,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #ehf ,,new ,,york1 ,,march #bf1 #ahhg ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxiii1 ,no4 #ehf4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,biography4--,george ,w4 ,whistler1 ,c4,e4--,by ,professor ,g4,l4 ,,vose4--,full biography of the eminent railroad engineer4 ,,ii4 ,,chemistry4--,a ,newly ,discovered ,substance in ,urine4--,a substance possessing greater reducing power than grape sugar found in diabetic urine4 ,on ,electro ,dissolution and its ,use as ,regards ,analysis4--,by ,h4 ,n4 ,,warren1 research analyst4--,interesting decomposition of cast iron with production of boron and silicon2 experiments with other metals4 ,,iii4 ,,electricity4--,no ,electricity from the ,condensation of ,vapor4--,note on ,herr ,s4 ,kalischer's conclusions4 ,on ,nickel ,plating4--,by ,,thomas ,t4,p4 ,,bruce ,,warren4--,notes on this industry1 and suggested improvement for procuring a bright coat4 ,the ,electro-,magnetic ,telephone ,transmitter4--,new theory of the telephone's action4 ,,iv4 ,,engineering4--,fuel and ,smoke4--,by ,prof4 ,,oliver ,,lodge4--,the second and concluding one of these important lectures4 ,gas ,engine for ,use on ,railroads4--,the application of six horse power ,koerting gas engine to a dummy locomotive4--#a illustration4 ,new ,gas ,holder at ,erdberg4--,the largest gas holder out of ,england4--#c illustrations4 ,tar for ,firing ,retorts4--,simple arrangement adapted for use in ordinary gas retort benches2 results attained4--#a illustration4 ,the ,anti-,friction ,conveyer4--,an improvement on the screw of ,archimedes2 an apparatus of wonderful simplicity and efficacy in the moving of grain4--#b illustrations4 ,the ,retiro ,viaduct4--,combined iron and stone viaduct over the river ,retiro1 ,brazil4--#e illustrations4 ,western ,north ,carolina ,location over the ,blue ,ridge4--,interesting instance of railroad topography4--#a illustration4 ,v4 ,,metallurgy4--,chilled ,cast ,iron4--,the various uses of this product2 adaptability of ,american iron for its application4 ,,vi4 ,,miscellaneous4--,coal in the ,argentine ,republic4--,note4 ,history of the ,world's ,postal ,service4--,conclusion of this interesting article4--,the service in ,germany1 ,china4 ,russia1 and elsewhere4--#aj illustrations4 ,snow ,hall--,the new science and natural history building of the ,university of ,kansas4 ,,vii4 ,,naval ,,engineering4--,improvement in ,laying ,out ,frames of ,vessels4--,the ,frame ,placer4--,by ,,gustave ,,sonnenburg4--,ingenious apparatus for use in ship yards4--#a illustration4 ,sea-going ,torpedo ,boats4--,the inutility of small torpedo boats at sea4--,the construction of larger ones discussed4 ,,viii4 ,,ordnance4--,firing ,trial of the #aaj ,ton ,b4,l4 ,elswick ,gun4 ,full dimensions of this piece and it projectiles4--,results of proof firing4--#i illustrations4 ,,ix4 ,,photography4--,experiments in ,toning ,gelatino-,chloride ,paper4--,trials of ten different gold toning baths1 formulas1 and results4 ,printing ,lantern ,pictures by ,artificial ,light on ,bromide ,plates from ,various ,sizes4--,by ,a4 ,,pumphrey4--,the processor producing smaller or larger transparencies from negatives4--#a illustration4 ,x4 ,,physics4--,a ,new ,mercury ,pump4--,simple air pump for high vacua4--#a illustration4 ,the ,laws of the ,absorption of ,light in ,crystals4--,by ,h4 ,,becquerel4 ,varying ,cylindrical ,lens4--,by ,,tempest ,,anderson1 ,m4,d41 ,b4 ,sc4--,combination of two conoidal lenses4--,range of power obtained4 ,,xi4 ,,physiology4--,elimination of ,poisons4--,treatment of poison cases by establishment of a strong diuresis4 ,the ,filtration and the ,secretion ,theories4--,experiments on the action of and secretions of the kidneys4 ,,xii4 ,,technology4--,furnace for ,decomposing ,chloride of ,magnesium4--,furnace with rotating chamber for use by alkali manufacturers4--#a illustration4 ,notes on ,garment ,dyeing4--,the production of blacks on silk and wool4--,formulas for mordants4 ,studies in ,pyrotechny4--,,ii4 ,methods of ,illumination4--,continuation of this valuable treatise4--#i illustrations4 ,the ,sensim ,preparing ,box4--,new machine for treatment of fiber4--,an improvement on the ordinary gill box4--#c illustrations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,retiro ,,viaduct4 ,we give engravings of the viaduct over the river ,retiro1 ,brazil1 our illustrations being reproduced by permission from the ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers4 ,in a selected paper contributed to the volume of these proceedings just published1 ,mr4 ,jorge ,rademaker ,grunewald1 ,memb4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 describes the work as follows3 ,illustration3 ,,viaduct ,,over ,,the ,,retiro1 ,,brazil4 ,this viaduct was constructed in the year #ahge1 according to designs furnished by the author1 for the purpose of passing the ,dom ,pedro ,segundo ,state ,railway over the valley which forms the bed of the river ,retiro1 a small confluent on the left bank of the river ,parahybuna4 ,it is #bfe kilometers 7#afe miles7 from ,rio de ,janeiro1 and about #aj kilometers 7#f4d miles7 from the city of ,juiz de ,fora1 in the province of ,minas ,geraes1 ,brazil4 ,it has a curve of #chb meters 7#a1bec ft47 radius1 and a gradient of #a in #hc4c4 ,its total length is #aji meters 7#ceg ft4 #g in472 width between handrails1 #d meters 7#ac ft472 and greatest height above the bed of the river1 #bj meters 7#fe ft4 #g in474 ,the viaduct is composed of seven semicircular arches1 each end arch being built of ashlar masonry1 and of #f meters 7#ai ft4 #h in47 diameter2 five intermediate arches1 #ae meters 7#di ft4 #b in47 in diameter1 are of iron4 ,the four central piers are of iron erected on pillars of ashlar masonry4 ,the metallic part of this viaduct is #hj meters 7#bfb ft4 #f in47 long1 and is constructed in the following manner3 ,the arches1 and the longitudinal girders which they support1 are made of two ,barlow rails riveted together1 with an iron plate inch thick placed between them4 ,the spandrels are formed of uprights and diagonals1 the former being made of four angle-irons1 and the latter of one angle-iron4 ,each pair of arches1 longitudinal girders and uprights1 is transversely #c meters 7#i ft4 #aj in47 from center to center1 and is connected by cross and diagonal bracing4 ,on the top of the longitudinal girders are fixed cross pieces of single ,barlow rails1 upon which again are fastened two longitudinals of wood #ab in4 square in section1 and which in their turn carry the rails of the permanent way4 ,the gauge of the ,dom ,pedro ,segundo ,railway is #a4fj meters1 or #e ft4 #c in4 nearly1 between the rails4 ,at each end of the transverse ,barlow rails is fixed the customary simple iron handrail1 carried by light cast-iron standards4 ,the iron piers are each formed of four columns1 and the columns consist of two ,barlow rails1 with a slotted iron plate inch thick let in between the rails1 and the whole being riveted together connects each pair of side columns4 ,the details show the system of cross and diagonal bracing4 ,the columns are each supported by four buttresses formed of plates and angle-irons4 ,these buttresses1 fastened with bolts #h ft4 #c in4 long1 let into the masonry pillars1 secure the stability of the viaduct against lateral strains1 due mostly to the centrifugal force caused by the passage of the trains4 ,the ,barlow rails1 which constitute the peculiarity of the structure1 are from those taken up from the permanent way when the ,vignoles pattern of rail was adopted on this railway4 ,the whole of the foundations were built without difficulty4 ,the principal parts of the iron work were calculated to resist the strains resulting from a weight of #d tons #h cwt4 per lineal meter traveling over the viaduct at a velocity of #fj kilometers1 or about #cg miles1 per hour4 ,in spite of its fragile appearance this viaduct has1 up to the present time1 served in a most satisfactory manner the purpose for which it was built4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sea-,,going ,,torpedo ,,boats4 ,all investigations of the sea-going qualities of torpedo boats show that while the basin experiments are highly satisfactory1 those made at sea prove with equal force the unreliability of these craft when they leave the coast4 ,at the beginning of the ,milford ,haven operations1 the boisterous weather necessitated the postponing of operations1 on account of the unfitness of the torpedo boat crews to continue work after the twelve hours of serious fatigue they had already undergone4 ,in the ,french evolutions1 the difficulties of the passage from ,bastia to ,ajaccio1 although not remarkably severe1 so unfitted fifteen of the twenty boats that they could take no part in the final attack4 ,in two nights we find recorded collisions which disable boats ,nos4 #eb1 #fa1 #fc1 and #gb1 and required their return to port for repairs4 ,of the twenty-two torpedo boats leaving ,toulon a few days before1 but six arrived near the enemy1 although their commanders displayed admirable energy4 ,one had run aground1 and was full of water2 another had been sunk by collision2 another's engine was seriously injured2 and as for the rest1 they could not follow4 ,of the boats under the command of ,admiral ,brown de ,colstoun1 but five remained for service1 for the sixth received an accident to her machinery which prevented her taking part in the attack4 ,during the operations off the ,balearic ,isles1 only one of six boats attacked1 and none was able to follow the armorclads1 all meeting with circumstances quite unexpected and embarrassing4 ,with the weather as it existed ,may #ac1 the armorclads had the torpedo fleet completely at their mercy1 for even if they had not been destroyed by the excellent practice of the ,hotchkiss gunners1 they would have been of no use1 as they could not with safety discharge their torpedoes4 ,in fact1 the search lights discovered distinctly that one of the boats1 which burned her ,coston's signal to announce victory1 did not have her torpedo tube open1 on account of the heavy sea4 ,furthermore1 their positions were frequently easily discovered by the immense volume of smoke and flame ejected while going at great speed4 ,this applies as well by night as by day4 ,it was also reported that after the four days' running the speed of the boats was reduced to twelve knots4 ,with such evidence before us1 the seaworthiness of boats of the ,nos4 #fc and #fd type may be seriously questioned4 ,weyl emphasizes the facts that practice has shown that boats of ,no4 #fa type cannot make headway in a heavy sea1 and that it is then often impossible to open their torpedo tubes4 ,on this account they are greatly inferior to ships of moderate tonnage1 which can certainly make some progress1 fire their torpedoes1 and use their artillery in weather when a torpedo boat will be utterly helpless4 ,the torpedo boat abandoned to itself has a very limited field of action4 ,du ,pin de ,saint ,andre admits the success of the torpedo boat for harbor and coast work1 but wisely concludes that this can prove nothing as to what they may or may not be able to do at sea4 ,in an article which appeared in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes in ,june last1 he presented able reasons why the torpedo boats of to-day's type1 being destitute of most1 if not all1 of the requisites of sea-going craft1 cannot go to sea1 take care of themselves1 and remain there prepared to attack an enemy wherever he may be found4 ,invisibility to an enemy may facilitate attack1 but it has to be dearly paid for in diminished safety4 ,further1 the life that must be led in such vessels in time of war would very quickly unfit men for their hazardous duties4 ,he points out that the effect of such a life upon the bodies and minds of the officers and crew would be most disastrous4 ,the want of exercise alone would be sufficient to unfit them for the demands that service would make upon them4 ,he has intelligently depicted the consequences of such a life1 and his reasoning has been indorsed by the reports of ,french officers who have had experience in the boats in question4 ,no weapon1 no matter how ingenious1 is of utility in warfare unless it can be relied upon1 and no vessel that is not tenantable can be expected to render any service at sea4 ,from the evidence before us1 we must conclude that the type of torpedo boat under discussion is capable of making sea passages1 provided it can communicate frequently with its supply stations and secure the bodily rest so necessary to its crew4 ,but even in a moderate sea it is useless for attack1 and in the majority of cases will not be able even to open its impulse tubes4 ,should it succeed in doing this1 the rolling and yawing will render its aim very uncertain4 ,an experiment conducted against the ,richelieu in ,october last1 at ,toulon1 before ,admiral ,o',neil1 the director-general of the torpedo service1 has added its testimony to the uncertainty of the ,whitehead torpedo4 ,the ,richelieu had been fitted with ,bullivant nets1 and the trial was made to learn what protection they would afford4 ,the weather was fair1 the sea moderate1 and the conditions generally favorable to the torpedo2 but the ,whitehead missed its mark1 although the ,richelieu's speed was only three knots4 ,running at full speed1 the torpedo boat1 even in this moderate sea1 deemed it prudent to keep the launching tube closed1 and selected a range of #bej yards for opening it and firing4 ,just at the moment of discharge a little sea came on board1 the boat yawed1 the torpedo aim was changed more than #cj deg41 and it passed astern without touching its object4 ,while the ,milford ,haven operations have taught some valuable lessons1 they were conducted under but few of the conditions that are most likely to occur in actual warfare2 and had the defense been carried on with an organization and command equal to that of the attack1 the ,navy's triumph would1 perhaps1 not have been so easily secured1 and the results might have been very different4 ,may not the apparent deficiencies of the defense have been due to the fact that soldiers instead of sailors are given the control of the harbor and coast defense8 ,is this right8 ,ought they not to be organized on a naval basis8 ,this is no new suggestion1 but its importance needs emphasis4 ,these operations1 however1 convinced at least one deeply interested spectator1 ,lord ,brassey1 to the extent of calling attention to the urgent necessity for the construction of a class of torpedo vessels capable of keeping the sea in company with an armored fleet4 ,there is no one in ,great ,britain who takes a greater interest in the progress of the ,british ,navy than ,lord ,brassey1 and we take pleasure in quoting from his letter of ,august #bc last to the ,times1 in which he expressed the following opinion3 ,the torpedo boats ordered last year from ,messrs4 ,thornycroft and ,yarrow are excellent in their class4 ,but their dimensions are not sufficient for sea-going vessels4 ,we must accept a tonnage of not less than #cjj tons in order to secure thorough seaworthiness and sufficient coal endurance4 ,a beginning has been made in the construction of vessels of the type required4 ,to multiply them with no stinting hand is the paramount question of the day in the department of construction4 ,the boats attached to the ,channel fleet at ,milford ,haven will be most valuable for harbor defense1 and for that purpose they are greatly needed4 ,torpedo boat catchers are not less essential to the efficiency of a fleet4 ,the gunboats attached to the ,channel fleet were built for service in the rivers of ,china4 ,they should be reserved for the work for which they were designed4 ,we require for the fleet more fast gunboats of the ,curlew and ,landrail type4 ,i trust that the next estimates for the ,navy will contain an ample provision for building gun vessels of high speed4 ,as torpedoes must be carried1 the next point to which we would call the attention of our readers is the very rapid progress that has been made in the boats designed to carry automatic torpedoes4 ,a very few years ago the names of ,thornycroft and ,yarrow were almost alone as builders of a special type of vessel to carry them4 ,to-day1 in addition1 we have ,schichau1 ,white1 ,herreshoff1 ,creusot1 ,thomson1 and others1 forming a competitive body of high speed torpedo-boat builders who are daily making new and rapid development--almost too rapid1 in fact1 for the military student to follow4 ,as new types are designed1 additional speed gained1 or increased seaworthiness attained1 public descriptions quickly follow1 and we have ourselves recorded the various advances made so fully that it will be unnecessary to enter into details here4 ,as late as ,october1 #ahhe1 an able writer said3 ,the two most celebrated builders of torpedo boats in the world are ,thornycroft and ,yarrow1 in ,england4 ,each is capable of producing a first class torpedo boat1 from #ajj ft4 to #acj ft4 long1 and with #aj ft4 to #ad ft4 beam1 that will steam at the rate of from #ah knots to #bb knots per hour for #cgj knots1 or at the rate of #aj knots per hour for #cjjj miles4 ,a second class torpedo boat is from #dj ft4 to #fj ft4 long1 and with #f ft4 or #h ft4 beam4 ,the use of these boats is gradually being abandoned in ,europe except for use from sea-going ships2 but in ,europe the harbors are very small1 and it has been found that practically every torpedo boat for coast defense must be able to go to sea4 ,the tendency is1 therefore1 to confinement to the first class boats4 ,in a paper on ,naval ,torpedo ,warfare1 prepared in ,january1 #ahhf1 for a special committee of the ,american ,senate1 by ,lieutenant ,jaques of the ,american ,navy1 we find the following reference to the progress in torpedo boat construction3 ,the development in torpedo boats has been phenomenal1 the last year alone showing an advance from a length of #abj ft4 and a speed of #ai knots1 which were considered remarkable qualities in a first class boat1 to a length of #adj ft4 and a speed of #bc knots loaded 7carrying #ae tons71 and #be knots light1 together with the introduction of novel features of importance4 ,although ,messrs4 ,yarrow and ,thornycroft have brought the second class boats to a very high standard in ,europe1 ,i believe they will soon be abandoned there even for sea-going ships 7very few are now laid down71 and that the great development will be in overcoming the disadvantages of delicacy and weakness by increasing their size1 giving them greater maneuvering power and safety by the introduction of two engines and twin screws1 and steel plate and coal protection against rapid firing ammunition4 ,yarrow and ,co4 have already laid down some boats of this character that give promise of developing a speed of from #bc to #be knots4 ,in the ,russian boat recently built at ,glasgow1 progress in this direction is also seen in the #adh ft4 length1 #ag ft4 beam1 the maneuvering powers and safety element of the twin screws4 ,but while the boat is fitted for the #ai ft4 torpedo1 a weapon of increased range and heavier explosive charge1 it suffers from the impossibility of broadside fire and the disadvantages that ,gallwey has named3 ,the great length of this torpedo1 however1 makes it a very unhandy weapon for a boat1 besides which its extra weight limits the number which can be carried4 ,while perhaps ,messrs4 ,thomson have been the first to show the performance of a twin screw torpedo boat in ,england1 the one completed in ,june last by ,yarrow for the ,japanese government recalls the intelligence that ,japan has exercised in the selection of types4 ,commencing as far back as nine years ago1 the ,japanese were probably the first to introduce sea-going boats1 and they have been the first power to initiate the armor type1 one of which was shipped last summer to be put together in ,japan4 ,as before stated1 it was built by ,messrs4 ,yarrow and ,co41 was #aff ft4 long1 #ai ft4 beam1 with twin screws1 #a in4 steel armor1 double engines1 with bow and broadside torpedo guns1 the latter so arranged as to greatly increase their efficiency4 ,while the advances are not restricted to the ,english builders1 a glance at the points to which ,thornycroft and ,yarrow have brought their improvements up to the present time will indicate that their achievements are not only equal to but greater than those of any other builders4 ,the former has boats under construction #adh ft4 long1 #ae ft4 beam1 to make #dbj revolutions with #acj lb4 of steam1 the guaranteed speed being #bc knots on a continuous run of two hours' duration1 with a load of #ae tons4 ,they will have triple-expansion or compound direct-acting surface-condensing engines and twin screws1 ,thornycroft's patent tubular boilers1 double rudders1 electric search lights1 three masts and sails4 ,while the armaments of the various boats differ1 ,thornycroft is prepared to fit the launching tubes with either air or powder impulse1 to mount the tubes forward or on deck1 and also the fittings for machine and rapid firing guns4 ,yarrow and ,co4 have contracted for boats varying in length from #aag ft4 to #aff ft41 with fittings and armament as may be required4 ,they have obtained excellent results in their last ,english boat of the ,admiralty type4 ,they are1 in fact1 prepared to guarantee a speed of #bc knots in a length of #abe ft4 and #be knots in a length of #adj ft41 carrying in both causes a mean load corresponding to fuel and armament of #aj tons4 ,and so the progress goes on1 but it will not stop here2 it has already incited a marked development in ship construction1 and the endeavors to withstand torpedo attack have improved the defense against gun fire also4 ,in quoting a ,german opinion on the development of the ,russian torpedo fleet1 ,charmes refers to the type which will1 no doubt1 be most successful upon the sea1 namely1 the torpedo cruisers1 and it is to this type1 more than for any other1 that we may expect torpedo boats to be adapted4 ,already1 writers have dropped the phrase torpedo boats for torpedo vessels4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,firing ,,trial ,,of ,,the #aaj ,,ton ,b4,l4 ,,elswick ,,gun4 ,the firing trial of the first new #aaj ton breech loading gun approved for ,h4,m4's ships ,benbow1 ,renown1 and ,sanspareil was commenced recently at the ,woolwich proof butts1 under the direction of ,colonel ,maitland1 the superintendent of the ,royal ,gun ,factories4 ,we give herewith a section showing the construction of this gun 7vide ,fig4 #h74 ,it very nearly corresponds to the section given of it when designed in #ahhd1 in a paper read by ,colonel ,maitland at the ,united ,service ,institution1 of which we gave a long account in the ,engineer of ,june #bg1 #ahhd4 ,the following figures are authoritative3 ,length over all1 #ebd in42 length of bore1 #dhg4e in4 7#cj calibers74 ,the breech engages in the breech piece1 leaving the ,a tube with its full strength for tangential strain 7vide ,fig474 ,the ,a tube is in a single piece instead of two lengths1 as in the case of the ,italia guns4 ,it is supplied to ,elswick from ,whitworth's works1 one of the few in ,england where such a tube could be made4 ,there are four layers of metal hoops over the breech4 ,copper and bronze are used to give longitudinal strength4 ,the obturation is a modification of the ,de ,bange system1 proposed by ,vavasseur4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new #aaj ,,ton ,,elswick ,,guns ,,for ,h4,m4,s4 ,,benbow4 ,the maximum firing charge is #ijj lb4 of cocoa powder4 ,the projectile weighs #a1hjj lb4 ,the estimated muzzle velocity is #b1baf ft4 per second4 ,the capacity of the chamber is #bh1faj cubic inches1 and that of the bore #aab1eie cubic inches4 ,the estimated total energy is #fa1bjj ft4 tons4 ,it will be a few days probably before the full powers of the gun are tested1 but the above are confidently expected to be attained1 judging from the results with the #ajj ton guns supplied to ,italy4 ,on ,january #g last we gave those of the new ,krupp #aai ton gun4 ,it had fired a projectile with a velocity of almost #a1ijj ft4 with a charge of less than #hfd4fg lb41 with moderate pressure4 ,the estimated maximum for this gun was a velocity of #b1jag ft4 with a projectile weighing #a1fcb lb41 giving a total energy of #df1jfa ft4 tons1 or #ac1jjj ft4 tons less than the ,elswick gun1 comparing the estimated results4 ,the proof of the ,elswick gun is mounted on a carriage turned out by the ,royal ,carriage ,department1 under ,colonel ,close4 ,this carriage is made on bogies so as to run on rails passing easily round curves of #ej ft4 radius4 ,the gun is fired on an inclined length of rails1 the recoil presses of the carriage first receiving the shock and reducing the recoil4 ,the carriage is made to lift into the government barge1 so as to go easily to ,shoeburyness or elsewhere4 ,it can be altered so as to provide for turning1 and it allows the piece to be fired at angles of elevation up to #bd deg4 ,the cheeks of the carriage are made to open and close1 so as to take the #ab in4 gun and larger pieces4 ,the steel castings for it are supplied from the ,stanners ,close ,steel ,works4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,the first round was fired at about noon4 ,the charge was only #eih lb41 consisting of four charges of #aab lb4 and one of #acj lb4 of ,waltham ,abbey brown prism ,no4 #a powder4 ,the proof shot weighs1 like the service projectile1 #a1hjj lb4 ,thus fired1 the gun recoiled nearly #d ft4 on the press1 and the carriage ran back on the rails about #ej ft4 ,the projectile had a velocity of #a1fhe ft4 per second1 and entered about #eb ft4 into the butt4 ,we cannot yet give the pressure1 but unquestionably it was a low one4 ,the charges as the firing continues will be increased in successive rounds up to the full #ijj lb4 charge4 ,figs4 #a and #b show the mounting of the #aaj ton gun in the barbette towers of the ,benbow4 ,the gun is held down on the bed by steel bands and recoils in its bed on the slide 7vide ,fig4 #b74 ,the latter is hinged or pivoted in front and is elevated by elevating ram1 shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,when the slide is fully down1 the gun is in the loading position4 ,the ammunition lift brings up the projectile and charge1 which latter is subdivided1 like those employed in the ,german guns1 in succession to the breech1 the hydraulic rammer forcing them home4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,the simplicity of the arrangement is apparent4 ,the recoil always acts parallel to the slide4 ,this is much better than allowing its direction to be affected by elevation1 and the distributed hold of the steel bands is preferable to the single attachment at trunnions4 ,theoretically1 the recoil is not so perfectly met as in some of the earlier ,elswick designs1 in which the presses were brought opposite to the trunnions1 so that they acted symmetrically on each side of the center of resistance4 ,the barbette tower is covered by a steel plate1 shown in ,fig4 #a1 fitting close to the gun slide1 so that the only opening is that behind the breech when the gun is in the forward position1 and this is closed as it recoils4 ,the only man of the detachment even partly exposed is the number one1 while laying the gun1 and in that position he is nearly covered by the gun and fittings4 ,common shell1 shrapnel shell1 and steel armor-piercing projectiles1 have been approved for the #aaj ton gun4 ,the common shell is shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,like the common shell for all the larger natures of new type guns1 it is made of steel4 ,it has been found necessary to support the core used in casting these projectiles at both ends4 ,consequently1 there is a screw plug at the base as well as at the apex4 ,the hole at the base is used as a filling hole for the insertion of the bursting charge1 which consists of #agi lb4 of powder1 the total weight of the filled shell being #a1hjj lb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,the apex has a screw plug of larger diameter than that of the fuse4 ,this is shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,the fuse is a direct action one4 ,the needle1 ,b1 is held in the center of a copper disk1 ,c ,c1 and is safe against explosion until it is actually brought into contact with an object1 when it is forced down1 igniting a patch of cap composition and the magazine at ,a1 and so firing the bursting charge of the shell below4 ,e ,e ,e are each priming charges of seven grains of pistol powder1 made up in shalloon bags to insure the ignition of the bursting charge1 which is in a bag of serge and shalloon beneath4 ,the use of this fuse involves the curious question of the physical conditions now existing in the discharge of our projectiles by slow burning powder4 ,the forward movement of the shell is now so gradual that the inertia of a pellet is only sufficient to shear a wire of one-tenth the strength of that which might formerly have been sheared by a similar pellet in an old type gun with quick burning powder4 ,consequently1 in many cases1 it is found better not to depend on a suspending wire thus sheared1 but to adopt direct action4 ,the fuse in question would1 we believe1 act even on graze1 at any angle over #aj4 ,probably at less angles than #aj it would not explode against water1 which would be an advantage in firing at ships4 ,shells so gently put in motion1 and having no windage1 might be made1 it might naturally be supposed1 singularly thin1 and the adoption of steel in place of iron calls for some explanation4 ,the reason is that it has been found that common shells break up against masonry1 instead of penetrating it1 when fired from these large high velocity guns4 ,the shrapnel shell is shown at ,fig4 #e4 ,like the common shell1 it is made of steel1 and is of the general form of the pattern of ,general ,boxer1 with wooden head1 central tube1 and bursting charge in the base4 ,it contains #b1cjj four ounce sand shots and an #h lb4 bursting charge4 ,it weighs #a1hjj lb4 ,the fuse is time and percussion4 ,it is shown in ,figs4 #f and #f;,a4 ,it closely resembles the original ,armstrong time and percussion pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f;,a4 ,the action is as follows3 ,the ignition pellet1 ,a1 which is ordinarily held by a safety pin1 is1 after the withdrawal of the latter1 only held by a fine1 suspending wire1 which is sheared by the inertia of the pellet on discharge1 a needle lighting a percussion patch of composition and the composition ring1 ,b ,b1 which burns round at a given rate until it reaches the communication passage1 ,c1 when it flashes through the percussion pellet1 ,e1 and ignites the magazine1 ,d1 and so ignites the primer shown in ,fig4 #f1 flashes down the central tube of the shell1 and explodes the bursting charge in the base1 ,fig4 #e4 ,the length of time during which the fuse burns depends on how far the composition ring is turned round1 and what length it consequently has to burn before it reaches the communication passage1 ,c4 ,if the fuse should be set too long1 or from any other cause the shell strikes before the fuse fires the charge1 the percussion action fires the shell on graze by the following arrangement3 ,the heavy metal piece containing the magazine1 ,d1 constitutes a striker1 which is held in place by a plain ball1 ,g1 near the axis of the fuse and by a safety pellet1 ,h4 ,on first movement in the gun1 this latter by inertia shears a suspending wire and leaves the ball free to escape above it1 which it does by centrifugal force1 leaving the magazine striker1 ,d1 free to fire itself by momentum on the needle shown above it1 on impact4 ,there is a second safety arrangement1 not shown in the figure1 consisting of a cross pin1 held by a weak spiral spring1 which is compressed by centrifugal force during flight1 leaving the magazine pellet free to act1 as above described1 on impact4 ,the armor-piercing projectile is shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,it is to be made of forged steel1 and supplied by ,elswick4 ,in appearance it very closely resembles those fired from the #ajj ton gun at ,spezia1 but if it is made on the ,firmini system1 it will differ from it in the composition of its metal1 inasmuch as it will contain a large proportion of chromium1 probably from #a to #b per cent41 whereas an analysis of ,krupp's shell gives none4 ,in fact1 as ,krupp's agent at ,spezia predicted1 the analysis is less instructive than we could wish4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gas ,,engine ,,for ,,use ,,on ,,railroads4 ,the industrial world has reason to feel considerable interest in any economical method of traction on railways1 owing to the influence which cost of transportation has upon the price of produce4 ,we give a description of the gas engine invented by ,mr4 ,emmanuel ,stevens4 ,many experiments have been made both at ,berlin and ,liege during the past few years4 ,they all failed1 owing to the impossibility the builders encountered in securing sufficient speed4 ,the ,stevens engine does not present this defect1 as will be seen4 ,it has the appearance of an ordinary street car entirely inclosed1 showing none of the machinery from without4 ,on the interior is a ,koerting gas motor of six horse power1 which is a sufficiently well known type not to require a description4 ,in the experiment which we saw1 the motor was supplied with a mixture of gas and air1 obtained by the evaporation of naphtha4 ,on the shaft of the motor are fixed two pulleys of different sizes1 which give the engine two rates of speed1 one of three miles and the other of #h miles an hour4 ,between these two pulleys is a friction socket1 by which either rate of speed may be secured4 ,the power is transmitted from one of the pulleys by a rubber belt to an intermediate shaft1 which carries a toothed wheel that transmits the power to the axle by means of an endless chain4 ,on this axle are three conical gear wheels1 two of which are furnished with hooked teeth1 and the third with wooden projections and fixed permanently in place4 ,this arrangement enables the engine to be moved forward or backward according as it is thrown in right or left gear4 ,when the conical pinions are thrown out of gear1 the motive force is no longer applied to the axle1 and by the aid of the brakes the engine may be instantly stopped4 ,the movement of the pinions is effected by two sets of wheels on each of the platforms of the engine1 and near the door for the conductor4 ,by turning one of the wheels to the right or left on either platform1 the conductor imparts either the less or the greater speed to the engine4 ,in case he has caused the engine to move forward by turning the second wheel1 he will not have to touch it again until the end of the trip4 ,the brake1 which is also operated from the two platforms1 is applied to all four wheels at the same time4 ,from this arrangement it is seen that the movement is continuous4 ,nevertheless1 the conductor has access to the regulator by a small chain connected with the outside by a wheel near at hand1 but the action is sufficiently regular not to require much attention to this feature4 ,illustration3 ,,gas ,,engine ,,for ,,use ,,on ,,railroads4 ,the gas is produced by the ,wilford apparatus1 which regularly furnishes the requisite quantity necessary for an explosion1 which is produced by a particular kind of light placed near the piston4 ,the vapor is produced by passing hot water from the envelope of the cylinder of the motor through the ,wilford apparatus4 ,the water is cooled again in a reservoir 7system ,koerting7 placed in direct communication with the cylinder4 ,any permanent heating is therefore impossible4 ,the noise of the explosions is prevented by a device invented by ,mr4 ,stevens himself4 ,it consists of a drum covered with asbestos or any other material which absorbs noise4 ,according to the inventor1 the saving over the use of horses for traction is considerable4 ,this system is soon to be tried practically at ,antwerp in ,belgium1 and then it will be possible to arrive at the actual cost of traction4--,industrie ,moderne1 ,brussels4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,western ,,north ,,carolina ,,location ,,over ,,the ,,blue ,,ridge4 ,illustration3 ,,location ,,over ,,the ,,blue ,,ridge4--,,western ,,north ,,carolina ,,railroad4 ,the interesting piece of railroad location illustrated in this issue is on the mountain section of the ,western ,north ,carolina ,railroad4 ,this section crosses the ,blue ,ridge ,mountains #ah miles east of ,asheville1 at a point known as ,swannanoa ,gap1 #b1ffj feet above tide water4 ,the part of the road shown on the accompanying cut is #aj miles in length and has an elevation of #a1aij feet2 to overcome the actual distance by the old ,state pike was somewhat over #c miles4 ,the maximum curvature as first located was #aj1 but for economy of time as well as money this was exceeded in a few instances as the work progressed1 but is now being by degrees reduced4 ,the maximum grades on tangents are #aaf feet per mile2 on curves the grade is equated one-tenth to a degree4 ,the masonry is of the most substantial kind1 granite viaducts and arch culverts4 ,the numbers and lengths of tunnels as indicated by letters on cut are as follows3 ,ft4 in all of these4 ,a4 ,point ,tunnel4 #baf ft4 long4#a ,b4 ,jarrett's #abe ,c4 ,lick ,log #efb ,d4 ,mc,elroy #hi ,e4 ,high ,ridge #dae ,f4 ,burgin #bjb ,g4 ,swannanoa #a1hjj ,footnote #a3 ,for the sake of economy of space1 our cut omits the ,point and ,swannanoa tunnels 7the latter is the summit tunnel71 but covers all of the location which is of interest to engineers1 the remainder at the ,swannanoa end being almost on tangent to and through the summit4 ,the work was done by the ,state of ,north ,carolina with convict labor1 under the direction of ,mr4 ,jas4 ,a4 ,wilson1 as president and chief engineer1 but was sold by the ,state to the ,richmond ,danville system4--,railroad ,gazette4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,gasholder ,,at ,,erdberg4 ,the new gasholder which has been erected by ,messrs4 ,c4 and ,w4 ,walker for the ,imperial ,continental ,gas ,company at ,erdberg1 near ,vienna1 has been graphically described by ,herr ,e4,r4 ,leonhardt in a paper which he read before the ,austrian ,society of ,engineers4 ,the enormous dimensions and elegant construction of the holder--being the largest out of ,england--as well as the work of putting up the new gasholder1 are of special interest to ,english engineers1 as ,erdberg contains the largest and best appointed works in ,austria4 ,the dimensions of the holder are--inner lift1 #aie feet diameter1 #dj feet deep2 middle lift1 #aig feet diameter1 #dj feet deep2 outer lift1 #bjj feet diameter1 #dj feet deep4 ,the diameter over all is about #bcj feet4 ,the impression produced upon the members of the ,austrian ,society by their visit to ,erdberg was altogether most favorable2 and not only did the inspection of the large gasholder justify every expectation1 but the visitors were convinced that all the buildings were in excellent condition and well adapted for their purpose1 that the machinery was of the latest and most approved type1 and that the management was in experienced hands4 ,,the ,,new ,,gasholder is contained in a building consisting of a circular wall covered with a wrought iron roof4 ,the holder itself is telescopic1 and is capable of holding #c million cubic feet of gas4 ,the accompanying illustrations 7,figs4 #a and #c7 are a sectional elevation of the holder and its house and a sectional plan of the roof and holder crown4 ,having a capacity of close upon #c1bjj1jjj ,austrian cubic feet1 this gasholder is the largest of its kind on the ,continent1 and is surpassed in size by only a few in ,england and ,america4 ,by way of comparison1 ,hamburg possesses a holder of #ej1jjj cubic meters 7#a1gfe1jjj cubic feet7 capacity2 and there is one in ,berlin which is expected to hold #ge1jjj cubic meters 7#b1fdg1ejj cubic feet7 of gas4 ,,gasholder ,,house4 ,the gasholder house at ,erdberg is perfectly circular1 and has an internal diameter of #fc4daj meters4 ,it is constructed1 in three stories1 with forty piers projecting on the outside1 and with four rows of windows between the piers--one in each of the top and bottom stories1 and two rows in the middle4 ,these windows have a height of #a4dj meters in the lowest circle1 where the wall is #a4dj meters thick1 and of #b4ij meters in the two top stories1 where it is respectively #a4aa meters and #j4ij meter thick4 ,the top edge of the wall is #ce4ce meters above the base of the building1 and #dd4ci meters from the bottom of the tank2 the piers rising #a4fj meters beyond the top of the wall4 ,the highest point of the lantern on the roof will thus be #dh4ie meters above the ground4 ,,gasholder ,,tank4 ,the tank in which the gasholder floats has an internal diameter of #fa4eg meters1 and therefore a superficial area of #c1jjj square meters2 and since the coping is #ab4ca meters above the floor1 it follows that the tank is capable of holding #ce1ejj cubic meters 7#g1hjj1jjj gallons7 of water4 ,the bottom consists of brickwork #a4aj meters thick1 rendered with ,portland cement1 and resting on a layer of concrete #a meter thick4 ,the walls are likewise of brick and cement1 of a thickness of #c4cj meters up to the ground level1 and #b4dj meters thick to the height of #c4dd meters above the surface4 ,altogether1 #b1ihh1fhj kilos4 of cement and #e1egj1jjj bricks were used in its construction4 ,in fact1 from the bottom of tank to top of roof1 it reaches as high as the monument at ,london ,bridge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,section ,,of ,,gasholder ,,and ,,house4 ,the construction of the tank offered many and serious difficulties4 ,the bottom of the tank is fully #c meters below the level of the ,danube ,canal1 which passes close by1 and it was not until twelve large pulsometer pumps were set up1 and worked continually night and day1 that it was possible to reach the necessary depth to allow of the commencement of the foundations of the boundary wall4 ,,roof ,,of ,,house4 ,the wrought iron cupola-shaped roof of the gasholder house was designed by ,herr ,w4 ,brenner1 and consists of #dj radiating rafters1 each weighing about #be cwt41 and joined together by #h polygonal circles of angle iron 7#ijijaj mm474 ,the highest middle circle is uncovered1 and carries a round lantern 7,fig4 #a74 ,these radiating rafters consist of flat iron bars #g mm4 thick1 and of a height which diminishes gradually1 from one interval to another on the inside1 from #beb to #ahh mm4 ,at the outside ends 7varying from #hjhji mm4 in the lowest to #fjfjg mm4 in the last polygon but one7 these rafters are strengthened1 at least as far as the five lowest ones are concerned1 by flat irons tightly riveted on4 ,at their respective places of support1 the ends of all the spars are screwed on by means of a washer #bej mm4 high and #ca mm4 thick1 and surmounted by a gutter supported by angle irons4 ,from every junction between the radial rafters and the polygonal circle1 diagonal bars are made to run to the center of the corresponding interval1 where they meet1 and are there firmly held together by means of a tongue ring4 ,the roof is #fd4ebj meters wide and #ad4fbh meters high2 and its total weight is #ajc4cjj kilos4 for the ironwork--representing a weight of #ca4f kilos4 per square meter of surface4 ,it is proposed to employ for its covering wooden purlins and tin plates4 ,the whole construction has a light1 pleasing1 and yet thoroughly solid appearance4 ,,raising ,,the ,,roof4 ,herr ,brenner1 the engineer of the ,erdberg ,works1 gives a description of how the roof of a house1 #ed4f meters wide1 for a gasholder in ,berlin1 was raised to a height of #bb meters4 ,in that instance the iron structure was put together at the bottom of the tank1 leaving the rafter ends and the mural ring4 ,the hoisting itself was effected by means of levers--one to each rafter--connected with the ironwork below by means of iron chains4 ,at the top there were apertures at distances of about #bf mm4 from each other1 and through these the hoisting was proceeded with4 ,with every lift1 the iron structure was raised a distance of #bf mm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,herr ,brenner had considerable hesitation in raising in the same way the structure at ,erdberg1 which was much larger and heavier than that in ,berlin4 ,the simultaneous elevation to #dh meters above the level1 proposed to be effected at forty different points1 did not appear to him to offer sufficient security4 ,he therefore proposed to put the roof together on the ground1 and to raise it simultaneously with the building of the wall2 stating that this mode would be perfectly safe1 and would not involve any additional cost4 ,the suggestion was adopted1 and it was found to possess1 in addition1 the important advantage that the structure could be made to rest on the masonry at any moment2 whereas this had been impossible in the case at the ,berlin ,gasworks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,hoisting4 ,at a given signal from the foreman1 two operatives1 stationed at each of the forty lifting points1 with crowbars inserted in the holes provided for the purpose1 give the screws a simultaneous turn in the same direction4 ,the bars are then inserted in another hole higher up4 ,the hoisting screws are connected with the structure of the roof1 and rise therewith4 ,all that is requisite for the hoisting from the next cross beam is to give a forward turn to the screws4 ,when the workmen had become accustomed to their task1 the hoisting to a distance of #a meter occupied only about half to three-quarters of an hour4 ,at the outset1 and merely by way of a trial1 the roof was lifted to a height of fully #b meters1 and left for some time suspended in the air4 ,the eighty men engaged in the operation carry on the work with great regularity and steadiness1 obeying the signal of the foreman as soon as it was given4 ,,the ,,gasholder4 ,the holder1 which was supplied by the well-known firm of ,messrs4 ,c4 and ,w4 ,walker1 of ,finsbury ,circus1 ,london1 and ,donnington1 ,salop1 was in an outer courtyard4 ,it is a three-lift telescopic one2 the lowest lift being #bjj feet1 the middle lift #aig ft4 #f in41 and the top lift #aie ft4 in diameter4 ,the height of each lift is #dj feet4 ,the several lifts are raised in the usual way2 and they all work in a circle of #bd vertical ,u-shaped channel irons1 fixed in the wall of the house by means of #ac supports placed at equal distances from the base to the summit 7as shown in ,fig4 #b74 ,when the gasholder is perfectly empty1 the three lifts are inclosed1 one in the other1 and rest with their lower edges upon the bottom of the tank4 ,in this case the roof of the top lift rests upon a wooden framework4 ,fixed in the floor of the tank are #add posts1 #i inches thick at the bottom and #f inches thick at the top1 to support the crown of the holder in such a way that the tops are fixed in a kind of socket1 each of them being provided with four horizontal bars1 which decrease in thickness from #cje by #ajj mm4 to #aej by #ej mm41 and represent #af parallel polygons1 which in their turn are fastened diagonally by means of iron rails #fc by #ajj mm4 thick1 arranged crosswise4 ,the top of this framework is perfectly contiguous with the inside of the crown of the gasholder4 ,the crown itself is made up of iron plates1 the outer rows having a thickness of #aa mm41 decreasing to #e mm4 toward the middle1 and to #c mm4 at the top4 ,the plates used for the side sheets of the holder are3 ,for the top and bottom rows1 #f4d mm42 and for the other plates1 #b4f mm4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a new bleaching compound has been discovered1 consisting of three parts by measure of mustard-seed oil1 four of melted paraffin1 three of caustic soda #bj ,baume1 well mixed to form a soapy compound4 ,of this one part of weight and two of pure tallow soap are mixed1 and of this mixture one ounce for each gallon of water is used for the bleaching bath1 and one ounce caustic soda #bj ,baume for each gallon is added1 when the bath is heated in a close vessel1 the goods entered1 and boiled till sufficiently bleached4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,george ,w4 ,,whistler1 ,c4,e4 ,footnote3 ,a paper by ,prof4 ,g4,l4 ,vose1 ,member of the ,boston ,society of ,civil ,engineers4 ,read ,september #ae1 #ahhf4 ,by ,prof4 ,g4,l4 ,,vose4 ,few persons1 even among those best acquainted with our modern railroad system1 are aware of the early struggles of the men to whose foresight1 energy1 and skill the new mode of transportation owes its introduction into this country4 ,the railroad problem in the ,united ,states was quite a different one from that in ,europe4 ,had we simply copied the railways of ,england1 we should have ruined the system at the outset1 for this country4 ,in ,england1 where the railroad had its origin1 money was plenty1 the land was densely populated1 and the demand for rapid and cheap transportation already existed4 ,a great many short lines connecting the great centers of industry were required1 and for the construction of such in the most substantial manner the money was easily obtained4 ,in ,america1 on the contrary1 a land of enormous extent1 almost entirely undeveloped1 but of great possibilities1 lines of hundreds and even thousands of miles in extent were to be made1 to connect cities as yet unborn1 and accommodate a future traffic of which no one could possibly foresee the amount4 ,money was scarce1 and in many districts the natural obstacles to be overcome were infinitely greater than any which had presented themselves to ,european engineers4 ,by the sound practical sense and the unconquerable will of ,george ,stephenson1 the numerous inventions which together make up the locomotive engine had been collected into a machine which1 in combination with the improved roadway1 was to revolutionize the transportation of the world4 ,the railroad1 as a machine1 was invented4 ,it remained to apply the new invention in such a manner as to make it a success1 and not a failure4 ,to do this in a new country like ,america required infinite skill1 unbounded energy1 the most careful study of local conditions1 and the exercise of well matured1 sound business judgment4 ,to see how well the great invention has been applied in the ,united ,states1 we have only to look at the network of iron roads which now reaches from the ,great ,lakes to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,with all the experience we have had1 it is not an easy problem1 even at the present time1 to determine how much money we are authorized to spend upon the construction of a given railroad4 ,to secure the utmost benefit at the least outlay1 regarding both the first cost of building the road and the perpetual cost of operating it1 is the railroad problem which is perhaps less understood at the present day than any other4 ,it was an equally important problem fifty years ago1 and certainly not less difficult at that time4 ,it was the fathers of the railroad system in the ,united ,states who first perceived the importance of this problem1 and who1 adapting themselves to the new conditions presented in this country1 undertook to solve it4 ,among the pioneers in this branch of engineering no one has done more to establish correct methods1 nor has left behind a more enviable or more enduring fame1 than ,major ,george ,w4 ,whistler4 ,the ,whistler family is of ,english origin1 and is found toward the end of the #aeth century in ,oxfordshire1 at ,goring and ,whitchurch1 on the ,thames4 ,one branch of the family settled in ,sussex1 at ,hastings and ,battle1 being connected by marriage with the ,websters of ,battle ,abbey1 in which neighborhood some of the family still live4 ,another branch lived in ,essex1 from which came ,dr4 ,daniel ,whistler1 ,president of the ,college of ,physicians in ,london in the time of ,charles the ,second4 ,from the ,oxfordshire branch came ,ralph1 son of ,hugh ,whistler1 of ,goring1 who went to ,ireland1 and there founded the ,irish branch of the family1 being the original tenant of a large tract of country in ,ulster1 under one of the guilds or public companies of the city of ,london4 ,from this branch of the family came ,major ,john ,whistler1 father of the distinguished engineer1 and the first representative of the family in ,america4 ,it is stated that in some youthful freak he ran away and enlisted in the ,british ,army4 ,it is certain that he came to this country during the ,revolutionary ,war1 under ,general ,burgoyne1 and remained with his command until its surrender at ,saratoga1 when he was taken prisoner of war4 ,upon his return to ,england he was honorably discharged1 and1 soon after1 forming an attachment for a daughter of ,sir ,edward ,bishop1 a friend of his father1 he eloped with her1 and came to this country1 settling at ,hagerstown1 in ,maryland4 ,he soon after entered the army of the ,united ,states1 and served in the ranks1 being severely wounded in the disastrous campaign against the ,indians under ,major-,general ,st4 ,clair in the year #agia4 ,he was afterward commissioned as lieutenant1 rose to the rank of captain1 and later had the brevet of major4 ,at the reduction of the army in #ahae1 having already two sons in the service1 he was not retained2 but in recognition of his honorable record1 he was appointed ,military ,storekeeper at ,newport1 ,kentucky1 from which post he was afterward transferred to ,jefferson ,barracks1 where he lived to a good old age4 ,major ,john ,whistler had a large family of sons and daughters1 among whom we may note particularly ,william1 who became a colonel in the ,united ,states ,army1 and who died at ,newport1 ,ky41 in #ahfc2 ,john1 a lieutenant in the army1 who died of wounds received in the battle of ,maguago1 near ,detroit1 in #ahab2 and ,george ,washington1 the subject of our sketch4 ,major ,john ,whistler was not only a good soldier1 and highly esteemed for his military services1 but was also a man of refined tastes and well educated1 being an uncommonly good linguist and especially noted as a fine musician4 ,in his family he is stated to have united firmness with tenderness1 and to have impressed upon his children the importance of a faithful and thorough performance of duty in whatever position they should be placed4 ,george ,washington ,whistler1 the youngest son of ,major ,john ,whistler1 was born on the #aith of ,may1 in the year #ahjj1 at ,fort ,wayne1 in the present ,state of ,indiana1 but then part of the ,northwest ,territory1 his father being at the time in command of that post4 ,of the boyhood of ,whistler we have no record1 except that he followed his parents from one military station to another1 receiving his early education for the most part at ,newport1 ,ky41 from which place1 on ,july #ca1 #ahad1 he was appointed a cadet to the ,united ,states ,military ,academy1 being then fourteen years of age4 ,the course of the student at ,west ,point was a very satisfactory one4 ,owing to a change in the arrangement of classes after his entrance1 he had the advantage of a longer term than had been given to those who preceded him1 remaining five years under instruction4 ,his record during his student life was good throughout4 ,in a class of thirty members he stood ,no4 #a in drawing1 ,no4 #d in descriptive geometry1 ,no4 #e in drill1 ,no4 #aa in philosophy and in engineering1 ,no4 #ab in mathematics1 and ,no4 #aj in general merit4 ,he was remarkable1 says one who knew him at this time1 for his frank and open manner and for his pleasant and cheerful disposition4 ,a good story is told of the young cadet which shows his ability1 even at this time1 to make the best of circumstances apparently untoward1 and to turn to his advantage his surroundings1 whatever they might be4 ,having been for some slight breach of discipline required to bestride a gun in the campus for a short time1 he saw1 to his dismay1 coming down the walk the beautiful daughter of ,dr4 ,foster ,swift1 a young lady who1 visiting ,west ,point1 had taken the hearts of the cadets by storm1 and who1 little as he may at the time have dreamed it1 was destined to become his future wife4 ,pulling out his handkerchief1 he bent over his gun1 and appeared absorbed in cleaning the most inaccessible parts of it with such vigor as to be entirely unaware that any one was passing2 nor did the young lady dream that a case of discipline had been before her until in after years1 when1 on a visit to ,west ,point1 an explanation was made to her by her husband4 ,it was at this time of his life that the refinement and taste for which ,major ,whistler was ever after noted began to show itself4 ,an accomplished scientific musician and performer1 he gained a reputation in this direction beyond that of a mere amateur1 and scarcely below that of the professionals of the day4 ,his sobriquet of ,pipes1 which his skill upon the flute at this time gave him1 adhered to him through life among his intimates in the army4 ,his skill with the pencil1 too1 was something phenomenal1 and would1 had not more serious duties prevented1 have made him as noted an artist as he was an engineer4 ,fortunately for the world this talent descended to one of his sons1 and in his hands has had full development4 ,these tastes in ,major ,whistler appeared to be less the results of study than the spontaneous outgrowth of a refined and delicate organization1 and so far constitutional with him that they seemed to tinge his entire character4 ,they continued to be developed till past the meridian of life1 and amid all the pressure of graver duties furnished a most delightful relaxation4 ,upon completing his course at the ,military ,academy he was graduated1 ,july #a1 #ahai1 and appointed second lieutenant in the corps of artillery4 ,from this date until #ahba he served part of the time on topographical duty1 and part of the time he was in garrison at ,fort ,columbus4 ,from ,november #b1 #ahba1 to ,april #cj1 #ahbb1 he was assistant professor at the ,military ,academy1 a position for which his attainments in descriptive geometry and his skill in drawing especially fitted him4 ,this employment1 however1 was not altogether to his taste4 ,he was too much of an artist to wish to confine himself to the mechanical methods needed in the training of engineering students4 ,in #ahbb1 although belonging to the artillery1 he was detailed on topographical duty under ,major 7afterward ,colonel7 ,abert1 and was connected with the commission employed in tracing the international boundary between ,lake ,superior and the ,lake of the ,woods4 ,this work continued four years1 from #ahbb to #ahbf1 and subsequent duties in the cabinet of the commission employed nearly two years more4 ,the field service of this engagement was anything but light work1 much of it being performed in the depth of winter with a temperature fifty degrees below zero4 ,the principal food of the party was tallow and some other substance1 which was warmed over a fire on stopping at night4 ,the snow was then removed to a sufficient depth for a bed1 and the party wrapped one another up in their buffalo robes1 until the last man's turn came1 when he had to wrap himself up the best he could4 ,in the morning1 after warming their food and eating1 the remainder was allowed to harden in the pan1 after which it was carried on the backs of men to the next stopping place4 ,the work was all done upon snow-shoes1 and occasionally a man became so blinded by the glare of the sun upon the snow that he had to be led by a rope4 ,upon the #ast of ,june1 #ahba1 ,whistler was made second lieutenant in the ,first ,artillery1 in the reorganized army2 on the #afth of ,august1 #ahba1 he was transferred to the ,second ,artillery1 and on the #afth of ,august1 #ahbi1 he was made first lieutenant4 ,although belonging to the artillery1 he was assigned to topographical duty almost continually until ,december #ca1 #ahcc1 when he resigned his position in the army4 ,a large part of his time during this period was spent in making surveys1 plans1 and estimates for public works1 not merely those needed by the national government1 but others which were undertaken by chartered companies in different parts of the ,united ,states4 ,there were at that time very few educated engineers in the country1 besides the graduates of the ,military ,academy2 and the army engineers were thus frequently applied for1 and for several years government granted their services4 ,prominent among the early works of internal improvement was the ,baltimore ,ohio ,railroad1 and the managers of this undertaking had been successful in obtaining the services of several officers who were then eminent1 or who afterward became so4 ,the names of ,dr4 ,howard1 who1 though not a military man1 was attached to the ,corps of ,engineers1 of ,lieut4-,col4 ,long1 and of ,capt4 ,william ,gibbs ,mc,neill appear in the proceedings of the company as ,chiefs of ,brigade1 and those of ,fessenden1 ,gwynne1 and ,trimble among the assistants4 ,in ,october1 #ahbh1 this company made a special request for the services of ,lieutenant ,whistler4 ,the directors had resolved on sending a deputation to ,england to examine the railroads of that country1 and ,jonathan ,knight1 ,william ,gibbs ,mc,neill1 and ,george ,w4 ,whistler were selected for this duty4 ,they were also accompanied by ,ross ,winans1 whose fame and fortune1 together with those of his sons1 became so widely known afterward in connection with the great ,russian railway4 ,lieutenant ,whistler1 says one who knew him well1 was chosen for this service on account of his remarkable thoroughness in all the details of his profession1 as well as for his superior qualifications in other respects4 ,the party left this country in ,november1 #ahbh1 and returned in ,may1 #ahbi4 ,in the course of the following year the organization of the ,baltimore and ,ohio ,railroad1 a part of which had already been constructed under the immediate personal supervision of ,lieutenant ,whistler1 assumed a more permanent form1 and allowed the military engineers to be transferred to other undertakings of a similar character4 ,accordingly1 in ,june1 #ahcj1 ,captain ,mc,neill and ,lieutenant ,whistler were sent to the ,baltimore and ,susquehanna ,railroad1 for which they made the preliminary surveys and a definite location1 and upon which they remained until about twenty miles were completed1 when a lack of funds caused a temporary suspension of the work4 ,in the latter part of #ahca ,whistler went to ,new ,jersey to aid in the construction of the ,paterson and ,hudson ,river ,railroad 7now a part of the ,erie ,railway74 ,upon this work he remained until #ahcc1 at which time he moved to ,connecticut to take charge of the location of the railroad from ,providence to ,stonington1 a line which had been proposed as an extension of that already in process of construction from ,boston to ,providence4 ,in this year1 ,december #ca1 #ahcc1 ,lieut4 ,whistler resigned his commission in the army1 and this not so much from choice as from a sense of duty4 ,hitherto his work as an engineer appears to have been more an employment than a vocation4 ,he carried on his undertakings diligently1 as it was his nature to do1 but without much anxiety or enthusiasm2 and he was satisfied in meeting difficulties as they came up1 with a sufficient solution4 ,henceforward he handled his profession from a love of it4 ,he labored that his resources against the difficulties of matter and space should be overabundant1 and if he had before been content with the sure-footed facts of observation1 he now added the luminous aid of study4 ,how luminous and how sure these combined became1 his later works show best4 ,in #ahcd ,mr4 ,whistler accepted the position of engineer to the proprietors of locks and canals at ,lowell4 ,this position gave him among other things the direction of the machine shops1 which had been made principally for the construction of locomotive engines4 ,the ,boston and ,lowell ,railroad1 which at this time was in process of construction1 had imported a locomotive from the works of ,george and ,robert ,stephenson1 at ,newcastle1 and this engine was to be reproduced1 not only for the use of the ,lowell road1 but for other railways as well1 and to this work ,major ,whistler gave a large part of his time from #ahcd to #ahcg4 ,the making of these engines illustrated those features in his character which then and ever after were of the utmost value to those he served4 ,it showed the self-denial with which he excluded any novelties of his own1 the caution with which he admitted those of others1 and the judgment which he exercised in selecting and combining the most meritorious of existing arrangements4 ,the preference which he showed for what was simple and had been tried did not arise from a want of originality1 as he had abundant occasion to show during the whole of his engineering life4 ,he was1 indeed1 uncommonly fertile in expedients1 as all who knew him testify1 and the greater the demand upon his originality1 the higher did he rise to meet the occasion4 ,the time spent in ,lowell was not only to the great advantage of the company1 but it increased also his own stores of mechanical knowledge1 and in a direction1 too1 which in later years was of especial value to him4 ,in #ahcg the condition of the ,stonington ,railroad became such as to demand the continual presence and attention of the engineer4 ,mr4 ,whistler therefore moved to ,stonington1 a place to which he became much attached1 and to which he seems during all of his wanderings to have looked with a view of making it finally his home4 ,while engaged upon the above road he was consulted in regard to many other undertakings in different parts of the country1 and prominent among these was the ,western ,railroad of ,massachusetts4 ,this great work1 remarkable for the boldness of its engineering1 was to run from ,worcester through ,springfield and ,pittsfield to ,albany4 ,to surmount the high lands dividing the waters of the ,connecticut from those of the ,hudson called for engineering cautious and skillful as well as heroic4 ,the line from ,worcester to ,springfield1 though apparently much less formidable1 and to one who now rides over the road showing no very marked features1 demanded hardly less study1 as many as twelve several routes having been examined between ,worcester and ,brookfield4 ,to undertake the solution of a problem of so much importance required the best of engineering talent1 and we find associated on this work the names of three men who in the early railroad enterprises of this country stood deservedly in the front rank3 ,george ,w4 ,whistler1 ,william ,gibbs ,mc,neill1 and ,william ,h4 ,swift4 ,mc,neill had graduated from the ,military ,academy in #ahag1 and rose to the rank of major in the ,topographical ,engineers4 ,like ,whistler1 he had been detailed to take charge of the design and construction of many works of internal improvement not under the direction of the general government4 ,these two engineers exercised an influence throughout the country for many years much greater than that of any others4 ,indeed1 there were very few works of importance undertaken at that time in connection with which their names do not appear4 ,this alliance was further cemented by the marriage between ,whistler and ,mc,neill's sister4 ,capt4 ,william ,h4 ,swift had also graduated from the ,military ,academy1 and had already shown marked ability as an engineer4 ,such were the men who undertook the location and construction of the railroad which was to surmount the high lands between the ,connecticut and the ,hudson1 and to connect ,boston with the ,great ,west4 ,the early reports of these engineers to the directors of the ,western ,railroad show an exceedingly thorough appreciation of the complex problem presented to them1 and a much better understanding of the principles involved in establishing the route than seems to have been shown in many far more recent works4 ,in these early reports made in #ahcf and #ahcg1 we find elaborate discussions as to the power of the locomotive engine1 and a recognition of the fact that in comparing different lines we must regard the plan as well as the profile1 as the resistance from curves on a level road may even exceed that produced by gravity on an incline2 and in one place we find the ascents equated at #ah feet1 the slope which requires double the power needed on a level road1 resulting in a virtual increase4 ,we find also a very clear expression of the fact that an increased expenditure in the power needed to operate the completed road may overbalance a considerable saving in first cost4 ,to bear this principle in mind1 and at the same time to work in accordance with the directors' ideas of economy1 in a country where the railroad was regarded very largely as an experiment1 was by no means an easy task4 ,the temptation to make the first cost low at the expense of the quality of the road in running up the valley of ,westfield ,river was very great1 and the directors were at one time very strongly urged to make an exceedingly narrow and crooked road west of ,springfield2 but ,major ,whistler so convinced the ,president1 ,thomas ,b4 ,wales1 of the folly of such a course1 that the latter declared1 with a most emphatic prefix1 that he would have nothing to do with such a two-penny cow-path1 and thus prevented its adoption4 ,mr4 ,whistler had many investigations to make concerning the plans and policy of railroad companies at a time when almost everything connected with them was comparatively new and untried4 ,when he commenced1 there was no passenger railroad in the country1 and but very few miles of quarry and mining track4 ,if at that time an ascent of more than #a in #bjj was required1 it was thought necessary to have inclined planes and stationary power4 ,it was supposed that by frequent relays it would be possible to obtain for passenger cars a speed of eight or nine miles an hour4 ,almost nothing was known of the best form for rails1 of the construction of the track1 or of the details for cars or engines4 ,in all of these things ,major ,whistler's highly gifted and well balanced mind enabled him to judge wisely for his employers1 and to practice for them the truest economy4 ,major ,whistler's employment upon the ,western ,railroad began while he was still engaged upon the ,stonington line4 ,in connection with his friend ,mc,neill he acted as consulting engineer for the ,western road from #ahcf to #ahdj4 ,from #ahdj to #ahdb he was its chief engineer1 with his headquarters at ,springfield4 ,the steep grades west of the ,connecticut presented not only a difficult problem in location and construction1 but in locomotive engineering as well4 ,at the present day we can order any equipment which may best meet the requirement upon any railroad1 and the order will be promptly met by any one of our great manufactories4 ,but in the early days of the ,western ,railroad it was far otherwise1 and the locomotive which should successfully and economically operate the hitherto unheard of grade of over #hj feet to the mile was yet to be seen4 ,the ,messrs4 ,winans1 of ,baltimore1 had built some nondescript machines1 which had received the name of crabs1 and had tried to make them work upon the ,western road4 ,but after many attempts they were given up as unfit for such service4 ,these crabs were eight wheeled engines1 weighing about #bj tons1 with a vertical boiler4 ,the wheels were #c feet in diameter1 but the engine worked on to an intermediate shaft1 which was connected with the driving axle in such a way as to get the effect of a five foot wheel4 ,these engines did not impress ,major ,whistler at all favorably4 ,and it is related that one ,sunday the watchman in charge of the building in which some of them were kept1 hearing some one among the engines1 went in quietly and overheard ,major ,whistler1 apparently conversing with the crab1 and saying3 ,no2 you miserable1 top-heavy1 lop-sided abortion of a grasshopper1 you'll never do to haul the trains over this road4 ,his experience in ,lowell was here of great value to him1 and he had become convinced that the engine of ,george ,stephenson was in the main the coming machine1 and needed but to be properly proportioned and of sufficient size to meet every demand4 ,with ,major ,whistler's work upon the ,western ,railroad his engineering service in this country concluded1 and that by an occurrence which marked him as the foremost railroad engineer of his time4 ,patient1 indefatigable1 cautious1 remarkable for exhaustless resource1 admirable judgment1 and the highest engineering skill1 he had begun with the beginning of the railroad system1 and had risen to the chief control of one of the greatest works in the world1 the ,western ,railroad of ,massachusetts4 ,not only had he shown the most far-sighted wisdom in fixing the general features of this undertaking1 but no man surpassed him1 if1 indeed1 any one equaled him1 in an exact and thorough knowledge of technical details4 ,to combine the various elements in such a manner as to produce the greatest commercial success1 and to make the railroad in the widest sense of the word a public improvement1 never forgetting the amount of money at his disposal1 was the problem he had undertaken to solve4 ,he had proved himself a great master in his profession1 and had shown how well fitted he was to grapple with every difficulty4 ,he was equally a man of science and a man of business4 ,and to all this he added the most delicate sense of honor and the most spotless integrity4 ,he was in the prime of manhood1 and was prepared to enter upon the great work of his life4 ,it was not long after the introduction of the railroad that intelligent persons saw very plainly that the new mode of transportation was not to be confined to the working of an already established traffic1 in densely populated regions1 but that it would be of equal service in awakening the energies of undeveloped countries1 in bringing the vast interior regions of the continents into communication with the seaboard1 in opening markets to lands which before were beyond the reach of commerce4 ,and it was seen1 too1 that in event of war1 a new and invaluable element had been introduced1 viz41 the power of transportation to an extent never before imagined4 ,especially were these advantages foreseen in the vast empire of ,russia1 and an attempt was very early made to induce private capitalists to undertake the construction of the lines contemplated in that country4 ,the ,emperor1 besides guaranteeing to the shareholders a minimum profit of four per cent41 proposed to give them1 gratuitously1 all the lands of the state through which the lines should pass1 and to place at their disposal1 also gratuitously1 the timber and raw materials necessary for the way and works which might be found upon the ground4 ,it was further proposed1 to permit the importation of rails and of the rolling stock free of duty4 ,russian proprietors also came forward1 and not only agreed to grant such portions of their land as the railroads might pass through1 gratuitously1 but further to dispossess themselves temporarily of their serfs1 and surrender them to the use of the companies1 on the sole condition that they should be properly supported while thus employed4 ,with regard to the great line1 however1 which was to unite the two capitals1 ,st4 ,petersburg and ,moscow1 it was decreed that this should be made exclusively at the expense of the state1 in order to retain in the hands of the government and in the general interest of the people a line of communication so important to the industry and the internal commerce of the country4 ,the local proprietors agreed to surrender to the government1 gratuitously1 the lands necessary for this line4 ,it was very early understood that the railroad problem in ,russia was much more analogous to that in the ,united ,states than to that in ,england4 ,the ,emperor1 therefore1 in #ahci1 sent the ,chevalier ,de ,gerstner to the ,united ,states to obtain information concerning the railroads of this country4 ,it was this person who obtained from the ,emperor the concession for the short railway from ,st4 ,petersburg to ,zarskoe ,selo1 which had been opened in #ahcg1 and who had also made a careful reconnoissance in #ahce for a line from ,st4 ,petersburg to ,moscow1 and had very strongly urged its construction on the ,american plan4 ,the more ,de ,gerstner examined our roads1 the more impressed he was with the fitness of what he termed the ,american system of building and operating railroads to the needs of the empire of ,russia4 ,in one of his letters in explaining the causes of the cheap construction of ,american railroads1 after noting the fact that labor as well as material is much dearer in ,america than in ,europe1 he refers to the use of steep grades 7#ic feet to the mile7 and sharp curves 7#fjj feet radius71 upon which the ,american equipment works easily1 to the use of labor saving machinery1 particularly to a steam excavating machine upon the railroad between ,worcester and ,springfield1 and to the ,american system of wooden bridge building1 and says3 ,the superstructure of the railroads in ,america is made conformable to the expected traffic1 and costs therefore more or less accordingly2 and he concludes1 considering the whole1 it appears that the cheapness of the ,american railroads has its foundation in the practical sense which predominates in their construction4 ,again1 under the causes of the cheap management of the ,american roads1 he notes the less expensive administration service1 the low rate of speed1 the use of the eight wheeled cars and the four-wheeled truck under the engines1 and concludes3 ,in my opinion it would be of great advantage for every railroad company in ,europe to procure at least one such train 7as those used in ,america74 ,those companies1 however1 whose works are yet under construction ,i can advise with the fullest conviction to procure all their locomotive engines and tenders from ,america1 and to construct their cars after the ,american model4 ,notwithstanding this report1 the suggestions of ,de ,gerstner were not at once accepted4 ,the magnitude of the enterprise would not admit of taking a false step4 ,further evidence was needed1 and accordingly it was decided to send a committee of engineer officers to various countries in ,europe1 and to the ,united ,states1 to select such a system for the road and its equipment as would be best adapted to ,russia4 ,these officers1 ,colonels ,melnikoff and ,krofft1 not only reported in the most decided manner in favor of the ,american methods1 but also stated that of all persons with whom they had communicated1 no one had given them such full and satisfactory information upon all points1 or had so impressed them as possessing extraordinary ability1 as ,major ,george ,w4 ,whistler4 ,this led to his receiving an invitation from the ,emperor to go to ,russia and become consulting engineer for the great road which was to connect the imperial city upon the ,baltic with the ancient capital of the ,czars4 ,when we consider the magnitude of the engineering works with which the older countries abound1 we can but regard with a feeling of pride the fact that an ,american should have been selected for so high a trust by a ,european government possessing every opportunity and means for securing the highest professional talent which the world could offer4 ,nor should it be forgotten that the selection of our countryman did not arise from any necessity which the ,russian ,government felt for obtaining professional aid from abroad1 growing out of a lack of the requisite material at home4 ,on the contrary1 the engineers of the ,russian service are perhaps the most accomplished body of men to be found in any country4 ,selected in their youth1 irrespective of any artificial advantages of birth or position1 but for having a genius for such work1 and trained to a degree of excellence in all of the sciences unsurpassed in any country1 they stand deservedly in the front rank4 ,such was the body of men with whom ,major ,whistler was called to co-operate1 and whose professional duties1 if not directed specially by him1 were to be controlled by his judgment4 ,accepting the position offered to him in so flattering a manner1 he sailed for ,st4 ,petersburg about mid-summer in #ahdb1 being accompanied on his voyage by ,major ,bouttattz1 of the ,russian ,engineer ,corps1 who had been sent to this country by the ,emperor as an escort4 ,arriving in ,st4 ,petersburg1 and having learned the general character of the proposed work1 he traveled partly by horse and partly on foot over the entire route1 and made his preliminary report1 which was at once accepted4 ,the plan contemplated the construction of a double track railroad #dbj miles long1 perfect in all its parts1 and equipped to its utmost necessity4 ,the estimates amounted to nearly forty millions of dollars1 and the time for its construction was reckoned at seven years4 ,the line selected for the road had no reference to intermediate points1 and was the shortest attainable1 due regard being paid to the cost of construction4 ,it is nearly straight1 and passes over so level a country as to encounter no obstacle requiring a grade exceeding #bj feet to the mile1 and for most of the distance it is level4 ,the right of way taken was #djj feet in width throughout the entire length4 ,the roadbed was raised from six to ten feet above the ordinary level of the country1 and was #cj feet wide on top4 ,one of the most important questions to settle at the outset in regard to this great work was the width of the gauge4 ,at that time the opinion in ,england as well as in the ,united ,states among engineers was setting very strongly in favor of a gauge wider than #d feet #h inches1 and the ,russian engineers were decidedly in favor of such increased width4 ,major ,whistler1 however1 in an elaborate report to the ,count ,kleinmichel argued very strongly in favor of the ordinary gauge4 ,to this a commission of the most distinguished engineers in ,russia replied1 urging in the most forcible manner the adoption of a gauge of six feet4 ,major ,whistler rejoined in a report which is one of the finest models of an engineering argument ever written1 and in which we have perhaps the best view of the quality of his mind4 ,in this document no point is omitted1 each part of the question is handled with the most consummate skill1 the bearing of the several parts upon the whole is shown in the clearest possible manner1 and in a style which could only come from one who from his own knowledge was thoroughly familiar with all the details1 not only of the railroad1 but of the locomotive as well4 ,in this report the history of the ordinary gauge is given1 with the origin of the standard of #d feet #h inches2 the questions of strength1 stability1 and capacity of cars1 of the dimensions1 proportions1 and power of engines1 the speed of trains1 resistances to motion1 weight and strength of rails1 the cost of the roadway1 and the removal of snow are carefully considered4 ,the various claims of the advocates for a wider gauge are fairly and critically examined1 and while the errors of his opponents are laid bare in the most unsparing manner1 the whole is done in a spirit so entirely unprejudiced1 and with so evident a desire for the simple truth1 as to carry conviction to any fair minded person4 ,the dry way1 too1 in which he suggests that conclusions based upon actual results from existing railways are of more value than deductions from supposed conditions upon imaginary roads1 is exceedingly entertaining4 ,the result was the adoption of the gauge recommended by him1 namely1 five feet4 ,those who remember the ,battle of the ,gauges1 and who know how much expense and trouble the wide gauge has since caused1 will appreciate the stand taken thus early by ,major ,whistler2 and this was but one among many cases which might be mentioned to show how comprehensive and far-reaching was his mind4 ,the roadbed of the ,st4 ,petersburg and ,moscow ,railway was made #cj feet wide on top1 for a double track of #e foot gauge1 with a gravel ballasting two feet deep4 ,the bridges were of wood1 of the ,howe pattern1 no spans being over #bjj feet in length4 ,the stations at each end1 and the station and engine houses along the line1 were on a plan uniform throughout1 and of the most ample accommodation4 ,fuel and water stations were placed at suitable points1 and engine houses were provided #ej miles apart1 built of the most substantial masonry1 circular in form1 #ahj feet in diameter1 surmounted by a dome1 and having stalls for #bb engines each4 ,repair shops were attached to every engine house1 furnished with every tool or implement that the wants of the road could suggest4 ,the equipment of rolling stock and fixed machinery for the shops was furnished by the ,american firm of ,winans1 ,harrison ,eastwick1 who from previous acquaintance were known by ,major ,whistler to be skillful1 energetic1 and reliable4 ,much diplomacy was needed to procure the large money advances for this part of the work1 the whole ,winans contract amounting to nearly five millions of dollars2 but the assurance of ,major ,whistler was a sufficient guarantee against disappointment or failure4 ,in #ahdc the plans for the work were all complete1 and in #ahdd the various operations along the line were well under way1 and proceeding according to the well arranged programme4 ,in #ahde the work had progressed so far that the construction of the rolling stock was commenced4 ,the locomotives were of two classes1 freight and passenger4 ,the engines of each class were made throughout from the same patterns1 so that any part of one engine would fit the same position on any other4 ,the passenger engines had two pairs of driving wheels1 coupled1 #f feet in diameter1 and a four wheeled truck similar to the modern ,american locomotive4 ,the general dimensions were3 ,waist of boiler1 #dg inches1 #ahf two inch tubes #aj feet long2 cylinders1 #af #bb inches4 ,the freight engines had the same capacity of boiler and the same number and length of tubes1 three pairs of driving wheels1 coupled1 #d feet in diameter1 a truck and cylinders #ah #bb inches1 and all uniform throughout in workmanship and finish4 ,the passenger cars were #ef feet long and #i feet wide1 the first class carrying #cc passengers1 the second class #ed1 and the third class #hj4 ,they all had eight truck wheels under each1 and elliptic steel springs4 ,the freight cars were all #cj feet long and #i feet wide1 made in a uniform manner1 with eight truck wheels under each4 ,the imperial saloon carriages were #hj feet long and #i feet wide1 having double trucks1 or sixteen wheels under each4 ,they were divided into five compartments and fitted with every convenience4 ,early in #ahdg the ,emperor ,nicholas visited the mechanical works at ,alexandroffsky1 where the rolling stock was being made by the ,messrs4 ,winans1 in the shops prepared by them and supplied by ,russian labor4 ,everything here was on the grandest scale1 and the work was conducted under the most perfect system4 ,upon this occasion the ,emperor was so much gratified at what had already been accomplished that he conferred upon ,major ,whistler the decoration of the ,order of ,st4 ,anne4 ,he had previously been pressed to wear the ,russian uniform1 which he promptly declined to do2 but there was no escape from the decoration without giving offense4 ,he is said1 however1 to have generally contrived to hide it beneath his coat in such a manner that few ever saw it4 ,technically1 ,major ,whistler was consulting engineer1 ,colonel ,melnikoff being constructing engineer for the northern half of the road1 and ,colonel ,krofft for the southern half2 but as a matter of fact1 by far the larger part of planning the construction in detail of both railway and equipment fell upon ,major ,whistler4 ,there was also a permanent commission having general charge of the construction of the road1 of which the president was ,general ,destrem1 one of the four ,french engineers whom ,napoleon1 at the request of the ,emperor ,alexander1 sent to ,russia for the service of that country4 ,the year #ahdh was a very trying one to ,major ,whistler4 ,he had already on several occasions overtasked his strength1 and had been obliged to rest4 ,this year the ,asiatic cholera made its appearance4 ,he sent his family abroad1 but remained himself alone in his house4 ,he would on no account at this time leave his post1 nor omit his periodical inspections along the line of the road1 where the epidemic was raging4 ,in ,november he had an attack of cholera1 and while he recovered from it1 he was left very weak4 ,still1 he remained upon the work through the winter1 though suffering much from a complication of diseases4 ,as spring advanced he became much worse1 and upon the #gth of ,april1 #ahdi1 he passed quietly away1 the immediate cause of his death being a trouble with the heart4 ,funeral services were held in the ,anglican 7,episcopal7 ,church in ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,his body was soon afterward carried to ,boston and deposited beneath ,st4 ,paul's ,church2 but the final interment took place at ,stonington4 ,the kindness and attention of the ,emperor and of all with whom ,major ,whistler had been associated knew no bounds4 ,everything was done to comfort and aid his wife1 and when she left ,st4 ,petersburg the ,emperor sent her in his private barge to the mouth of the ,baltic4 ,it was not only1 says one who knew him weil1 through his skill1 ability1 and experience as an engineer that ,major ,whistler was particularly qualified for and eminently successful in the important task he performed so well in ,russia4 ,his military training and bearing1 his polished manner1 good humor1 sense of honor1 knowledge of a language 7,french7 in which he could converse with officers of the government1 his resolution in adhering to what he thought was right1 and in meeting difficulties only to surmount them1 with other admirable personal qualities1 made him soon1 and during his whole residence in ,russia1 much liked and trusted by all persons by whom he was known1 from the ,emperor down to the peasant4 ,such is the reputation he left behind him1 and which is given to him in ,russia to this day4 ,in #ahdi the firm of ,winans1 ,harrison and ,eastwick had already furnished the road with #afb locomotives1 #gb passenger and #b1ehj freight cars4 ,they had also arranged to instruct a suitable number of ,russian mechanics to take charge of the machinery when completed4 ,the road was finished its entire length in #ahej1 being opened for passenger and freight traffic on the #beth of ,september of that year1 in two divisions1 experimentally1 and finally opened for through business on ,november #a1 #ahea4 ,in all of its construction and equipment it was essentially ,american of the best kind1 everything being made under a carefully devised system1 by which the greatest economy in maintenance and in management should be possible4 ,the use of standard patterns1 uniformity in design and duplication of parts was applied1 not only to the rolling stock1 but to the railroad as well1 wherever it was possible4 ,indeed1 the whole undertaking in all its parts bore the impress of one master mind4 ,on the death of ,major ,whistler the government with jealous care prevented any changes whatever being made in his plans1 including those which had not been carried out as well as those already in process of execution4 ,an ,american engineer1 ,major ,t4,s4 ,brown1 was invited to ,russia to succeed ,major ,whistler as consulting engineer4 ,the services of the ,messrs4 ,winans also were so satisfactory to the government that a new contract was afterward made1 upon the completion of the road1 for the maintenance and the future construction of rolling stock4 ,while the great railroad was the principal work of ,major ,whistler in ,russia1 he was also consulted in regard to all the important engineering works of the period4 ,the fortifications at ,cronstadt1 the ,naval ,arsenal and docks at the same place1 the plans for improving the ,dwina at ,archangel1 the great iron roof of the ,riding ,house at ,st4 ,petersburg1 and the iron bridge over the ,neva all received his attention4 ,the government was accustomed to rely upon his judgment in all cases requiring the exercise of the highest combination of science and practical skill2 and here1 with a happy tact peculiarly his own1 he secured the warm friendship of men whose professional acts he found himself called upon in the exercise of his high trust in many cases to condemn4 ,the ,russians are proverbially jealous of strangers1 and no higher evidence of their appreciation of the sterling honesty of ,major ,whistler1 and of his sound1 discriminating judgment1 could be afforded than the fact that all his recommendations on the great questions of internal improvement1 opposed as many of them were to the principles which had previously obtained1 and which were sanctioned by usage1 were yet carried out by the government to the smallest details4 ,while in ,russia ,major ,whistler was sometimes placed in positions most trying to him4 ,it is said that some of the corps of native engineers1 many of whom were nobles1 while compelled to look up to him officially1 were inclined to look down upon him socially1 and exercised their supposed privileges in this respect so as to annoy him exceedingly1 for he had not known in his own country what it was to be the social inferior of any one4 ,the ,emperor1 hearing of this annoyance1 determined to stop it2 so1 taking advantage of a day when he knew the engineer corps would visit a celebrated gallery of art1 he entered it while they were there1 and without at first noticing any one else1 looked around for ,major ,whistler1 and seeing him1 went directly toward him1 took his arm1 and walked slowly with him entirely around the gallery4 ,after this the conduct of the nobles was all that could be desired4 ,major ,whistler's salary while in ,russia was #ab1jjj a year2 a sum no more than necessary for living in a style befitting his position4 ,he had abundant opportunity for making money1 but this his nice sense of honor forbade4 ,it is even stated that he would never allow any invention to be used on the road that could by any possibility be of any profit to himself or to any of his friends4 ,he was continually besieged by ,american inventors1 but in vain4 ,the honor of the profession he regarded as a sacred trust4 ,he served the ,emperor with the fidelity that characterized all his actions4 ,his unswerving devotion to his duty was fully appreciated1 and it is said that no ,american in ,russia1 except ,john ,quincy ,adams1 was ever held in so high estimation4 ,major ,whistler married for his first wife ,mary1 daughter of ,dr4 ,foster ,swift of the ,u4,s4 ,army1 and ,deborah1 daughter of ,capt4 ,thomas ,delano of ,nantucket4 ,by her he had three children3 ,deborah1 his only daughter1 who married ,seymour ,haden of ,london1 a surgeon1 but later and better known for his skill in etching2 ,george ,william1 who became an engineer and railway manager1 and who went to ,russia1 and finally died at ,brighton1 in ,england1 ,dec4 #bd1 #ahfi2 ,joseph ,swift1 born at ,new ,london1 ,aug4 #ab1 #ahbe1 and who died at ,stonington1 ,jan4 #a1 #ahdj4 ,his first wife died ,dec4 #i1 #ahbg1 at the early age of #bc years1 and is buried in ,greenwood ,cemetery1 in the shade of the monument erected to the memory of her husband by the loving hands of his professional brethren4 ,for his second wife he married ,anna ,matilda1 daughter of ,dr4 ,charles ,donald ,mc,neill of ,wilmington1 ,n4,c41 and sister of his friend and associate1 ,william ,gibbs ,mc,neill4 ,by her he had five sons3 ,james ,abbot ,mc,neill1 the noted artist1 and ,william ,gibbs ,mc,neill1 a well known physician1 both now living in ,london2 ,kirk ,boott1 born in ,stonington1 ,july #af1 #ahch1 and who died at ,springfield1 ,july #aj1 #ahdb2 ,charles ,donald1 born in ,springfield1 ,aug4 #bg1 #ahda1 and who died in ,russia1 ,sept4 #bd1 #ahdc2 and ,john ,bouttattz1 who was born and who died at ,st4 ,petersburg1 having lived but little more than a year4 ,his second wife1 who outlived him1 returned to ,america1 and remained here during the education of her children1 after which she moved to ,england4 ,she died ,jan4 #ca1 #ahha1 at the age of #gf years1 and was buried at ,hastings4 ,at a meeting held in the office of the ,panama ,railroad ,company in ,new ,york1 ,august #bg1 #ahdi1 for the purpose of suggesting measures expressive of their respect for the memory of ,major ,whistler1 ,wm4 ,h4 ,sidell being chairman and ,a4,w4 ,craven secretary1 it was resolved that a monument in ,greenwood ,cemetery would be a suitable mode of expressing the feelings of the profession in this respect1 and that an association be formed to collect funds and take all necessary steps to carry out the work4 ,at this meeting ,capt4 ,william ,h4 ,swift was appointed president1 ,major ,t4,s4 ,brown treasurer1 and ,a4,w4 ,craven secretary1 and ,messrs4 ,horatio ,allen1 ,w4,c4 ,young1 ,j4,w4 ,adams1 and ,a4,w4 ,craven were appointed a committee to procure designs and estimates1 and to select a suitable piece of ground4 ,the design was made by ,mr4 ,adams1 and the ground was given by ,mr4 ,kirkwood4 ,the monument is a beautiful structure of red standstone1 about #ae feet high1 and stands in ,twilight ,dell4 ,upon the several faces are the following inscriptions3 ,upon the ,front4 ,,in ,,memory ,,of ,,george ,,washington ,,whistler1 ,,civil ,,engineer1 ,,born ,,at ,,fort ,,wayne1 ,,indiana1 ,,may1 #ahjj1 ,,died ,,at ,,st4 ,,petersburg1 ,,russia1 ,,april1 #ahdi4 ,upon the ,right ,side4 ,,educated ,,at ,,the ,u4,s4 ,,military ,,academy4 ,,he ,,retired ,,from ,,the ,,army ,,in #ahcc ,,and ,,became ,,associated ,,with ,,william ,,gibbs ,m',,neill4 ,,they ,,were ,,in ,,their ,,time ,,acknowledged ,,to ,,be ,,at ,,the ,,head ,,of ,,their ,,profession ,,in ,,this ,,country4 ,upon the ,back4 ,,he ,,was ,,distinguished ,,for ,,theoretical ,,and ,,practical ,,ability1 ,,coupled ,,with ,,sound ,,judgment ,,and ,,great ,,integrity4 ,,in #ahdb ,,he ,,was ,,invited ,,to ,,russia ,,by ,,the ,,emperor ,,nicholas1 ,,and ,,died ,,there ,,while ,,constructing ,,the ,,st4 ,,petersburg ,,moscow ,,railroad4 ,upon the ,left ,side4 ,,this ,,cenotaph ,,is ,a ,,monument ,,of ,,the ,,esteem ,,and ,,affection ,,of ,,his ,,friends ,,and ,,companions4 ,while the monument thus raised to the memory of the great engineer stands in that most delightful of the cities of the dead1 his worn-out body rests in the quaint old town of ,stonington4 ,it was here that his several children had been buried1 and he had frequently expressed a desire that when he should die he might be placed by their side4 ,a deputation of engineers who had been in their early years associated with him attended the simple service which was held over his grave1 and all felt as they turned away that they had bid farewell to such a man as the world has not often seen4 ,in person ,major ,whistler was of medium size and well made4 ,his face showed the finest type of manly beauty1 combined with a delicacy almost feminine4 ,in private life he was greatly prized for his natural qualities of heart and mind1 his regard for the feelings of others1 and his unvarying kindness1 especially toward his inferiors and his young assistants4 ,his duties and his travels in this and in other countries brought him in contact with men of every rank2 and it is safe to say that the more competent those who knew him were to judge1 the more highly was he valued by them4 ,a close observer1 with a keen sense of humor and unfailing tact1 fond of personal anecdote1 and with a mind stored with recollections from association with every grade of society1 he was a most engaging companion4 ,the charm of his manner was not conventional1 nor due to intercourse with refined society1 but came from a sense of delicacy and a refinement of feeling which was innate1 and which showed itself in him under all circumstances4 ,he was in the widest and best sense of the word a gentleman2 and he was a gentleman outwardly because he was a gentleman at heart4 ,as an engineer1 ,whistler's works speak for him4 ,he was eminently a practical man1 remarkable for steadiness of judgment and for sound business sense4 ,whatever he did was so well done that he was naturally followed as a model by those who were seeking a high standard4 ,others may have excelled in extraordinary boldness or in some remarkable specialty1 but in all that rounds out the perfect engineer1 whether natural characteristics1 professional training1 or the well digested results of long and valuable experience1 we look in vain for his superior1 and those who knew him best will hesitate to acknowledge his equal4--,journal of the ,association of ,engineering ,societies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,printing ,,lantern ,,pictures ,,by ,,artificial ,,light ,,on ,,bromide ,,plates ,,from ,,various ,,sizes4 ,by ,a4 ,,pumphrey4 ,footnote3 ,read before the ,birmingham ,photographic ,society4 ,reported in the ,photo4 ,news4 ,there can be no question that there is no plan that is so simple for producing transparencies as contact printing1 but in this1 as in other photographic matters1 one method of work will not answer all needs4 ,reproduction in the camera1 using daylight to illuminate the negative1 enables the operator to reduce or enlarge in every direction1 but the lantern is a winter instrument1 and comes in for demand and use during the short days4 ,when even the professional photographer has not enough light to get through his orders1 how can the amateur get the needed daylight if photography be only the pursuit in spare time8 ,besides1 there are days in our large towns when what daylight there is is so yellow from smoke or fog as to have little actinic power4 ,these considerations and needs have led me to experiment and test what can be done with artificial light1 and ,i think ,i have made the way clear for actual work without further experiment4 ,i have not been able by any arrangement of reflected light to get power enough to print negatives of the ordinary density1 and have only succeeded by causing the light to be equally dispersed over the negative by a lens as used in the optical lantern1 but the arrangements required are somewhat different to that of the enlarging lantern4 ,the following is the plan by which ,i have succeeded best in the production of transparencies3 ,illustration ,b is a lamp with a circular wick1 which burns petroleum and gives a good body of light4 ,c is a frame for holding the negative1 on the opposite side of which is a double convex lens facing the light4 ,d is the camera and lens4 ,all these must be placed in a line1 so that the best part of the light1 the center of the condenser1 and the lens are of equal height4 ,the method of working is as follows3 ,the lamp1 ,b1 is placed at such a distance from the condenser that the rays come to a focus and enter the lens2 the negative is then placed in the frame1 the focus obtained1 and the size of reduction adjusted by moving the camera nearer to or further from the condenser and negative4 ,in doing this no attention need be paid to the light properly covering the field1 as that cannot be adjusted while the negative is in its place4 ,when the size and focus are obtained1 remove the negative1 and carefully move the lamp till it illuminates the ground glass equally all over1 by a disk of light free from color4 ,the negative can then be replaced1 and no further adjustment will be needed for any further reproduction of the same size4 ,there is one point that requires attention3 ,the lens used in the camera should be a doublet of about #f inch focus 7in reproducing #h #f or smaller sizes71 and the stop used must not be a very small one1 not less than inch diameter4 ,if a smaller stop is used1 an even disk of light is not obtained1 but ample definition is obtainable with the size stop mentioned4 ,in the arrangement described1 a single lens is used for the condenser1 not because it is better than a double one1 as is general for such purposes1 but because it is quite sufficient for the purpose4 ,of course1 a large condenser is both expensive and cumbersome4 ,there is1 therefore1 no advantage in using a combination if a single lens will answer4 ,in reproducing lantern pictures from half-plate negatives1 the time required on my lantern plates is from two to four minutes1 using #f inch condenser4 ,for whole plate negatives1 from two to six minutes with a #i inch condenser4 ,in working in this way it is easy to be developing one picture while exposing another4 ,the condenser must be of such a size that it will cover the plate from corner to corner4 ,the best part of an #h #f negative will be covered by a #i inch condenser1 and a #f #d by a #f inch condenser4 ,with this arrangement it will be easy to reproduce from half or whole plate negatives or any intermediate sizes quite independently of daylight4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,experiments ,,in ,,toning ,,gelatino-,,chloride ,,paper4 ,from the ,photographic ,news we take the following3 ,the use of paper coated with a gelatino-citro-chloride emulsion in place of albumenized paper appears to be becoming daily more common4 ,successful toning has generally been the difficulty with such paper1 the alkaline baths commonly in use with albumenized having proved unsuitable for toning this paper4 ,on the whole1 the bath that has given the best results is one containing1 in addition to gold1 a small quantity of hypo and a considerable quantity of sulphocyanide of ammonium4 ,such a bath tones very rapidly1 and gives most pleasing colors4 ,it appears1 moreover1 to be impossible to overtone the citro-chloro emulsion paper with it in the sense that it is possible to overtone prints on albumenized paper with the ordinary alkaline bath4 ,that is to say1 it is impossible to produce a slaty gray image4 ,the result of prolonged toning is merely an image of an engraving black color4 ,of this1 however1 we shall say more hereafter4 ,we wish first of all to refer to an elaborate series of experiments by ,lionel ,clark on the effects of various toning baths used with the gelatino-citro-chloride paper4 ,the results of these experiments we have before us at the time of writing1 and we may at once say that1 from the manner in which the experiments have been carried out and in which the results have been tabulated1 ,lionel ,clark's work forms a very useful contribution to our photographic knowledge1 and a contribution that will become more and more useful1 the longer the results of the experiments are kept4 ,a number of small prints have been prepared4 ,of these several--in most cases1 three--have been toned by a certain bath1 and each print has been torn in two4 ,one-half has been treated with bichloride of mercury1 so as to bleach such portion of the image as is of silver1 and finally the prints--the two halves of each being brought close together--have been mounted in groups1 each group containing all the prints toned by a certain formula1 with full information tabulated4 ,the only improvement we could suggest in the arrangement is that all the prints should have been from the same negative1 or from only three negatives1 so that we should have prints from the same negatives in every group1 and should the better be able to compare the results of the toning baths4 ,probably1 however1 the indifferent light of the present season of the year made it difficult to get a sufficiency of prints from one negative4 ,the following is a description of the toning baths used and of the appearance of the prints4 ,we refer1 in the mean time1 only to those halves that have not been treated with bichloride of mercury4 #a4--;,gold chloride 7,au,cl#c744444444444 #a gr4 ,sulphocyanide of potassium444444444 #aj gr4 ,hyposulphite of soda444444444444444 gr4 ,water444444444444444444444444444444 #b oz4 ,the prints are of a brilliant purple or violet color4 #b4--;,gold chloride4444444444444444444444 #a gr4 ,sulphocyanide of potassium444444444 #aj gr4 ,hyposulphite of soda444444444444444 gr4 ,water444444444444444444444444444444 #d oz4 ,there is only one print1 which is of a brown color1 and in every way inferior to those toned with the first bath4 #c4--;,gold chloride4444444444444444444444 #a gr4 ,sulphocyanide of potassium444444444 #ab gr4 ,hyposulphite of soda444444444444444 gr4 ,water444444444444444444444444444444 #b oz4 ,the prints toned by this bath are1 in our opinion1 the finest of the whole4 ,the tone is a purple of the most brilliant and pleasing shade4 #d4--;,gold chloride4444444444444444444444 #a gr4 ,sulphocyanide of potassium444444444 #bj gr4 ,hyposulphite of soda444444444444444 #e gr4 ,water444444444444444444444444444444 #b oz4 ,there is only one print1 but it is from the same negative as one of the ,no4 #c group4 ,it is very inferior to that in ,no4 #c1 the color less pleasant1 and the appearance generally as if the details of the lights had been bleached by the large quantity either of hypo or of sulphocyanide of potassium4 #e4--;,gold chloride4444444444444444444444 #a gr4 ,sulphocyanide of potassium444444444 #ej gr4 ,hyposulphite of soda444444444444444 gr4 ,water444444444444444444444444444444 #b oz4 ,opposite to this description of formula there are no prints1 but the following is written3 ,these prints were completely destroyed1 the sulphocyanide of potassium 7probably7 dissolving off the gelatine4 #f4--;,gold chloride4444444444444444444444 #a gr4 ,sulphocyanide of potassium444444444 #bj gr4 ,hypo4444444444444444444444444444444 #e gr4 ,carbonate of soda444444444444444444 #aj gr4 ,water444444444444444444444444444444 #b oz4 ,this it will be seen is the same as #d1 but that the solution is rendered alkaline with carbonate of soda4 ,the result of the alkalinity certainly appears to be good1 the color is more pleasing than that produced by ,no4 #d1 and there is less appearance of bleaching4 ,it must be borne in mind in this connection that the paper itself is strongly acid1 and that1 unless special means be taken to prevent it1 the toning bath is sure to be more or less acid4 #g4--;,gold chloride4444444444444444444444 #a gr4 ,acetate of soda44444444444444444444 #cj gr4 ,water444444444444444444444444444444 #b oz4 ,the color of the prints toned by this bath is not exceedingly pleasing4 ,it is a brown tending to purple1 but is not very pure or bright4 ,the results show1 however1 the possibility of toning the gelatino-chloro-citrate paper with the ordinary acetate bath if it be only made concentrated enough4 #h4--;,gold chloride4444444444444444444444 #a gr4 ,carbonate of soda444444444444444444 #c gr4 ,water444444444444444444444444444444 #b oz4 ,very much the same may be said of the prints toned by this bath as of those toned by ,no4 #g4 ,the color is not very good1 nor is the toning quite even4 ,this last remark applies to ,no4 #g batch as well as ,no4 #h4 #i4--;,gold chloride4444444444444444444444 #a gr4 ,phosphate of soda444444444444444444 #bj gr4 ,water444444444444444444444444444444 #b oz4 ,the results of this bath can best be described as purplish in color4 ,they are decidedly more pleasing than those of #g or #h1 but are not as good as the best by the sulphocyanide bath4 #aj4--;,gold chloride444444444444444444444 #a gr4 ,hyposulphite of soda44444444444444 oz4 ,water44444444444444444444444444444 #b oz4 ,the result of this bath is a brilliant brown color1 what might indeed1 perhaps1 be best described as a red4 ,two out of the three prints are much too dark1 indicating1 perhaps1 that this toning bath did not have any tendency to reduce the intensity of the image4 ,the general lesson taught by ,clark's experiments is that the sulphocyanide bath gives better results than any other4 ,a certain proportion of the ingredients--namely1 that of bath ,no4 #c--;gives better results than any other proportions tried1 and about as good as any that could be hoped for4 ,any of the ordinary alkaline toning baths may be used1 but they all give results inferior to those got by the sulphocyanide bath4 ,the best of the ordinary baths is1 however1 the phosphate of soda4 ,and now a word as to those parts of the prints which have been treated with bichloride of mercury4 ,the thing that strikes us as remarkable in connection with them is that in them the image has scarcely suffered any reduction of intensity at all4 ,in most cases there has been a disagreeable change of color1 but it is almost entirely confined to the whites and lighter tints1 which are turned to a more or less dirty yellow4 ,even in the case of the prints toned by bath ,no4 #aj1 where the image is quite red1 it has suffered no appreciable reduction of intensity4 ,this would indicate that an unusually large proportion of the toned image consists of gold1 and this idea is confirmed by the fact that to tone a sheet of gelatino-chloro-citrate paper requires several times as much gold as to tone a sheet of albumenized paper4 ,indeed1 we believe that1 with the emulsion paper1 it is possible to replace the whole of the silver of the image with gold1 thereby producing a permanent print4 ,we have already said that the print may be left for any reasonable length of time in the toning bath without the destruction of its appearance1 and we cannot but suppose that a very long immersion results in a complete substitution of gold for silver4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,sensim ,,preparing ,,box4 ,fig4 #a shows a perspective view of the machine1 ,fig4 #b a sectional elevation1 and ,fig4 #c a plan4 ,in the ordinary screw gill box1 the screws which traverse the gills are uniform in their pitch1 so that a draught is only obtained between the feed rollers and the first gill1 between the last gill of the first set and the first of the second1 and between the last gill of the second set and the delivery roller4 ,as thus arranged1 the gills are really not active workers after their first draw during the remainder of their traverse1 but simply carriers of the wool to the next set4 ,it is somewhat remarkable1 as may indeed be said of every invention1 that this fact has only been just observed1 and suggested an improvement4 ,there is no reason why each gill should not be continuously working to the end of the traverse1 and only cease during its return to its first position4 ,the perception of this has led to several attempts to realize this improvement4 ,the inventor in the present case seems to have solved the problem in a very perfect manner by the introduction of gill screws of a gradually increasing pitch1 by which the progress of the gills1 ,b1 through the box is constantly undergoing acceleration to the end1 as will be obvious from the construction of the screws1 ,a and ,a1 until they are passed down in the usual manner1 and returned by the screws1 ,c and ,c1 which are1 as usual1 of uniform pitch4 ,the two sets of screws are so adjusted as to almost meet in the middle1 so that the gills of the first set finish their forward movement close to the point where the second commence4 ,the bottom screws1 ,c1 of the first set of gills1 ,b1 are actuated by bevel wheels on a cross shaft engaging with bevel wheels on their outer extremity1 the cross shaft being geared to the main shaft4 ,the screws1 ,c1 of the second set of gills from two longitudinal shafts are connected by bevel gearing to the main shaft4 ,intermediate wheels communicate motion from change wheels on the longitudinal shafts to the wheels on the screw1 ,c1 traversing the second set of gills4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,sensim ,,screw ,,gill ,,preparing ,,box4 ,the feed and delivery rollers1 ,d and ,e1 are operated by gearing connected to worms on longitudinal shafts4 ,these worms engage with worm wheels on cross shafts1 which are provided at their outer ends with change wheels engaging with other change wheels on the arbors of the bottom feed and delivery rollers1 ,d and ,e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,sensim ,,screw ,,gill--,,sectional ,,elevation4 ,the speeds are so adjusted that the fibers are delivered to the first set of gills at a speed approximately equal to the speed at which these start their traverse4 ,the gills in the second set begin their journey at a pace which slightly exceeds that at which those of the first finish their traverse4 ,these paces are of course regulated by the class and nature of the fibers under operation4 ,the delivery rollers1 ,e1 take off the fibers at a rate slightly exceeding that of the gills delivering it to them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,sensim ,,screw ,,gill--,,plan4 ,in the ordinary gill box1 the feed and delivery rollers are fluted1 in order the better to retain in the first instance their grip upon the wool passing through1 and in the second to enable them to overcome any resistance that might be offered to drawing the material4 ,it thus often happens in this class of machines that a large percentage of the fibers are broken1 and thus much waste is made4 ,the substitution of plain rollers in both these positions obviates most of this mischief1 while in combination with the other parts of the arrangement it is almost precluded altogether4 ,it will be obvious from what we have said that the special features of this machine1 which may be summarized as1 first1 the use of a screw thread of graduated pitch2 second1 an increased length of screw action and an additional number of fallers2 and third1 the use of light plain rollers in place of heavy fluted back and front rollers1 enable the inventor to justly claim the acquisition of a number of advantages1 which may be enumerated as follows3 ,the transformation of the gills from mere carriers into constant workers during the whole of their outward traverse1 by which the work is done much more efficiently1 more gently1 and in greater quantity than by the old system with uniformly pitched screws4 ,a great improvement in the quality of the work1 resulting from the breakage of fiber being1 if not entirely obviated1 nearly4 ,an increased yield and better quality of top1 owing to the absence of broken fiber1 and consequent diminution of noil and waste4 ,the better working of cotted wools1 which can be brought to a proper condition with far more facility and with diminished risk of breaking pins than before4 ,a saving in labor1 space1 and plant also results from the fact that the wool is as well opened and straightened for carding with a passage through a pair of improved boxes as it is in going through four of the ordinary ones1 while the quantity will be as great4 ,owing to the first feature referred to1 which distributes the strain over all the gills1 a greater weight of wool can be put into them and a higher speed be worked4 ,the space occupied and the attendance required is only about half that of boxes required to do the same amount of work on the old system4 ,taking the flutes out of the feed and delivery rollers1 and greatly diminishing their weight1 it is estimated will reduce by #ij per cent4 the wear and tear of the leather aprons1 and thus to that extent diminish a very heavy annual outlay incident to the system generally in vogue4 ,a considerable saving of power for driving and of time and cost of repairs from the bending and breakage of pins also results4 ,shaw1 ,harrison ,co41 makers1 ,bradford4--,textile ,manufacturer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,notes ,,on ,,garment ,,dyeing4 ,black wool dresses for renewing and checked goods1 with the check not covered by the first operation1 are operated upon as follows3 ,preparation or mordant for eight black dresses for renewing the color4 #b oz4 ,chrome4 #b ,argol or ,tartar4 ,or without argol or tartar1 but ,i think their use is beneficial4 ,boil twenty minutes1 lift1 rinse through two waters4 ,to prepare dye boiler1 put in #b lb4 logwood1 boil twenty minutes4 ,clear the face same way as before described4 ,those with cotton and made-up dresses sewn with cotton same operation as before mentioned1 using half the quantity of stuffs1 and working cold throughout4 ,since the introduction of aniline black1 some dyers use it in place of logwood both for wool and cotton4 ,it answers very well for dippers1 substituting #b oz4 aniline black for every pound logwood required4 ,in dyeing light bottoms it is more expensive than logwood1 even though the liquor be kept up1 and1 in my opinion1 not so clear and black4 ,silk and wool dresses1 poplins1 and woolen dresses trimmed with silk1 etc41 for black4--,before the dyeing operations1 steep the goods in hand-heat soda water1 rinse through two warm waters4 ,discharge blues1 mauves1 etc41 with diluted aquafortis 7nitric acid74 ,a skilled dyer can perform this operation without the least injury to the goods4 ,this liquor is kept in stoneware1 or a vessel made of caoutchouc composition1 or a large stone hollowed out of five slabs of stone1 forming the bottom and four sides1 braced together1 and luted with caoutchouc1 forming a water-tight vessel4 ,the latter is the most convenient vessel1 as it can be repaired4 ,the others when once rent are past repair4 ,the steam is introduced by means of a caoutchouc pipe1 and when brought to the boil the pipe is removed4 ,after the colors are discharged1 rinse through three warm waters4 ,they are then ready to receive the mordant and the dye4 ,note4--,the aquafortis vessel to be outside the dye-house1 or1 if inside1 to be provided with a funnel to carry away the nitrous fumes1 as it is dangerous to other colors4 ,preparation or mordant for eight dresses1 silk and wool mixed1 for black4 #d lb4 ,copperas4 ,bluestone4 ,tartar4 ,bring to the boil1 dissolve the copperas1 etc41 shut off steam1 enter the goods1 handle gently 7or else they will be faced1 i4e41 look gray on face when dyed7 for one hour1 lift1 air1 rinse through three warm waters4 ,to prepare dye boiler1 bring to boil1 put in #h lb4 logwood 7previously boiled71 #a lb4 black or brown oil soap1 shut off steam1 enter goods1 gently handle for half an hour1 add another pound of soap 7have the soap dissolved ready71 and keep moving for another half hour1 lift1 finish in hand-heat soap4 ,if very heavy1 run through lukewarm water slightly acidulated with vitriol1 rinse1 hydro-extract1 and hang in stove4 ,another method to clear them3 ,make up three lukewarm waters1 in first put some bleaching liquor1 in second a little vitriol1 handle these two1 and rinse through the third1 hydro-extract1 and hang in stove4 ,note4--,this is the method employed generally in small dye-works for all dresses for black2 their lots are so small4 ,this preparation can be kept up1 if care is taken that none of the sediment of the copperas 7oxide of iron7 is introduced when charging1 as the oxide of iron creates stains4 ,this also happens when the water used contains iron in quantity or impure copperas4 ,the remedy is to substitute half a gill of vitriol in place of tartar4 ,silk1 wool1 and cotton mixed dresses1 for black4--,dye the silk and wool as before described1 and also the cotton in the manner previously mentioned4 ,another method to dye the mixed silk and wool and cotton dresses black1 four dresses4--,bring boiler to the boil1 put in #c or #d oz4 aniline black1 either the deep black or the blue black or a mixture of the two1 add gill hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid1 or #c oz4 oxalic acid1 shut off steam1 enter1 and handle for half an hour1 lift1 rinse through water1 dye the cotton in the manner previously described4--,dyer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,fuel ,,and ,,smoke4 ,footnote3 ,second of two lectures delivered at the ,royal ,institution1 ,london1 on #agth ,april1 #ahhf4 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #ehe1 p4 #icdj4 ,by ,prof4 ,,oliver ,,lodge4 ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,the points to which ,i specially called your attention in the first lecture1 and which it is necessary to recapitulate to-day1 are these3 7#a7 ,that coal is distilled1 or burned partly into gas1 before it can be burned4 7#b7 ,that the gas1 so given off1 if mixed with carbonic acid1 cannot be expected to burn properly or completely4 7#c7 ,that to burn the gas1 a sufficient supply of air must be introduced at a temperature not low enough to cool the gases below their igniting point4 7#d7 ,that in stoking a fire1 a small amount should be added at a time because of the heat required to warm and distill the fresh coal4 7#e7 ,that fresh coal should be put in front of or at the bottom of a fire1 so that the gas may be thoroughly heated by the incandescent mass above and thus1 if there be sufficient air1 have a chance of burning4 ,a fire may be inverted1 so that the draught proceeds through it downward4 ,this is the arrangement in several stoves1 and in them1 of course1 fresh coal is put at the top4 ,two simple principles are at the root of all fire management3 7#a7 ,coal gas must be at a certain temperature before it can burn2 and 7#b7 it must have a sufficient supply of air4 ,very simple1 very obvious1 but also extremely important1 and frequently altogether ignored4 ,in a common open fire they are both ignored4 ,coal is put on the top of a glowing mass of charcoal1 and the gas distilled off is for a longtime much too cold for ignition1 and when it does catch fire it is too mixed with carbonic acid to burn completely or steadily4 ,in order to satisfy the first condition better1 and keep the gases at a higher temperature1 ,dr4 ,pridgin ,teale arranges a sloping fire-clay slab above his fire4 ,on this the gases play1 and its temperature helps them to ignite4 ,it also acts as a radiator1 and is said to be very efficient4 ,in a close stove and in many furnaces the second condition is violated2 there is an insufficient supply of air2 fresh coal is put on1 and the feeding doors are shut4 ,gas is distilled off1 but where is it to get any air from8 ,how on earth can it be expected to burn8 ,whether it be expected or not1 it certainly does not burn1 and such a stove is nothing else than a gas works1 making crude gas1 and wasting it--it is a soot and smoke factory4 ,most slow combustion stoves are apt to err in this way2 you make the combustion slow by cutting off air1 and you run the risk of stopping the combustion altogether4 ,when you wish a stove to burn better1 it is customary to open a trap door below the fuel2 this makes the red hot mass glow more vigorously1 but the oxygen will soon become ,,co#b1 and be unable to burn the gas4 ,the right way to check the ardor of a stove is not to shut off the air supply and make it distill its gases unconsumed1 but to admit so much air above the fire that the draught is checked by the chimney ceasing to draw so fiercely4 ,you at the same time secure better ventilation2 and if the fire becomes visible to the room so much the better and more cheerful4 ,but if you open up the top of a stove like this1 it becomes1 to all intents and purposes1 an open fire4 ,quite so1 and in many respects1 therefore1 an open fire is an improvement on a close stove4 ,an open fire has faults1 and it certainly wastes heat up the chimney4 ,a close stove may have more faults--it wastes less heat1 but it is liable to waste gas up the chimney--not necessarily visible or smoky gas2 it may waste it from coke or anthracite1 as ,,co4 ,you now easily perceive the principles on which so-called smoke consumers are based4 ,they are all special arrangements or appendages to a furnace for permitting complete combustion by satisfying the two conditions which had been violated in its original construction4 ,but there is this difficulty about the air supply to a furnace3 the needful amount is variable if the stoking be intermittent1 and if you let in more than the needful amount1 you are unnecessarily wasting heat and cooling the boiler1 or whatever it is1 by a draught of cold air4 ,every time a fresh shovelful is thrown on1 a great production of gas occurs1 and if it is to flame it must have a correspondingly great supply of air4 ,after a time1 when the mass has become red hot1 it can get nearly enough air through the bars4 ,but at first the evolution of gas actually checks the draught4 ,but remember that although no smoke is visible from a glowing mass1 it by no means follows that its combustion is perfect4 ,on an open fire it probably is perfect1 but not necessarily in a close stove or furnace4 ,if you diminish the supply of air much 7as by clogging your furnace bars and keeping the doors shut71 you will be merely distilling carbonic oxide up the chimney--a poisonous gas1 of which probably a considerable quantity is frequently given off from close stoves4 ,now let us look at some smoke consumers4 ,the diagrams show those of ,chubb1 ,growthorpe1 ,ireland and ,lowndes1 and of ,gregory4 ,you see that they all admit air at the bridge or back of the fire1 and that this air is warmed either by passing under or round the furnace1 or in one case through hollow fire bars4 ,the regulation of the air supply is effected by hand1 and it is clear that some of these arrangements are liable to admit an unnecessary supply of air1 while others scarcely admit enough1 especially when fresh coal is put on4 ,this is the difficulty with all these arrangements when used with ordinary hand--i4e41 intermittent--stoking4 ,two plans are open to us to overcome the difficulty4 ,either the stoking and the air supply must both be regular and continuous1 or the air supply be made intermittent to suit the stoking4 ,the first method is carried out in any of the many forms of mechanical stoker1 of which this of ,sinclair's is an admirable specimen4 ,fresh fuel is perpetually being pushed on in front1 and by alternate movement of the fire bars the fire is kept in perpetual motion till the ashes drop out at the back4 ,to such an arrangement as this a steady air supply can be adjusted1 and if the boiler demand is constant there is no need for smoke1 and an inferior fuel may be used4 ,the other plan is to vary the air supply to suit the stoking4 ,this is effected by ,prideaux automatic furnace doors1 which have louvers to remain open for a certain time after the doors are shut1 and so to admit extra air immediately after coal has been put on1 the supply gradually decreasing as distillation ceases4 ,the worst of air admitted through chinks in the doors1 or through partly open doors1 is that it is admitted cold1 and scarcely gets thoroughly warm before it is among the stuff it has to burn4 ,still this is not a fatal objection1 though a hot blast would be better4 ,nothing can be worse than shoveling on a quantity of coal and shutting it up completely4 ,every condition of combustion is thus violated1 and the intended furnace is a mere gas retort4 ,gas ,producers4--,suppose the conditions of combustion are purposely violated2 we at once have a gas producer4 ,that is all gas producers are1 extra bad stoves or furnaces1 not always much worse than things which pretend to serve for combustion4 ,consider how ordinary gas is made4 ,there is a red-hot retort or cylinder plunged in a furnace4 ,into this tube you shovel a quantity of coal1 which flames vigorously as long as the door is open1 but when it is full you shut the door1 thus cutting off the supply of air and extinguishing the flame4 ,gas is now simply distilled1 and passes along pipes to be purified and stored4 ,you perceive at once that the difference between a gas retort and an ordinary furnace with closed doors and half choked fire bars is not very great4 ,consumption of smoke6 ,it is not smoke consumers you really want1 it is fuel consumers4 ,you distill your fuel instead of burning it1 in fully one-half1 might ,i not say nine-tenths1 of existing furnaces and close stoves4 ,but in an ordinary gas retort the heat required to distill the gas is furnished by an outside fire2 this is only necessary when you require lighting gas1 with no admixture of carbonic acid and as little carbonic oxide as possible4 ,if you wish for heating gas1 you need no outside fire2 a small fire at the bottom of a mass of coal will serve to distill it1 and you will have most of the carbon also converted into gas4 ,here1 for instance1 is ,siemens' gas producer4 ,the mass of coal is burning at the bottom1 with a very limited supply of air4 ,the carbonic acid formed rises over the glowing coke1 and takes up another atom of carbon to form the combustible gas carbonic oxide4 ,this and the hot nitrogen passing over and through the coal above distill away its volatile constituents1 and the whole mass of gas leaves by the exit pipe4 ,some art is needed in adjusting the path of the gases distilled from the fresh coal with reference to the hot mass below4 ,if they pass too readily1 and at too low a temperature1 to the exit pipe1 this is apt to get choked with tar and dense hydrocarbons4 ,if it is carried down near or through the hot fuel below1 the hydrocarbons are decomposed over much1 and the quality of the gas becomes poor4 ,moreover1 it is not possible to make the gases pass freely through a mass of hot coke2 it is apt to get clogged4 ,the best plan is to make the hydrocarbon gas pass over and near a red-hot surface1 so as to have its heaviest hydrocarbons decomposed1 but so as to leave all those which are able to pass away as gas uninjured1 for it is to the presence of these that the gas will owe its richness as a combustible material1 especially when radiant heat is made use of4 ,the only inert and useless gas in an arrangement like this is the nitrogen of the air1 which being in large quantities does act as a serious diluent4 ,to diminish the proportion of nitrogen1 steam is often injected as well as air4 ,the glowing coke can decompose the steam1 forming carbonic oxide and hydrogen1 both combustible4 ,but of course no extra energy can be gained by the use of steam in this way2 all the energy must come from the coke1 the steam being already a perfectly burned product2 the use of steam is merely to serve as a vehicle for converting the carbon into a convenient gaseous equivalent4 ,moreover1 steam injected into coke cannot keep up the combustion2 it would soon put the fire out unless air is introduced too4 ,some air is necessary to keep up the combustion1 and therefore some nitrogen is unavoidable4 ,but some steam is advisable in every gas producer1 unless pure oxygen could be used instead of air2 or unless some substance like quicklime1 which holds its oxygen with less vigor than carbon does1 were mixed with the coke and used to maintain the heat necessary for distillation4 ,a well known gas producer for small scale use is ,dowson's4 ,steam is superheated in a coil of pipe1 and blown through glowing anthracite along with air4 ,the gas which comes off consists of #bj per cent4 hydrogen1 #cj per cent4 carbonic oxide1 #c per cent4 carbonic acid1 and #dg per cent4 nitrogen4 ,it is a weak gas1 but it serves for gas engines1 and is used1 ,i believe1 by ,thompson1 of ,leeds1 for firing glass and pottery in a gas kiln4 ,it is said to cost #d;d4 per #a1jjj ft41 and to be half as good as coal gas4 ,for furnace work1 where gas is needed in large quantities1 it must be made on the spot4 ,and what ,i want to insist upon is this1 that all well-regulated furnaces are gas retorts and combustion chambers combined4 ,you may talk of burning coal1 but you can't do it2 you must distill it first1 and you may either waste the gas so formed or you may burn it properly4 ,the thing is to let in not too much air1 but just air enough4 ,look1 for instance1 at ,minton's oven for firing pottery4 ,round the central chamber are the coal hoppers1 and from each of these gas is distilled1 passes into the central chamber1 where the ware is stacked1 and meeting with an adjusted supply of air as it rises1 it burns in a large flame1 which extends through the whole space and swathes the material to be heated4 ,it makes its exit by a central hole in the floor1 and thence rises by flues to a common opening above4 ,when these ovens are in thorough action1 nothing visible escapes4 ,the smoke from ordinary potters' ovens is in ,staffordshire a familiar nuisance4 ,in the ,siemens gas producer and furnace1 of which ,mr4 ,frederick ,siemens has been good enough to lend me this diagram1 the gas is not made so closely on the spot1 the gas retort and furnace being separated by a hundred yards or so in order to give the required propelling force4 ,but the principle is the same2 the coal is first distilled1 then burnt4 ,but to get high temperature1 the air supply to the furnace must be heated1 and there must be no excess4 ,if this is carried on by means of otherwise waste heat we have the regenerative principle1 so admirably applied by the ,brothers ,siemens1 where the waste heat of the products of combustion is used to heat the incoming air and gas supply4 ,the reversing arrangement by which the temperature of such a furnace can be gradually worked up from ordinary flame temperature to something near the dissociation point of gases1 far above the melting point of steel1 is well known1 and has already been described in this place4 ,mr4 ,siemens has lent me this beautiful model of the most recent form of his furnace1 showing its application to steel making and to glass working4 ,the most remarkable and1 at first sight1 astounding thing about this furnace is1 however1 that it works solely by radiation4 ,the flames do not touch the material to be heated2 they burn above it1 and radiate their heat down to it4 ,this ,i regard as one of the most important discoveries in the whole subject1 viz41 that to get the highest temperature and greatest economy out of the combustion of coal1 one must work directly by radiant heat only1 all other heat being utilized indirectly to warm the air and gas supply1 and thus to raise the flame to an intensely high temperature4 ,it is easy to show the effect of supplying a common gas flame with warm air by holding it over a cylinder packed with wire gauze which has been made red hot4 ,a common burner held over such a hot air shaft burns far more brightly and whitely4 ,there is no question but that this is the plan to get good illumination out of gas combustion2 and many regenerative burners are now in the market1 all depending on this principle1 and utilizing the waste heat to make a high temperature flame4 ,but although it is evidently the right way to get light1 it was by no means evidently the right way to get heat4 ,yet so it turns out1 not by warming solid objects or by dull warm surfaces1 but by the brilliant radiation of the hottest flame that can be procured1 will rooms be warmed in the future4 ,and if one wants to boil a kettle1 it will be done1 not by putting it into a non-luminous flame1 and so interfering with the combustion1 but by holding it near to a freely burning regenerated flame1 and using the radiation only4 ,making toast is the symbol of all the heating of the future1 provided we regard ,mr4 ,siemens' view as well established4 ,the ideas are founded on something like the following considerations3 ,flame cannot touch a cold surface1 i4e41 one below the temperature of combustion1 because by the contact it would be put out4 ,hence1 between a flame and the surface to be heated by it there always intervenes a comparatively cool space1 across which heat must pass by radiation4 ,it is by radiation ultimately1 therefore1 that all bodies get heated4 ,this being so1 it is well to increase the radiating power of flame as much as possible4 ,now1 radiating power depends on two things3 the presence of solid matter in the flame in a fine state of subdivision1 and the temperature to which it is heated4 ,solid matter is most easily provided by burning a gas rich in dense hydrocarbons1 not a poor and non-luminous gas4 ,to mix the gas with air so as to destroy and burn up these hydrocarbons seems therefore to be a retrograde step1 useful undoubtedly in certain cases1 as in the ,bunsen flame of the laboratory1 but not the ideal method of combustion4 ,the ideal method looks to the use of a very rich gas1 and the burning of it with a maximum of luminosity4 ,the hot products of combustion must give up their heat by contact4 ,it is for them that cross tubes in boilers are useful4 ,they have no combustion to be interfered with by cold contacts4 ,the flame only should be free4 ,the second condition of radiation was high temperature4 ,what limits the temperature of a flame8 ,dissociation or splitting up of a compound by heat4 ,so soon as the temperature reaches the dissociation point at which the compound can no longer exist1 combustion ceases4 ,anything short of this may theoretically be obtained4 ,but ,mr4 ,siemens believes1 and adduces some evidence to prove1 that the dissociation point is not a constant and definite temperature for a given compound2 it depends entirely upon whether solid or foreign surfaces are present or not4 ,these it is which appear to be an efficient cause of dissociation1 and which1 therefore1 limit the temperature of flame4 ,in the absence of all solid contact1 ,mr4 ,siemens believes that dissociation1 if it occur at all1 occurs at an enormously higher temperature1 and that the temperature of free flame can be raised to almost any extent4 ,whether this be so or not1 his radiating flames are most successful1 and the fact that large quantities of steel are now melted by mere flame radiation speaks well for the correctness of the theory upon which his practice has been based4 ,use of ,small ,coal4--,meanwhile1 we may just consider how we ought to deal with solid fuel1 whether for the purpose of making gas from it or for burning it in situ4 ,the question arises1 ,in what form ought solid fuel to be--ought it to be in lumps or in powder8 ,universal practice says lumps1 but some theoretical considerations would have suggested powder4 ,remember1 combustion is a chemical action1 and when a chemist wishes to act on a solid easily1 he always pulverizes it as a first step4 ,is it not possible that compacting small coal into lumps is a wrong operation1 and that we ought rather to think of breaking big coal down into slack8 ,the idea was suggested to me by ,sir ,w4 ,thomson in a chance conversation1 and it struck me at once as a brilliant one4 ,the amount of coal wasted by being in the form of slack is very great4 ,thousands of tons are never raised from the pits because the price is too low to pay for the raising--in some places it is only #as4 #f;d4 a ton4 ,mr4 ,mc,millan calculates that #acj1jjj tons of breeze1 or powdered coke1 is produced every year by the ,gas ,light and ,coke ,company alone1 and its price is #cs4 a ton at the works1 or #es4 delivered4 ,the low price and refuse character of small coal is1 of course1 owing to the fact that no ordinary furnace can burn it4 ,but picture to yourself a blast of hot air into which powdered coal is sifted from above like ground coffee1 or like chaff in a thrashing mill1 and see how rapidly and completely it might burn4 ,fine dust in a flour mill is so combustible as to be explosive and dangerous1 and ,mr4 ,galloway has shown that many colliery explosions are due not to the presence of gas so much as the presence of fine coal-dust suspended in the air4 ,if only fine enough1 then such dust is eminently combustible1 and a blast containing it might become a veritable sheet of flame4 7,blow lycopodium through a flame47 ,feed the coal into a sort of coffee-mill1 there let it be ground and carried forward by a blast to the furnace where it is to be burned4 ,if the thing would work at all1 almost any kind of refuse fuel could be burned--sawdust1 tan1 cinder heaps1 organic rubbish of all kinds4 ,the only condition is that it be fine enough4 ,attempts in this direction have been made by ,mr4 ,t4,r4 ,crampton1 by ,messrs4 ,whelpley and ,storer1 and by ,mr4 ,g4,k4 ,stephenson2 but a difficulty has presented itself which seems at present to be insuperable1 that the slag fluxes the walls of the furnace1 and at that high temperature destroys them4 ,if it be feasible to keep the flame out of contact with solid surfaces1 however1 perhaps even this difficulty can be overcome4 ,some success in blast burning of dust fuel has been attained in the more commonplace method of the blacksmith's forge1 and a boiler furnace is arranged at ,messrs4 ,donkin's works at ,bermondsey on this principle4 ,a pressure of about half an inch of water is produced by a fan and used to drive air through the bars into a chimney draw of another half-inch4 ,the fire bars are protected from the high temperatures by having blades which dip into water1 and so keep fairly cool4 ,a totally different method of burning dust fuel by smouldering is attained in ,m4 ,ferret's low temperature furnace by exposing the fuel in a series of broad1 shallow trays to a gentle draught of air4 ,the fuel is fed into the top of such a furnace1 and either by raking or by shaking it descends occasionally1 stage by stage1 till it arrives at the bottom1 where it is utterly inorganic and mere refuse4 ,a beautiful earthworm economy of the last dregs of combustible matter in any kind of refuse can thus be attained4 ,such methods of combustion as this1 though valuable1 are plainly of limited application2 but for the great bulk of fuel consumption some gas-making process must be looked to4 ,no crude combustion of solid fuel can give ultimate perfection4 ,coal tar products1 though not so expensive as they were some time back1 are still too valuable entirely to waste1 and the importance of exceedingly cheap and fertilizing manure in the reclamation of waste lands and the improvement of soil is a question likely to become of most supreme importance in this overcrowded island4 ,indeed1 if we are to believe the social philosophers1 the naturally fertile lands of the earth may before long become insufficient for the needs of the human race2 and posterity may then be largely dependent for their daily bread upon the fertilizing essences of the stored-up plants of the carboniferous epoch1 just as we are largely dependent on the stored-up sunlight of that period for our light1 our warmth1 and our power4 ,they will not then burn crude coal1 therefore4 ,they will carefully distill it--extract its valuable juices--and will supply for combustion only its carbureted hydrogen and its carbon in some gaseous or finely divided form4 ,gaseous fuel is more manageable in every way than solid fuel1 and is far more easily and reliably conveyed from place to place4 ,dr4 ,siemens1 you remember1 expected that coal would not even be raised1 but turned into gas in the pits1 to rise by its own buoyancy to be burnt on the surface wherever wanted4 ,and not only will the useful products be first removed and saved1 its sulphur will be removed too2 not because it is valuable1 but because its product of combustion is a poisonous nuisance4 ,depend upon it1 the cities of the future will not allow people to turn sulphurous acid wholesale into the air1 there to oxidize and become oil of vitriol4 ,even if it entails a slight strain upon the purse they will1 ,i hope1 be wise enough to prefer it to the more serious strain upon their lungs4 ,we forbid sulphur as much as possible in our lighting gas1 because we find it is deleterious in our rooms4 ,but what is ,london but one huge room packed with over four millions of inhabitants8 ,the air of a city is limited1 fearfully limited1 and we allow all this horrible stuff to be belched out of hundreds of thousands of chimneys all day long4 ,get up and see ,london at four or five in the morning1 and compare it with four or five in the afternoon2 the contrast is painful4 ,a city might be delightful1 but you make it loathsome2 not only by smoke1 indeed1 but still greatly by smoke4 ,when no one is about1 then the air is almost pure2 have it well fouled before you rise to enjoy it4 ,where no one lives1 the breeze of heaven still blows2 where human life is thickest1 there it is not fit to live4 ,is it not an anomaly1 is it not farcical8 ,what term is strong enough to stigmatize such suicidal folly8 ,but we will not be in earnest1 and our rulers will talk1 and our lives will go on and go out1 and next century will be soon upon us1 and here is a reform gigantic1 ready to our hands1 easy to accomplish1 really easy to accomplish if the right heads and vigorous means were devoted to it4 ,surely something will be done4 ,the following references may be found useful in seeking for more detailed information3 ,report of the ,smoke ,abatement ,committee for #ahhb1 by ,chandler ,roberts and ,d4,k4 ,clark4 ,how to ,use ,gas1 by ,f4,t4 ,bond2 ,sanitary ,association1 ,gloucester4 ,recovery of ,volatile ,constituents of ,coal1 by ,t4,b4 ,lightfoot2 ,journal ,society of ,arts1 ,may1 #ahhc4 ,manufacture of ,gas from ,oil1 by ,h4,e4 ,armstrong2 ,journal ,society of ,chemical ,industry1 ,september1 #ahhd4 ,coking ,coal1 by ,h4,e4 ,armstrong2 ,iron and ,steel ,institute1 #ahhe4 ,modified ,siemens ,producer1 by ,john ,head2 ,iron and ,steel ,institute1 #ahhe4 ,utilization of ,dust ,fuel1 by ,w4,g4 ,mc,millan2 ,journal ,society of ,arts1 ,april4 #ahhf4 ,gas ,producers1 by ,rowan2 ,proc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 ,january1 #ahhf4 ,regenerative ,furnaces with ,radiation1 and ,on ,producers1 by ,f4 ,siemens2 ,journal ,soc4 ,chem4 ,industry1 ,july1 #ahhe1 and ,november1 #ahhe4 ,fireplace ,construction1 by ,pridgin ,teale2 the ,builder1 ,february1 #ahhf4 ,on ,dissociation ,temperatures1 by ,frederick ,siemens2 ,royal ,institution1 ,may #g1 #ahhf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,near ,colorados1 in the ,argentine ,republic1 a large bed of superior coal has been opened1 and to the west of the ,province of ,buenos ,ayres extensive borax deposits have been discovered4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,anti-,,friction ,,conveyer4 ,the accompanying engraving illustrates a remarkable invention4 ,for ages1 screw conveyers for corn and meal have been employed1 and in spite of the power consumed and the rubbing of the material conveyed1 they have remained1 with little exception1 unimproved and without a rival4 ,now we have a new conveyer1 which1 says ,the ,engineer1 in its simplicity excels anything brought out for many years1 and1 until it is seen at work1 makes a heavier demand upon one's credulity than is often made by new mechanical inventions4 ,as will be seen from the engravings1 the new conveyer consists simply of a spiral of round steel rod mounted upon a quickly revolving spindle by means of suitable clamps and arms4 ,the spiral as made for ,england is of #e_/h in4 steel rod1 because ,english people would not be inclined to try what is really sufficient in most cases1 namely1 a mere wire4 ,the working of this spiral as a conveyer is simply magical4 ,a #f in4 spiral delivers #hjj bushels per hour at #ajj revolutions per minute1 and more in proportion at higher speeds4 ,a little #d in4 spiral delivers #bjj bushels per hour at #ajj revolutions per minute4 ,it seems to act as a mere persuader4 ,the spiral moves a small quantity1 and sets the whole contents of the trough in motion4 ,in fact1 it embodies the great essentials of success1 namely1 simplicity1 great capacity for work1 and cheapness4 ,it is the invention of ,mr4 ,j4 ,little1 and is made by the ,anti-friction ,conveyer ,company1 of #ei ,mark ,lane1 ,london4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,anti-,,friction ,,conveyer ,,with ,,casing ,,or ,,trough--,,end ,,view ,,with ,,hanger4 ,since the days of ,archimedes1 who is credited with being the inventor of the screw1 there has not been any improvement in the principle of the worm conveyer4 ,there have been several patents taken out for improved methods of manufacturing the old-fashioned continuous and paddle-blade worms1 but ,mr4 ,little's patent is the first for an entirely new kind of conveyer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,studies ,,in ,,pyrotechny4 ,footnote3 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #ehc1 page #icjc4 ,,ii4 ,,methods ,,of ,,illumination4 ,torches consist of a bundle of loosely twisted threads which has been immersed in a mixture formed of two parts1 by weight1 of beeswax1 eight of resin1 and one of tallow4 ,in warm1 dry weather1 these torches when lighted last for two hours when at rest1 and for an hour and a quarter on a march4 ,a good light is obtained by spacing them #bj or #cj yards apart4 ,another style of torch consists of a cardboard cylinder fitted with a composition consisting of #ajj parts of saltpeter1 #fj of sulphur1 #h of priming powder1 and #cj of pulverized glass1 the whole sifted and well mixed4 ,this torch1 which burns for a quarter of an hour1 illuminates a space within a radius of #ahj or #bjj yards very well4 ,the tourteau goudronn 7lit4 tarred coke7 is merely a ring formed of old lunt or of cords well beaten with a mallet 7,fig4 #aj74 ,this ring is first impregnated with a composition formed of #bj parts of black pitch and #a of tallow1 and then with another one formed of equal parts of black pitch and resin4 ,one of these torches will burn for an hour in calm weather1 and half an hour in the wind4 ,rain does not affect the burning of it4 ,these rings are usually arranged in pairs on brackets with two branches and an upper circle1 the whole of iron1 and these brackets are spaced a hundred yards apart4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #i ,,to #af4--,,various ,,pyrotechnic ,,devices4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ag4--;,,illuminating ,,rocket4 ,a tarred fascine consists of a small fagot of dry wood1 #bj inches in length by #d in diameter1 covered with the same composition as the preceding 7,fig4 #aa74 ,fascines thus prepared burn for about half an hour4 ,they are placed upright in supports1 and these latter are located at intervals of twenty yards4 ,the ,lamarre compositions are all formed of a combustible substance1 such as boiled oil1#a of a substance that burns1 such as chlorate of potash1 and of various coloring salts4 ,footnote #a3 ,for preparation see page #icjd of ,,supplement4 ,the white composition used for charging fire balls and #a inch flambeaux is formed of #ejj parts of powdered chlorate of potash1 #a1ejj of nitrate of baryta1 #abj of light wood charcoal1 and #bej of boiled oil4 ,another white composition1 used for charging inch flambeaux1 consists of #a1jjj parts of chlorate of potash1 #a1jjj of nitrate of baryta1 and #age of boiled oil4 ,the red composition used for making red flambeaux and percussion signals consists of #a1hjj parts of chlorate of potash1 #cjj of oxalate of strontia1 #cjj of carbonate of strontia1 #dh of whitewood charcoal1 #bdj of boiled oil1 #f of oil1 and #ad of gum lac4 ,a red or white ,lamarre flambeau consists of a sheet rubber tube filled with one of the above-named compositions4 ,the lower extremity of this tube is closed with a cork4 ,when the charging has been effected1 the flambeau is primed by inserting a quickmatch in the composition4 ,this is simply lighted with a match or a live coal4 ,the composition of the ,lamarre quickmatch will be given hereafter4 ,a ,lamarre flambeau #a inch in diameter and #c inches in length will burn for about thirty-five minutes4 ,one of the same length1 and inch in diameter1 lasts but a quarter of an hour4 ,a fire ball consists of an open work sack internally strengthened with a sheet iron shell1 and fitted with the ,lamarre white composition4 ,after the charging has been done1 the sphere is wound with string1 which is made to adhere by means of tar1 and canvas is then wrapped around the whole4 ,projectiles of this kind1 which have diameters of #f1 #h1 #aa1 and #ac inches1 are shot from mortars4 ,the illuminating grenade 7,fig4 #ac7 consists of a sphere of vulcanized rubber1 two inches in diameter1 charged with the ,lamarre white composition4 ,the sphere contains an aperture to allow of the insertion of a fuse4 ,the priming is effected by means of a tin tube filled with a composition consisting of three parts of priming powder1 two of sulphur1 and one of saltpeter4 ,these grenades are thrown either by hand or with a sling1 and they may likewise be shot from mortars4 ,each of these projectiles illuminates a circle thirty feet in diameter for a space of time that varies1 according to the wind1 from sixty to eighty seconds4 ,the percussion signal 7,fig4 #ad7 consists of a cylinder of zinc1 one inch in diameter and one and a quarter inch in length1 filled with ,lamarre red composition4 ,it is provided with a wooden handle1 and the fuse consists of a capsule which is exploded by striking it against some rough object4 ,this signal burns for nearly a minute4 ,belgian illuminating balls and cylinders are canvas bags filled with certain compositions4 ,the cylinders1 five inches in diameter and seven in length1 are charged with a mixture of six parts of sulphur1 two of priming powder1 one of antimony1 and two of beeswax cut up into thin slices4 ,they are primed with a quickmatch4 ,the balls1 one and a half inch in diameter1 are charged with a composition consisting of twelve parts of saltpeter1 eight of sulphur1 four of priming powder1 two of sawdust1 two of beeswax1 and two of tallow4 ,they are thrown by hand4 ,they burn for six minutes4 ,illuminating kegs 7,fig4 #ae7 consist of powder kegs filled with shavings covered with pitch4 ,an aperture two or three inches in diameter is made in each head1 and then a large number of holes1 half an inch in diameter1 and arranged quincuncially1 are bored in the staves and heads4 ,all these apertures are filled with port-fires4 ,the illuminating rocket 7,fig4 #ag7 consists of a sheet iron cartridge1 a1 containing a composition designed to give it motion1 of a cylinder1 b1 of sheet iron1 capped with a cone of the same material and containing illuminating stars of ,lamarre composition and an explosive for expelling them1 and1 finally1 of a directing stick1 c4 ,priming is effected by means of a bunch of quickmatches inclosed in a cardboard tube placed in contact with the propelling composition4 ,this latter is the same as that used in signal rockets4 ,as in the case of the latter1 a space is left in the axis of the cartridges4 ,these rockets are fired from a trough placed at an inclination of fifty or sixty degrees4 ,those of three inches illuminate the earth for a distance of #ijj yards4 ,they may be used to advantage in the operation of signaling4 ,a parachute fire is a device designed to be ejected from a pot at the end of the rocket's travel1 and to emit a bright light during its slow descent4 ,it consists of a small cylindrical cardboard box 7,fig4 #af7 filled with common star paste or ,lamarre stars1 and attached to a parachute1 e1 by means of a small brass chain1 d4 ,to make this parachute1 we cut a circle ten feet in diameter out of a piece of calico1 and divide its circumference into ten or twelve equal parts4 ,at each point of division we attach a piece of fine hempen cord about three feet in length1 and connect these cords with each other1 as well as with the suspension chain1 by ligatures that are protected against the fire by means of balls of sized paper4 ,in rockets designed to receive these parachutes1 a small cavity is reserved at the extremity of the cartridge for the reception of #bbe grains of powder4 ,to fill the pot1 the chain1 d1 is rolled spirally around the box1 c1 and the latter is covered with the parachute1 e1 which has been folded in plaits1 and then folded lengthwise alternately in one direction and the other4 ,the parachute port-fire consists of a cardboard tube of from quarter to half an inch in diameter1 and from four to five inches in length1 closed at one extremity and filled with star paste4 ,this is connected by a brass wire with a cotton parachute eight inches in diameter4 ,a rocket pot is capable of holding twenty of these port-fires4 ,parachute fires and port-fires are used to advantage in the operation of signaling4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improvement ,,in ,,laying ,,out ,,frames ,,of ,,vessels--,,the ,,frame ,,tracer4 ,by ,,gustave ,,sonnenburg4 ,to avoid the long and time-consuming laying out of a boat by ordinates and abscissas1 ,i have constructed a handy apparatus1 by which it is possible without much trouble to obtain the sections of a vessel graphically and sufficiently accurate4 ,the description of its construction is given with reference to the accompanying cut4 ,a is a wooden rod of rectangular section1 to which are adapted two brackets1 a#a a#b1 lined with ,india rubber or leather2 a#a is fixed to the wood1 a#b is of metal1 and1 like the movable block of a slide gauge1 moves along ,a4 ,in the same plane is a second rod1 perpendicular to ,a1 and attached thereto1 which is perforated by a number of holes4 ,a revolving pin1 ,c1 is adapted to pass through these holes1 to which a socket1 ,d1 is pivoted1 ,c acting as its axis4 ,to prevent this pin from falling out1 it is secured by a nut behind the rod4 ,through the socket1 ,d1 runs a rod1 ,e1 which carries the guide point1 s#a1 and pencil1 s#b4 ,over s#a a rubber band is stretched1 to prevent injury to the varnish of the boat4 ,back of and to ,a and ,b a drawing board is attached1 over which a sheet of paper is stretched4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,frame ,,tracer4 ,the method of obtaining a section line is as follows3 ,the rod1 ,a1 is placed across the gunwale and perpendicular to the axis of the boat1 and its anterior vertical face is adjusted to each frame of the boat which it is desired to reproduce4 ,by means of the brackets1 a#a and a#b1 ,a is fixed in place4 ,the bolt1 ,c1 is now placed in the perforations already alluded to1 which are recognized as most available for producing the constructional diagram4 ,at the same time the position of the pencil point1 s#b1 must be chosen for obtaining the best results4 ,next the operator moves along the side of the boat the sharpened end1 s#a1 of the rod1 ,e1 and thus for the curve from keel to gunwale1 s#b describes a construction line4 ,it is at once evident that a#b1 for example1 corresponds to the point1 a#a4 ,the apparatus is now removed and placed on the working floor4 ,if1 reversing things1 the point1 s#a1 is carried around the construction curve1 the point1 s#b1 will inscribe the desired section in its natural dimensions4 ,this operation is best conducted after one has chosen and described all the construction curves of the boat4 ,next1 the different section lines are determined1 one by one1 by the reversed method above described4 ,the result is a half section of the boat2 the other symmetrical half is easily obtained4 ,if the whole process is repeated for the other side of the boat1 tracing paper being used instead of drawing paper1 the boat may be tested for symmetry of building1 a good control for the value of the ship4 ,for measuring boats1 as for clubs and regattas1 for seamen1 and often for the so-called ,spranzen 7copying7 of ,english models1 my apparatus1 ,i doubt not1 will be very useful4--,neuste ,erfindungen und ,erfahrungen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,tar ,,for ,,firing ,,retorts4 ,the attention of gas engineers has been forcibly directed to the use of tar as a fuel for the firing of retorts1 now that this once high-priced material is suffering1 like everything else 7but1 perhaps1 to a more marked extent71 by what is called depression in trade4 ,in fact1 it has in many places reached so low a commercial value that it is profitable to burn it as a fuel4 ,happily1 this is not the case at ,nottingham2 and our interest in tar as a fuel is more experimental1 in view of what may happen if a further fall in tar products sets in4 ,i have abandoned the use of steam injection for our experimental tar fires in favor of another system4 ,the steam injectors produce excellent heats1 but are rather intermittent in their action1 and the steam they require is a serious item1 and not always available4 ,illustration ,tar being a pseudo liquid fuel1 in arranging for its combustion one has to provide for the #bj to #be per cent4 of solid carbon which it contains1 and which is deposited in the furnace as a kind of coke or breeze on the distillation of the volatile portions1 which are much more easily consumed than the tar coke4 ,,the ,,tar ,,fire ,i have adopted is one that can be readily adapted to an ordinary coke furnace1 and be as readily removed1 leaving the furnace as before4 ,the diagram conveys some idea of the method adopted4 ,an iron frame1 d1 standing on legs on the floor just in front of the furnace door1 carries three fire tiles on iron bearers4 ,the top one1 a1 is not moved1 and serves to shield the upper face of the tile1 b1 from the fierce heat radiated from the furnace1 and also causes the air that rushes into the furnace between the tiles1 a and b1 to travel over the upper face of the tile1 b1 on which the tar flows1 thereby keeping it cool1 and preventing the tar from bursting into flame until it reaches the edge of the tile1 b1 over the whole edge of which it is made to run fairly well by a distributing arrangement4 ,a rapid combustion takes place here1 but some unconsumed tar falls on to the bed below4 ,about one-third of the grate area is filled up by a fire tile1 and on this the tar coke falls4 ,the tile1 c1 is moved away from time to time1 and the tar coke that accumulates in front of it is pushed back on to the fire bars1 e1 at the back of the furnace1 to be there consumed4 ,air is thus admitted1 by three narrow slot-like openings1 to the front of the furnace between the tiles1 a1 b1 and c1 and under c and through the fire bars1 e4 ,the air openings below are about three times the area of the openings in the front of the furnace2 but as the openings between the fire bars and the tiles are always more or less covered by tar coke1 it is impossible to say what the effective openings are4 ,this disposition answers admirably1 and requires little attention4 ,three minutes per hour per fire seems to be the average1 and the labor is of a very light kind1 consisting of clearing the passages between the tiles1 and occasionally pushing back the coke on to the fire bars4 ,these latter are not interfered with1 and will not require cleaning unless any bricks in the furnace have been melted1 when a bed of slag will be found on them4 ,,the ,,amount ,,of ,,draught required for these fires is very small1 and less than with coke firing4 ,i find that #j4jh in4 vacuum is sufficient with tar fires1 and #j4be in4 for coke fires4 ,the fires would require less attention with more draught and larger tar supply1 as the apertures do not so easily close with a sharp draught1 and the tar is better carried forward into the furnace4 ,a regular feed of tar is required1 and considerable difficulty seems to have been experienced in obtaining this4 ,so long as we employed ordinary forms of taps or valves1 so long 7even with filtration7 did we experience difficulties with the flow of viscous tar4 ,but on the construction of valves specially designed for the regulation of its flow1 the difficulty immediately disappeared1 and there is no longer the slightest trouble on this account4 ,the labor connected with the feeding of furnaces with coke and cleaning fires from clinker is of a very arduous and heavy nature4 ,eight coke fires are normally considered to be work for one man4 ,a lad could work sixteen of these tar fires4 ,,composition ,,of ,,furnace ,,gases4 ,considerable attention has been paid to the composition of the furnace gases from the tar fires4 ,the slightest deficiency in the air supply1 of course1 results in the immediate production of smoke1 so that the damper must be set to provide always a sufficient air supply4 ,under these circumstances of damper1 the following analyses of combustion gases from tar fires have been obtained3 ,no ,smoke4 ,,co#b4 ,o4 ,,co4 #aa4g #e4j ,not determined4 #ac4c #c4g #aj4h #e4d #ad4h #b4e #ac4e #c4j #ab4d #e4f #ab4d #d4f #ac4a #e4i #ae4c #a4j #aj4h #d4j #ad4j #b4h ,average #ab4i #c4i 7#aa analyses7 #aa4e ,not determined4 #ad4c #ad4f ,damper adjusted so that a slight smoke was observable in the combustion gases4 ,,co#b4 ,o4 ,,co4 #ag4cj ,none4 ,not determined4 #af4fj #af4ej #j4a #ae4hj #j4a #af4bj #a4h #j4g ,average #af4dh #j4d #j4g --,gas ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,mercury ,,pump4 ,the mercury pumps now in use1 whether those of ,geissler1 ,alvergniat1 ,toepler1 or ,sprengel1 although possessed of considerable advantages1 have also serious defects4 ,for instance1 ,geissler's pump requires a considerable number of taps1 that of ,alvergniat and ,toepler is very fragile in consequence of its complicated system of tubes connected together1 and that of ,sprengel is only suitable for certain purposes4 ,the new mercury pump constructed by ,messrs4 ,greisser and ,friedrichs1 at ,stutzerbach1 is remarkable for simplicity of construction and for the ease with which it is manipulated1 and also because it enables us to arrive at a perfect vacuum4 ,the characteristic of this pump is1 according to ,la ,lumiere ,electrique1 a tap of peculiar construction4 ,it has two tubes placed obliquely in respect to its axis1 which1 when we turn this tap #ij or #ahj degrees1 are brought opposite one of the three openings in the body of the tap4 ,thus the stri that are formed between the hollowed-out parts of the tap do not affect its tightness2 and1 besides1 the turns of the tap have for their principal positions #ij and #ahj degrees1 instead of #de and #ij degrees1 as in ,geissler's pump4 ,the working of the apparatus1 which only requires the manipulation of a single tap1 is very simple4 ,when the mercury is raised1 the tap is turned in such a manner that the surplus of the liquid can pass into the enlarged appendage1 a1 placed above the tap1 and communication is then cut off by turning the tap to #ij degrees4 ,the mercury reservoir having descended1 the bulb empties itself1 and then the tap is turned on again1 in order to establish communication with the exhausting tube4 ,the tap is then closed1 the mercury ascends again1 and this action keeps on repeating4 ,illustration 99 99 99 99 99 ,,no ,,electricity ,,from ,,the ,,condensation ,,of ,,vapor4--,it has been maintained by ,palmieri and others that the condensation of vapor results in the production of an electrical charge4 ,herr ,s4 ,kalischer has renewed his investigations upon this point1 and believes that he has proved that no electricity results from such condensation4 ,atmospheric vapor was condensed upon a vessel coated with tin foil1 filled with ice1 carefully insulated1 and connected with a very sensitive electrometer4 ,no evidence could be obtained of electricity4--,ann4 der ,physik und ,chemie4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,telephone ,,transmitter4 ,an interesting contribution was made by ,m4 ,mercadier in a recent number of the ,comptes ,rendus de l',academie ,francaise4 ,on the ground of some novel and some already accepted experimental evidence1 ,m4 ,mercadier holds that the mechanism by virtue of which the telephonic diaphragms execute their movements is analogous to1 if not identical with1 that by which solid bodies of any form1 a wall for instance1 transmit to one of their surfaces all the vibratory movements of any kind which are produced in the air in contact with the other surface4 ,it is a phenomenon or resonance4 ,movements corresponding to particular sounds may be superposed in slender diaphragms1 but this superposition must necessarily be disturbing under all but exceptional circumstances4 ,in proof of this view1 it is cited that diaphragms much too rigid1 or charged with irregularly distributed masses over the surface1 or pierced with holes1 or otherwise evidently unfitted for the purpose1 are available for transmission4 ,they will likewise serve when feathers1 wool1 wood1 metals1 mica1 and other substances to the thickness of four inches are placed between the diaphragm and the source of vibratory movement4 ,the magnetic field does not alter these relations in any way4 ,the real diaphragm may be removed altogether4 ,it is sufficient to replace it by a few grains of iron filings thrown on the pole covered with a piece of pasteboard or paper4 ,such a telephone works distinctly although feebly2 but any slender flexible disk1 metallic or not1 spread over across the opening of the cover of the instrument1 with one or two tenths of a gramme 7three grains7 of iron filings1 will yield results of increased and even ordinary intensity4 ,this is the iron filing telephone1 which is reversible2 for a given magnetic field there is a certain weight of iron filings for maximum intensity4 ,it appears thus that the advantage of the iron diaphragm over iron filings reduces itself to presenting in a certain volume a much more considerable number of magnetic molecules to the action of the field4 ,the iron diaphragm increases the telephonic intensity1 but it is by no means indispensable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,electro-,,dissolution1 ,,and ,,its ,,use ,,as ,,regards ,,analysis4 ,by ,h4,n4 ,,warren1 ,research ,analyst4 ,on the same principle that electro-dissolution is used for the estimation of combined carbon in steel1 etc41 ,i have lately varied the experiment by introducing1 instead of steel1 iron containing a certain percentage of boron1 and1 having connected the respective boride with the positive pole of a powerful battery1 and to the negative a plate of platinum1 using as a solvent dilute sulphuric acid1 ,i observed1 after the lapse of about twelve hours1 the iron had entirely passed into solution1 and a considerable amount of brownish precipitate had collected at the bottom of the vessel1 intercepted by flakes of graphite and carbon2 the precipitate1 having been collected on a filter paper1 washed1 and dried1 on examination proved to be amorphous boron1 containing graphite and other impurities1 which had become chemically introduced during the preparation of the boron compound4 ,the boron was next introduced into a small clay crucible1 and intensely heated in a current of hydrogen gas1 for the purpose of rendering it more dense and destroying its pyrophoric properties1 and was lastly introduced into a combustion tubing1 heated to bright redness1 and a stream of dry carbonic anhydride passed over it1 in order to separate the carbon1 finally pure boron being obtained4 ,in like manner silicon-eisen1 containing #i per cent4 of silicon1 was treated1 but not giving so satisfactory a result4 ,a small quantity only of silicon separates in the uncombined form1 the greater quantity separating in the form of silica1 ,si,o#b1 the amorphous silicon so obtained apparently being more prone to oxidation than the boron so obtained4 ,ferrous sulphide was next similarly treated1 and gave1 after the lapse of a few hours1 a copious blackish precipitation of sulphur1 and possessing properties similar to the sulphur obtained by dissolving sulphides such as cupric sulphide in dilute nitric acid1 in all other respects resembling common sulphur4 ,phosphides of iron1 zinc1 etc41 were next introduced1 and gave1 besides carbon and other impurities1 a residue containing a large percentage of phosphorus1 which differed from ordinary phosphorus with respect to its insolubility in carbon disulphide1 and which resembled the reaction in the case with silicon-eisen rather than that of the boron compound1 insomuch that a large quantity of the phosphorus had passed into solution4 ,a rod of impure copper1 containing arsenic1 iron1 zinc1 and other impurities1 was next substituted1 using hydrochloric acid as a solvent in place of sulphuric acid4 ,in the course of a day the copper had entirely dissolved and precipitated itself on the negative electrode1 the impurities remaining in solution4 ,the copper1 after having been washed1 dried1 and weighed1 gave identical results with regard to percentage with a careful gravimetric estimation4 ,i have lately used this method1 and obtained excellent results with respect to the analysis of commercial copper1 especially in the estimation of small quantities of arsenic1 thus enabling the experimenter to perform his investigation on a much larger quantity than when precipitation is resorted to1 at the same time avoiding the precipitated copper carrying down with it the arsenic4 ,i have in this manner detected arsenic in commercial copper when all other methods have totally failed4 ,i have also found the above method especially applicable with respect to the analysis of brass4 ,with respect to ammoniacal dissolution1 which ,i will briefly mention1 a rod composed of an alloy of copper and silver was experimented upon1 the copper becoming entirely dissolved and precipitating itself on the platinum electrode1 the whole of the silver remaining suspended to the positive electrode in an aborescent form4 ,arsenide of zinc was similarly treated1 the arsenic becoming precipitated in like manner on the platinum electrode4 ,various other alloys1 being experimented upon1 gave similar results4 ,i may also1 in the last instance1 mention that ,i have found the above methods of electro-dissolution peculiarly adapted for the preparation of unstable compounds such as stannic nitrate1 potassic ferrate1 ferric acetate1 which are decomposed on the application of heat1 and in some instances have succeeded by the following means of crystallizing the resulting compound obtained4--,chem4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,newly ,,discovered ,,substance ,,in ,,urine4 ,dr4 ,leo's researches on sugar in urine are interesting1 and tend to correct the commonly accepted views on the subject4 ,professor ,scheibler1 a chemist well known for his researches on sugar1 has observed that the determination of the quantity of that substance contained in a liquid gives different results1 according as it is done by ,trommer's method or with the polariscope4 ,as sugar nowadays is exclusively dealt with according to the degree of polarization1 this fact is of enormous value in trade4 ,scheibler has isolated a substance that is more powerful in that respect than grape sugar4 ,dr4 ,leo's researches yield analogous results1 though in a different field4 ,he has examined a great quantity of diabetic urine after three different methods1 namely1 ,trommer's 7alkaline solution of copper72 by fermentation2 and with the polarization apparatus4 ,in many cases the results agreed1 while in others there was a considerable difference4 ,he succeeded in isolating a substance corresponding in its chemical composition to grape sugar1 and also a carbo-hydrate differing considerably from grape sugar1 and turning the plane of polarization to the left4 ,the power of reduction of this newly discovered substance is to that of grape sugar as #a3b4dh4 ,dr4 ,leo found this substance in three specimens of diabetic urine1 but it was absent in normal urine1 although a great amount was examined for that purpose4 ,from this it may be concluded that the substance does not originate outside the organism1 and that it is a pathological product4 ,the theory of ,dr4 ,jaques ,meyer1 of ,carlsbad1 that it may be connected with obesity1 is negatived by the fact that of the three persons in whom this substance was found1 only one was corpulent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,furnace ,,for ,,decomposing ,,chloride ,,of ,,magnesium4 ,illustration ,the problem of decomposing chloride of magnesium is one which has attracted the attention of technical chemists for many years4 ,the solution of this problem would be of great importance to the alkali trade1 and1 consequently1 to nearly every industry4 ,the late ,mr4 ,weldon made many experiments on this subject1 but without any particular success4 ,of late a furnace has been patented in ,germany1 by ,a4 ,vogt1 which is worked on a principle similar to that applied to salt cake furnaces2 but with this difference1 that in place of the pot it has a revolving drum1 and instead of the roaster a furnace with a number of shelves4 ,the heating gases are furnished by a producer1 and pass from below upward over the shelves1 ,s1 then through the channel1 ,c1 into the drum1 ,d1 which contains the concentrated chloride of magnesium4 ,when the latter has solidified1 but before being to any extent decomposed1 it is removed from the drum and placed on the top shelf of the furnace4 ,it is then gradually removed one shelf lower as the decomposition increases1 until it arrives at the bottom shelf1 where it is completely decomposed in the state of magnesia1 which is emptied through1 ,e4 ,the drum1 ,d1 after being emptied1 is again filled with concentrated solution of chloride of magnesium4 ,the hydrochloric acid leaves through ,f and ,g4 ,if1 instead of hydrochloric acid1 chlorine is to be evolved1 it is necessary to heat the furnace by means of hot air1 as otherwise the carbonic acid in the gases from the generator would prevent the formation of bleaching powder4 ,the air is heated in two regenerating chambers1 which are placed below the furnace4--,industries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,filtration ,,and ,,the ,,secretion ,,theory4 ,at a recent meeting of the ,physiological ,society1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,munk reported on experiments instituted by him in the course of the last two years with a view of arriving at an experimental decision between the two theories of the secretion of urine--the filtration theory of ,ludwig and the secretion theory of ,heidenhain4 ,according to the first theory1 the blood pressure prescribed the measure for the urine secretion2 according to the second theory1 the urine got secreted from the secretory epithelial cells of the kidneys1 and the quantity of the matter secreted was dependent on the rate of movement of the circulation of the blood4 ,the speaker had instituted his experiments on excided but living kidneys1 through which he conducted defibrinized blood of the same animals1 under pressures which he was able to vary at pleasure between #hj mm4 and #aij mm4 ,fifty experiments on dogs whose blood and kidneys were1 during the experiment1 kept at #dj ,c41 yielded the result that the blood of starving animals induced no secretion of urine1 which on the other hand showed itself in copious quantities where normal blood was conducted through the kidney4 ,if to the famished blood was added one of the substances contained as ultimate products of digestion in the blood1 such1 for example1 as urea1 then did the secretion ensue4 ,the fluid dropping from the ureter contained more urea than did the blood4 ,that fluid was therefore no filtrate1 but a secretion4 ,an enhancement of the pressure of the blood flowing through the kidney had no influence on the quantity of the secretion passing away4 ,an increased rate of movement on the part of the blood1 on the other hand1 increased in equal degree the quantity of urine4 ,on a solution of common salt or of mere serum sanguinis being poured through the kidney1 no secretion followed4 ,all these facts1 involving the exclusion of the possibility of a central influence being exercised from1 the heart or from the nervous system on the kidneys1 were deemed by the speaker arguments proving that the urine was secreted by the renal epithelial cells4 ,a series of diuretics was next tried1 in order to establish whether they operated in the way of stimulus centrally on the heart or peripherally on the renal cells4 ,digitalis was a central diuretic4 ,common salt1 on the other hand1 was a peripheral diuretic4 ,added in the portion of #b per cent4 to the blood1 it increased the quantity of urine eight to fifteen fold4 ,even in much less doses1 it was a powerful diuretic4 ,in a similar manner1 if yet not so intensely1 operated saltpeter and coffeine1 as also urea and pilocarpine4 ,on the introduction1 however1 of the last substance into the blood1 the rate of circulation was accelerated in an equal measure as was the quantity of urine increased1 so that in this case the increase in the quantity of urine was1 perhaps1 exclusively conditioned by the greater speed in the movement of the blood4 ,on the other hand1 the quantity of secreted urine was reduced when morphine or strychine was administered to the blood4 ,in the case of the application of strychnine1 the rate in the current of the blood was retarded in a proportion equal to the reduction in the secretion of the urine4 ,the speaker had1 finally1 demonstrated the synthesis of hippuric acid and sulphate of phenol in the excided kidney as a function of its cells1 by adding to the blood pouring through the kidney1 in the first place1 benzoic acid and glycol2 in the second place1 phenol and sulphate of soda4 ,in order that these syntheses might make their appearance in the excided kidney1 the presence of the blood corpuscles was not necessary1 though1 indeed1 the presence of oxygen in the blood was indispensable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,varying ,,cylindrical ,,lens4 ,by ,,tempest ,,anderson1 ,m4,d41 ,b4 ,sc4 ,the author has had constructed a cylindrical lens in which the axis remains constant in direction and amount of refraction1 while the refraction in the meridian at right angles to this varies continuously4 ,a cone may be regarded as a succession of cylinders of different diameters graduating into one another by exceedingly small steps1 so that if a short enough portion be considered1 its curvature at any point may be regarded as cylindrical4 ,a lens with one side plane and the other ground on a conical tool is therefore a concave cylindrical lens varying in concavity at different parts according to the diameter of the cone at the corresponding part4 ,two such lenses mounted with axes parallel and with curvatures varying in opposite directions produce a compound cylindrical lens1 whose refraction in the direction of the axes is zero1 and whose refraction in the meridian at right angles to this is at any point the sum of the refractions of the two lenses4 ,this sum is nearly constant for a considerable distance along the axis so long as the same position of the lenses is maintained4 ,if the lenses be slid one over the other in the direction of their axes1 this sum changes1 and we have a varying cylindrical lens4 ,the lens is graduated by marking on the frame the relative position of the lenses when cylindrical lenses of known power are neutralized4 ,lenses were exhibited to the ,royal ,society1 ,london1 varying from to -#f ,d,cy1 and from to #f ,d,cy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,the ,,absorption ,,of ,,light ,,in ,,crystals4 ,by ,h4 ,,becquerel4 #a4 ,the absorption spectrum observed through a crystal varies with the direction of the rectilinear luminous vibration which propagates itself in this crystal4 #b4 ,the bands or rays observed through the same crystal have1 in the spectrum1 fixed positions1 their intensity alone varying4 #c4 ,for a given band or ray there exist in the crystal three rectangular directions of symmetry1 according to one of which the band generally disappears1 so that for a suitable direction of the luminous vibrations the crystal no longer absorbs the radiations corresponding to the region of the spectrum where the band question appeared4 ,these three directions may be called the principal directions of absorption1 relative to this band4 #d4 ,in the orthorhombic crystals1 by a necessary consequence of crystalline symmetry1 the principal directions of absorption of all the bands coincide with the three axes of symmetry4 ,we may thus observe three principal absorption spectra4 ,in uniaxial crystals the number of absorption spectra is reduced to two4 #e4 ,in clinorhombic crystals one of the principal directions of absorption of each crystal coincides with the only axis of symmetry2 the two other principal rectangular directions of each band may be found variously disposed in the plane normal to this axis4 ,most commonly these principal directions are very near to the principal corresponding directions of optical elasticity4 #f4 ,in various crystals the characters of the absorption phenomena differ strikingly from those which we might expect to find after an examination of the optical properties of the crystal4 ,we have just seen that in clinorhombic crystals the principal absorption directions of certain bands were completely different from the axis of optical elasticity of the crystal for the corresponding radiations4 ,if we examine this anomaly1 we perceive that the crystals manifesting these effects are complex bodies1 formed of various matters1 one1 or sometimes several1 of which absorb light and give each different absorption bands4 ,now1 ,m4 ,de ,senarmont has shown that the geometric isomorphism of certain substances does not necessarily involve identity of optical properties1 and in particular in the directions of the axes of optical elasticity in relation to the geometric directions of the crystal4 ,in a crystal containing a mixture of isomorphous substances1 each substance brings its own influence1 which may be made to predominate in turn according to the proportions of the mixture4 ,we may1 therefore1 admit that the molecules of each substance enter into the crystal retaining all the optical properties which they would have if each crystallized separately4 ,the principal directions of optical elasticity are given by the resultant of the actions which each of the component substances exerts on the propagation of light1 while the absorption of a given region of the spectrum is due to a single one of these substances1 and may have for its directions of symmetry the directions which it would have in the absorbing molecule supposing it isolated4 ,it may happen that these directions do not coincide with the axes of optical elasticity of the compound crystal4 ,if such is the cause of the anomaly of certain principal directions of absorption1 the bands which present these anomalies must belong to substances different from those which yield bands having other principal directions of absorption4 ,if so1 we are in possession of a novel method of spectral analysis1 which permits us to distinguish in certain crystals bands belonging to different matters1 isomorphous1 but not having the same optical properties4 ,two bands appearing in a crystal with common characters1 but presenting in another crystal characters essentially different1 must also be ascribed to two different bodies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #ehe1 page #icde4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,postal ,,service4 ,it is commonly believed in ,europe that the mail is chiefly forwarded by the railroads2 but this is only partially the case1 as the largest portion of the mails is intrusted now1 as formerly1 to foot messengers4 ,how long this will last is of course uncertain1 as the present postal service seems suitable enough for the needs of the people4 ,the first task of the mail is naturally the collection of letters4 ,fig4 #ag represents a letter box in a level country4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,,country ,,letter ,,box4 ,by way of example1 it is not uninteresting to know that the inhabitants of ,hanover in ,germany made great opposition to the introduction of letter boxes1 for the moral reason that they could be used to carry on forbidden correspondence1 and that consequently all letters should be delivered personally to the post master4 ,after the letters are collected1 the sorting for the place of destination follows1 and ,fig4 #ah represents the sorting room in the ,berlin ,post ,office4 ,a feverish sort of life is led here day and night1 as deficient addresses must be completed1 and the illegible ones deciphered4 ,it may here be mentioned that the delivery of letters to each floor of apartment houses is limited chiefly to ,austria and ,germany4 ,in ,france and ,england1 the letters are delivered to the janitor or else thrown into the letter box placed in the hall4 ,after the letters are arranged1 then comes the transportation of them by means of the railroad1 the chaise1 or gig1 and finally the dog mail1 as seen in ,fig4 #ai4 ,it is hard to believe that this primitive vehicle is useful for sending mail that is especially urgent1 and yet it is used in the northern part of ,canada4 ,drawn by three or four dogs1 it glides swiftly over the snow4 ,it is indeed a large jump from free ,america1 the home of the most unlimited progress1 into the ,flowery ,kingdom1 where cues are worn1 but we hope our readers are willing to accompany us1 in order to have the pleasure of seeing how rapidly a ,chinese mail carrier 7,fig4 #bj7 trots along his route under his sun umbrella4 ,only the largest and most robust pedestrians are chosen for service1 and they are obliged to pass through a severe course of training before they can lay any claim to the dignified name1 ,thousand ,mile ,horse4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,sorting ,,room ,,in ,,berlin ,,post ,,office4 ,but even the ,chinese carrier may not strike us so curiously as another associate1 given in our next picture1 ,fig4 #ba1 and yet he is a ,european employe from the ,landes department of highly cultivated ,france4 ,the inhabitants of this country buckle stilts on to their feet1 so as to make their way faster through brambles and underbrush which surrounds them4 ,the mail carrier copied them in his equipment1 and thus he goes around on stilts1 provided with a large cane to help him keep his balance1 and furnishes a correct example of a post office official suiting the demands of every district4 ,while the mail in ,europe has but little to do with the transportation of passengers1 it is important in its activity in this respect in the large ,russian empire4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,dog ,,post ,,at ,,lake ,,superior4 ,the tarantass 7,fig4 #bb71 drawn by three nimble horses1 flies through the endless deserts with wind-like rapidity4 ,the next illustration 7,fig4 #bc7 leads us to a much more remote and deserted country1 ,post office on the ,booby ,island1 occupied only by birds1 and a hut containing a box in which are pens1 paper1 ink1 and wafers4 ,the mariners put their letters in the box1 and look in to see if there is anything there addressed to them1 then they continue their journey4 ,postage stamps are not demanded in this ideal post office1 but provision is made for the shipwrecked1 by a notice informing them where they can find means of nourishment4 ,once again we make a leap4 ,the ,bosnian mail carrier's equipment 7,fig4 #bd7 is1 or rather was1 quite singular1 for our picture was taken before the occupation4 ,this mounted mail carrier with his weapons gives one the impression of a robber4 ,the task of conducting the mail through the ,alps of ,switzerland 7,fig4 #be7 must be uncomfortable in winter1 when the sledges glide by fearful precipices and over snow-covered passes4 ,since the tariff union mail developed from the ,prussian mail1 and the world's mail from the tariff union1 it seems suitable to close our series of pictures by representing the old ,prussian postal service 7,fig4 #bf7 carried on by soldier postmen in the eighteenth century during the reign of ,frederick the ,great4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,,chinese ,,postman4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,,delivering ,,letters ,,in ,,landes ,,department1 ,,france4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,russian ,,extra ,,post4 ,the complaint is made that poetry is wanting in our era1 and it has certainly disappeared from the postal service4 ,one remembers that the postilion was for quite a while the favorite hero of our poets1 the best of whom have sung to his praises1 and given space to his melancholy thoughts of modern times in which he is pushed aside4 ,it is too true that the post horn1 formerly blown by a postilion1 is now silenced1 that the horse has not been able to keep up in the race with the world in its use of the steam horse1 and yet how much poetry there is in that little post office all alone by itself on the ,booby ,island1 that we have described--the sublimest poetry1 that of love for mankind6 ,the poet of the modern postal system has not yet appeared2 but he will find plenty of material4 ,he will be able to depict the dangers a postman passes through in discharging his duty on the field1 he will sing the praises of those who are injured in a railroad disaster1 and yet continue their good work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,post ,,office ,,on ,,booby ,,island4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,,bosnian ,,post4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,swiss ,,alpine ,,post ,,in ,,winter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,soldier ,,postman ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century4 ,he can also praise the noble thought of uniting the nations1 which assumed its first tangible form in the world's mail4 ,it will not be a sentimental song1 but one full of power and indicative of our own time1 in spite of those who scorn it4--,translated for the ,scientific ,american ,supplement by ,jenny ,h4 ,beach1 from ,neue ,illustrirte ,zeitung4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,nickel ,,plating4 ,by ,,thomas ,t4,p4 ,,bruce ,,warren4 ,the compound used principally for the electro-deposition of nickel is a double sulphate of nickel and ammonia4 ,the silvery appearance of the deposit depends mainly on the purity of the salt as well as the anodes4 ,the condition of the bath1 as to age1 temperature1 and degree of saturation1 position of anodes1 strength of current1 and other details of manipulation1 which require care1 cleanliness1 and experience1 such as may be met with in any intelligent workman fairly acquainted with his business1 are easily acquired4 ,in the present paper ,i shall deal principally with the chemical department of this subject1 and shall briefly introduce1 where necessary1 allusion to the mechanical and electrical details connected with the process4 ,at a future time ,i shall be glad to enlarge upon this part of the subject1 with a view of making the article complete4 ,a short time ago nickel plating was nearly as expensive as silver plating4 ,this is explained by the fact that only a few people1 at least in this country1 were expert in the mechanical portions of the process1 and only a very few chemists gave attention to the matter4 ,to this must be added that our text-books were fearfully deficient in information bearing on this subject4 ,the salt used1 and also the anodes1 were originally introduced into this country from ,america1 and latterly from ,germany4 ,i am not aware of any ,english manufacturer who makes a specialty in the way of anodes4 ,this is a matter on which we can hardly congratulate ourselves1 as a well known ,london firm some time ago supplied me with my first experimental anodes1 which were in every way very superior to the ,german or ,american productions4 ,although the price paid per pound was greater1 the plates themselves were cheaper on account of their lesser thickness4 ,the texture of the inner portions of these foreign anodes would lead one to infer that the metallurgy of nickel was very primitive4 ,a good homogeneous plate can be produced1 still the spongy1 rotten plates of foreign manufacture were allowed the free run of our markets4 ,the ,german plates are1 in my opinion1 more compact than the ,american4 ,a serious fault with plates of earlier manufacture was their crumpled condition after a little use4 ,this involved a difficulty in cleaning them when necessary4 ,the ,english plates were not open to this objection2 in fact1 when the outer surfaces were planed away1 they remained perfectly smooth and compact4 ,large plates have been known to disintegrate and fall to pieces after being used for some time4 ,a large anode surface1 compared with that of the article to be plated1 is of paramount importance4 ,the tank should be sufficiently wide to take the largest article for plating1 and to admit of the anodes being moved nearer to or further from the article4 ,in this way the necessary electrical resistance can very conveniently be inserted between the anode and cathode surfaces4 ,the elimination of hydrogen from the cathode must be avoided1 or at any rate must not accumulate4 ,moving the article being plated1 while in the bath1 taking care not to break the electrical contacts1 is a good security against a streaky or foggy appearance in the deposit4 ,at one time a mechanical arrangement was made1 by which the cathodes were kept in motion4 ,the addition of a little borax to the bath is a great advantage in mitigating the appearance of gas4 ,its behavior is electrical rather than chemical4 ,if the anode surface is too great1 a few plates should be transferred to the cathode bars4 ,when an article has been nickel plated1 it generally presents a dull appearance1 resembling frosted silver4 ,to get over this ,i tried1 some time ago1 the use of bisulphide of carbon in the same way as used for obtaining a bright silver deposit4 ,curiously the deposit was very dark1 almost black1 which could not be buffed or polished bright4 ,but by using a very small quantity of the bisulphide mixture1 the plated surfaces were so bright that the use of polishing mops or buffs could be almost dispensed with4 ,when we consider the amount of labor required in polishing a nickel plated article1 and the impossibility of finishing off bright an undercut surface1 this becomes an important addendum to the nickel plater's list of odds and ends4 ,this mixture is made precisely in the same way as for bright silvering1 but a great deal less is to be added to the bath1 about one pint per #ajj gallons4 ,it should be well stirred in1 after the day's work is done1 when the bath will be in proper condition for working next day4 ,the mixture is made by shaking together1 in a glass bottle1 one ounce bisulphide and one gallon of the plating liquid1 allow to stand until excess of bisulphide has settled1 and decant the clear liquid for use as required4 ,it is better to add this by degrees than to run the risk of overdoing4 ,if too much is added1 the bath is not of necessity spoiled1 but it takes a great deal of working to bring it in order again4 ,about eight ounces of the double sulphate to each gallon of distilled or rain water is a good proportion to use when making up a bath4 ,there is a slight excess with this4 ,it is a mistake to add the salt afterward1 when the bath is in good condition4 ,the chloride and cyanide are said to give good results4 ,i can only say that the use of either of these salts has not led to promising results in my hands4 ,in preparing the double sulphate1 ,english grain nickel is decidedly the best form of metal to use4 ,in practice1 old anodes are generally used4 ,the metal is dissolved in a mixture of nitric and dilute sulphuric acid1 with the application of a gentle heat4 ,when sufficient metal has been dissolved1 and the unused nitric acid expelled1 the salt may be precipitated by a strong solution sulphate of ammonia1 or1 if much free acid is present1 carbonate of ammonia is better to use4 ,tin1 lead1 and portion of the iron1 if present1 are removed by this method4 ,the silica1 carbon1 and portions of copper are left behind with the undissolved fragments of metals4 ,the precipitated salt1 after slight washing1 is dissolved in water and strong solution ammonia added4 ,a clean iron plate is immersed in the solution to remove any trace of copper4 ,this plate must be cleaned occasionally so as to remove any reduced copper1 which will impede its action4 ,as soon as the liquid is free from copper1 it is left alkaline and well stirred so as to facilitate peroxidation and removal of iron1 which forms a film on the bath4 ,when this ceases1 the liquid is rendered neutral by addition of sulphuric acid1 and filtered or decanted4 ,the solution1 when properly diluted1 has sp4 gr4 about #a4jf at #fj ,f4 ,it is best to work the bath with a weak current for a short time until the liquid yields a fine white deposit4 ,too strong a current must be avoided4 ,if the copper has not been removed1 it will deposit on the anodes when the bath is at rest4 ,it should then be removed by scouring4 ,copper produces a reddish tinge1 which is by no means unpleasant compared with the dazzling whiteness of the nickel deposit4 ,if this is desired1 it is far better to use a separate bath1 using anodes of suitable composition4 ,the want of adhesion between the deposited coating and the article need not be feared if cleanliness be attended to and the article1 while in the bath1 be not touched by the hands4 ,the bath should be neutral1 or nearly so1 slightly acid rather than alkaline4 ,it is obvious that1 as such a liquid has no detergent action on a soiled surface1 scrupulous care must be taken in scouring and rinsing4 ,boiling alkaline solutions and a free use of powdered pumice and the scrubbing brush must on no account be neglected4 ,a few words on the construction of the tanks4 ,a stout wood box1 which need not be water-tight1 is lined with sheet lead1 the joints being blown1 not soldered4 ,an inner casing of wood which projects a few inches above the lead lining is necessary in order to avoid any chance of short circuiting or damage to the lead from the accidental falling of anodes or any article which might cut the lead4 ,it is by no means a necessity that the lining should be such as to prevent the liquid getting to the lead4 ,on a future occasion ,i hope to supplement this paper with the analysis of the double sulphates used1 and an account of the behavior of electrolytically prepared crucibles and dishes as compared with those now in the market4--,chem4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chilled ,,cast ,,iron4 ,at a recent meeting of the engineering section of the ,bristol ,naturalists' ,society a paper on ,chilled ,iron was read by ,mr4 ,morgans1 of which we give an abstract4 ,among the descriptions of chilled castings in common use the author instanced the following3 ,sheet1 corn milling1 and sugar rolls2 tilt hammer anvils and bits1 plowshares1 brasses and bushes1 cart-wheel boxes1 serrated cones and cups for grinding mills1 railway and tramway wheels and crossings1 artillery shot and bolts1 stone-breaker jaws1 circular cutters1 etc4 ,mr4 ,morgans then spoke of the high reputation of sheet mill rolls and wheel axle boxes made in ,bristol4 ,of the latter in combination with wrought iron wheels and steeled axles1 the local wagon works company are exporting large numbers4 ,with respect to the strength and fatigue resistance of chilled castings1 details were given of some impact tests made in ,july1 #ahfd1 at ,pontypool1 in the presence of ,captain ,palliser1 upon some of his chilled bolts1 #ab in4 long by #d in4 diameter1 made from ,pontypool cold-blast pig iron4 ,those made from ,no4 #a pig iron--the most graphitic and costly--broke more easily than those from ,no4 #b1 and so on until those made from ,no4 #d were tested1 when the maximum strength was reached4 ,no4 #d pig iron was in fracture a pale gray1 bordering on mottled4 ,several points regarding foundry operations in the production of chilled castings were raised for discussion4 ,they embraced the depth of chill to be imparted to chilled rolls and railway wheels1 and in the case of traction wheels1 the width of chill in the tread2 preparation of the chills--by coating with various carbonaceous matters1 lime1 beer grounds1 or1 occasionally1 some mysterious compost--and moulds1 selection and mixture of pig irons1 methods and plant for melting1 suitable heat for pouring1 prevention of honeycombing1 ferrostatic pressure of head1 etc4 ,melting for rolls being mostly conducted in reverberatories1 the variations in the condition of the furnace atmosphere1 altering from reducing to oxidizing1 and vice versa1 in cases of bad stoking and different fuels1 were referred to as occasionally affecting results4 ,siemens' method of melting by radiant heat was mentioned for discussion4 ,for promoting the success of a chilled roll in its work1 lathing or turning it to perfect circularity in the necks first1 and then turning the body while the necks bear in steady brasses1 are matters of the utmost importance4 ,the author next referred to the great excellence for chilling purposes possessed by some ,american pig irons1 and to the fact that iron of a given carbon content derived from some ores and fluxes differed much in chilling properties from iron holding a similar proportion of carbon--free and combined--derived from other ores and materials4 ,those irons are best which develop the hardest possible chill most uniformly to the desired depth without producing a too abrupt line of division between the hard white skin and the softer gray body4 ,a medium shading off both ways is wanted here1 as in all things4 ,the impossibility of securing a uniform quality and chemical composition in any number grade of any brand of pig iron over a lengthened period was adverted to4 ,consequent from this a too resolute faith in any particular make of pig iron is likely to be at times ill-requited4 ,occasional physical tests1 accompanied with chemical analysis of irons used for chilling1 were advocated2 and the author was of opinion it would be well whenever a chilled casting had enjoyed a good reputation for standing up to its work1 that when it was retired from work some portions of it should be chemically analyzed so as to obtain clews to compositions of excellence4 ,some of the physical characteristics of chilled iron1 as well as the surprising locomotive properties of carbon present in heated iron1 were noticed4 ,attention was called to some ,german data1 published by ,dr4 ,percy in #ahfd1 concerning an iron which before melting weighed--approximately--#ddh lb4 per cubic foot1 and contained--approximately--#d per cent4 of carbon--#c being graphitic and combined4 ,the chilled portion of a casting from this had a specific gravity equivalent to #dga lb4 per cubic foot1 and contained #e per cent4 of carbon1 all combined4 ,the soft portion of the same casting weighed #ddg lb4 per cubic foot1 and contained #cd4e per cent4 of carbon--#ca4e being graphitic and #c4e combined4 ,mr4 ,morgans doubted whether so great an increase in density often arises from chilling4 ,tool steel1 when hardened by being chilled in cold water1 does not become condensed1 but slightly expanded from its bulk when annealed and soft4 ,here an increase of hardness is accompanied by a decrease of density4 ,the gradual development of a network of cracks over the face of a chilled anvil orbit while being used in tilt hammers was mentioned4 ,such minute cleavages became more marked as the chill is worn down by work and from grinding4 ,traces of the same occurrence are observable over the surface of much worn chilled rolls used in sheet mills4 ,in such cases the sheets get a faint diaper pattern impressed upon them4 ,the opening of crack spaces points to lateral shrinkage of the portions of chilled material they surround1 and to some release from a state of involuntary tension4 ,if this action is accompanied by some actual densification of the fissured chill1 then we have a result that possibly conflicts with the example of condensation from chilling cited by ,dr4 ,percy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,snow ,,hall4 ,the recent dedication of ,snow ,hall1 at ,lawrence1 ,kansas1 is an event in the history of the ,state1 both historic and prophetic4 ,since the incorporation of the ,university of ,kansas1 and before that event1 there has been a steady growth of science in the ,state1 which has culminated in ,snow ,hall1 a building set apart for the increase and diffusion of the knowledge of natural science1 as long as its massive walls shall stand4 ,it is named in honor of the man who has been the inspiration and guiding spirit of the whole enterprise1 and some incidents in his life may be of interest to the public4 ,twenty years ago ,professor ,frank ,h4 ,snow1 a recent graduate of ,williams ,college1 came to ,kansas1 to become a member of the faculty of the ,state ,university4 ,his election to the chair of natural science was unexpected1 as he first taught mathematics in the university1 and expected in due time to become professor of ,greek4 ,as professor of the mellifluous and most plastic of all the ancient tongues1 he would undoubtedly have been proficient1 as his college classics still remain fresh in his warm and retentive memory1 and his literary taste is so severe and chaste as to make some of his scientific papers read like a psalm4 ,but nature designed him for another1 and some think a better1 field1 and endowed him with powers as a naturalist that have won for him recognition among the highest living authorities of his profession4 ,upon being elected to the chair of natural history1 ,prof4 ,snow entered upon his life work with an enthusiasm that charmed his associates and inspired his pupils4 ,the true naturalist must possess large and accurate powers of observation and a love for his chosen profession that carries him over all obstacles and renders him oblivious to everything else except the specimen upon which he has set his heart4 ,years ago the writer was walking in the hall of the new university building in company with ,general ,fraser and ,professor ,snow1 when the latter suddenly darted forward up the stairs and captured an insect in its flight1 that had evidently just dug its way out of the pine of the new building4 ,in a few moments he returned with such a glow on his countenance and such a satisfied air at having captured a rare but familiar specimen1 whose name was on his lips1 that we both felt ,surely here is a genuine naturalist4 ,some years ago an incident occurred in connection with his scientific excursions in ,colorado that is quite characteristic1 showing his obliviousness to self and everything else save the object of his scientific pursuit1 and a fertility in overcoming danger when it meets him face to face4 ,he was descending alone from one of the highest peaks of the ,rockies1 when he thought he could leave the path and reach the foot of the mountain by passing directly down its side over an immense glacier of snow and ice1 and thus save time and a journey of several miles4 ,after a while his way down the glacier grew steeper and more difficult1 until he reached a point where he could not advance any further1 and found1 to his consternation1 that he could not return by the way he had come4 ,there he clung to the side of the immense glacier1 ready1 should he miss his hold1 to be plunged hundreds of feet into a deep chasm4 ,the situation flashed over him1 and he knew now it was1 indeed1 a struggle for dear life4 ,with a precarious foothold1 he clung to the glacier with one hand1 while with his pocket knife he cut a safer foothold with the other4 ,resting a little1 he cut another foothold lower down in the hard snow1 and so worked his way after a severe struggle of several hours amid constant danger to the foot of the mountain in safety4 ,but1 continued the professor1 speaking of this incident to some of his friends1 ,i was richly repaid for all my trouble and peril1 for when ,i reached the foot of the mountain ,i captured a new and very rare species of butterfly4 ,multitudes of practical men cannot appreciate such devotion to pure science1 but it is this absorbing passion and pure grit that enable the devotees of science to enlarge its boundaries year by year4 ,once1 while on a scientific excursion on the great plains1 with the lamented ,prof4 ,mudge1 he nearly lost his life4 ,he had captured a rattlesnake1 and1 in trying to introduce it into a jar filled with alcohol1 the snake managed to bite him on the hand4 ,the arm was immediately bound tightly with a handkerchief1 and the wound enlarged with a pocket knife1 and both professors took turns in sucking it as clean as possible1 and ejecting the poison from their mouths4 ,this and a heavy dose of spirits brought the professor through in safety1 although the poison remaining in the wound caused considerable swelling and pain in the hand and arm4 ,when this incident was mentioned in the ,kansas ,academy of ,science that year1 some one said1 ,now we know the effect of the bite of the prairie rattlesnake on the human system4 ,let some one1 in the interests of pure science1 try the effect of the timber rattlesnake on the human system4 ,but like the mice in the fable1 no one was found who cared to put the bell on the cat4 ,professors ,mudge and ,snow1 because scientists were so few in the ,state at that early day1 divided the field of natural science between themselves1 the former taking geology and the latter living forms4 ,professor ,mudge built up at the agricultural college a royal cabinet1 easily worth #aj1jjj1 and ,professor ,snow has made a collection at the ,state ,university whose value cannot be readily estimated until it is catalogued and placed in cases in ,snow ,hall4 ,as a scientist1 ,professor ,snow is an indefatigable worker1 conscientious and painstaking to the last degree1 never neglecting anything that can be discovered by the microscope1 and when he describes and names a new species1 he gives the absolute facts1 without regard to theories or philosophies4 ,for accuracy his descriptions of animal and vegetable life resemble photographs1 and are received by scientists with unquestioned authority4 ,he possesses another quality1 which may be called honesty4 ,some scientists1 whose reputation has reached other continents1 cannot be trusted alone in the cabinet with the keys1 for they are liable to borrow valuable specimens1 and forget afterward to return them4 ,it is possible only to glance at the immense amount of work performed by ,professor ,snow during the last twenty years4 ,neglecting the small fry that can only be taken in nets with very fine meshes1 he ascertained that there are twenty-seven species of fish in the ,kansas ,river at ,lawrence4 ,work on this paper occupied the leisure time of two summers1 as much time in such investigations only produces negative results4 ,for several years he worked on a catalogue of the birds of ,kansas1 inspiring several persons in different parts of the ,state to assist him4 ,later this work was turned over to ,colonel ,n4,s4 ,gross1 of ,topeka1 an enthusiast in ornithology4 ,colonel ,goss has a very fine collection of mounted birds in the capitol building at ,topeka1 and he has recently published a catalogue of the ,birds of ,kansas1 which contains #cce species4 ,professor ,snow has worked faithfully on the plants of ,kansas1 but as other botanists came into the ,state1 he turned the work over to their hands4 ,for several years he has given a large share of his time and strength to entomology4 ,nearly every year he has led scientific excursions to different points in ,colorado1 ,new ,mexico1 ,arizona1 etc41 where he might reap the best results4 ,once1 during a meeting of the ,kansas ,academy of ,science1 at ,lawrence1 ,professor ,snow was advertised to read a paper on some rare species of butterflies4 ,as the hour approached1 the hall in the university building was thronged1 principally by ladies from the city1 when ,professor ,snow brought out piles of his trays of butterflies1 and without a note gave such an exhibit and description of his specimens as charmed the whole audience4 ,in meteorology1 ,professor ,snow is an acknowledged authority1 wherever this science is studied1 and he has1 probably1 all things considered1 the best meteorological record in the ,state4 ,personally1 ,professor ,snow possesses qualities that are worth more1 perhaps1 to his pupils1 in forming character1 than the knowledge derived from him as an instructor4 ,his life is pure and ennobling1 his presence inspiring1 and many young men have gone from his lecture room to hold good positions in the scientific world4 ,when one sees him in his own home1 surrounded by his family1 with books and specimens and instruments all around1 he feels that the ideal home has not lost everything in the fall4 ,snow ,hall is the natural resultant of twenty years of earnest and faithful labor on the part of this eminent scientist4 ,the regents displayed the rare good sense of committing everything regarding the plans of the building1 and the form and arrangement of the cases1 to ,professor ,snow1 which has resulted in giving to ,kansas the model building of its kind in the ,west1 if not in this country4 ,very large collections have accumulated at the ,state ,university1 under the labors of ,professor ,snow and his assistants1 which need to be classified1 arranged1 and labeled2 and when the legislature appropriates the money to furnish cases to display this collection in almost every department of natural science1 ,kansas will possess a hall of natural science whose influence will be felt throughout the ,state1 and be an attraction to scientists everywhere4--,chaplain ,j4,d4 ,parker1 in ,kansas ,city ,journal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,elimination ,,of ,,poisons4 ,a study of the means by which nature rids the economy of what is harmful has been made by ,sanquirico1 of ,siena1 and his experiments and conclusions are as follows3 ,he finds that the vessels of the body1 without undergoing extensive structural alteration1 can by exosmosis rid themselves of fluid to an amount of eight per cent4 of the body weight of the subject of the experiment4 ,through the injection of neutral fluids a great increase in the vascular tension is effected1 which is relieved by elimination through the kidneys4 ,with reference to this fact1 the author1 in #ahhe1 made experiments with alcohol and strychnine1 and continued his researches in the use of chloral and aconitine with results favorable to the method employed1 which is as follows3 ,the minimal fatal dose of a given poison was selected1 and found to be in a certain relation to the body weight4 ,immediately upon the injection of the poison a solution of sodium chloride1 #j4ge per cent4 in strength1 was injected into the subcutaneous tissues of the neck1 in quantities being eight per cent4 of the body weight of the animal4 ,in the case of those poisons whose effect is not instantaneous1 the injection of saline solution was made on the first appearance of toxic symptoms4 ,in other poisons the injection was made at once4 ,the result of the use of salines was a diuresis varying in the promptness of its appearance and in its amount4 ,those animals in which diuresis was limited at first and then increased generally recovered1 while those in which diuresis was not established perished4 ,the poison used was found in the urine of those which died and also those which recovered4 ,the author succeeded in rescuing animals poisoned by alcohol1 strychnine1 chloral1 and aconitine4 ,with morphine1 curare1 and hypnone1 the method of elimination failed1 although ten per cent4 in quantity of the body weight of the animal was used in the saline injection4 ,with aconitine1 diuresis was not always established1 and when it failed the animal died in convulsions4--,centralblatt fur die ,medicinischen ,wissenschaften1 ,december #ah1 #ahhf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,terms of 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