with     
paganism1 the existing religion  of the 

,roman ,empire4 ,a clear conception of  
its incompatibility with  science caused
 it to suppress forcibly the ,schools of
 ,alexandria4 ,it was  constrained to   
this by the political necessities of its
 position4    ,the parties to the       
conflict thus placed1 ,i next relate the
 story of  their first open struggle2 it
 is the first or ,southern ,reformation4
 ,the  point in dispute had respect to  
the nature of ,god4 ,it involved the    
rise  of ,mohammedanism4 ,its result    
was1 that much of ,asia and ,africa1    
with the  historic cities ,jerusalem1   
,alexandria1 and ,carthage1 were        
wrenched from  ,christendom1 and the    
doctrine of the ,unity of ,god          
established in the  larger portion of   
what had been the ,roman ,empire4       
,this political event was followed by   
the restoration of science1 the         
establishment of colleges1 schools1     
libraries1 throughout the dominions  of 
the ,arabians4 ,those conquerors1       
pressing forward rapidly in their       

intellectual development1 rejected the  
anthropomorphic ideas of the  nature of 
,god remaining in their popular belief1 
and accepted other more  philosophical  
ones1 akin to those that had long       
previously been attained  to in ,india4 
,the result of this was a second        
conflict1 that respecting  the nature of
 the soul4 ,under the designation of    
,averroism1 there came  into prominence 
the theories of ,emanation and          
,absorption4 ,at the  close of the      
middle ages the ,inquisition succeeded  
in excluding those  doctrines from      
,europe1 and now the ,vatican ,council  
has formally and  solemnly anathematized
 them4    ,meantime1 through the        
cultivation of astronomy1 geography1 and
 other  sciences1 correct views had been
 gained as to the position and relations
  of the earth1 and as to the structure 
of the world2 and since ,religion1      
resting itself on what was assumed to be
 the proper interpretation  of the      
,scriptures1 insisted that the earth is 

the central and most  important part of 
the universe1 a third conflict broke    
out4 ,in this  ,galileo led the way on  
the part of ,science4 ,its issue was the
 overthrow  of the ,church on the       
question in dispute4 ,subsequently a    
subordinate  controversy arose          
respecting the age of the world1 the    
,church insisting  that it is only about
 six thousand years old4 ,in this she   
was again  overthrown ,the light of     
history and of science had been         
gradually  spreading over ,europe4 ,in  
the sixteenth century the prestige of   
,roman  ,christianity was greatly       
diminished by the intellectual reverses 
it  had experienced1 and also by its    
political and moral condition4 ,it was  
clearly seen by many pious men that     
,religion was not accountable for  the  
false position in which she was found1  
but that the misfortune was  directly   
traceable to the alliance she had of old
 contracted with ,roman  paganism4 ,the 
obvious remedy1 therefore1 was a return 

to primitive  purity4 ,thus arose the   
fourth conflict1 known to us as the     
,reformation--the second or ,northern   
,reformation4 ,the special form it      
assumed was a contest respecting the    
standard or criterion of  truth1 whether
 it is to be found in the ,church or in 
the ,bible4 ,the  determination of this 
involved a settlement of the rights of  
reason1 or  intellectual freedom4       
,luther1 who is the conspicuous man of  
the epoch1  carried into effect his     
intention with no inconsiderable        
success2 and at  the close of the       
struggle it was found that ,northern    
,europe was lost to  ,roman             
,christianity4    ,we are now in the    
midst of a controversy respecting the   
mode of  government of the world1       
whether it be by incessant divine       
intervention1  or by the operation of   
primordial and unchangeable law4 ,the   
intellectual  movement of ,christendom  
has reached that point which ,arabism   
had  attained to in the tenth and       

eleventh centuries2 and doctrines which 
were then discussed are presenting      
themselves again for review2 such are   
those of ,evolution1 ,creation1         
,development4    ,offered under these   
general titles1 ,i think it will be     
found that all  the essential points of 
this great controversy are included4 ,by
 grouping  under these comprehensive    
heads the facts to be considered1 and   
dealing  with each group separately1 we 
shall doubtless acquire clear views of  
their inter-connection and their        
historical succession4    ,i have       
treated of these conflicts as nearly as 
,i conveniently could in  their proper  
chronological order1 and1 for the sake  
of completeness1  have added chapters   
on--    ,an examination of what ,latin  
,christianity has done for modern       
civilization4    ,a corresponding       
examination of what ,science has done4  
,the attitude of ,roman ,christianity in
 the impending conflict1 as defined  by 
the ,vatican ,council4    ,the attention

 of many truth-seeking persons has been 
so exclusively  given to the details of 
sectarian dissensions1 that the long    
strife1 to  the history of which these  
pages are devoted1 is popularly but     
little  known4 ,having tried to keep    
steadfastly in view the determination to
  write this work in an impartial       
spirit1 to speak with respect of the    
contending parties1 but never to conceal
 the truth1 ,i commit it to the         
considerate judgment of the thoughtful  
reader4                                 
,,john ,,william ,,draper               
,,university1 ,,new ,,york1 ,december1  
#ahgc4            ,,history ,,of ,,the  
,,conflict ,,between ,,religion ,,and   
,,science4        ,,chapter ,i4         
,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,science4          
,religious condition of the ,greeks in  
the fourth century       before         
,christ4--,their invasion of the        
,persian ,empire brings       them in   
contact with new aspects of ,nature1 and
 familiarizes       them with new       

religious systems4--,the military1      
engineering1 and scientific activity1   
stimulated by the       ,macedonian     
campaigns1 leads to the establishment in
       ,alexandria of an institute1 the 
,museum1 for the cultivation       of   
knowledge by experiment1 observation1   
and mathematical       discussion4--,it 
is the origin of ,science4    ,,greek   
,,mythology4 ,no spectacle can be       
presented to the thoughtful  mind more  
solemn1 more mournful1 than that of the 
dying of an ancient  religion1 which in 
its day has given consolation to many   
generations of  men4    ,four centuries 
before the birth of ,christ1 ,greece was
 fast outgrowing  her ancient faith4    
,her philosophers1 in their studies of  
the world1 had  been profoundly         
impressed with the contrast between the 
majesty of the  operations of ,nature   
and the worthlessness of the divinities 
of ,olympus4  ,her historians1          
considering the orderly course of       
political affairs1  the manifest        

uniformity in the acts of men1 and that 
there was no event  occurring before    
their eyes for which they could not find
 an obvious  cause in some preceding    
event1 began to suspect that the        
miracles and  celestial interventions1  
with which the old annals were filled1  
were  only fictions4 ,they demanded1    
when the age of the supernatural had    
ceased1 why oracles had become mute1 and
 why there were now no more  prodigies  
in the world4    ,traditions1 descending
 from immemorial antiquity1 and formerly
 accepted  by pious men as              
unquestionable truths1 had filled the   
islands of  the ,mediterranean and the  
conterminous countries with supernatural
  wonders--enchantresses1 sorcerers1    
giants1 ogres1 harpies1 gorgons1        
centaurs1 cyclops4 ,the azure vault was 
the floor of heaven2 there ,zeus1       
surrounded by the gods with their wives 
and mistresses1 held his court1  engaged
 in pursuits like those of men1 and not 
refraining from acts of  human passion  

and crime4    ,a sea-coast broken by    
numerous indentations1 an archipelago   
with some of  the most lovely islands in
 the world1 inspired the ,greeks with a 
taste  for maritime life1 for           
geographical discovery1 and             
colonization4  ,their ships wandered all
 over the ,black and ,mediterranean     
,seas4 ,the  time-honored wonders that  
had been glorified in the ,odyssey1 and 
sacred in public faith1 were found to   
have no existence4 ,as a better         
knowledge of ,nature was obtained1 the  
sky was shown to be an illusion2  it was
 discovered that there is no ,olympus1  
nothing above but space and  stars4     
,with the vanishing of their habitation1
 the gods disappeared1  both those of   
the ,ionian type of ,homer and those of 
the ,doric of ,hesiod4    ,,effects ,,of
 ,,discovery ,,and ,,criticism4 ,but    
this did not take place without         
resistance4 ,at first1 the public1 and  
particularly its religious  portion1    
denounced the rising doubts as atheism4 

,they despoiled some  of the offenders  
of their goods1 exiled others2 some they
 put to death4  ,they asserted that what
 had been believed by pious men in the  
old times1  and had stood the test of   
ages1 must necessarily be true4 ,then1  
as the  opposing evidence became        
irresistible1 they were content to admit
 that  these marvels were allegories    
under which the wisdom of the ancients  
had  concealed many sacred and          
mysterious things4 ,they tried to       
reconcile1  what now in their misgivings
 they feared might be myths1 with their 
advancing intellectual state4 ,but their
 efforts were in vain1 for there  are   
predestined phases through which on such
 an occasion public opinion  must pass4 
,what it has received with veneration it
 begins to doubt1 then  it offers new   
interpretations1 then subsides into     
dissent1 and ends with  a rejection of  
the whole as a mere fable4    ,in their 
secession the philosophers and          
historians were followed by  the poets4 

,euripides incurred the odium of heresy4
 ,aeschylus narrowly  escaped being     
stoned to death for blasphemy4 ,but the 
frantic efforts  of those who are       
interested in supporting delusions must 
always end in  defeat4 ,the             
demoralization resistlessly extended    
through every branch of  literature1    
until at length it reached the common   
people4    ,,the ,,persian ,,empire4    
,greek philosophical criticism had lent 
its aid to  ,greek philosophical        
discovery in this destruction of the    
national faith4  ,it sustained by many  
arguments the wide-spreading unbelief4  
,it compared  the doctrines of the      
different schools with each other1 and  
showed from  their contradictions that  
man has no criterion of truth2 that1    
since his  ideas of what is good and    
what is evil differ according to the    
country  in which he lives1 they can    
have no foundation in ,nature1 but must 
be  altogether the result of education2 
that right and wrong are nothing  more  

than fictions created by society for its
 own purposes4 ,in ,athens1  some of the
 more advanced classes had reached such 
a pass that they not  only denied the   
unseen1 the supernatural1 they even     
affirmed that the  world is only a      
day-dream1 a phantasm1 and that nothing 
at all exists4    ,the topographical    
configuration of ,greece gave an impress
 to her  political condition4 ,it       
divided her people into distinct        
communities  having conflicting         
interests1 and made them incapable of   
centralization4  ,incessant domestic    
wars between the rival states checked   
her  advancement4 ,she was poor1 her    
leading men had become corrupt4 ,they   
were  ever ready to barter patriotic    
considerations for foreign gold1 to sell
  themselves for ,persian bribes4       
,possessing a perception of the         
beautiful  as manifested in sculpture   
and architecture to a degree never      
attained elsewhere either before or     
since1 ,greece had lost a practical     

appreciation of the ,good and the ,true4
    ,while ,european ,greece1 full of   
ideas of liberty and independence1      
rejected the sovereignty of ,persia1    
,asiatic ,greece acknowledged it        
without reluctance4 ,at that time the   
,persian ,empire in territorial  extent 
was equal to half of modern ,europe4 ,it
 touched the waters of  the             
,mediterranean1 the ,aegean1 the ,black1
 the ,caspian1 the ,indian1 the         
,persian1 the ,red ,seas4 ,through its  
territories there flowed six of the     
grandest rivers in the world--the       
,euphrates1 the ,tigris1 the ,indus1 the
  ,jaxartes1 the ,oxus1 the ,nile1 each 
more than a thousand miles in length4   
,its surface reached from thirteen      
hundred feet below the sea-level to     
twenty thousand feet above4 ,it yielded1
 therefore1 every agricultural  product4
 ,its mineral wealth was boundless4 ,it 
inherited the prestige of  the ,median1 
the ,babylonian1 the ,assyrian1 the     
,chaldean ,empires1 whose  annals       

reached back through more than twenty   
centuries4    ,,the ,,persian ,,empire4 
,persia had always looked upon ,european
 ,greece as  politically insignificant1 
for it had scarcely half the territorial
  extent of one of her satrapies4 ,her  
expeditions for compelling its          
obedience had1 however1 taught her the  
military qualities of its people4  ,in  
her forces were incorporated ,greek     
mercenaries1 esteemed the very  best of 
her troops4 ,she did not hesitate       
sometimes to give the command  of her   
armies to ,greek generals1 of her fleets
 to ,greek captains4 ,in the  political 
convulsions through which she had       
passed1 ,greek soldiers had  often been 
used by her contending chiefs4 ,these   
military operations were  attended by a 
momentous result4 ,they revealed1 to the
 quick eye of  these warlike            
mercenaries1 the political weakness of  
the empire and  the possibility of      
reaching its centre4 ,after the death of
 ,cyrus on the  battle-field of ,cunaxa1

 it was demonstrated1 by the immortal   
retreat of  the ten thousand under      
,xenophon1 that a ,greek army could     
force its way  to and from the heart of 
,persia4    ,that reverence for the     
military abilities of ,asiatic generals1
 so  profoundly impressed on the ,greeks
 by such engineering exploits as the    
bridging of the ,hellespont1 and the    
cutting of the isthmus at ,mount  ,athos
 by ,xerxes1 had been obliterated at    
,salamis1 ,platea1 ,mycale4 ,to  plunder
 rich ,persian provinces had become an  
irresistible temptation4  ,such was the 
expedition of ,agesilaus1 the ,spartan  
king1 whose brilliant  successes were1  
however1 checked by the ,persian        
government resorting to  its time-proved
 policy of bribing the neighbors of     
,sparta to attack her4  ,i have been    
conquered by thirty thousand ,persian   
archers1 bitterly  exclaimed ,agesilaus1
 as he re-embarked1 alluding to the     
,persian coin1  the ,daric1 which was   
stamped with the image of an archer4    

,,the ,,invasion ,,of ,,persia ,,by     
,,greece4 ,at length ,philip1 the ,king 
of ,macedon1  projected a renewal of    
these attempts1 under a far more        
formidable  organization1 and with a    
grander object4 ,he managed to have     
himself  appointed captain-general of   
all ,greece not for the purpose of a    
mere  foray into the ,asiatic satrapies1
 but for the overthrow of the ,persian  
dynasty in the very centre of its power4
 ,assassinated while his  preparations  
were incomplete1 he was succeeded by his
 son ,alexander1  then a youth4 ,a      
general assembly of ,greeks at ,corinth 
had unanimously  elected him in his     
father's stead4 ,there were some        
disturbances in  ,illyria2 ,alexander   
had to march his army as far north as   
the ,danube to  quell them4 ,during his 
absence the ,thebans with some others   
conspired  against him4 ,on his return  
he took ,thebes by assault4 ,he         
massacred  six thousand of its          
inhabitants1 sold thirty thousand for   

slaves1 and  utterly demolished the     
city4 ,the military wisdom of this      
severity was  apparent in his ,asiatic  
campaign4 ,he was not troubled by any   
revolt in  his rear4    ,,the           
,,macedonian ,,campaign4 ,in the spring 
,b4,c4 #ccd ,alexander crossed the      
,hellespont into ,asia4 ,his army       
consisted of thirty-four thousand foot  
and four thousand horse4 ,he had with   
him only seventy talents in money4  ,he 
marched directly on the ,persian army1  
which1 vastly exceeding him in          
strength1 was holding the line of the   
,granicus4 ,he forced the passage of    
the river1 routed the enemy1 and the    
possession of all ,asia ,minor1 with    
its treasures1 was the fruit of the     
victory4 ,the remainder of that  year he
 spent in the military organization of  
the conquered provinces4  ,meantime     
,darius1 the ,persian king1 had advanced
 an army of six hundred  thousand men to
 prevent the passage of the ,macedonians
 into ,syria4 ,in  a battle that ensued 

among the mountain-defiles at ,issus1   
the ,persians  were again overthrown4   
,so great was the slaughter that        
,alexander1 and  ,ptolemy1 one of his   
generals1 crossed over a ravine choked  
with dead  bodies4 ,it was estimated    
that the ,persian loss was not less than
 ninety  thousand foot and ten thousand 
horse4 ,the royal pavilion fell into the
  conqueror's hands1 and with it the    
wife and several of the children of     
,darius4 ,syria was thus added to the   
,greek conquests4 ,in ,damascus were    
found many of the concubines of ,darius 
and his chief officers1 together  with a
 vast treasure4    ,before venturing    
into the plains of ,mesopotamia for the 
final struggle1  ,alexander1 to secure  
his rear and preserve his communications
 with the  sea1 marched southward down  
the ,mediterranean coast1 reducing the  
cities  in his way4 ,in his speech      
before the council of war after ,issus1 
he told  his generals that they must not
 pursue ,darius with ,tyre unsubdued1   

and  ,persia in possession of ,egypt and
 ,cyprus1 for1 if ,persia should regain 
her seaports1 she would transfer the war
 into ,greece1 and that it was          
absolutely necessary for him to be      
sovereign at sea4 ,with ,cyprus and     
,egypt in his possession he felt no     
solicitude about ,greece4 ,the siege  of
 ,tyre cost him more than half a year4  
,in revenge for this delay1  he         
crucified1 it is said1 two thousand of  
his prisoners4 ,jerusalem  voluntarily  
surrendered1 and therefore was treated  
leniently3 but the  passage of the      
,macedonian army into ,egypt being      
obstructed at ,gaza1 the  ,persian      
governor of which1 ,betis1 made a most  
obstinate defense1 that  place1 after a 
siege of two months1 was carried by     
assault1 ten thousand  of its men were  
massacred1 and the rest1 with their     
wives and children1  sold into slavery4 
,betis himself was dragged alive round  
the city at the  chariot-wheels of the  
conqueror4 ,there was now no further    

obstacle4 ,the  ,egyptians1 who detested
 the ,persian rule1 received their      
invader with  open arms4 ,he organized  
the country in his own interest1        
intrusting  all its military commands to
 ,macedonian officers1 and leaving the  
civil  government in the hands of native
 ,egyptians4    ,,conquest ,,of ,,egypt4
 ,while preparations for the final      
campaign were being  made1 he undertook 
a journey to the temple of ,jupiter     
,ammon1 which was  situated in an oasis 
of the ,libyan ,desert1 at a distance of
 two hundred  miles4 ,the oracle        
declared him to be a son of that god    
who1 under  the form of a serpent1 had  
beguiled ,olympias1 his mother4         
,immaculate  conceptions and celestial  
descents were so currently received in  
those  days1 that whoever had greatly   
distinguished himself in the affairs of 
men was thought to be of supernatural   
lineage4 ,even in ,rome1 centuries      
later1 no one could with safety have    
denied that the city owed its  founder1 

,romulus1 to an accidental meeting of   
the god ,mars with the  virgin ,rhea    
,sylvia1 as she went with her pitcher   
for water to the  spring4 ,the ,egyptian
 disciples of ,plato would have looked  
with anger on  those who rejected the   
legend that ,perictione1 the mother of  
that  great philosopher1 a pure virgin1 
had suffered an immaculate conception   
through the influences of ,apollo1 and  
that the god had declared to  ,ariston1 
to whom she was betrothed1 the parentage
 of the child4 ,when  ,alexander issued 
his letters1 orders1 and decrees1       
styling himself ,king  ,alexander1 the  
son of ,jupiter ,ammon1 they came to the
 inhabitants of  ,egypt and ,syria with 
an authority that now can hardly be     
realized4 ,the  free-thinking ,greeks1  
however1 put on such a supernatural     
pedigree its  proper value4 ,olympias1  
who1 of course1 better than all others  
knew the  facts of the case1 used       
jestingly to say1 that she wished       
,alexander  would cease from incessantly

 embroiling her with ,jupiter's wife4   
,arrian1 the historian of the           
,macedonian expedition1 observes1 ,i    
cannot  condemn him for endeavoring to  
draw his subjects into the belief of his
  divine origin1 nor can ,i be induced  
to think it any great crime1 for it  is 
very reasonable to imagine that he      
intended no more by it than merely  to  
procure the greater authority among his 
soldiers4    ,,greek ,,conquest ,,of    
,,persia4 ,all things being thus secured
 in his rear1  ,alexander1 having       
returned into ,syria1 directed the march
 of his army1  now consisting of fifty  
thousand veterans1 eastward4 ,after     
crossing the  ,euphrates1 he kept close 
to the ,masian hills1 to avoid the      
intense heat  of the more southerly     
,mesopotamian plains2 more abundant     
forage could  also thus be procured for 
the cavalry4 ,on the left bank of the   
,tigris1  near ,arbela1 he encountered  
the great army of eleven hundred        
thousand  men brought up by ,darius from

 ,babylon4 ,the death of the ,persian   
monarch1  which soon followed the defeat
 he suffered1 left the ,macedonian      
general  master of all the countries    
from the ,danube to the ,indus4         
,eventually he  extended his conquest to
 the ,ganges4 ,the treasures he seized  
are almost  beyond belief4 ,at ,susa    
alone he found--so ,arrian says--fifty  
thousand  talents in money4    ,,events 
,,of ,,the ,,campaigns4 ,the modern     
military student cannot look  upon these
 wonderful campaigns without admiration4
 ,the passage of the  ,hellespont2 the  
forcing of the ,granicus2 the winter    
spent in a political  organization of   
conquered ,asia ,minor2 the march of the
 right wing and  centre of the army     
along the ,syrian ,mediterranean coast2 
the engineering  difficulties overcome  
at the siege of ,tyre2 the storming of  
,gaza2 the  isolation of ,persia from   
,greece2 the absolute exclusion of her  
navy from  the ,mediterranean2 the check
 on all her attempts at intriguing with 

or bribing ,athenians or ,spartans1     
heretofore so often resorted to with    
success2 the submission of ,egypt2      
another winter spent in the political   
organization of that venerable country2 
the convergence of the whole  army from 
the ,black and ,red ,seas toward the    
nitre-covered plains of  ,mesopotamia in
 the ensuing spring2 the passage of the 
,euphrates fringed  with its            
weeping-willows at the broken bridge of 
,thapsacus2 the crossing  of the        
,tigris2 the nocturnal reconnaissance   
before the great and  memorable battle  
of ,arbela2 the oblique movement on the 
field2 the  piercing of the enemy's     
centre--a manoeuvre destined to be      
repeated  many centuries subsequently at
 ,austerlitz2 the energetic pursuit of  
the ,persian monarch2 these are exploits
 not surpassed by any soldier of  later 
times4    ,a prodigious stimulus was    
thus given to ,greek intellectual       
activity4  ,there were men who had      
marched with the ,macedonian army from  

the ,danube  to the ,nile1 from the     
,nile to the ,ganges4 ,they had felt the
 hyperborean  blasts of the countries   
beyond the ,black ,sea1 the simooms and 
sand-tempests of the ,egyptian deserts4 
,they had seen the ,pyramids which  had 
already stood for twenty centuries1 the 
hieroglyph-covered obelisks  of ,luxor1 
avenues of silent and mysterious        
sphinxes1 colossi of monarchs  who      
reigned in the morning of the world4 ,in
 the halls of ,esar-haddon  they had    
stood before the thrones of grim old    
,assyrian kings1 guarded by  winged     
bulls4 ,in ,babylon there still remained
 its walls1 once more than  sixty miles 
in compass1 and1 after the ravages of   
three centuries and  three conquerors1  
still more than eighty feet in height2  
there were  still the ruins of the      
temple of cloud encompassed ,bel1 on its
 top was  planted the observatory       
wherein the weird ,chaldean astronomers 
had held  nocturnal communion with the  
stars2 still there were vestiges of the 

two  palaces with their hanging gardens 
in which were great trees growing in    
mid-air1 and the wreck of the hydraulic 
machinery that had supplied  them with  
water from the river4 ,into the         
artificial lake with its vast  apparatus
 of aqueducts and sluices the melted    
snows of the ,armenian  mountains found 
their way1 and were confined in their   
course through  the city by the         
embankments of the ,euphrates4 ,most    
wonderful of all1  perhaps1 was the     
tunnel under the river-bed4    ,,effect 
,,on ,,the ,,greek ,,army4 ,if ,chaldea1
 ,assyria1 ,babylon1 presented          
stupendous and venerable antiquities    
reaching far back into the night of     
time1 ,persia was not without her       
wonders of a later date4 ,the pillared  
halls of ,persepolis were filled with   
miracles of art--carvings1  sculptures1 
enamels1 alabaster libraries1 obelisks1 
sphinxes1 colossal  bulls4 ,ecbatana1   
the cool summer retreat of the ,persian 
kings1 was  defended by seven encircling

 walls of hewn and polished blocks1 the 
interior ones in succession of          
increasing height1 and of different     
colors1 in astrological accordance with 
the seven planets4 ,the palace  was     
roofed with silver tiles1 its beams were
 plated with gold4 ,at  midnight1 in its
 halls the sunlight was rivaled by many 
a row of naphtha  cressets4 ,a          
paradise--that luxury of the monarchs of
 the ,east--was  planted in the midst of
 the city4 ,the ,persian ,empire1 from  
the  ,hellespont to the ,indus1 was     
truly the garden of the world4          
,,effects ,,on ,,the ,,greek ,,army4 ,i 
have devoted a few pages to the story of
  these marvelous campaigns1 for the    
military talent they fostered led  to   
the establishment of the mathematical   
and practical schools of  ,alexandria1  
the true origin of science4 ,we trace   
back all our exact  knowledge to the    
,macedonian campaigns4 ,humboldt has    
well observed that  an introduction to  
new and grand objects of ,nature        

enlarges the human  mind4 ,the soldiers 
of ,alexander and the hosts of his      
camp-followers  encountered at every    
march unexpected and picturesque        
scenery4 ,of all  men1 the ,greeks were 
the most observant1 the most readily and
 profoundly  impressed4 ,here there were
 interminable sandy plains1 there       
mountains  whose peaks were lost above  
the clouds4 ,in the deserts were        
mirages1  on the hill-sides shadows of  
fleeting clouds sweeping over the       
forests4  ,they were in a land of       
amber-colored date-palms and cypresses1 
of  tamarisks1 green myrtles1 and       
oleanders4 ,at ,arbela they had fought  
against ,indian elephants2 in the       
thickets of the ,caspian they had roused
  from his lair the lurking royal tiger4
 ,they had seen animals which1  compared
 with those of ,europe1 were not only   
strange1 but colossal--the  rhinoceros1 
the hippopotamus1 the camel1 the        
crocodiles of the ,nile  and the        
,ganges4 ,they had encountered men of   

many complexions and many  costumes3 the
 swarthy ,syrian1 the olive-colored     
,persian1 the black  ,african4 ,even of 
,alexander himself it is related that on
 his death-bed  he caused his admiral1  
,nearchus1 to sit by his side1 and found
  consolation in listening to the       
adventures of that sailor--the story of 
his voyage from the ,indus up the       
,persian ,gulf4 ,the conqueror had seen 
with astonishment the ebbing and flowing
 of the tides4 ,he had built  ships for 
the exploration of the ,caspian1        
supposing that it and  the ,black ,sea  
might be gulfs of a great ocean1 such as
 ,nearchus had  discovered the ,persian 
and ,red ,seas to be4 ,he had formed a  
resolution  that his fleet should       
attempt the circumnavigation of ,africa1
 and come  into the ,mediterranean      
through the ,pillars of ,hercules--a    
feat which1 it  was affirmed1 had once  
been accomplished by the ,pharaohs4     
,,intellectual ,,condition ,,of         
,,persia4 ,not only her greatest        

soldiers1 but  also her greatest        
philosophers1 found in the conquered    
empire much that  might excite the      
admiration of ,greece4 ,callisthenes    
obtained in ,babylon  a series of       
,chaldean astronomical observations     
ranging back through  #a1ijc years2     
these he sent to ,aristotle4 ,perhaps1  
since they were on  burnt bricks1       
duplicates of them may be recovered by  
modern research  in the clay libraries  
of the ,assyrian kings4 ,ptolemy1 the   
,egyptian  astronomer1 possessed a      
,babylonian record of eclipses1 going   
back  #gdg years before our era4        
,long-continued and close observations  
were  necessary1 before some of these   
astronomical results that have reached  
our times could have been ascertained4  
,thus the ,babylonians had fixed  the   
length of a tropical year within        
twenty-five seconds of the truth2  their
 estimate of the sidereal year was      
barely two minutes in excess4  ,they had
 detected the precession of the         

equinoxes4 ,they knew the causes  of    
eclipses1 and1 by the aid of their cycle
 called ,saros1 could predict  them4    
,their estimate of the value of that    
cycle1 which is more than  #f1ehe days1 
was within nineteen and a half minutes  
of the truth4    ,,intellectual         
,,condition ,,of ,,persia4 ,such facts  
furnish incontrovertible  proof of the  
patience and skill with which astronomy 
had been cultivated  in ,mesopotamia1   
and that1 with very inadequate          
instrumental means1 it  had reached no  
inconsiderable perfection4 ,these old   
observers had made  a catalogue of the  
stars1 had divided the zodiac into      
twelve signs2 they  had parted the day  
into twelve hours1 the night into       
twelve4 ,they had1  as ,aristotle says1 
for a long time devoted themselves to   
observations of  star-occultations by   
the moon4 ,they had correct views of the
 structure  of the solar system1 and    
knew the order of the emplacement of the
  planets4 ,they constructed sundials1  

clepsydras1 astrolabes1 gnomons4    ,not
 without interest do we still look on   
specimens of their method of  printing4 
,upon a revolving roller they engraved1 
in cuneiform letters1  their records1   
and1 running this over plastic clay     
formed into blocks1  produced           
ineffaceable proofs4 ,from their        
tile-libraries we are still  to reap a  
literary and historical harvest4 ,they  
were not without some  knowledge of     
optics4 ,the convex lens found at       
,nimroud shows that they  were not      
unacquainted with magnifying            
instruments4 ,in arithmetic they  had   
detected the value of position in the   
digits1 though they missed the  grand   
,indian invention of the cipher4        
,what a spectacle for the conquering    
,greeks1 who1 up to this time1 had      
neither experimented nor observed6 ,they
 had contented themselves with  mere    
meditation and useless speculation4     
,,its ,,religious ,,condition4 ,but     
,greek intellectual development1 due    

thus  in part to a more extended view of
 ,nature1 was powerfully aided by the   
knowledge then acquired of the religion 
of the conquered country4 ,the  idolatry
 of ,greece had always been a horror to 
,persia1 who1 in her  invasions1 had    
never failed to destroy the temples and 
insult the fanes  of the bestial gods4  
,the impunity with which these          
sacrileges had  been perpetrated had    
made a profound impression1 and did no  
little to  undermine ,hellenic faith4   
,but now the worshiper of the vile      
,olympian  divinities1 whose obscene    
lives must have been shocking to every  
pious man1 was brought in contact with a
 grand1 a solemn1 a consistent          
religious system having its foundation  
on a philosophical basis4 ,persia1  as  
is the case with all empires of long    
duration1 had passed through  many      
changes of religion4 ,she had followed  
the ,monotheism of ,zoroaster2  had then
 accepted ,dualism1 and exchanged that  
for ,magianism4 ,at the time  of the    

,macedonian expedition1 she recognized  
one universal ,intelligence1  the       
,creator1 ,preserver1 and ,governor of  
all things1 the most holy  essence of   
truth1 the giver of all good4 ,he was   
not to be represented by  any image1 or 
any graven form4 ,and1 since1 in every  
thing here below1 we  see the resultant 
of two opposing forces1 under him were  
two coequal and  coeternal principles1  
represented by the imagery of ,light and
 ,darkness4  ,these principles are in   
never-ending conflict4 ,the world is    
their  battle-ground1 man is their      
prize4    ,in the old legends of        
,dualism1 the ,evil ,spirit was said to 
have sent  a serpent to ruin the        
paradise which the ,good ,spirit had    
made4 ,these  legends became known to   
the ,jews during their ,babylonian      
captivity4    ,the existence of a       
principle of evil is the necessary      
incident of the  existence of a         
principle of good1 as a shadow is the   
necessary incident  of the presence of  

light4 ,in this manner could be         
explained the  occurrence of evil in a  
world1 the maker and ruler of which is  
supremely  good4 ,each of the           
personified principles of light and     
darkness1 ,ormuzd  and ,ahriman1 had his
 subordinate angels1 his counselors1 his
 armies4 ,it  is the duty of a good man 
to cultivate truth1 purity1 and         
industry4 ,he  may look forward1 when   
this life is over1 to a life in another 
world1  and trust to a resurrection of  
the body1 the immortality of the soul1  
and a conscious future existence4    ,in
 the later years of the empire1 the     
principles of ,magianism had  gradually 
prevailed more and more over those of   
,zoroaster4 ,magianism was  essentially 
a worship of the elements4 ,of these1   
fire was considered as  the most worthy 
representative of the ,supreme ,being4  
,on altars erected1  not in temples1 but
 under the blue canopy of the sky1      
perpetual fires  were kept burning1 and 
the rising sun was regarded as the      

noblest object  of human adoration4 ,in 
the society of ,asia1 nothing is visible
 but the  monarch2 in the expanse of    
heaven1 all objects vanish in presence  
of the  sun4    ,,death ,,of            
,,alexander4 ,prematurely cut off in the
 midst of many great  projects          
,alexander died at ,babylon before he   
had completed his  thirty-third year    
7,b4,c4 #cbc74 ,there was a suspicion   
that he had been  poisoned4 ,his temper 
had become so unbridled1 his passion so 
ferocious1  that his generals and even  
his intimate friends lived in continual 
dread4 ,clitus1 one of the latter1 he in
 a moment of fury had stabbed to  the   
heart4 ,callisthenes1 the intermedium   
between himself and ,aristotle1  he had 
caused to be hanged1 or1 as was         
positively asserted by some who  knew   
the facts1 had had him put upon the rack
 and then crucified4 ,it  may have been 
in self-defense that the conspirators   
resolved on his  assassination4 ,but    
surely it was a calumny to associate the

 name of  ,aristotle with this          
transaction4 ,he would have rather borne
 the worst  that ,alexander could       
inflict1 than have joined in the        
perpetration of so  great a crime4    ,a
 scene of confusion and bloodshed       
lasting many years ensued1 nor did it   
cease even after the ,macedonian        
generals had divided the empire4 ,among 
its vicissitudes one incident mainly    
claims our attention4 ,ptolemy1 who  was
 a son of ,king ,philip by ,arsinoe1 a  
beautiful concubine1 and who  in his    
boyhood had been driven into exile with 
,alexander1 when they  incurred their   
father's displeasure1 who had been      
,alexander's comrade  in many of his    
battles and all his campaigns1 became   
governor and  eventually king of ,egypt4
    ,,foundation ,,of ,,alexander4 ,at  
the siege of ,rhodes1 ,ptolemy had been 
of  such signal service to its citizens 
that in gratitude they paid divine      
honors to him1 and saluted him with the 
title of ,soter 7the ,savior74  ,by that

 designation--,ptolemy ,soter--he is    
distinguished from succeeding  kings of 
the ,macedonian dynasty in ,egypt4      
,he established his seat of government  
not in any of the old capitals  of the  
country1 but in ,alexandria4 ,at the    
time of the expedition to  the temple of
 ,jupiter ,ammon1 the ,macedonian       
conqueror had caused the  foundations of
 that city to be laid1 foreseeing that  
it might be  made the commercial        
entrepot between ,asia and ,europe4 ,it 
is to be  particularly remarked that not
 only did ,alexander himself deport many
  ,jews from ,palestine to people the   
city1 and not only did ,ptolemy ,soter  
bring one hundred thousand more after   
his siege of ,jerusalem1 but            
,philadelphus1 his successor1 redeemed  
from slavery one hundred and            
ninety-eight thousand of that people1   
paying their ,egyptian owners a  just   
money equivalent for each4 ,to all these
 ,jews the same privileges  were        
accorded as to the ,macedonians4 ,in    

consequence of this considerate         
treatment1 vast numbers of their        
compatriots and many ,syrians           
voluntarily came into ,egypt4 ,to them  
the designation of ,hellenistical  ,jews
 was given4 ,in like manner1 tempted by 
the benign government of  ,soter1       
multitudes of ,greeks sought refuge in  
the country1 and the  invasions of      
,perdiccas and ,antigonus showed that   
,greek soldiers would  desert from other
 ,macedonian generals to join is armies4
    ,the population of ,alexandria was  
therefore of three distinct             
nationalities3 #a4 ,native ,egyptians   
#b4 ,greeks2 #c4 ,jews--a fact that has 
left an impress on the religious faith  
of modern ,europe4    ,greek architects 
and ,greek engineers had made           
,alexandria the most  beautiful city of 
the ancient world4 ,they had filled it  
with magnificent  palaces1 temples1     
theatres4 ,in its centre1 at the        
intersection of its  two grand avenues1 
which crossed each other at right       

angles1 and in the  midst of gardens1   
fountains1 obelisks1 stood the          
mausoleum1 in  which1 embalmed after the
 manner of the ,egyptians1 rested the   
body of  ,alexander4 ,in a funereal     
journey of two years it had been brought
 with  great pomp from ,babylon4 ,at    
first the coffin was of pure gold1 but  
this having led to a violation of the   
tomb1 it was replaced by one of         
alabaster4 ,but not these1 not even the 
great light-house1 ,pharos1 built  of   
blocks of white marble and so high that 
the fire continually burning  on its top
 could be seen many miles off at        
sea--the ,pharos counted  as one of the 
seven wonders of the world--it is not   
these magnificent  achievements of      
architecture that arrest our attention2 
the true1 the  most glorious monument of
 the ,macedonian kings of ,egypt is the 
,museum4  ,its influences will last when
 even the ,pyramids have passed away4   
,,the ,,alexandrian ,,museum4 ,the      
,alexandrian ,museum was commenced by   

,ptolemy  ,soter1 and was completed by  
his son ,ptolemy ,philadelphus4 ,it was 
situated in the ,bruchion1 the          
aristocratic quarter of the city1       
adjoining the king's palace4 ,built of  
marble1 it was surrounded with  a       
piazza1 in which the residents might    
walk and converse together4 ,its        
sculptured apartments contained the     
,philadelphian library1 and were        
crowded with the choicest statues and   
pictures4 ,this library eventually      
comprised four hundred thousand volumes4
 ,in the course of time1 probably  on   
account of inadequate accommodation for 
so many books1 an additional  library   
was established in the adjacent quarter 
,rhacotis1 and placed  in the ,serapion 
or temple of ,serapis4 ,the number of   
volumes in this  library1 which was     
called the ,daughter of that in the     
,museum1 was  eventually three hundred  
thousand4 ,there were1 therefore1 seven 
hundred  thousand volumes in these royal
 collections4    ,alexandria was not    

merely the capital of ,egypt1 it was the
 intellectual  metropolis of the world4 
,here it was truly said the ,genius of  
the ,east  met the ,genius of the ,west1
 and this ,paris of antiquity became a  
focus  of fashionable dissipation and   
universal skepticism4 ,in the           
allurements  of its bewitching society  
even the ,jews forgot their patriotism4 
,they  abandoned the language of their  
forefathers1 and adopted ,greek4    ,in 
the establishment of the ,museum1       
,ptolemy ,soter and his son             
,philadelphus had three objects in view3
 #a4 ,the perpetuation of such          
knowledge as was then in the world2 #b4 
,its increase2 #c4 ,its diffusion4      
#a4 ,for the perpetuation of knowledge4 
,orders were given to the chief         
librarian to buy at the king's expense  
whatever books he could4 ,a body  of    
transcribers was maintained in the      
,museum1 whose duty it was to make      
correct copies of such works as their   
owners were not disposed to sell4  ,any 

books brought by foreigners into ,egypt 
were taken at once to the  ,museum1 and1
 when correct copies had been made1 the 
transcript was given  to the owner1 and 
the original placed in the library4     
,often a very large  pecuniary indemnity
 was paid4 ,thus it is said of ,ptolemy 
,euergetes  that1 having obtained from  
,athens the works of ,euripides1        
,sophocles1  and ,aeschylus1 he sent to 
their owners transcripts1 together with 
about  fifteen thousand dollars1 as an  
indemnity4 ,on his return from the      
,syrian  expedition he carried back in  
triumph all the ,egyptian monuments from
  ,ecbatana and ,susa1 which ,cambyses  
and other invaders had removed from     
,egypt4 ,these he replaced in their     
original seats1 or added as adornments  
to his museums4 ,when works were        
translated as well as transcribed1 sums 
which we should consider as almost      
incredible were paid1 as was the  case  
with the ,septuagint translation of the 
,bible1 ordered by ,ptolemy             

,philadelphus4    #b4 ,for the increase 
of knowledge4 ,one of the chief objects 
of the ,museum  was that of serving as  
the home of a body of men who devoted   
themselves  to study1 and were lodged   
and maintained at the king's expense4   
,occasionally he himself sat at their   
table4 ,anecdotes connected with  those 
festive occasions have descended to our 
times4 ,in the original  organization of
 the ,museum the residents were divided 
into four  faculties--literature2       
mathematics1 astronomy1 medicine4 ,minor
 branches  were appropriately classified
 under one of these general heads2 thus 
natural history was considered to be a  
branch of medicine4 ,an officer of  very
 great distinction presided over the    
establishment1 and had general  charge  
of its interests4 ,demetrius ,phalareus1
 perhaps the most learned  man of his   
age1 who had been governor of ,athens   
for many years1 was the  first so       
appointed4 ,under him was the librarian1
 an office sometimes  held by men whose 

names have descended to our times1 as   
,eratosthenes1  and ,apollonius         
,rhodius4    ,,organization ,,of ,,the  
,,museum4 ,in connection with the       
,museum were a  botanical and a         
zoological garden4 ,these gardens1 as   
their names import1  were for the       
purpose of facilitating the study of    
plants and animals4  ,there was also an 
astronomical observatory containing     
armillary spheres1  globes1 solstitial  
and equatorial armils1 astrolabes1      
parallactic  rules1 and other apparatus 
then in use1 the graduation on the      
divided  instruments being into degrees 
and sixths4 ,on the floor of this       
observatory a meridian line was drawn4  
,the want of correct means of  measuring
 time and temperature was severely felt2
 the clepsydra of  ,ctesibius answered  
very imperfectly for the former1 the    
hydrometer  floating in a cup of water  
for the latter2 it measured variations  
of  temperature by variations of        
density4 ,philadelphus1 who toward the  

close  of his life was haunted with an  
intolerable dread of death1 devoted much
  of his time to the discovery of an    
elixir4 ,for such pursuits the ,museum  
was provided with a chemical laboratory4
 ,in spite of the prejudices of  the    
age1 and especially in spite of         
,egyptian prejudices1 there was  in     
connection with the medical department  
an anatomical room for the  dissection1 
not only of the dead1 but actually of   
the living1 who for  crimes had been    
condemned4    #c4 ,for the diffusion of 
knowledge4 ,in the ,museum was given1 by
 lectures1  conversation1 or other      
appropriate methods instruction in all  
the  various departments of human       
knowledge4 ,there flocked to this great 
intellectual centre1 students from all  
countries4 ,it is said that at one  time
 not fewer than fourteen thousand were  
in attendance4 ,subsequently  even the  
,christian church received from it some 
of the most eminent of  its ,fathers1 as
 ,clemens ,alexandrinus1 ,origen1       

,athanasius4    ,the library in the     
,museum was burnt during the siege of   
,alexandria by  ,julius ,caesar4 ,to    
make amends for this great loss1 that   
collected  by ,eumenes1 ,king of        
,pergamus1 was presented by ,mark       
,antony to ,queen  ,cleopatra4          
,originally it was founded as a rival to
 that of the  ,ptolemies4 ,it was added 
to the collection in the ,serapion4     
,,scientific ,,school ,,of ,,the        
,,museum4 ,it remains now to describe   
briefly the  philosophical basis of the 
,museum1 and some of its contributions  
to the  stock of human knowledge4    ,in
 memory of the illustrious founder of   
this most noble institution--an         
institution which antiquity delighted to
 call ,the divine school of             
,alexandria--we must mention in the     
first rank his ,history of the          
,campaigns of ,alexander4 ,great as a   
soldier and as a sovereign1 ,ptolemy    
,soter added to his glory by being an   
author4 ,time1 which has not been  able 

to destroy the memory of our obligations
 to him1 has dealt unjustly  by his     
work4 ,it is not now extant4    ,as     
might be expected from the friendship   
that existed between ,alexander1        
,ptolemy1 and ,aristotle1 the           
,aristotelian philosophy was the        
intellectual  corner-stone on which the 
,museum rested4 ,king ,philip had       
committed the  education of ,alexander  
to ,aristotle1 and during the ,persian  
campaigns  the conqueror contributed    
materially1 not only in money1 but      
otherwise1  toward the ,natural ,history
 then in preparation4    ,the essential 
principle of the ,aristotelian          
philosophy was1 to rise  from the study 
of particulars to a knowledge of general
 principles or  universals1 advancing to
 them by induction4 ,the induction is   
the  more certain as the facts on which 
it is based are more numerous2 its      
correctness is established if it should 
enable us to predict other facts  until 
then unknown4 ,this system implies      

endless toil in the collection  of      
facts1 both by experiment and           
observation2 it implies also a close    
meditation on them4 ,it is1 therefore1  
essentially a method of labor  and of   
reason1 not a method of imagination4    
,the failures that ,aristotle  himself  
so often exhibits are no proof of its   
unreliability1 but  rather of its       
trustworthiness4 ,they are failures     
arising from want of a  sufficiency of  
facts4    ,,ethical ,,school ,,of ,,the 
,,museum4 ,some of the general results  
at which  ,aristotle arrived are very   
grand4 ,thus1 he concluded that every   
thing is  ready to burst into life1 and 
that the various organic forms presented
  to us by ,nature are those which      
existing conditions permit4 ,should  the
 conditions change1 the forms will also 
change4 ,hence there is an  unbroken    
chain from the simple element through   
plants and animals up to  man1 the      
different groups merging by insensible  
shades into each other4    ,the         

inductive philosophy thus established by
 ,aristotle is a method of  great power4
 ,to it all the modern advances in      
science are due4 ,in  its most improved 
form it rises by inductions from        
phenomena to their  causes1 and then1   
imitating the method of the ,academy1 it
 descends by  deductions from those     
causes to the detail of phenomena4      
,while thus the ,scientific ,school of  
,alexandria was founded on the maxims   
of one great ,athenian philosopher1 the 
,ethical ,school was founded on the     
maxims of another1 for ,zeno1 though a  
,cypriote or ,phoenician1 had for  many 
years been established at ,athens4 ,his 
disciples took the name of  ,stoics4    
,his doctrines long survived him1 and1  
in times when there was no  other       
consolation for man1 offered a support  
in the hour of trial1 and  an unwavering
 guide in the vicissitudes of life1 not 
only to illustrious  ,greeks1 but also  
to many of the great philosophers1      
statesmen1 generals1  and emperors of   

,rome4    ,,the ,,principles ,,of       
,,stoicism4 ,the aim of ,zeno was1 to   
furnish a guide  for the daily practice 
of life1 to make men virtuous4 ,he      
insisted that  education is the true    
foundation of virtue1 for1 if we know   
what is  good1 we shall incline to do   
it4 ,we must trust to sense1 to furnish 
the  data of knowledge1 and reason will 
suitably combine them4 ,in this the     
affinity of ,zeno to ,aristotle is      
plainly seen4 ,every appetite1 lust1    
desire1 springs from imperfect          
knowledge4 ,our nature is imposed upon  
us by ,fate1 but we must learn to       
control our passions1 and live free1    
intelligent1 virtuous1 in all things in 
accordance with reason4 ,our  existence 
should be intellectual1 we should survey
 with equanimity all  pleasures and all 
pains4 ,we should never forget that we  
are freemen1 not  the slaves of society4
 ,i possess1 said the ,stoic1 a treasure
 which  not all the world can rob me    
of--no one can deprive me of death4 ,we 

should remember that ,nature in her     
operations aims at the universal1 and   
never spares individuals1 but uses them 
as means for the accomplishment  of her 
ends4 ,it is1 therefore1 for us to      
submit to ,destiny1 cultivating1  as the
 things necessary to virtue1 knowledge1 
temperance1 fortitude1  justice4 ,we    
must remember that every thing around us
 is in mutation2  decay follows         
reproduction1 and reproduction decay1   
and that it is  useless to repine at    
death in a world where every thing is   
dying4 ,as a  cataract shows from year  
to year an invariable shape1 though the 
water  composing it is perpetually      
changing1 so the aspect of ,nature is   
nothing  more than a flow of matter     
presenting an impermanent form4 ,the    
universe1  considered as a whole1 is    
unchangeable4 ,nothing is eternal but   
space1 atoms1 force4 ,the forms of      
,nature that we see are essentially     
transitory1 they must all pass away4    
,,stoicism ,,in ,,the ,,museum4 ,we must

 bear in mind that the majority of men  
are imperfectly educated1 and hence we  
must not needlessly offend the          
religious ideas of our age4 ,it is      
enough for us ourselves to know that1   
though there is a ,supreme ,power1 there
 is no ,supreme ,being4 ,there is an    
invisible principle1 but not a personal 
,god1 to whom it would be not  so much  
blasphemy as absurdity to impute the    
form1 the sentiments1 the  passions of  
man4 ,all revelation is1 necessarily1 a 
mere fiction4 ,that  which men call     
chance is only the effect of an unknown 
cause4 ,even of  chances there is a law4
 ,there is no such thing as ,providence1
 for ,nature  proceeds under            
irresistible laws1 and in this respect  
the universe is  only a vast automatic  
engine4 ,the vital force which pervades 
the world  is what the illiterate call  
,god4 ,the modifications through which  
all  things are running take place in an
 irresistible way1 and hence it may  be 
said that the progress of the world is1 

under ,destiny1 like a seed1  it can    
evolve only in a predetermined mode4    
,the soul of man is a spark of the vital
 flame1 the general vital  principle4   
,like heat1 it passes from one to       
another1 and is finally  reabsorbed or  
reunited in the universal principle from
 which it came4  ,hence we must not     
expect annihilation1 but reunion2 and1  
as the tired  man looks forward to the  
insensibility of sleep1 so the          
philosopher1  weary of the world1 should
 look forward to the tranquillity of    
extinction4 ,of these things1 however1  
we should think doubtingly1 since  the  
mind can produce no certain knowledge   
from its internal resources  alone4 ,it 
is unphilosophical to inquire into first
 causes2 we must deal  only with        
phenomena4 ,above all1 we must never    
forget that man cannot  ascertain       
absolute truth1 and that the final      
result of human inquiry  into the matter
 is1 that we are incapable of perfect   
knowledge2 that1  even if the truth be  

in our possession1 we cannot be sure of 
it4    ,what1 then1 remains for us8 ,is 
it not this--the acquisition of         
knowledge1 the cultivation of virtue and
 of friendship1 the observance  of faith
 and truth1 an unrepining submission to 
whatever befalls us1 a  life led in     
accordance with reason8    ,,platonism  
,,in ,,the ,,museum4 ,but1 though the   
,alexandrian ,museum was  especially    
intended for the cultivation of the     
,aristotelian philosophy1  it must not  
be supposed that other systems were     
excluded4 ,platonism was  not only      
carried to its full development1 but in 
the end it supplanted  ,peripateticism1 
and through the ,new ,academy left a    
permanent impress on  ,christianity4    
,the philosophical method of ,plato was 
the inverse of that  of ,aristotle4 ,its
 starting-point was universals1 the very
 existence of  which was a matter of    
faith1 and from these it descended to   
particulars1  or details4 ,aristotle1 on
 the contrary1 rose from particulars to 

universals1 advancing to them by        
inductions4    ,plato1 therefore1       
trusted to the imagination1 ,aristotle  
to reason4  ,the former descended from  
the decomposition of a primitive idea   
into  particulars1 the latter united    
particulars into a general conception4  
,hence the method of ,plato was capable 
of quickly producing what seemed  to be 
splendid1 though in reality             
unsubstantial results2 that of          
,aristotle was more tardy in its        
operation1 but much more solid4 ,it     
implied endless labor in the collection 
of facts1 a tedious resort  to          
experiment and observation1 the         
application of demonstration4 ,the      
philosophy of ,plato is a gorgeous      
castle in the air2 that of ,aristotle  a
 solid structure1 laboriously1 and with 
many failures1 founded on the  solid    
rock4    ,an appeal to the imagination  
is much more alluring than the          
employment  of reason4 ,in the          
intellectual decline of ,alexandria1    

indolent methods  were preferred to     
laborious observation and severe mental 
exercise4 ,the  schools of              
,neo-,platonism were crowded with       
speculative mystics1 such  as ,ammonius 
,saccas and ,plotinus4 ,these took the  
place of the severe  geometers of the   
old ,museum4    ,,physical ,,science    
,,in ,,the ,,museum4 ,the ,alexandrian  
school offers the first  example of that
 system which1 in the hands of modern   
physicists1 has  led to such wonderful  
results4 ,it rejected imagination1 and  
made its  theories the expression of    
facts obtained by experiment and        
observation1  aided by mathematical     
discussion4 ,it enforced the principle  
that the  true method of studying       
,nature is by experimental              
interrogation4 ,the  researches of      
,archimedes in specific gravity1 and the
 works of  ,ptolemy on optics1 resemble 
our present investigations in           
experimental  philosophy1 and stand in  
striking contrast with the speculative  

vagaries  of the older writers4 ,laplace
 says that the only observation which   
the  history of astronomy offers us1    
made by the ,greeks before the school   
of ,alexandria1 is that of the summer   
solstice of the year ,b4,c4 #dcb4  by   
,meton and ,euctemon4 ,we have1 for the 
first time1 in that school1  a combined 
system of observations made with        
instruments for the  measurement of     
angles1 and calculated by               
trigonometrical methods4  ,astronomy    
then took a form which subsequent ages  
could only perfect4      ,it does not   
accord with the compass or the intention
 of this work to  give a detailed       
account of the contributions of the     
,alexandrian ,museum  to the stock of   
human knowledge4 ,it is sufficient that 
the reader should  obtain a general     
impression of their character4 ,for     
particulars1 ,i  may refer him to the   
sixth chapter of my ,history of the     
,intellectual  ,development of ,europe4 
,,euclid--,,archimedes4 ,it has just    

been remarked that the ,stoical         
philosophy doubted whether the mind can 
ascertain absolute truth4 ,while  ,zeno 
was indulging in such doubts1 ,euclid   
was preparing his great work1  destined 
to challenge contradiction from the     
whole human race4 ,after  more than     
twenty-two centuries it still survives1 
a model of accuracy1  perspicuity1 and a
 standard of exact demonstration4 ,this 
great geometer  not only wrote on other 
mathematical topics1 such as ,conic     
,sections and  ,prisms1 but there are   
imputed to him treatises on ,harmonics  
and ,optics1  the latter subject being  
discussed on the hypothesis of rays     
issuing  from the eye to the object4    
,with the ,alexandrian mathematicians   
and physicists must be classed          
,archimedes1 though he eventually       
resided in ,sicily4 ,among his          
mathematical works were two books on the
 ,sphere and ,cylinder1 in  which he    
gave the demonstration that the solid   
content of a sphere is  two-thirds that 

of its circumscribing cylinder4 ,so     
highly did he esteem  this1 that he     
directed the diagram to be engraved on  
his tombstone4 ,he  also treated of the 
quadrature of the circle and of the     
parabola2 he  wrote on ,conoids and     
,spheroids1 and on the spiral that bears
 his name1  the genesis of which was    
suggested to him by his friend ,conon   
the  ,alexandrian4 ,as a mathematician1 
,europe produced no equal to him for    
nearly two thousand years4 ,in physical 
science he laid the foundation  of      
hydrostatics2 invented a method for the 
determination of specific  gravities2   
discussed the equilibrium of floating   
bodies2 discovered the  true theory of  
the lever1 and invented a screw1 which  
still bears  his name1 for raising the  
water of the ,nile4 ,to him also are to 
be  attributed the endless screw1 and a 
peculiar form of burning-mirror1 by     
which1 at the siege of ,syracuse1 it is 
said that he set the ,roman fleet  on   
fire4                                   

,,eratosthenes--,,apollonius--,,hipparch
us4 ,eratosthenes1 who at one time had  
charge of the library1 was the author of
 many important works4 ,among  them may 
be mentioned his determination of the   
interval between  the tropics1 and an   
attempt to ascertain the size of the    
earth4 ,he  considered the articulation 
and expansion of continents1 the        
position  of mountain-chains1 the action
 of clouds1 the geological submersion of
  lands1 the elevation of ancient       
sea-beds1 the opening of the            
,dardanelles  and the straits of        
,gibraltar1 and the relations of the    
,euxine ,sea4  ,he composed a complete  
system of the earth1 in three           
books--physical1  mathematical1         
historical--accompanied by a map of all 
the parts then  known4 ,it is only of   
late years that the fragments remaining 
of his  ,chronicles of the ,theban      
,kings have been justly appreciated4    
,for  many centuries they were thrown   
into discredit by the authority of our  

existing absurd theological chronology4 
,it is unnecessary to adduce the        
arguments relied upon by the            
,alexandrians to prove the globular form
 of the earth4 ,they had correct  ideas 
respecting the doctrine of the sphere1  
its poles1 axis1 equator1  arctic and   
antarctic circles1 equinoctial points1  
solstices1 the  distribution of         
climates1 etc4 ,i cannot do more than   
merely allude to  the treatises on      
,conic ,sections and on ,maxima and     
,minima by ,apollonius1  who is said to 
have been the first to introduce the    
words ellipse and  hyperbola4 ,in like  
manner ,i must pass the astronomical    
observations  of ,alistyllus and        
,timocharis4 ,it was to those of the    
latter on ,spica  ,virginis that        
,hipparchus was indebted for his great  
discovery of the  precession of the     
eqninoxes4 ,hipparchus also determined  
the first  inequality of the moon1 the  
equation of the centre4 ,he adopted the 
theory of epicycles and eccentrics1 a   

geometrical conception for the  purpose 
of resolving the apparent motions of the
 heavenly bodies on the  principle of   
circular movement4 ,he also undertook to
 make a catalogue  of the stars by the  
method of alineations--that is1 by      
indicating those  that are in the same  
apparent straight line4 ,the number of  
stars so  catalogued was #a1jhj4 ,if he 
thus attempted to depict the aspect of  
the sky1 he endeavored to do the same   
for the surface of the earth1 by        
marking the position of towns and other 
places by lines of latitude and         
longitude4 ,he was the first to         
construct tables of the sun and moon4   
,,the ,,syntaxis ,,of ,,ptolemy4 ,in the
 midst of such a brilliant constellation
  of geometers1 astronomers1 physicists1
 conspicuously shines forth  ,ptolemy1  
the author of the great work1 ,syntaxis1
 a ,treatise on the  ,mathematical      
,construction of the ,heavens4 ,it      
maintained its ground  for nearly       
fifteen hundred years1 and indeed was   

only displaced by the  immortal         
,principia of ,newton4 ,it commences    
with the doctrine that the  earth is    
globular and fixed in space1 it         
describes the construction of a  table  
of chords1 and instruments for observing
 the solstices1 it deduces  the         
obliquity of the ecliptic1 it finds     
terrestrial latitudes by the  gnomon1   
describes climates1 shows how ordinary  
may be converted into  sidereal time1   
gives reasons for preferring the        
tropical to the sidereal  year1         
furnishes the solar theory on the       
principle of the sun's orbit  being a   
simple eccentric1 explains the equation 
of time1 advances to the  discussion of 
the motions of the moon1 treats of the  
first inequality1  of her eclipses1 and 
the motion of her nodes4 ,it then gives 
,ptolemy's  own great discovery--that   
which has made his name immortal--the   
discovery of the moon's evection or     
second inequality1 reducing it to  the  
epicyclic theory4 ,it attempts the      

determination of the distances of  the  
sun and moon from the earth--with1      
however1 only partial success4 ,it      
considers the precession of the         
equinoxes1 the discovery of ,hipparchus1
  the full period of which is           
twenty-five thousand years4 ,it gives a 
catalogue of #a1jbb stars1 treats of the
 nature of the milky-way1 and  discusses
 in the most masterly manner the motions
 of the planets4 ,this  point           
constitutes another of ,ptolemy's claims
 to scientific fame4 ,his  determination
 of the planetary orbits was            
accomplished by comparing  his own      
observations with those of former       
astronomers1 among them the             
observations of ,timocharis on the      
planet ,venus4    ,,invention ,,of ,,the
 ,,steam-,,engine4 ,in the ,museum of   
,alexandria1 ,ctesibius  invented the   
fire-engine4 ,his pupil1 ,hero1 improved
 it by giving it two  cylinders4 ,there1
 too1 the first steam-engine worked4    
,this also was the  invention of ,hero1 

and was a reaction engine1 on the       
principle of  the eolipile4 ,the silence
 of the halls of ,serapis was broken by 
the  water-clocks of ,ctesibius and     
,apollonius1 which drop by drop measured
  time4 ,when the ,roman calendar had   
fallen into such confusion that it  had 
become absolutely necessary to rectify  
it1 ,julius ,caesar brought  ,sosigenes 
the astronomer from ,alexandria4 ,by his
 advice the lunar year  was abolished1  
the civil year regulated entirely by the
 sun1 and the  ,julian calendar         
introduced4    ,the ,macedonian rulers  
of ,egypt have been blamed for the      
manner in which  they dealt with the    
religious sentiment of their time4 ,they
 prostituted  it to the purpose of      
state-craft1 finding in it a means of   
governing  their lower classes4 ,to the 
intelligent they gave philosophy4       
,,policy ,,of ,,the ,,ptolemies4 ,but   
doubtless they defended this policy by  
the  experience gathered in those great 
campaigns which had made the ,greeks    

the foremost nation of the world4 ,they 
had seen the mythological  conceptions  
of their ancestral country dwindle into 
fables2 the wonders  with which the old 
poets adorned the ,mediterranean had    
been discovered  to be baseless         
illusions4 ,from ,olympus its divinities
 had disappeared2  indeed1 ,olympus     
itself had proved to be a phantom of the
 imagination4  ,hades had lost its      
terrors2 no place could be found for it4
    ,from the woods and grottoes and    
rivers of ,asia ,minor the local gods   
and  goddesses had departed2 even their 
devotees began to doubt whether they    
had ever been there4 ,if still the      
,syrian damsels lamented1 in their      
amorous ditties1 the fate of ,adonis1 it
 was only as a recollection1 not  as a  
reality4 ,again and again had ,persia   
changed her national faith4 ,for  the   
revelation of ,zoroaster she had        
substituted ,dualism2 then under new    
political influences she had adopted    
,magianism4 ,she had worshiped fire1    

and kept her altars burning on          
mountain-tops4 ,she had adored the sun4 
,when ,alexander came1 she was fast     
falling into pantheism4    ,on a country
 to which in its political extremity the
 indigenous gods  have been found unable
 to give any protection1 a change of    
faith is  impending4 ,the venerable     
divinities of ,egypt1 to whose glory    
obelisks  had been raised and temples   
dedicated1 had again and again submitted
  to the sword of a foreign conqueror4  
,in the land of the ,pyramids1 the      
,colossi1 the ,sphinx1 the images of the
 gods had ceased to represent  living   
realities4 ,they had ceased to be       
objects of faith4 ,others of more       
recent birth were needful1 and ,serapis 
confronted ,osiris4 ,in the shops  and  
streets of ,alexandria there were       
thousands of ,jews who had forgotten    
the ,god that had made his habitation   
behind the veil of the temple4          
,tradition1 revelation1 time1 all had   
lost their influence4 ,the  traditions  

of ,european mythology1 the revelations 
of ,asia1 the  time-consecrated dogmas  
of ,egypt1 all had passed or were fast  
passing  away4 ,and the ,ptolemies      
recognized how ephemeral are forms of   
faith4    ,but the ,ptolemies also      
recognized that there is something more 
durable  than forms of faith1 which1    
like the organic forms of geological    
ages1  once gone1 are clean gone        
forever1 and have no restoration1 no    
return4  ,they recognized that within   
this world of transient delusions and   
unrealities there is a world of eternal 
truth4    ,that world is not to be      
discovered through the vain traditions  
that  have brought down to us the       
opinions of men who lived in the morning
 of  civilization1 nor in the dreams of 
mystics who thought that they were      
inspired4 ,it is to be discovered by the
 investigations of geometry1  and by the
 practical interrogation of ,nature4    
,these confer on humanity  solid1 and   
innumerable1 and inestimable blessings4 

,the day will never come when any one of
 the propositions of ,euclid will  be   
denied2 no one henceforth will call in  
question the globular shape of  the     
earth1 as recognized by ,eratosthenes2  
the world will not permit  the great    
physical inventions and discoveries made
 in ,alexandria and  ,syracuse to be    
forgotten4 ,the names of ,hipparchus1 of
 ,apollonius1 of  ,ptolemy1 of          
,archimedes1 will be mentioned with     
reverence by men of every  religious    
profession1 as long as there are men to 
speak4    ,,the ,,museum ,,and ,,modern 
,,science4 ,the ,museum of ,alexandria  
was thus  the birthplace of modern      
science4 ,it is true that1 long before  
its  establishment1 astronomical        
observations had been made in ,china and
  ,mesopotamia2 the mathematics also had
 been cultivated with a certain  degree 
of success in ,india4 ,but in none of   
these countries had  investigation      
assumed a connected and consistent form2
 in none was  physical experimentation  

resorted to4 ,the characteristic feature
 of  ,alexandrian1 as of modern science1
 is1 that it did not restrict itself  to
 observation1 but relied on a practical 
interrogation of ,nature4               
,,chapter ,,ii4         ,,the ,,origin  
,,of ,,christianity4--,,its             
,,transformation ,,on ,,attaining       
,,imperial ,,power4--,,its ,,relations  
,,to ,,science4         ,religious      
condition of the ,roman ,republic4--,the
 adoption of       imperialism leads to 
monotheism4--,christianity spreads over 
the ,roman ,empire4--,the circumstances 
under which it       attained imperial  
power make its union with ,paganism a   
political necessity4--,tertullian's     
description of its       doctrines and  
practices4--,debasing effect of the     
policy of       ,constantine on         
it4--,its alliance with the civil       
power4--,its       incompatibility with 
science4--,destruction of the           
,alexandrian ,library and prohibition of
 philosophy4--       ,exposition of the 

,augustinian philosophy and ,patristic  
science generally4--,the ,scriptures    
made the standard of       science4     
,,in a political sense1 ,christianity is
 the bequest of the ,roman ,empire to   
the world4    ,at the epoch of the      
transition of ,rome from the republican 
to the  imperial form of government1 all
 the independent nationalities around   
the ,mediterranean ,sea had been brought
 under the control of that central      
power4 ,the conquest that had befallen  
them in succession had been by no  means
 a disaster4 ,the perpetual wars they   
had maintained with each  other came to 
an end2 the miseries their conflicts had
 engendered were  exchanged for         
universal peace4    ,not only as a token
 of the conquest she had made but also  
as a  gratification to her pride1 the   
conquering republic brought the gods  of
 the vanquished peoples to ,rome4 ,with 
disdainful toleration1 she  permitted   
the worship of them all4 ,that paramount
 authority exercised by  each divinity  

in his original seat disappeared at once
 in the crowd of  gods and goddesses    
among whom he had been brought4         
,already1 as we have  seen1 through     
geographical discoveries and            
philosophical criticism1  faith in the  
religion of the old days had been       
profoundly shaken4 ,it  was1 by this    
policy of ,rome1 brought to an end4     
,,monotheism ,,in ,,the ,,roman         
,,empire4 ,the kings of all the         
conquered provinces  had vanished2 in   
their stead one emperor had come4 ,the  
gods also had  disappeared4 ,considering
 the connection which in all ages has   
existed  between political and religious
 ideas1 it was then not at all strange  
that polytheism should manifest a       
tendency to pass into monotheism4       
,accordingly1 divine honors were paid at
 first to the deceased and at  length to
 the living emperor4    ,the facility   
with which gods were thus called into   
existence had a  powerful moral effect4 
,the manufacture of a new one cast      

ridicule on  the origin of the old      
,incarnation in the ,east and apotheosis
 in the ,west  were fast filling        
,olympus with divinities4 ,in the ,east1
 gods descended  from heaven1 and were  
made incarnate in men2 in the ,west1 men
 ascended  from earth1 and took their   
seat among the gods4 ,it was not the    
importation of ,greek skepticism that   
made ,rome skeptical4 ,the excesses  of 
religion itself sapped the foundations  
of faith4    ,not with equal rapidity   
did all classes of the population adopt 
monotheistic views4 ,the merchants and  
lawyers and soldiers1 who by the  nature
 of their pursuits are more familiar    
with the vicissitudes of  life1 and have
 larger intellectual views1 were the    
first to be affected1  the land laborers
 and farmers the last4    ,,the ,,rise  
,,of ,,christianity ,when the empire in 
a military and political  sense had     
reached its culmination1 in a religious 
and social aspect  it had attained its  
height of immorality4 ,it had become    

thoroughly  epicurean2 its maxim was1   
that life should be made a feast1 that  
virtue is only the seasoning of         
pleasure1 and temperance the means of   
prolonging it4 ,dining-rooms glittering 
with gold and incrusted with  gems1     
slaves in superb apparel1 the           
fascinations of female society where    
all the women were dissolute1           
magnificent baths1 theatres1 gladiators1
  such were the objects of ,roman       
desire4 ,the conquerors of the world had
  discovered that the only thing worth  
worshiping is ,force4 ,by it all  things
 might be secured1 all that toil and    
trade had laboriously  obtained4 ,the   
confiscation of goods and lands1 the    
taxation of  provinces1 were the reward 
of successful warfare2 and the emperor  
was the symbol of force4 ,there was a   
social splendor1 but it was the         
phosphorescent corruption of the ancient
 ,mediterranean world4    ,in one of the
 ,eastern provinces1 ,syria1 some       
persons in very humble  life had        

associated themselves together for      
benevolent and religious  purposes4 ,the
 doctrines they held were in harmony    
with that sentiment  of universal       
brotherhood arising from the coalescence
 of the conquered  kingdoms4 ,they were 
doctrines inculcated by ,jesus4    ,the 
,jewish people at that time entertained 
a belief1 founded on old  traditions1   
that a deliverer would arise among them1
 who would restore  them to their       
ancient splendor4 ,the disciples of     
,jesus regarded him  as this            
long-expected ,messiah4 ,but the        
priesthood1 believing that the          
doctrines he taught were prejudicial to 
their interests1 denounced  him to the  
,roman governor1 who1 to satisfy their  
clamors1 reluctantly  delivered him over
 to death4    ,his doctrines of         
benevolence and human brotherhood       
outlasted that  event4 ,the disciples1  
instead of scattering1 organized4 ,they 
associated  themselves on a principle of
 communism1 each throwing into the      

common  stock whatever property he      
possessed1 and all his gains4 ,the      
widows  and orphans of the community    
were thus supported1 the poor and the   
sick  sustained4 ,from this germ was    
developed a new1 and as the events      
proved1  all-powerful society--the      
,church2 new1 for nothing of the kind   
had  existed in antiquity2 powerful1 for
 the local churches1 at first  isolated1
 soon began to confederate for their    
common interest4 ,through  this         
organization ,christianity achieved all 
her political triumphs4    ,as we have  
said1 the military domination of ,rome  
had brought about  universal peace1 and 
had generated a sentiment of brotherhood
 among the  vanquished nations4 ,things 
were1 therefore1 propitious for the     
rapid  diffusion of the                 
newly-established--the                  
,christian--principle  throughout the   
empire4 ,it spread from ,syria through  
all ,asia ,minor1  and successively     
reached ,cyprus1 ,greece1 ,italy1       

eventually extending  westward as far as
 ,gaul and ,britain4    ,its propagation
 was hastened by missionaries who made  
it known in all  directions4 ,none of   
the ancient classical philosophies had  
ever taken  advantage of such a means4  
,political conditions determined the    
boundaries of the new religion4 ,its    
limits were eventually those of the     
,roman ,empire2 ,rome1 doubtfully the   
place of death of ,peter1 not           
,jerusalem1 indisputably the place of   
the  death of our ,savior1 became the   
religious capital4 ,it was better to    
have  possession of the imperial seven  
hilled city1 than of ,gethsemane and    
,calvary with all their holy souvenirs4 
,,it ,,gathers ,,political ,,power4 ,for
 many years ,christianity manifested    
itself as a system enjoining three      
things--toward ,god veneration1 in      
personal life purity1 in social life    
benevolence4 ,in its early days of      
feebleness it made proselytes only by   
persuasion1 but1 as it increased  in    

numbers and influence1 it began to      
exhibit political tendencies1 a         
disposition to form a government within 
the government1 an empire within  the   
empire4 ,these tendencies it has never  
since lost4 ,they are1 in  truth1 the   
logical result of its development4 ,the 
,roman emperors1  discovering that it   
was absolutely incompatible with the    
imperial  system1 tried to put it down  
by force4 ,this was in accordance with  
the  spirit of their military maxims1   
which had no other means but force for  
the establishment of conformity4    ,in 
the winter ,a4,d4 #cjb-'c1 the          
,christian soldiers in some of the      
legions  refused to join in the         
time-honored solemnities for            
propitiating the  gods4 ,the mutiny     
spread so quickly1 the emergency became 
so pressing1  that the ,emperor         
,diocletian was compelled to hold a     
council for the  purpose of determining 
what should be done4 ,the difficulty of 
the  position may perhaps be appreciated

 when it is understood that the wife    
and the daughter of ,diocletian himself 
were ,christians4 ,he was a man  of     
great capacity and large political      
views2 he recognized in the  opposition 
that must be made to the new party a    
political necessity1  yet he expressly  
enjoined that there should be no        
bloodshed4 ,but who can  control an     
infuriated civil commotion8 ,the church 
of ,nicomedia was razed  to the ground2 
in retaliation the imperial palace was  
set on fire1 an  edict was openly       
insulted and torn down4 ,the ,christian 
officers in the  army were cashiered2 in
 all directions1 martyrdoms and         
massacres were  taking place4 ,so       
resistless was the march of events1 that
 not even the  emperor himself could    
stop the persecution4    ,,the ,,first  
,,christian ,,emperor4 ,it had now      
become evident that the  ,christians    
constituted a powerful party in the     
state1 animated with  indignation at the
 atrocities they had suffered1 and      

determined to  endure them no longer4   
,after the abdication of ,diocletian    
7,a4,d4 #cje71  ,constantine1 one of the
 competitors for the purple1 perceiving 
the  advantages that would accrue to him
 from such a policy1 put himself  forth 
as the head of the ,christian party4    
,this gave him1 in every part  of the   
empire1 men and women ready to encounter
 fire and sword in his  behalf2 it gave 
him unwavering adherents in every legion
 of the armies4  ,in a decisive battle1 
near the ,milvian bridge1 victory       
crowned his  schemes4 ,the death of     
,maximin1 and subsequently that of      
,licinius1  removed all obstacles4 ,he  
ascended the throne of the ,caesars--the
 first  ,christian emperor4    ,place1  
profit1 power--these were in view of    
whoever now joined the  conquering sect4
 ,crowds of worldly persons1 who cared  
nothing about its  religious ideas1     
became its warmest supporters4 ,pagans  
at heart1 their  influence was soon     
manifested in the paganization of       

,christianity that  forthwith ensued4   
,the emperor1 no better than they1 did  
nothing to check  their proceedings4    
,but he did not personally conform to   
the ceremonial  requirements of the     
,church until the close of his evil     
life1 ,a4,d4 #ccg4    ,,tertullian',s   
,,exposition ,,of ,,christianity4 ,that 
we may clearly appreciate  the          
modifications now impressed on          
,christianity--modifications which      
eventually brought it in conflict with  
science--we must have1 as a  means of   
comparison1 a statement of what it was  
in its purer days4  ,such1 fortunately1 
we find in the ,apology or ,defense of  
the ,christians  against the            
,accusations of the ,gentiles1 written  
by ,tertullian1 at  ,rome1 during the   
persecution of ,severus4 ,he addressed  
it1 not to the  emperor1 but to the     
magistrates who sat in judgment on the  
accused4 ,it  is a solemn and most      
earnest expostulation1 setting forth all
 that could  be said in explanation of  

the subject1 a representation of the    
belief  and cause of the ,christians    
made in the imperial city in the face of
 the  whole world1 not a querulous or   
passionate ecclesiastical appeal1 but  a
 grave historical document4 ,it has ever
 been looked upon as one of the  ablest 
of the early ,christian works4 ,its date
 is about ,a4,d4 #bjj4    ,with no      
inconsiderable skill ,tertullian opens  
his argument4 ,he tells  the magistrates
 that ,christianity is a stranger upon  
earth1 and that she  expects to meet    
with enemies in a country which is not  
her own4 ,she only  asks that she may   
not be condemned unheard1 and that      
,roman magistrates  will permit her to  
defend herself2 that the laws of the    
empire will  gather lustre1 if judgment 
be passed upon her after she has been   
tried  but not if she is sentenced      
without a hearing of her cause2 that it 
is  unjust to hate a thing of which we  
are ignorant1 even though it may be a   
thing worthy of hate2 that the laws of  

,rome deal with actions1 not with  mere 
names2 but that1 notwithstanding this1  
persons have been punished  because they
 were called ,christians1 and that      
without any accusation of  crime4    ,he
 then advances to an exposition of the  
origin1 the nature1 and the  effects of 
,christianity1 stating that it is       
founded on the ,hebrew  ,scriptures1    
which are the most venerable of all     
books4 ,he says to the  magistrates3    
,the books of ,moses1 in which ,god has 
inclosed1 as in  a treasure1 all the    
religion of the ,jews1 and consequently 
all the  ,christian religion1 reach far 
beyond the oldest you have1 even beyond 
all your public monuments1 the          
establishment of your state1 the        
foundation of many great cities--all    
that is most advanced by you in all     
ages of history1 and memory of times2   
the invention of letters1 which  are the
 interpreters of sciences and the       
guardians of all excellent  things4 ,i  
think ,i may say more--beyond your gods1

 your temples1 your  oracles and        
sacrifices4 ,the author of those books  
lived a thousand years  before the siege
 of ,troy1 and more than fifteen hundred
 before ,homer4  ,time is the ally of   
truth1 and wise men believe nothing but 
what is  certain1 and what has been     
verified by time4 ,the principal        
authority  of these ,scriptures is      
derived from their venerable antiquity4 
,the most  learned of the ,ptolemies1   
who was surnamed ,philadelphus1 an      
accomplished  prince1 by the advice of  
,demetrius ,phalareus1 obtained a copy  
of these  holy books4 ,it may be found  
at this day in his library4 ,the        
divinity of  these ,scriptures is proved
 by this1 that all that is done in our  
days  may be found predicted in them2   
they contain all that has since passed  
in the view of men4    ,is not the      
accomplishment of a prophecy a testimony
 to its truth8 ,seeing  that events     
which are past have vindicated these    
prophecies1 shall we be  blamed for     

trusting them in events that are to     
come8 ,now1 as we believe  things that  
have been prophesied and have come to   
pass1 so we believe  things that have   
been told us1 but not yet come to pass1 
because they  have all been foretold by 
the same ,scriptures1 as well those that
 are  verified every day as those that  
still remain to be fulfilled4    ,these 
,holy ,scriptures teach us that there is
 one ,god1 who made the world  out of   
nothing1 who1 though daily seen1 is     
invisible2 his infiniteness  is known   
only to himself2 his immensity conceals1
 but at the same  time discovers him4   
,he has ordained for men1 according to  
their lives1  rewards and punishments2  
he will raise all the dead that have    
ever lived  from the creation of the    
world1 will command them to reassume    
their  bodies1 and thereupon adjudge    
them to felicity that has so end1 or to 
eternal flames4 ,the fires of hell are  
those hidden flames which the  earth    
shuts up in her bosom4 ,he has in past  

times sent into the world  preachers or 
prophets4 ,the prophets of those old    
times were ,jews2 they  addressed their 
oracles1 for such they were1 to the     
,jews1 who  have stored them up in the  
,scriptures4 ,on them1 as has been said1
  ,christianity is founded1 though the  
,christian differs in his ceremonies    
from the ,jew4 ,we are accused of       
worshiping a man1 and not the ,god of   
the ,jews4 ,not so4 ,the honor we bear  
to ,christ does not derogate from the   
honor we bear to ,god4    ,on account of
 the merit of these ancient patriarchs1 
the ,jews were the  only beloved people 
of ,god2 he delighted to be in          
communication with  them by his own     
mouth4 ,by him they were raised to      
admirable greatness4  ,but with         
perversity they wickedly ceased to      
regard him2 they changed  his laws into 
a profane worship4 ,he warned them that 
he would take to  himself servants more 
faithful than they1 and1 for their      
crime1 punished  them by driving them   

forth from their country4 ,they are now 
spread all  over the world2 they wander 
in all parts2 they cannot enjoy the air 
they  breathed at their birth2 they have
 neither man nor ,god for their king4   
,as he threatened them1 so he has done4 
,he has taken1 in all nations  and      
countries of the earth1 people more     
faithful than they4 ,through his        
prophets he had declared that these     
should have greater favors1 and that  a 
,messiah should come1 to publish a new  
law among them4 ,this ,messiah was      
,jesus1 who is also ,god4 ,for ,god may 
be derived from ,god1 as the light  of a
 candle may be derived from the light of
 another candle4 ,god and his  ,son are 
the self-same ,god--a light is the same 
light as that from which  it was taken4 
,the ,scriptures make known two comings 
of the ,son of ,god2 the first in       
humility1 the second at the day of      
judgment1 in power4 ,the ,jews might    
have known all this from the prophets1  
but their sins have so blinded  them    

that they did not recognize him at his  
first coming1 and are still  vainly     
expecting him4 ,they believed that all  
the miracles wrought by  him were the   
work of magic4 ,the doctors of the law  
and the chief priests  were envious of  
him2 they denounced him to ,pilate4 ,he 
was crucified1  died1 was buried1 and   
after three days rose again4 ,for forty 
days he  remained among his disciples4  
,then he was environed in a cloud1 and  
rose up to heaven--a truth far more     
certain than any human testimonies      
touching the ascension of ,romulus or of
 any other ,roman prince mounting  up to
 the same place4    ,tertullian then    
describes the origin and nature of      
devils1 who1 under  ,satan1 their       
prince1 produce diseases1 irregularities
 of the air1  plagues1 and the blighting
 of the blossoms of the earth1 who      
seduce men  to offer sacrifices1 that   
they may have the blood of the victims1 
which  is their food4 ,they are as      
nimble as the birds1 and hence know     

every  thing that is passing upon earth2
 they live in the air1 and hence can    
spy what is going on in heaven2 for this
 reason they can impose on men  reigned 
prophecies1 and deliver oracles4 ,thus  
they announced in ,rome  that a victory 
would be obtained over ,king ,perseus1  
when in truth they  knew that the battle
 was already won4 ,they falsely cure    
diseases2 for1  taking possession of the
 body of a man1 they produce in him a   
distemper1  and then ordaining some     
remedy to be used1 they cease to afflict
 him1  and men think that a cure has    
taken place4    ,though ,christians deny
 that the emperor is a god1 they        
nevertheless pray  for his prosperity1  
because the general dissolution that    
threatens the  universe1 the            
conflagration of the world1 is retarded 
so long as the  glorious majesty of the 
triumphant ,roman ,empire shall last4   
,they desire  not to be present at the  
subversion of all ,nature4 ,they        
acknowledge  only one republic1 but it  

is the whole world2 they constitute one 
body1  worship one ,god1 and all look   
forward to eternal happiness4 ,not only 
do  they pray for the emperor and the   
magistrates1 but also for peace4 ,they  
read the ,scriptures to nourish their   
faith1 lift up their hope1 and          
strengthen the confidence they have in  
,god4 ,they assemble to exhort one      
another2 they remove sinners from their 
societies2 they have bishops who        
preside over them1 approved by the      
suffrages of those whom they are to     
conduct4 ,at the end of each month every
 one contributes if he will1 but  no one
 is constrained to give2 the money      
gathered in this manner is  the pledge  
of piety2 it is not consumed in eating  
and drinking1 but  in feeding the poor1 
and burying them1 in comforting children
 that are  destitute of parents and     
goods1 in helping old men who have spent
 the  best of their days in the service 
of the faithful1 in assisting those  who
 have lost by shipwreck what they had1  

and those who are condemned  to the     
mines1 or have been banished to islands1
 or shut up in prisons1  because they   
professed the religion of the true ,god4
 ,there is but one  thing that          
,christians have not in common1 and that
 one thing is their  wives4 ,they do not
 feast as if they should die to-morrow1 
nor build  as if they should never die4 
,the objects of their life are          
innocence1  justice1 patience1          
temperance1 chastity4    ,to this noble 
exposition of ,christian belief and life
 in his day1  ,tertullian does not      
hesitate to add an ominous warning to   
the  magistrates he is                  
addressing--ominous1 for it was a       
forecast of a great  event soon to come 
to pass3 ,our origin is but recent1 yet 
already we  fill all that your power    
acknowledges--cities1 fortresses1       
islands1  provinces1 the assemblies of  
the people1 the wards of ,rome1 the     
palace1  the senate1 the public places1 
and especially the armies4 ,we have     

left you nothing but your temples4      
,reflect what wars we are able to       
undertake6 ,with what promptitude might 
we not arm ourselves were we not        
restrained by our religion1 which       
teaches us that it is better to be      
killed than to kill6    ,before he      
closes his defense1 ,tertullian renews  
an assertion which1  carried into       
practice1 as it subsequently was1       
affected the intellectual  development  
of all ,europe4 ,he declares that the   
,holy ,scriptures are a  treasure from  
which all the true wisdom in the world  
has been drawn2  that every philosopher 
and every poet is indebted to them4 ,he 
labors  to show that they are the       
standard and measure of all truth1 and  
that  whatever is inconsistent with them
 must necessarily be false4    ,from    
,tertullian's able work we see what     
,christianity was while it was          
suffering persecution and struggling for
 existence4 ,we have now to  see what it
 became when in possession of imperial  

power4 ,great is the  difference between
 ,christianity under ,severus and       
,christianity after  ,constantine4 ,many
 of the doctrines which at the latter   
period were  preeminent1 in the former  
were unknown4    ,,paganization ,,of    
,,christianity4 ,two causes led to the  
amalgamation of  ,christianity with     
paganism3 #a4 ,the political necessities
 of the new  dynasty2 #b4 ,the policy   
adopted by the new religion to insure   
its spread4    #a4 ,though the          
,christian party had proved itself      
sufficiently strong to  give a master to
 the empire1 it was never sufficiently  
strong to destroy  its antagonist1      
paganism4 ,the issue of the struggle    
between them was an  amalgamation of the
 principles of both4 ,in this1          
,christianity differed  from            
,mohammedanism1 which absolutely        
annihilated its antagonist1 and  spread 
its own doctrines without adulteration4 
,constantine continually showed by his  
acts that he felt he must be the        

impartial sovereign of all his people1  
not merely the representative  of a     
successful faction4 ,hence1 if he built 
,christian churches1 he also  restored  
pagan temples2 if he listened to the    
clergy1 he also consulted  the          
haruspices2 if he summoned the ,council 
of ,nicea1 he also honored the  statue  
of ,fortune2 if he accepted the rite of 
baptism1 he also struck  a medal bearing
 his title of ,god4 ,his statue1 on the 
top of the great  porphyry pillar at    
,constantinople1 consisted of an ancient
 image of  ,apollo1 whose features were 
replaced by those of the emperor1 and   
its head surrounded by the nails feigned
 to have been used at the  crucifixion  
of ,christ1 arranged so as to form a    
crown of glory4    ,feeling that there  
must be concessions to the defeated     
pagan party1  in accordance with its    
ideas1 he looked with favor on the      
idolatrous  movements of his court4 ,in 
fact1 the leaders of these movements    
were  persons of his own family4        

,,christianity ,,under ,,constantine4   
#b4 ,to the emperor--a mere worldling--a
  man without any religious convictions1
 doubtless it appeared best for         
himself1 best for the empire1 and best  
for the contending parties1  ,christian 
and pagan1 to promote their union or    
amalgamation as much as  possible4 ,even
 sincere ,christians do not seem to have
 been averse to  this2 perhaps they     
believed that the new doctrines would   
diffuse most  thoroughly by             
incorporating in themselves ideas       
borrowed from the old1  that ,truth     
would assert her self in the end1 and   
the impurity be cast  off4 ,in          
accomplishing this amalgamation1        
,helena1 the empress-mother1  aided by  
the court ladies1 led the way4 ,for her 
gratification there were  discovered1 in
 a cavern at ,jerusalem1 wherein they   
had lain buried for  more than three    
centuries1 the ,savior's cross1 and     
those of the two  thieves1 the          
inscription1 and the nails that had been

 used4 ,they were  identified by        
miracle4 ,a true relic-worship set in4  
,the superstition of  the old ,greek    
times reappeared2 the times when the    
tools with which the  ,trojan horse was 
made might still be seen at ,metapontum1
 the sceptre of  ,pelops at ,chaeroneia1
 the spear of ,achilles at ,phaselis1   
the sword  of ,memnon at ,nicomedia1    
when the ,tegeates could show the hide  
of the  ,calydonian boar and very many  
cities boasted their possession of the  
true palladium of ,troy2 when there were
 statues of ,minerva that could         
brandish spears1 paintings that could   
blush1 images that could sweat1  and    
endless shrines and sanctuaries at which
 miracle-cures could be  performed4     
,as years passed on1 the faith described
 by ,tertullian was transmuted  into one
 more fashionable and more debased4 ,it 
was incorporated with  the old ,greek   
mythology4 ,olympus was restored1 but   
the divinities passed  under other      
names4 ,the more powerful provinces     

insisted on the adoption  of their      
time-honored conceptions4 ,views of the 
,trinity1 in accordance  with ,egyptian 
traditions1 were established4 ,not only 
was the adoration  of ,isis under a new 
name restored1 but even her image1      
standing on the  crescent moon1         
reappeared4 ,the well-known effigy of   
that goddess1  with the infant ,horus in
 her arms1 has descended to our days in 
the beautiful1 artistic creations of the
 ,madonna and ,child4 ,such             
restorations of old conceptions under   
novel forms were everywhere  received   
with delight4 ,when it was announced to 
the ,ephesians that the  ,council of    
that place1 headed by ,cyril1 had       
decreed that the ,virgin  should be     
called the ,mother of ,god1 with tears  
of joy they embraced  the knees of their
 bishop2 it was the old instinct peeping
 out2 their  ancestors would have done  
the same for ,diana4    ,this attempt to
 conciliate worldly converts1 by        
adopting their ideas  and practices1 did

 not pass without remonstrance from     
those whose  intelligence discerned the 
motive4 ,you have1 says ,faustus to     
,augustine1 substituted your agapae for 
the sacrifices of the pagans2  for their
 idols your martyrs1 whom you serve with
 the very same honors4  ,you appease the
 shades of the dead with wine and       
feasts2 you celebrate  the solemn       
festivities of the ,gentiles1 their     
calends1 and their  solstices2 and1 as  
to their manners1 those you have        
retained without any  alteration4       
,nothing distinguishes you from the     
pagans1 except that you  hold your      
assemblies apart from them4 ,pagan      
observances were everywhere  introduced4
 ,at weddings it was the custom to sing 
hymns to ,venus4    ,,introduction ,,of 
,,roman ,,rites4 ,let us pause here a   
moment1 and see1 in  anticipation1 to   
what a depth of intellectual degradation
 this policy of  paganization eventually
 led4 ,heathen rites were adopted1 a    
pompous  and splendid ritual1 gorgeous  

robes1 mitres1 tiaras1 wax-tapers1      
processional services1 lustrations1 gold
 and silver vases1 were  introduced4    
,the ,roman lituus1 the chief ensign of 
the augurs1 became the  crozier4        
,churches were built over the tombs of  
martyrs1 and consecrated  with rites    
borrowed from the ancient laws of the   
,roman pontiffs4  ,festivals and        
commemorations of martyrs multiplied    
with the numberless  fictitious         
discoveries of their remains4 ,fasting  
became the grand means  of repelling the
 devil and appeasing ,god2 celibacy the 
greatest of  the virtues4 ,pilgrimages  
were made to ,palestine and the tombs of
 the  martyrs4 ,quantities of dust and  
earth were brought from the ,holy ,land 
and sold at enormous prices1 as         
antidotes against devils4 ,the virtues  
of consecrated water were upheld4       
,images and relics were introduced into 
the churches1 and worshiped after the   
fashion of the heathen gods4 ,it  was   
given out that prodigies and miracles   

were to be seen in certain  places1 as  
in the heathen times4 ,the happy souls  
of departed ,christians  were invoked2  
it was believed that they were wandering
 about the world1  or haunting their    
graves4 ,there was a multiplication of  
temples1 altars1  and penitential       
garments4 ,the festival of the          
purification of the ,virgin  was        
invented to remove the uneasiness of    
heathen converts on account of  the loss
 of their ,lupercalia1 or feasts of     
,pan4 ,the worship of images1  of       
fragments of the cross1 or bones1 nails1
 and other relics1 a true  fetich       
worship1 was cultivated4 ,two arguments 
were relied on for the  authenticity of 
these objects--the authority of the     
,church1 and the  working of miracles4  
,even the worn-out clothing of the      
saints and the  earth of their graves   
were venerated4 ,from ,palestine were   
brought what  were affirmed to be the   
skeletons of ,st4 ,mark and ,st4 ,james1
 and other  ancient worthies4 ,the      

apotheosis of the old ,roman times was  
replaced by  canonization2 tutelary     
saints succeed to local mythological    
divinities4  ,then came the mystery of  
transubstantiation1 or the conversion of
 bread  and wine by the priest into the 
flesh and blood of ,christ4 ,as         
centuries  passed1 the paganization     
became more and more complete4          
,festivals sacred  to the memory of the 
lance with which the ,savior's side was 
pierced1  the nails that fastened him to
 the cross1 and the crown of thorns1    
were  instituted4 ,though there were    
several abbeys that possessed this last 
peerless relic1 no one dared to say that
 it was impossible they could  all be   
authentic4    ,we may read with         
advantage the remarks made by ,bishop   
,newton on this  paganization of        
,christianity4 ,he asks3 ,is not the    
worship of saints and  angels now in all
 respects the same that the worship of  
demons was in  former times8 ,the name  
only is different1 the thing is         

identically  the same1444 the deified   
men of the ,christians are substituted  
for the  deified men of the heathens4   
,the promoters of this worship were     
sensible  that it was the same1 and that
 the one succeeded to the other2 and1   
as the worship is the same1 so likewise 
it is performed with the same           
ceremonies4 ,the burning of incense or  
perfumes on several altars at one  and  
the same time2 the sprinkling of holy   
water1 or a mixture of salt  and common 
water1 at going into and coming out of  
places of public  worship2 the lighting 
up of a great number of lamps and       
wax-candles in  broad daylight before   
altars and statues of these deities2 the
 hanging  up of votive offerings and    
rich presents as attestations of so many
  miraculous cures and deliverances from
 diseases and dangers2 the  canonization
 or deification of deceased worthies2   
the assigning of  distinct provinces or 
prefectures to departed heroes and      
saints2 the  worshiping and adoring of  

the dead in their sepulchres1 shrines1  
and  relics2 the consecrating and bowing
 down to images2 the attributing  of    
miraculous powers and virtues to idols2 
the setting up of little  oratories1    
altars1 and statues in the streets and  
highways1 and on  the tops of mountains2
 the carrying of images and relics in   
pompous  procession1 with numerous      
lights and with music and singing2      
flagellations at solemn seasons under   
the notion of penance2 a great  variety 
of religious orders and fraternities of 
priests2 the shaving of  priests1 or the
 tonsure as it is called1 on the crown  
of their heads2  the imposing of        
celibacy and vows of chastity on the    
religious of both  sexes--all these and 
many more rites and ceremonies are      
equally parts of  pagan and popish      
superstition4 ,nay1 the very same       
temples1 the very same  images1 which   
were once consecrated to ,jupiter and   
the other demons1 are  now consecrated  
to the ,virgin ,mary and the other      

saints4 ,the very same  rites and       
inscriptions are ascribed to both1 the  
very same prodigies and  miracles are   
related of these as of those4 ,in short1
 almost the whole  of paganism is       
converted and applied to popery2 the one
 is manifestly  formed upon the same    
plan and principles as the other2 so    
that there is  not only a conformity1   
but even a uniformity1 in the worship of
 ancient  and modern1 of heathen and    
,christian ,rome4    ,,debasement ,,of  
,,christianity4 ,thus far ,bishop       
,newton2 but to return to the  times of 
,constantine3 though these concessions  
to old and popular ideas  were permitted
 and even encouraged1 the dominant      
religious party never  for a moment     
hesitated to enforce its decisions by   
the aid of the civil  power--an aid     
which was freely given4 ,constantine    
thus carried into  effect the acts of   
the ,council of ,nicea4 ,in the affair  
of ,arius1 he even  ordered that whoever
 should find a book of that heretic1 and

 not burn  it1 should be put to death4  
,in like manner ,nestor was by          
,theodosius the  ,younger banished to an
 ,egyptian oasis4    ,the pagan party   
included many of the old aristocratic   
families of the  empire2 it counted     
among its adherents all the disciples of
 the old  philosophical schools4 ,it    
looked down on its antagonist with      
contempt4  ,it asserted that knowledge  
is to be obtained only by the laborious 
exercise of human observation and human 
reason4    ,the ,christian party        
asserted that all knowledge is to be    
found in the  ,scriptures and in the    
traditions of the ,church2 that1 in the 
written  revelation1 ,god had not only  
given a criterion of truth1 but had     
furnished us all that he intended us to 
know4 ,the ,scriptures1 therefore1      
contain the sum1 the end of all         
knowledge4 ,the clergy1 with the emperor
  at their back1 would endure no        
intellectual competition4    ,thus came 
into prominence what were termed sacred 

and profane knowledge2  thus came into  
presence of each other two opposing     
parties1 one relying  on human reason as
 its guide1 the other on revelation4    
,paganism leaned  for support on the    
learning of its philosophers1           
,christianity on the  inspiration of its
 ,fathers4    ,the ,church thus set     
herself forth as the depository and     
arbiter of  knowledge2 she was ever     
ready to resort to the civil power to   
compel  obedience to her decisions4 ,she
 thus took a course which determined her
  whole future career3 she became a     
stumbling-block in the intellectual     
advancement of ,europe for more than a  
thousand years4    ,the reign of        
,constantine marks the epoch of the     
transformation of  ,christianity from a 
religion into a political system2 and   
though1 in  one sense1 that system was  
degraded into an idolatry1 in another it
 had  risen into a development of the   
old ,greek mythology4 ,the maxim holds  
good in the social as well as in the    

mechanical world1 that1 when two  bodies
 strike1 the form of both is changed4   
,paganism was modified by               
,christianity2 ,christianity by         
,paganism4    ,,the ,,trinitarian       
,,dispute4 ,in the ,trinitarian         
controversy1 which first  broke out in  
,egypt--,egypt1 the land of             
,trinities--the chief point in          
discussion was to define the position of
 the ,son4 ,there lived in  ,alexandria 
a presbyter of the name of ,arius1 a    
disappointed candidate  for the office  
of bishop4 ,he took the ground that     
there was a time when1  from the very   
nature of sonship1 the ,son did not     
exist1 and a time at  which he commenced
 to be1 asserting that it is the        
necessary condition  of the filial      
relation that a father must be older    
than his son4 ,but  this assertion      
evidently denied the coeternity of the  
three persons of  the ,trinity2 it      
suggested a subordination or inequality 
among them1  and indeed implied a time  

when the ,trinity did not exist4        
,hereupon1 the  bishop1 who had been the
 successful competitor against ,arius1  
displayed  his rhetorical powers in     
public debates on the question1 and1 the
 strife  spreading1 the ,jews and       
pagans1 who formed a very large portion 
of  the population of ,alexandria1      
amused themselves with theatrical       
representations of the contest on the   
stage--the point of their  burlesques   
being the equality of age of the ,father
 and his ,son4    ,such was the violence
 the controversy at length assumed1 that
 the matter  had to be referred to the  
emperor4 ,at first he looked upon the   
dispute  as altogether frivolous1 and   
perhaps in truth inclined to the        
assertion  of ,arius1 that in the very  
nature of the thing a father must be    
older  than his son4 ,so great1 however1
 was the pressure laid upon him1 that   
he was eventually compelled to summon   
the ,council of ,nicea1 which1 to       
dispose of the conflict1 set forth a    

formulary or creed1 and attached to  it 
this anathema3 ,the ,holy ,catholic and 
,apostolic ,church anathematizes  those 
who say that there was a time when the  
,son of ,god was not1 and  that1 before 
he was begotten1 he was not1 and that he
 was made out of  nothing1 or out of    
another substance or essence1 and is    
created1 or  changeable1 or alterable4  
,constantine at once enforced the       
decision of  the council by the civil   
power4    ,a few years subsequently the 
,emperor ,theodosius prohibited         
sacrifices1  made the inspection of the 
entrails of animals a capital offense1  
and  forbade any one entering a temple4 
,he instituted ,inquisitors of ,faith1  
and ordained that all who did not accord
 with the belief of ,damasus1 the       
,bishop of ,rome1 and ,peter1 the       
,bishop of ,alexandria1 should be driven
  into exile1 and deprived of civil     
rights4 ,those who presumed to          
celebrate ,easter on the same day as the
 ,jews1 he condemned to death4  ,the    

,greek language was now ceasing to be   
known in the ,west1 and true  learning  
was becoming extinct4    ,at this time  
the bishopric of ,alexandria was held by
 one ,theophilus4 ,an  ancient temple of
 ,osiris having been given to the       
,christians of the city  for the site of
 a church1 it happened that1 in digging 
the foundation  for the new edifice1 the
 obscene symbols of the former worship  
chanced  to be found4 ,these1 with more 
zeal than modesty1 ,theophilus exhibited
  in the market-place to public         
derision4 ,with less forbearance than   
the  ,christian party showed when it was
 insulted in the theatre during the     
,trinitarian dispute1 the pagans        
resorted to violence1 and a riot ensued4
  ,they held the ,serapion as their     
headquarters4 ,such were the disorder   
and  bloodshed that the emperor had to  
interfere4 ,he dispatched a rescript to 
,alexandria1 enjoining the bishop1      
,theophilus1 to destroy the ,serapion2  
and the great library1 which had been   

collected by the ,ptolemies1 and  had   
escaped the fire of ,julius ,caesar1 was
 by that fanatic dispersed4    ,,the    
,,murder ,,of ,,hypatia4 ,the bishopric 
thus held by ,theophilus was in due     
time occupied by his nephew ,st4 ,cyril1
 who had commended himself to  the      
approval of the ,alexandrian            
congregations as a successful and       
fashionable preacher4 ,it was he who had
 so much to do with the  introduction of
 the worship of the ,virgin ,mary4 ,his 
hold upon the  audiences of the giddy   
city was1 however1 much weakened by     
,hypatia1 the  daughter of ,theon1 the  
mathematician1 who not only             
distinguished herself  by her           
expositions of the doctrines of ,plato  
and ,aristotle1 but also by  her        
comments on the writings of ,apollonius 
and other geometers4 ,each day  before  
her academy stood a long train of       
chariots2 her lecture-room was  crowded 
with the wealth and fashion of          
,alexandria4 ,they came to listen  to   

her discourses on those questions which 
man in all ages has asked1  but which   
never yet have been answered3 ,what am  
,i8 ,where am ,i8 ,what can  ,i know8   
,hypatia and ,cyril6 ,philosophy and    
bigotry4 ,they cannot exist together4   
,so ,cyril felt1 and on that feeling he 
acted4 ,as ,hypatia repaired to her     
academy1 she was assaulted by ,cyril's  
mob--a mob of many monks4 ,stripped     
naked in the street1 she was dragged    
into a church1 and there killed by  the 
club of ,peter the ,reader4 ,the corpse 
was cut to pieces1 the flesh  was       
scraped from the bones with shells1 and 
the remnants cast into a  fire4 ,for    
this frightful crime ,cyril was never   
called to account4 ,it  seemed to be    
admitted that the end sanctified the    
means4    ,so ended ,greek philosophy in
 ,alexandria1 so came to an untimely    
close  the learning that the ,ptolemies 
had done so much to promote4 ,the       
,daughter ,library1 that of the         
,serapion1 had been dispersed4 ,the fate

  of ,hypatia was a warning to all who  
would cultivate profane knowledge4      
,henceforth there was to be no freedom  
for human thought4 ,every one must      
think as the ecclesiastical authority   
ordered him1 ,a4,d4 #dad4 ,in ,athens   
itself philosophy awaited its doom4     
,justinian at length prohibited its     
teaching1 and caused all its schools in 
that city to be closed4    ,,pelagius4  
,while these events were transpiring in 
the ,eastern provinces  of the ,roman   
,empire1 the spirit that had produced   
them was displaying  itself in the      
,west4 ,a ,british monk1 who had assumed
 the name of  ,pelagius1 passed through 
,western ,europe and ,northern ,africa1 
teaching  that death was not introduced 
into the world by the sin of ,adam2 that
  on the contrary he was necessarily and
 by nature mortal1 and had he not       
sinned he would nevertheless have died2 
that the consequences of his  sins were 
confined to himself1 and did not affect 
his posterity4 ,from  these premises    

,pelagius drew certain important        
theological conclusions4    ,at ,rome1  
,pelagius had been received with favor2 
at ,carthage1 at the  instigation of    
,st4 ,augustine1 he was denounced4 ,by a
 synod1 held at  ,diospolis1 he was     
acquitted of heresy1 but1 on referring  
the matter to  the ,bishop of ,rome1    
,innocent ,i41 he was1 on the contrary1 
condemned4 ,it  happened that at this   
moment ,innocent died1 and his          
successor1 ,zosimus1  annulled his      
judgment and declared the opinions of   
,pelagius to be  orthodox4 ,these       
contradictory decisions are still often 
referred to  by the opponents of papal  
infallibility4 ,things were in this     
state of  confusion1 when the wily      
,african bishops1 through the influence 
of ,count  ,valerius1 procured from the 
emperor an edict denouncing ,pelagins as
  a heretic2 he and his accomplices were
 condemned to exile and the  forfeiture 
of their goods4 ,to affirm that death   
was in the world before  the fall of    

,adam1 was a state crime4               
,,condemnation ,,of ,,pelagius4 ,it is  
very instructive to consider the        
principles on which this strange        
decision was founded4 ,since the        
question was purely philosophical1 one  
might suppose that it would  have been  
discussed on natural principles2 instead
 of that1 theological  considerations   
alone were adduced4 ,the attentive      
reader will have  remarked1 in          
,tertullian's statement of the          
principles of ,christianity1  a complete
 absence of the doctrines of original   
sin1 total depravity1  predestination1  
grace1 and atonement4 ,the intention of 
,christianity1  as set forth by him1 has
 nothing in common with the plan of     
salvation  upheld two centuries         
subsequently4 ,it is to ,st4 ,augustine1
 a  ,carthaginian1 that we are indebted 
for the precision of our views on  these
 important points4    ,in deciding      
whether death had been in the world     
before the fall of ,adam1  or whether it

 was the penalty inflicted on the world 
for his sin1  the course taken was to   
ascertain whether the views of ,pelagius
 were  accordant or discordant not with 
,nature but with the theological        
doctrines of ,st4 ,augustine4 ,and the  
result has been such as might  be       
expected4 ,the doctrine declared to be  
orthodox by ecclesiastical  authority is
 overthrown by the unquestionable       
discoveries of modern  science4 ,long   
before a human being had appeared upon  
earth1 millions of  individuals--nay1   
more1 thousands of species and even     
genera--had died2  those which remain   
with us are an insignificant fraction of
 the vast  hosts that have passed away4 
,a consequence of great importance      
issued from the decision of the         
,pelagian controversy4 ,the book of     
,genesis had been made the basis of     
,christianity4 ,if1 in a theological    
point of view1 to its account of the    
sin in the garden of ,eden1 and the     
transgression and punishment of ,adam1  

so much weight had been attached1 it    
also in a philosophical point  of view  
became the grand authority of ,patristic
 science4 ,astronomy1  geology1         
geography1 anthropology1 chronology1 and
 indeed all the various  departments of 
human knowledge1 were made to conform to
 it4    ,,st4 ,,augustine4 ,as the      
doctrines of ,st4 ,augustine have had   
the effect of  thus placing theology in 
antagonism with science1 it may be      
interesting  to examine briefly some of 
the more purely philosophical views of  
that  great man4 ,for this purpose1 we  
may appropriately select portions of    
his study of the first chapter of       
,genesis1 as contained in the eleventh1 
twelfth1 and thirteenth books of his    
,confessions4    ,these consist of      
philosophical discussions1 largely      
interspersed  with rhapsodies4 ,he prays
 that ,god will give him to understand  
the  ,scriptures1 and will open their   
meaning to him2 he declares that in     
them there is nothing superfluous1 but  

that the words have a manifold  meaning4
    ,the face of creation testifies that
 there has been a ,creator2 but at  once
 arises the question1 ,how and when did 
he make heaven and earth8  ,they could  
not have been made ,,in heaven and      
earth1 the world could not  have been   
made ,,in the world1 nor could they have
 been made when there  was nothing to   
make them of4 ,the solution of this     
fundamental inquiry  ,st4 ,augustine    
finds in saying1 ,thou spakest1 and they
 were made4    ,but the difficulty does 
not end here4 ,st4 ,augustine goes on to
 remark  that the syllables thus uttered
 by ,god came forth in succession1 and  
there must have been some created thing 
to express the words4 ,this  created    
thing must1 therefore1 have existed     
before heaven and earth1 and  yet there 
could have been no corporeal thing      
before heaven and earth4 ,it  must have 
been a creature1 because the words      
passed away and came to an  end but we  
know that the word of the ,lord endureth

 forever4    ,moreover1 it is plain that
 the words thus spoken could not have   
been  spoken successively1 but          
simultaneously1 else there would have   
been time  and change--succession in its
 nature implying time2 whereas there was
  then nothing but eternity and         
immortality4 ,god knows and says        
eternally  what takes place in time4    
,,criticism ,,of ,,st4 ,,augustine4 ,st4
 ,augustine then defines1 not without   
much mysticism1 what is meant by the    
opening words of ,genesis3 ,in  the     
beginning4 ,he is guided to his         
conclusion by another scriptural        
passage3 ,how wonderful are thy works1  
,o ,lord6 in wisdom hast thou made  them
 all4 ,this wisdom is the beginning1 and
 in that beginning the  ,lord created   
the heaven and the earth4    ,but1 he   
adds1 some one may ask1 ',what was ,god 
doing before he made  the heaven and the
 earth8 for1 if at any particular moment
 he began  to employ himself1 that means
 time1 not eternity4 ,in eternity       

nothing  transpires--the whole is       
present4' ,in answering this question1  
he  cannot forbear one of those touches 
of rhetoric for which he was so         
celebrated3 ,i will not answer this     
question by saying that he was          
preparing hell for priers into his      
mysteries4 ,i say that1 before ,god     
made heaven and earth1 he did not make  
any thing1 for no creature could  be    
made before any creature was made4 ,time
 itself is a creature1 and  hence it    
could not possibly exist before         
creation4    ,what1 then1 is time8 ,the 
past is not1 the future is not1 the     
present--who can tell what it is1 unless
 it be that which has no  duration      
between two nonentities8 ,there is no   
such thing as 'a long  time1' or 'a     
short time1' for there are no such      
things as the past and  the future4     
,they have no existence1 except in the  
soul4    ,the style in which ,st4       
,augustine conveyed his ideas is that of
 a  rhapsodical conversation with ,god4 

,his works are an incoherent dream4     
,that the reader may appreciate this    
remark1 ,i might copy almost at  random 
any of his paragraphs4 ,the following is
 from the twelfth book3    ,this then1  
is what ,i conceive1 ,o my ,god1 when ,i
 hear thy ,scripture  saying1 ,in the   
beginning ,god made heaven and earth3   
and the earth was  invisible and without
 form1 and darkness was upon the deep1  
and not  mentioning what day thou       
createdst them2 this is what ,i         
conceive1  that because of the heaven of
 heavens--that intellectual heaven1     
whose  intelligences know all at once1  
not in part1 not darkly1 not through a  
glass1 but as a whole1 in manifestation1
 face to face2 not this thing  now1 and 
that thing anon2 but 7as ,i said7 know  
all at once1 without any  succession of 
times2 and because of the earth1        
invisible and without  form1 without any
 succession of times1 which succession  
presents 'this  thing now1 that thing   
anon2' because1 where there is no form1 

there  is no distinction of things2 it  
is1 then1 on account of these two1 a    
primitive formed1 and a primitive       
formless2 the one1 heaven1 but the      
heaven of heavens2 the other1 earth1 but
 the earth movable and without  form2   
because of these two do ,i conceive1 did
 thy ,scripture say without  mention of 
days1 ,in the beginning ,god created the
 heaven and the earth4  ,for1 forthwith 
it subjoined what earth it spake of2 and
 also in that the  firmament is recorded
 to be created the second day1 and      
called heaven1  it conveys to us of     
which heaven he before spake1 without   
mention of  days4    ,wondrous depth of 
thy words6 whose surface behold6 is     
before us1  inviting to little ones2 yet
 are they a wondrous depth1 ,o my ,god1 
a  wondrous depth6 ,it is awful to look 
therein2 an awfulness of honor1 and  a  
trembling of love4 ,the enemies thereof 
,i hate vehemently2 ,o that thou        
wouldst slay them with thy two-edged    
sword1 that they might no longer be     

enemies to it3 for so do ,i love to have
 them slain unto themselves1 that  they 
may live unto thee4    ,as an example of
 the hermeneutical manner in which ,st4 
,augustine  unfolded the concealed facts
 of the ,scriptures1 ,i may cite the    
following  from the thirteenth book of  
the ,confessions2 his object is to show 
that the doctrine of the ,trinity is    
contained in the ,mosaic narrative of   
the creation3    ,lo1 now the ,trinity  
appears unto me in a glass darkly1 which
 is thou my  ,god1 because thou1 ,o     
,father1 in him who is the beginning of 
our wisdom1  which is thy wisdom1 born  
of thyself1 equal unto thee and         
coeternal1  that is1 in thy ,son1       
createdst heaven and earth4 ,much now   
have we said  of the heaven of heavens1 
and of the earth invisible and without  
form1  and of the darksome deep1 in     
reference to the wandering instability  
of  its spiritual deformity1 unless it  
had been converted unto him1 from  whom 
it had its then degree of life1 and by  

his enlightening became a  beauteous    
life1 and the heaven of that heaven1    
which was afterward  set between water  
and water4 ,and under the name of ,god1 
,i now held the  ,father1 who made these
 things2 and under the name of the      
beginning1 the  ,son1 in whom he made   
these things2 and believing1 as ,i did1 
my ,god as  the ,trinity1 ,i searched   
further in his holy words1 and lo6 thy  
,spirit  moved upon the waters4 ,behold 
the ,trinity1 my ,god6--,father1 and    
,son1 and  ,holy ,ghost ,creator of all 
creation4    ,that ,i might convey to my
 reader a just impression of the        
character of  ,st4 ,augustine's         
philosophical writings1 ,i have1 in the 
two quotations  here given1 substituted 
for my own translation that of the ,rev4
 ,dr4  ,pusey1 as contained in ,vol4 ,i4
 of the ,library of ,fathers of the     
,holy  ,catholic ,church1 published at  
,oxford1 #ahdj4    ,considering the     
eminent authority which has been        
attributed to the  writings of ,st4     

,augustine by the religious world for   
nearly fifteen  centuries1 it is proper 
to speak of them with respect4 ,and     
indeed it  is not necessary to do       
otherwise4 ,the paragraphs here quoted  
criticise  themselves4 ,no one did more 
than this ,father to bring science and  
religion into antagonism2 it was mainly 
he who diverted the ,bible  from its    
true office--a guide to purity of       
life--and placed it in the  perilous    
position of being the arbiter of human  
knowledge1 an audacious  tyranny over   
the mind of man4 ,the example once set1 
there was no want of  followers2 the    
works of the great ,greek philosophers  
were stigmatized  as profane2 the       
transcendently glorious achievements of 
the ,museum of  ,alexandria were hidden 
from sight by a cloud of ignorance1     
mysticism1  and unintelligible jargon1  
out of which there too often flashed the
  destroying lightnings of              
ecclesiastical vengeance4      ,a divine
 revelation of science admits of no     

improvement1 no change1 no  advance4 ,it
 discourages as needless1 and indeed as 
presumptuous1 all new  discovery1       
considering it as an unlawful prying    
into things which it was  the intention 
of ,god to conceal4    ,what1 then1 is  
that sacred1 that revealed science1     
declared by the  ,fathers to be the sum 
of all knowledge8    ,it likened all    
phenomena1 natural and spiritual1 to    
human acts4 ,it saw  in the ,almighty1  
the ,eternal1 only a gigantic man4      
,,the ,,patristic ,,philosophy4 ,as to  
the earth1 it affirmed that it is a flat
  surface1 over which the sky is spread 
like a dome1 or1 as ,st4 ,augustine     
tells us1 is stretched like a skin4 ,in 
this the sun and moon and stars  move1  
so that they may give light by day and  
by night to man4 ,the earth  was made of
 matter created by ,god out of nothing1 
and1 with all the  tribes of animals and
 plants inhabiting it1 was finished in  
six days4  ,above the sky or firmament  
is heaven2 in the dark and fiery space  

beneath the earth is hell4 ,the earth is
 the central and most important  body of
 the universe1 all other things being   
intended for and  subservient to it4    
,as to man1 he was made out of the dust 
of the earth4 ,at first he was  alone1  
but subsequently woman was formed from  
one of his ribs4 ,he is the  greatest   
and choicest of the works of ,god4 ,he  
was placed in a paradise  near the banks
 of the ,euphrates1 and was very wise   
and very pure2 but1  having tasted of   
the forbidden fruit1 and thereby broken 
the commandment  given to him1 he was   
condemned to labor and to death4    ,the
 descendants of the first man1          
undeterred by his punishment1 pursued   
such a career of wickedness that it     
became necessary to destroy them4 ,a    
deluge1 therefore1 flooded the face of  
the earth1 and rose over the tops  of   
the mountains4 ,having accomplished its 
purpose1 the water was dried  up by a   
wind4    ,from this catastrophe ,noah   
and his three sons1 with their wives1   

were  saved in an ark4 ,of these sons1  
,shem remained in ,asia and repeopled   
it4  ,ham peopled ,africa2 ,japhet1     
,europe4 ,as the ,fathers were not      
acquainted  with the existence of       
,america1 they did not provide an       
ancestor for its  people4    ,let us    
listen to what some of these authorities
 say in support of their  assertions4   
,thus ,lactantius1 referring to the     
heretical doctrine of the  globular form
 of the earth1 remarks3 ,is it possible 
that men can be so  absurd as to believe
 that the crops and the trees on the    
other side of  the earth hang downward1 
and that men have their feet higher than
 their  heads8 ,if you ask them how they
 defend these monstrosities1 how things 
do not fall away from the earth on that 
side1 they reply that the nature  of    
things is such that heavy bodies tend   
toward the centre1 like the  spokes of a
 wheel1 while light bodies1 as clouds1  
smoke1 fire1 tend from  the centre to   
the heavens on all sides4 ,now1 ,i am   

really at a loss what  to say of those  
who1 when they have once gone wrong1    
steadily persevere  in their folly1 and 
defend one absurd opinion by another4   
,on the  question of the antipodes1 ,st4
 ,augustine asserts that it is          
impossible  there should be inhabitants 
on the opposite side of the earth1 since
  no such race is recorded by ,scripture
 among the descendants of ,adam4        
,perhaps1 however1 the most unanswerable
 argument against the sphericity  of the
 earth was this1 that in the day of     
judgment1 men on the other  side of a   
globe could not see the ,lord descending
 through the air4    ,it is unnecessary 
for me to say any thing respecting the  
introduction of  death into the world1  
the continual interventions of spiritual
 agencies  in the course of events1 the 
offices of angels and devils1 the       
expected  conflagration of the earth1   
the tower of ,babel1 the confusion of   
tongues1 the dispersion of mankind1 the 
interpretation of natural  phenomena1 as

 eclipses1 the rainbow1 etc4 ,above all1
 ,i abstain from  commenting on the     
,patristic conceptions of the ,almighty2
 they are too  anthropomorphic1 and     
wanting in sublimity4    ,perhaps1      
however1 ,i may quote from ,cosmas      
,indicopleustes the views  that were    
entertained in the sixth century4 ,he   
wrote a work entitled  ,christian       
,topography1 the chief intent of which  
was to confute the  heretical opinion of
 the globular form of the earth1 and the
 pagan  assertion that there is a       
temperate zone on the southern side of  
the  torrid4 ,he affirms that1 according
 to the true orthodox system of         
geography1 the earth is a quadrangular  
plane1 extending four hundred  days'    
journey east and west1 and exactly half 
as much north and south2  that it is    
inclosed by mountains1 on which the sky 
rests2 that one on  the north side1     
huger than the others1 by intercepting  
the rays of the  sun1 produces night2   
and that the plane of the earth is not  

set exactly  horizontally1 but with a   
little inclination from the north3 hence
 the  ,euphrates1 ,tigris1 and other    
rivers1 running southward1 are rapid2   
but  the ,nile1 having to run up-hill1  
has necessarily a very slow current4    
,the ,venerable ,bede1 writing in the   
seventh century1 tells us that the      
creation was accomplished in six days1  
and that the earth is its centre  and   
its primary object4 ,the heaven is of a 
fiery and subtile nature1  round1 and   
equidistant in every part1 as a canopy  
from the centre of the  earth4 ,it turns
 round every day with ineffable         
rapidity1 only moderated  by the        
resistance of the seven planets1 three  
above the sun--,saturn1  ,jupiter1      
,mars--then the sun2 three              
below--,venus1 ,mercury1 the moon4 ,the 
stars go round in their fixed courses1  
the northern perform the shortest       
circle4 ,the highest heaven has its     
proper limit2 it contains the angelic   
virtues who descend upon earth1 assume  

ethereal bodies1 perform human          
functions1 and return4 ,the heaven is   
tempered with glacial waters1 lest  it  
should be set on fire4 ,the inferior    
heaven is called the firmament1  because
 it separates the superincumbent waters 
from the waters below4  ,the firmamental
 waters are lower than the spiritual    
heaven1 higher than  all corporeal      
beings1 reserved1 some say1 for a second
 deluge2 others1  more truly1 to temper 
the fire of the fixed stars4    ,was it 
for this preposterous scheme--this      
product of ignorance and  audacity--that
 the works of the ,greek philosophers   
were to be given  up8 ,it was none too  
soon that the great critics who appeared
 at the  ,reformation1 by comparing the 
works of these writers with one another1
  brought them to their proper level1   
and taught us to look upon them all     
with contempt4    ,of this presumptuous 
system1 the strangest part was its      
logic1 the  nature of its proofs4 ,it   
relied upon miracle-evidence4 ,a fact   

was  supposed to be demonstrated by an  
astounding illustration of something    
else6 ,an ,arabian writer1 referring to 
this1 says3 ,if a conjurer should  say  
to me1 ',three are more than ten1 and in
 proof of it ,i will change  this stick 
into a serpent1' ,i might be surprised  
at his legerdemain1  but ,i certainly   
should not admit his assertion4 ,yet1   
for more than  a thousand years1 such   
was the accepted logic1 and all over    
,europe  propositions equally absurd    
were accepted on equally ridiculous     
proof4    ,since the party that had     
become dominant in the empire could not 
furnish  works capable of intellectual  
competition with those of the great     
pagan  authors1 and since it was        
impossible for it to accept a position  
of  inferiority1 there arose a political
 necessity for the discouragement1  and 
even persecution1 of profane learning4  
,the persecution of the  ,platonists    
under ,valentinian was due to that      
necessity4 ,they were  accused of magic1

 and many of them were put to death4    
,the profession  of philosophy had      
become dangerous--it was a state crime4 
,in its stead  there arose a passion for
 the marvelous1 a spirit of             
superstition4 ,egypt  exchanged the     
great men1 who had made her ,museum     
immortal1 for bands of  solitary monks  
and sequestered virgins1 with which she 
was overrun4        ,,chapter ,,iii4    
,,conflict ,,respecting ,,the ,,doctrine
 ,,of ,,the ,,unity ,,of ,,god4--,,the  
,,first ,,or ,,southern ,,reformation4  
,the ,egyptians insist on the           
introduction of the worship of       the
 ,virgin ,mary--,they are resisted by   
,nestor1 the ,patriarch       of        
,constantinople1 but eventually1 through
 their influence       with the emperor1
 cause ,nestor's exile and the          
dispersion of       his followers4      
,prelude to the ,southern               
,reformation--,the ,persian attack2 its 
moral effects4         ,the ,arabian    
,reformation4--,mohammed is brought in  

contact       with the ,nestorians--,he 
adopts and extends their principles1    
rejecting the worship of the ,virgin1   
the doctrine of the       ,trinity1 and 
every thing in opposition to the unity  
of ,god4--       ,he extinguishes       
idolatry in ,arabia1 by force1 and      
prepares       to make war on the ,roman
 ,empire4--,his successors conquer      
,syria1 ,egypt1 ,asia ,minor1 ,north    
,africa1 ,spain1 and invade             
,france4         ,as the result of this 
conflict1 the doctrine of the unity of  
,god was established in the greater part
 of the ,roman ,empire--       ,the     
cultivation of science was restored1 and
 ,christendom       lost many of her    
most illustrious capitals1 as           
,alexandria1       ,carthage1 and1 above
 all1 ,jerusalem4      ,,the policy of  
the ,byzantine court had given to       
primitive ,christianity a  paganized    
form1 which it had spread over all the  
idolatrous populations  constituting the
 empire4 ,there had been an amalgamation

 of the two  parties4 ,christianity had 
modified paganism1 paganism had modified
  ,christianity4 ,the limits of this    
adulterated religion were the confines  
of the ,roman ,empire4 ,with this great 
extension there had come to the         
,christian party political influence and
 wealth4 ,no insignificant portion  of  
the vast public revenues found their way
 into the treasuries of the  ,church4   
,as under such circumstances must ever  
be the case1 there were  many           
competitors for the spoils--men who1    
under the mask of zeal for the          
predominant faith1 sought only the      
enjoyment of its emoluments4            
,,ecclesiastical ,,disputes4 ,under the 
early emperors1 conquest had reached    
its culmination2 the empire was         
completed2 there remained no adequate   
objects for military life2 the days of  
war-peculation1 and the  plundering of  
provinces1 were over4 ,for the          
ambitious1 however1 another  path was   
open2 other objects presented4 ,a       

successful career in the  ,church led to
 results not unworthy of comparison with
 those that in  former days had been    
attained by a successful career in the  
army4    ,the ecclesiastical1 and       
indeed1 it may be said1 much of the     
political  history of that time1 turns  
on the struggles of the bishops of the  
three great metropolitan                
cities--,constantinople1 ,alexandria1   
,rome--for  supremacy3 ,constantinople  
based her claims on the fact that she   
was  the existing imperial city2        
,alexandria pointed to her commercial   
and literary position2 ,rome1 to her    
souvenirs4 ,but the ,patriarch of       
,constantinople labored under the       
disadvantage that he was too closely    
under the eye1 and1 as he found to his  
cost1 too often under the hand1  of the 
emperor4 ,distance gave security to the 
episcopates of ,alexandria  and ,rome4  
,,ecclesiastical ,,disputes4 ,religious 
disputations in the ,east have          
generally turned on diversities of      

opinion respecting the nature and       
attributes of ,god2 in the ,west1 on the
 relations and life of man4 ,this       
peculiarity has been strikingly         
manifested in the transformations that  
,christianity has undergone in ,asia and
 ,europe respectively4 ,accordingly1  at
 the time of which we are speaking1 all 
the ,eastern provinces of  the ,roman   
,empire exhibited an intellectual       
anarchy4 ,there were fierce  quarrels   
respecting the ,trinity1 the essence of 
,god1 the position of the  ,son1 the    
nature of the ,holy ,spirit1 the        
influences of the ,virgin ,mary4  ,the  
triumphant clamor first of one then of  
another sect was confirmed1  sometimes  
by miracle-proof1 sometimes by          
bloodshed4 ,no attempt was ever  made to
 submit the rival opinions to logical   
examination4 ,all parties1  however1    
agreed in this1 that the imposture of   
the old classical pagan  forms of faith 
was demonstrated by the facility with   
which they had been  overthrown4 ,the   

triumphant ecclesiastics proclaimed that
 the images of  the gods had failed to  
defend themselves when the time of trial
 came4    ,polytheistic ideas have      
always been held in repute by the       
southern  ,european races1 the ,semitic 
have maintained the unity of ,god4      
,perhaps  this is due to the fact1 as a 
recent author has suggested1 that a     
diversified landscape of mountains and  
valleys1 islands1 and rivers1 and       
gulfs1 predisposes man to a belief in a 
multitude of divinities4 ,a vast  sandy 
desert1 the illimitable ocean1 impresses
 him with an idea of the  oneness of    
,god4    ,political reasons had led the 
emperors to look with favor on the      
admixture of ,christianity and paganism1
 and doubtless by this means the        
bitterness of the rivalry between those 
antagonists was somewhat abated4  ,the  
heaven of the popular1 the fashionable  
,christianity was the old  ,olympus1    
from which the venerable ,greek         
divinities had been removed4  ,there1 on

 a great white throne1 sat ,god the     
,father1 on his right the  ,son1 and    
then the blessed ,virgin1 clad in a     
golden robe1 and covered  with various  
female adornments2 on the left sat ,god 
the ,holy ,ghost4  ,surrounding these   
thrones were hosts of angels with their 
harps4 ,the  vast expanse beyond was    
filled with tables1 seated at which the 
happy  spirits of the just enjoyed a    
perpetual banquet4    ,if1 satisfied    
with this picture of happiness1         
illiterate persons never  inquired how  
the details of such a heaven were       
carried out1 or how much  pleasure there
 could be in the ennui of such an       
eternally unchanging1  unmoving scene1  
it was not so with the intelligent4 ,as 
we are soon to  see1 there were among   
the higher ecclesiastics those who      
rejected with  sentiments of horror     
these carnal1 these materialistic       
conceptions1 and  raised their          
protesting voices in vindication of the 
attributes of the  ,omnipresent1 the    

,almighty ,god4    ,,egyptian           
,,doctrines4 ,in the paganization of    
religion1 now in all  directions taking 
place1 it became the interest of every  
bishop to  procure an adoption of the   
ideas which1 time out of mind1 had been 
current in the community under his      
charge4 ,the ,egyptians had already     
thus forced on the ,church their        
peculiar ,trinitarian views2 and now    
they  were resolved that1 under the form
 of the adoration of the ,virgin ,mary1 
the worship of ,isis should be restored4
    ,,the ,,nestorians4 ,it so happened 
that ,nestor1 the ,bishop of ,antioch1  
who  entertained the philosophical views
 of ,theodore of ,mopsuestia1 had  been 
called by the ,emperor ,theodosius the  
,younger to the ,episcopate  of         
,constantinople 7,a4,d4 #dbg74 ,nestor  
rejected the base popular               
anthropomorphism1 looking upon it as    
little better than blasphemous1  and    
pictured to himself an awful eternal    
,divinity1 who pervaded the  universe1  

and had none of the aspects or          
attributes of man4 ,nestor  was deeply  
imbued with the doctrines of ,aristotle1
 and attempted to  coordinate them with 
what he considered to be orthodox       
,christian tenets4  ,between him and    
,cyril1 the ,bishop or ,patriarch of    
,alexandria1 a  quarrel accordingly     
arose4 ,cyril represented the           
paganizing1 ,nestor the  philosophizing 
party of the ,church4 ,this was that    
,cyril who had murdered  ,hypatia4      
,cyril was determined that the worship  
of the ,virgin as the  ,mother of ,god  
should be recognized1 ,nestor was       
determined that it should  not4 ,in a   
sermon delivered in the metropolitan    
church at ,constantinople1  he          
vindicated the attributes of the        
,eternal1 the ,almighty ,god4 ,and can  
this ,god have a mother8 he exclaimed4  
,in other sermons and writings1  he set 
forth with more precision his ideas that
 the ,virgin should be  considered not  
as the ,mother of ,god1 but as the      

mother of the human  portion of ,christ1
 that portion being as essentially      
distinct from the  divine as is a temple
 from its contained deity4              
,,persecution ,,and ,,death ,,of        
,,nestor4 ,instigated by the monks of   
,alexandria1  the monks of              
,constantinople took up arms in behalf  
of the ,mother of  ,god4 ,the quarrel   
rose to such a pitch that the emperor   
was constrained  to summon a council to 
meet at ,ephesus4 ,in the mean time     
,cyril had  given a bribe of many pounds
 of gold to the chief eunuch of the     
imperial  court1 and had thereby        
obtained the influence of the emperor's 
sister4  ,the holy virgin of the court  
of heaven thus found an ally of her own 
sex in the holy virgin of the emperor's 
court4 ,cyril hastened to the  council1 
attended by a mob of men and women of   
the baser sort4 ,he  at once assumed the
 presidency1 and in the midst of a      
tumult had the  emperor's rescript read 
before the ,syrian bishops could arrive4

 ,a single  day served to complete his  
triumph4 ,all offers of accommodation on
 the  part of ,nestor were refused1 his 
explanations were not read1 he was      
condemned unheard4 ,on the arrival of   
the ,syrian ecclesiastics1 a meeting  of
 protest was held by them4 ,a riot1 with
 much bloodshed1 ensued in the          
cathedral of ,st4 ,john4 ,nestor was    
abandoned by the court1 and eventually  
exiled to an ,egyptian oasis4 ,his      
persecutors tormented him as long as  he
 lived1 by every means in their power1  
and at his death gave out that  his     
blasphemous tongue had been devoured by 
worms1 and that from the  heats of an   
,egyptian desert he had escaped only    
into the hotter torments  of hell6      
,the overthrow and punishment of        
,nestor1 however1 by no means destroyed 
his opinions4 ,he and his followers1    
insisting on the plain inference of  the
 last verse of the first chapter of ,st4
 ,matthew1 together with the            
fifty-fifth and fifty-sixth verses of   

the thirteenth of the same gospel1      
could never be brought to an            
acknowledgment of the perpetual         
virginity  of the new queen of heaven4  
,their philosophical tendencies were    
soon  indicated by their actions4 ,while
 their leader was tormented in an       
,african oasis1 many of them emigrated  
to the ,euphrates1 and established  the 
,chaldean ,church4 ,under their auspices
 the college of ,edessa was  founded4   
,from the college of ,nisibis issued    
those doctors who spread  ,nestor's     
tenets through ,syria1 ,arabia1 ,india1 
,tartary1 ,china1 ,egypt4  ,the         
,nestorians1 of course1 adopted the     
philosophy of ,aristotle1 and           
translated the works of that great      
writer into ,syriac and ,persian4 ,they 
also made similar translations of later 
works1 such as those of  ,pliny4 ,in    
connection with the ,jews they founded  
the medical college  of ,djondesabour4  
,their missionaries disseminated the    
,nestorian form of  ,christianity to    

such an extent over ,asia1 that its     
worshipers eventually  outnumbered all  
the ,european ,christians of the ,greek 
and ,roman ,churches  combined4 ,it may 
be particularly remarked that in ,arabia
 they had a  bishop4    ,,the ,,persian 
,,campaign4 ,the dissensions between    
,constantinople and  ,alexandria had    
thus filled all ,western ,asia with     
sectaries1 ferocious  in their contests 
with each other1 and many of them       
burning with hatred  against the        
imperial power for the persecutions it  
had inflicted on  them4 ,a religious    
revolution1 the consequences of which   
are felt in our  own times1 was the     
result4 ,it affected the whole world4   
,we shall gain a clear view of this     
great event1 if we consider  separately 
the two acts into which it may be       
decomposed3 #a4 ,the  temporary         
overthrow of ,asiatic ,christianity by  
the ,persians2 #b4 ,the  decisive and   
final reformation under the ,arabians4  
#a4 ,it happened 7,a4,d4 #eij7 that1 by 

one of those revolutions so frequent  in
 ,oriental courts1 ,chosroes1 the lawful
 heir to the ,persian throne1 was       
compelled to seek refuge in the         
,byzantine ,empire1 and implore the aid 
of the ,emperor ,maurice4 ,that aid was 
cheerfully given4 ,a brief and          
successful campaign restored ,chosroes  
to the throne of his ancestors4    ,but 
the glories of this generous campaign   
could not preserve ,maurice  himself4 ,a
 mutiny broke out in the ,roman army1   
headed by ,phocas1 a  centurion4 ,the   
statues of the emperor were overthrown4 
,the ,patriarch  of ,constantinople1    
having declared that he had assured     
himself of the  orthodoxy of ,phocas1   
consecrated him emperor4 ,the           
unfortunate ,maurice  was dragged from a
 sanctuary1 in which he had sought      
refuge2 his five  sons were beheaded    
before his eyes1 and then he was put to 
death4 ,his  empress was inveigled from 
the church of ,st4 ,sophia1 tortured1   
and  with her three young daughters     

beheaded4 ,the adherents of the         
massacred  family were pursued with     
ferocious vindictiveness2 of some the   
eyes were  blinded1 of others the       
tongues were torn out1 or the feet and  
hands cut  off1 some were whipped to    
death1 others were burnt4    ,when the  
news reached ,rome1 ,pope ,gregory      
received it with exultation1  praying   
that the hands of ,phocas might be      
strengthened against all his  enemies4  
,as an equivalent for this subserviency1
 he was greeted with the  title of      
,universal ,bishop4 ,the cause of his   
action1 as well as of that  of the      
,patriarch of ,constantinople1 was      
doubtless the fact that ,maurice  was   
suspected of ,magrian tendencies1 into  
which he had been lured by the          
,persians4 ,the mob of ,constantinople  
had hooted after him in the streets1    
branding him as a ,marcionite1 a sect   
which believed in the ,magian  doctrine 
of two conflicting principles4    ,with 
very different sentiments ,chosroes     

heard of the murder of his  friend4     
,phocas had sent him the heads of       
,maurice and his sons4 ,the  ,persian   
king turned from the ghastly spectacle  
with horror1 and at once  made ready to 
avenge the wrongs of his benefactor by  
war4    ,,the ,,expedition ,,of         
,,heraclius4 ,the ,exarch of ,africa1   
,heraclius1 one of  the chief officers  
of the state1 also received the shocking
 tidings with  indignation4 ,he was     
determined that the imperial purple     
should not be  usurped by an obscure    
centurion of disgusting aspect4 ,the    
person of  this ,phocas was diminutive  
and deformed2 the closeness of his      
shaggy  eyebrows1 his red hair1 his     
beardless chin1 were in keeping with his
  cheek1 disfigured and discolored by a 
formidable scar4 ,ignorant of  letters1 
of laws1 and even of arms1 he indulged  
in an ample privilege of  lust and      
drunkenness4 ,at first ,heraclius       
refused tribute and obedience  to him2  
then1 admonished by age and infirmities1

 he committed the  dangerous enterprise 
of resistance to his son of the same    
name4 ,a  prosperous voyage from        
,carthage soon brought the younger      
,heraclius in  front of ,constantinople4
 ,the inconstant clergy1 senate1 and    
people of  the city joined him1 the     
usurper was seized in his palace and    
beheaded4    ,,invasion ,,of ,,chosroes4
 ,but the revolution that had taken     
place in  ,constantinople did not arrest
 the movements of the ,persian king4    
,his  ,magian priests had warned him to 
act independently of the ,greeks1  whose
 superstition1 they declared1 was devoid
 of all truth and justice4  ,chosroes1  
therefore1 crossed the ,euphrates2 his  
army was received with  transport by the
 ,syrian sectaries1 insurrections in his
 favor everywhere  breaking out4 ,in    
succession1 ,antioch1 ,caesarea1        
,damascus fell2 ,jerusalem  itself was  
taken by storm2 the sepulchre of        
,christ1 the churches of  ,constantine  
and of ,helena were given to the flames2

 the ,savior's cross  was sent as a     
trophy to ,persia2 the churches were    
rifled of their  riches2 the sacred     
relics1 collected by superstition1 were 
dispersed4  ,egypt was invaded1         
conquered1 and annexed to the ,persian  
,empire2 the  ,patriarch of ,alexandria 
escaped by flight to ,cyprus2 the       
,african coast  to ,tripoli was seized4 
,on the north1 ,asia ,minor was subdued1
 and for  ten years the ,persian forces 
encamped on the shores of the ,bosporus1
 in  front of ,constantinople4    ,in   
his extremity ,heraclius begged for     
peace4 ,i will never give peace  to the 
,emperor of ,rome1 replied the proud    
,persian1 till he has abjured  his      
crucified ,god1 and embraced the worship
 of the sun4 ,after a long  delay terms 
were1 however1 secured1 and the ,roman  
,empire was ransomed at  the price of a 
thousand talents of gold1 a thousand    
talents of silver1  a thousand silk     
robes1 a thousand horses1 and a thousand
 virgins4    ,but ,heraclius submitted  

only for a moment4 ,he found means not  
only  to restore his affairs but to     
retaliate on the ,persian ,empire4 ,the 
operations by which he achieved this    
result were worthy of the most          
brilliant days of ,rome4    ,,invasion  
,,of ,,chosroes ,though her military    
renown was thus recovered1  though her  
territory was regained1 there was       
something that the ,roman  ,empire had  
irrecoverably lost4 ,religious faith    
could never be restored4  ,in face of   
the world ,magianism had insulted       
,christianity1 by profaning  her most   
sacred places--,bethlehem1 ,gethsemane1 
,calvary--by burning  the sepulchre of  
,christ1 by rifling and destroying the  
churches1 by  scattering to the winds   
priceless relics1 by carrying off1 with 
shouts  of laughter1 the cross4         
,miracles had once abounded in ,syria1  
in ,egypt1 in ,asia ,minor2 there was   
not a church which had not its long     
catalogue of them4 ,very often they     
were displayed on unimportant occasions 

and in insignificant cases4 ,in  this   
supreme moment1 when such aid was most  
urgently demanded1 not a  miracle was   
worked4    ,amazement filled the        
,christian populations of the ,east when
 they  witnessed these ,persian         
sacrileges perpetrated with impunity4   
,the  heavens should have rolled        
asunder1 the earth should have opened   
her  abysses1 the sword of the ,almighty
 should have flashed in the sky1 the    
fate of ,sennacherib should have been   
repeated4 ,but it was not so4 ,in the   
land of miracles1 amazement was followed
 by consternation--consternation  died  
out in disbelief4    #b4 ,but1 dreadful 
as it was1 the ,persian conquest was but
 a prelude to  the great event1 the     
story of which we have now to           
relate--the ,southern  revolt against   
,christianity4 ,its issue was the loss  
of nine-tenths of  her geographical     
possessions--,asia1 ,africa1 and part of
 ,europe4    ,,mohammed4 ,in the summer 
of #eha of the ,christian era1 there    

came to  ,bozrah1 a town on the confines
 of ,syria1 south of ,damascus1 a       
caravan  of camels4 ,it was from ,mecca1
 and was laden with the costly products 
of  ,south ,arabia--,arabia the ,happy4 
,the conductor of the caravan1 one ,abou
  ,taleb1 and his nephew1 a lad of      
twelve years1 were hospitably received  
and entertained at the ,nestorian       
convent of the town4    ,the monks of   
this convent soon found that their young
 visitor1 ,halibi or  ,mohammed1 was the
 nephew of the guardian of the ,caaba1  
the sacred temple  of the ,arabs4 ,one  
of them1 by name ,bahira1 spared no     
pains to secure his  conversion from the
 idolatry in which he had been brought  
up4 ,he found  the boy not only         
precociously intelligent1 but eagerly   
desirous of  information1 especially on 
matters relating to religion4    ,in    
,mohammed's own country the chief object
 of ,meccan worship was a  black        
meteoric stone1 kept in the ,caaba1 with
 three hundred and sixty  subordinate   

idols1 representing the days of the     
year1 as the year was  then counted4    
,at this time1 as we have seen1 the     
,christian ,church1 through the         
ambition and wickedness of its clergy1  
had been brought into a condition  of   
anarchy4 ,councils had been held on     
various pretenses1 while the real       
motives were concealed4 ,too often they 
were scenes of violence1 bribery1       
corruption4 ,in the ,west1 such were the
 temptations of riches1 luxury1  and    
power1 presented by the episcopates1    
that the election of a bishop  was often
 disgraced by frightful murders4 ,in the
 ,east1 in consequence of  the policy of
 the court of ,constantinople1 the      
,church had been torn in  pieces by     
contentions and schisms4 ,among a       
countless host of disputants  may be    
mentioned ,arians1 ,basilidians1        
,carpocratians1 ,collyridians1          
,eutychians1 ,gnostics1 ,jacobites1     
,marcionites1 ,marionites1 ,nestorians1 
,sabellians1 ,valentinians4 ,of these1  

the ,marionites regarded the ,trinity   
as consisting of ,god the ,father1 ,god 
the ,son1 and ,god the ,virgin ,mary2   
the ,collyridians worshiped the ,virgin 
as a divinity1 offering her  sacrifices 
of cakes2 the ,nestorians1 as we have   
seen1 denied that ,god  had a mother4   
,they prided themselves on being the    
inheritors1 the  possessors of the      
science of old ,greece4    ,but1 though 
they were irreconcilable in matters of  
faith1 there was one  point in which all
 these sects agreed--ferocious hatred   
and persecution  of each other4 ,arabia1
 an unconquered land of liberty1        
stretching from  the ,indian ,ocean to  
the ,desert of ,syria1 gave them all1 as
 the tide  of fortune successively      
turned1 a refuge4 ,it had been so from  
the old  times4 ,thither1 after the     
,roman conquest of ,palestine1 vast     
numbers of  ,jews escaped2 thither1     
immediately after his conversion1 ,st4  
,paul  tells the ,galatians that he     
retired4 ,the deserts were now filled   

with  ,christian anchorites1 and among  
the chief tribes of the ,arabs many     
proselytes had been made4 ,here and     
there churches had been built4 ,the     
,christian princes of ,abyssinia1 who   
were ,nestorians1 held the southern     
province of ,arabia--,yemen--in         
possession4    ,by the monk ,bahira1 in 
the convent at ,bozrah1 ,mohammed was   
taught the  tenets of the ,nestorians2  
from them the young ,arab learned the   
story of  their persecutions4 ,it was   
these interviews which engendered in him
 a  hatred of the idolatrous practices  
of the ,eastern ,church1 and indeed of  
all idolatry2 that taught him1 in his   
wonderful career1 never to speak  of    
,jesus as the ,son of ,god1 but always  
as ,jesus1 the son of ,mary4 ,his       
untutored but active mind could not fail
 to be profoundly impressed not  only   
with the religious but also with the    
philosophical ideas of  his instructors1
 who gloried in being the living        
representatives of  ,aristotelian       

science4 ,his subsequent career shows   
how completely their  religious thoughts
 had taken possession of him1 and       
repeated acts  manifest his affectionate
 regard for them4 ,his own life was     
devoted to  the expansion and extension 
of their theological doctrine1 and1 that
  once effectually established1 his     
successors energetically adopted and    
diffused their scientific1 their        
,aristotelian opinions4    ,as ,mohammed
 grew to manhood1 he made other         
expeditions to ,syria4  ,perhaps1 we may
 suppose1 that on these occasions the   
convent and its  hospitable in mates    
were not forgotten4 ,he had a mysterious
 reverence  for that country4 ,a wealthy
 ,meccan widow ,chadizah1 had intrusted 
him  with the care of her ,syrian trade4
 ,she was charmed with his capacity  and
 fidelity1 and 7since he is said to have
 been characterized by the  possession  
of singular manly beauty and a most     
courteous demeanor7  charmed with his   
person4 ,the female heart in all ages   

and countries is  the same4 ,she caused 
a slave to intimate to him what was     
passing in her  mind1 and1 for the      
remaining twenty-four years of her life1
 ,mohammed was  her faithful husband4   
,in a land of polygamy1 he never        
insulted her by  the presence of a      
rival4 ,many years subsequently1 in the 
height of his  power1 ,ayesha1 who was  
one of the most beautiful women in      
,arabia1 said  to him3 ,was she not old8
 ,did not ,god give you in me a better  
wife in  her place8 ,no1 by ,god6       
exclaimed ,mohammed1 and with a burst of
 honest  gratitude1 there never can be a
 better4 ,she believed in me when men   
despised me1 she relieved me when ,i was
 poor and persecuted by the  world4     
,his marriage with ,chadizah placed him 
in circumstances of ease1 and gave  him 
an opportunity of indulging his         
inclination to religious meditation4    
,it so happened that her cousin ,waraka1
 who was a ,jew1 had turned  ,christian4
 ,he was the first to translate the     

,bible into ,arabic4 ,by his            
conversation ,mohammed's detestation of 
idolatry was confirmed4    ,after the   
example of the ,christian anchorites in 
their hermitages in  the desert1        
,mohammed retired to a grotto in ,mount 
,hera1 a few miles from  ,mecca1 giving 
himself up to meditation and prayer4 ,in
 this seclusion1  contemplating the     
awful attributes of the ,omnipotent and 
,eternal ,god1 he  addressed to his     
conscience the solemn inquiry1 whether  
he could adopt  the dogmas then held in 
,asiatic ,christendom respecting the    
,trinity1 the  sonship of ,jesus as     
begotten by the ,almighty1 the character
 of ,mary as  at once a virgin1 a       
mother1 and the queen of heaven1 without
 incurring  the guilt and the peril of  
blasphemy4    ,by his solitary          
meditations in the grotto ,mohammed was 
drawn to the  conclusion that1 through  
the cloud of dogmas and disputations    
around  him1 one great truth might be   
discerned--the unity of ,god4 ,leaning  

against the stem of a palm-tree1 he     
unfolded his views on this subject  to  
his neighbors and friends1 and announced
 to them that he should  dedicate his   
life to the preaching of that truth4    
,again and again1 in  his sermons and in
 the ,koran1 he declared3 ,i am nothing 
but a public  preacher4444 ,i preach the
 oneness of ,god4 ,such was his own     
conception  of his so-called            
apostleship4 ,henceforth1 to the day of 
his death1 he  wore on his finger a     
seal-ring on which was engraved1        
,mohammed1 the  messenger of ,god4      
,,victories ,,of ,,mohammed4 ,it is well
 known among physicians that prolonged  
fasting and mental anxiety inevitably   
give rise to hallucination4  ,perhaps   
there never has been any religious      
system introduced by  self-denying1     
earnest men that did not offer examples 
of supernatural  temptations and        
supernatural commands4 ,mysterious      
voices encouraged the  ,arabian preacher
 to persist in his determination2       

shadows of strange  forms passed before 
him4 ,he heard sounds in the air like   
those of a  distant bell4 ,in a         
nocturnal dream he was carried by       
,gabriel from ,mecca  to ,jerusalem1 and
 thence in succession through the six   
heavens4 ,into the  seventh the angel   
feared to intrude and ,mohammed alone   
passed into the  dread cloud that       
forever enshrouds the ,almighty4 ,a     
shiver thrilled his  heart as he felt   
upon his shoulder the touch of the cold 
hand of ,god4    ,his public            
ministrations met with much resistance  
and little success at  first4 ,expelled 
from ,mecca by the upholders of the     
prevalent idolatry1  he sought refuge in
 ,medina1 a town in which there were    
many ,jews and  ,nestorians2 the latter 
at once became proselytes to his faith4 
,he had  already been compelled to send 
his daughter and others of his disciples
  to ,abyssinia1 the king of which was a
 ,nestorian ,christian4 ,at the end of  
six years he had made only fifteen      

hundred converts4 ,but in three little  
skirmishes1 magnified in subsequent     
times by the designation of the  battles
 of ,beder1 of ,ohud1 and of the        
,nations1 ,mohammed discovered that  his
 most convincing argument was his sword4
 ,afterward1 with ,oriental  eloquence1 
he said1 ,paradise will be found in the 
shadow of the  crossing of swords4 ,by a
 series of well-conducted military      
operations1  his enemies were completely
 overthrown4 ,arabian idolatry was      
absolutely  exterminated2 the doctrine  
he proclaimed1 that there is but one    
,god1  was universally adopted by his   
countrymen1 and his own apostleship     
accepted4    ,,death ,,of ,,mohammed4   
,let us pass over his stormy life1 and  
hear what  he says when1 on the pinnacle
 of earthly power and glory1 he was     
approaching its close4    ,steadfast in 
his declaration of the unity of ,god1 he
 departed from  ,medina on his last     
pilgrimage to ,mecca1 at the head of one
 hundred  and fourteen thousand         

devotees1 with camels decorated with    
garlands of  flowers and fluttering     
streamers4 ,when he approached the holy 
city1 he  uttered the solemn invocation3
 ,here am ,i in thy service1 ,o ,god6   
,thou  hast no companion4 ,to thee alone
 belongeth worship4 ,thine alone is the 
kingdom4 ,there is none to share it with
 thee4    ,with his own hand he offered 
up the camels in sacrifice4 ,he         
considered  that primeval institution to
 be equally sacred as prayer1 and that  
no  reason can be alleged in support of 
the one which is not equally strong  in 
support of the other4    ,from the      
pulpit of the ,caaba he reiterated1 ,o  
my hearers1 ,i am only a  man like      
yourselves4 ,they remembered that he had
 once said to one who  approached him   
with timid steps3 ,of what dost thou    
stand in awe8 ,i am  no king4 ,i am     
nothing but the son of an ,arab woman1  
who ate flesh dried  in the sun4    ,he 
returned to ,medina to die4 ,in his     
farewell to his congregation1 he  said3 

,every thing happens according to the   
will of ,god1 and has its  appointed    
time1 which can neither be hastened nor 
avoided4 ,i return to  him who sent me1 
and my last command to you is1 that ye  
love1 honor1 and  uphold each other1    
that ye exhort each other to faith and  
constancy in  belief1 and to the        
performance of pious deeds4 ,my life has
 been for your  good1 and so will be my 
death4    ,in his dying agony1 his head 
was reclined on the lap of ,ayesha4     
,from  time to time he had dipped his   
hand in a vase of water1 and moistened  
his face4 ,at last he ceased1 and1      
gazing steadfastly upward1 said1 in     
broken accents3 ,o ,god--forgive my     
sins--be it so4 ,i come4    ,shall we   
speak of this man with disrespect8 ,his 
precepts are1 at this  day1 the         
religious guide of one-third of the     
human race4    ,,doctrines ,,of         
,,mohammed4 ,in ,mohammed1 who had      
already broken away from the  ancient   
idolatrous worship of his native        

country1 preparation had been  made for 
the rejection of those tenets which his 
,nestorian teachers  had communicated to
 him1 inconsistent with reason and      
conscience4 ,and1  though1 in the first 
pages of the ,koran1 he declares his    
belief in what  was delivered to ,moses 
and ,jesus1 and his reverence for them  
personally1  his veneration for the     
,almighty is perpetually displayed4 ,he 
is  horror-stricken at the doctrine of  
the divinity of ,jesus1 the ,worship of 
,mary as the mother of ,god1 the        
adoration of images and paintings1 in   
his eyes a base idolatry4 ,he absolutely
 rejects the ,trinity1 of which  he     
seems to have entertained the idea that 
it could not be interpreted  otherwise  
than as presenting three distinct ,gods4
    ,his first and ruling idea was      
simply religious reform--to overthrow   
,arabian idolatry1 and put an end to the
 wild sectarianism of  ,christianity4   
,that he proposed to set up a new       
religion was a calumny  invented against

 him in ,constantinople1 where he was   
looked upon with  detestation1 like that
 with which in after ages ,luther was   
regarded in  ,rome4    ,but1 though he  
rejected with indignation whatever might
 seem to  disparage the doctrine of the 
unity of ,god1 he was not able to       
emancipate himself from anthropomorphic 
conceptions4 ,the ,god of the  ,koran is
 altogether human1 both corporeally and 
mentally1 if such  expressions may with 
propriety be used4 ,very soon1 however1 
the  followers of ,mohammed divested    
themselves of these base ideas and rose 
to nobler ones4    ,the view here       
presented of the primitive character of 
,mohammedanism  has long been adopted by
 many competent authorities4 ,sir       
,william  ,jones1 following ,locke1     
regards the main point in the divergence
 of  ,mohammedanism from ,christianity  
to consist in denying vehemently the    
character of our ,savior as the ,son1   
and his equality as ,god with the       
,father1 of whose unity and attributes  

the ,mohammedans entertain and  express 
the most awful ideas4 ,this opinion has 
been largely entertained  in ,italy4    
,dante regarded ,mohammed only as the   
author of a schism1 and  saw in         
,islamism only an ,arian sect4 ,in      
,england1 ,whately views it as a        
corruption of ,christianity4 ,it was an 
offshoot of ,nestorianism1 and not      
until it had overthrown ,greek          
,christianity in many great battles1 was
  spreading rapidly over ,asia and      
,africa1 and had become intoxicated     
with its wonderful successes1 did it    
repudiate its primitive limited         
intentions1 and assert itself to be     
founded on a separate and distinct      
revelation4    ,,the ,,first ,,khalif4  
,mohammed's life had been almost        
entirely consumed  in the conversion or 
conquest of his native country4 ,toward 
its close1  however1 he felt himself    
strong enough to threaten the invasion  
of ,syria  and ,persia4 ,he had made no 
provision for the perpetuation of his   

own  dominion1 and hence it was not     
without a struggle that a successor was 
appointed4 ,at length ,abubeker1 the    
father of ,ayesha1 was selected4 ,he    
was proclaimed the first khalif1 or     
successor of the ,prophet4    ,there is 
a very important difference between the 
spread of ,mohammedanism  and the spread
 of ,christianity4 ,the latter was never
 sufficiently  strong to over throw and 
extirpate idolatry in the ,roman        
,empire4 ,as it  advanced1 there was an 
amalgamation1 a union4 ,the old forms of
 the one  were vivified by the new      
spirit of the other1 and that           
paganization to  which reference has    
already been made was the result4       
,,the ,,mohammedan ,,heaven4 ,but1 in   
,arabia1 ,mohammed overthrew and        
absolutely  annihilated the old         
idolatry4 ,no trace of it is found in   
the doctrines  preached by him and his  
successors4 ,the black stone that had   
fallen from  heaven--the meteorite of   
the ,caaba--and its encircling idols1   

passed  totally out of view4 ,the       
essential dogma of the new faith--,there
 is but  one ,god--spread without any   
adulteration4 ,military successes had1  
in a  worldly sense made the religion of
 the ,koran profitable2 and1 no matter  
what dogmas may be1 when that is the    
case1 there will be plenty of  converts4
    ,as to the popular doctrines of     
,mohammedanism1 ,i shall here have      
nothing  to say4 ,the reader who is     
interested in that matter will find an  
account  of them in a review of the     
,koran in the eleventh chapter of my    
,history  of the ,intellectual          
,development of ,europe4 ,it is enough  
now to remark  that their heaven was    
arranged in seven stories1 and was only 
a palace  of ,oriental carnal delight4  
,it was filled with black-eyed          
concubines  and servants4 ,the form of  
,god was1 perhaps1 more awful than that 
of paganized ,christianity4             
,anthropomorphism will1 however1 never  
be  obliterated from the ideas of the   

unintellectual4 ,their ,god1 at the     
best1 will never be any thing more than 
the gigantic shadow of a man--a  vast   
phantom of humanity--like one of those  
,alpine spectres seen in the  midst of  
the clouds by him who turns his back on 
the sun4    ,abubeker had scarcely      
seated himself in the khalifate1 when he
 put forth  the following proclamation3 
,in the name of the most merciful ,god6 
,abubeker to the rest of the true       
believers1 health and happiness4 ,the   
mercy and blessing of ,god be upon  you4
 ,i praise the most high ,god4 ,i pray  
for his prophet ,mohammed4    ,,invasion
 ,,of ,,syria4 ,this is to inform you   
that ,i intend to send the true         
believers into ,syria1 to take it out of
 the hands of the infidels4 ,and  ,i    
would have you know that the fighting   
for religion is an act of  obedience to 
,god4    ,on the first encounter1       
,khaled1 the ,saracen general1 hard     
pressed1  lifted up his hands in the    
midst of his army and said3 ,o ,god6    

these  vile wretches pray with          
idolatrous expressions and take to      
themselves  another ,god besides thee1  
but we acknowledge thy unity and affirm 
that  there is no other ,god but thee   
alone4 ,help us1 we beseech thee1 for   
the  sake of thy prophet ,mohammed1     
against these idolaters4 ,on the part of
  the ,saracens the conquest of ,syria  
was conducted with ferocious piety4     
,the belief of the ,syrian ,christians  
aroused in their antagonists  sentiments
 of horror and indignation4 ,i will     
cleave the skull of any  blaspheming    
idolater who says that the ,most ,holy  
,god1 the ,almighty  and ,eternal1 has  
begotten a son4 ,the ,khalif ,omar1 who 
took ,jerusalem1  commences a letter to 
,heraclius1 the ,roman emperor3 ,in the 
name of the  most merciful ,god6 ,praise
 be to ,god1 the ,lord of this and of   
the other  world1 who has neither female
 consort nor son4 ,the ,saracens        
nicknamed  the ,christians ,associators1
 because they joined ,mary and ,jesus as

  partners with the ,almighty and ,most 
,holy ,god4    ,it was not the intention
 of the khalif to command his army2 that
 duty  was devolved on ,abou ,obeidah   
nominally1 on ,khaled in reality4 ,in a 
parting review the khalif enjoined on   
his troops justice1 mercy1 and the      
observance of fidelity in their         
engagements he commanded them to abstain
  from all frivolous conversation and   
from wine1 and rigorously to observe    
the hours of prayer2 to be kind to the  
common people among whom they  passed1  
but to show no mercy to their priests4  
,,fall ,,of ,,bozrah4 ,eastward of the  
river ,jordan is ,bozrah1 a strong town 
where ,mohammed had first met his       
,nestorian ,christian instructors4 ,it  
was  one of the ,roman forts with which 
the country was dotted over4 ,before    
this place the ,saracen army encamped4  
,the garrison was strong1 the  ramparts 
were covered with holy crosses and      
consecrated banners4 ,it  might have    
made a long defense4 ,but its governor1 

,romanus1 betrayed his  trust1 and      
stealthily opened its gates to the      
besiegers4 ,his conduct  shows to what a
 deplorable condition the population of 
,syria had come4  ,after the surrender1 
in a speech he made to the people he had
 betrayed1  he said3 ,i renounce your   
society1 both in this world and that to 
come4  ,and ,i deny him that was        
crucified1 and whosoever worships him4  
,and ,i  choose ,god for my ,lord1      
,islam for my faith1 ,mecca for my      
temple1 the  ,moslems for my brethren1  
,mohammed for my prophet1 who was sent  
to lead  us in the right way1 and to    
exalt the true religion in spite of     
those  who join partners with ,god4     
,since the ,persian invasion1 ,asia     
,minor1  ,syria1 and even ,palestine1   
were full of traitors and apostates1    
ready to  join the ,saracens4 ,romanus  
was but one of many thousands who had   
fallen  into disbelief through the      
victories of the ,persians4    ,,fall   
,,of ,,damascus4 ,from ,bozrah it was   

only seventy miles northward to         
,damascus1 the capital of ,syria4       
,thither1 without delay1 the ,saracen   
army  marched4 ,the city was at once    
summoned to take its option--conversion1
  tribute1 or the sword4 ,in his palace 
at ,antioch1 barely one hundred and     
fifty miles still farther north1 the    
,emperor ,heraclius received tidings  of
 the alarming advance of his assailants4
 ,he at once dispatched an army  of     
seventy thousand men4 ,the ,saracens    
were compelled to raise the  siege4 ,a  
battle took place in the plains of      
,aiznadin1 the ,roman army  was         
overthrown and dispersed4 ,khaled       
reappeared before ,damascus with his    
standard of the black eagle1 and after a
 renewed investment of seventy  days    
,damascus surrendered4    ,from the     
,arabian historians of these events we  
may gather that thus far  the ,saracen  
armies were little better than a fanatic
 mob4 ,many of the  men fought naked4   
,it was not unusual for a warrior to    

stand forth in  front and challenge an  
antagonist to mortal duel4 ,nay1 more1  
even the  women engaged in the combats4 
,picturesque narratives have been       
handed down to us relating the gallant  
manner in which they acquitted          
themselves4    ,,fall ,,of ,,jerusalem4 
,from ,damascus the ,saracen army       
advanced northward1  guided by the      
snow-clad peaks of ,libanus and the     
beautiful river  ,orontes4 ,it captured 
on its way ,baalbec1 the capital of the 
,syrian  valley1 and ,emesa1 the chief  
city of the eastern plain4 ,to resist   
its  further progress1 ,heraclius       
collected an army of one hundred and    
forty  thousand men4 ,a battle took     
place at ,yermuck2 the right wing of the
  ,saracens was broken1 but the soldiers
 were driven back to the field by  the  
fanatic expostulations of their women4  
,the conflict ended in  the complete    
overthrow of the ,roman army4 ,forty    
thousand were taken  prisoners1 and a   
vast number killed4 ,the whole country  

now lay open to  the victors4 ,the      
advance of their army had been east of  
the ,jordan4  ,it was clear that1 before
 ,asia ,minor could be touched1 the     
strong and  important cities of         
,palestine1 which was now in their rear1
 must be  secured4 ,there was a         
difference of opinion among the generals
 in the  field as to whether ,caesarea  
or ,jerusalem should be assailed first4 
,the  matter was referred to the khalif1
 who1 rightly preferring the moral      
advantages of the capture of ,jerusalem 
to the military advantages of the       
capture of ,caesarea1 ordered the ,holy 
,city to be taken1 and that at any      
cost4 ,close siege was therefore laid to
 it4 ,the inhabitants1 remembering  the 
atrocities inflicted by the ,persians1  
and the indignities that had  been      
offered to the ,savior's sepulchre1     
prepared now for a vigorous  defense4   
,but1 after an investment of four       
months1 the ,patriarch  ,sophronius     
appeared on the wall1 asking terms of   

capitulation4 ,there had  been          
misunderstandings among the generals at 
the capture of ,damascus1  followed by a
 massacre of the fleeing inhabitants4   
,sophronius1  therefore1 stipulated that
 the surrender of ,jerusalem should take
 place  in presence of the khalif       
himself ,accordingly1 ,omar1 the khalif1
 came  from ,medina for that purpose4   
,he journeyed on a red camel1 carrying  
a bag of corn and one of dates1 a wooden
 dish1 and a leathern  water-bottle4    
,the ,arab conqueror entered the ,holy  
,city riding by the  side of the        
,christian patriarch and the            
transference of the capital of          
,christianity to the representative of  
,mohammedanism was effected without     
tumult or outrage4 ,having ordered that 
a mosque should be built on the  site of
 the temple of ,solomon1 the khalif     
returned to the tomb of the  ,prophet at
 ,medina4    ,heraclius saw plainly that
 the disasters which were fast settling 
on  ,christianity were due to the       

dissensions of its conflicting sects2   
and  hence1 while he endeavored to      
defend the empire with his armies1 he   
sedulously tried to compose those       
differences4 ,with this view he pressed 
for acceptance the ,monothelite doctrine
 of the nature of ,christ4 ,but it  was 
now too late4 ,aleppo and ,antioch were 
taken4 ,nothing could prevent  the      
,saracens from overrunning ,asia ,minor4
 ,heraclius himself had to seek  safety 
in flight4 ,syria1 which had been added 
by ,pompey the ,great1  the rival of    
,caesar1 to the provinces of ,rome1     
seven hundred years  previously--,syria1
 the birthplace of ,christianity1 the   
scene of its most  sacred and precious  
souvenirs1 the land from which          
,heraclius himself had  once expelled   
the ,persian intruder--was irretrievably
 lost4 ,apostates  and traitors had     
wrought this calamity4 ,we are told     
that1 as the ship  which bore him to    
,constantinople parted from the shore1  
,heraclius  gazed intently on the       

receding hills1 and in the bitterness of
 anguish  exclaimed1 ,farewell1 ,syria1 
forever farewell6    ,it is needless to 
dwell on the remaining details of the   
,saracen  conquest3 how ,tripoli and    
,tyre were betrayed2 how ,caesarea was  
captured2  how with the trees of        
,libanus and the sailors of ,phoenicia a
 ,saracen  fleet was equipped1 which    
drove the ,roman navy into the          
,hellespont2 how  ,cyprus1 ,rhodes1 and 
the ,cyclades1 were ravaged1 and the    
,colossus1 which  was counted as one of 
the wonders of the world1 sold to a     
,jew1 who  loaded nine hundred camels   
with its brass2 how the armies of the   
khalif  advanced to the ,black ,sea1 and
 even lay in front of                   
,constantinople--all  this was as       
nothing after the fall of ,jerusalem4   
,,overthrow ,,of ,,the ,,persians4 ,the 
fall of ,jerusalem6 the loss of  the    
metropolis of ,christianity6 ,in the    
ideas of that age the two  antagonistic 
forms of faith had submitted themselves 

to the ordeal of  the judgment of ,god4 
,victory had awarded the prize of       
battle1 ,jerusalem1  to the ,mohammedan2
 and1 notwithstanding the temporary     
successes of the  ,crusaders1 after much
 more than a thousand years in his hands
 it remains  to this day4 ,the          
,byzantine historians are not without   
excuse for the  course they are         
condemned for taking3 ,they have wholly 
neglected the  great topic of the ruin  
of the ,eastern ,church4 ,and as for the
 ,western  ,church1 even the debased    
popes of the middle ages--the ages of   
the  ,crusades--could not see without   
indignation that they were compelled  to
 rest the claims of ,rome as the        
metropolis of ,christendom on a false   
legendary story of a visit of ,st4      
,peter to that city2 while the true     
metropolis1 the grand1 the sacred place 
of the birth1 the life1 the  death of   
,christ himself1 was in the hands of the
 infidels6 ,it has not  been the        
,byzantine historians alone who have    

tried to conceal this great             
catastrophe4 ,the ,christian writers of 
,europe on all manner of subjects1      
whether of history1 religion1 or        
science1 have followed a similar  course
 against their conquering antagonists4  
,it has been their constant  practice to
 hide what they could not depreciate1   
and depreciate what  they could not     
hide4    ,,invasion ,,of ,,egypt4 ,i    
have not space1 nor indeed does it      
comport with the  intention of this     
work1 to relate1 in such detail as ,i   
have given to  the fall of ,jerusalem1  
other conquests of the                  
,saracens--conquests which  eventually  
established a ,mohammedan empire far    
exceeding in geographical  extent that  
of ,alexander1 and even that of ,rome4  
,but1 devoting a few  words to this     
subject1 it may be said that ,magianism 
received a worse  blow than that which  
had been inflicted on ,christianity2    
,the fate of  ,persia was settled at the
 battle of ,cadesia4 ,at the sack of    

,ctesiphon1  the treasury1 the royal    
arms1 and an unlimited spoil1 fell into 
the  hands of the ,saracens4 ,not       
without reason do they call the battle  
of  ,nehavend the victory of victories4 
,in one direction they advanced to  the 
,caspian1 in the other southward along  
the ,tigris to ,persepolis4  ,the       
,persian king fled for his life over the
 great ,salt ,desert1 from the  columns 
and statues of that city which had lain 
in ruins since the night  of the riotous
 banquet of ,alexander4 ,one division of
 the ,arabian army  forced the ,persian 
monarch over the ,oxus4 ,he was         
assassinated by the  ,turks4 ,his son   
was driven into ,china1 and became a    
captain in the  ,chinese emperor's      
guards4 ,the country beyond the ,oxus   
was reduced4  ,it paid a tribute of two 
million pieces of gold4 ,while the      
emperor  at ,peking was demanding the   
friendship of the khalif at ,medina1 the
  standard of the ,prophet was displayed
 on the banks of the ,indus4    ,among  

the generals who had greatly            
distinguished themselves in the  ,syrian
 wars was ,amrou1 destined to be the    
conqueror of ,egypt2 for the  khalifs1  
not content with their victories on the 
,north and ,east1 now  turned their eyes
 to the ,west1 and prepared for the     
annexation of  ,africa4 ,as in the      
former cases1 so in this1 sectarian     
treason assisted  them4 ,the ,saracen   
army was hailed as the deliverer of the 
,jacobite  ,church2 the ,monophysite    
,christians of ,egypt1 that is1 they    
who1 in the  language of the ,athanasian
 ,creed1 confounded the substance of the
  ,son1 proclaimed1 through their       
leader1 ,mokaukas1 that they desired no 
communion with the ,greeks1 either in   
this world or the next1 that they       
abjured forever the ,byzantine tyrant   
and his synod of ,chalcedon4 ,they      
hastened to pay tribute to the khalif1  
to repair the roads and bridges1  and to
 supply provisions and intelligence to  
the invading army4    ,,fall ,,of       

,,alexandria4 ,memphis1 one of the old  
,pharaonic capitals1 soon  fell1 and    
,alexandria was invested4 ,the open sea 
behind gave opportunity  to ,heraclius  
to reenforce the garrison continually4  
,on his part1 ,omar1  who was now khalif
 sent to the succor of the besieging    
army the veteran  troops of ,syria4     
,there were many assaults and many      
sallies4 ,in one ,amrou  himself was    
taken prisoner by the besieged1 but1    
through the dexterity  of a slave1 made 
his escape4 ,after a siege of fourteen  
months1 and a  loss of twenty-three     
thousand men1 the ,saracens captured the
 city4 ,in  his dispatch to the ,khalif1
 ,amrou enumerated the splendors of the 
great  city of the ,west its four       
thousand palaces1 four thousand baths1  
four  hundred theatres1 twelve thousand 
shops for the sale of vegetable food1   
and forty thousand tributary ,jews4     
,so fell the second great city of       
,christendom--the fate of ,jerusalem had
  fallen on ,alexandria1 the city of    

,athanasius1 and ,arius1 and ,cyril2 the
  city that had imposed ,trinitarian    
ideas and ,mariolatry on the ,church4   
,in his palace at ,constantinople       
,heraclius received the fatal tidings4  
,he was overwhelmed with grief4 ,it     
seemed as if his reign was to be        
disgraced by the downfall of            
,christianity4 ,he lived scarcely a     
month  after the loss of the town4      
,but if ,alexandria had been essential  
to ,constantinople in the supply  of    
orthodox faith1 she was also essential  
in the supply of daily food4  ,egypt was
 the granary of the ,byzantines4 ,for   
this reason two attempts  were made by  
powerful fleets and armies for the      
recovery of the place1  and twice had   
,amrou to renew his conquest4 ,he saw   
with what facility  these attacks could 
be made1 the place being open to the    
sea2 he saw  that there was but one and 
that a fatal remedy4 ,by the living     
,god1 if  this thing be repeated a third
 time ,i will make ,alexandria as open  

to  anybody as is the house of a        
prostitute6 ,he was better than his     
word1  for he forthwith dismantled its  
fortifications1 and made it an untenable
  place4    ,,fall ,,of ,,carthage4 ,it 
was not the intention of the khalifs to 
limit their  conquest to ,egypt4 ,othman
 contemplated the annexation of the     
entire  ,north-,african coast4 ,his     
general1 ,abdallah1 set out from        
,memphis with  forty thousand men1      
passed through the desert of ,barca1 and
 besieged  ,tripoli4 ,but1 the plague   
breaking out in his army1 he was        
compelled to  retreat to ,egypt4    ,all
 attempts were now suspended for more   
than twenty years4 ,then ,akbah  forced 
his way from the ,nile to the ,atlantic 
,ocean4 ,in front of the  ,canary       
,islands he rode his horse into the sea1
 exclaiming3 ,great ,god6  if my course 
were not stopped by this sea1 ,i would  
still go on to the  unknown kingdoms of 
the ,west1 preaching the unity of thy   
holy name1 and  putting to the sword the

 rebellious nations who worship any     
other gods  than thee4    ,these        
,saracen expeditions had been through   
the interior of the country1  for the   
,byzantine emperors1 controlling for the
 time the ,mediterranean1  had retained 
possession of the cities on the coast4  
,the ,khalif  ,abdalmalek at length     
resolved on the reduction of ,carthage1 
the most  important of those cities1 and
 indeed the capital of ,north ,africa4  
,his general1 ,hassan1 carried it by    
escalade2 but reenforcements from       
,constantinople1 aided by some ,sicilian
 and ,gothic troops1 compelled  him to  
retreat4 ,the relief was1 however1 only 
temporary4 ,hassan1 in the  course of a 
few months renewed his attack4 ,it      
proved successful1 and he  delivered    
,carthage to the flames4    ,jerusalem1 
,alexandria1 ,carthage1 three out of the
 five great ,christian  capitals1 were  
lost4 ,the fall of ,constantinople was  
only a question of  time4 ,after its    
fall1 ,rome alone remained4    ,in the  

development of ,christianity1 ,carthage 
had played no insignificant  part4 ,it  
had given to ,europe its ,latin form of 
faith1 and some of its  greatest        
theologians4 ,it was the home of ,st4   
,augustine4    ,never in the history of 
the world had there been so rapid and   
extensive  a propagation of any religion
 as ,mohammedanism4 ,it was now         
dominating  from the ,altai ,mountains  
to the ,atlantic ,ocean1 from the centre
 of ,asia  to the western verge of      
,africa4    ,,conquest ,,of ,,spain4    
,the ,khalif ,alwalid next authorized   
the invasion of  ,europe1 the conquest  
of ,andalusia1 or the ,region of the    
,evening4  ,musa1 his general1 found1 as
 had so often been the case elsewhere1  
two  effective allies sectarianism and  
treason--the ,archbishop of ,toledo and 
,count ,julian the ,gothic general4     
,under their lead1 in the very crisis   
of the battle of ,xeres1 a large portion
 of the army went over to the  invaders2
 the ,spanish king was compelled to flee

 from the field1 and in  the pursuit he 
was drowned in the waters of the        
,guadalquivir4    ,with great rapidity  
,tarik1 the lieutenant of ,musa1 pushed 
forward from  the battle-field to       
,toledo1 and thence northward4 ,on the  
arrival of ,musa  the reduction of the  
,spanish peninsula was completed1 and   
the wreck of  the ,gothic army driven   
beyond the ,pyrenees into ,france4      
,considering the  conquest of ,spain as 
only the first step in his victories1 he
 announced  his intention of forcing his
 way into ,italy1 and preaching the     
unity of  ,god in the ,vatican4 ,thence 
he would march to ,constantinople1 and1 
having  put all end to the ,roman       
,empire and ,christianity1 would pass   
into ,asia  and lay his victorious sword
 on the footstool of the khalif at      
,damascus4    ,but this was not to be4  
,musa1 envious of his lieutenant1       
,tarik1 had  treated him with great     
indignity4 ,the friends of ,tarik at the
 court of  the khalif found means of    

retaliation4 ,an envoy from ,damascus   
arrested  ,musa in his camp2 he was     
carried before his sovereign1 disgraced 
by a  public whipping1 and died of a    
broken heart4    ,,invasion ,,of        
,,france4 ,under other leaders1 however1
 the ,saracen conquest  of ,france was  
attempted4 ,in a preliminary campaign   
the country from the  mouth of the      
,garonne to that of the ,loire was      
secured4 ,then ,abderahman1  the        
,saracen commander1 dividing his forces 
into two columns1 with one  on the east 
passed the ,rhone1 and laid siege to    
,arles4 ,a ,christian army1  attempting 
the relief of the place1 was defeated   
with heavy loss4  ,his western column1  
equally successful1 passed the          
,dordogne1 defeated  another ,christian 
army1 inflicting on it such dreadful    
loss that1  according to its own        
fugitives1 ,god alone could number the  
slain4 ,all  ,central ,france was now   
overrun2 the banks of the ,loire were   
reached2  the churches and monasteries  

were despoiled of their treasures2 and  
the tutelar saints1 who had worked so   
many miracles when there was no         
necessity1 were found to want the       
requisite power when it was so greatly  
needed4    ,the progress of the invaders
 was at length stopped by ,charles      
,martel  7,a4,d4 #gcb74 ,between ,tours 
and ,poictiers1 a great battle1 which   
lasted  seven days1 was fought4         
,abderahman was killed1 the ,saracens   
retreated1  and soon afterward were     
compelled to recross the ,pyrenees4     
,the banks of the ,loire1 therefore1    
mark the boundary of the ,mohammedan    
advance in ,western ,europe4 ,gibbon1 in
 his narrative of these great  events1  
makes this remark3 ,a victorious line of
 march had been  prolonged above a      
thousand miles from the rock of         
,gibraltar to the banks  of the         
,loire--a repetition of an equal space  
would have carried the  ,saracens to the
 confines of ,poland and the ,highlands 
of ,scotland4    ,,insult ,,to ,,rome4  

,it is not necessary for me to add to   
this sketch of the  military diffusion  
of ,mohammedanism1 the operations of the
 ,saracens on  the ,mediterranean ,sea1 
their conquest of ,crete and ,sicily1   
their insult  to ,rome4 ,it will be     
found1 however1 that their presence in  
,sicily  and the south of ,italy exerted
 a marked influence on the intellectual 
development of ,europe4    ,their insult
 to ,rome6 ,what could be more          
humiliating than the  circumstances     
under which it took place 7,a4,d4 #hdf78
 ,an insignificant  ,saracen expedition 
entered the ,tiber and appeared before  
the walls of  the city4 ,too weak to    
force an entrance1 it insulted and      
plundered the  precincts1 sacrilegiously
 violating the tombs of ,st4 ,peter and 
,st4 ,paul4  ,had the city itself been  
sacked1 the moral effect could not have 
been  greater4 ,from the church of ,st4 
,peter its altar of silver was torn     
away and sent to ,africa--,st4 ,peter's 
altar1 the very emblem of ,roman        

,christianity6    ,constantinople had   
already been besieged by the ,saracens  
more than once2  its fall was           
predestined1 and only postponed4 ,rome  
had received the  direst insult1 the    
greatest loss that could be inflicted   
upon it2  the venerable churches of     
,asia ,minor had passed out of          
existence2 no  ,christian could set his 
foot in ,jerusalem without permission2  
the ,mosque  of ,omar stood on the site 
of the ,temple of ,solomon4 ,among the  
ruins of  ,alexandria the ,mosque of    
,mercy marked the spot where a ,saracen 
general1  satiated with massacre1 had1  
in contemptuous compassion1 spared the  
fugitive relics of the enemies of       
,mohammed2 nothing remained of ,carthage
  but her blackened ruins4 ,the most    
powerful religious empire that the      
world had ever seen had suddenly come   
into existence4 ,it stretched from  the 
,atlantic ,ocean to the ,chinese ,wall1 
from the shores of the ,caspian  to     
those of the ,indian ,ocean1 and yet1 in

 one sense1 it had not reached  its     
culmination4 ,the day was to come when  
it was to expel the successors  of the  
,caesars from their capital1 and hold   
the peninsula of ,greece in  subjection1
 to dispute with ,christianity the      
empire of ,europe in the  very centre of
 that continent1 and in ,africa to      
extend its dogmas and  faith across     
burning deserts and through pestilential
 forests from the  ,mediterranean to    
regions southward far beyond the        
equinoctial line4    ,,dissensions ,,of 
,,the ,,arabs4 ,but1 though             
,mohammedanism had not reached its      
culmination1 the dominion of the khalifs
 had4 ,not the sword of ,charles        
,martel1 but the internal dissension of 
the vast ,arabian ,empire1 was the      
salvation of ,europe4 ,though the       
,ommiade ,khalifs were popular in       
,syria1  elsewhere they were looked upon
 as intruders or usurpers2 the kindred  
of the apostle was considered to be the 
rightful representative of his  faith4  

,three parties1 distinguished by their  
colors1 tore the khalifate  asunder with
 their disputes1 and disgraced it by    
their atrocities4 ,the  color of the    
,ommiades was white1 that of the        
,fatimites green1 that of  the          
,abassides black2 the last represented  
the party of ,abbas1 the uncle  of      
,mohammed4 ,the result of these discords
 was a tripartite division  of the      
,mohammedan ,empire in the tenth century
 into the khalifates of  ,bagdad1 of    
,cairoan1 and of ,cordova4 ,unity in    
,mohammedan political action  was at an 
end1 and ,christendom found its         
safeguard1 not in supernatural  help1   
but in the quarrels of the rival        
potentates4 ,to internal  animosities   
foreign pressures were eventually added 
and ,arabism1 which  had done so much   
for the intellectual advancement of the 
world1 came to  an end when the ,turks  
and the ,berbers attained to power4     
,the ,saracens had become totally       
regardless of ,european opposition--they

  were wholly taken up with their       
domestic quarrels4 ,ockley says with    
truth1 in his history3 ,the ,saracens   
had scarce a deputy lieutenant or       
general that would not have thought it  
the greatest affront1 and such  as ought
 to stigmatize him with indelible       
disgrace1 if he should have  suffered   
himself to have been insulted by the    
united forces of all  ,europe4 ,and if  
any one asks why the ,greeks did not    
exert themselves  more1 in order to the 
extirpation of these insolent invaders1 
it is a  sufficient answer to any person
 that is acquainted with the characters 
of those men to say that ,amrou kept his
 residence at ,alexandria1 and  ,moawyah
 at ,damascus4    ,as to their contempt1
 this instance may suffice3 ,nicephorus1
 the ,roman  emperor1 had sent to the   
,khalif ,haroun-al-,raschid a           
threatening  letter1 and this was the   
reply3 ,in the name of the most merciful
 ,god1  ,haroun-al-,raschid1 commander  
of the faithful1 to ,nicephorus1 the    

,roman  dog6 ,i have read thy letter1 ,o
 thou son of an unbelieving mother4     
,thou  shalt not hear1 thou shalt behold
 my reply6 ,it was written in letters   
of blood and fire on the plains of      
,phrygia4    ,,political ,,effect ,,of  
,,polygamy4 ,a nation may recover the   
confiscation  of its provinces1 the     
confiscation of its wealth2 it may      
survive the  imposition of enormous     
war-fines2 but it never can recover from
 that  most frightful of all war-acts1  
the confiscation of its women4 ,when    
,abou ,obeidah sent to ,omar news of his
 capture of ,antioch1 ,omar gently      
upbraided him that he had not let the   
troops have the women4 ,if they  want to
 marry in ,syria1 let them2 and let them
 have as many female  slaves as they    
have occasion for4 ,it was the          
institution of polygamy1  based upon the
 confiscation of the women in the       
vanquished countries1  that secured     
forever the ,mohammedan rule4 ,the      
children of these unions  gloried in    

their descent from their conquering     
fathers4 ,no better proof  can be given 
of the efficacy of this policy than that
 which is furnished  by ,north ,africa4 
,the irresistible effect of polygamy in 
consolidating  the new order of things  
was very striking4 ,in little more than 
a single  generation1 the ,khalif was   
informed by his officers that the       
tribute  must cease1 for all the        
children born in that region were       
,mohammedans1  and all spoke ,arabic4   
,,mohammedanism4 ,mohammedanism1 as left
 by its founder1 was an  anthropomorphic
 religion4 ,its ,god was only a gigantic
 man1 its heaven  a mansion of carnal   
pleasures4 ,from these imperfect ideas  
its more  intelligent classes very soon 
freed themselves1 substituting for them 
others more philosophical1 more correct4
 ,eventually they attained to an        
accordance with those that have been    
pronounced in our own times by the      
,vatican ,council as orthodox4 ,thus    
,al-,gazzali says3 ,a knowledge of ,god 

cannot be obtained by means of the      
knowledge a man has of himself1 or  of  
his own soul4 ,the attributes of ,god   
cannot be determined from  the          
attributes of man4 ,his sovereignty and 
government can neither be  compared nor 
measured4        ,,chapter ,,iv4        
,,the ,,restoration ,,of ,,science ,,in 
,,the ,,south4         ,by the influence
 of the ,nestorians and ,jews1 the      
,arabians       are turned to the       
cultivation of ,science4--,they modify  
their views as to the destiny of man1   
and obtain true       conceptions       
respecting the structure of the         
world4--,they       ascertain the size  
of the earth1 and determine its shape4--
       ,their khalifs collect great     
libraries1 patronize every              
department of science and literature1   
establish astronomical                  
observatories4--,they develop the       
mathematical sciences1       invent     
algebra1 and improve geometry and       
trigonometry4--,they       collect and  

translate the old ,greek mathematical   
and       astronomical works1 and adopt 
the inductive method of                 
,aristotle4--,they establish many       
colleges1 and1 with the aid       of the
 ,nestorians1 organize a public-school  
system4--,they       introduce the      
,arabic numerals and arithmetic1 and    
catalogue       and give names to the   
stars4--,they lay the foundation of     
modern astronomy1 chemistry1 and        
physics1 and introduce       great      
improvements in agriculture and         
manufactures4      ,,in the course of my
 long life1 said the ,khalif ,ali1 ,i   
have often  observed that men are more  
like the times they live in than they   
are like their fathers4 ,this profoundly
 philosophical remark of the  son-in-law
 of ,mohammed is strictly true2 for1    
though the personal1 the  bodily        
lineaments of a man may indicate his    
parentage1 the constitution  of his     
mind1 and therefore the direction of his
 thoughts1 is determined  by the        

environment in which he lives4    ,when 
,amrou1 the lieutenant of the ,khalif   
,omar1 conquered ,egypt1 and  annexed it
 to the ,saracenic ,empire1 he found in 
,alexandria a ,greek  grammarian1 ,john 
surnamed ,philoponus1 or the            
,labor-lover4 ,presuming on  the        
friendship which had arisen between     
them1 the ,greek solicited as a  gift   
the remnant of the great library--a     
remnant which war and time and  bigotry 
had spared4 ,amrou1 therefore1 sent to  
the khalif to ascertain  his pleasure4  
,if1 replied the khalif1 the books agree
 with the ,koran1  the ,word of ,god1   
they are useless1 and need not be       
preserved2 if  they disagree with it1   
they are pernicious4 ,let them be       
destroyed4  ,accordingly1 they were     
distributed among the baths of          
,alexandria1 and it  is said that six   
months were barely sufficient to consume
 them4    ,although the fact has been   
denied1 there can be little doubt that  
,omar  gave this order4 ,the khalif was 

an illiterate man2 his environment  was 
an environment of fanaticism and        
ignorance4 ,omar's act was an           
illustration of ,ali's remark4    ,,the 
,,alexandrian ,,library ,,burnt4 ,but it
 must not be supposed that the  books   
which ,john the ,labor-lover coveted    
were those which constituted  the great 
library of the ,ptolemies1 and that of  
,eumenes1 ,king of  ,pergamus4 ,nearly a
 thousand years had elapsed since       
,philadelphus began  his collection4    
,julius ,caesar had burnt more than     
half2 the ,patriarchs  of ,alexandria   
had not only permitted but superintended
 the dispersion  of almost all the rest4
 ,orosius expressly states that he saw  
the empty  cases or shelves of the      
library twenty years after ,theophilus1 
the uncle  of ,st4 ,cyril1 had procured 
from the ,emperor ,theodosius a rescript
 for  its destruction4 ,even had this   
once noble collection never endured such
  acts of violence1 the mere wear and   
tear1 and perhaps1 ,i may add1 the      

pilfering of a thousand years1 would    
have diminished it sadly4  ,though      
,john1 as the surname he received       
indicates1 might rejoice in a           
superfluity of occupation1 we may be    
certain that the care of a library  of  
half a million books would transcend    
even his well-tried powers2 and  the    
cost of preserving and supporting it1   
that had demanded the ample  resources  
of the ,ptolemies and the ,caesars1 was 
beyond the means of a  grammarian4 ,nor 
is the time required for its combustion 
or destruction  any indication of the   
extent of the collection4 ,of all       
articles of  fuel1 parchment is1        
perhaps1 the most wretched4 ,paper and  
papyrus do  excellently well as         
kindling-materials1 but we may be sure  
that the  bath-men of ,alexandria did   
not resort to parchment so long as they 
could  find any thing else1 and of      
parchment a very large portion of these 
books was composed4    ,there can1 then1
 be no more doubt that ,omar did order  

the destruction of  this library1 under 
an impression of its uselessness or its 
irreligious  tendency1 than that the    
,crusaders burnt the library of         
,tripoli1  fancifully said to have      
consisted of three million volumes4 ,the
 first  apartment entered being found to
 contain nothing but the ,koran1 all the
  other books were supposed to be the   
works of the ,arabian impostor1  and    
were consequently committed to the      
flames4 ,in both cases the story        
contains some truth and much            
exaggeration4 ,bigotry1 however1 has    
often  distinguished itself by such     
exploits4 ,the ,spaniards burnt in      
,mexico  vast piles of ,american        
picture-writings1 an irretrievable loss2
 and  ,cardinal ,ximenes delivered to   
the flames1 in the squares of ,granada1 
eighty thousand ,arabic manuscripts1    
many of them translations of  classical 
authors4    ,we have seen how           
engineering talent1 stimulated by       
,alexander's ,persian  campaign1 led to 

a wonderful development of pure science 
under the  ,ptolemies2 a similar effect 
may be noted as the result of the       
,saracenic  military operations4    ,the
 friendship contracted by ,amrou1 the   
conqueror of ,egypt1 with ,john  the    
,grammarian1 indicates how much the     
,arabian mind was predisposed to        
liberal ideas4 ,its step from the       
idolatry of the ,caaba to the monotheism
  of ,mohammed prepared it to expatiate 
in the wide and pleasing fields  of     
literature and philosophy4 ,there were  
two influences to which it  was         
continually exposed4 ,they conspired in 
determining its path4 ,these  were--#a4 
,that of the ,nestorians in ,syria2 #b4 
,that of the ,jews in ,egypt4           
,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,nestorians     
,,and ,,jews4 ,in the last chapter ,i   
have briefly  related the persecution of
 ,nestor and his disciples4 ,they bore  
testimony  to the oneness of ,god1      
through many sufferings and martyrdoms4 
,they  utterly repudiated an ,olympus   

filled with gods and goddesses4 ,away   
from  us a queen of heaven6    ,such    
being their special views1 the          
,nestorians found no difficulty in      
affiliating with their ,saracen         
conquerors1 by whom they were treated   
not only with the highest respect1 but  
intrusted with some of the most         
important offices of the state4         
,mohammed1 in the strongest manner1     
prohibited his followers from committing
 any injuries against them4             
,jesuiabbas1 their pontiff1 concluded   
treaties both with the ,prophet and     
with ,omar1 and subsequently the ,khalif
 ,haroun-al-,raschid placed all his     
public schools under the superintendence
 of ,john ,masue1 a ,nestorian4    ,to  
the influence of the ,nestorians that of
 the ,jews was added4 ,when             
,christianity displayed a tendency to   
unite itself with paganism1 the         
conversion of the ,jews was arrested2 it
 totally ceased when ,trinitarian  ideas
 were introduced4 ,the cities of ,syria 

and ,egypt were full of ,jews4  ,in     
,alexandria alone1 at the time of its   
capture by ,amrou1 there were  forty    
thousand who paid tribute4 ,centuries of
 misfortune and persecution  had served 
only to confirm them in their           
monotheism1 and to strengthen  that     
implacable hatred of idolatry which they
 had cherished ever  since the          
,babylonian captivity4 ,associated with 
the ,nestorians1 they  translated into  
,syriac many ,greek and ,latin          
philosophical works1 which  were        
retranslated into ,arabic4 ,while the   
,nestorian was occupied with  the       
education of the children of the great  
,mohammedan families1 the ,jew  found   
his way into them in the character of a 
physician4    ,,fatalism ,,of ,,the     
,,arabians4 ,under these influences the 
ferocious  fanaticism of the ,saracens  
abated1 their manners were polished1    
their  thoughts elevated4 ,they overran 
the realms of ,philosophy and ,science  
as quickly as they had overrun the      

provinces of the ,roman ,empire4 ,they  
abandoned the fallacies of vulgar       
,mohammedanism1 accepting in their      
stead scientific truth4    ,in a world  
devoted to idolatry1 the sword of the   
,saracen had vindicated  the majesty of 
,god4 ,the doctrine of fatalism1        
inculcated by the ,koran1  had          
powerfully contributed to that result4  
,no man can anticipate or  postpone his 
predetermined end4 ,death will overtake 
us even in lofty  towers4 ,from the     
beginning ,god hath settled the place in
 which each man  shall die4 ,in his     
figurative language the ,arab said3 ,no 
man can by  flight escape his fate4 ,the
 ,destinies ride their horses by        
night4444  ,whether asleep in bed or in 
the storm of battle1 the angel of death 
will  find thee4 ,i am convinced1 said  
,ali1 to whose wisdom we have already   
referred--,i am convinced that the      
affairs of men go by divine decree1  and
 not by our administration4 ,the        
,mussulmen are those who submissively   

resign themselves to the will of ,god4  
,they reconciled fate and free-will  by 
saying1 ,the outline is given us1 we    
color the picture of life as we  will4  
,they said that1 if we would overcome   
the laws of ,nature1 we must  not       
resist1 we must balance them against    
each other4    ,this dark doctrine      
prepared its devotees for the           
accomplishment of great  things--things 
such as the ,saracens did accomplish4   
,it converted despair  into resignation1
 and taught men to disdain hope4 ,there 
was a proverb  among them that ,despair 
is a freeman1 ,hope is a slave4    ,but 
many of the incidents of war showed     
plainly that medicines  may assuage     
pain1 that skill may close wounds1 that 
those who are  incontestably dying may  
be snatched from the grave4 ,the ,jewish
 physician  became a living1 an accepted
 protest against the fatalism of the    
,koran4  ,by degrees the sternness of   
predestination was mitigated1 and it was
  admitted that in individual life there

 is an effect due to free-will2  that by
 his voluntary acts man may within      
certain limits determine his  own       
course4 ,but1 so far as nations are     
concerned1 since they can yield  no     
personal accountability to ,god1 they   
are placed under the control of         
immutable law4    ,in this respect the  
contrast between the ,christian and the 
,mohammedan  nations was very striking3 
,the ,christian was convinced of        
incessant  providential interventions2  
he believed that there was no such thing
 as  law in the government of the world4
 ,by prayers and entreaties he might    
prevail with ,god to change the current 
of affairs1 or1 if that failed1  he     
might succeed with ,christ1 or perhaps  
with the ,virgin ,mary1 or  through the 
intercession of the saints1 or by the   
influence of their  relics or bones4 ,if
 his own supplications were unavailing1 
he might  obtain his desire through the 
intervention of his priest1 or through  
that of the holy men of the ,church1 and

 especially if oblations or gifts  of   
money were added4 ,christendom believed 
that she could change the  course of    
affairs by influencing the conduct of   
superior beings4 ,islam  rested in a    
pious resignation to the unchangeable   
will of ,god4 ,the  prayer of the       
,christian was mainly an earnest        
intercession for benefits  hoped for1   
that of the ,saracen a devout expression
 of gratitude for the  past4 ,both      
substituted prayer for the ecstatic     
meditation of ,india4  ,to the          
,christian the progress of the world was
 an exhibition of  disconnected         
impulses1 of sudden surprises4 ,to the  
,mohammedan that  progress presented a  
very different aspect4 ,every corporeal 
motion was  due to some preceding       
motion2 every thought to some preceding 
thought2  every historical event was the
 offspring of some preceding event2     
every  human action was the result of   
some foregone and accomplished action4  
,in  the long annals of our race1       

nothing has ever been abruptly          
introduced4  ,there has been an orderly1
 an inevitable sequence from event to   
event4  ,there is an iron chain of      
destiny1 of which the links are facts2  
each  stands in its preordained         
place--not one has ever been disturbed1 
not  one has ever been removed4 ,every  
man came into the world without his own 
knowledge1 he is to depart from it      
perhaps against his own wishes4 ,then   
let him calmly fold his hands1 and      
expect the issues of fate4              
,coincidently with this change of       
opinion as to the government of         
individual life1 there came a change as 
respects the mechanical  construction of
 the world4 ,according to the ,koran1   
the earth is a square  plane1 edged with
 vast mountains1 which serve the double 
purpose of  balancing it in its seat1   
and of sustaining the dome of the sky4  
,our  devout admiration of the power and
 wisdom of ,god should be excited by    
the spectacle of this vast crystalline  

brittle expanse1 which has been  safely 
set in its position without so much as a
 crack or any other  injury4 ,above the 
sky1 and resting on it1 is heaven1 built
 in seven  stories1 the uppermost being 
the habitation of ,god1 who1 under the  
form  of a gigantic man1 sits on a      
throne1 having on either side winged    
bulls1  like those in the palaces of old
 ,assyrian kings4    ,,they ,,measure   
,,the ,,earth4 ,these ideas1 which      
indeed are not peculiar to              
,mohammedanism1 but are entertained by  
all men in a certain stage of  their    
intellectual development as religious   
revelations1 were  very quickly         
exchanged by the more advanced          
,mohammedans for others  scientifically 
correct4 ,yet1 as has been the case in  
,christian  countries1 the advance was  
not made without resistance on the part 
of the defenders of revealed truth4     
,thus when ,al-,mamun1 having become    
acquainted with the globular form of the
 earth1 gave orders to his              

mathematicians and astronomers to       
measure a degree of a great circle  upon
 it1 ,takyuddin1 one of the most        
celebrated doctors of divinity  of that 
time1 denounced the wicked khalif1      
declaring that ,god would  assuredly    
punish him for presumptuously           
interrupting the devotions  of the      
faithful by encouraging and diffusing a 
false and atheistical  philosophy among 
them4 ,al-,mamun1 however1 persisted4   
,on the shores of  the ,red ,sea1 in the
 plains of ,shinar1 by the aid of an    
astrolabe1 the  elevation of the pole   
above the horizon was determined at two 
stations  on the same meridian1 exactly 
one degree apart4 ,the distance between 
the two stations was then measured1 and 
found to be two hundred thousand        
,hashemite cubits2 this gave for the    
entire circumference of the earth  about
 twenty-four thousand of our miles1 a   
determination not far  from the truth4  
,but1 since the spherical form could not
 be positively  asserted from one such  

measurement1 the khalif caused another  
to be made  near ,cufa in ,mesopotamia4 
,his astronomers divided themselves into
 two  parties1 and1 starting from a     
given point1 each party measured an arc 
of one degree1 the one northward1 the   
other southward4 ,their result  is given
 in cubits4 ,if the cubit employed was  
that known as the royal  cubit1 the     
length of a degree was ascertained      
within one-third of a mile  of its true 
value4 ,from these measures the khalif  
concluded that the  globular form was   
established4    ,,their ,,passion ,,for 
,,science4 ,it is remarkable how quickly
 the ferocious  fanaticism of the       
,saracens was transformed into a passion
 for  intellectual pursuits4 ,at first  
the ,koran was an obstacle to           
literature and science4 ,mohammed had   
extolled it as the grandest of all      
compositions1 and had adduced its       
unapproachable excellence as a proof  of
 his divine mission4 ,but1 in little    
more than twenty years after his  death1

 the experience that had been acquired  
in ,syria1 ,persia1 ,asia  ,minor1      
,egypt1 had produced a striking effect1 
and ,ali the khalif  reigning at that   
time1 avowedly encouraged all kinds of  
literary  pursuits4 ,moawyah1 the       
founder of the ,ommiade dynasty1 who    
followed in  #ffa1 revolutionized the   
government4 ,it had been elective1 he   
made it  hereditary4 ,he removed its    
seat from ,medina to a more central     
position  at ,damascus1 and entered on a
 career of luxury and magnificence4 ,he 
broke the bonds of a stern fanaticism1  
and put himself forth as a  cultivator  
and patron of letters4 ,thirty years had
 wrought a wonderful  change4 ,a        
,persian satrap who had occasion to pay 
homage to ,omar1 the  second khalif1    
found him asleep among the beggars on   
the steps of the  ,mosque of ,medina2   
but foreign envoys who had occasion to  
seek ,moawyah1  the sixth khalif1 were  
presented to him in a magnificent       
palace1  decorated with exquisite       

arabesques1 and adorned with            
flower-gardens and  fountains4          
,,their ,,literature4 ,in less than a   
century after the death of ,mohammed1   
translations of the chief ,greek        
philosophical authors had been made into
  ,arabic2 poems such as the ,iliad and 
the ,odyssey1 being considered  to have 
an irreligious tendency from their      
mythological allusions1 were  rendered  
into ,syriac1 to gratify the curiosity  
of the learned4 ,almansor1  during his  
khalifate 7,a4,d4 #gec-gge71 transferred
 the seat of government  to ,bagdad1    
which he converted into a splendid      
metropolis2 he gave much  of his time to
 the study and promotion of astronomy1  
and established  schools of medicine and
 law4 ,his grandson1 ,haroun-al-,raschid
 7,a4,d4 #ghf71  followed his example1  
and ordered that to every mosque in his 
dominions  a school should be attached4 
,but the ,augustan age of ,asiatic      
learning  was during the khalifate of   
,al-,mamun 7,a4,d4 #hac-hcb74 ,he made  

,bagdad the  centre of science1         
collected great libraries1 and          
surrounded himself  with learned men4   
,the elevated taste thus cultivated     
continued after the division of the     
,saracen ,empire by internal dissensions
 into three parts4 ,the ,abasside       
dynasty in ,asia1 the ,fatimite in      
,egypt1 and the ,ommiade in ,spain1     
became  rivals not merely in politics1  
but also in letters and science4        
,,they ,,originate ,,chemistry4 ,in     
letters the ,saracens embraced every    
topic  that can amuse or edify the mind4
 ,in later times1 it was their boast    
that they had produced more poets than  
all other nations combined4 ,in  science
 their great merit consists in this1    
that they cultivated it  after the      
manner of the ,alexandrian ,greeks1 not 
after the manner of the  ,european      
,greeks4 ,they perceived that it can    
never be advanced by mere  speculation2 
its only sure progress is by the        
practical interrogation of  ,nature4    

,the essential characteristics of their 
method are experiment and  observation4 
,geometry and the mathematical sciences 
they looked upon  as instruments of     
reasoning4 ,in their numerous writings  
on mechanics1  hydrostatics1 optics1 it 
is interesting to remark that the       
solution of  a problem is always        
obtained by performing an experiment1 or
 by an  instrumental observation4 ,it   
was this that made them the originators 
of  chemistry1 that led them to the     
invention of all kinds of apparatus for 
distillation1 sublimation1 fusion1      
filtration1 etc42 that in astronomy     
caused them to appeal to divided        
instruments1 as quadrants and           
astrolabes2 in chemistry1 to employ the 
balance1 the theory of which  they were 
perfectly familiar with2 to construct   
tables of specific  gravities and       
astronomical tables1 as those of        
,bagdad1 ,spain1 ,samarcand2  that      
produced their great improvements in    
geometry1 trigonometry1 the  invention  

of algebra1 and the adoption of the     
,indian numeration in  arithmetic4 ,such
 were the results of their preference of
 the inductive  method of ,aristotle1   
their declining the reveries of ,plato4 
,,their ,,great ,,libraries4 ,for the   
establishment and extension of the      
public  libraries1 books were sedulously
 collected4 ,thus the khalif ,al-,mamun 
is reported to have brought into ,bagdad
 hundreds of camel-loads of             
manuscripts4 ,in a treaty he made with  
the ,greek emperor1 ,michael ,,iii41  he
 stipulated that one of the             
,constantinople libraries should be     
given  up to him4 ,among the treasures  
he thus acquired was the treatise of    
,ptolemy on the mathematical            
construction of the heavens4 ,he had it 
forthwith translated into ,arabic1 under
 the title of ,al-magest4 ,the          
collections thus acquired sometimes     
became very large2 thus the ,fatimite   
,library at ,cairo contained one hundred
 thousand volumes1 elegantly            

transcribed and bound4 ,among these1    
there were six thousand five hundred    
manuscripts on astronomy and medicine   
alone4 ,the rules of this library       
permitted the lending out of books to   
students resident at ,cairo4 ,it  also  
contained two globes1 one of massive    
silver and one of brass2 the  latter was
 said to have been constructed by       
,ptolemy1 the former cost  three        
thousand golden crowns4 ,the great      
library of the ,spanish khalifs         
eventually numbered six hundred thousand
 volumes2 its catalogue alone  occupied 
forty-four4 ,besides this1 there were   
seventy public libraries  in ,andalusia4
 ,the collections in the possession of  
individuals were  sometimes very        
extensive4 ,a private doctor refused the
 invitation of a  ,sultan of ,bokhara   
because the carriage of his books would 
have required  four hundred camels4     
,there was in every great library a     
department for the copying or           
manufacture of translations4 ,such      

manufactures were also often an  affair 
of private enterprise4 ,honian1 a       
,nestorian physician1 had an            
establishment of the kind at ,bagdad    
7,a4,d4 #hej74 ,he issued versions of   
,aristotle1 ,plato1 ,hippocrates1       
,galen1 etc4 ,as to original works1 it  
was  the custom of the authorities of   
colleges to require their professors  to
 prepare treatises on prescribed topics4
 ,every khalif had his own  historian4  
,books of romances and tales1 such as   
,the ,thousand and ,one  ,arabian       
,nights' ,entertainments1 bear testimony
 to the creative fancy  of the          
,saracens4 ,besides these1 there were   
works on all kinds of                   
subjects--history1 jurisprudence1       
politics1 philosophy1 biographies not   
only of illustrious men1 but also of    
celebrated horses and camels4 ,these    
were issued without any censorship or   
restraint1 though1 in later times1      
works on theology required a license for
 publication4 ,books of reference       

abounded1 geographical1 statistical1    
medical1 historical dictionaries1  and  
even abridgments or condensations of    
them1 as the ,encyclopedic  ,dictionary 
of all the ,sciences1 by ,mohammed ,abu 
,abdallah4 ,much pride  was taken in the
 purity and whiteness of the paper1 in  
the skillful  intermixture of           
variously-colored inks1 and in the      
illumination of  titles by gilding and  
other adornments4    ,the ,saracen      
,empire was dotted all over with        
colleges4 ,they were  established in    
,mongolia1 ,tartary1 ,persia1           
,mesopotamia1 ,syria1 ,egypt1  ,north   
,africa1 ,morocco1 ,fez1 ,spain4 ,at one
 extremity of this vast region1  which  
far exceeded the ,roman ,empire in      
geographical extent1 were the  college  
and astronomical observatory of         
,samarcand1 at the other the  ,giralda  
in ,spain4 ,gibbon1 referring to this   
patronage of learning1 says3  ,the same 
royal prerogative was claimed by the    
independent emirs of the  provinces1 and

 their emulation diffused the taste and 
the rewards of  science from ,samarcand 
and ,bokhara to ,fez and ,cordova4 ,the 
vizier of a  sultan consecrated a sum of
 two hundred thousand pieces of gold to 
the foundation of a college at ,bagdad1 
which he endowed with an annual  revenue
 of fifteen thousand dinars4 ,the fruits
 of instruction were  communicated1     
perhaps1 at different times1 to six     
thousand disciples  of every degree1    
from the son of the noble to that of the
 mechanic2 a  sufficient allowance was  
provided for the indigent scholars1 and 
the  merit or industry of the professors
 was repaid with adequate stipends4  ,in
 every city the productions of ,arabic  
literature were copied and  collected1  
by the curiosity of the studious and the
 vanity of the rich4  ,the              
superintendence of these schools was    
committed with noble liberality         
sometimes to ,nestorians1 sometimes to  
,jews4 ,it mattered not in what  country
 a man was born1 nor what were his      

religious opinions2 his  attainment in  
learning was the only thing to be       
considered4 ,the great  ,khalif         
,al-,mamun had declared that they are   
the elect of ,god1 his best  and most   
useful servants1 whose lives are devoted
 to the improvement  of their rational  
faculties2 that the teachers of wisdom  
are the true  luminaries and legislators
 of this world1 which1 without their    
aid1  would again sink into ignorance   
and barbarism4    ,after the example of 
the medical college of ,cairo1 other    
medical  colleges required their        
students to pass a rigid examination4   
,the  candidate then received authority 
to enter on the practice of his         
profession4 ,the first medical college  
established in ,europe was that  founded
 by the ,saracens at ,salerno1 in       
,italy4 ,the first astronomical         
observatory was that erected by them at 
,seville1 in ,spain4    ,,the ,,arabian 
,,scientific ,,movement4 ,it would far  
transcend the limits of  this book to   

give an adequate statement of the       
results of this imposing  scientific    
movement4 ,the ancient sciences were    
greatly extended--new  ones were brought
 into existence4 ,the ,indian method of 
arithmetic was  introduced1 a beautiful 
invention1 which expresses all numbers  
by ten  characters1 giving them an      
absolute value1 and a value by position1
  and furnishing simple rules for the   
easy performance of all kinds  of       
calculations4 ,algebra1 or universal    
arithmetic--the method of  calculating  
indeterminate quantities1 or            
investigating the relations  that       
subsist among quantities of all kinds1  
whether arithmetical or                 
geometrical--was developed from the germ
 that ,diophantus had left4  ,mohammed  
,ben ,musa furnished the solution of    
quadratic equations1  ,omar ,ben ,ibra  
him that of cubic equations4 ,the       
,saracens also gave to  trigonometry its
 modern form1 substituting sines for    
chords1 which had  been previously used2

 they elevated it into a separate       
science4  ,musa1 above mentioned1 was   
the author of a ,treatise on ,spherical 
,trigonometry4 ,al-,baghadadi left one  
on land-surveying1 so excellent1  that  
by some it has been declared to be a    
copy of ,euclid's lost work on  that    
subject4    ,,arabian ,,astronomy4 ,in  
astronomy1 they not only made           
catalogues1 but  maps of the stars      
visible in their skies1 giving to those 
of the larger  magnitudes the ,arabic   
names they still bear on our celestial  
globes4  ,they ascertained1 as we have  
seen1 the size of the earth by the      
measurement of a degree on her surface1 
determined the obliquity of  the        
ecliptic1 published corrected tables of 
the sun and moon fixed  the length of   
the year1 verified the precession of the
 equinoxes4 ,the  treatise of           
,albategnius on ,the ,science of the    
,stars is spoken of by  ,laplace with   
respect2 he also draws attention to an  
important fragment  of ,ibn-,junis1 the 

astronomer of ,hakem1 the ,khalif of    
,egypt1 ,a4,d4 #ajjj1  as containing a  
long series of observations from the    
time of ,almansor1  of eclipses1        
equinoxes1 solstices1 conjunctions of   
planets1 occultations  of               
stars--observations which have cast much
 light on the great  variations of the  
system of the world4 ,the ,arabian      
astronomers also  devoted themselves to 
the construction and perfection of      
astronomical  instruments1 to the       
measurement of time by clocks of various
 kinds1 by  clepsydras and sun-dials4   
,they were the first to introduce1 for  
this  purpose1 the use of the pendulum4 
,in the experimental sciences1 they     
originated chemistry2 they discovered   
some of its most important              
reagents--sulphuric acid1 nitric acid1  
alcohol4 ,they applied that science in  
the practice of medicine1 being  the    
first to publish pharmacopoeias or      
dispensatories1 and to include in  them 
mineral preparations4 ,in mechanics1    

they had determined the laws  of falling
 bodies1 had ideas1 by no means         
indistinct1 of the nature of  gravity2  
they were familiar with the theory of   
the mechanical powers4 ,in  hydrostatics
 they constructed the first tables of   
the specific gravities  of bodies1 and  
wrote treatises on the flotation and    
sinking of bodies  in water4 ,in optics1
 they corrected the ,greek              
misconception1 that a  ray proceeds from
 the eye1 and touches the object seen1  
introducing  the hypothesis that the ray
 passes from the object to the eye4     
,they  understood the phenomena of the  
reflection and refraction of light4     
,alhazen made the great discovery of the
 curvilinear path of a ray of  light    
through the atmosphere1 and proved that 
we see the sun and moon  before they    
have risen1 and after they have set4    
,,agriculture ,,and ,,manufacture4 ,the 
effects of this scientific activity are 
plainly perceived in the great          
improvements that took place in many  of

 the industrial arts4 ,agriculture shows
 it in better methods of  irrigation1   
the skillful employment of manures1 the 
raising of improved  breeds of cattle1  
the enactment of wise codes of rural    
laws1 the  introduction of the culture  
of rice1 and that of sugar and coffee4  
,the  manufactures show it in the great 
extension of the industries of silk1    
cotton1 wool2 in the fabrication of     
cordova and morocco leather1 and  paper2
 in mining1 casting1 and various        
metallurgic operations2 in the  making  
of ,toledo blades4    ,passionate lovers
 of poetry and music1 they dedicated    
much of their  leisure time to those    
elegant pursuits4 ,they taught ,europe  
the game of  chess2 they gave it its    
taste for works of fiction--romances and
 novels4  ,in the graver domains of     
literature they took delight3 they had  
many  admirable compositions on such    
subjects as the instability of human    
greatness2 the consequences of          
irreligion2 the reverses of fortune2 the

  origin1 duration1 and end of the      
world4 ,sometimes1 not without surprise1
  we meet with ideas which we flatter   
ourselves have originated in our  own   
times4 ,thus our modern doctrines of    
evolution and development were  taught  
in their schools4 ,in fact1 they carried
 them much farther than we  are disposed
 to do1 extending them even to inorganic
 or mineral  things4 ,the fundamental   
principle of alchemy was the natural    
process of  development of metalline    
bodies4 ,when common people1 says       
,al-,khazini1  writing in the twelfth   
century1 hear from natural philosophers 
that  gold is a body which has attained 
to perfection of maturity1 to the  goal 
of completeness1 they firmly believe    
that it is something which has          
gradually come to that perfection by    
passing through the forms of all  other 
metallic bodies1 so that its gold nature
 was originally lead1  afterward it     
became tin1 then brass1 then silver1 and
 finally reached  the development of    

gold2 not knowing that the natural      
philosophers mean1  in saying this1 only
 something like what they mean when they
 speak of  man1 and attribute to him a  
completeness and equilibrium in nature  
and  constitution--not that man was once
 a bull1 and was changed into an  ass1  
and afterward into a horse1 and after   
that into an ape1 and finally  became a 
man4        ,,chapter ,v4               
,,conflict ,,respecting ,,the ,,nature  
,,of ,,the ,,soul4--,,doctrine ,,of     
,,emanation ,,and ,,absorption4         
,european ideas respecting the          
soul4--,it resembles the form       of  
the body4         ,philosophical views  
of the ,orientals4--,the ,vedic theology
       and ,buddhism assert the doctrine
 of emanation and       absorption4--,it
 is advocated by ,aristotle1 who is     
followed       by the ,alexandrian      
school1 and subsequently by the ,jews   
and       ,arabians4--,it is found in   
the writings of ,erigena4               
,connection of this doctrine with the   

theory of conservation       and        
correlation of force4--,parallel between
 the origin and       destiny of the    
body and the soul4--,the necessity of   
founding       human on comparative     
psychology4         ,averroism1 which is
 based on these facts1 is brought into  
,christendom through ,spain and ,sicily4
         ,history of the repression of  
,averroism4--,revolt of ,islam          
against it4--,antagonism of the ,jewish 
synagogues4--,its       destruction     
undertaken by the papacy4--,institution 
of the       ,inquisition in            
,spain4--,frightful persecutions and    
their       results4--,expulsion of the 
,jews and ,moors4--,overthrow of        
,averroism in ,europe4--,decisive action
 of the late ,vatican       ,council4   
,,the pagan ,greeks and ,romans believed
 that the spirit of man resembles  his  
bodily form1 varying its appearance with
 his variations1 and growing  with his  
growth4 ,heroes1 to whom it had been    
permitted to descend into  ,hades1 had  

therefore without difficulty recognized 
their former friends4  ,not only had the
 corporeal aspect been retained1 but    
even the customary  raiment4    ,,the   
,,soul4 ,the primitive ,christians1     
whose conceptions of a future life  and 
of heaven and hell1 the abodes of the   
blessed and the sinful1 were  far more  
vivid than those of their pagan         
predecessors1 accepted and  intensified 
these ancient ideas4 ,they did not doubt
 that in the world  to come they should 
meet their friends1 and hold converse   
with them1 as  they had done here upon  
earth--an expectation that gives        
consolation to  the human heart1        
reconciling it to the most sorrowful    
bereavements1 and  restoring to it its  
dead4    ,in the uncertainty as to what 
becomes of the soul in the interval     
between its separation from the body and
 the judgment-day1 many  different      
opinions were held4 ,some thought that  
it hovered over the  grave1 some that it
 wandered disconsolate through the air4 

,in the  popular belief1 ,st4 ,peter sat
 as a door-keeper at the gate of heaven4
 ,to  him it had been given to bind or  
to loose4 ,he admitted or excluded the  
,spirits of men at his pleasure4 ,many  
persons1 however1 were disposed to  deny
 him this power1 since his decisions    
would be anticipatory of the            
judgment-day1 which would thus be       
rendered needless4 ,after the time  of  
,gregory the ,great1 the doctrine of    
purgatory met with general  acceptance4 
,a resting-place was provided for       
departed spirits4    ,that the spirits  
of the dead occasionally revisit the    
living1 or haunt  their former abodes1  
has been in all ages1 in all ,european  
countries1  a fixed belief1 not confined
 to rustics1 but participated in by the 
intelligent4 ,a pleasing terror gathers 
round the winter's-evening  fireside at 
the stories of apparitions1 goblins1    
ghosts4 ,in the old  times the ,romans  
had their lares1 or spirits of those who
 had led  virtuous lives2 their larvae  

or lemures1 the spirits of the wicked2  
their manes1 the spirits of those of    
whom the merits were doubtful4 ,if      
human testimony on such subjects can be 
of any value1 there is a body  of       
evidence reaching from the remotest ages
 to the present time1 as  extensive and 
unimpeachable as is to be found in      
support of any thing  whatever1 that    
these shades of the dead congregate near
 tombstones1  or take up their secret   
abode in the gloomy chambers of         
dilapidated  castles1 or walk by        
moonlight in moody solitude4            
,,asiatic ,,psychological ,,views4      
,while these opinions have universally  
found  popular acceptance in ,europe1   
others of a very different nature have  
prevailed extensively in ,asia1 and     
indeed very generally in the higher     
regions of thought4 ,ecclesiastical     
authority succeeded in repressing  them 
in the sixteenth century1 but they never
 altogether disappeared4  ,in our own   
times so silently and extensively have  

they been diffused in  ,europe1 that it 
was found expedient in the papal        
,syllabus to draw  them in a very       
conspicuous manner into the open light2 
and the ,vatican  ,council1 agreeing in 
that view of their obnoxious tendency   
and secret  spread1 has in an equally   
prominent and signal manner among its   
first  canons anathematized all persons 
who hold them4 ,let him be anathema who 
says that spiritual things are          
emanations of the divine substance1 or  
that the divine essence by manifestation
 or development becomes all  things4 ,in
 view of this authoritative action1 it  
is necessary now to  consider the       
character and history of these opinions4
    ,ideas respecting the nature of ,god
 necessarily influence ideas  respecting
 the nature of the soul4 ,the eastern   
,asiatics had adopted the  conception of
 an impersonal ,god1 and1 as regards the
 soul1 its necessary  consequence1 the  
doctrine of emanation and absorption4   
,,emanation ,,and ,,absorption4 ,thus   

the ,vedic theology is based on the     
acknowledgment of a universal spirit    
pervading all things4 ,there is in      
truth but one ,deity1 the supreme       
,spirit2 he is of the same nature as the
  soul of man4 ,both the ,vedas and the 
,institutes of ,menu affirm that  the   
soul is an emanation of the             
all-pervading ,intellect1 and that it is
  necessarily destined to be reabsorbed4
 ,they consider it to be without  form1 
and that visible ,nature1 with all its  
beauties and harmonies1 is  only the    
shadow of ,god4    ,vedaism developed   
itself into ,buddhism1 which has become 
the faith of  a majority of the human   
race4 ,this system acknowledges that    
there is a  supreme ,power1 but denies  
that there is a supreme ,being4 ,it     
contemplates  the existence of ,force1  
giving rise as its manifestation to     
matter4 ,it  adopts the theory of       
emanation and absorption4 ,in a burning 
taper it  sees an effigy of man--an     
embodiment of matter1 and an evolution  

of  force4 ,if we interrogate it        
respecting the destiny of the soul1 it  
demands of us what has become of the    
flame when it is blown out1 and in  what
 condition it was before the taper was  
lighted4 ,was it a nonentity8  ,has it  
been annihilated8 ,it admits that the   
idea of personality which  has deluded  
us through life may not be              
instantaneously extinguished at  death1 
but may be lost by slow degrees4 ,on    
this is founded the doctrine  of        
transmigration4 ,but at length reunion  
with the universal ,intellect  takes    
place1 ,nirwana is reached1 oblivion is 
attained1 a state that has  no relation 
to matter1 space1 or time1 the state    
into which the departed  flame of the   
extinguished taper has gone1 the state  
in which we were  before we were born4  
,this is the end that we ought to hope  
for2 it is  reabsorption in the         
universal ,force--supreme bliss1 eternal
 rest4    ,through ,aristotle these     
doctrines were first introduced into    

,eastern  ,europe2 indeed1 eventually1  
as we shall see1 he was regarded as the 
author of them4 ,they exerted a         
dominating influence in the later period
  of the ,alexandrian school4 ,philo1   
the ,jew1 who lived in the time of      
,caligula1 based his philosophy on the  
theory of emanation4 ,plotinus  not only
 accepted that theory as applicable to  
the soul of man1 but as  affording an   
illustration of the nature of the       
,trinity4 ,for1 as a beam  of light     
emanates from the sun1 and as warmth    
emanates from the beam  when it touches 
material bodies1 so from the ,father the
 ,son emanates1  and thence the ,holy   
,ghost4 ,from these views ,plotinus     
derived a practical  religious system1  
teaching the devout how to pass into a  
condition of  ecstasy1 a foretaste of   
absorption into the universal mundane   
soul4  ,in that condition the soul loses
 its individual consciousness4 ,in like 
manner ,porphyry sought absorption in or
 union with ,god4 ,he was a ,tyrian  by 

birth1 established a school at ,rome1   
and wrote against ,christianity2  his   
treatise on that subject was answered by
 ,eusebius and ,st4 ,jerome1  but the   
,emperor ,theodosius silenced it more   
effectually by causing all  the copies  
to be burnt4 ,porphyry bewails his own  
unworthiness1 saying  that he had been  
united to ,god in ecstasy but once in   
eighty-six years1  whereas his master   
,plotinus had been so united six times  
in sixty years4  ,a complete system of  
theology1 based on the theory of        
emanation1 was  constructed by ,proclus1
 who speculated on the manner in which  
absorption  takes place3 whether the    
soul is instantly reabsorbed and        
reunited in  the moment of death1 or    
whether it retains the sentiment of     
personality  for a time1 and subsides   
into complete reunion by successive     
steps4    ,,arabic ,,psychology4 ,from  
the ,alexandrian ,greeks these ideas    
passed to  the ,saracen philosophers1   
who very soon after the capture of the  

great  ,egyptian city abandoned to the  
lower orders their anthropomorphic      
notions of the nature of ,god and the   
simulachral form of the spirit of  man4 
,as ,arabism developed itself into a    
distinct scientific system1  the        
theories of emanation and absorption    
were among its characteristic  features4
 ,in this abandonment of vulgar         
,mohammedanism1 the example of  the     
,jews greatly assisted4 ,they1 too1 had 
given up the anthropomorphism  of their 
ancestors2 they had exchanged the ,god  
who of old lived behind  the veil of the
 temple for an infinite ,intelligence   
pervading the  universe1 and1 avowing   
their inability to conceive that any    
thing  which had on a sudden been called
 into existence should be capable of    
immortality1 they affirmed that the soul
 of man is connected with a past  of    
which there was no beginning1 and with a
 future to which there is no  end4      
,in the intellectual history of ,arabism
 the ,jew and the ,saracen are          

continually seen together4 ,it was the  
same in their political history1        
whether we consider it in ,syria1 in    
,egypt1 or in ,spain4 ,from them        
conjointly ,western ,europe derived its 
philosophical ideas1 which in  the      
course of time culminated in ,averroism2
 ,averroism is philosophical  ,islamism4
 ,europeans generally regarded ,averroes
 as the author of these  heresies1 and  
the orthodox branded him accordingly1   
but he was nothing  more than their     
collector and commentator4 ,his works   
invaded ,christendom  by two routes3    
from ,spain through ,southern ,france   
they reached ,upper  ,italy1 engendering
 numerous heresies on their way2 from   
,sicily they  passed to ,naples and     
,south ,italy1 under the auspices of    
,frederick ,,ii4    ,but1 long before   
,europe suffered this great intellectual
 invasion1 there  were what might1      
perhaps1 be termed sporadic instances of
 ,orientalism4  ,as an example ,i may   
quote the views of ,john ,erigena       

7,a4,d4 #hjj7 ,he had  adopted and      
taught the philosophy of ,aristotle had 
made a pilgrimage  to the birthplace of 
that philosopher1 and indulged a hope of
 uniting  philosophy and religion in the
 manner proposed by the ,christian      
ecclesiastics who were then studying in 
the ,mohammedan universities of  ,spain4
 ,he was a native of ,britain4    ,in a 
letter to ,charles the ,bald1           
,anastasius expresses his astonishment  
how such a barbarian man1 coming from   
the very ends of the earth1 and  remote 
from human conversation1 could          
comprehend things so clearly1 and       
transfer them into another language so  
well4 ,the general intention of  his    
writings was1 as we have said1 to unite 
philosophy with religion1  but his      
treatment of these subjects brought him 
under ecclesiastical  censure1 and some 
of his works were adjudged to the       
flames4 ,his most  important book is    
entitled ,de ,divisione ,nature4        
,erigena's philosophy rests upon the    

observed and admitted fact that  every  
living thing comes from something that  
had previously lived4 ,the  visible     
world1 being a world of life1 has       
therefore emanated necessarily  from    
some primordial existence1 and that     
existence is ,god1 who is thus  the     
originator and conservator of all4      
,whatever we see maintains itself  as a 
visible thing through force derived from
 him1 and1 were that force  withdrawn1  
it must necessarily disappear4 ,erigena 
thus conceives of  the ,deity as an     
unceasing participator in ,nature1 being
 its preserver1  maintainer1 upholder1  
and in that respect answering to the    
soul of the  world of the ,greeks4 ,the 
particular life of individuals is       
therefore a  part of general existence1 
that is1 of the mundane soul4    ,if    
ever there were a withdrawal of the     
maintaining power1 all things  must     
return to the source from which they    
issued--that is1 they must  return to   
,god1 and be absorbed in him4 ,all      

visible ,nature must thus  pass back    
into the ,intellect at last4 ,the death 
of the flesh is the  auspices of the    
restitution of things1 and of a return  
to their ancient  conservation4 ,so     
sounds revert back to the air in which  
they were born1  and by which they were 
maintained1 and they are heard no more2 
no man  knows what has become of them4  
,in that final absorption which1 after  
a lapse of time1 must necessarily come1 
,god will be all in all1 and  nothing   
exist but him alone4 ,i contemplate him 
as the beginning and  cause of all      
things2 all things that are and those   
that have been1 but  now are not1 were  
created from him1 and by him1 and in    
him4 ,i also view  him as the end and   
intransgressible term of all things4444 
,there is a  fourfold conception of     
universal ,nature--two views of divine  
,nature1 as  origin and end2 two also of
 framed ,nature1 causes and effects4    
,there is  nothing eternal but ,god4    
,the return of the soul to the universal

 ,intellect is designated by  ,erigena  
as ,theosis1 or ,deification4 ,in that  
final absorption all  remembrance of its
 past experiences is lost4 ,the soul    
reverts to the  condition in which it   
was before it animated the body4        
,necessarily1  therefore1 ,erigena fell 
under the displeasure of the ,church4   
,it was in ,india that men first        
recognized the fact that force is       
indestructible and eternal4 ,this       
implies ideas more or less distinct  of 
that which we now term its correlation  
and conservation4  ,considerations      
connected with the stability of the     
universe give  strength to this view1   
since it is clear that1 were there      
either  an increase or a diminution1 the
 order of the world must cease4 ,the    
definite and invariable amount of energy
 in the universe must therefore  be     
accepted as a scientific fact4 ,the     
changes we witness are in its           
distribution4    ,but1 since the soul   
must be regarded as an active principle1

 to call a  new one into existence out  
of nothing is necessarily to add to the 
force  previously in the world4 ,and1 if
 this has been done in the case of every
  individual who has been born1 and is  
to be repeated for every individual     
hereafter1 the totality of force must be
 continually increasing4    ,moreover1  
to many devout persons there is         
something very revolting in  the        
suggestion that the ,almighty is a      
servitor to the caprices and lusts  of  
man1 and that1 at a certain term after  
its origin1 it is necessary  for him to 
create for the embryo a soul4           
,considering man as composed of two     
portions1 a soul and a body1 the        
obvious relations of the latter may cast
 much light on the mysterious1  the     
obscure relations of the former4 ,now1  
the substance of which the  body        
consists is obtained from the general   
mass of matter around us1  and after    
death to that general mass it is        
restored4 ,has ,nature1 then1  displayed

 before our eyes in the origin1         
mutations1 and destiny of the  material 
part1 the body1 a revelation that may   
guide us to a knowledge  of the origin  
and destiny of the companion1 the       
spiritual part1 the  soul8    ,let us   
listen for a moment to one of the most  
powerful of ,mohammedan  writers3       
,god has created the spirit of man out  
of a drop of his own light2  its destiny
 is to return to him4 ,do not deceive   
yourself with the vain  imagination that
 it will die when the body dies4 ,the   
form you had on  your entrance into this
 world1 and your present form1 are not  
the  same2 hence there is no necessity  
of your perishing1 on account of the    
perishing of your body4 ,your spirit    
came into this world a stranger1 it  is 
only sojourning1 in a temporary home4   
,from the trials and tempests  of this  
troublesome life1 our refuge is in ,god4
 ,in reunion with him we  shall find    
eternal rest--a rest without sorrow1 a  
joy without pain1 a  strength without   

infirmity1 a knowledge without doubt1 a 
tranquil and  yet an ecstatic vision of 
the source of life and light and glory1 
the  source from which we came4 ,so says
 the ,saracen philosopher1 ,al-,gazzali 
7,a4,d4 #ajaj74    ,in a stone the      
material particles are in a state of    
stable equilibrium2  it may1 therefore1 
endure forever4 ,an animal is in reality
 only a form  through which a stream of 
matter is incessantly flowing4 ,it      
receives its  supplies1 and dismisses   
its wastes4 ,in this it resembles a     
cataract1  a river1 a flame4 ,the       
particles that compose it at one instant
 have  departed from it the next4 ,it   
depends for its continuance on exterior 
supplies4 ,it has a definite duration in
 time1 and an inevitable moment  comes  
in which it must die4    ,in the great  
problem of psychology we cannot expect  
to reach a  scientific result1 if we    
persist in restricting ourselves to the 
contemplation of one fact4 ,we must     
avail ourselves of all accessible       

facts4 ,human psychology can never be   
completely resolved except through      
comparative psychology4 ,with           
,descartes1 we must inquire whether the 
souls of animals be relations of the    
human soul1 less perfect members in  the
 same series of development4 ,we must   
take account of what we discover  in the
 intelligent principle of the ant1 as   
well as what we discern in  the         
intelligent principle of man4 ,where    
would human physiology be1 if  it were  
not illuminated by the bright           
irradiations of comparative  physiology8
    ,brodie1 after an exhaustive        
consideration of the facts1 affirms that
  the mind of animals is essentially the
 same as that of man4 ,every one        
familiar with the dog will admit that   
that creature knows right from  wrong1  
and is conscious when he has committed a
 fault4 ,many domestic  animals have    
reasoning powers1 and employ proper     
means for the  attainment of ends4 ,how 
numerous are the anecdotes related of   

the  intentional actions of the elephant
 and the ape6 ,nor is this apparent     
intelligence due to imitation1 to their 
association with man1 for  wild animals 
that have no such relation exhibit      
similar properties4 ,in  different      
species1 the capacity and character     
greatly vary4 ,thus the dog  is not only
 more intelligent1 but has social and   
moral qualities that  the cat does not  
possess2 the former loves his master1   
the latter her  home4    ,du            
,bois-,reymond makes this striking      
remark3 ,with awe and wonder must  the  
student of ,nature regard that          
microscopic molecule of nervous         
substance which is the seat of the      
laborious1 constructive1 orderly1       
loyal1 dauntless soul of the ant4 ,it   
has developed itself to its present     
state through a countless series of     
generations4 ,what an impressive        
inference we may draw from the statement
 of ,huber1 who has written so  well on 
this subject3 ,if you will watch a      

single ant at work1 you can  tell what  
he will next do6 ,he is considering the 
matter1 and reasoning  as you are doing4
 ,listen to one of the many anecdotes   
which ,huber1 at  once truthful and     
artless1 relates3 ,on the visit of an   
overseer ant to  the works1 when the    
laborers had begun the roof too soon1 he
 examined it  and had it taken down1 the
 wall raised to the proper height1 and a
 new  ceiling constructed with the      
fragments of the old one4 ,surely these 
insects are not automata1 they show     
intention4 ,they recognize their old    
companions1 who have been shut up from  
them for many months1 and exhibit       
sentiments of joy at their return4      
,their antennal language is capable  of 
manifold expression2 it suits the       
interior of the nest1 where all is      
dark4    ,while solitary insects do not 
live to raise their young1 social       
insects  have a longer term1 they       
exhibit moral affections and educate    
their offspring4 ,patterns of patience  

and industry1 some of these             
insignificant creatures will work       
sixteen or eighteen hours a day4 ,few   
men are capable of sustained mental     
application more than four or five      
hours4    ,similarity of effects        
indicates similarity of causes2         
similarity of  actions demands          
similarity of organs4 ,i would ask the  
reader of these  paragraphs1 who is     
familiar with the habits of animals1 and
 especially  with the social relations  
of that wonderful insect to which       
reference  has been made1 to turn to the
 nineteenth chapter of my work on  the  
,intellectual ,development of ,europe1  
in which he will find a  description of 
the social system of the ,incas of      
,peru4 ,perhaps1 then1 in  view of the  
similarity of the social institutions   
and personal conduct  of the insect1 and
 the social institutions and personal   
conduct of the  civilized ,indian--the  
one an insignificant speck1 the other a 
man--he  will not be disposed to        

disagree with me in the opinion that    
from bees1  and wasps1 and ants1 and    
birds1 from all that low animal life on 
which  he looks with supercilious       
contempt1 man is destined one day to    
learn  what in truth he really is4      
,the views of ,descartes1 who regarded  
all insects as automata1 can  scarcely  
be accepted without modification4       
,insects are automata only  so far as   
the action of their ventral cord1 and   
that portion of their  cephalic ganglia 
which deals with contemporaneous        
impressions1 is  concerned4    ,it is   
one of the functions of                 
vesicular-nervous material to retain    
traces or relics of impressions brought 
to it by the organs of sense2  hence1   
nervous ganglia1 being composed of that 
material1 may be  considered as         
registering apparatus4 ,they also       
introduce the element  of time into the 
action of the nervous mechanism4 ,an    
impression1 which  without them might   
have forthwith ended in reflex action1  

is delayed1  and with this duration come
 all those important effects arising    
through  the interaction of many        
impressions1 old and new1 upon each     
other4    ,there is no such thing as a  
spontaneous1 or self-originated1        
thought4  ,every intellectual act is the
 consequence of some preceding act4 ,it 
comes into existence in virtue of       
something that has gone before4 ,two    
minds constituted precisely alike1 and  
placed under the influence of  precisely
 the same environment1 must give rise to
 precisely the same  thought4 ,to such  
sameness of action we allude in the     
popular expression  common-sense--a term
 full of meaning4 ,in the origination of
 a  thought there are two distinct      
conditions3 the state of the organism   
as dependent on antecedent impressions1 
and on the existing physical            
circumstances4    ,in the cephalic      
ganglia of insects are stored up the    
relics of  impressions that have been   
made upon the common peripheral nerves1 

and  in them are kept those which are   
brought in by the organs of special     
sense--the visual1 olfactive1 auditory4 
,the interaction of these raises        
insects above mere mechanical automata1 
in which the reaction instantly  follows
 the impression4    ,in all cases the   
action of every nerve-centre1 no matter 
what its stage  of development may be1  
high or low1 depends upon an essential  
chemical  condition--oxidation4 ,even in
 man1 if the supply of arterial blood   
be stopped but for a moment1 the        
nerve-mechanism loses its power2 if     
diminished1 it correspondingly declines2
 if1 on the contrary1 it  be            
increased--as when nitrogen monoxide is 
breathed--there is more  energetic      
action4 ,hence there arises a need of   
repair1 a necessity for  rest and sleep4
    ,two fundamental ideas are          
essentially attached to all our         
perceptions  of external things3 they   
are ,,space and ,,time1 and for these   
provision is  made in the nervous       

mechanism while it is yet in an almost  
rudimentary  state4 ,the eye is the     
organ of space1 the ear of time2 the    
perceptions  of which by the elaborate  
mechanism of these structures become    
infinitely more precise than would be   
possible if the sense of touch  alone   
were resorted to4    ,there are some    
simple experiments which illustrate the 
vestiges of  ganglionic impressions4 ,if
 on a cold1 polished metal1 as a new    
razor1  any object1 such as a wafer1 be 
laid1 and the metal be then breathed    
upon1 and1 when the moisture has had    
time to disappear1 the wafer be  thrown 
off1 though now the most critical       
inspection of the polished  surface can 
discover no trace of any form1 if we    
breathe once more upon  it1 a spectral  
image of the wafer comes plainly into   
view2 and this may  be done again and   
again4 ,nay1 more1 if the polished metal
 be carefully  put aside where nothing  
can deteriorate its surface1 and be so  
kept for  many months1 on breathing     

again upon it the shadowy form emerges4 
,such an illustration shows how trivial 
an impression may be thus  registered   
and preserved4 ,but1 if1 on such an     
inorganic surface1 an  impression may   
thus be indelibly marked1 how much more 
likely in the  purposely-constructed    
ganglion6 ,a shadow never falls upon a  
wall without  leaving thereupon a       
permanent trace1 a trace which might be 
made visible  by resorting to proper    
processes4 ,photographic operations are 
cases in  point4 ,the portraits of our  
friends1 or landscape views1 may be     
hidden  on the sensitive surface from   
the eye1 but they are ready to make     
their  appearance as soon as proper     
developers are resorted to4 ,a spectre  
is  concealed on a silver or glassy     
surface until1 by our necromancy1 we    
make it come forth into the visible     
world4 ,upon the walls of our most      
private apartments1 where we think the  
eye of intrusion is altogether  shut out
 and our retirement can never be        

profaned1 there exist the  vestiges of  
all our acts1 silhouettes of whatever we
 have done4    ,if1 after the eyelids   
have been closed for some time1 as when 
we  first awake in the morning1 we      
suddenly and steadfastly gaze at a      
brightly-illuminated object and then    
quickly close the lids again1 a  phantom
 image is perceived in the indefinite   
darkness beyond us4 ,we may  satisfy    
ourselves that this is not a fiction1   
but a reality1 for many  details that we
 had not time to identify in the        
momentary glance may  be contemplated at
 our leisure in the phantom4 ,we may    
thus make out the  pattern of such an   
object as a lace curtain hanging in the 
window1 or  the branches of a tree      
beyond4 ,by degrees the image becomes   
less and  less distinct2 in a minute or 
two it has disappeared4 ,it seems to    
have a  tendency to float away in the   
vacancy before us4 ,if we attempt to    
follow  it by moving the eyeball1 it    
suddenly vanishes4    ,such a duration  

of impressions on the retina proves that
 the effect of  external influences on  
nerve-vesicles is not necessarily       
transitory4  ,in this there is a        
correspondence to the duration1 the     
emergence1 the  extinction1 of          
impressions on photographic             
preparations4 ,thus1 ,i have  seen      
landscapes and architectural views taken
 in ,mexico developed1 as  artists say1 
months subsequently in ,new ,york--the  
images coming out1  after the long      
voyage1 in all their proper forms and in
 all their proper  contrast of light and
 shade4 ,the photograph had forgotten   
nothing4 ,it  had equally preserved the 
contour of the everlasting mountains and
 the  passing smoke of a bandit-fire4   
,are there1 then1 contained in the brain
 more permanently1 as in the  retina    
more transiently1 the vestiges of       
impressions that have been  gathered by 
the sensory organs8 ,is this the        
explanation of memory--the  ,mind       
contemplating such pictures of past     

things and events as have  been         
committed to her custody4 ,in her silent
 galleries are there hung  micrographs  
of the living and the dead1 of scenes   
that we have  visited1 of incidents in  
which we have borne a part8 ,are these  
abiding  impressions mere signal-marks1 
like the letters of a book1 which impart
  ideas to the mind8 or are they actual 
picture-images1 inconceivably  smaller  
than those made for us by artists1 in   
which1 by the aid of a  microscope1 we  
can see1 in a space not bigger than a   
pinhole1 a whole  family group at a     
glance8    ,the phantom images of the   
retina are not perceptible in the light 
of the  day4 ,those that exist in the   
sensorium in like manner do not attract 
our  attention so long as the sensory   
organs are in vigorous operation1 and   
occupied in bringing new impressions in4
 ,but1 when those organs become  weary  
or dull1 or when we experience hours of 
great anxiety1 or are  in twilight      
reveries1 or are asleep1 the latent     

apparitions have their  vividness       
increased by the contrast1 and obtrude  
themselves on the  mind4 ,for the same  
reason they occupy us in the delirium of
 fevers1 and  doubtless also in the     
solemn moments of death4 ,during a third
 part of  our life1 in sleep1 we are    
withdrawn from external influences2     
hearing  and sight and the other senses 
are inactive1 but the never-sleeping    
,mind1  that pensive1 that veiled       
enchantress1 in her mysterious          
retirement1  looks over the ambrotypes  
she has collected--ambrotypes1 for they 
are  truly unfading impressions--and1   
combining them together1 as they chance 
to occur1 constructs from them the      
panorama of a dream4    ,nature has thus
 implanted in the organization of every 
man means which  impressively suggest to
 him the immortality of the soul and a  
future  life4 ,even the benighted savage
 thus sees in his visions the fading    
forms of landscapes1 which are1 perhaps1
 connected with some of his  most       

pleasant recollections2 and what other  
conclusion can be possibly  extract from
 those unreal pictures than that they   
are the foreshadowings  of another land 
beyond that in which his lot is cast8   
,at intervals he is  visited in his     
dreams by the resemblances of those whom
 he has loved  or hated while they were 
alive2 and these manifestations are to  
him  incontrovertible proofs of the     
existence and immortality of the soul4  
,in our most refined social conditions  
we are never able to shake off the      
impressions of these occurrences1 and   
are perpetually drawing from  them the  
same conclusions that our uncivilized   
ancestors did4 ,our more  elevated      
condition of life in no respect relieves
 us from the inevitable  operation of   
our own organization1 any more than it  
relieves us from  infirmities and       
disease4 ,in these respects1 all over   
the globe men are  on an equality4      
,savage or civilized1 we carry within us
 a mechanism  which presents us with    

mementoes of the most solemn facts with 
which we  can be concerned4 ,it wants   
only moments of repose or sickness1 when
 the  influence of external things is   
diminished1 to come into full play1 and 
these are precisely the moments when we 
are best prepared for the truths  it is 
going to suggest4 ,that mechanism is no 
respecter of persons4 ,it  neither      
permits the haughtiest to be free from  
the monitions1 nor leaves  the humblest 
without the consolation of a knowledge  
of another life4  ,open to no           
opportunities of being tampered with by 
the designing or  interested1 requiring 
no extraneous human agency for its      
effect1  out always present with every  
man wherever he may go1 it marvelously  
extracts from vestiges of the           
impressions of the past overwhelming    
proofs of the realities of the future1  
and1 gathering its power from  what     
would seem to be a most unlikely source1
 it insensibly leads us1 no  matter who 
or where we may be1 to a profound belief

 in the immortal and  imperishable1 from
 phantoms which have scarcely made their
 appearance  before they are ready to   
vanish away4    ,the insect differs from
 a mere automaton in this1 that it is   
influenced  by old1 by registered       
impressions4 ,in the higher forms of    
animated life  that registration becomes
 more and more complete1 memory becomes 
more  perfect4 ,there is not any        
necessary resemblance between an        
external form  and its ganglionic       
impression1 any more than there is      
between the words  of a message         
delivered in a telegraphic office and   
the signals which  the telegraph may    
give to the distant station2 any more   
than there  is between the letters of a 
printed page and the acts or scenes they
  describe1 but the letters call up with
 clearness to the mind of the  reader   
the events and scenes4    ,an animal    
without any apparatus for the retention 
of impressions must  be a pure          
automaton--it cannot have memory4 ,from 

insignificant and  uncertain beginnings1
 such an apparatus is gradually evolved1
 and1 as  its development advances1 the 
intellectual capacity increases4 ,in    
man1  this retention or registration    
reaches perfection2 he guides1 himself  
by  past as well as by present          
impressions2 he is influenced by        
experience2  his conduct is determined  
by reason4    ,a most important advance 
is made when the capability is acquired 
by any  animal of imparting a knowledge 
of the impressions stored up in its own 
nerve-centres to another of the same    
kind4 ,this marks the extension of      
individual into social life1 and indeed 
is essential thereto4 ,in the  higher   
insects it is accomplished by antennal  
contacts1 in man by  speech4 ,humanity1 
in its earlier1 its savage stages1 was  
limited to  this3 the knowledge of one  
person could be transmitted to another  
by  conversation4 ,the acts and thoughts
 of one generation could be imparted  to
 another1 and influence its acts and    

thoughts4    ,but tradition has its     
limit4 ,the faculty of speech makes     
society  possible--nothing more4    ,not
 without interest do we remark the      
progress of development of  this        
function4 ,the invention of the art of  
writing gave extension and  durability  
to the registration or record of        
impressions4 ,these1 which  had hitherto
 been stored up in the brain of one man1
 might now be  imparted to the whole    
human race1 and be made to endure       
forever4  ,civilization became          
possible--for civilization cannot exist 
without  writing1 or the means of record
 in some shape4    ,from this           
psychological point of view we perceive 
the real significance  of the invention 
of printing--a development of writing   
which1 by  increasing the rapidity of   
the diffusion of ideas1 and insuring    
their  permanence1 tends to promote     
civilization and to unify the human     
race4    ,in the foregoing paragraphs1  
relating to nervous impressions1 their  

registry1 and the consequences1 that    
spring from them1 ,i have given an      
abstract of views presented in my work  
on ,human ,physiology1 published  in    
#ahef1 and may1 therefore1 refer the    
reader to the chapter on ,inverse       
,vision1 or ,cerebral ,sight2 to        
,chapter ,,xiv41 ,book ,i42 and to      
,chapter  ,,viii41 ,book ,,ii42 of that 
work1 for other particulars4      ,the  
only path to scientific human psychology
 is through comparative  psychology4 ,it
 is a long and wearisome path1 but it   
leads to truth4    ,is there1 then1 a   
vast spiritual existence pervading the  
universe1 even  as there is a vast      
existence of matter pervading it--a     
spirit which1  as a great ,german author
 tells us1 sleeps in the stone1 dreams  
in the  animal1 awakes in man8 ,does the
 soul arise from the one as the body    
arises from the other8 ,do they in like 
manner return1 each to the source  from 
which it has come8 ,if so1 we can       
interpret human existence1 and our      

ideas may still be in unison with       
scientific truth1 and in accord with    
our conception of the stability1 the    
unchangeability of the universe4    ,to 
this spiritual existence the ,saracens1 
following ,eastern nations1  gave the   
designation the ,active ,intellect4     
,they believed that the soul  of man    
emanated from it1 as a rain-drop comes  
from the sea1 and1 after a  season1     
returns4 ,so arose among them the       
imposing doctrines of emanation  and    
absorption4 ,the active intellect is    
,god4    ,in one of its forms1 as we    
have seen1 this idea was developed by   
,chakia  ,mouni1 in ,india1 in a most   
masterly manner1 and embodied in the    
vast  practical system of ,buddhism2 in 
another1 it was with less power         
presented among the ,saracens by        
,averroes4    ,but1 perhaps we ought    
rather to say that ,europeans hold      
,averroes as  the author of this        
doctrine1 because they saw him isolated 
from his  antecedents4 ,but ,mohammedans

 gave him little credit for originality4
  ,he stood to them in the light of a   
commentator on ,aristotle1 and as       
presenting the opinions of the          
,alexandrian and other philosophical    
schools up to his time4 ,the following  
excerpts from the ,historical  ,essay on
 ,averroism1 by ,m4 ,renan1 will show   
how closely the ,sarscenic  ideas       
approached those presented above3       
,this system supposes that1 at the death
 of an individual1 his  intelligent     
principle or soul no longer possesses a 
separate existence1  but returns to or  
is absorbed in the universal mind1 the  
active  intelligence1 the mundane soul1 
which is ,god2 from whom1 indeed1 it had
  originally emanated or issued forth4  
,the universal1 or active1 or objective 
intellect1 is uncreated1  impassible1   
incorruptible1 has neither beginning nor
 end2 nor does it  increase as the      
number of individual souls increases4   
,it is altogether  separate from matter4
 ,it is1 as it were1 a cosmic principle4

 ,this  oneness of the active intellect1
 or reason1 is the essential principle  
of the ,averroistic theory1 and is in   
harmony with the cardinal doctrine  of  
,mohammedanism--the unity of ,god4      
,the individual1 or passive1 or         
subjective intellect1 is an emanation   
from the universal1 and constitutes what
 is termed the soul of man4 ,in  one    
sense it is perishable and ends with the
 body1 but in a higher  sense it        
endures2 for1 after death1 it returns to
 or is absorbed in the  universal soul1 
and thus of all human souls there       
remains at last  but one--the aggregate 
of them all1 life is not the property of
 the  individual1 it belongs to ,nature4
 ,the end of1 man is to enter into union
  more and more complete with the active
 intellect--reason4 ,in that the        
happiness of the soul consists4 ,our    
destiny is quietude4 ,it was the        
opinion of ,averroes that the transition
 from the individual to the  universal  
is instantaneous at death1 but the      

,buddhists maintain that  human         
personality continues in a declining    
manner for a certain term  before       
nonentity1 or ,nirwana1 is attained4    
,philosophy has never proposed but two  
hypotheses to explain the system  of the
 world3 first1 a personal ,god existing 
apart1 and a human soul  called into    
existence or created1 and thenceforth   
immortal2 second1 an  impersonal        
intelligence1 or indeterminate ,god1 and
 a soul emerging from  and returning to 
him4 ,as to the origin of beings1 there 
are two opposite  opinions3 first1 that 
they are created from nothing2 second1  
that they  come by development from     
pre-existing forms4 ,the theory of      
creation  belongs to the first of the   
above hypotheses1 that of evolution to  
the  last4    ,philosophy among the     
,arabs thus took the same direction that
 it had  taken in ,china1 in ,india1 and
 indeed throughout the ,east4 ,its whole
  spirit depended on the admission of   
the indestructibility of matter and     

force4 ,it saw an analogy between the   
gathering of the material of which  the 
body of man consists from the vast store
 of matter in ,nature1 and  its final   
restoration to that store1 and the      
emanation of the spirit  of man from the
 universal ,intellect1 the ,divinity1   
and its final  reabsorption4            
,having thus indicated in sufficient    
detail the philosophical                
characteristics of the doctrine of      
emanation and absorption1 ,i have in    
the next place to relate its history4   
,it was introduced into ,europe by  the 
,spanish ,arabs4 ,spain was the focal   
point from which1 issuing forth1  it    
affected the ranks of intelligence and  
fashion all over ,europe1 and  in ,spain
 it had a melancholy end4    ,the       
,spanish khalifs had surrounded         
themselves with all the luxuries  of    
,oriental life4 ,they had magnificent   
palaces1 enchanting gardens1  seraglios 
filled with beautiful women4 ,europe at 
the present day does  not offer more    

taste1 more refinement1 more elegance1  
than might have  been seen1 at the epoch
 of which we are speaking1 in the       
capitals of the  ,spanish ,arabs4 ,their
 streets were lighted and solidly paved4
 ,the houses  were frescoed and         
carpeted2 they were warmed in winter by 
furnaces1 and  cooled in summer with    
perfumed air brought by underground     
pipes from  flower-beds4 ,they had      
baths1 and libraries1 and dining-halls1 
fountains  of quicksilver and water4    
,city and country were full of          
conviviality1  and of dancing to the    
lute and mandolin4 ,instead of the      
drunken and  gluttonous wassail orgies  
of their ,northern neighbors1 the feasts
 of the  ,saracens were marked by       
sobriety4 ,wine was prohibited4 ,the    
enchanting  moonlight evenings of       
,andalusia were spent by the ,moors in  
sequestered1  fairy-like gardens or in  
orange-groves1 listening to the romances
 of  the story-teller1 or engaged in    
philosophical discourse2 consoling      

themselves for the disappointments of   
this life by such reflections  as that1 
if virtue were rewarded in this world1  
we should be without  expectations in   
the life to come2 and reconciling       
themselves to their  daily toil by the  
expectation that rest will be found     
after death--a  rest never to be        
succeeded by labor4    ,in the tenth    
century the ,khalif ,hakein ,,ii4 had   
made beautiful ,andalusia  the paradise 
of the world4 ,christians1 ,mussulmen1  
,jews1 mixed together  without          
restraint4 ,there1 among many celebrated
 names that have  descended to our      
times1 was ,gerbert1 destined           
subsequently to  become pope4 ,there1   
too1 was ,peter the ,venerable1 and many
 ,christian  ecclesiastics4 ,peter says 
that he found learned men even from     
,britain  pursuing astronomy4 ,all      
learned men1 no matter from what country
 they  came1 or what their religious    
views1 were welcomed4 ,the khalif had in
  his palace a manufactory of books1 and

 copyists1 binders1 illuminators4  ,he  
kept book-buyers in all the great cities
 of ,asia and ,africa4 ,his  library    
contained four hundred thousand volumes1
 superbly bound and  illuminated4       
,throughout the ,mohammedan dominions in
 ,asia1 in ,africa1 and in ,spain1  the 
lower order of ,mussulmen entertained a 
fanatical hatred against  learning4     
,among the more devout--those who       
claimed to be orthodox--there  were     
painful doubts as to the salvation of   
the great ,khalif  ,al-,mamun--the      
wicked khalif1 as they called him--for  
he had not only  disturbed the people by
 introducing the writings of ,aristotle 
and other  ,greek heathens1 but had even
 struck at the existence of heaven and  
hell by saying that the earth is a      
globe1 and pretending that he could     
measure its size4 ,these persons1 from  
their numbers1 constituted a  political 
power4    ,almansor1 who usurped the    
khalifate to the prejudice of ,hakem's  
son1  thought that his usurpation would 

be sustained if he put himself at  the  
head of the orthodox party4 ,he         
therefore had the library of ,hakem     
searched1 and all works of a scientific 
or philosophical nature carried  into   
the public places and burnt1 or thrown  
into the cisterns of the  palace4 ,by a 
similar court revolution ,averroes1 in  
his old age--he died  ,a4,d4 #aaic--was 
expelled from ,spain2 the religious     
party had triumphed  over the           
philosophical4 ,he was denounced as a   
traitor to religion4  ,an opposition to 
philosophy had been organized all over  
the ,mussulman  world4 ,there was hardly
 a philosopher who was not punished4    
,some  were put to death1 and the       
consequence was1 that ,islam was full of
  hypocrites4    ,into ,italy1 ,germany1
 ,england1 ,averroism had silently made 
its way4  ,it found favor in the eyes of
 the ,franciscans1 and a focus in the   
,university of ,paris4 ,by very many of 
the leading minds it had been  accepted4
 ,but at length the ,dominicans1 the    

rivals of the ,franciscans1  sounded an 
alarm4 ,they said it destroys all       
personality1 conducts  to fatalism1 and 
renders inexplicable the difference and 
progress  of individual intelligences4  
,the declaration that there is but one  
intellect is an error subversive of the 
merits of the saints1 it is  an         
assertion that there is no difference   
among men4 ,what6 is there no           
difference between the holy soul of     
,peter and the damned soul of ,judas8   
are they identical8 ,averroes in this   
his blasphemous doctrine denies         
creation1 providence1 revelation1 the   
,trinity1 the efficacy of prayers1  of  
alms1 and of litanies2 he disbelieves in
 the resurrection and  immortality2 he  
places the summum bonum in mere         
pleasure4    ,so1 too1 among the ,jews  
who were then the leading intellects of 
the  world1 ,averroism had been largely 
propagated4 ,their great writer         
,maimonides had thoroughly accepted it2 
his school was spreading it in  all     

directions4 ,a furious persecution arose
 on the part of the orthodox  ,jews4 ,of
 ,maimonides it had been formerly their 
delight to declare that  he was the     
,eagle of the ,doctors1 the ,great      
,sage1 the ,glory of the ,west1  the    
,light of the ,east1 second only to     
,moses4 ,now1 they proclaimed that  he  
had abandoned the faith of ,abraham2 had
 denied the possibility of  creation1   
believed in the eternity of the world2  
had given himself up to  the manufacture
 of atheists2 had deprived ,god of his  
attributes2 made a  vacuum of him2 had  
declared him inaccessible to prayer1 and
 a stranger  to the government of the   
world4 ,the works of ,maimonides were   
committed  to the flames by the         
synagogues of ,montpellier1 ,barcelona1 
and ,toledo4    ,scarcely had the       
conquering arms of ,ferdinand and       
,isabella overthrown  the ,arabian      
dominion in ,spain1 when measures were  
taken by the papacy  to extinguish these
 opinions1 which1 it was believed1 were 

undermining  ,european ,christianity4   
,until ,innocent ,,iv4 7#abdc71 there   
was no special tribunal against         
heretics1 distinct from those of the    
bishops4 ,the ,inquisition1 then        
introduced1 in accordance with the      
centralization of the times1 was  a     
general and papal tribunal1 which       
displaced the old local ones4  ,the     
bishops1 therefore1 viewed the          
innovation with great dislike1          
considering it as an intrusion on their 
rights4 ,it was established in  ,italy1 
,spain1 ,germany1 and the southern      
provinces of ,france4    ,the temporal  
sovereigns were only too desirous to    
make use of this  powerful engine for   
their own political purposes4 ,against  
this the popes  strongly protested4     
,they were not willing that its use     
should pass out  of the ecclesiastical  
hand4    ,the ,inquisition1 having      
already been tried in the south of      
,france1 had  there proved to be very   
effective for the suppression of heresy4

 ,it had  been introduced into ,aragon4 
,now was assigned to it the duty of     
dealing  with the ,jews4    ,in the old 
times under ,visigothic rule these      
people had greatly  prospered1 but the  
leniency that had been shown to them was
 succeeded by  atrocious persecution1   
when the ,visigoths abandoned their     
,arianism and  became orthodox4 ,the    
most inhuman ordinances were issued     
against them--a  law was enacted        
condemning them all to be slaves4 ,it   
was not to be  wondered at that1 when   
the ,saracen invasion took place1 the   
,jews did  whatever they could to       
promote its success4 ,they1 like the    
,arabs1 were  an ,oriental people1 both 
traced their lineage to ,abraham1 their 
common  ancestor2 both were believers in
 the unity of ,god4 ,it was their       
defense of that doctrine that had       
brought upon them the hatred of their   
,visigothic masters4    ,under the      
,saracen rule they were treated with the
 highest consideration4  ,they became   

distinguished for their wealth and their
 learning4 ,for  the most part they were
 ,aristotelians4 ,they founded many     
schools and  colleges4 ,their mercantile
 interests led them to travel all over  
the  world4 ,they particularly studied  
the science of medicine4 ,throughout the
  middle ages they were the physicians  
and bankers of ,europe4 ,of all men     
they saw the course of human affairs    
from the most elevated point of  view4  
,among the special sciences they became 
proficient in mathematics  and          
astronomy2 they composed the tables of  
,alfonso1 and were the cause  of the    
voyage of ,de ,gama4 ,they distinguished
 themselves greatly in light            
literature4 ,from the tenth to the      
fourteenth century their literature  was
 the first in ,europe4 ,they were to be 
found in the courts of princes  as      
physicians1 or as treasurers managing   
the public finances4    ,the orthodox   
clergy in ,navarre had excited popular  
prejudices against  them4 ,to escape the

 persecutions that arose1 many of them  
feigned to  turn ,christians1 and of    
these many apostatized to their former  
faith4 ,the papal nuncio at the court of
 ,castile raised a cry for the          
establishment of the ,inquisition4 ,the 
poorer ,jews were accused of            
sacrificing ,christian children at the  
,passover1 in mockery of the            
crucifixion2 the richer were denounced  
as ,averroists4 ,under the  influence of
 ,torquemada1 a ,dominican monk1 the    
confessor of ,queen  ,isabella1 that    
princess solicited a bull from the pope 
for the  establishment of the ,holy     
,office4 ,a bull was accordingly issued 
in  ,november1 #adgh1 for the detection 
and suppression of heresy4 ,in the      
first year of the operation of the      
,inquisition1 #adha1 two thousand       
victims were burnt in ,andalusia2       
besides these1 many thousands were dug  
up from their graves and burnt2         
seventeen thousand were fined or        
imprisoned for life4 ,whoever of the    

persecuted race could flee1 escaped  for
 his life4 ,torquemada1 now appointed   
inquisitor-general for ,castile  and    
,leon1 illustrated his office by his    
ferocity4 ,anonymous accusations  were  
received1 the accused was not confronted
 by witnesses1 torture was  relied upon 
for conviction2 it was inflicted in     
vaults where no one  could hear the     
cries of the tormented4 ,as1 in         
pretended mercy1 it was  forbidden to   
inflict torture a second time1 with     
horrible duplicity it  was affirmed that
 the torment had not been completed at  
first1 but had  only been suspended out 
of charity until the following day6 ,the
 families  of the convicted were plunged
 into irretrievable ruin4 ,llorente1 the
  historian of the ,inquisition1        
computes that ,torquemada and his       
collaborators1 in the course of eighteen
 years1 burnt at the stake ten  thousand
 two hundred and twenty persons1 six    
thousand eight hundred and  sixty in    
effigy1 and otherwise punished          

ninety-seven thousand three  hundred and
 twenty-one4 ,this frantic priest       
destroyed ,hebrew ,bibles  wherever he  
could find them1 ,and burnt six thousand
 volumes of ,oriental  literature at    
,salamanca1 under an imputation that    
they inculcated  ,judaism4 ,with        
unutterable disgust and indignation1 we 
learn that the  papal government        
realized much money by selling to the   
rich  dispensations to secure them from 
the ,inquisition4    ,but all these     
frightful atrocities proved failures4   
,the conversions  were few4 ,torquemada1
 therefore1 insisted on the immediate   
banishment  of every unbaptized ,jew4   
,on ,march #cj1 #adib1 the edict of     
expulsion was  signed4 ,all unbaptized  
,jews1 of whatever age1 sex1 or         
condition1 were  ordered to leave the   
realm by the end of the following ,july4
 ,if they  revisited it1 they should    
suffer death4 ,they might sell their    
effects  and take the proceeds in       
merchandise or bills of exchange1 but   

not in  gold or silver4 ,exiled thus    
suddenly from the land of their birth1  
the  land of their ancestors for        
hundreds of years1 they could not in    
the glutted market that arose sell what 
they possessed4 ,nobody would  purchase 
what could be got for nothing after     
,july4 ,the ,spanish clergy  occupied   
themselves by preaching in the public   
squares sermons filled  with            
denunciations against their victims1    
who1 when the time for  expatriation    
came1 swarmed in the roads and filled   
the air with their  cries of despair4   
,even the ,spanish onlookers wept at the
 scene of agony4  ,torquemada1 however1 
enforced the ordinance that no one      
should afford  them any help4    ,of the
 banished persons some made their way   
into ,africa1 some into  ,italy2 the    
latter carried with them to ,naples     
ship-fever1 which  destroyed not fewer  
than twenty thousand in that city1 and  
devastated  that peninsula2 some reached
 ,turkey1 a few ,england4 ,thousands1   

especially mothers with nursing         
children1 infants1 and old people1 died 
by the way2 many of them in the agonies 
of thirst4    ,this action against the  
,jews was soon followed by one against  
the ,moors4  ,a pragmatica was issued at
 ,seville1 ,february1 #aejb1 setting    
forth the  obligations of the           
,castilians to drive the enemies of ,god
 from the land1  and ordering that all  
unbaptized ,moors in the kingdoms of    
,castile and  ,leon above the age of    
infancy should leave the country by the 
end of  ,april4 ,they might sell their  
property1 but not take away any gold or 
silver2 they were forbidden to emigrate 
to the ,mohammedan dominions2 the       
penalty of disobedience was death4      
,their condition was thus worse than    
that of the ,jews1 who had been         
permitted to go where they chose4 ,such 
was the fiendish intolerance of the     
,spaniards1 that they asserted the      
government would be justified in taking 
the lives of all the ,moors for  their  

shameless infidelity4    ,what an       
ungrateful return for the toleration    
that the ,moors in their  day of power  
had given to the ,christians6 ,no faith 
was kept with the  victims4 ,granada had
 surrendered under the solemn guarantee 
of the full  enjoyment of civil and     
religious liberty4 ,at the instigation  
of  ,cardinal ,ximenes that pledge was  
broken1 and1 after a residence of eight 
centuries1 the ,mohammedans were driven 
out of the land4      ,the coexistence  
of three religions in ,andalusia--the   
,christian1 the  ,mohammedan1 the       
,mosaic--had given opportunity for the  
development of  ,averroism or           
philosophical ,arabism4 ,this was a     
repetition of what had  occurred at     
,rome1 when the gods of all the         
conquered countries were  confronted in 
that capital1 and universal disbelief in
 them all ensued4  ,averroes himself was
 accused of having been first a         
,mussulman1 then a  ,christian1 then a  
,jew1 and finally a misbeliever4 ,it was

 affirmed that  he was the author of the
 mysterious book ,de ,tribus            
,impostoribus4    ,in the middle ages   
there were two celebrated heretical     
books1 ,the  ,everlasting ,gospel1 and  
the ,de ,tribus ,impostoribus4 ,the     
latter was  variously imputed to ,pope  
,gerbert1 to ,frederick ,,ii41 and to   
,averroes4  ,in their unrelenting hatred
 the ,dominicans fastened all the       
blasphemies  current in those times on  
,averroes2 they never tired of recalling
 the  celebrated and outrageous one     
respecting the eucharist4 ,his writings 
had  first been generally made known to 
,christian ,europe by the translation   
of ,michael ,scot in the beginning of   
the thirteenth century1 but long  before
 his time the literature of the ,west1  
like that of ,asia1 was full  of these  
ideas4 ,we have seen how broadly they   
were set forth by ,erigena4  ,the       
,arabians1 from their first cultivation 
of philosophy1 had been  infected by    
them2 they were current in all the      

colleges of the three  khalifates4      
,considered not as a mode of thought1   
that will spontaneously  occur to all   
men at a certain stage of intellectual  
development1 but as  having originated  
with ,aristotle1 they continually found 
favor with men  of the highest culture4 
,we see them in ,robert ,grostete1 in   
,roger ,bacon1  and eventually in       
,spinoza4 ,averroes was not their       
inventor1 he merely  gave them clearness
 and expression4 ,among the ,jews of the
 thirteenth  century1 he had completely 
supplanted his imputed master4          
,aristotle had  passed away from their  
eyes2 his great commentator1 ,averroes1 
stood in  his place4 ,so numerous were  
the converts to the doctrine of         
emanation  in ,christendom1 that ,pope  
,alexander ,,iv4 7#abee7 found it       
necessary to  interfere4 ,by his order1 
,albertus ,magnus composed a work       
against the  ,unity of the ,intellect4  
,treating of the origin and nature of   
the  soul1 he attempted to prove that   

the theory of a separate intellect1     
enlightening man by irradiation anterior
 to the individual and surviving  the   
individual1 is a detestable error4 ,but 
the most illustrious  antagonist of the 
great commentator was ,st4 ,thomas      
,aquinas1 the  destroyer of all such    
heresies as the unity of the intellect1 
the denial  of ,providence1 the         
impossibility of creation2 the victories
 of the  ,angelic ,doctor were          
celebrated not only in the disputations 
of the  ,dominicans1 but also in the    
works of art of the painters of         
,florence  and ,pisa4 ,the indignation  
of that saint knew no bounds when       
,christians  became the disciples of an 
infidel1 who was worse than a           
,mohammedan4  ,the wrath of the         
,dominicans1 the order to which ,st4    
,thomas belonged1 was  sharpened by the 
fact that their rivals1 the             
,franciscans1 inclined to  ,averroistic 
views2 and ,dante1 who leaned to the    
,dominicans1 denounced  ,averroes as the

 author of a most dangerous system4 ,the
 theological odium  of all three        
dominant religions was put upon him2 he 
was pointed out  as the originator of   
the atrocious maxim that all religions  
are false1  although all are probably   
useful4 ,an attempt was made at the     
,council  of ,vienne to have his        
writings absolutely suppressed1 and to  
forbid all  ,christians reading them4   
,the ,dominicans1 armed with the weapons
 of  the ,inquisition1 terrified        
,christian ,europe with their           
unrelenting  persecutions4 ,they imputed
 all the infidelity of the times to the 
,arabian philosopher4 ,but he was not   
without support4 ,in ,paris and in the  
cities of ,northern ,italy the          
,franciscans sustained his views1 and   
all  ,christendom was agitated with     
these disputes4    ,under the           
inspiration of the ,dominicans1         
,averroes became to the ,italian        
painters the emblem of unbelief4 ,many  
of the ,italian towns had pictures  or  

frescoes of the ,day of ,judgment and of
 ,hell4 ,in these ,averroes not         
unfrequently appears4 ,thus1 in one at  
,pisa1 he figures with ,arius1          
,mohammed1 and ,antichrist4 ,in another 
he is represented as overthrown by  ,st4
 ,thomas4 ,he had become an essential   
element in the triumphs of the  great   
,dominican doctor4 ,he continued thus to
 be familiar to the ,italian  painters  
until the sixteenth century4 ,his       
doctrines were maintained in  the       
,university of ,padua until the         
seventeenth4    ,such is1 in brief1 the 
history of ,averroism as it invaded     
,europe from  ,spain4 ,under the        
auspices of ,frederick ,,ii41 it1 in a  
less imposing  manner1 issued from      
,sicily4 ,that sovereign bad adopted it 
fully4 ,in his  ,sicilian ,questions he 
had demanded light on the eternity of   
the world1  and on the nature of the    
soul1 and supposed he had found it in   
the  replies of ,ibn ,sabin1 an upholder
 of these doctrines4 ,but in his        

conflict with the papacy be was         
overthrown1 and with him these heresies 
were destroyed4    ,in ,upper ,italy1   
,averroism long maintained its ground4  
,it was so  fashionable in high         
,venetian society that every gentleman  
felt  constrained to profess it4 ,at    
length the ,church took decisive action 
against it4 ,the ,lateran ,council1     
,a4,d4 #aeab1 condemned the abettors of 
these detestable doctrines to be held as
 heretics and infidels4 ,as  we have    
seen1 the late ,vatican ,council has    
anathematized them4  ,notwithstanding   
that stigma1 it is to be borne in mind  
that these  opinions are held to be true
 by a majority of the human race4       
,,chapter ,,vi4         ,,conflict      
,,respecting ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the  
,,world4         ,scriptural view of the
 world3 the earth a flat surface2       
location of heaven and hell4            
,scientific view3 the earth a globe2 its
 size determined2 its       position in 
and relations to the solar system4--,the

 three       great voyages4--,columbus1 
,de ,gama1 ,magellan4--                 
,circumnavigation of the                
earth4--,determination of its           
curvature by the measurement of a degree
 and by the       pendulum4         ,the
 discoveries of ,copernicus4--,invention
 of the telescope4--       ,galileo     
brought before the ,inquisition4--,his  
punishment4--       ,victory over the   
,church4         ,attempts to ascertain 
the dimensions of the solar system4--   
,determination of the sun's parallax by 
the transits of                         
,venus4--,insignificance1 of the earth  
and man4         ,ideas respecting the  
dimensions of the universe4--,parallax  
of the stars4--,the plurality of worlds 
asserted by ,bruno4--       ,he is      
seized and murdered by the ,inquisition4
      ,i ,,have now to present the      
discussions that arose respecting the   
third  great philosophical problem--the 
nature of the world4    ,an uncritical  
observation of the aspect of ,nature    

persuades us that the  earth is an      
extended level surface which sustains   
the dome of the sky1  a firmament       
dividing the waters above from the      
waters beneath2 that the  heavenly      
bodies--the sun1 the moon1 the          
stars--pursue their way1  moving from   
east to west1 their insignificant size  
and motion round the  motionless earth  
proclaiming their inferiority4 ,of the  
various organic  forms surrounding man  
none rival him in dignity1 and hence he 
seems  justified in concluding that     
every thing has been created for his    
use--the sun for the purpose of giving  
him light by day1 the moon and  stars by
 night4    ,comparative theology shows  
us that this is the conception of       
,nature  universally adopted in the     
early phase of intellectual life4 ,it is
 the  belief of all nations in all parts
 of the world in the beginning of  their
 civilization3 geocentric1 for it makes 
the earth the centre of the  universe2  
anthropocentric1 for it makes man the   

central object of the  earth4 ,and not  
only is this the conclusion             
spontaneously come to from              
inconsiderate glimpses of the world1 it 
is also the philosophical basis  of     
various religious revelations1          
vouchsafed to man from time to time4    
,these revelations1 moreover1 declare to
 him that above the crystalline  dome of
 the sky is a region of eternal light   
and happiness--heaven--the  abode of    
,god and the angelic hosts1 perhaps also
 his own abode after  death2 and beneath
 the earth a region of eternal darkness 
and misery1  the habitation of those    
that are evil4 ,in the visible world is 
thus seen  a picture of the invisible4  
,on the basis of this view of the       
structure of the world great religious  
systems have been founded1 and hence    
powerful material interests have  been  
engaged in its support4 ,these have     
resisted1 sometimes by resorting  to    
bloodshed1 attempts that have been made 
to correct its incontestable  errors--a 

resistance grounded on the suspicion    
that the localization of  heaven and    
hell and the supreme value of man in the
 universe might be  affected4    ,that  
such attempts would be made was         
inevitable4 ,as soon as men began  to   
reason on the subject at all1 they could
 not fail to discredit the  assertion   
that the earth is an indefinite plane4  
,no one can doubt that  the sun we see  
to-day is the self-same sun that we saw 
yesterday4 ,his  reappearance each      
morning irresistibly suggests that he   
has passed on  the underside of the     
earth4 ,but this is incompatible with   
the reign of  night in those regions4   
,it presents more or less distinctly the
 idea of  the globular form of the      
earth4    ,the earth cannot extend      
indefinitely downward2 for the sun      
cannot go  through it1 nor through any  
crevice or passage in it1 ,since he     
rises and  sets in different positions  
at different seasons of the year4 ,the  
stars  also move under it in countless  

courses4 ,there must1 therefore1 be a   
clear way beneath4    ,to reconcile     
revelation with these innovating facts1 
schemes1 such  as that of ,cosmas       
,indicopleustes in his ,christian       
,topography1 were  doubtless often      
adopted4 ,to this in particular we have 
had occasion on a  former page to refer4
 ,it asserted that in the northern parts
 of the flat  earth there is an immense 
mountain1 behind which the sun passes1  
and  thus produces night4    ,at a very 
remote historical period the mechanism  
of eclipses had been  discovered4 ,those
 of the moon demonstrated that the      
shadow of the earth  is always circular4
 ,the form of the earth must therefore  
be globular4  ,a body which in all      
positions casts a circular shadow must  
itself be  spherical4 ,other            
considerations1 with which every one is 
now familiar1  could not fail to        
establish that such is her figure4      
,but the determination of the shape of  
the earth by no means deposed  her from 

her position of superiority4 ,apparently
 vastly larger than all  other things1  
it was fitting that she should be       
considered not merely as  the centre of 
the world1 but1 in truth1 as--the world4
 ,all other objects  in their aggregate 
seemed utterly unimportant in comparison
 with her4    ,though the consequences  
flowing from an admission of the        
globular figure  of the earth affected  
very profoundly existing theological    
ideas1 they  were of much less moment   
than those depending on a determination 
of her  size4 ,it needed but an         
elementary knowledge of geometry to     
perceive that  correct ideas on this    
point could be readily obtained by      
measuring a  degree on her surface4     
,probably there were early attempts to  
accomplish  this object1 the results of 
which have been lost4 ,but ,eratosthenes
  executed one between ,syene and       
,alexandria1 in ,egypt1 ,syene being    
supposed to be exactly under the tropic 
of ,cancer4 ,the two places are1        

however1 not on the same meridian1 and  
the distance between them was           
estimated1 not measured4 ,two centuries 
later1 ,posidonius made another  attempt
 between ,alexandria and ,rhodes2 the   
bright star ,canopus just  grazed the   
horizon at the latter place1 at         
,alexandria it rose #g #a_/b  degrees4  
,in this instance1 also1 since the      
direction lay across the sea1  the      
distance was estimated1 not measured4   
,finally1 as we have already  related1  
the ,khalif ,al-,mamun made two sets of 
measures1 one on the shore  of the ,red 
,sea1 the other near ,cufa1 in          
,mesopotamia4 ,the general result  of   
these various observations gave for the 
earth's diameter between  seven and     
eight thousand miles4    ,this          
approximate determination of the size of
 the earth tended to  depose her from   
her dominating position1 and gave rise  
to very serious  theological results4   
,in this the ancient investigations of  
,aristarchus  of ,samos1 one of the     

,alexandrian school1 #bhj ,b4,c41       
powerfully aided4  ,in his treatise on  
the magnitudes and distances of the sun 
and moon1 he  explains the ingenious    
though imperfect method to which he had 
resorted  for the solution of that      
problem4 ,many ages previously a        
speculation had  been brought from      
,india to ,europe by ,pythagoras4 ,it   
presented the sun  as the centre of the 
system4 ,around him the planets revolved
 in circular  orbits1 their order of    
position being ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,earth1
 ,mars1  ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 each of them
 being supposed to rotate on its axis as
 it  revolved round the sun4 ,according 
to ,cicero1 ,nicetas suggested that1  if
 it were admitted that the earth        
revolves on her axis1 the difficulty    
presented by the inconceivable velocity 
of the heavens would be avoided4        
,there is reason to believe that the    
works of ,aristarchus1 in the           
,alexandrian ,library1 were burnt at the
 time of the fire of ,caesar4 ,the  only

 treatise of his that has come down to  
us is that above mentioned1  on the size
 and distance of the sun and moon4      
,aristarchus adopted the ,pythagorean   
system as representing the actual       
facts4 ,this was the result of a        
recognition of the sun's amazing        
distance1 and therefore of his enormous 
size4 ,the heliocentric system1  thus   
regarding the sun as the central orb1   
degraded the earth to a very            
subordinate rank1 making her only one of
 a company of six revolving  bodies4    
,but this is not the only contribution  
conferred on astronomy by  ,aristarchus1
 for1 considering that the movement of  
the earth does not  sensibly affect the 
apparent position of the stars1 he      
inferred that  they are incomparably    
more distant from us than the sun4 ,he1 
therefore1  of all the ancients1 as     
,laplace remarks1 had the most correct  
ideas of  the grandeur of the universe4 
,he saw that the earth is of absolutely 
insignificant size1 when compared with  

the stellar distances4 ,he saw1  too1   
that there is nothing above us but space
 and stars4    ,but the views of        
,aristarchus1 as respects the           
emplacement of the  planetary bodies1   
were not accepted by antiquity2 the     
system proposed by  ,ptolemy1 and       
incorporated in his ,syntaxis1 was      
universally preferred4  ,the physical   
philosophy of those times was very      
imperfect--one of  ,ptolemy's objections
 to the ,pythagorean system being that1 
if the earth  were in motion1 it would  
leave the air and other light bodies    
behind it4  ,he therefore placed the    
earth in the central position1 and in   
succession  revolved round her the      
,moon1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,sun1      
,mars1 ,jupiter1  ,saturn2 beyond the   
orbit of ,saturn came the firmament of  
the fixed  stars4 ,as to the solid      
crystalline spheres1 one moving from    
east to  west1 the other from north to  
south1 these were a fancy of ,eudoxus1  
to  which ,ptolemy does not allude4     

,the ,ptolemaic system is1 therefore1   
essentially a geocentric system4 ,it    
left the earth in her position of       
superiority1 and hence gave no cause  of
 umbrage to religious opinions1         
,christian or ,mohammedan4 ,the immense 
reputation of its author1 the signal    
ability of his great work on the        
mechanism of the heavens1 sustained it  
for almost fourteen hundred  years--that
 is1 from the second to the sixteenth   
century4    ,in ,christendom1 the       
greater part of this long period was    
consumed  in disputes respecting the    
nature of ,god1 and in struggles for    
ecclesiastical power4 ,the authority of 
the ,fathers1 and the prevailing  belief
 that the ,scriptures contain the sum1  
of all knowledge1  discouraged any      
investigation of ,nature4 ,if by chance 
a passing interest  was taken in some   
astronomical question1 it was at once   
settled by  a reference to such         
authorities as the writings of          
,augustine or  ,lactantius1 not by an   

appeal to the phenomena of the heavens4 
,so  great was the preference given to  
sacred over profane learning that       
,christianity had been in existence     
fifteen hundred years1 and had not      
produced a single astronomer4    ,the   
,mohammedan nations did much better4    
,their cultivation of science  dates    
from the capture of ,alexandria1 ,a4,d4 
#fch4 ,this was only six years  after   
the death of the ,prophet4 ,in less than
 two centuries they had  not only become
 acquainted with1 but correctly         
appreciated1 the ,greek  scientific     
writers4 ,as we have already mentioned1 
by his treaty with  ,michael ,,iii41 the
 khalif ,al-,mamun had obtained a copy  
of the ,syntaxis  of ,ptolemy4 ,he had  
it forthwith translated into ,arabic4   
,it became at  once the great authority 
of ,saracen astronomy4 ,from this basis 
the  ,saracens had advanced to the      
solution of some of the most important  
scientific problems4 ,they had          
ascertained the dimensions of the earth2

  they had registered or catalogued all 
the stars visible in their  heavens1    
giving to those of the larger magnitudes
 the names they still  bear on our maps 
and globes2 they determined the true    
length of the  year1 discovered         
astronomical refraction1 invented the   
pendulum-clock1  improved the photometry
 of the stars1 ascertained the          
curvilinear  path of a ray of light     
through the air1 explained the phenomena
 of the  horizontal sun and moon1 and   
why we see those bodies before they have
  risen and after they have set2        
measured the height of the atmosphere1  
determining it to be fifty-eight miles2 
given the true theory of the  twilight1 
and of the twinkling of the stars4 ,they
 had built the first  observatory in    
,europe4 ,so accurate were they in their
 observations1 that  the ablest modern  
mathematicians have made use of their   
results4  ,thus ,laplace1 in his        
,systeme du ,monde1 adduces the         
observations of  ,al-,batagni as        

affording incontestable proof of the    
diminution of the  eccentricity of the  
earth's orbit4 ,he uses those of        
,ibn-,junis in his  discussion of the   
obliquity of the ecliptic1 and also in  
the case of the  problems of the greater
 inequalities of ,jupiter and ,saturn4  
,these represent but a part1 and indeed 
but a small part1 of the services       
rendered by the ,arabian astronomers1 in
 the solution of the problem of  the    
nature of the world4 ,meanwhile1 such   
was the benighted condition of          
,christendom1 such its deplorable       
ignorance1 that it cared nothing  about 
the matter4 ,its attention was engrossed
 by image-worship1  transubstantiation1 
the merits of the saints1 miracles1     
shrine-cures4    ,this indifference     
continued until the close of the        
fifteenth century4  ,even then there was
 no scientific inducement4 ,the inciting
 motives were  altogether of a different
 kind4 ,they originated in commercial   
rivalries1  and the question of the     

shape of the earth was finally settled  
by three  sailors1 ,columbus1 ,de ,gama1
 and1 above all1 by ,ferdinand          
,magellan4    ,the trade of ,eastern    
,asia has always been a source of       
immense wealth to  the ,western nations 
who in succession have obtained it4 ,in 
the middle  ages it had centred in      
,upper ,italy4 ,it was conducted along  
two lines--a  northern1 by way of the   
,black and ,caspian ,seas1 and          
camel-caravans  beyond--the headquarters
 of this were at ,genoa2 and a southern1
 through  the ,syrian and ,egyptian     
ports1 and by the ,arabian ,sea1 the    
headquarters  of this being at ,venice4 
,the merchants engaged in the latter    
traffic had  also made great gains in   
the transport service of the            
,crusade-wars4    ,the ,venetians had   
managed to maintain amicable relations  
with the  ,mohammedan powers of ,syria  
and ,egypt2 they were permitted to have 
consulates at ,alexandria and ,damascus1
 and1 notwithstanding the military      

commotions of which those countries had 
been the scene1 the trade was  still    
maintained in a comparatively           
flourishing condition4 ,but the         
northern or ,genoese line had been      
completely broken up by the  irruptions 
of the ,tartars and the ,turks1 and the 
military and political  disturbances of 
the countries through which it passed4  
,the ,eastern trade  of ,genoa was not  
merely in a precarious condition--it was
 on the brink  of destruction4    ,the  
circular visible horizon and its dip at 
sea1 the gradual appearance  and        
disappearance of ships in the offing1   
cannot fail to incline  intelligent     
sailors to a belief in the globular     
figure of the earth4  ,the writings of  
the ,mohammedan astronomers and         
philosophers had given  currency to that
 doctrine throughout ,western ,europe1  
but1 as might be  expected1 it was      
received with disfavor by theologians4  
,when ,genoa was  thus on the very brink
 of ruin1 it occurred to some of her    

mariners  that1 if this view were       
correct1 her affairs might be           
re-established4  ,a ship sailing through
 the straits of ,gibraltar westward1    
across the  ,atlantic1 would not fail to
 reach the ,east ,indies4 ,there were   
apparently  other great advantages4     
,heavy cargoes might be transported     
without  tedious and expensive          
land-carriage1 and without breaking     
bulk4    ,among the ,genoese sailors who
 entertained these views was            
,christopher  ,columbus4    ,he tells us
 that his attention was drawn to this   
subject by the writings  of ,averroes1  
but among his friends he numbered       
,toscanelli1 a ,florentine1  who had    
turned his attention to astronomy1 and  
had become a strong  advocate of the    
globular form4 ,in ,genoa itself        
,columbus met with but  little          
encouragement4 ,he then spent many years
 in trying to interest  different       
princes in his proposed attempt4 ,its   
irreligious tendency was  pointed out by

 the ,spanish ecclesiastics1 and        
condemned by the ,council  of           
,salamanca2 its orthodoxy was confuted  
from the ,pentateuch1 the  ,psalms1 the 
,prophecies1 the ,gospels1 the          
,epistles1 and the writings of  the     
,fathers--,st4 ,chrysostom1 ,st4        
,augustine1 ,st4 ,jerome1 ,st4 ,gregory1
 ,st4  ,basil1 ,st ,ambrose4    ,at     
length1 however1 encouraged by the      
,spanish ,queen ,isabella1 and          
substantially aided by a wealthy        
seafaring family1 the ,pinzons of       
,palos1  some of whom joined him        
personally1 he sailed on ,august #c1    
#adib1 with  three small ships1 from    
,palos1 carrying with him a letter from 
,king  ,ferdinand to the ,grand-,khan of
 ,tartary1 and also a chart1 or map1    
constructed on the basis of that of     
,toscanelli4 ,a little before  midnight1
 ,october #aa1 #adib1 he saw from the   
forecastle of his ship a  moving light  
at a distance4 ,two hours subsequently a
 signal-gun from  another of the ships  

announced that they had descried land4  
,at sunrise  ,columbus landed in the    
,new ,world4    ,on his return to       
,europe it was universally supposed that
 he had reached  the eastern parts of   
,asia1 and that therefore his voyage had
 been  theoretically successful4        
,columbus himself died in that belief4  
,but  numerous voyages which were soon  
undertaken made known the general       
contour of the ,american coast-line1 and
 the discovery of the ,great ,south     
,sea by ,balboa revealed at length the  
true facts of the case1 and the  mistake
 into which both ,toscanelli and        
,columbus had fallen1 that in a  voyage 
to the ,west the distance from ,europe  
to ,asia could not exceed  the distance 
passed over in a voyage from ,italy to  
the ,gulf of ,guinea--a  voyage that    
,columbus had repeatedly made4    ,in   
his first voyage1 at nightfall on       
,september #ac1 #adib1 being then two   
and a half degrees east of ,corvo1 one  
of the ,azores1 ,columbus observed  that

 the compass needles of the ships no    
longer pointed a little to the  east of 
north1 but were varying to the west4    
,the deviation became more  and more    
marked as the expedition advanced4 ,he  
was not the first to  detect the fact of
 variation1 but he was incontestably the
 first to  discover the line of no      
variation4 ,on the return-voyage the    
reverse  was observed2 the variation    
westward diminished until the meridian  
in  question was reached1 when the      
needles again pointed due north4        
,thence1  as the coast of ,europe was   
approached1 the variation was to the    
east4 ,columbus1 therefore1 came to the 
conclusion that the line of  no         
variation was a fixed geographical line1
 or boundary1 between  the ,eastern and 
,western ,hemispheres4 ,in the bull of  
,may1 #adic1 ,pope  ,alexander ,,vi4    
accordingly adopted this line as the    
perpetual boundary  between the         
possessions of ,spain and ,portugal1 in 
his settlement of the  disputes of those

 nations4 ,subsequently1 however1 it was
 discovered that  the line was moving   
eastward4 ,it coincided with the        
meridian of ,london  in #affb4    ,by   
the papal bull the ,portuguese          
possessions were limited to the east of 
the line of no variation4 ,information  
derived from certain ,egyptian  ,jews   
had reached that government1 that it was
 possible to sail round the  continent  
of ,africa1 there being at its extreme  
south a cape which could  be easily     
doubled4 ,an expedition of three ships  
under ,vasco de ,gama set  sail1 ,july  
#i1 #adig2 it doubled the cape on       
,november #bjth1 and reached  ,calicut1 
on the coast of ,india1 ,may #ai1 #adih4
 ,under the bull1 this  voyage to the   
,east gave to the ,portuguese the right 
to the ,india trade4    ,until the cape 
was doubled1 the course of ,de ,gama's  
ships was in a  general manner          
southward4 ,very soon1 it was noticed   
that the elevation  of the pole-star    
above the horizon was diminishing1 and1 

soon after the  equator was reached1    
that star had ceased to be visible4     
,meantime other  stars1 some of them    
forming magnificent constellations1 had 
come into  view--the stars of the       
,southern ,hemisphere4 ,all this was in 
conformity  to theoretical expectations 
founded on the admission of the globular
  form of the earth4    ,the political  
consequences that at once ensued placed 
the ,papal  ,government in a position of
 great embarrassment4 ,its traditions   
and  policy forbade it to admit any     
other than the flat figure of the earth1
  as revealed in the ,scriptures4       
,concealment of the facts was           
impossible1  sophistry was unavailing4  
,commercial prosperity now left ,venice 
as well  as ,genoa4 ,the front of       
,europe was changed4 ,maritime power had
 departed  from the ,mediterranean      
countries1 and passed to those upon the 
,atlantic  coast4    ,but the ,spanish  
,government did not submit to the       
advantage thus  gained by its commercial

 rival without an effort4 ,it listened  
to the  representations of one          
,ferdinand ,magellan1 that ,india and   
the ,spice  ,islands could be reached by
 sailing to the west1 if only a strait  
or  passage through what had now been   
recognized as the ,american ,continent  
could be discovered2 and1 if this should
 be accomplished1 ,spain1  under the    
papal bull1 would have as good a right  
to the ,india trade as  ,portugal4      
,under the command of ,magellan1 an     
expedition of five ships1  carrying two 
hundred and thirty-seven men1 was       
dispatched from ,seville1  ,august #aj1 
#aeai4    ,magellan at once struck      
boldly for the ,south ,american coast1  
hoping to  find some cleft or passage   
through the continent by which he might 
reach  the great ,south ,sea4 ,for      
seventy days he was becalmed on the     
line2 his  sailors were appalled by the 
apprehension that they had drifted into 
a  region where the winds never blew1   
and that it was impossible for them  to 

escape4 ,calms1 tempests1 mutiny1       
desertion1 could not shake his          
resolution4 ,after more than a year he  
discovered the strait which  now bears  
his name1 and1 as ,pigafetti1 an        
,italian1 who was with him1  relates1 he
 shed fears of joy when he found that it
 had pleased ,god at  length to bring   
him where he might grapple with the     
unknown dangers of  the ,south ,sea1 the
 ,great and ,pacific ,ocean4    ,driven 
by famine to eat scraps of skin and     
leather with which his  rigging was here
 and there bound1 to drink water that   
had gone putrid1  his crew dying of     
hunger and scurvy1 this man1 firm in his
 belief of the  globular figure of the  
earth1 steered steadily to the          
northwest1 and for  nearly four months  
never saw inhabited land4 ,he estimated 
that he had  sailed over the ,pacific   
not less than twelve thousand miles4 ,he
 crossed  the equator1 saw once more the
 pole-star1 and at length made land--the
  ,ladrones4 ,here he met with          

adventurers from ,sumatra4 ,among these 
islands  he was killed1 either by the   
savages or by his own men4 ,his         
lieutenant1  ,sebastian d',elcano1 now  
took command of the ship1 directing her 
course  for the ,cape of ,good ,hope1   
and encountering frightful hardships4   
,he  doubled the cape at last1 and then 
for the fourth time crossed the         
equator4 ,on ,september #g1 #aebb1 after
 a voyage of more than three years1  he 
brought his ship1 the ,san ,vittoria1 to
 anchor in the port of ,st4  ,lucar1    
near ,seville4 ,she had accomplished the
 greatest achievement in  the history of
 the human race4 ,she had               
circumnavigated the earth4    ,the ,san 
,vittoria1 sailing westward1 had come   
back to her starting-point4  ,henceforth
 the theological doctrine of the        
flatness of the earth was  irretrievably
 overthrown4    ,five years after the   
completion of the voyage of ,magellan1  
was made the  first attempt in          
,christendom to ascertain the size of   

the earth4 ,this  was by ,fernel1 a     
,french physician1 who1 having observed 
the height of  the pole at ,paris1 went 
thence northward until he came to a     
place where  the height of the pole was 
exactly one degree more than at that    
city4  ,he measured the distance between
 the two stations by the number of      
revolutions of one of the wheels of his 
carriage1 to which a proper  indicator  
bad been attached1 and came to the      
conclusion that the earth's             
circumference is about twenty-four      
thousand four hundred and eighty        
,italian miles4    ,measures executed   
more and more carefully were made in    
many countries3  by ,snell in ,holland2 
by ,norwood between ,london and ,york in
 ,england2 by  ,picard1 under the       
auspices of the ,french ,academy of     
,sciences1 in ,france4  ,picard's plan  
was to connect two points by a series of
 triangles1  and1 thus ascertaining the 
length of the arc of a meridian         
intercepted  between them1 to compare it

 with the difference of latitudes found 
from  celestial observations4 ,the      
stations were ,malvoisine in the        
vicinity  of ,paris1 and ,sourdon near  
,amiens4 ,the difference of latitudes   
was  determined by observing the        
zenith-distances1 of delta ,cassiopeia4 
,there  are two points of interest      
connected with ,picard's operation3 it  
was the  first in which instruments     
furnished with telescopes were employed2
  and its result1 as we shall shortly   
see1 was to ,newton the first           
confirmation of the theory of universal 
gravitation4    ,at this time it had    
become clear from mechanical            
considerations1 more  especially such as
 had been deduced by ,newton1 that1     
since the earth is  a rotating body1 her
 form cannot be that of a perfect       
sphere1 but  must be that of a spheroid1
 oblate or flattened at the poles4 ,it  
would  follow1 from this1 that the      
length of a degree must be greater near 
the  poles than at the equator4    ,the 

,french ,academy resolved to extend     
,picard's operation1 by prolonging  the 
measures in each direction1 and making  
the result the basis of a  more accurate
 map of ,france4 ,delays1 however1 took 
place1 and it was not  until #agah that 
the measures1 from ,dunkirk on the north
 to the southern  extremity of ,france1 
were completed4 ,a discussion arose as  
to the  interpretation of these         
measures1 some affirming that they      
indicated a  prolate1 others an oblate  
spheroid2 the former figure may be      
popularly  represented by a lemon1 the  
latter by an orange4 ,to settle this1   
the  ,french ,government1 aided by the  
,academy1 sent out two expeditions to   
measure degrees of the meridian--one    
under the equator1 the other as  far    
north as possible2 the former went to   
,peru1 the latter to ,swedish  ,lapland4
 ,very great difficulties were          
encountered by both parties4 ,the       
,lapland commission1 however1 completed 
its observations long before the        

,peruvian1 which consumed not less than 
nine years4 ,the results of the         
measures thus obtained confirmed the    
theoretical expectation of the  oblate  
form4 ,since that time many extensive   
and exact repetitions of the            
observation have been made1 among which 
may be mentioned those of the  ,english 
in ,england and in ,india1 and          
particularly that of the ,french  on the
 occasion of the introduction of the    
metric system of weights  and measures4 
,it was begun by ,delambre and ,mechain1
 from ,dunkirk to  ,barcelona1 and      
thence extended1 by ,biot and ,arago1 to
 the island  of ,formentera near        
,minorea4 ,its length was nearly twelve 
and a half  degrees4    ,besides this   
method of direct measurement1 the figure
 of the earth  may be determined from   
the observed number of oscillations made
 by a  pendulum of invariable length in 
different latitudes4 ,these1 though they
  confirm the foregoing results1 give a 
somewhat greater ellipticity  to the    

earth than that found by the measurement
 of degrees4 ,pendulums  vibrate more   
slowly the nearer they are to the       
equator4 ,it follows1  therefore1 that  
they are there farther from the centre  
of the earth4    ,from the most reliable
 measures that have been made1 the      
dimensions of  the earth may be thus    
stated3        ,greater or equatorial   
diameter44444444444444#g1ibe miles4     
,less or polar                          
diameter4444444444444444444444#g1hii    
,difference or polar                    
compression4444444444444   #bf          
,such was the result of the discussion  
respecting the figure and size  of the  
earth4 ,while it was yet undetermined1  
another controversy arose1  fraught with
 even more serious consequences4 ,this  
was the conflict  respecting the earth's
 position with regard to the sun and the
 planetary  bodies4    ,copernicus1 a   
,prussian1 about the year #aejg1 had    
completed a book ,on  the ,revolutions  
of the ,heavenly ,bodies4 ,he had       

journeyed to ,italy  in his youth1 had  
devoted his attention to astronomy1 and 
had taught  mathematics at ,rome4 ,from 
a profound study of the ,ptolemaic and  
,pythagorean systems1 he had come to a  
conclusion in favor of the latter1  the 
object of his book being to sustain it4 
,aware that his doctrines  were totally 
opposed to revealed truth1 and          
foreseeing that they would  bring upon  
him the punishments of the ,church1 he  
expressed himself in  a cautious and    
apologetic manner1 saying that he had   
only taken the  liberty of trying       
whether1 on the supposition of the      
earth's motion1 it  was possible to find
 better explanations than the ancient   
ones of the  revolutions of the         
celestial orbs2 that in doing this he   
had only  taken the privilege that had  
been allowed to others1 of feigning what
  hypothesis they chose4 ,the preface   
was addressed to ,pope ,paul ,,iii4     
,full of misgivings as to what might be 
the result1 he refrained from           

publishing his book for thirty-six      
years1 thinking that perhaps it  might  
be better to follow the examples of the 
,pythagoreans and others1  who delivered
 their doctrine only by tradition and to
 friends4 ,at the  entreaty of ,cardinal
 ,schomberg he at length published it in
 #aedc4 ,a copy  of it was brought to   
him on his death-bed4 ,its fate was such
 as he had  anticipated4 ,the           
,inquisition condemned it as heretical4 
,in their decree1  prohibiting it1 the  
,congregation of the ,index denounced   
his system  as that false ,pythagorean  
doctrine utterly contrary to the ,holy  
,scriptures4    ,astronomers justly     
affirm that the book of ,copernicus1 ,de
  ,revolutionibus1 changed the face of  
their science4 ,it incontestably        
established the heliocentric theory4 ,it
 showed that the distance of the  fixed 
stars is infinitely great1 and that the 
earth is a mere point in  the heavens4  
,anticipating ,newton1 ,copernicus      
imputed gravity to the sun1  the moon1  

and heavenly bodies1 but he was led     
astray by assuming that  the celestial  
motions must be circular4 ,observations 
on the orbit of  ,mars1 and his         
different diameters at different times1 
had led ,copernicus  to his theory4     
,in thus denouncing the ,copernican     
system as being in contradiction to     
revelation1 the ecclesiastical          
authorities were doubtless deeply moved 
by inferential considerations4 ,to      
dethrone the earth from her central     
dominating position1 to give her many   
equals and not a few superiors1  seemed 
to diminish her claims upon the ,divine 
regard4 ,if each of the  countless      
myriads of stars was a sun1 surrounded  
by revolving globes1  peopled with      
responsible beings like ourselves1 if we
 had fallen so  easily and had been     
redeemed at so stupendous a price as the
 death of  the ,son of ,god1 how was it 
with them8 ,of them were there none who 
had  fallen or might fall like us8      
,where1 then1 for them could a ,savior  

be  found8    ,during the year #afjh one
 ,lippershey1 a ,hollander1 discovered  
that1 by  looking through two glass     
lenses1 combined in a certain manner    
together1  distant objects were         
magnified and rendered very plain4 ,he  
had invented  the telescope4 ,in the    
following year ,galileo1 a ,florentine1 
greatly  distinguished by his           
mathematical and scientific writings1   
hearing  of the circumstance1 but       
without knowing the particulars of the  
construction1 invented a form of the    
instrument for himself4 ,improving  it  
gradually1 he succeeded in making one   
that could magnify thirty  times4       
,examining the moon1 he found that she  
had valleys like those of  the earth1   
and mountains casting shadows4 ,it had  
been said in the old  times that in the 
,pleiades there were formerly seven     
stars1 but a legend  related that one of
 them had mysteriously disappeared4 ,on 
turning his  telescope toward them1     
,galileo found that he could easily     

count not  fewer than forty4 ,in        
whatever direction he looked1 he        
discovered stars  that were totally     
invisible to the naked eye4    ,on the  
night of ,january #g1 #afaj1 he         
perceived three small stars in  a       
straight line1 adjacent to the planet   
,jupiter1 and1 a few evenings  later1 a 
fourth4 ,he found that these were       
revolving in orbits round the  body of  
the planet1 and1 with transport1        
recognized that they presented  a       
miniature representation of the         
,copernican system4    ,the announcement
 of these wonders at once attracted     
universal attention4  ,the spiritual    
authorities were not slow to detect     
their tendency1 as  endangering the     
doctrine that the universe was made for 
man4 ,in the  creation of myriads of    
stars1 hitherto invisible1 there must   
surely have  been some other motive than
 that of illuminating the nights for    
him4    ,it had been objected to the    
,copernican theory that1 if the planets 

,mercury and ,venus move round the sun  
in orbits interior to that of the       
earth1 they ought to show phases like   
those of the moon2 and that in  the case
 of ,venus1 which is so brilliant and   
conspicuous1 these phases  should be    
very obvious4 ,copernicus himself had   
admitted the force of  the objection1   
and had vainly tried to find an         
explanation4 ,galileo1 on  turning his  
telescope to the planet1 discovered that
 the expected phases  actually exist2   
now she was a crescent1 then half-moon1 
then gibbous1  then full4 ,previously to
 ,copernicus1 it was supposed that the  
planets  shine by their own light1 but  
the phases of ,venus and ,mars proved   
that  their light is reflected4 ,the    
,aristotelian notion1 that celestial    
differ  from terrestrial bodies in being
 incorruptible1 received a rude shock   
from the discoveries of ,galileo1 that  
there are mountains and valleys in  the 
moon like those of the earth1 that the  
sun is not perfect1 but has  spots on   

his face1 and that he turns on his axis 
instead of being in a  state of majestic
 rest4 ,the apparition of new stars had 
already thrown  serious doubts on this  
theory of incorruptibility4    ,these   
and many other beautiful telescopic     
discoveries tended to the  establishment
 of the truth of the ,copernican theory 
and gave unbounded  alarm to the        
,church4 ,by the low and ignorant       
ecclesiastics they were  denounced as   
deceptions or frauds4 ,some affirmed    
that the telescope  might be relied on  
well enough for terrestrial objects1 but
 with the  heavenly bodies it was       
altogether a different affair4 ,others  
declared  that its invention was a mere 
application of ,aristotle's remark that 
stars could be seen in the daytime from 
the bottom of a deep well4  ,galileo was
 accused of imposture1 heresy1          
blasphemy1 atheism4 ,with a  view of    
defending himself1 he addressed a letter
 to the ,abbe ,castelli1  suggesting    
that the ,scriptures were never intended

 to be a scientific  authority1 but only
 a moral guide4 ,this made matters      
worse4 ,he was  summoned before the     
,holy ,inquisition1 under an accusation 
of having  taught that the earth moves  
round the sun1 a doctrine utterly       
contrary  to the ,scriptures4 ,he was   
ordered to renounce that heresy1 on pain
 of  being imprisoned4 ,he was directed 
to desist from teaching and advocating  
the ,copernican theory1 and pledge      
himself that he would neither publish   
nor defend it for the future4 ,knowing  
well that ,truth has no need of         
martyrs1 he assented to the required    
recantation1 and gave the promise       
demanded4    ,for sixteen years the     
,church had rest4 ,but in #afcb ,galileo
 ventured  on the publication of his    
work entitled ,the ,system of the       
,world1 its  object being the           
vindication of the ,copernican doctrine4
 ,he was again  summoned before the     
,inquisition at ,rome1 accused of having
 asserted  that the earth moves round   

the sun4 ,he was declared to have       
brought  upon himself the penalties of  
heresy4 ,on his knees1 with his hand on 
the  ,bible1 he was compelled to abjure 
and curse the doctrine of the movement  
of the earth4 ,what a spectacle6 ,this  
venerable man1 the most illustrious  of 
his age1 forced by the threat of death  
to deny facts which his judges  as well 
as himself knew to be true6 ,he was then
 committed to prison1  treated with     
remorseless severity during the         
remaining ten years of  his life1 and   
was denied burial in consecrated ground4
 ,must not that  be false which requires
 for its support so much imposture1 so  
much  barbarity8 ,the opinions thus     
defended by the ,inquisition are now    
objects  of derision to the whole       
civilized world4    ,one of the greatest
 of modern mathematicians1 referring to 
this subject1  says that the point here 
contested was one which is for mankind  
of the  highest interest1 because of the
 rank it assigns to the globe that we   

inhabit4 ,if the earth be immovable in  
the midst of the universe1 man has  a   
right to regard himself as the principal
 object of the care of ,nature4  ,but if
 the earth be only one of the planets   
revolving round the sun1 an             
insignificant body in the solar system1 
she will disappear entirely  in the     
immensity of the heavens1 in which this 
system1 vast as it may  appear to us1 is
 nothing but an insensible point4       
,the triumphant establishment of the    
,copernican doctrine dates from the     
invention of the telescope4 ,soon there 
was not to be found in all ,europe  an  
astronomer who had not accepted the     
heliocentric theory with its  essential 
postulate1 the double motion of the     
earth--movement of  rotation on her     
axis1 and a movement of revolution round
 the sun4  ,if additional proof of the  
latter were needed1 it was furnished by 
,bradley's great discovery of the       
aberration of the fixed stars1 an       
aberration depending partly on the      

progressive motion of light1 and  partly
 on the revolution of the earth4        
,bradley's discovery ranked  in         
importance with that of the precession  
of the equinoxes4 ,roemer's  discovery  
of the progressive motion of light1     
though denounced by  ,fontenelle as a   
seductive error1 and not admitted by    
,cassini1 at length  forced its way to  
universal acceptance4      ,next it was 
necessary to obtain correct ideas of the
 dimensions of the  solar system1 or1   
putting the problem under a more limited
 form1 to  determine the distance of the
 earth from the sun4    ,in the time of 
,copernicus it was supposed that the    
sun's distance could  not exceed five   
million miles1 and indeed there were    
many who thought  that estimate very    
extravagant4 ,from a review of the      
observations of  ,tycho ,brahe1 ,kepler1
 however1 concluded that the error was  
actually in  the opposite direction1 and
 that the estimate must be raised to at 
least thirteen million4 ,in #afgj       

,cassini showed that these numbers were 
altogether inconsistent with the facts1 
and gave as his conclusion  eighty-five 
million4    ,the transit of ,venus over 
the face of the sun1 ,june #c1 #agfi1   
had been  foreseen1 and its great value 
in the solution of this fundamental     
problem in astronomy appreciated4 ,with 
commendable alacrity various            
governments contributed their assistance
 in making observations1 so that  in    
,europe there were fifty stations1 in   
,asia six1 in ,america seventeen4  ,it  
was for this purpose that the ,english  
,government dispatched ,captain  ,cook  
on his celebrated first voyage4 ,he went
 to ,otaheite4 ,his voyage  was crowned 
with success4 ,the sun rose without a   
cloud1 and the sky  continued equally   
clear throughout the day4 ,the transit  
at ,cook's  station lasted from about   
half-past nine in the morning until     
about  half-past three in the afternoon1
 and all the observations were made in  
a satisfactory manner4    ,but1 on the  

discussion of the observations made at  
the different  stations1 it was found   
that there was not the accordance that  
could have  been desired--the result    
varying from eighty-eight to one hundred
 and  nine million4 ,the celebrated     
mathematician1 ,encke1 therefore        
reviewed  them in #ahbb-'bd1 and came to
 the conclusion that the sun's          
horizontal  parallax1 that is1 the angle
 under which the semi-diameter of the   
earth  is seen from the sun1 is #h      
#egf_/ajjj seconds2 this gave as the    
distance  #ie1bgd1jjj miles4            
,subsequently the observations were     
reconsidered  by ,hansen1 who gave as   
their result #ia1fei1jjj miles4 ,still  
later1  ,leverrier made it #ia1gei1jjj4 
,airy and ,stone1 by another method1    
made  it #ia1djj1jjj2 ,stone alone1 by a
 revision of the old observations1      
#ia1gcj1jjj2 and finally1 ,foucault and 
,fizeau1 from physical experiments1     
determining the velocity of light1 and  
therefore in their nature  altogether   

differing from transit observations1    
#ia1djj1jjj4 ,until the  results of the 
transit of next year 7#ahgd7 are        
ascertained1 it must  therefore be      
admitted that the distance of the earth 
from the sun is  somewhat less than     
ninety-two million miles4    ,this      
distance once determined1 the dimensions
 of the solar system may  be ascertained
 with ease and precision4 ,it is enough 
to mention that  the distance of        
,neptune from the sun1 the most remote  
of the planets at  present known1 is    
about thirty times that of the earth4   
,by the aid of these numbers we may     
begin to gain a just appreciation of    
the doctrine of the human destiny of the
 universe--the doctrine that all  things
 were made for man4 ,seen from the sun1 
the earth dwindles away to  a mere      
speck1 a mere dust-mote glistening in   
his beams4 ,if the reader  wishes a more
 precise valuation1 let him hold a page 
of this book a  couple of feet from his 
eye2 then let him consider one of its   

dots or  full stops2 that dot is several
 hundred times larger in surface than is
  the earth as seen from the sun6    ,of
 what consequence1 then1 can such an    
almost imperceptible particle be8  ,one 
might think that it could be removed or 
even annihilated1 and yet  never be     
missed4 ,of what consequence is one of  
those human monads1 of  whom more than a
 thousand millions swarm on the surface 
of this all  but invisible speck1 and of
 a million of whom scarcely one will    
leave  a trace that he has ever existed8
 ,of what consequence is man1 his       
pleasures or his pains8    ,among the   
arguments brought forward against the   
,copernican system at the  time of its  
promulgation1 was one by the great      
,danish astronomer1 ,tycho  ,brahe1     
originally urged by ,aristarchus against
 the ,pythagorean system1  to the effect
 that1 if1 as was alleged1 the earth    
moves round the sun1  there ought to be 
a change of the direction in which the  
fixed stars  appear4 ,at one time we are

 nearer to a particular region of the   
heavens  by a distance equal to the     
whole diameter of the earth's orbit than
 we  were six months previously1 and    
hence there ought to be a change in  the
 relative position of the stars2 they   
should seem to separate as we  approach 
them1 and to close together as we recede
 from them2 or1 to use  the astronomical
 expression1 these stars should have a  
yearly parallax4    ,the parallax of a  
star is the angle contained between two 
lines drawn  from it--one to the sun1   
the other to the earth4    ,at that     
time1 the earth's distance from the sun 
was greatly  under-estimated4 ,had it   
been known1 as it is now1 that that     
distance  exceeds ninety million miles1 
or that the diameter of the orbit is    
more  than one hundred and eighty       
million1 that argument would doubtless  
have  had very great weight4    ,in     
reply to ,tycho1 it was said that1 since
 the parallax of a body  diminishes as  
its distance increases1 a star may be so

 far off that its  parallax may be      
imperceptible4 ,this answer proved to be
 correct4 ,the  detection of the        
parallax of the stars depended on the   
improvement of  instruments for the     
measurement of angles4    ,the parallax 
of alpha ,centauri1 a fine double star  
of the ,southern  ,hemisphere1 at       
present considered to be the nearest of 
the fixed stars1  was first determined  
by ,henderson and ,maclear at the ,cape 
of ,good ,hope  in #ahcb-'cc4 ,it is    
about nine-tenths of a second4 ,hence   
this star is  almost two hundred and    
thirty thousand times as far from us as 
the sun4  ,seen from it1 if the sun were
 even large enough to fill the whole    
orbit  of the earth1 or one hundred and 
eighty million miles in diameter1  he   
would be a mere point4 ,with its        
companion1 it revolves round their      
common centre of gravity in eighty-one  
years1 and hence it would seem  that    
their conjoint mass is less than that of
 the sun4    ,the star #fa ,cygni is of 

the sixth magnitude4 ,its parallax was  
first  found by ,bessel in #ahch1 and is
 about one-third of a second4 ,the      
distance from us is1 therefore1 much    
more than five hundred thousand  times  
that of the sun4 ,with its companion1 it
 revolves round their  common centre of 
gravity in five hundred and twenty      
years4 ,their  conjoint weight is about 
one-third that of the sun4    ,there is 
reason to believe that the great star   
,sirius1 the brightest  in the heavens1 
is about six times as far off as alpha  
,centauri4 ,his  probable diameter is   
twelve million miles1 and the light he  
emits two  hundred times more brilliant 
than that of the sun4 ,yet1 even through
 the  telescope1 he has no measurable   
diameter2 he looks merely like a very   
bright spark4    ,the stars1 then1      
differ not merely in visible magnitude1 
but also in  actual size4 ,as the       
spectroscope shows1 they differ greatly 
in chemical  and physical constitution4 
,that instrument is also revealing to us

 the  duration of the life of a star1   
through changes in the refrangibility of
  the emitted light4 ,though1 as we have
 seen1 the nearest to us is at  an      
enormous and all but immeasurable       
distance1 this is but the first         
step--there are others the rays of which
 have taken thousands1 perhaps          
millions1 of years to reach us6 ,the    
limits of our own system are far  beyond
 the range of our greatest telescopes2  
what1 then1 shall we say of  other      
systems beyond8 ,worlds are scattered   
like dust in the abysses in  space4     
,have these gigantic bodies--myriads of 
which are placed at so vast a  distance 
that our unassisted eyes cannot perceive
 them--have these no  other purpose than
 that assigned by theologians1 to give  
light to us8  ,does not their enormous  
size demonstrate that1 as they are      
centres of  force1 so they must be      
centres of motion--suns for other       
systems of  worlds8    ,while yet these 
facts were very imperfectly             

known--indeed1 were rather  speculations
 than facts--,giordano ,bruno1 an       
,italian1 born seven years  after the   
death of ,copernicus1 published a work  
on the ,infinity of  the ,universe and  
of ,worlds2 he was also the author of   
,evening  ,conversations on             
,ash-,wednesday1 an apology for the     
,copernican system1  and of ,the ,one   
,sole ,cause of ,things4 ,to these may  
be added an allegory  published in      
#aehd1 ,the ,expulsion of the           
,triumphant ,beast4 ,he had also        
collected1 for the use of future        
astronomers1 all the observations he    
could find respecting the new star that 
suddenly appeared in ,cassiopeia1       
,a4,d4 #aegb1 and increased in          
brilliancy1 until it surpassed all the  
other  stars4 ,it could be plainly seen 
in the daytime4 ,on a sudden1 ,november 
#aath1 it was as bright as ,venus at her
 brightest4 ,in the following ,march  it
 was of the first magnitude4 ,it        
exhibited various hues of color in a    

few months1 and disappeared in ,march1  
#aegd4    ,the star that suddenly       
appeared in ,serpentarius1 in ,kepler's 
time  7#afjd71 was at first brighter    
than ,venus4 ,it lasted more than a     
year1  and1 passing through various     
tints of purple1 yellow1 red1 became    
extinguished4    ,originally1 ,bruno was
 intended for the ,church4 ,he had      
become a  ,dominican1 but was led into  
doubt by his meditations on the subjects
 of  transubstantiation and the         
immaculate conception4 ,not caring to   
conceal his opinions1 he soon fell under
 the censure of the spiritual           
authorities1 and found it necessary to  
seek refuge successively in             
,switzerland1 ,france1 ,england1        
,germany4 ,the cold-scented             
sleuth-hounds of  the ,inquisition      
followed his track remorselessly1 and   
eventually hunted  him back to ,italy4  
,he was arrested in ,venice1 and        
confined in the ,piombi  for six years1 
without books1 or paper1 or friends4    

,in ,england he had given lectures on   
the plurality of worlds1 and in that    
country had written1 in ,italian1 his   
most important works4 ,it added  not a  
little to the exasperation against him1 
that he was perpetually  declaiming     
against the insincerity2 the impostures1
 of his  persecutors--that wherever he  
went he found skepticism varnished over 
and concealed by hypocrisy2 and that it 
was not against the belief of  men1 but 
against their pretended belief1 that he 
was fighting2 that he  was struggling   
with an orthodoxy that had neither      
morality nor faith4    ,in his ,evening 
,conversations he had insisted that the 
,scriptures were  never intended to     
teach science1 but morals only2 and that
 they cannot  be received as of any     
authority on astronomical and physical  
subjects4  ,especially must we reject   
the view they reveal to us of the       
constitution  of the world1 that the    
earth is a flat surface1 supported on   
pillars2  that the sky is a             

firmament--the floor of heaven4 ,on the 
contrary1 we  must believe that the     
universe is infinite1 and that it is    
filled with  self-luminous and opaque   
worlds1 many of them inhabited2 that    
there  is nothing above and around us   
but space and stars4 ,his meditations   
on these subjects had brought him to the
 conclusion that the views of  ,averroes
 are not far from the truth--that there 
is an ,intellect which  animates the    
universe1 and of this ,intellect the    
visible world is only  an emanation or  
manifestation1 originated and sustained 
by force derived  from it1 and1 were    
that force withdrawn1 all things would  
disappear4  ,this ever-present1         
all-pervading ,intellect is ,god1 who   
lives in all  things1 even such as seem 
not to live2 that every thing is ready  
to  become organized1 to burst into     
life4 ,god is1 therefore1 the ,one ,sole
  ,cause of ,things1 the ,all in ,all4  
,bruno may hence be considered among    
philosophical writers as  intermediate  

between ,averroes and ,spinoza4 ,the    
latter held that ,god and  the ,universe
 are the same1 that all events happen by
 an immutable law  of ,nature1 by an    
unconquerable necessity2 that ,god is   
the ,universe1  producing a series of   
necessary movements or acts1 in         
consequence of  intrinsic1 unchangeable1
 and irresistible energy4    ,on the    
demand of the spiritual authorities1    
,bruno was removed from  ,venice to     
,rome1 and confined in the prison of the
 ,inquisition1 accused  not only of     
being a heretic1 but also a heresiarch1 
who had written  things unseemly        
concerning religion2 the special charge 
against him  being that he had taught   
the plurality of worlds1 a doctrine     
repugnant  to the whole tenor of        
,scripture and inimical to revealed     
religion1  especially as regards the    
plan of salvation4 ,after an            
imprisonment of  two years he was       
brought before his judges1 declared     
guilty of the  acts alleged1            

excommunicated1 and1 on his nobly       
refusing to recant1 was  delivered over 
to the secular authorities to be        
punished as mercifully  as possible1 and
 without the shedding of his blood1 the 
horrible  formula for burning a prisoner
 at the stake4 ,knowing well that though
  his tormentors might destroy his body1
 his thoughts would still live  among   
men1 he said to his judges1 ,perhaps it 
is with greater fear  that you pass the 
sentence upon me than ,i receive it4    
,the sentence was  carried into effect1 
and he was burnt at ,rome1 ,february    
#afth1 ,a4,d4 #afjj4    ,no one can     
recall without sentiments of pity the   
sufferings of those  countless martyrs1 
who first by one party1 and then by     
another1 have  been brought for their   
religious opinions to the stake4 ,but   
each of  these had in his supreme moment
 a powerful and unfailing support4 ,the 
passage from this life to the next1     
though through a hard trial1 was the    
passage from a transient trouble to     

eternal happiness1 an escape from  the  
cruelty of earth to the charity of      
heaven4 ,on his way through the  dark   
valley the martyr believed that there   
was an invisible hand that  would lead  
him1 a friend that would guide him all  
the more gently and  firmly because of  
the terrors of the flames4 ,for ,bruno  
there was no  such support4 ,the        
philosophical opinions1 for the sake of 
which he  surrendered his life1 could   
give him no consolation4 ,he must fight 
the  last fight alone4 ,is there not    
something very grand in the attitude of 
this solitary man1 something which human
 nature cannot help admiring1 as  he    
stands in the gloomy hall before his    
inexorable judges8 ,no accuser1  no     
witness1 no advocate is present1 but the
 familiars of the ,holy  ,office1 clad  
in black1 are stealthily moving about4  
,the tormentors and  the rack are in the
 vaults below4 ,he is simply told that  
he has brought  upon himself strong     
suspicions of heresy1 since he has said 

that there  are other worlds than ours4 
,he is asked if he will recant and      
abjure  his error4 ,he cannot and will  
not deny what he knows to be true1 and  
perhaps--for he had often done so       
before--he tells his judges that they1  
too1 in their hearts are of the same    
belief4 ,what a contrast between  this  
scene of manly honor1 of unshaken       
firmness1 of inflexible adherence  to   
the truth1 and that other scene which   
took place more than fifteen  centuries 
previously by the fireside in the hall  
of ,caiaphas the  high-priest1 when the 
cock crew1 and the ,lord turned and     
looked upon  ,peter 7,luke xxii4 #fa76  
,and yet it is upon ,peter that the     
,church has  grounded her right to act  
as she did to ,bruno4 ,but perhaps the  
day  approaches when posterity will     
offer an expiation for this great       
ecclesiastical crime1 and a statue of   
,bruno be unveiled under the dome  of   
,st4 ,peter's at ,rome4        ,,chapter
 ,,vii4         ,,controversy           

,,respecting ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,the     
,,earth4         ,scriptural view that  
the ,earth is only six thousand years   
old1 and that it was made in a          
week4--,patristic chronology            
founded on the ages of the              
patriarchs4--,difficulties arising      
from different estimates in different   
versions of the ,bible4         ,legend 
of the ,deluge4--,the repeopling4--,the 
,tower of ,babel2       the confusion of
 tongues4--,the primitive language4     
,discovery by ,cassini of the oblateness
 of the planet                          
,jupiter4--,discovery by ,newton of the 
oblateness of the                       
,earth4--,deduction that she has been   
modeled by mechanical                   
causes4--,confirmation of this by       
geological discoveries       respecting 
aqueous rocks2 corroboration by organic 
remains4--       ,the necessity of      
admitting enormously long periods of    
time4--,displacement of the doctrine of 
,creation by that of                    

,evolution--,discoveries respecting the 
,antiquity of ,man4         ,the        
time-scale and space-scale of the world 
are infinite4--       ,moderation with  
which the discussion of the ,age of the 
,world       has been conducted4        
,,the true position of the earth in the 
universe was established only  after a  
long and severe conflict4 ,the ,church  
used whatever power she  had1 even to   
the infliction of death1 for sustaining 
her ideas4 ,but  it was in vain4 ,the   
evidence in behalf of the ,copernican   
theory became  irresistible4 ,it was at 
length universally admitted that the sun
 is the  central1 the ruling body of our
 system2 the earth only one1 and by no  
means the largest1 of a family of       
encircling planets4 ,taught by the      
issue of that dispute1 when the question
 of the age of the world  presented     
itself for consideration1 the ,church   
did not exhibit the  active resistance  
she had displayed on the former         
occasion4 ,for1  though her traditions  

were again put in jeopardy1 they were   
not1 in her  judgment1 so vitally       
assailed4 ,to dethrone the ,earth from  
her dominating  position was1 so the    
spiritual authorities declared1 to      
undermine the  very foundation of       
revealed truth2 but discussions         
respecting the date  of creation might  
within certain limits be permitted4     
,those limits were1  however1 very      
quickly overpassed1 and thus the        
controversy became as  dangerous as the 
former one had been4    ,it was not     
possible to adopt the advice given by   
,plato in his ,timaeus1  when treating  
of this subject--the origin of the      
universe3 ,it is proper  that both ,i   
who speak and you who judge should      
remember that we are but  men1 and      
therefore1 receiving the probable       
mythological tradition1 it  is meet that
 we inquire no further into it4 ,since  
the time of ,st4  ,augustine the        
,scriptures had been made the great and 
final authority in  all matters of      

science1 and theologians had deduced    
from them schemes of  chronology and    
cosmogony which had proved to be        
stumbling-blocks to the  advance of real
 knowledge4    ,it is not necessary for 
us to do more than to allude to some of 
the  leading features of these schemes2 
their peculiarities will be easily      
discerned with sufficient clearness4    
,thus1 from the six days of creation    
and the ,sabbath-day of rest1 since we  
are told that a day is with the  ,lord  
as a thousand years1 it was inferred    
that the duration of the  world will be 
through six thousand years of suffering1
 and an additional  thousand1 a         
millennium of rest4 ,it was generally   
admitted that the  earth was about four 
thousand years old at the birth of      
,christ1 but1 so  careless had ,europe  
been in the study of its annals1 that   
not ,until  ,a4,d4 #fbg had it a proper 
chronology of its own4 ,a ,roman abbot1 
,dionysius  ,exiguus1 or ,dennis the    
,less1 then fixed the vulgar era1 and   

gave ,europe  its present ,christian    
chronology4    ,the method followed in  
obtaining the earliest chronological    
dates was  by computations1 mainly      
founded on the lives of the patriarchs4 
,much  difficulty was encountered in    
reconciling numerical discrepancies4    
,even  if1 as was taken for granted in  
those uncritical ages1 ,moses was the   
author of the books imputed to him1 due 
weight was not given to the fact  that  
he related events1 many of which took   
place more than two thousand  years     
before he was born4 ,it scarcely seemed 
necessary to regard the  ,pentateuch as 
of plenary inspiration1 since no means  
had been provided  to perpetuate its    
correctness4 ,the different copies which
 had escaped  the chances of time varied
 very much2 thus the ,samaritan made    
thirteen  hundred and seven years from  
the ,creation to the ,deluge1 the       
,hebrew  sixteen hundred and fifty-six1 
the ,septuagint twenty-two hundred and  
sixty-three4 ,the ,septuagint counted   

fifteen hundred years more from the     
,creation to ,abraham than the ,hebrew4 
,in general1 however1 there was  an     
inclination to the supposition that the 
,deluge took place about two  thousand  
years after the ,creation1 and1 after   
another interval of two  thousand years1
 ,christ was born4 ,persons who had     
given much attention  to the subject    
affirmed that there were not less than  
one hundred  and thirty-two different   
opinions as to the year in which the    
,messiah  appeared1 and hence they      
declared that it was inexpedient to     
press for  acceptance the ,scriptural   
numbers too closely1 since it was plain1
  from the great differences in         
different copies1 that there had been no
  providential intervention to          
perpetuate a correct reading1 nor was   
there  any mark by which men could be   
guided to the only authentic version4   
,even those held in the highest esteem  
contained undeniable errors4 ,thus  the 
,septuagint made ,methuselah live until 

after the ,deluge4    ,it was thought   
that1 in the antediluvian world1 the    
year consisted  of three hundred and    
sixty days4 ,some even affirmed that    
this was  the origin of the division of 
the circle into three hundred and sixty 
degrees4 ,at the time of the ,deluge1 so
 many theologians declared1 the  motion 
of the sun was altered1 and the year    
became five days and six  hours longer4 
,there was a prevalent opinion that that
 stupendous event  occurred on ,november
 #b;d1 in the year of the world #afef4  
,dr4 ,whiston1  however1 disposed to    
greater precision1 inclined to postpone 
it to  ,november #bhth4 ,some thought   
that the rainbow was not seen until     
after  the flood2 others1 apparently    
with better reason1 inferred that it was
  then first established as a sign4 ,on 
coming forth from the ark1 men  received
 permission to use flesh as food1 the   
antediluvians having been  herbivorous6 
,it would seem that the ,deluge had not 
occasioned any great  geographical      

changes1 for ,noah1 relying on his      
antediluvian knowledge1  proceeded to   
divide the earth among his three sons1  
giving to ,japhet  ,europe1 to ,shem    
,asia1 to ,ham ,africa4 ,no provision   
was made for ,america1  as he did not   
know of its existence4 ,these           
patriarchs1 undeterred by the  terrible 
solitudes to which they were going1 by  
the undrained swamps  and untracked     
forests1 journeyed to their allotted    
possessions1 and  commenced the         
settlement of the continents4    ,in    
seventy years the ,asiatic family had   
increased to several hundred4  ,they had
 found their way to the plains of       
,mesopotamia1 and there1 for  some      
motive that we cannot divine1 began     
building a tower whose top  might reach 
to heaven4 ,eusebius informs us that the
 work continued for  forty years4 ,they 
did not abandon it until a miraculous   
confusion of  their language took place 
and dispersed them all over the earth4  
,st4  ,ambrose shows that this confusion

 could not have been brought about by   
men4 ,origen believes that not even the 
angels accomplished it4    ,the         
confusion of tongues has given rise to  
many curious speculations  among divines
 as to the primitive speech of man4     
,some have thought  that the language of
 ,adam consisted altogether of nouns1   
that they were  monosyllables1 and that 
the confusion was occasioned by the     
introduction  of polysyllables4 ,but    
these learned men must surely have      
overlooked the  numerous conversations  
reported in ,genesis1 such as those     
between the  ,almighty and ,adam1 the   
serpent and ,eve1 etc4 ,in these all the
 various  parts of speech occur4 ,there 
was1 however1 a coincidence of opinion  
that the primitive language was ,hebrew4
 ,on the general principles of          
patristicism1 it was fitting that this  
should be the case4    ,the ,greek      
,fathers computed that1 at the time of  
the dispersion1  seventy-two nations    
were formed1 and in this conclusion ,st4

 ,augustine  coincides4 ,but            
difficulties seem to have been          
recognized in these  computations2 thus 
the learned ,dr4 ,shuckford1 who has    
treated very  elaborately on all the    
foregoing points in his excellent work  
,on the  ,sacred and ,profane ,history  
of the ,world connected1 demonstrates   
that  there could not have been more    
than twenty-one or twenty-two men1      
women1  and children1 in each of those  
kingdoms4    ,a very vital point in this
 system of chronological computation1   
based  upon the ages of the patriarchs1 
was the great length of life to which   
those worthies attained4 ,it was        
generally supposed that before the      
,flood  there was a perpetual equinox1  
and no vicissitudes in ,nature4 ,after  
that event the standard of life         
diminished one-half1 and in the time of 
the ,psalmist it had sunk to seventy    
years1 at which it still remains4       
,austerities of climate were affirmed to
 have arisen through the shifting  of   

the earth's axis at the ,flood1 and to  
this ill effect were added the  noxious 
influences of that universal            
catastrophe1 which1 converting the      
surface of the earth into a vast swamp1 
gave rise to fermentations of  the blood
 and a weakening of the fibres4    ,with
 a view of avoiding difficulties arising
 from the extraordinary  length of the  
patriarchal lives1 certain divines      
suggested that the  years spoken of by  
the sacred penman were not ordinary but 
lunar years4  ,this1 though it might    
bring the age of those venerable men    
within  the recent term of life1        
introduced1 however1 another insuperable
  difficulty1 since it made them have   
children when only five or six years    
old4    ,sacred science1 as interpreted 
by the ,fathers of the ,church1         
demonstrated these facts3 #a4 ,that the 
date of ,creation was comparatively     
recent1 not more than four or five      
thousand years before ,christ2 #b4 ,that
  the act of ,creation occupied the     

space of six ordinary days2 #c4 ,that   
the ,deluge was universal1 and that the 
animals which survived it were          
preserved in an ark2 #d4 ,that ,adam was
 created perfect in morality and        
intelligence1 that he fell1 and that his
 descendants have shared in his  sin and
 his fall4    ,of these points and      
others that might be mentioned there    
were two on  which ecclesiastical       
authority felt that it must insist4     
,these were3  #a4 ,the recent date of   
,creation2 for1 the remoter that event1 
the more  urgent the necessity of       
vindicating the justice of ,god1 who    
apparently  had left the majority of our
 race to its fate1 and had reserved     
salvation for the few who were living in
 the closing ages of the  world2 #b4    
,the perfect condition of ,adam at his  
creation1 since this was  necessary to  
the theory of the fall1 and the plan of 
salvation4    ,theological authorities  
were therefore constrained to look with 
disfavor  on any attempt to carry back  

the origin of the earth1 to an epoch    
indefinitely remote1 and on the         
,mohammedan theory of the evolution  of 
man from lower forms1 or his gradual    
development to his present  condition in
 the long lapse of time4      ,from the 
puerilities1 absurdities1 and           
contradictions of the foregoing         
statement1 we may gather how very       
unsatisfactory this so-called sacred    
science was4 ,and perhaps we may be     
brought to the conclusion to  which ,dr4
 ,shuckford1 above quoted1 was          
constrained to come1 after his          
wearisome and unavailing attempt to     
coordinate its various parts3 ,as to    
the ,fathers of the first ages of the   
,church1 they were good men1 but not    
men of universal learning4    ,sacred   
cosmogony regards the formation and     
modeling of the earth as the  direct act
 of ,god2 it rejects the intervention of
 secondary causes in  those events4     
,scientific cosmogony dates from the    
telescopic discovery made by            

,cassini--an ,italian astronomer1 under 
whose care ,louis ,,xiv4 placed the     
,observatory of ,paris--that the planet 
,jupiter is not a sphere1 but  an oblate
 spheroid1 flattened at the poles4      
,mechanical philosophy  demonstrated    
that such a figure is the necessary     
result of the rotation  of a yielding   
mass1 and that the more rapid the       
rotation the greater the  flattening1   
or1 what comes to the same thing1 the   
greater the equatorial  bulging must be4
    ,from considerations--purely of a   
mechanical kind--,newton had foreseen   
that such likewise1 though to a less    
striking extent1 must be the figure  of 
the earth4 ,to the protuberant mass is  
due the precession of the  equinoxes1   
which requires twenty-five thousand     
eight hundred and  sixty-eight years for
 its completion1 and also the nutation  
of the  earth's axis1 discovered by     
,bradley4 ,we have already had occasion 
to  remark that the earth's equatorial  
diameter exceeds the polar by about     

twenty-six miles4    ,two facts are     
revealed by the oblateness of the earth3
 #a4 ,that she has  formerly been in a  
yielding or plastic condition2 #b4 ,that
 she has been  modeled by a mechanical  
and therefore a secondary cause4    ,but
 this influence of mechanical causes is 
manifested not only in  the exterior    
configuration of the globe of the earth 
as a spheroid of  revolution1 it also   
plainly appears on an examination of the
 arrangement  of her substance4    ,if  
we consider the aqueous rocks1 their    
aggregate is many miles in  thickness2  
yet they undeniably have been of slow   
deposit4 ,the material  of which they   
consist has been obtained by the        
disintegration of ancient  lands2 it has
 found its way into the water-courses1  
and by them been  distributed anew4     
,effects of this kind1 taking place     
before our eyes1  require a very        
considerable lapse of time to produce a 
well-marked  result--a water deposit may
 in this manner measure in thickness a  

few  inches in a century--what1 then1   
shall we say as to the time consumed in 
the formation of deposits of many       
thousand yards8    ,the position of the 
coast-line of ,egypt has been known for 
much more  than two thousand years4 ,in 
that time it has made1 by reason of the 
detritus brought down by the ,nile1 a   
distinctly-marked encroachment on  the  
,mediterranean4 ,but all ,lower ,egypt  
has had a similar origin4 ,the          
coast-line near the mouth of the        
,mississippi has been well known  for   
three hundred years1 and during that    
time has scarcely made a  perceptible   
advance on the ,gulf of ,mexico2 but    
there was a time when the  delta of that
 river was at ,st4 ,louis1 more than    
seven hundred miles  from its present   
position4 ,in ,egypt and in ,america--in
 fact1 in all  countries--the rivers    
have been inch by inch prolonging the   
land into  the sea2 the slowness of     
their work and the vastness of its      
extent  satisfy us that we must concede 

for the operation enormous periods of   
time4    ,to the same conclusion we are 
brought if we consider the filling of   
lakes1 the deposit of travertines1 the  
denudation of hills1 the  cutting action
 of the sea on its shores1 the          
undermining of cliffs1 the  weathering  
of rocks by atmospheric water and       
carbonic acid4    ,sedimentary strata   
must have been originally deposited in  
planes nearly  horizontal4 ,vast numbers
 of them have been forced1 either by    
paroxysms  at intervals or by gradual   
movement1 into all manner of angular    
inclinations4 ,whatever explanations we 
may offer of these innumerable  and     
immense tilts and fractures1 they would 
seem to demand for their  completion an 
inconceivable length of time4    ,the   
coal-bearing strata in ,wales1 by their 
gradual submergence1 have  attained a   
thickness of #ab1jjj feet2 in ,nova     
,scotia of #ad1egj feet4  ,so slow and  
so steady was this submergence1 that    
erect trees stand one  above another on 

successive levels2 seventeen such       
repetitions may be  counted in a        
thickness of #d1eae feet4 ,the age of   
the trees is proved  by their size1 some
 being four feet in diameter4 ,round    
them1 as they  gradually went down with 
the subsiding soil1 calamites grew1 at  
one  level after another4 ,in the       
,sydney coal-field fifty-nine fossil    
forests  occur in superposition4        
,marine shells1 found on mountain-tops  
far in the interior of continents1  were
 regarded by theological writers as an  
indisputable illustration of  the       
,deluge4 ,but when1 as geological       
studies became more exact1 it was       
proved that in the crust of the earth   
vast fresh-water formations are         
repeatedly intercalated with vast marine
 ones1 like the leaves of a  book1 it   
became evident that no single cataclysm 
was sufficient  to account for such     
results2 that the same region1 through  
gradual  variations of its level and    
changes in its topographical            

surroundings1  had sometimes been dry   
land1 sometimes covered with fresh and  
sometimes  with sea water4 ,it became   
evident also that1 for the completion of
 these  changes1 tens of thousands of   
years were required4    ,to this        
evidence of a remote origin of the      
earth1 derived from the vast            
superficial extent1 the enormous        
thickness1 and the varied characters of 
its strata1 was added an imposing body  
of proof depending on its fossil        
remains4 ,the relative ages of          
formations having been ascertained1 it  
was shown that there has been an        
advancing physiological progression of  
organic forms1 both vegetable and       
animal1 from the oldest to the most     
recent2 that those which inhabit the    
surface in our times are but an         
insignificant fraction of the prodigious
 multitude that have inhabited  it      
heretofore2 that for each species now   
living there are thousands  that have   
become extinct4 ,though special         

formations are so strikingly            
characterized by some predominating type
 of life as to justify such  expressions
 as the age of mollusks1 the age of     
reptiles1 the age of  mammals1 the      
introduction of the new-comers did not  
take place abruptly4  as by sudden      
creation4 ,they gradually emerged in an 
antecedent age1  reached their          
culmination in the one which they       
characterize1 and then  gradually died  
out in a succeeding4 ,there is no such  
thing as a  sudden creation1 a sudden   
strange appearance--but there is a slow 
metamorphosis1 a slow development from a
 preexisting form4 ,here again  we      
encounter the necessity of admitting for
 such results long periods  of time4    
,within the range of history no         
well-marked instance of such            
development has been witnessed1 and we  
speak with hesitation of doubtful       
instances of extinction4 ,yet in        
geological times myriads of evolutions  
and extinctions have occurred4    ,since

 thus1 within the experience of man1 no 
case of metamorphosis  or development   
has been observed1 some have been       
disposed to deny its  possibility       
altogether1 affirming that all the      
different species have  come into       
existence by separate creative acts4    
,but surely it is less  unphilosophical 
to suppose that each species has been   
evolved from a  predecessor by a        
modification of its parts1 than that it 
has suddenly  started into existence out
 of nothing4 ,nor is there much weight  
in  the remark that no man has ever     
witnessed such a transformation taking  
place4 ,let it be remembered that no man
 has ever witnessed an act  of creation1
 the sudden appearance of an organic    
form1 without any  progenitor4          
,abrupt1 arbitrary1 disconnected        
creative acts may serve to illustrate   
the ,divine power2 but that continuous  
unbroken chain of organisms which       
extends from palaeozoic formations to   
the formations of recent times1 a  chain

 in which each link hangs on a preceding
 and sustains a succeeding  one1        
demonstrates to us not only that the    
production of animated beings  is       
governed by law1 but that it is by law  
that has undergone no change4  ,in its  
operation1 through myriads of ages1     
there has been no variation1  no        
suspension4    ,the foregoing paragraphs
 may serve to indicate the character of 
a  portion of the evidence with which we
 must deal in considering the  problem  
of the age of the earth4 ,through the   
unintermitting labors of  geologists1 so
 immense a mass has been accumulated1   
that many volumes  would be required to 
contain the details4 ,it is drawn from  
the phenomena  presented by all kinds of
 rocks1 aqueous1 igneous1 metamorphic4  
,of  aqueous rocks it investigates the  
thickness1 the inclined positions1  and 
how they rest unconformably on one      
another2 how those that are of          
fresh-water origin are intercalated with
 those that are marine2 how  vast masses

 of material have been removed by       
slow-acting causes of  denudation1 and  
extensive geographical surfaces have    
been remodeled2 how  continents have    
undergone movements of elevation and    
depression1 their  shores sunk under the
 ocean1 or sea-beaches and sea-cliffs   
carried far  into the interior4 ,it     
considers the zoological and botanical  
facts1 the  fauna and flora of the      
successive ages1 and how in an orderly  
manner the  chain of organic forms1     
plants1 and animals1 has been extended1 
from its  dim and doubtful beginnings to
 our own times4 ,from facts presented by
  the deposits of coal-coal which1 in   
all its varieties1 has originated  from 
the decay of plants--it not only demon  
strates the changes that  have taken    
place in the earth's atmosphere1 but    
also universal changes  of climate4     
,from other facts it proves that there  
have been oscillations  of temperature1 
periods in which the mean heat has      
risen1 and periods  in which the polar  

ices and snows have covered large       
portions of the  existing               
continents--glacial periods1 as they are
 termed4    ,one school of geologists1  
resting its argument on very imposing   
evidence1 teaches that the whole mass of
 the earth1 from being in a  molten1 or 
perhaps a vaporous condition1 has cooled
 by radiation in the  lapse of millions 
of ages1 until it has reached its       
present equilibrium  of temperature4    
,astronomical observations give great   
weight to this  interpretation1         
especially so far as the planetary      
bodies of the solar  system are         
concerned4 ,it is also supported by such
 facts as the small  mean density of the
 earth1 the increasing temperature at   
increasing  depths1 the phenomena of    
volcanoes and injected veins1 and those 
of  igneous and metamorphic rocks4 ,to  
satisfy the physical changes which  this
 school of geologists contemplates1     
myriads of centuries are  required4     
,but1 with the views that the adoption  

of the ,copernican system has given  us1
 it is plain that we cannot consider the
 origin and biography of the  earth in  
an isolated way2 we must include with   
her all the other members  of the system
 or family to which she belongs4 ,nay1  
more1 we cannot  restrict ourselves to  
the solar system2 we must embrace in our
  discussions the starry worlds4 ,and1  
since we have become familiarized  with 
their almost immeasurable distances from
 one another1 we are  prepared to accept
 for their origin an immeasurably remote
 time4 ,there  are stars so far off that
 their light1 fast as it travels1 has   
taken  thousands of years to reach us1  
and hence they must have been in        
existence many thousands of years ago4  
,geologists having unanimously          
agreed--for perhaps there is not a      
single  dissenting voice--that the      
chronology of the earth must be greatly 
extended1 attempts have been made to    
give precision to it4 ,some of  these   
have been based on astronomical1 some on

 physical principles4 ,thus             
calculations founded on the known       
changes of the eccentricity of the      
earth's orbit1 with a view of           
determining the lapse of time since the 
beginning of the last glacial period1   
have given two hundred and  forty       
thousand years4 ,though the general     
postulate of the immensity of           
geological times may be conceded1 such  
calculations are on too uncertain  a    
theoretical basis to furnish            
incontestable results4    ,but1         
considering the whole subject from the  
present scientific  stand-point1 it is  
very clear that the views presented by  
theological  writers1 as derived from   
the ,mosaic record1 cannot be admitted4 
,attempts  have been repeatedly made to 
reconcile the revealed with the         
discovered  facts1 but they have proved 
to be unsatisfactory4 ,the ,mosaic time 
is  too short1 the order of creation    
incorrect1 the divine interventions  too
 anthropomorphic2 and1 though the       

presentment of the subject is in        
harmony with the ideas that men have    
entertained1 when first their  minds    
were turned to the acquisition of       
natural knowledge1 it is not in         
accordance with their present           
conceptions of the insignificance of the
  earth and the grandeur of the         
universe4      ,among late geological   
discoveries is one of special interest2 
it is the  detection of human remains   
and human works in formations which1    
though  geologically recent1 are        
historically very remote4    ,the fossil
 remains of men1 with rude implements of
 rough or chipped  flint1 of polished   
stone1 of bone1 of bronze1 are found in 
,europe in  caves1 in drifts1 in        
peat-beds4 ,they indicate a savage life1
 spent in  hunting and fishing4 ,recent 
researches give reason to believe that1 
under low and base grades1 the existence
 of man can be traced back into  the    
tertiary times4 ,he was contemporary    
with the southern elephant1  the        

rhinoceros leptorhinus1 the great       
hippopotamus1 perhaps even in the       
miocene contemporary with the mastodon4 
,at the close of the ,tertiary period1  
from causes not yet determined1 the     
,northern ,hemisphere underwent a great 
depression of temperature4 ,from  a     
torrid it passed to a glacial condition4
 ,after a period of prodigious  length1 
the temperature again rose1 and the     
glaciers that had so  extensively       
covered the surface receded4 ,once more 
there was a decline  in the heat1 and   
the glaciers again advanced1 but this   
time not so far  as formerly4 ,this     
ushered in the ,quaternary period1      
during which very  slowly the           
temperature came to its present degree4 
,the water deposits  that were being    
made required thousands of centuries for
 their  completion4 ,at the beginning of
 the ,quaternary period there were      
alive the cave-bear1 the cave-lion1 the 
amphibious hippopotamus1 the  rhinoceros
 with chambered nostrils1 the mammoth4  

,in fact1 the mammoth  swarmed4 ,he     
delighted in a boreal climate4 ,by      
degrees the reindeer1 the  horse1 the   
ox1 the bison1 multiplied1 and disputed 
with him his food4  ,partly for this    
reason1 and partly because of the       
increasing heat1 he  became extinct4    
,from middle ,europe1 also1 the reindeer
 retired4 ,his  departure marks the end 
of the ,quaternary period4    ,since the
 advent of man on the earth1 we have1   
therefore1 to deal with  periods of     
incalculable length4 ,vast changes in   
the climate and fauna  were produced by 
the slow operation of causes such as are
 in action at  the present day4 ,figures
 cannot enable us to appreciate these   
enormous  lapses of time4    ,it seems  
to be satisfactorily established1 that a
 race allied to the  ,basques may be    
traced back to the ,neolithic age4 ,at  
that time the  ,british ,islands were   
undergoing a change of level1 like that 
at present  occurring in the            
,scandinavian ,peninsula4 ,scotland was 

rising1 ,england  was sinking4 ,in the  
,pleistocene age there existed in       
,central ,europe a  rude race of hunters
 and fishers closely allied to the      
,esquimaux4    ,in the old glacial drift
 of ,scotland the relics of man are     
found along  with those of the fossil   
elephant4 ,this carries us back to that 
time  above referred to1 when a large   
portion of ,europe was covered with ice1
  which had edged down from the polar   
regions to southerly latitudes1 and1  as
 glaciers1 descended from the summits of
 the mountain-chains into the  plains4  
,countless species of animals perished  
in this cataclysm of ice  and snow1 but 
man survived4    ,in his primitive      
savage condition1 living for the most   
part on fruits1  roots1 shell-fish1 man 
was in possession of a fact which was   
certain  eventually to insure his       
civilization4 ,he knew how to make a    
fire4 ,in  peat-beds1 under the remains 
of trees that in those localities have  
long ago become extinct1 his relics are 

still found1 the implements  that       
accompany him indicating a distinct     
chronological order4 ,near the  surface 
are those of bronze1 lower down those of
 bone or horn1 still  lower those of    
polished stone1 and beneath all those of
 chipped or rough  stone4 ,the date of  
the origin of some of these beds cannot 
be estimated  at less than forty or     
fifty thousand years4    ,the caves that
 have been examined in ,france and      
elsewhere have furnished  for the ,stone
 age axes1 knives1 lance and arrow      
points1 scrapers1  hammers4 ,the change 
from what may be termed the chipped to  
the polished  stone period is very      
gradual4 ,it coincides with the         
domestication of the  dog1 an epoch in  
hunting-life4 ,it embraces thousands of 
centuries4 ,the  appearance of          
arrow-heads indicates the invention of  
the bow1 and  the rise of man from a    
defensive to an offensive mode of life4 
,the  introduction of barbed arrows     
shows how inventive talent was          

displaying  itself2 bone and horn tips1 
that the huntsman was including smaller 
animals1 and perhaps birds1 in his      
chase2 bone whistles1 his  companionship
 with other huntsmen or with his dog4   
,the scraping-knives  of flint indicate 
the use of skin for clothing1 and rude  
bodkins and  needles its manufacture4   
,shells perforated for bracelets and    
necklaces  prove how soon a taste for   
personal adornment was acquired2 the    
implements necessary for the preparation
 of pigments suggest the  painting of   
the body1 and perhaps tattooing2 and    
batons of rank bear  witness to the     
beginning of a social organization4     
,with the utmost interest we look upon  
the first germs of art among these      
primitive men4 ,they have left its rude 
sketches on pieces of ivory and  flakes 
of bone1 and carvings1 of the animals   
contemporary with them4 ,in  these      
prehistoric delineations1 sometimes not 
without spirit1 we have  mammoths1      
combats of reindeer4 ,one presents us   

with a man harpooning a  fish1 another a
 hunting-scene of naked men armed with  
the dart4 ,man is  the only animal who  
has the propensity of depicting external
 forms1 and  of availing himself of the 
use of fire4    ,shell-mounds1          
consisting of bones and shells1 some of 
which may be  justly described as of    
vast extent1 and of a date anterior to  
the ,bronze  age1 and full of stone     
implements1 bear in all their parts     
indications  of the use of fire4 ,these 
are often adjacent to the existing      
coasts  sometimes1 however1 they are far
 inland1 in certain instances as far  as
 fifty miles4 ,their contents and       
position indicate for them a date       
posterior to that of the great extinct  
mammals1 but prior to the  domesticated4
 ,some of these1 it is said1 cannot be  
less than one hundred  thousand years   
old4    ,the lake-dwellings in          
,switzerland--huts built on piles or    
logs1 wattled  with boughs--were1 as may
 be inferred from the accompanying      

implements1  begun in the ,stone age1   
and continued into that of ,bronze4 ,in 
the latter  period the evidences become 
numerous of the adoption of an          
agricultural  life4    ,it must not be  
supposed that the periods into which    
geologists have  found it convenient to 
divide the progress of man in           
civilization are  abrupt epochs1 which  
hold good simultaneously for the whole  
human race4  ,thus the wandering        
,indians of ,america are only at the    
present moment  emerging from the ,stone
 age4 ,they are still to be seen in many
 places  armed with arrows1 tipped with 
flakes of flint4 ,it is but as yesterday
  that some have obtained1 from the     
white man1 iron1 fire-arms1 and the     
horse4    ,so far as investigations have
 gone1 they indisputably refer the      
existence of man to a date remote from  
us by many hundreds of thousands  of    
years4 ,it must be borne in mind that   
these investigations are quite  recent1 
and confined to a very limited          

geographical space4 ,no researches  have
 yet been made in those regions which   
might reasonably be regarded  as the    
primitive habitat of man4    ,we are    
thus carried back immeasurably beyond   
the six thousand years of  ,patristic   
chronology4 ,it is difficult to assign a
 shorter date for the  last glaciation  
of ,europe than a quarter of a million  
of years1 and  human existence antedates
 that4 ,but not only is it this grand   
fact that  confronts us1 we have to     
admit also a primitive animalized state1
 and a  slow1 a gradual development4    
,but this forlorn1 this savage condition
  of humanity is in strong contrast to  
the paradisiacal happiness of the       
garden of ,eden1 and1 what is far more  
serious1 it is inconsistent with  the   
theory of the ,fall4      ,i have been  
induced to place the subject of this    
chapter out of its  proper chronological
 order1 for the sake of presenting what 
,i had to  say respecting the nature of 
the world more completely by itself4    

,the  discussions that arose as to the  
age of the earth were long after the    
conflict as to the criterion of         
truth--that is1 after the ,reformation2 
indeed1 they were substantially included
 in the present century4 ,they  have    
been conducted with so much moderation  
as to justify the term  ,i have used in 
the title of this chapter1 ,controversy1
 rather than  ,conflict4 ,geology has   
not had to encounter the vindictive     
opposition  with which astronomy was    
assailed1 and1 though1 on her part1 she 
has  insisted on a concession of great  
antiquity for the earth1 she has        
herself pointed out the unreliability of
 all numerical estimates thus  far      
offered4 ,the attentive reader of this  
chapter cannot have failed to  observe  
inconsistencies in the numbers quoted4  
,though wanting the  merit of exactness1
 those numbers1 however1 justify the    
claim of vast  antiquity1 and draw us to
 the conclusion that the time-scale of  
the  world answers to the space-scale in

 magnitude4        ,,chapter ,,viii4    
,,conflict ,,respecting ,,the           
,,criterion ,,of ,,truth4               
,ancient philosophy declares that man   
has no means of       ascertaining the  
truth4         ,differences of belief   
arise among the early ,christians--,an  
ineffectual attempt is made to remedy   
them by ,councils4--       ,miracle and 
ordeal proof introduced4         ,the   
papacy resorts to auricular confession  
and the       ,inquisition4--,it        
perpetrates frightful atrocities for the
       suppression of differences of    
opinion4         ,effect of the         
discovery of the ,pandects of ,justinian
 and       development of the canon law 
on the nature of evidence4--,it         
becomes more scientific4         ,the   
,reformation establishes the rights of  
individual       reason4--,catholicism  
asserts that the criterion of truth is  
in the ,church4 ,it restrains the       
reading of books by the       ,index    
,expurgatorius1 and combats dissent by  

such means as       the massacre of ,st4
 ,bartholomew's ,eve4                   
,examination of the authenticity of the 
,pentateuch as the       ,protestant    
criterion4--,spurious character of those
 books4         ,for ,science the       
criterion of truth is to be found in the
       revelations of ,nature3 for the  
,protestant1 it is in the               
,scriptures2 for the ,catholic1 in an   
infallible ,pope4      ,,what is truth8 
was the passionate demand of a ,roman   
procurator on one  of the most momentous
 occasions in history4 ,and the ,divine 
,person who  stood before him1 to whom  
the interrogation was addressed1 made no
  reply--unless1 indeed1 silence        
contained the reply4    ,often and      
vainly had that demand been made        
before--often and vainly has  it been   
made since4 ,no one has yet given a     
satisfactory answer4    ,when1 at the   
dawn of science in ,greece1 the ancient 
religion was  disappearing like a mist  
at sunrise1 the pious and thoughtful men

 of  that country were thrown into a    
condition of intellectual despair4      
,anaxagoras plaintively exclaims1       
,nothing can be known1 nothing can be   
learned1 nothing can be certain1 sense  
is limited1 intellect is weak1  life is 
short4 ,xenophanes tells us that it is  
impossible for us to be  certain even   
when we utter the truth4 ,parmenides    
declares that the  very constitution of 
man prevents him from ascertaining      
absolute truth4  ,empedocles affirms    
that all philosophical and religious    
systems must  be unreliable1 because we 
have no criterion by which to test them4
  ,democritus asserts that even things  
that are true cannot impart  certainty  
to us2 that the final result of human   
inquiry is the discovery  that man is   
incapable of absolute knowledge2 that1  
even if the truth be  in his possession1
 he cannot be certain of it4 ,pyrrho    
bids us reflect  on the necessity of    
suspending our judgment of things1 since
 we have no  criterion of truth2 so deep

 a distrust did he impart to his        
followers1  that they were in the habit 
of saying1 ,we assert nothing2 no1 not  
even  that we assert nothing4 ,epicurus 
taught his disciples that truth can     
never be determined by reason4          
,arcesilaus1 denying both intellectual  
and  sensuous knowledge1 publicly avowed
 that he knew nothing1 not even his  own
 ignorance6 ,the general conclusion to  
which ,greek philosophy came was        
this--that1 in view of the contradiction
 of the evidence of the  senses1 we     
cannot distinguish the true from the    
false2 and such is the  imperfection of 
reason1 that we cannot affirm the       
correctness of any  philosophical       
deduction4    ,it might be supposed that
 a revelation from ,god to man would    
come with  such force and clearness as  
to settle all uncertainties and         
overwhelm  all opposition4 ,a ,greek    
philosopher1 less despairing than       
others1 had  ventured to affirm that the
 coexistence of two forms of faith1 both

  claiming to be revealed by the        
omnipotent ,god1 proves that neither of 
them is true4 ,but let us remember that 
it is difficult for men to come  to the 
same conclusion as regards even material
 and visible things1  unless they stand 
at the same point of view4 ,if discord  
and distrust  were the condition of     
philosophy three hundred years before   
the birth  of ,christ1 discord and      
distrust were the condition of religion 
three  hundred years after his death4   
,this is what ,hilary1 the ,bishop of   
,poictiers1 in his well-known passage   
written about the time of the  ,nicene  
,council1 says3    ,it is a thing       
equally deplorable and dangerous that   
there are1 as many  creeds as opinions  
among men1 as many doctrines as         
inclinations1 and as  many sources of   
blasphemy as there are faults among us1 
because we make  creeds arbitrarily and 
explain them as arbitrarily4 ,every     
year1 nay1  every moon1 we make new     
creeds to describe invisible mysteries2 

we  repent of what we have done2 we     
defend those who repent2 we anathematize
  those whom we defend2 we condemn      
either the doctrines of others in       
ourselves1 or our own in that of others2
 and1 reciprocally tearing each  other  
to pieces1 we have been the cause of    
each other's ruin4    ,these are not    
mere words2 but the import of this      
self-accusation can  be realized fully  
only by such as are familiar with the   
ecclesiastical  history of those times4 
,as soon as the first fervor of         
,christianity as a  system of           
benevolence had declined1 dissensions   
appeared4 ,ecclesiastical  historians   
assert that as early as the second      
century began the contest  between faith
 and reason1 religion and philosophy1   
piety and genius4 ,to  compose these    
dissensions1 to obtain some             
authoritative expression1 some          
criterion of truth1 assemblies for      
consultation were resorted to1 which    
eventually took the form of councils4   

,for a long time they had nothing  more 
than an advisory authority2 but1 when1  
in the fourth century1  ,christianity   
had attained to imperial rule1 their    
dictates became  compulsory1 being      
enforced by the civil power4 ,by this   
the whole face  of the ,church was      
changed4 ,oecumenical                   
councils--parliaments of                
,christianity--consisting of delegates  
from all the churches in the  world1    
were summoned by the authority of the   
emperor2 he presided either  personally 
or nominally in them--composed all      
differences1 and was1 in  fact1 the     
,pope of ,christendom4 ,mosheim1 the    
historian1 to whom ,i have  more        
particularly referred above1 speaking of
 these times1 remarks  that there was   
nothing to exclude the ignorant from    
ecclesiastical  preferment2 the savage  
and illiterate party1 who looked on all 
kinds  of learning1 particularly        
philosophy1 as pernicious to piety1 was 
increasing2 and1 accordingly1 the       

disputes carried on in the ,council  of 
,nicea offered a remarkable example of  
the greatest ignorance and  utter       
confusion of ideas1 particularly in the 
language and explanations  of those who 
approved of the decisions of that       
council4 ,vast as its  influence has    
been1 the ancient critics are neither   
agreed concerning  the time nor place in
 which it was assembled1 the number of  
those who  sat in it1 nor the bishop who
 presided4 ,no authentic acts of its    
famous  sentence have been committed to 
writing1 or1 at least1 none have been   
transmitted to our times4 ,the ,church  
had now become what1 in the  language of
 modern politicians1 would be called a  
confederated  republic4 ,the will of the
 council was determined by a majority   
vote1  and1 to secure that1 all manner  
of intrigues and impositions were       
resorted to2 the influence of court     
females1 bribery1 and violence1 were    
not spared4 ,the ,council of ,nicea had 
scarcely adjourned1--when it was  plain 

to all impartial men that1 as a method  
of establishing a criterion  of truth in
 religious matters1 such councils were a
 total failure4 ,the  minority had no   
rights which the majority need respect4 
,the protest of  many good men1 that a  
mere majority vote given by delegates1  
whose right  to vote had never been     
examined and authorized1 could not be   
received  as ascertaining absolute      
truth1 was passed over with contempt1   
and the  consequence was1 that council  
was assembled against council1 and their
  jarring and contradictory decrees     
spread perplexity and confusion         
throughout the ,christian world4 ,in the
 fourth century alone there were        
thirteen councils adverse to ,arius1    
fifteen in his favor1 and seventeen  for
 the semi-,arians--in all1 forty-five4  
,minorities were perpetually  attempting
 to use the weapon which majorities had 
abused4    ,the impartial ecclesiastical
 historian above quoted1 moreover1 says 
that two monstrous and calamitous errors

 were adopted in this fourth  century3  
#a4 ,that it was an act of virtue to    
deceive and lie when1 by  that means1   
the interests of the ,church might be   
promoted4 #b4 ,that  errors in religion1
 when maintained and adhered to after   
proper  admonition1 were punishable with
 civil penalties and corporal tortures4 
,not without astonishment can we look   
back at what1 in those times1 were      
popularly regarded as criteria of truth4
 ,doctrines were considered  as         
established by the number of martyrs who
 had professed them1 by  miracles1 by   
the confession of demons1 of lunatics1  
or of persons  possessed of evil        
spirits3 thus1 ,st4 ,ambrose1 in his    
disputes with the  ,arians1 produced men
 possessed by devils1 who1 on the       
approach of the  relics of certain      
martyrs1 acknowledged1 with loud cries1 
that the  ,nicean doctrine of the three 
persons of the ,godhead was true4 ,but  
the ,arians charged him with suborning  
these infernal witnesses with a  weighty

 bribe4 ,already1 ordeal tribunals were 
making their appearance4  ,during the   
following six centuries they were held  
as a final resort for  establishing     
guilt or innocence1 under the forms of  
trial by cold water1  by duel1 by the   
fire1 by the cross4    ,what an utter   
ignorance of the nature of evidence and 
its laws have we  here6 ,an accused man 
sinks or swims when thrown into a pond  
of water2  he is burnt or escapes       
unharmed when he holds a piece of       
red-hot iron  in his hand2 a champion   
whom he has hired is vanquished or      
vanquishes in  single fight2 he can keep
 his arms outstretched like a cross1 or 
fails  to do so longer than his accuser1
 and his innocence or guilt of some     
imputed crime is established6 ,are these
 criteria of truth8    ,is it surprising
 that all ,europe was filled with       
imposture miracles  during those        
ages8--miracles that are a disgrace to  
the common-sense of  man6    ,but the   
inevitable day came at length4          

,assertions and doctrines based  upon   
such preposterous evidence were involved
 in the discredit that fell  upon the   
evidence itself4 ,as the thirteenth     
century is approached1 we  find unbelief
 in all directions setting in4 ,first1  
it is plainly seen  among the monastic  
orders1 then it spreads rapidly among   
the common  people4 ,books1 such as ,the
 ,everlasting ,gospel1 appear among the 
former2 sects1 such as the ,catharists1 
,waldenses1 ,petrobrussians1 arise      
among the latter4 ,they agreed in this1 
that the public and established         
religion was a motley system of errors  
and superstitions1 and that the         
dominion which the pope had usurped over
 ,christians was unlawful and           
tyrannical2 that the claim put forth by 
,rome1 that the ,bishop of ,rome is  the
 supreme lord of the universe1 and that 
neither princes nor bishops1  civil     
governors nor ecclesiastical rulers1    
have any lawful power in  church or     
state but what they receive from him1 is

 utterly without  foundation1 and a     
usurpation of the rights of man4    ,to 
withstand this flood of impiety1 the    
papal government established two        
institutions3 #a4 ,the ,inquisition2 #b4
 ,auricular confession--the latter as  a
 means of detection1 the former as a    
tribunal for punishment4    ,in general 
terms1 the commission of the            
,inquisition was1 to extirpate          
religious dissent by terrorism1 and     
surround heresy with the most  horrible 
associations2 this necessarily implied  
the power of determining  what          
constitutes heresy4 ,the criterion of   
truth was thus in possession  of this   
tribunal1 which was charged to discover 
and bring to judgment  heretics lurking 
in towns1 houses1 cellars1 woods1 caves1
 and fields4  ,with such savage alacrity
 did it carry out its object of         
protecting the  interests of religion1  
that between #adha and #ahjh it had     
punished three  hundred and forty       
thousand persons1 and of these nearly   

thirty-two  thousand had been burnt6 ,in
 its earlier days1 when public opinion  
could  find no means of protesting      
against its atrocities1 it often put to 
death1 without appeal1 on the very day  
that they were accused1 nobles1  clerks1
 monks1 hermits1 and lay persons of     
every rank4 ,in whatever  direction     
thoughtful men looked1 the air was full 
of fearful shadows4 ,no  one could      
indulge in freedom of thought without   
expecting punishment4 ,so  dreadful were
 the proceedings of the ,inquisition1   
that the exclamation  of ,pagliarici was
 the exclamation of thousands3 ,it is   
hardly possible  for a man to be a      
,christian1 and die in his bed4    ,the 
,inquisition destroyed the sectaries of 
,southern ,france in the  thirteenth    
century4 ,its unscrupulous atrocities   
extirpated ,protestantism  in ,italy and
 ,spain4 ,nor did it confine itself to  
religious affairs2 it  engaged in the   
suppression of political discontent4    
,nicolas ,eymeric1 who  was             

inquisitor-general of the kingdom of    
,aragon for nearly fifty years1  and who
 died in #acii1 has left a frightful    
statement of its conduct and  appalling 
cruelties in his ,directorium           
,inquisitorum4    ,this disgrace of     
,christianity1 and indeed of the human  
race1 had  different constitutions in   
different countries4 ,the papal         
,inquisition  continued the tyranny1 and
 eventually superseded the old episcopal
  inquisitions4 ,the authority of the   
bishops was unceremoniously put aside   
by the officers of the pope4    ,by the 
action of the fourth ,lateran ,council1 
,a4,d4 #abae1 the power of  the         
,inquisition was frightfully increased1 
the necessity of private  confession to 
a priest--auricular confession--being at
 that time  formally established4 ,this1
 so far as domestic life was concerned1 
gave  omnipresence and omniscience to   
the ,inquisition4 ,not a man was safe4  
,in the hands of the priest1 who1 at the
 confessional1 could extract or  extort 

from them their most secret thoughts1   
his wife and his servants  were turned  
into spies4 ,summoned before the dread  
tribunal1 he was  simply informed that  
he lay under strong suspicions of       
heresy4 ,no  accuser was named2 but the 
thumb-screw1 the stretching-rope1 the   
boot  and wedge1 or other enginery of   
torture1 soon supplied that defect1 and1
  innocent or guilty1 he accused        
himself6    ,notwithstanding all this   
power1 the ,inquisition failed of its   
purpose4  ,when the heretic could no    
longer confront it1 he evaded it4 ,a    
dismal  disbelief stealthily pervaded   
all ,europe1--a denial of ,providence1  
of the immortality of the soul1 of human
 free-will1 and that man can  possibly  
resist the absolute necessity1 the      
destiny which envelops him4  ,ideas such
 as these were cherished in silence by  
multitudes of persons  driven to them by
 the tyrannical acts of ecclesiasticism4
 ,in spite of  persecution1 the         
,waldenses still survived to propagate  

their declaration  that the ,roman      
,church1 since ,constantine1 had        
degenerated from its  purity and        
sanctity2 to protest against the sale of
 indulgences1 which  they said had      
nearly abolished prayer1 fasting1 alms2 
to affirm that it  was utterly useless  
to pray for the souls of the dead1 since
 they must  already have gone either to 
heaven or hell4 ,though it was generally
  believed that philosophy or science   
was pernicious to the interests of      
,christianity or true piety1 the        
,mohammedan literature then prevailing  
in ,spain was making converts among all 
classes of society4 ,we see very        
plainly its influence in many of the    
sects that then arose2 thus1 the        
,brethren and ,sisters of the ,free4    
,spirit held that the universe came  by 
emanation from ,god1 and would finally  
return to him by absorption2  that      
rational souls are so many portions of  
the ,supreme ,deity2 and that  the      
universe1 considered as one great whole1

 is ,god4 ,these are ideas  that can    
only be entertained in an advanced      
intellectual condition4 ,of  this sect  
it is said that many suffered burning   
with unclouded serenity1  with          
triumphant feelings of cheerfulness and 
joy4 ,their orthodox enemies  accused   
them of gratifying their passions at    
midnight assemblages in  darkened rooms1
 to which both sexes in a condition of  
nudity repaired4 ,a  similar accusation1
 as is well known1 was brought against  
the primitive  ,christians by the       
fashionable society of ,rome4    ,the   
influences of the ,averroistic          
philosophy were apparent in many of     
these sects4 ,that ,mohammedan system1  
considered from a ,christian point  of  
view1 led to the heretical belief that  
the end of the precepts of              
,christianity is the union of the soul  
with the ,supreme ,being2 that ,god  and
 ,nature have the same relations to each
 other as the soul and the  body2 that  
there is but one individual             

intelligence2 and that one soul         
performs all the spiritual and rational 
functions in all the human race4  ,when1
 subsequently1 toward the time of the   
,reformation1 the ,italian  ,averroists 
were required by the ,inquisition to    
give an account of  themselves1 they    
attempted to show that there is a wide  
distinction  between philosophical and  
religious truth2 that things may be     
philosophically true1 and yet           
theologically false--an exculpatory     
device  condemned at length by the      
,lateran ,council in the time of ,leo   
,x4    ,but1 in spite of auricular      
confession1 and the ,inquisition1 these 
heretical tendencies survived4 ,it has  
been truly said that1 at the  epoch of  
the ,reformation1 there lay concealed1  
in many parts of ,europe1  persons who  
entertained the most virulent enmity    
against ,christianity4  ,in this        
pernicious class were many              
,aristotelians1 such as ,pomponatius2   
many philosophers and wits1 such as     

,bodin1 ,rabelais1 ,montaigne2 many     
,italians1 as ,leo ,x41 ,bembo1 ,bruno4 
,miracle-evidence began to fall into    
discredit during the eleventh and       
twelfth centuries4 ,the sarcasms of the 
,hispano-,moorish philosophers  had     
forcibly drawn the attention of many of 
the more enlightened  ecclesiastics to  
its illusory nature4 ,the discovery of  
the ,pandects  of ,justinian1 at        
,amalfi1 in #aacj1 doubtless exerted a  
very powerful  influence in promoting   
the study of ,roman jurisprudence1 and  
disseminating better notions as to the  
character of legal or  philosophical    
evidence4 ,hallam has cast some doubt on
 the well-known  story of this          
discovery1 but he admits that the       
celebrated copy in the  ,laurentian     
library1 at ,florence1 is the only one  
containing the entire  fifty books4     
,twenty years subsequently1 the monk    
,gratian collected  together the various
 papal edicts1 the canons of councils1  
the  declarations of the ,fathers and   

,doctors of the ,church1 in a volume    
called ,the ,decretum1 considered as the
 earliest authority in canon  law4 ,in  
the next century ,gregory ,,ix4         
published five books of ,decretals1  and
 ,boniface ,,viii4 subsequently added a 
sixth4 ,to these followed the           
,clementine ,constitutions1 a seventh   
book of ,decretals1 and ,a ,book of     
,institutes1 published together1 by     
,gregory ,,xiii41 in #aehj1 under the   
title of ,corpus ,juris ,canonici4 ,the 
canon law had gradually gained  enormous
 power through the control it had       
obtained over wills1 the  guardianship  
of orphans1 marriages1 and divorces4    
,the rejection of miracle-evidence1 and 
the substitution of legal  evidence in  
its stead1 accelerated the approach of  
the ,reformation4 ,no  longer was it    
possible to admit the requirement which1
 in former days1  ,anselm1 the          
,archbishop of ,canterbury1 in his      
treatise1 ,cur ,deus ,homo1  had        
enforced1 that we must first believe    

without examination1 and  may afterward 
endeavor to understand what we have thus
 believed4 ,when  ,cajetan said to      
,luther1 ,thou must believe that one    
single drop of  ,christ's blood is      
sufficient to redeem the whole human    
race1 and the  remaining quantity that  
was shed in the garden and on the cross 
was left  as a legacy to the pope1 to be
 a treasure from which indulgences were 
to be drawn1 the soul of the sturdy     
,german monk revolted against such  a   
monstrous assertion1 nor would he have  
believed it though a thousand  miracles 
had been worked in its support4 ,this   
shameful practice of  selling           
indulgences for the commission of sin   
originated among the  bishops1 who1 when
 they had need of money for their       
private pleasures1  obtained it in that 
way4 ,abbots and monks1 to whom this    
gainful commerce  was denied1 raised    
funds by carrying about relics in solemn
 procession1  and charging a fee for    
touching them4 ,the popes1 in their     

pecuniary  straits1 perceiving how      
lucrative the practice might become1    
deprived  the bishops of the right of   
making such sales1 and appropriated it  
to  themselves1 establishing agencies1  
chiefly among the mendicant orders1  for
 the traffic4 ,among these orders there 
was a sharp competition1 each  boasting 
of the superior value of its indulgences
 through its greater  influence at the  
court of heaven1 its familiar connection
 with the  ,virgin ,mary and the saints 
in glory4 ,even against ,luther himself1
 who  had been an ,augustinian monk1 a  
calumny was circulated that he was      
first alienated from the ,church by a   
traffic of this kind having been        
conferred on the ,dominicans1 instead of
 on his own order1 at the time  when    
,leo ,x4 was raising funds by this means
 for building ,st4 ,peter's1 at  ,rome1 
,a4,d4 #aeag4 and there is reason to    
think that ,leo himself1 in the  earlier
 stages of the ,reformation1 attached   
weight to that allegation4              

,indulgences were thus the immediate    
inciting cause of the ,reformation1  but
 very soon there came into light the    
real principle that was  animating the  
controversy4 ,it lay in the question1   
,does the ,bible owe  its authenticity  
to the ,church8 or does the ,church owe 
her authenticity  to the ,bible8 ,where 
is the criterion of truth8    ,it is not
 necessary for me here to relate the    
well known particulars of  that         
controversy1 the desolating wars and    
scenes of blood to which it  gave rise3 
how ,luther posted on the door of the   
cathedral of ,wittemberg  ninety-five   
theses1 and was summoned to ,rome to    
answer for his offense2  how he appealed
 from the pope1 ill-informed at the     
time1 to the pope  when he should have  
been better instructed2 how he was      
condemned as a  heretic1 and thereupon  
appealed to a general council2 how1     
through the  disputes about purgatory1  
transubstantiation1 auricular           
confession1  absolution1 the fundamental

 idea which lay at the bottom of the    
whole  movement came into relief1 the   
right of individual judgment2 how       
,luther  was now excommunicated1 ,a4,d4 
#aebj1 and in defiance burnt the bull of
  excommunication and the volumes of the
 canon law1 which he denounced as       
aiming at the subversion of all civil   
government1 and the exaltation of  the  
papacy2 how by this skillful manoeuvre  
he brought over many of the  ,german    
princes to his views2 how1 summoned     
before the ,imperial ,diet at  ,worms1  
he refused to retract1 and1 while he was
 bidden in the castle of  ,wartburg1 his
 doctrines were spreading1 and a        
reformation under ,zwingli  broke out in
 ,switzerland2 how the principle of     
sectarian decomposition  embedded in the
 movement gave rise to rivalries and    
dissensions between  the ,germans and   
the ,swiss1 and even divided the latter 
among themselves  under the leadership  
of ,zwingli and of ,calvin2 how the     
,conference of  ,marburg1 the ,diet of  

,spires1 and that at ,augsburg1 failed  
to compose  the troubles1 and eventually
 the ,german ,reformation assumed a     
political  organization at ,smalcalde4  
,the quarrels between the ,lutherans and
 the  ,calvinists gave hopes to ,rome   
that she might recover her losses4      
,leo was not slow to discern that the   
,lutheran ,reformation was something    
more serious than a squabble among some 
monks about the profits of              
indulgence-sales1 and the papacy set    
itself seriously at work to  overcome   
the revolters4 ,it instigated the       
frightful wars that for so  many years  
desolated ,europe1 and left animosities 
which neither the  ,treaty of           
,westphalia1 nor the ,council of ,trent 
after eighteen years of  debate1 could  
compose4 ,no one can read without a     
shudder the attempts  that were made to 
extend the ,inquisition in foreign      
countries4 ,all  ,europe1 ,catholic and 
,protestant1 was horror-stricken at the 
,huguenot  massacre of ,st4             

,bartholomew's ,eve 7,a4,d4 #aegb74 ,for
 perfidy and atrocity  it has no equal  
in the annals of the world4    ,the     
desperate attempt in which the papacy   
had been engaged to put down  its       
opponents by instigating civil wars1    
massacres1 and assassinations1  proved  
to be altogether abortive4 ,nor had the 
,council of ,trent any  better result4  
,ostensibly summoned to correct1        
illustrate1 and fix with  perspicacity  
the doctrine of the ,church1 to restore 
the vigor of  its discipline1 and to    
reform the lives of its ministers1 it   
was so  manipulated that a large        
majority of its members were ,italians1 
and  under the influence of the pope4   
,hence the ,protestants could not       
possibly accept its decisions4    ,the  
issue of the ,reformation was the       
acceptance by all the ,protestant       
,churches of the dogma that the ,bible  
is a sufficient guide for every         
,christian man4 ,tradition was rejected1
 and the right of private               

interpretation assured4 ,it was thought 
that the criterion of truth had  at     
length been obtained4    ,the authority 
thus imputed to the ,scriptures was not 
restricted  to matters of a purely      
religious or moral kind2 it extended    
over  philosophical facts and to the    
interpretation of ,nature4 ,many went as
  far as in the old times ,epiphanius   
had done3 he believed that the ,bible   
contained a complete system of          
mineralogy6 ,the ,reformers would       
tolerate  no science that was not in    
accordance with ,genesis4 ,among them   
there  were many who maintained that    
religion and piety could never flourish 
unless separated from learning and      
science4 ,the fatal maxim that the      
,bible contained the sum and substance  
of all knowledge1 useful or  possible to
 man--a maxim employed with such        
pernicious effect of old by  ,tertullian
 and by ,st4 ,augustine1 and which had  
so often been enforced  by papal        
authority--was still strictly insisted  

upon4 ,the leaders of  the ,reformation1
 ,luther and ,melanchthon1 were         
determined to banish  philosophy from   
the ,church4 ,luther declared that the  
study of ,aristotle  is wholly useless2 
his vilification of that ,greek         
philosopher knew no  bounds4 ,he is1    
says ,luther1 truly a devil1 a horrid   
calumniator1 a  wicked sycophant1 a     
prince of darkness1 a real ,apollyon1 a 
beast1 a  most horrid impostor on       
mankind1 one in whom there is scarcely  
any  philosophy1 a public and professed 
liar1 a goat1 a complete epicure1  this 
twice execrable ,aristotle4 ,the        
schoolmen were1 so ,luther said1        
locusts1 caterpillars1 frogs1 lice4 ,he 
entertained an abhorrence  for them4    
,these opinions1 though not so          
emphatically expressed1 were            
entertained by ,calvin4 ,so far as      
science is concerned1 nothing is owed   
to the ,reformation4 ,the ,procrustean  
bed of the ,pentateuch was still  before
 her4    ,in the annals of ,christianity

 the most ill-omened day is that in     
which  she separated herself from       
science4 ,she compelled ,origen1 at that
 time  7,a4,d4 #bca7 its chief          
representative and supporter in the     
,church1 to  abandon his charge in      
,alexandria1 and retire to ,caesarea4   
,in vain  through many subsequent       
centuries did her leading men spend     
themselves  in--as the phrase then      
went--drawing forth the internal juice  
and  marrow of the ,scriptures for the  
explaining of things4 ,universal        
history from the third to the sixteenth 
century shows with what result4  ,the   
dark ages owe their darkness to this    
fatal policy4 ,here and there1  it is   
true1 there were great men1 such as     
,frederick ,,ii4 and ,alphonso ,x41     
who1 standing at a very elevated and    
general point of view1 had detected  the
 value of learning to civilization1 and1
 in the midst of the dreary  prospect   
that ecclesiasticism had created around 
them1 had recognized  that science alone

 can improve the social condition of    
man4    ,the infliction of the          
death-punishment for difference of      
opinion was  still resorted to4 ,when   
,calvin caused ,servetus to be burnt at 
,geneva1 it  was obvious to every one   
that the spirit of persecution was      
unimpaired4  ,the offense of that       
philosopher lay in his belief4 ,this    
was1 that the  genuine doctrines of     
,christianity had been lost even before 
the time of  the ,council of ,nicea2    
that the ,holy ,ghost animates the whole
 system of  ,nature1 like a soul of the 
world1 and that1 with the ,christ1 it   
will  be absorbed1 at the end of all    
things1 into the substance of the       
,deity1  from which they had emanated4  
,for this he was roasted to death over a
  slow fire4 ,was there any distinction 
between this ,protestant auto-da-fe  and
 the ,catholic one of ,vanini1 who was  
burnt at ,toulouse1 by the              
,inquisition1 in #afbi1 for his         
,dialogues concerning ,nature8    ,the  

invention of printing1 the dissemination
 of books1 had introduced  a class of   
dangers which the persecution of the    
,inquisition could not  reach4 ,in      
#aeei1 ,pope ,paul ,,iv4 instituted the 
,congregation of the ,index             
,expurgatorius4 ,its duty is to examine 
books and manuscripts intended  for     
publication1 and to decide whether the  
people may be permitted to  read them2  
to correct those books of which the     
errors are not numerous1  and which     
contain certain useful and salutary     
truths1 so as to bring  them into       
harmony with the doctrines of the       
,church2 to condemn those  of which the 
principles are heretical and pernicious2
 and to grant the  peculiar privilege of
 perusing heretical books to certain    
persons4  ,this congregation1 which is  
sometimes held in presence of the pope1 
but  generally in the palace of the     
,cardinal-president1 has a more         
extensive  jurisdiction than that of the
 ,inquisition1 as it not only takes     

cognizance of those books that contain  
doctrines contrary to the ,roman        
,catholic faith1 but of those that      
concern the duties of morality1 the     
discipline of the ,church1 the interests
 of society4 ,its name is derived  from 
the alphabetical tables or indexes of   
heretical books and authors  composed by
 its appointment4    ,the ,index        
,expurgatorius of prohibited books at   
first indicated  those works which it   
was unlawful to read2 but1 on this being
 found  insufficient1 whatever was not  
permitted was prohibited--an audacious  
attempt to prevent all knowledge1 except
 such as suited the purposes of  the    
,church1 from reaching the people4      
,the two rival divisions of the         
,christian ,church--,protestant and     
,catholic--were thus in accord on one   
point3 to tolerate no science  except   
such as they considered to be agreeable 
to the ,scriptures4 ,the  ,catholic1    
being in possession of centralized      
power1 could make its  decisions        

respected wherever its sway was         
acknowledged1 and enforce the  monitions
 of the ,index ,expurgatorius2 the      
,protestant1 whose influence  was       
diffused among many foci in different   
nations1 could not act in such  a direct
 and resolute manner4 ,its mode of      
procedure was1 by raising a  theological
 odium against an offender1 to put him  
under a social ban--a  course perhaps   
not less effectual than the other4      
,as we have seen in former chapters1 an 
antagonism between religion and  science
 had existed from the earliest days of  
,christianity4 ,on every  occasion      
permitting its display it may be        
detected through successive  centuries4 
,we witness it in the downfall of the   
,alexandrian ,museum1 in  the cases of  
,erigena and ,wiclif1 in the            
contemptuous rejection by the  heretics 
of the thirteenth century of the        
,scriptural account of the  ,creation2  
but it was not until the epoch of       
,copernicus1 ,kepler1 and  ,galileo1    

that the efforts of ,science to burst   
from the thraldom in which  she was     
fettered became uncontrollable4 ,in all 
countries the political  power of the   
,church had greatly declined2 her       
leading men perceived  that the cloudy  
foundation on which she had stood was   
dissolving away4  ,repressive measures  
against her antagonists1 in old times   
resorted  to with effect1 could be no   
longer advantageously employed4 ,to her 
interests the burning of a philosopher  
here and there did more harm than  good4
 ,in her great conflict with astronomy1 
a conflict in which ,galileo  stands as 
the central figure1 she received an     
utter overthrow2 and1 as  we have seen1 
when the immortal work of ,newton was   
printed1 she could  offer no resistance1
 though ,leibnitz affirmed1 in the face 
of ,europe1  that ,newton had robbed the
 ,deity of some of his most excellent   
attributes1 and had sapped the          
foundation of natural religion4    ,from
 the time of ,newton to our own time1   

the divergence of science from  the     
dogmas of the ,church has continually   
increased4 ,the ,church declared  that  
the earth is the central and most       
important body in the universe2  that   
the sun and moon and stars are tributary
 to it4 ,on these points  she was       
worsted by astronomy4 ,she affirmed that
 a universal deluge had  covered the    
earth2 that the only surviving animals  
were such as had  been saved in an ark4 
,in this her error was established by   
geology4 ,she  taught that there was a  
first man1 who1 some six or eight       
thousand years  ago1 was suddenly       
created or called into existence in a   
condition of  physical and moral        
perfection1 and from that condition he  
fell4 ,but  anthropology has shown that 
human beings existed far back in        
geological  time1 and in a savage state 
but little better than that of the      
brute4    ,many good and well-meaning   
men have attempted to reconcile the     
statements of ,genesis with the         

discoveries of science1 but it is in    
vain4 ,the divergence has increased so  
much1 that it has become an  absolute   
opposition4 ,one of the antagonists must
 give way4    ,may we not1 then1 be     
permitted to examine the authenticity of
 this book1  which1 since the second    
century1 has been put forth as the      
criterion of  scientific truth8 ,to     
maintain itself in a position so        
exalted1 it must  challenge human       
criticism4    ,in the early ,christian  
ages1 many of the most eminent ,fathers 
of the  ,church had serious doubts      
respecting the authorship of the entire 
,pentateuch4 ,i have not space1 in the  
limited compass of these pages1 to      
present in detail the facts and         
arguments that were then and have since 
been adduced4 ,the literature of the    
subject is now very extensive4 ,i  may1 
however1 refer the reader to the work of
 the pious and learned ,dean  ,prideaux1
 on ,the ,old and ,new ,testament       
connected1 a work which is one  of the  

literary ornaments of the last century4 
,he will also find the  subject more    
recently and exhaustively discussed by  
,bishop ,colenso4 ,the  following       
paragraphs will convey a sufficiently   
distinct impression of  the present     
state of the controversy3    ,the       
,pentateuch is affirmed to have been    
written by ,moses1 under the  influence 
of divine inspiration4 ,considered thus1
 as a record vouchsafed  and dictated by
 the ,almighty1 it commands not only    
scientific but  universal consent4      
,but here1 in the first place1 it may be
 demanded1 ,who or what is it that  has 
put forth this great claim in its       
behalf8    ,not the work itself4 ,it    
nowhere claims the authorship of one    
man1 or  makes the impious declaration  
that it is the writing of ,almighty     
,god4    ,not until after the second    
century was there any such extravagant  
demand on human credulity4 ,it          
originated1 not among the higher ranks  
of  ,christian philosophers1 but among  

the more fervid ,fathers of the ,church1
  whose own writings prove them to have 
been unlearned and uncritical  persons4 
,every age1 from the second century to  
our times1 has offered men of  great    
ability1 both ,christian and ,jewish1   
who have altogether repudiated  these   
claims4 ,their decision has been founded
 upon the intrinsic  evidence of the    
books themselves4 ,these furnish plain  
indications of at  least two distinct   
authors1 who have been respectively     
termed ,elohistic  and ,jehovistic4     
,hupfeld maintains that the ,jehovistic 
narrative bears  marks of having been a 
second original record1 wholly          
independent of the  ,elohistic4 ,the two
 sources from which the narratives have 
been derived  are1 in many respects1    
contradictory of each other4 ,moreover1 
it is  asserted that the books of the   
,pentateuch are never ascribed to ,moses
  in the inscriptions of ,hebrew        
manuscripts1 or in printed copies of the
  ,hebrew ,bible1 nor are they styled   

,books of ,moses in the ,septuagint or  
,vulgate1 but only in modern            
translations4    ,it is clear that they 
cannot be imputed to the sole authorship
 of ,moses1  since they record his      
death4 ,it is clear that they were not  
written  until many hundred years after 
that event1 since they contain          
references  to facts which did not occur
 until after the establishment of the   
government of kings among the ,jews4    
,no man may dare to impute them to the  
inspiration of ,almighty ,god--their    
inconsistencies1 incongruities1         
contradictions1 and impossibilities1 as 
exposed by many learned and pious       
moderns1 both ,german and ,english1  are
 so great4 ,it is the decision of these 
critics that ,genesis is a  narrative   
based upon legends2 that ,exodus is not 
historically true2 that  the whole      
,pentateuch is unhistoric and           
non-,mosaic2 it contains the most       
extraordinary contradictions and        
impossibilities1 sufficient to involve  

the credibility of the                  
whole--imperfections so many and so     
conspicuous  that they would destroy the
 authenticity of any modern historical  
work4    ,hengstenberg1 in his          
,dissertations on the ,genuineness of   
the  ,pentateuch1 says3 ,it is the      
unavoidable fate of a spurious          
historical  work of any length to be    
involved in contradictions4 ,this must  
be the  case to a very great extent with
 the ,pentateuch1 if it be not genuine4 
,if the ,pentateuch is spurious1 its    
histories and laws have been  fabricated
 in successive portions1 and were       
committed to writing in the  course of  
many centuries by different individuals4
 ,from such a mode of  origination1 a   
mass of contradictions is inseparable1  
and the improving  hand of a later      
editor could never be capable of        
entirely obliterating  them4    ,to the 
above conclusions ,i may add that we are
 expressly told by ,ezra  7,esdras ii4  
#ad7 that he himself1 aided by five     

other persons1 wrote  these books in the
 space of forty days4 ,he says that at  
the time of the  ,babylonian captivity  
the ancient sacred writings of the ,jews
 were burnt1  and gives a particular    
detail of the circumstances under which 
these  were composed4 ,he sets forth    
that he undertook to write all that had 
been done in the world since the        
beginning4 ,it may be said that the     
books of ,esdras are apocryphal1 but in 
return it may be demanded1 ,has  that   
conclusion been reached on evidence that
 will withstand modern  criticism8 ,in  
the early ages of ,christianity1 when   
the story of the fall  of man was not   
considered as essential to the          
,christian system1 and the  doctrine of 
the atonement had not attained that     
precision which ,anselm  eventually gave
 it1 it was very generally admitted by  
the ,fathers of the  ,church that ,ezra 
probably did so compose the ,pentateuch4
 ,thus ,st4 ,jerome  says1 ,sive ,mosem 
dicere volueris auctorem ,pentateuchi1  

sive ,esdram  ejusdem instauratorem     
operis1 non recuso4 ,clemens            
,alexandrinus  says that when these     
books had been destroyed in the         
captivity of  ,nebuchadnezzar1 ,esdras1 
having become inspired prophetically1   
reproduced  them4 ,irenaeus says the    
same4    ,the incidents contained in    
,genesis1 from the first to the tenth   
chapters  inclusive 7chapters which1 in 
their bearing upon science1 are of more 
importance than other portions of the   
,pentateuch71 have been obviously       
compiled from short1 fragmentary legends
 of various authorship4 ,to the         
critical eye they all1 however1 present 
peculiarities which demonstrate  that   
they were written on the banks of the   
,euphrates1 and not in the  ,desert of  
,arabia4 ,they contain many ,chaldaisms4
 ,an ,egyptian would not  speak of the  
,mediterranean ,sea as being west of    
him1 an ,assyrian would4  ,their scenery
 and machinery1 if such expressions may 
with propriety be  used1 are altogether 

,assyrian1 not ,egyptian4 ,they were    
such records as  one might expect to    
meet with in the cuneiform impressions  
of the  tile libraries of the           
,mesopotamian kings4 ,it is affirmed    
that one such  legend1 that of the      
,deluge1 has already been exhumed1 and  
it is not  beyond the bounds of         
probability that the remainder may in   
like manner  be obtained4    ,from such 
,assyrian sources1 the legends of the   
creation of the earth and  heaven1 the  
garden of ,eden1 the making of man from 
clay1 and of woman  from one of his     
ribs1 the temptation by the serpent1 the
 naming of  animals1 the cherubim and   
flaming sword1 the ,deluge and the ark1 
the  drying up of the waters by the     
wind1 the building of the ,tower of     
,babel1 and the confusion of tongues1   
were obtained by ,ezra4 ,he commences   
abruptly the proper history of the ,jews
 in the eleventh chapter4 ,at that      
point his universal history ceases2 he  
occupies himself with the story  of one 

family1 the descendants of ,shem4    ,it
 is of this restriction that the ,duke  
of ,argyll1 in his book on  ,primeval   
,man1 very graphically says3    ,in the 
genealogy of the family of ,shem we have
 a list of names which are  names1 and  
nothing more to us4 ,it is a genealogy  
which neither does1 nor  pretends to do1
 more than to trace the order of        
succession among a few  families only1  
out of the millions then already        
existing in the world4  ,nothing but    
this order of succession is given1 nor  
is it at all certain  that this order is
 consecutive or complete4 ,nothing is   
told us of all  that lay behind that    
curtain of thick darkness1 in front of  
which  these names are made to pass2 and
 yet there are1 as it were1 momentary   
liftings1 through which we have glimpses
 of great movements which were  going   
on1 and had been long going on beyond4  
,no shapes are distinctly  seen4 ,even  
the direction of those movements can    
only be guessed4 ,but  voices are heard 

which are as the voices of many waters4 
,i agree in  the opinion of ,hupfeld1   
that the discovery that the ,pentateuch 
is put  together out of various sources1
 or original documents1 is beyond  all  
doubt not only one of the most important
 and most pregnant with  consequences   
for the interpretation of the historical
 books of the ,old  ,testament1 or      
rather for the whole of theology and    
history1 but it is  also one of the most
 certain discoveries which have been    
made in  the domain of criticism and the
 history of literature4 ,whatever the   
anticritical party may bring forward to 
the contrary1 it will maintain  itself1 
and not retrograde again through any    
thing1 so long as there  exists such a  
thing as criticism2 and it will not be  
easy for a reader  upon the stage of    
culture on which we stand in the present
 day1 if he  goes to the examination    
unprejudiced1 and with an uncorrupted   
power of  appreciating the truth1 to be 
able to ward off its influence4    ,what

 then8 shall we give up these books8    
,does not the admission that the        
narrative of the fall in ,eden is       
legendary carry with it the surrender   
of that most solemn and sacred of       
,christian doctrines1 the atonement8    
,let us reflect on this6 ,christianity1 
in its earliest days1 when it was       
converting and conquering the world1    
knew little or nothing about that       
doctrine4 ,we have seen that1 in his    
,apology1 ,tertullian did not  think it 
worth his while to mention it4 ,it      
originated among the ,gnostic  heretics4
 ,it was not admitted by the            
,alexandrian theological school4 ,it    
was never prominently advanced by the   
,fathers4 ,it was not brought into  its 
present commanding position until the   
time of ,anselm ,philo ,judaeus  speaks 
of the story of the fall as symbolical2 
,origen regarded it as an  allegory4    
,perhaps some of the ,protestant        
churches may1 with reason1 be  accused  
of inconsistency1 since in part they    

consider it as mythical1 in  part real4 
,but1 if1 with them1 we admit that the  
serpent is symbolical  of ,satan1 does  
not that cast an air of allegory over   
the whole  narrative8    ,it is to be   
regretted that the ,christian ,church   
has burdened itself with  the defense of
 these books1 and voluntarily made      
itself answerable for  their manifest   
contradictions and errors4 ,their       
vindication1 if it  were possible1      
should have been resigned to the ,jews1 
among whom they  originated1 and by whom
 they have been transmitted to us4      
,still more1 it  is to be deeply        
regretted that the ,pentateuch1 a       
production so imperfect  as to be unable
 to stand the touch of modern criticism1
 should be put  forth as the arbiter of 
science4 ,let it be remembered that the 
exposure  of the true character of these
 books has been made1 not by captious   
enemies1 but by pious and learned       
churchmen1 some of them of the highest  
dignity4    ,while thus the ,protestant 

churches have insisted on the           
acknowledgment  of the ,scriptures as   
the criterion of truth1 the ,catholic   
has1 in our  own times1 declared the    
infallibility of the pope4 ,it may be   
said that  this infallibility applies   
only to moral or religious things2 but  
where  shall the line of separation be  
drawn8 ,onmiscience cannot be limited   
to a restricted group of questions2 in  
its very nature it implies the          
knowledge of all1 and infallibility     
means omniscience4    ,doubtless1 if the
 fundamental principles of ,italian     
,christianity be  admitted1 their       
logical issue is an infallible pope4    
,there is no need to  dwell on the      
unphilosophical nature of this          
conception2 it is destroyed  by an      
examination of the political history of 
the papacy1 and the  biography of the   
popes4 ,the former exhibits all the     
errors and mistakes  to which           
institutions of a confessedly human     
character have been found  liable2 the  

latter is only too frequently a story of
 sin and shame4    ,it was not possible 
that the authoritative promulgation of  
the dogma of  papal infallibility should
 meet among enlightened ,catholics      
universal  acceptance4 ,serious and     
wide-spread dissent has been produced4  
,a  doctrine so revolting to            
common-sense could not find any other   
result4  ,there are many who affirm     
that1 if infallibility exists anywhere1 
it is  in oecumenical councils1 and yet 
such councils have not always agreed    
with each other4 ,there are also many   
who remember that councils  have deposed
 popes1 and have passed judgment on     
their clamors and  contentions4 ,not    
without reason do ,protestants demand1  
,what proof can  be given that          
infallibility exists in the ,church at  
all8 what proof is  there that the      
,church has ever been fairly or justly  
represented in  any council8 and why    
should the truth be ascertained by the  
vote of a  majority rather than by that 

of a minority8 ,how often it has        
happened  that one man1 standing at the 
right point of view1 has descried the   
truth1 and1 after having been denounced 
and persecuted by all others1  they have
 eventually been constrained to adopt   
his declarations6 ,of many  great       
discoveries1 has not this been the      
history8    ,it is not for ,science to  
compose these contesting claims2 it is  
not for  her to determine whether the   
criterion of truth for the religious man
  shall be found in the ,bible1 or in   
the oecumenical council1 or in the      
pope4 ,she only asks the right1 which   
she so willingly accords to others1  of 
adopting a criterion of her own4 ,if she
 regards unhistorical  legends with     
disdain2 if she considers the vote of a 
majority in the  ascertainment of truth 
with supreme indifference2 if she leaves
 the  claim of infallibility in any     
human being to be vindicated by the     
stern  logic of coming events--the cold 
impassiveness which in these matters    

she maintains is what she displays      
toward her own doctrines4 ,without      
hesitation she would give up the        
theories of gravitation or undulations1 
if she found that they were             
irreconcilable with facts4 ,for her the 
volume of inspiration is the book of    
,nature1 of which the open scroll  is   
ever spread forth before the eyes of    
every man4 ,confronting all1 it  needs  
no societies for its dissemination4     
,infinite in extent1 eternal  in        
duration1 human ambition and human      
fanaticism have never been able  to     
tamper with it4 ,on the earth it is     
illustrated by all that is  magnificent 
and beautiful1 on the heavens its       
letters are suns and  worlds4           
,,chapter ,,ix4         ,,controversy   
,,respecting ,,the ,,government ,,of    
,,the ,,universe4         ,there are two
 conceptions of the government of the   
world3 #a4       ,by ,providence2 #b4   
,by ,law4--,the former maintained by the
       priesthood4--,sketch of the      

introduction of the latter4             
,kepler discovers the laws that preside 
over the solar       system4--,his works
 are denounced by papal authority4--,the
       foundations of mechanical        
philosophy are laid by ,da ,vinci4--    
,galileo discovers the fundamental laws 
of ,dynamics4--,newton       applies    
them to the movements of the celestial  
bodies1 and       shows that the solar  
system is governed by mathematical      
necessity4--,herschel extends that      
conclusion to the       universe4--,the 
nebular hypothesis4--,theological       
exceptions       to it4                 
,evidences of the control of law in the 
construction of the       earth1 and in 
the development of the animal and plant 
series4--,they arose by ,evolution1 not 
by ,creation4         ,the reign of law 
is exhibited by the historic career of  
human societies1 and in the case of     
individual man4         ,partial        
adoption of this view by some of the    
,reformed       ,churches4      ,two    

interpretations may be given of the mode
 of government of the world4  ,it may be
 by incessant divine interventions1 or  
by the operation of  unvarying law4     
,to the adoption of the former a        
priesthood will always incline1 since   
it must desire to be considered as      
standing between the prayer of the      
votary and the providential act4 ,its   
importance is magnified by the  power it
 claims of determining what that act    
shall be4 ,in the pre  ,christian       
7,roman7 religion1 the grand office of  
the priesthood was the  discovery of    
future events by oracles1 omens1 or an  
inspection of the  entrails of animals1 
and by the offering of sacrifices to    
propitiate the  gods4 ,in the later1 the
 ,christian times1 a higher power was   
claimed2 the  clergy asserting that1 by 
their intercessions1 they could regulate
 the  course of affairs1 avert dangers1 
secure benefits1 work miracles1 and     
even change the order of ,nature4       
,not without reason1 therefore1 did they

 look upon the doctrine of  government  
by unvarying law with disfavor4 ,it     
seemed to depreciate  their dignity1 to 
lessen their importance4 ,to them there 
was something  shocking in a ,god who   
cannot be swayed by human entreaty1 a   
cold1  passionless divinity--something  
frightful in fatalism1 destiny4    ,but 
the orderly movement of the heavens     
could not fail in all ages to  make a   
deep impression on thoughtful           
observers--the rising and setting  of   
the sun2 the increasing or diminishing  
light of the day2 the waxing  and waning
 of the moon2 the return of the seasons 
in their proper  courses2 the measured  
march of the wandering planets in the   
sky--what  are all these1 and a thousand
 such1 but manifestations of an orderly 
and  unchanging procession of events8   
,the faith of early observers in this   
interpretation may perhaps have been    
shaken by the occurrence of such a      
phenomenon as an eclipse1 a sudden and  
mysterious breach of the ordinary       

course of natural events2 but it would  
be resumed in tenfold strength as  soon 
as the discovery was made that eclipses 
themselves recur1 and may  be predicted4
    ,astronomical predictions of all    
kinds depend upon the admission of this 
fact--that there never has been and     
never will be any intervention in  the  
operation of natural laws4 ,the         
scientific philosopher affirms that  the
 condition of the world at any given    
moment is the direct result  of its     
condition in the preceding moment1 and  
the direct cause of its  condition in   
the subsequent moment4 ,law and chance  
are only different  names for mechanical
 necessity4    ,about fifty years after 
the death of ,copernicus1 ,john ,kepler1
 a native  of ,wurtemberg1 who had      
adopted the heliocentric theory1 and who
 was  deeply impressed with the belief  
that relationships exist in the         
revolutions of the planetary bodies     
round the sun1 and that these if        
correctly examined would reveal the laws

 under which those movements  take      
place1 devoted himself to the study of  
the distances1 times1 and  velocities of
 the planets1 and the form of their     
orbits4 ,his method  was1 to submit the 
observations to which he had access1    
such as those  of ,tycho ,brahe1 to     
computations based first on one and then
 on another  hypothesis1 rejecting the  
hypothesis if he found that the         
calculations  did not accord with the   
observations4 ,the incredible labor he  
had  undergone 7he says1 ,i considered1 
and ,i computed1 until ,i almost went   
mad7 was at length rewarded1 and in     
#afji he published his book1 ,on the    
,motions of the ,planet ,mars4 ,in this 
he had attempted to reconcile the       
movements of that planet to the         
hypothesis of eccentrics and epicycles1 
but eventually discovered that the orbit
 of a planet is not a circle but  an    
ellipse1 the sun being in one of the    
foci1 and that the areas swept  over by 
a line drawn from the planet to the sun 

are proportional to the  times4 ,these  
constitute what are now known as the    
first and second laws  of ,kepler4      
,eight years subsequently1 he was       
rewarded by the discovery  of a third   
law1 defining the relation between the  
mean distances of the  planets from the 
sun and the times of their revolutions2 
the squares of  the periodic times are  
proportional to the cubes of the        
distances4 ,in  ,an ,epitome of the     
,copernican ,system1 published in #afah1
 he announced  this law1 and showed that
 it holds good for the satellites of    
,jupiter as  regards their primary4     
,hence it was inferred that the laws    
which preside  over the grand movements 
of the solar system preside also over   
the less  movements of its constituent  
parts4    ,the conception of law which  
is unmistakably conveyed by ,kepler's   
discoveries1 and the evidence they gave 
in support of the heliocentric  as      
against the geocentric theory1 could not
 fail to incur the  reprehension of the 

,roman authorities4 ,the congregation of
 the ,index1  therefore1 when they      
denounced the ,copernican system as     
utterly contrary  to the ,holy          
,scriptures1 prohibited ,kepler's       
,epitome of that system4 ,it  was on    
this occasion that ,kepler submitted his
 celebrated remonstrance3  ,eighty years
 have elapsed during which the doctrines
 of ,copernicus  regarding the movement 
of the earth and the immobility of the  
sun have  been promulgated without      
hinderance1 because it was deemed       
allowable to  dispute concerning natural
 things1 and to elucidate the works of  
,god1  and now that new testimony is    
discovered in proof of the truth of     
those  doctrines--testimony which was   
not known to the spiritual judges--ye   
would prohibit the promulgation of the  
true system of the structure of  the    
universe4    ,none of ,kepler's         
contemporaries believed the law of the  
areas1 nor was  it accepted until the   
publication of the ,principia of        

,newton4 ,in fact1  no one in those     
times understood the philosophical      
meaning of ,kepler's  laws4 ,he himself 
did not foresee what they must          
inevitably lead to4 ,his  mistakes      
showed how far he was from perceiving   
their result4 ,thus he  thought that    
each planet is the seat of an           
intelligent principle1 and  that there  
is a relation between the magnitudes of 
the orbits of the  five principal       
planets and the five regular solids of  
geometry4 ,at first  he inclined to     
believe that the orbit of ,mars is oval1
 nor was it until  after a wearisome    
study that he detected the grand truth1 
its elliptical  form4 ,an idea of the   
incorruptibility of the celestial       
objects had  led to the adoption of the 
,aristotelian doctrine of the perfection
 of  circular motions1 and to the belief
 that there were none but circular      
motions in the heavens4 ,he bitterly    
complains of this as having been a      
fatal thief of his time4 ,his           

philosophical daring is illustrated in  
his breaking through this time-honored  
tradition4    ,in some most important   
particulars ,kepler anticipated ,newton4
 ,he was the  first to give clear ideas 
respecting gravity4 ,he says every      
particle of  matter will rest until it  
is disturbed by some other              
particle--that the  earth attracts a    
stone more than the stone attracts the  
earth1 and that  bodies move to each    
other in proportion to their masses2    
that the earth  would ascend to the moon
 one-fifty-fourth of the distance1 and  
the moon  would move toward the earth   
the other fifty-three4 ,he affirms that 
the  moon's attraction causes the tides1
 and that the planets must impress      
irregularities on the moon's motions4   
,the progress of astronomy is obviously 
divisible into three periods3    #a4    
,the period of observation of the       
apparent motions of the heavenly        
bodies4    #b4 ,the period of discovery 
of their real motions1 and particularly 

of  the laws of the planetary           
revolutions2 this was signally          
illustrated by  ,copernicus and ,kepler4
    #c4 ,the period of the ascertainment
 of the causes of those laws4 ,it was   
the epoch of ,newton4    ,the passage of
 the second into the third period       
depended on the  development of the     
,dynamical branch of mechanics1 which   
had been in  a stagnant condition from  
the time of ,archimedes or the          
,alexandrian  ,school4    ,in ,christian
 ,europe there had not been a cultivator
 of mechanical  philosophy until        
,leonardo da ,vinci1 who was born ,a4,d4
 #adeb4 ,to him1 and  not to ,lord      
,bacon1 must be attributed the          
renaissance of science4 ,bacon  was not 
only ignorant of mathematics1 but       
depreciated its application  to physical
 inquiries4 ,he contemptuously rejected 
the ,copernican system1  alleging absurd
 objections to it4 ,while ,galileo was  
on the brink of  his great telescopic   
discoveries1 ,bacon was publishing      

doubts as to  the utility of instruments
 in scientific investigations4 ,to      
ascribe the  inductive method to him is 
to ignore history4 ,his fanciful        
philosophical  suggestions have never   
been of the slightest practical use4 ,no
 one has  ever thought of employing     
them4 ,except among ,english readers1   
his name  is almost unknown4    ,to ,da 
,vinci ,i shall have occasion to allude 
more particularly on a  subsequent page4
 ,of his works still remaining in       
manuscript1 two volumes  are at ,milan1 
and one in ,paris1 carried there by     
,napoleon4 ,after an  interval of about 
seventy years1 ,da ,vinci was followed  
by the ,dutch  engineer1 ,stevinus1     
whose work on the principles of         
equilibrium was  published in #aehf4    
,six years afterward appeared ,galileo's
 treatise on  mechanics4    ,to this    
great ,italian is due the establishment 
of the three fundamental  laws of       
dynamics1 known as the ,laws of ,motion4
    ,the consequences of the            

establishment of these laws were very   
important4    ,it had been supposed that
 continuous movements1 such1 for        
instance1 as  those of the celestial    
bodies1 could only be maintained by a   
perpetual  consumption and perpetual    
application of force1 but the first of  
,galileo's laws declared that every body
 will persevere in its state of  rest1  
or of uniform motion in a right line1   
until it is compelled to  change that   
state by disturbing forces4 ,a clear    
perception of this  fundamental         
principle is essential to a             
comprehension of the elementary  facts  
of physical astronomy4 ,since all the   
motions that we witness  taking place on
 the surface of the earth soon come to  
an end1 we are  led to infer that rest  
is the natural condition of things4 ,we 
have made1  then1 a very great advance  
when we have become satisfied that a    
body is  equally indifferent to rest as 
to motion1 and that it equally          
perseveres  in either state until       

disturbing forces are applied4 ,such    
disturbing  forces in the case of common
 movements are friction and the         
resistance  of the air4 ,when no such   
resistances exist1 movement must be     
perpetual1  as is the case with the     
heavenly bodies1 which are moving in a  
void4    ,forces1 no matter what their  
difference of magnitude may be1 will    
exert  their full influence conjointly1 
each as though the other did not exist4 
,thus1 when a ball is suffered to drop  
from the mouth of a cannon1 it  falls to
 the ground in a certain interval of    
time through the influence  of gravity  
upon it4 ,if1 then1 it be fired from the
 cannon1 though now  it may be projected
 some thousands of feet in a second1 the
 effect  of gravity upon it will be     
precisely the same as before4 ,in the   
intermingling of forces there is no     
deterioration2 each produces its own    
specific effect4    ,in the latter half 
of the seventeenth century1 through the 
works of  ,borelli1 ,hooke1 and         

,huyghens1 it had become plain that     
circular motions  could be accounted for
 by the laws of ,galileo4 ,borelli1     
treating of the  motions of ,jupiter's  
satellites1 shows how a circular        
movement may arise  under the influence 
of a central force4 ,hooke exhibited the
 inflection  of a direct motion into a  
circular by a supervening central       
attraction4    ,the year #afhg presents1
 not only an epoch in ,european science1
 but also  in the intellectual          
development of man4 ,it is marked by the
 publication  of the ,principia of      
,newton1 an incomparable1 an immortal   
work4    ,on the principle that all     
bodies attract each other with forces   
directly  as their masses1 and inversely
 as the squares of their distances1     
,newton  showed that all the movements  
of the celestial bodies may be accounted
  for1 and that ,kepler's laws might all
 have been predicted--the elliptic      
motions--the described areas the        
relation of the times and distances4 ,as

  we have seen1 ,newton's contemporaries
 had perceived how circular motions     
could be explained2 that was a special  
case1 but ,newton furnished the         
solution of the general problem1        
containing all special cases of motion  
in circles1 ellipses1 parabolas1        
hyperbolas--that is1 in all the conic   
sections4    ,the ,alexandrian          
mathematicians had shown that the       
direction of movement  of falling bodies
 is toward the centre of the earth4     
,newton proved that  this must          
necessarily be the case1 the general    
effect of the attraction  of all the    
particles of a sphere being the same as 
if they were all  concentrated in its   
centre4 ,to this central force1 thus    
determining the  fall of bodies1 the    
designation of gravity was given4 ,up to
 this time1  no one1 except ,kepler1 had
 considered how far its influence       
reached4 ,it  seemed to ,newton possible
 that it might extend as far as the     
moon1 and  be the force that deflects   

her from a rectilinear path1 and makes  
her  revolve in her orbit round the     
earth4 ,it was easy to compute1 on the  
principle of the law of inverse squares1
 whether the earth's attraction  was    
sufficient to produce the observed      
effect4 ,employing the measures  of the 
size of the earth accessible at the     
time1 ,newton found that the  moon's    
deflection was only thirteen feet in a  
minute2 whereas1 if his  hypothesis of  
gravitation were true1 it should be     
fifteen feet4 ,but in  #affi ,picard1 as
 we have seen1 executed the measurement 
of a degree more  carefully than had    
previously been done2 this changed the  
estimate of  the magnitude of the earth1
 and1 therefore1 of the distance of the 
moon2  and1 ,newton's attention having  
been directed to it by some discussions 
that took place at the ,royal ,society  
in #afgi1 he obtained ,picard's         
results1 went home1 took out his old    
papers1 and resumed his  calculations4  
,as they drew to a close1 he became so  

much agitated  that he was obliged to   
desire a friend to finish them4 ,the    
expected  coincidence was established4  
,it was proved that the moon is retained
  in her orbit and made to revolve round
 the earth by the force of  terrestrial 
gravity4 ,the genii of ,kepler had given
 place to the vortices  of ,descartes1  
and these in their turn to the central  
force of ,newton4    ,in like manner the
 earth1 and each of the planets1 are    
made to move  in an elliptic orbit round
 the sun by his attractive force1 and   
perturbations arise by reason of the    
disturbing action of the planetary      
masses on one another4 ,knowing the     
masses and the distances1 these         
disturbances may be computed4 ,later    
astronomers have even succeeded with    
the inverse problem1 that is1 knowing   
the perturbations or disturbances1  to  
find the place and the mass of the      
disturbing body4 ,thus1 from the        
deviations of ,uranus from his          
theoretical position1 the discovery of  

,neptune was accomplished4    ,newton's 
merit consisted in this1 that he applied
 the laws of dynamics  to the movements 
of the celestial bodies1 and insisted   
that scientific  theories must be       
substantiated by the agreement of       
observations with  calculations4        
,when ,kepler announced his three laws1 
they were received with  condemnation by
 the spiritual authorities1 not because 
of any error they  were supposed to     
present or to contain1 but partly       
because they gave  support to the       
,copernican system1 and partly because  
it was judged  inexpedient to admit the 
prevalence of law of any kind as opposed
 to  providential intervention4 ,the    
world was regarded as the theatre in    
which the divine will was daily         
displayed2 it was considered derogatory 
to the majesty of ,god that that will   
should be fettered in any way4 ,the     
power of the clergy was chiefly         
manifested in the influence the were    
alleged to possess in changing his      

arbitrary determinations4 ,it was thus  
that they could abate the baleful action
 of comets1 secure fine weather  or     
rain1 prevent eclipses1 and1 arresting  
the course of ,nature1 work all  manner 
of miracles2 it was thus that the shadow
 had been made to go back  on the dial1 
and the sun and the moon stopped in     
mid-career4    ,in the century preceding
 the epoch of ,newton1 a great religious
 and  political revolution had taken    
place--the ,reformation4 ,though its    
effect had not been the securing of     
complete liberty for thought1 it had    
weakened many of the old ecclesiastical 
bonds4 ,in the reformed countries  there
 was no power to express a condemnation 
of ,newton's works1 and  among the      
clergy there was no disposition to give 
themselves any concern  about the       
matter4 ,at first the attention of the  
,protestant was engrossed  by the       
movements of his great enemy the        
,catholic1 and when that source  of     
disquietude ceased1 and the inevitable  

partitions of the ,reformation  arose1  
that attention was fastened upon the    
rival and antagonistic  ,churches4 ,the 
,lutheran1 the ,calvinist1 the          
,episcopalian1 the  ,presbyterian1 had  
something more urgent on hand than      
,newton's  mathematical demonstrations4 
,so1 uncondemned1 and indeed unobserved1
 in this clamor of fighting  sects1     
,newton's grand theory solidly          
established itself4 ,its  philosophical 
significance was infinitely more        
momentous than the dogmas  that these   
persons were quarreling about4 ,it not  
only accepted the  heliocentric theory  
and the laws discovered by ,kepler1 but 
it proved  that1 no matter what might be
 the weight of opposing ecclesiastical  
authority1 the sun ,,must be the centre 
of our system1 and that ,kepler's  laws 
are the result of a mathematical        
necessity4 ,it is impossible that  they 
should be other than they are4    ,but  
what is the meaning of all this8        
,plainly that the solar system  is not  

interrupted by providential             
interventions1 but is under the         
government of irreversible law--law that
 is itself the issue of  mathematical   
necessity4    ,the telescopic           
observations of ,herschel ,i4 satisfied 
him that there are  very many double    
stars--double not merely because they   
are accidentally  in the same line of   
view1 but because they are connected    
physically1  revolving round each other4
 ,these observations were continued and 
greatly extended by ,herschel ,,ii4 ,the
 elements of the elliptic orbit of  the 
double star zeta of the ,great ,bear    
were determined by ,savary1 its  period 
being fifty-eight and one-quarter years2
 those of another1 sigma  ,coronae1 were
 determined by ,hind1 its period being  
more than seven  hundred and thirty-six 
years4 ,the orbital movement of these   
double suns  in ellipses compels us to  
admit that the law of gravitation holds 
good  far beyond the boundaries of the  
solar system2 indeed1 as far as the     

telescope can reach1 it demonstrates the
 reign of law4 ,d',alembert1 in  the    
,introduction to the ,encyclopaedia1    
says3 ,the universe is but a  single    
fact2 it is only one great truth4       
,shall we1 then1 conclude that the solar
 and the starry systems have been       
called into existence by ,god1 and that 
he has then imposed upon them by  his   
arbitrary will laws under the control of
 which it was his pleasure  that their  
movements should be made8    ,or are    
there reasons for believing that these  
several systems came into  existence not
 by such an arbitrary fiat1 but through 
the operation of  law8    ,the following
 are some peculiarities displayed by the
 solar system as  enumerated by         
,laplace4 ,all the planets and their    
satellites move in  ellipses of such    
small eccentricity that they are nearly 
circles4 ,all  the planets move in the  
same direction and nearly in the same   
plane4 ,the  movements of the satellites
 are in the same direction as those of  

the  planets4 ,the movements of rotation
 of the sun1 of the planets1 and the    
satellites1 are in the same direction as
 their orbital motions1 and in  planes  
little different4    ,it is impossible  
that so many coincidences could be the  
result of  chance6 ,is it not plain that
 there must have been a common tie among
  all these bodies1 that they are only  
parts of what must once have been a     
single mass8    ,but if we admit that   
the substance of which the solar system 
consists  once existed in a nebulous    
condition1 and was in rotation1 all the 
above  peculiarities follow as necessary
 mechanical consequences4 ,nay1 more1   
the formation of planets1 the formation 
of satellites and of asteroids1  is     
accounted for4 ,we see why the outer    
planets and satellites are larger  than 
the interior ones2 why the larger       
planets rotate rapidly1 and the  small  
ones slowly2 why of the satellites the  
outer planets have more1  the inner     
fewer4 ,we are furnished with           

indications of the time of  revolution  
of the planets in their orbits1 and of  
the satellites in  theirs2 we perceive  
the mode of formation of ,saturn's      
rings4 ,we find an  explanation of the  
physical condition of the sun1 and the  
transitions of  condition through which 
the earth and moon have passed1 as      
indicated by  their geology4    ,but two
 exceptions to the above peculiarities  
have been noted2 they are  in the cases 
of ,uranus and ,neptune4    ,the        
existence of such a nebulous mass once  
admitted1 all the rest  follows as a    
matter of necessity4 ,is there not1     
however1 a most serious  objection in   
the way8 ,is not this to exclude        
,almighty ,god from the  worlds he has  
made8    ,first1 we must be satisfied   
whether there is any solid evidence for 
admitting the existence of such a       
nebulous mass4    ,the nebular          
hypothesis rests primarily on the       
telescopic discovery made  by ,herschel 
,i41 that there are scattered here and  

there in the heavens  pale1 gleaming    
patches of light1 a few of which are    
large enough to be  visible to the naked
 eye4 ,of these1 many may be resolved by
 a sufficient  telescopic power into a  
congeries of stars1 but some1 such as   
the great  nebula in ,orion1 have       
resisted the best instruments hitherto  
made4    ,it was asserted by those who  
were indisposed to accept the nebular   
hypothesis1 that the non-resolution was 
due to imperfection in the  telescopes  
used4 ,in these instruments two distinct
 functions may be  observed3 their      
light-gathering power depends on the    
diameter of their  object mirror or     
lens1 their defining power depends on   
the exquisite  correctness of their     
optical surfaces4 ,grand instruments may
 possess  the former quality in         
perfection by reason of their size1 but 
the latter  very imperfectly1 either    
through want of original configuration1 
or  distortion arising from flexure     
through their own weight4 ,but1 unless  

an  instrument be perfect in this       
respect1 as well as adequate in the     
other1  it may fail to decompose a      
nebula into discrete points4            
,fortunately1 however1 other means for  
the settlement of this question  are    
available4 ,in #ahdf1 it was discovered 
by the author of this book  that the    
spectrum of an ignited solid is         
continuous--that is1 has  neither dark  
nor bright lines4 ,fraunhofer had       
previously made known that  the spectrum
 of ignited gases is discontinuous4     
,here1 then1 is the means  of           
determining whether the light emitted by
 a given nebula comes from an           
incandescent gas1 or from a congeries of
 ignited solids1 stars1 or  suns4 ,if   
its spectrum be discontinuous1 it is a  
true nebula or gas2 if  continuous1 a   
congeries of stars4    ,in #ahfd1 ,mr4  
,huggins made this examination in the   
case of a nebula in  the constellation  
,draco4 ,it proved to be gaseous4       
,subsequent observations have shown     

that1 of sixty nebulae examined1        
nineteen give discontinuous or gaseous  
spectra--the remainder continuous  ones4
    ,it may1 therefore1 be admitted that
 physical evidence has at length  been  
obtained1 demonstrating the existence of
 vast masses of matter in a  gaseous    
condition1 and at a temperature of      
incandescence4 ,the hypothesis  of      
,laplace has thus a firm basis4 ,in such
 a nebular mass1 cooling by  radiation  
is a necessary incident1 and            
condensation and rotation the           
inevitable results4 ,there must be a    
separation of rings all lying in  one   
plane1 a generation of planets and      
satellites all rotating alike1  a       
central sun and engirdling globes4 ,from
 a chaotic mass1 through the  operation 
of natural laws1 an organized system has
 been produced4 ,an  integration of     
matter into worlds has taken place      
through a decline of  heat4    ,if such 
be the cosmogony of the solar system1   
such the genesis of the  planetary      

worlds1 we are constrained to extend our
 views of the dominion  of law1 and to  
recognize its agency in the creation as 
well as in the  conservation of the     
innumerable orbs that throng the        
universe4    ,but1 again1 it may be     
asked3 ,is there not something          
profoundly impious  in this8 ,are we not
 excluding ,almighty ,god from the world
 he has made8    ,we have often         
witnessed the formation of a cloud in a 
serene sky4 ,a hazy  point1 barely      
perceptible--a little wreath of         
mist--increases in volume1  and becomes 
darker and denser1 until it obscures a  
large portion of the  heavens4 ,it      
throws itself into fantastic shapes1 it 
gathers a glory  from the sun1 is borne 
onward by the wind1 and1 perhaps1 as it 
gradually  came1 so it gradually        
disappears1 melting away in the         
untroubled air4    ,now1 we say that the
 little vesicles of which this cloud was
 composed  arose from the condensation  
of water-vapor preexisting in the       

atmosphere1 through reduction of        
temperature2 we show how they assumed   
the form they present4 ,we assign       
optical reasons for the brightness  or  
blackness of the cloud2 we explain1 on  
mechanical principles1 its  drifting    
before the wind2 for its disappearance  
we account on  the principles of        
chemistry4 ,it never occurs to us to    
invoke the  interposition of the        
,almighty in the production and         
fashioning of this  fugitive form4 ,we  
explain all the facts connected with it 
by physical  laws1 and perhaps should   
reverentially hesitate to call into     
operation  the finger of ,god4    ,but  
the universe is nothing more than such a
 cloud--a cloud of suns and  worlds4    
,supremely grand though it may seem to  
us1 to the ,infinite and  ,eternal      
,intellect it is no more than a fleeting
 mist4 ,if there be a  multiplicity of  
worlds in infinite space1 there is also 
a succession of  worlds in infinite     
time4 ,as one after another cloud       

replaces cloud in  the skies1 so this   
starry system1 the universe1 is the     
successor of  countless others that have
 preceded it--the predecessor of        
countless  others that will follow4     
,there is an unceasing metamorphosis1 a 
sequence  of events1 without beginning  
or end4    ,if1 on physical principles1 
we account for minor meteorological     
incidents1 mists and clouds1 is it not  
permissible for us to appeal to  the    
same principle in the origin of         
world-systems and universes1 which  are 
only clouds on a space-scale somewhat   
larger1 mists on a time-scale  somewhat 
less transient8 ,can any man place the  
line which bounds  the physical on one  
side1 the supernatural on the other8 ,do
 not our  estimates of the extent and   
the duration of things depend altogether
  on our point of view8 ,were we set in 
the midst of the great nebula  of       
,orion1 how transcendently magnificent  
the scene6 ,the vast  transformations1  
the condensations of a fiery mist into  

worlds1 might  seem worthy of the       
immediate presence1 the supervision of  
,god2 here1 at  our distant station1    
where millions of miles are             
inappreciable to our  eyes1 and suns    
seem no bigger than motes in the air1   
that nebula is more  insignificant than 
the faintest cloud4 ,galileo1 in his    
description of  the constellation of    
,orion1 did not think it worth while so 
much as to  mention it4 ,the most       
rigorous theologian of those days would 
have seen  nothing to blame in imputing 
its origin to secondary causes1 nothing 
irreligious in failing to invoke the    
arbitrary interference of ,god in  its  
metamorphoses4 ,if such be the          
conclusion to which we come respecting  
it1 what would be the conclusion to     
which an ,intelligence seated in it     
might come respecting us8 ,it occupies  
an extent of space millions of  times   
greater than that of our solar system2  
we are invisible from it1  and therefore
 absolutely insignificant4 ,would such  

an ,intelligence think  it necessary to 
require for our origin and maintenance  
the immediate  intervention of ,god8    
,from the solar system let us descend to
 what is still more  insignificant--a   
little portion of it2 let us descend to 
our own earth4  ,in the lapse of time it
 has experienced great changes4 ,have   
these been  due to incessant divine     
interventions1 or to the continuous     
operation of  unfailing law8 ,the aspect
 of ,nature perpetually varies under our
 eyes1  still more grandly and          
strikingly has it altered in geological 
times4 ,but the laws guiding those      
changes never exhibit the slightest     
variation4 ,in the midst of immense     
vicissitudes they are immutable4  ,the  
present order of things is only a link  
in a vast connected chain  reaching back
 to an incalculable past1 and forward to
 an infinite  future4    ,there is      
evidence1 geological and astronomical1  
that the temperature of  the earth and  
her satellite was in the remote past    

very much higher than  it is now4 ,a    
decline so slow as to be imperceptible  
at short intervals1  but manifest enough
 in the course of many ages1 has        
occurred4 ,the heat  has been lost by   
radiation into space4    ,the cooling of
 a mass of any kind1 no matter whether  
large or small1 is  not discontinuous2  
it does not go on by fits and starts2 it
 takes  place under the operation of a  
mathematical law1 though for such mighty
  changes as are here contemplated      
neither the formula of ,newton1 nor that
  of ,dulong and ,petit1 may apply4 ,it 
signifies nothing that periods of       
partial decline1 glacial periods1 or    
others of temporary elevation1 have     
been intercalated2 it signifies nothing 
whether these variations may  have      
arisen from topographical variations1 as
 those of level1 or from  periodicities 
in the radiation of the sun4 ,a         
periodical sun would act as  a mere     
perturbation in the gradual decline of  
heat4 ,the perturbations of  the        

planetary motions are a confirmation1   
not a disproof1 of gravity4    ,now1    
such a decline of temperature must have 
been attended by  innumerable changes of
 a physical character in our globe4 ,her
 dimensions  must have diminished       
through contraction1 the length of her  
day must  have lessened1 her surface    
must have collapsed1 and fractures taken
  place along the lines of least        
resistance2 the density of the sea must 
have increased1 its volume must have    
become less2 the constitution of  the   
atmosphere must have varied1 especially 
in the amount of water-vapor  and       
carbonic acid that it contained2 the    
barometric pressure must have  declined4
    ,these changes1 and very many more  
that might be mentioned1 must have      
taken place not in a discontinuous but  
in an orderly manner1 since the         
master-fact1 the decline of heat1 that  
was causing them1 was itself  following 
a mathematical law4    ,but not alone   
did lifeless ,nature submit to these    

inevitable mutations2  living ,nature   
was also simultaneously affected4    ,an
 organic form of any kind1 vegetable or 
animal1 will remain unchanged  only so  
long as the environment in which it is  
placed remains unchanged4  ,should an   
alteration in the environment occur1 the
 organism will either  be modified or   
destroyed4    ,destruction is more      
likely to happen as the change in the   
environment  is more sudden2            
modification or transformation is more  
possible as that  change is more        
gradual4    ,since it is demonstrably   
certain that lifeless ,nature has in the
 lapse  of ages undergone vast          
modifications2 since the crust of the   
earth1 and  the sea1 and the atmosphere1
 are no longer such as they once were2  
since  the distribution of the land and 
the ocean and all manner of physical    
conditions have varied2 since there have
 been such grand changes in  the        
environment of living things on the     
surface of our planet--it  necessarily  

follows that organic ,nature must have  
passed through  destructions and        
transformations in correspondence       
thereto4    ,that such extinctions1 such
 modifications1 have taken place1 how   
copious1 how convincing1 is the         
evidence6    ,here1 again1 we must      
observe that1 since the disturbing      
agency  was itself following a          
mathematical law1 these its results must
 be  considered as following that law   
too4    ,such considerations1 then1     
plainly force upon us the conclusion    
that  the organic progress of the world 
has been guided by the operation of     
immutable law--not determined by        
discontinuous1 disconnected1 arbitrary  
interventions of ,god4 ,they incline us 
to view favorably the idea of           
transmutations of one form into another1
 rather than that of sudden  creations4 
,creation implies an abrupt appearance1 
transformation a gradual change4    ,in 
this manner is presented to our         
contemplation the great theory of       

,evolution4 ,every organic being has a  
place in a chain of events4 ,it is  not 
an isolated1 a capricious fact1 but an  
unavoidable phenomenon4 ,it  has its    
place in that vast1 orderly concourse   
which has successively  risen in the    
past1 has introduced the present1 and is
 preparing the way  for a predestined   
future4 ,from point to point in this    
vast progression  there has been a      
gradual1 a definite1 a continuous       
unfolding1 a  resistless order of       
evolution4 ,but in the midst of these   
mighty changes  stand forth immutable   
the laws that are dominating over all4  
,if we examine the introduction of any  
type of life in the animal series1  we  
find that it is in accordance with      
transformation1 not with creation4  ,its
 beginning is under an imperfect form in
 the midst of other forms1  of which the
 time is nearly complete1 and which are 
passing into  extinction4 ,by degrees1  
one species after another in succession 
more and  more perfect arises1 until1   

after many ages1 a culmination is       
reached4  ,from that there is1 in like  
manner1 a long1 a gradual decline4      
,thus1 though the mammal type of life is
 the characteristic of the  ,tertiary   
and post-,tertiary periods1 it does not 
suddenly make its  appearance without   
premonition in those periods4 ,far back1
 in the  ,secondary1 we find it under   
imperfect forms1 struggling1 as it were1
 to  make good a foothold4 ,at length it
 gains a predominance under higher and  
better models4    ,so1 too1 of reptiles1
 the characteristic type of life of the 
,secondary  period4 ,as we see in a     
dissolving view1 out of the fading      
outlines of  a scene that is passing    
away1 the dim form of a new one         
emerging1 which  gradually gains        
strength1 reaches its culmination1 and  
then melts  away in some other that is  
displacing it1 so reptile-life          
doubtfully1  appears1 reaches its       
culmination1 and gradually declines4 ,in
 all this  there is nothing abrupt2 the 

changes shade into each other by        
insensible  degrees4    ,how could it be
 otherwise8 ,the hot-blooded animals    
could not exist in  an atmosphere so    
laden with carbonic acid as was that of 
the primitive  times4 ,but the removal  
of that noxious ingredient from the air 
by the  leaves of plants under the      
influence of sunlight1 the enveloping of
 its  carbon in the earth under the form
 of coal1 the disengagement of its      
oxygen1 permitted their life4 ,as the   
atmosphere was thus modified1  the sea  
was involved in the change2 it          
surrendered a large part of its         
carbonic acid1 and the limestone        
hitherto held in solution by it was     
deposited in the solid form4 ,for every 
equivalent of carbon buried in  the     
earth1 there was an equivalent of       
carbonate of lime separated from  the   
sea--not necessarily in an amorphous    
condition1 most frequently  under an    
organic form4 ,the sunshine kept up its 
work day by day1 but  there were        

demanded myriads of days for the work to
 be completed4 ,it was  a slow passage  
from a noxious to a purified atmosphere1
 and an equally  slow passage from a    
cold-blooded to a hot-blooded type of   
life4 ,but the  physical changes were   
taking place under the control of law1  
and the  organic transformations were   
not sudden or arbitrary providential    
acts4  ,they were the immediate1 the    
inevitable consequences of the physical 
changes1 and therefore1 like them1 the  
necessary issue of law4    ,for a more  
detailed consideration of this subject1 
,i may refer the  reader to ,chapters   
,i1 ,,ii41 ,,vii1 of the second book of 
my ,treatise on  ,human ,physiology1    
published in #ahef4      ,is the world1 
then1 governed by law or by providential
 interventions1  abruptly breaking the  
proper sequence of events8    ,to       
complete our view of this question1 we  
turn finally to what1 in one  sense1 is 
the most insignificant1 in another the  
most important1 case  that can be       

considered4 ,do human societies1 in     
their historic career1  exhibit the     
marks of a predetermined progress in an 
unavoidable track8  ,is there any       
evidence that the life of nations is    
under the control of  immutable law8    
,may we conclude that1 in society1 as in
 the individual man1 parts never  spring
 from nothing1 but are evolved or       
developed from parts that are  already  
in existence8    ,if any one should     
object to or deride the doctrine of the 
evolution  or successive development of 
the animated forms which constitute that
  unbroken organic chain reaching from  
the beginning of life on the globe  to  
the present times1 let him reflect that 
he has himself passed through           
modifications the counterpart of those  
he disputes4 ,for nine months  his type 
of life was aquatic1 and during that    
time he assumed1 in  succession1 many   
distinct but correlated forms4 ,at birth
 his type of  life became aerial2 he    
began respiring the atmospheric air2 new

 elements  of food were supplied to him2
 the mode of his nutrition changed2 but 
as yet he could see nothing1 hear       
nothing1 notice nothing4 ,by degrees    
conscious existence was assumed2 he     
became aware that there is an  external 
world4 ,in due time organs adapted to   
another change of food1  the teeth1     
appeared1 and a change of food ensued4  
,he then passed through  the stages of  
childhood and youth1 his bodily form    
developing1 and with  it his            
intellectual powers4 ,at about fifteen  
years1 in consequence of  the evolution 
which special parts of his system had   
attained1 his moral  character changed4 
,new ideas1 new passions1 influenced    
him4 ,and that  that was the cause1 and 
this the effect1 is demonstrated when1  
by the  skill of the surgeon1 those     
parts have been interfered with4 ,nor   
does  the development1 the              
metamorphosis1 end here2 it requires    
many years  for the body to reach its   
full perfection1 many years for the     

mind4 ,a  culmination is at length      
reached1 and then there is a decline4 ,i
 need  not picture its mournful         
incidents--the corporeal1 the           
intellectual  enfeeblement4 ,perhaps    
there is little exaggeration in saying  
that in  less than a century every human
 being on the face of the globe1 if not 
cut off in an untimely manner1 has      
passed through all these changes4    ,is
 there for each of us a providential    
intervention as we thus pass  from stage
 to stage of life8 or shall we not      
rather believe that the  countless      
myriads of human beings who have peopled
 the earth have been  under the guidance
 of an unchanging1 a universal law8     
,but individuals are the elementary     
constituents of communities--nations4   
,they maintain therein a relation like  
that which the particles of the  body   
maintain to the body itself4 ,these1    
introduced into it1 commence  and       
complete their function2 they die1 and  
are dismissed4    ,like the individual1 

the nation comes into existence without 
its own  knowledge1 and dies without its
 own consent1 often against its own     
will4  ,national life differs in no     
particular from individual1 except in   
this1  that it is spread over a longer  
span1 but no nation can escape its      
inevitable term4 ,each1 if its history  
be well considered1 shows its  time of  
infancy1 its time of youth1 its time of 
maturity1 its time of  decline1 if its  
phases of life be completed4    ,in the 
phases of existence of all1 so far as   
those phases are  completed1 there are  
common characteristics1 and1 as like    
accordances in  individuals point out   
that all are living under a reign of    
law1 we  are justified in inferring that
 the course of nations1 and indeed the  
progress of humanity1 does not take     
place in a chance or random way1  that  
supernatural interventions never break  
the chain of historic acts1  that every 
historic event has its warrant in some  
preceding event1 and  gives warrant to  

others that are to follow44    ,but this
 conclusion is the essential principle  
of ,stoicism--that ,grecian             
philosophical system which1 as ,i have  
already said1 offered a support in      
their hour of trial and an unwavering   
guide in the vicissitudes of  life1 not 
only to many illustrious ,greeks1 but   
also to some of the great  philosophers1
 statesmen1 generals1 and emperors of   
,rome2 a system which  excluded chance  
from every thing1 and asserted the      
direction of all  events by irresistible
 necessity1 to the promotion of perfect 
good2 a  system of earnestness1         
sternness1 austerity1 virtue--a protest 
in favor  of the common-sense of        
mankind4 ,and perhaps we shall not      
dissent from  the remark of             
,montesquieu1 who affirms that the      
destruction of the  ,stoics was a great 
calamity to the human race2 for they    
alone made great  citizens1 great men4  
,to the principle of government by law1 
,latin ,christianity1 in its papal      

form1 is in absolute contradiction4 ,the
 history of this branch of  the         
,christian ,church is almost a diary of 
miracles and supernatural               
interventions4 ,these show that the     
supplications of holy men have often    
arrested the course of ,nature--if1     
indeed1 there be any such course2  that 
images and pictures have worked wonders2
 that bones1 hairs1 and  other sacred   
relics1 have wrought miracles4 ,the     
criterion or proof of  the authenticity 
of many of these objects is1 not an     
unchallengeable  record of their origin 
and history1 but an exhibition of their 
miracle-working powers4    ,is not that 
a strange logic which finds proof of an 
asserted fact in an  inexplicable       
illustration of something else8    ,even
 in the darkest ages intelligent        
,christian men must have had  misgivings
 as to these alleged providential or    
miraculous interventions4  ,there is a  
solemn grandeur in the orderly progress 
of ,nature which  profoundly impresses  

us2 and such is the character of        
continuity in the  events of our        
individual life that we instinctively   
doubt the occurrence  of the            
supernatural in that of our neighbor4   
,the intelligent man knows  well that1  
for his personal behoof1 the course of  
,nature has never been  checked2 for him
 no miracle has ever been worked2 he    
attributes justly  every event of his   
life to some antecedent event2 this he  
looks upon  as the cause1 that as the   
consequence4 ,when it is affirmed that1 
in his  neighbor's behalf1 such grand   
interventions have been vouchsafed1 he  
cannot do otherwise than believe that   
his neighbor is either deceived1  or    
practising deception4    ,as might1     
then1 have been anticipated1 the        
,catholic doctrine of  miraculous       
intervention received a rude shock at   
the time of the  ,reformation1 when     
predestination and election were upheld 
by some of the  greatest theologians1   
and accepted by some of the greatest    

,protestant  ,churches4 ,with stoical   
austerity ,calvin declares3 ,we were    
elected from  eternity1 before the      
foundation of the world1 from no merit  
of our own1  but according to the       
purpose of the divine pleasure4 ,in     
affirming this1  ,calvin was resting on 
the belief that ,god has from all       
eternity decreed  whatever comes to     
pass4 ,thus1 after the lapse of many    
ages1 were again  emerging into         
prominence the ideas of the ,basilidians
 wad ,valentinians1  ,christian sects of
 the second century1 whose ,gnostical   
views led to the  engraftment of the    
great doctrine of the ,trinity upon     
,christianity4 ,they  asserted that all 
the actions of men are necessary1 that  
even faith is  a natural gift1 to which 
men are forcibly determined1 and must   
therefore  be saved1 though their lives 
be ever so irregular4 ,from the ,supreme
 ,god  all things proceeded4 ,thus1     
also1 came into prominence the views    
which  were developed by ,augustine in  

his work1 ,de dono perseverantiae4      
,these  were3 that ,god1 by his         
arbitrary will1 has selected certain    
persons  without respect to foreseen    
faith or good works1 and has infallibly 
ordained to bestow upon them eternal    
happiness2 other persons1 in like       
manner1 he has condemned to eternal     
reprobation4 ,the ,sublapsarians        
believed that ,god permitted the fall of
 ,adam2 the ,supralapsarians that  he   
predestinated it1 with all its          
pernicious consequences1 from all       
eternity1 and that our first parents had
 no liberty from the beginning4  ,in    
this1 these sectarians disregarded the  
remark of ,st4 ,augustine3  ,nefas est  
dicere ,deum aliquid nisi bonum         
predestinare4    ,is it true1 then1 that
 predestination to eternal happiness is 
the  everlasting purpose of ,god1       
whereby1 before the foundations of the  
world  were laid1 he hath constantly    
decreed by his council1 secret to us1   
to deliver from curse and damnation     

those whom he hath chosen out of        
mankind8 ,is it true that of the human  
family there are some who1 in  view of  
no fault of their own1 ,almighty ,god   
has condemned to unending  torture1     
eternal misery8    ,in #aeie the        
,lambeth ,articles asserted that ,god   
from eternity hath  predestinated       
certain men unto life2 certain he hath  
reprobated4 ,in  #afah the ,synod of    
,dort decided in favor of this view4 ,it
 condemned the  remonstrants against it1
 and treated them with such severity1   
that many  of them had to flee to       
foreign countries4 ,even in the ,church 
of ,england1  as is manifested by its   
seventeenth ,article of ,faith1 these   
doctrines  have found favor4            
,probably there was no point which      
brought down from the ,catholics on the 
,protestants severer condemnation than  
this1 their partial acceptance  of the  
government of the world by law4 ,in all 
,reformed ,europe miracles  ceased4     
,but1 with the cessation of shrine-cure1

 relic-cure1 great  pecuniary profits   
ended4 ,indeed1 as is well known1 it was
 the sale  of indulgences that provoked 
the ,reformation--indulgences which are 
essentially a permit from ,god for the  
practice of sin1 conditioned on  the    
payment of a certain sum of money to the
 priest4    ,philosophically1 the       
,reformation implied a protest against  
the ,catholic  doctrine of incessant    
divine intervention in human affairs1   
invoked by  sacerdotal agency2 but this 
protest was far from being fully made by
  all the ,reforming ,churches4 ,the    
evidence in behalf of government by law1
  which has of late years been offered  
by science1 is received by many of  them
 with suspicion1 perhaps with dislike2  
sentiments which1 however1  must        
eventually give way before the          
hourly-increasing weight of  evidence4  
,shall we not1 then1 conclude with      
,cicero1 who1 quoted by ,lactantius1    
says3 ,one eternal and immutable law    
embraces all things and all times8      

,,chapter ,x4         ,,latin           
,,christianity ,,in ,,relation ,,to     
,,modern ,,civilization4         ,for   
more than a thousand years ,latin       
,christianity controlled       the      
intelligence of ,europe1 and is         
responsible for the       result4       
,that result is manifested by the       
condition of the city of       ,rome at 
the ,reformation1 and by the condition  
of the       ,continent of ,europe in   
domestic and social life4--,european    
nations suffered under the coexistence  
of a dual government1       a spiritual 
and a temporal4--,they were immersed in 
ignorance1 superstition1                
discomfort4--,explanation of the        
failure of ,catholicism--,political     
history of the papacy3 it       was     
transmuted from a spiritual confederacy 
into an absolute                        
monarchy4--,action of the ,college of   
,cardinals and the ,curia--             
,demoralization that ensued from the    
necessity of raising       large        

revenues4         ,the advantages       
accruing to ,europe during the ,catholic
 rule       arose not from direct       
intention1 but were incidental4         
,the general result is1 that the        
political influence of                  
,catholicism was prejudicial to modern  
civilization4      ,,latin ,christianity
 is responsible for the condition and   
progress of  ,europe from the fourth to 
the sixteenth century4 ,we have now to  
examine  how it discharged its trust4   
,it will be convenient to limit to the  
case of ,europe what has here to  be    
presented1 though1 from the claim of the
 papacy to superhuman origin1  and its  
demand for universal obedience1 it      
should strictly be held to  account for 
the condition of all mankind4 ,its      
inefficacy against the  great and       
venerable religions of ,southern and    
,eastern ,asia would furnish  an        
important and instructive theme for     
consideration1 and lead us to  the      
conclusion that it has impressed itself 

only where ,roman imperial  influences  
have prevailed2 a political conclusion  
which1 however1 it  contemptuously      
rejects4    ,doubtless at the inception 
of the ,reformation there were many     
persons  who compared the existing      
social condition with what it had been  
in  ancient times4 ,morals had not      
changed1 intelligence had not advanced1 
society had little improved4 ,from the  
,eternal ,city itself its splendors  had
 vanished4 ,the marble streets1 of which
 ,augustus had once boasted1  had       
disappeared4 ,temples1 broken columns1  
and the long1 arcaded vistas  of        
gigantic aqueducts bestriding the       
desolate ,campagna1 presented a         
mournful scene4 ,from the uses to which 
they had been respectively put1  the    
,capitol had been known as ,goats'      
,hill1 and the site of the ,roman       
,forum1 whence laws had been issued to  
the world1 as ,cows' ,field4 ,the       
palace of the ,caesars was hidden by    
mounds of earth1 crested with  flowering

 shrubs4 ,the baths of ,caracalla1 with 
their porticoes1 gardens1  reservoirs1  
had long ago become useless through the 
destruction of their  supplying         
aqueducts4 ,on the ruins of that grand  
edifice1 flowery glades  and thickets of
 odoriferous trees extended in          
ever-winding labyrinths  upon immense   
platforms1 and dizzy arches suspended in
 the air4 ,of  the ,coliseum1 the most  
colossal of ,roman ruins1 only about    
one-third  remained4 ,once capable of   
accommodating nearly ninety thousand    
spectators1 it had1 in succession1 been 
turned into a fortress in the  middle   
ages1 and then into a stone-quarry to   
furnish material for the  palaces of    
degenerate ,roman princes4 ,some of the 
popes had occupied it  as a             
woollen-mill1 some as a saltpetre       
factory2 some had planned the           
conversion of its magnificent arcades   
into shops for tradesmen4 ,the iron     
clamps which bound its stones together  
had been stolen4 ,the walls were        

fissured and falling4 ,even in our own  
times botanical works have been         
composed on the plants which have made  
this noble wreck their home4 ,the       
,flora of the ,coliseum contains four   
hundred and twenty species4  ,among the 
ruins of classical buildings might be   
seen broken columns1  cypresses1 and    
mouldy frescoes1 dropping from the      
walls4 ,even the  vegetable world       
participated in the melancholy change3  
the myrtle1 which  once flourished on   
the ,aventine1 had nearly become        
extinct2 the laurel1  which once gave   
its leaves to encircle the brows of     
emperors1 had been  replaced by ivy--the
 companion of death4    ,but perhaps it 
may be said the popes were not          
responsible for all this4  ,let it be   
remembered that in less than one hundred
 and forty years the  city had been     
successively taken by ,alaric1          
,genseric1 ,rieimer1 ,vitiges1  ,totila2
 that many of its great edifices had    
been converted into  defensive works4   

,the aqueducts were destroyed by        
,vitiges1 who ruined the  ,campagna2 the
 palace of the ,caesars was ravaged by  
,totila2 then there  had been the       
,lombard sieges2 then ,robert ,guiscard 
and his ,normans had  burnt the city    
from the ,antonine ,column to the       
,flaminian ,gate1 from  the ,lateran to 
the ,capitol2 then it was sacked and    
mutilated by the  ,constable ,bourbon2  
again and again it was flooded by       
inundations of the  ,tiber and shattered
 by earthquakes4 ,we must1 however1 bear
 in mind the  accusation of             
,machiavelli1 who says1 in his ,history 
of ,florence1 that  nearly all the      
barbarian invasions of ,italy were by   
the invitations of  the pontiffs1 who   
called in those hordes6 ,it was not the 
,goth1 nor  the ,vandal1 nor the        
,norman1 nor the ,saracen1 but the popes
 and their  nephews1 who produced the   
dilapidation of ,rome6 ,lime-kilns had  
been fed  from the ruins1 classical     
buildings had become stone-quarries for 

the  palaces of ,italian princes1 and   
churches were decorated from the old    
temples4    ,churches decorated from the
 temples6 ,it is for this and such as   
this  that the popes must be held       
responsible4 ,superb ,corinthian columns
 bad  been chiseled into images of the  
saints4 ,magnificent ,egyptian obelisks 
had been dishonored by papal            
inscriptions4 ,the ,septizonium of      
,severus  had been demolished to furnish
 materials for the building of ,st4     
,peter's2 the bronze roof of the        
,pantheon had been melted into columns  
to  ornament the apostle's tomb4    ,the
 great bell of ,viterbo1 in the tower of
 the ,capitol1 had announced  the death 
of many a pope1 and still desecration of
 the buildings  and demoralization of   
the people went on4 ,papal ,rome        
manifested no  consideration1 but rather
 hatred1 for classical ,rome1 ,the      
pontiffs had  been subordinates of the  
,byzantine sovereigns1 then lieutenants 
of the  ,frankish kings1 then arbiters  

of ,europe2 their government had changed
 as  much as those of any of the        
surrounding nations2 there had been     
complete  metamorphoses in its maxims1  
objects1 claims4 ,in one point only it  
had  never changed--intolerance4        
,claiming to be the centre of the       
religious  life of ,europe1 it          
steadfastly refused to recognize any    
religious  existence outside of itself1 
yet both in a political and theological 
sense it was rotten to the core4        
,erasmus and ,luther heard with         
amazement  the blasphemies and witnessed
 with a shudder the atheism of the city4
    ,the historian ,ranke1 to whom ,i am
 indebted for many of these facts1  has 
depicted in a very graphic manner the   
demoralization of the great  metropolis4
 ,the popes were1 for the most part1 at 
their election1 aged  men4 ,power was1  
therefore1 incessantly passing into new 
hands4 ,every  election was a revolution
 in prospects and expectations4 ,in a   
community  where all might rise1 where  

all might aspire to all1 it necessarily 
followed that every man was occupied in 
thrusting some other into the           
background4 ,though the population of   
the city at the inception of the        
,reformation had sunk to eighty         
thousand1 there were vast crowds of     
placemen1 and still greater ones of     
aspirants for place4 ,the  successful   
occupant of the pontificate had         
thousands of offices to give            
away--offices from many of which the    
incumbents had been remorselessly       
ejected2 many had been created for the  
purpose of sale4 ,the integrity  and    
capacity of an applicant were never     
inquired into2 the points  considered   
were1 what services has he rendered or  
can he render to the  party8 how much   
can he pay for the preferment8 ,an      
,american reader can  thoroughly realize
 this state of things4 ,at every        
presidential election  he witnesses     
similar acts4 ,the election of a pope by
 the ,conclave is not  unlike the       

nomination of an ,american president by 
a convention4 ,in both  cases there are 
many offices to give away4    ,william  
of ,malmesbury says that in his day the 
,romans made a sale of  whatever was    
righteous and sacred for gold4 ,after   
his time there was  no improvement2 the 
,church degenerated into an instrument  
for the  exploitation of money4 ,vast   
sums were collected in ,italy2 vast sums
  were drawn under all manner of        
pretenses from surrounding and reluctant
  countries4 ,of these the most         
nefarious was the sale of indulgences   
for the perpetration of sin4 ,italian   
religion had become the art of          
plundering the people4    ,for more than
 a thousand years the sovereign pontiffs
 had been rulers  of the city4 ,true1 it
 had witnessed many scenes of           
devastation for which  they were not    
responsible2 but they were responsible  
for this1 that they  had never made any 
vigorous1 any persistent effort for its 
material1 its  moral improvement4       

,instead of being in these respects an  
exemplar for  the imitation of the      
world1 it became an exemplar of a       
condition that  ought to be shunned4    
,things steadily went on from bad to    
worse1 until  at the epoch of the       
,reformation no pious stranger could    
visit it without  being shocked4    ,the
 papacy1 repudiating science as         
absolutely incompatible with its        
pretensions1 had in later years         
addressed itself to the encouragement of
  art4 ,but music and painting1 though  
they may be exquisite adornments  of    
life1 contain no living force that can  
develop a weak nation into a  strong    
one2 nothing that can permanently assure
 the material well-being  or happiness  
of communities2 and hence at the time of
 the ,reformation1  to one who          
thoughtfully considered her condition1  
,rome had lost all  living energy4 ,she 
was no longer the arbiter of the        
physical or the  religious progress of  
the world4 ,for the progressive maxims  

of the  republic and the empire1 she had
 substituted the stationary maxims of   
the papacy4 ,she had the appearance of  
piety and the possession of art4  ,in   
this she resembled one of those         
friar-corpses which we still see in     
their brown cowls in the vaults of the  
,cappuccini1 with a breviary or  some   
withered flowers in its hands4    ,from 
this view of the ,eternal ,city1 this   
survey of what ,latin  ,christianity had
 done for ,rome itself1 let us turn to  
the whole ,european  ,continent4 ,let us
 try to determine the true value of the 
system that was  guiding society2 let us
 judge it by its fruits4    ,the        
condition of nations as to their        
well-being is most precisely            
represented by the variations of their  
population4 ,forms of government  have  
very little influence on population1 but
 policy may control it  completely4     
,it has been very satisfactorily shown  
by authors who have given  attention to 
the subject1 that the variations of     

population depend  upon the             
interbalancing of the generative force  
of society and the  resistances to life4
    ,by the generative force of society 
is meant that instinct which  manifests 
itself in the multiplication of the     
race4 ,to some extent it  depends on    
climate2 but1 since the climate of      
,europe did not sensibly  change between
 the fourth and the sixteenth centuries1
 we may regard  this force as having    
been1 on that continent1 during the     
period under  consideration1 invariable4
    ,by the resistances to life is meant
 whatever tends to make individual      
existence more difficult of support4    
,among such may be enumerated           
insufficient food1 inadequate clothing1 
imperfect shelter4    ,it is also known 
that1 if the resistances become         
inappreciable1 the  generative force    
will double a population in twenty-five 
years4    ,the resistances operate in   
two modes3 #a4 ,physically2 since they  
diminish  the number of births1 and     

shorten the term of the life of all4 #b4
  ,intellectually2 since1 in a moral1   
and particularly in a religious         
community1 they postpone marriage1 by   
causing individuals to decline  its     
responsibilities until they feel that   
they are competent to meet  the charges 
and cares of a family4 ,hence the       
explanation of a  long-recognized fact1 
that the number of marriages during a   
given period  has a connection with the 
price of food4    ,the increase of      
population keeps pace with the increase 
of food2 and1  indeed1 such being the   
power of the generative force1 it       
overpasses the  means of subsistence1   
establishing a constant pressure upon   
them4 ,under  these circumstances1 it   
necessarily happens that a certain      
amount of  destitution must occur4      
,individuals have come into existence   
who must be  starved4    ,as            
illustrations of the variations that    
have occurred in the population  of     
different countries1 may be mentioned   

the immense diminution of that  of      
,italy in consequence of the wars of    
,justinian2 the depopulation of  ,north 
,africa in consequence of theological   
quarrels2 its restoration  through the  
establishment of ,mohammedanism2 the    
increase of that of all  ,europe through
 the feudal system1 when estates became 
more valuable in  proportion to the     
number of retainers they could supply4  
,the crusades  caused a sensible        
diminution1 not only through the        
enormous army losses1  but also by      
reason of the withdrawal of so many     
able-bodied men  from marriage-life4    
,similar variations have occurred on the
 ,american  ,continent4 ,the population 
of ,mexico was very quickly diminished  
by two  million through the rapacity and
 atrocious cruelty of the ,spaniards1   
who  drove the civilized ,indians to    
despair4 ,the same happened in ,peru4   
,the population of ,england at the      
,norman conquest was about two million4 
,in five hundred years it had scarcely  

doubled4 ,it may be supposed that  this 
stationary condition was to some extent 
induced by the papal policy  of the     
enforcement of celibacy in the clergy4  
,the legal generative  force was        
doubtless affected by that policy1 the  
actual generative  force was not4 ,for  
those who have made this subject their  
study have  long ago been satisfied that
 public celibacy is private wickedness4 
,this  mainly determined the laity1 as  
well as the government in ,england1 to  
suppress the monasteries4 ,it was openly
 asserted that there were one  hundred  
thousand women in ,england made         
dissolute by the clergy4    ,in my      
history of the ,american ,civil ,war1 ,i
 have presented some  reflections on    
this point1 which ,i will take the      
liberty of quoting  here3 ,what1 then1  
does this stationary condition of the   
population  mean8 ,it means1 food       
obtained with hardship1 insufficient    
clothing1  personal uncleanness1 cabins 
that could not keep out the weather1    

the destructive effects of cold and     
heat1 miasm1 want of sanitary           
provisions1 absence of physicians1      
uselessness of shrine-cure1 the         
deceptiveness of miracles1 in which     
society was putting its trust2 or1  to  
sum up a long catalogue of sorrows1     
wants1 and sufferings1 in one  term--it 
means a high death-rate4    ,but more2  
it means deficient births4 ,and what    
does that point out8  ,marriage         
postponed1 licentious life1 private     
wickedness1 demoralized  society4    ,to
 an ,american1 who lives in a country   
that was yesterday an  interminable and 
impenetrable desert1 but which to-day is
 filling with  a population doubling    
itself every twenty-five years at the   
prescribed  rate1 this awful waste of   
actual and contingent life cannot but be
 a  most surprising fact4 ,his curiosity
 will lead him to inquire what kind  of 
system that could have been which was   
pretending to guide and  develop        
society1 but which must be held         

responsible for this prodigious         
destruction1 excelling1 in its insidious
 result1 war1 pestilence1 and  famine   
combined2 insidious1 for men were       
actually believing that it  secured     
their highest temporal interests4 ,how  
different now6 ,in ,england1  the same  
geographical surface is sustaining ten  
times the population  of that day1 and  
sending forth its emigrating swarms4    
,let him1 who looks  back1 with         
veneration on the past1 settle in his   
own mind what such a  system could have 
been worth4    ,these variations in the 
population of ,europe have been attended
 with  changes in distribution4 ,the    
centre of population has passed         
northward  since the establishment of   
,christianity in the ,roman ,empire4 ,it
  has since passed westward1 in         
consequence of the development of       
manufacturing industry4      ,we may now
 examine somewhat more minutely the     
character of the  resistances which     
thus1 for a thousand years1 kept the    

population of  ,europe stationary4 ,the 
surface of the ,continent was for the   
most  part covered with pathless        
forests2 here and there it was dotted   
with  monasteries and towns4 ,in the    
lowlands and along the river-courses    
were  fens1 sometimes hundreds of miles 
in extent1 exhaling their pestiferous   
miasms1 and spreading agues far and     
wide4 ,in ,paris and ,london1 the       
houses were of wood daubed with clay1   
and thatched with straw or reeds4  ,they
 had no windows1 and1 until the         
invention of the saw-mill1 very  few had
 wooden floors4 ,the luxury of a carpet 
was unknown2 some straw1  scattered in  
the room1 supplied its place4 ,there    
were no chimneys2 the  smoke of the     
ill-fed1 cheerless fire escaped through 
a hole in the roof4  ,in such           
habitations there was scarcely any      
protection from the weather4  ,no       
attempt was made at drainage1 but the   
putrefying garbage and rubbish  were    
simply thrown out of the door4 ,men1    

women1 and children1 slept  in the same 
apartment2 not unfrequently1 domestic   
animals were their  companions2 in such 
a confusion of the family1 it was       
impossible that  modesty or morality    
could be maintained4 ,the bed was       
usually a bag of  straw1 a wooden log   
served as a pillow4 ,personal           
cleanliness was utterly  unknown2 great 
officers of state1 even dignitaries so  
high as the  ,archbishop of ,canterbury1
 swarmed with vermin2 such1 it is       
related1 was  the condition of ,thomas a
 ,becket1 the antagonist of an ,english 
king4 ,to  conceal personal impurity1   
perfumes were necessarily and profusely 
used4 ,the citizen clothed himself in   
leather1 a garment which1 with its      
ever-accumulating impurity1 might last  
for many years4 ,he was considered  to  
be in circumstances of ease1 if he could
 procure fresh meat once  a week for his
 dinner4 ,the streets had no sewers2    
they were without  pavement or lamps4   
,after nightfall1 the chamber-shatters  

were thrown  open1 and slops            
unceremoniously emptied down1 to the    
discomfiture of the  wayfarer tracking  
his path through the narrow streets1    
with his dismal  lantern in his hand4   
,aeneas ,sylvius1 who afterward became  
,pope ,pius ,,ii41 and was therefore a  
very competent and impartial writer1 has
 left us a graphic account of  a journey
 he made to the ,british ,islands1 about
 #adcj4 ,he describes the  houses of the
 peasantry as constructed of stones put 
together without  mortar2 the roofs were
 of turf1 a stiffened bull's-hide served
 for a  door4 ,the food consisted of    
coarse vegetable products1 such as peas1
  and even the bark of trees4 ,in some  
places they were unacquainted with      
bread4    ,cabins of reeds plastered    
with mud1 houses of wattled stakes1     
chimneyless peat-fires from which there 
was scarcely an escape for the  smoke1  
dens of physical and moral pollution    
swarming with vermin1 wisps  of straw   
twisted round the limbs to keep off the 

cold1 the ague-stricken  peasant1 with  
no help except shrine-cure6 ,how was it 
possible that the  population could     
increase8 ,shall we1 then1 wonder that1 
in the famine of  #ajcj1 human flesh was
 cooked and sold2 or that1 in that of   
#abeh1 fifteen  thousand persons died of
 hunger in ,london8 ,shall we wonder    
that1 in some  of the invasions of the  
plague1 the deaths were so frightfully  
numerous  that the living could hardly  
bury the dead8 ,by that of #acdh1 which 
came  from the ,east along the lines of 
commercial travel1 and spread all over  
,europe1 one-third of the population of 
,france was destroyed4    ,such was the 
condition of the peasantry1 and of the  
common inhabitants  of cities4 ,not much
 better was that of the nobles4 ,william
 of  ,malmesbury1 speaking of the       
degraded manners of the ,anglo-,saxons1 
says3  ,their nobles1 devoted to        
gluttony and voluptuousness1 never      
visited the  church1 but the matins and 
the mass were read over to them by a    

hurrying  priest in their bedchambers1  
before they rose1 themselves not        
listening4  ,the common people were a   
prey to the more powerful2 their        
property was  seized1 their bodies      
dragged away to distant countries2 their
 maidens  were either thrown into a     
brothel1 or sold for slaves4 ,drinking  
day  and night was the general pursuit2 
vices1 the companions of inebriety1     
followed1 effeminating the manly mind4  
,the baronial castles were dens  of     
robbers4 ,the ,saxon chronicler records 
how men and women were caught  and      
dragged into those strongholds1 hung up 
by their thumbs or feet1  fire applied  
to them1 knotted strings twisted round  
their heads1 and  many other torments   
inflicted to extort ransom4    ,all over
 ,europe1 the great and profitable      
political offices were filled  by       
ecclesiastics4 ,in every country there  
was a dual government3 #a4  ,that of a  
local kind1 represented by a temporal   
sovereign2 #b4 ,that of  a foreign kind1

 acknowledging the authority of the     
pope1 ,this ,roman  influence was1 in   
the nature of things1 superior to the   
local2 it  expressed the sovereign will 
of one man over all the nations of  the 
continent conjointly1 and gathered      
overwhelming power from its  compactness
 and unity4 ,the local influence was    
necessarily of a feeble  nature1 since  
it was commonly weakened by the         
rivalries of conterminous  states1 and  
the dissensions dexterously provoked by 
its competitor4 ,on  not a single       
occasion could the various ,european    
states form a coalition  against their  
common antagonist4 ,whenever a question 
arose1 they were  skillfully taken in   
detail1 and commonly mastered4 ,the     
ostensible  object of papal intrusion   
was to secure for the different peoples 
moral  well-being2 the real object was  
to obtain large revenues1 and give      
support to vast bodies of ecclesiastics4
 ,the revenues thus abstracted  were not
 infrequently many times greater than   

those passing into the  treasury of the 
local power4 ,thus1 on the occasion of  
,innocent ,,iv4  demanding provision to 
be made for three hundred additional    
,italian  clergy by the ,church of      
,england1 and that one of his nephews--a
 mere  boy--should have a stall in      
,lincoln ,cathedral1 it was found that  
the sum  already annually abstracted by 
foreign ecclesiastics from ,england was 
thrice that which went into the coffers 
of the king4    ,while thus the higher  
clergy secured every political          
appointment  worth having1 and abbots   
vied with counts in the herds of slaves 
they possessed--some1 it is said1 owned 
not fewer than twenty  thousand--begging
 friars pervaded society in all         
directions1 picking  up a share of what 
still remained to the poor4 ,there was a
 vast body of  non-producers1 living in 
idleness and owning a foreign           
allegiance1 who  were subsisting on the 
fruits of the toil of the laborers4 ,it 
could not  be otherwise than that small 

farms should be unceasingly merged into 
the larger estates2 that the poor should
 steadily become poorer2 that  society1 
far from improving1 should exhibit a    
continually increasing  demoralization4 
,outside the monastic institutions no   
attempt at  intellectual advancement was
 made2 indeed1 so far as the laity were 
concerned1 the influence of the ,church 
was directed to an opposite  result1 for
 the maxim universally received was1    
that ignorance is the  mother of        
devotion4    ,the settled practice of   
republican and imperial ,rome was to    
have swift  communication with all her  
outlying provinces1 by means of         
substantial  bridges and roads4 ,one of 
the prime duties of the legions was to  
construct them and keep them in repair4 
,by this1 her military authority  was   
assured4 ,but the dominion of papal     
,rome1 depending upon a different       
principle1 had no exigencies of that    
kind1 and this duty accordingly  was    
left for the local powers to neglect4   

,and so1 in all directions1  the roads  
were almost impassable for a large part 
of the year4 ,a common  means of        
transportation was in clumsy carts drawn
 by oxen1 going at the  most but three  
or four miles an hour4 ,where           
boat-conveyance along  rivers could not 
be had1 pack-horses and mules were      
resorted to for  the transportation of  
merchandise1 an adequate means for the  
slender  commerce of the times4 ,when   
large bodies of men had to be moved1 the
  difficulties became almost            
insuperable4 ,of this1 perhaps1 one of  
the  best illustrations may be found in 
the story of the march of the first     
,crusaders4 ,these restraints upon      
intercommunication tended powerfully to 
promote the general benighted condition4
 ,journeys by individuals could  not be 
undertaken without much risk1 for there 
was scarcely a moor or a  forest that   
had not its highwaymen4    ,an          
illiterate condition everywhere         
prevailing1 gave opportunity for the    

development of superstition4 ,europe was
 full of disgraceful miracles4 ,on  all 
the roads pilgrims were wending their   
way to the shrines of saints1  renowned 
for the cures they had wrought4 ,it had 
always been the policy  of the ,church  
to discourage the physician and his art2
 he interfered too  much with the gifts 
and profits of the shrines4 ,time has   
brought this  once lucrative imposture  
to its proper value4 ,how many shrines  
are there  now in successful operation  
in ,europe8    ,for patients too sick to
 move or be moved1 there were no        
remedies except  those of a ghostly     
kind--the ,pater-noster or the ,ave4    
,for the prevention  of diseases1       
prayers were put up in the churches1 but
 no sanitary  measures were resorted to4
 ,from cities reeking with putrefying   
filth  it was thought that the plague   
might be stayed by the prayers of the   
priests1 by them rain and dry weather   
might be secured1 and deliverance       
obtained from the baleful influences of 

eclipses and comets4 ,but when          
,halley's comet came1 in #adef1 so      
tremendous was its apparition that  it  
was necessary for the pope himself to   
interfere4 ,he exorcised and  expelled  
it from the skies4 ,it slunk away into  
the abysses of space1  terror-stricken  
by the maledictions of ,calixtus ,,iii41
 and did not  venture back for          
seventy-five years6    ,the physical    
value of shrine-cures and ghostly       
remedies is measured  by the death-rate4
 ,in those days it was1 probably1 about 
one in  twenty-three1 under the present 
more material practice it is about one  
in forty4    ,the moral condition of    
,europe was signally illustrated when   
syphilis was  introduced from the ,west 
,indies by the companions of ,columbus4 
,it spread  with wonderful rapidity2 all
 ranks of persons1 from the ,holy       
,father ,leo  ,x4 to the beggar by the  
wayside1 contracting the shameful       
disease4 ,many  excused their misfortune
 by declaring that it was an epidemic   

proceeding  from a certain malignity in 
the constitution of the air1 but in     
truth  its spread was due to a certain  
infirmity in the constitution of man--an
  infirmity which had not been removed  
by the spiritual guidance under  which  
he had been living4    ,to the medical  
efficacy of shrines must be added that  
of special relics4  ,these were         
sometimes of the most extraordinary     
kind4 ,there were several  abbeys that  
possessed our ,savior's crown of thorns4
 ,eleven had the  lance that had pierced
 his side4 ,if any person was           
adventurous enough  to suggest that     
these could not all be authentic1 he    
would have been  denounced as an        
atheist4 ,during the holy wars the      
,templar-,knights had  driven a         
profitable commerce by bringing from    
,jerusalem to the ,crusading  armies    
bottles of the milk of the ,blessed     
,virgin1 which they sold for  enormous  
sums2 these bottles were preserved with 
pious care in many of  the great        

religious establishments4 ,but perhaps  
none of these impostures  surpassed in  
audacity that offered by a monastery in 
,jerusalem1 which  presented to the     
beholder one of the fingers of the ,holy
 ,ghost6 ,modern  society has silently  
rendered its verdict on these scandalous
 objects4  ,though they once nourished  
the piety of thousands of earnest       
people1  they are now considered too    
vile to have a place in any public      
museum4    ,how shall we account for the
 great failure we thus detect in the    
guardianship of the ,church over        
,europe8 ,this is not the result that   
must have occurred had there been in    
,rome an unremitting care for the       
spiritual and material prosperity of the
 continent1 had the universal  pastor1  
the successor of ,peter1 occupied       
himself with singleness of  purpose for 
the holiness and happiness of his flock4
    ,the explanation is not difficult to
 find4 ,it is contained in a story  of  
sin and shame4 ,i prefer1 therefore1 in 

the following paragraphs1 to  offer     
explanatory facts derived from ,catholic
 authors1 and1 indeed1 to  present them 
as nearly as ,i can in the words of     
those writers4      ,the story ,i am    
about to relate is a narrative of the   
transformation of a  confederacy into an
 absolute monarchy4    ,in the early    
times every church1 without prejudice to
 its agreement with  the ,church        
universal in all essential points1      
managed its own affairs  with perfect   
freedom and independence1 maintaining   
its own traditional  usages and         
discipline1 all questions not concerning
 the whole ,church1 or  of primary      
importance1 being settled on the spot4  
,until the beginning of the ninth       
century1 there was no change in the     
constitution of the ,roman ,church4 ,but
 about #hde the ,isidorian ,decretals   
were fabricated in the west of ,gaul--a 
forgery containing about one  hundred   
pretended decrees of the early popes1   
together with certain  spurious writings

 of other church dignitaries and acts of
 synods4 ,this  forgery produced an     
immense extension of the papal power1 it
 displaced  the old system of church    
government1 divesting it of the         
republican  attributes it had possessed1
 and transforming it into an absolute   
monarchy4 ,it brought the bishops into  
subjection to ,rome1 and made the       
pontiff the supreme judge of the clergy 
of the whole ,christian world4 ,it      
prepared the way for the great attempt1 
subsequently made by ,hildebrand1  to   
convert the states of ,europe into a    
theocratic priest-kingdom1 with  the    
pope at its head4    ,gregory ,,vii41   
the author of this great attempt1 saw   
that his plans  would be best carried   
out through the agency of synods4 ,he1  
therefore1  restricted the right of     
holding them to the popes and their     
legates4 ,to  aid in the matter1 a new  
system of church law was devised by     
,anselm  of ,lucca1 partly from the old 
,isidorian forgeries1 and partly from   

new  inventions4 ,to establish the      
supremacy of ,rome1 not only had a new  
civil and a new canon law to be         
produced1 a new history had also to  be 
invented4 ,this furnished needful       
instances of the deposition  and        
excommunication of kings1 and proved    
that they had always been  subordinate  
to the popes4 ,the decretal letters of  
the popes were put on  a par with       
,scripture4 ,at length it came to be    
received1 throughout  the ,west1 that   
the popes had been1 from the beginning  
of ,christianity1  legislators for the  
whole ,church4 ,as absolute sovereigns  
in later times  cannot endure           
representative assemblies1 so the       
papacy1 when it wished  to become       
absolute1 found that the synods of      
particular national  churches must be   
put an end to1 and those only under the 
immediate  control of the pontiff       
permitted4 ,this1 in itself1 constituted
 a great  revolution4    ,another       
fiction concocted in ,rome in the eighth

 century led to important  consequences4
 ,it feigned that the ,emperor          
,constantine1 in gratitude for  his cure
 from leprosy1 and baptism by ,pope     
,sylvester1 had bestowed  ,italy and the
 ,western provinces on the pope1 and    
that1 in token of his  subordination1 he
 had served the pope as his groom1 and  
led his horse  some distance4 ,this     
forgery was intended to work on the     
,frankish kings1  to impress them with a
 correct idea of their inferiority1 and 
to show  that1 in the territorial       
concessions they made to the ,church1   
they were  not giving but only restoring
 what rightfully belonged to it4    ,the
 most potent instrument of the new papal
 system was ,gratian's  ,decretum1 which
 was issued about the middle of the     
twelfth century4 ,it  was a mass of     
fabrications4 ,it made the whole        
,christian world1 through  the papacy1  
the domain of the ,italian clergy4 ,it  
inculcated that it is  lawful to        
constrain men to goodness1 to torture   

and execute heretics1  and to confiscate
 their property2 that to kill an        
excommunicated person  is not murder2   
that the pope1 in his unlimited         
superiority to all law1  stands on an   
equality with the ,son of ,god6    ,as  
the new system of centralization        
developed1 maxims1 that in the olden    
times would have been held to be        
shocking1 were boldly avowed--the whole 
,church is the property of the pope to  
do with as he will2 what is simony  in  
others is not simony in him2 he is above
 all law1 and can be called  to account 
by none2 whoever disobeys him must be   
put to death2 every  baptized man is his
 subject1 and must for life remain so1  
whether he  will or not4 ,up to the end 
of the twelfth century1 the popes were  
the  vicars of ,peter2 after ,innocent  
,,iii4 they were the vicars of ,christ4 
,but an absolute sovereign has need of  
revenues1 and to this the popes  were no
 exception4 ,the institution of legates 
was brought in from  ,hildebrand's time4

 ,sometimes their duty was to visit     
churches1 sometimes  they were sent on  
special business1 but always invested   
with unlimited  powers to bring back    
money over the ,alps4 ,and since the    
pope could not  only make laws1 but     
could suspend their operation1 a        
legislation was  introduced in view to  
the purchase of dispensations4          
,monasteries were  exempted from        
episcopal jurisdiction on payment of a  
tribute to ,rome4  ,the pope had now    
become the universal bishop2 he had a   
concurrent  jurisdiction in all the     
dioceses1 and could bring any cases     
before  his own courts4 ,his relation to
 the bishops was that of an absolute    
sovereign to his officials4 ,a bishop   
could resign only by his  permission1   
and sees vacated by resignation lapsed  
to him4 ,appeals to  him were encouraged
 in every way for the sake of the       
dispensations2  thousands of processes  
came before the ,curia1 bringing a rich 
harvest to  ,rome4 ,often when there    

were disputing claimants to benefices1  
the  pope would oust them all1 and      
appoint a creature of his own4 ,often   
the  candidates had to waste years in   
,rome1 and either died there1 or carried
  back a vivid impression of the        
dominant corruption4 ,germany suffered  
more than other countries from these    
appeals and processes1 and hence  of all
 countries was best prepared for the    
,reformation4 ,during the  thirteenth   
and fourteenth centuries the popes made 
gigantic strides in  the acquisition of 
power4 ,instead of recommending their   
favorites for  benefices1 now they      
issued mandates4 ,their ,italian        
partisans must  be rewarded2 nothing    
could be done to satisfy their clamors1 
but to  provide for them in foreign     
countries4 ,shoals of contesting        
claimants  died in ,rome2 and1 when     
death took place in that city1 the ,pope
 claimed  the right of giving away the  
benefices4 ,at length it was affirmed   
that  he had the right of disposing of  

all church-offices without distinction1 
and that the oath of obedience of a     
bishop to him implied political as  well
 as ecclesiastical subjection4 ,in      
countries having a dual government  this
 increased the power of the spiritual   
element prodigiously4    ,rights of     
every kind were remorselessly overthrown
 to complete this  centralization4 ,in  
this the mendicant orders were most     
efficient aids4  ,it was the pope and   
those orders on one side1 the bishops   
and the  parochial clergy on the other4 
,the ,roman court had seized the rights 
of synods1 metropolitans1 bishops1      
national churches4 ,incessantly         
interfered with by the legates1 the     
bishops lost all desire to  discipline  
their dioceses2 incessantly interfered  
with by the begging  monks1 the parish  
priest had become powerless in his own  
village2 his  pastoral influence was    
utterly destroyed by the papal          
indulgences and  absolutions they sold4 
,the money was carried off to ,rome4    

,pecuniary necessities urged many of the
 popes to resort to such petty          
expedients as to require from a prince1 
a bishop1 or a grand-master1 who  had a 
cause pending in the court1 a present of
 a golden cup filled  with ducats4 ,such
 necessities also gave origin to        
jubilees4 ,sixtus ,,iv4  established    
whole colleges1 and sold the places at  
three or four hundred  ducats4 ,innocent
 ,,viii4 pawned the papal tiara4 ,of    
,leo ,x4 it was said  that he squandered
 the revenues of three popes1 he wasted 
the savings  of his predecessor1 he     
spent his own income1 he anticipated    
that of his  successor1 he created      
twenty-one hundred and fifty new offices
 and sold  them2 they were considered to
 be a good investment1 as they produced 
twelve per cent4 ,the interest was      
extorted from ,catholic countries4      
,nowhere in ,europe could capital be so 
well invested as at ,rome4 ,large  sums 
were raised by the foreclosing of       
mortgages1 and not only by the  sale but

 the resale of offices4 ,men were       
promoted1 for the purpose of  selling   
their offices again4    ,though against 
the papal theory1 which denounced       
usurious practices1  an immense papal   
banking system had sprung up1 in        
connection with the  ,curia1 and sums at
 usurious interest were advanced to     
prelates1  place-hunters1 and litigants4
 ,the papal bankers were privileged2 all
  others were under the ban4 ,the ,curia
 had discovered that it was for their   
interest to have ecclesiastics all over 
,europe in their debt4 ,they could  make
 them pliant1 and excommunicate them for
 non-payment of interest4  ,in #acbg it 
was reckoned that half the ,christian   
world was under  excommunication3       
bishops were excommunicated because they
 could not  meet the extortions of      
legates2 and persons were               
excommunicated1  under various          
pretenses1 to compel them to purchase   
absolution at an  exorbitant price4 ,the
 ecclesiastical revenues of all ,europe 

were flowing  into ,rome1 a sink of     
corruption1 simony1 usury1 bribery1     
extortion4 ,the  popes1 since #ajff1    
when the great centralizing movement    
began1 had no  time to pay attention to 
the internal affairs of their own       
special  flock in the city of ,rome4    
,there were thousands of foreign cases1 
each  bringing in money4 ,whenever1 says
 the ,bishop ,alvaro ,pelayo1 ,i entered
  the apartments of the ,roman court    
clergy1 ,i found them occupied in       
counting up the gold-coin1 which lay    
about the rooms in heaps4 ,every        
opportunity of extending the            
jurisdiction of the ,curia was welcome4 
,exemptions were so managed that fresh  
grants were constantly necessary4       
,bishops were privileged against        
cathedral chapters1 chapters against    
their bishops2 bishops1 convents1 and   
individuals1 against the  extortions of 
legates4    ,the two pillars on which   
the papal system now rested were the    
,college of  ,cardinals and the ,curia4 

,the cardinals1 in #ajei1 had become    
electors of  the popes4 ,up to that time
 elections were made by the whole body  
of the  ,roman clergy1 and the          
concurrence of the magistrates and      
citizens  was necessary4 ,but ,nicolas  
,,ii4 restricted elections to the       
,college of  ,cardinals by a two-thirds 
vote1 and gave to the ,german emperor   
the  right of confirmation4 ,for almost 
two centuries there was a struggle  for 
mastery between the cardinal oligarchy  
and papal absolutism4 ,the  cardinals   
were willing enough that the pope should
 be absolute in his  foreign rule1 but  
they never failed to attempt1 before    
giving him  their votes1 to bind him to 
accord to them a recognized share in the
  government4 ,after his election1 and  
before his consecration1 he swore  to   
observe certain capitulations1 such as a
 participation of revenues  between     
himself and the cardinals2 an obligation
 that he would not  remove them1 but    
would permit them to assemble twice a   

year to discuss  whether he had kept his
 oath4 ,repeatedly the popes broke their
 oath4 ,on  one side1 the cardinals     
wanted a larger share in the church     
government  and emoluments2 on the      
other1 the popes refused to surrender   
revenues or  power4 ,the cardinals      
wanted to be conspicuous in pomp and    
extravagance1  and for this vast sums   
were requisite4 ,in one instance1 not   
fewer than  five hundred benefices were 
held by one of them2 their friends and  
retainers must be supplied1 their       
families enriched4 ,it was affirmed     
that the whole revenues of ,france were 
insufficient to meet their              
expenditures4 ,in their rivalries it    
sometimes happened that no pope  was    
elected for several years4 ,it seemed as
 if they wanted to show how  easily the 
,church could get on without the ,vicar 
of ,christ4    ,toward the close of the 
eleventh century the ,roman ,church     
became the  ,roman court4 ,in place of  
the ,christian sheep gently following   

their  shepherd in the holy precincts of
 the city1 there had arisen a  chancery 
of writers1 notaries1 tax-gatherers1    
where transactions about  privileges1   
dispensations1 exemptions1 were carried 
on2 and suitors  went with petitions    
from door to door4 ,rome was a          
rallying-point for  place-hunters of    
every nation4 ,in presence of the       
enormous mass of  business-processes1   
graces1 indulgences1 absolutions1       
commands1 and  decisions1 addressed to  
all parts of ,europe and ,asia1 the     
functions  of the local church sank into
 insignificance4 ,several hundred       
persons1  whose home was the ,curia1    
were required4 ,their aim was to rise in
 it by  enlarging the profits of the    
papal treasury4 ,the whole ,christian   
world had become tributary to it4 ,here 
every vestige of religion had           
disappeared2 its members were busy with 
politics1 litigations1 and  processes2  
not a word could be heard about         
spiritual concerns4 ,every  stroke of   

the pen had its price4 ,benefices1      
dispensations1 licenses1  absolutions1  
indulgences1 privileges1 were bought and
 sold like  merchandise4 ,the suitor had
 to bribe every one1 from the doorkeeper
  to the pope1 or his case was lost4    
,poor men could neither attain          
preferment1 nor hope for it2 and the    
result was1 that every cleric felt  he  
had a right to follow the example he had
 seen at ,rome1 and that  he might make 
profits out of his spiritual ministries 
and sacraments1  having bought the right
 to do so at ,rome1 and having no other 
way to  pay off his debt4 ,the          
transference of power from ,italians to 
,frenchmen1  through the removal of the 
,curia to ,avignon1 produced no         
change--only  the ,italians felt that   
the enrichment of ,italian families had 
slipped  out of their grasp4 ,they had  
learned to consider the papacy as their 
appanage1 and that they1 under the      
,christian dispensation1 were ,god's    
chosen people1 as the ,jews had been    

under the ,mosaic4    ,at the end of the
 thirteenth century a new kingdom was   
discovered1  capable of yielding immense
 revenues4 ,this was ,purgatory4 ,it was
 shown  that the pope could empty it by 
his indulgences4 ,in this there was no  
need of hypocrisy4 ,things were done    
openly4 ,the original germ of the       
apostolic primacy had now expanded into 
a colossal monarchy4    ,,need ,,of ,a  
,,general ,,council4 ,the ,inquisition  
had made the papal system  irresistible4
 ,all opposition must be punished with  
death by fire4 ,a mere  thought1 without
 having betrayed itself by outward sign1
 was considered  as guilt4 ,as time went
 on1 this practice of the ,inquisition  
became  more and more atrocious4        
,torture was resorted to on mere        
suspicion4  ,the accused was not allowed
 to know the name of his accuser4 ,he   
was  not permitted to have any legal    
adviser4 ,there was no appeal4 ,the     
,inquisition was ordered not to lean to 
pity4 ,no recantation was of  avail4    

,the innocent family of the accused was 
deprived of its  property by            
confiscation2 half went to the papal    
treasury1 half to the  inquisitors4     
,life only1 said ,innocent ,,iii41 was  
to be left to the sons  of misbelievers1
 and that merely as an act of mercy4    
,the consequence  was1 that popes1 such 
as ,nicolas ,,iii41 enriched their      
families through  plunder acquired by   
this tribunal4 ,inquisitors did the same
 habitually4    ,the struggle between   
the ,french and ,italians for the       
possession of the  papacy inevitably led
 to the schism of the fourteenth        
century4 ,for more  than forty years two
 rival popes were now anathematizing    
each other1  two rival ,curias were     
squeezing the nations for money4        
,eventually1 there  were three          
obediences1 and triple revenues to be   
extorted4 ,nobody1 now1  could guarantee
 the validity of the sacraments1 for    
nobody could be  sure which was the true
 pope4 ,men were thus compelled to think

 for  themselves4 ,they could not find  
who was the legitimate thinker for them4
  ,they began to see that the ,church   
must rid herself of the curialistic     
chains1 and resort to a ,general        
,council4 ,that attempt was again and   
again made1 the intention being to raise
 the ,council into a ,parliament  of    
,christendom1 and make the pope its     
chief executive officer4 ,but the  vast 
interests that had grown out of the     
corruption of ages could not  so easily 
be overcome2 the ,curia again recovered 
its ascendency1 and  ecclesiastical     
trading was resumed4 ,the ,germans1 who 
had never been  permitted to share in   
the ,curia1 took the leading part in    
these attempts  at reform4 ,as things   
went on from bad to worse1 even they at 
last found  out that all hope of        
reforming the ,church by means of       
councils was  delusive4 ,erasmus        
exclaimed1 ,if ,christ does not deliver 
his people  from this multiform         
ecclesiastical tyranny1 the tyranny of  

the ,turk will  become less intolerable4
 ,cardinals' hats were now sold1 and    
under ,leo  ,x4 ecclesiastical and      
religious offices were actually put up  
to auction4  ,the maxim of life had     
become1 interest first1 honor afterward4
 ,among  the officials1 there was not   
one who could be honest in the dark1 and
  virtuous without a witness4 ,the      
violet-colored velvet cloaks and white  
ermine capes of the cardinals were truly
 a cover for wickedness4    ,the unity  
of the ,church1 and therefore its power1
 required the use of  ,latin as a sacred
 language4 ,through this1 ,rome had     
stood in an attitude  strictly          
,european1 and was enabled to maintain a
 general international  relation4 ,it   
gave her far more power than her        
asserted celestial  authority1 and1 much
 as she claims to have done1 she is open
 to  condemnation that1 with such a     
signal advantage in her hands1 never    
again to be enjoyed by any successor1   
she did not accomplish much  more4 ,had 

not the sovereign pontiffs been so      
completely occupied with  maintaining   
their emoluments and temporalities in   
,italy1 they might have  made the whole 
continent advance like one man4 ,their  
officials could  pass without difficulty
 into every nation1 and communicate     
without  embarrassment with each other1 
from ,ireland to ,bohemia1 from ,italy  
to  ,scotland4 ,the possession of a     
common tongue gave them the             
administration  of international affairs
 with intelligent allies everywhere1    
speaking  the same language4    ,not    
without cause was the hatred manifested 
by ,rome to the restoration  of ,greek  
and introduction of ,hebrew1 and the    
alarm with which she  perceived the     
modern languages forming out of the     
vulgar dialects4  ,not without reason   
did the ,faculty of ,theology in ,paris 
re-echo the  sentiment that1 was        
prevalent in the time of ,ximenes1 ,what
 will  become of religion if the study  
of ,greek and ,hebrew be permitted8 ,the

  prevalence of ,latin was the condition
 of her power2 its deterioration1  the  
measure of her decay2 its disuse1 the   
signal of her limitation to  a little   
principality in ,italy4 ,in fact1 the   
development of ,european  languages was 
the instrument of her overthrow4 ,they  
formed an effectual  communication      
between the mendicant friars and the    
illiterate populace1  and there was not 
one of them that did not display in its 
earliest  productions a sovereign       
contempt for her4    ,the rise of the   
many-tongued ,european literature was   
therefore  coincident with the decline  
of papal ,christianity2 ,european       
literature  was impossible under        
,catholic rule4 ,a grand1 a solemn1 an  
imposing  religious unity enforced the  
literary unity which is implied in the  
use  of a single tongue4    ,while thus 
the possession of a universal language  
so signally secured  her power1 the real
 secret of much of the influence of the 
,church lay  in the control she had so  

skillfully obtained over domestic life4 
,her  influence diminished as that      
declined4 ,coincident with this was her 
displacement in the guidance of         
international relations by diplomacy4   
,,catholicity ,,and ,,civilization4 ,in 
the old times of ,roman domination the  
encampments of the legions in the       
provinces had always proved to be foci  
of civilization4 ,the industry and order
 exhibited in them presented an  example
 not lost on the surrounding barbarians 
of ,britain1 ,gaul1 and  ,germany4 ,and1
 though it was no part of their duty to 
occupy themselves  actively in the      
betterment of the conquered tribes1 but 
rather to keep  them in a depressed     
condition that aided in maintaining     
subjection1  a steady improvement both  
in the individual and social condition  
took  place4    ,under the              
ecclesiastical domination of ,rome      
similar effects occurred4 ,in  the open 
country the monastery replaced the      
legionary encampment2 in the  village or

 town1 the church was a centre of light4
 ,a powerful effect  was produced by the
 elegant luxury of the former1 and by   
the sacred and  solemn monitions of the 
latter4    ,in extolling the papal      
system for what it did in the           
organization of the  family1 the        
definition of civil policy1 the         
construction of the states  of ,europe1 
our praise must be limited by the       
recollection that the chief  object of  
ecclesiastical policy was the           
aggrandizement of the ,church1  not the 
promotion of civilization4 ,the benefit 
obtained by the laity was  not through  
any special intention1 but incidental or
 collateral4    ,there was no           
far-reaching1 no persistent plan to     
ameliorate the physical  condition of   
the nations4 ,nothing was done to favor 
their intellectual  development2 indeed1
 on the contrary1 it was the settled    
policy to keep  them not merely         
illiterate1 but ignorant4 ,century after
 century passed  away1 and left the     

peasantry but little better than the    
cattle in the  fields4                  
,intercommunication and locomotion1     
which tend so powerfully to  expand the 
ideas1 received no encouragement2 the   
majority of men died  without ever      
having ventured out of the neighborhood 
in which they were  born4 ,for them     
there was no hope of personal           
improvement1 none of the  bettering of  
their lot2 there were no comprehensive  
schemes for the  avoidance of individual
 want1 none for the resistance of       
famines4  ,pestilences were permitted to
 stalk forth unchecked1 or at best      
opposed  only by mummeries4 ,bad food1  
wretched clothing1 inadequate shelter1  
were  suffered to produce their result1 
and at the end of a thousand years the  
population of ,europe had not doubled4  
,if policy may be held accountable as   
much for the births it prevents as  for 
the deaths it occasions1 what a great   
responsibility there is here6    ,in    
this investigation of the influence of  

,catholicism1 we must carefully  keep   
separate what it did for the people and 
what it did for itself4  ,when we think 
of the stately monastery1 an embodiment 
of luxury1 with  its closely-mown lawns1
 its gardens and bowers1 its fountains  
and many  murmuring streams1 we must    
connect it not with the ague-stricken   
peasant  dying without help in the fens1
 but with the abbot1 his ambling        
palfrey1  his hawk and hounds1 his      
well-stocked cellar and larder4 ,he is  
part of  a system that has its centre of
 authority in ,italy44 ,to that his     
allegiance is due4 ,for its behoof are  
all his acts4 ,when we survey1 as  still
 we may1 the magnificent churches and   
cathedrals of those  times1 miracles of 
architectural skill--the only real      
miracles of  ,catholicism--when in      
imagination we restore the              
transcendently  imposing1 the noble     
services of which they were once the    
scene1 the  dim1 religious-light        
streaming in through the many-colored   

windows1 the  sounds of voices not      
inferior in their melody to those of    
heaven1  the priests in their sacred    
vestments1 and above all the prostrate  
worshipers listening to litanies and    
prayers in a foreign and unknown        
tongue1 shall we not ask ourselves1 ,was
 all this for the sake of those         
worshipers1 or for the glory of the     
great1 the overshadowing authority  at  
,rome8    ,but perhaps some one may say1
 ,are there not limits to human         
exertion--things which no political     
system1 no human power1 no matter  how  
excellent its intention1 can accomplish8
 ,men cannot be raised from  barbarism1 
a continent cannot be civilized1 in a   
day6    ,the ,catholic power is not1    
however1 to be tried by any such        
standard4  ,it scornfully rejected and  
still rejects a human origin4 ,it claims
 to  be accredited supernaturally4 ,the 
sovereign pontiff is the ,vicar of ,god 
upon earth4 ,infallible in judgment1 it 
is given to him to accomplish  all      

things by miracle if need be4 ,he had   
exercised an autocratic tyranny  over   
the intellect of ,europe for more than a
 thousand years2 and1 though  on some   
occasions he had encountered the        
resistances of disobedient  princes1    
these1 in the aggregate1 were of so     
little moment1 that the  physical1 the  
political power of the continent may be 
affirmed to have  been at his disposal4 
,such facts as have been presented in   
this chapter were1 doubtless1  well     
weighed by the ,protestant ,reformers of
 the sixteenth century1 and  brought    
them to the conclusion that ,catholicism
 had altogether failed in  its mission2 
that it had become a vast system of     
delusion and imposture1  and that a     
restoration of true ,christianity could 
only be accomplished  by returning to   
the faith and practices of the primitive
 times4 ,this was  no decision suddenly 
arrived at2 it had long been the opinion
 of many  religious and learned men4    
,the pious ,fratricelli in the middle   

ages had  loudly expressed their belief 
that the fatal gift of a ,roman emperor 
had  been the doom of true religion4 ,it
 wanted nothing more than the voice of  
,luther to bring men throughout the     
north of ,europe to the determination   
that the worship of the ,virgin ,mary1  
the invocation of saints1 the  working  
of miracles1 supernatural cures of the  
sick1 the purchase of  indulgences for  
the perpetration of sin1 and all other  
evil practices1  lucrative to their     
abettors1 which had been fastened on    
,christianity1  but which were no part  
of it1 should come to an end4           
,catholicism1 as  a system for promoting
 the well-being of man1 had plainly     
failed in  justifying its alleged       
origin2 its performance had not         
corresponded to  its great pretensions2 
and1 after an opportunity of more than a
  thousand years' duration1 it had left 
the masses of men submitted to  its     
influences1 both as regards physical    
well-being and intellectual  culture1 in

 a condition far lower than what it     
ought to have been4        ,,chapter    
,,xi4         ,,science ,,in ,,relation 
,,to ,,modern ,,civilization4           
,illustration of the general influences 
of ,science from the       history of   
,america4         ,,the ,,introduction  
,,of ,,science ,,into ,,europe4--,it    
passed from       ,moorish ,spain to    
,upper ,italy1 and was favored by the   
absence       of the popes at           
,avignon4--,the effects of printing1 of 
maritime adventure1 and of the          
,reformation--,establishment of         
the ,italian scientific societies4      
,,the ,,intellectual ,,influence ,,of   
,,science4--,it changed the mode        
and the direction of thought in         
,europe4--,the transactions of       the
 ,royal ,society of ,london1 and other  
scientific societies1       furnish an  
illustration of this4         ,,the     
,,economical ,,influence ,,of ,,science 
is illustrated by the       numerous    
mechanical and physical inventions1 made

 since the       fourteenth             
century4--,their influence on health and
 domestic       life1 on the arts of    
peace and of war4         ,answer to the
 question1 ,what has ,science done for  
humanity8      ,,europe1 at the epoch of
 the ,reformation1 furnishes us with the
 result of  the influences of ,roman    
,christianity in the promotion of       
civilization4  ,america1 examined in    
like manner at the present time1        
furnishes us with  an illustration of   
the influences of science4    ,,science 
,,and ,,civilization4 ,in the course of 
the seventeenth century a  sparse       
,european population had settled along  
the western ,atlantic coast4  ,attracted
 by the cod-fishery of ,newfoundland1   
the ,french had a little  colony north  
of the ,st4 ,lawrence2 the ,english1    
,dutch1 and ,swedes1  occupied the shore
 of ,new ,england and the ,middle       
,states2 some ,huguenots  were living in
 the ,carolinas4 ,rumors of a spring    
that could confer  perpetual youth--a   

fountain of life--had brought a few     
,spaniards into  ,florida4 ,behind the  
fringe of villages which these          
adventurers had  built1 lay a vast and  
unknown country1 inhabited by wandering 
,indians1  whose numbers from the ,gulf 
of ,mexico to the ,st4 ,lawrence did not
 exceed  one hundred and eighty         
thousand4 ,from them the ,european      
strangers had  learned that in those    
solitary regions there were fresh-water 
seas1  and a great river which they     
called the ,mississippi4 ,some said that
 it  flowed through ,virginia into the  
,atlantic1 some that it passed through  
,florida1 some that it emptied into the 
,pacific1 and some that it reached  the 
,gulf of ,mexico4 ,parted from their    
native countries by the stormy          
,atlantic1 to cross which implied a     
voyage of many months1 these refugees   
seemed lost to the world4    ,but before
 the close of the nineteenth century the
 descendants of this  feeble people had 
become one of the great powers of the   

earth4 ,they  had established a republic
 whose sway extended from the ,atlantic 
to  the ,pacific4 ,with an army of more 
than a million men1 not on paper1 but   
actually in the field1 they had         
overthrown a domestic assailant4  ,they 
had maintained at sea a war-fleet of    
nearly seven hundred ships1  carrying   
five thousand guns1 some of them the    
heaviest in the world4 ,the  tonnage of 
this navy amounted to half a million4   
,in the defense of their  national life 
they had expended in less than five     
years more than four  thousand million  
dollars4 ,their census1 periodically    
taken1 showed that  the population was  
doubling itself every twenty-five years2
 it justified  the expectation that at  
the close of that century it would      
number nearly  one hundred million      
souls4    ,,knowledge ,,is ,,power4 ,a  
silent continent had been changed into a
 scene of  industry2 it was full of the 
din of machinery and the restless moving
  of men4 ,where there had been an      

unbroken forest1 there were hundreds of 
cities and towns4 ,to commerce were     
furnished in profusion some of the  most
 important staples1 as cotton1 tobacco1 
breadstuffs4 ,the mines  yielded        
incredible quantities of gold1 iron1    
coal4 ,countless churches1  colleges1   
and public schools1 testified that a    
moral influence vivified  this material 
activity4 ,locomotion was effectually   
provided for4 ,the  railways exceeded in
 aggregate length those of all ,europe  
combined4  ,in #ahgc the aggregate      
length of the ,european railways was    
sixty-three  thousand three hundred and 
sixty miles1 that of the ,american was  
seventy  thousand six hundred and fifty 
miles4 ,one of them1 built across the   
continent1 connected the ,atlantic and  
,pacific ,oceans4    ,but not alone are 
these material results worthy of notice4
 ,others of a  moral and social kind    
force themselves on our attention4 ,four
 million  negro slaves had been set     
free4 ,legislation1 if it inclined to   

the  advantage of any class1 inclined to
 that of the poor4 ,its intention was   
to raise them from poverty1 and better  
their lot4 ,a career was open  to       
talent1 and that without any restraint4 
,every thing was possible to            
intelligence and industry4 ,many of the 
most important public offices  were     
filled by men who had risen from the    
humblest walks of life4  ,if there was  
not social equality1 as there never can 
be in rich and  prosperous communities1 
there was civil equality1 rigorously    
maintained4    ,it may perhaps be said  
that much of this material prosperity   
arose from  special conditions1 such as 
had never occurred in the case of any   
people  before1 ,there was a vast1 an   
open theatre of action1 a whole         
continent  ready for any who chose to   
take possession of it4 ,nothing more    
than  courage and industry was needed to
 overcome ,nature1 and to seize the     
abounding advantages she offered4       
,,illustrations ,,from ,,american       

,,history4 ,but must not men be animated
 by a  great principle who successfully 
transform the primeval solitudes into   
an abode of civilization1 who are not   
dismayed by gloomy forests1 or  rivers1 
mountains1 or frightful deserts1 who    
push their conquering  way in the course
 of a century across a continent1 and   
hold it in  subjection8 ,let us contrast
 with this the results of the invasion  
of  ,mexico and ,peru by the ,spaniards1
 who in those countries overthrew  a    
wonderful civilization1 in many respects
 superior to their own--a  civilization 
that had been accomplished without iron 
and gunpowder--a  civilization resting  
on an agriculture that had neither      
horse1 nor  ox1 nor plough4 ,the        
,spaniards had a clear base to start    
from1 and  no obstruction whatever in   
their advance4 ,they ruined all that the
  aboriginal children of ,america had   
accomplished4 ,millions of those        
unfortunates were destroyed by their    
cruelty4 ,nations that for  many        

centuries had been living in contentment
 and prosperity1 under  institutions    
shown by their history to be suitable to
 them1 were plunged  into anarchy2 the  
people fell into a baneful superstition1
 and a  greater part of their landed and
 other property found its way into the  
possession of the ,roman ,church4    ,i 
have selected the foregoing             
illustration1 drawn from ,american      
history1  in preference to many others  
that might have been taken from         
,european1  because it furnishes an     
instance of the operation of the acting 
principle least interfered with by      
extraneous conditions4 ,european        
political progress is less simple than  
,american4    ,,quarrel ,,between       
,,france ,,and ,,the ,,papacy4 ,before  
considering its manner  of action1 and  
its results1 ,i will briefly relate how 
the scientific  principle found an      
introduction into ,europe4              
,,introduction ,,of ,,science ,,into    
,,europe4 ,not only had the ,crusades1  

for many  years1 brought vast sums to   
,rome1 extorted from the fears or the   
piety  of every ,christian nation2 they 
had also increased the papal power to a 
most dangerous extent4 ,in the dual     
governments everywhere prevailing in    
,europe1 the spiritual had obtained the 
mastery2 the temporal was little  better
 than its servant4    ,from all         
quarters1 and under all kinds of        
pretenses1 streams of money  were       
steadily flowing into ,italy4 ,the      
temporal princes found that there  were 
left for them inadequate and            
impoverished revenues4 ,philip the      
,fair1 ,king of ,france 7,a4,d4 #acjj71 
not only determined to check this  drain
 from his dominions1 by prohibiting the 
export of gold and  silver without his  
license2 he also resolved that the      
clergy and the  ecclesiastical estates  
should pay their share of taxes to him4 
,this brought on a mortal contest with  
the papacy4 ,the king was               
excommunicated1 and1 in retaliation1 he 

accused the pope1 ,boniface  ,,viii41 of
 atheism2 demanding that he should be   
tried by a general  council4 ,he sent   
some trusty persons into ,italy1 who    
seized ,boniface in  his palace at      
,anagni1 and treated him with so much   
severity1 that in a  few days he died4  
,the succeeding pontiff1 ,benedict      
,,xi41 was poisoned4    ,the ,french    
king was determined that the papacy     
should be purified and  reformed2 that  
it should no longer be the appanage of a
 few ,italian  families1 who were       
dexterously transmuting the credulity of
 ,europe into  coin--that ,french       
influence should prevail in it4 ,he     
,therefore came to  an understanding    
with the cardinals2 a ,french archbishop
 was elevated  to the pontificate2 he   
took the name of ,clement ,v4 ,the papal
 court was  removed to ,avignon1 in     
,france1 and ,rome was abandoned as the 
metropolis  of ,christianity4           
,,moorish ,,science ,,introduced        
,,through ,,france4 ,seventy years      

elapsed before  the papacy was restored 
to the ,eternal ,city 7,a4,d4 #acgf74   
,the diminution  of its influence in the
 peninsula1 that had thus occurred1 gave
  opportunity for the memorable         
intellectual movement which soon        
manifested itself in the great          
commercial cities of ,upper ,italy4     
,contemporaneously1 also1 there were    
other propitious events4 ,the result  of
 the ,crusades had shaken the faith of  
all ,christendom4 ,in an age when  the  
test of the ordeal of battle was        
universally accepted1 those wars  had   
ended in leaving the ,holy ,land in the 
hands of the ,saracens2 the  many       
thousand ,christian warriors who had    
returned from them did not  hesitate to 
declare that they had found their       
antagonists not such as  had been       
pictured by the ,church1 but valiant1   
courteous1 just4 ,through  the gay      
cities of the ,south of ,france a love  
of romantic literature  had been        
spreading2 the wandering troubadours had

 been singing their  songs--songs far   
from being restricted to ladye-love and 
feats of war2  often their burden was   
the awful atrocities that had been      
perpetrated  by papal authority--the    
religious massacres of ,languedoc2 often
 their  burden was the illicit amours of
 the clergy4 ,from ,moorish ,spain the  
gentle and gallant idea of chivalry had 
been brought1 and with it the  noble    
sentiment of personal honor1 destined in
 the course of time to  give a code of  
its own to ,europe4    ,,effect ,,of    
,,the ,,great ,,schism4 ,the return of  
the papacy to ,rome was far  from       
restoring the influence of the popes    
over the ,italian ,peninsula4  ,more    
than two generations had passed away    
since their departure1 and1  had they   
come back even in their original        
strength1 they could not  have resisted 
the intellectual progress that had been 
made during their  absence4 ,the papacy1
 however1 came back not to rule1 but to 
be divided  against itself1 to encounter

 the ,great ,schism4 ,out of its        
dissensions  emerged two rival popes2   
eventually there were three1 each       
pressing  his claims upon the religious1
 each cursing his rival4 ,a sentiment   
of indignation soon spread all over     
,europe1 a determination that the       
shameful scenes which were then enacting
 should be ended4 ,how could the  dogma 
of a ,vicar of ,god upon earth1 the     
dogma of an infallible pope1  be        
sustained in presence of such scandals8 
,herein lay the cause of that           
resolution of the ablest ecclesiastics  
of those times 7which1 alas for         
,europe6 could not be carried into      
effect71 that a general council should  
be made the permanent religious         
parliament of the whole continent1  with
 the pope as its chief executive        
officer4 ,had that intention been       
accomplished1 there would have been at  
this day no conflict between  science   
and religion2 the convulsion of the     
,reformation would have been  avoided2  

there would have been no jarring        
,protestant sects4 ,but the  ,councils  
of ,constance and ,basle failed to shake
 off the ,italian yoke1  failed to      
attain that noble result4               
,catholicism was thus weakening2 as its 
leaden pressure lifted1 the  intellect  
of man expanded4 ,the ,saracens had     
invented the method of  making paper    
from linen rags and from cotton4 ,the   
,venetians had brought  from ,china to  
,europe the art of printing4 ,the former
 of these inventions  was essential to  
the latter4 ,hence forth1 without the   
possibility of a  check1 there was      
intellectual intercommunication among   
all men4    ,,invention ,,of ,,printing4
 ,the invention of printing was a severe
 blow to  ,catholicism1 which had1      
previously1 enjoyed the inappreciable   
advantage  of a monopoly of             
intercommunication4 ,from its central   
seat1 orders could  be disseminated     
through all the ecclesiastical ranks1   
and fulminated  through the pulpits4    

,this monopoly and the amazing power it 
conferred  were destroyed by the press4 
,in modern times1 the influence of the  
pulpit has become insignificant4 ,the   
pulpit has been thoroughly  supplanted  
by the newspaper4    ,yet1 ,catholicism 
did not yield its ancient advantage     
without a struggle4  ,as soon as the    
inevitable tendency of the new art was  
detected1 a  restraint upon it1 under   
the form of a censorship1 was attempted4
 ,it was  made necessary to have a      
permit1 in order to print a book4 ,for  
this1 it  was needful that the work     
should have been read1 examined1 and    
approved  by the clergy4 ,there must be 
a certificate that it was a godly and   
orthodox book4 ,a bull of               
excommunication was issued in #aeja1 by 
,alexander ,,vi41 against printers who  
should publish pernicious doctrines4    
,in #aeae the ,lateran ,council ordered 
that no books should be printed but     
such as had been inspected by the       
ecclesiastical censors1 under pain of   

excommunication and fine2 the censors   
being directed to take the utmost  care 
that nothing should be printed contrary 
to the orthodox faith4  ,there was thus 
a dread of religious discussion2 a      
terror lest truth  should emerge4       
,but these frantic struggles of the     
powers of ignorance were unavailing4    
,intellectual intercommunication among  
men was secured4 ,it culminated in  the 
modern newspaper1 which daily gives its 
contemporaneous intelligence  from all  
parts of the world4 ,reading became a   
common occupation4 ,in  ancient society 
that art was possessed by comparatively 
few persons4  ,modern society owes some 
of its most striking characteristics to 
this  change4    ,,effects ,,of         
,,maritime ,,enterprise4 ,such was the  
result of bringing into  ,europe the    
manufacture of paper and the            
printing-press4 ,in like manner  the    
introduction of the mariner's compass   
was followed by imposing  material and  
moral effects4 ,these were--the         

discovery of ,america in  consequence of
 the rivalry of the ,venetians and      
,genoese about the ,india  trade2 the   
doubling of ,africa by ,de ,gama2 and   
the circumnavigation of  the earth by   
,magellan4 ,with respect to the last1   
the grandest of  all human undertakings1
 it is to be remembered that            
,catholicism had  irrevocably committed 
itself to the dogma of a flat earth1    
with the  sky as the floor of heaven1   
and hell in the under-world4 ,some of   
the  ,fathers1 whose authority was held 
to be paramount1 had1 as we have        
previously said1 furnished philosophical
 and religious arguments against  the   
globular form4 ,the controversy had now 
suddenly come to an end--the  ,church   
was found to be in error4    ,the       
correction of that geographical error   
was by no means the only  important     
result that followed the three great    
voyages4 ,the spirit of  ,columbus1 ,de 
,gama1 ,magellan1 diffused itself among 
all the enterprising  men of ,western   

,europe4 ,society had been hitherto     
living under the dogma  of loyalty to   
the king1 obedience to the ,church4 ,it 
had therefore been  living for others1  
not for itself4 ,the political effect of
 that dogma  had culminated in the      
,crusades4 ,countless thousands had     
perished in  wars that could bring them 
no reward1 and of which the result had  
been  conspicuous failure4 ,experience  
had revealed the fact that the only     
gainers were the pontiffs1 cardinals1   
and other ecclesiastics in ,rome1  and  
the shipmasters of ,venice4 ,but1 when  
it became known that the  wealth of     
,mexico1 ,peru1 and ,india1 might be    
shared by any one who had  enterprise   
and courage1 the motives that had       
animated the restless  populations of   
,europe suddenly changed4 ,the story of 
,cortez and ,pizarro  found enthusiastic
 listeners everywhere4 ,maritime        
adventure supplanted  religious         
enthusiasm4    ,if we attempt to isolate
 the principle that lay at the basis of 

the  wonderful social changes that now  
took place1 we may recognize it  without
 difficulty4 ,heretofore each man had   
dedicated his services to  his          
superior--feudal or ecclesiastical2 now 
he had resolved to gather  the fruits of
 his exertions himself4 ,individualism  
was becoming  predominant1 loyalty was  
declining into a sentiment4 ,we shall   
now see  how it was with the ,church4   
,,individualism4 ,individualism rests on
 the principle that a man shall  be his 
own master1 that he shall have liberty  
to form his own opinions1  freedom to   
carry into effect his resolves4 ,he is1 
therefore1 ever  brought into           
competition with his fellow-men4 ,his   
life is a display of  energy4    ,to    
remove the stagnation of centuries front
 ,european life1 to vivify  suddenly    
what had hitherto been an inert mass1 to
 impart to it  individualism1 was to    
bring it into conflict with the         
influences  that had been oppressing it4
 ,all through the fourteenth and        

fifteenth  centuries uneasy strugglings 
gave a premonition of what was coming4  
,in the early part of the sixteenth     
7#aeag71 the battle was joined4         
,individualism found its embodiment in a
 sturdy ,german monk1 and  therefore1   
perhaps necessarily1 asserted its rights
 under theological  forms4 ,there were  
some preliminary skirmishes about       
indulgences and  other minor matters1   
but very soon the real cause of dispute 
came  plainly into view4 ,martin ,luther
 refused to think as he was ordered to  
do by his ecclesiastical superiors at   
,rome2 he asserted that he had an       
inalienable right to interpret the      
,bible for himself4    ,at her first    
glance1 ,rome saw nothing in ,martin    
,luther but a vulgar1  insubordinate1   
quarrelsome monk4 ,could the            
,inquisition have laid hold of  him1 it 
would have speedily disposed of his     
affair2 but1 as the conflict  went on1  
it was discovered that ,martin was not  
standing alone4 ,many  thousands of men1

 as resolute as himself1 were coming up 
to his support2  and1 while he carried  
on the combat with writings and words1  
they made  good his propositions with   
the sword4    ,,the ,,reformation4 ,the 
vilification which was poured on ,luther
 and his  doings was so bitter as to be 
ludicrous4 ,it was declared that his    
father  was not his mother's husband1   
but an impish incubus1 who had deluded  
her2 that1 after ten years' struggling  
with his conscience1 he had  become an  
atheist2 that he denied the immortality 
of the soul2 that  he had composed hymns
 in honor of drunkenness1 a vice to     
which he  was unceasingly addicted2 that
 he blasphemed the ,holy ,scriptures1   
and  particularly ,moses2 that he did   
not believe a word of what he preached2 
that he had called the ,epistle of ,st4 
,james a thing of straw2 and1 above     
all1 that the ,reformation was no work  
of his1 but1 in reality1 was due  to a  
certain astrological position of the    
stars4 ,it was1 however1 a  vulgar      

saying among the ,roman ecclesiastics   
that ,erasmus laid the egg of  the      
,reformation1 and ,luther hatched it4   
,rome at first made the mistake of      
supposing that this was nothing more    
than a casual outbreak2 she failed to   
discern that it was1 in fact1 the       
culmination of an internal movement     
which for two centuries had been  going 
on in ,europe1 and which had been hourly
 gathering force2 that1  had there been 
nothing else1 the existence of three    
popes--three  obediences--would have    
compelled men to think1 to deliberate1  
to  conclude for themselves4 ,the       
,councils of ,constance and ,basle      
taught them  that there was a higher    
power than the popes4 ,the long and     
bloody wars  that ensued were closed by 
the ,peace of ,westphalia2 and then it  
was  found that ,central and ,northern  
,europe had cast off the intellectual   
tyranny of ,rome1 that individualism had
 carried its point1 and had  established
 the right of every man to think for    

himself4    ,,decomposition ,,of        
,,protestantism4 ,but it was impossible 
that the  establishment of this right of
 private judgment should end with the   
rejection of ,catholicism4 ,early in the
 movement some of the most              
distinguished men1 such as ,erasmus1 who
 had been among its first  promoters1   
abandoned it4 ,they perceived that many 
of the ,reformers  entertained a bitter 
dislike of learning1 and they were      
afraid of  being brought under bigoted  
caprice4 ,the ,protestant party1 having 
thus  established its existence by      
dissent and separation1 must1 in its    
turn1  submit to the operation of the   
same principles4 ,a decomposition into  
many subordinate sects was inevitable4  
,and these1 now that they had no  longer
 any thing to fear from their great     
,italian adversary1 commenced  partisan 
warfares on each other4 ,as1 in         
different countries1 first one  and then
 another sect rose to power1 it stained 
itself with cruelties  perpetrated upon 

its competitors4 ,the mortal            
retaliations that had  ensued1 when1 in 
the chances of the times1 the oppressed 
got the better  of their oppressors1    
convinced the contending sectarians that
 they must  concede to their competitors
 what they claimed for themselves2 and  
thus1  from their broils and their      
crimes1 the great principle of          
toleration  extricated itself4 ,but     
toleration is only an intermediate      
stage2 and1  as the intellectual        
decomposition of ,protestantism keeps   
going on1 that  transitional condition  
will lead to a higher and nobler        
state--the hope  of philosophy in all   
past ages of the world--a social state  
in which  there shall be unfettered     
freedom for thought4 ,toleration1 except
  when extorted by fear1 can only come  
from those who are capable of           
entertaining and respecting other       
opinions than their own4 ,it can        
therefore only come from philosophy4    
,history teaches us only too plainly    

that fanaticism is stimulated by        
religion1 and neutralized or eradicated 
by philosophy4    ,,toleration4 ,the    
avowed object of the ,reformation was1  
to remove from  ,christianity the pagan 
ideas and pagan rites engrafted upon it 
by  ,constantine and his successors1 in 
their attempt to reconcile the ,roman   
,empire to it4 ,the ,protestants        
designed to bring it back to its        
primitive  purity2 and hence1 while     
restoring the ancient doctrines1 they   
cast out  of it all such practices as   
the adoration of the ,virgin ,mary and  
the invocation of saints4 ,the ,virgin  
,mary1 we are assured by the            
,evangelists1 had accepted the duties of
 married life1 and borne to her  husband
 several children4 ,in the prevailing   
idolatry1 she had ceased to  be regarded
 as the carpenter's wife2 she had become
 the queen of heaven1  and the mother of
 ,god4    ,,da ,,vinci4 ,the science of 
the ,arabians followed the invading     
track of  their literature1 which had   

come into ,christendom by two           
routes--the  south of ,france1 and      
,sicily4 ,favored by the exile of the   
popes to  ,avignon1 and by the ,great   
,schism1 it made good its foothold in   
,upper  ,italy4 ,the ,aristotelian or   
,inductive philosophy1 clad in the      
,saracenic  costume that ,averroes had  
given it1 made many secret and not a few
 open  friends4 ,it found many minds    
eager to receive and able to appreciate 
it4 ,among these were ,leonardo da      
,vinci1 who proclaimed the fundamental  
principle that experiment and           
observation are the only reliable       
foundations of reasoning in science1    
that experiment is the only  trustworthy
 interpreter of ,nature1 and is         
essential to the ascertainment  of laws4
 ,he showed that the action of two      
perpendicular forces upon a  point is   
the same as that denoted by the diagonal
 of a rectangle1 of  which they         
represent the sides4 ,from this the     
passage to the proposition  of oblique  

forces was very easy4 ,this proposition 
was rediscovered by  ,stevinus1 a       
century later1 and applied by him to the
 explanation of the  mechanical powers4 
,da ,vinci gave a clear exposition of   
the theory of  forces applied obliquely 
on a lever1 discovered the laws of      
friction  subsequently demonstrated by  
,amontons1 and understood the principle 
of  virtual velocities4 ,he treated of  
the conditions of descent of bodies     
along inclined planes and circular arcs1
 invented the camera-obscura1  discussed
 correctly several physiological        
problems1 and foreshadowed  some of the 
great conclusions of modern geology1    
such as the nature  of fossil remains1  
and the elevation of continents4 ,he    
explained the  earth-light reflected by 
the moon4 ,with surprising versatility  
of genius  he excelled as a sculptor1   
architect1 engineer2 was thoroughly     
versed in  the astronomy1 anatomy1 and  
chemistry of his times4 ,in painting1 he
  was the rival of ,michel ,angelo2 in a

 competition between them1 he was       
considered to have established his      
superiority4 ,his ,last ,supper1 on  the
 wall of the refectory of the ,dominican
 convent of ,sta4 ,maria delle  ,grazie1
 is well known1 from the numerous       
engravings and copies that have  been   
made of it4    ,,italian ,,scientific   
,,societies4 ,once firmly established in
 the north of  ,italy1 ,science soon    
extended her sway over the entire       
peninsula4 ,the  increasing number of   
her devotees is indicated by the rise   
and rapid  multiplication of learned    
societies4 ,these were reproductions of 
the  ,moorish ones that had formerly    
existed in ,granada and ,cordova4 ,as if
  to mark by a monument the track       
through which civilizing influences had 
come1 the ,academy of ,toulouse1 founded
 in #acde1 has survived to our  own     
times4 ,it represented1 however1 the gay
 literature of the south of  ,france1   
and was known under the fanciful title  
of the ,academy of ,floral  ,games4 ,the

 first society for the promotion of     
physical science1 the  ,academia        
,secretorum ,naturae1 was founded at    
,naples1 by ,baptista  ,porta4 ,it was1 
as ,tiraboschi relates1 dissolved by the
 ecclesiastical  authorities4 ,the      
,lyncean was founded by ,prince         
,frederic ,cesi at ,rome2  its device   
plainly indicated its intention3 a lynx1
 with its eyes turned  upward toward    
heaven1 tearing a triple-headed         
,cerberus with its claws4  ,the         
,accademia del ,cimento1 established at 
,florence1 #afeg1 held its  meetings in 
the ducal palace4 ,it lasted ten years1 
and was then  suppressed at the instance
 of the papal government2 as an         
equivalent1  the brother of the         
grand-duke was made a cardinal4 ,it     
numbered many  great men1 such as       
,torricelli and ,castelli1 among its    
members4 ,the  condition of admission   
into it was an abjuration of all faith1 
and a  resolution to inquire into the   
truth4 ,these societies extricated the  

cultivators of science from the         
isolation in which they had hitherto    
lived1 and1 by promoting their          
intercommunication and union1 imparted  
activity and strength to them all4      
,returning now from this digression1    
this historical sketch of the           
circumstances under which science was   
introduced into ,europe1 ,i pass to  the
 consideration of its manner of action  
and its results4    ,,intellectual      
,,influence ,,of ,,science4 ,the        
influence of science on modern          
civilization has been twofold3 #a4      
,intellectual2 #b4 ,economical4 ,under  
these titles we may conveniently        
consider it4    ,intellectually it      
overthrew the authority of tradition4   
,it refused to  accept1 unless          
accompanied by proof1 the dicta of any  
master1 no matter  how eminent or       
honored his name4 ,the conditions of    
admission into  the ,italian ,accademia 
del ,cimento1 and the motto adopted by  
the ,royal  ,society of ,london1        

illustrate the position it took in this 
respect4    ,it rejected the            
supernatural and miraculous as evidence 
in physical  discussions4 ,it abandoned 
sign-proof such as the ,jews in old days
  required1 and denied that a           
demonstration can be given through an   
illustration of something else1 thus    
casting aside the logic that had  been  
in vogue for many centuries4    ,in     
physical inquiries1 its mode of         
procedure was1 to test the value of  any
 proposed hypothesis1 by executing      
computations in any special case  on the
 basis or principle of that hypothesis1 
and then1 by performing an  experiment  
or making an observation1 to ascertain  
whether the result  of these agreed with
 the result of the computation4 ,if it  
did not1 the  hypothesis was to be      
rejected4    ,we may here introduce an  
illustration or two of this mode of     
procedure3    ,,theories ,,of           
,,gravitation ,,and ,,phlogiston4       
,newton1 suspecting that the  influence 

of the earth's attraction1 gravity1 may 
extend as far as the  moon1 and be the  
force that causes her to revolve in her 
orbit round the  earth1 calculated that1
 by her motion in her orbit1 she was    
deflected  from the tangent thirteen    
feet every minute2 but1 by ascertaining 
the  space through which bodies would   
fall in one minute at the earth's       
surface1 and supposing it to be         
diminished in the ratio of the inverse  
square1 it appeared that the attraction 
at the moon's orbit would draw  a body  
through more than fifteen feet4 ,he1    
therefore1 for the time1  considered his
 hypothesis as unsustained4 ,but it so  
happened that ,picard  shortly afterward
 executed more correctly a new          
measurement of a degree2  this changed  
the estimated magnitude of the earth1   
and the distance of  the moon1 which was
 measured in earth-semidiameters4       
,newton now renewed  his computation1   
and1 as ,i have related on a previous   
page1 as it drew  to a close1 foreseeing

 that a coincidence was about to be     
established1  was so much agitated that 
he was obliged to ask a friend to       
complete it4  ,the hypothesis was       
sustained4    ,a second instance will   
sufficiently illustrate the method under
  consideration4 ,it is presented by the
 chemical theory of phlogiston4  ,stahl1
 the author of this theory1 asserted    
that there is a principle of            
inflammability1 to which he gave the    
name phlogiston1 having the quality  of 
uniting with substances4 ,thus1 when    
what we now term a metallic oxide  was  
united to it1 a metal was produced2 and1
 if the phlogiston were  withdrawn1 the 
metal passed back into its earthy or    
oxidized state4 ,on  this principle1    
then1 the metals were compound bodies1  
earths combined  with phlogiston4       
,,science ,,and ,,ecclesiasticism4 ,but 
during the eighteenth century the       
balance was introduced as an instrument 
of chemical research4 ,now1 if  the     
phlogistic hypothesis be true1 it would 

follow that a metal should  be the      
heavier1 its oxide the lighter body1 for
 the former contains                    
something--phlogiston--that has been    
added to the latter4 ,but1 on  weighing 
a portion of any metal1 and also the    
oxide producible from it1  the latter   
proves to be the heavier1 and here the  
phlogistic hypothesis  fails4 ,still    
further1 on continuing the              
investigation1 it may be shown  that the
 oxide or calx1 as it used to be called1
 has become heavier by  combining with  
one of the ingredients of the air4      
,to ,lavoisier is usually attributed    
this test experiment2 but the fact  that
 the weight of a metal increases by     
calcination was established  by earlier 
,european experimenters1 and1 indeed1   
was well known to the  ,arabian         
chemists4 ,lavoisier1 however1 was the  
first to recognize its  great           
importance4 ,in his hands it produced a 
revolution in chemistry4    ,the        
abandonment of the phlogistic theory is 

an illustration of the  readiness with  
which scientific hypotheses are         
surrendered1 when found  to be wanting  
in accordance with facts4 ,authority and
 tradition pass for  nothing4 ,every    
thing is settled by an appeal to        
,nature4 ,it is assumed  that the       
answers she gives to a practical        
interrogation will ever be  true4       
,comparing now the philosophical        
principles on which science was         
proceeding1 with the principles on which
 ecclesiasticism rested1 we see  that1  
while the former repudiated tradition1  
to the latter it was the  main support  
while the former insisted on the        
agreement of calculation  and           
observation1 or the correspondence of   
reasoning and fact1 the latter  leaned  
upon mysteries2 while the former        
summarily rejected its own  theories1 if
 it saw that they could not be          
coordinated with ,nature1 the  latter   
found merit in a faith that blindly     
accepted the inexplicable1 a  satisfied 

contemplation of things above reason4   
,the alienation between  the two        
continually increased4 ,on one side     
there was a sentiment of  disdain1 on   
the other a sentiment of hatred4        
,impartial witnesses on all  hands      
perceived that science was rapidly      
undermining ecclesiasticism4            
,,mathematics4 ,mathematics had thus    
become the great instrument of          
scientific research1 it had become the  
instrument of scientific  reasoning4 ,in
 one respect it may be said that it     
reduced the operations  of the mind to a
 mechanical process1 for its symbols    
often saved the  labor of thinking4 ,the
 habit of mental exactness it encouraged
 extended  to other branches of thought1
 and produced an intellectual           
revolution4  ,no longer was it possible 
to be satisfied with miracle-proof1 or  
the  logic that had been relied upon    
throughout the middle ages4 ,not only   
did  it thus influence the manner of    
thinking1 it also changed the direction 

of thought4 ,of this we may be satisfied
 by comparing the subjects  considered  
in the transactions of the various      
learned societies with the  discussions 
that had occupied the attention of the  
middle ages4    ,but the use of         
mathematics was not limited to the      
verification of  theories2 as above     
indicated1 it also furnished a means of 
predicting  what had hitherto been      
unobserved4 ,in this it offered a       
counterpart  to the prophecies of       
ecclesiasticism4 ,the discovery of      
,neptune is  an instance of the kind    
furnished by astronomy1 and that of     
conical  refraction by the optical      
theory of undulations4    ,but1 while   
this great instrument led to such a     
wonderful development in  natural       
science1 it was itself undergoing       
development--improvement4 ,let  us in a 
few lines recall its progress4    ,the  
germ of algebra may be discerned in the 
works of ,diophantus of  ,alexandria1   
who is supposed to have lived in the    

second century of our  era4 ,in that    
,egyptian school ,euclid had formerly   
collected the great  truths of geometry1
 and arranged them in logical sequence4 
,archimedes1  in ,syracuse1 had         
attempted the solution of the higher    
problems by the  method of exhaustions4 
,such was the tendency of things that1  
had the  patronage of science been      
continued1 algebra would inevitably have
 been  invented4    ,to the ,arabians we
 owe our knowledge of the rudiments of  
algebra2 we  owe to them the very name  
under which this branch of mathematics  
passes4  ,they had carefully added1 to  
the remains of the ,alexandrian ,school1
  improvements obtained in ,india1 and  
had communicated to the subject  a      
certain consistency and form4 ,the      
knowledge of algebra1 as they  possessed
 it1 was first brought into ,italy about
 the beginning of the  thirteenth       
century4 ,it attracted so little        
attention1 that nearly three  hundred   
years elapsed before any ,european work 

on the subject appeared4  ,in #adif     
,paccioli published his book entitled   
,arte ,maggiore1 or  ,alghebra4 ,in     
#aeja1 ,cardan1 of ,milan1 gave a method
 for the solution of  cubic equations2  
other improvements were contributed by  
,scipio ,ferreo1  #aejh1 by ,tartalea1  
by ,vieta4 ,the ,germans now took up the
 subject4 ,at  this time the notation   
was in an imperfect state4    ,the      
publication of the ,geometry of         
,descartes1 which contains the          
application of algebra to the definition
 and investigation of curve  lines      
7#afcg71 constitutes an epoch in the    
history of the mathematical  sciences4  
,two years previously1 ,cavalieri's work
 on ,indivisibles had  appeared4 ,this  
method was improved by ,torricelli and  
others4 ,the way was  now open1 for the 
development of the ,infinitesimal       
,calculus1 the method  of ,fluxions of  
,newton1 and the ,differential and      
,integral ,calculus  of ,leibnitz4      
,though in his possession many years    

previously1 ,newton  published nothing  
on ,fluxions until #agjd2 the imperfect 
notation he  employed retarded very much
 the application of his method4         
,meantime1 on  the ,continent1 very     
largely through the brilliant solutions 
of some of  the higher problems1        
accomplished by the ,bernouillis1 the   
,calculus of  ,leibnitz was universally 
accepted1 and improved by many          
mathematicians4  ,an extraordinary      
development of the science now took     
place1 and  continued throughout the    
century4 ,to the ,binomial theorem1     
previously  discovered by ,newton1      
,taylor now added1 in his ,method of    
,increments1  the celebrated theorem    
that bears his name4 ,this was in #agae4
 ,the  ,calculus of ,partial            
,differences was introduced by ,euler in
 #agcd4 ,it was  extended by            
,d',alembert1 and was followed by that  
of ,variations1 by ,euler  and          
,lagrange1 and by the method of         
,derivative ,functions1 by ,lagrange1 in

  #aggb4    ,but it was not only in     
,italy1 in ,germany1 in ,england1 in    
,france1 that  this great movement in   
mathematics was witnessed2 ,scotland had
 added a  new gem to the intellectual   
diadem with which her brow is encircled1
  by the grand invention of ,logarithms1
 by ,napier of ,merchiston4 ,it is      
impossible to give any adequate         
conception of the scientific importance 
of this incomparable invention4 ,the    
modern physicist and astronomer  will   
most cordially agree with ,briggs1 the  
,professor of ,mathematics in  ,gresham 
,college1 in his exclamation3 ,i never  
saw a book that pleased  me better1 and 
that made ,i me more wonder6 ,not       
without reason did the  immortal ,kepler
 regard ,napier to be the greatest man  
of his age1 in the  department to which 
he had applied his abilities4 ,napier   
died in #afag4  ,it is no exaggeration  
to say that this invention1 by          
shortening the  labors1 doubled the life
 of the astronomer4    ,but here ,i must

 check myself4 ,i must remember that my 
present purpose is  not to give the     
history of mathematics1 but to consider 
what science has  done for the          
advancement of human civilization4 ,and 
now1 at once1 recurs  the question1 ,how
 is it that the ,church produced no     
geometer in her  autocratic reign of    
twelve hundred years8    ,with respect  
to pure mathematics this remark may be  
made3 ,its  cultivation does not demand 
appliances that are beyond the reach of 
most individuals4 ,astronomy must have  
its observatory1 chemistry its          
laboratory2 but mathematics asks only   
personal disposition and a  few books4  
,no great expenditures are called for1  
nor the services  of assistants4 ,one   
would think that nothing could be more  
congenial1  nothing more delightful1    
even in the retirement of monastic life4
    ,shall we answer with ,eusebius1 ,it
 is through contempt of such useless    
labor that we think so little of these  
matters2 we turn our souls to  the      

exercise of better things8 ,better      
things6 ,what can be better than        
absolute truth8 ,are mysteries1         
miracles1 lying impostures1 better8 ,it 
was these that stood in the way6    ,the
 ecclesiastical authorities had         
recognized1 from the outset of this     
scientific invasion1 that the principles
 it was disseminating were  absolutely  
irreconcilable with the current         
theology4 ,directly and  indirectly1    
they struggled against it4 ,so great was
 their detestation  of experimental     
science1 that they thought they had     
gained a great  advantage when the      
,accademia del ,cimento was suppressed4 
,nor was the  sentiment restricted to   
,catholicism4 ,when the ,royal ,society 
of ,london  was founded1 theological    
odium was directed against it with so   
much  rancor that1 doubtless1 it would  
have been extinguished1 had not ,king   
,charles ,,ii4 given it his open and    
avowed support4 ,it was accused of  an  
intention of destroying the established 

religion1 of injuring the  universities1
 and of upsetting ancient and solid     
learning4    ,,the ,,royal ,,society    
,,of ,,london4 ,we have only to turn    
over the pages of its  ,transactions to 
discern how much this society has done  
for the progress  of humanity4 ,it was  
incorporated in #affb1 and has          
interested itself in  all the great     
scientific movements and discoveries    
that have since been  made4 ,it         
published ,newton's ,principia2 it      
promoted ,halley's voyage1  the first   
scientific expedition undertaken by any 
government2 it made  experiments on the 
transfusion of blood1 and accepted      
,harvey's discovery  of the circulation4
 ,the encouragement it gave to          
inoculation led ,queen  ,caroline to beg
 six condemned criminals for experiment1
 and then to  submit her own children to
 that operation4 ,through its           
encouragement  ,bradley accomplished his
 great discovery1 the aberration of the 
fixed  stars1 and that of the nutation  

of the earth's axis2 to these two       
discoveries1 ,delambre says1 we owe the 
exactness of modern astronomy4 ,it      
promoted the improvement of the         
thermometer1 the measure of temperature1
  and in ,harrison's watch1 the         
chronometer1 the measure of time4       
,through  it the ,gregorian ,calendar   
was introduced into ,england1 in #ageb1 
against  a violent religious opposition4
 ,some of its ,fellows were pursued     
through  the streets by an ignorant and 
infuriated mob1 who believed it had     
robbed them of eleven days of their     
lives2 it was found necessary to        
conceal the name of ,father ,walmesley1 
a learned ,jesuit1 who had taken  deep  
interest in the matter2 and1 ,bradley   
happening to die during the  commotion1 
it was declared that he had suffered a  
judgment from ,heaven  for his crime6   
,,the ,,royal ,,society ,,of ,,london4  
,if ,i were to attempt to do justice to 
the  merits of this great society1 ,i   
should have to devote many pages1 to    

such subjects as the achromatic         
telescope of ,dollond2 the dividing     
engine of ,ramsden1 which first gave    
precision to astronomical  observations1
 the measurement of a degree on the     
earth's surface by  ,mason and ,dixon2  
the expeditions of ,cook in connection  
with the transit  of ,venus2 his        
circumnavigation of the earth2 his proof
 that scurvy1  the curse of long        
sea-voyages1 may be avoided by the use  
of vegetable  substances2 the polar     
expeditions2 the determination of the   
density of  the earth by ,maskelyne's   
experiments at ,scheliallion1 and by    
those  of ,cavendish2 the discovery of  
the planet ,uranus by ,herschel2 the    
composition of water by ,cavendish and  
,watt2 the determination of the         
difference of longitude between ,london 
and ,paris2 the invention of  the       
voltaic pile2 the surveys of the heavens
 by the ,herschels2  the development of 
the principle of interference by ,young1
 and his  establishment of the          

undulatory theory of light2 the         
ventilation  of jails and other         
buildings2 the introduction of gas for  
city  illumination2 the ascertainment of
 the length of the seconds-pendulum2    
the measurement of the variations of    
gravity in different latitudes2 the     
operations to ascertain the curvature of
 the earth2 the polar expedition  of    
,ross2 the invention of the safety-lamp 
by ,davy1 and his decomposition  of the 
alkalies and earths2 the                
electro-magnetic discoveries of ,oersted
  and ,faraday2 the calculating-engines 
of ,babbage2 the measures taken  at the 
instance of ,humboldt for the           
establishment of many magnetic          
observatories2 the verification of      
contemporaneous magnetic disturbances   
over the earth's surface4 ,but it is    
impossible1 in the limited space at  my 
disposal1 to give even so little as a   
catalogue of its ,transactions4  ,its   
spirit was identical with that which    
animated the ,accademia del  ,cimento1  

and its motto accordingly was ,nullius  
in ,verba4 ,it proscribed  superstition1
 and permitted only calculation1        
observation1 and  experiment4           
,,influence ,,of ,,science4 ,not for a  
moment must it be supposed that in these
  great attempts1 these great           
,successes1 the ,royal ,society stood   
alone4  ,in all the capitals of ,europe 
there were ,academies1 ,institutes1 or  
,societies1 equal in distinction1 and   
equally successful in promoting  human  
knowledge and modern civilization4      
,,the ,,economical ,,influences ,,of    
,,science4    ,the scientific study of  
,nature tends not only to correct and   
ennoble  the intellectual conceptions of
 man2 it serves also to ameliorate his  
physical condition4 ,it perpetually     
suggests to him the inquiry1 how he  may
 make1 by their economical application1 
ascertained facts subservient  to his   
use4    ,the investigation of principles
 is quickly followed by practical       
inventions4 ,this1 indeed1 is the       

characteristic feature of our times4 ,it
  has produced a great revolution in    
national policy4    ,in former ages wars
 were made for the procuring of slaves4 
,a conqueror  transported entire        
populations1 and extorted from them     
forced labor1 for  it was only by human 
labor that human labor could be         
relieved4 ,but when  it was discovered  
that physical agents and mechanical     
combinations could  be employed to      
incomparably greater advantage1 public  
policy underwent a  change2 when it was 
recognized that the application of a new
 principle1  or the invention of a new  
machine1 was better than the acquisition
 of an  additional slave1 peace became  
preferable to war4 ,and not only so1 but
  nations possessing great slave or serf
 populations1 as was the care in        
,america and ,russia1 found that        
considerations of humanity were         
supported  by considerations of         
interest1 and set their bondmen free4   
,,scientific ,,inventions4 ,thus we live

 in a period of which a  characteristic 
is the supplanting of human and animal  
labor by machines4  ,its mechanical     
inventions have wrought a social        
revolution4 ,we appeal  to the natural1 
not to the supernatural1 for the        
accomplishment of our  ends4 ,it is with
 the modern civilization thus arising   
that ,catholicism  refuses to be        
reconciled4 ,the papacy loudly proclaims
 its inflexible  repudiation of this    
state of affairs1 and insists on a      
restoration of  the medieval condition  
of things4    ,that a piece of amber1   
when rubbed1 will attract and then repel
 light  bodies1 was a fact known six    
hundred years before ,christ4 ,it       
remained an  isolated1 uncultivated     
fact1 a mere trifle1 until sixteen      
hundred years  after ,christ4 ,then     
dealt with by the scientific methods of 
mathematical  discussion and experiment1
 and practical application made of the  
result1  it has permitted men to        
communicate instantaneously with each   

other  across continents and under      
oceans4 ,it has centralized the world4  
,by  enabling the sovereign authority to
 transmit its mandates without  regard  
to distance or to time1 it has          
revolutionized statesmanship and        
condensed political power4    ,in the   
,museum of ,alexandria there was a      
machine invented by ,hero1 the          
mathematician1 a little more than one   
hundred years before ,christ4 ,it       
revolved by the agency of steam1 and was
 of the form that we should  now call a 
reaction-engine4 ,this1 the germ of one 
of the most important  inventions ever  
made1 was remembered as a mere curiosity
 for seventeen  hundred years4          
,chance had nothing to do with the      
invention of the modern steam-engine4   
,it was the product of meditation and   
experiment4 ,in the middle of the       
seventeenth century several mechanical  
engineers attempted to utilize  the     
properties of steam2 their labors were  
brought to perfection by ,watt  in the  

middle of the eighteenth4    ,the       
steam-engine quickly became the drudge  
of civilization4 ,it performed  the work
 of many millions of men4 ,it gave1 to  
those who would have been  condemned to 
a life of brutal toil1 the opportunity  
of better pursuits4  ,he who formerly   
labored might now think4    ,its        
earliest application was in such        
operations as pumping1 wherein mere     
force is required4 ,soon1 however1 it   
vindicated its delicacy of touch  in the
 industrial arts of spinning and        
weaving4 ,it created vast  manufacturing
 establishments1 and supplied clothing  
for the world4 ,it  changed the industry
 of nations4    ,in its application1    
first to the navigation of rivers1 and  
then to the  navigation of the ocean1 it
 more than quadrupled the speed that had
  heretofore been attained4 ,instead of 
forty days being requisite for  the     
passage1 the ,atlantic might now be     
crossed in eight4 ,but1 in land         
transportation1 its power was most      

strikingly displayed4 ,the admirable    
invention of the locomotive enabled men 
to travel farther in less than  an hour 
than they formerly could have done in   
more than a day4    ,the locomotive has 
not only enlarged the field of human    
activity1 but1  by diminishing space1 it
 has increased the capabilities of human
 life4  ,in the swift transportation of 
manufactured goods and agricultural     
products1 it has become a most efficient
 incentive to human industry    ,the    
perfection of ocean steam-navigation was
 greatly promoted by the  invention of  
the chronometer1 which rendered it      
possible to find  with accuracy the     
place of a ship at sea4 ,the great      
drawback on the  advancement of science 
in the ,alexandrian ,school was the want
 of an  instrument for the measurement  
of time1 and one for the measurement of 
temperature--the chronometer and the    
thermometer2 indeed1 the invention  of  
the latter is essential to that of the  
former4 ,clepsydras1 or  water-clocks1  

had been tried1 but they were deficient 
in accuracy4 ,of  one of them1          
ornamented with the signs of the zodiac1
 and destroyed by  certain primitive    
,christians1 ,st4 ,polycarp             
significantly remarked1 ,in  all these  
monstrous demons is seen an art hostile 
to ,god4 ,not until  about #afhj did the
 chronometer begin to approach accuracy4
 ,hooke1 the  contemporary of ,newton1  
gave it the balance-wheel1 with the     
spiral  spring1 and various escapements 
in succession were devised1 such as the 
anchor1 the dead-beat1 the duplex1 the  
remontoir4 ,provisions for the          
variation of temperature were           
introduced4 ,it was brought to          
perfection  eventually by ,harrison and 
,arnold1 in their hands becoming an     
accurate  measure of the flight of time4
 ,to the invention of the chronometer   
must be added that of the reflecting    
sextant by ,godfrey4 ,this permitted    
astronomical observations to be made1   
notwithstanding the motion of a  ship4  

,improvements in ocean navigation are   
exercising a powerful influence on  the 
distribution of mankind4 ,they are      
increasing the amount and altering  the 
character of colonization4    ,,domestic
 ,,improvement4 ,but not alone have     
these great discoveries and  inventions1
 the offspring of scientific            
investigation1 changed the  lot of the  
human race2 very many minor ones1       
perhaps individually  insignificant1    
have in their aggregate accomplished    
surprising effects4  ,the commencing    
cultivation of science in the fourteenth
 century gave  a wonderful stimulus to  
inventive talent1 directed mainly to    
useful  practical results2 and this1    
subsequently1 was greatly encouraged by 
the  system of patents1 which secure to 
the originator a reasonable portion  of 
the benefits of his skill4 ,it is       
sufficient to refer in the most  cursory
 manner to a few of these improvements2 
we appreciate at once how  much they    
have done4 ,the introduction of the     

saw-mill gave wooden floors  to houses1 
banishing those of gypsum1 tile1 or     
stone2 improvements  cheapening the     
manufacture of glass gave windows1      
making possible the  warming of         
apartments4 ,however1 it was not until  
the sixteenth century  that glazing     
could be well done4 ,the cutting of     
glass by the diamond  was then          
introduced4 ,the addition of chimneys   
purified the atmosphere  of dwellings1  
smoky and sooty as the huts of savages2 
it gave that  indescribable blessing of 
northern homes--a cheerful fireside4    
,hitherto  a hole in the roof for the   
escape of the smoke1 a pit in the midst 
of  the floor to contain the fuel1 and  
to be covered with a lid when the       
curfew-bell sounded or night came1 such 
had been the cheerless and  inadequate  
means of warming4    ,,municipal        
,,improvements4 ,though not without a   
bitter resistance on  the part of the   
clergy1 men began to think that         
pestilences are not  punishments        

inflicted by ,god on society for its    
religious shortcomings1  but the        
physical consequences of filth and      
wretchedness2 that the proper  mode of  
avoiding them is not by praying to the  
saints1 but by insuring  personal and   
municipal cleanliness4 ,in the twelfth  
century it was  found necessary to pave 
the streets of ,paris1 the stench in    
them was so  dreadful ,at once          
dysenteries and spotted fever           
diminished2 a sanitary  condition       
approaching that of the ,moorish cities 
of ,spain1 which had  been paved for    
centuries1 was attained4 ,in that now   
beautiful metropolis  it was forbidden  
to keep swine1 an ordinance resented by 
the monks  of the abbey of ,st4         
,anthony1 who demanded that the pigs of 
that saint  should go where they chose2 
the government was obliged to compromise
 the  matter by requiring that bells    
should be fastened to the animals'      
necks4  ,king ,philip1 the son of ,louis
 the ,fat1 had been killed by his horse 

stumbling over a sow4 ,prohibitions were
 published against throwing slops  out  
of the windows4 ,in #ahgj an            
eye-witness1 the author of this book1   
at the close of the pontifical rule in  
,rome1 found that1 in walking the       
ordure-defiled streets of that city1 it 
was more necessary to inspect  the earth
 than to contemplate the heavens1 in    
order to preserve personal  purity4     
,until the beginning of the seventeenth 
century1 the streets of  ,berlin were   
never swept4 ,there was a law that every
 countryman1 who came  to market with a 
cart1 should carry back a load of dirt6 
,paving was followed by attempts1 often 
of an imperfect kind1 at  the           
construction of drains and sewers4 ,it  
had become obvious to all  reflecting   
men that these were necessary to the    
preservation of health1  not only in    
towns1 but in isolated houses4 ,then    
followed the lighting  of the public    
thoroughfares4 ,at first houses facing  
the streets were  compelled to have     

candles or lamps in their windows2 next 
the system  that had been followed with 
so much advantage in ,cordova and       
,granada--of  having public lamps--was  
tried1 but this was not brought to      
perfection  until the present century1  
when lighting by gas was invented4      
,contemporaneously with public lamps    
were improved organizations for         
night-watchmen and police4    ,by the   
sixteenth century1 mechanical inventions
 and manufacturing  improvements were   
exercising a conspicuous influence on   
domestic and  social life4 ,there were  
looking-glasses and clocks on the walls1
 mantels  over the fireplaces4 ,though  
in many districts the kitchen-fire was  
still  supplied with turf1 the use of   
coal began to prevail4 ,the table in the
  dining-room offered new delicacies2   
commerce was bringing to it foreign     
products2 the coarse drinks of the      
,north were supplanted by the delicate  
wines of the ,south4 ,ice-houses were   
constructed4 ,the bolting of flour1     

introduced at the windmills1 had given  
whiter and finer bread4 ,by  degrees    
things that had been rarities became    
common--,indian-corn1 the  potato1 the  
turkey1 and1 conspicuous in the long    
list1 tobacco4 ,forks1  an ,italian     
invention1 displaced the filthy use of  
the fingers4 ,it may be  said that the  
diet of civilized men now underwent a   
radical change4 ,tea  came from ,china1 
coffee from ,arabia1 the use of sugar   
from ,india1 and  these to no           
insignificant degree supplanted         
fermented liquors4 ,carpets  replaced on
 the floors the layer of straw2 in the  
chambers  there appeared better beds1 in
 the wardrobes cleaner and more         
frequently-changed clothing4 ,in many   
towns the aqueduct was substituted  for 
the public fountain and the street-pump4
 ,ceilings which in the old  days would 
have been dingy with soot and dirt1 were
 now decorated with  ornamental         
frescoes4 ,baths were more commonly     
resorted to2 there was  less need to use

 perfumery for the concealment of       
personal odors4  ,an increasing taste   
for the innocent pleasures of           
horticulture  was manifested1 by the    
introduction of many foreign flowers in 
the  gardens--the tuberose1 the         
auricula1 the crown imperial1 the       
,persian  lily1 the ranunculus1 and     
,african marigolds4 ,in the streets     
there  appeared sedans1 then close      
carriages1 and at length                
hackney-coaches4    ,among the dull     
rustics mechanical improvements forced  
their way1 and  gradually attained1 in  
the implements for ploughing1 sowing1   
mowing1  reaping1 thrashing1 the        
perfection of our own times4            
,,mercantile ,,inventions4 ,it began to 
be recognized1 in spite of the          
preaching of the mendicant orders1 that 
poverty is the source of crime1  the    
obstruction to knowledge2 that the      
pursuit of riches by commerce is  far   
better than the acquisition of power by 
war4 ,for1 though it may  be true1 as   

,montesquieu says1 that1 while commerce 
unites nations1 it  antagonizes         
individuals1 and makes a traffic of     
morality1 it alone can  give unity to   
the world2 its dream1 its hope1 is      
universal peace4    ,,medical           
,,improvements4 ,though1 instead of a   
few pages1 it would require  volumes to 
record adequately the ameliorations that
 took place in  domestic and social life
 after science began to exert its       
beneficent  influences1 and inventive   
talent came to the aid of industry1     
there  are some things which cannot be  
passed in silence4 ,from the port of    
,barcelona the ,spanish khalifs had     
carried on an enormous commerce1 and    
they with their coadjutors--,jewish     
merchants--had adopted or originated    
many commercial inventions1 which1 with 
matters of pure science1  they had      
transmitted to the trading communities  
of ,europe4 ,the art of  book-keeping by
 double entry was thus brought into     
,upper ,italy4 ,the  different kinds of 

insurance were adopted1 though          
strenuously resisted  by the clergy4    
,they opposed fire and marine insurance1
 on the ground  that it is a tempting of
 ,providence4 ,life insurance was       
regarded as  an act of interference with
 the consequences of ,god's will4       
,houses  for lending money on interest  
and on pledges1 that is1 banking and    
pawnbroking establishments1 were        
bitterly denounced1 and especially was  
indignation excited against the taking  
of high rates of interest1  which was   
stigmatized as usury--a feeling existing
 in some backward  communities up to the
 present day4 ,bills of exchange in the 
present form  and terms were adopted1   
the office of the public notary         
established1 and  protests for          
dishonored obligations resorted to4     
,indeed1 it may be said1  with but      
little exaggeration1 that the commercial
 machinery now used  was thus           
introduced4 ,i have already remarked    
that1 in consequence of the  discovery  

of ,america1 the front of ,europe had   
been changed4 ,many rich  ,italian      
merchants and many enterprising ,jews1  
had settled in ,holland  ,england1      
,france1 and brought into those         
countries various mercantile  devices4  
,the ,jews1 who cared nothing about     
papal maledictions1 were  enriched by   
the pontifical action in relation to the
 lending of money at  high interest2 but
 ,pius ,,ii41 perceiving the mistake    
that had been  made1 withdrew his       
opposition4 ,pawnbroking establishments 
were finally  authorized by ,leo ,x41   
who threatened excommunication of those 
who wrote  against them4 ,in their turn 
the ,protestants now exhibited a dislike
  against establishments thus authorized
 by ,rome4 ,as the theological  dogma1  
that the plague1 like the earthquake1 is
 an unavoidable  visitation from ,god   
for the sins of men1 began to be        
doubted1 attempts  were made to resist  
its progress by the establishment of    
quarantines4  ,when the ,mohammedan     

discovery of inoculation was brought    
from  ,constantinople in #agba1 by ,lady
 ,mary ,wortley ,montagu1 it was so     
strenuously resisted by the clergy1 that
 nothing short of its adoption  by the  
royal family of ,england brought it into
 use4 ,a similar resistance  was        
exhibited when ,jenner introduced his   
great improvement1 vaccination2  yet a  
century ago it was the exception to see 
a face unpitted by  smallpox--now it is 
the exception to see one so disfigured4 
,in like  manner1 when the great        
,american discovery of anaesthetics was 
applied  in obstetrical cases1 it was   
discouraged1 not so much for            
physiological  reasons1 as under the    
pretense that it was an impious attempt 
to escape  from the curse denounced     
against all women in ,genesis iii4 #af4 
,,magic ,,and ,,miracles4 ,inventive    
ingenuity did not restrict itself to the
  production of useful contrivances1 it 
added amusing ones4 ,soon after the     
introduction of science into ,italy1 the

 houses of the virtuosi began to  abound
 in all kinds of curious mechanical     
surprises1 and1 as they  were termed1   
magical effects4 ,in the latter the     
invention of the  magic-lantern greatly 
assisted4 ,not without reason did the   
ecclesiastics  detest experimental      
philosophy1 for a result of no little   
importance  ensued--the juggler became a
 successful rival to the miracle-worker4
 ,the  pious frauds enacted in the      
churches lost their wonder when brought 
into competition with the tricks of the 
conjurer in the market-place3 he        
breathed flame1 walked on burning coals1
 held red-hot iron in his  teeth1 drew  
basketfuls of eggs out of his mouth1    
worked miracles by  marionettes4 ,yet   
the old idea of the supernatural was    
with difficulty  destroyed4 ,a horse1   
whose master had taught him many tricks1
 was tried  at ,lisbon in #afja1 found  
guilty of being1 possessed by the devil1
 and  was burnt4 ,still later than that 
many witches were brought to the stake4 

,,discoveries ,,in ,,astronomy ,,and    
,,chemistry4 ,once fairly introduced1   
discovery and invention have unceasingly
 advanced at an accelerated  pace4 ,each
 continually reacted on the other1      
continually they sapped                 
supernaturalism4 ,de ,dominis commenced1
 and ,newton completed1 the  explanation
 of the rainbow2 they showed that it was
 not the weapon of  warfare of ,god1 but
 the accident of rays of light in drops 
of water4 ,de  ,dominis was decoyed to  
,rome through the promise of an         
archbishopric1  and the hope of a       
cardinal's hat4 ,he was lodged in a fine
 residence1 but  carefully watched4     
,accused of having suggested a concord  
between ,rome  and ,england1 he was     
imprisoned in the castle of ,st ,angelo1
 and there  died4 ,he was brought in his
 coffin before an ecclesiastical        
tribunal1  adjudged guilty of heresy1   
and his body1 with a heap of heretical  
books1  was cast into the flames4       
,franklin1 by demonstrating the identity

 of  lightning and electricity1 deprived
 ,jupiter of his thunder-bolt4 ,the     
marvels of superstition were displaced  
by the wonders of truth4 ,the two       
telescopes1 the reflector and the       
achromatic1 inventions of the last      
century1 permitted man to penetrate into
 the infinite grandeurs of  the         
universe1 to recognize1 as far as such a
 thing is possible1 its  illimitable    
spaces1 its measureless times2 and a    
little later the  achromatic microscope 
placed before his eyes the world of the 
infinitely  small4 ,the air-balloon     
carried him above the clouds1 the       
diving-bell  to the bottom of the sea4  
,the thermometer gave him true measures 
of  the variations of heat2 the         
barometer1 of the pressure of the air4  
,the  introduction of the balance       
imparted exactness to chemistry1 it     
proved  the indestructibility of matter4
 ,the discovery of oxygen1 hydrogen1 and
  many other gases1 the isolation of    
aluminum1 calcium1 and other metals1    

showed that earth and air and water are 
not elements4 ,with an enterprise  that 
can never be too much commended1        
advantage was taken of the  transits of 
,venus1 and1 by sending expeditions to  
different regions1  the distance of the 
earth from the sun was determined4 ,the 
step that  ,european intellect had made 
between #adef and #agei was illustrated 
by  ,halley's comet4 ,when it appeared  
in the former year1 it was considered   
as the harbinger of the vengeance of    
,god1 the dispenser of the most         
dreadful of his retributions1 war1      
pestilence1 famine4 ,by order of the    
pope1 all the church-bells in ,europe   
were rung to scare it away1 the         
faithful were commanded to add each day 
another prayer2 and1 as their  prayers  
had often in so marked a manner been    
answered in eclipses and  droughts and  
rains1 so on this occasion it was       
declared that a victory  over the comet 
had been vouchsafed to the pope4 ,but1  
in the mean time1  ,halley1 guided by   

the revelations of ,kepler and ,newton1 
had discovered  that its motions1 so far
 from being controlled by the           
supplications of  ,christendom1 were    
guided in an elliptic orbit by destiny4 
,knowing that  ,nature bad denied to him
 an opportunity of witnessing the       
fulfillment  of his daring prophecy1 he 
besought the astronomers of the         
succeeding  generation to watch for its 
return in #agei1 and in that year it    
came4    ,,inventions ,,and             
,,discoveries4 ,whoever will in a spirit
 of impartiality  examine what had been 
done by ,catholicism for the            
intellectual and  material advancement  
of ,europe1 during her long reign1 and  
what has been  done by science in its   
brief period of action1 can1 ,i am      
persuaded1 come  to no other conclusion 
than this1 that1 in instituting a       
comparison1 he  has established a       
contrast4 ,and yet1 how imperfect1 how  
inadequate is  the catalogue of facts ,i
 have furnished in the foregoing pages6 

,i have  said nothing of the spread of  
instruction by the diffusion of the arts
  of reading and writing1 through public
 schools1 and the consequent  creation  
of a reading community2 the modes of    
manufacturing public  opinion by        
newspapers and reviews1 the power of    
journalism1 the  diffusion of           
information public and private by the   
post-office and cheap  mails1 the       
individual and social advantages of     
newspaper advertisements4  ,i have said 
nothing of the establishment of         
hospitals1 the first  exemplar of which 
was the ,invalides of ,paris2 nothing of
 the improved  prisons1 reformatories1  
penitentiaries1 asylums1 the treatment  
of  lunatics1 paupers1 criminals2       
nothing of the construction of canals1  
of  sanitary engineering1 or of census  
reports2 nothing of the invention of    
stereotyping1 bleaching by chlorine1 the
 cotton-gin1 or of the marvelous        
contrivances with which cotton-mills are
 filled--contrivances which have  given 

us cheap clothing1 and therefore added  
to cleanliness1 comfort1  health2       
nothing of the grand advancement of     
medicine and surgery1 or  of the        
discoveries in physiology1 the          
cultivation of the fine arts1  the      
improvement of agriculture and rural    
economy1 the introduction  of chemical  
manures and farm-machinery4 ,i have not 
referred to the  manufacture of iron and
 its vast affiliated industries2 to     
those of  textile fabrics2 to the       
collection of museums of natural        
history1  antiquities1 curiosities4 ,i  
have passed unnoticed the great subject 
of  the manufacture of machinery by     
itself--the invention of the slide-rest1
  the planing-machine1 and many other   
contrivances by which engines can  be   
constructed with almost mathematical    
correctness4 ,i have said nothing       
adequate about the railway system1 or   
the electric telegraph1 nor about  the  
calculus1 or lithography1 the airpump1  
or the voltaic battery2 the  discovery  

of ,uranus or ,neptune1 and more than a 
hundred asteroids2 the  relation of     
meteoric streams to comets2 nothing of  
the expeditions by  land and sea that   
have been sent forth by various         
governments for the  determination of   
important astronomical or geographical  
questions2  nothing of the costly and   
accurate experiments they have caused to
 be  made for the ascertainment of      
fundamental physical data4 ,i have been 
so  unjust to our own century that ,i   
have made no allusion to some of its    
greatest scientific triumphs3 its grand 
conceptions in natural history2  its    
discoveries in magnetism and            
electricity2 its invention of the       
beautiful art of photography2 its       
applications of spectrum analysis2 its  
attempts to bring chemistry under the   
three laws of ,avogadro1 of ,boyle  and 
,mariotte1 and of ,charles2 its         
artificial production of organic        
substances from inorganic material1 of  
which the philosophical  consequences   

are of the utmost importance2 its       
reconstruction of  physiology by laying 
the foundation of that science on       
chemistry2 its  improvements and        
advances in topographical surveying and 
in the correct  representation of the   
surface of the globe4 ,i have said      
nothing about  rifled-guns and armored  
ships1 nor of the revolution that has   
been made  in the art of war2 nothing of
 that gift to women1 the sewing-machine2
  nothing of the noble contentions and  
triumphs of the arts of peace--the      
industrial exhibitions and world's      
fairs4    ,what a catalogue have we     
here1 and yet how imperfect6 ,it gives  
merely a  random glimpse at an          
ever-increasing intellectual            
commotion--a mention  of things as they 
casually present themselves to view4    
,how striking  the contrast between this
 literary1 this scientific activity1 and
 the  stagnation of the middle ages6    
,the intellectual enlightenment that    
surrounds this activity has imparted    

unnumbered blessings to the human race4 
,in ,russia it has emancipated a  vast  
serf-population2 in ,america it has     
given freedom to four million  negro    
slaves4 ,in place of the sparse dole of 
the monastery-gate1 it has  organized   
charity and directed legislation to the 
poor4 ,it has shown  medicine its true  
function1 to prevent rather than to cure
 disease4 ,in  statesmanship it has     
introduced scientific methods1          
displacing random  and empirical        
legislation by a laborious ascertainment
 of social facts  previous to the       
application of legal remedies4 ,so      
conspicuous1 so  impressive is the      
manner in which it is elevating men1    
that the hoary  nations of ,asia seek to
 participate in the boon4 ,let us not   
forget that  our action on them must be 
attended by their reaction on us4 ,if   
the  destruction of paganism was        
completed when all the gods were brought
  to ,rome and confronted there1 now1   
when by our wonderful facilities of     

locomotion strange nations and          
conflicting religions are brought into  
common presence--the ,mohammedan1 the   
,buddhist1 the ,brahman-modifications   
of them all must ensue4 ,in that        
conflict science alone will stand       
secure2 for it has given us grander     
views of the universe1 more awful  views
 of ,god4    ,,american ,,and ,,french  
,,revolutions4 ,the spirit that has     
imparted life to  this movement1 that   
has animated these discoveries and      
inventions1 is  ,individualism2 in some 
minds the hope of gain1 in other and    
nobler ones  the expectation of honor4  
,it is1 then1 not to be wondered at that
  this principle found a political      
embodiment1 and that1 during the last   
century1 on two occasions1 it gave rise 
to social convulsions--the  ,american   
and the ,french ,revolutions4 ,the      
former has ended in the  dedication of a
 continent to ,individualism--there1    
under republican  forms1 before the     
close of the present century1 one       

hundred million  people1 with no more   
restraint than their common security    
requires1 will  be pursuing an          
unfettered career4 ,the latter1 though  
it has modified  the political aspect of
 all ,europe1 and though illustrated by 
surprising  military successes1 has1    
thus far1 not consummated its           
intentions2 again  and again it has     
brought upon ,france fearful disasters4 
,her dual form of  government--her      
allegiance to her two sovereigns1 the   
political and the  spiritual--has made  
her at once the leader and the          
antagonist of modern  progress4 ,with   
one hand she has enthroned ,reason1 with
 the other she  has re-established and  
sustained the pope4 ,nor will this      
anomaly in her  conduct cease until she 
bestows a true education on all her     
children1  even on those of the humblest
 rustic4    ,,science ,,and             
,,civilization4 ,the intellectual attack
 made on existing  opinions by the      
,french ,revolution was not of a        

scientific1 but of a  literary          
character2 it was critical and          
aggressive4 ,but ,science has  never    
been an aggressor4 ,she has always acted
 on the defensive1 and left  to her     
antagonist the making of wanton attacks4
 ,nevertheless1 literary  dissent is not
 of such ominous import as scientific2  
for literature is1  in its nature1      
local--science is cosmopolitan4    ,if1 
now1 we demand1 ,what has science done  
for the promotion of modern             
civilization2 what has it done for the  
happiness1 the well-being of  society8  
we shall find our answer in the same    
manner that we reached  a just estimate 
of what ,latin ,christianity had done4  
,the reader of the  foregoing paragraphs
 would undoubtedly infer that there must
 have  been an amelioration in the lot  
of our race2 but1 when we apply the     
touchstone of statistics1 that inference
 gathers precision4 ,systems of         
philosophy and forms of religion find a 
measure of their influence on  humanity 

in census-returns4 ,latin ,christianity1
 in a thousand years1  could not double 
the population of ,europe2 it did not   
add perceptibly  to the term of         
individual life4 ,but1 as ,dr4 ,jarvis1 
in his report to  the ,massachusetts    
,board of ,health1 has stated1 at the   
epoch of the  ,reformation the average  
longevity in ,geneva was #ba4ba years1  
between  #ahad and #ahcc it was #dj4fh2 
as large a number of persons now live to
  seventy years as lived to forty1 three
 hundred years ago4 ,in #afic the       
,british ,government borrowed money by  
selling annuities on lives from  infancy
 upward1 on the basis of the average    
longevity4 ,the contract  was           
profitable4 ,ninety-seven years later   
another tontine1 or scale  of annuities1
 on the basis of the same expectation of
 life as in the  previous century1 was  
issued4 ,these latter annuitants1       
however1 lived so  much longer than     
their predecessors1 that it proved to be
 a very costly  loan for the government4

 ,it was found that1 while ten thousand 
of each  sex in the first tontine died  
under the age of twenty-eight1 only five
  thousand seven hundred and seventy-two
 males and six thousand four  hundred   
and sixteen females in the second       
tontine died at the same age1  one      
hundred years later4    ,we have been   
comparing the spiritual with the        
practical1 the imaginary  with the real4
 ,the maxims that have been followed in 
the earlier and the  later period       
produced their inevitable result4 ,in   
the former that maxim  was1 ,ignorance  
is the mother of ,devotion in the       
latter1 ,knowledge is  ,power4          
,,chapter ,,xii4         ,,the          
,,impending ,,crisis4 ,,indications ,,of
 ,,the ,,approach ,,of ,a               
,,religious ,,crisis4--,,the            
,,predominating ,,christian ,,church1   
,,the       ,,roman1 ,,perceives ,,this1
 ,,and ,,makes ,,preparation ,,for      
,,it4--,,pius       ,,ix ,,convokes ,,an
 ,,oecumenical ,,council--,,relations   

,,of ,,the       ,,different ,,european 
,,governments ,,to ,,the                
,,papacy4--,,relations ,,of       ,,the 
,,church ,,to ,,science1 ,,as           
,,indicated ,,by ,,the ,,encyclical     
,,letter       ,,and ,,the ,,syllabus4  
,acts of the ,vatican ,council in       
relation to the infallibility       of  
the pope1 and to ,science4--,abstract of
 decisions arrived       at4            
,controversy between the ,prussian      
,government and the papacy4--       ,it 
is a contest between the ,state and the 
,church for       supremacy--,effect of 
dual government in ,europe--,declaration
       by the ,vatican ,council of its  
position as to ,science--,the           
dogmatic constitution of the ,catholic  
faith4--,its       definitions          
respecting ,god1 ,revelation1 ,faith1   
,reason4--,the       anathemas it       
pronounces4--,its denunciation of modern
       civilization4         ,the       
,protestant ,evangelical ,alliance and  
its acts4         ,general review of the

 foregoing definitions1 and acts4--     
,present condition of the controversy1  
and its future       prospects4         
,,predominance ,,of ,,catholicity4 ,no  
one who is acquainted with the present  
tone of thought in ,christendom can hide
 from himself the fact that an          
intellectual1 a religious crisis is     
impending4    ,in all directions we see 
the lowering skies1 we hear the         
mutterings  of the coming storm4 ,in    
,germany1 the national party is arraying
 itself  against the ultramontane2 in   
,france1 the men of progress are        
struggling  against the unprogressive1  
and in their contest the political      
supremacy  of that great country is     
wellnigh neutralized or lost4 ,in       
,italy1 ,rome  has passed into the hands
 of an excommunicated king4 ,the        
sovereign  pontiff1 feigning that he is 
a prisoner1 is fulminating from the     
,vatican  his anathemas1 and1 in the    
midst of the most convincing proofs of  
his  manifold errors1 asserting his own 

infallibility4 ,a ,catholic archbishop  
with truth declares that the whole civil
 society of ,europe seems to be         
withdrawing itself in its public life   
from ,christianity4 ,in ,england and    
,america1 religious persons perceive    
with dismay that the intellectual  basis
 of faith has been undermined by the    
spirit of the age4 ,they  prepare for   
the approaching disaster in the best    
manner they can4    ,the most serious   
trial through which society can pass is 
encountered in  the exuviation of its   
religious restraints4 ,the history of   
,greece and  the history of ,rome       
exhibit to us in an impressive manner   
how great are  the perils4 ,but it is   
not given to religions to endure        
forever4 ,they  necessarily undergo     
transformation with the intellectual    
development of  man4 ,how many countries
 are there professing the same religion 
now that  they did at the birth of      
,christ8    ,it is estimated that the   
entire population of ,europe is about   

three  hundred and one million4 ,of     
these1 one hundred and eighty-five      
million  are ,roman ,catholics1         
thirty-three million are ,greek         
,catholics4 ,of  ,protestants there are 
seventy-one million1 separated into many
 sects4 ,of  ,jews1 five million2 of    
,mohammedans1 seven million4    ,of the 
religious subdivisions of ,america an   
accurate numerical statement  cannot be 
given4 ,the whole of ,christian ,south  
,america is ,roman ,catholic1  the same 
may be said of ,central ,america and of 
,mexico1 as also of the  ,spanish and   
,french ,west ,india possessions4 ,in   
the ,united ,states and  ,canada the    
,protestant population predominates4 ,to
 ,australia the same  remark applies4   
,in ,india the sparse ,christian        
population sinks into  insignificance in
 presence of two hundred million        
,mohammedans and other  ,oriental       
denominations4 ,the ,roman ,catholic    
,church is the most widely  diffused and
 the most powerfully organized of all   

modern societies4 ,it  is far more a    
political than a religious combination4 
,its principle is  that all power is in 
the clergy1 and that for laymen there is
 only the  privilege of obedience4 ,the 
republican forms under which the        
,churches  existed in primitive         
,christianity have gradually merged into
 an absolute  centralization1 with a man
 as vice-,god at its head4 ,this ,church
  asserts that the divine commission    
under which it acts comprises civil     
government2 that it has a right to use  
the state for its own purposes1  but    
that the state has no right to          
intermeddle with it2 that even in       
,protestant countries it is not merely a
 coordinate government1 but the         
sovereign power4 ,it insists that the   
state has no rights over any thing      
which it declares to be in its domain1  
and that ,protestantism1 being  a mere  
rebellion1 has no rights at all2 that   
even in ,protestant  communities the    
,catholic bishop is the only lawful     

spiritual pastor4    ,it is plain1      
therefore1 that of professing           
,christians the vast majority  are      
,catholic2 and such is the authoritative
 demand of the papacy for  supremacy1   
that1 in any survey of the present      
religious condition of  ,christendom1   
regard must be mainly had to its acts4  
,its movements are  guided by the       
highest intelligence and skill4         
,catholicism obeys the  orders of one   
man1 and has therefore a unity1 a       
compactness1 a power1  which ,protestant
 denominations do not possess4          
,moreover1 it derives  inestimable      
strength from the souvenirs of the great
 name of ,rome4    ,unembarrassed by any
 hesitating sentiment1 the papacy has   
contemplated  the coming intellectual   
crisis4 ,it has pronounced its decision1
 and  occupied what seems to it to be   
the most advantageous ground4    ,this  
definition of position we find in the   
acts of the late ,vatican  ,council4    
,,the ,,oecumenical ,,council4 ,pius    

,,ix41 by a bull dated ,june #bi1 #ahfh1
  convoked an ,oecumenical ,council1 to 
meet in ,rome1 on ,december #h1 #ahfi4  
,its sessions ended in ,july1 #ahgj4    
,among other matters submitted to its   
consideration1 two stand forth in       
conspicuous prominence--they are the    
assertion of the infallibility of the   
,roman pontiff1 and the definition  of  
the relations of religion to science4   
,but the convocation of the ,council was
 far from meeting with general          
approval4    ,the views of the ,oriental
 ,churches were1 for the most part1     
unfavorable4  ,they affirmed that they  
saw a desire in the ,roman pontiff to   
set himself  up as the head of          
,christianity1 whereas they recognized  
the ,lord ,jesus  ,christ alone as the  
head of the ,church4 ,they believed that
 the ,council  would only lead to new   
quarrels and scandals4 ,the sentiment of
 these  venerable ,churches is well     
shown by the incident that1 when1 in    
#ahfg1 the ,nestorian ,patriarch ,simeon

 had been invited by the ,chaldean      
,patriarch to return to ,roman ,catholic
 unity1 he1 in his reply1 showed  that  
there was no prospect for harmonious    
action between the ,east and  the ,west3
 ,you invite me to kiss humbly the      
slipper of the ,bishop of  ,rome2 but is
 he not1 in every respect1 a man like   
yourself--is his  dignity superior to   
yours8 ,we will never permit to be      
introduced into  our holy temples of    
worship images and statues1 which are   
nothing but  abominable and impure      
idols4 ,what6 shall we attribute to     
,almighty ,god a  mother1 as you dare to
 do8 ,away from us1 such blasphemy6     
,,expectations ,,of ,,the ,,papacy4     
,eventually1 the patriarchs1            
archbishops1 and  bishops1 from all     
regions of the world1 who took part in  
this ,council1  were seven hundred and  
four4    ,rome had seen very plainly    
that ,science was not only rapidly      
undermining  the dogmas of the papacy1  
but was gathering great political power4

 ,she  recognized that all over ,europe 
there was a fast-spreading secession    
among persons of education1 and that its
 true focus was ,north ,germany4    ,she
 looked1 therefore1 with deep interest  
on the ,prusso-,austrian ,war1  giving  
to ,austria whatever encouragement she  
could4 ,the battle of ,sadowa  was a    
bitter disappointment to her4    ,with  
satisfaction again she looked upon the  
breaking out of the  ,franco-,prussian  
,war1 not doubting that its issue would 
be favorable to  ,france1 and therefore 
favorable to her4 ,here1 again1 she was 
doomed to  disappointment at ,sedan4    
,having now no further hope1 for many   
years to come1 from external war1  she  
resolved to see what could be done by   
internal insurrection1 and the  present 
movement in the ,german ,empire is the  
result of her machinations4    ,had     
,austria or had ,france succeeded1      
,protestantism would have been          
overthrown along with ,prussia4    ,but1
 while these military movements were    

being carried on1 a movement of  a      
different1 an intellectual kind1 was    
engaged in4 ,its principle was1 to      
restore the worn-out mediaeval doctrines
 and practices1 carrying them to  an    
extreme1 no matter what the consequences
 might be4    ,,encyclical ,,letter     
,,and ,,syllabus4 ,not only was it      
asserted that the papacy  has a divine  
right to participate in the government  
of all countries1  coordinately with    
their temporal authorities1 but that the
 supremacy of  ,rome in this matter must
 be recognized2 and that in any question
 between  them the temporal authority   
must conform itself to her order4       
,and1 since the endangering of her      
position had been mainly brought about  
by the progress of science1 she presumed
 to define its boundaries1 and          
prescribe limits to its authority4      
,still more1 she undertook to denounce  
modern civilization4    ,these measures 
were contemplated soon after the return 
of his ,holiness  from ,gaeta in #ahdh1 

and were undertaken by the advice of the
 ,jesuits1  who1 lingering in the hope  
that ,god would work the impossible1    
supposed  that the papacy1 in its old   
age1 might be reinvigorated4 ,the organ 
of  the ,curia proclaimed the absolute  
independence of the ,church as regards  
the state2 the dependence of the bishops
 on the pope2 of the diocesan  clergy on
 the bishops2 the obligation of the     
,protestants to abandon  their atheism1 
and return to the fold2 the absolute    
condemnation of all  kinds of           
toleration4 ,in ,december1 #ahed1 in an 
assembly of bishops1 the  pope had      
proclaimed the dogma of the immaculate  
conception4 ,ten years  subsequently he 
put forth the celebrated ,encyclical    
,letter and the  ,syllabus4    ,the     
,encyclical ,letter is dated ,december  
#h1 #ahfd4 ,it was drawn up by  learned 
ecclesiastics1 and subsequently debated 
at the ,congregation of  the ,holy      
,office1 then forwarded to prelates1 and
 finally gone over by  the pope and     

cardinals4    ,,encyclical ,,letter     
,,and ,,syllabus4 ,many of the clergy   
objected to its  condemnation of modern 
civilization4 ,some of the cardinals    
were  reluctant to concur in it4 ,the   
,catholic press accepted it1 not1       
however1  without misgivings and        
regrets4 ,the ,protestant governments   
put no  obstacle in its way2 the        
,catholic were embarrassed by it4       
,france allowed  the publication only of
 that portion proclaiming the jubilee2  
,austria  and ,italy permitted its      
introduction1 but withheld their        
approval4  ,the political press and     
legislatures of ,catholic countries gave
 it an  unfavorable reception4 ,many    
deplored it as likely to widen the      
breach  between the ,church and modern  
society4 ,the ,italian press regarded it
 as  determining a war1 without truce or
 armistice1 between the papacy and      
modern civilization4 ,even in ,spain    
there were journals that regretted  the 
obstinacy and blindness of the court of 

,rome1 in branding and  condemning      
modern civilization4    ,it denounces   
that most pernicious and insane opinion1
 that liberty of  conscience and of     
worship is the right of every man1 and  
that this right  ought1 in every        
well-governed state1 to be proclaimed   
and asserted by  law2 and that the will 
of the people1 manifested by public     
opinion 7as  it is called71 or by other 
means1 constitutes a supreme law1       
independent  of all divine and human    
rights4 ,it denies the right of parents 
to  educate their children outside the  
,catholic ,church4 ,it denounces the    
impudence of those who presume to       
subordinate the authority of the        
,church and of the ,apostolic ,see1     
conferred upon it by ,christ our ,lord1 
to the judgment of the civil authority4 
,his ,holiness commends1 to  the        
venerable brothers to whom the          
,encyclical is addressed1 incessant     
prayer1 and1 in order that ,god may     
accede the more easily to our and  your 

prayers1 let us employ in all           
confidence1 as our mediatrix with  him1 
the ,virgin ,mary1 mother of ,god1 who  
sits as a queen upon the  right hand of 
her only-begotten ,son1 our ,lord ,jesus
 ,christ1 in a golden  vestment1 clothed
 around with various adornments4 ,there 
is nothing she  cannot obtain from him4 
,,convocation ,,of ,,the ,,council4     
,plainly1 the principle now avowed by   
the  papacy must bring it into collision
 even with governments which had        
heretofore maintained amicable relations
 with it4 ,great dissatisfaction  was   
manifested by ,russia1 and the incidents
 that ensued drew forth from  his       
,holiness an allocution 7,november1     
#ahff7 condemnatory of the course  of   
that government4 ,to this1 ,russia      
replied1 by declaring the ,concordat  of
 #ahfg abrogated4    ,undeterred by the 
result of the battle of ,sadowa 7,july1 
#ahff71 though  it was plain that the   
political condition of ,europe was now  
profoundly  affected1 and especially the

 relations of the papacy1 the pope      
delivered  an allocution 7,june #bg1    
#ahfg71 confirming the ,encyclical and  
,syllabus4  ,he announced his intention 
of convoking an ,oecumenical ,council4  
,accordingly1 as we have already        
mentioned1 in the following year 7,june 
#bi1 #ahfh71 a bull was issued convoking
 that ,council4 ,misunderstandings1     
however1 had now sprung up with         
,austria4 ,the ,austrian ,reichsrath    
had adopted laws introducing equality of
 civil rights for all the  inhabitants  
of the empire1 and restricting the      
influence of the ,church4  ,this        
produced on the part of the papal       
government an expostulation4  ,acting as
 ,russia had done1 the ,austrian        
,government found it necessary to       
abrogate the ,concordat of #ahee4    ,in
 ,france1 as above stated1 the          
publication of the entire ,syllabus was 
not permitted2 but ,prussia1 desirous of
 keeping on good terms with the  papacy1
 did not disallow it4 ,the exacting     

disposition of the papacy  increased4   
,it was openly declared that the        
faithful must now sacrifice  to the     
,church1 property1 life1 and even their 
intellectual convictions4  ,the         
,protestants and the ,greeks were       
invited to tender their submission4     
,,the ,,vatican ,,council4 ,on the      
appointed day1 the ,council opened4 ,its
  objects were1 to translate the        
,syllabus into practice1 to establish   
the  dogma of papal infallibility1 and  
define the relations of religion to     
science4 ,every preparation had been    
made that the points determined on      
should be carried4 ,the bishops were    
informed that they were coming to  ,rome
 not to deliberate1 but to sanction     
decrees previously made by  an          
infallible pope4 ,no idea was           
entertained of any such thing as  free  
discussion4 ,the minutes of the meetings
 were not permitted to be  inspected2   
the prelates of the opposition were     
hardly allowed to speak4  ,on ,january  

#bb1 #ahgj1 a petition1 requesting that 
the infallibility of  the pope should be
 defined1 was presented2 an opposition  
petition of the  minority was offered4  
,hereupon1 the deliberations of the     
minority were  forbidden1 and their     
publications prohibited4 ,and1 though   
the ,curia had  provided a compact      
majority1 it was found expedient to     
issue an order  that to carry any       
proposition it was not necessary that   
the vote should  be near unanimity1 a   
simple majority sufficed4 ,the          
remonstrances of the  minority were     
altogether unheeded4    ,as the ,council
 pressed forward to its object1 foreign 
authorities  became alarmed at its      
reckless determination4 ,a petition     
drawn up by the  ,archbishop of ,vienna1
 and signed by several cardinals and    
archbishops1  entreated his ,holiness   
not to submit the dogma of infallibility
 for  consideration1 because the ,church
 has to sustain at present a struggle   
unknown in former times1 against men who

 oppose religion itself as  an          
institution baneful to human nature1 and
 that it is inopportune  to impose upon 
,catholic nations1 led into temptation  
by so many  machinations1 more dogmas   
than the ,council of ,trent proclaimed4 
,it  added that the definition demanded 
would furnish fresh arms to  the enemies
 of religion1 to excite against the     
,catholic ,church the  resentment of men
 avowedly the best4 ,the ,austrian      
prime-minister  addressed a protest to  
the papal government1 warning it against
 any  steps that might lead to          
encroachments on the rights of ,austria4
 ,the  ,french ,government also         
addressed a note1 suggesting that a     
,french bishop  should explain to the   
,council the condition and the rights of
 ,france4 ,to  this the papal government
 replied that a bishop could not        
reconcile the  double duties of an      
ambassador and a ,father of the         
,council4 ,hereupon1  the ,french       
,government1 in a very respectful note1 

remarked that1  to prevent ultra        
opinions from becoming dogmas1 it       
reckoned on the  moderation of the      
bishops1 and the prudence of the ,holy  
,father2 and1  to defend its civil and  
political laws against the encroachments
 of the  theocracy1 it had counted on   
public reason and the patriotism of     
,french  ,catholics4 ,in these          
remonstrances the ,north-,german        
,confederation joined1  seriously       
pressing them on the consideration of   
the papal government4    ,on ,april     
#bc;d1 ,von ,arnim1 the ,prussian       
embassador1 united with ,daru1 the      
,french minister1 in suggesting to the  
,curia the inexpediency of reviving     
mediaeval ideas4 ,the minority bishops1 
thus encouraged1 demanded now  that the 
relations of the spiritual to the       
secular power should be  determined     
before the pope's infallibility was     
discussed1 and that it  should be       
settled whether ,christ had conferred on
 ,st4 ,peter and his  successors a power

 over kings and emperors4               
,,infallibility ,,of ,,the ,,pope4 ,no  
regard was paid to this1 not even delay 
was consented to4 ,the ,jesuits1 who    
were at the bottom of the movement1     
carried their measures through the      
packed assembly with a high hand4 ,the  
,council omitted no device to screen    
itself from popular criticism4 ,its     
proceedings were conducted with the     
utmost secrecy2 all who took part in    
them were bound by a solemn oath to     
observe silence4    ,on ,july #acth1 the
 votes were taken4 ,of #fja votes1 #dea 
were affirmative4  ,under the majority  
rule1 the measure was pronounced        
carried1 and1 five  days subsequently1  
the pope proclaimed the dogma of his    
infallibility4  ,it has often been      
remarked that this was the day on which 
the ,french  declared war against       
,prussia4 ,eight days afterward the     
,french troops  were withdrawn from     
,rome4 ,perhaps both the statesman and  
the philosopher  will admit that an     

infallible pope would be a great        
harmonizing element1  if only           
common-sense could acknowledge him4     
,hereupon1 the ,king of ,italy addressed
 an autograph letter to the pope1       
setting forth in very respectful terms  
the necessity that his troops  should   
advance and occupy positions            
indispensable to the security of  his   
,holiness1 and the maintenance of order2
 that1 while satisfying  the national   
aspirations1 the chief of ,catholicity1 
surrounded by the  devotion of the      
,italian populations1 might preserve on 
the banks of the  ,tiber a glorious     
seat1 independent of all human          
sovereignty4    ,to this his ,holiness  
replied in a brief and caustic letter3  
,i give  thanks to ,god1 who has        
permitted your majesty to fill the last 
days of  my life with bitterness4 ,for  
the rest1 ,i cannot grant certain       
requests1  nor conform with certain     
principles contained in your letter4    
,again1 ,i  call upon ,god1 and into his

 hands commit my cause1 which is his    
cause4  ,i pray ,god to grant your      
majesty many graces1 to free you from   
dangers1  and to dispense to you his    
mercy which you so much need4    ,,the  
,,italian ,,government4 ,the ,italian   
troops met with but little  resistance4 
,they occupied ,rome on ,september #bj1 
#ahgj4 ,a manifesto was  issued1 setting
 forth the details of a plebiscitum1 the
 vote to be by  ballot1 the question1   
the unification of ,italy4 ,its result  
showed how  completely the popular mind 
in ,italy is emancipated from theology4 
,in  the ,roman provinces the number of 
votes on the lists was #afg1edh2 the    
number who voted1 #ace1bia2 the number  
who voted for annexation1 #acc1fha2  the
 number who voted against it1 #a1ejg2   
votes annulled1 #ajc4 ,the  ,parliament 
of ,italy ratified the vote of the      
,roman people for annexation  by a vote 
of #bci to #bj4 ,a royal decree now     
announced the annexation of  the ,papal 
,states to the kingdom of ,italy1 and a 

manifesto was issued  indicating the    
details of the arrangement4 ,it declared
 that by these  concessions the ,italian
 ,government seeks to prove to ,europe  
that ,italy  respects the sovereignty of
 the pope in conformity with the        
principle of  a free ,church in a free  
state4    ,,affairs ,,in ,,prussia4 ,in 
the ,prusso-,austrian ,war it had been  
the hope of  the papacy1 to restore the 
,german ,empire under ,austria1 and make
  ,germany a ,catholic nation4 ,in the  
,franco-,german ,war the ,french        
expected  ultramontane sympathies in    
,germany4 ,no means were spared to      
excite  ,catholic sentiment against the 
,protestants4 ,no vilification was      
spared4  ,they were spoken of as        
atheists2 they were declared incapable  
of being  honest men2 their sects were  
pointed out as indicating that their    
secession was in a state of dissolution4
 ,the followers of ,luther are  the most
 abandoned men in all ,europe4 ,even the
 pope himself1 presuming  that the whole

 world had forgotten all history1 did   
not hesitate to say1  ,let the ,german  
people understand that no other ,church 
but that of ,rome  is the ,church of    
freedom and progress4    ,meantime1     
among the clergy of ,germany a party was
 organized to  remonstrate against1 and 
even resist1 the papal usurpation4 ,it  
protested  against a man being placed on
 the throne of ,god1 against a vice-,god
  of any kind1 nor would it yield its   
scientific convictions to               
ecclesiastical authority4 ,some did not 
hesitate to accuse the  pope himself of 
being a heretic4 ,against these         
insubordinates  excommunications began  
to be fulminated1 and at length it was  
demanded  that certain professors and   
teachers should be removed from their   
offices1 and infallibilists substituted4
 ,with this demand the ,prussian        
,government declined to comply4    ,the 
,prussian ,government had earnestly     
desired to remain on amicable  terms    
with the papacy2 it had no wish to enter

 on a theological quarrel2  but         
gradually the conviction was forced upon
 it that the question was  not a        
religious but a political one--whether  
the power of the state  should be used  
against the state4 ,a teacher in a      
gymnasium had been  excommunicated2 the 
government1 on being required to dismiss
 him1  refused4 ,the ,church authorities
 denounced this as an attack upon faith4
  ,the emperor sustained his minister4  
,the organ of the infallible party      
threatened the emperor with the         
opposition of all good ,catholics1 and  
told him that1 in a contention with the 
pope1 systems of government can  and    
must change4 ,it was now plain to every 
one that the question had  become1 ,who 
is to be master in the state1 the       
government or the ,roman  ,church8 ,it  
is plainly impossible for men to live   
under two governments1  one of which    
declares to be wrong what the other     
commands4 ,if the  government will not  
submit to the ,roman ,church1 the two   

are enemies4 ,a  conflict was thus      
forced upon ,prussia by ,rome--a        
conflict in which the  latter1 impelled 
by her antagonism to modern             
civilization1 is clearly  the aggressor4
    ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,prussian      
,,government4 ,the government1 now      
recognizing its  antagonist1 defended   
itself by abolishing the ,catholic      
department in  the ministry of ,public  
,worship4 ,this was about midsummer1    
#ahga4 ,in  the following ,november the 
,imperial ,parliament passed a law that 
ecclesiastics abusing their office1 to  
the disturbance of the public  peace1   
should be criminally punished4 ,and1    
guided by the principle that  the future
 belongs to him to whom the school      
belongs1 a movement arose  for the      
purpose of separating the schools from  
the ,church4    ,,the ,,church ,a       
,,political ,,power4 ,the ,jesuit party 
was extending and  strengthening an     
organization all over ,germany1 based on
 the principle  that state legislation  

in ecclesiastical matters is not        
binding4 ,here  was an act of open      
insurrection4 ,could the government     
allow itself to be  intimidated8 ,the   
,bishop of ,ermeland declared that he   
would not obey the  laws of the state if
 they touched the ,church4 ,the         
government stopped the  payment of his  
salary2 and1 perceiving that there could
 be no peace  so long as the ,jesuits   
were permitted to remain in the country1
 their  expulsion was resolved on1 and  
carried into effect4 ,at the close of   
#ahgb his ,holiness delivered an        
allocution1 in which he touched on the  
persecution of the ,church in the       
,german ,empire1 and asserted that the  
,church alone has a right to fix the    
limits between its domain and that  of  
the state--a dangerous and inadmissible 
principle1 since under the  term morals 
the ,church comprises all the relations 
of men to each other1  and asserts that 
whatever does not assist her oppresses  
her4 ,hereupon1 a  few days subsequently

 7,january #i1 #ahgc71 four laws were   
brought forward  by the government3 #a4 
,regulating the means by which a person 
might  sever his connection with the    
,church2 #b4 ,restricting the ,church in
 the  exercise of ecclesiastical        
punishments2 #c4 ,regulating the        
ecclesiastical  power of discipline1    
forbidding bodily chastisement1         
regulating fines  and banishments       
granting the privilege of an appeal to  
the ,royal ,court  of ,justice for      
,ecclesiastical ,affairs1 the decision  
of which is final2  #d4 ,ordaining the  
preliminary education and appointment of
 priests4 ,they  must have had a        
satisfactory education1 passed a public 
examination  conducted by the state1 and
 have a knowledge of philosophy1        
history1  and ,german literature4       
,institutions refusing to be            
superintended by the  state are to be   
closed4    ,these laws demonstrate that 
,germany is resolved that she will no   
longer  be dictated to nor embarrassed  

by a few ,italian noble families2 that  
she  will be master of her own house4   
,she sees in the conflict1 not an affair
  of religion or of conscience1 but a   
struggle between the sovereignty  of    
state legislation and the sovereignty of
 the ,church4 ,she treats the  papacy   
not in the aspect of a religious1 but of
 a political power1 and  is resolved    
that the declaration of the ,prussian   
,constitution shall be  maintained1 that
 the exercise of religious freedom must 
not interfere  with the duties of a     
citizen toward the community and the    
state4    ,,dual ,,government ,,in      
,,europe4 ,with truth it is affirmed    
that the papacy is  administered not    
oecumenically1 not as a universal       
,church1 for all  the nations1 but for  
the benefit of some ,italian families4  
,look at its  composition6 ,it consists 
of pope1 cardinal bishops1 cardinal     
deacons1  who at the present moment are 
all ,italians2 cardinal priests1 nearly 
all  ,italians2 ministers and           

secretaries of the ,sacred ,congregation
 in ,rome1  all ,italians4 ,france has  
not given a pope since the middle ages4 
,it  is the same with ,austria1         
,portugal1 ,spain4 ,in spite of all     
attempts to  change this system of      
exclusion1 to open the dignities of the 
,church to  all ,catholicism1 no        
foreigner can reach the holy chair4 ,it 
is recognized  that the ,church is a    
domain given by ,god to the princely    
,italian  families4 ,of fifty-five      
members of the present ,college of      
,cardinals1  forty are ,italians--that  
is1 thirty-two beyond their proper      
share4    ,the stumbling-block to the   
progress of ,europe has been its dual   
system  of government4 ,so long as every
 nation had two sovereigns1 a temporal  
one at home and a spiritual one in a    
foreign land--there being different     
temporal masters in different nations1  
but only one foreign master  for all1   
the pontiff at ,rome--how was it        
possible that history should  present us

 with any thing more than a narrative of
 the strifes of these  rival powers8    
,whoever will reflect on this state of  
things will see  how it is that those   
nations which have shaken off the dual  
form of  government are those which have
 made the greatest advance4 ,he will    
discern what is the cause of the        
paralysis which has befallen ,france4   
,on  one hand she wishes to be the      
leader of ,europe1 on the other she     
clings  to a dead past4 ,for the sake of
 propitiating her ignorant classes1 she 
enters upon lines of policy which her   
intelligence must condemn4 ,so  evenly  
balanced are the two sovereignties under
 which she lives1 that  sometimes one1  
sometimes the other1 prevails2 and not  
unfrequently the  one uses the other as 
an engine for the accomplishment of its 
ends4    ,,intentions ,,of ,,the ,,pope4
 ,but this dual system approaches its   
close4 ,to  the northern nations1 less  
imaginative and less superstitious1 it  
had  long ago become intolerable2 they  

rejected it summarily at the epoch of   
the ,reformation1 notwithstanding the   
protestations and pretensions  of ,rome1
 ,russia1 happier than the rest1 has    
never acknowledged the  influence of any
 foreign spiritual power4 ,she gloried  
in her attachment  to the ancient ,greek
 rite1 and saw in the papacy nothing    
more than a  troublesome dissenter from 
the primitive faith4 ,in ,america the   
temporal  and the spiritual have been   
absolutely divorced--the latter is not  
permitted to have any thing to do with  
affairs of state1 though in all  other  
respects liberty is conceded to it4 ,the
 condition of the ,new  ,world also     
satisfies us that both forms of         
,christianity1 ,catholic and            
,protestant1 have lost their expansive  
power2 neither can pass beyond its      
long-established boundary-line--the     
,catholic republics remain ,catholic1   
the ,protestant ,protestant4 ,and among 
the latter the disposition to  sectarian
 isolation is disappearing2 persons of  

different denominations  consort without
 hesitation together4 ,they gather their
 current opinions  from newspapers1 not 
from the ,church4    ,pius ,,ix41 in the
 movements we have been considering1 has
 had two objects  in view3 #a4 ,the more
 thorough centralization of the papacy1 
with a  spiritual autocrat assuming the 
prerogatives of ,god at its head2 #b4   
,control over the intellectual          
development of the nations professing   
,christianity4    ,the logical          
consequence of the former of these is   
political  intervention4 ,he insists    
that in all cases the temporal must     
subordinate  itself to the spiritual    
power2 all laws inconsistent with the   
interests  of the ,church must be       
repealed4 ,they are not binding on the  
faithful4  ,in the preceding pages ,i   
have briefly related some of the        
complications  that have already        
occurred in the attempt to maintain this
 policy4    ,,the ,,syllabus4 ,i now    
come to the consideration of the manner 

in which the  papacy proposes to        
establish its intellectual control2 how 
it defines  its relation to its         
antagonist1 ,science1 and1 seeking a    
restoration  of the mediaeval condition1
 opposes modern civilization1 and       
denounces  modern society4    ,the      
,encyclical and ,syllabus present the   
principles which it was the  object of  
the ,vatican ,council to carry into     
practical effect4 ,the  ,syllabus       
stigmatizes pantheism1 naturalism1 and  
absolute rationalism1  denouncing such  
opinions as that ,god is the world2 that
 there is no ,god  other than ,nature2  
that theological matters must be treated
 in the same  manner as philosophical   
ones1 that the methods and principles by
 which  the old scholastic doctors      
cultivated theology are no longer       
suitable  to the demands of the age and 
the progress of science2 that every man 
is free to embrace and profess the      
religion he may believe to be true1     
guided by the light of his reason2 that 

it appertains to the civil  power to    
define what are the rights and limits in
 which the ,church  may exercise        
authority2 that the ,church has not the 
right of availing  herself of force or  
any direct or indirect temporal power2  
that the  ,church ought to be separated 
from the state and the state from the   
,church2 that it is no longer expedient 
that the ,catholic religion shall  be   
held as the only religion of the state1 
to the exclusion of all other  modes of 
worship2 that persons coming to reside  
in ,catholic countries  have a right to 
the public exercise of their own        
worship2 that the  ,roman pontiff can   
and ought to reconcile himself to1 and  
agree with1 the  progress of modern     
civilization4 ,the ,syllabus claims the 
right of the  ,church to control public 
schools1 and denies the right of the    
state in  that respect2 it claims the   
control over marriage and divorce4      
,such of these principles as the        
,council found expedient at present to  

formularize1 were set forth by it in    
,the ,dogmatic ,constitution of  the    
,catholic ,faith4 ,the essential points 
of this constitution1 more  especially  
as regards the relations of religion to 
science1 we have now  to examine4 ,it   
will be understood that the following   
does not present  the entire document1  
but only an abstract of what appear to  
be its more  important parts4           
,,constitution ,,of ,,catholic ,,faith4 
,this definition opens with a severe    
review of the principles and            
consequences of the ,protestant         
,reformation3    ,the rejection of the  
divine authority of the ,church to      
teach1 and the  subjection of all things
 belonging to religion to the judgment  
of each  individual1 have led to the    
production of many sects1 and1 as these 
differed and disputed with each other1  
all belief in ,christ was  overthrown in
 the minds of not a few1 and the ,holy  
,scriptures began to  be counted as     
myths and fables4 ,christianity has been

 rejected1 and  the reign of mere       
,reason as they call it1 or ,nature1    
substituted2 many  falling into the     
abyss of pantheism1 materialism1 and    
atheism1 and1  repudiating the reasoning
 nature of man1 and every rule of right 
and  wrong1 they are laboring to        
overthrow the very foundations of human 
society4 ,as this impious heresy is     
spreading everywhere1 not a few         
,catholics have been inveigled by it4   
,they have confounded human science  and
 divine faith4    ,but the ,church1 the 
,mother and ,mistress of nations1 is    
ever ready to  strengthen the weak1 to  
take to her bosom those that return1 and
 carry  them on to better things4 ,and1 
now the bishops of the whole world      
being gathered together in this         
,oecumenical ,council1 and the ,holy    
,ghost  sitting therein1 and judging    
with us1 we have determined to declare  
from  this chair of ,st4 ,peter the     
saving doctrine of ,christ1 and         
proscribe and  condemn the opposing     

errors4    ,,of ,,god1 ,,the ,,creator  
,,of ,,all ,,things4--,the ,holy        
,catholic ,apostolic ,roman  ,church    
believes that there is one true and     
living ,god1 ,creator and  ,lord of     
,heaven and ,earth1 ,almighty1 ,eternal1
 ,immense1 ,incomprehensible1  ,infinite
 in understanding and will1 and in all  
perfection4 ,he is  distinct from the   
world4 ,of his own most free counsel he 
made alike out  of nothing two created  
creatures1 a spiritual and a temporal1  
angelic  and earthly4 ,afterward he made
 the human nature1 composed of both4    
,moreover1 ,god by his providence       
protects and governs all things1        
reaching from end to end mightily1 and  
ordering all things harmoniously4       
,every thing is open to his eyes1 even  
things that come to pass by the  free   
action of his creatures4    ,,of        
,,revelation4--,the ,holy ,mother       
,church holds that ,god can be known    
with  certainty by the natural light of 
human reason1 but that it has also      

pleased him to reveal himself and the   
eternal decrees of his will in a        
supernatural way4 ,this supernatural    
revelation1 as declared by the  ,holy   
,council of ,trent1 is contained in the 
books of the ,old and ,new  ,testament1 
as enumerated in the decrees of that    
,council1 and as are to  be had in the  
old ,vulgate ,latin edition4 ,these are 
sacred because they  were written under 
the inspiration of the ,holy ,ghost4    
,they have ,god for  their author1 and  
as such have been delivered to the      
,church4    ,and1 in order to restrain  
restless spirits1 who may give erroneous
  explanations1 it is decreed--renewing 
the decision of the ,council of         
,trent--that no one may interpret the   
sacred ,scriptures contrary to the      
sense in which they are interpreted by  
,holy ,mother ,church1 to whom such     
interpretation belongs4    ,,of         
,,faith4--,inasmuch as man depends on   
,god as his ,lord1 and created  reason  
is wholly subject to uncreated truth1 he

 is bound when ,god makes  a revelation 
to obey it by faith4 ,this faith is a   
supernatural virtue1  and the beginning 
of man's salvation who believes revealed
 things to  be true1 not for their      
intrinsic truth as seen by the natural  
light  of reason1 but for the authority 
of ,god in revealing them4 ,but1        
nevertheless that faith might be        
agreeable to reason1 ,god willed to     
join miracles and prophecies1 which1    
showing forth his omnipotence and       
knowledge1 are proofs suited to the     
understanding of all4 ,such we have  in 
,moses and the prophets1 and above all  
in ,christ4 ,now1 all those  things are 
to be believed which are written in the 
word of ,god1 or  handed down by        
tradition1 which the ,church by her     
teaching has proposed  for belief4      
,no one can be justified without this   
faith1 nor shall any one1 unless  he    
persevere therein to the end1 attain    
everlasting life4 ,hence ,god1  through 
his only-begotten ,son1 has established 

the ,church as the  guardian and teacher
 of his revealed word4 ,for only to the 
,catholic  ,church do all those signs   
belong which make evident the           
credibility of  the ,christian faith4   
,nay1 more1 the very ,church herself1 in
 view of  her wonderful propagation1 her
 eminent holiness1 her exhaustless      
fruitfulness in all that is good1 her   
,catholic unity1 her unshaken           
stability1 offers a great and evident   
claim to belief1 and an undeniable      
proof of her divine mission4 ,thus the  
,church shows to her children that  the 
faith they hold rests on a most solid   
foundation4 ,wherefore1 totally  unlike 
is the condition of those who1 by the   
heavenly gift of faith1  have embraced  
the ,catholic truth1 and of those who1  
led by human  opinions1 are following1 a
 false religion4    ,,of ,,faith ,,and  
,,reason4--,moreover1 the ,catholic     
,church has ever held and  now holds    
that there exists a twofold order of    
knowledge1 each of which  is distinct   

from the other1 both as to its principle
 and its object4 ,as  to its principle1 
because in the one we know by natural   
reason1 in the  other by divine faith2  
as to the object1 because1 besides those
 things  which our natural reason can   
attain1 there are proposed to our belief
  mysteries hidden in ,god1 which1      
unless by him revealed1 cannot come to  
our knowledge4    ,reason1 indeed1      
enlightened by faith1 and seeking1 with 
diligence and  godly sobriety1 may1 by  
,god's gift1 come to some understanding1
 limited  in degree1 but most wholesome 
in its effects1 of mysteries1 both from 
the analogy of things which are         
naturally known and from the connection 
of the mysteries themselves with one    
another and with man's last end4  ,but  
never can reason be rendered capable of 
thoroughly understanding  mysteries as  
it does those truths which form its     
proper object4 ,for  ,god's mysteries1  
in their very nature1 so far surpass the
 reach of  created intellect1 that1 even

 when taught by revelation and received 
by  faith1 they remain covered by faith 
itself1 as by a veil1 and shrouded1  as 
it were1 in darkness as long as in this 
mortal life4    ,but1 although faith be 
above reason1 there never can be a real 
disagreement between them1 since the    
same ,god who reveals mysteries and     
infuses faith has given man's soul the  
light of reason1 and ,god cannot  deny  
himself1 nor can one truth ever         
contradict another4 ,wherefore the      
empty shadow of such contradiction      
arises chiefly from this1 that either   
the doctrines of faith are not          
understood and set forth as the ,church 
really holds them1 or that the vain     
devices and opinions of men are         
mistaken for the dictates of reason4 ,we
 therefore pronounce false every        
assertion which is contrary to the      
enlightened truth of faith4 ,moreover1  
the ,church1 which1 together with her   
apostolic office of teaching1  is       
charged also with the guardianship of   

the deposits of faith1 holds  likewise  
from ,god the right and the duty to     
condemn 'knowledge1 falsely  so called1'
 'lest any man be cheated by philosophy 
and vain deceit4'  ,hence all the       
,christian faithful are not only        
forbidden to defend1 as  legitimate     
conclusions of science1 those opinions  
which are known to  be contrary to the  
doctrine of faith1 especially when      
condemned by the  ,church1 but are      
rather absolutely bound to hold them for
 errors wearing  the deceitful          
appearance of truth4    ,,the ,,vatican 
,,anathemas4 ,not only is it impossible 
for faith and reason  ever to contradict
 each other1 but they rather afford each
 other mutual  assistance4 ,for right   
reason establishes the foundation of    
faith1 and1  by the aid of its light1   
cultivates the science of divine things2
 and  faith1 on the other hand1 frees   
and preserves reason from errors1 and   
enriches it with knowledge of many      
kinds4 ,so far1 then1 is the ,church    

from opposing the culture of human arts 
and sciences1 that she rather  aids and 
promotes it in many ways4 ,for she is   
not ignorant of nor does  she despise   
the advantages which flow from them to  
the life of man2 on  the contrary1 she  
acknowledges that1 as they sprang from  
,god1 the ,lord  of knowledge1 so1 if   
they be rightly pursued1 they will1     
through the aid  of his grace1 lead to  
,god4 ,nor does she forbid any of those 
sciences  the use of its own principles 
and its own method within its own proper
  sphere2 but1 recognizing this         
reasonable freedom1 she takes care that 
they may not1 by contradicting ,god's   
teaching1 fall into errors1 or1         
overstepping the due limits1 invade or  
throw into confusion the domain  of     
faith4    ,for the doctrine of faith    
revealed by ,god has not been proposed1 
like  some philosophical discovery1 to  
be made perfect by human ingenuity1 but 
it has been delivered to the spouse of  
,christ as a divine deposit1 to be      

faithfully guarded and unerringly set   
forth4 ,hence1 all tenets of holy  faith
 are to be explained always according to
 the sense and meaning of  the ,church2 
nor is it ever lawful to depart         
therefrom under pretense or  color of a 
more enlightened explanation4           
,therefore1 as generations and          
centuries roll on1 let the              
understanding1 knowledge1 and wisdom of 
each  and every one1 of individuals and 
of the whole ,church1 grow apace and    
increase exceedingly1 yet only in its   
kind2 that is to say retaining  pure and
 inviolate the sense and meaning and    
belief of the same  doctrine4    ,among 
other canons the following were         
promulgated4    ,let him be anathema--  
,who denies the one true ,god1 ,creator 
and ,lord of all things1 visible  and   
invisible4    ,who unblushingly affirms 
that1 besides matter1 nothing else      
exists4    ,who says that the substance 
or essence of ,god1 and of all things1  
is  one and the same4    ,who says that 

finite things1 both corporeal and       
spiritual1 or at least  spiritual       
things1 are emanations of the divine    
substance2 or that the  divine essence1 
by manifestation or development of      
itself1 becomes all  things4    ,who    
does not acknowledge that the world and 
all things which it  contains were      
produced by ,god out of nothing4    ,who
 shall say that man can and ought to1 of
 his own efforts1 by means  of1 constant
 progress1 arrive1 at last1 at the      
possession of all truth  and goodness4  
,who shall refuse to receive1 for sacred
 and canonical1 the books of  ,holy     
,scripture in their integrity1 with all 
their parts1 according as  they were    
enumerated by the holy ,council of      
,trent1 or shall deny that  they are    
,inspired by ,god4    ,who shall say    
that human reason is in such wise       
independent1 that faith  cannot be      
demanded of it by ,god4    ,who shall   
say that divine revelation cannot be    
rendered credible by  external          

evidences4    ,who shall say that no    
miracles can be wrought1 or that they   
can never  be known with certainty1 and 
that the divine origin of ,christianity 
cannot be proved by them4    ,who shall 
say that divine revelation includes no  
mysteries1 but that  all the dogmas of  
faith may be understood and demonstrated
 by reason  duly cultivated4    ,who    
shall say that human sciences ought to  
be pursued in such a spirit  of freedom 
that one may be allowed to hold as true 
their assertions1  even when opposed to 
revealed doctrine4    ,who shall say    
that it may at any time come to pass1 in
 the progress  of science1 that the     
doctrines set forth by the ,church must 
be taken in  another sense than that in 
which the ,church has ever received and 
yet  receives them4    ,,the            
,,evangelical ,,alliance4 ,the          
extraordinary and1 indeed1 it may be    
said1  arrogant assumptions contained in
 these decisions were far from being    
received with satisfaction by educated  

,catholics4 ,on the part of the  ,german
 universities there was resistance2 and1
 when1 at the close of the  year1 the   
decrees of the ,vatican ,council were   
generally acquiesced in1  it was not    
through conviction of their truth1 but  
through a disciplinary  sense of        
obedience4    ,by many of the most pious
 ,catholics the entire movement and the 
results  to which it had led were looked
 upon with the sincerest sorrow4 ,pere  
,hyacinthe1 in a letter to the superior 
of his order1 says3 ,i protest  against 
the divorce1 as impious as it is        
insensate1 sought to be  effected       
between the ,church1 which is our       
eternal mother1 and the  society of the 
nineteenth century1 of which we are the 
temporal  children1 and toward which we 
have also duties and regards4 ,it is my 
most profound conviction that1 if       
,france in particular1 and the ,latin   
race in general1 are given up to social1
 moral1 and religious anarchy1  the     
principal cause undoubtedly is not      

,catholicism itself1 but the  manner in 
which ,catholicism has for a long time  
been understood and  practised4         
,notwithstanding his infallibility1     
which implies omniscience1 his          
,holiness did not foresee the issue of  
the ,franco-,prussian ,war4 ,had the    
prophetical talent been vouchsafed to   
him1 he would have detected the         
inopportuneness of the acts of his      
,council4 ,his request to the ,king of  
,prussia for military aid to support his
 temporal power was denied4 ,the        
excommunicated ,king of ,italy1 as we   
have seen1 took possession of ,rome4  ,a
 bitter papal encyclical1 strangely     
contrasting with the courteous          
politeness of modern state-papers1 was  
issued1 ,november #a1 #ahgj1  denouncing
 the acts of the ,piedmontese court1    
which had followed the  counsel of the  
sects of perdition4 ,in this his        
,holiness declares that  he is in       
captivity1 and that he will have no     
agreement with ,belial4 ,he  pronounces 

the greater excommunication1 with       
censures and penalties1  against his    
antagonists1 and prays for the          
intercession of the  immaculate ,virgin 
,mary1 mother of ,god1 and that of the  
blessed apostles  ,peter and ,paul4     
,of the various ,protestant             
denominations1 several had associated   
themselves1 for the purposes of         
consultation1 under the designation of  
the ,evangelical ,alliance4 ,their last 
meeting was held in ,new ,york1 in  the 
autumn of #ahgc4 ,though1 in this       
meeting1 were gathered together many    
pious representatives of the ,reformed  
,churches1 ,european and ,american1  it 
had not the prestige nor the authority  
of the ,great ,council that had  just   
previously closed its sessions in ,st4  
,peters1 at ,rome4 ,it could  not appeal
 to an unbroken ancestry of far more    
than a thousand years2  it could not    
speak with the authority of an equal    
and1 indeed1 of  a superior to emperors 
and kings4 ,while profound intelligence 

and a  statesmanlike1 worldly wisdom    
gleamed in every thing that the ,vatican
  ,council had done1 the ,evangelical   
,alliance met without a clear and       
precise view of its objects1 without any
 definitely-marked intentions4  ,its    
wish was to draw into closer union the  
various ,protestant ,churches1  but it  
had no well-grounded hope of            
accomplishing that desirable result4    
,it illustrated the necessary working1  
of the principle on which  those        
,churches originated4 ,they were founded
 on dissent and exist by  separation4   
,yet in the action of the ,evangelical  
,alliance may be discerned  certain very
 impressive facts4 ,it averted its eyes 
from its ancient  antagonist--that      
antagonist which had so recently loaded 
the ,reformation  with contumely and    
denunciation--it fastened them1 as the  
,vatican  ,council had done1 on         
,science4 ,under that dreaded name there
 stood before  it what seemed to be a   
spectre of uncertain form1 of           

hourly-dilating  proportions1 of        
threatening aspect4 ,sometimes the      
,alliance addressed  this stupendous    
apparition in words of courtesy1        
sometimes in tones of  denunciation4    
,,the ,,vatican ,,constitution          
,,criticised4 ,the ,alliance failed to  
perceive  that modern ,science is the   
legitimate sister--indeed1 it is the    
twin-sister--of the ,reformation4 ,they 
were begotten together and  were born   
together4 ,it failed to perceive that1  
though there is an  impossibility of    
bringing into coalition the many        
conflicting sects1  they may all find in
 science a point of connection2 and     
that1 not a  distrustful attitude toward
 it1 but a cordial union with it1 is    
their  true policy4    ,it remains now  
to offer some reflections on this       
,constitution of the  ,catholic ,faith1 
as defined by the ,vatican ,council4    
,for objects to present themselves under
 identical relations to different       
persons1 they must be seen from the same

 point of view4 ,in the instance  we are
 now considering1 the religious man has 
his own especial station2  the          
scientific man another1 a very different
 one4 ,it is not for either  to demand  
that his co-observer shall admit that   
the panorama of facts  spread before    
them is actually such as it appears to  
him to be4    ,the ,dogmatic            
,constitution insists on the admission  
of this postulate1  that the ,roman     
,church acts under a divine commission1 
specially and  exclusively delivered to 
it4 ,in virtue of that great authority1 
it  requires of all men the surrender of
 their intellectual convictions1 and  of
 all nations the subordination of their 
civil power4    ,but a claim so imposing
 must be substantiated by the most      
decisive and  unimpeachable credentials2
 proofs1 not only of an implied and     
indirect  kind1 but clear1 emphatic1 and
 to the point2 proofs that it would be  
impossible to call in question4    ,the 
,church1 however1 declares1 that she    

will not submit her claim to  the       
arbitrament of human reason2 she demands
 that it shall be at once  conceded as  
an article of faith4    ,if this be     
admitted1 all bar requirements must     
necessarily be assented  to1 no matter  
how exorbitant they may be4    ,with    
strange inconsistency the ,dogmatic     
,constitution deprecates reason1        
affirming that it cannot determine the  
points under consideration1 and  yet    
submits to it arguments for             
adjudication4 ,in truth1 it might be    
said  that the whole composition is a   
passionate plea to ,reason to stultify  
itself in favor of ,roman ,christianity4
    ,with points of view so widely      
asunder1 it is impossible that ,religion
  and ,science should accord in their   
representation of things4 ,nor can  any 
conclusion in common be reached1 except 
by an appeal to ,reason as a  supreme   
and final judge4    ,there are many     
religions in the world1 some of them of 
more venerable  antiquity1 some having  

far more numerous adherents1 than the   
,roman4 ,how  can a selection be made   
among them1 except by such an appeal to 
,reason8  ,religion and ,science must   
both submit their claims and their      
dissensions  to its arbitrament4        
,against this the ,vatican ,council     
protests4 ,it exalts faith to a         
superiority over reason2 it says that   
they constitute two separate  orders of 
knowledge1 having respectively for their
 objects mysteries  and facts4 ,faith   
deals with mysteries1 reason with facts4
 ,asserting the  dominating superiority 
of faith1 it tries to satisfy the       
reluctant mind  with miracles and       
prophecies4    ,on the other hand1      
,science turns away from the            
incomprehensible1 and  rests herself on 
the maxim of ,wiclif3 ,god forceth not a
 man to believe  that which he cannot   
understand4 ,in the absence of an       
exhibition of  satisfactory credentials 
on the part of her opponent1 she        
considers  whether there be in the      

history of the papacy1 and in the       
biography of  the popes1 any thing that 
can adequately sustain a divine         
commission1  any thing that can justify 
pontifical infallibility1 or extort that
  unhesitating obedience which is due to
 the vice-,god4    ,one of the most     
striking and yet contradictory features 
of the ,dogmatic  ,constitution is1 the 
reluctant homage it pays to the         
intelligence of  man4 ,it presents a    
definition of the philosophical basis of
 ,catholicism1  but it veils from view  
the repulsive features of the vulgar    
faith4 ,it  sets forth the attributes of
 ,god1 the ,creator of all things1 in   
words  fitly designating its sublime    
conception1 but it abstains from        
affirming  that this most awful and     
eternal ,being was born of an earthly   
mother1  the wife of a ,jewish          
carpenter1 who has since become the     
queen of  heaven4 ,the ,god it depicts  
is not the ,god of the middle ages1     
seated  on his golden throne1 surrounded

 by choirs of angels1 but the ,god of   
,philosophy4 ,the ,constitution has     
nothing to say about the ,trinity1      
nothing of the worship due to the       
,virgin--on the contrary1 that is by    
implication sternly condemned2 nothing  
about transubstantiation1 or  the making
 of the flesh and blood of ,god by the  
priest2 nothing of the  invocation of   
the saints4 ,it bears on its face       
subordination to the  thought of the    
age1 the impress of the intellectual    
progress of man4    ,,the ,,passage ,,of
 ,,europe ,,to ,,llamaism4 ,such being  
the exposition rendered to  us          
respecting the attributes of ,god1 it   
next instructs us as to his  mode of    
government of the world4 ,the ,church   
asserts that she possesses a            
supernatural control over all material  
and moral events4 ,the priesthood1  in  
its various grades1 can determine issues
 of the future1 either by the  exercise 
of its inherent attributes1 or by its   
influential invocation of  the celestial

 powers4 ,to the sovereign pontiff it   
has been given to bind  or loose at his 
pleasure4 ,it is unlawful to appeal from
 his judgments  to an ,oecumenical      
,council1 as if to an earthly arbiter   
superior to him4  ,powers such as these 
are consistent with arbitrary rule1 but 
they are  inconsistent with the         
government of the world by immutable    
law4 ,hence  the ,dogmatic ,constitution
 plants itself firmly in behalf of      
incessant  providential interventions2  
it will not for a moment admit that in  
natural things there is an irresistible 
sequence of events1 or in the  affairs  
of men an unavoidable course of acts4   
,but has not the order of civilization  
in all parts of the world been the      
same8 ,does not the growth of society   
resemble individual growth8 ,do not     
both exhibit to us phases of youth1 of  
maturity1 of decrepitude8 ,to  a person 
who has carefully considered the        
progressive civilization of  groups of  
men in regions of the earth far apart1  

who has observed the  identical forms   
under which that advancing civilization 
has manifested  itself1 is it not clear 
that the procedure is determined by law8
 ,the  religious ideas of the ,incas of 
,peru and the emperors of ,mexico1 and  
the  ceremonials of their court-life1   
were the same as those in ,europe--the  
same as those in ,asia4 ,the current of 
thought had been the same4 ,a swarm  of 
bees carried to some distant land will  
build its combs and regulate  its social
 institutions as other unknown swarms   
would do1 and so with  separated and    
disconnected swarms of men4 ,so         
invariable is this sequence  of thought 
and act1 that there are philosophers    
who1 transferring the  past example     
offered by ,asiatic history to the case 
of ,europe1 would  not hesitate to      
sustain the proposition--given a bishop 
of ,rome and some  centuries1 and you   
will have an infallible pope3 given an  
infallible  pope and a little more time1
 and you will have ,llamaism--,llamaism 

to  which ,asia has long1 ago attained4 
,as to the origin of corporeal and      
spiritual things1 the ,dogmatic         
,constitution adds a solemn emphasis to 
its declarations1 by  anathematizing all
 those who hold the doctrine of         
emanation1 or who  believe that visible 
,nature is only a manifestation of the  
,divine  ,essence4 ,in this its authors 
had a task of no ordinary difficulty    
before  them4 ,they must encounter those
 formidable ideas1 whether old or new1  
which in our times are so strongly      
forcing themselves on thoughtful men4   
,the doctrine of the conservation and   
correlation of ,force yields as its     
logical issue the time-worn ,oriental   
emanation theory2 the doctrines of      
,evolution and ,development strike at   
that of successive creative acts4  ,the 
former rests on the fundamental         
principle that the quantity of  force in
 the universe is invariable4 ,though    
that quantity can neither be  increased 
nor diminished1 the forms under which   

,force expresses itself  may be         
transmuted into each other4 ,as yet this
 doctrine has not received  complete    
scientific demonstration1 but so        
numerous and so cogent are the          
arguments adduced in its behalf1 that it
 stands in an imposing1 almost  in an   
authoritative attitude4 ,now1 the       
,asiatic theory of emanation and        
absorption is seen to be in harmony with
 this grand idea4 ,it does not  hold    
that1 at the conception of a human      
being1 a soul is created by  ,god out of
 nothing and given to it1 but that a    
portion of the already  existing1 the   
divine1 the universal intelligence1 is  
imparted1 and1 when  life is over1 this 
returns to and is absorbed in the       
general source from  which it originally
 came4 ,the authors of the ,constitution
 forbid these  ideas to be held1 under  
pain of eternal punishment4    ,in like 
manner they dispose of the doctrines of 
,evolution and  ,development1 bluntly   
insisting that the ,church believes in  

distinct  creative acts4 ,the doctrine  
that every living form is derived from  
some  preceding form is scientifically  
in a much more advanced position than   
that concerning ,force1 and probably may
 be considered as established1  whatever
 may become of the additions with which 
it has recently been  overlaid4    ,in  
her condemnation of the ,reformation1   
the ,church carries into effect  her    
ideas of the subordination of reason to 
faith4 ,in her eyes the  ,reformation is
 an impious heresy1 leading to the abyss
 of pantheism1  materialism1 and        
atheism1 and tending to overthrow the   
very foundations  of human society4 ,she
 therefore would restrain those restless
 spirits  who1 following ,luther1 have  
upheld the right of every man to        
interpret  the ,scriptures for himself4 
,she asserts that it is a wicked error  
to  admit ,protestants to equal         
political privileges with ,catholics1   
and that  to coerce them and suppress   
them is a sacred duty2 that it is       

abominable  to permit them to establish 
educational institutions4 ,gregory      
,,xvi4  denounced freedom of conscience 
as an insane folly1 and the freedom of  
the press a pestilent error1 which      
cannot be sufficiently detested4    ,but
 how is it possible to recognize an     
inspired and infallible oracle on  the  
,tiber1 when it is remembered that again
 and again successive popes  have       
contradicted each other2 that popes have
 denounced councils1 and  councils have 
denounced popes2 that the ,bible of     
,sixtus ,v4 had so many  admitted       
errors--nearly two thousand--that its   
own authors had to recall  it8 ,how is  
it possible for the children of the     
,church to regard as  delusive errors   
the globular form of the earth1 her     
position as a  planet in the solar      
system1 her rotation on her axis1 her   
movement round  the sun8 ,how can they  
deny that there are antipodes1 and other
 worlds  than ours8 ,how can they       
believe that the world was made out of  

nothing1  completed in a week1 finished 
just as we see it now2 that it has      
undergone no change1 but that its parts 
have worked so indifferently as  to     
require incessant interventions8        
,,the ,,errors ,,of ,,ecclesiasticism4  
,when ,science is thus commanded to     
surrender her intellectual convictions1 
may she not ask the ecclesiastic  to    
remember the past8 ,the contest         
respecting the figure of the earth1  and
 the location of heaven and hell1 ended 
adversely to him4 ,he affirmed  that the
 earth is an extended plane1 and that   
the sky is a firmament1  the floor of   
heaven1 through which again and again   
persons have been  seen to ascend4 ,the 
globular form demonstrated beyond any   
possibility  of contradiction by        
astronomical facts1 and by the voyage of
 ,magellan's  ship1 he then maintained  
that it is the central body of the      
universe1  all others being in          
subordination to it1 and it the grand   
object of  ,god's regard4 ,forced from  

this position1 he next affirmed that it 
is  motionless1 the sun and the stars   
actually revolving1 as they apparently  
do1 around it4 ,the invention of the    
telescope proved that here again  he was
 in error4 ,then he maintained that all 
the motions of the solar  system are    
regulated by providential intervention2 
the ,principia  of ,newton demonstrated 
that they are due to irresistible law4  
,he then  affirmed that the earth and   
all the celestial bodies were created   
about  six thousand years ago1 and that 
in six days the order of ,nature was    
settled1 and plants and animals in their
 various tribes introduced4             
,constrained by the accumulating mass of
 adverse evidence1 he enlarged  his days
 into periods of indefinite             
length--only1 however1 to find that     
even this device was inadequate4 ,the   
six ages1 with their six special        
creations1 could no longer be           
maintained1 when it was discovered that 
species1 slowly emerged in one age1     

reached a culmination in a second1  and 
gradually died out in a third3 this     
overlapping from age to age  would not  
only have demanded creations1 but       
re-creations also4 ,he  affirmed that   
there had been a deluge1 which covered  
the whole earth  above the tops of the  
highest mountains1 and that the waters  
of this  flood were removed by a wind4  
,correct ideas respecting the dimensions
  of the atmosphere1 and of the sea1 and
 of the operation of evaporation1       
proved how untenable these statements   
are4 ,of the progenitors of the  human  
race1 he declared that they had come    
from their ,maker's hand  perfect1 both 
in body and mind1 and had subsequently  
experienced a fall4  ,he is now         
considering how best to dispose of the  
evidence continually  accumulating      
respecting the savage condition of      
prehistoric man4    ,is it at all       
surprising that the number of those who 
hold the opinions  of the ,church in    
light esteem should so rapidly increase8

 ,how can that  be received as a        
trustworthy guide in the invisible1     
which falls into so  many errors in the 
visible8 ,how can that give confidence  
in the moral1  the spiritual1 which has 
so signally failed in the physical8 ,it 
is not  possible to dispose of these    
conflicting facts as empty shadows1 vain
  devices1 fictions coming from         
knowledge falsely so called1 errors     
wearing the deceitful appearance of     
truth1 as the ,church stigmatizes  them4
 ,on the contrary1 they are stern       
witnesses1 bearing emphatic  and        
unimpeachable testimony against the     
ecclesiastical claim to  infallibility1 
and fastening a conviction of ignorance 
and blindness  upon her4    ,convicted  
of so many errors1 the papacy makes no  
attempt at explanation4  ,it ignores the
 whole matter ,nay1 more1 relying on the
 efficacy  of audacity1 though          
confronted by these facts1 it lays claim
 to  infallibility4    ,,separation ,,of
 ,,catholicism ,,and ,,civilization4    

,but1 to the pontiff1 no  other rights  
can be conceded than those he can       
establish at the bar of  ,reason4 ,he   
cannot claim infallibility in religious 
affairs1 and  decline it in scientific4 
,infallibility embraces all things4 ,it 
implies  omniscience4 ,if it holds good 
for theology1 it necessarily holds good 
for science4 ,how is it possible to     
coordinate the infallibility of the     
papacy with the well-known errors into  
which it has fallen8    ,does it not1   
then1 become needful to reject the claim
 of the papacy  to the employment of    
coercion in the maintenance of its      
opinions2 to  repudiate utterly the     
declaration that the ,inquisition is an 
urgent  necessity in view of the        
unbelief of the present age1 and in the 
name  of human nature to protest loudly 
against the ferocity and terrorism of   
that institution8 ,has not conscience   
inalienable rights8    ,an impassable   
and hourly-widening gulf intervenes     
between ,catholicism  and the spirit of 

the age4 ,catholicism insists that blind
 faith is  superior to reason2 that     
mysteries are of more importance than   
facts4  ,she claims to be the sole      
interpreter of ,nature and revelation1  
the  supreme arbiter of knowledge2 she  
summarily rejects all modern criticism  
of the ,scriptures1 and orders the      
,bible to be accepted in accordance     
with the views of the theologians of    
,trent2 she openly avows her hatred  of 
free institutions and constitutional    
systems1 and declares that those  are in
 damnable error who regard the          
reconciliation of the pope with  modern 
civilization as either possible or      
desirable4    ,,science ,,and           
,,protestantism4 ,but the spirit of the 
age demands--is the  human intellect to 
be subordinated to the ,tridentine      
,fathers1 or to the  fancy of illiterate
 and uncritical persons who wrote in the
 earlier ages  of the ,church8 ,it sees 
no merit in blind faith1 but rather     
distrusts it4  ,it looks forward to an  

improvement in the popular canon of     
credibility  for a decision between fact
 and fiction4 ,it does not consider     
itself  bound to believe fables and     
falsehoods that have been invented for  
ecclesiastical ends4 ,it finds no       
argument in behalf of their truth1 that 
traditions and legends have been        
long-lived2 in this respect1 those of   
the ,church are greatly inferior to the 
fables of paganism4 ,the longevity  of  
the ,church itself is not due to divine 
protection or intervention1  but to the 
skill with which it has adapted its     
policy to existing  circumstances4 ,if  
antiquity be the criterion of           
authenticity1 the claims  of ,buddhism  
must be respected2 it has the superior  
warrant of many  centuries4 ,there can  
be no defense of those deliberate       
falsifications of  history1 that        
concealment of historical facts1 of     
which the ,church has  so often taken   
advantage4 ,in these things the end does
 not justify the  means4    ,then has it

 in truth come to this1 that ,roman     
,christianity and ,science  are         
recognized by their respective adherents
 as being absolutely  incompatible2 they
 cannot exist together2 one must yield  
to the other2  mankind must make its    
choice--it cannot have both4            
,,science ,,and ,,faith4 ,while such is1
 perhaps1 the issue as regards          
,catholicism1 a reconciliation of the   
,reformation with ,science is not  only 
possible1 but would easily take place1  
if the ,protestant ,churches  would only
 live up to the maxim taught by ,luther1
 and established by so  many years of   
war4 ,that maxim is1 the right of       
private interpretation of  the          
,scriptures4 ,it was the foundation of  
intellectual liberty4 ,but1 if  a       
personal interpretation of the book of  
,revelation is permissible1  how can it 
be denied in the case of the book of    
,nature8 ,in the  misunderstandings that
 have taken place1 we must ever bear in 
mind  the infirmities of men4 ,the      

generations that immediately followed   
the ,reformation may perhaps be excused 
for not comprehending the full          
significance of their cardinal          
principle1 and for not on all occasions 
carrying it into effect4 ,when ,calvin  
caused ,servetus1 to be burnt1 he  was  
animated1 not by the principles of the  
,reformation1 but by those  of          
,catholicism1 from which he had not been
 able to emancipate himself  completely4
 ,and when the clergy of influential    
,protestant confessions  have           
stigmatized the investigators of ,nature
 as infidels and atheists1  the same may
 be said4 ,for ,catholicism to reconcile
 itself to ,science1  there are         
formidable1 perhaps insuperable         
obstacles in the way4 ,for              
,protestantism to achieve that great    
result there are not4 ,in the one  case 
there is a bitter1 a mortal animosity to
 be overcome2 in the other1  a          
friendship1 that misunderstandings have 
alienated1 to be restored4              

,,civilization ,,and ,,religion4 ,but1  
whatever may be the preparatory         
incidents of that great impending       
intellectual crisis which ,christendom  
must soon inevitably witness1 of this we
 may rest assured1 that the  silent     
secession from the public faith1 which  
in so ominous a manner  characterizes   
the present generation1 will find at    
length political  expression4 ,it is not
 without significance that ,france      
reenforces the  ultramontane tendencies 
of her lower population1 by the         
promotion of  pilgrimages1 the          
perpetration of miracles1 the exhibition
 of celestial  apparitions4 ,constrained
 to do this by her destiny1 she does it 
with  a blush4 ,it is not without       
significance that ,germany resolves to  
rid  herself of the incubus of a dual   
government1 by the exclusion of the     
,italian element1 and to carry to its   
completion that ,reformation which      
three centuries ago she left unfinished4
 ,the time approaches when  men must    

take their choice between quiescent1    
immobile faith and  ever-advancing      
,science--faith1 with its mediaeval     
consolations1 ,science1  which is       
incessantly scattering its material     
blessings in the pathway  of life1      
elevating the lot of man in this world1 
and unifying the  human race4 ,its      
triumphs are solid and enduring4 ,but   
the glory which  ,catholicism might gain
 from a conflict with material ideas is 
at the  best only like that of other    
celestial meteors when they touch the   
atmosphere of the earth--transitory and 
useless4    ,though ,guizot's           
affirmation that the ,church has always 
sided with  despotism is only too true1 
it must be remembered that in the policy
  she follows there is much of political
 necessity4 ,she is urged on by  the    
pressure of nineteen centuries4 ,but1 if
 the irresistible indicates  itself in  
her action1 the inevitable manifests    
itself in her life4 ,for  it is with the
 papacy as with a man4 ,it has passed   

through the struggles  of infancy1 it   
has displayed the energies of maturity1 
and1 its work  completed1 it must sink  
into the feebleness and querulousness of
 old  age4 ,its youth can never be      
renewed4 ,the influence of its souvenirs
  alone will remain4 ,as pagan ,rome    
threw her departing shadow over the     
empire and tinctured all its thoughts1  
so ,christian ,rome casts her  parting  
shadow over ,europe4    ,,inadmissible  
,,claims ,,of ,,catholicism4 ,will      
modern civilization consent to  abandon 
the career of advancement which has     
given it so much power and  happiness8  
,will it consent to retrace its steps to
 the semi-barbarian  ignorance and      
superstition of the middle ages8 ,will  
it submit to the  dictation of a power1 
which1 claiming divine authority1 can   
present  no adequate credentials of its 
office2 a power which kept ,europe in a 
stagnant condition for many centuries1  
ferociously suppressing by the  stake   
and the sword every attempt at progress2

 a power that is founded  in a cloud of 
mysteries2 that sets itself above reason
 and common-sense2  that loudly         
proclaims the hatred it entertains      
against liberty of  thought and freedom 
in civil institutions2 that professes   
its intention  of repressing the one and
 destroying the other whenever it can   
find the  opportunity2 that denounces as
 most pernicious and insane the opinion 
that liberty of conscience and of       
worship is the right of every man2  that
 protests against that right being      
proclaimed and asserted by law in  every
 well-governed state2 that              
contemptuously repudiates the principle 
that the will of the people1 manifested 
by public opinion 7as it is  called7 or 
by other means1 shall constitute law2   
that refuses to every  man any title to 
opinion in matters of religion1 but     
holds that it is  simply his duty to    
believe what he is told by the ,church1 
and to obey  her commands2 that will not
 permit any temporal government to      

define  the rights and prescribe limits 
to the authority of the ,church2  that  
declares it not only may but will resort
 to force to discipline  disobedient    
individuals2 that invades the sanctify  
of private life1 by  making1 at the     
confessional1 the wife and daughters and
 servants of one  suspected1 spies and  
informers against him2 that tries him   
without an  accuser1 and by torture     
makes him bear witness against himself2 
that  denies the right of parents to    
educate their children outside of its   
own  ,church1 and insists that to it    
alone belongs the supervision of        
domestic  life and the control of       
marriages and divorces2 that denounces  
the  impudence of those who presume to  
subordinate the authority of the        
,church to the civil authority1 or who  
advocate the separation of the  ,church 
from the state2 that absolutely         
repudiates all toleration1 and  affirms 
that the ,catholic religion is entitled 
to be held as the only  religion in     

every country1 to the exclusion of all  
other modes of  worship2 that requires  
all laws standing in the way of its     
interests  to be repealed1 and1 if that 
be refused1 orders all its followers to 
disobey them8    ,,issue ,,of ,,the     
,,conflict4 ,this power1 conscious that 
it can work no miracle  to serve itself1
 does not hesitate to disturb society by
 its intrigues  against governments1 and
 seeks to accomplish its ends by        
alliances with  despotism4    ,claims   
such as these mean a revolt against     
modern civilization1 an  intention of   
destroying it1 no matter at what social 
cost4 ,to submit to  them without       
resistance1 men must be slaves indeed6  
,as to the issue of the coming conflict1
 can any one doubt8 ,whatever  is       
resting on fiction and fraud will be    
overthrown4 ,institutions that  organize
 impostures and spread delusions must   
show what right they have  to exist4    
,faith must render an account of herself
 to ,reason4 ,mysteries  must give place

 to facts4 ,religion must relinquish    
that imperious1 that  domineering       
position which she has so long          
maintained against ,science4  ,there    
must be absolute freedom for thought4   
,the ecclesiastic must learn  to keep   
himself within the domain he has chosen1
 and cease to tyrannize  over the       
philosopher1 who1 conscious of his own  
strength and the purity  of his motives1
 will bear such interference no longer4 
,what was  written by ,esdras near the  
willow-fringed rivers of ,babylon1 more 
than  twenty-three centuries ago1 still 
holds good3 ,as for ,truth it endureth  
and is always strong2 it liveth and     
conquereth for evermore4