,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #ead ,,new ,,york1 ,,november #g1 #ahhe ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xx41 ,no4 #ead4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,chemistry4--,chlorides in the ,rainfall of #ahhd4 ,apparatus for ,evaporating ,organic ,liquids4--,with description and #c figures4 ,,ii4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,mechanics4--,relative ,costs of ,fluid and ,solid ,fuels4 ,the ,manufacture of ,steel ,castings4 ,science in ,diminishing ,casualties at ,sea4--,extract of a paper read before the ,british ,association by ,,don ,,arturo ,,de ,,marcoarter4 ,improved ,leveling ,machine4 #i figures4 ,the ,span of ,cabin ,john ,bridge4 ,improvements in ,metal ,wheels4 #c figures4 ,apparatus for the ,production of ,water ,gas4 #c figures4 ,,iii4 ,,technology4--,the ,blue ,print ,process4--,r4,w4 ,,jones4 ,reproductions of ,drawings in ,blue ,lines on ,white ,ground4--,by ,a4,h4 ,,haig4 ,a ,plan for a ,carbonizing ,house4--,with full description and #e figures4 ,the ,scholar's ,compasses4 ,the ,integraph4--,with full description and engraving4 ,apparatus for the ,manufacture of ,gaseous ,beverages4 #b engravings4 ,sandmann's ,vinegar ,apparatus4 #a figure4 ,field ,kitchens4 #h figures4 ,a ,new ,cop ,winding ,machine4 #c figures4 ,the ,preservation of ,timber4--,report of the ,committee of the ,american ,society of ,engineers4--,the ,boucherie process4--,experiments4--,decay of timber4 ,,iv4 ,,physics1 ,,electricity1 ,,light1 ,,etc4--,apparatus for ,measuring the ,force of ,explosives4--,with engraving4 ,lighting and ,ventilating by ,gas4--,advantages of gas over electricity1 etc4--,by ,,wm4 ,,sugg4 #b figures4 ,ander's ,telephone4 #a figure4 ,brown's ,electric ,speed ,regulator4 #a figure4 ,magneto-electric ,crossing ,signal4 #b figures4 ,the ,chromatoscope4--,an aid to microscopy4 ,v4 ,,art ,,and ,,architecture4--,the ,barbara ,uttmann ,statue at ,annaberg1 ,saxony4 ,improvements in ,concrete ,construction4--,use of ,portland cement4--,system of building in concrete invented by ,messrs4 ,f4 ,j4,p4 ,west1 ,london4 ,albany ,buildings4 ,southport4--,an engraving4 ,,vi4 ,,physiology1 ,,hygiene1 ,,etc4--,the ,sizes of ,blood ,corpuscles in ,mammals and ,birds4--,a table4 ,the ,absorption of ,petroleum ,ointment and ,lard by the ,skin4 ,,vii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,the ,missing ,german ,corvette ,augusta4--,with engraving4 ,the ,tails of ,comets4--,the effect by a disturbance of solar waves1 and not by special matter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,roman ,,remains ,,at ,,leicester1 ,,england4 ,the ,roman tessellated pavement in ,jewry ,wall ,street1 ,leicester1 discovered in the year #ahcb1 is well known to archaeologists2 it has also been known as difficult of access1 and hardly to be seen in a dark cellar1 and1 in fact1 it has not been seen or visited1 except by very few persons4 ,some time ago the ,town ,council resolved to purchase the house and premises1 with the object of preserving the pavement in situ1 and of giving additional light and better access to it1 and1 this purchase having been completed in the beginning of the present year1 the work of improvement began4 ,it was now seen that the pavement was continuous under the premises of the adjoining house1 and under the public street1 and arrangements were at once made to uncover and annex these adjoining parts1 so as to permit the whole to be seen at one view4 ,the pavement thus uncovered forms a floor which1 if complete1 would measure #bc feet square2 it lacks a part on the west side1 and also the entire south border is missing4 ,it is a marvel of constructive skill1 of variety and beauty in form and color1 and not the least part of the marvel arises from the almost beggarly elements out of which the designer has produced his truly harmonious effects4 ,no squared1 artificially colored1 or glazed tesser1 such as we see in a modern floor1 are used1 but little pieces1 irregularly but purposely formed of brick and stone4 ,there are three shades of brick--a bright red1 a dull or ,indian red1 and a shade between the two2 slate from a neighboring quarry gives a dark bluish gray2 an oolite supplies the warmer buff2 and a fine white composition resembling limestone is used for the center points and borders4 ,in addition1 the outside border is formed with tesser of rather larger size of a sage green limestone4 ,speaking generally1 the design is formed by nine octagon figures1 three by three1 surrounded and divided by a guilloche cable band2 the interspaces of the octagons are filled by four smaller square patterns1 and the outer octagon spaces by #ab triangles4 ,outside these is a border formed by a cable band1 by a second band of alternate heart-shaped1 pear-shaped1 and bell-shaped flowers1 and by alternate white and gray bands2 and outside all is the limestone border already described4 ,this border is constructed with tesser about five-eighths of an inch square4 ,the remaining tesser vary from one half to one-quarter inch of irregular rhomboidal form4 ,the construction of the pavement is remarkable4 ,there is a foundation of strong concrete below2 over it is a bed of pounded brick and lime three to four inches thick1 and upon this a layer of fine white cement1 in which the tesser are laid with their roughest side downward4 ,liquid cement appears to have been poured over the floor1 filling up the interstices1 after which the surface would be rubbed down and polished4 ,as to the probable date and occupation of the floor1 it may be observed that the site of this pavement was near the center of the western ,roman town4 ,it is near the ,jewry ,wall1 that is1 near the military station and fortress4 ,it was obviously the principal house in the place1 and as clearly1 therefore1 the residence of the ,prfectus1 the local representative of the imperial power of ,rome4 ,the ,roman occupation of the district began with the proprtorship of ,ostorius ,scapula1 ,a4,d4 #ej4 ,he was succeeded in #ei by ,suetonius ,paulinus1 who passed through ,leicester from the ,isle of ,anglesea when the insurrection under ,boadicea broke out4 ,in the service of ,suetonius was ,julius ,agricola1 who was elected consul and governor of ,britain about the year #gj4 ,he is commonly described as a wise and good governor1 who introduced the arts of civilized life1 taught the natives to build1 and encouraged education4 ,he left ,britain about the year #he1 and from that time to the decline of the ,roman power is but about #cjj years4 ,we shall not be far from the truth1 therefore1 if we assign this work to the time or even to the personal influence of ,agricola1 #a1hjj years ago4--,london ,times4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some time ago we published the fact that the ,empress of ,germany had offered a prize of #a1jjj and the decoration of the ,order of the ,red ,cross to the successful inventor of the best portable field hospital4 ,wm4 ,m4 ,ducker1 of ,no4 #db ,fulton ,st41 ,brooklyn1 sent in a design for competition4 ,a few days ago ,mr4 ,ducker received notice that his invention had won the prize4 ,another instance of the recognition of ,american genius abroad4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,barbara ,,uttmann ,,statue ,,at ,,annaberg1 ,,saxony4 ,the question whether ,barbara ,uttmann1 of ,annaberg1 ,saxony1 was the inventor of the art of making hand cushion lace1 or only introduced it into ,annaberg1 in the ,saxon mountains1 has not yet been solved1 notwithstanding the fact that the most rigid examinations have been made4 ,it is the general belief1 however1 that she only introduced the art1 having learned it from a foreigner in the year #aefa4 ,the person from whom she acquired this knowledge is said to have been a ,protestant fugitive from ,brabant1 who was driven from her native land by the constables of the ,inquisition1 and who found a home in the ,uttmann family4 ,however1 the probability is that what the fugitive showed ,barbara ,uttmann was the stitched1 or embroidered1 laces--points1 so called--which are still manufactured in the ,netherlands at the present time4 ,it is very probable that the specimens shown induced ,barbara ,uttmann to invent the art of making lace by means of a hand cushion4 ,illustration3 ,,barbara ,,uttmann1 ,,inventor ,,of ,,hand ,,cushion ,,lace4 ,very little is known of the family of ,barbara ,uttmann1 which was originally from ,nurnberg2 but members of the same migrated to the ,saxon mountains4 ,barbara's husband1 ,christof ,uttmann1 was the owner of extensive mines at ,annaberg1 and was very wealthy4 ,she died at ,annaberg1 ,jan4 #ad1 #aehd4 ,the art of making hand cushion lace was soon acquired by most of the residents in the ,saxon mountains1 which is a poor country1 as the occupation of most of the inhabitants was mining1 and it frequently happened that the wages were so low1 and the means of sustaining life so expensive1 that some other resource had to be found to make life more bearable4 ,barbara ,uttmann's invention was thus a blessing to the country1 and her name is held in high esteem4 ,a monumental fountain is to be erected at ,annaberg1 and is to be surmounted by a statue of the country's benefactress1 ,barbara ,uttmann4 ,the statue1 modeled by ,robert ,henze1 is to be cast in bronze4 ,it represents ,barbara ,uttmann in the costume worn at the time of the ,reformation4 ,she points to a piece of lace1 which she has just completed1 lying on the cushion1 the shuttles being visible4 ,some point1 ,valenciennes1 and ,guipure laces are made on a cushion by hand1 with bobbins on which the thread is wound1 the pins for giving the desired pattern to the lace being stuck into the cushion4 ,a yard of hand cushion lace has been sold in ,england for as much as #be1jjj4 ,the annexed cut1 representing the ,barbara ,uttmann statue1 was taken from the ,illustrirte ,zeitung4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,boston paper tells of a man who built two houses side by side1 one for himself and one to sell4 ,in the house sold he had placed a furnace against the party wall of the cellar1 and from its hot air chamber he had constructed flues to heat his own domicile4 ,the owner of the other house found it very hard to keep his own house warm1 and was astounded at the amount of coal it took to render his family comfortable1 while the other fellow kept himself warm at his neighbor's expense nearly a whole winter before the trick was discovered4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improvements ,,in ,,concrete ,,construction4 ,portland cement concrete if made with a non-porous aggregate is impervious to moisture1 and yet at the same time1 if not hydraulically compressed1 will take up a sufficient quantity of moisture from the air to prevent condensation upon the surface of the walls4 ,it not only resists the disintegrating influences of the atmosphere1 but becomes even harder with the lapse of time4 ,it may also be made in several different colors1 and can be finished off to nearly a polished surface or can be left quite rough4 ,walls built of this material may be made so hard that a nail cannot be driven into them1 or they can be made sufficiently soft to become a fixing for joinery1 and1 if a non-porous aggregate be used1 no damp course is required4 ,further than this1 if land be bought upon which there is sufficient gravel1 or even clay that can be burnt1 the greatest portion of the building material may be obtained in excavating for the cellar2 and in seaside localities1 if the 7salt7 shingle from the beach be used1 sound and dry walls will be obtained4 ,the use of concrete as a material for building will be found to meet all the defects set forth by practical people1 as it may be made fire-proof1 vermin-proof1 and nail-proof1 and in dwellings for the poor will therefore resist the destructive efforts of the young barbarian4 ,nothing1 therefore1 can be better as a building material4 ,the system ordinarily employed to erect structures in concrete consists of first forming casings of wood1 between which the liquid concrete is deposited1 and allowed to become hard1 or to set4 ,the casings are then removed1 the cavities and other imperfections are filled in1 and the wall receives a thin facing of a finer concrete4 ,if mouldings or other ornament be required1 they are applied to this face by the ordinary plasterer's methods4 ,this system finds favor in engineering construction1 and also in very simple forms of architectural work1 but with very complicated work the waste in casings is very great4 ,besides this1 however1 the face is found sometimes to burst off1 especially if it has been applied some time after the concrete forming the body of the wall has set1 and the method of applying ornament is not economical4 ,illustration3 #a4-ah4 ,a system of building in concrete has recently been invented by ,messrs4 ,f4 ,j4,p4 ,west1 of ,london1 illustrations of which we now present4 ,to this system ,messrs4 ,west have given the name of ,concrete ,exstruction1 from the ,latin exstructio1 which they consider to be a more appropriate word than constructio1 as applied to concrete building in general4 ,in ,messrs4 ,west's system of building in concrete1 instead of employing wood casings1 between which to deposit the concrete or beton1 and removing them when the beton has become hard1 casings of concrete itself are employed4 ,these casings are not removed when the beton has set1 but they become a part of the wall and form a face to the work4 ,in order to form the casings1 the concrete is moulded in the form of slabs4 ,figs4 #a to #ah of our engravings show various forms of the slab1 which may be manufactured with a surface of any dimensions and of rectangular 7,fig4 #a71 triangular1 hexagonal 7,figs4 #b1 #ad1 and #ae71 and indeed of any other form that will make a complete surface1 while for thickness it may be suited to the work to which it is to be applied1 that used for heavy engineering work differing from that employed in house construction4 ,it is found that the most convenient height for the rectangular slab 7,fig4 #a7 is #ab inches and the breadth #ah inches1 as the parts of a structure built with slabs of these dimensions more often correspond with architectural measurements4 ,the hexagonal slab 7,fig4 #b7 is made to measure #ab inches between its parallel sides4 ,where combinations of these slabs will not coincide with given dimensions1 portions of slabs are moulded to supply the deficiency4 ,the moulds in which the slabs are made are simple frames with linings having a thin face of ,india-rubber or other suitable material1 by the use of which slabs with their edges as shown1 and also of the greatest accuracy1 can be manufactured4 ,that portion of the back of the slab which is undercut is formed by means of soft ,india-rubber cores4 ,the moulds for making portions of the slabs have a contrivance by which their length may be adjusted to suit given dimensions4 ,during the process of casting the slabs1 and while they are in a plastic state1 mouldings 7if required7 or other ornaments1 having a suitable key1 are inserted in the plastic surface1 which is finished off to them 7,figs4 #g1 #h1 and #aj74 ,the slabs may also be cast with ornaments1 etc41 complete at one operation 7,fig4 #aa71 but it is more economical to have separate moulds for the mouldings and other ornaments1 and separate moulds for the slabs1 and to apply the mouldings1 etc41 during the process of casting the slab4 ,corbels 7,fig4 #i71 sets off 7which would be somewhat similar to the plinth course slab ,no4 #aj71 and other constructive features may also be applied in a similar way1 or may be provided for during the casting of the slab4 ,a thin facing of marble or other ornamental solid or even plastic material may be applied to the face of the slabs during the process of casting1 thus enabling the work to be finished as it is carried up1 or a key may be formed on the face of the slab to enable the structure to be plastered afterward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,,fig #bj4 ,in ,fig4 #bj1 the structure from the bottom of the trenches is shown with the sides of the trenches removed4 ,it will be seen that the footings are constructed in the most economical manner by not being stepped4 ,as no damp-course is required in concrete work1 when the aggregate is of a non-porous material1 one is not shown4 ,upon the top of the footings is generally laid a horizontal slab1 called the wall-base slab1 the special feature of which is that it enables the thickness of the wall to be gauged accurately1 and also provides a fixing for the first course of slabs4 ,figs4 #d and #e show such slabs for internal and external angles1 and ,fig4 #f shows one for straight work4 ,the use of a wall-base slab is not essential1 although it is the more accurate method of building1 for in cases where it is desirable to economize labor1 or from other causes1 the slabs forming the first course may be made with a thicker base1 and may be fixed by a deposition of concrete1 which is allowed to set behind them4 ,the second course of slabs is laid upon the first course with breaking joints of half-slab bond1 each course being keyed to the other by means of a quick-setting cementing material poured into the key-holes provided in the edges of the slab for that purpose1 a bituminous cement being preferred4 ,the key-holes are made in several ways1 those shown in the illustrations being of a dovetail shape2 circular1 square1 or indeed holes of any other shape formed in the edges of the slab and in an oblique direction are also employed4 ,special slabs for cants1 or squint-quoins 7,figs4 #ag and #ah7 and angles 7,figs4 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 and #af7 are manufactured1 the angle occurring 7if we omit the hexagonals and take the #ah inch slab7 at three-quarters the length of each slab4 ,this gives a half-slab bond to each course1 as on one face of the quoin in one course will appear a quarter slab and in the course above a three-quarter slab superimposed upon it1 or vice versa4 ,thus are the walls in ,figs4 #ai and #bj built up4 ,for openings1 the jambs and lintels 7and in window-openings the sill7 are made solid with a provision for a key-hole to the mass of concrete filling behind them4 ,that portion of the jambs against which the slabs butt has a groove coinciding with a similar one in the edge of the slab1 for the purpose of forming a joggle joint by squeezing the bedding material into them or by joggling them in with a cement grout4 ,all the slabs are joggled together in a similar way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4-;,,fig #be4 ,the plastic concrete filling or beton which the shells are made to contain may be deposited between the slabs when any number of courses 7according to convenience7 have been built up1 and when set practically forms with the solid work introduced a monolith1 to which the face slabs are securely keyed4 ,with over-clayed ,portland cements1 which are known to contract in setting1 and with those over-limed cements which expand 7both of which are not true ,portland cements71 the filling in is done in equal sections1 with a vertical space equal to each section left between them until the first sections have become thoroughly hard1 and these are then filled in at a second operation4 ,in order to provide for flues1 air-passages1 and ways for electric installations1 and for gas and water1 pipes 7made of an insulating material if required7 or cores of the required shape are inserted in the plastic beton1 and where necessary suitable openings are provided on the face of the work4 ,provision is also made for fixing joinery by inserting1 where required1 slabs made or partly made of a material into which nails may be driven1 such as concrete made with an aggregate of burnt clay1 coke1 and such like4 ,hollow lintels are also made of the slabs keyed together at their vertical joints1 and when in position these are filled in with beton4 ,this system1 however1 is only recommended for fire-place openings instead of arches4 ,in ,fig4 #be1 circular construction is exhibited as applied to the apsidal end of a church1 slabs similar to those shown in ,fig4 #ba being employed for that purpose1 while ,figs4 #bb1 #bc1 and #bd show forms of slabs suitable for constructing cylinders with horizontal axes and domes4 ,in ,fig4 #ai1 which is the upper part of ,fig4 #bj1 is shown a system of constructing floors of these slabs4 ,it is only necessary to explain that the slabs are first keyed to the lower flange of the iron joist by means of a cement 7bituminous preferred71 and the combination is then fixed in position1 the edges of the slabs adhering to1 or rather supported by1 the iron joist being rebated so as to receive and support intervening slabs1 the heading joints of which are laid to break with those of the slabs supported by the joists4 ,for double floors the iron joists are made with a double flange on their lower edge1 and are fitted to iron girders1 which cross in the opposite direction4 ,this provision secures the covering of the cross girders on their undersides by the ceiling slabs4 ,the concrete having been deposited upon the slabs1 its upper surface may be finished off in any of the usual ways1 while the ceiling may be treated in any of the ways described for the walls4 ,this system does not exclude the ordinary methods of constructing floors and roofs1 although it supplies a fireproof system4 ,where required1 bricks1 stone1 and1 in fact1 any other building material1 may be used in conjunction with the slabs4 ,the system of building construction is intended1 as in the case with all concrete1 to supersede brickwork and masonry in the various uses to which they have been applied1 and1 at the same time1 to offer a more perfect system of building in concrete4 ,hitherto slab concrete work has never been erected in a perfectly finished state 7i4e41 with mouldings1 etc41 complete71 but has either been left in a rough state or without ornament1 or else has been constructed so as never to be capable of receiving good ornamental treatment4 ,hitherto the great difficulty in constructing concrete walls of concrete and other slabs has been to prevent the slabs from being forced outward or from toppling over by the pressure of the plastic filling-in material from the time of its deposition between the slabs until it has become hard enough to form1 with the slabs1 a solid wall4 ,besides the system of forming the slabs of ,l 7vertical or horizontal7 section1 or with a kind of internal buttress and shoring them up from the outside1 or of supporting the slabs upon framing fixed against the faces of the wall1 several devices have been used to obviate this difficulty4 ,in the first place1 temporary ties1 or gauges1 connecting the slabs forming the two faces of the wall1 have been used1 and as soon as the plastic filling-in material has set or become hard 7but not before71 these have been removed4 ,secondly1 permanent ties or cramps have been used1 and1 as their name implies1 have been allowed to remain in the wall and to be entirely buried in the plastic filling-in material4 ,these permanent transverse ties or cramps have been of two kinds3 those which were affixed as soon as the slabs were placed in position1 and those which were made to form part of the manufactured slab1 as1 for instance1 slabs of ,z or ,h horizontal section4 ,thirdly1 a small layer of the plastic filling-in material itself has been made to act as a transverse tie by depositing it1 when plastic1 between the slabs forming the two parallel faces of each course1 allowing it 7before filling in the remaining part7 to set and to thus connect together the slabs forming each face of the wall1 a suitable hold on the slabs1 in some cases1 being given to the tie by a portion of the slab being undercut in some way1 as by being dovetailed1 etc4 ,as the slabs in this latter system generally have wide bases1 they may also be bedded or jointed in cement1 and1 provided temporary ties be placed across their upper edges to connect the slabs forming each face of the wall together1 the space between the faces of the wall may then be filled in with the plastic concrete4 ,all these devices1 however1 are not of permanent utility2 they are only temporarily required 7i4e41 up to the time that the beton has become hard and formed a permanent traverse tie between the two faces of the wall71 for it is manifest that the ultimate object of all slab concrete construction is3 7a7 ,to retain and to mould the plastic concrete used in forming the wall2 7b7 to key or fix the slabs to the mass which they themselves have moulded2 and 7c7 to form a facing to the wall4 ,when these objects shall have been accomplished1 there is no further need of any tie whatever beyond that which naturally obtains in a concrete wall4 ,in ,west's system1 however1 where the slabs are keyed course to course1 any kind of transverse tie to be used during the process of construction1 except that used in the starting course1 is entirely dispensed with1 and the courses of slabs above depend solely upon the courses of slabs below them for their stability and rigidity up to the time that the plastic filling-in has been deposited and become hard between both faces of the wall4 ,illustration3 ,,concrete ,,construction ,there is1 however1 a more decided difference between ,west's system and those previously in use1 for it is marked by the fact that the slabs composing the shell of the whole structure in many cases may be built up before the filling-in is deposited between the slabs1 and in none of the other cases can this be done4 ,in fact1 only in the first two cases before mentioned can more than one course of slabs be laid before filling-in of some kind must be done4 ,compared with the ordinary method of building in concrete1 this system avoids3 #a4 ,the charge for use and waste of wood casings2 #b4 finishing the face of the work 7both inside and outside7 after the structure is raised1 and1 therefore1 the bursting-off of the finished face2 and #c4 the difficulties encountered in working mouldings and other ornaments on the face of the work by the ordinary plasterer's methods4 ,it also provides a face of any of the usual colors that may be obtained in concrete1 besides a facing of any other material1 such as marble1 etc41 and produces better and more durable work1 at the same time showing a saving in cost1 especially in the better classes of work2 all of which is effected with less plant than ordinarily required4 ,for engineering work1 such as sea walls1 the hexagonal slabs1 made of greater thickness than those employed for ordinary walling1 will answer admirably1 especially if the grooves be made proportionately larger4 ,by the use of these slabs the work may be built up with great rapidity4 ,for small domestic work1 such as the dwellings of artisans1 these slabs2 which are of such a form as to render them easy of transport1 may be supplied to the workmen themselves in order that they may erect their own dwellings1 as1 on account of the simplicity of this system and the absence of need of plant1 any intelligent mechanic can do the work4 ,any arrangement of independent scaffolding may be employed for this system1 but that invented specially for the purpose by ,mr4 ,frank ,west1 as shown in ,fig4 #bf of our engravings1 is to be preferred4 ,it not only supplies the necessary scaffold1 but also the necessary arrangements for hoisting the slabs1 as well as for raising the liquid concrete and depositing it behind the slabs4 ,it is really an independent scaffold1 and may be used wherever a light tramway of contractor's rails can be laid1 which in crowded thoroughfares would of necessity be upon a staging erected over the footway4 ,the under frame is carried upon two bogie frames running upon the contractor's rail1 by which means it is enabled to turn sharp curves1 a guide plate inside the inner rail being provided at the curves for this purpose4 ,the scaffold itself consists of a climbing platform made to travel up or down by means of four posts which have racks attached to their faces1 and which are fixed to the under frame and securely braced to resist racking strains4 ,a worm gearing1 actuated by a wheel on the upper side of the scaffold1 causes the scaffold to ascend or descend4 ,a railgrip1 made to act at the curves as well as on the straight portions of the rail by being attached to a radial arm fixed to the under frame1 assists the stability of the scaffold where required1 but the gauge of the rails is altered to render the scaffold more or less stable according to its height4 ,combined with the same machine1 and traveling up and down one of the same posts used for the scaffold1 is an improved crane4 ,its action depends upon the proposition in geometry that if the length of the base of a triangle be altered1 its angles1 and therefore its altitude1 are altered4 ,a portion of the vertical post up and down which the crane climbs forms the base of a triangle1 and a portion of the jib1 together with the stay1 forms the remaining two sides4 ,hence1 by causing the foot of one or the other to travel upward1 by means of the worm gearing1 the upper end of the jib is either elevated or depressed4 ,the concrete elevator1 which is also combined with the scaffold1 consists of a series of buckets carried upon two parallel endless chains passing over two pairs of wheels4 ,on the under frame is fixed a hopper1 into which is thrown1 either by hand or from a concrete mixer running upon the rails1 the material to be hoisted1 and from which it gravitates into a narrow channel1 through which pass the buckets 7attached to the chain7 with a shovel-like action4 ,the buckets1 a motor being applied to one pair of wheels1 thus automatically fill themselves1 and on arriving at top are made to tip their contents1 and jar themselves1 automatically into a hopper by means of a small pinion1 keyed to the shaft by which they are attached to the endless chain1 becoming engaged in a small rack fixed for that purpose4 ,from the upper hopper the material is taken away to the required destination by means of a worm working in a tube4 ,for varying heights1 extra lengths of chain and buckets are inserted and secured by a bolt passed through each end link1 and secured by a nut4 ,by using this scaffold1 a saving in plant1 cartage1 and labor is effected4 ,the elevator may also be used for raising any other material besides concrete4 ,such is the new system of concrete construction and scaffolding of ,messrs4 ,west1 which appears to be based on sound and reasonable principles1 and to have been thoughtfully and carefully worked out1 and which moreover gives promise of success in the future4 ,we may add in conclusion that specimens of the work and a model of a scaffold are shown by ,messrs4 ,west at their stand in the ,inventions ,exhibition4--,iron4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,albany ,,buildings ,,southport4 ,e4,w4 ,,johnson1 ,,architect4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,blue ,,print ,,process4 ,r4,w4 ,,jones4 #a4 ,cover a flat board1 the size of the drawing to be copied1 with two or three thicknesses of common blanket or its equivalent4 #b4 ,upon this place the prepared paper1 sensitive side uppermost4 #c4 ,press the tracing firmly and smoothly upon this paper1 by means of a plate of clear glass1 laid over both and clamped to the board4 #d4 ,expose the whole--in a clear sunlight--from #d to #f minutes4 ,in a winter's sun1 from #f to #aj minutes4 ,in a clear sky1 from #bj to #cj minutes4 #e4 ,remove the prepared paper and pour clear water on it for one or two minutes1 saturating it thoroughly1 and hang up to dry4 ,the sensitive paper may be readily prepared1 the only requisite quality in the paper itself being its ability to stand washing4 ,cover the surface evenly with the following solution1 using such a brush as is generally employed for the letter-press3 #a part soluble citrate of iron 7or citrate of iron and ammonia71 #a part red prussiate of potash1 and dissolve in #aj parts of water4 ,the solution must be kept carefully protected from light1 and better results are obtained by not mixing the ingredients until immediately required4 ,after being coated with the solution1 the paper must be laid away to dry in a dark place1 and must be shielded entirely from light until used4 ,when dry1 the paper is of a yellow and bronze color4 ,after exposure the surface becomes darker1 with the lines of the tracing still darker4 ,upon washing1 the characteristic blue tint appears1 with the lines of the tracing in vivid contrast4 ,excellent results have been obtained from glass negatives by this process4--,proc4 ,eng4 ,club1 ,phila4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,reproduction ,,of ,,drawings ,,in ,,blue ,,lines ,,on ,,white ,,ground4 ,a4,h4 ,,haig4 ,the following process for making photographic copies of drawings in blue lines on white background was invented by ,h4 ,pellet1 and is based on the property of perchloride of iron of being converted into protochloride on exposure to light4 ,prussiate of potash when brought into contact with the perchloride of iron immediately turns the latter blue1 but it does not affect the protochloride4 ,a bath is first prepared consisting of ten parts perchloride of iron1 five parts oxalic or some other vegetable acid1 and one hundred parts water4 ,should the paper to be used not be sufficiently sized1 dextrine1 gelatine1 isinglass1 or some similar substance must be added to the solution4 ,the paper is sensitized by dipping in this solution and then dried in the dark1 and may be kept for some length of time4 ,to take a copy of a drawing made on cloth or transparent paper1 it is laid on a sheet of the sensitive paper1 and exposed to light in a printing frame or under a sheet of glass4 ,the length of exposure varies with the state of the weather from #ae to #cj seconds in summer to from #dj to #gj seconds in winter1 in full sunlight4 ,in the shade1 in clear weather1 #b to #f minutes1 and in cloudy weather1 #ae to #dj minutes may be necessary4 ,the printing may also be done by electric light4 ,the print is now immersed in a bath consisting of #ae to #ah parts of prussiate of potash per #ajj parts of water4 ,those parts protected from the light by the lines of the drawing immediately turn blue1 while the rest of the paper1 where the coating has been converted into protochloride by the effects of light1 will remain white4 ,next1 the image is freely washed in water1 and then passed through a bath consisting of #h to #aj parts of hydrochloric acid to #ajj parts of water1 for the purpose of removing protoxide of iron salt4 ,it is now again washed well in clean water and finally dried1 when the drawing will appear in blue on a white background4--,proc4 ,eng4 ,club1 ,phila4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,proceedings ,,of ,,the ,,engineers' ,,club ,,of ,,philadelphia4 ,,relative ,,costs ,,of ,,fluid ,,and ,,solid ,,fuels4 ,footnote3 ,read ,june #bj1 #ahhe4 ,by ,,james ,,beatty1 ,,jr41 ,member of the ,club4 ,during the past twenty-five years there have been numerous efforts to introduce fluid fuels as substitutes for coal1 for the evaporation of water in boilers1 metallurgical operations1 and1 on a small scale1 for domestic purposes4 ,the advantages claimed for these fuels are3 ,reduction in the number of stokers1 one man being able to do the work of four using solid fuel4 ,reduction in weight1 amounting to one-half with the better classes4 ,reduction in bulk2 for petroleum amounting to about thirty-six per cent41 and with the gases1 depending on the amount of compression4 ,ease of kindling and extinguishing fires1 and of regulation of temperature4 ,almost perfect combustion and cleanliness4 ,siemens used gas1 distilled from coal and burnt in his well known regenerative furnace4 ,deville experimented with petroleum on two locomotives running on the ,paris and ,strassburg ,railroad4 ,selwyn experimented with creosote in a small steam yacht1 and under the boilers of steamship ,oberlin4 ,holland experimented with water-gas in the furnace of a locomotive running on the ,long ,island ,railroad4 ,isherwood experimented with petroleum under the boilers of ,united ,states steamers4 ,three railroads in ,russia are using naphtha in their locomotives1 and steamers on the ,volga are using the same fuel4 ,wurtz experimented with crude petroleum in a reheating furnace at ,jersey ,city4 ,dowson1 ,strong1 ,lowe1 and others have devised systems for the production of water gas4 ,these experiments1 in general1 have produced excellent results when considered merely in the light of heat production1 but1 in advocating their systems1 the inventors seem to have overlooked the all-important item of cost4 ,it is the object of this paper to show the impracticability of such systems when considered from a commercial standpoint1 so long as the supply of coal lasts1 and prices keep within reasonable limits4 ,in many cases1 authors on the subject have given purely theoretical results1 without allowing for losses in the furnace4 ,the fuels to be considered are anthracite and bituminous coals1 crude petroleum1 and coal1 generator and water gases4 ,the average compositions of these fuels 7considering only the heating agents71 as deduced from the analysis of eminent chemists1 are3 ,,percentage ,,by ,,weight4 ,c ,h ,o ,,co ,,ch#d;,c#b;,h#d -------------------------------- ,anthracite #hg4g #c4c #c4b ,bituminous #hj4h #e4j #h4b ,petroleum #hd4hac4a #a4e ,coal gas #f4e #ad4c #eb4d #ad4h ,generator gas #a4ih #ce4e #a4df ,water gas #f4c #j4fhg4h #a4b ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,we will employ the formula of ,dulong-- h #ad1ejj ,c #fb1jjj 7,h - ,o_/#h7 to compute the theoretical heating powers of these fuels4 ,in the case of methane1 ,,ch#d1 the formula is not true1 but the error is not great enough to seriously affect the result4 ,this gives for the combustion of one pound of3 ,anthracite #ad1ejj ,br4 ,heat ,units4 ,bituminous #ad1bjj ,petroleum #bj1cjj ,coal gas #bj1bjj ,generator gas #c1ajj ,water gas #h1ejj ,reducing the above to terms of pounds of water evaporated from #bab ,f41 we have3 ,,pounds ,,of ,,water ,,evaporated ,,from #bab ,f4 ,anthracite #ae4jbc ,bituminous #ad4fi ,petroleum #ba4jj ,coal gas #bj4hg ,generator gas #c4ba ,water gas #h4g ,the results of experiments show the efficiency of fluid-burning furnaces to be about ninety per cent41 while with coal sixty per cent4 may be taken as a good figure4 ,the great difference in the efficiencies is due to the fact that fluid fuels require for combustion very little air above the theoretical quantity1 while with the solid fuels fully twice the theoretical quantity must be admitted to dilute the products of combustion4 ,correcting our previous results for these efficiencies1 we have3 ,,pounds ,,of ,,water ,,actually ,,evaporated ,,from #bab ,f41 ,,per ,,pound ,,of ,,fuel4 ,anthracite #i4j ,bituminous #h4h ,petroleum #ah4i ,coal gas #ah4h ,generator gas #b4i ,water gas #g4h ,these figures agree closely with the results of experiments4 ,we will now consider the subject of cost4 ,the following cities have been selected1 as manufacturing centers1 termini of railroads1 or fueling ports for steamers4 ,in the case of petroleum1 as it is rarely shipped in the crude state1 an approximation is made by adding to the cost at the nearest shipping port the freight charged on refined petroleum1 and ten per cent4 to cover duties and other charges4 ,owing to the difficulty of obtaining prices1 in some of the cities1 there may be some errors4 ,,costs4 ,,march1 #ahhd4 ,anthracite ,bituminous ,coal gas per ton of per ton of per #a1jjj #b1bdj lb4 #b1bdj lb4 cubic feet4 ,new ,york #d #jj #d #be #a #ge ,chicago #e #jj #c #ej #a #be ,new ,orleans #f #jj #c #ej #c #jj ,san ,francisco #ab #jj #g #ej #c #jj ,london #e #jj #c #jj #j #ge ,port ,natal #ab #ej #aa #jj ,sydney #ab #jj #g #jj ,valpariso #aa #ej #g #ej ,generator ,crude ,water gas gas per #a1jjj ,petroleum per per #a1jjj cubic feet4 bbl4 of #db gal4 cubic feet4 ,new ,york #j #de #a #hj #j #ej ,chicago #de #b #jj #ej ,new ,orleans #de #b #ej #fj ,san ,francisco #ee #b #jj #fj ,london #dc #b #gj #de ,port ,natal ,ap- #d #jj ,ap- ,sydney proxi- #d #ej proxi- ,valparaiso mation4 #c #jj mation4 ,in calculating the following table the specific gravity of coal gas is taken at #j4d2 generator gas at #j4dd2 water gas at #j4dh2 petroleum1 #j4h4 ,,pounds ,,of ,,fuel ,,for #a4jj4 ,,march1 #ahhd4 ,anthracite4 ,bituminous4 ,petroleum4 ,coal ,water ,generator gas gas4 gas4 ,new ,york #efj #ebg #aef #ah #gd #gf ,chicago #ddh #fdj #adb #bd #gd #gf ,new ,orleans #cgd #fdj #aad #aj #gd #gf ,san ,francisco #ahg #bii #adb #aj #fb #fb ,london #ddh #gdg #ajd #dj #hb #gi ,port ,natal #agi #bjd #ga ,ap- ,ap- ,sydney #ahg #cbj #fc proxi- proxi- ,valparaiso #aie #bii #id mate4 mate4 ,these figures1 multiplied by the actual evaporative powers as calculated1 give3 ,,pounds ,,of ,,water ,,evaporated ,,from #bab ,f4 ,,for #a4 ,anthracite4 ,bituminous4 ,petroleum4 ,coal ,generator ,water gas gas4 gas4 ,new ,york #ejdj #dfdc #bidh #cch #bbj #egg ,chicago #djcb #efch #bfhd #dea #bbj #egg ,new ,orleans #ccff #efch #baee #ahh #bbj #egg ,san ,francisco #afhc #bfcd #bfhd #ahh #agi #dhd ,london #djcb #feha #aiff #gea #bbh #fdj ,port ,natal #afaa #agig #acdb ,ap- ,ap- ,sydney #afhc #bhai #aaia proxi- proxi- ,valparaiso #agee #bfcd #aggf mate4 mate4 ,,relative ,,costs4 ,anthracite4 ,bituminous4 ,petroleum4 ,coal ,generator ,water gas gas4 gas4 ,new ,york #a #jj #a #jh #a #ga #ad #ib #bb #ij #h #gj ,chicago #a #jj #ga #a #ej #h #gb #ah #cj #g #jj ,new ,orleans #a #jj #ei #a #ef #ag #ij #ae #cj #e #hj ,san ,francisco #a #jj #fd #a #ej #h #ge #i #dj #c #ej ,london #a #jj #fa #b #je #g #af #ag #gj #f #cj ,port ,natal #a #jj #ij #a #ba ,sydney #a #jj #cd #a #ci ,valparaiso #a #jj #dd #a #jc ,these figures are very much against the fluid fuels1 but there may be circumstances in which the benefits to be derived from their use will exceed the additional cost4 ,it is difficult to make a comparison without considering particular cases1 but for intermittent heating petroleum would probably be more economical1 though for a steady fire coal holds its own4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,steel ,,castings4 ,at the opening meeting for the winter session of the ,iron and ,steel ,works ,managers' ,institute1 held at ,dudley on ,september #ab1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,smith-,casson in the chair1 ,mr4 ,b4,f4 ,mc,callem1 of ,glasgow1 read a paper on ,steel ,castings1 which developed an interesting discussion upon steel casting practice4 ,mr4 ,mc,callem said that it was thirty years since the first crucible steel castings were made in ,sheffield in the general way1 and with one exception the method of manufacture was pretty much the same now as at that early date4 ,the improvement was the employment of gas furnaces instead of the old coke holes for melting4 ,important economies had resulted from this introduction4 ,where before it required #c tons of coke to melt #a ton of steel1 the same thing was now done with #ce cwt4 of very poor slack4 ,though it was apparently easy to make crucible steel castings1 it was not in reality easy to make a true steel1 that was to say1 to make a metal that contained only the correct proportions of carbon and silicon and manganese4 ,the only real way to make crucible castings of true steel was to melt the proper proportions of cast steel scrap with the proper amounts of silicon and manganese to produce that chemical composition which was known to be necessary in best castings4 ,it was in consequence of this difficulty that many makers resorted to the addition of hematite pigs4 ,the ,bessemer process was used much more extensively upon the ,continent than in this country in the manufacture of castings4 ,it seemed likely that ,mr4 ,allen's agitator for agitating the steel in the ladle so as to remove the gases would be taken up largely for open-hearth castings and open-hearth mild steel1 as it had a wonderful effect4 ,the ,wilson gas producer1 working in conjunction with the open-hearth furnace1 had recently produced some extremely wonderful results4 ,in some large works1 steel was by its aid being melted from slack which was previously absolutely a waste product4 ,the method of making open-hearth steel castings might be varied greatly4 ,the ordinary method generally practiced in this country was a modification of the ,terre ,noire process4 ,the moulds employed were only of secondary importance to the making of the steel itself4 ,unless the mould was good1 no matter how good the steel was1 the casing was spoiled4 ,the best composition which had been found for moulds was that of a large firm in ,sheffield1 but unfortunately it was rather expensive4 ,a good steel casting ought to contain about #j4c per cent4 carbon and #j4c per cent4 of silicon and from #j4f to #a per cent4 of manganese4 ,such a casting1 if free from other impurities1 would have a strength of between #cj and #dj tons1 and on an #h inch specimen would give an elongation of #bj per cent4 or even more4 ,it was possible by the ,terre ,noire process to produce by casting as good a piece of steel as could be made by any amount of rolling and hammering4 ,the chairman said that1 as they had so high an authority as ,mr4 ,mc,callem present1 ,staffordshire men would like to know his opinion upon the open hearth basic system1 in which they were greatly interested4 ,mr4 ,mc,callem said that he believed that the basic process would be worked successfully in this country in the open-hearth furnace before it would be in the converter4 ,at the ,brymbo ,works1 in ,wales1 he had seen the basic process worked very successfully in the open-hearth furnace2 and he was recently informed by the manager that he was producing ingots at the remarkably low sum of #fes4 per ton4 ,the chairman said that some samples which had been sent into ,staffordshire from ,brymbo for rolling into sheets had behaved admirably4 ,he thought that the ,patent ,shaft and ,axletree ,company1 at ,wednesbury1 were at the present moment putting down an open-hearth furnace on the basic process4 ,the discussion was continued with considerable vigor by ,messrs4 ,h4 ,fisher 7vice-president71 ,james ,rigby1 ,j4 ,tibbs1 ,m4 ,millard1 ,walker1 ,w4 ,yeomans 7secretary71 and others4 ,several of these gave it as their experience that the best castings contained the most blowholes1 and ,mr4 ,mc,callem accepted the pronouncement1 with some slight qualification4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,science ,,in ,,diminishing ,,casualties ,,at ,,sea4 ,at the recent meeting of the ,british ,association1 ,don ,arturo de ,marcoartu read a paper on the above subject4 ,he stated that he wished to draw special attention to increasing the safety of navigation against storms1 fogs1 fire1 and collisions with wrecks1 icebergs1 or vessels1 and recommending the development of maritime telegraphy4 ,he urged that vessels should be supplied with apparatus to communicate with and telegraph to each other and to the nearest coast the weather and sea passed over by them1 and that reports given by vessels should be used as warnings more extensively4 ,he wished the mid-,atlantic stations connected by telegraph for the same purpose4 ,in regard to the use of oil on rough seas1 he said that ,dr4 ,badeley in #aheg1 ,mr4 ,john ,shields five years ago at ,peterhead and last year at ,folkestone1 the ,board of ,trade in #ahhc1 and a committee on life saving appliances of the ,united ,states had made experiments4 ,the conclusions of the committee were that in deep water oil had a calming effect upon a rough sea1 but there was nothing in either source of information which yet answered the question whether or not there is in the force exerted by the wind a point beyond which oil cannot counteract its influence in causing the sea to break4 ,he thought it appeared that oil had some utility on tidal bars2 on wrecks1 to facilitate the operations of rescue2 on lifeboats and on lifebuoys4 ,in regard to icebergs1 he thought the possibility of obtaining an echo from an iceberg when in dangerous proximity to a ship should be tried4 ,he advocated the use of automatic sprinklers in the case of fire1 the establishment of parabolic reflectors for concentration of sound1 and the further prosecution of experiments by ,professor ,bell in establishing communication between vessels some distance apart by means of interrupted electrical currents4 ,the improvement of navigation1 he said1 meant an international code of police to improve police rules of navigation2 an international code of universal telegraphy for navigation2 an international office of meteorology and navigation to collect the studies2 experiments on the weather1 on the sea1 on the casualties2 and the discovery by experiment of new apparatus and appliances to diminish maritime disaster4 ,he had called the attention of two governments to this matter1 and he hoped that before long there would be proposed an international congress--such as the postal1 telegraph1 and sanitary congresses1 and the international convention to fix the common meridian--by one of the maritime powers1 by which would be founded an international institution to diminish casualties at sea4 ,he recommended a universal system of buoys4 ,the great losses of life and property every year were worthy the devotion of #cjj1jjj by an international institution1 which would be much less than the monthly average loss in navigation4 ,admiral ,pim said that ships were improperly built--some were ten times longer than their beam4 ,there was nothing in the world so ticklish as a ship2 touch her in the waist1 and down she goes4 ,he believed sailing ships ought not to exceed four times their beam1 and steamers certainly not more than six times4 ,he pointed out that a fruitful cause of accidents was the stopping of steaming all at once in the case of impending collision1 by which the rudder lost control of the vessel4 ,if constructors looked more to the form of the ships1 and got them to steer better1 collisions would be avoided4 ,the ,lord ,advocate said it had always occurred to him that one great secret of collisions at sea was the present system of lights1 which made it impossible for the vessel at once to inform another vessel what it was about4 ,the method of signaling was very crude1 and he ventured to say that it was quite out of date when vessels met each other at a rate of speed of #bd to #be knots4 ,he had1 as an amateur1 tried a method which he would attempt to explain4 ,his idea was to fit up a lantern on deck1 showing an electric light4 ,the instrument would be controlled by the rudder1 and the commanding officer of the vessel would be able so to turn it when the helm was put up or down that the light would flash at some distance in front of either bow of the vessel1 and thus be a signal to a vessel coming in an opposite direction4 ,when the helm was amidships1 the light was shown straight ahead1 and could not be moved until the helm was shifted4 ,the direction in which the vessel was going could not by any possibility be mistaken1 and it was plain that if the lights from two ships crossed each other1 then there was danger4 ,if the lights were clear of each other1 then the ships would pass safely4 ,sir ,james ,douglass asked if his ,lordship had made any experiments4 ,the ,lord ,advocate said he had not4 ,the ,board of ,trade had such a number of inventions on this subject on hand that he supposed they were already disgusted4 ,besides1 he was only an amateur1 and left the carrying out of the suggestion to others4 ,sir ,james ,douglass said this idea of a lantern did very well for a short distance1 but for a long distance it utterly failed4 ,it was very difficult to realize a movement from a distance of over a mile out to sea1 and signals were required to be visible for from two to three miles4 ,the ,lord ,advocate said his idea depended not upon the object light1 but upon the sweep of the light on the water4 ,sir ,james ,douglass said all those questions were of the utmost importance to a maritime country4 ,in regard to experiments with oil on troubled water1 he had witnessed them1 and he had carefully studied all the reports1 and had come to the conclusion that they were all very well in a tub of water or a pond1 but on the ocean they were utterly hopeless4 ,he would stake his reputation on that4 ,they had been tried in the neighborhood of ,aberdeen1 and he had prophesied the results before they were commenced4 ,it was utterly hopeless to think that a quantity of oil had the power of laying a storm--all the world could not produce oil enough to bring about that result4 ,there might be something in maritime telegraphy1 and he hoped the experiments of ,mr4 ,graham ,bell1 in transmitting through two or three mile distances1 would come to something4 ,he did not believe in powerful lights4 ,increase the lights to any very great extent1 and a dazzling effect was the result4 ,in regard to sound1 he wondered that no more effective alarm was used than the whistle4 ,it was well known that1 as the whistle instrument was enlarged1 the sound became more and more a roar4 ,he would have ships use all their boiler power in sounding a siren1 so that the sound could be heard at a distance of not less than two or three miles in any weather4 ,with such a signal as that there ought to be1 not absolute safety1 but collisions would be more easily prevented4 ,he was glad to say that a universal system of buoys had been practically arranged1 thanks to the ,duke of ,edinburgh and his committee1 so that1 as soon as an old system can be changed to a new one1 all the buoys would bear one universal language4 ,admiral ,pim pointed out that a red light would show four miles1 while a green light was only visible for two miles and a half1 so that1 if a green light were seen1 it indicated that the two vessels were within two miles and a half of each other4 ,sir ,james ,douglass said there was undoubtedly a weakness in regard to these lights2 and he held that in the manufacture of lights effect should be given to the difference that existed in the various lights1 so that1 by making the green light more powerful1 it could penetrate as far as the red1 and in the same way making the red and green lights proportionately more powerful1 so that they would penetrate as far as the white light4 ,sir ,james ,douglass said he had seen a parabolic reflector for sound tried1 but1 unfortunately1 the reflector so intensified and focused all the sounds about the vessel and the noise of the sea that the operator could hear nothing but a chaos of sound4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,plan ,,for ,a ,,carbonizing ,,house4 ,the operation of carbonizing woolen rags for the purpose of obtaining pure wool1 through the destruction of the vegetable substances contained in the raw material1 maybe divided into two parts1 viz41 the immersion of the rags in acid1 with subsequent washing and drying1 and the carbonization properly so called4 ,the first part is so well known1 and is so simple in its details and apparatus1 that it is useless to dwell upon it in this place4 ,but the second requires more scientific arrangements than those that seem to be generally adopted1 and1 as carbonization is now tending to constitute a special industry1 we think it is of interest to give here a typical plan for a plant of this kind4 ,it will be remarked that this plan contains all the parts in duplicate4 ,the object of this arrangement is to permit of a greater production1 by rendering the operation continuous through half of the apparatus being in operation while the other half is being emptied and filled4 ,figs4 #d and #e give plans of the ground floor and first story1 and ,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c give vertical sections4 ,the second story is arranged like the first1 and serves as a drier4 ,as we have said1 there is a double series of chambers for carbonization1 drying1 and work generally4 ,these two series are arranged on each side of a central portion1 which contains the heating and ventilating apparatus and a stone stairway giving access to the upper stories4 ,the heating apparatus is a hot air stove provided with a system of piping4 ,the rags to be carbonized or the wool to be dried are placed upon wire cloth frames4 ,the carbonization is effected in the following way3 ,when the heating apparatus has been fired up1 and has been operating for about half an hour1 the apertures1 i1 are opened so as to let the air in1 as are also those1 m1 which allow the hot air to pass into the chambers4 ,the hot air then descends from the top of the chamber into the wool or rags1 and1 becoming saturated and heavier1 descends and makes its exit from the chamber through an aperture1 n1 near the floor1 whence it flows to the central chimney4 ,this latter1 which is built of brick or stone1 contains in its center a second chimney 7formed of cast or forged iron pipes7 that serves to carry off into the atmosphere the products of combustion from the heating apparatus4 ,the heat that radiates from these pipes serves at the same time to heat the annular space through which the vapors derived from the wool are disengaged4 ,the air1 heated to #dj or #ej1 is made to pass thus for several hours1 until the greater part of the humidity has been removed4 ,the temperature is then raised to #hj or #ij by gradually closing the apertures that give access to the ventilating chimney4 ,in order that it may be possible to further increase the temperature during the last hour1 and raise it to #ij or #abj1 an arrangement is provided that prevents all entrance of the external air into the heating apparatus1 and that replaces such air with the hot air of the chamber2 so that this hot air circulates in the pipes of the stove and thus becomes gradually hotter and hotter4 ,the hot vapors that issue from the lower chamber rise into the upper one1 where they are used for the preliminary drying of another part of the materials4 ,the hot air stove should be well lined with refractory clay1 in order to prevent the iron from getting red hot1 and the grate should be of relatively wide surface4 ,all the pipes should be of cast iron1 and all the joints be well turned4 ,every neglect to see to such matters1 with a view to saving money1 will surely lead in the long run to bad results4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,works ,,for ,,carbonizing ,,wool4 7,scale #a-bjj47 ,the mode of work indicated here is called the moist process4 ,it necessitates the use of a solution of sulphuric acid1 but1 as this latter destroys most colors1 it cannot be used when it is desired to preserve the tint of the woolen under treatment4 ,in this case recourse is had to the dry process1 which consists in substituting the vapors of nitric acid heated to #aae or #abe for the sulphuric acid4 ,the arrangement of the rooms must likewise be different4 ,the chambers1 which may be in duplicate1 as in the preceding case1 are vaulted1 and are about three yards long by three wide and three high4 ,the rags are put into wire cages that have six divisions1 and that are located in the middle of the chamber1 where they are slowly revolved by means of gearings4 ,under the floor are the heating flues1 and upon it is a reservoir for holding the vessel that contains the acid to be vaporized4 ,the arrangements for the admission of air and carrying along the vapors are the same as in the other case4 ,great precaution should be taken to have the flues so constructed as to prevent fire4--,bull1 de la ,musee de l',industrie4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,evaporating ,,organic ,,liquids4 ,according to ,mr4 ,d',a4 ,bernard1 it is especially important1 in the dry distillation of distiller's wash in a closed vessel1 for the production of methyls1 ammonia1 acetates1 and methylamine1 that the mass shall be divided as completely as possible1 since it then takes but a relatively moderate heat to completely destroy the organic coloring matter contained in the wash4 ,the apparatus shown in ,figs4 #a and #b is based upon this observation4 ,the wash enters1 through the hopper1 ,d1 and the valve1 z1 a long boiler1 ,b1 which is heated by the furnace1 ,f1 through the intermedium of a waterbath1 w4 ,an agitator1 ,e1 moves the mass slowly to the other extremity of the boiler1 from whence it makes its exit in the form of dust4 ,to the frame1 ,e1 are fixed the scrapers1 b1 and the interrupted pieces1 a1 in front of which are the hinged valves1 c4 ,in the motion of the pieces1 a1 from right to left1 these valves free the apertures thereof and allow the wash to pass1 while in the motion from left to right the apertures are closed and the valves push the mass to be evaporated before them4 ,from any motor whatever1 the frame1 ,e1 receives a double to and fro motion in a horizontal and vertical direction1 the latter of which is produced by the rods1 f1 which are provided at their lower1 forked extremity with rollers1 e1 over which passes the piece1 d1 that supports the frame1 ,e4 ,at their upper part the rods1 f1 pass through the side of the boiler1 through the intermedium of stuffing boxes1 and are connected by their upper extremities1 through a link1 with levers1 g1 that revolve around the point1 h4 ,a cam shaft1 ,m1 communicates a temporary1 alternately rising and descending motion to the levers1 g1 and the rods f4 ,the same shaft1 ,m1 opens and closes the valve1 z1 of the hopper1 ,d1 and thus regulates the entrance of the wash into the boiler4 ,the frame1 ,e1 receives its horizontal to and fro motion from the rod1 l1 which traverses a stuffing-box and is moved by a crank on an eccentric1 m4 ,the material in powder derived from the evaporation of the wash is stored at the extremity of the apparatus into a lixiviating vessel1 ,g1 provided with a stirrer1 ,h4 ,the salts and other analogous matters are dissolved1 and the residuum1 which constitutes a carbonaceous mass1 is forced out of the apparatus1 while the solution passes directly to the refinery1 where it is evaporated4 ,illustration3 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,the ,,evaporation ,,of ,,organic ,,liquids4 ,in manufactories where no refining is done1 the crude potassa in powder is pushed on to a prolongation of the apparatus which is cooled by means of water1 and is removed from time to time with shovels by the workmen1 so that the orifice of the boiler remains constantly covered externally by the mass1 and that the air cannot re-enter the apparatus4 ,the gases disengaged during the operation pass into a cooler1 where they condense into a liquid which contains ammonia and methylamine4 ,the non-condensable part of the gases is burned in the furnace of the manufactory4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,leveling ,,machine4 ,in the ,american ,court of the ,inventions ,exhibition1 ,london1 we find a leveling machine for sheet metals exhibited by ,mr4 ,j4,w4 ,britton1 of ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 and which we illustrate4 ,this apparatus is intended to supersede the cold rolling of plates in order to take the buckle out of them4 ,the sheets are clamped in the jaws or grips shown1 and the stretch is effected by means of a hydraulic ram connected directly to the nearest pair of jaws4 ,the power is obtained by means of a pair of pumps run through spur-gearing by the belt pulleys shown4 ,the action of the machine puts a strain on those parts of the plates which are not bagged or buckled1 and this causes the surface to extend1 the slack parts of the plate not being subject to the same stretching action4 ,the machine shown is designed to operate on sheet iron from ,no4 #g to ,no4 #cj gauge1 and up to #cf in4 wide1 the limit for length being #abj in4 ,about a dozen sheets can be operated on at once4 ,the machine appears to have met with considerable success in ,america1 and has been used for mild steel1 iron1 galvanized or tinned sheets1 copper1 brass1 and zinc4 ,the details of this machine are given in ,figs4 #a to #h4 ,figs4 #a and #b are a plan and side elevation of the bed of the machine1 showing the position of the hydraulic ram4 ,fig4 #c shows the bars used for holding the back jaws in position1 with the holes for adjusting to different lengths of the plates4 ,fig4 #d is a back view and section of the crosshead and one of the bolts that connect the moving grip with the hydraulic ram4 ,fig4 #e gives a plan and cross section of the back grip1 and ,fig4 #f is a back elevation of the same1 with a front view and section of the gripping part4 ,fig4 #g shows the gear by which the jaws are opened and closed4 ,illustration3 ,,britton',s ,,plate ,,straightening ,,machine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scholar',s ,,compasses4 ,among the numerous arrangements that have been devised for drawing circles in diagrams1 sketches1 etc41 one of the simplest is doubtless that which is represented in the accompanying figure1 and which is known in ,england as the scholar's compasses4 ,it consists of a socket into which slides a pencil by hard friction1 and to which is hinged a tapering1 pointed leg4 ,this latter and the pencil are held at the proper distance apart by means of a slotted strip of metal and a binding screw4 ,when the instrument is closed1 as shown in the figure to the left1 it takes up but little space1 and may be easily carried in the pocket without the point tearing the clothing1 as the binding screw holds the leg firmly against the pencil4 ,the mode of using the apparatus is so well shown in the figure to the right that it is unnecessary to enter into any explanation4--,la ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,scholar',s ,,compasses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,integraph4 ,in scientific researches in the domain of physics we often meet with the following problem3 ,being given any function whatever1 y f7x71 to find a curve whose equation shall be _/ y f7x7dx ,c4 _/ ,,tex3 y int f7x7 dx ,c4 ,let us take an example that touches us more closely2 let us suppose that we know an induced current1 and that we can represent it by a curve yf7x74 ,the question is to find the inductive current1 that is to say1 the curve represented by the equation _/ y f7x7dx ,c4 _/ ,,tex3 y int f7x7 dx ,c4 ,the apparatus called an integraph1 constructed by ,messrs4 ,napoli and ,abdank-,abakanowicz1 is designed for solving this problem mechanically1 by tracing the curve sought4 ,let us take another example from the domain of electricity1 in order to better show the utility of the apparatus2 let us suppose that we have a curve representing the discharge of a pile or of an accumulator4 ,the abscisses represent the times1 and the ordinates the amperes4 ,the question is to know at every moment the quantity of coulombs produced by the pile4 ,the apparatus traces a curve whose ordinates give the number of coulombs sought4 ,we might find a large number of analogous applications4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,integraph4 ,the apparatus is represented in the accompanying figure4 ,an iron ruler1 ,i1 parallel with the axis of the ,x's1 is fixed upon a drawing-board1 and is provided with a longitudinal groove in its upper surface4 ,in this groove move two rollers1 which1 in the center of the piece that connects them1 carry two brass ,t-squares that are parallel with each other and at right angles with the first1 or parallel with the axis of the ,y's4 ,between these two rulers move two carriages1 the first of which 7nearest the axis of the ,x's7 carries a point1 ,a1 designed to follow the contour of the curve to be integrated1 while the second1 which is placed further away1 is provided at the center with a drawing-pen1 ,a'1 whose point is guided by two equidistant wheels1 ,r1 ,r'1 that roll over the paper in such a way as to have their plane parallel with a given straight line1 and that have always a direction such that the tangent of the point's angle with the axes of the ,x's is constantly proportional to the ordinate of the primitive curve4 ,the carriages are rendered very movable by substituting rolling for a sliding friction of the axes4 ,to this effect1 the extremities of the axes of the wheels that support and guide them are made thin1 and roll over the plane surface of recesses formed for the purpose in the lateral steel surfaces of the carriages1 while the circumference of the wheels rolls in grooves along the two ,t-squares4 ,these latter are1 on the one hand1 carried by rollers that run in the groove of the iron1 ,i1 and1 on the other1 by a single roller that runs over the paper4 ,at right angles with one of these bars is fixed a divided ruler1 through one point of which continually passes a third ruler1 whose extremity pivots upon the point1 ,a1 of the first carriage4 ,when the divided ruler is placed upon the axis of the ,x's1 and the point1 ,a1 of this carriage is following the contours of the figure to be integrated1 the tangent of the angle made by the inclined ruler with the axis of the ,x's will be proportional to the ordinate of the figure4 ,the wheels1 ,r and ,r'1 of the drawing-pen1 ,a'1 of the second carriage must move parallel with this ruler4 ,in order to obtain such parallelism1 we employ a parallelogram formed as follows3 ,two gear-wheels of the same diameter are fixed upon the ruler that ends at the point1 ,a1 of the first carriage1 and their line of centers is parallel with the latter4 ,the second carriage likewise carries two drums equal in diameter to those of the toothed wheels4 ,these are fixed1 and their line of centers must remain constantly parallel with the line of centers of the gear-wheels1 and consequently with the straight line which passes through the point1 ,a4 ,this parallelism is obtained by means of a weak steel spring1 or of a silken thread passing over the four wheels1 the two first of which 7the gear-wheels7 hold it taut by means of a barrel and spring placed in the center of one of them4 ,the edge of the wheels1 ,r1 ,r'1 of the second carriage prevents the latter from giving way to the traction of the threads1 permitting it thus to move only in the direction of their plane4 ,it will be seen that by this system two of the sides of the parallelogram are capable of elongating or contracting through the unwinding and winding of the silken thread on the drums of the two cog wheels1 which latter1 gearing with each other1 allow of the escape of but the same length of the two threads4 ,it will be observed that in this system integration is effected by forcing the pen to follow a certain direction1 and that consequently the curve does not depend upon the dimensions of the different parts of the apparatus4--,la ,lumiere ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,manufacturing ,,gaseous ,,beverages4 ,the apparatus represented in the accompanying cuts is designed for the manufacture of gaseous beverages1 and is of ,messrs4 ,boulet ,co4's make4 ,fig4 #a represents the apparatus complete1 with gasometer and bottling machine4 ,fig4 #b gives a vertical section of the apparatus properly so called1 including the producer1 the purifier1 and the saturator1 all grouped upon a cast-iron column4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,manufacturing ,,gaseous ,,breezes4 ,the producer1 ,a1 is designed to receive the sulphuric acid and carbonate of lime4 ,a mixer1 ,f1 revolves in the interior of this1 and effects an intimate admixture of the lime and acid without the necessity of the former being pulverized beforehand4 ,the carbonate of lime 7usually in the form of chalk7 is introduced directly into the producer through the aperture1 ,k1 while the acid contained in the receptacle1 ,b1 at the side of the column and above the producer flows put through a curved pipe in the bottom4 ,the flow is regulated by the valve1 ,c4 ,the receptacle1 ,b1 is lined with platinum4 ,as soon as the acid comes into contact with the carbonate1 there occurs a disengagement of carbonic acid gas1 which flows directly through the pipe1 ,f1 into the purifier at the upper part of the column4 ,from thence the gas passes into a third washer1 ,d1 of glass4 ,when thoroughly washed1 it flows through the pipe1 ,l1 into the gasometer1 which is of galvanized iron1 and is very carefully balanced4 ,the saturator1 which is the most important part of the apparatus1 comprises a pump1 a feed reservoir1 and a sphere4 ,the pump1 which is of bronze1 is placed at the side of the column1 at the lower part 7,fig4 #a74 ,this sucks up the gas stored in the gasometer and the water contained in the reservoir1 and forces them into the sphere4 ,this latter is of bronze1 cast in a single piece1 and the thickness of its sides prevents all danger of explosion4 ,it is silvered internally1 and provided with a powerful rotary agitator that favors the admixture of the water and gas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,the apparatus it rendered complete by a bottling machine1 which is placed either on a line with the apparatus or in front of it4 ,this machine is connected directly with the sphere by a block-tin pipe4--,chronique ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,measuring ,,the ,,force ,,of ,,explosives4 ,among the numerous apparatus that have been devised for determining the power of powder1 those designed for military purposes are the ones most extensively used4 ,up to the present1 very few experimental apparatus have been constructed for civil uses1 although such are no less necessary than the others4 ,mr4 ,d',o4 ,guttman has examined the principal types of dynamometers with respect to their use for testing explosive materials1 and1 after ascertaining wherein they are defective1 has devised an apparatus in which the principle is the same as that employed by ,messrs4 ,montluisant and ,reffye at ,meudon1 that is to say1 one in which the force of the powder is made to act upon a lead cylinder fixed in a conical channel4 ,mr4 ,desortiaux objects that in this system1 when it is employed with charges for cannons1 the action has already begun when only a portion of the powder is burned4 ,to this1 ,mr4 ,guttman responds that his apparatus operates only with small charges 7#cjj grains71 which practically inflame simultaneously in every part when the igniting is done in a closed space4 ,in order that the force may not be made to act in one direction only1 the inventor uses two leaden cylinders4 ,his apparatus is shown in the accompanying ,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c4 ,it consists of a median piece1 a1 and of two heads1 b1 of an external diameter of four inches4 ,these pieces are of tempered ,bessemer steel4 ,the two heads are four inches in length1 one inch of which is provided with a screw thread4 ,each of them contains an aperture1 c1 #a4cd inches wide below1 #a4c inches wide above1 and #a4ah inches deep4 ,this aperture is followed by another and conical one1 d1 #a4ch inches deep1 and #j4d inch wide at its narrowest end1 and finally by another one1 e1 #j4d inch wide1 which runs to the exterior4 ,the median piece1 a1 is #d inches long4 ,it is provided at the two sides with nuts1 between which there is a cylindrical space1 f1 #a4h inches long1 designed to receive the charge4 ,the inflaming plug1 g1 is screwed into the exact center of the median piece1 a1 which it enters to a depth of one inch4 ,into the space that still remains free is screwed a plug1 h4 ,the lower surface of the plug1 g1 contains a hollow space1 #j4f inch wide and deep4 ,this hollow is prolonged by another one1 #j4bd inch wide1 and contains a valve1 i1 which has a play of about #j4jh inch4 ,the three parts are connected by a key which passes into the holes1 x1 and are rendered tight by copper rings1 y4 ,when it is desired to charge the apparatus1 a leaden cylinder1 #a4cd inches long and #a4c inches in diameter1 is placed in one of the heads1 and the median piece is so screwed that it can be made still tighter by a few turns4 ,then a steel plate1 k1 #a4c inches wide by #j4b inch thick1 is placed against the cylinder1 and against this plate again is placed a cardboard disk1 #a4cd inches wide by #j4d inch thick4 ,this completely closes the hollow space4 ,the steel plates and heads are marked with the figures #a and #b1 which1 through the pressure1 are impressed upon the leaden cylinders4 ,then the charge of powder1 weighing exactly #cjj grains1 is introduced1 and a new cardboard disk1 a steel plate1 and a leaden cylinder are inserted1 and the second head is screwed up4 ,the apparatus is now ready to operate4 ,an ordinary priming is placed on the pyramid1 h1 and the plug with the valve is screwed down in such a way that the latter shall have a little play4 ,by means of a hammer1 m1 a smart blow is given the valve i1 and this detonates the priming1 and causes an explosion of the charge4 ,the gases make their exit through the pyramid1 h1 and lift the valve and press it against the plug1 so that their escape is effectually prevented4 ,in fact1 the explosion takes place without noise4 ,a slight whistling1 only1 indicates that the capsule has not missed fire1 and that the apparatus may be immediately opened1 the gases having condensed in the interior4 ,it is well1 however1 to place the closed apparatus in water1 in order that the residua that have entered the threads of the screw may become detached1 and that the apparatus may be opened easily4 ,although there is no danger in standing alongside the apparatus1 it is much better to spring the hammer by means of a cord of a certain length1 since the valve and especially the pyramid gradually burn and may be thrown out4 ,with some kinds of powder the pyramid rapidly melts1 and must be frequently replaced4 ,illustration3 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,measuring ,,the ,,force ,,of ,,explosives4 ,the two cones of lead obtained are then measured to #j4jjd of an inch by means of a gauge 7,fig4 #c74 ,the inventor has made numerous experiments with his apparatus1 and thinks it permits of determining the total force developed by powder very perfectly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sandmann',s ,,vinegar ,,apparatus4 ,for obtaining anhydrous or very concentrated vinegar directly from pyrolignite of lime or other acetates by a single distillation1 ,mr4 ,d4 ,sandmann1 of ,charlottenburg1 employs the apparatus shown in the accompanying engraving4 ,it consists of a double-bottomed copper or enameled iron boiler1 ,a1 arranged for being heated by steam1 and the upper part of which is protected against the action of the acid vapors disengaged during distillation by a lining of refractory clay4 ,the stone cover1 ,b1 is provided with an aperture1 b1 through which the boiler is filled4 ,the steam pipe1 k1 is inclosed in a second pipe1 f1 provided with radii4 ,this tube serves as a stirrer2 and is set in motion by means of a pulley1 g4 ,the tube1 c1 is connected with a worm1 h1 and the tube1 d1 which is provided with a valve1 leads to the second boiler1 ,c4 ,the head1 ,d1 which acts1 by reason of its internal arrangement1 as a dephlegmator1 is of enameled iron1 and is provided with a thermometer1 f1 and an aperture1 p4 ,above the spirals of the worm1 e1 are placed strips of glass1 the free intervals between which are filled in with pieces of glass1 porcelain1 or any other material not attackable by acids4 ,the arrangement is such that the rising vapors can regularly and without obstruction traverse these materials of wide surface4 ,the condensed liquid falls back into the lower part of the boiler4 ,the worm1 e1 debouches into a cooler1 ,f1 fed with water through the cock1 n4 ,at the bottom of the boiler1 ,a1 there is fixed a tubulure1 r1 closed by a lever1 s1 and having a fastening device1 o4 ,this tubulure permits of emptying the boiler into the reservoir1 ,l4 ,a like arrangement is found in the boiler1 ,c4 ,the valves1 ,v1 serve to introduce steam for heating into the double bottoms of the two boilers4 ,the water of condensation flows out through the tubes1 u4 ,the water for cooling enters the coolers1 ,f1 ,j1 and ,z1 through the cocks1 n1 and flows out through the tubes1 v4 ,the acetate1 previously crushed1 is placed in the boiler1 ,a1 and the quantity of acid necessary to decompose it is added4 ,the mass is afterward mixed with care by means of the stirrer1 and the distillation may then proceed at once4 ,the vapors of acetic acid that are disengaged enter the boiler1 ,c1 through the tube1 d1 and are kept hot by the steam4 ,in the head1 ,d1 they are separated into two portions1 viz41 into concentrated acetic acid1 which condenses by reason of its high boiling point1 and into steam1 which distills and carries along but a very small amount of acetic acid4 ,this steam passes through the pipe1 ,g1 into the worm1 ,h1 condenses1 and afterward flows into the vessel1 ,n4 ,illustration3 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,vinegar4 ,the acetic acid that accumulates in the boiler1 ,c1 must be again vaporized and treated until it no longer gives off any steam at all through the pipe1 ,g4 ,the amount of cooling water admitted into the worm1 e1 that traverses the head1 ,d1 is regulated according to the degree of concentration it is desired to give the acid4 ,as soon as the steam can no longer be separated in the boiler1 ,c1 and temperature has reached #aah degrees1 the anhydrous acetic acid is distilled through the tube1 g1 and received in the cooler1 ,k1 wherein it condenses4 ,when the contents of the boiler1 ,a1 have been distilled to dryness1 the tube1 d1 is closed and the cock of the tube1 c1 is opened4 ,after this1 steam is injected directly through the tube1 k1 in order to distill the acetic acid that still remains in the residuum1 and which passes thus through the tube1 e1 into the worm1 h1 and flows into the two-necked bottle1 ,s4 ,there may be added to the boiler1 ,c1 certain materials for purifying the acetic acid1 such as permanganate of potassa or acetate of soda1 so as to obtain an absolutely pure article4--,dingler's ,polytech4 ,journal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,field ,,kitchens4 ,we illustrate the field kitchens of ,captain ,j4,c4 ,baxter1 ,r4,e41 in the ,inventions ,exhibition4 ,figs4 #a to #c represent ,captain ,baxter's ,telescopic ,kitchen1 both open for use and packed up for traveling4 ,these kitchens1 which are on an entirely new principle1 consist of from three to five annular kettles1 either circular or elliptical1 which are placed one on another1 and the fire lighted inside the central tube4 ,the kettles are built up on the top of the outer case in which they are carried1 the central tube being placed over the grate in the lid4 ,a small iron stand1 supporting an ordinary pot1 is placed on the top4 ,when packed up1 the annular kettles fit or nest into each other1 and into the outer case2 the iron stand packs inside the innermost kettle1 and the top pot is placed on the outer case1 being secured by a strap4 ,this form of kitchen is intended for the use of officers1 both regular and volunteer1 and for officers' and sergeants' messes on active service or in camp4 ,they are also suited for travelers1 explorers1 colonists1 boating1 shooting1 and fishing parties1 and in fact for all who may require to cook in the open air4 ,figs4 #d to #f represent the kitchen of the field service pattern with conical kettles1 while ,figs4 #g and #h represent the same pattern with elliptical kettles4 ,these kitchens consist of five annular vessels1 either circular or elliptical1 which are placed one upon another1 and the fire lighted in the central tube or flue4 ,a small iron stand1 supporting an ordinary pot or kettle1 may be placed on the top as in the other set4 ,a small hole1 #ah inches long1 #f inches deep1 and of the same width as the central tube of the annular kettles1 may be made for an ashpit1 or the kitchen may be raised a few inches from the ground on stones or turf4 ,the annular vessels may be made cylindrical or conical2 in the latter case they will fit or nest into one another1 and save space when not in use4 ,they may be made circular or elliptical4 ,those intended for cavalry are provided with straps to attach them to the saddle4 ,this form of kitchen is intended for the use of troops on active service1 or in camp or barracks1 workhouses prisons1 schools1 and soup kitchens2 also for cooking food for cattle and hounds2 and for all who may require to cook and distribute quickly large quantities of food1 soup1 or tea1 or to heat water rapidly at a small cost4 ,the manufacturers are ,m4 ,adams ,son1 ,london4--,iron4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4-;,,fig4 #c4 ,,field ,,kitchens4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4-;,,fig4 #f4 ,,field ,,kitchens4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4-;,,fig4 #h4 ,,field ,,kitchens4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,cop-,,winder4 ,in ,germany extensive use is made of a cop-winding machine in which the wooden spindle consists of a cone moved by a screw1 and the position of which is horizontal4 ,fig4 #a shows the primitive type of the ,german apparatus1 in which the cone that forms the cop is set in motion by a horizontal screw4 ,it is at first the greater diameter of the cone that moves the tube1 and permits the thread to accumulate beneath the narrow extremity4 ,but1 as soon as a core of thread has been formed1 it is in contact with the entire surface of the cone1 and thus revolves with a mean velocity until it is finished4 ,in the new model 7,fig4 #b7 the arrangement is different4 ,here ,a is the paper tube1 with wooden base1 to which it is freely attached1 and ,c is the cone that moves over the screw1 ,d4 ,the thread passes into a groove which makes one revolution of the cone1 and from thence over the paper tube1 where it receives the form of a cop by reason of the transverse motion of the cone upon the screw4 ,this transverse motion is at first prevented by the click1 ,f1 which falls into the teeth of the ratchet-wheel fixed behind the cone4 ,the shaft revolves continuously1 but has1 at the same time1 a to and fro motion in the direction of its axis1 so as to cause the thread to move forward constantly and form a cop4 ,this to and fro motion is obtained by means of a lever and a sleeve1 ,i1 the wheel1 ,h1 of the shaft being set in motion by the pinion1 ,j1 actuated by the transmission of the machine4 ,as the spindle advances1 a core is formed2 the click1 ,f1 is then pushed backward1 and the cone is kept in motion by the thread until the cop is finished4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,new ,,cop-,,winding ,,machine4 ,preference is usually given to the horizontal model2 but the system may likewise be applied to a vertical spindle1 and the arrangement in this case is simpler1 as shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,a rotary motion of the shaft is useless here1 as the click1 ,f1 acts in an oblique position upon the ratchet-wheel1 ,o1 and pushes it by reason of the to and fro motion of the screw4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #eac1 page #haia4 ,,the ,,preservation ,,of ,,timber4 ,footnote3 ,from the ,transactions of the ,society4 ,,report ,,of ,,the ,,committee ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,society ,,of ,,civil ,,engineers ,,on ,,the ,,preservation ,,of ,,timber1 ,,presented ,,and ,,accepted ,,at ,,the ,,annual ,,convention1 ,,june #be1 #ahhe4 ,,boucherie1 ,,or ,,sulphate ,,of ,,copper4 ,the name of ,dr4 ,boucherie is generally applied to the process1 which he invented and extensively applied1 of preparing wood by forcing a solution longitudinally through the pores of the wood by means of hydraulic pressure4 ,as1 however1 he also patented the use of sulphate of copper1 and his name became attached to the use of that antiseptic1 it will be convenient here to classify experiments made with that substance under this head4 ,dr4 ,boucherie was a distinguished ,french chemist1 who between #ahcf and #ahdf made many elaborate researches and experiments upon the preservation of timber4 ,he tried many substances1 and at first recommended the use of pyrolignite of iron1 but subsequently used sulphate of copper1 which he considered more effective4 ,his first experiments were conducted by vital suction1 that is1 by tapping the living tree1 and allowing the ascending sap to carry up a preserving solution4 ,this was not found to give uniform or satisfactory results1 and ,dr4 ,boucherie then invented the process which bears his name4 ,this was practiced either by applying a cap to the end of a freshly cut log1 through which the solution was allowed to flow by pressure1 or by sawing a log nearly through in the middle1 raising it at the center slightly1 so as to open the joint1 placing a strip of tarred rope or a rubber band just inside the periphery of the cut log1 and letting it spring back1 so as to form a tight joint by pressing upon the rope or band4 ,an auger hole bored diagonally into the cavity so formed then served to admit the solution under pressure4 ,this process1 applied with a solution of about one pound of sulphate of copper to one hundred pounds of water1 has been extensively applied in ,france for many years1 with satisfactory results4 ,it was found1 however1 that to be successful it must be applied to freshly cut trees in the log only1 and that this involved so much delay1 moving about1 waste1 and annoyance1 that it has now been abandoned4 ,these difficulties would be still greater in this country1 and in the ,northern ,states the process could not be applied at all during the winter 7or season for cutting down trees71 as the solution would freeze4 ,on this page is a list of the experiments which your committee have been able to learn about1 as having been made with sulphate of copper in this country4 ,,record ,,of ,,american ,,experiments4 ,,sulphate ,,of ,,copper1 ,,or ,,boucherie4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,material ,subsequent ,no ,locality ,year,process4 ,treated4 ,exposure4 ,results4 ,authority4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #a;,chili1 ,s4,a4 #aheg;,boucher4,poplar ,r4,r4 track,favorable ,w4,w4 ,evans ties #b;,cleveland1 ,o #ahgj,thilmany,ties ,favorable ,j4,r4 ,conrad to #ahge #c,washington #ahgb ,paving ,laboratory,unfavor4 ,w4,c4 ,tilden blocks #d,pensacola #ahgd ,live oak ,teredo ,failure ,w4,h4 ,varney #e;,charleston1 ,,sc#ahge ,pine block ,q4,a4 ,gillmore #f,san ,francisco #ahgf ,c4,s4 ,stewart #g,milwaukee #ahgf ,pavement ,favorable1,schlitz ,bg4 #ahhb ,co4 #h,norfolk1 ,va4 #ahgf ,hackmatack,teredo ,failure ,p4,c4 ,asserson #i;,charlestown1 #ahgg ,various ,laboratory,favorable ,j4,f4 ,babcock ,mass #aj,wabash ,r4,r4 #ahgg ,ties ,r4,r4 track,unfavor4 ,r4,a4 ,houghton #aa,wabash ,r4,r4 #ahgh ,w4,s4 ,lincoln #ab,new ,york1 #ahgi ,c4 ,latimer ,pennsylvania1 and ,ohio ,r4,r4 #ac,lake ,shore and#ahgi ,r4,a4 ,houghton ,michigan ,southern ,r4,r4 #ad;,cleveland and #ahgi ,c4 ,latimer ,pittsburg ,r4,r4 #ae;,charlestown1 #ahgi ,spruce ,sidewalk ,success ,s4,g4 ,white ,mass plank to #ahhb #af;,baltimore and #ahgi ,ties ,r4,r4 track,too recent,j4,l4 ,randolph ,ohio #ag;,hudson ,river #ahfi;,hamar ,success ,e4,w4 ,vanderbilt ,r4,r4 #ah,st4 ,louis #ahhb;,fladd ,too recent,h4 ,fladd ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,comments ,,on ,,sulphate ,,of ,,copper ,,experiments4 ,the first experiment was carried out by ,mr4 ,w4,w4 ,evans1 on the ,southern ,railway of ,chili1 in #aheg1 and he informs your committee that in #ahfj1 when he left that country1 the ties were still good and in serviceable condition4 ,we give herewith1 in ,appendix ,no4 #af1 an interesting letter from ,mr4 ,e4 ,pontzen to ,mr4 ,evans1 on the subject of the ,boucherie process4 ,experiments ,nos4 #b to #af1 inclusive1 were all tried with various modifications of the sulphate of copper process as introduced by ,mr4 ,w4 ,thilmany in this country4 ,they date back to #ahgj 7experiment ,no4 #b71 when ,mr4 ,thilmany was working and recommending the methods of vital suction and of the ,boucherie hydraulic pressure system4 ,after describing the foreign methods of injection with sulphate of copper1 he states in his first pamphlet 7#ahgj73 ,this process resulted very satisfactorily1 but it was found that the sulphate of copper became very much diluted by the sap1 and when the same liquid was used several times1 the decaying substance of the sap1 viz41 the albumen1 was reintroduced into the wood1 and left it nearly in its primitive condition4 ,he accordingly proposed a double injection1 first by muriate of barytes1 and1 secondly1 by sulphate of copper1 forced through by the ,boucherie process1 and it is presumed that the ties of #ahgj1 in experiment ,no4 #b1 which showed favorable results when examined in #ahge1 were prepared by that process4 ,subsequently ,mr4 ,thilmany changed his mode of application to the ,bethell process of injecting solutions under pressure in closed cylinders1 and probably the paving blocks for experiment ,no4 #c were prepared in that way4 ,the chemical examination of them by ,mr4 ,tilden1 however1 showed the saturation very uneven2 absorptive power1 high2 block contains soluble salts of copper1 removable by washing4 ,it was expected that the double solution1 by forming an insoluble compound1 would prove an effective protection against the teredo4 ,experiments ,nos4 #d1 #e1 #f1 and #h1 however1 proved the contrary to be the fact4 ,the process1 when well done1 gave moderately satisfactory results against decay4 ,a pavement laid in the yard of the ,schlitz ,brewing ,company1 in ,milwaukee 7experiment ,no4 #g71 was sound in #ahhb1 after some six years' exposure4 ,a report by ,mr4 ,j4,f4 ,babcock1 a chemist of ,boston 7experiment ,no4 #i71 indicated favorable results1 and the planks in a ropewalk at ,charlestown 7experiment ,no4 #ae71 laid in #ahgi1 were yet sound in #ahhb4 ,the experiments on railroad ties 7,nos4 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 and #af71 however1 did not result satisfactorily4 ,they seemed favorable at first1 and great things were expected of them2 but late examinations made on the ,wabash ,railroad1 on the ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,ohio1 and on the ,cleveland and ,pittsburg ,railroad1 have shown the ties to be decaying1 and the results to be unfavorable4 ,this applies to the sulphate of copper and barium process4 ,mr4 ,thilmany has patented still another combination1 in which he uses sulphate of zinc and chloride of barium1 which has been noticed under the head of burnettizing4 ,experiment ,no4 #ag was tried on the ,hudson ,river ,railroad4 ,it consisted of #a1jjj sap pine ties1 which had been impregnated in the ,south1 by the ,boucherie process1 with a mixture of sulphate of iron and sulphate of copper1 under ,hamar's patent4 ,these ties were laid in the tunnel at ,new ,hamburg1 a trying exposure1 and when examined1 in #ahhb1 several of them were still in the track4 ,the process1 however1 was found to be so tedious that it was abandoned after a year's trial1 and has not since been resumed4 ,in #ahhb ,mr4 ,h4 ,fladd1 of ,st4 ,louis1 patented a method which is the inverse of the ,boucherie process 7experiment ,no4 #ah74 ,to the cap fastened to the end of a freshly cut log he applies a suction pump1 and placing the other end into a vat1 filled with the desired solution1 he sucks up the preserving fluid through the pores or sap cells of the wood4 ,quite a number of experimental ties have been prepared in this way1 with various chemical solutions1 chief of which was sulphate of copper1 and there is probably no question but that the life of the wood will be materially increased thereby4 ,whether the process will prove more convenient and economical than the original ,boucherie process can only be determined by practical application upon an extensive scale4 ,a considerable number of modifications and appliances for working the ,boucherie process have been patented in this country2 but none of them seems to have come into practical use1 probably because of the necessity for operating upon freshly cut logs1 and the inconvenience of such applications4 ,the table on this page gives a record of various experiments with miscellaneous substances4 ,,record ,,of ,,american ,,experiments--,,miscellaneous4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,material ,subsequent ,no ,locality ,year ,process4 ,treated4 ,exposure ,results4 ,authority4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #a;,chestnut #ahci;,earle's ,hemlock ,paving ,failure ,s4,v4 ,beuet ,street1 blocks ,philadelpha #b,watervliet #ahdj ,oak ,gun ,arsenal timber carriage #c;,delaware #ahdj ,rope ,fungus ,favorable ,hudson pit ,canal #d,philadelphia#ahdj,lime bath ,pine ,railroad ,unfavor4 ,m4 ,coryell ,columbia stringers track ,railroad #e;,boston #ahdd,sulphate ,ties ,i4 ,hinckley ,providence of iron ,railroad #f;,belvedere #ahej,salt ,hemlock ,m4 ,coryell ,railroad #g;,baltimore #ahej,lime ,ties ,j4,l4 ,randolph ,ohio ,railroad #h,rochester #aheb,payenizing ,ties ,t4 ,hilliard #i;,germantown1 #ahee;,charring ,fence ,fence ,favorable,g4 ,mc,grew ,ind4 posts #ahgi #aj,pottsville1 #aheg,pyrolig'ite,timber ,railroad ,unfavor4 ,h4,k4 ,nichols ,pa4 of iron sills #aa;,erie ,railway#aheh;,boring ,bridges ,favorable,h4,d4,v4 ,prait #ab;,galveston #ahfg;,casing ,piles ,bridge ,failure ,w4,h4 ,smith #ac,new ,york #ahfh;,beerizing ,lumber ,signs ,doubtful ,s4 ,beer #ad,wyoming #ahfh,natural ,ties ,railroad ,preserved,j4 ,territory soil track ,blinkinsderfer #ae;,chicago1 #ahgj;,foreman- ,timber ,steamboat ,favorable,m4,b4 ,brown ,ill4 izing #ahgi #af;,illinois #ahga ,ties ,railroad ,failure ,l4,p4 ,morehouse ,central track ,railroad #ag,st4 ,louis #ahga ,shingles ,roof ,f4 ,de ,funiak #ah,memphis #ahga ,ties ,railroad ,f4 ,de ,funiak ,charleston track #ai,washington1 #ahga,tripler ,paving ,laboratory ,w4,c4 ,tilden ,d4,c4 blocks #bj #ahgb,samuel #ba #ahgb,taylor #bb #ahgb,waterbury #bc #ahgb,sulphate ,pennsyl- ,j4,a4 ,partridge of iron vania ,ave #bd #ahgb,samuel ,f4 ,street #be #ahgb,samuel #afth ,st4 #bf,norvolk1 ,va4 - ,red lead ,pine and ,teredo ,p4,c4 ,asserson oak #bg - ,white zinc #bh - ,tar and plaster #bi - ,kerosene #cj - ,rosin and tallow #ca - ,fish oil tallow #cb - ,verdigris #cc - ,bark on ,good for pile #e years #cd - ,carbolic ,failure acid #ce - ,tar and cement #cf - ,davis' compound #cg - ,carbolized paper #ch - ,paint #ci - ,thilmany #dj - ,vulcanized fiber #da - ,charring ,good for #i years #db,new ,orleans #ahgb ,piles ,failure ,j4,w4 ,putnam ,mobile ,r4,r4 #dc #ahgb ,temporary oiling prot'n #dd;,galveston #ahgj;,charring ,houston #ahgd ,r4,r4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,comments ,,on ,,miscellaneous ,,experiments4 ,experiments ,nos4 #a1 #b1 and #c relate to the ,earle process1 from which great results were expected from #ahci to #ahdd4 ,it consisted in immersing timber1 rope1 canvas1 etc41 in a hot solution of one pound of sulphate of copper and three pounds of sulphate of iron mixed in twenty gallons of water4 ,it was first tested on some hemlock paving blocks on ,chestnut ,street1 ,philadelphia1 and for a time seemed to promise good results4 ,experiments with prepared rope1 exposed in a fungus pit1 by ,mr4 ,james ,archbald1 ,chief ,engineer of the ,delaware and ,hudson ,canal1 seemed also favorable4 ,the process was1 therefore1 thoroughly tried at the ,watervliet ,arsenal1 where it was applied to some #fc1jjj cubic ft4 of timber1 at a cost of about seven cents per cubic foot4 ,the timber was used for various ordnance purposes1 and while it was found to have its life extended1 as would naturally be expected from the known character of the antiseptics used1 its strength was so far impaired1 and it checked and warped so badly1 that the process was abandoned in #ahdd4 ,the committee is indebted to ,general ,s4,v4 ,benet1 ,chief of ,ordnance1 for a full copy of the reports upon these experiments4 ,experiments ,nos4 #d and #g represent the lime process1 which has been applied to a considerable extent in ,france4 ,the fact that platforms and boxes used for mixing lime mortar seem to resist decay has repeatedly suggested the use of lime for preserving timber4 ,in #ahdj ,mr4 ,w4,r4 ,huffnagle1 ,engineer of the ,philadelphia and ,columbia ,railroad1 laid a portion of its track on white pine sills1 which had been soaked for three months in a vat of lime-water as strong as could be maintained4 ,similar experiments were tried on the ,baltimore and ,ohio in #ahej4 ,the result was not satisfactory1 as might be expected from the fact that lime is a comparatively weak antiseptic 7#eb4e by atomic weight1 while creosote is #baf71 and from the extreme tediousness of three months' soaking4 ,experiments ,nos4 #e and #h were tried with sulphate of iron1 sometimes known as payenizing1 and the particulars of the former have been furnished by ,mr4 ,i4 ,hinckley1 ,president of the ,philadelphia1 ,wilmington1 and ,baltimore ,railroad1 to whom your committee is much indebted for a large mass of information on the subject of timber preservation4 ,mr4 ,hinckley has had longer and more varied experience on this subject than any other person in this country4 ,beginning with sulphate of copper in #ahdf1 following with chloride of mercury in #ahdg1 and chloride of zinc in #aheb1 going back to chloride of mercury1 and again to chloride of zinc1 using the latter until #ahfe1 then using creosote to protect the piles against the teredo at ,taunton ,great ,river 7experiment ,no4 #b4 creosoting71 he has had millions of feet of timber and lumber prepared by the various processes1 and has kindly placed at our disposal many original reports in manuscript and pamphlets which are now very rare4 ,experiment ,no4 #f was made by ,mr4 ,ashbel ,welch1 former ,president of this ,society1 and consisted in boring hemlock track sills #f #ab with a #a-a_/h inch auger-hole #aj inches deep every #ae inches4 ,these were filled with common salt and plugged up1 as is not infrequently done in ship-building1 but while the life of the timber was somewhat lengthened1 it was concluded that the process did not pay4 ,salt has been experimented with numberless times4 ,it is cheap1 but is a comparatively weak antiseptic1 its atomic weight being #eh4h in the hydrogen scale1 as against #ace4e for chloride of mercury4 ,experiment ,no4 #i is included in order to notice the well-known and most ancient process of charring the outside of timber4 ,in this particular case1 the fence posts after charring were dipped for about three feet into a hot mixture of raw linseed oil and pulverized charcoal1 which probably acted by closing the sap cells against the intrusion of moisture1 which1 as is well known1 much hastens decay4 ,the posts1 which had been set butt-end upward1 were mostly sound in #ahgi1 after #bd years' exposure4 ,experiments ,nos4 #da1 #db1 #dc1 and #dd did not1 however1 result as well1 and numberless failures throughout the country attest that charring is uncertain and disappointing in its results4 ,much ingenuity has been wasted in devising and patenting machinery for charring wood on a large scale to preserve it against decay4 ,the process1 however1 is so tedious in comparison with the benefits which it confers1 and the charred surface is so objectionable for many uses1 that nothing is to be expected from the process upon a large commercial scale4 ,in #aheg-eh ,mr4 ,h4,k4 ,nichols tried sundry experiments 7,no4 #aj71 at ,pottsville1 ,pa41 upon timber which he endeavored to impregnate with pyrolignite of iron by means of capillary action4 ,similar experiments had previously been thoroughly tried in ,france by ,dr4 ,boucherie1 but the result has not been found satisfactory4 ,in #aheh the ,erie ,railway purchased the right of using the ,nichols patent1 and erected machinery at its ,owego ,bridge shop for boring a #b inch hole longitudinally through the center of bridge timbers4 ,this continued till #ahgj1 when the works were burned1 and in rebuilding them the boring machinery was not replaced4 ,the longitudinal hole allowed a portion of the sap to evaporate without checking the outside of the timber1 and undoubtedly lengthened its life4 ,it is believed there are yet 7#ahhe7 some sticks of timber in the bridges of the road that were so prepared in #ahfh or #ahfi4 ,in #ahfg ,mr4 ,w4,h4 ,smith patented a method of preserving timber1 by incasing it in vitrified earthenware pipes1 and filling the space between the timber and the pipe with a grouting of hydraulic cement4 ,this was applied to the railroad bridge connecting the mainland with ,galveston ,island 7experiment ,no4 #ab71 and so well did it seem to succeed at first that it was proposed to extend the process to railroad trestlework1 to fencing1 to supports for houses1 and to telegraph poles4 ,but after a while the earthenware pipes were displaced and broken1 the process was given up1 and ,galveston bridge is now creosoted4 ,in #ahfh ,mr4 ,s4 ,beer patented a process for preserving wood by simply washing out the sap from its cells4 ,having ascertained that borax is a solvent for sap1 he prepared a number of specimens by boiling them in a solution of borax4 ,for small specimens1 this answered well1 and a signboard treated in that way 7experiment ,no4 #ac7 was preserved a long time2 but when applied to large timber1 the process was found very tedious and slow1 and no headway has been made in introducing it4 ,experiment ,no4 #ad was brought about by accident4 ,some years age it was discovered that there was a strip of road in the track of the ,union ,pacific ,railroad1 in ,wyoming ,territory1 about ten miles in length1 where the ties do not decay at all4 ,the ,chief ,engineer1 ,mr4 ,blinkinsderfer1 kindly took up a cotton wood tie in #ahhb1 which had been laid in #ahfh1 and sent a1 piece of it to the committee4 ,it is as sound and a good deal harder than when first laid1 #ad years before1 while on some other parts of the road cottonwood ties perish in two or five years4 ,the character of the soil where these results have been observed is light and soapy1 and ,mr4 ,e4 ,dickinson1 ,superintendent of the ,laramie ,division1 furnishes the following analysis3 ,sodium chloride #aj4fd ,potassium #d4gj ,magnesium sulphate #a4gj ,silica #j4ji ,alumina #a4id ,ferric oxide #e4hd ,calcium carbonate #bb4cc ,magnesium #c4ci ,organic matter #d4bj ,insoluble matter #ida4dg ,loss in analysis #d4jj ,traces of phosphorous acid and ammonia4 ,the following remarks made by the chemists who made the analysis may be of interest3 ,the decay of wood arises from the presence in the wood of substances which are foreign to the woody fiber1 but are present in the juices of the wood while growing1 and consist of albuminous matter1 which1 when beginning to decay1 causes also the destruction of the other constituents of the wood4 ,one of the means adopted to prevent the destruction of wood by decay is by the chemical alteration of the constituents of the sap4 ,this is brought about by impregnating the wood with some substance which either enters into combination with the constitutents of the sap or so alters their properties as to prevent the setting up of decomposition4 ,the analysis of this soil shows that it contains large quantities of the substances 7sodium1 potassium chloride1 calcium1 and iron7 most used in the different processes of preserving or kyanizing wood4 ,it also contains much inorganic matter1 which also acts as a preserving agent4 ,some of the ties so preserved have been transferred to other portions of the track1 and some of the soil has also been transported to other localities1 so that it is hoped that in the discussion that may be expected to follow this report1 some further light will be thrown on the subject by an account of the results of these experiments4 ,experiments ,nos4 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 and #ah are most instructive1 and convey a useful lesson4 ,in #ahfe ,mr4 ,b4,s4 ,foreman patented the application of a dry powder for preserving wood1 which was composed of certain proportions of salt1 arsenic1 and corrosive sublimate4 ,this action was based upon an experience which he had had when1 as a working mechanic of ,ellisburg1 ,jefferson ,county1 ,n4,y41 in #ahch1 he had preserved a water-wheel shaft by inserting such a compound in powder in the body of the wood1 and ascertained that it was still sound some #ad years later4 ,his theory of the action of his compound upon timber was briefly this3 ,that all wood before it can decay must ferment2 that fermentation cannot exist without heat and moisture2 that the chemical property or nature of his compound1 when inserted dry into wood1 is to attract moisture1 and this moisture1 aided by fermentation1 liquefies the compound2 that capillary attraction must inevitably convey it through the sap ducts and medullary rays to every fiber of the stick4444 ,were these crystallizations salt alone1 they would soon dissolve1 but the arsenic and corrosive sublimate have rendered them insoluble2 hence they remain intact while any fiber of the wood is left4 ,the antiseptic qualities of arsenic are also well known1 and have been known for centuries4 ,chemical analysis of the mummies of ,egypt to-day shows the presence of arsenic in large quantities in every portion of their substance4 ,whatever other ingredients may have entered into the compound that has been so potent in preserving from decay the bodies of the old kings of ,egypt1 and even the linen vestments of their tombs1 arsenic was most certainly one4 ,the mode of application used by ,mr4 ,foreman was to bore holes two inches in diameter three-fourths of the way through sticks of square timber1 four feet apart1 to fill them with the dry powder1 and to plug them up with a bung4 ,for railroad ties he bored two holes two inches in diameter1 six inches inside of the rails1 and filled and plugged them4 ,fresh cut lumber and shingles were prepared by piling layers upon each other with the dry powder sprinkled between in the ratio of twenty pounds to the thousand feet of lumber4 ,this was allowed to remain at a temperature of at least #deh ,f4 until fermentation took place1 when the lumber was considered fully foremanized4 ,the process was first applied to the timber and lumber for a steamboat1 and in #ahgi the result was reported to be favorable4 ,it was then applied to some ties on the ,illinois ,central ,railroad1 where it did not succeed1 and to some on the ,chicago and ,northwestern1 where they seem to have been lost sight of1 being few in number1 so that your committee has not been able to learn the result4 ,great expectations were1 however1 entertained1 and a conditional sale was made to various parties of the right of using the process1 notably1 it is said1 to the ,memphis and ,charleston ,railroad for #ej1jjj2 and some ten miles of ties were prepared on that road1 when the poisonous nature of the ingredients used brought about disaster4 ,some shingles were prepared for a railroad freight house at ,east ,st4 ,louis1 but all the carpenters who put them on were taken very ill1 and one of them died4 ,the arsenic and corrosive sublimate effloresced from the ties along the ,memphis and ,charleston ,railroad4 ,cattle came and licked them for the sake of the salt1 and they died1 so that the track for ten miles was strewed with dead cattle4 ,the farmers rose up in arms1 and made the railroad take up and burn the ties4 ,the company promoting foremanizing was sued and cast in heavy damages1 and it went out of business4 ,in #ahgj ,mr4 ,a4,b4 ,tripler patented a mixture of arsenic and salt1 and the succeeding year a specimen of wood prepared under that patent was submitted to the ,board of ,public ,works of ,washington1 ,d4,c41 and examined by its chemist1 ,mr4 ,w4,c4 ,tilden 7experiment #ai74 ,he found the impregnation uneven1 and the absorptive power high1 but he did not find any arsenic1 though its use was claimed4 ,the ,samuel process 7experiment #bj7 consisted in the injection1 first1 of a solution of sulphate of iron1 and afterward of common burnt lime4 ,mr4 ,tilden reported the wood to be brittle1 and the water used to test the absorptive power to have been filled with threads of fungi in forty-eight hours4 ,the ,taylor process 7experiment ,no4 #ba7 used a solution of sulphide of calcium in pyroligneous acid4 ,it was condemned by ,mr4 ,tilden4 ,the ,waterbury process 7experiment #bb7 consisted in forcing in a solution of common salt1 followed by dead oil or creosote4 ,it was also condemned by ,mr4 ,tilden4 ,the examinations of ,mr4 ,tilden extended to some fourteen different processes1 most of which have already been noticed in this report1 and their practical results given4 ,the ,board of ,public ,works1 however1 laid down a considerable amount of prepared wood pavement in ,washington1 all of which is understood to have proved a dismal failure4 ,after a good deal of inquiry1 your committee has been enabled to obtain information of the results of three of these experiments4 ,the pine paving blocks upon ,pennsylvania ,avenue 7experiment #bc7 were first kiln-dried1 and then immersed in a hot solution of sulphate of iron4 ,the spruce blocks on ,e ,street 7experiment #bd7 were treated with chloride of zinc1 or1 in other words1 burnettized2 but the mode of application is not stated4 ,the pine blocks upon ,sixteenth ,street 7experiment #be7 were treated with the residual products of petroleum distillation4 ,it is stated that this was the only process in which pressure was used4 ,in from three and a half to four and a half years the blocks were badly decayed1 and large portions of the streets were almost impassable1 while other streets paved in the same year with untreated woods remained in fair condition4 ,it has been stated to your committee that this result1 which did much toward bringing all wood preserving processes into contempt1 was chiefly owing to the very dishonest way in which the preparation was done2 that in fact there was a combination between the officials and the contractors by which the latter were chiefly interested how not to do it1 and that the above results1 therefore1 prove very little on the subject of wood preservation4 ,through the kindness of the ,united ,states ,navy ,department your committee is enabled to give the results of a series of experiments 7,nos4 #bf to #da inclusive7 which have been carried on at the ,norfolk1 ,va41 ,navy ,yard1 for a series of years1 by ,mr4 ,p4,c4 ,asserson1 ,civil ,engineer1 ,u4,s4,n41 to test the effect of various substances as a protection against the ,teredo navalis4 ,it will be noticed that the application of two coats of white zinc paint1 of two coats of red lead1 of coal tar and plaster of ,paris mixed1 of kerosene oil1 of rosin and tallow mixed1 of fish oil and tallow mixed and put on hot1 of verdigris1 of carbolic acid1 of coal tar and hydraulic cement1 of ,davis' patent insulating compound1 of compressed carbolized paper1 of anti-fouling paint1 of the ,thilmany process1 and of vulcanized fiber1 have proved failures4 ,the only favorable results have been that oak piles cut in the month of ,january and driven with the bark on have resisted four or five years1 or till the bark chafed or rubbed off1 and that cypress piles1 well charred1 have resisted for nine years4 ,this merely confirms the general conclusion which has been stated under the head of creosoting1 that nothing but the impregnation with creosote1 and plenty of it1 is an effectual protection against the teredo4 ,numberless experiments have been tried abroad and in this country1 and always with the same result4 ,there are quite a number of other experiments which your committee has learned about which are here passed in silence4 ,the accounts of them are vague1 or the promised results of such slight importance as not to warrant cumbering with them this already too voluminous report4 ,the committee also forbears from discussing the merits of the many patents which have been taken out for wood preservation4 ,it had prepared a list of them1 and investigated the probable success of many of them1 but has concluded that it is better to confine itself to the results of actual tests1 and to stick to ascertained facts4 ,neither does the committee feel called upon to point out the great importance of the subject1 and the economical advantages which will result from the artificial preparation of wood as its price advances4 ,they hope1 however1 that the members of this ,society1 in discussing this report1 will dwell upon this point4 ,we shall instead give as briefly as possible the general conclusions which we have reached as the result of our protracted investigation4 ,,decay ,,of ,,timber4 ,pure woody fiber is said by chemists to be composed of #eb4d parts of carbon1 #da4i parts of oxygen1 and #e4g parts of hydrogen1 and to be the same in all the different varieties4 ,if it can be entirely deprived of the sap and of moisture1 it undergoes change very slowly1 if at all4 ,decay originates with the sap4 ,this varies from #ce to #ee per cent4 of the whole1 when the tree is felled1 and contains a great many substances1 such as albuminous matter1 sugar1 starch1 resin1 etc41 etc41 with a large portion of water4 ,woody fiber alone will not decay1 but when associated with the sap1 fermentation takes place in the latter 7with such energy as may depend upon its constituent elements71 which acts upon the woody fiber1 and produces decay4 ,in order that this may take place1 it is believed that there must be a concurrence of four separate conditions3 #ast4 ,the wood must contain the elements or germs of fermentation when exposed to air and water4 #b;d4 ,there must be water or moisture to promote the fermentation4 #c;d4 ,there must be air present to oxidize the resulting products4 #dth4 ,the temperature must be approximately between #ej and #ajj ,f4 ,below #cb ,f4 and above #aej ,f41 no decay occurs4 ,when1 therefore1 wood is exposed to the weather 7air1 moisture1 and ordinary temperatures71 fermentation and decay will take place1 unless the germs can be removed or rendered inoperative4 ,experience has proved that the coagulation of the sap retards1 but does not prevent1 the decay of wood permanently4#a ,it is therefore necessary to poison the germs of decay which may exist1 or may subsequently enter the wood1 or to prevent their intrusion1 and this is the office performed by the various antiseptics4 ,footnote #a3 ,angus ,smith1 #ahfi1 ,disinfectants4 ,s4,b4 ,boulton1 #ahhd1 ,institution ,civil ,engineers1 ,on the ,antiseptic ,treatment of ,timber4 ,we need not here discuss the mooted question between chemists1 whether fermentation and decay result from slow combustion 7eremacausis7 or from the presence of living organisms 7bacteria1 etc472 but having in the preceding pages detailed the results of the application of various antiseptics1 we may now indicate under what circumstances they can economically be applied4 7,to be continued74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,span ,,of ,,cabin ,,john ,,bridge4 ,to the ,editor of the ,scientific ,american ,supplement3 ,your issue of #agth ,october contains the fifth or sixth imprint of ,mr4 ,b4 ,baker's1 ,c4,e41 recent address at the ,british ,association of ,aberdeen which has come into my hands4 ,in speaking of stone bridges1 he alludes to the bridge over the ,adda as #ejj years old4 ,it was never more than #ci years old as stated in the same address1 and he belittles the ,american ,cabin ,john ,bridge by making its span after all only #bae ft4 ,as the builder of this greatest ,american stone arch1 ,i regret that on so important and public an occasion the writer was not accurate4 ,the clear span of ,cabin ,john ,bridge is #bbj ft4 ,the difference is not great1 but in the length of a bridge span it is the last foot that counts1 as in an international yacht race to be beaten by one minute is to fail to capture the cup4 ,m4,c4 ,,meigs4 ,washington1 ,d4,c41 ,oct4 #af1 #ahhe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,german ,,corvette ,,augusta4 ,on the #c;d of ,june of this year1 the ,german cruising corvette ,augusta left the island of ,perrin1 in the ,straits of ,bab el ,mandeb1 for ,australia2 and as nothing has been heard of her since that day1 the report that she was destroyed in the typhoon on ,june #c is probably correct4 ,the vessel left ,kiel on ,april #bh1 with the crews for the cruisers of the ,australian squadron2 #bhc men were on board1 including the commander1 ,corvette ,captain ,von ,gloeden4 ,there is still a possibility that the ,augusta was dismasted1 and is drifting somewhere in the ,indian ,ocean1 or has stranded on an island2 but this is not very probable1 as the ,augusta was not well adapted to weather a typhoon4 ,during her cruise of #ahgf to #ahgh1 all the upper masts1 spars1 etc1 had to be removed1 that she might be better adapted to weather a cyclone or like storm4 ,if the ,augusta had not met with an accident1 she would have arrived at ,port ,albany in ,australia by the #cjth of ,june or beginning of ,july4 ,she was due ,june #ag4 ,the ,augusta was built at ,armands' ship yards at ,bordeaux1 and was bought in #ahfd by ,prussia4 ,she was a screw steamer with ship's rigging1 #bcg feet long1 #ce feet beam1 #af feet draught1 and #a1edc tons burden4 ,her engines had #djj horse-power1 and her armament consisted of #ad pieces4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,german ,,corvette ,,augusta4 ,during the ,franco-,german war of #ahgj-ga1 she was commanded by ,captain ,weikhmann1 and captured numerous vessels on the ,french coast4 ,january #d1 #ahga1 she captured the ,french brig ,st4 ,marc1 in the mouth of the ,gironde2 the brig was sailing from ,dunkirken to ,bordeaux with flour and bread for the ,third ,french ,division4 ,the ,augusta then captured the ,pierre ,adolph1 loaded with wheat1 which was being carried from ,havre to ,bordeaux4 ,then the ,french transport steamer ,max was captured and burned4 ,the ,french men of war finally forced the ,augusta to retreat into the ,spanish port of ,vigo1 from which she sailed ,jan4 #bh1 and arrived ,march #bh at ,kiel1 with the captured brig ,st4 ,marc in tow4--,illustrirte ,zeitung4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improvement ,,in ,,metal ,,wheels4 ,in the ,inventions ,exhibitions may be seen a good form of metal wheel1 the invention of ,mr4 ,h4,j4 ,barrett1 of ,hull1 ,eng41 and which we illustrate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,fig4 #a is a perspective view of the wheel1 ,fig4 #b a transverse section1 and ,fig4 #c a longitudinal section of the boss4 ,these wheels are made in two classes1 ,a and ,b4 ,our engraving illustrates a wheel of the former class1 these wheels being designed for use on rough and uneven roads1 and when very great jolting strains may be met with1 being stronger than those of class ,b design4 ,the wheels are made with mild steel spokes1 which are secured by metal straps in the recesses cut in the annular flanges on the boss1 and by a taper bolt or rivet through the tire and rim4 ,these spokes can be easily taken out and renewed when necessary by any unskilled person in a few minutes4 ,the spokes being twisted midway of their length give greater strength to the wheel and power to resist side strains in pulling out of deep ruts or holes1 without increasing the weight4 ,the bosses and straps are made of malleable iron1 in which the metal bushes are secured by means of a key with a washer screwed up on the front end4 ,they are also fitted with steel oil caps to the end of the bushes1 which are provided with a small set screw1 so that the cap need not be taken off when it is necessary to lubricate the wheel1 as by simply taking out the set screw oil may be poured through the hole into the cap4 ,the set screw also forms a fulcrum for a key1 so that the cap can be taken off or put on when required1 as well as a means of preventing the cap being lost by shaking loose on rough roads4 ,in all hot and dry climates1 the continued shrinking of wood wheels and loosening of the tires is a constant source of expense and inconvenience4 ,this wheel having a tire and rim entirely of metal does away with the difficulty1 as the expansion and contraction are equal1 consequently the tires need only be removed when worn out1 and others can be supplied1 drilled complete1 ready for putting on1 which can be done by any unskilled person4 ,the wheels of class ,b design are the same in principle of construction as those of class ,a1 but they have cast metal bosses or naves1 without loose bushes1 and are suitable for general work and ordinary roads where the strains are not so severe4 ,the bosses or naves are readily removed in case of breakage1 and they can be fitted with steel oil caps for lubricating4--,iron4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,the ,,production ,,of ,,water ,,gas4 ,the apparatus shown in the accompanying engraving is designed for the manufacture of water gas for heating purposes1 and is described in a communication1 by ,mr4 ,w4,a4 ,goodyear1 to the ,american ,institute of ,mining ,engineers4 ,the generator1 ,a1 is lined with refractory bricks and is filled with fuel1 which may be coal1 coke1 or any suitable carbonaceous material4 ,b and ,b' are two series of regenerating chambers lined with refractory brick1 and1 besides1 filled with refractory bricks piled up as shown in the figure4 ,the partitions1 ,c and ,c'1 are likewise of refractory brick1 and are rendered as air-proof as possible4 ,apertures1 ,d and ,d'1 are formed alternately at the base of one partition and the top of the adjacent one1 in order to oblige the gases that traverse the series of chambers to descend in one of them and to rise in the following1 whatever be the number of chambers in use4 ,the two flues1 ,e and ,e'1 lead from the bottom of the two nearest regenerator on each side to the bottom of the generator ,a1 and serve to bring the current of air or steam into contact with the fuel4 ,valves1 ,f and ,f'1 placed in these flues1 permit of regulating the current in the two directions4 ,pipes1 ,m and ,m'1 provided with valves1 ,g and ,g'1 put the upper part of the generator in communication with the contiguous chambers1 ,t and ,t'4 ,other pipes1 ,n and ,n'1 with valves1 ,h and ,h'1 permit of the introduction of a current of air from the outside into the chambers1 ,t and ,t'4 ,the pipes1 ,o and ,o'1 and the valves1 ,i and ,i'1 connected with a blower1 serve for the same purpose4 ,the pipes1 ,p and ,p'1 and their valves1 ,j and ,j'1 lead a current of steam4 ,the conduits1 ,q and ,q'1 and their valves1 ,k and ,k'1 direct the gases toward the purifiers and the gasometer4 ,finally1 the pipes1 ,r and ,r'1 provided with valves1 ,l and ,l'1 are connected with a chimney4 ,the generator1 ,a1 is provided at its upper part with a feed hopper4 ,the doors1 ,s and ,s'1 of the ash box close the apertures through which the ashes are removed4 ,when it is desired to use the apparatus1 the pipes1 ,p1 ,q1 and ,r1 are closed by means of their valves1 ,j1 ,k1 and ,l1 and the valve1 ,i1 of the pipe1 ,o1 is opened4 ,the pipes1 ,m and ,n1 are likewise closed1 while the flue1 ,e1 is opened4 ,on the other side of the generator the reverse order is followed1 that is to say1 the flue1 ,e'1 is closed1 the pipes1 ,m' and ,n'1 are opened1 the pipes1 ,o'1 ,p'1 and ,q'1 are closed1 and ,r' is opened4 ,a current of air is introduced through the pipe1 ,o1 and this traverses the regenerators1 ,b1 enters the chamber1 ,t1 and the generator1 ,a1 through the flue1 ,e4 ,as this air rises through the mass of incandescent fuel1 its oxygen combines with an atom of carbon and forms carbonic oxide4 ,this gas that is disengaged from the upper part of the fuel consists chiefly of nitrogen and carbonic oxide1 mixed with volatile hydrocarburets derived from the fuel used4 ,this gas1 through the action of the air upon the fuel1 is called air gas1 in order to distinguish it from the water gas formed in the second period of the process4 ,the air gas1 on issuing from the generator through the pipe1 ,m'1 in order to pass into the chamber1 ,f'1 meets in the latter a second current of air coming in through the pipe1 ,n'1 and which burns it and produces1 in doing so1 considerable heat4 ,the strongly heated gases resulting from the combustion traverse the regenerators1 ,b'1 and give up to the bricks therein the greater part of their heat1 and finally make their exit1 relatively cool1 through the pipe1 ,r'1 which leads them to the chimney4 ,when the operation has been continued for a sufficient length of time to give the refractory bricks in the chamber1 ,b'1 next the regenerator a high temperature1 the valve1 ,i1 is closed1 thus shutting off the entrance of air through the pipe1 ,q4 ,the valve1 ,f1 of the flue1 ,e1 is also closed1 and that of the pipe1 ,m1 is opened4 ,the valves1 ,g'1 ,h'1 ,l'1 of the pipes1 ,m'1 ,n'1 ,r'1 are closed1 and that1 ,f'1 of the flue1 ,e'1 is opened4 ,the valve1 ,j'1 of the pipe1 ,p'1 is then opened1 and a jet of steam is introduced through the latter4 ,the steam becomes superheated in traversing the regenerators1 ,b'1 and in this state enters the bottom of the generator through the flue1 ,e'4 ,in passing into the incandescent fuel that fills the generator1 the steam is decomposed1 and there forms carbonic oxide1 while hydrogen is liberated4 ,the mixture of these two gases with the hydrocarburets furnished by the fuel constitutes water gas4 ,this gas on making its exit from the generator through the pipe1 ,m'1 passes through the chambers1 ,b1 and abandons therein the greater part of its heat1 and enters the pipe1 ,r1 whence it passes through ,q into the purifiers1 and then into the gasometer4 ,as the production of water gas implies the absorption of a large quantity of sensible heat1 it is accompanied with a rapid fall of temperature in the chambers1 ,b'1 and eventually also in the generator1 ,a1 while at the same time the chambers1 ,b1 are but moderately heated by the sensible heat of the current of gas produced4 ,when this cooling has continued so long that the temperature in the generator1 ,a1 is no longer high enough to allow the fuel to decompose the steam with ease1 the valve1 ,j'1 of the pipe1 ,p'1 that leads the steam is closed1 as is also the valve1 ,k1 of the pipe1 ,q1 while the valves1 ,l and ,h1 of the pipes1 ,r and ,n1 are opened4 ,after this the valve1 ,i'1 is opened1 and a current of air is let in through the pipe1 ,o'4 ,this air1 upon traversing the chambers1 ,b' and ,t'1 is raised to a high temperature through the heat remaining in these chambers1 and then enters at the bottom of the generator1 through the flue1 ,e'4 ,the air gas that now makes its exit from the pipe1 ,m1 in the chamber1 ,t1 meets another current of air coming from the pipe1 ,n1 and is thus burned4 ,the products resulting from such combustion pass into the chambers1 ,b1 and then into the chimney1 through the pipe1 ,r4 ,the temperature then rapidly lowers in the chambers1 ,b'1 and rises no less rapidly in the generator1 ,a1 while the chambers1 ,b1 are soon heated to the same temperature that first existed in the chambers1 ,b'4 ,as soon as the desired temperature is obtained in the generator1 ,a1 and the chambers1 ,b1 the air is shut off by closing the valve1 ,i'1 of the pipe1 ,o'2 the valve1 ,f'1 of the flue1 ,e'1 is also closed1 the valves1 ,g' and ,k'1 of the pipes1 ,m' and ,q'1 are opened1 the valves1 ,g1 ,h1 and ,l1 of the pipes1 ,m1 ,n1 and ,r1 are closed1 and the valve1 ,f1 of the flue1 ,e1 and the valve1 ,j1 of the pipe1 ,p1 are opened4 ,a current of steam enters the apparatus through the pipe1 ,p1 traverses the chambers1 ,b1 and enters the generator through the flue1 ,e4 ,the gas produced makes its exit from the generator1 passes through the pipe1 ,m'1 and the chambers1 ,t' and ,b'1 and the pipe1 ,r1 and enters the gasometer through the pipe1 ,q'4 ,illustration3 ,,water-,,gas ,,apparatus4 ,when the chamber1 ,b1 and the generator1 ,a1 are again in so cool a state that the fuel no longer decomposes the steam easily1 the valves are so maneuvered as to stop the entrance of the latter1 and to send a current of air into the apparatus in the same direction that the steam had just been taking4 ,the temperature thereupon quickly rises in the generator1 ,a1 while1 at the same time1 the combustion of the air gas produced soon reheats the chambers1 ,b'4 ,the cooled products of combustion go1 as before1 to the chimney4 ,the position of the valves is then changed again so as to send a current of steam into the apparatus in a direction contrary to that which the air took in the last place1 and the water gas obtained again is sent to the gasometer4 ,as will be seen1 the process is entirely continuous1 each current of air following the same direction in the apparatus 7from left to right1 or right to left7 that the current of steam did which preceded it1 while each current of steam follows a direction opposite that of the current of air which preceded it4 ,the inventor estimates that the cost of the coal necessary for his process will not exceed a tenth of a cent per cubic foot of gas4 ,one important advantage of the apparatus is that it can be made of any dimensions4 ,instead of giving the generator the limited size and form shown in the engraving1 with doors at the bottom for the removal of the ashes by hand from time to time1 it may be constructed after the general model of the shaft of blast furnaces1 with a hearth at the base4 ,upon adding to the fuel a small quantity of flux1 all the mineral parts thereof can be melted into a liquid slag1 which may be carried off just like that of blast furnaces4 ,there is no difficulty in constructing regenerators of refractory bricks of sufficient capacity1 however large the generators be2 and a single apparatus might1 if need be1 convert one thousand tons of anthracite per day into more than five million cubic feet of gas4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lighting ,,and ,,ventilating ,,by ,,gas4 ,footnote3 ,a paper read before the ,gas ,institute1 ,manchester1 ,june1 #ahhe4 ,by ,,william ,,sugg1 of ,london4 ,ever since the introduction of electric lighting1 the public have been assured1 by those interested in the different kinds of lamps--arc1 glow or otherwise--that henceforth1 by means of such lamps1 rooms are to be lighted without heat or baneful products such as they assert attend the use of gas1 lamps1 or candles4 ,but ,i think it must not be implied1 from what any one has said in favor of the electric light as a means of lighting our dwellings1 that gas is unsuitable for the purpose1 or that the glow lamp is a perfect substitute for gas1 or that there is a very large difference throughout the year on the points of health1 convenience1 or comfort1 or that the balance in favor rests with electric light upon all or any of these points4 ,the fact is1 the glow lamp is only one more means 7not without certain disadvantages7 of producing light added to those which already exist1 and of which the public have the choice4 ,now1 looking to best means of lighting rooms1 and particularly the principal rooms of a small dwelling-house1 ,i beg to say that the arguments which can be adduced in favor of gas lighting in preference to any other means greatly preponderate1 and that it can be substantiated that1 light for light1 under the heads of convenience1 health1 comfort1 reliability1 readiness1 and cheapness1 gas is superior to all4 ,as a scientific means for the purposes mentioned1 gas is comparatively untried4 ,this assertion may sound somewhat astounding2 but ,i think it is a true one4 ,more than that1 even in the crude and unscientific way in which it has most frequently been used up to the present1 it has been far from unsuccessful in comparison with electricity or other means of lighting2 and in the future it will prove the best and cheapest practical means1 although1 for effect1 glow lamps may be used in palatial dwellings in conjunction with it4 ,it must be remembered that1 in laying down a system of artificial lighting1 we have to imitate1 as well as we can1 that most beautiful and perfect natural light which1 without our aid1 and without even a thought from us1 shines regularly every day upon all1 in such an immense volume1 so perfectly diffused1 and in such wonderful chemical combination1 that it may safely be said that not one atom of the whole economy of ,nature is unaffected by it1 and that we and all the animal kingdom1 in common with trees and plants1 derive health and vigor therefrom4 ,this glorious natural light leaves our best gas1 electricity1 oil lamp1 and all our multiplicity of candles1 immeasurably behind4 ,but although we cannot hope to equal1 in all its beneficent results1 the effects of daylight1 or to perfectly replace it1 we can more perfectly make the lighting of our homes comfortable 7and as little destructive to the eyes and to the general health7 by the aid of gas than by any other means4 ,it must also be borne in mind that1 in this country at least1 we have to fulfill the conditions of artificial lighting under frequent differences of temperature and barometric influence1 exaggerated by the manner in which our homes are built2 and that for at least nine months of the year we require heat as well as light in our dwellings1 and that for the other three months 7excepting in some few favored localities7 the nights are often chilly1 even though the days may be hot4 ,therefore1 independently of any effect produced by the lighting arrangements1 there must be widely different effects produced in the temperature and conditions of the air in rooms by influences entirely beyond our control4 ,as an example of what ,i mean1 a short time ago ,i had to preside over a meeting which was held in a large room--one of two built exactly alike1 and in communication with each other by means of folding doors4 ,these rooms formed part of one of the best hotels in ,london--let us call it the ,magnificent4 ,of course1 it was lighted by electric glow lamps1 in accordance with the latest fashion in that department of artificial lighting1 viz41 suspension lamps1 in which the glow lamps grew out of leaves and scrolls1 twisted and twirled in and out1 very much after the pattern of our most sthetic gas lamps1 which1 of course1 are in the style of the most artistic 7late eighteenth century7 oil lamps1 which were in imitation of the most classic ,roman lamps1 which followed the ,persian1 and so on back to the time of ,tubal ,cain1 the great arch-artificer in metals1 who most likely copied in metal some lamps he had seen in shells or flints4 ,both rooms were heated by means of the good old blazing coal fire so dear to a ,briton's heart2 and they were ventilated with all due regard to the latest state of knowledge on the subject among architects and builders4 ,in fact1 no pains had been spared to make these rooms comfortable in the highest acceptation of the word4 ,there were1 some of our members remarked1 no gas burners to heat and deteriorate the atmosphere1 or to blacken the ceilings2 and therefore1 under the brilliant sparkle of glow lamps1 the summit of such human felicity as is expected by a body of eighteen or twenty business men1 intent on dispatching business and restoring the lost tissue by means of a nice little dinner afterward1 ought1 according to the calculations of the architect of the building1 to have been reached4 ,i instance this case because it is a typical one1 which1 under most aspects1 does not materially differ from the conditions of home life in such residences as those whose occupiers are likely to use electric lighting4 ,the rooms were spacious 7about #bj feet by #ce feet1 and about #ae feet high72 and they were lighted during the day by means of large lantern ceiling-lights1 with double glass windows4 ,the evening in question was chilly1 not to say cold4 ,upon commencing our business1 we all admired the comfort of the room2 but as time went on1 most of the company began to complain of a little draught on the head and back of the neck4 ,the draught1 which at first was only a suspicion1 became a certainty1 and in another hour or so1 by the time our business was over1 notwithstanding a screen placed before the door1 and a blazing fire1 we were delighted to make a change to the comfortable dining-room1 which communicated with the room we had just left by means of folding doors1 closed with the exception of just sufficient space left at one end of the room to allow a waiter to pass in and out4 ,very curiously1 before the soup was finished1 we became aware that the candles which assisted the electric glow lamps 7merely for artistic effect7 began to flare in a most uncandlelike manner--the flames turning down1 as if some one were blowing downward on the wicks2 and at the same time the complaints of ,draughts1 horrid draughts6 became general1 and from every quarter4 ,finding that1 as the dinner went on1 the discomfort became unbearable1 even although the doors were shut and screens put before them1 ,i gave up dining1 and took to scientific discovery4 ,the result of a few moments' observation induced me to order those gas jets1 which ,i saw peeping out from among the foliage of the electroliers1 to be lighted up4 ,in two or three minutes the flames of the candles burned upright and steadily1 and in less than ten minutes the draughts were no longer felt2 in fact1 the room became really comfortable4 ,the reason of the change was simple4 ,the stratum of air lying up at the ceiling was comparatively cold4 ,the column of heated air from the bodies of the twenty guests1 joined to the heat produced by the movements of themselves and the waiters1 together with the steam from the viands and respiration1 displaced the colder air at the ceiling1 and notably that coldest air lying against the surface of the glass4 ,this cold air simply dropped straight down1 after the manner of a douche1 on candles and heads below4 ,the remedy ,i advised was the setting up of a current of hotter steam and air from the gas burners1 which stopped the cooling effect of the glass1 and created a stratum of heated steam and air in slow movement all over the ceiling4 ,the effect was a comfortable sensation of warmth and entire absence of draught all round the table4 ,later on1 to avoid the possibility of overheating the room1 the gas was put out1 and the electric lights left to themselves4 ,but before we left1 the chilliness and draughts began to be again felt4 ,the incident here narrated occurred at the end of the month of ,april last1 when we might reasonably have hoped to have tolerably warm nights4 ,it is therefore clear that in this instance neither electricity nor candles could effectually replace gas for lighting purposes4 ,they both did the lighting1 but they utterly failed to keep the currents of air steady4 ,i have always remarked draughts whenever ,i have remained any length of time in rooms where the electric light is used4 ,on a warm evening the electric light and candles would undoubtedly have kept the room cooler than gas1 with the same kind of ventilation2 ,i do not think they would have put an end to cold draughts4 ,this the steam from the gas does in all fairly built rooms4 ,it is a well-known fact that dry air parts with its relatively small amount of specific heat1 in an almost incredibly rapid manner1 to anything against which it impinges4 ,steam1 on the contrary1 from its great specific heat1 remains in a heated state for a much longer time than air4 ,it is not so suddenly reduced to a low temperature1 and in parting with its own heat it communicates a considerable amount of warmth to those bodies with which it comes in contact4 ,thus the products of the combustion of gas 7which are principally steam7 serve a useful purpose in lighting1 by keeping at the ceiling level a certain stratum of heated vapor1 which holds up1 as it were1 the carbonic acid and exhalation from the lungs given off by those using the room4 ,the obvious inference1 therefore1 is that if we take off these products from the level of the ceiling1 we shall take off at the same time the impure and vitiated air4 ,on the other hand1 if we make use of a system of artificial lighting1 which does not produce any steam1 then we shall have to adopt means to keep the air at the ceiling level warm1 in order to prevent the heated impure air from descending in comparatively rapid currents1 after having parted with its heat to the ceiling4 ,it may very frequently be observed on chilly days that a number of currents of cold air seem to travel about our rooms1 although there may be no crevices in the doors and windows sufficient to account for them2 and1 further1 that these currents of cold air are not noticed when the curtains are drawn and the gas is lighted4 ,the reason is that there is generally not enough heat at the ceiling level in a room unlighted with gas to keep these currents steady4 ,hence the complaints of chilliness which we constantly hear when electric lights are used for the illumination of public buildings4 ,for example1 at the annual dinner of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 held at the end of ,april last in the ,conservatory of the ,horticultural ,gardens1 the heat from the five hundred guests1 and from an almost equal number of waiters and attendants1 displaced the cold air from the dome of the roof1 and literally poured down on the assembly 7who were in evening dress7 in a manner to compel many of them to put on overcoats4 ,if the ,conservatory had been lighted with gas suspended below the roof1 this would not have been the case1 because sufficient steam would have been generated to stop these cold douches1 and keep them up in the roof4 ,in fact1 if electric lights are to be used in such a building1 it will be necessary to lay hot-water pipes in the roof1 to keep warm the upper as well as the lower stratum of air1 and thus steady the currents4 ,having pointed out difficulties which arise under certain conditions of the atmosphere in rooms built with care1 to make them comfortable when electric lighting is substituted for gas1 ,i will lay before you some few particulars relative to the condition of small rooms of about #ab ft4 by #ae ft4 by #aj ft41 or any ordinary room such as may be found in the usual run of houses in this country4 ,the cubical contents of such a room equals #a1gjj cubic feet4 ,if the room is heated by means of a coal fire1 we shall for the greatest part of the year have a quantity of air taken out of it at about #b feet from the floor by the chimney draught1 varying 7according to atmospheric conditions and the state of the fire7 from #fjj to #b1jjj or more cubic feet4 ,this quantity of air must1 therefore1 be admitted by some means or other into the room1 or the chimney will1 in ordinary parlance1 smoke2 that is1 the products of combustion1 very largely diluted with fresh air1 will not all find their way up the flue with sufficient velocity to overcome the pressure of the heavy cold air at the top of the chimney4 ,if no proper inlets for air are made1 this supply to the fire must be kept up from the crevices of the doors and windows4 ,in the line of these currents of cold air1 or draughts as they are usually called1 it is impossible to experience any comfort--quite the contrary2 and colds1 rheumatism1 and many other serious maladies are brought on through this abundant supply of fresh air in the wrong way and place4 ,according to ,general ,morin 7one of the best authorities on ventilation71 #cjj cubic feet of air per hour are required for every adult person in ordinary living rooms4 ,peclet says #bej cubic feet are sufficient2 less than this renders the atmosphere stuffy and unhealthy4 ,it is generally admitted that an average adult breathes out from #bj to #cj cubic inches of steam and vitiated air per minute1 or1 as ,dr4 ,arnott says1 a quantity equal in bulk to that of a full-sized orange4 ,this vitiated air and steam is respired at a temperature of #ij ,fahr42 and therefore1 by reason of this heat1 it immediately ascends to the ceiling1 together with the heat and carbonic acid given off from the pores of the skin4 ,this fact1 by the bye1 can be clearly demonstrated by placing a person in the direct rays from a powerful limelight or electric lamp1 and thus projecting his shadow sharply on a smooth white surface4 ,it will be observed that from every hair of the head and beard1 and every fiber of his clothing1 a current of heated air in rapid movement is passing upward toward the ceiling4 ,these currents appear as white lines on the surface of the wall2 the cause probably being that the extreme rarefaction of the air by the heat of the body enables the rays of light to pass through them with less refraction than through the denser and more moist surrounding cold air4 ,an adult makes1 on an average1 about #ae respirations per minute1 and therefore he in every hour renders to the atmosphere of the room in which he is staying from #aj to #ae cubic feet of poisonous air4 ,this rises to the ceiling line1 if it is not prevented2 and thus vitiates from #ajj to #aej cubic feet of air to the extent of #a per cent1 in an hour4 ,general ,morin thought that air was not good which contained more than per cent1 of air which had been exhaled from the lungs2 and when we consider how dangerous to health these exhalations are1 we must admit that he was right in his view4 ,therefore in one hour the #ae foot by #ab foot room is vitiated to more than #b feet from the ceiling by one person to the extent of per cent41 and it will be vitiated by two persons to the extent of #a per cent1 in the same time4 ,it must be remembered here that the degree of diffusion of the vitiated air into the lower fresh air contained in the remaining #h feet of the height of the room depends very materially on the difference of temperature between these upper and lower strata and the movements of air in the room4 ,the heavy poisonous vapors and gases fall into and diffuse themselves among the fresh air of the lower strata--very readily if they are nearly the same temperature as the upper1 but scarcely at all if the air at the ceiling line is much hotter4 ,hence it occurs that1 in warmed rooms of such size as ,i have mentioned1 where one or two petroleum lamps are used for lighting them1 after two or three hours of occupation by a family of three or four persons in winter weather1 the air at the ceiling line has become so poisonous that a bird dies if allowed to breathe it for a very short time--sometimes1 indeed1 for only a few minutes4 ,with candles1 if the illumination of the room is maintained at the same degree as in the case of lamps1 the contamination of the air is very much worse4 ,it is doubtless the case that poisonous germs are rapidly developed in atmospheres which are called stuffy2 and although1 in a healthy state of the body1 we are able to breathe them without perceptible harm1 yet even then the slight headache and uneasiness we feel is a symptom which does not suffer itself to be lightly regarded1 whenever1 from some cause or other1 the general condition is weak4 ,the products of combustion from coal gas 7which are steam and carbonic acid mixed with an infinitesimal quantity of sulphur7 are1 proportionately1 far less injurious to animal life than the products from an equal illuminating power derived from either oil or candles4 ,they are1 however1 it is certain1 destructive to germ life2 and therefore1 if taken off from the ceiling level1 where they always collect if allowed to do so1 no possible inconvenience or danger to health can be felt by any one in the room4 ,but in our endeavors to take off the foul air at the ceiling1 we encounter our first serious check in all schemes of ventilation4 ,we draw the elevation and section of the room1 and put in our flues with pretty little black arrows flying out of the outlets for vitiated air1 and other pretty little red arrows flying in at the inlets2 but when we see our scheme in practice1 the black arrows will persist in putting their wings where their points ought to be2 in other words1 flying into instead of out of the room4 ,one of the best ways of finding the true course of all the hot and cold currents in a room is to make use of a small balloon1 such as used to be employed for ascertaining the specific gravity of gases2 and1 having filled it with ordinary coal gas1 balance it by weights tied on to the car till it will rest without going up or down in a part of the room where the air can be felt to be at about the mean temperature1 and free from draught4 ,then leave it to itself1 to go where it will4 ,as soon as it arrives in a current of heated air1 it will ascend1 passing along with the current1 and descending or rising as the current is either warm or cold4 ,the effect of the cold fresh air from windows or doors1 as well as the effect of the radiant heat from the fire1 can be thus thoroughly studied4 ,some of our pet theories may receive a cruel shock from this experiment2 but1 in the end1 the ventilation of the room will doubtless be benefited1 if we apply the information obtained4 ,it will be discovered that the wide-throated chimney is the cause of the little black arrows turning their backs on the right path and our theoretical outlets for vitiated air becoming inlets4 ,the chimney flue must have an enormous supply of air1 and it simply draws it from the most easily accessible places4 ,from #a1jjj to #b1jjj cubic feet of air per hour is a large order for a small room4 ,therefore1 until we have made ample provision for the air supply to the fire1 it is quite useless to attempt to ventilate the upper part of the room1 either by ventilating gas lights or one of the cheap ventilators with little talc flappers1 opening into the chimney when there is an up draught1 and shutting themselves up when there is any tendency to down draught4 ,the success of these and all other ventilators depends upon there being a good supply of air from under the door or through the spaces round the window frames4 ,these fresh air supplies are1 of course1 unendurable2 but if one of the spaces between the joists of the floor is utilized to serve as an air conduit1 and made to discharge itself under the fender 7raised about two inches for the purpose71 quite another state of things will be set up4 ,then the supply of air thus arranged for will satisfy the fire1 without drawing from the doors and windows1 and at the same time supply a small quantity of fresh air into the room4 ,but the important fact that the radiant heat from the fire will pass through the cold air without warming it all must not be lost sight of4 ,in reality1 radiant heat only warms the furniture and walls of the room or whatever intercepts its rays4 ,the air of the room is warmed by passing over these more or less heated surfaces2 and as it is warmed1 it rises away to the ceiling4 ,therefore1 if we desire to warm any of this fresh air supplied to the fire1 it must be made to pass over a heated surface4 ,the fender may be used for this purpose by filling up the two inch space along the front1 as shown in the drawing1 with coarse perforated metal4 ,this will also prevent cinders from getting under it4 ,it will be found that for the greater part of the year the chimney ventilator and the supply to the fire will materially prevent stuffiness1 and keep those disagreeable draughts under control1 even although the room be lighted with a #c light chandelier burning a large quantity of gas4 ,illustration ,with improvements in gas burners1 we may expect to light rooms perfectly with a less expenditure of gas than we now do4 ,but we cannot light a room without in some measure creating heat2 and ,i think ,i have shown that we want this heat at the ceiling line for the greater part of the year4 ,in summer we do not use gas for many hours2 but1 on the other hand1 it is more difficult1 with an outside temperature at #fe to #gj ,fahr41 to keep the air in proper movement in small rooms4 ,there are also times in the fall of the year1 and also in spring1 when the nights are unusually warm2 and1 with a few friends in our rooms1 the lighting becomes a hot question1 not to say a burning one4 ,on these occasions we have to resort to exceptional ventilation1 which for ordinary every-day life would be too much4 ,it is then1 and on summer nights1 that the system of ventilation by diffusion is most useful4 ,to explain it1 when two volumes of air of different temperatures or specific gravities find themselves on opposite sides of a screen or other medium1 of muslin1 cloth1 or some more or less porous substance1 they diffuse themselves through this medium with varying rapidity1 until they become of equal density or temperature4 ,therefore1 if we fill the upper part of a window 7which can be opened1 downward7 with a strained piece of fine muslin or washed common calico1 the air in the room1 if hotter than the external air1 will1 when the window is more or less opened1 pass out readily into the cooler air1 and the cooler air will pass in through the pores of the medium4 ,the hotter air passing out faster than the cooler air will come in1 no draught will be experienced2 and the window may be opened very widely without any discomfort from it4 ,it is1 of course1 quite impossible1 in the limits of a paper1 to do more than indicate a means of ventilation which will be effective under most circumstances of lighting with those gas burners and fittings usually employed1 and which will lend itself readily to modifications which will be necessitated by the use of some of the newest forms of burners and ventilating gas lights4 ,illustration ,in conclusion1 ,i wish to draw attention to an important discovery ,i have made in reference to blackened ceilings1 for which1 up to the present time1 gas has been chiefly blamed4 ,i have long entertained the belief that with a proper burner it is possible to obtain perfect combustion1 without any smoke2 and a series of experiments with white porcelain plates hung over some burners used in my own house proved conclusively that the discoloration which spread itself all over my whitewashed ceilings arose from the state of the atmosphere1 which in all large towns is largely mixed with heavy smoky particles1 and from the dust or dirt created in rooms by the use of coal fires as well as from the smoke which1 more frequently than one is at first supposed to imagine1 escapes from the fire-place into the room4 ,i therefore1 in two of my best rooms1 which required to have the ceilings whitened every year1 substituted varnished paper ceilings 7light oak paper1 simply put on in the usual way1 and varnished7 instead of whitewash4 ,i also changed the coal fires for gas fires4 ,these alterations have gone through the test of two winters1 and the ceilings are now as clean as when they were first done4 ,the burners have been used every night1 and the gas fires every day1 during the two winters4 ,no alteration has been made in the burners employed1 and no consumers have been used over them4 ,if the varnished paper ceilings are tried1 ,i am sure that every one will like them better than the time honored dirty whitewash1 which is simply a fine sieve4 ,this fact is clearly shown by the appearance of the rafters1 which1 after a short time1 invariably show themselves whiter than the spaces between4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,anders' ,,telephone4 ,mr4 ,g4,l4 ,anders' telephone1 shown in the accompanying cut1 combines in a single apparatus a transmitter1 ,a1 a receiver1 ,b1 and a pile1 ,c4 ,the transmitter consists of a felt disk1 a1 containing several large apertures1 and fixed by an insulating ring1 c1 to a metallic disk1 d1 situated within the box1 ,d4 ,the apertures1 b1 are filled with powdered carbon1 e1 and are covered by a thin metal plate1 f1 which is fixed to the insulating ring1 c1 by means of a metallic washer1 g4 ,back of the transmitter is arranged the receiver1 ,b1 which consists of an ordinary electro-magnet with a disk in front of its poles4 ,the pile1 ,c1 placed behind the receiver1 consists of a piece of carbon1 h1 held by a partition1 i1 and covered with a salt of mercury1 and of a plate of zinc1 l1 which is held at a distance from the mercurial salt by a spring1 m1 fixed to the insulating piece1 n4 ,illustration3 ,,anders ,,telephone ,when the button1 o1 which is a poor conductor1 is pressed1 the zinc plate1 l1 comes into contact with the mercurial salt1 and the circuit is closed through the line wire #a1 the pile1 the receiver1 the transmitter1 and the line wire #b1 while when the button is freed the current no longer passes4 ,the apparatus1 then1 can serve as a receiver or transmitter only when the button is pressed4--,bull4 de la ,musee de l',industrie4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,brown',s ,,electric ,,speed ,,regulator4 ,when the sea is rough1 and the screw leaves the water as a consequence of the ship's motions1 the rotary velocity of the screw and engine increases to a dangerous degree1 because the resistance that the screw was meeting in the water suddenly disappears4 ,when the screw enters the water again1 the resistance makes itself abruptly felt1 and causes powerful shocks1 which put both the screw and engine in danger4 ,ordinary regulators are powerless to overcome this trouble1 since their construction is such that they act upon the engine only when the excess of velocity has already been reached4 ,several remedies have been proposed for this danger4 ,for example1 use has been made of a float placed in a channel at the side of the screw1 and which closes the moderator valve by mechanical means or by electricity when the screw descends too low or rises too high4 ,illustration3 ,,brown',s ,,electric ,,speed ,,regulator4 ,mr4 ,brown's system is based upon a new idea4 ,the apparatus 7see figure7 consists of two contacts connected by an electric circuit4 ,one of them1 b1 is fixed to the ship in such a way as to be constantly in the water1 while the other1 a1 corresponds to the position above which the screw cannot rise without taking on a dangerous velocity4 ,in the normal situation of the ship1 the electric circuit1 c 7in which circulates a current produced by a dynamo1 d71 is closed through the intermedium of the water1 which establishes a connection between the two contacts4 ,when the contact1 a1 rises out of the water1 the current is interrupted4 ,the electro1 d1 then frees its armature1 f1 and the latter is pulled back by a spring--a motion that sets in action a small steam engine that closes the moderator valve4 ,when the contact1 a1 is again immersed1 the electro1 e1 attracts its armature1 and thus brings the moderator valve back to its normal position4 ,it is clear that the contact1 a1 must be insulated from the ship's side4 ,several contacts1 a1 might be advantageously arranged one above another1 in order to close the moderator valve more or less1 according to the extent of the screw's rise or fall4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,magneto-,,electric ,,crossing ,,signal4 ,we illustrate to-day a new application of electricity to railroad crossing signaling which the ,pennsylvania ,steel ,company1 of ,steelton1 ,pa41 has just perfected4 ,by its operation an isolated highway crossing in the woods or any lonely place can be made perfectly safe1 and that1 too1 without the expense of gates and a man to work them or of a flagman4 ,it is surely a great improvement over the old methods1 and it is likely to have a large sale4 ,in addition to considerations of safety1 possible saving in salaries to railroad companies by its use will be great4 ,this device is more reliable than a human being1 and can make any crossing safe to which it is applied4 ,its operation is described as follows3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,magneto-,,electric ,,crossing ,,signal ,the illustration shows the device as used on a single track railroad1 where it is so arranged as to be operated only by trains approaching the crossing 7i4e41 in the form illustrated1 from the right74 ,a similar box on the other side of the crossing is used for trains approaching in the other direction4 ,two plates connected by a link1 and pivoted1 are placed alongside of one rail1 close enough to it to be depressed by the treads of the wheels4 ,by another link1 one of the plates called the rock plate 7the one to the right7 is connected to a rock shaft which extends through a strong bearing into the heavy iron case or box shown1 at a suitable distance from the rail1 within which an electric generator is placed2 the whole being mounted and secured upon the ends of two long ties framed to receive it4 ,the action of this rock plate is peculiar4 ,it is pivoted at the rear end1 not to a fixed point1 but to a short crank arm1 the bearing for which is inclosed in the small box shown4 ,as the first wheel of a train which is approaching in the desired direction 7from the right in the engraving7 touches it1 it will be seen that it must not only depress it1 but produce a slight forward motion1 causing a corresponding rotary motion in the rock shaft which actuates the apparatus4 ,on the other hand1 when a train is approaching from the other direction1 or has already passed the crossing1 its wheels strike first the curved plate to the left of the illustration1 and by means of the peculiar link connections shown1 depress the rock plate so as to clear the wheels before the wheels touch it1 but the depression is directly vertical1 so that it does not give any horizontal motion to it1 which would have the effect of actuating the rock shaft4 ,consequently1 trains pass over the apparatus in one direction without having any effect upon it whatever1 the different point at which the same force is applied to the rock plate giving the latter an entirely different motion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,magneto-,,electric ,,crossing ,,signal ,the slight rotary motion which is in this way communicated to the rock shaft1 when a train is approaching in the right direction1 compresses a spring inside the case4 ,as each wheel passes off the rock plate1 the reaction of the spring throws it up again to its former position1 giving additional speed to the gearing within1 which is set in motion at the passage of the first wheel1 and operates the electric generator4 ,the spring is really the motive power of the alarm4 ,a small but heavy fly-wheel is connected with the apparatus1 the top of which is just visible in the engraving1 which serves to store up power to run the generator1 which is nothing more than a small dynamo1 for the necessary number of seconds after the rear of the train has passed4 ,the dynamo dispenses with all need for batteries1 and reduces the work of maintenance to occasionally refilling the oil-cups and noticing if any part has been broken4 ,a suitable wire circuit is provided1 commencing at the generator with insulated and protected wire1 and continued with ordinary telegraph wire1 which can be strung on telegraph poles or trees leading to the electric gong1 ,fig4 #b1 which rings as long as the armature revolves4 ,it is a simple matter so to proportion the mechanism for the required distance and speed that the revolutions of the armature and the ringing of the gong shall continue until the train reaches the crossing2 and as each wheel acts upon the apparatus1 the more wheels there are in the train the longer the bell will ring1 a very convenient property1 since the slowest trains have nearly always the most wheels4 ,the practical limits to the ringing of the gong are that it will stop sounding after the head of the train has passed the crossing and before or very soon after the rear has passed4 ,a wild engine running very slowly might not actuate the signal as long as was desirable1 but even then it is not unreasonably claimed the warning would probably last long enough for all practical requirements1 as a team approaching a crossing at eight miles per hour takes #db seconds to go #ejj feet4 ,all the bearings of any importance are self-lubricated by oil cups1 the whole apparatus being designed to require inspection not more than once a month4 ,the iron case when shut is water-tight1 and when duly locked cannot be maliciously tampered with without breaking open the case2 so that1 the manufacturers claim1 it will not be essential to examine it more than once a month4 ,the parts outside the case are all strong and heavy1 and not likely to get out of order1 while easily inspected4 ,the apparatus can be used for announcing trains as well as sounding alarms1 as the gongs can be placed upon any post or building4 ,the gong has a heavy striker1 and makes a great deal of noise1 so that no one should fail to hear it4--,railway ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,sizes ,,of ,,blood ,,corpuscles4 ,professor ,theodore ,g4 ,wormley1 in the new edition of his work1 gives the following sizes of blood corpuscles1 as measured by himself and ,professor ,gulliver4 ,we have only copied the sizes for mammals and birds4 ,it will be seen that1 with three or four exceptions1 the sizes obtained by the two observers are practically the same3 ,mammals ,wormley4 ,gulliver4 ,man #a-cbej #a-cbfj ,monkey #a-cchb #a-cdab ,opossum #a-cade #a-ceeg ,guinea pig #a-cbbc #a-cech ,kangaroo #a-cdaj #a-cddj ,muskrat #a-cbhb #a-ceej ,dog #a-cefa #a-cecb ,rabbit #a-cfec #a-cfjg ,rat #a-cfeb #a-cged ,mouse #a-cgdc #a-chad ,pig #a-dbfh #a-dbcj ,ox #a-dbai #a-dbfg ,horse #a-dbdc #a-dfjj ,cat #a-dcgb #a-ddjd ,elk #a-dchd #a-cich ,buffalo #a-dcea #a-dehf ,wolf 7prairie7 #a-cdbb #a-cfjj ,bear 7black7 #a-cfef #a-cfic ,hyena #a-cfdd #a-cgce ,squirrel 7red7 #a-dadj #a-djjj ,raccoon #a-djhd #a-ciej ,elephant #a-bgch #a-bgde ,leopard #a-dcij #a-dcai ,hippopotamus #a-cefj #a-cdbi ,rhinoceros #a-cfdi #a-cgfe ,tapir #a-dage #a-djjj ,lion #a-dadc #a-dcbb ,ocelot #a-chhe #a-dbbj ,mule #a-cgfj ,ass #a-cfbj #a-djjj ,ground squirrel #a-dbjj ,bat #a-ciff #a-dagc ,sheep #a-diab #a-ecjj ,ibex #a-fdde ,goat #a-fahi #a-fcff ,sloth #a-bhfe ,platypus 7duck-billed7 #a-cjjj ,whale #a-cjii ,capybara #a-cafd #a-caij ,seal #a-cbha ,woodchuck #a-cdhd ,muskdeer #a-abcbe ,beaver #a-ccbe ,porcupine #a-ccfi ,llama1 ,long diam4 #a-cbja #a-ccfa ,short #a-fdjh #a-fbbi ,camel1 ,long diam4 #a-ccca #a-cabc ,short #a-ebhj #a-ehgf ,,wormley ,,gulliver4 ,birds4 ,length4 ,breadth4 ,length4 ,breadth4 ,chicken #a-bjhj #a-cdhc #a-bajb #a-cdff ,turkey #a-ahid #a-cddd #a-bjde #a-ceii ,duck #a-aiee #a-cejd #a-aicg #a-cdbd ,pigeon #a-ahib #a-chjd #a-aigc #a-cfdc ,goose #ahcf #a-chci ,quail #bcdg #a-cdgj ,dove #bjje #a-ccfi ,sparrow #badj #a-cejj ,owl #agcf #a-djgf ,the subject of minute measurements was discussed in an interesting manner in an address before the ,microscopical ,section of the ,a4,a4,a4,s4 last year1 an abstract of which was published in this journal1 vol4 v41 p4 #aha4 ,the slight differences in size accurately given in this table are not always appreciable under modern amplification1 but under a power of #a1aej diameters corpuscles differing by the #a-ajjjjj of an inch are readily discriminated4 ,for the conclusions of ,prof4 ,wormley as regards the possibility of identifying blood of different animals1 the reader is referred to his book on ,micro-,chemistry of ,poisons4--,amer4 ,micro4 ,jour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,absorption ,,of ,,petroleum ,,ointment ,,and ,,lard ,,by ,,the ,,skin4 ,footnote3 ,from the ,american ,druggist4 ,e4 ,joerss has investigated the question whether ointments made with vaseline or other petroleum ointments are really as difficult of resorption by the skin1 or of yielding their medicinal ingredients to the latter1 as has been asserted4 ,in solving this question1 he considered himself justified in drawing conclusions from the manner in which such compounds behaved toward dead animal membrane4 ,if any kind of osmosis could take place1 he argued1 from ointments prepared with vaseline1 etc41 through dead membranes1 such osmosis would most probably also take place through living membranes4 ,at all events1 the endosmotic or exosmotic action of the skin of a living body must necessarily play an important role in the absorption of medicinal agents2 and1 on the other hand1 it is plain that fats1 which render the living skin impermeable1 necessarily also diminish or entirely neutralize its osmotic action4 ,to test this1 the author made the following experiments3 ,bladder was tied over the necks of three wide-mouthed vials1 with bottoms cut off1 and each was filled with iodide of potassium ointment4 ,no4 #a contained an ointment made with lard4 ,no4 #b1 one made with unguentum paraffini 7,germ4 ,pharm471 and ,no4 #c1 one made with unguentum paraffini mixed with #c per cent4 of lard4 ,all three vials were then suspended in beakers filled with water4 ,after standing twenty-four hours at the ordinary temperature1 the contents of none of the beakers gave any iodine reaction4 ,after having been placed into a warm temperature1 between #be-cg ,c41 all three showed iodine reactions after three hours1 ,nos4 #b and #c very strongly1 ,no4 #a 7with lard alone7 very faintly4 ,the same experiment was now repeated1 with the precaution that the bladder was previously washed completely free from chlorine4 ,each vial was suspended1 at a temperature of #be-bg ,c41 in #ej grammes of distilled water4 ,after three hours1 the contents of ,no4 #a 7containing the ointment made with lard7 gave no iodine reaction2 the contents of the other two1 however1 gave traces4 ,after eight hours no further change had taken place4 ,the temperature was now raised to #cj-ce ,c41 and kept so for eight hours4 ,all three beakers now gave a strong iodine reaction1 #j4b c4c4 of normal silver solution being required for each #ae grammes of the contents of the beakers4 ,in addition to the iodide1 some of the fatty base had osmosed through the membrane in each case4 ,the next experiment was made by substituting a piece of the skin 7freed from chlorine by washing7 of a freshly killed sheep for the bladder4 ,the ointment in ,no4 #c in this case was made with #aj per cent4 of lard4 ,no reaction was obtained1 at the ordinary temperature1 after twelve hours1 nor after eight more hours1 at a temperature of #be-cj ,c4 ,after letting them stand for eight hours longer at #cj-cg ,c41 a faint reaction was obtained in the case of the ointment made with unguentum paraffini2 a still fainter with ,no4 #c2 but no reaction at all with ,no4 #a 7that made with lard74 ,none of the fats passed through by osmosis4 ,after eight hours more1 the iodine reaction was quite decisive in all cases1 but no fat had passed through even now4 ,on titrating #bj grammes of the contents of each beaker1 ,no4 #a required #j4e c4c4 of silver solution4 ,no4 #c #j4e c4c4 ,no4 #b #j4g c4c4 showing that the most iodine had osmosed in the case of the ointment made with unguentum paraffini 7equivalent to vaseline74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,tails ,,of ,,comets4 ,i4--,if we throw a stone into the water1 a wave will be produced that will extend in a circle4 ,the size of this wave and the velocity with which it extends depend upon the size of the stone1 that is to say1 upon the intensity of the mechanical action that created it4 ,the extent and depth of the water are likewise factors4 ,if we cause a cord to vibrate in the water1 we shall obtain a succession of waves1 the velocity and size of which will be derived from the cord's size and the intensity of its action4 ,these waves1 which are visible upon the surface1 constitute what ,i shall call mechanical waves4 ,but there will be created at the same time other waves1 whose velocity of propagation will be much greater than that of the mechanical ones1 and apparently independent of mechanical intensity4 ,these are acoustic waves4 ,finally1 there will doubtless be created optical waves1 whose velocity will exceed that of the acoustic ones4 ,that is to say1 if a person fell into water from a great height1 and all his senses were sufficiently acute1 he would first perceive a luminous sensation when the first optical wave reached him1 then he would perceive the sound produced1 and later still he would feel1 through a slight tremor1 the mechanical wave4#a ,footnote #a3 ,certain persons1 as well known1 undergo an optical impression under the action of certain sounds4 ,illustration3 ,i ,under the action of the same mechanical energy there form1 then1 in a mass of fluid1 waves that vary in nature1 intensity1 and velocity of propagation2 and although but three modes appreciable to our senses have been cited1 it does not follow that these are the only ones possible4 ,we may remark1 again1 that if we produce a single wave upon water1 it will be propagated in a uniform motion1 and will form in front of it successive waves whose velocity of propagation is accelerated4 ,this may explain why sounds perceived at great distances are briefer than at small ones4 ,a detonation that gives a quick dead sound at a few yards is of much longer duration1 and softer at a great distance4 ,the laws that govern the system of wave propagation are1 then1 very complex4 ,illustration3 ,,ii ,,ii4--,if an obstacle be in the way of the waves1 there will occur in each of them an alteration1 a break1 which it will carry along with it to a greater or less distance4 ,this succession of alterations forms a trace behind the obstacle1 and in opposition to the line of the centers4 ,finally1 if the obstacle itself emits waves in space that are of less intensity then those which meet it1 these little waves will extend in the wake of the large ones1 and will form a trace of parabolic form situated upon the line of the centers4 ,illustration3 ,,iii ,,iii4--,let us admit1 then1 that the sun1 through the peculiar energy that develops upon its surface or in its atmosphere1 engenders in ethereal space successive waves of varying nature and intensity1 as has been said above1 and let us admit that its mechanical waves are traversed obliquely 7,fig4 #a7 by any spherical body--by a comet1 for example2 then1 under the excitation of the waves that it is traversing1 and through its velocity1 the comet will itself enter into action1 and produce mechanical waves in its turn4 ,as the trace produced in the solar waves consists of an agitation of the ether on such trace1 it will become apparent1 if we admit that every luminous effect is produced by an excitation--a setting of the ether in vibration4 ,the mechanical waves engender of themselves1 then1 an emission of optical waves that render perceptible the alteration which they create in each other4 ,let a be the position of the comet4 ,the altered wave1 a1 will carry along the mark of such alteration in the direction a b1 while at the same time extending transversely the waves emitted by the comet4 ,during this time the comet will advance to a'1 and the wave will be altered in its turn1 and carry such alteration in the direction1 a' b'4 ,the succession of all these alterations will be found1 then1 upon a curve a'' d' d1 whose first elements1 on coming from the comet1 will be upon the resultant of the comet's velocity1 and of the propagation of the solar waves4 ,consequently1 the slower the motion of the comet1 with respect to the velocity of the solar waves1 the closer will such resultant approach the line of centers1 and the more rectilinear will appear the trace or tail of the comet4 ,illustration3 ,,iv ,,iv4--,if the comet have satellites1 we shall see1 according to the relative position of these1 several tails appear1 and these will seem to form at different epochs4 ,if c and s be the positions of a comet and a satellite1 it will be seen that if1 while the comet is proceeding to c'1 the satellite1 through its revolution around it1 goes to s'1 the traces formed at c and s will be extended to d and d'1 and that we shall have two tails1 c' d and s' d'1 which will be separated at d and d' and seem to be confounded toward c' s'4 ,v4--,when the comet recedes from the sun1 the same effect will occur--the tail will precede it1 and will be so much the more in a line with the sun in proportion as the velocity of the solar waves exceeds that of the comet4 ,if we draw a complete diagram 7,fig4 #d71 and admit that the alteration of the solar waves persists indefinitely1 we shall see 7supposing the phenomenon to begin at a7 that when the comet is at a #a1 the tail will and be at a #a b2 when it is a #b the tail will be at a #b b'2 and when it is at a #d1 the tail will have become an immense spiral1 a #d b'''4 ,as in reality the trace is extinguished in space1 we never see but the origin of it1 which is the part of it that is constantly new--that is to say1 the part represented in the spirals of ,fig4 #d4 ,the comet of #ahdc crossed the perihelion with a velocity of #ej leagues per second2 it would have only required the velocity of the solar waves' propagation to have been #ejj leagues per second to have put the tail in a sensibly direct opposition with the sun4 ,knowing the angle gamma 7,fig4 #e7 that the tangent to the orbit makes with the sun at a given point1 and the angle delta of the track upon such tangent1 as well as the velocity v of the comet1 we can deduce therefrom the velocity ,v of the solar waves by the simple expression3 ,v v 7sinus delta _/ sinus7gamma - delta77 or 7,fig4 #a71 ,v da_/t''1 t'' being the time taken to pass over aa''4 ,illustration3 ,v ,,vi4--,the tail1 then1 is not a special matter which is transported in space with the comet1 but a disturbance in the solar waves1 just as sound is an atmospheric disturbance which is propagated with the velocity of the sonorous wave1 although the air is not transported4 ,the tail which we see in one position1 then1 is not that which we see in another2 it is constantly renewed4 ,consequently1 it is easy to conceive how1 in as brief a time as it took the comet of #ahdc to make a half revolution round the sun1 the tail which extended to so great a distance appeared to sweep the #ahj of space1 while at the same time remaining in opposition to the great luminary4 ,illustration3 ,,vi ,the spiral under consideration may be represented practically4 ,if to a vertical pipe we adapt a horizontal one that revolves with a certain velocity1 and throws out water horizontally1 it will be understood that1 from a bird's eye view1 the jet will form a spiral4 ,each drop of water will recede radially in space1 the spiral will keep forming at the jet1 and if1 through any reason1 the latter alone be visible1 we shall see a nearly rectilinear jet that will seem to revolve with the pipe4 ,finally1 if the jet be made to describe a curve1 m n 7,fig4 #d71 while it is kept directed toward the opposite of a point1 c1 the projected water will mark the spiral indicated1 and this will continue to widen1 and each drop will recede in the direction shown by the arrows4 ,illustration3 ,,vii ,,vii4--,it seems to result from this explanation that all the planets and their satellites ought to produce identical effects1 and have the appearance of comets4 ,in order to change the conditions1 it suffices to admit that the ethereal mass revolves in space around the sun with a velocity which is in each place that of the planets there2 and this is very reasonable if1 admitting the nebular hypothesis1 we draw the deduction that the cause that has communicated the velocity to the successive rings has communicated it to the ethereal mass4 ,the planets1 then1 have no appreciable1 relative velocity in space1 and for this reason do not produce mechanical waves2 and1 if they become capable of doing so through a peculiar energy developed at their surface1 as in the case of the sun1 they are still too weak to give very perceptible effects4 ,the satellites1 likewise1 have relatively too feeble velocities4 ,the comet1 on the contrary1 directly penetrates the solar waves1 and sometimes has a relatively great velocity in space4 ,if its proper velocity be of directly opposite direction to that of the ethereal mass's rotation1 it will then be capable of producing sufficiently intense mechanical effects to affect our vision4 ,,viii4--,finally1 seeing the slight distances at which these stars pass the sun1 the attraction upon the comet and its satellites may be very different1 and the velocity of rotation of the latter1 being added to or deducted from that of the forward motion1 there may occur 7as in the case shown in ,fig4 #f7 a separation of a satellite from the principal star4 ,the comet then appears to separate into two1 and each part follows different routes in space2 or1 as in ,fig4 #g1 one of the satellites may either fall into the sun or pursue an elliptical orbit and become periodical1 while the principal star may preserve a parabolic orbit1 and make but one appearance4--,a4 ,goupil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,double ,,role ,,of ,,the ,,sting ,,of ,,the ,,honey ,,bee4 ,footnote3 ,translated from an article entitled ,ueber eine doppelrolle des stachels der honigbienen in ,deutschamerikanische ,apotheker ,zeitung1 #ae ,jan41 #ahhe1 ,jahrg4 #e1 p4 #ffd2 there reprinted from ,ind4 ,blatter4 ,very important and highly interesting discoveries have recently been made in regard to a double role played by the sting of the honey bee4 ,these discoveries explain some hitherto inexplicable phenomena in the domestic economy of the ants4 ,it is already known that the honey of our honey bees1 when mixed with a tincture of litmus1 shows a distinct red color1 or1 in other words1 has an acid reaction4 ,it manifests this peculiarity because of the volatile formic acid which it contains4 ,this admixed acid confers upon crude honey its preservative power4 ,honey which is purified by treatment with water under heat1 or the so-called honey-sirup1 spoils sooner1 because the formic acid is volatilized4 ,the honey of vicious swarms of bees is characterized by a tart taste and a pungent odor4 ,this effect is produced by the formic acid1 which is present in excess in the honey4 ,hitherto it has been entirely unknown in what way the substratum of this peculiarity of honey1 the formic acid in the honey1 could enter into this vomit from the honey stomach of the workers4 ,only the most recent investigations have furnished us an explanation of this process4 ,the sting of the bees is used not only for defense1 but quite principally serves the important purpose of contributing to the stored honey an antizymotic and antiseptic substance4 ,the observation has recently been made that the bees in the hive1 even when they are undisturbed1 wipe off on the combs the minute drops of bee poison 7formic acid7 which from time to time exude from the tip of their sting4 ,and this excellent preservative medium is thus sooner or later contributed to the stored honey4 ,the more excitable and the more ready to sting the bees are1 the greater will be the quantity of formic acid which is added to the honey1 and the admixture of which good honey needs4 ,the praise which is so commonly lavished upon the ,ligurian race of our honey bees1 which is indisposed to sting--and such praise is still expressed at the peripatetic gatherings of ,german bee-masters--is therefore from a practical point of view a false praise4 ,now we understand also why the stingless honey bees of ,south ,america collect little honey4 ,it is well known that never more than a very small store of honey is found in felled trees inhabited by stingless ,melipona4 ,what should induce the ,melipona to accumulate stores which they could not preserve8 ,they lack formic acid4 ,only three of the eighteen different known species of honey bees of northern ,brazil have a sting4 ,a peculiar phenomenon in the life of certain ants has always been problematical1 but now it finds also its least forced explanation4 ,it is well known that there are different grain-gathering species of ants4 ,the seeds of grasses and other plants are often preserved for years in their little magazines1 without germinating4 ,a very small red ant1 which drags grains of wheat and oats into its dwellings1 lives in ,india4 ,these ants are so small that eight or twelve of them have to drag on one grain with the greatest exertion4 ,they travel in two separate ranks over smooth or rough ground1 just as it comes1 and even up and down steps1 at the same regular pace4 ,they have often to travel with their booty more than a thousand meters1 to reach their communal storehouse4 ,the renowned investigator ,moggridge repeatedly observed that when the ants were prevented from reaching their magazines of grain1 the seeds begun to sprout4 ,the same was the case in abandoned magazines of grain4 ,hence the ants know how to prevent the sprouting of the grains1 but the capacity for sprouting is not destroyed4 ,the renowned ,english investigator ,john ,lubbock1 who communicates this and similar facts in his work entitled ,ants1 ,bees1 and ,wasps1 adds that it is not yet known in what way the ants prevent the sprouting of the collected grains4 ,but now it is demonstrated that here also it is only the formic acid1 whose preservative influence goes so far that it can make seed incapable of germination for a determinate time or continuously4 ,it may be mentioned that we have also among us a species of ant which lives on seeds1 and stores these up4 ,this is our ,lasius niger1 which carries seeds of ,viola into its nests1 and1 as ,wittmack has communicated recently to the ,sitzungsberichte der gesellschaft naturforschender freunde zu ,berlin1 does the same with the seeds of ,veronica hederaefolia4 ,syke states in his account of an ,indian ant1 ,pheidole providens1 that this species collects a great store of grass-seeds4 ,but he observed that the ants brought their store of grain into the open air to dry it after the monsoon storms4 ,from this it appears that the preservative effect of the formic acid is destroyed by great moisture1 and hence this drying process4 ,so that among the bees the honey which is stored for winter use1 and among the ants the stores of grain which serve for food1 are preserved by one and the same fluid1 formic acid4 ,,editorial ,,note4 ,this same theory has been suggested many times by our most advanced ,american bee-keepers4 ,it has been hinted that this same formic acid was what made honey a poison to many people1 and that the sharp sting of some honey1 notably that from bass wood or linden1 originated in this acid from the poison sac4 ,if this is the correct explanation1 it seems strange that the same kind of honey is always peculiar for greater or less acidity as the case may be4 ,we often see bees with sting extended and tipped with a tiny drop of poison2 but how do we know that this poison is certainly mingled with the honey8 ,is this any more than a guess8--,a4,j4 ,cook1 in ,psyche4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chlorides ,,in ,,rainfall ,,of #ahhd4 ,we are apt to regard the rain solely as a product of distillation1 and1 as such1 very pure4 ,a little reflection and a very slight amount of experimental examination will quickly disabuse those who have this mistaken and popular impression of their error4 ,a great number of bodies which arise from industrial processes1 domestic combustion of coal1 natural changes in vegetable and animal matter1 terrestrial disturbances as tornadoes and volcanic eruptions1 vital exhalations1 etc41 are discharged into the atmosphere1 and1 whether by solution or mechanical contact1 descend to the surface of the earth in the rain1 leaving upon its evaporation in many instances the most incontestable evidences of their presence4 ,the acid precipitation around alkali and sulphuric acid works is well known2 the acid character of rains collected near and in cities1 and the remarkable ammoniacal strength of some local rainfalls1 have been fully discussed4 ,the exhaustive experiments of ,dr4 ,angus ,smith in ,scotland1 and the interesting reports of ,french examiners1 have made the scientific world familiar1 not only qualitatively but quantitatively1 with the chemical nature of some rains1 as well as with their solid sedimentary contents4 ,some years ago my attention was unpleasantly drawn to the fact that the rain water in our use reacted for chlorine2 and on finding this due solely to the washing out from the atmosphere of suspended particles of chloride of sodium or other chlorides or free chlorine1 it appeared interesting to determine the average amount of these salts in the rain water of the sea coast4 ,the results given in this paper refer to a district on ,staten ,island1 ,new ,york harbor1 at a point four miles from the ocean1 slightly sheltered from the ocean's immediate influence by the intervention of low ranges of hills4 ,they were communicated to the ,natural ,science ,association of ,staten ,island1 but the details of the observations may prove of interest to the readers of the ,quarterly1 and may there serve as a record more widely accessible4 ,it has long been recognized that the source of chlorine in rainfalls near the sea was the sea itself1 the amount of chlorides1 putting aside local exceptions arising from cities or manufactories1 increasing with the proximity of the point of observation to the ocean1 and also showing a marked relation to the exposure of the position chosen to violent storms4 ,thus the west coast rainfalls of ,ireland contain larger quantities of chlorides than those of the east1 and the table given by ,dr4 ,smith shows the variations in neighboring localities on the same seafront4 ,the chlorides of the ,english rains diminish as the observer leaves the sea coast4 ,in the following observations the waters of thirty-two rains were collected1 the chlorine determined by nitrate of silver in amounts of the water varying from one liter to one-half a liter1 and in some instances less4 ,while it is likely that some of the chlorine was due to the presence of chlorides other than common salt1 as the position of the point of observation is not removed more than a mile from oil distilleries and smelting and sulphuric acid works in ,new ,jersey1 yet this could not even generally have been so1 as the rain storms came1 for the greater number of instances1 from the east1 in an opposite direction to the position of the factories alluded to4 ,it has also been noticed by ,mr4 ,a4 ,hollick1 to whom these observations were of interest1 that in heavy storms a salt film often forms upon fruit exposed to the easterly gales upon the shores of the island4 ,the yearly average for chlorine is #j4bbh grain per gallon2 for sodic chloride1 #j4cgf grain4 ,the total rainfall in our region for #ahhd1 as reported by ,dr4 ,draper at ,central ,park1 was #eb4be inches1 somewhat higher than usual1 as the average for a series of years before gives #df inches2 but taking these former figures1 we find that for that year 7#ahhd7 each acre of ground received1 accepting the results obtained by my examination1 #gf4bd avoirdupois pounds of common salt1 if we regard the entire chlorine contents of the rains as due to that body1 or #df4bc pounds of chlorine alone4 ,in comparison with this result1 we find that at ,caen1 in ,france1 an examination of the saline ingredients of the rain gave for one year about #he pounds of mineral matter per acre1 of which #dj pounds were regarded as common salt4 ,although chlorine is almost constantly present in plant tissues1 it is not indispensable for most plants1 and for those assimilating it in small amounts1 our rainfall would seem to offer an ample supply4 ,these facts open our eyes to the possible fertilizing influence of rains1 and they also suggest to what extent rains may exert a corrosive action when they descend charged with acid vapors4--,l4,p4 ,gratacap1 in ,school of ,mines ,quarterly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,chromatoscope4 ,some time ago ,mr4 ,j4,d4 ,hardy devised an instrument1 which he has named a chromatoscope1 so easily made by any one who has a spot lens that we take the following description from the ,journal of the ,royal ,microscopical ,society3 ,its chief purpose is that of illuminating and defining objects which are nonpolarizable1 in a similar manner to that in which the polariscope defines polarizable objects4 ,it can also be applied to many polarizable objects4 ,this quality1 combined with the transmission of a greater amount of light than is obtainable by the polariscope1 renders objects thus seen much more effective4 ,it is constructed as follows3 ,into the tube of the spot lens a short tube is made to move freely and easily4 ,this inner tube has a double flange1 the outer one1 which is milled1 for rotating1 and the inner one for carrying a glass plate4 ,this plate is made of flat1 clear glass1 and upon it are cemented by a very small quantity of balsam three pieces of colored 7stained7 glass1 blue1 red1 and green1 in the proportion of about #h1 #e1 and #c4 ,the light from the lamp is allowed to pass to some extent through the interspaces1 and is by comparison a strong yellow1 thus giving four principal colors4 ,secondary colors are formed by a combination of the rays in passing through the spot lens4 ,the stained glass should be as rich in color and as good in quality as possible1 and a better effect is obtained by three pieces of stained glass than by a number of small pieces4 ,the application of the chromatoscope is almost unlimited1 as it can be used with all objectives up to the #a_/h4 ,transparent objects1 particularly crystals which will not polarize1 diatoms1 infusoria1 palates of mollusks1 etc41 can not only be seen to greater advantage1 but their parts can be more easily studied4 ,as its cost is merely nominal1 it can be applied to every instrument1 large or small2 and when its merits and its utility by practice are known1 ,i am confident that it will be considered a valuable accessory to the microscope4 99 99 99 99 99 ,prof4 ,w4,o4 ,atwater1 as the results of a series of experiments1 finds1 contrary to the general opinion of chemists1 that plants assimilate nitrogen from the atmosphere4 ,they take up the greatest quantity when supplied with abundant nourishment from the soil4 ,well fed plants acquired fully one-half their total nitrogen from the air4 ,it seems probable that the free nitrogen of the air is in some way assimilated by the plants4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,,terms ,,of ,,subscription1 #e ,a ,,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any foreign country4 ,all the back numbers of ,,the ,,supplement1 from the commencement1 ,january #a1 #ahgf1 can be had4 ,price1 #aj cents each4 ,all the back volumes of ,,the ,,supplement can likewise be supplied4 ,two volumes are 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